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££.10
€wpclopaeiria Britanmca
OR, A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
LITERATURE;
ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.
THE FIFTH EDITION.
Jllustcateti Voitlj nearlg sir bunDccO Cngcatiinga.
VOL. XIV.
1NDOCTI DISCANT; AMENT MEMINISSE PER1TI.
■
EDINBURGH :
Printed at the Encyclopedia Press,
FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, AND THOMSON BONAR, EDINBURGH:
GALE, CURTIS, AND FENNER, LONDON ; AND THOMAS WILSON
AND SONS, YORK.
1815.
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MIC
Microfcope. Ty yT’ICROSCOPE, an optical inftrument, confifting
! "" i ' ' LVjL of lenfes, or mirrors, by means of which fmall
objects appear larger than they do to the naked eye.
Single microfcopes confift of a Angle lens or mirror; or
if more lenfes or mirrois be made ufe of, they only ferve
to throw light upon the objedl, but do not contribute to
enlarge the image of it. Double or compound mL
crofcopes are thofe in which the image of an objedl is
compofed by means of more lenfes or mirrors than
one.
For the principles on which the conftru&ion of mi¬
crofcopes depends, fee Optics. In the prefent article,
it is intended to defcribe the finifhed inftrument, with
• all its varied apparatus, according to the lateft improve¬
ments ; and to illuftrate by proper details its ufes and
importance.
I. Of SINGLE Microfcopes.
The famous microfcopes made ufe of by Mr Leeu-
wenhoeck, were all, as Mr Baker affures us, of the
fingle kind, and the conftrucftion of them was the moft
Ample poflible ; each conAfting only of a Angle lens fet
between two plates of Alver, perforated with a fmall
hole, with a moveable pin before it to place the objeft
on and adjuft it to the eye of the beholder. He informs
us alfo, that lenfes only, and not globules, were ufed in
every one of thefe microfcopes.
Plate x. The Angle microfcope now moft generally known
CCpfX^VI1 and ufcd is that called Wilfon's Pocket Microfcope. The
^ ' body is made of brafs, ivory, or Alver, and is repre-
fented by AA, BB. CC is a long Ane threaded male
fcrew that turns into the body of the microfco'pe; D
a convex glafs at the end of the fcrew. Two con¬
cave round pieces of thin brafs, with holes of different
diameters in the middle of them, are placed to cover
the above-mentioned glafs, and thereby diminilh the
aperture when the greateft magniAers are employed.
EE, three thin plates of brafs within the body of the
microfcope; one of which is bent femicircularly in the
middle, fo as to form an arched cavity for the recep¬
tion of a tube of glafs, the ufe of the other two be¬
ing to receive and hold the Aiders between them. F,
a piece of wood or ivory, arched in the manner of
the femicircular plate, and cemented to it. G, the
other end of the body of the microfcope, where a hol¬
low female fcrew is adapted to receive the different
magniAers. H is a fpiral fpring of fteel, between
Vol. XIV. Part I.
the end G and the plates of brafs, intended to keep Mierofcoj^.
the plates in a right poAtion and counteraiff the long v 1 v^
fcrew CC. I is a fmall turned handle, for the better
holding of the inftrument, to fcrew on or off at plea-
fur e.
To this microfcope belong Ax or feven magnifying
glaffes : Ax of them are fet in Alver, brafs, or ivory,
as in the Agure K ; and marked I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, the
loweft numbers being the greateft magniAers. L ic
the feventh magniAer, fet in the manner of a little
barrel, to be held in the hand for the viewing of any
larger objedl. M is a flat flip of ivory, called a
fider, with four round holes through it, wherein to
place objects between two pieces of glafs or Mufcovy
talc, as they appear at dddd. Six fuch Aiders, and
one of brafs, are ufually fold with this microfcope,
fome with objedts placed in them, and others empty
for viewing any thing that may offer : but whoever
pleafes to make a collection, may have as many as he
deAres. The brafs Aider is to conflne any fmall objedt,
that it may be viewed without cruftung or deftroying
it. N is a tube of glafs contrived to conAne living ob-
jedts, fuch as frogs, flfties, &c. in order to difeover the
circulation of the blood. All thefe are contained in a.
little neat box of flfli-lkin or mahogany, very convenient
for carrying in the pocket.
When an objedl is to be viewed, thruft the ivory
Aider, in which the faid objedl is placed, between the
two flat brafs plates EE: obferving always to put
that Ade of the Aider where the brafs rings are far-
theft from the eye. Then fcrew on the magnifying
glafs you intend to ufe, at the end of the inftrument
G ; and looking through it againft the light, turn the
long fcrew CC, till your objedl be brought to fuit your
eye ; which will be known by its appearing perfedtly
diftindl and clear. It is moft proper to look at it Aril
through a magnifler that can ftiow the whole at once,
and afterwards to infpedt the feveral parts more parti¬
cularly with one of the greateft magniflers ; for thus
you will gain a true idea of the whole, and of all its
parts. And though the greateft magniflers can ftiow
but a minute portion of any objedl at once, fuch as the
claw of a flea, the horn of a loufe, or the like ; yet by
gently moving the Aider which contains the objedl, the
eye may gradually examine it all over.
As objedls muft be brought very near the glaffes
when the greateft magniflers are made ufe of, be care¬
ful not to fcratch them by rubbing the Aider againft;
A them
MIG [ 2
Microfcope them as you move it in or out. A few turns of the
fcrew CC will ealily prevent this mifchief, bv giving
them room enough. You may change the objects in
your Aiders for any others you think proper, by taking
out the brafs rings with the point of a penknife}
the talcs will then fall out, if you but turn the Aiders j
and after putting what you pleafe between them, by
replacing the braf, rings you will faften them as they
were before. It is proper to have feme Aiders furnidl¬
ed with talcs, but without any object between them,
to be always in readmefs for the examination of Auids,
falts, fands, powders, the farina of dowers, or any
other carnal objefts of fuch fort as need only be applied
to the outfide of the talc.
i he circulation of the blood may be caAeft feen in
the tails or fins of SAies, in the fine membranes be¬
tween a frog’s toes, or beft of all in the tail of a
water-newt. If your objeft be a fmall fiih, place it
within the tube N, and fpread its tail or fin along the
fide thereof: if a frog, choofe fucb a one as can but
juft be got into your tube 5 and, with a pen, or fmall
ftiek, expand the tranfparent membrane between the
toes of the frog’s hind foot as much as you can. When
your objeft is fo adjufted that no part of it can inter¬
cept the light from the place you intend to view, un-
ferew the long fcrew CC, and thruft your tube into
the arched cavity, quite through the body of the mi-
crofcope ; then fercAv it to the true focal diftance, and
you will fee the blood pafiing along its vefiels with a
rapid- motion, and in a moft furprifing manner.
The third or fourth magnifiers may be ufed for
frogs or fifties: but for the tails of water-newts, the
fifth or fixth will do 5 becaufe the globules of their
blood are twice as large as thofe of frogs or fifti. The
firft or fecond magnifier cannot well be employed for
this purpofe 5 becaufe the thicknefs of the tube in
which the objedl lies, will fcarce admit its being
brought fo near as the focal diftance of the magni¬
fier.
An apparatus for the purpofe of viewing opaque
objefts generally accompanies this microfcope •, and
which confifts of the following parts. A brafs arm
QIl, wftiich is ferewed at (,), upon the body of the mi-
erofeope at G. Into the round hole R, any of the
magnifiers fuitable to the objeft to be viewed are to
be icrewed •, and under it, in the fame ring, the con¬
cave polifhed filver fpeculum S. Through a fmall
aperture in the body of the mierofeope under the
brafs plates EE, is to Aide the long wire with the
forceps T : This wire is pointed at one of its ends ;
and fo, that either the points or forceps may be ufed
for the objeefs as may be necefiary. It is eafy to
conceive, therefore, that the arm at R, which turns
by a twofold joint at a and Z>, may be brought with
its magnifier over the objeff, the light refiefted upon
it by the application of the. fpeculbm, and the true
focus obtained by turning of the male fcreAv CC as
before direffed.—As objects are fometimes not well
fixed for view, either by the forceps or point, the
fmall piece ftiown at V is added, and in fuch cafes
anfwers better : it ferews over the point of T it con¬
tains a fmall round piece of ivory, blackened on one
fide, and left white upon the other as a contrail to
coloured obje&s, and by a fmall piece of watch-fpring
fattens down the objects upon the ivory.
]
MIC
2. Single Microfcope by refeSlion. In fig. 2. A is a Microfc»p*.
feroii of brafs fixed upright upon a round wooden ^ y*-*-—*
bale B, or mahogany drawer or cafe, fo as to Hand
perfedlly firm and fteady. C is a brafs fcrew, that paf-
1’es through a hole in the upper limb of the fcroll in¬
to the fide of the mierofeope T), and ferews it fall to
the faid fcroll. E is a concave fpeculum fet in a
box of brafs, which hangs in the arch G by two fmall
ferews ff that ferew into the oppofite fides thereof.
At the bottom of this arch is a pin of the fame metal,
exa<Slly fitted to a hole h in the wooden pedeftal, made
for the reception of the pin. As the arch turns on
this pin, and the fpeculum turns on the end of the
arch, it may, by this twofold motion, be eafily adjuft¬
ed in fuch a manner as to reftefl the light of the fun,
of the Acy, or of a candle,, direflly upwards through
the mierofeope that is fixed perpendicularly over it ;
and by fo doing may be made to anfwer many pur-
pot es of the large double refie&ing microfcope. The
body of the microfcope may alfo be fixed horizon¬
tally, and objects viewed in that pofition by any light
you choofe j which is an advantage the common double
refieiting mierofeope has not. It may alfo be render¬
ed further ufeful by means of a fiip of glafs j one end
of which being thruft through between the plates where
the Aiders go, and the other extending to fome diftance,
fuch objefls may be placed thereon as cannot be ap¬
plied in- the Aiders : and then, having a limb of brafs
that may laAen to the body of the microfcope, and ex¬
tend over the projedling glafs a hollow ring wherein
to fcrew the magnifiers, ail forts of fubje615 may be
examined with great convenience, if a hole be made in
the pedeftal, to place the fpeculum exaclly underneath,
and thereby throw up the rays of light. The pocket-
microfcrope, thus mounted, fays Mr Baker, “ is as eafy
and pleafant in its ufe •, as fit for the moft curious ex¬
amination of the animalcules and falts in fluids, of the
farinae in vegetables, and of the circulation in fmall
animals ; in Ihort, is as likely to make conflderable
difeoveries in objedts, that have fome degree of tranf-
parency, as any microfcope I have ever feen or heard
of.”
The brafs. fcroll A is now generally made to un-
ferew into three parts, and pack xvith the microfcope
and apparatus into the drawer of a mahogany pocket-
cafe, upon the lid of which the fcroll is made to fix
when in ufe.
The opaque apparatus alfo, as above deferibed, is
applicable this way by refiedlion. It only confifts in
turning the arm R (fig. 1.), with the magnifier over
the concave fpeculum below (fig. 2.), or to receive
the light as reftedled obliquely from it : the filver fpe¬
culum ferewed into R will then reflect the light, which
it receives from the glals fpeculum, ftrongly upon the
objedt that is applied upon the wire T underneath.
This microfeope, however, is not upon the moll;
convenient conftrudtion, in comparifon with others now
made : it has been efteemed for many years part from
its popular name, and recommendation by its makers.
Its portability is certainlv a great advantage in its fa¬
vour; but in moft refpedls it is fuperfeded by the mi-
crofoopes hereafter deferibed.
3. Microfcope for Opaque Objects, called the Single Fig. 3.
Opaque Microfcope. This microfcope remedies the in¬
convenience of having the dark fide of an objedt next
the
MIC [ 3 ] MIC
Mlcrofcope. the eye, which formerly wa» an in fur mountable ob-
v  ' jeebion Lo the making obfervations on opaque objects
with any contiderable degree ot exaftnefs or faasiac-
tion . for, in all other contrivances commonly known,
the nearnefs of the inifrument to the object (when
glaiTes that magnify much are uied) unavoidably over-
fhadows it fo much, that its appearance is rendered ob-
fcure and indidinct. ind, notwithftanding ways have
been tried to point light upon an object, from the fun
or a candle, by a convex glais placed on the tide there¬
of, the rays from either can be thrown upon it in luch
an acute angle only, that they ferve to give a confufed
glare, but are infuiticient to afford a clear and perfect
view of the object. But this microfcope, by means of
a concave fpecuium of lilver highly poliihed, in whofe
centre a magnifying lens is placed, 1’uch a itrong and
dire£t light is retlebted upon the objedt, that it may be
examined with all imaginable eafe and plealure. The
feveral parts of this initrument, made either of brafs or
filver, are as follow.
Through the firlt fide A, paffes a fine fcrew JB, the
other end of which is fattened to the moveable fide C.
D is a nut applied to this fcrew, by the turning of
which the two fides A and C are gradually brought
together. E is a fpring of fteel that feparates the
two fides when the nut is unferewed. F is a piece of
brafs, turning round in a focket, whence proceeds a
fmall fpring tube moving upon a rivet; through which
tube there runs a fteel wire, one end whereof termi¬
nates in a ftiarp point G, and the other with a pair of
pliers H faftened to it. The point and pliers are to
thruft into, or take up and hold, any infedf or objedl j
and either of them may be turned upwards, as beft
fuits the purpofe. I is a ring of brafs, with a female
fcrew within it, mounted on an upright piece of the
fame metal; which turns round on a rivet, that it may
be fet at a due diftance when the leaft magnifiers are
employed. This ring receives the ferews of all the
magnifiers. K is a concave fpecuium of filver, po-
lifhed as bright as poffible ; in the centre of which is
placed a double convex lens, with a proper aperture
to look through it. On the back of this fpecuium a
male fcrew L is made to fit the brafs ring I, to fcrew
into it at pleafure. There are four of thefe concave
fpecula of different depths, adapted to four glaffes of
different magnifying powers, to be ufed as the ob-
jedls to be examined may require. The greateft mag¬
nifiers have the leaft apertures. M is a round objedl-
plate, one fide of which is white and the other black :
The intention of this is to render obje&s the more vi-
fible, by placing them, if black, on the white fide,
or, if white, on the black fide. A fteel fpring N turns
down on each fide to make any objedl fall ^ and if-
fuing from the objedt plate is a hollow pipe to fcrew
it on the needle’s point G. O is a fmall box of brafs,
with a glafs on each fide, contrived to confine anv li¬
ving objedt, in order to examine it: this alfo has a
pipe to fcrew upon the end of the needle G. P is a
turned handle of wood, to fcrew into the inftmment
when it is made ufe of. Q, a pair of brafs pliers to
take up any objedt, or manage it with conveniency.
R is a foft hair-brufh for cleaning the glaffes, &c. S is
a fmall ivory box for talcs, to be placed, when wanted,
in the fmall brafs box O.
When you would view any objedt with this micro¬
fcope, fcrew the fpecuium, with the magnifier you Mlcrofcope.
think proper to ute, into the brais ring 1. Place your *
object, either on the needle G in the pliers H, on the
ob edt-plaie M, or in the hollow brais box O, as may
be molt convenient : then holding up your inftrument
by the handle P, look againft the light through the
magnifying lens j and by means ol the nut D, together
with the motion of the needle, by managing its lower
end, the objedt may be turned about, railed, or de-
preffed, brought nearer the glais, or removed farther
from it, till you find the true focal diftance, and the
light be feen ftrongly refledlcd from the fpecuium up¬
on the objedt, by which means it will be ihown in a
manner furpriiingly diitindt and clear j and lor this
purpofe the light ol the Iky or of a candle will anfwer
very well. Tranfparent objedts may alfo be viewed by
this microfcope 5 only obferving, that when fuch come
under examination, it will not always be proper to
throw on them the light refledted from the fpecuium ;
for the light tranlmitted through them, meeting the
refledted light, may together produce too great a glare.
A little pradtice, however, will ftiow how to regulate
both lights in a proper manner.
4. Ellis'1 s Jingie and Aquatic Microfcope. Fig. 4. re-Fig. 4.
prefents a very convenient and ufeful microfcope, con¬
trived by Mr John Ellis, author of An Effay upon Co¬
rallines, &c. To practical botanifts, obfervers of ani-
malcula, &c. it poflefies many advantages above thofe
juft deferibed. It is portable, Ample in its conftruc-
tion, expeditious, and commodious in ufe. K re-
prefents the box containing the whole apparatus : it
is generally made of filh-fkin 5 and on the top there
is a female fcrew, for receiving the fcrew that is at the
bottom of the pillar A : this is a pillar of brafs, and
is ferewed on the top of the box. D is a brafs pin
which fits into the pillar 5 on the top of this pin is a
hollow focket to receive the arm which carries the
magnifiers ; the pin is to be moved up and down, in
order to adjuft the lenfes to their focal or proper dif¬
tance from the objedl. [Ah B. In the reprefenta-
tions of this microfcope, the pin D is delineated as
palling through a focket at one fide of the pillar A;
whereas it is ufual at prefent to make it pafs down a
hole bored through the middle of the pillar.] E, the
bar which carries the magnifying lens 5 it fits into the
focket X, which is at the top of the pin or pillar D.
This arm may be moved backwards and forwards in
the focket X, and fideways by the pin D \ fo that the
magnifier, which is ferewed into the ring at the end
E of this bar, may be eafily made to traverfe over any
part of the objeft that lies on the ftage or plate B.
FF is a polifhed lilver fpecuium, with a magnifying
lens placed at the centre thereof, which is perforated
for this purpofe. The filver fpecuium ferews into the
arm E, as at F. G, another fpecuium, with its lens,
which is of a different magnifying power from the
former. H, the femicircle which fupports the mirror I j
the pin R, atfixed to the femicircle H, paffes through
the hole which is towards the bottom of the piilar A.
B, the ftage, or the plane, on which the objedls are to
be placed 5 it fits into the fmall dove-tailed arm which
is at the upper end of the pillar DA. C, a plane
glafs, with a fmall piece of black filk ftuck on it 5 this
glafs is to lay in a groove made in the ftage C. M,
a hollow glafs to be laid occafionally on the ftane in-
A 2 ftt-ad
MIC r
of the plane glafs C. L, a pair of nippers.
1 litie are fixed to the ft age by the pin at bottom :
the fteel wire of thefe nippers Aides backwards and
forwards in the focket, and this focket is moveable
upwards and downwards by means of the joint, fo that
the pofition of the objeft may be varied at pleafure.
J he objeft may be fixed in the nippers, duck on the
point, or. affixed, by a little gum-water, &c. to the
ivory cylinder N, which oceafionally fcrews to the point
of the nippers. 1
To ufe this microfcope : Take all the parts of the
apparatus out of the box ; then begin by fcrewing the
pillar.A to the cover thereof; pafs the pin R of the
femicircle which carries the mirror through the hole
that is near the bottom of the pillar A ; pulh the llage
into the dove-tail at B, Aide the pin into the pillar (fee
Lie A. B. above) ; then jiafs the bar E through the
locket which is at the top of the pin D, and fcrew one
of the magnifying lenfes into the ring at F. The mi-
erofcope is now.ready for ufe : and though the enume¬
ration of the articles may lead the reader to imagine the
mllrument to be. of a complex nature, we can fafely
affirm, that he will find it otherwife. The infirument
has this peculiar advantage, that it is difficult to put
any of the pieces in a place which is appropriated to an¬
other. Let the object be now placed either on the
flage or in the nippers L, and in fuch manner that it
may be as nearly as pofiible over the centre of the ftage :
bring the fpeculum F over the part you mean to ob-
ferve ; then throw as much light on the fpeculum as
you can, by means of the mirror I, and the double mo¬
tion of which it is capable ; the light received on the
fpeculum is refiefted by it on the objeft. The diftance
of the lens F from the objea is regulated by moving
the pin D up and down, until a diftinft view of it is
obtained. . 1 he belt rule is, to place the lens beyond
its focal diAance from the objea, and then gradually
to Aide it down till the objea appears fiiarp and well
defined. The adjuftment of the lenfes to their focus,
and the diAribution of the light on the objea, are what
require the moA attention : on the firA the difiinanefs
of the vifion depends ; the pleafure arifing from a clear
view of the parts under obfervation is due to the modi¬
fication of the light. No precife rule can be given for
attaining accurately thefe points ; it is from praaice
alone that ready habits of obtaining thefe neceffary pro¬
perties can be acquired, and with the affiAance of this
no difficulty will be found.
5. A very fimple and convenient microfcope for
botanical and other purpofes, though inferior in many
refpeas to that of Mr Ellis, was contrived by the
ingenious Mr Benjamin Martin, and is reprefented at
Fig. 5. S' where AB reprefents a fmall arm fupporting
two or more magnifiers, one fixed to the upper part
as at B, the other to the lower part of the arm at C ;
thefe may be ufed feparately or combined together.
The arm AB is fupported by the fquare pillar IK,
the lower end of which fits into the focket E of the
toot FG ; the Aage X)L is made to Aide up and down
the fquare pillar ; H, a concave mirror for refie&ing
light on the objea.—To ufe this microfcope, place the
objea on the Aage, reflea the light on‘ it from the
concave mirror, and regulate it to the focus, by moving
the A age nearer to or farther from the lens at B. The
ivory Aiders pafs through the Aage ; other objeas may
3!
4 ]
M I C
be fixed in the nippers MN, and then brought under Microfcope
the eye-glaffes ; or they may be laid on one of the ' v™
g afles which fit the the Aage. The apparatus to this
inhrument.confiAs of three ivory Aiders ; a pair of nip¬
pers ; a pair of forceps ; a flat glafs and a concave ditto
both fitted to the Aage. ’
I he two laA mierofeopes are frequently fitted up with
a toothed rack and pinion, for the more ready adjuA-
merit of the glafles to their proper focus,
6. Withering'1 s portable Botanic Microfcope. Fig-. 6. v 0
reprefents a fmall botanical microfcope contrived by '8 *
-Dr Withering, and deferibed by him in his Botanical
Arrangements. It conlifis of three brafs plates, ABC
which are parallel to each other ; the wires 1) and e'
are nyetted into the upper and lower plates, which arc
by this means united to each other ; the middle plate
or Aage is moveable on the aforefaid wires by two little
fockets which are fixed to it. The two upper plates
each contain a magnifying lens, but of different powers ;
one of thefe confines and keeps in their places the fine
point F, the forceps G, and the fmall knife H.—To
ufe this inArument, unferew the upper lens, and take
out the point, the knife, and the forceps ; then fcrew
the lens on again, place the objea on the Aage, and
then move it up or down till you have gained a dif-
tind view of the objeft, as one lens is made of a fliorter
focus than the other ; and fpare lenfes of a Aill deeper
focus may be had if required. This little microfcope
is the. moA portable of any. Its principal merit is its
fimplicity.
7. Botanical Lenfes or Magnifiers. The haAe with
which botaniAs, &c. have frequently occafion to view
objects, renders an extempore pocket-glafs indifpen-
fably neceffary. I he moA convenient of any yet con-
Aru&ed, appears to be that contrived, in regard to
the form of the mounting, by Mr Benjamin Martin ;
and is what he called a Hand Megalafcope, becaufe it is
well adapted for viewing all the larger fort of fmall ob-
je&s univerfally, and by only three lenfes it has feven
different magnifying powers.
Fig. 7. .reprefents the cafe with the three frames and Fir -
lenfes, which are ufually of 1, 1^, and two inches focus : ”
they all turn over each other, and Amt into the cafe,
and are turned out at pleafure.
The three lenfes fingly, afford three magnifying
powers ; and by combining two and two, we make three
more : for </ with e makes one, d with f another, and
e withy a third; which, with the three fingly, make
fix ; and laAly, all three combined together make an¬
other ; fo that upon the whole, there are feven powers
of magnifying with thefe glaffes only.
When the. three lenfes are combined, it is better to
turn them in, and look through them by the fmall
apertures in the fides of the cafe. The eye in this
cafe is excluded from extra light ; the aberration of
the fuperfluous rays througli the glaffes is cut off; and
the eye coincides more exactly with the common axes
of the lenfes.
A very ufeful and eafy kind of microfcope (deferib- plate
td by Joblot, and which has been long in ufe), adapt- cccxxxviii,
ed chiefly for viewing, and confining at the fame time
any living infers, fmall animals, &c. is fliown at fig. s!Fi(r
Avhere A reprefents a glafs tube, about inch "dia- ^ '
meter, and 2 inches high. B, a cafe of brafs or wood,
containing a Aiding tube, with two or three magnify-
MIC
[ 5 ] MIC
IWicrofcnpe. Jng glaffes that may be ufed either feparately or com-
i*—^ bined. In the infide, at the bottom, is a piece of
ivory, black and white on oppofite fides, that is ocea-
fionally removed, and admits a point to be fcrewed in¬
to the centre. The cap unfcrews at D, to admit the
placing of the objetl : the proper diflance of the glalies
from the objeft is regulated by pulling up or down
the brafs tube E at top containing the eye-glalfes.
This microfcope is particularly ufeful for exhibiting
the well-known curious curcu/io imperialism vulgarly call¬
ed the diamond beetle, to the greateft advantage j for
■which, as well as for other objefts, a glafs bottom,
•and a polifhed refleftor at the top, are often applied,
to condenfe the light upon the objeft. In this cafe,
the Hand and brafs-bottom F, as Ihown in the figure,
are taken away by unfcrew'ing.
9. Mr Lyoneds Single Anatomical Diffe&ing Micro-
9- fcope.—Fig. 9. reprefents a curious and extremely ufe¬
ful microfcope, invented by that gentleman for the pur-
pofe of minute diffeftions, and microfcopic prepara¬
tions. This inftrument muft be truly ufeful to ama¬
teurs of the minutiae of infefls, &c. being the bell
adapted of any for the purpofes of difleftion. With
this inftrument Mr Lyonet made his very curious mi-
erofcopical difle&ion of the chenille de faule, as related
in his Trade Anatomique de la chenille qui range le hois
de faule, 4to.
AB is the anatomical table, which is fupported by
a pillar NO; this is fcrewed on the foot CD. The
table AB is prevented from turning round by means
of two fteady pins. In this table or board there is a
hole G, which is exaftly over the centre of the mirror
EF, that is to refteft the light on the objeft ; the hole
G is defigned to receive a flat or concave glafs, on
which the objects for examination are to be placed.
RXZ is an arm formed of feveral balls and fockets,
by which means it may be moved in every poffible fi-
tuation ; it is fixed to the board by means of the fcrew
H. The laft arm IZ has a female fcrew, into which
a magnifier may be fcrewed as at Z. By means of the
fcrew H, a fmall motion may be occafionally given to
the arm IZ, for adjufting the lens with accuracy to its
focal diftance from the object.
Another chain of balls is fometimes ufed, carrying a
lens to throw light upon the objedl; the mirror is like-
wife fo mounted, as to be taken from its place at K, and
fitted on a clamp, by which it may be fixed to any part
of the table AB.
To ufe the DiffeSling Table.—Let the operator fit
with his left fide near a light window ; the inftrument
being placed on a firm table, the fide DH towards the
ftomach, the obfervations fhould be made with the
left eye. In diffecfting, the two elbows are to be fup¬
ported by the table on which the inftrument refts, the
hands retting againft the board AB ; and in order to
give it. greater liability (as a fmall {hake, though im¬
perceptible to the naked eye, is very vifible in the mi¬
crofcope), the dilfefling inftruments are to be held
one in each hand, between the thumb and two fore¬
fingers.
II. Of DOUBLE Microfcopes, commonly called COM¬
POUND Microfcopes.
Double microfcopes are fo called, from being a com¬
bination of two or more lenfesi
The particular and chief advantage* which the t#m- Microfeejw
pound microfcopes have over the fingle, are, that the “v——
objefls are reprefented under a larger field of view, and
with a greater amplification of reflefled light.
1. Culpeper's Microfcope.—The compound microfcope,
originally contrived by Mr Culpeper, is reprefented at
fig. 1 o. It confifts of a large external brafs body A, Fig. i».
B, C, D, fupported upon three fcrolls, which are fixed
to the ftage EF ; the ftage is fupported by three lar¬
ger Icrolls, that are fcrewed to the mahogany pedeftal
GH. There is a drawer in the pedeftal, which holds
the apparatus. The concave mirror / is fitted to a
focket in the centre of the pedeftal. The lower part
LMCD of the body forms an exterior tube, into which,
the upper part of the body ABLM Hides, and may
be moved up or down, fo as to bring the magnifier*,
which are fcrewed on at N, nearer to or farther from
the objeft.
To ufe this microfcope : Screw one of the buttons,
which contains a magnifying lens, to the end N of the
body : place the Aider, with the objedls, between the
plates of the Aider-holder. Then, to attain diftindt
vifion, and a pleafing view of the objeft, adjuft the bo¬
dy to the focus of the lens you are ufing, by moving
the upper part gently up and down, and regulate the
light by the concave mirror.
For opaque objefts, two additional pieces muft be
ufed. The firft is a cylindrical tube of brafs (reprefent¬
ed at L, fig. 11.), which fits on the cylindrical part atpj^ rj
N of the body. The fecond piece is the concave fpecu- b
lum h ; this is to be fcrewed to the lower end of the
aforefaid tube : the upper edge of this tube ftiould be
made to coincide with the line which has the fame num¬
ber affixed to it as to the magnifier you are ufing ; e. g.
if you are making ufe of the magnifier marked 5, Aide
the tube to the circular line on the tube N that is
marked alfo with N° 5. The Aider-holder ffiould be
removed when you are going to view opaque ob¬
jects, and a plane glafs fliould be placed on the ftage
in its ftead to receive the objedl ; or it may be placed
in the nippers, the pin of which fits into the hole in
the ftage.
The apparatus belonging to this microfcope confifts
of the following particulars: viz. Five magnifiers, each
fitted in a brafs button ; one of thefe is feen at N,
fig. 10. Six ivory Aiders, five of them with obje£ts.
A brafs tube, to hold the concave fpeculum. The
concave fpeculum in a brafs box. A fiffi pan. A fet
of glafs tubes. A flat glafs fitted to the ftage. A
concave glafs fitted to the ftage. A pair of forceps.
A fteel wire, with a pair of nippers at one end and a
point at the other. A fmall ivory cylinder, to fit on
the pointed end of the aforefaid nippers. A convex
lens, moveable in a brafs femicircle ; this is affixed to
a long brafs pin, which fits into a hole on the ftage.
1 he conftrudlion of the foregoing microfcope is very
fimple, and it is eafy in ufe ; but the advantages of the
ftage and mirror are too much confined for an extenfive
application and management of all kinds of objects. Its
greateft recommendation is its cheapnefs ; and to thofe
who are defirous of having a compound microfcope at a
low price, it may be acceptable.
1.f uff's Microfcope.—The improved microfcope
next in order is that of Mr Cuff. Befides remedying
the difadvantages above mentioned, it contains the
addition
M I C [
y.' °^e aT1 adjuftirg' fcrew, winch Is a confider-
ab e improvement, and highly neceffary to the ex-
^ amination of obpas under the beft defined appear-
1^‘ Ii* ance irom the piaffes, li is reprefented at fig. it.
with the apparatus that ufually accompanies it. A,
ii, C, ftiows the body of this microfcope j which
contains an t'vi -glafs at A, a broad lens at B, and
a magnifier which is fere wed on at C. The body
is fupported by the arm DE, from which it may
be removed at pleafure. The arm DE is fixed
on the Hiding bar F, and may be railed or depref-
fed to any height within its limits. The main pil¬
lar a b U fixed in the box be; and bv means of the
brafi foot d is fere wed to the mahogany pedeflal XY,
in which is a drawer containing all the apparatus. O is
a milled-headed fcrew, to tighten the bar F when the
adjuihng fcrew c^ >s ufed. pq Is the fiage, or plate,
"which carries the objefts ; it has a hole at the centre
n. G, a concave mirror, that may be turned in any
diredlion, to reflect the light of a candle, or the Iky,
upon the ob]e£l:.
I o ufe this microfcope : Screw the magnifier you
intend to ufe to the end C of the body ; place the
flider-holder P in the hole and the flider with the
object between the plates of the fiider-holder j fet the
upper edge of the bar DE to coincide with the di-
vifions Avhich correfpond to the magnifier you have in
ufe, and pinch it bv the milled nut j now' reflect a
proper quantity of light upon the object, by means
of the concave mirror G, and regulate the body exact¬
ly to the eye and the focus of the glalfcs by the adjuft-
ing fcrew eg.
^ I o view opaque objedts, take away the flider-holder
P, and place the objedt on a flat glafs under the cen¬
tre of the body, or on one end of the jointed nippers
op. T hen fcrew the filver concave fpeculum h to the
end of the cylinder L, and Hide this cylinder on the
lower part of the body, fo that the upper edge thereof
may coincide with the line which has the fame mark
with the magnifier that is then ufed : refledl the light
from the concave mirror G to the filver fpeculum,
from which it will again be reflected on the objedt.
The glaflfes are to be adjufted to their focal diftance as
before diredted.
The apparatus confifts of a convex lens H, to col-
ledt the rays of light from the fun or a candle, and
condenfe them on the objedt. L a cylindrical tube,
open at each fide, with a concave fpeculum ferewed to
the lower end h. P the flider-hoHer : this confifts of a
cylindrical tube, in which an inner tube is forced up¬
wards by.a fpiral fpring ; it is ufed to receive an ivory
flider K, which is to be Aid between the plates k
and i. The cylinder P fits the hole n in the ftage ;
and the hollow part at k is defigned to receive a glafs
tube. R is a brafs cone, to be put under the bottom
of the cylinder P, to intercept occafionally fome of
the rays of light. S, a box containing a concave and
a flat glafs, between which a frnall living infedl may
be confined : it is to be placed over the hole n. T
a flat glafs, to lay any occafional objedt upon 5 there
is alfo a concave one for fluids. O is a long Heel wire,
with a fmall pair of pliers at one end, and a point at
the other, defigned to flick or hold objedls : it flips
backwards and forwards in the fliort tube 0; the pin
p fits into the hole of the ftage. W, a little round
6 ] • I C
ivory box, to hold a fupply of talc and rings for the Microfcope.
Aiders. V, a fmall ivory cylinder, that fits on the "—-v—
pointed end of the fteel wire : it is defigned lor opaque
obi eel's. Light-coloured ones are to be ftuck upon
the dark fide, and vice verfa. M, a fiih-pan, whereon
to iaften a fmall hlh, to view the circulation of the
blood : the tail is to be fpread acrofs the oblong hole
b at the imall end, and tied fail, by means oi a rib¬
band fixed thereto ; the knob / is to be Ihoved through
the ilit made in the ftage, that the tail may be brought
under the magnifier.
3- f his microfcope has received feveral material im¬
provements from Mr Martin, Mr Adams, &c By
an alteration, or rather an enlargement, of the body of
the tube which contains the eye-glafl'es, and alfo of the
eye-glafles themfelves, the field of view is made much
larger, the mirror below for re Heeling light is made to
move upon the fame bar with the itage ; by which means
the diflance of it from the ftage may be very ealily and
fuitably varied. A condenfing glafs is applied under
the ftage in the flider-holder, in order to modify and
increafe the light that is refledled by the mirrors be¬
low from the light of a candle or lamp. It is furnilh-
ed alfo with two mirrors in one frame, one concave
and the other plane, of glals filvered j and by limply
unferewing the body, the inltrument, Avhen defired, may
be converted into a fingle microfcope. Fig. 12. is a Fig. xjj,
reprefentation of the inftrument thus improved ; and
the following is the defeription of it, as given by
Mr Adams in his Effays.
AB reprefents the body of the microfcope, con¬
taining a double eye-glafs and a body-glafs : it is
here Ihown as ferewed to the arm CD, from whence
it may be occafionally removed, either for the conve¬
nience of packing, or when the inftrument is to be ufed
as a fingle microlcope.
The eye-glafles and the body-glafles are contained
in a tube which fits into the exterior tube AB j by
pulling out a little this tube when the microfcope is in
ufe, the magnifying power of each lens is increafed.
The body AB of the microfcope is fupported by
the arm CD ; this arm is fixed to the main pillar CF,
which is ferewed firmly to the mahogany pedeiial GH j
there is a drawer to this pedeftal, which holds the
apparatus.
NIS, the plate or ftage which carries the flider-holder
KL : this If age is moved up or down the pillar CF, by
turning the milled nut M ; this nut is fixed to a pinion,
that works in a toothed rack cut on one fide of the pil¬
lar. By means of this pinion, the ftage may be gradu¬
ally raifed or deprefled, and the objedt adjufted to the
focus of the different lenfes.
KL is a flider-holder, which fits into a hole that is in
the middle of the ftage NIS 5 it is ufed to confine and
guide either the motion of the Aiders which contain the
objects, or the glafs tubes that are defigned to confine
fmall fillies for viewing the circulation of the blood.
The Aiders are to be pafled between the two upper plates,
the tubes through the bent plates.
L is a brafs tube, to the upper part of which is fixed
the condenfing lens before fpoken of •, it fits into the
under part of the flider-holder KL, and may be fet at
different diftances from the objedt, according to its di¬
ftance from the mirror or the candle.
O is the frame which holds the two refledting mir¬
rors,
t
MIC [ 7 ] MIC
M'icrofcope. rors, one of winch is plane, the other concave. Thefe
u—“"f" mirrors may be moved in various direftions, in order
to refleCl the light properly, by means of the pivots
on which they move, in the femieirele OSH, and the
motion of the femicircle itfelf on the pin S : the con¬
cave mirror generally anfwers beft in the day-time j
the plane mirror combines better with the condenfing
lens, and a lamp or candle. At D there is a focket for
receiving the pin of the arm (fig. 31.), to which the
concave fpeculum, for reflecling light on opaque objects,
is fixed. At S is a hole and Hit for receiving either the
Plate nippers L (fig. 31.) or the filh-pan I ; when thefe. are
GCCXLI. ufed, the Aider-holder muft be removed. T, a hole to
tig-31- receive the pin of the convex lens M.
To ufe this microfcope : Take it out of the box.
Screw the body into the round end of the upper part
of the arm CD. Place the brafs Aiders, which con¬
tain the magnifiers, into the dove-tailed Ait which is
on the under fide of the aforefaid arm, as feen at E,
and Aide it fonvards until the magnifier you mean
to ufe is under the centre of the body : oppofite to
each magnifier in this Ait there is a notch, and in
the dove-tailed part of the arm CD there is a fpring,
which falls into the above-mentioned notch, and thus
makes each magnifier coincide with the centre of the
body. Pafs the ivory Aider you intend to ufe between
the upper plates of the Aider-holder KL, and then
reAefl as ftrong a light as you can on the fubje£l by
means of one of the mirrors ; after this, adjuft the ob-
je£l to the focus of the magnifier and your eye, by
turning the milled fcrew M, the motion of which raifes
and depreffes the ftage NTS. The degree of light
neceffary for each objeft, and the accuracy required in
the adjuftment of the lenfes to their proper focal di-
ftance from the objedl, will be eafily attained by a little
practice.
When opaque objects are to be examined, remove
the Aider-holder, and place the objedl on a flat glafs,
or fix it to the nippers L, the pin of thefe fit into the
hole on the ftage ; fcrew the concave fpeculum R
into the arm O (fig. 31.), and then pafs the pin of this
arm through the foeket D (fig. 12.) 5 the light is now
to be reflected from the concave mirror to the filver fpe¬
culum, and from this down on the objedl. No exadl
rule can be given for reflefting the light cn the objeft 5
we muft therefore refer the reader to the mother of all
aptnefs, practice. The fpeculum muft be moved lower
or higher, to fuit the focus of the different magnifiers
and the nature of the objetf.
The foregoing directions apply equally to the ufing
of this inftrument as a fugle tnicrofcope ; with this dif¬
ference only, that the body AB is then removed, and
the eye is applied to the upper furface of the arm CD,
exaCtly over the magnifiers.
This microfcope is fometiraes made with the follow¬
ing alterations, which are fuppofed to make it ftill
more convenient and ufeful. The arm CD that car¬
ries the body and magnifiers is made both to turn on
a pin, and to Aide backwards and forwards in a focket
at C ; fo that, inftead of moving the obieCts below on
the ftage, and difturbing them, the magnifiers are more
convenientlv brought over any part of the objeCts as
defired. The condenfing glafs is made larger, and
Aides upon the fquare bar CF quite diftinCt from the
ftage, like the mirrors below ; and it is thereby made
Plate
cccxxxxx;.’
%• D-
ufeful for any other objeCls that may be applied on Microfcope.
glaffes fitted to the ftage, as well as thole put into the 111 ' v"“"
Aider-holder K. It is thereby not confined to this ftage
alone as in the preceding. When the body AB is
taken away, the arm CD may be Aipt away from its
bar, with the magnifiers, and the forceps, wire, and
joint, applied to it j and it thereby ferves the purpofe
of a finall fingle or opaque hand microfcope, for any ob-
jeCl oceafionaily applied to this wire. T he magnifiers
in the Aider E are mounted in a wheel cale, which per¬
haps prevents its being in the wray fo much as the long
Aider E before deferibed.—This contrivance is repre-
fenled at X, fig. 1 2.
4. Martin's New Univcrfal Compound Microfcope 
This inftrument was originally conilruCted by Mr B.
Martin, and intended to comprife all the ufes and ad¬
vantages of the fingle, compound, opaque, and aquatic
microfcopes. The following is a defeription of it.
Fig. 13. is a reprefentation of the inftrument pla¬
ced up for ufe. ABCD is the body of the micro¬
fcope : which confifts of four parts, viz. AB the eye¬
piece, or that containing the eye-glaffes, and is ferew-
ed into C, which is a moveable or Aiding tube on the
top ; this inner tube contains the body-glafs ferewed
into its lower part. D is the exter’-;r tube or cafe,
in which the other Aides up and down in an eafy and
fteady manner. This motion of the tube C is ufeful
to increafe and decreafe the magnifying power of the
body-glafs when thought neceffary, as before mention¬
ed. E is a pipe or fnout fcreived on to the body of the
microfcope D, and at its lower part, over the feveral
magnifying lenfes hereafter deferibed. FGHI is the
fquare item of the microfcope, upon which the ftage R
moves in an horizontal pofition, upwards or downward,
by means of the fine rack work of teeth and pinion.
KL is a ftrong folid joint and pillar, by which the po¬
fition of the inftrument is readily altered from a verti¬
cal one to an oblique or to a perfedtly horizontal one as
may be required : it is thus well adapted to the cafe of
the obferver either fitting or ftanding ; and as it is very
often convenient to view objeffs by dire£l unrefledled
light, when the fquare ftem FI is placed in a horizon¬
tal pofition for this purpofe, the mirror T is then to be
taken off in order to prevent the obftrudion of the
rays. M is a circular piece of brafs, ferving as a hafe
to the pillar. NOP, the tripod or foot by which the
whole body of the microfeope is fteadily lupported ; it
folds up when packed into the cafe. W is a brafs
frame, that contains the condenfing lens, and a<fts in.
conjunction with the large concave and plane mirrors
below at T ; the refiedled rays from which, either of
the common light or of that of a candle or lamp, it
agreeably modifies, and makes Heady in the field of
view.
The particulars of the apparatus to this microfcope
are as follow : is a circular brafs box, containing fix
magnifiers or objeft lerrfes, numbered I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 j
the digits of which appear feverally through a fmall
round hole in the upper plate of it. To the upper fide
is fixed a fmall circle of brafs, by which it is eonne&ed
with, and ferewed into, the round end of the arm
abed; which is a long piece of brafs, and moves through
either by teeth or pinion, or not, as may be defired, in
e f; which is a focket on the upper part of the pillar,
and admits, with a motion both eafy and fteady, the
brafs
M I G
Muroicopc. brafs arm. R is a fixed ftage, upon which the objeas
^ ' to be viewed are to be placed : it is firmly faftened to
the fquare pillar, which is moved by the rack-w'ork.
In the middle is a large circular hole, for receiving
concave glaffes, with fluids, &c. it has alfo a Aiding
fpring frame to fallen down flips of glafs or other things :
at abc are three fmall fockets or holes, intended to
receive feveral parts of the apparatus. S is the refrac¬
tor, or illuminating lens, for converging the fun’s rays
upon opaque objeds laid upon the ilage R. To this
purpofe it moves on a femicircle upon a long fhank g,
in a fpring focket h, in the arm i; this arm moving
every way by a flout pin k in the focket a of the ftage.
In this manner it is ealily adjufted to any pofition of the
fun, candle, &c.—T, the refleaing-glafs frame, con¬
taining a concave and plane fpeculum, which is moved
upon the fquare pillar by the hand. The ufe of it is to
illuminate all tranfparent obje&s that are applied to the
ftage above.
ij ig. 14. Tig. 14. N° 1. i* an auxiliary moveable ftage 5 which
by means of a pin £ is placed in the hole a of the ftage
R, and can be moved in a horizontal diredion over
the whole field of the ftage. In this ftage, there are
three circular holes with fliouldered bottoms 5 a large
one in the middle, and on each fide a fmall one,
for the reception of the three following neceffary arti¬
cles : N° 2. a watch-glafs to be placed in the large hole,
to hold fluids containing animalcules, &c.*, a circu¬
lar piece of ivory, N° 3. one fide of which is black, the
other white, to fupport opaque objeds of different con-
trailed colours •, and circular plane and concave glaffes,
N°4. for extemporaneous tranfparent objeds.—Thefame
ufe is made of the other fmall hole as of the large one,
only in a leffer degree, to receive fmall concave glaffes,
plates, &.c.
N° 5. is the filvered fpeculum, called a liberhhun,
which makes the fingle opaque microfcope, by being
ferewed to the Aider abed (fig. 13.) in room of the box
ef lenfes Q, and the body AE above it. The chief
ufe of this is to view very fmall objeds ftrongly illu¬
minated near the compounded focus of the mirror
T (fig. 13.). N° 6. is the forceps or pliers, for holding
iuch kind of objeds, and by which they can be ap¬
plied very readily to the focus of the lens in the li-
berkhun. They have a motion all ways by means of
the fpring focket «, the joint Z>, and the fhank c:
they are placed in the focket c of the fixed ftage R
(%• I3-)- N° 7. is a fmall piece of ivory, to be placed
upon the pointed end of the pliers : it is black upon
one fide, and white upon the other, to receive opaque
»bjeds.
N° 8. is a liberkhun of a larger fize than that firft
mentioned, with a hole in its centre : this is ferewed
into N° 9. the hole « of a brafs ring, faftened to a long
wire b ; which moves up and down in the fpring foc¬
ket b of the ftage R, in which it alfo moves fideways }
and thus, with the body AE above, forms an aquatic
compound microfcope for fhowing all forts of objeds in
water and other , fluids placed under it in the watch-glafs
N° a. on the ftage.
o ^
Nn . is a cone, with a proper aperture a to exclude
fuperfluous light, that would diflurb a critical obferva-
tion of a curious objed; it is placed on the under fide
of the fixed ftage R. ,
N° 12. is what is ufually called a bug-box, confift-
[ « 1
M I C
ing 01 a concave glais with a plane one ferewed over Microfcope.
it} by means of which a bug, loufe, flea, &c. may be
fecured and viewed alive. It is to be placed on either
of the ftages R (fig. 13.), or N° 1. (fig. 14.).
N 13* is the filh pan. In the long concave body
a £, a filh may be fo confined by the ribband c, that
the tranfparent tail may be in part over the flit or hole
at a. . In this ftate, it is placed on the ftage R, with
the pin d in the hole c of the ftage, and moves free¬
ly and horizontally for viewing the circulation of the
blood, &c.
N° 14. is the Aider-holder that is placed on the ftage
R: it receives the Aiders and tubes when filled with
tranfparent objeds, to be viewed either by the com¬
pound or fingle microfcope.
N° 15. reprefents the ivory Aider, to hold the objeds
between the talcs as ufual.
N° 16. is a ufeful auxiliary Aider framed in brafs.
In this Aider fmall concave glaffes are cemented ; and
a flip of plane glafs Aides over them , by which any
fmall living objed, as mites, &c. may be confined with¬
out injury, and deliberately viewed.
N° 17. reprefents a fet of glafs tubes, three in num¬
ber, one within another; they are ufeful for fmall tad¬
poles, water newts, eels, &c. when the circulation of
the blood is to be viewed. There is a fmall hole at
one end of each tube, that ferves to admit the air j for
when they are filled Avith Avater, the other end is flop¬
ped with a cork.
N° 18. is a Imall ivory box, containing fpare talcs
and Avires, to fupply the Aiders Avith occafionally.
N° 19. a brafs cell or button, containing a very fmall
lens, properly fet betAveen two fmall plates of brafs,
that it may be brought very near to the objed Avhen
viewed thereAvith as a fingle microfcope. This magni¬
fier is ferewed into the fame hole as the Avheel of fix
magnifiers are (fig. 13.).
N° 20. is a lens, adapted to vieAV and examine ob¬
jeds, by magnifying them fufficiently, fo as to be able
to apply them to the microfcope for infpedion : on this
account it is called the explorator.
The preceding are the chief articles of the appara¬
tus : Avhich, on account of their being fomewhat dif¬
ferent from Avhat is applied to other microfcopes, avc
have been thus particular in deferibing. In ufing
the microfcope, and Avhile viewing objeds by either
the fingle or compound inftrument, the focal diftances
of the magnifiers are made perfedly exad by turn¬
ing of the pinion at the nut u1, in one Avay or the
other, very gently in the teeth of the rack-Avork at
X (%• El-)-
It is neceffary that the centres of the objed-lenfes
or magnifiers, the ftage, and the mirrors at bot¬
tom, ftiould all be in a right line in the axis of the
microfcope, Avhen opaque objeds are to be vieAved,
that are placed upon the ivory piece N° 7. or the for¬
ceps N° 6. and all other fuch fort of objeds which are
placed in the centre of the ftage R, or Aider-holder
N° 14: But Avhen aquatic or living objeds, Avhich re¬
quire a great fpace to move in, are to be vieAved, then
the horizontal motion at 13.) is made ufe of,
and the vieiv may be extended laterally over the whole
of the diameter of the objed or field of view; and
by putting the arm abed forAvard or backAvard in
its focket ef the vieAV is extended in the contrary
dirediow
j
MIC [ «
Mkrol'cope. direction equally well 5 and in this manner the whole
u" of the ohjedls may be viewed without the lead; di~
fiurbance.
As the brafs arm ah c d may be brought to the
height of three or four inches above the it age R 5 fo,
by means of the rack-work motion of the ilage, a
lens of a greater focal diftance than the greateit in
the wheel may be occafionaliy applied in place of
the wheel, and thereby the larger kind of objedls be
viewed \ the inftrument becoming, in this cafe, what is
called a megalafcope.
In viewing moving living obje£ts, or even fixed ones,
when nice motions are requinte, a rack-work and pi¬
nion is often applied to the arm abed: the arm is
cut out with teeth } and the pinion, as tliown at Y, is
applied to work it. This acts but in one direction ;
and, in order to produce an equally neceffary motion
perpendicular to this, rack-work and pinion is applied
tangent-wife to the itage, which is then jointed.
What has been related above refpe<51s the contlruc-
tion of thofe denominated parlour microfcopes, in con-
tradifiindlion to thofe which are portable : their di-
menfions, however, have been considerably reduced by
opticians, in order to render them fit for the pocket ;
and as they are for the mod part conftrufted on nearly
the fame principles as thofe which have been already de-
fesibed, what has been faid will fufficiently indraft our
readers in ufing any pocket microfcope whatever.
Only it may be obferved, that in thofe reduced inftru-
ments, both the field of view and the magnifying power
are proportionably diminifhed.
We diall conclude the account of this fort of mi-
crofcope with deferiptions of a very portable pocket
apparatus of microfcopie indruments, and of a new mi-
crofcopic pocket telefcope, both invented by the late
Mr B. Martin, and fince made by mod indrument-
makers in London.
L‘g- 15. The former is reprefented at fig.' x 5. It confids
of two parts, viz. the body ab, and the pededal ik,
which is joined by a ferew at the part between b and
i. It confids of three cylindric tubes, viz. (1.) the
exterior tube, or cafe, a b; (2.) a middle tube cb;
and (3.) the interior tube fg. The middle tube
c d is the adjufter; and is connected with the outer
tube by the rack-work of teeth and pinion, as fliown
at e: by which means it is moved up and down at
pleafure through the fmalled (pace, and carries with
it the internal tube/^-. The interior tube fg receives
on its lower part at b the feveral capfules or boxes 2,
3> 4> (%• J6-) which contain the objeft lenfes or
magnifiers.
I he method of u/iug this compound microfcope in
the perpendicular pofilion, is as follows : The dage
N° x. is put within the exterior tube at b. Un¬
der the fprings are applied the four ivory Aiders,
which contain a variety of tranfparent objects ; then
move the interior tube /^ up and down with the hand,'
till you difeern the obie<d in the Aider, and there let
it red. After this, turn the pinion at e very tenderly
one way or the other, till you obtain a perfefl view
of the tranfparent objecls properly illuminated, from
-a mirror contained in the pededal or Hand ib, fuf-
pended upon, and moveable about, the points of
Vol. XIV. Part I.
) j M I C
two ferews (l/)• Ns 6. (fig. 16.) reprefenls a move- Microfcope.
able ftage, which is placed in the fpring focket tn. It ^
contains a concave glafs, for the reception of animal-^'16'
cules in Auids j and has the advantage of bringing any
part into view by moving the handle at u. If living
and moving obje£ts are require d to be fiiown, they mud
be confined in the concave, by putting a glafs cover,
N° 7. upon the dage; and then a fmall fj,icier a loufe,
a Aea, bug, &c. may be feen, and the motion or circu¬
lation of the blood, &c. obferved with furoriling di-
ilin£lnefs.
To view the circulation of the blood in the mod
eminent degree, it mud be done by placing fmall frogs,
tadpoles, water-newts, fifiies, &c. in a tube as reprefent¬
ed N° 8. (fig. 17.) j which tube is placed in the holes Fig. 17*
0 in the oppofite fides of the cafe a b, fig. 15. in the
lower part.—N° 9. (fig. 16.) is a pair of pincers or
pliers d, for holding any objeft ; the other end of the
deel wire is pointed to receive a piece of ivory b, with
one end black, and the other white, on which you dick
objects of different hue : this alfo, when uftd, is placed
in the fpring focket m.
To ufe this indrument as a compound opaque, you
ferew off the body part a b, and ferew to it the handle
r (fig. 16.) ; by this means you may hold the miero-
fcope in a horizontal pufition, as ihown in the figure.
The filver ddh or fpeeulum (which is contained in the
bottom or bale k, fig. 15.), is then ferewed on at b*
N° 9 is placed in the fpring focket in, and ad:uded
backward and forward in m, till the refiecled light from
the fpeculum falls in a proper manner on the opaque
objefl. Either of the 4 magnifiers, 2, 3, 4, 5, may be
ufed, and brought to a proper focus, as before dt Icrib-
ed by the tooth and pinion e (fig. 1 5.). If you take
off the opaque apparatus, and apply the dage Nu 1. (fig.
16.) with an ivory Aider, and at the end b {’crew in either
of the two lenfes, N° 10. (which are didinguiAied by
the name of illuminators), the microfcope being held up
to the light (and properly adjuded), the whole field of
view will be ftrongly illuminated, and prefent a mod:
pleafing appearance of any tranfparent object. Thefe
two convex lenfes are of different focufcs, and are to lie
ufed fingly or together 5 N° 2. being the greateft magni- ,
fier, will require the object to be ilmngly illuminated,
and of courfe both the lenfes muft be ufed together.
By candle-light, this method of viewing tranfparent ob-
jects will prove very entertaining*, by fere wing the
handle r into the part s of N° 10. it becomes a delight¬
ful hand megalafcope for viewing Aowers, fofiils, {hells,
&c. ; and each lens, as before mentioned, having a
different focus, produces twm magnifying powers ufed
fingly, and when combined a third.
The manner of ufing this infirument as a tingle mi¬
crofcope (like Wilfon’s) is reprefented in fig. 17. where
the button or magnifier at each is to be ferewed off, and
the circular piece N° 11. is ferewed in its place. This
piece has a fpring focket made to receive the Aider-hol¬
der N° 12. N° 1 3. is a circular piece of brafs, with a
long Aiank and fpring, and is introduced through the
outfide tube a b at t. N° 2, 3, 4, 5, are ferewed occa-
fionally in the centre of this piece, and ufed as Angle
lenfes with ivory Aiders, &c. N° 14. contains a lens of
a great magnifying power, for viewing very minute ob¬
jects : to render this inftrument the moil complete Angle
opaque microfcope, you have only to ferew into N° 13.
B the
M- I C [ ]
MIcrcifcopc. the filver fpeculum N° 15. uhleh has a fmall lens fet in
* centre. The^ flider-holder N° 12. is taken out of
IS0 11. and the pincers or nippers db, being detached
jiom the oilier part of N° 9. are palled through the
long fpring locket N°ii. and ready to receive any
opaque body in the pincers, or on the black and white
piece of ivory. To the large fcrew of N° 13. are applied
the two lenfea N° 10. which make it the completed:
megalafcope that can be defired.
1 he handle r contains tlie four ivory Aiders with
objects.
1 he diagreen cafe which contains this univerfal mi-
crofcope and its apparatus, is fix inches long, three
incnes wide, two inches deep j and weighs together 16
ounces. “ Thus (fays Mr Martin) fo final], fo light,
fo portable, and yet fo univerfally complete, is this
pocket mifirofcopic apparatus, that you find nothing
material in the large three-pillared microfcope, the
opaque microfcope, Wilfon’s fingle microfcope, and
the aquatic microfcope, all together, which you have
not in this ; befides fome very confiderable advantages
in regard to the field of view, &c. which they have
not (a).”
1 his inventive artifl having contrived a conftruc-
tion of the compound microfcope' fo fmall as to admit of
being packed in a common walking cane, thought next
of introducing the fame indrument into the infide of
what he called his Pocket Three-brcifs drawer Achro¬
matic Telefcope. The fame eye glaffes that ferve the
purpofe of a telefcope, anfwer as the compound magni¬
fier, for viewing tranfparent and opaque objedls in a
mierofeope.
Fig. iS, xp, Fig. 18, 19, 20, reprefent the telefcope feparated
so- by unferewing it at m, in order that the whole of
the neceffary parts in ufe may be exhibited. Fig. 19.
reprefents the exterior tube, which is of mahogany,
and its rims of brafs. It is detached from the reft of
the telefcope, as not making any part of the micro-
feepe. The brafs cover h /, that fhuts up the objeft-
glafs of the telefcope, is alfo the box which contains
the two-wheel objeft frames, and a fmall plain refleft-
ing mirror.
In fig. 20. A is the cover taken off, by unferew¬
ing the top part : The mirror B is taken out 5 and al¬
fo, by unferewing the bottom part, the two circular
wheels, with the objedls fhown in C and D.
Fig. 18. is a reprefentation of the three internal
brafs Hiding tubes of the telefcope, which form the
microfcopic part. The tubes are to be drawn out as
ftunvn in this figure ; then, at the lower end of the
large tube in the infide, is to be pulled out a fhort
tube b c, that ferves as a kind of ftage to hold the
wheels with objefts, and fupport the reflefting mirror.
This tube is to be partly drawn out, and turned fo
that the circular hole that is pierced in it may coin¬
cide wdth a fimilar hole that is cut in the exterior tube.
This tube is reprefented as drawn out in the figure 5
° ] MIC
and the mirror B placed therein, and the wheel with Microfcope.
tranfparent objects. C (fig. 20.) reprefents the wheel
w ith tranfparent objects, and D the wheel with opaque
objefts. They are both made of ivory; and ^ turn
round upon a centre brafs pin Hit upon the top, which
fits upon the edge of the tube ; which tube is then to
be pufhed up into the telefcope tube, fo that its lower
end may reft upon the upper edge of the wheel ac¬
cording to its viexv at a fig. 18.
In viewing the objeels, the fecond brafs tube of the
telefcope muft be puflied down, till its milled edge at
top falls upon that of the exterior tube ; taking care
that the circular hole is duly placed to the exterior one.
Thefe circular holes are not feen in fig. 18. being fup-
pofed in the oppofite fide, where the wheel is fixed,
fl lie adjuftment ior the focus is now only neceflary ;
which is obtained by pufhing dowmvards or upwards
the proper tube, till the objea appear quite diftimft.
In viewing tranfparent objedls, the inftrument may be
ufed in two pofitions; one vertical, when the light is to
be reilefted upon the objedf by the mirror ; the other,
by looking up direftly againft the light of a candle,
common light, &c. ; in which cafe the mirror muft be
taken away. In viewing opaque objefts, the mirror is
not ufed; but as much common light as poflible muft be
admitted through the circular holes in the fides of the
tubes.
’I here is a fpare hole in the tranfparent wheel, and
alfo one in the opaque, to receive any occafional obj’edft
that is to be viewed. Any fort of obj’eft whatfoever
may be viewed, by only puftiing up the microfcope
tube into its exterior, and bringing the firft eye-tube
to its focal diftance from the objedft.
The brafs tubes are fo contrived, that they flop
when drawn out to the full length : fo that by
applying one hand to the outfide tube, and the
other to the end of the fmalleft tube, the telefcope at
one pull may be drawn out; then any of the tubes
(that next to the eye is beft) may be pufhed in gra¬
dually, till the moft diftinft view of the objett be ^ob¬
tained.
The tubes all Aide through Aiort brafs fpring tubes,
any of which may be unferewed from the ends of the
Aiding tubes by means of the milled edges which pro-
jeft above the tubes, taken from each other, and the
fprings fet clear if required.
III. Of SOLAR Microfcopes.
This inftrument, in its principle, is compofed of a
tube, a looking-glafs or mirror, a convex lens, and
Wilfon’s fingle microfcope before deferibed. The fun’s
rays being refieaed through the tube by means of the
mirror upon the objefl, the image or pidlure of
the objedi is thrown diftindlly and beautifully upon
a fereen of white paper or a white linen ftieet, placed
at a proper diftance to receive the fame ; and may be
magnified
(a) ISotwithftanding the properties that have been aferibed to the above inftrument, and the praifes beftowed
upon it by b0fne> which induced us to admit fo minute a defeription, we muft apprife our readers, that it has been
omitted in Mr Adams’s enumeration ; and upon inquiry we learn, that it has fallen into negledl among the moft
judicious opticians, being found too imperfedl to ferve the purpofes of fcience, and too complicated for the ufe of
perlons who leek only entertainment.
M I C [ i
Mlcrotcope. magnified to a fize not to be conceived by thofe
v,~~» who have not feen it : for the farther the fcreen is re¬
moved, the larger will the objeft appear 5 infomuch,
that a loufe may thus be magnified to the length of
five or fix feet, or even a great deal more ; though it
is more dillin£l when not enlarged to above half that
Plate
CCCXL.
%• 21.'
fize.
The different forms in which the Solar Microfcope
is conftrufted, are as follow.
I. The old conftrudlion is reprefented in fig. 21. A
is a fquare wooden frame, through which pafs two
long fcrews aflifted by a couple of nuts 1,1. By thefe
it is fafiened firmly to a window fhutter, wherein a hole
is made for its reception } the two nuts being let into
the flmtter, and made faid thereto. A circular hole
is made in the middle of this frame to receive the piece
of wood B, of a circular figure 5 whofe edge, that
projects a little beyond the frame, com poles a lhallow
groove 2, wherein runs a catgut 3 ; which, by twill¬
ing round, and then eroding over a brafs pulley 4,
(the handle whereof 5, pafi.es through the frame),
affords an eafy motion for turning round the circular
piece of wood B, with all the parts affixed to it. C
is a brafs tube, which, ferewing into the middle of the
circular piece of wood, becomes a cafe for the unco¬
vered brafs tube D to be drawn backwards or forwards
in. E is a fmaller tube, of about one inch in length,
cemented to the end of the larger tube D. F is
another brafs tube, made to Hide over the above de-
feribed tube E ; and to the end of this the microfcope
mull be ferewed, when we come to ufe it. 5. A con¬
vex lens, whofe focus is about 12 inches, defigned to
collecl the fun’s rays, and throw them more llrongly
upon the objecl. G is a looking-glafs of an oblong
figure, fet in a wooden frame, fattened by hinges in
the circular piece of wood B, and turning about
therewith bv means of the above-mentioned catgut.
H is a jointed Avire, partly brafs and partly iron j
the brafs part, whereof 6, which is fiat, being faltened
to the mirror, and the iron part 7, which is round,
pa fling through the wooden frame, enable the obferver,
by putting it backwards or forwards, 4o elevate or de-
prefs the mirror according to the fun’s altitude. There
is a brafs ring at the end of the jointed wire 8, AA'here-
by to manage it with the greater cafe. The extremities
of the catgut are faftened to a brafs pin, by turning of
which it may be braced up, if at any time it becomes
too flack.
When this microfcope is employed, the room mull
be rendered as dark as poffible 5 for on the darknefs
of the room, and the brightnefs of the funlhine, de¬
pend the fharpnefs and perfection of your image.
Then putting the looking-glafs G through the hole in
y )".r windoAv {hotter, fallen the fquare frame A to the
Ihut'er by its two ferews and nuts 1, 1. This done,
adjull your looking-glafs to the elevation and lituation
of the fun, by means of the jointed wire H, together
with the catgut and pulley, 3, 4. For the firft of
thefe railing or lowering the glafs, and the other in¬
clining it to either fide, there refults a tAVofold mo¬
tion, which may eafily be fo managed as to bring the
glafs to a right pofition, that is, to make it refleCt the
fun’s rays direftly through the lens 5, upon the paper
fcreen, and form thereon a fpot of light exadlly round.
But though the obtaining- a perfect circular fpot of
i ] MIC
light upon the lereen before you apply the micro- Mierofcope.
fcope, is a certain proof that your mirror is adjulted " v—■" 1
right, that proof mull not always be expe&ed : for the
fun is fo low in winter, that if it fhine in a direCl line
again ft the window, it cannot then afford a fpot of
light exaClly round ; but if it be on either fide, a
round fpot may be obtained, even in December. As
foon as this appears, ferew the tube D into the brafs
collar provided for it in the middle of your wood Avork,
taking care not to alter your looking glafs : then
fcreAving the magnifier you choofe to employ to the
end of your microlcope in the ufual manner, take aAvay
the lens at the other end thereof, and place a llider,
containing the objects to be examined, 'betAveen the
thin brafs plates, as in the other A\7ays of uiing the mi-
crofcope.
Things being thus prepared, fcreAV the body of
the microfcope over the fmall end E of the brafs tube
F ; which Hip over the fmall end E of the tube D,
and pull out the faid tube D lefs or more as your ob-
jeCl is capable of enduring the fun’s heat. Dead ob¬
jects may be brought within about an inch of the
focus of the convex lens 5 ; but the dittance muft
be fhortened for living creatures, or they Avill foon be
killed.
If the light fall not exaftly right, you may eafily,
by a gentle motion of the jointed Avire and pulley, di¬
rect it through the axis of the micrpfcopic lens. The
fticrt tuoe I, to which the microfcope is fcreA\Ted,
renders it ealy, by Hiding it backivards or forwards on
the other tube E, to bring the objeCls to their focal
diftancc 5 Avliich Avill be knoivn by the fharpneis and
clearnefs of their appearance : they may alfo be turn¬
ed round by the fume means Avithout being in the leaft
diforderod.
The magnifiers moft ufeful in the folar microfcope
are in. general, the fourth, filth, or fixth. The fcreen
on Avhich the reprefentations of the objeCls are thrown,
is ufually compofed of a ftieet of the" large ft elephant
paper, {trained on a frame Avliich Aides up or doAvn, or
turns about at pleafure on a round Avooden pillar, after
the manner of tome fire fereens. Larger icreens may
alio be made of feveral {beets of the fame paper pafted
together on cloth, and let doAvn from the ceiling Avith a
roller like a large map.
“ Jhis microfcope (fays Mr Baker) is the moft en¬
tertaining of any and perhaps the moft capable of
making difeoveries in objeCls that are not too opaque :
as it {hows them much larger than can be done any
other Avay. I here are alio leveral conAreniences at¬
tending it, Avhich no other microfcope can have : for
the Aveakeft eyes may ufe it Avithout the leaft ft raining
or . fatigue : numbers of people together may vitvv any
objeCl at the fame time and by pointing to the parti¬
cular parts thereof, and difeourfirg on what lies before
them, may be aole better to underftaxsd one another,
and more likely to find out the truth, than in other
microfcopes, where they muft peep one after another,
and perhaps fee the objeCl neither in the fame light nor
in the fame pofition. Thofe alfo, who have no "{kill in
drawing, may, by this contrivance, eafily fketch out
the exaCl.figure of any objeCl they have a mind to pre-
ferve a picture ot ; fince they need only fallen a paper
on the fcreen, and trace it out thereon either Avith a
pen or pencil, as it appears before them. It is Avorth
B 2 the
MIC [i
Micro!rope, the while of thofe who are dehrous of taking many
draughts in this way, to get a frame, wherein a (heet
of paper may be put in or taken out at pleafure ; for if
the paper be fingle, the image of an object will be feen
almoit as plainly on the back as on the fore fide 3 and,
by Handing behind the fereen, the fhade of the hand
will not obftrudt the light in drawing, as it muft in
tome degree when one ftands before it.” This con-
ilruihion, however, has now become rather obfolete,
and is fupcrfeded by the following.
II. The improved Solar Micrqfcopc, as ufed with this
improved jingle Microfcope, With teeth and pinion. Fig.
Fjg. *3. 22. reprefents the whole form of the (ingle microjcope ;
ihe parts of which are as follows : ABCD the external
tube 3 GHIK the internal moveable one 3 OM part
of another tube within the laft, at one end of which
is fixed a plate of brafs hollowed in the middle, for re¬
ceiving the gials tubes : there is alfo a moveable flat
plate, between which, and the fixed end of the fecond
tube, the ivory Aiders are to be placed. L, a part
of the microfcope, containing a wire fpiral fpring, keep¬
ing the tube QM with its plates firm againft the fixed
part IK of the fecond tube.
EF is the fmall rack-work of teeth and pinion, by
which the tube IG is moved gradually to or from the
end .AB, for adjufling the objefts exadlly to the focus
of different lengths. NO is a brafs Aider, with fix
magnifiers 3 any one of which may eafily be placed be¬
fore the objedl. It is known when either of the glaffes
is in the centre of the eye-hole, by a fmall fpring fall¬
ing into a notch in the fide of ihe Aider, made againfi:
Plate cach of the glaffes. Thofe parts of the apparatus,
cccxxxix. %• I4* marked N° 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21,
and 22. are maoe ufe of here to this microfcope.
GH is a brals cell, which holds an illuminating
glafs for converging the fun’s beams or the light
of a candle flrongly upon the objefls. The aperture
of the glafs is madq greater or lefs, by tivo circular-
pieces of brafs, with holes of different fixes, that are
fere wed feparately over the faid lens. But at times
objefts appear bell when the microfcope is held up to
the common light only, without this glafs. It is alfo
taken away when the microfcope is applied to the ap¬
paratus now to be deferibed.
Ibg- a3- Fig. 23. reprefents the apparatus, with the fingle
microfcope ferewed to it, which conffitutes the Solar
Microfcope. AB is the inner moveable tube, to which
the fingle microfcope is ferewed. CD is the external
tube, containing a condenfing convex glafs at the end
D, and is ferewed into the plate EF, which is cut
with teeth at its circumference, and moved by the pi¬
nion I, that is fixed with the plate GH. This plate
is ferewed fall againll the window-lhutter, or board
fitted to a convenient window of a darkened room,
when the inllrument is ufed. KL is a long frame,
fixed to the circular plate EF 3 containing a looking-
glafs or mirror for retie (fling the folar rays through the
lens in the body of the tube D. O is a brafs milled
head, fattened to a worm or endlefs ferew 3 which on
the outfide turns a fmall wheel, by which the reflecting
mirror M is moved upwards and downwards.
In ufing this microfcope, the fquare frame GH is
firlt to be ferewed to the window Ihutter, and the
room well darkened : which is bell done by cutting
a round hole of the fixe of the moveable plate EF,
2 ] M 1 0
that carries the refleflor, in the window-lhutter or Microfcope,
board 3 and, by means of two brafs nuts «a, let in-
to the Ihutter to receive the ferews PP, when placed
through the holes in the fquare frame GH, at the two
holes (,K)p which will firmly fallen the microfcope to
ihe Ihutter, and is oahly taken away by only unferewing
the ferews PP.
The white paper fereen, or white cloth, to receive
the images, is to be placed feveral feet dillant from
the window : which will make the reprefentations the.
larger in proportion to the diftance. The ufual di-
Itances are from 6 to 16 feet.
The frame KL, with its mirror M, is to be moved
by turning the pinion I, one way or the other, till
the beams of the fun’s light come through the hole
into the room : then, by turning of the worm at O,
the mirror mull be raifed or depreffed till the rays be¬
come perfectly horizontal, and go llraight acrofs the
room to the fereen. The tube CD, with its lens at
D, is now to be ferewed into the hole of the circular
plate EF : by this glafs the rays will be converged to
a focus 3 and from thence proceed diverging to the
fereen, and there make a large circle of light. The
fingle microfcope, fig. 22. is to be ferewed on to the
end AB (fig. 23.) of the inner tube 3 and the Aider
NO, with either of the lenfes marked 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or
6, in the centre of the hole at the end AB. This
will occafion a circle of light upon the fereen much
larger than before. The Aider or glafs-tube, with the
objefts to be viewed, is to be placed between the plates
at IK againft the fmall magnifler, and moved at plea¬
fure. By {Lifting the tube AB in or out, you may
place the objefl in fuch a part of the condenfed rays
as {hall be fufficient to illuminate it, and not fcorch
or burn it 3 which will generally require the glafs to
be about one inch diitant from the focus. It now re¬
mains only to adjuft the objeft, or to bring it fo near
to the magnifier that its image formed upon the fereen
fhall be the mofl diftindl or perfeft : and it is effe&ed
by gently turning the pinion F, fig. 22. a fmall matter
one way or the other. If the object be rather large
in fize, the leaft magnifiers are generally ufed, and vice
verfa.
N* 1. is the greateft magnifier, and N° 6. the leaft,
in the brafs Aider NO. But, if deflred, Angle lenfes *
of greater magnifying powers are made : and they are
applied, by being ferewed to the end AB, fig. 22. and
the brafs Aider NO is then taken away.
'I he fame objed may be varioufly magnified, by the
lenfes feverally applied to it 3 and the degree of mag¬
nifying power is eafily known by this rule : As the di-
fance of the objeOl is to that of its image from the mag¬
nifier ; fo is the length or breadth of the objeB to that of
the image.
Inftead of the brafs Aiders with the lenfes NO,
there is fometimes ferewed a lens of a large fize, and
longer focal diflance : the inftrument is then converted
into a mega!afcope; and is adapted for viewing the
larger kind of objeds contained in large Aiders, fuch
as is reprefented at R, And, in the fame manner,
fmall ohjeds of entertainment, painted upon glafs like
the Aiders of a magic lanthorn, are much magnified,
and reprefented upon the fame fereen.
The folar microfcopes juft deferibed are capable on¬
ly of magnifying tranfparent objeds 3 for which pur-
pofc
MIC [i
Micrefcope. p0fe the lalt inftrument is extremely well adapted.
" But as opaque objects form the molt confiderable part
of the curious collections in the works of art as well
as nature, a folar microfcope for this purpofe was a
long time wanted.—For feveral years previous to
1774, Mr Martin made feveral effays towards the
conftrudlion of fuch an instrument; and at laft com¬
pleted one about the time juft mentioned, which he
named,
III. The Opaque Solat' Microfcope. With this in¬
ftrument (to ufe his own words) “ all opaque objects,
whether of the animal, vegetable, or mineral king¬
dom, may be exhibited in great perfection, in all their
native beauty 5 the lights and fnades, the prominences
and cavities, and all the varieties of different hues,
tints, and colours •, heightened by reflection of the fo¬
lar rays condenfed upon them.—Tranfparent objeEls
are alfo fhown with greater perfection than by the com¬
mon folar microfcope.”
Fig. 24. reprefents the folar opaque microfcope,
mounted for exhibiting opaque objeCts.
Fig. 25. is the Angle tooth and pinion microfcope,
as before, which is ufed for fliowing tranfparent objeCts j
the cylindrical tube Y thereof being made to fit into the
tube FE of the folar microfcope.
Fig. 24. ABCDEF, (fig. 24.) reprefents the body of the
folar microfcope *, one part thereof, ABCD, is coni¬
cal 5 the other, CDEF, is cylindrical. The cylindri¬
cal part receives the tube G of the opaque box, or the
tube Y of the Angle microfcope. At the large end
AB of the conical part, there is a lens to receive the
rays from the mirror, and refraff them towards the
box HIKE. NOP is a brafs frame ; which is fixed
to the moveable circular plate ab c : in this frame there
is a plane mirror, to refledl the folar rays on#the afore¬
mentioned lens. This mirror may be moved into the
moft convenient pofition for refledling the light, by
means of the nuts Q and R. By the nut Q it may be
moved from eaft to weft ; and it may be elevated or
depreffed by the nut R. d e. Two ferews to faften the
microfcope to a window ftmtter. The box for opaque
objefts is reprefented at HIKE : it contains a plane
mirror M, for reflefling the light which it receives from
the large lens to the objeft, and thereby illuminating
it ; S is a ferew to adiuft this mirror, or place it at a
proper angle for refledting the light. VX, two tubes
of brafs, one Hiding within the other, the exterior one
in the box HIKE 5 thefe carry the magnifying lenfes :
the interior tube is fometimes taken out, and the ex¬
terior one is then ufed by itfelf. Part of this tube may
be feen in the plate within the box HIKE. At H
there is a brafs plate, the back part of which is fixed
to the hollow tube 7i, in which there is a fpiral wire,
which keeps the plate always bearing againft the fide
H of the brafs box HIKE. The Aiders, with the
opaque objefls, pafs between this plate and the fide of
the box j to put them there, the plate is to be drawn
back by means of the nut ^ : / Hs a door to one fide of
the opaque box. The foregoing pieces conftitute the
feveral parts neceffary for viewing opaque objedts. We
fhall now proceed to deferibe the fingle microfcope,
which is ufed for tranfparent objefts : but in order to
. examine thefe, the box HIKE muft be firft removed,
aT(d in its place we muft infert the tube Y of the fingle
microfcope that we are now going to deferibe.
3
3 ] MIC
Fig. 25. reprefents a large tooth and pinion micro- Microfcop#.
fcope : at within the body of this microfcope, are ' . v
two thin plates, that are to be feparated in order to11^'2*5'
let the ivory Aiders pafs between them ; they are pref-
fed together by a fpiral fpring, which bears up the
under plate, and forces it againft the upper one.
The Aider S (under fig. 24.), which contains the
magnifiers, fits into the hole n ; and any of the magni¬
fiers may be placed before the objedt, by moving the
aforefaid Aider : when the magnifier is at the centre of
the hole P, a fmall fpring falls into one of the notches
which is on the fide of the Aider.
Under the plate m are placed two lenfes, for en¬
larging the field of view on the fereen : the fmaller of
the two is fixed in a piece of brafs, and is neareft the
plate m, this is to be taken out when the magnifiers,
N° 4, 5, or 6, are ufed, or when the megalafcope lens
1 (fig. 24.) is ufed } but is to be replaced for
N° 1, 2, 3 •
This microfcope is adjufted to the focus by turning
the milled nut O.
To ufe the folar microfcope :—Make a round hole
in the window fiiutter, a little larger than the circle
a b c; pafs the mirror ONP through this hole, and
apply the fquare plate to the flmtter ; then mark with
a pencil the places which correfpond to the two holes
through which the ferew is to pafs 5 take away the mi¬
crofcope, and bore two holes at the marked places, fuf-
ficiently large to let the milled ferews d e pafs through
them. ^ &
The ferews are to pafs from the outfide of the ftmt-
ter, to go through it j and being then ferewed into
their relpeftive holes in the fquare plate, they will,
when ferewed home, hold it fait againft the infide of
the ftmtter, and thus fupport the microfcope.
Screw the conical tube ABCD to the circle a b cy
and then Aide the tube G of the opaque box into the
cylindrical part CDEF of the body, if opaque objefts
are to be examined 5 but if they be tranlparent obje61s
you mean to ftiow, then place the tube Y within the
tube CDEF.
I he room is to be darkened as much as poflible,
that no^ light may enter but what paffes through the
body of the microfcope 5 for, on this eircumftance,
together with the brightnefs of the funfliine, the per-
fection and diftindtnefs of the image in a great meafure
depend. &
M non tne microfcope is to be ufed. for opaque ob-
jeffs, 1. Adjuft the mirror NOP, fo as to receive the
folar rays, by means of the two finger ferews or nuts,
QR ; the firft, Q_, turns the mirror to the right or
left 5 the fecond, R, raifes or depreffes it: this you
are to do till you have refle&ed the fun’s light through,
the lens at AB ftrongly upon a fereen of white paper
pmced at lome diftance fiom the window, and formed
thereon a round ipot of light. An unexperienced ob~
ferver will find it more convenient to obtain the lio-fit
by forming this fpot before he puts on either the
opaque box or the tooth and pinion microfcope.
Now put in the opaque box, and place the objedl
between the plates at H 5 open the door i k, and ad¬
juft the mirror M till you have illuminated the objeft
ftrongly. If you cannot effe& this by the ferew S.
you muft move the ferews (), R, in order to get the
light refleaed ftrongly from the mirror NOP, or the
mirror
MIC [ i
Micioicope. mirror ivT, without which the latter cannot illuminate
the objeft.
I he object bring ftrongly illuminated, Ihut the door
i k, and a diltinct view of the object will foon be
obtained on your fereen, by adjufting the tubes VX,
which is effected by moving them backwards or for
wards.
A round fpot of light cannot always be procured in
northern latitudes, the altitude of the fun being often
too low 5 neither can it be obtained when the fun is
dire6tly perpendicular to the front of the room.
As the fun is continually changing its place, it will
be neceffary, in order to keep his rays full upon the
objeft, to keep them continually directed through the
axis of the inftrument, by the turn ferews and K.
i o view tranjparent objefts, remove the opaque box,
and infert the tube Y, fig. 25. in its place ; put the
flider S into its place at n, and the Aider with the ob-
. jedfs between the plates at. m ; then adjull the mirror
NOP, as before directed by the ferews £), R, fo that
the light may pafs through the obje£f j regulate the
focus of the magnifier by the ferew O. 1 he molt
pleafing magnifiers in ufe are the fourth and fifth.
the fize of the objedt may be increafed or dimi-
niihed, by altering the diltance of the fereen from the
microfcope : five or fix feet is a convenient diflance.
To examine tranfparent objects of a larger fiz,e, or
to render the inftrument what is ufually called a mega-
lafeope, take out the Aider S from its place at //, and
ferew the button T (fig. 24.) into the hole at P, fig.
25. and remove the glafs which is under the plate at
»i, and regulate the light and focus agreeable to the
foregoing diredfions.
N. B. At the end of the tube G there is a lens for
increaling the denfity of the rays, for the purpofe of
burning or melting any combuftible or fufible fub-
ftance : this lens muft be removed in moft cafes, left
the objedfs Arould be burnt. The intenfity of the
light is alfo varied by moving this tube backwards or
forwards.
Apparatus of the Opaque Solar Microfcope.—The
large fquare plate and mirror •, the body of the micro¬
fcope •, the opaque box and its tube 5 the tooth and
pinion microfcope 5 the Aider with the magnifiers; the
megalafcope magnifier; the two ferews d and e; fome
ivory Aiders ; fome Aiders with opaque objedls; a brafs
frame, with a bottom of foft deal to flick any objedf
on ; a brafs cylinder K (fig. 31.), for confining opaque
objedls.
4 J
M I C
Plate
CCCXLI.
night. He accordingly fucceeded fo far as to pro-Microfcope.
duce, by candle-light, the images of objeds refradted     
from a Angle magnifier upon one or two large convex
lenles (of about five inches or upwards in diameter),
at the end of a pyramidal ftiaped box, in a very plead¬
ing and magnified appearance, fo as to give opaque
objeds as well as tranlparent ones the utmoft diftind-
nefs of reprefentation ; but ftill the light of a candle
IV. The CAMERA ObscurA, or LuCERNAL, Microfcope.
The great facility with which objede can be repre-
fented on paper or a rough glafs in the camera obfeura,
and copies drawm from them by any perfon though
un(killed in drawing, evidently fuggefted the applica¬
tion of the microfcope to this inftrument. The great-
eft number of experiments that appear to have been
made with this view, were by Mr Martin and Mr
Adams ; the former of whom frequently applied the
mierofeope to the portable camera, and with much
effed and entertainment. But thefe inftruments being
found to anfwtr only with the afliftance of the fun,
Mr Adams direded his experiments to the conftruc-
tion of an inftrument of more extended utility, which
could be equally employed in the day-time and by
4
or lamp w7as found generally infufficient to throw the
requifite degree of illumination upon the objeds. The
invention of what is called Argand's lamp, within thefe
few years offered a complete remedy for this defed, by
the intenfity and fteadinefs of its light. This did not
elcape Mr Adams (fon of the former), who immedi¬
ately applied it; and who had likewife fo altered and
improved his father’s inftrument, both in conitrudion
and form, as to render it altogether a different one, and
far more perfed and ufeful.
The advantages and properties of this excellent¬
ly conceived inftrument are numerous and important.
“ As the far greater part of the objeds which fur-
round us are opaque (fays our author), and very few
are fufficiently tranfparent to be examined by the com¬
mon microfcopes, an inftrument that could be readily
applied to the examination of opaque objeds has al¬
ways been a defideratum. Even in the examination
of tranfparent objeds, many of the fine and more cu¬
rious portions are loft, and drowned, as it were, in the
light which muft be tranfmitted through them ; while
different parts of the fame objed appear only as dark
lines or fpots, becaufe they are fo opaque as not to
permit any light to pafs through them. Thefe diffi¬
culties, as 'well as many more, are obviated in the lu-
cernal microfcope ; by which opaque objtds of vari¬
ous fizes may be feen with eafe and diiiindnefs : the
beautiful colours with which moft of them are adorn¬
ed, are rendered more brilliant, without changing in
the leaft the real tint of the colour ; and the concave
and convex parts retain alfo their proper form. The
facility with which all opaque objeds are applied to
this inftrument, is another confiderable advantage, and
almoft peculiar to itfelf; as the texture and configu¬
ration of the more tender parts are often hurt by pre¬
vious preparation, every objed may be examined by
this inftrument, firft as opaque, and afterwards (if the
texture will admit of it) as tranfparent.—The lucer-
nal microfcope does not in the leaft fatigue the eye;
the objed appears like nature itfelf, giving eafe to the
fight and pleafure to the mind : there is alfo, in the
ufe of this inftrument, no occafion to Amt the eve
which is not direded to the objed. A further ad¬
vantage peculiar to this microfcope is, that by it the
outlines of every objed may be taken, even by thofe
who are not accuftomed to draw ; while thofe who
can draw well will receive great affirtance, and execute
their work with more acccuracy and in lefs time than
they would otherwife have been able to have perform¬
ed it. Tranfparent objeds as well as opaque may be
copied in the fame manner. The inftrument may be
ufed at any time of the day, but the beft effed is by
night; in which refped it has a fuperiority over the
folar microfcope, as that inftrument can only be ufed
when the fun (bines.
Tranfparent objeds may be examined with the lu-
ccrnal microfcope in three or four different modes,
from
MIC [ 15 ] MI C
Microfcopn from a blaze of light, aim oft too great for the eye to
bear, to that which is perfeSly eafy to it : And by
the addition of a tin lanthorn to the apparatus, may
be thrown on a fcreen, and exhibited at one view to a
large company, as by the folar microfcope.
We fhall now proceed to the defcription of the in-
ftrument and apparatus as given by Mr Adams.
Plate Fig. 26. reprefents the improved Lucernal Microfcope,
CCCXLI. mounted to view opaque objects. ABCD is a large
ZJ' mahogany pyramidal box, which forms the body of
the microfcope 5 it is fupported firmly on the brafs
pillar FG, by means of the focket H and the curved
piece IK.
LMN is a guide for the eye, in order to direft it
in the axis of the lenfes it confifts of two brafs tubes,
one Aiding within the other, and a vertical fiat piece,
at the top of which is the hole for the eye. The outer
tube is feen at MN, the vertical piece is reprefented
at LM. The inner tube may be pulled out, or pufh-
cd in, to adjuft it to the focus of the glades. The
vertical piece may be raifed or deprefted, that the hole,
through which the object is to be viewed, may coin¬
cide with the centre in the field of view ; it is fixed by
a milled ferew at M, which could not be ftiown in this
figure.
At N is a dove-tailed piece of brafs, made to re¬
ceive the dove-tail at the end of the tubes MN, by
which it is affixed to the wooden box ABCDE. The
tubes MN may be removed from this box occafionally,
for the convenience of packing it up in a lefs com-
pafs.
OP, a fmall tube which carries the magnifiers.
O, one of the magnifiers j it is ferewed into the end
of a tube, which Aides within the tube P •, the tube
P may be unferewed occafionally from the wooden
body.
QRSTVX, a long fquare bar, which paffes through
the fockets YZ, and carries the ftage or frame that
holds the objebls ; this bar may be moved backward
or forward, in order to adjuft it to the focus by means
of the pinion which is at a.
b, A handle firniftied with an univerfal joint, for
more conveniently turning the pinion. When the
Fig- 27. handle is removed, the nut (fig. 27.) may be ufed in
its ftead.
de, A. brafs bar, to fupport the curved piece KI,
and keep the body AB firm and fteady.
f g h i, The ftage for opaque objects : it fits upon
the bar QRST by means of the focket /i i, and is
brought nearer to or removed farther from the magni¬
fying lens by turning the pinion a: the objects are
placed in the front fide of the ftage (which cannot be
feen in this figure) between four fmall brafs plates 5 the
edges of two of thefe are feen at Lj l. The two upper
pieces of brafs are moveable ; they are fixed to a plate,
which is afted on by a fpiral fpring, that preffes them
down, and confines the Aider with the objefts : this
plate, and the two upper pieces of brafs, are lifted up
by the fmall nut m.
At the lower part of the ftage, there is a femicircu-
lar lump of glafs n, which is defigned to receive the
light from the lamp, fig. 29. and to colleft and throw
it on the concave mirror 0, whence it is to be refie&ed
on the objeft.
The upper part f g h s (fig. 26.) of the opaque ftage
takes out, that the ftage for tranfparent objefls may be Microfcope.
inferted in its place. ' ^
Fig. 28. reprefents the ftage for tranfparent objects jFig. *8.
the two legs 5 and 6 fit into the top of the under part
r sh f of the ftage for opaque objefts ; 7 is the part which
confines or holds the Aiders, and through which they
are to be moved •, 9 and 10 a brafs tube, which con¬
tains the lenfes for condenfing the light, and throwing
it upon the objedt , there is a fecond tube within that,
marked 9 and 10, which may be placed at different
diftane s from the objedt by the pin 11.
When this ftage is ufed as a Angle microfcope, with¬
out any reference to the lucernal, the magnifiers or ob¬
ject lenfes, are to be ferewed into the hole 12, and to
be adjufted to a proper focus by the nut 13.
N. B. At the end AB (fig. 26.) of the wooden body
there is a Aider, which is reprefented as partly drawn
out at A : when quite taken out, three grooves will be
perceived ; one of which contains a board that forms
the end of the box ; the next contains a frame with a
grayed glafs ; and the third, or that fartheft from the
end AB, two large convex lenfes.
Fig. 29. reprefents one of Argand’s lamps, which Fig- 25.
are the moft fuitable for microfcopic purpofes, on ac¬
count of the clearnefs, the intenfity, and the fteadinefs
of the light. The following account of the method
of managing them, with other obfervations, is copied
from an account given by Mr Parker with thofe he
fells.
The principle on which the lamp acls, confifts in
difpofing the wick in thin parts, fo that the air may
come into contadft with all the burning fuel •, by which
means, together with an increafe of the current of air
occafioned by rarefadlion in the glafs tube, the whole
of the fuel is converted into Aame.
The wicks are circular *, and, the more readily to
regulate the quantity of light, are fixed on a brafs col¬
lar, with a wire handle, by means of which they are
raifed or depreffed at pleafure.
To fix the wick on, a wooden mandril is contrived,
which is tapered at one end, and has a groove turned
at the other.
The wick has a felvage at one end, which is to be
put foremoft on the mandril, and moved up to the
groove; then putting the groove into the collar of
the wick-holder, the wick is eafily puftied forward
upon it.
The wick-holder and wick being put quite down in
their place, the fpare part of the wick ftiould, while
dry, be fet a-light, and fuffered to burn to the edge
of the tubes ; tins will leave it more even than by cut¬
ting, and, being black by burning, will be much eafier
lighted : for this reafon, the black ftiould never be
quite cut off.
The lamp ftiould be filled an hour or two before it
is wanted, that the cotton may imbibe the oil and
drawT the better.
The lamps which have a refervoir and valve, need
no other direflion for filling than to do it with a pro¬
per trimming pot, carefully obferving when they are
full ; then pulling up the valve by the point, the re¬
fervoir, being turned with the other hand, may be re¬
placed without fpilling a drop.
Thofe lamps which fill in the front like a bird-foun¬
tain, muft be reclined on the back to fill; and this
ftiould
MIC [ i
op®,-(hould be done gently, that the oil in the burner may
return into the body when fo placed and filled : if, by
being too full, and oil appears above the guard, only
move the lamp a little, and the oil will disappear j the
lamp may then be placed erefl, and the oil will How to
it* proper level.
i he oil muft be of the fpermaceti kind, commonly
called chamber oil, which may generally be diftinguilh-
ed by its palenefs, tranfparency, and inoffenfive feent :
all thofe oils which are of a red and brown colour, and
of an offenfive Icent, fhould be carefully avoided, as
their glutinous parts elog (he lamp, and the impurities
in luch oil, not being intiammable, will accumulate and
remain in the form of a cruft on the wick. S~al oil is
nearly as pale and fweet as chamber oil ; but being of
a heavy iluggilh quality, is not proper for lamps with
fine wicks.
Whenever bad oil has been ufed, on changing it, the
wick muft alfo be changed ; becaufe, after having im¬
bibed the coarfe particles in its capillary tubes, it will
not draw up the fine oil.
To obtain the greateft degree of light, the wick
fhould be trimmed exaclly even, the flame will then be
completely equal.
There will be a great advantage in keeping the lamp
clean, efpecially the burner and air tubes; the negleft
of cleanlinefs in lamps is too common : a candleftiek
is generally cleaned every time it is ufed, fo fhould a
lamp ; and if a candleftick is not to be objeffed to be¬
caufe it does not give light after the candle is cx-
haufted, fo a lamp Ihould not be thought ill of, if it
does not give light when it wants oil or cotton : but
this laft has often happened, becaufe the deficiency is
lefs vifible.
The glafs tubes are beft cleaned with a piece of wafh
leather.
If a fountain lamp is left partly filled with oil, it may
be liable to overflow : this happens by the contraftion
of the air when cold, and its expanfion by the warmth
of a room, the rays of the fun, or the heat of the lamp
when re-lighted : this accident may be effe&ually pre¬
vented by keeping the refervoir filled, the oil not being
fubjeft to expanfion like air. On this account, thofe
with a common refervoir are beft adapted for microfco-
pic purpofes.
To examine Opaque ObjeEis, with the Lucernal Mi~
crofcope. To render the ufe of this inftrument eafy, it
is ufually packed with as many of the parts together as
poflible : it occupies on this account rather more room,
but is much lefs embarrafling to the obferver, who has
only three parts to put on after it is taken out of its
box, namely, the guide for the eye, the ftage, and the
tube with its magnifier.
But to be more particular : Take out the wooden
Aider A (fig. 26.), then lift out the cover and the
gray glafs, from their refpeflive grooves under the
Aider A.
Put the end N of the guide for the eye LMN into
its place, fo that it may ftand in the pofition which is
reprefented in this figure.
Place the focket which is at the bottom of the
opaque ftage, on the bar QXT, fo that the concave
mirror 0 may be next the end DE of the wooden
body.
6 ] M I C
Screw the tubes PO into the end DE. The mag- Mierofcope.
nifier you intend to ufe is to be fere wed on the end O
of thefe tubes.
Ihe handle G b, or the milled nut, fig. 27. muft be
placed on the fquare end of the pinion a.
Place the lamp lighted before the glafs lamp */,
and the object you intend to examine between the
fpring plates of the ftage ; and the inftrument is ready
for ufe.
In all microfcopes there are two circumftances which
muft be particularly attended to : firft, the modifica¬
tion of the light, or the proper quantity to illuminate
the object ; fecondly, the adjuftmenl of the inftrument
to the focus (jf the glafs and eye of the obferver. In
the ufe of the lucernal microfcope there is a third cir-
cumftance, which is, the regulation of the guide for the
eye.
1. To throw the light upon the objefl. The flame
of the lamp is to be placed rather below the centre of
the glafs lump n, and as near it as poffihle ; the con¬
cave mirror 0 muft be fo inclined and turned as to re¬
ceive the light from the glafs lump, and refledt it
thence upon the objtdl ; the beft fttuation of the con¬
cave mirror and the flame of the lamp depends on a
combination of circumftances, which a little pradlice
will difeover.
2. rJ o regulate the guide for the eye, or to place the
centre of the eye-piece L (o that it may7 coincide with
the focal point of the lenfes and the axis of vifion :
Lengthen and Ihorten the tubes MN, by drawing out
or pulhing in the inner tube, and railing or deprefling
the eye-piece ML, till you find the large lens (which
is placed at the end AB of the wooden body) filled by
an uniform field of light, without any prifmatic colours
round the edge ; for till this piece is properly fixed,
the circle of light will be very fmall, and only occupy
a part of the lens ; the eye muft be kept at the centre
of the eye-piece L, during the whole of the opera¬
tion ; which may be rendered fotnewhat eafier to the
obferver, on the firft ufe of the inftrument, if he hold
a piece of white paper parallel to the large lens, re¬
moving it from or bringing it nearer to them till he
find the place where a lucid circle, which he will per¬
ceive on the paper, is brighteft and moft diftinft ; then
he is to fix the centre of the eye-piece to coincide with
that fpot; after which a very fmall adjuftment will fet
it perfectly right.
3. To adjuft the lenfes to their focal diftance. This
is effected by turning the pinion «, the eye being at
the fame time at the eye-piece L. The gray glafs
is often placed before the large lenfes, while regulat¬
ing the guide for the eye, and adjufting for the focal
diftanee.
If the obferver, in the procefs of his examination of
an objeft, advance rapidly from a fliallow to a deep
magnifier, he will fave himfelf fume labour by pulling
out the internal tube at O.
The upper part fgrs of the ftage is to be raifed or
lowered occafionally, in order to make the centre of the
objeft coincide with the centre of the lens at O.
To delineate objects, the gray glafs muft be placed
before the large lenles ; the pidlure of the objed will
be formed on this giafs, and the outline may be accu¬
rately taken by going over the picture with a pencil.
The
MIC
[ i? 1
M I C
Microfeope. The opaque part may be ufed in the daytime without
a lamp^ provided the large lenfes at AJB are fcreened
from the light.
To ufe the Lucernal Microfeope in the examination of
Tranfparent Oijccls.—The inftrument is to remain as
before : the upper part fg s of the opaque flage Jnuft
be removed, and the ftage for tranfparent objtdb, re-
prefented at fig. 28. put in its place ; the end 910
to be next the lamp.
Place the grayed glafs in its groove at the end AB,
and the objects in the Aider-holder at the front of the
flage ; then tranfmit as ftrong a light as you are able
on the obiedt, which you will eafily do by railing or
lowering the lamp.
The objedl will be beautifully depleted on the gray
glafs j it mull be regulated to the focus of the magni¬
fier, by turning the pinion a.
The objeff may be viewed either with or without
the guide for the eye. A Angle obferver will fee an
objeft to the greatefl advantage by uling this guide,
which is to be adjufled as we have deferibed above. If
two or three wifh to examine the object at the fame
time, the guide for the eye mull be laid afide.
Take the large lens out of the groove, and receive
the image on the gray glafs; in this cafe, the guide
for the eye is of no ufe : if the gray glafs be taken
away, the image of the objcdl may be received on a
paper fereen.
Take out the gray glafs, replace the large lenfes,
and ufe the guide for the eye ; attend to the forego¬
ing direflions, and adjuft the object to its proper fo¬
cus. You will then fee the objedl in a blaze of light
almofl too great for the eye, a circumftanee that will
be found very ufeful in the examination of particular
objedls. The edges of the object in this mode will be
fomewhat coloured : but as it is only ufed in this full
light for occafional purpofes, it has been thought bet¬
ter to leave this fmall imperfe&ion, than, by remedying
it, to facrifice greater advantages ; the more fo, as this
fault is eafily correfted, a new and intereifing view
of the objeft is obtained, by turning the infirument
out of the direft rays of light, and permitting them to
pafs through only in an oblique direction, by which
the upper furface is in fome degree illuminated, and
the objeft is feen partly as opaque, partly as tranfpar¬
ent. It has been already obferved, that the tranfparent
objefts might be placed between the Aider-holders of
the ftage for opaque objects, and then be examined as
if opaque.
Some tranfparent obje<fls appear to the greateft ad¬
vantage when the lens at 9 10 is taken away 5 as, by
giving too great a quantity of light, it renders the
edges lefs {harp.
The variety of views which may be taken of every
objeft by means of the improved lucernal microfeope,
will be found to be of great ufe to an accurate obferv¬
er : it will give him an opportunity of corre&inar or
Vol. XIV. Part I.
confirming his difeoveries, and inveftigating thofe parts Micrcfcopc
in one mode which are invifible in another. 1-
To throw the image oj tranfparem ot jecis on a fereen
as in the folar microfeope.—It has been long a microfco-
pieal defideratum, to have an inftrument by which
the image of tranfparent objefts might be thrown on
a fereen, as in the common folar microfeope : and this
not only becauie the fun is fo uncertain in this cli¬
mate, and the ufe of the folar microfeope requires
confinement in the fineft part of the day, when time
feldom hangs heavy on the mind ; but as it alio affords
an increafe of pleafure, by difplaying its wonders to
feveral perfjns at the fame inftant, without the leaft
fatigue to the eye.
This purpofe is now effe&ually anfwered, by affix¬
ing the tranfparent ftage of the lucernal to a lanthorn,
with, one of Argand’s lamps.—The lamp is placed
within the lanthorn, and the end 9 10 of the tranf¬
parent ftage is ferewed into a female ferew, which is
rivetted in the Aiding part of the front of the lan¬
thorn ; the magnifying lenfes are to be ferewed into
the hole repreiented at 12, and they are adjufted by
turning the milled nut. The quantity of light is to be
regulated by railing and lowering the Aiding-plate or
the lamp.
Apparatus which ufually accompanies the improved
Lucernal Microfeope.—The ftage for opaque objects,
with its femicircular lump of glafs, and concave mirror.
The ftage for tranfparent objects, which fits on the
upper part of the foregoing ftage. The Aiding tube,
to which the magnifiers are to be affixed : one end of
thefe is to be ferewed on the end D of the wooden
body } the magnifier in ufe is to be ferewed to the
other end of the inner tube. Eight magnifying
lenfes : thefe are fo conftrudted that they may be
combined together, and thus produce a very great
variety of magnifying powers. A fifti-pan, fuch as
is reprefented at I. A fteel wire L, with a pair of
nippers at one end, and a fmall cylinder of ivory / at
the other. A Aider of brafs N, containing a flat
glafs Aider, and a brafs Aider into which are fitted
fome fmall concave glaffes. A pair of forceps. Six
large and fix fmall ivory Aiders, with tranfparent
objects. Fourteen wooden Aiders, with four opaque '
objefts in each Aider ; and two fpare Aiders. Some
capillary tubes for viewing fmall animalcula.
Ingenious men feldom content themfelves with an
inftrument under one form ; hence fuch a variety of
microfcopes, hence many alterations in the Lucernal
Microfeope. Mr Adams himfelf, we underftand, has
fitted up this laft in a great many different ways j and
it is reafonable to think that no perfon was more likely
to give it every improvement of which it is fufceptible.
Of the alterations by other hands we ftiall only parti¬
cularize one, made by Mr Jones of Holborh (b),
whofe defeription is as follows :
A (fig. 30.) reprefents a portion of the top of the ma-Fig. 3*,
C hogany
(b) We truft the reader will never confider any paragraph wherein the name of an inftrument-maker or
other artift is inferted, as a recommendation of thofe artifts by the editors of this wrork. In the courfe of a
pretty extenfive correfpondence, they have been favoured with very liberal communications from various artifts,
*or which they are greatly indebted to them ; the inferting their names in this work is therefore to be confidered
as
MIC [i
Microfcope. hogany box in which it packs, to preferve it fteady ; it
U““’v Aides in a dove-tail groove withinfide, a fimilar groove
to which is cut in the top of the box A ; fo that when
the inftrument is to be ufed, it is dipt out of the box
tvithiniide, and then dipt into the groove at top ready
for ufe, almoit inftantly, as drown in the figure. The
adjudment of the objedls is at the dage E •, for the
right focal didance is readily and conveniently made
by turning the long fcrew-rod BB, which goes through
the two pillars fupporting the box, and works in the
bafe of the brads dage E ; which bafe is alfo dove¬
tailed, fo as to have a regular and deady motion in an¬
other brafs bads that fupports it. In this indrument,
therefore, the pyramidical box does not move 5 but
the dage part only, which, from its fmall weight,
moves in the mod agreeable and deady manner. While
ebferving the image of the object upon the glafs
through the fight-hole at G, the obje£t may be moved
or changed by only turning the rack-work and pinion
applied to the dage by means of the handle D, for
that purpofe. By this contrivance you have no occa-
fion to change your pofition during the view of the
objects upon one of the diders. This motion changes
the objects horizontally only ; and as they are gene¬
rally placed exaflly in one line, it anfwers all the pur-
pofes for which this motion is intended very well.
But it may fometimes happen that the ohferver would
wifh to alter the vertical podtion of the objeft ; to
perform which there is another plain rod at F, that
a£ts Amply as a lever for this purpofe, and moves the
Aiding part of the dage E vertically either upwards
or downwards.
Thus, without altering his pofition, the obferver
may invedigate all parts of the objefts in the mod fa-
tisfadlory manner. Rack-work and pinion might be
applied to the dage for the vertical motion alfo •, but
as it would materially enhance the expence, it is feldom
applied. The brafs work at the handle of D contains
a Hooke’s univerfal joint.
The brilliancy of the images of the objects diown
upon the large lenfes at the end of th^ box, being very
frequently fo great as to dazzle the eyes, Mr Jones ap¬
plies a dight tinge of blue, green, and other coloured
glafs, to the fight-hole at G, which foftens this glare,
and cads an agreeable hue upon the objefts.
Defcription of thofe Parts of a Microfcopical Appara¬
tus, common to mof Inf rurnents, which are delinea¬
ted at fig. 31.
A and B reprefent the brafs cells which contain the
magnifiers belonging to the different kinds of com¬
pound microfcopes. The magnifiers are fometimes
contained in a ffider like that which is delineated at S
(fig. 24*)- The lenfes of A and B are confined by a
fmall cap j on unferewing this, the fmall lens may be
taken out and cleaned. The magnifiers A of the lu-
cernal microfcope are fo contrived, that any two of
B ] MIC
them may be ferewed together, by which means a con- Microscope,
fiderable variety of magnifying powers is obtained. v 1 " v
To get at the lenfes in the dider S (fig. 24.) take
out the two ferews which hold on the cover.
C reprefents the general form of the Jlider-holder.
It confids of a cylindrical tube, in which an inner tube
is forced up by a fpring. It is ufed to receive the
ivory or any other dider, in which the tranfparent ob¬
jects are placed ; thefe are to be did between the two
upper plates : the hollow part in one of the plates is de-
figned for the glafs tubes.
D, the condenfing lens and its tube, which fits into
the dider-holdcr C, and may be moved up and down
in it. When this piece is pudied up as far as it will
go, it condenfes the light of a candle, which is refleft-
ed on it by the plain mirror of the compound micro¬
fcope, and fpreads it uniformly over the object ; in
this cafe it is bed adapted to the diallowed magnifiers.
If the deeper lenfes are ufed, it diould be drawn down,
or rather removed further from the object, that it may
concentrate the light in a fmall compafs, and thus
render it more denfe. The condenfing lens is fome¬
times fitted up differently ; but the principle being the
fame, it will be eafy to apply it to ufe notwithdanding
fome variations in the mechanifm.
E, a brafs cone. It fixes under the dider-holder,
and is ufed to leffen oecafionally the quantity of light
which eomes from the mirror to any objedl.
F, a box with two fiat glaffes, which may be placed
at different didances from each other in order to con¬
fine a fmall living infedl.
G, a fmall brafs box to hold the diver fpeculum H.
H, a fmall filver concave fpeculum, defigned to re-
de£I the light from the mirror on opaque obje&s \ it
diould only be ufed with the fhallow magnifiers. It is
applied in different ways to the compound microfcope ;
fometimes to a tube fimilar to that rt prefented at X,
which dides on the lower part of the body; fometimes
it is ferewed into the ring of the piece 5 the pin
of this generally fits into one of the holes in the dage.
When this fpeculum is ufed, the dider-holder diould be
removed.
I, a fifh-pan, whereon a fmall fifh may be fadened,
in order to view the circulation of the blood : its tail
is to be fpread acrofs the oblong hole at the fmalleft
end, and tied fad by means of the ribbon fixed there¬
to, by dioving the knob which is on the back of it
through the dit made in the dage ; the tail of the fidi
may be brought under the lens which is in ufe.
K, a cylindrical piece, intended for the folar opaque
microfcope ; by pulling back the fpiral fpring, fmaller
or larger objects may be confined in it.
h, A pair of triangular nippers for taking hold of
and confining a large objedh
L, a long deel wire, with a fmall pair of pliers
at one end and a deel point at the other : the wire flips
backwards or forwards in a fpring tube, which is af¬
fixed to a joint, at the bottom of which is a pin to fit
one
as a grateful acknowledgment from the editors for favours conferred on them,—not as a tedimonial of their opi¬
nion of the abilities of an individual, or as defigned to infinuate any preference over others in the fame line, where
fach preference has not been already bellowed by the public.
MIC [
Microfcope. one of the holes in the ftage *, this piece is ufed to con-
•_a.- , ■ gne fma}} objects.
/, A fmali ivory cylinder that fits on the pointed end
of the deel wire L } it is defigned to receive opaque
objcfts. Light-coloured ones are to be ftuck. on the
dark fide, and vice verfa.
M, a convex lens, which fits to the fiage by means
of the long pin adhering to it. This piece is defigned
to collect the light from the fun or a candle, and to
throw them on any object placed on the fiage j but it
is very little ufed at prefent.
N, a brafs fiider, into which is fitted a flat piece of
glafs, and a brafs Aider containing four fmali glafies,
one or two of them concave, the others flat; it is de¬
figned to confine finall living objefts, and when ufed is
to be placed between the two upper plates of the Aider-
holder.
O, a glafs tube to receive a fmali fifli, &c.
P, reprefents one of the ivory Aiders, wherein ob¬
jefts are placed between two pieces of talc, and con¬
fined by a brafs ring.
Qj, a piece to hold the fpeculum H : this piece is ge¬
nerally fitted to the microfcope reprefented at fig. I 2.
R, a pair of foreceps, to take up any occafional ob-
jeft.
S, a camel’s hair pencil to brufh the dull off the
glafies ; the upper part of the quill is fcooped out, to
take up a drop of any fluid, and place it on either of
the glafles for examination.
T, an inftrument for cutting thin tranfverfe feflions
of wood. It confifis of a wooden bafe, which fupports
four brafs pillars 5 on the top of the pillars is placed a
flat piece of brafs, near the middle of which there is a
triangular hole.
A fharp knife, which moves in a diagonal direflion,
is fixed on the upper fide of the afore-mentioned plate,
and in fuch a manner that the edge always coincides
with the furface thereof.
The knife is moved backwards and forwards by
means of the handle a. The piece of wood is placed
in the triangular trough which is under the brafs
plate, and is to be kept fieady therein by a milled
ferew which is fitted to the trough ; the wood is
to be prefled forward for cutting by the micrometer
ferew i>.
The pieces of wood fhould be applied to this in¬
ftrument immediately on being taken out of the
ground, or elfe they fhould be foaked for fome time in
water, to foften them fo that they may not hurt the
edge of the knife.
When the edge of the knife is brought in contaft
with the piece of wood, a fmali quantity of fpirits of
wine fliould be poured on the furface of the wood, to
prevent its curling up •, it will alfo make it adhere to
the knife, from which it may be removed by prefling a
piece of blotting paper on it.
y, An appendage to the cutting engine, which is
to be ufed inftead of the micrometer ferew, being pre¬
ferred to it by fome. It is placed over the triangular
hole, and kept flat down upon the furfaee of the brafs
plate, while the piece of wood is prefied againft a circu¬
lar piece of brafs which is on the under fide of it. This
circular piece of brafs is fixed to the ferew, by which
its difiance from the flat plate on which the knife moves
may be regulated.
9 ] MIC
An ivory box, containing at one end fpare talc Microfcop*.
for the ivory Aiders, and at ihe other fpare rings for
prefling the talcs together and confining them to the
Aider.
Fluid miercfcopes have been alfo propoled ; the firft,
it would appear, was luggefted by Mr Giey. 1 his was
formed of water, and an account of it will be found in
N° 221, 223, Phil, iranf. An improved mien fcope,
on a fimilar principle, lias been invented b_v Mr Lrevv-
ller, of which the following is a defeription, taken from
a note by the tranfiator of Haiiy’s Natural Philufo-
phy.
“ A vertical bar (fays Mr Gregory), is fixed upon
a horizontal pedeftal; and from the top of this bar
proceeds a horizontal arm, which fupports a circular
cafe containing the lenfes ; below this another horizon¬
tal arm Aides up and down, capable of adjuftment by
means of a ferew, and carrying the ufual Aiders to hold
the objeft which it is propofed to examine 5 and upon
the pedeftal is fixed the frame of a mirror, which has
both an inclined and a horizontal motion, in order to
illuminate any objeft upon the Aider. The upper cir¬
cular cafe is hollow, and contains four or more plano¬
convex lenfes, which are conftituted each of a drop of
very pure and vifeid turpentine varnifh, taken up by
the point of a piece of wood, and dropped upon a piece
of very thin and well polifhed glafs. The lenfes thus
formed may be made of any focal length by taking up
a greater or a lef* quantity of fluid. The lower furface
of the glafs having been firft fmoked with a candle, the
black pigment immediately below the lenfes is then to
be removed, fo that no light may pafs but through the
lenfes. The piece of glafs is then perforated at its
centre, and furrounded by a toothed wheel, which,
when the wheel is put in the upper circular cafe, may
be turned by a common endleft ferew, fo that the fluid
lenfes ftiall be brought feverally under an eye-aperture
properly difpofed, and any object be fuccefsfully exa¬
mined with a variety of magnifying powers.” Note,
p. 365. See alfo Fergufon’s Ledlures by Brewiter,
vol. ii.
After what has been related of microfcopes, they
cannot be faid to be cnnplete with; ut the valuable ad¬
dition of a micrometer ; for the ufe and advantages of
which, fee the article Micrometer.
Having prefented our readers with deferiptions of
the various microfcopes generally ufed, we think it our
duty to point out to them thofe which we conceive to
be beft calculated to anfwer the purpofes of fcience.
The firft which prefents itfelf to our mind is that of
El/is : It is better adapted than any other portable mi¬
crofcope, to the purpofe of general obfervation ; Ample
in its conftruflion, and general in its application. To
thofe who prefer a double microfcope, we fliould recom¬
mend that figured in Plate CCCXXXVIII. fig. 12. If
opaque objefts, as infefts, &c. be fubjefts of invetiiga-
tion, the Lucenial Microfcope claims the preference ;
but if amufement alone guides the choice, the Solar
Microfcope muft be fixed upon.
We fliall now proceed to explain fome neceflary par¬
ticulars refpefting the method of ufing microfcopes j
after which, we ftisll fubjoin an enumeration of the prin-
C 2 cipai
MIC [ 20 ] MIC
Microfcope. cipal objefts difcovered or elucidated by their means.
v On this fubjedt Mr Adams, in his Ejj'uy on the \licro-
fcope, has been very copious ; with a view, as he in¬
forms us, to remove the common complaint made by
Mr Baker, “ that many of thole who purchafe micro-
fcopes are fo little acquainted with their general and
extenfive ufefulnefs, and fo much at a lofs for objedts
to examine by them, that after diverting their friends
fome few times with what they find in the Aiders
which generally accompany the inftrument, or perhaps
with two or three common objedts, the microfcope is
laid afide as of little further value : whereas no initru-
ment has yet appeared in the world capable of affording
fo contfant, various, and fatisfadtory an entertainment to
the mind.”
I. In ufing the microfcope, there are three things ne-
eeffary to be confidered. (i.) The preparation and
adjultment of the initrument itfelf. (2.) The proper
quantity of light, and the belt method of diredting
it to the objedt. (3.) The method of preparing the
objedts, fo that their texture may be properly under-
ftood.
1. With regard to the microfcope itfelf, the firft
thing neceffary to be examined is, whether the glaffes
be clean or not : if they are not fo, they mult be wiped
with a piece of foft leather, taking care not to foil
them afterwards with the fingers j and, in replacing
them, care mult be taken not to place them in an ob¬
lique fituation. We mult likewife be careful not to let
the breath fall upon the glaffes, nor to hold that part
of the body of the initrument where the glafies are
placed with a warm hand •, becaufe thus the moifiure
expelled by the heat from the metal will condenfe upon
the glafs, and prevent the objedt from being diltindtly
feen. The objedt fliould be brought as near the centre
of the field of view as poflible ; for there only it will be
exhibited in the greateft perfedtion. The eye fhould
be moved up and down from the eye glafs, of a com¬
pound microfcope, till the fituation is found where the
largeft field an.d molt diftindt view of the objedt are to
be had : but every perfon ought to adjuft the micro¬
fcope to his own eye, and not to depend upon the fitua¬
tion it was placed in by another. A fmall magnifying
power ihould always be begun with ; by which means
the obferver will belt obtain an exadt idea of the fitua¬
tion and connexion of the whole ; and will of confe-
quence be lefs liable to form any erroneous opinion
when the parts are viewed feparately by a lens of greater
power. Objedts fhould alfo be examined firft in their
moft natural pofition : for if this be not attended to, we-
fhall be apt to form very inadequate ideas of the ftruc-
ture of the whole, as well as of the connexion and ufe
of the parts. A living animal ought to be as little hurt
@r difeompofed as poflible.
From viewing an objedt properly, we may acquire a
knowledge of its nature : but this cannot be done with¬
out an extenfive knowledge of the fubjedt, much pa¬
tience, and many experiments ; as in a great number
of cafes the images will refemble each other, though
derived from very different fubftances. Mr Baker
therefore advifes us not to form an opinion too fuddenly
after viewing a microfcopical objedt ; nor to draw our
inferences till after repeated experiments and examina¬
tions of the objedt in many different lights and pofitions ;
to pafs no judgment upon things extended by force, or
x
contradted by drynefs, or in any manner out of a na- Microfcope,
tural flate, without making fuhable allowances. The
true colour of objedts cannot be properly determined
by very great magnifiers ; for as the pores and interitices
of an objedt are enlarged according to the magnilying
power of the gialfes made ufe of, the component parti¬
cles of its lubltance will appear feparated many thou-
fand times farther afunder than they do to the naked
eye : hence the reflection of the light from thefe parti¬
cles will be very different, and exhibit different colours.
It is likewife fomewhat difficult to obferve opaque ob¬
jedts and as the apertures of the larger magnifiers are
but fmall, they are not proper for the purpofe. If an.
objedt be fo very opaque, that no light will pafs through
it, as much as poflible muft be thrown upon the up¬
per furface of it. Some confideration is Iikewife ne-
ceflary in forming a judgment of the motion of living
creatures, or even of fluids, when feen through the
microfcope ; for as the moving body, and the fpace
wherein it moves, are magnified, the motion will alfo
be increafed.
2. On the management of the light depends in a
great meafure the diltindtnefs of the vifion : and as, in
order to have this in the greateft perfedtion, wre mufl
adapt the quantity of light to the nature of the objedt
and the focus of the magnifier, it is therefore necef¬
fary to view it in various degrees of light. In fome
objedts, it is difficult to dillinguiffi between a promi¬
nence and a depreflion, a ffiadow or a black flain : or
between a refledtion of light and whitenefs, which is
particularly obfervable in the eye of the libellula and
other flies : all of thefe appearing very different in one
pofition from what they do in another. The bright-
nefs of an objedt likewife depends on the quantity of
light, the diitindtnefs of vifion, and on regulating the
quantity to the objedt j for fome will be in a manner
loft in a quantity of light fcarcely fufficient to render
another vifible.
There are various ways in which a ftrong light may
be thrown upon objedls 5 as by means of the fun and
a convex lens. For this purpofe, the microfcope is
to be placed about three feet from a fouthern window7 j
then take a deep convex lens, mounted on a femicirclc
and ftand, fo that its pofition may eafily be varied :
place this lens between the objedt and the window, fo
that it may eolledt a confiderable number of folar rays,
and refradt them on the objedt or the mirror of the
microfcope. If the light thus colledted from the fun
be too powerful, it may be leffened by placing a piece
of oiled paper, or a piece of glafs lightly grayed, be¬
tween the objedt and lens. Thus a proper degree of
light may be obtained, and diffufed equally all over
the furface of an objedt : a circumftance which ought
to be particularly attended to j for if the light be
thrown irregularly upon it, no diftindt view can be
obtained. If we mean to make ufe of the folar light,
it w7ill be found convenient to darken the room, and
to refledt the rays of the fun on the above-mentioned
lens by means of the mirror of a folar microfcope fix¬
ed to the window-ftmtter : for thus the obferver will
be enabled to preferve the light on his fubjedt, notw'ith-
ftanding the motion of the fun. But by reafon of this
motion, and the variable ftate of the atmofphere, fo¬
lar obfervations are rendered both tedious and incon¬
venient ; whence it will be proper for the obferver to
fee
MIC [2
Microfiope.be furnlfhed with a large tin lanthorn, formed fome-
» thing like the common magic lanthorn, capable of
containing one of Argand’s lamps. This, however,
ought not to be of the fountain kind, left the rarefac¬
tion of the air in the lanthorn ihould force the oil over.
There ought to be an aperture in tlie front of the
lanthorn, which may be moved up and down, and be
capable of holding a lens 5 by which means a pleafant
and uniform as well as ftrong light may eafily be pro¬
cured. The lamp fhould likewife move on a rod, fo
that it may be eaiily railed or depreifed. This lan¬
thorn may likewife be ufed for many other purpofes j
as viewing of piftures, exhibiting microfcopic objedts
on a fcreen, &c. A wreak light, however, is beft for
viewing many tranfparent objects: among which we
may reckon the prepared eyes of flies, as well as the
animalcules in fluids. The quantity of light from a
lamp or candle may be leffened by removing the mi-
crofcope to a greater diftance from them, or by dimi-
nilhing the ftrength of the light which falls upon the
objefts. This may very conveniently be done by
pieces of black paper with circular apertures of differ¬
ent fizes, and placing a larger or fmaller one upon the
refle&ing mirror, as occafion may require. There is
an oblique fituation of the mirrors, which makes like¬
wife an oblique reflection of the light eafily difeovered
by pradtice, (but for which no general rule can be giv¬
en in theory) $ and which will exhibit an objeCt more
diltinCtly than any other pofition, (bowing the furface,
as well as thofe parts through which the light is tranf-
mitted. The light of a lamp or candle is generally
better for viewing microfcopic objeCts than day light;
it being more eafy to modify the former than the lat¬
ter, and to throw it upon the objeCts with different de¬
grees of denfity.
3. Swammerdam has excelled in the preparation of
objeCfs almoft all other inveftigators. Neither difficulty
nor difappointment could make him abandon the pur-
fuit of any objeCt until he had obtained a fatisfaCfory
idea of it. But unhappily the methods he ufed in pre¬
paring his objeCfs for the microfcope are nowr entirely un¬
known. Boerhaave examined with the ftriCfeft atten¬
tion all the letters and manuferipts of Swammerdam
which he could find \ but his refearches were far from
being fuccefsful. The following are all the particulars,
which have thus come to the knowledge of the pub¬
lic.
For difieCling /mail infe.ls, Swammerdam had a
brafs table made by S. Mufchenbroeck, to which were
affixed two brafs arms moveable at pleafure to any part
of it. The upper part of thefe vertical arms was con-
ftruffed in fuch a manner as -to have a flow vertical
motion ; by which means the operator could readily
alter their height as he faw convenient. One of thefe
arms was to hold the minute objeCls, and the other to
applv the microfcope.
The lenfes of Swammerdam’s microfcopes were of
various fizes as well as foci : but all of them the beft
that could be procured, both for the tranfparency of
the glafs and the finenefs of the workman drip. His
obfervations were always begun with the fmalleft mag¬
nifiers, from which he proceeded to the greateft *, but
in the ufe of them, he was fo exceedingly dexterous,
that he made every obfervation fubfervient to that which
fucceeded it, and all of them to the confirmation of
1 ] MIC
each other, and to the completing of the defeription. Microfcope,
His chief art feems to have been in conltrudting Icif- »
fars of an exquilite finenefs, and making them very
fharp. Thus he was enabled to cut very minute ob¬
jects to much more advantage than could be done by
knives and lancets *, for thefe, though ever fo fharp and
fine, are apt to diforder delicate fubftances by dif-
placing fome of the filaments, and drawing them af¬
ter them as they pafs through the bodies j but the
feiffars cut them all equally. The knives, lancets,
and ftyles he made ufe of in his difledions, were fo
fine that he could not fee to fharpen them without
the affiflance of a magnifying glafs j but with thefe
he could diffed the inteftines of bees with the fame ac¬
curacy that the belt anatomifts can do thofe of large
animals. He made ufe alfo of very fmall glafs tubes
no thicker than a briflle, and drawn to a very fine
point at one end, but thicker at the other. Thefe
were for the purpofe of blowing up, and thus render¬
ing vifible the fmalleft veffels which could be difeover¬
ed by the microfcope j to trace their courfes and com-
comunications, or fome times to injed them with co¬
loured liquors.
Swammerdam fometimes made ufe of fpirit of wine,
water, or oil of turpentine, for fuffocating the infeds
he wiffied to examine j and would preferve them for
a time in thefe liquids. Thus he kept the parts from
putrefying, and gave them befides fuch additional
ftrength and firmnefs, as rendered the diffedions much
more eafy than they would otherwife have been. Hav¬
ing then divided the body tranfverfely with the
feiffars, and made what obfervations he could with¬
out farther diffedion, he proceeded to extrad the
inteftines carefully with very fine inftruments, to
w7afti away the fat in the like careful manner 5 and
thus to put the parts into fuch a (fate as would
beft expofe them to view ; but thefe operations are
beft performed while the infeds are in their nympha
ftate.
Sometimes the delicate vifeera of the infeds, after
having been fuffocated as above mentioned, were put
into water : after which, having ffiaken them gently,
he procured an opportunity of examining them, efpe-
cially the air veffels, which laft he could thus feparate
entire from all the other parts, to the admiration of
all who beheld them : as thefe veffels cannot be di-
ftindly feen in any other manner, or indeed in any
vray whatever, without injuring them. Frequently al¬
fo he injeded water with a fyringe to cltanfe the parts
thoroughly, after which he blew them up with air and
dried them 5 thus rendering them durable, and fit for
examination at a proper opportunity. Sometimes h«
made very important difeoveries, by examining infeds
which he had preferved for feveral years in balfam.
Other infeds he pundured with a very fine needlej.
and after fqueezing out all their moifture through the
holes made in this manner, he filled them with air,
bv means of very (lender glafs tubes j then dried them
in the (hade; and laftly, anointed them ivith oil of fpike
in which a little rofin had been diflolved; and by
which means they for a long time retained their pro¬
per forms. He was likewife in poffeffion of a lingular
fecret, by which he could preferve the limbs of infeds
as limber and perfpicuous as ever they had been. He
ufed to make a fmall pundure or incifion in the tails of
worms j
MIC r 2
nlicrofose. worms ; and after having with great caution fqucezed
oat all the humours, as well as great part of the vifcera,
he injeded them with wax in fuch a manner as to give
them the appearance of living creatures in perfeA
health. He found that the fat of all mfeds was entire¬
ly ditiolvable in oil of turpentine ; by which means he
was enabled plainly to difcern the vifcera; though,
after this diflhlution, it w'as neceifary to cleanie and
walh them frequently in clean water. In this manner
he would frequently have fpent whole days in the prepara¬
tion of a fingle caterpillar, and cleanfing it from its fat,
in order to difcover the true fituation of the infedi’s
heart. He had a Angular dexterity in dripping off the
fkiiw of caterpillars that were on the point of Ipinning
their cones. This was done by letting them drop by
their threads into fcalding water, and then fuddenly
withdrawing them. I'hus the epidermis peeled off
very eafily ; and, when this was done, he put them
into diltilled vinegar and fpirit of wine mixed together
in equal proportions ; which, by giving a due degree
of firmnefs to the parts, gave him an opportunity of
leparatmg them with very little trouble from the exu¬
viae, without any danger to the internal parts. Thus
the nympha could be Ihown to be wrapped up in the
caterpillar and the butterfly in the nympha ; and there
i^> little doubt that thofc who look into the works of
Swammerdam, will be amply recompenfed, whether
they coniider the unexampled labour or the piety of the
author. L
M. Lyonet, an eminent naturalift, ufually drowned
the infects he defigned to examine ; by which means he
was enabled topreferve both the foftnefs andtranfparency
of the parts. According to him, the infe<ff, if very
imall, viz. one-tenth of an inch, or little more, in
length, fhould be differed on a glafs fomewhat concave.
If it fhould be fufpe&ed that the infe& will putrefy by
keeping for a few days, fpirit of wine diluted with
siatcr mult be fuoflituted inftead of pure rvater. The
infeiff muft be fuffered to dry; after which it may
be fattened by a piece of foft wax, and again covered
with water.—Larger objeas fliould be placed in a
trough of thin wood ; and for this purpofe the bottom
of a common chip box will anfwer very w^ell ; only
furrounding the edge of it with foft wax, to keep in
the water or other fluid employed in preferving the in-
fea. The body is then to be opened ; and if the parts
are foft like thofe of a caterpillar, they fhoud be turn¬
ed back, and fixed to the trough by fmall pins, which
ought to be fet by a fmall pair of nippers. At the
fame time, the fkin being ftretched by another pair of
finer forceps, the infea muft be put into water, and
diiTecfed therein, occafionally covering it with fpirit
of wine. Thus the fubjea will be preferved in per-
feaion, fo that its parts may be gradually unfolded, no
other change being perceived than that the foft elaftic
parts become ftiff and opaque, while fome others lofe
their colour.
The following inftruments were made ufe of by M.
Lyonet in his diffeflion of the Chenille de Saule. A
pair of feiffars as fmall as could be made, with long and
fine arms : A pair of forceps, with their ends fo nicely
adjufted, that they could eafily lay hold of a fpider’s
thread, or a grain of fand : Two fine fteel needles fixed
in wooden handles, about two inches and three quarters
2
2 3 MIC
in length ; which were the molt generally ufeful iilllru- Microfcopc.
ments lie employed. ^ 1 .
T'r Hooke, Woo likewife made many microleopic
oblervations, takes notice, that the common ant or
pinnire is much more troublelome to draw than other
mletts, as it is extremely difficult to get the body m a
quiet natural pofture. If its ieet be fettered with wax
or glue, while the animal remains alive, it fo Uviits its
body, that there is no poffibility of gaining a proper
view of it; and if it he killed before any obfervat ion
is made, the ftrape is often fpoiled before it can be exa¬
mined. 1 he bodies of many minute infers, when their
life is deftroyed, inftantly fiirivel up; and this is obferv-
able even m plants as well as in kefs, the furface of
thefe fmall bodies being affeaed by the leaf! change of
air ; which is particularly the cafe with the ant. If
this creature, however, be dropped into redified fpirit
of wine, it will inftantly be killed; and when it is taken
out, the fpirit of wine /evaporates, leaving the animal
dry, and in its natural pofture, or at leaft in fuch a
Hate, that it may eafily be placed in whatever pofture
we pleafe.
Parts of InfeEls. The wings, in many infeds, are fo
tianfparent, that they require no previous preparation :
but fome of thofe that are folded up under elytra or
cafes, require a confiderable ftiare of dexterity to unfold
them ; for thefe wings are naturally endowed with fuch
a fprxng, that they immediately fold themfelves again,
unlefs care be taken to prevent them. The wing of
the earwig, when expanded, is of a tolerable fize, yet
is folded up under a cafe not one-eighth part of its
bulk ; and the texture of this wing renders it difficult
to be unfolded. This is done with the leaft trouble
immediately after the infed is killed. Holding then
the creature by the thorax, between the finger and the
thumb, with a blunt pointed pin endeavour gently to
open it, by fpreading it over the forefinger, and at the
fame time gradually Hiding the thumb over it. When
the wing is fufficiently expanded, feparate it from the
infed by a (harp knife or a pair of feiffars. The wing
fliould be preffed for fome time between the thumb and
finger before it be removed ; it fhould then be placed
between two pieces of paper, and again preffed for at
leaft an hour ; after which time, as there will be no
danger of its folding up any more, it may be put
between the^ talcs, and applied to the microfcope.
Similar care is requifite in difplaying the wings of the
notoneda and other water infeds, as well as moft kinds
of grylli.
lire minute feales or feathers, which cover the
wings of moths or butterflies, afford very beautiful ob-
jeds for the microfcope. I hofe from one part of the
wing frequently differ in ffiape from fuch as are taken
from other parts ; and near the thorax, ffioulder, and
on the fringes of the wings, we generally meet with
hair inftead of feales. I he whole may be brufhed
oft the wing, upon a piece of paper, by means of
a camel s hair pencil ; after which the hairs can be
feparated with the affiftance of a common magnifying
glafs. 6
It is likewife a matter of confiderable difficulty to
diffed properly the probofeis of infeds, fuch as the
gnat, tabanm, &c. and the experiment muft be repeat¬
ed a great number of times before the ftrudure and fi¬
tuation
MIC
Microfcope. tuation of the parts can be thoroughly inveftigated, as
■ * the obferver will frequently difcover in one what he
could not in another. The colleElor of the bee, which
forms a very curious objeft, ought to be firft carefully
walhed in fpirit of turpentine ; by which means it will
be freed from the unftuous matter adhering: to it :
when dry, it is again to be wafhed with a camel’s hair
pencil to difengage and bring forward the fmall hairs
which form part of this microfcopic beauty. The bell
method of managing the flings of infefls, which are in
danger of being broken by reafon of their hardnefs, is
to foak the cafe and the reft of the apparatus for fome
time in fpirit of wine or turpentine ; then lay them on
a piece of paper, and with a blunt knife draw out the
lling, holding the Iheath with the nail of the finger or
any blunt inftrument; but great care is neceflary to pre-
ferve the feelers, which when cleaned add much to the
beauty of the object. The beard of the lepas anatifera
is to be foaked in clean foft water, frequently brulhing
it while wet with a camel’s hair pencil : after it is
dried, the brulhing mull be repeated with a dry pencil
to difengage and feparate the hairs, which are apt to
adhere together.
To view to advantage the fat, brains, and other fi-
milar fubllances, Dr Hooke advifes to render the fur-
face fmooth, by preffing it between two plates of thin
glafs, by which means the matter will be rendered
much thinner and more tranfparent: without this pre¬
caution, it appears confufed, by reafon of the parts
lying too thick upon one another. For mufcularfibres,
take a piece of the flelh, thin and dry ; moillen it with
Tvarm water, and after this is evaporated the veffels
will appear more plain and diftinft j and by repeated
macerations they appear Hill more fo. The exuvice of
infefts afford a pleafing obje6l, and require but little
preparation. If bent or curled up, they will become fo
relaxed by being kept a few hours in a moilt atmofphere,
that you may eafily extend them to their natural po-
fitions ; or the lleam of warm -water will anfwer the
purpofe very well.
The eyes of infe£ls in general form very curious and
beautiful objefts. Thofe of the libellula and other flies,
as well as of the lobller, &c. mult firlt be cleaned from
the blood, &c. after which they fhould be foaked in
water for fome days: one or two Ikins are then to be
feparated from the eye, which would be otherwife too
opaque and confufed 5 but fome care is requifite in this
operation 5 for if the Ikin be rendered too thin, it is
impolfible to form a proper idea of the organization of
the part. In fome fubllances, however, the organiza¬
tion is fuch, that by altering the texture of the part, we
dellroy the objects which we wilh to obferve. Of this
fort are the nerves, tendons, mufcular fibres, many of
which are viewed to moll advantage when floating in
fome tranfparent fluid. Thus very few of the mufcular
fibres can be difcovered when we attempt to view them
in the open air, though great numbers may be feen
if they be placed in water or oil. By viewing the
thread of a ligament in this manner, we find it eom-
pofed of a vail number of fmooth round threads lying
clofe together. Elaltic objects fhould be pulled or
flretched out while they are under the microfcope, that
the texture and nature of thofe parts, the figure of w hich
is altered by being thus pulled out, may be more fully
dilcovered.
M I G
Other objeEls. To examine bones by the microfcOpe, Microfcope,
they Ihould firlt be viewed as opaque objedls ; but af- -—v”"—
ter wards, by procuring thin llices of them, they may
be viewed as tranfparent. The lections Ihould be cut
in all directions, and be vrell walked and cleaned •, and
in fome cafes maceration will be ufeful, or the bones
may be heated red hot in a clear fire, and then taken
out ; by which means the bony cells will appear more
confpicuous. The pores of the fkin may be examined by
cutting off a thin flice off the upper Ikin with a razor,
and then a fecond from the fame place 5 applying the
latter to the microfcope. The lizard, guana, &c. have
two Ikins, one very tranfparent, the other thicker and
more opaque ; and, feparating thefe two, you obtain
very beautiful objefls.
To view the fcales of fifh to advantage, they ought
to be foaked in water for a few days, and then care¬
fully rubbed to clean them from the fkin and dirt
which may adhere to them. The fcales of the eel are
a great curiofity 5 and the more fo, as this creature
was not known to have any fcales till they were difco¬
vered by the microfcope. The method of difcovering
them is this. Take a piece of the fkin of an eel from
off its fide, and fpread it while moilt on a piece of
glals, that it may dry very fmooth : when thus dried,
the furface will appear all over dimpled or pitted by
the fcales, which lie under a fort of cuticle or thin
fkin ; which may be raifed with the fharp point of a
penknife, together with the fcales, which will then
eafily flip out j and thus we may procure as many as
we pleafe.
The leaves of many trees, as well as of fome plants,
when diffedled, form a very agreeable objeft. In or¬
der to diffeft them, take a few of the moll perfect
leaves you can find, and place them in a pan with clean
water. Let them remain there three weeks, or a
month, without changing the water : then take them
up 5 and if they feel very foft, and almoft rotten, they
are fufficiently foaked. They mull then be laid on a
flat board, and holding them by the Italk, draw the
edge of a knife over the upper fide of the leaf, which
will take off moll of the fkin. Then turn the leaf, and
do the fame with the under fide 5 and when the fkin is
taken off on both lides, walk out the pulpy matter, and
the fibres will be exhibited in a eery beautiful man¬
ner. The leaf may be flit into two parts, by fplit-
ting the ftalk 5 and the fkins peeled from the fibres
will alfo make a good obje6l. This operation is bell
performed in the autumn ; the fibres of the leaves are
much llronger at that feafon, and lefs liable to be
broken.—The internal ftru£lure of fhells may be ob-
ferved by grinding them down on a hone : and all ores
and minerals Ihould be carefully walked and brufhed
with a fmall brufh, to remove any fordes that may ad¬
here to them.
To view the circulation of the blood, we mull ob¬
ferve living animals of the moll tranfparent kind.—.
A fmall eel is fometimes ufed for this purpofe ; in
which cafe it mud be cleanfed from the flirtre naturally-
adhering to it ; after which it may be put into a tube
filled with water, where it can be viewed in a fatis-
fa6lory manner. The tail of any other fmall filh may
be viewed in the fame manner, or put upon a flip of
flat glafs, and thus laid before the microfcope. By
filling the tube with, water when an eel is made ufe of,
we..
[ 23 1
M I C
Microfrope. we preVent in a great meafure
v " animal from foiling the glafs.
f he particles ot the blood form a verv curious ob-
jefl, and have been carefully viewed by different phi
lofophers ; who, neverthelefs, ditfer from one another
veryr much in their accounts of them. The bell
method of viewing thefe is to take a fmall drop of
blood when warm, and fpread it as thin as poffible
upon a flat piece of glafs. By diluting it a little
with warm water, fome of the large globules tvill be
feparated from the fmaller, and many of them fubdivid-
ed j or a imall drop of blood may be put into a ca¬
pillary glafs tube, and then placed before the micro-
fcope. Mr Baker advifes wrarm milk as proper to be
mixed with the blood; but Mr Hewfon diluted the
blood with its own ferum : and by this method he could
preserve the fmall particles entire, and view them di-
ftinclly *, and thus he found that they were not globular,
as had been imagined by other anatomilts, but flat. Ha¬
ying fhaken a piece of the cralfamentum of the blood
in lerum till the latter became a little coloured, he
fpread it with a foft hair pencil on a piece of thin glafs,
which he placed under the microfcope, in fuch a man¬
ner as not to be quite horizontal, but rather higher
at one end than the other. Thus the ferum flows
from the higher to the lower part •, and, as it flows,
fome of the particles will be found to fwim on their
flat lides, and will appear to have a dark fpot in the
middle •, while others will turn over from one fide to
the other as they roll down the glafs. Many cruel
experiments have been tried in order to obferve the
circulation of the blood in living creatures, and an
apparatus had been invented for viewing the circula¬
tion in the mefentery of a frog; but as this can an-
fwer no ufeful purpofe, and will never be put in
praflice by perfons of humanity, we forbear to men¬
tion it.
II. Befides the objedls for the microfcope already
mentioned, there are innumerable others, fome hardly
vifible, and others totally invifible, to the naked eye j
and which therefore, in a more peculiar fenfe, are ^de¬
nominated
Microfcopic Animals. They are the animalcules or
moving bodies in water, in which certain fubflances
have been infufed j and of which there are a great
many different kinds. Thefe animalcula are fometimes
found in water which we would call pure, did not the
microfcope difcover its minute inhabitants; but not
equally in all kinds of water, or even in all parts of the
fame kind of it. The furfaces of infufions are general¬
ly covered with a fcum which is eafily broken, but ac¬
quires thicknefs by Banding. In this fcum the great-
eft number of animalcules are ufually found. Some¬
times it is neceffary to dilute the infufions; but this
ought always to be done with water, not only diftill-
ed, but viewed through a microfcope, left it fliould
alfo have animalcules in it, and thus prove a fource of
deception. It is, however, moft proper to obferve
thofe minute obje&s after the water is a little evapo¬
rated 5 the attention being lefs diverted by a few ob-
jefts than when they appear in great number. One
or two of the animalcules may be feparated from the
reft by placing a fmall drop of water on the glafs near
that of the infufion 5 join them together by making a
fmall connexion between them with a pin j and as
[ 24 ] MIC
the flimmefs of the foon as you perceive that an animalcule has entered the Microfcope.
clear drop, cut off the connexion again. '   v"1 J
Eels in pafte are obtained by boiling a little flour
and water into the confiftence of bookbinders pafte ;
then expofing it to the air in an open veffel, and beat¬
ing it frequently together to keep the furface from
growing mouldy or hard. In a few days it will be
found peopled with myriads of little animals vifible to
the naked eye, which are the eels in quettion. They
may be preferved for a whole year by keeping the
pafte moiftened with water j and while this is done,
the motion of the animals will keep the furface from
growing mouldy. Mr Baker diredls a drop or two
of vinegar to be put into the pafte now and then.
When they are applied to the microfcope, the pafte
muft be diluted in a piece of water for them to fwim
in.
Numberlefs animalcules are obferved by the micro¬
fcope in infufions of pepper. To make an infufion for
this purpofe, bruife as much common black pepper as
will cover the bottom of an open jar, and lay it there¬
on about half an inch thick : pour as much foft water
into the veffel as will rife about an inch above the
pepper. Shake the whole well together : after which
they muft not be ftirred, but be left expofed to the
air for a few days ; in which time a thin pellicle will
be formed on the furface, in which innumerable ani¬
mals are to be obferved by the microfcope.
The microfcopic animals are fo different from thofe
of the larger kinds, that fcarce any fort of analogy
feems to exift between them ; and one would almoft
be tempted to think that they lived in confequence of
laws dire611y oppofite to thofe which preferve ourfelves
and other vifible animals in exiftence. They have
been fyftematically arranged by O. F. Muller •, though
it is by no means probable that all the different claffes
have yet been difeovered. Such as have been obferv¬
ed, however, are by this author divided in the following
manner:
I. Such as have no external organs.
1. Monas: Pun&iforme. A mere point.
2. Proteus : Mutabilis. Mutable.
3. Volvox : Sphaericum. Spherical.
4. Enchelis : Cylindracea. Cylindrical.
5. Vibrio : Elongatum. Long.
* Membranaceous.
6. Cyclidium : Ovale. Oval.
7. Paramecium : Oblongum. Oblong.
8. Kolpoda : Sinuatum. Sinuous.
9. Gonium : Angulatum. With angles.
10. Burfaria. Hollow like a purfe.
II. Thofe that have external organs.
* Naked, or not enclofed in a (hell.
1. Cercaria : Caudatum. With a tail.
2. Trichoda : Crinitum. Hairy.
3. Kerona : Cornciulatum. With horns.
4. Himantopus : Cirratum. Cirrated.
5. Leucophra : Ciliatum undique. Every part cili¬
ated.
6. Vorticella : Ciliatum apice. The apex ciliated.
* Covered with a fhell.
7. Brachionus; Ciliatum apice. The apex ciliated.
In
M- I C
[ 25 ]
M I C
Micrefcope. In the treatife on HelmintholoGY under the fifth
' order of the clafs vermes, viz. Infnforia, the genera
here enumerated have already been noticed according
to an arrangement fomewhat different, and a few of the
fnecies have been deferibed. For the fake of thofe
who with to profecute microfeopieal inquiries we fliall
introduce defcriptions of a few more, and particularly
thofe whofe habitats are known.
I. Monas.
This is by our author defined to be “ an inviiible
(to the naked eye), pellucid, fimple, punctiform
naked
but of which, fmall as it is, there are feveral
fprcies.
'I'he monas ter mo or gelatin of a, is a fmall jelly-
like point, which can be but irnperfe£tly feen by the
fingle microfcope, and not at all by the compound one.
In a full light they totally difappear, by reafon of
their tranfparency. Some infufions are fo full of them
that fcarce the lead empty {pace can be perceived ;
the water itfidf appearing compofed of innumerable
globular points, in which a motion may be perceived
fomewhat fimilar to that rvhich is obferved when the
fun’s rays fhine on the water ; the whole multitude of
animals appearing in commotion like a hhre of bees.
This animal is very common in ditch-water, and in
almoft all infufions either of animal or vegetable fub-
ftances.
Monas atomus or albida ; white monas with a variable
point. This appears like a white point, which through
a high magnifier appears fomewhat egg-fhaped. The
fmaller end is generally marked with a black point,
the fituation of which is variable ; fometimes it ap¬
pears on the large end, and fometimes there are two
black fpots in the middle. This fpecies was found in
fea water, which had been kept through the whole
winter, but was not very fetid. No other kind of ani¬
malcule was found in it.
II. The Proteus.
An invifible, very fimple, pellucid worm, of a variable
form.
It moves as on an axis, frequently palling through the MicroTcope.
drop in this manner. Many are often feen joined to- ' V—;
gether in their paffage through the water 5 fometimes
moving as in a little whirlpool, and then feparating'.
They are found in great numbers on the furface of
fetid fea water.
i he globulus, with the hinder part fomewhat ob~
feure, fometimes verges a little towards the oval in its
fhape, having a flow fluttering kind of motion, but
more quick when difturbed. The intellines are but
juft vifible. It is found in moft vegetable infufions,
and is ten times larger than the monas lens.
The lunula, with lunular molecules, is a fmall
roundifti tranfparent body, confiding of an innumerable
multitude of homogeneous molecules of the (hape of a
crefcent, without any common margin. It moves con¬
tinually in a twofold manner, viz. of the molecules
among one another, and the whole mafs turning flowly
round. It is found in marftry places in the beginning of
fpring.
IV. Knchelis.
A fimple, invifible, cylindric worm.
The viridis, or green enehelis, has an obtufe tail,
the fore part terminating in an acute truncated angle ;
the inteftines are obfeure and indiftinef. It continually
varies its motion, turning from right to left.
_ The pun&ifera, having the fore part obtufe, the
hinder part pointed. It is opaque, and of a green co¬
lour, with a fmall pellucid fpot in the fore part, in which
two black points may be feen ; and a kind of double
band croffes the middle of the body. The hinder part
is pellucid and pointed, with an incifion fuppofed to be
the mouth, at the apex of the fore part. It is found in
marfties.
1 he papula, with the fore part papillary, is found in
dunghill water in November and December : it has a
rotatory motion on a longitudinal axis, and moves in an
oblique dire&ion through the water. Both ends are
obtufe ; and the hinder part is marked with a tranf¬
parent circle, or circular aperture.
The tenax, running out into a fine point. This is a
pellucid gelatinous body, ftored with black molecules,
and likewife changing its figure, but in a more regular
order than the former. It firft extends itfelf in a
ftrsight line, the lower part terminating in a bright
acute point. It appears to have no inteftines ; and
when the globules are all collefted in the upper part,
it next draws the pointed end up toward the middle of
the bodv, which affumes a round form. It goes
through a number of different fhapes, part of which
are deferibed under the article Animalcule. It is
found in Fme kinds of river water, and appears con¬
fined almoft entirely to one place, only bending fide-
wife.
III. Volvox.
An invifible, very fimple. pellucid, fpherica! worm.
The punRnm ; of a black colour, with a lucid point.
I his is a fmall globule, with one hemifphere opaque
and black, the other having a crvftalline aopearance •,
and a vehement motion is obferved in the black part.
Vol. XIV. Part I.
V. Vibrio.
A very fimple, invifible, round, and rather long worm.
The lineal a is found in moft vegetable infufions in
fuch numbers, that it feems to fill up almcft the whole
of their fubftance. It is fo fmall, that with the be ft:
magnifiers we can difeern little more than an obfeure
tremulous motion among them. It is more {lender than
the monas term a.
The ferpens, with obtufe windings or flexures, is
found in river water, but feldom. It is {lender and ge¬
latinous, refembling a ferpentine line, with an inteftine
down the middle.
'The fpin/lum is exceedingly minute, and twilled in
a fpiral form, which feems to be its natural fliape as it
never untwifts itfelf, but moves forward in a ftraight
line, vibrating the hind and fore parts. It was found
in 1782 in an infufion of the fonchus arvenfis.
The vermiculus has a milky appearance, with an ob¬
tufe apex, and a languid undulatory motion, like that of
the common woim. It is found in ruarfliy water in
D November',
MIC
Micrvcope. November, but feldom. It is thought to be the animal
mentioned by Leeuwenhoeck as found in the dung of
the frog and fpawn of the male libeMula,
The fagitta, with a fetaeeous tail, has a long and
flexible body broadeft about the middle, and filled
there alfo with gray molecules *, the fore part being
drawn out into a thin and tranfparent neck, and the
upper end thick and black. It is found in fait water,
and feems. to move by contrafting and extending its
neck.
V I . Cijclulmm.
A fimple,-• invifible, flat, pellucid, orbicular or oval
worm.
The bulla, or orbicular bright eyelidium. This is
found occafionally in an infufion of hay. It is very
pellucid and white, but the edges fomewhat darker
than the reft. It moves flowly, and in a femicircular
diredlion.
The mi Ilium is very pellucid, and fplendid like-cry-
flal; and of an elliptical figure, with a line through
the whole length of it. The motion is fwift, interrupt¬
ed, and fluttering.
VII. Paramcecium.
An invifible, membranaceous, flat, and pellucid worm.
The chrysalis is found in fait water, and differs very
little from the former, only the ends are more obtufe,
and the margins are filled with black globules.
The vcrfutum is found in ditches, and has an oblong,
green, and gelatinous body, filled with molecules j the
lower part thicker than the other ; and. both ends ob-~
tufe. It propagates by divifion.
VIII. Kolpoda.
An invifible, pellucid, flat, and crooked worm.
i he lamella is very feldom met with. It refembles
a long, narrow, and pellucid membrane, with the hind
part obtufe, narrower, and curved towards the top. It
Iras a vacillatory and very lingular motion j going upon
the fharp edge, not on the flat fide as is ufual with mi-
crofcopic animals.
The gallinu/a is found in fetid fait water ; and has
the apex fomewhat bent, the belly oval, convex, and
ftriated.
1 he rojlrum is found, though feldom, in water
where the lemna grows and has a flow and horizontal
motion.- The fore part is bent into a kind of hook ;
the hind part obtufe, and quite filled with black mole¬
cules.
The triquetra was found in fait water, and appears
to confift of two membranes ; the upper fide flattened,
the lower convex, with the apex bent into a kind of
fhoulder.
The ajftmilis is found on the fea-coaft, and has an
elliptic mafs in the middle, but is not folded like the
former. The margin of the fore part is notched from
the top to the middle 5 the lower part fwells out, and
contracts again into a fmall point.
The cucullulus is found in an infufion of the fonchus
arvenfis. It is very pellucid and cryftaUine, with fe-
MIC
veral globules, and has an oblique incifion a little below' Mi
the apex. .
I he ren, or crajfa, is found in' an infufion of hayr.
commonly about 13 hours after the infulion is made,-
and has a quick and vacillatory motion. Its body is yel¬
low, thick, and fomewhat opaque ; curved a little in
the middle, fo that it refembles a kidney ; and full
of molecules. When the water in which it fwims ia-
about to fail, it takes an oval form, is compreffed, and
at laft burfts. ^ '
IX. Gonium.
An invifible, fimple, fmooth, and angular worm.
The puhinatum is found in dunghills ; and appears
like a little quadrangular membrane, plain on both*
fides ; but with a large magnifier it appears like a,
bolfter formed of three or four cylindric pillows funk,
here and there.
The corrugatum is found in various kinds of infu-
fions •, and is fomewhat of a fquare lhape, very fmall,
and in fome pofitions appears as ftreaked.
The truncatum is found chiefly in pure water, and
then but ieldom. It has a languid motion, and is much
larger than the foregoing. The fore part is a ftraight
line, with which the fides form obtufe angles, the end
ox the fides being united by a curved line. The inter¬
nal molecules are of a dark green, and there are twe.
little bright veficles in the middle.
X. Burfaria.
A very fimple, hollow, membranaceous worm.
The truncatella is vifible to the naked eye j white,
oval, and truncated at the top, w here there is a large
aperture defeending towards the bafe,. Moft of them
have four or five yellow eggs, at the bottom. They
move from left to right, and from right to left y afeend-
ing to the furface in a ftraight line* and fometimes roll¬
ing about while they defeend..
The buJhna'is pellucid and cryftalline, having fplen¬
did globules of different fizes fwimming about with it.
The under fide is convex, the upper hollow, with the
fore part forming a kind of lip.
The hirundinella has two fmall proje&ing wings,
which give it fomewhat of the appearance of a bird :
and it moves fomething like a fwallow. It is invifible
to the naked eye 5 but by the microfcope appears a
pellucid hollow membrane...
The duplella ivas found among duckweed, and ap¬
pears like a cryftalline membrane folded up, without
any vifible inteftines except a fmall congeries of points
under one of the folds.
XI. Cercaria.
An invifible tranfparent worm with a tail.
The gyrinus greatly refembles the fpermatic animal¬
cules. It has a white gelatinous body ; the fore part
fomewhat globular ; the hind part round, long, and
pointed. Sometimes it appears a little compreffed on
each fide. When fwimming it keeps its tail in conti¬
nual vibration like a tadpole.
The gibba is found in the infufions of hay and other
vegetables 5.
[ 26 ]
MIC [ <
tyUfrofcope. vegetables •, and is fmall, opaque, gelatinous, white,
^ ' and without any vilible inteftines.
The inquieta is found in fait water, and is remarkable
for changing the fhape of its body : fometimes it ap¬
pears fphencal, fometimes like a long cylinder, and
fometimes oval. It is white and gelatinous, the tail fi¬
liform and flexible, the upper part vibrating violently.
A pellucid globule may be obferved at the bale, and
two very fmall black points near the top.
The turbo, with a tail like a brittle, is found among
duckweed. It is of a talcy appearance, partly oval and
partly fpherical; and feems to be compofed of two glo¬
bular bodies, the lowermeft of which is the fmalleft,
and it has two little black points like-eyes on the upper
part. The tail is fometiraes ftraight, fometimes turned
back on the body.
The poduria is found in November and December,
in marfliy places covered with lemna. It is pellucid ;
and feems to confift of a head, trunk, and tail : the
head refembles that of a herring j the trunk is ventri-
cofe and full of intertines, of a fpiral form and black
colour. The tail molt commonly appears to be divided
into two briftles. The inteftines are in a continual mo-
-tion when the body moves, and by reafon of their va¬
rious (hades make it appear very rough. There are
Kkewife fome hairs to be perceived. It turns round as
upon an axis when it moves.
The viridis is found in the fpring in ditches of Hand¬
ing water ; and in fome of its ftates has a conftderable
refemblance to the laft, but has a much greater power
of changing its fhape. It is naturally cylindrical, the
lower end ftiarp, and divided into two parts ; but fome-
"times contrails the head and tail fo as to afl’ume a fphe¬
rical figure.
The fetifera is found in fait water, but fcldom.
It is fmall, the body rather opaque, and of a round fi¬
gure. The upper part is bright, and fmaller than the
reft : the trunk is more opaque \ the tail fharp, and
near it a little row of fhort hairs. It has a flow rotato¬
ry motion.
The lib'ta was likewife found in fait water. It is
opaque and cylindrical •, and when in motion, the body
appears to be furrounded with rows of fmall hairs fepa-
rated from each other.
The plcuroneBes is found in water which has been
kept for feveral months. It is membranaceous, round-
xfli, and white, with two blackifli points in the fore
pait, the hinder parr being furniflied wifh a {lender
'fharp tail. It has orbicular inteftines of different fizes
in the middle ; the larger of them bnght. The mo¬
tion is vacillatory j and in fnimming it keeps one
■edge of the lateral membrane upwards, the other folded
down.
The tripos is flat, pellucid, triangular, having each
angle of the bale or fore part bent down into two linear
arms, the apex of the triangle prolonged into a tail. It
is found in fait water.
XII. Leucophra.
An invifible, pellucid, and ciliated worm.
The mamiUa is of a dark colour, and filled with glo-
Ibular molecules; fhort hairs are curved inwards ; and
it occafionally projects and draw's in a Tittle white pro¬
tuberance. It is pretty common in marftiy water.
7 ] Ml C
The virefcens is a large, pear-fhaped, grcehifh-co-Micro
loured animalcule, filled with opaque molecules, and co-
vered with fnort hairs •, generally moving in a ftraight
line. It is found in fait water.
The burfata is found in fait water, and is fimilar in
many refpects to the former. It is of a long oval fhape,
bulging in the middle, and filled with green molecules,
everywhere ciliated except at the apex, which is trun¬
cated and fhaped fome what like a purfe j the hairs are
fometimes colletfted into little fafcicles.
The pojlhuma is globular, and covered as it were
with a pellucid net •, is found in fetid fait water.
’M\\q fignatn is common in lalt water in the months of
November and December It is oblong and fubdepref-
fed, with a black margin filled with little molecules,
but more particularly diftinguifhed by a curved line in
the middle fomewhat in the fhape of the letter S ; one
end of which is fometimes bent into the form of a imall
fpiral.
XIII. Trichoda.
An invifible, pellucid, hairy worm.
The gqrinus is one of the fmalleft of this genus, and.
is found in fait -water. It is fmooth and free trom hairs,
except at the fore part, where there are a few.
The nigra was found in fait water, and has an opaque
body bat when at reft one fide appears pellucid.
When in violent motion, it feems entirely black.
The pubes is found in water w'here duckweed grows,
chiefly in the month of December. It has a bunch
above the hind part marked* with black fpots, dt p; tiled
towards the top, a little folded, and fomewhat convex
on the under part. The apex is furniflied with hairs,
but they are feldom vifible till the creature is in the
agonies of death, when it extends and moves them ve¬
hemently, and attempting as it were to draw in the very
lail drop of water.
The patens is found in fait water ; and is of a long
cylindrical fhape, filled with molecules, the fore part
bright and clear, with a long opening near the top which
tapers to a point, and is befet with hairs. %
The ftriata is found in the month of December in
river water. It is a beautiful animalcule, of a fox co¬
lour. It is of an oblong fhape, the lower end fome¬
what larger than the other. It has a fet of ftreaks
running from one end to the other, and at the abdo¬
men a double row of little eggs lying in a tranfverfe dx-
reftion.
The uvula is found in the infufion of hay and other
vegetables. It is fix times longer than broad, round,
fiexuous, of an equal fize, the greater part filled with
obfcure molecules ; the fore part rather empty, with
an alimentary canal and lucid globules near the middle.
The margin of the fore part is covered with fhort
hairs.
The lintcr is found in an infufion of old graft. It is
egg-fhaped, oblong, with both extremities railed fo that
the bottom becomes convex, and the upper pa t de-
prefled like a boat : it is of different fhapes at different
ages, and fometimes has a rotatory motion.
The paxillus is found in fait water •, and is long, fell
of gray molecules ; the fore part truncated and hairy,
and rather fmaller than the other.
The vermicular is is found in river water ; and is pel*
D 2 lucid
MIC
MIC [2
^ncro,. < i,. lucid in t3ie lore part, with the hind part full of mole-
v” cules.
The melitcea is found in fait water, but very rarely.
It is oblong, ciliated, with a globular apex, a dilatable
neck, and a kind of periftaltic motion perceivable with¬
in it.
The per ilium is frequently found in marlhes. It is
cylindrical, pellucid, mufcular, and capable of being
folded up. It appears double ; the interior part full of
molecules, with an orbicular mufcular appendage, which
it can open and Ihut, and which forms the mouth. The
external part is membranaceous, pellucid, dilated, and
marked with tranfverfe ftreaks 5 and it can protrude or
draw in the orbicular membrane at pleafure. Some
have four articulations in the tail, others five $ and it
lias two pairs of briftles, one placed at the fecond joint,
the other at the laft.
The delphis is found in river water. It is fmooth,
pellucid, having the fore part dilated into a femicircle,
gradually decreafing in breadth towards the tail. The
front is hairy, the hairs Handing as rays from the fe-
micircular edge : one of the edges is fometimes con-
trafled.
The de/phitius is found in hay that has been infufed
for fome months. It is pellucid, fmooth, and egg-fha-
ped ; the hinder part terminating in a tail about half
the length of the body, dilated at the upper end, trun¬
cated, and ahvays bent upwards. It moves fometimes
on its belly and fometimes on its fide.
The rojlrata is found in water where duckweed has
been kept. It is deprefled, capable of changing its
lhape, yellow, with long ciliated hairs; it has four feet
tapering to a point, one of them longer than the reft.
Both feet and hairs are within the margin. The fliape
of the body is generally triangular 5 the apex formed
into an obtufe beak, w'hich the creature fometimes draws
in fo that it appears quite round.
The charon was found in fait v'ater. It is oval, and
refembles a boat as well in its motion as ftiape 5 the up¬
per part is hollowed, the under part furrowed and con¬
vex 5 the ftern round, with feveral hairs proceeding
from it.'
8 ]
XIV. Kerona*
An invifible worm ivith horns.
The rajlellum is found in river wrater. It has three
rows of horns on the back, which occupy almoft the
whole of it.
The cypris is found in water covered with lemna. It
is fomewhat of a pear ftiape, compreffed, with a broad
and blunt fore part; the front furniflied with hairs, or
little vibrating points inferted under the edge, fliorter
in the hind part, partly extended ftraight, and partly
bent doAvn, having a retrograde motion.
The cnlvitium is found in the infufion of vegetables.
The body is broad and flat, both fides obtufe, filled
with black molecules, and there is a black fpot near
the hinder part, where there are likewife a few fhort
briftles.
The pujlulata is found in fait water. It is oval, con¬
vex one edge of the hinder part finuated, both ends
fet with hairs, and fome horns on the fore part.
4
XV. Hnnantopus.
A pellucid, invifible, and cirrated worn).
Microfcope.
The acarus is lively, conical, ventricofe, full of
black molecules, with a bright and tranfparent fore
part. The lower part of the apex has rows of long
hairs on the under part fet like rays. Four locks of
long crooked hair or feet proceed from the belly, and
it is continually moving thefe and other hairs in various
diredtions.
The ludio is a lively diverting animalcule, fmooth,
pellucid, full of fmall points, the fore part clubbed and
a little bent, the hinder part narrow; the bafe oblique¬
ly truncated, and terminating in a tail ftretched out
tranfverfely. _ The top of the head and middle of the
back are furniflied with long and vibrating hairs ; three
moveable and flexible curls hang down from the fide
of the head at a diftance from each other. When the
creature is at reft, its tail is curled ; but when in mo*
tion, it is drawn tight and extended upwards.
The fannio is found, though feldom, in water where
the lemna growls. The cilia are longer than the hairs,
and are continually vibrating: it has two moveable
curls hanging on the fide of the head.
The charon is found in fea water, but rarely. It is
oval, pellucid, and membranous, with longitudinal fur¬
rows and feveral bent diverging rows of hair below the
middle, but none on the hinder part.
XVI. Vorticella.
A naked worm with rotatory cilia, capable of contraS-
ing and extending itfelf.
The lunifera, is found in fait water ; has the fore part
obtufe, the bafe broad, and hollowed aivay like a cref-
cent, with a fliort protuberance in the middle of the
concave part: the fore part is ciliated.
The burfata is found in fait water, and is ventri¬
cofe, crammed with molecules; the fore part truncat¬
ed, and both fides of it pellucid : there is a prominent
papilla in the middle, which when the animalcule is at
reft appears notched, the edge of the aperture being
ciliated } the hairs are capable of moving in various di-
redlions.
The fputarium is found in October, with the lefier
lemna, and is one of the moft fingular of the microfco-
pic animalcules. When viewed fidewife, it is fometimes
nearly cylindrical, only tapering a little towards the
hinder part, and having a broad pellucid edge. Viewed
from the top, it has fometimes a broad face or dilk
furniftied with radiating hairs, the under part contract¬
ed into a globular ftiape, of a dark green colour, and
filled with fin all grains.
The multiformis is found in fait water, and very much
refembles the former.
The nigra is found in Auguft in meadows covered
with water. It may be feen with the naked eye, ap¬
pearing like a black point fwimming on the furface.
Through the microfcope it appears as a finall conical
body, obtufe and ventricofe at one end, and acute at
the other. When the extremities are extended, two
fmall white hooks become vifible, by the afliftance of
which
M I € [ 29
Mierofcope. which it moves in the water, and it probably has a ro-
' ““^y J tatory organ : it moves continually in a vacillating
manner on the top ox the water.
The ocreata is met with in rivers, though very fel-
dom, and in fnape fomewhat refembles the lower part
of a boot. The apex of the upper part is truncated and
ciliated, the heel pointed, and the foot round.
The valga is as broad as long, and tire apex trunca¬
ted and ciliated ^ both angles of the bale projecting out¬
wards, one fomewhat like a wart, the other like a finger.
It is found in marfhy waters.
The papillaris is likewife found in mar flics where the
conferva nitida grows. It is ventricofe ; the fore part
truncated, with a papillary tail, and a beautiful papil¬
lary exerefcence on the fide.
The c rat (eg aria is found in the month of April, both
in the mud and on the tad of the monoculus quadricor-
nis. They are generally heaped together in a fpherical
form, and united to one common flalk. They are like¬
wife often to be found without a pedicle, the body ra¬
ther contracted, the aperture circular, and furrounded
with a marked margin. It has two fmall arms ; and
with a powerful magnifier a violent rotatory motion may
be obferved. Sometimes an individual will feparate
from the community, and move in a kind of fpiral line
for a little time, and then go back to the reft.
The rotatoria is the wheel animal deferibed by Mr
Baker; and of which an account is given under the ar¬
ticle Animalcule.
furcata is commonly • found in water, and has
a cylindric body with a rotatory organ, confifting of a
row of hairs at the apex : the tail is divided into two
parts, turning a little inwards. When at reft it joins
the fegments of the tail, but opens them when in mo¬
tion.
The citrina is found in ftagnant water ; the head
full of molecules, round, everywhere of an equal fize,
and very tranfpareftt. Both Tides of the orifice are ci¬
liated, and each has a rotatory motion appearing fome-
times without and fometimes within the edge of the
mouth.
The convallarla is the fame with the bell-animal
mentioned by Mr Baker. See the article Animal¬
cule.
The acinofa inhabits that whitifh fubftance which
often entirely covers plants, wood, fliells, &c. When
this fubftance is examined by a microfcope, it appears
to be wholly compofed of living animals of the polype
kind. See Polype.
The pyraria. T
The anajiatica. > See the article Polype.
The digitalis. J
XVII. Brachionus.
A contraCHle worm, covered with a fhell, and funufhed
with rotatory cilia.
The patella is found in marfhy water in the winter¬
time. It is univalve, the fhell oval, plain, cryftal-
line, with the anterior part terminating in two acute
points on both • fides, though the intervening fpace is
commonly filled up with the head of the animal. By
thefe points it faftens itfelf, and whirls about the body
ereCh The rotatory cilia are perceived with great dif¬
ficulty.
]' MIC
To what has bren already faid on this fubje&, under Microfcope-
the article Animalcule, we fhall here add die follow-' *
ing obfervations from Mr Adams.—“ How many kinds
of thefe invisibles there may be (fays ho), is yet un¬
known \ as they are difcerned of all fizes, from thofe
which are barely invifible to the naked eye, to fuch as
refift the force of the microfcope as the fixed ftars do
that of the telefeope, and with the greateft powers hi¬
therto invented appear only as fo many moving points.
T he fmalleft living creatures our inftruments can fhow,
are thofe which inhabit the waters; for though animal-
cola equally minute may fly in the air, or creep upon
the earth, it is fcarcely pofiible to get a view of them \
but as water is tranfparent, by confining the creatures
within it we can eafily obferve them by applying a drop
of it to the glafles.
“ Animalcules in general are obferved to move in
all direftions with equal eafe and rapidity, fometimes
obliquely, fometimes ftraight forward 5 fometimes mov-
• . . O /
mg m a circular direction, or rolling upon one another,
running backwards and forwards through the whole ex¬
tent of the drop, as if diverting themfelves 5 at other
times greedily attacking the little parcels of matter they
meet with. Notwithftanding their extreme minutenefs,
they know how to avoid obftacles, or to prevent any in¬
terference with one another in their motions : fometimes
they will fuddenly change the diredfion in which they
move, and take an oppolite one ; and, by inclining the
glafs on which the drop of water is, as it can be made
to move in any diredlion, fo the animalcules appear to
move as eafily againft the ftream as with it. When the
water begins to evaporate, they flock towards the place
where the fluid is, and ftiow a great anxiety and un¬
common agitation of the organs with which they draw
in the water. I hefe motions grow languid as the wa¬
ter fails, and at laft ceafe altogether, without a poflibi-
lity of renewal if they be left dry for a fhort time.
I hey fuftain a great degree of cold as well as infedls,
and will perifti in much the fame degree of heat that
deftroys infects. Some animalcules are produced in xva-
ter at the freezing point, and fome infedts live in fnow.
—By mixing the leaft drop of urine with the water in
which they Iwim, they inftantly fall into convulftons
and die.
“ 1 he fame rule feems to hold good in thofe minute
creatures, which is obfervable in the larger animals,
viz. that the larger kinds are lefs numerous than fuch
as are fmaller, while the fmalleft of all are found in
fuch multitudes, that there feem to be myriads for one
of the others. They increafe in fize, like other animals7
from their birth until they have attained their full
growth ; and when deprived of proper nourifhment,
they in like manner grow thin and perifh.”
I he modes of propagation among thefe animalcules
are various, and the obfervation of them is extremely
curious. Some multiply by a tranfverfe divifion, as is
obferved under the article Animalcule : and it is re¬
markable, that though in general they avoid one an¬
other, it is not uncommon, when one is nearly divided,
to fee another pufti itfelf upon the fmall neck which
joins the two bodies in order to accelerate the fepara-
tion.—Others, when about to multiply, fix themfelves
to the bottom of the water ; then becoming firft ob¬
long, and afterwards round, turn rapidly as on a centre,
but perpetually varying the dire&ion of their rotatory
motion.
MIC f 3<5
Microrcope. motion. In a little time, two lines forming a crofs are
perceived; after which the fpherule divides into four,
which grow, and are again divided as before. A third
kind multiply by a longitudinal divifion, which in fome
begins in the. fore part, in others in the hind part; and
from others a {mall fragment detaches itfelf, which in
a fhort time afifumes the fhape of the parent animalcule.
Laflly, others propagate in the fame manner as the more
perfect animals.
In our obfervations under the article AnimalCUI.e,
we fuggefted fome doubts whether all thofe minute bo¬
dies which go under the name of ammalcu/es really do
enjoy animal life } or whether they are not in many
>cafes to be accounted only inanimate and exceedingly
minute points of matter actuated by the internal motion
*°f the duid. This has alfo been the opinion of others :
but to all hypothefes of this kind Mr Adams makes
the following reply : “ From what has been laid, it
clearly appears, that their motions are not purely me¬
chanical, but are produced by an internal fpontaneous
:princip!e; and that they mull therefore be placed
among the clafs of living animals, for they poflefs the
Urongell marks and the molt decided characters of ani-
ination ; and, confequently, that there is no foundation
for the fuppolition of a chaotic and neutral kingdom,
which can only have derived its origin from a very
tranlient and Fuperficial view of thefe animalcules.— It
may alfo be further obferved, that as we fee that the
motions of the limbs, &c. of the larger animals, are
produced by the mechanical conltruftion of the body,
and the action of the foul thereon, and are forced by
the ocular demonftration which arifes from anatomical
diffeclion to acknowledge this mechanilm which is
adapted to produce the various motions necelfary to the
animal; and as, when we have recourfe to the miero-
fcope, we find thofe pieces which had appeared to the
naked eye as the primary mechanical caufes of particu¬
lar motions, to confilt themfelves of leffer parts, which
are the caufes of motion, extenfion, &c. in the larger ;
when the firudture therefore can be traced no farther
by the eye, or by the glafies, we have no right to con¬
clude that the parts which are invifible are not equally
the fubjeft of mechanilm : for this would be only to af-
fert, in other words, that a thing may exilt becaufe we
fee and feel it, and have no exiltence when it is not the
objeft of our fenfes.—The fame train of realoning may
be applied to microfeopic infefts and animalcula : we
fee them move ; but beeaufe tire mufcles and members
which occafion thefe motions are invifible, lhall we in¬
fer that they have not mufcles, with organs appropri¬
ated to the motion of the whole and its parts ? To fay
that they exilt not becaufe we cannot perceive them,
would not be a rational conclufion. Our fenfes are
indeed given us that we may comprehend fome effe&s j
but then we have alfo a mind, with reafon, bellowed
upon us, that, from the things which we do perceive
with our fenfes, we may deduce the nature of thofe
caufes and effects which are imperceptible to the cor¬
poreal eye.”
Leaving thefe fpeculations, however, we fhall now
proceed to give a particular
Explanation of the fgures of the various animals,
"with their parts, ova is'e. reprefer, ted in the plates.
Fig. 32. 33. reprefent the eggs of the phaleena
neuftria, as they are taken from the tree to which
1
M I C
Plate
CCCXLII.
H- 3*. 33.
they adhere, and magnified by the microfcope. The Microfcope.
Itrong ground-work vilible in many places (howsv—
the gum by which they are faltened together y
and this connexion is llrengthened by a very te¬
nacious fubltance interpofed between the eggs, and
filling up the vacant fpaces. Fig. 34. (hows a vertical Fig. 34.
lection of the eggs, exhibiting their oval lhape 
Ftg* 35* an horizontal fedtion through the middle Fig. 35.
of the egg. Thefe eggs make a beautiful appearance
through the microfcope* The fmall figures a, b, c, re-
prefent the objects in their natural Hate, without being
magnified.
O ^
fig. 36. (hows the larva of the mufea chameleon, an Fig. 36,
aquatic infedt. Vv hen viewed by the naked eye, it ap¬
pears (as here reprefented) to be compofed of twelve
annular divifions, fepaftrting it into an head, thorax,
and abdomen \ but it is not eafy to diltinguilh the two
kit parts from each other, as the inteltines lie equally
both in the thorax and abdomen. The tail is iurnilhed
with a fine crown or circle of hair b, dilpofed in the
form of a ring, and by this means it is fupported on
the furface of the water, the head and body hanging
down towards the bottom, in which polture it Avill
fometimes remain for a coniiderable time without any
motion.—When it has a mind to fink to the bottom, it
clofes the hairs of the ring, as in fig. 37. Thus an hob- Fig. 37.
low fpace is formed, including a fmall bubble of air •,
by enlarging or diminilhing which, it can rile or fink
in the water at pleafure. When tire bubble efeapes, the
infedt can replace it from the pulmonary tubes, and
fometimes coniiderable quantities of air may be feen
to efcape from the tail of the worm into the common
atmofphere j which operation may ealily be obferved
when the worm is placed in a glafs of water, and af¬
fords an entertaining fpedtacla. The fnout of this in¬
fedt is divided into three parts, of which that in -the
middle is immoveable ; the other two, which grow
from the Tides of the middle one, are moveable, and
vibrate like the tongues of lizards or ferpents. In thefe
lateral parts lies molt of the creature’s llrtrigth ; for it -
walks upon them when out of the water, appearing to
walk on its mouth, and to ufe it as the parrot does its
beak to affilt it in -climbing.
I he larva is fhown, fig. 38. as it appears through a Fig. 38,
microfcope. It grows narrower towards the head, is
largelt about that part which we may call ti e thorax,
converges all along the abdomen, and terminates at
length in a {harp tail •ferrounded with hairs, as has al¬
ready been mentioned. The twelve annular divifions
are now extremely vifible, and are marked by numbers
in the plate. The fkih appears fomev hat hard, and
refembling lhagreen, being thick fet with grains pret¬
ty equally diitnbuted. It has nine holes, or Ipiraeula,
probably for the purpofe of breathing, on each fide ;
but it has none of thefe on the tail divifion a, nor any
eafily viiible on the third from the head. In the lat¬
ter, indeed, it has feme very linal! holes concealed un¬
der the fkin, near the place where the embryo wings
of the future fly are hid. “ It is remarkable (lays Mr
Adams) that caterpillars, in general, have two rings
without thefe fpiracula, perhaps becaufe they charge
into flies with four wings, whereas this worm produces
a fly with only two.” The Ikin of the larva is adorn¬
ed with oblong black furrows, fpets of a light colour,
and orbicular rings, from winch there generally fprings
MIC [ :
MScrofrope. a hair j but only thofe hairs which grow on the infe&’a
Tides are reprefented in the figure. There are alio Tome
larger hairs here and there, as at c c. The difference
of colour, however, in this worm arifes only from the
quantity of grains in the fame fpace 5 for where they
are in very great numbers, the furrows are darker, and
paler where they are lefs plentiful.
The head d is divided into three parts, and covered
with a firm which has hardly any difeernible grains.—
The eyes are rather protuberant, and lie near the fnout;
on which lait are two fmall horns at i i. It is crooked
and ends in a (harp point as at f. The legs are placed
near the fnout between the finufes- in which the eyes
are fixed. Each of thefe legs conlifts of three joints,
the outermoft of which is covered with ftiff hairs like
bridles ^ From the next joint there fprings a horny
bone /i/q ufed by the infedt as a kind of thumb: the
joint is alio compofed of a black fubftance of an inter¬
mediate hardnefs between bone and horn 5 and the third
joint is of the fame nature. In order to ditlinguifli
thefe parts, thofe that form the upper tides of the mouth
and eyes muff be feparated by means of a fmall knife ;
after which, by the affiilance of the mierofeope, we
may perceive that the leg is articulated by fom'e parti¬
cular ligaments, with the portion of the infeft’s mouth
’which anfwers to the lower jaw in the human frame.
We may then alfo difeern the mufcles which ferve to
move the legs, and draw them up into a cavity that
lies between the fnout and thofe parts of the mouth
which are near the horns ii. The infect walks upon
thefe legs, not only in the water, but on the land alio.
It likewife makes ufe of them in fwimming, keeping its
tail on the furface contiguous to the air, and hanging
downward with the relt of the body in the water. In
this fituation, the only perceptible motion it lias is in
its legs, which it moves in a mod elegant manner, from
whence it is reafonable to conclude, that the mod of
this creature’s drength lies in its legs, as we have al¬
ready obferved.
The Inout of this larva is black and hard 5 the back
part quite folid, and fomewhat of a globular form ; the
front/"diarp and hollow. Three membranaceous di-
vifions may be perceived on the back part 5 by means
of which, and the mufcles contained in the fnout, the
creature can contract or expand it at pleafure.
The extremity of the tail is furrounded with thirty
bairs, and the Tides adorned with others that are fmall-
er; and here and there the large hairs branch out into
imaller ones, which may be reckoned fingle hairs. All
thefe have their roots in the outer fkin," which in this
place is covered with rough grains, as may be obferv¬
ed by cutting it off and holding it againd the light
upon a dip of glafs. Thus alfo we find, that at the ex¬
tremities of the hairs there are grains like thofe on the
dun; and in the middle of the tail there is a fmall open¬
ing, within which are minute holes, by which the infe£t
takes in and lets out the air it breathes. Thefe hairs,
however, are feldom difpofed in fuel) a regular order as
is reprefented in fig. 38. unlefs when the infeed floats
with the body in the water, and the tail with its hairs a
little lower than the furface, in which cafe they are dif¬
pofed exadlly in the order delineated in the plate. The
lead motion of the tail downward produces a concavity
in the water j and it then affumes the figure of a wine
glafs, wide at the top and narrow at the bottom. The
5
;l ] MIC
tail anfwers the double purpofe of fwimming and breath- Microfcop*.
ing, and through it the infebl receives what is the prin- Jl »
eiple of life and motion to all animals. By means of
thefe hairs alfo it can dop its motion when fwimming,
and remain fufpended quietly without motion for any
length of time. Its motions in fwimming are very
beautiful, efpeeially when it advances with its whole
body doating on the furface of the water after filling
itfelf with air by the tail.—To fet out, it fird bends
the body to the right or left, and then contra&s it
in the form of the letter S, and again dretches it out
in a draight line : by thus contrabling and then ex¬
tending the body alternately, it moves on the furface
of the water. It is very quiet, and is not diiturbed by
handling.
Thefe creatures are commonly found in diallow
danding waters in the beginning of June : but fome
years much more plentifully than others. They crawl
on the grais and other plants which grow in fuch wa¬
ters, and are often met with in ditches doating on the
furface of the water by means of their tail, the head
and thorax at the fame time hanging down ; and in
this podure they turn over the clay and dirt with their
fnout and feet in fearch of food, which is commonly
a vifeous matter met with in fmall ponds and ditches.
It is very harmlefs, though its appearance would feem
to indicate the contrary. It is mod eadly killed for
diffeedion by fpirit of turpentine.
Fig. 39. diows in its natural fize a beautiful infedt,Fig. 35.
deferibed by Linnaeus under the name of Leucopjts dor-
figera, and which appears to be a kind of intermedi¬
ate genus between a fpbex and a wafp. The antenme
are black and cylindrical, increafing in thicknefs to¬
wards the extremity; the joint neared the head is
yellow; the head and thorax are black, encompaffed
with a yellow line, andfurnidied with a crofs line of the
fame colour near the head. The fcutellum is yellow,
the abdomen black, with two yellow bands, and a
deep fpot of the fame colour on each fide between the
bands. A deep polidied groove extends down the
back from the thorax to the anus, into which the
ding turns and is depofited, leaving the anus very cir¬
cular } a yellow line runs on each fide of the ding. 
The anus and whole body, when viewed with a fmall.
magnifier, appear punfiuated; but when thefe points
are feen through a large magnifier, they appear hexa¬
gonal. Fig. 40. (hows the infedl very much magni-Fig. 40, 41.
filed. Fig. 41. gives a fide view of it magnified in a
fmaller degree.
Fig. 42. diows an infect difeovered by Mr John cc^xLIII
Adams of Edmonton, as he happened to be at an fig* 44.
inn. It was fird feen by fome labouring people
who were there at the time, by whom it was conjec¬
tured to be a loufe with unufually long horns, a mite,
&c. Mr Adams hearing the debate, procured the
infeft; and having viewed it through a microfcope, it
preftnted the appearance exhibited in fig. 42-. The
infect fee ms to be quite didindt from the phalangium
cancroides of Linnaeus. The latter has been deferibed
by feveral authors, but none of their deferiptions agree
with this. The abdomen of this infedt is more ex¬
tended, the claws larger, and much mnre obtufe j the
body of the other being nearly orbicular,, the claws
dender, and almod terminating in a point, more tranf-
parent, and of a paler colour. Mr .Marlham has one
in
M I C [3
A.’KTofcope m his pofleffron not to be diftinguifhed from that re-
v""' prefented in fig, 42. excepting only thai it want? the
break or dent in the claws, which is fo confpicuous
in this. He found ihat infedf firmly fixed by its claws
to the thigh of a large fly, which he caught on a
flower in h.ffex in the firft wTeek of Augult, and from
which he could not difengage it without great difficul¬
ty, and tearing off the leg of the fly. This wras done
upon a piece of writing paper ; and be wras furprifed
to lee the little creature fpring forward a quarter of
an inch, and again feize the thigh with its claws, fo
that he had great difficulty in difengaging it. The na¬
tural fize of this creature, which Mr Adams calls the
lob/ler-infe5l, is exhibited at a.
Fig. 43. Fig. 43. fliows the infeft named by M. de Geer
P hys a pus, on account of the bladders at its feet,
(I'hrips p/njsapus, Lin.). This in fief is to be found in
gleat plenty upon the flowers of dandelion, &:c. in
the fpring and fummer. It has four wings, trvo up-
Fig. 44. Per and two under ones (reprefented fig. 44.) but
the two undermoft are not to be perceived wdthout
great difficulty. They are very long j and fixed to the
upper part of the breaft, lying horizontally. Both of
them are rather pointed towards the edges, and have
a ftrong nerve running round them, which is fet with
a hair fringe tufted at the extremity, 'i he colour of
thefe wings is whitiffi : the body of the in fed is black ;
the head imall, with two large reticular eyes. The an¬
tennae are of an equal fize throughout, and divided in¬
to fix oval pieces, wffiich are articulated together.—
The extremities of the feet are furnifhed with a mem¬
branaceous and flexible bladder, which it can throw
out or draw in at pleafure. It preffes this bladder
againfl the fubflances on which it walks, and thus
feems to fix itfelf to them 5 the bladder fometimes ap¬
pears concave towards the bottom, the concavity dhni-
ni flung as it is lefs prefled. The in fid is reprefented
of its natural fize at b.
F’g. 45. Fig, 45. reprefents the cimex ft nut us of Linnaeus,
remarkable for very bright and elegantly difpofed
colours, though few in number. The head, pro-
bofcis, and thorax, are black : the thorax orna¬
mented with yellow fpots ; the middle one large,
and occupying almoft one-third of the pojlerior part ;
the other two are on each fide, and triangular.
The fcutelJum has two yellow oblong fpots, pointed
at each end. The ground of the elytra is a bright
yellow •, fpotted and ftriped with black. The nerves
are yellow 'y and there is a brilliant triangular fpot of
orange, which unites the cruffaceous and membrana¬
ceous parts $ the latter are broAvn, and clouded. It is
found in the elm tree in June, It is reprefented of its
natural fize at c.
Fig, 46, Fig. 46. (hows the chryfornela afparagi of Linnaeus,
fo called from the larva of the infed feeding upon that
plant. It is a common infed, and very beautiful. It
is of an oblong figure, with black antennae, compofed
of many joints, nearly oval. The head is a deep and
bright blue ; the thorax red and cylindrical: the elytra
are blue, wiih a yellow' margin, and having three fpots
of the fame colour on each ; one at the bafe, of an
oblong form, and trvo united with the margin : the
legs are black ; but the under fide of the belly is of
the fame blue colour with the elytra and head. This
little animal, when viewed by the naked eye, fcarcely
2 ] MIC
appears to deferve any notice; but when examined by Microfcopus,
the microfcope, is one of the molt pleafing opaque ob- 1 ■ ‘ y— ^
jeds we have. It is found in June on the aiparagus
alter it has run to feed 5 and it is fhown of its natural
fize at d. De Geer lays that it is very Icarce in
Sweden.
Fig. 47. ffiows an infed of a ffiape fo remarkable, Fjg_ ^
that naturalifts have been at a lols to determine the
genus to which it belongs. In the f auna buecica,
Linnaeus makes it an atteiubus : but in the left edition
of the Syftema Na.urae, it is ranged as a meloe, un¬
der the title of the Meioe monoceros ; though of this
alfo there leems to be feme doubt. 1 he tiu<. figure of
it can only be difeovered by a very good microlcope.
The head is black, and appears to be hid or buried
under the thorax, which pnjeds forward like a hern:
the antennae are compofed of many joints, and are of
a dirty yellow colour, as well as the feet : the hinder
part of the thorax is reddifh, the fore pari blacJ.—.
The elytra are yellow, with a black longitudinal line
down the future ; there is a band of the famt colour
near the apex, and alfo a black point near the baft, the
whole animal being curioully covered with hair. 1 he
natural ffize of it is fhown at e. It was found in
May. Geoffroy lays that it lives upon umbelliferous
plants.
Fig. 48—54- exhibit the anatomy of the coflus ca- Plate
terpillar, which lives on the willow. 'I he egg from t'CCXlIII.
which it proceeds is attached to the trunk of the ^‘S' 4$ $4.
tree by a kind of viicous juice, which loon becomes
fo hard that the rain cannot diffolve it. The egg it¬
felf is very fmall and fpheroidical, and, when examined
by the microfcope, appears to have broad waving fur¬
rows running through the whole length of it, which are
again crofied by dole ftreaks, giving it the appealance
of a wicker bafket. It is not exadly known what
time they are hatched } but as the finall caterpillars
appear in September, it is probable that the eggs are
hatched fome time in Auguft. When fmall, they are
generally met with under the bark of the tree to which
the eggs were affixed ; and an aqueous moifture, cozing
from the hole through which they got under the Lark,
is frequently, though not always, a direction for find¬
ing them. Theft caterpillars change their colour but
very little, being nearly the fame when young as when
old. Like many others, they are capable of fpinning
as foon as they come from the egg. They alfo change
their fkin feveral times •, but as it is almoft impeffible
to rear them under a glafs, fo it is very difficult to
know exaifly how e>ften this moulting takes place.—»
Mr Adams conjectures that it is more frequently than
the generality of caterpillars do, fome having been
obferved to change more than nine times.
The coflus generally faffs for fome days previous to
the moulting • during which time the fiefhy and other
interior parts of the head are detached from the old
fkull, and retire as it wrere within the neck. The new
coverings foon grow on, but are at firft very foft.~
When the new fkin and the other parts are formed,
the old fkin is to be opened, and all the member ' ith-
drawn from it j an operation naturally difficult, but
which mull be rendered more fo from the foft and weak
ftate of the creature at that time. It is always much
larger a ft or each change.
From Mr Lyonct’s experiments, it appears, that the
coflis.
M I C
[ 33 ]
M I ■ C
During the whole fea-
P4icrofcope. coffus generally paffes at leaf! two winters, if not three,
UT'“J before it affumes the pupa ftate. At the approach of
winter, it forms a little cafe, the infide of which is
lined with filk, and the outfide covered with wood
ground like very fine faw-duft
fon it neither moves nor eats.
This caterpillar, at its firft appearance, is not above
one-twelfth of an inch long; but at laft attains the
length of two, and fometimes of three inches. In the
month of May it prepares for the pupa ftate •, the firft
care being to find a hole in the tree fufficient to allow
the moth to iftiie forth *, and if this cannot be found,
it makes one equal in fize to the future pupa. It then
begins to form of wood a cafe or cone 5 uniting the
bits, which are very thin, together by filk, into the
form of an ellipfoid, the outfide being formed of fmall
bits of wood joined together in all diredlions; taking
care, however, that the pointed end of the cafe may
always be oppofite to the mouth of the hole : having
finilhed the outfide of the cafe, it lines the infide with
a filken tapeftry of a clofe texture in all its parts, ex¬
cept the pointed end, where the texture is loofer, in
order to facilitate its efcape at the proper time. The
caterpillar then places itfelf in fuch a pofture, that the
head may always lie towards the opening of the hole
in the tree or pointed end of its cafe. Thus it re¬
mains at reft for fome time : the colour of the fkin firft
becomes pale, and afterwards brown ; the interior
parts of the head are detached from the Ikull 5 the
legs withdraw themfelves from the exterior cafe; the
body ftiortens; the pofterior part grows fmall, while
the anterior part fwells fo much, that the fkin at laft
burfts 5 and, by a variety of motions, is pufhed down
to the tail; and thus the pupa is exhibited, in which
the parts of the future moth may be eafily traced.—
The covering of the pupa, though at firft foft,
humid, and white, foon dries and hardens, and be¬
comes of a dark purple colour j the pofterior part
is moveable ; but not the fore part, which contains
the rudiments of the head, legs, and wings. The
fore-part of the pupa is furniftied with two horns,
one above and the other under the eyes. It has alfo
feveral rows of points on its back. It remains for
fome weeks in the cafe ; after which the moth begins
to agitate itfelf, and the points are then of effential
fervice, by afting as a fulcrum, upon which it may reft
in its endeavours to proceed forward, and not flip back
by its efforts for that purpofe.
The moth generally continues its endeavours to open
the cafe for a quarter of an hour ; after which, by re¬
doubled efforts, it enlarges the hole, and preffes for¬
ward until it arrives at the edge, where it makes a full
flop, left by advancing further it ftiould fall to the
ground. After having in this manner repofed itfelf
tor fome time, it begins to difengage itfelf entirely ;
and having refted for fome hours with its head upwards,
it becomes fit for aftion. Mr Marfliam fays, that it
generally pufties one-third of the cafe out of the hole
before it halts.
. The body of the caterpillar is divided into twelve
rings, marked r, 2, 3, &c. as reprefented in fig. 48,
49’. 5°’ 51- each of which is diftinguifhed from that
which precedes, and that which follows, by a kind of
neck or hollow; and, by forming boundaries to the
rings, we make twelve other divifions, likewife exnref-
Yql* XIV. Part I.
fed in the figures; but to the firit of thefe the wordMicrofcopt
ring is affixed, and to the fccond, divijion. To facili- v~-~
tate the defcription of this animal, M. Lyonet fuppofed
a line to pafs down through the middle of the back,
which he called the fuperior line, becaufe it marked
the moft elevated part of the back of the caterpillar;
and another, palling from the head down the belly to
the tail, he called the inferior line.
All caterpillars have a fmall organ, refembling an
elliptic fpot, on the right and left of each ring, ex¬
cepting the fecond, third, and laft ; and by thefe we
are furnilhed with a further fubdivifion of this caterpil¬
lar, viz. by lines paffing through the fpiracula, the one
on the right fide, the other on the left of the caterpil¬
lar. Thefe four lines, which divide the caterpillar
longitudinally into four equal parts, mark each the
place under the fkin which is occupied by a confider-
able vifcus. Under the fuperior line lies the heart, or
rather thread of hearts ; over the inferior linw, the fpi-
nal marrow ; and the two traeheal arteries follow the
courfe of the lateral lines. At equal diftances from
the fuperior and two lateral lines, we may fuppofe
four intermediate lines. The two between the fupe¬
rior and lateral lines are called the intermediate fupe¬
rior ; the two others oppofite to them, and betwe*n
the lateral and inferior lines, are called the intermediate
inferior.
Fig. 48, 49. fhow the mufcles of the caterpillar, ar-Fig. qSi .
ranged with the. moft wonderful fymmetry and order,an^ 49*
efpecially when taken off by equal ftrata on both fides,
which exhibits an aftonifhing and exaft form and cor-
refpondence in them. The figures {how the mufcles
of two different caterpillars opened at the belly, and
fuppofed to be joined together at the fuperior lines.
The mufcles of the back are marked by capitals; the
gallric mufcles by Roman letters; the lateral ones by
Greek charafters. Thofe marked 6 are called, by M.
Lyonet, dividing mufcles, on account of their litua-
tion.
The caterpillar was prepared for dilfeftion by being
emptied, and the mufcles, nerves, &c. freed from the
fat in the manner formerly diredted : after which the
following obfervations were made.
The mufcle A in the firft ring is double ; the ante¬
rior one being thick at top, and being apparently di¬
vided into different mufcles on the upper fide, but
without any appearance of this kind on the under fide.
One infertion is at the Ikin of the neck towards the
head ; the other is a little above; and that of the fe¬
cond mufcle A is a little below the firft fpiraculum,
near which they are fixed to the Ikin.
The mufcle marked is long and {lender, fixed by
its anterior extremity under the gaftric mufcles a and
b of the firft ring, to the circumflex fcale of the bafe
of the lower lip. It communicates with the mufcle
c of the fecond ring, after having paffed under fome
of the arteries, and introduced itfelf below the
mufcle 6.
The mufcle /3 is fo tender, that it is fcarcely poflible
to open the belly of the caterpillar without breaking
it. It is fometimes double, and fometimes triple.—
Ahteriorly it is fixed to the pofterior edge of the fide
of the parietal fcale, the lower fixture being at the mid¬
dle of the ring near the inferior line.
There are three mufcles marked % ; the firft affixed
E at t
MIC
Miciofcope. at one extremity near the lower edge of the upper
~ part of the parietal leale j the other end divides itielf
into three or four tails, fixed to the fkin of the cater*
piliar under the muiele The anterior part of the
fecund is fixed near the tirft j the anterior part of the
third a little under the firit and fecund, at the fiLin of
the neck under the mufcle A. Tliefe tuo lalt palling
over toe cavity of the firit pair of limbs, are fixed by
feveral tails to the edge oppofite to this cavitv. In
this lubject there are two mufcles marked but fome-
times there h only one anteriorly they are fixed to
the lower edge of the parietal fcale, the other ends be¬
ing inferted in the firit fold of the {kin of the neck on
the belly-fide. Fig. jo. bell reprcfents the mufcles /J
and § j as in that figure they do not appear injured by
any unnatural connexion.
In the fecond and four following rings we dif-
cern two large dorfal mufcles A and B. In the ytb,
9th, and loth rings are three, A, B, and C ; in
the nth are tour, A, B, C, and D ^ and in the an¬
terior part of the 12th ring are five, A, B, C, D,
and E. All thefe ranges of mufcles, however, as
■well as the gaftrie mufcles a, b, c, d, appear at firft
fight only as a fingle mufcle, running nearly the whole
length of the caterpillar ; but when this is detached
from the animal, it is found to confift of fo many di-
fiinft mufcles, each confining only of the length of
one of the ring*, their extremities being fixed to the
division of each ring, excepting the middle mufcle a,
which, at the 6th, 7th, 8ih, and 9th rings, has its in-
fertions rather beyond the divifion. Each row of
mufcles appears as one, beeaufe they are clofely con-
nedled at top by fome of the fibres which pafs from one
ring to the other.
i he mufcles A, which are I 2 in number, gradually
diminifh in breadth to the lower part of the iaft ring :
at the 8tb and three following divifions they communi¬
cate with the mufcles B, and at the nth with D. In
the lower part of the latt ring, A is much broader than
it wras in the preceding ring ; one extremity of it is
contracted, and communicates with B ; the lower in-
fertion being at the membrane I, which is the exterior
{kin of the fecal bag. The mufeles A and B, on the
lower part of the lad ring, cannot be fcen until a
large mufcle i* removed, which on one fide is fixed to
the fubdivifion of the ring, and on the other to the fecal
bag.
The risjht mufeles B, which are alfo 12 in number,
begin at the fecond ring, and grow larger from thence
to the feventh. Thev are ufuallv narrower from thence
to the 1 2 h ; the deficiencv in width being fupplied by
the fix mufcle* C, which accompany it from the 7th to
the fubdivifion of the 1 2th ring. The mufcles B and C
communicate laterally with the 8th, nth, and 12th di¬
vifions. C is wanting at the fubdivifion of the 1 2th ;
its place being here fupplied by B, which becomes
broader at this part.
The firft of the three floating mufcles V originates
at the firft ring, from whence it introduces itfelf under
N, where it is fixed, and then fubdivides, and bides it¬
felf under other parts. The fecond begins at the fecond
divifion. being fixed to the anterior extremity B of the
feco- d ring ; from thence direfling itfelf towards the
ftomach *, and. after communicating with the cafe of
the corpus crajfum, it divides, and fpreads into eight
[ 34 1
M I C
mufeles which run along the belly. The third begins Microfcope.
at the third divifion, originating partly at the Ikin, and *
partly at the jundion of the muicles B of the fecond
and third ring. It direfts itfelt obliquely towards the
belly, meeting it near the third fpiraculum ; and
branching from thence, it forms the oblique mufcles of
fome of the vifcera.
The thin long mufcle 0, which is at the fubdivifion
of the latt ring, and covers the anterior infei lion ot the
mulcle (a) where the ring terminates, is tingle. It be¬
gins at one extremity of the mufcle (c) ; at the fore
part of the ring runs along the lubdivilion round the
belly of the caterpillar, and finiihes, on the other fide,
at the extremity of a fimilar mufcle C.
fig. 49. Ihows the dorfal mutcles of the coffus. To
view which in an advantageous manner, we muft ufe
the following mode of preparation,
1. All the dorfal mufcles, 35 in number, muft: be
taken out, as well as the feven lateral ones already de-
feribed.
2. All the ftraight mufcles of the belly muft be taken
away, as well as the mufcular roots (c), and the ends
of the gaftric mufcles (f), which are at the third and
fourth divifions.
3. At the fecond divifion the mufcle 0 muft be re¬
moved ; only the extremities being left to ftiow where
it was inferted.
The parts being thus prepared, we begin at the third
ring; where there are found four dorfai mufcles C, D,
E, and F. The firft one C, is inferted at the third di¬
vifion, under the mufcles $ and «, where It communi¬
cates by means of fome fibres with the mufcle f of the
fecond ring ; proceeding from thence obliquely towards
the intermediate fuperior line, and is fixed at the fourth
divifion. As foon as C is retrenched, the mufcle D is
feen 5 which grows wider from the anterior extremity :
it lies in a contrary direction to the mufcle C, and is
inferted into the third and fourth divifions. The mufcle
E lies in the fame direction as the middle C, but not fo
obliquely : the lower infertion is at the fourth divifion j
the other at the third, immediately under C. The
mufcle F is nearly parallel to D which joins it ; the
firft infertion is vifible, but the other is hid under the
mufcles E and G at the fourth divifion.
In the eight following rings, there are only two dor¬
fal mufcles •, and of thefe D is the only one that is com¬
pletely feen. It is very large, and diminifties gradually
in breadth from one ring to the other, till it comes to
the laft, fending off branches in fome places.—E is
one of the ffrait mufcles of the back •, and is inferted
under the dividing mufcles 5, at the divifions of its own
ring.
On the anterior part of the 12th ring there are three
dorfal mufcles, D, E, and F. D is fimilar to that of
the preceding ring, marked alfo D, only that it is no
more than half the length ; terminating at the fubdivi¬
fion of its own ring. E is of the fame length, and
differs from the muffle E of the preceding ring only
in its direction. F is parallel to E, and {hotter than
it ; its anterior end does not reach the twelfth divi¬
fion.
On the pofterior part there is only one dorfal
mufcle, faftened by fome fhort ones to the fubdivi¬
fion of the laft ring, traverfing the muff le.* « : and be¬
ing fixed there as if defigned to ftrengthen them, and
to
MIC [ 35 ] MIC
Microfcope. to vary their direclion.—« Is a fingle mufcle, of which
the anterior infertion is vilible, the other end being
fixed to the bottom of the foot of the lafl: leg ; its
ufe is to move the foot. The anterior part of the
muscle (Z branches into three or four heads, which
crofs the fuperior line obliquely, and are fixed to the
Ikin a little above it. The other end is faftened to the
membrane T.
f'!£- So- Sr- Tig. 50. and 51. fhow the mufcles of the caterpillar
when it is opened at the back. The preparation for
this view is to difengage the fat and other extraneous
matter, as before directed.
The firfl: ring has only tw7o gaftric mufcles (c) and
(W) : the former is broad, and has three or four little
tails : the firfl: fixture is at the bafe of the lower lip,
from whence it defcends obliquely, and is fixed be¬
tween the inferior and lateral line. The fmall mufcle
(^) is faftened on one fide to the firft fpiraculum ; on
the other, a little lower, to the intermediate inferior
and lateral line 5 and feems to be an antagonift to the
mufcle P, which opens the fpiracula. The pofterior
fixture of £ is under the mufcle C, near the Ikin of the
neck (Z is fixed a little on the other fide of C, at the
middle of the ring.
In the fecond ring there are three gaftric mufcles,
g, h, and i: g and h are fixed at the folds which termi¬
nate the ring •, but only the anterior part of i is fixed
there. The mufcle h is triple, and in one of the divi-
fions feparated into two parts ; that marked i comes,
nearer the inferior line, and is fixed a little beyond the
middle of the ring, where the correfponding mufcle of
the oppofite fide is forked to receive it.
In the third ring, the mufcle h, which was triple in
the foregoing ring, is only double here, that part which
is neareft the inferior line being broadeft : it has three
tails, of which only two are vifible in the figure. It is
exaflly fimilar to that of the preceding ring ; and is
crofted in the fame manner by the mufcle from the op¬
pofite fide of the ring.
Throughout the eight following rings, the mufcle f
which runs through them all is very broad and ftrong.
The anterior part of it is fixed at the intermediate infe¬
rior line, on the fold of the firft divifion of the ring :
the other part is fixed beyond the lower divifion ; with
this difference, that at the 10th and nth rings it is fix¬
ed at the laft fold of its ring \ whereas, in the others it
pafles over that ring, and is inferted into the fkin of
the following one. In all thefe, the firft extremity of
the mufcle g is faftened to the fidd which feparates the
ring from the preceding one, and is pa,-allel to and
placed at the fide of it. The firft fix mufcles marked g,
are forked ; that of the fourth ring being more fo than
the reft, nor does it unite till near its anterior infertion.
The longeft tail lavs hold of the following, and is
inferted near the inferior line *, the other inferts itfelf
near the fame line, at about the middle of its own
ring ; the two laft do not branch out but termi¬
nate at the divifions, without reaching the following
ring. The mufcle d, placed at the fide of f has
nearly the fame direction, and finilhes at the folds of
the ring.
The anterior part of the x 2lh ring has only one gaf¬
tric mufc’e, marked e: it is placed on the intermediate
inferior line ; and is inferted at the folds of the upper
divifion, and at the fubdivifion of this ring. The lower
part has a larger mufcle marked c, with feveral divi- Microfropc.
fions j one placed under £, with one extremity fixed Y"'—
near the lateral line, at the fubdivifion of its ring j
the other to the fecal bag, a little lower than the
mufcle b.
In fig. 51. all the gaftric mufcles defcribed in fig.
50. dilappear, as well as thofe lateral, and dorfal
ones of which the letters are not to be found in this
figure.
In the firft ring are the gaftric mufcles, £, g,
which are belt feen here : the firlt is narrow and long,
palling under and croftingy': one of its infertions is at
the lower line, the other at the lateral, between the fpi¬
raculum and neck : f\% Ihort, broad, and nearly ftraight,
placed along the intermediate line ; but between it and
the lateral it pafles under e, and is fixed to the fold of
the Ikin which goes from the one bag to the other ) the
lower infertion is near the fecond divifion. There are
fometimes three mufcles of thofe marked g, and fome-
times four : the lower parts of them are fixed about the
middle of the ring, and the anterior parts at the fold
of the Ikin near the neck. The mufcles i and h are
fixed to the fame fold 5 the other end of h being fixed
under the mufcle II, near the fpiraculum. Above the
upper end ofy^ a mufcular body, g, may be feen. It
is formed by the reparation of two floating mufcles.
The fecond ring has fix gaftric mufcles, k, /, m, «,
0, />. The firfl: is a large oblique mufele, with three or
four divifions placed at the anterior part of the ring :
the head is fixed between the inferior line and its inter¬
mediate one, at the fold of the fecond divifion ; from
whence it crofles the inferior line and its correfponding
mufcle, terminating to the right and left of the line.
I is a narrow mufcle, whofe head is fixed to the fold of
the fecond divifion ; the tail of it lying under », and
faftened to the edge of the Ikin that forms the cavity
for the leg. The two mufcles marked m have the fame
obliquity, and are placed the one on the other ; the
head is inferted in the Ikin under the mufcle £, and
communicates by a number of fibres with the tail of
the mufcle y 5 the other end is fixed to the intermediate
inferior line at the fold of the third divifion. The large
and broad mufcle «, covers the lower edge of the cavi¬
ty of the limb, and the extremity of the tail of /. It
is fixed firft at the Ikin, near the intermediate line,
from whence it goes in a perpendicular direction to¬
wards m, and introduces itfelf under 0 and m, where it
is fixed. The mufcle 0 is narrow and bent,, and covers
the edge of the cavity of the leg for a little way ; one
end terminating there, and the other finilhing at the
third divifion near m. That marked p is alfo bent : it
runs near the anterior edge of the cavily of the leg j
one end meets the head of 0, the other end terminates
at a raifed fold near the inferior line. There is a trian¬
gular mufcle on the fide of the lateral mufcle 0, fimilar
to that marked g in the following ring -, in this figure
it is entirely concealed by the mufcle m.
The third ring has no mufcle fimilar to m; that
marked k differs only from that of the feeond ring
in being croffed by the oppofite mufcle. Thofe mark¬
ed /, », 0, p, are fimilar to thofe of the preceding one.
The mufcle q is triangular \ the bafe is faftened to the
lafl: fold of the ring •, on the lower fide it is fixed to
the mufcle 0, the top to the Ikin at the edge of the ca¬
vity for the leg.
The
M I C
Microfcopc. T}je eight following rings have the
i, k, /, and///, Ihe mufcle / is quite itraight, and
placed at feme didance trom the inferior line : it is
broad at the fourth ring, but diminifhes gradually in
breadth to the nth. In the fourth it is united •, but
divides into two heads, which divaricate in the follow¬
ing rings. In the fix next rings thefe heads are fixed
nearly at the fame place with a andyV and in the other
two it terminates at the fold of the ring. The anterior
infertion of the firft and lad is at the fold where the
ring begins 5 that of the fix others is fomewhat lowrer
under the place where the mufcle i terminates. The
lower part of the oblique mufcle k is inferted in the fkin
near i; the upper part at the intermediate inferior
mufcle upon the fold which feparates the following
ring, but is wanting in the nth. The mufcle / is
large, and co-operates with M : in the opening and
ftiutting the fpiraculum, one of its fixtures is near the
intermediate inferior line, at about the fame height as
z. The tail terminates a little below the fpiracu-
lum.
I he twelfth ring has only the fingle gadric mufcle
d, which is a bundle of fix, feren, or eight mufcles :
the fird fixture of thefe is at the fubdivifion of the ring
near the inferior line : one or two crefs this, and at the
fame time the fimilar mufcles of the oppofite fide.
Their fixture is at the bottom of the foot ; and their
office is to affid the mufcle a in bringing back the foot,
and to loofen the claw from what it lays hold of. One
of the infertions of this mufcle a is obferved in this
figure near d, the other near the fubdivifion of the
ring.
Fig. 52. and 53. (how the organization of the head
of the codus, though in a very imperfedt manner, as
M. Lyonet found it neceflary to employ twenty figures
to explain it fully. Ihe head is reprefented as it ap¬
pears when feparated from the fat, and difengaged from
the neck. HH are the two palpi. The truncated
mufcles D belong to the lower lip, and affid moving it.
K (hows the two ganglions of the neck united. II are
the two velfels which affid in fpinning the filk. L, the
oefophagus. M, the two didblving vedels. The He¬
brew charaflers /cm fhow the continuation of the four
cephalic arteries. In fig. 52. the ten abduddor mufcles
of the jaw are reprefented by SS, TT, VV, and Z.
Four occipital mufcles are feen in fig. ^3. under e e and
ff At ak is reprefented a nerve of the fird pair be¬
longing to the ganglion of the neck } £ is a branch of
this nerve.
Fig. 34. exhibits the nerves as feen from the under
part ; but excepting in two or three nerves, which may
be eafily didinguifhed, only one of each pair is drawn,
in order to avoid confufion. The nerves of the fird
ganglion of the neck are marked by capital letters,
thofe of the ganglion (a) of the head by Roman let¬
ter* ; the nerves of the fmall ganglion by Greek eba-
raflers. Thofe of the frontal ganglion, except one, by
numbers.
The mufcles of the eoffiis have neither the colour
nor form of thofe of larger animals. In their natu¬
ral date they are foft, and of the confidence of a jellv.
Their col - ?r is a graviffi blue, which, with the filver-
coloured *0' earance of the pulmonary veffels, form a
gloriou* fpetdacle After the caterpillar has been
(baked for fume time in fpirit of wine, they lofe their
1
Fi2- S*, S3-
54-
[ 36 1 MIC
gadric mufcles, eladicity and tranfparency, becoming firm, opaque,Micrcfcope.
and white, and the air-velTels totallv difappear. The ' ■"■■■y - 1
number of muicles in a caterpillar is very great. The
greatell part ol the head is compofed oi them, and
there is a vaft number about the oefophagus, intef-
tines, &c. j the Ikin is, as it were, lined by different
beds of them, placed the one under the other, and
ranged with great fymmetry. M. Lyonet has been
able to didinguifh 228 in the head, 1647 m the
body, and 2066 in the inteltinal tube, making in all
3941.
At fird fight the mufcles might be taken for ten¬
dons, as being of the fame colour, and having nearly
the lame ludre. '1 hey are generally fiat, and of an
equal fize throughout; the middle feldom differing
either in colour or lize from either of the extremities.
If they are feparated, however, by means of very fine
needles, in a drop of fome fluid, we find them com¬
pofed not only of fibres, membranes, and air-veilels,
but likewife of nerves j and, from the drops of oil
that may be feen doating on the fluid, they appear al-
fo to be furniflred with many unftuous particles. Their
ends are fixed to the fkin, but the red of the mufcle
is generally free and doating. Several of them branch
out confiderably ; and the branches fometimes extend
fo far, that it is not eafy to difeover whether they
are didindf and feparate mufcles or parts of another.
They are moderately drong; and thofe which have
been foaked in fpirit of wine, when examined by the
microfcope, are found to be covered with a membrane
which may be feparated from them ; and they appear
then to confiit of leveral parallel bands lying longi¬
tudinally along the mufcle, which, when divided by
means of fine needles, appear to be compofed of dill
fmaller bundles of fibres lying in the fame diredion $
which, when examined by a powerful magnifier, and
in a favourable light, appear twided like a fmall cord.
The mufcular fibres of ihe fpider, which are much lar¬
ger than thofe of the caterpillar, confiit of two different
lubflances, one foft and the other hard j the latter be¬
ing twided round the former fpirally, and thus giving
it the twided appearance jud mentioned.
There is nothing in the caterpillar fimilar to the
brain in man. We find indeed in the head of this
infefl a part from which all the nerves feem to pro¬
ceed j but this part is entirely unprotedled, and fo
fmall, that it does not occupy one-fifth part of the
head; the furface is fmooth, and has neither lobes
nor any anfrafluofity like the human brain. Eut if
we call this a brain in the caterpillar, we mud fay
that it has thirteen: for there are twelve other fnth
parts following each other in a ftraight line, all of
them of the fame fubdance with that in the head, and
nearly of the lame dze; and from them, as well as
from that in the head, the nerves are dillributed through
the body.
The fpinal marrow in the coflus goes along the
belly 5 is very fmall, forking out at intervals, nearly
of the fame thicknefs throughout, except at the gan¬
glions, and is not enclofed in any cafe. It is by no
meam fo tender as in man ; bet has a great degree
of tenacity, and does not break without a coniider-
able degree of tendon. The fubliance of the gan-
gli s differs from that of the (f inal marrow, as no
veffels can be difeovered in the latter y but the for¬
mer
MIC [ 37 ] MIC
:ierofeope mer are full of very delicate ones. There are 94.
-"■"v 1 principal nerves, which divide into inumerable ramifi¬
cations.
The coffus has two large tracheal arteries, creeping
under the Ikin clofe to the fpiracula : one at the right
and the other at the left fide of the infeft, each of
them communicating with the air by means of nine
fpiracula. They are nearly as long as the whole ca¬
terpillar ; beginning at the firft fpiraculum, and ex¬
tending fomewhat farther than the laft $ fome branches
alfo extending quite to the extremity of the body.
Round each fpiraculum the trachea pufhes forth a
great number of branches, which are again divided
into Imaller ones, and thefe further fubdivided and
fpread through the whole body of the caterpillar. The
tracheal artery, rvith all its numerous ramifications, are
open elaftic velfels, which may be preffed clofe toge¬
ther, or drawn out confiderably, but return imme¬
diately to their ulual fize when the tenfion ceafes.
They are naturally of a filver colour, and make a
beautiful appearance. This veflel, with its principal
branches, is compofed of three coats, which may be
feparated from one another. The outmoft is a thick
membrane furnifhed with a great variety of fibres,
which defcribe a vail number of circles round it, com¬
municating with each other by numerous fhoots. The
fecond is very thin and tranfparent, without any par¬
ticular veffel being diilinguilhable in it. The third is
eompofed of fcaly threads, generally of a fpiral form j
and fo near each other as fcarcely to leave any inter¬
val. They are curioufly united with the membrane
which occupies the intervals; and form a tube which
is always open, notwithftanding the flexure of the vef-
fel. 1 here are alfo many other peculiarities in its ftruc-
ture. The principal tracheal veflels divide into 1326
different branches.
The heart of the coffus is very different from that of
larger animals, being almoft as long as the animal it-
felf. It lies immediately under the Ikin at the top of
the back, entering the head, and terminating near the
mouth. Towards the lafl rings of the body it is laro-e
and capacious, diminiihing very much as it approaches
the head, from the fourth to the twelfth divifion. On
both fides, at each divifion, it has an appendage, which
partly covers the mufcles of the back, but which,
growing narrower as it approaches the lateral line, it
forms a number of irregular lozenge-fhaped bodies. 
Th;s tube, however, feems to perform none of the func¬
tions of the heart in larger animals, as we find no vef-
fel opening into it which anfwers either to the aorta or
vena cava. It is called the heart, becaule it is general¬
ly filled wbh a kind of lymph, which naturalifts have
fuppofed to be the blood of the caterpillar ; and becaufe
in all caterpillars which have a tranfparent Ikin, we may
perceive alternate regular contraftions and dilatations
along the fuperior line, beginning at the eleventh ring,
and proceeding from ring to ring, from the fourth;
whence this veffel is th >ught to be a firing or row of
hearts. 'There are two white oblong bodies which ioin
the heart near the eighth divifion : and tin fe have been
ea ;ed reniftrm bodies, from their having fomewhat of
the thane of a kidney.
'The mofi confid. rable part of the whole caterpillar
with regard to b’fik is the corpus craffnm. It is the
firfi and only fubfiance that is feen on opening it. It
forms a kind of {heath which envelopes and covers all Microfcope.
the entrails, and, introducing itielf into the head, entersl—-’V'"*—'
all the mufcles of the body, filling the grtaLeft part of
the empty fpaces in the caterpillar. It very much re-
fembles the configuration of the human brain, and is of
a milk-white colour.
The oesophagus defcends from the bottom of the
mouth to about the fourth divifion. The fore part,
which is in the head, is ficlby, narrow, and fixed by
different mufcles to the crultaceous parts of it; the
lower part, which pafles into the body, is wider, and
forms a kind of membranaceous bag, covered with
very fmall mufcles ; near the ftomaeh it is narrower,
and, as it were, confined by a ftrong nerve fixed to it
at difiant intervals. The ventricle begins a little above
the fourth divifion, where the cefophagus ends, and
finifhes at the tenth. It is about feven times as long
as broad ; and the anterior part, which is broadeft, is ge¬
nerally folded. Thefe folds diminifii with the bulk as
it approaches the inteftines ; the furface is covered with
a great number of aerial veffels, and opens into a tube,
which M. Lyonet calls the large inteftine.—There are
three of thefe large tubes, each of which differs fo much
from the reft, as to require a particular name to diltin-
guifii it from them.
The two veffels from which the coffus fpins its filk
are often above three inches long, and are diftinguiflied
into three parts; the anterior, intermediate, and pofte-
rior. It has likewife two other veffels, which are iup-
pofed to prepare and contain the liquor for diffolving the
wood on which it feeds.
Fig- 55* ffows the wing of an earwig magnified ; Plate
a reprefents it of the natural fize. The wings of this CCCXLIV.
infed are fo artificially folded up under {hurt cafes, %■ 55-
that few people imagine they have any. Indeed, they
very rarely make ufe of their wings. The cafes under
which they are concealed are not more than a fixth part
of the fize of one wing, though a fmall part of the
wing may be difcovered, on a careful infpedion, pro-
je&ing from under them. The upper part of the wing
is cruftaceous and opaque, but the under part is beau¬
tifully tranfparent. In putting up their wings, they
firfi fold back the parts AB, and then {hut up the
ribs like a fan ; the ftrong mufcles ufed tor this purpofe
being feen at the upper part of the figure. Some of
the ribs are extended from the centre to the outer edge ;
others only from the edge about half way : but they
are all united by a kind of band, at a fmall but equal
diftance from the edge ; the whole evidently contrived
to ftrengthen the wing, and facilitate its various mo¬
tions. 1 he infed itfelt differs very lutle in appearance
in its three different ftates. De Geer afferts, that the
female hatches eggs like a hen, and broods over her
young ones as a hen does.
5°- reprefents a wing of the hcmerobius perla T'jV
magnified. It is an infed which feldom lives more ^ *
than two or three days.—The wings are nearly of a
length, and exadly fimilar to one another. They are
compofed of fine delicate nerves, regularly and elegant¬
ly difpofed as in the figure, beautifully adorned with
hairs, and lightly tinged with green. The body is of a
fine green colour; and its eyes appear like two bur-
niflied beads of gold, whence it has obtained the name
of golden eye. This infed lays its eggs on file leaves
of the plum or the rofe tree; the eggs are of a white
colour,
c [38
fixed to a little pedicle or
Fig- 57*
M I
Microfcope. colour, and each of them
v " foot-ftalk, by which means they fiand off a little from
the leaf, appearing like the fru&ification of fome of
the moffes. The larva proceeding from thefe eggs re-
fembles that of the coccinella or lady-cow, but is much
more handfome. Like that, it feeds upon aphides or
pucerons, fucking their blood, and forming itfelf a cafe
•with their dried bodies; in which it changes into the
pupa ftate, from whence they afterwards emerge in the
form of a fly.
Fig. E, F, I, reprefent the duff of a moth’s wing
magnified. I his is of different figures in different
moths. J he natural fize of thefe fmall plumes is re-
prefented at H.
Fig. 57. fhows a part of the cornea of the libellula
magnified. In fome pofitions of the light, the fides of
the hexagons appear of a fine gold colour, and divided
by three parallel lines. The natural fize of the part
magnified is fliown at b.
Fig* 58. fliows the part c of a lobfter’s cornea mag¬
nified.
Fig. 39. fhows one of the arms or horns of the lepas
anatifera, or barnacle, magnified ; its natural fize being
reprefented at d. Each horn confifts of feveral joints,
and each joint is furniflied on the concave fide of the
arm with long hairs. When viewed in the microfcope,
the arms appear rather opaque 5 but they may be ren¬
dered tranfparent, and become a moft beautiful objeft,
by extra£Hng out of the interior cavity a bundle of
longitudinal fibres, which runs the whole length of the
arm. Mr Needham thinks that the motion and ufe of
thefe arms may illuftrate the nature of the rotatory mo¬
tion in the wheel-animal. In the midft of the arms is
hollow trunk, confifting of a jointed hairy-tube,
Fig. 58.
Fig- S9-
an
Plate
CCCXLV
fig. 60.
which enclofes a long round tongue that can be pufh-
ed occafionally out of the tube or (heath, and retrac¬
ed occafionally. The mouth of the animal confifts of
fix laminae, which go off with a bend, indented like a
faw on the convex edge, and by their circular difpofi-
tion are fo ranged, that the teeth, in the alternate ele¬
vation and dcpreflion of each plate, aft againft what¬
ever comes between them. The plates are placed to¬
gether in fuch a manner, that to the naked eve they
form an aperture not much unlike the mouth of a
contrafted purfe.
Fig. 6o. fliows the apparatus of the tobamts or gad¬
fly? by which it pierces the fkin of horfes and oxen, in
order to fuck the blood. The whole is contained in a
flefliy cafe, not expreffed in the figure. The feelers a a
are of a fpongy texture and gray coloured, covered with
fhort hairs. They are united to the head by a fmall
joint of the fame fubftance. They defend the other
parts of the apparatus, being laid upon it fide bv fide
whenever the animal flings, and thus preferve it from
external injury. I he wound is made bv the two lan¬
cets bb and B, which are of a delicate ftrufture, but
verv (harp, formed lixe the diffefting knife of an ana-
tomift, growing gradually thicker to the back.—The
two inftruments c c and C, appear as if intended to en¬
large the wound, by irritating the parts round it; for
which they are jagged or toothed. They may alfo
ferve, from their hard and horny texture, to defend the
tube e E, which is of a fofter nature, and tubular to ad¬
mit the blood, and convey it to the ftomach. This part
is totally enclofed in a line d D, which entirely covers
3
] MID
it. Thefe parts are drawn feparately at B, C, D, E. Microfce
De Geer obferves, that only the females fuck the blood MidaS!
of animals*, and Reaumur informs us, that having made
one, that had fucked its fill, difgorge itfelf, the blood it
threw up appeared to him to be more than the whole
body of the infect could have contained. The natural
fize of this apparatus is (hown atyfi
Fig. 61. (hows a bit of the (kin of a lump-fifti (Vy-Fig.
clopterus') magnified. When a good fpecimen of this
can be procured, it forms a moft beautiful objeft. The
tubercles exhibited in the figure probably fecrete an
unftuous juice.
Fig. 62. (hows the fcale of a fea perch fsund on the Fig. <Je,
Englith coaft \ the natural fize is exhibited at h.
Fig. 63, the fcale of an haddock magnified j its na-Fig. 63.
tural fize as within the circle. ^ J
. Fig. 64. the fcale of a parrot fifh from the Weft In-Fig. 64.
dies magnified ; /the natural fize of it.
. Fig. 65. the fcale of a kind of perch in the Weft In- fig. <5c,
dies magnified ; £ the natural fize of the feale.
big. 66. part oi the (kin of a foie fifti, as viewedpjg> 5^
through an opaque microlcope 5 the magnified part, in
its real fize, (hown at /.
I he feales of fillies afford a great variety of beauti¬
ful objefts for the microfcope. Some are long ; others
round, fquare, &c. varying confiderably not only in
different fifties, but even in different parts of the fame
fifti. . Leeuwenhoeck fuppofed them to confift of an
infinite number of fmall fcales or ftrata, of which thofe
next to the body of the fifti are the largeft. When
viewed by the microfcope, we find fome of them or¬
namented with a prodigious number of concentric flu-
tings, too near each other, and too fine, to be eafily
enumerated. Thefe (lutings are frequently traverfed by
others diverging from the centre of the fcale, and ge¬
nerally proceeding from thence in a ftraight line to the
circumference.
For more full information concerning thefe and
other microfcopical objefts, the reader may confult
Mr Adams’s EJJays on the Microfcope, who has made
the moft valuable colleftion that has yet appeared on
the fubjeft. See alfo the articles Animalcule, Cry¬
stallization, Polype, Plants, and Wood, in the
prefent work.
MIDAS, in fabulous hiftory, a famous king of
Phrygia, who having received Bacchus with great
magnificence, that god, out of gratitude, offered to
grant him whatever he (hould a(k. Midas defired that
every thing he touched (hould be changed into gold.
Bacchus confented ; and Midas, with extreme pleafure,
everywhere found the effefts of his touch. But he had
foon reafon to repent of his folly : for wanting to eat
and drink, the aliments no fooner entered his mouth
than they were changed into gold. This obliged him to
have recourfe to Bacchus again, to befeech him to re-
ftore him to his former ftate; on which the god ordered
him to bathe in the river Paftolus, which from thence¬
forward had golden fands. Some time after, being
chofen judge between Pan and Apollo, he gave an¬
other inftance of his folly and bad tafte, in preferring
Pan’s mufic to Apollo’s; on which the latter being
enraged, gave him a pair of affes ears. This Midas
attempted to conceal from the knowledge of his fub-
jefts : but one of his fervants faw the length of his ears,
and being unable to keep the fecret, yet afraid to re¬
veal
Microscope
JWvio^e-/l scuJfi'?
MICROSCOPE. PLATE CCCXXXVHI.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 10.
E&mredty TT. £ JiXizarv Edm1:
MICROSCOPE .
PLATE
((( XXXIX.
/iff. 73.
/iff. 74.
£771/rami byWicZ). Zzzars ZZl/hburah .
MICROSCOPE.
AX.//'/;' CCCXL.
fit/. Zl.
S’nu/n/ivt/ fn /f'd-Z).Zz'itiznr
MICROSCOPE
PLziTE crrxii
Eng f by W. S^D.Lixars-Edzn 7
MICROSCOPIC
OBJECTS.
PL17 IC CCCA TJf
Fi<f.
Fu/.IS
-Otvigiou 1
Fity 3a.
Division 1
MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS . PLATE CCCXUIL
i'
Jl.WiLfcn Sculp?
*
i
<
PLATE CCCXL/V.
MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS.
jyyQCut«-
'jCSOQudf
,  > ' >.! »:./
M’/hvJrt&aJa/Scetfe. ~£-
Midas
II
lid lle-
burg.
MID [ 39 ]
veal It from Jtpprehenfion of the king’s refentment, he {haven
M I D
opened a hole in the earth, and after he had whifpered
there that Midas had the ears of an afs, he covered the
place as before, as if he had buried his words in the
ground. On that place, as the poets mention, grew a
number of reeds, which when agitated by the wind ut¬
tered I he fame found that had been buried beneath, and
publiihed to the world that Midas had the ears of an
afs. Some explain the fable of the ears of Midas, by
the funpoiition that he kept a number of informers and
fpies, who were continually employed in gathering
every feditious word that might drop from the mouths
of his fubjecls. Midas, according to Strabo, died of
drinking bull’s hot blood This he did, as Plutarch
mentions, to free himfelf from the numerous ill dreams
which contin .ally tormented him. Midas, according
to fome, was fon of Cybele. He built a town which he
sailed A ncijrce.
Midas, Ear-Jhell. See Haliotis, Conchology
Index.
MID HEAVEtf, the point of the ecliptic that culmi¬
nates, or in which it cuts the meridian.
M1DDLEBURG, one of the Friendly iflands in
the South fea. The idand was firft difcovered by
Tafman, a Dutch navigator, in January 1742-3 ; and
is called by the natives Ea-Oo-whe: it is about 16
miles from north to fouth, and in the wideft part about
8 miles from eaft to weft. The fkirts are chieftv laid
out in plantations, the fouth weft and north-weft fides
*fpecially. The interior parts are but little cultiva¬
ted, though very capable of it : but fhis negled adds
greatly to the beauty of the iftand ; for here are agree¬
ably difperfed groves of cocoa-nuts and other trees,
lawns covered with thick grafs, here and there planta¬
tions and paths leading to every part of the iftand, in
fuch beautiful diforder, as greatly to enliven the pro-
fpeft. The hills are low ; the air is delightful •, but
unfortunately water is denied to this charming fpot.
Yams, with other roots, bananas, and bread-fruit, are
the principal articles of food ; but the latter appeared
to be fcaree. Here is the pepper-tree, or ava-ava,
wdth which they make an intoxicating liquor, in the
fame difgufting manner as is pradtifed in the Society
iflands. Here are feveral odoriferous trees and ftirubs,
particularly a fpecies of the lemon tribe ; and the bo¬
tanical gentlemen met with various new fpecies of plants.
Here alfo are a few hogs and fowls.
There are no towns or villages ; mofl: of the houfes
are built in plantations, which are laid out in different
parts, with no other order than what convenience re¬
quires. They are neatly cooftrudted, but are lefs
roomy and convenient than thofe in the Society ift- s.
The floors are a little raifed, and covered with thick
ftrong mats. The fame fort of matting ferves to enclofe
them on the windward ftde, the others btinp- open.
They have little areas before moft of them, which are
planted round with trees or ornamental fhrubs, whofe
fragrance perf .mes the air. Their houfehold furniture
conftfts of a few wooden platters, cocoa-nut (hells, and
pillows made of wood, and fhaped like four-footed
ftoo’s or forms : their common clothing, with the addi¬
tion of a mat, ferves them for bedding.
1 he natives are of a clear mahogany or cheftmt
brown, with black hair, in (hort frizzled curls, which
feems to be burnt at the tips; their beards are cut or
The general ftature of the men is equal to
our middle fize, from five feet three to five feet ten
inches j the proportions of the body are very fine, and
the contours of the limbs extremely elegant, though
fomething more mufcular than at CTaheite, which
may be owing to a greater and more conftant exertion
of ftrength in their agriculture and dome!!:ic economy.
Their features are extremely mild and pleating 5 and
differ from the old Otaheitan faces in being more ob¬
long than round, the nofe (harper, and the lips rather
thinner. The women are, in general, a few inches
ftiorter than the men, hut not io fmall as the lower
ciafs of women at the Society iflands. The practice
of punfhiring the (kin, and blacking it, which is
called taltowing, is in full force among the men here,
for their belly and loins are very ftrongly marked in
configurations more compounded than thofe at Ota-
heite. The tendered parts of the body were not free
from thefe punctures 5 the application of which, befides
being very painful, mutt be extremely dangerous on.
glandulous extremities.
The men in general go almoft naked, having only
a fmall piece of cloth round the loins, but fome wrap
it in great abundance round them from their waift :
this cloth is manufactured much like that at Ota-
heite, but overfpread with a ftrong glue, which makes
it (tiff, and fit to refill the wet. The women are
like wife covered from the waift downwards: they often
have loofe necklaces, confiding ot feveral drings of
fmall (hells, feeds, teeth erf fifties j and in the middle
of all, the round operculum, or cover ot a (hell as large
as a crown-piece. The men frequently wear a tiling
round their necks, from which a mother-of-pearl thell
hangs down on the bread ; both the ears ot the wo¬
men were perforated with two holes, and a cylinder
cut out of tortoife-ftiell or bone was duck through
both the holes. The mod remarkable circumdanee
obferved of this people was, that mod of them wanted
the little finger on one, and fometimes on both hands :
the difference of fex or age did not exempt them from
this amputation 5 for even among the few children
that were feen running about naked, the greater part
had already fuffered fuch lot's. This circumdance was
obferved by Tafman. Another fingularity which was
obferved to be very general among thefe people, was
a round fpot on each cheek-bone, which appeared to
have been burnt or bliilered. On fume it teemed to
have been recently made, on others it w'as covered
with feurf, and many had only a flight mark of its
former exiftenee : how, or for what purpofe it was -
made, could not be learnt. The women here, in ge¬
neral, were refervtd ; and turned, with difgud, from
the tmmoded behaviour of ungovernable feamen : there
were not, however, wanting fome who appeared to be
of eafy virtue, and invite d their lovers with lafeivious
gedures. The language fpoken here is foft, and not
unpleaftnp 5 and whatever they faid was fpoken in a
kind of ftnging tone. Omai and Mahine, w ho wjere
both paffengers on board the (hip, at fird declared that
the language was totally new and unintelligible to
them ; however, the affinity of feveral words being
p anted out, they (non caught the particular modifica¬
tion of this dialeff, and converted much better with
the natives than any on board the fl ips could have
done, after a long intercourte. They have the neat-
Middle.
bursy
Middle-
burg,
Middle-
ham.
MID [ 40
eft ornaments imaginable, confiiting of a number of
little flat flicks, about five inches long, of a yellow
wood like box, firmly and elegantly connefled toge¬
ther at the bottom by a tiffue of the fibres of cocoa-
nut, feme of which were of their natural colour, and
others dyed black j the fame fibres were likewife ufed
in the making of bafkets, the tafte of which was high¬
ly elegant, and varied into different forms and pat¬
terns. Their clubs are of a great variety of fhapes,
and many of them fo ponderous as fcarcely to be ma¬
naged with one hand. The moft common form Avas
quadrangular, fo as to make a rhomboid at the broad
end, and gradually tapering into a round 1 ...idle at the
other. Far the greater part Avere carved all over in
many chequered patterns, which feemed to have re¬
quired a long fpace of time, and incredible patience,
to work up ; as a {harp ftone, or a piece of coral, are
the pnly tools made ule of: the Avhole furface of the
plain clubs was as Irighly polifhed as if an European
workman had made them with the befl inflruments.
Befides clubs, they have fpears of the fame Avood,
xvhich Avere fometimes plain fliarp-pointed flicks, and
fometimes barbed with a fling-ray’s tail. They have
likewife boAVS and arroAVS of a peculiar conftru&ion :
the bow, Avhich is fix feet long, is about the thiek-
nefs of a little finger, and Avhen flack furms a flight
curve 5 its coiwex part is channelled Avith a Angle
deep groove, in Avhich the boAV-ftring is lodged. The
arroAv is made of reed, near fix feet long, and pointed
with hard Avood: Avhen the buAv is to be bent, inflead
of drawing it fo as to increafe the natural curvature,
they draAV it the contrary Avay, make it perfedlly
flraight, and then form the curve on the other fide.
Moft of their canoes have outriggers, made of poles ;
and their Avorkmanfhip is very admirable : taa'o of
thefe canoes are joined together Avith a furprifing ex-
a£tnefs, and the Avhole furface receives a very curious
poliih. Their paddles have fhort broad blades, fome-
thing like thofe at Otaheite, but more neatly wrought
and of better Avood.
Thev keep their dead aboA'e ground, after the man¬
ner of the Society iflands j as a corpfe Avas feen depo-
fited on a Ioav hut.
Here Avere feen feveral men and Avomen afflifted
with leprous difeafes, in fome of whom the dilorder
had rifeir to a high degree of virulence : one man in
particular had his back and {boulders covered Avith a
large cancerous ulcer, Avhich Avas perfectly livid with¬
in, and of a bright yelloAV all round the edges. A
Avoman Avas likewife unfortunate enough to have her
face deflroyed by it in the mofl fhocking manner •,
there Avas only a hole left in the place of her nofe j her
cheek Avas fwelled up, and continually oozing out a
purulent matter •, and her eyes feemed ready to fall out
of her head, being bloody and fore. Though thefe Avere
fome of the moft miferable objefts that could poflibly
be feen, yet they feemed to be quite unconcerned about
their misfortunes, and traded as briikly as any of the reft.
MI DDL EH AM, a toAvn in the north riding of
Yorkftiire, fituated on the river Ure, 255 miles from
London. It had once a caftle, where Avas born Ed¬
ward prince of Wales, only fon of Richard III. •, and
is noted for a Avoollen manufaftory and frequent horfe-
xaces. _ Its market is on Monday and fairs Nov. 6.
v.nd The toAvn ftands on a rifing ground ; and the
] MID
caftle, which was on the fouth fide, Avas formerly moat- Middle,
ed round by the help of a fpring conveyed in pipes from l™111
, C V , A . • ■ , Middleton.
MIDDLESEX, a county of England, Avhich dp-. ^ ^
rives its name from its fituation amidft the three king¬
doms of the Eaft, Weft, and South Saxons. It is
bounded on the north by Hertford {hire 5 on the fouth
by the river Thames, which divides it from Surry ; on
the weft by the river Colne, which feparates it from
Buckinghamfhire •, and on the eaft by the river Lea,
Avhich divides it from Effex. It extends about 23
miles in length, but hardly 14 in breadth, and is not
more than 115 in circumference; but as it compre¬
hends the tAvo vafl cities- of London and Weftminfter,
Avhich are fituated in the fouth-eaft part of the coun¬
ty, it is by far the Avealthieft and moft populous
county in England. It is divided into 602 liberties,
containing 200 pariflies, .befides a vaft number of cha¬
pels of eafe, and 5 market towns, exclufive of the cities
of London and Weftminfter. The air is very pleafant
and healthy, to Avhich a fine gravelly foil does not a
little contribute. The foil produces plenty of corn,
and the county abounds AA'ith fertile meadoAvs and
gardeners grounds. In a Avord, the greater part of the
county is fo prodigioufly aflifted by the rich compoft
from London, that the Avhole of the cultivated part
may be confidered as a garden. rI he natural produc¬
tions are cattle, corn, and fruit; but its manufactures
are too many to be enumerated here, there being hard¬
ly a fingle manufaflure praftifed in Great Britain but
Avhat is alfo eftabliflied in this county.—Though Lon¬
don is the chief city, Brentford is the county toAvn
Avhere the members of parliament are defied. It con¬
tains 77,712 houfes, inhabited by 130,742 families,
containing 340,958 males, and 294,371 females, fo that
the Avhole amount of its population is 635,329 perfons.
Middlesex is alfo the name of four different coun¬
ties in the United States of America ; one of them is
in Maffachuffetts, another in Conneclicut, a third in
New Jerfey, and the fourth in Virginia.
MIDDLETON, Dr Confers, a very celebrated
Englith divine, the fon of a clergyman in Yorkftiire,
Avas born at Richmond in 1683. He diftinguiftied him-
felf, Avhile felloAV of Trinity college, Cambridge, by
his controArerfy Avith Dr Bentley his mailer, relating to
fome mercenary condufl of the latter in that ftation.
He afterwards had a controverfy Avith the whole body
of phyficians, on the dignity of the medical profeflion ;
concerning Avhich he publiftied De medicorum apud ve-
teres Romanos degentium conditione dijfertatio ; qua, con¬
tra vires celeberrirnos Jacobum Sponium et Richardum
Meadium, fervilem atque ignobilem earn fuiffc ojienditur:
and in the courfe of this difpute much refentment
and many pamphlets appeared. Hitherto he had
flood well with his clerical brethren ; but he drew the
refentment of the church on him in 1729, by writing
“ A Letter from Rome, ftiowing an exafl conformity
between Popery and Paganifm,” &c. ; as this letter,
though politely written,yet attacked Popiftimiracles Avith
a gaiety that appeared dangerous to the caufe of miracles
in general. Nor Arere his Objeftions to Dr Water-
land’s manner of vindicating Scripture againft Tindal’s
“ Chriftianity as old as the Creation,” looked on in a
more favourable point of aucaw in 174L came out his
great work, “ The hiftory of tiie life of M. Tullius
6 Ciqero ”
MID [ 41 ] MID
^jHJleton Cicero/’ 2 vols 4to : which is indeed a fine perform-
ante, and will probably be read as.long as tallc and
frame. P'dite literature fubfift among us : the author has never-
1 <■ •■-y — thelefs fallen into the common error of biographers,
who often give panegyrics inllead of hiftory. In
-1748, he publi(lied, “ A free inquiry into the miracul¬
ous powers which arc fuppofed to have fubfifted in the
Chriftian church from the earliell ages, through feveral
fucceffive centuries.” He was n»w attacked from all
quarters ; but before he took any notice of his anta-
gonifts, lie fupplied them with another fubje6>, in “ An
examination of the Lord Eiihop of London’s difeourfes
concerning the ufe and extent of prophecy,” &.c.
Thus .Dr Middleton continued to difplay talents and
learning, which are highly elleemcd by men of a free
turn of mind, but by no means in a method calculated
to invite promotion in the clerical line. He was in
1723 chofen principal librarian of the public library at
Cambridge j and it he rofe not to dignities in the
church, he was in eafy circumfiances, which permitted
him to aflert a dignity of mind often forgotten in the
career of preferment. He died in 1750, at Hilderlham
in Cambridgefhire, an eflate of his own purchafing ;
and in 1752, all his works, except the life of Cicero,
'■were collefled in 4 vols. 410.
MIDDLEWICH, a town of Chefhire, 167 miles
from London. It itands near the conflux of the Croke
and Dan, where are two fait water fprings, from which
are made great quantities of fait, the brine being laid
to be fo ilrong as to produce a full fourth part fait.
it is an ancient borough, governed by burgefles ; and
its parifh extends into many adjacent townfhips. It
lias a fnacious church. By means of inland navigation,
it has communication with the rivers Merfey, Dee,
Kibble, Oufe, Trent, Darvvent, Severn, Humber,
1 names, Avon, &c. *, which navigation, including its
windings, extends above 500 miles, in the counties of
Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Lancailer, Wedmoreland,
Stafford, Warwick, Leieefler, Oxford, Worcefler, &c.
I he river Wheelock, after a courfe of about 12 miles
from Mowcop-hill, runs into the Dan a little above
this town.
MIDHURST, a town of Suffex, 52 miles from
London, has been reprefented in parliament ever fmee
the 4th of Edward II. It is a neat fmall town, on a
hill furrounded with others, having the river Arun at
the bottom ; and is a borough by prefeription, govern¬
ed by a bailiff, chofen annually by a jury at a court-
)eet of the lord of the manor.
MIDIAN, or Mad I AN, in Ancient Geography, a
town on the fouth fide of Arabia Petraea, fo called
from one of ihe fons of Abraham by Keturah.— Ano¬
ther Midian, near the Arnon and /Eoplis, in ruins in
Jerome’s time. With the daughters of thefe Midianites
the Ifraelites committed fornication, and were guilty of
idolatry. A branch of the Midianites dwelt on the
Arabian gulf, and were called Kenites : fome of whom
turned profe’ytes, and dwelt with the Ifraelites in the
land of Canaan.
MID-LOTHIAN. See Lothian and Edin¬
burghshire.
MIDSHIP-FRAME, a name given to that timber,
or combination of pieces formed into one timber,
which determines the extreme breadth of the Hup
Vol. XIV. Part I. *
as well as the figure and dimenlion of all the inferior Mitlihip-
timbers. iiamt*
In the article SHIP-Bui/ding, the reader will find a M
full explanation of what is meant by a frame of tim- * n);in.
bers. He will alfo perceive the outlines of ail the ■ - - -
principal frames, with their gradual dimenfions, from
the midlhip frame, delineated in the plane of projection
annexed to that article.
MIDSHIPMAN, a fort of naval cadet, appointed
by the captain of a fhip of war, to lecond the ordcr.i of
the fuperior officers, and affifl in the neeeflary bufincL
of the veffel, tither aboard or alhore.
J he number of midlhipmen, like that of feveral other
officers, is always in proportion to the fize of the ihip
to which they belong. 1 bus a firil-rate man ot war
has 24, and the inferior rates a fuitable number in pro¬
portion. No perfon can be appointed lieutenant with¬
out having previoully lerved two years in the royal navy
in this capacity, or in that of male, bolides having been
at lead tour years in attual fervice at lea, either in mer¬
chant fliips or in the royal navy.
Midthipman is accordingly the dation in which a
young volunteer is trained in the feveral e.xerciles ne-
cehary to attain a fufficient knowledge of the machi¬
nery, movements, and military operations of a drip, to
qualify him for a fea officer
On his firll entrance in a diip of war, every midffiip-
man has feveral difadvantageous circuuidanccs to en¬
counter. I hefe are partly oecafion d by the nature
of the lea ferviee ; and partly by the milisken preju¬
dices of people in general reflecting naval dilciprine,
and tire genius of failors and their officers. No cha-
radler, in their opinion, is more excellent than that of
the common failor, whom they generally fuppofe to
be treated with great feverily by his officers, drawing
a comp:.:iron between them not very advantageous to
the latter. 1 he midihipman ufually comes aboard tinc¬
tured wi h thefe prejudices, efpeciaily if his education
has been amongd the higher rank of people j and if
tire officers happen to arrlwer his opinion, he conceives
an early difgult to the lerviee, from a very partial and
incompetent view of its operations. Blinded by thefe
prepoffedions, lie is thrown oft his guard, and very
loon furprifed to find, amongd ihofe honed failors, a
crew of abandoned mifcrc*ants, ripe for any mifehief
or villanv. Perhaps, after a little obfervation, many
of them will appear to him equally deditute of grati¬
tude, ffiame, or jultice, and only deterred from the
commiffion of any crimes bv the terror of fevere pu-
nifhment. He will difeover, that the pernicious ex-
araple of a few of the vileit in a flup of war is too
often apt to poifon the principles of the gr ated num¬
ber, efpecially if lue reins of diieipline a’e :oo much
relaxed, fo as to foder that idlent-fs and diffipation,
which engender doth, difeafes, and an utter protligacy
of manners. If the midffiipman on many occafions is
obliged to mix with thefe, particularly in ihe exercifes
of extending or reducing the fails in the top.-', he ought
refolutely to guard againd this contagion, with winch
the morals of his inferiors may be infeffed. He ffiould,
however, avail himfelf of their knowledge, and acquire
their expertnefs in managing and fixing the fails and
and never fuffer himfelf to be excelled by an
inferior. He will probably find a virtue in almoft
I’ every
MID [ 42 ] MID
Mull hip- every private failor, which is entirely unknown to
many of his officers : that virtue is emulation, which
is nut indeed mentioned amongtl their qualities by the
gentlemen of terraJirma, by whom their characters are
often copioufly deferibed with very little judgment.
There is hardly a common tar who is not envious of
fuperior fkill in his fellows, and jealous on all oeca-
lions to be outdone in what he confiders as a branch
of his duty : nor is he more afraid of the dreadful con-
fequences of whittling in a ftorm, than of being ttig-
matized with the opprobrious epithet of lubber. For¬
tified againtt this fcandal, by a thorough knowledge
of his bufmefs, the failor will fometimes fneer in pri¬
vate at the execution of orders which to him appear
awkward, improper, or unlike a feaman. Nay, he
will perhaps be malicious enough to fupprefs his own
judgment, and, by a punctual obedience to command,
execute whatever is to be performed in a manner
which he knows to be improper, in order to expofe
the perfon commanding to difgrace and ridicule. Little
{killed in the method of the fchools, he conhders the
officer who cons his leflbn by rote as very ill qualified
for his flation, becaule particular fituations might ren¬
der it neceflary for the faid officer to aflilt at putting
his own orders in praftice. An ignorance in this prac¬
tical knowledge will therefore neceffarily be thought
an unpardonable deficiency by thofe who are to follow
his direftions. Hence the midffiipman who aflociates
with thefe failors in the tops, till he has acquired a
competent {kill in the fervice of extending or reducing
the fails, &c. will be often entertained with a number
»f fcurrilous jells, at the expence of his fuperiors.
Hence alfo he will learn, that a timely application to
thofe exercifes can only prevent him from appearing
in the fame delpicable point of view, which muft cer¬
tainly be a cruel mortification to a man of the fmalleft
fenfibility.
If the midlhipman is not employed in thefe fervices,
which are undoubtedly neceflary to give him a clearer
idea of the different parts of his occupation, a variety
of other objeCfs prefent themfelves to his attention.
Without prefuming to diCfate the iludies which are
moll effential to his improvement, we could wilh to
recommend fuch as are moft fuitable to the bent of his
inclination. Aflronomy, geometry, and mechanics,
which are in the firft rank of fcience, are the mate-
rials which form the {kilful pilot and the fuperior ma- Midflu’p-
riner. 1 he theory of navigation is entirely derived
from the two former, and all the machinery and move-
ments of. a {hip are founded upon the latter. The ac¬
tion of the wind upon the laiis, and the refiftance of
the water at the Hem, naturally dictate an inquiry into
the property of tolids and fluids ; and the Hate of the
{hip, floating on the water, feems to direct his appli¬
cation to the fludy of hydroffatics, and the effects of
gravity. A proficiency in thefe branches of fcience
will equally enlarge his views, with regard to the ope¬
rations of naval war, as directed by the efforts of'
powder and the knowledge of projectiles. The moll
effectual method to excite his application to thofe ftu-
dies, is, perhaps, by looking round the navy, to ob~
ferve the characters of individuals. By this inquiry
he will probably difeover, that the officer who is emi¬
nently {killed in the fciences, will command univerfal
refpeCt and approbation •, and that whoever is fatisfied
with the defpicable ambition of {Inning the hero of an
affembly, will be the objeCt of univerfal contempt.
The attention of the former will be engaged in thofe
ftudies which are highly ufeful to himfelf in particular,
and to the fervice in general. The employment of
the latter is to acquire thole fuperficial accomplilhments
that unbend the mind from every ufeful fcience, emaf-
culate the judgment, and render the hero" infinitely
more dexterous at falling into his llation in the dance
than in the line of battle.
Unlefs the midffiipman has an unconquerable aver-
fion to the acquifition of thofe qualifications which
are fo effential to his improvement, he will very rare¬
ly want opportunities of making a progrefs therein.
Every ftep he advances in thofe meritorious employ¬
ments will facilitate his acceflion to the next in order.
If the dunces, who are his officers or meffmates, trre
rattling the dice, roaring bad verfes, biffing on the flute,
or feraping difeord from the fiddle, his attention to more
noble fludies will fweeten the hours of relaxation. He
fliould recoiled, that no example from fools ought to in¬
fluence his condud, or feduce him from that laudable
ambition which his honour and advantage are equally
concerned to purfue.
MIDWIFE, one whofe profefficn is to deliver wo¬
men in labour. See Midwifery.
M I D W I F E R Y,
Definition. rT,HE art of affifting women in labour. In a more
extended fenfe, it is underftood to comprehend al¬
fo the treatment of the difeafes of women and children.
In this work we ffiall confider it in the former limited
fenfe, viz. as relating to the birth of the offspring of
man.
f Hijlory of Midwifery.—It muft be very obvious that
this art muft have been almoft coeval with mankind :
but in Europe it continued in a very rude ftate till the
1 yth centurv ; and even after phyfic and furgery had
become diftind profeffions, it remained almoft totally
uncultivated.
It is a curious fad, that in the empire of China
the very reverfe of this has taken place. In that em¬
pire, according to the lateft accounts, both phyfic and
furgery are Hill in a ftate ef the utmoft degradation,
even more fo than among the favages of America j
but for fome hundred years, the art of midwifery has
been pradifed by a fet of men deftined to the purpofe
by order of government. Thefe men, who hold in fo-
ciety the fame rank which lithotomifts did in this coun¬
try about the beginning of laft century, are called in
whenever a wToman has been above a certain number of
hours in labour, and employ a mechanical contrivance
for
43
MIDWIFERY.
Hi'lory.
4
S
s
for completing the delivery without injury to the in¬
fant. A certain number of fuch individuals is allotted
to each diilrift of a certain population.
It is faid, that the Chinefe government was led to
make this provifion for alleviating the fufferings of
child-bearing women, in confequence of a repreienta-
tion, that annually many women died undelivered, and
that in the majority of cafes the caufe of obllrucliun
might have been removed by very Ample mechanical
expedients.
Both Sir George Staunton and Mr Barrow were
ignorant of this fa£t and the latter in particular ex-
pref-ly mentions, that there are no men-midwives in
China. But the writer of this article had his informa¬
tion from a more authentic fource than the works of
gentlemen rvho were only a few months in that coun¬
try, and were in a great meafure treated as date pri-
foners. He has it, through the medium of a friend,
from a gentleman who redded upwards of twenty years
as lurgeon to the Britirh factory at Canton, and who
had both the ability and the inclination to learn, during
the courfe of fo long a reudence, all the cuftoms and.
prejudices of the natives relating to the prefervation of
human health.
’Towards the end of the 17th century, the fame
caufes which had fo long before led to the cultivation
of midwifery in China produced the fame effeft in
Europe. The dangers to which women are fometimes
expofed during labour excited the companion of the be¬
nevolent ; 'fo that a confiderable part of the Aril hof-
pital which was eilabliihed for the reception of the in¬
digent Ack, the Hotel Dieu of Paris was appropriated
to lying-in women.
The opportunities of praflice which that hofpital af¬
forded, directed the attention of medical men to the
numerous accidents which happen during labour, and
to the various difeafes which occur after delivery. Pu¬
blic teaching followed, and foon after the cuftom of
employing men in the practice of midwifery began.
From this period the art became rapidly improved ;
and it is now in many parts of Europe, and particularly
in Great Britain, in as great a ftate of perfedlion as
phyAc or furgery.
In the year 1725, a profelforfliip of midwifery was
eftablilhed in the univerAty of Edinburgh •, and the town-
coui. il at the fame time ordained, that no woman
fhould be allowed to pra&ife midwifery within the li¬
berties of the city, without having previoufly obtained
a certiAcate from the profeffor of her being properly
qualiAed. This falutary regulation has fallen into de-
fuetude.
There can be no doubt that the improvement of the
art of midwifery was chiefly in confequence of medical
men direfting their attention to the fubje61 •, but the
propriety of men being employed in fuch a profeflion is
much queftioned by many individuals of conflderable
refpe&ability.
Dr John Gregory, in his Comparative View, p. 22.
fays, “ every other animal brings forth its young with¬
out any afliftance, but we think a midwife underlfands
it better.” Had this eminent philofoper faid, “ other
animals content themfelves with the clothing which
providence has beftowed, but we think it neceffary to
cover our bodies with the workfhanfhip of weavers,”
very few in this northern climate would have attended
to the fneer. His fon, the prefent profeftor, has impro- Of
ved upon the idea. He feems to fuppofe that women ('orcrp’ lon;
without any inilruflion, and of courfe without any
knowledge of the fubjefl, are capable of aflifting one
another while in labour j and in the fportivenefs of
his lively imagination, he compares men-midwives to
that fpecies of frog, in which, according to the allega¬
tion of Reaumur, the male draws out the ova from the
female, or, to ufe the naturalift’s words, “ accouche la
feme llel"
It appears to us that this queftion, on which much
declamation has been employed by the parties who
have agitated it, may be brought within a very narrow
compafs. It may be affirmed as a fa£t eitablilhed be¬
yond the reach of controverfy, that fometimes dangers
and difficulties occur during labour (from caufes to be
explained in a fubfequent part of this effay), which can
be leffened or removed by thofe only who have an inti¬
mate knowledge of the llrufture of the human bedv
and of the practice of phyfle. On fuch occaAons, il
mu ft be admitted, medical men alone can be ufeful.
But as fuch labours occur only in proportion of two
or three in the hundred, the general pratlice might be
confided to mid wives, if they could be taught to manage
ordinary cafes, and to forelee and diftmguilh difficulties
or dangers, fo as to procure in fufficient time additional
affiftance. It is on this point that the dec 1 Aon of thr
queftion muft depend. It conftfts with the knowledge
of the writer of this article, that women may be taught
all this. But there are many who allege, that a little
knowdedge being a dangerous thing, midwive* acquire
a felf-fufficiency which renders them averfe from call¬
ing in fuperior affiftance, and that, in confequence, tney
often occafton the moft deplorable accidents both to
mother and child. In England this is the populai opi¬
nion, fo that there women arc almoft entirely excluded
from the practice of midwifery. A ftmilar prejudice
againft midwives has, it is believed, begun in fome parts
of Scotland ; but it is prefumed this will gradually
ceafe, when it is conftdered that, in general, the Scotch
midwives are regularly inftru<51ed, and are at the fame
time both virtuous and induftrious. If they attend
ftriftly to their duty, and invariably prefer their patient*
fafety to their own feelings or fuppofed intereft, they
will defervedly retain the public conAdence. But if in
cafes of difficulty or danger they truft to their own ex¬
ertions, or from interefted motives decline the affiftance
of able praftitioners, and if they interfere in the treat¬
ment of the difeafes of women and children, they will
in a few7 years be excluded from practice.
Divijion of the fubjccl. In order to exhibit an ac- y
curate view of what relates to the birth of man, wre fhall
conAder, in the Arft place, conception •, fecondly, the
effefta of impregnation ; thirdly, the a£I of childbearing ;
and laftly, the deviations from the ordinary courfe w hich
fometimes happen. 1 hefe topics will form the fubjefts
of the following chapters.
Chap. I. Of Conception.
Three circumftances are required for conception in ^
the human race, viz. puberty *, a healthy, vigorous, and
natural ftate of the parts fubfervient to the operation in
both fexes ; and fuccefsful fexual intereourfe.
1. The arve of puberty in women differs conftderably
F 2 in
M I D W
O? in dirTcrcnt climates. In Europe it takes place com-
g.-u rpuon. mori]y. between the fourteenth and fixteenth year. This
important era is marked by certain changes both in
the mind and body. The girl feels fcnfalions to which
flie had been formerly unaccuflomed. She lofes a relith
for her former amufements, and even for her youthful
companions. She feeks folitude, indulges in the de¬
prefling paflions, and thefe are excited by the moft ap¬
parently trifling caufes. She feels oceafionally certain
defires which modefty reprefies j and it is by degrees
only that the regains her former tranquillity.
J he changes in her body are even more ftrongly
marked than thofe in her mind. Her breads aflume
that form which adds to the beauty of her perfon, and
renders them fit for nourifhing her infant } and every
part of the genital fyftem is enlarged. A periodi¬
cal difeharge from the uterus renders the woman
perfeff.
In young men the fame caufes produce very different
effefls. i he lad, about fifteen or fixteen, feels a great
increafe of ftrength •, his features expand, his voice be¬
comes rough, his ftep firm, In's body athletic; and he
engages voluntarily in exercifes which require an exer¬
tion of firength and activity. The changes in his
mind are as firongly marked as thofe in his body. He
lofe.s that reillef; puerility which had diflinguifhed his
early years, and becomes capable of attending fleadily
to one object. His behaviour to the fair fex is fudden-
ly altered. He no longer fliewrs that contempt for wo¬
men, which he had formerly betrayed. He is foftened,
approaches them with deference, and experiences a de¬
gree of pleafure in their company, for which he can
fcarcely account. In him too there is an important
change in the condition of the genital organs.
2. Unlefs the parts which conilitute peculiarity of fex
be in n healthy, vigorous, and natural Hate, conception
cannot take place.
In women, conception is prevented if the organs be
too much relaxed j if there be obflru&ion betwreen the
external and internal parts •, if any preternatural dif¬
eharge take place from the internal parts; if the men-
ftrual evacuation be not natural in every refpef}, and if
the appendages of the uterus, called fallopian tubes, and
ovaria, be not of the natural tlruflure.
In men, the fame circumftance happens if the organs
be too much relaxed ; if the orifice of the urethra be
in an improper fituation j if the urethra be difeafed •, if
the teftes be not in a natural healthy Hate ; and if there
be any defedt in the ere&ores penis; which prevents the
proper eredlion of that organ.
3. The fexual intercourfe cannot be fuccefsful unlefs
fomewhat necelfary for conception be furnilhed by both
lexes. This confifts in the male of a fluid fecreted by
the teftee ; and in the female, of the detachment of a
fubilance, fuppofed to refemble a very minute veficle
fituated in the ovarium, and called by phyfiologifts
ovum. Each ovarium contains a number of thefe vefi-
cles. After every conception, certain marks of the
detachment of the ovum remain in the refpeflive
ovarium.
When the circumflances required for conception con¬
cur, a being is produced which generally refembles
both parents. This refemblanee is moft ftrikingly
marked in the human fubjeft, when one of the parents
5
1 F E R Y. Chap. L
is an European, and the other an African. What is Of
called a mulatto is produced. Conception.
1 he human race poftefles the power of propagation ^ "f
in common with all the other fpecies of the animal
kingdom, and alio, it has been fait), with the vegetable
kingdom.
As generation then, as it has been ftyled, is common
to two of the kingdoms of nature, it has been imagined
by ingenious men, that this wonderful operation is
regulated in both by a certain general law. Eut they
have differed much in their account of this law. The
queftion at iflfue between the two parties is whether
the embryos of animals be prepared by the fexual in¬
tercourfe out of inorganic materials, or whether they
pre-exift in the bodies of animals, and are only deve¬
loped as it were by that intercourfe. The former of
thefe opinions is called the dodtrine of epigenefis, the
latter that of evolution.
Both dodlrines have been maintained with much in¬
genuity by equally refpedlable authorities. Negative
arguments have been adduced in favour cf the one,
politive in fupport of the other, and it muft be confefs-
ed that the balance between them feems nearly equal.
I he pre-exiftence of ova in the oviparous animals ap¬
pears a pofitive argument in favour of evolution ; but
the fatirical remark of a late witty author, * that, were * Bhmen*
this theory true, every individual of the human race bach.
muft have been lodged in the ovaria of our firft parent,
by affording a negative argument in favour of epigenefis,
reftores the balance.
The various arguments advanced on each fide by the
oppofite parties in this difpute are fo very numerous,
that wre cannot attempt to detail them in this work ;
and on a fubjedl which has divided the opinions of fo
many able phyfiologifts, it would be prefumption to de¬
cide peremptorily.
If generation be regarded as an animal operation,
one is led to inquire whether the product be the refult
of the combined influence of both fexes, or whether it
be produced by either fex alone.
T he firft opinion w-as generally adopted by phyfiolo-
gifts, till about the end of the 17th century, when an
accidental difeovery convinced many that the embryo
was produced by the male parent alone ; and another
difeovery feme years afterwards again overturned that
opinion, and rendered it believed by not a few that
the embyro is furnifhed exclufively by the female
parent.
Several circumftanees concurred to render the firft
opinion probable; the ftrufrure of the organs which con-
ftitute peculiarity of fex in both parents, the circum-
ftances neceffary for fuccefsful impregnation, and the
fimilitude of children to both parents, appear very ftrong
arguments in its favour.
The fecond theory, although firft brought into vogue
about the end of the 1 7th century by the difeoveries of
Leeuwenhoeck, had been formerly propofed by the fol¬
lowers of Pythagoras. Their argument was analogy :
the feed, faid they, is fown in the earth, nouriftied
and evolved there ; fo the male femen is fown in
the uterus, and in the fame manner nourifhed and
evolved.
Leeu'wenhoeck’s difeovery feemed a more conclufive
argument in favour of the theory than vague analogy.
He
L
Chap. T. MID W
of He obferved innumerable animalcula in the feminal
Conception, 0f maies 0f many animals. Thefe he imagined
» to be embryos.
But as animalcula of apparently the fame nature have
been obferved in many animal fluids befides the femen
raafculinum, the opinion of Leemfenhoeck. and the
theory itfelf are overturned.
*5 It was owing principally to the labours, induftry, and
ingenuity of Baron Haller, that the third tiieory, that
of the pre-exifting germ, became falhionable.
His obfervatious feem to contain a demonllration of
the faff.
Thofe who have adopted this theory, imagine that
the femen mafeulinum polfeffes the power of itiululating
the various parts of the pre-exifting embryo. And
hence they attribute the fimilitude to both parents, and
partieularly the appearance of the hybrid productions, to
that tluid nouriihing certain parts, and new-arranging
others. But if this were true, then the femen mafeuli¬
num of all animals ftiould pofiefs the power of ftimulat-
ing the germs of all female animals *, and betides, in each
clafs of animals it fhould poffefs certain fpecific powers
of giving a direction to the growth of parts. Experi¬
ence, however, has not proved this to be the cafe, for
the hybrid productions are very limited } and we may
be permitted perhaps, without the imputation of arro¬
gance in pretending to fearch into the intentions of the
Author of nature, to obferve, that had the femen maf¬
eulinum been poflefled of fuch powers, the whole fpe-
x exes of animals would have been foon confound‘.'d, and
the whole animal kingdom would foou have returned to
that chaos from which it has been allegorically faid it
originated.
Yet we are reduced to the alternative of either re-
jeCfing the theory, or of believing that the femen does
poflfefs the powers alluded to. If we examine attentive¬
ly the anatomical difeovery on which this theory is
built, we fhall perhaps be inclined to believe that the
foundation of the whole is very infufficient ; and hence
to conclude that the great fuperftruClure is in a very
tottering condition. If it be poflible that the attach¬
ment of the chick to the yolk of the egg fhoold be in
confequence of inofeulation, the theory muft fall to the
ground. Haller has endeavoured to obviate this objec¬
tion, but not with his ufual judgment.
Two circumfiances, however, feem to fhow that the
attachment is really by inofculation : i. That veffels
are feen in the membrane of the yolk evidently con¬
taining blood before the heart of the chick begins to
beat; yet thefe vefiels afterwards appear to depend on
the vafcular fyftem of the chick. And, 2. That in
many animals, as in the human fubjeCt, the umbilical
cord feems to be attached to the abdomen by inofcula¬
tion for there is a circle round the root of the cord
which refembles a cicatrix, and within a few days af¬
ter birth, the cord uniformly drops off at that very
circle, whatever portion may have been retained after
delivery.
There is one obje&ion equally applicable to all the
three theories, viz. the difficulty of explaining the fteps
of the procefs. A variety of explanations have been
offered by ingenious men. Spallanzani and Mr John
Hunter lately, Haller and Bonnet formerly, have ren¬
dered themfelves confpicuous on this fubje61. Spallan¬
zani, in particular, appears to many to have produced,
I F E R Y. 4^
by his artificial impregnation, the moft convincing Effedts of
proofs of the pre-exiftence of the germ. But to what ImPfegna-
do his celebrated experiments amount? They {how, that ■ J ‘ ,
in all animals it is neceffary that the femen mafeulinum
ffiould be applied to the fomewhat expelled by the fe¬
male during the coitus, otherwife impregnation cannot
take place. But was not this univerfally acknowledged
before the abbe was born ? In the unfortunate frogs
who were the fubjedts of his experiments, the whole
operation of generation was completed except the ap¬
plication of the male femen to the fubftances expelled
by the female. Nature, by eftabliihing that the bufi-
nefs ffiould be carried on in water, fhows that the fe¬
men muft be diluted, otherwife it cannot fecundate.
The abbe only inxitated nature. He left the queition
in the ftate in which he found it. His experiment on
the bitch may appear more conclufive ; but alas! it has
never fucceeded with any perfon but himfelf.
On the whole, ftnee the procefs of generation is fo
obfeure that no rational explanation of it has yet been
offered, are we not entitled to conclude that the gene¬
ral theory which accounts moft falisfadlorily for the
various phenomena which impregnation exhibits is the
bell ; and confequently, that the produdl of genera¬
tion cannot pre-exift in the body of either parent exchi-
fively ?
Chap. II. Effefts of Impregnation.
iS
In confequence of impregnation, certain important
changes take place in the uterine fyftem of the human
fubjedl. We (hall confider the natural changes only.
On fome occafions, there are morbid changes ; but we
ffiall not notice them, except in fo far as fome of them
ferve to illuftrate the nature of the ufual ones.
The firft vifible change is on the ovarium. One of
thofe organs fwells out at one point like a fmall papilla,
then burfts, and fomewhat is difeharged.
A fubftance is found in the ovarium after this, which 19
is called corpus luteum. Uoedcrer lias deferibed very
accurately its appearance a few hours after delivery.
He fays “ corpus luteum locatur in rotundo apice. To-
tam ovarii craffiliem occupat, immediate pone ovarii
membranam ilia fede tenuiorem .locatum •, a!) ovario
cum quo cellulofse ope cohxeret feparari flue luefione
poteft ; nulli peculiari ovarii rimae refpondet : neque
eanalis in illo excavatus, fed totum folidum eft. Lu-
teus color eft, fubftantia acinofa, acinis admodum com-
paftis et ad fefe preffis ambitus rotund-us. Poteft aliquo
modo, velut in glandulis fuprarenalibus, duplex fubftantia
diftingui, corticalis et medullaris } quarum ilia inaequa-
lis craffitiei 1 — 2 lin. lutea comprehcndit hanc medulr
larem albam, quae tenuis et membrana quaft callofa, ali-
um nucleum flavum includit caffiorem It is very *Roederer.
large foon after conception, and then gradually be-Aowrj,
comes fmaller ; but never totally dilappears. Roederer Uter[ Hu-
obferves, “ poll puerperium eo magis contrahi et indu-y^,^ f^_
rari ilia corpora videntur, quo remotior fit partus •, ^ p
qualia videlicet obfervantur in feminis quee nuper par-
turn non ediderunt.
“ Lutea corpora quo ferius h partu obfervantur cumfta
glandulis fuprarenalibus fimilia effe videnter, duplice
nempe fubftantia, exteriore corticali, folida feu flava
lutea et nucleo fufeo.: velut. etiam ill* glandulae 00m-j ifia,
preffa funt f .” In cafes where there is a plurality ofp. 50.
children.
46
Effects of children, there is evidently a corpus luteum to each
Impregna- Jn fomc quadrupeds, as in the bitch or cat, the
, , number of young in the uterus may be generally known
by the correfponding corpora lute a in the ovaria.
2° The next change in the human uterine lyftem which
deferves notice is that in the fallopian tubes. They
fwell out towards the fimbriated extremity, and form a
cavity which has been called antrum. Roederer was
the firft who obferved and accurately delineated this
change.
He fays, p. 14. loco citato, “ In hoc etiam utero an¬
trum tuba; dextrae apparet, c.f. tab. i. not. 5. ubi qui-
dem in utraque tuba adeft, in hujus iconis utero ad fo-
lam tubam dextram antrum pertinet. Ad utcrum fe-
minoe o&iduum puerpcrce non longe a fimbria in ifiiuf-
modi antrum tuba finiftra prominet: dextra quidem
fine antro eit, fed verfus fimbriam ita fleflitur ut ultima
ilexura dimidium pollicem ultra reliquam tubam eftera-
tur. Tubas feminse qua; mox a maturo partu mortua
eft, et alterius tres dies puerperse antris quidem carent,
fed multum verfus fimbrias dilatantur. An eft faCta
conceptione ifta antra nafeuntur ?
“ In uteri, tab. iv. ovario dextro luteum corpus latet
in uteri feminse o£liduum puerperae ovario finiftro •, in
uteri, tab. i. ovario finiftro.” He adds, “ ulterior! iuda-
gine ifta antra non indigna efie mihi videntur. Licebit
forfan conje&are aliquid liquoris ex veficula graafiana
in tubam lapfum ct ad introitum morans illam dila-
tam.”
2I But the moft aftonifhing changes ar6 thofe produced
in the uterus itfelf. Its parietes feparate, a cavity is
formed which becomes filled with a fluid, and the os
uteri is clofed up. The matter contained within the
cavity foon afliimcs an organized form. It is find that
fume time after conception, a fmall veficle is obferved
attached at one point to the internal furface of the
uterus j that the reft of the parietes is covered with a
gelatinous fluid', and that the whole internal furface af-
fumes a fiocculent appearance. By degrees the veficle,
which is in faift the ovum containing the embryo, in-
creafes fo much in fize that it nearly fills the w hole
cavity in which it is contained, and then its ftrutdure
becomes the objedl of our fenfes.
i3 The increafe of fize in the uterus is very gradual.
It is at firft confined almoft,entirely to the fundus, and
it proceeds fo flowly that it does not leave the cavity of
the pelvis till nearly the fourth month. The principal
change in the cervix for the firft five months is the com¬
plete clofure of the orifice, which is effedled by a ge¬
latinous fluid; afterwards the cervix is gradually ex¬
tended, and at laft its form is obliterated, the whole
uterus becoming like an oval pouch.
After the fifth month the increafe of fize in the ute¬
rus is very rapid. The fundus can be juft felt above the
pubes about the fifth month, but at the end of the ninth
month it extends to the fcrobiculus cordis.
Some authors have alleged that the changes in the
cervix and in the fituation of the fundus are fo uni ¬
formly regular in every cafe, that by attending to them
it is poflible to afeertain the exadl period of impregna¬
tion. But in this refpeft they are much miftaken ; the
changes being not only different in different women,
but alfo in the fame woman in different pregnancies.
The texture of the parietes of the uterus feems much
Chap. II.
altered after impregnation. It becomes fpongy and Effects of
fibrous. The fibres run in very different directions, and Impregna-
from their power and appearance are certainly mufeu- , tlon' ,
lar. The blood-veffels become much, enlarged, but are
ftill in a tortuous direction. They are particularly
large at one part of the uterus.
The lymphatic veffels, which in the unimpregnated
uterus cannot be demonftrated by anatomifts, become,
as well as the blood-veffels, remarkably large.
The ovum is not often expelled entire till after the 2.>
eighth or twelfth week after conception. It is lhaped
fomewhat like an egg, and is about the latter period
about four inches in length. When cut into, it is
found to confift of four layers or membranes, and to
contain a foetus furrounded by a certain quantity of
water and conneftcd to one part of the parietes (which
is confiderably thicker than the reft) by a vafeuiar
cord.
The external membrane covers the whole ovum.
It is thick, fpongy, and very vafeuiar, the veffels evident¬
ly deriving their blood from the uterus ) it has three
perforations which correfpond with the openings of the
os tincse and fallopian tubes. It has been called decidua,
tunica filamentofa, &c. but its meft ordinary appellation
is fpongy chorion.
The fccond membrane proceeds from tire edges of j;
that part into which the valvular rope which connecls
the foetus is attached. It was firft pointed out to ana¬
tomifts by Dr William Hunter, and called by him
decidua rcjlexa. The name unfortunately records to
pollerity the abfurd idea rtfpefling its origin which
w'as entertained by Dr Hunter. It is not fo thick and
fpongy as the former membrane, nor fo vafcular. It
lies loolely between the external membrane and that to
be next deferibed \ but it appears only tor a ftiort time,
as it foon becomes blended with the others.
The third membrane is thin and tranfparent, but a£
ftrong. It is lined with the fourth membrane, and lies
in the fame fituation with it. It contains no veffels at
this period of impregnation conveying red blood in the
human fubjeft, but in the cow the veffels are very di-
ftinft at every period. This membrane how ever in the
early period of impregnation is very vafeuiar, and its
veffels are derived from the foetus. The hiftory of a
cafe of morbid impregnation, w here the foetus w7as ex¬
tra-uterine, detailed by Dr Clarke in the “ Tranf-
aflions of a Society for the Improvement of Medical
and Chirurgical Knowledge,” proves this circumftance
very clearly. He fays, p. 220. “ a laceration was found
to be in the fallopian tube about an inch and a half in
length, each extremity of which was about an equal
diftance from the refpedlive termination of the tube in
the fimbriae and in the uterus. The diftenfion of
the tube at this part was nearly of the fize of a large
walnut, forming a kind of pouch. More of the coagu¬
lated blood being removed from the lacerated part, the
flaggy veffels of the chorion immediately appeared, in-
terlperfed with fmall coagula, and lying in contact
with the internal furface of the pouch formed by the
fallopian tube \ thefe being feparated, and the chorion
divided, the amnios (hewed itfelf, containing a foetus per-
fedlly formed of above fix or feven weeks growth,” &c.
This membrane is called the true chorion.
The fourth membrane is even thinner and more tranf- a?
parent
M I D W I F E R Y.
Chap. IT. M I D W
Efforts of parent than the former. It lines the whole internal
1' P.re£na-furfaee of the oymn, and together with the chorion is
. tK>n' , continued along the vafcular cord which connects the
ovum and foetus. Between this membrane and the
chorion, near the infertion of the vafcular cord, a fniall
white ve'icle appears very diflinft at this period ; it was
•firll deferibed and delineated by Dr W. Hunter, and
was called bv him veficula umbilicalis. At the full
period of utero-geftation it is no longer vitible, being
then quite tranfparent.
1'he fcetus at this period is between two and three
inches in length, and its external conformation is near¬
ly complete.
The fluid contained in the ovum is in fuch quantity
as to prevent the foetus from touching the parietes of
the covering in which it is included. It is a clear wa¬
tery fluid, of greater fpeciflc gravity than water, and
of a faltifli tafle. When examined chemically it is
found not coaguhble by heat or alcohol, and to contain
a proportion of ammoniacal and fea fait. I his fluid is
called liquor amnii.
The connexion of the parts thus enumerated with the
uterus cannot be explained, unlefs the appearance of the
ovum at the full period of geftation be deferibed.
?8 The ovum then conflfls of three membranes ; a fpongy
vafcular fubftance called placenta, to which the foe¬
tus is conne&ed by a vafcular rope, and the liquor
amnii.
The three membranes conflfl: of the fpongy chorion,
the true chorion, and the amnios.
The fpongy chorion covers the whole. Its veflcls
are numerous, and they can be filled by throwing hot
wax into the veffels of the uterus.
The true chorion and amnios are in the fame fitua-
tion as in the early months, being continued along the
navel-ftring. They are quite tranfparent, and contain
no vifible veflels of any defeription.
The placenta is a large vascular fpongy mafs, of va¬
rious forms in different cafes, mo generally approaching
to a round one, placed on the outfide of the true chorion,
between it and the fpongy chorion. Its external furface
is lobulated ; its internal or that towards the foetus is
fmooth, except from the riling of the blood-veffels.
It is not attached to the uterus at any regular place,
being fometimes at the cervix or fide, but mod general¬
ly about the fundus. On the one fide it receives blood
from the mother, and on the other from the child.
Mr John Hunter was the firft who clearly traced the
infertion of the blood-veffels in the uterus into the
placenta. He deferibes it thus (d) : “ The late inde¬
fatigable Dr M‘Kenzie, about the month of May t 7 >4,
when afliftant to Dr Smellie, having procured the body
of a pregnant woman who had died undelivered at the
full term, had inje&ed both the veins and arteries with
particular fuccefs } the veins being filled with yellow,
the arteries with red.
“ Having opened the abdomen, and expofed the ute¬
rus, he made an incifion into the fore part, quite
through its fubftance, and came to fomewhat having
the appearance of an irregular mafs of injedled matter,
•which afterwards proved to be the placenta. This ap-
I F E 11 Y. 47
pearanee being new, he flopped, and greatly obliged EfleAs of
me by defiring my attendance to examine the parts, in
which there appeared fomething fo uncommon. ■ A' .
“ I firft railed, with great care, part of the uterus
from the irregular mafs above mentioned * m doing
which, I obferved regular pieces of wax, pafling ob¬
liquely between it and the uterus, which broke off,
leaving part upon this mafs *, and when they were at¬
tentively examined, towards the uterus, plainly appear¬
ed to be a continuation of the veins pafling trom it to
this fubftance or placenta.
“ I Irkewife perceived other veflels, about the fize of
n crow quill, patting in the lame manner, although not
fo obliquely : thefe aifo broke upon teparating the pla¬
centa and uterus, leaving a fmail portion on the furface
of the placenta •, and, on examination, they were dif-
covered to be continuations ot the arteiies of the uterus.
My next flop was to trace thefe veflels into the fub-
ftance of what appeared placenta, which I firft at¬
tempted in a vein \ but that foon loft the regularity of
a veifel, by terminating at once upon the furlace of the
placenta, in a very fine fpongy fubftance, the interftiees
of which were filled with the yellow injected matter.
This termination being new, 1 repeated the fame kind
of examination on other veins, which always led me to
the fame terminations, never entering the fubftance of
the placenta in the form of a veffel. I next examined
the arteries, and, tracing them in the fame manner to-
xrard the placenta, found that they made a twirt, or
clofe fpiral turn upon themfelves, and then were loft on
its furface. On a more attentive view, I perceived that
they terminated in the fame way as the veins; for op-
pofite to the mouth of the artery, the fpongy fubftance
of the placenta was readily obferved, and was inter¬
mixed with the red injection.
“ Upon cutting into the placenta, I difeovered, in
many places of its fubftance, yellow injection ; in others
red, and in many others thefe two colours mixed. This
fubftanee of the placenta, now filled with injection, had
nothing of the vafcular appearance, nor that of extra-
vafation, but had a regularity in its form, which ftiew-
ed it to be a natural cellular ftrudfure fitted for a refer-
voir for blood.
“ In forae of the veffels leading from the placenta
to the uterus, I peiceived that the red injection of the
arteries (which had been firft injefted) had pafled into
them out of the fubftance of the placenta, mixing itlelf
with the yellow injection. I alfo obferved, that the
fpongy chorion, called the decidua by Dr Hunter, was
very vafcular, its veiYels coming from, and returning to,
the uterus, being filled with the different coloured in-
jetftions.”
It appears then that the placenta has a cellular ftruc- 29
ture, which receives blood from the arteries of the mo¬
ther, and that there are veins by which that blood is
returned, fo that not a drop paffes into the foetus. Of
this practitioners of midwifery have a very familiar
proof. When the placenta is retained attached to the
uterus, after the birth of the child, not a drop of blood
paffes from the umbilical cord, except what was con¬
tained in the ramifications of the foetal veffels when the
child
(d) Obfervations on certain parts of the Animal Occonomy, by John Hunter, p. 127.
48 MID W
In! !ri fcparalcd. ^ cl, if a fmall portion of the
tion. et^Se ^ie placenta be detached, inch a quantity of
v ...■ y i > blood efcapes from the uterine velTels of tlje mother, as
fometlines proves fatal to life: a circumflancc nhich
clearly liiews that the blood is Hill conveyed into the
■cellular part of the placenta.
It has been faid, that the placenta on one fide re-
-ceives blood from the foetus. In fact, the grcatcil part
of the placenta fee ms to be made up of ramifications of
the foetal veflels. 1 he internal iliacs of the foetus are
conveyed, through the vafcular rope which connects the
placenta and cliild, into the placenta : they then ramiiy
■into as many minute branches as the pulmonary arteries
do in tne lungs of the adult j they then terminate in
'various branches, which, uniting, form one large trunk
that is conveyed along the vafeular rope, and returns
all the blood which had been diibributcd by the ar¬
teries.
As Mr Hunter remarks, “ the arteries from the foe¬
tus pafs out to a confiderable length, under the name
of the umbilical cord ; and when they arrive at the pla¬
centa, ramify upon its furface, fending into its fubftance
branches which pafs through it, and divide into fmaller
and fmaller, till at lad they terminate in veins : thefe
uniting, become larger and larger, and end in one
which at laft terminates in the proper circulation of the
foetus. i his courfe of veflels, and the blood’s motion
in them, is fimilar to the courfe of the veflels, and the
* y. Hun- motion of the blood, in other parts of the body*.”
tsr, loc. cit. The foetus, at the full period, Weighs from between
P- I35- 6 and 7, to between 10 and 11 pounds, and meafures
3° from 18 to 22 niches. It is placed within the ovum in
fuch a manner as to occupy the lead pofiible fpace.
This pofition has been beautifully deferibed by Harvey.
“ Infans in utcro utplurimum reperitur, adduftis ad
abdomen genibus, flex is retrofum crudbus, pedibus de-
cuflatis, manibufque ad caput fublatis, quanim alteram
circa tempora vel auriculas, alteram ad genam detinet,
ubi maculae albse, tanquam confricationis veftigia, in
cute cernuntur : fpina in orbem fleftilur, caput ad ge¬
nua incurvato eollo propendet. Tali membrorum fitu
+ Harvey qualcm in fomno per quictem quaerimusf.”
Erercit. dc The foetus is diifinguiflied from the adult by a great
Tartu. many peculiarities in ilrufture : thefe the limits of this
'’r work do not permit us to enumerate. We {hall there¬
fore notice only one peculiarity, which didinguiflies the
foetus not only from the adult, but even from the na-
tus, viz. the didribution of the blood through its
body.
It is well known, that, in the adult and in the na-
tus, all the blood of the body, brought by the two eavtc
into the anterior auricle of the heart, and from that in¬
to the correfponding ventricle, is diftributed by the
pulmonary artery over the whole fubdance of the lungs,
by means of the mod minute ramifications j from whence
it is returned by the pulmonary veins into the pofterior
auricle, and being then fent into the poderior ventricle,
ic, by its action, tranfmitted to every part of the body,
through the aorta and its ramifications.
Eut in the foetus the blood follows another courfe.
All the blood of the foetus is returned from the placen¬
ta by the umbilical vein, which, penetrating the abdo¬
men, paffes between the lobes of the liver, and thence
at right angles divides into two branches nearly, by one
I F £ R Y. Chap. II
of which, called duel us <vcr.ofus, a confiderable quantity tfiects ot
of blood is carried into the vena cava ; by the other the Il1'I»iegna,
remainder of the blood is lent to the vena portarum j
and, after having circulated through the liver, it too is *
brought by two ihort venous trunks, the venae cavze he*
paticte, juft above the diaphragm, into the vena cava.
All the blood thus received into the vena cava, is car*
ried to the anterior auricle ; but a part only is tranfmit¬
ted to the correfponding ventricle, for by a particular
apparatus, a quantity is at once fent into the pofterior
or left auricle. Anatomifts have differed in opinion
concerning the apparatus by which this is accomplilhed.
As there is a fmall oval hole of communication between
the auricles of the foetus, called foramen ovale, having
a valve placed in fuch a manner as to prevent any fluid
from pa fling from the left into the right, but to admit
it from the right into the left, it lias been generally
imagined that the blood paffed through that opening.
Eut the fimultaneous adlion of the auricles in the natus
feemed to contradidl this opinion. A difeovery made
by Hr Wolfe of Peterftmrgh appears to folve the riddle.
He obferved, that in the calf, before birth, the vena
cava, at its entry into the heart, divides into two
branches, by the one of which it fends blood to the
right, and by the other to the left auricle. It is pro¬
bable that a fimilar effe£l is produced in the human
foetus by a different Itrufture.
Of the blood fent by the right ventricle into the pul¬
monary artery, a fmall quantity only is carried to the
lungs; for near the point at which that artery is di¬
vided into the two branches that go into the lobes of the
lungs, a large branch is font off, which joining the
aorta and pulmonary artery, carries a great proportion
of the blood immediately into it. What is circulated
through the lungs is conveyed by the pulmonary veins
into the left auricle, &.C.
All the blood thus received into the aorta is diftri¬
buted through the fevcral parts of the fvftem, and a
large part of it is fent out by the internal iliaes, which,
parting but at the abdomen, conftitute the umbilical ar¬
teries, and diftribute the blood in the manner already
mentioned over the placenta, from which it is returned
by the veins.—The great difference then between the
foetus and natus in the circulation of the blood, confifts
in the quantity diftributed through the lungs.
To complete the defeription of the ovum at the full
period of geftation, it only remains that we Ihould fay
iomething' on the vafcular rope, which connects the
placenta and foetus, and bn the liquor amnii.
This rope is called the funis uir.biiicalis. It termi¬
nates by one end at the placenta, and by the other at
the centre of the abdomen of the foetus. Its length
and thicknefs differ materially in different cafes. It is
longer in the human fubjedt than in any other animal.
It is found generally to be from eighteen to twenty-fix
inches in length, and in thicknefs about the fize of the
little finger. Externally it is formed of the chorion
and amnios, together with cellular fubftance. Inter¬
nally it is found to be compofed of three blood-veffels,
and a quantity of gelatinous matter. The veflels con-
fift of two arteries anxl one vein : the vein being as
large as both arteries united. Thefe go in a fpi^al di¬
rection, and often form knots by their coils or twiftings,
A very fmall artery and vein are likewife perceived to
go
Chap. H.
M I D W I F E R Y.
49
33
^•4
Effects of go along the cord between the two layers of chorion
Impregna- ami amnios, which cover it, into the veiicula umbilica-
tl0“] lis. Thefe are called omphalo-mefenteric.
In quadrupeds, a canal, called urachus, is continued
from the urinary bladder, along the umbilical cord, and
communicates with a membrane, which, like this canal,
does not exift in the human fubjeft, called allantois.
The urine of the young animal is collected in that
membrane.
Some anatomifts, as Albinus, have imagined, that
the urachus and allantois do exift in the human fubjeft.
They were deceived by the appearance of the veficula
. umbilicalis and omphalo-menfenteric veifels.
The liquor amnii is never in fuch proportion to the
foetus in the latter, as in the early periods of pregnan¬
cy. It h lefs pure too at that period, being often pol¬
luted with the ftools of the foetus. Except in this cir-
cumftance, its chemical qualities are the fame.
We (hall now offer a few obfervations on the changes
which have been deferibed.
1. The caufe of the increafe of growth in the uterus
is very obfeure. The acceffion of fluids will account
for the phenomenon; but a ftrong obje&ion occurs
againft conlidering that as the caufe, i. e. that the ute¬
rus increafes to a certain degree in fize, even although
the direftton of fluids be to another part, as where the
foetus is extra-uterine. Boehmerus has marked this very
accurately in a cafe of extra-uterine conception, which
he has detailed (a). The developement of its fibres
feems to prove, that the increafe of fize depends on a
certain energy of the uterus itfelf j perhaps this may
appear a very ambiguous mode ofexpreffion, yet we can
offer no other explanation of this curious phenome¬
non.
2. The great bulk of the uterus during the latter
months, fufficiently explains the caufe of the various
complaints which occur at that period. Van Doeveren
has deferibed this very accurately. He fays, “ uteri
gravidi incrementum, adfeenfus e pelvis cavo, et imma-
nis expanfio, innumeros excitat gravidarom morbus •,
primo quidem arftando abdomen et mechanh & compri-
mendo vifeera quse in eo contimntur, hepar, liem m,
ventriculum, inteftina, omentum, nec minus partes iis vi-
cinas, nempe, renes, ureteres, aortam, venam cavam, ar-
terias et venas iliacas, nervofque e medulla fpina1i pro-
deuntes inferiores ; accidit peftoris coarffatio, fimileique
effedtus inde excitati in corde, pulmonibus vafilque ma-
joribus-, ex quibus multiplici modo circulatio, digeftio,
chylificatio et refpiratio laeduntur, inque tota corporis
ceconomia, ejufque fundlionibus ingentis. folent produci
turbae variaque vitia topica excitari, inter quas. tenfiones,
fpafmi. dolores, ftupores, obturationes, obftrucliones, in-
flammationes, conge, iones prae caeteris memorabiles
funt; unde naftfitur magma feries morborum abdi>minis,
pedloris, infiufque capitis j nec non artuum inferiorum
VOL. XIV. Part I.
35
3^
torporcs, dolores, crampi, oedemata, eryfipelata, varices, Efle&sof
haemorrhagtte, ulcera, labiorum vulvae inftationes, varia- rt"1t>^crftna'
que vitia partium genitalium, et alia multa pro diverfa
partium compreffarum aut diftentarum adtione, variis
nominibus inlignienda (b).”
3. The origin of the membrane, which appears about
the third month, called by Dr Hunter membrana de¬
cidua reflexa, has afforded matter of dilpute among
phyfiologifts. Dr Hunter imagined, that the decidua
vera coniifted of two layers, and that the ovum, enve¬
loped in chorion and amnios, got fomehow between
thefe: but this is a very unfat isfadtory opinion.. I he
more probable opinion is, that the decidua vera and de¬
cidua rellexa are diftindt membranes, although both
formed in the lame manner. if, as we have already
» ftated, the uterus, foon after conception, be filled with
a gelatinous fluid, and if the ovum be in contadt with
that organ at one point only, then it is probable that
the veffels of the internal furfaee of the uterus, by
{hooting into the fiuid with which it is covered, will
form one membrane, the decidua vera •, w hile the vef¬
fels on the external furface of the chorion, will (hoot
into the fluid with which tin- ovum mull have been co-.
vered in its defeent, and fo.m another membrane, the
decidua reflexa.
In proof that both membranes are formed in this
way, it may be obferved, tha1 where the foetm- is extra-
uterine, the uterus is lined with the decidua vera, and
there is no decidua reflexa.—Boehmer is the firft who
demonftrated this j and not Dr Hunter, as has been al¬
leged. He fays, “ Ouum vero uterus magniludine gia-
vido unius circiter menfis fimilis videretur, eundem po-
fterius longitudinaliter, et fuperius tranfvt rfaliter difle-
cuimns, inque ejus cavo, intuitu baud impregnati latis
magno, nihil piaeter tenacem et flavefcent< m mucum,
mollemque porofo-villofam et valvulofam quail turgrfeen-
tem membranam undique uteri parities et tubas irve-
ftentem, bine inde inflammatam et erofam, ftrucluram
autem uteri fatis compaflam invenimu'- ^ Boehmer*
4. rI'he formation of the placenta E a curious fubje61loc-Clt*
of inquiry. rriiat it depend^ principally on the foetus, ^ *7‘
is proved by the appearances in extra-uterine concep¬
tions. In the cafe of ventral conception, publilhed by
Mr Turnbull of London, this circumllance is very
clearlv pointed out (c).
5. rl'l)e origin of the liquor amnii has been explained
very differently bv different phyfiologifts. Some ima¬
gine that it is furnifhed by the mother-, others by the
child. Baron Haller adopts the former opinion.
“ Ergo (he fays) ab utcro eft, et & matre. fiquidem a
foetu effe non poteft. Non aufim experimentum produ-
cere, in quo crocus, quern mater fumferat, liquorem
amnii tinxit-f.” But if this were the cafe, How could .
the liquor amnii exift when the foetus is extra uterine ? EU’nenta^
Yet it cannot be a fecretion from the feetus itfelf, be- b xxix.
G caufe ivA. 3. § 9.
37
3«
(A') D. Philippi Boehmeri Obfervationum Anatomicarum variarum fafcieulus notabilia circa uterum humanum
continens, p. C2.
(b) Primae lineae de cognofcendis malierum morbis, in ufus academicos, duclse h Gualth. van Doeveren, M. D.
et Prof. n. 16.
(c) Vid. A Cafe of Extra-Uterine Geftation of the ventral kind, by William Turnbull, A. M. F. M. S.
Lond. 1791. Plate ift.
69
i®
50 M I D W
Effects of caufu it is in very large proportion when the foetus is
^arcely viable. From what fource then does it pro¬
ceed ? Moft probably from the coats of the amnios.
6. Since from the fituation of the foetus it has no
direft communication with the atmofpheric air, two
queftions occur on the fubj eft j firft, whetheritbenecelfary
that the foetus fliould receive the vivifying fomewhat
which the natus receives from the atmofphere. 2dly,
If this be anfwered in the affirmative, by what means
is this fomewhat furnifhed ?
1. On looking into the works of Nature, we find that
there is a clafs of animals placed in a fimilar fituation
with the foetus, viz. the locomotive fifhes. Thefe re¬
ceive the vivifying fomewhat furnifhed by the atmo¬
fphere through the medium of the fluid in which they
are immerfed ; for their blood is always diilributed by
the fmalleft ramifications over a fubftance in conftant
contaft w ith the water, before it return into the arterial
fylfem to ferve for the purpofes of nutrition.
From analogy therefore it muft be allowed, that the
foetus does receive, through fome means or other, the
vivifying principle of the atmofphere.
2. By what means then is this furnifhed ? Many cir-
cumflances concur to prove that it is by means of the
placenta. For,
iff, The ftrufture of the placenta refembles much
that of the lungs. It is cellular, and has the whole
blood of the foetus diftributed in the fmalleil branches
over its fubftance.
2dly, The blood returning from the placenta is fent
by the neareft poflible means to the left fide of the
heart. And, 3dly, Compreffion of the umbilical cord to
fuch a degree as to interrupt the circulation through it,
deftroys the foetus as foon as compreffion of the trachea
does the natus.
It appears therefore that the placenta ferves to the
foetus the fame purpofe which lungs do to the natus.
The celebrated Haller has objefted to this probable
life of the placenta in the following wTords. “ Non
pauci etiam auftores fecundis pulmonis officium tribue-
runt, cum in vena umbilicali fanguis ruber fit et flori-
dus, ft cum fanguinis fodalis arteriae comparctur. Id ex-
perimentum mea non eonfirmant. In pullo arteria fere
coccinea, vena violacea eft. In fostu humano nunquam
floridum fanguinem vidi, neque intelligo ut placenta,
in qua certiffime nulla fint aereae mutabiles veficuloe
* Haller, poffit pulmonis munere fungi
*0C-' ^ Jib- B11*- later obfervations have contradifted the affertions
T37 C ^ Waller on this occafion. In particular, Dr Jeffray
^42 profeffor of anatomy in the univerfity of Glafgow, in
an inaugural differtation publiftied here in the year
1786, relates an experiment made bv him which is
completely oppofite to the opinion of Haller. “ Puero
“ he fays” in obftetricatoris finu jacenti, funiculus
tribus vinculis circumjeftis, ct fimul in arftum traftis
colligatus eft *, quo dein juxta umbilieum incifo, in
arteriis umbilicalibus et venis, inter duo vincula pla-
centum proxime, fanguinis copia interceptum eft. In¬
tercept! fpatii vafa, gelatinofa funiculi parte cultro
dempta, in confpeftum venerunt; et arteria, quae fangui-
I F E R Y.
Chap. III.
nem jam ante in parte cireumlatum, ad placentum per-
ferebat, punfta eft j quam prope arteriae punftuiam
vena quoque umbiliealis limiiiter punfta eft. ^uo
fafto ex vena fanguis effiuens, cum eo qui ex arttria
effluebat facile comparari poterat. Ule, venoli fan¬
guinis initar, nigricabat; hie, fanguinis in adulta arteriis
mox vivide florebat (d).”
7. The means by which the foetus is nourifhed have
hitherto efcaped the inveftigatiun of phyfiologifts.
I hat the ftomach and inteftines do not ferve this pur¬
pofe is obvious from many concurrent teftimonies; but
particularly from thefe organs being on fome occafions
entirely wanting, while other parts of the fyftem of the
foetus were complete. It is probable that the placenta
fupplies nourithment, as well as the vivifying principle
of the air, to the foetus in utero.
Is ntural
F rtumion.
V I ■! ■■■luimf
43
Chap. III. Natural Parturition.
44
Human parturition, where every thing is natural, is
perhaps one of the moft beautiful and interefting opera¬
tions in nature 5 for what can be more beautiful than a
procefs accompliffied by the combined aftion of a num¬
ber of p >wers admirably well adapted to the intended
purpofe ? and what can be more interefting than the con¬
tinuation of our fpecies wdiich depends on the operation ?
In treating of this fubjeft, we (hall firft confider the
term of geftatinn ; idly, the phenomena of natural par¬
turition •, and, 3diy, the caufes of thofe phenomena.
Sect. I. Term of Gejlation.
The ancients imagined that although nine kalendar
months be the moft ufual period of human pregnancy, yet
on fome occafions that period may be, and aftually is, pro-
trafted even beyond ten kalendar months. Accordingly,
it was laid down as a maxim in ancient jurifprudence,
that children born w ithin eleven months after the death
of their fuppofed father ftiould be declared legitimate.
In modern times the queftion has been often agitated,
both among medical praftitioners and among lawyers.
Praftitioners of midwifery however have had moft fre¬
quent occafion to inveftigate this fubjeft, and they have
differed materially in their conclufions.
Roederer fayrs, “ Hunc terminum, finem nempe tri- 46
gefimse nonce et nonnunquum quadragefimae hebdoma-
dis partui mature natura, uti accuratior obfervatio do-
cet conftituit, ultraque eum non facile differtur. Ni¬
hil hie valet energia feminis deficiens, morbofa vel
debilis patris conftitutio, matris difpofitio phthifica,
heftica, qua foetus fufficienti alimento privatur; nihil,
flatus matris cachefticus, fluxus menftruus tempore
geftationis contingens, diarrhoea aliufve morbus; nihil
nimia uteri amplitude ; nihil affeftus matris vehemen-
tior, qualis triftitia *, nihil diaeta matris extraordinaria,
vel inedia ; nihil foetus debilitas et difpofitio morbofa j
nihil plures foetus in utero detent!.
“ Tantum enim abeft ut hae caufae foetus moram in
utero retardent, ut potius accelerent. Viduae qui-
dem vanis hifee fpeciebus, illicitam venerem defendere
atque hereditates aucupari, quin in eo medicos nimis cre-
dulos,
( D Tentamen medicum iuaugurale, quiedam de placenta proponens, auftore Jacobo Jeffray, &c. Edinburgh
1786, p. 41.
Chap. TIL
M I D W I F E R Y.
5i
\
47
Natural dulos, vel lucri cupidos in fuas partes trahere Undent,
Parturition. rej mera l1£ec f'Unt ludibria, prsetereaque nihil (e).”
But many eminent teachers of midwifery believe
that in feme cafes human pregnancy is protrafted for
two or three weeks beyond the more common period.
I>r Hamilton efpecially fays, “ In the human fpc-
cies nine kalendar months feem neceffary for the per-
feftion of the foetus j that is, nearly thirty-nine weeks,
or two hundred and feventy-three days from concep¬
tion. The term does not, however, appear to be fo
arbitrarily eflablithed, but that nature may tranfgrefs
her ufual laws •, and as many cirumftances frequently
concur to anticipate delivery, it certainly may in fome
inftances be protracted. Individuals in the fame clafs
of quadrupeds, it is well known, vary in their periods
of pregnancy. May we not, therefore, from analogy
reafonably infer, that women fometimes exceed the
more ordinary period ? In feveral tolerably well attell-
ed cafes, the birth appears to have been protracted fe¬
veral weeks beyond the common term of delivery. If
the character of the woman be unexceptionable, a fa¬
vourable report may be given for the mother, though
the child (hould not be produced till nearly ten ka¬
lendar months after the abfenee or hidden death of her
f Outlines hufhand f
x>f Alid-
■u’ jery, Seot. II. Phenomena of Natural Labour.
* ^3 The fufferings of a ■woman during labour having been
compared to the fatigues of a perlon on a journey, the
phenomena of labour have been divided into three Itages.
The firh Itage confiits of the opening of the mouth of
the womb ; the fecond, of the aClual palfage of the child;
and the third, of the feparation and expuliion of the
fecundines.
49 Phenomena of the Fir/} Sta$e.—In moll inftanccs
the bulk of the belly fubfides for a day or two before
labour begins; but the firft evidence of the aClual
commencement of that procefs is the occurrence of
pains in the belly atfeCting the loins, and linking
down the thighs, occafioning conliderable irritation of
the bladder and bowels. Thefe pains, &e. however,
often take place during fome hours of the night, for
days, or even wreeks, before true labour begins, and
are then llyled fpurious pains. It is not eafy on many
occalions to didinguiih true labour throes from f[:u-
rious pains, unlefs the Hate of the mouth of the womb
be examined, fo very nearly do they refemble each
other. But in general fpurious pains recur at irregular
Intervals, and do not increafe in force according to their
duration ; whereas true pains gradually recur at ihorter
intervals, and become more and more violent.
Spurious pains are fometimes attended with an occur¬
rence which was firlt publicly noticed and deferibed by
the prefent profelfor of midwifery in the univerlity of
Edinburgh (f), viz. the protrufion of the urinary blad¬
der. This refembles, to a fuperficial obferver, the bag
formed by the membranes which inelofe the child, and
in confequence has repeatedly been burft by the fingers
of the operator. Incurable incontinence of urine, inflam¬
mation of the palfages, &.c. have followed this accident.
Protrufion of the urinary bladder may be readily N tural
diftinguilhed from that of the membranes which in- ‘ i,rUintlon;
elude the infant by two circumfiances. Firfi, the bag
recedes completely during the interval of the pain ;
and fecondly, when putlied down, the finger cannot be
paffed round it at the fore part of the ptlvis ; it teems
as it fixed to the pubis. True labour-pains arife from
the conira&ions of tl>e womb by which that organ is
thortened and thickened ; and, at the fame time, its
contents are forced through its orifice. When they
become regular and forcing, they have the effeft of open¬
ing the mouth of the womb, fo that a practitioner can
readily afeertain the difference between them and fpuri*
ous pains. The opening of the mouth of the womb, in
mufi inftancts, is accompanied by the difeharge of a
flimy, bloody-like matter, termed (hews ; but in many
women there is no fuch circumftance.
This procefs is generally gradual, the pains in-
creafing in frequency and force ; and eight, ten, or
twelve hours, commonly elapfe before they complete
the opening of the womb. In fome cafes the dilatation
lakes place to a confiderable extent before pains occur,
fo that a few pains accomplifii this ftage. But thefe
exceptions are not fo frequent as thofe of an oppofite
defeription, where one or two complete days are requi¬
red to open the womb, though the pains be unremit-
ting.
In proportion as the firfi ftage advances, the mem¬
branous bag containing the child is pufhed through
the mouth of the womb, and forced gradually into the
vagina. During the pain it is tenth, and during the in¬
terval it becomes relaxed. W hen this happens, the
head of the infant can be diflinClly felt behind it. At
laft, the paflages being fufficiently opened, the pains ha¬
ving become fironger and more frequent, the mem¬
branes give way, and the water contained within them
is difeharged ; which finithes the firft ftage. Shivering,
vomiting, headach, thirft, and pain in the back, take
place in many inflances during this flage.
Phenomena of the Second Stage.—Sometimes an inter- 5fo
val of eafe of fome minutes duration fucceeds the dif¬
eharge of the waters. The pains then become much
more violent and forcing, and the head, by the con¬
tractions of the uterus thus becoming more powerful,
is pufhed through the brim of the pelvis into the va¬
gina. For this purpofe the vertex is forced foremoft,
and the browr is turned to one facro-iliae fynchondrofis,
fo that the largeft part of the head is applied to the
wideft part of the bafon ; for as the head is oval, and the
opening through which it is to pafs is of the fame form,
this is abfolutely necefiary.
After the head is in the vagina, the pains ftill con¬
tinuing, the vertex is turned into the arch of the pubis,
and the face into the hollow of the facrum, by which
the largeft part of the head is brought into the direc¬
tion of the wideft part at the outlet. All the foft parts
are now protruded in the form of a tumour, a portion
of the vertex is puftied through the orifice of the vagi¬
na, and every pain advances the progrefs of the infant,
till at laft the head is expelled. An interval of a mi-
G 2 nute
(e) Roedereri Elementa Artis Obftetricae. Goettingae, 1766. page 98.
(F) SeleCt Cafes in Midwifery, by James Hamilton, M. D. 1795. page 16.
52 M I D W
Natural nute or two now rnfues, after which another pain ta-
Paituniion. j. jng piace) t|ie face turned to one thigh and the
Ihoulders of the child being placed towards pubis and
facrum, the whole of the body is born. During this
procefs the patient generally adds voluntary efforts to
the contraff ions of the uterus.
This ilage is in many inftances extremely tedious j
but after the woman has had one child, it often is com¬
pleted within the time of lix or eight pains.
51 Phenomena of the Third Stage.—Whenever the in¬
fant is born, it there be no other in the womb, the pa-
rietes of the abdomen become relaxed, and the womb
can be perceived through them, contracted almolt into
the lize of a child’s head. An interval of cafe of fome
minutes duration now elaples, after which pains again
recur, commonly attended with the difcharge of fome
clots of blood, occalioning a kind of gurgling noife,
and the placenta and membranes are thrown off, and
the womb remain.' quite coni rafted or nearly fo, with
a cavity fcarcely capable of containing a hen’s egg.
In fome cafes a Angle pain accomplices this, and in
others fereral pains are required ; but, generally fpeak-
ing, this ftage is completed within an hour after the
birth of the child.
It fomt times, however, happens that the natural ef¬
forts are inadequate to the expulfion of the fecundines.
The caufes are, want of fufficient contraftile power in
the uterus, irregular contraflion of that organ, and in¬
durated ftale of the placenta itfelf.
From the above defeription it is obvious'that all the
three ftages of labour are completed by one Ample
power, viz. the contradion of the womb.
53 Sect. III. Caufes of the Phenomena of Labour.
I. The Arft phenomenon which requires explanation is
the aftion of the uterus. Why does that organ gene¬
rally afl at a certain period, after having remained in a
quiefeent ftate for fo long a time ?
This queftion has puzzled phyAologifts Arangely.
Some have attributed the eircumffance to a llimulus
communicated by the foetus : but their opinion is over¬
turned by a well-known faff, that the fame phenomena
occur though the foetus be dead. Others have imagin¬
ed that the uterus is excited to add in confequence of
previous dillenAon. But were this the cafe, women
Could never have the uterus of a larger bulk in one
pregnancy than in another ; whereas, on the contrary,
it is well known that women who have twins or triplets
often have the womb diffended to fully double the
ufual Aze.
PhyAologifts as well as phyAcians have fallen into
very great errors from referring complex phenomena to
a Angle caufe. A variety of fa<ds concur to prove,
that in the prefent inttance it is abfurd to impute the
aft ion of the uterus to any Angle caufe.
To what then ftiould we attribute it ? To a variety of
circumftances.
1 ft, To the ftrufture of the uterus. From the ap¬
pearance of that organ in its unimpregnated ftate, it
would feem that nature had laid up in (tore a certain
proportion of Abres to be developed during pregnancy.
I F E R Y. Chap. III.
When thefe Abres are evolved, if the uterus be diftend- Natural
farther, the edges of the os tincse muft be feparated, Parturition,
in confequence of which part ot the uterine contents v
palling through it, the contraftion of the uterus follows,
A faft very familiar to practitioners of midwifery af¬
fords apparently a complete conArmation of this hypo-
theAs, viz. that in fome women labour occurs as regu¬
larly and naturally, in the feventh or eighth month of
geftation, as in others it does at the end of the ninth,
the cervix uteri having become quite obliterated.
2d, It is probable, however, that in ordinary cafes
this ftore of mufcular Abres is feldom entirely exhaufted,
from the circumftance of women having fometimes
twins or triplets } fome other caufe therefore muft con¬
cur in exciting the aftion of the uterus. The contents
of the uterus perhaps furnifh this caufe.
In the latter months of geftation, fome parts of the
foetus come in contact with the parietes of the uterus,
in conlequence of the decreafe in proportion of the li¬
quor amnii. This is principally the cafe with refpeft
to the head, which preffes on the cervix, and that part
of the uterus, it is probable, is more irritable than any
other 5 for we And that the entrance or exit of all hol¬
low mufcular organs is more irritable than the other
parts, as we fee exempliAed in the cardia of the ftomach,
and in the cervix of the urinary bladder.
3d, It is not improbable too, that the preffure of the
neighbouring parts contributes fomewhat to induce the
aftion of the uterus ; for it is remarked by praftitioneri
of midwifery, that women feldoro arrive at the full pe¬
riod of geftation in a Arft pregnancy, and the parietes
of the abdomen yield with difficulty at Arft, as is obfer-
ved in cafes of dropfy. Beftdes all farmers know well,
that in every fucceeding pregnancy, cows exceed their
former period of geftation.
II. 1 he next phenomenon worthy of notice is the S3
manner in which the child’s head enters the pelvis.
Two circumftances contribute towards this, Arft the
conpeftion of the head of the child with the neck ; and
2dly, The form of the brim of the pelvis.
I he Arft of thefe circumftances has been accurately
pointed out by Dr Offiorn. He fays, “ after the os
uteri has been Arft opened by the membranes and con¬
tained waters, forming a wedge-like bag, the next
operation and effeft of the labour-pains or contraftions
of the uterus (for they are convertible terms) muft. be
on the body of the child, ’which being united to the bafis
oj the cranium at the great foramen and nearer the oc¬
ciput than forehead, the greater preffure will be applied
to the occiput, which being likewife fmaller, and ma¬
king lefs reAftance, will be the Arft Jiart fqueezed into
the cavity of the pelvis (e).”
'The latter circumftance has been clearly explained
by Profeifor Saxtorph. He remarks, “ caufa hujus di-
reftionis capitis, concurrente toto mechanifmo perfefti
partus, potiffimum haeret in pelvi. Nam agente utero
in foetum, in axi pelvis locatum, caput ejus hueufque
liberum, in humore amnii fluftuans, propter molam
fuam majorem in introitum ipfo pelvis magnam reftften-
tiam patitur a prominentia ? offis facri, quae in pofteriori
parte fegmenti inferioris uteri ita impreffa eft, ut pro-
montorii
(e) Effays on the Pra&ice of Midwifery, &c. by William Olborn, M. B,
3
Chap. HI*
Natural montorii xnftar foetus frontem glabram, rotundarn, unico
Parturition. pUn&o tantummodo illam tangentem et latis mobilem,
blando motu ad latus dirigat, in fpatium ei exaftc re-
fpondens inter protuberantiara ipfam et marginem in¬
ternum acutum ilii excavatum, quam ob rem, fincipitis
prtevii futura fagittalis cadit neceffario in diametrum
obliquum aperturae fuperioris pelvis (f).”
It is remarkable, that neither of thefe celebrated au¬
thors difcovered that a combination of both the circum-
ftances juft enumerated, is neceffary to occalion the
phenomenon.
Two advantages rcfult from this pofition of the head
of the child ; for, ift, The largeft part of the head is
applied to the wideft part of the fuperior aperture*, and,
2dly, The head, when the occiput is forced foremoft,
occupies the leaft poffible fpace.
54 HI. The phenomenon which next ftrikes us, is that
change in the pofition of the head by which the face is
turned into the hollow of the facrum.
Although the advantage, and even neceflity, of this
change in the pofition of the head, has been long known
to praftitioners ; yet Dr Olborn is, perhaps, the firft
author who has clearly explained the efficient caufe of
this. His remarks are thefe : “ As it (viz. the head)
defeends obliquely through the pelvis, the preffure of
the two converging ifehia will not be exactly oppofite
to each other on the two parietal bones j but one if-
chium afling or preffing on the part of that bone con¬
tiguous to the occiput, and the other on the oppofite
fide next to the face, the head being made up of dif¬
ferent bones, united by membranes, and forming va¬
rious futures and fontanels, which permit the fliape to
be changed, and the volume to be Idfened, it necefia-
rily follows, that the head, thus compreffed, will take
a ftiape nearly refembling the cavity through which it
pafles *, and, as from the convergency of the ifehia, the
cavity of the pelvis fomewhat approaches the form of a
cone, the child’s head is moulded into that lhape, the
fhape of all others beft adapted to open the foft parts,
and make its way through the os externum. This un¬
equal prefiure of the two ifehia upon the head, will, in
the firft inftance, direft the occiput, or apex of the
cone, to turn under the arch of the pubis, where there
is little or no refiftance *, w'hile the preflure of the other
ifehium, in its further defeent, will have the fame ef-
fetft on the other fide, and direft or compel the face to
*Dr Of- turn into the hollow of the facrum
lorn, loc. This change of pofition is produ6tive of three advan-
*it. p, 50. tagPS>
ift, The largeft part of the head is again adapted to
the wideft part of the pelvis.
2dly, The fmalleft poflible furface of the head is ap¬
plied to the furface of the bones of the pubes. And,
qdly, As Dr Ofhorn, in the paffage quoted, very
juftly obferves, the head is moulded into that ftiape
which is beft calculated to pafs without doing harm,
through the foft parts.
55 IV. The phenomena which occur when the head
pafles through the external parts, axe eafily explained.
After the head has made that turn, by which the
face is placed in the hollow of the facrum, the coccyx
53
and perinaeum refill its further defeent in that dire&ion, Natural
and by forcing the nape of the neck againft the inferior 1i'r>'1'ltl0n',
edge of the fymphyfis pubis, every fucceflive pain con¬
tributes to make the occiput rife up towards the abdo¬
men, by which the chin leaves the top of the thorax,
on which it had refted during the preceding procefs of
delivery.
By this fimple mechanifm, the foft parts are gra¬
dually prepared for the pafiage of the child, while, at
the fame time, the ftioulders are brought into the moft
favourable pofition for palling through the pelvis.
V. The phenomena of the third ftage of labour ob- ^
vioufly originate from the contraction of the uterus,
which both feparates and expels the fecundines. Some
authors have imagined that nature has provided for this
purpofe a particular apparatus, placed at the fundus
uteri j but as the placenta, when attached to the cer¬
vix uteri, is thrown oft as readily as when it is attached
to the fundus, it is very evident that thefe authors have
been deceived by a feeming regularity of fibres, which
is fometimes obferved.
Laftly, The obftacles which nature has ojqpofed to 57
the paflage of the child, occafion all the difficulties of
human parturition. Thefe obftacles are formed by the
fituation and lhape of the pelvis, and the ftruClure of
the foft parts concerned in parturition.
The pelvis is lituated in fuch a direCHon, that its
axis forms an obtufe angle with that of the body j con-
fequently, it is not placed perpendicularly, but oblique¬
ly to the horizon ; and hence nothing can pafs through
it by the force of gravity.
The flrape of the pelvis, too, is fuch, that the head
of the child cannot pafs through the outlet in the fame
direClion in which it entered the brim ; and, from the
ftrufture of the foft parts concerned in parturition, they
yield with confiderablc difficulty.
By thefe means, the Author of our exiftence has
guarded againft the effeCts of the ereCt pofture of the
body, and has prevented the premature expulfion of
the child and the fudden laceration of the foft parts.
Sect. IV. Treatment of Natura/ Labour. ' 58
Firjf Jfage.—When this ftage proceeds naturally and
regularly, there is very little elfe to be done, after
having afeertained that labour has really begun, and
that the child is in the ordinary pofition, than taking
care that the bowels be open, and palliating any un-
pleafant fymptoms, fuch as Ihivering or vomiting, &.c.
which may occur.
But if after the pains have become fo regular as, by
their continuance, to difturb the ordinary funClions of
life, that is, moft commonly, after they have been quite
regular for twelve or fifteen hours ; if this ftage be not
completed, it is neceflary to interfere, and to endea¬
vour, by art, to eflfeCt the dilatation. The reafon for
this rule is abundantly evident. If this ftage of fuller¬
ing be longer protraCIed, the ftrength of the patient
muft be exhaufted by the long-continued exertion, and,
of courfe, the remaining procefs of labour cannot be
completed. Hence the child may be loft, or alarming
difeharges
M I D W I F E R Y.
(f) DilTertatio inauguralis de Diverfo Partu, &c. AuCtore Matthia Saxtorph. Hafnfte, 1771. p. 19.
54
MIDWIFERY.
of blood may follow the birth of the in-
Natural difcharjre
Parturition. fant< '
This very obvious efft-a of the protraaion, beyond
certain limits, of the firll llage of labour, was firft pub¬
licly infilled on by the prefent profeflor of midwifery in
the univerfity of Edinburgh.
. x ^ie nieans to be adopted for completing the dilata¬
tion, when that affiflance becomes neceflary, are vene-
feaion or opiates, or fupporting the os uteri, according
to circumftances.
\\ hen the refiflance to the opening of the womb
arifes from the premature difeharge of the water, or
roni natural rigidity of the womb, copious blood-let¬
ting affords the adequate remedy. But if the patient
be already reduced by previous difeafe, fo that the can¬
not fafely be bled, an opiate, in the form of glyfler,
ought to be adminiiiered.
-And when, on the recurrence of every pain, the
mouth of the womb is forced down upon the external
paflages before the child, its edges ought to be fupport-
ed, in fuu, by the fingers cautioufly applied to each
fide.
Chap. I\[
them, would produce inflammation, with all its alarm- Natura
ing confequences. _ Parturiti
I hirdly, If the after-birth were allowed to remain
longer than an hour, exceflive flooding might take
2>lace, which wrould foon prove fatal.
Fourthly Were the patient to efcape the danger of
flooding, ihe would incur that of putrefaction of the
placenta, which is equally, though not fo rapidly, pro¬
ductive of mortal event. V
In thus introducing the hand to feparate the placen¬
ta, the two great cautions to be attended to, are to ap¬
ply the fingers to the fubftance of the placenta, net to
mfinuate them between its furface and that of the ute¬
rus, and to bring off only that portion of the pla¬
centa which can be feparated from the uterus without
lorce.
When any alarming circumftance happens after the
birth of the infant, requiring the extraction of the pla¬
centa, the practitioner is not to delay for an hour,
indeed not for a minute, giving the requifite afldt-
ance.
3* Sec'imlfage.—^l^xv k is found that the head has be¬
gun fairly to enter the pelvis in the natural direction, no
alii dance is necefl'ary till the perineal tumour be formed •,
and then fuch fupport mult be given to the protruded
parts as fliall both relieve the diftrefling feelings of the
patient, and, at the fame time, prevent any laceration
from happening. Of courfe, the precife manner of
fupporting the perineum muft be varied according to
the circumftances of the cafe. Inattention to this has
■veiy frequently occafioned the molt deplorable acci¬
dents.
After the head is born, it muft be afeertained whether
there be any portion of the navel-ftring round the neck
of the infant, and if there be, it muft be flackened or
drawn over the head, otherwife the infant will be
loft.
If poflible, time fliould be allowed for the accommo¬
dation of the fhoulders, and the expulfion of the body
of the infant; and, at any rate, the utmoft attention
fhould be paid to fupporting the perimeum during that
part of the procefs.
(fo Thirdf age.—\\ hen the child is born, and it is af¬
eertained that there is no other infant remaining in the
womb, the patient fhould be allowed to reft for "a little,
unlefs pains again come on, by which the fecundines
are feparated. In that cafe, the cord is to be firmly
grafped, and pulled gently, till the placenta be brought
down to the external parts, when it is to be drawn out
carefully, in fuch a manner as to bring off at the fame
time the complete membranous bag. .
Should pains not recur at the diftance of an hour af¬
ter the birth of the infant, it becomes neceflary, for fe-
veral reafons, to introduce the hand into the womb to
leparate and extraCl the fecundines.
Firft, If the cord were pulled by before the
womb had contrafted, or the after-birth had be¬
come feparated, the ivomb muft inevitably be turned
mfide out ; an accident that has occafionally hap¬
pened. r
Secondly, If a longer period than an hour were fuf-
fered to elapfe, the paffages would become fo much
ttontra&ed, that the force required again to dilate
Chap. IV. Of the Deviations from Nature in Hu- 6f
man Parturition.
From the view thus given of human parturition, un-
cler the moil favourable circumftances, it muft be ob¬
vious that many deviations from nature may occur.
Thefe deviations may proceed 5 firft, from the’ pro¬
pelling powers concerned in parturition j fecondly, from
the ftate of the fecundines ; thirdly, from the ftate of
the child itfelf j or, fourthly, from the ftate of the paf-
ages through which the child is forced. There ma- al¬
io be a combination of thefe caufes. We fliall confider
each of thefe caufes of deviation in the order juft enu¬
merated. But as a minute inveftigation of the fubjeft
would far exceed* the neceffary limits of this work ^ve
fhall treat each of thefe caufes as fhortly as poflible, and
notice only the moft ftriking circumftances.
SlXT. I. Of the Deviations from Natura/ Labour, Cs,
which proceed from the Trope/ling Powers.
The propelling powers concerned in parturition con-
fift of voluntary and involuntary mufcular a&ion.
J he diaphragm and abdominal mufcles furnifh the for¬
mer, and the uterus the latter.
An excefs or diminution of the a&ion of thofe powers
muft interrupt the ordinary progrefs of labour.
a. The violent aftion of the diaphragm and abdomi- <r-
nal mufcles, if exerted at the beginning of labour, tends 3
to exhauft the patient and to retard delivery, and if in¬
duced when the head is within the vagina, may, pro¬
vided proper precautions be not taken, lacerate the
perinaeum, and render the future life of the patient
miferable. 1
The a&ion of thefe mufcles being quite voluntary,
may be readily prevented by the patient fubmitting to
proper advice.
b. Impaired a&ion of the diaphragm and abdominal
mufcles, generally originates from the improper exer¬
tion of thofe mufcles at the beginning of labour, or
fiom paftions of the mind. It always retards delivery,
and confequently protra&s the fufferings of the patient.
c. Violent
TV. M I D W
c. Violent a£lion of the uterus at the beginning of
"labour, is frequently produflive of much mif( hief. It
; exhauils the patient, and renders the fubfequent ]>roeeis
of delivery exceedingly tedious and difficult. It al-
fo fometimes oceafions an accident ■which generally
proves almoft immediately fatal, viz. rupture of the
uterus.
This accident has been deferibed by authors under
the title of fpontaneous rupture of the uterus. The lacera¬
tion in the uterus in thofe cafes is fometimes tranfvcrfe
and fometimes longitudinal. When the accident happens
from this cauie, the laceration is moil frequently in the
cervix. The accident is preceded by excruciating pain,
efpecially during the a&ion of the uterus, at one part,
as in the loins or towards the pubes ; and it is announ¬
ced by a molt agonizing increafe of the pain fucceeded
by violent vomiting, the difeharge of a little blood, a
total ceflation of the labour throes, very great irregulari¬
ty and feebleneis of the pulfe, cold fweat, coldnefs of
the extremities, difficulty of breathing, inability to lie in
the horizontal pollute, and fometimes delirium. Along
with thefe fymptoms, it often happens that the prefent-
ing part of the child recedes entirely, and the limbs of
the infant may be readily diltinguilhed through the pa-
netes of the abdomen. But this circumftance does
not always take place, for fometimes the head of the
child is fo firmly wedged within the pelvis, that it does
not recede although the other parts be in the cavity of
the abdomen.
The rupture of the uterus is generally fatal. A few
cafes, however, are on record, where, by prudent ma¬
nagement, the patient, even under fuch dangerous cir-
cumftances has been faved. Such are the cafes record¬
ed by Dr Hamilton (h), by Dr Douglas (i), and Dr
Hamilton, junior (k). But the injuries which mult enfue
from lofs of blood, acute pain, the prefence of the child
in the cavity of the abdomen, and the probable protru-
fion and ftrangulation of the intellines are fueh, that it
cannot be expected that many patients can lurvive the
accident.
The caufe of violent aftion of the uterus at the be¬
ginning of labour, is obvioufly the premature difeharge
of the liquor amnii. By this circumllance, the body
of the child comes in contadl with the parietes of the
uterus, by which the action of that organ is imme¬
diately and violently excited. How much mifehief
then may the rafh interference of an ignorant operator
produce ?
Hie caufe of rupture of the uterus from its own vio¬
lent adtion, is the refitlance to the paffage of the child,
either from undilated os uteri, or from deformities of the
pelvis, or from wrong petition of the child. When¬
ever, therefore, the rupture is threatened, means mult
be inttantly adopted to remove the refiltance, or to fuf-
pend the adtion of the uterus. The former is in general
the more eatily accompliffied.
When the uterus has adtually burtt, the only chance
which can be afforded to the patient, is inltant delivery 5
per vias natura/es, where that is pradticable j and where
I F E R Y, 55
there is extreme narrownefs of the pelvis, by an incifion Pretema-
through the parietes of the abdomen. A cafe wheretura.1.Partu*
this latter pradtice was fuccefsfully had recourfe to oc- , r'tl0n- .
eurred a few years ago in Lancafhire. v
Violent adtion of the uterus during the latter ftage
of labour, although not produdiivc of the fame dangers
which enfue from it at the beginning, is by no means
exempt from hazard ; for if the foft parts be rigid or
not fufficiently relaxed, the woman may be miferably
torn.
The violent adtion of the uterus towards the termi¬
nation of labour proceeds from fome power of that or¬
gan itfelf, or from the ftimulus communicated by the
pofitkm of the child.
This circumftance, however, is fometimes beneficial j
as, for inltance, when the child is in an unfavourable
pofition. Dr Denman was the firft who difeovered
this effedl of violent uterine adtion, and publifhed it
in the fifth volume of the London Medical Journal,
page 64.
d. Impaired adtion of the uterus during the firft 64
ftage of labour is in many in fiances produdtive of no
other inconvenience than the protradiion of labour; but
if it exhaufts the ftrength of the patient, it influences
materially the fubfequent procefs, as already ftated.
When it occurs during the fecond llage, it oceafions the
moft dangerous fymptoms. Firft, if the head of the
child continue to prefs for a confiderable time on the
foft parts within the pelvis, thefe parts muft neceffarily
from the impeded circulation become fwelled, and con-
fequently the adtion of the uterus, though it ffiould re¬
turn, would then be totally infufficient for the expul-
fion of the child. This effedt of the protradtion of the
fecond ftage was firft pointed out to the public in Dr
Hamilton’s letters to Dr Ofborn. It merits moft par¬
ticular attention ; not only as it is one of the moft fre¬
quent eaufes of the lofs of the infant during labour, and
of confiderable danger to the parent, but alfo as it may
be very readily prevented by an attentive pradtitioner.
Previous to this fwelling becoming fo confiderable as
to impede the pr ogre Is of the infant, there is a tendernefs
and heat, and drynefs in the paffage, which announces
the actual commencement of the inflammation. Imme¬
diate delivery ought then to be had recourfe to.
Many difagreeable fymptoms alfo proceed from the
fame caufe, fuch as fuppreflion of urine, and violent
cramps in the lower extremities.
When it is afeertained, that, in confequence of the
deficiency of action of the uterus, the child is detained
fo long in the paffage as to endanger the health or life of
the mother, it becomes neceffary to extradt the infant
by mechanical means. Two contrivances have been
thought of for this purpofe, viz. the vedtis or lever, and
the forceps.
Roonhuyfen, a Dutch pradtitioner, who flourifhed 67
about the beginning of the 18th century, contrived the
vedtis, and from the great fuccefs which attended its
ufe in his hands, an edidt was iffued by the ftates-ge-
neral, that no furgeon thould pradtife midwifery with¬
out
(h’1 Outlines of Midwifery, p. 348.
(1) Obfervations on the rupture of the gravidutenus, &c. by A. Douglas, M. D. &c. 8vo. London 1780,
(kJ Seledt Cafes of Midwifery, p. 138. ^
5 6
MIDWIFERY.
Preterna- out being poiTeffed of the Roonhuyfen fecret, for tlie in-
tuiaj Partii- ftnmient was not publicly known. In the year 1756,
i, ' . however, the fecret having been purchafed by two li¬
beral-minded phyiicians, Viicher and Van de Poll, was
jmoliihed by them tor the benefit of mankind. Since
that time, the inftrument lias undergone a variety of al¬
terations in its form ; for a particular account of which,
the reader is referred to Mulder’s Hiftoria Forcipis.
There can be no doubt that Roonhuyfen and his
fucceflfors employed the vertis as a lever of the firft fpe-
cies, the head of the infant being the refitlance, the
parts of the woman the fulcrum, and the hand of the
operator forming the moving power. The injuries ari-
fing from this pratRice have been well explained by Dr
Olborn in his Eflays on Laborious Labours. Al¬
though Dr Bland and Dr Denman flill recommend the
fame practice, ihere can be no doubt that whenever the
ule of the vectis proves fucce<sful according to their
directions, the fortunate termination is to be attributed
to the action of the uterus being excited bv the preffure
of the inltrument ; or, in other words, the delivery
might have been completed without any mechanical in¬
terference at all. On the other hand, whenever the
a£tion of the uterus is either quite fufpended or much
weakened, both mother and child fuffer from the appli¬
cation of the ve6tis.
68 The late Dr Deafe in altering the fhape of the vec¬
tis, withed to imprefs upon the profeflion the neceflity
for changing the mode of employing it *, and according¬
ly he called his inffrument an extractor. This power,
however, feems to be poflefled in a fuperior degree by
Dr Lowder’s inftrument, of which a defeription is con¬
tained in the eighth volume, fecond decade, of Dr Dun¬
can’s Medical Commentaries, p. 400. As this infhu-
ment may be ufed with perfect fafety, both to mother and
child, and as in fome cafes it is fuperior to the forceps,
we have reprefented its form in one of the plates, and
now add the defeription and an account of the manner
of applying it from the work already referred to.
69 The infirument “ confilfs of a blade and handle
(between which there is a hinge, that renders it por¬
table), meafuring in length inches. Its length,
before it be curved, is 12^ inches. The curve be¬
gins about half an inch from the hin^e. It deferibes,
reckoning an inch from its firft curvature, as nearly as
can be eftimated, an arc of 87 degrees of a circle, the
radius of which is four inches. The breadth of the
blade, at the beginning of the curve, is half an inch,
and is gradually increaf d, till within three quarters
of an inch of the extremity, where it meafures an
inch and three-fourth1-. Its extremity is femicir-
cular. Within 2* inches of the extremity there i» an
oval opening, meafuring 2^ inches in length, and l-J
at its greateft breadth. Bv thi« opening, the depth of
the curve is confiderablv increafed, without rendering
the inftrumen1 inconvenient in its introdinRion.”
70 “ Let us fuppole that it is found neceflary to ufe Low¬
der’s lever, when the head of the child has juft begun to
enter the cavity of the pelvis. The patient is to be placed
in the ordinary pofition, on the left fide, in bed. The oc-
eiput of the child is to be carefully diftinguilhed, and
the curve of the inftrument is to be applied, with all
the neceffirv precautions, over it. The extremity of
the blade fhould br wi'hin a verv little of the nape of
the neck. To accomplifti this part of the operation
Chap. IV
ntion.
with facility,_ it is neceflary that the operator be well Pretema-
acquainted with the fliape of the pelvis, and that hetura.! Partt
have accuftomed himfelf to apply the inftrument over a
round fubftance.
“ When the inftrument is applied in this manner, the
operator wdll find, that he can exert very confxderable
power in drawing down, without prefting on any other
part than the occiput of the child. 1 he mother can¬
not poflibly feel the inftrument ; while, at the fame
time, the many points of the foetal cranium, on w hich
it refts, prevent any injury whatever to the infant.
“ If there be any pains, however {light they may be,
the operator ihould draw down only during the pain :
in the intervals, a foft warm cloth ftiould be wrapped
round the handle. If there be no pains, he mult draw
down from time to time, imitating, as nearly as he can,
the natural efforts. It is aftoniihing, of what ufe even
the moft trilling pains are, on fuch oceafions. With¬
out pains, a long time is required before the head be
made to advance in a perceptible degree (though,
after it has advanced a little, it foon yields entirely) j
while, with them, the progrefs is often rapid.
“ The operator Ihould continue to draw down in the
fame manner, till the head be completely in the ca¬
vity ot the pelvis. Should any circumftance, as danger¬
ous uterine haemorrhagy, or convulfions, require that
the delivery be expedite ufly finiftied, after the head is
brought into this pofition, the forceps muft be applied j
for it is in the power of the operator, by means of
them, to accomplifti the extra&ion of the head within a
very ftiort fpaee of time, or at leaft, within a much
ftiorter fpace than would be required, were the ufe of
Lowder’s lever continued.
“ But if there be no dangerous fymptom, the opera¬
tion mav be completed by the firft inftrument, without
any aftiftance from the forceps.
“ For this purpofe, the operator ftiould continue to
draw down, by prefling on the occiput, as already
diredled, until the face thall have turned into the hol¬
low of the facrum. The diredlion of the inftrument
muft then be changed. The reafon of this is very ob¬
vious. After the face is in the hollow of the facrum,
the occiput becomes engaged in the arch of the pubis,
and rifes under it, while, at the fame time, the chin
leaves the top of the bread, on which it had relied
during the preceding procefs of labour, and deferibes
a courfe equal to a full quarter of a circle, which is
the confequence of the occiput deferibing a fimilar
courfr under the arch of the pubis. Were the pradli-
tinner then to continue to prefs in the fame dirtdlion
as he did while the head was pafling through the brim,
he would counteradl this natural procefs, and hence
would retard deliverv, and injure the parts again!!
which he would neceflarily prefs the child.
“ The inftrument muft, therefore, be withdrawn from
the occiput, and applied with the proper precautions over
the chin, when the operator is to imitate the procefs
of nature, by difengaging the chin from the breaft,
and making the occiput rife under the arch of the pu¬
bis, w'hile, with his left hand, he proteds the perinaum
from injury.”
“ From thefe obfervations it is obvious, that the inftru¬
ment introduced into praflice by Dr Lowder, affords
exactly the aftiftance, in the firft order of laborious la¬
bour, which is required j for it fupplies the place of the
propelling
Chap. IV. MID W
Pretcma- propelling powers, or increafes tlieir efficacy, by adting
tUrritionrtU" °n t*ie the child, without injuring any part of
1 ' the mother.
71 “ 1 his property renders it of great ufe in certain cafes
of deformed pelvis, viz. where the fhort diameter of the
brim is about three inches. In fuch cafes, the long
continued tlrong adtion of the uterus, often eventually
forces the head into the pelvis j but the ttrength of the
patient is in confequence fo much reduced, that after
it has proceeded fo far, the pains are entirely fufpcnded,
and the delivery mull necelfarily be finilhed by the ufe
of mechanical expedients j but the child’s life is com¬
monly previoufly deftroyed, by the compreffion of the
brain.
“ If, in fuch cafes, it be poffible to increafe wdth
fafety the vis h tergo, the child would then be forced
through the brim of the pelvis before the woman’s
ftrength were exhaufted, and before its life were en¬
dangered ; conlequently, many children, commonly
doomed to inevitable dellrudlion, would be preferved.
“ Lowder’s lever, I apprehend, poflefles this power.
It may be calculated, that, by its ufe, the efficacy of
the labour throes is at leaf! doubled. Hence the child,
in cafes of flight deformity of the pelvis, is forced
through the oppofing part within one half of the time
which would be other wife required ; and this is ac-
compliflied without injury either to the mother or in¬
fant j for the inflrument preffes on no part of the form¬
er j and it refls on fuch parts of the latter, that no harm
can poffibly be done.
“ face-cafes, too, where the interference of the
pra&itioner is neceflary (which, indeed, is a rare occur¬
rence), this inflrument may be employed with much
advantage. The great aim fliould be, to draw down
the occiput.
“ As it appears, therefore, that Low'der’s lever is ap¬
plicable in many cafes where the forceps are inadmiffi-
ble, and tnat its ufe is not productive of fo much ha¬
zard to the mother as that of the forceps, it might per¬
haps be inferred, that the latter inftrument may1 be
banilhed from praCtice, as unneceflary and dangerous.
Accordingly, many praditioners of midwifery have
adopted an opinion of this kind ; and, indeed, there are
very few who do not employ one or other of thefe in-
ftruments exclulively.
But however defirable it may be to leflen the num¬
ber of mechanical expedients, and to Amplify pradice, I
apprehend, that many lives would be loft if we poflefied
or employed no fuch inflrument as the forceps. As
they have the property of a lever, delivery can in many
cafes be accompliflied much more expeditioufly by them
than by Dr Lowder’s inftrument. This feems to be
the foie advantage which they poflefs over it; and that
is counterbalanced by feveral great difadvantages.
Many authors, indeed, have alleged, that the forceps
have exclufively the power of diminiftung the fize of
the foetal cranium, by the preflure of their blades, and
hence have attributed a degree of pre-eminence to them,
which in fa<fl is not their due ; for as the flze of the’
child’s head is, in natural cafes, diminiftied as far as is
neceflary, by the contractions of the uterus forcing it
forward through the bones of tjie pelvis, an increafe of
the vis a tergo will of courfe increafe that diminution,
if the fliape of the paflage require it. While Lowder’s
lever, therefore, poffeffes the power of comprefling- the
Vol. XIV. Part I. r 6
I F E R Y.
57
ritioii.
7*
cranium in common with the forceps, it has a decided Pretema-
fuperiority over them in this, that it accompliihes that111™1 1,arUu
end by fimilar means with nature.
“ The great difadvantages of the forceps are, that they
are inapplicable when the child’s head is fltuated high
in the pelvis ; that their application is often difficult to
the operator, and painful to the patient j and that, as
their centre of action is on the parts of the patient, they
muft injure her in proportion to the reftftance oppofed
to the delivery.
“ On the whole, then, in cafes of the flrft order of
laborious labours, both inftruments muft be occafionally
had recourfe to. When the head is not completely
within the cavity of the pelvis, Lowder’s lever muft be
employed j and even when it is in that polition, the
fame means may be ufed, if there be pains. But, when
the labour throes are entirely fufpended, or when any
cireumftance renders it necefiary to terminate the de¬
livery with expedition, the forceps ought to be em¬
ployed in preference to every other inllrument, if the
head of the child be within their reach.”
The forceps are fuppofed to have been invented by
Dr Hugh Chamberlain, who was phyfician to King
Charles II. j but their form has been greatly altered
ftnee his time. The moil approved form is that repre-
fented in the plate.
I his inflrument is only applicable in prefentations of
the head j but it was formerly, by Dr Smellie and others,
recommended in face cafes.
In order that this inftrument be applicable, it is ne¬
ceflary that tiie head be completely, or nearly fo, in
the cavity of the pelvis ; but fometimes a lengthened
pair is ufed for cafes where the head is fituated high.
1 he employment of long forceps, however, being ex¬
tremely dangerous, is feldom juftifiable ; and there¬
fore we fliall limit our dire&ions to the ufe of the com¬
mon fliort forceps.
There are three principal cafes in which that inftru-
ment may be had rccourfe to, viz. I. where the face is
in the hollo-w of the facrum ; 2. where the face is
wedged under the pubis ; and, 3. where it is on one Ade
of the pelvis.
In whatever Atuation the head is, the inftrument is
to be applied over the ears, otherwife there could be
no fafe and fecure hold. In the procefs of extracting
the child with this inftrument too, it is to be obferved,
that the convex edge of the blades is to be brought
along the hollow of the facrum.
The inftrument being applied fo cautioufly over the
ears of the infant that no part of the woman be injured
by their introduftion, the locking parts are to be
brought together, and fecured by a ligature j after
which the operator, fupporting carefully the perinseum
with one hand, is to draw gently in a direction of from
blade to blade during a pain, or now and then to imi¬
tate labour throes, while he at the fame time favours
the mechanifm of labour by accommodating the child's
head to the paflage fo as to make it take up the leaft
poffible room. If this be done with fuitable caution
and gentlenefs, no part of the woman fhould be injur¬
ed, and the parts of the infant on which the inftrument
had refted ftiould not even be marked. But as there
can be no doubt, that in the procefs of uAng the for¬
ceps, the parts of the woman are prefled upon by the
blades, if much force be exerted, or if due attention be
H not
73
58
Preterna- not paid to the adaptation of the head of the infant to
^ritior)1 tU" the apertures through Avhich it is to be brought, the
«■ y ■ molt dreadful effects refult from the operation.
Sect. II. Of the Deviations from Natural Labour, which
proceed from the fate of the Secundines.
74 The membranes which envelope the foetus are in
fome cafes more tender, and in others more rigid, than
in general they are found •, circumftances which have a
coniiderable effe£t on the procefs of parturition. Be-
fides this, the placenta is on fome occafions attached to
the cervix or os uteri, by which not only is the order
of labour interrupted, the placenta being expelled be¬
fore the child, but alfo is the patient’s life expofed to
much danger.
75 a. Where the membranes are too tender, the liquor
amnii is difeharged at the beginning of labour before
the os tincre be dilated, and then all the bad confe-
quences detailed under the article b, Sett. I. necelfarily
enfue.
b. W here the membranes are too rigid, the labour
may be protratted to iucli a period as fhall injure the
mother moft materially, and at lad, as the whole ovum
may be expelled entire, the life of the child may be
endangered.
After the os uteri is completely dilated, if the child
included in the membranes do not advance into the ca¬
vity of the pelvis, the membranes fhould be ruptured.
But if it do, they ought not to be broken till they prefs
on th.e external parts.
c. But the moft alarming deviation from nature,
which can proceed from the ftate of the fecundines, is
that which originates from the attachment of the pla¬
centa over the cervix or os uteri. As there can be no
doubt that the uterine veffels dip into the fubftance of
the placenta, and that they are lacerated when the pla¬
centa is feparated from its attachment, it is obvious
that in fuch a fituation hsemorrhagy to a moft danger¬
ous extent mult unavoidably enfue during the procefs of
the labour.
76 Mr Rigby of Norwich was the firft Britilh pratti-
tioner who publicly explained this eaufe of hremor-
rhagy. In the firft edition of his work ; viz. that pu-
blilhed in 1775, he expreftes himfelf in the following
words. “ But from the uncertainty with which (as
before obferved) nature fixes the placenta to the ute¬
rus, it may happen to be fo fituated, that when the full
term of pregnancy is arrived, and labour begins, a
flooding neceffarily accompanies it, and without the in¬
tervention of any of the above accidental circumftances *,
that is, when it is fixed to that part of the womb which
always dilates as labour advances, namely, the collum
and os uteri, in which cafe it is very certain that the
placenta cannot, as before deferibed, remain fecure till
the expulfion of the child, but muft of neceftity be fe¬
parated from it, in proportion as the uterus opens, and
by that means an haemorrhage muft unavoidably be pro¬
duced.
“ That floodings, which arife from thele two different
Chap. IV.
caufes, which I will diftinguilh by the names of acci- Treterna-
dental and unavoidable, though they may appear exatt- toral Partu-
ly fimilar in their firft fymptoms, fliould terminate very , miou- ,
differently, if left to nature, aflifted only by the palli- v
ative means before mentioned, cannot feem ftrange j nor
can it be a doubt, that of thefe two kinds of floodings,
only one of them, namely, that which is produced by
an accidental feparation of the placenta, can be relieved
by the ufe of thefe palliatives ; and that the other, iu
which the placenta is fixed to the os uteri, and the
flooding is therefore unavoidable, cannot poflibly be
fuppreffed by any other method whatever than the time¬
ly removal of the contents of the womb } for fuppofing
the difeharge to be for a while reftrained by bleeding,
medicine, cool air, &c. it will inevitably return, when
nature is fo far recovered as again to bring on labour :
in the firft cafe, if the haemorrhage have been checked
by the ufe of the above means, it is not impoffible but
labour may come on, and the child be fafely expelled
by the natural pains before it returns 5 or if it fliould
return, it may not increafe in quantity 5 as in this cafe
very probably the feparated part of the placenta which
occafions the difeharge remains nearly the fame 5 where¬
as in the other cafe, in which the dilatation of the os
uteri produces the feparation of the placenta, every re¬
turn of pain muft be a return of the bleeding, and it
muft become greater and greater as the uterus opens
more and more, and the placenta is in proportion de¬
tached, till it increafes to a degree that exhaufts the pa¬
tient, and (lie dies before nature has been able to expel
the child. That fuch muft inevitably be the progrefs
and event of floodings arifing from fuch a caufe, if left
to nature, is too obvious further to be infifted on.
“ That this attachment of the placenta to the os
uteri is much oftener a caufe of floodings than authors
and practitioners are aware of, I am from experience
fully fatisfied, and fo far am I convinced of its frequent
occurrence, that I am ready to believe that moft, if
not all of thofe cafes which require turning the child
are produced by this unfortunate original fituation of it
(LV’
No cafe in prattice requires more decifum and more
attention than this. It muft be obvious that no inter¬
nal remedy can be of any avail in flooding from fuch a
caufe, and that the life of the patient can be faved by
immediate delivery alone, whenever confiderable Ine-
morrhagy takes place. But it is to be recolletted that
the difeharge in many inftances threatens for days or
even weeks before it becomes ferious, and that for the
fake of the child, the patient fliould be allowed to ad¬
vance as near as her own fafety w ill permit to the full
period. . Thefe threatenings may often be removed by
aftringent injettions, per vaginam, while at the fame
time every means of moderating the circulation of the
blood fliould be fuggefted.
But whenever the difeharge becomes profufe, de¬
livery by art is to be had recourfe to. The rule of Mr
Rigby, and of fome other eminent prattitioners, “ to
watch from time to time the dRatability of the os
uteri,” and take advantage of that ftate, founds well •,
but
M 1 D W I F E R Y.
(l) Effay on the Uterine Haemorrhagy which precedes the delivery of the full-grown Foetus, illuftrated by
cafes by Ed. Rigby, London 1775, p. 14. Vide alfo 3d edition 1784, fame page.
Chap. IV.
M I D W I F E R Y.
59
Preterm- but if followed in pfafHce, muft either give fucli a
tundl’rirtu- [hock to the woman’s, con ft i tut ion, as ftiall end in
dropfy or marafmus, or mu t prove immediately fatal.
In all thofe cafes the os uteri may be forced, and al¬
though it be not more open than barely to admit the
imroduclion of the finger, it may in a very few minutes,
if the operator have fteadinefs and perfeverance, be ren¬
dered capable of allowing the hand to pals.
If poffible, the hand thould be carried forward at
one fide of the placenta, for if that part be torn (which
it muft be admitted is fometimes inevitable) the infant
muft be deftroyed. After the feet are brought down,
the child is to be extracted" as expeditioufiy as regard to
its fafety will permit, and the hand is then to be again
palled into the uterus for the purpofe not merelv of de¬
taching comoletely the fecundines, but chieflv of le-
curing the contraction of that organ which io the great
objedt of the delivery.
78 Sect. III. Of the Deviations from Natural Labour,
which proceed from the Jlate of the Child.
The regular procefs of parturition may be inter¬
rupted, in confequence of the pofition and of the ftiape
of the child.
7p r. Po/itijn of the child. The moft natural po¬
fition of the child, at the beginning of labour, is
with the head placed at the brim of the pelvis,
the face towards the facro-iliac fynchondrofis of one
fide, and the occiput towards the groin of the oppofite
fide. But there are many deviations from this natural
pofition.
$0 a. Although the head be applied to the brim of the
pelvis, it may be forced with the finciput towards the
promontory of the facrum, and the occiput towards the
fymphvfis pubis. In this fituation the largeft diameter
of the head is oppofed to thefmalleft of the pelvis, con-
fequently the head remains firmlv fixed in that pofition,
for as the finciput cannot advance a point beyond the
promontory of the facrum, the occiput is forced juft fo
much below the brim at the pubis as to w'edge the
head firmly between the facrum and pubis. By the
long-continued preflure the foft parts become much
fwelled, and at laft the head is found fo immoveably
fixed, that it can neither be made to recede, nor can it
advance in the fame direction. This conftitutes what
has been ftyled the caput incuneatum, or, as it is called
by French practitioners, la teic euclavee. This cafe
moft commonly is the effect of mifmanagement; for if
a very little preffure be made on the head when it pre-
fents at the brim of the pelvis in this unfavourable pofi¬
tion. the pains will readily force it into the paffage in
the proper ^ireCtion.
When the locked head has actually taken place, the
praftice muft be varied according to the circumftances
of vhe ind vidual cafe *, hence the long forceps, and
fometimes even the crotchet, are required. Turning is
quite iaudmiftible, and jhe tbree-bladed forceps fo
ftrenuoufly recommended by Dr Leake, in this cafe are
totallv inanplicable.
*r b. The long diameter of the head may alfo be applied
to the fhort diameter at the brim, in a different manner,
viz. with the face towards the pubis, and the occiput
to the bafe f the facrum. 'rhe obft'i< le= to the pro-
grefs of the head are not in this cafe fo great as in the
8*
former («) *, for as the occiput is round, and its fur- Preterna-
face inconfiderable, while at the fame time the promon-turV ^ltu
tory of the facrum is round, the labour throes, atter
feme time, force the occiput cither a little to one fide,
or at leaft part the promontory. The cale, however, is
tedious, painful, and even dangeryus to the patient ; tor
as the face prelents a larger iurtaee to the pubis than
the occiput, it muft require longer time to pafs, and
as there are many inequalities on the face, the patient
muft fuffer much pain from their preffure, and from the
fame circumftance mull incur the hazard of having ihe
urinary bladder or the urethra irreparably injured.
In this cafe Profeffor Saxtorph remarks, “ vel occi-
pui primo defeendit, quod cum accidit, frons ab oftibus
pubis fuftentata elevatur, mentumque pedori infantis
imprimitur, urgentibus porro doloribus, verfus anum
et perinaeum, adagilur acuminatum occiput, et nullo
modo fub arcu oftlum pubis extorqueri poteft infiexile
finciput, hinc partus in exitu pelvis impollibilis reddilur.”
That this is a miftake, the obfervation of other prac¬
titioners has futficientlv demonftrated •, for it is well
known that in luch cafes, after the perinseum has been
much ftretched the occiput is forced through the parts,
and immediately flips back towards the anus, while
the nape of the neck being applied to the anterior
edge of the perinaeum, moves on it as on an axis, fo that
the finciput and face emerge from under the fymphyfis
pubis, the chin leaving ihe top of the thorax in the
lame manner as if the face were fituated naturally in
the hollow of the faerum.
Although in this cafe the natural efforts moft ordi¬
narily complete the procefs, yet in many inftances the
injury which threatens the urinary bladder renders
the application of the fore* ps expedient.
c. Although the head may have entered the pelvis in
the moft natural pofition, yet it may not make thofe
changes in fituation which are required to accommodate
it to the outlet •, for the face may turn under the fym¬
phyfis pubis inftead of into the hollow of the facrum.
When this happens the phenomena already deferibed (i>)
take place.
d. It fometimes happens, that inftead of the fmooth
part of the cranium being forced firft into the pelvis,
the face prefents. In this cafe it may be fituated in
three portions, viz. with the chin to the facrum, or
pubis, or fide.
a a. I he firft cafe is efteemed the moft dangerous
both for the mother and child. For the mother,
becaure the child in this pofition requires more room
than the pelvis affords, confequently the foft parts in
contaift with the chin and fmooth part of the cranium
are much compreffed, and hence if the delivery he not
fpeedilv aecomplifhed, much injury to thofe parts will
enfue. As the chin foo muff pafs along a curved line
formed by th * facrum and coccyx, the obftacles to de¬
livery are very great *, and even after the face has been
forced fo low as to prefs on the perinaeum, that part is
in much hazard of being torn by the violent diilenfion
which it undergoes. The delivery in fuch cafes is very
rarely accomplifhed naturally.
1 his fpe cies of labour is equally dangerous to the
child as to the mother, not onlv on account of the long-
continued preffure on the brain, but alf from the occi¬
put being forced fo (Ironglv on the fupt rior dorfd ver¬
tebra that the free return of the blood from th head is
H 2 interrupted,,
83
84
interrupted, and hence, apoplexy enfues ; a circumftance
which is proved even by the appearance of children
who in fuch cafes are born alive, for the face of fuch
children is perfectly livid. Jacobs has pointed out
thcle dangers pretty accurately. “ I] eft dangereux
pour Penfant, (lie fa)i?), parce que la tete etant pen-
chee et portant fur fon cou, elle comprime les vaiffeaux
fanguins au point que le fang ne pouvant plus circuler,
il ineure d’une apoplexie pour peu que Pon tarde a Pex-
traire.” Ecole pratique des Accouchement, par le lJro-
fejfeur J. B. Jacobs. A Paris, 1785. p. 366.
b b. The fecond cafe, viz. where the chin is placed
towards the pubis and the finciput to the facrum, is
neither fo dangerous for the mother nor child. For if
by the force of the pains the face be pulhed fo far for¬
ward that the chin becomes engaged within the arch of
the pubis, then the inferior edge of the fymphyfis pubis
forms a fulcrum on which the inferior jaw moves, by
which the finciput and occiput pafs readily and eafily
along the hollow of the facrum, their furface being
well adapted to that of the facrum, and the feveral parts
of the face pafs in fucceftion through the vulva.
cc. The third cafe, viz. where the chin is to one fide,
is ftiil more favourable than the fecond j for the face
paflfes readily through the oblique diameter of the pel¬
vis till ftopt by the tuberofities of the ifehia, when the
chin turns into the arch of the pubis, and then the fame
phenomena which occur in the fecond cafe take place.
1 he caufe mort generally aftigned for face-cafes is
the ill directed exertion of the propelling powers.
May it not alfo depend in many cafes on the original
pofition of the foetus ?
When any extraordinary difficulty occurs in face-cafes,
Lowder’s lever is the inftrument to which recourfe
ought to be had. The forceps, as recommended by
Smellie and others, being quite infufficient to afford a
fafe and fecure hold of the infant.
e. On fome rare occafions the fide of the head pre-
fents, fo that one ear is in the centre of the pelvis. In
fuch a cafe, the ftrongeft contraftions of the uterus
cannot make the head enter the pelvis, and the woman
would generally die undelivered were it not for the in¬
terference of art. Cafes of this kind are remarkably
rare.
The hand of the operator muft be carried up in fuch
cafes, and moderate preffure muft be made in fuch a
direction as fhall allow the cuntra61ions of the uterus to
pufh the fmooth part of the cranium into the cavity of
the pelvis.
,<y f l he head of the child is not the part always ap¬
plied to the pelvis 5 for fometimes the head paffes laft.
Whenever any other part than the head prefents, the
labour is ftyled by authors preternatural.
All preternatural labours hav« been divided into two
orders. A. Prefentations of the inferior extremities ;
and E. Prefentations of the fuperior extremities.
A. Prefentations of the lower extremities comprehend
cafes where one or both feet, one or both knees, and the
breech prefent.
*7 g. Cafes where both feet prefent are more frequent
than thofe where one only prefents. It has been cal-
MIDWIFERY.
*5
Chap. IV.
culated that the feet prefent once in 105 cafes of Preterna-
labour. tural Partu-
Somc authors have divided labours of this kind into rition’
a great variety of Ipeeies. There is, however, no ne- v " *
ceifity for fuch diviiions, and they tend to millead and
embarrals praditioners. All the varieties may be re¬
duced under three heads; for the toes muft be either
towards the lide of the pelvis, or towards the facrum or
pubes.
_ dd. Where the toes are towards the fide of the pel¬
vis, the child is generally placed in fuch a manner that
the abdomen, breaft, and face pafs in fucceftion along
the facro-iliac fynchondroiisof that fide. This is the
molt favourable fituation m which the child under fucli
circumftances can be placed ; for the largeft parts of its
body pafs through the largeft aperture of the pelvis.
In this cafe, then, the action ot the uterus forcing
forward the child, the feet are by degree* excluded
through the external parts, the toes being lituated be¬
tween the point of the coccyx and the tuberofity of the
ifehium ; the thighs follow, then the abdomen and
thorax ; but the farther progrefs of the child is for fome
tune interrupted by the arms palling up along each fide
of the head, which add confiderably to its bulk ; at
laft, however, the repeated contractions of the uterus
force the face into the hollow of the facrura, and then
the nape of the neck turning on the inferior edge of the
fymphyfis pubis as on a pivot, the face is excluded, fol¬
lowed by the finciput and occiput.
Where the efforts of nature in this procefs are fole-
ly trufted, tne child, unlefs it be fmad and the pelvis
be very capacious, while the foft parts are much relaxed,
is generally ftill-born ; for before the obftacles to the
(.1 livery of the head be overcome, the long-continued
compreftion 01 the funis umbilicalis, by intercepting the
courfe of the blood, proves fatal.
ee. Authors have generally confidered that to be the
nioft favourable pofition in which the feet can prefent,
where the toes are towards the facrum. Roederer for
example fays, “ pedum tunc digiti fi offi facro obver-
tantur, foetus abdomini incumbens recle fitus eft (l.)”
But two difadvantages attend this pofition : Firft, the
largeft part of the child’s body is forced through the
fmalleft part of the outlet of the pelvis; and, zdly, The
longeft diameter of the head is applied to the fhorteft
diameter of the brim of the pelvis. In fuch cafes, there¬
fore, the patient commonly fufters much pain, and the
child’s life is deftroyed.
ff. When the toes are turned to the pubes, it has
been univerfally acknowledged, that the feet are in the
worft poflible pofition. Indeed not only do the difad.
vantages Hated as refulting from the laft pofition {ee)
equally take place in this one, but another caufe of
difficulty and danger is added, viz. that the face being
applied to the pubes, the progrefs of the child muft be
impeded in no inconfiderable degree. Hence in fuch a
cafe the patient may be very much injured, and the
child muft be aliuoft inevitably loft.
The management of footling cafes was firft explained,
in as far as we know, in Dr Hamilton’s Seledt Cafes in
Midwifery, p. 89.
“ It
(l) Roederer Elements Artis Obftetricte, p. 249.
Preterna¬
tural
r it ion
»9
Chap. IV. M 1 D W
“ It is a curious circumftance that the beft mode of
il Partu-jgjjygj-y jn footling eaies has not yet been explicitly
ltlon- pointed out by any author. This mud appear furpri-
gS ling when it is coniidered that fueh prefentations tre-
quently occur ; that the life of the child depends upon
the pra&ice adopted ; and that the management of every
preternatural labour mutt be influenced by the rules
applicable to footling cafes.
“ When the feet prefent, the infant’s fltuation rela¬
tively to the mother mud be with its belly placed to¬
wards her back, her belly, her fide, or tome interme¬
diate point. The fird of thofe podtions has been
generally confidered as the mod favourable, and the lad
as the reverfe. But a liitle refie&ion mud convince every
practitioner that the infant occupies the lead podible
fpace, when its belly is towards the dde ot the mother,
or, to fpeak more accurately, towards the facro-iliac
fynchondrofis ; for then the larged part of its body is
within the larged diameter of the pelvis at the brim,
while in its progrefs through the pelvis, the breech is
not forced through the Ihorted diameter at the outlet,
viz. that between the tuberofities of the ifchia.
“ In every cafe therefore where the feet aie brought
down, the toes diould in the procefs of extradtion be
turned into fuch a podtion, that the belly, the bread,
and the face, (hall be made to pafs in fucceflion along
the neared facro-iliac fynchondrods. After the arms
are difengaged, the face can be readily turned into the
hollow of the facrum.”
//. One foot may prefent in the fame variety of direc¬
tions as both feet. Where one foot prefents naturally,
if the pains be regular and drong, the cafe is attended
with lefs pain to the mother and lefs danger to the child,
than where under dmilar cireumdanees both feet prefent.
It is lefs painful to the mother, becaufe the child is
formed into the diape of a cone, and the apex panes fird
through the pelvis, by which the parts are gradually
prepared, and not fuddenly forced open ; and it is lefs
dangerous for the child, becaufe the one leg being folded
along the belly and bread, the umbilical cord is pro-
teftcd from compreflion.
From thefe circumdances, a very erroneous inference
has been deduced by fome celebrated authors, viz. that
in cafes where it is neceffary to perform the operation
ftyled turning, the one foot finould be brought down
in preference to both. But as on fuch occafions the ope¬
rator cannot be adided by pains, it is obvious that he
could not have a fufficient hold of the child by a fingle
foot.
With the exceptions jud dated, the phenomena where
one foot prefents are the fame with thofe which occur
in cafes where both feet are in the padage.
i. When the knees prefent, all the inconveniences of
footling cafes take place, with this additional danger to
the child, that if the legs be eroded, one or both may be
fraclured before the knees be expelled.
The management of knee prefentations mud depend
on the advance which thefe parts may have at the
time adidance is procured. If they be dill at the brim
of the pelvis, the feet diould be hooked down. But if
they be fairly within the cavity of the pelvis, or in the
vagina, they mud be allowed to protrude without the
parts until the feet be expelled.
k. Breech cafes occur more frequently than footling
I
po
I F E R Y. 61
ones. It has been calculated that they happen once in Preterna-
r r, , tural Partu-
5 2 caies ot labour. . rition.
The breech may prefent in the fame variety of po-
fitions as the feet, viz. with the belly of the child to
the back, to the belly, or to the fide of the mother.
Certain advantages and diladvantages attend each of
thofe pofition*.
When the belly is to the back of the mother, the
thigh bones being draight, pais with difficulty along the
curved line of the facrum } after that obdacle is lur-
mounted, the larged part of the child is applied to the
fmalled diameter at the brim of the pelvis j and after
the body is delivered, the head is dtuated in fuch a direc¬
tion that it cannot enter the brim \ for the dneiput is op-
polite to the promontory of facrum and the occiput to
the fymphyfis pubis.
If the belly of the child be to the belly of the
mother, then the thigh bones pafs very readily along
the bones of the pubes, while the Ipine bending, accom¬
modates itfelf admirably to the hollow of the facrum,
confequently at fird the labour proceeds fpeedily and
fafely ; but after the breech has paiTed through the ca¬
vity of the pelvis, it is applied with its larged diameter
to the ihorted diameter at the outlet, and after it has at
lad overcome the refidance occafioned by that circum-
dance, and the body is expelled, the face, being towards
the fymphyfis pubis, fubjeds the patient to all the pain,
and the child to all the dangers, alreadyenumerated
When the belly of the child is placed towards the
fide of the mother in breech cafes, then the fame advan¬
tages attend the fituation which have been enumerated
under the fird footling cafe (dd); for the larged
part of the child is uniformly applied to the larged aper¬
ture of the pelvis. Beddes this, the child incurs lefs
hazard in this pofition than where the feet originally pre
fent $ for the legs being folded on the belly protect the
funis umbilicalis from compreffion.
Breech cafes, where (he pains are powerful, are to be
left entirely to nature, taking care to fupport the pe-
rinaeum, till the infant be expelled j the navel-dring
is then to be taken off the dretch, and the child accom¬
modated to the paffage on the fame principle as footling
cafes.
When the pains prove inadequate to the expuldon of
the breech, various methods have been recommended,
fuch as hooking the finger in the groin, fird on the
one fide, and then on the other ; employing a blunt
hook for the fame purpole •, fixing a garter or piece of
tape over one or both thighs, and applying the forceps.
The fird of thefe methods are ufeful where there are
flight pains, and the infant is not large. The fecond
and third methods are injurious both to the mother and
child, for they add to the vis a tergo, without dimi-
nilhing the refidance. But the fourth method, that is,
applying the forceps, is invariably both fafe and fuccefs-
ful •, beeaufe, while it enables the praftitioner to draw
forward the child without any uterine action, it at the
fame time puts it in his power to accommodate it to
the paffage by turning it round in the proper direction.
B. The fecond divifion of preternatural labours, in- pz
eludes all cafes where any other part than the head
or lower extremities prefents j fuch as the neck, the
arm or dioulder, the bread, the back, the belly, or the
fide.
It
9i
bz
ZVTJ™:. , II Is obvIous’ tliat a full grown child cannot poffibly
r.t-t). ’ Je exP-‘^ed tlirough thft natural paffages in fuch pofi-
■■ ^ ‘niSj and coniequently, unlcfs nature perform the ope¬
ration fir 11 dtferibed by Dr Denman, both mother and
child mult be dedroyed j for the unavailing contrac¬
tion of toe uterus uill fjrlt operate in impeding the
circulation of the child } and then by puflnng forward
its body with great force on the foil parts ot the mo-
tlu\, will induce luch a degree ot pain and inflamma¬
tion, that flie mult at laid link exhaufted.
The practice of turning, as it is called, that is, of
bringing down the feet in cafes belonging to this divifion
ot preternatural labours, originally fuggefled bv Pierre
Franco, but firft properly eftablilhed by Ambrofe
Parre, has been the means of faving many valuable
lives. Indeed the fuperiority of this practice to that of
making the head prelent under luch circumflances mult
be very obvious ; for after the operator has got hold of
tue infant s feet, he can complete the deliveiy without
requiring the afliftance of pains.
1 lie clangers to be dreaded in performing the opera¬
tion of turning are rupture of the uterus, or fubfe-
quent inflammation of the paflages, and lofs of the child.
1 he firft of thefe, is to be guarded againll, by pur-
fuing fuch means as lliall iufpend the labour-pains, and
remove the uterine ftrKture, when the opportunity of
turning before the difeharge of the water which fur-
rounds the infant has been loft. Thefe are blood-letting
and opiates in large dofes, fingly or combined, accord¬
ing to circumflanees.
Great gentlenefs and caution, on the part of the ope¬
rator, are indilpenfably requilite to prevent both rupture
of the uterus and the lubfequent inflammation of the
paflages. When it is added, that a perfeverance for
feveral hours is fometimes neceflary for accompliftiing
this operation, it mult be obvious, that it demands in
manv inftances a greater degree of patience, as well as
dexterity, on the part of the operator, than molt cafes of
furgery.
I he fafety of the infant, can only be fecured, by at¬
tending very accurately to the rules for the manage¬
ment of footling cafes.
Dr Denman, whole dilcovery of the fpontaneous evo¬
lution has been already mentioned, at one time fuppof-
ed that in the cafes under confideration, the operation
of turning might be difpenfed with, and that the pa¬
tient might be faved much hazard, and the pra&itinner
great anxiety and trouble, by waiting for that change.
But although in the lati r editions of his valuable
wotrv (Introduction to Midwifery 1, he has relinquilhed
this idea, his oblervations on the management of pre¬
ternatural labour of the fecond order, are evidently in¬
fluenced bv his former opinion.
He fays (vol. ii. p. 249.), “ Yet the knowledge of
this fa6t, however unqueftionably proved, does not free
us from the necelfitv and propriety of turning children
preff ntirg with the fuperior extremities, in every cafe
in which that operation can b< performed with fafety to
the mother or give us a better chance of favb g the
child. Under fuch cin umflances, tin inftrueiiom given
bv former writers, and the obfervations we have before
made, muft dill be considered as proper to
MIDWIFER Y.
Chan. IV. (
»4
un
couduT. But when we are caller
pn ter natural labour, in which there
hope for the prefervalion of the child, or in which we
to a pal ienf wit h a
is no room to
are afi'ured of its death, or when the operation of turn- irete- a-
ing cannot be pert rmed without violence ai d lcmeturi'1 Partu* :■ t
clanger to the mother, then the knowlec ge ol this pro¬
bability of a fponlaneous evolution, will let cur minds
at cafe, and difengage us from the confideraiion of ma¬
king any hatty attempts to perform a hazardous ope¬
ration, from which no |'oftiblc* good can be derived,
except that of extracting a dead child, and which ai all
events might be effected by a method much more iafe
to the mother.
“ 1 he time required for the fpontaneous evolution of
the child, and the facility with which it n.-ay be made,
will depend upon a variety of circur*fiances, but chief¬
ly upon the fize of the child, the aptitude of its pofi-
tion, the dimenfions of the pelvis, and the power ex¬
erted by the uterus. L the child be very large or
much below the common fize, the flower 1 believe will
be the evolution, nor can it be made at all without a
ftrong adion of the uterus. It is pofiible, therefore,
when eve have conduced ourfelves on the ground of
expedation that the evolution would be made, that the
pains may fall off or be unequal to the efied, and wre
may be difappointed. It might then be apprehended,
that the difficulty of extrading the child would be in¬
finitely increafed. But though the evolution was not
perfeded, I have not found this confequenee j for the
child, though not expelled, has been brought into fuch
a ftate that I could afterwards pafs my hand with
eafe, and bring down its feet, though in an attempt to do
this at the beginning of the labour I had been foiled.
In one cafe in which the evolution did not take place,
I could not bring down the inferior extremities, but I
had no difficulty in fixing an inftrument upon the cur¬
ved part of the body of the child, or in bringing it
away with entire fafety to the mother. It was before
prefumed that the child was dead, and the foie objedi:
was to free the mother from her danger ; and with her
fafety no appearances of the child, however difagree-
able, are to be put in competition. In cafes of this
kind another mode of pratflice has been recommend¬
ed. that of feparaling the head fr< m the body with a
blunt hook or other convenient fafe inftrument •, but as
I have never pradlifed the method, I give the deferip-
tion of it in a note.”
There are two points in the above obfervations, in
which it appears that Dr Denman has erred. In the
firft place, in famflioning delay in having recourfe to
the operation of turning where the fuperior extremity
prefents. In many fuch cafes, if the pains be not
fpeedily fufpended, or the pofiiion of the child altered,
the uterus would burft ; an accident w hich has re¬
peatedly fallen under the obfervation of the writer of
this article.
I he fecond error is, the fuppofition that, after it has
been found by experience in any given cafe, that the
fponianeous evolution is not to happe n, it is c afy to ex-
tra£f the child either by the fee t or by fon e inflru-
ment. But it Avill be found in the majority of fuch
cafes, that the infant is impadled into fo clofe a tody,
while the- parts are all in a flate of fweHing and in-
flairmatiem, that immenfe difficulty and great dange r at¬
tend the aiteir.pt.
The- f« lie-wing obfervations on this ffibiedl cannot be
too rongly impreffed on the minds of, elpecially young,
pra&itioners.
9S
u Several
■ Chap. IV. M I D W
Preterna- “ Several years ago it was difcovered by Dr Den-
itural Partu- man? that in prefentations, fuch as that in the above
,J '"« rill^on' , cafe, the pofition of the child is fometiraes altered, and
26 its expuliion accompliflied, by the natural contraflions
of the uterus. Although the doflor, with his ufual
candour, has allowed, that this favourable event, under
fuch alarming circumftances, is rather to be w inied than
expected j yet he has offered it as his opinion, that if
all interference of art were avoided, “ the woman would
not, in this cafe, die undelivered.”
“ The preceding hiftory, however, affords a melan¬
choly contradiction to this opinion. The midwife, who
attended from the beginning, did nothing to interrupt
the natural procefs, as far as could be learned. Her
fatal error was having only looked on, and having nei¬
ther given that affiftance which was neceffary, nor fent
for others who could do fo.
“ The fpontaneous evolution, as Dr Denman has call¬
ed it, can only take place where the child lies in a par¬
ticular fituation, viz. where the aflion of the uterus
cannot be exerted on the prefenting part, or where that
part is fo Ihaped that it cannot be wedged within the
pelvis. A praftitioner may, therefore, by a careful
examination, be able to decide whether the evolution
(will happen or not. This obfervation is by no means a
matter of fpeculation, being, on the contrary, of much
( practical utility ; for, if there be figns which indicate
the event alluded to, it follows, as a confequence, not
only that the natural procefs is not to be counteradled,
but alfo, that it is to be aflifted. Two cafes occurred
during one year, where the author of thefe remarks had
an opportunity of prognofticating and adifting the evo¬
lution, in prefence of twro gentlemen then attending
the profeffor of midwifery, as annual pupils.
“ That the uterus fliould continue rigidly contradled
on the body of the child, while the ftrength of the -wo¬
man was fo much exhaufted that no pulfe could be felt,
and that the appeared linking very faff, is a lingular
and an inllruclive fa£t. It will, it is to be hoped,
teach practitioners the fallacy of the affertion, that the
longer the operation of turning is delayed, the more eafily
it will be accomplijhed.
“ It may feem allonilhing, that the body of the child
could not be drawn dowrn with the crotchet, lince it
was in a Hate of great putridity : But when it is conli-
dered, that the long-continued a£Hon of the uterus had
wedged it very llrongly within the pelvis, while, at the
fame time, thfe preffure on the foft parts lining that ca¬
vity had fwelled them much, the circumllance will be
readily underltocd (n).”
jj- Authors have endeavoured to afeertain the caufes of
preternatural labours ; but little fatisfaClion has been
derived from their refearches. It is probable, that
fome cafes depend on different caufes from others. For
example, in fome women preternatural labour occurs
more than once. Such cafes feem to depend on fome
peculiarity in the uterus or ovum. Again, it is well
known to pra&itioners of midwifery, that, on fome oc-
calions, where the child had been found to prefent na¬
turally at the commencement of labour, the pofition is
I F E R Y.
6
perceived to be preternatural after the frfl ftage is com¬
pleted (o). In thefe tales, the change of pofition may
perhaps be juflly attributed to irregularity of aCiion of
the uterus. Befides, there can be intie doubt that fome
cafes of preternatural labours originate from the prema¬
ture rupture of the membranes.
2. The bulk of the foetus alio occafions confiderable
deviations from nature in labour j for it may be either
too fmall or too large.
/. The foetus, at the full period of geflalion, is never
of fo fmall a fize as to occafion any deviation from na¬
ture, unlefs it have been for fome time dead. It is in¬
deed, a very remarkable faCt, that women often carry to
the full time a foetus which had died about the fifth or
fixth month.
In fuch cafes, the child is fometimes expelled fo ra¬
pidly, the paffages oppofing little or no rcfiltance, that
the uterus is fuddenly emptied of its contents j and
hence, from the irregularity of its contradlion, the
placenta is retained, or uterine haemorrhagy takes
place.
m. The patient, however, is expofed to more dangers
from the increafed than the diminifhed bulk of the
foetus. The foetus may exceed the ordinary fize, either
from a natural increafe of bulk, or from monilrofity, or
from difeafe.
k h. It has been already" Hated that the foetus at the
full term of geftation, generally weighs from feven to
nine pounds 5 but on fome rare occafions it is found to
exceed ten or twelve pounds, or even thirteen. Al¬
though, how ever, the procefs of delivery is not fo rapid
Avhere the child is fo large, yet if no other circumftance
occurs to impede labour, it will be eventually termi¬
nated w ith fafety both to mother and child in moft cafes.
Where indeed, under fuch circumftances, the patient
has not formerly had a child, there is always reafon to
apprehend that the infant may be deftroyed by apo¬
plexy, or the mother may be very much bruifed. In
fome cafes of this kind, it becomes neceffary to open the
head of the infant.
//. When the child is monftrous, from the redundan¬
cy of feme large parts, as from two heads or two bo¬
dies, it is fufficiently obvious that if the mother be at
the full term of geftation, the obftacles to delivery will
be infurmountable by the natural powers. Fortunately,
however, in by far the greateft number of cafes of mon-
fters of that kind, the adtion of the uterus is excited be¬
fore the ordinary period.
mm. The moft frequent difeafe of children, which
proves an on ft a ole to labour, is the enlargement of the
head from hydrocephalus. On fome occafions the head
is enlarged to an extraordinary fize.
Sometimes too, the thorax or abdomen is diftended
and enlarged by a watery fluid. Profeffor Saxtorph
has recorded the following example of an obftacle to
delivery from a very uncommon difeafe. “ D. 1 8. Sept.
1775. in domo obftetricia regia, mox paritura admitte-
batur gravida. Inftante partus principio dolons partus
veri debito modo altemantes, fed folita proportione vc-
hementia, duratione et ctleriori recurfu inlligebant. Rite
tendebatur
Preteriia-
tural Partu¬
rition.
<)8
99
ICO
(n) Select Cafes in Midwifery, p. no.
(o) Vide Denman’s Introduction, vol. ii. p. 254.
6 4 M I D W
uirafpar- tcndebatu.r.orIficIum poflcriora verfus inclinans j jufta
turition. t>rant capitis fitus, direftio et aquaram formatio ; pelvis
1 — y—i mJ partefque molliores, viam partus conllituentes, nullo la-
borabant vitio j quibu.s omnibus acceflit adhuc (anus et
robuftus corporis feminei habitus, et partus aliquoties
antea perpefli felix eventus, quae indubie ominabantur
incaeptum lioccc negotium partus feliciter quoque finien-
dum tore. In progreflivo rite procedebat partus.
In fine vero capite fponte nato, truncus folita facili¬
tate fequi nolebat, quare obftetrix in arte adhuc novitia
conilitutam domus obftetrieem expertem fatis fociam fibi
advocabat.
“ Corpore foetus ad latus revoluto, ut humeri in ma-
jorc diametro aperturae pelvis inferiori minorem fa-
cerent refiftcntiam, brachiilque edudlis, jundtis viri-
bus truncuni ad axin pelvis extrahere moliebantur j
attamen obftabat abdomen nulla illarum vi ulterius
cedens.
In auxilium tunc accedens, qui domum ifto tem¬
pore artem addifeendi gratia habitabat itudiofus, manum
tub abdomine prudenter intulit, quod tenfum atque
complanatum fine omni obttaculo inveniebat j ulterius
vero manum protrudens pedes tetigit, interque crura
tumorem ingentem tenfum fluidoque contento plenum
reperiebat.
“ CompretTa hocce tumore, dur,, adfiantes omni vi
truncum fimul attrahebant, difrumpebatur fubito, in-
tignifquc aquee copia effluxit j fuperato fic obfiacu-
io, facillime extraliebatur foetus, vitam per biduum
trahen*.
Foetus potlea exammatus fcemellus erat, ingentem
faccum inter femora gerens, qui ex elongatione integu-
mentorum univerfalium corporis a tergo verfus anteriora
ita protraclorum, ut orificium ani ex facie anteriore
corporis prope vulvam confpiceretur, ortum habebat.
In ipfo facco pott effiuxionem humoris, aquse fere lib. iv.
capiente, nihil praeter hydatidcs parvas obfervatu dig-
num erat. Os lacro vero, ad angulum return verfus
pofteriora curvatum caudie intlar prominebat (l).”
io1 Sect. III. 0/ the Deviations from Natura/ Labour,
which depend on the State of the Padaaes through
which the Child is forced.
1 he deviations from natural labour occafioned by the
ftate of the paffages, originate either from the foft parts,
or the bones. ,
l he obtlacles from the foft parts are tumours within
the womb, thickening and induration of the neck and
mouth of the womb, enlargement of the ovary, cicatrix
in the vagina, colle&ion of faeces within the redlum,
fuelling of tbe P^ts lining the pelvis, malformation
and extreme rigidity of the external parts.
It is a curious fa ft, not only that conception fome-
times takes place when there is a tumour within the
womb, but alfo that pregnancy goes on to the full pe¬
riod. When this has happened, the tumour has been
pufhed down before the infant, and has filled up the
pafiages.
If this obftacle be afeertained at an early period of
the labour, which it mult be if the practitioner be in
I F E R Y. Ghap. IV.
any ordinary degree Ikllful and attentive, the tumour Pretem*-
may be pufhed back, and the feet of the child may be tural Par-
brought down. In a cafe of this kind, where the wri- . turit,on- .
ter of this article was called in after the tumour had '
become wedged within the pelvis, and the head had
been opened, the delivery was accomplilhed with ex¬
treme difficulty, and the poor woman lurvived only a
few hours. ]
The following Angular cafe of an excrefcence on the
os uteri, is Hated by Dr Denman, vol. ii. p. 65.
In June 1770,1 was defired to fee a patient in the 102
eighth month oi her pregnancy, who in the precedino-
night had a profiife hemorrhage. Her countenance
Ihewed the effefts of the great lofs of blood (lie had
fuftained ; and from the reprefentation of the cafe given
me by the gentleman who -was firft called in, 1 con¬
cluded that the placenta W’as fixed over the os uteri.
On examination I felt a. very large fielhy tumour at
the extremity of the vagina, reprefenting and nearly
equalling in fize the placenta, which I judged it to be.
Had this been the cafe, there could not be a doubt of
the propriety and neceffity of delivering the patient
fpcedily ; and with that intention I paffed my finger
round the tumour, to difeover the Hate of the os uteri.
Tut this I could not find, and on a more accurate exa¬
mination, I was convinced that this tumour was an ex¬
crefcence growing from the os uteri, with a very ex¬
tended and broad balls. I then concluded that the
patient was not with child, notwithftanding the dilten-
tion of the abdomen, but that Ihe laboured under fome
difeafe which refembled pregnancy, and that the he¬
morrhage was the confequenee of the difeafe. A mo¬
tion which was very evidently perceived when I ap¬
plied my hand to the abdomen, did not prevail with
me to alter this opinion.
“ was of all others a cafe in which a confultation
was defirable, both to decide upon the difeafe, and the
meafures which it might be neceflary to purfue ; and
feveral gentlemen of eminence were called in. That
Ihe was aftually pregnant, was afterwards proved to
the fatisfaftion of every one ; and it w-as then conclud¬
ed, that fuch means ftiould be ufed as might prevent or
leflcn the hemorrhage, and that we Ihould wait and fee
v hat efforts might be naturally made for accomplilhinfr
the delivery.
“ No very urgent fymptom occurred till the latter
end of July, when the hemorrhage returned in a very
alarming way, and it was thought neceffary that the
patient Ihould be delivered. There was not a poffibili-
ty of extirpating the tumour, and yet it was of fuch a
fize, as to prevent the child from being born in any
other wray than by leffening the head. This was per¬
formed^ but after many attempts to extraft the child,
the patient was fo exhaulled, that it became neceflary
to leave her to her repofe, and very foon after our leav¬
ing her, fhe expired.
“ We were permitted to examine the body. There
was no appearance of difeafe in any of the abdominal
vifeera, or on the external furface of the uterus, which
was of its regular form ; and when a large oval piece
was taken out of the anterior part, the child, which
had
(1) \ ide Societatis medicas Haumenfis Colleftanea, vol. ii. p. 23.
Chap IV. M I D W
Preterna- had no marks of putrefadUon, ivas found in a natural po-
tural Partu- x\n incinon was made on each fide of the cervix
, rl^on~ , to the vagina, and then a large cauliflower excrefcence
was found growing to the whole anterior part of the os
uteri. The placenta adhered with its whole furfaee j
fo that the blood which the had loft muft have been
■wholly difcharged from the tumour (m).”
103 In two cafes, where a great thickening and indura¬
tion of the neck and mouth of the womb, approaching
to the nature of fehirrofity, had taken place previous to
conception, the natural action of the uterus, though af¬
ter a very conftderable time indeed, afiifted by copious
blood-letting, eventually overcame the refiftance. One
of the patients died ten months after, with all the fymp-
tojns of real cancer uteri. The other was reftored to
perfect health after lying in.
104 Dr Denman has recorded (vol. ii. p. 73.) two cafes,
where the enlarged ovarium impeded the pr ogre Is of
the child. In the one cafe the head of the infant was
opened, and the delivery completed by the crotchet;
but the patient died at the diftance of three weeks. In
the other, a trocar was paffed into the tumour, and a
living child was born. The patient recovered from her
lying-in ; but died hedlic at the end of fix months. In
fuch cafes, the ovary may be puflied back, if the cir-
cumftance be difeovered early enough.
105 Cicatrix of the vagina, in confequence of former in¬
jury, may appear at f.rft to impede the progrefs of
the infant; but it will always be found to yield to the
pains, if the flrength of the patient be fupported, and
proper means be adopted to counteradf the effects of the
long-continued labour throes. A cafe occurred fome
time ago to Dr Hamilton, where a fubftance, of the
bardnefs of griftle, as thick as an ordinary fized finger,
placed between the vagina and redtum, and apparently
extending from the ramus of one ifehium to that of the
other, prefented an unfurmountable obftacles to the paf-
fage of the child. He was called in after an unfuccefs-
ful attempt had been made to tear away the infant, and
found the woman in a ftale of extreme danger. He
was informed, that five years before that period, the
had had a very fevere tedious labour, followed by great
inflammation and fuppuration of the external parts.
The indurated part was cut through without the patient
making any complaint, and the child was very eafily
extracted; but (he furvived the delivery only two
days. The relations would not permit the body to be
opened.
<106 A collection of faeces within the reCtum has been
known to occafion fuch rofiftarce to the paffage of the
child, that the woman has died undelivered. In ge¬
neral, however, it is in the power of an aCtive uraCti-
tioner to empty the gut at the beginning of labour.
Eut if, from negleCt, the head of the child be iammed
in the pelvis, and immoveably wedged in confequence
of an accumulation of faeces, it then becomes necefiary
to onen the head.
107 Perhaps the moft frequent affeClion of the foft parts
which impedes the procefs of the infant is. fwelling of
the parts lining the pelvis. This circumftance has been
Vql. XIV. Part I.
I F E R Y. 6
already hinted at. It can never happen where the prac- P re torn a-
titioner is ordinarily attentive ; for the tendernefi, heat, tur‘\11 Iai
and drynefs of the paffages, which precede the adlual ■
fwelling, cannot be overlooked by one at all aware of
the poflibility of fuch an event. When it has aClually
happened, nothing can fave the mother but opening
the head of the infant. After this moft unpleafant
operation is completed, the extraction of the child is
fcldom a matter of much difficulty.
Malformation of the external parts in fome cafes does
not prevent conception. Two cafes have fallen within
the knowledge of the writer of this article, where the
woman had conceived though the orifice of the vagina
had not been capable of permitting the introduction of
even the little finger. And it confiits with his know¬
ledge, that about thirty years ago a woman under fimi-
lar circumftances, was brought into the Royal Inlirmary
of this place, and was delivered by the Caefarea'n opera¬
tion. She died within two days.
It is fufficiently obvious that the fafe praCtice under
fuch circumftances is to enlarge the natural opening, by
making an ineifion in the direction of the perinaeum,
taking care not to wound the fphinCfer ani.
Extreme rigidity of the external parts is one of the Ic^
rr.oft frequent caufes of deviation which depends <n the
ftate of the loft parts. It takes place, in a greater or lefs
degree, in the greateft number of women who lie in for
the firft time ; and generally in all women who arecon-
ftderably advanced in life before they have children.
It is feldom that the refiftance oppofed by the exter¬
nal parts is fo very great as to prove an invincible ob-
ftacle to labour. Eut, on many occafions, the long-con¬
tinued prt flurc of the child on thofe parts produce1' the
moft difagreeable confequences, as inflammation of all
theie parts and of the bladder. Inflammation in thofe
parts is always dangerous, for there feems to be a re¬
markable tendency to gangrene. Cafes are on record
where the whole parts have floughed off, and where
the reCtum, vagina, and bladder, have formed one ca¬
nal. Perhaps death is much preferable to life under
fuch circumftances.
Copious blood-letting, and the liberal ufe of fome
unCIuous application, with time and patience, in gene¬
ral overcome the rigidity of the external parts. Pla¬
cing the patient over the fleams of hot water was for¬
merly recommended in fuch cafes, but this practice is
now exploded.
B. Many deviations from natural labour occur from no
the ftate of the bones of the pelvis, for they may be fo
much altered in (hape as either to increafe or diminiih
confiderably the aperture of that part.
d. When the apertures of the pelvis are too large,
the mother incurs much danger, and the child is not
totally exempt from hazard.
na. The danger incurred by the mother arifes from
there being no refiftance to the paffage of the child, fo
that when the a£Hon of the uterus begins, the child
may be pufhed by the force of the pains through the
paffage before the foft parts be dilated ; hence the ute¬
rus may be ruptured, or the folt parts lacerated. If,
I on.
(m) Were fuch a cafe again to occur,
round the neck of the tumour.
there could be no doubt
.refpefting the propriety of fixing a ligature
66
MIDWIFERY.
Chap. IV.
Pretema- on the other hand, the external parts be {oft and
ur^t* ^tu'yielding, a confiderable portion of the uterus may be
r ^ excluded without the parts. There is a very wonder¬
ful hiftory of a cafe of this kind alluded to by Saxtorph
in the following words. “ Memorabilius adhuc exem-
plum eft illud a cel. Wolfg. Mullnerq allatum, ubi lotus
uterus una cum foetu extra genitalia dilapfus, fcetufque
vivus extra pelvim verfione extraflus fuit, matre poll
reduflionem uteri fuperftite. Vide ejus Bahrnehmung
von einer famt dem Rinde uufgefallenen. Debahrmutter,
Numbers? 1771 (l.)*
*u bb. The hazard which the child undergoes is that of
being fuddenly expelled, included within the entire
ovum, fo that it may be loft before proper aftiftance
can be afforded. Another danger is, that the mem¬
branes having given way, it may be dafhed with vio¬
lence upon the floor on which the patient walks.
Whenever from the great width of the hips, there is
reafon to fufpedl: that the pelvis is too large, the prac¬
titioner fhould continue in conftant attendance from the
very commencement of labour, and fhould carefully
adopt the appropriate and obvious means to prevent the
hazards juft enumerated.
•ts e. But deficiency of fpace in the apertures of the pel¬
vis occurs much more frequently than increafe. The
apertures of the pelvis may be diminifhed from natural
Ifnall fize or malformation of the bones, from exoftofis,
or from altered fhape in confequence of mollities of-
fmm.
Cafes where the facrum and ilia are of an uncommon
fmall fliape are not frequent. Narrownefs of the bafe
of the facrum is fometimes met with ; and in a few cafes
it has been found that the apex of the facrum has ap¬
proached too nearly to the anterior part of the pelvis,
fo as to diminith the apertures at the outlet.
*■*3 Exoftofes feldom prove an obftacle to delivery j but
one exception to this rule fell under the obfervalion of
the writer of this article feveral years ago. The exof¬
tofis extended along the whole extent of the fymphyfis
pubis, and was fully as thick as an ordinary lized fin¬
ger. The woman had been delivered previous to his
being called in, but the exhauftion which followed,
(for Ihe had been allowed to continue five days and
nights in conftant hard labour) occafioned her finking
a very Ihort time after delivery. In this inftance both
mother and child were loft from the felf-fuflaciency and
ignorance of the midwife.
The deficiency may cxift in the brim, the outlet, or
the cavity fingly or combined.
The brim is much more frequently affefled by mol¬
lities oflium than the outlet •, and, as was long ago re¬
marked by Levret, it generally happens, that when
the brim is narrowed from this caufe, the outlet is wid¬
ened.
-T14 The brim may be diminiflied in fize by the proje&ion
of the promontory of the facrum, or by the flattening
of the pubes, or by the approximation of the bones
whefe the pubes and ilia unite, or by a combination of
feme of thefe circumftances. The projeftion of the
promontory of the facrum, however, is by far the moft
nd
IT*
common. When this happens, the proje&ion fometimes Pretema-
renders one fide of the pelvis wider than the other, andtura.* f>arto-
• • t ill f n ii# riti/vr*
this conrututes what authors call the diftorted pelvis.
Sometimes, however, it leaves both fides of an equal
width, and this is called the deformed pelvis.
The deficiency in the brim produced by thefe caufes
is very various 5 molt frequently flight, but loraetimes
fo great that there is not an inch between pubes and
facrum.
The outlet may be diminifhed by the approximation
of the tuberofities and rami of the ifehia, or by the
apex of the facrum and coccyx projecting more than
ufually forward, while they are at the fame time hook¬
ed up.
When both the brim and outlet are diminiflied in
aperture, the cavity of the pelvis is generally affeCted
alfo *, but -when the deficiency of fpace is confined to
either, the cavity is commonly more fhallow than na¬
tural, by which both the refiftance and the danger are
confiderably leflened. Melancholy are the cafes where
the cavity is rendered deeper than ufual.
As the praClice in cafes of extreme deficiency in the
apertures of the pelvis is to be regulated by the degree
of narrownefs, it is a matter of the firft importance to
be able to afeertain the dimenfions in any given cafe
with tolerable precifion.
For this purpofe, inftruments called pelvimetres have
been invented. M. Coutuoli has propofed one for in¬
ternal ufe, and M. Baudelocquc has recommended one
for external application. But however plaufible in
theory the ufe of fuch contrivances may appear, it is
now well known that no dependence can be placed
upon them in aClual praflice, and therefore the hand
of the operator mull be had recourfe to for determining
both the ftiape and the extent of the apertures of the
pelvis, wherever there is any narrownefs. The fol¬
lowing dirc&ions for this purpofe given by Dr Wallace
Johnfon are extremely judicious.
“ On palling the finger along the vagina, if the coc¬
cyx, or any part of the facrum, be felt unufually forwards
or near at hand j or if the fymphyfis, or any other part
of the pubes, is found projecting rather inwards than
outwards, it is evident that the pelvis is diftorted. In
which cafe, as well as in thofe where it is not diftorted,
but only very final!, the principal part of the child’s
head (allowing the prefentation right) remains high,
the vertex making only a little round tumor within the
brim : fo that when the os uterLis opened, and come a
little forwards towards the 'pubes, the capacity of the
'pelvis may be found out by moving the end of the fin¬
ger round that part of the head which has enteired the
upper ftrait. This method is ufed by feveral prafti-
tioners in London. However, ftiould the finger not be
long enough to effeft it properly, as fometimes is the
cafe, there is then another method, which, being more
certain, may be ufed, provided it be done with tender-
nefs and caution, and when the orifices are fo well open¬
ed as to admit of it with fafety. But previous to it,
the operator muft be well acquainted with the dimen-
fions of his own hand, viz.
“ Firft,
11S
(l) Differtatio Inauguralis de Diverfo Partu, &c. Auftore Matth. Saxtorph. p. 46.
Chap, IV. M I D W
Preterna- “ Fxrft, The fingers of a middle-fizecl hand (as we
tural Partu-may. fuppofe the operator’s to be) being gathered toge-
. titl0n- , ther equally into the palm, and the thumb extended and
v ' applied clofely along the fecond or middle joint of the
finger ; the diftance between the end of the thumb, and
outer edge of the middle joint of the little finger, is ufu-
aliy four inches.
“ Secondly, Whilft they are in the above pofition,
the diftance from the thumb, at the root of the nail, in
a ftraight line to the outfide of the middle joint of the
little finger, is full three inches and a half.
“ Thirdly, the fingers being Hill in the fame fitua-
tion, and the thumb laid obliquely along the joints next
the nails of the firfl; two fingers, and bent down upon
them j the diftance between the outfide of the middle
joint of the fore finger, and the outfide of that of the
little finger is three inches and a quarter.
“ Fourthly, The hand being opened, and the tops of
the four fingers being a little bent, fo as to come nearly
in a ftraight line , their whole breadth, acrofs the joint
next the nails, is two inches and a half.
“ Fifthly, When the firft three fingers are thus bent,
their breadth acrofs the fame joint is two inches.
“ Sixthly, The breadth of the firft two, acrofs the
nail of the firft finger, is one inch and a quarter.
“ And, feventhly, The fingers being gathered into a
conical form, the thumb lying obliquely upon the palm
of the hand with its point upon the firft joint of the
ring finger, reckoning downwards, will meafure in
thicknefs, between its back and the fore part of the
thumb, two inches and two-eighths.
“ Now, as hands are extremely various, the operator
ought always to know how much the fize of his dif-
fereth from the above dimenfions $ and this being
rightly underftood, the application may be made as
follows :
“ The patient, being in the pofition as for natural
delivery, and the operator’s left hand being wTell anoint¬
ed, and the fingers and thumb gathered into a cone,
it mull be gently paffed into the vagina, and then
through the os uteri, unlefs in this part there is Hill a
rigidity to forbid it •, if fo, the fingers only mull be paf¬
fed, their extremities formed into the fourth dimenfion,
and then placed edgeways in the ftrait ; which being
done, if the fore finger touch the angle of the facrum,
and the little one the fymphyfis of the pubes, the width
is then manifeftly no more than two inches and a half;
a fpace through which, a mature, child can neither pafs
alive, nor be brought fo by art, unlefs it happens to be
preternaturally fmall indeed.”
Three methods of practice have been adopted in
cafes of fuch narrownefs of the pelvis as renders it
impuflible for the child to be protruded alive, viz.
the operation of embryulcia or embryotomy, the.
Caefaiean fe&ion, and the divifion of the fymphyfis
pubis.
j-ip I. Embryotomy. The cafes requiring this moft
fhocking operation are thofe where the infant cannot
be extracted alive through the natural paffages j while
there is, neverthelefs, fuch fpace that it may be torn
 —    —
F E R Y. 67
away piece-meal without injury to the mother. Of Prctenia
courfe, in thefe cafes the life of the woman can be faved tu™tiJ)'U"r
only at the expcnce of her infant.  *
But although authors and practitioners in modern
times adopt in general this principle, they differ ma¬
terially in their account of the precile cales requiring
the operation.
Ih Ofborn alleges, that, as the head of the infant
at the full time of utero-geftation cannot be diminifh-
ed to lefs than three inches between the parietal pro¬
tuberances by the natural contractions of the uterus
forcing it againll the bones of the pelvis j wherever ths
aperture at the brim or outlet falls under three inclieu,
the operator ought to proceed as foon as polfible to open,
the head of the infant.
But on fo very ferious an operation as that by which
one life is deftroyed, it becomes a practitioner to adopt
no rule which can be at all liable to error •, and it i*
evident, that there are three very ftrong objections t<*
this precept of Dr Othorn.
Firft, It is impoflible in any cafe at the beginning
of labour, to afeertain that the infant is at the full
term of utero-geftation •, but it is well known, that a
child at the age of between feven and eight months, if
born alive, may be reared to maturity, and that fuch
a child is capable, of being expelled without injury,
through an aperture incapable of permitting the pafiage
of a full grown foetus.
Secondly, The heads of children, even at the full
time, are fometimes fo fmall and fo yielding as to ad¬
mit readily of their thort diameter being diminiftied be¬
low three inches.
Thirdly, Every candid praflitioner muft allow, that
it is quite impoflible to afeertain with geometrical ac¬
curacy the precife dimenlions of the pelvis ; and con-
fequcntly what in any given cafe may appear to the
operator to be lefs than three inches, may in faCl be
above thefe dimenfions.
For thefe reafons, wherever the narrownefs is not ob-
vioufly very confiderable, the prudent rule is to afeer-
tain the efteft of the labour-throes, fupporting the
ftrength of the patient, and palliating diftrefling lymp-
toms. By adopting this rule, the praClitioner will not
only have the confeioufnefs of not having deftroyed life
unneceflarily, where he is eventually forced to open
the head, by the conviction that it is too large to pals
unopened, but alfo the innate fatisfaction of fometimes
faving a life, which under lefs cautious management
muft have been i’acrificed. Great care indeed is ne-
ceflfary in fuch cafes not to be deceived in the eftimate
of the progrefs of the child, for the fwelling of the fcalp
may miflead a young praCHtioner.
There has been a variety of opinion too, refpeCling 121
the loweft; dimenfions of the pelvis which permit the
operation of embryulcia with fafety to the mother j and
it is furely unneceffary to (late, that unlefs there be a
moral probability of faving the life of the mother by
this operation, it ought never to be had recourfe to.
Dr Kellie, of London (p), and Dr Ofliorn (qJ, have
recorded fome cafes where this operation was performed,
I 2 although
(p) Dr Wallace Johnfon.
Dr Olborn’s Effays.
M I D W I F E R Y.
Chap. IV.
122
although the narrownefs was very great j and the latter
gentleman, founding on a fingle cafe, afliunes the prin¬
ciple, that whenever there is a Ipaee equal to an inch
and a halt between pubes and laerum, the operation
of embryulcia is practicable. But a careful perufal of
the cale alluded to (a) mult fatisfy any unprejudiced
perfon that there mutt have been fome miitake, rnolt
piobably, irom the fwelling of the foft parts lining the
pelvis having added to the apparent narrownefs, and
having, after the head had been opened above 36
hours, fublided. And at any rate, linee experience has
now fully eltablilhed the fa£t, that the danger refulting
from this operation is always in proportion to the de¬
gree of reliltance, it may be concluded that the opera¬
tion of embryuleia cannot prove fafe to the mother, un¬
lei'', firft, there be an aperture equal to about two inches
by four j and, fecondly, the narrownefs be chiefly, if not
altogether, confined either to the brim or the outlet.
When both brim and outlet are deficient, and the cavity
is deeper than ufual, even although the feveral apertures
be quite fufficient to allow the diminiihed head to be ex¬
tracted, the injury that mull accrue from the violent
preffure on all the parts within the pelvis would de¬
ter any prudent practitioner from hazarding fuch an
operation.
WThen it is determined to have recourfe to the opera¬
tion of embryotomy, the inftruments required are the
perforator, the crotchet, and the embryotomy forceps
delineated in the plate.
The operation is to confift of two different procelfesj
firlt, the diminution of the head 5 and, fecondly, the
extra&ion of the mangled child. In many cafes the
latter fhould be performed immediately after the former
is accomplifhed •, but whenever the refiftance is very
conliderable, an interval ftiould be interpofed between
the two. The advantages refulting from this praCliee
were firft publicly noticed by Dr Olborn, though there
can be little doubt that the praCtiee itfelf was the effeCt
of neceftity. By waiting after the head has been open¬
ed, the woman’s ftrength will be reftored, fo that the
afliftance of the pains in the expulfion of the child may
be obtained •, the fwelling of the foft parts will fubfide,
by which the refiftance may be greatly leiTencd, as well
as the danger of inflammation removed, and the child’s
body will become putrid, by which its extraction may
be greatly facilitated.
In opening the head, which is to be done by means
of the perforator, the two great points to be aimed at
are to avoid injuring any part of the woman, and to
make a fufficiently large opening of the head. On the
complete accompliftunent of the latter, the eventual
fuccefs of the operation muft depend in all cafes of ex¬
treme deficiency of Inace.
Should it be found expedient .to delay the extraction
of the infant after the head has been opened and its
contents evacuated, the teguments are to be carefully
brought over the ragged edges of the bones, fo that in
the event of labour throes recurring, there (hall be no
rifk of the parts within the pelvis being injured.
When it has been found proper to proceed to the ex- Preterna-
traCiion of the infant, the firfl thing to be attempted is turaj ^
to diminifti the bulk of the cranium as much as poifible.
This may be done by means of the embryuleia forceps,
delineated in the plates, and contrived it is believed by
Dr Lyon of Liverpool. It is an inftrument far fupe-
rior to the almifdach of the Arabians, in ufe even
within thefe fifty years among the praCiitioners of this
ifland (b).
After the head has been fufficiently reduced in bulk,
the crotchet is to be fixed at firft on the infide of the
cranium j and while two fingers of the left hand are to
be kept conftantly fo applied that if the inftrument
ftiould flip in the proeels of extraction, it fliall be re¬
ceived on the fingers, and cannot poffibly touch any
part of the mother, the operator is to draw down with
a fuitable exertion of force, in fuch a direCtion that the
large ft part of the head lhall be brought through the
wideft part of the pelvis.
In fome cafes, much time and very violent exertions
are required to accomplifh the delivery ; but, if the
proper precautions to prevent any injury to the paffages
be adopted, and if at the fame time the operator imi¬
tate nature by working only from time to time, and in-
creafe the force employed gradually as may be required,
and perfevere patiently, notwithftanding the refillance,
taking care to fupport by nouriftiment and cordials
the ftrength of the woman, the delivery at laft will be
completed.
The dangers to be dreaded from this moft fhocking
operation, are injuries of the paflages, from the inftru-
ment’s flipping through the embarraflment of the prac¬
titioner •, or violent inflammation of all the contents of
the pelvis extending to the abdomen, in confequence
of the parts through which the child muft be fo forci¬
bly extrafted being feverely bruifed. Accordingly, a
greater number of women die from the effeCts of this
operation than practitioners are willing to admit 5 and
indeed, in every cafe of extreme deficiency of fpace,
where embryotomy is performed, the recovery is to be
regarded as doubtful.
This operation is fometimes had reccurfe to in cafes
where the forceps ftiould have been ufed had the "child
been alive. But fuch cafes are very rare, becaufe the
evidence of the infant in utero being dead, is feldom fo
complete as to juitify the praCtitioner proceeding on
the principle that it is fo.
II. By the Cafarean feBion is meant the extraction of
the infant through the parietes of the abdomen by an in-
cifion into the uterus.
This bold operation was perhaps never performed by
the ancients on the living fubjeft, and certainly was
firft recommended to praCiitioners by M. Roufiet in his
I'raite nouvelle tie l'Hysterotomie, &c. 15S1. Since
that time it has been often performed on the continent,
and about twenty times in Great Britain. The fuccefs
of this operation recorded in the early works has cer¬
tainly been exaggerated ; but it appears by an elabo¬
rate memoir by M. Baudelocque, tranflated into Englifli
' by
I25
126
(a) Ofborn’s EfTav, p. 240.
(b) For an account of the ancient inftrements employed in the praClice of midwifery, fee Sculteti Arma¬
ment. Chir*
4
:hap. IV. M I D W
r’retema- by 13r Hull ox Manclicflcr, tbat during the ?0 years
iral Partu-prececjjng 1802, the operation has been had recouvfe
"'non' , to on the continent 95 times, and that 37 of thefe cafes
’’v proved fuccefsful. In Great Britain, on the contrary,
this operation has never yet fucceeded, a circutnflance
to be attributed partly to the delay which lias always
taken place after the necctlity for fuch an expedient
had been determined, and hence the patient, at the time
the operation was performed, mu ft have been in a Hate
of exhauftion ; and partly, perhaps chiefly, to the p;c-
vious very alarming fcatc of health of the fubjecls of
the operation in this ifland. It is at any rate certain
that all over the continent practitioners have lefs horror
at performing the Caefarean feclion than Britifli prafti-
tioners have commonly fliewn •, and it is deemed neceflary
in cafes where the operation of embryulcia is preferred
in this country, and where of courfe the women are
not in fueh a precarious ftate of health as thofe com¬
monly arc who have extreme narrownefs of the pelvis.
In confequence of the iatahty of the Caefarean fcc-
tion in Great Britain, feveral eminent pra-Ctitionerr,
have regarded it as unjuftifiable. Dr Ofborn has ren¬
dered himfelf particularly confpicuous on this fubjefl,
and ufes very ftrong language in reprobation of it. His
arguments are, its acknowledged fatality j the capability
of completing the delivery by means of the crotchet,
in cafes of fuch deformity of the pelvis, that there is
no more than one and a half inch between the pubis
and facrum, or to one fide of the projecting facrum ;
and the irapoflibility of impregnation taking place in
- cafes of greater deficiency of fpace. \\ e (hall notice
thefe arguments in their turn.
£28 lift, The acknowledged fatality of the operation.—
This relates only to the rcfult of the operation in Great
Britain-, for, as already mentioned, a great proportion
of the patients has been faved on the continent. But
in infilling on this argument Dr Ofborn has over¬
looked that the objeCI of the operation is to fave, if
poflible, two lives, and at any rate one. Now if it can
be fatisfaClorily proved, that on feme occafions the
operation of embryotomy is abfolutely impracticable, it
becomes the duty of the practitioner to lave one life
at leaift and it is well known that the Ctefarean opera¬
tion is far lefs painful to the woman than that of em¬
bryotomy, even where that latter operation is eventua’ly
fuccefsful. In fueh cafes of extreme deformity, either
an attempt fliould be made to deliver the woman and iave
the child, or both muft be allowed to perifli; for the
operation of embryotomy, if attempted, muft be regarded
as wilful murder.
2aly, The praBicability of tearing away the child in
pieces by means of the perforation and crotchet, in cafes
where there is no more than an inch and a half be-
tiveen the pubis and facrum, or to one fide of the pro¬
jecting facrum, is alleged by the d-'CPor on the founda¬
tion of a tingle cafe, that of Elizabeth Sherwood al¬
ready referred to. But any perfon who fliall take the
trouble to have the aperture of Sherwood’s pelvis, as
Hated bv Dr Ofborn cut out in wood, and to compare
this with the balls of an infant’s fkull as much diminifli-
ed as poflible by the crotchet (which is done in the
I F E R Y. 69
courfe of his leCtures by tbe profefibr of midwifery in Freterna-
this univerfity), muft be convinced,^ that there was turJtj^nu"
fume miftake in the fuppofed dimer,lions of that wo- ,
man’s pelvis. And it is quite obvious, that unlefs there
be the fpace already Hated, viz. three and a half or
four inches by two, it is unfafe to extratt the mangled
child through the natural paflages.
3dly, The allegation that where there is a greater de-
gree of narrownefs of the pelvis than that which was
fuppofed to have happened in the cafe of Sherwood, im¬
pregnation cannot Lake place, is quite inconfiftent with
faffs. One of the mo ft; remarkable cafes of extreme de¬
formity is that of Elizabeth Thompfon, on whom the
Coefarean operation was performed at Manchefter in
1802. ft'he defeription as given by Dr Hull (o) is as
follows: “ The pelvis of this patient was not nearly fo
fuft as has fometimes been obferved. It Hill had a eon-
liderable degree of bony firmnefs. The ofla innominata
at their facro-iliac fynchondrofes, and at the fymphyfis
pubis, before the pelvis was dried, admitted of a flight
degree of motion.—The difiance frorti the crifta of one
os ilium to the other, at their moft remote points, mca-
fures ten inches and a half.
“ The aim of both oiTa ilia are very much bent and
on the left fide the curvature is fo great, that it mea-
lures only two inches from the anterior and inferior
fpinous procefs to the opposite pofterior point. The
lumbar vertebrae project forwards or inwards, and make
a confiderable curve to the left fide of the pelvis.
The diftauce from the lower part of the fecond lum¬
bar vertebra to the anterior part of the fpine of the os
ilium, on the loft fide, is two inches, ft'he diftance
from the lowed: part of the fccond lumbar vertebra to
the anterior part of the fpine of the os ilium, on the
right fide, is five inches.
“ Superior aperture. The conjugate or antero-pof- 131
tcrior diameter, from the fymphyfis pubis to the upper
edge of the laft lumbar vertebra is one inch and a half.
—Tins diameter is not taken from the os facrum, or its
junction with the laft lumbar vertebra, becaufe the point
of their junftion is fo much funk into the pelvis, that
the place it fhould have occupied, is reprefented by the
junction of the fourth and fifth lumbar vertebra.
The tranverfe diameter meafures four inches and five-
eighths. It is taken from one facro-iliac fymphyfis to
the other. The diftance of the point of this aperture,
which is oppofite to the anterior part of the right aceta¬
bulum, from the lumbar vertebra, is only half an inch.
The diftance from that part of this aperture, which
correfponds with the pofterior part of the right aceta¬
bulum, to the os facrum is three-fourths of an inch.
The diftance of the point, correfponding with the an¬
terior part of the left acetabulum, from the lumbar
vertebra is five eighths of an inch. The diftanee
of the point ol this aperture, oppofite to the pofte¬
rior part ‘of the left acetabulum, from the os fa¬
crum, is three-fourths of an inch. 1 he diftance of
one os pubis from the other, in the points marked
in the plate, is feven-eighths of an inch, ft he dif¬
tance from the right facro-iliac fymphyfis to the fym-
phylis pubis is three inches and three-fourths. The di¬
ftance
(g) Obfervations on Mr Simmons’s Detection, &c. p. 195. .
70 MID W
Pretern*- fiance from the right facro-iliac rymphyfis to the left os
pubis is three inches and three-eighths. The diftance
■ ^ - ■ from the left facro-iliac fymphylis to the fymphyfis
pubis is three inches and five-eighths. The diflance
from the left facro-iliac fymphyfis to the right os pubis
is three inches and one-fourth. The largeft circle, that
can be formed in any part of the fuperior aperture, does
not exceed in diameter one inch.
*33 “ Inferior aperture. The diflanc from one ramus
oflis ifehii to the other, where they are united with the
rami odium pubis, meafures only half an inch. The
diftance from the tuberofity of one os ifehium to the
other meafures one inch and two-tenths. The conju¬
gate or antero-pofterior diameter, taken from the fym¬
phyfis pubis to the point of the os coccygis is three
inches.
“ The angle, included by the rami of the offa pubis,
is very acute, viz. an angle of about 20 degrees. The
perpendicular height from the tubera of the ofta ifehia
to the inferior margin of the fymphyfis pubis is two
inches and a half. The perpendicular- height of the
fymphyfis pubis is one inch and a half. The tuberofity
of the left os ifehium advances forwards, beyond that
of the right, about fix-tenths of an inch, and the
whole of the rami odis pubis and ifehii on the left fide
proje£ls beyond thofe of the right. The perpendicular
height of the os facrum and coccyx is two inches and
one-fourth only, the os facrum being bent fo as to form
a very acute angle. The acetabula, at their neareft
points, are only three inches didant. The fymphyfis
pubis is much more prominent than natural. The up¬
per margin of tl.e fmyphyfis pubis is fituated as high as
the bottom of thfourth lumbar vertebra.”
It appears then, that Dr Ofborn’s arguments are fal¬
lacious, and that cafes occur where the operation of
embryotomy is neither fate nor pru£Hcable. Under
fitch circumftances, the Csefarean feclion muft be had
recourfe to ) and it is therefore to be regarded as an
operation of necefiity, not one of choice. If this rule
be adopted, the cafes requiring fo formidable an expe¬
dient will happily be very feldom met with.
131 Mr Simmons of Manchefter, obferving that Dr
Ofborn’s third argument it untenable, has propofed in
the following words, another fubftitute for the Caefarean
operation.
“ When a cafe fliall arife in which the child cannot
be delivered by the crotchet, from the brim of the pel¬
vis being no more than one inch in diameter j I propofe
to combine the two operations, and to divide the fym¬
phyfis pubis to make way for the crotchet. Dr Ofborn
has urged feveral objeftions againfl this propofal, al¬
though he admits that the operation at the fymphyfis is
not fo certainly fatal as the Caefarean feftion. Weighty
objections doubtlefs prefs againft it j but whilft there
are no rother means for preferving life, bad as the
chance is, it becomes a queftion whether it be worth
vifking j and, after maturely confidering the cafe,
Ihould an attempt for faving the life of the mother be
judged expedient, as the laft refource it may be adopted.
“ The fpaee gained has been differently ftated at from
three to eight or nine lines in the diameter j—the me¬
dium diftance would probably be fufficienito accomplifli
the delivery by the crotchet.
“ The objeftions urged againft this mode of delivery,
when the head is of the full fize, will not apply to ita
5
I F E II Y. Chap. I\~.
reduced bulk; and it fhould be remembered, that the ^retema-
fymphyfis is formed of cartilage and ligament j fo thattural
whatever preffure fliall be made againfl; the divi- , ritlon*
ded edges, will not be made againft the fharp angles y
of bone. That much injury may be done anteriorly
will not be denied ; but does the continued preffure
of the child’s head never produce mifehief in other
cafes ? By the introduftion of a female found for a guide,
a cautious and fteady operator will avoid wounding the
urethra *, and, as the bafe of the fkull will probably be
turned (ideways, it will fufftr lefs in extraftion than in
other cafes of the crotchet) in which it muff in general
be injured from preifurc againfl the pubis. If the repa¬
ration, however, be carried beyond a certain length,
laceration will probably enfue; and, ftiould this acci¬
dent occur, I fee no reafon to apprehend more danger
from it than follows the extraction of a large ftonc
from the bladder through a finall opening, which will
induce a lacerated wound, but which we know will
not uncommonly heal. The facro-iliac ligaments would*
certainly not be injured by choice, but the confequences,
I believe, are not generally fatal j and, ftiould it be
urged that great pain and lamenefs will aftliCt the pa¬
tient for a long time after, a reply will readily occur,
that life was at flake j and furely there are few who
would not compound, for the prolpeCt of temporary
pain and inconvenience, to have it preferved to them.
“ A fpontaneous feparation fovnetimes occurs, both
there and at the pubis 5 and yet the patient has been
again reftored to health.
“ I do not fee, in other refpeCls, in what this com¬
pound operation diffe rs from the moft difficult crotchet
cafe—the Caffarean fedlion is certainly fatal to the mo¬
ther in this country—the life of the child, it is agreed,
(hall not be put in competition with the parent’s life —
the feffion of the fymphyfis is neither fo formidable nor
fo fatal as the Caefarean ftflion—and the crotchet has
been fuccefsfully applied in dimenfit.ns which will pro¬
bably be thus acquired.
“ Upon the whole, then, in that fuppofed cafe of dif-
tortion (which I hope will never happen) in which the
mother muft be doomed to death, from the impoffibi-
lity of delivering the child by the crotchet, the com¬
pound operation I have recommended will furnifh a re¬
fource, approved by reafon and famffioned by experience j
inafmuch as the fedlion of the fymphyfis pubis has been
made, and the crotchet has been ufed, though feparate-
ly, yet wTith fafety. Such a cafe will be attended, un-
quefliunably, with additional hazard but it offers the
only chance to the mother, to the prefervation of whofe
life our chief care ftiould be direfled : and 1 hope that
in future all trace of the Caefarean operation will be
baniflied from profeflional books ; for it can never be
juftifiable during the parent’s life, and flands recorded
only to difgracc the art.”
He himfelf lias afforded the moft fatisfaefery evidence 134
of the abfurdity of his own propofal } for he had not
publifhed it many months w'hen the very cafe he had
deferibed as ideal a£lually occurred in his neighbourhood,
and he had the opportunity of making the experiment of
his own plan. But he ftirunk from it, and no wonder j
for the woman was Elizabeth Thompfon, w-hofe pelvis
has juft been deferibed. It is unfortunate that Mr
Simmons has not had the candour to confefs his error,
and to reteaft his opinions, more efpecially linee his re¬
flexions
Chap. IV.
M I D W I
'* Proterna- fle&ions againft the Citfarean operation, were couched
"1 ural T
ntion
*35
! Partu-jn language peculiarly bitter and invetflive.
;"",n With relped to the mode of performing the Ctefarean
feflion, there has been confiderable variety of opinion.
On theoretical principles, the external incilion, viz.
that through the parietes abdominis, ought to be in the
riire&ion of the linea alba, becaufe there is lei’s chance
of any conliderable retraction of mufcular fibres, or of
interfering with the inteftines, than if it were made in
any other direction. But the refult of the praCtice
feems at variance with the theory. According to the
teftimony of Baudelocque, of 35 operations, where the
incifion was made on the fide of the abdomen, eighteen
proved fuccefsful 5 of thirty in the direction of the linea
alba, ten only fucceeded } and of eight in the manner 4
recommended by Lauverjat, that is, by a tranfverfe in-
cinon between“\he recti mufcles and fpina dorli, three
•fucceeded. But it may be remarked, that the event,
in many of thofe cafes, may have been influenced by a
variety of circumitances, totally independent of the line
of direction of the external incifion,
In whatever part of the abdomen the external inci-
ilon be made, it ought to be extended fo fix inches $ and,
previous to cutting into the uterus, any active arterial
branch, which may have been divided, mult be fecured j
and the liquor amnii, if not already dileharged, mult
be drawn olf. The opening into the uterus need not
be above five inches in length, and Ihould be made as
much toivards the fundus as poflible. Means are to be
employed to prevent the protrulion of the inteltine* at
the time the uterus is emptied. Both foetus and fecun-
dines are to be quickly extracted j after which, the
hand is to be palled into the uterus, to clear out any
coagula which may have formed within its- cavity, to
prevent the os tincte being plugged up, and, at the
fame time, to promote the contraction of the uterus.
The wound in the uterus is to be left to nature j but
that of the parietes of the abdomen is to be carefully
clofed by means of the interrupted future and adhefive
ftraps j and the whole belly is to be properly ftipported
by a fuitable bandage or waiftcoat. In the after treat¬
ment of the patient, the great objeCIs to be held in
view, are to fupport the ilrength and moderate the de¬
gree of local inflammation.
III. Divifton of the fymphysis pubis.—This was origi¬
nally propofrd and performed by M. Sigault of Paris.
His propofal was made in 1768 but lie had no oppor¬
tunity of making the aCIual experiment till September
1777.—The fuccefs of his firft cafe was fuch, that a
medal was ftruck to commemorate the event ; and the
operation was admired and recommended, with all the
extravagance of French enthufiafm.
The operation conlills of the divilion of the fymphyfis
pubis and feparation of the innominata. For this pur-
pofe, a catheter is tofbe introduced into the urethra,
and, with a common fcalpel, the articulation is to be
cut through from the upper edge of the fymphylis, to
within a quarter of an inch of the inferior edge. By
feparating the thighs, the divided bones are forced
afundCr.. After this, the operator is either to turn the
136
ntion.
Sect. IV. Of the Deviations from Natural Labour
which happen from anomalous circuniflances.
*37
F E H Y. 71
child, or to extraCl it by the forceps, according to the Prctema-
circumftances of the cafe. tur‘1^1 artu"
This expedient was propofed as a fubftitute, both for 1
the operation of embryulcia, and for the Caefarean fec-
tion, as it was alleged to be perfectly conliilent with
the fafety both of mother and child.
It is quite unneceffary for us to offer any theoretical
objeCIions to this operation, becaufe we can now reafon
on the event of thirty-fix cafes, which have been publifh-
ed.—But thofe who may wifli to inveffigate this fubjedt,
may conlldt Baudelocque, par 1994. and 2091. inclufive j
and Dr Ofborn, p. 271. To that latter pra&itioner’s
profeflional zeal and ability is chiefly to be aferibed the
total rejection of this operation in Great Britain..
Of the thirty-five fubje&s of the publilhed cafes (for
in one woman it was performed twice), fourteen women
and eighteen children died.—Of the twenty-one wo¬
men who furvived, nine had either had living chil¬
dren before the Sagaultian operation, or had fuch at a
fubfequent period. Moil of the remainder fuffered
much from the operation. Some had incurable incon¬
tinence of urine, others lamenefs, &c. But the mod
important fa61 is, that whenever the bones of the pelvis
were feparated from each other above an inch (and no
fpace of any confequence could be added to the brim,
unle& they were fo), the facro-iliac fynchondrofes were
torn, and no woman furvived that accident.
Tliefe fa6Is have at laft convinced foreign practition¬
ers of the futility of this expedient j.and, accordingly,
for above ten years, it has not been performed on the
continent by any practitioners of refpeClability.
When a woman, with a narrow pelvis, who has had
the good fortune to recover after the operation of em¬
bryotomy, again falls with child, fhe fhould not incur
the hazard of a repetition of fo horrible an operation j
but ought to have premature labour induced between
the feventh and the eighth month. Under the direc¬
tion of an intelligent praClitioner this operation is eafily
performed $ and, while it affords the only chance of
faving the infant, which it is the duty of the mother
and of the praCIitioner to attempt, it at the fame time,,
by leflening the refiltance, diminiflies both the fuffering
and the rilk of the patient (n).
For a further account of the praClice in cafes of ex¬
treme-deformity of the pelvis, the reader is referred to •
Ofborn’s Effays j Hamiltons Letters to Olborn j Sim¬
mons’s Refleftions, and Hull’s Dete&ion of Simmons.
*38'
139.
Certain circumftances befides thofe already enume¬
rated occafion deviations in the procefs of labour.
Some of thefe refpecl the child, and others the woman.
a. The child’s life is endangered if the navel-ftring 140
be fo ftrongly convoluted round its neck, that after the
head is born the remainder cannot be expelled without
the cord being drawn fo tight as to interrupt the circu¬
lation through it. Dr Denman, vol. ii. p. 16. has-
ftated this as a caufe of protra&cd labour, and has ad-
vifed.
(n) See a paper on this fubjeft, in the 18 th volume of the Medical Fads and Obfervations, by Mr Barlow
I4I
72 MID W
Preterna- v;fed certain mode's of praftice in confequence. But
tur^r^rtu" if there tie pains, there cannot be any material protrae-
1 r|> , tion of the labour from this canfe.
All rifk of the infant may be prevented by flacken-
ing the cord, and wailing for the action of the uterus,
it the operator find that he cannot draw the loop of
cord which furrounds the child’s neck eafiily over its
head. But this in moft cafes can be readily done.
b. rI he cord is fometimes pufhed down before the
prefenting part of the child.
If this happen before the membranes are bur ft, the
only certain method of faving the child is to perform
the operation of turning as foon as the ftate of the paf-
fages will permit.
When the cord is pufhed down along witli fitme
other part, as the head, after the waters are difebarged,
a variety of pradice is required according to the cir-
cumitances of the particular cafe; hence merely keeping
the cord for a little time beyond the prefenting part
by means of the fingers, or wrapping it up in a piece of
foft rag, and pufhing it above the prefenting point, or
the application of the forceps, are feverally found ufe-
ful in different cafes.
c. Sometimes one or both arms of the child are for-
I F E It Y. Chap. IV
means of a roller, in order to prevent faintifhnefs from Cretema
14a
*43
144
eed down along with the head, where proper affiftance
is not had at the beginning- of labour. If the pelvis
be roomy, and-the woman have formerly had children,
the delivery may be at laft completed by the natural
powers, notwithftanding this increafed’degree of refift-
ance. But in many cafes of thk kind an experienced
practitioner is not called in till the ftrength of the wo¬
man be very much exhaufted, and then it becomes ne-
ceilary to ufe the forceps, or even on fome oct aliens to
have recourfe to the-operation of embryulcia.
d. It is well known, that fometimes there is
more than one child in the womb. Inftances where
there are twins arc not unfrequent ; cafes of triplets are
alleged to happen once in between three or four thou-
fand birth? •, four at a birth have not occurred in this
city for the laft twenty-feven years; and there are only
two, or at moft three, well-au+henticated cafes of five
at a birth having happened within a hundred years in
this ifland.
All the figns by which the exilience of more than
one child in utero can be afeertained, previous to the
adiual commencement of labour, are fallacious ; and in
general it is not till after the birth of one child that it
can be determined that another remains in the womb*,
and, unlefs under very particular circumftances, it is of
no importance. The circumftances alluded to are
where different parts of both children are forced in¬
to the paffage at the fame time. Of this a very re¬
markable cafe is rcorded in the book of Genefis, verfe
27. chap, xxxviii.
V» hen the womb appears to remain bulky and hard
alter the birth of one child, there is reafon to fuppofe
that it contains a fecond. But if there be any
doubt on the fubjedf, the practitioner has it in his
power to afeertain the point by examination. When
i here is no fecond child in the uterus, the further the
fmg ers are carried up within the paffages, the more con-
k acted do they feel; whereas, if there be a fecond child,
the more open are they found. .
When it is afeertained that another infant remams,
the woman’s belly Ihould be immediately compiefied by
head do pvcfcnr, if the woman be exhaufied, or if there
be no appearance of the return of pains within an hour
after the birth of the firlt, then the hand is to be patted
up to bring down the feet of the fecond child, and the
delivery is to be expedited. The extraflion of the pla¬
centae is to be conduced with great care, and every
poftible pi t caution is to be adopted againft the occur¬
rence of flooding, which is always to be dreaded as the
confequence of plurality of children.
The fame principles apply to the management of tri¬
plets, &c.
d. Umbilical hernia, to which women are perhaps
more fubiefl than to any other fpecies of rupture,
may influence the labour materially.
If it be reducible, it difappears after the fifth month
of pregnancy • but imm> diately after the expulfion of
the child it returns, and occafions frightful faintings
and floodings. This may be prevented by the fimpie
expedient of having the belly compreffed by a roller in
fuch a manner, that in proportion as the infant advan¬
ces, the compreffion may be increafed.
Should it be irreducible, it the hernia be affe£led by
the continuance of labour, as may be known by the
colour, &c. the operation of turning muft be had re¬
courfe to.
e. Convulfion* fometimes happen during labour, and
or-cafion great danger both to the mother and the child.
The woman is quite infenfible during the fit, which
confifts of violent convulfions of the muffles which
move the body, and of thofe of the eves, the face, and
the lower jaw} it lafts in fome cafes only a few i’econds,
and
*45
the fudden relaxation of the parietes abdominis, andtura^
the portion of the navel-tiring remaining attached , rlt'or'-
to the after-birth of the firit born Ihould be care- •
fullv fe cured, left the vefftls of the placenta anaito-
mofe.
In regard to the fubfequent treatment, there has
been much variety of opinion among pradtitioners.
borne have propoied waiting till the ad ion of the
uterus expel the fecond as it had done the firit in¬
fant. Others urge ftrongly the neceftity for immediate
delivery.
Againft the former of thefe practices it is to be ob¬
jected ; firft, that in fome cafes, days or even weeks
have been known to intervene between the birth of one
child and the aclion of the uterus which expelled the
fecond. Secondly, that il this happen, the paffages
muft become contraded and their fubfi quent dilatation
may be produdive of inflammatory fymptoms. Third¬
ly, that during llie time the uterine adion is fufpended,
internal hcemorrhagy may take place, and may deftroy
the patient. And, fourthly, the fecond child may be
fuddenly forced down in fut li a pofition, as may endan¬
ger its life, and at the fame time occafion great pain to
the mother.
Fur thefe reaions it is now an eftabliftied rule among
judicious praditioners, to examine the fituation of the
fecund infant, as foon as the patient fttall have reco¬
vered from the (hock of the birth of the firft child j
and, if its pofition be natural and the patient have not
been exhaufted by the previous labour, and pains come
on, to rupture the membranes, and allow the natural
powers to complete the delivery. But if the infant
prefent any other part than the head, or though the
147
IV
I'm
)r Dvn-
m's An¬
a’s, vol
V9-
14S
lap. IV. M I D W
reterna- and in others for fevcral minutes. After the fit has
ir. l i,artu-ceafcd, it fometimes happens that the patient remains in
a comatofe ftate ; in other cafes the fenfibility returns.
The circumftances which diftinguith this difeafe Irom
epilepfy were firit dated explicitly by Dr Hamilton in the
following words: “ The old diilintdum between eclamp-
fia and epilepfia has been rejected by Dr Cullen, without
fuffieient reafon. J heconvullions that occur during preg¬
nancy and labour, thould be diftinguilhed by the former
name, for the difeafe is always an acute one, and it never,
as far as my experience goes, lays the foundation tor ha¬
bitual epilepfy. To an inattentive practitioner, indeed,
the phenomena appear fimilar to thofe of epilepfy j but,
independent of its violence and fatality, there are many
circumftances peculiar to it. i bis has been remarked
by feveral authors, particularly Dr Denman ; but thofe
circumftances have never been accurately pointed out
in any publication which has fallen into my hands.
“ The eclampfia, peculiar to pregnancy and labour,
differs from epilepfv in the following refpeCts.
“ 1. The iymptoms which precede the attack are
well marked, announcing to an experienced praCtitioner
the approach of the difeafe.
“ 2. If the firft fit do not prove fatal, and if no
means of cure be attempted, it is within a few hours
followed by other paroxyfms, provided delivery do not
take place.
“ 3. After the paroxysms, even where they have
been very fevere, the patient in manv cafes continues
quite fenfible during the intervals, and the fenfibility
returns the moment the fit is off.
“ 4. What may apoear ftill more extraordinarv is,
that, in fume cafes there is a remarkably increafed fuf-
ceptibilitv of impreflion of the external fenfes ; and this
fuperfenfation is not confined to patients in whom the
Convulfions are flight.
“ 5. The aura epileptica never occurs in the cafes
alluded to.
“ 6. The pulfe is, in every cafe, affe<5!ed in fome
degree during the remiffions of the fits. It is flow, or
oppreffed, or intermitting, or frequent and rapid. But
it is molt commonly flow and opprefled, becoming ful¬
ler and more frequent after blood-letting.
:49 The fymptoms above hinted at as preceding the fits
are, violent headach, or hidden delirium, or violent
tremors during the fecond ftage of labour. Impaired
or depraved vifion commonly prove the immediate har¬
bingers of the fit. The event of this occurrence b al¬
ways precarious, for a fingle fit may deftrov the pa¬
tient. Death happens in fuch cafes in two wavs ; viz.
either by rupture of fome of the velfels within the head,
or by the rupture of the womb itfelf.
^5° The caufe .>f the difeafe is evidently an overload in
the velfels within the cranium, and this mav be occa-
fioned from a variety of caufes, as violent labour throes,
paflions of the mind, irritations in the pn’mas vise, Sic.
151 In cafes of fo verv alarming a nature, it is not won¬
derful that praHitioners have differed much vefpefling
the nr aft ice to be adopted. '1 he following is what has
been recommend'd bv Dr Hamilton in the volume of
Dr Duncan’s annals already referred to.
“ When fits have actually occurred during the latter
months of pregnancy, the firft remedy to be employed,
after having adopted the fint; ; le means for nrntefh’ng
the tongue, is blood letiing, both general and topical.
Vol,. XIV. Part I.
I F E R Y.
73
Opening the external jugular might anfwer both pur-
poles, but the reltleisnels ot the patient in many tales
makes the furgeon or attendants dread this operation.
A quantity of blood, therefore, adapted to the exigency
of the eale, is to be drawn from the arm, and eithei a
branch of the temporal artery is to be dhided, or feve¬
ral leeches are to be appliedLo the temples. Alter the
bleeding, a powerful laxative glyiie-r ought to be exhi¬
bited. And it there be any evidence ot difordered primse
viae, an emetic mud, if poilible, be given. The itate
of the os uteri is then to be afcertained ; and if labour
have not commenced, no attempts whatever are to be
made to promote that procets. In fome rare cales,
however, where the bulk of the gravid uterus is enor¬
mous, it may be neceflary to remove a part of its con¬
tents ; but iuch cafes cannot happen once in a thuutand
inltances of the difeafe.
“ Should the fits Itill continue, the head muft be ftiav-
ed, and covered with a large blifter ; and if the oppref-
fton or tulnefs, or hardnels ot the pulie, be not removed,
the blood-letting is to be repeated.
“ As foon as the patient becomes capable of fwallow-
ing, the camphor, in doles of ten grains, ought to be
given every three or four hours. 1 he nioft efficacious
and palatable torm in which this medicine can lie pre-
feribed, is by fufpending it in boiling water, through
the medium of alcohol, fugar and magnefia. Its life
muft be perfevered in lor fevtral days, gradually lefl'en-
ing the number of dofes.
“ Where the eclanipfia lias been preceded by cedema,
the digitalis may be employed with much fuccels.
“ Convullions during labour arc to be treated upon
the fame principles, with thefe additional precautions,
that delivery is to be accomplilhed by the moft expedi¬
tious potfible means, and that if the delivery be follow¬
ed by uterine haemorrhagy, the difeharge is for fome
time to be rather encouragt d than checked. 1 knew two
inuances of the fits, which had been fufpended for fi me
hours, recurring, in confequence of the flooding being
ftopped, and in both cafes the convulfions were remov¬
ed, by allowing the dilcharge to return.
“ When the fymptoms that provide eclampfia, take
place in the latter months ot pregnancy, ihe moft cer¬
tain method ot guarding againit the threatening ac¬
cident is, having recourfe to immediate blood-letting,
and afterwards preferibing camphor, attention to the
ftate of the bowels, and a fpaie diet.
“ When the fame fymptoms occur during labour, a
copious bleeding ihould be intlantlv ordered, and the
appropriate means ot terminating the delivery fliould be
adopted with as much expedition as may be contiftent
with the fafety both of mother and ehild.
“ In thefe concife practical fuggettiems, pradlitioners
will obforve cireumfiances omitted, which haVe been
recommended by gentlemen of deferved protefinnal
eminence, and novelties of p a6fiee propofed, whieh I
believe have not hitherto! e*n explicitly advifed. Sc me
explanation, there-fore, of the plan above recommended
may perhaps be expected.
“ 1 he moft obvious remedy apparently omitted is
opium. I his powertul medicine was not preferifer as
far as we have reafon to know, by the practitioner* echo
lived at the end of the 17th and beginning of the i8ih
cent-, rit -. The fir' a- 'ho’ who, in ftrong terms, afltrts
the efficacy of opium in fuch cafes, appears to 11 the
K tranllator
P'-eterra-
tura. P.- VLU-
n :or.
74 M I D W
tPre|t;rn"- trailflalor of Aftruc’s Midwifery (a) j and Lis opinion
U-tioru- has been adopted by Dr Denman (s'), and by Dr
Bland (c). But in every cafe of true eclampfia, during
pregnancy or labour, opiates do irreparable mifchief,
ivliere a copious bleeding has not been premifed j and
even where that precaution has been attended to, they
have been found ufelefs, if not hurtful. Melancholy
experience has completely eltablithed in my mind this
practical precept; and 1 confider it to be a matter of
very great moment, that it fhould be univerfally known ;
for general practitioners, who are often firft called to
thofe cafes where the Sts happen during pregnancv, are
extremely apt to prefcribe opium. I can folemnly de¬
clare, that no patient to vvhofe afliltance I have been
called, who had taken a dofe of opium previous to my
arrival, has recovered, and I have known that medi¬
cine given in almoft every variety of dofe. My father,
Dr A. Hamilton, of vvhofe judgment and practical
knowledge it does not become me to fp< ak in the terms
they fo juitly merit, prevented my ever employing opium
under fuch circumttances.
“ A fecond remedy extolled by Dr Denman, and
now, after a fair trial, rejected in my praCtice, is vo¬
miting. Thi- feems to have been a very common pre-
fcription in the time ot Mauriceau, as he takes great
pains to point out its hurtfulnefs in feveral parts of his
works (d). Where there are unequivocal marks of
difordered Itomach, an emetic may be preferibed with
advantage after blood-letting, but it tliould be avoided
under all other circumllances.
“ With regard to the warm-bath, which is a favou¬
rite remedy among foreign praCHtioners, and has been
advifed by feveral Britilh authors, I have never had an
opportunity of trying its effeCts. Upon theoretical
principles I Ihould rejeCt it j but my chief reafon for
never having direded its ufe, has been the impoflibility,
in ordinary cafes of praClice, of commanding a warm-
bath into which a woman in fuch a lituation could be put.
“ Dalhing cold water by furprife upon the face is a
praClice fuggeded by Dr Denman, and on which he
had much dependence at one period. Experience lef-
fened his hopes, and, many years ago, prevented my
ever indulging any. I gave it feveral fair trials, (once
or twice in public in the lying-in ward of the Royal
Infirmary), and had even reafon to be convinced, that
it rather aggravated than diminilhed the violence of the
paroxyfms.”
In addition to thefe obfervations it may be pro¬
per to remark, that a much larger quantity of blood
ihould be drawn in thofe cafes than has commonly
been done. Dr H. advifes forty ounces to be taken
at this firll bleeding, and the fame quantity to be again
drawn within an hour, if the fymptoms be not mitiga¬
ted ; and he talks with the utmoll confidence of the
utility of this praClice.
f. Although the woman be delivered fafely both of
I F E R Y. Chap IV.
the child and afterbirth, fhc may fink very loon af- Preterna-
ter in confequence of internal flooding. This is totura.1 Partu-
be fufpeCled if the patient fuddenly complain of giddi- , rItion-
nefs or ficknefs, or finging in the ears, or impaired vi-
fion •, or if the become delirious, with a pallid face and
cold limbs. The Hate of the pulfe at the wrift too
(hould lead a judicious praClitioner to fufpeCl the exift-
ence of internal flooding. Pofitive certainty of this ac¬
cident may be obtained by feeling through the belly
the condition of the uterus •, or, more certainly Hill, by
feeling the Hate of the vagina, for if its parietes ap¬
proach, there is not much probability of there being
any confiderable internal haemorrhagy *, whereas, if it
be found filled with coagulated blood, there is a certain-
ty, that the womb too is ditlended from the fame caufe.
This accident is entirely owing to the rvomb not
having contraCled with fufficient energy. It very often
proves the caufe of hidden and unexpcCled death.
The boldetl and apparently moll violent meafures 155
are required to fave the patient in many of thofe cafes.
The womb and vagina mull be immediately emptied,
and fuch preflure mull be made on the infide of the
uterus with the hand, as lhall force it into contraction.
In lome cafes cold water in great quantity mull be
dallied from a height on the naked belly at the fame
time ; and in the mean while the llrength of the pa¬
tient mull be fupported with large dofes of opium. If
there be vomiting, which is a frequent fymptomin fuch
cafes, five grains of folid opium Ihould be given at firll,
and afterwards three grains every three or four hours,
till the pulfe becomes Heady and the llrength recruit¬
ed, when the opiates are to to be withdrawn and lelfen-
ed by degrees. The writer of this article cannot avoid
this opportunity of paying a juft tribute of refpeCt
to the pradical difeernment of the able editor of the
New London Medical Dictionary, who feems the firft;
author who has mentioned this praCtice of giving large
doles of opium •, a praClice by which many valuable
lives have been faved.
Conclufion.—In the preceding account of the devia¬
tions, which fometimes happen in the procefs of human
parturition, although we have endeavoured to give a
full view of the fubjed, we have not purfued the beaten
trad. But as this article may rather be confulted by
many as a didionary, than purfued regularly as a trea-
tife, we fliall add .the ordinary arrangement of labours,
with the reference to the numerical articles, under
which the feveral varieties may be found.
Labours are divided into four claffes j viz. natural,
laborious, preternatural, and complex.
Natural labour comprehends all cafes where the head
of the infant is forced foremoft j and the whole procefs
is completed with fafety, both to mother and child,
within twenty-four hours from the commencement. It
is deferibed under articles 48. to 60.
Laborious
(a) The Art of Midwifery, &c. 8vo. London, printed for J. Nourfe Appendix, p. 295.
(B) Vol. ii. p. 418. (c) Loco citato, page 136.
(d) Particularly in Aphorifm 232. “ L’emetique eft pernicieux aux femmes groffes, ou nouvellement ac-
eouchees, qui font furprifes des convulfions.” And Levret, page 451. of his L’Art des Accouchemens, fays,,
in reference to that aphorifm, “ Cette fentence eft des mieux fondees, et elle doit etre rigoureufement obfervee
dans tous fes points.”
75
MIDWIFERY.
Chap. IV.
Laborious labour is that where, although the head
of the infant be forced forernoft, tire procefs is pro-
traded beyond twenty-four hours from the commence¬
ment. It is divided into three orders : Firft, where the
natural powers at laft, after much fuffering on the part
of the mother, complete the delivery. See article 64.
Secondly, Where, although the a&ion of the uterus
be inadequate to the expullion of the infant, it is prac¬
ticable to extract the child through the natural paflages,
without injury either to it or to the mother. See ar¬
ticles 66. to 74. 82 and 84.
Thirdly, Where it is impoffible to extrad the child
alive through the natural paflages. See articles 80. and
99. to 133.
Preternatural labours comprehend all cafes where any
other part of the child than the head is forced foremoft j
and con fid of two orders :
Fird, Prefentations of the lower extremities, viz.
footling cafes, article 87. Breech cafes, article 91.
Cafes where one foot prefents, article 89. and knee-
cafes, article 90.
Secondly, Prefentations of the fuperior extremities or
other parts than the head or lower extremities, articles
192. to 196.
Complex labours include all cafes where any other
cireumdanees than thofe enumerated under the former
three clalfes take place, viz.
Cafes where the pelvis is too large, articles no. and
in.
Cafes where haemorrhagy occurs at the beginning of
labour, article 76. or at the conclufion of that procefs,
articles 1 s2. and 1 53.
Cafes where there is more than one child, articles 143,
i44i MS*
Cafes where the patient had previoufly been affeded
with umbilical hernise, article 146.
Cafes where convulfions happen, articles 147, 148.
Caf s where the navel itring is twi 'ed round the neck
of the infant, article 140. or where it is forced down
along with fome part of the child, article 141.
And cafes of rupture oi the uterus, article 65.
EXPLANATION of the PLATES.
Plate CCCXLVL
Fig. 1. A front view of the uterus in the unimpreg¬
nated date, in Jitu, fufpended in the vagina 5 the ante¬
rior parts of the cfla ifehia, with the ofla pubis, puden¬
da, perineum, and anus being removed, in order to fliow
the internal parts.
A, The lad lumbar vertebra.
B, B, The ofla ilia.
C, C, The acetabula.
D, D, The inferior and poderior parts of the ofla
ifehia.
E, The part covering the extremity of the coccyx.
F, The inferior part of the redum.
G, G, The vagina cut open longitudinally, and
dretched on each fide of the cervex uteri, in order to
ihow the manner in which the uterus is fufpended in it.
H, H, Part of the urinary bladder dretched on each
tide of the vagina and inferior part of the fundus uteri.
I, The cervix uteri.
K, The fundus uteri.
L, L, The fallopian tubes.
M, M, The ovaria.
N, N, The broad ligaments.
O, O, The fuperior part of the redum.
Fig. 2. A view of the internal parts as feen from the
right groin, the pelvis having been divided vertically.
A, The lowed vertebra of the loins.
B, C, The os facrum and coccyx with the integu¬
ments.
D, The left os ilium.
E, The inferior part of the os ifehium.
F, The os pubis of the fame fide.
G, The foramen magnum.
H, The acetabulum.
I, The inferior part of the redum.
K. 1 he os externum and vagina, the os uteri lying
loofely in the latter.
L, The vefica urinaria.
M, N, The cervix and fundus uteri, with a view of
the cavity of the uterus. The attachment of the vagina
to the uterus, and the fituation of the uterus when pref-
fed down by the intedines and bladder into the concave
part of the os factum, are like wife drown.
O, The broad ligament of the left fide.
P, P, The left fallopian tube.
£), The left ovarium.
R, R, The fuperior part of the redum and inferior
part of the colon.
Fig. 3. Is a fketch taken from Dr Hunter’s magnifi¬
cent plate, N° 6. of the gravid uterus. All the fore
part of the uterus and fecundines (which included the
placenta) is removed. l ire navel firing is cut, tied,
and turned to the left fide over the edge of the womb.
At the fundus the inverting membranes are like wife
turned over the edge of the womb, that they might be
more apparent. T he head of the child is lodged in the
lower part of the womb, or in the cavity of the pelvis,
and its body lies principally in the right fide. Its edi¬
tion is diagonal or oblique, fo that its pofterior parts
are turned forwards, and to the right fide of the mo¬
ther, and its fore parts are direfled backwards, and to
the left fide. It' right foot appears between its left
thigh and leg. Everv part is dated by Dr Flunter to
have been reprefinted juft as it was found.
Fig. 4. A front view of the gravid uterus in the firft
ftage of labour •, the anterior parts are removed, but the
membranes not being ruptured, form a large bag con¬
taining the foetus and the liquor amnii.
A, A, The fubllance of the uterus.
B, B, C, C, D, D, E, E, l he bones of the pelvis.
G, G, The vagina.
H, H, The os uteri dilated during a pain *, with
I, The membranes containing the liquor amnii pro¬
truding through it.
K, The chorion.
K 2 L,
Chap. IV
MIDWIFERY.
L, The chorion differed off at the back of the ute¬
rus, to fhow the head of the child through the amnios.
M, The placenta; the lobulated furface, or that
■which is attached to the uterus, being Ihown.
Plate CCCXLVII.
Fig. i. Reprefents a -well-formed pelvis.
A, A, The offa ilia, properly fo called.
a, a, The iliac foffee.
I?, b, The linea innominata, making part of the brim
of the pelvis.
c, c, The crifta of the offa ilia.
e, e. Their fuperior anterior fpinous proceffes.
R, B, The os ifehium.
f, f. Its tuberolities.
/t, b, Its branches.
C, C, The body of the os pubis.
*, t, The crifta pubis.
k, k, Its defeending branch uniting with that of the
ifehium.
/, The fymphyfis pubis.
D, D, ’['he os faerum.
w, m, Its bafe.
«, w, The facro-iliac fynchondrofts.
o, Its internal furface called hollow.
j). Its apex to which the coccyx is joined.
E, The coccyx.
Fig. 2. Reprefents a vertical fe£Hon of the pelvis.
A, The promontory of the facrum.
B, The point of the coccyx.
The diftance from thefe two points marks the depth
of the pelvis behind, which in the majority of cafes is
fix inches.
C, The fpinous procefs of the ifehium.
D, The tuberofity »f the ifehium.
E, The crifta pubis, the diftanefe which two points
marks the depth of the pelvis at the fides, and is ordi¬
narily about four inches.
F, The foramen thyroideum.
G, The furface by which the twro offa pubis are join¬
ed to form the fymphyfis pubis, and by which junction
the depth of the pelvis at the front is reduced to about
one and a half inch.
Fig. 3. Reprefents the brim of a well-formed pelvis.
A, B, The Ihort or conjugate diameter between pu¬
bis and facrum, which meafures commonly a little lefs
than four inches.
C, D, The long diameter in the fkeleton, which,
however, in the living fubjeft, is rendered almoft as
fhort as the former, in confequence of the bellies of the
pfoae mufcles being lodged in the lowTcr cavity of the
tunica innominata.
E, F, The diagonal diameter in the fkeleton, which,
in faft, is the long diameter in the living body, and
meafures fomewhat lefs than five inches.
Fig. 4. Reprefents the outlet of a well-formed pelvis.
A, B, The fliort diameter, extending front one tu¬
berofity of the ifehium to the other, and meafuring lefs
than four inches.
C, D, The long diameter, extending from the loiver
edge of the fymphyfis pubis to the point of the coccyx,
4nd meafuring nearly five inches.
Fig. ij. Reprefents the brim of a diftorted pelvis.
Fig. 6. Reprefents the outlet of a deformed pelvis.
Plate CCCXLVIII.
Fig. 1. The foetal heart.
«, The right ventricle.
b, The right auricle.
c, The left auricle.
d, Branches of the pulmonary veins of the right lobe
of the lungs, thofe of the left being cut off Ihort.
e, Arteries of the left lobe of the lungs.
yj The vena cava defeendens.
g, The aorta defeendens.
h, The trunk of the arteria pulmonalis.
f, The dudlus arteriofus.
Fig. 2. Reprefents the firft ftage of natural labour,
towards its termination.
A, The membranes of the ovum diftending the cer¬
vix uteri, while the head of the child is juft entering
the brim of the pelvis.
B, B, The os uteri nearly dilated.
C, The vagina.
D, The orificium externum.
Fig. 3. Reprefents the fecund ftage of natural la¬
bour, when the head has defeended into the cavity of
the pelvis, while the face is ftill towards the facro-iliac
fynchondrofis.
Fig. 4. Reprefents the fecond ftage of natural labour,
after the head has advanced fo far that the face is in
the hollow of the facrum, and the vertex in the arch
of the pubis.
Place CCCXLIX.
Fig. 1. A view of a deformed pelvis when the defi¬
ciency of fpace is not very eonfiderable.
Fig. 2. The child’s Ikull.
«, The vertex, or pofteriur fontanelle.
b. The anterior fontanelle.
Fig. 3. and 4. The common Ihort forceps, reduced
to one-fourth of the natural fize.
The inftrument, when of the proper fize, is in length
11 inches. The length of each handle is four inches
and a half. If a ftraight line be drawn through the
plane furface of one handle, and be produced to the
extremity of the inftrument (which forms the axis of
the handles when both are joined), the convex edge of
the blade, at the greateft diftance from this line, is di-
ftant i-| inch ; and the extreme diftance of the point
on the oppofite edge is F|lhs of an inch. When both
blades are joined their greateft width is 21 inches. The
right-hand blade has a hinge between the handle and
blade, by which it is ealily introduced, while the pa¬
tient lies on the left fide.
Fig. 5. and 6. Views of Lowder’s lever ; for a par¬
ticular defeription of which, fee art. 69.
Fig. 7. Orme’s perforator reduced to one-fourth the
natural fize.
Fig. 8. Embryotomy forceps, one-fourth the natural
fize.
Fig. 9. The crotchet, one-fourth the natural fize.
Plate CCCL.
Fig. 1. Reprefents an ordinary fized child forced a-
gainft the brim of a deformed pelvis.
Fig. 2. Reprefents the child when the feet had pre-
fented, turned into that direction by which its head is
belt
0
W^'frr/ul’aJs/ Sen//'.'
PLA TE CCCXLIX.
h'- Arc/u /’‘t/s/ Srtt/p-r
77
'hap. IV. - M T D W
beft brought through the brim and cavity of the pelvis,
viz. with the face towards the facro-iliac fynchondrolis
of one fide.
Fig. 3. Reprefents the ordinary iituation of the in¬
fant in breech prefcntations •, from which it is evident,
that unlefs the infant be very fmall, the natural aftion
I F E R Y.
of the uterus cannot force it through the pelvis in this
direction.
Fig. 4. Reprefents an arm prefentation, and commu-
nicaies an idea of the difiiuulty of bringing down the
feet, and turning the inlant in that pofition.
M
I E
M
I E
lliedniki MIEDNIKI, or MedNIKI, or IVarmic, a tovyn of
II Samogitia, and the refidence of the bifhop. It is 28
|MierIs- miles N. E. from Konigfberg, and 60 miles S. S.W.
from Mittau.
MIEKOW, a town of Auftrian Poland, in the pa¬
latinate of Cracow. The founder of this town is faid
to have been Gripfius Jana, who built it after the model
of Jerufalem, when he returned from a pilgrimage to
that city. It is 12 miles north from Cracow.
MIEL, Jan, called Giovanni dtlla Vite, a mod
eminent painter, was born in Flanders in 1599. He
was at firit a difciple of Gerard Seghers, in whofe
fchool he made a dillinguiihed figure j but he quitted
that artift, and went to Italy, to improve himfelf in
defign, and to obtain a more extenfive knowledge of
the feveral branches of his art. At Rome he parti¬
cularly ftudied and copied the works of the Caracci
and Corregio 5 and was admitted into the academy of
Andrea Sacchi, where he gave fuch evident proofs of
extraordinary merit and genius, that he was invited by
Andrea to afliit him in a grand defign which he had
already begun. But Miel, through feme difguft, re¬
jected thofe elevated fubjeCts which at firll had enga¬
ged his attention, refufed the friendly propofal of
Sacchi, and chofe to imitate the ftyle of Bamboccio,
as ha\ring more of that nature which pleafed his own
imagination. His general fubjeCts were huntings, car¬
nivals, gypfies, beggars, paftoral fcenes, and conver-
fations ; of thofe he compofed his eafel pictures, which
are the finelt of his performances. But he alfo paint¬
ed hiftory in a large fize in frefco, and in oil ; which,
though they feem to want elevation of defign, and a
greater degree of grace in the heads, yet appear fupe-
rior to what might be expeCted from a painter of fuch
low fubje&s as he generally was fond of reprefenting.
His pictures of huntings are particularly admired : the
figures and animals of every fpecies being defigned with
uncommon fpirit, nature, and truth. The tranfparence
of his colouring, and the clear tints of his Ikies, enli¬
ven his compofitions } nor are his paintings in any de¬
gree inferior to thole of Bamboccio either in their
force or luftre. His large works are not fo much to
be commended for the goodnefs of the defign as for
the exprefiion and colouring ; but it is in his fmall
pieces that the pencil of Miel appears in its greatefi:
delicacy and beauty. The fingular merit of this maf-
ier recommended him to the favour of Charles Ema¬
nuel duke of Savoy, who invited him to Ins court,
where he appointed Miel his principal painter, and
afterwards honoured him wdth the order of St Mauri¬
tius, and made him a prefent of a crofs fet with dia¬
monds of great value, as a particular mark of his
efteem. He died in 1664.
MIERIS, Francis, the 0/d, a juftly celebrated
painter, was born at Leyden in 1635 ; and was
at firit placed under the direction of Abraham
Toorne Vliet, one of the beft defigners of the l ow
Countries, and afterwards entered himfi :f as a difciple
with Gerard Douw. In a fhort time lie fur furpaffed
all his companions, and was by his matter called the
prince of his difeiples. His manner of painting filks,
. velvets, fluffs, or carpets, was fo fingular, that the
different kinds and fabric of any of them might eafily
be diilinguilhed. His pictures are rarely to be feen,
and as rarely to be fold} and when they are, the pur-
chafe is extremely high, their intrinfie value being fu
incontefiably great. Befides portraits, his general fub-
jedts were converfations, perfons performing on mufical
inftruments, patients attended by the apothecary or
dodtor, chemitts at work, mercers (hops, and fuch likej
and the ufual valuation lie fet on his pidlures was efti-
mated at the rate of a ducat an hour. The fineft por¬
trait of this mailer’s hand is that which he painted for
the wife of Cornelius Plaats, which is faid to be fiill
preferved in the family, although very great fums have
been offered for it. In the pofleflion of the fame gentle¬
man was another pidlure of Micro, reprefenting a lady
fainting, and a phyfician applying the remedies to relieve
her. For that performance he was paid (at his ufual
rate of a ducat an hour) fo much money as amounted to
fifteen hundred florins when the pidture ivas finifiied.
The grand duke of Tuscany wilhed to purchafe it, and
offered three thoufand florins for it j but the offer was
not accepted. However, that prince procured feveral of
his pidlures, and they are at this day an ornament to the
Florentine coiledtion. Ojie of the moil curious otthem
is a girl holding a candle in her hand, and it is account¬
ed ineftimable. This painter died in 1681.
Mieris, Wi'/iam, called the Young Mieris, was
fon of the former, and born at Leyden in 1662. During
the life of his father, he made a remarkable pro-
grefs : but, by being deprived of his diredlor when
he was only arrived at the age of nineteen, he had re-
courfe to nature, as the moll inflrudtive guide ; and by
lludying with diligence and judgment to imitate her,
he approached near to the merit of his father. At
firll lie took his fubjedls from private life, in the man¬
ner of Francis 5 fuch as fcradefinen in their fliops, cr a
peafant felling vegetables and fruit, and fometimes a
■woman looking out at a window ; all which he copied
minutely after nature, nor did he paint a fingle objeft
without his model. As Mieris had obferved the com¬
pofitions of Gerard Lairefi'e, and other great hiflurical
painters, with fingular delight, he attempted to defign
fubjedls in that ftyle 5 and b^'gan with the ftory of Ri-
naldo fteeping on the lap of Armida, furrounded with
the J^oves and Graces, the fore ground bemg enriched
with plants and flowers 5 a work which added greatly
to his fame, and was fold for a very high price. This
mafter alfo painted landfeapes and animals with equal
truth and neatnefs; and modelled in clay and wax, in
fo Iharp and accurate a manner, that he might juftly
be
Mien*.
Mieris
MIG [ 78
be ranked among the moft eminent fculptors. In the
delicate finilhing of his works, he imitated lus father ;
as he like wife did in the lultre, harmony, and truth,
01 his paintings, which makes them to be almoft as
highly prized j but they are not equal in refpedt of de-
Jign, or of the finking tffe<5!, nor is his touch fo very
exquifite as that of the father. The works of the old
IVlicris are better com poled, the figures are better
grouped, and thes have lefs eonfufion ; yet the younger
IViieris is acknowledged to be an artifl of extraordinary
merit, although inferior to him, who had fcarcely his
equal, lie died in 1747.
JYjikris, Francis, called the 'loung Francis, was
the Ion of W ilbam, and the grandlon of the celebrated
Francis Mieris •, and was born at Leyden in 1689. He
Famed the art of painting from his father, whofe
manner and ilyle he always imitated 5 he chofe the
fame iubjefts, and endeavoured to refemble him in his
colouring and pencil. But with all his induflry he
proved tar inferior to him : and moft of thofe pictures
w hich at the public fales are faid to be of the young
Mieris, and many alfo in private col left ions aferibed to
the elder Francis, or William, are perhaps originally
painted by this mafter, who was far inferior to both ;
or are only his copies after the works of thofe excellent
painters, as he fpent abundance of his time in copying
their performances.
MiEZA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Macedo¬
nia, which was anciently called Stnjmonium, fituated
near Stagira. Here, Plutarch informs us, the (lone feats
and ftiady walks of Ariftotle were fhown. Of this place
was Peuceftas, one of Alexander’s generals, and there¬
fore furnamed Mieosceus, (Arrianl.
MIGDOL, or Magdol, in Ancient Geography, a
place in the Low^er Egypt, on this fide Pihahiroth, or
between it and the Red lea, towards its extremity. The
term denotes a tower or fort refs. It is probably the
Magdolum of Herodotus, feeing the Septuagint render
it by the fame name.
MIGNARD, Nicholas, an ingenious French
painter born at Troyes in 1628 ; but, fettling at Avig¬
non, is generally diftinguiftied from his brother Peter
by the appellation of Mignard of Avignon. He was
afterwards employed at court and at Paris, w’here he be¬
came reftor of the royal academy of painting.
There is a great number of his hiftorical pieces and por¬
traits in the palace of the l huilleries. He died in 1690.
Mignard, Peter, the brother of Nicholas, was
born at Troyes in 1610 ; and acquired fo much of the
tafte of the Italian fchool, as to be known by the name
of the Roman. He was generallv allowed to have a
fuperior genius to his brother Nicholas ; and had the
honour of painting the popes Vlexander VII. and Ur¬
ban VIIT. befides manv of the nobility at Rome, and
feveral of the Italian p inces : his patron, Louis, fat
ten times to him for his portrait, and refpefted his ta¬
lents fo much as to ennoble him, make him his princi¬
pal painter after the death of Le Brun, and appointed
him direftor of the manufaftories. He died in 1695,
and manv of his pieces are to be feen at St Cloud.
MIGNON, or Minjon, Abraham, a celebrated
painter of flowers and flill life, w'as born at Francfort
in 1639 > and his father having been deprived of the
grealeft part of his fubftance bv a fern s of Ioffes in
•trade, left him in very neceflitous circumftances when
] MIG
he was only feven years of age. From that melan- Mlgno
choly fituation he was refeued by the friendftiip of ^‘grati
James Murel, a flower painter in that city ; who took
Mignon into his own houfe, and inftrufted him in
the art, till he was 17 years old. Murel had often
obferved an uncommon genius in Mignon : he there¬
fore took him along with him to Holland, where he
placed him as a diiciple with David de Heem ; and
while he was under the direftion of that mafter he la¬
boured with inceffant application to imitate the man¬
ner of De Heem, and ever afterwards adhered to it j
only adding daily to his improvement, by t udving
nature with a moft exaft and curious obfervation.—.
“ When we conlider the paintings of Migr.on, one is
at a lofs (Mr Pilkington obferves) whether more to
admire the freftinefs and beauty of his colouring, the
truth in every part, the bloom on his obiefts, or the
perfeft refemblance of nature vifible in all'his perform¬
ances. He always fhows a beautiful choice in thofe
flowers and fruits from which his fubjefts are compof-
ed : and he groups them with uncommon elegance.
His touch is exquifitely neat, though apparently eafy
and unlaboured j and he was fond of introducing in-
feft» among the fruits and flowers, wonderfully fmilhed,
fo that even the drops of dew appear as round and as
tranllucent as nature itfelf.” He had the good for¬
tune to be highly paid for his works in his lifetime •,
and he certainly would have been accounted the beft
in his profeflion even to this day, if John Van Huy-
lum had not appeared. "VVeyerman, who had feen
many admired piftures of Mignon, mentions one of a
moft capital kind. The fubjeft of it is a cat, which
had thrown down a pot of flowers, and they lie fcat-
tered on a marble table. That pifture is in every re-
fpeft fo wonderfully natural, that the fpeftator can
fcarce perfuade himfelf that the water which is fpilled
from the veffel is not really running down from the
marble. This pifture is diftinguilhed by the title of
Mignon's Cat. 'This painter died in 1679, aged only 40.
MIGRATION, the paffage or a removal of a thing
out of one place into another.
MIGRATION of Birds.— lx. has been generally be-Migratk
lieved, that many different kinds of birds annually pafs general]
from one country to another, and fpend the fummer 0rfiehevec
the winter where it is moft agreeable to them ; and
that even the birds of our own ifland will feek the moft
diftant fouthern regions of Africa, when direfted by
a peculiar inftinft to leave their own country. It has
long been an opinion pretty generally received, that
fwallows refide during the winter feafon in the warm
fouthirn regions; and Mr Adanfon particularly relates
his having feen them at Senegal when they were obli¬
ged to leave this country. But befidcs the fwallow,
Mr Pennant enumerates manv other birds which mi¬
grate from Britain at different times of the year, and
are then to be found in other countries ; after which
they again leave thefe countries, and return to Bri¬
tain. The realon of thefe migrations he fuppofes to
be a deft ft of food at certain ftafons of the year, or
the want of a fecure afylum from the perfeeution of
man during the time of courtlhip, incubation, and nutri¬
tion. The following is his lift of the migrating fpecies.
1. Crowi. Of this genus, the hooded crow migrates Birds th
regularly with the woodcock. It inhabits North Bri- migrate
tain the whole year ; a few are faid annually to breed
MIG [ 79 ] MIG
io, igration. on Dartmoor, in Devomlure. It breeds alio in Swe¬
den and Aullria : in fome of the Swediih provinces it
only flnfts its quarters, in others it refides throughout
the year. Our author is at a lofs for the fummer re¬
treat of thofe which vifit us in fuch numbers in winter,
and quit our country in the fpring j and for the reafon
why a bird, whofe food is fuch that it may be found at
all feafons in this country, fhould leave us.
2. Cuckoo. Difappears early in autumn j the retreat
of this and the following bird is quite unknown to us.
3. Wryneck. Is a bird that leaves us in the winter.
If its diet be ants alone, as feveral aflert, the caufe of
its migration is very evident. This bird difappears be¬
fore winter, and revifits us in the fpring a little earlier
than the cuckoo.
4. Hoopoe. Comes to England but by accident ;
Mr Pennant once indeed heard of a pair that attempt¬
ed to make their nelt in a meadow at Selborne, Hamp-
Ihire, but were frighted away by the curiofity of people.
It breeds in Germany.
5. Grous. The whole tribe, except the quail, lives
here all the year round : that bird either leaves us, or
elfe retires towards the fea coalts.
6. Pigeons. Some few of the ring doves breed
here •, but the multitude that appears in the winter is
fo difproportioned to what continue here the whole
year, as to make it certain that the greateft part quit
the country in the fpring. It is moll probable they
go to Sweden to breed, and return from thence in au¬
tumn ; as Mr Ekmark informs us they entirely quit
that country before winter. Multitudes of the com¬
mon wild pigeons alfo make the northern retreat, and
vifit us in winter ; not but numbers breed in the high
cliffs in all parts of this illand. The turtle alfo pro¬
bably leaves us in the winter, at leaft changes its place,
removing to the fouthern counties.
7. Stare. Breeds here. Poilibly feveral remove to
other countries for that purpofe, fince the produce of
thofe that continue here feems unequal to the clouds
of them that appear in winter. It is not unlikely that
many migrate into Sweden, where Mr Berger obferves
they return in fpring.
8. Thrujhes. The fieldfare and the redwing breed
and pafs their fummers in Norway and other cold coun¬
tries ; their food is berries, which abounding in our
kingdoms, tempts them here in the winter. Thefe two
and the Royffon crow are the only land birds that re¬
gularly and conftantly migrate into England, and do
not breed here. The hawfinch and crofsbill come here
at fuch uncertain times as not to deferve the name of
birds of paffage.
9. Chatterer. The chatterer appears annually about
Edinburgh in flocks during winter ; and feeds on the
berries of the mountain a(h. In South Britain it is an
accidental vifitant.
10. Grofbeaks. The grolheak and crofsbill come
here but feldom ; they bread in Auftria. The pine
grotheak probably breeds in the forefts of the High¬
lands of Scotland.
11. Buntings. All the genus inhabits England
throughout theyear; except thegreaterbrambling, which
is forced here from the north in very fevere feafons.
12. Pinches. All continue in fome parts of thefe
kingdoms, except the filkin, which is an irregular rifi-
tant, faid to come from Ruflia. The linnets fluft
3
1
ratii
;rall
;ved
h th
rite
their quarters, breeding in one part of this ifland, and Migration,
remove with their young to others. All finches feed on *
the feeds of plants.
13. Larks, jhj-catchers, wagtails, and warblers. All
of thefe feed on infers and worms } yet only part of
them quit thefe kingdoms ; though the reafon of mi¬
gration is the fame to all. The nightingale, black-
cap, fly-catcher, willow-wren, wheat-ear, and white-
throat, leave us before winter, while the fmall and de¬
licate golden-crelted wren braves our fevereft froits.
The migrants of this genus continue longeft in Great
Britain in the fouthern counties, the winter in thofe
parts being later than in thofe of the north ; Mr
Stillingfleet having obferved fevtral wheat-ears in the
iile of Purbeck on the 18th of November. As thefe
birds are incapable of very diilant flights, Spain,
or the fouth of France, is probably their winter afy-
lum.
14. Szuallows and goatfucker. Every fpecies difap¬
pears at the approach of winter.
Water-Fowl.
3
Of the vaft variety of water-fowl that frequent w*ter-
Great Britain, it is amazing to refleft how few arefowl'
known to breed here : the caufe that principally urges
them to leave this country, feems to be not merely the
want of food, but the defire of a fecure retreat. Our
country is too populous for birds fo thy and timid as
the bulk of thefe are : when great part of our illand
was a mere watte, a traft of woods and fen, doubt-
lefs many fpecies of birds (which at this time mi¬
grate) remained in fecurity throughout the year. 
Egrets, a fpecies of heron now fcarcely known in
this ifland, were in former times in prodigious plen¬
ty j and the crane, that has totally forfaken this coun¬
try, bred familiarly in our marthes : their place of
incubation, as well as of all other cloven-footed sva-
ter-fowl (the heron excepted), being on the ground,
and expofed to every one. As rural economy increafed
in this country, thefe animals were more and more di-
fturbed ; at length, by a feries of alarms, they were ne-
ceflitated to feek, during the fummer, fome lonely fafe
habitation.
On the contrary, thofe that build or lay in the al-
moff inacceflible rocks that impend over the Britifh
feas, breed there Rill in vaft numbers, having little to
fear from the approach of mankind : the only difturb-
ance they meet with in general being from the defpe-
rate attempts of fome fewr to get their eggs.
Cloven-footed Water-Fowl.
# ^ Herons. The white heron is an uncommon
bird, and vifits us at uncertain feafons 3 the common
kind and the bittern never leave us.
16. Curlews. The curlew breeds fometimes on our
mountains : but, confidcring the vaft flights that ap¬
pear in winter, it is probable that the greater part
retire to other countries : the whimbrel breeds on the
Grampian hills, in the neighbourhood of Invercauld.
17. Snipes-. The woodcock breeds in the moift
woods of Sweden, and other cold countries. Some
fnipes breed here, but the greateft part retire elfe-
where : as do every other fpecics of this genus.
18. Sandpipers. The lapwing continues here the
whole year ; the ruff breeds here, but retires in winter ;
the
M T C [
Migration, the reddiank and fandpipcr breed in this country, and
relide here. All the others ablent themfeives during
fummer.
19. Plovers and oyjler-catcher. The long-legged
plover and fanderling viiit us only in winter j the dot¬
trel appears in Ipring and in autumn-, yet, what is very
lingular, we do not find it breeds in South Britain.
The oviter catcher lives with us the whole year. The
Norfolk plover and lea-lark breed in England. The
green plover breeds on the mountains of the north of
England, and on the Grampian hills.
We mutt here remark, that every fpecies of the ge¬
nera of curlews, woodcocks, fandpipers, and plovers,
that forfakes us in the fpring, retires to Sweden, Po¬
land, Pruflia, Norway, and Lapland, to breed : as foon
as the young can fly, they return to us again, becaufe
the frofts which fet in early in thofe countries totally
deprive them of the means of fublifting j as the dry-
nefs and hardnefs of the ground, in general, during
our fummer, prevent them from penetrating the earth
with their bills, in fearch of worms, which are the na¬
tural food of thefe birds. Mr Ekmark fpeaks thus of
the retreat of the whole tribe of cloven-footed water¬
fowl out of his country (Sweden) at the approach of
winter ; and Mr Klein gives much the fame account of
thofe of Poland and Pruflia.
20. Rails and gallinules. Every fpecies of thefe two
genera continues with us the whole year j the land-rail
excepted, which is not feen herein winter. It likewife
continues in Ireland only during the fummer months,
when they are verv numerous, as Mr Smith tells us in
the Hiftory of Waterford, p. 336. Great numbers ap¬
pear in Anglefea the latter end of May ; it is fuppofed
that they pafs over from Ireland, the paffage between
the two iflands being but fmall. As we have intlances
of thefe birds lighting on (hips in the Channel and the
bay of Bifcay, we may conjedture their winter quar¬
ters to be in Spain.
80 ] MIG
pole •, but fome of the red throated divers, the northern Migration,
and the imucr, may breed in the north oi Scotland and —■"-v-—-
its hies.
26. Terns. Every fpecies bx-eeds here j but leaves
us m the winter.
27. Petrels. The fulmar breeds in the ifle of St
Kiida, and continues there the whole year except Sep¬
tember and part of October : the ihearwater vilits the
Finned-footed Water Birds.
2T. Phalaropes. Vifit us but feldom j their breeding
iile of Man in April ; breeds there.j and, leaving it in
place i- Lapland, and other ardlic regions.
2 2. Grebes. The great cretled grebe, the black and
white grebe, and little grebe, breed with u^, and never
migrate •, the others vifit us accidentally, and breed in
Lapland.
Web-footed Birds.
23. rfvofet. B eed near Fofsdike in Lincolnfliire,
but quit their quarters in winter. They are then ihot
in different narts of the kingdom, which they viiit, not
regularly, -but accidentally.
24. \uhs and guillemots. The great auk or pinguin
fometimes breeds in St Kiida. The auk, the guillemet,
and puffin, inhabit moft of the maritime cliffs of Great
Br tain, in amazing numbers, during fummer. I he
black guillemot breeds in the Bafs ifle. and in St Kiida,
and fometimes in Llandidno n>cks. We are at a lufs
for the breeding place of the other fpecies ; neither can
we be very certain of the winter re. dence of anv of
them, excepting of the leffer guillemot and black billed
au1’ which, during winter, vifit in vafl flocks the fri h
ofFrth.
; c. Divers. Thefie ehl flv breed in the lak-of
Sweden and Lapland, and in feme countries near the
Auguft or the beginning of September, dilperies over
all parts of the Atlantic ocean. The liormhnch is
feen at all diltances from land on the fame valt watery
tract; nor is ever found neai the fliore except by fome
very rare accident, unlefs in the breeding feafon. Mr
Pennant found it on fome little rocky iflesofi the north
of Skye. It alto breeds in St Kiida. He alfo fulpedts
that it ne ’les on the Blafquet iiles off Kerry, and that
it is the gourder of Mr Smith.
28. Merganfers. This whole genus is mentioned
among the birds that fill the Lapland lakes during
fummer. Mr Pennant has teen the young of the red-
brealted in the north of Scotland : a few of thefe, and
perhaps of the goofanders, may breed there.
29. Ducks. Of the numerous tpecies that form this
genus, we know of few that breed here : '1 he fwan and
goofe, the ffikld duck, the eider duck, a few thovelers,
garganies, and teals, and a very fmall portion ol the
wild ducks.
1 he rett contribute to form that amazing multi¬
tude of water-fowl that annually n pair trom mod parts
of Europe to the woods and lakes of Lapland and
other ardtic regions, there to perform the tundiions of
incubation and nutrition in full fccurity. rl hey and
the ir young quit their retreat in September, and dif-
pcrle themfeives over Europe. With us they make,
their appearance the beginning of October j circulate
fir round our theres ; and, when compelled by fevere
frod, betake themfeives to our lakes and rivers. Of
the web-footed fowl there are fome of hardier condi-
tutions than others; thefe endure the ordinary winters
of the more northern countries-, but when the cold
reigns thi re with more than common rigour, they rt pair
for the Iter to thefe kingdoms : this regulates the ap¬
pearance of iome of the diver kind, as alio of the vikl
iwans, the f\\allow-tailed diield duck, and the different
fort' of goofanders which then vifit our coads. Bare-nfa
found the barnacles with their netls in great numbers
in Nova Zembla. (Collefl. Voy. Dutch Kaji India Com-
puny, 8vo, 17^3, p- I9-)- Clulius, in his 3(18.
alio obferves, that the Dutch dilcovered them on the
rocks of that country and in Waygate draits. ’I hey,
as well as the other fpecies of wild geefe, go very tar
north to breed, as appears fn m the hittorus of Grtcn-
lai d and Spitzhergt n, by Egedt and Crantz. 'I hefe
birds feem to make Iceland a reding place, as Horre-
bi vv obferves : tewv continue tin ic to breed, but oi ly
vifit that ifland in the fpring, and after a dioit l ay
ntire if ill tuither north.
30. 1 orvorants. The corvorant and drag breed on
mod of our high ricks: the garnet in fome ot the
Scotch tfles and on ihe coad of Kerry : the two fird
cor inue on our fliores the whole year. I he garnet
dhperfes i le t all round the ias oi Gnat Bnta , in
purfuit of tin birring and pih hard, and even as tar as
the Tagus to prey on the lardina.
But
t?a:
r-
MIG
m | Migration
•>
[
thi
iginitrr.
But of tlie numerous fpecies of fotvl here enumerat¬
ed, it may be obferved how very few intruft them-
Few breed felves to us in breeding feafon, and what a diltant
flight they make to perform the firfl great dictate of na¬
ture.
There feetns to be fcarcely any but what we have
traced to Lapland, a country of lakes, rivers, fwamps,
and alps, covered with thick and gloomy forefts, that
afford flicker during fummer to thefe fowls, which in
winter difperfe over the gfeateft part of Europe. In
thofe arctic regions, by reafon of the. thicknefs of the
woods, the ground remains moifl: and penetrable to the
woodcocks, and other flender-billed fowl : and for the
Web-footed birds, the waters afford larvae innumerable
of the tormenting gnat. The days there are long ;
and the beautiful meteorous nights indulge them with
every opportunity of collecting fo minute a food : whiLft
mankind is very fparingly fcattered over that vaft nor¬
thern wafte.
Why then fliould Linnaeus, the great explorer of
thefe rude deferts, be amazed at the myriads of -water-
fowl that migrated with him out of Lapland ? w'hich
exceeded in multitude the army of Xerxes j covering,
for eight whole days and nights, the furface of the river
Calix ! His partial obfervation as a botanift, would
confine their food to the vegetable kingdom, almoft
denied to the Lapland waters ; inattentive to a more
plenteous table of infeCt food, which the all-bountiful
Creator had fpread for them in the wildernefs. It may
be remarked, that the lakes of mountainous rocky
countries in general are deftitute of plants : few or
none are feen on thofe of Switzerland ; and Linnaeus
makes the fame obfervation in refpeft to thofe of Lap-
land ; having, during his whole tour, difeovered only
a Angle fpecimen of a lemma trifulca, or “ ivy-leaved
duck’s meat,” Flora Lap. N° 470.; a few of the/c/r-
pus lacuJlriSy or “ bulrufh,” N9 18. j the ulopccurus
geniculatus, or “ flote foxtail-grafs,” N° 38.; and the
ranunculus aquatilis, N° 234. j which are all he enu¬
merates in his Prolegomena to that excellent perform¬
ance.
arguments W e lhall afterw'ards ftate the principal arguments for
|ainft mi- and againfl: the migration of fw^alkws ; but here we
ijration.
fliall give a fhort abflraCt of the arguments ufed by the
Hon. Daines Barrington againfl: the migration of birds
in general, from a paper publiihed by him in the 6 2d
volume of the Philofophical Tranfadions. This gen¬
tleman denies that any well-attefted inftances can be
produced of this fuppofed migration j which, he thinks,
if there were any fuch periodical flight, could not pofli-
bly have efcaped the frequent obfervation of feamen.
It has indeed been aflerted that birds of pafiage become
invifible in their flight, becaufe they rife too high in the
air to be perceived, and becaufe they choofe the night
for their palTage. The author, however, expreffes his
doubts “ whether any bird was ever feen to rife to a
greater height than perhaps twice that of St Paul’s
crofs j” and he further endeavours to (how, that the
extent of fome of thefe fuppofed migrations (from the
northern parts of Europe, for inftance, to the line) is
too great to be accounted for, by having recourfe to the
argument founded on a noClurnal paflsge.
The author next recites, in a chronological order,
all the inftances that he has been able to collett, of
bir :s having been adlually feen by mariners when they
Vol. XIV. Part I. J
81 ] MIG
were crofting a large extent of fea ; and he endeavours
to fliow that no ftrefs can be laid on the few cafual
obfervations of this kind that ’have been produced in
fupport of the dodrine of a regular and periodical mi¬
gration.
Mr Barrington afterwards proceeds to invalidate M.
Adanfon’s celebrated obfervation with refped to th'5
migration of the fu allow in particular, and which has
been confidered by many as perfedly decifive of the,
prefent queftion. He endeavours to ihow that the four
fwallows which that naturalift caught, on their fettling
upon his ftiip, on the 6th of October, at about the dif-
tance of 50 leagues from the coaft of Senega], and
which he liippofes to have been then proceeding from
Europe to pafs the winter in Africa, could not be true
European fwallows ; or, if they were, could not have
been on their return from Europe to Africa. His ob¬
jections are founded principally on fome proofs which
he produces of M. Adanfon’s want of accuracy on this
fubjeCt, which has led him, in the prefent inftance, to
miftake two African fpeeies of the fwallow tribe, de-
feribed and engraved by Briffon, for European fwallows,
to which they bear a general refemblance j or grant¬
ing even that they were European fwallows, he con¬
tends that they were flitting from the Cape de Verd
iflands to the coaft of Africa $ “ to which ftiort flight,
however, they w'ere unequal, and accordingly fell into
the failors hands.”—We fliall here only add, in oppo-
fition to the remarks of Mr Barrington, the following
obfervations of the Rev. Mr White * in a letter to Mr
Pennant on this fubjeCL
“ W e muft not (fays he) deny migration in general j
becaufe migration certainly does fubfift in fome places,
as my brother in Andalufia has fully informed me. Of
the motions of thefe birds he has ocular demonftration,
for many weeks together, both fpring and fall : during
which periods myriads of the fwallow kind traverfe the
Straits from nerth to fouth, and from fouth to north,
according to the feafon. And thefe vaft migrations
confift not only of hirundines, but of bee-birds, hoo¬
poes, oro pendolos, or golden thruflies, &.c. &.c. and
alfo of many of our foft-billed fummer birds of paflage ;
and moreover of birds which never leave us, fuch as all
the various forts of hawks and kites. Old Belon, 200
years ago, gives a curious account of the incredible
armies of hawks and kites which he faw in the fpring
time traverfing the Thracian Bofphorus from Alia to
Europe. Befides the above mentioned, he remarks
that the proceflion is fwelled by whole troops of eagles
and vultures.
“ Now it is no wonder that birds refiding in Africa
Ihould retreat before the fun as it advances, and retire
to milder regions, and efpecially birds of prey, whofe
blood being heated with hot animal food, are more im¬
patient of a fultry climate : but then I cannot help won¬
dering Avhy kites and hawks, and fuch hardy birds as
are known to defy all the feverity of England, and even
of Sweden and all northern Europe, fhould want to mi¬
grate from the fouth of Europe, and be dilfatisfied with
the winters of Andalufia.
“ It does not appear to me that much ftrefs may be
laid on the difficulty and hazard that birds muft run in
their migrations, by reafon of vaft oceans, crofs winds,
&c.; becaufe, if we refled!, a bird may travel from
England to the equator without launching out and ex-
L pofing
Migration.
* Natural
HJlory of
Sclborne,
letter ix.
P- i»9-
6
Arguments
in fupport
of it.
MIG [ 82 ] MIG
Migration, pofing itfelf to boundlefs feas, and tliat by crofting the
water at Dover and again at Gibraltar. And I ivith
the more confidence advance this obvious remark, be-
caufe my brother has always found that fome of his
birds, and particularly the f\vallow kind, are very fpa-
ring of tlicir pains in crofling the Mediterranean : for
when arrived at Gibraltar, they do not,
  “ rang’d in figure, tvcdge their way,
 “ and fet forth
“ Their airy caravan high over feas
“ Flying, and over lands with mutual wing
“ Ealing their dight.” MlLTON.
but fcout and hurry along in little detached parties of
fix or feven in a company } and fvveeping low, jufi: over
the furfaee of the land and water, direft their courfe to
the oppofite continent at the narrowelt paffage they can
find. They ufually Hope acrofs the bay to the louth-
weft, and fo pafs over oppofite to Tangier, which it
feems is the narroweft fpace.
“ In former letters we have confidered whether it
was probable that woodcocks in moon-fhiny nights
crofs the German ocean from Scandinavia. As a proof
that birds of lefs fpeed may pafs that fea, confiderable
as it is, I {hall relate the following incident, which,
though mentioned to have happened fo many years
ago, was flri£tly matter of faA :—As fome people
were (hooting in the parifh of Trotton, in the county
of Sufiex, they killed a duck in that dreadful winter
17:8-9, with a (ilver collar about its neck (I have
read a like anecdote of a fwan), on which were en¬
graven the arms of the king of Denmark. This anec¬
dote the redlor of Trotton at that time has often told
to a near relation of mine j and, to the beft of my re¬
membrance, the collar was in the poifedion of the rec-
7
($neftion,
VVliat be¬
comes of
fwallows in
winter ?
tor.
“ At prefent I do not know any body near the fea
fide that will take the trouble to remark at what time
of the moon woodcocks firft come. One thing I ufed
to obferve when I was a fportfman, that there were
times in which woodcocks were fo fluggifh and fleepy
that they would drop again when fluihed ju(t before
the fpaniels, nay iuft at the muzzle of a gun that had
been fired at them : whether this ftrange lazinefs was
the eflfeft of a recent fatiguing journey, 1 {hall not pre¬
fume to fay.
“ Nightingales not only never reach Northumber¬
land and Scotland, but alfo, as I have been always told,
Devon {hire and Cornwall. In thofe two lall counties
we cannot attribute the failure of them to the want of
warmth : the defeft in the weft is rather a prefumptive
argument that thefe birds come over to us from the
continent at the narroweft palfage, and do not ftroll lo
far weft ward.”
Upon the fubleft of the migration of the fwallow
there are three opinions. Some fay that it migrates to
a warmer climate ; fome, that it retires to hollow trees
and caverns, where it lies in a torpid date ; and others
have affirmed, that it lies in the fame {fate in the bot¬
tom of lakes and under the ice. The firil opinion is
fupported bv Marfigli, Ray, Willoughby, Catefby,
Reaumur, Adanfon, Buffon, &c. The firft and fecond
opinion are both adopted bv Pennant and White. The
third is fanefioned by Sclueffer, Hevelius. Derham,
Klein, Ellis, Linnaeus, Kalm : and the fecond and
third have been ftrongly defended by the honourable Migratio,
Dames Barrington. ——y——j
Though wre cannot help giving a preference to that
opinion which appears the molt probable, yet avc do not
think that any one of them is eltablilhed upon fuch evi¬
dence as fo curious a fubjedt requires, and as the advan¬
ced ftate of natural hiftory Avould lead us to expect.
We {hall therefore ftate the arguments upon which each
opinion is founded as iairly and diiiinCtly as we can,
and as often as polTible in the very words of their re-
fpective advocates. By doing fo, we {hall place the
Avhole fubjedt before the eyes of our readers, avIio Avill
thus have an opportunity of examining it attentively,
and of making Inch obfervations and experiments as may
lead to the truth. g
Thofe AA'ho affert that the fwalloAv migrates to a war- Firft opi-
mer country in Avinter, argue in this manner : Thatn'on fitted,
many birds migrate, is a fact fully proved by the obfer-
va ions of natural hiftorians. Is it not more probable, wa“rn c^_
therefore, that fvvalloAvs, which difappear regularly mates.
cA^ery feafon, retire to fome other country, than that
they lie in a Irate of torpor in caverns or lakes ? But
this opinion does not reft on probability, it is founded
on facts.
We often fee them colledled in great flocks on chur¬
ches, rocks, and trees, about the time when they an¬
nually difappear. The diredtion of their Hight has been
oblerved to be foutlnvard. Mr White, the ingenious Kvti/ral
hiftorian of Selborne, travelling near the coalt of the
Britidr Channel one morning early, faAV a flock ofp
fAvallows take their departure. At the beginning of his
journey he Avas environed Avith a thick fog ; but on a
large wild heath the mift began to break, and difeover-
ed to him numberlefs fAvalloAVs, cluttered on the Hand¬
ing bufhes, as if they had roofted there : as foon as the
fun burl! out, they were inflantly on Aving, and A\ith an
eafy and placid flight proceeded towards the fea. After
this he faAV no more flocks, only no\AT and then a ftraggler.
Mr Lafkey of Exeter obferved attentively the direc¬
tion which a flock of fwalloAvs took in the autumn of
1793. On the 22d of Sept, about feA^en o’clock in the
morning, the Avind being eafterly, accompanied Avith a
cold drizzling rain, Mr Lafkey’s houfe Avas entirely
covered Avith houfe-fwalloATs. At intervals large flocks
arrived and joined the main body, and at their ar¬
rival an unufual chirping commenced. The appear¬
ance of the Avhole company Avas fo lethargic, that he
found it an eafy matter to catch a confiderable number Gent- Mag.
of them, ay Inch he kept in a room all that day. By/or 179**
heating the room they all revived : he opened four of
them, and found their ftomachs quite full. The main
body occupied the houfe top all day, except for tAvo
hours. About half an hour after nine in the morning
of the 23d, there Avas a great commotion, with very
loud chirping, and Avilhin a feAV minutes after, the
Avhole multitude took their flight, in a direct fouth-eaft
direiRion, having afeended to a great height in the at-
mofphere. He let go the birds Avhich he had caught,
at certain intervals till four o’clock, and they all flew
toAvard the fame quarter.
Not only has the direction of their flight been obfer¬
ved, but they have alfo been found on their paflage at
a great diftance from land. Mr Adanfon informs us,
that about leagues from the craft of Senegal four
fwallows fettled upon the fliip on the 6th of Oifober j
tha%
Phi'ofbphi-
cni Tranf-
aPions,
voi. liii.
Kahn's
V»yage,
vol. i. p. 24,
MIG [8
Miration, that thefe birds were taken ; and that he knew them to
European iwallows, avliieh, he conjeclures, were
returning to the coalt of Africa. Sir Charles Wager’s
authority may alfo be appealed to: “ Returning home
(fays he) in the fpring of the year, as I came into
foundings in our channel, a great dock of fwallows
came and fettled on all my rigging; every rope was
covered, they hung on one another like a fwarm of
bees ; the decks and carving were filled with them.
They feemed almoft famiihed and fpent, and were only
feathers and bones •, but, being recruited with a night’s
red, took their flight in the morning.” This vait fa¬
tigue proves that their journey mutt have been very great,
confidering the amazing fwiftnefs of thefe birds : in all
probability they had croffed the Atlantic ocean, and
Avere returning from the ihores of Senegal, or other parts
of Africa; fo that this account from that mod able and
honed feaman, confirms the later information of Mr
Adanfon.
Mr Kalm, who is an advocate for the opinion that
fwallows lie immerfed in lakes during winter, acknow¬
ledges that in eroding the Atlantic from Europe a
fwallow lighted on the drip on the 2d September, when
it had paffed ouly two-thirds of the ocean. Since,
therefore, fwallows have been feen aflembled in great
flocks in autumn dying off in company towards fouthern
climes, fince they have been found both in their paflage
from Europe and returning again, can there be any
doubt of their annual migration ?—Mr Barrington’s
objeflions to this opinion have been noticed above in
N* 5.
The fecond notion (fays Mr Pennant) has great'anti-
quity on its fide. Aridotle and Pliny give it as their
belief, that fwallows do not remove very far from their
dimmer habitation, but winter in the hollows of rocks,
and during that time lofe their feathers. The former
part of their opinion has been adopted by feveral inge¬
nious men ; and of late feveral proofs have been brought
of fome fpecies, at lead, having been difeovered in a
torpid date. Mr Collinfon favoured us with the evi¬
dence of three gentlemen, eye-witnedes to numbers of
land martins being drawn out of a cliff on the Rhine,
in the month of March 1762. And the honourable
Daines Barrington communicated to us the following
faff, on the authority of Lord Belhaven, That numbers
of fwallows have been found in old dry Avails and in
fand-hills near his Lorddiip’s feat in Ead Lothian ; uot
once only, but from year to year; and that when they
Avere expofed to the warmth of a fire, they revived.
We have alfo heard of the fame annual difeoveries near
Morpeth in Northumberland, but cannot fpeak of them
with the fame afiuranee as the tAvo former : neither in
the tivo lad indances are avc certain of the particular
fpecies.
“ Other Avitneffes croAvd on us to prove the refidence
of thofe birds in a torpid date during the fevere feafon.
Fird, In the chalky cliffs of Suffex ; as Avas feen on the
fall of a great fragment fome years ago. Secondly, In
a decayed hollow tree that Avas cut down, near Dolgel-
li, in Merionethdure. 1 hirdly, In a cliff near Whitby,
York dure ; Avhere, on digging out a fox, Avhole bulhels
of fwalloAArs Avere found in a torpid condition. And,
ladly, The reverend Mr Conway of Sychton, Flint-
Ihire, Avas fo obliging as to communicate the folloAving
fail : A feAv years ago, on looking doAvn an old lead-
Second opi¬
nion, that
fome lie
in caverns
in a torpid
ftate.
Pennant's]
Britijh
Zoology,
vol. ii.
p. 25q.
3 ] MIG
mine in that county, he obferved numbers of fwalloAVS Migration-
clinging to the timbers of the lhaft, feemingly alleep ; y ""
and on dinging fome gravel on them, they jult movt d,
but never attempted to fly or change their place : this
was bettveen All Saints and Chriltmas.
“ Thefe are doubtlefs the lurking places of the later
hatches, or of thofe young birds Avhich are incapable of
didant migrations. There they continue infenlible and
rigid ; but like flies may fometimes be reanimated by
an unfeafonable hot day in the midd of winter: for very
near Chridmas a few appeared on th# moulding of a
window of Merton college, Oxford, in a remarkably
Avarm nook, Avhich prematurely let their blood in mo¬
tion, having the fame effedl as laying them before a
fire at the fame time of year. Others have been known
to make this premature appearance; but as foon as the
cold natural to the feafon returns, they Avithdraw again
to their former retreats.
“ The above arc circumfiances Are cannot but affent
to, though feemingly contradictory to the common courfe
of nature in regard to other birds. We mult, therefore,
divide our belief relating to thefe two fo different opi¬
nions ; and conclude, that one part of the fwalloAV tribe
migrate, and that others have their Avinter quarters
near home. If it Ihould be demanded, why fAvalloAvs
alone are found in a torpid date, and not the other
many fpecies of foft-billed birds, Avhich likeAvife dif-
appear about the fame time ? reafons might be affign-
ed ”
C r. . . . 10
The third opinion Ave fi.all date and fupport in the Third opi-
AA’ords of Mr Kalm. “ Natural hidory (fays he), asnion-
all other hiltories, depends not always upon the intrm-!°me ^,e
fic degree of probability, but upon facts founded on the water,
tedimony of people of noted veracity.—SAvallows are
feldom feen finking doAvn into Avater ; fwalloAvs have,
not fuch organs as frogs or lizards, Avhich are torpid
during Avinter ; ergo, fAVallows live not, and cannot
live, under Avater.—This Avay of arguing, I believe,
would carry us, in a great many cafes too far : for
though it is not clear to eA'ery one, it may hoAvever be
true ; and lizards and frogs are animals of a clafs Avidely
different from that ©f birds, and mud therefore of courle
have a different druCture ; hence it is they are claffed
feparately. The bear and marmot are in Avinter in a
torpid date, and have, hoAvever, not fuch organs as
lizards and frogs ; and nobody doubts of their being,
during fome time, in the mod rigid climates, in a tor¬
pid date : for the Alpine nations hunt the marmots
frequently by digging their holes up ; and find them fo
torpid, that they cut their throat*, Avithout their reviv¬
ing or giving the lead fign of life during the operation ;
but Avhen the torpid marmot is brought into a warm
room, and placed before the fire, it revives from its
lethargy. The quefiion mud therefore be decided by
fa£ts ; nor are thefe wanting here. Dr Wallerius, the
celebrated SAvedidi chemid, informs us, That he has
feen, more than once, fwalloAvs affembling on a reed,
till they Avere all immerfed and went to the bottom;
this being preceded by a dirge of a quarter of an hour’s
length. He attefts likeAvile, that he had feen a fw’alloAv
caught during Avinter out of a lake Avith a net, draAvn,
as is common in northern countries, under the ice ; this
bird w'as brought into a Avarm room, revived, fluttered
about, and foon after died.
“ Mr Klein applied to many farmers-general of the
L 2 king
MIG [ 84. ] MIG
• king of Pruflia’s domains, ^vho had great lakes in their
diltrivds, the fifliery in them being a part of the revenue.
In winter the filhery thereon is the moft conhderable
under the ice, with nets fpreading more than 200 or
300 fathoms, and they are often wound by fcrews and
engines on account of their weight. All the people
that were queftioned made affidavit* upon oath before
the magiilratcs. Firft, The mother of the countefs
Lehndorf faid, that the had feen a bundle of fwallows
brought from the Friffie-Haff (a lake communicating
with the Baltic at Pillaw), which, when brought into
a moderately warm room, revived and fluttered about.
Secondly, Count Schileben gave an inftrument on
ftaraped paper, importing, that by fiihing on the lake
belonging to his tilate of Gerdauen in winter, he faw
feveral fwallows caught in the net, one of which he
took up in his hand, brought it into a warm room,
where it lay about an hour, when it began to ftir, and
half an hour after, it flew about in the room. Thirdly,
Farmer-general (Amtman) Witkoulki made affidavit,
that, in the year 1740, three fwallows were brought
up with the net in the great pond at Didlacken *, in the
year 1741, he got two fwallow's from another part of
the pond, and took them home (they being all caught
in his prefence) j after an hour’s fpace they revived
all in a w:» n room, fluttered about, and died in three
hours after. Fourthly, Amtman Bonke fays, that
having had the eftate of Klelkow in farm, he had feen
nine fwallows brought up in the net from under the ice,
all which he took into a warm room, where he diftinft-
ly obferved how they gradually revived ; but a few
hours after they all died. Another time his people got
likewife fome fwallows in a net, but he ordered them
to be again thrown into the water. Fifthly, Andrew
Rutta, a mailer fiffierman at Oletlko, made affidavit,
in 1747, that 22 years ago, two fwallows were taken
up by him in a net, under the ice, and, being brought
into a warm room, they flew about. Sixthly, Jacob
Kofiulo, a mailer fiffierman at Stradauen made affidavit,
that, in 1736, he brought up in winter, in a net, from
under the ice of the lake at Ralki, a feemingly dead
fwallow, which revived in half an hour’s time in a
warm room ; and he fawr, in a quarter of an hour after,
the bird grow7 weaker, and foon after dying. Seventh¬
ly, I can reckon myfelf (fays our author) among the
eye-w'itnelfes of this paradox of natural hillory. In the
year 1735, being a little boy, I faw feveral fwallows
brought in winter by the filhermen from the river
Villula to my father’s houfe j where two of them were
brought into a wTarm room, revived, and flew about. I
faw them feveral times fettling on the warm Hove
(which the northern nations have in their rooms) j and
I recolle£l well, that the fame forenoon they died, and
I had them, w hen dead, in my hand. In the year
17^4, after the death of my uncle Godefroy Wolf,
captain in the Polilh regiment of foot guards, being
myfelf one of his heirs, I adminillered for my co-heirs
fcveral ellates called the Starqfhj of DJchau, in Poliffi
Pruffia, which my late uncle farmed under the king.
In January, the lake of Lybffiaw, belonging to thefe
ellates, being covered with ice, I ordered the fiihermen
to filh therein, and in my prefence feveral fwallows
were taken, which the fifhermen threw in again; but
one I took up myfelf, brought it home, which W'as five
5
miles from thence, and it revived, but died about an Migration. Ij?
hour after its reviving. Vi " y ' ’P
“ Thefe are fadls attefted by people of the highelt
quality, by fome in public offices, and by others who,
though of a low rank, however, made thefe affidavits
upon oath. It is impoffible to fuppofe indiferiminately
that they were prompted, by views of intereft, to aflert
as a fadt a thing wdiich had no truth in it. It is there¬
fore highly probable, or rather incontellably true, that
fwallows retire in the northern countries, during winter,
into the water, and flay there in a torpid ftate till the
return of warmth revives them again in fpring. rl he
queftion therefore, I believe, ought for the future to
be thus Rated : The fwallows in Spain, Italy, France,
and perhaps fome from England, remove to warmer
climates ; fome Englith ones, and fome in Germany
and other mild countries, retire into clefts and holes in
rocks, and remain there in a torpid ftate. In the col¬
der northern countries the Iwallows immerfe in the fea,
in lakes, and rivers j and remain in a torpid ftate,
under ice, during winter. There are ftill fome objec¬
tions to this latter affertion, which we mult remove.
It is faid, Why do not rapacious fiftr, and aquatic qua¬
drupeds and birds, devour thefe fwallows ? The anfwer
is obvious, fwallows choofe only fuch places in the
water for their winter retreat as are near reeds and
rufhes j fo that finking down there between them and
their roots, they are by them fecured againft the rapa-
cioufnefs of their enemies. But others objeft, Why are
not thefe birds caught in fuch freffi w'aters as are conti¬
nually haraffed by nets ? 1 believe the fame anfwer
which has been made to the firft objeiftion will ferv«
for this likewife. Fiffiermen take care to keep off with
their nets from places filled with reeds and ruffies, for
fear of entangling and tearing their net; and thus the
fituation of fwallows under water, is the reafon that
they are feldom difturbed in their filent winter retreats.
What confirms this opinion ftill more is, that fwallows
were never caught in Pruffia according to the above-
mentioned affidavits, but with thofe parts of the net
which pafied near to the reeds and ruffies} and fome-
times the fwallows were yet faftened with their feet to
a reed, when they were drawn up by the net. As to
the argument taken from their being fo long under
water without corruption, I believe there is a real
difference between animals fuffocated in water and ani¬
mals being torpid therein. We have examples of
things being a long time under water ; to which we
may add the intenfe cold of thefe northern regions,
which preferves them. Who would have thought that
fnails and polypes might be differed, and could repro¬
duce the parts fevered from their bodies, if it was not a
faft ? Natural hiftory ought to be ftudied as a collec¬
tion of fafts, not as the hiftory of our guefles or opi¬
nions. Nature varies in an infinite manner; and Pro¬
vidence has diverfified the inftimff of animals and their
economy, and adapted it to the various feafens and
climates.”
With Mr Kalm’s concluding obfervations we heart!-This que_
ly concur. Natural hiftory ought to be ftudied as a ftion ought
colle&ion of fa<ffs •, and it was from this very notion to be ue-
that we have ftated the above-mentioned opinions fo^”?1116^*
fully, and brought together the fads which the beft n°nirg ^
advocates for each opinion have judged moft proper for by experi-
fupporting meat.
12
1 Hi
r'le:
( :nt
I leu
•3
• tiot
I Eve
i I re
'I ti
1 tr;
Mtti
1c-
s Ma-
h VT96-
MIG [ 85
^ration, fupporting them. We are fenfible of the great impro-
bability of the third opinion, and know that many ar-
guments have been ufed to prove its abfurdity : fuch as
thefe, The fwallow is lighter than water, and therefore
cannot fink ; if it moults at all, it mull moult under
water during its torpid llate, which is very improbable j
there is no inltance of land animals living fo long un¬
der water without refpiration. Many other arguments
of the fame fort have been advanced, and certainly af¬
ford a fhort way of deciding the queftion j but unlefs
they were fufficient to prove the immerfion of fwallows
a phylical impolfibility, they are of no force when op-
pofed to the evidence of teftimony, if there be no caufe
to fufpefl the witneffes of inaccuracy or defign. The
true way to refute fuch an opinion is by accurate obfer-
vation and experiment. We have not heard of any ac¬
curate inquiries being made by philofophers in thofe
northern countries where fwallows are faid to pafs the
winter under water. The count de Buffon, indeed,
fliut up fome fwallows in an ice-houfe by way of experi¬
ment, which died in a few days j but as he does not tell
us what precautions he took to make the experiment
fucceed, it is not entitled to any attention.
Mr John Hunter made a very judicious experi¬
ment on the banks of the Thames, which is deferib-
ed by a correfpondent in the Gentleman’s Maga¬
zine, who aflerts that he had it from Mr Hunter him-
felf.
One year in the month of September, he prepared a
room, with every accommodation and convenience which
he could contrive, to ferve as a dormitory for fwallows,
if they were difpofed to deep in winter. He placed in
the centre a large tub of water with twigs and reeds,
&c. which reached to the bottom. In the corners of
the room he contrived artificial caverns and holes, into
which they might retire ; and he laid on the floor, or
fufpended in the air, different lengths of old wooden
pipes, which had formerly been employed in conveying
water through the ilreets, &c.
When the receptacle was rendered as complete as
poffible, he then engaged fome watermen to take by
night a large quantity of the fwallows that hang upon
the reeds in the Thames about the time of their depar¬
ture. They brought him, in a hamper, a confiderable
number; and had fo nicely hit the time of their cap¬
ture, that on the very day following there were none
to be feen.
He put the fwallows into the room fo prepared,
where they continued to dy about, and occafionally
perch on the twigs, &c. But not one ever retired into
the water, the caverns, holes, or wooden pipes, or diewed
the lead; difpodtion to grow torpid, &c. In this dtua-
tion he let them remain till they all died but one.
This appearing to retain fome vigour, was fet at liberty;
when it mounted out of fight, and flew away. All the
birds lay dead feattered about the room 5 but not one
was found afleep or torpid, or had, if the correfpondent
remembers, fo much as crept into any of the recepta¬
cles he had fo provided.
This experiment was ingenious, and certainly does
render the doftrine of immerfion much more improba¬
ble ; but it is not deeifive j for it may dil] be urged
by the advocates for that doftrine, as Mr Kalm lias
done, that it may only be in the colder countries where
fwalloAvs retire into the water. We formerly faid that
]
MIG
3
lOt
■clve
it re-
to
irilern
iiGtes.
none of the three opinions is fupported by fuch evi- Migration.
deuce as to 1’atisfy the mind completely. Opinions '  v ■'
refpecling events which happen every year ought to
be confirmed by a great number of obfervatiom, and
not by a few inflances diverted of almoft all their con¬
comitant circumrtances. Can no better proofs be
brought to prove the migration of fwallows than thofe
of Adanfon and Sir Charles Wager, or the circumrtan¬
ces mentioned by Mr White and Mr Lafkey refpe&ing
their difappearing ? We ought not merely to know that
fome fwallows have taken a foutherly flight in autumn^
that fome have been found at a great diftance from land
in the fpring, or in harveft ; but we ought to know to
what countries they airtually retire. Before we can
reft fatisfied, too, that it is a general fact that fwallows
remain in a torpid ftate during winter, either in ca¬
verns or in the bottom of lakes, &c. we muft have
more proofs j we muft know what fpecies of fvvallows
they are faid to be, in what countries this event takes
place, and feveral other circumftances of the fame
kind. ^
We cannot help being of opinion that much remains Many
to be done in order properly to afeertain what becomes things yet
of the fwallows in Europe during winter. It would be ren\ain to
neceflary, in the firft place, to know accurately what
are the countries in which fwallows are found. 2. Do determine
they remain vifible the whole year ? or, if they difap- this point,
pear, at what feafon does this happen, and when do
they appear again ? 3. Do they ever appear while a
ftrong north wind blows, or do they only come in
great numbers with a fouth wind ? We will endeavour
to anfwer fome of thefe queftions in part; but muft re¬
gret, that all the information on this fubjeft which we
have been able to cull from the beft writers in natural
hiftory is very fcanty ; and we merely give it by way of
fpecimen, hoping that future obfervations will render it
more complete. r
Ihere are five fpecies which vifit Britain during the a few*im-
fummer months j the common or chimney fwallow, the portant
martin, fand martin, fwift, and goat-fucker, i, Xhe ^ate^‘
chimney fwallow frequents almoft every part of the
old continent ; being known (fays Dr Latham) from,
Norway to the Cape of Good Hope on the one fide,
and from Kamtfchalka to India and Japan on the other.
It is alfo found in all parts of North America, and in
feveral of the Weft Indian iflands. In Europe it dif-
appears during the winter months. It appears general¬
ly a little after the vernal equinox ; but rather earlier
in the fouthern, and later in the northern latitudes. It
adheres to the ufual feafons with much regularity ; for
thougli the months of February and March ftiould be
uncommonly mild, and April and May remarkably
cold, it never deviates from its ordinary time. In the
cold fpring of 1740 fome appeared, in France before
the infedls on which they feed had become numerous
enough to fupport them, and great numbers died f. + Bvfforis
In the mild and even warm fpring of 1774 they ap- Notiual
peared no earlier than ufual. They remain in fome Hhfrfdry °f
warm countries the whole year. Kolben affures us voj ^
that this is the cafe at the Cape of Good Hope ; but p
(he favs) thev are more numerous in winter. Some
birds of this fpecies live, during winter, even in Eu¬
rope •, for example on the coaft of Genoa, where they
{’pend the night in the open country on the orange
ihrubs.
527*
2. The
MIG [ 86 ]
M I G
Migration. 2. The martins are alfo widely diffufed through the
v ’ old continent •, but the countries where they reiide or
vifit have not been marked by naturalifts with much
attention. 3. The /and martins are found in every part
$ Ibid. 527. °f Europe, and frequently fpend the winter in Malta J.
Two birds of this fpecies were feen in Perigord in
France, on the 27th December 1775, when there was
|| Ibid. 484.3 foutherly wind, attended with a little rain ||. 4. The
fwift vilits the whole continent of Europe *, has alfo
been obferved at the Cape of Good Hope, and in Ca¬
rolina in North America. 5. The goat-fuckers are not
very common birds, yet are widely fcattered. They
are found in every country between Sweden and Afri¬
ca : they are found alfo in India. In April the fouth-
weft Avind brings them to Malta, and in autumn they
repafs in great numbers.
Tranfac- Mr Markwick of Catsfield, near Battle in Suflex,
twns o f the }jas drawn up an accurate table, exprefling the day of
Society" ^ie m<mth on which the birds, commonly called migra-
vpl. i. ’ tory-> appeared in fpring, and difappeared in autumn,
for 16 years, from 1768 to 1783 inclufive. The ob-
fervations were made at Catsfield. From this table we
fhall extract the dates for five years, and add the very
few obfervations which avc have been able to collect re-
fpefting the time Avhen the fwalloAV appears and difap-
pears in other countries.
f Buffon,
ibid.
t White's
Natural
Hi ft ory of
Selbtrne.
$ Buffon,
ibid.
Chimney SAvalloAV
Martins
Sand Martin
SAA’ift
Chimney SAvalloAV
Martins
Sand Martin
SAvift
Chimney SwalloAV
Martins
Sand Martin
Swift
Chimney SAvalloAV
Martins
Sand Martin
SAvift
Chimney SAvalloAT
Martins
Sand Martin
SAvift
Firji feen.
I779-
April 14.
14.
May 7.
9-
1780.
April 29.
8.
May 6.
1781.
April 8.
May 12.
April 26.
May I 2.
1782.
April 22.
26.
May 15.
18.
April 13.
May 1.
July 25.
May 13.
Chim. Swal, Swifts.
Appear
In Burgundy f
In Selborne, Hampfhire 1 Ap. 4. Ap. 24.
In South Zele, Dcvonfliire | 25. May 1.
In Blackburn, Lancafliire { ap. Ap. 28.
In Upfal in Sweden §
Lafl feen.
October 29.
I5-
November 3.
3*
September 8.
8.
October 15.
September 7.
September 1.
September 1.
November 2.
Auguft 28.
28.
November 6.
6.
September 1.
November 6.
Martins. S. Mart.
about
Ap. 9. Ap. 12.
Ap. 30.
May 15.
May 9.
Were tables of the fame kind made in every different
country, particularly Avithin the torrid zone, it Avould
be eafy to determine the quell ion which avc have been
confidering. To many, perhaps, it may not appear a
matter of fuch importance as to be Avorth the labour.
We acknoAvledge it to be rather a curious than an im- Migration,
portant inquiry ; yet it is one Avhich mull be highly tVjl£uet-
gratifying to every mind that can admire the Avildom
of the Great Architedl of nature. The inltinfl of the
fwalloAV is indeed Avonderful : it appears among us juft
at the time Avhen infedls become numerous •, and it con¬
tinues with us during the hot Aveather, in order to pre¬
vent them from multiplying too much. It difappears
ay hen thefe infefts are no longer troublefome. It is ne¬
ver found in folitude } it is the friend of man, and al¬
ways takes up its refidence Avith us, that it may protedl
our houfes and our ftreets from being annoyed Avith
fwarms of flies.
Migration of Fijhes. See Clupea.
St MIGUEL, one of the Azore iflands, fituated in
W. Long. 22. 45. N. Lat. 38. 10. This illand ap¬
pears to be entirely volcanic. The bell account avc
have of it hath been publilhed in the 68th volume of
the Philofophical Tranfactions by Mr Francis Malfon.
According to him, the produflions differ greatly from
thofe of Madeira, infomuch that none of the trees of
the latter are found here, except the faya : it has a
nearer affinity to Europe than Africa. The mountains
are covered with the erica vulgaris, and an elegant
evergreen fhrub very like a phillyrea, Avhich gi\res them
a moil beautiful appearance.
It is one of the principal and moll fertile of the Azo¬
rian illands, lying nearly eaft and Aveft. Its length is
about 18 or 20 leagues j its breadth unequal, not ex¬
ceeding five leagues, and in fome places not more than
tAVo. It contains about 80,000 inhabitants.
Its capital, the city of Ponta del Guda, Avhich con¬
tains about 12,000 inhabitants, is fituated on the fouth
fide of die ifland, on a fine fertile plain country, pretty
regularly built } the ftreets ftraight, and of a good
breadth. It is fupplied with good Avater, which is
brought about the diftance of three leagues from the
neighbouring mountains. The churches and other
religious edifices are elegant and Avell built for fuch an
ifland. There is a large convent of Francifcan friars
and one of the order of St Auguft ine, four convents
for profeffed nuns, and three Ricolhimentos for young
women and widoAvs avIio are not profeffed. The vei-
fels anchor in an open road j but it is not dangerous,
as no Avind can prevent their going to fea in cafe of
ftormy weather.
The country round the city is plain for feveral
miles, Avell cultivated, and laid out Avith good tafte in¬
to fpacious fields, which are fown Avith Avheat, barley,
Indian corn, pulfe, &c. and commonly produce an¬
nually tAVo crops j for as foon as one is taken off, an¬
other is immediately fown in its place. 1 he foil is
remarkably gentle and eafy to work, being for the
moft part compofed of pulverized pumice flone. ft here
are in the plains a number of pleafant country feats,
with orchards of orange trees, which are efteemed the
beft in Europe.
The fecond toAvn is Ribeira Grande, fituated on the
north fide of the ifland, containing about as many inha¬
bitants as the city } a large convent of Francifcan friars,
and one of nuns. It gives title to a count, called the
Conde Ribeira Grande, who firft inftituted linen and
Avoollen manufactories in the ifland.
The third toAvn is Villa Franca, on the fouth fide
of the ifland, about fix leagues eaft of Ponta del Guda.
It
M I G [ 87 ] M 1 G
lijruel. It has a convent of Francifcan friars and one of nuns,
—V'—- which contains about 300. Here, about half a mile
from the ihore, lies a fmall illand (Ilhao), which is
hollow in the middle, and contains a fine bafon with
only one entrance into it, fit to hold 50 fail of veffels
fecure from all weather *, at prefent it wants cleaning
out, as the winter rain wafhes down great quantities
of earth into it, which has greatly diminilhed its depth.
But veiTels frequently anchor between this ifiand and
the main.
Befides thefe towns are feveral fmaller, viz. Alagao,
Agoa de Pao, Brelanha, Fanaes de Ajuda, and a num¬
ber of hamlets, called iugars or places.
About four leagues north-eaft from Villa Franca,
lies a place called the Furnas, being a round deep valley
in the middle of the eart part of the ifland, furrounded
with high mountains, which, thougli fteep, may be
cafily alcended on horfeback by two roads. The
valley is about five or fix leagues in circuit. ’I he face
of the mountains, which are very fleep, is entirely co¬
vered with beautiful evergreens, viz. myrtles, laurels, a
large fpecies of bilberry called uva de ferra, &c. and
numberlefs rivulets of the pureit water run down their
fides. The valley below is well cultivated, producing
wheat, Indian corn, flax, &.c. The fields are planted
round with a beautiful fort of poplars, which grow into
pyramidal forms, and by their carelefs irregular difpofi-
tion, together with the multitude of rivulets, which run
in all directions through the valley, a number of boil¬
ing; fountains throwing up clouds of fleam, a fine lake
in the fouth-weft part about two leagues round, compofe
a profpeCl the fineft that can be imagined. In the bot¬
tom of the valley the roads are fmooth and eafy, there
being no rocks, but a fine pulverized pumice Hone that
the earth is compofed of.
There are numerous hot fountains in different parts
of the valley, and alfo on the fides of the moun¬
tains : but the moll remarkable is that called the chal-
deira, fituated in the eaflern part of the valley, on a
fmall eminence by the fide of a river, on which is a
bafon about 30 feet diameter, where the water conti¬
nually boils with prodigious fury. A few yards di-
flant from it is a cavern in the fide of the bank, in
which the water boils in a dreadful manner, throwing
out a thick, muddy, unCluous water, feveral yards from
its mouth with a hideous noife. In the middle of the
river are feveral places where the water boils up fo hot,
that a perfon cannot dip his finger into it without being
fealded ; alfo along its banks are feveral aperture1*, out
of which the {learn rifes to a confiderable height, fo
hot that there is no approaching it with one’s hand : in
other places, a perfon would think that 100 fmiths
bellows were blowing altogether, and fulphureous
fleams iffuing out in thoufands of places ; fo that na¬
tive fulphur is found in every chink, and the ground
covered with it like hoar frotl ; even the bullies that
„ happen to lie near thefe places are covered with pure
brimftone, condenfing from the fleam that iffues out
of the ground, which in many places is covered over
with a fubtlance like burnt alum. In thefe fmall ca¬
verns from which the Hearn iffues, the people often boil
their vams.
Near thefe boiling fountains are feveral mineral
fprings j two in particular, whofe waters have a very
I
flrong quality, of an acid tafle, and bitter to the Miguel,
tongue. *■ . y——»
About half a mile to the weffward, and clofe by the
river fide, are feveral hot fprings, which are ufed by
lick people with great fuccefs. Alfo, on the fide of a
hill wetl of St Anne’s church, are many others, with
three bathing houfts, which are moH commonly ufed.
Thefe waters are very wrarm, although not boiling hot;
but at the fame place ifiue feveral ftreams of cold mine¬
ral water, by which they are tempered, according to
every one’s liking.
About a mile fouth of this place, and over a Ion
ridge of hills, lies a fine lake about two leagues in cir¬
cumference, and veiy deep, the water thick, and of a
greenith colour. At the north end is a plain piece of
ground, where the fulphureous Hearns ifiue out in many
places, attended with a furprifing blowing noife. Our
author could obferve flrong fprings in the lake, but
could not determine whether they were hot or cold : this
lake feems to have no vilible evacuation. U lie other
fprings immediately form a confiderable river, called
Ri eira ^uente, which runs a courfe about two or three
leagues, through a deep rent in the mountains, on each
fide of which are feveral places w here the fmoke iilues
out. It ditcharges itfelf into the fea on the fouth fide,
near which are fume places where the water boils up at
lome ditlance in the fea.
This wonderful place had been taken little notice
of until very lately : fo little curiofity had the gentle¬
men of the ifland, that feareely any of them had feen
it, until of late fome perfons, afflicted with very viru¬
lent ditorders, were perfuaded to try its waters, and
found immediate relief from them. Since that time it
has become more and more frequented ; feveral per¬
fons who had lofi the ufe of their limbs by the dead
palfy have been cured ; and alfo others who were
troubled with eruptions on their bodies.
A clergyman, who was greatly afflidled with the
gout, tried the laid waters, and was in a Ihort time per¬
fectly cured, and has had no return of it fince. \\ hen
Mr Maffon was there, feveral old gentlemen, who w ere
quite worn out with the faid diforder, were uling the
waters, and had received incredible benefit from them;
in particular, an old gentleman about 60 years of age,
who had been tormented with that diforder more than
20 years, and often confined to his bed for fix months
together : he had ufed thefe waters for about three
weeks, had quite recovered the ufe of his limbs, and
walked about in the greateft fpirits imaginable. A
friar alfo who had been troubled with the laid diforder
about 12 years and reduced to a cripple, by ufing them
a fliort time was quite well, and vrent a-hunting every
day.
There are feveral other hot fprings in the ifland,
particularly at Ribeira Grande ; but they do not pof-
fefs the fame virtues, at leafl not in fo great a de¬
gree.
The eafl and wefl part of the ifland rifes into high
mountains; but the middle is low, interfperfed with
round conic hills, all of which have very recent marks
of fire ; all the parts below the furface confifting of
melted lava lying very hollow.
MoH .of the mountains to the weflward have their
tops hollowed out like a punch bowl, and contain wa-
ter.
/
Miir’iel,
Milan
MIL [88
ter. Near the weft end is an immenfe deep valley
ike the Furnas, called the Sete Cidad s. This valley
i' furrounded with very abrupt mountains, about feven
or eiodit leagues round ; in the bottom is a deep lake
df water about three leagues in circuit, furniihed
with great numbers of water fowls. This water has
no mineral quality •, neither are there any hot fprings
in the vail y. All thefe mountain'' are compofed of a
white crumbly pumice ftone, which is fo loofe, that
ifaperf.n thruft a ftick into the banks, whole wag¬
gon loads of it will tumble down. The inhabitants
of the ifland relate a ftory, that he who firft difcovered
it obferved an extraordinary high peak near the weft
end j but the fecond time he vifited it, no fuch peak
was to be feen, which he fuppofed mult have certainly
funk ’y but, however improbable this ftory may be, at
fome period or other it mult have certainly been the
cafe.
MILAN, or the duchy of the Milanefe, a coun¬
try of Italy, bounded on the weft by Savoy, Pied¬
mont, and Montferrat •, by Switzerland on the north j
by the territories of Venice, the duchies of Mantua,
Pa rma, and Placentia on the eaft $ and by the ter-
xit ries of Genoa on the fouth. It is 150 miles long,
and 78 broad.
Anciently this duchy, containing the north part
of the old Liguria, was called In/ubria, from its
inhabitants the Infubres; who were conquered by
the Romans, as thefe were by the Goths j who in
their turn were fubdued by the Lombards. Di-
dier, the laft king of the Lombards, was taken prifoner
by Charlemagne, who put an end to the Longobardic
empire, and appointed governors of Milan. Thefe go¬
vernors being at a diftance from their matters, foon
began to aflume an independency, which brought a
dreadful calamity on the country ; for, in 1152, the
capital itfelf was levelled with the ground by the em¬
peror Frederic Barbarofla, who committed great de¬
valuations otherwife throughout the duchy. Under
this emperor lived one Galvian, a nobleman who was
defcended from Otho a Milanefe. Galvian, along
with William prince of Montferrat, ferved in the
crufade, when Godfrey of Boulogne took Jerufalem :
he killed in fingle combat the Saracen general, whom
he ftripped of his helmet, which was adorned with the
image of a ferpent fwallowing a youth ; and this ever
afterwards was the badge of that family. His grand-
fon Galvian, having oppofed the emperor, was taken
prifoner, and carried in irons into Germany, from
whence he made his efcape, and returning to Milan,
died in the fervice of his country. From him defcend¬
ed another Otho, at the time that Otho IV. was em¬
peror of Germany, and who foon diftinguifhed him-
felf by the accompliftimcnts both of his mind and bo¬
dy. When he grew up, he was received into the
family of Cardinal Oftavian Ubaldini at Rome. This
prelate, who was himfelf afpiring at the popedom,
was in a fhort time greatly taken with the addrefs and
accorapliftnnents of young Otho and predicted his
future greatnefs. In the mean time, one Torrefs, or
Torriano, a Milanefe nobleman of unbounded ambi¬
tion, v/as attempting to make himfelf mafter of Mi¬
lan. The popular faftion had fome time before been
caballing again!! the nobility j and at laft, Torriano
putting himfelf at their head, expelled the biftiop, and
]
M I L
put to death or banifhed all the nobility ; by which
means the popular government was fully eftabliihed j
and i orriano, under this pretence, ruled every thing
as he pleafed. He was, however, foon oppofed by
one Francifco Sepri, who formed a great party, pre¬
tending to deliver the city from Torriano’s haughti-
nefs and cruelty. But while the two parties were
collecting their forces again!! each other, Cardinal
Ubaldini was projecting the deftruCtion of both, by
means of his favourite Olho. This prelate had for
fome time borne an implacable hatred to Torriano,
becaufe he had been by him prevented from carrying
out of the trealury of St Ambrofe’s church at Mi¬
lan, a carbuncle or jewel of great value, which he pre¬
tended to referve for adorning the papal tiara ; for which
reafon he now determined to oppoie his ambition.
Ubaldini began with naming Otho archbiftiop of
Milan } which, as the pope’s legate, he had a right to
do. 1 his nomination was confirmed by Pope Ur¬
ban IV.; and the party of the nobility having now
got a head from the pope himfelf, began to gather
ftrength. Otho in the mean time employed himfelf in
colleCfing troops j and had no fooner procured a ftiow
of an army, than he advanced towards Lago Mag-
giore, and took polfeflion of Arona, a ftrong poll
near that lake : but T ornano, marching immediately
again!! him with all his troops, obliged him to aban¬
don the place, and leave his party to make the be!!
terms they could with the conqueror. This was fol¬
lowed by the deftruClion of the caftles of Arona,
Anghiari, and Brebia: foon after which Torriano
died, and was fucceeded by his brother Philip, who
had fufficient intereft to get himfelf eleCfed podefta, or
netor of Milan, for ten years. During his lifetime,
however, the party of the nobility increafed confider-
ably under Otho, notwithftanding the check they had
received. Philip died in 1 265, having loft ground con-
fiderably in the affeClions of the people, though he ob¬
tained a great reputation for his courage and conduCf.
His fucceflor Napi rendered himfelf terrible to the
nobility whom he proferibed, and put to death as of¬
ten as he could get them into his power. He pro¬
ceeded fuch lengths, and acled with fuch fury again!!
that unfortunate party, that Pope Clement IV. w'ho
had fucceeded Urban, at laft; interdicted Milan, and
excommunicated Napi and all his party. By this
Napi began to lofe his popularity, and the public dif-
affe£Iion tow-ards him was much heightened by the
natural cruelty of his temper. But in the mean time,
the party of the nobility was in the utmoft diftrefs.
Otho himfelf and his friends, having fpent all their
fubftance, wandered about from place to place ; the
pope not being in a capacity of giving them any af-
fiftance. Otho, howxver, was not difeouraged by his
bad fuccefs, but found means ftill to keep up the fpirits
of his party, who now chofe for their general Squar-
cini Burii, a man of great eminence and courage, whole
daughter was married to Matthew Vifconti, afterwards
called Matthew the Great. At the fame time they re-
newed their confederacy with the marquis of Montferrat,
who was fon-in-law to the king of Spain. The marquis
agreed to this confederacy chiefly with a view to become
mafter of the Milanefe.
The nobility now again began to make head } and
having colle6!ed an army, which was joined by 6co
Spanifti
Milan.
M I L [ 89 i MIL
tlan. Spanish cavalry and a body of foot, gained fome ad-
\   vantages. But in the mean time Napi, having gatlier-
ed together a fuperior army, fuddenly attacked Otho
and Burri, and defeated them. After this difaiter
Otho applied to the pope •, from whom, however, he
did not obtain the aflitlance he defired ; and in the
mean time Napi invited the emperor Ivodolph into
Italy, with the promife of being crowned at Viilan.
This invitation was accepted of with great readinefs
by Rodolph ; who contiituted Napi hb governor and
vicar-gtneral in Lombardy, fending to him at the fame
time a fine body of German horfe, the command of
which eras given to Cafloni, Napi’s nephew. On this
Otho again applied to the pope (Gregory X.) *, but he
was fo far from granting him any allittance, that he
i* faid to have entered into a feheme of aiTidfinating him
privately ; but Otho efeaped the danger, and in 1
began to recover his affairs. The real on of Pope Gre-
gorv’s enmity to him was, that he and his party were
thought to be Gibelines, and were oppofed by great
numbers of the nobility themfelves; but after tliat pope’s
death, the Mi anefe exiles being united under one
head, foon became formidable. They now chofe for
th ir general Godfrey count of Languiio, a noble Pa-
■vian, and an inveterate enemy of the Torriano familv.
Thi- nobleman being rich and powerful, enlifled many
German and other mercenaries, at whofe head he mar-
«hed towards the Lago Maggiore. All the towns in
that country opened their gates to him, through the in-
tereff of the Vifconti family, who refided in theft parts.
But this fucceff foon met with a fevere check in an un
fortunate engagement, wherein Godfrey was defeated
and taken nrif mer ; after which he and 34 nobles had
their heads ffruck off, and fent from the field of battle
piled up in a common waggon.
This defeat greatly affe6fed Otho ; but hating in a
fhort time recovered himfelf, he again attacked his
enemies, and defeated them ; but, buffering bis troops
to grow remifs after their vie! ‘ry, the fugitives rallied,
and entirely defeated him. The next year, however,
Oiho had better fuecefs, and totally defeated and took
prifoner Napi himfelf. After this viftory Caffimi was
obliged to abandon Milan to his competitor, who kept
poffeffion of it till his death, which happened in I 295,
in the 87th year of his age.
Otho was fuceeeded bv Matthew Vifconti above
mentioned *, and Milan continued in fubjeftion to that
family without anv very memorable occurrence till the
year 1378, when, by the death of Galeazzo II. his
brother Barnabo became five reign of Milan. He was
of a brave and affive difpofition ; but exet {lively pro-
fufe in his expences, as his brother Galeazzo had alfo
been ■, and to procure money to fupplv his extra¬
vagancies, was obliged to opprefs his fubjetffs. Ga¬
leazzo had engaged in an enterprife againft Bologna,
and the fiege of it was continued by Barnabo. It
lafted for nine vears ; and during this time is faid to
have coft 3~o millions of gold, a prodigious fum in
thofe days, near 40 millions fterling, the loweft gold
coin being in value fomewhat more than half-a crown
EngHlh. Roth the brothers were exeeffively fond of
building. Bamabo erefted a bridge over the Adda,
confifting of three (lories ; the loweil for chariots and
heavy carriages, the middle for horfes, and the up-
permod ffr foot paffengers. He built alfo another
Vol. XIV. Part I.
bridge which was carried over houfes without touching Milan,
them. To accomplxth thefe, and many other exj eneve 1 y "
fchemes, he became one of the greated tyrants imagi¬
nable, and every day produced fredi indances ot his ra¬
pacity and cruelty. He inltituted a chamber of inquiry,
lor punithing all thofe who had for hve years before
been guilty of killing boars, or even of eaiing them at
the table ot another. They who could not redeem
ihemfelves by money were hanged, and above 100
wretches perilhed in that manner. Thofe who had any
thing to lole were dripped of all their tubltance, and
obliged to labour at the fortifications and other pub¬
lic works. He obliged his fubjedls to maintain a great
many hunting dogs, and each didrict was ta cd a
certain number. The oveiietrs of his dogs were at
the fame tin e the indruments of his rapacity. When
the dogs were poor and {lender, the owners were al¬
ways fined ; bid w hen the dogs w ere tat, th< owtiers were
alfo fined for fuffering them to live without cxerciie.
The extravagant behaviour of arnabo loon rendered,
public affairs ready for a revolution, which was at lad
aecompliffud by his nephew John Galeazzo. He af¬
fected a f liiary lite, void of ambition, and even inclin¬
ing to devotion ; but at the lame time took care to have
his uncle’s court filled with fpies, w ho ga\e him infor¬
mation of all that paffed. He reduced his table and
manner of living, pretending that he took the fe Heps
as preparatives to a retirement from the we.rki which
was foon to take- place, after he had p.tid a religious
vow. In fhort, he added his pait fo well, that even
Bernabo, though abun antly cautious, had no fulpicion
of his having any defigns againff him ; and fo entire y
did he conceal his an ition, that he fev< ral limes made
application to his uncle fi r his intcrelt to procure him a
quiet retreat as feiem a1- his religmus ve.ws were j erfoim-
ed. One eif thefe was to pay a vifit to the chore h eif
the bltfftd Virgin upem Mount Vartzziei. This was to
be done with fo much feereey that all kinds effete wit-
neffes were te» be e.vclueled j and it was with difficulty
that Barnabo himfelf and twe> of his {< ns were allowed
to accompany our devotee. But, in the mean time,
the hypejciitical Galeazze- had (oldiers advancing from
all quarters; fe> that Barnabe* and his ferns were in me¬
diately ftized, and the houfe1' eff thofe who hac1 fded
with them given up to be piundend. The b eity in
plate, memev, and all kinds of rie h furniture, was jm-
menle. 1 he minifters eif the late goveri ment we re
dragged fern their hiding places, and put to death;
and at lart the citadel itfelf tell into the hands of Ga¬
leazzo, who found in it an immenfe fum of money.
Barnabo wa* carried prifoner to I ritici, a caflh' e>f
his eiwn building, wheie he had the hap|'-inefs te> find
one perf jti dill fai htul to him. rJ his was his miffrefs,
named Doninia Form; who, when he was abandoned
by all the World, ff.ut herfelf up a voluntary prifemer
in his chamber, and remained with him as bug as he
live d, w hich was only feven months after his ctegrac a-
tion.
Jeihn Galeazzo was the firff who took upon him the
title of the Duke of and was a prince eif great
peilicv and no lefs ambit! n. He made war with the
Florentines, became mafter eif Pifa and Beileigna, and
entirely defeated the emperor in 14' I, fo that he en¬
tertained hopes of bece ruing mailer eif all Le.mbardy,
and cutting off’ all poflihility of invading it either from
M France
M T L
Milan.
France or Germany *, but his defigns were fruftrated
by death, which happened in 1402, in the 55th year
of his age. After his deceafe the Milanefe govern¬
ment fell into the molt violent diilradions, fo that it
could not be fupported, even in time of peace, with¬
out an army of 20,000 foot and as many horfe. In the
year 1421, however, Philip duke of Milan became ma¬
iler of Genoa j but though he gained great advantages
in all parts of Italy, the different Hates Hill found
means to counterbalance his fucceffes, and prevent him
from enflaving them : fo that Milan never became the
capital of any extenlive empire ; and in 1437 Genoa re¬
volted, and was never afterwards reduced.
Philip died in 1448, and by hi* death the male line
of the Vifconti family was at an end. The next law¬
ful heir was Valentina his filler, who had married the
duke of Orleans, fon to Charles V. of France. By the
contra# of that marriage, the lawful progeny of it
was to fucceed to the duchy of Milan in failure of the
heirs male of the Vifconti family 5 but this fucceffion
was difputed by Sforza, who had married Philip’s na¬
tural daughter. It is certain, however, that the right¬
ful fucceffion wras veiled in the houfe of Orleans and
the kings of France ; and therefore though the Sfor-
«a family got poffellion of the duchy for the prefent,
Louis XII. afterwards put in his claim, being a grand-
fon to John Galeazzo. For fome time he was fuccefs-
ful *, but the French behaved in fuch an infolent man¬
ner, that they were driven out of the Milanefe by the
Swif* and Maximilian Sforza. The Swifs and Mila-
nefe were in their turn expelled by Francis I. who
obliged the Sforza family to relinquilh the government
for a penfion of 30,000 ducats a-year. Francis Sforza,
the fon of Maximilian, however, being affilted by the
emperor and the pope, regained the poffeffion of the
Milanefe about the year 1521 and, eight years after,
the French king, by the treaty of Cambray, gave up
his claim on the duchy.
But, in fa#, the emperors of Germany feem to have
had the fairell title to the Milanefe in right of their be¬
ing for a long time fovereigns of Italv. On the death
of Francis Sforza, therefore, in the year 1536, the em¬
peror Charles V declared the Milanefe to be an impe¬
rial fief, and granted the invelliture of it to his fon
Philip 11. king of Spain. In his familv it continued
till the year 1706, when the French and Spaniards
■were driven out bv the Imperialills, and the emperor
again took poffellion of it as a fief. It was confirmed
to his houfe bv the tr» a*v of Baden in 17>4, by the
quadruple alliance in 1718, and by the treaty of Aix-la-
Chapelle in 1 748.
The duchv of Milan is one of the fineH proxdnces
in Italy. It is bounded on tbe fuuth by the Apen-
nine mountains, and the territory of Genoa; on the
north bv Switzerland-, on the eafl by the Venetian
ter itories, and the duchies of Mantua, Parma, and
Placentia and on the well by Savoy, Piedmont, and
M nt fir rat ; extending from north to fouih about 100
mPes, and from eall to w-efl about 108. It is well
watered by the Teffino, the Sefia, the Adda, the Po,
the Oglio, the L mbro, Serio. &c. and alfo bv fe-
verrd < anal« and lakes. Of the latter, the Lago Mag-
glore is between 30 and 40 miles in length, and in
fome places fix or feven miles broad. In it lie the
Borumean ijlunds, as they are called, viz. Ifola Bella
[ 9° 1
M I L
and Ifola Madre, the beauty of which alrnofl: exceeds Milfft:
imagination : art and nature feem to have vied with
one another in embellilhing them. In each of them
is a palace with delicious gardens, belonging to the
Boromean family. The water of the lake is clear
and ot a greenilh colour, and abounds with filh. T he
hills with which it is furrounded prefent a moll charm¬
ing landfcape, being planted with vines and chefnut
trees, interfperfed with fummer houfes. There is a
canal running from it towards Switzerland, with which
the city of Milan has a communication. It was an¬
ciently called Lacus Verbanus. The Lago de Como,
which was called by the Latin poets Lacus Larius, but
had its modern name from the city near w hich it lies,
extends itfelf about 30 miles northward from Como,
but its greateft breadth is not above five miles. From
the Lago Maggiore iffues the Teffino j and from that
of Como the Adda. Of the other lakes, that of Lu¬
gano and Guarda are the chief: that of Guarda was
anciently called Benacus.
The trade and manufa#ures of this duchy confifl. prin*
cipally in filk Huffs, Hoc-kings, gloves,and handkerchiefs,
linen and woollen cloth, hardware, curious vmrks of cry-
ftal, agate, hyacinths, and other gems; but their exports
are ufually far ffiort of their imports.
As to the revenue of the duchy, it muH without-
doubt be very confiderable. It is faid to have amount¬
ed to 2,000,000 of dollars while the duchy was in the
hands of the Spaniards.
In the year 1767, the AuHrian government of Milan
publilhed a law, by which all the rights which the pope
or the bithops had till then exercifed over eeclefiaitics,
either with regard to their effe#s or perfons, was tranf-
ferred to a council eflabliffied for that purpofe at Mi¬
lan. By the fame edi#, all ecclefiallics were obliged
to fell the eHates which they had become pofleffed of
fince the year 1722 ; and no fubje#, whether ecclefi-
allic or fecular, was to go to Rome to folicit any fa¬
vour, except letters of indulgence, without the conient
of the faid council.
1 his duchy was fubdued by the French in the year
1796, when it was regarded as a conflituent part of
the Cifalpine republic. W hen hoflilities recommenced
in 1799, it was again taken by the allies, but after-
w-ards reconquered by the army of Dijon under Bona¬
parte, who entered the metropolis on the 2d of
June 1800. It now forms part of the kingdom of
Italy.
Milan, the capital of the duchy of that name, in
Latin Mediolanum, is a very large city, and has a wall
and rampart round it, with a citadel ; yet is thought
to be incapable < f making any great refiflance.
The gardens within the city take up a great deal of
ground. In the citadel is a foundery for cannon, and
an arfenal furnilhed with arms for 12,000 men. The
governor of it is quite independent of the governor
general of the Milanefe, who refides in the city, in a
large but old and ill-contrived palace. 1 he yearly
income of the governor of Milan is faid to be 200.000
guilders. The council belonging to the city is com-
pofed of a prefident and 60 do#ors of law, who are
all nobles, and independent of the governor general.
Milan hath experienced a great variety of fortune,
having been fubie# fi metin es to t he- French, feme-
limes to the Spaniards, ano. iometimes to the Germans,
A..
MIL [ (
[San. A great number of perfons of rank and fortune live
V‘~' in it, efpeeially during the winter. The ladies in
France arc not allowed more liberty than thofe of this
city : even the aufterities of the monadic life are fo
far mitigated here, that gentlemen have not only the
liberty of talking with the nuns, and of rallying and
laughing at the grate, but alfo of joining with them
in concerts of muiic, and of fpending whole afternoons
in their company. The place where the beau tnonde
take the air, either in their coaches or on foot, is the
rampart betwixt the Porta Orientale and the Porta
Tofa, where it is Ifraight and broad, and extremely
pleafant, being planted with white mulberry trees, and
commanding a profpeft on one lide of the open country,
and on the other of the gardens and vineyards between
the ramparts and the city. Milan, which is faid to
have been built by the Gauls about 200 years after
the foundation of Rome, contains a great number of
ftatelv edifices, as churches, convents, palaces, and
hospitals. The cathedral is a vaft pile, all of marble j
and though fomething has been doing for near 400
years towards the outward or inward ornament thereof,
it is not vet finilhed. Of the great number of Uatues
about it, that of St Bartholomaw, juft flead alive,
with his Ikin hanging over his iboulders ; and of Acjanr
and Eve, over the main portal, are the fineft. The
pillars fupporting the roof of the church are all of
marble, and the windows finely painted. This church
contains a treafure of great value, particularly a ftirine
of rock crvftal, in which the body of St Charles Bo-
romaeo is depofited. The other churches molt worthy
a tranger’s notice are thofe of St Alexander, St Je¬
rome. St Giovanni di Cafarotti della Paffione, that of
the Jefuits, and of St Ambrofe, in which lie the bo¬
dies of the faint and of the kings Pepin and Bernard.
In the Ambrofian college, founded by Frederic Bo-
romseo, 16 profeiTors teach gratis. In the fame col¬
lege is alfo an academy of painting, with a mufeum,
and a library containing about 4 i;,ooo printed books
and manuferipts ; among the laft of which is a tranfia-
tion of Jofephus’s Hiftory of the Jew", done by Rufi-
nus about 1 200 years ago, and written on the bark of
a tree ; St Ambrofe’s works on vellum, finely illumi¬
nated } the orations of Gregory Nazianzen, and the
works of Virgil, in folio, with Petrarch’s notes. In
th'- mufeum are Leonardi da Vinci’s mathematical
mechanical drawings, in 12 large volumes. The
feminary for fciences, the college of the nobles, the
Helvetian college, and the mathematical academy, are
noble foundations, and (lately buildings. Of the hof-
pb-ils, the moft remarkable are the Lazaretto, and
thaf ealle 1 great hofpital; the latter of which re¬
ceives fick perfims. foundlings, and lunatics, and has
fix bnaller hofpitals depending on it, with a revenue
of 100,000 rix dollars.
The number of the inhabitants of this city is faid
to be about 2 <0,00". It ha- been 40 times befieged,
taken 2' times, and four times almoft entirely demo-
li bed ; vet it hafb always recovered itfelf. It is faid
that gunpowder is fold here only by one perfon, and
in one place. The court of inquifition is held in the
Dominican convent, near the church of Madonna
della Gratia. The houfes of entertainment, and the
ordinaries here, are reprefented as very indifferent.—
dylr Key Her fays, it is not unufual for young travellers,
t ] MIL
when they go to any of the taverns in Milan, to be Milan,
afked, “ whether they ehoofe a letto fornito, or female —v—
bedfellow,” who continues malkcd till the enters the
bedchamber. Milan is deferibed as inferior to Turin
both in beauty and conveniency, many of the ftrects
being crooked and narrow, and paper windows much
more frequent than in that city ; even in grand pa¬
laces, the windows are often compofed promifeuouily
of glafs and paper. 1 wo large canals extend from
hence, the one to the Teflino, and the other to the
Adda } the Teffino having a communication with the
Lago Maggiore, ami, by a canal, with the befia ;
and the Adda iffuing from the Lago di Como, and
having a communication by canals with the Lombro
and Serio. In a void 1| ace in one of the ftreets of
Milan, where flood the houie of a barber who had
confpired with the commiffary of health to poifon his
fellow citizens, is eredled a pillar called Colonnu In¬
fame, with an infeription to perpetuate the memory
of the execrable defign. The environs of this city
are very pleafant, being adorned with beautitul leats,
gardens, orchards, &c. About two Italian miles
from it, at the feat of the Simonelti family, is a build¬
ing, that would have been a mafterpiece of its kind
had the architedl de/igned it for an artificial echo. It
will return or repeat the report of a piftol above 60:
times ; and any iingle mufical inftrument well touched
will have the fame eft* £f as a great number of liTla¬
ments, and produce a moft furpriting and delighttul
concert.
According to Dr Moore, “ there is no place in Laly,
perhaps in Europe, where ftrangers are received in
fuch an eafy hoipitable manner as at Milan. For¬
merly the Milanefe nobility difplayrd a degree of
fplendour and magnificence, not only in their enter¬
tainments, but in their ufual fiyle of living, unknown
in any other country of Europe. They are under a
neeeflity at prefent of living at lefs expence, but they
ftill (how the fame obliging and hofpitable difpofition.
This country having, not very long fince, been pof-
fefled by the French, from whom it devolved to the
Spaniards, and from them to the Germans, the
troops of thofe nations have, at different periods, had
their refidence here, and in the courfe of thofe vi-
ciflitudes, produced a ftyle of manners, and (lamped a
charadter on the inhabitants of this duchy, diftennt
from what prevails in any other part of Italy ; and
nice obfervers imagine they perceive in Milaneft man¬
ners, the politenets, formality, and honefty imputed to
thofe three nations, blended with the ingtuuilv na¬
tural to Italians. The great theatre having l>ten
burnt to the ground laft year, there are no dramatic
entertainments, except at a fmall temporary play houie,
which is little frequented •, but the company afiemble
every evening in their carriages on the ramparts, and
drive about, in the fame manner as at Naples, till it is
pretty late. In Italy, the ladies have no notion of
quitting their carriages at the public walks, and ufing
their own legs as in England and Frenee. On fee¬
ing the number of fervants, and the fplendour of the
equipages which appear every evening at the Corfo on
the ramparts, one would not fufpedf that degree of
depopulation, and diminution of wealth, which we
are alfured has taken 1 lace within thrfe few years all
over the Milanefe j an-.! which proceeds from the bur-
M 2 dcnfomS
Rliha
Mildew.
M I Ju f 92 ] MIL
denfome nature of fome late taxes, and the infolent
and oppreflive manner in which they are gathered.”—
E. Long. 9. 11. N. Lat. 45. 28.
MILBORN-port, a town of Somerfetfhire in
England, feated on a branch of the river Parret, 115
miles from London. Though reprefented in parlia¬
ment, it is no market town nor corporation j but it
appears in Domefday book to have had a market once,
and 56 burgeffes. It is in a manner furrounded by
Dorfetthire. Here are nine capital burgeffes, who
yearly choofe two bailiffs, that have the government
of the borough under them, and jointly return the
members to parliament with the two Rewards, who
are chofen yearly out of nine commonalty Rewards,
and have the cuRody ot the corporation-feal. Thefe
two Rewards alfo diRribute the profits of the lands
given to the poor here, of which the faid commonalty
Rewards are truRees. The inhabitants in 1801 were
nearly about 1000, the houfes not much above 200. W.
Long. 2. 37. N. Lat. 50. i;o.
MIL BROOK, a town of Cornwall, on the weR
fide of Plym uth haven. It has a good fiihing trade,
and has forint rly furnished our tleet with many able
hands
MILDENH ALL, a town of Suffolk, feven miles
from Newmaiket, 12 from Bury, and 70 from Lon¬
don. It is a large populous town on the river Lark,
a branch of the Oufe, with a harbour for boats. It
has a rvell frequented market on Fridays, efpecially
for filh and wild fowl. Its church has a tower or
fteeolt 120 feet high. E. Long. o. 33. N. Lat. 52. 24.
MILDEW, is faid to be a kind of thick, clammy,
fwcet juice, exhaled from, or falling down upon, the
leaves and bloffoms of plants. By its thicknefs and
clamminefs it prevents perfpiration, and hinders the
growth of the plant. It fometimes refis on the leaves
of trees in form of a fatty juice, and fometimes on the
ears of corn. It is naturally very tough and vifeous,
and becomes Rill more fo by the fun’s heat exhaling
its more lluid parts 5 by which means the young ears
of corn are fo daubed over, that they can never arrive
at tlu ir full growth. Bearded wheat is lefs fubje6t to
the mildew than the common fort ; and it is obferved
that newly dunged lands are more liable to mildew
than others. The bell remedy is a fmart Riorver of
rain, and immediately afterwards a brilk wind. If
the mildew is feen before the fun has much power,
it has b«en recommended to fend two men into the
field with a long cord, each holding one end 5 and
drawing this along the field through the ears, the
dew will be diflodged from them, before the heat of
the fun is able to dry it to that vifeous Rate in which
it does the mifehief. Some alfo fav, that lands which
have for many years been fubjeCt to mildews, have
been cured of it by lowing foot along with the corn,
©r immediately after it.
Mr J. S. Segar, the author of a treatife upon this
fubjc<ff, obferves, that the mildew is of Rich a fiiarp
corrofive nature, that it raifes bliRers on the feet of
the Ihepherds who go barefoot, and even confumes the
hoofs of the cattle. He fufpe61s that it poffeffes fome
arfenical qualities, though he does not pretend to
affi m this positively. Its pernicious influence, ac¬
cording to him, is rendered Rill more powerful by a
variety of circumfiances^ fuch as fending the cattle into
the fields too early in the fpring j their drinking water
mixed with ice, or but lately thawed ; their being
kept in Rabies that are too clofe and filthy, and which
are not fufiiciently aired. The fame author conliders
the mildew as a principal caufe of epidemical Riffem-
pers among the cattle. The mildew producing thefe
difeafes, he fays, is that which dries and burns the
grafs and leaves. It falls ufually in the morning,
particularly after a thunder florm. Its poifonous qua¬
lity (which does not continue above 24 hours) never
operates but when it has been fwallowed immediately
after its falling. The diforder attacks the flomach,
is accompanied with pimples on the tongue, lofs of
appetite, a deficcation of the aliments in the Romach,
a cough, and difficulty of refpiration. As a preferva-
tive, the author preferibes purging in fpring and in
winter. I he medicine he advifes is compofed of 30
grains of fulphur of antimony, and 60 grains of refin of
jalap. He is againfl vomiting, and every thing that is
of a heating nature.
MILE, a mcafure of length or diRance, containing
eight furlongs. The Englifh Ratute mile is 80 chains,
or 1760 yards j that is, 5280 feet.
W e fhall here give a table of the miles in ufe among
the .principal nations of Europe, in geometrical paces,
60,000 of which make a degree of the equator.
Geometrical paces.
Mile of Ruffa - -
of Italy - - 1000
of England - - 1200
of Scotland and Ireland - 1500
Old league of France - - 1500
The fmall league, ibid. - - 2000
The mean league, ibid. - - 2500
The great league, ibid. - - 3000
Mile of Poland - - 3000
of Spain - - - 3428
of Germany - - 4000
of Sweden - . _ 5000
of Denmark - - 5000
of Hungary - _ _ 6000
MILETUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Crete
mentioned by Homer j but where fituated does not ap¬
pear. It is faid to be the mother town of Miletus in
Caria, w hither a colony was led by Sarpedon, Minos’s
brother, (Ephorus, quoted by Strabo). Milejii, the
people, (Ovid).
Miletus, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated town
of Afia Minor, on the confines of Ionia and Caria. It
was the capital city of all Ionia, and famous both for
the arts of war and peace. It was fituated about 10
fladia fouth of the mouth of the river Mteander, near
the fea coafi. It wras founded by a Cretan colony under
Miletus, the companion of Bacchus ; or (according to
others) by Neleus the fon of Codrus j or by Sarpedon
a fon of Jupiter. It has fucceflively been called
Le/egeis, Pithyufa, and An a Bona. The inhabitants,
called Milejii, were very powerful, and long maintain¬
ed an obRinate war againR the kings of Lydia.
They early applied themfelves to navigation •, and
planted no lefs than 80 colonies, or (according to
Seneca) 380, in different parts of the world. It w'as
the onlv town that made head againR Alexander, and
was with much difficulty taken. It gave birth to
Thales*
Mildei *'
II V
Miletu S
ilde, ^itetus
II II
l'tu Milford.
V* “■"V'"”
M I L
f 93 ]
M I L
Thales, one of the feven wife men, and the firft who
applied himfelf to the fludy of nature. It was alfo
, the country of Anaximander, the fcholar and fuccef-
for of Thales, the inventor of fun dials and the gno¬
mon, and the firft that publifhed a geographical map j
of Anaximenes, fcholar and fuccelfor to the forego¬
ing ; and of other great men. It was noted for its
excellent wool, according to Virgil j and was alfo ce¬
lebrated for a temple and oracle of Apollo Didy-
maeus. This famous people, from being powerful,
becoming afterwards opulent and abandoned to plea-
lures, loft both their riches and their power.—At pre-
fent it is called by the Turks Melcis, and not far dirtant
from it runs the river Maeander. St Paul going from
Corinth to Jerufalem palled by Miletus, and as he went
by fea, and could not take Ephefus in his way, he caufed
the bilhops and priefts of the church of Ephefus to
come to Miletus (Aft# xx. 15. &c.), which was about
12 leagues from them.
MILFOIL, or Yarrow. See Achillea, Botany
Index.
MILFORD, a town of Suffex county, in the De¬
laware ftate, is fituated at the fource of a fmall river,
15 rallies from Delaware bay, and 150 fouthward of
Philadelphia. This town, which contains about 80
houfes, has been built, except one houfe, fince the re¬
volution. It is laid out with much tafte, and is by no
means difagreeable. The inhabitants are Epifcopalians,
Quakers, and Methodifts.
MlLFORD Haven, one of the fineft harbours in
Europe, and indifputably the belt in Britain, is fitu¬
ated in Pembrokeihire in South Wales, and lies on
the north fide of the Briftol channel. It is very large,
fafe, and deep ; there is no danger of going in or out
with the tide, or almoft with any wind. If a ftiip
comes in without a cable or anchor Ihe may run
afhore on the ooze, and there lie fafe till ftie is refitted ;
and in an hour’s time fhe may get out of the harbour
into the open fea. It lies extremely convenient for
fhips bound from the English or Briftol channels
to Ireland, or farther weft, and from thence to the
channels. It is faid, that 1000 fail of any fize may
ride fecure in this haven. It has 16 deep and fafe
creeks, five bays, and 13 roads, all diftinguilhed by
their feveral names. The fpring tide rifes 36 feet,
fo that (hips may at any time be laid afhore. Dale
harbour is a ready outlet for fmall veffels, where they
may ride in two or three fathoms at low water.—In
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, before the Spanifii inva-
lion, two forts were begun at the entrance of Mil¬
ford Haven, one on each fide, called Nang/e and
ZWe blockhoufes; but they were not then finilhed.—
The Stack rock rifes here above water, lying near the
middle of the entrance between Nangle and Dale.
Penermouth is the opening of that branch of the ha¬
ven on which the town of Pembroke is feated, and
where the cuftomhoufe of Milford is kept. The
breadth of the entrance between rock and rock is
but 200 yards at high wrater, and 11 2 at low water.
There is a ridge of rocky ground that has the name
of Carrs, which runs almoft acrofs Milford Haven,
from Pete? church towards Llandftadwell, where it
renders the landing place difficult to ftrangers, from
its not appearing at low water. The great conveni¬
ence of this harbour is, that in a hour’s time a (hip
Military.
may be in or out of it, and in the way between the Milfori
Land’s End and Ireland. As it lies near the mouth
of the Severn, a fhip in eight or ten hours may be
over on the coaft of Ireland, or off the Land’s End
in the Englifh Channel; and a veffel may get out
hence to the weft much fooner than from either Ply¬
mouth or Falmouth. This harbour has been greatly
improved by new works, at the expence of the go¬
vernment. The parliament on April 14. 1759 granted
io,oool. for fortifying the harbour of Millord, all of
which was expended on the fort at Neyland, which,
however, ftill remains unfinifhed.
MILIARY, in general, fomething refembling millet
feed.
MILIAR T Fever. See Medicine Index.
MILITANT, or Church-militant, denotes the
body of Chriftians while here on earth.
MILITARY, fomething belonging to the foldiery
or militia.
MILITARY Difcip/ine, the training of foldiers, and the
due enforcement of the laws and regulations initituted
by authority for their condudl.
Next to the forming of troops, military difeipline is
the firft object that prefents itfelf to our notice j it is
the foul of all armies} and unlefs it be eftabliftied
amongft them with great prudence, and fupported with
unftiaken refolution, they are no better than fo many
contemptible heaps of rabble, which are more dangerous
to the very ftate that maintains them than even its de¬
clared enemies.
MILITARY Execution, the ravaging or deftroying of
a country, or town, that refufes to pay the contribution
intliefted upon them.
Military Exercife. See Exercise and Words
of Command.
MILITARY State, in Britifti polity, one of the threat
divifions of the laity. See Laity.
This ftate includes the whole of the foldiery, or
fuch perfons as are peculiarly appointed among the
reft of the people for the fafeguard and defence of the
realm.
In a land of liberty, it is extremely dangerous to
make a diftituft order of the profeflion of arms. In ab-
folute monarchies, this is neceffary for tire fafety of the
prince ; and arifes from the main principle of their
conftitution, which is that of governing by fear; but,
in free dates, the profeflion of a foldier, taken fingly
and merely as a profeflion, is juftly an objedt of jea-
loufy. In thefe no man (hould take up arms but with
a view to defend his country and its laws : he puts not
off the citizen when he enters the camp ; but it is be-
caufe he is a citizen, and would wilh to continue fo,
that he makes himfelf for a while a foldier. The laws
therefore, and conrtitution of thefe kingdoms, know no
fuch ftate as that of a perpetual (landing foldier, bred
up to no other profeflion than that of wTar; and it
was not till the reign of Henry VII. that the kings
of England had fo much as a guard about their per¬
fons.
In the time of the Anglo-Saxons, as appears from
Edward the Cenfeffor’s laws, the military force of
England was in the hands of the dukes or heretochs,
who were conftituted through every province and
county in the kingdom ; being taken out of the princi¬
pal nobility, and fuch as were mod remarkable for be-
Military.
MIL [ 94 ] MIL
, fapientes, fide!e’!, et animofi. Their duty was to lead pecuniary commutation^ or aids
and regulate the Englilh armies with a very unlimited
power ; prout eis vifum fuent, ail honorem corona et uti-
litatem regnt. And becauie of this great power they
were elected bv the people in their full affeinbly, or
folkmote, in the fame manner as theriffs were eledled :
following itill that old fundamental maxim of the Saxon
conllitution, that where any officer was entrutled with
fueh power, as, if abufed, might tend to the oppreffion
of the people, that power was delegated to him by the
vote of the people themfelves. So too, among the an¬
cient Germans, the anceftors of our Saxon forefathers,
they had their dukes, as well as kings, with an inde¬
pendent power over the military, as the kings had over
the civil llate. The dukes were elective, the kings he
reditary : for fo only can be confidently underftood that
paflage of 1 acitns, Reger ex nobi/itate, duces ex virlute
funwnt. In condituting their kings, the family or blood
royal was regarded ; in choofing their dukes or leaders,
warlike merit: jutt as Ceefar relates of their ancedors
in his time, that whenever they went to war, by way
either of attack or defence, they elefted leaders to com¬
mand them. This large ffiare of power, thus conferred
bv the people, though intended to preferve the liberty
of the fubjeft, was perhaps unreafonably detrimental to
the prerogative of the crown : and accordingly we find
a very ill ufe made of it by Edric duke of Mercia, in
the reign of King Edmund Ironfide ; who, by his of¬
fice of duke or heretoch, was entitled to a large com¬
mand in the king’s army, and by his repeated trea¬
cheries at lait transferred the crown to Canute the
Dane.
It feems univerfally agreed by all hiftorians, that
King Alfred firll fettled a national militia in this king¬
dom, and by his prudent difeipline made all the fub-
je61s of his dominions foldiers: but we are unfortu¬
nately left in the dark as to the particulars of this Ins
fo celebrated regulation ; though, from what was laft
obferved, the dukes feem to have been left in pofleffion
of too large and independent a power: which enabled
Duke Harold, on the death of Edward the Confeffor,
though a firanger to the royal blood, to mount for a
ffiort fpace the throne of thb kingdom, in prejudice of
Edgar Etheling the rightful heir.
Upon the Norman conqueft, the feodal law was in¬
troduced here in all its rigour, the whole of which is
built on a military plan. In confequence thereof, all
the lands in the kingdom were divided into what were
called knight's fees^ in number above 60,000 5 and for
every knight’s fee, a knight or foldier, miles, wTas
bound to attend the king in his wrars, for 40 days in a
year ; in which fpace of time, before war was reduced
to a fcience, the campaign wras generally finiffied, and
a kingdom either conquered or vidlorious. By this
m ans the king had, without any expence, an army of
6~,ooo men always ready at his command. And ac¬
cordingly we find one, among the laws of William the
Conqueror, which in the king’s name commands and
firmly enjoins the perfonal attendance of all knights and
others ; quod habeant et teneant fe femper in armis et
equis, ut decet et oportet: et quod lemper Jint prornpti et
parati ad fervitium fuum integrum nobis explendum et per-
agendum, cum opus adfuerit, fecundum quod del ent de
fad is et tenetnentis fuis de jure nobis facere. This
perfonal fervice in procefs of time degenerated into
and at laft the mi¬
ll i ary part of the ieodal fyitem was abolithed at the
Rertoration, by flat. 12 Car. II. c. 24. Sec FlLODAL
Syjlem.
In the mean time, we are not to imagine that the
kingdom was left wholly without defence in calc of
domeltic infurreftions, or the prolptdl of foreign m-
vafions. Befides thole who by their military tenuies
were bound to perform 40 days fervice in the held, nrlt
the affize of arms, enafted 27 Hen. It. and attervvards
the ilatute of Winchefter, under Edward I. obliged
every man, according to his eltate and degree, to pro¬
vide a determinate quantity of luch arms as were then
in ufe, in order to keep the peace j and conftables were
appointed in all hundreds by the latter flatute, to fee
that fuch arms were provided. Thefe weapons were
changed, by the ftatute 4 and 5 Ph. and M. c. 2. into
others of more modern fervice 5 but both this and the
former provifions w'ere repealed in the reign of James I.
While thefe continued in force, it was ulual from time
to time for our princes to iffue commiffions of array,
and lend into every county officers in w hom they could
confide, to mufter and array (or fet in military order)
the inhabitants of every dillrift j and the form of the
commiffion of array was fettled in parliament in the
5 Hen. IV. But at the fame time it W'as provided, that
no man ffiould be compelled to go out of the kingdom
at any rate, nor out of his ihire, but in cafes of urgent
noceffity ; nor ftiould provide foldiers ur.lefs by conlent
of parliament. About the reign of King Henry VIII.
and his children, lord-lieutenants began to be introdu¬
ced, as Handing reprefentatives of the crown, to keep
the counties in military order; for we find them men¬
tioned as known officers in the llatute 4 and 5 Ph. and
M. c. 3. though they had not been then long in ufe j
for Camden fpeaks of them in the time of (^ueen Eliza¬
beth as extraordinary magillrates, conftituted only in
times of difficulty and danger.
In this ftate things continued till the repeal of the
ftatutes of armour in the reign of King James 1.5 after
which, when King Charles I. had, during his northern
expeditions, iffued commiffions of lieutenancy, and ex¬
erted fome military powers which, having been long ex-
ercifed, wTere thought to belong to the crown, it be¬
came a queftion in the long parliament, how far the
power of the militia did inherently refide in the king j
being now unfupported by any ftatute, and founded
only upon immemorial ufage. rJ his queftion, long agi¬
tated with great heat and refentment on both fides, be¬
came at length the immediate caule of the fatal rupture
between the king and his parliament: the two houlea
not only denying this prerogative of the crown, the le¬
gality of which claim perhaps might be fomew hat doubt¬
ful ; but alfo feizing into their hands the entire power
of the militia, the illegality of which ftep could never
be any doubt at all.
Soon after the reftoration of King Charles II. when
the military tenures were aboliffied, it was thought pro¬
per to afc< rtain the power of the militia, to recognize
the foie right of the crown to govern and command
them, and to put the whole into a more regular method
of military fubordination : and the order in which the
militia now Hands by law, is principally built upon the
ftatutes which w^re then enabled. It is true, the wo
lalt of them are apparently repealed j but many of their
provihons
MilltarvV'
if ilitary.
v~—
MIL [9
provifions are re-enafled, with the addition of fome new
J regulations, by the prefent militia laws ; the general
fcheme of which is to difcipline a certain number of the
inhabitants of every county, chofen by lot for three
years, and officered by the lord-lieutenant, the deputy
lieutenants, and other principal landholders, under a
commiffion from the crown. They are not compellable
to march out of their counties, unlefs in cafe of invahon
or a£hial rebellion, nor in any cafe compellable to
march out of the kingdom. They are to be exereifed
at itated times : and their difcipline in general is libe¬
ral and eafy *, but, when drawn out into attual fervice,
they are fubjeft to the rigours of martial law, as necef-
fary to keep them in order. This is the conftitutional
fecurity which our laws have provided for the public
peace, and for protedling the realm again!! foreign or
domeftic violence } and which the ftatutes declare as
eifentially neceffary to the fafety and profperity of the
kingdom.
When the nation was engaged in war, more veteran
troops and more regular dilcipline were efteemed to be
tieceffary, than could be expelled from a mere militia j
and therefore at fuch times more rigorous methods weie
put in ufe for the railing of armies and the due regula¬
tion and difcipline of the foldiery, which are to be
looked upon only as temporary excrefcences bred out of
the diftemper of the ftate, and not as any part of the
permanent and perpetual laws of the kingdom. For
martial law, which is built upon no fettled principles,
but is entirely arbitrary in its decitions, is, as Sir Mat¬
thew Hale obferves, in truth and reality no law, but
fomething indulged rather than allowed as a law. The
neceffity of order and difcipline in an army is the only
thing which can give it countenance*, and therefore ifr
ought not to be permitted in time of peace, when the
king’s courts are open for all perfons to receive juft ice
according to the laws of the land. Wherefore, Thomas
earl of Lancafter being convicted at Pontefract, 15 Ed¬
ward II. by martial law, his attainder was reverfed
I Edward III. becaufe it was done in time of peace.
And it is laid down, that if a lieutenant, or other, that
hath commiffion of martial authority, doth in time of
peace hang or otherwife execute any man by colour of
martial law, this is murder j for it is againft magna
chnrta. And the petition of right enadts, that no fol-
dier fhall be quartered on the fubjeft without his own
confent •, and that no commiffion thall ilfue to proceed
■within this land according to martial law. And where¬
as, after the Reftoration, King Charles II. kept up
about 5000 regular troops, by his own authority, for
guards and garrifons, which King James II. by degrees
increafed to no lefs than 30,000, all paid from his own
civil lift ; it was made one of the articles of the bill of
rights, that the railing or keeping a ftanding army with¬
in the kingdom in time of peace, unlefs it be with con¬
fent of parliament, is againft law.
But as the faftiion of keeping ftanding armies (which
was firft introduced by Charles VII. in France 144 t)
has of late years univerfally prevailed over Europe
(though fome of its potentates, being unable themfelves
to maintain them, are obliged to have recourfe to ri< her
powers, and receive fubfidiary peniions for that pur-
pofe), it has alfo for many years paft been annually
judged neceftarv bv our legiflsture for the faft y of the
kingdom, the defence of the poiioftions of the crown cf
Si MI L
Great Britain, and the prefervation of the balance of
power in Europe, to maintain even in time ot peace a
ftandxng body of troops, under the command ot the
crown } who are however ipfo fattu diibaaded at the ex¬
piration of every year, unieis continued uy parliament.
And it was enadted by Itatme 10 William ill. c. 1.
that not more than 1 2,000 regular torces iliould be kept
on foot in Ireland, though paid at tlie charge of that
kingdom : which permiliion is extended uy italute
8 Geo. III. c. 13. to 10,235 men ln time of peace.
To prevent the executive power from being auie to
opprefs, fays Baron Monteiquieu, it is requilite that
the armies with which it is intrufted thould conlift of
the people, and have the fame fpirit with the people :
as was the cafe at Home, till Marius new-modelled die
legions by enlifting the raoble of Italy, and laid the
foundation of all the military tyranny that enlutd.
Nothing then, according to thefe principles, ought to
be more guarded againft in a free ftaie, than making
the military power, when fuch a one is neceflary to be
kept on foot, a body too diitinct from the people.
Like ours, therefore, it ftiould wholly be compoled of
natural fubjects j it ought only to be enlifted for a ihort
and limited time j the ioldiers alio Ihould live inter¬
mixed with the people j no ieparate camp, no barracks,
no inland fortrefles ihould be allowed. And perhaps it
might be ftill better, if, by dilmiffing a ftated number,
and enlifting others at every renewal ot tiieir term, a
circulation could be kept up between the army and the
people, and the citizen and the loldier be more inti¬
mately conneifted together.
To keep this body ot troops in order, an annual a£l
of parliament likewile palfes, “ to puniih mutiny and
delertion, and for the better payment of the- army and
their quarters.” This regulates the manner in which
they are to be difperfed among the feveral inn-keepers
and victuallers throughout the kingdom ; and eftablilhes
a law martial for their government. By this, among
other things, it is enacted, that if any officer or foldier
lhall excite, or join any mutiny, or, knowing of it,
ftiall not give notice to the commanding officer, or ihall
defert, or lift in any other regiment, or deep upon his
poll, or leave it before he is relieved, or hold coircf-
pondence with a rebel or enemy, or itrike or ufe vio¬
lence to his fuperior officer, or lhall difobey his lawful
commands ; fuch offender lhall fuffer fuch punilhment
as a court martial lliall indict, though it extend to death
itfelf.
However expedient the moft ItriCt regulations may
be in time of actual war, yet in times of profound
peace, a little relaxation of military rigour would not,
one ihould hope, be productive of much inconvenience*
And, upon this principle, though by our ftanding laws
(ftill remaining in force, though not attended to) de-
fertion in time of war is made felony without benefit
of clergy, and the offence is triable by a jury, and be¬
fore the judges of the common lao ; yet, by-our mi¬
litia laws before mentioned, a much lighter punilhment
i- indiCted for defertion in time of peace. So, by the
R,<man law alfo, defertion in time of war was puni li¬
ed wifh death, but more mildly in time of tranquil¬
lity. But our mutiny aCt mjikes no fuch diitinCti- n j
for any of the faults above mentioned are, equally at
all times, punilhable with death itfelf, if a court mar¬
tial lhail think proper.. This diicreiionary power of
the
Military.
 , i
MIL T 96 ] MIL
Military, the court martial is indeed to be guided by the direc-
r » ~ lions of the crown : which, with regard to military
offences, has almoll an abfolute legiffative power. “ His
Majefty (fays the aM) may form articles of war, and
conllitute courts martial, with power to try any crime
by fuch articles, and inllift fuch penalties as the articles
direct.A vaft and molt important trull ! an unlimit¬
ed power to create crimes, and annex to them any pu-
niffnnents not extending to life or limb ! Thefe are in¬
deed forbidden to be inffidlcd, except for crimes decla¬
red to be fo punifhable by this aft ; which crimes we
have juft enumerated, and among which, we may ob-
ferve, that any difobedience to lawful commands w one.
Perhaps in fome future revilion of this act, which is
in many refpefts haltily penned, it may be thought
worthy the wifdom of parliament to afeertain the li¬
mits of military fubjeflion, and to enaft exprefs articles
of war for the government of the army, as is done for
the government of the navy efpecially as, by our pre-
fent constitution, the nobility and gentry of the king¬
dom, who ferve their country as militia officers, are an¬
nually fubjedled to the lame arbitrary rule during their
time of exercife.
One of the greateft advantages of our law is, that
not only the crimes themfelves which it punifhes, but
alio the penalties which it inflicls, are afeertained and
notorious: nothing is left to arbitrary diferetion : the
king by his judges difpenfes what the law has previ-
ouflv ordained, but is not himfelf the legiflator. How
much, therefore, is it to be regretted, that a fet of
men, whofe bravery has fo often preferved the liberties
of their country, ftiould be reduced to a (late of fervi-
tude in the midft of a nation of freemen •, for Sir Ed¬
ward Coke will inform us, that it is one of the ge-
ftlark/t. nuine marks of fervitude, to have the lawT, which is
Comment, our rule 0f aflion, either concealed or precarious j
Mifera ejl fervitus, ubi jus eft vogurn aut incognitum.
Nor is this ftate of fervitude quite confident with the
maxims of found policy obferved by other free na¬
tions. For the greater the general liberty is which
any ftate enjoys, the more cautious has it ufually been
in introducing flavery in any particular order or pro-
feffion. Thefe men, as Baron Montefquieu obferves,
feeing the liberty which others poflefs, and which they
themfelves are excluded from, are apt (like eunuchs
in the eaftern feraglio'-) to live in a ftate of perpetual
«nvy and hatred towards the reft of the community,
and induce a malignant pleafure in contributing to de-
flroy thofe privileges to which they can never be ad¬
mitted Hence have many free dates, by departing
from this rule, been endangered by the revolt of their
(laves *, while, in abfolute and defpotic governments,
where no real liberty exifts, and confequently no invi¬
dious comparifons can be formed, fuch incidents are ex¬
tremely rare. Two precautions are therefore advifed to
be obferved in all prudent and free governments : 1. To
prevent the introduftion of flavery at all : or, 2. If it
be already introduced, not to intruft thofe flaves with
arms who will then find themfelves an overmatch for
the freemen. Much lefs ought ‘he foldiery to be an
exception to the people in general, and the only ftate
of fervitude in the nation.
But as foldiers, by this annual a£l, are thus put in
a worfe condition than any other fubje$> ', fo, by the
humanity of our ftanding laws, they are in fome cafes
put in a much better. By ftatute 43 Eliz. C. 3. a Military
weekly allowance is to be railed in every county for
the relief of loldicrs that are lick, hurt, and maimed : i ' j
not forgetting the royal hoipital at Cheliea for fuch as
are worn out in their duty. Officers and icldiers,
that have been in the king’s fervice, are by leveral iia-
tutes, enabled at the dole of feverai wars, at lioerty
to ufe any trade or occupation they are. tit tor, in any
town in the kingdom (except the two univerlities),
notwithftanding any ftatute, euilom, or charter to the
contrary. And foldiers in aiiual military krvice may
make nuncupative wills, and dilpoie of their goods,
w^ages, and other p rtonal ciiaUeis, without theie
forms, folemnities, and expencts, which the law re¬
quires in other cates. Our law does not indeed extend
th ispri.t-ege to tar as the civil law, which carried
it to an extreme that borders upon the ridiculous:
for if a toldier, in the article of death, wrote any
thing in bloody letters on his fhield, or in the dull of
the field with his fword, it was a very good military
teftament.
Military Court. See Chivalry, Court of.
Military Tenures, See Tlnurl, Fequal Syf-
tem, and Knight.
Military Ways {vice mi/it ares'), are the large Ro¬
man roads which Agrippa procured to be made through
the empire in the time of Auguftus, for the more con¬
venient marching of troops and conveyance of carriages.
N. Bergier has written the hiftory of the origin, pro-
grefs, and amazing extent, of thefe military roads, which
were paved from the gates of Rome to the extreme
parts of the empire. See Way.
MILITIA, in general, denotes the body of foldiers,
or thofe who make profeffion of arms.
In a more reftrained fenfe, militia denotes the train¬
ed bands of a town or country, who arm themfelves,
upon a Ihort warning, for their own defence. So that,
in this fenfe, militia is oppofed to regular or Hated
troops. See MILITARY State, FeoDAL System.
MILIUM, Millet, a genus of plants, belonging t«
the triandria clafs; and in the natural method ranking
under the 4th order, Gramma. See Botany Index.
MILK, a well known fluid, prepared by nature in
the breads of women, and the udders of other ani¬
mals, for the nouriffiment of their young.—According
to Dr Cullen *, milk is a connecting and intermediate * Left, ta
fubftance between animals and vegetables. It feems Mat- Alei,
immediately to be fecreted from the chyle, both being
a white liquor of the fame coniiftence : it is moft co-
pioufly fecreted after meals, and of an acefcent nature.
In moft animals who live on vegetables, the milk is
acefcent ; and it is uncertain, though at the fame time
no obfervation proves the contrary, whether it is not
fo likewife in carnivorous animals. But, whatever be
in this, it is certain, that the milk of all animals who
live on vegetables is acefcent. Milk being derived
from the chvle, we thence conclude its vegetable na¬
ture *, for in thofe who live on both promifeuoufly,
more milk is got, and more quickly, from the vege¬
table than the animal food. Milk, however, is not
purely vegetable j though we have a vegetable liquor
that refembles its tafte, eonfiftence, colour, acefcenty,
and the ftparability of the oily part, viz. an emulfion
ol the nuce<. oleofte and farinaceous fubftances. But
thefe want the coagulable part of milk, which feems
MIL [ 97 ] MIL
to be of animal nature, approaching to that of the
coagulable lymph of the blood. Milk, then, feems
to be of an intermediate nature, between chyle taken
up from the intellines and the fully elaborated animal
fluid.
Its contents are of three kinds : ill, An oily part,
which, whatever may be faid concerning the origin of
other oils in the body, is certainly immediately derived
from the oil of the vegetables taken in •, as with thefe
it agrees very exactly in its nature, and would entirely,
if we could Separate it fully from the coagulable part.
Another mark of their agreement is the feparability,
which proves that the mixture has been lately attempt¬
ed, but not fully performed. 2dly, Befides this oily,
there is a proper coagulable part: And, 3dly, Much
water accompanies both, in which there is dillolved
a falin® faccharine fubilance. Thefe thres can be got
feparate in cheefe, butter, and whey ; but never per-
feftly fo, a part of each being always blended with
every other part.
Nothing is more common, from what has been faid
of its immediate nature, than to fuppofe that it re¬
quires no aflimilation •, and hence has been deduced the
reafon of its exhibition in the molt weakly Hate of the
human body. But wherever we can examine milk,
•we always find that it coagulates, fuffers a decompo-
fltion, and becomes acefcent. Again, Infants, who
feed entirely on milk, are always troubled with eruc¬
tations, which every body obferves are not of the fame
quality with the food taken ; and therefore it appears,
that, like all other food, milk turns naturally acefcent
in the ftomach, and only enters the chyle and blood in
confequence of a new recompofition. It approaches then
to the nature of vegetable aliment, but is not capable
of its noxious vinous fermentation, and therefore has
an advantage over it ; neither from this quality, like
animal food, is it heating in the ftomach, and produc¬
tive of fever *, though at the fame time, from its quan¬
tity of coagulable matter, it is more nourilhing than
vegetables.
Milk is the food moft univerfally fuited to all ages
and ftates of the body ; but it feems chiefly defigned by
nature as the food of infants. When animals are in
the foetus ftate, their folids are a perfect jelly, inca¬
pable of an aflimilatory power. In fuch ftate nature
has perfeftly aflimilated food, as the albumen ovi in
the oviparous, and in the viviparous animals certainly
fomewhat of the fame kind, as it was neceflary the
veflels ftiould be filled with fuch a fluid as would make
way for an after affimilation. When the infant has
attained a confiderable degree of firmnefs, as when it
is feparated from the mother, yet fuch a degree of
weaknefs ftill remains as makes fomewhat of the fame
indication neceflary ; it behoves the infant to have an
alkalefcent food ready prepared, and at the fame time
its noxious tendency to be avoided. Milk then is
given, which is alkalefcent, and, at the fame time,
has a fufficient quantity of acidity to correft that alka-
lefcency. As the body advances in growth, and the
alkalefcent tendency is greater, the animal, to obviate
that tendency, is led to take vegetable food, as more
fuited to its ftrength of aflimilation.
Dr Cullen obferves, that milk is fuited to almoft all
temperaments ; and it is even fo to ftomachs difpofed
Vql. XIV. Part I.
to acefcency, more than thofe fubs ances which have Milk,
undergone the vinous fermentation ; nay, it even cures
the heartburn, checks vinous fermentation j and pre¬
cipitates the lees, when, by renewal ot fermentation,
the wine happens to be fouled. It therefore very pro¬
perly accompanies a great deal of vegetable aliment :
although fometimes its acefeency is troublefume, ei¬
ther from a large proportion taken in, or from the de¬
gree of it ; for, according to certain unaccountable cir-
cumftanccs, different acids are formed in the ftomach
in different flates of the body, in a healthy body, e.y
a mild one ; in the hypochondriac difeafe fometimes,
one of a very acrid quality. When the acidity of
milk is carried to a great degree, it may prove re¬
markably refrigerant, and occalion cold crudities, and
the recurrence of intermittent fevers. To take the
common notion of its pafling unchanged into the
blood, it can fuffer no folution. But if we admit its
coagulum in the ftomach, then it may be reckoned
among foluble or infoluble foods, according as that
coagulum is more or lei's tenacious. Formerly rennet,
which is employed to coagulate milk, was thought an
acid ; but, from late obfervations, it appears, that, if
it be an acid, it is very different from oilier acids, and
that its coagulum is ftronger than that produced by acids.
It has been imagined, that a rennet is to be found in the
ftomachs of all animals, which caules coagulation of
milk $ but according to Dr Cullen the coagulation of
milk feems to be owing to a weak acid in the ftomach,
the relicks of our vegetable food, inducing, in healthy
perfons, a weak and foluble coagulum : but in different
ftomachs this may be very different, in thefe becoming
heavy and lefs foluble food, and fometimes even eva¬
cuated in a coagulated undiffolved ftate both by fto¬
mach and ftool.
As milk is acefeent, it may be rendered fometimes
purgative by mixing with the bile ; and fume examples
of this have been remarked. More commonly, how¬
ever, it is reckoned among thofe foods which occafion
coftivenefs.
Hoffman, in his experiments on milk, found that
all kinds of it contained much w’ater j and when this
was ditfipated, found the refiduums very different in
their folubility. But we muff not thence conclude,
that the fame infolubility takes place in the ftomach j
for extracts made from vegetables with water are often
very infoluble fubftances, and hardly diffufible through
water itfelf: therefore, in Hoffman’s extrafts, if we
may fo call them, of milk, fomewhat of the fame kind
might have appeared ; and thefe fubftances, which in
their natural ftatc were not fo, might appear very in¬
foluble. However, we may allow' that milk is always
fomehow infoluble in the inteftines, as it is of a drying
nature, and as cheefe, &c. is very cortive. And this
effeft fhows that milk is always coagulated in the fto¬
mach } for if it remained fluid, no faeces would be
produced, whereas fometimes very hard ones are ob-
ferved. In the blood veffels, from its animal nature,
it may be confidered as nutritious j but when we con-
fider its vegetable contents, and aeefcency in the primae
vise, we find that, like animal food, it does not excite
that degree of fever in the time of digeflion, and that
from its acefcency it will refill putrefaction. Hence
its ufe in heCtic fevers, which, whatever be their caufe,
N appear
mil [ 95 ] MIL
Milk, appear only to be exacerbations of natural feveriQi pa-
' roxyfms, which occur twice every day, commonly af¬
ter meals, and at night. To obviate thefe, therefore,
we give fuch an aliment as produces the lead exacer¬
bation of thefe fevers : and of this nature is milk, on
-account of its acefcent vegetable nature.
There appears alfo fomewhat peculiar to milk, which
requires only a fmall exertion of the animal powers in
order to its affimilation j and befides, in hectic com¬
plaints there is wanted an oily, bland food, approach¬
ing to the animal nature ; fo that on all thefe accounts
milk is a diet peculiarly adapted to them, and, in ge¬
neral, to molt convalefcents, and to thofe of inflam¬
matory temperaments. So far of milk in general. We
thall now ipcak of the particular kinds which are in
common ufe.
The milks of women, mares, and afles, agree very
much in their qualities, being very dilute, having little
lolid contents, and, when evaporated to drynefs, having
thefe very foluble, containing much faccharine matter,
of a very ready accfcency, and, when coagulated, their
coagulum being tender and eaffly broke down. From
this view they have lefs oil, and feem to have lefs coa-
gulable matter than the reft.
The milks of cows, flieep, and goats, agree in op-
pofite qualities to the three juft mentioned ; but here
there is fomewhat more of gradation. Cows milk
comes neareft to the former milk : goats milk is lefs
fluid, lefs fvveet, lefs flatulent, has the largeft propor¬
tion of infoluble part after coagulation, and indeed the
largeft: proportion of coagulable part; its oily and co-
agulable parts are not fpontaneoufly feparable, never
throwing out a cream, or allowing butter to be rea¬
dily extrafled from it. Hence the virtues of thefe
milks are obvious, being more nourifhing, though at the
fame time lefs eafily foluble in weak ftomachs, than the
three firft, lefs acefcent than thefe, and fo more rarely
laxative, and peculiarly fitted for the diet of conva-
lefcents without fever. The three firft again are lefs
nouriftnng, more foluble, more laxative, as more acef¬
cent, and adapted to the convalefcents with fever.
Thefe qualities, in particular milks, are confiderably
diverlified by different circumftances. Firft, Different
animals, living on the fame diet, give a confiderable
different milk ; for there feems to be fomething in the
conftitution, abftra&ing from the aliment, which con-
flitutes a confiderable diverfity of milk, not only in the
fame fpecies of animals, but alfo in the fame animal,
at different ages, and at different diftances after deli¬
very : this applies to the choice of nurfes. Secondly,
Milk follows the nature of the aliment more than any
other juice in the human body, being more or lefs fluid
and dilute, more or lefs folid and nourifhing, in pro¬
portion as thefe qualities arc more or lefs in the ali¬
ment. The nature of the aliment differs according to
its time of growth, e. g. old grafs being always found
more nourifliing than young. Aliment, too, is always
varied according to the feaion, as that is warm or dry,
moift or cloudy.
The milk of each particular kind of animal is fitter
for particular purpofes, when fed on proper food.—
Thus the cow delights in the fucculent herbage of the
vale : if the flieep be fed there he certainly rots, but
an the higher and more dry fide of the mountain be
2
feeds pleafantly and healthy ; while the goat never Milk,
flops near the bottom, but afeends to the craggy fum- V"'
mit : and certainly the milks of thefe animals are al¬
ways bell on their proper foil, and that of goats is befl:
on a mountainous country. From a differtation of
Linmeus, wre have many obfervatiom concerning the
diverfity of plants on which each animal choofes to
feed. All the Swedifh plants which could be colleft-
ed together, were prefented alternately to domeftic
animals, and then it appeared that the goat lived on
the greateft variety, and even on many which were poi-
fonous to the reft ; that the cow chofe the firft fuccu¬
lent flioots of the plant, and neglefted the fruflifica-
tion ; which laft was preferred by the goat. Hence
may be deduced rules concerning the pafturage of dif¬
ferent animals ; e. g. Farmers find, that, in a pafture
which was only fit to feed a certain number of flieep,
an equal number of goats may be introduced, while
the ftieep are no lefs nouriftied than before.
It is not eafy to aflign the difference between milk
frcfti drawn and that detained in the open air for fome
time : but certainly there is fome material one, other-
wife nature univerfally would not have directed infants,
to fucking ; and indeed it feems, better than the other,
fitted for digeltion and nourifliment. Phyfickns have
fuppofed that this depended on the evaporation of fome
fpt. re&or: but our author cannot conceive any fuch,
except common water here ; and befides, thefe volatile
parts can hardly be nutritious. A more plaufible ac¬
count feems deducible fiom mixture : milk new drawn
has been but lately mixed, and is expofed to fponta-
neous feparation, a circumftance hurtful to digeftion ;
none of the parts being, by themfelves, fo eafily afli-
milated as when they are all taken together. Flence,
then, milk new drawn is more intimately blended, and
therefore then is inoft: proper to the weakly and in¬
fants.
Another difference in the ufe of milk expofed for
fome time to the air, is taking it boiled or unboiled.
Phyficiang have generally recommended the former ;
but the reafon is not eafily afligned. Perhaps it if
this : Milk kept for fome time expofed to the air has
gone fo far to a fpontaneous feparation ; whereas the
heat thoroughly blends the whole, and hence its refo-
lution is net fo eafy in the ftomach ; and thus boiled
milk is more coftive than raw, and gives more fteces.
Again, When milk is boiled, a confiderable quantity of
air is detached, as appears from the froth on the fur-
face ; and air is the chief inftrument of fermentation
in bodies ; fo that after this procefs it is not liable to
acefcency : for thefe reafons it is proper for the robuft
and vigorous.
Another difference of milk is, according as it is fluid
or coagulated. The coagulated is of two kinds, as
induced by rennet, or the natural acefcency of the
milk. The former preparation makes the firmer and
lefs eafily foluble coagulum ; though, when taken with
the whey unfeparated, it is lefs difficult of foliation,
though more fo than any other coagulum in the fame
cafe. Many nations ufe the latter form, which is eafier
foluble, but very much acefcent, and therefore, in point
of folution, (hould be confined to the vigorous, in. point
of acefcency, to thofe who live on alkalefcent food ;
and in the laft cafe, the Laplanders ufe it as their chief
acefcent
M I L
r 99 ]
M I L
kfilk.
acefcent condiment. From the fame conliderations it
is more cooling, and in its other effefts like all other
acefcent vegetables.
Milk by evaporation yields a fweet faline matter, of
which Dr Lewis gives the following proportion :
From which water cxtra&ed
a fweet faline fubtlance a-
mounting to
Twelve
ounces of
Cows milk
Goats milk
Human milk
Afies milk
Left of dry
matter
i 3 drachms.
i2t
8
8
i-J drachms.
It
6
6
The faline fubftance extrafted from afiTes milk was
white, and fweet as fugar ; thofe of the others brown
$r yellow, and confiderably lefs fweet •, that from cows
milk had the lead fweetnels of any.
On diddling 12 charts of milk in balneo marice, at
lead nine quarts of pure phlegm were obtained •, the
liquor which afterwards arofe was acidulous, and by
degrees grew fendbly more and more acid as the di-
dillation was continued. After this came over a little
fpirit, and at lad, an empyreumatic oil. The remain¬
ing folid matter adhered to the bottom of the retort,
in the form of elegant ddning black flowers, which be¬
ing calcined and elixated yielded a portion of fixed al¬
kaline fait.
Milk fet in a warm place, throws up t# the furfaee
an unfluous cream, from which, by agitation, the but¬
ter is cafily feparated. The addition of alkaline falts
prevents this feparation, not (as fome have fuppofed) by
abforbing an acid from the milk, but by virtue of their
property of intimately uniting oily bodies with watery
liquors. Sugar, another grand intermedium betwixt
oils and water, has this effeft in a greater degree,
though that concrete is by no means alkaline, or an ab-
forbent of acids.
The fweet faccharine part of the milk remains dif-
folved in the whey after the feparation of the curd or
«hsefv matter, and may be colle&ed from it in a white
crydalline form, by boiling the whey till all remains
of the curdled fubfiance have fallen to the bottom •,
then filtering, evaporating it to a due confidence, fet-
ting it to (hoot, and purifying the cryftals by folution in
water and a fecund crvftallization. Much has been
laid of the medicinal virtues of this fugar of milk, but
it does not feem to have any confidemble ones : It is
from cows milk that it has been generally prepared j
and the crvftals obtained from this kind of milk have
but little fweetnefs.
When milk is differed to coagulate fpontaneouflv,
the whey proves acid, and on Handing grows more
and more fo till the putrefaftive Hate commences.
Sour whey is ufed as an acid, preferablv to the direftly
vegetable or the mineral acids, in fome of the che¬
mical arts ; as for difflving iron in order to the ftain-
ing of linen and leather. This acid was commonly
made ufe of in the bleaching of linen, for diffolving
and extrafting the earthy particles left in the cloth bv
the alkaline fait*- and lime employed for cleanfing and
whitening it. Butter mi1k is preferred to plain four
milk or four whev : This lafi is fuppofed to give the
cloth a yellow colour. Dr Home, in his ingenious
trealife on this fubjetSl:, recommends water acidulated
with fulphuric acid (in the proportion of about hall an
ounce, or at moll three quarters of an ounce, to a gal¬
lon), as preferable in many refpedfs to the acid of milk,
or of the more diredfly vegetable lubftances.
He obferves, that the latter are often difficultly pro¬
curable, abound with oleaginous particles, and batten
to corruption •, whiltt the vitriolic acid is cheap, and
pure, and indifpofed to putrefy : That milk takes five
days to perform its office, whilll the vitriolic acid
does it in as many hours, perhaps in as many minutes :
That this acid contributes alfo to whiten the cloth, and
does not make it weaker though the cloth be kept in it
for months. H« finds, that acid, as well as alkalies,
extradl an oily matter from the cloth, and lofe their
acidity and alkalicity. Since this treatife appeared,
the ufe of four milk is very generally fuperleded by oil
of vitriol.
It ia obfervable, that affes milk is greatly difpofed,
on Handing for a little time, to become thick and ropy.
In the Brellaw colleffion for the year 1720, there is a
remarkable account of milk (which probably was that
of the afs) grown fo thick and tenacious as to be drawn
out into long firings, which, when dried, were quite
brittle.
New cows milk, fuffered to Hand for fome days on
the leaves of butterwort or fun-dew, becomes uniformly
thick, flippery, and coherent, and of an agreeable fweet
talle, without any feparation of its parts. Frefh milk,
added to this, is thickened in the fame manner, and
this fucceflively. In fome parts of Sweden, as we are
informed in the Swediih Memoirs, milk is thus prepared
for food.
New milk has a degree of glutinous quality, fo as
to be ufed for joining broken Hone ware. Th«re is a
far greater tenacity in cheefe properly prepared.
Milk, when examined by a microfcope, appear*
compofod of numerous globules fwimming in a tranf-
par«nt fluid. It boils in nearly the fame degree of
heat with common water •, fome forts rather fooner,
and fome a little later : after boiling, it is lefs dif-
poied to grow four than in its natural Hats. It is
coagulated by acids both mineral and vegetable, and by
alkalies both fixed and volatile. The coagulum made
by acids tails to the bottom of the ferum *, that made
by alkalies fwims on the furface, commonly forming
(efpecially with volatile alkalies) a thick coriaceous
Ikin. The ferum, with alkalies, proves green or fa¬
mous } with acids, it differs little in appearance from
the whey that feparates fpontaneoufly. The coagulum
formed by acids is diffolved by alkalies, and that
formed by alkalies i* rediffolved by acids } but the
milk does not in either cafe refume its original pro¬
perties. It is coagulated by mod of the middle falts,
whofe bafis is an earth or a metallic body j as folution
of alum, fixed fal ammoniac, fugar of lead, green and
blue vitriol ; but not by the chalybeate or purging
mineral waters, nor by the bitter fait extraiffed from
the purging waters. Among the neutral falts that
have been tried, there is not one that produces any
coagulation. They all dilute the milk, and make it
lefs difpofed to coapulate with acids or alkalies : Nitre
feems to have this effetfl in a greater degree than th©
other neutral falts. It is inflantly coagulated by highly
N 2 rectified
Mik
MIL [ ioo ] MIL
Milk. rc<5Hfied fpirit of wine, but fcarcely by a phlegmatic
» fpirit. It does not mingle with exprclfed oils. All
the eoagula are dlifolved by gall.
It has generally been fuppofed by medical authors,
that the milk of animals is of the fame nature with
chyle, and that the human milk always coagulates in
the ftomach of infants •, but in a late differtation upon
the fubje£l by Mr Clarke, member of the Royal irith
Academy, we find both thefe pofitions controverted.
According to him, women’s milk, in a healthy ftate, con¬
tains no coagulable, mucilaginous, or cheefy principle,
in its compofition *, or it contains fo little, that it can¬
not admit of any fenfible proof. Dr Rutty Hates, that
it does not afford even a fixth part of the curd which
is yielded by cows milk ; and Dr Young denies that
Irijb Tranf. it is at all coagulable either by rennets or acids. This
for *788. -s confirmed by Dr Ferris, who in 1’782 gained the Har-
veian prize medal at Edinburgh by a differtation up¬
on milk. Mr Clarke informs us, that he has made a
vaff number of experiments upon women’s milk with
a view to determine this point. He made ufe of ar¬
dent fpirits, all the different acids, infulions of infants
ftomachs, and procured the milk of a great many dif¬
ferent women ; but in no inftance, excepting one or
two, did he perceive any thing like curd. 1 his took
place in confequence of a fpontaneous aeefcency •, and
only a fmall quantity of foft Haky matter was formed,
which floated in the ferum. This he looked upon to be
a morbid appearance.
The general opinion that women’s milk is coagu¬
lable has arifen from a (ingle circumftance, viz. that
infants frequently vomit the milk they fuck in a ftate
of apparent coagulation. This greatly perplexed Dr
Young j who, after having tried in vain to coagulate
human milk artificially, concluded, that the proceis
took place fpontaneoufly in the ftomach *, and that it
would always do ft) if the milk were allowed to re¬
main in a degree of heat equal to about 96 degrees of
Fahrenheit. Mr Clarke took equal quantities of three
different kinds of milk, and put them into bottles
(lightly corked, and thefe bottles into water, the tem¬
perature of which was kept up by a fpirit of wine
lamp as near as poffible to 96° of Fahrenheit : but af¬
ter frequently examining each bottle during the courfe
of the experiment, at the expiration of feveral hours
there was not the fmalleft tendency towards coagula¬
tion to be perceived in any of them •, the cream was
only thrown to the furface in a thick and adhefive
form, and entirely feparated from the fluid below,
which had fomething of a gray and wheyifh appear¬
ance. As the matter vomited by infants is fometimes
more adhefive than we can fuppofe cream to be, Mr
Clarke fuppofed that the curd might be fo entangled
writh the cream, as to be with difficulty feparated trom
it •, but having colle&ed a quantity of rich cream from
the milk of different women, he repeated the experi¬
ment Avith precifely the fame extent, not being able in
anv one inftance to produce the fmalleft quantity of
curd. To determine, hoxvever, xvhat effects might be
produced upon milk by the ftomach of an infant, Mr
Clarke made the folloxviiig experiment : Having taken
©ut the ftomach of a foetus which had been deprived
of life by the ufe of inftruments, he infufed it in a
fmall quan'ity of hot xvater, fo as to make a ftrong
infufion. He added a tea-fpoonful of this infufion to
i
equal quantities of coxvs and human milk •, the confe-
quence of which was, that the cow’s milk was firmly
coagulated in a (hurt time, but the human milk was
not altered in the lead: } neither was the lead coagula¬
tion produced by adding a (econd and third fpoonfui
to the human milk. “ Upon the whole, then, (fays
Mr Clarke), I am perfuaded it xvill be found, that hu
man milk, in an healthy ftate, contains little or no curd,
and that the general opinion of its nature and proper¬
ties is founded upon fallacious analogy and fuperficial
obfervations made on the matter vomited by infants.
We may prefume, that the cream of women’s milk,
by its inferior fpeeific gravity, will fwim on the furfacc
of the contents of the ftomach ; and being of an oily
nature, that it xvill be of more difficult digeftion than
any other conftituent part of milk. When an infant
then fucks very plentifully, fo as to ox^er-diftend the
ftomach, or labours under any xveaknefs in the power*
of digeftion, it cannot appear unreafonable to fuppofe,
that the cream (hall be firft reje&ed by xmmiting.
Analogous to this, xve know that adults affefted with
dyfpeplia often bring up greafy fluids from the fto¬
mach by eruClation, and this efpecially after eating fat
meat. We have, in fome inftances, known this to blaze
when throxvn into the fire like fpirit of xvine or oil.”
Our author derives a confirmation of his opinion from
the folloxving obfervation, viz. that curds vomited by
infants of a fexv days old are yelloxv, while they become
xvhite in a fortnight or three weeks. This he accounts
for from the yelloxv colour of the cream thrown up by
the milk of xvomen during the firft four or five days af¬
ter delivery.
Mr Clarke likexvife controverts that common opi¬
nion of the human milk being fo prone to acidity, that
a great number of the difeafes of children are to be
accounted for from that principle. “ Whoever (fays
he) takes the trouble of attentively comparing human
milk with that of ruminant animals, xvill foon find it
to be much lefs prone to run into the acefcent or acid
procefs. I have very often expofed equal quantities
of human and cows milk in degrees of temperature,
varying from the common fummer heat, or 65°, to ioo°j
and I have conftantly found that cows milk acquires a
greater degree of acidity in 36 hours than the human
did in many days : coxvs milk becomes offenfively pu¬
trid in four or five days ; a change which healthy hu¬
man milk, expofed in the fame manner, xvill not un¬
dergo in. many weeks, nay, fometimes in many months.
I once kept a few ounces of a nurfe’s milk, delivered
about fix or feven days, for more than txvo years in a
bottle moderately corked. It flood on the chimney-
piece, and xvas frequently opened to be examined. At
the end of this period it (bowed evident marks of mo¬
derate acidity, whether examined by the tafte, fmell,
or paper ftained xvith vegetable blues or purples 5 the
latter it changed to a florid red colour, whereas coxvt
milk kept a few days changed the colour of the fame
paper to a green, thereby clearly ftioxving its putrefeent
tendency.”
Our author next goes on to confider of the pro¬
bability there is of milk becoming fo frequently and
ftrongly acid as to occafion moft of the difeafes of in¬
fants. He begins with an attempt to (lioxv that the
phenomena commonly looked upon to be indications
of acrimony are by no means certain. Curdled milk
M I L
Milk. hag already been (hewn to be no fign of acidity *, and
"' t ' the other appearance, which has commonly been
thought to be fo certain, viz. green faeces, is, in the
opinion of Mr Clarke, equally fallacious. In fupport
of this he quotes a letter from Dr Sydenham to Dr
Cole ; in which he fays, that the green matter vomited
by hylterical women is not any proof of acrid humours
being the caufe of that difeafe, for fea-fick people do
the fame. The opinion of green fteces being an elfeft
of acidity, proceeds upon the fuppolition that a mixture
of bile with an acid produces a green colour : but it is
found, that the vegetable acid, which only can exilt in
the human body, is unable to produce this change of co¬
lour, though it can be eftedled by the ftrong mineral
acids. As nothing equivalent to any of tliefe acids can
be fuppofed to exilt in the bowels of infants, we mull
therefore take fome other method of accounting for the
green feces frequently evacuated by them. “ Why
ihould four milk, granting its exiitence, give rife to
them in infants and not in adults ? Have butter milk,
fummer fruits of the moft acefcent kind, lemon or orange
juice, always thiseffedl in adults by their admixture with
bile ? This is a queftion which, I believe, cannot be
anfwered in the affirmative.”
On the whole, Dr Clarke confiders the difeafe of aci¬
dity in the bowels, though fo frequently mentioned, to
be by no means common. He owns indeed, that it
may fometimes occur in infancy as well as in adults,
from weaknefs of the ftomach, coflivenefs, or improper
food ; and an indubitable evidence is afforded by faeces
which ftain the blue or purple colour of vegetables to a
red, though nothing can be inferred with certainty from
the colour or fmell.
The doclor next proceeds to ftate feveral reafons
for his opinion, that the greater number «f infantile
difeafes are not owing to acidity 5 1. Women’s milk
in a healthy ftate contains little or no coagulable
matter or curd. 2. It ffiows lefs tendency out of the
body to become acefcent than many other kinds of
milk. 3. The appearances which have been generally
luppofed to characterize its acidity do not afford fatif-
faClory evidence of fuch a morbid caufe. 4. Granting
this to be the cafe, we have plenty of mild abforbents,
capable of deftroying all the acid which can be fuppof¬
ed to be generated in the bowels of an infant j yet
many children are obferved to die in confequence of
thefe difeafes fuppofed to arife from acidity. 5. Though
the milk of all ruminant animals is of a much more
acefcent nature than that of the human fpecies, yet
the young of thefe animals never fuffer any thing like
the difeafes attributed to acidity in infants. 6 Hif-
tory informs us that whole nations ufe four curdled
milk as a conliderable part of their food, without feel¬
ing any inconvenience ; which, however, muff have
been the cafe, if acidity in the ftomach were pro¬
ductive of fuch deleterious effeCt as has been fup¬
pofed.
The reafoning of Dr Clarke feems here to be very
plaufible, and nothing has as yet been offered to con¬
tradict it. The reviewers in taking notice of the trea-
tifr only obferve, that the doCtor’s pofttions are fup-
ported by great probability *, yet “ they have feen
them, or think they have feen them, contradicted by
the appearance of difeafes and the effects of medi-
M I L
cinesfo that they muff leave the fubjeCt to farther Milk,
examination.
In a memoir by Meffrs Parmentier and Deyeux,
members of the royal college 01 pharmacy, &c. in Pa¬
ris, we have a great number of experiments on th«
milk of alies, cows, goats, Iheep, and mares, as well
as women. The experiments on cows milk, were made
with a view to determine whether any change was
inadJ in the milk by the different kinds of food eaten
by the animal. For this purpofe fome were ted with
the leaves ot rnuixe or Turkey wheat j fome with cab¬
bage ; others with fmall potatoes *, and others with
common grafs. The milk of thofe fed with the maize
or Turkey wheat was extremely fweet j that from the
potatoes and common grafs much more ferous and in-
lipid j and that from the cabbages the molt dilagreeable
of all. By diilillation only eight ounces of a colour-
lefs fluid were obtained from as many pounds of each
of thefe milks ; which from thofe who fed upon grafs
had an aromatic flavour j a difagreeable one from cab¬
bage $ and none at all from the potatoes and Turkey
wheat. This liquid became fetid in the fpace of a
month, whatever fubftance the animal had been fed
with, acquiring at the fame time a vifeidity and be¬
coming turbid j that from cabbage generally, but not al¬
ways, becoming firft putrid. All of them feparated a
filamentous matter, and became clear on being expofed
to the heat of 250 of Reaumur’s thermometer. In the
refiduums of the diftillation no difference whatever
could be perceived. As the only difference therefore-
exiffing in cows milk lies in the volatile part, our au¬
thors conclude, that it is improper to boil milk either
for common or medicinal purpofes. They obferved al-
fo that any hidden change of food, even from a worfe
to a better kind was attended by a very remarkable di¬
minution in the quantity of milk. All the refiduums
of the diftillations yielded, in a ftrong fire, a yellow oil
and acid, a thick and black empyrcumatic oil, a volatile
alkali, and towards the end a quantity of inflammable
air, and at laft a coal remained containing fome fixed
alkali with muriatic acid.
On agitating in long bottles the creams from the milk
of cows fed with different fubftances, all of them were
formed into a kind of half-made butter ; of which that
formed from the milk from maize was white, firm,
and infipid ; that from potatoes was fofter and more
pinguedinous ; but that from common grafs was the
beft: of all. Cabbage, as in other cafes, gave a Itrong
tafte.
In the courfe of their experiments, it was endeavour¬
ed to determine whether butter is actually contained in
the cream, or whether it be a chemical production of
the operation of churning. They could not find any
reafon abfolutely fatisfaCtory on either fide, but incline
to the latter opinion ; becaufe when cream is allowed to
remain among the milk, and the whole curdled promif-
cuoufly, only fat cheefe, without any butter, is produ¬
ced. The oily parts cannot be feparated into butter ei¬
ther by acids or any other means than churning : even
the artificial mixture of oil with the cream is infufficient
for the purpofe.
The ferum of milk was reduced by filtration to a
clear and pellucid liquor •, and, bv mixture with fixed
alkali, depofited a portion of cheefy matter which had
be$3
f i o r 1
M T L r 102 1 M T L
been Ivcd in the whey. Thefugarof milk was al-
fo found in . in> ii nior.
In their experiments upon the milk of various ani¬
mals, it was foumi that the milk of afies yielded by
ditfillation an "n 'pid liquor, and depohted a liquor
limilar to the lym;.h of cows milk. It is coagulated
by all the acids, but not into an uniform mats *, ex¬
hibiting only the appearance of diftindl flocculi. It
affords but little cream, which is converted with dif¬
ficulty into a loft butter that foon becomes rsneid. It
has but a (mall quantity of faccharine particles, and
thefe are often mixed with muriatic felenite and com¬
mon fait. Goats milk has a thick cream, and agree¬
able to the talle •, and the milk itfelf may be preferved
longer in a found Hate than any other fpecies, the
feum on its furface being naturally convertible into
palatable cheefe. It is eafily made into firm butter,
which does not foon become rancid, and has a good
flavour. The butter milk contains a large quantity of
cheefy matter, which readily coagulates ; but has Hill
lefs faccharine matter than that of affes. Sheeps milk
can fcarce be diftinguifhed from that of a cow, and ea-
fily parts with its cream by ftanding. It is of a yellow
colour, an agreeable flavour, and yields a great propor¬
tion of butter j but this is not folid, and foon becomes
rancid. Mares milk is the mofl infipid and leafl: nutri¬
tious of any ; notwithstanding which it has been much
recommended for Aveak and canfumptive patients : in
which cafes it is probable that it proves efficacious by
being more confonant than any other to the debilitated
powers of digellion. It boils with a fmaller fire than
anv other kind of milk, is eafily coagulated, and the
diltilled water does not foon change its nature. It has
but a fmall quantity of cheefy matter, arid very few
oily particles : the cream cannot be made into butter j
and the whey contains about as much fugar as cows or
goats milk.
In this memoir our authors remark, that in order to
augment the quantity, as well ai to improve the qua¬
lity, of the milk of animals, they fliould be well fed,
their Halls kept clean, and their litter frequently renew¬
ed : they fliould he milked at ftated hours, but not
drained : great attention fhould alfo be paid to the
breed •, becaufe inferior cattle are maintained at as
great expence as the mod valuable kinds. No change
ought to be made in the food ; though if the milk
be employed for medicinal purpufes, it may be improv¬
ed bv a proper mixture of herbs, &c.
In theb experiments on women’s milk, Mcflrs Par-
mentier and Deyeux differ fomewhat from Dr Clarke.
Thev firtl tried the milk of a woman who had been
delivered four months ; and obferved, that after the
cream had been fiparated the other part appeared of
a more perfeft white, and that it could not be coa¬
gulated either by vinegar or mineral acids ; which
tiny attributed to a fuperabu”dance of ferum. But
the' found that ;n proportion to 'he age of the milk
it was found to be nv re eafily coagulable ; and this
was confirmed bv experimerts made upon the milk of
20 nurfes. Its coagulability was not increafed by
hea . The cream, by agnation, formed a vifeid unc¬
tuous matter, but could not be changed into nerfi 61
butter; but thev found that it wa txtremely difficult
to determn e the proportions of the various compo¬
nent parts in human milk, as it differs remarkably,
not only in different fubjecls, but in the fame fubjeft
at different times. In a nurfe aged about 32 years,
who was extremely fubjecl to nervous affedlions, the
milk was one day found almod quite colourlefs and
tranfparent. In two hours af;er, a fecund quantity
drawm from the bread was vifeid like the white of an
egg. It became whiter in a fhort time, but did not
recover its natural colour before the evening. It was
afterwards found that thele changes were occafiontd
by her having fome violent hyiteric fits in the meaa
time.
Sugar of MlLK. Different methods have been pro-
pofed for obtaining the fugai of milk. The following
is an account of a method ufed by fome of th» Tartar
nations of prelerving thair milk by means of frod : in
w hich operation great quantities of the fugar of milk
are accidentally formed. The account was given by
Mr baling of Peteifburgh, who undertook a journey,
by order of the academy of Peterfburgh, among the
Mogul tribes who inhabit the country beyond the lake
Baikal, on the banks of the river Salenga. Thefe peo¬
ple allow their milk to freeze in large quantity in iron
kettle* ; and, when it is perfectly congealed, they
place them over a gentle fire to foften the edges of
the cake, after which it may be taken out with a
wooden fpatula. They commence thefe operations
at the beginning of the cold, when they have milk
in the greated abundance \ after which it may be pre¬
ferved Avilh great eafe throughout the Avhole Avinter.
Mr Fahrig having frequent opportunities of feeing
thefe cakes, foon obferved, that the furface of them
was covered to a confiderable depth with a farinaceous
powder *, and having edablifhed a dairy upon the fame
plan Avith thofe of the Moguls, he found the fame
thing take place Avith himfelf. This poAvder was ex¬
tremely fweet, and he received platefuls of it from the
natives, avIio ufed it in their food, and fAveetened their
other victuals Avith it. Having caufed a number of
cakes of frozen milk to be conveyed to the top of his
houfe, Avhere thev were direftly expofed to the \dolent
cold, he found that the feparation of the faccharine
powder Avas greatly promoted by this means. He
(craped the cakes every Aveek to the depth of tAvo
inches, and afterwards fpread out the powder upon an
earthen plate in order to dedroy the remains of moif-
ture which might ha\'e prevented it from keeping for
any length of time. When expofed in this manner it had
a very agreeable and drong faccharine tade ; diffolved
in Avarm Avater; and Avhen drongly dirred by means of a
chocolate dick, Avould at all times produce an excel¬
lent and Avell tailed milk. Rhav milk affords a much
larger quantity of this faccharine matter than fuch as
has been boiled, or Avhieh has had the cream taken off
it. Neither mud the milk be fuddenly expofed to the
cold before it has lod its natural heat ; for the hidden
contaft of the cold drives all the cheefy and fat part
towards the middle, Avhile the external parts confid of
little elfe than Avater. In order to alloAV the parts
of the milk to be all properly mixed together, Mr
Fahrig allowed the milk when newly taken from the
cows to cool, and then poured it out into (hallow
kettles.
Our author i« of opinion that this method of making
milk would be of grea' fenuce to navigators to fup-
ply themfelves with milk during long fea voyages : and
he
MIL [ i
Milk, he affures us, from his own experience, that it will
"V always fucceed, if proper attention be paid to it. He
is of opinion, however, that all countries are not
equally proper for the preparation of this faccharine
matter : and indeed this feems very evidently to be
the cafe, as the procefs appears to be a cryilallization
of the faccharine parts of the milk, and a feparation
of them from the aqueous ones by means of extreme
cold. The country in which he made the experiments
is one of the moil elevated in all Alia j and fo cold,
that, though it lies only in the 50th degree of north
latitude, its rivers are frozen up for fix months of the
year. A very dry cold wind alfo prevails throughout
almoil the whole year ; and the dry winds generally
come from the north, being almoil always preceded
by a warm wind from the fouth, which blows for
fome time. The dry rarefied air increafes the eva¬
poration from the ice cakes, and leaves nothing but
the faccharine or pure conflituent parts of the milk,
which with the addition of water can always recom-
pofe the fluid.
Milk, in the wine trade. The coopers know very
well the ufe of ilcimmed milk, which makes an inno¬
cent and efficacious forcing for the fining down of all
wffiite wines, arracks, and fmall fpirits ; but it is by no
means to be ufed for red wines, becaufe it difeharges
their colour. Thus, if a few quarts of well fkimmed
milk be put into a hog (head of red wine, it will foon
precipitate the greater part of the colour, and leave
the whole nearly white : and this is of known ufe
in the turning of red wines, when pricked, into white;
in which a fmall degree of acidity is not fo much per¬
ceived.
Milk is, from this quality of difeharging colour from
wines, of ufe alfo to the wine coopers, for the whiten¬
ing of wines that have acquired a brown colour from
the calk, or from having been baftily boiled before
fermenting ; for the addition of a little lldmmed milk,
in thefe cafes, precipitates the brown colour, and leaves
the wines almoil limpid, or of what they call a water
whitenefs, which is much coveted abroad in wines as
well as in brandies.
MlLK of Lime ; Milk of Sulphur. The name of milk
is given to fubltances very different from milk properly
fo called, and which refenible milk only in colour.
Such is water in which quicklime has been flaked,
which acquires a whitenefs from the fmall particles of
the lime being fufpended in it, and has hence been
called the milk of lime. Such alfo is the folution of
liver of fulphur, when an acid is mixed with it, by
which white particles of fulphur are made to float in the
liquor.
MlLK of Vegetables. For the fame reafbn that milk
of animals may be confidered as a true animal emul-
fion, the emullive liquors of vegetables may be called
vegetable milks. Accordingly emulfions made with al¬
monds are commonly called milk of almonds. But be-
fides this vegetable milk, which is in fome meafare ar¬
tificial, many plants and trees contain naturally a. large
quantity of emulflve or milky juices. Such are lettuce,
fpurge, fig tree, and the tree which furnffhes the elaf-
tic American refin. The milky juices obtained from
all thefe vegetables derive their whitenefs from an oily
matter, mixed and undiffolved in a watery or mucila¬
ginous liquor. Moll refinous gums were originally
03 ] M 1 L
(uch milky juices, which afterwards become folid by Milk,
the evaporati n of their more fluid and volatile parts.
MlLK-Fever. See MEDICINE Index.
MlLKT-HedgCy the Englifli name ul a flirub growing
on the coafl of Coromandel, where it is ufed for hedg¬
ing. The whole fhrub grows very bufny, with numer¬
ous eredl brandies, which are compofed of cylindrical
joints as thick as a tobacco pipe, of a green colour,
and from three to fix inches long : the joints are thick¬
er than the other parts, but always give way firfl on any
accidental violence offered to the plant. When broken
it yields a milk of an exceffively cauflic quality, which
bliflers any part of the fkin it touches. When the
joints are broken off at each end, the tube then contains
but very little milk. In this Hate Mr Ives ventured to
touch it with his tongue, and found it a little fweet.
In the hedges it is feldom very woody $ but when it is,
the wood is very folid, and the bark gray and cracked.
This plant, lie informs us, has acquired great reputation
in curing the venereal difeafe, on the following account:
A poor Portuguefe woman, the eldell female of her
family, had wrought furprifing cures in the moll inve¬
terate venereal diforders, even fuch as the European
phyfieians had pronounced incurable. Thefe fadls be¬
came fo notorious, that the fervants of the Company,
and efpeeially their furgeons, were induced to offer her
a very confiderable premium for a difeovery of the me¬
dicine but fire always refufed to comply, giving for a
reafon, that while it remained a fecret, it was a cer¬
tain provifion for the maintenance of the family in the
prefent as well as in future generations. On account
of this denial the Englifli furgeons were fometimes at
the pains to have her motions without doors carefully
watched } and as they were not able to difeover that
flie ever gathered of any other plant or tree but this,
they conjedlured that the milk of this tree was the fpe-
cific employed. Mr Ives inquired at the black doc¬
tors concerning the virtues of this plant ; who all a-
greed, that it will cure the lues venerea, but differed as
to the manner of adminiftering it *, fome faying that a
joint of it fliould be eaten every morning ; others that
the milk only fliould be dropped upon fugar ; and then
put into milk, oil, &c. and given daily to the pa¬
tient.
MlLKT-Way. See Astronomy Index.
MILL, a machine for grinding corn, &c. of which
there are various kinds, according to the different me¬
thods of applying the moving power; as water-mills,
wind-mills, mills worked by horfes, &c. See Mecha¬
nics Index.
The firff obvious method of reducing corn into flour
for bread would be by the Ample expedient of pound¬
ing. And that was for ages the only one which was
pradtifed by the various defeendants of Adam, and ac¬
tually continued in ufe among the Homans below the
reign of Vefpafian. But the procefs was very' early
improved by the application of a grinding power, and
the introduction of miliffoncs. This, like mod of
the common refinements in domeflic life, was pro¬
bably the invention of the antediluvian world, and cer¬
tainly practifed in fome of the earlieff ages after it; and,
like moll of them, it was equally known in the cad and
wed. Hence the Gauls and Britons appear familiarly
acquainted with the ufe of hand-mills before the time
of their fubmiffion to the Romans 3 the Britons particu-
  larly-
Mill.
MIL [i
larlv di^xngmfhing them, as the Highlanders and we
diitingnilh them at prefent, by the liinple appellations ot
querns, carries, or jlnnes. And to tliete the Romans
added the very ufeful invention of water mills, tor
this difcovery the world is pretty certainly indebted to
the genius of Italy } and the machine was not uncom¬
mon in the country at the conqueft of Lancashire.
This, therefore, the Romans would necefTaniy intro¬
duce with their many other refinements among us.
And that they actually did, the Britilh appellation of a
'water mill fully fuggells of itfelf; the mehn of the
Welih and Cornilh,' the mull, meill, and melin of the
Armoricans, and the Irilli muilean and inuihnd, being
all evidently derived from the Roman mala and molen-
dinurn. The fubjeft Briton* univerfally adopted the
Roman name, but applied it, as we their fucceffors do,
only to the Roman mill; and one of thefe was proba¬
bly ereRed at every Rationary city in the kingdom.
hhitake's One plainly was at Manchefter, ferving equally the
Hift. of purpofes of the town and the accommodation ol the
Mancbef. garrifon._ And one alone would be fufficient, as the
ier‘ ufe of handmills remained very common in both, many
having been found about the fite of the Ration partic-
larlv f and the general pra&ice having defeended a-
mong us nearly to the prefent period. Such it would
be peculiarly neceflary to have in the camp, that the
garrifon might be provided againft a firge. And the
water-mill at IVIanchefter was fixed immediately below
the Cafllefield and the town, and on the channel of the
Medlock. There, a little above the ancient ford, the
Huice of it ivas accidentally difeovered about 30 years
ago. On the margin of Dyer’s croft, and oppolite to
fome neiv conftruftions, the current of the river, acci¬
dentally fwclled with the rains, and obftrutted by a
dam, broke down the northern bank, fwept away a
large oak upon the edge of it, and difclofcd a long tun¬
nel in the rock blow. This has been fince laid open
in part with a fpade. It appeared entirely uncovered
at the top, was about a yard in width, and another in
depth, but gradually narrowed to the bottom. The
fides (bowed everywhere the marks of the tool on the
rock, and the courfe of it was parallel with the channel.
It was bared by the flood about 25 yards only in length,
but was evidently continued for feveral further } hav¬
ing originally begun, as the nature of the ground evin¬
ces, jufi: above the large curve in the channel of the
Medlock.
For the firfl; five or fix centuries of the Roman date,
there ivere no public bread bakers in the city of Rome.
They were firft introduced into it from the eaft, at the
conclufion of the war with Perfeus, and about the year
167 before Chrift. And, towards the clofe of the
firfl: century, the Roman families were fupplitd by
them every morning with frefh loaves for breaktaft.—
But the fame cuflom, which prevaijed originally among
the Romans and many other nations, has .continued
nearly to the prefent time among the Mancunians. .1 he
providing of bread for every family was left entirely
to the attention of the women in it •, and it W'as
baked upon Hones, which the Wellh denominate grei-
th'ols and we gredles. It appears, however, from the
kiln-burnt pottery which has been difeovered in the
Britifh fepulchres, and from the Britifli appellation of
an odrm or oven remaining among us at prefent, that
furnaces for baking were generally known among the
04. ]
original Britons.
O
M I L
An odyn would, therefore, be erecR-
_d at the mantion of taeh Britith baron, lor the ule
of himlelf and hL retainers. And, when he and they
removed into the vicinity of a Roman flaJon, the oven
would be rebuilt with the manfion, and the public
bakehoufes of our towns commence at the firft foun¬
dation of them. One bakehoufe would be conftrudlcd,
as we have previoufly fliown one mill to have been let
up, for the public fervice of all the Mancunian families.
One oven and one hull appear to have been equally
ellablifhed in the town. And the inhabitants of it ap¬
pear immemorially accuftomed to bake at the one and
grind at the other. Both, therefore, were in all pro¬
bability conftrudfed at the firft introdu&ion of water¬
mills and ovens into the country. '1 he great fimilarity
of the appointments refers the confideration dire&ly
to one and the fame origin for them. And the gene¬
ral nature of all inch inltitutions points immediately to
the firft and aftual introduction of both. And, as the
fame eftablilhmenls prevailed equally in other parts of
the north, and pretty certainly obtained over all the ex¬
tent of Roman Britain, the fame ereCtions were as
certainly made at every ftationary town in the king¬
dom.
Mill, Holm, a very learned divine, was born at
Shap in Weftmoreland, about the year 1645 i anc*
came a fervitor of (Queen’s college, Oxford. On his
entering into orders he became an eminent preacher,
and was made prebendary of Exeter. In 1681, he
was created doClor of divinity j about the fame time he
was made chaplain in ordinary to King Charles II. and
in 1685 he was defied principal of St Edmund’s hall
in Oxford. His edition of the Greek Teftament,
which will ever render his name memorable, was pub*
lifhed about a fortnight before his death, which hap¬
pened in June 1707- l^r Mills was employed 30 years
in preparing this edition.
MILLSTONE, the ftoneby which corn is ground.
 The millftones w hich we find preferved from ancient
times are all fmall, and very different from thofe in
ufe at prefent. Thorefby mentions twTo or three fucli
found in England, among other Roman antiquities,
which were but 20 inches broad 5 and there is great
reafon to believe that the Romans, as well as the
Egxptians of old, and the ancient Jews, did not em¬
ploy horfes, or wind, or water, as we do, to turn
their mills, but made their (laves and captives of war
do this laborious work : they were in this fervice
placed behind thefe millftones, and pulhed them on
with all their force. Sampfon, when a prifoner to
the Philiftines, was treated no better, but was con¬
demned to the millftone in his prifon.. The runner or
loofe millftone, in this fort of grinding, was ufually
very heavy for its ftze, being as thick as broad. 1 his
is the millftone which is exprefsly prohibited in Scrip¬
ture to take in pledge, as lying loofe it was more
eafily removed. The Ralmudifts have a ftory, that
the Chaldeans made the young men of the captivity
carry millftones with them to Babylon, where there
feems to have been a feareity at that time •, and hence,
probably, their paraphrafe renders the text “ have
borne the mills or millftones which might thus be
true in a literal fenfe. They have alfo a proverbial
expnflion of a man with a millflone about his neck;
which they ufe to exprefs a man under the fevered
Mill,
Mill! «ne
M
I L
r 1=5 i
M 1 L
illftonc
weight of aflliclion. This nlfo plainly refers to this
fmall fort of ilones.
Rhenijb MlLSTONE, a ftone which has been claf-
fed among volcanic produfts, on account of its appear¬
ance, which is a blackilh gray, porous, and very much
refembling a lata of Mount Vefuvius.
MILLENARIANS, or Chiliasts, a name given
to thofe in the primitive ages, who believed that the
faints will reign on earth with Chrift 1000 years. See
Millennium.
MILLENER, or Milliner, one who fells ribbands
and dreifes, particularly head drelfes for women ; and
who makes up thofe dreffes.
Of this word different etymologies have been siven.
It is not derived from the French. The French can¬
not exprefs the notion of milliner, otherwife than by
the circumlocution marchand or marchande des modes.
Neither is it derived from the Low Dutch language,
the great, but neglected, magazine of the Anglo-Saxon.
For Sewell, in his DicHonary Englifh and Dutch, i 708,
deferibes millener to be “ en kraamer van lint en an-
dere optonifelon, Franfche kraamer that is, “ a ped¬
lar who fells ribbands and other trimmings or ornaments}
a French pedlar.”
Littleton, in his Englifh and Latin dictionary, pub-
liihed 1677, defines millener, “ a jack of all trades j”
q. d. mi lien arias, or mille mercium venditor ; that is,
“ one who fells a thoufand different forts of things.”
This etymology feems fanciful : But, if he rightdy un-
derffood the vulgar meaning of the word miilener in his
time, we mull hold that it then implied what is now
termed “ a haberdafher of fmall wares,” one who dealt
in various articles of petty merchandife, and who did,
not ?nake up the goods which he fold.
Before Littleton’s time, however, a fomewhat nicer
charafleriftic than feems compatible with his notion,
appears to have belonged to them ; for Shakefpeare, in
his Henry IV. makes Hotfpur, when complaining of
the daintinefs of a courtier, fay,
“ He was perfumed like a milliner.”
The fa61 feems to be, that there were milleners of
feveral kinds : as, horfc milleners, (for fo thofe perfons
were called who make ornaments of coloured worded
for horfes) ; haberdafhers of fmall wares, the milleners
cf Littleton ana mil letters fuch as thofe now pecu¬
liarly known by that name, whether male or female,
and to whom Shakefpeare’s allufion leans moll; appro¬
priate.
Lailly, Dr Johnfon, in his dictionary, derives the
word from milaner, an inhabitant of Milan, from whence
people of this profefiion firft came, as a Lombard is a
banker.
MILLE passes, or Milha Paffuum ; a very com¬
mon expreffion among the ancient Romans for a mea-
iure of didance, commonly called a mile. Milliarium,
rarely ufed. Which Hefychius made to confiff of feven
iiadia ; Plutarch, little fiiort of eight} but many others,
as Strabo and Polybius, make it juft eight ftadia. The*
reaf )n of this difference teems to be, that the former
held a regard to the Grecian foot, which is greater than
the Roman or Italic. This didance is oftentimes called
lapis, which fee. Each paffus confifted of five feet
(Columella).
MILLENNIUM, “ a thoufand years:” generally
Vol. XIV. Part I. 6 }
employed to denote the thoufand years, during which,
ac.coidiiig to an ancient tradition in the church, ground¬
ed on fome doubtful texts in the Apocalypfe and other
Scriptures, our bleffed Saviour (liall reign with llie
faithful upon earth after the firft refurreaion, before the
final completion of beatitude.
Though there has been no age of the church in
which the millennium was not admitted by individual
divines ol the firft eminence, it is yet evident from the
writings of Eufebius, I re me us, Origcn, and others
among the ancients, as well as from the luftorics of
Dupin, Molheim, and all the moderns, that it was
never adopted by the whole church, or made an article
of the eftabliihed creed in any nation.
_ About the middle of the fourth century the Millen-
nians held the following tenets :
1 ft, That the city of jerufalem fhould be rebuilt, and
that the land of Judea Ihould be the habitation of thofe
who were to reign on earth icoo years.
2dly, i hat the firft refui reClion was not to be confined
to the martyrs ; but that after the fall of Antichrift all
the juft were to rife, and all that were on the earth
were to continue fur that fpace of time.
3-‘OS 1 hat Chrift {hall then come down from heaven,
and be feen on earth, and reign there with his fer-
vants.
ftthly, lliat the faints during this period lhall enjoy
all the delights of a terreiirial paradiu*.
Thefe opinions were founded upon feveral paffa-
ges of Scripture, which the Millenarians among the
fathers underftood in no other than a literal fenfe,
but which the moderns, who Iiold that opinion, eon-
fider as partly literal and partly metaphorical. Of
thefe paffages, that upon which the greateft ft refs has
been laid, ive believe to be the following :—“ And
I faw7 an angel come down from heaven, having the
key of the bottomlefs pit, and a great chain in his
hand. And he laid hold on the dragon, that old fer-
puit, which is the dev;] and Satan, and bound him
a thoufana years, and call him into the bottomlefs pit,
and ftiut him up, and fet a leal upon him, that he
tliould deceive the nations no more till the thoufundyears
Ihould be fulfilled 5 and after that he muft be loofed
a littie feafon. And 1 faw thrones, and they fat up¬
on them, and judgment was given unto them: and
I faw7 the fouls of them that were beheaded for the
witnefs of Jefus, and for the word of God, and which
had not worftupped the beaft, neither Ins image, nei-
lh-vr had received Ins mark, upon their foreheads, or in
their hands •, and they lived and reigned with Chrift
^ t hoi fond years. But the reft of the dead lived not
again till the thoufand years were fnifbed. This is the
firft refurreftion *.” This paffage all the ancient*
Millenarians took in a fenfe grofsly literal; and taught,
that du ing the millennium the faints on earth were
to enjoy every bodily delight. The moderns, on the
other hand, confider the power and pleafure of this
kingdom as wholly fpiritual ; and they reprefent them
as not to commence till after the ccnfiagration of the
prefent earth. But that this laft fuppofition is a mif-
take, the very next verfe except one Efforts us : for
we are theie toid, that Vv uen the thoufand years axe
expired, Satan fhad ixe looftd out of his prifon, and
ftiall go out to deceive the nations which are in the
four quartern a the earth and ive have no reafon to
G believe
Rom. xx.,
-6.
MIL [ it
IWiHcn- believe that he ivill have fuch power or fuch liberty in
nium. U t)ie new heaven* and the new earth wherein dwelleth
'v righteoufnefs.1’
For this and other reafons, which our limits will not
permit us to enumerate, the moft judicious critics con¬
tend, that the prophecies of the millennium point, not
to a refurreclion of martyrs and other juft men to reign
with Chriil a thoufand years in a viuble kingdom upon
earth, but to that ftate of the Chriftian church, which,
for a thoufand years before the general judgment, will
be fo pure and fo widely extended, that, when compa¬
red with the ftate of the world in the ages preceding,
it may, in the language of Scripture, be called a refur-
redlion from the dead. In iupport of this interpretation
they quote two paflages from St Paul, in which a con-
verfion from Paganifm to Chriftianity, and a reforma¬
tion of life, is called a refurreftion from the dead : —
“ Neither yield ye your members as inftruments of un-
righteoufnefs unto lin 5 but yield yourfelves unto God
* Rom. vi. as thofe that are a/tve from the dead * And again,
n- “ Wherefore he faith, Awake thou that fleepeft, and
f Eph v. nr:je frcin the dead, and Chrift (hall give thee lightf.”
14* It is likewife to be obferved, that in all the deferiptions
of the refurre&ion and future judgment which are
given us at fuch length in the go {pels and epiftles, there
is no mention made of a JirJl and fecond refurreclion at
the diftance of a thoufand years from each other.
There is indeed an order in the refurredlion : for we
1 1 Cor. are told t, that “ every man fliall rife in his own order 5
*v- 23* Chrift the firft fruits, afterwards they that are Chrift’s
at his coming,” &c. But were the millennarian hypo-
thefts well founded, the words (hould rather have run
thus : “ Chrift the firft fruits, then the martyrs at his
coming, and a thoufand years afterwards the refidue of
mankind. Then cometh the end,” &c.
Thefe arguments ftrongly incline us to believe, that
by the reign of Chrift and the faints for a thoufand
years upon earth, nothing more is meant, than that
before the general judgment the Jews ftiould be con¬
verted, genuine Chriftianity be diffufed through all na¬
tions, and mankind enjoy that peace and happinefs
which the faith and precepts of the gofpel are calcu¬
lated to confer on all by whom they are fincerely em¬
braced.
Our Saviour’s own account of his religion is, that
from a fmall beginning it -will increafe to the full
harveft. The millennium therefore is to be confidered
as the full effeft of the Chriftian principles in the hearts
of men, and over the whole world •, and the divines
who have treated of this fubje£t endeavour to prove,
that this is to be expefted from the facts which have
already exifted, and from the importance of the Chrif¬
tian do&rme.
1. The gradual progrefs of Chriftianity is no objec¬
tion to this faft. This is fimilar to the progrefs and
advancement from lefs to greater perfe&ion in every
thin'* which poffefles vegetable or animal life. The
fame thing is obferved in the arts, in civilization, in
focieties, and in individuals—and why {hould it not be
admitted to have place in religion ? There is, indeed,
a general principle on which a gradual progreflion,
both in the natural and moral world, is founded. The
Almightly never employs fupernatural means where, the
thing can be accomplifhed by thofe which are natural.
This idea is of the moft general extent through the
6 ] MIL
whole of the prefent fyftem of nature. The pofiibifity Millea.
of another plan could eafily be admitted *, but in this cale
there would be a total alteration of every part of the T 1
works of God or of man that we are acquainted with.
In the fame manner, if the religion of Chvift had been
irrcfiftible, it would have totally altered its natural con-
fequences. It was neceffary, therefore, from the pre-
Jent condition of man, as an a&ive, intelligent, and ac¬
countable. being, that means {hould be employed y and
wherever means are employed, the effects produced
muft be gradual, and not inftantaneous.
2. Though the progrefs of a divine revelation be gra¬
dual, yet it is to be expected, from the wifdom and
compaffion of God, that it will ftill be advancing in the
hearts of men, and over the world. In the firft age of
the church, the word of God, fupported by miracles*,
and by the animated zeal of men who fpake what
they faw and heard, grew and prevailed^ In this cafe
fupernatural means were neceffary, beeaufe the preju¬
dices of the world could not be fubdued without them.
It was the firft Avatcring of a plant which you after-
Avards leave to the dew of heaven. Miracles at the
fame time Avere employed only as the means of comde-
tion ; and they Avere not continued, becaufe in this
cafe they would have become a conftant and irrefiftible
principle, incompatible Avith the condition of man as a
reafonable agent. After this power Avas AvithdraAvn,
there Avere many ages of ignorance and fuperftition in
the Chriftian church. But Avhat is neceffary to be
eftabliftied on this fubjea: is, not that the progrefs of
Chriftianity has never been interrupted, but that on
the whole it has been advancing. The. effe&s of this
~elirdon on mankind, in proportion as it was received,
were immediate and vifiblc : It dellroyed the grofs.iu-
perftition of idol Avorftiip } it abolilhed the pra<51ice,
Avhich Avas general in the heathen Avorld, of reducing
to the loweft ftate of fervitude the greateft part of our
brethren •, it foftened the horrors of war, even Avhen the
vices of mankind made defence neceffary} it entered
into focial and private life, and taught men benevolence,
humanity, and mercy. It is in thefe bleffed effe£ls that
avc can obferve the progrefs of Chriftianity even to this
day. Superftition and idolatry Avere foon engrafted on
the ftem which our Saviour planted in the Avorld } but
the fimplicity of the gofpel has been gradually under¬
mining the fabric of fuperftition •, and the men Avho are
moft nearly interefted in the deceit are. hoav almoft
aftiamed to fhoAV their faces in the caufe. J he practice
of flavery has, generally fpeaking, been extinguiftied in
the Chriftian Avorld ; yet the remains of it have been a
difgrace to the Chriftian name, and the. profeffors of
that religion have noAV begun to fee the inconfiftency.
War is not only carried on Avith lefs ammofity, and lefs
havock of the human fpecies ; but men begin to culti¬
vate more generally, and to delight in, the arts of
peace. The increafing fpirit of charity and benevo¬
lence, of Afvhich it Avere eafy to give unexampled inftan-
ces in the prefent age, is a decided proof of the.increa¬
fing influence of Chriftianity. At the fame time, if,
inftead of thefe general principles, we were to defeend
to private examples of infidelity or of Avickednefs, it
Arould be eafy to bring proofs in fupport of an oppofite
opinion : but the reafoning Avould by no means be
equally conclufive; for if the general principles by
AA’hich fociety is regulated be more liberal and merciful.
* If. Ixvi
fVer. i
*3
MIL . t 1
it is evident that there is more goodncfs in a greater
number of the human race. Society is nothing more
than a collection of individuals •, and the general tone
efnecially when it is on the fide of virtue, which altnolt
in every inftance oppofes the defigns of leading and m-
terefted men, is a certain evidence of the private ipint.
To fliow that this reformation is conne&ed with Chn-
ftianity, it is unneceffary to ftate any comparifon be¬
tween the influence of heathen, and the influence of
Chriftian principles : between civilization as depending
on the powers of the human underflanding, and on the
■efficacy of the word of God. The whole of this contro-
verfy may be appealed to an obvious fact, viz. that as
any nation has come nearer to the fimplicity of the gof-
.pel in the ftandard of its worffiip, it has been more
poffeffed of thofe national virtues which we have
aferibed to the influence of Chriftianity. This faft is
worth a thoufand volumes of Ipeculation on tois luo-
^ 3. A revelation fan&ioned by God, for a benevolent
purpofe, will be expefted to produce effeas correspond¬
ing to the wifdom which gave it, and to the purpofe
for which it is employed. It may be gradual } but it
will be increafing, and it muft increafe, to the full bar-
veil. He that has begun the good work will alfo fimfli
it. It is reafonable to exped this illuftrious fuccefs of
the gofpel, both from the nature of the thing, and
from the prophecies contained in the facred feriptures.
The precepts of the gofpel, in their genuine fenfe, are
admirably calculated for the peace and welfare both of
individuals and fociety. The greateft liberality of mind,
the greateft generofity of temper, the molt unbounded
love, and the greateft indifference to the accumulation
of this world’s property, if they glowed from breaft
to breaft, and operated with equal force on all men,
would be produ&ive of equal good and happinefs to all.
We are fcarcely able to perceive the force of this at
firft view, bccaufe the deceit and impofition which yet
exift in the world, prevent the operation of the beft
principles even in the beft hearts. But in proportion
to the improvement of mankind, what is their real in-
tereft, and what are the real objeCIs of happinefs, will
gradually unfold. The contempt of vice will be great¬
er in proportion to the fcarcity of it : for one vibain
gives countenance and fupport to another, juft as iron
ftiarpeneth iron. This opens to our view another faCl
connected with the practice of Chriftianity, namely,
that the nearer it arrives to its perfeCt ftate, it will be
the more rapid in its progrefs. The beauty of holinefs
will be more vilible •, and, in the ftrong language of
the prophet, “ the earth {hall bring forth in one day,
s and a nation ftiall be born at once This future
perfection of the gofpel is confiftent with its nature and
importance.—We can fcarcely believe that means, fo
admirably adapted to the reformation of mankind
fhould be without their effeCt *, and if the moft difficult
part be already accompliffied, we have no reafon to ap¬
prehend that the fcheme will not be completed. This
faCt is alfo clearly the fubjeCt of ancient prophecy. For
2 “ thus faith the Lordf, I will extend peace to her like
a river, and the glory of the Gentiles like a flowing
ftream. And it fhall come to pafs, from one fabbath
to another, and from one new moon to another, fliall
all fleffi come to worffiip before me, faith the Lord.”—
« Violence ffiall be no more heard in thy land, wafting
Milien.
niuni
07 ] MIL
nor deiiruClion within thy border j but thou {halt call
thy walls falvation, and thy gates praife.” (11- A. 1 o-)- (1
Without entering more minutely on the prophecy MiUepcra.
already quoted from chap. xx. of the book of the he- ’
velation, it is fufficient to obferve, that I3r \V hnl ) , in
his treatife on the millennium at the end of his commen¬
tary, proves, in the cleared manner, from the {pint of
the paffage and the fimilarity of the exprelhons with
thofe of other prophets, that it refers to a ftate of the
church for a thoufand years, which {hall be like hie
from the dead. The commencement of this period is
connected with two events : the {all of anticlniil, and
the converfion of the Jews. The latter of thefe events
muft be confidercd as a key to all the prophecies con¬
cerning the millennium. As the Jews were the ancient
people of God, and as their converfion is to be the pre¬
vious ftep to the general knowledge of Chnftianity, the
prophecies of the millennium have a chief relation to t his
important event. We have already obferved, that God
never interpofes with miraculous power to produce what
can be effeCted by natural means ; and from what we
know' of human nature, we cannot but perceive that the
converfion of the Jews will powerfully operate to the
general converfion of mankind. I iced from thofe pre¬
judices which now make them the objeCls of liatied 111
all nations, and fired with that zeal by which new con¬
verts are always aCIuated, they will preach the golpel
with a fervour of which we, who have long been blef-
fed with its rays, can hardly form a conception j and,
by their prefent difperfion over the whole earth, they
will be enabled to adapt their inftruaions to every in¬
dividual of the human race in the language of his fa¬
thers. Indeed, if they are not at fome future period to
be employed by Providence for this purpofe, it is diffi¬
cult, if not impoffible, to give any reafon for their dif-
perfed ftate and political exiftence. Juft now it muft be
confcffed that they are the moft implacable enemies of
the Chriftian name j but their converfion is not on that
account more unlikely or improbable than weie events
which have taken place of nearly equal importance a
very few years ago* On the whole, the per le cl ion
Chriftianity is a dodlrine of realonable expectation to
the church j and it is impoffible for the advocates for
natural religion to deny, that unlimited obedience to
its precepts is confiftent with the pureft ftate of libeity
and of happinefs. Ibis is the only millennium which
the prophets and apoftles, as we underftand them, pro-
mife to the faints ; but as men figuring in the very firft
ranks of learning have thought otherwife, we would not
be too confident that our interpretation is juft.-—-Such
of our readers as wiffi for further information, wili find
it in the works of Mr Mede, Biftiop Newton, lJr \\ hit-
by and Dr Gill} and to thofe malleily writers we refer
them for that fatisfudlion which in luch an article as
this cannot be given.
MILLEPES, or Wood-louse j afpecies of Onis-
cus. See Entomology Index.
MILLEPORA, in Natural Hiftory, a name by
which Linnaeus diftinguiffies that genus of lithophytes,
of a hard ftrudlure and full of holes, which are not ftd-
lated or radiated, and whole animal is the hycra, in
which it differs from the madrepora, and comprehend¬
ing 14 different fpecies.
In the millepora, the animal which forms and inha¬
bits it occupies the fubftance } and it is obferved that
02- tho
to the extremity
derncath it, gives
tion. Hence the
m r 10S
'!I||Pt'ia t,ie millePorne Rro'v up°n another ; their little ani-
Miilot, fma)1M'r(;duce their fpau n j which attaching itfclf either
°t the body already formed, or un-
a ditTerent form to this produc-
. various ihapes of the millepora,
uhich is compoled of an infinite number of the cells
oi thole little ir.fetts, which all together exhibit differ¬
ent figures, though every particular ceilula has its effen-
tiai form, and the fame dimenlions, according to its
own Ipccies. °
See Botany Index.
A.lLLlARh, or Milliarium, a Roman mile,
wmch confilted of 1000 paces, milk pajus, whence the
name.
MfLfJARIUM aurkum, was a gilded pillar in
the forum of Rome, at which ail the highways of Italy
met, as one common centre. From this pillar the miles
a\ ere counted, and at the end of every mile a ftone was
put down. i he milliary column was fretted by Au-
gu O'S Ccefar, and, as we arc informed by travellers, is
itill to be leen.
At I LUNG of Cr oTtf. See Fulling.
i'flLLION, in Arithmetic, the fum of ten hundred
thoulana, or a thoufand times a thoufand. See Arith¬
metic.
MILLO, apart of Mount Zion at its extremity;
and therefore called UiU of the city of David
r , nT' xxx,,-> taken in "ith the wall that encora-
pa)»cd Mount Zion. Uncertain whether Beth Vi/fa
(Judges ix. 20.) denotes a place ; if it did, it lay nea^
oechem.
MIL LOT, Claude Francis Xavier, of the
French academy, was born at Befan^on, March 1726
and was for fome time a Jefuit. Fie was confederated
to- Ihe pulpit, and continued to preach after he left the
lociety: But the weaknefs of his voice, his timidity, and
the awkwardnefs of his manner, not permitting him to
continue in this profeffion, he relinquilhed it, althomdi
he had preached Advent fermons at Verfailles, and
Ant fermons at Luneville. Ihe marquis de Felino,
rmifier of Parma, inftituted an hidorical clafj for the
benefit of the young nobility, and, at the defire of
M. le Due de Nivernois, he gave the charge of it to
the a ibe 'Tillot. 1'he minilter having occafioned a
ki H )f rebellion among the people by fome innovations
which he had made in the Rate, the abhe continued at¬
tached to the interefts of his patron, and would not de-
fi rt him till the dorm was blown over. When he was
told that he would lofe his place by this condutt, he re-
pl ed, u Mv p^ce is with a virtuous perfecuted man
who lias been mv benefattor; and that I {hall never
lobe.” At length, having filled the hifiorical chair
with great approbation, he returned to France, and was
appointed preceptor to M. le Due d’Enghien. In this
fituation he died, A. D. 1785, aged i9. The abbe
Mdlot did not thine in company •, he was cold and re-
ferved in his manner; but every thing he faid was ju¬
dicious,and exattly in point.—D’Alembert faid, that
of all his acquaintance the abbe Millot had the feweft
prejudices and the lead pretenfion. He compofed feve-
ral works, which are digefted with great care, and
written in a pure, fimpie, and natural fiyle. The’prin-
cipa! are. 1. E/emens cle I'HiJloire de France, deptm
Clovis jitfqu' a Louis XIV. 3 vols. in 1 2mo. The'au¬
thor, feletting the mod curious and important facts, has
] MIL
fuppreffed every thing foreign to the fubjett 5 and has
not only arranged the materials in their proper order
but choien them with the greateft judgment. " Ouerlon '
thought this the bent abridgement which we have of the
hiitory of France, and preferred it to that of the prefi-
dent Renault. 2. Element de i'HiJioire d'Anglcterre
depms fon originejeus les Roma ins, jufqk a George II.
3 vols. i2mo. In this valuable abridgement, the au¬
thor fatisfies,^ without tiring, his readers. It is all that
is neceffary tor thole who with to gain a general know¬
ledge ot the Engliih hiilory, without entering minute¬
ly into its particular parts.—3. Eiemens de PHifoire
Lbnverfelie, 9 vols. i2mo. A certain critic maintains,
that this work is merely a counterfeit of Voltaire’s »e-
ncral hiftory. But this cenfure is altogether unjuih
i he ancient hiftory in tiiis work is wholly compofed by
the abbe Millot ; and, no lefs than the modern part
di fee vers his abilities in the choice of fatts, in diveiting
them of ufelefs circumftances, in relating them without
prejudice, and in adorning them with judicious reflec¬
tions.^ t\. L'lli/ioire des Troubadours, 3 vols. 12mo
compiled from the manuferipts of M. de baint Palaie!
'I his work appears rather tedious, becaufe it treats of
men almoft unknown, and moft of them deferving to be
io. \\ hat is there quoted from the Provencal poets is
iwt al ail interefting ; and, accoruing to the obfervation
of a man of wit, “ it ferves no purpofe to fearch curi-
outly into a heap of old ruins while we have modern
palaces to engage our attenth n.” 5. Memoires Folk
tiques ct Militaires pourfervir a THij/oirede Louis XIV.
et de Louis XV. compofed from original papers collett-
ed by Adrian Maurice due de Noailles, marflial of
France, in 6 vols. 12mo. 6. The abbe Millot pub-
1 idled alio feveral Difcourfes, in which he difeuffes a
variety of philofophical queftions, with more ingenuity
of argument than fire of expreflion ; and a tranllation
of the moft felctt harangues in the Latin hiftorians ; of
whicli it has been remarked, as well as of the orations
of the abbe d’Olivet, that they are coldly corrett, and
elegantly infipid. The eharatter of the author, more
prudent and circumfpett than lively and animated, fel-
dom elevated his imagination above a noble ftmplieity
without warmth, and a pure ftyle without oftentation.
Some of the critics, however, have accufed him of de¬
clamation in fome parts of his hiftories, particularly in
thofe parts which concern the clergy. But, in our opi¬
nion, the word declamation is totally inapplicable to the
writings of the abbe Millot. He flatters, it is true,
neither priefis nor ftatefmen; and he relates more in-
dances vicious than virtuous attions, bccaufe the one
are infinitely more common than the other : But he re¬
lates them coldly 5 and he appears to be guided more
by fincerity and a love of truth, than by that partial
philofophy which blames the Chriftian religion for thofe
evils which it condemns.
MILO, a celebrated athlete of Crotona in Italy.
His father’s name was Diotimus. He early accuftomed
himfelf to carry the greateft burdens, and by degrees
became a prodigy of ftrength. It is faid that he car¬
ried on his ftioulders a young bullock, four years old,
for above forty yards ; and afterwards killed it with one
blow of bis fill, and eat it up in one day. Fie was fe-
ven times crowned at the Pythian games, and fix at the
Olympian. He prefented himfelf a feventh time 5 but
no one had the courage or beldnefs to enter the lids
againff
M ilo.
M I L [i
lo. again ft him. He was one of the difeipks of Pythago-
ras j and to his uncommon Ifrength, it is hud, the
learned preceptor and hi^ pupils owed their life : The
pillar which fupported the roof of the fchool fuddenly
gave way ; but Milo fupported the whole weight of the
building, and gave the philolopher and h's auditors time
to efcape. In his old age, Milo altenij' d to pull up a
tree by the roots, and break it. He partly effefted it j
but his ftrength being gradually exhaufted, the tree
■when half cleft re-united, and his hands remained pinch¬
ed in the body of the tree. He was then alone ; and,
being unable to difentangle himfelf, be w;as devoured
by the wild beads of the place, about 500 years before
the Chridian era.
Milo, i\ Anmus, a native of Lanuvium, who at¬
tempted to obtain the confuldrip at Rome by intrigue
and feditious tumults. Clodius the tribune oppofed
his views ; yet Milo uvould have fueceeded but for the
following event : As he was going into the country, at¬
tended by his wife and a numerous retinue of gladiators
and fervants, he met on the Appian road his enemy
Clodius, who was returning to Rome with three of his
friends and feme domeftics completely armed.—A
quarrel arofe between the fervants. Milo fupported his
attendants, and the difpute became general.—Clodius
received many fevere wounds, and was obliged to re¬
tire to a neighbouring cottage. Milo purfued his ene¬
my in his retreat, and ordered his fervants to defpatch
him. The body of the murdered tribune was carried
to Rome, and expofed to public view. The enemies
of ?»Iilo inveighed bitterly againft the violence and bar¬
barity with which the facred perlbn of a tribune had
been treated. Cicero undertook the defence of Milo ;
but the continual clamours of the friends of Clodius,
and the fight of an armed foldiery, which furrounded
the feat of judgment, fo terrified the orator, that he
forgot the gn atelt part of his arguments, and the de¬
fence he made was uveak and injudicious.—Milo was
condemned, and banifhed to Maflilia. Cicero foon af¬
ter fent his exiled friend a copy of the oration which
he had prepared for his defence, in the form in which
we have it now ; and Milo, after he had read it, ex¬
claimed, 0 Cicero, had ft thou fpoken before v:y accufers
in thefe term?, Milo would not be now eating f^s at
Marfeilles. The friendlhip and cordiality of Cicero and
Milo wrere the fruits of long intimacy and familiar in-
tercourfe. It was to the fuccefsful labours of Milo that
tire orator was recalled from banilhment, and reltored
to his friends.
Milo, (anciently Memos'), an ifland in the Archipe¬
lago, about 50 miles in circumference, with a harbour,
which is one of the largeft in the Mediterranean. The
principal town is of the fame name as the ifiand, and
-was prettily built, but abominably nafty : the houfes
are two dories high, with fiat roofs ; and are built wish
a fort of pumice done, which is hard, blackifli, and yet
very light.
This ifland was formerlv rich and populous. From
the earlied times of antiquity it enjoyed pure liberty.
09 ] M I L
’J he Athenians, not being able to perfuade the Melfans Milo,
to declare in their favour in the Peloponncfian w ar, ‘ v -f
made a defeent upen the ifland, and attacked them vi-
goroufly. In two different expeditions they failed of
their purpofe : but returning with more numerous
forces, they hid flege lo Melos ; and obliging the
befieged to furrender at difcrelion, put to the Iword
all the men who were able to bear arms. They fpared
only the women and children, and thefe they carried
into captivity. 'I his a^t of cruelty puts humanity to
the blufh, and difgraces the Athenian name. But war
Avas then carried on Avith a degree of wild rage, unex¬
ampled in the prefent times. Republics know not
hoAV to pardon, and always carry their vengeance to
an extravagant height. When Lyfander, the Lacedae¬
monian general, came to give law to the Athenians,
he expelled the colony Avhich they had fent to Melos,
and re-efiablifhed the unfortunate remains of its original
inhabitants.
This ifland loft its liberty Avlicn Rome, afpiring t©
the empire of the Avorld, conquered all the iftes of the
Archipelago. In the partition of the empire, it fell
to the lliare of the eaftern emperors, Avas governed by
particular dukes, and Avas at laft conquered by Soli-
man II. Since that^period, it lias groaned under the
yoke of Turkifli defpotifm, and has loft its opulence
and fplendour. At the commencement of the prefent
century, it boafted of 17 churches and 11 chapels, and
contained more thaw 20,coo inhabitants It was very
fertile in corn, wine, and fruits ; and the A^ hole fpace
from the town to the harbour, which is nearly two
miles, Avas laid out in beautiful gardens. M. Tourne-
fort, avIio vifited it in the year J 700, gives a fine de-
feription of it. “ The earth, being conftantly Avarmed
by fubterraneous fires, produced almoft Avithout inter¬
ruption plenteous crops of corn, barley, cotton, cx-
quifite Avines, and delicious melons. St Elias, the fin^ft
monaftery in the ifland, and fituated on the molt ele¬
vated fpot, is encircled with orange, citron, cedar, and
fig trees. Its gardens are Avatered by a copious fpring.
Olive trees, of which there are but few in the other
parts of the ifland, groAv in great numbers around this
monaftery. The adjacent vineyards afford excellent
Avine. In a Avord, all the productions of the ifland arc
the very belt of their kinds ; its partridges, quails, kids,
and lambs, are highly valued, and yet may be bought
at a very cheap price.”
Were M. Tournefort to return to Milo, M. Savary * * Letters
affures us, he would no longer fee the fine ifland Avhieh 0,1 Greece, s
he has deferibed. “He might ftill fee alum, in theLetila‘
form of feathers, and fringed with filver thread, hang¬
ing from tl>e arches of the caverns j pieces of pure
fulphur filing Che cliffs of the rocks ; a variety of mi¬
neral fprings •, hot baths (though thefe are now' only
a fet of fmall dirty caves) ; the fame fubterraneous
fires Avhich in bis days Ararmed the bofom of the
earth, and were the caufe of its extraordinary fertility :
but inftead of 5000 Greeks, all paying the capitation
tax (a), he Avould now find no more than about 700
inhabitant*
(a) Grown up men are the only perfons Avho pay the capitation tax. Therefore, by adding to the number of'
5000 who paid the tax, the Avomen, boys, and girls, avc find that Melos, in the days of Tournefort, contained at
ieaft 20,000 fouls.
M I L
Milo. inliabitants on an ifland 18 leagues in circumference.
“""'v He would ligh to behold the fined lands lying unculti¬
vated, and the mod fertile valleys converted into mo-
rafl’es *, of the gardens fearcely a vedige is left } three-
fourths of the town in ruins, and the inhabitants daily
decreafing. In (hort, during the lad 50 years, Melos
has affumed a quite different appearance. The plague,
•which the Turks propagate everywhere, has cut off
one part of its inhabitants *, the injudicious admini-
dration of the Porte, and the oppreffive extortions of
the captain pacha, have dedroyed the red. At pre-
fent, for want of hands, they cannot cut out a free
channel for their waters, which dagnate in the valleys,
corrupt, and infeft the air with their putrid exhala¬
tions. The fait mardies, of which there are numbers
in the ifland, being equally neglefled, produce the
fame effects. Add to thefe inconveniences, thofe ful-
phureou* exhalations which arife all over the ifiand,
and by which the inhabitants of Melos are afflifted
■with dangerous fevers during three-fourths of the year.
Perhaps they may be obliged to forfake their coun¬
try. Every countenance is yellow, pale, and livid ;
and none bears any marks of good health. The pru¬
dent traveller will be careful to fpend but a very fliort
time in this unwholefome country, unlefs he choofes
to expofe himfelf to the danger of catching a fever.
To deep over night, or to fpend but one day in the
ifland, is often enough to occafion his being attacked
with that didemper.
“ Yet (continues our author) a judicious and en¬
lightened government might expel thofe evils which
ravage Melos. Its fird care would be to edablidi a la-
•zaret, and to prohibit veffels whofe crews or cargoes
are infe&ed with the plague from landing. Canals
might next be cut, to drain the mardies, whofe exha¬
lations are fo pernicious. The idand would then be
repeopled. The fulphureous vapours are not the mod
noxious. Thefe prevailed equally in ancient times, yet
the idand was then very populous. M. Tournefort,
who travelled through it at a time lefs didant from the
period when it was conquered by the Turks, and when
they had not yet had time to lay it wade, reckons the
number of its inhabitants (as we have faid) at about
20,000. The depopulation of Melos is therefore to be
cfcribed to the defpotifm of the Porte, and its detedable
police.1’
Suther- The women of Milo, once fo celebrated for their
land’s Tow beauty, are now fallow, unhealthy, and difgudingly
up the ugly ; and render themfelves dill more hideous by their
^ drefs, which is a kind of loofe jacket, writh a white coat
l) ^ and petticoat, that fcarcely covers two-thirds of their
thighs, barely meeting the docking above the knee.
Their hind hair hangs down the back in a number of
plaits ) that on the fore part of the head is combed
down each fide of the face, and terminated by a fmall
ftiff curl, which is even with the lower part of the
cheek. All the inhabitants are Greeks, for the Turks
are not fond of truding themfelves in the fmall ifiands ;
but every dimmer the captain balhaw goes round with
a fquadron to keep them in fubjedlion, and to colledt
the revenue. When the Ruffians made themfelves ma¬
tters of the Archipelago, many of the iflands declared
in their favour •, but being abandoned by the peace,
they were fo feverely mulcted by the grand fignior, that
they have profeffed a determination to remain perfedtly
M I L
quiet in future. As the Turks, however, do not think Milo
them worth a garrifon, and will not trud them with (I 1
arms and ammunition, all thofe which the Ruffians may
choofe to invade will be obliged to fubmit. The two
points which form the entrance of the harbour, crof-
fing each other, render it imperceptible until you are
clofe to it. Thus, while you are perfectly fecure
within it, you find great difficulty in getting out, par¬
ticularly in a northerly wind j and as no trade is car¬
ried on except a little in corn and fait, Milo would
fcarcely ever be vifited, were it not that, being the
firff ifiand which one makes in the Archipelago, the
pilots have chofen it for their refidence. They live in
a little town on the top of a high rock, which, from its
fituation and appearance, is called the Cajlle.—Par¬
tridges dill abound in this ifland } and are fo cheap,
that you may buy one for a charge of powder only.
The peafants get them by danding behind a portable
fcreen, with a fmall aperture in the centre, in which
they place the muzzle of their piece, and then draw
the partridges by a call. When a fufficient number are
colledted, they fire among them, and generally kill
from four to feven at a fliot; but even this method of
getting them is fo expenfive, from the fcarcity of am¬
munition, that the people can never afford to flioot
them, except when there are gentlemen in the ifland,
from whom they can beg a little powder and ftrot.
Milo is 60 miles north of Candia 5 and the town is
fituated in E. Long. 25. 15. N. Lat. 36. 27.
MILSTONE. See Millstone.
MILT, in Anatomy, a popular name for the
Spleen.
Milt, or Melt, in Natural Hi/lory, the foft roe in
fillies •, thus called from its yielding, by expreflion, a
whitilh juice refembling milk. See Roe.
The milt is properly the feed or fpcrmatic part of the
male fifli. The milt of a carp is reckoned a choice bit.
It confids of two long whitiih irregular bodies, each in¬
cluded in a very thin fine membrane. M. Petit confi-
ders them as the tedicles of the fifli wherein the feed is
preferved •, the lower part next the anus, he fuppofes
to be the vejiculce feminales.
MILTHORP, a port town of Weflmoreland, at the
mouth of the Can, eight miles fouth from Kendal. It
is the only fea port in the county \ and goods are
brought hither in fmall veffels from Grange in Lan-
caftiire. Here are two paper mills. It has a market
on Friday, and a fair on Old May day ; and there is a
good done bridge over the river Betha, which runs
through the town.
MILTIADES, an Athenian captain, fon of Cyp-
felus. He obtained a viftory in a chariot race^ at the
Olympic games. He led a colony of Athenians to
the Cherfonefus. The caufes of this appointment are
ftriking and Angular. The 1 hracian Dolonci, ha-
raffed by a long war with the Abfynthians, were di-
re£led by the oracle of Delphi to take for their king
the fird man they met in their return home, who in¬
vited them to come under his roof and partake his
entertainments. This was Miltiades, whom the ap¬
pearance of the Dolonci, w ith their flrange arms and
garments, had ftruck. He invited them to his houfe,
and was made acquainted with the commands of the
oracle. He obeyed \ and when the oracle of Delphi
had approved a fecond time the choice of the Do¬
lonci,
[ no ]
MIL [i
] kiades. loncx, he departed for the Cherfonefus, and rvas in-
 ' veiled by the inhabitants with foverei^n power. The
firft meafures he took were to flop the further incur-
iions of the Abfynthians, by building a Itrong wall
acrofs the ifthmus. When he liad eltablilhed himfelf
at home, and fortified his dominions againlt foreign
invafion, he turned his arms againil Lamplacus. His
expedition was unfuccefsful j he was taken in an am-
bulcadr, and made prifoner. His friend Croefus king
of Lvdia was informed of his captivity, and procured
his releafe. He lived few years after he had reco¬
vered his liberty. As he had no iflue, he left his
kingdom and poffefiions to Stefagoras the fon of Ci-
mon, who Avas his brother by the fame mother. The
memory of Miltiades was greatly honoured by the
Dolonci, and they regularly celebrated feltivals and
exhibited ihows in commemoration of a man to whom
they owed their greatnefs and prefervation.
Miltiades, the fon of Cimon, and brother of
Stefagoras mentioned in the preceding article, was fome
time after the death of the latter, who died without
iiTue, fent by the Athenians rvith one Ihip to take
poffetfion of the Cherfonefus. At his arrival Mil¬
tiades appeared mournful, as if lamenting the recent
death of his brother. The principal inhabitants of
the country vifited the new governor to condole with
him $ but their confidence in his fineerity proved fa¬
tal to them. Miltiades feized their perfons, and made
himfelf abfolute in Cherfonefus. To llrengthen him¬
felf, he married Hegefipyla, the daughter of Olorus
I the king of the Thracians. His triumph was Ihort.
In the third year of his government, his dominions
were threatened by an invafion of the Scythian No-
mades, whom Darius had fome time before irritated
by entering their country. He fled before them }
but as their hoftilities were of fiiort duration, he was
foon reftored to his kingdom. Three years after, he
left Cherfonefus •, and let fail for Athens, where he
I was received with great applaufe. He was prefent
at the celebrated battle of Marathon ; in which all
the chief officers ceded their power to him, and left
the event of the battle to depend upon his fuperior
abilities. He obtained an important vidlory over the
more numerous forces of his adverfaries. Some time
after, Miltiades was intrufted with a fleet of 70 fliips,
and ordered to puniih thofe iflands which had revolt¬
ed to the Perfians. He rvas fuccefsful at firft, but
a fudden report that the Perfian fleet was coming to
attack him, changed his operations as he was befieging
Paros. He raifed the fiege, and returned to Athens.
He was accufed of treafon, and particularly of hold¬
ing correfpondence with the enemy. The falfity of
thefe accufations might have appeared, if Miltiades
had been able to come into the aflembly. But a
wound which he had received before Paros detained
him at home \ and his enemies, taking advantage of
his abfence, became more eager in their accufations,
and louder in their clamours. He was condemned
to death •, but the rigour of his fentence was retrac¬
ed on the recolleCion of his great fervices to the A-
Ithenians, and he was put into prifon till he had paid a
fine of 50 talents to the ftate. His inability to dif-
charge fo great a fum detained him in confinement •,
and his wounds becoming incurable, he died a pri¬
soner about 489 years before the Chriftian era. His
5
11 ] MIL
body was ranfomed by his fon Cimon j who was obli- Miltiades,
ged to borrow and pay the 50 talents, to give his father , Mllt*n-
a decent burial.—The accufations againlt Miltiadcs
were probably the more readily believed by his coun¬
trymen, when they remembered how he made him¬
felf abfolute in Cherfonefus ; and in condemning the
barbarity of the Athenians towards a general, who
was the fource of their military profperity, we muft
remember the jealoufy which ever reigns among a
free and independent people, and how watchful they
are in defence of the natural rights which they fee
wrefted from others by violence. Cornelius Nepos
has written the life of Miltiades the fon of Cimon j
but his hiftory is incongruous and unintelligible, from
his confounding the actions of the fon ot Cimon with
thofe of the fon of Cypfelus. Greater reliance is to
be placed on the narration of Herodotus, whofe ve¬
racity is confirmed, and who was indifputably better
informed and more capable of giving an account of
the life and exploits of men who flourilhed in his age,
and of which he could fee the living monuments.
Herodotus was born about fix years after the famous
battle of Marathon : and C. Nepos, as a writer of the
Auguftan age, flouriffied about 450 years after the age
of the father of hiftory.
MILTON, John, the moft illuftrious of the Eng-
liffi poets, was defeended of a genteel family, feated
at a place of their own name, viz. Milton, in Oxford-
ftiire. He was born December 9. 1608, and received
his firft rudiments of education under the care of his
parents, affifted by a private tutor. He atterwards
palled fume time at St Paul’s fchool, London •, in which
city his father had fettled, being engaged in the bufi-
nefs of a ferivener. At the age of 17, he was fent to
Chrift’s college, Cambridge j where he made great
progrefs in ail parts of academical learning *, but his
chief delight was in poetry. In 1628, he proceeded
bachelor of arts, having performed his exercife for it
with great applaufe. His father defigned him for the
church ; but the young gentleman’s attachment to the
Mufes was fo ftrong, that it became impofiible to engage
him in any other purfuits. In 1632, he took the de¬
gree of mafter of arts ; and having now fpent as much
time in the univerfity as became a perfon who deter¬
mined not to engage in any of the three proftflioris,
lie left the college, greatly regretted by his acquain¬
tance, but highly difpleafed with the ufual method of
training up youth there for the ftudy of divinity \ and
being much out of humour with the public adminiftra-
tion of ecclefiaftical affairs, he grew diffatisfied with
the eftablilhed form of church government, and dilliked
the whole plan of education praftiftd in the univerfity.
His parents, who now dwelt at Horton, near Coin-
brook, in Buckinghamfliire, received him with una¬
bated affection, notwithftanding he had thwarted their
views of providing for him in the church, and they
amply indulged him in his love of retirement; wherein
he enriched his mind with the choiceft itores of Gre¬
cian and Roman literature 5 and his poems of Camus,
PAllegro, ll Penferofo, and Lycidas, all wrote at this
time, would have been fufficient, had he never produ¬
ced any thing more confiderable, to have tranfmitted
his fame to the lateft pofterity. However, he was not
fo abfurbed in his ftudies as not to make frequent ex-
curfions to London j neither did fo much excellence
pafs
M I L [ i
Milton.
|>afs unnoticed jmiong Ins neighbours in the country,
with tlie moft didinguiihed t>f whom he fometimes
chofe to relax his mind, and improve his acquaintance
with the world as well as with books.— After five
years fpent in this manner, he obtained his father’s
pcrmiilion to travel for farther improvement. At Paris
he became acquainted with the celebrated Hugo Gro-
tius; and from t lienee travelling into Italy, he was
everywhere careffed by perfons of the mod; eminent
quality and learning.
Upon his return home, he fet up a genteel academy
in Alderfgate ilreet.—In 1641, he began to draw his
pen in defence of the Prefbyterian parly ; and the next
year lie married the daughter of Richard Powell, Efq.
of Foreft Hill in Ox ford (hire. This lady, however,
whether from a difference on account of party, her
father being a zealous royalift, or feme other caufe,
foon thought proper to return to her relations*, which fo
incenfcd her hulband, that he refolved never to lake
her again, and wrote and publifhed feveral trails in
defence of the doflrine and difeipline of divorce. He
even made his addreffes to another lady *, but this in¬
cident proved the means of a reconciliation with Mrs
Milton.
In 1644, ke wrote his Tra<51 upon Education *,
and the reftraint on the liberty of the prefs being
continued by act of parliament, he wrote boldly anci
nobly againft that red raint. In 1645, publifhed
bis juvenile poems ; and about two years after, on the
death of his father, he took a fmaller houfe in High
Holborn, the hack of which opened into Lincoln’s-
Inn Fields.—Here lie quietly profecuted his ftudies,
till the fatal catailrophe and death of Charles I. *, on
which occadon lie publifhed his Tenure of Kings and
Magiftrates, in juftification of tlia faft. He was now
taken into the forvice of the commonwealth, and made
Latin fecretary to the council of date, who refolved
neither to write to others abroad, nor to receive any
anfwers, except in the Latin tongue, which was com¬
mon to them all. I he famous 'Etx.av Bac/Ajjoj coming
out about the fame time, our author, by command,
wrote and publifhed his Iconoclajles the fame year.
It was alfo by order of his mailers, backed by the re-
uard of ioocI. that in 1651 he publifhed his cele-
braied piece, entitled Pro Popu/o Anglicano Defcn-
fio ; “ A Defence of the people of England, in an-
fwer to Salmafius’s Defence of the King ; which per¬
formance fpread his fame over all Europe. He now
dwelt in a pleafant houfe with a garden in Petty
France, Weftminfter, opening into St James’s Park.
In 1652 he buried bis wife, who died not long after
the deliverv of her fourth child ; and about the fame
time he alfo loft his eye-fight, by a gutta ferena, which
had been growing upon him many years.
Cromwell took the reins of government into his own
hand in the year 1654 ; but Milton ftill held his of¬
fice. His leifure hours he employed in profecuting his
ftudies ; wherein he was fo far from being difeouraged
by the lofs of his fight, that he even conceived hopes
this misfortune would add new vigour to his genius ;
which in fa<51 feems to have been the cafe.—Thus
animated, he again ventured upon matrimony : his fe-
cond lady was the daughter of Captain Woodftock of
Plackney : fhe died in childbed about a year after.
On the depofition of the protestor, Richard Crcm-
12] MIL
well, and on the return of the long parliament, Milton Milton. .L
being ftill continued fecretary, lie appeared again in 1
print j pleading for a farther reformation of the laws |
relating to religion -7 and, during the anarchy that en-
fued, he drew up feveral fchemes for re-eftabliftiing tha f ^
commonwealth, exerting all his faculties to prevent
the return of Charles II. England’s deftiny, however,
and Charles’s good fortune prevailing, our author chofe
to conlult his fafety, and retired to a friend’s houfe in
Bartholomew Clote. A particular profeeution was in¬
tended againft him ; but the juft efteem to which his
admirable genius and extraordinary accomplifhments
entitled him, had raifed him fo many friends, even among
thofe of the oppofite party, that he was included in the
general amnefty.
This ftorm being over, he married a third wife, Eli¬
zabeth, daughter of Mr Minfhall a'Cheftiire gentleman j
and not long after he took a houfe in the Artillery
Walk, leading to Bunhill Fields. This was his laft ftage:
here he fat down for a longer continuance than he had
been able to do anywhere ; and though he had loft
his fortune (for every thing belonging to him went to
wreck at the Reftoration), lie did no* lofe his tafte for
literature, but continued his ftudies with almoft as much
ardour as.ever 5 and applied himfelf particularly to the
finifhing his grand work, the Paradife Loji ; one of the
nobleft poems that ever was produced by human genius.
— It was publifhed in 1667, anc^ Paradife Regained
came out in 1670.—This latter work fell ftiort of the
excellence of the former produefion 7 although, were
it not for the tranfeendent. merit of Paradife Loft, the
fecond compolition would doubtlefs have flood fore-
moft in the rank of Englilh epic poems. After this he
publifhed many pieces in profe j for which we refer our
readers to the edition of his Hiftorical, Poetical, and
Mifcellaneous Works, printed by Millar, in 2 vols.
4to*inI 753-
In 1674, this great man paid the laft debt to na¬
ture at his houfe in Bunhill Fields, in the 66th year
of his age ; and ivas interred on the 12th of Novem¬
ber, in the chancel of St Giles’s, Cripplegate.—A de¬
cent monument was ere<5ted to his memory, in 1737,
in Weftminfter Abbey, by Mr Benfon, one of the audi¬
tors of the impreft.—Milton ivas remarkably handfome
in his perfon j but his conftitution was tender, and by
no means equal to his inceffant application to his ftudies.
—Though greatly reduced in his circumftances, yet he
died worth 1500I. in money, beftdes his boufehold
goods.—He had no fon : but left behind him three
daughters, whom he had by his firft wife.
Milton, the name of feveral places in England j
particularly,
Milton, or Middleton, in Dorfetfliire, fouth-weft
of Blandford, near the road to Dorchefter, 114 miles
from London. It is chiefly noted for its abbey, built
by King Athelftan. The church ftands near the fouth
fide of the abbey. It is a large and magnificent pile
of Gothic architefhire, and contains feveral ancient
monuments. Here is an aim houfe for fix people, who
have 12s. a-week, and three yards of cloth for a gown,
one pair of ftioes and ftockings, and 10s. each on St
Thomas’s day yearly. Here is a free fchool, and a
market on Tuefdays.
Milton, in Kent, near Sittingbourn and the ifle of
Sheppey, 6 miles nerth-weft of Fevcrfham, and 40
from
81
>1 toa
i
V ner
M I M f i
from London. It is alfo galled Middleton from its fi-
tuation near the middle of the county, i e. from Dept¬
ford to the Downs, "['he kings of Kent had a palace
^ here, which was caftellated, and flood below the church ;
but was burnt down in Edward the Confeffor’s time
bv Earl Goodwin, &c. Its church flands near a mile
off. On approaching the town up the Thames, by
the Eaft Swale, it feems hid among the creeks: yet it
is a large town ; and has a conflderable market on Sa¬
turdays, and a fair on July 24. The ovfters taken here
are the moft famous of any in Kent. This town is
governed by a portreeve, ch-fen yearly on St James’s
day, who fupervifes the weights and meafures all over
the hundred of Vlilton.
Milton, in Kent, a mile on the eafl fide of Gravcf-
end, was incorporated with it in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, by the name of the portreeve, jurats, and
Inhabitants of the towns of Gravefend and Milton.
King Henry VIII. raifed a platform or blockhoufe
here, for the defence both of this town and Gravef¬
end, and the command of the river. It has a fair
January 25.
MILVIUS, Molvius, orMulvius, Powr; a bridge
on the Tiber, built by /Emilius Scaurus the cenfor, in
the time of Sylla, at two miles diflance from the city,
on the Via Flaminia, and repaired bv Auguftus. From
this bridge the ambaiTadors of the Allobroges were
brought back to Rome, by Cicero’s management, and
made a difcoverv of Catiline’s confpiracy (Sallurt).
Near it Maxentius wa« defeated by Conftantine (Eu-
tropius). Now called Por/te Molle.
Milvius. a fnecies of Falco. See Falco, Orni¬
thology Index.
MI VII, Mimes, in the ancient comedy, were buf¬
foons or mimics, who entertained the people bv taking
off certain chararters, ufing fuch geftures as fuited the
perfons or fuhjefts they reprefented. There were on
the Roman ftage female performers of *h’s kind called
mimee. 'The word is derived from nifMouxi, I imitate.
Some of the mimi a<ffed their parts to the found of the
tibia ; thefe thev called mimauli.
. Mimi were alfo a kind of farces or ludicrous come-
<jie«, generally- performed bv one perfim. They had
no a (A', nor any exordium.—The mimi wrere introduced
upon the Roman rtage long after comedv and tragedy
bad arrived at their full perfe&ion. The a<ffor wire
no mafk, but fmeared his face with foot, was dreffed in
lambfkin, wore garlands of ivy, and carried a hafket
of flowers and herbs, in honour of Bacchus, and di¬
verted the audience with anifh tricks and ridiculous
dances. This was the fla*e of the mimi foon after their
firfi introduction ; but they underwent many altera¬
tions, which it would take up too much room to relate,
and whic h are not of fufficient importance to juflify
a detailed account. See Pantomimes.
MIMESIS, in Rhetoric, the imitating the voice and
geflure^ of another perfon.
MIMNERMUS, an ancient poet and mufician,
fl unftied about the beginning of the fixth century B. C.
was of Smyrna, and cotemporary with Solon. A-
thenmus gives him the invention of pentameter verfe.
His elegies, of which only a fevv fragments are pre-
fe-ved, w'ere fo much admired in antiquity, tha* Ho-
raee preferred them to thofe iff CVlimachusi He com-
jpofed a poem of this kind, as we learn from Paufanias,
Vol. XIV. Part I.
T3 1 MIN
upon the battle fought between the people of Smyrna,
and the Lydians under Gyges. He likewife v s au¬
thor of a poem in elegiac verfe, quoted by Strabo,
which he entitled Nanno, and in which we may fuppofe
he chiefly celebrated a young and beautitul gicl of that
name, who, according to Athemeus, was a player on
the flute, with whom he was enamoured in his old age.
With rcfpeCt to love matters, according to Propertius,
his verfes were more valuable than all the writing* off
Homer.
P/us in amore valet Mimnermi verfus Homero.
Lib. I. Eleg. ix. v. 11.
And Horace bears teftimony to his abilities in de-
feribingthat feducing paflion :
Si Mimnernus uti cenfei, fine amore iocfque
Nil jucundum, vivas in amore jocifque.
Lib. I. Epifl. vi. v. 65.
If, as wife Mimnermus faid,
Life unblefl with love and joy
Ranks us with the fenfeleis dead,
Let thefe gifts each hour employ.
Alluding to fome much admired lines of the Greek
poet, which have been prelerved by Stobceus.
T<5 "ik fins, r< 5s TSgTrven acnij 'A^oo.raf, &.C.
Vv hat is life and all its pride,
If love and pleafure be. denied ?
Snatch, fnatch me hence, ye Fates, whene’er
l he am’rous blils I ceafe to (hare.
Oh let us crop each tragrant flow’r
While youth and vigour give us pow’r :
For frozen age will foon deflroy
The force to give or take a ioy ;
And then, a prey to pain and care,
Detefted by the young and fair,
The fun’s bleft beams will hateful grow,
And only fliine on feenes of wo.
MIMOSA, the Sensitive Plant, a genus of plants
belonging to the monoeeia clafs ; and in the natural me.
thod ranking under the 33d order, Lommtacece. See
Botany and Matp.ria Medica Inde'.
The name mimofa, fignitying “ mimic,” is given to
this genus on account of the lenfibility of the leaves,
which, by their motion, mimic or imitate, as it were,
the motion of animals.
MINA, or Maneh, a fpecies of money which pro¬
perly fignifies one part or ounce. It is obferved that
this word occurs, only in the books of Kings, Chro¬
nicles, Ezra, and Ezekiel. This prophet (xlv. i 2.)
tells us, that the ruinah or maneh was valued at 60
Ihekels, which in gold make of our Englilh money
about 54J pounds, and in filver almofl feven pounds.
Thus for the Hebrew maneh. But the Greek or
Attic mina, which is probably that mentioned in the
books of the Maccabees and in the New Teflament,
is valued at 100 drachmae, or about 2I. 17s. flerling.
There was alfo a leffer mina, which was valued at 75
drachmae.
MINAGNGHINIM, a pulfative inflrument of
mufic. among the Hebrews, which was a fqnare table
of wood, fitted with a handle j over this table "
P ftretched
Mimner» •'
nuis
I!
Minagnglii-
mm.
Mindanao.
MIN [ 11
Minagnghi- ftretfched an iron chain, or hempen cord, paffmg through
1 jl’1 balls of wood or brafs, which flruck againft the table,
when the inftrument was fhaken, and occafioned a clear
found, which might be heard at a great diilance.
MINCHA, in the Jewifh cuftoms, offerings of
meal, cakes, or bifeuits, made in the temple of the
Lord. The Seventy have fometimes preferved this
word in their tranflation •, but inftead of mincha they
read manaa, which doubtlefs was the received pronun¬
ciation in their time. We find manaa in the lame
fenfe, in Baruch i. 10. Levit. ii. 3. &c. See the
Greek of Jerem. xvii. 26. Dan. ii. 46. 2 Kings viii. 5,
9. xvii. 7. xx. 12. 2 Chron. vii. 7. Nehem. xiii. 5. 9.
&c.
MINCHING-hamfton, a town of Gloucefterlhire,
10 miles from Bath and Briftol, and near 90 from Lon¬
don, with a market on Xuefdays, and two fairs. The
parilh is pretty large, being bounded on the north by
the Stroud, and on the fouth by the brook Avening ;
and has 12 hamlets belonging to it, with a common
called Amberley. Here is a good large reftory church,
built in form of a crofs. In 1801 the inhabitants
amounted to 3419, many of whom are employed in
the woollen manufacture. W. Long. 2. 14. N. Lat.
51. 38.
MINCIUS, a river of the Tranfpadana in Italy ;
running from, or rather tranfmitted through, the Laeus
Benacus, from north to fouth, into the Padus *, but ori¬
ginally rifing in the Rhetian Alps. Now Mincio or
Menzo, running through the duchy of Mantua into
the Po.
MIND, a thinking intelligent being, other wife call¬
ed fpitit, in oppofition to matter or body. See Me¬
taphysics, Part III.
MINDANAO, or Magindanao, a large ifland
of Alia in the Eall Indie«, and one of the Philippines ;
160 miles in length, and 120 in breadth. The inte¬
rior parts contain feveral chains of lofty mountains,
between which are extenlive plain*, where vaft herds
of cattle roam at large in the moft delicious pallures.
Several deep valleys alfo interfeCf, as it were, certain
parts of the country, through which, during the rainy
feafons, vaft torrents pour from the mountains, and
force their impetuous way to the fea. The rains and
vapours which lodge in the plains diflfufe themfelves into
meandering rivulets, and, collecting a variety of fmall
Itreams in their courfe, approach the fea in the form of
considerable rivers.—The fovereign of Magindanao is
a powerful prince, and has feveral inferior chiefs, who
acknowledge him as their head. Neverthelefs, there
are others of them who refufe fubmiflion to him, and
are confequently in a continual Hate of war ; fo that
peace, at lealt, does not appear to be one of the blef-
lings of this illand. The Spaniards, indeed, affert
their right to the entire dominion of Magindanao ;
but it is mere affertion; for though they have forts,
&.c. on the illand, it is by no means in a Hate of fub-
jeCHon to their nation.
The air is efteemed falubrious, particularly in the
vicinity of the fea. The heat there is not, in any de¬
gree, fo intenfe as might be expefted in a country
which is lituated on the very verge of the torrid zone.
The prevalence of the eaflerly ivinds, in that part of
the coafls which is walked by the Pacific ocean, ren¬
ders the air cool and pleafant, the trade wind blowing
4 ] MIN
inceflantly on its Ihores. It aCls, indeed, with fo
much power as to fweep the whole breadth of the
illand ; and though in its paflage it lofes much of its
flrengtb, it retains a fufficient degree of force to af¬
ford refrelhing breezes to the inhabitants of the wellern
Ihore. The interior parts are much colder, from a
very cloudy atmofphere, which frequently hangs over
the fummits of the mountains in thick and humid va¬
pours. The foil, which is very exuberant, is fuited
to the cultivation of the whole vegetable tribes. Rice
is produced in the greatefi: abundance ; a pecul, or 133
pounds, may be purchafed for a Spanilh dollar. Every
part of the ill and abounds with buffaloes, cows, hogs,
goats, &c. It affords alfo great variety of fowls, and
a fpecies of duck, whofe head is of a fine fcarlet colour.
Here is alfo a fmall breed of horfes, remarkable for
their fpirit. The natives, however, principally employ
buffaloes in the various branches of hufbandry and agri¬
culture.
The city of Magindanao is lituated on the fouth-
eaft fide of the ifiand, has a river capable of admitting
fmall veffels, and carries on a confiderable trade with
Manilla, Sooloo, Borneo and the Moluccas. Their
exports are rice, tobacco, bees wax, and fpices ; in
return for which they receive coarfe cloths of Coro¬
mandel, China ware, and opium. The village or town
of Samboingan is fituated on the banks of a fmall
rivulet, which empties itfelf immediately into the fea,
and is agreeably fliaded by groves of cocoa trees. The.
number of its inhabitants is about icoo, among
which are included the officers, foldiers, and their re-
fpe&ive families. In its environs there are feveral
fmall look-out houfes, erected on polls of twelve feet
high, in all of which a confiant guard is kept •, fo
that it appears as if the Spaniards were in a continual
Hate of enmity with the natives. The houfes are built
of thofe fimple materials which are of very general ufe
in the eallern feas. They are ere61ed on polls, and
built of bamboo, covered with mats ; the lower apart¬
ments ferve for their hogs, cattle, and poultry, and.
the upper ones are occupied by the family.
MINDELHEIM, a town of Germany, in the
circle of Suabia, and in Algow, with a caltle. It
is capital of a fmall territory between the rivers Iller
and Lech, fubjedl to the houfe of Bavaria. It was
taken by the Imperialills after the battle of Hoch-
flet, who erefled it into a principality in favour o£
Mint
MiJ
the duke of Marlborough : but it returned back to
the houfe of Bavaria by the treaty of Ralladt. It is
33 miles fouth-ealt of Ulm. E. Long. 10. 40. N.
Lat. 48. 5.
Mindelheim, a diftritl of Germany, in Suabia, ly¬
ing between the biffioprick of Augffiurg and the ab¬
bacy of Kempten, which is 20 miles in length and 16
in breadth.
MINDEN, a confiderable town of Germany, in the
circle of Wellphalia ; and capital of a territory of the
fame name ; feated on the river Wefer, which renders
it a trading place. It formerly belonged to the king of
Pruffia, who fecularized the biffioprick. It is 27 miles
call by fouth of Ofnaburg, and 37 welt of Hanover. E.
Long. 9. 5. N. Lat. 52. 2 2.
Minden (the principality of), in Germany, lies in
the circle of Wellphalia, to the north of the county
of Ravenffiurg, and along each fide of the river Wefer.
It
MIN [
It is about 22 miles fquare, ami Minden and Peter-
lhagen are the principal places. It was formerly a
bilhopric, but is now fecularized *, was afterwards ceded
to the eleftor of Brandenburg, and is now annexed to
the new kingdom of Weftphalia.
MINDORA, an iiland of Ada, in the Eall Indies,
and one of the Philippines, 50 miles in circumference,
and feparated from Luconia by a narrow channel. It
is full of mountains, which abound in palm trees and
all forts of fruits. The inhabitants are idolaters,
and pay tribute to the Spaniards, to whom this idand
belongs.
MINE, in Naturnl Hijlory, a deep pit under ground,
from whence various kinds of minerals are dug out *,
but the term is more particularly applied to thofe
which yield metals Where Hones only are procured,
the appellation of quarries is univerfally bellowed upon
the places from which they are dug out, however deep
they may be.
The internal parts of the earth, as far as they have
been yet inveftigated, do not conli 1 of one uniform
fubtlance, but of various Jirata or beds of fubilances,
extremely different in their appearances, fpecific gra¬
vities, and chemical qualities, from one another. Nei-
there are thefe ftraia limilar to one another either in
their nature or appearance in different countries *, fo
that even in the Ihort extent of half a mile, the llrata
will be found quite different from what they are in
another place. As little are they the fame either in
depth or folidity. Innumerable cracks and fiffures,
by the miners called lodes, are found in every one of
them j but thefe are fo entirely different in fize and
fhape, that it is itnpoffible to form any inference from
their lize in one place to that in another. In thefe
lodes or fiffures the metallic ore is met with } and,
conffdering the great uncertainty of the dimenfions
of the lodes, it is evident that the bufinefs of mining,
which depends on that fize, muff in like manner be
quite uncertain and precarious. Mr Price, in his
treatife on the Cornifh mines, obferves, that “ the
comparative fmallnefs of the largeft fiffures to the bulk
of the whole earth is really wonderful. In the fineff
pottery we can make, by a microfcopic view, tve may
difeover numerous cracks and fiffures, fo fmall as to
be impenetrable by any fluid, and impervious to the
naked eye •, as, by the laws of nature originally im-
pofed by the Creator, it happens that matter cannot
contrail itfelf into folid large maffes, without leaving
fiffures between them, and yet the very fiffures are as
neceffary and ufeful as the ftrata through which they
pafs. They are the drains that carry off the redun¬
dant moiffure from the earth ; which, but for them,
would be too full of fens and bogs for animals
to live or plants to thrive on. In thefe fiffures,
the feveral ingredients 'which form lodes, by the conti¬
nual palling of waters, and the menftrua of metals, are
brought out of the adjacent ftrata, colleiled and con¬
veniently lodged in a narrow channel, much to the
advantage of thofe who fearch for and purfue them ;
for if metals and minerals wTere more difperfed, and
icattered thinly in the body of the ftrata, the trouble
of finding and getting at them would be endlefs, and
the expence of procuring them exceed the value of the
acquifition.
The infides of the fiffures are commonly coated
115 ] MIN
over with a hard, cryftalline, earthy fubftance or
rind, which very often, in the breaking of hard ore,
comes off along with it, and is commonly called the
capels or walls of the lode : but Mr Price is of opi¬
nion, that the proper walls of the lode are the fides
of the fiffure itfelf, and not the coat juft mentioned,
which is the natural plafter upon thole walls, furnilhed
perhaps by the contents ot the fiffures, or from oozing-
of the furrounding lit at a.
The breadth of a lode is eafily known by the dl-
ftance betwixt the two incrufted fides ot the Hones of
ore ; and if a lode yields any kind of ore, it is a bet¬
ter lign that the walls be regular and fmooth, or at
leaft that one of them be to, than other wife; but
there are not many of thefe fiffures which har e regu¬
lar walls until they have been tunk down fome fa¬
thoms.
Thus the inner part of the fiffure in which the ore
lies, is all the wray bounded by two walls of Hone,
which are generally parallel to one another, and in¬
clude the breadth of the vein or lode. Y\ hatever
angle of inclination tome fiflures make in the lolid
ftraia at their beginning, they generally continue to
do the fame all along. Some are very ur.certain in
their breadth, as they may be Imall at their upper
part and wide underneath, and vice verfa. Their re¬
gular breadth, as well as their depth, is fubjeft to
great variation; for though a fiffure may be many
fathoms wide in one particular place, yet a little tur-
ther eaft or weft it may not perhaps be one inch
wdde. This exceflive variation happens generally in
very compact ftrata, when the vein or fiffure is fqueez-
ed, as it wTere, through hard rocks which feem to
comprefs and ftraiten it. A true vein or fiffure, how¬
ever, is never entirely obliterated, but always fhows a
firing of metallic ore or of a veiny fubftance •, which
often ferves as a leader for the miners to follow until
it fometimes leads them to a large and richly im¬
pregnated part. Their length is in a great meafure
unlimited, though not the fpace belt fitted for yield¬
ing metal. The richeft Hate for copper, according
to Mr Price, is from 40 to 80 fathoms deep; for tin,
from 20 to 60 : and though a great quantity of either
may be raifed at 80 or 100 fathoms, yet, “ the quality
(fays our author) is often too much decayed and dry for
metal.”
Mr Price informs us, that the fiffures or veins of
the Cornifh mines extend from eaft to weft ; or, more
properly, one end of the fiffure points weft and by
fouth, or weft and by north \ while the other tends
call and by fouth, or eaft and by north. Thus they
frequently pafs through a confiderable tra£t of coun¬
try with very few variations in their diredlions, un-
lefs they be interrupted by fome intervening caufe.—
But, befides this eaft and weft direction, we are to
confider what the miners call the underlying or hade
of the vein or lode } viz. the defledlion or deviation
of the fiffure from its perpendicular line, as it is follow¬
ed in depth like the Hope of the roof of a houfe, or
the defeent of the fteep fide of a hill. This flope is
generally to the north or fouth } but varies much in
different veins, or fometimes even in the fame vein j
for it will frequently flope or underlie a fmall fpacc
in different ways, as it may appear to be forced by
hard ftrata on either fide.—Some of the fiffures do
P 2 not
MIN £ i
*ot vary much from a perpendicular, 'while feme devi¬
ate more than a fathom ; that is, for every fathom they
defeend in perpendicular height, they deviate likewife
as much to the fouth or north. Olliers differ fo much
from the perpendicular, that they aflame a pofition
almoff horizontal •, whence they are alfo called hori-
%oi)tnl or flat lodes, and fometimes lode plots. Ano¬
ther kind of thefe has an irregular pofition with re¬
gard to the reft ; widening horizontally for a little
way, and then defeending perpendicularly almoft like
flairs, with only a fmall firing or leader to follow af¬
ter ; and thus they alternately vary and yield ore in
feveral flat or horizontal fiflures. This, by the Cor-
niih tinners, is called (but in Mr Pricers opinion erro-
neoufly) a floor or fquat; which, properly fpcaking,
is a hole or chafm impregnated with metal, making
no continued line of diredlion or regular Avails. Nei-
O
ther does a floor of ore defeend to any confidcrable
depth j for underneath it there appears no fign of a
vein or fiflure, either leading diredllv down or any
©ther way. This kind of vein is very rare in Britain.
The fiffures moft common in Britain are the perpendicu¬
lar and inclined, whether their direction be north or
fouth, caff or weft.
The perpendicular and horizontal fiflures (accord¬
ing to our author) probably remain little altered from
their firft pofition, when they were formed at the in¬
duration of the ftrata immediately after the waters
left the land. The perpendicular fiflures are found
more commonly fituated in level ground, at a diftance
from hills, and from the fea fhore •, but with regard
to the latter, we find that the upper and under mafles
of ftrata differ in their folidity and other properties.
“ Hence, (fays our author) it is very plain, that in¬
ch ed fifiiires owe their defleefion or underlie to fome
fecondary caufe, violence, or fubfidence, of the earth:
for though perpendicular fiflures are feldom to be feen,
yet fuch as are inclined at very confiderable depths, be¬
come more and more perpendicular, as the more central
ftrata by reafon of the vaft fuperincumbent weight, do
not feem fo likely to be driven eat of their pofition as
thofe which lie nearer the furface.”
The fiflures are often met with fraffured as well
as inclined *, the reafon cf which, in Mr Price’s opi¬
nion, has been a fubfidence of the earth from fome
extraordinary caufe. “ The original pofition (fays
he) muft havTe been horizontal, or parallel to the fur-
face of the earth : but we often find thefe ftrata very
fenfibly declined from that firft pofition j nay, fome¬
times quite reverfed, and changed into perpendicular.
When we fee a wall lean, we immediately conclude
that the foundation has gh’en way, according to the
angles which the walls make with the horizon *, and
W'hen we find the like declination in ftrata, we may
conclude, by parity of reafon, that there has been a
like failure of what fupported them, in proportion to
that declination \ or that whatever made the ftrata to
fall fo much awry, muft alfo caufe every thing includ¬
ed in thofe ftrata to fall proportionally. Wherever
the greateft fubfidenee is to the north, the top of the
lode or fiflure will point to the north, and of confie-
quence underlie to the fouth, and vice verfa: the
Aide or heave of the lode manifells the greater fubfi¬
dence of the ftrata ; but the fame lode is frequently
fractured and heaved in feveral places, all. of which,
2
i<5 ] MIN
by due obfervation, will ftiow us they were •tcafioned
by fo many feveral thocks or fubfidencies, and that the
ftrata were not unfooted, ftiakcn, or brought to fall only
once or twice, but feveral times.”
Mr Price, in the courfe of his wrork, obferves, that,
though the metallic veins generally run from eaft to
weft, they are frequently interfecled by veins or lodes,
as he calls them, of other matters, which run from
north to fouth. Some of thefe crofs veins contain lead
or antimony, but ne\rer tin or copper. Sometimes
one of thefe unmetallic veins interfe&s the true one
at right angles, fometimes obliquely j and fometimes
the mixture of both is fo intimate, that the moft ex¬
pert miners are at a lofs to difeover the feparated part
of the true vein. When this laft is intercepted at
right angles, it is moved either north or feuth, a
very little way, perhaps not more than one fathom j
in which cafe, the miners having worked to a fmall
ciiftance in one of thefe directions, if they find them-
lelves difappointed, turn to the other hand, and feldom
fail of meeting with what they expeCted. Sometimes
they are directed in their fearch by the pointing of a
rib or ftring of the true vein-, but when the interruption
happens in an oblique direction, the difficulty of finding
the vein again is much greater.
When tivo metallic veins in the nighbourhood of
each other run in an oblique direction, and of confe-
quence meet together, they commonly produce a body
of ore at the place where they interfeCt; and if both
are rich, the quantity Avill be confiderable ; but if one
be poor and the other rich, then both are either en¬
riched or impoveriflied by the meeting. After fome
time they feparate again, and each Avill continue its for¬
mer direction near to the other 5 but fometimes, though
rarely, they continue united.
It is a fign of a poor vein Avhen it feparates or diver¬
ges into firings but on the contrary, Avhen feveral of
them are found running into one, it is accounted a pro-
mifing fign. Sometimes there are branches Avithout tbe
Avalls of the Arein in the adjacent ftrata, Avhich often
come either obliquely or tranfverfely into it. If thefe
branches are impregnated with ore, or if they underlie
falter than the true vein, that is, if they dip deeper into
the ground, then they are faid to overtake or come into
the lode, and to enrich it; or if they do not, then they
are faid to go off from it, and to impoverifh it. But
neither thefe nor any other marks either of the richnefs
or poverty of a mine are to be entirely depended upon}
for many mines, Avhich have a very bad appearance at
firft, do neverthelefs turn out extremely Avell after-
Avards } Avhile others, which in the beginning feemed
A-ery rich, turn gradually worfe and worfe : but in ge¬
neral, where a vein has a bad appearance at firft, it
AArill be imprudent to be at much expence Avith it.
Veins of metal, as has been already cbferved, are fre¬
quently, as it Avere, fo eornpreffed betAvixt hard ftrata,
that they are not an inch Avide : neverthelefs, if they
haA^e a ftring of good ore, it Avill generally be AYorth
Avbile to purfue them: and they frequently turn out
Avell at laft, after they have come into fofter ground-.
In like manner, it is an encouragement to go on if
the branches or leaders of ore enlarge either in Avidth
or depth as they are Avorked } but it is a bad fign if
they continue horizontal Avithout inclining downwards}
though it is not proper always to difeontinue the work-
Mh
tli
n
lnS.
MIN [i
line, ing of a vein which has an unfavourable afpeft at fir ft.
■' Veins of tin are worth working when only three inches
wide, provided the ore be good } and copper ores when
fix inches wide will pay very well for the working.
Some of the great mines, however, have very large
veins, with a number of other final 1 ones very near each
other. There are alfo veins, crofling one another fome-
times met with, which are called contras, vulgarly
counters. Sometimes two veins run down into the
ground in fuch a manner that they meet in the direc¬
tion of their depth 5 in which cafe the fame obferva-
tions apply to them which are applicable to thofe that
meet in a horizontal dire&ion. Sometimes a vein will
fuddenly difappear without giving any warning, by be¬
coming narrower, or of worfe quality j which by the
miners is called a Jiart or leap, and is very common in
the mines of Cornwall. In one day’s time they may
thus be difappointed in the working of a rich vein of
tin, and have no further fign of any thing to work
upon. At the fradhired extremity of their vein they
perceive a body of clay or other matter •, and the me¬
thod of recovering their vein is to drive on the work in
the direftion of the former part, fo that their new work
(hall make the fame angle with the clay that the other
part of the vein does. Sometimes they fink a fliaft
down from the furface j but it is generally a matter of
difficulty to recover a vein when thus loft.
The method of difeovering mines is a matter of fo
much difficulty, that it feems furpnfing how thofe who
were totally unacquainted with the nature of metals
firft came to think of digging them out of the earth.
According to Lucretius, the difeovery was made by the
conflagration of certain ivoods, which melted the veins
of metal in the earth beneath them ; but this feems ra¬
ther to be improbable. Ariftotle, however, is of the
fame opinion with Lucretius, and tells us, that fome
fhepherds of Spain having fet fire to the woods, the
earth "was thus heated to fuch a degree that the filver
near the furface of it melted and flowed into a mafs ;
and that in a ffiort time the metallic mafs was difeover-
ed by the rending of the earth in the time of an earth¬
quake : and the fame ftory is told by Strabo, who af-
cribes the difeovery of the mines of Andalufia to this
accident. Cadmus is faid by fome to have been the
firft who difeovered gold : while others aferibe this to
Thoas the Thracian, to Mercury the fon of Jupiter, or
to Pifus king of Italy \ who having left his own coun¬
try, went into Egypt, where he wras elefted king after
the death of Mizraim the fon of Ham ; and, on ac¬
count of his difeovery, was called the Golden God.
Others fay, that Eaclis or Cseacus the fon of Jupiter,
or Sol the fon of Oceanus, was the firft difeoverer j but
iEfchylus attributes the difeovery not only of gold, but
of all other metals, to Prometheus. The brafs and
copper mines in Cyprus were firft difeovered by Cinyra
the fon of Agryopa 5 and Hefiod aferibes the difeovery
of the iron mines of Crete to the Cretan Daflyli Idaei.
The extra&ion of lead or tin from its ore in the ifland of
Caffiteris, according to feveral ancient authors, -was
difeovered by Midacritus.—The Scripture, however,
aferibes the invention of brafs and iron, or at leaft of
the methods of working them, to Tubal Cain before
the flood.
In more modern times, v,fe know that mines have
been frequently difeovered by accident; as in fea cliffs,
17 ] MIN
among broken craggy rocks, by the wafhing of the Mine,
tide or floods, alfo by irruptions and torrents ol wa- v”“‘
ter iffuing out of hills and mountains, and lometimes
by the wearing of high roads. Mr Price mentions
another way by which mines have been difeovered, viz.
by fiery corrufcations } which, he fays, lie has heard
from perfons whofc veracity he is unwilling to que-
ftion. “ The tinners (fays he) generally compare
thefe effluvia to blazing ftars or other whimfical like-
neffes, as their fears or hopes fuggeft } and fearch with
uncommon eagernefs the ground over which thefe
jack-a-lanterns have appeared and pointed out. We
have heard but little of thefe phenomena for many
years ; whether it be, that the prefent age is lefs cre¬
dulous than the foregoing, or that the ground, being
more perferated by innumerable new pits funk every
year, fome ®f which, by the ftannary laws, are prevent¬
ed from being filled up, has given thefe vapours a more
gradual vent, it is not ncceifary to inquire, as the fad
itfelf is not generally believed.”
Mines, however, are now moft commonly difeovered
by invertigating the nature of fuch veins, ores, and
ftones as may feem moft likely to turn to account :
but there is a particular fagacity, or habit of judging
from particular figns, which can be acquired only by
long praftice. Mines, cfpecially thofe of copper, may
alfo be difeovered by the harflr and difagreeable tafte
of the waters which iffue from them j though it is pro¬
bable that this only happens when the ore lies above
the level of the water which breaks out 5 for it does
not feem likely that the tafte of the ore could afeend^
unlefs we were to fuppofe a pond or lake of water
ftanding above it. The prefence of copper in any wa¬
ter is eafily difeovered by immerging in it a bit of po-
liffled iron, which will thus inftantly be turned of a
copper colour, by reafon of the precipitation of the me¬
tal upon it. A candle, or piece of tallow put into water
of this kind, will in a ftrort time be tinged of a green
colour.
Another and ftill more remarkable jnethod of diff
covering mines is faid to be by the virgula divinatoria,
or “ divining rod;” which, however incredible the fto-
ries related concerning it may be, is flill relied on
by fome, and among others by Mr Price. It is not
known who was the inventor of this method ; but A-
grieoia fuppofes that it took its rife from the magi¬
cians, who pretended to difeover mines by enchantment.
No mention is made of it, howrever, before the nth
century, fince which time it has been in frequent ufe;
and the Corpufcular Philofophy has even been called
in to account for it. But before we pretend to account
for phenomena fo very extraordinary as thofe reported
of the virgula divinatoria, it is neceflary, in the firft
place, to determine Avhether or not they exift. Mr
Price, as has been already hinted, believes in it, though
he owns that by reafon of his conilitution of mind
and body, he is almort incapable of co-operating with
its influence. The following account, however, he
gives from Mr William Cookworthy of Plymouth, a 4
gentleman of known veracity and great chemical a-
bilities.
He had the firft information concerning this rod
from one Captain Ribeira, who deferted from the
Spaniffi fervice in Queen Anne’s reign, and became
captain-commandant in the garrifon of Plymouth ; in •
which
M IN [i
^inc‘ 'vliich town he fathfied feveral intelligent perfons of
tlie virtues of the rod, by many experiments on pieces
ot metal hid in the earth, and by an aftual difcovery of
a copper mine near Oakhampton, which was wrought
for fume years. This captain very readily Ihowed the
method ot uiing the rod in general, but would not by
any means difcover the fecret of diftinguilhing the dif¬
ferent metals by it : though, by a condant attention
to his practice, Mr Cookworthy difcovered it. Cap¬
tain Ribeira was of opinion, that the only proper rods
for this purpofe were thofe cut from the nut or fruit
trees ; and that the virtue was confined to certain per¬
fons, and thofe, comparatively fpeaking, but few :
but Mr Price fays, that the virtue refides in all per-
.fons and in all rods under certain circumdances.
“ The rod (fays he) is attraded by all the metals, by
coals, limedone, and fprings of water, in the follow¬
ing order : I. Gold ; 2. Copper ; 3. Iron ■, 4. Silver j
5. fin •, 6. Lead j 7. Coals j 8. Limedone and fprings
of water. One method of determining the different
attractions of the rod is this : Stand, holding the rod
with one foot advanced j put a guinea under that foot,
and an halfpenny under the other, and the rod will be
drawn down ; diift the pieces of money, and the rod
will be drawn towards the face, or backwards to the
gold, which proves the gold to have the dronger at¬
traction.
“ The rods formerly ufed were flioots of one year’s
growth that grew forked ; but it is found, that two
feparate fhoots tied together with packthread or other
vegetable fubdance anfwer rather better than fuch as
are naturally forked, as the fhoots of the latter are
feldom of an equal fize. They are to be tied together
by the greater ends, the fmall ones being held in the
hands. Hazle rods cut in the winter, fuch as are ufed
for fidiing rods, and kept till they are dry, do belt ;
though, where thefe are not at hand, apple-tree fuck¬
ers, rods from peach trees, currants, or the oak, though
green, will anfwer tolerably well.”
Our author next proceeds to deferibe the manner of
holding the rod; of which he gives a figure, as he fays
it is dithcult to be deferibed. The fmall end^ being
crooked, are to be held in the hands in a pofition dat
or parallel to the horizon, and the upper part in an
elevation not perpendicular to it, but at an angle of
about 70 degrees. “ The rod (fays lie) being pro¬
perly held by thofe with whom it will anfwer, when
the toe of the right foot is within the femidiameter of
the piece of metal or other fubjeCI of the rod, it will
be repelled towards the face, and continue to be fo
while the foot is kept from touching or being direCtly
over the fubjeCl ; in which cafe it will be fenfibly and
ftrongly attracted, and be drawn quite down. The
rod fhould be firmly and deadily grafped ; for if, when
it has begun to be attracted, there be the lead ima¬
ginable jerk or oppofition to its attraction, it will not
move any more till the hands are opened, and a fredi
grafp taken. The dronger the grafp the livelier the
rod moves, provided the grafp be Iteady and of an
equal itrength. This obfervation is very necefiary,
as the operation of the rod in many hands is debated
purely by a jerk or counteraCtion •, and it is from
thence concluded, that there is no real efFcacy in the
rod, or that the perfon w ho holds it wants the virtue ;
3
8 ] M I N
whereas, by a proper attention to this circumftanee in
ufing it, five. perfons in fix have the virtue, as it is 'r"
carled j that is, the nut or fruit-bearing rod will an¬
fwer in their hands. If a rod, or the' leaft piece of
one of the nut-bearing or fruit kind, be put under the
arm, it will totally dedroy the operation of the virgula
divinatona, in regard to all the fubjeCb of it, except
water, in thofe hands in which the rod naturally ope¬
rates.^ If the lead animal thread, as filk, or worded,
or hair, be tied round or fixed on the top of the rod,
it will in like manner hinder its operation ; but the
fame rod placed under the arm, or the fame animal fub-
ftances tied round or fixed on the top of the rod, will
make it work in thofe hands, in which without thefe
additions it is not attracted.”
Such are the accounts of this extraordinary rod, to
which it is probable that few will adent; and we believe
the indances of mines have been difeovered by it are
but very rare. Another and very ancient mode of dif-
covering mines, lefs uncertain than the divining rod,
but extremely difficult and precarious, is that called
fooding ; that is, tracing them by loofe dor.es, frag¬
ments, or Jhodes, which may have been feparated or
carried off to a confiderable didanee from the vein, and
are found by chance in running waters, on the fuperficies
of the ground, or a little under.—“ When the tinners
(fays Mr Price) meet with a loofe fingle ftone of tin
ore, either in a valley or in ploughing or hedging,
though at ico fathoms didanee from the vein it came
from, thofe who are accudomed to this work will not
fail to find it out. They confider, that a metallic ffonc
mud originally have appertained to fome vein, from
which it was fevered and cad at a didanee by fome vio¬
lent means. The deluge, they fuppofe, moved mod: of
the loofe earthy coat of the globe, and in many places
wadied it off from the upper towards the lower grounds,
with fuch a force, that mod of the backs or lodes of
veins whieb protruded themfelves above the fad wrere
hurried downwards with the common mafs : whence
the fkill in this part of their bufinefs lies much in direc¬
ting their meafures according to the fituation of the fur-
face.” Afterwards, however, our author complains that
this art of Jhoditig, a* he calls it, is in a great meafure
lod.
The following account of a method of finding filver
mines by Alonzo Barba Items to be fimilar to that of
(boding jud: now7 mentioned. “ The veins of metal
(fays he) are fometimes found by great dones above
ground j and if the veins be covered, they hunt them
out after this manner ; viz. taking in their hands a
fort, of mattock, which has a ffeel point at one end
to dig with, and a blunt head at the other wherewith to
break dones, they go to the hollows of the mountains,
where the current of rain water defeends, or to fome
other part of the fkirts of the mountains, and there
obferve what dones they meet with, breaking in pieces
thofe that feem to have any metal in them ; whereof
they find many times both middling fort of dones and
fmall ones alfo of metal. 'Then they confider the fitua¬
tion of that place, and whence thefe ftones can tumble,
which of neceflity mud be from higher ground, and
follow the track of them up the hill as long as they can
find any of them,” &c.
“ Another way (fays Mr Price) of difeovering lodes
M IN [ i
is by working drifts acrofs the country, as we call it,
that is, from north to fouth, and vice verfa. I tried
the experiment in an adventure under my management,
where I drove all open at grafs about two feet in the
Ihelf, very much like a level to convey water upon a
mill wheel; by fo doing I was fare of cutting all lodes
in my way : and I did accordingly difeover five courfes,
one of which has produced above 180 tons of copper
ore, but the others were never wrought upon. This
method of difeovering lodes is equally cheap and cer¬
tain ; for ioo fathoms in (hallow ground may be driven
at 50s. expence.”
in that kind of ground called by our author fea-
fible, and which he explains by the phrafe tcnderjlantl-
ing, he tells us, that “ a very effcdlual, proving, and con-
fequential way is, by driving an adit from the lowed
ground, either north or fouth j whereby there is a cer¬
tainty to cut all lodes at 20, 30, or 40 fathoms deep,
if the level admits of it. In driving adits or levels
acrofs, north or fouth, to unwater mines already found,
there are many freih veins difeovered, which frequently
prove better than thofe they were driving to.”
After the mine is found, the next thing to be confi-
dered is, whether it may be dug to advantage. In or¬
der to determine this, we are duly to weigh the nature
of the place, and its fituation, as to wood, water, car¬
riage, healthinefs, and the like ; and compare the refult
with the richnefs of the ore, the charge of digging,
damping, walking, and fmelting.
Particularly the form and fituation of the fpot
ihould be well confidered. A mine mud either hap¬
pen, 1. In a mountain j 2. In a hill; 3. In a valley ;
or, 4. In a flat. But mountains and hills are dug with
much greater eafe and convenience, chiefly becaufe the
drains and burrow’s, that is, the adits or avenues, may
be here readily cut, both to drain the water and to
form gangways for bringing out the lead, &.c. In
all the four cafes, we are to look out for the veins
which the rains or other accidental thing may have
laid bare ; and if fuch a vein be found, it may often
be proper to open the mine at that place, efpecially if
the vein prove tolerably large and rich ; otherwife the
molt commodious place for fituation is to be chofen for
the purpofe, viz. neither on a flat, nor on the tops of
mountains, but on the fides. The belt fituation for a
mine is a mountainous, w’oody, wholefome fpot; of
a fate eafy afeent, and bordering on a navigable river.
The places abounding wdth mines are generally healthy;
as Handing high, and everywhere expofed to the air;
yet fome places where mines are found prove poifon-
ous, and can upon no account be dug, though ever fu
vich ; the way of examining a fufpefted place of this
kind, is to make experiments upon brutes, by expof-
ing them to the effluvia or exhalations, to find the ef-
fefls.
Devonfhirc and Cornwall, where there are a great
many mine* of copper and tin, is a very mountainous
country, which gives an opportunity in many places
to make adits or fubterraneous drains to fome valley
at a#dhiance, by which to carry off the water from
the mine, which otherwife would drown them out
from getting the ore. Thefe adits are fometimes car¬
ried a mile or two, and dug at a vaft expence, as from
20col. to 4000I. efpecially where the ground is rocky;
19 ] MIN
and yet they find this cheaper than to draw up the
water out of the mine quite to the top, when the V"
wrater runs in plenty, and the mine is deep. Some¬
times, indeed, they cannot find a level near enough to
which an adit may be carried from the very bottom of
the mine ; yet they find it worth while to make an adit
at half the height to which the water is to be raifed,
thereby faving half the expence.
Mr Collar, confidering that fometimes from fmall
ftreams, and lometimes from little fprings or colleflions
of rain water, one might have a good deal of water-
above ground, though not a fuflicient quantity to turn
anoverlhot wheel, thought that if a fufficient fall might
be had, this collection of water might be made ufeful in
raifing the water in a mine to the adit, where it may be
carried off.
But now the molt general method of draining mines
is by the Hearn engine. See STEAM-Engine.
Mine, in the military art, denotes a fubterraneous
canal or paffage, dug under the wall or rampart
of a fortification, intended to be blown up by gun¬
powder.
The alley or paffage of a mine is commonly about
four feet fquare ; at the end of this is the chamber of
the mine, which is a cavity of about five feet in width
and in length, and about fix feet in height; and here
the gunpowder is flowed. The fauciue of the mine
is the train, for udiich there is always a little aperture
left.
Two ounces of powder have been found, by experi¬
ment, capable of raifing two cubic feet of earth ; con-
fequently 200 ounces, that is, 1 2 pounds 8 ounces, will
raife 200 cubic feet, which is only 16 feet (hurt of a
cubic toife, becaufe 200 ounces, joined together, have
proportionably a greater force than two ounces, as being
an united force.
All the turnings a miner ufes to carry on his mines,
and through which he conducts the fauciffe, fliould be
well filled with earth and dung; and the mafonry in
proportion to the earth to be blown up, as 3 to 2.
The entrance of the chamber of the mine ought to be
firmly (hut with thick planks, in the form of a St An¬
drew's crofs, fo that the enclofure be fecure, and the
void fpaces fhut up with dung or tempered earth. If
a gallery be made below or on the fide of the chamber,
it mult abfolutely be filled up with the ftrongelt ma¬
fonry, half as long again as the height of the earth ;
for this gallery will not only burft, but likew’ife ob-
flruft the tffedl of the mine. The powder fhould al¬
ways be kept in facks, which arc opened when the.
mine is charged, and fome of the powder ftrewed
about: the greater the quantity of earth to be raifed
is, the greater is the effect of the mine, fuppofing it
to have the due proportion of powder. Powder has
the fame effeeff upon mafonry as upon earth, that is,
it will proportionably raife either with the fame velo¬
city.
The branches which are carried into the folidity of
wall* do not exceed three feet in depth, and two feet
fix inches in width nearly : this fort of mine is moft ex¬
cellent to blow up the ftrongeft: walls.
The weight of a cubic foot of powder Ihould be
8olb.; 1 foot 1 inch cube will weigh loolb. and 1 foot
2 inches and Ts- ijcdb.; and 200lb. of powder w ill
be
Mine.
—v 1
MIN [ i
be l foot 5 inches cube ; however, there is a diverfity
in thi', according to the quantily of laltpctre in the
gu ipowder.
It, when the mines are made, water be found at the
bottom of the chamber, planks are laid there, on
which the powder is placed either in lacks or bairels
of too lb. each, i he faucifle mult have a clear palTage
to -he powder, and be laid in an a get or wooden
trough, through all the branches. When the powder
is placed in the chamber, the planks are laid to cover
it, and others again acrofs thefe •, then one is placed
over the top of the chamber, which is lhaped for that
purpofe •, between that and thole which cover the
powder, props are placed, which there it up •, feme
inclining towards the outlide ; others to the infide of
the wall ; all the void fpaces being filled with earth,
dung, brick, and rough Hones. Afterwards planks
are placed at the entrance of the chamber, with one
acrofs the top, whereon they buttrefs three Itrong
props, whofe other ends are likewife propped againll
another plank fituated on the fide of the earth in the
branch ; which props being well fixed between the
planks with wedges, the branch fhould then be filled
up to its entrance, with the forementioned materials.
1 he faucifles which pafs through the lide branches
mult be exactly the fame length with that in the mid¬
dle, to which they join : the part which reaches beyond
the entrance of the mine is that which conveys the fire
to the other three $ the faucifles being of equal length,
will fpring together.
From a great number of experiments, it appears,
I. I hat the force of a mine is always towards the
weakeit fide ; fo that the difpofition of the chamber
of a mine does not at all contribute to determine this
effe£I. 2. J hat the quantity of powder muft be greater
or lefs, in proportion to the greater or lefs weight of
the bodies to be raifed, and to their greater or lefs
cohefion ; fo that you are to allow for each cubic
fathom
Of loofe earth, - - 9 or lolb.
Firm earth and ftrong fand, 11 or 12
Flat clayey earth, - - 15 or 16
New mafonry, not ftrongly bound, I 5 or 23
Old mafonry, well bound, - 25 or 30
3. That the aperture, entonnoir of a mine, if rightly
charged, is a cone, the diameter of whofe bafe is double
the height taken from the centre of the mine. 4. That
when the mine has been overcharged, its entonnoir is
nearly evlindrical, the diameter of the upper extreme
not much exceeding that of the chamber. 5. That be-
fides the (bock of the powder againfi the bodies it takes
up. it likewife crufhes all the earth that borders upon
it, both underneath and fidewife.
To charge a mine fo as to have the mofi advantage¬
ous effeft, : he weight of the matter to be carried muft
be known ; that is, the folidity of a right cone, whofe
bafe is double the height of the eai th over the centre
ef the mine : thus, having found the folidity of the cone
in cubic fathoms, multiply the number of fathoms by the
■ umber of pounds of powder neceffary for raifing the
matt*, r it contains; and if the cone c ntains matters
of different weights, take a mean weight between
20 1 MIN
them all, always having a regard to their degree of co-
hefion.
As to the difpofition of mines, there is but one gene¬
ral rule, which is, 1 hat the fide towards which one
would determine the effeft be the weakeft ; but this
varies according to occafions and circumftances.
11k calculation of mines is.generally built upon this
hypothefis, 1 hat the entonnoir of a mine is the frul’tuni
ot an inverted cone, whofe altitude is equal to the radii*
oi the excavation of the mine, and the diameter of the
whole leffer bafe is equal to the line of leaft relifianee;
and though thefe luppofitions are not quite exad, yet
the calculations of mines deduced from them have
proved fuccefsful in pra&ice ; for which reafim this cal¬
culation fhould be followed till a better and more fimple
be found out.
M. de Valliere found that the entonnoir of a mine
was a paraboloid, which is a folid generated by the
rotation of a femiparabola about its axis ; but as
the difference between thefe two is very infignifi-
cant in pradice, that of the fruftum of a cone mav be
ufed.
MINEHEAD, a town of Somerfetfhire, 166 miles
from London. It is an ancient borough, with a har¬
bour in the Eriltol channel, near Dunlter caftle, much
frequented by paffengers to and from Ireland. It was
incorporated by C^ueen Elizabeth, with great privileges,
on condition the corporation fhould keep the quay in re¬
pair ; but its trade falling off, the quay was negleded,
and they loft their privileg es. A ftatute was obtained,
in the reign of King William, for recovering the port,
and keeping it in repair, by which they were to have
the profits of the quay and pier for 36 years, which
have been computed at about 200I a-year ; and they
were at the exptnee of new-building the quay. In pur-
fuance of another ad, confirming the former ; a new
head has been built to the quay, the beach cleared, &c.
fo that the biggeft lliip may enter, and ride fate in the
harbour. The town contains about 500 houfes, and
2000 fouls. It was formerly governed by a portreeve,
and now by two conftables chofen yearly at a court leet
held by the lord of the manor. Its chief trade is with
Ireland, from whence about 40 veffels ufed to come
hither in a year Avith wool; and about 4'0 chaldrons
of coals are yearly imported at this place, Watchet,
and Poriock, from South Wales, which lies diredly
oppofite to it about feven leagues over, the common
breadth of this channel all the way from Holmes to the
Land’s End. Here are feveral rich merchants, who
have lome trade alfo to Virginia and the Weft Indies ;
and they correfpond much w ith the merchants of Barne-
ftaple and Briftol in their foreign commerce. Three or
four thoufand barrels of herrings, which come up the
Severn in great Ihoals about Michaelmas, are caught,
cured, and flapped off here every year, for the Medi¬
terranean, &c. The market here is on Wednefday,
and fair on Whitfun-Wednefdav.
MINERAL, in Natural HiJf'jry, is ufed in general
for all foffil bodies, whether fimple or compound, dug
out of a mine ; from whence it takes its denomination.
See Mtneraiogy.
MlNEHAL Waters. All Avaters naturallv impregnat¬
ed UiM) anv heterogeneous matter which thrv have dif-
folved Avithin the earth may be called mineral waterst
MIN [i
ral. in the moft general and extenfive meaning of that name •,
in which are therefore comprehended almoil all thofe that
flow within or unon the fui'face of the earth, for almoft
all thefe contain fome earthy or faline matter. Rut,
ftriftly fpeaking, thofe waters only which hold in folia¬
tion fuch a quantity of foreign ingred’ents as to give
them properties which are eafily recognized by the tafte
i ] MIN
or fmell come under the denomination of mineral wa¬
ters. For the methods of analyzing mineral waters, fee
Chemistry Index.
Here we thall give a tabular view of the more re¬
markable mineral waters which have been difeovered
and examined.
An Alphabetical Table of the moft noted Mineral Waters in Europe, exhibiting their
Medicinal Properties and Contents.
Names of
Springs.
Abcourt,
Aberbrothick,
A <51 on,
Aghaloo,
Aix-la-Cha-
pelle,
Alford or Aw-
ford,
Alkeron,
Antrim,
Baden,
Countries in which
they are found.
Near St Germains
in France.
County of Forfar in
Scotland.
Middlefex county,
England.
Tyrone, Ireland.
Juliers in Germany.
Somerfetfhire, Eng¬
land.
Yorkfliire, in Eng¬
land.
Ireland.
Swabia in Germany.
Bagnigge, Middlefex, near Lon¬
don.
Balimore,
Worceflerlhire in
England.
Ball or Baud- Lincolnfliire in Eng-
well, land.
Balaruc, Languedoc in
France.
Bailycaftle, Antrim in Ireland.
Ballynahinch, Down in Ireland.
Ballyfpellan, Near Kilkenny in
Ireland.
Vol. XIV. Part I.
Contents and Quality qf the
IVatcr.
A cold chalybeate water,
containing befides the iron
a fmall quantity of foflil
alkali faturated with fixed
air.
A cold chalybeate. Con¬
tains iron diflolved in fix¬
ed air.
Contains Epfom and fea fait.
Cold.
Sulphur, foflil alkali, and
fome purging fait. Cold.
Sulphureous and hot. Con¬
tain aerated calcareous
earth, fea fait, foflil al¬
kali, and fulphur.
A purging fait along with
fea fait. Cold.
Contain^ Epfom’falt, aerated
calcareous earth, and ful¬
phur. Cold.
Hot and fulphureous fprings
and baths, refembling
thofe of Aix-la-Chapelle.
Epfom fait and muriated
magnefla. Cold. Ano¬
ther fpring contains iron
and fixed air.
A fine cold chalybeate, con¬
taining iron rendered fo-
luble by fixed air, along
with fome other fait fup-
pofed to be foflil alkali.
A cold petrifying water j
contains aerated calcare¬
ous earth or magnefia.
Hot, and contain fome pur¬
ging falts.
Chalybeate and fulphureous.
Cold.
Iron, fixed air, and fulphur.
Cold.
Iron, fixed air, and nroba-
bly foflil alkali.
Medicinal Virtues.
Diuretic and purgative. Internally ufed
in dropfies, jaundice, and obllruitions
of the vifeera j externally in fcorbutic
eruptions, ulcers, &c.
Diuretic and corroborative. Ufed in
indigeftions, nervous diforders, &.c.
Strongly purgative, and caufes a foreneL
in the fundament.
Alterative and corroborant. Ufeful in
fcrofulous diforders, worms, and cu¬
taneous difeafes.
Diaphoretic, purgative, and diuretic.
Ufed as baths as well as taken in¬
ternally. Ufeful in rheumatifms, and
all difeafes proceeding from a debility
of the fyftem.
Strongly purgative.
Diuretic. Ufeful when drunk in leprofy,
and other cutaneous difeafes.
Similar to Borrowdale ivater, but aveak-
er.
See Aix-LA.-CiiAPELLE,and Baden, in
the order of the Alphabet.
Strongly purgative, three half pints be¬
ing a dofe. The chalybeate fpring
alfo proves purgative when the bowels
contain any vitiated matter.
Corroborative, and good in obflruffions
of the vifeera. Drank from two to
three pints in a morning.
Corroborative and afiringent. Drunk
to the quantity of two pints, or two
and a half.
Drank as purgatives, and ufed as hot
baths. Ufeful in fcrofulous and cuta¬
neous diforders.
Refembles that of Balimore in virtue.
Ufeful in fcorbutic diforders and difeafes
of indigeftion.
Similar in virtue to that of Balimore.
Q,
Mineral.
Bagneres,
M I N
Medicinal Virtues.
Names of
Springs.
Bag neres,
Barege?,
Barnet and
North-hall,
Bath,
Bandola,
Borrowdale,
Brentwood,
Briftol,
Bromley,
Broughton,
Buxton,
Caroline baths,
Carlton,
Carrickfergus,
Carrickmore,
Calhmore,
Caflle-Conncl,
Callle-Leod,
MIN
Countries in which
they ore found.
Bigorre in France.
Bigorre in France.
Hertfordfliire in
England.
Somerfetihire in
England.
Italy.
Cumberland in Eng¬
land.
Eflex in England.
Somerfetihire in
England.
Kent in England.
Yorkfliire in Eng¬
land.
Derbyfhire in Eng¬
land..
Bohemia.
Nottinghamlhire in
England.
Antrim in Ireland.
Cavan in Ireland.
Waterford in Ire¬
land.
Limerick in Ireland.
Rofs-lhire in Scot¬
land.
[ 122 ]
Contents and Quality of the
Water.
Earth and fulphur. Hot,
Sea fait, fofP.l alkali, calca¬
reous earth, felenites, 1'ul-
phur, and a fine bitumi¬
nous oil. Hot.
Epfom fait, and aerated cal¬
careous earth.
Iron, aerated calcareous
earth, felenite, Glauber’s
fait, and fea fait. Hot.
Iron, fixed air, fofiil alkali,
and a little fulphur.—
Cold.
A great quantity of fea fait,
aerated calcareous earth,
and fome bittern. Cold.
Epfom fait, and aerated cal¬
careous earth.
Calcareous earth, fea fait,
Epfom fait, Glauber’s fait,
and fclenites. Hot.
Iron and fixed air. Cold.
Sulphur, lea fait, Epfom
fait, and aerated earth.
Cold.
A fmall quantity of fea
fait, fulfil alkali, Epfom
fait, and aerated calcare¬
ous earth. Hot. Here
is alfo a fine cold chaly¬
beate fpring.
Iron, fixed air, aerated earth,
fea fait, fofiil alkali, Ep¬
fom fait, and Glauber’s
fait. Hot.
Iron dilfolved in fixed air,
along with a bituminous
oil, which gives it the
fmcll of horfe dung.—
Cold.
Seems from its bluilh colour
to contain a Very Imall
quantity of copper. Cold.
Foflil alkali, fixed air, and
fome purging fait. Cold.
Green vitriol.
Iron diiTolved in fixed air,
&c. Cold.
Aerated earth, felenitcs,
Glauber’s fait, and ful¬
phur. Cold.
The waters ufed in baths, like thofe of
Aix-la-Chapelle. Some of the fpring*
purgative, others diuretic.
Diuretic and diaphoretic. Ufeful in ner¬
vous as vveii as cutaneous diforders, in
old wounds and lome venereal com¬
plaints. Ufed as baths, as well as taken
internally to the quantity of a quart or
three pints.
Purgative.
Powerfully corroborative, and very ufe.
lul in all kinds of weaknelfes. Ufed
as a bath, and taken internally.
Gently laxative, diuretic, and diaphore¬
tic.
Strongly emetic and catharic. Some¬
times ufeful in the jaundice and
dropfy, fcorbutic diforders, and chro¬
nic obitruftions. Ufed like wife as
a bath in cutaneous difeafes. Taken
in the dofe of a pint, containing
only about feven drachms and a half
of fea fait \ fo that a great part of the
virtue muit refide in the aeraied calca¬
reous earth.
Purgative.
Ufed as a bath 5 and drank from four te
eight ounces at a time, to two quarts
per day. Uictul in confumptions, dia¬
betes, tluor albus, &c.
Diuretic and corroborative.
Similar to Harrownate,
O
UfefrJ in gout, rheumatifm, and other
dilorders in which tepid baths are
ferviceable. Ufed as baths, and drank
to the quantity of five or lii pints per
day.
Purgative, and ufed a? baths. Of fer-
vice in diforders of the itomach and
bowels, fcrofula, &c.
Diuretic and corroborative.
Weakly purgative.
Purgative and diuretic.
Purgative, diuretic, and fometimes eme¬
tic.
Relembles the German Spaiv, and is in
confiderable repute.
Diuretic, diaphoretic, and corroborant 5
ufeful in cutaneous difeafes.
Cafllemain,
Names of
Springs,
Caftlexnain,
Cawley,
Cawtliorp,
Chadlington,
Chaude Fon¬
taine,
Cheltenham,
Chippenham,
Cleves,
Clifton,
Cobh am,
Codfalwood,
Colchefter,
Colurian,
Comner, or
Cumner,
Coolauran,
Corftorphine,
Coventry,
Crickle Spaw,
Croft,
Crofstown,
Cunley-houfe,
Das Wild Bad,
D’ ax en Foix,
Deddxngton,
Derby,
Derry inch,
Derrindaff,
MIN
Countries in which
they are found.
Kerry in Ireland.
Derbyfliirc in Eng¬
land.
Lincolnfliire in En<r-
o
land.
Oxfordthire in Eng¬
land.
Liege in Germany.
Gloucefterfhire in
England.
[ 123 1
Contents and '^ua/iiy of the
Water.
Iron, fulphur, and fixed air.
Cold.
Epfom fait, aerated calca¬
reous earth, and fulphur.
Cold.
Iron, fixed air, and proba¬
bly foifil alkali. Cold.
FoiTil alkali, fea fait, and
fulphur. Cold.
Aerated earth, fofiil alkali,
and fixed air. Hot.
Calcareous earth, iron, Ep¬
fom fait, and common fait.
Cold.
Vv iltlhire in Eng¬
land.
Germany.
Oxfordftiire in Eno--
O
land.
Surry in England.
Staffordfliire in Eng¬
land.
ElTex in England.
Cornwall in Eng¬
land.
Berk (hire in Eng¬
land. .
Fermanagh in Ire¬
land.
Mid Lothian in Scot¬
land.
Warwickfiiire in
England.
Lancaibire in Eng¬
land.
Yorkfhire in Eng¬
land.
Waterford in Ire¬
land.
Laucafhire in Eng¬
land.
Nuremberg in Ger¬
many.
15 leagues from Thou-
loufe in France.
Oxford in England.
Iron diilolved in fixed air.
Iron, fixed air, ami other
ingredients of Pyrmont
water.
Fofiil alkali, and aerated cal¬
careous earth or felenite.
Cold.
Iron, and fome purging
fait.
Sulphur, fixed air, and ae¬
rated earth.
Epfom fait, and aerated cal¬
careous earth.
Iron, fixed air, and aerated
earth.
Some purging fait, and pro¬
bably aerated earth •, the
water is oi a whitilh co¬
lour.
Iron, fixed air, and aerated
earth.
Sulphur, fea fait, clay, and
Epfom fait. Cold.
Iron, fixed air, and fome
purging fait.
Sulphur, fea fait, and aerated
earth.
Aerated earth, vitriolated
magnefia, and fea fait.
Martial vitriol.
Sulphur, aerated earth, and
fixed air.
Iron, fixed air, and fome fa-
line matter.
Similar to Aix-la-Chapelle.
Hot.
Iron, fulphur, aerated earth,
fea fait, or foflil alkali.
Near the capital of Iron diflblved by fixed air.
Derby {hire in Eng¬
land.
Fermanagh in Ire- Sulphur and foflil alkali,
land.
Cavan in Ireland, Sulphur and purging fait.
M I N
Medicinal Virtues.
Corroborant and diuretic.
Gently purgative.
Purgative, and correfls acidities.
Purgative.
Refembles thofe of Aix-la-Chapelle and
Buxton.
Purgative and eoiroborant *, taken in
the quantity of from one to three or
four pints. It is ufeful in cafes of in-
digellion and fcorbutic diforders \ all*
in the gravel.
Diuretic and corroborative.
Diuretic and corroborant.
Gently laxative, and ufed as a bath for
cutaneous diforders.
Purgative, diuretic, and corroborant.
Refembles the Alkeron water.
Strongly purgative.
Corroborative and diuretic.
Purgative, in the quantity of one, tv*,
or three quarts.
Diuretic.
Diuretic and laxative.
Purgative, diuretic, and corroborant.
Purgative, and refembling Harrowgate
water.
Purgative, and refembling Alkeron wa¬
ter.
Diuretic, purgative, and fometimes eme.
tic.
Purgative, and refembling the Alkero*
water.
Corroborant. Ufeful in obfiru6Hons of
the vifeera, and female complaints.
Ufed as a bath, and alfo drank, like the
Aix-la-Chapelle waters.
Alterative, purgative in large quantity,
and ufeful in fcorbutic and cutaneous
diforders.
Corroborant.
Diuretic and diaphoretic.
Similar to the Ajheron water.
O 2 Derrylefter,
Names
Springs.
Derry leiter,
Dog and
Duck,
Dorldiil!,
Drigvvell,
Drumas-nave,
Dropping
well.
Drurngoon,
Dublin fait
fprings,
Dulwich,
Dunnard,
Dunfe,
Durham,
Egra,
Epfom,
Fair burn,
Felftead,
Filah,
Frankfort,
Gainfborough,
Galway,
Glanmile,
Glaftonbury,
Glendy,
Granfliaw,
Haigh,
Hampftead,
Hanbridge,
MIN
Countries in which
they are found.
Cavan in Ireland.
St George’s Fields,
London.
Staffordlhire in Eng¬
land.
Cumberland in Eng.
land.
York (hire in Eng¬
land.'
Leitrim in Ireland.
Fermanagh in Ire¬
land.
Ireland.
Kent in England.
18 miles from Dub¬
lin.
Scotland.
England.
Bohemia.
Surry in England.
Rofs-flure in Scot¬
land.
EfTex in England.
Yorklhire in Eng¬
land.
Germany.
Lincolnfhire in Eng¬
land.
Ireland.
Ireland.
Somerfetfbire in
England.
Merns county in
Scotland.
Down in Ireland.
Lancafhire in Eng¬
land.
England.
Lancalhire in
land.
Eng-
[ I 24 ]
Contents and Quality of the
Water.
Similar to Swadlingbar wa-
t> r.
Aerated magnefa, Epfom
lalt, and fea lalt.
Iron diflblved in fixed air.
min
Medicinal Virtues.
Cooling and purgative, but apt to brin<r
on or mcreafe the fluor albus in wot
men.
Corroborant.
Similar to Deddington.
•uici coiroDorant.
Sulphur, Corn alkali, with Powerfull, diuretic and anthelmintic tmj
fume purging fait. of ufe in outaneoua and ferofulou! dif
orders.
Similar to the former.
Sea fait and Epfom fait.
Purgative.
Sea fait and Epfom fait. Purgative and diuretic. Ufeful in ner-
debirf^8 antl ^liea^eS Procefc^ng from
Iron diffolved in fixed air. Diuretic and corroborant.
Iron diflblved in fixed air, Similar to the former
with a little fea fait and
bittern.
Sulphur, fea fait, and a little
aerated earth. Inthe mid¬
dle of the river is a fait
fpring.
Similar to Cheltenham wa¬
ter. ,
\ itriolated and muriated
magnefia, with a fmall
quantity of aerated calca¬
reous earth.
Similar to the Harrowgate water 
I hat of the fait fpring ufed as a pur¬
gative. A
Purgative, and of ufe in walking old
lores. 0
Sulphur, aerated earth, and
Glauber’s falts.
Similar to Illington.
Sea fait and aerated earth.
Alterative, and
eafes.
ufeful in cutaneous dif-
Powerfully diuretic and purgative.
Sulphur and fea fait. Similar to Harrowgate.
Sulphur, iron, aerated earth, Diuretic and laxative.
and Epfom fait.
Similar to Tunbridge wa¬
ter.
Similar to Peterhead water.
Similar to Clifton water.
Similar to Peterhead water.
Iron } fimilar to the German
Spaw.
Green vitriol, iron diffolved
by fixed air, with fome
aerated earth.
Green vitriol, iron diffol¬
ved by fixed air, and a
fmall quantity of aerated
earth.
Similar to Scarborough 'wa¬
ter.
Emetic and cathartic.
Alterative and corroborant. The water
is taken from half a pint to feveral
pints; is better in the morning than
in the middle of the day, and in cold
than hot weather.
Lef. purgative than the Scarborough
water. ®
Hanlys
Names of
Springs.
Hanlys,
Harrowgate,
Hartfell,
Hartlepool,
Holt,
Jofeph’s well,
Ilmington,
Inglewhite,
Iflington,
Kanturk,
Kedleftone,
Kenfington,
Kilbrew,
Kilburn,
Killalher,
Killingfhanval-
Kilroot,
Kinalton,
Kincardine,
Kingfcliff,
Kirby,
Knarefborough,
Knovvfley,
Kuka,
Lancafter,
Latham,
M I N
Countries in which
they are found.
Shropshire in Eng¬
land.
Yorkfhire in Eng¬
land.
Annandale in Scot¬
land.
Durham in England.
Wiltfliire in Eng¬
land.
Stock Common near
Cobham in Surry.
Warwickfliire in
England.
Lancafhire in Eng¬
land.
Near London.
Cork in Ireland.
Derbyfhire in Eng¬
land.
Near London.
Meath in Ireland.
Near London.
Fermanagh in Ire¬
land.
Fermanagh, Ireland.
Antrim in Ireland.
Nottinghamfhire in
England.
Merns in Scotland.
Northamptonthire in
England.
Weflmoreland in
England.
See Dronping^well.
Lancafhire in Eng¬
land.
Bohemia.
England.
Lancathire in Eng¬
land,
[ 125 1
Contents and ^ualitij of the
IVater.
Epfom, or other purging
fait.
Sulphur, Tea fait, and fome
purging fait. Some cha¬
lybeate fprings here alfo.
Green vitriol, alum, and
azotic gas.
Sulphur, iron ditTolved by
fixed air, with fome pur¬
ging fait.
Purging fait, with a large
quantity of aerated earth.
A very large proportion of
Epfom fait, and pofiibly a
little fea fait.
Aerated foffil alkali, with
fome iron diffolved by fix¬
ed air.
Sulphur, and iron diffolved
by fixed air.
Iron dilfolved by fixed air.
Similar to the water at Pe¬
terhead.
Sulphur, fea fait, and aera¬
ted earth.
Similar to A61on wrater.
A large quantity of green
vitriol.
Fixed air, hepatic air, Ep¬
fom fait, Glauber’s fait j
muriated magnefia, fea
fait, aerated earth, and
iron.
Sulphur and feiTil alkali.
Similar to Hanlys chalybeate
water.
Nature of Borrowdale water,
but weaker.
A purging fait.
Similar to the water of Pe¬
terhead.
Similar to Cheltenham 'wa¬
ters.
Iron, fixed air, and probably
fome foffil alkali.
Similar to Scarborough "wa¬
ter.
Aerated fixed alkali.
Similar to Tunbridge water.
Similar to the former.
M I N
Medicinal Virtues.
Purgative.
Alterative, purgative, and anthelmintic ;
ufeful in fcurvy, fcrofula, and cu.a-
neous difeafcs. Ufed externally for
llrains and paralytic weaknefies.
Aftringent and corroborant. Ufeful
in all kinds of inward diffharges of
blood.
Diuretic and laxative.
Mildly purgative. Ufeful in old ulcers
and cutaneous diforders.
Alterative, purgative, and diuretic.
Drank to about a quart, it paffes
brifkly without griping : taken in
lefs dofes as an alterative, it is a
good antifcorbutic.
Diuretic and laxative.
Alterative. Ufeful in fcorbutic and cu¬
taneous difcafes.
Corroborant. Ufeful in lownefs of fpi-
rits and nervous difeafes. Operates
by urine, and may be drank in large
quantity.
Similar to Harrowrgate 5 but intolerably
fetid.
Emetic and cathartic, in the dofe of half
a pint.
Similar to Swadlingbar water.
Purgative*
Laxative, and ufcful in correcting aci¬
dities.
Operates by infenfible perfpiration, fom«»
tunes by fpitting, fweat or urine.
5
Llandrindod,
Names of
Springs.
Llandrindod,
Llangybi,
Leamington,
Leez,
Lincomb,
Lifbeak,
Lis done-
Vurna,
Loanfbury,
Maccroomp,
JMahercberge,
Mallow,
Malton,
Malvern,
Markfhall,
Matlock,
Maudfley,
Meehan,
Miller’s Spaw,
Moffat,
Mofs-houfe,
Moreton,
MIN
Countries in which
theij are found.
Radnor in South
Wales.
Caernarvonfl1.ire in
North Wales.
Warwickshire in
England.
Effex in England.
Somerfetlhire in
England.
Fermanagh in Ireland.
Clare in Ireland.
Yorkfhire in Eng¬
land.
Cork in Ireland.
Kerry in Ireland.
r 126 ] m 1 n
Contents aril Quality of the Medicine/ Virtue!.
Water.
Three Springs j a purgative, Ufeful in the Scurvy, leproSy, cutaneous
a lulphureous, and chaly- diSorders, &c.
beate.
Ufeful in diSorders of the eyes, Scrofula,
&c.
Sea Salt and aerated calcare- Emetic and cathartic. USeful in old
c. ™ p^th. fores, and cures mangy dogs.
Similar to Idington water.
Aerated iron, foflil alkali,
and a little EpSom Salt.
Sulphur, &c. _ Similar to Swadlingbar water,
bolhl alkali, with much Emetic, cathartic, and diuretic,
iron.
Sulphur, and Some purging Ufed only for walking mangy dogs and
. Scabby horfei.
Similar to Ilmington water.
Similar to Borrowdale wa-
Cork in Ireland.
Yorkfhire in Eng¬
land.
Ghucefterlhire in
England.
Effex in England.
Derbyihire in Eng¬
land.
Lancalhire in Eng¬
land.
Fermanagh in Ire¬
land.
ter.
A hot water, Similar to that
of Briftol.
Iron and fixed air in consider¬
able quantity.
Iron. Two Springs.
Similar to Iflington.
Warm Springs, of th« na¬
ture of the Briltol water,
except that they are very
Slightly impregnated with
iron, but contain a great
quantity of aerated earth.
They are colder than the
Buxton ; but their vir¬
tues Similar to thofe of
the two places mentioned.
Sulphur and Sea fait.
Similar . to Scarborough water, but is
Sometimes apt to vomit.
Diuretic and cathartic 5 uSed alfo ex¬
ternally. Recommended as excel¬
lent in difeafes of the fkin ; in lepro-
Sies, Scorbutic complaints, Scrofula,
old Sores, &c. Alfo Serviceable in in¬
flammations and other diSeaSes of the
eyes; in the gout and ftone, in bi¬
lious and paralytic cafes, and in fe¬
male obftruftions. I he external ufe
is by walking the part at the Spout
Several times a-day, and afterwards
covering it with cloths dipt in the
water and kept conflantly moift ; alfo
by general bathing.
Similar to Harrowgate.
Sulphur and foflil alkali. Similar to the waters of Drumgoon.
Lancafhire in Eng- Similar to Tunbridge,
land.
Annaodale in Scot- Sulphurated hydrogen, car- Alterant, diuretic, and Sometimes pur- *
an<1, bonic acid and azotic ga- gative. Is ufed as a bath, and the
fes, with common Salt. fleam of the hot water has been found
Serviceable in relaxing hard tumors and
joints.
.Lancafhire in Eng- Similar to Iflington water. Purges flrongly.
Shropfhire in Eng- Similar to Holt vrater.
land.
Mount
Names of
Springs.
Mount d/Or,
Nevil Holt,
New Cartraall,
Newnham Re¬
gis*
Newtondale,
Newton-Stew¬
art,
Nezdenice,
Nobber,
Nurmanby,
Nottington,
Orfton,
Oulton,
Owen Breun,
Pancras,
Paffy,
Peterhead,
Pettigoe,
Pitkeathlr,
Plombiers,
Pontgibault,
Pougues,
Pyrmont,
Queen Camel,
Richmond,
Rippon,
MIN
Countries in winch
they are found*
France.
Leicefterthire in
England.
Lancafhire in Eng¬
land.
Warwickfhire in
England.
Yoridhire in Eng¬
land.
Tyrone in Ireland.
[ 127 1
Contents and Quality of the
Wattr.
Warm, and fimilar to the
waters of Aix-la-Cha-
pelle.
Selenite or aerated earth,
and Epfom fait.
Sea fait and aerated earth.
M I N
Medicinal Virtues.
Diuretic, purgative, and diaphoretic.
Purgative, diuretic, and diaphoretic.—
Powerfully antifeptic in putrid dif-
eafes, and excellent in diarrhoea,. dy-
fenteries, Ste.
Purgative.
Similar to Scarborough wa¬
ter.
Aerated calcareous earth or Allringent or tonic,
magnefia.
Similar to Tunbri !ge.
Germany.
Meath in Ireland.
York (hire in Eng¬
land.
Dorfetflure, Eng¬
land.
Nottingham, Eng¬
land.
Norfolk, England.
Cavan, Ireland.
Near London.
Near Pari*.
Aberdeen county,
Scotland.
Donnegal, Ireland.
Perthfhire, Scotland.
Lorraine, France.
Auvergne, France.
Nivernois, France.
Weftphalia, Germa-
ny.
Somerfetfliire, Eng¬
land.
Surry in England.
Yorklhire, England.
X
Fixed air, foflil alkali, iron,
and earth.
Martial vitriol.
Sulphur, much fixed air,
fome fca fait, and Epfom
fait.
Sulphur, foflil alkali, and
earth.
Much fixed air, Epfom fait,
and a little fea fait, with
fome iron.
Similar to Iflington.
Sulphur, Epfom fait, and
foflil alkali.
Epfom fait, and aerated
earth.
Similar to Pyrmont water.
A ttrong chalybeate, but of
which no analylis has been
publiflied.
Sulphur and purging fait.
Sea fait, a fmall quantity of
muriated and likewife of
aerated earth.
Saline matter, probably fof-
fil alkali, with a fmall por¬
tion of oil.—Warm.
Foflil alkali and calcareous
earth.
Calcareous earth, magnefia,
foflil alkali, fea fait, earth
of alum, and filiceous
earth.
Aerated iron, calcareous
earth, magnefia, Epfom
fait, and common fait.
Sulphur, fea fait, foflil al¬
kali, calcareous earth, and
bituminous oil.
Similar to A6ton water.
Sulphur, fea fait, and aerat¬
ed earth.
Diuretic, diaphoretic, and tonic.
Similar to Hart fell.
Similar to Alkeron water.
Ufeful in cutaneous diftafes.
Purgative.—It intoxicate* bv reafon •£
the great quantity of air contained in
it.
Similar to Alkeron water.
Diuretic and purgative.
Similar to Iflington, but more power¬
ful.
Similar to Alkeron water.
Gently purgative. Very ufeful in ferofu-
lous and fcorbutic habits.
Ufed as a bath, and for walking ulcers.
Inwardly taken it cure* complaints
from acidity, hemorrhagies, &c.
Diuretic aud laxative.
Diuretic and laxative.
Diuretic, diaphoretic, and laxative. Re¬
commended in cafes where the con-
ftitution is relaxed •, in female com¬
plaints, in cutaneous difeafes, in ner¬
vous diforders, in the gravel and uri¬
nary obilru&ions j and confidered as
among the belt reftoratives in decayed
and broken conllitutions.
Ufed in fcrofulous and cutaneous difor¬
ders.
Diaphoretic and alterant.
Road,
Fames of
Springs,
Ruad,
Si Bartholo¬
mew’s well,
St Bernard’s
well.
St Erafmus’s
well,
Sear borough,
Scollicnfis,
Sekllitz,
Seltzer,
Sene, or Send,
Seydfchutz,
Shad well,
Shapmoor,
Shettlewood,
Shipton,
Somerfham,
SpaAv,
Stanger,
S ten field,
Streatham,
Suchaloza,
Sutton bog,
Srvadlingbar,
Swan fey,
Sydenham,
Tarleton,
Tewklhury,
Thetford,
Thoroton,
Thurik,
Tibflielf,
M I N
Countries in which
they are found.
Wrltthire, England.
Cork in Ireland.
Near Edinburgh.
Stafford (hire, Eng¬
land.
Yorhlhire, England.
Switzerland.
Bohemia.
Germany.
Wiltfhire, England.
Germany.
Near London.
Weftmoreland, Eng¬
land.
Derbyfhire, Eng¬
land.
Yorkfirire, England.
Huntingdonlhire,
England.
Liege in Germany.
Cumberland, Eng¬
land.
Lincolnfhire, Eng¬
land.
Surry, England.
Hungary.
Oxfordftiire, Eng¬
land.
Cavan in Ireland.
Glamorganfhire in
North Wales.
Kent in England.
Lancaftrire in Eng¬
land.
Gloucefterlhire in
England.
Norfolk in England.
Nottingham (hire in
England.
Yorkshire in Eng¬
land.
Derbythire in Eng¬
land.
[ 128 ]
Contents and ~*ua/itij of the
Water.
Sulphur, iron, fofiil alkali,
and fixed air.
Foflil alkali, iron, and fixed
air.
Similar to the waters of
Moffat.
Aerated calcareous earth,
Epfom fait, fca fait, and
iron.
Iron, foflil alkali, and a
great quantity of fixed
air.
Epfom fait.
Calcareous earth, msgnefia,
foflil alkali, and fixed air.
Similar to Iflington.
Similar to Seidlitz.
Green vitriol.
Sulphur and purging fait.
Sulphur, fea fait, and pur¬
ging fait.
Green vitriol, alum, and fix¬
ed air.
Foflil alkali, iron, aerated
earth, Epfom fait, and fea
fait.
Green vitriol.
Similar to Orfton.
Aerated earth, Epfom fait,
fea fait,and muriated rnag-
nefia.
Sulphur, foflil alkali, and fea
fait.
Sulphur, earth, fea fait, and
foflil alkali.
Green vitriol.
Similar to Epfom, but w'eak-
er.
Similar to Scarborough wa¬
ter.
Similar to A£ton.
Foflil alkali, fixed air, and
iron.
Similar to Orfton.
Similar to Scarborough.
Iron diffolved in fixed air.
M I N
Medicinal Virtues.
Ufeful in ferofula, feurvy, and cutaneous
diforders.—A£ls as a laxative.
Similar to Tilbury water.
Somewhat congenial with Moffat and
Harrowgate. In nervous and fto-
machic cafes, analeptic and reftora-
tive •, in fcorbutic, ferofulou*, and
molt dropfical cates, reckoned a fpe-
cifie.
Similar to Borrowdale water.
Diuretic and purgative.
Excellent in colic pains, both as a cure
and preventive.
Strongly purgative.
Diuretic. Ufeful in the gravel, rheuma-
tifm, feurvy, fcrofula, &tc.
Emetic and cathartic.
Similar to Alkeron water.
Similar to Harrowgate water.
Similar to Harrowgate.
Corroborant and alterative. Ufeful for
waffling foul ulcers and cancers.
Diuretic and purgative. Serviceable in
many diforders. See the article
Spaw.
Emetic and cathartic.
Purgative.
Similar to Nezdenice.
Alterative and laxative.
Alterative and diaphoretic.
Similar to Shadwell.
Purgative and diuretic.
Smilar to Spaw water.
Tilbury,
Names of
Springs.
Tilbury,
Tober Bony,
Tonflein,
Tralre,
Tunbridge,
M I N
Countries in which
they are found.
EfTex in England.
Near Dublin in Ire¬
land.
Cologne in Germany.
Kerry in Ireland.
Kent in England.
Upminfter, Effex in England.
Vahls,
Wardrew,
Weatherflack,
Wallenfrow,
Weft Afhton,
Weft wood,
Wexford,
Whiteacre,
Wigglefworth,
Dauphiny in France.
Northumberland.
Weftmorelandin Eng¬
land.
Northamptonfliire in
England.
Wiltrtiire in Eng¬
land.
Derbyfliire in Eng¬
land.
Ireland.
Lancafhire in Eng¬
land.
York (hire in Eng¬
land.
W'ildungan, Waldech in Germa¬
Windgate
Spaw,
Witham,
Wirkfworth,
Zahorovice,
ny.
Northumberland.
Eflex in England.
Derbyfhire in Ene-
land.
Germany.
[ 129 ]
Contents and Quality of the
Water.
Foftil alkali.
Foflil alkali, eartli, and bi¬
tuminous oil.
Foflil alkali.
Similar to Caflle Connel.
Iron, fome lea fait, with a
little felenites and calca¬
reous earth.
Sulphur, foftil alkali, and
purging fait.
Foffil alkali.
Sulphur, earth, and fea fait.
Iron, fea fait, and a fmall
quantity of hepatic gas.
Similar to Illington water.
Similar to Illington.
Green vitriol.
Similar to Illington.
Aerated iron, and probably
calcareous earth.
Sulphur, earth, and common
fait.
Similar to the w’aters of
Bath.
Carbonate of iron, green vi¬
triol, alum, common fait,
calcareous earth.
Aerated iron, and common
fait.
Sulphur, purging fait, and
aerated iron.
Similar to Nezdenice water.
M I N
Medicinal Virtues^
Diuretic and diaphoretic.
Similar to Tilbury.
Similar to Seltzer, but more purgative.
An excellent chalybeate, ufeful in all
difeafes for which the Spaw is recom¬
mended.
Purgative and diuretic.
Diuretic and laxative.
Similar to Harrowgate water.
Purgative.
Similar to Shadwell. Ufed for wafliing
ulcers of the legs.
Somewhat aftringent>
Emetic in the quantity of two quarts, and
faid to be cathartic in the quantity of
three ; a Angular circumftance if true.
Ufeful in fcorbutic and gouty difeafes.
Corroborant and diuretic; and ufeful in
ftomach complaints and fcrofula.
Diuretic, alterative, and corroborant.
Ufeful in fcrofulous and cutaneous difeafes-.
Much efteemed in fcrofuluus cafes.
MINERALOGY.
TylTNERALOGY is that branch of natural hiftory
which has for its objeft the defcription and dif-
crimination of inorganized or mineral fubftances, as
they are found in the earth or on its furface.
The knowledge of fome mineral bodies may be con-
fidered as coeval with the earlieft ages of the world.
I he rudeft and moft barbarous nations could not be
ignorant of fome of the properties of the fubftances
which were moft familiar to their obfervation ; and
mankind have made little progrt fs in civilization, when
they are entirely unacquainted with the nature of
thole matters from which fome of the metals are extrac¬
ted.
Precious ftones, it feems not at all improbable, firft
attrafted the notice of mankind. The richoefs of
colour, brilliancy, lu'lre, and durability of thefe bodies,
could not fail to excite admiration, and make them be
fought after as ornaments, even by the leal civilized
people, and in countries where they are moft abundant.
They were well known, it would appear from the facred
Vol. XIV. Part II.
writings, among the Jews and Egyptians in the time of
Mofes. At this period, however, both the Jews and
Egyptians had advanced far in refinement.
But this knowledge w'as too limited to be dignified
with the name of Mineralogy. It wanted that compre-
henfive, conne&ed, and fcientifie view which could
entitle it to that denomination. And indeed it may be
faid to be only of modern date that the knowledge of
minerals n.fe to the rank of feience, and anumed any
thing like a regular and connected form.
Diofcorides and Theophraftus among the Greeks, and Writers or
Pliny among the Romans, have, it is true, deferibed a mineral*,
few mineral bodies; and Avicenna, an Arabian philo-
fupher and phyfieian, who flouriftied in the end of the
i Oth and bt ginning of the I ith century, ananged thofe
oHjcds into four great claftes, viz. I. Stony bodies. 2.
Saline bodies. 3. Inflammable bodies; and, 4. Metals
— an arrangement which, it is curious to remark, muft
be well founded ; for it lias been adopted, fometimes in¬
deed with flight deviations, by almoft all mineralogical
R writers
.4
-Ijjricola.
5
Beecher.
6
Linnxus.
MINER
writers fince that period. But ftill the knowledge of
minerals was bounded by very narrow limits.
1 he variety and value of mineral productions in Ger¬
many have excited more attention to thefe Itudies, and
have thus rendered this knowledge of more interett and
importance than in any other country. To Germany
indeed it mud be acknowledged that mineralogy is in¬
debted in a great meafure for its origin, and for a very
ample lhare ot its pr ogre dive improvement. George
Agricola, a native of Mifnia, in which country he fet¬
tled as a pbyfician, lived during the firlt half of the
l6th century. Being ftrongly attached by inclination
to the rtudy of minerals, he removed to Chemnitz in
Hungary, where he might have an opportunity of pro-
fecuting his favourite ftudies; and there, by the mod un¬
wearied application to mineralogy, and particularly to
the various operations on the metals, he became the mod
celebrated metallurgid of his time. He is fuppofed to be
the fird German author who profeffedly wrote on mineral
fubd antes. The following titles chiefly comprehend
the various heads into which his works on metallurgy
and mineralogy are divided, De Ortu et Caujis Subter¬
ra neorum ; De Nutura eorum quee affluunt ex Terra;
De Natura FoJJilium ; de Medicutis Fontibus ; De Sub-
terra nets Animantibus ; De Veteribus et Nov is Metal/is ;
and De Re Met allien. His arrangement of minerals is
into two great divifions. i. Simple or Homogeneous
Minerals ; and, 2. Heterogeneous Minerals. The fird,
or fimple minerals, includes four fubdivifions, viz. I. Ter¬
ra j 2. Succus Concretus ; 3. Lapis; 4. Metallum.
T he feeond great divifion, the heterogeneous minerals,
comprehends two fubdivifions, viz. 1. Compound mine¬
rals j 2. Mixed minerals.
Several writers on mineralogy appeared in the courfe
of the 17th century •, and about the beginning of the
18th Beecher propofed an arrangement of bodies on
chemical principles, or according to their conftituent
parts. In the year 1736, Linnteus publithed a fydem
of mineralogy, in which mineral bodies are divided into
three clafTts, viz. 1. Petra?; 2. Mineree; 3. Fojjilia.
Thefe are fubdivided into orders : the fird containing
three, V/trefcentes, Calcarea, Api/rce ; the fecond con¬
taining three, Saha, Sulphurea, Mercurialia ; and the
third alfo containing three, Concreta, Petrifafta, Terra-.
Three years afterwards the fydem of Cramer appeared,
according to which all mineral fubdances are arranged
into feven claffes, of which the following are the titles.
1. Metals; 2. Semimetals; 3. Salts; 4. Inflammable
A L o G Y.
fubdances ; 5. Stones ; 6. Earths ; and, 7. Waters.
^ About 1 o years after the fird publication of the mineral
Wallerius. fydem of Linnteus, Wallerius profeflbr of mineralogy
at Upfal, and his cotemporary, communicated to the
world a more enlarged and improved arrangement of
mineral bodies than any which had hitherto appeared.
According to the fydem of Wallerius, all minerals are
didributed into four claffcs, each of which is fubdivided
into four orders. The fird clafs, Terra, includes the
orders Macro?, Pi agues, Minera/es, and Arcnacea-;
to the fecond clad, Lapides, belong the orders Calcarei,
Vitrefcentes, Apyri, Saxa; the third clafs, Miner a?,
comprehends the orders Sa/ia, Sulphurea, SemimetalU
and Metalla; and the fourth, Concreta, is compofed of
the orders Pori, PetrifuFla, Figurata, and Calculi.
Of the fydematic writers on mineralogy from the
time of Linnaeus, which have now been mentioned, and
of others, which the limits of this hiftorical ficetch do Hlflory.
not permit us to notice, it is to be obferved, that by all'——v-'-
of them, although the general arrangement of Avi¬
cenna was not followed, yet in the fubordinate divifions
his clalfes were adopted, and condituted feme of their
orders. The claffes of Avicenna were not redored till g
the time of Crondedt, a Swedifh mineralogid, in whofe Cronftcdl
fydem, which was publidied in the year 1738, they re¬
fumed the place which they formerly held. The lydem
of Crondedt is divided into four claifes, Terra, Sa/ia
Phlogi/lica, and Metalla. The fird clafs, Terra, includes
9 orders, Calcareee, Silicea?, Granalince, Argillacea,
Micacea?, Fluores, s/jbejlince, Zeolilica, and Magnejia?.
J o the fecond clals, Saha, belong two orders, Acida
and Alkalina. The third clafs, Phlogijlica, confids
only of one order ; and the fourth clals, Metalla, is
compofed of two orders, Metalla perfec/a and Setnime-
talla. The fydem of Crondedt, the mod complete
which had yet been offered to the world, and which, by
comparing it with the fydems accounted by fome the
mod perfedf of the prefent day, will be found no*
much different in its arrangement, continued to be read
and dudied for more than twenty years, and was tranf-
lated into different languages. This arrangement is
founded on chemical principles. The fird clafs, for
indance, is divided into nine orders already enumerated,
and correfponding, as he fuppofed, to nine earths, of one
of which the dones included in each order are chiefly
compofed. But as the improvements in chemical analyfis
led to greater accuracy of invedigation, the earths
which Crondedt fuppofed to be fimple were found to be
compound. 'The number of fimple or primitive earths
was then diminiflied to five; and thus the number of
genera, as they appeared in the Sciagraphia Regni Mi-
neralis of Bergman, publiflied in 1782, was alfo five.£er * J
At that period five earths only were known. The fame
method of condrudling the genera is dill followed, fo
that the number of genera has increafed in proportion to
the number of earths which have been fince difeovered.
In the year 1780, a tranflation of Crondedt’s mineral
fydem appeared in Germany, accompanied with notes
by Werner, the celebrated profeffor of mineralogy at Werner.
Freyberg in Saxony. Six years before this time Werner
had publiflied a feparate treatife on the claffification of
minerals, in which he exhibited his method of deferibing
them by means of external charailers. The notes on
Crondedt’s fydem are to be confidered as a farther illuf-
tration of this method, as well as a catalogue of minerals
belonging to Pabd Von Ohain, which was drawn up by
the fame naturalid and publiflied in 1791. In Germany
the method of Werner, we believe, is almofl exclufively
adopted ; and it is chiefly followed in mod other coun¬
tries, France excepted, where mineralogical knowledge
is alfo greatly cultivated. ir
Mr Kirwan fird introduced the knowledge of this Kirwa*.
fydem into Britain, in his treatife on mineralogy pub¬
liflied in 1784 ; and about ten years afterwards it was
dill farther elucidated by the fame author in an impro¬
ved and enlarged edition of that work. In preparing
the latter edition, Mr Kirwan enjoyed the peculiar ad¬
vantage of confulting one of the completed and bed
arranged collections of minerals which had yet been
made in any country. This is the Lefkean collection Lefkea*
of foffils, which Mr Kirwan pronounces to be the moflcolle&io*
perfeCl monument of mineralogical ability now extant, of mineril!
“ That
U
W'f.
na-
Mine
r 'gy\
Jflorv.
MINER
tl That the pofTt'nion of this cabinet, Mr Kinvan proceeds
to ftate, fhould efcape the vigilance of the molt learned
nations, and fall to the lot of Ireland, hitherto fo inat¬
tentive to matters of this nature, was little to be expec¬
ted. Through the active zeal however of two of its moft
enlightened patriots (a), and the influence fecured to
them by former fervices of the moft effential nature, the
fums requifite for its purchafe, and for building a rc-
'reface pofitory to receive it, were obtained This fplen-
did and extenftve colleftion, we are farther inform¬
ed, was made by Lelke, whofe name it now bears, and
who was one of the earlieft and moft eminent of the
difciples of Werner. It was arranged between the
years 1782 and 1787, according to the principles of
W erner, and with his afliftance. After the death of
Mr Lelke, a catalogue was drawn up by Karften, an¬
other ol Werner’s difciples. This catalogue in its ar¬
rangement correfponds to the arrangement of the cabi¬
net, which is divided into five parts.
The firft part, which is denominated the chnraFJeriffic
part, confifts of 580 fpecimens. Thefe are intended for
the illuftration of the external charaflers, or the princi¬
ples of the claflification.
The fecond, which is the Systematic or ory<ftognoftic
part, comprehends all Ample minerals diflributed accor¬
ding to their genera and fpecies agreeable to the method
then followed by W erner. This part contains 3268
fpeeimens.
The third part, which is called the ^eognoJUc or sreo-
logical, includes the fubftances found in the different
kinds of rocks, as they are divided into pr'imitive, trnn-
Jitwn, Jiratiform, alluvial, and volcanic mountains.
This part of the colledfion is peculiarly rich in petrifac¬
tions ; and the whole number of fpecimens which it
eontains extends to 1100.
The fourth part is intended to illuflrate the minera¬
logy of every country on the globe, by exhibiting its
mineral produflions. The order of arrangement of this
part is from America to Alia, Europe, and Africa.
As there are many countries yet unexplored, it is
the moft imperfect divifion of the whole colleftion ;
and indeed, as Mr Kirwan obferves, it can only be com¬
pleted by national opulence.
The fifth part is called the economical colle<ftion.
It is formed of 474 fpecimens of minerals which are
employed in arts and manufaftures, as in architefrure,
fculpture, agriculture, jewellery, colouring, dyeing,
clothing, pottery, glazing, enamelling, polifhing of
metals, furnace-building, medicine, metallurgy, &c.
The whole cabinet confifts of 7331 fpecimens.
Such is the valuable fource from which Mr Kirwan
derived the information detailed in his fyftem of minera-
logy. And here rve are led to throw out a hint that
the friends of this feience could not more effectually
promote its knowledge, and encourage its progrefs, than
by eftablifliing fimilar collections wherever it is taught
and ftudied. Rut patriotifm and power are unfortu-
nately oftener direCted to deeds of fplendour and magni¬
ficence, than they are occupied in forming and accom-
A L O G Y.
plithing the humbler and more permanent plans of na¬
tional utility.
But to refume our narrative of the hiftory of minera-
logy, we cannot help expreffmg our regret that Mr Kir¬
wan has never found it convenient to revife and improve
his fytlem as he might have done, aided by the immenfe
ftock of mmeralogical knowledge which has been ac-
cumulated fince its firft publication. I his is the more
to be regretted, becaufe, notwithftanding the rapid pro¬
grefs of the fcience, and the great improvements which
the fyftem of Werner lias received, no good or even
tolerable account of it has yet appeared in the Engiiih
language.
France, where many branches of natural hiftory have
long flourilhed, has contributed largely to the fcience
°f mineralogy. Even the period of war, which at firft
fight would appear to be extremely adverfe to the tran¬
quil purluits of knowledge, has in this cafe proved pe¬
culiarly favourable to the ftudy of mineralogy in that
kingdom. I he knowledge of minerals has not only
been encouraged and promoted in France, by being for¬
ced to direCl her attention to her own refources, while
her intercourfe with other countries from which fhe
derived various commodities indifpenfably neceffary for
economical purpofes was interrupted j but alfo by the
fubjugation to her overgrown power, of thofe parts of
Europe where mineralogy has been moft cultivated
and improved, thus affording every facility of corre-
fpondence, and rendering acceflible thofe mineral trea-
fures which exhibit the beft and fulleft illullration of
the fcience. The French government, indeed, what¬
ever form it may have affumtd, has invariably been im-
preffed with the importance of mineralogy ; and even
during the horrors of revolution, has never fitiled to
promote its progrefs, by forming and fupporting exten-
live collections, and eftablifliing able and enlightened
teachers at the expence of the nation.
Ol the works on mineralogy which have appeared in
France, we {hall only mention the treatifes of Brochant,
Hauy, and Brongniart. They are the fources from
which the information in the following treatife is chiefly
derived, and they may be recommended as the beft
guides to the ftudy of this department of natural hiftory.
i he fyftem of Brochant is formed entirely on the prin- j}ro ^
ciples of Werner’s claflification, and is undoubtc dy the
moft perfpicuous account of the fyftem of the German
mineralogift which has yet been publiflied. The prin¬
ciples on which the elaborate and ingenious method of
arrangement propofed by the celebrated Hauy have
feen already detailed. (See Crystallization).
Here we ftiall only remark that the ftudy of the regular
forms of minerals with a view to methodical arrange¬
ment, was luccefsfully profecuted by Bergman and
Home de Lille j but has been extended and carried to
the higheft degree of perfection by the fagacity, pro¬
found phyfical knowledge, and mathematical addrefs of
the Abbe Hauy. But although the mineral fyftem of Hauy4
this diftinguilhed philofopher be founded on characters
the moft certain and the moft uniformly permanent, yet
II 2 it
131
Hiftory.
*3
lUfc
T!le Riglft Honourable John Forfter, late Speaker of the Irifh Houfe of Commons, and the Rioht Honour¬
able W. B. Cunningham. 0
1^2
MINERALOGY.
Hi (lory.
it may be doubted whether the previous knowledge
necefiary to underltand it, and in fome cafes the diffi¬
culty of applying its principles in afcertaining fome of
the molt effential characters, may not preclude this
work from being fo generally and pradtically ufeful as
other fyftems. The fcientific mineralogift however will
always regard it as a monument of indefatigable induf-
try and patient refeareh which has rarely been equalled,
and will derive from it the molt material aid in his
ftudie>.
'I he fyltem of Hauy confills of four claffes. I. The
firft clals confilts of lubltances which are compofed of
an acid united to an earth or an alkali, and fometimes
to both ; and it contains three orders ; i. Earths com¬
bined with an acid ; 2. Alkalies combined with an
acid •, and, 3. Earths and alkalies combined with an
acid. 11. This clafs includes only earthy fubltances,
but fometimes combined with an alkali. It conllitutes
the liliccous genus of other fyltems. III. The third
clafs comprehends combultiblc fubltances which are not
metals. It is divided into two orders j the firit con¬
taining fimple, and the fecond compound combultibles.
IV. the metals form the fourth clafs. It is divided in¬
to three orders, which are characterized by different
deg rees of oxidation. Belides thefe claffes there are
three appendices. The firit contains thofe fubltances
whofe nature is not fufficiently known to have their
places accurately affigned in the fyltem. The fecond
appendix includes aggregates of different mineral fub¬
ltances. It is divided into three orders. The firit
treats of primitive rocks •, the fecond of fecondary
and tertiary rocks •, and the third of breccias. The
third appendix is devoted to the conlideration of volca¬
nic produCts. This is divided into fix claffes ; but it is
to be obferved, that the volcanic pioduCts of this mine-
ralogilt comprehend, not only fuch fubltances as are Hiftor 1
univerfally allowed to have a volcanic origin, but alfo
bafalts, traps, and other minerals, the origin of which
is Itill queltioned. ^
The fyltem of Brongniart takes a wider range than Brongui
other fyltems, including fubltances which are not treat¬
ed of by w riters on mineralogy. It is divided into five
claffes. T he firit contains thofe fubitances, excluding
the metals, which are combined with oxygen. It con¬
tains two orders; the firit including air and water,
and the fecond the acids. The fecond clafs, which
treats of faline bodies, is divided into two orders : the
firit comprehends the alkaline falts, and the fecond the
earthy falts. T he third clafs, containing the Itones, is
divided into three orders : the hrlt, hard itones; the
fecond magnefian $ and the third argillaceous. The
fouth clafs contains the combuitible fubltances, which
are divided into two orders j firit compound, and fecond,
fimple combultibles. The fifth clafs includes the me¬
tals, which are divided into two orders j firit, the brit¬
tle, and lecond the dudiile metals. The treatife of
Brongniart, notwithllanding fome pecularities in the
claffification which are not quite familiar to us, will be
found one of the molt ufeful that has hitherto appeared,
not only on account of the accuracy of the deferiptions,
which are divelted of every kind of redundancy, but
alfo on account of the interefling geological difeuffions
w hich are introduced, as well as numerous and import¬
ant practical details in metallurgy and other ufeful arts.
The follow ing treatife w ill be divided into tw o parts.
The firft part w ill contain the claffification and deicrip-
tion of minerals ; and the fecond part will be deftined
to the analyfis of minerals and to metallurgy, or the
method of extradfing metals from their ores.
PART I. OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS.
THl. method to be followed in this treatife is near¬
ly that of Werner, all the material parts of which ive
fhall freely borrow from the work of Brochant already
noticed, as the beft on the fubjedl which we have had
an opportunity of confulting. We fliall however oc-
cafionally avail ourfelves of any ufeful information
which may be derived from the mineralogy of Kirwan,
Brongniart, and Hauy ; and in particular we ffiall in-
lert the effential charadlers of the fpecies given by the
latter.
The univerfal charadlers employed by Werner in
the defeription of minerals are feven in number:
I. Colour; 2. Cohefion ; 3. Undluofity ; 4. Coldnefs ;
5- Weight ; 6. Smell; 7. Tafte. The table and the
illuftrations which follow are chiefly taken from
Weaver’s tranflation of Werner’s treatife on that fub-
jea.
In the following table is exhibited the arrangement
of the generic external charadters of foflils.
Common
1.
ica-
MINERALOGY.
Common Generic External Chara&ers.
I. The Colour.
XI. The Cohefion of the particles, in relation to -which Foflils are diftinguilhed
into
Solid
and
Solid
and
Friable.
Particular generic charac¬
ters of folid Foflils.
Chara&ers
for the <
Sight.
TThe external Form.
External Appearance. < The external Surface.
(.The external Luilre.
Particular generic
charadters of fri¬
able Foflils.
The external Form.
. - , (“The internal Luftre.
Appearance o£ the \ T]le Fraaure.
(. The form of the Fragments.
TThe Form of the diftindt
Appearance of the di- J Concretions.
Hindi Concretion*. J The Surface of Separation
(_The Luftre of Separation
fThe Tranfparency.
General Appearance. < The Streak.
(. 1'he Stain.
The Luftre.
The appearance of
the particles.
Charadlers for the Touch. <
The Hardnefs.
The Solidity.
The Frangibility.
The Flexibility.
The Adhefion to the
Tongue.
C Hctrin" f°r thelT>>' Sound. ^ The CreSing.
(.The Ruftling.
The Stain.
The Friability.
Fluid.
Particular generic
charadlers of fluid
foflils.
The external Form.
The Luftre.
The Tranfparency.
The Fluidity.
Wetting of the
fingers.
*33
Claflifica
tion.
Remaining Common Generic External Chara&ers.
f fill. The Undluofity.
| Touch. < IV. The Coldnefs.
Charadlers for the <! (.V. The Weight.
I Smell. VI. The Smell.
[Tafte. VII. The Tafte.
External Characters of Minerals arranged according to their refpe&ive generic charac¬
ters, and illustrated by appropriate examples.
Common Generic External Characters.
I. THE COLOUR.
The moft obvious of the external charadlers of mine¬
rals, is colour •, it is alfo one of the moft certain charac¬
ters, and often ferves as the principal diflinguifhing
mark of many mineral fubftances. In deriving the
eharadlers of minerals from colour, three things are c<m-
fidered : I. The feveral principal colours, with their
varieties. 2. The lhade of colour. 3. The tarnithed
colours.
I. Principal Colours.
The feveral principal colours are not derived from
the divifion of the folar ray by means of the prifm, but
are fuch as are eonfidered fimple in common life. The
principal colours are the eight following \ viz. white,
gray, black, blue, green, vellow, red, and brown.
A. White is the firft principal colour, and it includes
the following eight varieties.
1. Snow white, as fnow white quartz, white lead
ore, Carrara marble.
2. Reddijh
3
134
Claffifica-
t,on- quartz
MINERALOGY.
2. Redtlijh white, as porcelain earth, reddifli white
3. Yel/owijh white, as white amber, zeolite, chalk.
Silver white, as native filver, native bifmuth, and
atrfenical pyrites.
S' Grnyi/h white, as fevcral kinds of gypfum, quartz,
and foliated granular limeftone.
6. GreeniJJj white, as white amianthus, talc, and cal¬
careous fpar.
7. Milk white, as calcedony, opal, and milk white
quartz.
8. Tin white, as native quickfilver, native antimony,
and white cobalt ore.
B. Gray is the fecond principal colour, and its va¬
rieties are the following.
1. Lend gray, as in common galena, compact galena,
gray antimonial ore, and vitreous copper ore.
2. Bluifh gray, as in bluilh gray clay, bluilh gray
marble, and bluiih gray limeftone.
3* Pearl gray, as in quartz, calcedony, and porcelain
jafper.
4. Reddijh gray, as in granular limeftone and feld-
fpar.
5. Smoke gray, as in gray hornftone, and in dark
gray flint.
6. Green Jh gray, as in cat’s eye, prehnite, and fome
varieties of argillaceous fchiftus.
7. lellowijh gray, as in yellowifli gray calcedony,
yellowifh gray tripoli.
8. Steel gray, as in fpecular iron ore, gray copper
•re, ftriated gray ore of manganefe.
9. A/h gray, as in quartz, wacken, and fome varie¬
ties of argillaceous fchiftus.
C. Black, which is the third principal colour, is di¬
vided into the fix following varieties.
1. Grayifi black, asm bafalt, black limeftone, and
black flint.
2. Brownijh black, as in black blende, tin-ftone
cryftals, black cobalt ore, and bituminous fhale.
3. Dark black, or velvet black, as in Iceland agate
or obfidian, fchorl, and jet.
4. Iron black, as in micaceous iron ore, magnetic
iron ftone, and fbmetimes in antimoniated filver ore.
5. Greenijh black, as in pitchftone, hornblende, and
ierpentine.
6. Bluifh black, as in aluminous fhale, black cobalt
©re, dull black lead ore.
D. Blue is the fourth principal colour, including
teven varieties.
1. Indigo blue, as in blue martial earth.
2. Pn/JJian blue, as in the fapphire and blue rock
fait.
3. Azure blue, as in lapis lazuli, and azure copper
ore.
4. Violet blue, as in fluor fpar, amethyft, and in rock
fait.
5. lavender blue, as in a variety of porcelain, jafper,
and lithomarga.
6. Smalt blue, as in light azure copper ore, and blue
martial earth.
. 7- ^y blue, as in light azure copper ore, blue native
vitriol, and fky blue fluor fpar.
E. Green is the fifth principal colour, of which
there are the following varieties.
1. Verdigreafe green, as in green copper ore, green
fluor fpar.
2. Celadon green, as in the Brafilian beryl, and in
pure green earth.
. 3- Mountain green, as in aftynolite, hornftone, and
in moft beryls.
4. Emerald green, as in fibrous malachite and fluor
fpar.
5. Leek green, as in aftynolite, jade, and prafium.
6. Apple green, as in chryfolite, prehnite, and nickel
ore.
7. Grafs green, as in fome varieties of chryfoprafe and
fome green lead ores.
8. Pifachio green, as m chryfolite, iron fhot ^reen
copper ore. 45
. 9- -Afporagus green, as in chryfo beryl, and fome va¬
rieties of green lead ore.
. Olive green, as in green lead ore, ferpentine,
pitchftone, and garnet.
11. Blacki/h green, as in dark green ferpentine.
\ 2. Canary green, as in green lead ore, micaceou*
uranitic ore, and green ftcalites.
F. Yellow is the fixth of the principal colours. It
includes r 2 varieties, which are the following.
1. Sulphur yellow, as in native fulphur and fome va¬
rieties of ferpentine.
2. Lemon yellow, as in yellow orpiment, and fom#
yellow' lead ores.
3. Gold yellow, as in native gold.
4. Bell metal yellow, as in iron pyrites.
5. Straw yellow, as in calamine and bifmuth ochre.
6. Wine yellow, as in Saxon topaz and yellow calca¬
reous fpar.
7. Ifabella yellow, as in calamine and fparry iron ore.
8. Ochre yellow, as in iron ochre, yellow jafper, and
calamine.
9. Orange yellow, as in red orpiment and red lead ore.
Honey yellow, as in amber fluor Ipar and calce¬
dony.
it. Wax yellow, as in yellow lead ore, commcm
opal, and calcedony.
12. Brafs yellow, as in copper pyrites, and native
gold.
G. Red is the feventh principal colour, and it in¬
cludes the following 1 5 varieties.
. 1 • Morning or aurora red, as in red lead ore, red or¬
piment.
2. Hyacinth red, as in the hyacinth, and a variety of
brown blende.
3. Brick red, as in porcelain jafper.
4. Scarlet red, as in light red cinnabar.
5. Copper red, as in native copper.
6. Blood red, as in Bohemian garnet, and red c&r-
nelian.
# ?• Carmine red, as in red copper ore, and clear red
cinnabar.
8. Cochineal red, as in cinnabar, fometimes jafper,
and red quartz.
9. Cnmfon red, as in ruby, oriental garnet, and red
cobalt ore.
10. Columbine red, as in precious garnet, and red
cobalt ore.
11. Elefh red, as in feldfpar, red gypfum, red quartz,
and flefh red baryte»s.
12. Rofe
Part11
I. MINE R
a- 12. Rofe reJy as in red zeolite, rofe red quartz, and
ruby.
13. Peach bloflbm red, as in flriated and earthy red
cobalt ores.
14. Cherry red, as in red antimony ore and ruby.
15. Browni/h red, as in red argillaceous iron Hone,
and red earthy iron Hone.
H. Brown is the eighth and laft of the principal
colours. It is divided into the eight following varie¬
ties.
I. Reddijb brown, as in brown tin Hone, and brown
blende.
2. Clove brown, as in rock cryflal, brown iron ore,
and thumerHone.
3. Hair brown, as in wood tin ore from Cornwall.
4. 'lellowijh brown, as in brown iron ochre and
jafper.
if. Tombac brown, or pinchbeck brown, as in brown
mica.
6. Wood brown, as in bituminous wood, a variety of
alheHus.
7. Liver brown, as in brown cobalt ore, and brown
jafper.
8. B/ackif/j brown, as in lowland argillaceous iron
*re, mineral pitch, and bituminous wood.
II. Shade or Intenjity of Colour.
Colours may be determined by the relation in which
they Hand to each other with regard to intenfity or
flxade. Thus among the principal colours, there are
fome which are light, as white and yellow •, and fome
which are dark, as blue and black \ and befides, the
varieties of the principal colours differ from each other in
refpefl to {hade. Thus among the blue colours, indigo
blue is dark, azure blue clear, and fky blue light •, and
even the varieties may afford a diverfity of fhade, as,
for inHance, clear canary green, light canary green.
Here it ought to be remarked, that the peculiar fhade
•f colour in a mineral is frequently owing to its greater
or lefs tranfparency, the palenefs being in proportion to
the degree of tranfparency, and the darknefs to the de¬
gree of opacity. The degree of luflre alfo in minerals
produces great variety in the fliade of colour.
In diferiminating the fliade or intenfity of colour,
four degrees have only in general been adopted. Thefe
are the following. 1. Dark. 2. Clear. 3. Light. 4.
Pale.
1. Dark, as in Bohemian garnet, which is dark
blood red.
2. Clear, as in green hornflone, which is clear moun¬
tain green.
3. Light, as in red carnelian, which is light blood
red.
4. Pale, as in aquamarine, tvhich is pale mountain
green.
III. Tarnifhed Colours.
Tarnifhed colours afford peculiar charafleriflic marks
of many minerals. By tarnifhing, is meant a difference
in the colour of the furface after expofure to the air
from what the frefh fratflure of the mineral exhibits.
Some minerals are always found tarnifhed in their
natural pofition in the earth, as in common galena,
gray ore of antimony and blende: fome tarnifli on every
frefh fraflure being made, as in native arfenic and cop-
A L O G Y.
per pyrites 5 while others are tarnifhed in both cafes, as
in native arfenic, and purple copper ore.
The colours of tarnifhed minerals are divided into,
1. Simple, and 2. Variegated.
1. Simple Tarnished colours afford five varieties.
a. Gray is the tarnifhed colour of white cobalt ore,
and Heel gray of brown hematites.
b. Black is the tarnifhed colour of native arfenic,
brown hematites, and gray cobalt ore.
c. Brown is the tarnifhed colour of native filver,
which is white.
d. Rcddi/b, of native bifmuth, the frefli fraflure of
which is filver white.
e. Tellowijh, of white cobalt ore, and argentiferous
arfenical pyrites.
2. Variegated tarnished colours include four
varieties.
a. Pavonine tarnifhed, as in copper pyrites, purple
copper ore and common pyrites.
b. Iridefcent tarni/hed, as in gray anlimonial ore, ga¬
lena, fpecular iron ore.
c. Columbine tarnijhed, as in copper pyrites.
d. Steel-coloured tarnijhed, as in gray cobalt ore.
IV. The Play of Colour.
The play of colour in a mineral can only be obferv-
ed in funfliine or in a flrong light. By this is under¬
flood that property which fome minerals poffefs of re-
frafling from particular fpots the different rays of light.
This effefl is produced by the peculiar affociation of the
molecules of the mineral, and the various degrees of
its tranfparency. Accidental caufes, however, produce
a fimilar effeifl, fuch as flight rifts, cracks, &.c.
The play of colour is remarkable in the diamond and
in the opal, and fometimes in rock cryflal.
V. The Mutable RefleBion of Colour.
This is diflinguifhed from the play of colour by the
mineral exhibiting in the fame fpot a change of colour
according to the pofition of its furface being varied,
producing a different angle with the incident rays of
light. This change takes place, i.On the furface;
2. Internally.
1. The fuperfeial mutable rcfleflion is finely exem¬
plified in Labrador Hone, and in a variety of marble
which contains, petrified {hells.
2. The internal mutable refleftion of colour appears
in cat’s eye, precious opal, and moonftone.
VI. The Mutation of Colour.
This is diftinguifhod from the tarnifh ■, in which lat¬
ter the furface only undergoes a change of colour, but
in the mutation of colour, the effe<A penetrates the mi¬
neral, and fometimes pervades the whole. This affords
two varieties.
1. The fading of colour.—By this is meant that the
colour of a mineral becomes paler when it is expofed to
the light, heat, or is undergoing decompofition. Ex¬
amples of thefe changes may be obferved in ftriated
red cobalt ore, which expofed to the air becomes pale
brownifh ; blue fluor fpar becomes green ; chryfoprafe
becomes light green ; pearl gray filver ore becomes
clear brown.
2. The perfeB change of colour is often the confe-
quence of fading, w'hen one colour is loft, and a new
one
135
Claflifica-
tion.
MINEKALOGY.
one appears, as in light-coloured fparry iron ore ; ear
thy gray ore of manganefe, and argillaceous iron ftone.
VII. Delineations of Colours.
The delineations of colours are obferved on fimplc
minerals, the fame fpecimen containing feveral colours,
■which pafs through its interior, according to certain de¬
lineations. Of thefe delineations the following nine va¬
rieties are defcribed.
1. Dotted, when fine points of another colour are dif-
perfed over the furface, as in ferpentine, and feme va¬
rieties of jafper.
2. Spotted, when the points or fpots are of the fize of
a lentil to that of a fixpence, or from one-fourth to one
inch in diameter. The fpots are round and regular,
or irregular.
a. Regular, as in fome varieties of ferpentine, and in
argillaceous fchidus.
b. Irregular, as in a variety of marble from Bayr¬
euth.
3* Nebulous or cloudy, when the fpots are large and
irregular, forming with the ground colour the appear¬
ance of clouds, as in calcedony and jafper.
4. Flamy, when the fpots are large, and drawn in
one direction to a fharp point, as in ftriped jafper and
fome marbles.
5 Striped, when large fpots are drawn in the fame
direction, and run parallel through the whole fpecimen.
There are two varieties.
a. Straight or curved ftriped, as in flraight ftriped
jafper.
b. Broad or linear, as in linear ftriped agate, calce¬
dony, &c.
6. Annular, when the ftripes form concentric circles,
as in jafper, carnelian, and flints.
7. Dend’itic, when the delineation refembles the
trunk of a tree feparating into ramifications, as in ftea-
tites, fome limeftones, Egyptian marble, and calce¬
dony.
8. Ruinous, when the delineation prefents the ap¬
pearance of ruins, as in Florentine or landfcape mar¬
ble.
9. Veined, when the delineation confifts of varioufly
coloured narrow ftripes, eroding each other in differ-
«nt dire&ions, forming f metimes the appearance of a
net, as in marble, ferpentine, and jafper.
ftiape of the natural furface, which its primitive indivi¬
duals are found to poffefs. The external forms of folid
minerals are diftinguiftied into common, particular, re¬
gular or eryftallized, and extraneous.
II. THE COHESION OF THE PARTICLES.
The cohefion of the particles in minerals is the fe-
cond common generic chara6Ier, which is obferved by
the fight, and alfo by the touch. According to this
property, minerals are divided into fnlid, friable, and
fluid *, but thefe properties a'fo belong to the particular
generic chara&ers of minerals, to be afterwards de¬
fcribed.
Particular Generic External Clara&ers of Solid Mi¬
nerals.
1. The External Appearance.
In the external appearance of a mineral, three things
are to be obferved, the external form, the external lur-
face, and the external luftre.
1. The external form of a mineral is that figure or
1.
In
y. Wholly
E. In plates, diftinguifhed into
a. 1 hick plates, as in red filver ore.
b. Thin plates, as in vitreom filver ore.
F. In membranes or flakts, when the thicknefs does
not much exceed that of paper, divided into
«. Thick, as in native filver.
b. Thin, as in iron pvriies.
c. Very thin, as in vitreous filver ore.
Particular External Forms.
2.
Pa4t
ChffiJ
tioi
Common External Shape.
When a mineral exhibits no refemblance to any
known fubftances in common life, it is laid to be of a
common form. Of common forms there are fix kinds.
A. Mafjive, when a mineral is oi an indeterminate
form, or amorphous, and of nearly equal dimenfions,
from the fize of a hazel nut to the greateft magnitude*
and when it is incorporated with another folid mineral*
it is faid to be maflive. Solid minerals are molt fre¬
quently found of this external form, and fome are never
found otherwife, as in lieatites, common pit-coal, galena,
and copper pyrites.
.B. D{feminuted, or interfperfed, when a mineral
without any particular form, is in fmall pieces not exl
ceeding the fize of a hazel nut, incorporated with ano¬
ther folid mineral. This affords three varietit s.
a. Coarfely interfperfed, in fize of a hazel nut to that
of a pea, as in copper pyrites.
b. Finely interfperfed, from the fize of a pea to
that of a grain of millet, as in tinlione, in granular
quartz.
c. Minutely interfperfed, from the fize. of a grain of
millet till it is fcarccly perceptible to the eye, as in in¬
terfperfed native gold.
C. In angular pieces, of which there are two vari¬
eties.
a. Sharp-cornered, as in calcedony and in quartz.
b. Blunt-cornered, as in common opal.
D. In grains. Detached minerals, from the fize of a
hazel nut to that which may be diftinguilhed by the
eye, are faid to be in grains. Thefe are diftinguilhed,
a. According to fize, into
«. In grofs grains from the fize of ? hazel nut to
that of a pea, as in lowland argillaceous iron ore.
-Large grains, from the fize of a pea to that of
a hemp feed, as in precious garnet, magnetic iron fand.
y. Small grains, from the fize of hemp feed to that of
millet, as in the above minerals.
}- In minute or fine grains, fueh as are fmaller than
millet feeds, as platina, native gold, tinftone.
b. According to the form, which is in
*. Angular grains, as in magnetic iron fand.
/3. Rounded grains, as in plaiina and native gold.
c. According as they inheie in other minerals,
this refpecl they are, «. Loofe, /3. Partially,
The forms which come under this denomination ex¬
hibit a greater or lefs refemblance, both to natural
and artificial objects. They are called particular, be-
caufe, like the former, they arc not ufual or common.
There
|b
11.
M I N E 11 A L O G Y.
Utica- There are five kinds of particular external forms, viz.
m. elongated, rounded, flattened, impreiled, and confufed.
A. Elongated. Of this there are 11 varieties.
a. Dentiform, as in native filver, and dentiform vi¬
treous filver ore.
b. Filiform, as in native filver, and vitreous filver
ore.
c. Capillary, refembling hairs, as in native gold and
native filver.
'J- Reticulated, as in native filver, native copper, and
a variety of galena.
e. Dendritic, which is either regular or irregular, as
in native filver and native copper.
f. Cor aliform, as in calcareous ftalaflites, commonly
known by the name cti flos ferri, and brown hsematites.
g. St a I ad it form, as in calcareous finter, brown iron
ftone, and calcedony.
h. Tubuliform, as in compaft brown iron ftone, and
galena.
f. Fijlulform, as in martial pyrites.
b. Fruiefcent, or arbuJJform, as in black iron ftone,
and compaft gray ore of manganefe.
It Matrajform, having the figure of a chemical ma-
trafs, as in black haematites, and gray ore of manganefe.
B. Rounded, of which there are five varieties.
«. Botryform, refembling a bunch of grape*, as in
black cobalt ore, malachite, and copper pyrites.
b. Globular, of which there are five varieties.
«. PerfeFlly globular, as in pifolite, and white cobalt
ore.
Elliptical, as in quartz and flint.
y. Amygdaloid, as in zeolite and green earth.
Spheroidal, as in Egyptian jafper and calcedony.
s. Imperfectly globular, as in carnelian and ealcedony.
c. Kidney form, as in red haematites, native arfenic,
and malachite.
d. Bulbous or nodular, as in nodular flint and martial
pyrites.
e. Liquiform, as in a Angular variety of galena, from
Freyberg.
C. Flattened. Of the particular forms of this
denomination there are three kinds.
a. Specular, as in compaft galena, and compafl red
iron ftone.
b. In lamina or leaves, which form is peculiar to me¬
tals, as in native gold and filver.
c. PeEiinated, as in quartz from Schemnitz.
D. Impressed. Particular forms of thefe afford fix
varieties.
«. Cellular, of which there are feveral kinds, as,
«. Straight cellular, which prefents two varieties.
1. Hexahedral, as in quartz ; 2. Polyhedral, as in cel¬
lular quartz and calcareous fpar.
Round cellular, as, 1. Parallel round, as in quartz ;
2. Spongiform, as alfo in quartz •, 3. Indeterminate,
as in. brown iron ftone •, 4. Double, as in quartz and
hepatic pyrites ; 5. Veiny, as in white cobalt ore.
b. With imprejjions, which are,
ti. Cubical, as in quartz and fluor fpar.
/3. Pyramidal, as in quartz, fluor fpar, and vitreous
filver ore.
y. Conical, as in native arfcnic and quartz.
Tabular or prifmatic, as in quartz.
1. Globular, as in vitreous filver ore.
Vol. XIV. Part I.
c. Peforated, as in lowland argillaceous iron ore.
d. Corroded, asin quartz, gal< na,and vitreous lilver ore.
e. Heteromorphous, as in native iron, fwampy iron
ore, and native arfcnic.
f Vejicular, as in lavas, pumice ftones, bafalt, and
wackcn.
E. Confused, of which there is only one variety.
a. Ramofe, as in native iron, fometimes native copper,
and vitreous filver ore.
3. Regular External Forms or CryJlalligations.
In deferibing cryftallizations or regular forms of mi¬
nerals, four things are to be confidered •, the effential
quality of the cryftals j the form, aggregation, and mag¬
nitude.
A. The essential quality of crystals, which
IS EITHER GENUINE OR SPURIOUS.
a. Genuine or true cryjlals, which are the moft com¬
mon, as in calcareous and fluor fpars.
b. Spurious or after cryjlals, which are diftinguifhed
from true cryftals by being hollow, having a rough or
drufy furface, and the folid angles or edges never (harp
or well defined. Examples are found in quartz of the
fpurious cryftals of the cube, and of the octahedron of
fluor fpar.
B. Form of crystals. This is the moft confpicu-
ous property of cryftals, and commonly ferves as a di-
ftin£tive character of thofe minerals which have regular
forms. The form of cryftals is compofed of planes ; of
edges formed by the junction of two planes j of deter¬
minate angles, and of folid angles formed by the union
of three or more planes in one point.
<*. In the form of cryftals, the primary or fundamen¬
tal forms are firft to be confidered, and then the varia¬
tions or modifications of thefc forms.
I. The parts of the primary form are,
1. Planes, which are either
a. Lateral planes, forming the confines of the body
towards its fmalleft extent •, or, b. Extreme or terminal
planes, which form the confines of the body tow ards its
greateft extent.
2. Edges, which are,
«. Lateral edges, or, b. Extreme edges.
3. Solid angles, which have been defined above.
II. Kinds of primary forms, which are the feven
following.
1. The Icofahedron, which is compofed of 20 equila¬
teral triangular planes, united under equal angles, as in
iron pyrites.
2. The Dodecahedron, which is compofed of twelve
regular, pentangular planes, united under equal obtule
angles, as in iron pyrites, and white cobalt ore.
3. The Hexahedron, including the cube and the
rhomb, is compofed of fix quadrilateral planes, as in cal¬
careous fpar, fluor fpar, iron pyrites, galena, &.c.
4. The Prifm, which is one of the moft common
cryftallizations among minerals, is compofed of an in¬
determinate number of quadrangular lateral planes, ha¬
ving the fame dire&ion, and all terminating in two ex¬
treme planes, each of which has as many fides as the
cryftallization poffeffes lateral planes j as in various lead
ores, rock cryftal, topaz, and thorl.
5. The Pyramid is compofed of an indeterminate
number of triangular, lateral planes, converging to a
S point,
MINER
point, and of a bafe having as many hides as the cry-
ftallization has lateral planes j as in quartz, caleareous
fpar, and amethyft.
6. The Table, which is compofed of two parallel la¬
teral planes, much larger in comparifon than the other
planes; the extreme planes being indeterminate in num¬
ber, fmall, and narrow; as in tabular cryilallized fpecu-
lar iron ore, calcareous fpar, and heavy fpar.
7. The Lens, confifts of two lateral planes only, dif¬
fering according as the lateral planes are differently
eurved. Of this there are two kinds: 1. The common
lens, compofed of two convex lateral planes ; and,
2. The felliform, conlifling of one convex and one la¬
teral plane, fomewhat refembling a faddle. Cryffals of
both kinds are obferved in fparry iron ore and calcareous
fpar.
III. Differences in each kind of primary
FORMS.
Thefe primary forms differ from each other according
to fimplicity, pofition, number of planes, fize of the
planes, angles under which they meet, direction of the
planes, and fulnefs of the cryftal.
1. Simplicity. This diftindlion is confined to the
pyramid, which is either,
A. Simple, as in light red filver ore, gray copper
ore, quartz, amethyft ; and
B. Double, in which thofe of the one pyramid are
either,
a. Set on the lateral planes of the other, and this
«. direftly, or obliquely ; or b. on the lateral edges of
the other. Examples of this are obferved in double py¬
ramidal vitreous filver ore, galena, rock cryftal, ruby,
and diamond.
2. Pojttion, which is either
A. Erefl, which is very common; or, B. Inverted,
which has only been obferved in Ample hexahedral py¬
ramidal cryftals of calcareous fpar.
3. Nutrier of planes, in the primary form, is in
fome determinate, and in the others variable. Here
are to be confidered,
A. The kind of planes, as
a. In the prifm and pyramid, in which the lateral
planes vary ; and, b. In the table, in which the ex¬
treme planes vary.
B. The number of jplanes, which in the prifm and
pyramid are found,
a. Trihedral, having three planes, as in the trihe¬
dral prifm of ftiorl, and the trihedral pyramid of gray
copper ore.
b. Tetrahedral, having four planes, as in the tetra¬
hedral prifm of arfenical pyrites, and in the double te¬
trahedral pyramid of ruby and galena.
c. Hexahedral, as in the hexahedral prifm and pyra¬
mid of calcareous fpar.
d. ORahedral, as in the o&ahedral prifuT of topaz ;
and in the double oftahedral pyramid of garnet and
zeolite.
The table occurs,
a. ^uadragonal, having four extreme planes, as in
heavy fpar, yellow lead ore, and calamine.
b. Hexugtnal, having fix extreme planes, as in mica
and heavy fpar.
c. 0diagonal, or with eight extreme planes, as in
yellow lead ore and heavy fpar.
A L O G Y. Part
4. The fitze of the planes, in relation to each other, Claffii
which are faid to be t1011
A. Equal, or ^
B. Unequal; and this latter is either indeterminate,
or determinate.
a. Indeterminate, which is obferved in the lateral
planes of the hexahedral prifm of rock cryftal.
b. Determinately unequal, as in prifmatic white lead
ore, and hexahedral prifmatic calcareous fpar. In this
latter the following varieties are obferved.
«t. Alternately broad and narrow. /3. The two op-
pofite broader ; and, y. The two oppofite narrower.
5. Angles under which the planes are ajfociated.
Thefe are angles of the lateral edges, of the extreme
edges, and of the fummit.
A. Angles of the lateral edges. Thefe are,
a. Equiangular, as in the icofahedral cryftals of iron
pyrites.
b. Reclangular, as in cubical fiuor fpar.
c. Oblique angular, as in rhomboidal calcareous fpar.
d. Unequiangu/ar, as in the hexahedral prifm of rock
cryftal, and in the odlahedral prifm of topaz.
A. Angles of the extreme edges are,
a. Equiangular, as in the hexagonal table of mica.
b. Rediangular, as in the quadragonal table of heavy
fpar.
c. Oblique angular, which is either, u. Parallel, as
in the tetrahedral prifm of feldfpar ; or, Alternate
oblique angular, as in copper pyrites.
d. Unequiangu/ar, as in the hexagonal table of prelv
nite.
C. Angles of the fummit, which are confined to the
pyramid, and prefent the following varieties.
a. Very obtufe, when the angle is from 150° to 130°,
as in tourmalin.
b. Obtufe, when the angle is from 130° to no0, as
in calcareous fpar.
c. Rather obtufe, from no0 to 90°, as in honey
ftone.
d. Redlangular, as in zircon.
e. Rather acute, from 90°, to 70°, as in quartz.
f. Acute, from 70° to 50°, as in calcareous fpar.
g. Very acute, from 50° to 30°, as in fapphire.
6. The dirediion of the lateral planes. Thefe are ei¬
ther ftraight or curvated.
A. Straight planes are even furfaces, and are the molt
common.
B. Curvated planes are diftinguiftied according t#
pofition and form.
a. Pofition, which is, u. Inwardly curvated or con¬
cave ; or, f&. Outwardly curvated or convex ; and, y.
Inwardly and outwardly curvated, or concave and con¬
vex. The firft is obferved in fiuor fpar, the fecond in
diamond, and the third in fparry iron ftone.
b. The form is either, «. Spherical, as in brown
fpar ; /S. Cylindrical, in which the curvature runs,
1. Parallel to the fides, as in iron pyrites, or, 2. Pa¬
rallel to the diagonal, as in fiuor fpar ; and, y. Conical,
as in gypfum.
7. the fuinefs of the crystal. Cryftals are either full
and perfect, or hollowed at the extremity, or through¬
out.
A. Full or perfect cryftals, which is inoft commonly
the cafe.
B. Hollowed
ra :
Ipl; fi
1.
I- MINER
:a- B. Hollowed at the extremity, as in calcareous fpar,
, green lead ore, &e.
C. Hollow through the whole cry dal, as in prifraa-
tic beryl.
Modifications of the primary form.
The changes or alterations which take place on the
principal or fundamental form, are three; truncation,
bevelling, and acumination.
I. Truncation. In the truncation are to be confi-
dered the parts and the determination.
1. The parts of the truncation are the planes, the
edges, and the angles.
2. The determination of the truncation relates to,
a. The Jituation as it occurs at the angles or edges of
the primary form.
b. Its magnitude, which, in relation to the planes of
the primary form, is fmall or large : in the one cafe
the angles or edges are faid to be llightly, in the other
deeply truncated.
. c. The application of the truncation, which is either
direff or oblique. The edges of cubical iron pyrites
afford an example of oblique truncation.
^ d. The direflion of the truncation, which prefents
either an even or a curvated furface.
Cubical galena, with truncated angles ; tetrahedral
prifmatic tin ftone cryftals, with truncated edges ;
double tetrahedral pyramidal tin ftone cryftals, with
truncated edges, are inrtances of truncation.
II. Bevelling, in which the parts and determina¬
tion are alfo to be confidered.
1. The parts of the bevelling are, the planes, the
edges, and tne angles. I he bevelling edges are di-
ftinguifhed into the proper bevelling edge, which is
formed bv the conjunction of the bevelling planes, and
the bevelling edges formed by the jumffion of the bevel-
ling planes with the lateral planes of the primary form.
2. The determination of the bevelling, in which is
to be obferved,
A. Its fituation as it takes place, a. At the extreme
planes, which is confined to the prifm and table ; b. At
the edges, which is met with in the hexahedron, prifm,
pyramid, and table : and, c. At the angles, which is a
very rare occurrence.
B. Its magnitude, which is faid to be flight or deep.
_C. The angle under which the bevelling planes con¬
join, which is faid to be, a. Acutely, b. Redanoular-
ly, or, c. Obtufely bevelled.
D. The continuation of the bevelling, which is ei¬
ther uninterrupted, or interrupted. Of the latter cafe
there are two varieties, when it is once or twice inter¬
rupted. The lateral edges of double trihedral pyrami¬
dal calcareous fpar are once interruptedly bevelled ; and
the obtufe extreme edges of quadrangular tabular heavy
fpa’', are twi e interruptedlv bevelled.
E. The application, a. Of the bevelling itrelf, which
is t ther direCt or oblique (the former is the moft com-
n anc* th'5 latter occurs in pnfmatic bafaltic horn
m
bn "h ) ; and, b. OOhe hevel’ing planes, which are fet
either on the lateral planes, or on the lateral edges.
H> 1 HE -\CUMINAT7on, in which are alfo to u<
cot fiT rcd the parts of the acumina ion and the deter
mination.
t he n*rts of the acuminat’on confift of.
be
A
"edges
The acumi-ati^rr planes B. The acuminating
which are diitinguilhed into, a. Proper edges of
A L O G Y.
acumination, formed by ihe junCHon of the acuminat¬
ing plants j b. The extreme edges of acumination ;
c. '1'he edges between the acuminating and lateral
planes. C. I he angles of acumination.
2. i he determination of the acumination relating to,
A. Its fituation, as it («.curs at, a. the folid angles ;
or, b. At the extreme planes of the primary form,
i he acumina ion of the prifm is always ai the extreme
planes ; of the cube ufually at the angles, and of the
pyramid gene ally at the fummit.
B. The planes themlelves, in which are to be ob¬
ferved,
a. Their number, which is either equal to, or
fewer than thofe of the pumary form. In the In xahe-
dral prifm of calcareous fpar and garnet, and in the tri¬
hedral prifm of tourmaline, the aeumination is by three
planes j in the tetrahedral prifm of jargon and hyacinth,
by tour planes ; in the hexahedral prifm of calcareous
fpar and rock cryftal, by fix planes •, and in tetrahedral
prifmatic topaz, by eight planes.
b. I heir relativeJize, which is either equal or un¬
equal. In quartz and rock cryftal, the planes of acu¬
mination are generally indeterminately unequal; and in
heavy fpar they are determinately equal.
c. Their form, which is determinate, as in hyacinth
and calcareous fpar j or indeterminate, as in jargon and
wolfram*
d. Their application, which is either on the lateral
planes of the primary form, as in jargon and hyacinth,
or on the lateral edges, as in calcareous fpar and
garnet.
C. 1 hr fummit of the acumination, which is, a. Ob¬
tufe, as in hexahedral prifmatic garnet j b. Redangu-
lar, as in tetrahedral prifmatic jargon ; or, c. Acute,
as in hexahedral prifmatic calcareous fpar.
D. 1 he magnitude of the acumination, which is faid
to be, a. Slightly acuminated, a> in gray copper ore
and copper pyrites j or, b. .Deeply, as in duor fpar,
with the angles acuminated by 6 planes.
E. Determination of the aeumination j which is ei¬
ther a point or a line. I he firlt is the mod common ^
and the laft is met with in prifmatic white lead ore and
heavy fpar.
y. Manifold modifications of the primary form.
In thefe modifications cryftals are either, i. Situated
befide each other ; or, 2. Placed the one above the
other.
But in deferibing a cryftallization, the number of ite
planes in general, and of each kind in particular, and
their figure, if determinate, may be noticed, to render
the defeription more accurate. As, foi inftanee, cubi¬
cal galena, with truncated angles, confiits of 6 odan-
Ungular and 4 triangular plant s.
And ftill further, in explaining the form of crystal¬
lizations, by wav of addition may be mentioned,
1. The different modes of determination of which
they are capable. I wo different modes may in 1. me
cafes be adopted.
o. The representative, by which is underftood the
defeription of a cryftallization according to its apparent
form ; or,
b. The derivative, which is founded on the conf de¬
ration of its derivation, and its relation to the other
cryftals of the fame mineral. The prifmatie cryftr.di-
zation of the tourmaline is reprelematively an enntahe-
B 2 dra!
139
Claffifica-
tion.
140
MINER
l iatfifi a- Jra| prifin, and derivatively a trihedral prifm, with the
three lateral Ijdes b« veiled.
But, in general, the chief or eflential form of a cry-
ft dlization is determined by, n. The largeft planes j
Z'. i he greated regularity •, c. The mofl frequent oc-
cu rence of the cryftallizations; d. 1'he affinity to the
other primary forms ; e. The fuitablenefs and peculia¬
rity of its modifications ; and,^. The greateft limplici-
ty in t!ie mode of determination.
2. The tranfitions from one primary form into an¬
other. Thefe arife,
a. From the gradually increafed extent of the mo¬
difying planes, and the decrealed extent of the primary
planes ; or,
b. From a change in the relative fize of the planes;
or,
c. From a change in the angles under which the
planes are affiociated ; or, ».
d. From the convexity of the planes ; or,
e. From the aggregation of cryilals.
3. The difficulties which are oppofed to theexadl de¬
termination of cryftals. Thefe proceed, a. From their
compreffion, fome planes being uncommonly large or
imall; or, b. From their penetrating each other, as in
tin ffime cryftals ; or, c. From their partial conceal¬
ment, as in feldspar, hornblende, and garnet ; or,
d. From their being broken, as often happens in the
cryftallization of precious Hones; or, e. From their
extreme minutenefs.
* C. The aggregation of cry Hals. According to this,
cry Hals are either,
a. Single, in which cafe they are, a, Loofe or de¬
tached, as in precious Hones, cubical iron pyrites, Sec.;
0. Inhering or inlaying in another mineral, as feld-
ipar in porphyry ; or, y. Adhering, as in quartz cry-
flals ; or.
lar.
b. Aggregated, which are either regular or irregu-
x. Regular or determinate;
fuch are, 1. Twin cry-
Huls, as in Haurolite or crofs Hone; and, 2. Triple
cryflals, as in calcareous fpar and ruby: but this is very
rare.
/3 Manv fingly aggregated cryHals, are fuch cryfials
as arte, 1. Heaped upon one another, as in calcareous
and fluor fpars; 2. Adhering laterally, as in amethyft
cryHals ; and, 3. Implicated one in the other, as in
gray antimonial ore, and in the hexahedral prifms of
calcareous fpar.
y. Many doubly aggregated cryflals are diflributed
according to the form they affume ; fuch as the follow¬
ing, are enumerated.
1. Scopifortn, when aggregated, nccdle-like, and ca-
pilliform cryHals diverge from a common centre, as in
zeolite, Hriated red cobalt ore, and capilliform py¬
rites.
2. Fafciform, which is compofed of double fcopiform,
with a common centre, as in calcareous fpar, zeolite,
and prehnite.
3. Acicular or columnar. Elongated, equally thick
prifms adhering laterally together, are of this deferip-
tion, as in acicular heavy fpar, and a variety of white
lead ore.
4. In a row, like a firing of peaVls, as in pyramidal
•jyflals of quartz.
5. Bud-like, in Ample pyramids whofe bafes are con-
A L O G Y.
ne£led, and whofe joints are directed towards each
other, as in bud-like drufen of quartz.
6. Globular, a calual aggregation, confiding' moHIy
of tables or cubes, arranged in a globular form, as in
octahedral iron pyrites.
7. Amygdaloid, when the tables are externally ac¬
cumulated, Imaller upon fmaller, as in heavy fpar.
8. Pyramidal, which takes place chicfiy in prifms
nearly parallel, the fumrnits inclining to each other ;
the central prifm being the highelt, as in calcareous
fpar.
9. Rofc like, compofed of thin tables, on whofe late¬
ral planes others are aflembled, and arranged in a rofe-
like appearance.
D. The magnitude of cryHals, which is deter¬
mined,
a. According to the greatefl dimenfion, as «. Of an
uncommon fize, in cryflals which exceed two feet, as
in quartz and rock cryfial ; /3. Very large, from two
feet to fix inches, as in rock cryltal and calcareous
fpar ; y. Large, from fix to two inches, as in iron py¬
rites, fiuor fpar, and garnet; Of a middling fize,
from two inches to half an inch, which are very com¬
mon ; t. Small, from half an inch to one-eighth of an
inch, alfo very common: £. Very fmall, from one-eighth
of an inch to fuch as may be diflinguifiied by the na¬
ked eye, as in corneous lilver ore, and very fmall tin
Hone cryflals; ». Minute, w hofe form cannot be di-
Hinguiffied by the naked eye, as in native gold and
green lead ore.
b. According to relative dimenfions, when compared
Par -t
low, and long or high ; /3. Broad and narrow, or lon-
gated ; y. Thick and thin, or flender ; 5. Needle-like
and capiiliform; 1. Spicular, and £. Globular or tefiular.
4. Extraneous external forms, or petrifactions, which
are divided into petrifa&ions of animals, and petrifac¬
tions of vegetables.
A. PetrifaCtions of animals, or zeolites, as
a. Of the clafs mammalia, the parts of w hich com¬
monly found are the bone?, the teeth, horns, and Ikele-
tons. Such are the bones of the elephant and the rhino¬
ceros, which are found in Siberia, and the bones of the
mammoth from North America.
b. Of birds, petrifactions of which are very rare.
Some. Ikeletons of aquatic birds have been met with in
limeltone near Oening.
c. Of amphibious animals, fuch as thofe of the tor-
toife, found in the fame vicinity as the bones'of the ele¬
phant ; of frogs and toads, in the t wine Hone of Oen¬
ing ; and of an animal refembling a crocodile in alumi¬
nous ffiale near Whitby in York (hire.
d. Of fiihes, of which w hole fiffies, ikeletons, and im-
preffions, have been found in different places.
e. Of infcCts, petrifactions of which are not very
common, excepting infeCts, fuch as crabs, which have
been frequently obferved.
f. Of vermes, of which numerous petrifaCfions are
found belonging to the orders tefiacea, cnijlacea, and
corrallina or corals.
B. Petrifactions of vegetables, which are lefs nume¬
rous in the mineral kingdom than thofe of animals.
Thefe are diltinguiffied into
a. Petrified wood, the mofl. ufual of which are pe¬
trifactions of the trunk, branches, or roots of trees, and
commonly
W'ith others ; and this is diflinguiffied into x. Short or
M I N E R A L O G Y. Hi
commo'i'v' confifting of filieeous fubllanccs, as wood-
{Ion?, jafper, horn /tune.
b. Impreffions of leaves and plants, which are not
Uncommon in the ftrata of coal countries, particularly
in the ihaV, fand done, the argillaceous iron done, and
the coal itfelf.
IT. The EXTERNAL SURFACE, which is the fecond
particular generic character of folid minerals ; and
this is,
i Uneven, having irregular elevations and depreflions,
as in calcedony. >
2. Granular, when the elevation* are tmall, round,
and nearly equal, as in dalaftitical brown haematites.
3. Drufy, having minute, prominent, equal cry-
dais on the furface, as in iron pyrites and quartz
crydals. , . , , -
4. Rough, when the elevations are minute and almoit
imperceptible, as in cellular quartz.
Sca/y, when the furface is compofed of flender
fplinters like fcales, as in chryfolite.
6. Smooth, as in haematites and fiuor fpar.
7. Streaked, which is either fmgly or doubly
dreaked.
A. Singly dreaked furfaces are,
a. Tranfverfely, as in rock crydals j b. Longitudi¬
nally, as in topaz and prifmatic fliorl j c. Diagonally, as
in fpecular iron ore ; and d. Alternately, as in iron
pyrites.
’ B. Doubly dreaked, which is,
a. Plumform/y, or like a feather, as in native filver
and native bifmuth j and
b. Rctiformhj, as in gray cobalt ore.
8. Rugofe. Of flight linear elevations, as in calce-
dohy.
III. The external lustre, in which are to be de¬
termined,
1. The intenfity of the luftre, which is diftlnguiflred
into different degrees, as
A. Refplenient. which is the ffrongeff kind of luflre,
as in native quickfilver, galena, and rock cryflal.
B. Shining, as in gray copper ore, heavy fpar, and
pitch-done.
C. Weakly Jhining, as in iron pyrites, fibrous gypfum,
and garnet.
D. Glimmering, as in earthy talc, in the frafture of
dint, and of deatites.
E. Dull, as in mod friable minerals, as in earthy
lead ore, mountain-cork, chalk, &c.
2. The kind of ludre, which is either common or
metallic.
A. The common ludre belongs chiefly to earthy dones
and faffs. It is didinguifhed into
a. Glajfy, as in quartz and rock cryflal.
b. Waxy or greclfy^ as opal, and in yellow and
green lead ores.
c. Pearly, as in zeolite.
d. Diamond, as in white lead ore and diamond.
e. Semimetallic, as in mica and haematites.
B. *Metallic ludre, which is peculiar to metals and
mod of their ores, as native gold and native filver, cop¬
per pyrites, and galena.
Appearance of the fraBure.
Here, as in the external appearance, three kinds of
charaflers preftnt themfelvcs; I. The internal ludre ; Chfl/c;
11. The fia&urt •, Hi. 'I he form oi ine tiagn.cnt. . tl>> ''
J. The internal lujlre, the chaiadters ot which a’-e
to be detcrmiuid in the lame manner as the external
lud rc.
II. Ti e fra Bare, which is either compaft or jointed.
1. The com pa <51 fradlure, whim is diitinguilhed ini©
fplinterv, conchoidal, uneven, earthy, and hackly,
A. Splintery, which is either
a. Coarfe fplintery, as in quartz, prafe, and jade ; or
b. Fine Iplintery, a* in horndone and fine fplintery
lime done.
B. Even, which happens in minerals that are ufually
opake, and have only a glimmeripg luflre, as in com-
pa<51 galena, calcedony, and yellow carnelian.
C. Conchoida1, which is didinguithed,
a. According to the lize, into large and fmall.
b. According to the appearance, into perfeft and
imperfedt j and
c. According to the depth into deep and flat.
Flint, opal, jafper, and obfidian, afford examples of
the conchoidal fradlure.
D. I7//ew«,which is either,
a. Of a coarfe grain, a? in copper pyrites.
b. Of a fmall grain, as in gray copper ore, and
c. Of a fine grain, as in arienical pyrites.
E. Earthy, which is the common fradlure in earth*
and dones, as in marl, chalk, limedone.
F. Hackly, in which the fradlure exhibits {harp points,
which is peculiar to the metals, as in native gold and
native copper.
2. The jointed fradlure. This is divided into the
fibrous, driated, foliated, and flaty.
A. The fibrous fradlure, in which are to be ob-
ferved,
a. The thicknefs of the fibres, as they are coarfe, fine,
or delicate, as gypfum, fine fibrous malachite, and in
wood-tin-ore.
b. The direftion of the fibres, which are draight, as
in. red haematites, and gray antimonal ore j or curved,
as in black haematites, and fibrous rock fait.
c. The pofition of the fibres, which i* ». Parallel, as
in rock fait and amianthus : /S. Diverging, which is, 1.
Stelliform, as in black haematites, and fibrous zeolite ;
or, 2. Scopiform, as in fibrous malachite : or y. Promif-
cuous, as in gray antimonial ore.
d. The length of the fibres, which is x. Long, as in
gypfum and amianthus j or /3. Short, as in red haema¬
tites.
B. Striated, in which are to be confidered,
a. The breadth of the Arise, which are, x. Narrow,
as in azure copper ore*, Broad, as in a<51ynolite and
hornblende j or y. Very broad, as in fapphire and zeo-
lite.
b. The direftion of the driae, which is either, x. Straight,
as in gray ore of manganefe ; or (i. Curved, as in zeolite
and a<51ynolite.
c. The pofition of the Arise, which is x. Parallel, au
in alhedus and hornblende ; /S. Diverging, which is dif-
tinguiflied into ftelliform, as in iron pvrites and zeo¬
lite, or fcopiform, as in a61ynolite and limedone *, or y.
Promifcuous, as in gray antimonial ore and aflynolite.
d. Length of the Jlrice, as being x Long driated, as in
alhedus and gray antimonial ore j or /3. Short flriated,
as in a&ynolite.
C. The
M I N E R
mim'd nef°!'a“JSraa‘‘r'> in "Mch are to be deter-
«. The magnitude of the folia, aS beinft «. Large fo-
iMtod, as ,n mu-a and Inecular gypfum. Seal, foli-
amfV'f'' ' ‘i ^nirnguillkd into 1, Coarle, 2. Small,
and o ' r ' “ a v tniatod, as in mkaoeons iron ore
ooi,:g,T' ,"' V G/a,ml"lv fnlialtd, which is diflin-
f Z nto , . Grots 2. Coarfe, 3. Small, and 4. Fine
f “r v '"' “len, a» in fparrjr iron ore, blende, and
calcareous (par. ’
t>. The perfeanefs of the folia, as being * Perfedly
foba ed,,. in feldfpar ; Imperfefll. foliated, as i^
topaz or y. Concealed foliated, as in emerald.
• f 1^.lrt^lon uf tlie folia, which is «. Straight as
in large foliated blende j or Curved foliated. The
a,trr ,s ddf.ngutfhed into I. Spherically curved, as in
hea- v fpar ; 2 Undularly curved, as in talc 5 3. Peta-
kidally curved, as m galena j or, 4. Indeterminately
curved, as in mica and fpecular gypfum. J
(L I he paffage or cleavage of the folia, which is,
« According to the angle which one paffage forms
rblt^^rror: U’ “ eUhCr’ ^ Rcaa'’S“kr’ 2'
either,ACC°rdinS t0 ‘he nU“ber °f tl" dcavaR", and »
opal,
dif-
th&
15
A fingle cleavage, as in mica and talc ; 2. A
1 . 0 # 6 , 113 111 mica ana talc : 2. A
double cleavage, as m feldfpar and hornblende : 2. A
r.p e clt avugc, „ calcareous Ipar and fparry iron
A r’ ,4' , ?Ua Pl' c ,!ava8'- as m Anor fpar ; r.
Wcldm aS'’ “ ‘n yell'J'V’ br»'™. *nd black
D The flaty fraflttre, in which are to be deter-
mincd the I licknels and direftion of the lamella;.
« Thick' I, tv of the lami11*' wlli<:h is either,
I nick, 01 /j 1 hm flaty. ’
t Thl dire<C}ion of the lamellae, as being either
« Straight, or Curved flaty; the latter being dif!
curbed lnt°’ ^ UndUlarly’ °r 2- fndeterminately
kil ^ S?nera,S Which P,,irers Parts, two
°f fr*a"r* may ^ obferved. Thus, in fibrous
gv|. urn, and in red and brown haematites, both the
fibrous and f ,,ated frafture appear ; the fibres are then
nterfeaed by the foha under a certain angle. In to-
diTal f eAranf^rft fri!aUre ^ f°liated’ and the lonSitu-
oinal fraefure is conchoidal.
1II. I he form of the fragments, which is either re-
gula’- or irregular.
a fra{r,?lents’ a<i when they are,
tj ol Ca1, 3S in ^a]ena and r°cl< fait.
B. Hhomboidal, in which cafe the fragments are
«• Vcular on all the planes, as in heavy fpar :
°n f°Ur Planes’ as ^ feldfpar and hornblende j
c. On two planes, as in fpecular gypfum.
c I rapezoidal fragments, &c.
pee^vl-"oedral pvra?lidal fragments are rarely to be
leen d.ftinftV, excepting in floor fpar.
D. Dodecahedral fragn-ents. as in blende.
2. Irregular fragments, as when they are.
£ uneifo- m, as ip wood-tin-ore, and malachite.
IS. opeeu.ar, as ln amianthus.
C. Fahular. a^ in mica and talc.
among folid minerals, and are diilinguiftied'bto00111'110"
A L O G Y.
"■ Vcry (harp edged, as in obfldian, common
and rock cryftal.
t. Sharp edged, as in hornftone and quartz.
C; Moderately fliarp edged, as in limeftone.
</. bather blunt edged, as in ifeatites ; and
Blunt edged, as in chalk and fullers earth.
3. J he appearance of the d.iima concretions.
In determmn.g this character, the form of the
tma concretions, the furface of leparation, and
lull re ot icparation, are to be confidcred.
D J he form of the diftinci cenctetions, which
either granular, lamdlar, columnar, or pyramidal.
A vv nLIar’rdiftin<a: cl)ncr'ti‘i>is are dillinguiflied.
A. With rrlpedt to the form, into
*. Round granular, which is either « Spherically
round, as m roe done and pifolite ; or /3. Lenticu ; ly
granular, as m argillaceous iron Hone ; or y. Eloneated
round granular, a> in quartz : and, °
f Angularly granular, which is either «. Common,
as m galena and calcareous fpar ; or fi. Elongated an-
done granU ar’ 35 m hornblende and granular lime-
are^' Wlth reSard to tlie fize of the concretions. Thefe
«. Grofs granular, as in zeolite and blende.
Ute * C°arfe granular» as ^ mica, galena, and pifo-
c. Small granular, as in roe done and garnet : and
rf. Fme granular didinft concretions, as in granular
limeitone and galena.
2. Lamellar diliinS concretions. The differences to
be obferved here are, with refpeft to the direflion or
form, and the thieknefs.
eitlfr ^ re^e<^ t0 t^ie dire<^i°n °r form, they are
a. Straight lamellar : and again either quite draight,
as m fome galena and heavy fpar ; or fortification-like,
as in tome amethyd and calcedony.
. Curved lamellar, which is either indeterminate as
in galena and fpecular iron ore ; reniform, as in fibrous
malachite and native arfenic ; or concentric, which k
either fphencal concentric, as in calcedony and pifo-
lite, or conically concentric, as in fome dala&ites and
haematites.
B. With regard to the thicknefs, as being
. Ve.ry thick, the concretions exceeding one-half
inch, as in amethyd and heavy fpar.
I hick, the concretions being between one-half
and one-fourth inch, as in heavy fpar and native ar-
lenic.
f' ^ hin, between one-fourth and one-half inch, as ia
calcedony.
d. Very thin, from a line to a thicknefs jud percep¬
tible to the naked eve, a1- in fpecular iron.
3. Columnar didind concretions, which are didin-
guilhed with regard to the dirtaion, thicknefs, form,
and petition.
A. The direaion, which is either,
a. Straight columnar, as in fchorl and calcareous fpar,
and, x ^
Curved columnar, as in argillaceous iron done, and
ipecular iron ore.
B. 1 he thieknefs is diflinguithed into,
a. ^ ( ry tl iek when the diameter exceeds two inches,
as in bafalt and quartz*
b. Thick
Part
Clalfil
tior
I.
MINERALOGY.
fica-
b. Thick columnar, from two inches to one-fourth
inch, as in amethyft and calcareous fpar.
c. Thin, from one-fourth to one-half inch, as in cal¬
careous fpar and argillaceous iron ilone.
d. Very thin, the thicknefs being lefs than a line, as
in fchorl and columnar argillaceous iron done.
C. The form of the concretions being either
a. Pcrfeftly columnar, as in argillaceous iron Hone.
b. Imperfe&ly, as in amethyft.
c. Cuneiform columnar, as in calcareous fpar and ar-
fenical pyrites.
D. The pofition of the concretions, which is either
a. Parallel columnar, as in fchorlite, or
b. Diverging or promifcuous columnar, as in fchorl
and arfenical pyrites.
4. Pyramidal diftimfl concretions. This form of con¬
cretion is very rare, and has been obferved only in the
bafalt of Iceland, Faro, and Bohemia.
II. The furface of feparation, which is diftinguitlied
into
1. Smooth, as in wood tin ore.
2. Rough, as in native arfenic.
3. Uneven, as in galena and blende 5 and
4. Streaked, which is either,
A. Longitudinally ftreaked, as in fchorl and fchorlite.
B. Tranfverfely and fortification-like, as in amethyft
and fpeeular iron ore.
III. The luftre of feparation. This charafter is to
be determined in the fame manner as the external
luftre.
4. The General Appearance.
This comprehends three particular generic characters,
the tranfpareney, the ftreak, and the ftain.
I. The tranfparency, which is diftinguilhed into the
following five degrees.
1. Tranfparent, which is either,
A. Common, as when objects appear fingle through
a tranfparent mineral ; or,
B. Doubling, when objefts appear double, as in cal¬
careous fpar, or double refraCting fpar, jargon, and
chryfolite.
2. Semitranfparent, as in opal and calcedony.
3. Tranflucent, as in flint, cat’s eye, and fluor fpar.
4. Tranflucent at the edges, as in hornftone and fo¬
liated gypfum.
5. Opake, which is peculiar to minerals of a metallic
luftre, as in malachite and jafper.
II. The ftreak, which is either,
1. Of the fame colour, or,
2. Different from that of the mineral, and whofe luf¬
tre is the fame j or,
B. More or left different.
In red filver ore the ftreak is a dark crimfon red ; in
cinnabar, fcarletred \ in green lead ore, greenifli--white ;
in red lead ore, clear lemon yellow.
III. The ftain. With refpeft to this charaCler, mi¬
nerals are diftinguilhed into fuch as,
1. Simply ftain, and this either ftrongly or -weakly,
as gray ore of manganefe, and red fcaly iron ore $ and
into fuch as
2. Both ftain and mark, as chalk and plumbago 5 and
3. Such as do not ftain.
CharaSlcrs for the Touch.
Characters of this defeription are, hardnefs, foli-
dity, frangibility, flexibility, and adhefion to the
tongue.
I. The hardnefs, which is determined by the follow¬
ing degrees.
1. Hard, as when a mineral gives fire with lit el,
but cannot be feraped with the knile. This character
is diftinguilhed into,
A. Hard, when the file makes a confiderable impief-
fion, as in feldfpar and fchorl.
B. Very hard, on which it makes a weak impreftion,
as in rock cryftal and topaz.
C. Extremely hard, on which the file makes no im-
preflion, as diamond and emery.
2. Semihard may be flightly feraped with a knife,
but gives no fire with fteel, as red copper ore, blende,
limeftone.
3. Soft, eafily feraped with the knife, as in galena,
mica, albeftus.
4. Very foft, which receives an impreflion from the
nail, as in gypfum, chalk, talc.
II. The foliditi/, according to which folid minerals
are diftinguilhed into,
1. Brittle, when the particles are in the higheft de¬
gree coherent and immoveable, as in quartz, gray cop¬
per ore, and copper pyrites.
2. Seftile, when the particles are coherent but not
perfeftly immoveable among one another, as in plumba¬
go and galena.
3. Malleable, when the integrant particles are cohe¬
rent and alfo more or lefs moveable among one another,
as in the moft of the native metals.
III. The frangibility, with regard to which folid
minerals are either,
1. Very difficultly frangible, as native metals, and
maflive common horneblende.
2. Difficultly frangible, as in prafe, maflive quartz,
and albeftus.
3. Rather eafily frangible, as iron pyrites, vitreous
copper ore.
4. Eafily frangible, as in galena, opal, and heavy fpar.
5. Very eafily frangible, as in amber and pitcoal.
IV. The flexibility, according to which folid mine¬
rals are,
1. Flexible, which is diftinguifhed into,
A. Common, as in malleable minerals, amianthus,
gold ore.
B. Elaftic, as in mica, elaftic mineral pitch from
Derbyfhire.
2. Inflexible, fuch minerals as break when the direc¬
tion of the fibres is changed.
V. The adheflon to the tongue, according to which
fome minerals poffeft this property
1. Strongly, as in hydrophane.
2. Rather ftrongly, as in bole and lithomarga.
3. Weakly, as talc.
4. Very weakly, as in clay.
5. No adhefion at all, as is the cafe with moft mi¬
nerals.
Characters far the Hearing.
I. The found, which is diftinguifhed into
1. Ringing or founding, as in native arfenic and com¬
mon flate.
2. Creaking, as in native amalgam when preffed with
the finger.
3. Ruft ling^.
143
Claffifica-
tion.
J44 MINER
3’ as in the finger over mountain
■ cork and farinaceous zeolite.
2. Particular generic characters of friable minerals.
The characters included under this title are the ex¬
ternal form, the lullre, the appearance of the particles,
the ftain and the friability.
I. i he external form, which is either inn [Jive, as in
porcelain earth ; interfperfed, as in black lilver ore •, as
a thick or thin cruft, as in black copper ore ; J'pumi-
form, as in red and brown fcaly iron ores j dendritic,
as gray ore of manganefe j or reniform, as pure clay and
earthy talc.
II. I he luftre, which is determined as in folid mine¬
rals •, but here it is diltinguithed,
1. With regard to intenfity, as
A. Glimmering,asinearthy talc and fcaly iron ore; and,
B. Dull, as in earthy lead ore and Jithomarga.
2. With regard to the kind, as it is common or me¬
tallic.
III. I he appearance of the particles, which is either,
1. Dufty, as in black copper ore, iron ochres.
2. Scaly, as in earthy talc.
IV. 1 he flain is diitinguiihed in friable minerals as
being either
1. Strong, as in fcaly iron ore.
2. Weak, as in earthy lead ores.
V. 1 he friability, with regard to which friable mi¬
nerals are either
i. Pulverulent, as earthy lead ores, and blue martial
earth.
1. Loofely coherent, as fcaly iron ore and clays.
3* Particular generic characters of fluid minerals.
Thefe characters relate to the external form, the lullre,
the tranfpaaency, the Huidity, and the wetting of the
fingers.
I. The external form, which is either,
i. In globules ; and, 2. Liquiform ; both which cha¬
racters belong to native mercury.
II. The lullre, which is determined as formerly ex¬
plained, and is either i. Common; or 2. Metallic, as
in native mercury.
III. The tranfparency, of which three degrees are
diitinguiihed in fluid minerals: i. Tranfparent, as in
naphtha ; 2. Turbid, as in petroleum ; 3. Opake, as in
native mercury.
IV. The fluidity, which is charaCterifed by being,
1. Perfectly fluid, as mercury, and, 2. Cohefive, as in
mineral tar.
V. The wetting of the fingers. 1. Some fluid minerals
wet the fingers, as mineral tar ; and, 2. Some do not,
as native mercury.
Remaining Common Generic External Char after s.
The remaining common generic characters are the
unCtuofity ; the coldnefs ; the weight ; the fmell ; and
the tafte.
III. The unCtuofity, of which there are four degrees.
1. Meagre, as is the cafe with molt minerals.
2. Rather greafy, as pipe clay.
3. Greafy, as fullers earth and lleatites.
4. Verv greafy, as talk and plumbago.
IV. The coldnefs, which includes three degrees.
1. Cold, having the coldnefs of quartz, as hernftone,
er, marble.
2. Rather cold, as ferpentine, gypfum.
A L O G Y.
3. Slightly cold, as amber, pitcoal, and chalk.
By this character cut and poutnea Hones may be dif-
tingukhed, tv liere fome of the other characters are loft ;
ard by it alio natural gems may be diftinguilhed Irom
thofe which are artificial.
V. I lie weight.— » his character is moft accurately
difeovered by taking the fpecific gravity of a mineral
by means ot a hydroitalic balance. See Hydrodyna¬
mics. But when this cannot be had recourfe to, a mi¬
neral is examined by lifting it in the hand and compar¬
ing its weight, thus eftimated by the feeling, with its
volume, by which means an approximation may be
made to its fpecific gravity. Five degrees of this
mode of eftimating the weight of minerals have been
affumed.
1. Supernatant, fuch minerals as fwim in w ater, as
naphtha, mountain eork.
2. Light, fuch minerals as have a fpecific gravity be¬
tween r.000 and 2.000, (taking w'ater at 1.000) as am¬
ber, mineral pitch, and pitcoal.
3. Rather heavy, are fuch minerals as have a fpecific
gravity between 2.000 and 4.000, which is the cafe
with moft kinds of (tones, as amianthus, rock cryftal,
mica, fluor (par, diamond.
4. Heavy, when the 1 pacific gravity is from 4.000 to
6.000, as in moft metallic ores, fuch as gray copper ore,
red haematite#, white lead ore, and in fome others as
heavy fpar.
5. Extremely heavy, when the fpecific gravity ex¬
ceeds 6.000, which includes the native metals, as native
gold, native copper, and native filver, and fome others,
as galena, Unit one cry Hals, fulphurated bifmuth, and vi¬
treous filver ore.
VI. The fmell is chara6teriftic of only a fmall num¬
ber of minerals. It is obferved either,
1. Of itfelf without addition, and is,
A. Bituminous, as mineral pitch and naphtha.
B. Slightly fulphureous, as in native fulphur and gray
antimonial ore.
C. Bitterilh, as in ochre kept clofe (hut up for feme
time.
D. Clayey, as in yellow chalk.
2. After breathing on a mineral, which (hould be cold
and breathed upon ftrongly and quickly, when the fmell
perceived is,
A. Clayey bitter, as in hornblende and fome (io¬
nites.
3. After rubbing or ftriking, when the fmell emit,
ted is,
A. Urinous, as in fwineftone after rubbing.
B. Sulphureous, as in pyrites.
C. Garlic, as in arfenical pyrites and white cobalt ore.
D. Empyreumatic, as in quartz and pitcoal.
VII. The tafte, which is charafteriftic of one clafs of
minerals, only, viz. the falts ; and it is either,
1. Sw'eetiflx faline, as rock fait.
2. Sweetifli wftringent, as native alum.
3. Scurifli aftringent, as native vitriol.
4. Bitter faline, as native Epfom fait.
5. Cooling faline, as native nitre.
6. Lixivious, as native alkali.
7. Urinous, as native fal ammoniac.
Befide the charadters which we have now' illuftrated,
fome others are occafionally and fuccefsfully employed
in the defeription of minerals. Theft:, have been brought
under
Par
Clafiij
tief
I. M I N E R A L O G Y.
ica- under the denomination of phyfical, chemical, and em-
u pirical characters.
1. Phijfical. The moft common of the phyfical cha¬
racters is the property which fome minerals poffefs of
exhibiting figns of eleCtricity and magnetifm. Some
minerals become eleCtric by being heated, and others
by friCtion ; and the eleCtricity thus excited is in fome
vitreous or pofitive, and in others refinous or negative.
Some minerals, too, and particularly fome varieties of
iron ore, are diftinguithed by being attracted by the
magnet. Such are magnetic pyrites, and magnetic iron
fand. By filing a mineral fo fine that the particles (hall
fwim on water, and then applying a magnet, the
flighted: degree of magnetic effeCt may be obferved.
Among the phyfical properties of minerals alfo, may be
reckoned the phofphorefcence, which is produced by
friCtion, as in fome varieties of blende ; or by expofure
to heat, as fluor fpar, and fome calcareous fpars. To
thefe characters alfo belongs the peculiar properly of
Lemnian earth and fome other boles, which being
thrown into water fplit into pieces with a crackling
noife ; and the property ef fome opals and other ftones,
of acquiring a higher degree of tranfparency when they
are immerfed in water, hence called hydrophanes.
2. Chemical chavaBers.—By fome fimple experi¬
ments, the nature of many mineral fubfiances may be
eafily and quickly afeertained, and particularly by
m*ans of acids. Thus, the nitrous acid is employed to
difeover whether a mineral effervefees, from w hich cha¬
racter the nature of the mineral can be more certainly
known than by any other. Ammonia, or the volatile
alkali, diflolves copper, and aflumes a blue colour. A-
cetic acid is fuccefsfully employed as a teft of lead,
which communicates to the acid a fweetifh tafie. By
means of heat, and particularly by the ufe of the blow¬
pipe, much knowledge may be obtained of the nature
of minerals. Some are volatilized ; in others the co¬
lour is changed ; and While fome are nearly fufed at
different temperatures, others burn with a fiame of pe-
euliar colours.
3. Empirical characters.—Among thefe characters,
the mofi: common is' the peculiar effiorefcence which
takes place in fome ores. In copper ores the effloref-
cence is green or blue j in iron ores, brown, yellow,
or red ; in cobalt, peach bloffom red j and in arfenic,
white.
Charaters for the diftin&ion of minerals may be ob¬
tained from the circumftance of certain minerals being
found generally accompanying others; as native arfenic
with orpiment j gray copper ore with copper pyrites,
and gray filver ore ; red copper ore with native copper :
white cobalt ore is rarely found without nickel 5 and
by attending to this circumftance, it will not be mif-
taken for arfenical pyrites.
For the fake of brevity, Mr Kirwan, and others after
him, have adopted a method of expreffing fome of the
characters by means of numbers. The following table
exhibits fome of thefe characters and eorrefponding
numbers.
Refplendent, denoted by the number 4.
Shining 3.
Weakly fhining 2.
Glimmering 1.
Dull o.
Fragments, when the form is indeterminate.
Very ftiarp-edged 4.
Sharp-edged 3.
Bather ftiarp-edged 2.
Rather blunt 1.
Perfectly blunt 0.
Tranfparency.
Tranfparent 4.
Semitranfparent 3.
Tran (lucent 2.
Tranftucent at the edges. 1.
Opake a.
Hardncfs.
Of chalk, denoted by 3.
Yielding to the nail 4.
May be feraped with a knife ^
Yields more difficultly to the knife 6
Scarcely yields to the knife 7
Does not give fire with fteel 8
Gives feeble fparks with fteel 9
Gives lively fparks 10
But it is obvious that this abridged mode of expref¬
fing thefe characters, by means of numbers, can only be
advantageoufty employed by tbofe who have made them-
felves quite familiar with the different numbers corref-
ponding to the different (hades of character, and who
can thus recoiled them with facility and precifion. To
others this method of defeription, by requiring conftant
reference to the explanation, may prove rather embar-
raffing, fo that what is gained in brevity may be loft in
perfpicuity. We propofe, therefore, ftilltoretain the ver¬
bal mode of expreffion in preference to the numerical.
Table of Minerals arranged in the order of their Genera and Specie^, each Genus being
divided into Families or Groupes, the characters of which latter are derived from their
external properties according to the method of Werner.
First Class.
EARTHS & STONES.
I. Diamond Genus.
Diamond.
II. Zircon Genus.
Zircon.
Hyacinth.
Vol. XIV. Part I.
III. Siliceous Genus.
Chryfolite Family.
Chryfoberyl.
Chryfolite.
Olivine.
Coccolite.
Augite.
Vcfuvian.
Garnet Family.
Leucite.
Melanite.
Garnet.
a. Precious.
b. Common.
c. Bohemian or Pyrope.
Grenatite or Staurolite.
T
Ruby Family.
Ceylanite.
Spindle.
Sapphire.
Corundum.
Adamantine fpar.
Emery.
H5
Cl afl ifica¬
tion.
Schtrl
146
Claflifka- Schorl Family.
. tlun Topaz.
Pyropliyfalite.
Euclafe.
Emerald.
Beryl.
Schorlite.
Schorl.
a. Common.
b. Ele&ric or Tourma¬
line.
Piftazite.
Zoilite.
Axinite or Thumerltone.
^uiirtz Family.
Quartz.
a. Amethyft.
Common.
Fibrous.
b. Rock cryftal.
c. Rofe-coloured or milk
quartz.
it. Common quartz.
e. Prafe.
f. Ferruginous quartz,
or iron flint.
Hornftone.
a. Splintery.
b. Conchoidal.
c. Ligniform.
Flinty Hate.
a. Common.
b. Lydian fton«.
Flint.
Calcedony.
a. Common.
b. Carnelian.
Opal.
a. Precious.
b. Common.
d. Ligniform.
Menilfte.
Jafper.
a. Egyptian.
b. Ribband.
c. Porcelain.
d. Common.
e. Agate.
f Opal.
Heliotrope or Bloodftone.
Chryfoprafe.
Plafma.
Cats eye.
Pitchjlone Family.
Obfidian.
Pitchftone.
Pearlflone.
Pumice.
rZ,eolite Family.
Prehnite.
a. Fibrous.
b. Foliated.
Zeolite.
1. Fibrous ^ Me^otype*
MINERALOGY.
c. Radiated 7 o.-,.
rf. Foliated
Cubizite, Chabafie or A-
Crofs-ftone, Staurolite.
Laumonite.
Eipyre.
Natrolite.
Azurite.
Lazulite.
Hydi argillite.
Feldfpar Family.
Andalufite.
Feldfpar.
a. Adularia.
b. Labradore ftone.
c. Common feldfpar.
d. Compadl.
e. Hollow fpar, chiaflo-
lite.
Scapolite.
Ardlizite or Wernerite.
Diafpore.
Spodumene.
Meionite.
Sommite.
Ichthyophthalmite.
IV. Argillaceous Gen.
C/ay Family.
Native alumina.
Porcelain earth.
Common clay.
a. Loam.
b. Pipe clay.
c. Potters clay.
d. Variegated clay.
e. Slaty clay.
Clayftone.
Adhefive flate.
Polifhing flate.
Tripoli.
Floatftone.
Alum ftone.
Clay Slate Family.
Aluminous fchiftus.
a. Common.
b. Shining.
Bituminous fchiftus.
Drawing flate.
Whet flate.
Clay flate.
Mica Family.
Lepidolite.
Mica.
Finite.
Potftone.
Chlorite.
a. Earthy.
b. Common.
c. Foliated.
d. Schiftofe.
Trap Family.
Hornblende.
a. Common.
b. Bafaltic.
c. Labradore.
d. Schiftofe.
Bafalt.
Wacken.
Phonolite or Clinkftone.
Lava.
Lithomarga Family.
Green earth.
Lithomarga.
a. Friable.
b. Indurated.
Rock foap.
Umber.
Yellow earth.
V. Magnesian Genus.
Soap Stone Family.
Native magnefia.
Bole.
Sea froth.
Fullers earth.
Steatites.
Figure ftone.
Ta/c Family.
Nephrite.
a. Common.
b. Axe-ftone.
Serpentine.
a. Common.
b. Precious.
Schillerftone.
Talc.
<r. Earthy.
b. Common.
c. Indurated.
Albeftus.
a. Mountain cork.
b. Amianthus.
c. Common aflbeftus.
d. Ligniform afbeftus.
Ably no I it e Family.
Cyanite.
A£tynolite.
a. Albeftous.
b. Common.
c. Glafly.
Tremolite.
a. Albeftous.
b. Common.
c. Glafly.
Smaragdite.
Sahlite.
Schalftone.
VI. Calcareous Genus.
Family of Carbonates.
Agaric mineral.
Chalk.
Limeftone.
a. Compact.
a\ Common.
b'. Oolite or roe-ftone.
b. Foliated.
a'. Granular.
b>. Calcareous fpar.
c. Fibrous.
a*. Common.
b'. Calcareous fintcr.
d. Pifolite or pea-ftone.
Calcareous tufa.
Foam earth.
Slaty fpar.
Arragonite.
Brown fpar.
Dolomite.
Rhomb or bitter fpar.
Swineftone.
Marl.
a. Earthy.
b. Indurated.
Bituminous marl flate.
Family of Phofphates.
Apatite.
Afparagus ftone.
Phofphorite.
Family of F/uates.
Fluor.
a. Earthy.
b. CompadL
c. Fluor fpar.
Family of Sulphates.
Gypfum.
«. Earthy.
b. Compaift.
c. Foliated.
d. Fibrous.
Selenite.
Anhydrite.
Cube fpar.
VII. Barytic Genus.
Family of Carbonates.
Witherite.
Family of Sulphates.
Heavy fpar.
a. Earthy.
b. Compaft.
c. Granular.
d. Foliated.
e. Common.
f. Columnar.
g. Fibrous.
h. Bolognian.
VIII. Strontian Genus.
Family of Carbonates.
Strontites.
Family of Sulphates.
Celt ftine.
a. Fibrous.
b. Foliated.
Second Class,
SALTS.
I. Genus Sulphates,
Native vitriol.
Native alum.
Mountain butter.
Capillary fait.
Native Epfom fait.
Native Glauber fait,
II.
II. Genus Nitrates.
Native nitre.
III. Genus Muriates.
Rock fait.
a. Foliated.
b. Fiorous.
Sea fait.
Native fal ammoniac.
IV. Genus Carbonates.
Native foda.
Native magneiia.
V. Genus Borates.
Boracite.
VI. Genus Fluates.
Cryolite.
Third Class.
COMBUSTIBLES.
I. Genus Sulphur.
Native fulphur.
a. Common.
b. Volcanic.
II. Bituminous Genus.
Petroleum, or mineral oil.
Mineral pitch.
a. Elaftic.
b. Earthy.
c. Slaggy.
Amber.
a. White.
b. Yellow.
Brown coal.
a. Common.
b. Bituminous wood.
c. Earth coal.
d. Alum earth.
e. Moor coal.
Black coal.
a. Pitch coal.
b. Columnar coal.
c. Slaty coal.
d. Cannel coal.
e. Foliated coal.
f. Coarfe coal.
Coal blende.
a. Conchoidal.
b. Slaty.
III. Graphite Genus.
Graphite.
a. Scaly.
b. Compafl.
Mineral charcoal.
Fourth Class.
METALLIC ORES.
I. Platina Genus.
Native platina.
II. Gold Genus.
Native gold.
a. Golden yellow.
b. Brafs yellow.
c. Grayifh yellow.
III. Mercury Genus.
Native mercury.
Native amalgam.
Corneous ore of mercury.
MINERALOGY
Liver ore of mercury.
a. Compact.
b. Slaty.
Cinnabar.
a. Common.
b. Fibrous.
IV. Silver Genus.
Native filver.
a. Common.
b. Auriferous.
Antimonial filver ore.
Arfenical filver ore.
Corneous filver ore.
Sooty filver ore.
Vitreous filver ore.
Brittle vitreous filver ore.
Red filver ore.
a. Dark red.
b. Bright red.
White filver ore.
Black filver ore.
V. Copper Genus.
Native copper.
Vitreous copper ore.
a. Compadi.
b. Foliated.
Variegated copper ore.
Copper pyrites.
White copper ore.
Gray copper ore.
Black copper ore.
Red copper ore.
a. Compaft.
b. Foliated.
c. Capillary.
Brick red copper ore.
a. Earthy.
b. Indurated.
Emerald copper ore.
Azure copper ore.
a. Earthy.
b. Indurated.
Malachite.
a. Fibrous.
b. Compadl.
Green copper ore.
Ferruginous green copper
ore.
a. Earthy.
b. Slaggy.
Micaceous copper ore.
a. Foliated.
b. Lenticular.
Muriate of copper.
VI. Iron Genus.
Native iron.
Iron pyrites.
a. Common.
b. Radiated.
c. Capillary.
d. Hepatic.
Magnetic pyrites.
Magnetic iron ore.
a. Common.
b. Arenaceous.
Specular iron ore.
a. Common.
a'. Compa£L
b'. Foliated.
b. Micaceous iron ore.
Red iron ore.
a. Red iron froth.
b. Compact.
c. Red haematites.
d. Red ocl ire.
Brown iron ore.
a. Brown iron froth.
b. Compact.
c. Brown haematites.
d. Brown ochre.
Sparry iron ore.
Black iron ore.
a. Compact.
b. Black haematites.
Argillaceous iron ftone.
a. Red chalk.
b. Columnar argillace¬
ous iron (lone.
c. Granular.
d. Common.
e. * Reniform.
f. Pifiform.
Bog iron (lone.
a. Morafly.
b. Swampy.
c. Meadow.
Blue earthy iron done.
Green earthy iron (lone.
VII. Lead Genus.
Galena.
a. Common.
b. Compact.
Blue lead ore.
Brown lead ore.
Black lead ore.
White lead ore.
Green lead ore.
Red lead ore.
Yellow lead ore.
Native fulphate of lead.
Earthv lead ore.
a. Friable.
b. Indurated.
VIII. Tin Genus.
Tin pyrites.
Common tinftone.
Grained tin ore.
IX. Bismuth Genus.
Native bifmuth.
Vitreous bifmuth.
Ochre of bifmuth.
X. Zinc Genus.
Blende.
a. Yellow.
b. Brown.
c. Black.
Calamine.
a. Compadl.
b. Foliated.
XL Antimony.
Native antimony.
Gray ore of antimony.
T 2
a. Compact.
b. Foliated.
c. Radiated.
d. Plumofe,
Rod ore of antimony.
White ore of antimony.
Ochre of antimony.
XII. Cobalt Genus.
White cobalt ore.
Gray cobalt ore.
Shining cobalt ore.
Black cobalt ochre.
a. Friable.
b. Indurated.
Brown cobalt ochre.
Yellow cobalt ochre.
Red cobalt ochre.
a. Earthy.
b. Radiated.
XIII. Nickel Genus.
Copper-coloured nickel.
Nickel ochre.
XIV. MANGANESEGenUS.
Gray ore of manganefe,
a. Radiated.
b. Foliated.
c. Compact.
d. Earthy.
Black ore of manganefe.
Red ore of manganefe.
XV. Molybdena Genus.
Sulphuret of tnolybdena.
XVI. Arsenic Genus.
Native arfenic.
Arfenical pyrites.
a. Common.
b. Argentiferous.
Orpiment.
«. Yellow.
b. Red.
Native oxide of arfenic.
XVII. Tungsten Genus.
Wolfram.
Tungftate of lime.
XVIII.Titanium Genus.
Menachanite.
Oclahedrite.
Titanite.
Nigrine.
Brown ore.
Iferine.
XIX. Uranium Genus.
Pitchy ore.
Micaceous uranite.
Uranite ochre.
XX. Tellurium Genus.
Native tellurium.
Graphic ore.
Yellow ore.
Black or foliated ore.
XXL Chromium Genus,
Needle ore.
Ochre of chromium.
XXII. Columbium Gen.
XXIII.TANTALIUMGen.
XXIV. Cerium Genus,
I. Genus.
H7
Claflilica-
tiorc.
H8 MINER
Diamond
I. Genus. DIAMOND.
One Species. Diamond.
Id. Kirwin, I. 393. Le Diamant, Brochant, II. 1 ci.
Haiiy, III. 287. ^
Effbntial churoffer.—Scratches all other minerals.
External' char till cr s.—Its mod; common colours are
grayilh white and yellowifh white ; fmoke gray and
yellowilh gray ; clove brown j fometimes afparagus
green, palfing to piftachio green and apple green ;
fometimes a wine yellow and citron yellow, and alfo blue
and rofe red.
When the diamond is cut, it prefents a fplendid and
varied play of colours, which is one of its moft ftriking
characters. 6
It is found fometimes in rounded grains, which are
fuppofed to have been cryftals with the edges worn 5
but it is mod: frequently met with cryltallized.
I he primitive form is a regular oftahedron, the in-
tegrant molecule a regular tetrahedron j but the form
which it commonly aflumes is the fpheroidal, with 48
curvilineal faces, fix of which correlpond to the fame
face of the primitive o&ahedron. Befides this ‘form
there are various others, as the double three-fided py¬
ramid, the dodecahedron, &c. All the modifications
of toe crydals of the diamond, Haiiy obferves, feem to
be the eftefls of its tendency to cryltallize in a regular
figure of 48 plane faces, which, if it ever has exided,
has not yet been difeovered ; and it is eafy to conceive
that this form would be produced by intermediate decre¬
ments on all the angles of the nucleus •, but the devia¬
tions from this form feem to have been occafioned by
its precipitate formation.
I he^ external ludre is from four to one j internal
four. The fradlurc is flraight foliated, with a fourfold
cleavage, parallel to the faces of the o&ahedron ; tranf-
parency four to three ; hardnefs ten ; brittle ; fpccific
gravity 3-i1^ Becomes pofitively eledlric by
fri&ion, even before it is polidicd.
Chemical characier.—When expofed to a fufficient
temperature, it is entirely confumed. I his has been
fully afeertained by the experiments of modern che-
mills, from which it is concluded, that the diamond is
entirely compofed of pure carbone. See Chemistry.
Mr Boyle was the fird, according to Henckel, who
fubjefted the diamond to the afrion of heat, and in his
experiments he found that it exhaled very copious and
acrid vapours. 1 his was about the year 1673 3
in the year 1694 the experiment was repeated by the
order of Cofmo III. grand duke of Tufcany. Diamonds
were expofed to the heat of the powerful burning glafs
of richirnhaufen, the adlion of which was even aided
by means of another burning glafs ; and about the end
of'30 feconds a diamond of 20 grains loft its tranf-
parency, Separated into fmall pieces, and was at laft:
entirely diftipated. The fame experiment was repeated
on other diamonds, always with the fame refult, and
without exhibiting the lead fign of fufion. Newton,
in his treatife on Optics, has placed the diamond among
combuftibles, fiippofing that it is a coagulated unftu-
ous fubftance. lie had been led to this by obferving
its extraordinary refraftive power, which in combufti-
ble bodies he found to be in a ratio confiderably higher
A
A L O G Y.
than their denfity. According to this general law he
concluded, that the diamond as well as water contained
an inflammable principle, both of which have fince
been verified. Newton’s treatife was not publiftied
till 1704 j but it appears that part of it was com-
poled and read to the Royal Society in the year 167 c
nearly 20 years before the Florentine experiments were
made.
But nearly 70. years before this latter period, Eoetius
de Boodt, in his Hiftory of Stones, appears to have
jC*n PerfecBy fatisfied, from an experiment which he
deleribes, that the diamond was of an inflammable na¬
ture. .1 his document, which we prefume will gratify
the cunofity of many of our readers, is too Angular to
be omitted. “ Maflix deinde calefieri parum, quemad-
modum et adamas debet, idque, ut impofitus ac fupra
pofitus maftici ftatim illi unione vera uniatur, ac vivos
undique radios a fe jaceat. Hane unionem refpuunt
auae omnes gemmae diaphanas—cur vero legitimus ada-
mas lulus tindfturam illam recipiat, alioe gemmie non,
difficile eft feire. Exiftimo mutuum ilium et amicum
amplexum propter Jimihtudinem aliquam ejaam habent
in materia, et qualitatibus; hoc eft, tota utriufque na-
tuia fieri, quod itaque maftix quee ignecc natures ejl ada-
manti facile jungi poflit, lignum eft j id propter ma-
terne fimihtudinem fieri, ac adamantii materiam igneam
etfulphuream efle, atque ipfius humidum intrinficum et
primogenium cujus beneficio coagulatus eft, plane fuijfe
o.eojum et igneum, aliarum vero gemmarum aqueum. 
Non mirum jtaque fi pinguis, oleofa, et ignea mafticis
lubitantia 1II1 abfque vifus termino adpingi et applicari
alns vero gemmis non poflit.” Boetius de Boodt, Gem.
et Lapid. Hijl. Hanoviae, 1609. 4to. lib. ii. cap. 1.
For the fake of the Englilfi reader we lhall tranllate
this curious document. “ If maftich and the diamond
be expofed to heat, and brought into contaft, they
enter into perfeft union, and emit a very lively flame,
which does not take place in any other gem. But what
is the reaion that the diamond alone polfelfes this pro-
perty ? I am of opinion that this mutual combination
ariles from a certain refemblance which each of the
fubfiances poffVlTes in its nature and properties : on this
account, tneiefore, the maftich, which is of a combufti-
bic nature, may be united to the diamond from a fimi-
larity in their nature, which ftiows that the diamond is
compofed oicombujlible and fulphureous matter; and
that the humid and original particles of its compofition,
by means of which it was coagulated, or aflumed a fo-
lid form, have been decidedly of an oily and injlamma-
ble nature, while thofe of other gems have been of an
aqueous nature. It is not, therefore, furprifing that the
fat, oily, and combuftible fubftance of maftich may enter
into intimate union with the diamond, but cannot be
combined with other gems.”
Localitex, £-ic.—T he diamond is found m various
places oi the Eaft Indies, as in the provinces of Gol-
conda and \ ifapour, in the peninfula of Flither India ;
and in the kingdoms of Pegu and Siam, in the penin-
fula of farther India, and nearly, it is obferved, in the
fame degree of latitude. In 1728 the diamond was
discovered in Brafil, in the diftria of Serro-do-Frio,
which is fituated in the fame fouthern latitude as the
countries which produce the diamond on the north fide
°f the equator. i he native repofitory of the diamond,
fo far as- is known, is a ferruginous foil, but whether ii
be
MINERALOGY.
149
be produced on the fpot where it is difeovered, or have
been tranfported from the place of its origin, has not
been afeertained. It is found alfo in veins filled with
foil of a fimilar nature. We lhall here add a Ihort
hiilory of the diamond mines.
The diamond mines are found only in the kingdoms
of Golconda, Vifapour, Bengal, the bland of Borneo, and
Brafil. There are four or five mines, or rather three mines
and two rivers, whence diamonds ai'e obtained. I lie
mines are, 1. That of Raolconda, in the province of Car-
natica, five days journey from Golconda, and eight from
Vifapour. It has been difeovered about 200 years.
2. That of Gani, or Coulour, feven days journey from
Golconda eaftward. It was difeovered 150 years ago
by a peafant, who digging in the ground found a na¬
tural fragment of 25 carats. 3. That of Soumclpour,
a large town in the kingdom of Bengal, near the .Dia¬
mond-mine. This is the moft ancient of all: it Ihould
rather be called that of Goual, which is the name
of the river, in the fand whereof thefe ftones are found.
4. The fourth mine, or rather the fecond river, is that
of Succudan, in the bland of Borneo 5 and, 5. lhat of
Serro-do-Frio in Brafil.
Diamond-mine of Raolconda.— In the neighbour¬
hood of this mine the earth is fandy, and full of rocks
and copfe-wood. In thefe rocks are found fever* 1 lit¬
tle veins of half and fometimes a whole inch broad, out
of which the miners, with a kind of hooked irons,
drawr the fand or earth wherein the diamonds are j
breaking the rocks when the vein terminates, that the
track may be found again, and continued. When a
fufficient quantity of earth or land is drawn forth, they
walh it two or three times, to feparate the ftones. T lie
miners work quite naked, except a thin linen cloth
before them ; and befides this precaution, have likewile
infpesftors, to prevent their concealing diamonds, w Inch,
however, they frequently find means to do, by watching
opportunities when they are not obferved, and fvvallow-
ing them.
Diamond-mine of Gani or Coulour.—In this mine are
found a great number of diamonds from 10 to 40 ca¬
rats, and even more. It was here that the famous dia¬
mond of the Great Mogul, which before it was cut
weighed 793 carats, was found. The diamonds of this
mine are not very clear : their water is ufually tinged
with the quality of the foil j being black where that is
marfhy, red where it partakes of red, fometimes green
and yellow, if the ground happen to be of thofe co¬
lours. Another defect of feme confequence is a kind of
greafinefs appearing on the diamond, when cut, which
takes off part of its luftre.—There are ufually no lefs
than 60,00o perfons employed in this mine.
When the miners have found a place where they in¬
tend to dig, they level another fomewhat bigger in the
neighbourhood thereof, and inclofe it with walls about
two feet high, only leaving apertures from fpace to
fpace, to give paffage to the water. After a few fu-
perftitious ceremonies, and a kind of fcaft which the
mafter of the mine makes for the 'workmen, to encou¬
rage them, every one goes to his bufinefs, the men
digging the earth in the place firft difeovered, and the
women and children carrying it off into the other
walled round. They dig a few feet deep, and till
ftich time as they find water. Then they ceafe dig¬
ging ; and the water thus found ferves to walk the
earth two or three times, after which it is let out at Diamond
an aperture referved for that end. This earth being , Semis- <
well wafhed, and well dried, they fift it in a kind of
open fieve, and laftly, fearch it well Avith the hands to
find the diamonds. This mine is in a plain of about
one league and a half in extent, bounded on one fide
by a river, and on the other by a range of lofty moun¬
tains, which form a femicircle. It is faid that the nearer
the digging is carried to the mountains, the diamonds
are the larger.
Diamond-mine of Soumpelpour, or river Goual.—
Soumelpour is a confiderable town near the river Goual,
which runs into the Ganges. It is from this river that
all our fine diamond points, or fparks, called natural
/parks, are brought. They never begin to feek for
diamonds in this river till after the great rains are over,
that is, after the month of December j and they ufually
even wait till the water is grosvn clear, which is not be¬
fore January. The feafon at hand, eight or ten thou-
fand perfons, of all ages and fexes, come out of Soumel¬
pour and the neighbouring villages. The molt expe¬
rienced among them fearch and examine the fand of
the river, and particularly where it is mixed with py¬
rites, going from Soumelpour to the very mountain
whence it fprings. When all the fand of the river,
which at that time is. very low, has been well examin¬
ed, they proceed to take up that wherein they judge
diamonds likely to be found } which is done after the
following manner : They dam the place round with
ftoncs, earth, and fafeines, and throwing out the water,
dig about two feet deep : the fand thus got is carried
into a place walled round on the bank of the river.
The reft is performed after the fame manner as at other
mines.
Diamond-mine in the ifland of Borneo, or river of
Succudan.—We are but little acquainted with this
mine j ftrangers being prohibited from having accefs to
it: though very fine diamonds have been brought to Ba¬
tavia by ftealth. They were formerly imagined to be
fofter than thofe of the other mines j but experience
Ihows they arc in no refpetpc inferior.
Diamond-mine of Serro-do-.Frio.—A defeription of
this mine was given by D’Andrada in 1792, to the Na¬
tural Hiftory Society of Paris. The mine is fituated
to the north of Villa Rica, in the 18th degree of foutk
latitude. The whole country in which the diamonds
are found abounds with ores of iron j and the ftralum
of foil, immediately under the vegetable foil, contains
diamonds diffeminated in it, and attached to a gaugue
or matrix which is more or lefs ferruginous } but they
are never found in veins.
When this mine was firft difeovered, the fearching for
diamonds was fo fucceftful, that the Portuguefe fleet
which arrived from Rio de Janeiro in 1730 brought no
lefs than 1146 ounces of diamonds. This unufual
quantity introduced into the market immediately re¬
duced the price j and to prevent this circumftance re¬
curring, the Portuguefe government determined to limit
the number of men employed in the mines. J~
As the diamond is the hardeft of all fubftances, it Method of
can only be cut and poiilhed by itfelf. To bring it rutting and
to that perfe&ion which augments its price fo confi-P?lli3unS
derably, the lapidaries begin by rubbing feveral againftni“mon
each other, while rough } after having firft glued them
to the ends of two wooden blocks, thick enough to be
held
i5o
Diamond
genus.
*7
Of ertimat
iug.
iS
Celebrated
diamonds.
MINER
held in the hand. It is this powder thus rubbed off
j the ftones, and received in a little box for the purpofe,
that ferves to grind and polilh them.
Diamonds are cut and polilhed by means of a mill,
which turns a wheel of foft iron fprinkled over with
diamond-duff mixed with oil of olives. The fame
duff, well ground, and diluted with water and vine-
gar, is uled in the fa wing of diamonds *, which is
performed with an iron or brafs wire, as fine as a hair.
Sometimes, in lieu of fawing the diamonds, they cleave
them, efpecially if there be any large fhivers in them.
1 he method of cutting and polilhing the diamond
was not difcovered till the 15th century. The dia¬
monds which were employed as ornaments before that
period, were in their rough and natural ffate. T he
invention is afcribed to Louis Berguen, a native of
Bruges, who in the year 1476, cut the fine diamond of
Charles the Bald, duke of Burgundy, which he loff the
lame year at the battle of Morat. This diamond was
then lold for a crown, but afterwards came into the
poffeflion of the duke of Florence.
1 he firjl water in diamonds means the greateft pu¬
rity and perfedtion of their complexion, which ought to
be that ot the pureft water. When diamonds fall fhort
of this perfection, they are faid to be of the fecond or
third water, &c. till the ffone may be properly called a
coloured one.
The value of diamonds is eftimated by Mr Jefferies
by the following rule. He firft fuppofes the value of
a rough diamond to be fettled at 2I. per carat, at a
medium j then to find the value of diamonds of
greater weights, multiply the fquare of their weight
by 2, and the produdt is the value required. K. g. to
find the value of a rough diamond of two carats:
2 X 2=4, the fquare of the weight; which, multiplied
by two, gives 81. the true value of a rough diamond
ot two carats. For finding the value of manufadlured
diamonds, he fuppofes half their weight to be loft in
manufacturing them 5 and therefore, to find their value,
we muff multiply the fquare of double their weight
by 2, which will give their true value in pounds. Thus,
to find the value of a wrought diamond weighing two
carats $ we firft find the fquare of double the weight,
viz. 4x4=16; then 16x2=32. So that the true
value of a wrought diamond of two carats is 32k On
thefe principles Mr Jefferies has conrtru&ed tables of
the price of diamonds from 1 to 100 carats.
The greateft diamond ever kn#wn in the world is
one belonging to the king of Portugal, which was
found in Brafil. It is ftill uncut : and Mr Magellan
informs us, that it was of a larger fize ; but a piece
was cleaved or broken off by the ignorant countryman,
who chanced to find this great gem, and tried its hard-
nefs by the ftroke of a large hammer upon the anvil.
This prodigious diamond weighs 1680 carats: awl
although it is uncut, Mr Rome de IT fie fays, that it is
valued at 224 millions fterling ; which gives the efti-
mation of 79,36 or about 80 pounds fterling for each
carat: viz. for the multiplicand of the fquare of its
whole weight. But even in cafe of any error of the
prefs in this valuation, if we employ the general rule
above mentioned, this great gem muft be worth at leaft
5,644,800 pounds fterling, which are the produ6t of
1680 by two pounds, viz, much above five millions
5
A I. O G Y.
and a half fterling. But this gem is fuppofed by fome
to be a white topaz.
The famous diamond which adorns the fceptre of
the emprefs of Ruffia under the eagle at the top of it
weighs 779. carats, and is worth at leaft 4,854,728
pounds fterling, although it hardly coft 135,417 gui¬
neas. This diamond was one of the eyes of a Mala-
barian idol, named Scharingham. A French grenadier,
who had delerted from the Indian fervice, contrived
fo well as to become one of the priefts of that idol,
from which he had the opportunity to fteal its eye : he
run away to the Englilh at Frichinopoly, and thence
to Madras. A thip-captain bought it for twenty
thoufand rupees : afterwards a Jew gave feventeen or
eighteen thoufand pounds fterling for it : at laft a
Greek merchant named Gregory SuJ'ras, offered it to
fale at Amfterdam in the year 1766 : and Prince Or-
loft made this acquifition for his fovereign the emprefs
of Ruflia. This diamond is of a fiattened oval form and
of the fize of a pigeon’s egg.
The diamond of the Great Mogul is cut in rofe ;
weighs 279t9o carats, and it is worth 380,000 guineas.
This diamond has a finall Haw underneath near the
bottom : and Tavernier, page 389, who examined it,
valued the carat at 150 French livres. Before this
diamond was cut, it weighed 793^ carats, according to
Rome de ITlle : but Tavernier, page 339, of his fe¬
cond volume, fays that it weighed 900 carats before
it was cut. If this be the very fame diamond, its lofs
by being cut was very extraordinary.
Another diamond of the king of Portugal, which
weighs 215 carats, is extremely fine, and is worth at
leaft: 369,800 guineas.
The diamond of the grand duke of Tufcany, now
of the emperor of Germany, weighs 139T carats; and
is worth at leaft 109,520 guineas. Tavernier fays,
that this diamond has a little hue of a citron colour ;
and he valued it at 135 livres tournoifes the carat.
Robert de Berquen fays, that this diamond was cut
into two: that the grand Turk had another of the
fame fize : and that there were at Bifnagar two large
diamonds, one of 250 and another of 140 carats.
The diamond of the late king of France, called the
Pitt or Regent, weighs 136J carats : this gem is worth
at leaft 208,333 guineas, although it did not coft above
the half of this fum. Patrin fays, that it is believed to
be at Berlin, (I. 226.) and we may add, that it has pro¬
bably been carried back to France among other fpoils.
The other diamond of the fame monarch, call¬
ed the Sancy, wreighs 55 carats ; it coft 25,000 gui¬
neas : and Mr Dutens fays, that it is worth much above
that price.
Brilliant DIAMOND, is that cut in faces both at top
and bottom ; and wThofe table, or principal face at topj
is flat. To make a complete fquare brilliant, if the
rough diamond be not found of a fquare figure, it muft
be made fo ; and if the work is perfectly executed, the
length of the axis wall be equal to the fide of the fquare
bafe of the pyramid.—Jewellers then form the table
and collet by dividing the block, or length of the axis,
into 18 parts. They take T?-j- from the upper part, and
-jlj from the low'er. This gives a plane at diftance
from the girdle for the table ; and a fmaller plane at
diftance for the collet; the breadth of which will
be
Part f
tiou,
ci1
I.
MINERALOGY.
151
ca- be -f of the breadth of the table. In this ftate the hone
is faid to be a complete fquare table diamond.—The bril¬
liant is an improvement on the table-diamond, and
was introduced within the 17th century, according to
Mr Jeiferies.
has been found in Norway, in a rock compofed of feld-
fpar and hornblende.
Vfes.—The zircon is employed as a precious Hone, and
particularly as an ornament in mourning.
Zircon
genus.
II. Genus. ZIRCON.
1. Species. Zircon.
Jargon, Kirw. I. 257. Zircon, Haiiy, II. 465. Id.
Brochant, I. 159.
E/Jen. Char.—Its fpeeific gravity about 4.4 ; the
joints natural, fome of which arc parallel, and others are
oblique to the axis of the cryftals.
Exter. Char—Colours reddifh and yellowilh, green¬
ish, greeniih yellow, and whitilh. The colour in gene¬
ral varies from green to gray, and is mofl eommonly
pale 5 and the poliihed (lone exhibits in fome degree the
play of colours of the diamond.
It is found in rounded, angular, or flattened grains,
or in fmall angular fragments with notched edges, and
alfo cryftallized. The primitive form is an oftahedron
with ifofceles triangles, and the integrant molecule is an
irregular tetrahedron. The following are the moft
common forms of its cryftals.
1. A prifm with four reft angular faces, each bafe of
which has a pyramid with four faces placed on the four
lateral faces, which terminates fometimes in a line, but
moft frequently in a point.
2. The preceding cryftal, in which the oppoftte late¬
ral edges of the prifm are truncated.
3. The cryftal (1.) in which the edges of the faces
©f the pyramid are bevelled.
4. The cryftal (1.) having the lateral edges of
the prifm, and the fummit of the pyramid trun¬
cated.
5. The cryftal (1.) in which the angles betw’een the
priim and the pyramid are bevelled.
6. A prifm w ith four faces, having the twro oppofite
narrow, and the two others broad.
7. A double pyramid with four faces, with the edges
of the common bafe truncated.
8. The perfect odlahedron with obtufe angles.
The cryftals are commonly fmall; thefurface fmooth,
but that of the angular fragments is rough. Luftre, 3
and 4 ; internal luftre, 4 and 3 ; fomewhat vitreous, or
approaching to that of the diamond. Fra&ure imper-
feft or flat conchoidal; fragments, 3. Tranfparency, 4,
3. Caufes double refraiftion. Hardnefs, 9; brittle. Spec,
grav. 4.416 to 4.4700.
Chem. Char.—Infufible by the blow-pipe without ad¬
dition, but with borax it forms a tranfparent colourlefs
glafs. The following are its conftituent parts.
Zirconia,
Silica,
Iron,
Lofs,
70
26
1
3
100
2. Species. Hyacinth.
Id. Kirw. I. 257. Zircon, Haiiy, II. 465. VHyacinthe,
Brochant, I. 163.
E/Jen. Char.—The fame as the firft fpecies.
Exter. Char.—The moft common colour is what is
called hyacinth red, blood red, and yellowilh brown.
It is found in rounded grains, and frequently in cry¬
ftals, the primitive form of which is the fame as the firft
fpecies. The cryftals are,
1. A prifm with four faces.
2. The fame flightly truncated on its edges.
3. The double pyramid with four faces, or a very ob¬
tufe o&ahedron, which is a rare variety.
4. A prifm with fix faces, each bafe of which is ter¬
minated by an acumination with three faces, placed al¬
ternately on the three lateral edges, forming the rhom-
boidal dodecahedron.
The cryftals are commonly fmall, the furface fmooth ;
external luftre, 3, 4 ; internal, 4; greafy ; fradture
ftraight foliated; cleavage double, redlangular; frag¬
ments, 3 ; tranfparency, 4, 2; caufes double refraction ;
hard and brittle ; undtuous to the touch when cut;
fpec. grav. 4.385 to 4.620.
Chem. Char.—By the aClion of the blow-pipe the
hyacinth lofes its colour, but retains its tranfparency. It
is infufible without borax, which converts it into a tranf¬
parent colourlefs glafs.
ConJUtucnt Parts.
From Ceylon.
Zirconia, 70
Silica, 25
Oxide of iron, 0.5
Lofs, 4.5
From Expailly.
64.5 66
32 31
2 2
M 1
ICO Klap. 100 Vauq. 100 Vauq.
Localities.—It is found in Ceylon in fimilar fituations
with the former; in Brazil, Bohemia, and in the rivulet
Expailly, in Velay in France; and alfo in the neighbour ¬
hood of Pifa in Italy.
Ufes.—As it is fufceptible of a fine polifti, the hya¬
cinth has been ranked among precious ftones.
Remarks.—The analogy between the cryftalline
forms of the zircon and hyacinth ; their double refrac¬
tion ; the fimilarity of their other characters, and parti¬
cularly the refults of chemical analyfis, have led Haiiy
to form them into one fpecies.
A variety, under the name oicinnamonJlone, has been
confidered as a diftinCt fpecies; but the differences are fo
very flight, that it may be included in the defeription of
the preceding.
III. Genus. SILICEOUS.
1. Species. Chrysoberyl.
Localities.—The zircon was firft found in Cevlon, ac¬
companied with cryftals of fpinelle and tourmaline, in a
river near the middle of the ifland; and more lately it
Id. Emm. Wid. Lenz. Kirw. Chryfopule, Lam. Cy-
mophane, H uy.
Exter. Char.—The colour is an afparagus green;
palling
: Ui
MINER
pafTing fomctimes t« a grcenifli ■white, and fometimes to
an olive green 5 fometimes bright brown and yellow!Hi
brown, palling to yellowilh gray j alFords a feeble
change of colour from bluilli to milky white.
It is found in angular or rounded grains, which ap¬
pear to have been water worn ; and in cryllals, exhi¬
biting, 1. A table with fix faces, elongated, of various
Ihicknefs, truncated on the terminal edges. 2. A prifm
wilh four redfangular faces. 3. A prifm with fix faces,
oi which four are broader and tivo are narrower oppo-
lite to each other.
The grains are (lightly rough, and have a confidcr-
able external luflre. The cryftals are driated length-
wife on their lateral faces ; the other faces are fmooth j
ludre external very lliining—internal the fame, inter¬
mediate between that of the diamond and the vitreous
lultre.
1 he fra&ure is in all diredlions perfedily conchoidal j
the fragments are indeterminate with (harp edges. It
has little tranfparency, but a conliderable degree of
hardnefs. Spec. grav. 3.698 to 3-719 Wem. 3.710
Klap. 3.796 Hauy.
C/iem. Char.—It is infuuble without addition by the
aclion of the blow-pipe. Ey Klaproth’s analyfis, the
following are its conftituent parts.
Alumina,
Silica,
Lime,
Oxide of iron,
Lofs.
ll-S
18
6
M
3
A L O G Y.
3. In another variety the fummit of the pyramid is
truncated by a convex cylindrical plane, the convexity
ot which pafles from one of the fmall oppofite lateral
planes towards the other.
4. In fome inftances the cryllals are fo fmall, tliat
the fmall lateral faces almoft entirely difappear, while
the two larger affume a curved form, giving fuch cryf-
tals a tabular appearance.
I he external lurface of the angular fragments and
of the rounded cryftals is fcaly, which affords an effen-
tial character to this mineral. The fmall lateral planes
are fmooth, the broad ones are dillinctly ftriated length-
wife. Externally the furface is fliinimr ; internallT
finning and vitreous. 7
The fradture in all directions is perfeaiy conchoidal j
tlie form of the fragments is indeterminate, with very
fiiarp edges. It.is almort always tranfparent, and re¬
ft adts double } it is not fo hard as quartz. Erittle.
Spec. grav. 3.340 to 3.420 Worn. 3.428 Hauy.
Chem. Char.—By the adtion of the blow-pipe it is
fufed with borax without effervefeence, and affords a
greenilh, tranfparent glafs.
Conjlitucnt parts.
Crjftallifed.
Silica, 38
Magnelia, 39-5
Oxide of iron, 19.
Lofs, 3.5
Cut.
39
43-5
J9
Cry ft alii fed.'
33
5°-5
9-5
100
Localities.—Brazil, Ceylon, Siberia.
Cfes.—The hardnefs of the chryfoberyl, and change
<*f colour which it exhibits, have procured it a place
among precious ftones of inferior value. It is known in
•ommerce under the name of changeable opal ox oriental
chryfolite.
2. Species. Chrysolite.
Id. Emm. \\ id. Lenz. IVIuf. Lelk, Kirw. Peridot,
Daub. Haiiy.
Lx ter. Char.—The moll common colour is a bright
piftachio green, paffing to an olive green ; fometimes
of a bright afparagus or clear meadow green ; rare¬
ly the green approaches to brown and almoft to a cher¬
ry red.
It is found in angular fragments with the edges a
little notched, or in rounded grains, or in cryftals^hav¬
ing the angles and edges a little notched. The forms
ot its cryftals are, 1. A large redtangular prifm having
its lateral edges truncated and fometimes bevelled, and
terminated by a fix-fided prifm, of which two oppofite
jldcs are placed on the fmall lateral faces of the prifm.
The four others on the lateral truncated faces, the
latter forming a more acute angle than the two for¬
mer.
2. The next form varies from the preceding, in having
two additional terminating faces, placed on the broad
taces of the prifm, each of which is confequently fitua-
ted between two of the planes correfponding to the trun¬
cated planes.
100 Klap. 100.5 Vauq. 100 Vauq.
Localities,' Sec.—This mineral is brought from the
Levant, but it is not known whether it is found in Alia
or Africa. It has been difeovered in Bohemia ; and
cryftallifed fpecimens included in a kind of lava, have
been brought from the ifle of Bourbon. As it is
ufually found in rounded fragments, in the midft
of earthy fubftances, its relative fituation is fcarcely
known.
Wes.—The chryfolite has been often employed for
various purpofes as a precious ftone, but as it poffeffes
no great degree of hardnefs, it is not much efteemed.
_ Subftances of a very different nature have been, at
different times, deferibed under the name of Chrysolite.
It appears that the yellow chryfolite of the ancients is
the fame with our topaz, and that their green topaz is
cur chryfolite. Plin. lib. xxxvii. cap. 8.
3. Species. Olivine.
Id. Emm. Wid. Lenz. Kirw. Lameth. Chrysolite
en grains irreguliers, De Born. Peridot Granule
forme, Haiiy. Chrysohth des Volcans, of many mi-
neral«gifts.
Exter. Char.—The moft common colour is a bright
olive green, fometimes of an apple green, piftachio, or
mountain green j a wine, honey, or orange yellow,
and fometimes alfo a reddilh brown, and brownilh
black j but thefe latter varieties are rare. It is found
in rounded pieces, from the fize of the head to that
of a grain of millet, moft commonly included, and
diffeminated in bafalt. It has been found cryftal-
fired.
Internally,
Par.
MINERALOGY.
Internally, tins mineral varies in its ludre between
fliining and weakly (hining; in the yelloiv varieties the
luftre is between vitreous and refinous.
The fra£lure is more or let's conchoidal ; fometimes
uneven 5 the lhape of the fragments is indeterminate,
w ith tharp edge?. The rounded pieces of a certain lize
are compofed of diftinft granular concretions, with fmall
grains.
It is fometimes tranfnarent, and varies to femitranf-
parent and tranilucent. It is brittle and not fo hard as
quartz. Spec. grav. 3.225 to 3.265.
Chern. Char.—Olivine is infufible by the adtion of the
blow-pipe ; in nitric acid it lofes its colour, giving to
the liquid a pale yellow oolour.
ConJUtucnt Parts. Klaproth.
Si’ica, 4S to 52.0 52
Magnefia, 37 38.5 37.75
Lime, 00.25 00.25 °*25
Oxide of iron, 12.5 12. 10-75
Lofs, 2.25 —
100.00—102.75 100.75
Localities, &c.-—Olivine is found in different coun¬
tries, as in Bohemia and Saxony, and in Vivarais in
France, and moft commonly in rounded pieces in the
cavities of bafalt. Brochant fays that it has not been
difc»vered in the bafalts of Ireland, England, Sweden,
Norway, and Italy. We have, however, colledled fpe-
cimens of olivine among the bafaltic rocks of the Giant’*
Caufeway in Ireland.
Olivine and chryfolite are conlidered by Hatiy as one
fpecies, and defcribed under the name peridot.
4. Species. CoCCOLITE.
Coccolithe, Brochant, ii. 504. Haiiy, iv. 355. D’An-
drada. Nich. 410. Jour. v. 495.
Exter. Char.—Colour, meadow green, olive, or
blackifh green. It is found in maffes which are com¬
pofed of feparate pieces, granular, in fmall grains,
wdiich may be eafily feparated ; thefe grains are angu¬
lar, and difcover fome appearance of tendency to cryftal-
lization.
Luftre, refplendent, vitreou* ; fradlure foliated j clea¬
vage double, as examined by Haiiy, but fingle accord¬
ing to D’Andrada : it is hard, fcratchei glafs; the
grains are often tranflucent. Spec. grav. 3-316 to
3-3T3.
Chem. Char.—Coccolite is infufible without addition
before the blow-pipe. With borax it melts into a pale
yellow tranfparent glafs, and with carbonate of potafh
into an olive green veficular glafs.
. ConJHtuent Parts.
Silica, 50-0
Lime, 24.0
Magnefia, 10.0
Oxide of iron, 7.0
Oxide of manganefe, 3.0
Alumina, 1,5
Lofs, 4.5
100
Vol. XIV. Part I.
Localities.—It is found in the iron mines of Hellefla
and Alfebo in Sudermania, at Nerica in Sweden, and
near Arendal in Norway.
5. Species. Augite.
OBahedral Bafa/tinc, Kirw. i. 219. L'Aug it e, Bro¬
chant, i. 179. Pyroxene, Hauy, iii. 80.
Ejjen. Char.—Divifible, parallel to the fides of an
oblique rhomboidal prifm, of about 920 and 88®, which
is fubdivided in the direction of the great diagonals of
the bafes.
Exter. Char.—Colour, olive green, black, white, and
gray. It is found fometimes in rounded pieces, and in
grains, but moft frequently cryilallized. The primitive
form is an oblique-angled prifm, the bafes of which are
rhombs j the integrant molecule is an oblique triangular
prifm. The form of the cryftals is generally a fix
and eight-fided prifm, which is terminated by a two
fided fummit. The cryftals are commonly fmall, fmooth,
and brilliant, fometimes a little ftiining. Internal luftre
ftiining, and almoft refplendent, refinous. Fracture
perfectly foliated ; cleavage double tranftucent at the
edges; harder than olivine; gives lively fparks with
fteel, and fcratches glafs; rather brittle; fpec. grav.
3.226 to 3.777.
Chem. Char.—Fufible before the blow-pipe with dif¬
ficulty, and only in fmall fragments, which melt into a
black enamel.
Conjlituent Parts.
From ^Etna, Vauquelin.
Silica, 52
Lime, 13-20
Alumina, 3.33
Magnefia, 10
Oxide of iron, 14.66
Oxide of manganefe, 2
Lofs, 4.81
100.00
Localities, &c.—Augite is found in bafalt along with
olivine and hornblende, in Bohemia, Hungary, and
Tranfylvania; in the bafalt of Arthur’s feat near
Edinburgh.
6. Species. Vesuvian.
La Vefuvienne, Brochant, i. 184. Idocrafe, Hauy, ii.
574-
EJJen. Hivifible, parallel to the faces and
diagonals of a re&angular prifm, with fquare bafes j
melts into a yellow glafs.
Exter. Char.—Colour brown, orange, dark green,
and yellowifti green.
This mineral is found maftive, difteminated, or cry-
ftallized. Primitive form, a rectangular prifm, little
different from a cube ; integrant molecule a triangular
prifm. The forms of its cryftals are, a rectangular
prifm, with four fides, truncated on all its edges, or
truncated on its lateral edges; or a fix-fided prifm
truncated on all its edges. The cryftals are ufually
fmall, fingle fometimes, and fometimes in groups.
Lateral planes longitudinally ftreaked. Some are
U , fmooth 5
From Arcndal, Rout.
45
3°-5
3
16
5
•5
100
153
Siliceous
genus.
 v '
154
MINERALOGY.
Part
Siliceous fmootli ; luftre refple.ndent, vitreous j internal luftre
genus' , thining, refinous. Frafture imperfedlly conchoidal, fome-
times uneven, often alfo foliated. Fragments indeter¬
minate, with rather fharp edges. Tranilucent, and al-
moft femitranfparent j hard, brittle j fpecifie gravity
3.365 to 3.420.
Chem. Char.—Fufible without addition into a yellow
glafs.
Conflituent Parts. Klaproth.
From Veiuvius. From Siberia.
Silica, 35.50 42
Lime, 33. 34
Alumina, 22.25 16.25
Oxide of iron, 7.5 5'50
Oxide of manganefe, .25 an atom.
Localities, &c.—It is found in the neighbourhood of
Vefuvius, accompanied by limeftone in fmall grains,
feldfpar, mica, hornblende, and calcareous fpar and it
is fuppofed to have been thrown out of the volcano un¬
changed. In Siberia it is found in fleatites, fometimes
mixed with cryftals of magnetic iron.
Vfes.—At Naples it is employed as a precious ilone.
rocks of Bohemia, and alfo, it is faid,
rock in the Pyrenees.
in a granitic Claffi,
tion
5.
8. Species. Melanite, or Black Garnet.
La Melanite, Brochant, i. 191.
Exter. Char.—Colour velvet black, or brownith or
grayifli black. It is molt commonly found cryilal-
lized, in lix-fided prifms, terminated at each extremity
by an obtufe acumination, with three planes placed al¬
ternately on three of the lateral edges 5 the prifms are
fometimes truncated on all the edges, and fometimes
only the lateral edges. The furface is fmooth and
ftiining. Internal luftre {Inning. Fra&ure imperfect,
flat, conchoidal. Fragments indeterminate, flrarp-edged,
opaque, hard, and rather brittle. Spec. grav. 3.691 to
3.800.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Silica, 35
Alumina, 6
Lime, 32
Oxide of iron and of manganefe, 25
Lofs, 2
7. Species. Leucite.
La Leucite, Brochant, i. 188. Vefuvian, Kirwan, i.
285. Amphigene, Haiiy, ii. 559.
Ejjen. Char.—Divifible, parallel to the faces of a
cube, and at the fame time to thofe of a rhomboidal
dodecahedron.
Exter. Char.—Colour grayifh or yellow white.
It is rarely found maftive or in grains, but mod fre¬
quently cryftallized. \ he primitive form of its cryftals is
the cube *, the integrant molecule an irregular tetrahe¬
dron •, the moil common form of the cryftals is a ftrort
double pyramid with eight faces oppofed bafe to bafe,
each fummit of which is furmounted by an obtufe a-
cumination with four faces, correfponding alternately to
the four lateral edges of the pyramid, and thus producing
a figure of twenty-four trapezoidal faces ; the cryftals
are commonly fmall, the furface rough and dull, or at
moft feebly ftiining. Internal luftre fhining, vitreous.
Fi'aflure foliated, fometimes conchoidal. Fragments
indeterminate with {harp edges. Semitranfparent or
tranflucent. Scarcely feratches glafs. Brittle. Spec,
grav. 2.455 to 2-49°*
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe, but with
borax gives a tranfparent glafs.
Conjlituent Parts.
Klaproth. Vauquelin.
Silica, 54 56
Alumina, 24 20
Potato, 21 20
Lime, — 2
Lofs, I 2
100 100
Localities. $tc.—Leucite is found in the lavas of Ve¬
fuvius, ana m the baialts 01 itajy ; in bafalts and other
100
Localities.—It has been found only at Frefcati and
St Albano near Rome.
9. Species. Garnet.
Le Grenat, Brochant, i. 193. Garnet, Kirwan, i. 238.
Grenat, Hauy, ii. 540.
E/fen. Char.— Specific gravity at lead 3.5. The
forms derived from the rhomboidal dodecahedron.
The primitive form is a rhomboidal dodecahedron.
The inclination of each rhomb to the two adjacent is
120°, the plain angles 109° 28' \6" and 70° 31' 44".
The integrant molecule is the tetrahedron, whofe faces
are ifofceles triangles equal and fimilar.
The garnet is divided into three iubfpecies, the pre¬
cious, common, and Bohemian garnet.
Subfpecies 1. Precious Garnet.
Exter. Char.—Colour red, of which there are fevcral
varieties, as blood red, cherry red, hyacinth red, fome¬
times brown and even black.
The garnet is rarely found maflive or difieminated,
but fometimes in rounded grains, and moft frequently
cryftallized, of which the following are the forms.
1. A prifm with fix fides terminated by a double
obtufe fummit with three faces, correfponding alternate¬
ly to the three lateral edges at each end of the prifm,
and thus forming a rhomboid of twelve faces.
2. The fame cryftal truncated on all its edges, form¬
ing a figure of 36 faces. The faces of the truncation*
are elongated hexagons.
3. A fhort double pyramid, with eight faces oppo¬
fed bafe to bafe, the fummits of each of which are fur-
mounted by an obtufe acumination, correfponding al¬
ternately to the four lateral edges of one of the pyra¬
mids.
MINER
mids, forming a cryful of 24 fides, which are pretty
equal trapezoids.
preceding form witli twelve tiunccitions j
eight on the eight acute alternating angles of the two
fummits, and four on the obtufe angles of the common
bafe of the two pyramids, making in all 36 faces.
The furface is a little unequal in the grains, fmooth
in the cryftals, and almoft always ftreaked diagonally.
The luftre varies from fhining to refplendent, and is vi¬
treous. FraSure more or lefs perfeftly conchoidal, fome-
times uneven or fplintery, and fometimes foliated. Frag¬
ments indeterminate with lharp edges. Franlparent
or tranflucent. Scratches quartz. Refra&ion fimple.
Brittle. Spec. grav. 4.085 to 4.352. . ^ .
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it is fufible into
a dark enamel.
A L O G Y.
caceous fchiflus, gneis, ferpentine, and other primitive
rocks, in Saxony, Bohemia, France, Sweden.
UJ-eS' It is rarely employed as a precious ftone, but
frequently as a flux for iron ore*.
Subfpeeies 3. Pyrope, or Bohemian Garnet.
Pyrope, Brochant, ii. 498.
E//en. Char.—The fame as the garnet.
Extcr. Char.—This mineral is found in fmall, round
angular fragments : it is never cryltallized.
Colour dark blood red, which, by holding it between
the eye and the light, becomes yellow. Luftre re¬
fplendent, vitreous. Fra&ure conchoidal. Fragments
indeterminate and (harp-edged. Perfettly tranfparent.
Scratches quartz. Spec. grav. 3.718 to 3.941.
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Oxide of iron,
Oxide of manganefe,
Lofs,
Conjlituent Parts.
Klaproth.
35-75
27-25
36
•25
•75
100.00
V auquelin.
36
22
3
41
102
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Sil ica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Magnefia,
Oxide of iron,
Oxide of manganefe,
Lofs,
40
28.5
3-5
10
16.5
•25
1.25
100
Localities, &c.—The garnet is not uncommon in
moft countries of the world, and it is ufually found m
primitive rocks.
XJfes.—It is employed as a precious ftone. ^
The precious garnet is fuppofed to be the carbuncle
of the ancients.
Subfpecies 2. Common Garnet.
EJfen. Char.—The fame as the precious garnet.
Exter. Char.—It is found maflive and diffeminated,
and alfo fometimes cryftallized. The forms of the
cryftals are the fame as thofe of precious garnet. The
iurface of the cryftals is diagonally ftreaked.
Colour brown, green, greeniftt black, brownifh red,
and orange yellow. Luftre fhining, reanous, or vi-
treous. Frafture uneven, fometimes fplintery. Frag¬
ments fliarp-edged. Rarely tranfjiarent, fometimes
tranflucent, and commonly at the edges -, not fo hard
as the precious garnet. Brittle. Spec. grav. from 3.668
t0 3-757-
Chem. Char.—Melts hefore the blow-pipe into a
dark enamel, and eafter than the former.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Black Garnet. Yellowifh Garnet.
Silica, 43
Alumina, 16 20
Lime, 20 31
Oxide of iron, 16 10
Water, 4 "
Lofs, 1 1
100
100
Localities, &c.—The common garnet is found in mi-
Locnlities, &c.—This mineral is found in ferpentine in
Saxony -, the moft beautiful are from Bohemia, where
it is found in alluvial land.
Ufes. It is employed in jewellery. The fmall
trains are ufed as a fubftitute for emery in polifhing.
° This mineral is formed into a feparate fpecies by
feme, and is diftinguifhed from the garnet by its colour,
want of cryftallization, and tranfparency-, but thefe
differences in the external characters Flauy confideis as
infufficient to conftitute a different fpecies of two mi¬
nerals which agree in a greater number of other cha¬
racter*. Magnefia indeed has been deteCted in the lat¬
ter as one of its conftituents, no trace of which has been
yet difeovered in the former.
10. Species. Grenatite.
Grenatite, Brochant, ii. 496. Id. Sauffure, \ 1900.
Staurotide, Hauy, iii. 93. Pierre de Croix, De Lifle,
ii. 434.
EJfen. Char.—Diviflble parallel to the fides of a
rhomboidal prifm, whofe angles are equal to 1290 30',
and 50° 30', which may be fubdivided in the direction
of the fhort diagonals of the bales.
Exter. Char.—Grenatite is always found cryftallized.
The primitive form is a reCtangular prifm with rhom-
boidal bafes, having the angles inclined, as mentioned
in the effential character. The integrant molecule is a
triangular prifm. It is frequently met with in double
cryftals, crofting each other in the form of a crofs, from
which the name is derived, fometimes at right angles,
and fometimes obliquely -, fometimes alfo there are ob¬
lique triple erodings. 1 he furface is fmooth and ihin-
ing, or uneven and dull.
The colour is reddilh or blackfth brown-, internal
luftre ftiining, between vitreous and reflnous. Frafture
U 2 imperfeCUy
156
S’enus"3 ImPCrfe^ly foliated, in the direftion of the axis: in
other directions uneven, fmall grained, or fometimes a
little conchoidal 5 often opaque, fometimes tranflueent.
Scratches quartz feebly ; fpecific gravity 3.2861.
Chem. Char. Before the blow-pipe it becomes brown
without fufion, and is then converted into a fritty fub-
ftance. J
ConJUtuent Parts.
V auquelin.
MINERALOGY.
Part
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Oxide of iron,
Oxide of manganefe,
Lofs,
33*
44.
3-84
J3-
;:I6
100
Localities, &c.—It is found is fmall cryftals in mi-
saceous fchiftus, at St Gothard in Switzerland, in Brit¬
tany in francc, and in Spain, in primitive rocks.
Exter. Char.—Spinelle is found in rounded grains, or Claffij,
cryllallized : the primitive form of the cryitals is a regu- don
lar octahedron j the integrant molecule the regular tetra¬
hedron. Its ufual forms are a double pyramid with
four faces applied bafe to bafe, conftituting a perfeft
oCtahedron ; or it is truncated on all it edges, or only
on thofe of the common bafe of the two pyramids. It
is met with alfo in the form of a double cryftal, com-
pofed of two oCtahedrons, which are often flattened
Colour ufually red, of various (hades, from carmine
red to rofe red; fometimes reddifli white, and orange
yellow.. Faces of the oCtahedron fmooth, thofe of the
truncations longitudinally Itreaked. Luftre refplendent,
vitreous j fraCtiue conchoidal j the longitudinal fradure
is foliated ; fragments indeterminate, (harp-edged ; fe-
mitranfparent, and fometimes tranfparent. Scratches
quartz j is feratehed by fapphire. Spec. grav. 3.570 to
3-<M5-
C/iern^ Char.—Before the blow-pipe it is infufible j
but with borax it melts, and without frothing up.
p,
Conjlituent Parts.
11. Species.
PleonaJIe, Uauy, iii. 17.
niart, i. 438.
Ceylanite.
Spinelle PleonaJIe, Brong-
Ejfen Char.—Scratches glafs flightly, and is divifible
into a regular oCIahedron.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in rounded maf-
fes, and alfo cryftallized. Primitive form of the cryf-
tals, a regular oCIahedron. The integrant molecule a
regular tetrahedron. The edges of the oCIahedron are
fometimes truncated, and form a regular 12-fided rhom¬
boid. The cryftals are fmall j the fradure is conchoi¬
dal ; the luftre (Inning and vitreous.
The colour is fometimes perfeCily black, brown,
bright blue, purplifli red, or dark green. It is hard’
but not very brittle. Spec. grav. 3.76 to 3.79.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe.
Conjlituent Parts. Dcfcotils.
Alumina,
Silica,
Magnefia,
Oxide of iron,
Lime,
Chromic acid,
Lofs,
Klaproth.
74-50
^•jo
8.25
1.50
•75
100.3
V auquelin.
82.47
8.78
6.18
2-57
ICO
Alumina,
Magnefia,
Silica,
Oxide of iron,
Lofs,
68
12
2
16
2
IQQ
Localities, &c.—This mineral is met with in the ifland
of Ceylon, along with tourmaline and other cryftallized
fubftances, which have been carried from their native
repofitories by means of water. It has been found alfo in
diffeminated cryftals in the cavities of the lava of Vefu-
vius ; and very fmall blue cryftals of ceylanite have been
obferved in the volcanic (bafalticj rocks at Clofterlach
on the banks of the Rhine.
12. Species. Spinelle.
Spinel and BalaJ's Ruby, Kirw. i. 253-. Le Spinel, Bro-
chant, 1. 202. Spinelle, Hauy, ii. 496.
. Ejfen. Char.—Scratches quartz ftrongly j the primi¬
tive and common form, a regular odahedron.
a
Localhies, &c.—Cryftals of fpinelle are found in Cey¬
lon, in a river which comes from the high mountains in
the middle of that ifland: they are accompanied with
zircon, tourmaline, and different other ftonas. It is
found alfo in Pegu.
Ifes.—Spinelle is ranked among precious ftones, and
is.greatly eftcemed when it is of a certain fize. It is
faid that a fine fpinelle ruby, whofe weight exceeds four
carats, is w'orth barf the price of a diamond of the fame
weight.
13. Species. Sapphire.
Oriental Ruby, Sapphire, and Topa%, Kirwan, i. 250.
Le Saphir, Brochant, i. 207. Telejie, Hauy, ii. 480.
Ejfen. Char.— Specific gravity about 4; natural
joints very diftind, and perpendicular to the axis of the
cryftals.
Exter. Char.—Sapphire is found in fragments, in
rounded pieces, and alfo cryflallized. *1 he primitive
form of the cryftal, according to Hauy, is a regular
fix-fided prifm, and the integrant molecule is a triangu¬
lar, equilateral prifm ; but, according to Bournon, the
primitive form is a rhomboid, whofe angles are 96° anci
84°. The ufual forms of the cryftals are, 1. A fmall
fix-f.ded prifm. 2. A pyramid with fix faces, very (harp,
double, the two pyramids applied bafe to bafe. "3. The
fame cryftal with the fummit truncated. 4. A pyramid
with fix faces, double 5 the two pyramids applied bafe
to bafe, but lefs (harp than the fecond form. The fur-
face of the cryftals is fmooth, and often flreaked tranf-
verfely.
Tlx
I.
MINERALOGY.
ca-
The principal colour is blue, varying between Pruf-
fian and indigo blue; other varieties are of a deep vio¬
let blue. Sapphires are alfo found red, yellowilh, and
greenifli. Two or three colours appear in the fame
cryftal, fometimes in bands and fometimes in concentric
circles. Externally, the luftre of the fapphire is finn¬
ing } internally, refplendent and vitreous. Fracture
perfedlly conchoidal. Fragments fliarp-edged j trani-
parent or femitranfparent, fometimes only tranflucent.
Scratches all other earthy fubflances. Brittle. Spec,
grav. 3.9Qi to 4.283.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe. Melts
with borax without intumefcence. The blue variety,
e«pofed to a ftrong heat, lofcs its colour, Hatiy.
ConjUtuent Parts.
Alumina,
Silica,
Lime,
Oxide of iron,
Klaproth.
98-5
00.5
1.
Bergman.
58.
35-
5-
2.
100 100
Sapphire. Oriental Ruby.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silica,
Alumina,
Oxide of iron,
Lofs,
Fr»m China.
6- 5
84.
7- 5
2.
100
From Bengal.
5-50
89.50
1.25
3-75
100
According to Chenevix.
From the Carnatic. From Malabar.
Silica, 5 7
Alumina, 91 86.5
Oxide of iron, 1.5 4
Lofs, 2.5 2.5
100 100
Localities.—Corundum is found in a hard rock near
the river Cavery, fouth of Madras $ on the Malabar
coaft ; in the illand of Ceylon j in the kingdojn of Avaj
and in China.
Alumina, 92 90
Silica, _ 5.25 7
Oxide of iron, 1. 1.2
Lofs, 1.75 1.8
100 100
Localities, &.c.—The fineft fapphires are brought
from Pegu and the ifland of Ceylon. The fapphire is
alfo found in Bohemia, accompanied with zircon, Bo¬
hemian garnet, and magnetic iron j and in the river
Expailiy in France.
Ufes.—The fapphire, next to the diamond, is the
moft highly valued of precious ftones.
15. Species. Adamantine Spar.
Exter. Char.—This mineral, which ought undoubt¬
edly to be confidered as a variety of corundum, is found
maflive, in rolled pieces, and cryflallized in fix-fided
prifms, and fix-fided acute pyramids with truncated ex¬
tremities. Internal luftre fplendent j fradure foliated j
fragments rhomboidal.
Colour dark hair brown j very hard. Spec. grav.
3.98!.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
From Ckina.
14. Species. Corundum.
Cormdon, Haiiy, iii. 1. Adamantine Spar, Kirw. i. 335,
Le Spath Adamantin, Broch. i. 356.
Silica, 6.5
Alumina, 84.
Oxide of iron, 7.5
Lofs, 2.
157
Siliceous
genus.
F.J[en. Char.—Scratches quartz *, diviftble into a
rhomboid fomewhat acute.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive, difle-
minated, and cryftallized ; 1. In fix-fided prifms, ha¬
ving the extremities breken, and the faces fometimes
unequal. 2. A fix-fided prifm, terminated by a fix-
fided pyramid. 3. A pyramid with fix ftiort faces,
whofe fummit is ftrongly truncated ; and, 4. The pre¬
ceding cryftal terminated by a three-fided pyramid.
From the inveftigations of Count de Bournon and Mr
Qreville, it appears that the cryftallization of corundum
is fimilar to that of the fapphire *. Luftre, which is
intermediate between refinous and vitreous, Alining or
weakly ftiining j crofs fra&ure uneven, or fplintery,
fometimes foliated j fragments rhomboidal, fometimes
Iharp-edged.
The colour is greenilh white, greenifli gray, and afpa-
ragus green, tranflucent at the edges ; refra&ion double.
Extremely hard. Sped. grav. 3.710 to 3.875.
Chem. Char.—Entirely infufible before the blow-pipe.
100
Localities.—This mineral has been only met with in
China.
16. Species. Emery.
Per Oxijde ^jiarteifere, Hauy, iv. 112. Epiery, Kirw.
ii. 193. L'Emeril, Broch. ii. 292.
EJfen. Char.—Tlie powder fcratches all bodies except
the diamond.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive and dif-
feminated. .1 he luftre is glimmering or "weak fliining,
and adamantine. Fra&ure fine-grained, uneven ; frag¬
ments a little blunt-edged.
Colour grayiih black, bluifti, fmoke or fteel gray;
generally opaque, but fometimes tranflucent at the
edges : extremely hard. Spec. grav. about 4.
Chem. Char.—Becomes black under the blow-pipe,
but is infufible. Colours borax of a dirty yellow.
Conjlituent
158
Siliceous
genus.
MINERALOGY.
Conjlituent Parts.
Tennant.
Alumina, 86
Silica, 3
Oxide of iron, 4
Lofs, 7
topaz heated in a crucible a {fumes a rofe red colour,
when it is called by the jewellers ruby of Brazil. The
Saxon topaz becomes white when expofed to heat 5 and '
thus deprived of colour, is fold for the diamond. Ac¬
cording to Vauquelin, all the varieties of topaz reduced
to powder, and added to fyrup of violets, at the end of
two or three hours communicate a green colour.
* Phil.
Tranf.
iSoa.
p. 40®.
IOO *
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found in Saxony,
difleminated in a bed of indurated fteatites, mixed with
common talc } alfo in the ifland of Naxos in the Ar¬
chipelago •, and in Italy, Spain, and Peru.
Ufes.—Emery, as well as the two former fpecies, is
employed, when reduced to powder, in cutting and po-
lifhing hard ftones, glafs, and metals.
Not only the external characters, but alfo the near
approach in the proportion of their constituent parts, of
the three fpecies laft defcribed, would lead to confider
them as the fame fpecies, or at lead as varieties. Emery
is by fome mineralogies arranged among the ores of
iron.
17. Species. Topaz.
Occidental Topa%, Kinv. i. 254. La Topa%e, Broch.
i. 212. Topa%e, Hauy, ii. 504.
Pjfen. Char.—Refraftion double •, joints very diftinCt j
perpendicular only to the axis of the cryftals.
Exter. Char.—The topaz is fometimes found maflive,
fometimes difleminated, and fometimes in rounded frag¬
ments ; but it is mod commonly crydallized. The
primitive form of its crydals is a right-angled prifm,
whofe bafes are rhombs, and having the large angle
1240 22'; the integrant molecule is the fame. The
mod common forms of the topaz are,
1. A prifm with eight Tides, terminated at the ore
end by a four-fided fummit, and at the other (which
but rarely happens), by one of a different form. In a
variety of the Brazilian topaz, the one fummit prefents
fix fides, and the other ten ; and the eleClricity exhi¬
bited by the latter by means of heat, is negative, while
that of the former is pofitive. This difference in the
two oppofite fummits of a crydal, as has been obferved
by Hauy, is a peculiarity in all crydals which acquire
by means of heat two kinds of eleCIricity.
2. The next common form of the topaz is an eight-
lided prifm, whofe bafe is horizontal, and bordered
•with a row of fix oblique faces. This variety, which
is found in the mines of Saxony, becomes readily elec¬
tric by friClion, but not by heat.
The prevailing colour of the topaz is yellow of va¬
rious (hades. The crydals are of middling fize ; their
lateral faces are fometimes convex and cylindrical 5 the
furface of the fame faces is longitudinally floated, while
that of the other faces is fmooth. Ludre vitreous ;
crofs fraCture perfectly foliated ; longitudinal fraCture
conchoidal } fragments indeterminate ; tranfparent •,
fometimes femitranfparent or tranflucent ; refraCtion
double ; fcratches rock-crydal. Spec. grav. 3.464 to
3-564-
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe, but
melts with borax without intumefcence. The Brazilian
3
Conjlituent Parts.
According to Klaproth and Vauquelin.
Alumina,
Silica,
Fluoric acid.
Iron,
47 to S°
28 to 30
17 to 20
o to 4
Localities, &c.—The topaz is found in different parts
of Saxony, particularly in the mountain Schneecken-
flein, which is denominated topa% rock, and is arranged
with the primitive mountains. In this rock the topaz
is mixed with quartz, fchorl, mica, and lithomarga.
Near Zinnwald it is found in granite. It is alfo found
mixed with ores of tin. In Siberia the topaz is found
in graphic granite, accompanied with beryl, quartz,
and garnet. Topaz is alfo met with in Brazil and Afia
Minor.
Ufes—The topaz is employed for the purpofes of
jewellery as a precious done, but it is not confldered of
very great value.
18. Species. Pyrophysalite.
This mineral which was deferibed and analyfed by
Hifenger and Berzelius, is of a greeniflr white colour.
V hen thrown on hot coals it becomes phofphorcfcent,
and gives out a greenifh flame. When it is Arongly
heated by the aCfion of the blow-pipe, the furface is
covered with fmall veficles which explode. Thefe phe
nomena are aferibed to the fluate of lime which forms
one of its condituent parts, and which fometimes ap¬
pears furrounding it with a crufl.
Localities, &c.—Gahn found this done at Finbo near
Fahlun in Sweden, in nodules imbedded in a granite,
compofed of white quartz, feldfpar, and filvery mica.
The nodules are feparated from the rock by a greenilh
yellow talc f.
19. Species. Euclase.
15/
art,
Id. Hauy, ii. 531. Id. Brochant, ii. 508.
Effen. Char.—Dividble by two longitudinal lines per¬
pendicular to each other.
Exter. Char.—This mineral has only been found cry-
flallized. The primitive form of the crydals is a red-
angular prifm with fquare bafes, and that of the inte¬
grant molecule is the fame. The mod common form
under which it appears is an oblique four-fided prifm,
with the edges truncated in various ways. The cry¬
dals are ftreaked longitudinally. The luflre is refplen-
dent and vitreous. Longitudinal fia&ure foliated ; crofs
fradure conchoidal.
Colour, bright fea green. Tranfparent, and refrad§
double. Scratches quartz. Very frangible ; hence its
name fignifying eafily broken. Spec. grav. 3,062.
Chem. Char.— Lofes its tranfparency before the blow¬
pipe, and melts into a white enamel,
Confituent
£ ^
MINERALOGY.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Silica, 35 to 36
Alumina, 18 19
Glucina, 14 15
Iron, s 3
Lofs, 31 27
ICO 100
Localities.—Tins mineral was brought from Peru,
and has never been found any where elfe. It was in
fingle cryftals, fo that its repotitory is unknown. It is
by fome mineralogifts arranged among the ores of iron.
20. Species. Emerald.
Id. Kirw. i. 247. L'Emerauds, Brochant, i. 217.
Emeraude, Hauy. ii. 516.
Ejjen. Char.—Scratches glafs eafily •, divifible, paral¬
lel to the faces, and to the bales of a regular hexahedral
prifm.
Exter. Char.—The emerald is only found cryftal-
lized, and the primitive form of its cryitals is a regular
fix-fided prifm \ the integrant molecule is a triangular
prifm, the fides fquare, and the bafes equilateral tri¬
angles. The ufual forms are, 1. A perfedt fix-lided
prifm ; 2. Truncated on its lateral edges j 3. Trun¬
cated on its terminal edges j 4. Truncated on its ter¬
minal angles •, and, 5. Having the terminal edges be¬
velled. The cryllals are feldom large. Their furface
is fmooth and fhining ; internal luitre Ihining and re-
fplendent ; vitreous ; fradlure conehoidal or unequal,
fometimes tranfverfely foliated *, fragments indetermi¬
nate, lharp-edged.
Colour emerald green of all (hades ; mod commonly
tranfparent, fometimes only tranflucent; refradfion dou¬
ble ; with dilhculty (cratches quartz. Spec. grav. 2.600
to 2.775.
Chem. Char.—Fufible before the blow-pipe, but with
difficulty } melts readily with borax.
Conjlitnent Parts.
Vauquelin. Klaproth.
Silica, 64.50 68.50
Alumina, 16. I5*75
Glucina, 13.
Oxide of chromium, 3.25 .30
Lime, 1.60 .25
Oxide of iron, 1.
Water, 2.
100.35 98.3
Localities, &c.—The fined emeralds are brought from
Peru, where thev are found in veins or cavities of the
granite mountains. They are alfo found in Upper
Egypt, Ethiopia, and in the ifland of Ceylon. The
emerald is accompanied by calcareous fubdances, as
carbonate of lime and gypfum.
Vfes.—'!'he rich green of the emerald has obtained
for it a high rank among precious dones, and it is em¬
ployed for finular purpofes.
XS9
Siliceous
21. Species. Beryl. , ec^v1?- i
Aqua Marina et Samaragdus, Eery Hus, Wallerius, i.
254. Aigue Marine de Siberie, Rome de Lifle, ii.
252. Id. De Born, i. 71. Beryl, Kirw. i. 248.
Le Beni Noble, Brochant, i. 220. Emeraude Lirn-
pide, vcrt-blcuutre,jaune-verdatre, &c. Hauy, ii. 521.
Effen. Char.—The fame as the emerald.
Exter. Char.—The beryl is fometimes found in round¬
ed fragments, but mod commonly crydallized, and the
forms of its crydal are the fame as the emerald. Th«
lateral faces of the crydals arc deeply driated.
The colours of the beryl are ufually a pale or yel-
lowidi green j external ludre diining } internal refplen-
dent, vitreous •, longitudinal fra&ure conchodial, or fo¬
liated. Cleavage fourfold. Fragments indeterminate
and (harp-edged j often tranfparent, fometimes femi-
tranfparent, and tranduoent. The latter variety is di-
dinguifhed by tranfverfe rents. Refraflion in a dight
degree double •, nearly as hard as topaz •, brittle j fpec.
grav. 2.65 to 2.75. Becomes eleftric by friftion.
Chem. Char.— Before the blow-pipe it is fufible, but
with difficulty, and yields a white, fcarcely tranflucent
glafs.
Conjlituent Parts.
V auquelin. Rofe.
Silica, 68 69
Alumina, 15 14
Glucina, 14 14
Lime, 2
Oxide of iron, I I
100 98
Localities, &c.—The beryl is brought from the End.
Indies, and from Brazil 5 but the fined and pured are
found in Daouria, on the frontiers of China, in the
neighbourhood of NAtfchink *, and the matrix of thefe
beryls is (aid to be an indurated clay, refembling jaf-
per. The beryl is alfo found in Siberia, where it is
ufually accompanied with quartz, feldfpar, garnets, tour¬
maline, mica, and fluor fpar, in the veins of primitive
mountains. The beryls from Siberia are almod all
found in graphic granite. Beryl is aifo found in Saxony,
and lately in France, in a large vein of quartz traverfing
graphic granite. Dolomieu found the beryl perfeftly
tranfparent and colourlefs, in the granite of the ifland
of Elba.
Vfes,—The beryl is employed as a precious done, but
is not greatly edeemed.
Remarks.—The emerald and the precious beryl ap¬
proach fo nearly to each other, not only in the forms
of their crydals, which are almod the fame, and in
their condituent parts, which afford but flight varia¬
tions, but alfo in their other characters, that they ought
to be confidered, as has been done by Hauy, as varieties
of the fame fpecies. The only differences which exift
between them feem to be accidental. Thefe are chiefly
in the colour, and in the cryflallization j the former of
which is a finer green, and the latter is more perfeft in
the emerald than in the beryl. The colouring matter of
the emerald is oxide of chromium, while that of the be-
i So
Siliceous ryl is oxide of iron.
j are nearly the fame.
22. Species. Schorlite, or Schor/ous Beryl.
Schorlite, Kirw. i. 2S6. Le Beni Schorl if or me, Bro-
chant, i. 224. Leucolite and Pycnite, Hauy, iii.
236.
Pffen. Char.— Infufible. Original form of the cryftals
a regular hexabedral prifm.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is ufually found cryftal-
lized, in longilh malfes, mixed with other fubftances,
and generally imbedded in granite \ the form of the
cryflals when they are regular, is a fix-fided prifm,
which is fometimes truncated on its terminal edges, and
lometimes the form difappears from its being deeply and
longitudinally flriated. 1 he cryftals are generally
large.
Colour white, draw yellow, or reddilh. Tranflucent
or nearly opaque. External luftre fliining bet ween vi¬
treous and refinous. Crols fa£ture imperfectly foliated,
longitudinal, imperfectly conehoidal. Scratches quartz
fljghtly. Brittle. Spec. grav. 3.514 to 3.530.
Chem. Char.—Infufible with the blow-pipe j with
borax yields a tranfparent glafs.
Pa I
the integrant molecule is a tetrahedron. Its ufual forms Cla a*
are, 1. A three-fided prifm, with the lateral edges 1
either truncated or bevelled 5 2. The fame prifm having 
a three-fided obtufc fummit, the fides correfpondino- to
the lateral edges. The truncations, and bevelments of
the lateral edges vary in the fize of the faces, thus pro¬
ducing prifms of fix and nine fides. The lateral faces
of the three-fided prifm are often convex. The lateral
furfaces are longitudinally and deeply ftriated. The
luftre, both external and internal, which is vitreous,
varies between ftiining and weakly ftiining. The frac¬
ture is imperfeClly conchoidal or uneven ; crcfs frac¬
ture is fometimes convex on the one fide and concave
on the other. When black fchorl is maflive, it is found
in feparate pieces, thin, and apparently fibrous, parallel,
or interwoven and divergent. The faces of thefe fe¬
parate pieces are ftriated lengthwife. The fragments
are indeterminate.
Colour velvet black of various lhades. Commonly
opaque, rarely tranftucent, except in fmall cryftals.
Streak gray. Inferior to quartz in hardnefs. Specifie
gravity 3.092 to 3.212.
Chem. Char.— Under the blow-pipe it froths up, and
melts into a grayifti white enamel.
ivi 1 IN if, li A
In all the other charaCIers they
ConJUtuent Parts.
Klaproth. Vauquelin.
Silica, 50 36.8
Alumina, 50 52.6
Lime, — 2 •,
Water, — j.y
Fluoric acid, — __
Lofs, __ 5.8
Vauquelin,
another analytic.
30
60
2
I,
6
1
100 100 100
Localities, &c.—This mineral is generally found im¬
bedded in granite ; fometimes it is met with in gneis,
accompanied with lepidolite. It enters into the com-
pofition of a rock formed of quartz and gray mica at
Altenberg in Saxony. A red variety of this mineral
was formerly confidered by mineralogifts as a cryftal-
lized lepidolite. Schorlous beryl has been arranged as a
fubfpecies of beryl; but its fpecificgravity, different de¬
gree of hardnefs, and efpecially its compofition, are
charadters fufficiently diftindl to conftitute a feparatc
fpecies.
23. Species. Schorl.
This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies ; 1. Black
or common fchorl, and 2. Tourmaline.
Subspecies 1. Black Schorl.
Schorl, Kirw. i 265* Le SchorlNoir, Brochant, i. 226.
Tourmaline, Hauy, iii. 31.
EJfen. Char.—Ele&ric by heat in the two oppofite
extremities; forms of the cryftals derived from a rhom¬
boid.
Exter. Char.— This mineral is found in maffes, and
diffemmated, but moft frequently cryftallized. The
primitive form of its cryftals is an obtufe rhomboid;
Conjlitutent Parts. Wiegleb.
Alumina,
Silica,
Iron,
Manganefe,
40.83
33-33
20.41
3-33
Phyjical Char.— Black fchorl becomes eledfric by
heat; and the eledfricity of one extremity of the cryftri
is pofitive, while that of the other is negative ; but
when it cools, it is faid, that the nature of the eledlri-
city is reverfed; the pofitive extremity becomes nega¬
tive, and the negative becomes pofitive.
Localities, &.c.—Black fchorl is ufually found in gra-
nite, gneis, and other primitive rocks; in vein* of tin
and ores of iron ; in the topaz rock of Schneeckenftein
in Saxony, of which it conlfitutes a part. It is alfo met
with in Switzerland, Spain, Hungary, and Britain.
Sub fpecies 2. Tourmaline.
Id. Kirw. i. 271. Le Schorl Eleclnque, Brochant, i.
229. Tourmaline Verte, Hauy, iii. 41.
Ejfen. Char.—The fame as black fchorl.
Exter. Char.—The tourmaline is found fometimes in
maffes and grains, but moft commonly cryftallized.
I he form of its cryftals is a regular three-fided prifm,
with the edges, 1. Either truncated or bevelled. 2. A
regular three-fided prifm with the lateral faces convex,
and terminating in an obtufe, three-fided prifm, the
fidcs of which correfpond to the lateral faces at one
extremity, and to the lateral edges at fhe other. 3.
An obtufe, double three-fided pyramid, the faces of
the one correfponding to the edges of the other. 4. A
fix-fided prifm with equal angles. 5. A fix-fided
prifm, the fides meeting two and two alternately under
three obtufe angles. 6. A nine-fided prifm, having-
three lateral angles acute, and fix obtufe alternately.
7. The fame cryftal having the three, acute lateral
edges truncated, and thus forming a twelve-fided prifm.
The furface of the cryftals is fometimes fmooth, but
moft
M I N E ft
moft frequently ftriated longitudinally. Luftre Ihining
and vitreous. Longitudinal fra6ture conchoidal •, crofs
fracture foliated. I'he direftion of the plates is inclin¬
ed to the axis of the prifm. Fragments indeterminate j
the crystals are ufually opaque, when feen laterally.
The colour of the tourmaline is greenith, of various
fhades, yellowidi brown, and very rarely indigo blue.
The colours are ufually very deep, and at firft light ap¬
pear black. It is ufually tranflucent, and fometimes
approaching to tranfparent, particularly when it is feen
in a diredtion perpendicular to the axis of th.e prifm j
but it appears opaque when it is feen in a direction per¬
pendicular to the balls of the prifm, even when the
height of the prifm is lefs than its thicknefs. It is
harder than quartz. Brittle. Spec. grav. 3.086 to
3*363*
Chem. Char.—With the blow-pipe the tourmaline
suelts into a grayiih white, porous enamel.
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Oxide of iron.
— manganefe,
ConJUtuent Parts.
Bergman.
37
39
15
9
Vauquelin.
40.
39*
3-84
12.50
2.
IOD 97.34
Bergman’s analyfis is of the tourmaline of Ceylon.
Vauquelin’s is that of the green tourmaline of Brazil.
Phyfical Char.—The property of the tourmaline, of
becoming electric by heat, has been already noticed as
one of its diftindtive characters. This phyfical proper¬
ty has occupied the attention of philofophers for a long
time. It was obferved by Lemery in 1719, and exa¬
mined by Epinus in 1770. Pliny indeed mentions a
reddifh or purple-coloured (tone, wThich being heated or
rubbed, attracts light bodies. This is fuppofed to have
been the tourmaline. This property is fufceptible of
various modifications. The electricity of the tourma¬
line may be conveniently exhibited by heating two
•ryltals, fufpending the one by a thread, and prefent-
ing fucceflively to its extremities the extremities of the
other cryiial. The extremities which poflefs the fame
kind of electricity will be repelled, while thofe which
poffefs a different kind will be attracted. If a cryftal
of tourmaline be broken while it is eledtrified, the frag¬
ments immediately prefent electrical poles, fituated in
the lame diredtion as thofe of the entire crvftal.
The extremity of the cryftals of tourmaline which has
the greateft number of faces, exhibits pofitive eledtrici-
ty, while the extremity having the fmaller number of
faces exhibits negative eledtricity. The proper degree
sf heat for exciting the eledtricity of tourmaline is from
IOO° to the boiling point of Fahrenheit. When heat¬
ed beyond this point, it is deprived of its eledtricity,
and recovers it only in cooling ; but if the temperature
be increafed ftill more, the cryftal becomes again elec¬
tric, but the poles are reverfed. The eledtric poles
mav be alfo reverfed, by heating a cryftal of tourma¬
line unequally, by means of a burning glafs.
Localities^ &.c.—I'he tourmaline is found in almoft
all primitive mountains ; the fineft cryftals are brought
from Ceylon, Madagafcar, Saxony, the Tyrol, Spaiiq,
Vox.. XIV. Part I,
A L O G Y. - 161
and Brazil. The tourmaline of the Tyrol is found in Siliceous
a talcky rock mixed with chlorite, mica, and horn- genus. ^
blende. Thofe of Saxony and Spain are found imbed-
ed in gneis, but thofe of Brazil and Ceylon are in fe-
parate cryftals. In Bohemia they are found in mines.
The tourmaline is alfo a native of France, Sweden,
Norway, and Britain.
24. Species. Pistazite.
Glaffy a&ynolite, Kir wan i. 168 De/phinite, Saufuae
Voyages, iS0 igi8. Acanticone, Amulalite, D’An-
drada, Nieh. Jour. 410. v. 194. La Rayonndnte Vi-
treufe, Brochant, i. 510. Etiiilote, Hauy iii. 102.
Ejjen. Char.—Divifible parallel to the faces of a
rhomboidal prifm of 114',°, and 6 ;A°.
Extern. Char.— Pitiazite is found maffive cr cryftal-
lized in flattened four-tided prifms, terminated by four-
fided pyramids, and alfo fometimes in regular fix-fided
prifms ; the fummit of the pyramid almoft always trun¬
cated, as well as the lateral edges. The cryftals arc
fometimes acicular and ftreaked longitudinally. Inter-
nal luftre Ihining. Fraflure foliated or radiated. Frag¬
ments vvedge-fhaped and fplintery.
Colour deep green, olive green, or greenifii yellow.
Tranflucent, fometimes tranfparent. Hard, eafily feratch-
es glafs, and is brittle. Spec. gr. 3.45. Powder green-
ifh yellow or whitifh.
Chem. Char.—Fulible bv the blow-pipe, and is con¬
verted into a brown flag, which blackens by continuing
the heat.
Conjlitucnt Parts.
Vauquclia. DefcotH*.
Silica, 37 37
Alumina, 21 27
Lime, 15 14
Oxide of iron, 24 17
- - manganefe, 1.5 1.3
Lofs, 1.5 3.5
100.0 100.0
Localities, &.c.—Piftazite is found in Dauphiny, on
the furface and in the fiffures of an argillaceous rock,
accompanied by quartz, amianthus, and feldfpar, and
in the Pyrenees in limeftone j near Arendal in Norway 4
and in argillaceous fchiftus, north end of the ifland of
Arran in Scotland.
25. Species. Zoysite.
This mineral, which was difeovered by Baron de
Zoys, and therefore bears his name, is confidered by
Hauy as a variety of Epidhte.
It appears in priims which are deeply furrowed or
rhomboidal, and very much flattened. They are of a.
gray colour, or grayifh yellow, with a pearly luftre.
Localities.—Zoyfite is found particularly in Carinthia,
and alfo in the Tyrol and in the Valais *.
26. Species. Axikite, or Thumerstone.
Id. Kirw. j. 273. La Pierre de Thum, Brochant, i.
236. Axinite, Hauy, iii. 22.
* Brcngni-
art, ii. 400•
EJfen. Char.—Divifible parallel to the faces of a
rhomboidal prifm of I0ii°, and 78^°.
X Ex ter*
1
"52 MINER
Exter' C/mr.—Thumerftone is found in mafles, dif-
■ fcminated and cryftallized. The primitive form of its
cry Hals is a rifrht-angled prifm, whofe bafes are ob-
li({ue angled parallelograms, having their angles of ioi°
3 2', and yS° 28'. The integrant molecule is an ob¬
lique-triangular prifm. The moft common form of its
cryHals is a quadrangular prifm, fo oblique and flatten¬
ed, that its angles become as fharp as the cutting part
of a hatchet. The faces of the cryftals are longitudi¬
nally ftriated, but the truncated faces are fmooth. Ex¬
ternally lufre fplendent ; internal fhining and vitreous.
I rafture vitreous, fometimes rough and fplintery. Frag¬
ments indeterminate, fharp edged. Maflive thumer-
itone is compofed of feparate teflaceous, thin, and
flightly curved concretions, witli a fmooth furface,
■which is fotnewhat irregularly ftriated.
Flie colour is clove brown, varying to violet blue,
yellowifh, and greenilh gray. MafTive thumerftone is
only tranllucent. J he cryftals are femitranfparent, and
fometimes tranfparent. It is harder than feldfpar, but
lefs fo than quartz ; gives fire with fteel, and diffufes
an odour fimilar to wliat is produced by flint. Brittle.
Spec. grav. 3.213 to 3.300.
Chew. Char.— I humerftone froths up under the
blow-pipe, and is converted into a grayifh enamel, and
with borax into a fine olive green enamel.
ConJUtuent Parts.
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Oxide of iron,
• manganefe,
Lofs,
Klaproth.
52.70
25-79
9-39
8.63
1.
2.49
100.00
Vauquelia.
44
18
J9
l4
4
1
100
Localities, &c.—Thumerftone, which is hitherto a
rare mineral, has been only found in veins and fiffures
of primitive rocks, and chiefly in rocks with a bafe of
ferpentine. It is ufually accompanied with afbeftus,
rock cryftal, and fometimes calcareous fpar. It was
firft difeovered at Thum in Saxony, from which it de¬
rives its name \ but has been fince found in the Pyre¬
nees, in 1‘ranee, at Mount Atlas in Africa, in Norway,
and in Cornwall in Britain.
27. Species. Quartz.
EJfcn. Char.— Eivifible into a rhomboid, which is
flightly obtufe.
Quartz, which is found, either maflive, cryftallized,
or in rounded pieces, is one of the moft abundant mi¬
neral fubftances. The primitive form of its cryftals is
a flightly obtufe rhomboid, of 94° 4', and 85° 56'.
The integrant molecule is a regular tetrahedron.
On account of the variety of forms and appearances,
quartz has been divided into fubfpecies; into five by
Werner j by others only into two, viz. rock-cryftal and
common quartz. We fhall nearly follow the former fub-
divifions, which are, amethyft, roek-cryftal, milk-quartz,
common quartz, and prafe, including alfo ferruginous
quartz.
Subfpecies 1. Amethyst.
Id. Kirw. i. 264. VAmethyJle, Quartz-hyalin Violet,
Hauy, ii. 417.
A L O G Y.
Exter. Char.— Lhe amethyft is found frequently cry-
fiallized, but it is alfo found maflive and in rounded
pieces. 1, 1 lie form of its cryftals is a regular fix-fided
prifm, terminated by a fix-fided pyramid, the Tides of
which correlpond to thofe of the prifm. 2. A double
fix-fided pyramid. Fra&ure conchuidal, rarely fplin¬
tery or fibrous. Fragments indeterminate, fometimes
wedge-fliaped. Maflive amethyft is compofed of fepa¬
rate pieces, which are fometimes granulated, fometimes
fcopiform when the cryftals are combined together.
The colour is commonly violet blue of various (hades,
blackifti brown and greenifti white. External luftre
refplendent; internal refplendent and (Inning vitreous.
It varies between tranfparent and tranflucent. Scratches
glafs. Brittle. Spec. grav. 2.653 to 2.750.
C/iem. Char.—Entirely infufible under the a6lion of
the blow-pipe.
Conjlituent Parts. Rofe.
Silica,
Alumina,
Oxide of iron and manganefe,
97-53
•25
•5°
98.25
Localities, &c.—Amethyft is found in Bohemia,
Saxony, Siberia, very abundant in the Uralian moun¬
tains, Hungary, and Auvergne in France. It is ufually
met with in the veins of metalliferous mountains, very
rarely in granitic mountains. It is frequently met with
cryftallized, lining the cavities of balls of agate; in
amygdaloid and porphyry rocks.
llfes.—When the amethyft is cut and poliflied, it
aflumes an agreeable colour and luftre, fo that it is
employed in jewellery.
Werner has divided the amethyft into two varieties,
the common and fibrous j the latter being chiefly cha-
ra&erized by its fibrous fra&ure and refinous luftre.
This latter variety too, is only found maflive.
Subfpecies 2. Rock Crystal.
Mountain Cryjlal, Kirw. i. 241. Le Crijlal de roche,
Brochant, i. 243. Quartz-hyalin Limpide, Hauy,
ii. 417.
Exter. Char.—Rock cryftal is ufually found cryftal¬
lized, fometimes in rounded pieces, but rarely maflive.
The form of its cryftals is, 1. A fix-fided prifm, having
one of its bafes or both furmounted by a (harp pointed
pyramid the fides of the pyramid and prifm corref-
ponding. This is its moft ufual form 5 but it exhibits
many apparent varieties, arifing from modifications in
the magnitude of one or feveral of the faces at the ex¬
pence of the others. 2. A double fix-fided pyramid,
which is fometimes perfe6t, and fometimes truncated
on the edges of the common bale ; and fometimes too,
three alternating faces on each pyramid are larger than
the others, giving to the cryftal the appearance of a
cube. 3. A fimple, very acute pyramid with fix fides,
having its fummit, and often alfo its bafe, acuminated
with fix faces; but this is rather an irregularity in the
cryftallization than a new form.
The cryftals ot this mineral are fometimes very large,
and they are alfo found very fmall. In the rounded
pieces the external furface is rough, but in the perfect
cryftals
Phi, miner
a- crvftals the faces of the prifm are ftriated tranfverfely j
but thofe of the pyramids and acuminations are fmooth.
The luftre is refplendent and vitreous ; frafture perfedt-
ly conchoidal, fometimes, however, foliated j fragments
indeterminate, very (harp edged.
Colours of roek-cryftals are grayifti white, yellowilh
•white, pearl gray, yellowilh and blackifh brown. In¬
ternally it is fometimes iridefcent. It is tranfparent,
fometimes femitranfparent. By looking acrofs one of
the faces of the pyramid, and the oppoiite face of the
prifm, double refradtion is produced. Scratches glafs,
and gives fparks with fteel. Somewhat frangible ; fpec.
grav. 2.650 to 2.888.
C/iem. Char.—Entirely infulible before the blow¬
pipe.
Conjlituent Parts. Bergman.
Silica,
Alumina,
liime,
93
6
ia,
n-
lj
th
in
it
is
“5,
a-
e.
6
h
1-
e.
«
:d
1-
ts
in
t-
i,
d
n
a
S)
d
te
E.
d
il
Is
IOO
Physical Char.—\\. is fometimes phofphorefcent; two
cryftals, by being rubbed together, exhibit a little light
in the dark, and give out a peculiar odour, which is
fomewhat empyreumatic.
Localities, &c. —Rock-cryftal is moll commonly found
in veins of primitive rocks, and particularly in granite j
in drufes lining the cavities of thele rocks. I he fineft
cryftals are now brought from Madagafcar, but it is a
very frequent mineral in moft countries, as in the
mountains of Switzerland, where it was formerly dug
out of the faces of lofty precipices by the inhabitants.
It is alfo found in Bohemia, Saxony, Hungary, and in
Cornwall in England, and different parts of Scotland,
as in the ifland of Arran, in the cavities of the granite
mountains, and in Cairngorm in Aberdeenlhire, the
two latter, which are well known by the name of Ar¬
ran ftones and Cairngorms, are ufually of a fmeky co¬
lour, owing, it is fuppofed, to iron or manganefe 5 pro¬
bably to the latter, for from fome experiments which
we have made, the colour entirely difappears by ex po¬
ling the cryftal to a ftrong heat, and from other obfer-
vations it appears that the colouring matter is alfo de-
ftroyed by the aflion of light.
Rock cryftal fometimes contains fchorl, amianthus,
aftynolite, mica, and titanium. Cryftals are alfo fome¬
times met with in cavities containing a drop of water,
and a fmall quantity of air.
fjfej-.—Rock 'cryftal, on account of its luftre and
tranfparency, is employed in jewellery, and particularly
when it is coloured, as thofe from Cairngorm in the
north of Scotland, many of which are held in high efti-
mation.
Subfpecies 3. Rosy Red or Milky Quartz.
Pofy Red ^uart%, Kirw. i. 245. Quartz,, laiteux, Bro-
chant, i. 246. Quartz-hyalin laiteux, Hauy, ii. 420.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is always found maflive.
It is indeed faid by Emmerling, that it has been found
cryftallized, in fmall fix-ftded prifms, terminated by a
fix-lided pyramid, at Rabenfteinin Bavaria. Internally,
its luftre is finning, rarely refplendent j refinous ; frac-
A L O G Y.
ture perfe&ly conchoidal, and fragments indeterminate.
It varies between femitranlparent and tranftuccnt.
The colour is iometiraes milk white ; but its principal
colour, it is faid, is pale rofe red. In its other charac¬
ters it agrees with rock cryftal.
It is fufpected that tins mineral is compofed of filica
and oxide of manganeie, to the latter ot which the co¬
lour is owing.
Localities, &.c.— Milk quartz forms beds in primitive
mountains j at Rabenficin in Bavaria it is met with in
a large grained granite. It is alio found in Finland,
Greenland, Saxony, Siberia, and the weftern part of
Invernefsfhire in Scotland.
Ufcs.—The femitranfparence, the fine colour, and the
polilh of which it is fufceptible, have introduced this
mineral to be employed in jewellery.
Subfpecies 4. Common Quartz.
Quartz, Kirw. i. 242. Le Quartz commune, Bra-
chant, i. 248. Quartz hyalin amorphe, Hauy, ii. 425.
Exter. Char.—Common quartz is found in various
forms, maftive, diffeminated, in grains, and rounded
pieces. It is fometimes ftaladtitical, globular, kidney-
form, tuberculated, cellular, perforated, and corroded ;
fometimes alfo it is cryftallized, and the cryftals are ei¬
ther true, or fuppofititious. The true cryftals are
grouped together in reniform, rounded, or radiated
maffes $ the form is the fame as that of rock cryflal.
The pfeudo cryftals derive their figure from the fubfian-
ces on which they are formed, as the cube from floor
fpar, the odlahedron from the fame, the fix fided table
from barytes, the acute fix-fided pyramid from calca¬
reous fpar. The furface of the true cryftals is fimilar to
that of rock cryftal, but that of the pfeudo cryftals is
rough, and the luftre is dull. Fracture of common
quartz is fmall, conchoidal •, fometimes large, fplintery,
and fometimes imperfectly foliated, or fibrous, with
large parallel fibres. Fragments indeterminate, with
(harp edges, very rarely rhomboidal. It is commonly
tranflucent, rarely femitranfparent. The colour is milk
white, fnowr white, reddilh white, and blood and flefn
red, with many (hades of thefe colours. Scratches glafs.
Spec. grav. 2.640 to 2.654.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe. Silica
forms the principal conftituent part } but among the
numerous varieties of common quartz, there are no
doubt flight differences in the nature and quantity of the
materials which enter into its compofition. The dif¬
ferent (hades of colour are owing to different portions
and different (fates of metallic fubftances.
Localities, &c.—-Common quartz is one of the fub¬
ftances of moft frequent occurrence in all kinds of rocks,
forming one of the chief component parts of primitive
mountains, fometimes in entire beds, or whole mountains,
as in the iflands of Ida and Jura in Scotland. It is alfo
frequent in veins, very common in ftratiform rocks,
where it conftitutes the bafe of fandftone : in alluvial
rocks it is met with in rounded pieces, or in the form
of fand.
Efes.—Common quartz is employed in the manufac¬
ture of glafs inftead of fand ; in the fabrication of fmalt,
and as a flux for calcareous ores of iron.
A variety of this, called aventurine, is fometimes held
in confiderable eftimation. It is the quartz hyalin
X 2 aventurine
163
Siliccou*
^enus.
I
164
Siliceous aventurine of Hauy, and the natural aventurinc of
, genus- Dc Lifle. It is of a deep red, gray, green, or blaekifh
colour, marked with fpots fometimes of a yellowilh,
and fometimes of a lilvery appearance, which proceed
from very thin pieces oi pure quartz dilfcminated in the
mals. It ought not to be confounded with quartz mix¬
ed with mica, or micaceous quartz, which is a com¬
pound rock. On the contrary, the diverfity of colours
i'eems to be owing to numerous fiffures which are arran¬
ged nearly in the fame direction.
Aventurine is found near Vafles, in the department
of Deux Sevres in France, in the form of rounded ftones,
which are reddifh j at Cape de Gates in Spain, of a
whitilh colour, with lilvery fpots •, in Arragon, which
affords feveral varietits ; near Madrid, among rounded
fragments of granite 5 at Facebay in Tranfylvania, where
it is of a black colour, with very fmall golden fpots j
and in the neighbourhood of Catharineburg in Siberia.
The name aventurine is derived from the following
circumdance. A workman having dropped by chance,
par aventure, fome brafs filings into a vitreous matter in
the ftate of fufion, gave the mixture this name, of which
wras afterwards made vafes and other ornamental obje61s.
Mineralogifts gave the fame name to natural fubftanees
which have a ftriking refemblance to this artificial
production. Flauy, ii. 422.
Subfpecics 5. Prase.
Prufium, Kirw. i. 249. La Prafe, Brochant, i. 252.
Quartz, llijalin Vert obfeure^ ii. 419. Quart* Prafe,
Brongniart, i. 280.
Exter. CW.—-This mineral poffeffes all the charac¬
ters of quartz in general. It is molt commonly found
maffive, and very rarely cryltallized. The cryltals,
w hich are ufually fmall, have the form of rock cryltal.
The colour is ufually leek green j the external furface
is rough and gliltening", the internal Ihining and vitreous •,
it is tranflucent; the fracture imperfectly conchoidal,
and fometimes coarfe fplintcry ; fragments lharp-edged.
When it is malfive, it is compofed of diltinCt concre¬
tions, which are granulated prifmatic, or cuneiform, the
turface of which is rough and tranfverfely Itriated.
Localities, &c.—Prafe is found at Brietenbrunn near
Schwartzenberg in Saxony, in a metallic vein, accom¬
panied with magnetic pyrites, galena, blende, calca¬
reous fpar, and aftynolite. It is alfo found in Bohemia,
m Finland, near lake Onega, and in Siberia.
Vfes.—As it is fufceptible of a fine polilh, prafe is
employed in jewellery.
This mineral ought not to be confounded with quartz
coloured by means of chlorite, which latter is of a
brighter green, but opaque.
'Subfpecies 6. Ferruginous Quartz, or Iron Flint.
Le Caillou Ferrugineux, Brochant, i. 248. Quart*
Rubigineux, Brongniart, i. 281. Quart* Hyalin hema-
toiile, Hauy, ii. 420. Eifenkiefel of the Germans.
Exter. Char.—The peculiar charader of this mineral
leems to be owing to a large proportion of oxide of
iron, which renders it opaque. It is ufually found
maffive, but it fometimes alfo affumes a cryftalline form,
^’hich is a prifm with fix equal fide*;, aceminatcd at
«ich extremity wilh three planes. The colour h of a
Part >a
yellowilh brown, fometimes of a brownifh red, and of Claflis j,
a bright blood red. It is ufually opaque, or only tranf- i t
parent at the edges. External luitre refplendent j inter- * «**
nal fhining and vitreous. FraCture imperfedly conchoi¬
dal ; fragments angular, but not very lharp-edged.
Concretions fmall grained and diftinCl. It is harder
than common jafper. Not very brittle.
Localities.—This mineral is found in veins of iron-
ftone in Saxony, and in England, where it is accom¬
panied with fulphate of barytes.
Ferruginous quartz is diftinguilhed from jafper, to
the red variety of which it has a ftriking refemblance,
by its ftiining fradlure, which is alfo vitreous and con¬
choidal *, its property of cryftallizing ; and according
to Brongniart, by having no alumina in its compofi-
tion, which he properly confiders as an effential charac-
teriftic.
28. Species. Hornstone.
Hornjione, Kirw. i. 303. La Pierre de Come, Bra-
chant, i. 254. Fetrojilcx, Hauy, iv. 385.
This mineral is met with in maffes and alfo in rounded
balls. The colour is ufually gray ; it is tranflucent at
the edges, the fra&ure fplintery or conchoidal •, it hasr
little luftre ; is fo hard as to fcratch glafs, and give fire
with fteel j and its fpec. grav. is from 2.699 to 2.708.
The diverfity of fradlure which has been obferved in
hornftone, has led to the fubdivifion of this fpecies into
three fubfpecies, viz. fplintery hornftone, conchoidal
hornftone, and woodftone.
Subfpecies 1. Splintery Hornstone.
Hornjione Ecailleux, Brochant, i. 255. Petrojilex
Squamofus, Wallerius, i. 280.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive, or in
rounded pieces. It has fcarcely any luftre ; the frac¬
ture is fine, fplintery j fragments fliarp-edged j tranf¬
lucent at the edges. It is fcarcely fo hard as quartz j
it is brittle.
The colour is bluifh gray, fmoke and pearl gray,
fometimes greenilh and yellowifti gray, more rarely
olive and mountain green. Sometimes there is a mix¬
ture of thefe colours, arranged in fpots and ftripes*
Spec. grav. 2.654. Kirw.
Chem. Char.— According to fome mineralogifts, this
variety of hornftone is fufible before the blow-pipe, but
according to others it is infufible without the addition of
borax.
The following are the conftituent parts of a horn¬
ftone analyzed by Kirwan.
Silica, 72
Alumina, 22
Carbonate of Lime, 6
100
Localities, Sec.—This variety of hornftone is chiefly
found in veins in primitive mountains. It is alio found in
rounded pieces in alluvial rocks, and it conftitutes the
chief bafis of hornftone porphyry, as at Dannemora and
Garpenberg in Sweden. It is met with in veins at.
Freyberg, Schneeberg, Johann-Georgenfladt, and Gerf-
dorfin Saxony.
SubfpccUs
MINERALOGY.
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MINERALOGY.
i<55
Subspecies 2. Conchoidal Hornstone.
Petrq/i/ex Equabihs, Wallerius, i. 281. Lc Hornjlein
Conchoidc, Brochant, i. 258.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is always found maflive,
and feems to approach in its cim-a&ers very nearly to
the preceding variety or lubipecies, excepting* in the
frafture, which is perfe&ly conchoidal.
Localities, &c.—This fubfpecies is found in beds and
veins, when it is fometimes accompanied with agate.
It has been found accompanying gneis at Goldberg in
Saxony, and fine fpecimens of both fubfpecies are met
with in the1 iiland of Rona near Sky in Scotland, where
it feem* to form a confiderable vein, traverfing a gneis
rock.
Subfpecies 3. W00DSTOXE, or Petrified Wood.
Woodjlone, Kirw. i. 215* Le Ho/'zjlern, Brochant, i.
259. Quartz Agathe Hyloide, Hauy, ii. 439.
This fubfpecies poffeffes more diftinflive chara<fters
than the former •, and as it feems to be wood, retaining
its original texture, converted into hornftone by fome
petrifying procefs, it is ufually found in infulated maffes,
or in rounded pieces. It has the external appearance
of wood, for the furface is rough and uneven, or lon¬
gitudinally ftriated j internally it isgliftening, but fome¬
times dull, having a vitreous luflre. The fraflure moft
frequently exhibits the fibrous texture of the wood.
The crofs fra&ure is fometimes fplintery or imperfeflly
■conchoidal. The fragments are indeterminate, and (light¬
ly (harp-edged. Bhe moft common colour is dark gray,
a(h gray, grayifh white, and fometimes cochineal and
blood red. Different colours appear in the fame
mineral, forming fpots, clouds, or ftripes. It is com¬
monly tranflucent at the edges, fometimes entirely tranf-
lucent, and fometimes opaque. It is hard and brittle.
Localities.—Woodftone is met with in Bohemia,
Saxony, and Siberia, and on the banks of Loch Neagh
in the north of Ireland, particularly, as we have been
informed, near places where fome of the rivers difeharge
their waters into the lake.
Vfes.—This mineral is generally fufceptible of a fine
polifli, and is therefore employed in jewellery.
29. Species. Flinty Slate, or Siliceous Schiflus.
This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies or varieties,
viz. common filiceous febiftus, and Lydian ftone.
Subfpecies 1. Common Siliceous Schistus.
Siliceous fchiftus, Kirw. i. 306. Schijle Jilicieux comrnun,
Brochant, i. 283.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in maffes or
rounded pieces, and it is frequently tranfverfed by veins
of quartz of a grayifh white, or coloured red by means
of iron. This, it is faid, is a diftinguilhing charac-
teriftic of filiceous fchiftus which it rarely wants (Bro¬
chant). Internally it is dull, very rarely a little glim¬
mering. The fra6!ure in the fmall is compadt, fome¬
times fplintery, and fometimes imperfedlly conchoidal •,
but in the great or large maffes it is (laty, a charadter
which almoft always difappears in the fmall fragments.
The fragments are (harp edged. The colour is blackilh,
greenifti, or fmoke gray. It is commonly opaque,
rarely tranflucent at the edges. It is hard and brittle.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe, gray filiceous
fchiftus becomes white and friable j the black affumes a
darker colour, and is a little vitrified at the edges.
Siliceous
genus.
Conjlituent Parts. Wiogleb.
Silica, 75
Magnefia, 4*5^
Lime, 10.
Iron, 3.54
Inflammable matters, 5.02
Lofs, 1.86
100.00
Localities, &c.—Siliceous fchiftus is met with in Bo¬
hemia, Saxony, Switzerland, and Siberia j at Leadhills
in Scotland, and alfo at Carlops, near the termination of
the great coal field to the fouth of Ldinburgh.
The geological pofition of this ftone is not pre-
cifely determined. In Scotland it is connedted with
thofe rocks which come under the denomination of tran-
fition rocks *, but according to different deferiptions il
feems to have been confounded with argillaceous fchif¬
tus, with which indeed it poffeffes fome common pro¬
perties ; and fome mineralogifts regard it as an argil¬
laceous fchiftus, having a larger proportion of filiceous
earth. In fupport of this opinion, filiceous fchiftus has
been found in fituations where it is fubordinate to argil¬
laceous fchiftus.
Subfpecies 2. Lydian Stone.
Bafunite, Kirw. i. 307. La Pierre de Lijdie, Brochant,
i. 286. Roche Corneenne, Hauy, iv. 434.
This ftone, which is of a grayifh, bluifli, or velvet
black, is found in maffes, and in rounded pieces of a
trapezoidal form, which are alfo traverfed with veins of
whitilh quartz. The external furface is fmooth and
weakly (hining j the internal is glimmering. The frac¬
ture is even, fometimes (lightly conchoidal or uneven,
rarely fplintery j in large maffes it is flaty. The frag¬
ments are (harp-edged, and fometimes affume a cubical
form. It is commonly opaque, and rarely tranflucent
at the edges. It is fcratched by quartz j brittle. Spec,
grav. 2.415 to 2.880.
Localities.—Lydian ftone is found in fimilar places
with the former variety.
Vfes.—This ftone has been long known under the
name of touchjlone, becaufe it is employed to afeertain
the purity of gold. From this ufe it obtained the name
of or the trier, and it was called Lydian ftone,
becaufe it was found in Lydia. When it is employed
as a touchftone, the gold to be tried is rubbed on its
polilhed furface j on the metallic trace which remains
nitric acid is poured, and the quantity of alloy is judged
of by the degree of change which takes place, this
being compared with traces made and treated in the
fame way with needles differently alloyed and prepared
for the purpofe. This teft, it is to be obferved, is not
perfeflly accurate, but is fufficiently fo for thofe who
are much employed in the ufe of it. The property
which renders this mineral fit for the above purpofe de¬
pends on its degree of hardnefs, while it prefents at the
fame time a fmooth and even fraflure without being per¬
fectly fiawth. Other (tones poffcffing limilar proper¬
ties,
1:
1(56 MINERALOGY.
Sll^sus ties, fucli as feveral varieties of bafalt, are conveniently
i. ■ employed for tlie fame purpofe
30. Species. Flint.
TUnt, Kirw. i. 301. Pierre a fufil, Brochant, i. 263.
Quarto-Agathc Pyromaque, Hauy, ii. 427.
Extcr. Char.—Flint is found mafiive, difleminated,
in angular fragments, in globular mafles, tuberculated,
and perforated. The furface is fometimes rough,
fometimes uneven, and fometimes fmooth. The white
cruft with which it is often covered, is confidered by
iome mineralogifts as an incipient decompofition. The
external luftre is dull or a little glimmering •, the inter¬
nal is weakly ftiining ; the fraflure is perfedlly conchoi-
dal, the fragments (harp edged. The colour"is ufually
gray, imoke gray, lometimes perfetftly black. Various
colours appear in the fame mineral, prefenting fpots,
ftripes, and clouds. Commonly tranflucent at the edges j
fcratches quartz : fpec. grav. 2.58 to 2.99.
Chem. Char.—Entirely infufible before the blow-
pipe.
Silica,
Lime,
Alumina,
Oxid« of iron,
Coujlituent Parts,
Klaproth.
98.
•JO
2sl
•251
99.00
Vauquelin.
97
98
*9 .
Formation
of flints,
Phyjical Char.—Two pieces of flint rubbed together
in the dark, give out, like quartz, a phofphoric light.
Localities, &c.— Flint is never found in primitive
mountains, excepting in very fmall quantity, and very
rarely, in fome veins ; in alluvial rocks it is fometimes
met with in rounded pieces ; but it is mod: abundant in
ftratified mountains, particularly in beds of limeftone,
marl and chalk, in which it isdifpofed in parallel layers.
It is met with in Saxony, Denmark, Sweden, Poland,
and Spain, and is very abundant in chalk beds in the
north of France, and alfo in different parts of England.
It is alfo met with diftributed in layers in the white
limeftone rocks, on the north coaft of Ireland. In the
department of Jura in France, globular maffes of flint
have been found with cavities containing fulphur.
The lingular geological relations of this mineral have
greatly puzzled naturalifts, who are fond of fuch {pe¬
culations, and are never fatisfied till they have accounted
for every thing, however fcanty and defective the data
may be on which their hypothefes are formed. It is
on this account that the theories which have been pro-
pofed, to explain the formation of flint, offer nothing
more than the lillicft and moft groundlefs conjectures j
and indeed the fame remark is equally applicable to
theories of the earth in general. It has been already
obferved that flint is regularly difpoftd in layers, in the
beds of chalk or limeftone in which it is found. In
an infulated mafs of white limeftone near Port Ruth on
the north coaft of Ireland, which we had an opportunity
of examining, the balls of flint were difpoled in this
way with great regularity, When the bed of lime-
ftone is of no great thicknefs, it contains only one layer
of flints, but in thicker beds there are two layers of
5
flints, the one near the top, and the other near the bot¬
tom of the bed. Thofs layers of flint, too, it is to be
obferved, have exaCtly the fame inclination as the ftrata
of limeftone. According to one fet of theorifts, the hj
flint being in a ftate of fuflon, was ejeCted from the
bowels of the earth, and depofited in the places where
it is now found. This opinion carries along with it its
own abfurdity 5 for admitting that the flinty matter has
been in a ftate of fufion, it is impoflible to fuppofe that
it could be depofited with fo much uniformity and re¬
gularity, by being proje&ed according to the conjec¬
ture of the philolbphers who maintain this opinion.
Had this been the mode of its formation, mafles of flint
would have been found throughout every part of the
chalk or limeftone beds, and not in regular layers, as is
really the cafe.
According to another opinion, by which the forma- by wat
tion of flint is propofed to be accounted for, cavities
were produced, while the chalk and limeftone were
yet in a foft ftate, in confequence of the air extricated
during the evaporation of the water 5 and the flinty mat¬
ter in folution was introduced into thefe cavities by in¬
filtration from above. But the fame argument is equally
forcible againft this opinion. It is impoflible to con¬
ceive that the cavities could be fo regularly and uni¬
formly produced by the extrication of the air. They
would have been found through every part of the beds
of chalk and limeftone where flint is met with. And
befides, even allowing that this flinty matter was held
in folution by water, it might naturally be alked, why
the greateft proportion of it was not depofited near the
furface, when it firft came in contaft with the chalk
or limeftone, rather than to have continued to pafs
through the different beds, and form maffes of folid
flints at the greateft depths, in as great quantity as near
the furface.
A third opinion, which fome imagine to be lefs im- by in
probable than either of the former, fuppofes that flints amm
have been entirely produced by marine animals depofited
during the formation of the ftrata in which they are
contained. This opinion feems to derive fome fupport
from the remains of marine animals, which are not un-
frequently found included in nodules of flint. It is no
rare occurrence to meet with (hells thus attached to
thefe nodules, and converted into flinty matter, but at
the fame time retaining their original form and appear¬
ance in the moft perfetft manner.
U/es.—The extenfive ufe of this mineral, in confe¬
quence of its property of ftriking fire with fteel, as
gun flints, is well known. Flints are employed alfo
as a fubftitute for quartz in the manufacture of glafs
and porcelain, and in the fabrication of fmalt. The
coarfer kinds, or fuch as are perforated and carious, are
applied to the purpofes of building and millftones.
Sometimes the colours and the polifti of flint are fo fine
as to have brought it into ufe in jewellery. ^
As flints are found in greateft abundance in France Manutk
and England, the principal manufactures of gun flintstlire 0^S
are carried on in thefe countries. A particular account ^‘nts
of this manufacture in France has been given by Do-
lomieu and Salivet, Jour, des Mines, N° 33, pp. 693
and 713. The whole procefs, which according to
the defeription of Dolomieu is divided into four ftages,
i( very fimple.
1. After having fixed upon a mafs of ft one fit
for
I.
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MINER
for the purpofe, the firft part of the operation is to break
the ftone into pieces of convenient fize. With this
view the workman, feated on the ground, places the
ftone on his left thigh, and ftrikes ii with fmall ftrokes,
to divide it into pieces of a pound or a pound and a half
weight, having large fur!aces and fmooth fractures, and
at the fame time he avoids iplitting or (baking the ftone
by too feeble or too violent ftrokes.
* 2. In the next part of the operation the niceft
management and dexterity of hand are required ; for
by repeated ftrokes fplinters of the proper fize to form
gun flints a^e detached; one is feparated at every ftroke.
During this operation he holds the mafs of ftone in his
left hand. The fplinters are about inch broad,
long, and two lines thick in the middle. They are
{lightly convex above, and concave below } thick at
one edge, and thin at the oppofite edge.
3. The flint is brought to a regular ftrape during this
part of the operation ; and,
4. The edge of the gun flint which ftrikes fire, is
brought to a ftraight line by placing it on a (harp iron
inftrument, and giving it five or fix fmall ftrokes with
a circular hammer (roulette). Ihis finifhes the opera¬
tion, and the whole time of making a flint is not equal
to a minute. With mafles of ftone that work eafily, an
expert workman will prepare 1000 good fplinters in a
day. It requires another day to bring to the proper
fhape ^00 ; fo that in three days he can fplit off from
the mafs and completely finifh 1000 gun flints.
31. Species. Calcedony.
This fpecies has been divided into two fubfpecies or
varieties y common calcedony and carnelian.
Subfpecies 1. Common Calcedony.
Id. Kirw. i. 298. La Calcedoine Commune, Brochant,
i. 268. Quartz Agathe Calcedoine, Hauy, ii. 425.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive, in
rounded pieces, which are globular, reniform, botryoi-
dal, ftala&itical, cellular j and fometimes alfo it is cry-
ftallized in the form of a cube, rhomboid, a Ample py¬
ramid with three and fix faces ; but thefe are fuppofed
to be pfeudo cryftals, or merely a cruft of calcedony on
the cryftals of other fubftances. The external furface
is moft commonly uneven, fometimes rough, and rarely
fmooth. External luftre is accidental •, internal glim¬
mering, rarely a little fhining; fracture even, fome¬
times imperfe&ly conchoidal or fplintery ; fragments
ftiarp-edged.
Colour white, grayifh or bluifh white, yellowifh or
blackifh : various colours appear in fpots, clouds, ftripes,
and veins. Sometimes when it is cut it is iridefeent $
commonly tranflucent, rarely femitranfparent. Harder
than flint. Brittle. Spec. grav. 2.600 to 2.700.
C/iem. C/mr.—Before the blow-pipe it is infufible.
Conjlituent Parts.
Bergman.
Silica, 84
Alumina, 16
A trace of iron, —
100
A L O G Y. 167
Localities, &.c.—Calcedony is moft ufually met with Siliceau*
in globular maffes in amygdaloid, as at Oberltein, in ^'lUS- .
the duchy of Duex Fonts. It is found alfo in Saxony,
Silefia, and Siberia, in Iceland and the Faro illands j
in the north of Ireland and in feveral of the weftern
illands of Scotland. The cavities of the bails of calce¬
dony are often lined with cryftals of quartz and amc-
thyft.
JJfes.—Calcedony takes a fine polifli, and is therefore
employed in jewellery.
2. Subfpecies. Carnelian.
Id. Kirw. i. 300. La Cornaline, Brochant, i. 272.
^uartx-Agathe Cornaline, Hauy, ii. 425.
This mineral is found in maffes, or diffeminated, but
moft; frequently in rounded pieces of a globular, kidney
form, or ftala&itical fhape. External furface rough and
uneven ; internal luftre glimmering, or (lightly finning}
fracture perfectly conchoidal } fragments very (harp-
edged} moft common colour blood red of various (hades,
and fometimes reddilh brown or wax and honey yel¬
low } femitranfparent, hard, and brittle. Spec. grav.
2.59 to 2.73.
Chem. Char.—Carnelian is infufible before the blow¬
pipe, but lofes its colour, and becomes white.
Localities, &.c.—Carnelian is found in fimilar cir-
cumftances, and in fimilar places with common calce¬
dony, but is of lefs frequent occurrence. The fineft
carnelians are brought from the eaft, and thence they
are denominated oriental.
Efes.—The carnelian is employed for the fame pur-
pofes as common calcedony.
Ghfcreations on Agate.—As common calcedony and
carnelian, along with jafper, conftitute the bale of the
greater number of agates, it may be here proper to in¬
troduce a few remarks on the mineral fubftances which
are included under this name, and on the theories of
their formation. _ _
The term agate is of very general application, com- Varieties
prehending numerous varieties, which are chiefly diftin-ot agate,
guifhed bv the arrangement and difpofition of the co¬
lours with which they are marked, and from which
they have derived particular names. I lie following are
fume of the principal varieties of agate. 1. Fortijicatton
agate, in which the different coloured ftripes are ar¬
ranged in a zigzag manner, prefenting fomething of
the appearance of a fortified town. 2. Landfcape agate,
in which the colours and (hades are lo arranged as to
exhibit the appearance of a landfcape. 3* °t
ribbon agate, in which the various colours are dilpofed
in ftripes or zones, which are ulually in ftraight lines,
but fometimes concentric. 1 o this variety of agate,
when the zones or ftripes arc arranged parallel to each
other, and diftinftly marked, the name of onyx was gi¬
ven by the ancients. The name onyx, which fignifies
the nail of the finger, is derived from the whitifti co¬
lour rcfembling that part of the body, i hey alfo gave
the name offarde to a variety of the fame ftone, of a
flefh colour, and afterwards the compound wtumv fardo-
nyx was given to another variety, in which a whitilh
layer of the onyx, having fome degree of tranfparency,
covered another layer of a flefh red, the colour of which
latter appeared through the former in the fame manner
as the colour of the flefh appears through the nail. But
in
168
M I N E n
■Siliceous
.^eniis.
Formation
kf agate,
id
Vy fufion
4y aqueous
^filtration.
in the end, trlie name of onyx feetnj to have been ap-
j plied to all Hones formed of layers of different colours.
4. Mo/s agate. In fome varieties of agate filaments of
a ffrcenifb or other colour, having the appearance of
fome fpecies of confervge or mufci, are obferved, and
thele have been denominated may's agates. Some have
fuppofed that thele filaments have been real moffes or
conferva;, enveloped by the liliceous matter. In fome
alfo delineations of a brown or black colour, exhibit
the appearance of trees or Ihrubs. This dendritical ap¬
pearance is afcribed by fome to the infiltration of iron
or manganefe into the natural fiffures of the Hone. The
fineft agates of this variety, it is faid, are brought from
Arabia, by the way of Mocha, on the coaft of the Red
fea 5 and hence they are known by the name of Mocha
Jlones. Befide thele varieties, there are feveral others,
as tubular agate, when it is compofed of calcedony,
which icems to have been in the form of Halaftites, and
afterwards filled up with a different mineral fubflance,
or at lealt of a different colour j clouded agate, pre-
fenting the appearance of clouds; radiated or Jlellated,
when the different colours are arranged in rays ; breccia
"gate, compofed of fragments of different kinds of agate,
and cemented together by filiceous matter, and confli-
tuting a real breccia ; /potted agate, when the colours
are difpofed in points or fpots ; petrified agate, which
feems to have been wood penetrated with the matter of
agate ; coral agate, having the appearance cf coralloid ;
jafper agate, in which the predominant part of its com-
pofition is jafper. *
1 he formation of agate has been the fubjefl of much
controvcrfy among contending theoriffs ; for while one
party conceives that it affords the ftrongeff proofs of
being produced by means of heat, or from a ftate of fu¬
fion, another parly feems to be equally convinced that
it fupplies them with the moll certain evidence of hav¬
ing being formed from an aqueous folution.
Befide other fining objections that might be urged a-
gainft the opinion of agate being formed from a ftate of
fufion, the uniformity and regularity in the arrangement
of the different kinds of matter of which it is compofed,
feem quite hoftile toil, and, excepting to thofe who are
previoufly prepoffefftd with fuch an opinion, will, we
prefume, appear altogether infurmountable ; for it is in¬
conceivable, that in a mafs of melted matter, whether
it have been in a ftate of fufion in the place where it is
now found, or projeCled from the bowels of the earth
into the ftrata which are now its repofitory, while in a
loft ftate, could arrange itfelf into layers, fome of them
often extremely thin, and difpofed in ftripe*, concentric
circles, fpots, while thefe various kinds of matter exhi¬
bit very flight fhades of difference in their conftituent
parts. It cannot even be imagined that all this could
have been effeCled, even by the fioweft and moft gra¬
dual procefs of cooling.
In accounting for the formation of agate by folution
in water, it is faid that the cavities in the rocks which
contain agate, were formed in confequence of the evo¬
lution and extrication of air, while thofe rocks were in
a ftate of foftnefs ; and that the matter of which agate
is compofed, was introduced in the ftate of an aqueous
folution by means of infiltration. But obje&ions, equal¬
ly infurmountable, might eafily be adduced againft this
theorv ; and one of the firft that prefents itielf is de¬
rived from the diverfity of matter depofited in maffes of
A L
o g r.
agate. This objection, indeed, is attempted to be ob¬
viated by fuppoling that the agate compofed of different
kinds of matter was derived from different kinds of fuc
ceftive folutions : but this is only removing the diiti-
the agate is formed ; but whatever effect thh
might
have in the fmaller cavities, its influence would be di-
minilhed in thofe of larger capacity.
To what we have now faid on this fubje£t, which, it
muft be acknowledged, is more curious than ufeful, we
{hall only add a circumftance which, fo far as we know,
lias not been noticed by geologilts ; but it feems to be-
of confiderable importance in the eftabliftiment or fub-
verfion of the theory of the formation of agate by means
of infiltration in the ftate of aqueous folution. It will
be allowed, w'e prefume, that all agates found in the
fame horizontal pofition, or at the fame depth from
the furface, from which the aqueous folution is under-
llood to have proceeded, were formed from the fame fo¬
lutions ; at leal! thofe agates which are contiguous to
each other, that is, within the fpace of a few yards, or
even of a fingle yard. Now, if this be admitted, all
the agates which have derived their materials from the
fame lolutions, ought to be exactly of the fame kind,
becaufe their orign is cotemporaneous, and it is derived
from the fame folutions. To afeertain this point with
precifion, it will be neceffary to examine agates in their
native repofitories ; and although we (hall not pretend
confidently to decide the queftion, becaufe our obferva-
tions with this view have not been fufficiently varied
and extenfive, yet we ftrongly fufpeft, that it will ap¬
pear, from future inveftigations, that agates, and eve»
fuch as are almoft contiguous to each other, have been
formed of very different materials, or of fimilar mate¬
rials arranged in a very different manner. To thofe
who are fond of fuch fpeculations we recommend this
as a fubie£t of inveftigation.
Localities.—Agates are found in great abundance in
different parts of the world. They are fometimes di-
ftributed indiferiminately with the rocks which contai*
them, fometimes in beds or layers, in interrupted maffes,
and fometimes in thin beds, where there is fcarcely any
interruption of continuity. This laft mode of arrange¬
ment, however, is rare. Agates are fometimes found
in metallic veins, or are mixed with metallic fubftances.
Pari i-
culty a ftep farther ; for, can it eaiily be conceived, that
a very thin layer of one kind of matter being depofited,
and this, let it be fuppofed, of a white colour, the folu¬
tion was changed, from which proceeded another thin
layer ; that the folution was again changed, and depo¬
fited a third kind of matter ; and after another change,
a fourth kind, or perhaps that the depofition of the firft
kind of matter again commenced. But if infiltration
from an aqueous folution have really been the mode of
formation of this mineral, how comes it, it may be fairlr
afked, that the depofitions from the different kinds of
folution have not been arranged, at leal! in the larger
cavities, in ftrata or zones parallel to the horizon ; be¬
caufe it feems natural to fuppofe that the depofition of
ftony matter, from a ftate of folulion in water, would
be influenced by gravitation, and thus be horizontally
arranged ? We are aware, indeed, of an objection
which may be made to this obfervation. It will be
faid that the influence of gravity has in this cafe been
countora<51ed by the aflion of affinity between the ftony
matter in folution, and the fides of the cavity in which
jh
M I N E R A L 0 G Y.
<!# * as the fulphurets of lead And hlecr. It would appear
S'
?U1
too, that agates alfo exift in primitive rocks. Sauf-
fure has obl’erved them in granite, containing no¬
dules of the fame granite, and penetrated with iron py¬
rites. He has obferved alfo at the fame place, near
Vienne, in the department of Ifere, thin layers of cal-
cedony alternating with gneis •, but porphyries and
fimilar rocks are the ufual repofilories of agate. rJ'hefe
ftones are found in great variety and abundance at
Oberftein, in the department of Mont-Tonerre, in
France, in a rock of amygdaloid of a peculiar nature,
and full of cavities of all lizes. This rock is confiderrd
by Dolomieu as a volcanic tufa ; but according to other
mineralogifts, and particularly Faujas de St Fond, who
has given a minute defeription of it *, it is conlidered
as a porphyry or amygdaloid, with a bafis of trap,
which is very fubjedt to decompofition. The globular
maffes of agate are difpofed in this rock w ithout any or¬
der, and are ufually enveloped with a peculiar greenifh
earth, but which contains no copper. In the geodes of
agate found at Oberlfein, jafper, amethyfl, carbonate of
lime in cryflals, chabafie, a fpecies of zeolite, and fotne
portion of titanium, have been obferved ; but not the
lead trace of any organized body. Digging, polifhing,
and forming into a great variety of ornamental objects,
conftitute the chief employment of the inhabitants of
Oberflein.
Agates are found in abundance in different parts of
Scotland : but the large!! and find! are met with in the
neighbourhood of Montrofe and Stonehaven j in the
rocks near Dunbar on the eaft coaft, and in the rocks
"about Dunure, on the fhore of Garrick in Ayrfhire.
32. Species. Hyalite.
Id. Kirw. i. 296. Muller's glafs of the Germans. La¬
va glafs of many.
Exter. Char.—This fubftance is found in grains or
maffes, or in thin layers on other minerals. It has
much the appearance of gum, and is ufually cracked.
The luftre is Oiining and vitreous *, fraflure conchoidal,
fbmetimes foliated ; fragments {harp-edged.
Colour grayilh white or yellowifh 5 and, according
to Kirwan, pure white. Tranflucent, fometimes femi-
tranfparent £ has confiderable hardnefs, and is brittle.
Spec. grav. 2.110.
Chem. C^ar.—-Infuiible at I co° Wedgwood, but melts
with foda.
Conftituent Paris.
Silica, tjy
Alumina, 18
Lime, I ^
With fome traces of iron.
Localities, &c.—Hyalite is found in rocks of amyg¬
daloid, or wacken, near Franckfort on the Maine.
33. Species. Opal.
This fpecies is divided into four fubfpecies or varie¬
ties.
Subfpecies 1. Precious Opal.
Opal. Kirw. i. 289. VOpale Noble, Brochant, i.
341. Qiiarte-rejinite Opalin, Hauy, ii. 434.
Vol. XIV. Part I.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found mailive or clilTe-
minated, and fometimes in veins ; internal luftre fpleu- v
dent; and vitreous ; fracture perfectly conchoidal; frag¬
ments (harp-edged.
Colour milk-white, clear or pale, and fometimes bluillt
gray j and by holding it in different lights, a very bright,
and varied play of colours, the principal of which are
golden yellow, fear let red, bright blue, green and gray,
is feen. It is commonly tranilucent, rarely femitranf-
parent ; pretty hard and brittle. Spec. grav. 2.114.
Chem. Char.—'The precious opal treated with the
blow-pipe fpiits and cracks, and lofes its trailfparency,
but is not melted.
Conflituent Parts. Klaproth,
Silica, 90
Water, 10
IOO
Localities.—The fmeft opals are found at CzerwenitzoT
not far from Cafchau in Upper Hungary, in an argilla¬
ceous decompofed porphyry, which according to fome
mineralogifts is a gray ftone (grauftein of the Germans),
and are difpofed in veins, nefts, and grains. When
the opal adheres in fmall particles clofely together
in the ftone, it forms what is called mother oi opal. It
is found in the fame manner in a kind 6f breccia of
this decompofed porphyry. (Townfon’s Travels in Hun¬
gary, p. 307.). It is found alfo at Eeibenftock, Johann-
Georgenftadt, and Freyberg in Saxony. At this latter
place the repofitory of the opal is porphyry. The opal
alfo is met with in Iceland.
The <>pal mines deferibed by Dr Townfon are fituat-
ed in a hill of fome miles in extent not far from the
village of Czerwenitza. This hill has been opened in
fcveral places, but in three with the greatel! fuccefs.
Guards are placed upon it to prevent any perfon from
digging this precious ftohe ; for as it is fttuated in part
of the royal domain, the peafants who ■were formerly
permitted to fearch for it on their own account are now
prohibited by the emperor. But even at the time Dr
Townfon vifited the mines the work had been difeonti-
nued for three or four years as unprofitable. The ufual
rtiode of conducing the operations in fearching for the
opal is by quarrying to the depth of three or four yards,
rarely deeper. The rock is thus thrown out, broken
to pieces, and afterwards examined. In one place the
fearch had been made by mining ; but the gallery was
only a few yards in length. From this account it ap¬
pears that the rock containing the opal lies near the
furface, and ftldom, it is faid, extends deeper than a
few fathoms. The opals denominated oriental by the
lapidaries, a term expreftive of their value rather than
of their origin, are fuppofed to be from thefe mines, in
which, according to records ftill in exiftence, 300 men
were employed not lefs than 400 years ago.
Vfes.— On account of the fine play of colours, the
opal is held in great eftimation for the purpofes of
jewellery, and the opals which refleH green colours in
moll abundance are moft highly valued. The fineft.
opals are called oriental ; but this epithet is given by
the lapidaries to the more perfed! precious ftones, and
is not to be underftood as denoting that they have been
brought from eaftern countries.
Y The
1^9
Siliceous
genus
>7® MINER
Si .eou* t ]ie ancients, it ^ould appear from the account of
t _ ‘ ' , Hiny, attached an immenfe vaiue to this ftone j for he
informs us that a fenator called Nonius rather fubmit-
teJ to banifhment than give up an opal which he had
in his poffeffion to Mark Anthony. This opal was ef-
timated at 20,000 fefterces. Lib. xxxvii. cap. 6.
Subfpecies 2. Common Opal.
Semi-opal, Kirwan, i. 290. VO pale Commune, Bro-
chant. i. 344. Quartz, refinitc Hydrophone et Quartz-
rejinite Girnfol, Hauy, ii. 433.
Exter. Char.—Common opal is found in mafles, or
diffeminated, fometimes in rounded or angular pieces,
and fometimes kidney-fhaped or botryoidal. Internal
luftre fplendent, and intermediate between vitreous and
refinous. Frafture conchoidal, but fometimes uneven.
Fragments fliarp-edged.
Colour milk-white, and varieties of this colour held
in certain directions apj ear of a wine yellow. The otln r
lhades of colour are yellowilh or reddifh white, and wax
or honey yellow. Semitranfparent and fometimes tranf-
parent. Spedhe gravity from 1.938 to 2.015. In other
characters the fame as the precious opal.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the bloiv-pipe, but
melts with borax, and without fwelling up.
Silica,
Alumina,
Oxide of iron,
Lofs,
Conjlilucnt Parts.
From Kozemutz.
98-7J
O.IO
O.IO
1.05
100.00
Klaproth.
From Telkobanva.
93-50
Silica,
Oxide of iron
Water,
Lofs
1.00
5.00
100.00
Localities, &c.—The common opal is found in veins,
chiefly in amygdaloid rocks, and fometimes alfo, it is
laid, in granites and porphyries. It is of moll frequent
occurrence in Bohemiaj in Saxony, as at Freyberg, Ei-
benftock, &c.; in Hungary, in Poland, in Scotland, and
the Faroe iflands. The amygdaloid rocks in the vici¬
nity of the Giants Caufeway in the north of Ireland al¬
fo afford a repofitory for this mineral.
Vfes.—It is employed as well as the former for
the purpofes of jewellery, but is efteemed of inferior
value.
It has been obferved of fome varieties of common
opal that they are hydrophanous, that is, they pofiefs
the property of becoming tranfparent when immerfed
in water, a property which it is fuppofed depends on
the abforption of the water in the pores of the opal.
When fimilar varieties of opal are dipped in melted
wax, they are impregnated with it, and become in like
manner tranfparent, but on cooling refume their opaci¬
ty. To fuch varieties De Born has given the name of
Pyrophane.
Subfpecies 3. Semi-opal.
Id. Kirwan, i. 290. La Demi-opale, Brochant, i.
347* Quartz, Rejinite Commune, et Meni/ite, Hauy,
ii- 433-
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in mafles or
difleminated, in angular fragments, flalaCIitical, botry-
A L O G Y.
oidal, or in fuperficial layers. Luftre glimmering or
fliining, and intermediate between vitreous and refi¬
nous. FraCture conchoidal, and frequently even. Frag¬
ments fliarp edged.
Colours extremely various, but in general duller and
lefs vivid than common opal. The moll: predominant
are yellowifli, grayifli and reddifti white, more rarely
milk white. Various colours are fometimes difpofed in
fpots, flripes, and clouds. Tranflucent at the edges, and
fometimes, but rarely, femitranfparent. Pretty hard and
brittle. Spec, grav, 2.540.
Chem. Char.—Infulible before the blow-pipe, but
melts with borax and without frothing up.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silica, 43-5°
Oxide of iron, 47.00
Water, 7.50
Lofs, 2.00
100.00
Localities, &c.— The femi-opal is found in the fame
places and in flmilar rocks with the common opal, as
in bafalt and amygdaloid, but chiefly in granite and
porphyry, and particularly in the veins of fuch rocks
containing filver.
Some varieties of pitch flone have been ranked with
femi-opal by mineralogifts ; and menilite, a mineral to
be afterwards deferibed, has been alfo confldered mere¬
ly as a variety of it.
Subfpecies 4. Wood Opal.
Ligniform Opal, Kirwan, i. 295. Opale Ligniforme,
Brochant, i. 350. Quartz, refinite Xyloule, Hauy, ii.
439-
Exter. Char.—1 his variety of opal is found in mafles
of different fizes, retaining the form and texture of the
wood which is fuppofed to be penetrated with the ftony
opaline matter. “ Luftre internally weakly fhining, be¬
tween vitreous and refinous. Tranfverfe frafture con¬
choidal, longitudinal frafture (hoivs the Avoody texture.
Fragments fharp-edged.
Colours grayilh and yclloAvilh Avhite, yelloAvifh brown
and ochre yelloAv. Different colours are fometimes ar¬
ranged in concentric circles, in fpots, and ftripes. Often
opake, but rarely tranflucent except at the edges. In¬
termediate betAveen hard and femi-hard. Brittle. Spec,
grav. 2.600.
Localities, &c.—The Avood opal is found at Pornick
near Schemnitz in Hungary, and at Telkobanya in the
fame country.
34. Species. Menilite.
Pitchjlone, Kirivan, i. 292. Variety of Jlint of fome,
and Semi-opal of Klaproth.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in tuberofe maf-
fes, which have a fmooth ribbed furface, and are fome¬
times covered Avith a Avhitifh cruft. Internal luftre Aveak-
ly fhining. Tranfverfe fradlure flat, conchoidal ; lon¬
gitudinal, coarfe, fplintery. Fragments fharp edged.
Chefnut broAvn colour, and marked Avith alternating
ftripes of pearl gray and reddifh broAvn. Tranflucent.
Pretty hard and brittle. Spec. graA\ 2.185.
Conjlituent
MINERALOGY.
Qaiiftituent Farts. Klaproth.
Silica, 85.50
Alumina, J.
Oxide of iron, .50
Lime, .50
Water and carbonaceous matter, H.50
Lofs, I.
Localities, &c,-*~This variety of jafper abounds in Si¬
beria : it is found alfo in Saxony, in the fiartz, where
it repofes on gray wacken •, in Sicily j and in the hills
in the vicinity of Edinburgh,
Subfpccies 3. Porcelain Jasper,
Porcellatiitc, Kinv. i. 313. Le Jafpe Porcelaine, Broch.
i. 336. Thermantide Porccllamte, Hauy, iv. 510.
171
Siliceous
genus.
100.00
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found at Menil-
Montant, from which it derives its name, near Paris,
in nodules difpofed in interrupted ilrata, in the middle
of a foliated, argillaceous fchiilus, which is interpofed
between the beds of gypfum,
35. Species. Jasper.
Jafper has been divided into fix fubfpecies, 1. Egyp¬
tian ; 2. Striped *, 3. Porcelain j 4. Common j 5. Agate •,
and, 6. Opal.
Subfpecies 1. Egyptian Jasper.
Egyptian Pebble, Klrwan, i. 312. Le Jafpe Egyptian,
Brochant, i. 332.
Exler. Char.—This variety of jafper is found in
rounded pieces, which are generally fpherical, and
have a rough furface. External luftre glimmering or
weakly Ihining •, internal weakly fhining. Fracture per¬
fect conchoidal •, fragments (harp-edged.
The colours of this variety are difpofed in zones or
irregular (tripes, which are nearly concentric. Thefe
colours are yellowith brown on a ground of chefnut
brown 5 ufually opaque, or (lightly tranflucent at the
edges. Spec. grav. 2.56 to 2.6.
Chem. 6Viar.—-Infufible before the blow-pipe.
Localities, &c.^-This mineral, as its name imports,
is brought from Egypt, where, as was obferved by Cor-
dier, it conftitutes part of a breccia which is entirely
compofed of fragments of (iliceous (tones, immenfe (tra-
ta of which abound in that country, and the deferts
of Africa in the vicinity. The mafles of jafper are
found among the fand which has been derived from the
deeompohtion of this breccia, and particularly near
Suez.
Vfes.—-This variety, on account of its hardnefs and
beautiful colours, is in confidersble eftiraation for orna-
mcntal purpofes.
Subfpecies 2. Striped Jasper.
}d. Kirw. i. 312. Le Jafpe Rubane, Broch. i. 334.
^uart-z-Jafpe Onyx, Hauy, ii. 436.
Exter. (7//or.—-This variety of jafper is found maflive,
and fometimes forms entire beds. It has no luftre, ex¬
cept from the mixture of extraneous fubftances. Frac¬
ture conchoidal, foraetimes fplintery or earthy. Frag¬
ments (barp-edged.
To the variety of colours of this mineral it owes its
name. Thefe are pearl gray, yellowifh and greenifli
gray, with (hades of red and blue, and thefe different
colours are arranged in ftraight or curved lines ♦, gene¬
rally opaque, tranilucent only at the edges.
Exter. Char.—Ufually found in maffes or angular
pieces, in which rents or fiffures are often obferved, and
alfo in whole beds. Internal luftre glimmering or
weakly (Inning ; reftnous. Fracture imperfedl conchoi¬
dal or uneven. Fragments (harp-edged.
The colour exhibits great variety j pearl, aflr, yel-
lowidi and bluilh gray, with (hades of yellow, red, and
rarely green. The colour is generally uniformly the
fame, but fometimes it is ftriped and dotted, flamed and
clouded j impreflions of vegetables of a red colour are
obferved on the blue varieties, and the rents or fiflures
arc of a red colour in the grayifti fpecimens j is entire¬
ly opaque ; pretty hard, and eafily frangible.
Chem. Char.—-Melts before the blow-pipe into sl
black (lag.
Confituent Parts. Rofe.
Silica, 60.75
Alumina, 27.27
Magnclia, 3.
Potath, 3.66
Oxide of iron, 2.50
97.18
Lofe, 2.82
100.00
Localities, See.—This mineral is abundant in different
parts of Bohemia •, it is met with alfo in Saxony, in the
rocks in the vicinity of Edinburgh, and on the coaft of
Fife near Dyfart in Scotland.
This jafper derives its name from its fra&ure, which
refemblt's that of porcelain ; and as it is frequently
found in places where fubterraneous (ices have cxiftcd,
fuch as beds of coal which have been kindled by ac¬
cident, it is aferibed to their action •, and according to
Werner, it is nothing more than a flaty clay altered by
fire,
Subfpecies 4. Common Jasper.
Id. Kirw. i. 310. Jafpe Cotnmun, Broch. i. 338.
Exter. Char.—This variety is ufually found maflive,
fometimes difleminated, or alternating in thin layers
with other ftones. Jmftre glimmering or (hining, be¬
tween vitreous and refinous. Frafture more or lefs per¬
fectly conchoidal, fometimes fplintery or earthy. Frag¬
ments (harp edged.
Colours extremely various, exhibiting different (hade*
of red, yellow, and black } and feveral of thefe are
united together, prefenting clouds, fpots, and (tripes:
Ufually opaque, or (lightly tranflucent at the edges.
Is feratched by quartz. Eafily frangible. Spec. grav.
2.3 to 2.7.
Chan. Char.—Entirely infufible before the blow-
Y 2 pipe:
pipe. Its conftituent parts are extremely variable. The
following were obtained by the analyfis of Kirwan.
MINERALOGY.
Silica,
Alumina,
Oxide of iron,
75
20
5
100
Localities, &c.—This jafper is very common in diffe¬
rent parts of the world j in Saxony, Hohemia, Hungary,
t rance, Spain, Italy, Siberia, and alfo in Scotland, as
among the bafaltic rocks in the vicinity of Edinburgh,
and at Dunbar. It is ufually found in veins, efpecially
fuch as contain ores of iron. It is often traverfed with
veins of quartz, or mixed with pyrites, lithomarga, femi-
opal, brown fpar, native and vitreous filver. It has
been taken for the bafis of fome porphyries, but thefe
turn out to be indurated clay, pitch done, and horn done.
Subfpecies 5. Jasper Agate.
Exter. Char.—This variety feems to be the fame as
that already mentioned under the name of agate jafper,
in fpeaking of agates at the end of the defeription of
calcedony. It is found madive, and poffeffes no ludre.
Frafture conchoidal, generally opaque, pretty hard,
and fometimes adheres to the tongue. The colours are
yellowiflr or reddidi white, which are difpofed in dripes
and circles.
Localities, &c.—It is met with in many places in
agate balls, in amygdaloid rocks.
Subfpecies 6. Opal Jasper.
Exter. Char.—This variety of jafper feems to poffefs
many common characters with fome varieties of opal.
It is found madirc. Internal ludre between vitreous
and refinous, is diining or refplendenU Frafture con¬
choidal. Fragments very diarp-edged.
Colours fcarlet red, blood red, brownidi red, more
rarely yellow. Colours difpofed in veins, fpots, and
clouds. Opaque, or tranflucent at the edges. Brittle,
and eafily frangible.
Localities, &c.—'Phis mineral is found in Hungary,
in Siberia, and other places, and is ufually in neds in
porphyry.
Befide the localities of the different varieties of jafper
already mentioned, we may notice that it is met with
in Siberia of a white and bluidi colour. The hill on
which the fortrefs of Orlkaia dands on the left bank of
the river Jaik, in the government of Orembourg, is en¬
tirely compofed of a pale green and deep red jafper,
difpofed in inclined beds; and on the mod elevated
parts of the Altaian mountains, near the fource of the
river Korgou, a jafper has been difeovered of an ivory
white colour, which is remarkable for being penetrated
with black dendrites.
XJfes of Jafper.—It is valued according to its hard-
nefs, the degree of polifh of which it is fufceptible, and
the beauty and variety of its colours} and it is employ¬
ed in ho ming vafes, handles for fwords and knives, and
•ther fmaller ornamental purpofes.
36. Species. Heliotrope, or BlooJJlone.
Ueliotropii/m, Kirw. i. 314. VHeliotrope, Broch. i.
276. Quartz jafpe Sanguin, Hauy, ii. 436.
Exter. Char.—Heliotrope is found maffive or in an¬
gular pieces ; external ludre glimmering or fhiniim
and refinous ; fradure conchoidal, fometimes uneven.
Fragments very diarp-edged.
Colour chiefly deep green, but of various (hades, with
(pots ot olive and yellow, but mod frequently fcarlet or
blood red : tranflucent at the edges: hard, eafily fran¬
gible. Spec. grav. 2.62 to 2.7.
Chem. Char. Entirely infufible before the blow-pipe.
Localities, &c.-—^ I his mineral was originally brought
from the ead, but it has fince been found in Siberia
in Bohemia, where it is met with in a vein, and in Ice¬
land.
Vfes.—lt is employed for flmilar purpofes with jafner
or agate. J A
By many mineralogifls this mineral is confidered as a
variety of jafper •, hence it has been called oriental
jafper j and it is fuppofed by fome to be a calcedony
penetrated with green earth.
37. Species. Chrysoprase.
Chryfoprafum, Kirw. i. 284. Zo Chryfobrafe, Broch.
1. 280. Quartz Agathe Prafe, Hauy, ii. 426.
Efter. Char.—1 his mineral is found maflive, or in
angular fragments : internal ludre rarely glimmering:
ed fl1"6 even» Sometimes fplintery j fragments (harp-
Colour apple-green, greenifli gray, or leek-green ;
tranflucent, lometimes femitranfparent j lefs hard than
calcedony and flint. Spec. grav. 2.25.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe, but
lo.es its tranfparency, and becomes white.
Conf ituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Oxide of iron,
Oxide of nickel,
Lofs.
96.16
.08
.82
.c8
1.00
1.86
100.00
Localities, &c.——Chryioprale is found at Kolemuty
m Upper Silefia, in a mountain compofed of feroentine*
albedus, indurated talc, and lithomarga. 1 *
llfes.—It is employed for fimilar purpofes as jafper
and it is greatly edeemed when it is of a fine apple!
green colour. It is faid that fome varieties of this mi¬
neral lofe their colour by being expoled to moidure, fo
that the jewellers, before ufing them, put them to ’the
ted, by keeping them for fome time in a moid place.
38. Species. Plasma.
Id. Broch. i. 278. Silex Plafvie, Brongniart, ii. 398,
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found diffeminated
in rounded pieces, and alio in angular pieces. Internal
ludre glimmering or weakly fliining; refinous. Fraflur©
conchoidal, even, and fometimes fplintery. Tranflu¬
cent, and fometimes even tranfparent in thin pieces.
Colour, various (hades of green •, and fometimes dif-
fexent colours are difpofed in fpots, dripes, and points.
Nearly
3
MINER
Nearly equally hard with calcedony. Brittle, and eafily
frangible.
Chem. Char.—It is infufible before the blow-pipe,
but becomes white.
localities, &c.—It is faid by fome, that this mineral
has only been found among the ruins of Rome, but ac¬
cording to Brongniart and others, it has been found in
the Levant, in Upper Hungary, and in Moravia, in a
mountain of ferpentine, where it is accompanied wdth
flint.
JJfes.—It appears that this mineral was much em¬
ployed by the ancients for ornamental purpofes.
39. Species. Cat’s Eye.
Id. Kirw. i. 3© 1. VOeil de Chat, Brochant, L 292.
^uart%-Agathe Chatoyant, Hauy, ii. 427.
Exter. Char.—This mineral, as it is brought from its
native country, is ufually cut and polilhed, fo that its
natural form is unknown ; but it is fuppofed that it is
met with in grains or rounded pieces. A mafs defcrib-
ed by Klaproth, which feemed to be in its natural (late,
had a quadrangular form, a rough furface, and conftder-
able brilliancy. The luftre is refplendcnt and refinous.
The crofs fra61ure is uneven, the longitudinal frac¬
ture imperfe&ly foliated. Fragments more or lefs (harp-
edged.
The colour is greenifh yellow and fmoke gray, of
various (hades, and fometimes, but rarely, grayilh or
(livery white. It is tranflucent, rarely femitranfparent.
When it is cut, it refle6ts different rays of light by
changing its pofition, a chara&er by which it is ealily
known. This is afcribed to fmall parallel fibres which
appear in the interior of the (lone. It is hard, eafily
frangible. Spec. grav. 2.62510 2.660.
Chem. Char.—It melts wdth great difficulty by the
aflion of the blow pipe. Klaproth fubje£led it to the
heat of a porcelain furnace, but it was not melted ; it
only loll its hardnefs, lullre, and tranfparency, and the
colour became of a pale gray.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Oxide of iron,
Lofs,
95.00
I*75
1.50
0.25
1.50
100.00
94*5°
2.00
1.50
0.25
'■v
100.00
Localities.—Cat’s eye is brought from Ceylon and
the Malabar coaft, and alfo, it is faid, from Egvpt and
Arabia $ but always in the poliffied (late. The only
one known in its natural (late was that above mention¬
ed, which was prefented to Klaproth by Mr Greville
of London.
-This mineral is in great efiimation as a pre¬
cious (lone, and it is ufually cut for ring-ftoncs.
The name is derived from its pofTeffing the property
of reflefting the light fimilar to the eye of the cat, and
hence the term chatoyant among jewellers, which is ex-
preflive of that effeft.
49. Species. Obsidian.
fif. Ki-rwan, i. 265. Iceland agate vulgo. L'OhJidienne,
A L O G Y.
Brochant, i. 288.
iv. 594.
173
Lave vitreufe Obfidienne, Hauy, Siliceous
genus.
Exter Char.—This mineral is found in maffes, and
fometimes in rounded pieces. Luftre refplendent, vi¬
treous fradlure perfectly conchoidal } fragments very
(harp-edged.
The moll common colour of obfidian is perfeclly
black, fometimes greenifh and grayiffi, black, blueifti,
greenilh and fmoke gray, and yellow and red, accord¬
ing to Humboldt : moll commonly opaque, but fome¬
times tranftueent on the edges. It is hard and eafily
frangible. Spec. grav. 2.348.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe obfidian melts
into an opaque porous glafs, of a grayilh white co¬
lour.
Bergman.
Silica, 69
Alumina, 22
Oxide of iron, 9
Conjlituent Parts.
Abilgaard,
74
12
14
100
100
Defcotils.
72.0
^■S
2.0-
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Oxide of iron 1
and manganefe, 3
Potafti and foda, 10.0
Lofs, 3.5
100.0
Drappier.
74-
14.
1.2
3-o
3-3
4*5
100.0
71.0
13*4
i.6
4.0
4.0
6.0
100.0
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found in Iceland,
in Siberia, in the Lipari iflands, in Hungary, in Ma-
dagafear, the illand of Teneriffe, in Mexico, Peru, and
fome of the South fea iflands. Humboldt difeovered a
variety of obfidian iu New Spain, which was chatoyant
in a confiderable degree. The obfidian from Hungary
is found in infulated pieces among detached mafles of
granite, gneifs and decompofed porphyry. Obfidiaa
was long fuppofed to have a volcanic origin ; but it ap¬
pears from the accounts of thofe who have vifited Ice¬
land, that it is not only found in the vicinity of Hecla,
but everywhere, diilributed like quartz and flint; and
befides it is not unfrequent in countries where volcanoes
were never known to exift.
Efes.—The fine colour and hardnefs' of this (lone
have brought it into ufe for ornamental purpofes.
Among the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians it. was em¬
ployed as mirrors, fome of which, it is faid, are fome¬
times dill found in the tombs of their ancient fovereigns
[Eaujas Miner, des Volcans, p. 308.) ; and alfo for cut¬
ting inftruments as knives and even razors. Hernan¬
dez faw the Mexican cutlers make a hundred knives of
obfidian in the courfe of an hour. Obfidian, it is faid,
has alfo been ufed as mirrors for telefcopes.
41. Species. Pitciistone.
Id. Kirwan, i. 292. La pierre de poix. Brochant, i.
353. Petrojilex rejiniforme, Hauy, iv. 386.
Exter. C//<7r.—Pitchftone, which has received its
name
MINER
name from Its refembjanpe tq pitcli, is found inalllve $
fometimes in extenfive beds and veins, and alfo forming
entire mountains. Internal luftre Aiming and refinous.
Fragments fliarp-edged. In coarfe and frequently fmall
granular diltindl concretions which have a fmooth fur~
face.
The colours are various (hades of black, green, brown,
red, and gray. Tranflucent, but commonly at the
edges only. Brittle, and rather eaAly frangible. Spec,
grav. of pitchftone from Saxony, 2,3 14 \ of black pifeh-
Itone from Arran, 2.238 ; of nitchilone from Meilfen,
1.645, Klaproth.
CJiem. Fufible by the blow-pipe, and is con¬
verted into a white porous enamel.
'Corijiituent Parts of pitchjlonc from Meiffen of an olive
green colour. Klaproth, TranA. ii. 207.
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Oxide of iron,
Oxide of manganefc,
Soda,
Water,
Lok,
73
14.50
1
1
0.10
8.50
'5
100,00
Localities, 5te.— Pitchftone is found in great abun¬
dance in Saxony, in Hungary, and alfo in Siberia. It
abounds alfo in Scotland, particularly in the ifland of
Arran, where it is met with in beds, but chiefly in veins
traverfing the ftrata in the lefs elevated parts of the
ifland. Pitchftone alfo forms the bafts of a porphyry.
42. Species. Pearj.stone.
Obfdienne Per lee, Brongniart, ii. 340. Lave Vitreufe
Perlee, Hauy, iv. 495. Volcanic Zeolite, Fichtel.
Zeolitic Pitchjlone of others. See Klaproth, Tranfl.
ii. 263,
Ex ter. Char.— Pearlftone almoft always forms the
ground or bafts of a fpecies of porphyry which contains
roundifli or longifti veficular cavities. Luftre pearly.
Frafture feems imperfe£lly conchoidal; but is not very
perceptible. Fragments blunt-edged.
Colour bluiftr, afli, greenifli gray. Tranflucent at
the edges. When breathed upon gives out the argilla¬
ceous odour. Not brittle, but eaftly frangible. Soft.
Spec. grav. 2.340 to 2.548.
Chem. Char.—Before the blowr-pipe froths up like
zeolite, but is not fufed.
Confituent Parts. Klaproth, ii. 267.
Silica,
Alumina,
Oxide of iron,
Lime,
Potafti,
Water,
Loft,
75-25
12.
1.60
•50
4-50
4-5°
1.65
100.0#
A L Q G Y,
Localities, &c.—rPearlftpne is found near Tokay in Claflii
Hungary, in ftrata alternating with thofe of argillaceous ^
porphyry, and containing in its velicles nodules of obli- ‘
dian ; it is alfo met with in Iceland, and in the north
of Ireland.
43. Species, Pumice,
Id. Kirwan, i. 415* La Pierre ponce, Brochant, i. 443.
Ponce, Brongniart, i. 332. Lave vitreufe pumice'c,
Hauy, iv. 495.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive of dif-
feminated, and it is always of a porous or veficular
texture.
Luftre glimmering, or a little (Inning and filky,
Frafture fibrous •, fragments blunt-edged.
Colour grayith white, bluifli, or yellowifli gray.
Opaque, rarely tranflucent at the edges, fometimes fe-
mihard, but generally foft, very brittle, and very eaftly
frangible. Spec. grav. 0.914.
Chem. Char.—Fufible before the blowr-pipe, and U
eonverted into a white glafs.
Confituent Parts. Klaproth, ii. 208,
Silica,
Alumina,
Oxide of iron,
Soda of potafli,
Lofs,
77-50
i7-5o
I-75
3-
•25
100.00
Localities, &c.—Pumiceftone has been fuppofed to
be a volcanic production, becaufe it is found in the vi¬
cinity of volcanoes ; the Lipari iflands are almoft entire¬
ly compofed of it, and there it is accompanied with
obfidian. It is alfo found in Iceland and Teneriffe; in
Hungary and on the banks of the Rhine between An-
dernach and Coblentz.
Efes.—Pumice is very much employed in polilhing
ftones, metals, glafs, ivory, and in the preparation of
parchment.
A rare variety of pumice is deferibed by Brongniart
in the form of vitreous filaments as fine as hair -, the co¬
lour is a deep bottle green, and it melts by heat into a
white enamel. This pumice is fuppofed to be projedled
from the volcano in the ifle of Bourbon.
44. Species. Prehnite.
Id. Kirwan, i. 274. La Prehnite, Brochant, i. 295,
Prehnite, Hauy, iii. 67.
Ejfen. Char.—Divifible by one diftiuft line only, and
pretty clean j eledlric by heat.
Exter. Char.— Prehnite is found either maflive or cry-
ftallized. The principal form of its cryftals is a four-fided
rhomboidal table, which is either perfedl or truncated
on all its edges, or a table with fix faces, and an equal
angle, or a large rectangular prifm terminated by a be-
velment which is fomewhat obtufe. The cryftals are ufu-
ally grouped together, and united by their lateral faces j
face of the cryftals fmooth j external luftre Alining j
internal weakly fhining and pearly j principal fra&ure
foliated, crofs fra&ure fine-grained uneven $ fragments
but little (harp-edged
Colouf
Colour green, olive ,c;reen, mountain green, and
greenith white *, femitranfparent, and fometimes tranl-
parent. Scratches glafs llighlly. Brittle, and eafily
frangible. Spec. grav. 2.609 to 2.696.
Chem. Char.—Fufible before the blow-pipe, into a
■white porous enamel.
ConJUtuent Paris.
Hafienfratz. Klaproth.
Silica, 50. 43-83
Alumina, 20.4 3°-33
Lime, 23.3 18.33
Oxide of iron, 4.9 5.66
Water, .9 1.83
Magnefia, .5 —
Lots, — 0.02
100.0 100.00
ing, or weakly fhining, pearly or filky j fiafture fi¬
brous j fibres divergent j fragments wedge-fhaped.
Colour yellowifh white, yelkmifii brown, fnow white,
and fometimes honey yellow, tranilucent 5 femiliard,
brittle, and eafily frangible. Light.
Cunflituent Paris. Meyer.
Silica, 41
Alumina, 31
Lime, 11
Water, 15
Lofs, 2
xoo
Subfpecies 3. Radiated Zeolite.
Zeolithe Rayonnee, Brochant, i. 301. Mefotype, Hauy,
iii. 151.
Localities.—Prehnite was brought firfl from the Cape
of Good Hope, by Colonel Prehn, whofe name it now
bears. It is alfo found in France, as in Dauphiny,
where it exitls in veins. It is not unfrequent in dif¬
ferent parts of Scotland, as among the porphyry rocks
fix miles to the fouth of Pailley ; in the neighbourhood
*f Dunbarton 5 and in the rocks round Edinburgh.
45. Species. Zeolite.
This fpecies has been divided into four fubfpecies.
Subfpecies i. Mealy Zeolite.
Zeolite, Kir wan, i. 278. La Zeolite Farineufe, Bro¬
chant, i. 298. Mefotype, ILz-wy, iii. 151.
Exter. Char.—This variety is found maffive or difle-
minated, and fometimes it is branched or coralloidal,
and fometimes alfo it envelopes other zeolites with a
thin cruft. It is dull 5 fracture earthy; fragments
blunt-edged.
Colour ufually reddifti or yelloivifti white, or flefti
red, opaque, very brittle ; does not adhere to the
tongue. When fcratched with the finger nail it gives
out a dull found.
Conjlituent Parts.
Siliea,
Alumina,
Lime,
Water,
100
Pcdletier.
50
20
8
22
F.ffen. Char.—Divifible parallel to the faces of a
rectangular prifm ; elcflric by heat in two oppofite
points.
Exter. Char.—This variety is found maftive, but
moft frequently cryftallized : the primitive form is a
rcClangular prifm with fquare bafes ; its common forms
are a reCtangular prifm, truncated at each extremity by
a four-fided pyramid, correfponding to the lateral faces^
a four-fided reCtangular prifm with two broad and two
narrow fides, and alfo terminated by four-fided pyra¬
mids, or a four-fided prifm, nearly rhomboidal, the
two ftiarp lateral edges of which, as well as the two ob-
tufe terminal angles, are truncated. The cryftals are
united together in bundles ; fo that the acumination*.
only can be feen ; the cryftals are commonly fmooth
and ftiining; the internal luftre is weakly ftiining and
pearly j fraCture radiated: the rays broad or narrow 4
fragments wedge-lhaped.
Colour yellowifh, grayifh, reddifti, and fnow-white j
tranllucent, fometimes tranfparent; femihard ; fcratches
calcareous fpar j brittle, and cafily frangible. Spec,
grav. 2.0833.
Chem. Char.—Before the Llow-pipe it froths up,
gives out a phofphorefcent light, and is converted into
a porous enamel. With acids it forms a gelatinous fub-
ftance.
Conjlituent Parts.
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Water,
Lofs,
Vauquelin.
50.24
29.30
9.46
10.
Localities, &c.—This variety of zeolite is found in
Ireland, the Faro iflands, and Sweden. It is frequent
in different parts of Scotland, as at Dunbar, and feve-
ral of the Weftern iflands.
Subfpecies 2. Fibrous Zeolite.
Zeolithe Fihreufe, Brochant, i. 299. Mefotiype, Hauy,
L 151.
Exter. Char.—This variety is found maflive, and
fbmetimes in rounded pieces, compofed of capillary cry¬
ftals, divergent and radiating ; internal luftre glimmer-
4
100.00
Subfpecies 4. Foliated Zeolite.
Zcolithe Lamelleufe, Brochaat, i. 302. Stilbite, Hatty,
iii. 161.
Ejjen. Char.—Fufible into a fpongy enamel, but ndt
eleCtric by heat.
Exter. Char.—This variety of zeolite is ufually found
in amygdaloidal or globular pieces, and alfo cryftalliz¬
ed 5 primitive form of its cryftals is a reCtangular prifm
with reCtangular bafes: the ufual forms of its cryftal*
are.
Siliceous
genus.
 <r—
MINERALOGY.
are, a fhort equiangular fix-fided prifm with two broad,
two narrower, and two very narrow faces *, a table with
fix equal faces, and a rhomboidal prifm. Surface of the
cryllals fmooth and finning j internal luftre finning
and pearly ; fra&ure foliated ; the plates moft frequent¬
ly curved with a fimple cleavage.
Colour fimilar to the former : it is tranfiucent or
Spec.
femitranfparent j femihard, and eafily frangible,
grav. 2.5.
Chem. Char.—Froths up and phofphorefces, under the
blow-pipe ; placed on hot coals, it becomes white and
is eafily reduced to powder. It is not converted into a
jelly by acids.
Conjlituent Parts.
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Water,
Lofs,
Vauquelin.
J7-5
9
18.5
3
100
Localities, &c.—The different varieties of zeolite are
fcfually found in amygdaloid rocks, bafalts, porphyry,
flate, wacken, and green ftone. They often line the
fides of fiffures pafiing through thefe rocks, and are
accompanied with calcareous fpar, calcedony, fome*
times with native copper and native filver, as in Ice¬
land. The fineft zeolites are brought from the ifiands
of Faroe, Iceland, TEdelfors in Sweden. The differ¬
ent varieties are not unfrequent in Scotland. The
fibrous and radiated kinds are met with extremely
beautiful in the ifiands of Cannay and Skye •, the foli¬
ated or ftilbite in the ifiand of Staffa, in Skye, and in
the lead veins at Strontian.
46. Species. Cubizite.
ha Zeolithe Cubique, Brochant, i. 304. Slnalcime, da'
Chabajie, Hauy, iii. 180.
Efjen. Char.—Original forms of the cube, fufible into
a glafs.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive or cry-
ftallized ; the form of the cryftals is a perfe£l cube,
which is its primitive form. This is fometimes truncat¬
ed on all its angles by three fmall triangular faces, or
with twenty-four equal and fimilar trapezoids like the
garnet. The external luftre is refplendent, vitreous, or
pearly. Internal finning or weakly fhining. Fra&ure
imperfedHy foliated, almoft uneven. Fragments im-
perfeft cubes.
Colour white, yellowifh, grayifti, or reddifh white.
It is tranfiucent or opaque. Semihard. Spec. grav.
about 2 (Hauy). Difficult to produce any fignsof elec¬
tricity } hence the name analcime, fignifying want of
power, given to it by Hauy.
Chem. Char.—Froths up before the blow-pipe, and
melts into a porous glafs.
Localities, &c.—Cubizite is found in Skve, in Staffa,
and in the Saliftniry rocks near Edinburgh. Fine fpe-
cimens of cubizite are abundant at the Giants caufe-
way in the north of Ireland. Chabafie is found alfo
2t Oberftein in Germany.
By many mineralogifio chabafie and analcime. are
confidered as one Ipecies j but more nearly inveftigated,
as has been done by Hauy and others, they muft ap¬
pear very different. The preceding defeription refers
chiefiy to analcime. We {hall ffiortly ftate the princi¬
pal characters of chabafie from Hauy, iii. 176.
Pffen. Char.—Divifible into a rhomboid {lightly ob-
tufe, and eafily fufible by heat.
Exter. Char—Chabafie is commonly cryftallized.
Primitive form of the cryftals is a flightly obtufe rhom¬
boid, wbofe plane angle at the fummit is about 937°,
fo that it approaches nearly to the cube } integrant mo¬
lecule is the fame. Six of the edges are truncated, the
truncations uniting three and three at the two oppolite
angles, and the remaining fix angles are alfo truncated.
It appears alfo in the form of double fix-fided pyramids
applied bafe to bafe, having the fix angles at the bafe,
and the three acute edges of each pyramid truncated.
Colour whitiffi, fometimes reddifti, but this feems to
be owing to a fuperficial cruft. Luftre fiiining or re¬
fplendent and vitreous. Tranfparent or tranflucent.
Chem. Char.—Is cafily fufible before the blow-pipe,
and melts into a whitifh fpongy mafs.
47. Species. Cross-stone.
Staurolite, Kirwan, i. 282. Pierre Cruciforme, Bro¬
chant, i. 311. Harmotome, Hauy, iii. 191.
F.ffen. Char.—Divifible into a re&angular o&ahe-
dron, which maybe fubdivided on the angles contiguous
to the fummits.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is always cryftallized.
Its ufual forms are, a double cryftal compofed of two
broad prifm*, with four re&angular faces, and terminated
at each extremity by a four-fided obtufe pyramid placed
on the lateral edges. Thefe two prifms crofs each
other by their broader faces, fo that the faces of the
acumination meet together, and the double cryftal thus
formed having four right-angled re-entering angles, re-
fembles a crofs. The cryftals are obliquely ftreaked.
External luftre finning and refplendent, vitreous. In¬
ternal weakly finning. Fradure foliated.
Colour grayifti or milky white, tranllucent, fome¬
times femi-tranfparent. Semi-hard, fcratches glafs {light¬
ly. Spec. grav. 2.333 to S-^1*
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it is fufible, and
froths up. The powrder thrown on hot coals is phof-
phorefeent, giving out a greeniftr yellow light.
Silica,
Barytes,
Alumina,
Water,
Lofs,
Conjlituent Parts.
Klaproth.
49
j8
16
*5
2
100
Taffaert.
47*5
16
J9-S
I3*5
3-5
ICO
Localities.—This mineral lias been found in veins at
Andfealberg in the Hartz, accompanied by carbonate
of lime, from which it is fometimes called andreolitc.
It is alfo found in the lead veins at Strontian in Scot¬
land, and in balls of agate at Oberftein. In the latter
place, cryftals are fingle.
48. Species.
MINERALOGY.
Cik .
48. Species. Laumonite.
Tteolithe Efflorefcente^ Hauy, iv. 410. Id. Brochant, ii.
53°*
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in maffes which
are compofed of irregular groups of cryftals eroding
each other in all directions. Form of the cryftals is a
four-fided prifm, nearly reftangular, and terminated by
a bafe inclined to one of the lateral edges under an
angle of 1330 > frequently the acute angle is truncated,
and thus terminating in a bevelment placed on the acute
lateral edges. The lateral faces are longitudinally ftreak-
ed, and the luftre is fliining. The faces of the fummit
are alfo Ihining, but fmooth. Fra&ure foliated, and
parallel to the lateral faces.
Colour grayifh white, fomewhat pearly. Is tranflu-
cent, rather foft j feClile, and eafily frangible.
But all thefe charaClers are confiderably different by
the aClion of the air. The whole mafs is gradually fe-
parated, and the cryftals become opaque, falling into
friable folia, which are in a (hort time reduced to a
fnow-white powder, from which it derives the name
given to it by Hauy.
Chern. Char.—Fufible before the blow-pipe, without
frothing up, into a white enamel, and forms a jelly
with acids.
Localities.—This mineral was found in 1788 by
Gillet Laumont, in the lead mines of Huelgoet in
Brittany in France, and from him it derives its name.
It forms a fmall vein contiguous to the vein of galena.
We have colleCled fpecimens of a mineral, whofe cha-
rafters correfpond with laumonite, in a vein traverfing a
bafaltic rock in the ifland of Skye. After being kept
for fome years it appeared equally liable to dilintegra-
tion by expofure to the air.
49. Species. Dipyre.
Id. Brochant, ii. 508. Id. Hauy, iii. 242.
EJfen. Char.—Divifible parallel to the faces of a re¬
gular 6-fided prifm. Fuftble with intumefcence.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in fmall fafeicu-
lar maffes or cryftals. Luftre (hining, vitreous. Longi¬
tudinal fra&ure foliated.
Colour grayifh or reddifh white, and fometimes pale
rofe red. Semi-hard 5 fcratches glafs, and is eafily
frangible. Spec. grav. 2 630.
Chem. Char.—Fufible. The powder thrown on hot
ooals produces phofphorefcence.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Silica, 60
Alumina, 24
Lime, 10
Water, 2
Lofs, 4
IOO
Localities, &c.—This mineral has only been found
at Mauleon, in the Pyrenees, in a rock of fteatites. It
was difeovered by Lelievre and Gillet Laumont, in
1786.
Vol. XIV. Part I.
177
Siticeotac
50. Species. NaTROLITE. genus.
Id. Klaproth. Id. Brongniart, i. 370.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in maffes, in a
rock of amygdaloid. External furface fomewhat rough ;
internal luftre glimmering j fra&ure fibrous and radia¬
ted.
Colour brownifh yellow, inclining to olive, and dif¬
ferent colours appear in parallel and waved zones j is
tranflucent at the edges fcarcely fcratches glafs } is
eafily frangible. Sp. grav. 2.16.
Chem. Char.— Is reduced by the blow-pipe to a wrhite
glafs. Nitric acid produces no effervefcence, but con¬
verts it in a few hours to a thick jelly.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silica, 48
Alumina, 24
Soda, 16
Water, 9
Oxide of iron, 1.75
Lofs, 1.75
100.00
Localities, &c.—Natrolite has been found only at
Roegau, near the lake of Conftance in Switzerland, in
the cavities of an amygdaloid rock. The name is de¬
rived from natron or foda, of which it contains fo large
a proportion.
51. Species. Azurite.
Latnulite, Klaproth, Analyt. Effays, i. 170. Le Lazu-
lithe, Broth, i. 315.
Exter. Char.—This mineral has been found diffemi-
nated, maftive, and cryftallized in rettangular four-
fided prifms. Luftre glimmering and finning. Frac¬
ture imperfe&ly eonchoidal.
Colour indigo, Pruflian, or deep fmalt blue ; ftreak
lighter blue j nearly opaque, or tranfiucent at the
edges ; hardnefs, nearly that of quartz. Brittle and
eafily frangible.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe, but
lofes its colour, becomes earthy, and of a clear gray.
With borax it produces a bright yellow glafs. Acids
have a very feeble aftion upon it. Klaproth afeertained
that it is compofed of filica, alumina, and oxide of iron ;
but the quantity which he operated on was too fmall to
afeertain the proportions.
Localities, &e.—This mineral has been found at
Vorau in Styria, in a rock of micaceous fchiftus, where
it forms, along with grayifti quartz and filvery white
mica, a vein of about half an inch thick.
32. Species. Lazulite.
Lapis Lazuli, Kirw. i. 283. La Pierre d^Azure,
Broch. i. 313. Lazulite, Hauy, iii. 145.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maftive, diffemi-
nated, and in rounded fragments j internally dull, and
rarely glimmering. Fracture earthy, or fine-grained
uneven ; fragments fharp-edged.
Z Colour
I?8 MINER
Colour ar.ure blue ; opaque, or tranflucent on t he
> ■ edges ; hard, or femihard j brittle and eaiily frangible.
Spec. grav. 2.76 to 2.94.
Chem. Char.—It retains its colour at the temperature
of 100° Wedge wood j but with a ftronger heat froths
up into a yellowifh hard coloured mafs. By increafing
the licat, it changes to a white enamel ; with acids
after calcination, forms a jfclly.
Conjlituent Parts
Klaproth. Analyt. Ejf. i. 169.
Silica, 46
Alumina, 14.5
Carbonate of lime, 28
Sulphate of lime, 6.5
Oxide of iron, 3
Water, 2
100.0
A L O G Y.
Conjlituent Parts.
Davy, Nich. Jour. xi. 153.
Alumina, 70.
Silica, —
Lime, 1.4
Oxide of iron, -
Water, 26.2
A portion of fluoric acid,
Gregor, ibid. xhx. 247.
58.7°
6.12
•37
•l9
3°-75
97-6 96.13
Localities, &c.—This mineral was firft difcovered by
Dr Wavell, in a quarry near Barnftaple. Mr Hatch¬
ett found it, in I79^» filling the cavities and veins of
a foft argillaceous fchiftus. It has fince been found in
Stenna-Gwyn mine, in the parifli of St Stephen’s, Corn-
Avail, where it is accompanied with fulphuret of tin,
copper, and iron.
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found in Perfia,
Natolia, and China, and it is fuppofed that its
repofitory is among granite. It has been found alfo
in Siberia, near the lake Baikal, where it forms a vein
along with garnets, feldfpar, and gyrites. It is fre¬
quently mixed with pyrites, and a grayifli white feld¬
fpar.
Vfes.—This ft one, when it is of a fine blue colour,
and free from white fpots, is held in great eftimation
for various ornamental purpofes ; but it derives its
great eft value from its ufe in painting. The colour
which it furnilhes is called ultramarine. To prepare
it, the ftone is firft calcined, and then reduced to an
impalpable powder, which is mixed with a pafte com-
pofed of refinous matters, of wax and linfeed oil.
From this mixture a powder is obtained by walking,
which being dried affords the colouring matter. This
colour, when ufed in painting, is not fufceptible of
change.
53. Species. Hydrargili.ite.
IVavellite of Dr Babington and others.
54. Species. Andalusite.
Adamantine Spar, Kirwan, i. 337. Spath Adamant in,
Bournon, Jour, de Phyf. 1789. Feldfpath Apure,
Hauy, iv. 362.
Kxter. Char.— 1 his mineral is found maflive, and
cryftallized in re&angular four Tided prifms, the fum-
mits of which are obliterated. Luftre weakly tinning
and refinous. Longitudinal fradure foliated. Crots
fracture a little fplintery. Colour reddith brown or
violet j tranflucent at the edges. Very hard ; fcratches
quartz, and fometimes e\ en fpinelle. Difficultly frangi¬
ble. Spec. grav. 3.165.
Chem. Chur.—Infufib'le before the blow-pipe.
Localities, &.c.—This mineral was firft difcovered by
Bournon in the granitic rocks of Forez, where it occu¬
pies a vein of common feldfpar. It has been found al¬
fo in Spain, where it enters into the compofition of a
granite. It is alfo met writh in Aberdeenthire. When
firft difcovered, it was fuppofed to be a variety of ada¬
mantine fpar or corundum ; but its inferior fpec. grav.
and the difference in the ftrufture of its cryftab, afford
fufficient charadleriftic differences.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found cryftallized.
The cryftals are very minute, and are attached to
quartz, in tufts or bundles, which diverge from a com¬
mon centre. It is alfo found clofely compafled to¬
gether, in the form of mammillary protuberances of the
fize of fmall peas, and adhering to each other. The
cryftals, when magnified, appear to be four-fided, and,
■when broken, the feftion feems to be rhomboidal.
The cryftals have fometimes the appearance of fine
down, and fometimes are of the fize of a hair. Luftre
filky.
The colour is white, with a ftiade of gray or
green j ufually opaque, and fometimes femitranfpa-
rent. The texture is loofe ; but the fmall fragments
are fo hard as to feratch agate. Spec. grav. 2.25 to
2.70.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe j but
the cryftals, expofed fuddenly to ftrong heat, decrepi¬
tate.
55. Species. Feldspar.
> This fpecies is divided into the five following fubfpe-
cies : 1. Adularia. 2. Labradore ftone. 3. Common
feldfpar. 4. Compadl feldfpar. 5. Hollow fpar.
Subfpecies 1. Adularia.
Moonjlone, Kirwan, i. 322. VAdulaire, Brochant,
371. Feldfpath Nacre, Hauy, ii. 606.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive or cry¬
ftallized. The forms of its cryftals are, 1. A four-fided
rhomboidal prifm. 2. A perfect rhomb, more or lefs
oblique. 3. A reflangular four-fided table, with ob¬
lique terminal faces. 4. A fix-fided prifm. 5. A fix-
fided table. Surface of the cryftals fmooth or longitu¬
dinally ftreaked. Luftre ftiining or refplendent. Inter¬
nal luftre refplendent, vitreous, or pearly. Frafture
foliated. Cleavage double. Fragments rhomboidal.
Colour yellowilh, grecnifli, or milk-white : is fome¬
times
Par •
Clafl l -
tin;
< ^
B
MINER
- times cliatoyant. Is always tranflucent', fometimes fe-
in mitranfparent. Hard •, fcratches common feldfpar.
Brittle, and eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 2.500 to
2.561.
Chem. Char,—Adularia before the blow-pipe cracks
and fplits, and then melts into a white glafs.
Conjlhuent Paris.
Vauquelin. Weflrumb.
Silica, 64 62.50
Alumina, 20 17.50
Lime, 2 6.50
Potalh, 14 —
Magnefia, — 6.
Oxide of iron, — 1.40
Sulphate of barytes, — 2.
Water, — *25
LoGs, - 3-85
100 100.00
Localities, &c.—This mineral was firft found by Pi-
Sii in one of the fummits of St Gothard in Switzerland;
this fummit is called Adula, and from this it takes its
name. It is faid that it forms particular beds, inter-
pofed between micaceous fchiilus and gneis. It is ac¬
companied with quartz, mica, and comon feldfpar.
Subfpecies 2. Labradore Stone.
Id. Kirwan, i. 324. La Pierre de Labrador, Bro-
chant, i. 369. Feldfpath Opalin,\i2i\xy,\i. 607.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive, and in
rounded pieces. Internal luftre (hining, fometimes re-
fplendent; pearly, or vitreous. Fradture perfectly fo¬
liated, with a double cleavage.
Colour, mod commonly dark or deep a(h gray;
but by varying its portion it reiledls different colours,
as blue, green, yellow, brown, and red ; and thefe
colours exhibit ftripes, fpots, and dots. It is ffrongly
tranflucent. Spec. grav. 2.6 to 2.7.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe fufible into a
white enamel.
ConJUtuent Parts. Bindheim.
Silica, 69.5
Alumina, 13.6
Sulphate of lime, 12.
Oxide of copper, .7
Oxide of iron, .3
Lofs, 3.90
100.00
Localities, &c.—This ftone was firft brought from the
bland of St Paul, near the coaft of Labradore, whence
its name. It has been fince found in Bohemia, and
near the lake Baikal in Siberia. It is rarely found in
its native repofitory, but it is fuppofed to belong to pri¬
mitive rock-; for it is accompanied with fchorl, mica,
and hornblende.
Ufes.—The brilliancy of its colours, and particularly
its chatoyant property, have brought it into ufe in jewel¬
lery.
A L O G Y
Subfpecies 3. Common Felbspar.
Id. Kirwan, i. 316. Le Feldfpcth Commun, Brochant,
i. 362. Feldfjtath, Hauy, ii. 590.
Exter. Char.— Feldfpar is found maffive, diffeminat-
ed, in rounded pieces, or eryltallized. Its forms are,
1. A broad fix tided prifm with unequal angles, termi¬
nated at each extremity by an obtufe bcvelment, whofa
faces are placed on the two lateral edges. 2. A four-
fided rhomboidal prifm. 3. A four-lided reflangular
prifm, having the lateral edges fometimes truncated ;
and, 4. A fix-fided table. Double cryftals are fome¬
times met with. Luftre Ihining ; internal luftre alfo
fhining, fometimes refplendent, vitreous or pearly.
Fraflure perfectly foliated ; fragments rhomboidal.
Colours milk-white, yellowilh, grayith, reddilh, and
grecnifh. Tranflucent; fcratches glafs ; brittle, and
eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 2.437 1° 2.704-
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe melts into a
white glafs.
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Oxide of iron,
Potafh,
Barytes,
Magnefia, /
Lofs,
Con ft intent Parts.
Vauquelin. Kirwaa.
62.83
17.2
3*
I.
13*
3-J5
100.00
67
14
11
8
100
Chenevix.
64.
24.
6.2$
2.
3-75
100.00
Localities, &c.—Feldfpar is one of the moft common
fubftances, and the moft univerfally diftributed in na¬
ture. It does not exift, however, in large maffes. It
forms one of the component parts of granite, gntis, fye-
nite and porphyry.
When expofed to the aftion of the air, it is very li¬
able to decompofition, and then it is converted into a
white earthy mafs, which is employed in the manu-
faflure of porcelain. This is the kaolin of the Chi-
nefe.
Subfpecies 4. Compact Feldspar.
Continuous Feldfpar, Kirw. i. 323. Le Fe/d/path Com¬
pare, Broch. i. 367. Feldfpath Compufle Bleu, Hauy,
ii. 605.
Exter. Char.—Tins variety is found maflive, and al¬
fo in rounded pieces. Luftre Aveakly finning, or only
glimmering. Fraflure imperfectly foliated, fometimes
fplintery. Fragments not very fharp edged.
Colour bluilh white, greenifli or yellowifh ; tranflu¬
cent, but fometimes only at the edges. Streak white;
is feratched by quartz.
Chem. Char.—Fufible before the blow-pipe.
Localities, &c.— Compaft feldfpar is found in Sax¬
ony, and in the Tyrol. It is not uncommon in Scot¬
land, as in the Grampian mountains, and on the Pent-
land hills in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. The
cryftals of feldfpar obferved in antique green porphyry,
are fuppofed to belong to this variety.
Z 2 Subfpecies
1 79
SiliceoAi*
genus.
1*° MINER
Siliceous
genus.
•—  / Subfpecies 5. Hollow Spar, or Chiajlolite.
Made, Broch. ii. 514. Id. Hauy, iii. 267.
EJfen. Char.—Divifions parallel to the faces of a
pril'm, llightly rhomboidal. A black lubftance fur-
rounded by another of a whitifh colour.
Ex ter. Char.— 1 his mineral has been found only cry-
ftallized in four-fided, nearly redangular prifms. ri'he
fummit is always broken, by which the arrangement of
the two fubflances is oblerved. The white part is the
outermoft 5 the black matter forms in the centre a fmall
prilra, whofe iides correfpond with thofe of the outer
cryftal. From the angles of the central prifm proceed
four narrow lines, which extend to each of the angles
of the outer prifm ; and fometimes this black fubftance
forms at the extremity of thefe lines, or in the angles
of the large prifm, a fimilar fmall prifm of black mat¬
ter. J'he black matter is an argillaceous fchiftus, fimi-
lar to the repofitory of the cryltals. The white part
is fometimes weakly filming; internal luftre glimmer¬
ing, refinous. The black part is nearly dull. Tf'radture
foliated j the black part earthy.
1 he colour of the white part, yellowifh, or grayifh
white-, that of the black part, grayilh, or bluifh black.
Opaque, or tranflucent. Semihard ; fcratching glafs
.icu foliated. Streak white. Brittle ^ not very fran¬
gible. Spec. grav. 2.944. Communicates to fealing
wax, negative eleflricity by fridilion.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe} the white part
melts into a whiter glafs; the black part into a black
glaf*.
Localities, &c.—1 his mineral has been found in
Brittany in France, imbedded in argillaceous fchiftus ;
in the Pyrenees, in a fimilar rock, lying immediately
on granite, near St Jacques de Compoftella in Spain j
and. in the mountains of Cumberland, alfo imbedded in
argillaceous fchiftus.
I he .name chiajlolite is derived from the appearance
of the fedion of the cryftal, which is fuppofed to have
feme refemblance to the Greek letter
A L o G Y.
57. Species. Arctizite.
Wernerite, Hauy, iii. 119. U. Brochant, ii. 529.
Ejfcn. Spec. grav. 3.6. Phofphorefcent by
heat, but not by percuflion.
Exter.' Char.— L his mineral is found maftive, or cry-
ftallized in four-fided re&angular prifms, terminated bv
an obtule four-fided pyramid. The lateral edges are
truncated, fo that the pril'm appears to be eight-fided.
Cry flals fmall j luftre refplendent, fometimes weaklv
firming, and pearly or refinous. Fradure foliated. Folia
curved in two direftions.
Colour between piftachio green and ifabella yellow.
Tianllucent. Scratches glafs, and ftrikes fire with fteel.
1 he powder thrown on hot coals phofphorefces in the
dark.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it froths up, and
eafily melts into an imperfe£t white, and opaque ena¬
mel. Inloluble in nitric acid.
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found in the iron
mines of Northo and Ulrica in Sweden, Bouoen
near Arendal in Norway, and at Campo Longo in
Switzerland. * ®
58. Species. Diaspore.
Id. Brochant, ii. 507. Id. Hauy, iv. 358.
Exter. Char.——\ \hs mineral is of a gray colour.
Luftre finning, pearly. Frafture foliated, with the
folia a little curved; feparates into rhomboids, with
angles about 130° and 30°; fcratches glafs. Spec. grav.
3-4S2.
Chem. Char.—A fragment of this ftone heated for a
a little in the flame of a candle decrepitates and difperfes
in all diredfions ; from this property is obtained its name,
which fignifies to difperfe. Heated in a clofe crucible
to prevent the fragments from flying off, they were re¬
duced to white fhining particles, fomewhat refembling
boracic acid.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Pai ir
Cliffl jlfi
t;oi
56. Species. Scapolite.
Hcapolithe, Brochant. ii. 526. Id. Hauy, iv. 393. Rapi-
doiithe, Abilgaard.
Exter. Char.-— Phis mineral has been found maflive,
but m )ft_ frequently cryftalbzed in redlangular, four-
fided prifms, having the lateral edges truncated. The
aryftals are fmall, fometimes acicular, commonly elon¬
gated and aggregated. Their furface is longitudinally
ftreaked and glimmering. Internal luftre weakly finn¬
ing, vitreous or refinous. Fradlure foliated.
Colour grav 'fh white ; tranflucent, or rarely tranfpa-
rent. Scratches glafs, and is brittle. Spec. grav. 2 68
to 3.70. r & 0
Chem. C/mr.~Frcths up before the blow-pipe, and
melts into a white t namel.
Localities, See.— 1 his mineral has been found in the
mines of iron ore near Arendal in Norway. The cryftals
are mixed with mica and calcareous fpar.
Alumina, 80
Oxide of iron, 3
Water, 17
100
Localities, &c.—The repofitory of this mineral is
unknown. It was connedled with an argillaceous
ochrey rock.
This mineral approaches nearly to hydrargillite or
wavellite, deferibed above, in its conftituent parts; but
the proportions and fome of the external characlers
are different.
59. Species. Spodumene.
Id. D’Andrada, Jour, de Phyf. an 8. p. 240. Triphane,
Hauy, iv. 407. Id. Brochant, ii. 528.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in fmall maffes,
which prefent fome appearances of cryftallization. Luf-
ter fhining, pearly. Fracture in the mafs radiated, of
fingle
1
?rt
Hffifi - _ o ^
ij’0n which fometimes afford an oblique angled prifm
about 100° and 80®. Crofs frafture dull, rough, and
fplintery. In larger malTes the frafture is radiated.
Luftre fhining pearly. Scratches glafs.
Colour greenilh white or leek green. Tranflucent at
the edges. Brittle. Spec. grav. 3.192 to 3.218
Chern. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it feparates af firfl
into fmall yellowifli plates, and then melts into a gray-
ifh white tranfparent glafs.
fmgle cryflals foliated and divifible in three direftions,
1 • 1 r -jr—-1 — -ui:   of
MINERALOGY.
rent. The fharp points fcratch glafs, the othefs leave
only a white trace. Eafily frangible. Specific gravi¬
ty 3.2441.
Ch m. Char.—Fufible into a glafs by long continued
heat. Becomes opake in nitric acid, hence the name
nephcune, lignifying cloudy, given to it by Hauy.
Conftituent Parts.
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Oxide of iron,
Lofs,
Vauquelin.
56j
24
5
5
9-5
100.0
Localities, Sic.—This mineral has been found in the
mines of Utoe near Dalero in Sweden. Its repofitory
f«ems to be a vein, where it is accompanied with quartz
and black mica.
The name triphane has been given to this mineral
by Hauy from its peculiar three-fold natural divifions.
It received the name fpodumene, which fignifies covered
with ajhes from D’Andrada.
60. Species. Meionite.
Id. Hauy, ii. 586. Id. Brochant, ii. 519.
PJfen. Char.—Divifible parallel to the faces of a
prifm with fquare bafes. Eafily fufible into a fpongy
white glafs.
Exter. Char.—It is found cryflallized in four-fided
rectangular prifms whofe lateral edges are always trun¬
cated. It is terminated by an obtufe four-fided pyramid
fet on the lateral edges. Sometimes the lateral edges
are doubly truncated, thus forming a fixteen-fided
prifm. The cryflals are fmall, adhering laterally and
arranged in rows to the matrix. Luftre fhining, vitreous.
Longitudinal fraClure foliated, and parallel to the four
faces of the prifm. Crofs fra<?lure (lightly conchoidal.
Colour grayifh white. Semi-tranfparent. Scratches
glafs.
Chetn. Char.—Melts very eafily before the blow-pipe
with confiderable intumefcence accompanied with a
hifiing noife.
Localities, &c.—This mineral has only been found on
Vefuvius near Mount Somma. The cryftals are ufually
attached to fragments of foliated limeftone.
Nephelin
61. Species.
Hauy, iii. 186.
SoMMITE.
Id. Brochant, ii. 522.
Conjlituent Parts.
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Oxide of iron,
Lofs,
Vauquelin.
46
49
2
1
2
100
Localities, &tc.—This mineral is found lining the
cavities of rocks on Mount Somma, from whence its
name fommite. It is accompanied with vefuvian and
black fchorl, all which are fuppofed by fome to be ejec¬
ted matters trom Vefuvius.
62. Species. Ichthyophthalmite.
Id. D’Andrada. Ichthyophtha/me, Brochant, ii. 552.
Apophyllite, Hauy. Id. Brongniart, i. 385.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive, and
cry allized in rhomboids which approach nearly to
the cube ; in thick fix-fided tables, and in rectangular
four-fided tables, with truncated edges. Luftre fhin¬
ing, pearly. Fratture foliated j cleavage fingle ; crofs
fracture fine grained uneven, and weakly fliining.
Colour ycllowifh or greenifh white •, tranflucent or
femitranfparent. Scratches glafs ; not eafily frangible.
Spec. grav. 2.46.
Chem. Char —Expofed to the blow-pipe, is with
difficulty reduced to a white enamel. In nitric and
muriatic acids it forms a jelly.
Conjlituent Parts.
Silica,
Lime,
Potafh,
Water,
Fourcroy and Vauquelin.
51
28
4
*7
100
EJen. Char.—Divifible parallel to the fides and bafes
of a regular fix-fided prifm. With difficulty fcratches
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found difteminated in
grains or in fmall cryftals, which are commonly perfect
fix-fided prifms. The lateral faces are fmooth and
fhining with a vitreous luftre. Longitudinal fraflure
foliated. Crofs fradlure conchoidal and fhining. Co¬
lour grayifh white. Tranflucent, rarely femitranfpa-
LocaUties, &c.—This mineral is found in the iron
mine of Utoe in Sweden, imbedded in a violet-colour¬
ed limeftone, and accompanied with greenifh hornblende
and oxide of iron.
IV. ARGILLACEOUS Genus.
r. Species. Native Alumina.
Native Argil, Kirw. i. 175. VAlumine Pure, Bro¬
chant, i. 318.
Exter Char.—This mineral is found in kidney-form
maffes j it has no luftre j fra&ure earthy ; fragments
blunt edged.
Colours fnow or yellowifh white ; opaque ; ftains a
little ; tendt r or friable j adheres a little to the tongue,
feels meagre; gives out an earthy fmell when breathed
on. Spec. grav. 1.305 to 1.66.
Chetn.
183 MINER
Argillae«- Chcm. Char.—Before the blow-pipe is abfolutely in-
fuflble» but diffolves almolt entirely in acids.
Conjlituent Parts. Fourcroy.
Alumina,
Sulphate of lime,
Water,
Lime and filica,
45
24
27
4
ICO
But according to the analylis of others, it is compofed
almoit entirely of pure alumina, mixed only with a
fmall proportion of lime and lilica.
Localities, &c.—It is found at Halle in Saxony, in
part of the garden belonging to the college, immediate¬
ly under the foil *, but being only m fmall quantity, and
in the neighbourhood of a large laboratory, has led to
the fuppofition that it is an artificial production. It
is faid that it has been alfo found at Magdeburg
in Lower Saxony, in Silefia, near Verona, and in
•England.
2. Species. Porcelain Earth.
Porcelain Clay, Kirw. i. 178. La Terre Porcdaine,
Brochant, i. 320. Argile Kaolin, et Feldfpath Ar-
gilliforme, Hauy, ii. 616.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found m a (live, or dif-
feminated $ has no luftre •, ftains llrongly j has little co¬
herence •, adheres a little to the tongue.
Colour reddifh, yellowilh, or grayilh white.
Chem. Char.—Infufible in the itrongelt heat of a
furnace.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Silica, 53.
Alumina, 27.
Lime, 2.
Oxide of iron, .5
Water, 14.
Lofs, 1.5
100.0
7I*I5
15.86
1.92
6-73
4-34
100.00
Localities, Stc.—This mineral is found in confider-
able abundance in beds and veins, in granite and gneis,
efpecially when the proportion of feldfpar is confider-
able. It abounds in China and Japan, where it is
known by the name of kaolin j in Bohemia, Saxony,
Denmark, and particularly in many places of France,
as at Limoges and Bayonne, and in Cornwall in Eng¬
land. In many cafes it feems to be owing to the de-
compofition of granite.
IJfes.—Porcelain earth, as its name imports, is em¬
ployed either as it is found native, or mixed in certain
proportions with other earths, in the manufaCIure of por¬
celain. That from Limoges in France is employed
without any addition.
3. Species. Common Clay.
This fpecies is divided into five fubfpecies : t. loam ;
2. pipe clay ; 3. potters clay j 4. variegated clay ; and,
5. flaty clay.
A L O G Y.
Part I
Subfpecies r. Loam. Claffifica.
1 tion.
Exter. Char.—'] his mineral is found mafuve and in
great abundance j has no luftre •, fracture uneven or
fine earthy •, fragments very blunt-edged j has little
coherence ; fiain?.
Colour yellowilh-gray, or fpotted with yellow and
brown, feels lomewhat greafy, and adheres ftrongly to
the tongue.
Localities, &c.—Loam is found in great abundance
every where, and perhaps it ought to be confidered a«
a mixture of different fubftances, rather than as a Am¬
ple mineral.
Subfpecies 2. Pipe Clay.
Exter. Char.—This variety is found in great maffes j
has fcarcely any luftre j fra&ure fine earthy, or fine
grained uneven ; fragments fliarp-edged j has fbme co¬
herence.
Colour grayifh or yellowiftt white ; ftreak fhining ;
feels greafy, adheres ftrongly to the tongue, and is eafily
frangible.
Localities, &c.—It is very abundant in moft countries,
and is ufually found in alluvial land.
Subfpecies 3. Potters Clay.
Id. Kirw. i. 180. Argile d Potier, Brochant, i. 322.
Exter. Char.—7'his variety is alfo found maflive, and
in great abundance. It is intermediate between folid
and friable; has no luftre ; frabture fine grained ear¬
thy, fometimes coarfe grained uneven j fragments blunt-
edged.
Colour yelloivifh, greenifti, or grayifh white ; fome¬
times reddifh or ochrey yellow of various fhades. It
is opaque, ftains a little •, ftreak a little fliining ; very-
brittle, and eafily frangible $ is fomewhat dublile ; ad¬
heres a little to the tongue, and feels greafy.
Chem. Char.—Is differently affebled by the blow¬
pipe, according to the proportion of the different fub¬
ftances of which it is compofed •, but in general is diffi¬
cult of fufion. Effervefces with acids when the pro¬
portion of lime is confiderable.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Silica, 43.5
Alumina, 33*2
Lime, . 3.5
Oxide of iron, 1.
Water, 18.
Lofs, ,8#
100.0
The proportions of filica and lime vary confider-
ably •, the filica is very often the predominant ingredi¬
ent. Kirwan examined a potters clay, in which he
found 63 parts of filica.
Localities, &c.—Potters clay is found in great abun¬
dance in moft countries, and in fimilar fituations with
the former. It often forms thick beds in alluvial land,
alternating with beds of fand.
Subfpecies 4. Variegated Clay.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive. Has
an
] xt I.
MINERALOGY.
183
iffifica- sn earthy frafture, a fliining ftreak, and is foft or fri-
ion' able.
The colour is white, red, or yellow, and thefe dif¬
ferent colours are fometimes in ilripes, veins and fpots.
Adheres a little to the tongue, and feels fomewhat
greafy. It is fe&ile and light.
As this variety of clay forms -with water a lefs tena¬
cious mafs than fome of the other varieties, it probably
contains a greater proportion of filiceous earth.
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found in Upper Lu-
fatia.
Subfpecies 5. Slaty Clay.
Slate Clay, Shale, Kirwan, i. 182. VArgile Schijlevfe,
Brochant, i. 327. Argile Schijieufe ImpreJJione'e,
Hauy, iv. 448.
Exter. Cha*-.—This fubfpecies is found maflive ; in¬
ternally dull, when free from mica ; fra&ure flaty or
earthy j fragments in tables.
Colour grayifli, yellowilh, or blackilh, fometimes
reddifh or browniih } opaque 5 foft, fertile, and eafily
frangible. Adheres to the tongue j feels meagre. Sp.
grav. 2.6 to 2.68.
Localities, &c.—Ufually accompanies coal, 10 that
it abounds in all coal countries. It is fometimes mix¬
ed with fahd, mica, and iron pyrites. It is known in
this country under the name ot /bale, and in Scotland
particularly by that of till, or defcribed under the more
general denomination of one of the coal metals. Slaty
clay is dill farther diftinguilhed by impreflions of ferns,
reeds, or graifes. When it is of a black colour, it feems
to be owing to a greater proportion of coaly matter.
5. Species. ADHESIVE SLATE.
Le Sclujle a Polir, Brochant, i. 376. Schijle a Polir,
Hauy, iv. 449. Polijlnng Slate, Klaproth, i. 455.
Analyt. Eff. Tranfl.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive ; is al¬
ways internally dull} has a flaty or fine earthy fra&ure j
fragments flaty or in tables.
Colour clear gray, whitifh or reddifh j opaque or
{lightly tranflucent at the edges ; gives a fhining ftreak j
is feddile, foft, and very ealily frangible ; adheres
ftrongly to the tongue : feels meagre. Specific gra¬
vity 2.08.
Chem. Char.—Immerfed in water, adhefive date ab-
forbs it greedily, air bubbles being rapidly difengaged
and with noife } but does not become tenacious. When
reduced to powder and calcined, it lofes about one-fifth
of its weight. Expofed to ftrong heat, it is converted into
a dark gray or yellowifh and porous flag. (Brochant).
Argillace¬
ous genus.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
66.5
I.
i*5
Silica,
Alumina,
Magnefia,
Lime,
Oxide of iron,
Carbone,
Water and air,
Lofs,
62.5
•7
8
1.25
2-5
22.
I9*
2.25
22
1
100.00
100.0
4. Species. Clay Stone, or Indurated Clay.
Indurated Clay, Kirwan, i. 181. V Argile Endurcic,
Brochant, i. 325.
Exter. Char.— Indurated clay is always found maf¬
five it is dull •, frafture compaft, or fine earthy } but
fometimes fplintery or even, and alfo fometimes flaty.
Fragments more or lefs fharp edged, and fometimes in
tables.
Colour ufually bluifh, yellowifh, or greenifh gray,
and fometimes pearl gray, grayifh red, whitifh, and
browniih. Thefe colours are often mixed, and are ar¬
ranged in fpots and ftripes. Opaque, foft, rather brittle j
eafily frangible •, adheres flightly to the tongue j feels
greafv. Spec. grav. inconfiderable. Gradually falls
to pieces in water, or crumbles into powder. Has but
little duftility.
Localities, &c.—Indurated clay is very common. It
is found in veins, and fometimes in very extenfive beds.
It conflitutes the balls of many porphyries, efpecially in
Saxony, where it is abundant. It is found in many
parts of Scotland, as on the Pentland hills in the neigh¬
bourhood of Edinburgh.
Stourbridge clay, according to Mr Kirwan, may be
included under this variety. It is of a gray colour }
does not adhere to the tongue 5 part is foon diffufed in
water, and another part falls into powder. Mr Kir¬
wan found it to contain 12.5 of moidure, 12 of a
coarfe white fand, 30 of a fine brownifh fand, and even
the remaining or argillaceous part rvas not entirely
&eed from fand but by boiling in acids.
2 .
Localities, &c.—Adhefive flate forms confiderable
beds at Menil-Montant near Paris. In thefe beds me-
nilite already defcribed is found.
6. Species. Polishing Slate.
Le Polierfchiefer, Brochant, i. 376.
Exter. Chur.—This mineral is found mafilve j inter¬
nally it is dull. Fracture flaty, but in fome dire&ions
earthy. Fragments flaty or in tables.
Colour yellowifh gray or white } and different colours
appear difpofed in flripcs 5 is foft j adheres to the tongue 5
feels meagre, and is rather light.
Localities, &c.—This mineral has been found only, it
is faid, in Bohemia, near pfeudo volcanoes, and it is fup-
pofed, that it is nothing more than indurated coal allies.
It approaches fo near in the charadlers that are given
of it to the following, that it might be included under
the fame fpecies, or confidered as a variety of it.
7. Species. Tripoli.
Id. Kin*, ii. 202. I.e Tripoli, Broch. i. 379. Quart%
Aluminifere Tripoleen, Hauy, iv. 467.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive ; is dull
internally •, has a coarfe earthy fiadlure, fometimes flaty j
fragments blunt edged.
Colour yellowifh gray, and fometimes brownifh red.
Is foft and fomewhat friable j meagre to the feel, but
does not adhere to the tongue.
Chem. Char,—It is almofl infufible before the blow-
pipe.
/
I 84.
Argillac*. pipe. It melts with borax without frothing up.
ous genus. ^oes not £orm a pa^e wjtj1 water.
Conjiituent Farts. Haafle.
Silica, 90
Alumina, 7
Oxide of iron, 3
100
Localities, &c.—This fubftance was formerly brought
to Europe from Tripoli j hence the name *, but it has
lince been found in many other places, as in Bavaria,
Saxony, and Bohemia j in Ruffia and in England. It
is found in the neighbourhood of bafalts, fometimes
forming veins j at Potfchappel it is difpofed in beds
among the ftrata of coal, and near thofe places where
ftrata of coal have been on fire.
Vfes.—Tripoli is employed in polilhing metals, pre¬
cious Hones, and glaflfes for optical inftruments.
8. Species. Floatsone.
Exter. Char.—This mineral has been found iu tu-
berofe porous mafles j it is dull, has an earthy fradlure,
and blunt-edged fragments.
The colour is yellowifti gray or grayilh white. It is
foft and brittle 5 rough to the feel, and gives out a
creaking found. It y; very light, from which it has its
name.
Localities, &c.—Has been only found at St Omers
near Paris.
9. Species. Alum Stone.
La Pierre Alumineufe, Broch. i. 381.
Exter. C/zcrr.-—This Hone is found maflive 5 is ge¬
nerally dull, rarely a little glimmering} frafture un¬
even, fometimes fplintery j fragments not very Iharp-
edged.
Colour grayifh or yellowifii white : it is foft, and
fometimes femihard } Hains a little, and adheres to the
tongue.
Chetn. Char.—This mineral does not effervefee with
acids ; but after being heated and diffolved in water, it
affords alum. According to Bergman it contains 43
of fulphur, 35 of^ alumina, and 22 of filica •, but the fol¬
lowing is the refult of Vauquelin’s analyfis.
Conjiituent Parts.
Alumina, 43-92
Silica, 24.
Sulphurous acid, 25.
Sulphate of potalh, 3.08
Water, 4.
100.00
Localities, &c.—This mineral has been long known
under the name of the Jlone of To/fa, from the name of
the place where it is found near Rome, and where it forms
a mountain which is traverfed by veins of whitifh gray
quartz. It is from this Hone that the Roman alum, fo
celebrated in commerce, is manufa&ured } and it has
Part I,
been fuppofed that the excellence of the alum is owing Claffitka.
to the mineral containing within itfelf all the ingredients 11 on-
neceffary in the formation of that triple fait. T
10. Species. Aluminous Schistus.
This is divided into two varieties or fubfpecies j 1,
common j and, 2. fhining.
Subfpecies 1. Common Aluminous Schistus.
Le Schijle Alumineux, Broch. i. 386.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found in maffes, which
often contain pieces of a globular form. It is fome¬
times glimmering, and fometimes dull; fra&ure com¬
monly Haty, and fometimes a little earthy •, fragments
in tables j Hreak the fame as the colour of the mineral,
a little Ihining.
Colour grayifli black or brownifh ; is foft j meagre
to the feel, and eafily frangible.
Ghent. Char.—When expofed to the air for fome time
it feparates, and yields alum by lixiviation.
Localities, &c.—Aluminous fchiftus is abundant in
Saxony, Bohemia, France, England, and fome parts of
Scotland. It is difpofed in beds among ffratiform rocks,
and in tranfition rocks, and it is often traverfed by
veins of quartz. Being mixed with pyrites, the decom-
pofition is thus promoted when expofed to the air.
Vfes.—This mineral is dug out for the purpofe of ex-
trading alum, firff by expofing it to the air or heat, and
then by lixiviation.
Subfpecies 2. Shining Aluminous Schistus.
Le Schi/le Alumineux Eclat ant, Broch. i. 388.
Exter. Char.—This mineral approaches very nearly
to the former in moff of its charaders, but in the di-
redion of its principal fradure the external furface is
fmooth } lufire Ihining, or refplendent, refinous, and
even fomewhat metallic j in the oppofite diredions it is
dull. Fradure commonly flaty, and fomewhat curved }
fragments in tables.
Colour intermediate between bluifli and grayifii
black, and fometimes iron black. Colours in the rents
iridefeent.
In other charaders and circumflances it refembles
the former.
11. Species. Bituminous Schistus.
Le Schijle Bitumineux, Broch. i. 289. Bituminous Shale,
Kirw. i. 183.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive j luftre
glimmering; fradure mofl commonly thin, rarely
thick ; fragments in the form of tables, fometimes tra¬
pezoidal.
Colour brownKh black, fometimes gray, or blackiffi
brown •, foft, and eafily frangible 5 adheres (lightly to
the tongue •, flreak (hining ; feels greafy.
Chetn. Char.—When placed on burning coals it gives
out a pale flame with a fulphureous odour, becomes
white, and lofes a good deal of its weight.
Localities, &c.—This mineral is peculiar to coal
countries, which it always accompanies, and alternates
with
MINERALOGY.
it
ft I.
fifica- -vpitli flaly clay and coal,
' mia, Poland, England, and Scotland.
MINERALOGY. 185
It is not unfrequent in Bolie- inftruments j and, reduced to powder, is employed in
polifliing Heel.
ous genui.
12. Species. Drawing Slate.
Black Chalk, Kirwan, i. 195. Le HchiJIe, a De(liner,
Broch. i. 391. Argile Schi/ieufe Graphique, Hauy,
iv. 447*
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found mafTive, ufually
dull •, but in the direction of the principal frafture a
little glimmering *, fra<3;ure in certain directions curved
flaty j in others fine grained earthy ; fragments fplin-
tery or tabular.
Colour grayiih or bluifli black; opaque; ftains black;
foft; meagre to the feel.
Chon. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it become* co¬
vered with a kind of varnilh.
Conjlituent Parts. Wiegleb.
64.50
11.25
II
2*75
7-5°
3
Silica,
Alumina,
Carbone,
Oxide of iron,
Water,
Lofs,
100.00
Localities, &c.—Drawing flate frequently accompa-
tdes aluminous fchirtus. It forms along with it beds
which are fubordinate to clay flate. It is found in Ita¬
ly, where it is an objeft of commerce. It is alfo found
in Spain, France, and foftie parts of Scotland.
Vfes.—As its name indicates, it i* employed like
black chalk in drawing.
13. Species. Whet Slate.
iHovaculite, Kirw. i. 238. Le Schijle a Aiguifer, Bro-
chant, i. 393. Argile Schjleufe Novaculaire, Hauy,
iv 448.
Exter. C/iflrr.-—Tliis mineral is found maflive ; is
Scarcely glimmering ; fracture in large maffes flaty, in
fmall pieces fplintery ; fragments tabular.
Colodr commonly greenifh gray, or fmoke gray,
Sometimes mountain green : tranflucent at the edges ;
femihard, but varying between hard and foft; rather
eafily frangible ; ftreak grayiih white ; feels greafy ;
dees not adhere to the tongue. Specific gravity
2.722.
Chem. Char.—Does not effervefee with acids, and is
infufible before the blow-pipe.
Localities, &c.—Whet flate is found in primitive
mountains, where it forms beds which are fubordinate
to clay (late. It was originally brought from the Le¬
vant ; but has fince been difcovered in Bohemia, Saxo¬
ny, in Bayreuth, where it is wrought, and in Siberia.
An cfflorefcence has been obferved on the furface,
which is found to be fulphate of magnefia ; from which
it is naturally fuppofed that the bafe of that fait forms
one of it* eonftituent parts.
Ufes.—Whet flate, as its name imports, is cut and
polifhed for the p rpofe of fharpening knives and other
Vol. XIV. Part L
14. ’Species. Clay Slate.
jlrgillite, or Argillaceous Schrjlus, or Si te, Kirwan, i«
234. Ce Schijle Argilleux, Brochant, i. 395. Ar-
gie Schjleufe Tegulaire, Hauy, iv. 447.
Exter. Char.—Clay flate is found maffive, or diffe-
minated, or in rounded pieces; internally it is a little
fhining or glimmering ; rarely dull ; the more the ftruc--
ture is foliated, the greater is its lu 're. Luflre fome-
times filky, pearly, or feminietallic. Fraffure more or
lefs flaty, fometimes curved and waved, fometimes earthy
or fplilitery ; fragments tabular, rarely fplintery ; fome¬
times cubic or rhomboidal.
Colour chiefly gray of various (hades ; but fometimes
it is reddifh, brownith, or yellowifh, or reddifh brown.
Different colours are fo difpofed as to appear ftriped,
waved, fpotted, or dendritic. It is in general foft ;,
fometimes femihard, feftile, and eafily frangible. Gives
a grayifh white ftreak ; feels greafy. Spec. grav. 2.67
to 2.88.
According to Kirwan, clay flate is compofed of filica,
alumina, lime, magnefia, and iron, with fome bitumi¬
nous particles.
Localities, &c.—Clay flate belongs equally to the
primitive, tranfition, and ftratiform rocks, and frequently
forms entire mountains. Primitive clay flate i* fome¬
times mixed with quartz, mica, hornblende, garnets,
limeftone, pyrites, cinnabar as at Idria ; in general
it abounds with metallic ores, either in veins or in
beds.
Clay flate is very abundant in mod countries;
it is not unfrequent in many parts of Scotland ;
but the flate of Eafdale, and the contiguous iflands
on the weft coaft, has long maintained a decided
fuperiority and preference to all others in this coun¬
try.
Vfes.—Clay flate is in extenfive ufe for covering
houfes, and then it is known in this country by the
Angle "word fate. It is alfo employed in large plates
for writing on, or tracing characters that are afterwards
to be effaced.
15. Species. Lepidolite.
Id. Kirwan, i. 208. Id. Hauy, iv. 375. La Lepido*
lithe, Brochant, i. 399.
Exter. Char.—Lepidolite is found maflive, and diffe-
minated in fmail plates, which might be taken for mi¬
ca. It is ufually glimmering, rarely finning. Luftre
femimetallic. FraCture fine grained uneven, rarely fo¬
liated. Fragments blunt edged.
Colour lilac blue, grayifh and reddifh brown ; tranf¬
lucent. Semihard ; fometintes foft ; eafily frangible ;
and feels meagre. Is eufily feraped with the knife ;
but is with difficulty reduced to powder by trituration.
The powder rubbed between the fingers has a greafy
feel. Spec. grav. 2.816 to 2.854.
Chem. Char.—Froths up under the blow-pipe,
and melts into a tranfparent colourlefs globule; but
with the addition of a little nitre it becomes vio-*
let.
A a
Confitueni
i86
Argillace¬
ous genus.
Conjlituent Parts,
tion.
Silice,
Alumina,
Potalh,
Pluate of lime,
Oxide of iron and manganefe, .75
Water and loi's, 2.5
Klaproth.
54-5
38.25
4*
V auquelin.
54
20
18
100.00
Localities, &c.—This mineral was firft: difcovered in
the mountain Gradilko near Rofena in Moravia, where
it is found in confiderable mafles included in blocks of
granite. It is found alfo in Sweden. Sometimes it is
difleminated in quartz rock.
1 he name, from Asarjf, “ a fcale,” is derived from its
fcaly ftru&ure. Lepidolite was at firlt taken for fluate
of lime or zeolite. A red coloured variety of fchorlite
was alfo fuppofed to be cryftallized lepidolite.
MINERALOGY. part]
Localities, &c.—Mica is one of the molt common Ciaffifica.
minerals, forming one of the conftituent parts of gra-
nite, gneis, micaceous fchiftus, and other primitive rocks,
and in fome of them fometimes forms particular fmall
veins. Mica alfo enters into the compofxtion of ftrati-
form rocks, as green ftone, bafalt, wacken.
Cat gold and cat filver are varieties of mica of a gold
or filver colour, which have a confiderable luftre, but
inferior to that of thefe metals. It may be eafily di-
ftinguilhed by the ftreak, which in the mica affords a
whitifli powder without any luftre.
Ufes.—When mica is obtained in large and thin
plates, it is employed as a fubftitute for glafs, and for
this purpofe it has been ufed for windows of men of
war, as on account of its elafticity it is lefs fubjeft
to be broken from the concuftion produced by the firing
of cannon.
100
17. Species. Finite.
Micarelle, Kirw. i. 212. La Finite, Broch. i. 456.
16. Species. MlCA.
Id. Kirw. i. 21. Id. Broch i. 402. Id. Hauy, iii.
208.
Exter. Char.—Mica is moft commonly dilfeminated
in thin tables, rarely maftive or cryftallized. The pri¬
mitive form of its cryftals is a re&angular prifm,
wholes bafe* are rhombs with angles of 1 20° and 6o° j
the integrant molecule is the fame. The ufual forms
of its cryftals are, a fix-fided table with equal angles,
fometimes very thick, which produces a fix-fided prifm,
and the want of two of the faces produces the table
with four rhomboidal faces j but the moft common
form of mica is in thin plates or feales of no determi¬
nate figure. The lateral faces of the baf«s of the ta¬
bles are fmooth and refplendent} luftre metallic ; frac¬
ture foliated, fometimes curved or waved, and fometimes
radiated j fragments in the form of plates.
Colour ufually gray, afh, yellowilh, greenifti, and
blackilh gray j in thin plates femitranfparent, or even
tranfparent; otherwife, only tranflucent on the edges j
femihard, very eafily frangible j flexible and elaftic. Sp.
grav. 2.79 to 2.93.
PhijJical Char.—Mica rubbed on Spanilh wax com¬
municates to it negative eleftricity.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it is with dif¬
ficulty fufible into a whitiih gray or green enamel.
Black mica yields a black enamel, which is attradled
by the magnet.
Exter. Char.—This mineral has been ufually found
cryftallized in fix-fided prifms, having all the lateral
edges truncated, or only three alternating edges, or in
four-fided rhomboidal prifms. The furfaces of the cry¬
ftals fmooth and a little glimmering j internally it is
dull, fometimes a little (hining in the crols fracture j
the fra&ure is fine grained, uneven, or fmall conchoidal j,
fragments blunt-edged.
Colour reddilh or blackifh brown j opaque j the
brown variety is flightly tranfparent j fo foft as to be
cut with a knife, when it becomes of a bluifh black ^
powder bright gray j adheres a little to the tongue
feels greafy j fp. grav. 2.98.
Covjiituent Parts. Klaproth.
Alumina, 63.75
Silica, 29.50
Oxide of iron, 6.75
1CO.OO
Localities, &c.—'Finite is found only near Schneeberg
in Saxony, in the mine called Pini; hence its name. It
is accompanied by quartz, feldfpar and mica, which
conftitute a fmall grained granite.
18. Species. Potstone.
Id. Kirw. i. 155. La Pierre Ollaire, Broch. i. 405,
Talc Ollaire, Hauy, iii. 257.
Vauquelin.
Silica, 50.
Alumina, 35.
Lime, 1.33
Magnefia, I*35
Oxide of iron, 7.
L«fs, 5.3 2
100.00
Kirwan.
CelourJefs Mica,
38
28
5 20
9 14
100 100
Conjlituent Parts.
Bergman.
Mufcovy Glafs.
40
45
Exter. Char.—Potftone is found maflive $ internally
it is dull, fometimes glimmering or a little fhining,
pearly , fradture curved flaty, rarely foliated or wa¬
ved i fragments blunt edged, in the form of tables or
feales.
Colour greenifti gray, fometimes reddifti or yellow-
ifli j opaque, rarely tranflucent on the edges j foft, fec-
tile, and mild, feels greafy $ by being breathed upon
it emits the argillaceous fmell. Spec. grav. 2.76 to
2.86.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe 5 fome
varieties abforb a little water.
Conjlituent-
MINERALOGY.
Conjiituent Parts.
Silica,
Magnefia,
Alumina,
Lime,
Oxide of iron,
Fluoric acid ?
Lofs,
Wiegleb.
38.12
38-54
6.66
•41
I5*02
.41
.84
100.00
Localities, &.c.—Potftone is found at Cbiavenna, itx
the Valteline, from which the fpecimen above analyzed
•*Vas obtained 5 at Como, in Switzerland, hence called
Como Jlone. It is alfo found in Saxony, Hungary, and
on the banks of Loch Fine oppofite to Inverary in Scot¬
land. Potftone forms entire beds, and is ufually ac¬
companied by ferpentine, or it is in nefts ; it is rarely
pure, but mixed with chlorite, talc, albeflus, &c.
Ufes.—On account of the rcfra&ory nature of this
ftone, it is employed in the conftru6lion of furnaces
where great heat is required ; and as it may be cut or
turned on the lathe, it has been formed into utenfxls for
the kitchen, and hence the name potflone.
19. Species. Chlorite.
Id. Kirw. i. 147. La Chlorite, Broch. i. 408. Talc
Chlorite, Hauy, iii. 257.
Chlorite is divided into four fubfpecies : I. earthy j
2. common j 3. foliated \ 4. fchiftofe or flaty.
Subfpecies 1. Earthy Chlorite.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is compofed of fmall,
fcaly, thin, and (lightly glimmering particles, cohering
together, rarely in the form of powder.
Colour intermediate between mountain green and
dark leek green ; fometimes brownifh ; does tyjt flain j
feels greafy, but does not adhere to the tongue j gives
an earthy fmell by breathing on it.
Chem. Char.—Melts before the blow-pipe into a gray
w black enamel.
foliated j fragments blunt-edged ; foft, fometimes femi-
hard.
Colour fimilar to the former, and fometimes grayilh
white j is opaque, eafily frangible ; gives a light greert
Itreak without luftre.
Conjlituent Parts. Hoepfner.
Silica, 41
Magnefia, 39
Alumina, . 6
Lime, r
Oxide of iron, 10
Lofs, 3
IOO
Localities, Sec.-—Common chlorite is found in the
fame places with the former, and indeed it is fuppofed
to be earthy chlorite indurated. At Altenberg in
Saxony, it is mixed with pyrites of copper and arfenic,
and common hornblende.
Subfpecies 3. Foliated Chlorite.
Exter. Char.—This variety is found mafiive, diffemi-*
nated, and cryfiallized in the form of a fix-fided table
fomewhat elongated j feveral of thefe tables being uni¬
ted together, frequently form globular, kidney-form,
or botryoidal groups. External luftre glimmering or
weakly finning; internal fiiining, refinous, or pearly $
fra£ture foliated $ folia curved j cleavage fimple j frag¬
ments in tables.
Colour intermediate between leek and dark green j
opaque, or tranflucent at the edges ; ftreak light green $
is foft, fe&ile, eafily frangible, and feels a little greafy.
Conjlituent Parts. Lampadius.
Silica, 35.
Magnefia, 29.9
Alumina, 18.
Oxide of iron, 9.7
Water, 2.7
Lofs, 4.7
I87
Argillace^
ous germs.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Silica, 26.
Alumina, 18.50
Magnefia, 8.
Muriate of foda, 2.
Oxide of iron, 43.
Water, 2.
Lofs, .so
100.00
localities, &c.—Earthy chlorite is always found in
primitive mountains, forming beds which are fubordi-
Yiate to clay flate. It is found in Saxony, Switzerland,
Savoy, and in Scotland.
Subfpecies 2. Common Chlorite.
Exter. Char.—This is found mafiive and difieminated,
or in thin i'uperficial layers on other ftones} internal
luftre flightly glimmering, refinous j fra&ure earthy, or
100.0
Localities, &c.—This mineral has been only found
on St Gothard in Switzerland 5 it lines the fides of a
vein which traverfes micaceous fchiftus. It is accom¬
panied by cryftals of green mica, adularia, and quartz.
Brpchant fuggefts that foliated chlorite may perhaps
be nothing elfe than a cryftallized mica.
Subfpecies 4. Schistose Chlorite.
Exter. Char.—This variety is found maflive j inter¬
nal luftre weakly Ihining, fometimes Ihining, refinous j
fra&ure curved flaty, fometimes waved, or a little
fplintery $ fragments tabular.
Colour green ; is foft, fertile, and eafily frangible j
ftreak light green ; feels a little greafy j gives the earthy
fmell by breathing.
Localities, &c.—Slaty chlorite is found in Norway,
Sweden, Switzerland, in different parts of Scotland, as
on the banks of Loch Lomond, and in the iflands of
A a 2 Bute
i8* MINER
Argillace- Rute and Arran, Sometimes it forms very extenfive
ous ^e£js -n mountajns 0£ cjay fiate> to u hid-i it is fubordi-
nate^ and it is frequently accompanied by garnets and
magnetic iron, cryftallized in o6lahedrons. The name
is derived from the Greek word which fignifies green.
2,0. Species. Hornblende,
This is divided into four luolpecies } i. common $
2. bafaltic j 3. labradore j and, 4. fchiftofe.
Subfpecies 1. Common Hornblende.
Hornblende, Kirw. i. 163. Ho' nb/ende Commune, Broch.
i. 415. Amphibole, Hauy, iii. 38.
Exter. Char.—Hornblende is found malTive or difle-
minated, and fometimes cryltalhzed. The forms are a
fonr-fidtd priim, of which the acute oppofite lateral
edges are ftrongly truncated j a fix-lided prifm with
four broad and two narrow faces, (lightly truncated on
the lateral edges ; a (imilar (ix-fided prifm, (liort, and
having the extremities bevelled 3 an eight-fided prifm,
having at its extremities, a convex bevehnent. Some¬
times the cryftals are acicular and in groups 3 internal
lull re (hining, vitreous, or pearly 3 frafture foliated,
fometimes radiated, and fometimes fibrous 3 furface of
the fradfure longitudinally ftreaked 3 fragments (harp-
edged, fometimes rhomboidal.
Colour deep black, greenilh black, or greenifh gray 3
ufually opaque. The green varieties tranllucent at the
edges. Soft or femihard ; not eafily frangible 3. (Ireak
greenKh gray 3 gives an earthy fmell by breathing on
it : fp. grav. 3.6 to 3.88.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it melts ealily
into a grayilh black glafs.
ConJUtuent Parts.
Kirwtn. Hermann.
37 37
22 27
16 3
2 5
Oxide of iron, 23 25
Lofs, 3
100 100
Localities, &c.—Hornblende is one of the conftituent
parts of primitive rocks, as in (ienite 3 and it feems alfo
to be an accidental fubilance, as in gneifs, primitive
limeftone, porphyries, and micaceous fchiflus. It is
found alfo in maffes or entire beds, as in Saxony 3 and is
very common in moil countries, as in Norway, Hun¬
gary, and Britain.
Vfes—Sometimes employed as a flux for ores of iron.
Subfpecies 2. Basaltic Hornblende.
Bafaltine, Kirw. i. 219. Horb/ende Bafaltique, Roch. i.
424.
Ex ter. Char.—This mineral is mod frequently found
cryftallized in equal fix-(ided prifms, varioully modified
or with equal fides 3 having two narrow and four broad 3
or four narrow and two broad 3 or three broad and
three narrow alternately. The cryftals are imbedded,
infulated, or grouped. Surface fmootb, (hining 3 in¬
ternal luftre refplendent, in the crofs tratfiue weakly
2
A L O G Y. part
fliining, vitreous 3 fraflure foliated 3 crofs fra£lure fmall Claffifi
grained, uneven, or conchoidal. Fragments nearly tlon
rhomboidal. 'V"
Colour velvet black, and fometimes with a Aiade of
green 3 opaque 3 (freak grayilh white 3 femihard 3 earthy
fmell by expiration Spec. grav. 3.22 to 3.33.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe melts lefs eafily
than the preceding, into a black glafs.
Conjlituent Parts. Bergman,
Silica, 38
Alumina, 27
Lime, 4..
Magnefia, 1
Oxide of iron, 9
Lofs, i
IOO
Localities, &c.—This mineral, as its name import?;,
is ufually found in bafall. It is alfo met with in
wacken, and in the lava ofVefuvius. It is not un¬
common in the bafaltic rocks of Silefia, Saxony, and
Bohemia, as well as in thofe of this country. As it is
leis liable to decompofition than the rocks which con¬
tain it, detached cryftals are frequently found among;
decayed bafalt.
Subfpecies 3. Labradore Hornblende.
La Hornblende du Labrador, Broch. i. 419.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive, difte-
minated, in rounded pieces, and very rarely cryftallized
in four-fided re&angular prifms. Internal luftre Alin¬
ing, fomewhat metallic 3 fra&ure foliated, fometimes
curved.
Colour blackifti green, or greeniAi black 3 fometimes
bronze yellow' 3 fcarcely tranilucent at the edges; femi¬
hard 3 not difficultly frangible 3 (freak greenifti. Spec,
grav. 3^8.
Localities, &.c.—-This mineral is found in the ifiand
of St Paul on the Labradore coaft, but nothing is known
of the nature of its repofitory.
Subfpecies 4. Schistose Hornblende.
Id. Kinv. i. 222. La Hornblende Schijleuje, Broch. i.
428.
Exter. Char.—This variety is found maffive 3 inter¬
nal luftre weakly thining 3 fra&ure in mafles Aaty 3 in
fmall pieces radiated, fometimes fibrous 3 fragments in
plates.
Colour greeniAi, or grayiAi black 3 opaque j femihard 3
(freak greeniAi gray 3 rather difficultly frangible 3 breath¬
ed on, gives the earthy fmell.
Localities, &c.—Schiftofe hornblende forms exten¬
five beds in primitive mountains, to which it is fubordi-
nate. It feems to be common hornblende more or lefs
mixed with quartz. It is found in Bohemia, Norway,
Sw'eden, in the ifte of Skye, and other places of Scot¬
land.
21. Species. Basalt.
Figurate Trap, Trap, Whinjlone, See. Kirw. i. 225.— 233.
Le Bafalte, Broch. i. 430. La Lithdide Prifmatiquei
Hauy, iv. 474.
Silica,
Alumina,
Magnefia,
Lime,
Exter.
art I.
laffifica- Exter. Char.—Bafalt forms entire mountains, in the
neighbourhood of which it is found in rounded pieces,
or in large globular malfes j internally it is dull j fome-
times glimmering from a mixture of hornblende \ frac¬
ture uneven, fometimes fine fplintery or conchoidal j
fragments not very lharp-edged. It is moil frequently
in diftinft concretions, which are prifmatic or columnar,
more or lefs regular j fometimes alio in globular ditlindit
concretions.
Colour gray!fir or bluilli black, fometimes brownidr
on the furface ; opaque ; femihard j brittle, and very
difficultly frangible ; ftreak light affi gray j gives a
ringing found under the hammer. Spec. grav. 2.86
to 3.
Chem. Char.—Melts very eafily before the blow¬
pipe into an opaque black glafs which aifts on the
magnet.
Physical Char.—Many bafalts affe£t the magnetic
needle, reverfing the poles when it is brought near
them. This is afcribed to the great proportion of iron
which enters into their compofition.
Localities, &c. Bafalt is not uncommon in every
part of the globe, and in many places it is very abun¬
dant. It is found in regular columns in feveral of the
Hebrides on the weft coaft of Scotland, as in Cannay,
Eigg, the Schant ifles, but particularly beautiful in Staf-
fa. Pretty regular columns are obferved alfo at Dunbar,
and on the fouth-vreft fide of Arthur’s feat near Edin¬
burgh ; but the Giant’s caufeway and the rocks about
Fairhead on the north coaft of Ireland, exhibit the
fineft and moft extenfive ranges of columnar bafalt in
the world.
Bafalt, befides being in the columnar form, is of¬
ten difpofed in beds and veins ; both of which are very
common in different places in Scotland, particularly on
the weftern coaft, and in the weftern iflands. See Dr
Millar’s edition of Williams'1 s Mineral Kingdom.
No fubje<ft, in geological fpeculation, has produced
more controverfial difcuffion than the origin of bafalt ;
one party aflerting that it is the effcdl of fufion, while
another contends that it muft have been depofited from
an aqueous folution. Our limits preclude us even from
barely ftating the arguments which have been propofed
by naturalifts in fupport of the theories which different
parties have embraced. For an account of fome of
them, fee GEOLOGY Index ; and for the conftituent
parts of bafalt, and fome other fa£ts connected with its
natural hiftory, fee Basalt.
Ufes.—Bafalt is fometime* employed as a touchftone,
as a flux for ores of iron, and in the manufacture of
common bottles. It is alfo employed for millftones.
The ancients employed it in fculpture, for it would ap¬
pear that fome of their vafes and ftatues were formed
of it.
22. Species. Wacken.
Id. Kirw. i. 213. La Wahke, Broch. i. 434.
I89
mihard •, eafily frangible j feels a little greafy. Spec. Argillace-
grav. 2.53 to 2.89. ,ous gemis-.
Chem. Char.—Fufible like bafalt. v
Localities, &c.—Wacken belongs to the ftratiform
rocks. It contains fometimes petrified wood, and the
bones of animals. It conftitutes beds fometimes in the
middle of bafalt, but is oftener in the form of veins,
and is the bafis of amygdaloid, the cavities of which
are filled with green earth, calcareous fpar, 6tc. Wack¬
en is met with in Saxony, Bohemia, Sweden, and ma¬
ny places of Scotland.
23. Species. Phonolite, or Clinhjlone.
Id. Daubuiffon, Jour, de Phyf. lx. 74. La Pierre Son-
nante, Broch. i. 437. Klingstem and Porphyrfchie-
fer of the Germans.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is always found maffive j
internal luftre glimmering ; fradhire flaty, foraetimes
uneven or conchoidal; fragments lharp-edged ■, compo-
fed of diftinCt concretions, which arc either in the form
of tables, or are columnar, and fomewhat rtgularly
grouped together.
Colour gray, affi, greeniffi, or bluilh gray *, the co¬
lours fometimes have a dendritical appearance $ opaque,
or tranflucent at the edges; femihard, 01 hard 5 not
difficultly frangible 5 in thin plates it emits a found
•when ftruck with a hammer, and hence its name.
Spec. grav. 2.575.
Chem. Char.—Melts before the blow-pipe into a co-
lourlefs glafs.
Conjlituent Parts.
Klaproth. Bergman-.
Silica, 57.25 58.
Alumina, 23.5 24.5
Time, 2.75 3.5
Oxide of iron, 3.25 4.5
 manganefe, .25 —
Soda, 8.1 6.
Water, 3. 2.
Lofs, 1.9 1.5
100.00 100.0
The ftone analyzed above by Bergman, was from
Puy in Velay, in France, and is conlidered by Dolo-
mieu as volcanic. The other by Klaproth, is from
Bohemia. Excepting the fmall proportion of manga¬
nefe detected in the latter, the coincidence of the two
anaTyfes is very ftriking.
Localities, &c.—Phonolite is not uncommon in many
parts of the world. It is met with in Scotland, in the
ifland of Lamlaffi near Arran ; and it conftitutes the
greater part of Traprene Lawr in Eaft Lothian j in both
places it is columnar.
MINERALOGY.
Exter. Char.—Wacken is found maffive ; it is fre¬
quently vefieular, and the cavities are often filled with
other minerals -, internal appearance dull j fraflure even
or earthy ; fragments rather blunt-edged.
Colour grayiffi green, grayiffi black, reddiffi, or
browniffi 5 opaque ; ftreak a little ffixning ; foft or fe-
24, Species. Lava.
Id. Kirw. i. 400. La Lave, Broch. i. 440. La Scori-
flee, Hauy, iv. 497.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is generally of a porous
texture, with cavities of different lizes; luftre glimmer-
xgo
Argillace- ing1 or a little ftuning, vitreous ; frafture imperfectly
ous gen,,.. conc]10j[ja] . fragmcnts not very fharp-edged.
Colour blackilh gray, perfect black, or brownifh
black, fometimes greenifh, and rarely white 5 opaque ;
fernihard ; brittle j not difficultly frangible ; light.
Chcm. Char.—Lava is very fuiible, and yields a com¬
pact black glafs.
Conjliiuent Parts. Bergman.
Silica, 49
Alumina, 35
Lime, 4
Oxide of iron, 1 2
100
Localities, &c—Lava being a volcanic produCt, is
wnly found in the vicinity of volcanoes.
Ufes —Lavas are employed for the purpofes of build¬
ing ; their lightnefs, arifing from the numerous cavities,
renders them proper for the conflruCtion of vaults.
25. Species. Green Earth.
Id. Kirw. i. 196. La Terre Verte. Brochant, i. 445.
Talc Chlorite Zogrr.phique, Hauy, iii. 257.
Exter. Char.—Green earth is found maffive, or dif-
feminated, or in fuperficial crufts on balls of agate j
internally it is dull 5 fraCture earthy ; fragments blunt-
edged.
Colour celadon green, or blackiffi green ; opaque $
foft j feels flightly greafy •, adheres a little to the tongue $
Breaks weakly (hining.
Chem. Cnar.—Before the blow-pipe it becomes black,
but is infufible. It is not aCted on by acids, and ab-
forbs water.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silica, 53.
Alumina, 12.
Lime, 2.5
Magnefia, 3.5
Oxide of iron, 17.
Water, 12.
Lofs, 1.
100.00
Localities, &c.—Green earth is found at Verona,
where it is wrought, and conflitutes an article of com¬
merce •, and it is met with in all amygdaloid rocks.
Efcs.—Green earth is employed as a colouring mat¬
ter in painting.
Part I,
Colour yellowifh white, fnow white, fometimes red- ClafUfica-
diffi j the particles have very little cohefxon. tion. ^
Subfpecies 2. Indurated Lithomarga.
Exter. Char.—This is alfo found maffive or diffemi-
nated j is dull ; has a fine grained earthy fraClure,
fometimes conchoidal 5 blunt edged.
Colour white, yellowiffi, or reddifh white ; browniffi
red, and feveral Ihades of yellow. Different colours
are difpofed in fpots, veins, dots, llripes, or clouds $
opaque $ very foft 5 Break ffiining j adheres to the
tongue •, feels grealy.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe \ falls
to pieces in water without forming a pafle. According
to fome analyfes, it contains a large proportion of mag¬
nefia.
Phyjical Char.—Some varieties when rubbed with a
feather in the dark, give a little light.
Localities, &c.—Eithomarga or Bone marrow, de¬
rives its name from its being found in nodules in amyg¬
daloid rocks ; it occupies veins or fmall fiffures in por¬
phyry, gneis, and ferpentine. It is found in Bohemia,
Saxony, France, England, and at the Giant’s caufeway
in Ireland. A variety of lithomarga, which exhibits
many fine colours, particularly violet or lavender blue,
is found in beds repofing on coal at Planitz, near
Zwickau in Saxony. It has been called, from its beau¬
tiful appearance, wonder earth of Saxony (Terra mira-
culofa).
27. Species. Mountain or Rock Soap.
Le Savon de Montague, Brochant, i. 453.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive ; is dull
internally •, has an earthy, and fometimes an imper-
fe£lly conchoidal fracture j fragments blunt-edged.
Colour browniffi black, fpotted ochrey yellow. CL
paque j very foft; eafily frangible j Break ffiining, and
refinous ; Bains and ivrites on paper j feels greafy, and
adheres firongly to the tongue.
Localities, &c.—This mineral is rare ; has been
found at Olkutfch in Poland, and alfo, it is faid, in
England.
28. Species. UMBER.
Exter. Char.-*—This mineral is found maffive j frac¬
ture conchoidal} fragments blunt-edged.
Colour browniffi, of various ffiades } foft; adheres 2
little to the tongue, and has a meagre feel.
Localities, &c.—Umber is found difpofed in beds,
in the illand of Cyprus ; and it is employed as a pig¬
ment.
MINERALOGY
26. Species. Lithomarga.
Id. Kirw. i. 187. La Moelle de Pierre, Brochant, i.
447. Argile Lithomarge, Hauy, iv. 444.
This is divided into two fubfpecies, chiefly diflin-
guiffied by their cohefion. Thefe are, 1. friable j 2.
indurated.
Subfpecies 1. FriAble Lithomarga.
Exter. Char.—This is found maffive or difleminated j
is flightly glimmering j adheres flrongly to the tongue *,
f^els greafy.
29. Species. Yellow Earth.
Id. KirW. i. 194. La Terre Jaime, Broch. i. 455.
Exter. Char.—Yellow earth is found maffive ; it is"
dull, or in the principal fra&ure, which is flaty, glim¬
mering ; crofs frafture earthy ; fragments very blunt-
edged.
Colour ochrey yellow ; very foft; Break flrining ’y
feels greafy, and adheres a little to the tongue.
Localities, &c.—It has only been found in fmall
beds in Bratified mountains, at Wehraw in Upper Lu-
fatia.
3
irt I. MINERALOGY.
aflifica- fatia, and it is faid, in the cavities of gray wacken, and
tian. jn gfl’m-gg 0f a fandftoue rock.
ll/es.-—It is employed in the arts as a pigment.
igi
V. MAGNESIAN Genus.
i. Species. Native Magnesia.
Magnejle Native, Brochant, ii. 449.
Exter. Char.—Native magnefia is found maflive, tu¬
berous or carious. Surface uneven and dull. Fradture
flat, conchoidal, fplintery or earthy. Fragments fharp-
edged.
Colour yellowifli gray, with fpots and dendritic deli¬
neations of black or blackifli brown. Opaque, foft and
eafily frangible. Feels greafy 5 adheres to the tongue,,
and is rather light.
Colour yellowi(h brown or reddifh, with fpots and Magnefian
dcntritical figures of black ; opaque, rarely tranflucent Senus-
at the edges ; very foft j eafily frangible j adheres to
the tongue j feels greafy j ftreak Ihining : fp. gray.
1.4 to 2.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it becomes black
or gray, and melts into a greenilh gray flag. Falls .0
pieces in water with a crackling noife, and without
forming a palte.
Conjlituent Parts. Bergman.
Silica, 417.
Alumina, 19.
Magnefia, 6.2
Lime, 5.4
Oxide of iron, c.4
Water, ij.
Conjlituent Parts.
Carbonic acid, 51.
Magnefia, 47«4
A traee of iron,
Lofs, 1.6
100.0
Localities, &c.—This mineral was difeovered by Dr
Mitchell in a ferpentine rock at Roubfchitz in Mora¬
via.
100.0
Localities, &e.—The chief places which yield bole
are the ifland of Lemnos, hence called Lemnian earth ;
Sienna in Italy, and Strigau in Silefia, in which latter
place it is depofited on indurated clay j in Upper Lu-
fatia it forms nelts in bafalt.
Ufes-—Bole and fimilar earths were formerly employ¬
ed in medicine j it is now only ufed in the preparation
of colours.
A mineral in many refpe&s fimilar to this has
ur de been analyzed by Giobert*. It was long known un-
der the name of porcelain earth, and was fuccefsfully
employed in that manufacture. Giobert fuppofes that
the external characters, and particularly the colours, of
the mineral found in Moravia, feem to indicate the ex-
iftence of other fubftances befide thofe detected by Dr
Mitchell’s analyfis.
Exter. Char.—The mineral deferibed by Giobert is
found maflive or in mammillary fragments, fome of
which are tuberculated. Surface dull. Fra&ure con¬
choidal or uneven.
Colour pure white. Opaque. Spec. grav. variable.
Hard, fometimes foft. Feels greafy', adheres flightly
to the tongue. The fofter varieties abforb water greedi¬
ly and with a hifling noife.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe.
Conjlituent Parts.
Cimolite.
This is a mineral which in many of its chara6ters is
clofely connected with the preceding.
Exter. Char.—It is found maflive j frafture earthr
uneven, or llaty j colour grayifh white, pearl gray, and
expofed for fome time to the air, reddifli; opaque j
does not flain ; adheres Itrongly to the tongue j is loft,
and difficultly frangible : fp. grav. 2.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it becomes at
firlt of a deep gray colour, but afterwards white.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silica, 63.
Alumina, 23.
Oxide of iron, 1.25
Water, 12.
Lofs, .73
Magnefia, 68.
Carbonic acid, 12.
Silica, 13.6
Sulphate of lime, 1.6
Water, 3.
100.2
Localities, &c.—-This mineral is found at Baudiflero,
in a vein which traverfes a fteatitic rock of which the
mountain is compofed.
2. Species. Bole.
Id. Kirw. i. 190. Le Bol, Broch. i. 459. Argile
Ochreufe, Hauy, 443.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive and difleminated ; fur-
face dull, fometimes a little glimmering j fra&ure con-
ehoidal j fragments lharp-edged.
100.00
Localities, &c.—This mineral was brought by Mr
Hawkins from the ifland of Argentiers, formerly
Cimolo, from whence it has its name. Olivier found a
fimilar fubftance in the ifland of Milo, but which
was very friable.
tyes—This fubftance is employed in whitening wool¬
len fluffs. It is deferibed by Pliny under the name
Cimolia, as being applied to the fame purpofe, and alfo
as a medicine in his time.
It is to be obferved that cimolite contains, according
to the above analyfis, no magneiit.
3. Species. Sea Froth.
Kejfehill. Kirw. i. 144. DEcume tie Mer, Broch. i.
462. Argile glaife, Hauy, iv. 443. Meerfchaum
of the Germans.
Exter,
I Q2
MINERAL OG
Y.
Magnefian Exter. Char—Tins mineral is found tnafTive, diffe-
, g<;ril,s minatt-d, or in fuperficial layers. Surface dull Fravlure
fine earthy, fometimes flaty. Fragments fliarp edged.
Colour yellowilli white. Opaque. Very foft Fafily
frangible. Streak fliining. FeeL greafy j and adheres
to the tongue. Sp. gr. 1.6
Chcm. Char.— Infufible before the blow-pine.
Conjlituent Paris. Klaproth.
Silica, 50.5
IVIagnefia, I7-25
Lime, .5
Water, 25.
Carbonic acid, 5.
Lofs, 1.75
41*
18.25
•5
3^*
1.25
Exter. Char.—Steatites is found maflive, diiTemina- Glafiificai
ted, and erytlallized. Forms of the cryftals, a fix-fided
priim terminated by a fix-tided pyramid; a rectangular
and rhumboidal four-tided prifm, and a double fix-tided
pyramid. Ihe cryi als art final!, generally imbedded
in the maflive variety ; but they are very rare ; and it
is fuppofed, with tome probability, that they are pfeudo-
cryftals Surface of the crydals fmooth and fhining.
Internally dull; fraClure coarfe 'plintery, rarely earthy
or flaty. Fragments blunt-edgtd.
Colour grecni'h, yellowiih, reddifli or grayifh. Co¬
lours fometimeb mixed, and fpotted or dendritical.
Tranflucent at the edges. Soft, fometimes friable^
Streak fhining. Feels greafy. Sp. gr. 2.614.
Chetn. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe; but
becomes white and very hard.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silica,
Magnefia,
Alumina,
Oxide of iron,
Water,
Lofs,
From Cornwall.
48.
20.5
14.
I.
IS-5
1.
From Bayreuth.
59-5
30-5
2-5
5-5
2.
ICO.OO 100.00
Localities, &c.—Sea froth is found in Natolia, in the
Crimea, in Spain and fome other places. It appears to
be dillributed in low grounds in thin beds; and it is
faid lo be in the date of foft pade which hardens in the
air.
Vfes—It is employed in Turkey, in the manufafture
of the heads of tobacco pipes ; and as a deterfive fub-
dance, like fullers earth, by the Tartars.
4. Species. Fullers Earth.
Id. Kirw. i. 184. Ln Terra a Fou/on, Broch. i. 464.
Argile SmeClique, Hauy, iv. 443.
Exter. Char.—Found madive. Surface dull. Frac¬
ture fine-grained earthy, conchoidal or daty. Frag¬
ments blunt-edged.
Colour olive green, yellowifli or reddifh. Colours
fometimes mixed and difpofed in fpots or dripes; opake ;
foft or friable. Streak fome what diining. Sometimes
adheres to the tongue ; feels greafy.
Chem. Char.—Does not effervefee with acids ; melts
into a brown fpongy clay ; falls to pieces in water with¬
out forming a pade, and does not froth up like foap.
Conjlituent Parts. Bergman.
Silica,
Alumina, 25.
Lime, 3.3
Magnefia, .7
Oxide of iron, 3.7
Water, 15.5
100.00
Localities, &c.—Fullers earth is found in Sweden,
Saxony, and France, forming beds; but the bed fullers
earth is found between drata of fandltone in Hampfhire
and feme other places of England.
VJes.—Fullers earth is of great importance in woollen
manufactures, on account of its deterfive properties. It
is extenfively employed in the procefs of fulling or clean-
fmg woollen duffs from greafy matters.
5. Species. Steatites.
La Pierre de Lard, ou Steatite, Broch. i. 474- Semi-
indurated and Foliated Steatites, Kirw. i. 15L slid
154. Talc Steatite, Hauy, iii. 256.
100.0 100.0
Localities, &c.—Steatites is found in primitive moun¬
tains, forming beds and veins in ferpentine rocks; fome¬
times in metallic veins, as in the tin mines near Frey-
berg. It is alfo imbedded in wacken, as in the idand
of Skye, and in veins of ferpentine at Portfoy in Scot¬
land. Steatites is alfo found in Cornwall in England,
and in Sweden, Norway, Saxony, and France.
Steatites is fometimes employed in the manu¬
facture of porcelain, and fome varieties of it anfwer for
the fame purpofe as fullers earth.
6. Species. Figure Stone.
La Pierre a Sculpture, Broch. I. 451. Le Bildjlein of
the Germans.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive. Inter¬
nal ludre fometimes glimmering, fometimes dull, greafy.
FraCture flaty ; crofs fraCture fplintery.
Colour, olive green, greenifh gray, yellowifh brown,
fometimes reddifh, and veined. Semitranfparent, or
tranflucent at the edges, and fomet:mes opake. Soft;
feCtile ; feels greafy. Sp. gr. 2.78 to 2.81.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Tianflurent. Opaque Figure Stone.
Silica, 54. 62.
Alumina, 36. 24.
Lime, — I.
Oxide of iron, .75 .5
Water, 5.5 IO.
Lofs, 3-75 2*5
100.00 100.0
Localities, &c —The mineral is brought from Chi-
ha, ai d is always cut into \ arious, often finyukr, figures;
and hence the name bildjietn, or JculptureJlone.
7. Specie?..
I,
MINER
ifica-
7. Species, Nephrite, or Jade.
Jade, Kirw. i. 171. Le Nephrite, Broch. i. 467.
Hauy, iv. 368.
This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies.
Subfpecies 1. Common Nephrite.
Jade,
Exter. Char.—This variety is found maffive, diffetni-
nated, or in rounded pieces. The furfaee is fmooth,
glimmering, and un&uous •, internally it is dull ; frac¬
ture llaty or coarfe fplintery, rarely fibrous} fragments
iharp-edged.
Colour leek green, fometimes inclining to blue, green-
ifli or yellowilh white ; tranfiucent, fometimes only at the
edges 5 hard •, very difficultly frangible j feels greafy.
Sp. grav. 2.97 to 4.38.
Chem. Char.—Fufible before the blow-pipe, and melts
into a femitranfparent white glafs.
ConJUtuent Earts. Hoepfner.
Silica, 47
Magnefia, 38
Alumina, 4
Lime, 1
Oxide of iron, 9
100
Localities, Sec.—The repofitory of nephrite is un¬
known. It was originally brought from the Levant,
Eaft Indies, and China. It is found alfo in the Alps,
in Switzerland, and in Piedmont. The water-worn
pebbles which are collefted on the banks of the lake
of Geneva, often contain this mineral. It is found alfo
in a fimilar form at a particular place on the (hores of
Iona, one of the Hebrides, in Scotland.
Ufes.—Oriental nephrite, long known under the
name oi Jade, is held in confiderable eftimation on ac¬
count of its hardnefs and tenacity. It is employed
by the Turks for the handles of knives and fabres,
and frequently by others for various ornamental pur-
pofes.
The property of curing difeafes of the kidneys is af-
cribed to this mineral by ancient authors, and hence the
name nephritic Jlone, or nephrite.
Subfpecies 2. Axe Stone.
La Pierre de hache, Brochant, i. 470. Beiljlein of the
Germans.
Exter. C/^ar.—-This is alfo found maflive, but moft
frequently in rounded pieces ) luflre glimmering, or
■weakly fhining; fradlure in large maffes, flaty j in
fmall, fplintery j fragments in the form of plates.
Colour deep meadow-green, fometimes olive green ;
tranfiucent j lemihard, and fometimes hard ; not very
brittle •, more difficultly frangible than the preceding
variety.
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found in China,
the Ealf Indies, and South America, on the banks of
the river Amazons. It is found alfo in fome of the
iflands in the South fea, as well as in Corfica, Switzer¬
land and Saxony.
—Axe flone is employed as hatches and other
Vol. XIV. Part I.
A L O G Y.
cutting inftruments by the natives of thofe countries Magnef;
where iron is little known. ^ ' '
193
8. Snecies. Serpentine.
Id. Kirw. i. 156. La Serpentine, Brochant, i. 481.
Roche Serpentineufc, Hauy, iv. 436.
This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies.
Subfpecies 1. Common Serpentine.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive, very
rarely diffeminated ; internal lull re ffightly glimmering,
or only dull *, fracture fplintery, or fine grained uneven,
rarely conchoidal; fragments fharp-edged.
Colour blackifh green, leek green, grayifli, greenifli,
or bluith gray •, in fome varieties, red of various {hades.
Thefe colours are mixed and difpofed in fpots, ftripes,
veins, and dots. Tranflucent at the edges, or opaque j
femihard ; not difficultly frangible ; feels greafy. Spec,
grav. 2.57 to 2.7.
Chem. Char.— Infufible before the blow-pipe.
Conjlituent Parts. Kirwan.
Silica,_ 45
Alumina, 18
Magnefia, 22
Oxide of iron, 3
Water, 12
100
Localities, &c.—Serpentine belongs to the clais of
primitive rocks, and it conflitutes entire mountains.
It is found in Saxony, Bohemia, Italy, Corfica, and
Siberia \ in Cornwall in England, where it contains
native copper, and at Portfoy in the north of Scotland,
where it is known by the name of Portfoy marble.
Common ferpentine is frequently mixed with fleatites,
talc, afbeftus, garnets, and magnetic iron, but never
contains limeftone. This variety, in the language of
Werner, is of a newer formation than the following fub-
fpeeies.
JJfes.—Serpentine is fufceptible of a fine polilli j on
account of which, and its beautiful colours, it is em¬
ployed for various ornamental purpofes.
Subfpeeies 2. Precious Serpentine.
Exter. Char.—This alfo is found maffive or difle-
minated ; internal luilre glimmering, rarely weakly
fliining, refinous ; fratture conchoidal, even or fplintery j
fragments ffiarp-edged.
Colour dark leek green of various (hades $ tranf¬
iucent ; femi-hard } eafily frangible ; feels Aightly
greafy.
Localities, &c.—This fubfpecies is found in fimilar
places with the preceding. It is diltinguifiied from it
by being always connedltd with limefione. The {tones
known in Italy by the name of verde di Prato,. verde
Antico, verde di Swza, which are very often accompa¬
nied by limeftone, may be included under precious fer¬
pentine.
9. Species. Schiller Stone.
Schillerfpath, or Spath Chatoyant, Brochant, i. 421.
Schiller Spar, Kirw. 221.
B b Exter,
194
Magnefian
genus.
MINER
Exter. -This mineral is found diiTeminated in
thin plates, which aflume a cryftallized form, as in that
of a table with fix fides, or a fhort fix-fided prifm ; lufire
lliining, fometimes refplendent, and femi-metallic j frac¬
ture foliated.
Colour olive green, bronze yellow, or filvery white ;
foft ; eafily frangible •, fomewhat elaftic j feels greafy.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it melts with
borax, into a glafs which becomes opaque on cooling.
Conjlituent Paris.
Silica,
Alumina,
Magnefia,
Lime,
Oxide of iron,
Heyer.
52
23-33
6
7
ix.67
100.00
Localities, &c.—Schiller fione is found at Bafia in
the Hartz, in Moravia, the Tyrol, in Corfica, and in
Cornwall. It is ufually imbedded in ferpentine, and is
accompanied by quartz, mica, and copper pyrites. It is
fuppofed by fome to be cryfiallized ferpentine.
10. Species. Talc.
This fpecies is divided into three fubfpecies; 1. earthy,
1. common, and 3. indurated talc.
Subfpecies 2. Common Talc.
Id. or Venetian Talc, Kirw. i. 150. Le Talc Cotnmun,
Broch. i. 487. Talc Laminaire, Hauy, Hi. 255.
Conjlituent Parts. Hoepfner.
Silica,
Magnefia,
Alumina,
50
44
6
100
A L O G Y. Partly
Localities, &c.—Common talc is always found in
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found mafiive, dif-
feminated, and rarely cryfiallized in very fmall fix-fid¬
ed tables j lufire finning or refplendent, pearly or me¬
tallic ; fracture ftraight or curved foliated j fragments
wedge-Ihaped.
Colour greenifh white, pale apple green, reddifh or
yellowifh white $ tranflucent or femitranfparent, in thin
plates tranfparent; foft, flexible, but not elaftic ; feels
greafy. Spec. grav. 2.7 to 2.8
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe, which
diftinguiflies it from chlorite ) does not effervefce with
acids.
ferpentine rocks, where it accompanies a&ynolite, ftta-
tites, and indurated talc. What is called Venetian talc
is brought from the mountains of Saltzburg and the
Tyrol.
Ufes.—Talc is fometimes employed as a fubftitutefor
chalk, enters into the compofition of crayons, and is
mixed with fome kinds of paint.
non.
Subfpecies 3. Indurated Talc.
Le Talc Endurci, Broch. i. 489.
Exter. Char.—This is found maflive, and fometimes,
it is laid, cryftallized ; lufire finning and refplendent,
refinous or pearly j fracture curved foliated, or flaty }
fragments blunt-edged, tabular.
Colour greenith white, fnow white, or apple green j
tranflucent; in thin plates femitranfparent j very foft j
fmooth, and greafy to the feel.
Localities, Sec.—Indurated talc forms beds in moun¬
tains of argillaceous fchiftus, gneis, and ferpentine, in
the Tyrol, Italy, and Switzerland, and alfo in the
weftern parts of Scotland.
Vfes.—It is applied to the fame purpofes as the pre
ceding.
Subfpecies 1. Earthy Talc.
Talcite, Kirw. i. 149. Le Talc Terreux, Broch. i. 486.
Talc Granuleux, Hauy, iii. 255.
Exter. Char.— Earthy talc is found difleminated in
kidney-form mafles, or in fuperficial layers \ lufire glim¬
mering, pearly j friable } the particles fcaly, pulveru¬
lent, or llightly cohering.
Colour greenifh, reddifh, or filvery Avhite) ftains j
feels greafy, and is light.
Localities, See,'—This mineral is found in Piedmont,
Saxony, Bohemia, and in the weftern parts of Invernefs-
fliire in Scotland, where it exifis in veins or cavities of
primitive rocks.
11. Species. Asbestus.
This is divided into four fubfpecies
cork 2. amianthus $ 3. common afbeftus
niform afbeftus.
I. mountain
5 and, 4. lig-
Subfpecies 1. Mountain Cork.
Suber Montanum, Kirw. i. 163. Le Liege de Mon¬
tague, Broch. i. 492. xdjbejle Trejfe, Hauy, iii. 247.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive, often
in fmall plates, which are fometimes thin, and are then
denominated mineral paper ; fometimes thick, and then'
called mineral leather ; more rarely in porous or cellular
pieces, when they are denominated mineral jlejh ; fome¬
times it is marked with impreflions -, the luftre is weak¬
ly glimmering or dull \ fra&ure to appearance compadt
and uneven, but it is fibrous, and the fibres are fometimes
parallel, and fometimes interwoven $ fragments very
blunt-edged.
Colour yellowifh or grayifh white ; opaque 5 very
foft, extremely difficult to break } in thin plates flexi¬
ble and elaftic ; creaks when handled ; feels meagre.
Spec. grav. 0.68 to 0.993-
Chem. Char.—Melts before the blow-pipe with dif¬
ficulty.
Conjlituent Parts. Bergman.
Silica,
Magnefia,
Alumina,
Lime,
Oxide of iron,
56.2
26.1
2
12.7
3
100.0
Localities, 8tc.*—This mineral is found in thin veins
in ferpentine rocks : it is often mixed with quartz, tale,
and filver ores, as in Saxony. It is alfo found in Swe¬
den, Norway, Siberia, Hungary, and in the lead veins
at Leadhills in Scotland.
Subfpecies
MINER
Subfpecies 2. Amianthus.
Id. Kinv. i. 161. V Amianthe, Broch. i. 494. AJbeJle
Flexible, Hauy, iii. 247.
Exter. Char.—This variety is alfo found mafftve,
more rarely dilTeminated, and in fmall detached bundles j
lutlre glimmering, or a little fhining and filky j fra&ure
fibrous flraight or parallel.
Colour greenifh or filvery white, yellowifii white, or
greenifii gray ; opa(|ue; rarely tranflucent at the
edges ; very flexible, and even elaftic in thin fibres;
feels greafy.
Client. Char.—Melts with difficulty before the blow¬
pipe, into a white, gray, yellow, and fometimes black
enamel.
Conjlituent Parts.
Silica, 64
Magnefia, 17.2
Alumina, 2.7
Lime, 13.9
Barytes,
T)xide of iron, 2.2
Lofs,
100.0
Bergman. Chenevix.
64 59-
18.6 25.
3-3 3-
6.9 9.25
6.
1.2 2.25
1.50
ICO.O 100.00
Localities, See.—Amianthus is ufually found in pri¬
mitive rocks, but particularly thofe of ferpentine. It
is found in Saxony, Bohemia, Italy, Spain, France,
Sweden, and in the weflern parts of Scotland } but the
fineft fpecimens of amianthus are brought from the
ifland of Corfica.
Efes.—On account of the flexibility of this fubflance
it is fpun into threads 5 for this purpofe it is mixed with
lint, to render the threads lefs brittle in working them
into cloth, which is afterwards pafled through the fire
that the vegetable matter may be confumed, and the
amianthus, which is infufible, remains; and thus an
incombuflible cloth is obtained. The ancients manu-
fa<5lured this cloth for the purpofe of wrapping round
their dead bodies, that their afhes might be preferved
unmixed with the -wood employed in burning them.
Subfpecies 3. Common Asbestus.
AJbeJlus, Kirw. i. 159. L',AJbeJlc Commune, Brochant,
i. 497. AJbeJle Dur, Hauy, iii. 247.
Exter. Char.—This alfo is found maffive j luflre
fliining and weakly fliining, filky or refinous ; furface
fibrous, the fibres being parallel, flraight, or curved j
the fibres are more flrongly united than in amianthus,
and hence fometimes a fplintery fracture.
Colour leek green, greenifh, or yellowifh gray j tranf¬
lucent at the edges j foft, or femihard j rather eafily
frangible ) little flexible j feels greafy $ fpec. grav. 2.54
to 2.99.
Chem. Char.—Melts with difficulty before the blow¬
pipe, into a dark gray flag.
Conjlituent Parts. Wxegleb.
Silica, 46.66
Magnefia, 48*45
Oxide of iron, 4.79
Lofs, . 1
100.00
A L O G Y. 195
Localities.—-It is found in fimilar fituations with the Magnefiau
preceding, in Saxony, Ruffia, Sweden, and in the weftern , Rem‘£- ,
parts of Scotland.
Subfpecies 4. Ligniform Asbestus.
Id. Kirw. i. i6t. Le Bois de Montagne, Brochant, i.
499. AJbeJle Ligniforme, Hauy, iii. 248.
Exter. Char.—This alfo is found maffive j luflre
glimmering, filky j frafture in large maffes, curved
flaty j in fmall pieces fibrous, and having the ap¬
pearance of a woody texture j fragments in elongated
plates.
Colour yellowifh brown of different fhades j opaque j
foft; not difficultly frangible j in thin fragments a little
flexible, but not elaftic } feels meagre j adheres to the
tongue j flreak fliining.
Chcm. Char.—Before the blow-pipe is only fufible at
the edges.
Localities, &c.—This variety is found in the Tyrol,
where it is accompanied by galena, black blende, and
a grayifh white quartz.
12. Species. Cyanite.
Id. Kirw. i. 209. La Cyunite, Broch. i. 501. Sappare,
SauJJ. § 1900. Dijlhene, Hauy, iii. 220.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive, difie-
minated, or cryflallized, in four-fided prifms, of which
two are broad and two narrow, and having the four la¬
teral edges, or only the two oppofite edges, truncated.
This prifm is often fo flattened, as to have the appear¬
ance of a table. The broad faces of the cryflals are
fmooth and fhining, the narrow faces flreaked and only
glimmering, almofl dull. Internal luflre fluning and
pearly j fracture curved radiated j that of the cryftals
foliated j fragments tabular, fometimes fplintery, or im¬
perfectly rhomboidal.
Colour blue of various (hades, fometimes bluifh and
pearl gray •, and different colours are arranged in (tripes,
fpots, or clouds j tranflucent, or when cryflallized
femitranfparent, or tranfparent •, femihard, and fome¬
times foft; eafily frangible ; feels greafy. Spec. grav.
3.51 to 3.62.
Chan. Char.—Entirely infufible before the blow'-pipe,
on which account this mineral u'as employed by Sauffure
as a fupport for other fubflances in experiments with
that inflrument.
Conjlituent Parts. Saufiure.
Silica, 29.2.
Alumina, 55.
Lime, 2.25
Magnefia, 2.
Oxide of iron, 6.65
Water and lofs, 4.9
100.00
Localities, &c.^—Cyanite is found on St Gothard in
Switzerland, in cryflals mixed with quartz, garnets, and
granite, and imbedded in indurated talc. It is alfb
found in Spain, France, Cariuthia, Bavaria, Siberia,
and in the north of Scotland, and always in primitive
mountains.
B b 2 13. Species.
i g6
Magnefian
, ge"us- , Species. Actynolite.
Tliis is divided into three fpecies; l. afbeftous,
2. common, and 3. giaiTy.
Subfpecies 1. Asbestous Actynolite.
Amiauth nile, Kirw. i. 164. and Metalliform , iJbeJ}oid,
ibid. 167. La R*yonnante Afvejliformc, Broeh. i. 304.
A&inote Aciculaire, Hauy, iii. 75.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maTivc, and
rarely cryftallized in rhomboidal fix-lided prifms, two
of which are about 1240 30', and four about 1170 45' j
luftre glimmering; internal luilre weakly Ihining, fome-
times Ihining, pearly j frafture radiated j fragments
wedge-fhaped.
Colour white, or greenifh, reddifli, or yellowilh
gray j commonly opaque ; fometimes traflucent at the
edges } ftreak greeniflr white j foft, rarely femi-hard j
rather diiheultly frangible. Specific gravity 2.58 to
• 3-33-
Chcm. Char.—Fufible before the blow-pipe into a
black flag, or grayifh white enamel.
Localities, &c.—Found in the neighbourhood of
Bayreuth and the Bannat, in beds of ferpentine and
fteatites.
Subfpecies 2. Common Actynolite.
u/fjbeflinite, Common, AJbeJioiJ, and Schorlaceous Achjno-
lite, Kirw. i. 165—168. La Raijonr.ante Commune,
Broch. i. 507. ARinote Hcxuedre, Hauy, iii. 74.
Exter. Char.—Mafhve, diffeminated, cryflallized in
elongated, very oblique, fix-fided prifms, having the
acute lateral edges truncated. The eryflalsare acicular,
and longitudinally ftreaked j luftre (hining and vitreous;
fracfture radiated, parallel or divergent, ftellated ; frag¬
ments rather blunt-edged.
Colour olive green, piftachio green, reddifh brown ;
crvftals tranflucent or femitranfparent} femihard 5 dif¬
ficultly frangible *, rarely feels greafy. Spec. grav. 3
to 3.31.
Chern. Char.—Fufible before the blow-pipe into a
black flag, a white tranfparent glafs, or a grayifn white
enamel.
Conjlituent Parts. Bergman.
Silica, 64
Magnefia, 20
Alumina, 2.7
Lime, . 9.3
Oxide of iron, 4
100.0
Localities, &c.—It is found in Saxony, Switzerland,
Norway, and weft fide of Invernefs-fhire in Scotland.
Its repolitory is in primi.ive mountains, where it is ac¬
companied with ores of h ad and iron, as well as with
quartz and brown blende.
Subfpecies 3. Glassy Actynolite.
Id. Kirw. i. 168. La Rayonnante Viireufe, Broch. i.
x
Part 1
Thallite, Lametherie, ii. 319. Epidotc, Hauy, Clafiifica
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or cryftallized in thin
fix-tided piifms, whole furface is fmooth and re-
fplendent; internal luitre fnining, vitreous ; fracture
radiated or wedge-fhapied, fibrous; fragments fplin-
tery.
Colour olive green, leek green, andafparagus green j
tranflucent, or femitranfparent j femihard, or hard ; very-
brittle, and very eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 2.95 to
3-49-
Localities, &c.—This variety is found in fimilar re-
pofitories. and in limilar places with the preceding.
14 Species. Tremolite.
This is alfo divided into three fubfpeciesj 1. afbeftousr
2. common, and 3. glafly.
Subfpecies 1. Asbestous Tremolite.
La Tremolithe AJbeJIiforme, Broch. i. 514. Grammatite,
Hauy, iii, 227.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, diffeminated, and
cryftallized ; and the cryftals are capillary or acicu¬
lar ; luftre weakly ftiining, filky or pearly ; fradlure
radiated or fibrous \ fragments fplintery and wedge-
fliaped.
Colour yellowifli white, reddifh, greenifh, or grayifh j
opaque j tranllueent at the edges j very foft j eafily
fra^igible.
Subfpecies 2. Common Tremolite.
La Tremolithe Commune, Broch. i. 515.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, or cryftallized in rhomboidal
prifms, with angles of 126° 52' 12", and 530 7' 48".
The cryftals are deeply llriated longitudinally j exter¬
nal luftre refplendent; internal ftiining, pearly ; frac¬
ture radiated, either parallel, divergent, or promifeu-
ous} furfaces of the iratlure longitudinally ftreaked j
fragments lplintery\
Colour greenifh white, reddifh, or yellowifh ; rarely
pearl gray j always tranflueent j in cryftals femitranf¬
parent ; feinihard j brittle ; eafily frangible j meagre
to the feel.
Subfpecies 3. Glassy Tremolite.
La Tremolithe Vitreufe, Broch. i. 516.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, or cryftallized in long needle
or awl-fhaped prifms } internal luftre fhimng, and
fometimes refplendent; vitreous or pearly j fradture
radiated j crofs fradture even, and a little oblique j
fragments fplintery.
Colour greenifh or yellowifh white; tranflucent 5
cryftals fometimes tranfparent ; femihard ; brittle j
eafily frangible; feels meagre. Spec. grav. 2.92 to
3.2, Hauy.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it melts into a
porous white flag.
Conjlitueni
MINERALOGY.
510.
Part I.
Claffifica-
tion.
  ,, *
M I N E R A L O C Y.
r97
Conjlituent Parts.
Silica,
Lime,
MagneSa,
Oxide of iron,
Carbonic acid 1
and water, y
Lofs,
Klaproth.
6?.
18.
Jo-33
.16
6-5 23*
.01
Laugier.
White.
35-5
26.5
16.J
Gray Tremolite.
5°
18
25
100.00 101.5
100
Physical Char.—By percuffion or fridlion in the
dark, a reddifh phofphorefcent light appears j and the
powder thrown on burning coals yields a greenifh
Localities, &c.—Tremolite is found imbedded in
limeftone, in primitive mountains. It was firft difcover-
ed in the valley of Tremola by Pini, and hence its
name. It is alfo found in Hungary, Bohemia, and Ca-
rinthia, and in the mountains fix miles fouth of Paif-
ley in Scotland, where it is accompanied with preh-
nite.
15. Species. Smaragdite.
Id. Sauffure Voy. § 1313* Diallage, Hauy, iii. 125.
Id. Brochant, i. 423. and ii. 506.
Ex ter. Char.—Smaragdite has been found maflive
and diffeminated. Internal luftre (hining. Frafture
foliated. Cleavage Angle. Fragments rather fharp
edged.
Colour, grafs or emerald green. Slightly tranflu-
cent. Semi-hard or foft. Brittle. Spec. grav. 3.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe melts into a gray
or greenilh enamel.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Silica, 30.
Alumina, n.
Lime, 13.
Magnefia, 6.
Oxide of iron, 3.3
  chromium, 7.3
—   copper, 1.3
ed. Luftre (lightly glimmering, refinous, Fradfture fo- Calcareous
liated. Cleavage threefold. Fragments fometimes, KemiS- t
rhomboidal.
Colour grayilh green or bluifti gray. In thin plates
tranflucent Scarcely fcratches glafs. Very foft to the
touch, from which it has the name malacolite. Spec,
grav. 3.2307 to 3.2368.
Client. Char.—Fuftble before the blow-pipe into a
porous glafs.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Silica, 33
Lime, 20
Magnefia, 19
Alumina, 3
Iron and manganefe, 4
Lofs, i
100
Localities, &c.—This mineral was difeovered by
D’Andrada in the filver mines of Sahla in Sweden, and
hence it derived its name. It was found by the fame
naturalift at Bufen in Norway. It appears from the
obfervations of Hauy that fahlite and augite are very
clofely allied, not only in ftru6lure and external cha¬
racters in general, but alfo in their conftituent princi¬
ples ; the only difference in their compofition is in the
proportions of the lime and magnefia, which are fmall-
er in augite than in fahlite } but the proportion of iron
in the former is confiderably greater than in the lat¬
ter.
17. Species. Schalstone, or Tabular Spar.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive j luftre
fhining and pearly ; fracture foliated or fplintery, and
coarfe fibrous $ confifts of feparate large-grained pieces
implicated in each other j and according to Karften,
are very regular.
Colour milk white, yellowdfti or reddifh white j
tranflucent j femi-hard j brittle.
Conjlituent Parts.
Silica, 30
Lime, 43
Water, 3
100
100.0
Localities, See.—This mineral was found by Sauf¬
fure in the vicinity of Turin, imbedded in nepfnite
clouded white and blue. It has alfo been found near
the lake of Geneva among the rounded pebbles, and in
Corfica in primitive rocks. In Italy, tables and orna¬
mental pieces of furniture are made of fmaragdite j and
the Italian marble-cutters call it verde di Corjica.
16. Species. Sahlite.
Id. D’Andrada, Jour de Phyf. An. 8. p. 241. Mala-
colithc, Hauy, iv. 379. Id. Brochant, ii. 318.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or cryftallized in fix-
fided prifms, having two oppofite lateral edges truncat-
Localities, &c.—This mineral was firft noticed by
Stutz. It is found in the bannet oflemefwar, and
is accompanied by cryftallized garnets and calcareous
fpar.
VI. CALCAREOUS Genus.
1. Species. Agaric Mineral, or Mountain Milk.
Id. Kirwan, i. 76. Id. Brochant, i. 319. Chaux Car¬
bonate Spongieufe, Hauy, ii. 167.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is compofed of fine pul¬
verulent particles, fiightly united together, and nearly
friable.
Colour yellow ifti white, or fnow white, ftains ftrong-
lyc
198
MINERALOGY.
Part L
CaL-areous ly *, feels meagre j does not adhere to the tongue j near-
, £ti>lIS- ly floats on water.
C/iem. Char.—Effervefces with acids, and is entirely
diflblved, fo that it is chiefly compofed of lime and car¬
bonic acid.
Localities, See.—This mineral is found in the fif-
fures and cavities of calcareous mountains, and it is
fuppofed that it originates from the deftruftion of the
rocks, the particles of which are carried down to the
fiflures and cavities by rain water. Abundant in Swit¬
zerland.
2. Species. Chalk.
Id. Kirwan, i. 71. Ln Craie, Brochant, i. 521. Chaux
Carbonate Craijeufe, Hauy, ii. 166.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive ; has a dull appear¬
ance } fradture earthy, and fragments blunt edged.
Colour ufually fnow or yellowifli white, fometimes
gray or brown j opaque j ftains and writes ; very foft,
and eafily frangible •, feels meagre •, adheres a little to
the tongue. Spec. grav. 2.31 to 2.65.
Chem. Char.—Effervefces with acids ; before the
blow-pipe is calcined, and converted to quicklime. It
is almoft entirely compofed of lime and carbonic acid,
with a mixture of a little oxide of iron and fome other
fub (lances.
Localities, &e.—Chalk forms peculiar flratiform
mountains which contain many petrifadlions, the matter
of which is almoft always fdiceous. They contain alfo
flints arranged in regular ftrata. No metallic fubftances
are found in chalk. A great body of chalk traverfes
France from fouth to north, extending from Champag-
ny to Calais, and continued to England, in the fouth
of which it forms extenlive beds. Chalk is alfo found
in the ifland of Zealand, in the Baltic, in Poland and
many other places.
3. Species. Limestone.
This is divided into four fubfpecies, which are, I. com-
pa£t, 2. foliated, 3. fibrous, and 4. pea ftone.
Subfpecies 1. Compact Limestone.
This fubfpecies is again divided into two fe&ions \
the firft including common compact limeftone, and the
fecond roe-ftone.
A. Common Compact Limestone.
Id. Kirw. i. 82. Id. Broch. i. 523. Chaux Carbonate
Compare, &c. Hauy, ii. 164.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive } external form fre¬
quently figured from the numerous petrifa&ions which
it contains ; internally dull j rarely glimmering ; frac¬
ture compact, fplintery, uneven or earthy ; fragments
not very (harp-edged.
Colour ufually gray, fometimes reddfth or yellowifh ;
different colours exhibit fpots, (tripes, veins, and den-
dritical figures *, tranflucent at the edges j femihard *,
brittle ; eafily frangible ; feels meagre j gives a grayilh
white ftreak. Spec. grav. 2.6 to 2.7.
Chem. Char.—Diffolves in acids with effervefcence.
The conftituents of limeftone are carbonate of lime,
with variable proportions of other earths, and particu-
5
larly alumina and filica. The following arc the confti- Claffifica-
tuent parts of magnefian limeftone examined by Mr ^°n*
Tennant. -y—
Lime, 29.5
Magnefia, 20.3
Carbonic acid, 47*2
Alumina and oxide of iron, .8
Lofs, 2.2
100.0 ;
Localities, &c.—Forms very extenfive ftratiform
mountains, and is ufually met with along with coal and
fandftone. It is very abundant in Saxony, Bohemia,
Sweden, France, Switzerland, and Britain. The mag¬
nefian limeftone is abundant in Yorkfliire and Notting-
hamlhire.
\fes.—The ufes of limeftone for the purpofes of
building, and when reduced to the date of quicklime,
to form the bafis of mortar, as well as in various arts,
are well known.
This variety of limeftotoe, when fufceptible of a po-
li(h, furnilhes marbles ; which name, although it be ap¬
plied to very different (tones which are fufceptible of a
polifh, and are fit for fculpture, or ornamental archi¬
tecture, is frequently applied to limeftone of this de¬
fer iption.
B. Oolite, or Roe Stone.
Id. Brochant, i. 529. Oviform. Limejlone, Kirw. i. 91.
Chaux Carbonate Globuliforme, Hauy, ii. 171.
Exter. Char.—This is found maffive •, internally dull;
fraCture corapaCt ; fragments blunt-edged.
Colour yellowifh, fmoke gray, hair, or reddifh brown ;
opaque , rarely tranflucent at the edges ; femihard j
confifts of fmall globular, diftinCt concretions : the
fize of the concretions very various. Spec. grav. 2.4
t° 2.5.
Localities, &c.—Roe ftone is found in Sweden, Swit¬
zerland, Saxony, and in the fouth of England.
The ketton ftone of England, and the celebrated
Portland ftone, belong to this variety, Of the latter
fome of the principal public buildings in England and
Ireland arc conftruSted.
Efes.—It is employed as a building ftone ; and when
of a fine grain, it is polifhed and employed as marble.
Subfpecies 2. Foliated Limestone.
Of this there are two varieties, granularly foliated,
and calcareous fpar.
A. GpanularltFoliated Limestone.
Pierre Calcaire Grenue, Broch. i. 531. Chaux Carbo¬
nate Sac char o'ide, Hauy, ii. 164.
Exter. Char.—Found only maflive ; luftre (Fining,
or ftrongly glimmering ; between pearly and vitreous j
fradture ftraight foliated} fragments rather blunt-
edged ; in granular, diltinct concretions, fmall or fine
ufually fnow white, grayifh, yellowifli, green-
ifh, and rarely reddifti white, and fometimes it is fpot-
ted, veined, or ftriped j ufually tranflucent; femihard ;
feels meagre j brittle, and eafily frangible. Spec. grav.
2.7 to 2.8.
grained
Colo
)
Chem.
Part I. MINER
ClaiTitka- Chem. C1uu\—Effer'vefces with acids, and is almoft
tl0n* entirely diffolved* Some varieties, however, from an
'' ^ ' * admixture of other fubllances, are very flowly a&ed on
by acids.
Localities, &c.—Granularly foliated limeftone be¬
longs almoft exclufively to the primitive and tranfition
mountains, repofing on gneis, micaceous fchiftus, and
clay (late, containing, befide other mineral fubftances,
various metallic ores.
It is found in Italy, Saxony, Bohemia, Sweden,
Norway, France, and Britain.
Ufes.—This variety of limeftone is applied to the
feme purpofes as the former.
O/'Marbles.—In the language of the architcft
and ftatuary, all ftones come under the name of marble
which are harder than gypfum, are found in large mafles,
and are fufceptible of a good polilh.
On this principle many varieties of limeftone, granite
alfo and porphyry, ferpentine, and even tine-grained
bafalts, are denominated marbles. But the word among
mineralogifts is taken in a more reftrifted fenfe, and
confined to fuch varieties of dolomite, fwineftone, and
compadl and granularly foliated limeftone, as are capable
of receiving a good polifh. The moft valuable of the
calcareous marbles, for hardnefs, durability and colour,
are brought from Italy, the Greek Blands, and from
Syria. When the ancient Romans wrere at the height
of their civilized luxury, they obtained feme varieties of
marble from Numidia and other countries, which were
very much efteemed.
The fculptors of ancient Greece and modern Europe
have always held the white granularly foliated limeftone
in the higheft eftimation, both on account of its pure
colour, delicate tranflucence, and granular texture,
which make it much eafier to work than compact
dimeftone. The fpecies called dolomite is fefter, and
of a finer grain, fo that it is even more manageable
under the chiiTel, and therefore many of the i'maller
works of the Greek fculptors are of this ftone j but
Paros and Carrara furnifh Europe with the greateft
quantity of ftatuary marble. The Parian marble, which
confifts almoft entirely of carbonate of lime, is the
pureft, fefteft, and has feme degree of tranfparency;
that of Carrara is often mixed with granular quartz in
confiderable proportion. The following are the archi¬
tectural marbles which are held in greateft eftimation.
1. The marble called banliglio, from Carrara, is of a
deep blue colour, and feems to be the fame with the
white ftatuary marble of that place, with the addition
of feme colouring matter.
2. That variety of marble called cipolin, is ftatuary
marble traverfed by veins of mica.
3. Lumachellu marble. This is a compact limeftone of
a brownifh gray colour, containing ftiells which often
retain the original pearly luftre. To this variety belongs
the fire marble of Bleyberg in Carinthia, in which the
imbedded ihells are beautifully iridefeent.
4. Florentine marble. This is a grayifh, compaft,
argillaceous limeftone, exhibiting defigns of a yellowifh
brown colour, and refembiing the ruins of houfes : hence
it is called ruin marble.
5. The marbles of Syria, Sienna, and Arragon, are
of a yellow colour, and are in confiderable eftimation.
6. Brocatello marble. This is a breccia limeftone,
compofed of fragments of a yellowifh red and purple
A L O G Y. 199
colour, which are cemented by femitranfparent, white Calcareous
calcareous fpar. . Ke”us- ^
7. The marbles known by the names of vcrdc antiche, v
verde di Corjica, are compofed of limeftone, calcareous
fpar, ferpentine, and afbeltus.
8. The Britilh illands afford many fine marbles, of
which that of Tiree is the fineli and moft beautiful. It
has often a delicate fielh coloured ground, fpotted with
green ; but its colours, it is laid, are apt to fade.
Marbles have alfe been found in the iftand of Skye,
and in the counties of Rofs and Sutherland. For a
particular account of thefe, fee Williamses Mineral
Kingdom. Marble is not uncommon in different parts
of England ; and in particular Devcnfhire and Derby-
fhire afford varietfes which are held in confiderable efti¬
mation on account of their beauty.
E/aJfic marble. Some varieties of granular limeftone,
when cut into thin plates, poffefs a certain degree of
elailicity. The marble in which this property was
obferved, was in the Borghefe palace at Rome. It was
got from an ancient building. Dolomieu fuppofed that
marble acquired this property by being deprived of
rooifture, and Fleuriau de Bellevue confirmed this
opinion, by fubje&ing certain marbles to heat. He
found alfe a natural elaftic marble in Mount St Got-
hard.
B. Calcareous Spar.
Common Spar, Kirw. i. 86. Le Spath Calcaire, Broch,
i. 536. Cltaux Carbonates, Hauy, ii. 127.
Ejjen. Char.—Divifible into a rhomboid of lOI-^0
and 78.j°} feluble with effervefeence in nitric acid.
Exter. Char.—Calcareous Ipar is found maflive, or
diffeminated in various forms, as globular, kidneyform,
cellular, and ftalaiftitieal 5 but it is moft frequently cry-
ftallized. The primitive form of its crftals is an obtufe
rhomboid, whofe angles are xoi° 32' 13," and 78° 27'
47" *, integrant molecule the fame. The variety of
forms of calcareous fpar is very great. Werner reduces
them to three principal or prevailing forms, and from
thefe he deduces the variations and modifications which
take place. His principal forms are, 1. The ftx-fided
pyramid j 2. The fix-fided prifm j and, 3. The three-
fided pyramid. But according to others following this
feme method, the principal forms are the five follow¬
ing : I. The fix-fided pyramid ; 2. The fix-fided prifm j
3. The fix-fided table ; 4. The three-fided pyramid j and,
5. The hexahedron, including the rhomboid and cube.
1. The fix-fided pyramid is either fimple or double,
A. Simple. Simple pyramids are the fummits of
other pyramids, or of prifms, and they are variovtfly
modified in being equal Tided, acute, or obtufe, having
the angles at the bale truncated, or having an obtule
three-fided fummit fiightly convex.
B. Double ; in which two pyramids are obliquely
united, and varioufly modified, by having the angles at
the bafe truncated, or the faces of the fummit a little
convex.
2. The fix-fided prifm, is alfe varioufly modified, by
having at each extremity a fix-fided acute fummit, or a
fecund obtufe fummit of three fidcs, placed alternately
on three edges of the firft.
3. A fix-fided table, which is either perfeift; with
equal or unequal lides, or rounded, or lenticular.
4. The
■ZOO
MINERALOG Y.
Part I.
Oalcarecrus The three-ruled pyramid, which is either dm pie
, 'u~v i or double, and is al(o varioufly meditied.
5. The hexahedron, which includes the rhomboid,
and this is either perfe<5l, or has cenvex faces, or lias lix
obtuie edges truncated 5 and the cube, which is fome-
what rhomboidai. But for a iuil account of all the va¬
rieties and modifications in the cryflallization of calca¬
reous fpar, the reader is referred to the treatifes of Hauy
and Brochant.
Tire cryftals of calcareous fpar exhibit alfo a fimi-
larity of arrangement. The fimple dx-fided pyramids
are frequently difpofed in a globular, fafcicular, or
deflated form. The dx-dded pyramids are difpofed in
rowrs •, the dx-ddcd prifms are often difpofed like Heps
of flairs, or are fafcicular, or kidney-form ; fome acute
three-dded pyramids of calcareous fpar have been found
hollow, and in fome prifms the centre has been obferv-
ed of another colour, 'l ire furface of the cryllals com¬
monly fmooth •, luflre firming or refplendent } internal
lullre refplendent or firming, vitreous, and fometimes
pearly ; fracture foliated *, cleavage threefold } frag¬
ments always rhomboidai.
Colour ufually white, grayith, reddilh, greenifh, or
yellor#iih white, rarely violet blue, or yellowidi brown.
Various degrees of tranfparency j when perfeflly tranf-
parent, refraftion is double. It was in this fubftance
that the property of double refraclion was drfl obferved,
and hence it was called double fpar. This dngular pro¬
perty engaged the attention and mathematical fkill of
Nerv’ton, Huygens, Buffon, and more lately the cele¬
brated Hauy. Calcareous fpar is femihard, brittle, and
eadly frangible. Sp. grav. about 2.7.
Chem. C/i<7r.—Soluble with effervefeenee in nitric
acid, and reduced by calcination to quicklime.
* Phil.
iV/flj-. xrv.
250.
Conjlituent Parts.
Bergman. Phillips *.
Lime, . _ 55 55-5
Carbonic acid, 35 44 •
Water, n -5
100 100.0
Phyjical Char.—Some varieties of calcareous fpar,
and particularly thofe from Derbyfhire, give out, when
heated, a phofphorefcent light.
Localities, &c,—Calcareous fpar is very common in
all kinds of rocks, in veins and cavities, and particularly
in mineral veins, accompanied with quartz, fluor fpar,
heavy fpar, and metallic ore. The fineft fpecimens of
rhomboidai fpar are brought from Iceland, Derbyfhire,
the Hartz, as well as Saxony, France, and Spain.
The cryilallized fandflones of Fontainebleau are real
rhomboidai cryrtals of calcareous fpar, which, during
the procefs of cryflallization, have been penetrated with
particles of fand.
Subfpecies 3. Fibrous Limestone.
Id. Kirw. i. 88. La Pierre Calcaire Pibreufe, ou la
StalaBite Calcaire, Broch. i. 549. Chaux Carbonate'e
Concretionnde, Hauy, ii. 168.
Of this fubfoecies two varieties have been formed,
■ common fibrous, and calcareous finter.
A. Common Fibrous Limestone.
Clafiifica-
tion.
Exter. Chur.—Found maffive ; luftre wreakly fhining
and pearly ; fracture fibrous, fometimes coarfe and deli¬
cate, ftraight or parallel, and fometimes radiated j frag¬
ments fplintery.
Colour ufually grayiih, reddifh, and yellowifh white ;
generally tranllucent ; rarely femitranfparent.
Localities, &c.—This variety is found in veins } and
fome of it is fufceptible of a fine polifh, and was known,
to the ancients under the name of calcareous alabajlcr,
to diilinguifh it from gypfeous alabafter.
Sattin fpar, a beautiful mineral, which is alfo fuf¬
ceptible of a fine polith, and has a fickly luflre, from
which it derives its name, belongs to this variety. It
was firfl difeovered in Cumberland, and is but rarely-
met with in other places.
B. Calcareous Sinter.
This variety is ufually found flalaclitical or tuberofe,
and alfo fometimes kidney-fhaped, botryoidal, tubular,
and coralloidal. Surface ufually rough, or drufy, rare¬
ly fmooth ; internal luilre glimmering, fometimes wreak-
ly finning, filky, or pearly *, fradlure fibrous, which is
either ftraight, fcopiform, or ftellular ; fragments ivedge-
fhaped and fplintery.
Colour fnoAV Avhite, grayifti green, or yellowifti Avhite,
and thefe are fometimes arranged in ftripes or veins j
tranfiucent, fometimes only at the edges 5 rarely femi¬
tranfparent j betAveen femihard and foft 3 brittle and
eafily frangible. Sp. grav. 2.728.
Localities, &c.—This mineral feems to be a depo-
fition of calcareous particles, formed by the gradual in¬
filtration of Avater into the cavities and fiflures of lime-
ftone mountains. They are either depefited in layers
on the floor, or fufpended from the roof of thofe grottoes,
and in this latter cafe they afliime a great variety of
imitative forms. It is found therefore in the celebrat¬
ed grottoes of Auxelles, Arcy, and Antiparos, and in
the cavities of mineral veins at Leadhills.
The Angular mineral fubftance, knoAvn by the name
offos ferri, belongs to this variety. This is found in
the cavities of veins of fpathofe iron ore, from which it
has derived its name. It is of a branched or coralloidal
form.
Subfpecies 4. Pisolite or Peaflone.
Oviform Limefone, var. Kinv. i. 91. La Pierre de Pols,
Broch. i. 555. Chaux Carbonatee Globuliforme,
Hauy, ii. 171.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive, and in
the cavities in \yhich it is formed, the furface is kidney-
ftiaped 3 internally dull 3 fra&ure difficult to determine,
but appears even 3 fragments rather ffiarp-edged.
Colour white, fnoAV Avhite, grayifli, reddifli or yel-
loAviffi Avhite ; opaque 3 rarely tranflucent at the edges 3
foft, and brittle.
Localities, &c.—Pifolite is found at Carlfbad in
Bohemia, Avffiere it has been long knoAvn, and where
an entire bed Avas difeovered in digging the foundations
for a church. Each of the grains of pifolite contains
for a nucleus a particle of fand. Them have been in-
crufted Avith the carbonate of lime held in folution by
Avater,
Part I.
; claflifica- water, and particularly by the warm fprings of Carlf-
tion- bad. New concentric layers being depofited, they at
laft fall to the bottom, and are there united into larger
mafies by new depofitions of the fame calcareous matter.
Pifolites are alfo found in Hungary and in Silefia.
4. Species. Calcareous Tufa.
Exter. Char.—This mineral has ufually the form of
the fubftance on which the calcareous matter has
been depofited, as that of mofs which is moft com¬
mon, grafs or leaves ; internally dull, or weakly glim¬
mering *, fracture uneven or earthy j fragments biunt-
cdged.
Colour yellowifh gray of various fhades ; opaque, or
tran(lucent at the edges j foft, fertile, and ealily fran¬
gible •, light *, almoft fwims on water.
^ Localities, &c.—This fubftance is found in all hme-
jftone countries, through the ftrata of which water palfes,
thus forming fprings impregnated with carbonate of
lime, which is afterwards depofited on plants or other
fubftances. This mineral, therefore, is found in alluvial
land, and the procefs of its formation is conftantly go¬
ing on.
5. Species. Foam Earth.
Silvery Chalk, Kirw. i. 78. VEcume de Terre, Broch-
557-
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive, dif-
feminated, or in fcaly particles, which are fomewhat
friable j internal luftre ftiining or femimetallic ; the
folid varieties have a curved foliated fracture j frag¬
ments blunt-edged.
Colour yellowifh or greenifli white, fometimcs filvery
white j opaque ; ftains j very foft or friable ; feels a
little greafy or filky.
Chem. Char.—Effervefces and diffolves in acids,
MINERALOGY.
Chem. Char.—Effervefces brifldy with acids.
201
Calcaieou*
genus.
>  >
Conjlituent Parts.
Carbonate of lime,
Silica,
Oxide of iron,
Lofs,
98.11
•°s
.8
1.04
100.00
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found in Saxony, in
a bed of limeftore, where it is accompanied with ga¬
lena j in Norway ; and in Cornwall in England.
7. Species. Arragonite.
Arragon Spar, Kirw. i. 87. VArragonite, Broch. i.
576. Id. Hauy, iv. 337.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is always found cryftal-
lized in fix-fided equiangular prifms, or with two op-
pofite faces broader, to which correfpond the two faces
of an acute bevelment, which terminates the prifm.
The edges of the bevelment are alfo truncated. Tile
crvftals are varioufly grouped, and commonly in the
form of a crofs ; cryftals (freaked longitudinally ; luftre
(Inning or refplendent, vitreous j fra&ure foliated.
Colour grayifh or greeniih white } tranflucent and
femitranfparent j refra£lion double •, hard, fcratches
calcareous fpar j brittle, and eafily frangible. Specific
gravity 2.946.
Chem. Char.—Effervefces with acids, and is entire¬
ly diffolved. The conftituent parts, according to nu¬
merous and accurate analyfes, are the fame as thofe
of calcareous fpar ; but its fuperior hardnefs, diver-
fity of form, and other external chara&ers, have long
puzzled chemical philofophers •, and it dill remains un -
determined to what that diverfity is owing in this mi-
Conjlituent Parts.
Lime, . _ S1^
Carbonic acid, 39.
Silica, . 5.7
Oxide of iron, 3.2
Water, I.
100.5
Localities, See.—This mineral has been found in
mountains of ftratified limeftone at Jena in Mifnia, and
at Eifleben in Thuringia.
This is confidered by fome as belonging to. the fol¬
lowing fpecies, and by others as merely a variety of a-
garic mineral.
6. Species. Slaty Spar.
Argentine, Kirw. i. 105. Le Spathe Schijleux, Broch.
i. 558. Schiefer Spath of the Germans. Id. Phillips,
Phil. Mag. xiv. 289, and 293.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or diffeminated ; in¬
ternal luftre (hining, pearly •, fra&ure curved foliated 5
fragments wedge-lhaped, or blunt-edged.
Colour grayifh, reddifh, or yellowifti white j tranflu¬
cent ; foft; brittle; feels greafy. Spec. grav. 2.723.
Vol. XIV. Part I.
neral.
Localities, &c.—Arragonite was firft found imbed¬
ded in foliated and fibrous gypfum, in the province of
Arragon in Spain, from which it derives its name.
It has been alfo found in France, the Pyrenees, in
Saltzburg, fometimes in an argillaceous fchiftus, and
fometimes in quartz, accompanied by calcareous fpar
and pyrites.
8. Species. Brown Spar.
Sidero-Calcite, Kirw. i. 105. Le Spath Brunijfant,
Broch. i. 563. Chaux Carbonate'e Ferrifcre Perte'e,
Hauy, ii. 179.
Exter. Char.—Found mafiive or diffeminated, or in
kidney-fhaped, globular, or carious pieces ; very often
cryftallized. The forms are lenfes or rhomboids, which
latter have either convex or concave, faces ; double
pyramids compofed of two pyramids with three obtufe
faces : fimple three-fided pyramids, and oblique fix-fided
pyramids. The furface of the cryftals drufy, rarely
fmooth ; luftre weakly (Inning or (hining; internal
luftre (hining, pearly, or vitreous ; fra&ure foliated ;
fragments rhomboidal.
Colour milk-white, grayifli, yellowifh, or reddifh
Avhite; bright or brownifli red; tranflucent at the
C c edges;
k
202 MINERALOGY.
cenu5.°US ed&*'’ ^etn^iar^> brittle, eafily frangible j flreak grayifh
' i ^vnite. Spec. grav. 2.83.
( hem. Char.—Becomes b’ack and hard before the
blow-pipe, and unlels reduced to powder, cffervefces
flowly with acids.
Part 1.
blow-pipe without fplitting or fufion. Effervefces a lit- Claffifica-
tle with acids. tion.
Klaproth.
Conjiituent Paris, Bergman.
Carbonate of lime,
Oxide of iron,
Oxide of manganefe,
50
22
28
IOO
ConJUtuent Parts.
Carbonate of lime,
   magnefia,
Oxide of iron and manganefe, 3
100
52
45
73
25
2
100
^ Localities, &c.—Brown fpar is found in Bohemia,
Saxony, France, Sweden, and Britain. It is ufually
found in metallic veins.
Localities, &c.-—Found in the Tyrol and Saltzburg,
and in Sweden. It is always accompanied with albtftus,
talc, and tremolite, and imbedded in chlorite fchiftus*
lerpentine, and indurated talc.
11. Species. Swine Stone.
9. Species. Dolomite.
Id. Kirw. i. ill. Dolomie, Brochant, i. 534. Chaux
Carbonatec Aluminifere, Hauy, ii. 1 73.
Exter. Chari—Found maflive; fraffure appears to be
foliated ; fragments blunt-edged.
Colour grayifh or yellowith white; tranflucent on the
edges; femihard; rather difficultly frangible; feels
meagre. Spec. grav. 2.85.
Conjiituent Parts.
Lime,
Alumina,
Magnefia,
Oxide of iron.
Carbonic acid,
Lofs,
/</. Knrw. i. 89. La Pierre Puante, Brochant, i. 367.
Lhaux Carbonatee Fatide, Hauy, ii. 288.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive; internal luftre glim¬
mering or dull; fracture fplintery, fometimes earthy
or foliated ; fragments fplintery.
Colour grayifh black, or blackiffi brown ; opaque,
rarely tranflucent at the edges ; ftreak grayifh white ;
iemihard, fometimes foft; eafily frangible. Spec. grav.
. Ptys. Char.—When rubbed with a hard body it
gives out a very foetid odour of rotten eggs.
Chern. Char.—Soluble with effervefeence in nitric
acid ; before the blow-pipe is deprived of its odour,
which is fuppofed to be owing to fulphurated hy¬
drogen. J
Localities, &c—Forms entire beds in flratiform lime-
ftone rocks, as in France, Saxony, and Sweden.
Sauflure.
44.29
5-86
I*4
*74
46.
1.7!
100.00
Chem. Char.—Effervefces (lowly in nitric acid.
Phijs. Char.—Phofphorefces in the dark by the per-
cuffion of a hard body.
Local'ties, &c.—This (lone was firll obferved by
Dolomieu, among the ancient monuments of Rome; and
afterwards he difeovered fimilar flones in the mountains
of the Tyrol, and the Alps. It is found abundantly
on St Gothard and other primitive mountains. Dolo-
mieu’s attention was firft attra&ed to it by its fupc-
rior hardnefs and (low effervefeence in acids, and ana-
lyfis (hews that it is different from limeftone in its com-
pofition.
iQ. Species. Rhomb or Bitter-Spar.
Crystallised Muricalcite, Kirw. i. 92. Le Spath Mag-
nefien, Brochant, i. 560. Chaux Carbonatie Mag-
mjifere, Hauy, ii. 187.
12. Species. Marl.
This is divided into two fublpecies ; 1. earthy; and
2. indurated.
Subfpecies 1. Earthy Marl.
Id. Kirw. i. 74. La Marne Terreufe, Brochai i. 560.
Argile Calcarifere, Hauy, iv. 455.
Exter. Char—This variety is compofed of loofe or
(lightly coherent particles ; ftains a little; feels meagre
and rough ; is light; almoft fwims on water.
Colour yellowiffi gray, or grayifh white.
Localities, &c.—-Found in many places of France
and Germany, as well as in different places of England
and Scotland, forming beds in limeflone countries, and
often immediately under the foil.
Vfes.—It is fometimes employed in the manufacture
of pottery, but its principal ufe is for the purpofes of
agriculture.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive or diffeminated in
rhomboidal pieces, which have a cryftallized appear¬
ance; luftre (hining or refplendent, and vitreous or
pearly; fi-a&ure foliated; cleavage threefold} fragments
rhomboidal.
.Colour grayiffi white, yellowifh or reddiffi brown;
tranfiucent at the edges ; femihard ; brittle; ffreak
fnow-white. Spec. grav. 2.48.
Chem. Char.—Becomes gray or brown before the
5
Subfpecies 2. Indurated Marl.
Id. Kirw. i. 95. La Marne Endurcie, Brochant, i. 571.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive ; dull, or (lightly glim¬
mering; frafture earthy, fplintery, or flaty ; fragments
blunt-edged.
Colour yellowiffi, or fmoke gray; opaque ; (Ireak
grayiffi white ; foft; not very brittle > eafily frangible.
Spec. grav. 1.6 to 2.8.
Chem.
*
I, Part I. MINER
Claffifica- Ghent, C/W.—Melts before the blow-pipe into a
tl0U- grayifii black flag *, elfervefces brifldy with acids,
j ' "v" Marl is coniidered as a mixture of carbonate of lime
and alumina *, and according to the different proportions
of thefe ingredients, it is denominated calcareous marl
or clay marl, and fometiraes it is known in agriculture
by the names of foft and hard marl.
Localities^ Sec.—Found in Bohemia, Saxony, Swe¬
den, Italy, France, and Britain, in llratiform mountains,
fometimes in extenfive beds, frequently accompanying
limeftime, coal, and bafalt.
Ufes.—It is employed in agriculture for improving
the foil, fometimes for building, and fometimes as a
limeftone. It ferves alfo as a flux for fomc ores of iron.
13. Species. Bituminous Marl Slate.
Marno-bitumineux, Brochant, i. 574. Chaux Carbonatte
Bituminifere, Hauy, ii. 189.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive; furface rough, dull,
rarely glimmering *, or when divided into curved plates,
fmooth and Ihining j fra&ure flaty j ftraight or waved $
fragments tabular.
Colour grayilh or brownilh black *, opaque •, flreak
fhining j foft; eafily frangible j feels rather meagre.
Chem. Char.—Effervefces with acids j inflames be¬
fore the blow'-pipe gives out a bituminous odour, and
then melts into a black flag.
Localities, &c.—Found in different places of Thu¬
ringia, in mountains of ftratiform limeftone, forming
particular beds, which repofe frequently on a fpecies of
fandftone. It is frequently mixed with different ores of
copper, fo that it is fometimes wrought as a copper ore.
In this bituminous fchiftus, petrified fifties and marine
plants are frequently found, difpofed in regular order,
from which fome have conjectured that they muft have
died a violent death ; or, according to others, that
they have been poifoned by the copper with which it
abounds.
14. Species. Apatite.
Phofpholite, Kirw. i. 128. L'Apatite Commune, Bro¬
chant, i. 580. Chaux Phofphate'e, Kauy, ii. 234.
Exter. Char.—Found almoft always cryftallized, rare¬
ly diffeminated. The forms of its cryftals are, 1. A
regular fix-fided prifm ; 2. The fame prifm truncated on
its lateral edges j 3. Alfo on its angles and terminal
edges j 4. Bevelled on each of the lateral edge-> j 5.
With an obtufe and regular fix-fided pyramid, and one
or both extremities, the fummit being (lightly truncated j
6. A three-fided prifm with the lateral edges bevelled,
and the terminal edges truncated ; 7. A fix fided table,
having its terminal edges ftrongly, and the lateral edges
(lightly truncated. Lateral faces of the prifms longitu¬
dinally ftreaked ; faces of the pyramid fmooth *, luftre
(hining and refplendent j internal luftre ftiining, be¬
tween refinous and vitreous. Crofs fracture foliated •, in
other dire6lions fine grained, uneven, or conchoidal.
Fragments rather tharp-edged.
Colour green of various (hades, blue, fometimes
pearl gray, and greenith gray j femitranfparent, fome¬
times tranfparent, or only tranflucent $ femihard; is
feratehed by fluor fpar} brittle, and eafily frangible.
Spec. grav. 2.8 to 3.2.
A L O G Y. 203
Chem, C/ior.—-Thrown on hot coals it gives out a Calcareous
greenifh phofphorefcent light j infulible before the blow- ,
pipe, but lofcs its colour. It is almoft entirely foluble
in nitric acid.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Lime, _ 55
Phofphoric acid, 45
100
Pht/f. Becomes elcdlric by friftion, but not
by heat.
Localities, See.—Apatite is found in different place*
of Germany, chiefly in tin mines, where it is accom¬
panied by fluor fpar, quartz, and metallic ores. It is
alfo found in Cornwall in fimilar circumflances.
15. Species. Asparagus Stone.
La Pierre d'Afpergc, Broch. i. 586. Chaux P/iofphatSe,
Hauy, ii. 234.
Exter. Char.—This mineral has been only found
cryftallized in equiangular fix-fided prifms, terminated
by a (lightly obtufe fix fided pyramid j lateral edges
fometimes truncated j lateral faces longitudinally (freak¬
ed, the others fmooth; external luftre (hining or re¬
fplendent ; internal, refplendent and refinous; fradlure
foliated, crofs fradure imperfeilly conchoidal j frag¬
ments not very (harp-edged.
Colour afparagus green, greenifli white j commonly
tranfparent, often only femitranfparent, or even tranf-
flucent •, femiliard. Spec. grav. 3.09.
Chem. Char.— Infufible before the blow-pipe j folu¬
ble with effervefeence in nitric acid, but thrown on hot
coals does not phofphorefce.
ConJUtuent Parts. Vauquelin.
Lime,
Phofphoric acid,
Lofs,
5.T-32
45'72
.96
J 00.00
Localities, &c.—-This ftone has been found at Ca-
prera, near Cape de Gates in Spain, and alfo, it ia faid,
near Arendal in Norway.
16. Species. Phosphorite.
VApatite Terreufe, Broch. i. 584, Chaux Phofphat/e
Terreufe, Huuy, ii. 239.
Exter. Found maflive, and having little co¬
herence *, du’l j frafture earthy, or fine grainec uneven $
fragments biunt-edged, foru;times wedge-lkaoed.
Colour yellowiih or grayifti whb ■, opaque; femi¬
hard ; often friable; eafily frangiole; feels meagre.
Sn ec. grav. 2.82.
Chern. Char.-—Before the blow-pi e it phofphore ces,
and acconting to fome, melts into a white gla;% but
according to others, infufible. Soluble in acids, and
with fulphuric acid gives out white vapours.
C c 2
Conjlituent
204-
MINERALOGY.
Calcareous
germs.
Conjlhuent Parts. Pelletier.
Lime, 59.
Silica, 3.
Phofphoric acid, 34.
Fluoric acid, 2.5
Carbonic acid, 1.
Muriatic acid, .5
Oxide of iron, 1.
100.0
Localities, &.c.—This mineral is found in the north
of Scotland, and in the province of Eftremadura in
Spain, where it forms an entire mountain. It is mixed
with quartz ; has been long known by the inhabitants
of the country for its property of
thrown on hot coals.
17. Species. Fiuor.
This has been divided into three fubfpecies : 1. earthy j
2. compaft } and, 3. fiuor fpar.
phofphorefcing when
its angles a three-fided pyramid, correfponding to the
faces of the cube. 2. 1 he octahedron, which is either
perfeCt, or has it angles or its edges, or both, trunca¬
ted. Surface of the cryftals fmooth, fhining or re-
fplendent, fometimes drufy ; internal luftre fhining, re-
fplendent, and vitreous or pearly ; fraCture foliated,
ftraight or curved ; cleavage fourfold, in the direction
of the faces of the regular oCtahedron ; fragments tetra¬
hedral, or rhomboidal.
Colours of fiuor fpar extremely various and beautiful.
The principal are, greenifh white, grayifli, or ycllow-
ifh ; blue, green, brown, and red, of various (hades j
and different colours are fometimes arranged in (tripes
and fpots. Mod commonly tranflucent, fometimes
tranfparent, or only tranducent at the edges. Semi-
hard } brittle j eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 3.09 to
3-I9-
Chem. Char.—hufible before the blow-pipe into a
tranfparent glafs ; decrepitates when heated. The pow¬
der thrown on hot coals gives out a bluifli or greenifh
phofphorefcent light •, and two pieces rubbed againft
each other, (hine in the dark.
Subfpecies 1. Earthy Fluor.
ConJUtuent Parts. Scheele.
Sandy or Earthy Fluor, Kirw. i. I 26. Le Fluor Ter-
reux, Broch. i. 593. Chaux Fluatee Amorphe, Hauy,
ii. 260.
Exter. Char.—Is compofed of particles which are
fiightly cohering; dull, or fcarcely glimmering.
Colour greenifh white, fometimes bluifli green j (tains
a little } feels rough.
Chem, Char.—Thrown on hot coals, it gives out a
bluilh green light.
Localities, &.c.—Has been found in Hungary, in a
vein accompanied with quartz.
Subfpecies 2. Compact Fluor.
Id. Kirw. 127. Id. Broch. i. 594.
Exter. Char.—Is found maffive j dull, luftre fome¬
times glimmering, vitreous ; fraCture even, conchoidal,
and rarely fplintery j fragments (harp-edged.
Colour greenifti gray, or greenifh white ; fometimes
different colours are difpofed in fpots; tranflucent j
ftreak (tuning ; hard, and brittle.
Chem. Char.—Phofphorefces on hot coals.
Localities, See.—This mineral is found in the Hartz,
in Sweden, and Siberia, always accompanying fluor
fpar.
Subfpecies 3. Fluor Spar.
Foliated or Sparry Fluor, Kirw. i. 127. Le Spath Fluor,
Broch. i. 595. Chaux Fluatee, Hauy, ii. 247.
Lime,
Fluoric acid, 16
Water. 27
IOO
Localities, &c.—Fluor fpar is fometimes found in
beds, but mod frequently in mineral veins. It is very-
common in many places of the world, particularly in
Cornwall and Derbyfliire, and alfo in the counties of
Durham and Cumberland in England ; at Chamouni in
Savoy, the oCtahedral variety of a r0fe red colour is
found. Fluor fpar is found alfo in the interior part of
Aberdeenfhire in Scotland.
Efes.—This mineral is fuccefsfully employed as a flux
for different metallic ores. As it is fufceptible of a fine
polilh, it is cut and formed into a great variety of or¬
namental objeCIs, as pyramids, vafes, &c. which, on
account of the beauty of the colours, are greatly ef.
teemed.
18. Species. Gypsum.
This fpecies is divided into four fubfpecies : 1. earthy ;
2. compadl j 3. foliated ; and, 4. fibrous.
Subfpecies 1. Earthy Gypsum.
Farinaceous Gypfum, Kirw. i. 120. LeGypfc Terreux,
Broch. i. 601. Chaute Sulpha tee Terreufe, Flauy, ii.
278.
F.[[en. Char.—Infoluble in water, and divifible into
a regular odtahedron.
Exter. Char.—Fluor fpar is found maffive or diffemi-
nated, but mod frequently cryftallized. Primitive form
a regular odlahedron, which is eafily obtained by me¬
chanical divifion ; integrant molecule a regular tetra¬
hedron. The ufual forms are, 1. The cube, which is
either perfedl, or with truncated edges or truncated
angles, or with the edges bevelled, having on each of
I
Exter. Char.— I his is compofed of particles which
are more or lefs cohering j dull, in fome places weakly
glimmering ; feels meagre and rough.
Colour white, gray, or yellowifh.
Localities, &c.— I his fubltance is rare} it is only-
found in the fiffures and cavities of gypfum rocks, and
is fuppofed to be a depofition of loofe particles of gyp¬
fum, carried along by water. Found in Saxony, and
Mont Martre near Paris.
Subfpecies
Part I.
Claffifica-
tion.
MINERALOGY.
Part I.
Claftifica-
tion.
Subfpecies 2. Compact Gypsum,
Id. Kxrw. i. 121. Id. Broch. i. 602. Id. Hauy, ii,
27S.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive *, luftre weakly glim¬
mering, alaioft dull j traftare compaa, even, or Iplin-
tery ; fragments blunt edged.
Colour yellowilh and grayilli white, fometimes red-
difli •, and different colours exhibit ftripes j tranllucent
at the edges j loft, and eafily frangible. Spec. grav.
about 2.3. ^ -c
Localities, &c.—Found in Italy, Germany, trance,
Spain, and England.
Subfpecies 3. Foliated Gypsum.
Granularltj Foliated Gypfum, Kirw. i. 123. LI. Broch.
i. 606.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive or diffeminated, and
fometimes, it is faid, crytlallized in fix-lided prifms,
obtufely bevelled at each extremity ; luftre glimmering
or firming, between vitreous and pearly 5 fracture fo¬
liated, fometimes radiated $ fragments blunt-edged.
Colour ufually fnow white, grayifh, yellowilh, or
reddifh white •, and feveral colours are arranged in fpots,
ftripes, and veins. Tranllucent, rarely femitranfparent •,
refraaion double •, very foft ^ eafily frangible. Spec,
grav. 2.27 to 2.3
Foliated gypfum has fome refemblance to granular
limeftone, but may be readily diitinguithed from it by
its foftnefs.
Subfpecies 4. Fibrous Gypsum.
Id. Kirw i. 122. Id. Broch. i. 604. Id. Hauy, ii.
278.
i . .
Exter. Char.—This is found maflive, but in thin
layers j luffre finning, or weakly fhining, pearly •, frac¬
ture fibrous •, in fome varieties the longitudinal fracture
is foliated; crofs fradure fibrous j fragments long,
fplintery.
Colour fnow white, grayiih, yellowilh, or reddilh
white tranllucent •, very foft j eafily frangible.
Chem. Char.—The different varieties of gypfum pof-
fefs nearly the fame chemical characters. \\ nen pure,
there is no effervefeence with acids. Before the blow¬
pipe gypfum immediately becomes white, is converted
into a white enamel, which, at the end of 24 hours,
falls into powder.
Localities, &c.—Gypfum, in general, conftitutes
mountains or beds, which are fubordinate to fandltone,
or limeftone. It is found in all kinds of rocks. Gyp¬
fum is found in great abundance in the neighbourhood
of Pans, in feveral parts of England, but ipunngiy in
Scotland.
Ifes. Gypfum Is employed along with limC as a ce¬
ment. It is alfo very extenfively employed under the
name of platter of Paris, for making calls and models.
With this view it is expofed to a Itrong heat, to drive
off the water of cryftallization. It is then in the Hate
of powder, which being again mixed with water, is put
into the mould in the form of palte j and, from its
Itrong affinity for water, it foon becomes folid.
Calcareous
19. Species. SELENITE. . Se”u8,
Broad Foliated Gypfum, Kirw. i. 123. La Selenite,
Broch. i. 609. Chaux Hulfatce, Hauy, ii. 266.
EJfen. Char.—Divifible into fmooth plates, which
break under angles of 1130 and 67°.
Exter. Char.—Selenite is found maffive j and frequent¬
ly alio cryltallized. The primitive form of its cryftals
is a four-fided prifm, whofe bafes are obliquely parallelo¬
grams the integrant molecule is the lame, i he ufual
forms are, a fix-fided prifm, having two broad and two-
narrow faces, and terminated by an oblique bevelment,
whofe fides correfpond to the broad fides of the prifm ;
a fimilar prifm terminated by a four-fided pyramid
double cry Hals compofed of two of the former united
by their fmaller lateral faces, fo that the fummits united
form on one fide a falient angle, and on the other a re¬
entering angle ; another form is a fpheroidal or conic
lens. Thefe cryffals are often grouped, divergent, faf-
cicular, or llellated ; and of the fix fides of the prifm,
the two oppolite are fmooth, and the four others longi¬
tudinally Itreaked * lufire refplendent or Ihining, be¬
tween vitreous and pearly •, fradlure foliated, ftraight
or curved ; cleavage threefold ; fragments rhomboidal,
with two faces fmooth and ffiining, and two others
ftreaked.
Colour ufually white, grayiih, yellowilh, or fnow
white, fometimes iridefeent •, tranfparent, fometimes on¬
ly tranllucent •, very foft •, in thin plates, flexible, but
not elaltic *, eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 2.32.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow pipe more eafily fufi-
ble than gypfum, and fplits into thin plates.
Conjlitucnt Barts. Bergman.
Lime, 32
Sulphuric acid, 46
Water, 22
10a
Localities, &c.— Selenite is found among beds of
gypfum, and particularly among thofe which alternate
with clay and fand-ftone. It is alfo found in nefts in
clay. It is not uncommon in many places, as among
the gypfum rocks near Paris, in different parts of Eng¬
land, and at Lord Glafgow’s coal works in Scotland,
where it is found among clay, and in the cavities or
on the furface of the limeftone which repofes on the
ftrata of coal.
Ufes.—Selenite alfo, after calcination, is employed
in modelling ; but it is faid that it poffeffes lefs folidity
than what is obtained from gypfum.
20. Species. Anhydrite.
Chaux Sa/fate'e Anhydre, Hauy, iv. 348.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maffive ; luftre
lliining or weakly Ihining, and pearly ; fra&ure curved
foliated, fometimes radiated, and fine fplintery : frag¬
ments lharp-edged •, tranflucent; femihard ; not very
brittle, rather eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 2.964.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it neither exfoli¬
ates nor becomes white, like felenite.
Conjlitucnt
2c6
C;ic reows
ger. -s.
' ■ ' ' y "'■» li i ^
MINER
Conjlhuent Farts.
Vauquelin. Klaproth.
Lircr, 40 42.
Su’ iurtc acid, 60 57.
O^ide of iron, — .1
Silica, — .25
Lois, — .65
100 100.00
A L O G Y.
Localities% &c.—Found near Arcndal in Norway,
ami ionic fpccimens arc accompanied by greenilh-co-
lourcd, foliated talc.
VII. BARYTIC Genus.
1. Species. Withlrite, or Carbonate of Barytes.
Baro/ite, or Aerated Barytes, Kirw. i. 134. La Wi¬
ther ite, Brochant, i. 613. Baryte Carbonalec, Hatiy,
ii. 308.
Localities, &c.—This mineral has been found in
Switzerland, in the fait pits in the canton of Berne.
2i. Species. Cube Spar.
Chaux Suffatee Anhydre, Hauy, iv. 348. Saude Muri-
etee Gypffere, Id. ii. 365. Muriacite, Klaproth.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive, and al-
fo cryflaliized, in four-fided prifms, which are nearly
cubical j two of the oppofite lateral faces are broader
than the other two. The lateral edges are fometimes
truncated, and hence arifes an eight-fided prifm : foinc-
times alf;> the truncations are fo great as to deftroy the
narrow lateral faces, and form again a iix-iided prifm.
External luftre of the broad faces refplendent and pear¬
ly ; of the narrow, (hining. Internal luftre (Inning and
pearly ; frafture foliated j cleavage threefold ; frag¬
ments cubical.
Colour milk-white, grayirti, yellowifh, and reddifh
■white j fometimes pearl gray j tranftucent j femihard.
Spec. gtav. 2.92 to 2.96.
Confituent Parts. Klaproth.
Sulphate of lime, 57-8
Carbonate of lime, 11.
Muriate of foda, 31.2
ICO.O
Localities, &c.—Found in the fait pits at Halle in
the Tyrol, where it is called fplintery gyffum.
22. Species. Datholite.
Chaux Datholite, Brochant, ii. 397. Chaux Borat/e Si-
liesufe, Hauy.
Exter. Char —This mineral has only been found
cryftalHzt’d •, ‘be primitive form is a rectangular prifm,
\vi»h homboidal bafes, whole angles are 109° 18' and
7'04.f j luftre drinir.g, vitreous j fragments conchoi-
dal.
Colour grayilh or greeniih white j tx-anflucent}
fcratches fluor fpar. Spec. grav. 2.98.
Chew. Char.—ln the flame of a candle it becomes
dull white, and is eafily reduced to powder. Before
the blow-pipe it melts into a glafs of a pale rofe-red
colour.
Conjiituent Parts. Klaproth.
Lime, 35.5
Silica,. . 36.5
Boracic acid, 24.
Water, 4.
100,0
Efen. Char.—Forming a white precipitate in weak
nitric acid before folution.
Exter. Char.—Found mafiive, or difleminated, rarely
cryftaliized •, forms of its cryftals are, a Cx-hded prifm,
with a (ix-fided pyramid fet on the lateral faces j the
fame prifm having all the angles truncated j a double
fxx-fidtd pyramid. The cryftals, which are fmall, are
ufually imbedded in the mineral it (elf; fometimes group¬
ed in bundles, or crofting each other. Suiface (mooth;
luftre of the principal fracture (hining, or weakly (hining,
refinous ; fracture between radiated and foliated , exofs
fracture fine grained uneven j fragments wedge (haped.
Colour yellowifti gray, grayidi, or yellowiih wlxite ;
tranflucent, or femitranfparent j femihard, or foft j
brittle j eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 4.3 to 4.33.
Chem. Char.—Infufible according to Hauy, before
the blow-pipe j but according to Brochant, melts before
the blow-pipe to a white enamel.
Conjiituent Parts.
Pelletier. Vauquelin.
Barytes, 62 74.5
Carbonic acid, 22 25.5
Water, 16 •>—
IOO 100.0
Conjiituent Parts according to Klaproth.
Carbonate of barytes, 98.246
Carbonate of ftrontites, I-7°3
Alumina iron, .043
Carbonate of copper, .008
lOC.COO
Localities, See.—This mineral was difeovered by Dr
Withering at Anglefark in Lancalhire, in lead veins,
which traverfe the coal ftrata, and it is accompanied
with heavy fpar and blende.
f7/2\r.—Barytes acts as a ftrong poifon on the animal
economy. It has been long employed at A ngleiark
for the purpofe of deftroying rats. It has afto been
tried as a medicine in ierofula, but feemingly with little
effeft •, and it ought to be had recourfe to with extreme
caution.
2. Species. Heavy Spar, or Sulphate of Barytes.
This fpecies has been divided into eight fubfpecies j
earthy, compact, granular, foliated, common, columnar,
prifmatic, and bolognian.
Subfpecies 1. Earthy Heavy Spar,
Earthy Barofclenite, Kirwan, i. 138. Le Spath Pefant
Ter reuse, Brochant, i. 617.
Exter.
Part I.
Claffifica-
tien.
tana.
Part L
Claflifica- Kxter. Char,—Found maiTive ; luilre fcarcely glim-
. tlon‘ , raering, or dull j confifts of earthy particles, which are
{lightly cohering *, ftains a little j feels meagre.
Colour fnow white, grayiih, yellowifh, or reddiih
white.
Localities, &c.—This a rare mineral. It has been
found in Saxony, covering maffes of heavy fpar, and al-
fo in Derbylhire and Staffordihire in England.
Subfpecics 2. Compact Heavv Spar.
Compact Barofe/enite, Kirw. i. 138. Baryte Sulfatee
CompaEle, Hauy, ii. 303. Id. Broch. i. 618.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, fometimcs in kidney-
form or globular pieces, with cubical impreflions *, lullre
glimmering, fometimes dull, and fometimes oeakly (hi-
ning ; fracture coarfe eartiiv, fometimes uneven *, frag¬
ments not very fhatp-edged.
Colour yellowifli, grayiih white, fomelimes pale flefh
red j opaque, or tranflucent at the edges j loft 5 not
verv brittle j ealily frangible ; feels meagre.
Localities, &c.—Found in mineral veins in Saxony,
and in England} in clay (late, in Savoy; and we have
found it in fand done in Northumberland.
207
four-lided prifm, rectangular or oblique j 3. A four- Baltic
fided table, reCtangular or oblique j 4. A lix-fided Senus
prifm ; 5. A fix-fided table j and, 6. A long eight-
tided table. Thefe forms are varioufly modified by
truncations and bevelments, and they are differently
grouped together the priims crofs one another $ the
tables are attached by their lateral faces, and form glo¬
bular or kidney-fliaped groups j furfaces fmooth, fome¬
times rough and drufy. Luftre refplendent, fhining,
glimmering, or only dull: internal lultre Alining or re¬
fplendent, between pearly and relinous : fracture
Araight foliated j cleavage threefold j fragments fome-
what rhomboidal.
Colour commonly white, fnow-white, milk-white,
grayifli, ycllowiih, or reddiih j in maffes tranducent;
in cryAals tranlparent or femitranfparent ; refraction
double j foft j brittle. Spec. giav. 4.29 to 4.47, and
4-5*
Chem. Char.—Fufible before the blow pipe into a
folid white enamel, which being moiAened, gives out
the odour of fulphurated hydrogen. Docs not effer-
vefee with acids.
Conjlitucnt Parts.
MINERALOGY.
S ibfpecies 3. Granular Heavy Spar.
Exier. Char.—This alfo is found maflive j luAre
glimmering, nearly Alining, and pearly; frafture foli¬
ated, or iplintery j fragments blunt-edged.
Colour fnow-white, milk-white, yellowilh, or red-
di(h •, tranflucent j foft; not very brittle ; eafily fran¬
gible. Spec. grav. 3.8.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Barytes 60
Sulphuric acid, 30
Silica, 16
100
Localities, &c.—Found in mineral veins in Saxony,
along with galena, and in Siberia, accompanied by cop¬
per and filver ores.
Subfpecies 4. Foliated Heavy Spar.
Exter. Char.—Found xnaflive, and in kidney-Ainpetl,
globular, and cellular pieces, compofed cf feur-fided
tables, 01 lenfes, with a drufy furface j luAre glimmer¬
ing or ihining, between pearly and vitreous j fra&ure
curved foliated, fometimes fplintery *, fragments not
very (harp-edged, fometimes wedge-fliaped^
Colour yellowifh, reddifli, or grayith white, fome¬
times Hefli or brovvniAi red j tranflucent 3 foft j not
very brittle ; eafily frangible.
Localities, &c.—Is not uncommon in mineral veins 3
fometimes alfo in beds, in many countries. It is alfo
found in Britain.
Subfpecies 5. Common Heavy Spar.
Toliated Barofelenite, Kirw. i. 140. Broch. i. 624.
Exter. C/^or.—This mineral is found in maffes, or
diffeminated, and very often cryAallized^ Its princi¬
pal forms are, 1, A double four-fided pyramid 3 2. A
Withering. Bergman.
Barytes, 67.2 84
Sulphuric acid, 32.8 13
Water, — 3
100.0 100
localities, &c.—This is a very common mineral,
and particularly in melallie veins that traverfe primi¬
tive mountains. It accompanies ores of filver, copper,
lead, and cobalt, as well as Auor (par, calcareous fpar,
and quartz.
Subfpecies 6. Columnar Heavy Spar.
Le Spath Pefant en Bnrres, Broch. i.. 631. Baryte
Sulphalee Bacillaire, Hauy, ii. 302.
ExUr. Chaf.—Found-' always cryfiallized : 1. In ob¬
lique four ad* d prifms 3 2. The fame prifm terndnated
by an a<’ut<£ 1 evelment : 3. The fame prifm terminated
by a four-fided pyramid placed on the lateral edges 3
and, 4. A fix-fided prifm bevelled at the extremity. The
er>ffdh are acicular, and are grouped together in bun¬
dles ; fiirface Alining or weakly Adniug 3 internal luftre
Alining 3 longitudinal fradture radiated 3 crofs- fra&ure
even. Fragments rhomboidal.
Colour filverv, gravid^ 01 greenifli white 3 tranfliv-
cent 3 foft, and brittle.
Localities, &c.—Found in Saxony, ard Derbvfliire
in England, accompanied by other varieties of heavy
fpar, quartz, and fluor fpar.
Subfpecies 7, Prismatic Heavy Spar.
Exter. Cfor.—Found maflive, and frequently cry-
Aallized. The ufual forms are, 1. An oblique four-fi¬
ded prifmr bevelled at the extremities 3 2. An oblique
four-fided prifm, terminated by a four-fided pyramid
placed on the lateral edges 3- 3. An elongated oflahe-
dron; and, 4. A fix-fided prifm. Luftre Alining or re¬
fplendent, between refinous and peaily 3 fra&ure foliar
ted 3 cleavage threefold.
t
Colour
20 B
MINERALOGY.
Part I.
Strontian Colour yollowllh, ^reenilli, or pearl gray, fometimes
^,nus' , pale blue, and rarely flelh red $ Iran (lucent; when cry-
itallized, tranfparent j foft, and not very brittle} very
eafily frangible.
Localities, See.—-Sometimes found in mineral veins,
as in Saxony.
Subfpecies 8. Bolognian Heavy Spar.
Le Spath de Bologne, Brochant, i. 633. Striated or
fibrous heavy /par, Kirwan, i. 141. Baryte fulfatee
radiee, Hauy, ii. 302.
Exter. Char.—This is found in rounded pieces j ex¬
ternal furface uneven, dull, or glimmering; internal
luftre (Inning, or weakly Alining, between adamantine
and pearly} fradture radiated, parallel, diverging, or
fibrous, fometimes foliated $ fragments fplintery, fome¬
times rhomboidal.
Colour, fmoke or yellowifii gray 5 tranAucent, foft,
very brittle, and eafily frangible.
Chem. Char.—This mineral has been long known
by its property of Alining in «the dark, alter being
heated. Other heavy (pars, indeed, have a fimilar pro¬
perty.
Confiituent Parts. Arvidfon.
Sulphate of barytes, 62.
Silica, 15.
Alumina, I4-75
Gypfum, 6.
Oxide of iron, .25
Water, 2.
100.00
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found at Monte
Paterno near Bologna in Italy, in rounded maffes,
which have an uneven furface : they are imbedded in
an argillaceous or marly rock, which is a kind of amyg¬
daloid, and from which they are detached by the adlion
of the waters.
VIII. STRONTIAN Genus.
1. Species. Strontites, Carbonate.
La Strontianite, Brochant, i. 637. Id. Kirw. i. 332.
Strontiane Carbonatee, Hauy, ii. 3 27.
Efien. Char.—Soluble in nitric acid with effervef-
cence ; paper dipped in the folution, and dried, burns
with a purple fiame.
Exter. Char.—Found mafiive, and fometimes cry-
ftallized in needles, which are grouped together •,
form of the cryfials a regular fix-fided prifm •, luAre
weakly Alining, or only glimmering; internal luftre
Aiming, and weakly Alining, betiveen refinous and pear¬
ly •, fra61ure radiated, ftraight, diverging, or fibrous •,
crofs fraflure fine grained, uneven, or fplintery} frag¬
ments wedge-Aiaped, or (harp-edged.
Colour afparagus green, greenifh, whitifh, or yel-
lowiAi gray j tranAucent j femihard, brittle and eafiiy
frangible j feels a little greafy. Spec. grav. 3.4 to
3-67* . . . •
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe whitens without
fufion, and afterwards expofed to the air, falls to
powder. , •
Confiituent Parts.
Klaproth.
Strontites, 69.5
Carbonic acid, 30.
Water, .5
100.0
Localities, &.c.—This mineral has been hitherto
found only at Strontian in Scotland, in a lead vein
which traverfes a gneifs rock. It is faid alfo to have
been found at Leadhills.
2. Species. Celestine, Sulphate of Strontites.
La Celefiine, Brochant, i. 640. Strontiane fulfatee,
Hauy, ii. 313.
Effen. Char.—Divifible into a rhomboidal prifm,
with angles of about loy0 and 750} gives a light red
colour to the blue part of the fiame produced by the
blow-pipe.
Exter. Char.—Primitive form of its cryftals a rect¬
angular prifm, whofe bafes are rhombs ; integrant mole¬
cule a triangular prifm with fquare bafes. The forms
under which it generally appears are four or fix-fide.d
prifms, which are terminated by a two fided bevelment,
a four-fided, or an eight-fided pyramid.
This fpecies has been divided into two fubfpecies:
I. fibrous j and, 2. foliated.
Subfpecies 1. Fibrous Ceeestine.
Exter. Char.—Found mafiive or cryftaliized \ luftre
of the longitudinal fraCture (hining that of the crofs
frafture, weakly Alining between pearly and refinoiis.
Longitudinal fraCture foliated *, crofs fraCture fibrous,
curved j fragments fplintery j rather blunt edged.
Colour indigo blue, bluifii gray, and fometimes with
whitilh bands, or with yellowifii brown fpots j tranAu¬
cent j foft, and eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 3.83.
Confiituent Parts. Klaproth.
Strontites, 58
Sulphuric acid and oxide of iron 42
100
Localities, &c.—Has been found in Pennfylvania in
America, and near Toul in France.
Subfpecies 2. Foliated Celestine.
Exter. Char.—This is alfo found mafiive and cryftal-
lizert } luftre weakly Aiming, or Alining j that of the
cryftals refplendent •, fracture foliated, ftraight, or radi¬
ated j cleavage threefold.
Colour milk-white, grayifti, and bluifti-white : femi-
tranfparent, or tranftueetit 5 femi-hard 3 very eafily fran¬
gible.
'Hie following are the conftituent parts of it variety
of fulphate of ftrontites, which is found at Mont Mar-
tre near Paris.
Sulphate of ftrontites,
Carbonate of lime,
Oxide of iron,
91.42
8-33
•25
100.00*
* Vauque‘
tin, ‘your,
de Mines,
N° S3-
P-355-
Localities,
Pelletier.
62
3°
8
100
Part T.
MINER
Claffifica- Localities, &c.—This variety is found in great abun-
t!0^; dance near Briftol in England, where the fulphate of
^ * ftrontites was firfl dii'covered by Mr Clayfi<.ldk It lias
been fhvce found in Sicily, where it is accompanied
with fibrous gypfum and native fulphur.
SECOND CL \SS. SALTS.
I. Genus. SULPHATES.
1. Species. Native Vitriol.
Mixed vitriol, or fulphate of iron, copper and •zinc.
Kirwan, ii. 24. Vitriol Natif, Brochant, ii. 2.
Exter. Char.—This mineral is found maflive or dif-
feniinated, and alfo in a llalaftitical, cylindrical, and
capillary form *, internal luftre fhining, or weakly {hill¬
ing, between filky and vitreous •, external furface rough
and uneven } fradture ufually fibrous, fometimes foliat¬
ed.
Colour grayilh, or yellowifti white, fometimes differ¬
ent (hades of Iky blue •, the colour varies by expofure to
the air. Soft ; femi-tranfparent or tranflucent} tafte
four and aftringent.
Chem. Char.—Thefe are different, according to the
proportions of the conftituent parts. Before the blow¬
pipe, fulphurated hydrogen gas is given out ; the iron
Is detedled by giving a black colour to the folution of
nut galls •, the copper, by immerfing a plate of iron ;
and the zinc, by a white efflorefcence, which appears
when the native fait is expofed to the air.
This fubfiance is a mixed fait, compofed of the ful-
phates of iron, zinc and copper, in variable propor¬
tions, fo that its appearance and charadlers muff alfo be
variable.
Localities, &c.—Native vitriol is not uncommon in
mountains of clay (late which contain metallic ores, and
particularly thofe of copper and iron pyrites, and
blende 5 by the decompofition of which it is formed.
It is found in Bohemia, Saxony, and Hungary, as w’ell
as in the mines of Britain, where fuch metallic ores
abound.
The native fulphate of iron is common in coal mines
which contain iron pyrites, as in many of the coal
mines of Britain. This fubftance is very abundant
in the earl of Glafgow’s coal mines near Paifley,
where the manufadlure of copperas, by purifying
and cryltallizing the native fait, has been long car¬
ried on.
LJfes.—.The mixed fubftance, native vitriol, can only
be employed to any ufeful purpofe, by obtaining the
different falts in a feparate form. The ufes of thefe
falts are well known in various arts, but particularly in
dyeing, and fome of them in medicine.
2. Species. Native Alum.
Alum, Kirwan, ii. 13. VAlun Natif, Brochant, ii. 6.
Alumine Sulfatee alkaline, Hauy, ii. 387, 388.
Exter. Char.—Native alum is ufually found in fmall
capillary cryftals, fometimes adhering to other minerals,
and very rarely in ftalaftitical maffes. The form of
the cryftal of alum is the regular octahedron, wThich is
ufually obtained artificially. Externally it is dull, or
ftightly glimmering, but internally (hining, with a
VOL. XIV. Part I.
A L O G Y.
20)
filky or vitreous luftre j fraCture fibrous 5 very foft •, Salts,
tafte aftringent. l——y—
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe melts eafily in
its water of cryftallization, then froths up, and becomes
a white fpongy mJs.
Alum is a triple fait, a fulphate of alumina and po-
taftr. It rarely happens that all the three ingredients
exift together in nature. The pot dh is ufuaily added
during the prep: aii n c artificial alum.
According to the exami ration of native alum by
Klaproth, from the alum cavern ai Cape Mileno near
Naples, it appears that f ori 1000lbs. of the material
furnifhed by nature, 470 lbs. may be obtained, having
the requifite quantity of potafii j and by an addition of
potafti to promote the cryitallizalion, 290 lbs. mo e may
be obtained. Anahit. EJf. i. 268 The following is
the analyfis of the aluminous tchiilus from Freyenwalde
by the fame chcmnt.
Alumina,
Oxide of iron, 7.90
Potafti, .25
Sulphuric acid and water of cryftallization, 77.
100.00* * Analyt.
FJJ] ii. 7I.
Localities, &c.—Native alum is found in thofe pla¬
ces where the aluminous ftones, already deferibed, a-
bound, as in the neighbourhood of volcanoes, ahd in
coal mines. An extenfive alum manufactory has been
carried on for feveral years with great flrill and fuccefs,
at Lord Glafgow’s coal work near Paifley, mentioned
above. The materials are obtained from the rubbifh in
the eld waftes, which confifts of the aluminous fchiftus
from the roof and pavement of the coal. Thefe mines
alfo abound with iron pyrites ; and from the decompo¬
fition of all thefe fubftances the native vitriol and na¬
tive alum are obtained.
Efes.— The ufes of alum in various arts are too well
known to require any enumeration.
3. Species. Mountain Butter.
La Beurre de Montague, Broch. ii. 10.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive j internal luftre ftrong-
ly glimmering, waxy; fraCture foliated j fragments
blunt-edged.
Colour grayiftr white, fulphur yellow, or yellowifh
brown j tranllucent at the edges 5 feels greafy j tafte
aftringent.
Localities, &c.—This fpecies is found in fimilar fitu-
ations with the former. In its native repofitory it is
nearly as foft as butter, and has fomething of the ap¬
pearance, from which it has its name. Perhaps it ought
to be confidered merely as a variety of the former. The
fame remark may be applied to another variety called
plumofe alum.
4. Species. Capillary Salt. Sulphate of Magnefia.
Le Sel Capi/laire, Broch. ii. 8. Hoar Salz, or Hair
Salt, ol the Germans.
Exter. Char.—This fait is always found in fine capil¬
lary cryftals, fo clofely united together as to form a
compaCt mafs 5 luftre ftiining, or weakly ftiining, filky ;
fraCture fibrous.
D d
Colour
MINERALOGY.
Part I.
Colour -white, fometimes grecnifli, grayifh, or yellow'
ilh ; tranflucent, friable ; tafte aftringent.
Conflituent Parts.—This fait was fuppofed to be a
plumofe or native alum •, but it appears from the analylis
of Klaproth, to be a fulphate of magnefia, with a fmall
proportion of iron. We have examined a fimilar ca¬
pillary fait from the coal mines near Paifley, which alfo
appeared to be a iulphate of magnefia, but with a
greater proportion of fulphate of iron.
Localities, &c.—This native fait is found in fimilar
fituations with the former fpecies.
5. Species. Native Epsom Salt, or Sulphate of
Magnejia.
Le Selamcr Natif Broch. ii. 11. Epfom Salt, Kir. ii. 12.
Exter. Char.—The characters already given of the
former fpecies are equally applicable to this, except¬
ing that it is faid to exift fometimes in an earthy form,
when it has a dull appearance.
Localities, Stc.— Found in a Hate of effiorefcence on
limeftone, porphyry, fandllones; and it exifts in folu-
tion in many mineral waters, as in that of Epfom in
England, from which it has its name. This fait alfo
conllitutes part of the efflorefccnce which isobferved on
walls built with lime.
lucent j foft; eafily frangible or friable j tafle faline Clafilfka-
cooling.
tion.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Nitrate of potafh,
Muriate of potafh,
Sulphate of lime,
Carbonate of lime,
Lofs,
42-55
.20
25-45
30.40
1.40
ICO.OO*
Exter. Char. &c.—Native nitre is found in Italy
near Molfetta, in Naples, from which that analyzed
by Klaproth was obtained, and which is difpofed in
fmall beds, or more rarely in veins, on limeftone. Na¬
tive nitre is alfo not uncommon in Hungary, Spain,
France, and Peru, in which latter country, and in the
Eaft Indies, where it is very abundant, it is found ef-
florefeent on the furfaee of the ground at certain feafons
of the year.
VfeS-—1'^e °f nitre for fome economical pur-
pofes, in various arts, in medicine, but particularly in
the manufacture of gunpow der, are well known.
III. Genus. MURIATES.
* Analyt.
EJf. i. 27*,
6. Species. Native Glauber Salt, or Sulphate
of Soda.
Glauber Salt, Kirw. ii. 9. Le Sel de Glauber Natif
Broch. ii. 14.
Exter. Char.—This fait is fometimes found maflive
or earthy, rarely ftalaCtitical or cryftallized. The cryftals
are often acicular, or in irregular, fix-lided prifms, ter¬
minated by a three-fided pyramid, placed on the lateral
edges or fides. Luftre fhining, vitreous; but expofed
to the air becomes dull. Fracture uneven ; that of the
cryftals conchoidal. Fragments blunt-edged.
Colour vellowifh or grayifh white ; opaque or tranf-
parent ; brittle ; tafte cooling or bitter.
Localnes, &c.—This fait is ufually found in the
neighbourhood of mineral fprings which hold common
fait in folution, from the decompofition of which, and
the combination of its bafe with fulphuric acid, it is ob¬
tained. It is not unfrequent on the banks cf fait lakes,
and in a ftate of effiorefcence on fandftone, marl, fome¬
times on the furface of the ground, and fometimes on
•walls built with ftone and mortar. It is found in moft
countries in the world.
II. Ginus. NITRATES.
1. Species. Native Nitre, or Nitrate of Potafh.
Nitre, Kinv. ii. 25. Le Nitre Natif, Broch. ii. 17. Po-
taj/e Nitratee, Hauy, ii. 346. Saltpetre.
Ejjen. Char.—Does not deliquefee, and detonates
with a combuftible bodv.
Exter. Char.—'Phis fait is commonly foundfuperficial,
in acicular cryftals, rarely maflive, and more rarely cry¬
ftallized in fix-fided prifms ; luftre fhining, vitreous;
fratfture conchoidal ; fragments fharp-edged.
Colour fnow white, grayilh oryellowifh white; tranf-
1.'Species. Rock Salt.
Common Salt, Sal Gem, Kirw. ii. 31. Le Sel de Cui-
fine, Broch. ii. 20. Soude Muriatee, Hauy, ii. 336.
Ejfen. Char.—Soluble in water, and divifible into
cubes.
Phis fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies : 1. folia¬
ted, and 2. fibrous rock fait.
Subfpecies 1. Foliated Rock Salt.
Lc Sel Gemme Lamelleux, Broch. ii. 21. I.amcllar Sal
Gem, Kirw. ii. 32. Soude Muriatee, Amorphe, Hauy,
ii- 359-
Exter. Char.—Ufually found maflive in confiderable
beds, fometimes diffeminated in large maffes, or kidney-
form, ftalaffitical, or cryftallized in perfed cubes ; fur-
face of the cryftals fmooth; luftre ftiining, vitreous; frac¬
ture foliated ; cleavage threefold and redfangular ; frag¬
ments cubic.
Colour grayifh, yellowifh, or reddifh white, ftefh or
brownifti red ; tranfparent or tranllucent; foft; ftreak
grayilh white ; tafte faline.
Chem. Char.—This fait decrepitates violently when
thrown on burning coals.
Confituent Parts.
Kirwan. Bergman.
Soda, . _ 35 42
Muriatic acid, 40 52
Water, 25 6
IOO IOO
The above are the analyfes of pure fait; for as it is
found in nature, it contains feveral other ingredients.
Localities, &c.—Foliated rock fait conftitutes a pe¬
culiar kind of ftratiform mountain, in which it ufu¬
ally
Part I.
M I M E B.
Claffifica- ally alternates tvitli beds of clay, which are more or
lefs penetrated with fait. It is alfo accompanied with
' gypfum, fandttone, limeftone. It is fometimes alfo
found in veins.
Rock fait is found in mod countries of the world ;
the mod celebrated mines are thofe of W iliczka, which
have been wrought for qoo years. There are mines of
this mineral in Poland, Sdelia, and in Havana and Sibe¬
ria j at Cordova in Spain it conditutes an entire moun¬
tain, four or five hundred feet high. Rock fait is alfo
found in abundance in Chefhire in England. It is found
alfo in Africa, Afia, as well as iu North and South
America.
A L G G Y.
Localities, &c.—This,fait h a volcanic produflion,
and found dcpofitcd in the cavities of lava, as on ^
fuvius and /Etna, and in the Lipari iflands. It is alio
met with in Iceland, in Perfia, and different places of
Alia. The fubdanee analyzed by Klaproth was from
Tartary. This fait has alfo been difeovercd in the
neighbourhood of coal mines in Britain, which have
been accidentally on fire. Sal ammoniac from. Egypt
may be confidered rather as an artificial production.
IV. Genus. CARBONATES,
i. Species. Native Soda, or Carbonate of Soda.
I t
Salts.
Subfpecies 2. Fibrous Rock Salt.
Fibrous Sal Gem, Kirw. ii. 32. Le Sel Gemme Fi-
breux, Broch. ii. 25. Soude Muriatee Ftbreuft,
Hauy, ii. 359.
F.xter. C7/rtr.—This variety is found mafiive, in fmall
wedge-diaped veins •, ludre glimmering, rarely weakly
fhining *, fra&ure fibrous, curved parallel or divergent j
fragments wedge-diaped, with diarp edges.
Colour grayifh white, yellowidi or pearl gray, la¬
vender blue, violet blue, or fledi red ; varies between
tranducent and femitranfparent. The other chara&ers
of fibrous rock fait correfpond with thofe of the pre¬
ceding fubfpecieS, and it is found in fnnilar fituations
accompanying it.
2. Species. Sea Salt.
This fait can perhaps fcarcely be confidered as a fe-
parate fpecies. It is found on the fhores of the ocean,
or of fait lakes during the dry feafons of the year, in
confequence of the evaporation and diminution of the
water which holds it in folution.
Ufes.—The various ufes of fait in domedic economy
and many of the arts are well known.
3. Species. Native Sal Ammoniac.
Sal Ammoniac, Kirw ii. 33. Le Sel Ammoniac Na-
tif, Broch. ii. 27. Ammoniaque Muriatee, Hauy,
ii. 380.
E/Jen. Char.—Entirely volatile by the application of
heat.
Exter. Char—Mod commonly found in fuperficial
lavers, or efflorefeent ; fometimes alfo maffive or dalac-
titical, and rarely cry 'allized. Primitive form of its
cry dais a regular oftahedron •, integrant molecule a re¬
gular tetrahedron. The crydals are deferibed to be in
the form of cubes, fix fided pyramids, and dodecahedral •,
ludre (hining, often only glimmering or dull and vitre¬
ous. Frafture even fragments (harp-edged.
Colour white, gr-avi(h, or yellowifh ; foft, and often
friable •, tade faline, pungent, and bitter.
Chem. Chor.—Very foluble in water, producing a con-
fiderable degree of cold ; rubbed with lime, gives out a
pungent od^ur of ammonia.
Natron, Kirw. ii. 6. L'Alkali Mineral, Broch. ii. 30.
Soude Carbunatee, Hauy, ii. 373*
Efen. Char.—Soluble in water, and effervefees with
nitric acid.
Exter. Char.—Found in fmall particles, which are
ufually in the date of powder 5 is dull and meagre to
the touch.
Colour grayifh white, or yellowidi gray } tade (harp
alkaline.
Chem. Char.—Very fufible before the blow-pipe ; the
folution renders vegetable blues green.
The following are the condituent parts of Egyptian
natron or foda, analyfed by Klaproth.
Carbonate of foda, 32-^
Sulphate of luda, 20.8
Muriate of foda, 15.
Water, 3 J -6
100.0
Localities, &c —Native foda is found on the furfacc
of the foil, or on the borders of lakes which evaporate
during the fummer, in Egypt, where it has been long
colle£led, and known under the name of natron. In
the neighbourhood of Debreczin in Hungary, it js found
efflorefeent on a heathy foil *, in Bohemia, on a decum-
pofed gneifs rock, where it is annually colledled in con-
fiderable quantity in the fpring of the year. Natron
is alfo found near Naples, in Perfia, Bengal, and
China. It exifls aifo in folution in many mineral
waters.
Ufes —This fait is very extenfively employed in many
arts.
Another variety of native foda has been deferibed.
This is in the form of radiated maffes, which are com-
pofed of acicular cryftals. It feems to be a purer car¬
bonate of foda. I he following are the conftituent part*
according to the analyfis of Klaproth.
Soda, 37.
Carbonic acid, 38.
Water, 22.3
Sulphate of foda, 2.5
1CO.O
Confbituent Parts. Klaproth.
Mu date of ammonia, 77-5
Sulphate of ammonia, 2.5
100.0
2. Species. Native Magnesia, or Carbonate of
Magnefia.
A pretty pure carbonate of magnefia, difeovered by
Dr Mitchell 3 and another which contains an admixture
D d 2 of
MINERAL©
°f filica difcovered by Giobert, has been already de-
feribed under the magnelian genus, fpecies i. which
fee.
V. Genus. BORATES,
i. Species. Borax.
Id. Kirw. ii. 37. Borax Nutif, Broch. ii. 33. Soude
Boratee, Hauy, ii. 366.
E/Jen. Char.—Tafte fweetifh ; fufible with confider-
able intumefcence into a vitreous globule.
Exter. Char.— L his fait is found maffive and diflemi-
nated, but moft frequently cryftallized \ the forms are
a fix-fided prifin with the two oppofite faces broader ;
the fame prifm having its lateral edges truncated, or
having its too narrow terminal edges truncated j the
cryftals are ufually imbedded in an earthy mafs; fur-
face a little rough, fometimes fmooth, and ufually co¬
vered with a white earthy cruft ; luftre Ihining, waxy :
fratfture foliated.
Colour grayifti white, yellowifh or greenifli •, femi-
tranfparent, or only tranflucent •, refraftion double j foft j
brittle j grcafy to the feel. Spec. grav. 1.740.
Conjfituent Parts.—When borax is purified, it is a
compound of foda and boracic acid ; but in its na¬
tive ftate it is always contaminated with earthy mat¬
ters.
G Y.
Conjiituent Parts. Weftrumb.
Magnefia,
Lime,
Silica,
Alumina,
Oxide of iron,
Boracic acid,
Lofs,
T3-5
11.
2.
1.
•7
68.
3-8
100.0
Part I.
Claffifica-
Phys. Char.—Boracite has the property of becoming
ele&ric by heat, and exhibiting both kinds of eleftri-
city by oppofite points. Theft: electric poles are the
extremities of the axes of the cube, each axis giving
out at one extremity pofitive, and at the other negative
electricity.
Localities, &c.—This mineral has been only found
at Lunebourg in Lower Saxony, in a mountain compo-
led almoft entirely of foliated gypfum, in which the de¬
tached cryftals are imbedded.
VI. Genus. FLUATES.
1. Species. Cryolite, or F/uate of Soda and Alumina
Id. Brochant, ii. 505. A/umine Eluatee Alkaline, Hauy
li. 398.
Localities, See.— Borax is brought from Perfia and
Thibet. According to fome travellers, it is got from
the waters of a lake by evaporation in the open air ;
but according to others it is ready formed on the
borders of the lake, where common fait is alfo col-
lefled.
Vfes.—Borax is flill farther purified after it is brought
to Europe, for the purpofes of employing it in
the arts, particularly as a flux in metallurgical ope¬
rations.
Exter. Found maflive 5 luftre finning, vitre¬
ous j fradlure foliated ; fragments cubical.
Colour grayifh white j tranflucent; immerfed in wa¬
ter, tranlparent ; femihard ; ftreak fnow-white. Spec,
grav. 2.94.
Chem. Char.—Melts in the flame of a candle, and
from its eafy fufibility it derives its name. It then be¬
comes hard, and is changed into a flag, w hich is fome-
what eauftic. Soluble with effervefcence in fulphuric
acid, and gives out Avhite vapours that corrode glafs.
2. Species. Boracite, or Borate of Magnefa.
Boracite, Kirw. i. 172. Id. Brochant, i. 589.
Exter. Char.—Always found cryftallized : 1. In
cubes, having the edges and four of the angles trunca¬
ted ; 2. The cube, having all the edges and angles
truncated. When thefe truncations are increafed on
the edges, a dodecahedron is nearly formed, or when
they increafe on the angles, the refulting form is an oc¬
tahedron. Surface of the cryftals fmooth, fometimes
rough ; luftre fhining or refnlendent ; internal luftre
fliining, refinous ; frafture conchoidal; fragments ftiarp-
edged.
Colour afh or yellowifh gray, grayifh or greenifh
w hite ; femitranfparent or tranflucent, oftener opaque;
femihard ; rather eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 2.56.
Chem. Char.—Melts before the blow-pipe, froths up,
and yields a yellowifh enamel, on which fmall rough
points appear, and are thrown off like fparks by conti-
nuing the heat.
Confitucnt Parts.
Klaproth. Vauquelin.
Soda, 36. 32
Alumina, 23-5 21
Fluoric acid and water, 40.5 47
100.0 100
Localities, &c.— Cryolite was brought to Copenha¬
gen from Greenland, but nothing is known of its repo-
fitory (b).
THIRD CLASS. COMBUSTIBLES.
I. Genus. SULPHUR.
1. Species. Native Sulphur.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 69. Le Soufre Natif Brochant, ii. 37.
This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies ; 1. Com¬
mon ; 2. Volcanic native fulphur.
Subfpecies
(B) Boracite and cryolite do not certainly pofiefs all the ehara&ers that entitle them to a place among the falls •
but as magnefia is the predominant bafe of the one and foda of the other, it was thought better to introduce them
here than to multiply divifions.
MINERALOGY.
Part I.
Olalllfica-
tion.
Subfpecies i. Common Native Sulphur.
E/fen. Char.—The fulphurous odour when heated $
colour yellow.
Exter. Char.—Sulphur is found maffive, difieminated
in fuperficial layers, or cryllallized. Primitive form of
its cryftals is an o&ahedron, whofe fidts are fealene tri¬
angles j the integrant molecule is an irregular tetrahe¬
dron. The ufual forms of the cryilals are, I. That of
the primitive form, in which two four-fided oblique-
angled pyramids are joined bafe to bafe, of which the
common bafe is a rhomb, whofe two diagonals are as
5 to 4 ; 2. The fame form having its fummits truncat¬
ed j 3. The firil form having its fummit furmounted by
an obtufe four-fided acumination, fet on the lateral
faces •, 4. Or, having the common cafe truncated ; or,
5. Having its obtufe lateral edges truncated j or, 6.
Having the obtufe angles of the common bafe truncat¬
ed. The cryftals are of various fizes, moft frequently
grouped : furface fmooth •, luftre refplendent •, internal
luftre fhining, or weakly (Inning, betw'een refinous and
adamantine ; frafture fine grained, uneven, fometimes
conchoidal or fplintery ; fragments ftiarp-edged.
Colour yellow, greenifh, or grayifia yellow ; tianfiu-
eent or femitranfparent; reflation double •, foft ; brit¬
tle, and very eafily frangible j gives out by rubbing a
fulphureous fmell. Spec. grav. 1.99 to 2.03.
Chem. Char.—Burns with a peculiar blue flame, and
gives out a pungent odour, which is well known.
Native fulphur is not always pure ; it is often conta¬
minated with earthy matters.
Phys. Sulphur becomes eleflric by fri&ion,
and its eledlricity is negative.
Localities, &c.—Native fulphur is moft commonly
found in ftratiform mountains, chiefly in thofe of g\p-
fum, marl, and compaff limeftone, and there it exifts
in the form of nodules. Found alfo, but rarely, and
in fmall quantity, in the veins of primitive moun¬
tains. Sulphur is found in many countries of the
world, as in Poland, Hungary, Switzerland, Spain,
and Sicily, where the fineft cryftals yet known are
found.
II. BITUMINOUS Genus.
1. Species. Petroleum, or Mineral Oil.
213
Combuf--
tible^.
Le Napltc, and L’Huile Minerale Commune, Broch.
ii. 59. and 60. Naphtha and Petrole, Kirwan, ii.
42. and 43. Bitume Liquide Prune, ou bioirutre, Hauy,
iii. 312.
Exter. Char.—Found fluid and fomewhat vifcid.
Colour blackifh or reddifh brown ; almoft opaque j
feels very greafy ; exhales a ftrong bituminous odour ;
tafte pungent, acid. Spec. grav. c.708 to 0.854.
Chem. Char.—Burns ealily with a denfe fmoke, and
leaves fume earthy refidue. When expofed to the air
it becomes thicker and lefs fluid.
Its conflituent pails are carbone, hydrogen, and a
fmall portion of oxygen.
Localities, &c.—Petroleum is generally found in the
vicinity of coal, rifing to the fuiface of the water which
flows from coal ftrafta. It is not uncommon in different
parts of the world. It is found in Lancafhire in Eng¬
land, and at St Catharine’s well near Libberton, in the
vicinity of Edinburgh.
Naphtha, w hich is confidered merely as a purer kind
of mineral oil, is found in confideiable abundance in
different parts of Perfia, on the (bores of the Cafpian
fea, in Calabria, Sicily, and America. In 1802, a
fpring of naphtha of a topaz yellow colour, burning
eafily, and leaving little refidue, with a fpecific gravity
of 0.83, was difcovercd in the ftate of Parma in Italy,
and afforded fuch a quantity as to be fufhcient to illu¬
minate the ftreets of Genoa.
Efes.—Naphtha has been fometimes employed in the
compofition of varnifh, in that of fire-tvorks, for the
purpofe of heating rooms, when it is mixed with a fmall
quantity of earth 5 and in Perfia and other countries it
is burnt in lamps as a fubftitute for oil. Formerly it
was employed in medicine as a vermifuge.
2. Species. Mineral Pitch.
Subfpecies 2. Native Volcanic Sulphur.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive, in rounded pieces, fta-
la&itical, cellular, or in thin fublimed layers, fometimes
alfo cryftallized in confufed groups •, internal luftre
weakly fhining or fhining ; fra61ure uneven ; fragments
blunt-edged.
Colour the fame as the former, but inclining fome¬
times a little towards gray •, tranflucent ; in other cha-
rafters it refembles the preceding.
Localities, &c.—As its name imports, this variety is
found near volcanoes, where it is fublimed among the
lava. The fulphur of /Etna and Vefuvius chiefly, and
alfo that of Iceland, and of fome of the iflands in the
Weft Indies, is collefted, and forms a very important
article in commerce.
Efes.—Sulphur is one of the moft valuable fubftances
in various arts. It is employed in the bleaching of
woollen fluffs and filks j it forms an effential ingredient
in gunpowder, and it. is the bafe of fulphureous and ful-
phuric acid, which are fo extenfively employed in tan¬
ning, hat-making, dyeing, and other arts and manu-
faftures.
This is divided into three fubfpecies ; 1. elaftic j
2. earthy j and, 3. flaggy.
Subfpecies 1. Elastic Mineral Pitch.
Mineral Caoutchouc, Kirw. ii. 48. La Poix Minerale
F.lafique, Broch. ii. 64. Bitume Elafique, Hauy,
iii* 313-
Exter. C/^rtr.—Found in maffes of different fizes, dif-
feminated, fometimes fuperficial, or ftala&itical ; luftre
dull, rarely glimmering; internal luftre fhining, refin¬
ous.
Colour brownifli black, hair brown, often veined yel¬
low *, tranflucent at the edges ; foft confidence like
elaftic gum, and alfo elaftic. It gives out the fmell of
leather. Spec. grav. 0.902 to 1.23.
Localities, &c.—This mineral was difcovered in
1785 in the mine of Odin in Derbyfhire in England,
where it is accompanied with galena, calcareous fpar,
heavy fpar, fluor fpar, and blende.
This fubftance effaces the marks of black lead on
paper, like elaftic gum} but ftains the paper.
Subfpecies
MINERALOGY.
Part I.
Subfpeeies 2. Earthy Mineral Pitch.
SeivicompaEl Mineral Pitch, or Maltha, Kirw. ii. 46.
La Poix Mtnerale Terreufe, Broch. ii. 65.
F.xter. Char.—Found maflive ; internally dull $ frac¬
ture earthy, fometimes uneven; fragments blunt-edg-ed.
Colour blackifli brown, fometimes clove brown ;
Itreak fhining, and darker coloured ; very foft ; feels
greafy ; fmell bituminous.
Chem. Char.—Burns with much flame and fmoke ;
exhales a itrong odour, and leaves carbonaceous and
earthy matter.
, Localities, &c.—Found in the principality of Neuf-
chatel in Switzerland.
Subfpecies 3. Slaggy Mineral Pitch.
Comp aft Mineral Pitch, Kirw. ii. 46. La Poix Minerals
Sconacee, Broch. ii. 66. Bituine Sohde, Hauy, iii.
3I3* Afphaltum, or Jews Pitch, of others.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive and difleminated, fu-
perficial or ftalaftitical ; luflre refplendent, relinous}
fradture conchoidal ; fragments (harp-edged.
Colour perfect black, fometimes brownifh black ;
opaque, rarely tranflucent at the edges ; luflre remains
in the (freak ; foft; feels greafy ; by rubbing gives out
a bituminous odour. Spec, graw 1.07 to 1.6.
Localities, &c.— I his variety frequently accom¬
panies the preceding. It is found at Morsfeld in the
Palatinate, at Neufchatei in Switzerland. It is found
floating on the furface of the lake Afphaltum in Judea,
from which it derives its name of Jews pitch. It is
there collected by the inhabitants of the country as an
ob eft of commerce, and at the fame time, it is faid to
diminifh the quantity of noxious vapours which it ex¬
hales—fo noxious that birds flying over it drop down
dead, whence it has the name of Dead fea. This va¬
riety of mineral pitch is found in other places, fome¬
times connefted with coal and limeftone flrata, and
fometimes with mineral veins. But the ifland of Tri¬
nidad furnifhes the greateft quantity of this fubtlance.
In that ifland there- is a pitch lake of about four miles
in circumference ; but it appears from the information
of Mr Spon, in a letter to Mr Tobin of Briflol, by
■whom this information was communicated, along with
a number of fpecimens to Mr Hatchett, that the fub-
llance formerly fuppofed to be mineral pitch, is nothing
more than a porous (lone impregnated with that fub-
flance ; fo that what was fuppofed to be an immenfe
lake of mineral pitch or afphaltum, is only the (lone of
the country impregnated with bitumen. Mr Hatchett
thinks this flone may be arranged in the argillaceous
* Litt. genus *.
TranJ. viii.
£ S 1 • •
3. Species. Amber.
Id. Kirw. ii. 65. Le Succin, Broch. ii. 69. Id. Hauy,
ii. 3 27.
This is divided into two fubfj ecies.
Subfpicies 1. White Amber.
Exfer. Char.— Fi >unJ maffive, and in rounded pieces;
ludrr mining or weakly (Inning; frafture conchuidal j
fragments (harp-edged.
tion.
-v
Colour yellowilh white, or flraw-yellow; (lightly CLffifica-
tran(lucent ; folt; eafily frangible ; by friftion, or re¬
ducing to powder, it gives out an agreeable odour.
Spec. grav. 1.07 to 1.08.
Chem. Char.—Burns with a yellow flame, without
melting, giving out at the fame time a peculiar odour ;
leaves very little refidue.
Subfpeeies 2. Yellow Amber.
Fxtcr. Char.—Alfo found in rounded pieces of vari¬
ous (izes ; furface rough and uneven ; dull, fometimes
glimmering; internal luitre refplendent, refinous; fome¬
times trantparent. In its other external and chemical
charafters, it refembles the preceding.
Phijf. Char.—Amber becomes (trongly eleftric by
friftion, a property known to the ancients. From the
Greek and Latin word eleftrum, the term eleftricity is
derived.
Conjlitutent Parts.—Amber is compofed of a large
proportion of oil, and of a peculiar acid, the fuccinic,
which is obtained by diftillation.
Localities, &c.—Amber is found in the vicinity of
bituminous wood, but mod commonly in the (and on
the (bores of the ocean, and chiefly on the (hores of the
Baltic. It is found alfo in Sweden, France, Italy, and
on the eaft coafl: of England. Amber frequently con¬
tains fmall par's of vegetables, and entire infefts. Of
the origin of this fubflance nothing certain is yet known.
JJfes.—The ufes of amber for ornamental purpofes,
are well known. In this country it was formerly in
higher eftimation than at prefent. It flills forms an im¬
portant article of commerce in eaflern countries.
4. Species. Mellite, or Honey Stone.
Id. Hauy, iii. 335. La Pierre de Miel, Broch. ii. 73.
Ale 1 III it e, Kirw. ii. 68.
Exter. Char.—Found ufually cryftallized, in double
four-fided pyramids ; the iurface fmooth and (hining ;
internal luitre refplendent, between relinous and vitre¬
ous ; frafture cunchoidal; fragments rather (harp-
edged.
Colour honey yellow, fometimes hyacinth red; tranf-
parent or tranliueent; refraftion double; foft; brittle.
Spec. grav. 1.38 to 1.66.
Chem. Char.—Becomes white before the blow-pipe,
and is reduced to aihes, without flame.
ConJUtuent Parts. Klaproth.
16
46
38
Alumina,
Mellitic acid,
Water,
JOO
Phijf. Char.—Becomes (lightly eleftric by friftion.
Localities, &c.— 1 his mineral is hitherto raie. It
has been (ound only in Switzerland, accompanied
with mineral pitch, and at Al ien in i huringia, attach¬
ed to bituminous wood.
3. Species. Brown C04L.
This is divided into five (ublpree- ; 1. common;
2. bituminous wood; 3. ear thy coal; 4. alum earth;
3. moor coal.
%
Subfpecies
Part T.
MINER
Claffilica-
tion.
Subfpecies i. Common Brown Coal.
La Houille Brune, Broch. ii. 47.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive •, luftre rtiining, rcfin-
ous ; frafture conclioidal; longitudinal fra&ure llaty j
fragments rather (harp-edged.
Colour brownilh black, or blackilh brown ; (freak
(hining *, foft j not very brittle.
Chem. Char.—Burns with a blue-coloured (lame, and
gives out an odour like that of bituminous wood.
* Phil.
Tranf
*804.
P- 399*
Conjlituent Parts. Hatchett *.
Grains.
Water which foon came over acid, and afterwards
turbid by the mixture of bitumen, 60
Thick brown, oily bitumen, 21
Charcoal, 9°
Hydrogen, carbonated hydrogen, and carbonic acid
gafes. 29
A L O G Y.
and from certain varieties which contain pyrites, alum
is extracted.
Subfpecies 4. Alum Earth.
This has been already defcribed under the name of
aluminous fchijlus, in the argillaceous genus.
Subfpecies 5. Moor Coal.
La Houille Limoneufe, Brochant, ii. 48.
Exter. Char.—This variety is found madive, and in
extenfive beds j internally glimmering •, crofs frafture
even, fometimes Hat conchoidal •, longitudinal fracture
llaty ; fragments trapezoidal or rhombnidal
Colour blackifh brown, and browniili black j (treak
(hining ; foft, very eafily frangible.
Localities, &c.— Moor coal is abundant in Bohemia j
it is found alfo in Tranfylvania, and chieHy among fand-
(tone, limeltone, and trap rocks. It leems to approach
nearly to earth coal.
200
The above is the analyfis of 200 grains of Bovey
coal by diftillation.
Localities, &c.—This variety is not uncommon in
many places of Germany. It is found alfo at Bovey
near Exeter in England, from which it is called Bovey
coal.
Subfpecies 2. Bituminous Wood.
Carbonated Wood, Kirw. ii. 60. Le Bois Bitumineux,
Broch. ii. 44.
Exter. Char.—Has a ligneous form, and even fome¬
times the appearance of branches and roots of trees 5
glimmering in the principal fracture, in the crofs frac¬
ture, conchoidal; fragments, fplintery, wedge-draped,
or tabular.
Colour commonly light blackifh brown, fometimes
wood brown ; opaque ) (freak fhining ; foft, and eafily
frangible.
Chem. Char.—Burns with a bright flame, and gives
out a fweetiflr, bituminous fmell.
Localities, &c.—This variety is found in the fame
places with the other varieties of coal, and alfo in places
where the more common kinds of coal are rare, or in
fmall quantity, as in the ifland of Iceland, where it is
known by the name offurturbrand; and in the ifland
of Skve in Scotland. It is found alfo in the coal fields
round Edinburgh, and alfo at Bovey near Exeter, and
in various places on the continent.
Subfpecies 3. Earthy Coal.
Bois Bitumineux Terreux, Brochant, ii. 45.
Exter. Char.—The confiflence of this variety is in¬
termediate between folid and friable"j dull, rarely
glimmering \ fradfure earthy.
Colour blackifh brown, or liver brown} (freak (hin¬
ing ; (fains; very foft.
Localities, &c.—This is found in Saxony, Bohemia,
France, and particularly in the vicinity of Cologne,
where it is known by the name of umber or Cologne
earth, which is employed in the fabrication of colours j
6. Species. Black Coal.
This fpecies is divided into fix fubfpecics ; pitch, co¬
lumnar, flaty, cannel, foliated, and coarfe coal.
Subfpecies 1. Pitch Coal.
La Houille Piciforme, Brochant, ii. 49.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive or diflerainated ; and
fometimes parts of vegetables, fuch as the branches of
trees, are obferved. Luftre (hining, refpiendent, refi-
nous ; fra6flire conchoidal; fragments (harp-edged.
Colour perfedf black, and the longitudinal fradfure
fometimes brownilh j foft 5 eafily frangible. Specific
gravity 1.3.
Localities, &c.— This is one of the moft common
varieties of coal, and therefore is found in all coal
countries.
XJfes.—As it is fufceptible of a fine poliih, it is em¬
ployed for various ornamental purpofes. The fub-
ftance known by the name of jet, belongs to this va¬
riety.
Subfpecies 2. COLUMNAR COAL.
La Houille Scapiforme, Brochant, ii. 15.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive ; in its fracture (hin¬
ing or weakly fhining, refinous ; fracture more or lefs
perfe&ly conchoidal j fragments indeterminate.
Colour perfeft black, or brownifti black. It is com-
pofed of diflinft concretions, which are columnar, pa¬
rallel, (lightly curved, whofe furfaccs are fmooth and
fhining *, is foft, and eafily frangible.
Localities, &e.—This is a very rare variety of coal.
It is found in the Meifner, near Aknerode, in Heflia,
in a bafaltic mountain.
Subfpecies 3. Slaty Coal.
La Houille Schijlcufe, Brochant, ii. 52.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive in entire beds; luftre
(liining, fumetimes only weakly (Inning or glimmering,
refinous j principal fracture flaty ; crofi fracture imper¬
fect conchoidal; fragments in the form of tables j not
very (harp-edged.
215
Combuf-
tibles.
Colour
2 I 6
^ nMes ~ • ^°^our Per^ei^ black, often alfo grayifh, rarely brown-
* 1 .1^1 black ; ftre^k fhining ; foft, or femi-hard j eafily fran¬
gible. Specific gravity 1.25 to 1.37.
Localities, &c This is the prevailing coal in Bri¬
tain, as at Nevvcalfle and Whitehaven m England, and
in the coal country both in the eaft and well of Scot¬
land.
Subfpecies 4. Cannel Coal.
LaHouille de Kilkenny, Brochant, ii. 35. LI Kirwan,
ii. 52.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive ; luftre weakly fliin-
ing, refinous ; fraflure commonly conchoidal, fometimes
even and foliated } fragments fometimes rhomboidal or
cubical.
Colour grayifli black j ftreak fliining •, foft j eafily
frangible. Spec. grav. 1.23 to 1.27.
Localities, &c.—This coal accompanies the former
in many places of England and Scotland, as at White¬
haven and Wigan in Lancafliire in England •, in the
neighbourhood of Edinburgh ; and at Muirkirk, and
other places in Ayrfhire in Scotland. The coal at
Kilkenny in Ireland belongs alfo to this variety ; and
from the places where it is found, is called Wigan or
Kilkenny coal.
Cfes.—Befide being employed as fuel wfith other
kinds of coal, this variety, being fufceptible of a fine
polilh, is cut and formed into various ufeful and orna¬
mental purpofes. It is faid that the choir of the cathe¬
dral church of Litchfield is covered with plates of this
coal alternating with black marble.
Subfpecies 5. Foliated Coal.
Le Charbon Lamelleux, Brochant, ii. 34.
Part I.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, rarely difleminated ; Claffifica-
luftre thining or refplendent, approaching to metallic j tion-
frafture perfedlly conchoidal; fragments not very lharp- -"“""v--*-—^
edged.
Colour iron black, inclining to browm, or exhibiting
the luperficial colours like tempered Heel j foft; eafily
frangible.
Chem. Char.— Burns without any flame, leaving a
white afh.
Localities, $zc.—This variety of coal is very rare.
It is found at Newcaftle, and at Meifliner in Heflia,
along with the other varieties of coal.
Subfpecies 2. Slaty Coal Blende.
Native Mineral Carbone, Kirw. ii. 49. La Blende
Charbonneufe, Brochant, ii. 37. Anthracite, Hauy,
ii. 307.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive and difleminated in¬
ternal lullre fhining, or refplendent, and between me¬
tallic and vitreous j fradlure more or lefs perfedllv
flaty ; crofs frafture flat conchoidal j fragments fome-
times cubic, and fometimes in tables.
Colour perfect black, approaching more or lefs to
iron black, or grayifh or bluifli black ; opaque 5 Itains,
but does not write ; foft ; rather brittle ; very eafily
frangible. Spec. grav. 1.3 to 1.8.
Chem. Char.—Reduced to powder, and heated in a
crucible, this coal gives neiiher a fulphureous nor bitu¬
minous fmell, and neither fulphur nor bitumen can be
obtained from it. After being long expofed to heat, it
confumes flowly without flame, and lofes during the
procefs about two-thirds of its weight. The refidue is
of a blackifh gray colour, which fhows that the combuf-
tion has not been complete.
mineralogy.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive ; principal frafture re¬
fplendent j crofs fracture fhining; principal fradture
more or lefs foliated j crofs fiadture fomewhat uneven j
fragments rhomboidal.
Colour perfedl black, and on the fides of the fif-
fures fuperficial colours appear, like the colours of
tempered Heel, or thofe of the peacock’s tail j eafily
frangible.
Localities, &c.—This coal is found at Liege, in
Saxony, near Drefden, and in fome parts of France.
Subfpecies 6. Coarse Coal.
La Houille GroJJiere, Brochant, ii. 33.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive ; is weakly fhining,
refinous ; fradlure uneven, or more or lefs flaty ; frag¬
ments blunt-edged.
Colour grayifh black, fometimes brownifh black ;
flreak fhining ; foft; eafily frangible.
Localities, &c.—Accompanies the other kinds of
coal, whole localities have been already mentioned.
7. Species. Coal Blende.
This is divided into two fubfpecies, conchoidal and
ftaty.
Subfpecies 1. Conchoidal Coal Blende.
La Houi/le Eclat ante, Brochant, ii. 30. G/an%-kohle of
the Germans.
Conjlituent Parts.
Panzeiibero-. Bolomieu.
Pure carbone, 90 72-05
Silica, 2 13.19
Alumina, 3 3-29
Oxide of iron, 3 3.47
Lofs, g.
100 100.00
Localities, &c.—This variety has been found in 3.
vein at Schemnitz in Hungary, in Pais de Vaud, in a
tranfported rock, which feems to be intermediate be¬
tween granite and breccia ; at Konigfberg in Norway,
where it is accompanied with native filver j in Saxony
it forms an entire bed in a mountain of clay flate ; alfo
found in the ifland of Arran, and near Kilmarnock in
Scotland.
III. GRAPHITE Genus.
1. Species. Graphite, or Black Lead.
Plumbago, Kirw. ii. 38. Le Graphite, Broch. ii. 76.
Fer Carbure, Hauy, iv. 98.
This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies, fcaly and
compadt.
Subfpecies 1. Scaly Graphite.
Exter. Char.— Found maflive and diflfeminated ; luftre
glimmering or fhining, metallic j fradlure foliated, con¬
choidal,
Part I. MINERALOGY.
Claffifica- clioidal, fometimes uneven or flaty; fragments blunt-
^ticn. edged, fometimes trapezoidal *, commonly appears in
,'Jl" * ” dillinft granular concretions, which arc fmall or fine
grained, with a fplintery afpeft.
Colour intermediate between bluifli black and light
iron black ; fometimes fteel gray, or brownifh black ;
opaque j ftreak (hining j ftains and writes j foft) eafily
frangible j feels greafy.
FOURTH CLASS. METALLIC ORES.
I. PLATINA Genus.
Species. Native Platina.
Id. Kirw. ii. ion. Le P/atine Natf Broch. ii. 86.
■g™*-i°3-
Piatine Natif Fernjere, Hauy, iii. 368.
Subfpecies 2. Compact Graphite
Exter. Char.—This fubfpecies approaches fo near
to the former in its characters, that it feems diffi¬
cult to diftinguifh it. The following characters and
circumftances connefted with the natural hiftory of
graphite, refer to both. Specific gravity 1.987 to
2.456.
Chetn. Char.—When expofed to heat in a furnace,
it gives out, during combuition, a great proportion of
carbonic acid, leaving a refiduum of red oxide of
iron.
* your, lies Carbone,
j Mines, N° Iron,
I xh. p- 16. Silica,
Alumina,
Conjlituent Paris.
Berthollet. Scheele.
90.9 90
9.1 10
V auquelin.
23*
2
38
37
100.0
100
100
Of the above analyfis it mull be obferved, that the
two firlt by Berthollet and Scheele mult have been
very pure fpecimens of graphite •, and, on the contrary,
the fpecimens analyzed by Vauquelin muft have been
very impure, containing fo large a proportion of earthy
matters, and fo fmall a proportion of the proper ingre¬
dients of that mineral.
Localities, &c.—This mineral, which is not very
common, is found chiefly in primitive mountains. It
is met with in Spain, France, Bavaria, and Hungary.
In England at Borrowdale near Kefwick in Cum¬
berland j and at Craigman, near New Cumnock, in
Ayrfhire in Scotland, where it is found in detached
malfes among rocks nearly fimilar to thofe which ac¬
company coat.
llfes.—Graphite or black lead is employed for ma¬
king pencils. The coarfer parts are employed in ma¬
king crucibles. It is alio employed for covering call
iron, fuch as grates, to defend them from ruft ; and on
account of its un&uous property, it is applied to thofe
parts of machines which are fubjeft to fri&ion, for the
purpofe of diminiffiing it.
EJfen. Char—Of a filver wffiite colour, and infufible.
Exter. Char.—Platina is found in the form ot fmall
flat or rounded grains ; furface fmooth, with {hining me¬
tallic lultre ; itreak reiplendent.
Colour light fteel gray, or filver white j femi-hard ;
dudlile j flexible in thin plates. Spec. grav. 15.601
to 17.7*, but when purified, and hammered, 23, and
according to fome, 24.
Client. Char.—Is almoft infufible without addition,
in the focus of a burning glafs, or expofed to the action
of oxygen gas. It does not amalgamate with mercury,
and is only foluble in nitro-muriatic acid.
Localities, &c. — Platina was firlt brought to Europe*
by Don Ulloa in 1 748. The repofitory of this metal
is not known, and it has been found onlv in South Ame¬
rica, till lately that it was difeovered in gray filver ore
from the mine oi Guadalcanal in Spain. In the ana¬
lyfis of this ore, Vauquelin found the platina to be in
the proportion of T's.
JJfes.—Platina is one of the moft valuable mineral
fubftances, as, on account of its hardnefs and infufibi-
Hty, R may be applied to many of the purpofes of
gold and iron \ and from its properties of being lefs li¬
able to change when expofed to the air, or to the ac¬
tion of other chemical agents, it anfwers thofe purpofes
in a fuperior degree.
Platina in its crude ftate is allowed "with other me¬
tallic iubhances. It has been long known that it is
accompanied with particles of iron, gold, and fome
other fubftances. It contains alfo an ore of one of the
new metals. This is iridium, which is alloyed with
ofmium, another new metal, both which were difeover¬
ed by Mr Tennant. This ore is compofed of plates ; it
is not malleable \ its fpecific gravity is 19. and it is
not a&ed on by nitro-muriatic acid, which diflolves pla¬
tina. Rhodium and palladium, two ether new metals
are alloyed with platina.
II. GOLD Genus.
Species. Native Gold.
This fpecies is divided into three fubfpecies ; 1. got-
den yellow ; 2. brafs yellow 5 and, 3. grayilh yellow.
2. Species. Mineral Charcoal.
This fubftance, which accompanies the other varie¬
ties of coal already deferibed, is of a woody texture,
and has therefore a fibrous fradlure, with fomewhat of
a (tuning and filky luftre. It is ufually found in thin
layers with the other varieties of coal, and perhaps it
might be confidered as coal lefs perfedtly formed j
but in its characters it agrees to much with the va¬
rieties of coal blende, that it feems quite unneceflary
to make it a feparate fpecies.
VOL. XIV. Part I.
Subfpecies 1. Golden-yellow Gold.
VOr Natif, Jaune d'Or, Broch. ii. 89. Native Gold
Kirw. i. 93.
Exter. Chur.—Gold is found moft frequently difle-
minated, Superficial, or in grains ; reticulated, dendri-
tical, capillary, or cellular, often in fmall plates, more
rarely cryftallized. The forms of its crvftals which
have been obferved, are fmall perEct cubes, regular
oCtahedrons, dodecahedrons, double cight-fided pyra¬
mids, terminated by four-fided Summits, placed on the
E e f0Ul.
218 MINER
^Ores"C , ,tlr ^a^eral edges of the pyramids alternately ; but
» ^ - ■ ^ie cryflals are fmall and ill defined; the furface is
fmooth and refplendent j that of the fmall plates drufy
and fliining ; that of the grains only ftrongly glimmer¬
ing ; internal lultre weakly fliining, metallic ; fracture
hackly.
1 his variety prefents the perfect colour of gold. It
is foft; perfectly duftile, flexible, but not elaftic j
ftreak refplendent. Spec. grav. of pure gold 19.25 to
J9.64.
Subfpecies 2. Brass-yellow Gold.
VOr Natif d'un jaune de laiton, Broch. ii. 91.
Exter. Char.—This variety is almoft always found
difl'eminated in fmall particles, or fuperficial j fome-
tiaies alfo capillary, in fmall plates, or cryftallized in
thin fix-fided tables.
The colour is that of brafs of various (hades, ac¬
cording to the proportion of alloy. In other charatflers
it refembles the former, excepting in the fpecific gravi¬
ty, which is inferior, owing to the greater proportion
of other metals with which it is alloyed.
Subfpecies 3. Grayish-yellow Gold.
X'Or Natif d'un jaun grifatre, Broeh. ii. 92.
Exter. Char.—This variety is alfo found difleminated
in fmall flattened grains*, furface is not very fmoothj
almoft uneven, and weakly fliining.
Colour fteel gray, approaching to that of brafs :
fpec. grav. of this variety is greater than the laft, but
inferior to the firft. In other external chara&ers they
are the fame.
Chem. Char.—Native gold is only foluble in nitro-
muriatic acid *, platina is alfo foluble in the fame acid,
but it is not like gold, precipitated from its folution by
fulphate of iron.
Conjiituent Parts.—Native gold is not always found
pure. It is frequently alloyed with filver or copper, or
with both, and fometimes alfo, it is faid, with platina.
To thefe alloys the difference of colour, which is the
foundation of the divifion into three varieties, is owing.
The firft variety is the pureft, containing only a fmall
proportion of filver or copper ; the fecond has a greater
proportion of thefe metals j and the third, it is fuppofed,
is alloyed with a fmall portion of platina.
U/es.—Gold (on account of its indeftru6Hble nature,
and its remarkable malleability and du61ility), is one
of the moft important and valuable of the metals for
many purpofes ; but its ufes, whether as money, or ar¬
ticles of luxury, are too well known to require enume-
ration. As pure gold has no great degree of hardnefs,
it is neceffary to alloy it with a portion of copper. This
is not lefs than and never more than •£.
Localities. &c.—Gold is chiefly found in primitive
mountains, and there it is ufually in veins, fometimes
difleminated in the rock itfelf. The accompanying
fubftances are quartz, feldfpar, limeftone, heavy fpar,
pyrites, red filver, vitreous filver, and galena. Gold
is alfo mixed with manganefe, gray cobalt, nickel, and
malachite. Gold has alfo been found, it is faid, in
foflil fubftances, as in petrified wood, penetrated with
filiceous earth, a mafs of which was dug out at the
depth of 50 fathoms, in an argillaceous breccia, or, as
A L O G Y. Part I.
is fuppofed by fome, a porphyry with an argillaceous Claffifica-
bafis, in Tranfylvania. This is confidered as a proof of fion-
the more recent formation of gold, as well as the difeo- V1 v ***
very of Patrin, who found native gold furrounded by
muriate of filver, in the mine of Zmeof in Siberia.
Muriate of filver is fuppofed to be comparatively a late
production.
But gold is perhaps more common to alluvial foil 5
there it is diffeminated in grains, along with filiceous,
argillaceous, and ferruginous fand, of which certain
foils are compofed \ and alfo in the land of many rivers :
and it is obferved that the gold is moft abundant when
the Yvaters are at the loweft, and efpecially foon after
floods, which Ihews that the gold is carried down along
with the earthy matters which are fwrept away by the
violence of the current. It has been fuppofed too, that
the gold found in the bed of rivers, has been detached,
by the force of the waters, from the veins and primitive
rocks traverfed by thefe currents ; and according to this
opinion, attempts have been made to trace the fource
of thefe auriferous lands, in the hope of difeovering the
native repolitory of this precious metal j but the fe at¬
tempts have ufually failed, for it has been found that
the gold is peculiar to the alluvial foil through which
the ftream is carried, and in which the gold iscolletled.
This point feems to be eftablilhed by the obfervations
of naturalifts. 1. The foil of thole plains frequently
contains, to a certain depth, and in particular places,
particles of gold, which may be feparated by ivalhing.
2. The bed of the rivers and auriferous ftreams yields a
greater proportion of gold, after the plains wliieh are
traverfed by thofe rivers have been flooded, than in
any other circumftances. 3. It has always been obfer¬
ved, that gold is found in the fand of rivers in a very
limited fpace. By examining the fand of thefe rivers
higher up, and nearer to their fource, no gold is found ;
fo that if this metal were derived from the rocks, which
are fwept by the currents, the quantity would be great-
eft neareft to their fources ; but obfervation has proved
the contrary. Thus the river Oreo contains no gold,
but from Pont to the place where it joins the Po. The
Tefin affords no gold till it has traverfed Lake Major,
where its courfe muft have been retarded, and where
all the heavy particles of matter which it carried along-
with it from the primitive mountains, muft have been
depofited. The quantity of the gold colle&ed on the
Rhine near Strafburg, is greater than what is found
near Bafle, which is more in the vicinity of the moun¬
tains. No gold has been difeovered in the fands of the
Danube during the firft part of its courfe. Thofe fands
become only auriferous below Efferding. The fame
remark may be applied to the Ems. The fands of the
upper part of this river, which traverfes the mountains
of Stiria, contain no gold; but from the place where
it enters the plain at Steyer, till it joins the Danube,
its fancte are auriferous, and fufficiently rich to be walh-
ed with advantage.
The moft of the auriferous fands in all parts of the
world, are of a black or reddifti colour, and confequently
ferruginous. From this circumftance, conne£led with
the gold of alluvial land, fome naturalifts have inferred,
that it is owing to the decompofition of auriferous
pyrites. It was obferved by Reaumur, that the fand
which accompanies gold in moft of the rivers, and par¬
ticularly in the Rhone and the Rhine, i> like that of
Ceylon
Part t.
Claflifiea-
tion.
a8
Gold mines
ef Spain.
49
Of France.
3°
Of Pied¬
mont.
* 31
Hungary.
MINER
Ceylon and Expallly, compofcd of iron and finall grains
of rubies, corundum, hyacinth. Titanium alfo has been
difcovered. It has been obferved befides, that the gold
of alluvial foil is purer than that which is immediately
obtained from rocks, from which it is fuppofed that
it has a different origin. It does not appear to be
certainly afcertained, that gold is found in volcanic
foil.
Such are the general fafts relative to the repofitories
of gold. We fhall now briefly mention the more re¬
markable places where gold has been found and collect¬
ed, beginning with thofe of Europe.
Spain formerly had mines of gold j the richefl was
in the province of Afturias, where it was dug out from
regular veins. Thefe mines, according to ancient hifto-
rians, were wrought by the Phoenicians, and afterwards
by the Romans ; but they have been totally abandoned
fince the difeovery of America, and the mineral riches
of that country. The rivers of Spain, as well as the
Tagus in Portugal, contain auriferous fand.
The only mine of gold which in modern times has
been wrought in France, was difcovered in 1781, at
Gardette, in the valley of Oyfans, department of Ifere.
This was a regular vein of quartz, traverfing a moun¬
tain of gneifs, and containing auriferous fulphuret of
iron, and fome fine fpecimens of native gold j But it was
not fufficiently rich to defray the expence of the opera¬
tions. Many of the rivers of that country contain au¬
riferous fand, as the Rhone, the Rhine, the Garonne,
and others of fmaller note *, and it is faid that gold is
alfo found among the black fand, and particles of mo-
raffy iron ore, in the neighbourhood of Paris.
In Piedmont there are fome mines of gold. At the
foot of Mount Rofa, veins of auriferous fulphuret of
iron have been difcovered, traverfing gneifs j and al¬
though thefe pyrites do not yield more than 10 or 11
grains of gold in the quintal, it has been found worth
while to continue the operations. On the fouth fide of
the Apennine mountains, there are feveral auriferous
rivers and foils.
Some of the rivers of Switzerland alfo contain auri¬
ferous fands. Such are thofe of the Reufs and the
Aar.
In Germany the only gold mine which is wrought is
in Saltfburg, in the chain of mountains which traverfes
that country from eaft to weft, and which feparates it
from the Tyrol and Carinthia.
But Schemnitz and Cremnitz are the moft remark¬
able places in Europe for mines of gold and auriferous
fands. The gold of Schemnitz is accompanied by fil-
ver, lead, and iron pyrites, and the matrix is quartz.
Auriferous fand is found not only in the bed of the
river Neva, but this fand is ftill richer in the plain
through which the river flows. According to De Born,
this is a ferruginous fand, lying below a bed of chalk.
In Tranfylvania the celebrated gold mine of Nagyag
Is remarkable for having the gold combined with na¬
tive tellurium. There is alfo another mine at Felfo-
banya, the ore of which is an auriferous fulphuret of
lilver, in a vein of a kind of jafper. The rivers of this
country alfo contain gold. The plain on the banks of
the river Moros contains an auriferous fand, which is
depofited between two beds, neither of which yields a
particle of gold. The upper ftratum is vegetable foil,
and the lower is cempofed of fchiftus.
A L O G Y. 219
The mines of Hungary are the only gold mines in Metallic
Europe which are of any importance. , Qres‘ ,
In Sweden gold is obtained from the mine of Edel- ^
fors in the province of Smoland. This mine yields na-Sweden,
tive gold, and auriferous iron pyrites. The veins are
compofed of brown quartz, traverfing a mountain of
fchiftofe hornftone. The gold is fometimes difleminated
in the rock itfelf. 53
In Greece, the ifland of Thafos in the Archipelago Greece,
was celebrated in antiquity for its rich mines of gold.
The ancients alfo, it is faid, found abundance of gold
in Thrace and Macedonia. ^ .
The alluvial foil in feveral places of the BritilhIreland,
iflands, has alfo furnifhed gold. Not many years ago,
a confiderably quantity of gold was collefted in a fandy
foil, on the mountains of Wicklow in Ireland. Several
mafles of native gold, exceeding an ounce in weight,
were found in that foil } one weighing 22 ounces was
found, which is faid to be the largelt Ipccimen of native
gold found in Europe. -j-
It would appear that gold was collefled at a very Scotland,
early period in Scotland, and particularly in the mine
field of Leadhills j but the moll extenfive operations
were carried on by Buhner, an Englifhman, in the
time of Queen Elizabeth. The trenches, heaps of foil
that had been turned up, and other marks of thefe ope¬
rations, yet vifible between Leadhills and Elvanfoot,
ftill retain the name of Bulmer's Workings, and the place
where the gold was Avafhcd, is ftill called the goldJcovr.
At that time, it is faid, an immenfe quantity of gold
was collefted. Not many years ago, fimilar operations
were refumed by the advice of a German j but fo far
as wTe underftand, the quantity of gold collefted was
fcarcely equal to the expence. The operations during
the laft attempt were carried on under the fuperinten-
dance of the late Mr John Taylor, manager of the mines
at Wanlockhead $ a man of no common fagacity, by
which he was enabled to colledl many curious fa6bs with
regard to the natural hiftory of gold. The gold was
found in that country immediately under the vegetable
foil •, and the method of conducing the operation was,
to diredt a fmall ftream of water fo as to cany this
foil along with it, to bafons or hollow places, where
the water might depofit the matters which had been
carried along by its current. The matter depofited
was repeatedly walhed, till the whole of the earthy
fubftances were carried off. The gold being heavieft,
funk to the bottom, and remained behind. Among
other fadfts which Mr Taylor communicated to us, and
which he obferved during the progrefs of thefe opera¬
tions he found, that the gold was always moft abundant
near the top of the lead veins which traverfe that coun¬
try. He w as fo fatisfied of this faff, that he could tell,
merely by the quantity of gold increafing, when they
approached to a vein j and on the other hand the quan¬
tity diminiftiing as they receded from the vein. This
fa6t (hews that there is fome connexion between me¬
tallic veins and the formation or depofition of gold.
Gold is ftill found in the foil of that country j but
whether the quantity be lefs than formerly, or the ex¬
pence of colle£ting it, from the difference in the price
of labour, greater, the produce is by no means equal
to the expences, and therefore fearehing for gold is now-
only the employment of the leifure hours of fome of the
miners.
E e 2
The
220
IVietdlie
< Jres.
Afia.
.37
Africa
3?
America.
MINER
Tne whole extent of the continent of Afia furniflies
^ gold, in greater or fmaller quantity. Gold is found in
feveial of the mines of Siberia, and particularly in that
of Kerelof, which yields auriferous pyrites partially de-
compoicd, and diffeminated in a vein of quartz. In
the iouthern parts of Alia, many mines, and particu¬
larly the lands of the rivers, contain gold. The Pac-
tolus, a fmall river of Lydia, was celebrated in anti¬
quity for the quantity of gold which it yielded, and it
was fuppofed to be the fource of the riches of Crcefus.
Japan, Formofa, Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, the
Philippines, and other iflands of the Indian Archipe-
iago, are fuppofed to be rich in gold at this day.
1 he greatefl quantity of gold which the ancients
poif. fTed, befide what was obtained from Spain, was
brought from Africa. _ The gold of Africa, which Hill
foi ms an important article of commerce, is always in the
flate of gold duft; a circumllance which fhews that it
is chiefly extracted from alluvial foil by wafhing. Lit¬
tle gold is found in the northern parts of Africa j three
or four places are remarkable for the quantity of gold
which they yield. I lie firft is that part of the country
between Darfour and AbyfTmia. The gold colle&ed
there is brought by the Negroes for fale in quills of the
oflrich and of the vulture. It would appear that this
country was known to the ancients, who regarded
Ethiopia as a country rich in gold 5 and Herodotus
mentions that the king of that country exhibited to the
ambalfadors of Cambyfes, all the prifoners bound with
chains of gold.
The fecond great fource of gold duft in Africa is to
the fouth of the great defert Zara, in the weftern part
of that country. I he gold is colledled in that exten-
five flat which ftretches along the foot of the lofty
mountains, among which the rivers Senegal, Gambia,
and Niger, have their origin. Gold is found in the
fends of all thefe rivers. Bambouk, which lies to the
north-weft of thefe mountains, fupplies the oreateft
part of the gold which is fold on the weftern coaft
of Africa ; at Morocco, Fez, and Algiers, as well
as that which is brought to Cairo and Alexandria in
Egypt..
A third region of Africa where gold is abundant, is
on the fouth-eaft coaft, oppofite to Madagafcar j and it
is faid that the gold brought from Ophir, in the time of
Solomon, was from that part of Africa.
America is the richeft country of the world, in mo¬
dern times, in this precious metal. There it is collect¬
ed in the alluvial foil, and in the beds of rivers, and
fometimes, but more rarely, in veins. In Mexico,
gold is chiefly found in the numerous filrer veins of that
country. All the rivers in the province of the Carac-
cas, about io° north of the equator, furnifh gold. In
the Spanifh part of America, Chili furniflies gold from
the alluvial foil, as well as the province of Choco,
where it is more abundant; while that of Peru is ob¬
tained from veins of quartz, marked with ferruginous
fpots. °
But the greateft quantity of gold of commerce comes
from Brazil, where it is colledied in the alluvial foil,
and in the fand of rivers, and extracted by wafliing.
Gold is found almoft everywhere in that country, at
the foot of the immenfe chain of mountains which is
nearly parallel with the coaft, and which ftretches from
the j0 to the 30° of S. Lat.
A L O G Y.
III. MERCURY Genus,
1. Species. Native Mercury.
Mercury, Kirw. ii. 223. Mercure Natif Broth, ix.
241. Id. Hauy, iii. 423.
Ejj'en. Char.—Remains liquid till the temperature be
reduced to 40° below o Fahrenheit.
Ex ter. Char —Native mercury exifts diffeminated, in
globules of different lizes, in fmall cavities of other ores
of mercury ; luftre refplendent, metallic.
Colour ihining white, or tin white ; opaque ; perfect¬
ly fluid } does not wet the finger; feels very cold. Sp.
gr. 13.568 to 13.581.
Chem. Char.— Volatile before the blow-pipe, without
diffufing any perceptible odour.
Native mercury is underftood to be pure, and having
all the properties of that metal j but it is fometimes
amalgamated with a little iilver, which deftroys its flui¬
dity in a flight degree, and renders it fomewhat vif-
cous.
Localities, &c.—Native mercury is ufually found
along with the other ores of that metal, as at Idria, in
finouli, and at Almaden in Spain j but the great pro¬
portion of the mercury of commerce is obtained by dif-
tillation from native cinnabar. There is alfo, it is faid,
a rich mine of native mercury near Guanca Velica in
Peru.
llfes.—For many purpofes mercury is one of the moft
important of metallic fubftances. It is extenfively em¬
ployed in metallurgy, in extra&ing gold and Yilver
from their ores, by the procefs to be afterwards deferi-
bed, called amalgamation. The ufes of mercury in gild- *
i11 filvering the backs of mirrors, and in medicine,
are well known.
2. Species. Native Amalgam.
Natural Amalgam, Kirw. ii. 223. VAmalgam Natif,
Broch. ii. 99. Mercure Argental, Hauy, iii. 432. *
Effen. Char.—Communicating to copper a filvery
colour by frieftion.
Ex ter. Char.—This fpecies is rarely found maflive,
but ufually diffeminated, or fuperficial, fometimes im¬
perfectly cryftallized. The form of its cryftals is the
octahedron, dodecahedron, but it is ufually found in
thin plates or leaves j luftre refplendent, or ftuning 1
fracture conchoidal. 6
Colour between ftuning or tin white, and filvery-
white, according to the predominance of the mercury
or filyer; foft, and partially fluid j brittle, and eafily
frangible.
Chem. Expofed to heat the mercury is driven
off, and the filver remains behind.
Mercury,
Silver,
Conjlituent Parts.
Heyer. Cordi’er. Klaproth.
75 73 64
25 27 36
100 100 100
Localities, &c.—This mineral is rare, and is met
with, according to X)e Bom, in the mines of mercury
whofe
Parti. MINER
•Claffifica- whole vein^ are crofted by Veins of filver ores. It. is
tion. _ found chiefly at Rofenau in Hungary, in Moersfeld,
anci Mofchellanfherg, in the duchy of Deux Fonts,
and at Sahlberg in Sweden. It is ufually found in a
veilowifli or red'diih ferruginous clay, and accompanied
by other ores of mercury.
3. Species. Corneous Ore of Mercury.
Mercury mineralised by the vitriolic and marine aciuSy
Kirw. ii. 229. La Mine de Mercure cornee, Broch.
ii. 101. Mercure muriate, Hauy, iii. 447-
LLJen. Char.—Colour pearl gray, volatilized by the
' blow-pipe.
Exter. Char.—Rarely found maflive or difleminated,
but ufually in thin crufts, or in fmall globules, com-
pofed of an aflemblage of fmall cryftals, which are
either perfect cubes, or fix-fided prifms, terminated by a
four-faded pyramid ; a fix-fided prifm bevelled at the
extremity ^ or an eight-lided prifm with four broad and
four narrow alternating faces. Cryftals fhining, fome-
times refplendent j internal luftre ihining and adam¬
antine j fradlure foliated.
Colour fmoke gray, afli gray, or grayifh white >
tranflucent; tender, and eaftly frangible.
Chem. Char.—Entirely volatilized before the blow¬
pipe, without leaving any reflduum, and without decom-
polition.
The conftituent parts are about 70 of mercury, 29
of muriatic acid, and a fmall portion of fulphuric acid.
Localities, &c.—This mineral has only been known
about 13 years, and it is hitherto but rare. It was dif-
covered in the mercury mines of the duchy of Deux
Fonts by Woulfe, and has been fince found at Almaden
in Spain, and at Horfowitz in Bohemia. The repo-
fitory is in the cavities of a ferruginous clay, which is
mixed with malachite and gray copper ore.
4. Species. Liver or Hepatic Ore of Mercury.
Mine de Mercure hepatique, Broch, ii. 104. Hepatic
mercurial ore, Kirw. ii. 224. Mercure fulfure bitumi-
nifere, Hauy, iii. 446.
This is divided into two fubfpecies, 1. compaff, and
2. flaty.
Subfpecies 1. Compact Liver Ore of Mercury;
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or difleminated *, luftre
glimmering, metallic} fracture even, fometimes fine¬
grained uneven } fragments blunt-edged.
Colour between lead gray, and cochineal redcolour
•f the ftreak deep cochineal red, and {tuning j tender,
and eafily frangible. Sp. gr. 7.18 to 7.93.
Subfpecies 2. Slaty Liver Ore of Mercury.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive ; luftre fhining and
refplendent; in the crofs fracture glimmering; luftre
in general metallic, but fometimes vitreous ; principal
fracture flaty, in curved thick leaves j crofs frafture
compa£l and even *, fragments in plates.
Colour of the preceding, but fomewhat darker, and
approaching to that of iron j opaque *, ftreak fhining j
powder between cochineal and fcarlet red j tender, and
very eafily frangible.
Localities, &c.—This is the molt common ore of
4
A L O G Y. 221
mercury in Idria, where it forms confiderable beds, Metallic
and yields about 60 per cent, of mercury. It is found , 0l('s' .
alfo, along with other ores of mercury, in Spain and
Siberia.
Liver ore of mercury confifts of cinnabar, or the
fulphuret of mercury, mixed with a portion of indura¬
ted bituminous clay. At Idria it is called branders,
or coaly earth, on account of the predominance of the
bitumen.
5. Species. Cinnabar.
This fpecies is alfo divided into two fubfpecies, com¬
mon and fibrous.
Subfpecies 1. Common Cinnabar.
Le Cinnabre Commun, Broch. ii. 107. Dark Red Cin¬
nabar, Kirw. ii. 223. Mercure Sulfure' compatte,
Hauy, iii. 440.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or difleminated, or in
fuperficial layers, or cellular and kidney-form, and alfo
cryflallized. Forms of the cryftals are, a double four-
fided pyramid with truncated fummits j a cube having
its oppofite diagonal angles truncated j a rhomboidal
prifm ; a three-fided prifm terminated by a three-fided
pyramid, which alfo is truncated. The cryftals, which
are ufually fmall, are confufedly grouped together j
furface of the rhomboidal prifm tranfverfely ftreaked,
of the others fmooth j external luftre fhining or refplen¬
dent ; internal the fame, or only glimmering, vitreous,
or admantine, frafture foliated, uneven, or rarely
fplintery •, fragments fharp-edged.
Colour cochineal red, carmine red, and in feme va¬
rieties lead-gray; opaque, rarely tranflucent at the
edges *, cryftals tranflucent, or femitranfparent 5 ftreak
fhining, fcarlet red •, tender, and eafily frangible. Spec,
grav. 6.902 to 7.86.
Chcm. Char.—Before the blow-pipe common cinna¬
bar is entirely volatilized with a blue flame, and a ful-
phureous odour.
Conjlituent Parts. Lampadius.
Mercury, 81.
Sulphur, 15
Iron, 4
100
Localities, &c.—This is the moft common ore of
mercury, and may be confidered as the gangue or ma¬
trix of the other ores. Found not only in primitive
mountains, where it forms beds in clay and chlorite
flate, but alfo in ftratiform mountains, and even in al¬
luvial rocks. The mines of Almaden in Spain, of Idria
in Friouli, and thofe of the duchy of Deux Fonts, have
furnifhed the greateft quantity of common cinnabar. It
is alfo found in Bohemia, Saxony, and Hungary, and in
fmall quantity in France.
Subfpecies 2. Fibrous Cinnabar.
Le Cinnabre ddun Rouge vif, Brochant, ii. m. Bright
red Cinnabar, Kirwan, ii. 229. MercU’e fulfurdJir
breux, Hauy, iii. 440.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive, difleminated, or fuper¬
ficial j
223 , MINER
“ fic!a!; lurtre glimmering, filky, often alfo entirely dull;
, fraclure finegrained earthy, or fibrous j fragments blunt-
edged.
'Colour bright fcarlet red, fometimes crimfon or au¬
rora red } opaque ; ftreak Ihining fearlet red 5 ftains j
very tender or triable, and very eafily frangible.
Localities, Sec.—This variety is very rare in a ftate
of purity. According to Hauy, molt of the fpecimens
owe their texture to an admixture of radiated fulphuret
of iron. It has been found chiefly at Wolfftein in the
Palatinate, where it is accompanied by brown iron ore
and hematites.
Lifes.'—Cinnabar is dug out chiefly for the purpofe of
extracting the metallic mercury. It is employed alto
as a colouring matter in painting j but the cinnabar ufed
for this purpofe is chiefly artificial.
Some other varieties of cinnabar, or fulphuret of mer¬
cury, have been noticed by mineralogifts, as a native
ethiops mineral. 1 his is of a black colour, a loofe
confidence, and it (lains the fingers. It appears to be
fome bituminous fubltance penetrated with cinnabar. It
is found at Idria.
Alkaline cinnabar of De Born is found at the fame
place ; is of a bright red colour, foliated fraflure, with
rhomboidal fragments ; and fuppoled to be cinnabar
penetrated with an alkaline fulphuret, the odour of
which it gives out by friclion. Another variety of
cinnabar, ufually called native vermilion, is in the
form of powder. I his fubftance is very rare, but is
alfo fometimes found at Idria.
IV. SILVER Genus.
1. Species. Native Silver.
a l o g y.
per in the folution of nitrate of filver, the fdver is re¬
duced, and appears in the metallic ftate.
Localities, &c.—Native filver is not uncommon in
molt of the mines which furnifh the other ores of that
metal. The accompanying fubftance.s are ufually heavy
fpar, quartz, calcareous fpar, fluor fpar, pyrites, blende,
cobalt, and galena. Native filver is very abundant in
Mexico and Peru, and it is alio not uncommon in Si¬
beria, in Germany, France, and was lately difeovered
in the Herland mine in Cornwall.
Subfpecies 2. Auriferous Silver.
Etc ter. Char.—"Phis variety is rarely found maffive,
but is ufually difleminated in fmall particles, or fuperfi-
cial, or reticulated, or in thin plates ; lultre fhining or
reiplendent 5 fracture hackly.
Colour between filver white and brafs yellow, fome¬
times approaching to gold yellow ; it is foft, perfectly
ductile j flexible without being elaltic, and its fpeeific
gravity is greater than common native filver in pro¬
portion to the quantity of gold with which it is al¬
loyed
Conjhtuent Prtr/j'. —Auriferous filver is a compound
of filver alloyed with gold, the latter fometimes in very
confiderable proportion.
Localities, &c.—Ihis mineral is very rare. It is
found at Konigfherg in Norway, difi'eminated in maflive
calcareous Ipar, fluor fpar, and rock cryftal, accompa¬
nied by blende, galena, and pyrites, in a vein which
traverfes a rock of flaty hornblende. It is alfo found in
Siberia, in granular heavy fpar accompanied by vitreous
filver ore, vitreous copper ore, and pyrites.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 108. Id. Brochant, ii. 114. Id. Hauy,
iii. 384.
This is divided into two fubfpecies, common and
auriferous.
Subfpecies 1. Common Native Silver.
Exter. Char.—Common native filver is ufually found
difieminated or fuperficial, under different imitative
forms, as dentiform, filiform, capillary, dendritic, reti¬
culated, veined, or in thin plates $ and fometimes cryf-
tallized, in cubes, oflahedrons, re&angular four-fided
prifms, double fix-fided nyramids with truncated extre¬
mities, double three-fided pyramids with truncated
angles, and hollow four-fided pyramids. The cryflals
are fmall and grouped together in rows, or dendritical,
or reticulated ; furface fmooth ; that of the plates drufy,
that of dentiform, filiform, and capillary filver j longi¬
tudinally Itreaked ; external luftre glimmering or re-
fplendent •, internal always glimmering, metallic ; frac¬
ture hackly ; fragments rather fharp-edged.
Colour filvery white, but foraetimes on the furface
yellowifli brown, or grayifh black ; opaque ; foft; per-
fedly du&ile ; flexible, but not elaftic j ftreak Ihining,
metallic. Spec. grav. 10 to 10.47.
Chem. Char.—Native filveris foluble in nitricacid, and
may be precipitated by muriatic acid, the muriate of
filver being infoluble $ or by immerfing a plate of cop-
2. Species. Antimonial Silver Ore.
Argent Antimonial, Brochant, ii. 119. Id. Hauy, iii.
391. Antimoniated Native Silver, Kinvan, ii. 110.
Effen. Char.—Colour filvery white 5 brittle.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or difleminated, kidnev-
form, or cryftallized in four-fided oblique prifms, in
fix-fided prifms, fometimes with the lateral edges trun¬
cated, in fix-lided tables, and in cubes, having fome
of the angles truncated. Surface of the cryftals longi¬
tudinally ftreaked j luftre Aveakly finning, or only glim¬
mering •, internal luftre fhining or refplendent; fra&ure
foliated.
Colour filvery white, fometimes a fuperficial colour
between yellow, black, and gray, or the colour of tem¬
pered fteel ; ftreak fhining ; femihard. Spec. grav.
9.44.
Chcm. CharBefore the blow-pipe it is eafily re¬
duced ; the antimony is driven off and gives out its pe¬
culiar odour, while the pure filver remains behind in-
crufted with a brown flag, which communicates to bo¬
rax a green colour.
When antimonial filver is diflblved in nitric acid, a
whitifh cruft, which is the oxide of antimony, foon ap¬
pears on the furface.
This mineral, as its name imports, is an allov of fil¬
ver and antimony, in which fometimes a fmall portion
of iron is obferved. T'he proportions of the two metals
feem to be verv variable.
Part I.
Clafiifica.
tion.
Conjlitucnt
3art I,
MINERALOGY.
223
•ChiCfica-
tion.
Conftituent Purls,
Klaproth.
Silver,
Antimony,
76
24
84
16
V auquelin.
78
22
IOO
100
100
Localities, &c.—This ore of filver is accompanied bv
calcareous fpar, heavy fpar, native filver, galena, ana
quartz, in a vein near the duchy of Furftenberg in
Swabia. It has alio been found in carbonate of lime
and heavy fpar near Guadalcanal in Spain.
Chem. Char.—Corneous filver ore melts very eafily
before the blow-pipe, giving out a difagreeable fmell,
and the globule of filver remains.
Metallic
Ores.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silver, 67*75
Muriatic acid, 21.
Sulphuiic acid, .25
Oxide of iron, 6.
Alumina, 1.75
Lime, .25
Lofs, 3.
100.00
3. Species. Arsenical Silver Ore.
Id. Kirw. 3i. ill. Ardent Antimonial Arfcnifere, et
ferrifere, Hauy, iii. 398.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or dilTeminated, kid¬
ney-form or globular, and aKo cryftalhzed in perfedt
fix fided prifms •, in fimila: prifms a little riattened, and
having the lateral edges rounded ; and in acute fix-fided
pyramids with truncated fummits. Luftre weakly finn¬
ing, fometimes fhining; internal luftre fltining or re-
fplendent} fracture foliated , fragments iharp-edged.
Colour tin-white, or lead gray, but expofed to the
air yellowifir, or fteel gray itreak finning •, foft j
brittle.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe the arfenic is
driven off in fumes, diffufing the fmell of garlic j there
remains behind an impure globule of filver.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth..
Silver, 1'1'P1 S
Arfenio, 35.
Iron, 44.25
Antimony 4.
Lofs, 4.
100.00
Localities, &c.—This is a rare mineral, which has
been found at Andreafberg in the Hartz, accompanied
by native arfenic, red filver ore, galena, brown blende,
and calcareous fpar.
4. Species. Corneous Silver Ore.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 113. La Mine Corne, Broch. ii. 127.
Argent Muriate, Hauy, iii. 418.
EJJen. Char.—The colour of horn ; fufible like wax.
Exter. Char.—Rarely found maflive ; fometimes dif-
feminated in globular pieces, often in fuperficial layers,
and very often cryftallized. The forms are, the per-
fe£t: cube, capillary or needle-formed cryftals ; the cry-
ftals are always fmall, and commonly grouped together.
Surface fmooth, fhining or weakly fhining j internal
lufire the fame ; refinous j fra&ure uneven, or flat con-
choidal; fragments blunt edged.
Colour light pearl gray, violet blue, or lead gray,
becomes brown or blackifh in the air j tranflucent j
fometimes only at the edges ; very foft j receives the
impreflion of the nail j dudile, and in thin plates, flexi¬
ble. Spec. grav. 4.748 to 4.804.
Localities, &c.—Muriate of filver is always found at
the upper part of the vein, and it is faid that it fome¬
times accompanies organized fubilances. Leaves of na¬
tive filver have been found attached to petrifa&ions, at
Frankenberg in Heflia \ it is fuppofed that this metallic,
filver is the refult of the decompofition of the muriate
of filver. Corneous filver ore is almoit always accom¬
panied by vitreous filver, footy filver, brown iron ore j
more rarely by native filver, red filver, galena, quartz,
and heavy fpar. It is found in Peru and Mexico, in
the mines of Frey berg in Saxony, at Allemontin France,
and in Siberia.
Another variety of muriate of filver has been de-
feribed by fome mineralogids under the name of earthy
corneous filver ore j or, according to the fanciful Ger¬
man name, butter-milk earth. This variety has an
earthy fradlure, owing to a portion of alumina which is
combined with it. It is almoft friable j the luftre of
the ftreak is refinous, and it feels fomewhat greafy.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow pipe it is llightly
agglutinated without melting, and fmall globules of
filver exude from the mafs.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Silver, 2 5
Muriatic acid, 8
Alumina, 67
With a trace of copper, —
100
This variety is found at Andreafberg in the Hartz,
Another variety has been deferibed under the name of
alkaline filver ore, which is nothing more than the mu¬
riate of filver combined with carbonate of lime.
5. Species. Sooty Silver Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 117. L'Argent Noir, Broch. ii. 132.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or diffeminated, perfo¬
rated or corroded 5 in fuperficial layers upon other mi¬
nerals, or in rounded pieces, covered by muriate of fil¬
ver j confiftenee intermediate between folid and friable j ,
dull; fraflure fine grained earthy j fragments blunt-
edged..
Colour bluifti black, or blackifh gray 5 ftreak finn¬
ing, metallic j fiains a little; eafily frangible.
Chem. C/for.—Melts eafily before the blow-pipe into .
a flaggy mafs, which, by continuing the heat, is par¬
tially volatilized, and the globule of filvex remains.
Its
224 M I N E K
conftituent parts are ft ill unknown j as it is ufual-
tj - ^ iy accompanied by vitreous, corneous, and fome other
filver ores, it is fuppofed to be a mixture of thofe ores
m different proportions.
Localities, &c,—Found in Saxony, in France, and
in Hungary.
6. Species. Vitreous Silver Ore.
Sulphurated Silver Ore, Kirw. ii. 115. L'Ardent Vi~
{['fux, Brochant, ii. 134. Argent Sulphure, Hauy,
iii. 398.
LLxter. Char.—Commonly found maffive, diffemina-
ted, or fuperficial ; fom. times dentiform, filiform, ca¬
pillary,^ dendritic, or reticulated, with other forms and
impreftions. It is alfo cryftallized in cubes, which are
cither perfeft or truncated on the angles or edges •, in
octahedrons, which are either perfeCt, or truncated on
the angles ^ in fiat, double, threc-fided pyramids, the
edges of the one correfponding to the faces of the
other j in reCtangular four-fided prifms, terminated by
a four-fided pyramid ; in equiangular fix-fided prifms,
terminated at the two extremities by a three-fided pyra¬
mid *, correfponding alternately to three of the lateral
edges, forming the garnet dodecahedron, of which all
the lateral edges are fometimes ftightly truncated j in
broad and flat fix-Tided prifms bevelled at the extremity,
and having the angles at the acute lateral edges trun¬
cated. The cryfials arc commonly fmall, and grouped
together in rows, or in knots, like the fteps of a flair j
the cube and the oftahedron are the moft common,
and the cube is fometimes hollow. The furface of the
cryftal is ufually fmooth, fometimes rough or drufy j
luftre between fhiningand weakly glimmering; internal
luftre fliining, metallic; fraCturc conchoida!,'fometimes
foliated ; fragments blunt-edged.
Colour dark lead-gray, fteel-gray, or blackiih gray,
varying by expofure to the air; ftreak ftiining; Toft;
duClile ; may be cut with a knife ; flexible without be¬
ing elaftic. Spec. grav. 6.909 to 7.215.
Chem. Char. — Before the blow-pipe vitreous filver is
reduced to the metallic ftate, and the fulphur is driven
off. By gradually heating it in a furnace, the fulphur
may be diflipated without fufion, and the filver is redu¬
ced to the metallic ftate in a dendritical or capillary
form, exaCtly refembling native filver.
A L O G Y.
cial, or cryftallized in equiangular fix-fided prifms, the
terminal faces being fometimes plane, and fometimes
convex or concave; the fame prifm truncated on its
terminal edges, or terminated by a fix-fided pyramid fet
on the lateral faces, and having its fummit truncated;
in equiangular fix-fided tables, or in very flat rhom¬
boids. Cryftals fmall, and grouped together ; furface
fmooth, fometimes drufy; prifms longitudinally ftreak-
ed ; luftre finning or relplendent; internal luftre finn¬
ing, or weakly finning ; fraCture conehoidal, fometimes
uneven ; fragments rather fliarp-edged.
Colour iron-black, or fteel or lead gray ; foft; brit¬
tle. Spec. grav. 7.208.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it melts with dif¬
ficulty ; fulphur, antimony, and arfenic, are partially
driven off, and there remains a button of metallic fil¬
ver, which is not very duftile, accompanied by a brown
flag.
ConJUtuent Parts. Klaproth.
Silver, 66.5
Sulphur, 12.
Antimony, 10.
Iron, 5.
Copper and arfenic, .5
Earthy matters, 1.
Lofs, 5.
100.3
Localities, &zc.—This is one of the richeft iilver ores;,
and it is ufually accompanied by red filver ore, vitreous
filver ore, fome other metallic ores, and various earthy
fpars. It is pretty common in Saxony and Hungary,
but lefs abundant than vitreous filver ore. It is alfo
occalionally met with in moft other filver mines.
8. Species. Red Silver Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 122. Id. Broch. ii. 143. Argent Anti-
mom e SulphurS, Hauy, iii. 402.
This is divided into two fubfpecies; dark red, and
bright red filver ore.
Subfpeeies 1. Dark Red Siver Ore.
Part I.
Claflitica-
tion.
Silver,
Sulphur,
Conjlituent Parts.
Bergman. Sage. Klaproth.
75 84 85
25^ 16 15
100 100 100
Localities, &c.—Vitreous filver is one of the moft
common filver ores. It is ufually accompanied by
heavy fpar, calcareous fpar, and fluor 'par; along with
the other ores of filver and lead, • bait and blende.
It is found in Bohemia, Saxony, Norway, Siberia, and
South America.
7. Species. Brittle Vitreous Silver Ore.
VArgent Vitreux Aigre, Brochant, ii. 138.
Ex ter. Char.—Found maihve, diffeminated, fuperfi-
Exter. Char.—Found maftive or diffeminated, fuper¬
ficial, dendritical, or cryftallized in equiangular fix-lided
prifms, which is either terminated by a three-fided pyra¬
mid fet on the lateral edges, or has its terminal edges
truncated, or is terminated by an obtufe fix-fided pyra¬
mid fet on the lateral faces, and having the fummit and
lateral edges of the pyramid truncated ; fometimes the
fummit of the pyramid is terminated by a fecond three-
fided pyramid, and fometimes the lateral edges of the
prifm are bevelled. The cryftals are fmall, and vari-
oufly grouped together, commonly fmooth and relplend¬
ent, rarely ftreaked ; internal luftre weakly ftiining, or
only glimmering, adamantine, often’femimetal]ic; frac¬
ture ufually uneven, fometimes conchoidal; fragments
rather blunt-edged.
Colour between cochineal red and lead-gray, and
fometimes iron black ; cryftals tranflucent; in maffes
opaque; ftreak but weakly (hining, between cochineal
red
'art I.
Claffifica- red and tfnmfon red j foft j brittle, and eafily frangible.
tlOT‘ . Spec. grav. 5.56 to 5.58.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it decrepitates and
files off before becoming red, and then melts with froth¬
ing up ; part is volatilized and fublimes in the form of
a yellowith white powder, and leaves a button of me¬
tal! ie filver.
Its conftituent parts are fuppofed to be nearly the
fame as the following.
Localities, See.—Found in almofl: all lilver mines,
and is ufually accompanied by other filver ores, as well
as'different metallic ores.
225
Extcr. Char.—Found mafllve and diffeminated *, Metallic
luflre ftrongly glimmering; fra&ure even j fragments, °res' _
blunt-edged.
Colour briglit lead-gray, or fteel-gray j foft j ftreak
ftiining. Spec. grav. 5.322.
Cotijlituent Parts.—According to fome, this mineral
is compofed of filver, antimony, and fulphur ; but ac¬
cording to others, minerals which have been reckoned
white filver ores, contain a very confiderable proportion
of lead, and therefore ought to be arranged among the
ores of that metal. Such are the following analyfes by
Klaproth.
MINERALOGY.
Subfpecies 2. Bright Red Silver Ore.
Exter. Char.—Found mafiive, diffeminated, or fu-
perficial, and very often cryftallized. The forms of
its cryftals referable fome of thofe of the former, or are
fimple fix-fided pyramids, or acute fix-fided pyramids,
having the lateral angles alternately acute and obtufe,
with the fummit furmounted by a three-fided pyramid
placed on the obtufe edges of the firfi *, or furraounted
by a fix-fided pyramid fet on the lateral faces. The
cfyfials are fometimes acicular* and are combined to¬
gether in a fafcicular or reticulated forrrt. Surface of
the cryftals fometimes fmooth, fometimes drufy ; ftreaked
longitudinally, but the pyramids are ftreaked tranfverfe-
ly or obliquely •, luftre refplendent or (Inning ; internal
luftre fhining or weakly (Inning and adamantine j frac¬
ture conchoidal, or fine grained uneven ) fragments ra¬
ther blunt-edged.
Colour blood red, or light cochineal red, fometimes
blui(h on the furface ; cryftals femitranfparent $ in
maffes tranflucent, often opaque 5 ftreak aurora red } foft,
eafily frangible. Spec. grav. G44 to 5.59.
Cliem. Char.—Melts before the blow-pipe ; blackens,
and burns with a bluifh flame, giving out white fumes
with the odour of garlic. A button of nearly pure
filver remains behind.
Confliivent Parts.
Klaproth. Vauquelin.
Silver, 62. 56.67
Antimony, t 18.5 J6.l3
Sulphur, 11. 15.07
Sulphuric acid and water, 8.5 —
Oxygen, - 12.13
100.0 100.00
The garlic fmell, which was formerly fuppofed to be
owing to arfenic, arifes from the antimony, which is
volatilized by the aflion of the blow-pipe •, although,
according to Prouft, there are ores of red filver which
contain fometimes arfenic and fometimes antimony fe-
parately, and fometimes the two metals combined. The
red colour of this ore is by Thenard aferibed to the an¬
timony in the ftate of purple oxide.
Localities, &c.—Red filver ore is ufually accom¬
panied by native arfenic, other ores of filver, as well
as other metallic ores; and it is found in Bohemia, Sax¬
ony, France, Spain, and Hungary.
Silver,
Lead,
Antimony,
Iron,
Sulphur,
Alumina,
Silica,
Lofs,
Light coloured.
2O.4O
48.C6
7.88
2.25
12.25
7-
.25
1.91
Dark coloured.
9-25
41-
2!.5
J-75
22.
1-1S
2.25
100.00
100.00
Localities, Szc.—The real white filver ore has been
chiefly found in the mine of Himmelfurft, near Frey-
berg in Saxony, in a gangue of quartz, and accom¬
panied by galena, red filver, and blende.
10. Species. Black Silver Ore.
Exter. Char.—This ore of filver is of a cellular tex¬
ture ; the ftreak is (hinittg and metallic-, it is brittle,
and of a black colour ; but it can only be known to be
a filver ore by obtaining globules of filver under the
blow-pipe. It is ufually accompanied by vitreous
red filver ores. It is fuppofed that it is fome of the
other fpecies of filver ores that may have undergone
fome change from chemical agents. The filver it con¬
tains is in very variable proportions.
Localities, &c.—Found in fome of the filver mines
at Freyberg in Saxony, and Allemont in France. It is
common in Peru and Mexico, and it is called by the
Spaniards, negrillo.
Befide the filver ores already deferibed, other fpecies
have been mentioned by mineralogifts, the 'e'xiftence of
which has not been diftinflly afeertained ; as the car¬
bonate of filver of Widenmann and Kirwan, compofed
of 72.5 parts of filver, 12 of carbonic acid, and 1 9.5
of carbonate of antimony &nd oxide of copper * ; the * u, Iri,
reddifh and grecnifli black filver ore, alfo deferibed by
Kirwan, which is fuppofed to be a mixture of native
and fulphurated filver-f. Light lamellar filver ore f, f/£/i. i2f„
compofed of alumina, fulphuret of filver, oxide of iron \ Ibid. nO.
and manganefe.
V. COPPER Genus.
1. Species. Native Copper.
Id. Kirw. ii. 128. Id. Broch. ii. 158. Id. Hauy, iii.
518.
9. Species. White Silver Ore.
Id. Broch. ii. 150. Light Gray Silver Ore, Kirw. ii,
119.
Vol. XIV. Part I.
EJJen. Char.*—Colour reddifh yellow, and malleable.
Exter. Char.—Native copper is found maffive, dif-
feminated, fuperficial, or in rounded pieces ; alfo den-
dfitical and capillary, and very oftefi cryftallized in per-
Ff fe&
226 MINER
^res^ cu^es> or with truncated edges or angles; double
i ^ • f°ur-fided pyramids ; funple and acute three-fided pyra¬
mids. Cryftals fmall, and grouped in a dendritical or
botryoidal form j luftre Ihining or weakly lliining •, in¬
ternal luftre glimmering or weakly (hining j fradlure
hackly 5 fragments blunt-cdged.
Colour light copper-red, but expofed to the air, yel-
lowifh, blackifh, or greenilh ; flreak fhining; foft, or
femihard ; du&ile, and flexible, but not elaftic. Spec,
grav. 7.72 to 8.58.
CJiem. Char.—Copper immerftd for feme time in a
lolution of ammonia, or volatile alkali, changes it to a
beautiful blue colour.
Localities, &c.—Native copper is not a very rare
mineral j it is found in many copper mines accom¬
panied by the other ores of copper, as in the copper
mines of Siberia, Saxony, Hungary, Sweden, and Corn-
wall in England.
2. Species. Vitreous Copper Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 144- Broch. ii. 162. Cuivre Sulfure,
Hauy, iii. 551.
This is divided into two fubfpecies ; compafl and fo¬
liated.
Subfpecies 1. Compact Vitreous Copper Ore.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or difleminated, fome-
times fuperficial, and rarely cryftallized in perfefl cubes
with convex faces 5 in perfect oflahedrons, or in fix-fid-
en prifms, terminated by a three-fided pyramid, fet on
three of the lateral edges. Cryftals fmall j furface
Imooth and fhining j internal luftre ftrongly glimmer¬
ing or Ihining j frafture rhomboidal or even, fragments
rather ftiarp-edged.
Colour lead-gray, iron gray, or yellowifti, but fome-
times the colour of tempered fteel when tarnilhed ; ftreak
ftiining or refplendent j foft, and eafily frangible. Spec,
grav. 4.81 to 5.338.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Copper, 78.5
Sulphur, 18.5
Iron, 2.25
Silica, .75
100.00
Subfpecies 2. Foliated Vitreous Copper Ore.
Exter. Char.—Always found maflive or difleminat-
td, rarely fuperficial; fracture foliated } fragments blunt
edged.
Colour fimilar to the former, approaching a little
more to fawn or yellowifti brown.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Copper, 30
Sulphur, 20
Iron, 25
Lofs, 5
100
Chem. Char.—Vitreous copper ore is often fufible
in the flame of a candle, and it melts eafily before the
A L O G Y.
blow-pipe, and yields a button of copper enveloped in
a blackifti flag ; heated with borax, gives it a green co-
loui, and digefted in a folution of ammonia, changes it
to a fine blue.
Localities, &c.—Vitreous copper ore is accompanied
by quartz, calcareous fpar, heavy fpar, and the other
ores of copper ; and is common in Siberia, Hungary,
Norway, Germany, and Cornwall in England.
3. Species. Variegated Copper Ore.
Purple Copper Ore, Kirwan, ii. 142. La Mine de Cuivre
Panachee, Broch ant, ii. 166. Cuivre Pyriteux He-
patique, Hauy, iii. 536.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, difleminated, or fuper«
ficial, and fometimes, it is faid, cryftallized in odlahe-
drons 5 internal luftre fliining j fradture conchoidal, or
fomewhat uneven ; fragments rather ftiarp-edged.
Colour reddifti yellow, violet blue, azure blue, and
greenifh ; feveral colours exift on the fame fpecimen,
giving it a variegated appearance, from which it has
the name j ftreak fliining ; powder reddifti j foft, and
eafily frangible.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Copper,
Iron,
Sulphur,
Oxygen,
Lofs,
63'7 58
12.7 18
19. 19
4-5 5
.1
100.0 100
Localities, &c.—Variegated copper ore is accompa¬
nied by quartz, calcareous fpar, bituminous marly fchif-
tus, and other copper ores 5 and is found in Saxony,
Hungary, Sweden, Siberia, and England.
4. Species. Copper Pyrites.
Id. Kirw'an, ii. 140. Id. Brocbant. ii. 169. Id. Hauy,
iii. 529.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, difleminated, fome¬
times fuperficial, more rarely in imitative forms, as den¬
dritical, &c. but often cryftallized. Forms are, the te¬
trahedron, which is either perfedt, or with its four angles-
truncated, giving it the appearance of a fix-fided table *
the perfedt odtahedron, the lummit terminated by a
line ; a double cryftal formed of tsvo tetrahedrons bafe
to bafe, the angles of the bafes being ftightly truncated,
produce three re-entering angles, and the lateral faces
three falient angles. Cryftals are fmall; furface fmooth,
fliining ; internal luftre ftiining or refplendent; fracture
often uneven, fometimes conchoidal, fragments rather
ftiarp-edged.
Colour in the frefh fradture, brafs yellow, fometimes
gold yellow, and fteel gray ; fometimes with varie¬
gated colours ; foft or femi-hard ; brittle. Spec. grav.
4.08 to 4.3.
Chem. Char.— Before the blow-pipe it decrepitates j
gives out a fulphureous odour 5 fufes into a black glo¬
bule, and the heat being continued, metallic copper ap¬
pears. Borax heated with it acquires a green co¬
lour,
Tim
Part I.
Claflifica-
tion.
v—v
Part I.
MINERALOGY.
227
This ore of copper is compofed of fulphur, copper,
and iron in variable proportions, and fometimes alio a
fmall admixture of gold or filver.
Localities, &c.—This is a very common copper
ore. It is equally found in primitive and llratiform
mountains, either in veins or in beds, and fometimes in
great abundance ; in Saxony, Hungary, Sweden, France,
and England.
5. Species. White Copper Ore.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 152. Id. Brochant, ii. 173.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or difleminated; inter¬
nal luftre weakly fliining *, fra&ure fine grained, un¬
even fragments rather (harp edged.
Colour between filver white and brafs yellow j femi-
hard ; brittle. Spec. grav. 4.5.
Chet?i. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it gives out a
white fume, with the fmell of arfenic, and melts into a
grayilh black flag.
This ore is faid to be compofed of copper, iron, ar¬
fenic, and fulphur.
7. Species. Black Copper Ore.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 143. Id. Brochant, ii. 180.
Metallic
Ore*.
V-—v——<
Exter. Char.—Found in the ftate of powder, with a
dull appearance, and little coherence, fometimes incruft-
ing other ores of copper j ufually friable 5 ftains j feels
meagre.
Colour brownifh black, fometimes deep brown.
Chcm. Char.—Gives out before the blow-pipe a ful-
phureous fmell, and melts with borax into a greenifli
flag- _
It is fuppofed to arife from the decompofition of vi¬
treous copper ore and copper pyrites, and contains
fometimes from 40 to 50 per cent, of copper.
8. Species. Red Copper Ore.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 135. Id. Brochant, ii. 181.
This is divided into three fubfpecies) compa£l, folia¬
ted and capillary.
Subfpecies 1. Compact Red Copper Ore.
/
6. Species. Gray Copper Ore.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 146. Id. Brochant, ii. 175. Id. Hauy,
ifl- 537-
Exter. C/ififr.—-Found maflive or difleminated, fuper-
ficial, and often cryflallized in regular tetrahedrons,
which are rare", or having all the edges truncated, or
bevelled, fometimes flightly, and fometimes ftrongly j
or having each of its angles furmounted by a three-fid-
ed pyramid, fet on the lateral faces, with fome other
modifications. Cryflals of various fizes j furface fmooth,
fhining internal luftre between glimmering and re-
fplendentj fra<fture uneven, or conchoidal j fragments
rather (harp-edged.
Colour fteel gray of various (hades, lead gray, and
the tarniftied colours are often variegated j ftreak black
or. brown j femi-hard ; brittle. Specific gravity 4.44
to 4.86.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it decrepitates,
imd melts into a brittle metallic globule of a grayifti
colour, giving out a white fume, and communicating to
■borax a yellowifti red colour.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Copper,
Sulphur,
Antimony,
Silver,
Iron,
Lead,
Silica,
Alumina,
Lofs,
16.25
10.
16.
2.2c
'S-IS
34-5
2-5
4-75
34-09
M-77
3-3
o-3
4.68
100.00
100.00
Localities, &c.-—This mineral is mod frequently
found in veins in primitive mountains, accompanied
by other ores of copper, as in Germany, France,
■Sweden, Siberia, and in England,
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, difl'eminated, or fu*
perficial j luftre glimmering, femi-metallic 5 frafture
even, or flightly conchoidal ; fragments rather (harp
edged.
Colour cochineal red, or lead gray ; opaque ; ftreak
(Inning, of a brick red colour ; femi-hard, and brittle.
Subfpecies 2. Foliated Red Copper Ore.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, difleminated, or fu-
perficial, often cryftallized in oclahedrons, which are
either truncated on the angles or edges ) in perfect
cubes, which are Ibnaetimes truncated on the angles,
and fometimes on the edges. Cryftals fmall, ufually
aggregated furface fmooth, fliining internally finn¬
ing, or weakly Alining, between metallic and adamanr
tine ; fradture imperfedtly foliated 5 fragments rather
(harp edged.
Colour fimilar to the former ; opaque, tranflucent at
the edges j cryftals femi-tranfparent.
Subfpecies 3. Capillary Red Copper Ore.
Eihrous Red Copper Ore, Kir wan, ii. 137. Le Cuivre
Oxide Rouge Capillaire, Brochant, ii. 184.
Exter. C/zar.-^-Found in fmall capillary cryftals,
which are difleminated in fmall bundles, or fometimes
form a fuperficial incruftation ; luftre Alining and ada¬
mantine.
Colour carmine red, cochineal or fcarlet red j cryf¬
tals tranflucent.
Chem. Char.—Red copper ore is eafily reduced be¬
fore the blow-pipe without any odour ; entirely foluble
in muriatic acid without effervefcence, but effervefees
in nitric acid ; by which means it may be diftinguiflied
from cinnabar, which is infoluble, and f^om red filver
ore, which diflblves with effervefcence.
The conftituent parts of red copper ore are fuppofed
to be copper and oxygen, and not a carbonate of cop¬
per, as was formerly conjedlured.
Localities, &c.—Red copper ore is found in various
places accompanying the other ores of the fame metal,
F f 2 and
and particularly native copper.
^ ties are rare.
MINERAL OG Y.
The cryftallized varie-
Part I.
I his fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies, earthy Claffifica-
and indurated. tion.
9. Species. Brick-red Copper Ore.
J(/. Kirwan, ii. 127. Id. Brochant, ii. 187.
Of this alfb there are two fubfpecies, earthy and in¬
durated.
Subfpecies 1. Earthy Brick-red Copper Ore.
Ex ter Char.—Found inaflive or difieminated, or fu-
perficial, in tlie fiifures of other copper ores, compofed
of fine earthy particles llightly cohering : dull, friable,
and ftaining.
Colour hyacinth red, reddilh brown, brownilli red,
or yellow.
Subfpecies 2. Indurated Brick-red Copper Ore.
Exter. Char.—Found mafTive, diflerninated, or fu-
pei huial y liulrt glimmering, or weaklv (Inning: frac¬
ture imperfeaiy Conchoidal, even or earthy ; fragments
rather (liarp edged.
Colour deep hyacinth red, biownifh red, or deep
brown ; ftn ak ihimng •, fofr, or femihard 5 brittle.
Chetn. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it is infufible and
blackens.
f he conftituent parts of this ore are fuppofed to be a
mixture of red copper ore, or oxide of copper, and
brown oxide of iron, in variable proportions.
Localitiesy.&c.—This ore is ufually found accompa¬
nying red copper ore.
10. Species. Emerald Copper Ore.
Dioptafe, Hauy, iii. 136. Id. Broehant, ii. 511.
EJfen. Char.—Divifible into an obtufe rhomboid,
whole plane angles are 111° and 69°.
Exter Char.—Found cryftallized in fix-fided prifms,
terminated by a three-fided fummit, placed on the three
alternate lateral edges j luftre (Inning, vitreous j frac¬
ture foliated ; cleavage threefold, parallel to the lateral
edges of the fummit.
Colour emerald green ; tranflucent, or femi-tranfpa-
rent; femi-hard. Spec. grav. 2.3.
G/utn. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe, but
becomes brown, and tinges the flame of a candle yel-
lowilh green.
CouJUtuent Parts*
Oxide of copper,
Silica,
Carbonate of lime*
Lofs,
Vauquelin*
28.57
28.57
4285
.01
100.00
Localities, &c.—This mineral is found in Siberia, in
a matrix covered with malachite.
v——v—“■*
Subfpecies 1. Earthy Azure Copper Ore.
Exter. Char.—-Rarely found maflive, ufually dilfemi-
naled or fuperficial; com poled of fine particles which
are dull and fomewhat coherent ; fraflure earthy.
Colour finalt blue, fometimes Iky blue 5 opaque j
ftains a little $ foft or friable.
t
Subfpecies 2. Indurated or Radiated Azure Cop¬
per Ore.
Exter. Char.—Rarely found maflive, fometimes dif-
feminateeb often fuperficial, or in imitative forms,
as ftalafhtical, botryoidal, &e. and alfo cryflalliztd in
reflangular four-fided prifms, terminated by four-fided
acute pyramids let on the lateral edges 5 in oblique
iour-fided prifms, with two broad and two narrow faces,
with a four-fided pyramid fet on the lateral faces j fome¬
times. the lateral edges are truncated, and the termina¬
tion is by a fix-fided pyramid. Cryftals ufually fmaJl,
and varioufly aggregated ; broad faces of the prifms
tranfverfely 1! reaked } narrow faces longitudinally j,
luflre (hining or refplendent, vitreous j frafture radiat¬
ed ; fragments blunt-edged, or wedge-ftiaped.
Colour light azure blue, Pruflian or indigo blue j
translucent or femi-tranfparent; ftreak fley blue j foft j
brittle, Spec. grav. 3.4 to 3.608.
Chem. Char.—Soluble with effervefcence in nitric
acid y nearly infufible before the blow-pipe, but is ea-
fily reduced with borax, winch affumes a fine green co**
lour.
ConJIituent Parts. Pelletier.
Copper, 66
Carbonic acid, 18
Oxygen, 8.
Water, 2.
Lois, 6
IOO
Localitiesy &c.—This variety of copper ore is not
very abundant; but it accompanies the other ores of
copper, and other metallic ores, as thofe of lead, zinc,
and iron. It is found in Bohemia, Norway, Siberia,
and in the different mines of lead and copper in Bri¬
tain.
1 he earthy variety is found in fuperfieial layers on a
llaty marl in Heflia, and it is alfo found fuperficial on
fandftone in Thuringia. Sometimes the whole of the
fandflone is impregnated with this earthy carbonate of
copper, there called copper/and earth, or copper fand-
flone. A fimilar fandflone, at Gouroek near Greenock
in Scotland, was a few years ago dug out for the purpofe
of extra&ing copper.
11. Species. Azure Copper Ore, or Carbonate of
Copper.
Blue Calciforn: Copper Ore, Kir wan, ii. 129. Z’B’-
xur de Cuivre, Brochant, ii. 190. Cuivrc Carbonate
JBleUy Hauy, iii. 562.
12. Species. MALACHITE.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 131. Id. Brochant, ii. 197.
This ipecies is divided into two fubfpecies, fibrous
and com pa6t.
Subfnecies.
Part I. MINER
• Clafiifica-
^ Subfpecies i. Fibrous Malachite.
Ctsivre Carbonate Vert Soyeux. Hauy, iii. 573*
Exter. Char.—Rarely malTive, fometimes dilTenninat-
ed, but often fuperficial, and in the form of fmall ca¬
pillary or acicular cryftals grouped together in different
forms j luftre filming, or when maflive glimmering j
internal luftre weakly fliining, filky •, fratture fibrous,
ftraight, or radiated j fragments blunt edged.
Colour, emerald or apple green j opaque j ftreak of
a lighter colour j foft 5 brittle.
Subfpecies 2. Compact Malachite.
Exter. Char.—Sometimes found maflive, difleminated
or fuperficial, but moft frequently globular, botryoi-
dal, ftaladfitical, &c. j fur face rough or drufy, fome¬
times fmooth, almoft always dull, and rarely fliining ;
internal luftre dull or weakly Ihining •, fratdure con-
choidal j fragments rather fliarp-edged or w^edge
fhaped.
Colour emerald green, apple green, and blackifh
green ; opaque j foft j brittle. Spec. grav. 3.57 to
3-64-
Chem. Char.—Decrepitates before the blow-pipe, and
blackens without full on j effervefces with acids *, colours
borax green, and communicates a blue colour to the fo-
lution of ammonia.
ConJHtuent Parts. Klaproth.
Ccmpadl Malachite.
Copper, 58
Carbonic acid, 18
Oxygen, 12.5
Water, 11.5
100.0
Localities, &c.—Both the fibrous and compa£t ma¬
lachites are ufually found in the fame repofitory, and ac¬
companied with other ores of copper. They are found
in Germany, but the fineft fpecimens are brought from
Siberia. Scotland affords fibrous malachite in fn.all
quantity, as at Leadhills and in Shetland. Mala¬
chite is alfo met with in Cornwall and Derbyfhire in
England.
Ufes.—Malachite, when pure, is fometimes employ¬
ed as a pigment. The compaft variety is fufeeptible
of a fine polifh ; which, with its beautiful and delicate
colours, has brought it into much eftimation for various
ornamental purpofes.
The largeft and fineft fpecimen of compa<51 malachite
known, is in the cabinet of Dr Guthrie at Peterfburgh.
It is 32 inches long, 17 broad, and two inches thick.
It is eftimated, according to the account of Patrin, who
defcribes it, at 20,000 francs, above 800I. fterling. If
we are rightly informed, this fplendid mafs of malachite
was once offered to fale in Britain, but, having found
no purchafer, was carried back to Ruflia.
13. Species. Green Copper Ore.
Mountain Green, Kirw. ii. 134. Id. Broch. ii. 203.
Exter, Char.—Found maflive or diffeminated, but
A L O G Y. 229
ufuaily fuperficial on other ores ; dull ‘r frafture con- Metallic
choidal or uneven ; fragments blunt-edged. , (~)res' ,
Colour verdigris green, emerald green, fometimes *
fkv blue, opaque, or tranflucent at the edges j foft, or
friable j brittle.
Chem. Char.—Becomes black before the blow-pipe
without fulion. Colours borax green.
Conjlituent Parts.—Suppofed to be a mixture of oxide
of copper, or according to others, a carbonate, with alu¬
mina and lime.
Localities, &c.—It is ufually accompanied by gray
copper ore, and fome other c< pper ores, particular¬
ly with malachite, and fometimes with iron ochre,
alumina, and quartz. Found in Saxony, Hungary,
and Siberia.
14. Species. Ferruginous Green Copper Ore.
This is divided into ttvo fubfpecies } 1. earthy ; and,
2. flaggy.
Subfpecics 1. Earthy Ferruginous Green Copper-
Ore.
Iron-fl.'ot Mountain Green, Kirw. ii. 155. Id. Broch. ii.
205.
Exter. Char.—Found maflivej but moft frequently
diffeminated j dull, with an earthy fracture •, fragments
blunt-edged.
Colour light olive green j foft, friable ; brittle j mea*-
gre to the feel.
Subfpecies 2. Slaggy Ferruginous Green Copper
Ore.
Glqjfy Iron-Jhot Mountain Green, Kirw. ii. 152.
Exier. Char.—Maflive, or diffeminated ; luftre finn¬
ing, vitreous j fradlure conchoidal j fragments fliarp-
edged.
Colour deep olive green, fometimes black ; foft j
brittle.
ConJJituent Parts.—Seems to be a mixture of oxide
of copper with iron ochre, in variable proportions.
Localities, &e.—Found along with other copper
ores, and is accompanied by iron ochre, heavy fpar and
quartz. It is a rare mineral. Has been found in Sax¬
ony, and it is laid in the Hartz.
15. Species. Micaceous Copper Ore, ox Ar/eniate of
Copper.
Olive Copper Ore, Kirw. ii. 151. Le Cuivre Arfenical,
Broch. ii. 208. Cuivre Arfeniatc. Hauy, iii. 575. Ar-
feniate of Copper, Bouinon, Phil. Tranf. 1801. p. 193. •
This fpecies is divided into two fublpecies, foliated
and lenticular.
Subfpecies 1. Foliated Micaceous Copper Ore.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, diffeminated, or cry-
ftallized in oblique four-fided prifms, in fix-fided prifms,
in acute rhomboids, or in very fmall cubes. Thefe cry¬
ftals are alfo varioufly modified •, lateral faces ftreaked
longitudinally ; luftre refplendent, pearly, or adaman¬
tine •, frafture foliated, fometimes conchoidal.
Colour olive green, fometimes emerald green, or ver¬
digris-
230 MINER
Metallic digris green j tranflucent} cryftals femitranfparent j foft.
t 'J5' , Spec. grav. 2.54.
Subfpecies 2. Lenticular Micaceous Copper Ore.
Exter. Char.—This variety is found cryftallized in
o&ahedrons, compofed of two four-fided pyramids, with
ifofceles triangular faces } cryftals fmall; external luftre
fhining ; fradlure foliated.
Colour llcy blue, or verdigris green ; fcratches calca¬
reous fpar j brittle j eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 2.88.
Chetn. Char.—The cryifals of thefe varieties decre¬
pitate before the blow-pipe, and give out the odour of
arfenic. They melt into a grayilh globule, W'hich being
treated with borax, yields a button of copper.
Conjlituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Oxide of copper, 39
Arfenic acid, 43
Water, 17
Lofs, 1
t 100
Localities, &c.—Thefe varieties of copper ores are
very rare ; and have been hitherto difcovered only in
the Carrarach mine, Cornwall, accompanied by broAvn
iron ore and other copper ores.
Other arfeniates of copper have been defcribed by
Bournon. In many refpefts they refemble the prece¬
ding varieties. The fpec. grav. which is 4.28, is confi-
derably greater, and yet the proportions of the conllitu-
ent parts approach very near.
V L O G Y. Part I.
lateral edges ; furface of the crylfals fmooth and re- Claffifica^
fplendent •, lutfre adamantine ; fracture foliated ; frag- , tlon* ,
ments rather fliarp-edged. v
Colour between emerald and leek green 5 opaque j
cryftals a little tranfparent j foft j ftreak pale apple
green. Spec. grav. 3.57 to 4.43._
Chem. Char.—Thrown on burning coals, it commu¬
nicates a green colour to the flame j foluble in nitric
acid without effervefcence.
ConJUtuent Parts.
Proud. Klaproth.
r 1
Oxide of copper, 76.6 70.6 73.
Muriatic acid, 10.6 11.4 10.1
Water, 12.8 18.1 16.9
100.0 100.0 100.0
Localities, &c.—This mineral has been found in the
fand of rivers, accompanied by quartz, fchorl, copper
and iron ores, near Remolinos in Chili. It has alfo
been found in a fimilar fituation in Peru.
Phosphate of Copper.—This mineral has been
found maftive, or cryftallized in oblique fix-fided prifms,
with convex faces, lining cavities j luftre refplendent,
between vitreous and adamantine 3 internal luftre filky 3
frafture fibrous.
Colour grayifh black, but internally emerald green ;
opaque 3 ftreak apple green 3 foft, or femihard.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Conjlituent Parts. Chenevix.
Oxide of copper,
Arfenic acid,
Water,
Lofs,
Hcematitiform. Capillary. Foliated.
50
29
21
51
29
18
2
54
30
16
100
100
100
Count de Bournon has defcribed another, under the
name of cupromartial arfeniate, which is alfo cryftal¬
lized, has a fpec. grav. 3.3, and the following are its
conftituent parts.
Ghenevix.
Oxide of iron, 27.5
—-—-copper, 22.5
Arfenic acid, 33’5
Silica, 3.
Water, 12.
Lofs, 1.5
100.0
16. Species. Muriate of Copper, or Green Sand of
Peru.
Id. Broch. ii. 149. Id. Broch. ii. 545.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, or cryftallized in very
fmall fix-fided prifms, bevelled at the extremities, or in
fmall oblique four-fided prifms, alfo bevelled at the
extremities, but the fides correfponding to the obtufe
3
Oxide of copper, 68.13
Phofphoric acid, 30.95
Lofs, .92
100.00
Localities, &c.—This mineral has been found
near Bologne, along with malachite, in a white drufy
quartz.
Copper Mines.—In addition to the hiftory of copper
ores now given, we (hall juft name feme of the more
celebrated copper mines in the world. The copper
mines of Spain are fituated on the frontiers of Portugal,
and yield from veins of confiderable thicknefs, yellow
pyrites. France polfelfes copper mines in the Pyrenees,
near Lyons, in Vofges, and in the neighbourhood of
Savoy, in the department of Mont Blanc. There are
extenfive copper mines in Piedmont, which have been
Avrought to a very confiderable depth.
The copper mines of CornA\rall in England, Avhich
are in primitive rocks, have been long celebrated. The
moft abundant ores are copper pyrites, accompanied by
native copper, Avhich latter, it is obferved, is moft ufu-
ally found near the furface. The fame mines yield all
the varieties of arfeniate of copper. The Adton copper
mines on the borders of the counties of Derby and Staf¬
ford are fituated in limeftone, in very declining or near¬
ly perpendicular beds 3 but the richeft copper mines in
England are thofe of the iiland of Anglefea, Avhere is
a mafs of pyritous copper ore of immenfe thicknefs,
yielding from 16 to 40 per cent, of copper. Native
copper is alfo found near the furface, and immediately
under the turf.
The
rt I. M 1 N E R
Claffificx. The mines of Cronebane, in the county of Wicklow
non. jn Ireland, are very conlxderable. They are fituated
in a primitive mountain, compofed of flinty flate and
argillaceous fchiilus, which alternate with beds of ftea-
tites.
In Germany, Hungary, Sweden, Norway, and Sibe¬
ria, there are many extenfive and valuable copper mines.
In the eailern parts of the Afiatic continent, in the ifland
of Japan, in China, and in fome of the iflands of the In¬
dian ocean, rich copper ores are abundant.
Africa, in various places of that extenftve region,
abounds with ores of copper, as in the mountains to
the north of the. Cape of Good Hope. On the weftern
coafl: of Africa, the natives dig out copper ore, and are
acquainted with the mode of extradling it.
In North America maffes of native copper have been
found, near Hudfon’s Bay; but the richeil copper mines
in the world are thofe of South America, and particu¬
larly in Chili, from which maffes of native copper of
immenfe magnitude have been obtained. The cop¬
per mines of Peru and Mexico are alfo wrought to great
advantage.
VI. IRON Genus.
A L O G Y. 231
Cryftals fmall, excepting the cube, and grouped to- Metallic
gether ; furface fmooth or llreaked ; lullre fhining, re- .
fplendent; internal luftre fhining, metallic; fra£ture r"*"*
uneven ; fometimes conchoidal; fragments rather (harp-
edged.
Colour bronze yellow, golden yellow, fometimes fteel
gray; opaque; hard; brittle; rather eafily frangible.
Spec. grav. 4.6 to 4.83.
C/iem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it gives out a
flrong fulphureous fmell, and burns with a bluifli flame ;
a brownifti globule is then obtained, which is attradled
by the magnet.
Conjlitnent Parts. Hatchett.
Sulphur, 52.15 52.5
Iron, 47.85 47.5
100.00 100.0
Some varieties of common iron pyrites contain a mix¬
ture of gold, which is fuppofed to be accidental, as the
external characters are not affefted by it, and it is only
recognifed by chemical analyfis. Thefe varieties are
called auriferous pyrites.
1. Species. Native Iron.
Id. Kirw. ii. 156. Id. Brochant, ii. 215. Id. Hauy,
iv. 1.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or branched ; furface
fmooth, fhining ; internal luftre ftiining, metallic; frac¬
ture hackly ; fragments rather (harp-edged.
Clour light fteel gray, or filvery white; femi-
hard ; ftreak (hining 5 perfectly duCtile ; flexible ; but
not elaftic.
Localities, &c.—The exiftence of native iron as a
terreftrial production (till remains doubtful. It is faid
that it has been found along with other ores of iron, in
Saxony and in France. The only inftances fully eftablifh-
ed of the difcovery of native iron, are thofe of the im¬
menfe mafs found by Pallas in Siberia, w'hich amounted
to no lefs than i68olb. or 15 cwt. and another of 3 civt.
which was difcovered by Rubin de Celis in South Ame¬
rica ; but thefe maffes correfpond fo nearly with the
fubftances which are certainly known to have fallen
from the atmofphere, in their conftituent parts, that
it feems extremely probable they have had a (imilar ori¬
gin. But for a full account of this curious fubjeft, fee
Meteorolite.
2. Species. Iron Pyrites.
Martial Pyrites, Kirwan ii. 76. Id. Brochant, ii. 221.
Fer fu If are, Hauy, iv. 65.
Subfpecies 1. Common Iron Pyrites.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or difleminated, fuper-
ficial, or in imitative forms, and frequently cryftallized.
if he forms are, a perfeCl cube with plane or convex
faces; or with truncated angles, or edges ; or having a
three-fided pyramid on each angle ; the perfeCl ofta-
hedron, or truncated on all its angles; the dodecahe¬
dron with pentagonal faces, or with fix oppofite and pa¬
rallel edges truncated, or truncated on eight of its an¬
gles ; or the perfeCt icofahedron, which is fare.
Subfpecies 2. Radiated Iron Pyrites.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, or in different imita¬
tive forms, and alfo cryftallized in fmall cubes or oc¬
tahedrons ; furface fmooth or drufy ; luftre ftiining
or refplendent; fracfture radiated ; fragments wedge-
(haped.
Colour bronze yellow, lighter than the former; fome¬
times rteel gray, and fometimes tarnifhed ; hard ; brit¬
tle, and eafily frangible.
Subfpecies 3. Capillary Iron Pyrites.
Exter. Char.—Found in fmall, capillary, or aeicular
cryftals, having the appearance of flocks of wool; fome¬
times the cryftals are acicular or in a ftellated form ;
luftre (hining or weakly ftiining, metallic.
Colour bronze yellow, approaching to fteel gray.
Subfpecies 4. Hepatic Iron Pyrites.
Exter. Char.—Maflive or difleminated, or in diffe¬
rent imitative forms, as ftalaftitical, cellular, &c.; fome¬
times cryftallized in perfect fix-fided prifms or in fix-
fided tables, which are either perfect or bevelled on the
terminal faces. Cryftals linall; fometimes fmooth ;
fometimes drufy; internal luftre glimmering, or weakly
ftiining; fra&ure even, or imperfectly conchoidal; frag¬
ments (harp-edged.
Colour bronze yellow, (teei-gray, fometimes brownifti
or tarniftied ; ftreak (hining ; hard ; brittle.
Physical Char—By rubbing gives out a fulphureous
odour, and, according to fome, the fmell of arfenic.
Conjiituent Parts.—According to fome mineralogifts
this variety is compofed of fulphur and iron, with a por¬
tion of arfenic.
Localities, &.c.—The firft variety is univerfally dif-
fufed ; it is found in every kind of rock, and often in
great abundance.
The fecond is rarer ; but is not uncommon in veins
of lead and filver, and fometimes in nefts in indurated
marl. It is found in Saxony and Bohemia, in Derby-
fliire
232
Meiaihc (hire in England, and at Leadhills and the iiland of
. , lilay in Scotland.
This variety is more fubjeft than the firft to decom-
pofition.
Capillary pyrites is only found in fmall quantity, as
in Saxony, and Andreafberg in the Hartz.
Hepatic pyrites is only found in veins, particularly
thofe of lilver and lead, accompanied with quartz, cal¬
careous fpar, and heavy fpar, as in Germany and Siberia,
and at Wanlockhead in Scotland.
Expofed to the air, this variety is extremely liable
to decompolition.
3. Species. Magnetic Pyrites.
Irl. Kirwan, ii. 79. Id. Brochant, ii. 232.
Exter. Char.—Maffive or dilfeminated j internal luf-
tre (hining or weakly (hining; fracture uneven, rarely
conchoidal; fragments rather fharp-edged.
Colour between copper red and bronze yellow j when
expofed to the air it becomes brow nidi or tarnifhed j
hard, or femihard j brittle. Spec. grav. 4.51.
Phys. Char.— Phis variety of pyrites afts on the
magnetic needle, but not very powerfully.
Lhem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it gives out a
flight odour of fulphur, and melts eafily into a grayilh
black globule, which is attracted by the magnet.
"Conjiituent Parts. Hatchett.
Iron, 63.5
Sulphur, 36.5
106.0
Localities, &c.—Magnetic pyrites has been only
found in primitive rocks, as in micaceous fqhiftus; and
is ufually difpofed in beds, along with other ores of
iron, and accompanied by quartz, hornblende, and
garnets. It is found in Saxony, Bavaria, Bohemia, and
in Caernarvon (hire in Wales.
Efes.—This, as well as the former fpecies, is employ¬
ed tor the purpofe of extrafling fulphur, or of manufac¬
turing copperas, or fulphate of iron.
4. Species. Magnetic Iron Ore.
Magnetic Ironjlone, Kirwan, ii. 158. Id. Brochant, ii.
235. Eer Oxidule, Hauy, iv. 10.
I his is divided into two fubfpecies, common and are¬
naceous.
Sub fpecies 1. Common Magnetic Iron Ore.
Exter. Char.— Maflive or difleminated, and often
alfo cryitallized in fix-fided prifms, having a three-fided
pv ram id at each extremity, let on three alternate lateral
edges ; an oblique four-flded prifm ; a double four-fided
pyramid, or perfefl oftahedron, which is fometimes
truncated on all its edges. Cryltals rtf various fizes \
faces fometimes fmooth j thole of the four-fided prjfm
llreaked tranfverfely; lollre fhining j internal luftre
refpltndent, or weakly glimmering j frafture uneven,
lometimes conchoidal or foliated; fragments rather
■blunt-edged.
Part I
Colour iron-black, perfeft black, or fleel-gray; Claffifka-
ftreak brownilh black ; femihard, or hard; brittle j tion-
more or lefs eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 4.2 to 4.93.
Subfpecies 2. Arenaceous Magnetic Iron Ore*
Exter. Char—Found in rounded grains, from the
fize of millet to that of a nut, and fometimes in fmall
octahedral cryltals 5 external lurface rough or weakly
glimmering; internal (hining or refplendent j frafture
conchoidal; fragments fharp-edged.
Colour deep irOn black, fometimes afh gray.
Phys. Char.—Magnetic iron ore, as the name im¬
ports, ftrongly attracts the magnetic needle, and iron
filings j to the com pad varieties of this ore, in which
this property was firlt difeovered, the name of natural
liiagnet is given.
them. Char.—Magnetic iron ore becomes brown be¬
fore the blow pipe, and colours borax dark green.
Conjhtuent Parts.— Lhis is fuppofed to be an oxide
of iron in cOnfiderable purity, as it yields from 80 to 90
per cent, of metallic iron.
Localities, &c.—Common magnetic iron ore is very
common in primitive mountains, particularly in thofe of
gneifs and micaceous fchiflus, where it forms very
powerful beds, and even entire mountains. It is dif-
feminated in cryftals in chlorite fchiftus, as in Corfica,
and in bafalt and greenftone, at Taberg in Sweden.
Found in Saxony, Bohemia, and Italy, and particularly
in the ifland of Elba in the Mediterranean $ and indeed
is very univerfally diftributed over every part of the
globe.
1 he fecond variety, or magnetic fand, is found in
the beds of rivers, in a loofe ftate, and lometimes im¬
bedded in bafalt and wacken. It is found in thofe
countries where the other ores of iron abound 5 and
alfo in the fand of many of the rivers within the torrid
zone, as in Jamaica, St Domingo, &c.
CJfes.—Magnetic iron is wrought for the purpofe of
obtaining metallic iron. Moll of the Swedilh iron ores
belong to this variety, and furnilh the iron which is fo
celebrated on account of its fuperior qualities, through¬
out Europe.
Magnetic fand, where it is abundant, is alfo fmelted
as an iron ore.
5. Species. Specular Iron Ore.
Id. Broch. ii. 242. Id. Kirw. ii. 162. Micaceous Iron
Ore, ibid. 284. Ftr Oligijle, Hauy, iv. 38.
This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies, commofi
and micaceous.
Subfpecies 1. Common Specular Iron Ore*
Exter. Char.—Maflive or difleminated, but moft fre¬
quently ervflallized in doubled three-fided pyramids,
flattened, and the lateral faces of the one fet on the la¬
teral edges of the other ; the fame pyramid with the
angles at the common bafe truncated j in perfect cubes,
having the angles truncated ; or the cube conlidered as
a double three-fided pyramid j or as a rhomboid, in
which the fummits are furmounted by an obtufe three-
fided pyramid, fet on the lateral faces} the fame cube
bevelled at each of the angles of the common bafe j
in fix-fided tables varioufly modified, or in perfect lenfes.
Surface1
mineralogy.
Part I.
MINERALOGY.
Claffifica- Surface of tlie cryftals fmootli, refplendent *, inter-
tion. na^ luftre weakly Ihining or refplendent •, fra&ure un-
lX~ ’ even, fometimes conchoidal or foliated j fragments (harp-
edged.
Colour (leel-gray, bluifh, or reddilh j fometimes with
tarnifhed colours, which are iridefcent •, (freak dark
cherry-red ; hard j opaque ; brittle. Spec. grav. 4.79
to 5.21.
CAem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it is infufible ;
but heated on charcoal becomes white, and melts with
borax into a dirty yellow flag.
Pliyf. Char.—A (Feeds the magnetic needle, but does
not attract iron filings.
Conjiituent Parts.—This variety is fuppofed to be a
pretty pure oxide of iron, yielding from 60 to 80 per
cent, of iron.
Of this fubfpecies two varieties have been formed,
compact and foliated, depending probably on the ap¬
pearance of the fradture.
Subfpecies 2. Micaceous Iron Ore.
Exter. Char.—Mafllve or dHTeminated, or in thin
fix-fided tables, fo grouped together as to appear cellu¬
lar j furface fmooth, refplendent; internal lutfre re¬
fplendent 5 fradlure foliated ; fragments in tables.
Colour iron-black, (feel-gray, or dark red ; in thin
plates (lightly tranllucent j (freak dark cherry-red ; fe-
mihard j brittle. Spec. grav. 4.5 to 5.
Localities, &c.—Thefe varieties are found in primi¬
tive mountains, in beds br veins, accompanied by other
ores of iron, and in fuch quantity in many places as to
be dug out for the purpofe of manufadlure, as in Ger¬
many, France, Ruffia, Sweden, Siberia, and particularly
in the iflands of Corfica and Elba, which furnith the
ifineft fpecimens of fpecular iron ore for the cabinet.
The latter variety is found in England, and fome
parts of Scotland.
6. Species. Red Iron Ore.
This is divided into four fubfpecies j I. red iron
froth *, 2. compact j 3. red haematites $ and, 4. red
ochre.
Subfpecies i. Red Iron Froth.
Id. Broch. ii. 249. Red Scaly Iron Ore, Kirw. ii. 172.
Exter. Char.— Sometimes maflive, and frequently
fuperficial 5 luftre glimmering or (hining, ufually com-
pofed of fcaly friable particles which (tain (trongly ; feels
greafy.
Colour dark cherry-red, blood-red, browni(h-red, or
(feel-gray.
Chem. Char.—Blackens before the blow-pipe.
Conjiituent Parts. Hauy.
* Nich.
Jour. 4to,
! in. 456.
Iron,
Oxvgen,
Silica,
Alumina,
66.
28.5
4-45
I,25
100.00*
Localities, &.c.— A rare mineral, ufually incrufting
other ores of iron. Found in Germany, and in Corn¬
wall and at Ulverftone in Lancalhire in England.
Vol. XIV. Part I.
Subfpecies 2. Compact Red Iron Ore.
Id. Broch. ii. 251. Id. Kirw. ii. 170.
Exter. Char.—Maffive or diffeminated, in imitative
forms, as cellular, &c. or cryitallized in perfect cubes,
or four-fided pyramids with truncated fummits. Sur¬
faces of the cube fmooth j that of the pyramids rough
and dull j internal luitre glimmering •, fracture even,
fometimes uneven or conchoidal j fragments rather
blunt-edged.
Colour brownifli-red, dark (leel-gray, fometimes
blood-red ; femihard ; brittle j (freak blood-red } (tains.
Spec. grav. 3.4 to 3.8.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe.
Conjiituent Parts. Lampadius.
Oxide of iron, 65.4
Silica, 20.7
Alumina, 9.3
Oxide of manganefe, 2.7
Lofs, 1.9
100.0
Localities, &c.—Found along with other iron ores*
abundant in Cumberland and Lancafiiire, and various
places of the world.
Subfpecies 3. Red Hematites.
Id. Kirw. ii. 168. Id. Broch. ii. 254.
Exter. Char.—Maffive, and in various imitative
forms j furface fmooth or drufy ; internal luftre (hining,
or only glimmering j fradfure fibrous j fragments wedge-
(haped. ,
Colour browni(h-red, (feel-gray, or blood-fed ; (freak
light blood-red •, hard or femihard j brittle j (tains.
Spec. grav. 4.7 to 5.
Conjiituent Parts.—It yields from 60 to 70 percent,
of iron, and contains, it is fuppofed, a portion of alumi¬
na, filica, and manganefe.
Localities, &c.—This ore of iron is not very com¬
mon, although in fome places it is very abundant, as in
the weft of England. It is difpofed in veins and beds,
accompanied by the former variety.
Subfpecies 4. Red Ochre.
Id. Kirw. ii. 171. Id. Broch. ii. 236.
f
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, diffeminated, or fuper¬
ficial 5 dull} fradfure earthy.
Colour between blood-red and browni(h-red j (fains
much *, foft j often friable.
Localities, &c.—This variety ufually accompanies
the former, and is a very fufible iron ore.
7. Species. Brown Iron Ore.
This is divided into four fubfpecies j 1. brown iron
froth 2. compadt j 3. brown haematites $ and, 4. browrn
ochre.
Subfpecies 1. Brown Iron Froth.
Brown Scaly Iron Ore, Kirw. ii. 166. Le Eifenrahm
brun, Broch. ii. 258.
G g Exter*
233
Metallic
Oreo
234 MINER
^Ores'0 • ^X^er’ ^Lat'-—Maflive or diffeminated, often fuperfi-
<- ^ - Cla^ or fpumiform j Itrongly glimmering or iliining j
frafture foliated or compaft.
Colour between brown and dull gray j very foft; al-
molt friable j ftains j feels greafy j nearly fwims on
water.
Chetn. Char.—Blackens before the blow-pipe without
fufiom
Localities, &c.—Accompanies other iron ores, as in
Saxony, but is rare.
Subfpecies i. Compact Brown Iron Ore.
Exter. CW.—Maflive or dilfeminated, fometimes in
different imitative forms j dull, or rarely glimmering :
iradflure fmooth, earthy, or conchoidal.
Colour clove brown, or brownilh yellow ; flreak yel¬
low ifli brown j femihard j brittle. Spec. grav. 3.07 to
Localities, &c.—In veins or beds, accompanied by
other iron ores, in various parts of the w'orld.
Subfpecies 3. Brown Haematites.
hi. Kirw. ii. 163. Id. Broch. ii. 261.
Exter. Char. Maflive, but moll frequently in dif¬
ferent imitative forms 5 Surface fmooth, granulated,
rough or drufy ; luftre Ihining ; internal luftre glim¬
mering or weakly Aiming 5 fradure fibrous j fragments
Iphntery, or wedge-fhaped.
Colour clove brown, blaekifli brown, fometimes yel¬
low, and fometimes with tarniflied colours j opaque •
flreak yellowifh brown j femihard 5 brittle. Spec, erav
3.78 to 4.02. 1 6
Localities,. Sec.—Always accompanies the preceding-
variety, but in fmaller quantily.
Subfpecies 4. Brown Ochre.
LI. Kirw. ii. 167. Id. Broch. ii. 263.
Exter. Char—Maflive or diffeminated ) dull 5 frac¬
ture earthy 5 fragments blunt-edged.
Colour yellowifh brown, or ochre yellow ; foft •
fometimes friable y llains more or lefs.
. Localities, &c.—Always accompanies compad brown
iron ore, and is therefore found in fimilar places.
8. Species. Sparry Iron Ore.
Id, Brochant, ii. 264. Id. Kirw. ii. 190.
. Lxter. Char.—Maflive, diffeminated, fometimes with
imprefiions, and often cryilallized. Its forms are
the rhomboid with plane or convex faces, or having two
oppofite angles ftrongly truncated j and the lens the
equiangular fix-fided prifm, or the Ample or double
four-fided pyramid. Cryflals fmall j furface fmeoth
fometimes drufy, fometimes a little rough ; luftre Alin¬
ing and fomewhat metallic j internal luftre fhinino-, rare¬
ly refplendent, between pearly and vitreous j fradure
foliated ; fragments rhomboidal.
Colour yellowifti gray, grayifh white, and expofed to
the air, blackifh brown, or with tarniflied colours •
fometimes tranflucent at the edges ; thofe of a dark co¬
lour, opaque j femihard, or foft 5 brittle. Spec, grav
3.6 to 4. i b *
A L O G Y. part p
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it blackens with- Claffifica-
out funon. ti»n.
Conjlituent Parts.—According to Bergman, this mi- i —2
neral contains equal parts of carbonate of lime and of
iron, with about one-fourth of manganefe.
Localities, &c.—Found equally in primitive and ftra-
tiform rocks, and always accompanied by calcareous
fpar, and other ores of iron, as in Saxony, France, Bri¬
tain, and Ireland.
9. Species. Black Iron Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 167. Id. Broch. ii. 268.
This fpecies is divided into two fublpecies: i. com-
pad; and 2. black haematites-
Subfpecies 1. Compact Black Iron Ore.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, or in various imitative forms y
furface rough or dull j internal luftre glimmering j frac¬
ture flat conchoidal 3 fragments fliarp-edged.
Colour between fteel gray and bluifti-black ; femK
hard 3 brittle.
Subfpecies 2. Black Haematites.
Exter. Char.—Maflive or kidney-form 3 internal
luftre glimmering and fhining 3 fradure fibrous, fome¬
times even 3 fragments wedge-ftiaped.
Colour fteel gray.
Conjlituent Parts.—This ore is fuppofed to contain a
larger proportion of manganefe, with alumina and lime,
than other ores of iron.
Localities, &c.—Found in veins in primitive moun¬
tains, and fometimes alfo in ftratiform mountains, ac¬
companied by brown and fparry iron ore.
10. Species. Argillaceous Iron Stone.
This is divided into fix fubfpecies : 1. red chalk;.
2. columnar argillaceous iron ftone 3 3. granular 3 ^
common 3 5. reniform 3 and, 6. pifiform.
Subfpecies 1. Red Chalk.
Id. Broch. ii. 271.
Exter. Char.—Maflive 3 fradure flaty 3 luftre glim¬
mering 3 crofs fradure earthy, dull 3 fragments in plates,
or fplintery.
Colour brownifti red, black or blood red 3 ftreak
blood red 3 writes and ftains 3 foft 3 adheres to the
tongue 3 feels meagre. Spec. grav. 3.13 to 3.93.
Chem. Char.—Decrepitates, and becomes black when
expofed to a red heat.
Localities, &c.— Ufually accompanies clay flate, ei¬
ther in thin beds, or in maffes, as at Thalkter in Hef-
fia, where it is dug out in confiderable quantity. It is
alfo found in Bohemia and Saxony.
jjfes.—Employed as crayons in drawing, and for
this purpofe it is dug out, rather than as an ore of
iron.
Red chalk, on account of the quantity of alumina
and other earths which it contains, was formerly arran¬
ged in the argillaceous genus.
Subfpecies
’art L
MINERALOGY.
Claffifica- . ,
tion. Subfpecies 2. Columnar Iron Stone.
* Id. Kinv. ii. 176. Id. Broch. ii. 273.
Exter.Chnr.—Found in angular or rounded pieces;
furface rough and dull; fra&ure dull and earthy ; com-
pofed of columnar diftindt concretions, which are often
a little curved, fometimes ftraight and articulated, and
very eafily feparated ; furface of the concretions rough
and dull.
Colour cherry red, blood or brownilh red ; flreak
blood red, fometimes yellowilh brown ; foft; adheres
to the tongue; feels meagre, and is a little rough.
Localities, &c.—Ufually met with in beds of clay,
in ftratiform mountains, and particularly in the neigh¬
bourhood of fubterranean fires, by the effedts of which,
as it is fuppofed, it may have been produced. It is
found in Bohemia and fome other places, where it is
wrought as an ore of iron.
brittle ; adheres to the tongue ; feels meagre. Specific
gravity 2.57.
Localities, &c.—Found in Bohemia, Saxony, Silefia,
and Poland, and in the coal countries of England and
Scotland, and almoft always in clay beds, fometimes
accompanied with bituminous wood, in ftratiform moun¬
tains.
This variety was formerly called cetites or eagle-Jlone,
as it was fuppofed that the eagle carried it to its neft.
Subfpecies 6. PlSIFORM IRON STONE.
Id. Kirw. ii. 178. Id. Broch. ii. 280.
Ex ter. Char.—In fpherical or flattened particles,
which are generally fmall; furface rough, dull; internal
luftre glimmering or weakly ftiining; fradture fmooth.
Colour between brown and red ; ftreak yellowilh-
brown ; femihard ; brittle. Spec. grav. 5.2.
235
Metallic
Ores.
Subfpecies 3. Granular Iron Stone.
Id. Broch. ii. 274. Acinofe Iron Ore, Kinv. ii. 177.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, or conftituting the bafe of pe-
trifadHons ; ftrongly glimmering or weakly fliining ;
fradture uneven, fometimes flaty; fragmentsblunt-edged.
Colour reddilh and yellowilh brown, or grayilh
black ; ftreak blood red. or varying according to the
colour of the ore, ufually foft or femihard. Specific
gravity 2.673.
ConJUtuent Parts. Lampadius.
Oxide of iron, 64.
Alumina 23.
Silica, 7.r
W ater,
Lofs, .3
100.0
Localities, &c.—Is found only in ftratiform moun¬
tains, as in Bohemia, Bavaria, and Switzerland.
Subfpecies 4. Common Iron Stone.
Id. Kirw. ii. 173. Id. Broch. ii. 276.
Exter. Char.—Maflive or diffeminated, fometimes cel¬
lular or botryoidal; dull; fradture earthy ; fragments
rather fliarp-edged.
Colour yellowifh or bluifti gray; yellowifti brown, or
brownilh red; ftreak varies with the colour; foft;
brittle; adheres to the tongue; feels meagre.
Localities, &c.—A common ore of iron in many
places of Saxony and Bohemia, in Norway, and in
England. It is connedted with ftratiform mountains,
alternating with beds of clay flate.
Subfpecies 5. Beniform Iron Stone.
Id. Broch. ii. 278. Nodular Iron Ore, Kirw. ii 178.
Exter. Char .—Found in rounded or tuberculated
pieces, of a kidney-form figure ; furface rough, covered
with earthy particles; internal luftre glimmering ; frac¬
ture fmooth or earthy; fragments rather Iharp-edged ;
compofed of lamellar and concentric diftindl concretions,
-ancluding a nodule which is ufually moveable.
Colour yellowifti brown; ftreak the fame ; foft;
Conjhtuent Parts. Vauquelin.
Iron, 30
Oxygen, 18
Alumina, 31
Silica, j 3
Water, <5
100
Localities, &.c.—This variety is found in confiderable
beds in ftratiform mountains. It is abundant in France,
Switzerland, and lome parts of Germany.
11. Species. Bog Iron Ore.
This is divided into three fubfpecies : 1. morafly ;
2. fwampy ; and 3, meadow.
Subfpecies 1. Morassy Bog Iron Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 183. Id. Broch. ii. 283.
Exter. Char.—Sometimes earthy, fometimes in amor¬
phous, tuberculated, or .corroded mafles ; fradfure earthy.
Colour yellowilh-brown ; ftains ; foft; friable ; feels
meagre.
Subfpecies 2. Swampy Iron Ore.
id. Kirw. ii. 183.
Exter. Char .—In amorphous malfes, which are tu-
berofe or corroded ; dull or llightly glimmering ; frac¬
ture earthy; fragments blunt-edged.
Colour dark yellowifti-brown, blackilh brown, or
ft eel-gray, ftreak light yellowifli brown ; very foft;
brittle ; heavier than the former.
Subfpecies 3. Meadow Iron Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 182. Id. Broch. ii. 284.
Exter. Char.—In kidney-form, tuberofe, often cor¬
roded maffes ; externally dull or rough ; internal luftre
ftiining, refinous ; fradture conchoidal, or earthy when
it is dull; fragments rather blunt-edged.
Colour dark blackifti-brown, or yellowilh-brown ;
ftreak yellowifti-brown ; foft arid brittle.
Conjhtuent Parts.—Bog iron ore is an oxide of iron,
combined with the phofphate of iron, with fome earthy
matters, as alumina and filica.
O g 2 Localitiest
336
MINERALOGY.
Metallic Localities, See.—Bog iron ore is more abundant in
the northern than in the fouthern parts of Europe. It
is not uncommon in Poland, PrulTia, Sweden, and in
the Weftern iflands of Scotland, as Jura and Iflay. It
is fometimes found in extenfive beds, alternating with
fandftone and clay.
12. Species. Blue Earthy Ore.
li. Broch. ii. 288. Blue Martial Earth, Kirw. ii. 185.
Native PruJJiate of Iron, of others.
Exter. Char.—Ufually found flightly cohering, or
loofe, or friable ; particles dull 5 flains, and feels
meagre.
Colour grayilh-white, indigo blue, rarely fmalt-blue.
Chem. Char.—Becomes reddilh-brown before the
blow pipe } melts into a black globule j eafily foluble
in acids.
Confluent Parts.—It was fufpe&ed by Bergman,
that tins was a native Pruflian blue j but according to
Klaproth, it is compofed of iron and phofphoric acid,
with a mixture of alumina.
Localities, &c.—Found in fmall nefls in beds of clay,
or bog iron ore, as in Saxony, Ruflia, and Siberia.
I3* SP ecies. Green Earthy Iron Ore.
Green Martial Earth, Kirw. ii. 188.
Exter. Char.—Found friable and fuperficial, rarely
maflive ; internally dull; fracture earthy.
Colour yellowith or olive-green j ftains j foft •, feels
meagre.
Chem. Char.—Becomes red before the blow pipe, and
then dark-brown, but without fufion.
Conjlitucnt Parts.— It is conje&ured to be a com¬
pound fimilar to the former, but in different proportions.
Localities, &c.—Found in Saxony, in veins, and ac¬
companied with quartz and pyrites.
14 Species. Phosphate of Iron.
Id. Jour, de Phyfique, Iviii. I t9. Ann. de Chim. 1. 200.
Exter. Char.—Found in rounded pieces, compofed
of capillary cryftals, which fetm to be four-fided prifms j
frafture radiated and divergent.
Col mr blue, from a blue powder coating the cry-
ftals, which are otherwife colourlefs j femitranfparent.
Spec. grav. 2 5 to 2.6.
Conjlituent Parts.
Cadet.
Oxide of iron,
Phofphoric acid,
Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
Water,
Lofs,
42.1
26.9
3*
5-8
91
JS-1
Laugier.
41 25
I9-25
1.25
5-
3l-*S
2.
IOO.Q
100.00
Localities, &c.—-This mineral is found imbedded in
clay in the iile of France, and in Brazil.
15. Species. Pitchy Iron Ore, or Phofphate of Iron
and Munganefc,
Id. Broch. ii. 533. Jour, de Mines, N° 64. p. 295.
Z
Exter. Char.'—Maffive \ furface earthy and dull $ in¬
ternal lullre weakly finning, refinous; fra£ture compadl
or foliated.
Colour dark reddifh-brown, or black •, opaque; fe-
mihard j brittle ; ftreak dark red. Spec. grav. 3.956.
Chem. Char.—Melts before the blow-pipe into a
black enamel.
Confituent Parts. Vauquelin.
Oxide of iron, 31
Oxide of manganefe, 42
Phofphoric acid, 27
ICO
Localities, Stc.—Found near Limoges.
16. Species. Cube Ore, or Arfeniate of Iron.
Id. Phil. Tranf. 1801. p. 190.
Exter. Char.—Found cryflallized in fmall cubes,
grouped together in a drufy form ; cryftals fometimes
truncated on their angles; furface fmooth, fhining j
luftre ‘ etween refinous and adamantine ; fra6ture con-
choidal.
Colour olive-green, yellow, or brown ; tranflucent 'y
fernihard •, powder yellow. Spec. grav. 3.
Chem. Ch .r.— Before the blow-pipe froths up with
the fmell of arlenic, and melts into a y ellowifh-gray me¬
tallic globule.
Conjlituent Parts.
V auquelin. Chenevix.
Oxide of iron, 48 45-5
Oxide of copper, — 9.
Arftnic acid, 18 31.
Silica, — 4.
Lime, 2 —
Water, 32 10.5
100 100.0
Localities, &c.—Found in the copper mines in Corn¬
wall.
17. Species. Arseniate of Iron and Copper.
Id. Phil. Tranf. 1801. p. 219.
Exter. Char.—Cryflallized in four-fided rhomboidal
prirms, with two edges very obtufe, and two very acute,
terminated by an acute four-fided pyramid •, edges of
the prifm are fometimes truncated.
Colour bluifh white ; cry flals femitranfparent j femi-
hard. Spec. grav. 3.4.
Confituent Parts.
Oxide of iron, 27*5
Oxide of copper, 22.5
Arfenic acid, 33*5
Silica, 3.
Water, 12.
Lofs, 1.5
100.0
Localities,
Part I.
Claflifica-
tion.
Part I.
Claffifica-
tion.
-v—
MINERALOGY.
Localities, &c.—Found in Cornwall, in Siberia, and
Spain.
18. Species. Chromate of Iron.
Id. Brock ii. 534. Id. Hauy, iv. 1 29.
Exter. Char.—M a (live ; glimmering or weakly finn¬
ing fraidure compaft and uneven, or imperleftly fo¬
liated. .
Colour grayifh or blackifh brown *, opaque •, if realc
afh-gray j linell earthy when breathed on j hard. Spec.
grav. 4.032. .
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe •, melts
with borax, and colours it of a beautiful green.
the others only glimmering ; internal luflre glimmer¬
ing ; fra&ure even or conchoidal; fragments rather t
fliarp-cdged.
Colour lead or fteel-gray •, ftreak fhining 5 ftains;
loft. Spec- grav. 7.44.
Localities, &.c.—'L his is a rare mineral. It is found
along with common galena, in Saxony, and other
parts of Germany in Derbyfhire, where it is known
by the name of JlickenJide, and in the county of Dur¬
ham, where it is known by the name of looking-glafs
ore.
2. Species. Blue Lead Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 220. Id. Broch. ii. 203.
2.57
Metallic
Ores.
Conjlituent Parts.
Oxide of iron, 35
Chromic acid, 43
Alumina, 20
Silica, 2
100
Localities, &c.—Difcovered by Pontier in France,
in the department of Var, and found in conliderable
abundance in veins and nodules, in beds of terpentine j
found alfo in Siberia.
VII. LEAD Genus.
1. Species. Galena.
This is divided into two fubfpecies ; common and
compact galena.
Subfpecies 1. Common Galena.
Id. Kirw. ii. 216. Id. Broch. ii. 294. Plomh Sulfurd,
Hauy, iii. 456.
Exter. Char Maflive, difleminated, fuperficial, in
imitative forms, or cryflallized in cubes, octahedrons,
fix-fided prifms, and fix-fided tables • all which are va-
rioutly modified by truncations and bevelments on the
edges and angles. Cryltals grouped or imbedded fur-
face fmuoth, or drufv ; luftre from glimmering to re-
fplendent j internal the fame j fracture foliated ; frag¬
ments cubic, excepting the fine-grained gaiena.
Colour lead gray, fometimes tarnifhed, or iridefeent;
foft *, eafily frangible •, ftains a little. Spec. grav. 7.22
to 7.58.
Chem. Char.—Decrepitates before the blow-pipe, and
fufes, giving out a fulphureous odour.
Conjlituent Parts.—Compofed of fulphur and lead in
variable proportions, and generally a little filver, fome-
times antimony. The proportion oi lead is from 50 to
80 per cent.
Localities, &c.—This is the moft common ore of
lead, and exifts in all kinds of rocks, either in beds or
veins. In many countries this lead ore is dug out to a
great extent, as in Germany, France, and Britain.
Subfpecies 2. Compact Galena.
Id. Kirw. ii. 218. Id. Broch. ii. 301.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, diffeminated, kidney-form, or
Specular ; luftre of the fpecular variety refplendent j
Exter. Char.—Rarely maflive, molt commonly cry-
ftallized in regular fix-fided prifms, which are often a
little curved, and fometimes fafeicularly grouped •, fur-
face rough ; longitudinally ftreaked j lultn glimmering j
fracture even.
Colour between lead-gray and indigo blue ; opaque j
ftreak Aiming j foft, eafily frangible. Specific gravity
5.46.
Chem. Char.—Melts eafily before the blow pipe j
burns with a bluifti flame, and a fulphureous odour,
leaving a globule of lead.
Its conftituent parts have not been exa£tly afeertain-
ed. Suppofed to be a green lead ore, which has under¬
gone fome change, but retaining its original form.
Localities, &c.—This ore has only been found in
Saxony, and alfo, it is faid, in France and Hungary.
3. Species. Brown Lead Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 222. Id Broch. ii. 305.
Exter. Char.—Rarely maflive, commonly cryftallized
in equal fix-fided priims, or the cryftals are acicular or
capillary •, luftre glimmering 5 internal Alining j frac¬
ture uneven.
Colour reddifti or clove-brown ; tranflucent at the
edges j ftreak white j foft j brittle. Spec. grav. 6.6
to 6.97.
Chem. Char.—No effervefcence with acids •, fufes
readily before the blow -pipe, but is not reduced j cry-
ftallizes in fmall needles on cooling.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Oxide of lead,
Phofphoric acid, 19-73
Muriatic acid, 1.65
Lofs, .04
100.00
Localities, &c.—Found along with white lead ore,
quartz, and heavy fpar, in France and Germany.
4. Species. Black Lead Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 221. Id. Broch. ii. 307.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, difleminated, cellular, but
moft frequently cr\ftallized in fix fided prifms, with
equal or unequal fides, or bevelled at the extremity.
Cryftals fmall, irregularly grouped j fmooth, and feme-
times longitudinally ftreaked ; luftre ftiining ; fracture
uneven.
+1
Colour
238   
35!L foft? brittr'!sp^v,;p5T; ftreak grayilh
C/,em. Char.- Decrepitates before the blow-pipe: and
1* then reduced to the metallic ftate. F ^
mineralogy.
ConJHtuent Parts.
Oxide of lead,
Carbonic acid,
Carbone,
Water,
Lampadius.
78.5
18.
M
2.
brittle" °SnJ " the/dSK! ff-eenilh white;
Dnttie. bpec. gray. 6.909 to 6.941.
hem. Char.—Melts eafily before the blow-pipe into
cedrayri1l50^hedraigl0bule’ but Wkh0ut being redu¬
ced; foluble in acids, without elfervefcence, but fome-
times with difficulty. ’
100.0
Localities, &c.—Found in Saxony, England, and
Scotland, frequently accompanying white lead ore.
5- Species. White Lead Ore, or Carbonate of Lead.
•20- ld' Br0ch‘ 3°9- Plomb Car¬
bonate, Hauy, 111. 475.
^"''•—Rarely maffive, commonly dilfemi-
nated fuperfic131, or cryftallized in fix-fided prifms; in
four-fided pnfms ; m double eryflals, compofed of two
four-fided pnfms; m oblique four-fided prifms, and in
double fix-fided pyramids. Thefe are varioufly modi-
fiedby truncations and acuminations on the edges and
angles They are alfo of various fizes, and varioufly
grouped together: furface ufually fmooth, refplendent
fometimes rough or ftreaked; luftre ffiining, adaman¬
tine fragments conchoidal, fplintery, or fibrous.
Colour white, yellowiffi, or grayiffi white ; tranfpa-
648 °to ^23 .UCent ’ refraai°ndouble- Specific gravity
CW C/mr —Decrepitates before the blow-pipe, be-
comes yenowiffi or reddiffi, and melts into a metallic
globule ; effervefces ftrongly with acids.
ConJHtuent Parts.
Oxide of lead,
Phofphoric acid,
Muriatic acid,
Oxide of iron,
Lofs,
77.10
J9*
I*54
.10
2.26
Klaproth.
80.
18.
1.62
•38
100.00
100.00
ConJHtuent Parts.
Oxide of lead,
Carbonic acid.
Water,
Klaproth.
82
16
IOO
Macquart.
73
24
3
100
Localities, &c—Found in veins along with other
lead ores, and generally near the top of the vein, in
Germany, Prance, and Leadhills in Scotland. ’
7- Sp< cits. Red Lead Ore, or Chromate of Lead.
Id. Broch. ii. 318. Red Lead Spar, Kirw. ii. 214.
or fXterz Rarfy maffive, fometimes diffeminated
^frequently cryllallized in oblique
ur-fided pnims with the extremity bevelled, or the
Wdec^es truncated; and in fix-fided prifms, with
n0b:°t anld 7'° narrow faces 5 lateral faces longitu¬
dinally llreaked; external furface fmooth, finning;
iraclure even. ’ & >
Colour aurora red, or hyacinth red; tranflucent or
femitranfparent; ftreak orange yellow; foft; brittle
Spec. grav. 5.75 to 6.02. " ^
Chem.Char.--No effervefcence with acids ; decrepi-
Silag ^ ^ bl0W-™e> and “d* int„P.
ConJHtuent Parts. Vauquelin.
Oxide of lead,
Chromic acid,
64
100
Some carbonates of lead are alfo combined with a
»mall portion of iron and earthy matters.
Localities, &c.-—Found in veins, accompanied by
Britaffi31^ otber lead ores> in Germany, France, and
6. Species. Green Lead Ore, or Phofphate of Lead.
Plo™b Pho/phiate, Hauy, iii. 490. Id. Broch. ii. 314.
± hojphot*cited Lead Ore^ Kirw. ii. 20*],
Exter. Char.—Maflivc or diffeminated, botryoidal or
reniform, and often cryftaRized in fix-fided prifms, trun¬
cated on all the edges, or on the terminal edges, or
termmated by a fix-fided pyramid ; in fix-fided prifms
with the lateral faces converging towards one of fhecx-
tremities ; and m fix-fided pyramids; but this laft is
rare. Surface fmooth, fhining ; internal luftre weakly
llumng and refinous ; fradure uneven.
Colour olive green, emerald green, yellow or
wown j grayiffi, greeniffi, or yellowiffi white; tranfiu-
na
Localities, 8x.c. Found in veins at Berefof in Sibe»
. acc®mPanied by other ores of lead, feme ores of
iron, and native gold. 1
A fimilar ore of lead, but of a brown colour was
brought from Mexico by Humboldt. ’
8. Species, Yellow Lead Ore, or Molybdate of
Lead.
IlL*t0C\}1 ^How Lead Spar, Kirw. ii. 212.
Hauy, 111. 498.
Exter. Char. Rarely maffive, ufually cryflallized
11 redtangular four-fided tables ; in perfed cubes, with
plane or convex faces, or truncated on the terminal
edgesin four-fided tables bevelled on the terminal
faces m obtufe oftahedrons, truncated on the fummit,
the lateral angles or lateral edges. Cryftals fmall :
furface fmooth and ffiming ; internally ffiining ; luftre
waxy ; fradure conchoidal. ’
Colour wax yellow, or honey yellow; tranfiucent
or only at the edges; foft; brittle. Spec. grav. 5.48
Part I.
Claflifica- ^
tion.
-—v 4
\
Cheat.
art I.
Uaffifka-
tion.
MINERALOGY.
Chetn. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it decrepitates
ftrongly, and then melts into a blackifli-gray globule,
in which are feen particles of lead. Soluble in nitric
acid, and in fixed alkalies.
ConJUtuent Parts.
Macquart. Hatahctt.
Oxide of lead, 63.5 58.4
Molybdic acid, 28. 38.
Oxide of iron, — 2.1
Silica, 4. .28
Carbonate of lime, 4.5 —
Lofs, — 1.22
a mixture of oxide of lead, with a little oxide of iron,
and fome earthy matters.
Localities, &c.—Found on the furface, or in the ca¬
vities of other lead ores, in Saxony, France, Siberia,
and at Leadhills and Wanlockhead in Scotland.
11. Species. Muriate of Lead.
Ex ter. Char.—Maflive, or cryftallized in cubes, or
flat fix-fided prifms 5 external furface ftiining $ internal
luftre refplendent, adamantine ; fra&ure foliated.
Colour between afparagus green and wine yellow;
femitranfparent \ foftj not brittle 5 ftreak dull, white.
239
Metallic
Ores.
100.0 100.00
Localities, &c.-—This ore of lead was firft difcovered
at Bleyberg in Carinthia j it has been fince found in
Saxony and France.
ConJUtnent Parts. Klaproth.
Oxide of lead, 3 5
Muriatic acid, 43
100
9. Species. Native Sulphate of Lead.
Id. Kirw. ii. 211. Broch. ii. 323. Hauy, iii. 303.
Localities, &c.—Found in Derbylhire, and alfo, it
is faid, in the mountains of Bavaria, but not cryftal¬
lized.
Exter. Char.—Cryftallized in irregular o£tahedrons,
which are varioully truncated and bevelled. Cryftals
fmooth and fhining j luftre ftiining and vitreous j frac¬
ture compact.
Colour fnow white, grayifti or yellowifti -white;
tranflucent j femihard. Spec. grav. 6.3.
CJiem. Char.—Reduced even in the flame of a candle}
infoluble in nitric acid.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Oxide of lead, 70.3
Sulphuric acid, 25'75
Water, 2.23
Lofs, 1.3
100.00
Localities, &c.—Found on brown iron ore in the
ifland of Anglefea, and on galena in the veins at Lead-
hills and Wanlockhead in Scotland.
10. Species. Earthy Lead Ore.
12. Species. Murio-Carbonate of Lead.
Id. Bournon and Chenevix, Nich. Jour. 4to. p. 219.
Exter. Char.— Cryftallized in cubes, which are va¬
rioully modified j luftre fliining, adamantine j fratfturo
foliated ; crofs fra£ture conchoidal.
Colour ft raw yellow, or clear white ; femitranfpa¬
rent ftreak dull, fnow white; ealily fcratched by car¬
bonate of lead. Spec. grav. 6.065.
Conjlituent Parts. Chenevix.
Oxide of lead. Cl 7 w*- • ,
Muriatic acid, 8 j Murlate of lead- J9
Carbonic acid, 6 jCarbonate ^ lead> 4°
Lofs, i i
I0O 100
Localities, &c.—Found in D'erbyftiire.
Id. Broch. ii. 327. Id. Kirwan, ii. 103.
13. Species. Arseniate of Lead.
This is divided into two fubfpecies : 1. friable ; and,
2. indurated.
Subfpecies 1. Friable Lead Ore.
Exter. Char.—This is compofed of fine earthy parti¬
cles, which are dull, and have little coherence.
Colour fulphur or ochre yellow, yellowifti or fmoke
gray j ftains j feels meagre.
Subfpecies 2. Indurated Lead Ore.
Exter. Char.—Maflive or difleminated } dull; frac¬
ture uneven or earthy.
Colour of the former; opaque ; ftreak lighter colour $
very foft and friable.
Chetn. Char.—Eafily reduced before the blow-pipe,
into a black flag j effervefces a little with acids.
Conjlituent Parts.—Earthy lead ore is fuppofed to be
Id. Broch. ii. 546.
Exter. Char.—Difleminated fometimes in an earthy
ftate, fometimes in filky filaments, and cryftallized in
fmall, double, fix-fided pyramids. Dull, or weakly
glimmering j luftre filky.
Colour citron or greenifli yellow ; very foft j friable.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it melts eafily
into a globule of lead, and gives out the fmell of
garlic.
Conjl. Parts.—Compofed of oxide of lead and of ar-
fenic, with fome oxide of iron and earthy matters.
VIII. TIN Genus.
1. Species. Tin Pv rites.
Id. Kirw. ii. 200. Id. Broch. ii. 332.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive or difleminated; luftre
ftiining
240
Metallic
Ores.
fhlning or weakly flnning; fraclure uneven j fragments
rather blunt-edged.
Colour fteel gray, fometimes brafs or bronze yellow;
femihard j brittle. Spec. grav. 4.3 to 4.7.
Chem. Char.— Before the blow-pipe it melts eafily in¬
to a black flag, but without being reduced, and gives
out a fulphureous fmcll.
Conflituent Parts. Klaproth.
MINERALOGY.
Chem. Char.—Becomes brownifli red before the blow¬
pipe, then decrepitates ftrongly, but is infufible.
Conjl. Parts.—According to Klaproth, it is compo-
ftd ol 63 of tin in the 100, with a little iron and
arlenic.
Localities, &c.—Found in Cornwall, in alluvial land,
where it feems to have been depolited in a ftalailitical
form, accompanied by common tin.
Part I.
Tin, 34
Copper, 36
Iron, 3
Sulphur, 25
Earthy fubftances, __ 2
100
Localities, &c.—This is a rare mineral, found only
in Cornwall, in a vein along with copper pyrites.
2. Species. Common Tinstone, or Oxide of Tin.
Id. Kirw. ii. 197. Id. Broch. ii. 334. Hauy, iv. 137.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, difleminated, in rounded
pieces or grains, and often cryftallized in reftangular
four-fided prifms, which are varioufly modified by trun¬
cations and bevelments; in octahedrons, which are
rare; in eight-fided prifms, or in double oftahedrons,
which are fo united by one of their fummits as to form
a re-entering angle. Cryftals of various fizes, always
grouped together •, furfac** fmooth 5 luitre flnning or re-
fplendent *, internal luftre Alining, between vitreous and
refinous •, fracture uneven.
Colour brownifli black, blackifli brown, yellowifli
gray, or gravifh white; opaque, or femitranfparent $
ftreak light gray j hard ; brittle'. Specific gravity 6.3
to 6.9.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it decrepitates,
lofes its colour, and is partially reduced to the metallic
date.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Tin, 77.5
Iron, .25
Oxygen 21.5
Silica, .75
100.00
Localities, &c.—Found in Germany, in the Eaft
Indies, and particularly in Cornwall in England. It
is not very univerfally diftributed; but where it exifts,
it is depofited in granite, gneifs, micaceous fchiftus, and
porphyry •, and either in maffes, veins, or diffeminated
in the rocks.
3. Species. Grained Tin Ore, or IVood Tin.
Id. Broch. ii. 340. Id. Kirw. ii. 298.
Exter. Char.—Found only in fmall pieces, rounded
or angular ; furface rough ; weakly Alining •, internal
luftre glimmering •, a little filky •, fradlure fibrous j
fragments wedge-ftiaped.
Colour hair brown of various (hades *, llreak yellow-
ilh gray 5 hard and brittle. Spec. grav. 5.8 to 6.4.
IX. BISMUTH Genus.
1. Species. Native Bismuth.
Id. Kirw. ii. 264. Id. Broch. ii. 343. Id. Hauy, iv.
184.
Exter Char.—Rarely maflive, but ufually diflemina¬
ted in a plumofe or reticulated form, and rarely cryftal¬
lized, in fmall four-fided tables or cubes j luftre ftiin-
ing or refplendent ; frafture foliated.
Colour filvery white, inclining to red ; colours com¬
monly tarniftied ; foft j almoft du&ile. Specific gravity
9.02 to 9.82.
Chem. Char.—Fufible almoft: in the flame of a
candle 5 by increafing the heat it is volatilized; foluble
with effervefcence in nitric acid, and precipitated by
water in the form of a white powder.
Localities, &c.—Bifmuth is a rare metal, found in
veins in primitive mountains, accompanied by calcare¬
ous fpar, heavy fpar, and quartz, and commonly with
gray cobalt, fometimes alfo with black blende and na¬
tive filver. Found in Saxony, Bohemia, France, and
Sweden.
2. Species. Vitreous Bismuth Ore.
Sulphurated Bifmuth, Kirwan, ii. 266. Id. Brochant,
ii. 346.
Exter. Char. — Maflive or difleminated, rarely cryf¬
tallized in fmall imbedded capillary prifms; luftre fhin-
ing or refplendent; frafture radiated or foliated.
Colour between lead gray and tin white ; ftains a
little ; foft; eafily frangible. Specific gravity 6.13
to 6.46.
Chem. Char.—Eafily fufible before the blow-pipe,
with a fulphureous ordour.
Conji. Partr.—Compofed of bifmuth about 60 per
cent, and fulphur with a little iron.
Localities, &c.—Found in Bohemia, Saxony, and
Sweden, and is ufually accompanied by native bif¬
muth.
3. Species. Ochre of Bismuth.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 265. Id. Brochant, ii. 348.
Exter. Char.—Rarely maflive, commonly difleminat¬
ed on the furface of other minerals; internally glim¬
mering; frafture uneven or-earthy.
Colour yellowilh gray, ath gray, or ftraw yellow,
opaque ; foft; fometimes even friable. Spec. grav.
4.37.
Chem. Char.—Very eafily reduced before the blow¬
pipe to the metallic (late; effervefees with acids.
Conjiituent
Part I.
Conjlituent Parts. Lampadiuso
Oxide of bxfmuth, 86.3
 — iron, 5.2
Carbonic acid, 4.1
Water, 3.4
Lofs, 1
MINERALOGY. 241
parent ; ftreak yellowifh gray j femi-hard j brittle. Metallic
* Spec. gray. 4. °rus'
100.0
Localities, &c.—This mineral is very rare, and chief¬
ly found near Schneeberg in Saxony, along with native
bifmuth ; and alfo in Bohemia and Suabia.
X. ZINC Genus.
Conjlituent Parts. Bergman.
Zinc,
Sulphur,
Iron,
Silica,
Alumina,
Water,
44
I?
5
24
5
J
100
Localities, &c.—Very common in veins of lead ore,
in moft parts of the world.
I. Species. Blende.
Id. Brochant, ii. 350. Id. Kirwan, ii. 237. Zinc
Sulfure, Hauy, iv. 167.
This fpecies is divided into three fubfpecies 5 yellow,
brown, and black.
Subfpecies 1. Yellow Blende.
Exter. Char.—Maffive or difleminated, or fometimes
cryftallized in cubes or octahedrons, but they are fo
confufed as to prevent the form being eafily difcovered.
Surface fmooth, refplendent j internal luftre refplen-
dent, between adamantine and vitreous j fraCture foli¬
ated •, cleavage lix-fold ; fragments rather fharp-edged,
or aflume fometimes a dodecahedral form, which is the
refult of the complete cleavage.
Colour dark fulphur yellow, olive green, or brown-
ifh red j tranflucent, fometimes femitranfparent ; ftreak
yellowilh gray ; femi-hard 5 brittle. Spec. gray. 4.04
to 4.16.
Chem. Char.—Decrepitates before the blow-pipe, and
becomes gray, but is infufible.
Conjlituent Parts. Bergman.
Zinc, 64
Sulphur, 20
Iron, 3
Fluoric acid, 4
Water, 6
Silica, 1
100
Physical Char.—Moft of the varieties of yellow
blende become phofphorefcent by friClion in the dark.
Localities, &c.—Found in Saxony, Bohemia, Hun¬
gary and Norway, accompanied by lead, copper, and
iron ores. It is rather a rare mineral.
Subfpecies 3. Black Blende.
Exter. Char.—Maffive, or difleminated, or cryftal¬
lized like the former, Avhich it refemblcs in moft of its
characters.
Colour perfeCt black, brownifh black, or blood red ;
often iridefcent.
Conjlituent Parts.
Zinc,
Sulphur,
Iron,
Lead,
Silica,
Water,
Arfenic,
Localities, &c.—Found in the fame places with the
former.
2. Species. Calamine.
This is divided into two fubfpecies, compaCt and fo¬
liated.
Subfpecies 1. Compact Calamine.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 234. Id. Brochant, ii. 361.
Exter. Char.—Maffive or difleminated, cellular, or
ftalaCtitieal j dull; fraCture compaCt or earthy.
Colour grayifh white, yellowilh, or reddilh, or milk
white j opaque 5 femi-hard or friable ; brittle j ftains
fometimes. Spec. gray. 3.52, to 4.1.
Chem. Char.—Decrepitates before the blow-pipe
when fuddenly heated .$ is infufible. Forms a jelly
with acids, and fometimes effervefces.
Bergman.
45
29
9
6
4
6
1
100
Subfpecies 2. Brown Blende.
Exter. CV/ar.—Maflive, difleminated, and fometimes
cryflallized in Ample three-fided pyramids, oCtahedrons,
and four-fided prifms, which are varioufly modified.
External luftre ftiining or refplendent j furface fome-
fimes drufy j internal luftre fhining, between vitreous
and refinous j fraCture foliated ; cleavage fix-fold.
Colour reddifh, or yellowifh brown ; colour fome-
-times tarnifhed ; tranflucent, or opaque ; cryftals tranf-
Vol. XIV. Part I.
Conjlituent Parts.
Oxide of zinc,
Silica,
Iron,
Alumina,
Water,
Lofs,
Bergman.
84
T ^
3
1
Tennant.
68.3
25
4.4
2-3
100
JCO.O
Oxide
Hh
242
Metallic
Ores.
Oxide of zinc,
Caroonic acid,
MINERALOGY. part I.
1748, in limeftone 5 and at Allemont in France, tvliere Claflifica.
it is accompanied by other ores of antimony and co-
bait.
Tennant.
tion.
64.8
35*2
6c.2
34-8
2. Species. Gray Ore of Antimony.
ioc.o 100.0
Another variety examined by the fame chemift con¬
tained,
Oxide of zinc, T1-^
Carbonic acid, 13.j
Water, 15.1
100.0
From thefe analyfes it appears, that calamines are
very different in their compofition, confifting fometimes
of oxide of zinc, lilica, and water, and this variety
forms a jelly with acids} others are compofed of car¬
bonic acid and oxide of zinc, which effervefee in ful-
phuric acid, but do not form a jelly ; a third variety is
compofed of oxide of zinc, carbonic acid, and wrater,
conltituting a hydro-carbonate of zinc, which is folubie
with effervefcence in fulphuric acid.
Localities, &.c.—Ufually accompanied with iron
ochre, and very often with galena, white lead, and
other metallic ores. Found in Bohemia, Bavaria,
France, and Britain, in fome places in confiderable a-
bundance.
Subfpecies 2. Foliated Calamine.
Id. Brochant, ii. 364. Kirwan, ii. 236. Hauy, iv.
161.
Exter. Char.—Found mafTive or difleminated, 11a-
laflitical, incruded, or cryilallized, in fmall four-fided
tables, or in very fmall cubes with plane or convex
faces, (hining, or glimmering; luftre between pearly
and vitreous ; frafture radiated.
Colour yellowilh, or fmoke gray ; grayilh, or yel-
lowifli white j tranflucent or femitranfparent j femi-
hard ; brittle. Specific gravity 3.52.
Chem. Char.—Becomes white before the blow-pipe,
but is infulible, and does not effervefee with acids.
Phys. Char.—Becomes ele&ric by heat.
Localities, &zc.—This variety accompanies the for¬
mer, lining its cavities, but is lefs common. It is found
in the fame places.
XL ANTIMONY Genus.
1. Species. Native Antimony.
Id. Brochant, ii. 369. Id. Kirwan, ii. 245. Id. Hauy,
iv. 252.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, diffeminated, or reni-
form *, refplcndent ; fraflure foliated.
Colour tin white ; but expofed to the air, grayilh or
yellowilh ; foft *, eafily frangible. Spec. grav. 6.7.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it is very eafily
fufible into a metallic globule, which gives out fumes
with the odour of garlic.
C^vJ}. Parts.—Native antimony fometimes contains a
fmall proportion of arfenic.
Localities, &c.—Has only been found in two places :
at Sahlberg in Sweden, where it was difeovered in
Id. Brochant, ii. 371. Kirwan, ii. 246. Hauy, iv.
64.
This is divided into four fubfpecies j compacl, fo-
Bated, radiated, and plumofe.
Subfpecies 1. Compact Gray Ore of Antimony.
Exter. Char.—Maflive or diffeminated ; Ihining j
frafture uneven.
Colour lead gray, or Heel gray; foft j not very
brittle j itains a little j llreak. Ihining. Spec. grav.
4.36.
Localities, &c.—This variety is rarer than the
others, but is met with in Saxony, Hungary, and
France.
Subfpecies 2. Foliated Ore of Antimony.
Exter. Char.—Maflive or diffeminated ; fra&ure fo¬
liated. In other charaflers it refembles the other va¬
rieties, and is ufually accompanied by the following.
Subfpecies 3. Radiated Ore of Antimony.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, diffeminated, and very often
cryftallized in acicular, often in capillary cryllals, and
in fix and four-fided prifms varioully modified $ furface
ftreaked longitudinally j internal luftre refplendent j
fracture radiated, ftraight, parallel, or divergent.
Colour fimilar to the preceding j foft j not very
brittle. Spec. grav. 4.1 to 4.3.
Conjlituent Parts. Bergman.
Antimony, 74
Sulphur, 26
100
Localities, &c.—-This is the moft common ore of an¬
timony, and is found in Germany, France, and Swe¬
den. There is only one mine of antimony in Britain,
which is in the fouth of Scotland, near Wefterhall, in
the neighbourhood of Langholm.
Subfpecies 4. Plumose Ore of Antimony.
Exter. Char.—Ufually found in capillary cryftals,
fo interwoven, that they form a fuperficial covering to
other minerals : thefe groups are externally weakly
fhining ; internal luftre glimmering $ fra&ure fibrous.
Colour fimilar to the former, and fometimes tarnilh-
ed brown or like tempered fteel j opaque j foft } fome¬
times almoft friable j brittle.
Conjl. Parts.—Plumofe antimony is compofed of ful-
phuret of antimony combined with arfenie, iron, and
accidentally a little filver.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe this and the
other varieties of gray antimony give out white fumes,
with a fulphureous fmell, and are almoft entirely vola¬
tilized, or changed into a black flag.
Localities, See.—Plumofe antimony is found at
Freyberg in Saxony, in the Hartz, and in Hungary.
3. Species.
■Part I. MINER
' Ciaffifka- 3. Species. Black Ore of Antimony.
Exter. Char.—Found cryftallized in rectangular four-
Tided tables, truncated on the edges or angles; cry flab
■fmooth } luftre (Inning j frafture conchoidal.
Colour iron black \ foft.
Localities, &c.—This fpecies, which is alfo a fulphu-
ret of antimony, combined probably with fome other
ingredients, is found in Cornwall.
4. Species. Red Ore of Antimony.
/it/. Kirwan, ii. 250. Id. Brochant, ii. 379* Antimoine
Hydrofulfure, iv. 276.
Exter. Char.—Maflive or diflfeminated, but mod
commonly in capillary cryftals j luitre weakly (Inning,
vitreous ; fraCture fibrous.
Colour cherry red, brown, reddifli, or bluifti *, foft,
almoft friable j brittle. Specific gravity 3.7 to 4.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it melts eafily,
and in nitric acid a white powder is depofited.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth,
Oxide of antimony, 78.3
Sulphur, 19.7
Lofs, 2.
100.0
Localities, See.—Found in Saxony and France, ufu-
ally accompanying gray or native antimony.
A L O G Y.
XII. COBALT Genus.
1. Species. White Cobalt Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 382. Id. Broch. ii. 386.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, dilfeminated, reniform, and
rarely cryftallized in finall four fided tables, or in (mall
cubes or oCtahedrons. Luftre weakly thining, or (Inn¬
ing j fraCture uneven.
Colour tin white, but on the furface variable, and
tarniftied j (freak (hining j hard j brittle.
Chem. Char.—Eafily fufibie before the blow-pipe,
emitting a denle vapour, with a fmell of arfen.c, and
leaves a white metallic globule \ colours borax-blue.
Localities, &c.—Found in Norway, Sweden, and
Saxony, in beds of micaceous fchiftus, along with red
cobalt ore, quartz, and hornblende. Its eonipofition is
not known, but fuppofed to be alloyed with (ome other
metals.
2. Species. Gray Cobalt Ore.
Id. Kirw. ii. 271. Id. Broch. ii. 388.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, diffeminated, reniform, and*
botryoidal ; luftre (hining j frafture even.
Colour light (feel gray, or tin white j furface (feel
tarnilhed ; (freak (hining } femi-hard brittle.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe j emit¬
ting fumes and the fmell of arfenic.
5. Species. White Ore of Antimony.
Muriated Antimony, Kirwan, ii. 151. Antimoine Oxide,
Hauy, iv. 273.
Exter. Char.—Rarely maflive, ufually fuperficial, in
divergent fibres, or cryftallized in redftangular four-
(ided tables, cubes, or four-fided prifms. Cryftals ag¬
gregated $ fmooth ; (freaked longitudinally j refplen-
dent} internal luftre (liming, between adamantine and
pearly } fra&ure foliated.
Colour fnow white, yellowilh white, or grayifh 5
tranflucent; foft j brittle.
Chem. Char.—Cryftals decrepitate before the blow¬
pipe, but in powder is ealily fufibie.
Conji. Parts.—Was formerly fuppofed to be a mu¬
riate of antimony, but according to Klaproth, it is a
pure oxide. The white ore of France, according to
Vauquelin, contains,
Oxide of antimony, 86
—lead, 3
Silica, 8
Lofs, 3
100
6. Species. Ochre of Antimony.
Id. Brochant, ii. 383. Id. Kirwan, ii. 252.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, difleminated, or in fuperficial
crufts, on gray antimony \ dull 5 fra&ure earthy.
Colour ftraw yellow, or yellowifti gray ; foft 5 friable.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe 5 be¬
comes white, and emits white fumes. Its conftituents
are unknown.
Localities, &c.—In Saxony and Hungary, accom¬
panying gray and red antimony, and in the antimony
mine near Wefterhall, in the fouth of Scotland.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Cobalt, 20
Arfenic, 33
Iron, 24
Lofs, 23
100
It contains alfo fometimes nickel and filver.
Localities, &c.—Found in Saxony, France, Norway,
and Cornwall in England, with other ores of cobalt.
3. Species. Shining Cobalt Ore.
Id. Broch. ii. 390. Kirw. ii. 273.
Exter. Char.—Maffive, difleminated, fuperficial, in
various imitative forms, and cryftallized in cubes and
oflahedrons, which are varioully modified ; cryftals
fmall, fmooth, and refplendent, rarely drufy j luftre
fluning j frafture uneven, radiated, or fibrous.
Colour tin white, commonlv grayifh, or yellowifh
tarniftied *, hard j brittle. Spec. grav. 6.3 to 6.4.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it burns with a
fmall white flame, and a white vapour, fmelling ftrong-
ly of garlic *, then blackens, and is almoft infufible j
foluble in nitric acid.
Conjlituent Parts of cryftallized (hining cobalt from
Tunaberg in Sweden.
Cobalt,
Arfenic,
Sulphur,
Iron,
Lofs,
Klaproth.
44.
55*5
Taffaert.
36.66
49.
6*5
5.66
2.18
IOO.Q 100.00
H h 2 Localities,
1
24+ MINER
MOresllC Localities, &c.—This is the moft common ore of
i ^ i cobalt j and it is ufually accompanied by the other
ores, and fometimes alfo by vitreous, red, and native
filver. It is found in Bohemia, Saxony, Sweden, and
Cornwall in England, and ufually in beds in primitive
mountains.
Llfes.—This ore of cobalt is commonly wrought for
the purpofe of employing it in the preparation of the
fine blue colour known by the name of fma/t, which is
ufed in the manufaflure of porcelain, glafs, and as a
pigment.
4. Species. Black Cobalt Ochre.
Id. Broch. ii. 396. Kirw. ii. 275. Hauy, iv. 214.
This is divided into two fubfpecies, friable and indu¬
rated.
Subfpecies 1. Friable Cobalt Ochre.
I.xter. Char.—Compofed of particles which are
more or lefs cohering ; ftains a little.
Colour brownifii, bluifh, or grayilh black ; ftreak
fhining *, feels meagre. In other charafters it agrees
with the following.
Subfpecies 2. Indurated Cobalt Ochre.
Kxter. Char.—Maflive, difTeminated, in imitative
forms, or marked with impreflions ; dull, or weakly
glimmering ; fra&ure earthy.
Colour bluilh black } ilreak Ihining, refinous ; foft j
femihard; rather brittle. Spec. grav. 2.01 to 2.42.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it gives out an
arfenical odour, but is infufible.
Its conftituent parts are fuppofed to be oxide of co¬
balt, with fome iron and arfenic.
Localities, &.c.—Both varieties are found together,
and accompanied by ores of filver, copper, iron, in
Saxony, Suabia, and the Tyrol, as well as in France
and Spain.
5. Species. Brown Cobalt Ochre.
Id. Broch. ii. 400.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, or diffeminated ; always dull;
fracture earthy j ftreak finning, refinous.
Colour light or dark liver brown j foft, almoft fri¬
able ; very eafily frangible.
Conjlituent Parts.—Suppofed to be compofed of oxide
of cobalt and iron.
localities, &c.—Found at Saalfeld in Thuringia,
in ftratiform mountains, and in Wirtemberg, in pri¬
mitive mountains, accompanied by other varieties of
cobalt ochre.
6. Species. Yellow Cobalt Ochre.
Id. Kirw. ii. 277. Broch. ii. 401.
A L O G Y. part 1;
Its conftituents are fuppofed to be oxide of cobalt, Claflifka:
and a little arfenic. tion.
Localities, &c.—Found in the fame places with the *
former, but is rare. #
7. Species. Red Cobalt Ochre, or Arfeniate of Co¬
balt.
Id. Kirw. ii. 278. Broch. il. Cobalt Arfeniate, Hauy,
iv. 216.
This is divided into two fubfpecies j earthy and ra¬
diated.
Subfpecies 1. Earthy Red Cobalt Ochre.
Exter. Char.—In thin fuperficial layers, or crufts j
dull, or weakly glimmering j fradture earthy.
Colour peach-bloffom red, rofe red, or reddifh white j
ftreak a little fhining ; very foft, friable.
Localities, —hound in Bohemia, Saxony, France,
and Norway.
Subfpecies 2. Radiated Red Cobalt Ochre, or
Cobalt Bloom, or Flowers of Cobalt.
' Exter. Char.—Maftive, or diffeminated, rarely botry-
oidal or reniform ; often fuperficial, and in fmall dru-
fy cryftals, whofe forms are redlangular four-fided ta¬
bles, four-fided prifms, double fix-fided pyramids, with
different modifications. Cryftals fmall and varioufly
aggregated 5 fmooth and fhining, fometimes refplen-
dent; fradlure radiated ; fragments wedge-fhaped, or
fplintery.
Colour peach bloffom red, crimfon red, or, expofed
to the air, brownifh, grayifh, or whitifh ; tranflucent;
cryftals femitranfparent; foft ; brittle.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe becomes black-
ifh gray, giving out a feeble odour of arfenic, with¬
out any fumes, but is infufible. Colours borax a fine
blue.
This fpecies has not been particularly analyzed,
but is confidered as a compound of cobalt and arfenic
acid.
Localities, See.—T.he fame as the former, and alfo in
Cornwall in England, and along with copper ores at
Alva in Scotland.
8. Species. Sulphate of Cobalt.
A faline fubftance in a ftalaftitical form, of a pale
rofe red colour and tranflucent, is found at Herrengrund
near Newfohl in Hungary, which was at firft fuppofed
to be a fulphate of manganefe, and afterwards a ful-
phate of cobalt.
I his fubftance has been examined by Klaproth, who
dilfolved it in water, added an alkali, and obtained a
bluifh precipitate, which coloured borax of a beautiful
fapphire blue ; and with muriatic acid he obtained from
it a fympathetic ink.
Exter. Maftive, or diffeminated, or adhering
to the furfaces of other minerals ; dull; fracture earthy ;
ftreak Ihining, refinous
Colour dirty ftraw yellow', or yellowifh gray 5 very
foft or friable.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it gives out an
odour of arfenic, and is infufible.
XIII. NICKEL Genus;
1. Species. Copper-coloured Nickel.
Id. Brochant, ii. 408. Sulphurated Nickel, Kirw. ii.
286. Nickel Arfenical, Hauy, iii. 318. Kupftr-
nickel of the Germans.
Exter. Char.—-Maffive or diffeminated, rarely reticu¬
lated 3
1
5art T,
Claffifka-
tion.
——,—-
MINERALOGY.
245
lated 5 finning, or weakly fliining; fraflure uneven,
fometimes conchoidal j fragments rather fharp-edged.
Colour pale copper red, whitifh, or grayifli j femi-
hard *, brittle. Spec. grav. 6.64 to 7.56.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it gives out the
fumes and odour of arfenic ; melts with difficulty into a
flag, mixed with metallic particles. Solution in acids,
green.
&
ConJUtuent Parts. Sage.
Nickel, 7 5
Arfenic, 22
Sulphur, 2
Lofs, I
100
Localities, &c.~Found in veins, in primitive and
ftratiform mountains, almoft always accompanied with
ores of cobalt, and often with rich filver ores. It is
found in Bohemia, Saxony, France, Spain, and Corn¬
wall in England.
2. Species. Nickel Ochre, or Oxide of Nickel.
Id. Kirw. ii. 283. Broch. ii. 411. Hauy, iii. 516.
Exter. Char.—Ufually difleminated and efflorefcent
on other minerals j compofed of friable, loofe, and flight-
ly agglutinated particles.
Colour apple-green of different (hades ; ftains •, feels
meagre.
Chem. Char.—Remains unchanged before the blow¬
pipe •, colours borax yellowifh red, and is infoluble in
nitric acid.
Confituent Parts. Lampadius.
Oxide of nickel, 67.
  iron, 23.2
Water, 1.5
Lofs, 8.3
Colour fteel gray, or iron black ; ftrcak black, with¬
out luflre j flains j foft j brittle. Specific gravity 3.7
to 4.7.
Metallic
Ores.
Confituent Parts.
Oxide of manganefe,
Brown oxide of iron,
Carbone,
Carbonate of lime,
Barytes,
Silica,
Lofs,
Cordier and Beaunier *. * Jour, der
Mines,
From France, Germany. Piedmont. No. Iviii.
83.5 82. 86. P- 77s*
2. - 3.
1.5
7-5
M 3-
7-5 7- 5-
5-5 *5 4-5
100.0 100.0 100.0
Of purer fpecimens by Klaproth.
Oxide of manganefe, 99*25 92*75
Water, .25 7.
Lofs, .5 .25
100.0 100.00
Subfpecies 2. Foliated Gray Ore of Manganese.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, diffeminated, or cry-
ftallized in fmall, rectangular, four-fided tables, fafci-
cularly grouped ; luitre ftiining *, fraCture foliated.
Colour fimilar to the former j ftreak black and dull j
ftains j foft, and brittle. Spec. grav. 3.74.
Subfpecies 3. Compact Gray Ore of Manganese.
Exter. Char.—Maflive or diffeminated, in angular,
or botryoidal, or dendritical forms j luftre glimmering j
fraCture uneven, fometimes even or conchoidal.
Colour fteel gray, or bluifh black *, ftains j femihard,
or foft 4 brittle.
Conf. Parts—approach pretty nearly to thofe of the
radiated variety.
Subfpecies 4. Earthy Gray Ore of Manganese.
100.0
Localities, &c.—Found in fimilar fituations with the
preceding fpecies.
XIV. MANGANESE Genus.
1. Species. Gray Ore of Manganese, or Oxide of
Manganefe.
Id. Brochant, ii. 414. /</. Kirwan, ii. 291. /t/. Hauy,
iv. 243.
This fpecies is divided into four fubfpecies : 1. radi¬
ated *, 2. foliated 5 3. compaCt ; and, 4. earthy.
Subfpecies 1. Radiated Gray Ore of Manganese.
Effen. Char.—Colours borax violet.
Exter. Char.—Maflive or diffeminated, or cryftalli-
zed in oblique four-fided prifms, or in acicular prifms
fafcicularly grouped together ; the cryftals are varioufly
modified. Faces ftreaked longitudinally j fhining or re-
fplendentj fradure radiated } fragments wedge-fhaped.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive, dififeminated, fome¬
times fuperficial and dendritical } dull $ fometimes a
little glimmering ; fraClure earthy.
Colour between fteel gray and bluifh black ; ftains
very much j very foft, often even friable 5 feels
meagre.
Confituent Parts—fuppofed to be the fame as the for¬
mer, but with a larger proportion of oxide of iron.
Chem. Char.—Gray ore of manganefe is infufible be¬
fore the blow-pipe, but becomes of a blackifh brown
colour 5 gives a blue colour to borax.
Localities, &c.—'All the varieties of this fpecies are
ufually found together, and chiefly in primitive moun¬
tains. The earthy ore of manganefe almoft alwavs ac¬
companies fparry iron ore, and other ores of iron. Man¬
ganefe is found in confiderable abundance in Saxony,
Bohemia, France, near Exeter in England, and in A-
berdeenftiire in Scotland.
2. Species. Black Ore of Manganese.
Exter. Char—Found maflive, difleminated, or cry-
ftallized in finall four-fided double pyramids, arranged
246
Metallic
Ores.
in rows; furface fliining j Internal luftre weakly glim¬
mering ; fradlure imperfedlly foliated.
Colour grayifli black, and brownifli black j ftreak
dull, brownifli red j foft; brittle.
Localities, &c.—This fpecies is of rare occurrence.
It has been found in Thuringia, forming a cruft on
gray ore of manganefe, and alfo, it is faid, in Pied¬
mont.
MINERALOGY.
Part I,
found in Bohemia, Saxony, Sweden, France, and Eng- Claffifica-
land. ° tion.
XVI. ARSENIC Genus.
i. Species. Native Arsenic.
Id. Broch. ii. 435. Id. Kirw. ii. 255. Id. Hauy, iv.
220.
3. Species. Red Ore of Manganese, or Carbonate of
Manganefe.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, difleminated, botrvoidal, &c.
or cryftallized in flat rhomboids, or in very fmall pyra¬
mids or lenfes. Surface of the cryftals fmooth ; dull,
or weakly glimmering ; fradlure uneven or fplintery.
Colour rofe red, or brownifh white j tranflucent at
the edges j femihard ; brittle. Spec. grav. 3.23.
Chem. Infufible before the blow-pipe 5 be¬
comes grayifli black, and colours borax violet blue, or
crimfon red.
Confituent Parts. Lampadius.
Oxide of manganefe, 48
   iron, 2.1
Carbonic acid, 40
Silica, .o
100.0
Localities, &o.—This fpecies of manganefe, which
is rare, is found in Tranfylvania at Offenbanya, and
particularly at Nagyag, where it conftitutes part of the
mafles of an auriferous vein, from which the gold ore of
Nagyag is obtained.
Exter, Char.—Maflive, diffeminated, in imitative
forms, or with impreflions j lurface rough or granula¬
ted j dull, or weakly glimmering j internal luftre weak¬
ly Aiming ; frafture uneven, fometimes imperfeaiy fo¬
liated ; fragments rather blunt-edged in plates.
Colour light lead gray, tin-white or grayifti black
w hen tarmftied , ftreak Aiming 5 lemihard , very eaflly
frangible. Spec. grav. 5.72 to 5.76.
Cliem. Char.—Melts readily before the blow-pipe,
giving out white vapour, with the fmell of garlic ; then
burns with a bluifti flame, and is dilfipated, leaving
only a whitifti powder, which is the oxide of arfenic.
ConJUtuent Parts.—Native arfenic is ufually alloyed
with a fmall portion of iron, and fometimes alfo with a
little gold or filver.
Localities, &c.— Found in veins in primitive moun¬
tains, accompanied by ores of filver, lead, copper, quartz,
and earthy fpars, hi Bohemia, Saxony, and France.
2. Species. Arsenical Pyrites.
Id. Broch. ii. 438. Id. Kirw. ii. 256. Per ArfenicaL
Hauy, iv. 56.
1 his is divided into Awo fubfpecies, common and ar¬
gentiferous.
Subfpecies 1. Common Arsenical Pyrites.
XV. MOLYBDENA Genus.
1. Species. Sulphuret of Molybdena.
Id. Brochant, ii. 432. Id. Kirwan, ii. 322. Id. Hauy,
iv. 289.
Exter. Char.—Maflive or difleminated, fometimes in
plates, and rarely cryftallized in equal fix-fided tables ;
cryftals fmall, imbedded, the lateral faces ftiining j in¬
ternal luftre ftiining; fra&ure foliated ; fragments ra¬
ther blunt-edged, fometimes in plates.
Colour lead gray 5 opaque ; ftains, and writes ; very
foft, and eafily frangible j flexible in thin plates, but
not elaftic ; feels greafy. Spec. grav. 4.56 to 4.73.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe j gives
out. a fulphureous fmell; nitric acid converts it to a
white oxide, which is the molybdic acid.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, difleminated, often cryftalliz¬
ed in oblique four-fided prifms, acute o&ahedrons, and
lenfes ; the prifms being varioufly modified on their
angles, faces, and extremities. Cryftals fmall j lateral
faces fmooth, fliining; bevelled faces ftreaked tranf-
verfely ; luftre fliining j fra&ure uneven.
Colour filvery white, but ufually tarnifhed yellow, or
bluifli, and iridefeent j hard j brittle. Specific gravity
5-75 to 6.52. ...
Phys. Char.—By fri&ion gives out the odour of gar¬
lic.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe gives out a white
vapour with the odour of arfenic, the fumes depoliting
a white powder on cold bodies ; a reddifli brown mat¬
ter, which is infufible, remains.
Conjlituent Parts.—Compofed of arfenic, iron, and
fulphur.
Conjlituent Parts.
Pelletier. Klaproth.
Molybdic acid, 43 60
Sulphur, 33 40
IOO 100
Localities, See.—-Always found in primitive moun¬
tains, in nefts or nodules, and very commonly in the
neighbourhood of tin ores. It is alfo accompanied by
wolfram, quartz, native arfenic, and fluor fpar. It is
5
Subfpecies 2. Argentiferous Arsenical Pyrites.
Exter. Char—Rarely maflive, often difleminated,
and cryflallized in fmall, acicular, four-flded prifms;
luftre ftiining, or weakly ftiining; frafture uneven.
Colour tin-white, or ulvery-white, ufually tarniftied.
Localities, &c.—Arfenical pyrites is found in Bo¬
hemia, Saxony, and Silefia, in veins of primitive moun¬
tains, or difleminated in the rocks.
The fecond variety is found in flmilar places, and dif¬
fers only from the firft, in being combined with a fmall
quantity of fllver, which varies from 1 to 10 per cent.
3. Species,
’art I.
MINERALOGY.
■ialTifica-
tion.
3. Species. Orpiment.
Id. Kifw, 1i. 260. Id. Brocli. ii. 444. Hauy, iv. 234.
This fpecies is divided into two fubfpecies, yellow
and red.
Sub fpecies 1. Yellow Orpiment.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, difleminated, fuperficial, and
cryftallized in oblique four fided prifms, bevelled at
the extremity, or terminated by a four-fided pyramid,
cr in acute octahedrons. Cryftals fmall, and confufedly
aggregated ; furface fmooth \ that of the bevelment
and pyramids finely Itreaked j internal lultre refplend-
ent, between refinous and adamantine j fracture foliat¬
ed ; fragments in plates.
Colour citron-yellow, golden-yellow, or aurora-red j
tranilucent $ in thin plates, femitranfparent j foft j flex¬
ible in thin plates. Spec. grav. 3.31 to 3.45.
Chem. Char.—Gives out a blue flame before the blow¬
pipe, with white vapour, and the fmell of arfenic and
fulphur.
greenifli white \ opaque *, cryftals trnnflucent 5 foft, or
friable. Spec. grav. 3.706.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it gives out a
white fume, and a garlic odour j burns with a bluilh
flame, and is entirely diflipated j foluble in water and
acids.
Conjlituent Parts.—'Phis is a pure oxid of arfenic,
with an accidental mixture of earth.
Localities, &.c.—A rare mineral, but is found in fmall
quantity, along with native arfenic, and ores of cobalt,
in Bohemia and Hungary.
5. Species. Pharmacolite, or Arfeniate of Lime.
Id. Broch. ii. 523. Chaux Arfeniate, Hauy, ii. 293.
Exter. Char.—Found in fmall capillary cryftals $
luftre glimmering, filky ; fraCture fibrous or radiated.
Colour fnow-white j tranflucent j very foft. Specific
gravity 2.53 to 2.64.
Chem. Char.—Soluble in nitric acid with effervek
cence, and gives out the odour of arfenic before the
blow-pipe.
247
Metallic
Confituent Parts.
Kirwan. Wefhumb.
Arfenic, 84 80
Sulphur, 16 20
IOO
100
Localities, 8tc.—Ufually found in ftratiform moun¬
tains, accompanied by clay, quartz, and fometimes by
red orpiment, in Tranfylvania, Hungary, and other
places.
Subfpecies 2. Red Orpiment.
Confituent Parts.
Arfenic acid,
Lime,
Water,
Localities, &c.—Found in a vein in primitive rocks, U’ 23<
accompanied by heavy fpar and gypfum, near Wittichen
in Suabia. It has alfo been found in France.
XVII. TUNGSTEN Genus.
Klaproth.
50-54
25-
24.46
100.00*
* Analvt.
Exter. Char.—Rarely maflive, ufually difleminated,
or fuperficial, and often cryftallized in oblique four-
fided prifms, with obtufe lateral edges, truncated, or
bevelled : cryftals fmall, ftreaked longitudinally j Alin¬
ing or refplendent internal luftre ftiining between vi¬
treous and refinous j fra<fture uneven, or conchoidal.
Colour light aurora-red, fcarlet-red, orange yellow;
tranflucent, or femitranfparent, often opaque} ftreak
orange, or citron-yellow j very foft: fomewhat brittle.
Spec. grav. 3.2.
Chem. Char.—Similar to the former.
Confituent Parts.— According to fome, the fame as
the preceding, but with the addition of iron and filica,
with a fmaller proportion of fulphur.
Localities, &c.—Chiefly found in primitive moun¬
tains, as in Saxony, Hungary, France, and in the neigh¬
bourhood of Aitna and Vefuvius.
4. Species. Native Oxide of Arsenic.
Id. Kirw. ii. 258. Id. Broch. ii. 490. Id. Hauy, iv.
225.
Exter. Char.—Found fuperficial, in an earthv form,
and friable, on other minerals; rarely indurated, feme-
times botryoidal, or cryftallized in capillary cryftals,
very fmall o&ahedrons, or four-fided tables 5 luftre
glimmering or dull ; fra&ure earthy or fib-ous.
Colour fnow-white, yellowiih white, reddilh or
1. Species. Wolfram.
Id. Kirw. ii. 316. Id. Broch. ii. 456. Schee/in Fer~
rugine, Hauy, iv. 314.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, difleminated, or cry¬
ftallized in fix-fided prifms, and in rectangular four-
fided tables, which are varioufly modified. Cryftals
not very fmall, ufually grouped ; internal luftre finn¬
ing or refplendent j longitudinal frafture foliated j cro&
fraCture uneven.
Colour brownifh black, or perfeCt black, fometimes
tarnilhed j opaque j ftreak dark reddifti-brown foft $
brittle. Spec. grav. 7.11 to 7.33.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe it decrepitates,
but is infufible.
Confituent Parts.
Deihuyart.
Tungftic acid, 65
Oxide of manganefe, 22
Oxide of iron, 13
Silica, —
Lofs, —
100
Wiegleb. Klaproth. Vauquelin.
35 75 46.9 67.
32. - 6.25
11. 31.2 18.
1.5
21.25 21.9 7.25
100.00 ICO.O 100.00
Localities, &r.—Wolfram, which is a rare mineral,
is found in primitive mountains, accompanied by quartz,
and
■248 MINER
Metallic an(] (In oreSj }n Bohemia, France, and Cornwall in
■ . England.
2. Species. Tungstate of Lime.
Tungsten, Kirw. ii. 314. A/. Broch. ii. 453. Scheelin
Calcaire, Hany, iv. 320.
Exter. Char.—Maffive, difieminated, fometimes cry-
Ballized in regular o&ahedrons, which are fometimeS
llightly bevelled on the edges of the common bafe.
Cryftals ufually fmall ; furface fmooth, refplendent ;
bevelled furface (freaked tranfverfely •, internal luftre
(hining or refplendent, refinous or adamantine ; fra&ure
foliated.
Colour grayifh or yellowilh white ; tranflucent j femi-
hard •, brittle. Spec. grav. 6.06.
Chem. Char .—Before the blow-pipe decrepitates, and
lofes its tranfparency, but is infufible. Reduced to
powder, and digefted with nitric or muriatic acid, it
leaves a citron yellow refiduum, which is tungftic
acid.
A L o g y.
Part I.
2. Species. Octahedrite.
Anatafe, Hauy, iii. 129. Id. Brochant, ii. 548.
tahedritc, SaulTure, Voyages, $ 1901.
Oc-
Claffifica-
tion. I
• Exter. Char.—Found only cryftallized, in elongated
odahedrons with fquare bafes, and truncated, or acu¬
minated ; cryftals fmall and imbedded ; lateral faces
(freaked tranfverfely j luftre refplendent, vitreous : frac¬
ture foliated.
Colour (feel gray, fometimes light indigo blue 5 tranf¬
lucent } femi-hard \ brittle. Spec. grav. 3.83.
Chcm.' Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe, but
melts with borax, which it colours green, and in cool¬
ing, cryftallizes in needles.
Conjl. Parts.—It is chiefly compofed of oxide of ti¬
tanium.
Localities, &c.—-Has been found lining the cavities
of a vein, accompanied by quartz and feldfpar, in a
primitive rock, in Dauphine in France.
ConJUtuent Parts. Klaproth.
Oxide of tungften,
• iron,
— manganefe,
Lime,
Silica,
Lofs,
77-75
17.6
3-
1.65
100.00
75-25
1.25
•75
18.7
M
2-55
100.00
Localities, &c.—This is a rare mineral, ufually
found in primitive mountains, accompanied by ores of
tin, fome iron ores, quartz, fluor fpar, &c. in Sweden,
Saxony, and Cornwall in England.
XVIII. TITANIUM Genus.
1. Species. Menachanite.
Id. Brochant, ii. 468. Id. Kirwan, ii. 3 26. Hauy, iv.
3°5-
Exter. Char.—Found in fmall, detached, rounded
grains } furface rough, or weakly glimmering $ luftre
(hining, femi-metallic ; fraffure imperfeftly foliated.
Colour grayifh or iron black j foft or femi-hard $
brittle. Spec. grav. 4.4.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe ; co¬
lours borax greenifti brown.
Conjlituent Parts.
Chenevix. Klaproth.
Oxide of titanium, 45*25 40
 iron, 51. 49
Silica, 3.5 11
Oxide of manganefe, 2.5 —
100.00 100
Localities, &c.—This mineral was firft difeovered by
Mr Gregor, among fand, in the bed of a rivulet, in
the valley of Menachan in Cornwall; hence its name.
It has fince been found in the ifland of Providence, one
of the Bahamas, and at Botany Bay in New Hol¬
land.
3. Species. Titanite.
Id. Kirwan, ii. 329. Le Ruthile, Brochant, il. 470.
Titane Oxide, Hauy, iv. 296. Red Schorl of many.
Exter. Char.—Found cryftallized in oblique four-
fided prifms, the lateral edges truncated j fometimes
thefe cryftals are double, being united obliquely ; alfo
in acicular and capillary cryftals, imbedded and group¬
ed together; furface longitudinally (Leaked, (hining ;
internal luftre (hining, adamantine j fracture foliated.
Colour blood-red or reddilh brown j opaque, or tranf¬
lucent; hard j brittle. Spec. grav. 4.1 104.24.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe, but
lofes its tranfparency, and becomes gray.
Conjl. ParAr.—Compofed chiefly of oxide of tita¬
nium.
Localities, Stc.— Found in Hungary, in gneifs, and
imbedded in quartz. It has be€n found alfo in Switzer¬
land, Spain, and France.
4. Species. Nigrine.
Kirwan, ii. 33I. Brochant, ii. 474. Hauy, iv. 307.
Exter. Char.—Diffeminated, fometimes amorphous,
often cryftallized in oblique four-fided prifms, varioufly
modified by truncations and bevelments. Surface fmooth;
luftre (hining, or refplendent, between refinous and vi¬
treous j frafture foliated.
Colour dark brownifti black, yellowifti white or
violet brown j opaque, or tranflucent j femi-hard. Spec-
grav. 3.51 to 4.6.
Chem. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe.
Conjlituent Parts.
Klaproth.
Oxide of titanium, 2 2
Silica, 33
Lime, 3 2
100 100 100
Localities, &c.—Found in Bavaria, and at Aren-
dal in Norway.
5. Species*
Abilgaard.
t— '' —*
58 74
22 8
20 18
Part I.
Claflifica-
. tl°n' , 5. Species. Brown Ore of Titanium.
This fpecies in its characters fo nearly refembles the
preceding, that it may be confidered merely as a varie¬
ty, as has been done by Brochant and Hauy.
6. Species. Iserine.
Id. Brochant, ii. 4*]%.
Exter. Char.—Found in rounded or angular grains,
having a rough and glimmering furface } internally
fhining *, frafture conchoidal.
Colour iron black, or brownilh; hard j brittle. Spec,
grav. 4.5.
Chem. Oh/r.—^Mclts before the blow-pipe into a dark
brown flag.
Conftiluent Parts. Klaproth.
Oxide of titanium, ^9.1
 iron, 30.I
—  -uranium, 10.2
Lofs, .6
ICO.O
Localities, &c.~—Found in the fand of a river in Bo¬
hemia, called Ifer, -whence the name is derived.
XIX. URANIUM Genus.
1. Species. Pitchy Ore of Uranium.
Id. Brochant, ii. 460. Kirw. ii. 305. Hauy, iv.
280.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, difleminated, fometimes cel¬
lular } ihining or glimmering; fraCture imperfectly con¬
choidal 5 fragments rather tharp-edged.
Colour velvet black, iron black, or bluifli, fome¬
times fteel-tarniflied; ftreak black j opaque j femi-hard;
brittle. Spec. grav. 6.5 to 7.5.
Chem. Char.—Infuflble before the blow-pipe j foluble
in nitric acid.
Conjlituent Parts. * Klaproth.
Uranium a little oxidated, 86.5
Sulphuret of lead, 6.
Oxide of iron, '2.5
Silica, r.
100.0
Localities, &c.—Found in Bohemia and Saxony, ac¬
companying galena, copper pyrites, iron ochre, and fome
ores of filver and cobalt.
2. Species. Micaceous Uranite.
Id. Brochant, ii. 463. Kirwan, ii. 304.
Exter. Char.—Sometimes in thin layers, but often
cryftallized in reCtangular four-flded tables ; in cubes,
and fix-fided prifms varioufly modified. Cryftals fmall,
and grouped together j luftre Alining, pearly; frac¬
ture foliated.
Vol. XIV. Part I.
249
Colour emerald or grafs green of various (hades, rare- Metallic
ly wax yellow, tranflucent; ftreak greenifli white j foftj , .
not very brittle. Spec. grav. 3.12.
Chem. Char.—Soluble, without effervefcence, in ni¬
tric acid, which it Colours citron yellow.
Conjl. Parts.—This fpecies is an oxide of uranium,
with a fmall portion of copper.
Localities, &c.—Found in Saxony, France, and Corn¬
wall in England, accompanied by fome ores of iron,
fometimes by cobalt.
3. Species. Uranite Ochre.
Id. Broch. ii. 466. Id. Kirw. ii. 303.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive, but ufually diflemi¬
nated, or fuperficial j is dull, or rarely (hining j frafture
earthy, or foliated •, fragments blunt-edged.
Colour citron yellow, aurora red, or fulphur yellow ;
opaque ; foft and friable j brittle-, ftains a little ; feels
meagre. Spec. grav. 3.15 to 3.24.
Conjlituent Parts.—Compofed of oxide of uranium,
with a portion of iron.
Localities, Stc.—Found in flmilar places with the
former.
XX. TELLURIUM Genus.
1. Species. Native Tellurium.
Id. Broch. ii. 480. Sylvanite, Kirw. ii. 324. Hauy,
Iv- 325*
Exter. Char.—Maflive or difleminated j ftiining j
fradhire foliated.
Colour between tin and filvery white j foft j not very
brittle. Spec. grav. 5.7 to 6.1.
Chem. Char.—Melts eafily before the blow-pipe.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Tellurium, 92.6
Iron, 7.2
rGold, .2
100.0
Localities, &c.—Has been only found at Fatzebay
in Tranfylvania, where it exifts in veins, in mountains
of gray wacken and tranfition limeftone. The ore is
dug out for the purpofe of extrafling the gold.
It was called aurum paradoxum, and aurum problem
maticum, becaufe its external appearance did not indi¬
cate that it contained gold.
2. Species. Graphic Ore of Tellurium.
Id. Broch. ii. 482. Hauy, iv. 327.
Exter. Char.—Maflive, and cryftallized in flat four
or fix-fided prifms, which are arranged in rows, ex¬
hibiting fomething of the appearance of written cha-
rafters, and hence the name graphic ore. Surface
fmooth, (hining; longitudinal frafture foliated and re-
fplendent 3 crofs fraflure uneven.
Colour tin white, yellowifh,' or lead gray 5 foft and
brittle. Spec. grav. 5.72.
Chem. Char.—Burns with a greenifli flame before the
blow-pipe.
I i Conjlituent
\
MINERALOGY.
§ Cn
MINERALOGY.
Ores.
Conjlituent Parts.
Tellurium,
Gold,
Silver,
Klaproth.
60
30
10
100
Localities, &c.—Has only been found at Offenbanya
in Tranfylvanla, in veins traverfing porphyry and gra¬
nular limeftone accompanied by iron pyrites and copper
ore. It is wrought for the fake of the gold.
3. Species. Yellow Ore of Tellurium.
Id. Broch. ii. 484. Hauy, iv. 327.
Exter. Char.—Difieminated, and cryftallized in fmall
four lidcd prifms j fhining, or weakly Ihining } fra&ure
foliated ; crofs frafture uneven.
Colour filver white, brafs yellow, or gray.
Chem. Char.—Soluble in nitric acid.
Conjlituent Parts. Klaproth.
Tellurium,
Gold,
Lead,
Silver,
Sulphur,
44-75
26.75
I9-5
8-5
•5
100.00
Colour Heel gray, and ufually covered with a greenilh
efflorefcence ; loft, or femihard ) not very brittle.
Conjlituent Parts.—This is fuppofed to be an alloy of
chromium.
Exter. Char. &c.—Found in the gold mine of Rud-
niek near Schlangenberg in Suabia, in a matrix of white
quartz, containing gold and galena.
2. Species. Ochre of Chromium.
Exter. Char.—Mafilve, diffeminated, and in thin
plates } dull j frafture uneven or earthy.
Coleur verdigris green, or yellowilh j foft.
Localities, &e.—Found only in the fame place, ac¬
companying the former.
Th& chromates of lead and iron have been already
deferibed among the ores of thofe metals.
XXII. COLUMBIUM Genus.
Exter. Char.—Maflive ; fra&ure uneven, or foliated 5
luftre Ihining.
Colour dark gray j opaque ; not very hard ; brittle.
Spec. grav. 5.918.
Conjlituent Parts.
Oxide of columbium, 78
. . • — iron, 21
Lofs, 1
Localities, &c.—Found only at Nagyag in Tranfyl-
vania.
4. Species. Black or Foliated Ore of Tellurium.
Id. Broch. ii. 486. Hauy, iv. 327.
Exter. Found in plates, •which are united in¬
to maffes, or dilfeminated, rarely cryftallized in fix-
fided tables j furface fmooth, ftiining} external luftre
refplendent; fratlure foliated.
Colour between lead gray and iron black ; ftains j
foft; flexible in thin plates. Spec. grav. 8.91.
Chem. Char.—Before the blow-pipe the fulphur and
tellurium are diflipated in white fumes, and a metallic
globule remains, furrounded by a black flag.
Conjlitucnt Parts. Klaproth.
Tellurium, 33.
Lead, 50.
Gold, 8.5
Silver and copper, 1.
Sulphur, 7.5
100.0
Localities, See.—Found only in the fame place with
the preceding.
XXL CHROMIUM Genus.
1. Species. Needle Ore of Chromium.
Exter. Char.—Found in fmall cryftals, which are
imbedded j luftre ftiining) fradture uneven or conchoi-
dal.
100
Localities, &c.—This mineral, of which the only
fpecimen known is in the Brilifti Mufeum, was brought
from Maflachuflets in America ; it was analyzed by
Mr Hatchett, and found to contain a new metal, which
he denominated columbium.
XXIII. TANTALIUM Genus.
Two fpecies of this mineral have been difeovered >
tantalite, and yttrio-tantalite.
1. Species. Tantalite.
Exter. Char.—Cryftallized in odlahedrons j furface
fmooth *, fradture compadt.
Colour bluifh gray, or black. Spec. grav. T’-PJ*
Conjlituent Parts.—Compofed of tantalium, iron, and
manganefe.
Localities, &c.—Found in Finland, in globular pieces,
in a vein of red feldfpar, traverfmg a gneifs rock.
2. Species. Yttrio-Tantalite.
Exter. Char.—Diffeminated, in pieces of the flze of
a nut; fradture even ; luftre metallic.
Colour dark gray may be fcratched with a knife j
pow'der gray. Spec. grav. 5-I3‘
Conjlituent Parts.—Compofed of iron, manganefe,
tantalium, and the new earth yttria.
Localities, &.c.—Found at Ytterby in Sweden, in the
fame place with gadolinite.
Thefe minerals were analyzed by Eckeberg, who dif-
covered in them the new metal tantalium, which is
now fuppofed to be the fame with columbium.
n XXIV,
Fart I.
Claffifica-
tion.
< , »
4
Part T. MINER
Clarifica¬
tion, XXIV, CERIUM Genus.
i. Species. Cerite.
Exter. Char.—Found maffive or diffeminated ; ludre
weakly glimmering j fraiRure fine grained, even.
Colour pale role red ; opaque ■, powder giajilli j
fcratckes glafs. Spec. grav. 4.5 to 4.9.
Chetn. Char.—Infufible before the blow-pipe, and
does not colour borax.
Conjliuient Parts.
Vauquelin.
Oxide of cerium, by.
  — iron, •°2'
Silica, 17*
Lime, t •°2
Water and carbonic acid *12
Lofs, iJ-84
Klaproth.
54-5
4-
34-
5*
2-5
100.00 100.0
Localities, &c.—This mineral has been found in the
copper mine of Baflnaes, at Riddarhytta, in Sweden,
accompanied by copper, molybdena, bifmuth, mica,
and hornblende.
The new metal contained in this mineral was Un¬
covered by Uilinger and Berzelius, chcmiils at Stock¬
holm.
A L O G Y.
Exter. Char.—Found maflive; fliining, vitreous > frac-
ture conchoidal, » •
Colour velvet black, or brownifh black j opaque j
hard \ fcratches quartz j brittle. Spec. grav. 4.04.
Chem. Char.—Reduced to powder, and heated in
diluted nitric acid, it is converted into a thick yel-
lowith gray jelly. Before the blow-pipe it decrepi¬
tates and becomes whitifh red, but remains infufible.
Conjlituent Parts.
Eckeberg. Vauquelin.
Yttria, 47-5 35-
Silica, 25. 25.5
Lime, 2.
Alumina, 4.5
Oxide of iron, 18. 25.
— manganefe, 2.
Water and carbonic acid, 10.5
Lofs, 5*
Klaproth.
59-75
21.25
•5
I7-5
•5
•5
100.0 100.0 100.00
Localities, &.c.—This mineral was examined by Pro-
fcflbr Gadolin of Sweden, whofe name it bears, and
found to contain a peculiar earth. It was found near
Ytterby in Sweden, and henco the new earth was call¬
ed Tttriat
APPENDIX.
IX, YTTRIAN Genus.
To follow Strontian Genus, p. 209.
Species. Gadolinite.
fd. Brochant, !i. 512. Id. Hauy, iii. 141.
The unavoidable length to which the firft part of this
treatife has extended, and fome other circumftances,
render it neceffary for us to introduce in a different
part of the work, what we propofe to lay before our
readers in the fecond part relative to the analyfis of
itones and metallurgical operations. See Ores,
dud ion of, and Stones, Analyfis of.
EXPLANATION of the PLATES.
Plate CCCLI.
Fig. 1. Reprefents the goniometer or graphometer,
an inftrument invented by Carangeau for meafuring the
angles of cryllals. MTN is a graduated femicirde of
brafs or filver, furnilhed with two arms or rulers AB,
FG, one of which, FG, has a flit from a to R, except¬
ing the crofs bar at K., which ftrengthens the inftru¬
ment. This arm is fixed to a brafs ruler at R and c
placed behind, and which makes part of the femicircle.
The arm FG is connedled with the ruler behind by nails
which enter the flit and are fumilhed with nuts. The
other arm has alfo a flit or opening from x to c, where
it is fixed to the firft by the ferew nail which paffes
through both. By flackening the ferews, the two parts
f G and c B may be ftiortened at pleafure. The arm
AB being only fixed at c, which is the centre of the
circle, moves round this centre, while the arm GF re¬
mains conftantly fixed in the direction of the diameter
which paiTcs through the points o and 1800. The up¬
per part of the arm AB Ihould be brought to a thin
edge from » to and the line of this edge fhould pafs
through the centre c, becaufe it is by this edge that the
meafure of the angle on the graduated circumference is
indicated.
To difeover the meafure of any angle of a cryftal,
the two arms c B, c G are brought into contact with the
fides containing the angle, and the degree indicated by
the line 3 r on the circumference denotes the meafure
of that angle. The inftrument is fo contrived that the
arms may be ftiortened for the convenience of applying
it in different cafes. But it might happen that it could
not be applied in cafes where the cryftals are aggregat¬
ed or attached to the matrix. This difficulty is obviated
by another contrivance. The femicircle is furniflied
■with a hinge at 90°, by which means it may bs dimj-
niflied at pleafure to a quadrant, by folding back one
half. There is a fmall bar of fteel, one end of which
is fixed behind the immoveable arm FG, and the other
is attached by a notch and ferew nail at O. When
this nail is unfcrew'ed, the bar c O falls behind the ruler
which fupports FG, and thus one half of the femigircle
folds back, and any angle not exceeding 90° may be
meafured j but when the angle is greater, it muft be re¬
placed.
Fig. 2. is an apparatus by which fmall degrees of
I i 2 ele&ricity
252 MINER
mn’lfThe fle^l!c!ly m»y he obferved in minerals. A is a fmall
Plates. ^ra‘s needle with knobs a b, and moveable on the pivot
^11 ■" v-^ mi the middle. 1 he mineral whofe eleftricity is to be
tned, is mbbed on filk or woollen, and then prefented
to one of the knobs j and by the diftance at which the
knob begins to be attrafted, the ftrength of the eleftri-
city may be, in fome degree, eftimated. In the fame
way fubftances which become eledtric by heat, fuch as
the touimaline, are to be tried j the fame apparatus may
be employed. To afcertain in what part of the mi¬
neral the different ele.aricities exift, take a (tick of
ft tiling wax, at the extremity of w'hich a filk thread has
been attached, and having rubbed the wax, bring alter¬
nately the oppofite extremities of the fubilance, fflr ex¬
ample, each of the fummits of a tourmaline, within a fmall
diltance of the filk thread. If the extremity w hich is
brought near the thread poffefs negative eledlricity, the
thread will be repelled j on the contrary, it will be at-
tradled. Or the experiment may be made in another
yay> particularly wThen the eledtrical body is fmall, or
its eledfricity feeble. At B, fig. 2. the tourmaline 11'
is held by a pair of pincers in fuch a way that the pole
/ is at a fmall diftance from the knob o of the needle.
C r is the flick of wax, one of whofe extremities is placed
on a tube of glafs U //, and which adts by its extremity C,
on the knob u, to excite in it pofitive eledtricity. In
this cafe the wax, after the extremity which has been
rubbed is placed in the pofition defcribed, communi¬
cates to the knob of the needle to which it is prefented,
an eledlricity contrary to its own ; fo that the extre¬
mity of the tourmaline adled on by pofitive eledlri¬
city, repels the needle to which it is prefented, and the
other extremity, poflefling negative eledlricity, attracts
the needle.
lig. 3. is a fpirit of wine blow-pipe, nearly on the
plan of that invented by Mr Paul. It is made of brafs,
aijd confiils of the following parts.
« Is a hollow oval frame about five inches in its
longed dimenfion, which fupports the pillar r/and the
two lamps ^ c, which may burn either oil or alcohol,
but the latter is the bed. The rim e e dips upon the
pillar d as low' as the dioulder of the latter will permit,
but the rim may be raifed at pleafure and kept fad by
the ferew peg^i I he rim fupports the boiler which
is a hngle hollow piece of thick brafs containing
about an ounce of alcohol, and has four openings, viz.
three at top /$, 7, k, and one at bottom to receive the
tube 0. 1 his latter is long enough to reach the level
of the outfide of the top of the boiler, and confequent-
ly the alcohol within the boiler cannot readily boil
over into the tube, and the opening k which corref-
ponds with it, is clofely dmt by a ferew dopper, hol¬
lowed out a little beneath, to allow the free paflage of
the vapour down the tube. Here the vaporized alcohol
is prevented from condenfing at the point 0 by the con¬
tiguity of the flame of the lamp Z>, and as it" paffes on
through the hollow p q into the jet tube r, it is imme¬
diately kindled by the flame of the lamp e, and the
united flames are compelled fideways with fuch vio¬
lence as to form a long pencil of blue flame, attended
with a confiderable roaring nolle. ^1 his continues as
long as any alcohol is left in the boiler, which allows
ample time for mod blow-pipe operations. The boiler
is nhed at the opening h. 1 he centre hole / is nicelv
3
A L O G Y. part p
fitted with a fmall brafs plug kept down by a thin flip Explana-
of iron /, the other end of which flips over the top oftion of the
the upright pillar d, and is confined between two flat ■ ■
fcrew'-plates m n. The ufe of this is as a fafety valve
to take away all danger of the boiler burding by the
confined vapour not being able to efcape fad enough
through the jet-pipe r, for when the internal preffure is
great, the eladicityof the iron fpring / allows the valve
7 to rife fufficiently to let out part of the enclofed va¬
pour. The ferew doppers b and £ are made dill tighfc.
er by collars of leather, as is the part where the tube a
joins the boiler. The jet-pipe r has a complete rota¬
tory motion, fo that the flame may be impelled in any
dire£hon. This is effedled by turning in the form of a
ball that part of the pipe which is inclofed in the hol¬
low' p q.
But this blow-pipe, although an elegant philofophi-
cal apparatus, will not be found to anfwer where a great
degree of heat is required to be kept up for a conlider-
able time. Other contrivances, therefore, of a Ampler
nature, have been propofed ; and perhaps the bell of
th.e bl.ow'PiPc 'vhich is ufcd by the mouth.
1 he following is a defeription of a blow-pipe of this
kind. 1
Fig. 4. reprefents this blow-pipe. « Is a brafs tube
having a circular enlargement c, for the purpofe of con^
denfing the moidure which is blown from the lungs •
the fmaller end d is moveable round the centre c, fo that
any degree of obliquity may be given to the flame.
FlS‘ 5: Js a feparatc jet-pipe with a fmall opening,
which is ferewed on the blow pipe at d; and it maybe
convenient to have two or three jet-pipes of different
fizes, according as a larger and more moderate, or a
fmaller and more mtenfe flame is wanted. Is a piece
of ivory which flips on the larger end, for the purpofe
of being applied to the mouth, as being more agree-
'J he bed kind of flame for blowing through with tha
common blow-pipe is a wax or tallow candle with a
very large wick, which ihould be kept fnuffed mode¬
rately low, and the wick turned a little afide from the
pipe. A fpirit lamp is fometimes ufed, which makes a
perfectly clear flame without fmoke, but weak when
ufed in this way. There is a kind of knack in blowing
with the mouth, which is not eafily defcribed, and ret
quires a little pradtiee to be performed with eafe. As
the flame mud often be kept for feveral minutes, the adt
of refpiration mud be carried on through the nodrils
without interruption, and the drefs of blowing mud be
performed merely by compreflion of the cheeks upon the
air in the mouth.
I he fubflance to be heated is placed either on a piece
of charcoal or a metallic fupport. When the former
is ufed, a large clofe well-burnt piece of charcoal mud
be chofen, a fmall fliallorv hole fcooped out with a knife
and the fubdance laid upon it. The charcoal itfelf
kindles all round the hole, and the hole is thus gradual¬
ly enlarged ; and the heat too is kept up round die fub¬
flance much more uniformly than when a metal fupport
is ufed. At the fame time however the chemical efledl
produced by heated charcoal fhould not be forgotten,
particularly the redu&ion of metallic oxides, and the
deoxygenation of the fixed acids j fo that, for example,
a fmall heap of minium or litharge heated red-hot on
charcoal;
I ,rt I.
pluna-
iof the
lates.
5 likin's
1. of
( mijlry,
Ap-
$ dix.
lich.
ir. xv.
MINE R
charcoal by the blow-pipe, is 1'peedily reduced to a glo¬
bule of metallic lead *, the phofphates are partially re¬
duced to phofphurets, &c.
For a metallic fupport, platina is in general by far
the beft material. A fmall fpoon of this metal, the
fliank of which may be ftuck in a cork when held, and
a fmall filver cup, the lhank of which is fixed into a
wooden handle, may be ufed in fufions with borax or
alkaline fluxes. A fmall forceps lately brought into ufe,
and made entirely of two thin pieces of platina joined
by rivets, and bent, will be ufeful in holding any fmall
hard fubttance in the blow-pipe flame for any length of
time, without danger of the points of the forceps melt¬
ing ; and it is alfo found that this metal is fo much worfe
a condu&or of heat than any other, that the forceps
never gets too hot for the naked fingers to touch at the
bend *.
Fig. 6. reprefents a portable pocket blow-pipe, in¬
vented by Dr Wollafton, and of its adtual fize. The
interior tube is longer than the exterior, that it may be
readily withdrawn ; and the upper edge of the large
end is turned outward, to diminiih the effort of the lips
requifite for retaining it in the mouth.
Fig. 7. reprefents the whole apparatus, one half of
its real dimenfions, and connedled for ufe. The fmall
extremity a is placed obliquely at an angle of about
120°, that the flame impelled by it may be carried to a
more convenient diftance from the eye, and thus an-
fwering the purpofe of a longer blow-pipe. This oblique
piece a is compofed of three parts, the largeft of which
is made ftronger, that it may not be injured by ufe.
One end is clofed, and into the other is inferted a fmall
peg of wood, perforated fo as to receive the tip which
is intended to be occafionally feparated, for the pur¬
pofe of palling a fine needle into it, to remove oblfruc-
tions f.
Plates CCCLII. and CCCLIII.
Fig. 1. Diamond,—fpheroidal, with 48 convex faces.
Fig. 2. Zircon,—the primitive form an odlahedron
with ifofceles triangles.
Fig. 3. Zircon,—re61 angular four-fided prifm termi¬
nated by a four fided pyramid fet on the lateral faces.
Fig. 4. Hijacinth,—a dodecahedron formed from a
re£fangular four-fided prifm terminated by a four-fided
pyramid fet on the lateral edges.
Fig. 5. Chrysobenjl,—double fix-fided pyramid flat¬
tened, having the fummits truncated.
Fig. 6. Chrysolite,—a comprelfed eight-fided prifm,
terminated by an eight-fided pyramid, whofe fides cor-
refpond to thofe of the prifm, and whofe fummit is
truncated by a convex furface.
Fig. 7. Augite,—the primitive form, an oblique four-
fided prifm with rhomboidal bafes.
Fig. 8. Common form of augite,—a Ihort, eight-fided,
comprefled prifm, terminated by two oblique faces.
Fig. 9. Pifazite,—a fix-fided prifm with two broad
and four narrow faces, and bevelled at the extremi¬
ties.
Fig. 10. and II. other forms in which the prifms are
terminated by feveral oblique faces with a truncated
fummit.
Fig. 12. Vefuvian,—a four-fided prifm with the edges
truncated, and terminated by four oblique and one ho¬
rizontal face.
A L O G Y.
Fig. 13. Garnet,—primitive form, a rhomboidal do¬
decahedron.
Fig. 14. Trapezoidal garnet,—compofed of 24 faces,
which are equal and fimilar trapezoids.
Fig. 15. Grenatite,—a fix-fided prifm with the greater
angles at each bafe truncated.
Fig. 16. Two crylfals of the fame crofling each other
obliquely. Staurotide, oblique angle, of Hauy.
Fig. 17. Corundum,—two fix-fided pyramids united
by the bafes, with the fummits and angles truncated.
Fig. 18. A fix-fided prifm, having the alternate angles
at each bafe truncated.
Fig. ip. I 'opaz,—an eight-fided prifm terminated by
an obtufe four-fided pyramid at one extremity, and by
a different one at the other.
Fig. 20. A fimilar prifm with fix of the terminal
edges truncated.
Fig. 22. Tourmaline,—primitive form, which is an
obtufe rhomboid.
Fig. 23. A nine-fided prifm, terminated at one ex¬
tremity by a fix-fided fummit, and by a three-fided fum¬
mit at the other.
Fig. 24. Same prifm, with a three and a feven-fided
fummit at the extremities.
Fig. 25. Axinite or Thumerjlone,—primitive form,
which is a reflangular four-fided prifm, whofe bafes are
oblique-angled parallelograms.
Fig. 26. A fecondary form, fame prifm, having the
alternate lateral and terminal edges truncated.
Fig. 27. Rock-crystal.—A double fix-fided pyramid.
Fig. 28. A fix-fided prifm, terminated at each extre¬
mity by a fix-fided pyramid, having the alternate an¬
gles at the oppofite bafes flightly truncated.
Fig. 29- Feldfpar,—the primitive form, which is an
oblique-angled parallelepiped.
Fig. 30. An oblique four-fided prifm.
Fig. 31. A fix-fided prifm with four of the angles
truncated, and the two extremities bevelled.
Fig. 32. The fame prifm, with four of the terminal
edges truncated.
Fig. 33. An oblique four-fided prifm, bevelled and
truncated at the extremities.
Fig. 34. Chiafo/ite,—the outer rhomboid marked
with black lines parallel to the fides of the black inter¬
nal rhomboid.
Fig. 35. Foliated Zeolite, or Stilbite,—comprefled
four-fided prifm, terminated by a four-fided fummit fetr
on the lateral edges.'
Fig. 36. A fix-fided prifm with two folid angles at
each extremity, truncated.
Fig. 37. Cubic Zeolite, or Analcime,—the cube with
all the folid angles truncated.
Fig. 38. Cubic Zeolite, or Chabafe,— compofed of
three rhomboids.
Fig. 39. Crofs-fone,—a double cryfral compofed of
two dodecahedrons crofling each other at right angles.
Fig. 40. Hornblende,—primitive form, an oblique
four-fided prifm, whofe bafe is a rhomboid.
Fig. 41. Bafaltic Hornblende,—a fix-fided prifm ter¬
minated at one extremity by four trapezoidal planes *,
and at the other by a bevelment, the planes of which
are pentagons.
Fig. 42. Tremolite,—an oblique four-fided prifm,
having the acute angles truncated and terminated by a
dihedral fummit,
Fig..
253
Explana¬
tion of the
Plate?.
254 MINER
Explana- Fig, 43, Calcareous Spar, or Carbonate of Lime,—
tUPlates 6 Prim^ive furm a rhomboid.
1—T- Fig. 44. A very obtufe rhomboid.
Fig. 45. An acute rhomboid.
Fig. 46. Approaching to the cube.
Fig. 47. Double fix-lided prifm, known by the name
of Dog-tooth fpar.
Fig. 48. A fix-fided prifm, terminated at each extre¬
mity by a trihedral fummit whofe faces are pentagons.
I ig. 49. Alfo a fix-fided prifm with trihedral fummits;
but the bafes of the terminal pentagons are enlarged in
confequence of the inclination of the lateral faces.
Irigs. 50, 51, 52. Other forms of calcareous fpar.
fig- 53- Sulphate of Lime,—primitive form.
Figs. 54, 55. Common forms.
Fig. 56. Sulphate of Barytes,—primitive form.
Figs» 57> 5^> 59- Common forms of fulphate of ba¬
rytes.
Fig. 60. Sulphate of Strontites,—primitive form.
Fig. 61. Common form.
Fig. 62. Borate of Soda,—primitive form.
Fig. 63. One of the common forms.
Fig. 64. Carbonate of Soda,—primitive form, an a-
CUte octahedron.
F^. 65. One of the common forms, having two
angles at die bafe truncated.
A L O G Y. Part I
Fig. 66. Nitrate of Pa/a/Z),—primitive form, a re£t- ExpUna,
angular octahedron, tionofth*
Figs. 67, 68. Common forms, , ^i:ues‘
Fig. 69. Sulphate of Magnejia,—the common form.
Fig. 70. Borate of Magnejia,
Fig. 71. Sulphur,—primitive form.
Fig. 72. Common form.
Fig. 73. Mercury, Native Amalgam*
Fig. 74. Cinnabar.
Figs. 7 5, 76, 77. Red Silver Ore.
Figs. 78, 79, 80, 81, 82. Cryjlals of Copper Ore.
Figs. 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93. Cry-
fals of the Ores of Iron.
Fig. 94. Carbonate of Lead,
Fig. 95. Sulphate of Lead.
Figs. 96, 97. Molybdate of Lead.
Figs. 98, 99, IOO. Cryjlals of Tin,
Fig. \o\. Oxide of Zinc.
Fig. 102. Sulphuret of Zinc.
Fig. 103. Sulphuret of Antimony.
Figs. 104, 105. Cryfuls of Cobalt.
Fig. 106. Manganefe.
Fig. 107. Sulphuret of Arfenic.
Fig. 108. Tellurium,—primitive form.
Fig. 109. Common form.
Figs, no, in, 112, 113- Cry fals of Titanium,
INDEX.
A.
Acanticone. See Pifazite,
A&ynolite,
Adamantine fpar,
Adkefve Hate,
Adu/aria,
Agaric mineral,
Agate, varieties of,
formation of,
Alum ftone,
Alumina, native,
Aluminous fchiftus,
Amber,
Amethyst,
Amianthus,
Analcimc. See Cubizite,
Andalufte,
Anhydrite,
Antimony, ores of,
Apatite,
A -'ragonite,
ArBi%ite,
Arendalite. See Pijlazite,
Argillaceous genus,
Arfenic, eres of,
Ajbefus,
Afparagus fone,
Augite,
Axcfone,
Axinite,
Azurite,
B.
Barytes, carbonate of,
161
196
J57
183
178
197
167
168
184
181
184
162
*95
176
178
205
242, 243
203
201
180
161
181
246
*94
203
*53
*93
161
Barytes, fulphate of,
B ary tic genus,
Bafalt,
Beryl,
Bifmuth, ores of,
Bitter fpar,
Bituminous marl flate,
Black lead. See Graphite,
Black fchorl,
Blende,
Bole,
Bolognian fpar,
Boracite,
Borax,
Brown fpar,
206
ib.
188
*59
240
202
203
216
160
241
I9I
208
212
ib.
201
c.
177
206
Calamine,
Calcareous genus,
fpar,
fmter,
tufa,
Calcedony,
Capillary fait,
Cornelian,
Cat's eye,
Celefine,
Cerite,
Cerium, ores of,
Chobafe. See Cubizite,
Chalk,
Chiafolite. See Hollow fpar,
Chlorite,
Chromate of iron,
241
197
199
200
201
167
209
167
I73
208
Chromium, ores ofr
Chrysoberyl,
Chrysolite,
Chrysoprafe,
Cimolite,
Cinnabar. See Mercury,
Clay, common,
pipe,
potters,
variegated,
flaty,
indurated,
(late,
Clink f one. See Phonolite,
Coal,
Cobalt, ores of,
Columbian!, ores ef,
Combufibles, clafs of,
Copper, ores of,
mines of,
Corundum,
25c
*51
*52
172
191
220, 221
182
ib,
ib,
ib,
183
ib,
l85
180
216
243, 244
250
212
2.51
ib.
178
198
180
187
Crofs-fone,
Cryolite,
Cube fpar,
Cubizite,
Cyanite,
Datholite,
Diamond,
D,
225—230
230, 231
>sl
170
212
206
176
*95
mines of,
method of valuing,
237
Diamonds, celebrated,
Dipyre,
206
148
*49
130
ib,
177
DolomUtf
Mineralogy.
/‘lavz; rrcL/.
JaJ. 2/f7 /< ‘7/s/-Z^ ?*
h lex,
D\ jmite,
D\ ’.wing flate,
■raid,
Ehry,
Et m fait,
\lafe.
z.
T.
common,
compact,
F /re ilone,
F‘ t,
\ts, formation of,
theories of,
gun, manufacture of.
Pi ty ilate,
pi it itone,
Fi>r,
fpar,
w earth,
pi 'ers earth,
G.
'oUnite, appendix,
net,
precious,
common,
Bohemian,
black,
j uber fait, native,,
7 i, ores <> ,
mines of,
'1 \phite,
j en earth,
jtnatite
flints, manufacture of,
rt*m,
H.
-J^natites. See Iron ores,
vy fpar,
'o trope,
low fpar,
njlone,
njlone,
fplintery,
conchoidal,
’.cinth,
\lite,
Irargillite,
7
x f it.
U
I.
ier,
Egyptian,
ftriped,
porcelain,
common,
agate,
opal,
hyophthalmite,
ium, ore of. See Platina,
, ores of,
t.radore ftone,
cmanitc,
L.
p. 202
l85
159
M7
210
158
178
179
ib.
I92
l66
ib.
ib.
ib.
165
184
204
ib.
201
I92
251
ib.
*55
ib.
154
210
217
219, 220
216
190
155
166
204
233> 234
206
172
180
188
164
ib.
151
169
118
171
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
172
ib.
181
217
231
179
177
M I N E It A L O G Y.
Lava,
La%ulite,
Lead, ores of)
Lepidu/ite,
Leucite,
Litncjione,
Lithsmarga,
Loam,
Lydian (tone,
M.
p. 189
177
237—239
185
154
198
190
182
165
Magnejia, native, 191
Magnejian genus, ib.
Magnetic iron ores, 232
Malachite ore of copper, 228
Manganefe, ores of, 24 24^
Marbles, varieties of, 199
Marl, 20 2
Meionitc, J 81
Me/anile, 15 4
Mellite, 214
Menachanite, 248
Menilite, 17°
JWerewry, ores of, 220,221
Mefotype. See Fibrous Zeolite, 173
Mica, 186
Mineral oil. See Petroleum, 213
pitch, ib.
Mineralogy, h i ft ory of, 129—132
Minerals, claflification of, 132
external characters of, 133
table of, 145—147
Mountain butter, 209
cork, 194
foap, 19°
ikfwnu/e of copper, 228
Native vitriol, 209
alum, ib.
Glauber fait, 2io
nitre, ib.
Natrolite, 17 7
Nephrite, 193
Nickel, ores of, 244, 245
Nigrine, 248
O.
Objidian, 17 3
Olivine, 15 2
Oolite, 19^
Opal, 169
mines of, ib.
common, 170
wood, ib.
Orpiment, 247
Ofmium. See Platinar 217
P.
Palladium. See Platina 217
Pearl-Jlone, 174
Peajlone, 200
Petroleum, 213
Phonolite, 189
Phofphorite, 203
Finite, 186
Pifolite, 200
Pijlu%ite, 161
Pitch-Jlone^ 173
Plafma,
Platina, ore of,
Plumbago. See Graphite,
Polijhing flate,
Porcelain-earth,
Pot-flone,
Prafe,
Pre knit e
Pumice,
Pyrites, copper,
iron,
Pyrope,
Pyrophyfalite,
Quartz,
common,
rofy red,
ferruginous,
255
P. 172
217
216
183
182
186
164
J.74
ib.
226
231
153
*58
162
163
ib.
ib.,
R.
Rhodium. See Platina,
Rhomb fpar,
Rock cryftal,
fait,
S.
Sahlite,
Sal ammoniac,
Salts, clafs ot,
Sapphire,
Scapolite,
Schiller-Jlone,
Schorl,
Schorl it e,
Schorlous beryl,
Sea-froth,
Selenite,
Semi-opal,
Serpentine,
Siliceous genus,
Siliceous fchiftus.
Silver ores,
Sinter, calcareous,
Slaty fpar,
Smaragdite,
Soda,
Sommite,
Specular iron ore,
Spinelle,
Spodumene,
Steatites,
Strontian genus,
Strontites, carbonate of,
fulphate of,
Stilbite. See Foliated Zeolite,
Sulphur,
Swine-Jlone,
T.
Talc,
Tantalium, ores of,
Tellurium, ores of,
Thumer-Jlone. See Axinite,
Tin, ores of.
Titanium, ores of,
Topa’Z,
Tourmaline,
217
202
162
2io
197
211
209
*56
180
193
160
ib.
ib.
*9*
205
170
I93
*5*
222—225
200
201
197
211
181
232
156
180
192
208
ib..
ib.
175
212
202
194
250
249
161
239, 240
248
1 3
160
Tremoiite,
2 $6
Trernoliif,
Tripoli,
Tung ft en, ores of,
U.
Umber,
Uranium, ores of,
V.
Veftuvian,
W.
IVacken.
p. 196
247
190
249
T53
189
MINERALOGY.
IVavel/ite. See Hi] dr argillite,
Wernorite. See ArElixite,
Whet flate,
Witherite,
Wolfram,
Wood opal,
Wood ftone,
Y.
lellow earth,
Tttrian genus, appendix,
p. 178
180
1S5
206
247
170
190
251
Zeolite,
mealy,
fibrous,
radiated,
foliated,
Zinc, ores of,
Zircon,
Zoyziic,
%
Index
P-
ib.
ib.
ib.
ib.
241
161
M I N
Minerva MINERVA, or Pallas, in Pagan worfiiip, the
Minirelia Sodde^s Sciences and of wifdom, fprung completely
J armed from Jupiter’s brain j and on the day of her na¬
tivity it rained gold at Rhodes. She difputed .ivith
Neptune the honour of giving a name to the city of
Athens ) when they agreed that whofoever of them
Ihould produce what was molt ufeful to mankind
Ihould have that advantage. Neptune, with a ftroke
of his trident, formed a horfe j and Minerva caufed an
olive to fpring from the ground, which was judged to
be. mott ufeful, from its being the fymbol of peace.
Minerva changed Arachne into a fpider, for pretend¬
ing to excel her in making tapeftry. She fought the
giants j favoured Cadmus, Ulyfles, and other heroes :
and refufed to marry Vulcan, choofing rather to live
in a Hate of celibacy. She alfo deprived Tircfias of
fight, turned Mbdula’s locks into fnakes, and perform¬
ed feveral other exploits.
Minerva is ufually reprefented by the poets, paint¬
ers and fculptors, completely armed, with a compofed
but agreeable countenance, bearing a golden breaftplate,
a fpear in her right hand, and her aegis or fhield in the’
left, on which is reprefented Medufa’s head encircled
with fnakes, and her helmet was ufually entwined with
•olives.
Minerva had feveral temples both in Greece and
Italy*. 1 he ufual viftim offered her was a white hei¬
fer, never yoked. The animals facred to her ivere the
cock, the owl, and the bafilifk.
MlNERVJE Caft rum, Arx Minervce, Minervium, or
Templum Minervce, in Ancient Geograplnj, a citadel,
temple, and toivn on the Ionian fea, beyond Hydrus ;
feen a great ivay out at fea. Now Caftro, a toivn of
Otranto in Naples. E. Long. 19. 25. N. Lat. 46. 8.
MlNERVJE Promontorium, in Ancient Geography, the
feat of the Sirens, a promontory in the Sinus Paeftanus,
the fouth boundary of Campania on the Tufcan coaft ;
fo called from a temple of Minerva on it •, fituated to
the fouth of Surrentum, and therefore called Surrentium.
Noav Capo della Minerva, on the Aveft coalt of Naples,
over againft the ifland Capri.
MINERVALIA, in Roman antiquity, feftivals ce¬
lebrated in honour of Minerva, in the month of March •,
at Avhich time the fcholars had a vacation, and ufually
made a prefent to their mailers, called from this feftival
Minerval.
MINGRELIA, anciently Colchis, a part of
Wellern Georgia, in Afia 5 bounded on the call by
Iberia, or Georgia properly fo called j on the Aveil, by
M I N
the Euxine fea ; on the fouth, by Armenia, and part Mingreli*.
of Pontus j and on the north, by Mount Caucafus. —y—J
Colchis, or Mingrelia, is watered by a great many
rivers ; as the Corax, the Hippus, the Cyaneus, the
Chariilus, the Phafis, Avhere the Argonauts landed, the
Abfarus, the Cifla, and the Ophis, all emptying them-
felves into the Euxine fea. The Phafis does not fpring
from the mountains in Armenia, near the fources of the
Euphrates, the Araxes, and the Tigris, as Strabo, Pliny,
Ptolemy, Dionyfius, and after them Arrian, Reland,
Calmet, and Sanfon, have falfely afferted ; but rifes in
Mount Caucafus j and Hoavs not from fouth to north,
but from north to fouth, as appears from the map of Col¬
chis or Mingrelia in Thevenot’s colledlion, and the ac¬
count which Sir John Chardin gives of that country.
This river forms in its courfe a fmall illand called alio
Phafts: Avhenee the pheafants, if Ifidorus is to be cre¬
dited, Avere firft brought to Europe, and thence called
by the Greeks P haft am. The other rivers of Colchis
are confiderable.
The Avhole kingdom of Colchis Avas in ancient times
very pleafant and fruitful, as it is dill Avhere duly cul¬
tivated ; abounded in all neceflaries of life ; and
Avas enriched Avith many mines of gold, which gave
occafion to the fable of the Golden Fleece and the Ar-
gonautic expedition, fo much celebrated by the ancients.
Sir John Chardin tells us, that this country extends
above 100 miles in length and 60 in breadth ; being
not near fo extenfive as the ancient Colchis, which
reached from the frontiers of Iberia or Georgia Pro¬
per, weftward to the Palus Mseotis : that it is beau¬
tifully diverfified Avith hills, mountains, valleys, Avoods,
and plains, but badly cultivated : that there are all
the kinds of fruits Avhich are found in England, grow¬
ing Avild, but taftelefs and infipid for Avaftt of cul¬
ture : that, if the natives underftood the art of ma¬
king Avines, thofe of this country Avould be the fineft
in the Avorld : that there are many rivers Avhich have
their fource in Mount Caucafus, particularly the Pha¬
fis, now called the Rione: that the country abounds
in beeves, hogs, wild boars, flags, and other venifon ;
and in partridges, pheafants, and quails : that falcons,
eagles, pelicans, lions, kepards, tygers, Avolves, and
jackals, breed on Mount Caucafus, and fometimes
greatly annoy the country : that the people are gene¬
rally handfome, the men flrong and Aveil made, and the
Avomen very beautiful 5 but both fexes very vicious and
debauched : that they marry their nieces, aunts, or
other relations, indifferently 5 and take tAvo or tlrree
a\ ives
M I N
ingrelia. wives if they pleafe, and as many concubines as they
’ will : that they not only make a common pra&ice of
felling their children, but even murder them, or bury
them alive, when they find it difficult to bring them
up : that the common people ufe a fort of pafte, made
of a plant called gom, inftead of bread *, but that of the
better fort confifts of wheat, barley, or rice : that the
gentry have an abfolute power over their vaffals, which
extends to life, liberty, and eftate : that their arms are
4he bow and arrow, the lance, the labre or broad-
fword, and the buckler : that they are very natty, and
eat fitting crofs-legged upon a carpet, like the Perfians j
but the poorer fort upon a mat or bench, in the fame
pofture : that the country is very thin of inhabitants,
no lefs than 12,000 being fuppofed to be fold yearly to
the Turks and Perfians : that the principal commodities
exported from it are, honey, wax, hides, call or, martens
Ikins, flax feed, thread, filk, and linen cloth ; but that
there are no gold or filver mines now, and very little
money : that the revenue of the prince or viceroy
amounts to about 20,000 crowns per annum : that the
inhabitants call themfelves ChriJUans ; but that both
they and their priefts are altogether illiterate, and igno¬
rant of the doctrines and precepts of Chriftianity : that
M I N"
their bilhops arc rich, have a great number of vaflals, Mingreh*
and are clothed in fcarlet and velvet; and that their
fervice is according to the rites of the Greek church..
with a mixture of Judaifm and Paganifrn.
The cities of molt note in this country in ancient
times were Pityus ; Diofcurias, or Diofcorias, which
was fo called from Caftor and Pollux, two of the Ar¬
gonauts, by whom it is fuppofed to have been found¬
ed, and who in Greek are ftyled Diofcuroi, at prefent
known by the name of Savatapoli; Aea on the Phafis,
fuppoled to be the fame as Hupolis; Phajis, fo called
from the river on which it Hood; Cyta, at the mouth
of the river Cyaneus, the birth place of the famous
Medea, called from thence, by the poets, Cijtceis ; Sa-
racse, Zadris, Surium, Madia, and ZoliiTa. As for
modern cities, it does not appear that there are any
here confiderable enough to merit a defeription ; or,
if there are, they feem to be little, if at all, known to
Europeans.
MINHO, a great river in Spain, which taking its
rife in Galicia, divides that province from Portugal,
and falls into the Atlantic at Caminha.
MINIATURE, in a general fenfe, fignifies repre-
fentation in a fmall compafs, or lefs than the reality.
[ 257 ]
MINIATURE PAINTING;
A DELICATE kind of painting, confifting of
little points or dots ; ufually done on vellum, ivo¬
ry, or paper, with very thin, fimple, water colours—
The word comes from the Latin minium, “ red lead
that being a colour much ufed in this kind of painting.
The French frequently call it mignature, from mignon,
“ fine, pretty,” on account of its fmallnefs and deli¬
cacy : and it may be ultimately derived from
“ fmall.”
Miniature is diftinguiflied from other kinds of paint¬
ing by the fmallnefs and delicacy of its figures and
faintnefs of the colouring ; on which account it re¬
quires to be viewed very near.
Sect. I. Of Drawing and Deftgning.
To fucceed in this art, a man fhould be perfeflly
{killed in the art of defigning or drawing ; but as moll
people who affeft the one, know little or nothing of
the other, and would have the pleafure of painting
without giving themfelves the trouble of learning to
defign (which is indeed an art that is not acquired
without a great deal of time, and continual applica¬
tion), inventions have been found out to fupply the
place of it ; by means of which a man defigns or draws
without knowing how to defign.
The firft is chalking : that is, if you have a mind to
do a print or defign in miniature, the backfide of it,
on another paper, mufl: be blackened with fmall coal,
and then rubbed very hard with the finger wrapped in
a linen cloth : afterwards the cloth muft be lightly
drawn over the fide fo blackened that no black grains
may remain upon it to foil the vellum you would paint
upon ; and the print or draught muft be faftened upon
the vellum with four pins, to keep it from fhifting.
Vol. XIV. Part I.
And if it be another paper that is blackened, it muft
be put between the vellum and the print, or draught,
with the blackened fide upon the vellum. Then, with
a blunted pin or needle, you rouft pafs over the princi¬
pal lines or ftrokes of the print, or draught, the con¬
tours, the plaits of the drapery, and over every thing
elfe that muft be diftinguiffied ; preffing fo hard, that
the ftrokes may be fairly marked upon the vellum un¬
derneath.
Copying .by fquares is another convenient method
for fuch as are but little Ikilled in the art of defigning,
and would copy pictures, or other things, that cannot
be chalked. The method is this : The piece muft be
divided into many equal parts by little fquares, mark¬
ed out with charcoal, if the piece be clear and w hitiih,
and the black can be fairly feen upon it; or with white
chalk, if it be too brown and dulky. After which, as
many fquares of equal dimenfions muft be made on
white paper, upon which the piece muft be defigned ;
becaufe, if this be done immediately upon vellum, (as
one is apt to milcarry in the firrt attempt), the vellum
may be foiled with falfe touches. But when it is neatly
done upon paper, it muft; be chalked upon the vellum
in the manner before deferibed. When the original and
the paper are thus ordered, obferve what is in each
fquare of the piece to be defigned ; as a head, an arm,
a hand, and fo forth ; and place it in the correfpond-
ing part of the paper. And thus finding w here to
place all the parts of the piece, you have nothing to
do but to form them well, and to join them together.
By this method you may reduce or enlarge a piece to
what compafs you pleafe, making the fquares of your
paper greater or lefs than thofe of the original ; but
they muft always be of an equal number.
To copy a pi£ture, or other thing, in the fame fize
K k and
25 8
J)ravving and proporlion, another method is, to make ufe of
Defining. varni!liecl PaPcr» or ^ie of a hog’s bladder, very
—t - tranfparent, fuch as is to be had at the gold-beaters.
Talc or ilinglafs will likewife do as well. Lay any one.
of thofe things upon your piece ; through it you will
fee all the ftrokes and touches, which are to be drawn
upon it with a crayon or pencil. Then take it off-,
and fattening it under paper or vellum, fet up both
againft the light in the manner of a window ; and with
a crayon, or a nlver needle, mark out upon the paper
or vellum you have put uppermoft, all the lines and
touches you (hall fee drawn upon the varnifhed paper,
bladder, talc, or ifinglafs, you have made ufe of, and
which will plainly appear through this window.
After this manner, making ufe of the window, or of
glafs expofed to the light, you may copy all forts of
prints, defigns, and other pieces on paper or vellum :
laying and fattening them under the paper or vellum
upon which you would draw them. And it is a very
good and a very eafy contrivance for doing pieces of
the fame tize and proportion.
If you have a mind to make pieces look another way,
there is nothing to be done but to turn them •, laying
the printed or drawn fide upon the glafs, and fattening
the paper or vellum upon the back of it; remembering
to let your lights fall on the left fide.
A good method likewife to take a true copy of a
picture in oil, is to give a touch of the pencil upon all
the principal ftrokes, with lake tempered with oil; and
to clap upon the whole a paper of the fame fize : then
patTing the hand over it, the touches of the lake will
ftick and leave the defign of your piece exprefled upon
the paper, which may be chalked like other things.
But you mult remember to take off with the crumb of
bread wdiat remains of the lake upon the picture be¬
fore it be dry.
\ ou muft likewife make ufe of pounce, made of
powdeced charcoal put in a linen rag; with which the
piece you would copy nmft be rubbed, after you have
pricked all the principal ftrokes or touches, and faften-
ed white paper or vellum underneath.
When the piece is marked out upon the vellum,
you muft pafs with a pencil of very clear carmine over
all the traces, that they may not be effaced as you
work: then clean your vellum with the crumb of bread,
that no black may remain upon it.
The vellum muft be pafted upon a plate of brafs or
wood, of the fize you would make your piece, to keep it
firm and tight. But this palling muft be on the edges
of your vellum only, and behind the plate, for which
purpofe your vellum muft exceed your plate above an
inch on every fide ; for the part you paint upon muft
never be pafted ; becaufe it would not only give it an
ill look, but you could not take it off if you -would.
Cut off the little (hags and locks of the vellum ; and
wetting the fair fide with a linen cloth dipped in water,
clap the other upon the plate with a clean paper be¬
tween them : fo much as hangs over muft be pafted
Upon the back of the plate, drawing it equally on all
Tides, and hard enough to ftretch it well.
Sect. II. Of Materials.
The chief colours made ufe of for painting in minia¬
ture are,
MINIATURE PAINTING.
Carmine.
Venice and Florence lake,
Rofe pink.
Vermilion.
Red lead.
Brown red.
Red orpiment.
Ultramarine.
Verditer.
Indigo.
Gall ftone.
Yellow ochre.
Dutch pink.
Gamboge.
Napl es yellow.
Pale mafticot.
Deep yellow mafticot.
Ivory black.
Lamp black.
True Indian ink.
Biftre, or wood foot.
Raw umber.
Burnt umber.
Sap green.
Verdigris.
Flake white.
Crayons of all colours.
Gold and filver (hells.
Leaf gold and leaf filver.
The feven tranfparent colours, which are ufed wher&
writing is feen through the colour.
’ Lake.
Blue.
Yellow.
Liquid Grafs-green.
Dark-green.
Purple colour.
_ Brown.
Moft of thefe colours neceffary for miniature paint¬
ing may eafily be prepared by attending to the direc¬
tions given under the article COLOUR-Makin
As colours taken from eartli and other heavy mat¬
ter are always too coarfe be they never fo well ground,
efpecially for delicate work, becaufe of a certain fand
remaining in them •, the fineft parts may be drawn out
by diluting them with the finger in a cup of water.
When they are well fteeped, let them fettle a while :
then pour out the cleared, which will be at top, into
another veffel. This will be the fineft, and muft be
let dry j and when it is ufed, muft be diluted with gum
water.
If you mix a little of the gall of an ox, a carp, or
an eel, particularly of the laft, in green, black, gray,
yellow, and brown, colours, it will not only take away
their greafy nature, but alfo give them a luftre and bright-
nefs they have not of themfelves. The gall of eels muft
be taken out when they are Ikinned, and hung upon a
nail to dry •, and when you would ufe it, it muft be di¬
luted with brandy; add a little of it mixed with the
colour you have diluted already. This likewife makes
the colour ftick bettir to the vellum, which it hardly
does when it is greafy : moreover, this gall hinders it
from fealing.
Sea. II,
Colours,
&c.
Some
a.:
clours,
, &c.
^r-v—
MINIATURE
Some colours are made clearer by fire ; as yellow
ochre, brown red, ultramarine, and umber all others
J are darkened by it. But if you heat the laid colours
with a (harp fire, they change *, for the brown red be¬
comes yellow •, yellow ochre becomes red •, umber red¬
dens aifo. Cerufs by fire takes the colour of citron,
and is often called maflicot. Obferve, that yellow ochre
heated, becomes more tender than it was, and fofter
than brown red. Likewife brown red heated becomes
fofter than fine yellow ochre. Both are very proper.
The fineil and trueft ultramarine, heated upon a red-
liot iron, becomes more glittering; but it walles, and
is coarfer and harder to work with in miniature.
All thefe colours are diluted in little cups of ivory,
made on purpofe, or in fea Ihells, with water in which
gum arable and fugareandy are put. For inftance,
in a glafs of water put a piece of gum as big as a wal¬
nut, and half that quantity of fugarcandy. This lait
hinders the colours from fealing when they are laid on,
which they generally do when they want it, or the
vellum is greafy.
This gum water mull be kept in a neat bottle cork¬
ed ; and you never muft take any out of it with a pen¬
cil that has colour upon it, but with a quill or fome
fuch thing.
Some of this w'ater is put in the lhell with the co¬
lour you -would temper, and diluted with the finger
till it be very fine. If it be too hard, you mull let it
ioften in the (hell with the laid water before you di¬
lute it. Afterwards let it dry ; and do thus with every
colour, except lily-green, fap-green, and gamboge,
which muft be tempered with fair water only. But ul¬
tramarine, lake, and biftre, are to be more gummed
than other colours.
If you make ufe of fea (hells, you muft let them
fteep two or three days beforehand in water : then
cleanfe them in boiling hot water, mixed with vinegar,
in order to carry oft' a certain fait, which other wife
.(ticks to them, and fpoils the colours that are put to
them.
To know whether colours are fufficiently gummed,
you have nothing to do but to give a ftroke of the pen¬
cil upon your hand when they are diluted, which dries
immediately : if they chap and fcale, there is too much
gum ; if they rub out by pafling the finger over them,
there is too little. It may be feen likewife v'hen the
colours are laid on the vellum, by pafting the finger
over them. If they (tick to it like a powder, it is a
(ign there is not gum enough, and more muft be put
to the water with which you temper them : but take
care you do not put too much ; for that makes the co¬
lour extremely hard and dry. It may be known like¬
wife by their glueinefs and brightnefs : fo the more
they are gummed, the darker they paint $ and w hen
you have a mind to give a greater ftrength to a colour
than 'it has of itfelf, you have nothing to do but to
give it a great deal of gum.
Provide yourfelf with an ivory pallet, very fmooth,
as big as your hand ; on one fide of which the colours
for the carnation, or naked parts of a piifture, are to
be ranged in the following manner. In the middle put
a great deal of white, pretty largely fpread •, becaufe
it is the colour moft made ufe of: and upon the edge,
from the left to the right, place the following colours at
a little diftance from the white.
PAINTING. 259
Mafticot. . Colours,
Dutch pink. , &CL‘
Orpiment.
Yellow ochre.
Green ; compofed of verditer, Dutch pink, and
w hite, in equal quantities.
Blue ; made of ultramarine, indigo, and white,
to a great degree ot palenels.
Vermilion.
Carmine.
Biftre, and
Black.
On the other fide of the pallet, fpread fome whit®
in the iame manner as for the carnation. And w'hen
you have a mind to paint draperies, or other things,
place near the white the colour you would make them
of, in order to w7ork, as (hall be Ihown hereafter.
The ufe of good pencils is a great matter. In or¬
der to make a good choice, wet them a little j and if
the hairs keep cloie together as you turn them upon
the finger, and make but one point, they are good :
but if they clofe not together, but make (everal points,
and fome are longer than others, they are good for
nothing. When they are too (harp pointed, with only
four or five hairs longer than the reft, yet doling all
together, they are, notvvithftanding, good ; but they
muft be blunted w ith a pair of feiftars, taking care at
the fame time you do not clip away too much. It is
proper to have two or three forts of them ; the larged
for laying the grounds and dead colouring, and the
fmalleft for finifhing.
To bring the hairs of your pencil to join clofe to¬
gether and make a good point, you muft often put the
pencil juft between your lips when you are at work ;
moiftening and prefling it. dofe with the tongue, even
when there is colour upon it; for if thei'e be too much,
fome of it is taken off by this means, and enough left
for giving fine and equal touches. You need not ap¬
prehend this will do you any harm. None of the co¬
lours for miniature, except orpiment, when they are
prepared, have either ill tafte or ill quality. This ex¬
pedient muft efpecially be ufed for dotting, and for fi-
nilhing, particularly the naked parts of a piflure, that
the touches may be neat and fair, and not too much
charged with colour. As for draperies and other
things, as well in dead colouring as in finiflring, it is
fufficient, in order to make the hairs of your pencil
join well, and to unload it when it has too much co¬
lour, to draw it upon the edge of the (hell, or upon
the paper you muft put upon your work to reft your
hand on, giving fome itrokes upon it before you work
upon your piece.
To work well in miniature, you muft do it in a
room that has but one window, and fix yourfelf very
near it, with a table and de(k almoft as high as the
window} placing yourfelf in fuch a manner, that the
light may always come in on the left (Ide, and never
forward or on the right.
When you would lay a colour on all parts equally
ftrong, as for a ground, you muft make your mixtures
in (hells, and put in enough for the thing you defign
to paint 5 for if there be not enough, it is a great chance
but the colour you mix afterwards is too dark or too
light.
K k 2
Sect.
MINIATURE
Sect. III. Of Working.
. i.n lr having fpoke of vellum, pencils, and colours,
let us now (how how they are to be employed. In the
firit place, then, when you would paint a piece, be it
carnation, drapery, or any thing elfe, you muft begin
by dead-colouring j that is to fay, by laying your co¬
lours on with liberal ftrokes of the pencil, in the
imootheft manner you can, as the painters do in oil;
not giving it all the force it is to have for a finifhing )
that is, make the lights a little brighter, and the fliades
It f» dark, than they ought to be ; becaufe in dotting
upon them, as you mult do after dead-colouring, the
colour is always fortified, and would at laft be too
dark.
1 here are feveral ways of dotting j and every painter
ias his own. Some make their dots perfedlly round j
Others make them a little longith j others hatch by
little flrokes that crofs each other every way, till the
work appears as if it had been wrought with dots,
"'his laft method is the beft, the boldeft, and the foon-
ed done . w herefore fuch as would paint m miniature
ought to ufe it, and to inure themfelves from the firfl
to dot in the plump and the foft Tvay ; that is to fay,
where the dots are lod, in a manner, in the ground
upon which you work, and only fo much appears as is
fufficient to make the work feem dotted. The hard
and. the dry w-ay is quite the reverfe, and always to be
avoided. This is done by dotting with a colour much
darker than your ground, and whan the pencil is not
moiftened enough with the colour, which makes the
work feem rough and uneven.
Study likewife carefully to lofe and drowm your co¬
lours one in another, io that it may not appear where
the}' disjoin j and to this end, foften or allav your
touches with colours that partake of both, in fuch fort
that it rnay not appear to be your touches which cut
and disjoin them. By the word cut, we are to under-
ftand what manifeftly feparates and divides, and does
not run in and blend itfelf with the neighbouring co¬
lours j which is rarely pra&ifed but upon the borders
of drapery.
When your pieces are finilhed, to heighten them a
little, give them a fine air j that is to fay, give, upon
the extremity of the lights, fmall touches with a co¬
lour yet lighter, which muft be loft and drowned with
the reft.
When the colours are dry upon your pallet or in
your (hells, in order to ufe them, they muft be diluted
with water. And when you perceive they want gum,
winch is feen when they eafily rub off the hand or the
vellum if you give a touch with them upon either, they
muft be tempered with gum water inftead of pure wa¬
ter, till they are in condition.
There are feveral forts of grounds for pictures and
poi traitures. Some are wholly dark, compofed of
biftre, umbre, and Cologn earth, with a little black
and white ; others more yellow, in which is mixed a
great deal of ochre , others grayer, which partake of
indigo. In order to paint a ground, make a wafli of
the colour or mixture you would have it, or according
to that of the pi&ure or portraiture you would copy';
tjiat is to fay, a very light lay, in which there is hardly
any thing but water, in order to foak the vellum.
PAINTING. Sed. Ill
Then pafs another lay over that, fomewhat thicker, and Of
Itnke it on very fmoothly with large ftrokes as quick Working.
as you can, not touching twice in the fame place before ' *—‘
it be dry ; .becaufe the fecond ftroke carries off what
has been laid on at the firft, efpecially when you lean a
little too light upon the pencil.
Other dark grounds are likewife made of a colour a
little greemfh j and thofe are moft in ufe, and the pro-
pereft to lay under all forts of figures and portraitures :
becaule they make the carnation, or naked parts of a
picture, appear very fine j are laid on very cafily, and
there is no occafion to dot them, as one is often obliged
to do the others, which are rarely made fmooth and
even at the firft j whereas in thefe one feldom fails of
luccefs at the firft bout. To make them, you muft
mix black, Dutch pink, and white, all together : more
or lels of each colour, according as you would have
them darker or lighter. \ ou are to make one lay very-
light, and then a thicker, as of the firft grounds. You
may alfo make them of other colours, if you nleafe •
but thefe are the moft common. *
When you paint a holy perfon upon one of thefe
grounds, and would paint a fmall glory round the
he^d of your figure, you muft not lay the colour tom
thick m that part, or you may even lay none at all,
eipecially w^here this glory is to bo very bright: but
lay for the firft time with white and a little ochre
mixed together, of a fufficient thicknefs ; and in pro¬
portion as you go from the place of the head, put a
little more ochre j and to make it lofe itfelf, and die
away with the colour of the ground, hatch with a free
ftroke. of the pencil, following the round of the glory
fometimes with the colour of which it is made, and
fometimes with that of the ground, mixing a little
white or ochre with the laft when it paints too dark to
work with : and do this till one. be infenfibly loft in
another, and nothing can be feen to disjoin them.
To fill, an entire ground with a glory, the brighteft
part is laid on with a little ochre and white, adding
more of the firft in proportion as you come nearer the
edges of the pi&ure : and when the ochre is not ftrong
enough (for you muft always paint darker and darker),
add gall ftone, afterwards a little carmine, and laftly
biftre. This firft laying, or dead colouring, is to be
made as foft as poffible; that is to fay, let thefe fha-
dowings lofe themfelves in one another without gap or
interfeftion. Then the way is to dot upon them with
the fame colours, in order to drown the whole toge¬
ther which is pretty tedious, and a little difficult,
e.pecially wrhen there are clouds of glory on the
ground. Their lights muft be fortified in proportion
as you remove from the figure, and finilhed as the
reft, by dotting and rounding the clouds j the bright
and obfeure parts of which muft run infenfibly into one
another.
For a day fky, take ultramarine and a good deal of
white, and mix them together. With this make a lay,
as fmooth as you can, with a large pencil and liberal
ftrokes, as for grounds j applying it paler and paler
as you defeend towards the horizon j which muft be
done with vermilion or red lead, and with white of
the fame ftrength with that where the fky ends, or
fomething lefs .; making this blue lofe itfelf in the red,
which you bring down to the fkirts of the earth, or
tops of houfes J mixing towards the end gall ftone and.
edf. IV. MINIATURE
a good deal of white, in fuch a manner that the mix-
Voiking. ^ ture lje ftiU paltr than the former, without any vifib’le
interfedlion or parting between ctll thefe colours of the
When there are clouds in the Iky, you may fpare
the places where they are to be •, that is to fay, you
need not lay on any blue there, but form them, if they
are reddiih, with vermilion gall Hone, and white, with
a little indigo} and if they are more upon the black,
put in a good deal of the laft •, painting the lights
of one and the other with mafticot, vermilion, and
white, more or lefs of any of thefe colours, according
to the ftrength you would give them, or according to
that of the original you copy ^ rounding the whole as
yot dot; for it is a difficult matter to lay them very
fmootb at the firtl painting : and if the Iky is not
even enough, you muft dot it alfo.
It is at your pleafure to exempt the places of the
clouds, for you may lay them upon the ground of the
fky; heightening the bright parts by putting a good
deal of white, and fortifying the ffiadows by ufing lefs.
This is the ihorteft way.
A night or ftormy Iky, is done with indigo, black,
and white, mixed together; which is laid as for a
day Iky. To this mixture mull be added ochre, vermi¬
lion, or brown red, for the clouds $ the lights of which
are to be of mafticot or red lead, and a little white,
now redder, now yellower, at diferetion. And when
k is a tempeftuous Iky, and lightning appears in
fome places, be it blue or red, it is to be done as in
a day Iky, drowning and lofing the whole together
at the firft forming or dead colouring, and at the
finifliing.
Sect. IV. Of Draperies.
To paint a blue drapery, put ultramarine near the
white upon your pallet; and mix a part of the one
with the other, till it makes a fine pale, and has a body.
With this mixture you muft form the brigliteft parts j
and then adding more ultramarine, form fuch as are
darker $ and go on after this manner till you come to
the deepeft plaits and the thickeft (hades, where you
muft lay pure ultramarine : and all this muft be done
as for a firft forming or dead colouring j that is to fay,
laying the colour on with free ftrokes of the pencil,
yet as fmooth as you can 5 lofing the lights in the ftia-
dows with a colour neither fo pale as the light nor
fo dark as the (hades. Then dot with the fame colour
as in the firft forming, but a fmall matter deeper j
that the dots may be fairly feen. All the parts muft
be drowned one in another, and the plaits appear with¬
out interfeftion. When the ultramarine is not dark
enough to make the deeper (hadows, how well foever
it be gummed, mix a little indigo with it to finifti
them. And when the extremities of the lights are not
bright enough, heighten them with white and a very
little ultramarine.
A drapery of carmine is done in the fame manner
as the blue j except that in the darkeft places there
Is to be a lay of pure vermilion, before you dead
colour with carmine, which muft be applied at top ;
and in the ftrongeft (hades, it muft be gummed very
much. To deepen it the more, mix a little biftre with
it.,
4"
PAINTING. 261
There is likewife made another red drapery, which Of
is firft drawn with vermilion, mixing white with it
to dead colour the bright places, laying it pure and
unmixed for thofe that are darker, and adding car¬
mine for the grand (hades. It is finifhed afterwards,
like other draperies, with the fame colours. And when
the carmine with the vermilion do not darken enough,
work with the firft alone, but only in the deepert of the
(hades.
A drapery of lake is made in the fame manner with
that of carmine ; mixing a good deal of white with it
for the bright places, and very little for thofe that are
dark. It is finilhed likewife with dotting ; but you
have nothing to do with vermilion in it.
Violet draperies are likwife done after this manner;
after making a mixture of carmine and ultramarine,
putting always white for the bright parts. If you
would have your violet be columbine or dove colour,
there muft be more carmine than ultramarine : but if
you would have it bluer and deeper, put more ultra-
marine than carmine.
A drapery is made of a flcdi colour, beginning
with a lay made of white, vermilion, and very pale
lake ; and making the (hades with the fame colours,
ufing lefs white in them. This drapery muft be very
pale and tender, becaufe the (luff of this colour is
thin and light; and even the (hades of it ought not to
be deep.
To make a yellow drapery, put a lay of mafticot'
over all ; then one of gamboge upon that, excepting
the brighteft places, where the mafticot muft be left
entire ; the dead colour with ochre, mixed with a
little gamboge and mafticot, putting more or lefs of
the laft according to the ftrength of the (hades. And
when thefe colours do not darken enough, add gall
(lone. And gall (lone pure and unmixed is ufed for
the thickeft (hades ; mixing a little biftre with it, if
there be occafion to make them dill darker. You
finifti by dotting with the fame colours you dead-
coloured with, and lofing the lights and the (hades in
one another.
If you put Naples yellow, or Dutch pink, in lieu
of mafticot and gamboge, you will make another fort
of yellow.
The green drapery is made by a general lay of ver-
diter ; with which, if you find it too blue, mix mafti¬
cot for the lights, and gamboge for the (hades. After-
■wards add to this mixture lily-green or fap-green, to
(hadow with ; and as the (hades are thicker, put more of
thefe lad greens, and even work with them pure and
unmixed where they are to be extremely dark. You
finith with the fame colours, a little darker.
By putting more yellow, or more blue, in thefe co¬
lours, you may make different forts of green as you
pleafe.
To make a black drapery, you dead colour with
black and v'hite, and finiffi with the fame colour, put¬
ting more black as the (hades are thicker ; and for
the darkeft, mix indigo with it, efpecially when you
would have the drapery appear like velvet. You may
always give fome touches with a brighter colour, to
heighten the lights of any drapery whatfoever.
A white woollen drapery is made by a lay of white,
in which there muft be a very fmall matter of ochre)
orpiment, or gall (tone, that it may look a little yel-
lowiffi.
262 MINIATURE
Of luwidi. Then dead-colour, and finifli the fliades with
. ‘blue, a little black, white, and biftre $ putting a great
deal of the lad in the darkeft.
I he light gray is begun with black and white, and
finiihed with the fame colour deeper.
For a brown drapery, make a lay of biftre, white,
and a little brown red } and fhadow with this mixture,
made a little darker.
There are other draperies, called variable, becaufe
the lights are of a different colour from the {hades.
Thefe are moftly ufed for the veftments of angels, for
young and gay people, for fcarfs and other airy attire,
admitting of a great many folds, and flowing at the
pleafure of the wind. The moft common are the
violets : of which they make two forts \ one, where
the lights are blue j and the other, where they are
yellow.
For the firft, put a lay of ultramarine and very pale
white upon the lights j and fliadow with carmine, ul¬
tramarine, and white, as for a drapery wholly violet •, fo
that only the grand lights appear blue. Yet they muft
be dotted with violet, in which there is a great deal of
white, and loft infenftbly in the ftiadcs.
The other is done by putting upon the lights only,
inftead of blue, a lay of mafticot j working the reft
as in the drape ry all violet, excepting that it mult
be dotted, and the light parts blended with the flia-
dowy, that is, the yellow with the violet, with a little
gamboge.
The carmine red is done like the laft ; that is, let
the lights be done with mafticot, and the fliades with
carmine •, and to lofe the one in the other, make ufe of
gamboge.
The lake red is done like that of carmine.
The green is done as the lake : always mixing ver-
diter with lily or fap green, to make the (hades j which
are not very dark.
Several other forts of draperies may be made at dif-
cretion, always taking care to preferve the union of
the colours, not only in one fort of cloth or fo, but
alfo in a group of feveral figures ; avoiding, as much
as the fubjed will allow, the putting of blue near the
colour of fire, of green againft black ; and fo of other
colours which cut and disjoin, and whole union is not
kind enough.
Several other draperies are made of foul colours, as
brown red, biftre, indigo, &c. and all in the fame
manner. Likew’ife of other colours, Ample and com¬
pound ; the agreement between which is always to be
minded, that the mixture mav produce nothing harfti
and difagreeable to the eye. No certain rule can be
laid down for this. The force and effed of your co¬
lours are only to be known from ufe and experience,
and you muft work according to that knowledge.
Linen cloths are done thus : After drawing the
plaits or folds, as is done in a drapery, put a lay
of white over all *, then dead colour, and finifli the
fliades with a mixture of ultramarine, black, and
white, ufmg more or lefs of the laft, according to
tiieir ftrength or tendernefs *, and in the greateft
deepenings put biftre, mixed with a little white j
giving only fome touches of this mixture, and even
of pure biftre, upon the extremities of the greateft
fliadows, where the folds muft be drawn, and loft with
the reft.
PAINTING. Sed. IV.
They may be done in another manner, by making Of
a general lay of this mixture of ultramarine, black, iDraPei'ies-
and very pale white •, and dead colour (as lias been faid ' ‘
before) udth the fame colour, but a little deeper. And
when the {hades are dotted and finiftied, heighten the
lights with pure white, and lofe them with "the deep¬
enings of the linen. But of whatever fort you make
them, when they are finiflied, you muft give a yellowiih
teint of orpiment and white to certain places ; lay in r it
lightly on, and as it were in water ; fo that what is
underneath may, notwithftanding, plainly appear, as
well the fliadows as the dotting.
Yellow linen cloth is done by putting a lay of white
mixed with a little ochre. Then form and finifti the
ftiades with biftre, mixed with white and ochre ; and
in the thickeft ftiades ufe pure biftre ; and before you
finifti, give fome teints here and there of ochre and
white, and others of white and ultramarine, as well
upon the {hades as the lights j but let them be very
bright : and drown the whole together in dotting, and
it will look finely. As you finilh, heighten the extre¬
mities of the lights with mafticot and white. You may
add to this fort of linen, as well as to the white, cer¬
tain bars from fpace to fpace, as in Turkey mantuas ;
that is, fmall ftripes blue and red with ultramarine and
carmine ; one of red between two of blue, very bright
and clear upon the lights, and deeper upon the fliades.
Virgins are pretty often drefied with veils of this fort
(by Popifli painters), and fcarfs of this kind are put
about necks that are bare j beeaufe they become the
teint mighty well.
If you would have both thefe forts of linen tranfpa-
rent, and the fluff or other thing that is beneath ap¬
pear through them, make the firft lay for them very
light and clear, and mix in the colour to ftiadow with,
a little of that which is underneath, efpeeially towards
the end of the ftiades ; and only do the extremities of
the lights, for the yellow, with mafticst and white ;
and for the white, with pure white.
They may be done in another manner, cfpecially
when you would have them altogether as clear as muf-
lin, lawn, or gauze. To this end form and finifli what
is to be beneath, as if nothing was to be put over it.
Then mark out the light and clear folds with white or
mafticot; and a fhadowy with biifre and white, or with
black, blue, and white, according to the colour you
would make them off; making the reft fomewhat faint¬
er : yet this is not neceffary but for the parts that are
not to be fo clear.
Crape is done the fame ivay ; excepting that the
folds of the fliades and the lights, and the borders too,
are to be marked out with little filaments of black up¬
on w hat is underneath ; which is like wife to be finiflied
beforehand.
When you would make a fluff' like a watered
tabby, make the weaves upon it with a colour a lit¬
tle lighter, or a little darker, in the lights and the
fliades.
There is a manner of touching draperies which di-
ftinguiihes the filken from the woollen. The laft are
more lerreftrial and fenfible ; the others more light
and fading. But it muft be obferved, that this is an
effect which depends partly upon the fluff and partly
upon the. colour ; and for the employing thefe in a
manuer fuitable to the fubjefts and the deepenings of
painting,
fed. IV.
MINIATURE
Of painting, tve fliall liere touch upon their different qua-
Draperies. Iitie3.
' v ~ \Ve have no colour which partakes more of light,
nor which comes nearer the air, than white •, which
{hows it to be fickle and fleeting. It may, neverthelefs,
be held and brought to by fome neighbouring co¬
lour, more heavy and fenfible, or by mixing them to¬
gether.
Blue is a moft fleeting colour r and fo we fee, that
the fky and the remoteft views of a pifture are of this
colour j but it will become lighter and fickler in pro¬
portion as it is mixed with white.
Pure black is the heavieft and moft terreftrial of all
* colours ; and the more of it you mix with others, the
nearer you bring them to the eye,
Neverthelefs, the different, difpofitions of black and
-white make alfo their effefts different: for white often
makes black difappear, and black brings white more
into view 5 as in the reflection of globes, or other fi¬
gures to be made round, where there are always parts
that fly as it wrere from the eye, and deceive it by the
craft of art: and under the white are here comprehend¬
ed all the light colours j as under the black, all the
heavy colours.
Ultramarine is then foft and light.
Ochre is not fo much fo.
Mafticot is very light; and fo is verditer.
Vermilion and carmine come near this quality.
Orpiment and gamboge not fo near.
Lake holds a certain mean, rather foft than rough.
Dutch pink is an indifferent colour, eafily taking
the quality of others. So it is made terreftrial by
mixing it w’ith colours that are fo 5 and, on the con¬
trary, the moft light and fleeting by joining it with
white or blue.
Brown red, umber, dark greens, and biftre, are the
heavieft and moft terreftrial, next to black.
Skilful painters, who underftand perfpeftive, and
the harmony of colours, always obferve to place the
dark and fenfible colours on the fore parts of their
pictures 5 and the moft light and fleeting they ufe for
the diftances and remote views. And as for the union
of colours, the different mixtures that may be made of
them will learn you the friendfhip or antipathy they
have to one another. And upon this you .muft take
your meafures for placing them with fuch agreement
as {hall pleafe the eye.
For the doing of lace, French points, or other things
of that nature, put over all a lay of blue, black, and
white, as for linen j then heighten the flowerwork with
pure white : afterwards make the (hades above with the
firft colour, and finifti them with the fame. When they
are upon the carnation or naked parts of a picture, or
upon any thing elfe that you would (how through an¬
other, finifti what is beneath, as if nothing was to be
put over it: and at top, make the points or lace with
pure white, ftiadowing and finiftiing them with the other
mixture.
If you would paint a fur, you muft begin with a kind
of drapery, done, if it be dark, with biftre and white,
making the fhadowings of the fame colour, with lefs
white. If the fur be white, do it with blue, white,
and a little biftre. And when this beginning, or firft
forming, is done, inftead of dotting, draw fmall ftrokes,
turning, now in one manner, now in another, accord-
5
PAINTING. 463
ing to the courfe and flatting of the hair. Heighten Of
the lights of dark furs with ochre and white, and of the 0arnatl(ins^
other with white and a little blue.
For doing a building, if it be of ftone, take indigo,
biftre, and white, with which make the beginning or
firft form of it : and for lhadowing it, put lefs of this
laft *, and more biitre than indigo, according to the co¬
lour of the ftone you would paint. To thefe you may
likewife add a little ochre, both for the forming and
the finiftiing. But to make it finer, you muft give,
here and there, efpecially for old fabrics, blue and
yellow teints, fome with ochre, others with ultramarine,
mixing always white with them, whether before the firft
forming, provided they appear through the draught, or
whether upon it, lofing or drowning them with the reft
when you finifti.
When the building is of wmod, as there are many
forts, it is done at diferetion j but the moft ordinary
way is to begin or firft form with ochre, biftre, and
white, and finifti without white, or with very little j
and if the (hades arc deep, with pure biftre. In the
other they add fometimes vermilion, fometimes green
or black ; in a word, juft according to the colour they
would give it ; and they finifti with dotting, as in dra¬
peries and every thing elfe.
Sect. V. Of Carnations, or the naked parts of a
Painting.
There are in carnation fo many different colour¬
ings, that it would be a difficult thing to give general
rules upon fo variable a fubjedt. Nor are they mind¬
ed, when one has got, by cuftom and pradtice, fome
habit of working eafily : and fuch as are arrived to
this degree, employ themfelves in copying their ori¬
ginals, or clfe they work upon their ideas, without
knowing how : infomuch, that the moft (kilful, who
do it with lefs refledtion and pains than others, would
likewife be more put to it to give an account of their
maxims and knowledge in the matter of painting, if
they were to be a(ked what colours they made ufe of
for fuch and fuch a colouring, a teint here, and another
there.
Neverthelefs, as beginners want fome inftrudtion at
the firft, we will (how in general after what manner fe-.
veral carnations are to be done.
In the firft place, After having draivn your figure
with carmine, and ordered your piece, apply for wo¬
men and children, and generally for all tender colour¬
ings, a lay of white, mixed with a very little of the
blue made for faces, of which we have told the compo-
(ition } but let it hardly be feen.
And for men, inftead of blue, they put in this firft
lay a little vermilion \ and when they are old, a little
ochre is mixed with it.
Afterwards follow all the traces with vermilion,
carmine, and white, mixed together ; and begin all
the (hades with this mixture, adding white in propor¬
tion as they are weaker; and putting but little in the
darkeft, and none, in a manner, in certain places
where ftrong touches are to be given : for inftance, in
the corner of the eye ; under the nofe 5 at the ears j
under the chin j in the feparations of the fingers j in
all joints} at the corners of the nails j and generally
in every part where you would mark out feparations
2^4 MINIATURE
Carnations. U' ^iat^es that are ebfcure. Neither need you fear to
i——v-,. tnofc places all the force and llrcngtli they
ought to have as foon as you begin or firft form them,
becaufe in working at top with green, the red you have
put there is always weakened.
After having begun, or firft formed, or dead-colour¬
ed, with red, make blue teints with ultramarine and a
great deal of white, upon the parts which fly from the
eye j tliat is to fay, upon the temples j under and, in
the corner* of tlie eyes ; on both tides the mouth, above
and below ; a little upon the middle of the forehead j
between the nofe and the eyes j on the fide of the
(. hecks 5 on the neck and other places where the flefh
aifumes a bluifh call. ellowilh teints are like wife
made with ochre or orpiment, and a little vermilion
mixed with white, under the eyebrows, on the fides of
the nofe towards the bottom, a little underneath the
cheeks, and upon the other parts which rife and come
nearer the eye. It is efpecially from thefe teints that
the natural complexion is to be obferved, in order to
catch it; for painting being an imitation of nature,
the perfection of the art confifts in the juftnefs and fim-
plicity of the reprefentation, efpecially in face paint-
ing.
\\ hen, therefore, you have done your firft lay, your
dead-colouring, and your teints, you muft work upon
the fliades, dotting with green for the carnations or
naked parts, mixing, according to the rule we have
given for the teints, a little blue for the parts which
fly from the eye j and, on the other hand, making it
a little yellower for thofe that are more fenfible j that
is to lay, which rife, and come nearer the eye : and
at the end of the fiiades, on the fide of the light, you
mull blend and lofe your colour infenfibly in the
ground of the carnation with blue, and then with red,
according to the places where you paint. If this mix¬
ture of green does not work dark enough at firit, pafs
over the (hades feveral times, now with red, and now
with green j always dotting : and this do till they are
as they fhould be.
And if you cannot with thefe colours give the (hades
all the force they ought to have, finifii, in the darkelt,
with biftre mixed with orpiment, ochre, or vermilion,
and fometimes with pure biftre, according to the co¬
louring you would make, but lightly, laying on your
colour very clear.
\ou muft dot upon the clear and bright places with
a little vermilion or carmine, mixed with much white,
and a very fmall matter of ochre, in order to lofe them
with the^ (liadowy, and to make the teints die away in¬
fenfibly into one another *, taking care, as you dot, or
hatch, to make your ftrokes follow the turnings and
windings of the fleftiy parts. For though the rule be
to crofs always, this dotting or hatching ought to ap¬
pear a little more here, becaufe it rounds the parts.
And as this mixture might make a colouring too red
if it was always to be ufed, they work likewife in
every part, to hlend the teints and the (hades with
blue and a little green, and much white, fo mixed as
to be very pale j excepting, neverthelefs, that this
colour muft not be put upon the cheeks, nor upon the
extremities of the clear parts, po more than the other
mixture upon thefe laft, which muft be left with all
their light j as certain places of the chin, of the nofe,
and of the forehead, and upon the cheeks; which, and
PAINTING.
u , Sea. V.
the cheeks, ought neverthelefs to be redder than the Of
reft, as well as the feet, the hollows of the hands, and c'an)ations.
the fingers of both. £—
Obferve, that thefe two laft: mixtures ought to be fo
pale, that the work (hall hardly be vifible j for they
ferve only to foften it j to unite the teints with one
another, and tlie dudes with the lights, and to drown
the traces. Care muft likewife be taken that you work
not too much with the red mixture upon the blue
teints, nor with the blue upon the others: but
change the colour from time to time, when you per¬
ceive it works too blue or too red, till the work be fi.
niftied.
The white of the eyes muft be (liadowed with this
lame blue, and a little ftefti colour j and the corners, on
the lide of the nofe, with vermilion and white ; giving-
them a little touch of carmine. The whole is foftened
wit’1 this mixture of vermilion, carmine, white, and a
very fmall matter of ochre.
. ^ ^ie apples or balls of the eyes are done with the
mixture of ultramarine and white j the laft prevailing
a little ; adding a little biftre, if they are yellowifli : or
a little black, if they are gray. Make the little black
circle m the middle, called the crystal of the eye; and
fliadow the balls with indigo, biftre, or black, accord¬
ing to the colour they are of j giving to each a fmall
touch ot pure vermilion round the cryftal; which muft
be loft with the reft at the finiftung. This gives viva¬
city to the eye.
. Tlie round or circumference of the eye is done with
biftre and carmine; that is to fay, the flits or partings,
and the eyelids, when they are large and bold ; efpe-
cially the upper ones ; which muft afterwards be foft¬
ened with the red or blue mixtures ive have mention¬
ed before, to tlie end they may be loft in one another
and nothing feem interfeaed. When this is done, give
a little touch of pure white upon the cryftal, on the
fide of the lights. This makes the eye (hine, and gives
life to it. ' > 6
. I ke mouth is dead-coloured with vermilion, mixed
with white ; and finiftied with carmine, which is foft¬
ened as the reft. And when the carmine does not wrork
dark enough, mix a little biftre with it. This is to be
underftood of the corners in the feparation of the lips :
and particularly, of certain mouths half open.
I he hands, and all the other parts of carnation, are
done in the fame manner as the faces j obferving, that
the ends of the fingers be a little redder than the reft.
When your whole work is formed and dotted, mark
the leparations of all the parts with little touches of
carmine and orpiinent mixed together, as well in the
(hadowy as the light places ; but a little deeper and
ftronger in the firft, and lofe them in the reft of the
carnalion.
The eyebrows and the beard are dead-coloured, as
are the (hades of carnations 3 and finiftied with biftre,
oenre, or black, according to the colour they are of,
drawing them by little ftrokes the way they ought to
go ; that is to fay, give them all the nature of hair.
The lights of them muft be heightened with ochre and
biftre, a little vermilion, and much white.
For the hair of the head, make a lay of biftre, ochre,
and white, and a little vermilion. When it is very
dark coloured, ufe black inftead of ochre. Afterwards
form the (hadowy parts with the fame colours, putting
left
,<3. VI. MINIATURE
Of lefs white in them ; and finifti with pure bid re, or mix-
rations. ef^ ochre or black, by fmall drokes very line, and
dofe to each other, waving and buckling them accord¬
ing to the curling of the hair. The light parts mud
alio be heightened by little drokes with ochre or or-
piment, -white, and a little vermilion. After which, lofe
the lights and the (hades in each other, by working
fometimes with a dark and fometimes with a light co-
lour.
And for the hair about the forehead, through which
the Ikin is feen, it mud be fird formed with the co¬
lour thereof, and that of the carnation, working and
Shadowing with one and the other, as if you defigned
to paint none. Then form it, and finilh with bidre.
The lights are to be heightened as the other. Gray
hair is°dead-coloured with white, black, and bidre,
and finished with the fame colour, but deeper ; height¬
ening the bright and clear parts of the hair, as well as
thofe of the eyebrows and the beard, with white and
very pale blue, after having formed them as the others,
with the colour of the fledi or ikin j and finiih with
bidre.
But the mod important thing is to foften one’s
Work *, to blend the teints in one another, as well as the
beard and the hair about the forehead, with the other
hair and the carnation } taking efpecial care not to
work rough and dry 5 and that the traces, turnings,
and windings of the carnation or naked parts, be not
interfered. You mud likewife accudom yourfelf to
put white in your colours only in proportion as you
work lighter or darker 5 for the colour you ufe the fe-
cond time mud be always a little dronger and deeper
than the fird, unlefs it be for foftening.
Different colourings are eafily made, by putting
more or lefs of red, er blue, or yellow, or bidre, whe¬
ther for the dead-colouring, or for the finishing.—
That for women ought to be bluitb ; that for child¬
ren a little red j and both frefh and florid. That
for men ought to be yellower ; efpecially when they
are old.
To make a colouring of death, there mud be a fird
lay of white and orpiment, or a very pale ochre : dead-
colour xvith vermilion, and lake, indead of carmine,
and a good deal of white j and afterwards work over
it with a green mixture, in which there is more blue
than any other colour, to the end the flefh may be li¬
vid and of a purple colour. The tints are done the
fame way as in another colouring ; but there mud be
a great many more blue than yellow ones, efpecially
upon the parts which fly from the fight, and about the
eyes; and the lad are only to be upon the parts which
rife and come nearer the eye. They are made to die
away in one another, according to the ordinary man¬
ner •, fometimes with very pale blue, and fometimes
with ochre and white, and a little vermilion *, foft¬
ening the whole together. The parts and contours
mud be rounded with the fame colours. The mouth
is to be, in a manner, of a quite violet. It is dead-
coloured, however, with a little vermilion, ochre, and
white ; but finifbed with lake and blue ; and to give
it the deep drokes, they take bidre and lake, with
which they likewife do the fame to the eyes, the nofe,
and the ears. If it be a crucifix, or fome martyr, up¬
on whom blood is to be feen? after the finifliing the
Vol. XIV. Part I.
PAINTING. 265
car nation, form it with vermilion, and finilh it with C)f
carmine, making in the drops of blood a little bright.
reflecting fpark, to round them. For the crown 1
thorns, make a lay of fea-green and madicot; fhadow
it with bidre and green ; and heighten the clear and
light parts with madicot.
Iron is formed, or fird laid, with indigo, a little
black and white ; and finifbed with pure indigo, height¬
ening it with white.
For painting fire and flames, the lights are done with
madicot and orpiment 5 and for the (hades, they mix
vermilion and carmine.
A fmoke is done with black, indigo, and white, and
fometimes with bidre 5 one may likewife add vermilion
or ochre, according to the colour it is to be of.
Pearls are painted by putting a lay of white, and a
little blue: they are fhadowed and rounded with the
fame colour, deeper •, a fmall white dot is made almod
in the middle on the fide of the light $ and on the other
fide, between the (hadow and the edge of the pearl,
they give a touch with madicot, to make the reflection j
and under the pearls is made a little (hadow of the co¬
lour of the ground they are upon.
Diamonds are made with pure black ; then the^
heighten them with little touches of white on the fide
of the light. It is the fame thing for any other jewels
you have a mind to paint: there is nothing to be done
but to change the colour.
For making a figure of gold, put a lay of {hell-gold,
and (hadow it with galldone. Silver is done the
fame way ; excepting that it mud be fhadowed with
indigo.
One great means of acquiring a perfection in the art,
is to copy excellent originals. We enjoy with pleafure
and tranquillity the labour and pains of others. But a
man mud copy a great number before he is able to pro¬
duce as fine effeCts j and it is better to be a good copier
than a bad author.
StcT. VI. Of Landfcapes.
In the fird place, After having ordered the economy
of your landfcape as of your other pieces, you mud form
the neared grounds or lands, when they are to appear
dark, with lap or lily-green, bidre, and a little verditer,
to give a body to your colour •, then dot with this mix¬
ture, but a little darker, adding fometimes a little black
to it.
For fuch pieces of ground as the light falls upon, and
which are therefore clear and bright, wake a lay of
ochre and white, then (hadow and fini(h with bidre.
In fome they mix a little green, particularly for tha-
dowing and finidiing.
There are fometimes upon the fore part certain red-
dilh lands *, which are dead-coloured with brown-red,
white, and a little green ; and finidied with the fame,
putting a little more green in them.
For the making of grafs and leaves upon the fore¬
ground, you mud, when that is finifhed, form with fea-
green, or verditer, and a little white j and for thofe
that are yellowifh, mix madicot. Afterwards fhadow
them with lily-green, or bidre and galldone, if you
would have them appear withered.
The grounds or lands at a little didance are formed
L 1 witk
266 MINIATURE
T aiv A ^ "■ ver(^^er, and fhadowed and finiflied with fap-
■ I'l.—. green, adding biitre for fomc of the touches here and
V there.
Such as are at a greater diftance, are done with
fea-green and a little blue j and lhadowed with ver-
diter.
In a word, the farther they go, the more bluifh they
are to be made j and the fartheft diftance ought to be
of ultramarine and white j mixing in lome places fmall
touches of vermilion.
Water is painted with indigo and white, and Ihadow-
ed with the fame colour, but deeper j and to finilh it,
initead of dotting, they do nothing but make ftrokes
and traces without eroding j giving them the fame turn
with the waves, when there are any. Sometimes a lit¬
tle green mufl: be mixed in certain places, and the light
and clear parts heightened with pure white, particularly
where the water foams.
Rocks are dead-coloured like buildings of Hone j
excepting that a little green is mixed for forming and
fliadowing them. Blue and yellow teints are made up¬
on them, and loft with the reft in finifhing. And
when there are fmall branches, with leaves, mofs, or
grafs, when all is finilhed, they are to be raifed at
top with green and mafticot. They may be made yel-
low, green, and reddiih, for appearing dry in the fame
manner as on the ground. liocks are dotted as the
reft j and the farther they are off the more grayilh they
are made.
Caftles, old houfes, and other buildings of ftone and
wood, are done in the manner above mentioned ; fpeak-
ing of thofe things, when they are upon the firft lines.
But when you would have them appear at a diftance,
you mull; mix brown-red and vermilion, with much
white } and fhadow very tenderly with this mixture j
and the farther they are off, the weaker are the ftrokes
to be for the feparations. If they are covered with
flate, it is to be made bluer than the reft.
Trees are not done till the fky be finifhed ; one may,
neverthelefs, fpare the places of them w'hen they con¬
tain a good number j and howrever it be, fuch as come
near the eye, are to be dead-coloured with verditer,
mixing fometimes ochre ; and fhadowed w ith the fame
colours, adding lily-green. Afterwards you mull work
leaves upon them by dotting without crofting: for
this mull be done with fmall longifh dots, of a darker
colour, and pretty full of it, w hich muft be conduCfed
on the fide the branches go, by little tufts of a little
darker colour. Then heighten the lights wuth verditer
or fea-green, and mafticot, making leaves in the fame
manner; and when there are dry branches or leaves,
thev are dead-coloured with brown-red or gallftone,
with w'hite ; and finilhed with galltfone, without white,
or with biftre.
The trunks of trees are to be dead-coloured with
ochre, white, and a little green, for the light and
clear parts ; and for the dark, they mix black, adding
biftre and green for lhadowing one and the other.—
Blue and yellow tints are likeAvife made upon them
and little touches given here and there with white and
mafticot j fuch as you ordinarily fee upon the bark of
trees.
The branches which appear among the leaves are
done with ochre, verditer, and white 5 or with biftre
P A 1 N T I N G. Sefl. VII.
and white ; according to the light they are placed in. Of
They muft be lhadowed with biitre and lily-green. Flowers.
Trees,. which are at a little diftance, are dead-co- 1 v—
loured with verditer and fea-green ; and are fhadowed
and finifhed with the fame colours, mixed with lilv-
green. When there are fome which appear yellowifh,
lay with ochre and white, and finilh with gallftone.
For fuch as are in the diftances and remote viewrs
you muft dead-colour with fea-green ; with vyhich, for
finifhing, you muft mix ultramarine. Heighten the
lights of one and the other with mafticot, by fmall dif-
joined leaves.
It is the moft difficult part of landfcape, in manner
of miniature, to leaf a tree well. To learn, and break
one’s hand to it a little, the way is to copy good ones -r
for the manner of touching them is Angular, and can¬
not be acquired but by working upon trees themfelves j
about which you muft obferve to make little boughs,
which muft be leafed, efpecially fuch as are below and
toward the fky.
And generally, let your landfcapes be coloured in a
handfome manner, and full of nature and truth ; for it
is that which gives them all their beauty.
Sect. VII. Of Flowers.
It is an agreeable thing to paint flowers, not only
on account of the; fplendour of their different colours,
but alfo by reafon of the little time and pains that are
bellowed in trimming them. There is nothing but de¬
light in it; and, in a manner, no application. You
maim and bungle a face, if you make one eye higher
than another j a fmall nofe with a large mouth ; andfo
of other parts. But the fears of thefe difproportions
conftrain not the mind at all in flower painting ; for
unlefs they be very remarkable, they fpoil nothing-
For this reafon, moft perfons of quality, who divert
themfelves with painting, keep to flowers. Neverthe¬
lefs, you muft apply yourfelf to copy juftly; and for
this part of miniature, as for the reft, we refer you to
nature, for the is your belt model. Work, then, after
natural flowers \ and look for the tints and different
colours of them upon your pallet: a little ufe will
make you find them eafily 5 and to facilitate this to
you at the firft, we fliall, in the continuance of our
delign, ftiow the manner of painting fome 5 for natu¬
ral flowers are not always to be had ; and one is often
obliged to work after prints, where nothing is feen but
graving.
It is a general rule, that flowers are defigned and
laid like other figures ; but the manner of forming
and finifhing them is different: for they are firft formed
only by large ftrokes and traces, which you muft turn
at the firft the way the fmall ones are to go, with whicl*
you finifh ; this turning aiding much thereto. And
for finifhing them, inftead of hatching or dotting, you
draw fmall ftrokes very fine, and very clofe to one an¬
other, without crofting; repaffing feveral times, till
your dark and your clear parts have all the force you
would give them.
Of Roses.—After making your firft fketch, draw
with carmine the red rofe, and apply a very pale lay
of carmine and white. Then form the fhades with the
fame colour, putting lefs white in it: and laftly, with
pure
ea. VII. MINIATURE PAINTING.
Of pure carmine, but very bright and clear at the firft 5 the ftreaks of vermilion, carmine, or lake, fometimes
lowers, fortifying it more and more as you proceed in your put blue made of ultramarine and white and iome-
 ' work, and according to the darknefs of the thades. times a very bright purple which is fimlhed by lirokcs
This is done by large ftrokes. Then finith ; working as the reft, and loft with the ftreaks. I here are fome
upon it with the fame colour by little ftrokes, which likewife that have fallow tints, that are made with
you muft make go the fame way with thofe of the lake, biftre, and ochre, according as they a-re : out
graving, if it be a print you copy j or the way the this is only in fine and rare tulips, and not in the
leaves of the rofe turn, if you copy after a painting, common ones. For _ thadowing the bottom ot t hem,
or after nature: lofing the dark in the clear parts, they ordinarily take indigo and white for fuch whole
and heightening the greateft lights, and the brightert ftreaks are of carmine. For fuch as are of lake they
or moft lightfome leaves, with white and a little car- take black and white j with which, in feme, bill re is
mine. You muft always make the hearts of rofes, and mixed, and in others green. Some are likewiie to be
the fide of the ftiadow darker than the reft ; and mix a lhadowed with gamboge and umber, and always oy
little indigo for ftiadowing the firft leaves, particu- ftrokes and traces, that turn as the leaves turn._ Other
larlv when the rofes are blown, to make them feem tulips are likewife done, called bordered; that is to lay,
faded. The feed is dead-coloured with gamboge * the tulip is not ftreaked but on the edges of the leaves,
with which a little fap green is mixed for lhadowing. where there is a border. It is white m the purple ;
Rofes ftreaked with 1’everal colours, ought to be paler red in the yellow ; yellow in the red j and red in the
than others, that the mixture of colours may be better white. I.he purple is laid with ultramarine, carmine,
feen j which are done with carmine 5 a little darker in and white j lhadowing and finilhmg it with this mix-
the lhades, and very clear in the lights ; always hatch- ture. The border is Ipared •, that is to fay, let only a
inn- by ftrokes. For white rofes you muft put a lay of light lay of white be put there, and let it be lhadowed.
white, and form and finith them as the red ; but with with very bright indigo. The yellow is formed with
black, white, and a little biftre j and make the feed a gamboge, and fhadowed with the fame «olour, mixing
little yellower. Yellow rofes are done by putting in ochre and umber or biftre with it.. L he border is
everv part a lay of maftieot, and lhadowing them with laid with vermilion, and fiuilhed with a very imall
gamboge, gallftone, and biftre j heightening the clear matter of carmine. . The red is formed with vermi-
and light places with madicot and white. lion, and finilhed with the lame colour, mixing car-
The ftiles, the leaves, and the buds of all forts of mine or lake with it. The bottom , and the border
rofes are formed with verditer, with which is mixed a are done with gamboge; and for fimilling, they add
little maftieot and gamboge ; and for Ihadowing them, • gallftone and umber, or billre. . 1 he white is Iha-
they add fap green, putting lefs of the other colours dowed with black, blue, and white. Indian ink is
when the lhades are deep. ‘ The outfide of the leaves very proper for this. The fhadowings of it are very
ought to be bluer than the infide •, wherefore it muft tender. It produces alone the effect of blue and
be dead-coloured with fea green, and fap green mixed white, mixed with the other black. 1 he border of
with that for thadowing, making the veins or fibres on this white tulip is done with carmine. In ail thele
this fide clearer than the ground, and thofe on the forts of tulips, they leave a nerve or finew in the
other fide darker. The prickles which are upon the middle of the leaves that are brighter than t.ie reft •,
ftiles and buds of rofes, are done with little touches of and the borders are drowned at the bottom by fmall
carmine, which are made to go every way j and for traces, turning croffwife ; for they mult not appear
thofe that are upon the ftalks, they are formed with cut and feparated, as the^ ftreaked or party-coloured,
verditer and carmine, and lhadowed with carmine and I hey make them likewiie ot fcveral oilier colours,
biftre: making the bottom of the ftalks more reddiih When they happen.to be fuch whofe bottoms on the
than the top, i. e. vou muft mix with the green car- infide are black, as it were, they torm and finiih them
mine and pure biftre. with indigo, as alfo the feed about the nozzle or ftalk.
Of Tulips.—As there is an infinity of tulips, dif- And if the bottom is yellow, it is formed witli gamboge,
ferent from one another, one cannot pretend to men- and finilhed by adding umber.or biftre. i he leaves and
lion the colours with which they are all done. We the ftalks of tulips are ordinarily rormed with lea gteen,
will only touch upon the handfomeft, called fireaked; and lhadowed and finilhed with lily green, by. large
and thefe ftreaks are dead-coloured with very clear car- traces all along the leaves. Some may likewiie be
mine in fome places, and with darker than others *, fi- done with verditer, mixing mafticot v ith it, and iha-
nifhing with the fame colour by little ftrokes, which dowed with fap green, that the green ot the Ihades may
muft be carried the fame way with the ftreaks. And be yellower.
in others is put firft a lay of vermilion. Then they The Anemony, or Vfind flower. I here are ft vend
form them by mixing carmine, and finilh them with forts of them, as wr'l double as finglc. 1 he laft are
pure carmine. In fome they put Florence lake over ordinarily without ftreaks. Some are made of a purple
the vermilion inftead of carmine. Some are done colour, with purple and white, lhadowing tnem with
with lake and carmine mixed together, and with lake the fame colour j fome redder, others bluer •, fome-
alone, or with white and lake for the firft forming j times very pale, and fometimes very ifttk. OJicrs
whether it be rofepink or Florence lake. I here are are formed with lake and ■white, and finifned uith
fome of a purple colour, which are formed with ultra- the fame, putting lefs white •, fome without any w hue
marine, carmine, or lake, fometimes bluer and fome- at all. Others are formed with vermilion,, and iha-
times redder. The manner of doing both one and dowed with the fame colour; adding carmine.
the other is the fame ; there is no difference but in fee likewise white ones, and fome of a citron coiour.
the colours. You muft, in certain places, as between The laft are laid with mafticot; and one and the other
267
Cf
Flowers.
 V >
c68
Flrwers ^ia^owe<^ ani^ finiihed fometimes with vermilion, and
i Sometimes with very brown lake, efpecially near the
feed, at the bottom •, which is often likewife of a
blackifh colour, that is done with indigo, or black and
blue, mixing for fome a little biftre; and always
working by very fine ftrokes and traces, and lofing
the lights in the (hades. There are others that are
brighter and clearer at the bottom than anywhere
elfe ; and fometimes they are perfe&ly white there,
though the reft of the flower be dark. The feed of
all thefe anemonies is done with indigo and black, Avith
a very little white, and Ihadowed with indigo j and
in fome it is railed with mafticot. ihe double ane¬
monies are of feveral colours. The handfomeft have
their large leaves ftreaked. Some are done, that is,
the. ftreaked or party coloured, with vermilion, to
which carmine is added for the finilliing 5 lhadowing
the reft of the leaves with indigo j and for the fmail
leaves within, a lay is put of vermilion and ivhite,
and they are ftiadowed Avith vermilion mixed Avith
carmine, mixing here and there fome ftronger touches,
efpecially in the heart of the flower, next the great
leaves on the fide of the fhadow. They finilh Avith
carmine, by l:»tle ftrokes and traces, turning the fame
Avay with the mixed or party colours, and the leaves.
They form and finilh the ftreaks or party colours of
foine others, as Avell as the fmall leaves, with pure
carmine 5 leaving, neverthelefs, in the middle of the
laft, a little circle, in which is laid dark purple, which
is loft Avith the reft. And Avhcn all is finifhed, they
give fome touches with this fame colour round about
the fmall leaves, efpecially on the fide of the ftiadow,
drowning them svith the large ones, the remainder of
which is lhadoAved either with indigo or black. In
fome, the fmall leaves are done Avith lake or purple,
though the party colours of the large ones be done
with carmine. There are others, Avhofe mixed colours
are done Avith carmine, in the middle of moft of the
large leaA’es ; putting in fome places vermilion under¬
neath, and lofing thefe colours Avith the lhadows of
the bottom ; Avhich are done with indigo and white.
The fmall leaves are laid Avith mafticot, and Ihadowed
Avith very dark carmine on the fide of the ihade, and
with very clear on the fide of the light, leaving there
in a manner pure mafticot, and giving only fome little
touches Avith orpiment and carmine, to feparate the
leaves, which may be Ihadowed fometimes Avith a very
little pale green. There are double anemonies painted
all red, and all purple. The firft are formed with ver¬
milion and carmine, in a manner Avithout Avhite, and
Ihadowed with pure carmine, Avell gummed, that they
may be very dark. Purple anemonies are laid Avith
purple, and Avhite, and finifhed Av ith Avhite. In a word,
there are double anemonies as there are fingle ones, of
all colours ; and they are done in the fame manner.
The green of one and the other is verditer ; Avith which
mafticot is mixed for forming. It is fhadowed and fi¬
nifhed with fap green. The ftiles of them are a little
reddifh ; Avherefore they are ftiadowed Avith carmine
mixed with biftre, and fometimes with green, after ha¬
ving laid them with mafticot.
The Carnation and the Pink.—It is Avith pinks
and carnations as Avith anemonies and tulips ; that is,
there are fome mixt-coloured, and others of one fingle
colour. The firft are ftreaked and diverfified fome-
MINIATURE PAINTING,
Seft. VII.
times Avith vermilion and carmine j fometimes Avith
pure lake, or with white j fome ftreaks very dark, and
others very pale ; fometimes by little ftreaks and di-
verfifications, and fometimes by large ones. Their
bottoms are ordinarily fhadoAved Avith indigo and Avhite.
There are pinks of a very pale flefh colour,°and ftreaked
and diyerfified with another, a little deeper, made Avith
vermilion and lake. Others, which are of lake and
Avhite, are fhadowed and ftreaked without white. Others
all red, which are done with Arermilion and carmine as
dark as poflible. Others all of lake. And, laftly, there
are others, wherein nature or fancy is the rule. The
green of one and the other is fea green, fhadowed Avith
lily green or fap green.
Ihe Red Lily.—It is laid with red lead, formed
Avith vermilion, and in the deepeft of the fliades with
carmine j and finiftied Avith the fame colour by itrokes
and tiaces, turning as the leaves turn. 1 lie clear and
light parts are heightened Avith red lead and white.
I he feed is done with vermilion and carmine. The
green parts are done Avith verditer, fhadowed Avith lily
or fap green.
The Day Lily.—There are three forts of them :
1. The gridelin, a little red ;
2. The gridelin, very pale j and,
3. The white.
For the firft they put a lay of lake and white, and
fliadoAV and finifli with the fame colour deeper ; mix¬
ing a little black to deaden it, efpecially in the darkeft
places.
The fecond are laid Avith Avhite, mixed Avith a very
little lake and vermilion, in fuch a manner that thefe
two laft colours are hardly feen. AfterAvards they
fhadoAv Avith black and a little lake, Avorking redder
in the middle of the leaves, next the flalks; which
ought to be, as alfo the feed, of the fame colour, parti¬
cularly towards the top 5 and at the bottom a little
greener.
T he ftile of the feed is laid with mafticot, and fha-
doAvcd Avith fap green.
I he other day lilies are done by putting a lay of
pure Avhite, and fliadowing and finifhing with black and
white.
I he ftalks of thefe laft, and the greens of them
all, are done Avith fea green, and fliadoAved with fap
green.
The Hyacinth, or Purp/e-fower.—There are four
forts of them :
The blue, a little dark j
Others paler j
The gridelin ;
And the Avhite.
1 he firft are laid Avith ultramarine and white ; and
ftiadowed and finifhed Avith lefs white. Others are
laid and fhadowed Avith pale blue. The gridelines
are formed with lake and white, and a very fmall mat¬
ter of ultramarine j and finifhed Avith the fame colour
a little deeper. For the laft they put a lay of Avhite ,
then thty fhadow them with black, with a little white ;
and finifli them all by ftrokes and traces, following
the turnings and windings of the leaves. The green
and the ftalks of fuch as are blue, are done with fea
and lily green very dark : and in the ftalks of the
firft may be mixed a little carmine, to make them red-
difti. The ftalks of the two others, as alfo the green,
are
Of
Flowers.
Sect. VII. MINIATURE
Of are formed with verditer r.nd maiftcot, and (hadowed
Flowers. with fan green.
—Piony. A lay of Venice lake and white mult
be nut on all parts, pretty ftrong: then fhadow with
lefs white, and with none at all in the darkett places :
after which finilh with the fame colour by traces,
turning them as for the rofe j gumming it very much
in the deepeit of the (hades; and railing the lights ana
the edges of the moll lightfome leaves with white and
a little" lake. Little veins are likewife made, which
wo like the (Irokes in hatching, but are more viiible
The green of this flower is done with fea green, and
. {hadowed with fap green.
Cowslips.—They are of four or five colours.
There are fome of a very pale purple.
The gridelin. The white and the yellow.
The purple is done with ultramarine, carmine, and
white •, putting lefs white for (hadowing. The gride¬
lin is laid with Venice lake, and a very fmall matter
of ultramarine, with much white •, and {hadowed w ith
the fame colour deeper. For the white a lay of
white muft be put} and they muft be {hadowed with
black and white •, and finiihed, as the others, by traces
or ftrokes. The heart of thefe cowflips is done with
mafticot in the drape of a dar, which is {hadowed with
o-amboge, making a little circle in the middle with fap
green. The yellow are laid with mafticot, and
{hadowed with gamboge and umber. The ftiles^the
leaves, and the buds, are formed with verditer, mixed
with a little mafticot, and finiftred with fap green j
making the fibres or veins, which appear upon the
leaves, with this fame colour-, and heightening the
lights of the larged with mafticot.
The Ranunculus, or Crow-foot.—Thera are fe-
veral forts of them: the fined are the orange-coloured.
For the firft, they put a lay of vermilion, with a very
fmall matter of gamboge} and add carmine for fha-
doAving 5 finidiing it with this laft colour, and a little
gallftone. In the others may be put Venice lake in-
ftead of carmine, efpecially in the heart of the dower.
The orange-coloured are laid with gamboge, and finidied
Avith gallftone, vermilion, and a little carmine 5 leaving
fome little yellow ftreaks. The green of the ftalks is
done with verditer and very pale mafticot; mixing lily
green to diadow them. Fhat of the leaves is a little
darker.
The Crocus.—Thefe are of tivo colours:
Yellow and purple. The yelloiv are formed Avith
mafticot and gallftone, and {hadoAATed with gamboge
and gallftone : after Avhich, upon each leaf, on the
outfide, are made three ftreaks, feparate from one
another, with biftre and pure lake} Avhich are loft,
bv little traces, in the bottom. The outfide of the
leaves is left all yellow.— I he purple is laid Avith car¬
mine, mixed Avith a little ultramarine, and very pale
white. They are formed and finidied with lefs white 5
making likewife, in fome, purple ftripes 01 ftreaks,
very dark, as in the yelloAv } and in others only imall
veins. The feed of both is yellow, and is done Avith
orpiment and gallftone. For the ftiles, they put a
lay of white, and diadoAV Avith black, mixed Avith a
little green. The green of this doAver is formed Avith
very pale verditer, and {hadowed Avith fap green.
The Iris.—The Perfian iris is done by putting,
for the infide leaves, a lay of Avhite, and (hadoiving
3
PAINTING.
them with indigo and green together, leaving a little
Avhite feparation in the middle of each leaf-, and for
thofe on the outfide, they put in the fame place a lay
of mafticot, Avhich is diadowed with gallftone and
orpiment j making little dark and longilh dots over all
the leaf, at a fmall diftance from one another. And
at the end of each are made large (trains, Avith biftre
and lake in fome, and in others Avith pure indigo, but
very black. The reft, and the. outfide of the leaves,
are ftiadowed with black. The green is formed with
fea green, and very pale mafticot, and fhadoAved Avith
fap green. The Sudan iris is laid with purple and
white, putting a little more carmine than ultramarine;
and for the (hades, efpecially in the middle leaves,
they put lefs Avhite -, and, on the contrary, more
ultramarine than carmine -, making the veins of this
very colour, and leaving m the middle of the infide
leaves a little yelloiv fineAV. There are others which
Im'e this very fineAV in the firft leaves ; the end of
which only is bluer than the reft. Others are (ha-
doAved and finiftied Avith the fame purple, redder:
They have alfo the middle fineAV on the outfide leaves,
but white and ftiadoAved Avith indigo. There are like-
Avife yellow ones ; Avhich are done by putting a lay of
mafticot and orpiment j {hadowing them with gallftone,
and making the veins upon the leaves Avith biftre. The
green of one and the other is done Avith fea green, mix¬
ing a little mafticot for the ftiles. 1 hey are fhadow-cd
Avith fap green.
The Jasmine.—It is done Avith a lay of white, and
{hadowed Avith black and white -, and for the outfide^
of the leaves, they mix a little biftre -, making the half
of each, on this fide, a little reddifh with carmine.
The Tuberose.—For the doing of this, they make
a lay of white, and (hadoAV Avith black, Avith a little
biftre in fome places ; and for the outfide of the leaves
they mix a little carmine, to give them a reddifii teint,
particularly upon the extremities. The feed is done
Avith mafticot, and {hadowed with fap green. The green
of it is laid Avith verditer, and (hadowed with fap green.
The Hellebore.—The flower of hellebore is acme
almoft in the fame manner j that is, let it be laid with
Avhite, and (hadoAved with black and biftre, making
the outfide of the leaves a little reddith here and there.
The feed is laid with dark green, and railed with
mafticot. The green of it is foul and rufty, and is
formed Avith verditer, mafticot, and biftre ; and finilhed
Avith fap green and biftre.
The White Lily.—It is laid Avith Avhite, and Iha-
doAved with black and Avhite. The feed is done Avith
orpiment and gallftone. And the green is done as in
the tuberofe.
The Snow-drop.—It is formed and finilhed as the
Avhite lily. The feed is laid with mafticot, and (ha-
dowed with gallftone. And the green is done with
fea and fap green.
The Jonouil.—It is laid Avith mafticot and gall¬
ftone, and finiftied with gamboge and gallftone.. The
green is formed with fea green, and {hadowed Avith fap
green.
The Daffodil.—All daffodils, the yelloAv, tin-
double, and the fingle, are done by putting a lay of
mafticot: they are formed Avith gamboge, and finiftied
by adding umber and biftre -, excepting the bell in the
middle, which is done Avith orpiment and gallftone,
bordered
269
Of
Flow-ers.
57° MINIATURE
Flower* b(;r.dercd or edg^ with vermilion and carmine. The
«   Aviate are laid with white, and lhadowed with black
and white ; excepting the cup or bell, which is done
with m a lb cot and gamboge. The green is fea green,
inadovved with Tap green.
Ihe Marigold.—It is done by putting a lay of
malticot, and then one of gamboge ; fhadowing it with
this very colour, after vermilion is mixed with it ■ and
for finilhing, they add gallitone and a little carmine,
llie green is done with verditer, fliadowed with fap
green. *
Ihc Austrian Rose.—For making the Andrian
role, they put a lay of mafticot, and another of gam-
boge.^ .then they form it, mixing galldone ; and
fimih it with the laft colour, adding biltre and a very
fmall matter of carmine in the deeped diades.
Ihe Indian Pink, or French Marigold.—\t is done
by putting a lay of gamboge •, fliadowing it with this
colour after you have mixed a good deal of carmine
and gall done with it j and leaving about the leaves a
little yellow border of gamboge, very clear in the
lights, and darker in the diades. The feed is diadow-
ed with bidre. The green, as well of the rofe as the
pink, is formed with verditer, and finidied with fap-
PAINTING.
green.
The Sun-flower—It is formed with madicot and
gamboge, and finidied with galldone and bidre. The
green is laid with verditer and madicot, and diadowed
with fap green.
The Passion-flower.—It is done as the rofe, and
the green of the leaves likewife; but the veins arc done
with a darker green.
Poetical Pinks and Sweet William.—They are
done by putting a lay of lake and whits ; diadowing
tnem with pure lake, with a little carmine for the lad^
which are afterwards dotted on all parts with little
round dob, feparste from one another; and the threads
in the middle are raifed with white. The green of
them is fea green, which is finidied with fap green.
Ihe Scabious—There are two forts of fcabious,
the red and the purple.. The leaves of the fird are laid
with Florentine lake in which there is a little white •
and (hadowed without white j and for the middle'
which is a great bofs or hulk in which the feed lies, it
is lormed and finidied with pure lake, with a little
ultramarine or indigo to make it darker. Then they
make little white longilh dots over it, at a pretty
dill a nee from one another, clearer in the light than in
the lhade, making them go every way. The other is
done by putting a lay of very pale purple, as well upon
the leaves as the bofs in the middle ; diadowing both
with the fame colour, a little deeper : and indead of
little white touches for the feed, they make them pur¬
ple; and about each grain they make out a little circle
and this over the whole bofs or hulk in the middle!
The green is formed with verditer and mafticot, and
lhadowed with fap green.
The Sword or Day Lily.—\t is laid with Florence
lake and very pale white ; formed and finilhed with
pure lake,, very clear and bright in fome places, and
very dark in others; mixing even biftre in the thickeft
of the lhades. The green is verditer, lhadowed with
lap green.
Hepatica, or Liverwort.—There is red and blue.
Ihe lalt is done by putting on all parts a lay of ultra-
4
marine, white, and a little carmine or lake ; Ihadow-
mg the xnfide of the leaves with the mixture, but
deeper ; excepting thofe of the firfl rank ; for which
and lor the outfide of every one of them, they add indi.!
go and white, that the colour may be paler, and not fo
fine. Ihe red is. laid with lake columbine and very
pa;e white; and finilhed with lefs white. The o-reen is
done with verditer, mafticot, and a little biftre ; and lha¬
dowed with fap green, and a little biftre, efpecially on
the outlide of the leaves.
I he Pomegranate.—The flower of the pomegra¬
nate is laid with red lead ; fliadowed with vermilion
and carmine ; and finilhed with .this lad colour. The
green is laid with verditer and mafticot, and fliadowed
with lap green.
I he flower of the Indian Bean.—It is done with
a ay or Levant lake and white ; lhadowing the middle
leaves with pure lake ; and adding a little ultramarine
lor the others. 1 he green is verditer, ihadowed with
lap green.
I he Columbine.—There are col«mbines of feveral
colours : the moll common are the purple, the gridelin
and the red. For the purple, they lay with ultrama*
rme, carmine, and white ; and Ihadow with this mix¬
ture, deeper. The gridelin are done the fame way,
putting a great deal lefs ultramarine than carmine.
1 he red are done with lake and white, finilhing with
Ids white, j here are fome mixed flowers of this kind,
ol leveral colours ; which muft be formed and finithed
as the others, but paler, making the mixtures of a little
darker colour.
The Lark’s Heel.—Thefe are of different colours,
and of mixed colours : the moft common are the pur!
pie, the gridelin, and the red ; which are done as the
columbines.
Violets and Pansies.—Violets and panfies are
done the lame way ; excepting that in the laft the two
middle leaves are bluer than the others ; that is, the
borders or edges ; for the infide of them is yellow : and
there little back veins are made, which take their be¬
ginning from the heart of the flower, and die away to¬
wards the middle.
The Muscipula, or There are two
forts of it, the white and the red ; the laft is laid with
lake and white, with a little vermilion, and finiftied
ivith Pure^ lake. As for the knot or nozzle of the
leaves, it is formed with white and a very fmall matter
of vermilion, mixing biftre or gallftone to finilh it.
l.he leaves of the white are laid with white ; adding
bifire and mafticot upon the knots which are ftiadowed
with pure biftre, and the leaves with black and white.
I he green of all thefe flowers is done with verditer and
mafticot, and ftiadowed with fap green.
The Crown Imperial,—which is of two colours,
the yellow and the red. The firft is done by putting
a lay of orpiment, and fhadowing it with gallftone and
orpiment with a little vermilion. The other is laid
with orpiment and. vermilion, and fhadowed with
gallftone and .vermilion ; making the beginning of
the leaves next the ftile, with lake and biftre, very
dark ; and veins with this mixture both in one and
the other, all along the leaves. *1 he green is done with
verditer and mafticot, ftiadowed with fap green and
gamboge.
The Cyclamen, or Sowbread.—Hhv red is laid
with
Sea. vir
VII.
MINIATURE TAINTING.
with carmine, a little ultramarine, and much white;
and finithed with the fame colour, deeper; putting, in
a manner, only carmine in the middle of the leaves,
next the heart, and in the red add a little more ultra¬
marine. The other is laid with white, and fhadowed
with black. The (talks of one and the other ought to
be a little reddifh ; and the green, verditer and fap green.
The GlLLlFOWER.—There are feveral forts of gil¬
lyflowers ; the white, the yellow, the purple, the red,
and the mixed of various colours. J he white are laid
with white, and fhadowed with black, and with a little
indigo in the heart of the leaves. The yellow, with
marticot, gamboge, and gallftone. The purple are form¬
ed with purple and white ; and finiflied with lefs white ;
Braking the colour brighter in the heart, and even a lit¬
tle yellowifh. The red with lake and white ; finifliing
them with rvhite. The mixed coloured are laid with
white, and the mixtures are fometimes made with pur¬
ple, in which there is much ultramarine ; others again,
in which there is more carmine. Sometimes they are
of lake, and fometimes of carmine. Some are done
with white, and others without white ; (hadowing the
reft of the leaves with indigo. The feed of all is form¬
ed with verditer and mafticot, and finiftied with fap
green. The leaves and ftiles are laid with the lame
green, mixing fap green to finiflr them.
Fruits, fifties, ferpents, and all forts of reptiles, are
to be touched in the fame manner as the figures of men
are ; that is, hatched or dotted.
Birds and all other animals are done like flowers, by
ftrokes or traces.
Never make ufe, for any of tlrefe things, of white
lead. It is only proper in oil. It blackens like ink
when only tempered with gum; efpecially if you fet
your work in a moift place, or where perfumes are.
Cerufs of Venice is as fine, and of as pure a white.
.Be not fparing in the ufe of this, efpecially in forming
or dead-colouring; and let it enter into all your mix¬
tures, in order to give them a certain body, which will
render your work gluilh, and make it appear foft,
plump, and ftrong.
The talfe of painters is, neverthelefs, different in this
point. Some ufe a little of it, and others none at all.
But the manner of the laft is meagre and dry. Others
ufe a great d*-'al; and doubtlefs it is the belt method,
and molt followed among Ikilful perfons ; for befides that
it is fpeedy, one may by the ufe of it copy all forts of
pictures; which would be almolt impoflible other wife ;
notwithftanding the contrary opinion of fome, who fay,
that in miniature we cannot give the force and all the
different teints we fee in pieces in oil. But this is not
true, at lead of good painters ; and effects prove it pretty
plainly: for wefee figures, landfcapes, pictures, and every
thing elfe in miniature, touched in as grand, as true,
and as noble a manner (though more tender and deli¬
cate), as they are in oil.
However, painting in oil has its advantages ; were
they only thefe, that it exhibits more work, and takes
up lefs time. It is better defended likewife againff the
injuries of time ; and the right of birth muft be granted
it, and the glory of antiquity.
But miniature likewife has its advantages ; and with-
out repeating fuch as have been mentioned already, it
is neater and more commodious. You may eafily carry
all your implements in your pockets, and work when
and wherever you pleafe, without fucli a number of
preparations. You may quit and refume it when and
as often as you will; which is not done in the other ^
in which one is rarely to work dry.
To conclude: In the art of painting, excellence
does not depend upon the greatnefs of the fubjeft, but
upon the manner in which it is handled. Some catch
the airs of a face well; others fucceed better in land¬
fcapes : fome work in little, who cannot do it in large :
fome are (killed in colours, who know little of defign :
others, laftly, have only a geniws for flowers : and even
the Baffans got themfelves a fame for animals ; which
they touched in a very fine manner, and better than any,
thing elfe.
M I N
ttfmim MINIM, in Mujic, a note equal to two crotchets,
11 or half a femibreve. See Music,
inifter. MINIMS, a religious order in the church of Rome,
founded by St Francis de Paula, towards the end of
the 15th century. Their habit is a coarfe black wool¬
len fluff, with a woollen girdle, of the fame colour,
tied in five knots. They are not permitted to quit
their habit and girdle night nor day. Formerly they
went barefooted, but are now allowed the ufe of
fhoes.
MINIMUM, in the higher geometry, the lead
quantity attainable in a given cafe.
MINISTER, a perfon who preaches, performs re¬
ligious worfhip in public, adminifters the facraments,
&c.
MINISTER of State, a perfon to whom the prince in-
trufts the adminiftration of government. See Coun¬
cil.
M' I N
Foreign MINISTER, is a perfon fent into a foreign Mlnifter
country, to manage the affairs of his province or of 11
the (late to which he belongs. Of thefe there are two
kinds : thofe of the firfl: rank are ambaffadors and en- ^
voys extraordinary, who reprefent the perfons of their
fovereigns ; the minifters of the fecond rank are the or¬
dinary refidents.
MINIUM, or Red-lead. See Chemistry In¬
dex.
MINN IN, a (fringed inftrument of mufic among
the ancient Hebrews, having three or four chords to
it, although there is reafon to queftion the antiquity of
this inftrument; both becaufe it requires a hair bow,
which was a kind of pleftmm not known to the an¬
cients, and becaufe it fo much refembles the modern
viol. Kircher took the figures of this, the machul,
chinnor, and pfaltcry, from an old book in the Vatican
library.
MINOR,
MIN [ 272 ] MIN
Minor, MINOR, a Latin term, literally denoting left ;
^U101C‘1‘ . ufed in oppofition to major, greater.
Minor, in Lau\ denotes a perfon under age •, or
•who, by the laws of the country, is not yet arrived
at the power of adminiftering his own affairs, or the
poffeflion of his eftate. Among us, a perfon is a mi¬
nor till the age of twenty-one, before which time his
adls are invalid. See Age, and Infant.
It is a maxim in the common law, that in the king
there is no minority, and therefore he hath no legal
guardian } and his royal grants and affents to ails of
parliament are good, though he has not in his natural
capacity attained the legal age of twrenty-one. It is
alio provided by the cuftom and law of parliament,
that no one {hall fit or vote in either houfe, unlefs he
be twenty-one years of age. This is likewife exprefsly
declared by flat 7. and 8 Will. III. cap. 25. with re¬
gard to the houfe of commons.
Minor, in Logic, is the fecond propofition of a for¬
mal or regular fyllogifm, called alfo the ajffumption.
Minor, in Mafic, is applied to certain concords,
which differ from or are lower than others of the fame
denomination by a leffer femitone or four commas.——
Thus we fay, a third minor, or leffer third, or a lixth
major and minor. Concords that admit of major and
minor, i. e. greater and lefs, are faid to be imperfett
concords.
MINORCA, an bland of the Mediterranean, fi-
tuated betiveen 39 and 40 degrees of north latitude,
and near four degrees of call longitude. It is about
33 miles in length from north-well to fouth-eaft, in
breadth from eight to twelve, but in general about ten
miles ; fo that in fize it may nearly equal the county of
Huntingdon or Bedfordfhire. The form is very irregu¬
lar } and the coalls are much indented by the fea, which
forms a great number of little creeks and inlets, fome
of which might be very advantageous.
This bland is one of thofe called by the ancient Ro¬
mans Baleares, which arofe from the dexterity of the
inhabitants in ufmg the fling. It fell under the power
of the Romans, afterwards of the northern barbarians,
who deflroyed that empire. From them it was taken
by the Arabs } who were fubdued by the king of Ma¬
jorca, and he by the king of Spain. The EngliHi fub¬
dued it in 1708-, it was afterwards retaken by the
French in 1756, but reftored to Britain by the treaty
of Paris in 1763. The Spaniards took it in 1782*,
and in 1798, it again became fubjedt to Great Bri¬
tain.
The air of this bland is much more clear and pure
than in Britain; being feldom darkened with thick fogs j
yet the low valleys are not free from mills and un-
wholefome vapours ; and in windy weather the fpray of
the fea is driven over the whole bland. Hence it hap¬
pens that utenfils of brafs or iron are extremely fufeep-
tible of ruff, in fpite of all endeavours to preferve them
and houfehold furniture becomes mouldy* The fum-
mers are dry, clear, calm, and exceffively hot; the au¬
tumns moift, warm, and unequal j at one time perfectly
ferene, at another cloudy and tempeduous. During the
winter there are fometimes violent dorms, though nei¬
ther frequent nor of long continuance ; and whenever
they ceafe, the weather returns to its ufual ferenity.
The fpring is always variable, but refembles the winter
more than the fummer. The changes of heat and cold
are neither fo great nor fo hidden in this climate as in Minorca,
many others. In the compafs of a year, the thermo-
meter feldom rifes much above the 80th, or falls be¬
low the 48th degree. In fummer there is fcarcely ever
a difference of four or live degrees between the heat of
the air at noon and at night: and in v/inter the varia¬
tion is dill lefs conliderable. But this mud be under-
dood of a thermometer lhaded from the influence of
the folar beams : for if expofed to them it will often
rife 12, 14, or 16 degrees higher than what we have
mentioned j and in other feafonsthe difference between
the heat of the air in the fun and the fliade is much
greater. Yet even in the dog-days, the heat of the
atmofphere, at leal! in open places, feldom furpaffes that
of human blood. The winds are very boiderous about
the equinoxes, and fometimes during the winter. At
other times they are generally moderate, and, according
to the obfervations of leamen, they rarely blow in the
fame diredlion near the iflands adjacent to the gulf of
Lyons as in the open fea. During the fummer there is
commonly a perfedl calm in the mornings and even¬
ings ; but the middle of the day is cooled by refrediing
breezes which come from the ead, and, following the
eourfe of the fun, increafe gradually till two or three
in the afternoon, after which they infenfibly die away
as night approaches. This renders the heat of the lun
lefs dangerous and inconvenient} and if thefe breezes
intermit for a day or two, the natives grow languid
and inadlive from the heat. The northerly winds in
general are clear and healthy, difpel the mills, and
make a clear blue Iky, whild thofe which blow from
the opposite quarter, render the air warm, moiit, and
unhealthy. The north wind is fuperior in power to all
the red •, which appears from hence, that the tops of all
the trees incline to the fouth, and the branches on the
north fide are bare and bladed. The next to it in
force is the north-weft. Both are frequent towards the
clofe of winter and in the fpring; and, being dry and
cold, they fhrivel up the leaves of the vegetables, de-
ftroy their tender ftioots, and are often exceflively de¬
trimental to the vineyards and riling corn. The pier¬
cing blafts at that feafon from the north-eaft, as they
are more moifl, and more frequently attended with
rain, are lefs prejudicial. The fouth and fouth-eaft
winds are by much the mod unhealthy. In whatever
feafons they blow, the air is foggy, and affedls the
breathing *, but in the fummer feafon they are fultry
and fuffocating. An exceflive dejedlion of fpirits is
then a univerfal complaint 5 and on expoling the ther¬
mometer to the rays of the fun, the mercury has fre¬
quently rifen above the I oath degree. The weft wind
is ufually drier than the fouth : the ead is cold and
bluftering in the fpring, and fultry in the fummer.
The weather in Minorca is generally fair and dry j
but when it rains, the diowers are heavy, though of
ftiort continuance, and they fall mod commonly in the
night. The fky in fummer is clear, and of a beautiful
azure, without clouds or rain ; but moderate dews de-
feend regularly after funfet. In autumn the -weather
becomes lefs ferene ; whirlwinds and thunder become
frequent; and in the night time lightning, and thofe
meteors called fallings J/ars, are very common. Water
fpouts alfo are often feen at that feafon, and frequently
break upon the fliore. A fudden alteration in the wea¬
ther takes place about the autumnal equinox ; the fkies
are
M I N
ea- are darkened with clouds, and the rains fall in fuch
quantities, that the torrents thereby occafioned, pour¬
ing down from the hills, tear up trees by the root, car¬
ry away cattle, break down fences, and do considerable
mifchief to the gardens and vineyards. Eut thefe anni-
verfary rams are much more violent than lafting ■, al¬
ways falling in hidden and heavy (bowers, with inter¬
vals of fair weather. They are accompanied with
thunder, lightning, and fqualls of wind, mod common-
lv from the north. Hail and fnow are often intermix¬
ed with the rains which fall in winter and in fpring;
but the fnow, for the mod part, 'diffolves immediately;
and ice is here an uncommon appearance.
The whole coad of Minorca lies low 5 and there are
only a few hills near the centre, of which the mod con-
dderable, named Toro by the inhabitants, may be feen
at the didance of 1 2 or 14 leagues from the land. The
furface of the ifland is rough and unequal j and in many
places divided by long narrow vales of a conliderable
depth, called baravcoes by the natives. They begin
towards the middle of the idand, and after feveral
windings terminate at the fea. I he fouth-wed (ide is
more plain and regular than towards the north-ead •,
where the hills are higher, with low marlhy valleys be¬
twixt them, the foil lefs fruitful, and the whole tra£l
unhealthy to man and bead. Near the towns and vil¬
lages the fields are Avell cultivated, and enclofed with
done walls *, but the red for the mod part .are rocky,
or covered with woods and thickets. There are fome
pools of danding water, but very few rivulets, which
is the greated defeft about the ifiand, as the inhabi¬
tants have fcarcely any wholefome water excepting
what is faved from the clouds.
The foil is light, thin, and very dony, with a good
deal of fea fait, and, in fome places, of calcareous nitre
intermixed. In mod places there is fo little earth, that
the iiland appears to be but one large irregular rock, co¬
vered here and there with mould, and an infinite varie¬
ty of dones. Notwithdanding this, however, it is not
only extremely proper for vineyards, but produces more
wheat and barley than could at fird fight be imagined j
and if the peafants may be credited, it would always
yield a quantity of corn and wine fufficient for the na¬
tives, did not the violence of the winds, and the excef-
five drought of the weather, frequently fpoil their crops.
The fields commonly lie fallow for two years, and are
fown the third. About the latter end of winter, or the
beginning of fpring, they are fird broke up : and next
autumn, as foon as the rains fall, they are again plough¬
ed and prepared for receiving the proper feeds. The
tillage is very eafily performed 5 for a plough fo light
as to be tranfported from place to place on the plough¬
man’s (houlder, and to be drawn by a heifer, or an afs
fometimes aflided by an hog, is fufficient for opening fo
thin a foil. The later the harved happens, the more
plentiful it proves. The barley is ufually cut down
about the 20th of May and the wheat is reaped in
June, fo that the whole harved is commonly got in
by Midfummer day. The grain is not thraffied with
flails as in this country, but trodden out on a fmooth
piece of rock by oxen and affes, according to the cuf-
tom of the eaftern nations.
The natives of Minorca are commonly lean, thin,
«nd well-built, of a middle dature, and olive com-
Vol. XIV. Part I.
M I N
plexion ; but their character is by no means agree- Minorca
able. Such is the natural impetuofity of their temper, “
that the flighted caufe provokes them to anger, and
they feem to be incapable of forgiving or forgetting
an injury. Hence quarrels break out daily, even among
neighbours and relations : and family difputes are tranf-
mitted from father to fon ; and thus, though lawyers
and pettifoggers are very numerous in this country,
there are dill too few for the clients. Both fexes are,
by conditution, extremely amorous: they are often be¬
trothed to each other while children, and marry at the
age of 14. The women have eafy labours, and com¬
monly return in a few days to their ufual domellic bu-
finefs } but, led the family fliould become too numer¬
ous for their income, it is a praflice among the poorer
fort to keep their children at the bread for two or
three year-, that by this means the mothers may be
hindered from breeding.
Bread of the fined wheat flour, well fermented and
wfell baked, is more than half the diet of people of all
ranks. Rice, pulfe, vermicelli, herbs and roots from
the garden, dimmer fruits, pickled olives and pods
of the Guinea pepper, make up almod all the other
half, fo that fcarce a fifth of their whole food is fur-
nilhed from the animal kingdom, and of this fifli makes
by much the mod confiderable portion. On Fridays,
and other fad days, they abdain entirely from fledij
and during Lent they live altogether on vegetables and
fifli, excepting Sundays, when they are permitted the
ufe of eggs, cheefe, and milk. Mod of their dilhes
are high-feafoned with pepper, cloves, cinnamon, and.
other ipices •, and garlic, onions, or leeks, are almod
condant ingredients. They eat a great deal of oil,
and that none of the fweeted or bed flavoured 5 ufing
it not only with falads, but alfo with boiled and fried
fifli, greens, pulfe, &c. indead of butter. A flice of
bread foaked in boiled water, with a little oil and fait,
is the common breakfad of the peafants, well known
by the name of o/eagua. Their ordinary meals are
very frugal, and confid of very little variety $ but on
fedivals and other folemn occafions their entertainments
are to the lad degree profufe and extravagant, info-
much that the bill of fare of a country farmer’s wed¬
ding dinner wmuld fcarce be credited.
With regard to other matters, the Minorquins are
accufed of prodigious indolence in the way of bufinefs,
and negleft of the natural advantages they poffefs. In
the bowels of the earth are iron, copper, and lead ores,
of none of which any ufe hath been made except the
lad. A lead mine was worked to advantage fome time
ago, and the ore fent into France and Spain for the
ufe of the potteries in thofe countries. The proprie¬
tor difeontinued his work on fome fmall difeourage-
ment j and indeed it is faid, that thefe people are of
all mankind the mod eafily put out of conceit with an
undertaking that does not bring them in mountains of
prefent gain, or that admits of the flighted probabi¬
lity of difappointing their mod fanguine expectations:
nor will their purfe admit of many difappointments j
and thus their poverty co-operating with their natural
defpondence and love of eafe, is the principal caufe of
their backwardnefs to engage in projedts, though ever
fo promifing, for the improvement of their private for¬
tune, and the advantage of the commerce of their
M m country.
[ 273 1
Minorca.
' ^ 
MIN [ 274 ] MIN
country. This lead ore went under the name of vernis
among the natives, as it was wholly ufed by the potters
in varnifhing and glazing their earthen veffels.
There are few exports of any account, and they
are obliged to their neighbours for near one-third of
their corn, all their oil, and fuch a variety of articles
of lefs confideration, that nothing could preferve them
from a total bankruptcy, but the Englilh money circu¬
lated by the troops, which is exchanged for the daily
fupplies of provifions, increafed by the multiplication oft'
vineyards, the breeding of poultry, and the production
of vegetables, in a proportion of at lead five to one
fince the illand has been in our poffeffion. It will not
require many words to enumerate their exports : they
make a fort of cheefe, little liked by the Englilh, which
fells in Italy at a very great price •, this, perhaps, to
the amount of 800I. per annum.— The wool they fend
abroad may produce 90CI. more.—Some wine is expor¬
ted ; and, if we add to its value that of the home con-
fumption, which has every merit of an export, being
nine paws in ten taken off by the troops for ready
money, it may well be eftimated at i6,ocol. a-year. In
honey, wax, and fait, their yearly exports may be
about 400I. and this comes pretty near the fum of their
exports, which we eflimate together at i8,iool. fterling
per annum.
A vad balance lies againft them, if we confider the
variety and importance of the articles they fetch from
other countries, for which they mull pay ready calh.
Here it may be necelfary to withdraw fome things
from the heap, fuch as their cattle, Iheep, and fowls,
on which they get a profit j for the country does not
produce them in a fufficient abundance to fupply them,
efpeqially when we have a lleet of men of war flationed
there.
Their imports are, corn, cattle, fheep, fowls, to¬
bacco, oil, rice, fugar, fpices, hardware, and tools
of all kinds ; gold and filver lace j chocolate, or co¬
coa to make it $ tobacco, timber, plank, boards, mill-
ftones, tobacco pipes, playing cards, turnery ware,
feeds, foap, faddles ; all manner of cabinetmakers
work, iron fpikes, nails, fine earthen ware, glafs
lamps, brafiery } paper, and other ftationary wares j
copperas, galls, dye fluffs, painters brufhes and co¬
lours ; mufical inftruments, mufic, and firings j watches,
wine, fruit, all manner of fine and printed linens,
muflins, cambrics, and laces •, bottles, corks, flarch,
indigo, fans, trinkets, toys, ribbands, tape, needles,
pins, filk, mohair, lanthorns, cordage, tar, pitch, ro-
fin, drugs, gloves, fire-arms, gunpowder, fhot, and
lead *, hats, caps, velvet, cotton fluffs, woollen cloths,
dockings, capes, medals, veflments, luflres, pictures,
images, agnus dei’s, books, pardons, bulls, relicks, and
indulgencies.
The ifland is divided into what they flyle terminos,
of which there were anciently five, now reduced to four,
and refemble our counties. The termino of Ciudadella,
at the north-weflern extremity of the ifland, is fo ftyled
from this place, which was once a city, and the capital
of Minorca. It makes a venerable and majeftic figure,
even in its prefent date of decay, having in it a large
Gothic cathedral, fome other churches and convents,
the governor’s palace, and an exchange, which is no
contemptible pile.—There are in it 600 houfes, which
before the feat of government and the courts of juftice
2
were removed to Mahon, vTere fully inhabited j and
there are flill more gentlemen’s families here than in
all the refl of the ifland. It hath a port commodious
enough for the veffels employed in the trade of this
country, which, though in the pofleflion of a maritime
power, is lefs than it formerly was. It is flill, in the
ilyle of our officers, the bej} quarters (and there are
none bad) in the country j and if there was a civil go¬
vernment, and the place made a free port, the belt jud¬
ges are of opinion it would very foon become a flouri-
fhing place again j and the fortifications, if it ffiould be
found necefiary, might then alfo be eafily reflored and
improved.
The termino of Fererias is the next, a narrow' flip
reaching crofs from fea to fea, and the country little
cultivated 3 it is therefore united to Mercandal. In this
lafl termino Hands Mont toro in the very centre of the
ifle, and the highefl ground, fome fay the only moun¬
tain in it 3 on the fummit of which there is a convent,
where even in the hottefl months the monks enjoy a
cool air, and at all times a mcfl delightful prof peel.
About fix miles north from Mont-toro Hands the caflle
that covers Port Fornelles, which is a very fpacious har¬
bour on the call fide of the ifland. There are in it
flioals and foul ground, which, to thofe who are unac¬
quainted with them, render it difficult and dangerous j
yet the packets bound from Mahon to Marfeilles fre¬
quently take flicker therein 3 and while the Spaniards
were in poflfeffion of the ifle, large fliips and men of war
frequented it. At a fmall diflance from this lies an¬
other harbour tailed Adia, which runs far into the land 3
but being reputed unfafe, and being fo near Fornelles,
is at prefent ufelefs. The country about it is, however,
faid to be the pleafanteH and wholefomefl fpot in the
ifland, and almofl the only one plentifully fupplied with
excellent fpring water 3 fo that the gardens are well
laid out, and the riehefl and finefl fruits grow here in
the highefl perfedlion. Alaior is the next termino, in
which there is nothing remarkable but the capital of
the fame name, w ell fituated on an eminence, in a plea-
fant and tolerably cultivated country.
The termino of Mahon, at the fouth-eafl end of the
ifland, is at prefent the mofl confiderable of them all,
containing about 60,coo Englifh acres, and nearly one-
half of the inhabitants in Minorca. The town of
Mahon derives its name from the Carthaginian general
Mago, who is univerfally alknved to be its founder.—
It Hands on an eminence on the wefl fide of the har¬
bour, the afeent pretty fleep. There are in it a large
church, three convents, the governor’s palace, and
fome other public edifices. It is large, but the Hreets
are winding, narrow and ill paved. The fortrefs of
St Philip Hands near the entrance of the harbour, w hich
it covers, is very fpacious, of great Hrength, with sub¬
terranean works to prote£l the garrifon from bombs,
large magazines, and whatever elfe is noceffary to render
it a complete fortification, and hath a numerous and.
well difpofed artillery. Port Mahon is allowed to be
the fineit harbour in the Mediterranean, about 90 fa¬
thoms wide at its entrance, but within very large and
fife, flretching a league or more into the land. Beneath
the town of Mahon there i= a very fine quay, one end
of w hich is referved for the flops of war, and furnifhed
wkh all the accommodations neceflary for careening
and refitting them j the other ferves for merchantmen.
Minorca,
MIN . 2:
vlinorca On tlie other Tide of the harbour is Cape Mola, woere
il it is generally agreed a fortrefs might be conilru£ted
linotnur. w}lieh woulcl be impregnable, as the caille of St Philip
was efteemed before we took it, and bellowed fo much
monev upon it, that, though feme works were crofted
at Cape Mola, it was not judged proper to proceed m
the fortifications there at a freih expence j at lead this
is the only reafon that hath been alligned. Minorca
was taken by the Spaniards during the American war,
and is now in their poffefiion.
MINORS, or Friers Minor, an appellation which
the Francifcans aflame, out of Ihow of humility •, calling
themfelves fratres minores, i. e. lelfer brothers, and
fometimes minorites. d here is alio an order of icgular
minors at Naples, which was ellahlilhed in the year
1588, and confirmed by Sixtus V.
MINOS, in Fabulous Hijlory, a king of Crete, fon
of Jupiter and Europa. He tlourifhed about 1432
years before the Chriftian era. He gave laws to his
fubjefts, which Hill remained in full force in the age of
the pbilofopher Plato, about 1000 years after the death
of the legiilator. His juftice and moderation procured
him the appellation of the favourite of the gods, the
confidant of Jupiter, and the wife legiflator, in every
city of Greece •, and, according to the poets, he was
rewarded for his equity after death with the ^office of
fupreme and abfolute judge in the infernal regions, In
this capacity he is reprefented fitting in the middle^ of
the {hades, and holding a feeptre in his. hand. 1 he
dead plead their different caufes before him ; and the
impartial judge lhakes the fatal urn, which is filled
with the deliinies of mankind. He married Ithona,
by whom he had Lycalles, who was the fatner of
Minos II.
Minos II. was a fon of Lycalles, the fon of Mi¬
nos I. and king of Crete. He married Paliphae, the
daughter of Sol and Perfeis, and by her he had many
children. He increafed his paternal dominions by die
conquell of the neighbouring iilands } but fhowed him-
felf cruel in the war which he carried on againlt the
Athenians, who had put to death his fon Androgens.
He took Megara by the treachery of Seylla ; and not
fatisfied with viftory, he obliged the vanquiflied to
bring him yearly to Crete feven cholen boys and the
fame number of virgins to be devoured by the Mino¬
taur. This bloody tribute was at laft aboluhed when
Theseus had dellroyed the monlier. W hen Daldalus,
whofe induftry and invention had fabricated the laby¬
rinth, and whofe imprudence in aflifting Paliphae in
the gratification of her unnatural delires, had offended
Minos, fled from the place of his confinement with
wings, and arrived fafe in Sicily ; the incenfed monarch
purfued the offender, refolved to punifh his infidelity.
Cocalus, king of Sicily, who had hofpitably received
Hajdalus, entertained his royal guefl with diflembled
friendlhip •, and, that he might not deliver to him a
man whofe ingenuity and abilities he fo well knew, lie
put Minos to death. Minos died about 55 years before
the Trojan war. He was father of Androgeus, Glau-
cus, and Deucalion j and two daughters, Phaedra, and
Ariadne. Manv authors have confounded the two
Minofes, the grandfather and the grandfon *, but Homer,
Plutarch, and Diodorus, prove plainly that they were
two different perfons.
MINOTAUR, in Fabulous Hijlory, a celebrated
■5 ] MIN
monlier, half a man and half a bull, according to tiffs Mirrvm*
verfe of Ovid, Mim.re!
Semibovemque virum, femknrumque bovem. ~
It was the fruit of Paliphae’s amour with a bull. Mi¬
nos refufed to facrifice a white bull to Neptune, an
animal which he had received from the god for that
purpofe. This offended Neptune, and he made Pa-
fiphae the wife of Minos enamoured of this fine bull,
which had been refufed to his altars. Daedalus profti-
tuted his talents in being fubfervicnt to the queen’s
unnatural defires; and by his means, Paliphae’s hor¬
rible paffions were gratified, and the Minotaur came
into the world. Minos confined in the labyrinth this
monfter, which convinced the world of his wife’s laf-
civioufnefs, and reflefted difgrace upon his family.
The Minotaur ufually devoured the chofen young men
and maidens which the tyranny of Minos yearly ex-
afted from the Athenians. Thefeus delivered his
country from this tribute, when it had fallen to his
lot to be facrificed to the voracity of the Minotaur *,
and by means of Ariadne, the king’s daughter, he de¬
llroyed the monfter, and made his efcape from the
windings of the labyrinth.—The fabulous tradition of
the Minotaur, and of the infamous commerce of Pafi-
phae with a favourite bull, has been often explained.
Some fuppofe that Paliphae was enamoured of one of
her hulband’s courtiers called Taurus; and that Dae¬
dalus favoured the paflions of the queen, by fuffering
his houfe to become the retreat of the two lovers.
Paliphae fume time after brought twins into the world,
one of whom greatly refembled Minos and the other
Taurus 5 and in the natural refemblanee of their coun¬
tenance with that of their fuppofed fathers, originated
their name, and confequently the fable of the Mino¬
taur.
MINOW, a very fmall fpecies of cyprinus. See
Ichthyology Index.
MINSTER, (Saxon, Mynjler or Mynjlre), ancient¬
ly fignified the church of a monaftcry or convent.
MINSTREL, an ancient term fur a finger and in-
llrumental performer.
The word minjlrel is derived from the French menc~
jlrier, and was not in ufe here before the Norman con-
cmeft. It is remarkable, that our old rnonkilh hillo-
rians do not ufe the words citharcedus, cantator, or the
like, to exprefs a minjlrel in Latin ; but either mimus,
hijlrio, joculatar, or fome other word that implies^-e/fare.
Hence it (hould feem that the minftrels let off their
finging by mimicry or action ; or, according to Dr
Brown’s hypothecs, united the powers of melody, poem,
and dance.
The Saxons as well as the ancient Danes, had been
aceuftomed to hold men of this profeflion in the high-
eft reverence. Their {kill was confidered as lomething
divine, their perfons were deemed tacred, their atten¬
dance was folicited by kings, and they were every¬
where loaded with honours and rewards In fliort,
poets and their art were held among them in that rude
admiration which is ever ibown by an ignorant people
to fuch as excel them in intellectual accomplifhments.
When the Saxons were converted to Chriftianity, in
proportion as letters prevailed among them this rude
admiration began to abate, and poetry was no longer
a peculiar profeilkm. The putt and the cffnitrel be-
M m 2 ’came
Minftrel.
MIN [2
came two perfons. Poetry was cultivated by men of
letters indifcriminately, and many of the moil popular
rhymes were compofed amidlt the leifure and retire¬
ment of monalteries. But the minftrels continued a
diltinft order of men, and got their livelihood by ling-
ing verfes to the harp at the houfes of the great.
There they were ftill hofpitably and refpeftfully re¬
ceived, and retained many of the honours fhown to
their predeceffors the Bards and Scalds. And in¬
deed, though fome of them only recited the compoli-
tions of others, many of them ftill compofed fongs
themfelves : and all of them could probably invent a
few ftanzas on occalion. There is no doubt but moft
of the old heroic ballads were produced by this order
of men. For although fome of the larger metrical
romances might come from the pen of the monks or
others, yet the fmaller narratives were probably com¬
pofed by the minftrels who fung them. From the
amazing variations which occur in different copies of
thefe old pieces, it is evident they made no fcruple to
alter each other’s produdions, and the reciter added
or omitted whole ftanzas according to his own fancy or
convenience.
In the early ages, as is hinted above, this profeffion
was held in great reverence among the Saxon tribes,
as well as among their Danilh brethren. This appears
from two remarkable fads in hiftory, which {how that
the fame arts of mu(ic and fong were equally admired
among both nations, and that the privileges and honours
conferred upon the profeffors of them were common
to both j as it is well known their cuftoms, manners,
and even language, were not in thofe times very dif-
fimilar.
When King Alfred the Great was defirous to learn
the true fituation of the Danifti arn y, which had in¬
vaded his realm, he aff-unt d the dreis and charader of
a minftrel j and taking his harp, and only one at¬
tendant (for in the earlieft times it was not unufual for
a minftrel to have a fervant to carry his harp), he went
with the utmoft fecurity into the Danilh camp. And
though he could not but be known to be a Saxon, the
charader he had affumed procured him an hofpitab-e
reception j he was admitted to entertain the king at
table, and ftaid among them long enough to contrive
that affault which afterwards deftroyed them. This
was in the year 878.
About 60 years after, a Danifh king made ufe of
the fame difguife to explore the camp of King Athel-
ftan. With his harp in his hand, and dreffed like a
minftrel, Anlaff king of the Danes went among the
Saxon tents, and taking his ftand near the king’s pa¬
vilion, began to play, and was immediately admitted.
There he entertained Athelftan and his lords with his
fiiiging and his mufic ; and was at length difmiffed
with an honourable reward, though his fongs muft
have difcovered him to have been a Dane. Athel¬
ftan was faved from the confequences of this ftratagem
bv a foldier, svdi-j had obferved Anlaff bury the money
w hich had been given him, from fome fcruple of ho¬
nour or motive of fuperilition. This occafioned a dif-
eovery.
From the uniform procedure of both thefe king?, it
is plain that the fame mode of entertainment prevailed
among both pe<>rV«, and that the minflrel was a pri¬
vileged thara&er among both. Even as late as the
76 ]
MIN
reign of Edward II. the minftrels were eafdy admitted Minftrel.
into the royal prefence, as appears from a paffage in —v~—«
Stow, which alfo fliows the fplendour of their appear¬
ance.
“ In the year 1316, Edward II. did folemnize his
feaft of Pentecoft at Weftminfter, in the great hall •,
where fitting royally at the table with his peers about
him, there entered a woman adorned like a minftrel,
fitting on a great horfe trapped, as minftrels then
ufed, who rode round about the tables, {bowing paf-
time j and at length came up to the king’s table and
laid before him a letter, and forthwith turning her
horfe, fainted every one, and departed.”—The fub-
jedl of this letter was a remonftrance to the king on
the favours heaped^by him on his minions, to the negleft
of his knights and faithful fervants.
The meffenger was fent in a minftrel’s habit, as
what would gain an eafy admiflion ; and was a woman
concealed under that habit, probably to difarm the
king’s refentment •, for we do not find that any of the
real minftrels were of the female fex j and therefore
conclude this was only an artful contrivance peculiar to
that occafion.
In the 4th year of Richard II. John of Gaunt
erected at Tetbury in Staffordfliire a court of minftrels,
with a full power to receive fuit and fervice from the
men oi that profeflion within five neighbouring counties,
to enafl laws, and determine their controverfies ; and
to apprehend and arreft fuch of them as fhould refufe
to appear at the faid court, annually held on the 16th
of Auguft. For this they had a charter, by which
they were empowered to appoint a king of the min¬
ftrels with four officers to prefide over them. Thefe
were every year elected with great ceremony •, the
whole form of which is deferibed by Dr Plott ; in
whofe time, however, they fetm to have become mere
muficians.
Even fo late as the reign of King Henry VIII. the
reciters of verfes or moral fpeeehes learnt by heart,
intruded without ceremony into all companies j not
only in taverns, but in the houies of the nobility them-
felves. This we learn from Erafmus, whofe argument
led him only to deferibe a fpecies of thefe men who did
not fing their compofitions j but the others that did, en¬
joyed without doubt the fame privileges.
We find that the minftrels continued down to the
reign of Elizabeth •, in whofe time they had loft much
of their dignity, and w7ere finking into contempt and
negle6t. Vet ftill they fultained a character far fuperior
to any thing we can conceive at prefent of the fingers
of old ballads.
When Queen Elizabeth was entertained at Killing-
worth caftle by the earl of Leicefter in 1575, among
the many devices and pageants which were exhibited
for her entertainment, one of the perfonages introduced
was that of an ancient minfirel, whofe appearance and
drefs are fo minutely deferibed by a writer there pre¬
fent, and gives us fo dillincl an idea of the character,
that we fhall quote the paffage at larce.
“ A perfon very meet feemed he for the purpofe,
of a xlv. years old, apparelled partly as he would
himfelf. His cap off: his head feemingly rounded
tonfterwife : fair kembed, that, with a fpmge daintly
dipt in a little capon’s greafe, was finely fmoothed, to
make it ffrine like a mallard’s wing. His beard fnugly.
{haven;
Vlinftrel,
int
*1
MIN [2
fhaven : and yet his ihirt after the new trink, with ruffs
fair Itarched, tleeked, and gliltering like a pair of new
fhoes, marihalled in good order with a felting Hick,
and Hrut, ^ that’ every ruff Rood up like a wafer. A
fide [i. e. long] gown of Kcndale green, after the frefli-
nefs of the year now, gathered at the neck with a nar¬
row gorget, faftened afore with a white tlafp and a
keeper elofe up to the chin 5 but eafiiy, for heat, to
undo when he lit!. Seemingly begirt in a red caddis
girdle : from that a pair of capped Sheffield knives
hanging a’ two fides. Out of his bofom drawn from
a lappet of his napkin edged with a blue lace, and
marked with a D for Damian } for he was but a oache-
lor yet.
“ His gown had fide [i. e. long] fleeves down to
midleg, flit from the (boulder to the hand, anti lined
with white cotton. His doublet fleeves of black wor¬
ded : upon them a pair of points of tawny chamlet
laced along the wriff with blue tlireaden pointes. A
wealt towards the hands of fuftian-a-napes. A pair
of red neather flocks. A pair of pumps on his feet,
with a crofs cut at his toes for corns ; not new indeed,
yet cleanly blackt with foot, and (hining as a ffioing
horn.
“ About his neck a red ribband fuitable to his girdle.
His harp in good grace dependent before him. His
wreft tyed to a green lace and hanging by : under the
gorget of his gown a fair flaggon chain (pewter for)
filver, as a Squire Minflrel of Middlefex, that travelled
the country this fummer feafon, unto fair and worffiipful
men’s houfes. From his chain hung a fcutcheon, with
metal and colour, refplendent upon his bread, of the
ancient arms of Iflington.”
—This minftrel is defcribed as belonging to that
village. We fuppofe fuch as were retained by noble
families ivore their arms hanging doivn bv a filver chain
as a kind of badge. From the expreflion of Squire
Minftrel above, Ave may conclude there Avere other in¬
ferior orders, as Yeomen Minftrels or the like.
This minftrel, the author tells us a little below,
“ after three loivly courtefies, cleared his voice Avith a
hem . . . and Aviped his lips Avith the holloAV of his hand
for ’filing his napkin •, tempered a ftring or tAvo with
his Avrift ; and, after a little Avarbling on his harp for
a prelude, came forth Avith a folemn fong, Avarranted
for ftory out of King Arthur’s afts, &c.”
Towards the end of the 16th century, this clafs of
men had loft all credit, and Avere funk fo Ioav in the
public opinion, that in the 39*^ vear of Elizabeth a
ftatute Aras paffed by Avhich “ minftrels,” Avandering
abroad, Avere included among “ rogues, vagabonds, and
fturdy beggars,” and Avere adjudged to be puniffied as
fuch. This aft feems to have put an end to the pro-
feffion, for after this time they are no longer mentioned.
MINT, the place in Avhich the king’s money is
coined. See Coinage.
There were anciently mints in almoft eArery county
in England ; but the only mint at prefent in the Bri-
tiffi dominions is that In the Tower of London. The
officers of the mint are, 1. The Avarden of the mint,
who is the chief •, he overfees the other officers, and
receives the bullion. 2. The mafter worker, who re¬
ceives bullion from the Avardens, caufes it to be mefted,
delivers it to the monomers, and, Avhen it is coined,
receives it again. 3. The comptroller, who is the
M I N
1
/ ■]
overfeer of all the inferior officers, and fees that all the
money is made to the juft affize. 4* affay malltr,
avho weighs the gold and filver, and fees that it is
according to the ftandard. 5' ^ he tVT0 auditors who
take the accounts. 6. The furveyor of the melting j
who, after the affay mafter has made trial of the bul¬
lion, fees that it is call out, and not altered alter it is
delivered to the melter. 7. The engraver •, who en¬
graves the (lamps and dies for the coinage of the mo¬
ney. 8. The clerk of the irons ; who fees that the
irons are clean and fit to work with. 9’ ^ meJ^er»
avIio melts the bullion before it be coined. 10. The
provoft of the mint *, Avho provides (or and overfees
all the tnoneyers. 11# i he blanchcrs, who anneal
and cleanfe the money. 1 2. The moneyers i fome of
whom forge the money, fome (hare it, (ome round and
mill it, and fome (lamp and coin it. 13. ihe porters
who keep the gale of the mint.
Mint was alfo a pretended place of privilege, in
Southwark, near the King’s' Bench, put down by
ftatute. If anv perfons, Avithin the limits of the mint,
(hall obftruft any officer in the ferving of any Avrit or
procefs, &c. or aflault any perfon therein, io as he
receive any bodily hurt, the offender (hail be guilty
of felony, and be tranfported to the plantations, See.
Stat. 9. Geo. I. ,
Mint Maris. It hath been ufual, from old time,
to oblige the mafters and workers of the mint, in the
indentures made Avith them, 11 to make a privy maik^
in all the money that they made, as well of geld as of
filver, fo that another time they might know, if need
Avere, and Avitte which moneys of gold and (ilver
among other of the fame moneys, were of their OAvn
making, and which not.” And Avhereas, after every
trial of the pix at Weftminfter, the mafters and Avork-
ers of the mint, having there proved their moneys to
be laAvful and good, Avere immediately entitled to re¬
ceive their quietus under the great feal, and to be dif-
charged from all fuits or aftiens concerning thofe
moneys, it A\'as then ufual for the faid maileis and
AVorkers to change the privy mark before ufed for ano¬
ther, that fo the moneys from which they were not yet
difeharged might be diftinguiflied from thofe for which
they had already received their ^wetus : which new
mark they then continued to (lamp upon all their
money?, until another trial of the pix gave them alfo
their quietus concerning thofe.
The pix is a ftrong box with three locks, Avhofe
keys are refpeftivelv kept by the warden, mafter, and
comptroller of the mint ^ and in Avhich - are depofited,
fealed up in feveral parcels, certain pieces taken at
random out of every journey as it is called •, that is,
out of every 15 pounds Aveight of gold, or 60 pounds
weight of filver, before the fame is delivered to the
proprietors. And this pix is, from time to time, by
the king’s command, opened at Weftminfter, in the
prefence of the lord-chancellor, the lords of the coun¬
cil, the lords commiffioners of the treafury, the ju-
ftices or the feveral benches, and the barons of the
exchequer ", before whom a trial is made, by a jury
of goldfmiths impannelled and fworn for that purpofe,
of the colleftive weights of certain parcels of the fe¬
veral pieces of gold and filver taken at random from
thofe contained in the pix ; after which thofe parcels
being feverally melted, alfays are then made of the
bullion
Mint.
MIN [ 273 ] MIR
^ ||'r g1"^ and filver fo produced, by the inch- never an odd number. The meafure is three crotchets Minuet
Minuet. ln& c',rtai» i1)13?1 quantities of the fame againft equal in a bar, and is thus marked though it is commonly II
 v weights taken f-om the refpedtive trial pieces of gold performed in the time Walther ipeaks of a minuet, Miracle-
and iilver that are depotited and kept in the exchequer in Lully’s opera of Roland, each ftrain of which con- ' ’ ~
101 that ufe. I his is called the trial oj the pix; the tains ten bars, the fediional number being c j which
report made by the jury upon that trial is called the renders it very difficult to dance.
vet died' oj the pix for that time j and the indented trial MINUTE, in Geometry, the 60th part of a degree
pieces juft above mentioned,-are certain plates of ftand- of a circle.
ard gold and ftandard ftlver, made with the greateft MlNUTE of Time, the 60th part of an hour,
caie, and. delivered in upon oath, from time to time Minute, in ArchiteBure, ufually denotes the 60th,
as there is occafion, by a jury of the moft able and fometimes the 30th, part of a module. See Archi-
experienced goldftniths, fummoned by virtue of a war- TECTURE.
rant from the lords of the treafury to the wardens of Minute is alfo ufed for a ftiort memoir, or fketch of
the myftery of goldfmiths of the city of London for a tiling taken in writing,
that purpofe ; and which plates being fo delivered in, MINUTIUS Felix. See Felix.
are divided each, at this time, into (even parts by in- MINY/E, a name given to the inhabitants of Or-
dentures, one of which parts is kept in his majefty’s chomenos in Boeotia, from Minyas king of the coun-
couit of exchequer at Weftminfter, another by the try. Orchomenos the fon of Minyas gave his name
laid company of goldfmiths, and two more by the of- to the capital of the country j and the inhabitants
fleers of his rnajefty’s mint in the lower j the remain- ftill retained their original appellation, in contradif-
ing three being for the ufe of the mint, &c. in Scot- tinftion to the Orchomenians of Arcadia. A colony
land. J he pix has fometimes been tried every year, of Orchomenians paffed into Theffaly and fettled in
or even oftener, but iometimes not more than once lolchos j from which circumftance the people of the
in feveral years : and from hence is underftood how it place, and particularly the Argonauts, were called
comes to pafs, that, among the pieces that are dated Minyte. This name they received, according to the
as well as marked, three or more different dates are opinion of fome, not becaufe a number of Orchomeni-
fonietimes found upon pieces imprefled with the fame ans had fettled among them, but becaufe the chief
maik . and again, that different marks are found upon and nobleft of them were defeended from the daughters
pieces bearing the lame date. 1 hefe marks are firft of Minyas. Part of the Orchomenians accompanied
obfervaole upon the coins of King Edward III. ; the the Tons of Codrus when they migrated to Ionia. The
words above quoted concerning thole marks are from defeendants of the Argonauts, as well as the Argo-
the indentures made with the lord Mailings, mafter nauts themfelves, received the name of Alinyte. They
and worker to .King Edward IV. ; and the marks firft inhabited Lemnos, where they had been born from
themfelves continued to be ftamped very confpicuoully the Lenmian women who had murdered their hufbands.
upon the moneys, till the coinage by the mill and They were driven from Lemnos by the Pelafgi, about
ferew was introduced and fettled after the Reftoration, 1160 before the Chriftian era, and came to fettle in
in the year 1662 •, fince which time, the moneys being Laconia, from whence they palled into Callifte with a
made with far greater regularity and exadfnefs than colony of Lacedaemonians.
before, thefe marks have either been totally laid afide, MIQUELETS, a name given to the Spaniards who
or inch only have been ufed as are of a more fecret inhabit the Pyrenean mountains on the frontiers of
nature, and only known to the officers and engravers Arragon and Catalonia, and live by robbing,
concerned in the coinage : and indeed the conftant MIQUELON, a fmall defert ifland to the fouth-
pratftice that has ever fince prevailed, of dating all the weft of Cape May in Newfoundland, ceded to the
feveral pieces, has rendered all fuch marks of much lefs French by the peace of 1763, for drying and curing
confequence than before. their fifin' W. Long. 54. 30. N. Lat. 47. 22.
Mint. See Mentha, Botany and Materia MIRABILIS, Marvel of Peru j a genus of
Medica Index. plants belonging to the pentandria clafs ; and in the
MINI URN/E, a town of Campania, between Si- natural method ranking with thofe of which the order
nuefla and Formite. It was in the marffies in this neigh- is doubtful. See Botany Index.
bourhood thaft Marius concealed himfelf in the mud to MIRACLE, in its original fenfe, is a word of the
avoid the partizans of Sylla. 1 he people condemned fame import with wonder ; but in its ufual and more
him to death j but when his voice alone had terrified appropriate fignification, it denotes “ an effe<5! contrary
the executioner, they ffiowed themfelve* eompaffionate to the eftablithed conftitution and courfe of things, or a
and favoured his efcape. fenfible deviation from the known laws of nature.”
MINUE 1 , a very graceful kind of dance, confifting That the vifible world is governed by ftated gene-
of a eoupee,.a high ftep, and a balance: it begins with ral rules, or that there is an order of caufes and ef-
a beat, and its motion is triple. fe&s efiabliffied in every part of the fyftem of nature
The invention of the minuet feems generally to be which falls under our obfervation, is a fa<ft which
aferibed to the French, and particularly to the inha- cannot be controverted. If the Supreme Being, as
bitants of the province of Poiiftou. J ne word is faid fome have fuppofed, be the only real agent in the
by Menage and Turetiere to be derived from the univerfe, we have the evidence of experience, that, in
French menue or menu, “ fmall or little j” and in the particular fyftem to which we belong, he a<fts by
ftri&nef* fignifies a imall fpace. i he melody of this ftated rules. If he employs inferior agents to con-
dance confills of two drains, which, as being repeated, dinft the various motions from tvhich the phenomena
are called reprifes, each having eight or more bars, but refult, we have the fame evidence that he has fubjeU-
ed
MIR
[ 279 3
MIR
rtiracte. ed thofe agents to certain fixed laws, commonly called
  1 the laws of nature. On either hypothefis, effects
which are produced by the regular operation of thefe
laws, or which are conformable to the effablilhed
courfe of events, are properly called natural; and every
con tradition to this conffitution of the natural fyftem,
and the correfpondent courfe of events in it, is called a
miracle.
If this definition of a miracle be juft, no event can
be deemed miraculous merely becaufe it is ftrange,
or even to us unaccountable 3 iincc it may be nothing
more than a regular effect of fome unknown law of
nature. In this country earthquakes are rare 3 and
for monftrous births perhaps no particular and fatis-
fa&ory account can be given : yet an earthquake is
as regular an effedt of the eftabiffhed lavs of nature
as any of thofe with which we are moll intimately
acquainted 3 and under circumftances in which there
would always be the fame kind of produ&ion, the
monfter is nature’s genuine iilue. It is therefore ne-
ceffary, before we can pronounce any eftedt to be a true
miracle, that the circumftances under which it is pro¬
duced be known, and that the common courfe of na¬
ture be in fome degree underftood 3 for in all thofe
cafes in which we are totally ignorant of nature, it
is impoftible to determine what is, or what is not, a
deviation from its courfe. IVIiracles, therefore, are
not, as fome have repreiented them, appeals to our ig¬
norance. Ihey fuppofe fome antecedent knowledge
of the courfe of nature, without which no proper judge¬
ment can be formed concerning them 3 though with it
their reality may be fo apparent as to prevent all poili-
bility of a dilpute.
Thus, were a phyfician to cure a blind man of a ca-
taradf, by anointing his eyes with a chemical prepa¬
ration which we had never before feen, and to the na¬
ture and effedfs of which we are abfolute ftrangers, the
cure would undoubtedly be wonderful; but we could
not pronounce it miraculous, becaufe, for any thing
known to us, it might be the natural effedf of the
operation of the unguent on the eye. But were he to
recover his patient merely by commanding him to fee,
or by anointing his eyes rvith fpittle, we ihould with
the utmoft confidence pronounce the cure to be a mi¬
racle 3 becaufe we know' perfedtly that neither the hu¬
man voice nor human fpittle have, by the eftabliftied
conftitution of things, any fuch power over the difeafes
of the eye. No one is now ignorant, that perfons ap¬
parently dead are often reftored to their families and
friends, by being treated in the manner recommended
by the Humane Society. To the vulgar, and fome-
times even to men of feience, thefe effedls appear very
wonderful 3 but as they are known to be produced by
phyfical agency, they can never be confidered as mi¬
raculous deviations from the laws of nature. On the
other hand, no one could doubt of his having witneffed
a real miracle who had feen a perfon that had been four
days dead come alive out of his grave at the call of an¬
other, or who had even beheld a perfon exhibiting all
the fijmptoms of death inftantly refufcitated merely by
being defired to live.
Thus eafy is it, in all cafes in which the courfe of
nature is underftood, to determine whether any parti¬
cular event be really a miracle 3 whilft in circumftances
where we know nothing of nature and its courfe, even
a true miracle, were it performed, could not be admit¬
ted as fuch, or carry any conviction to the mind of a
philofopher.
If miracles be effedts contrary to the eftabliftied con¬
ftitution of things, we are certain that they will never
be performed on trivial occafions. 1 he conftitution of
things was eftabliftied by the Creator and Governor.of
the univerfe, and is undoubtedly the offspring of infinite
wifdom purluing a plan for the belt of purpofes. from
this plan no deviation can be made but by God himfelf,
or by fome powerful being adding with his permiflion.
The plans devifed by wifdom are fteady in proportion
to their perfection, and the plans of infinite wifdom
muft be abfolutely perfeCt. From this confideration,
fome men have ventured to conclude, that no miracle
was ever wrought, or can rationally be expeCled 3 but
maturer reflection muft foon fatisfy us that all luch con-
clulions are hafty.
Man is unqueftionably the principal creature in this
world, and apparently the only one in it who is ca¬
pable of being made acquainted with the relation in
which he ftands to his Creator. We cannot, therefore,
doubt, but that luch of the laws of nature as extend
not their operation beyond the limits of this earth were
eftablilhed chiefly, if not iolely, for the good of man¬
kind j and if, in any particular circumftances, that good
can be more effectually promoted by an occafional de¬
viation from thofe laws, fuch a deviation may be rea-
fonably expeCled. Were man, in the exercife of his
mental and corporeal powers, fubjeCled to the laws of
phyfical neceflity, the eircumftances fuppofed would in¬
deed never occur, and of courfe no miracle could be ad¬
mitted. But fuch is not the nature of man.
Without repeating what has been laid elfewhere
(See Metaphysics, Part III. Chap. V.) of neceflity
and liberty, we ftiall here take it for granted, that the
relation between motives and aClions is different from
that between caufe and effeCt in phyfics 3 and that,
mankind have fuch command over themfelves, as that
by their voluntary condu£I, they can make themfelves
in a great degree either happy or miferable. We know
likewife from biftory, that, by fome means or other, al-
moft all mankind were once funk into the groffeft igno¬
rance of the moft important truths 3 that they knew not
the Being bv whom they were created and fupported ;
that they paid divine adoration to ftocks, ftones, and
the vileft reptiles 3 and that they were Haves to the moft
impious, cruel, and degrading fuperftitions.
From this depraved ftate it was furely not unworthy
of the common “ Father of all” to relcue his helplefs
creature, to enlighten their underftandings that they
might perceive what is right, and to prefent to them
motives of fufticient force to engage them in the prac¬
tice of it. But the underftandings of ignorant bar¬
barians cannot be enlightened by arguments 3 becaul'e
of the force of fueh arguments as regard moral fcience
they are not qualified to judge. The philofophers of
Athens and Rome inculcated, indeed, many excellent
moral precepts, and they fometimes ventured to ex-
pofe the abfurdities of the reigning feperftition: but
their lectures had no influence upon the multitude 3
and they had themfelves imbibed fuch erroneous no¬
tions refpefling the attributes of the Supreme Being,
and the nature of the human foul, and converted thofe
notions into fir ft principles, of which they would not
permit
Miracle
■Miracle.
M I R [ 280 ] MIR
permit an examination, that even among them a tho- indeed, be fully adequate to the purpofe.
rough reformation was not to be expe&ed from the
powers of reafoning. It is likewife to be obferved,
that there are many truths of the utmoft importance to
mankind, which unafliiled reafon could never have dif-
covered. Amongft thefe we may confidently reckon
the immortality of the foul, the terms upon which God
Will be reconciled to finners, and the manner in u'hich
that alhperfeft Being may be acceptably worlhipped ;
about all of which philoiophers were in fuch uncer¬
tainty, that, according to Plato, “ Whatever is let
right, and as it Ihould be, in the prefent evil ftate of
the world, can be fo only by the particular interpofition
of God (a).
An immediate revelation from Heaven, therefore,
was the only method by which infinite wifdom and
perfect goodnefs could reform a bewildered and vicious
race. But this revelation, at whatever time we fuppofe
it given, muft have been made direftly either to fome
chofcn individuals commilTioned to inftruft others, or to
every man and woman for whofe benefit it was ulti¬
mately intended. Were every perfon inlirufted in the
knowledge of his duty by immediate infpiration, and
were the motives to pradlife it brought home to his
mind by God himfelf, human nature vrould be wholly
changed: men would not be mailers of their own ac¬
tions ; they would 'not be moral agents, nor by con-
fequence be capable either of reward or of punilhment.
It remains, therefore, that if God has been gracioully
pleafed to enlighten and reform mankind, without
dellroying that moral nature which is eficntial to vir¬
tue, he can have done it only by revealing his truth to
certain chofen inllruments, who were the immediate
inllrudlors of their contemporaries, and through them
have been the inltruiilors of fucceeding ages.
Let us fuppofe this to have been aftually the cafe,
and confider how thofe infpired teachers could commu¬
nicate to others every truth which had been revealed to
themfelves. They might eafily, if it was part of their
duty, deliver a fublime fyftem of natural and moral
fcience, and ellablilh it upon the common balls of ex¬
periment and demontlration *, but what foundation
could they lay for thofe truths which unatlilted reafon
cannot difcover, and which, when they are revealed,
appear to have no neceffary relation to any thing pre-
viouflv knowrn ? To a bare affirmation that they had
been immediately received from God, no rational be¬
ing could be expedled to aflcnt. I he teachers might
be men of known veracity, whofe fimple alfertion
would be admitted as fufficient evidence for any faft
in conformity with the laws of nature ; but as every
man ha1- the evidence of his owrn confcioufnefs and ex¬
perience that revelations from heaven are deviations
from thefe laws, an aflertion fo apparently extravagant
would be rejefted as falfe, unlefs fupported by fome
better proof than the mere affirmation of the teacher.
In this Hate of things, we can conceive no evidence
fufficient to make fuch doftrines be received as the
truths of God, but the power of wrorking miracles
committed to him who taught them. This would,
For if there Miracle,
were nothing in the do£lrines themfelves impious, im- " V“““
moral, or contrary to truths already known, the only
thing which could render the teacher’s ailertion incre¬
dible, would be its implying fuch an intimate commu¬
nion with God as is contrary to the ellabliihed courfe
of things, by which men are lett to acquire all their
knowledge by the exercife of their own faculties.—
Let us now fuppofe one of thofe infpired teachers to
tell his countrymen, that he did not defire them, on
his ipfe dixit, to believe that he had any preternatural
communion with the Deity, but that for the truth of
his affertion he v^ould give them the evidence of their
own fenfes; and after this declaration let us fuppofe
him immediately to raile a perfon from the dead in
their prefence, merely by calling upon him to come
out of his grave. Would not the only poffible objec¬
tion to the man’s veracity be removed by this miracle ?
and his affertions that he had received fuch and fuch
do6lrines from God be as fully credited, as if it related
to the moll common occurrence ? Undoubtedly it
Avould ; for when fo much preternatural power was vi-
fibly communicated to this perfon, no one could have
reaion to queftion his having received an equal portion
of preternatural knowledge. A palpable deviation from
the known laws of nature, in one inllance, is a fenfible
proof that fuch a deviation is poffible in another ; and
in fuch a cafe as this, it is the witnefs of God to the
truth of a man.
Miracles, then, under which w-e include prophecy,
are the only direel evidence which can be given of di¬
vine infpiration. When a religion, or any religious
truth, is to be revealed from heaven, they appear to be
abfolutely neceflary to enforce its reception among men ;
and this is the only cafe in which we can fuppofe them
neceffary, or believe for a moment that they ever have
been or will be performed.
The hiftory of almoll every religion abounds with
relations of prodigies and wonders, and of the inter-
courfe of men with the gods •, but wTe know of no re¬
ligious fyllem, thofe of the Jews and Chriflians ex¬
cepted, which appealed to miracles as the foie evidence
of its truth and divinity. The pretended miracles
mentioned by Pagan hiftorians and poets are not faid
to have been publicly wrought to enforce the truth of
a new religion contrary to the reigning idolatry. Many
of them may be clearly ffiown to have been mere natu¬
ral events } (fee Magic). Others of them are repre-
fented as having been performed in fecret on the mo’ll
trivial occafions, and in obfeure and fabulous ages long
prior to the era of the writers by whom they are re¬
corded. And fuch of them as at firll view appear to be
bed attefted, are evidently tricks contrived for interell-
ed purpofes •, to flatter power, or to promote the pre¬
vailing fu.perllitions. For thefe reafons, as well as on
account of the immoral character of the divinities by
whom they are faid to have been wrought, they are al¬
together unworthy of examination, and carry in the very
nature of them the completed proofs of falfehood and
impodure.
But
(a) Ev eidirctv, 0 n Trig eer rutri rt kxi yiiylcti ciov hi, fjj rtmtvlti Kci}#rlxrei Trohirzwy. Qtov eivlo irairxt.
De Repub. lib. vi.
MIR t 28
,'firade. Uut tlie miracles recorded of Moles and of Chrlfl:
“'""V 'J bear a very different charafter. None of them is re-
prefented as wrought on trivial occafions. The writers
who mention them were eye witnefles of the faffs; which
they aflirm to have been performed publicly, in attella-
tion of the truth of thair refpe&ive fyItems. They are
indeed fo incorporated with thefe fyltems, that the mi¬
racles cannot be feparated from the doftrines *, and if
the miracles were not really performed, the doftrines
cannot polfibly be true. Befides all this, they were
wrought in fupport of revelations which oppofed all the
religious fyltems, fuperltitions, and prejudices, of the age
in which they were given : a circumltance which of it-
felf fets them, in point of authority, infinitely above the
Pagan prodigies, as well as the lying wonders of the
Romifh church.
It is indeed, we believe, univerfally admitted, that
the miracles mentioned in the book of Exodus and in
the four Gofpels, might, to thofe who faw them per¬
formed, be fufficient evidence of the divine infpiration
of Mofes and of Chrilt j but to us it may be thought
that they are no evidence whatever, as we mult be¬
lieve in the miracles themfelves, if we believe in them
at all, upon £the bare authority of human teflimony.
Why, it has been fometimes alked, are not miracles
wrought in all ages and countries ? If the religion of
Chrilt was to be of perpetual duration, every generation
of men ought to have complete evidence of its truth
and divinity.
To the performance of miracles in every age and
in every country, perhaps the fame objections lie as
to the immediate infpiration of every individual. Were
thofe miracles univerfally received as fuch, men would
be fo overwhelmed with the number rather than with
the force of their authority, as hardly to remain ma¬
ilers of their own conduft; and in that cafe the very
end of all miracles would be defeated by their frequency.
The truth, however, feems to be, that miracles fo fre¬
quently repeated would not be received as fuch, and
of courfe would have no authority •, becaufe it would
be difficult, and in many cafes impoffible, to dillinguifh
them from natural events. If they recurred regularly
at certain intervals, we could not prove them to be de¬
viations from the known laws of nature, becaufe we
thould have the fame experience for the one feries of
events as for the other •, for the regular fucceffion of
preternatural effects, as for the eilablilhed conflitution
and courfe of things.
Be this, however, as it may, we lhall take the li¬
berty to affirm, that for the reality of the Gofpel mi¬
racles we have evidence as convincing to the redefting
mind, though not fo itriking to vulgar apprehenfion,
as thofe had who were contemporary with Chrift and
his apofiles, and actually faw the mighty works which
he performed. To the admirers of Mr Hume’s phi-
lofophy this affertion will appear an extravagant para¬
dox ; but we hope to demonftrate its truth from prin¬
ciples which, confiftently with himfelf, that author
could not have denied. He has indeed endeavoured
Efuy on to prove *, that “ no teflirnony is fufficient to efta-
■liracks. blifli a miracle and the reafonfng employed for this
purpofe is, that “ a miracle being a violation of the
laws of nature which a firm and unalterable experi¬
ence has eflablifhed, the proof againff a miracle, from
the very nature of the fa£l, is as entire as any argu-
Vol. XIV. Part I.
1 ] MIR
ment from experience can be *, whereas our experience
of human veracity, which (according to him) is the
foie foundation of the evidence of teffimony, is far
from being uniform, and can therefore never prepon¬
derate againtl that experience which admits of no ex¬
ception.” This boafted and plaulible argument has
with equal candour and acutenels been examined by
Dr Campbell *, who juftly obferve*, that fo far is * Dijferta-
experience from being the tole foundation of the ex\-tl0’1 0,1
dence of teftimony, that, on the contrary, teftimony ^L> acles‘
is the foie foundation of by far the greater part of what
Mr Hume calls firm and unalterable experience ; and
that if in certain circumftances we did not give an
implicit faith to tellimony, our knowledge of events
would be confined to thofe which had fallen under the
immediate obfervation of our own fenfes. For a ffiort
view of this celebrated controverfy in which the Chri-
ftian fo completely vanquilhes the philofopher, fee the
word Abridgment.
But though Dr Campbell has expofed the fophiflry
of his opponent’s reafoning, and overturned the prin¬
ciples from which he reafons, we are perfyaded that
he might fafely have joimd ilTue with him upon thofe
very principles. To us, at lead, it appears that the
teftimony upon which we receive the Gofpel miracles
is precifely of that kind which Mr Hume has acknow¬
ledged fufficient to eftablifh even a miracle. “No
teftimony (fays he) is fufficient to eftablith a miracle,
unlefs the teftimony be of fuch a kind that its falfe-
hood would be more miraculous than the fa£t which
it endeavours to eftablith. When one tells me that he
faw a dead man reftored to life, I immediately conli-
dtr with myfelf whether it be more probable that this
perfon ihould either deceive or be deceived, or that
the faft which he relates fliould really have happened.
I weigh the one miracle againft the other $ and ac¬
cording to the fuperiority which I difeover, I pronounce
my decifion, and always reje£l the greater miracle.”
In this paffage every reader may remark what did not
efeape the per fpicacious eye of Dr Campbell, a firange
confufion of terms } but as all miracles are equally eafy
to the Almighty j and as Mr Hume has elfcwhere ob-
ferved, that “ the raifing of a feather, when the wind
wants ever fo little of a force requiflle for that pur¬
pofe, is as real a miracle as the raifing of a houfe or
a {hip into the air j” candour obliges us to fuppofe,
that by talking of greater and lefs miracles and of
always rejefling the greater, he meant nothing more,
but that of two deviations from the known laws of
nature he always rejetls that which in itfelf is leaft
probable.
If, then, vTe can fhow that the teftimony given by
the apoftles and other firft preachers of Chriftianity to
the miracles of their Mafter would, upon their fuppofi-
tion that thofe miracles were not really performed, have
been as great a deviation from the known laws of nature
as the miracles themfelves, the balance mu ft be confi-
dered as evenly poifed by oppofite miracles 3 and whilft
it continues fo, the judgment muft remain in a ftate of
fufpenfe. But if it fhall appear, that in this cafe the
falfe teftimony would have been a deviation from the
laws of nature lefs probable in itfelf than the miracles
recorded in the Gofpels, the balance will be inftantly de-
flroyed *, and by Mr Hume’s maxim we ft;ail be obliged
to rejedi. the fuppofition of falfehood in 'the teftimony
N n of
Miracle.
MIR [ 28
_ spyftlcs, and admit the miracles of Chrift to have
“ been really performed.
In this argument we need not wafie time in proving
that thofc miracles, as they are reprefented in the writ¬
ings of tne I\cw Peftament, wrere of fuch a nature, and
performed before fo many witnefles, that no impofition
could poflibly be praftifed on the fenfes of thofe who
aiiirm tliat they were prelent. From every page of
the Golpels this is fo evident, that the philofphical
adverfaries of the Chriftian faith never fuppofe the apo-
flles to have been themfelves deceived, but boldly ac-
cufc them of bearing falfe witnefs. But if this accufa-
tion be well founded, their teftimony itfelf is as great a
miracle as any which they record of themfelves or of
their Mailer.
It has been fliown elfewhere (fee Metaphysics,
■^*T i3^0j that by the law of aflbeiation, which is one
of the laws of nature, mankind, in the very procefs of
learning to fpeak, ncceflarily learn to fpeak the truth j
that ideas and relations are in the mind of every man fo
clofely afTociated with the wTords by which they are ex-
prelTed in his native tongue, and in every other lan-
guage of which he is mailer, that the one cannot be en¬
tirely feparated from the other j that therefore no man
can on any occafum fpeak falfehood without fome ef-
fort; that by no effort can a man give conliilency to an
unpremeditated detail of falfehood, if it be of any length,
and include a number of particulars j and that it is Hill
lefs poflible for feveral men to agree in fuch a detail,
when at a dillance from each other, and crofs queltion-
ed by their enemies.
1 his being the cafe, it follows, if the tellimony of
the apoflles to their own and their Mailer’s miracles
be falfe, either that they mull have concerted a con-
fillent fcheme of falfehood, and agreed to publilh it at
every hazard j or tliat God, or fome powerful agent
appointed by him, mull have diffolved all the affocia-
tions formed in their minds between ideas of fenfe and
the words of language, and arbitrarily formed new af-
fociations, all in exadl conformity to each other, but all
in dire£l contradi6lion to truth. One or other of thefe
events mud have taken place ; becaufe, upon the fup-
pofition of falfehood, there is no other alternative. But
fuch a diffolution and formation of affociations as the
latter implies, mull, to every man who fhall attentively
confider it, appear to be as real a miracle, and to re¬
quire as great an exertion of power, as the refurredlion
of the dead. Nor is the fuppofed voluntary agreement
of the apollles in a fcheme of falfehood an event lefs mi¬
raculous. When they fat down to fabricate their pre¬
tended revelation, and to contrive a feries of miracles
to which they rvere unanimoully to appeal for its truth,
it is plain, lince they proved fuccefsful in their daring
enterprife, that they mull have clearly forefeen every
poffble circumdance in which they could be placed,
and have prepared confident anfwers to every quedion
that could be put to them by their mod inveterate and
mod enlightened enemies j by the datefman, the lawyer,
the philofopher, and the pried. That fuch foreknow-
ledge as this would have been miraculous, wbll not fure-
ly be denied ; lince it forms the very attribute which
we find it mod difficult to allow even to God himfelf.
11 is not, however, the on/y miracle which this fuppofi-
tion would compel us to fwallow. The very refolution
of the apodles to propagate the belief of falfe miracles
] MIR
in fupport of fuch a religion as that which is taught in Miracle.
the New Tedament, is as great a miracle as human' v—■
imagination can eafily conceive.
When they formed this defign, either they mud have
hoped to fucceed, or they mult have forefeen that they
diould fail in their undertakings and in either cafe,
they chofe evil for its own fake. They could not, if
they forefaw that they diould fail, look for any thing
but that contempt, difgrace, and perfecuticn, which
ivere then the inevitable confequences of an unfuccefs-
ful endeavour to overthrow the edablilhed religion.
Nor could their profpedts be brighter upon the fuppoli-
tion of their fuccefs. As they knew themfelves to be
falfe witneffes and impious deceivers, they could have
no hopes beyond the grave; and by determining to op.
pofe all the religious fydems, fuperltilions, and preju¬
dices of the age in which they lived, they wilfully ex-
pofed themfelves to inevitable miferyinthe prefent life,
to infult, and imprifonment, to dripes and death. Nor
can it be faid tliat they might look forward to power
and affluence when they diould, through fufferings, have
converted their countrymen ; for fo defirous were they
of obtaining nothing but mifery, as the end of their
mifflon, that they made their own perfecution a ted of
the truth of their doflrines. They introduced the Ma¬
tter from whom they pretended to have received thefe
doarines as telling them, that “ they were fent forth as
ftieep in the midft of wolves} that they ihould be deli¬
vered up to councils, and fcourged in fynagogues ; that
they fliould be hated of all men for his name’s fake $
that the brother fliould deliver up the brother to death,
and the father the child 5 and that he who took not up
his crofs and followed after him was not worthy of
him.’’ The very fydem of religion, therefore,, which
they invented and refolved to impofe upon mankind,
was fo contrived, that the worldly profperity of its firft
preachers, and even their exemption from perfecution,.
was incompatible with its fuccefs. Had thefe clear pre-
diflions of the Author of that religion, under whom thei
apoftles a£led only as minifters, not been verified, all
mankind mutt have inttantly perceived that their pre¬
tence to infpiration was falfe, and that Chriftianity was-
a fcandalous and imprudent impofture. All this the.
apoftles could not but forefee when they formed their
plan for deluding the world. Whence it follows, that
when they refolved to fupport their pretended revela¬
tion by an appeal to forged miracles, they Avilfully, and
with their eyes open, expofed themfelves to inevitable
mifery, whether they fhould fucceed or fail in their en¬
terprife $ and that they concerted their meafures fo as
not to admit of a poflibility of recompenfe to themfelves,
either in this life or in that which is to come. But if
there be a law of nature, for the reality of which Ave
have better evidence than Ave have for others, it is, that
“ no man can choofe mifery for its own fakef or make
the acquifition of it the ultimate end of his purfuit.
The exittence of other laAvs of nature Ave knoAV by tef-
timony and our OAvn obfervation of the regularity of
their effefts. The exiftence of this huv is made knoAvn
to us not only by thefe means, but alfo by the ftill
clearer and more conclufive evidence of our own con-
fcioufnels.
Thus, then, do miracles force themfelves upon our
affent in every poffible vieiv which Ave can take of this
interefting fubjed. If the teftimony of the firft:
preachers
MIR [ 283 ] MIS
Miracle preachers of Chriftianity was true, the miracles record-
11 ed iu the Gofpel were certainly performed, and the doc-
hrandola. trjnes 0£ our religion are derived from heaven. On the
other hand, if that teflimony was falfe, either God muft
have miraculoully effaced from the minds of thofe by
whom it was given all the affociations formed between
their fenfible ideas and the words of language, or he
muff have endowed thofe men with the gift of prefci-
•ence, and have impelled them to fabricate a pretended
revelation for the purpofe of deceiving the world,
and involving themfelves in certain and forefeen de-
ftruiftion.
The power neceflary to perform the one feries of
thefe miracles may, for any thing known to us, be as
great as that which would be requifite for the perform¬
ance of the other 5 and, confidered merely as exertions
of preternatural power, they may feem to balance each
other, and to hold the mind in a ftate of fufpenfe. But
when wre take into confideration the different purpofes
for which thefe oppofite and contending miracles were
wrought, the balance is inffantly deffroyed. The mi¬
racles recorded in the Gofpels, if real, were wrought in
fupport of a revelation which, in the opinion of all by
whom it is received, has brought to light many import¬
ant truths which could not otherwife have been made
known to men j and which, by the confeflion of its ad-
verfaries, contains the purefl moral precepts by which
the conduft of mankind was ever dire6ted. The oppo¬
fite feries of miracles, if real, was performed to enable,
and even to compel, a company of Jews, of the loweft
rank and of the narrowrefl education, to fabricate, with
the view of inevitable deftrudtion to themfelves, a con-
fiffent fcheme of falfehood, and by an appeal to forged
miracles to impofe it upon the world as a revelation
from heaven. The objeff of the former miracles is
worthy of a God of infinite wrifdom, goodnefs, and
powfer. The object of the latter is abfolutely inconfifl-
ent with w'ifdom and goodnefs, which are demonftrably
attributes of that Being by whom alone miracles can be
performed. Whence it follows, that the fuppofition of
the apoftles bearing falfe teilimony to the miracles of
their Mafter, implies a feries of deviations from the laws
of nature, infinitely lefs probable in themfelves than
thofe miracles : and therefore by Mr Hume’s maxim,
we muft neceffarily rejeft the fuppolition of falfehood in
the teftimony, and admit the reality of the miracles.
So true it is, that for the reality of the Gofpel miracles
we have evidence as convincing to the refledling mind,
as thofe had who were contemporary with Chrift and
his apoftles, and were a&ual witnelfes to their mighty
works.
MIRANT)A-de-Ebro, a town of Spain, in Old
Caftile, with a ftrong caftle ; feated in a country that
produces excellent wrine. W. Long. 3. 10, N. Lat.
42. 52.
MIRANDO-de-Douro, or Duero, a ftrong towrn
of Portugal, and capital of the province of Tra-los-
Montes, with a bifltop’s fee. It is well fortified, and
feated on a rock near the confluence of the rivers Douro
and Frefna. W. Long. 5. 40. N. Lat. 41. 30.
MIRANDOLA, a town of Italy, and capital of a
duchy of the fame name, fituated between the duchies
of Mantua and Modena $ is well fortified, and has alfo
a ftrong citadel and fort. It has been feveral times ta¬
ken and retaken. E. Long. 11. 5. N. Lat. 44. 32.
MIRIAM, lifter of Aaron and Mofes, makes two
or three remarkable appearances in Scripture. It was
owing to her that her mother was employed by Pha¬
raoh’s daughter as nurfe to Mofes. She put herfelf
at the head of the women of Ifrael after their pafiage
through the Red fea, in order to fing the fong which
the men had fung before. She joined with her bro¬
ther Aaron in murmuring againlt Mofes, and ivas fe-
verely chaftifed for that atftion ; for fhe became leprous,
and continued feparate from the reft without the camp
for feven days. She died before her brothers, though
in the fame year with them, and was buried at the pub¬
lic expence.
MIRROR, a name for a looking glafs, or any po-
lifhed body, whofe ufe is to form the images of diftant
obje<fts, by reflection of the rays of light. See Reflec¬
tion.
Mirrors are either plane, convex, or concave. The
firft refleCl the rays of light in a direction exaCtly fimi-
lar to that in which they fall upon them, and therefore
reprefent bodies of their natural magnitude. The con¬
vex ones make the rays diverge much more than before
reflection, and therefore greatly diminilh the images of
thofe objects which they Ihow : while the concave ones,
by collecting the rays into a focus, not only magnify
the objects they Ihow, but will burn very fiercely when
expofed to the rays of the fun •, and hence they are-
commonly known by the name of burning mirrors. See
Burning Mirrors.
In ancient times the mirrors were made of fome kind
of metal *, and from a paflage of the Mofaic writings we
learn that the mirrors ufed by the Jewulh women were
made of brafs. The Jews certainly had been taught to
ufe that kind of mirrors by the Egyptians; from whence
it is probable that brazen mirrors were the firft kind
ufed in the wrorld. Any kind of metal, indeed, when
well poliflied, will refleCl very powerfully ; but of all
others filver refleCls the moft, though it lias been in all
countries too expenfive a material for common ufe.
Gold alfo is very powerful; and metals, or even wood,
gilded and poliflied, will aCt very powerfully as burn¬
ing mirrors. Even polilbed ivory, or ftraw nicely plait¬
ed together, will form mirrors capable of burning, if on
a large feale.
Since the invention of glafs, and the application of
quickfilver to it, became generally known, it hath been
univerfally employed for thofe plane mirrors ufed as or¬
naments to houfes ; but in making reflecting telefcopes,
they have been found much inferior to metallic ones.
It doth not appear that the fame fuperiority belongs to
the metalline burning mirrors, confidered merely as
burning glafles ; fince the mirror with which M. Mac-
quer melted platina, though only 22 inches diameter, and
which w'as made of quickfilvered glafs, produced much
greater effeCfs than M. Vilette’s metalline fpeculum,
which confiderably exceeded it in fize. It is very pro¬
bable, however, that this mirror of M. Vilette’s was
by no means fo well poliflied as it ought to have been ;
as the art of preparing the metal for taking the fineft
polifli has but lately been difeovered and publifhed in
the Philofophical Tranfa&ions by Mr Mudge. See
G LASS-Grinding.
MIRE-CROW, Sea-crow, or Pewit. See Larus,
Ornithology Index.
MISADVENTURE, in common language, figni-
N n 2 fies
Miriam
M IS [ 284 ] MIS
Miiadven- fies any unlucky accident which takes place without be-
tUj|e ing forefeen.
Mifchna. Misadventure, in Law, has an efpecial fignifica-
■> tion for tlie killing a man partly by negligence, and
partly by chance. See Homicide.
MISANTHROPY (from /uiiroi, hatred, and «»-
a man^) ; a general dillike or averlion to man,
and mankind. In which fenfe it Hands oppofed to^z-
ianthropy, or the love of mankind.
MISCARRIAGE. See Abortion and Mid¬
wifery.
MISCHNA , or Misna, (from j-ny, iteravii), a part
of the Jewilh Talmud.
I he Mifchna contains the text j and the Gemara,
which is the fccond part of the Talmud, contains the
commentaries : fo that the Gemara is, as it were, a glof-
fary on the Mifchna,
The Mifchna confifts of various traditions of the
Jews, and of explanations of feveral paffages of Scrip¬
ture : thefe traditions ferving as an explication of the
written law, and fupplement to it, are faid to have
been delivered to Mofes during the time of his abode
on the Mount ; which he afterwards communicated to
Aaron, Eleazar, and his fervant Jofhua. By thefe they
were tranfmitted to the 70 elder?, by them to the pro¬
phets, who communicated them to the men of the great
fanhedrim, from whom the wife men of Jefuralem and
Babylon received them. According to Prideaux’s ac¬
count, they pafled from Jeremiah to Baruch, from him
to Ezra, and from Ezra to the men of the great fyna-
gogue, the lall of whom was Simon the Juft ; who de¬
livered them to Antigonus of Socho ; and from him
they came down in regular fucceflion to Simeon, who
took our Saviour in his arms ; to Gamaliel, at whofe
feet Paul was educated j and laft of all to Rabbi Judah
the Holy, who committed them to writing in the
Mifchna. But Dr Prideaux, rejecting this Jewilh fic¬
tion, obferves, that after the death of Simon the Juft,
about 299 years before Chrift, the Mifchnieal dodlors
arofe, who, by their comments and conclufions, added
to the number of thofc traditions which had been re¬
ceived and allowed by Ezra and the men of the great
fynagogue ; fo that towards the middle of the fecond
century after Chrift under the empire of Antoninus
Pius, it w-as found neceffary to commit thefe traditions
to writing ; more efpecially, as their country had con-
fiderably fuffered under Adrian, and many of their
fchools had been diflblved, and their learned men cut
off '■) and therefore the ufual method of prefcrving their
traditions had failed. Rabbi Judah on this occafion be¬
ing redtor of the fchool at Tiberias, and prefident of the
fanhedrim in that place, undertook the work, and com¬
piled it in fix books, each confifting of feveral tradfs,
which altogether make up the number of 63. Prid.
Connex. vol. ii. p. 468, &c. edit. 9. This learned au¬
thor computes, that the Mifchna was compofed about
tlie 150th year of our Lord ; but Dr Lightfoot fays,
that Rabbi Judah compiled the Mifchna about the year
of Chrift 190, in the latter end of the reign of Corn-
modus ; or, as fome compute, in the year of Chrift 220.
Dr Lardner is of opinion, that this work could not
have been finifhtd before the year 190, or later. Col-
ledt. of Jewilh. and Heathen Teftimonies, &c. vol. i.
p. 178. Thus the book called the Mifchna was form¬
ed \ a book which the Jews have generally received
with the greateft veneration. The original has* been Mifchna
publilhed with a Latin tranllation by Surenhufius, with II
notes of his own, and others from the learned Maimo-
nides, &c. in 6 vol. fob Amfterd. A. D. 1698 —1703.
(See I almud). It is written in a much purer ftyle,
and is not near fo full of dreams and vifions as the Ge¬
mara.
MISDEMEANOUR, in Law, fignifies a crime.
Every crime is a mifdemeanour $ yet the law has made
a diftindlion between crimes of a higher and a lower
nature ^ the latter being demominated mfdemeanours,
the former felonies, &c. For the underftanding of which
diftindlion, we Ihall give the following definition from
Blackltone’s Commentaries, vol. iv. 5.
“ A crime, or mifdemeanour, is an adl committed
or Ofnitted, in violation of a public law, either forbid¬
ding or commanding it. This general definition com¬
prehends both crimes and mfdemeanours; which, pro¬
perly fpeaking, are mere fynonymous terms; though,
in common ufage, the word crime is made to denote
fuch offences as are of a deeper and more atrocious dye y
while fmaller faults, and omiftions of lei's confequence,
are comprifed under the gentler name of mifdemeanours
only.”
MISE, in law books, is ufed in various fenfcs :
thus it fometimes fignifies coils or expences j in which
fenfe it is commonly ufed in entering of judgments in
adlions perfonal. It is alfo ufed for the iffue to be
tried on the grand aftize ; in which cafe, joining of the
mife upon the mere right, is putting in iffue between
the tenant and demandant, Who has the bell or clear-
eft right.
Mise, alfo fignifies a tax or tallage, &c. An ho¬
norary gift, or cultomary prefent from the people of
Wales to every new king or prince of Wales, anciently
given in cattle, wine, and corn, but now in money,
being 5000I. or more, is denominated a mife ; fo wras the
ufual tribute or fine of 3000 merks paid by the inhabi¬
tants of the county palatine of Chefter at the change of
every owner of the faid earldom, for enjoying their li¬
berties. And at Chefter they have a mife-book, where¬
in every town and village in the county is rated what
to pay towards the mife. The 27 Hen. VIII. c. 26.
ordains that lords Ihall have all fuch mifes and profits of
their lands as they had in times paft, &c.
Mise, is fometimes alfo corruptly ufed for meafe, in
law French mees, “ a meffuage as a mife place, in
fome manors, is fuch a meffuage or tenement as an-
fwers the lord a heriot at the death of its osvner.—
2. Injl. 528.
MISENUM, or MlSENUS, in Ancient Geography;
a promontory, port, and town in Campania, fituated to
the fouth-weft of Baise, in the Sinus Puteolanus, on the
north fide. Here Augullus had a fleet, called ClaJJis
Mfenetjis, for guarding the Mare Inferum j as he had
another at Ravenna for the Superum.
On this peninfula a villa was built by Cains Marius,
with a degree of elegance that gave great offence to the
moft auftere among the Romans, who thought it ill
fuited to the charadter of fo rough a foldier. Upon the
fame foundation Lucullus the plunderer of the eaftern
world, eredted an edifice, in comparifon of which the
former houfe was a cottage 5 but even his magnificence
wes eclipfed by the fplendour of the palace which the
emperors raifed upon the fame fpot. To thefe proud
abodes
M IS [25
num, abodes of heroes and monarchs, vmca I'.ave long been
ifer. levelled to the ground, a few fulling huts, as Mr Swm-
^ ' burne informs us, and a lonely public houfe, have lue-
ceeded : hither boatmen retort to tipple perhaps on the
identical file where the voluptuous mailers of the world
quaffed Chian and Falernian wines.
MISER, a parfimonious perfon wdio is at the tame
time rich-, or a wretch covetous to extremity, whom
avarice has divefted of all the chanties ot human na¬
ture, and made even an enemy to himfeif.
Of this moil unaccountable of all characters, many
inftances occur; feme of them fo extraordinary as al-
moit to furpafs belief. The following are here tele ti¬
ed, as being of recent date, perfeaiy authentic, and the
lad of them in particular exhibiting an affemblage of
qualities the mod tingular perhaps that ever exited in
the fame perfon. J oo little dignified to merit a place
in regular biography, yet too curious a variety of human
charatler to pafs unnoticed in this work, the pretent
feemed the only title under which it could with pro¬
priety be introduced.
1. ’In December 1790, died at Paris, literally of
want, Mr Oftervald, a well known banker. This man,
originally of Neufchatel, felt the violence of the dif-
cafe of avarice, (for furely it is rather a difeafe than a
patlion of the mind) fo ftrongly, that within a few days
of his death, no importunities could induce him to buy
a few pounds of meat for the purpofe of making a little
foup for him. “ ’Tis true (laid he), I fliould not dif-
like the foup, but I have no appetite for the meat *,
what then is to become of that r” At the time that he
refufed this nourilhment, for fear of being obliged to
give aw-ay two or three pounds of meat, there was tied
round his neck a filken bag, which contained 800 af-
fignats of 1000 livres each. At his outfet in life, he
drank a pint of beer which ferved him for fupper, every
night at a houfe much frequented, from which he car¬
ried home all the bottle corks he could come at. Of
thefe, in the courfe of eight years, he had colie&ed as
many as fold for 12 louis d’or, a fum that had laid the
foundation of his future fortune, the fuperftru&ure of
which was rapidly raifed by his uncommon fuccefs in
flock jobbing. He died poffciTed of three millions of
livres (125,000!. fterling).
2. The late John Elwes, Efq. w-as member for Berk-
fhire in three fucceilive parliaments. His family name
was Meggot; and his father was a brewer of great
eminence, and diftinguifhed by no peculiarity of cha-
ra&er: but his mother, though fhe was left nearly
lOOjOOol. by her hufband, ftarved herfelf to death !
At an early period of life he was fent to Weftminfter
fchool, where he remained for 10 or 12 years. Dur¬
ing that time he certainly had not mi (applied his ta¬
lents } for he was a good claflical fcholar to the laft :
and it is a cireumftance not a little remarkable, though
well authenticated, that he never read afterwards, nor
had he ever any knowdedge in accounts *, to which
may in fome meafure be attributed the total ignorance
he was always in as to his affairs. From Weftminfter
fchool Mr Meggot removed to Geneva, where he foon
entered upon purfuits more agreeable to him than ftudy.
The riding mafter of the academy there had then to
boaft perhaps of three of the beft riders in Europe, Mr
Worfley, Mr Elwes, and Sir Sidney Meadows. Of
the three, Elwes was reckoned the moil defperate j the
4i
- ] MIS
young horfes were always put into his hands, and he Miter,
was the rough rider to the other two. ^ y—
On his return to England, after an abfence of two
or three years, he was to be introduced to his uncle the
late Sir Harvey Elwes, who was then living at Stoke
in Suffolk, perhaps the moil perfedt picture of human
penury that ever exiited. The attempts at faving mo¬
ney were in him fo extraordinary, that Mr Elwes per¬
haps never quite reached them, even at the lait period
of his life.—Of what temperance can do, Sir Harvey
was an inilance. At an early period of life he was gi¬
ven over for a confumption, and he lived till betwixt
80 and 90 years of age. On his death, his fortune,
which was at leaft 250,000!. fell to his nephew Mr
Meggot, who by will was ordered to afl'ume the name
and arms of Elwes. Jo this uncle, and this property,
Mr Elwes fuccceded when he had advanced beyond
the 40th year of his age. For 15 years previous to this
period, he was well known in the more fafiiionable cir¬
cles of London. Fie had always a turn for play ; and
it was only late in life, and from paying always and not
always being paid, that he conceived difguft at it. The
theory which lie profeffed, “ that it was impoflible to
a(k a gentleman for money,” he perfectly confirmed by
the praclice *, and he never violated this feeling to the
latelt hour of his life.
The manners of Mr Elwes were fuch—fo gentle, fo
attentive, fo gentlemanly, and fo engaging—that rude-
nefs could not ruffle them, or (Irong ingratitude break
their obfervance. Fie retained this peculiar feature of
the old court to the kill ; but he had a praife beyond
this : He had the moll gallant difregard of his own per¬
fon, and all care about himfeif that can be imagined.
The inftances in younger life, in the moft imminent
perfonal hazard, are innumerable j but when age had
defpoiled him of his aclivity, and might have rendered
care and attention about himfeif natural, he knew not
v, hat they were: He withed no one to aftift him :
“ He was as young as ever he could walk j he could
ride, and he could dance j and he hoped he ftiould not
give trouble even when he was old:” He was at that
time 75.
It is curious to remark how he contrived to mingle
fmall attempts at faving with objedts of the moft un¬
bounded diffipation. After fitting up a whole night
at play for thoufands with the moft fa fh ion able and pro¬
fligate men of the time, amidil fplendid rooms, gilt fofas,
wax lights, and waiters attendant on his call, he would
walk out about four in the morning, not towards home,
but into Smith field, to meet his own cattle, which were
coming to market from Thaydonhall, a farm of his in
Effex ! There would this fame man, forgetful of the
feenes he had juft left, (land in the cold or rain, barter¬
ing with a carcafs butcher for a (hilling! Sometimes
w hen the cattle did not arrive at the hour he expedled,
he would walk on in the mire to meet them •, and more
than once has gone on foot the whole way to his farm
without flopping, which was 17 miles from London,
after fitting up the whole night. Had every man been
of the mind of Mr Elwes, the race of innkeepers muft
have periftied, and poft-chaifes have been returned back
to thofe who made them j for it was the bufinefs of his
life to avoid both. He always travelled on horfeback.
To fee him fetting out on a journey, was a matter truly
curious; Iris firft care was to put two or three eggs,
boiled
M ifer.
* Mr Top-
ham ; from
whofe Life
of John
jti'ive., Efq.
the parti¬
culars of
this article
are extract¬
ed.
M 1 S f 2
boiled hard, into his great coat pocket, or any feraps
ot bread which he found ; baggage he never took ; then
mounting ()ne of his hunters, his next attention was to
get out of London into that road where turnpikes were
the tewed : then, flopping under any hedge where grafs
Presented itfelf for his horfe, and a little -water for him-
lelf, he would fit down and refrefh himfelf and his horfe
together.
The chief refidence of Mr Elwes at this period of his
life was in Berkfhire, at his own feat at Marcham. Here
it was he had two natural fons born, who inherit the
greateft part of his property by a will made about the
year 1785. The keeping of fox hounds was the only
initance in the w hole life of Mr Elwes of his ever facri-
ficing money to pleafure 5 and may be felefted as the
only period when he forgot the cares, the perplexities,
and the regret, which his wealth occafioned. But
even here every thing was done in the mod frugal man¬
ner. Scrub, in the Beaux Stratagem, when compared
with Mr Elwes’s huntfman, had an idle life of it. This
famous huntfman might have fixed an epoch in the
hi dory of fervants : for in a morning, getting up at
lour o clock, he milked the cows j he then prepared
breakfad for Mr Elwes or any friends he might have
with him : then Hipping on a green coat, he hurried
into the dable, {addled the horfes, got the hounds out
of the kennel, and away they went into the field. After
the fatigues of hunting, he refredied himfelf by rubbing
down two or three horfes as quickly as he could ; then
running into the houfe to lay the cloth, and wait at
dinner ; then hurrying again into the dable to feed the
horfes—diverfified with an interlude of the cows again
to milk, the dogs to feed, and eight hunters to litter
down for the night.
In the penury of Mr Elwes there was fomething that
feemed like a judgment from heaven. All earthly
comforts he voluntarily denied himfelf: he would walk
home in the rain in London rather than pay a ihilling
fur a coach 5 he would fit in wet clothes fooner than
have a fire to dry them •, he would eat his provifions in
the lad dage of putrefadHon fooner than have a frefh
joint from the butchers j and lie wore a wig for above
a fortnight, which his biographer* faw him pick up out
of a rut in a lane where they were riding. This was
the lad extremity of laudable economy ; for to all ap-
pcsirsincc it whs tlic cnft-ofF wi^ o£ fomc !
Mr Elwes had now refided about 13 years in Suffolk,
when the conted for Berkdiire prefented itfelf on the
diffolution of the parliament; and when, to preferve the
peace of that county, he was nominated by Lord Cra¬
ven. Mr Elwes, though he had retired from public
bufinefs for fome years, had dill left about him feme of
the feeds of more adlive life, and he agreed to the pro-
pofal. It came farther enhanced to him, by the agree¬
ment, that he was to be brought in by the freeholders
for nothing. All he did on the occafion was dining at
the oidinary at Leading 5 and he got into parliament
for 18 pence !
Though a new man, Mr Elwes could not be called
a young member; for he was at this time nearly 60
years old when he thus entered on public life. But he
was in poffeHion of all his a&ivity ; and, preparatory
to his appearance on the boards of St Stephen’s Chapel,
he ufed to attend condantly during the races and
other public meetings all the great towns where his
86 ] MIS
voters refided. At the different affemblies he would
dance among the younged to the lad, after riding over
on horfeback, and frequently in the rain, to the place
of meeting. A gentleman who was one night dand-
mg by, obferved on the extraordinary agility of fo old
° ' that is nothinS (lrephed another) 5 for
Mr Elwes, to do this, rode 20 miles in the rain, with
his dices duck into his boots and his bag-wm in his
pocket.” 0 b
The honour of parliament made no alteration in
the drefs of Mr Elwes: on the contrary, it feemed
at this time to have attained additional meannefs •
and nearly to have reached that happy climax of po-
verty, which has more than once drawn on him the
compaffion of thofe who paffed by him in the dreet.
For the fpeaker’s dinners, however, he had one fuit
with which the fpeaker in the courfe of the feffions
became very familiar. The minider likewife was well
acquainted with it j and at any dinner of oppofition
dill was his apparel the fame. The wits of the mino¬
rity ufed to fay, “ that they had full as much reafon
as the minider to be fatisfied with Mr Elwes, as he
had the fame habit with every body.” At this period
of ids life Mr Elwes wore a wig. Much about the time
when his parliamentary life cealed, that wig was worn
out; fo then, being older and wifer as to expence, he
wore his own hair, which like his expences was very
fmall. 7
All this time the income of Mr Elwes was increa-
fing hourly, and his prefent expenditure was next to
nothing 5 for the little pleafures he had once engaged
in he had now given up. He kept no houfe, and only
one old fervant and a couple of horfes : he refided with
his nephew : his two fons he had dationed in Suffolk
and BerkHnre, to look after his refpedtive edates : and
his drefs certainly was no expence to him 5 for had not
other people been more careful than himfeif, he would
not have had it even mended.
\\ hen he left London, he went on horfeback to his
countij feats with his couple of hard eggs, and with¬
out once dopping upon the road at any houfe. He
always took the mod unfrequented road, and ufed
every Hiitt to avoid turnpikes. Marcham w'as the feat
he now chiefly vifited } -which had fome reafon to be
flattered V'ith the preference, as his journey into Suf¬
folk cod him only twopence-halfpenny, while that into
Berkdiire amounted to fourpence !
As Mr Elwes came into parliament without ex¬
pence, he performed his duty as a member would have
done in the pure days of our conditution. What
he had not bought he never attempted to fell 5 and
he went forward in that draight and direct path,
which can alone iatisfy a reflecting mind. Amongd
the fmaher memorials of the parliamentary life of Mr
Elwes may be noted, that lie did not follow the cuf-
tom of members in general by fitting on any parti¬
cular fide of the houfe, but fat as occafion prefented
itfelf on either indiferiminately ; and he voted much
in the fame manner, but never rofe to fpeak. In his
attendance at the houfe, he w as always early and late 5
and he never left it for dinner, as he had accudomed
himfelf to fading, fometimes for 24 hours in conti¬
nuance.
\\ hen he quitted parliament, lie was, in the com •
mon phrafe, “ a fifli out of water !” The dyle of Mr
Ehves’s
MIS [ 287 ] MIS
fifer. Elwes’s life had left him no domedic fcenes to which
 ' he could retire—his home was dreary and poor—his
rooms received no cheerfulnefs from fire ; and while
the outfide had all the appearance of a “ Houfe to be
Let,” the infide was a defert ) but he had his penury
alone to thank for this, and for the want of all the
little confolations which fliould attend old age, and
fmooth the paffage of declining liie. At the clofe of
the fpring of 1785, he widied again to vifit, which
he had not done for fome years, his feat at Stoke.
But then the journey was a moft ferious objett to him.
The famous old fervant was dead j all the horfes that
remained with him were a couple of worn-out brood
mares •, and he himfelf was not in that vigour of body
in which he could ride 60 or 70 miles on the fufte-
nance of two boiled eggs. The mention of a poll chaife
would have been a crime—“ He afford a poft chaife,
jndeed ! where was he to get the money ?” would
have been his exclamation. At length ho was carried
into the country as he was carried into parliament, free
of expence, by a gentleman who was certainly not quite
fo rich as Mr Elwes. When he reached Stoke—the
feat of more aftive fcenes, of fomewhat refembling hof-
pitality, and where his fox hounds had fpread fomewhat
like vivacity around—he remarked, “ he had expended
a great deal of money once very foolilhly ; but that a
man grew wifer by time.”
The rooms at this feat, which were now much out of
repair, and would have all fallen in but for his fon John
Ehves, Efq. who had refided there, he thought too
expenfively furnilhed, as worfe things might have
ferved. If a window was broken, there was to be no
repair but that of a little brown paper, or that of
piecing in a bit of broken glafs 5 which had at length
been done fo frequently, and in fo many lhapes, that
it would have puzzled a mathematician to fay “ what
figure they defcribed.,r To fave fire, he wrould wralk
I about the remains of an old greenhoufe, or fit with a
fervant in the kitchen. During the harveft he would
amufe himfelf with going into the fields to glean the
corn on the grounds of his own tenants } and they
ufed to leave a little more than common to pleafe the
old gentleman, who was as eager after it as any pau¬
per in the parilh. In the advance of the feafon, his
morning employment was to pick up any ftray chips,
Bones, or other things, to carry to the fire, in his
pocket—and he was one day furprifed by a neighbour¬
ing gentleman in the a£l: of pulling down, with fome
difficulty, a crow’s neft for this purpofe. On the
gentleman wondering why he gave himfelf this trou¬
ble—“ Oh, Sir, (replied old Elwes), it is really a ffiame
that thefe creatures ffiould do fo. Do but fee what
wafte they make ! They don’t care how extravagant
they are !”
As no gleam of favourite paffion, or any ray of
amufement, broke through this gloom of penury, his
infatiable defire of faving was now become uniform
and fyftematic. He ufed ftill to ride about the coun¬
try on one of thefe mares—but then he rode her very
economically, on the foft turf, adjoining the road,
without putting himfelf to the expence of fhoes, as he
obferved, “ The turf was fo pleafant to a horfe’s foot!”
And when any gentleman called to pay him a vifit,
and the boy who attended in the Rabies, was prefufe
enough to put a little hay before his horfe, old Elwes
would ilily Real back into the Rable, and take the Mifer.
hay very carefully away. That very flrong appetite■"Y""’
which Mr Elwes had in fome meafure reftrained dur¬
ing the long fitting of parliament, he now indulged
moft voracioully, and on every thing he could find.
To fave, as lie thought, the expence of going to a
butcher, he would have a whole ffieep killed, and fo
eat mutton to the—end of the chapter. When he oc-
cafionally had his river drawn, though fometimes horfe
loads of fmall fith were taken, not one would he fuf-
fer to be thrown in again *, for he obferved, “ He
fhould never fee them again !” Game in the laft Rate
of putrefadlion, and meat that walked about his plate,
would he continue to eat, rather than have new things
killed before the old provifion was finiffied. Witlt-
this diet—the charnel houfe of fufenancc—his drefs kept
pace—equally in the laft Rage of abfolutc diffolution.
Sometimes he would walk about in a tattered brown-
coloured hat, and fometimes in a red and white wool¬
len cap, like a prifoner confined for debt. His
ffioes he never would fuffer to be cleaned, left they
ftiould be worn out the fooner. But ftill, with all
this felf-denial—that penury of life to which the in¬
habitant of an alms houfe is not doomed—ftill did
he think he was profufe, and frequently fay, “ He
muft be a little more careful of his property.” His
difquietude on the fubjeft of money was now conti¬
nual. When he went to bed, he would put five or
ten guineas into a bureau j and then, full of his mo¬
ney, after he had retired to reft, and fometimes in the
middle of the night, lie would come down to fee if it
was there..
The feene of mortification at which Mr Elwes was
now arrived was all but a denial of the common ne-
ceffaries of life : and indeed it might have admitted a
doubt, whether or not, if his manors, his filh ponds,
and fome grounds in his own hands, had not fumiffied
a fubfiftence, where he had not any thing afiually to
buy, he would not, rather than have bought any thing,
have ftarved. Strange as this may appear, it is not ex¬
aggerated.—He one day, during this period, dined upon
the remaining part of a moor hen, which had been
brought out of the river by a rat! and at another ate
an undigefted part of a pike which a larger one had
fwallowed, but had not finifhed, and which were taken
in this ftate in a net. At the time this-daft circumftance
happened, he difeovered a ftrange kind of fatisfadlion j
for he faid to a friend, “ Aye ! this was killing two
birds with one Rone !” In the room of all comment—
of all moral—let it be remarked, that at this time Mr
Elwes was perhaps worth nearly eight hundred thoufand
pounds ! and, at this period, he had not made his will,
of courfe was not faving from any fentiment of affedlion
for any perfon.
The fummer of 1788 Mr Elwes paffed at his houfe
in Welbeck ftreet, London ; and he paffed that fum¬
mer without any other fociety than that of two maid
fervants ; for he had now given up the expence of
keeping any male domeftic. His chief employment ufed
to be that of getting up early in a morning to vifit fome
of his houfes in Mary-le-bone, which during the fum¬
mer were repairing. As he wras there generally at
four o’clock in a morning, he was of courfe on the
fpot before the workmen ; and he ufed contentedly
to fit down on the fteps before the door, to fcold
them
MIS l 288 ] MIS
them when they did come. The neighbours who ufed
to fee him appear thus regularly every morning, and
who concluded, from his apparel, that he wras one of
the workmen, obferved, “ there never was fo pundtual a
man as the old carpenter.” During the whole morn¬
ing he would continue to run up and down ftairs to fee
the men were not idle for an inffant, with the fame an¬
xiety as it his whole happinefs in life had been centered
in the finifliing of this houfe, regardlefs of the greater
property he had at a flake in various places, and for
ever employed in the minutice only of affairs. Indeed
fuch was his anxiety about this houfe, the rent of which
was not above 50I. a-year, that it brought on a fever
which nearly coll him his life : but the fate which drag¬
ged him on thus flrangely to bury him under the load
of his own wealth, feemed as rclilllefs as it was unac¬
countable.
In the mufcular and unencumbered frame of Mr
Elwes there was every thing that promifed extreme
length of life *, and he lived to above 70 years of age
without any natural diforder attacking him : but, as
Lord Bacon has well obferved, “ the minds of feme
men are a lam]) that is continually burning and fuch
was the mind of Mr Elwes. Removed from thofe
occafional public avocations which had once engaged
his attention, money was now his only thought. He rofe
upon mosey—upon money he lay down to reft •, and
as his capacity funk away from him bv degrees, he
dwindled from the real cares of his property into the
puerile concealment of a few guineas. This little dore
he would carefully wrap up in various papers, and de-
pofiting them in different corners, w’ould amufe him-
felf with running from one to the other, to fee whe¬
ther they were all fafe. Then forgetting, perhaps,
where he had concealed fome of them, lie would be¬
come as ferioufly affliflcd as a man might be who had
loft all his property. Nor was the day alone thus
fpent—he would frequently rife in the middle of the
night, and be heard walking about different parts of
the houfe, looking after what he had thus hidden and
forgotten.
During the winter of 1789, the laft winter Mr El¬
wes was fated to fee, his memory vifibly weakened every
day ; and from the unccafing with to fave money, he
now began to fear he (bould die in want of it. Mr
Gibfon bad been appointed his builder in the room of
Mr Adams •, and one day, when this gentleman wait¬
ed upon him, he faid with apparent concern, “ Sir,
pray confider in what a wretched ftate I am : you fee
in what a good houfe I am living; and here are five
guineas, which is all I have at prefent j and how I
fhall go on with fuch a fum of money puzzles me to
death. I dare fay you thought I was rich 5 now you
fee how it is !”
Mr George Elwes having-now fettled at his feat at
Marcham in Berkffiire, he was naturally defirous that,
in the aftiduities of his wife, his father might at length
find a comfortable home. In London he was certain¬
ly moft uncomfortable : but ftill, with tbefe tempta¬
tions before and behind him, a journey with any ex¬
pence annexed to it Avas infurmountable. This, how¬
ever, Avas luckily obviated by an offer from Mr Partis,
a gentleman of the Hav, to take him to his ancient
feat in Berkfhire with his purfe perfeftly Avhole. But
there was one eircumftance ftlli very diftreffing—the
old gentleman had now nearly worn out his laft coat,
and he Avould not buy a new one ; his fon, therefore,
Avith a pious fraud, contrived to get Mr Partis to buy
him a coat and make him a prefent of it. Thus for¬
merly having had a good coat, then a bad one, and at
laft no coat at all, he was kind enough to accept one
from a neighbour.
Mr Elnes carried Avith him into Berkfhire five gui¬
neas and a half, and half a croAvn. Left the mention
of this fum may appear Angular, it ftiould be faid,
that previous to his journey he had carefully Avrapped
it up in various folds of paper, that no part of it
might be loft. On the arrival of the old gentleman,
Mr George Elwes and his wife did every thing they
could to make the country a feene of quiet to him.
But “ he had that within” Avhich baffled every effort
of this kind. Of his heart it might be faid, “ there
Avas no peace in ifrael.” His mind, cart aAvay upon
the vail and troubled ocean of his property, extending
beyond the bounds of his calculation, returned to a-
mufe itfelf Avith fetching and carrying about a feAV gui¬
neas, Avhich in that ocean Avas indeed a drop. But na¬
ture had noAV carried on life nearly as far as fhe Avas
able, and the fand Avas almoft run out. The fir ft fymp-
tom of more immediate decay Avas his inability to enjoy
his reft at night. Frequently would he be heard at
midnight as if ftruggling Arith fome one in his cham¬
ber, and crying out, “ I aviII keep my money, I Avill;
nobody ftiall rob me of my property.” On any one
of the family going into his room, he would flart
from this fever of anxiety, and, as if Avaking from a
troubled dream, again hurry into bed, and feem uncon-
feious of what had happened. At length, on the 26th
November 1789, expired this miferably rich man,
Avhofe property, nearly reaching to a million, extended
itfelf almoft through every county in England.
MISERICORDIA, in Law, is an arbitrary fine
impofed on any perfon for an offence : this is called
mifericordia, becaufe the amercement ought to be but
fmall, and lefs than that required by magna charta.
If a perfon be outrageoufty amerced in a court that is
not of record, the Avrit called moderata mifericordia lies
for moderating the amercement according to the nature
of the fault.
MISFORTUNE. An unlucky accident.
Misfortune, or chance, in Law, a deficiency of
the will; or committing of an unlawful aft by misfor¬
tune or chance, and not by defign. In fuch cafe, the
will obferves a total neutrality, and does not co-operate
Avith the deed ; which therefore Avants one main ingre¬
dient of a crime. See Crime,
Of this, when it affetfts the life of another, avc have
fpoken under the article Homicide j and in this place
have only occafion to obferve, that if any accidental
mifehief happens to folloAv from the performance of a
laAvful a6l, the party Hands excufed from all guilt: but
if a man be doing any thing unlawful, and a confe-
quence enfues which he did not forefee or intend, as the
death of a man or the like, his want of forefight fhall
be no excufej for, being,guilty of one offence, in doing
antecedently ay hat is in itfelf unlawful, he is criminally
guilty of Avhatever cunfequence may folloAv the firft
mifbehaviour.
MISFEASANCE, in laiv books, fignifies a tref*
pafs.
MISLETOE,
itoe
(Ions.
M I S
[ 289 ]
IVl I
M1SLETOE. See Viscum, Botany Index.
MISNOIVTER, in Law, a miinaming or mxftaking
a perfon’s name. The Chriftian name of a perfon
fliould always be perfe«5l; but the law is not fo Uriel in
regard to furnames, a (mall miitake in which will be
difpenfed with to make good a contrail, and luppoit
the aft of the party. See Plea to ImhHment.
MISPRISIONS, (a term derived from the old
French, mefpris, a neglefl or contempt), aie, in the
acceptation of our law, generally underftood to be all
fuch high o{fences as are under the degree of capital,
but nearly bordering thereon : and it is faid, that a
mifprifion is contained in every treafon and felony what-
foever ; and that, if the king fo pleafe, the offender may
be proceeded again!! for the mifprifion only. And upon
the lame principle, while the jurifdiflion of the liar-
chamber fubfifted, it was held that the king might re¬
mit a profecution for treafon, and caufe the delinquent
to be cenfured in that court, merely for a high mifde-
meanor : as happened in the cafe of Roger earl of Rut¬
land, in 43 Eliz. who wras concerned in the earl of
Effex’s rebellion. Mifprifions are generally divided
into two forts j negative, which confift in the conceal¬
ment of fomething which ought to be revealed j and
pofitive, which confill in the commiflion of fomething
which ought not to be done.
1. Of the 'firll, or negative kind, is what is called
mifprijion of treafon ; confilling in the bare knowledge
and concealment of treafon, without any degree of af-
fent thereto; for any affent makes the party a princi¬
pal traitor •, as indeed the concealment, which was
conftrued aiding and abetting, did at the common
law •, in like manner as the knowledge of a plot again!!
the ftate, and not revealing it, was a capital crime at
Florence, and other Hates of Italy. But it is now en¬
acted by the ftatute 1 & 2 Ph. &. Mar. c. 10. that a
bare concealment of treafon !hall be only held a mif¬
prifion. This concealment becomes criminal, if the
party apprifed of the treafon does not, as foon as con¬
veniently may be, reveal it to fome judge of affize or
juftice of the peace. But if there be any probable cir-
cumftances of affent, as if one goes to a treafonable
meeting, knowing beforehand that a confpiracy is in¬
tended again!! the king; or, being in fuch company
once by accident, and having heard fuch treafonable
confpiracy, meets the fame company again, and hears
more of it, but conceals it j this is an implied affent
in law, and makes the concealer guilty of a&ual high
treafon.
Mifprifion of felony is alfo the concealment of a fe¬
lony which a man knows, but never affented to j for,
if he affented, this makes him either principal or ae-
ceffory. And the punifliment of this, in a public of¬
ficer, by the ftatute Weftm. 1. 3 Edw. I. c. 9. is im-
prifonment for a year and a day •, in a common perfon,
imprifonment for a lefs diferetionary time} and, in
both, fine and ranfom at the king’s pleafure : which
pleafure of the king muft be obferved, once for all, not
to fignify any extrajudicial will of the fovereign, but
fuch as is declared by his reprefentatives, the judges
in his courts of juftice } voluntas regis in curia, non in
xomera.
2. Mifprifions, which are merely pofitive, are ge¬
nerally denominated contempt or high mifdemeanours ; of
which the principal is the mal-adminifration of fuch
Vol. XIV. Part I.
high officers as are in public truft and employment. Mifprifions
This is ufually puniftied by the method of parliamen- .
tary impeachment j wherein fuch penalties, fhort of * r ■’
death, are inflidted, as to the wifdom of the houfe of
peers ftiall feem proper ; confifting ufually of banifti-
ment, imprifmment,fines,or perpetual difability. Hither
alfo may be referred the offence of embezzling the public
money, called among the Romans peculatus; which
the Julian law punrlhed with death in a magillrate, and
with deportation, or banifhment, in a private perfon.
With us it is not a capital crime, but fubjedls the com¬
mitter of it to a diferetionary fine and imprifonment.—
Other mifprifions are, in general, fuch contempts of the
executive magiftrate as demonftrate themfelves by fome
arrogant and undutiful behaviour towards the king and
government : for a detail of which, vide Blackftone’s
Comment, iv. 22.
MISSAL, the Romifh mafs-book, containing the
feveral maffes to be faid on particular days. It is de¬
rived from the Latin wrord mijfa, which, in the ancient
Chriftian church, fignified every part of divine fer-
vice.
MISSEL-bird, a fpecies of Turdus. See Turdus,
Ornithology Index.
M1SSIO, among the Romans, was a full difeharge
given to a foldier after 20 years fervice, and differed
from the exauBoratio, which was a difeharge from
duty after 17 years fervice. Every foldier had a right
to claim his miflio at the end of 20 years.
MISSION, in Theology, denotes a power or com-
miffion to preach the gofpel. Jefus Chrift gave his
difciples their miffion in thele words, Go and teach all
nations, &c.
The Romanifts reproach the Proteftants, that their
minifters have no miffion, as not being authorized in
the exercife of their miniftry, either by an uninter¬
rupted fucceffion from the apoftles, or by miracles, or
by any extraordinary proof of a vocation.
Many among us deny any other miffion neceffary
for the miniftry than the talents neceffary to dif¬
eharge it.
Mission is alfo ufed for an eftablilhment of people
zealous for the glory of God and the falvation of
fouls 5 who go and preach the gofpel in remote countries
and among infidels.
There are miffions in the Eaft as well as in the
Weft Indies. Among the Romanifts, the religious
orders of St Dominic, St Francis, St Auguftine, and
the Jefuits, have miffions in the Levant, America,
&c. The Jefuits have alfo miffions in China, and all
other parts of the globe where they have been able
to penetrate. There have been alfo feveral Prote-
ftant miffions for diffafing the light of Chriftianity
through the benighted regions of Afia and America.
Of this kind has been the Danifti miffion planned by
Frederic IV. in 1706. And the liberality of private
benefactors in our own country has been alfo extended
to the fupport of miffionaries among the Indians in
America, &c.
MISSIONARY, an ecclefiaftic who devotes himfelf
and his labours to fome miffion, either for the inftruftion
of the orthodox, the conviction of heretics, or the con-
verfion of infidels. See Jesuits.
MISSISSIPPI, a noble river in America, which
waters about five-eighths of the United States, forming
O 0 their
MIT [2
Miffiffippi their weftern boundary, and feparating them from the
Mite Provhice of Louiliana and the Indian country. Its
. mj iength has not been accurately afcertained, but it is
conje&ured to be upwards of 3000 miles. There are
numerous tributary Itreams which fall into it from the
W. and E. 5 and the country on both lides of the ri¬
ver, is faid to be equal in goodnefs and fertility to any
in North America. It is navigable as far as to what
are denominated the falls of St Anthony, and fome fay
farther. r here are fait fprings on each fide of this
river, which produce fait of an excellent quality, and
large quanlities of coal are found on its upper branches.
Its mouths alfo form an ifland of coniiderable extent.
Thefe are fituated between 290 and 30° N. Lat. and
between 89° and 90° W. Long.
MISSOURI, a river in Louifiana, which falls into
the Miflitlippi from the weft, 195 miles above the
mouth of the Ohio, and about 1160 miles from the
Lalize ^n the gulf of Mexico. The extent of its navi¬
gation is not fufficiently known ; but by the map of
Captain Hutchins it appears to be navigable 1300
miles. The progrefs of fettlement by the Spaniards on
the fouth and weft, and by the Englifti on the north
and eaft, is reported by late travellers to be aftonilhing \
and according to the map of Mr M‘Kenzie, it appears
that there is a communication by water, attended with
little difficulty, from the upper lakes to Nootka found,
or its vicinity.
In a voyage of difcovery undertaken by Captains
Lewis and Clarke in 1S05, under the aufpices of the
American government, it appears that the MifTouri at
the diftance of 3848 miles by the courfe of the river
from its juntftion with the Miffiffippi, divides into three
branches, to which they gave the names of Jefferfon’s,
Madifon’s, and Gallatin’s rivers ; and the firft of thefe,
Jefferfon’s river, and the only one explored, is naviga¬
ble for 248 miles. Phi!. Mag. xxvii. 13.
MISSUS, in the Circenfian games, wTere the matches
in horfe or chariot races. The ufual number of tnifjus
or matches in one day was 24 j though the emperor
Domitian prefented the people with 100. The laft
match was generally made at the expence of the people,
who made a colletftion for the purpofe } hence it was
called miffus cerai'ius, a fubfcription plate.
MIST, or Fog. See Fog.
MIST AXE, any wrong a61 ion committed, not
through an evil delign, but through an error of judg¬
ment.
Mistake, in Law. See Ignorance.
MISUSER, in Law, is an abufe of any liberty or
benefit \ as “ He ffiall make fine for his MISUSER.”
Old. Nat. Br. 149. By mifufer a charter of a corpo¬
ration may be forfeited ; fo alfo an office, &c.
MIT CHELS1 OWN, a poft town of Ireland, in
the county of Cork and province of Munfter in Ireland,
where there is a college founded by the earl of King-
fton for the 'upport of 12 decayed gentlemen and 12
decayed gentlewomen, who have 40I. yearly, and hand-
fome apartments.
MITE, a fmall piece of money mentioned Luke xii.
59- and xxi. 2. In the Greek it is i. e. yua-
drans, or a quarter of the Roman denarius ; fo that the
mite was worth about leven farthings, or twopence of
our money.
Mite. See Acarus, Entomology Index.
>0 ] MIT
MI FELLA, Bastard American Sanicle 5 a Mitella
genus of plants belonging to the decandria clafs, and in . II .
the natural method ranking under the 1 ath order Sue- IV1lthri'
culenter. See Botany Index. ’ ■ c a|es^
Mi l HRA, feafts of, in antiquity, -were feafts cele¬
brated^ among the Romans in honour of Mithras or the
fun. I he moft ancient inftance of this Mithras among
the Romans occurs in an infcription dated in the third
confulate of T rajan, or about the year of Chrift 101.
I his is the dedication of an altar to the fun under the
above name thus inferibed, Deo Soli Mithrce. But the
w or {hip of Mithras was not known in Egypt and Syria
in the time of Origen, who died about the year of
Chrift 263 ; though it was common at Rome for more
than a century before this time. The worftiip of Mi¬
thras was prolcribed at Rome in the year 378, bv or¬
der of Gracchus, prefect ot the praetorium. According
to M. Freret, the feafts of Mithras were derived from
Chaldea, where they had been inftituted for celebrating
the entrance of the iun into the fign Taurus.
MITHRAS, or Mithra, a god of Perfia and Chal¬
dea, fuppofed to be the fun. His worffiip was intro¬
duced at Rome. He is generally reprefented as a young
man, whole head is covered with a turban after the
manner of the Perfians. He fupports his knee upon a
bull that lies on the ground, and one of whofe horns he
holds in one hand, while with the other he plunges a
dagger in his neck.
MITHRIDATE, an old term, in Pharmacy; an
antidote, or compofition, in form of an ele6tuary, fup¬
pofed to ferve either as a remedy or a prefervative a-
gainft poifons. It takes its name from the inventor,
Mithridates king of Pontus, who is faid to have fo for¬
tified his body againlt poifons w ith antidotes and prefer-
vatives, that when he had a mind to difpatch himfelf,
he could not find any poifon that would take effe6f.
MITHRIDATES, the name of feveral kings of
Pontus. See Pontus.
Mithridates VIE furnamed Eupaforand the Great,
fucceeded to the throne at the age of 11 years, about
1 23 years before the Chriftian era. The beginning of
his reign was marked by ambition, cruelty, and arti¬
fice. Fie murdered his own mother, who had been left
by his father co-heirefs of the kingdom 5 and he forti¬
fied his conliitution by drinking antidotes againft the
poifon with which his enemies at court attempted to
deftroy him. He early inured his body to hardfhip,
and employed himfelf in the moft manly exercifes, of¬
ten remaining whole months in the country, and mak¬
ing frozen fnow and the earth the place of his repofe.
Naturally ambitious and cruel, he fpared no pains to
acquire himfelf power and dominion. He murdered,
the two fons whom his lifter Laodiee had had by Aria-
rathes king of Cappadocia, and placed one of his own
children, only eight years old, on the vacant throne.
Thefe violent proceedings alarmed Nicodemes king of
Bithynia, who had married Laodice the widow of Ari-
arathes. He fuborned a youth to be king ol Cappadocia,
as the third fon of Ariarathes ; and Laodice was fent
to Rome to impofe upon the fenate, and allure them
that her third fon was now alive, and that his preten-
fions to the kingdom of Cappadocia were juft and well
grounded. Mithridates, on his part, fent to Rome
Gordius the governor of his fon j who folemnly declar¬
ed before the Roman people, that the youth who fat
on
M I T
lithri- on the throne of Cappadocia was the third fon and
^ates' lawful heir of Ariarathes, and that he was fopported as
~'v ' fuch by Mithridates. This intricate affair difpleafcd
the Roman fenate 5 and finally to fettle the difpute they
took away the kingdom of Cappadocia from Mithri¬
dates, and Paphlagonia from Nicomedes. Thefe two
kingdoms being thus feparated from their original pof-
feffors, were prefented with their freedom and indepen¬
dence but the Cappadocians refufed it, and received
Ariobarzanes for king. Such were the firil feeds of
enmity between Rome and the king of Pontus. Mithri¬
dates never loft an opportunity by which he might lef-
fen the influence of Ids adverfaries •, and the more ef¬
fectually to deftroy their power in Afia, he ordered all
the Romans that were in his dominions to be malfacred.
This was done in one night, and no le!s than 150,000,
according to Plutarch, or 8o,oco Romans, as Appian
mentions, were made the victims of Ids cruelty. This
called aloud for vengeance. Aquilius, and foon after
Sylla, marched againft Mithridates with a large army.
The former was made prifoner ; but Sylla obtained a
victory over the king’s generals ; and another decilive
engagement rendered him mafter of all Greece, Mace¬
donia, Ionia, and Afia Minor. This ill fortune was ag¬
gravated by the lofs of about 200,000 men, who were
killed in the fcveral engagements that had been fought j
and Mithridates, weakened by repeated ill fuccefs by
fea and land, fued for peace from the conqueror, which
he obtained on condition of defraying the expences
which the Romans had incurred by the war, and of
remaining fatisfied with the poflefTions which he had re¬
ceived from his anccftors. While thefe negotiations of
peace were carried on, Mithridates was not unmindful
of his real intereft. His poverty, and not his inclina¬
tions, obliged him to wifh for peace. He immediately
took the field with an army of 140,000 infantry, and
16,000 horfe, which confifted of his own forces and
thofe of his fon-in-law Tigranes king of Armenia.
With fuch a numerous army he foon made himfelf maf¬
ter of the Roman provinces in x4.fia; none dared to op-
pofe his conquefts j and the Romans, relying on his fi¬
delity, had withdrawn the greateft part of their armies
from the country. The news of his warlike prepara¬
tions were no fooner heard, than Lucullus the conful
marched into Afia 5 and without delay he blocked up
the camp of Mithridates who was then befieging Cyzi-
cus. The Afiatic monarch efcaped from him, and fled
into the heart of his kingdom. Lucullus purfued him
with the utmoft celerity 5 and would have taken him
prifoner after a battle, had not the avidity of his fol-
diers preferred the plundering of a mule loaded with
gold to the taking of a monarch who had exercifed
fuch cruelties againft their countrymen, and ftiown
himfelf fo faithlefs to the moft folemn engagements.
After this efcape Mithridates was more careful about
the fafety of his perfon •, and he even ordered his wives
and fifters to deftroy themfelves, fearful of their falling
into the enemy’s hands. The appointment of Gla-
brio to the command of the Roman forces, inftead of
Lucullus, was favourable to Mithridates, who recover¬
ed the greateft part of his dominions. The hidden
arrival of Pompey, however, foon put an end to his
vidtories. A battle in the night was fought near the
Euphrates, in which the troops of Pontus laboured
under every difadvantage. The engagement was by
MIT
moon-light, and as the moon then ftione in the face
of the enemy, the lengthened ftiadows of the arms of
the Romans having induced Mithridates to believe that
the two armies were clofe together, the arrows of his
foldiers were darted from a great diltance, and their
efforts rendered ineffedtual. An univerfal overthrow
enfued, and Mithridates, bold in his misfortunes, rulh-
cd through the thick ranks of the enemy at the head
of 800 horfemen, 500 of whom perifhed in the at¬
tempt to follow him. He fled to Tigranes; but that
monarch refufed an afylum to bis father-in-law, whom
he had before fupported with all the colledted forces of
his kingdom. Mithridates found a fafe retreat among
the Scythians ; and though deftitute of power, friends,
and refources, yet he meditated the overthrow of the
Roman empire, by penetrating into the heart of Italy
by land. Thefe wild proje&s were rejected by his fol¬
lowers, and he fued for peace. It was denied to his
ambaflr.dors j and the vidtorious Pompey declared, ihat,
to obtain it, Mithridates mutt afk it in perfon. He
fcorned to truft himfelf in the hands of his enemy, and
refolved to conquer or to die. His fubjeds refufed to
follow him any longer; and revolting from him, made
his fon Pharnaces king. The fon ftiowed himfelf un¬
grateful to his father ; and even, according to feme
writers, he ordered him to be put to death. This un¬
natural treatment broke the heart of Mithridates; he
obliged his wife to poifon herfelf, and attempted to do
the fame himfelf. It was in vain : the frequent anti¬
dotes he had taken in the early part of his life, ftrength-
ened his conftitution againft the poifon ; and when this
was unavailing, he attempted to ftab himfelf. The
blow was not mortal ; and a Gaul who was then pre-
fent, at his. own requelt, gave him the fatal ftroke, a-
bout 64 years before the Chriftian era. Such were the
misfortunes, abilities, and miferable end, of a man, who
fupported himfelf fo long againft the power of Rome,
and who, according to the declarations oi the Roman
authors, proved a more powerful and indefatigable ad-
verfary to the capital of Italy than the gieat Hannibal,
Pyrrhus, Perfeus, or Antiochus. Mithridates has been
commended for his eminent virtues, and cenfured for
his vices. As a commander he deferves the moft un¬
bounded applaufe ; and it may create admiration to fee
him waging war with fuch fuccefs, during fo many
years, againft the moft powerful people on earth, led
to the field by a Sylla, a Lucullus, and a Pompey.
He w'as the greateft monarch that ever fat on a throne,
according to the opinion of Cicero ; and indeed no
greater proof of his military charadler can be brought,
than the mention of the great rejoicings which hap¬
pened in the Roman armies and in the capital at the
news of his death. No lefs than 12 weeks were ap¬
pointed for public thankfgivir.gs to the immortal gods ;
and Pompey, who had fent the firft intelligence of
his death to Rome, and who had partly haftened Ins
fall, was rewarded with the moft uncommon honours.
It is faid that Mithridates conquered 24 nations, whofe
different languages he knew and fpoke with the fame
eafe and fluency as his own. As a man of letters he
alfo deferves attention. He was acquainted with the
Greek language, and even wrote in Tat dialeft a trea-
tife on botany. His fkill in phyfic is well known; and
even now there is a celebrated antitode which bears his
name, and is called mithridate. Superftition as well as
O o 2 nature
r 26, ]
Mithri-
dates.
Mithri-
ilates
M I T [ 29
nature had united to render him great j and, if we rely
upon the authority of Juftin, his birth was accompanied
1 Mittimus by tbe appearance of two large comets, which were feen
t - t- for 70 days fucceflively, and whofe fplendour eclipfed
the mid-day fun, and covered the fourth part of the
heavens.
MITHRIDATICUM bellum, the Mlthridatic
IVar, one of the longed and moil celebrated wars ever
carried on by the Romans againft a foreign power.
See Pontus.
MITRA, was a cap or covering for the head, worn
by the Roman ladies, and fometimes by the men j but
it was looked upon as a mark of effeminacy in the laft,
efpecially when it was tied upon their heads.
MI i'RE, a facerdolal ornament worn on the head,
by bifhops and certain abbots on folemn occafions •, be¬
ing a fort of cap, pointed and cleft at top. The high
pried among the Jews wore a mitre or bonnet on his
head. The inferior prieds of the fame nation had like-
wife their mitres •, but in what refpefl they differed
from that of the high pried, is uncertain. Some con¬
tend that the ancient bifhops wore mitres j but this is
by no means certain.
Mitre, in Architecture, is the workmen’s term for
an angle that is jud 45 degrees, or half a right one.
If the angle be a quarter of a right angle, they call it
a half mitre.
To defcribe fueh angles, they have an indrument
called the mitre fquure; with this they drike mitre
lines on their quarters or battens 5 and for defpatch,
they have a mitre box, as they call it, which is made
of two pieces of wood, each about an inch thick, one
* nailed upright on the edge of the other ; the upper
piece hath the mitre lines druck upon it on both frdes,
and a kerf to direct the faw in cutting the mitre joints
readily, by only applying the piece into this box.
Mitre is ufed by the writers of the Irifh hidory for
a fort of bafe money, which was very common there
about the year 1270, and for 30 years before and as
many after.
There were befides the mitre feveral other pieces,
called, according to the figures bnpreffed upon them,
rofaries, lionades, eagles, and by the like names. They
wrere importe d from France and other countries, and
were fo much below the proper currency of the king¬
dom, that they were not worth fo much as a halfpenny
each. They were at length decryed in the year 1300,
and good coins druck in their place. Thefe were the
fird Irifh coins in which the fceptre was left out. They
were druck in the reign of Edward, the fon of our
Henry III. and are dill found among the other anti¬
quities of that country. They have the king’s head in
a triangle full faced. The penny, when well preferved,
•weighs 22 grains j the halfpenny io4 grains..
MITTAU, the capital of the duchy of Courland.
It is drongly fortified ; but was taken bv the Swedes
in 1701, and by the Mufcovites in 1706. E, Rong.
23. 51. N. Lat. 56. 44.
MITTIMUS, as generally ufed,. hath two fignifi-
cations. 1. It fignifies a writ for removing or tranf-
ferring of records from one court to another. 2. It
fignifies a precept, or command in writing, under the
hand and feal of a judice of the peace, diredtd to the
gaoler or keeper of fome prifon, for the receiving and
2
2 J M O A
fafe keeping of an offender charged with any crime, Mittimus
until he be delivered by due courle of law. II
MI EY LENE, or Mytelene, in Ancient Geogra- , T
phij, a celebrated, powerful, and affluent city, capital of
the ifland of Lefbos. It received its name from Mitylene,
the daughter of Macareus, a king of the country. It is
greatly commended by the ancients for the itatelinefs
of its buildings and the fruitfulnels of its foil, but
more particularly for the great men it produced : Pit-
tacus, Alcaeus, Sappho, Terpander, Theophanes, Hel-
lanicus, &e. were ail natives of Mitylene. It was long
a feat of learning 5 and, with Rhodes and Athens, it
had the honour of having educated many of the great
men of Rome and Greece. In the Peloponnefian war,
the Mitylenians fuffered greatly for their revolt from
the power of Athens j and in the Mithridatic wars,
they had the boldnefs to refiff the Romans, and difdain
the treaties which had been made between Mithridates
and Sylla. See Metelin.
Ml XT, or Mixt Body, in Chemijiry, that which is
compounded of different elements or principles.
MIXTURE, a compound or aiiemblage of feveral
different bodies in the fame mafs. Chemical mixture is
attended with many phenomena which are never obferv-
ed in limple mixtures; fuch as heat, effervelcence, Scc„
To chemical mixture belong the union of acids and
alkalie-, the amalgamation of metals, folution of gums,
&c. and upon it depend many of the principal opera¬
tions of Chemistry. See that article, paffim.
Mixture, in Pharmacy, a medicine which differs
from a julep in this refpeif, that it receives into its
compofition not only falts, extracts, and other fub-
fiances diffoluble in water j but alio earths, powders,
and fuch fubllances as cannot be diffolved.
MIZEN, in the fea language, is a particular mall
or fail. The mizen maft Hands in the Iternmoft part
of the flnp. In fome great fflips there are two of
thefe) when that next the main-maft is called tho
main-mizen, and that next the poop the bonaventure
mi'zcn.
MIZRAIM, or Misraim, the dual name of Egypt,,
uftd in Scripture to denote the Higher and Lower.
Egypt, which fee. It fometimes occurs Angular, Ma~-.
%or: 2 Kings xix. Ifaiah xix. Micah vii.
MNEMOSYNE, in fabulous hiilory, a daughter o£-
Coelus and Terra. She married Jupiter, by whom (lie
had the nine Mufes. The word mnemofyne fignifies.
ti memory and therefore the poets have rightly call¬
ed Memory the mother of the Mufes, becaufe it is to-
that mental endowment that mankind are indebted for
their progrefs in feienee.
MNIUM, Marshmossj a genus of the natural or¬
der of mufei, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of
plants. See Botany Index.
MOAB, in Ancient Geography, a country of Arabia
PeLraaa} fo called from Moab the fon of Loi, to whofe
pofterity this country was allotted by divine appoint¬
ment, Deut. xi. 9, It was originally occupied by the
Emim, a race of giants extirpated by the Moabites, ibid.
Moab anciently lay to the fouth of Ammon, before
Sihon the Amorite dripped both nations of a part of
their territory, afterwards occupied by the Ifraelites,.
Numb. xxi.; and then Moab was bounded by the river
Anion to the north, the Lacus Afphaltites. to the weft,
the.';
M O C
[ 293 ]
MOD
Moab the brook Zared to the fouth, and the mountains Abarim
II to the ealt.
Mocho. MOAT, or Ditch, in Fortification, a deep trench
'* dug round the rampart of a fortitied place, to prevent
furprifes.
The brink of the moat, next the rampart, is called
tixzfcarpe ; and the oppofite one, the counterficurpe.
A dry moat round a large place, with a itrong gar-
rifon, is preferable to one full ol water becauie the
paflfage may be difputed inch by inch, and the be-
fiegers, when lodged in it, are continually expofed to
the bombs, grenades, and other fire works, which are
thrown incefiantly from the rampart into their works.
In the middle of dry moats, there is fometimes another
fmall one, called cunette; which is generally dug fo
deep till they find water to fill it.
The deepeft and broadeit moats are accounted the
bell •, but a deep one is preferable to a broad one : the
ordinary breadth is about 20 fathoms, and the depth
about 16.
To drain a moat that is full of water, they dig a
trench deeper than the level of the water, to let it run
off} and then throw hurdles upon the mud and {lime,
covering them with earth or bundles of ruihes, to make
a fure and firm paffage.
MOATAZALITES, or Separatists, a religious
feift among the Turks, who deny all forms and quali¬
ties in the Divine Being } or who divefi God ol his at¬
tributes.
There are two opinions among the Turkifh divines
concerning God. The firft admits metaphyfical forms
or attributes j as, that God has wifdom, by which he
is wife 5 power, by which he is powerful *, eternity,
by which he is eternal, &c. The fecond allows God
to be wife, powerful, eternal ^ but will not allow any
form or quality in God, for fear of admitting a mul¬
tiplicity. Thofe who follow this latter opinion are
called Moata%alites ; they who follow the former, Se-
phaliles.
The Moatazalites alfo believed that the word of God
was created in fiubjeElo, as the fchoolmen term it, and
to confift of letters and found j copies thereof being
written in books to exprefs or imitate the original :
they denied abfolute predeflination, and affirmed that
man is a free agent. This fe£t is faid to have firft
invented the fcholaftic divinity, and is fubdivided into
no lefs than 20 inferior fefts, which mutually brand one
another with infidelity.
MOBILE, Moveable, any thing fufceptible of
motion, or that is difpofed to be moved either by it-
felf or by feme other prior mobile or mover.
Primum MOBILE, in the ancient aftronomy, was a
ninth heaven or fphere, imagined above thofe of the
planets and fixed ftars. This was fuppofed to be the
firft mover, and to carry all the lower fpheres round
along with it ; by its rapidity communicating to them
a motion whereby they revolved in 24 hours- But
the diurnal revolution of the planets is now accounted
for without the affi dance of any fuch primum mobile.
Perpetuum MOBILE. See Perpetual MOTION.
MOCHO, Moco, or Mokha ; by fome fuppofed tn
be the Mufa or Muza of Ptolemy, is a port and town
on the Red fea, of confiderable trade ; contains about
1.0,030 inhabitants, Jews, Armenians, and Moham¬
medans j and it gives name to a kingdom extending
along the moft fouthern coart of Arabia j of which that
part which lies next the lea is a dry barren defert, in
fi me places 10 or 12 leagues over j but bounded by
mountains, which being well watered, enjoy an al-
rooft perpetual fpring j and befides coffee, the peculiar
pr duce of this country, yields corn, grapes, myrrh,
frankineenfe, caffia, balm, gums of feveral forts, man¬
gos, dates, pomegranates, &c, I he weather here is fo
hot and fultry in fummer, efpecially when the fouth
wind blows, that it would be infupportable, if it wras not
mitigated by the cool breezes drat generally blow from
the mountains on the nortf, or the Red and Arabic feas
on the weft and eaft. The heat in winter is equal to
that of our warmeft fummers j and it is very feidom
that either clouds or rain are feen. The city ot Mocho
is now the emporium for the trade of ail India to the
Red fea. The trade was removed hither from Aden,
in confequence of the prophecy of a flreik, much rever¬
ed by the people, who foretold that it would foon be¬
come a place of extenfive commerce notwithftanding its
difadvantageous fituation. The buildings here are lof¬
ty, and tolerably regular, having a plealant afpeft from
Mecca. The fteeples of feveral mofques are very high,
prefenting themfelves to view at a great h'ftance. '± heir
markets are well ftored with beef, mutton, lamb, kid,
camels, and antelope flefli, common fowls, Guinea
hens, partridges, and pigeons. I he fea affords pie y
of fiffi, but not favoury *, which fome think proceeds
from the extreme faltnefs of the wa’er and the nature
of their aliment. The markets are alfo (locked wTtli
fruit, fuch as grapes, peaches, apricots, quinces, and
nectarines •, although mither (hrub nor tree is to be
feen near the town, except a few date trees. Frequent¬
ly no rain falls here in two or three years, and feidom
more than a ffiower or two in a year •, but in tho
mountains, at the diftance of about 2Q miles from
Mocha, the earth is watered with a gentle ftiovver
every morning, which makes the valleys iertile in corn,
and the fruits natural to the climate. J he Arab inha¬
bitants, though remarkably grave and fuperftitious,
are faid to be extremely covetous and hypocritical y
robbing, thieving, and committing piracy, without the
leaft fcruple or remorfe. The Englilh and Dutch com¬
panies have handfome houfes here, and carry on a
great trade in coffer, olibanum, myrrh, aloes, liquid
ftorax, white and yellow arfenic, gum arabic, mum¬
my, balm of Gilead, and other drugs. One inconve¬
nience, however, they fuftain from the vio: nee and
exaftions of the Arabian princes ; but the king's cu-
ftoms are eafy, being fixed at three per cent, to Euro¬
peans. Of the coins at Mocha, the moft current is
the camaffie, which rifes and falls in value at the bank¬
er’s diferetion : they are from 50 to 80 for a current
dollar, which is but an imaginary fpecies, being always
reckoned one and a half per cent, lo wer than Spaniffi
dollars.
MOCKING Bird. See Turdus, Ornithplogy
Index.
MOCOCO. See Lemur, Mammalia Index.
MODE, which is a word of the fame general im¬
port with MAKNER, is ufed as a technical term in gram¬
mar, metanhyfics, and mufic. For its import in Gram¬
mar, fee that article, N° 80.
Mode, in Metaphysics, feems properly to denote
the manner of a thing’s exiftence ; but Locke, whofe
lan {mace
Mocho
II
Mode.
MOD
Model.
Different
kinds of
models.
3
general
method of
making
models.
language in that fciencc is generally adopted, ul’es the
u word in a fenfe fomewhat different from its ordinary
and proper fignifieation. “ Such complex ideas, which,
however compounded, contain not in them the fuppo-
fttion of fublifting by tliemfelves, but are confidercd as
dependencies on, or affe&ions of, fubftances,” he calls
modes. Of thele modes, there are, according to him,
two forts, which deferve diitinft confideration. Firft,
1 liere are fome “ which are only variations, or differ¬
ent combinations of the fame fimple idea, without the
mixture of any other, as a dozen or a fcore ; which are
nothing but the ideas of fo many diftinft units added
together and thefe he callsJimple modes. Secondly,
“ There are others compounded of fimple ideas of fe-
veral kinds put together to make one complex one j
v. g. beauty, confilting of a certain compofition of co¬
lour and figure, caufing delight in the beholder ; theft,
which being the concealed change of the poffeffion of
any thing without the confent of the proprietor, con¬
tains, as is vifible, a combination of feveral ideas of fe-
veral kinds and thefe he calls mixed modes. For
the juft diftinction between ideas and notions, as well as
between ideas and the qualities of external objects,
which in this account of modes are all confounded to¬
gether, fee Metaphysics.
Mode, in Mufic, a regular difpofition of the air
and accompaniments, relative to certain principal founds
upon which a piece of mufic is formed, and which are
called the ejfentialfounds of the mode.
Our modes are not, like thofe of the ancients, cha-
ra&erized by any fentiment which they tend to excite,
but refult from our fyftem of harmony alone. The
founds eflential to the mode are in number three, and
form together one perfect chord. I. The tonic or key,
which is the fundamental note both of the tone and of
the mode. 2. The dominant, which is a fifth from the
tonic. 3. The mediant, which properly conftitutes
the mode, and which is a third from the fame tonic.
As this third may be of two kinds, there are of confe-
quence two different modes. When the mediant forms
a greater third with the tonic, the mode is major j
when the third is leffer, it is minor. See Music.
MODEL, in a general fenfe, an original pattern,
propofed for any one to copy or imitate.
This word is particularly ufed, in building, for an
artificial pattern made in wood, ftone, plafter, or other
matter, with all its parts and proportions, in order for
the better conducting and executing fome great work,
and to give an idea of the effeCt it will have in large.
In all great buildings, it is much the fureft way to
make a model in relievo, and not to truft to a bare
defign or draught. There are alfo models for the
building of ftiips, &c. and for extraordinary ftaircafes,
&c.
They alfo ufe models in painting and fculpture j
whence, in the academies, they give the term model to
a naked man or women, difpofed in feveral poftures, to
afford an opportunity to the fcholars to defign them in
various views and attitudes.
Models in imitation of any natural or artificial fub-
ftance, are moft ufually made by means of moulds
compofed of plafter of Paris. For the purpofe of
making thefe moulds, this kind of plafter is much
more fit than any other fubftance, on account of the
power it has of abforbing water, and foon condenfing
3
[ 294- 3
M O D
into a hard fubflance, even after it has been rendered Mode!,
fo thin as to be of the confiftence of cream. This'““"'^—■"J
happens in a ftiorter or longer time as the piafter is
of a better or worfe quality ; and its good or bad pro¬
perties depend very much upon its age, to which,
therefore, particular regard ought to be had. It is
fold in the (hops at very different prices j the fineft be¬
ing made ufe of for cafts, and the middling fort for
moulds. It may be very eafily coloured by means of
almoft any kind of powder excepting what contains an
alkaline fait j for this would chemically decompofe the
fubftance of it, and render it unfit for ufe. A very
confiderable quantity of chalk would aifo render it
foft and ufelefs, but lime hardens it to a great degree.
The addition of common fize will likewife render it
much harder than if mere water is made ufe of. In
making either moulds or models, however, we muft
be careful not to make the mixture too thick at firft j
for if this is done, and more water added to thin it,
the compofition muft always prove brittle and of a bad
quality.
The particular manner of making models (or cafsy
as they are alfo called) depends on the form of the
fubjedt to be taken. 'The procefs is eafy, where the
parts are elevated only in a flight degree, or where
they form only a right or obtufe angle with the prin¬
cipal fuiface from which they projedl j but where the
parts projedt in fmaller angles, or form curves inclined
towards the principal furface, the work is more diffi¬
cult. This obfervation, however, holds good only
with regard to hard and inflexible bodies 5 for fuch as
are foft may often be freed from the mould, even
though they have the drape laft mentioned. But
though this be the cafe with the foft original fubftance,
it is not fo with the inflexible model when once it is
caft.
The moulds are to be made of various degrees of
thicknefs, according to the fize of the model to be
caft ; and may be from half an inch to an inch, or, if
very large, an inch and a half. Where a number of
models are to be taken from one mould, it will like¬
wife be neceffary to have it of a ftronger contexture
than where only a few are required, for very obvious
reafons. ^
It is much more eafy to make a mould for any foft Anatomical
fubftance than a rigid one, as in any of the vifeera of models,
the animal body ; for the fluidity of the mixture makes
it eafily accommodate itfelf to the projecting parts of
the fubftance \ and as it is neceflary to inflate thefe fub¬
ftances, they may be very readily extracted again by
letting out the air which diftended them.
When a model is to be taken, the furface of the
original is firft to be greafed, in order to prevent the
plafter from flicking to it j but if the fubftance itfelf
is flippery, as is the cafe with the internal parts of the
human body, this need not be done : when neceffary,
it may be laid over with linfeed oil by means of a
painter’s brufti. The original is then to be laid on
fmooth table, previoufly greafed or covered with atomical In-
cloth, to prevent the plafter flicking to it j then {\xx-ftru£lQu
round the original with a frame or ridge of glaziers
putty, at fuch a diftance from it as will admit the
plafter to reft upon the table on all fides of the fubjeCt
for about an inch, or as much as is fufficient to give
the proper degree of ftrength to the mould. A fuffi¬
cient
MOD [ 295 ] MOD
Model, cient quantity of plafter is then to be poured as uni-
"v “"I formly as pollible over the whole fubftanee, until it be
everywhere covered to fuch a thicknefs as to give a
proper fubftance to the mould, which may vary in
proportion to the lize. The whole mult then be fuf-
fered to remain in this condition till the plafter has
attained its hardnefs 5 when the frame is taken away,
the mould may be inverted, and the fubjedt removed
from it : and when the plafter is thoroughly dry let it
be well feafoned.
Having formed and fcafoned the moulds, they muft
next be prepared for the calls by greafing the inlide
of them with a mixture of olive oil and lard in equal
parts, and then filled with fine fluid plafter, and the
plane of the mould formed by its refting on the furface
of the table covered to a fuflicient thicknefs with
Coarfe plafter, to form a ftrong bafis or fupport for the
call where this fupport is requifite, as is particularly
the cafe where the thin and membranous parts of the
body are to be reprefented. After the plafter is pour¬
ed into the mould, it muft be fuffered to Hand until
it has acquired the greateft degree of hardnefs it will
receive 5 after which the mould muft be removed :
but this will be attended with fome difficulty when the
fhape of the fubjeft is unfavourable j and in fome cafes
the mould muft be feparated by means of a fmall mallet
and chiflel. If by thefe inftruments any parts of the
model fhould be broken off, they may be cemented by
making the two furfaces to be applied to each other
quite wet } then interpofing betwixt them a little li¬
quid plafter 5 and laftly, the joint fmoothed after being
thoroughly dry. Any fmall holes that may be made
in the mould can be filled up with liquid plarter, after
the fides of them have been thoroughly wetted, and
fmoothed over with the edge of a knife.
In many cafes it is altogether impradticabie to pre¬
pare a mould of one piece for a whole fubjedl } and
therefore it muft be confidered how this can be done
in fuch a manner as to divide the mould into the feweft
pieces. This may be effefted by making every piece
cover as much of the pattern as poflible, without fur¬
rounding fuch projecting parts, or running into fuch
hollows as would not admit a feparation of the mould.
It is impoflible, however, to give any particular direc¬
tions in this matter which can hold good in every in-
Itance, the number of pieces of which the mould is to
confift being always determined from the fhape of the
pattern. Thus the mould of the human calculus will
require no more than three pieces, but that of an or
femoris could fcaree have fewer than ten or twelve.—
Where any internal pieces are required, they are firft to
be made, and then the outer pieces after the former
have become hard.
To make a mould upon a hard and dry fubftance,
we muft, in the firft place, rub the furface of it
fmoothly over with the mixture of oil and lard above
mentioned. Such hollows as require internal pieces
are then to be filled up with fluid plafter *, and while
it continues in this ftate, a wire loop muft be intro¬
duced into it, by which, when hardened, it can be
pulled off. The plafter Ihould be fomewhat raifed
in a pyramidal form around this wire, and afterwards
cut fmooth with a knife while yet in its foft ftate ;
preferving two or three angular ridges from the loop
to the outer edge, that it may fix the more Iteadily
in the outer piece of the mould to be afterwards made Model,
upon it. Let the outer piece then be well greafed, v~~"
to prevent the fecond piece from adhering \ the loop
being enclofed with fome glaziers putty, both to pre¬
vent the fecond piece from adhering and to preferve a
hollow place for the cord.
To form the fecond or outfide piece, mix a quan¬
tity of plafter proportioned to the extent of furface
it is to cover and the intended thicknefs of the
mould : when it is juft beginning to thicken, or af-
fumes fuch a confiftence as not to run off very eafily,
fpread it over the internal piece or pieces as well as
the pattern, taking care at the fame time* not to
go too far left it fhould not deliver fafely 5 and as the
planer becomes more tenacious, add more upon the
pattern until it has become fufficiently thick, keeping
the edges fquare and fmooth like the edge of a board.
1'he plafter fhould be fpread equally upon all parts,
Avhich is belt done by a painter’s pallet knife or a-
pothecary’s bolus knife : but for this the inftrument
Ihould be fomewhat lefs pliable than it is commonly made.
When the outfide piece is hardened, the edges are
to be pared fmooth, and nearly made fquare with a
fmall pointed knife. Little holes of a conical fhape
are to be made with the point of a knife about an inch
diftant from one another, according to the fize of the
piece. I'hefe are defigned to receive the fluid pla¬
fter in forming the adjacent parts of the mould, and
occafion points correfponding to the hollows 5 and are
intended to preferve the edges of the different pieces
fieadily in their proper relative fituations. The third
piece is then to be formed in a manner fimilar to the
fecond ; greafing the edges of the former plentifully
with hog’s lard and oil, to prevent the pieces from ad¬
hering to each other. J hus the pattern is to be
wholly enclofed, only leaving a proper orifice for
pouring in the plafter to form the model 5 fmall holes
being alfo bored in the mould oppofite to the wire-
loops fixed in the infide pieces, through which a cord
is to be conveyed from the loop to confine fuch pieces
during the time of calling. In fome cafes, however,
it is not neceffary that the mould fhould totally en~
clofe the pattern 5 for inftance, where a model is to
be made of a pedeftal, or a butt of any part of the hu¬
man body. I he bottom of fuch moulds being left
open, there is accordingly ample room for pouring in
the plafter.
After the mould is completely formed, it is next
to be dried either naturally or by a gentle artificial
heat, and then feafoned in the following manner :—
Having been made thoroughly dry, which, if the
mould is large, will require tw'o or three weeks, it is
to. be brufhed over plentifully with linfeed oil boiled
with fugar of lead, finely levigated litharge, or oil of
vitriol. The infide and joints of the mould fhould be
particularly well fupplied with it. If the mould be
large, it is needlefs to attend to the outfide •, but when
the moulds are fmall, it will not be improper to boil
them in the oil ; by which means their pores are more
exadlly filled than could other wife be done. After
the moulds have undergone this operation, they are
again fet by to drv, when, being greafed with olive
oil and hog’s lard, they are fit for ufe. If linfeed oil
Joe ufed for greafing the moulds, it will in a fhort time
impart a difagreeable yellow colour to the calls.
The
4
Models
from living
ful >j eels.
MOD [ 296 ] MOD
The mould being properly prepared and feafoned,
nothing more is requifite to form the model than to
pour the fined liquid platter of Paris into it. After a
layer of this, about half an inch in thicknefs, has been
formed all round the mould, we may ufe the coarfer
kind to fill it up entirely, or to give to the model
what thicknefs we pleafe.
Befides the models which are taken from inanimate
bodies, it has been frequently attempted to take the
exact refemblance of people while living, by ufing
their face as the original of a model, from whence to
take a mould j and the operation, however difagree-
able, has been fubmitted to by perfons of the higheft
ranks in life. A confiderable difficulty occurs in this,
however, by reafon of the perfon’s being apt to (brink
and dillort his features when the liquid is poured up¬
on him ; neither is he altogether without danger of
fuffocation, unlefs the operator well underftands his
bufinefs.
To avoid the former inconvenience, it will be pro¬
per to mix the plafter with warm inftead of cold wa¬
ter, by which means the perfon will be under no temp¬
tation to (brink ; and to prevent any danger of a fa¬
tal accident, the following method is to be praftifed :
Having laid the perfon horizontally on his back, the
head mull firlt be raifed by means of a pilltnv to the
exa£l pofition in which it is naturally carried when
the body is ere£l ^ then the parts to be reprefented
mull be very thinly covered over with fine oil of al¬
monds by means of a painter’s brulh ; the face is then
to be firtl covered with fine fluid plafter, beginning at
the upper part of the forehead, and fpreading it over
the eyes, which are to be kept clofe, that the plafter
may not come in contadl with the globe ; yet not clofed
fo ftrongly as to caufe any unnatural wrinkles. Cover
then the nofe and ears, plugging firft up the meatus
auditorii, with cotton, and the noftrils with a fmall
quantity of tow rolled up, of a proper fize, to exclude
the plafter. During the time that the nofe is thus
flopped, the perfon is to breathe through the mouth :
in this ftate the fluid plafter is to be brought down low
enough to cover the upper lip, obferving to leave the
rolls of tow projefting out of the plafter. When the
operation is thus far carried on, the plafter muft be fuf-
fered to harden ; after which the tow may be with¬
drawn, and the noftrils left free and open for breathing.
The mouth is then to be clofed in its natural pofition,
and the plafler brought down to the extremity of the
chin. Begin then to cover that part of the bread
which is to be reprefented, and fpread the plafter to the
outfides of the arms and upwards, in fuch a manner as
to meet and join that which is previoufly laid on the
face; when the whole of the mafs has acquired its due
hardnefs, it is to be cautioufly lifted, without breaking,
or giving pain to the perfon. After the mould is
conftrufted, it muft be feafoned in the manner already
dire£led •, and when the mould is call, it is to he fepa-
rated from the mould by means of a fmall mallet and
chiffel. The eyes, which are neceflarily ffiown clofed,
are to be carved, fo that the eyelids may be reprefented
in an elevated pofture *, the noftrils hollowed out, and
the back part of the head, from which, on account of
the hair, no mould can be taken, muft be finiffied ac¬
cording to the fkill of the artift. The edges of the
model are then to be neatly fmoothed off, and the buft Mode!,
fixed on its pedeftal.
'i fie method ot making models in the
Paris is undoubtedly the molt eaiy of
them. When models, however, are made of fuch dels, See."
large objetts that the model itfelf muft be of eonli-
deiable lize, it is vain to attempt making it m the
way above deferibed. Such models mult be conitruct-
ed by the hand with fume foft fubdance, as wax,
clay, putty, 6tc. and it being necefiary to keep all the
proportions with mathematical exadlnefs, the conftruc-
tion of a fingle model of this kind mult be a work of
great labour and expence as well as of time. Of all
thofe which have been undertaken by human in^uftry,
however, perhaps the muft remarkable is that con-
ftrudled by General Pfiffer, to reprelent the moun¬
tainous parts of Switzerland. It is compofed of 142
compartments, of dilferent fizes and forms, refpec-
tively numbered, and fo artfully put together, that
they can be feparated and replaced with the greateft
eafe. The model itfelf is 20^ feet long and 12 broad,
and formed on a fcale which reprefents two Englilh
miles and a quarter by an Englilh foot : comprehend¬
ing part of the cantons of Zug, Zurich, Schweitz,
Underwalden, Lucerne, Berne, and a fmall part of
the mountains of Glarus; in all, an extent of country of
i8y leagues in length and 12 in breadth. The higheft
point of the model, trom the level of the centre (which
is the lake of Lucerne), is about ten inches j and as the
moft elevated mountain reprefented therein rifes 1475
toifes or 9440 feet above the lake of Lucerne, at a
grofs calculation, the height of an inch in the model
is about 900 feet. The whole is painted of different
colours, in fuch a manner as to reprelent objects as
they exift in nature ; and fo exa£lly is this done, that
not only the woods of oak, beech, pine, and other
trees, are diftinguiftied, but even the ftrata of the feve-
ral rocks are marked, each being ffiaped upon the fpot,
and formed of granite, gravel, or fuch other fubftances
as compofe the natural mountain. So minute alfo is
the accuracy of the plan, that it comprifes not only all
the mountains, lakes, rivers, towns, villages, and forefts,
but every cottage, bridge, torrent, road, and even every
path is diftin&ly marked.
The principal material employed in the conftruc-
tion of this extraordinary model, is a mixture of char¬
coal, lime, clay, a little pitch, with a thin coat of
wax ; and is lo hard that it may be trod upon without
any damage. It was begun in the year 1766, at
which time the general was about 50 years of age,
and it employed him till the month of Auguft 1785 j
during all which long fpace of time he was employ¬
ed in the moft laborious and even dangerous talks.-—
He raifed the plans with his own hands on the fpot,
took the elevation of mountains, and laid them down
in their feveral proportions. In the profecution of
this laborious employment, he was twice arrefted for
a fpy j and in the popular cantons was frequently
forced to work by moon light, in order to avoid the
jealoufy of the peafants, who imagined that their li¬
berty would bt endangered ftiould a plan of their
country be taken with fuch minute exa&nefs. Be¬
ing obliged frequently to remain on the tops of fome
of the Alps, where no provifions could be procured.
plafter
of.r 5
rop> igra-
Obtaining. kjrr,i n,n-
M OB [ 297 ] MOD
Model, he took along with him a few milk goats, who fup-
Modena. him with nourifliment. When any part was
" ’ finifhed, he fent for the people refiding near the fpot,
and defired them to examine each mountain with ac¬
curacy, whether it correfponded, as far as the fmallnefs
of the fcale would admit, with its natural appearance ;
and then, by frequently retouching, corredted the de¬
ficiencies. Even after the model was finilhed, he
continued his Alpine expeditions with the fame ardour
as ever, and with a degree of vigour that would fatigue
a much younger perfon. All his elevations were taken
from the level of the lake Lucerne *, which, according
to M. Sauffure, is 1408 feet above the level of the Me¬
diterranean.
MODENA, a duchy of Italy, bounded on the
fouth by Tufcany and the republic of Lucca, on the
north by the duchy of Mantua, on the eaft by the
Bolognefe and the territories of the Church, and
on the weft by the duchy of Parma; extending in
length from fouth to north about 56 Engliih miles,
and in breadth between 24 and 36, and yielding
plenty of corn, wine, and fruits, with mineral waters.
In fome places alfo petroleum is fkimmed off the fur-
face of the water of deep wells made on purpofe ; and
in others is found a kind of earth or tophus, which,
when pulverized, is faid to be an excellent remedy
againft poifon, fevers, dyfenteries, and hypochondriac
diforders. The country of La Salfa affords feveral
kinds of petrifactions. The principal rivers are the
Croftolo, Secchia, and Panaro. The family of Efte,
dukes of Modena, is very ancient. They had their
name from Efte, a fmall city in the diftrift of Pa¬
dua. In 1753, the duke was appointed imperial
vicar general, field marfhal, and governor of the Mi-
lanefe, during the minority of the archduke Peter
Leopold, w'ho was declared governor general of the
Auftrian Lombardy. The duke, though a vaffal of
the empire, hath an unlimited power within his own
dominions.
Modena, an ancient city, in Latin Mutina, which
gives name to a duchy of Italv, and is its capital. It
ftands 28 miles eaft of Parma, 44 almoft fouth of
Mantua, and 20 weft of Bologna j and is a pretty
large and populous, but not a handfome city. The
population is faid to amount to about 40,000. It is
much celebrated by Roman authors for its grandeur
and opulence ; but was a great fufferer by the fiege
it underwent during the troubles of the triumvirate.
It hath long been the ufual refidence of the dukes ;
and is alfo the fee of a bifhop, who is fuffragan to the
archbifhop of Bologna. Mr Keyller fays, that when
Decius Brutus was befieged here by Mark Antony,
Hirtius the conful made ufe of carrier pigeons ; and
that, even at this day, pigeons are trained up at Mo¬
dena to carry letters and bring back anfwers. This
city hath given birth to feveral celebrated perfons, par¬
ticularly Taffo the poet, Corregio the great painter,
Sigonius the civilian and hiftorian, Da Vignola the ar¬
chitect, and Montecuculi the imperial general. The
tutelary faint of it is named Geminianus. The ducal
palace is a very noble edifice, in which, among the
other fine pictures, the birth of Chrift by Corregio,
called la Notte Felice, is much celebrated. The only
manufacture for which this city is noted, is that of
'malks, of which great numbers are exported. The
Vol. XIV. Part I.
churches of the Jefuits, of the Theatines, and of St Modena
Dominic, are well worth viewing, in the college of M
St Carlo Boromeo betAveen 70 and 80 young noblemen t
are continually maintained, and inftruCted both in the
fciences and genteel exercifcs. St Beatrix, who Avas
of the family of Efte, is faid to knock always at the
gate of the palace three days before any of the family
dies. * Before moft of the houfes are covered Avalks or
porticoes, as at Bologna. The city is fortified, and on
its fouth fide ftands the citadel. E. Long. 11. O. N. Lat.
44- 34-
MODERATION, in Ethics, is a virtue confift*-
ing in the proper goA'ernment of our appetites, paf-
fions, and purfuits, Avith refpeCt to honours, riches,
and pleafures; and in this fenfe it is fynonymous
Avith temperance: it is alfo often ufed to denote can¬
dour.
MODERATOR, in the fchools, the perfon who
prefides at a difpute, or in a public affembly : thus the
prefident of the annual affembly of the church of Scot¬
land is ftyled moderator.
MODERN, fomething ucav, or of our time ; in op-
pofition to Avhat is antique or ancient.
Modern Authors, according to Naude, are all thofe
Avho have Avrote fince Boethius. 1 he modern philo-
fophy commences Avith Galileo 5 the modern aftronomy
Avith Copernicus.
MODESTY, in Ethics, is fometimes ufed to de¬
note humility ; and fometimes to exprefs chaftity, or
purity of fentiments and manners.—Modefty, in this
laft fenfe, and as particularly applied to women, is de¬
fined by the authors of the Encyclopedic Methodique, as
a natural, chary, and honeft ihame ; a fecret fear a
feeling on account of Avhat may be accompanied Avith
difgrace. Women Avho poffefs only the remains of a
fufpicious modefty, make but feeble efforts to refift :
thofe who have obliterated every trace of modefty from
their countenance, foon extinguilh it completely in their
foul, and throw afide for ever the veil of decency. She,
on the contrary, Avho truly poffeffes modefty, pafles over
in filence attempts againft her honour, and forbears
fpeaking of thofe from whom lire has received an out¬
rage, Avhen in doing fo lire muft reveal actions and ex-
preflions that might give alarm to virtue.
The idea of modefty is not a chimera, a popular
prejudice, or an illufion aiifing from laAvs and educa¬
tion. Nature, which fpeaks the fame language to all
men, has, Avith the unanimous confent of nations, an¬
nexed contempt to female incontinence. To refift and
to attack are laAvs of her appointment : and Avhile Ihe
beftoAVS defires on both parties, they are in the one
accompanied Avith boldnefs, in the other Avith thame.
To individuals fhe has allotted long fpaces of time for
the purpofes of felf-prefervation, and but moments for
the propagation of their fpecies. What arms more
gentle than Modejly could fhe have put into the
hands of that fex which fhe defigned to make refift-
ance.
If it Avere the cuftom for both fexes to make and
receive advances indiferiminately, vain importunity
would not be prevented : the fire of paffion Avould ne¬
ver be ftirred up, but languifh in tedious liberty j the
moft amiable of all feelings Avould fcarcely warm the
human breaft its objeft would Avith difficulty be at¬
tained. That obftacle which feems to remove this ob-
P p jeft
MOD r 298 ] M O G
A'j.,'u<'::ty to a diftance, in faft brings it nearer. The veil
i* , of (haoie only makes the delires more attractive. Mo-
' tion a" dt{[y ^in^es that: flame which it endeavours to fup-
—prefs : its fears, 'its evafions, its caution, its timid
avowals, its pleafing and affeCting flneffes, fpeak more
plainly what it willies to conceal, than paflion can do
without it: it is Modesty, in Ihort, which enhances
the value of a favour, and mitigates the pain of a re-
fufal.
Since modefty is the fecret fear of ignominy 5 and
iiuee all nations, ancient or modern, have confeffed
the obligation of its laws } it mud be abfurd to violate
them in the punifhment of crimes, which fhould al¬
ways have for its objeft the re-eftablilhment of order.
Was it the intention of thofe oriental nations, who
cxpofed women to elephants, trained for an abominable
fpecies of punilhment, to violate one law by the ob-
fervance of another ? By an ancient praClice among
the Romans a girl could not be put to death before
Ihe wras marriageable. Tiberius found means to evade
this law, by ordering them to be violated by the
executioner previous to the inflidlion of punilhment;
the refinement of a cruel tyrant, who facrificed the
morals to the cuftoms of his people ! When the
legiflature of Japan caufed women to be expofed na¬
ked in the market places, and obliged them to walk on
all fours like brutes, modefty was ftiocked : but when
it wanted to force a mother—when it wanted to com¬
pel a fon—nature received an outrage.
Such is the influence of climate in other countries,
that the phyfical part of love poflefles an almoft irrefift-
ible force. The refiftance is feeble ; the attack is ac¬
companied with a certainty of fuccefs. This is the
cafe at Patana, at Bantam, and in the fmall kingdoms
on the coaft of Guinea. When the -women in thefe
countries (fays Mr Smith) meet with a man, they lay
hold of him and threaten to inform their hulbands if
he defpifes their favours. But here the fexes feem to
have abolilhed the laws peculiar to each. It is fortu¬
nate to live in a temperate climate like ours, where that
fex which poffeffes the moft powerful charms exerts
them to embellifli fociety; and where modeft women,
while they referve themlelves for the pleafures of one,
contribute to the amufement of all.
MODIFICATION, in P/iilofop/iy, that which mo¬
difies a thing, or gives it this or that manner of being.
Quantity and quality are accidents which modify all
bodies.
Decree of MODIFICATION, in Scots Law, a decree
afeertaining the extent of a minifter’s ftipend, with¬
out proportioning it among the perfons liable in pay¬
ment.
MODILLIONS, in Archite&ure, ornaments in the
corniche of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Compofite co¬
lumns.
MODIUS, a Roman dry meafure for all forts of
grain, containing 32 heminae, or 16 fextarii, or one-
third of the amphora , amounting to an Englilh peck.
See Measure.
MODULATION, the art of forming any thing to
certain proportion.
Modulation, in reading or fpeaking. See Read¬
ing.
Modulation, in Mujlc, derived from the Latin
mcdutarL This word, in our language, is fufceptible
of feveral different fignifications. It frequently means Modufo.
no more than an air, or a number of mufical founds tion
properly conne&ed and arranged. Thus it anfwers , ft
to what Mr Malcolm underftands by the word tune, < '°re,f
when he does not exprefsly treat concerning the tun¬
ing of inftmments. Thus likewife it expreffes the
French word chant; for which reafon, in the article
Music, we have frequently expreffed the one word by
the other. But the precife and technical acceptation
to which it ought to be confined, is the art of compofing
melody or harmony agreeably to the laws preferibed by
any particular key, that of changing the key, or of re¬
gularly and legitimately pafling from one key to an¬
other. See Music.
MODULE, in ArchiteBure, a certain meafure, or
bignefs, taken at pleafure, for regulating the propor¬
tions of columns, and the fymmetry or difpofition of
the whole building. Architefts generally choofe the
femidiameter of the bottom of the column for their
module, and this they fubdivide into parts or mi¬
nutes.
MOEONIA, or M^onia. See IVLeonia and Ly-
D1A.
MOESIA, or Mysia, \n AncientGeograpliy, a coun¬
try of Europe, extending from the confluence of the Sa-
vus and the Danube to the fhores of the Euxine. It was
divided into Upper and Lower Moefia. LowTer Mcefia
was on the borders of the Euxine, and comprehended
that traft of country which received the name of Pontus
from its vicinity to the fea. Upper Moefia lay beyond
the other in the inland country.
MOFFAT, a village of Scotland, in Annandale, in
the county of Dumfries, 50 miles fouth-weft of Edin¬
burgh $ famous for its fulphureous well, which has been
in juft eftimation for near 150 years as a remedy in all
cutaneous and fcrofulous complaints j and for its chaly¬
beate fpring, called Hartfell fpaw, -which was difeo-
vered above 50 years ago, and is of a very bracing qua¬
lity.—The place is chiefly fupported by the company
who refort thither for the benefit of its waters and air j
but it has alfo a manufacture of coarfe woollen fluffs. It
is a well-built clean village ; and contains many good
and even elegant lodgings, a tolerable afiembly room, a
bowling green and walks, and a good inn. The popula¬
tion in 1801 amounted to 1619.
MOFFETT A. See Ampsancti.
MOGODORE, or Magadore, a large, uniform,
and well built town in the kingdom of Morocco, fituat-
ed about 350 miles from Tangier on the Atlantic ocean,,
and furrounded on the land fide by deep and heavy fands.
The European fa61 ory here confifts of about a dozen
mercantile houfes of different nations, whole ovmers,
from the prote61ion granted them by the emperor, live
in full fecurity from the Moors, whom indeed they keep
at a rigid diftance. They export, to America, mules 5
to Europe, Morocco leather, hides, gum arable, gum
fandaric, oftrich feathers, copper, wax, wool, elephants
teeth, fine mats, beautiful carpeting, dates, figs, raifins,
olives, almonds, oil, &c.. In return, they import tim¬
ber, artillery of all kinds, gunpowder, woollen cloths,
linens, lead, iron in bars, all kinds of hardware and
trinkets, fuch as looking glaffes, fnuff boxes, watches,
fmall knives, See. tea, fugar, fpices, and moft of the ufe-
ful articles which are not otherwife to be procured in
this empire. The town is regularly fortified on the
frlogodove,
Moguls.
Moguls de-
fa.1 ruled
from Ja-
fUetv
Almoft ex¬
terminated
M O G [2
Tea fide $ and on the land, batteries are fo placed as to
prevent any incurfion from the fouthern Arabs, who
are of a turbulent difpofiiion, and who, from the great
Wealth which is known to be always in Mogodore,
would gladly avail thettifeives of any opportunity that
offered to pillage the town. The entrance, both by
fea and land, confifts of elegant ftone arch-ways, with
double gates. The market place is handfomely built,
with piazzas of the fame materials ; and at the wa¬
ter port there is a cuftomhoufe and powder maga¬
zine, both of which are neat ftone buildings, Be-
fides thefe public edifices, the emperor has a fmall but
handfome palace for his occaffonal refidence. 1 he
ftreets of the town, though very narrow, are all in
ftraight lines ; and the houfes, contrary to what we
meet with in the other towns of the empire, are lofty
and regular. The bay, which is little better than a
road, and is very much expofed when the wind is at
north-weft, is formed by a curve in the land, and a
fmall ifland about a quarter of a mile from the ftiore.
-—Its entrance is defended by a fort well furnilhed
with guns.
MOGULS, a celebrated nation of Alia, whofe
conquefts formerly were the moft rapid and extenfive
of any people recorded in hiftory. They themfelves
deduce their origin from Japhet, or, as they call him,
Japhis, the fon of Noah. His fon Turk, they fay,
was the firft king, or khan, of thofe nations who are
now known by the feparate names of Turks, Tartars,
and Moguls ; and the Tartars efpeeiallv affert, that their
proper defignation is Turks. To this prince is attributed
many of thofe inventions which barbarous nations com
monly afcribe to their firft fovereigns. He was fucceed-
ed by Taunak •, in whofe reign the whole pofterity of
Turk were divided into four large tribes, denominated
the ordals of Erlat, Gialair, Kaugin, Berlas or Perlas j
of which laft came the famous Timur Beg, or Tamer¬
lane.—From this time to that of Alanza Khan, we meet
with nothing remarkable. In his reign the Turks
being immerfed in all kinds of luxury, univerfally
apoftatized into idolatry. Having two fons, Tartar
and Mogul, he divided his dominions among them, and
thus gave rife to the two empires of the Tartars and
Moguls.
The two nations had not long exifted before they
began to make war upon each other *, and after long
contention, the event at laft was, that II Khan, empe¬
ror of the Moguls, was totally overthrown bv Siuntz
Khan, emperor of the Tartars ; and fo great was the
defeat, that the Mogul nation feems to have been al¬
moft exterminated. Only two of 11 Khan’s family fur-
vived this difafter. Thefe were Kajan his youngeft
fon, and Nagos his nephew, who were both of an age,
and had both been married the fame year. Thefe two
princes, with their wives, had been taken prifoners by
Siuntz Khan, but found means to make their efeape to
their own country. Here they feized upon all the cattle
which had not been carried off by the Tartars ; which
was eafily done, as having none to difpute the property
with them j then ftripping fome of the flain, they took
their clothes, and retired into the mountains. They
paffed feveral mountains without much difficulty ; but
at laft advanced to the foot of one exceedingly high,
which had no way over it but a very fmall path made
by certain animals, called in the Tartar language ar-
99 ] M o G
chara. This path they found themfelves obliged te Moguls
make ufe of, though it was fo ftrait, that only one f
could pafs at a time, and he was in the moft imminent
danger of breaking his neck at the leaft falfe ftep. ^
Having afeended the mountain on one fide by this rhey ar-
path, they defeended by the fame on the other fidejovema
and were agreeably furprifed to find themfelves in ancJ|",lt:t'u'
moft delightful tradl, interfperfed with rivulets and'“‘*t;'
charming meadows, abounding with a vaft variety of
delicious fruits, and enclofed on all fides by inacceffble
mountains, in filch a manner as to fhelter them from all
future purliuts of the Tartars. Here they lived fome
time, and gave this beautiful country the name of /r-
gana-kon, in allufion to its lituation 5 Irgana fignifying,
in the old language of the Moguls, a “ valley,” and
Kon a “ fteep height.”
In procefs of time thefe two families very much in-
creafed. Kajan, whofe pofterity was the moft nume¬
rous, called his defeendants Kajath ; but the people
fpringing from Nagos were divided into two tribes j
one of which received the appellation of Nagojler, and
the other that of Durlagan.
Thefe two Mogul princes and their defeendants lived
in this place for more than 400 years ; but the latter
then finding it too narrow for them, meditated a return
to the country from which their forefathers had been
driven. For fome time, however, they found this im¬
practicable, as the path that conducted their anceftors
had been long fince deltroyed. At laft they ditcovered,
that one part of the high mountain above mentioned
was not very thick in a certain place j and alfo, that
it confifted entirely of iron ore. To this, having before
fet fire to a layer of wood, and another of charcoal,
laid along the foot of the mouatain, they applied 70
large bellows, and at laft melted the mountain in fueh
a manner, that an opening was made large enough for
a loaded camel to pafs 5 and through this paffage they
all marched out with great joy. ^
The Moguls having thus iffued as it were from a From
new world, overthrew the Tartars in their turn; andu'hence
continued to be a very confiderablc nation till the time' ,'V
of their great hero Temujin, afterwards called Jenghi% L;efeat the
Khan, whom they extol in the moft extravagant man-Tartars,
ner. It is difficult, however, to fay, at the time Te¬
mujin made his appearance, how far the dominions of
the Moguls extended, or in what eftimatxon they were
held by their neighbours. It feems to be pretty cer¬
tain that great part of the vaft region, now known by
the name of Tartan/, was then in a ftate of confider-
able civilization, and like wife extremely populous, as
we find mention made of many cities which the Mo¬
guls deftroyed ; and the incredible multitudes whom
they fiaughtered, abundantly Ihow the populoufnefs of
the country. On the eaft, the country of the Moguls
and Tartars had the great defert which divides Tartary 5
from China ; on the weft, it had the empire of Karazm, State of A-
founded by Mahmud Gazni; and on the fouth wereT1 at ^
the countries now known by the name of Indcjlan, Teij( ^
Siam, Pegu, Tonquin, and Cochin China. Thus it com-Khan,
prehended the eaftern part of modern Tartary, and
all Siberia. This whole region was divided among
a great number of Aymacks, or tribes ; who had each
one or more khans, according as it Avas more or lefs
numerous, or divided into branches. Among thefe
that of the Kura-its tvas the moft powerful: their
P p 2 prince
M O G
[ 300 ]
M O G
Moguls, prince affumed the title of Grand Khan, and among
the reft the Moguls were tributary to him 5 but, ac¬
cording to the Chinefe hiftorians, both the one and
the other were tributary to the emperor of Kitay or
Katay. China was divided into two parts : the nine
fouthern provinces were in the hands of the Chinele
emperors of the Song dynafty, who kept their court
at Hang-chew, the capital of the province of Chek-
yang ; the five northern provinces, excepting part of
Shenfi, were poflefled by the Kin, a people of Eaftern
Tartary, from whom are defcended the Manchew Tar¬
tars, at prefent mafters of China. This vaft domi¬
nion was named Kitay or Katay, and was divided into
two parts : that which belonged to China, was proper¬
ly called Kitay; and the part which belonged to Tar¬
tary was called Karakitay, in which fome even include
the territories of the Moguls, Karaits, and other tribes
which are the fubjefl of the prefent hiftory. The
weftern part of the empire of Kitay was pofi'efled by a
Turkifti prince, who had lately founded a new king¬
dom there called Hya; whofe capital city was Hya-
chew, now Ninghya in Shenfi, from whence the king¬
dom took its name. To the weft of Hya lay Tangut $
a country of great extent, and formerly very powerful j
but at that time reduced to a low ftate, and divided
among many princes j fome of w hom were fubjefl: to
the emperor of Hya, and others to the emperor of
China. All Tartary to the weftward as far as the
Cafpian fea, with the greater part of Little Buckharia,
which then paffed under the general name of Turkejian,
was fubjoft to Ghurkhan, Khurkhan, or Kaver Khan ;
to whom even the Gazni monarchs are faid to have
been tributary. This Ghurkhan had been prince of the
Weftern Kitan or Lyau *, who, driven out of Kitay by
the king, fettled in Little Buckharia, and the country
to the north, where they founded a powerful ftate about
the vear 1124.
Thus the Moguls, properly fo called, had but a very
and birth of ex^ent of empire which coidd be called their own,
’ ” ' if indeed they had any, when Temujin made his appear¬
ance. This hero is faid by the Tartars to have been of
divine origin, fince his family could be traced no far¬
ther back than ten generations, the mother of whom
was got with child bv a fpirit. The names and tranf-
aftions of his predeceffors are equally uncertain and un¬
important : he himfelf, however, was born in the year
1163, and is faid to have come into the world with con¬
gealed blood in his hands ; from whence it was progno-
fticated that he would be a great warrior, and obtain
the victory over all his enemies.
This prediftion, if any fuch there was, Temujin
moft literally fulfilled. At the time of his father’s de-
ceafe, his fubjefts amounted to between 30,000 and
40,000 families ; but of thefe two-thirds quickly defer-
ted, and Temujin was left almoft without fubjeds.
When only 13 years of age, he fought a bloody battle
againft thefe revoltersj but either was defeated, or gain¬
ed an indecifive viftory ; fo that he remained in obfeu-
7 rity for 27 years longer. His good fortune at laft he
Subdues his owe£j to tjie frler,dftiip of Vang Khan, who ruled over
Mfiedb b a £reat number of Tartar tribes to the north of Kitay,
means of ^ and has been heard of under the name of Frejier John
among the Europeans. This prince took Temujin un¬
der his protection ; and a rebellion being afterwards
raifed againft himfelf, Temujin was made his general,
3
6
Dcfcent
Va”g
Khar..
and the khan was kept in pofieftion of his throne : foon Moguls,
after which Temujin fubdued the tribes which had re-' *
volted from himfelf, treating them at the fame time
with the utmoft barbarity. g
This happened in the year 1201 ; but Vang Khan, Who be-
innead of continuing the friend of Temujin, now became comes jea-
jealous, and refolved to deftroy him by treachery. With1003’ .an<*
this view he propofed a marriage between Temujin’s fon h^deftruo.
Juji and his own daughter, and another between Temu-tion.
jin’s daughter and his own fon. Temujin was invited to
the camp of Vang Khan, in order to celebrate this dou¬
ble marriage 5 but receiving intelligence of fome evil
intention againft him, he excufed himfelf to Vang
Khan’s melfengers, and defired that the ceremony might
be put off to lome other time.
A fewr days after the departure of thefe meffengers,
Badu and Kiftilik, two brothers, who kept the horfe*
of one of Vang Khan’s chief domeftics, came and in¬
formed Temujin, that the grand Khan finding he had
miffed his aim, was refolved to fet out inftantly, and
furprife him next morning, before he could fufped any
danger. Temujin, alarmed at this intelligence, quit¬
ted his camp, in the night time, and retired with all his
people to fome diftance. He was fcarce gone when
Vang Khan’s troops arrived, and difeharged an incre¬
dible number of arrows among the empty tents ; but
finding nobody there, they purfued Temujin in fuch
hafte that they fell into great diforder. In this con¬
dition they were fuddenly attacked and routed by Te¬
mujin ; after which an open war with Vang Khan
took place.
By tliis quarrel almoft all the princes of Tartary Temujin
were put in motion, fome Tiding with Temujin, and overcomes
others with Vang Khan. But at laft fortune declared a11 ene-
in favour of the former : Vang Khan was overthrownrnie5,
in a battle, where he loft 40,000 men, and obliged to
fly for refuge to a prince named Tayyan Khan, who
was Temujin’s father-in-law, and his own enemy, and
by whom he was ungeneroufly put to death. Temu¬
jin immediately began to feize on his dominions, great
part of which voluntarily fubmitted : but a confederacy
was formed againft him by a number of Vang Khan’s
tributaries, at the head of whom was Jamuka, a prince
who had already diftinguifhed himfelf by his enmity to
Temujin ; and even Tayyan Khan himfelf was drawn
into the plot, through jealoufy of his fon-in-law’s good
fortune. But Temujin was well prepared ; and in the
year 1204 attacked Tayyan Khan, entirely routed his
army, killed himfelf, and took Jemuka prifoner, whofe
head he caufed inftantly to be ftruck off $ after w hich
he marched againft the other tribes who had confpired
againft him. Them he quickly reduced ; took a city
called Kajhin, where he put all to the fword who had
borne arms againft him j and reduced all the Mogul
tribes in 1205.
Temujin now, having none to oppofe him, called a
general diet, which he appointed to be held on the firft
day of the fpririg 1 206 5 that is, on the day in which
the fun entered Aries. To this diet were fummoned
all the great lords both Moguls and Tartars ; and in
the mean time, to eftablifh good order in the army,
he divided his foldiers into bodies of 10,000, 1000,
100, and 10 men, with their refpeftive officers, all
fubordinate to the generals, or thofe who commanded
the bodies of 10,000 j and thefe were to aft under his
own.
10
Affumes
the title of
Jenghiz
Ahan.
IX
tnvades
Hya, Chi.
na, &c.
M O G [3
own fon3. On the day of holding the diet, the princes
of the blood and great lords appeared drefled in white.
Temujin drefled in the fame manner, with his crown
on his head, fat down on his throne, and Avas compli¬
mented by the whole aflembly, who wilhed him the
continuance of his health and profperity. After this
they confirmed the Mogul empire to him and his
fucceflbrs, adding all thole kingdoms which he had
fubdued, the defcendants of whofe vanquilhed khans
were deprived of all right or title to them j and after
this he was proclaimed emperor with much ceremony.
During this inauguration, a pretended prophet declared
that he came from God to tell the aflembly, that from
thenceforth Temujin ftiould aflume the name of Jenghi%
Khan, or the mojl Great Khan of khans; prophecying
alfo, that all his pollerity Ihould be khans from genera¬
tion to generation. This prophecy, which was no doubt
owing to Temujin himfelf, had a furprifing effect on
his fubjedb, wrho from that time concluded that all the
world belonged of right to them, and even thought it a
crime againll heaven for any body to pretend to refill
them.
Jenghiz Khan having now reduced under his fubjec-
tion all the wandering tribes of Moguls and Tartars,
began to think of reducing thofe countries to the fouth
and fouth-welt of his own, where the inhabitants were
much more civilized than his mvn fubjedls : and the
countries being full of fortified cities, he mull of courfe
expe£l to meet with more refillance. He began with
the emperor of Hya, whofe dominions he invaded in
1209, who at lalt fubmitted to become his tributary.
But in the mean time Jenghiz Khan himfelf was fup-
pofed to be tributary to the emperor of Kitay : who, in
1210, fent him an officer, demanding the cuilomary
tribute. This was refufed with the utmoll indignation,
and a war commenced, which ended not but with the
diflolutxon of the empire' of Kitay, as mentioned under
the article China.
In the year 1216, Jenghiz Khan refolved to carry
his arms weltward, and therefore left his general
Muchuli to purfue his conquells in Kitay. In his
journey wellward he overthrew an army of 300,000
Tartars who had revolted againft him 5 and, in 1218,
fent ambafladors deliring an alliance with Mohammed
Karazm Shah, emperor of Gazna. His ambaflador
was haughtily treated : however, the alliance was con¬
cluded ; but foon after broken, through the treachery,
as it is faid, of the Karazmian monarch’s fubjeffs. This
brought on a war attended with the moll dreadful de-
vallations, and which ended with the entire dellruflion
ef the empire of Karazm or Gazna, as related under the
the article Gazna.
After the redudlion of Karazm, part of the Moguls
broke into Iran or Pcrfia, where alfo they made large
conquelts, while others of their armies invaded Georgia
and the countries to the welt; all this time committing
fuch enormities, that the Chinefe hiftorians fay both
men and fpirits burl! with indignation. In 1225,
Jenghiz Khan returned to Hya, where he made war on
the emperor for having ffieltered fome of his enemies.
The event was, that the emperor was llain, and his
kingdom conquered, or rather deltroyed } which, how¬
ever, was the lalt exploit of this moll cruel conqueror,
who died in 1227, as he marched to complete the de-
Aru6tion of the Chinefe.
01 ] m o G
The Mogul empire, at the death of Jenghiz Khan, Moguls,
extended over a prodigious tra£l of country ; being ^
more than 1800 leagues in length from ealt to weft, and pXtent
upwards of 1000 in breadth from north to fouth. Its of his em-
princes, however, were ftill infatiable, and puftied on pin?,
their conquefts on all fides. Oktay was acknowledged
emperor after Jenghiz Khan •, and had under his imme¬
diate government Moguleftan (the country of the Mo¬
guls properly fo called), Kitay, and the countries eaft-
wrard to the Tartarian fca. Jagaty his brother govern¬
ed under him a great part of the weltern conquefts.
The country of the Kipjacks, and others to the eaft,
and north-eall, north, and north-weft, were governed
by Batu or Patu the fon of Juji, who had been killed
in the wars 5 while Tuli or Toley, another fon of Jen¬
ghiz Khan, had Khoraflan, Perfia, and what part of In¬
dia rvas conquered. On the eaft fide the Mogul arms
were Hill attended with fuccefs 5 not only the empire of
Kitay, but the fouthern part of China, was conquered,
as already related under that article, N® 24—42. On
the weft fide matters continued much in the fame way
till the year 1254, when Magu, or Menkho, the fourth
khan of the Moguls, (the fame who ivas afterwards
killed at the liege in China*), railed a great army, * see Chi-
which he gave to his brother Hulaku or Plulagu, to ex- na, Is0 3S.
tend his dominions weftward. In 1255, he entered
Iran, where he fuppreffed the Ifmaelians or Aflaffins,
of whom an account is given under the article Assas¬
sins, and two years afterwards he advanced to Bagdad,
which he took, and cruelly put the caliph to death,
treating the city with no more lenity than the Moguls j,
ufually treated thofe which fell into their hands. Every Bagdad re-
thing was put to fire and fword ; and in the city and duced.
its neighbourhood the number of llain, it is faid,
amounted to 1,600,000. The next year lie invaded
Syria 5 the city of Damafcus was delivered up, and, as
it made no refiftance, the inhabitants were fpared j but
Aleppo being taken by ftorm, a greater daughter enfued
there than had taken place at Bagdad, not even the
children in their cradles being fpared. Some cities of
this country revolted the next year, or the year after j
but falling again into the hands of the Moguls, they
were plundered, and the inhabitants butchered without
mercy, or carried into flavery.
Hulaku died in 1264, and at his death we may fix
the greateft extent of the Mogul empire. It now com¬
prehended the whole of the continent of Alia, except¬
ing part of Indoftan, Siam, Pegu, Cochin China, and
a few of the countries of Lefler Alia, which had not
been attacked by them 5 and during all thefe vaft con¬
quefts no Mogul army had ever been conquered, ex¬
cept one by Jaloloddin, as mentioned under the article
Gazna.—From this period, however, the empire be- It begins to
gan to decline. The ambition of the khans having decline,
prompted them to invade the kingdoms of Japan and
Cochin China, they were miferably difappointed in their
attempts, and loft a great number of men. The fame
bad fuccefs attended them in Indoftan *, and in a fhort
time this mighty empire broke into feveral fmaller ones.
The governors of Perfia being of the family of Jenghiz
Khan, owned no allegiance to any fuperior; thofe of
Tartary did the fame. The Chinefe threw off the
yoke j and thus the continent of Alia wore much the
fame face that it had done before Jenghiz Khan began
his conquells,
The
Moguls.
*5
1 amerlane
crowned
pmperor of
Bailih.
i6
Becbmes a
great con¬
queror.
*7
Invades and
conquers
Indoftan.
18
The city of
Delhi de¬
ft royed,
and the in¬
habitants
ftaughter-
M O G [ 303
The fucpeflbrs of Hulaku reigned in Perlia till the
year 1335 j but that year Abufaid Khan, the eighth
from Hulaku, dying, the affairs of that country fell
into confufion for want of a prince of the race of
Jenghiz Khan to fucceed to the throne. The empire,
therefore, was divided among a great number of petty
princes who fought againtt each other almoft without
intermiflion, till in the year 1369 Timur Bek, or Ta¬
merlane, one of thefe princes, having conquered a num¬
ber of others, wras crowned at Balkh, w’ith the pom¬
pous title of Saheb Karan ; that is, “ the emperor of
the age, and the conqueror of the world.” As he had
jult before taken that city, and deftroyed one of his
mofl formidable rivals who had Unit himfelf up in it,
the new emperor began his reign with beheading fome
of the inhabitants, impriforjing others, burning their
houfes, and felling the women and children for Haves,
In 1370 he crolfed the Sihun, made war on the Getes,
and attacked Karazm. Next year he granted a peace
to his enemies ; but two years after, he again invaded
the country of the Getes, and by the year 1379 had
fully conquered that country as well as Korazan ; and
from that time he continued to extend his conquefts in
much the fame manner as Jenghiz Khan had done,
though with lefs cruelty.—In 1387 he had reduced Ar¬
menia, Georgia, and all Perfia •, the conqueft of which
lall was completed by the reduction of Ifpahan, 70,000
of the inhabitants of which were flaughtered on ac¬
count of a fedition raifed by fume rafli or evil difpofed
perfons.
After the reduction of Perfia, Timur turned his
arms northward and weft ward, fubduing all the coun¬
tries to the Euphrates. He took the city of Bagdad ;
fubdued Syria 3 and having ravaged great part of Ruf-
fia, returned to Perfia in 1396, where he fplendidly
feafted his whole army. In 1398 he invaded Indof-
tan, crofled the Indus on the 17th of September, redu¬
ced feveral fortreffes, and made a vaft number of cap¬
tives. However, as he was afraid that, in cafe of any
emergency, thefe prifoners might take part with the
enemy, he gave orders to his foldiers to put all their In¬
dian Haves to death *, and in eonfequence of this inhu¬
man order, more than 100,000 of thefe poor wretches
W'ere Haughtered in lefs than an hour.
In the beginning of the year 1399 Timur was met
by the Indian army ; whom, after a defperate battle, he
defeated with great daughter, and foon after took the
city of Delhi the capital of the country. Here he feat-
ed himfelf on the throne of the Indian emperors, and
here the fliarifs, kadis, the principal inhabitants of the
city, came to make their fubmiflion, and begged for
mercy. The tame elephants and rhinocerofes likewife
were brought to kneel before him as they had been ac-
cuftomed to do to the Indian emperors, and made a
great cry as if they implored his clemency. Thefe war
elephants, 1 20 in number, were, at his return, fent to
Samarcand, and to the province where his fons refided.
After this, at the requeft of the lords of the court, Ti¬
mur made a great feaft *, at which he diftributed pre-
fents to the princes and principal officers.
Delhi at this time confifted of three cities, called
Setjri, Old Delhi, and Jehan Penah. Seyri was fur-
rounded with a wall in form of a circle. Old Delhi
was the fame, but much larger, lying fouth-weft of the
other. Thefe two parts -were joined on each fide by
4
] M O G
a wail •, and the third, lying between them, wa? called Moguls.
Jehan Penah, which was larger than Old Delhi. Pe- '-“■'V*"'
nah had ten gates j $eyri had feven, three of which
looked towards Jehan Penah; this laft had 13 gates,
fix to the north-weft, and feven to the fouth-eaft. Every¬
thing feemed to be in a quiet pofture ; when, on the
1 2th of January 1399, the foldiers of Timur being af-
fembled at one of the gates of Delhi, infulted the inha¬
bitants of the fuburbs. The great emirs were ordered
to put a ftpp to thel’e diforders} but their endeavours
were not effe&ual. The foltanas having a curiofity to
fee the rarities of Delhi, and particularly a famous pa¬
lace adorned with 1000 pillars, built by an ancient
king of India, went in with all the court; and the gate
being on that occalion left open for every body, above
13,coo foidiers got in unperceived. But there was a
far greater number of troops in a large place between
Delhi, Seyri, and Jehan Penah, who committed great
diforders in the two laft cities. This mada the inhabi¬
tants in defpair fall on them •, and many, fetting fire to
their houfes, burnt their wives and children. The fol¬
diers feeing this confufion, did nothing but pillage the
houfes ; while the diforder was increafed by the admif-
fion of more troops, who feized the inhabitants of the
neighbouring places who had fted thither for flielter.
The emirs, to put a ftop to this mjfchief, caufed the
gates to be thut: but they were quickly opened by the
foldiers within, who rofe in arms againft their officers j
fo that by the morning of the 13th the whole army was
entered, and this great city was totally deftroyed. Some
fioldiers carried out 150 Haves, men, women, and chil¬
dren *, nay, fome of their boys had 20 Haves a piece to
their (hare. The other fpoils, in jewels, plate, and ma¬
nufactures, were immenfe j for the Indian women and
girls were adorned with precious {tones, and had brace¬
lets and rings on their hands, feet, and even toes, fo
that the foldiers were loaded with them. On the 15th,
in Old Delhi, the Indians retired into the great mofque
to defend themfelves ; but being attacked by the Tar¬
tars, they were all Haughtered, and tow-ers ereCted with
their heads. A dreadful carnage now enfued through¬
out the whole city, and feveral days were employed be-
fore the inhabitants could be made to quit it entirely ;
and as they went, the emirs took a number of them for
their fer-vice. The artilans were alfo diftributed among
the princes and commanders 5 all but the mafons, who
w^ere referved for the emperor, in order to build him a
fpacious ftene mofque at Samarcand.
After this terrible devaftation, Timur marched into
the different pi’ovinces of Indoftan, everywhere defeat¬
ing the Indians who oppofed him, and flaughtering the
Ghebrs or W'orfliippers of fire. On the 25th of March
he fet out on his return, and on the 9th of May ar¬
rived at Samarcand. In a few months after his arrival,
he was obliged to undertake an expedition into Perfia,
where affairs wrere in the utmoft diforder on account of
the mifconduCl of his fon, whom he had appointed fo-
vereign of that empire. Here Timur foon fettled mat¬
ters *, after which fee again fet out on an expedition
weftward, reduced many places in Georgia which had l9
not fubmitted before, and invaded and conquered Sy- Timur
ria. At the fame time he quarrelled with Bajazet the quarrel^
Turkifh fultan, then bulled in an enterprife againft
Conftantinople, in which he would probably have fuc-u,.il^
ceeded had not Timur interpofed. The caufe of this fahan.
quarrel
*
M O G [ 303 ] M O H
Moguls, quarrel at full was, that Bajazet had demanded tribute
“•'"/“■“"'from a prince who was under Timur’s protection, and
is faid to have returned an infulting anfwer to the Tar¬
tar atnbaffadors who were lent to him on that account.
Timur, however, who was an enthufiaft in the cauie of
Mahometanifm, and confidered Ba.iazet as enpged in
the caufe of heaven when befieging a Chriilian city,
■was very unwilling to diiturb him in fo pious a work;
and therefore undertook feveral expeditions againit the
princes of Syria and Georgia, in order to give the
Turkifti monarch time to cool and return to reafon.
Among other places, he again invefted the city of Bag¬
dad, which had caft off its allegiance to him; and hav¬
ing taken it by ftorm, made fuch a dreadful maflacre of
the inhabitants, that 120 towers were ere&ed with the
heads of the llain. In the mean time Bajazet conti¬
nued to give frelh provocation, by protecting one Kara
Yufef a robber, who had even infulted the caravan of
Mecca; fo that Timur at length refolved to make war
upon him. The fultan, however, forefeeing the dan¬
ger of bringing fuch a formidable enemy againft him-
felf, thought proper to afk pardon, by a letter, for what
was paft, and promife obedience to Timur’s will for the
future. This embafly was gracioufly received ; and Ti¬
mur returned for anfwer, that he would forbear hoiiili-
ties, provided Bajazet -would either put Kara Yufef to
death, fend him to the Tartar camp, or expel him out
of his dominions. Along with the Turkifti ambaffadors
he fent one of his own ; telling Bajazet that he would
march into the confines of Anatolia, and there wait his
final anfwer.
Though Bajazet had feemed at firft willing to come
to an agreement with Timur, and to dread his fuperior
power ; yet he now behaved in fuch an unfatisfaftory
manner, that the Tartar monarch defired him to pre¬
pare for war; upon which he raifed the fiege of Con-
20 ftantinople, and having met Timur with an army great-
Bajazetde-ly inferior to the Tartars, was utterly defeated and ta-
taken* ^ ^en Pr^o:ner* According to fome accounts, he was
Auer ^rU treated with great humanity and honour ; while others
inform us, that he was (hut up in an iron cage, againft
which he dallied out his brains the following year. At
any rate, it is certain that he was not reftored to liberty,
but died in confinement.
This victory was followed by the fubmiflion of many
places of the Leffer Alia to Timur; the Greek empe¬
ror owned himfelf his tributary, as did alfo the fultan
of Egypt. After this Timur once more returned to
Georgia, which he cruelly ravaged; after which he
marched to Samarcand, where he arrived in the year
1405. Here, being now an old man, this mighty con¬
queror began to look forward to that ftate which at one
time or other is the dread of all living creatures ; and
Timur, in order to quiet the remorfes of his own con-
fcience, came to the following curious refolution, which
he communicated to his intimate friends ; namely, that
“ as the vaft conquefts he had made were not obtained
without fome violence, which had occafioned the de-
ftruCtion of a great number of God’s creatures, he rvas
21 refolved, by wray of atonement for his paft crimes, to
beath of perform fome good aCtion; namely, to make war on
anTcHfn^'th6 ^hdels, and exterminate the idolaters of China.”
don of his " This atonement, however, he did not live to accom-
empire. plilh ; for he died the fame year of a burning fever, in
the 71ft year of his age and 36th of his reign.
On the death of Timur, his empire fell immediately Moguls
into great diforder, and the civil wars continued for rv,0^ljop>
five or fix years; but at laft peace was reftored, by the . ^ >
fettlement of Shah Rukh, Timur’s fon, on the throne.
He did not, however, enjoy the empire in its full ex¬
tent, or indeed much above one half of it; having only
Karazm, KhorafTan, Kandahar, Perfia, and part of
Hindoftan. Neither was he able, though a brave and
warlike prince, to extend his dominions, though he
tranfmitted them to his fon Ulug Beg. He proved a
wife and learned monarch ; and is famous for the aftro-
nomical tables which he cauled to be compofed, and
which are well known at this day. He was killed in
1448 by his fon Abdollatif, who fix months after was
put to death by his own foldiers. After the death of
Abdollatif, Abdollah, a grandfon of Shah Rukh, fei-
zed the throne ; but, after reigning one year, was ex¬
pelled by Abufaid Mirza, the grandfon of Miran Shah
the fon of Timur. His reign was one continued feene
of wars and tumults ; till at laft he -was defeated and ta¬
ken priloner by one Haffan Beg, who put him to death
in 1468. From this time we may look upon the em¬
pire of Timur as entirely diffolved, though his defeend-
ants ftill reigned in Perfia and Indoftan, the latter
of which is ftill known by the name of the Mogul's em¬
pire. ^ .22
On the death of the above-mentioned monarch, his Hiftory of
fon Babr or Babor fucceeded him, but was foon driven Hiisdoitary
out by the Ufbeck Tartars ; after which he refided fome
time in Gazna, whence he made incurfions into Hindo¬
ftan, and at length became mafter of the whole empire,
excepting the kingdoms of Dekan, Guzerat, and Ben¬
gal.—For the traniactions fubfequent to this period, fee
Hindostan and India.
MOHAIR, in commerce, the hair of a kind of goat
frequent about Angora in Turkey ; the inhabitants of
which city are all employed in the manufacture of cam-
blets made of this hair.
Some give the name mohair to the camblets or fluffs
made of this hair; of thefe there are two kinds; the
one fmooth and plain, the other watered like tabbies :
the difference between the two only confifts in this, that
the latter is callendered, the other not. There are alfo
mohairs both plain and watered, whofe woof is of wool,
cotton, or thread.
Mohair Shell, in Conchology, a name given to a
fpecies of voluta, w hich feems of a clofely and finely
reticulated texture, and refembles on the furface a piece
of mohair or a very clofe filkworm’s web.
MOHAWKS. See Muck.
Mohawk Country, a part of North America, inha¬
bited by one of the five nations of the Iroquois, fitualed
between the province of New York, and the lake On¬
tario or Frontignac.
MOHILA, or Moelia, one of the Comora iftands
in the Indian fea, between the north end of Madagafcar
and the continent of Africa. The inland parts are
mountainous and woody ; but the lands adjoining to the
fea are -watered by feveral fine ftreams. The iftand
abounds with provifions of all kinds; and the Eaft In¬
dia (hips of different nations fometimes touch here for
refrefhment.
MOHILOF, a large and ftrong city of Poland, in
the province of Lithuania, and palatinate of Mfciftau.
It is well built, populous, and has a confiderable trade.
Near
Moliildf
II
Moivre.
M O I [ 304 ] M O L
Near tins place the Swedes obtained a great victory over
the Ruffians in 1707.
MOIDORE, a Portuguefe gold coin, value il. ys.
flerling.
MOIETY (Medietas'), the half of any thing.
MOIRA, a town of Ireland, in the county of Down
and province of Ulfter, 69 miles from Dublin ; noted
for its linen manufaflure. It gives title of earl to the
family of Rawdon.
MOISTURE. See Humidity.
The moillure of the air has confiderable effe&s on
the human body. For the quantity and quality of the
food, and the proportion of the meat to the drink, be¬
ing given, the weight of a human body is lefs, and con-
fequently its difcharges greater in dry weather than in
wet weather j which may be thus accounted for : the
moillure of the air moiftens the fibres of the Ikin and
leffens perfpiration by leffening their vibratory motion.
When perfpiration is thus leflened by the moifture of
the air, urine indeed is by degrees increafed, but not
equally. Hence, according to Dr Bryan Robinfon,
we learn, that to keep a body of the fame weight in
wet weather as in dry, either the quantity of food
muft be leffened, or the proportion of the meat to the
drink increafed : and both thefe may be done by lef¬
fening the drink without making any change in the
meat.
The inftrument ufed for determining the degree of'
moiilure in the air, is called an hygrometer. See Hy¬
grometer.
MOIVRE, Abraham, a learned mathematician,
was born at Vitri in Champagne, in France, 1667,
where his father was a furgeon. At the revocation
of the edifl of Nantes, he came to England. Before
he left France, he had begun the ftudy of mathema¬
tics 5 and having perfected himfelf in that fcience in
London, he was obliged, by neceffity, to teach it. New¬
ton’s Principia, which accidentally fell into his hands,
fhowed him how little progrefs he had made in a fcience
of which he thought himfelf mafter. From this work
he acquired a knowledge of the geometry of infinites
with as great facility as he had learned the elementary
geometry j and in a ffiort time he was fit to be ranked
with the mod celebrated mathematicians. His fuccefs
in thefe dudies procured him a feat in the Royal Society
of London and in the Academy of Sciences at Paris.
His merit was fo well underdood in the former, that he
was thought capable of deciding in the famous difpute
between Leibnitz and Newton concerning the differen¬
tial calculus.—He publiffied a Treatife on Chances in
1738, and another on Annuities in 1752; both ex¬
tremely accurate. The Philofophical Tranfaftions con¬
tain many intereding memoirs of his compofition.—
Some of them treat of the method of fluxions; others
are on the lunula of Hippocrates j others on phyfical
adronomy, in which he refolved many important pro¬
blems ) and others, in ffiort, on the analyfis of the
games of chance, in which he followed a different
courfe from that of Montmort. Towards the clofe of
his life he lod his fight and hearing ; and the demand
for deep became fo great that he required 20 hours of
it in a day. He died at London, 1754, aged 87.
His knowledge was not confined to mathematics ; but
•he retained to the lad a tade for polite literature-. He
was intimately acquainted with the bed authors of anti¬
quity ; and he was frequently confulted about difficult
paffages in their works. Rabelais and Moliere were
his favourite French authors : he had them by heart j
and he one day obferved to one of his acquaintance,
“ that he would rather have been Moliere than New¬
ton.” He recited whole fcenes of the Mfanthrope, with
that delicacy and force with which he remembered to
have heard them recited at Paris 70 years before, by
Moliere’s own company. The charafter indeed was
fomewhat fimilar to his own. He judged feverely of
mankind •, and could never conceal his difgud at the
converfation of a feol, or his averfion to cunning and
diffimulation. He was free from the affe&ation of fci¬
ence, and no one could know him to be a mathemati¬
cian but from the accuracy of his thoughts. His con¬
verfation was general and indru&ive. Whatever he
faid was well digefted and clearly expreffed. His ftyle
pofl'effed more ftrength and folidity than ornament and
animation ; but he was always corredl, and he bellowed
as much pains on his fentences as on his calculations.
He could never endure any bold affertions or indecent
witticifms againft religion.
MOL A, an ancient town of Italy, in the kingdom
of Naples, and in the Terra di Lavoro, where they pre¬
tend to ffiow the ruins of Cicero’s houfe. It is feated
on the gulf of Venice, in E. Long. 17. 50. N. Lat.
Moivnr
11
Mole.
M‘5-
MOLA Sulfa (Salt Cakef in antiquity, was barley
parched, and afterwards ground to meal or flour, then
mixed with fait and frankincenfe, with the addition of
a little water. Thus prepared, it was fprinkled be¬
tween the horns of the viftim before it was killed in fa-
crifice. This a£l was called immolatio, and was com¬
mon to the Greeks as well as Romans ; with this dif¬
ference, that the mo/a of the Romans was of wheat.
The Greeks called it uM or uXo^vln.
MOL ARES, or Dentes Mol ares, in Anatomy,
the large teeth, called in Engliffi the grinders. See
Anatomy Index.
MOLASSES, or Molosses. See Molosses.
MOLDAVIA, a province of Turkey in Europe,
bounded on the north-eaft by the river Niefter, which
divides it from Poland •, on the eaft, by Beffarabia •, on
the fouth by the Danube, which parts it from Bulga¬
ria \ and on the weft, by Walachia and Tranfylvania.
It is 240 miles in length and 150 in breadth. It lies in
a good air and fruitful foil, producing corn, wine, rich
paftures, a good breed of horfes, oxen, ftieep, plenty of
game, filh, fowl, honey, wax, and all European fruits.
Its principal rivers are the Danube, Niefter, Pruth,
Bardalaeh, and Ceret. The inhabitants are Chriftians
of the Greek church, and Jaffy is the principal town.
It has been tributary to the Turks fince the year 1574 >
who appoint a prince who is a native of the country,
but have no regard to his being of the principal fami¬
lies. The province pays a large yearly tribute to the
Turkiffi government; befides railing a great body of
horfe at its own expence.
MOLE, a river in Surry, which has taken its name
from running under ground. It firft difappears at Box-
hill, near Darking, in the county of Surry, and emerges
again near Leatherhead.
Mole. See Talpa, Mammalia Index; and for
methods of deftroying, fee Vermin, DeflruBion of.
Mole, in Midwifery, a mafs of fleffiy matter, of a
fpherical
MOL [ 305 ] M 0 L
Mole, fplierical figure, generated in the uterus, and fometimes
Moliere. nijftaten for a child. See MIDWIFERY.
“ ' Mole, or Mark See NiEVUS.
Mole, in Archite&ure, a m a dive work formed of
large ftones laid in the fea by means of coffer dams, ex¬
tended either in a right line or an arch of a circle, be¬
fore a port, which it ferves to clofe *, to defend the vef-
fels in it from the impetuofity of the waves, and to pre¬
vent the paffage of fhips without leave. Thus we fay
th« mole of the harbour of Medina, &c.
Mole is fometimes alfo ufed to fignify the harbour itfelf.
Mole, (^moles), among the Romans, was alfo ufed
for a kind of maufoleum, built in manner of a round
tower on a fquare bafe, infulate, encompaffed with co¬
lumns, and covered with a dome.—The mole of the
emperor Adrian, now the caftle of St Angelo, was the
greateft and moil {lately of all the moles. It was
crowned with a brazen pine apple, wherein was a gold¬
en urn containing the afhes of the emperor.
Mole Cricket. See Gryllotalpa, Entomology
Index.
MOLE Hill*. Thefe little hillocks of earth are a very
great prejudice to the pafture lands, not only in waiting
fo much of the land as they cover, but in obilructing
the feythe in mowing. In the Avefl of England they
ufe a peculiar inftrument for the breaking up of thefe ;
it is a dat board, very thick, and of about eight inches
in diameter, into which there is faftened a perpendicu¬
lar handle of three or four feet long. 11 has four broad
and fharp iron teeth at the front, which readily cut
through the hill, and fpread the earth it confifts of;
and behind there is a large knob proper for breaking
the clods with, if there are any. Some ufe a fpade, or
other common inflrument, in the place of this, but not
fo well. There is, however, a much better inftrument
even than this, for deftroying thtfe hills, where they
are in very great numbers. This is a kind of horfe ma¬
chine ; it has a (harp iron about three feet over, and
with a ftrong back.—It is about four or five inches
broad, and has two long handles for a horfe to be har-
neflfed to’, and a crofs bar of iron to llrengthen it at the
bottom of the handles, reaching from the one handle to
the other. The middle of this crofs bar is furnithed
with one, two, or more lharp pieces of iron like fmall
ploughlhares, to cut the mole hills into two, three, or
more parts. The iron behind is of a femicircular fi¬
gure. A fingle horfe is harnefled to this machine, and
a boy muft be employed to drive it, and a man to hold
and guide it 5 the {harp irons or {hares are the firft
things that meet the hill, they run' through it, break
its texture, and cut it into feveral parts ; and the circu¬
lar iron following immediately behind them, cuts up the
whole by the roots, and leaves the land level. This
inftrument will deftroy as many mole hills in one day
as a common labourer can do in eight, and would be of
very great advantage to the kingdom if brought into
general ufe.
MOLIERE, John Baptist, a celebrated French
comedian and dramatic writer, whofe true name was
Pocquelin, which for feme reafon he changed to that of
Moliere. He was the fon of a valet de chambre, and was
born at Paris about the year 1620. He ivent through
the ftudy of the daffies under the Jefuits in the college
of Clermont, and was defigned for the bar ; but at his
quitting the law fchools, he made choice of the adtor’s
Yol. XIV. Part I.
profeflion. From a ftrong attachment to the drama, Molierft
his whole ftudy and application were diredled to the il
ftage, and he continued till his death to exhibit plays, . °
which were greatly applauded. It is faid the firft mo¬
tive of his going upon the ftage was to enjoy the com¬
pany of an aclrefs for whom he had contracted a vio¬
lent fondnefs. His comedies are highly efteemed. And
it is no wonder he fo juftly reprefented domeftic feuds,
and the torments of jealous hulhands, or of thofe who
have rcafon to be fo ; for it is aflerted that no man ever
experienced this more than Moliere. His laft comedy
was Le Malade Imagine ire, which was brought on the
ftage in 1673 j and Moliere died on the fourth night
of its reprefentation ; fume fay in acting the very part
of the pretended dead man, which gave tome exercife
for the wits of the time ; but according to others he
died in his bed that night, from the burlting of a vein
in his lungs by coughing. The king, as a laft mark
of his favour, prevailed with the archbilhop of Paris to
fuffer him to be buried in confecrated ground ; though
he had irritated the clergy by his Tar tuff'. The molt
efteemed editions of his works are that of Amfterdam, 5
vols. 1 2mo, 16995 and that of Paris, 6 vols. qto, 1 734.
MGLINISTS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a fed in the
Romifti church, who follow the dodrine and fentiments
of the Jefuit Molina, relating to fufficicnt and efficaci¬
ous grace. He taught that the operations of divine
grace -were entirely confiftent with the freedom of hu¬
man will; and he introduced a neiv kind of hypethefis
to remove the difficulties attending the dodrines of
predeftination and liberty, and to reconcile the jarring
opinions of Auguftines, Thomifts, Semi-Pelagians, and
other contentious divines. He affirmed, that the de¬
cree of predeftination to eternal glory w:as founded up¬
on a previous knowledge and confideration of the merits
of the eled; that the grace, from whofe operation thefe
merits are derived, is not efficacious by its own intrinfic
power only, but alfo by the confent of our own will, and
becaufe it is adminiftered in thofe circumitances,in which
the Deity, by that branch of his knowledge which is
called fcientia media, forefees that it will be efficacious.
The kind of prefcience, denominated in the fchools fci¬
entia media, is that foreknowledge of future contingents
that arifes from an acquaintance with the nature and fa¬
culties of rational beings, of the circumftances in which
they {hall be placed, of the objeds that fhall be pre-
fented to them, and of the influence which their cir¬
cumftances and objeds muft have on their adions.
MOLINOSISTS, a fed among the Romanifts, who
adhere to the dodrine of Molinos. Thefe are the fame
with what are otherwife called afiietifls, whofe chief
principle was, that men ought to annihilate themfelves
in order to be united to God, and aftenvards remain in
quietnefs of mind, without being troubled for what
ffiall happen to the body. Molinos, the author of thofe
opinions, was a Spanifti prieft, and was born in 1627.
His 68 propofitions were examined in 1687 by the
pope and inquifitors, who decreed that his dodrine was
falfe and pernicious, and that his books ftiould be burn¬
ed. He was forced to recant his errors publicly in the
Dominican church, and was condemned to perpetual
imprifonment. He was then 60 years old, and had
been fpreading his dodrine 22 years before. He died
in prifon in 1692.
MOLLUGO, African Chickweed 5 a genus of
^ q plants
MOL [ 306 ] MOL
Mollujo
I!
Moloffes.
plants belonging to the triandria clafs, and in tbe na¬
tural method ranking under the 22d order, Caryophyllei.
See Botany Index.
MOLLUSC A, in the Linnaean fyftem, one of the
orders of vermes or worms. Thefe are fimple naked
animals, not included in a (hell, but furnilhed with
limbs. See Helminthology Index.
MOLOCH, a falfe god of the Ammonites, who de¬
dicated their children to him, by making them “ pafs
through the tire,” as the Scriptures exprefs it. There
are various opinions concerning this method of confe-
cration. Some think, the children leaped over a fire
facred to Moloch ; others, that they paffed between
two fires ; and others, that they were really burnt in
the fire, by way of facrifice to this god. There is foun¬
dation for each of thefe opinions. For, firfi, it was ufual
among the pagans to luflrate or purify with fire j and,
in the next place, it is exprefsly faid, that the inha¬
bitants of Sepharvaim burnt their children in the fire
to Anatnelech and Adramelech j much fuch deities as
Moloch of the Ammonites.
Mofes, in feveral places, forbids the Ifraelites to de¬
dicate their children to this god as the Ammonites did,
and threatens death and utter extirpation to fuch per-
fons as were guilty of this abominable idolatry. And
there is great probability that the Hebrews were much
addicted to the worthip of this deity : fince Amos, and
after him St Stephen, reproaches them with having
carried along with them into the wildernefs the taber¬
nacle of their god Moloch.
Solomon built a temple to Moloch upon the mount
of Olives •, and Manaffeh, a long time after, imitated
his impiety, by making his fon pafs through the fire
in honour of Moloch. It was chiefly in the valley of
Tophet and Hinnom, to the eaft of Jerufalem, that the
Ifraelites paid their idolatrous worfliip to this falfe god
of the Ammonites.
There are various fentiments concerning the relation
which Moloch had to the other pagan divinities. Some
believe he was the fame with Saturn, to whom it is
well known that human facrifices were offered. Others
fuppofe him to be Mercury ; others, Mars ; others, Mi¬
thras ; and others, Venus. Laftly, Others take Moloch
to be the fun, or the king of heaven. Moloch was
likewife called Milcom ; as appears from what is faid
of Solomon, that he went after Afhtaroth the abomina¬
tion of the Zidonians, and Milcom the abomination of
the Ammonites.
MO LOSSES, Molasses, or Melaffes, that grofs
fluid matter remaining of fugar after refining, and which
no boiling will bring to a confiftence more folid than
that of fyrup •, hence alfo ealled/z/rvy) of fugar.
Properly, moloffes are only the fediment of one kind
of fugar called chypre, or brown fugar. which is the re-
fufe of other fugars not to be whitened or reduced into
loaves.
Molofles are much ufed in Holland for the prepara¬
tion of tobacco, and alfo among poor people inftead of
fugar. There is a kind of brandy or fpirit made of
moloiTes •, but by fome held exceedingly unwholefome.
See below.
Artfcial MOLOSSES. There has been found a me¬
thod of making molofles from apples without the ad¬
dition of fugar. The apple that fucceeds beft in this
operation is a furamer fweeting of a middle fize, plea-
fant to the tafte, and fo full of juice that feven bufliels MolofTes
will yield a barrel of cyder. II
The manner of making it is this : the apples are to Ynand^
be ground and prefled, then the juice is to be boiled l y - -\
in a large copper, till three quarters of it be evapora¬
ted : this wifi, be done with a moderate fire in about fix
hours, with the quantity of juice above mentioned ; by
this time it will be of the confiftence and tafte as ■well
as of the colour of moloffes.
This new moloffes ferves all the purpofes of the com¬
mon kind, and is of great ufe in preferving cyder. Two
quarts of it put into a barrel of racked cyder, will pre-
ferve it, and give it an agreeable colour.
T he invention of this kind of moloffes was owing to
Mr Chandler of Woodftock in New England, who liv¬
ing at a diftance from the fea, and where the com¬
mon moloffes was very dear and fcarce, provided this
for the fupply of his own family, and introduced the
practice among people of the neighbourhood. It is
to be obferved, that this fort of apple, the fweeting, is
of great ufe in making cyder ; one of the very beft:
kinds we know being made of it. The people in New
England alfo feed their hogs with the fallings of their
orchards of thefe apples •, and the confequence of this
is, that their pork is the fineft in the world.
MOLOSSES Spirit; a very clean and pure fpirit, much
ufed in England, and made from moloffes or common
treacle diffoived in water, and fermented in the fame
manner as malt or the common malt fpirit. See Di¬
stillation.
MOLOSSI, a people of Epirus, who inhabited
that part of the country which ivas called Molr.Jfia, or
Molqfux, from King Moloffus, a fon of Pyrrhus and
Andromache. This country had the bay of Ambracia
on the fouth, and the country of the Perrhaebeans on
the eaft. The dogs of the place were famous, and re¬
ceived the name of MoloJJi among the Romans. Do-
dona Avas the capital of the country, according to fome
Avriters. Others, hoAvever, reckon it as the chief city
of Thefprotia. >\
MOLOSSUS, in the Greek and Latin poetry, a
foot confifting of three long fyllables. As audin, can-
tabanty virtutem.
It takes its name either from a dance in ufe among
the people called Moloffi or Epirotce; or from the temple
of Jupiter Moloffus, Avhere odes Avere fung, in Avhich
this foot had a great (hare ; or elfe becaufe the march
of the Molofli, Avhen they Avent to the combat, Avas
compofed of thefe feet, or had the cadence thereof.
The fame foot Avas alfo called among the ancients,
Vertumnus, extenfpes, Mppius, et cannius.
MOLUCILLA, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 42d order, Verticillutce. See Botany Index.
MOLTEN-grease. See Farriery, N° 499*
MOLUCCA Islands, lie in the Eaft Indian fea
under the line-, of Avhieh there are five principal, name¬
ly, Ternate, Tydor, Machian, Motyr, and Bachian.
The largeft of them is hardly 30 miles in circumfe¬
rence. They produce neither corn, rice, nor cattle,
except goats: but they have oranges, lemons, and
other fruits ; and are moft remarkable for fpices, efpe-
cially cloves. They have large fnakes, which are not
venomous, and very dangerous land crocodiles. At
prefent they have three kings j and the Dutch, who
A are
MOM [3°7] MON
Molofie* are very ftrong here, keep out all other European na¬
il tions, being jealous of their fpice trade. The religion
Momus. ^ jg . but there are many Mahometans. They
were difcovered by the Portuguefe in 1511, who fet¬
tled upon the coaft 5 but the Dutch drove them away,
and are now the mailers of all thefe iilands.
MOL WITZ, a town of Silefia, in the province of
Grotika, remarkable tor a battle gained by the Pruf-
lians over the Auftrians in 1741. E. Long. 16. 45.
N. Lat. 50. 26.
MOLY. The name of this plant is rendered fa¬
mous by Homer : and hence has been much inquired
into, as to its true fenfe, by the botanifts of almoit all
times. The old interpreters of Homer explain this
word by the “ wild rue and the only reafon for
this is, that at fome time, probably long after the
days of Homer, the people of Cappadocia called the
wild rue moly. But this plant is wholly dilferent from
the moly of Homer, which Theophraftus affirms
grew in his time in Arcadia in great plenty, and had
a round bulbous root like an onion, and long and
graffy leaves like the fquill. On the whole, the moly
of Homer feems to have been a fpecies of allium or
garlic.
MOLYBDENA, a metal. See Chemistry and
Mineralogy Index.
MOMBAZA, or Monbaza, a town of Africa, in
an ifland of the fame name, with a caftle and a fort ;
feated on the eaftern coaft, oppofite to the country of
Mombaza in Zanguebar, 75 miles fouth of Melinda, and
fubjeft to Portugal. E. Long. 39. 30. S. Lat. 3. 1 5.
Mombaza, a country of Africa in Zanguebar, fub-
jedft to the Portuguefe, from whence they export Haves,
gold, ivory, rice, fleih, and other proviftons, with
which they fupply the fettlements in Brafil. The king
of this country being a Chriftian, had a quarrel with the
Portuguefe governor, took the caftle by aflault in 1631,
turned Mahometan, and murdered all the Chriftians j but
in 1729 they became matters of the territory again.
MOMENT, in the doftrine of time, an inftant, or
the moft minute and indivifible part of duration.
MOMENTUM, in Mechanics, fignifies the fame
with impetus, or the quantity of motion in a moving
body ; which is always equal to the quantity of matter
multiplied into the velocity ; or, which is the fame
thing, it may be confidered as a reffangle under the
quantity of matter and velocity. See Mechanics.
MOMOKDICA, Male Balsam Apple j a genus
of plants belonging to the monoecia clafs ; and in the
natural method ranking under the 34th order, Cucurbi-
tacefe. See Botany Index.
MOMUS, in fabulous hiftory, the god of raillery,
or the jefter of the celeftial affembly, and who ridicu¬
led both gods and men. Being chofen by Vulcan,
Neptune, and Minerva, to give his judgment concern¬
ing their works, he blamed them all: Neptune for not
making his bull with horns before his eyes, in order
that he might give a furer blow } Minerva for building
a houfe that could not be removed in cafe of bad
neighbours j and Vulcan, for making a man without
a window in his breaft, that his treacheries might be
feen. For his free refieftions upon the gods, Momus
was driven from heaven. He is generally reprefented
railing a mafk from his face, and holding a fmall figure
m his hand.
MONA, in Ancient Geography, two iflands of this Mon*
name in the fea lying between Britain and Ireland. H
The one delcribed by Caefar, as lituated in the middle u
paftage between both iflands, and ftretching out in
length from fouth to north. Called Monaceda (Ptole¬
my) j Monapia, or Monabia (Pliny). Suppofed to be
the ifle of Man,—Another Mona (Tacitus) \ an ifland
more to the fuuth, and of greater breadth ; lituated
on the coaft of the Ordovices, from which it is lepa-
rated by a narrow lirait. The ancient feat of the
Druids. Now called Anglefey, the ifland of the An¬
gles or Englifti.
Mona, an ifland of the Baltic fea, fouth-weft of the
ifland of Zealand, fubjedt to Denmark. E. Long. 12.
30. N. Lat. 55. 20.
Mona. See Inchcolm.
MONACO, a fmall but handfome and ftrong town
of Italy, in the territory of Genoa, with a caftle, cita¬
del, and a good harbour. It is feated on a craggy rock,
and has its own prince, under the protection of France.
E. Long. 7. 33. N. Lat. 43. 48.
MONAD. See LeiBNITZIAN Philofophy.
MONADELPHI A, (from pcvos,alone, and aSi'Mpict,
a brotherhood;') a “ Angle brotherhood:” The name
of the 16th clafs in Linnaeus’s fexual fyftein, confifting of
plants with hermaphrodite flowers ; in which all the fta-
mina are united below into one body or cylinder, through
which pafles the piftillum. See Botany Index.
MONAGHAN, a county of Ireland, lituated in
the province of Ulfter, is bounded by Tyrone on the
north, Armagh on the eaft, Cavan and Louth on the
fouth, and Fermanagh on the weft. It is a mountain¬
ous traft, but in fome places is well improved. It con¬
tains 170,090 Irilh plantation acres, and is about 30
miles long and 22 broad. The linen trade of this
county is averaged at 104,000!. yearly.
Monaghan, the capital town of the county of that
name, is diftant 62 miles from Dublin, and gives title
of baron to the family of Blayney. It ■was anciently
called Muinechun. An abbey was founded here in a
very early age, of which Moelodius the fon of AodU
was abbot. In 1462, a monaftery for conventual Fran-
eifeans was erefted on the fite of this abbey, which was
granted on the general fuppreffion of monafteries to
Edward Withe, and a caftle has been fince erefted on
the fite by Edward Lord Blayney.
MONANDRIA, (from o/owe, and «r»!g, a man
or hujband), the name of the firft clafs in Linnaeus’s
fexual fyftem ; confifting of plants with hermaphrodite
flowers, which have, only one ftamen.
MONARCHY, a large ftate governed by one ; or
a ftate where the fupreme power is lodged in the hands
of a Angle perfon. The word comes from the Greek
“ one who governs alone j” formed of juam;,
folus, and ceg%n, imperium, “ government.” Of the three
forms of government, viz. democracy, ariftocracy, and
monarchy, the laft is the moft powerful, all the
finews of government being knit together, and united
in the hand of the prince $ but then there is imminent
danger of his employing that ftrength to improvident
or oppreffive purpofes. As a democracy is the belt cal¬
culated to direft the end of a law, and an ariftocracy to
invent the means by which that end lhall be obtained,
a monarchy is moft: fit for carrying thofe means into exe¬
cution.
The
MON [ 308 ] MON
Monarchy. The mofl ancient monarchy was that of the Afly-
'   ' rians, which was founded foon after the deluge. We
ufually reckon four grand or univerfal monarchies } the
AlTyrian, Perfian, Grecian, and Roman j though St
Auguftine makes them but two ; viz. thofe of Raby-
lon and Rome. Belus is placed at the head of the
feries of Aflyrian kings who reigned at Babylon, and
is by profane authors eileemed the founder of it, and
by fome the fame whom the Scriptures call Nimrod.
The principal Aflyrian kings after Belus were Ninus,
who built Nineveh, and removed the feat of empire to
it} Semiramis, who, difguifing her fex, took poffef-
fion of the kingdom inftead of her fon, and was killed
and fucceeded by her fon Ninyas} and Sardanapalus,
the laft of the AiTyrian monarchs, and more effeminate
than a woman. After his death the Alfyrian empire
was fplit into three feparate kingdoms, viz. the Median,
Affyrian, and Babylonian. The firft king of the Me¬
dian kingdom was Arbaces } and this kingdom lafted
till the time of Attyages, who wras fubdued and divefted
of his kingdom by Cyrus.
In the time of Cyrus there arofe a new and fecond
monarchy called the Perfian, which flood upwards of
200 years from Cyrus, whole reign began A. M. 3468,
to Darius Codomannus, who was conquered by Alex¬
ander, and the empire tranflated to the Greeks A. M.
3674.—The firft monarch was Cyrus, founder of the
empire. 2. Cambyfes, the fon of Cyrus. 3. Smer-
dis. 4. Darius, the ion of Hyftafpis, who reigned
521 years before Chrift. 5. Xerxes, who reigned 485
years before Chrift. 6. Artaxerxcs Longimanus, who
reigned 464 years before Chrift. 7. Xerxes the fe¬
cond. 8. Ochus, or Darius, called Nothus, 424
years before Chrift. 9. Artaxerxes Mnemon, 405
years before Chrift. 10. Artaxerxes Ochus, 359 years
before Chrift. 11. Arfes, 338 years before Chrift.
12. Darius Codomannus, 336 years before Chrift, who
was defeated by Alexander the Great, and deprived
of his kingdom and life about 331 years before Chrift :
the dominion of Perfia after his death was tranflated to
the Greeks.
The third monarchy was the Grecian. As Alex¬
ander, when he died, did not declare who fliould fuc-
ceed him, there ftarted up as many kings as there were
commanders. At firft they governed the provinces
that were divided among them under the title of vice¬
roys } but when the family of Alexander the Great
was extinft, they took upon them the name of kings.
Hence, in procefs of time, the whole empire of Alex¬
ander produced four diftinft kingdoms, viz. 1. The
Macedonian } the kings of which, after Alexander,
were Antipater, Caflander, Demetrius Poliorcetes, Se-
leucus Nicanor, Meleager, Antigonus Dofon, Philip,
and Perfeus, under whom the Macedonian kingdom
•was reduced to the form of a Roman province. 2. The
Afiatic kingdom, which upon the death of Alexander
fell to Antigonus, comprehending that country now
called Natolia, together with fome other regions be¬
yond Mount Taurus. From this kingdom proceeded
two leffer ones, viz. that of Pergamus, whofe laft king,
Attains, appointed the Roman people to be his heir }
and Pontus, reduced by the Romans into the form of a
province, when they had fubdued the laft king, Mith-
ridates. 3. The Syrian, of whofe twenty-two kings the
moft celebrated were, Seleueus Nicanor, founder of the
1
kingdom ; Antiochus Deus; Antiochus the Great} Monarch]
Antiochus Epiphanes 5 and Tigranes, who was con- I!
quered by the Romans under Pompey, and Syria re- i^°”a^cn
duced into the form of a Roman province. 4. The xi ^
Egyptian, which was formed by the Greeks in Egypt,
and Hourhhed near 240 years under 12 kings, the prin¬
cipal of whom were, Ptolemy Lagus, its founder} Pto¬
lemy Philadelphus, founder of the Alexandrian library 5
and Queen Cleopatra, who Avas overcome by Auguftus,
in confequence of Avhich Egypt Avas added to the domi¬
nion of the Romans.
The fourth monarchy was the Roman, Avhich lafted
244 years, from the building of the city until the time
Avhen the royal poAver Avas abrogated. The kings of
Rome Avere Romulus, its founder} Numa Pompilius }
Tullus Hoftilius} Ancus Martius} Tarquinius Prif-
cus } Scrvius Tullius} and Tarquin the Proud, aaFo
was banithed, and Avith whom terminated the regal
power.
There feems in reality no neceflity to make the
Medes, Perfians, and Greeks, fucceed to the whole
power of the Affyrians, to multiply the number of
the monarchies. It Avas the fame empire Hill } and
the feveral changes that happened in it did not confti-
tue different monarchies. Thus the Roman empire
Avas fucceflively go\’erned by princes of difterent na¬
tions, yet without any new monarchy being formed
thereby. Rome, therefore, may be faid to have imme¬
diately fucceeded Babylon in the empire of the Avorld.
See Empire.
Of monarchies fome are abfolute and defpotic, Avhere
the Avill of the monarch is uncontroulable } others are
limited, where the prince’s authority is reftrained by
laAvs, and part of the fupreme poAver lodged in other
hands, as in Britain. See Government.
Some monarchies again are hereditary, Avhere the
fucceflion devolves immediately from father to fon }
and others are eledtrve, Avhere, *on the death of the
monarch, his fucceffor is appointed by eleclion, as in
Poland.
Fifth-MON ARCH T Men, in the ecclefiaftical hiftory
of England, Avere a fet of Avrong-headed and turbu¬
lent enthufiafts Avho arofe in the time of Cronwell, and
who expelled Chrift’s fudden appearance upon earth to
eftabliih a neAV kingdom } and, adting in confequence
of this illufion, aimed at the fubverlion of all human
government.
MONARDA, Indian Horehound, a genus of
plants belonging to the diandria clafs} and in the natu¬
ral method ranking under the 4 2d order, Verticiilatce.
See Botany Index.
MONASTEREVAN, a poll toAvn of Ireland, in
the county of Kildare and province of Leinfter, 36
miles from Dublin, fo called from a magnificent abbey
which Avas founded here, in which St Evan in the be¬
ginning of the 7th century placed a number of monks
from South Munfter, and Avhich had the privilege of
being a fandluary. The confecrated bell, Avhich be¬
longed to this faint, was on folenm trials fAVorn upon
by the Avhole tribe of the Eoganachts, and was ah\rays
committed to the care of the Mac Evans, hereditary
chief juftices of Munfter } the abbot of this houfe lat as
a baron in parliament.—At the general fuppreflion of
monafteries, this abbey Avas granted to Lord Audley,
Avho afligned it to Yifcount Ely. It afterAvards came
van,
Monaftery
MON [ 309 ]
Mcnallere- into the family of Moor, earls of Drogheda, and has Hen. \ III. c. 28.
been beautifully repaired by the prefent Lord Drogheda,
gill wearing the venerable appearance of an abbey.
There is a nurfery at Monallerevan for the charter
fchools of the province of Leinfter ) and the grand canal
has been carried up to this town from Dublin, fince
which it has been much improved and enlarged with
feveral new buildings.
MONASTERY, a convent or houfe built for the
reception of religious •, whether it be abbey, priory,
nunnery, or the like.
Monastery is only properly applied to the houfes
of monks, mendicant friars, and nuns. The reft. are
more properly called religious houfes. For the origin
of monafteries, fee Monastic and Monk.
The houfes belonging to the feveral religious orders
which obtained in England and Wales were, cathe¬
drals, colleges, abbeys, priories, preceptories, com-
mandries, hofpitals, friaries, hermitages, chantries,
and free chapels. Thefe were under the direftion and
management of various officers. The diffolution of
houfes of this kind began fo early as the 1312, when
the Templars were fupprelTed ; and in 13 23 their lands,
churches, advow'fons, and liberties, here in England,
were given by 17 Ed. II. ft. 3. to the prior and brethren
of the hofpital of St John at Jerufalem. In the years
1390, 1437? I44,» 1459» I497’ ,I5°5» I5°^5 an^
feveral other houfes were dilfolved, and their
revenues fettled on different colleges in Oxford and
Cambridge. Soon after the laft period, Cardinal Wol-
fey, by licenfe of the king and pope, obtained a dif¬
folution of above 30 religious houfes for the founding
and endowing his colleges at Oxford and Ipfwich.
About the fame time a bull was granted by the fame
pope to Cardinal Wolfey to fupprefs monafteries, where
there were not above fix monks, to the value of 8000
ducats a-year, for endowing Windfor and King’s Col¬
lege in Cambridge 5 and two other bulls were granted
to Cardinals Wolfey and Campeius, where there w^ere
lefs than twelve monks, and to annex them to the
MON
By this a61 about 380 houfes were Monattery,'-
diffolved, and a revenue of 30,000!. or 32,000!. a-year
came to the crown j befides about ioo,oool. in plate
and jewels. The fuppreffion of thefe houfes occaiion-
ed difcontent, and at length an open rebellion: when
this was appeafed, the king refolved to fupprefs the
reft of the monafteries, and appointed a new vifita-
tion : which caufed the greater abbeys to be furren-
dered apace •, and it was enafted by 31 Henry VIII.
c. 13. that all monafteries, &c. which have been fur-
rendered fince the 4th of February, in the 27th year
of his majefty’s reign, and which hereafter ffiall be fur-
rendered, fhall be veiled in the king. The knights of
St John of Jerufalem were alfo fuppreffed by the 32
Henry VIII. c. 24. The fuppreffion of thefe greater
houfes by thefe two atts produced a revenue to the
king of above ioo,oool. a-year, befides a large fum in
plate and jewels. The laft aft of diffolution in this
king’s reign was the aft of 37 Henry VIII. c. 4.
for diffolving colleges, free chapels, chantries, &c.
which aft was farther enforced by 1 Edw. VI. c. 14.
By this aft were fupprefled 90 colleges, no hofpitals,
and 2374 chantries and free chapels. The number of
houfes and places fuppreffed from firft to laft, fo far as
any calculations appear to have been made, feems to be
as follow :
Of leffer monafteries, of which vTe have the va¬
luation, - -
Of greater monafteries,
Belonging to the hofpitallers,
Colleges, - -
Hofpitals, -
Chantries and free chapels,
greater monafteries 5 and another bull to the fame car¬
dinals to inquire about abbeys to be fuppreffed in or¬
der to be made cathedrals. Although nothing ap¬
pears to have been done in confequence of thefe bulls,
the motive which induced Wolfey and many others
to fupprefs thefe houfes was the defire of promoting
learning ; and Archbilhop Cranmer engaged in it with
a view of carrying on the Rtfformation. There were
other caufes that concurred to bring on their ruin :
many of the religious were loofe and vicious ; the
monks were generally thought to be in their hearts
attached to the pope’s fupremacy *, their revenues
were not employed according to the intent of the do¬
nors •, many cheats in images, feigned miracles, and
counterfeit relicks, had been difcovered, which brought
the monks into difgrace •, the Obfervant friars had op-
pofed the king’s divorce from Queen Catharine ; and
thefe circumftances operated, in concurrence with the
king’s want of a fupply and the people’s defire to lave
their money, to forward a motion in parliament; that
in order to fupport the king’s ftate and fupply his
wants, all the religious houfes might be conferred up¬
on the crown which were not able to fpend above 200I.
a-year 5 and an aft was paffed for that purpofe 27
Total 3182
Befides the friars houfes and thofe fuppreffed by Wol¬
fey, and many fmall houfes of which we have no parti¬
cular account.
The fum total of the clear yearly revenue of the
feveral houfes at the time of their diffolution, of which
we have any account, feems to be as follow :
Of the greater monafteries, L. 104,919 I3 3^
Of all thofe of the leffer monafteries
of which we have the valuation,
Knights hofpitallers head houfe in
London,
We have the valuation of only 28 of
their houfes in the country,
Friars houfes of which we have the
valuation,,.
29,702 1 io£
2385
3026
12 8
9 3'
75i
Total L.140,784 19 3!
If proper allowances are made for the leffer monafte¬
ries and houfes not included in this eftimate, and for
the plate, &c. which came into the hands of the king
by the diffolution, and for the value of money at that
time, which was at leaft fix times as much as at pre¬
fent, and alfo confider that the eftimate of the lands
was generally fuppofed to be much under the real worth,
we muft conclude their whole revenues to have been
immenfe.
It does not appear that any computation hath been
made of the number of perfons contained in the re¬
ligious houfes.
Thofe
MON r 3
Mcmaflery, Tliofe of the lefier monafteries diffolved by 2y
Monadic.^ Hen. VIII. were reckoned at about 10,000
^ If we i’uppofe the colleges and hofpitals to have
contained a proportionable number, thefe will
make about - - - 5347
If we reckon the number in the greater mona-
iteries, according to the proportion of their
revenues, they will be about 35,000 •, but
as probably they had larger allowances in
proportion to their number than thole of
the leffer monalteries, if we abate upon that
account 5000, they will then be - 30,000
One for each chantry and free chapel, 2374
Total 47,721
But as there were probably more than one perfon to
officiate in feveral of the free chapels, and there were
other houfes which are not included within this calcu¬
lation, perhaps they may be computed in one general
eftimate at about 50,000. As there were penfions
paid to altnofl all thofe of the greater monafleries, the
king did not immediately come into the full enjoy¬
ment of their whole revenues : however, by means of
what he did receive, he founded fix new biflioprics,
viz. thofe of Weftminfter (which was changed by
Queen Elizabeth into a deanery, with twelve prebends
and a fchool), Peterborough, Chefter, Glouceffer,
Briftol, and Oxford. And in eight other fees he
founded deaneries and chapters, by converting the
priors and monks into deans and prebendaries, viz.
Canterbury, Winchefler, Durham, Worcefler, Roche-
fter, Norwich, Ely, and Carlille. He founded alfo the
colleges of Chritl-church in Oxford and Trinity in
Cambridge, and finilhed King’s college there. He
likewife founded profefforlhips of divinity, law, phylic,
and of the Hebrew and Greek tongues, in both the
faid univertitkrs. He gave the houfe of Greyfriar* and
St Bartholomew’s hofpital to the city of London, and a
perpetual penfion to the poor knights of Windfor, and
laid out great fums in building and fortifying many
ports in the channel. It is obfervable, upon the whole,
that the dhfolution of thefe houfes was an ad, not of
the church, but of the Hate; in the period preceding
the Reformation, by a king and parliament of the
Roman catholic communion in all points except the
king’s fupremacy; to which the pope himfelf, by ins
bulls and licenfes, had led the way.
MONASTIC, fomething belonging to monks, or
the monkiffi life. The monaftic profeffion is a kind
of civil death, which in all worldly matters has the
lame effed with the natural death. The council of
Trent, &e. fix fix teen years for the age at which a
perfon may be admitted into the monaftical Rate.
St Anthony is the perfon who, in the fourth century,
firft iiftituted the m .allic life; as St Pachomius,
in the fame century, is faid to have firft fet on foot the
ooenobitic life, i. e. regular communities of religious.
In a ffiort time toe deferts of Egypt became inhabited
with a fet of foli aides, who took upon them the monaflic
profeffion. St B-ifil carried the monkiffi humour into
the call, where he compofed a rule which afterwards
obtained through a great part of the weft.
In the nth century the monaftic difeipline wTas
grown very remifs. St Odo firft began to retrieve it
5
10 ] MON
in the monaftery of Cluny ; that monaftery, by the
conditions of its eredion, was put under the immediate
protedion of the holy fee ; with a prohibition to all
powers, both fecular and ecclefiaftical, to difturb the
monks in the poffeffion of their effeds or the eledion of
their abbot. In virtue hereof they pleaded an exemp¬
tion from the jurifdidion of the biffiop, and extended
this privilege to all the houfes dependent on Cluny.
This made the firft congregation of feveral houfes,
under one chief immediately fubjed to the pope, fo
as to conftitute one body, or, as they now call it, one
religious order. Till then, each monaftery was inde¬
pendent and fubjed to the bilhop. See Monk.
MONDA, or Munda, in Ancient Geography, a
river of Lufitania, running mid-way from eaft to weft
into the Atlantic, between the Durius and Tagus, and
waffiing Conimbrica. Now the Mondego, a river of
Portugal, which running by Coimbra, falls into the
Atlantic, 30 miles below it.
MONDAY, the fecond day of the week, fo called
as being anciently facred to the moon; q. d. moon-day.
MONDOVI, a confiderable town of Italy, m
Piedmont; with a citadel, univerfity, and bifhop’s
fee. It is the; largeft and moft populous town of
Piedmont, and is feated in E. Long. 8. 6. N. Lat.
Monafttc
II
Monetari.
us.
44-
MONEMUGI, an empire in the fouth of Africa,
has Zanguebar on the eaft, Monomotapa on the fouth,
Motamba and Makoko on the weft, and Abyffinia on
the north and partly to the eaft, though its boundaries
that way cannot be afeertained. It is divided into the
kingdoms of Mujaco, Makoko or Anfiko, Gingiro,
Cambate, Alaba, and Monemugi Proper. This laft
lies in the middle of the torrid zone, and about the
equino£lial line, fouth of Makoko, weft of Zanguebar,
north of Monomotapa, and eaft of Congo and ol the
northern parts of Monomotapa. To afeertain its
extent, is too difficult a talk, being a country fo little
frequented. The country known, abounds v ith gold,
filver, copper mines, and elephants. The natives clothe
themfelves in filks and cottons, which they buy of
ftrangers, and wear collars of tranfparent amber beads,
brought them from Cambaya : which beads ferve alfo
inftead of money ; gold arid filver being too common,
and of little value among them.
Their monarch always endeavours to be at peace
with the princes round about him, and to keep an
open trade with puitoa^ Melinda, and Mombaza, on
the eaft, and with Congo on the weft ; from all which
places the black merchants refort thither for gold.
The Portuguefe merchants report, that on the eaft
fide of Pv'Ionemugi there is a great lake full of fmall
illands, abounding with all forts of fowl and cattle, and
inhabited bv negroes. They relate alfo, that on the
main land eaft ward they heard fometimes the ringing of
bells, and that one could obferve buildings very much
like churches ; and that from thefe parts came mt n of
a brown and tawney complexion, who traded with thofe
iflanders, and with the people of Monemugi. "I his
country abounds in palm wine, oil, and honey.
MONETARIUS, or Moneyer, a name which
antiquaries and medallifts give to thofe 'who ftruck the
ancient coins or monies.
Manv of the old Roman, &c. coins hare the name
of
MON [ 3” 3 MON
Honetari- of the monetarius, either written at length, or at leaft
usi the initial letters of it. See Medal.
j Money. ^ MONEY, a piece of matter, commonly metal, to
^ * which public authority has affixed a certain value and
weight to ferve as a medium in commerce. See Coin,
Commerce, and Medals j alfo the article Bank.
Money is ufually divided into real or cjfettive, and
imaginary or money of account,
I. REAL Money.
i. Hijlory of real money. Real money includes all
coins, or fpeeies of gold, filver, copper, and the like j
which have ceurfe in common, and do really exift.
Such are guineas, pidoles, pieces of eight, ducats, &c.
Real money, civilians obferve, has three efiential
qualities, viz. mailer, form, and weight or value.
For the matter, copper is that thought to have been
firft coined j afterwards filver •, and lafllv gold, as be¬
ing the moft beautiful, fcarce, cleanly, divifible, and
pure of all metals.
The degrees of goodnefs are expreffied in gold by
carats j and in filver by pennyweights, &c. For there
are i'everal reafons for not coining them pure and with¬
out alloy, viz the great lofs and expence in refining
them, the neceffity of hardening them to make them
mo’-e durable, and the fcarcity of gold and filver in
moft countries. See Alloy.
Among the ancient Britons, iron rings, or, as fome
fay, iron plates, were ufed for money •, among the La¬
cedaemonians, iron bars quenched with vinegar, that
they might not ferve for any other ufe. Seneca ob-
ferves, that there was ancientlv (lamped money of lea¬
ther, corium forma publica impreffum. And the fame
thing was put in practice by Frederic II. at the fiege
of Milan ; to fay nothing of an old tradition among
ourfelves, that in the confufed times of the barons
wars the like was done in England : but the Holland¬
ers, we know, coined great quantities of pafteboard in
the year 1574.
As to the form of money, it has been more various
than the matter. Under this are comprehended the
weight, figure, impreffion, and value.
For the impreffion, the Jews, though they detefted
images, yet ftamped on the one fide of their ffiekel the
golden pot which held the manna, and on the other
Aaron’s rod. The Dardans (lamped two cocks fight¬
ing. The Athenians damped their coins with an owl,
or an ox *, whence the proverb on bribed lawyers, Ros
in lingua. They of ^Egina, with a tortoife ; whence,
that other faying. Virtutem et fapientiam v in cunt tejiu-
dines. Among the Romans, the monetarii fome times
impreffed the images of men that had been eminent in
their families on the coins: but no living man’s head
was ever damped on a Roman coin till after the fall of
the commonwealth. From that time they bore the em¬
peror’s head on one fide. From this time the praflice
of damping the prince’s image on coins has obtained
among all civilized nations \ the Turks and other Ma¬
hometans alone excepted, who, in detedation of images,
infcribe only the prince’s name, avith the year of the
tranfmigration of their prophet.
As to the figure, it is either round, as in Britain;
multangular or irregidar, as in Spain ; fquare, as in
fome parts of the Indies; or nearly globular, as in
mod of the reft.
After the arrival of the Romans in this ifland, the _ Money.
Britons imitated them, coining both gold and filver '
with the images of their kings damped on them.
When the Romans had fubdued the kings of the Bri¬
tons, they alfo fuppreffed their coins, and brought in
their own; which were current here from the time of
Claudius to that of Valentinian the Younger, about
the fpace of 500 years.
Mr Camden obferves, that the moft ancient Engliffi
coin he had known was that of Ethelbert kingot Kent,
the firft Chriftian king in the ifland; in whole time all
money accounts begin to pafs by the names of pounds,
/hillings, pence, and tnancufes. Pence fee ms borrowed
from the Latin pecunia, or rather from pendo, on ac¬
count of its juft weight, which was about threepence
of our money. Thefe were coarfely damped with the
king’s image on the one fide, and either the mint-
mafter’s, or the city’s where it was coined, on the
other. Five of thefe pence made theii fchilling, pro¬
bably fo called from feilingus, which the Romans ufed
for the fourth part of an ounce. Forty of thefe fchil-
lings made their pound; and 400 of thefe pounds were
a legacy, or portion for a king’s daughter, as appears
by the iaft will of King Alfred. By thefe names they
tranflated all fums of money in their Old Englilh tefta-
ment ; talents by pundes } Judas’s thirty pieces of filver
by thirtig fcillinga ; tribute money, by pennining ; the
mite by feorthlmg.
But it muft be obferved, they had no other real mo¬
ney, but pence only ; the reft being imaginary moneys,
i. e. names of numbers or weights. Thirty of thefe
pence made a mancus, which fome take to be the lame
with a mark : manca, as appears by an old MS. ivas
quinta pars unene. Thefe mancas or maneufes w’ere
reckoned both in gold and filver. For in the year 680
we read that Ina king of the Wed Saxons obliged the
Kentiihmen to buy their peace at the price of 30,000
mancas of gold. In the notes on King Canute’s laws,
we find this diftinclion, that mancufa was as much as
a mark of filver, and manca, a fquare piece of gold,
valued at 30 pence.
The Danes introduced a way of reckoning money
by ores, per oras, mentioned in Domefday book; but
whether they were a feveral coin, or a certain fum,
does not plainly appear. This, however, may be ga¬
thered from the Abbey book of Burton, that 20 ores
were equivalent to two marks. 1 hey had alfo a gold
coin called byzantine, or bezant, as being coined at
Conftantinople, then called Byzantium. The value of
wrhich coin is not only now loft, but was fo entirely
forgot even in the time of King Edward III. that
whereas the biffiop of Norwich was fined a byzantine
of gold to be paid the abbot of St Edmund’s Bury
for infringing his liberties (as it had been enabled by-
parliament in the time of the Conqueror), no man then
living could tell how much it was ; fo it was referred
to the king to rate how much he (hould pay.. Which
is the more unaccountable, becaufe but 100 years be¬
fore, 200,000 bezants were exa6led by the foldan for
the ranfom of St Louis of France : which were then
valued at 100,000 livres.
Though the coining of money be a fpecial preroga¬
tive of the king, yet the ancient Saxon princes com¬
municated it to their fubjetts ; infomuch that in every
good town there was at leaft one mint; but at Lon¬
don.
TvJoney.
MON [31
don eight; at Canterbury four for the king, two for
the archbiihop, one for the abbot at Winchefter, fix at
Rochefter, at Haftings two, &c.
The Norman kings continued the fame cuflom of
coining only pence, with the prince’s image on one
fide, and on the other the name of the city where it
Avas coined, with a crofs fo deeply impreffed, that it
might be eafily parted and broke into two halves, which,
fo broken, they called halfpence; or into four parts,
Avhich they called fourthings or farthings.
In the time of King Richard I. money coined in the
call: parts of Germany came in fpecial requefl in Eng¬
land on account of its purity, and was called eaferling
money, as all the inhabitants of thofe parts were called
Eaferlings. And fhortly after, fome of thofe people
fkilled in coining Avere fent for hither, to bring the coin
to perfection 5 Avhich fmce has been calledJlerling for
Eaferling. See STERLING.
King EdAvard I, who firit adjufled the meafure of
an ell by the length of his arm, herein imitating Charles
the Great, Avas the firft alio avIio ellablilhed a certain
llandard for the coin, Avhich is expreiTed to this eft'eft
by Greg. Rockley, mayor of London, and mint-ma¬
iler.—“ A pound of money containeth twelve ounces :
in a pound there ought to be eleven ounces, two ealt-
erlings, and one farthing j the reft alloy. The laid
pound ought to Aveigh tAventy fhillings and three pence
in account and weight. The ounce ought to weigh
twenty pence, and a penny tAventy-four grains and a
half. Note, That eleven ounces two pence llerling
ought to be of pure lilver, called leaffiver; and the
minter mult add of other Aveight feventeen pence half¬
penny farthing, if the lilver be fo pure.”
About the year 13 20, the Rates of Europe firR be¬
gan to coin gold } and among the reR, our King Ed¬
Avard III. The lirR pieces he coined were calledflo-
rences, as being coined by Florentines : aftenvards he
coined nobles j then rofe-nobles, current at 6s. 8d.
half nobles called half pennies, at 3s. qd. of gold } and
quarters at 2od. called farthings of gold. The fucceed-
ing kings coined rofe-nobles, and double rofe-nobles,
great fovereigns, and half Henry nobles, angels, and
Railings.
King James I. coined units, double croAvns, Britain
croAvns : then croAvns, half-croAvns, &c.
2. Comparative value of Money and Commodities at
different periods. The Englilh money, though the fame
names do by no means correfpond Avith the fame quan¬
tity of precious metal as formerly, has not changed fo
much as the money of moR other countries. From the
time of William the Conqueror, the proportion betAveen
the pound, the Railing, and the penny, feems to have
been uniformly the fame as at prefent.
Edrvard III. as already mentioned, was the firR of
our kings that coined any gold j and no copper Avas
coined by authority before James I. Thefe pieces
Avere not called farthings, but farthing tokens, and all
people were at liberty to take or refufe them. Before
the time of Edward III. gold Avas exchanged, like
any other commodity, by its Aveight ; and before the
time of James I. copper Avas Ramped by any one perfon
Avho chofe to do it.
In the year *712 and 727, a ewe and lamb were
rated at is. Saxon money till a fortnight after EaRer.
Between the years 900 and 1000, ttvo hydes of land,
2 ] MON
each containing about 120 acres, were fold for lOO Money,
drillings. In 1000, by King Ethelred’s laws, a horfe v—
Avas rated at 30s. a mare or a colt of a year old, at 20s.
a mule or young afs, at 12s. an ox at 30s. a coav at
24s. a twine at 8d. a theep at is. In 1043, a quarter
of Avheat Avas told for 6od. Hence it is computed,
that in the Saxon times there was ten times lefs money,
in proportion to commodities, than at prefent. Their
nominal fpecie, therefore, being about three times high¬
er than ours, the price of every thing, according to our
prefent language, muR be reckoned thirty times cheaper
than it is now7.
In the reign of William the Conqueror, commodi¬
ties were ten times cheaper than they are at prefent ^
from Avhich Ave cannot help forming a very high idea
of the Avealth and power of that king : for his revenue
Aras 400,000!. per annum, every pound being equal
to that Aveight of filver, confequently the Avhole may
be eRimated at 1,200,000!. of the prefent computa¬
tion ; a fum which, confidering the different value of
money betAveen that period and the prefent, Avas equi¬
valent to 12,ooo,oool. of modern eflimation.
The moR neceffary commodities do not feem to
have advanced their price from William the Conqueror
to Richard I.
The price of corn in the reign of Henry III. Avas
near half the mean price in our times. Bifliop Fleet-
Avood has fliOAvn, that in the year 1240, Avhich Avas in
this reign, 4I. 13s. gd. AA'as worth about 50I. of our pre¬
fent money. About the latter end of this reign, Robert
de Hay, reftor of Souldern, agreed to receive 100s. to
purchafe to himfelf and fucceffor the annual rents of 5s.
in full compenfation of an acre of corn.
Butchers meat, in the time of the great fearcity in
the reign of Edivard II. Avas, by a parliamentary or¬
dinance, fold three times cheaper than our mean price
at prefent; poultry fomeAvhat loAver, becaufe being noAV
confidered as a delicacy, it has rifen beyond its pro¬
portion. The mean price of corn at this period Ava&
half the prefent value, and the mean price of cattle one-
eighth.
In the next reign, which Avas that of Edward III.
the moR neceffary commodities Avere in general about
three or four times cheaper than they are at prefent.
In thefe times, knights, avIio ferved on horfeback
in the army, had 2s. a-day, and a foot archer 6d.
Avhich laR Avould now be equal to a croAvn a-day.
This pay has continued nearly the fame nominally
(only that in the time of the commonwealth the pay
of the horfe Avas advanced to 2s. 6d. and that of the
foot is. though it Avas reduced again at the Reflora-
tion), but foldiers Avere proportionably of a better rank
formerly.
In the time of Henry VI. corn Avas about half its
prefent value, other commodities much cheaper. Bi-
ffiop Fleetwood has determined, from a mofl accurate
confideration of every circumflance, that 3I. in this
reign Avas equivalent to 28I. or 30I. iaoav.
In the time of Henry VII. many commodities
Avere three times as cheap here, and in all Europe,
as they are at prefent, there having been a great in-
creafe of gold and filver in Europe fince his time occa-
fioned by the discovery of America.
The commodities whofe price has rifen the moR
fince before the time of Henry VII. are butchers meat,
foAVls,
MON [ 3-
Money, fowls, and fifli, efpecially the latter. . And the reafon
•—v-*—' why corn was always much dearer in proportion to
other eatables, according to their prices at prefent, is,
that in early times agriculture was little underftood.
It required more labour and expence, and was more
precarious than it is at prefent. Indeed, notwith-
ftanding the high price of corn in the times we are
fpeaking of, the raifmg of it fo little anfwered the ex-
pence, that agriculture was almoft univerfally quitted
for grazing } which was more profitable, notwithftand-
ing the low price of butchers meat. So that there was
contlant occafion for ftatutes to reftrain grazing, and to
promote agriculture j and no effectual remedy was found
till the bounty upon the exportation of corn ; fince
whir' ^fibove ten times more corn has been raifed in
this country than before.
The price of corn in the time of James I. and con-
fequently that of other neceffaries of life, ivas not
lower, but rather higher, than at prefent : wool is not
two-thirds of the value it was then ; the finer manu¬
factures having funk in price by the progrefs of art
and induftry, notwithftanding the increafe of money.
Butchers meat was higher than at prefent. Prince
Henry made an allowance of near qd. per pound for
all the beef and mutton ufed in his family. This may
be true with refpect to London ; but the price of
butchers meat in the country, which does not even
now much exceed this price at a medium, has certainly
greatly increafed of late years, and particularly in the
northern counties.
The prices of commodities are higher in England
than in France •, befides that the poor people of Fiance
live upon much lefs than the poor in England, and
their armies are maintained at lefs expence. It is
computed by Mr Hume, that a Britifh army of 20,000
men is maintained at near as great an expence as
60,000 in France, and that the Englilh fleet, in the
war of 1741, required as much money to fupport it
as all the Roman legions in the time of the emperors.
However, all that we can conclude from this is, that
money is much more plentiful in Europe at prefent
than it was in the Roman empire.
In the 13th century, the common interefi: which the
Jews had for their money, Voltaire fays, was 20 per
cent. But with regard to this, we mufl: confider the
great contempt that nation was always held in, the
large contributions they were frequently obliged to
pay, the rifle they ran of never receiving the princi¬
pal, the frequent confifcations of all their effects, and
the violent perfecutions to which they ivere expofed ;
in which eircumftances it was impoflible for them to
lend money at all, unlefs for moft extravagant intereft,
and much difproportioned to its real value. Before
the difeovery of America, and the plantation of our
colonies, the interefl: of money was generally 12 per
cent, all over Europe ; and it has been groAving gra¬
dually lefs fince that time, till it is now generally about
four or five.
When fums of money are faid to be raifed by a
whole people, in order to form a juft eftimate of it,
wre muft take into confideration not only the quantity
of the precious metal according to the ftandard of the
coin, and the proportion of the quantity of coin to
the commodities, but alfo the number and riches of
the people who raife it 5 for populous and rich coun-
Vou £IV. Part I.
3 ] MON
tries will much more eafily raife any certain fum of
money than one that is thinly inhabited, and chiefly
by poor people. This circumftance greatly adds to
our furprife at the vaft fums of money raifed by Wil¬
liam the Conqueror, who had a revenue nearly in value
equal to I 2,000,000l. of our money (allowance being
made for the ftandard of coin and the proportion it
bore to the commodities), from a country not near fo
populous or rich as England is at prefent. Indeed,
the accounts hiftorians give us of the revenues of this
prince, and the treafure he left behind him, are barely
credible.
II. IMAGINARY Money, or Money of Account, is that
which has never exifted, or at leaft which does not
exift in real fpecie, but is a denomination invented or
retained to facilitate the ftating of accounts, by keep¬
ing them ftill on a fixed footing, not to be changed,
like current coins, which the authority of the fovereign
raifes or lowers according to the exigencies of the ftate.
Of which kind are pounds, livres, marks, maravedies,
&c. See the annexed Table, where the fi&itious mo¬
ney is diftinguhhed by a dagger (f).
Moneys of Account among the Ancients.—1. The Gre-
cianvreckoned their fums of money by drachma, mince,
and talenta. The drachma was equal to 7^. fterling j
100 drachma; made the rnina, equal to 3I. 4s. 7d. fter¬
ling ; 60 minae made the talent, equal to 193I. 13s.
fterling j hence ICO talents amounted to 19,375!. fter¬
ling. The mina and talentum, indeed, were different in
different provinces: their proportions in Attic drachms
are as follow : The Syrian mina contained 25 Attic
drachms ; the Ptolemaic 33-j- j the Antiochic and Eu-
boean 100 ; the Babylonic 116 *, the greater Attic and
Tyrian 133^5 the ALginean and Rhodian i664- The
Syrian talent contained 15 Attic minae ; the Ptolemaic
20 *, the Antiochic 60 ; the Euboean 60 ; the Babylo¬
nic 70 ; the greater Attic and Tyrian 80 j the dEgl-
nean and Rhodian 100.
2. Roman moneys of account rvere the fefertius and
fefertium. The feftertius was equal to id. 3|-q. fter¬
ling. One thoufand of thefe made the feftertium,
equal to 81. is. 3d. 2q. fterling. One thoufand of
thefe feftertia made the decies feftertium (the adverb
centies being always underftood) equal to 8072I. 18s. qd.
fterling. The decies feftertium they alfo called decies
center a miiha numtnum. Centies feftertium, or centies
HS, were equal to 80,729!. 3s. qd. Millies HS to
807,291!. 13s. qd. Millies centies HS to 888,0201.
16s. 8d.
Theory of Money.
I. Of Artificial or Material Money.
I. As far back as our accounts of the tranfadlions
of mankind reach, we find they had adopted the pre¬
cious metals, that is, filver and gold, as the common
meafure of value, and as the adequate equivalent for
every thing alienable.
The metals are admirably adapted for this purpofe :
they are perfe&ly homogeneous: when pure, their
maffes, or bulks, are exa&ly in proportion to their
weights j no phyfical difference can be found between
two pounds of gold, or filver, let them be the produc¬
tion of the mines of Europe, Afia, Africa, or Ame¬
rica : they are perfeftly malleable, fufible, and fuffer
R r the
Money.
Money.
MON r 51
tlie mod exa& divilion which human art is capable to
give them : they are capable of being mixed with one
another, as well as with metals of a bafer, that is, of
a lefs homogeneous nature, fuch as copper : by this
mixture they fpread themfelves uniformly through
the whole mafs of the compofed lump, fo that every
atom of it becomes proportionally poffefled of a {hare
of this noble mixture ; by which means the fubdi-
vifion of the precious metals is rendered very exten-
five.
Their phyfical qualities are invariable : they lofe no¬
thing by keeping ; they are folid and durable ; and
though their parts are feparated by fri&ion, like every
other thing, yet ftill they are of the number of thofe
which fuffer lead by it.
If money, therefore, can be made of any thing, that
is, if the proportional value of things vendible can be
meafured by any thing material, it may be meafured by
the metals.
II. The two metals being pitched upon as the mod
proper fubftances for realizing the ideal fcale of money,
thofe who undertake the operation of adjufting a ftand-
ard, mull condantly keep in their eye the nature and
qualities of a fcale, as well as the principles upon which
it is formed.
The unit of the fcale mud condantly be the fame,
although realized in the metals, or the whole operation
fails in the mod eflential part. This realizing the unit
is like adjuding a pair of compafles to a geometrical
fcale, where the fmalled deviation from the exact open¬
ing once given mud occafion an incorrect meafure. The
metals, therefore, arc to money what a pair of compafles
is to a geometrical fcale.
This operation of adjufling the metals to the money
of account implies an exact and determinate propor¬
tion of both metals to the money unit, realized in all
the fpecies and denominations of coin, adjuded to that
dandard.
The fmalled particle of either metal added to, or
taken away from, any coins, which reprefent certain
determinate parts of the fcale, overturns the whole
fydem of material money. And if, notwithdanding
fuch variation, thefe coins continue to bear the fame
denominations as before, this will as effectually dc-
droy their ufefulnefs in meafuring the value of things,
as it would overturn the ufefulnefs of a pair of com-
paffes, to differ the opening to vary, after it is adjud¬
ed to the fcale reprefenting feet, toifes, miles, or leagues,
by which the diilances upon the plan are to be mea¬
fured.
III. Debadng the dandard is a good term, be-
eaufe it conveys a clear and didindt idea. It is dimi-
nilhing the weight of the pure metal contained in
that denomination bv which a nation reckons, and
which we have called the money unit. Railing the dand¬
ard requires no farther definition, being the diredt con¬
trary.
IV. Altering the dandard (that is, raifing or debaf-
ing the value of the money unit) is like altering the
national meafures or weights. This is bed difeovered
by comparing the thing altered with things of the
fame nature which have differed no alteration. Thus,
if the foot of meafure was altered at once over all Eng¬
land, by adding to it, or taking from it. any proper-
4 1 MON
tional part of its dandard length, the alteration would Meney.
be bed difeovered by comparing the new foot with'” v—
that of Paris, or ot any other country, which had dif¬
fered no alteration. Jud fo, if the pound dcrling,
which is the Englidi unit, Ihall be found anyhow
changed, and if the variation it has met with be diffi¬
cult to afeertain becaufe of a complication of circum-
dances, the bed way to difeover it, will be to compare
the former and the prefent value of it with the money
of other nations which lias differed no variation. This
the courfe of exchange will perform with the greated
exactnefs.
V. Artids pretend, that the precious metals, when
abfolutely pure from any mixture, are not of fufficient
hardnefs to conditute a folid and lading coidf They
are found alfo in the mines mixed with other metals of
a bafer nature ; and the bringing them to a date of
perfect purity occadons an unneceffary expence. To
avoid, therefore, the inconvenience of employing them
in all their purity, people have adopted the expedient
of mixing them with a determinate proportion of other
metals, which hurts neither their fudbility, malleabili¬
ty, beauty, nor ludre. This metal is called alloy : and,
being confidered only as a fupport to the principal me¬
tal, is accounted of no value in itfelf. So that eleven
ounces of gold, when mixed with one ounce of diver,
acquires by that addition no augmentation of value
whatever.
I his being the cafe, we {hall, as much as poffible,
overlook the exidence of alloy, in fpeaking of money,
in order to render language lefs fubjeft to ambiguity.
2. Incapacities of the Metals to perform the Office of an
invariable Meafure of Value.
I. Were there but one fpecies of fuch a fubdance as
we have reprefented gold and diver to be ; were there
but one metal poffeffimg the qualities of purity, divid-
bility, and durability ; the inconveniences in the ufe of
it for money would be fewer by far than they are found
to be as matters dand.
Such a metal might then, by an unlimited dividon
into parts exactly equal, be made to ferve as a toler¬
ably deady and univerfal meafure. But the rivalfliip
between the metals, and the perfeft equality which is
found between all their phydeal qualities, fo far as
regards purity and dividbility, render them fo equally
well adapted to ferve as the common mcafure of value,
that they are univerfally admitted to pafs current as
money.
What is the confequence of this ? that the one mea¬
fures the value of the other, as Avell as that of every
other thing. Now the moment any meafure begins to
be meafured by another, Avhofe proportion to it is not
phydcally, perpetually, and invariably the fame, all the
ufefulnefs of fuch a meafure is lod. An example Avill
make this plain.
A foot of meafure is a determinate length. An
Engliffi foot may be compared with the Paris foot, or
Avith that of the Rhine ; that is to fay, it may be mea¬
fured by them : and the proportion between their
lengths may be expreffed in numbers, which pro¬
portion Avill be the fame perpetually. The meafur¬
ing the one by the other Avill occadon no uncertain¬
ty j and we may fpeak of length by Paris feet, and
be
Money.
MON [31
be perfectly well underftood by others who arc ufed
to meafure by the Englilh foot, or by the foot of the
Rhine.
But fuppofe that a youth of 12 years old takes it
into his head to meafure from time to time, as he ad¬
vances in age, by the length of his own foot, and that
he divides this growing foot into inches and decimals:
what can be learned from his account of meafures ? As
he inereafes in years, his foot, inches, and fubdivifions,
will be gradually lengthening ; and were every man to
follow his example, and meafure by his own foot, then
the foot of a meafure now ellablilhed would totally ceafe
to be of any utility.
This is juft the cafe with the two metals. There is
no determinate invariable proportion between their va¬
lue ; and the confequence of this is, that when they are
both taken for meafuring the value of other things,
the things to bo meafured, like lengths to be meafured
by the young man’s foot, without changing their re¬
lative proportion between themfelves, change, however,
with refpeft to the denominations of both their mea¬
fures. An example will make this plain.
Let us fuppofe an ox to be worth 3000 pounds
weight of wheat, and the one and the other to be worth
an ounce of gold, and an ounce of gold to be ■worth ex¬
actly 15 ounces of filver : if the cafe fliould happen,
that the proportional value between gold and filver
fihould come to be as 14 is to 1, would not the ox, and
confequently the wheat, be eftimated at lefs in filver,
and more in gold, than formerly ? Farther, Would it be
in the power of any ftate to prevent this variation in
the meafure of the value of oxen and -wheat, without
putting into the unit of their money lefs filver and more
gold than formerly* ?
If therefore any particular ftate Ihould fix the ftand-
ard of the unit of their money to one fpecies of the
metals, while in faft both the one and the other are
aflually employed in meafuring value •, does not fuch
a ftate refemble the young man who meafures all by
his growing foot ? For if filver, for example, be re¬
tained as the ftandard, while it is gaining upon gold
one-fifteenth additional value ; and if gold continue
all the while to determine the value of things as well
as filver ; it is plain, that, to all intents and purpofes,
this filver meafure is lengthening daily like the young
man’s foot, fince the fame weight of it muft become
every day equivalent to more and more of the fame
commodity 5 notwithftanding that we fuppofe the fame,
proportion to fubfift, without the leaft variation, between
that commodity and every other fpecies of things alien¬
able.
Buying and felling are purely conventional, and no
man is obliged to give his merchandife at what may
be fuppofed to be the proportion of its worth. The
ufe, therefore, of an univerfal meafure, is to mark, not
only the relative value of the things to which it is ap¬
plied as a meafure, but to difeover in an inftant the
proportion between the value of thofe, and of every
other commodity valued by a determinate meafure in
all the countries of the world.
Were pounds fterling, livres, florins, piaftres, &c.
which are all money of account, invariable in their
values, what a facility would it produce in all con-
verfions ! what an afliftance to trade ! But as they are
all limited or fixed to coins, and confequently vary from
5 1 MON
time to time, this example fhow's the utility of the in¬
variable meafure which we have deferibed.
There is another circumftance which incapacitates
the metals from performing the office of money 5 the
fubftance of which the coin is made, is a commodity
which rifes and finks in its value with refpedft to other
commodities, according to the wants, competition, and
caprices of mankind. The advantage, therefore, found
in putting an intrinfic value into that fubftance which
performs the function of money of account, is compen-
fated by the inftability of that intrinfic value j and the
advantage obtained by the liability of paper, or fym-
bolical money, is compenfated by the defied it common-
ly has of not being at all times fufceptiblfc of realization
into folid property or intrinfic value.
In order, therefore, to render material money more
perfed, this quality of metal, that is, of a commodity,
fhould be taken from it j and in order to render paper
money more perfed, it ought to be made to circulate
upon metallic or land fecurity.
II. There are feveral fmaller inconveniences accom¬
panying the ufe of the metals, which we ftiall here Ihort-
ly enumerate.
imo, No money made of gold or filver can circulate
long, without lofing its weight, although it all along
preferves the fame denomination. This reprefents the
contrading a pair of compafles which had been rightly
adjufted to the feale.
2(/o, Another inconvenience proceeds from the fa¬
brication of money. Suppofing the faith of princes
who coin money to be inviolable, and the probity as
■well as capacity of thofe to whom they commit the in-
fpedion of the bufinefs of the metals to be fufficicnt, it
is hardly poftible for workmen to render every piece
exadly of a proper weight, or to preferve the due
proportion between pieces of different denominations,
that is to fay, to make every ten fixpences exadly of
the fame weight with every crown piece and every five
fhillings ftruek in a coinage. In proportion to fuch in¬
accuracies, the parts of the fcale become unequal.
3//0, Another inconvenience, and far from being
inconfiderable, flows from the expence requifite for
the coining of money. This expence adds to its va¬
lue as a manufadure, without adding any thing to its
weight.
4/0, The laft inconvenience is, that by fixing the
money of account entirely to the coin, without having
any independent common meafure, (to mark and con-
troul thefe deviations from mathematical exadnefs,
which are either infeparable from the metals them¬
felves, or from the fabrication of them), the whole
mcafure of value, and all the relative interefts of debt¬
ors and creditors, become at the difpofal not only of
workmen in the mint, of Jews who deal in money, of
clippers and wafhers in coin } but they are alfo entire¬
ly at the mercy of princes who have the right of
coinage, and who have frequently alfo the right of
raifing or debafing the ftandard of the coin, according
as they find it moft for their prefent and temporary
intereft.
Money.
3. Methods which may he propofed for lejfenmg the fe¬
deral Inconveniences to which Material Money is li¬
able.
The inconveniences from the variation in the relative
R r 2 valu&
MON [3
Money, value of the metals to one another, may in fome mea-
fure be obviated by the following expedients.
I wo, By confidering one only as the ftandard, and
leaving the other to feek its own value like any other
commodity.
ido, By confidering one only as the flandard, and
fixing the value of the other from time to time by au¬
thority, according as the market price of the metals
fhall vary.
3/zo, By fixing the ftandard of the unit according
to the mean proportion of the metals, attaching it to
neither j regulating the coin accordingly j and upon
every confiderable variation in the proportion between
them, either to make a new coinage, or to raife the
denomination of one of the fpecies, and lower it in the
other, in order to preferve the unit exactly in the mean
proportion between the gold and filver.
4/0, To have two units and two ftandards, one of
gold and one of filver, and to allow every body to fti-
pulate in either.
5/0, Or laft of all, To oblige all debtors to pay one
half in gold, and one half in the filver ftandard.
4. Variations to which the Value of the Money unit is
expofed from every Diforder in the Coin.
Let us fuppofe, at prefent, the only diforder to con-
fift in a want of the due proportion between the gold
and filver in the coin.
This proportion can only be eftablifhed by the mar¬
ket price of the metals; becaufe an augmentation and
rife in the demand for gold or filver has the effeft of
augmenting the value of the metal demanded. Let us
fuppofe, that to-day one pound of gold may buy fif¬
teen pounds of filver : If to-morrow there be a high
demand for filver, a competition among merchants to
have filver for gold will enfue : they will contend who
Ihall get the filver at the rate of 15 pounds for one of
gold : this will raife the price of it j and in propor¬
tion to their views of profit, fome will accept of lefs
than the 15 pounds. This is plainly a rife in the
filver, more properly than a fall in the gold ; becaufe
it is the competition for the filver which has occafion-
cd the variation in the former proportion between the
metals.
Let us now fuppofe, that a ftate, having with great
exa61nefs examined the proportion of the metals in the
market, and having determined the precife quantity of
each for realizing or reprefenting the money unit,
fhall execute a moft exadt coinage of gold and filver
coin. As long as that proportion continues unvaried
in the market, no inconvenience can refult from that
quarter in making ufe of metals for money of ac¬
count.
But let us fuppofe the proportion to change ; that the
filver, for example, {hall rife in its value with regard to
gold : will it not follow, from that moment, that the
unit realized in the filver, will become of more value
than the unit realized in the gold coin ?
But as the law has ordered them to pafs as equiva¬
lents for one another, and as debtors have always the
option of paying in what legal coin they think fit,
will they not all choofe to pay in gold } and will not
then the filver coin be melted doAvn or exported, in
order to be fold as bullion, above the value it bears
when it circulates in coin ? Will not this paying in
6 ] MON
gold alfo really diminifir the value of the money unit, Money,
fince upon this variation every thing muft fell for morey—■
gold than before, as we have already obferved.
Confequently, merchandifes, which have not varied
in their relative value to any other thing but to gold
and filver, muft be meafured by the mean proportion
of the metals : and the application of any other meafure
to them is altering the ftandard. If they are meafured
by the gold, the ftandard is debafed } if by filver, it is
raifed.
If, to prevent the inconvenience of melting dorvn
the filver, the ftate ftiall give up affixing the value of
their unit to both fpecies at once, and flrall fix it to
one, leaving the other to feek its price as any other
commodity ; in that cafe, no doubt, the melting down
of the coin will be prevented j but will this ever re-
ftore the value of the money unit to its former ftand¬
ard ? Would it, for example, in the foregoing fup-
pofition, raife the debafed value of the money unit in
the gold coin, if that fpecies were declared to be the
ftandard ? It W’ould, indeed, render filver coin purely a
merchandife, and, by allowing it to feek its value,
would certainly prevent it from being melted down as
before } becaufe the pieces would rife conventionally in
their denomination 5 or an agio, as it is’ called, would
be taken in payments made in filver; but the gold
would not, on that account, rife in its value, or be¬
gin to purchafe any more merchandife than before.
Were therefore the ftandard fixed to the gold, would
not this be an arbitrary and a violent revolution in the
value of the money unit, and a debafement of the ftand¬
ard ?
If, on the other hand, the ftate fliould fix the ftand¬
ard to the filver, which we fuppofe to have rifen in its
value, would that ever fink the advanced value which
the filver coin had gained above the w^orth of the form¬
er ftandard unit ? and would not this be a violent and
an arbitrary revolution in the value of the money unit,
and a railing of the ftandard ?
The only expedient, therefore, is, in fuch a cafe, to
fix the numerary unit to neither of the metals, but to
contrive a way to make it fiu<ftuate in a mean propor¬
tion between them ; which is in effedl the introdudlion
of a pure ideal money of account.
The regulation of fixing the unit by the mean pro¬
portion, ought to take place at the inftant the fland¬
ard unit is fixed with exaftnefs both to the gold and
filver. If it be introduced long after the market pro¬
portion betAveen the metals has deviated from the pro¬
portion eftablifhed in the coin •, and if the ucav regula¬
tion is made to have a retrofpeft, Avith regard to the
acquitting of permanent contrafts entered into Avhile
the value of the money unit had attached itfelf to the
loAveft currency in confequence of the principle above
laid doAvn 5 then the reftoring the money unit to that
ftandard where it ought to have remained (to wit, to
the mean proportion) is an injury to all debtors, who
have contrafted fince the time that the proportion of
the metals began to A^ary.
This is clear from the former reafoning. The mo¬
ment the market price of the metals differs from that
in the coin, eArery one who has payments to make,
pays in that fpecies which is the higheft rated in the
coin ; confequently, he Avho lends, lends in that fpe¬
cies. If after the contrail, therefore, the unit is car¬
ried
MON [ 3i7 1 MON
Money, ried up to the mean proportion, this muft be a lofs to
'“"''"v ' him who had borrowed.
From this we may perceive, why there is lefs incon¬
venience from the varying of the proportion of the
metals, where the ftandard is fixed to one of them,
than when it is fixed to both. In the firft cafe, it is at
leaft uncertain whether the ftandard or the merchan-
dife fpecies is to rife j confequently, it is uncertain
whether the debtors or the creditors are to gain by a
variation. If the ftandard fpecies ftrould rife, the
creditors will gain •, if the merchandife fpecies rifes,
the debtors will gain } but when the unit is attached
to both fpecies, then the creditors never can gain, let
the metals vary as they will; if filver rifes, then
debtors will pay in gold} if gold rifes, the debtors
will pay in filver. But whether the unit be attached
to one or to both fpecies, the infallible confequence of
a variation is, that one half of the difference is either
gained or loft by debtors and creditors. The invari¬
able unit is conftantly the mean proportional between
the two meafures.
5. How the Variations of the intrinfic value of the Unit
of Money mujl ajfett all the domejlic Interejls of a
Nation.
If the changing the content of the bufliel by which
grain is meafured, would a ft eft the intereft of thofe
who are obliged to pay, or who are entitled to receive,
a certain number of buftiels of grain for the rent of
lands j in the fame manner muft every variation in the
value of the unit of account affeft all perfons who, in
permanent contrafts, are obliged to make payments,
or who are obliged to receive fums of money fti-
pulated in multiples or in fraftions of that money
unit.
Every variation, therefore, upon the intrinfic value
of the money unit, has the effeft of benefiting the
clafs of creditors at the expence of debtors, or vice
verfa.
This confequence is deduced from an obvious prin¬
ciple. Money is more or lefs valuable in proportion
as it can purchafe more or lefs of every kind of
merchandife. Now, without entering anew into the
caufes of the rife and fall of prices, it is agreed upon
all hands, that whether an augmentation of the gene¬
ral mafs of money in circulation has the effeft of raifing
prices in general or not, any augmentation of the quan¬
tity of the metals appointed to be put into the money
unit, muft at leaft affeft the value of that money unit,
and make it purchafe more of any commodity than be¬
fore : that is to fay, 113 grains of fine gold, the prefent
weight of a pound fterling in gold, can buy 113 pounds
of flour ; were the pound fterling raifed to 114 grains
of the fame metal, it would buy 114 pounds of flour ;
confequently, were the pound fterling augmented by
one grain of gold, every miller who paid a rent of ten
pounds a-year, would be obliged to fell 1140 pounds of
his flour, in order to procure ten pounds to pay his rent,
in place of 1130 pounds of flour, which he fold former¬
ly to procure the fame fum \ confequently, by this in¬
novation, the miller muft lofe yearly ten pounds of
flour, which his mafter confequently muft gain. From
this example, it is plain, th-at every augmentation of
metals put into the pound fterling, either of filver «r Money,
gold, muft imply an advantage to the whole clafs of
creditors who are paid in pounds fterling, and confe¬
quently muft be a proportional lofs to all debtors who
muft pay by the fame denomination.
6. Of the Difordcrin the Britifj Coin,fo far as it occa-
ftons the melting down or the exporting of the Specie.
The defefts in the Britifh coin are three.
1 two, The proportion between the gold and filver in
it is found to be as 1 to iJtV* ‘whereas the market
price may be fuppofed to be nearly as 1 to 14
ido. Great part of the current money is worn and
light.
3/fo, From the fecond defeft proceeds the third, to
wit, that there are feveral currencies in circulation
which pafs for the fame value, without being of the
fame weight.
4/0, From all thefe defefts refults the laft and
greateft inconvenience, to wit, that fome innovation
muft be made, in order to fet matters on a right foot-
mS-
The Engliftt, befides the unit of their money which
they call the pound fterling, have alfo the unit of their
weight for weighing the precious metals.
This is called the pound troy, and confifts of 12
ounces, every ounce of 20 pennyweights, and every
pennyweight of 24 grains. The pound troy, there¬
fore, confifts of 240 pennyweights and 5760 grains.
The finenefs of the filver is reckoned by the number
of ounces and pennyweights of the pure metal in the
pound troy of the compofed mafs j or, in other words,
the pound troy, which contains 5760 grains of Hand
ard filver, contains 5328 grains of fine filver, and 432
grains of copper, called alloy.
Thus ftandard filver is 11 ounces 2 pennyweights of
fine filver in the pound troy to 18 pennyweights copper,
or 111 parts fine filver to nine parts alloy.
Standard gold is 11 ounces fine to I ounce filver or
copper employed for alloy, which together make the
pound troy ; confequently, the pound troy of ftandard
gold contains 5280 grains fine, and 480 grains alloy,
which alloy is reckoned of no value.
This pound of ftandard filver is ordered, by ftatute
of the 43d of Elizabeth, to be coined into 62 ihillings,
20 of which make the pound fterling; confequently,
the 20 (hillings contain 1718.7 grains of fine filver, and
1858.06 ftandard filver.
The pound troy of ftandard gold, 44 fine, is order¬
ed, by an aft of Kirtg Charles II. to be cut into 444-
guineas : that is to fay, every guinea contains 1 29.43
grains of ftandard gold, and 118.644 ^ne g°Id J
and the pound fterling, which is -Jt °f the guinea,
contains 112.994, which we may ftate at 113 grains of
fine gold.
The coinage in England is entirely defrayed at the
expence of the ftate. The mint price for the metals is
the very fame with the price of the coin. Whoever
carries to the mint an ounce of ftandard filver, receives
for it in filver coin 5s. 2d. or 62d. : whoever carries an
ounce of ftandard gold receives in gold coin 31.17s. lo^d.
the one and the other making exaftly an ounce of the
fame finenefs with the bullion. Coin, therefore, can
have
MON [3
Money, have no value in the market above bullion j confe-
quently, no lofs can be incurred by thofe who melt it
down.
When the guinea was firft ftruck, the government
(not inclining to fix the pound tlerling to the gold
coin of the nation) fixed the guinea at 20 (hillings,
(which was then below its proportion to the filver),
leaving it to feek its own price above that value, ac¬
cording to the courfe of the market.
Ey this regulation no harm was done to the Englifh
filver itandard j becaufe the guinea, or 118.644 grains
fine gold, being worth more, at that time, than 20
(hillings, or 1718.7 grains fine filver, no debtor would
pay with gold at its ftandard value } and whatever it
was received for above that price was purely conven¬
tional.
Accordingly guineas fought their own price until
the year 1728, that they were fixed a-new, not below
their value as at firlf, but at what was then reckoned
their exa£l value, according to the proportion of the
metals, viz. at 21 (hillings ; and at this they were or¬
dered to pafs current in all payments.
This operation had the effert of making the gold a
(landard as well as the filver. Debtors then paid in¬
differently in gold as -well as in filver, becaufe both
were fuppoled to be of the fame intrinfic as well as
current value j in which cafe no inconvenience could
follow upon this regulation. But in time filver came
to be more demanded j the making of plate began to
prevail more than formerly, and the exportation of fil¬
ver to the Eaft Indies increafing yearly, made the de¬
mand for it greater, or perhaps brought its quantity
to be proportionally lefs than before. This changed
the proportion of the metals j and by flow degrees they
have come from that of 1 to 15.2 (the proportion they
were fuppoied to have when the guineas were fixed and
made a lawful money at 21 (hillings) to that of 14.5,
the prefent fuppofed proportion.
The confequence of this has been, that the fame gui¬
nea which was wmrth 1804.6 grains fine filver, at the
time it was fixed at 21s. is now worth no more than
1719.9 grains of fine filver according to the proportion
of 144 to 1.
Confequently debtors, wbo have always the option of
the legal fpecies in paying their debts, will pay pounds
fterling no more in filver but in gold ; and as the gold
pounds they pay in are not intrinfically worth the filver
pounds they paid in formerly according to the fta-
tute of Elizabeth, it follows that the pound fterling
in filver is really no more the ftandard, fince nobody
will pay at that rate, and fince nobody can be compel¬
led to do it.
Befides this want of proportion betwTeen the metals,
the filver coined before the reign of George I. is now
become light by circulation ; and the guineas coined
by all the princes fince Charles II. pafs by tale, though
many of them are confiderably diminifhed in their
Weight.
Let us now examine what profit the want of propor¬
tion and the want of weight in the coin can afford to the
money-jobbers in melting it down or exporting it.
Did every body confider coin only as the meafure for
reckoning value, without attending to its value as a me¬
tal, the deviations of gold and filver coin from perfeft
18 ] MON
exa&nefs, either as to proportion or weight, would oc-
cafion little inconvenience.
Great numbers, indeed, in every modern fociety,
confider coin in no other light than that of money of
account j and have great difficulty to comprehend what
difference any one can find between a light (hilling and
a heavy one, qr what inconvenience there can poffibly
refult from a guinea’s being fome grains of fine gold too
light to be worth 21 (hillings ftandard weight. And
did every one think in the fame way, there would be
no occafion for coin of the precious metals at all; lea¬
ther, copper, iron, or paper, would keep the reckon¬
ing as well as gold and filver.
But although there be many who look no farther
than at the (lamp on the coin, there are others whofe
foie bufinefs it is to examine its intrinfic worth as a
commodity, and to profit of every irregularity in the
weight and proportion of metals.
By the very inftitution of coinage, it is implied, that
every piece of the fame metal, and fame denomination
with regard to the money-unit, (hall pafs current for
the (ame value.
It is, therefore, the employment of money-jobbers,
to examine, with a fcrupulous exa&nefs, the precii’e
weight of every piece of coin which comes into their
hands.
The firft obje6l of their attention is, the price of the
metals in the market : a jobber finds, at prefent, that
with 14.5 pounds of fine filver bullion, he can buy one
pound of fine gold bullion.
He therefore buys up with gold coin all the new fil¬
ver as faft as it is coined, of which ha can get at the
rate of 15.2 pounds for one in gold ; thefe 15.2 pounds
filver coin he melts down into bullion, and converts
that back into gold bullion, giving at the rate of only
14.5 pounds for one.
By this operation he remains with the value of T~.
of one pound weight of filver bullion clear profit upon
the 154- pounds he bought j which is really loft by
the man who inadvertently coined filver at the mint,
and gave it to the money-jobber for his gold. Thus
the (late lofes the expence of the coinage, and the pub¬
lic the convenience of change for their guineas.
But here it may be alked, Why (liould the money-
jobber melt down the filver coin ? can he not buy gold
with it as well without melting it down ? He cannot}
becaufe when it is in coin he cannot avail himfelf of its
being new and weighty. Coin goes by tale, not by
weight} therefore, wrere he to come to market with
his new filver coin, gold bullion being fold at the mint
price, we (hall fuppofe, viz. at 3I. 17s. lo-jd. fterling
money per ounce, he would be obliged to pay the price
of what he bought with heavy money, which he can
equally do with light.
He therefore melts down the new filver coin, and
fells it for bullion, at fo many pence an ounce ; the
price of which bullion is, in the Englilh market, al¬
ways above the price of filver at the mint, for the rea-
fons now to be given.
When you fell ftandard filver bullion at the mint,
you are to be paid in weighty money •, that is, you re¬
ceive for your bullion the very fame weight in ftand¬
ard coin } the coinage cods nothing: but when you
fell bullion in the market, you are paid in worn-out
filver,
MON
[ 3
Money- filvcr, in gold, in bank notes, in fhort, in every fpe-
cies of lawful current money. Now all thefe pay¬
ments have fome defeft : the filver you are paid with
is worn and light; the gold you are paid with is over¬
rated, and perhaps alfo light; and the bank notes
muft have the fame value with the fpecie with which
the bank pays them ; that is, with light filver or over¬
rated gold.
It is for thefe reafons, that filver bullion, which is
bought by the mint at 5s. 2d. per ounce of heavy fiver
money, may be bought at market at 65 pence the
ounce in light filver, overrated gold, or bank notes,
which is the fame thing.
Further, We have feen how the impofition of coin¬
age has the efie61 of railing coin above the value of
bullion, by adding a value to it which it had not as a
metal.
Juft fo, when the unit is once affixed to certain de¬
termined quantities of botli metals, if one of the metals
fhould afterwards rife in value in the market, the coin
made of that metal mufi lofe a part of its value as coin,
although it retains it as a metal. Confequently, as in
the firlt cafe it acquired an additional value by being
coined, it muft now acquire an additional value by be¬
ing melted down. From this we may conclude that
when the ftandard is affixed to both the metals in the
coin, and when the proportion of that value is not made
to follow the price of the market, that fpecies which
rifes in the market is melted down, and the bullion is
fold for a price as much exceeding the mint price as the
metal has rifen in its value.
If, therefore, in England, the price of filver bullion
is found to be at 65 pence the ounce, while at the mint
it is rated at 6 2} this proves that filver has rifen
above the proportion obferved in the coin, and that all
coin of ftandard weight may confequently be melted
down with a profit of -^T. But as there are feveral
other circumftances to be attended to which regulate
and influence the price of bullion, we fhall here pafs
them in review, the better to difeover the nature of this
diforder in the Englifh coin, and the advantages which
money-iobbers may draw from it.
The price of bullion, like that of every other mer-
chandife, is regulated by the value of the money it is
paid with.
If bullion, therefore, fells in England for 65 pence
an ounce paid in filver coin, it muft fell for 65 (hillings
the pound troy •, that is to fay, the (hillings it is com¬
monly paid with do not exceed the weight of ^'T of a
pound troy ; for if the 65 fliillings with which the
pound of bullion is paid weigh more than a pound
troy, it will be a fhorter and better way for him who
wants bullion to melt down the (hillings and make ufe
of the metal, than to go to market with them in order
to get lefs.
We may, therefore, be very certain, that no man
will buy filver bullion at 65 pence an ounce, with any
(hilling which weighs above -g7 of a pound troy.
We have gone upon the fuppofition that the ordi¬
nary price of bullion in the Englifh market is 65 pence
per ounce. This has been done upon the authority of
fome late writers on this fubjeift : it is now proper to
point out the caufes which may make it deviate from
that value.
19] MON
I. It may, and certainly will vary, in the price, ac¬
cording as the currency is better or worfe. When
the expence of a war, or a wrong balance of trade,
have carried off a great many heavy guineas, it is natu¬
ral that bullion ftiould rife j becaufe then it will be paid
for more commonly in light gold and filver ; that is to
fay, with pounds fterling, below the value of 113 grains
fine gold, the worth of the pound fterling in new
guineas.
IT. This wrong balance of trade, or a demand for
bullion abroad, becoming very great, may occafion a
fearcity of the metals in the market, as well as a
fcarcity of the coin ; confequently, an advanced price
muft be given for it in proportion to the greatnefs and
height of the demand. In this cafe, both the fpecie
and the bullion muft be bought with paper. But the
rife in the price of bullion proceeds from the demand
for the metals and the competition between merchants
to procure them, and not becaufe the paper given as
the price is at all of inferior value to the fpecie. The
leaft diferedit of this kind would not tend to diminifh
the value of the paper j it would annihilate it at once.
Therefore, fince the metals muft be had, and that the
paper cannot fupply the want of them when they are to
be exported, the price rifes in proportion to the difficul¬
ties in finding metals elfewhere than in the Englifh
market.
III. A fudden call for bullion, for the making of
plate. A goldfmith can well afford to give 67 pence
for an ounce of filver, that is to fay, he can afford to
give one pound of gold for 14 pounds of filver, and per¬
haps for lefs, notwithftanding that what he gives be
more than the ordinary proportion between the metals,
becaufe he indemnifies himfelf amply by the price of his
workmanfhip j juft as a tavern keeper will pay any price
for a fine fifh, becaufe, like the goldfmith, he buys for
other people.
IV. The mint price has as great an effe61: in bring¬
ing down the price of bullion, as exchange has in rail¬
ing it. In countries where the metals in the coin are
juftly proportioned, where all the currencies are of le¬
gal weight, and where coinage is impofed, the opera¬
tions of trade make the price of bullion conftantly to
flu6luate between the value of the coin and the mint
price of the metals.
Now let us fuppofe that the current price of filver
bullion in the market is 65 pence the ounce, paid in
lawful money, no matter of what weight or of what
metal. Upon this the money-jobber falls to work. All
(hillings which are above -gT of a pound troy, he throws
into his melting pot, and fells them as bullion for 6$d.
per ounce ; all thofe which are below that weight he
carries to market, and buys bullion with them at bjd.
per ounce.
What is the confequence of this ?
That thofe who fell the bullion, finding the fliillings
which the money-jobber pays with perhaps not above
of a pound troy, they on their fide raife the price
of the bullion to 66d. the ounce.
This makes new work for the money-jobber ; for
he muft always gain. He now weighs all (hillings as
they come to hand *, and as formerly he threw into his
melting pot thofe only which were worth more than
of a pound troy, he now throws in all that are in ya-
Iu‘e
Money.
MON [ 320 ] MON
Money, lue above -g-g. He then fells the melted ihillings at
66d. the ounce, and buys bullion with the light ones at
the fame price.
This is the confequence of ever permitting any fpe-
cies of coin to pafs by the authority of the (lamp, with¬
out controlling it at the fame time by the weight : and
this is the manner in which money-jobbers gain by the
currency of light money.
It is no argument againft this expofition of the matter
to fay, that filver bullion is feldom bought with filver
coin •, becaufe the pence in new guineas are worth no
more than the pence of (hillings of 65 in the pound troy:
that is to fay, that 240 pence contained in °f a new
guinea, and 240 pence contained in 28 (hillings of 65
to the pound troy, differ no more in the intrinfic value
than 0.84 of a grain of fine filver upon the Avhole, which
is a mere trifle.
Whenever, therefore, (hillings come below the
weight of ^3- of a pound troy, then there is an advan¬
tage in changing them for new guineas ; and when that
is the cafe, the new guineas will be melted down, and
profit will be found in felling them for bullion, upon
the principles we have juft been explaining.
We have already given a fpecimen of the domeftic
operations of the money-jobbers 5 but thefe are not the
moft prejudicial to national concerns. The jobbers may
be fuppofed to be Engliftimen j and in that cafe the
profit they make remains at home : but whenever there
is a call for bullion to pay the balance of trade, it is
evident that this will be paid in filver coin } never in
gold, if heavy filver can be got and this again carries
away the filver coin, and renders it at home fo rare,
that great inconveniences are found for want of the lef-
fer denominations of it. The lofs, however, here is
confined to an inconvenience •, becaufe the balance of
trade being a debt which muft be paid, we do not con-
fider the exportation of the filver for that purpofe as
any confequence of the diforder of the coin. But be-
fides this exportation which is neceffary, there are others
which are arbitrary, and which are made only with a
view to profit of the wrong proportion.
When the money-jobbers find difficulty in carrying
on the traffic we have defcribed, in the Englifti market,
becaufe of the competition among themfelves, they
carry the filver coin of the country, and fell it a-
broad for gold, upon the fame principles that the Eaft
India Company fend filver to China in order to pur-
chafe gold.
It may be demanded, What hurt this trade can do
to Britain, fince thofe who export filver bring back the
fame value in gold ? Were this trade carried on by na¬
tives, there would be no lofs ; becaufe they would bring
home gold for the whole intrinfic value of the filver.
But if we fuppofe foreigners fending over gold to be
coined at the Englifti mint, and changing the gold in¬
to Englfth filver coin, and then carrying off this coin,
it is plain that they muft gain the difference, as well as
the money-jobbers. But it may be anfwered, That
having given gold for filver at the rate of the mint,
they have given value for Avhat they have received.
Very right •, but fo did Sir Hans Sloane, when he paid
five guineas for an overgrown toad: he got value for
his money ; but it was value only to himfelf. Juft fo,
whenever the Englifti government (hall be obliged to
reftore the proportion of the metals (as they mud do),
this operation will annihilate that imaginary value which Money*,
they have hitherto fet upon gold f which imagination is'—-v-—
the only thing which renders the exchange of their fil¬
ver againft the foreign gold equal.
But it is farther objefted, that foreigners cannot
carry off the heavy filver ; becaufe there is none to
carry off. Very true but then they have carried off
a great quantity already : or if the Englifti Jews have
been too (harp to allow fuch a profit to fall to ftrangers,
(which may or may not have been the cafe), then this
diforder is an effectual (top to any more coinage of fil¬
ver for circulation.
7. Of the Diforder in the Britifh Coin, fo far as it affecls
the Value of the Pound Sterling Currency.
From what has been faid, it is evident, that there
muft be found in England two legal pounds fterling,
of different values } the one worth 113 grains of fine
gold, the other worth 1718.7 grains of fine (ilver.
We call them different : becaufe thefe two portions of
the precious metals are of different values all over
Europe.
But befides thefe two different pounds fterling, which
the change in the proportion of the metals has created,
the other defe&s of the circulating coin produce fimilar
effects. The guineas coined by all the princes fince
King Charles II. have been of the fame ftandard w'eight
and finenefs, 444 in a pound troy of ftandard gold 44-
fine : thefe have been conftantly wearing ever fince they
have been coined ; and in proportion to their wearing
they are of lefs value.
If, therefore, the new guineas are below the value
of a pound fterling in filver, ftandard weight, the old
muft be of lefs value ftill. Here then is another cur¬
rency, that is, another pound fterling ; or indeed, more
properly fpeaking, there are as many different pounds
fterling as there are guineas of different weights. This
is not all j the money-jobbers having carried off all the
weighty filver, that which is worn with ufe, and redu¬
ced even below the ftandard of gold, forms one curren¬
cy more, and totally deftroys all determinate proportion
between the money unit and the currencies which are
fuppofed to reprefent it.
It may be a(ked, how, at this rate, any filver has
remained in England ? It is anfwered, that the few
weighty drillings which ftill remain in circulation, have
marvelloufly efcaped the hands of the money-jobbers :
and as to the reft, the rubbing and wearing of thefe
pieces has done what the (late might have done ; that
is to fay, it has reduced them to their due proportion
with the lighted gold.
The diforder, therefore, of the Engliftr coin has ren¬
dered the ftandard of a pound fterling quite uncertain.
To fay that it is 1718.7 grains of fine filver, is quite
ideal. Who are paid in fuch pounds ? To fay that it
is 113 grains of pure gold, may alfo not be true j be¬
caufe there are many currencies worfe than the new
guineas.
What then is the confequence of all this diforder ?
What effefl has it upon the current value of a pound
fterling ? And which way can the value of that be de¬
termined ?
The operations of trade bring value to an equation,
notwithftanding the greateft irregularities poflible ; and
fo
MON [ 321 ] MON
Money, value over all the world by the means of foreign ex- determinate price, that operation, in conjun&ion with Money.
T r' change. This is a kind of ideal fcale for meafuring the the courfe of exchange, ought naturally to mark the  v~—
Britiih coin, although it has not all the properties of actual value of the pound iterling with great exa£t-
that defcribed above, nefs.
Exchange confiders the pound fterling as a value If therefore the price of llandard bullion in the Eng-
determined according to the combination of the va- lifh marke t, when no demand is found for the exporta-
lues of all the different currencies, in proportion as tion of the metals, that is to fay, when paper is
payments are made in the one or the other j and as found for paper upon exchange, and when merchants
debtors generally take care to pay in the worft fpecies verled in thefe matters judge exchange (that is, re-
they can, it confequently follows, that the value of mittances) to be at par, if then iilver bullion can-
the pound fferling fhould fall to that of the lowed; not be bought at a lower price than 65 pence the
currency. ounce, it is evident that this bullion might be bought
Were there a fufficient quantity of worn gold and with 65 pence in {hillings, of which 65 might be coin-
filver to acquit all bills ©f exchange, the pound flerling ed out of the pound troy Engliih llandard diver 5 bnce
would come down to the value of them ; but if the new 65 per ounce implies 65 {hillings for the 1 2 ounces or
gold be alfo neceffary for that purpofe, the value of it pound troy.
muff be proportionably greater. _ This plainly {hows how ftandard diver bullion (hould
All thefe combinations are liquidated and compen- fell for 65 pence the ounce, in a country where the
fated with one another, by the operations of trade and ounce of itandard diver in the coin is worth no more
exchange; and the pound iterling, which is fo different than 62; and were the market price of bullion to
m itfelf, becomes thereby, in the eyes of commerce, a de- ftand uniformly at 65 pence per ounce, that would
terminate unit ; fubjedt, however, to variations, from diow the value of the pound fterling to be tolerably
which it never can be exempted. dxed. All the heavy diver coin is now carried off; be-
Exchange, therefore, is one of the beft meafures for caufe it was intrindcally worth more than the gold it
valuing a pound fterling, prefent currency. Here oc- paffed for in currency. * The diver therefore which re¬
curs a quefti on: _ _ mains is worn down to the market proportion of the
Does the great quantity of paper money in England metals, as has been faid ; that is to fay, 20 {hillings
tend to diminilh the value of the pound fterling? in diver currency are worth 113 grains of dne gold,
We anfwer in the negative. Paper money is juft as at the proportion of I to 14.5 between gold and diver!
good as gold or diver money, and no better. The va- Now,
nation of the ftandard, as we have already faid, muft as 1 is to 14.5, fo is 113 to 1638:
influence the interefts of debtors and creditors proper- fo the 20 {hillings current weigh but 1638 grains dne
tionally everywhere. From this it follows, that all aug- diver, inftead of 1718.7, which they ought to do ac-
mentation of the value of the money unit in the fpeeie cording to the ftandard.
muft hurt the debtors in the paper money ; and all Now let us fpeak of ftandard diver, dnee we are
diminutions, on the other hand, muft hurt the creditors examining how far the Englifti coin muft be worn by
m the paper money as well as everywhere elfe. The ufe.
payments, therefore, made in paper money, never can The pound troy contains 5760 grains. This ae-
contnbute to the regulation of the ftandard of the cording to the ftandard, is coined into 62 {hillings-
pound fterling; it is the fpecie received in liquidation confequently, every thilling ought to weigh 92.0 grains*
of that paper money which alone can contribute to Of fuch {hillings it is impoflible that ever ftandard
mark the value of the Britifti unit; becaufe it is affixed bullion ffiould fell at above 62 pence per ounce.
to nothing elfe. _ If therefore fuch bullion fells for 65 pence, the fhil-
hrom this we may draw a principle, “ That in lings with which it is bought muft weigh no more
countries where the money unit is entirely affixed to than 88.64 grains ftandard diver; that is, they muft
i 6 wi11’ j e aciual value of it is not according to the lofe 4.29 grains, and are reduced to W- of a pound
legal Itandard of that coin, but according to the mean troy.
proportion of the a&ual worth of thofe currencies in But it is not neceffary that bullion be bought with
wnci debts are paid. {hillings : no ftipulation of price is ever made farther,
rrom this we fee the reafon why the exchange be- than at fo many pence fterling per ounce. Does nok
tween England and all other trading towns in Europe this virtually determine the value of fuch currency
has long appeared fo unfavourable. People calculate with regard to all the currencies in Europe ? Did a
the real par, upon the fuppodtion that a pound fter- Spaniard, a Frenchman, or a Dutchman, know the
ling is worth 1718.7 grains troy of dne diver, when in exaft quantity of diver bullion which can be bought
fait the currency is not perhaps worth 1638, the va- in the London market for a pound fterling, would he
lue of a new guinea in diver, at the market proportion inform himfelf any farther as to the intrindc value of
of 1 to 14.5 ; that is to fay, the currency is but 95.3 that money unit ? would he not underftand the value
per cent, of the diver ftandard of the 43d of Elizabeth, of it far better from that circumftance than by the
i wonder then if the exchange be thought unfavour- courfe of any exchange, dnee exchange does not
S ,, ... . . mark the intrindc value of money, but only the.va-
. rom the principle we have juft laid down, we may lue of that money tranfported from one place to an-
gather a confirmation of what we advanced concerning other ?
the caufe of the advanced price of bullion in the Englifti The price of bullion, therefore, when it is not in-
market. . fluenced by extraordinary demand, (fuch as for the
When people buy bullion with current money at a payment of a balance of trade, or for making an ex-
VOL. XIV. Part I. S f ^ordinary
MON
Money, traordinary provilkm of plate), but when it (lands at
■" ^vhat every body knows to be meant by the common
market price, is a very tolerable meafure of the value of
the a£lual money ftandard in any country.
If it be therefore true, that a pound iterling cannot
purchafe above 1638 grains of hne iilver bullion, it
will require not a little logic to prove that it is really,
or has been for thefe many years, worth any more 5
notwithllanding that the iiandard weight of it in Eng¬
land is regulated by the laws of the kingdom at 1718.7
grains of hue filver.
If to this valuation of the pound fterling drawn
from the price of bullion, we add the other drawn
from the courfe of exchange; and by this we find
that when paper is found for paper upon exchange, a
pound tlerling cannot purchafe above 16^8 grains of
fine filver in any country in Europe : upon thefe two
authorities we may very fafely conclude (as to the mat¬
ter of fa& at kalt) that the pound fterling is not worth
more, either in London or m any other trading city ;
and if this be the cafe, it is juft worth 20 (hillings of
65 to the pound troy.
If therefore the mint were to coin (hillings at that
rate, and pay for (ilver bullion at the market price,
that is, at the rate of 65 pence per ounce in thofe new
coined (hillings, they would be in proportion to the
gold •, filver would be carried to the mint equally with
gold, and would be as little lubjebl to be exported or
melted down.
It may be inquired in this place, how far the coining
the pound troy into 65 (hillings is contrary to the laws
of England ?
The moment a (late pronounces a certain quantity
of gold to be worth a certain quantity of filver, and
orders thefe refpeblive quantities of each metal to be
received as equivalents of each other, and as lawful
money in payments, that moment gold is made a ftand¬
ard as much as filver. If therelore too fmall a quan¬
tity of gold be ordered or permitted to be confidered
as an equivalent for the unit, the (ilver ftandard is from
that moment debafed ; or indeed, more properly (peak¬
ing, all filver money is from that moment profcribed 5
for who, from that time, will ever pay in filver, when
he can pay cheaper in gold ? Gold, therefore, by fueh
a law, is made the ftandard, and all declarations to the
contrary are againft the matter of fa£t..
Were the king, therefore, to coin filver at 65 (hil¬
lings in the pound, it is demonftration, that by fuch an
a,61 he would commit no adulteration upon the ftand¬
ard : the adulieration is already, committed. The
Iiandard has defcended to where it is by (low de¬
grees, and by the operation of political caufes only *,
and nothing- prevents it from falling lower but the
ftandard of the gold coin. Let guineas be now left
to feek their value as they did formerly, and let light
ftlver continue to go by tale, we (hall fee the guineas
up at 30 (hillings in 20 years time, as was the cafe in
269
It is as abfurd to fay that the ftandard of Queen
Elizabeth ha^ not been debafed by ena6ling that the
Englith unit (hall be acquitted with 113 grains of fine
gold, as it would be to affirm that it would not be de¬
bafed from what it is at prefent by enabling _ that a
pound of butter fhould everywhere be received in pay-
%
MON
meat for a pound fterling j although the pound fter- Mon**'-
ling thould continue to conftft of three ounces, 17 penny-
weights, and 10 grains of flandard lilver, according to
the (latute ©f the 43d of Elizabeth. In that cafe, mod:
debtors would pay in butter j and filver would, as at
prelent, acquire a conventional value as a metal, but
would be looked upon no longer as a ftandard, or as
money.
If therefore, by the law of England, a pound (lerling
mull confift of 1718.7 grains troy of fine filver •, by the
law of England alio, 113 grains of gold mull be of the
fame value : but no law can eftablifh that proportion v
confequently, in which ever way a reformation be
brought about, fume law mult be reverfed ; confequent-
ly, expediency, and not compliance with law, mull be
the motive in reforming the abufe.
From what has been faid, it is not at all furprifing
that the pound fterling fhould in fact be reduced near,
ly to the value of the gold. Whether it ought to be
kept at that value is another queftion. All that we
here decide is, that coining the pound troy into 65
(hillings would reltore the proportion of the metals,
and render both fpecies common in circulation, but
reftoring the weight and proportion of the coin is not
the diiheulty which prevents a reformation of the Eng-
li(h coinage.
8. Circumjlanccs to be attended to in a New Regulation
of the Britijh Coin.
To people who do not under (land the nature of fuch
operations, it may have an air of juftice to fupport
the unit at what is commonly believed to be the ftand¬
ard of Queen Elizabeth, viz. at 1718.7 grains of fins
filver.
The regulating the ftandard of both filver and gold
to firie> and the pound fterling to four ounces
flandard filver, as it Hood during the reign of Queen
Mary I. has alfo its advantages, as Mr Harris has ob-
ferved. It makes the crown pitte to weigh jui one
ounce, the (lulling four pennyweights, and the penny
eight grains : confequently, were the newr ftatute to
bear, that the weight of the coin ftiould regulate its
currency upon certain oecafions, the having the pieces
adjufted to certain aliquot parts of weight would make
weighing eafy, and would accullom the common people
to judge of the value of money by its weight, and not
by the (lamp.
In that cafe, there might be a cenveniency in ftrik-
ing the gold coins of the fame weight w ith the fiber .9*
becaufe the proportion of their values would then con-
ftantly be the fame w ith the proportion of the metals*
The gold crowns would be worth at prefent, 3I. 12s.
6d. the half-crowns il. 16s. 3d. the gold (hillings 14s,
6d. and the half 7s. 3d. This wTas anciently the prac¬
tice in the Spanifti mints.
The interefts within the (late can be nowife perfe£I~
ly prote6led, but by permitting converfions of value
from the old to the new ftandard, w hat ever it be, and
by regulating the footing of (uch converfions by a6l of
parliament, according to circumftances.
For this purpofe, we (hall examine thofe interefts
which will chiefly merit the attention of government,
\yhen they form a regulation for the future of acquit¬
ting
[ 322 1
MON
Money- ting permanent contrails already entered into
""v ' ", f as may be contracted afterwards will naturally follow
the new itandard.
The landed intereft is no doubt the mod: confider-
able in the nation. Let us therefore examine, in the
firii place, what regulations it may be proper to make,
in order to do juitice to this great clafs, with refpedt to
the land tax on one hand, and with refpeft to their lef-
fees on the other.
The valuation of the lands of England was made
many years ago, and reafonably ought to be fupported
at the real value of the pound Iterling at that time,
according to the principles already laid down. 1 he
general valuation, therefore, of the whole kingdom
will rife according to this fcheme. I his will be con-
fidered as an injuttice *, and no doubt it would be fo, if
for the future, the land tax be impofed as heretofore,
without attending to this circumftance ; but as that im-
pofition is annual, as it is laid on by the landed intereft
itfelf, who compofe the parliament, it is to be fuppofed
that this great clafs will at leaft take care of their own
intereft.
Were the valuation of the lands to be ftated accord¬
ing to the valuation of the pound fterling of 1718.7
grains of filver, which is commonly fuppofed to be the
ftandard of Elizabeth, there would be no great injury
done : this would raife the valuation only 5 per cent,
and the land tax in proportion.
There is no clafs of inhabitants in all England fo
much at their eafe, and fo free from taxes, as the clafs
of farmers. By living in the country, and by confum-
ing the fruits of the earth rvithout their fuffering any
alienation, they avoid the effect of many excifes,
which, by thofe who live in corporations, are felt upon
many articles of their confumption. as well as on thofe
which are immediately loaded with thefe impofitions.
Tor this reafon it will not, perhaps, appear unreafon-
able, if the additional 5 per cent, on the land tax
were thrown upon this clafs, and not upon the land¬
lords.
With refpeff to leafes, it may be obferved, that we
have gone upon the fuppofttion that the pound fterling
in the year 1728 was worth 1718.7 grains of fine filver,
and 113 grains of fine gold.
There would be no injufticedone the leflees of all the
lands in the kingdom, were their rents to be fixed at
the mean proportion of thefe values. We have obferved
how the pound fterling has been gradually diminifhing
in its worth from that time by the gradual rife of the
filver. This mean proportion, therefore, will nearly
anfwer to what the value of the pound fterling was in
1743 ; fuppofing the rife of the filver to have been uni¬
form.
It may be farther alleged in favour of the landlords,
that the gradual debafement of the ftandard has been
more prejudicial to their intereft in letting their lands,
than to the farmers in difpofing of the fruits of them.
Proprietors cannot fo eafilv raife their rents upon new
leafes, as farmers can raife the prices of their grain
according to the debafement of the value of the cur¬
rency.
The pound fterling, thus regulated at the mean pro¬
portion of its worth as it ftands at prefent, and as it
flood in 1728, may be realized in 1678.6 grains of fine
filver, and 115.76 grains fine gold j which is 2.4 per
323 3 MON
Such cent, above the value of the prefent currency
jury, therefore, would be done to leffees,
No in- Money*
and no un- v~r~r
reafonable gain would accrue to the landed intereft, in
appointing converfions of all land rents at 2-£ per cent,
above the value of the prefent currency.
Without a thorough knowledge of every circumftance
relating to Great Britain, it is impofiible to lay down
anv plan. It is fufficient here briefly to point out the
prinei’ples upon which it muft be regulated.
The next intereft to be confidered is that of the na¬
tion’s creditors. The right regulation of their concerns
will have a confiderable influence in eftablilhing public
credit upon a folid bafis, by making it appear to all the
world, that no political operation upon the money of
Great Britain can in any refpect either benefit or pre¬
judice the interefl of thofe who lend their money upon
the faith of the nation. The regulating alio the inte¬
refl: of fo great a body, will ferve as a rule for all cre¬
ditors who are in the fame circumftances, and will upoft
other accounts be produdlive of greater advantages to
the nation in time coming.
In 1749, a new regulation was made with the pub¬
lic creditors, when the interefl: of the whole redeemable
national debt was reduced to 3 per cent. '1 his cir¬
cumftance infinitely facilitates the matter with refpedt
to this clafs, fince, by this innovation of all former con¬
tracts, the whole national debt may be confidered-as
contracted at, or pofterior to, the 25th December
I749*
Were the ftate, by an arbitrary operation upon
money (which every reformation muft be), to diminilh
the value of the pound fterling in which the parlia¬
ment at that time bound the nation to acquit thofe
capitals and the intereft upon them, would not all Eu¬
rope fay, That the Britifh parliament had defrauded
their creditors ? If therefore the operation propofed to
be performed fiiould have a contrary tendency, viz. to
augment the value of the pound fterling vrith which
the parliament at that time bound the nation to ac¬
quit thofe capitals and interefts, muft not all Europe
alfo agree, That the Britifti parliament had defrauded
the nation ?
The convention with the ancient creditors of the
ftate, who, in confequence of the debafement of the
ftandard, might have juftly claimed an indemnification
for the lofs upon their capitals, lent at a time when
the pound fterling was at the value of the heavy fil¬
ver, removes all caufes of complaint from that quarter.
There was in the year 1749 an innovation in all
their contracts ; and they are now to be confidered
as creditors only from the 25th of December of that
year.
Let. the value of the pound fterling be inquired in¬
to during one year preceding and one pofterior to the
tranfadion of the month of December 1749. The
great fums borrowed and paid back by the nation dur¬
ing that period, will furnifti data fufficient f<-r that
calculation. Let this value of the pound be fpeeified
in troy grains of fine filver and fine gold bullion, with¬
out mentioning any denomination of money according
to the exact proportion of the metals at that time.
And let this pound be called the ptuncl of national
credit.
This firft operation being determined, let it be enact¬
ed, that the pound fterling, by which the ftate is to
8 f 2 borrow
MON [ 324. ] MON
Monfy- borrow for the future, and that in which the creditors
* _ ' are to be paid, lliall be the exaft mean proportion be¬
tween the quantities of gold and filver above fpecified,
according to the adual proportion of the metals at the
time fuch payments ihall be made : or that the fums
fliall be borrowed or acquitted, one half in gold and
one half in filver, at the refpe&ive requifitions of the
creditors or of the (late, when borrowing. All debts
contra&ed polferior to 1749 may be made liable to
converlions.
The confequence of this regulation will be the infen-
fible eftablilhment of a bank money. Nothing would
be more difficult to eitablith, by a pofitive revolution,
than fuch an invariable meafure 5 and nothing will be
found fo eafy as to let it eltabliffi itfelf by its own ad¬
vantages. This bank money will be liable to much
fewer inconveniencies that that of Amilerdam. There
the perfons tranfafting mull be upon the fpot ; here,
the iterling currency may, every quarter of a year,
be adjulled by the exchequer to this invariable lland-
ard, for the benefit of all debtors and creditors who
incline to profit of the liability of this meafure of va¬
lue.
This fcheme is liable to no inconvenience from
the variation of the metals, let them be ever fo fre¬
quent or hard to be determined j becaufe upon every
occafion where there is the fmalleft doubt as to the
adlual proportion, the option competent to credi¬
tors to be paid half in filver and half in gold will
remove.
Such a regulation will alfo have this good efftft,
that it will give the nation more juft ideas of the na¬
ture of money, and confequently of the influence it
ought to have upon prices.
If the value of the pound fterling fliall be found
to have been by accident lefs in December 1749 than
it is at prefent •, or if at prefent the currency be found
below what it has commonly been fince 1749 ; in juftice
to the creditors, and to prevent all complaints, the
nation may grant them the mean proportion of the
value of the pound fterling from 1749 to 1760, or
any other which may to parliament appear reafon-
able.
This regulation muft appear equitable in the eyes
of all Europe •, and the ftrongeft proof of it will be,
that it will not produce the fmalleft effedl prejudicial
to the intereft of the foreign creditors. The courfe
of exchange with regard to them will ftand precifely
as before.
A Dutch, French, or German creditor, will receive
the fame value for his intereft in the Englifh flocks as
heretofore. This muft filence all clamours at home,
being the moft convincing proof, that the new regu¬
lation of the coin will have made no alteration upon
the real value of any man’s property, let him be debtor
or creditor.
The intereft of every other denomination of credi¬
tors, whofe contra&s are of a frefli date, may be regu¬
lated upon the fame principles. But where debts are
of an old Handing, juftice demands, that attention be
had to the value of money at the time of contracting.
Nothing but the liability of the Engliffi coin, when
compared with that of other nations, can make fuch a
propofal appear extraordinary. Nothing is better
known in France than this ftipulation added to obli-
2
gations, Urgent au cours de ce jour ; that is to fay, That Money,
the fum ffiall be paid in coin oi the fame intrinlic value —*~*~v*“
with what has been lent. Why Ihould fuch a claufe
be thought reafonable for guarding people againft ar¬
bitrary operations upon the numerary value of the coin,
and not be found juft upon every occafion where the
numerary value of it is found to be changed, let the
caufe be what it will ?
The next intereft we ffiall examine is that of trade.
When men have attained the age of 21, they have no
more occafion for guardians. This may be applied to
traders j they can parry with their pen every inconve¬
nience which may refult to other people from the
changes upon money, provided only the laws permit
them to do themfelves juftice with refpeCt to their en¬
gagements. This clafs demands no more than a right
to convert all reciprocal obligations into denominations
of coin of the fame intrinfic value with thofe they have
contracted in.
The next intereft is that of buyers and fellers ; that
is, of manufacturers with regard to confumers, and of
fervants with refpeCt to thofe who hire their perfonal
fervice.
The intereft of this clafs requires a moft particular
attention. They muft, literally fpeaking, be put to
fchool, and taught the firlt principles of their trade,
which is buying and felling. They muft learn to judge
of price by the grains of filver and gold they receive:
they are children of a mercantile mother, however war¬
like the father’s difpofition. If it be the intereft of the
ftate that their bodies be rendered robult and aCtive,
it is no lefs the intereft of the ftate that their minds be
inftruCled in the firft principles of the trade they exer-
cife.
For this purpofe, tables of converfion from the old
ftandard to the new muft be made, and ordered to be
put up in every market, in every (hop. All duties, all
excifes, muft be converted in the fame manner. Uni¬
formity muft be made to appear everywhere. The
fmalleft deviation from this will be a Humbling block
to the multitude.
Not only the intereft of the individuals of the claii
we are at prefent confidering, demands the nation’s
care and attention in this particular ; but the profpe-
rity of trade, and the wellbeing of the nation, are alfo
deeply inlerefted in the execution.
The whole delicacy of the intricate combinations of
commerce depends upon a juft and equable vibration
of prices, according as circumftances demand it. The
more, therefore, the induftrious clafles are inftruCted in
the principles which influence prices, the more eafily
will the machine move. A workman then learns to
fink his price without regret, and can raife it without
avidity. When principles are not underftood, prices
cannot gently fall, they muft be pulled down ; and mer¬
chants dare not fufl'er them to rife, for fear of abufe,
even although the perfection of an infant manufacture
ffiould require it.
The lalt intereft is that of the bank of England,
which naturally muft regulate that of every other.
Had this great company followed the example of
other banks, and eftabliffied a bank-money of an inva¬
riable ftandard as the meafure of all their debts and
credits, they would not have been liable to any incon¬
venience upon a variation of the ftandard.
T.W
MON f 325 ] MON
Money. The bank of England was proje&ed about the year
■—"V' 1694, at a time when the current money of the nation
was in the greateft diforder, and government in the
greatell diitrels both for money and for credit. Com¬
merce was then at a very low ebb j and the only, or
at lead the mod profitable, trade of any, was jobbing
in coin, and carrying backwards and forwards the pre¬
cious metals from Holland to England. Merchants
profited alfo greatly from the ede6ts which the utter
diforder of the coin produced upon the price of mer-
chandife.
At fuch a jun6lure the refolution was taken to make
a new coinage ; and upon the profpe6t of this, a com¬
pany was found, who, for an exclufive charter to hold
a bank for 13 years, willingly lent the government
upwards of a million Iterling at 8 per cent, (in light
money we fuppofe), with a profpeft of being repaid
both intered and capital in heavy. This was not all:
part of the money lent was to be applied for the eda-
blilhment of the bank 5 and no lefs than 4OC0I. a-year
was allowed to the company, above the full intered,
for defraying the charge of the management.
Under fuch circumdances the introduction of bank-
money was very fuperfiuous, and would have been very
impolitic. That invention is calculated againd the
Tailing of the itandard : but here the bank profited of
that rife in its quality of creditor for money lent j and
took care not to commence debtor by circulating their
paper until the effeCt of the new regulation took place
in 1695 ; that is, after the general re-coinage of all the
clipped filver.
From that time till now, the bank of England has
been the balls of the nation’s credit, and with great
reafon has been condantly under the mod intimate pro¬
tection of every minider.
The value of the pound derling, as we have feen, has
been declining ever fince the year 1601, the dandard
being fixed to filver during all that century, while the
gold was condantly riling. No fooner had the pro¬
portion taken another turn, and lilver begun to rife,
than the government of England threw the dandard
virtually upon the gold, by regulating the value of the
guineas at the exaCl proportion of the market. By
thefe operations, however, the bank has condantly
been a gainer (in its qualitv of debtor) upon all the
paper in circulation •, and therefore has lod nothing by
not having edablidied a bank-money.
The intered of this great company being edablilhed
upon the principles we have endeavoured to explain, it
is very evident, that the government of England never
will take any dep in the reformation of the coin which
in its confequences can prove hurtful to the bank.
Such a dep would be contrary both to judice and to
common fenfe. To make a regulation which, bv raif-
ing the dandard, would prove beneficial to the public
creditors, to the prejudice of the bank (which we may
call the public debtor), would be an operation upon
public credit like that of a perfon who is at great pains
to fupport his houfe by props on all fides, and who at
the fame time blows up the foundation of it with gun¬
powder.
We may therefore conclude, that with regard to the
bank of England, as well as every other private bank¬
er, the notes which are condantlv payable upon de¬
mand mud be made liable to a converfion at the actual
value of the pound derling at the time of the new re- Money,
gulation.
That the bank will gain by this, is very certain j but
the circulation of their notes is fo fwift, that it would
be abfurd to allow to the then podefibrs of them that
indemnification which naturally diouid be lhared by all
thofe through whofe hands they have pafled, in pro¬
portion to the debaiement of the dandard during the
time of their relpeftive podetfion.
Befides thefe conliderations, which are in common to
all dates, the government of Great Britain has one pe¬
culiar to itfelf. The intered of the bank, and that of
the creditors, are diametrically oppofite j everything
which raifes the dandard hurts the bank j every thing
which can fink it hurts the creditors : and upon the
right management of the one and the other, depends
the folidity of public credit. For thefe reafons, with¬
out the mod certain profpefl of conducing a reditution
of the dandard to the general advantage as well as ap¬
probation of the nation, no minider will probably ever
undertake fo dangerous an operation.
We drall now propofe an expedient which may re¬
move at lead feme of the inconveniences which would
refult from fo extenfive an undertaking as that of regu¬
lating the refpeftive intereds in Great Britain by a po-
fitive law, upon a change in the value of their money
of account.
Suppofe then, that, before any change is made in the
coin, government fhould enter into a tranfadtion with
the public creditors, and afcertain a permanent value
for the pound derling for the future, fpecified in a de¬
termined proportion of the fine metals in common bul¬
lion, without any regard to money of account, or to any
coin whatever.
This preliminary dep being taken, let the intended
alteration of the dandard be proclaimed a certain tim*
before it is to commence. Let the nature of the
change be clearly explained, and let all fuch as are en¬
gaged in contracts which are diflblvable at will upon
the predations dipulated, be acquitted between the
parties, or innovated as they drall think proper j with
certification, that, poderior to a certain day, the dipu-
lations formerly entered into (hall be binding according
to the denominations of the money of account in the
new dandard.
As to permanent contrafts, which cannot at once
be fulfilled and diflolved, fuch as leafes, the parliament
may either prefcribe the methods and terms of conver¬
fion ; or a liberty may be given to the parties to annul
the contract, upon the debtor’s refufing to perform his
agreement according to the new dandard. Contracts,
on the other hand, might remain dable, with refpeft to
creditors who would be fatisfied with payments made
on the footing of the old dandard. If the rife intended
drould not be very confiderable, no great injudice can
follow fuch a regulation.
Annuities are now thoroughly underdood, and the
value of them is brought to fo nice a calculation,
that nothing will be eafier than to regulate thefe
upon the footing of the value paid for them, or of
the fubjecl affedfed by them. If by the regulation,
land rents are made to rife in denomination, the an¬
nuities charged upon them ought to rife in propor¬
tion ; if in intrinfic value, the annuity fhould remain
as it was.
9. Regulations
Money.
MON [ 326 ] MO N
9. Regulations which the Principles of this Inquiry point
out as expedient to be made by a new Statute for regu¬
lating the Britifb Coin.
Let us now examine what regulations it may be
proper to make by a new ftatute concerning the cmn
of Great Britain, in order to preferve always the fame
exaft value of the pound fterling realized in gold and
in filver, in fpite of all the incapacities inherent in the
metals to perform the fundtions of an invariable icale or
meafure of value.
1. The firft point is to determine the exadl number
of grains of fine gold and fine filver which are to com-
pofe it, according to the then proportion of the metals
in the London market.
2. To determine the proportion of thefe metals
with the pound troy ; and in regard that the ftandard
of gold and filver is different, let the mint price of
both metals be regulated according to the pound troy
fine.
3. To fix the mint price within certain limits ; that
is to fay, to leave to the king and council, by pro¬
clamation, to carry the mint price of bullion up to
the value of the coin, as is the prefent regulation, or
to fink it to per cent, below that price, according
as government fhall incline to impofe a duty upon
coinage.
4. To order, that filver and gold coin fhall be (truck
of fuch denominations as the king fhall think fit to ap¬
point } in which the proportion of the metals above
determined fhall be conftantly obferved through every
denomination of the coin, until neceflity fhall make a
new general coinage unavoidable.
5. To have the number of grains of the fine metal
in every piece marked upon the exergue, or upon the
legend of the coin, in place of fome initial letters of
titles, which not one perfon in a thoufand can decy¬
pher ; and to make the coin of as compact a form as
poffible, diminifhing the furface of it as much as is
confiftent with beauty.
6. That it fhall be lawful for all contracting parties
to itipulate their payments either in gold or filver
coin, or to leave the option of the fpecies to one of
the parties.
y. That where no particular ftipulation is made*
creditors fhall have power to demand payment, half in
one fpecies, half in the other ; and when the fum can¬
not fall equally into gold and filver coins, the fractions
to be paid in filver.
8. That in buying and felling, when no particular
fpecies has been ffipulated, and u'hen no aft in writing
has intervened, the option of the fpecies fhall be com¬
petent to the buyer.
9. That all fums paid or received by the king’s re¬
ceivers, or by bankers, fhall be delivered by weight, if
demanded.
10. That all money which fhall be found under the
legal weight, from whatever eaufe it may proceed, mav
be reiefted in every payment whatfoever *, or if offered
in payment of a debt above a certain fum, may be taken
according to its weight, at the then mint price, in the
option of the creditor.
it. That no penalty fhall be incurred by thofe who
melt down or export the nation’s coin ; but that w .fil¬
ing, clipping, or diminifhing the weight of any part
1 ir ihall be deemed felony, as much as any other Money,
thet , it the perfon fo degrading the coin ftiail alter- v'-**'
wards make it circulate for lawful money.
To prevent the inconveniencies proceeding from the
variation in the proportion between the metals, it may
be provided,
1 2. That upon every variation of proportion in the
market price of the metals, the price of both Ihall be
changed, according to the following rule :
Let the price of the pound troy fine gold in the coin
be called G.
Let the price of ditto in the filver be called S.
Let the new proportion between the market price of
the metals be called P.
Then ftate this formula :
G S
toa pound troy fine filver, in fterling currency.
S G
— T P + ~=toaPoundtroy finegold* in fieri, currency.
This will be a rule for the mint to keep the price
of the metals conftantly at par Avith the price of the
market; and coinage may be impofed, as has been
deferibed, by fixing the mint price of them at a
certain rate below the value of the fine metals in the
coin.
13. As long as the variation of the market-price of
the metals Ihall not carry the price of the rifing metal
fo high as the advanced price of the coin above the
bullion, no alteration need be made on the denomina¬
tion of either fpecies.
14. So foon as the variation of the market price of
the metals ftiail give a value to the rifing fpecies, above
the difference between the coin and the bullion j then
the king ftiall alter the denominations of all the coin,
filver and gold, adding to the coins of the rifing metal
exaftly what is taken from thofe of the other. An ex¬
ample will make this plain :
Let us fuppofe that the coinage has been made ac¬
cording to the proportion of 14.5 to 1 j that 20 fhil-
lings, or 4 crown-pieces, fhall contain, in fine filver,
14.5 times as many grains as the guinea, or the gold
pound, ftiall contain grains of fine gold. Let the new
proportion of the metals be fuppofed to be 14 to 1.
In that cafe, the 20 (hillings, or the 4 crowns, will
contain ^ more value than the guinea. Now fince
there is no queftion of making a new’ general coinage
upon every variation, in order to adjuft the propor¬
tion of the metals in the weight of the coins, that pro¬
portion might be adj lifted by changing their refpeftive
denominations according to this formula :
Let the 20 (hillings, or 4 crowns, in coin, be called
S. Let the guinea be called G. Let the difference
between the old proportion and the new, which is -dj
be called P. Then fay,
P . P
S   —= a pound fterling, and G -f-—=r a pound fieri.
2 2
By this it appears that all the filver coin muft be
raifed in its denomination y?, and all the gold coin
muft be low’ered in its denomination ; yet ftill S-{-G
will be equal to two pounds fterling, as before, whe¬
ther they be confidered according to the old or ac¬
cording to the new denominations.
But it may be obferved, that the impofition of coin¬
age rendering the value of the coin greater than the
value
M O N
[ 327 ]
MON
Money, value of the bullion, that circumftance gives a certain
’■‘"'Y '* latitude in fixing the new denominations of the coin,
fo as to avoid minute fractions. For, providing the
deviation from the exa& proportion fhall fall within
the advanced price of the coin, no advantage can be
taken by melting down one fpecies preferably to an¬
other ; fince, in either cafe, the lofs incurred by melting
the coin muft be greater than the profit made upon
felling the bullion. The mint price of the metals,
however, may be fixed exa&ly, that is, within the value
of a farthing upon a pound of fine lilver or gold. 1 his
is eatily reckoned at the mint ; although upon every
piece in common circulation the fractions of farthings
would be inconvenient.
15. That notwithftanding of the temporary varia¬
tions made upon the denomination of the gold and
filver coins, all contratts formerly entered into, and all
ftipulations in pounds, fhUlings, and pence, may con¬
tinue to be acquitted according to the old denomina¬
tions of the coins, paying one-half in gold and one-
half in filver: unleis in the cafe where a particular
fpecies has been flipulated j in which cafe, the fums
mull be paid according to the new regulation made
upon the denomination of that fpecies to the end
that neither profit or lofs may refult to any of the
parties.
16. That notwithflanding the alterations on the
mint price of the metab, and in the denomination of
the coins, no change {hall be made upon the weight
of the particular pieces of the latter, except in the
cafe of a general re-coinage of one denomination at
leall: that is to fay, the mint muft not coin new gui¬
neas, crowns, &c. of a different weight from thofe al¬
ready in currency, although by fo doing the fractions
might be avoided. This would oceaiion confufion,
and the remedy would ceafe to be of any ufe upon a
new change in the proportion of the metals. But it
may be found convenient, for removing the fmall frac¬
tions in fhillings and fixpences, to recoin fuch deno¬
minations altogether, and to put them to their in¬
teger numbers of twelve and of fix pence, without
changing in any refpedt their proportion of value to
all other denominations of the coin : this will be no
great expence, when the bulk of the filver coin is put
into 5 (hilling pieces. _ .
By this method of changing the denomination of
the coin, there never can refult any alteration in the
value of the pound fterling •, and although fra&ions
of value may now and then be introduced, in order to
prevent the abufes to which the coin would otherwife Money,
be expofed by the artifice of thofe who melt it down,
yet ftill the inconvenience of fuch fractions may be
avoided in paying, according to the old denomina¬
tions, in botli Ipecies, by equal parts. 1 his will
alfo prove demonltratively, that no change is there¬
by made in the true value of the national unit of
money.
17. That it be ordered, that {hillings and fixpences
fhall only be current tor 20 years j and all other coins,
both gold and iilver, for 40 years, or more. For as¬
certaining which term, there may be marked, upon
the exergue of the coin, the lait year of their cur¬
rency, in place of the date of their fabrication. This
term elapfed, or the date effaced, that they ihall have
no more currency whatfoever 5 and, when offered in
payment, may be received as bullion at the aftual
price of the mint, or refufed, at the option of the cre¬
ditor.
18. That no foreign coin fhall have any legal cur¬
rency, except as bullion at the mint price.
By thefe and the like regulations may be pre¬
vented, 1 The melting or exporting of the coin in
general. 2cfo, The melting or exporting one fpecies,
in oruer to fell it as bullion at an advanced price.
3//«, The profit in acquitting obligations preferably
in one fpecies to another. 4/w, The degradation of the
itandard, by the wearing of the coin, or by a change
in the proportion between the metals. ^ circu¬
lation of the coin below the legal weight. 6/0, i he
profit that other nations reap by paying their debts
more cheaply to Great Britain than Great Britain can
pay her’s to them.
And the great advantage of it is, that it is an uni¬
form plan, and may ferve as a perpetual regulation,
compatible with all kinds of denominations of coins,
variations in the proportion of the metals, and with the
impofition of a duty upon coinage, or with the pre-
ferving it free 5 and further, that it may in time be
adopted by other nations, who will find the advantage
of having their money of account prelerved perpetually
at the fame value, with refpeft to the denominations of
all foreign money of account eftablifhed on the fame
principles. But for a fuller difeuflion of this fubjeft
we muft refer our readers to Mr Wheatley’s Effay on
the Theory of Money and Principles of Commerce.
London 1 807 j and to a Treatife on the Coins of the
Realm, in a letter to the king, by the Earl of Liver¬
pool, London 1805.
A TABLE
iDutch Coins. German Coins.
!>U
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MON
French Coins.
 a  
oo-<r Cs^ 49. oj k> m
>>>>>>>>
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[
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UNIVERSAL
i
t
t 329 ]
UNIVERSAL TABLE
Of the prefent State of the Real and Imaginary Moneys of the Wo^ld.
f This mark is prefixed to the Imaginary Money, or Money of Account.
All Fractions in the Value Englifh are Parts of a Penny.
= This mark fignifies is, make, or equal to.
A Farthing
2 Farthings
2 Halfpence
4 Pence
6 Pence
12 Pence
5 Shillings
20 Shillings
21 Shillings
ENGLAND and SCOTLAND.
London, Brijlol, Liverpool, See.
Edinburgh, G/afgow, Aberdeen, &c.
£
- - - o
a Halfpenny - o
a Penny - o
a Groat - o
a Half Shilling o
a Shilling - o
a Crown - o
f a Pound Sterling 1
a Guinea - 1
d.
ci
1
4
6
o
o
o
o
IRELAND.
Dublin, Cork, Londonderry, &.c.
A Farthing - - - 00
2 Farthings =r a Halfpenny - 00
a Penny - 00
a Half Shilling o o
f a Shilling Irilh o o
a Shilling - O 1
a Crown - 05
fa Pound Irifh o 18
a Guinea - I I
2 Halfpence
64 Pence
12 Pence
13 Pence
65 Pence
20 Shillings
22-f Shillings
O rV
n 1 *
ott
6
1
To¬
ll
O
O
©
FLANDERS and BRABANT.
Ghent, OJlend, &c. Antwerp, BruJJels, &c.
f A Pening
4 Peningens
8 Peningens
2 Grotes
6 Petards
7 Petards
40 Grotes
17-f Scalins
240 Grotes
r an Urche
f a Grote
a Petard
f a Scalin
a Scalin
f a Florin
a Ducat
f a Pound Flem.
c-§o
O^o
Ot9o
Sr
9tV
6
3
o
HOLL AND and ZEALAND.
■bnderdam, Rotterdam, Middlekurg, Flujbing, &c.
f ■*> Pening -
8 Peningens srfa Grote
2 Grotes a Stiver
6 Stivers a Scalin
20 Stivers a Guilder
50 Stivers a Rixdollar
Vol. XIV. Part L
n * T
°Tvs-
©To
ItV
(5-n?
9
41
60 Stivers
105 Stivers
6 Guilders
HOLLAND, &c.
~ a Dry Guilder
a Ducat
f a Pound Flem.
£•
o
o
o
J.
5
9
10
d.
3
3
(>
HAMBURG. Altona, Lubec, Bremen, &.o
f A Tryling
2 Try lings
2 Sexlings
1 2 Fenings
16 Shillings
2 Marcs
3 Marcs
6^ Marcs
120 Shilling's
f a Sexling
a Fening
a Shilling Lub.
f a Marc
a Slet Dollar
a Rixdollar
a Ducat
f a Pound Flem.
©
o
o
o
I
3
4
9
11
o
o
o
If
6
o
6
4f
3
T 1 -S'
7T
TT
HANOVER. Lunenburg, 'Aell, &c.
f A Fening
3 Fenings
8 Fenings
1 2 Fenings
8 Grofhen
16 Grofhen
24 Grofhen
32 Groihen
4 Guldens
a Dreyer - o
a Marien - o
a Grofh - o
a Half Gulden o
a Gulden - o
f a Rixdollar - o
a Double Gulden o
a Ducat - o
''■'TTf
2
SAXONY and HOLSTEIN.
Drefden, Leipjic, See. Wifmar, Keil, &c.
f An Heller — - - - o
2 Hellers a Fening - o
6 Hellers a Dreyer - o
16 Hellers a Marien - o
12 Fenings a Grofh - o
16 Grofhen a Gould - o
24 Grofhen fa Rixdollar - o
32 Grofhen a Specie Dollar o
4 Goulds a Ducat - o
09T
°tV
I
■3T
BRANDENBURG and POMERANIA.
Berlin, Potfdam, &e. &c.
f A Denier ~ .
9 Deniers a Polchen
18 Deniers a Grofh
an Abrafs
fa Marc
Tt
3 Polchens
20 Grofhen
°t4o
©TS-
°TT
O-rU
30 Grofhen
EUROPE, Northern Parts.
Germany.
MON
BRANDENBURG, &c.
[ 330 1
30 Grofhen
93 Grolhen
108 Grothen
8 Florins
a Florin
fa Rixdollar
an Albertus
a Ducat
£■
o
o
o
o
(l
2
6
2
4
COLOGN. Merit*, Triers, Liege, Munich, Munjler,
Paderbourn, &.c.
A Dute
3 Dutes
2 Cruitzcrs
8 Dutes
3 Stivers
4 Plaperts
40 Stivers
2 Guilders
4 Guilders
a Cruitzer
an Albus
a Stiver
a Plapert
a Copftuck
a Guilder
a Hard Dollar
a Ducat
-’To
Q-ro
2to
2f
4
8
4
BOHEMIA, SILESIA, and FIUNGARY.
Prague, Brejluw, Prejburg, &c.
Fening
2 Fenings
3 Fenmgs
4 Fcn’ngs
2 Cruitzers
60 Cruitzers
90 Cruitzers
2 Goulds
4 Goulds
a Dreyer
a Grofli
a Cruitzer
a White Grofli
a Gould
fa Rixdollar
a Hard Dollar
a Ducat
°-5o
o-rW
OvW
' O
°TT
Off
4
6
8
AUSTRIA and SWABIA.
Vienna, Triejle, See. Augjburg, Blenheim, &c.
A Fening
2 Fenings
4 Fenings
14 Fenings
4 Cruitzers
15 Batzen
90 Cruitzers
33 Batzen
60 Batzen
a Dreyer
a Cruitzer
a Grofh
a Batzen
a Gould
fa Rixdollar
a Specie dollar
a Ducat
-’■ffo
-’To
O'T'V
n* 9
°To-
4
6
8
4
FRANCONIA. Francfort, Nuremburg, Dettingen,&zc.
A Fening
4 Fenings
11F nr
t
3 Cruitzers
4 Cruitzers
I Cruitzers
16 Cruitzers
90 Cruitzers
2 Goulds
240 Cruitzers
a Cruitzer
a Keyfer Grofh
a Batzen
an Ort Gould
a Gould
fa Rixdollar
a Hard Dollar
a Ducat
0V^
Ott
If
T
It|-
7
4
6
8
POLAND and PRUSSIA.
Cracozu, JVarfaw, &c. Dantzic, Koningjberg, &c.
A Shelon -
3 Shelons ~ a Grofh
a Couftic
a Tinfe
5 Grofhen
3 Couftics
°TT
'tt
3f
7
MON
POLAND, &c.
x8 Groflien :
30 Grofhen
90 Grofhen
8 Florins
3 Rixdollars
an Ort
a Florin
fa Rixdollar
a Ducat
a Frederic d’Or
£• -r. d.
o o 8-|-
012
036
094
017 6
LIVONIA.
Riga, Revel, Narva, &c.
A Blacken
6 Blackens
9 Blackens
2 Grofhen
6 Grolhen
30 Grofhen
90 Groflien
108 Grofhen
64 Whitens
r a Grofh
a Vording
a Whiten
a Marc
a Florin
f a Rixdollar
an Albertus
a Copperplate Dollar
Jy d
0-;
Ott
UTT
2r
2
5
2ir
DENMARK, ZEALAND, and NORWAY.
Copenhagen, Sound, &c. Bergen, Drontheim, &c.
A Skilling
6 Skillings = a Duggen
16 Skillings fa Marc
a Rixmarc
a Rixort
a Crown
a Rixdollar
a Ducat
a Hatt Ducat
20 Skillings
24 Skillings
4 Marcs
6 Marcs
11 Marcs
14 Marcs
o
o
O
o
1
3
4
8
10
3t
9
nf
if
o
6
SWEDEN and LAPLAND.
Stockholm, LJpfal, &c. Thorn, &c.
A Runftick - -
2 Runfticks — a Stiver
8 Runllicks a Copper Marc
a Silver Marc
a Copper Dollar
a Caroline
3 Copper Marcs
4 Copper Marcs
9 Copper Mares
3 Copper Dollars a Silver Dollar
Silver Dollars a Rixdollar
2 Rixdollars a Ducat
°T3
°T^‘
T ^
4f
6f-
2
?
4
RUSSIA and MUSCOVY.
Peterjburg, Archangel, &c. Mofcow, &c.
A Polufca
2 Polufcas ~ a Denufca
2 Denufcas fa Copec
an Altin
a Grievener
a Polpotin
a Poltin
a Ruble
a Xervonitz
3 Copecs
10 Copecs
25 Copecs
30 Copecs
100 Copecs
2 Rubles
n 1 T
Olo-gs
OtVs>
CT5-
I-
Sr
if
3
6
o
BASIL. 'Lunch, Lug, &c.
A Rap _ . _
3 Rapen =r a Fening
4 Fenings
12 Fenings
a Cruitzer
fa Sol
Of
of •
13 Fenings
JiUKOPii, Southern Parts,
73
si
15 Fenings
18 Fenings
20 Sols
6o Cruxtzers
io8 Cruitzers
MON
BASIL, &c.
rz a Coarfe Baizen
a Good Batzen
-f- a Livre
a Gulden
a Rixdollar
[ 33* 1
£■
o
o
o
o
o
d.
IT
6
6
6
St GALL. Apenfal, &c.
A Heller
2 Hellers
4 Fenings
12 Fenings
4 Cruitzers
5 Cruitzers
20 Sols
6o Cruitzers
102 Cruitzers
a Fening
a Cruitzer
f a Sol
a Coarfe Batzen
a Good Batzen
f a Livre
a Gould
a Rixdollar
°tV
°i
ol
i£
2
2i
6
6
3
BERN.
A Denier
4 Deniers rz
3 Cruitzers
4 Cruitzers
5 Cruitzers
6 Cruitzers
20 Sols
75 Cruitzers
135 Cruitzers
Lucern, Neufchatcl, &c,
a Cruitzer
f a Sol
a Plapert
a Gros
a Batzen
j- a Livre
a Gulden
a Crown
Of
If
If
2
2f
O
6
6
GENEVA. Pekay, Bonne, &c.
A Denier - - o
2 Deniers = a Denier current o
12 Deniers a Small Sol - o
12 Deniers current a Sol current o
12 Small Sols f a Florin - o
20 Sols current f a Livre current o
a Patacon - o
a Croifade - o
a Ducat - o
1 of Florins
I5f Florins
24 Florins
°TT
OfV
of
Of
4r
3
3 nf
5 iof
9 o
Lifle, Cambray, Valenciennes, &c,
Denier
i Deniers
; Deniers
; Patards
> Sols
) Patards
) Sols
>f Livres.
. Livres
a Sol
-f- a Patard
-j- a Piette
a Livre Tournois
f a Florin
an Ecu of Ex.
a Ducat
a Louis d’Or
o
o
o
o
o 10
1 o^
2 6
9 3
of
9l
Dunkirk, St Omers, St Quin!in, &c.
A Denier - _ 0
12 Deniers — a Sol - O
15 Deniers fa Patard - o
f a Piette - o
f a Livre Tournois o
an Ecu of Ex. o
a Louis d’Or 1
a Guinea - 1
a Moeda - 1
15 Sols
20 Sols
3 Livres
24. Livres
25f Livres
32f Livres
'-'TT
Of
of
7f
10
6
o
0
o
IX
O
MON
Paw, Lyons, Marfeilles, &c. Bourdeaux, Bayonne, &c.
A Denier - - 00 o-^
3 Deniers a Liard - o O of
a Dardene - 000^
a Sol - 00 of
f a Livre Tournois o o 10
an Ecu of Ex. 026
an Ecu - 050
f a Piftole - 084
a Louis d’Or 100
2 Liards
12^0 eniers
20 Sols
60 Sols
6 Livres
10 Livres
1^ 24 Livres
PORTUGAL.
f A Re
10 Rez =
20 Rez
5 Vintins
4 Teftoons
24 Vintins
10 Teftoons
48 Teftoons
64 Teftoons
Lijbon, Oporto, &c.
o o
a Half Vintin o o
a Vintin - 0 0
a Teftoon - 00
a Crufade of Ex. o 2
a New Crufade o 2
f a Milre - 05
a Moeda - 17
a Joanefe - 116
n * 7
°Toq
n1 7
0-3:^
T 7
6f
3
8f
7i
o
o
73
Madrid, Cadiz, Seville, &c. Aftu Plate.
A Maravedie
2 Maravedies
34 Maravedies
2 Rials
8 Rials
10 Rials
375 Maravedies
32 Rials
36 Rials
=r a Quartil
a Rial
a Piftarine
f a Piaftre of Ex.
a Dollar
f a Ducat of Ex.
f a Piftole of Ex.
a Piftole
o ofVV
o offs
o Si
o icf
3 7
4 6
4 nf
o 14 4
0169
Gibraltar,
f A Maravedie
2 Maravedies =
4 Maravedies
34 Maravedies
15 Rials
512 Maravedies
60 Rials
2048 Maravedies
78 Rials
Malaga, Dcnia, &c. Velon.
— an Ochavo
f a Quartil
f a Rial Velon
a Piaftre of Ex.
f a Piaftre
f a Piftole of Ex.
a Piilole of Ex.
a Piftole
o 14
o 16
o 16
ofVV
O^ff
O^f
2I
7
7
4
9
9
20 Soldos
24 Soldos
16 Soldos
22 Soldos
21 Soldos
60 Soldos
o
c
o
5
6
4
6
5
16
OtVV
3t
Barcelona, Saragojfa, Valencia, &c. Old Plate.
A Maravedie
16 Maravedies = a Soldo
2 Soldos a Rial Old Plate
f a Libra
f a Ducat
f a Dollar
f a Ducat
f a Ducat
a Piftole
7i
9
6
2f
I Of
9
GENOA. Vow, &c. CORSICA. £oy?/«, &c.
A Denari
12 Denari
4 Soldi
20 Soldi
30 Soldi
: a Soldi
a Che valet
f a Lire
a Teftoon
Tt 2
Ot: vfrv
Otot
>ff-
O/o
5 Lires
EUROPE, Southern Parts.
Italy.
3 Denari
i 2 Denari
20 Soldi
115 Soldi
117 Soldi
6 Lires
22 Lires
23 Lires
MON
GENOA, &.c.
[ 332 1
5 Lires
115 Soldi
6 Teitoons
20 Lires
a Croifade
f a Pezzo of Ex.
a Genouine
a Pi itole
o
o
o
o
J.
3
4
6
14
7
2
2
4
PIEDMONT, SAVOY, and SARDINIA.
Turin, Chamberry, Cagliari, &c.
A Denari
ro a Quatrini
a Soldi
f a Florin
f a Lire
a Scudi
a Ducatoon
a Pi dole
a Louis d’Or
3 Denari
12 Denari
1 2 Soldi
20 Soldi
6 Florins
7 Florins
13 Lires
16 Lires
OrV
OtV
16
o
Milan, Modena, Parma, Pavia, &c.
A Denari - -
— a Quatrini
a Soldi
-(• a Lire
a Scudi current
f a Scudi of Ex.
a Philip
a Pi dole
a Spanilh Pidole
O
o
o
o
4
4
4
16
16
o-gV
n* 8
0TY
24-
3
4f
o
9
Leghorn, Florence, &c.
A Denari
4 Denari
1 2 Denari
5 Quatrini
8 Craeas
20 Soldi
6 Lires
7F Lires
22 Lires
a Quatrini
a Soldi
a Craca
a Quilo
f a Lire
a Piadre of Ex.
a Ducat
a Pidole
o
o
o
o
o
o
4
5
*5
°Tar
5-s'
84
2
2f
6
ROME. Civita Vecchia, Ancona.
A Quatrini
3 (^)uatrini
8 Bayocs
o Bayocs
24 Bayocs
o Julios
2 Julios
8 Julios
31 Julios
a Bayoc
a Julio
a Stampt Julio
a Tedoon
a Crown current
f a Crown dampt
a Chequin
a Pidole
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
°tV
O r
9
!5
NAPLES^ Gaeta, Capua, &c.
A Qiiatiini
Quatrini
3 ^ .
10 Grams
40 Quatrii
20 Grains
40 Grains
r 00 Grains
23 Tarins
Larins
a Grain
a Carlin
a Paulo
a Tarin
a Tedoon
a Ducat of Ex.
a Pidole
a Spanidi Pidole
4
o
o
o
o
o
I
3
15
16
JTT
°T
4
5t
8
4
4
4
9
MON
SICILY and MALTA. Palermo,
a.
c
^3
3
o
CO
H
(X,
O
PS
w
A Pichila
6 Pichili
8 Pichili
10 Grains
20 Grams
6 Tarins
13 L arins
60 Carlins
2 Ounces
MeJJina, &C.
a Grain
a Ponti
a Carlin
a Tarin
f a Florin of Ex.
a Ducat of Ex.
f an Ounce
a Pidole
°TT
°TSr
1tT
3tT
7tt
4
8A
° 15 4
Bologna, Ravenna, &c.
A Quatrini
6 Quatrini
10 Bayoes
20 Bayocs
3 Julios
80 Bayocs
105 Bayocs
100 Bayocs
31 Julios
a Bayoc
f a Julio
a Lire
a Tedoon
a Schudi of Ex.
a Ducatoon
a Crown
a Pidole
O
o
o
1
I
4
5
5
J5
01*0
6
o
6
3
3
o
6
24
!7
A Picoli
12 Picoli
Soldi
18 Soldi
20 Soldi
3 Jules
Soldi
Gros
Lires
VENICE. Berg ham, &c.
[24
a Soldi
f a Gros
a Jule
f a Lire
a Tedoon
a Ducat current
f a Ducat of Ex.
a Chequin
°T3
°T
2*
6
6
5t
4
2
TURKEY. Morea, Candia, Cyprus, See.
A Mangar
4 Mangars
3 Afpers
3 Afpers
10 Afpers
20 Afpers
80 Afpers
100 Afpers
10 Solotas
f an Afper
a Parac
a Bedic
an Odic
a Solota
f a Piadre
a Caragrouch
a Xeriif
°2g'
°T
o 10
ARABIA. Medina, Mecca, Mocha, &c.
A Carret
3^ Garrets
7 Garrets
80 Garrets
18 Cmnafhees
60 Comafhees
80 Caveers
xoo Comadiees
80 Larins
a Caveer
a Comadiee
a Larin
an Abyfs
f a Piadre
a Dollar
a Sequin
f a Lomond
r
i*S
200
S>
rs
O O
O 04££
o o
o 10^
4r
6
6
6
6
A Coz
4 Coz
PERSIA. Ifpahan, Ormus, Gombroon, &c.
10 Coz
20 Coz
a Bidi
a Shahee
23 Coz
4 Shahees
a Mamooda
a Larin
an Abadiee
°;r
10
5 Abafhees
ASIA,
5 Abafhees
12 Abaflhees
50 Abaftiees
MON
: an Or
a ijovello
f a Tomond
[ 333
A j. </.
086
0160
368
GUZZERAT.
A Pecka
2 Peckas
4 Pices
5 Pices
10 Pices
Surat, Cambay, &c.
4 Anas
2 Rupees
14 Anas
4 Pagodas
a Pice
a Fanam
a Viz
an Ana
a Rupee
an Englifh Crown
a Pygoda
a Gold Rupee
o
o
o
o
o
2
5
8
15
n1 5
°53'
n ' 5
2TT
7^
6
o
9
o
Bombay, Dabul, &c.
f A Budgrook
2 Budgrooks :
5 Rez
16 Pices
20 Pices
240 Rez
4 Quarters
14 Quarters
60 Quarters
f a Re
a Pice
a Laree
a Quarter
a Xeraphim
a Rupee
a Pagoda
a Gold Rupee
o
o
o
o
o
1
2
8
15
0;Vo-
C4V0
o|^
5t
4r
3
o
f A Re
2 Rez
2 Bazaracos
20 Rez
4 Vintins
3 Larees
42 Vintins
4 Tangus
8 Tangus
Goa, Vifapour, See.
~ a Bazaraco
a Pecka
a Vintin
a Laree
a Xeraphim
a Tangu
a Paru
a Gold Rupee
0
o
o
o
o
1
4
18
I5
n 1 7
°5o6-
OtVo
if
4x
6
o
Q
COROMANDEL. Madrafs, Pondicherry, &c.
tV
I
A Cafh - - - 00
5 Calh =: a Viz - 00
2 Viz a Pice - 00
6 Pices a Pical - 00
8 Pices a Fanam - 00
10 Fanams a Rupee O 2
2 Rupees an Englifh Crown o 5
36 Fanams a Pagoda - 08
4 Pagodas a Gold Rupee I 15
BENGAL. Callicut, Catcutta, &c.
A Pice - - 00
4 Pices “ a Fanam - 00
6 Pices a Viz - 00
12 Pices an Ana - 00
10 Anas a Fiano - 01
16 Anas a Rupee - 0 2
2 Rupees a French Ecu o 5
2 Rupees * an Englilh Crown o 5
j6 Anas a Pagoda - 08
°fV
of
6i
6
o
o
9
t/3
<1
] MON
SIAM. Pegw, Malacca, Cambodia, Sumatra, Java,
Borneo, &c.
<1
U
►-t
cd
<!
A Cori
800 Cori
125 Fettecs
250 Fettees
500 Fettees
900 Fettees
2 Tieals
4 Soocos
8 Sateleers
a Fettee
a Sateleer
a Sooco
a Tical
a Dollar
a Rial
an Ecu
a Crown
d.
(->3o'o"3t
°3Ta
7f
3
6
6
o
o
o
CHINA. Canton, &c.
A Caxa
10 Caxa =:
10 Candereens
35 Candereens
2 Rupees
70 Candereens
7 Maces
2 Rupees
10 Maces
a Candereen
a Mace
a Rupee
a Dollar
a Rixdollar
an Ecu
a Crown
-f a Tale
O-sV
°f
8
6
6
4f
o
o
8
JAPAN*. Jeddo, Meaco, See.
Piti
20 Pitis zr
15 Maces
20 Maces
30 Maces
13 Ounces Silver
2 Ounces Gold
2 Japanefes
21 Ounces Gold
a Mace
an Ounce Silver
a Tale
an Ingot
an Ounce Gold
a Japanefe
a Double
fa Cattee
6
9
3 3
6 6
12 12
66 3
o of
o 4
4
8'
8i
o
o
o
o
EGYPT. Old and New Cairo, Alexandria, Sayde, See.
An Afper - - 00
3 Alpers “ a Medin - 00
24 Medins an Italian Ducat o 3.
80 Afpers f a Piaflre - 0 4
30 Mtdins a Dollar - 04
96 Alpers an Ecu - ® 5
32 Medins a Crown - 0 5
200 Alpers a Sultanin - o 10
70 Medins a Pargo Dollar - o 10
BARB ARY. Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, Una, &c.
An Afper
3 Alpers
10 Aipers
2 Rials
4 Doubles
24 Medins
30 Medins
180 Afpers
13 Doubles
a Medin
a Rial old Plate
a Double
a Dollar
a Silver Chequin
a Dollar
a Zequin
a Piftole
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
0810
o 16 9
6f
if
6
MOROCCO.
A Fluce
24 Fluces
Santa Crux, Mequinez, Fez, Tangiers,
Sallee, &c.
~ a Blanquiu
j-rsy-
o o
0 0 2
4 Blanquils.
AMERICA. AFRICA.
4 Blanquils
7 Blanquils
14 Blanquils
2 Quartos
28 Blanquils
54 Blanquils
IOO Blanquils
MON
MOROCCO, &c.
r an Ounce
an Oflavo
a Quarto
a Medio
a Dollar
a Xequin
a Pirtole
[ 334- ]
£.s.
o o
1
2
4
4
9 °
0169
d.
8
2
4
8
6
ENGLISH. Jamaica, Barbadoes, &.c.
t
2
7i
12
75
7
20
Halfpenny
Halfpence
Pence
Pence
Pence
Shillings
Shillings
24 Shillings
30 Shillings
f a Penny
a Bit
+ a Shilling1
« O
a Dollar
a CroAvn
f a Pound
a Piftole
a Guinea
O 14
O 16
o 5 7
0TSo
°W
5l
81 I
FRENCH.
f A Half Sol
2 Half Sols zo
74 Sols
15 Sols
20 Sols
7 Livres
8 Livres
26 Livres
32 Livres
St Domingo, Martinico, 8cc.
f a Sol
a Half Scalin
a Scalin
a Livre
a Dollar
an Ecu
a Pi Hole
a Louis d’Or
f
o
o
o
o
o
4
4
16
o
-.117
-’■3'ToT
n 1 1 7
°T‘5'Qr
2r4
5i
7tV
6
104
9
o
<1
u
>—(
ec
W
MON
ENGLISH. iV6>t>a Scotia, Virginia, New 'England, &c,
J. I
f A Penny
12 Pence
20 Shillings
2 Pounds
3 Pounds
4 Pounds
5 Pounds
6 Pounds
7 Pounds
8 Pounds
9 Pounds
10 Pounds
f a Shilling
f a Pound
J.
o 1
I 0
o 0
The value of the Currency al¬
ters according to the Plenty or
Scarcity of Gold and Silver Coins
that are imported.
Canada, Florida, Cayenne, See.
f A Denier
12 Deniers
20 Sols
2 Livres
Livres
Livres
Livres
Livres
Livres
8 Livres
9 Livres
10 Livres
f a Sol.
f a Livre.
The value of the Currency al¬
ters according to the Plenty or
Scarcity of Gold and Silver Coins
that are imported.
Note.. For. all the Spanijh, Bortuguefe, Dutch, and Danifh*
Dominions, either on the Continent or in the Weft Indies fed
the Moneys of the refpe£tive nations. * ’
Ancient MONET. See COINS and Medals.
Paper MONET. See the article Bank.
MONK anciently denoted, “ a perfon who retired
from the world to give himfelf up wholly to God, and
to live in folitude and abftinence.” The word is de¬
rived from the Latin monachus, and that from the Greek
poicffcos, “ folitary }” oi ptng,fo/us, “ alone.”
The origin of monks feems to have been this : The
perfecutions which attended the firft ages of the Gofpel
forced feme Chriftians to retire from the world, and
live in deferts and places moft private and unfrequented,
in hopes of finding that peace and comfort among
beafts which were denied them among men. And this
being the cafe of fome very extraordinary perfons, their
example gave fo much reputation to retirement, that
the practice was continued when the reafon of its com¬
mencement eeafed. After the empire became Chriftian,
inftances of this kind were numerous ; and thofe whofe
fecurity had obliged them to live feparately and apart,
became afterwards united into focieties. We may alfo
add, that the myftic theology, which gained ground
towards the clofe of the third century, contributed to
produce the fame effedt, and to drive men into folitude
for the purpofes of enthufiaftic devotion.
The monks, at leaft the ancient ones, were diftin-
gui filed into folitaries, ccenobites, and farabaites.
The folitary are thofe who live alone, in plages re¬
mote from all towns and habitations of men, as do ft ill
fome of the hermits. The ccenobites are thofe who live Monk,
in community with feveral others in the fame houfe, —y—
and under the fame fuperiors. The farabaites were
ftrolling monks, having no fixed rule or refidence.
The houfes of monks again rvere of two kinds, viz.
monaferies and laurce. See MONASTERY and Laura.
Thofe we call monks nmv-a-days are ccenobites, who
live together in a convent or monaftery, who make
vows of living according to a certain rule eftabliftied by
the founder, and wear a habit which diftinguifhes theii
order.
Thofe that are endowed, or have a fixed revenue, are
moft properly called monks, monachi ; as the Chartreux,
Benediftines, Bernardines, &c. The Mendicants, or
thofe that beg, as the Capuchins and Francifcans, are
more properly called religious and friars ; though the
names are frequently confounded.
The firft monks w ere thofe of St Anthony 5 who, to¬
wards the clofe of the fourth century, formed them
into a regular body, engaged them to live in fociety
with each other, and preferibed to them fixed rules for
the direftion of their conduft. Thefe regulations, which
Anthony had made in Egypt, Avere foon introduced into
Paleftine and Syria by his difciple Hilarion. Almoft
about the fame time, Aones or Eugenius, with their
companions Gaddanas and Azyzas, inftituted the mo-
naftic order in Mefopotamia and the adjacent countries j
and their example was followed with fuch rapid fuccefs,
that
Money,
Monk.
s
MON [ 335 ] MON
that In a (hort time the whole eaft was filled with a lazy
fet of mortals, who, abandoning all human connexions,
advantages, pleafures, and concerns, wore out a lan-
guilhing and miferable life amidft the hardihips of want,
and various kinds of fuffering, in order to arrive at a
more clofe and rapturous communication with God and
angels.
From the eaft this gloomy inftitution pafted into the
weft, and firft into Italy and its neighbouring iflands ;
though it is uncertain who tranfplanted it thither.
St Martin, the celebrated bifhop of Tours, erected the
firft monafteries in Gaul, and recommended this religi¬
ous folitude with fuch power and efficacy, both by his
inftru&ions and his example, that his funeral is faid to
have been attended by no lefs than 2000 monks. From
hence the monaftic difcipline extended gradually its pro-
grefs through the other provinces and countries of
Europe. There were befides the monks ot St Bafil
(called in the Eaft Calogeri, from xsfA®? “ good old
man”) and thofe of St Jerome, the hermits of St Au-
guftine, and afterwards thofe of St Benedift and St
Bernard ; at length came thofe of St Francis and St
Dominic, with a legion of others •, all which fee under
their proper heads, Benedictines, &c.
Towards the clofe of the fifth century, the monks,
who had formerly lived only for themfelves in folitary
retreats, and had never thought of alfuming any rank
among the facerdotal order, were now gradually di-
ftinguiffied from the populace, and endowed with fuch
opulence and honourable privileges that they found
themfelves in a condition to claim an eminent ftation
among the fupports and pillars of the Chriftian com¬
munity. The fame of their piety and fantftity was fo
great, that bifhops and prefbyters were often chofen
out of their order ; and the paffion of erecting edifices
and convents, in which the monks and holy virgins
might ferve God in the moft commodious manner, was
at this time carried beyond all bounds. However their
licentioufnefs, even in this century, was become a pro¬
verb and they are faid to have excited the moft
dreadful tumults and feditions in various places. The
monaftic orders were at firft under the immediate jurif-
di&ion of the biihops, from which they were exempted
by the Roman pontiff about the end of the 7th century;
and the monks, in return, devoted themfelves wholly
to advance the interefts and to maintain the dignity of
the bifhop of Rome. This immunity which they ob¬
tained was a fruitful fource of licentioufnefs and diforder,
and oceafibned the greateft part of the vices with which
they were afterwards fo iudly charged. In the 8ch
century the monaftic difcipline was extremely relaxed
both in the eaftern and weftern provinces, and all
efforts to reftore it were inefteftual. Neverthelefs, this
kind of inftitution was in the higheft efteem, and no¬
thing could equal the veneration that was paid about
the clofe of the 9th century to fuch as devoted them¬
felves to the facred gloom and indolence of a convent.
This veneration induced feveral kings and emperors to
call them to their courts, and to employ them in civil
affairs of the greateft moment. Their reformation was
attempted by Louis the Meek, but the effe£! was of
{hort duration. In the nth century they were exempt¬
ed by the popes from the authority of their fovereigns,
and new orders of monks were continually eftablifhed ;
infomuch that ia the council of Lateran that was held
5
in the year 1215, a decree was paffed, by the advice
of Innocent III. to prevent any new monaftic inftitu-
tiens } and feveral were entirely fuppreffed. In the
15th and 16th centuries, it appears, from the teftimonies
of the belt writers, that the monks were generally lazy,
illiterate, profligate, and licentious epicures, whofe
views in life were confined to opulence, idlenefs, and
pleafure. However, the Reformation had a manifeft
influence in reftraining their exccffes, and rendering
them more circumfpeCt and cautious in their external
condudft.
Monks are diftinguiftied by the colour of their ha¬
bits into black, white, gray, 8zc. Among the monks,
fome are called monks of the choir, others profejfed monks,
and others lay monks ; which laft are deftined for the
fervice of the convent, and have neither clericate nor
literature.
Cloifered MONKS, are thofe who actually refide in
the houfe : in oppofition to e.v/ra-monkq who have
benefices depending on the monaftery.
Monks are alfo diftinguifhed into reformed, whom
the civil and ecclefiaftieal authority have made mafters
of ancient convents, and put in their power to retrieve
the ancient difcipline, which had been relaxed } and
ancient, who remain in the convent, to live in it ac¬
cording to its eftabliftiment at the time when they
made their vowrs, without obliging themfelves to any
new reform.
Anciently the monks were all laymen, and were only
diftinguiffied from the reft of the people by a particular
habit and an extraordinary devotion. Not only the
monks were prohibited the priefthood, but even priefts
were exprefsly prohibited from becoming monks, as ap¬
pears from the letters of St Gregory. Pope Syricius
was the firft who called them to the clericate, on oc-
cafion of fome great fearcity of priefts, that the church
was then fuppofed to labour under : and fince that
time, the priefthood has been ufually united to the
monaftical profeffion.
Monk, George, a perfonage memorable for having
been the principal agent in reftoring Charles II. to his
crown, was defeended from a very ancient family, and
born in Devonfhire in 1608. Being an unprovided
younger fon, he dedicated himfelf to arms from his
youth, and obtained a pair of colours in the expedition
to the Ifle of Rhee : he ferved afterwards in the Low
Countries with reputation, in both King Charles’s nor¬
thern expeditions ; and did fuch fervice in quelling the
Irilh rebellion, that he was appointed governor of
Dublin, but was fuperfe^led by parliamentary authority.
Being made major-general of the Irilh brigade employ¬
ed in the fiege of Nantwich in Cbeffiire, he was taken
prifoner by Sir Thomas Fairfax, and remained confined
in the Tower of London until the year 1646 j when,
as the means of obtaining liberty, he took the covenant,
and accepted a command in the Iriffi fervice under the
parliament. He obtained the command in chief of all
the parliamentary forces in the north of Ireland, where
he did fignal fervices, until he was called to account
for a treaty made with the Iriftt rebels ; a circumftance
which was only obliterated by his future good fortune.
He ferved in Scotland under Oliver Cromwell with
fuch fuccefs, that he was left there as commander in
chief; and he was one of the commiflioners for uniting
that kingdom with the new erefted commonwealth.
He
Monk.
MON [ 33*5 ] MON
Monk
II
Monmouth.
  v  
He ferved at fea alfo againft the Dutch j and was treat¬
ed lo kindly on his return, that Oliver is faid to have
grown jealous of him. He was, however, again fent to
Scotland as commander in chief, and continued there
five years 5 when he diffembled fo well, and improved
circumftances fo dexteroufly, that he aided the defires
of a wrearied people, and reftored the king without any
difturbance : for which he was immediately rewarded
both with honours and profit: (See Britain, N° 194,
&.c.). He was created duke of Albemarle, with a
grant of 7000!. per annum eflate, befide other emo¬
luments ; and enjoyed the confidence of his mailer
without forfeiting that of the people. After his death
in 1670, there was publilhed a treatife compoftd by
him while he remained prifoner in the Tower, en¬
titled, “ Obfervations on Military and Political Af¬
fairs,” a fmall folio.
MONK-Fifh. See SquALUS, ICHTHYOLOGY Index.
Monk's Head, or Wolf's bane. See Aconitum, Bo¬
tany Index.
MONKEY. See Simia, Mammalia Index.
MONMOUTH, James, Duke of, fon to Charles
II. by Mrs Lucy Walters, w7as born at Rotterdam in
1649. Upon the Relloration, he rvas called over to
England, where the king received him with all ima¬
ginable joy, created him earl of Orkney (which was
changed into that of Pvlonmouth), and he took his feat
in the houfe of peers in the enfuing feflion of parliament.
He married Anne, the heirefs of Francis earl of Buc-
eleugh \ and hence it came to pafs that he had alfo the
title of Buccleugh, and took the furname of Scot, ac¬
cording to the cuilom of Scotland. In 1668 his father
made him captain of his life-guard of horfe ; and in
1672 he attended the French king in the Netherlands,
and gave proofs of bravery and condufl. In 1673 the
king of France made him lieutenant-general of his
army, with which he came before Maeftricht, and be¬
haved himfelf with incredible gallantry, being the firft
who entered it himfelf. He returned to England, wras
received with all pollible refpedl, and was received
chancellor of the univerlity of Cambridge. After this
he went to affiil the prince of Orange to raife the fiege
of Mons, and did not a little contribute towards it.
He returned to England •, and was fent in quality of
his father’s general, to quell an infurreflion in Scot¬
land, which he effedled ; but foon after he fell into
difgrace ; for, being a Proteftant, he was deluded into
ambitious fchemes, upon the hopes of the exclufion of
the duke of York : he confpired againft his father and
the duke ; and wdien the latter came to the throne by
the title of James II. he openly'‘i’ppeared in arms, en¬
couraged by the Proteftant army ; but coming to a de-
cifive battle before he had fufficient forces to oppofe the
royal army, he was defeated, taken foon after concealed
in a ditch, tried for high treafon, condemned, and be¬
headed in 1685, aged 36. See Britain, N° 242, 249
-r-265.
Monmouth, the capital of the county of Monmouth-
ftiire in England, 129 miles from London, and 33 miles
from Briftol. It has its name from its fituation at the
conflux of the Monow or Mynwy, and the Wye, over
each of which it has a bridge, and a third over the
Frothy. Here was a caftle in William the Conqueror’s
time which Henry III, took from John baron of Mon-
niouth. It afterwards came to the houfe of Lan-
cafter, who beftowed many privileges upon the town. Monmoutfa ^
Here Henry V. furnamed of Monmouth, was born. II
The famous hiftorian Geoffrey w as alfo born at this, Monot?y- f !•!
place. Formerly it gave the title of earl to the fa- * J 11
mily of Carey, and of duke to King Charles the Se¬
cond’s eldeft natural fon j but now of earl to the
Mordaunts, who are alfo earls of Peterborough. It
contained 3345 inhabitants in 1801, is well built, car¬
ries on a confiderable trade with Briftol by means of
the Wye, and has a weekly market, and three fairs.
MONMOUTHSHIRE, a county of England ; an¬
ciently reckoned a part of Wales, but in Charles II.’s
time taken into the Oxford circuit, and made an Englilh
county. It is bounded on the north by Herefordfhire,
on the eaft by Gloucefterftiire, on the fouth by the river
Severn, and on the weft by the Welftr counties of
Brecknock and Glamorgan. Its extent from north to
fouth is about 30 miles, from eaft to weft 26, and m
circumference no. It is fubdivided into fix hundreds,
and 127 parilhes. In 1801, this county contained
8948 houfes, and 9903 families. The whole popula¬
tion amounted to 45,582 perfons. It fends only three
members to parliament, that is, one for Monmouth, and
two for the county. The air is temperate and healthy;
and the foil fruitful, though mountainous and woody*
The hills feed flieep, goats, and horned cattle ; and the
valleys produce plenty of grafs and corn. This county
is extremely well watered by feveral fine rivers j for,
befides the Wye, which parts it from Gloucefterfhire,
the Mynow, which runs between it and Herefordfhire,
and the Rumney, which divides it from Glamorgan-
fhire, it has, peculiar to itfelf, the LTfk, which enters
this county a little above Abergavenny, runs moftly
fouthward, and falls into the Severn by the mouth of
the Ebwith ; which laft river runs from north to fouth,
in the weftern fide of the county. All thefe rivers, ef-
pecially the Wye and Ufk, abound with fifh, particu¬
larly falmon and trout.
MONOCEROS, Unicorn, in AJlronomy, a fouth-
ern conftellation formed by Hevelius, containing in his
catalogue 19 ftars, and in the Britannic Catalogue 31.
Monoceros. See Monodon, Cetology Index.
MONOCHORD j an inftrument by which the fe¬
veral proportions of mufical founds and intervals, as
well in the natural as in tempered feales are tried.
Originally it had, as its name implies, only one firing ;
but it is better conftru£ted with two j for, by means of
this additional firing, we have an opportunity of judg¬
ing of the harmony of two tempered notes in every pof-
fible variety of temperament.
The reader who may with for further information re-
fpefling the conftruflion and ufe of monochords, may
confult the appendix to Mr Atwood’s Treatife on Rec¬
tilinear Motion, and Mr Jones’s obfervations on the
fcale of mufic, monochord, &.c, in his Phyfiological
Difquifitions,
Monochord is alfo ufed for any mufical inftru¬
ment that confifts of only one firing or chord in this
fenfe the trumpet marine may properly be called a mo¬
nochord.
MONOCULUS, a genus of infers of the order of
aptera. See Entomology Index.
MONODON, a genus of fifties belonging to the or¬
der of cete. See Cetology Index.
MONODY, in ancient poetry, a mournful kind of
frng.
MON C 337 ] MON'
Monody fong, fung by a perfon all alone, to give vent to his
II grief. The word is derived from jtssvaf, “ alone,” and
“ 1 fm^”
I ^ ■ MONOECI A, from pore;, alone, and ootoc, a Jioufe;
the name of the 2ill clafs in Linnaeus’s fexual method.
See Botany.
MONOGAMY, compounded of Joins, and
“ marriage,” the ftate or condition of thofe who
have only married once, or are reftrained to a fingle
wife. See Polygamy.
MONOGLOSSUM, in Ancient Geography, a mart
town of the Hither India, fituated on the Sinus Canthi,
into which the Indus empties itfelf. Said to be Man-
galor on the coaft of Malabar. E. Long. 740, N. Lat.
V-
MONOGRAM, a chara<Rer or cypher, compofed
of one, two, or more letters interwoven ; being a kind
of abbreviation of a name, anciently ufed as a feal,
badge, arms, &c.
MONOGYNIA, from alone, and yvfn, a wo¬
man ; the name of the firft order or fubdivifion in the
firft 13 claffes of Linnaeus’s fexual method ; confiding
of plants which, befides their agreement in their claflic
character, generally derived from the number of their
damina, have only one ftyle.
MONOMOTAPA, a country of Africa, has the
maritime kingdom of Sofala on the eaft, the river Del
Spiritu Santo on the fouth, the mountains of Caffraria
on the weft, and the river Cauma on the north, which
parts it from Monemugi. The air of this country is
very temperate j the land fertile in paftures and all the
neceffaries of life, being watered by feveral rivers.
The inhabitants are rich in black cattle, which they
value more than gold. They have a vaft number of
elephants, as appears from the great quantity of ivory
that is exported from thence. There is alfo a confider-
able trade in gold duft.—The inhabitants are lovers of
war, which is the employment followed by all thofe
who do not apply themfelves to commerce. This
country is divided into feven provinces or petty king¬
doms, vaflals to the king •, viz. Monomotapa Proper,
Quiteve, Manica, Inhambana, Inhemior, Sabia, and
Sofala.
MONOPET A LOUS, in Botany, a term applied
to flowers that have only one petal or flower-leaf.
MONOPHYSI FES, (from povos. Joins, and <pva-v;,
natural), a general name given to all thofe fedftaries in
the Levant who only own one nature in Jefus Chrift j
and who maintain, that the divine and human natures
of Chrift were fo united as to form only one nature, yet,
without any change, confufion, or mixture of the two
natures.
The Monophysites, however, properly fo called, are
the followers of Severus, a learned monk of Paleftine,
who was created patriarch of Antioch in 513, and Pe¬
trus Fullenfis.
The Monophyfites were encouraged by the emperor
Anaftafius, but deprefled by Juftin and fucceeding em¬
perors. However, this feft was reftored by Jacob Ba-
radaeus an obfcure monk, infomuch that when he died
bifhop of Edefla, A. D. 588, he left it in a moft flou-
rifhing ftate in Syria, Mefopotamia, Armenia, Egypt,
Nubia, Abyffinia, and other countries. The laborious
efforts of Jacob were feconded in Egypt and the adja¬
cent countries, by Theodofius bifhop of Alexandria :
VOL. XIV. Part L
and he became (b famous that all the Monophyfites of
the eaft confidered him as their fecond parent and found¬
er, and are to this day called Jacobites, in honour of
their new chief. The Monophyfites are divided into
two fedls or parties, the one African, the other Afia-
tic j at the head of the latter is the patriarch of An¬
tioch, who refides for the moft part in the monaflery of
St Ananias, near the city of Merdin : the former are
under the jurifdidlion of toe patriarch of Alexandria,
who generally refides at Grand Cairo, and are fubdi-
vided into Cophts and Abyflinians. From the 15th
century downwards, all the patriarchs of the Monophy¬
fites have taken the name of Ignatius, in order to Ihow
that they are the lineal fucceffor- of Ignatius, who was
bifhop of Antioch in the firft century, and confequcnt-
ly the lawful patriarch of Antioch. In the 17th cen¬
tury, a fmall body of the Monophyfites in Alia aban¬
doned for fome time the dodrine and inftitution of their
anceftors, and embraced the communion of Rome : but
the African Monophyfites, notwithftanding that pover¬
ty and ignorance which expofed them to the fedudlions
of fophiftry and gain, flood firm in their principles, and
made an obflinate refiftance to the promifes, prefents,
and attempts employed by the papal miffionaries to
bring them under the Roman yoke : and in the 18th
century, thofe of Afia and Africa have perfifted in their
refufal to enter into the communion of the RomifU
church, notwithftanding the earneft entreaties and allu¬
ring offers that hare been made from time to time by
the pope’s legates, to conquer their inflexible conftancy.
The Monophyfites propagate their do&rine in Afia with
zeal and afliduity, and have not long ago gained over
to their communion a part of the Neftorians, who inha¬
bit the maritime coafts of India.
MONOPOLY, one or more perfons making them-
felves the foie mailers of the whole of a commodity,
manufacture, and the like, in order to make private ad¬
vantage of it, by felling it again at a very advanced
price. Or it is a licenfe or privilege allowed by the
king for the foie buying and felling, making, working,
or ufing any thing whatfoever.—Monopolies had been
carried to an enormous height during the reign of
Queen Elizabeth j and were heavily complained of by
Sir Edward Coke, in the beginning of the reign of
King James I.: but wrerc in great meafure remedied
by ftatute 21 Jac. I. c. 3. which declares fuch monopo¬
lies to be contrary to lauq and void j (except as to pa¬
tents, not exceeding the grant of 14 years, to the au¬
thors of new inventions *, and except alfo patents con¬
cerning printing, faltpetre, gunpowder, great ordnance,
and fhot) 5 and monopolifts are puniftied with the for¬
feiture of treble damages and double cofts, to thofe
whom they attempt to difturb 5 and if they procure any
aCtion, brought againft them for thefe damages, to be
flayed by any extrajudicial order, other than of the
court wherein it is brought, they incur the penalties of
preemutnre. Combinations alfo among victuallers or ar¬
tificers, to raife the price of provifions, or any commo¬
dities, or the rate of labour, are in many cafes feverely
puniihed by particular ftatutes; and, in general, by fta¬
tute 2 and 3 Edward VI. c. 15. with the forfeiture of
lol.or 20 days imprifonment, with an allowance of on¬
ly bread and w^ater, for the firft offence ; 20I. or the
pillory for the fecond ; and 40I. for the third, or elfe
the pillory, lofs of one ear, and perpetual infamy. In
U u the
Monophy-
fites,
Monopoly.
Monro.
MON [ 3
Monopoly the fame manner, by a confutation of the emperor Ze¬
no, all monopolies and combinations to keep up the
price of jtierchandife, provifions, or workman (nip, were
prohibited, upon pain of forfeiture of goods and perpe¬
tual banifhtnent.
MONOSYLLABLE, in Grammar, a word that
conlilfs only of one fyllable, and is compofed either of
one or more letters pronounced at the fame time.
The too frequent ufe of monofyllables has a very bad
efFe6t in Englilh poetry, as Mr Pope both intimates and
exemplifies in the fame verfe, viz.
“ And ten flow words oft creep in one dull line.”
MONOTHELITES, (compounded of “ An¬
gle,” and b'i'Xvp.x, “ will,” of S-eAao, volo, “ I will,”)
an ancient fe£t, which fprung out of the Eutychians ;
thus called, as only allowing of one will in Jefus
Chrift.
The opinion of the Monothelites had its rife in 630,
and had the emperor Htraciius for an adherent : it was
the fame with that of the Acephalous Severians. They
allowed of two wills in Chrift, confidered with regard
to the two natures ; but reduced them to one, by
reafbn of the union of the two natures ; thinking it ab-
furd there fhould be two free wills in one and the fame
perfon. 'They were condemned by the fixth general
Council in 680, as being fuppofed to deflroy the per¬
fection of the humanity of Jefus Chritt, depriving it of
will and operation. Their fentiments were afterwards
embraced by the Maronites.
MONO TONY, an uniformity of found, or a fault
in pronunciation, when a long feries of words is de¬
livered in one unvaried tone. See Reading.
MONOTROP A, Bird’s-nest ; a genus of plants
belonging to the monandria clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking with thofe of which the order is doubt¬
ful. See Botany Index.
■ MONREAL. See Montreal.
51 M'ONRO, Dr Alexander, fcnior, a celebrated
phyfieian and anatomift, was the fon of Mr John Monro,
who was for fome years a furgeon in the army under
King William in Flanders, and who afterwards fettled
as a furgeon in Edinburgh. The fubjedt of this bio-
graphical Iketch was born in London in 1697.
He {bowed an early inclination to the ftudy of phy-
fic ; and the father, after giving him the beft educa¬
tion that Edinburgh then afforded, fent him fucceflive-
ly to London, Paris, and Leyden, to improve himfelf
further in his profeflion. At London, he attended the
leftures of Meffrs Hawklbee and Whifton on experi¬
mental nhilofophy, and the anatomical demonftraiions
of Mr Chefelden. At Paris he attended the hofpitals,
and the leftures on the different branches of phyfie and
iurgcry ; and towards the end of autumn lytS, he
went to Leyden, and ftudied under the great Boer-
haave.
On his return to Edinburgh in autumn 1719,
MeflVs Drummond and Macgill, who were then con-
iunft nominal profeffors and demonftrators of anatomy
to the Surgeons Company, having refigned in his fa¬
vour, his father prevailed on him to read forae public
le£Iures on anatomy, and to illuflrate them by fhowing
the curious anatomical preparations which he had made
and fent home when abroad. Fie at the fame time per-
fuaded Dr Alfton, then a young man, to give fome
38 ] MON
public leclures on botany. Accordingly, in the begin- Mor,
ning of the winter 17 20, thefe two young profeffors be- ”V
gan to give regular courfes of lectures, the one on the
materia medica and botany, the other on anatomy and
forgery ; which were the firll regular courfes of leftures
on any of the branches of medicine that had ever been
read at Edinburgh, and may be looked upon as the
opening of that medical fchool which has fince acquired
fuch great reputation all over Europe,
In fummer 1721 and 1722, Dr Monro, by the per-
fuafion of his father, read fome leftures on chirurgical
fubjefts, particularly on wounds and tumours, which he
never would publiih, having written them in a hurry
and before be had much experience j but inferted from
time to time the improvements he thought might be-
ynade in furgery, in the volumes of Medical Efiays and
Obfervations to be hereafter mentioned.
About the year 1720, his father communicated to
the phyficians and furgeons at Edinburgh, a pian which
he had long formed in his own mind, of having the dif¬
ferent branches of phyfie and furgery regularly taught
at Edinburgh j which was highly approved of by them,
and by their intereft regular profefforfhips of anatomy
and medicine were inftituted in the univerfity. His fon,
Dr Monro, was firlt made univerfity profefTor of ana¬
tomy } and two or three years afterwards, Drs Sinclair,
Rutherford, Innes, and Plummer, were made profeflbrs
of medicine } the profeflorfliip of materia medica and
botany, which Dr Alfton then held, having been added
to the univerfity many years before. Immediately after
thefe gentlemen were elefted profeffors, they began to
deliver regular courfes of leisures on the different
branches of medicine, and they and their fucceffors have
uniformly continued fo to do every winter.
The plan for a medical education at Edinburgh was.
ft ill incomplete without an hofpital, where Undents could
fee the pradfiee of phyfic and furgery, as well as hear
the lectures of the profeffers. A fchertie was therefore
propofed by Dr Monro’s father, and others, particular¬
ly the members of the Royal College of Phyficians and
Board of Surgeons, for railing by fubfeription a fund
for building and fupporting an hofpital for the reception
of difeafed poor 5 and our author publiftied a pamphlet
fetting forth the advantages that would attend inch an
inftitution. In a fhort time a coiifiderable fum of money
was raifed, a fmall houfe was fitted up, and patients
were admitted into it, and regularly attended by many,
of the phyficians and furgeons in town. The fund for
this charity increafing very confiderably, in a great
meafure from the aftivity and influence of that very
worthy cit izen and magiftrate George Drummond, Elq.
the foundation was laid of the prefent large, commodi¬
ous, and ufeful hofpital, the Royal Infirmary; in the
planning of which Dr Monro fuggefted many ufeful
hints, and in particular the elegant room for chirurgical
operations was defigned and executed under his direc¬
tion. Provoft Drummond and he Were nominated the
building committee ; and the fabric was entirely coim-
pleted in a ftiort fpace of time. It has fince been fo
largely endowed, as to be capable of receiving a great
number of difeafed poor,, whofe cafes the Undents of
phyfic and furgery have an opportunity of feeing daily
treated with the greateft attention and care by phyfici¬
ans and furgeons eminent in their profeflion; and a re-
gifter of the particulars of all the cafes which have been
received
MON [ 33
Monro, received into the houfe fince its find opening has been
■—v—' 1 kept, in books appropriated for that purpoie, for the
ufe of the Undents.
In order to make the hofpital of (till farther ufe to
the Undents, Dr Monro frequently,, while he continued
profeffor of anatomy, gave lectures on the chirurgical
cafes j and Dr Rutherford, then profeflor of the prac¬
tice of phyfic, began, in the year 1748, to deliver cli¬
nical leisures, to be continued every winter, on tne
nioft remarkable cafes in tlie hofpital.
Dr Monro, though he was defied profeffor of anatomy
in the year 1721, was not received into the univerfity
till the year 1725, when he was indufled along with
that great mathematician the late Mr Colin Maclaurin,
with whom he ever lived in the ftrifleft friendftup.
From this time he regularly every winter gave a courfe
of leftures on anatomy and furgery, from Oflober to
May, upon a mod judicious and comprehenfive plan :
A talk in which he perfevered with the greatefl aflidu-
ity, and without the leail interruption, for near 4a
years ; and fo great was the reputation he had acquired,
that itudents flocked to him from the moll diifant
corners of his majefty’s dominions.
In 17 59, our profeflor entirely relinquilhed the bu-
~ finefs of the anatomical theatre to hisfon Dr Alexander,
who had returned from abroad, and had afliiled him in
the courfe of ledures the preceding year. But after
this refignation, he Hill endeavoured to render his la¬
bours ufeful to mankind, by reading clinical ledures at
the hofpital for the improvement of the fludents ^ of
which Dr Duncan, who was one of his pupils, has gi¬
ven the following account. “ There I had myfelf the
happinefs of being a pupil, who profited by the judici¬
ous condud of his pradice, and was improved by the
N wifdom and acutenefs of his remarks. I have indeed to
regret that I attended only the laft courfe of ledures in
which he had ever a (hare, and at a time when he was
'fubjeded to a difeafe which proved at length fatal.
Still, however, from what I faw and from what I
heard, I can venture to aflert, that it is hardly poflible
to conceive a phyfician more attentive to pradice, or a
■preceptor more anxious to communicate inftrudions.
His humanity, in the former of thefe charaders,. led
him to beftow the moft anxious care on bis patients
while they were alive } and his zeal in the latter indu¬
ced him to make them the fubjed of ufeful leffons
when they happened to die.—In the different ftations
•of phyfician, of ledurer, and of manager in the hofpital,
he took every meafure for inquiring into the caufes
of difeafes by diffedion.—He perfonally attended the
opening of every body ^ and he not only didated to the
ftudents an accurate report of the diffedion, but with
nice diferimination contralled the difeafed and found
Hate of every organ. Thus, in his own perfon, he af¬
forded to the ftudents a confpicuous example of the ad¬
vantages of early anatomical purfuits, as the happieft
foundation for a medical fuperftrudure. His being at
once engaged in two departments, the anatomical thea¬
tre and clinical chair, furnilhed him with opportuni¬
ties both on the dead and living body, and placed
him in the moft favourable fituation for the improve-
'ment of medicine; and from thefe opportunities he
derived every poffible advantage which they could af¬
ford.”
His father, old Mr Monro, lived to an advanced age;
9 ] MO N
and enjoyed the unfpeakable pleafure of beholding a Monro.
fon, efteemed and regarded by mankind, the principal v
aclor in the execution of his favourite plan, the great
objedt of his life, the founding a feminary of medical
education in his native country : J he Ion, who furwiv-
ed him near 30 years, had the fatisfadtiqn to behold this
feminary of medical education frequented yearly by 300
or 400 ftudents, many of whom came from the moft
diftant corners of his majefty’s dominion'^, and to fee it
arrive to a degree of reputation far beyond his moft fan-
guine hopes, being equalled by few, and inferior to
none, in Europe.
Dr Monro was not only very adlive in the line of his
own prnfeffion, but as a citizen and general member of
the community *, for, after he had refigned the anato¬
mical chair to his fon, he executed with the ftridlcft
pundtuality the duties of feveral engagements both of a
civil and political nature : He was a director of the
Bank of Scotland, a juftice of the peace, a commiffioner
«f high roads, &c. At length, after a life fpent in the
moft active induftry, he became afflifted with a tedious
and painful difeafe, which he bore with equal courage
and refignation till his death, which happened on July
JO. 1767, in the 70th year of his age.
Of his Avorks, the firft in order is his Ofteology,
which Avas Avritten for the ufe of ftudents, but is capa¬
ble alfo of affording inftrudtion to the oldeft and meft
experienced practitioner j as, befides a minute deferip-
tion of the parts copied from nature, it everyAvhere a-
bounds with new and important obfervations immedi¬
ately applicable to praCtice. It has been tranflated in"
to many different languages; has palled through nume¬
rous editions ; and has been reprinted in foreign coun¬
tries in the moft fuperb manner, accompanied Avith ele¬
gant and mafterly engra\'ings. His defeription of the
LaCteal Sac and Thoracic Du£t contains the moft accu¬
rate account of that important part of the body Avhich
has been yet publiflied •, and his Anatomy of the Nerves
aa'ill tranfmit to pofterity an excellent example of accu¬
rate diffedion, faithful defeription, and ingenious rea-
foning. The fix volumes of Medical Effays and Obfer ¬
vations, publilhed by a fociety in Edinburgh, are uni-
A’erfally knoAArn and efteemed. I o that fociety he Avas
appointed fecretary ; but, after the publication of the
firft volume, to which he had largely contributed, the
members groAving remifs in their attendance, he be¬
came the foie colledor and publifher of the work : To
him Ave are therefore in a great meafure indebted for
thofe numerous and important difeoveries Avith Avhieh
this publication has enriched every department of medi¬
cal knowledge. In the Iavo firft volumes of the Pbyfi-
cal and Literary Effays, publiflied by the phyfical fo¬
ciety of Edinburgh, in which he had the rank of one
of the prefidents, we find feveral papers Avritten by him,
Avhich are not the leaft ornaments of that collection.
His account of the Succefs of Inoculation in Scotland
may be eonfidered as his laft publication : It demon-
ftrales his extenfive correfpondence and indefatigable in¬
duftry, and has had great influence in promoting that
falutary praCtice. Befides thefe, he Avas alfo the author
of feveral other elegant and maflerly productions, Avhich
Avere either never publiflied, or Avere publiftied Avithout
his knoAvledge and from incorreCt copies. A collec¬
tion of all his works, properly arranged, corrected, and
illuftrated Avith copperplates, has been publiflied by Dir
Uw 2 Alexander
Monro
M O N [ 340 ]
Alexandfr Monro, his fon and fucceiTor in the anato- an admirable
mical chair, in a fplendid quarto volume, printed for
Elliot, Edinburgh, 1781 j to which is prefixed a life
of the author, by another of his fons, Dr Donald, phy-
fician in London. The obfervation of an excellent
judge, the illuftrious Haller, concerning our author’s
Medical Eflays and Obfervations, which now form a
part of this colleftion, may with no lefs jultice be ap¬
plied to the whole: “ It is a book which ought to be
in the pofleffion of every medical practitioner.”
MONS, an ancient, large, handfome, rich, and very
itrong city of the Aultrian Netherlands, in Hainault.
There is a chapter, confifting of 30 ladies of diltinc-
tion, who have the liberty of leaving the community
when they intend to marry. They have feveral manu¬
factures, and a good trade. It was taken by the allies
in 1709, and by the French in July 17465 but ren¬
dered back by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, after the
M O N
on a
fortifications were demolilhed. It Hands partly
hill, and partly on a plain in a marfliy foil, on the ri¬
vers Haine and Trouilli, by which the country about it
may be overflowed at pleafure. It was taken by the
French in 1794. E. Long. 4. 31. N. Lat. 50. 25.
Mo NS Sneer, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
the Sabines beyond the Anio, to the eaft of Rome ;
whither the common people retired once and again to
avoid the tyranny of the Patricians. From this fecef-
fion, and the altar of Jupiter Terribilis ereCted there,
the mountain took its name.
MONSEIGNEUR, in the plural Mcffeigneurs, a
title of honour and refpeCl ufed by the French in writ¬
ing to perfons of fuperior rank or quality, before the
late abolition of all ranks.
Dukes, peers, archbilhops, bilhops, and prefidents
a la mortier, were complimented with the title of Mon-
Jeigneur. In the petitions prefented to the fovereign
courts, they ufed the term Mejfeigneurs.
Monseigneur, abfolutely ufed, was a title reftrained
to the dauphin of France. This cuftom was unknown
till the time of Louis XIV. before which the dauphin
was fly led Mon/ieur le Dauphin.
MONSELEMINES, a people inhabiting that part
of Biledulgerid, which borders on the territories of the
emperor of Morocco. They are a mixed race, de-
feended from the ancient Arabs and fugitive Moors.
Their country extends from about 90 miles beyond
Cape Non, to the diftance of 60 miles from St Croix.
It is moftly fertile 5 and, with little cultivation, pro¬
duces the nectffltries of life. A number of ftreams wa¬
ter the plains, which abound with fig, date, palm, and
almond trees. The gardens produce excellent grapes,
which the Jews convert into brandy after they have
been dried by the Arabs.
The Monfelemine territory is very populous, and
would be much more fo, were it not for the almoft
continual wars in 'which the people are engaged againft
the emperor of Morocco 5 for, as this country is the re¬
treat of the rich Moors, who wifh to fly from the ty¬
ranny of the emperor, they are too Avell acquainted
with the Moorifh cufloms tube furprifed by that prince.
As foon as a Moorifh army takes the field, the inhabi¬
tants mount their horfes, and occupy the pafles of the
mountains 5 while the women and flaves retire to the
interior parts of the country, or to the defert, if they
are hard prefled. Their .horfes, which thev break iu
_ manner, are faid to be the befl in the
world j obedient to the voice of their mailer, and al¬
lowing no ft ranger to mount them.
The people derive their name and origin from one
Mofeilama, who was contemporary with Mahomet.
JLhey refpeft the prophet, as do oilier Mahometans 5
but neither believe that he was infallible, nor that his
defeendants are all infpired by God, nor that their will
fhould be a law, nor that luch faith is neceflary in or¬
der to be a good Mahometan. The influence of their
high prieft is nearly defpotic 5 for though he has no
troops, he may command the nation, and peace and
wai depend upon his trill. He has no property, vet
every thing is at his difpofal; he requires nothing from
any, yet all are difpofed to give him.
Ihe Monfelemines, on Friday, meet in their mofques
for prayer, and the fame is likewife the day of their
principal market, when their goods are expofed to fale
in the public fquares. '1'hey “never attempt to make
profelytes 5 and they treat their Chriftian flaves with
humanity, which may perhaps be owing to the avarice
of their mailers. The Jews are allowed among them
the fiee exercile of their religion. Polygamy is per¬
mitted among them 5 but the fituation of the women is
more refpetfable, and they are not fo much fecluded as
among the Moors, mingling more in fociety, -walking
at large, and vifiting their friends. The Monfelemine
children are brought up with great care, and are not
obliged to exhibit proofs of their courage till they can
be confidered as men.
MONSIEUR, in the plural MeJJieurs, a term or title
of civility, ufed by the French in fpeaking to their
equals, or thofe a little below them, anfwering to Mr
or Sir among the Englilh.
Monsieur, abfolutely ufed, was a title or quality
appropriated to the fecond Ion of France, or the king’s
brother. The king was alfo called Monjieur, but that
only by the children of France.
MONSONIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
polyadelphia clafs. See Botany Index.
MONSOON, a regular or periodical rvind, in the
Eaft Indies, blowing conftantly the fame way, during
fix months of the year, and the contrary ivay the re¬
maining fix.
In the Indian ocean, the winds are partly general,
and blow all the year round the fame way, as in the
Ethiopic ocean 5 and partly periodical, i. e. half the
year blow one way, and the other half year on the op-
pofite points : and thofe points and times of Ihifting
differ in different parts of this ocean. Thefe latter are
what we call monjoons.
The Ihifting of thefe monfoons is not all at once ;
and in fome places the time of the change is attended
with calms, in others with variable winds, and parti¬
cularly thofe of China, at ceafing to be wefterly, are
\ ery fubjcdl to be tempeftuous 5 and fuch is their vio¬
lence, that they feem to be of the nature of the Weft
India hurricanes, and render the navigation of thofe
feas very unfafe at that time of the year. Thefe
tempefts the feamen call the breaking up of the mon¬
foons.
Monfoons, then, are a fpecies of what we otherwife
call trade winds. They take the denomination mon-
foon from an ancient pilot, who firft crofted the Indian
fea by means hereof. Though others derive the name
from
Monfele¬
mines
II
Monfooia
MON [ 34i ] MON
Monioon, from a Portuguefe word fignifying motion or change
|Monfter. ^ 0£ ancJ fea-
'*,^V*~,**J Lucretius and Apollonius make mention of annual
winds which arife every year, etefia jlabna, which feem
to be the fame with what in the Ealt Indies we now call
tnonfoons. For the phyfical caufe ol thefe winds, fee
Meteorology.
MONS'rERj a birth or produflion of a living be¬
ing, degenerating from the proper and ufual difpoiition
of parts in the fpecies to which it belongs : As, when
there are too many members, or too few ; or fome of
them are extravagantly out of proportion, either on the
fide of defedt or excefs. The word comes from the
Latin monjlrum, of tnonjlrando, “ Ihowing.” Whence
alfo the box wherein relicks wrere anciently kept to be
fiiown, was called monjlrum. Dugdale mentions an
inventory of the church of York with this article, Item
unum monjlrum cum ojjibus fancli Fetri in beryl, et cru-
cifixo in fummitate.
Ariftotle defines a monfter to be a defedt of nature,
when, afling towards fome end, it cannot attend to it,
from fome of its principles being corrupted.
Monfters do not propagate their kind} for which
reafon fome rank mules among the number of monfters,
as alfo hermaphrodites.
Females which bring forth twins, arejound moft li¬
able to produce monfters. The reafon, probably, is
©wing to this j that though the twins are covered with
one common chorion, yet they have each their feparate
amnios, which by their contiguity may chance to grow
together, and fo occafion a confufion or blending of the
parts. Hence fo many double creatures.
Various theories have been propofed by philofophers
and phyfiologifts to account for the production of mon¬
fters. But after all, it muft be c&nfefled, that we are
very little acquainted with thofe deviations from the or¬
dinary courfe of nature. For each organized being
there appears to exift a primitive germ or model of the
different fpecies drawn by the Creator, determined by
forms and fexes, and realized in the individuals of both
fexes, which muft unite in order to their reproduction.
From this model nature never departs, unlefs when
compelled by circumftances which derange the primi¬
tive organization common to the fpecies, and produce
what are called monjlers.
With refpeCt to ftruCture, monfters are of various
kinds. Some have an excefs or defeCl in certain parts;
fuch as thofe which are called acephalous, or •who wTant
the head ; thofe which have two heads, two arms, trvo
legs, and one body, or which have two bodies and one
head, or which have three legs ; and thofe which want
the arms or the legs. Others err through an extraor¬
dinary and deformed conformation, through an unnatu¬
ral union of certain parts or vifeera, through a great
derangement in one or more of their members, and
through the extraordinary place which thefe often oc-
cupy in confequence of this derangement or tranfpofi-
tion. The monfter deferibed by Dr Eller of the aca¬
demy of Berlin was of this kind. It was a foetus of nine
months, 28 inches long, with an enormous head and
frightful countenance ; and in the middle of a broad
and vaft forehead it had a reddifh eye, without either
eyebrows or eyelids, and funk deep into a fquare hole.
Immediately below this eye was an excrefcence which
ftrongly refembled a penis with a glans, a prepuce, and
1
an urethra: the part covered with hair was likewife be¬
low the nape of the neck. In other monfters w'e meet
with the unnatural union of fome parts, which from
their deftination and functions, ought always to be fe¬
parate j and the feparation of other parts, which, for
the fame reafons, ought conftantly to be united. The
reader may fee the different ways in which the formation
of monfters takes place, in four memoirs by M. Leme-
ry, inferted in L'HiJloire de PAcademic des Sciences,
1738 and 1739. M. du Verney has likewife publilhed
a memoir on the fame fubjeft.
In the volume publiihed by the Academy of Sciences-
in 1724, mention is made by M. Geoftroy of a monfter
born in Barrois 1722. This monftrous produftion
confilted of two children without the inferior extremi¬
ties, joined together by a common navel : each ol
them had a nurfe, fucked, and eat pap j and the one
fucked while the other dept. The reader may like-
wTife confult the fecond part of Window’s Memoirs on
Monfters, inferted in the volume publidied by the Aca¬
demy of Sciences in 1734, where he will find the hiftory
of two very extraordinary twin monfters, who eviden¬
ced during their life a great difference in their moral
and phyfical qualities. We are obliged fimply to re¬
fer to thefe Memoirs, as they are too long for abridge¬
ment.
It is obferved by Haller, that in fome monfters the
natural ftruclure is changed by fome diock or paflion :
in others the ftrufture, independent of any accident, is
originally monftrous j fuch as when all the members
are reverfed from left to right, when the perfon has
fix fingers, and in many other inftances. M. de Mau-
pertuis mentions, that there is at Berlin a family who
have had fix fingers on each hand for feveral genera¬
tions. M. de Riville faw an inftance of this at Malta,
of which he has given a defeription. M. Renou, fur-
geon at Pommeraye in Anjou, lias publifhed an ac¬
count of fome families with fix fingers, which are to
be found in feveral parilbes of the Lower Anjou, and
which have exifted there from time immemorial. This
deformity is perpetuated in thefe families even when
they intermarry with perfons who are free from it.
Whether the propagation of thefe fupernumerary or¬
gans, which are not only ufelefs but inconvenient and
even difagreeable, be owfing to the father or mother,
their children of both fexes are fubjeft to it indiferi-
minately. A father and mother with fix fingers fre¬
quently have a part, and fometimes the whole of their-
children, free from this deformity ; but it again makes
its appearance, and in a very great degree, in the third
generation. From this it appears, that this fault in
the conformation is hereditary. M. Reaumur has like¬
wife publiftied the hiftory of a family in the ifland of
Malta, the children of which are born with fix fingers
and fix toes. But it deferves to be inquired, Whether
thefe fupernumerary fingers are real fingers ? The rea¬
der may here eonfult the Journal de Physique for No¬
vember 1774, p. 372. This variety offexdigitary hands
and feet is not comprehended in the Recherches fur
quelques- conformations monfrueufes des doigts dans
Phomme, which is inferted in the Memoirs of the Aca¬
demy of Sciences for 1771. In the Journal de Physique
for Auguft 1776, we find a defeription of a double ute¬
rus and vagina obferved in a woman who died in child¬
bed, by Dr Purcell of Dublin ; and in that for June
1788*
Monfler.
Monfter.
MON [ 342 ] MON
1788, we have an account of a man with feven fingers
on each hand, by Baron Dietrich.
Several monttrous produflions are to be feen in the
cabinet at Chantilly, j. Two calves joined together
in the body, with each a feparate head and neck, and
four legs in whole. 2. Two calves united only by the
pelvis, with only one anus and one tail : the whole is
fupported by fix legs, four before and two behind.
3. A lamb with fix legs, four of which are behind.
4. The fkeleton of a ram, which has likewife fix legs.
5. A hermaphrodite deer. 6. The head of a foal,
which has only one eye in the middle of the forehead.
7. Some leverets with fix and eight legs. 8. A puppy,
the lips of which are divided four-fold. 9. Some foe-
tufes of a hog which have a kind of tube upon their
forehead one or two inches long ; and another, the
hinder part of which is double in every thing. 10. Two
double human foetufes joined by the belly, with four
arms and three legs. 11. A young chicken with two
bodies and one head, l 2. A pigeon and a duck, each
with two bills. 13- A duck with two heads. 14. A
pigeon with four feet. 15. A capon with three feet 5
the third being fixed to the anus. 16. Two heads of
a calf joined together, each of them with two ears :
thefe two heads were both fixed to one neck. 17. In
the Menagerie at Chantilly there was formerly to be
feen a cow with five feet, the fifth of which was con-
nefted with the dug. 18. A rabbit without ears.
19. Two cats, each having two heads. 20. Two leve¬
rets newly brought forth, well thaped in the body and
legs, but connected together by means of only one
head. 21. Several eggs, in the figure of which there
occur fome monftrous appearances and extraordinary
deformities, fufficient to fhow that they are contrary to
the efiablithed form of nature.
Mr Home, furgeon, fome time ago prefented to Mr
John Hunter, the double Jkull of a child, born at Cal¬
cutta in May 1783 of poor parents aged 30 and 35,
and which lived to be nearly two years old. The
body of this child w as naturally formed : but the head
had the phenomenon of appearing double \ another
head of the fame fize, and almoft equally perfect, be¬
ing attaehed to its upper part. In this extraneous and
preternatural head no puliation could be felt in the ar¬
teries of the temples. But the fuperficial veins Were
very evident; one of the eyes had been hurt by the fire,
upon which the midwife, in her firft alarm, threw the
child : the other moved readily ; but the iris was not
affected by the approach of any thing to it. The ex¬
ternal ears of this head were very imperfect ; the
tongue adhered to the low'er jaw7, except for about half
an inch at the lip, which was loofe ; the jaw7 was ca¬
pable of motion, but there were no teeth. The child
v7as Ihown about the ftreets of Calcutta for a curiofity;
but was rendered unhealthy by confinement, and died
at laft of a bite of the cobra de capello. It was
dug up by the Eaft India Company’s agent for fait
at Tumloek, and the fkull is now in the mufeum of
Mr Hunter.
Among the monftrous produfrions of the animal
kingdom, w7e may rank thofe individuals which ought
only to poffefs one fex, but in which wre obferve the
union or the appearance of twfo. See the articles An¬
drogynes and Hermaphrodite.
M. Fabri arranges mutilations of the members, dif-
tortions, gibbofities, tumors, divifions of the lips or
of the palate, compreflions of the cranium, and many
other deformities of this kind, in the clafs of morbific
monftruofities. In that wdiich he calls connatural
(connaturelle) monftruofities, are placed the plurality,
tranfpofition, and infertion of the parts. To explain
thefe fads, a great many writers have had recourfe to
the effedl of the imagination of pregnant women.—
The caufes of the firft clafs of monftruofities are dif-
cuffed by M. Fabri, who obferves, that fome of them
are internal with regard to the mother, and others ex¬
ternal. By an internal caufe he here means all thofe
depravations or morbific principles which can affect
the fluids, and which vitiate the form and ftrudlure of
the folids j in particular the uterus, in which fuch de¬
pravations have often been found to occur. To thefe
he adds violent afre&ions of the mind, fpafmodic con-
tra&ions, hyfteric convulfions, and the many inconve¬
niences of this kind to which women are extremely
fubject. External caufes comprehend every thing
which can aft externally upon the foetus contained in
the uterus, fuch as the preffure of the clothes ; and in
fhort every thing which prevents the free dilatation of
the belly in women that are pregnant, violent mo¬
tions, falls, blows, and all accidents of this kind. Thefe
external caufes, and efpecially the firft, comprefs the
foetus in the womb, and oblige it to remain in a very
confined fituation. This according to the obfervation
of Hippocrates, produces thofe embryos which are born
with fome entire part wounded. M. Fabri maintains,
that all deformities of the foetus proceed from fome me¬
chanical and accidental caufes.
The name of monfers is likew'ife given to animals
enormous for bulk ; fuch as the elephant among ter-
reftrial quadrupeds, and the fhark and the whale
among fea animals j to other animals remarkable for
fiercenefs and cruelty j and to animals of an extraordi¬
nary fpecies, which, we are told, arifes from the
copulation of one animal with another of a different
genus. According to the report of travellers, Africa
abounds v7ith monfters of this kind j and accounts of
the Eaft are full of deferiptions of fea monfters, which,
however, are field om to be feen, fuch as fea men, mer¬
maids, <b’c.
Monfters are more common and more extraordinary
in the vegetable than in the animal kingdom, becaufe
the different juices are more eafily deranged and con¬
founded together. Leaves are often feen, from the in¬
ternal parts of which other leaves fpring forth, and it
is not uncommon to fee flowers of the ranunculus from
the middle of which iffues a ftalk bearing another
flower. M. Bonnet informs us, that in certain warm
and rainy years he has frequently met with monfters
of this kind in rofe trees. This obferver faw a rofe,
from the centre of which iffued a fquare ftalk of a
whitiftr colour, tender, and without prickles, which at
its top bore two flower buds oppofite to each other,
and totally deftitute of a calyx ; a little above the
buds iffued a petal of a very irregular fhape. Upon
the prickly flalk which fupported the rofe, a leaf was
obferved •which had the ftiape of a trefoil, together with
a broad flat pedicle. In the memoirs of the Academy
of Sciences for 1707, p. 448, mention is made of a
rofe, from the centre of the leaves of which iffued a
rofe branch twro or three inches long, and furnifhed
with
Mon tier.
[tO!
—
Montague.
MON [
Monfter leaves. See the fame Memoirs for 1749’ P'
and for 1724, p. 20. In the Memoirs for 1775, a
very Angular inftance is mentioned of a monftruofity
obferved by M. Duhamel, in an apple-tree ingrafted
with clay. At the place of the infertion, there ap¬
peared a bud which produced a (talk and fome leaves }
the ftalk and the pedicle of the leaves were of a pulpy
fubftance, and had the mod perfect refemblance both
in tafte and ftnell to the pulp of a green apple. An
extraordinary chamxtnelum is mentioned in the A El a
Helvetica. M. Bonnet, in his Recherches fur Pufage
dssfeuilles, mentions like wife fome monilrous produc¬
tions which have been found in fruits with kernels,
analogous in their nature to thofe which occur in the
flowers of the ranunculus and of the rofe tree. He has
feen a pear, from the eye of which ifiued a tuft of
13 or 14 leaves, very well fliaped, and many of them
of the natural fize. He has feen another pear which
gave rife, to a ligneous and knotty ftalk, on which
grew another pear fomewhat larger than the firft.—
The ftalk had probably flourished, and the fruit had
formed. The /ilium album polyanthos, obferved fome
years ago at Breflaw, which bore on its top a bundle
of flowers, confiding of 102 lilies all of the common
fhape, is well known. M. Reynier has mentioned
fome individuals monftrous with refpeff to the flower,
in the Journal ie Physique et (P Hi/loire Naturelle, for
November 1785. He has likewife mentioned a mon¬
ftrous tulip which is feen in the gardens of fome ama¬
teurs •, juniper berries with horns j a balfamine with
three fpurs, &c.
Thefe vegetable produflions which are fo extra¬
ordinary, and fo contrary to the common courfe of
things, do neverthelefs prefent deviations fubjetl to
particular laws, and reducible to certain principles, by
diftinguiihing fuch as are perpetuated either by feed
or bv tranfplanting, from thofe which fee n to be only
accidental. Monftruofities which are perpetuated exift
in the original organization of the feed ot the plant,
fuch as marked or curled leaves, &c. 'The word mon-
fer is more properly applied to thofe irregularities in
plants, which arife from frequent tranfplantation, and
from-a particular culture, fuch as double flowers, &e.:
but tffofe monftruofities which are not perpetuated, and
which arife from accidental and tranfient caufes deran¬
ging the primitive organization of the plant when it
comes to be unfolded, as is the effeft of difeafes, of heat
or cold, of a fuperfluity or fcarcity of juices, of a de¬
pravation of the veffeis contributing to nutrition, of the
fling of infedfc, of contufions and natural graft's, retain
alfo the name of monjters. Of this kind are knobs
or fwellings, Hunting, gall nuts, certain ftreaks, and
other ftmilar defeefs.
MONT-blanc. See MoNT-Blanc.
MONTAGUE, Lady Mary Wortley, accom¬
panied her hufband who was fent on an embaffy to Con-
ftantinople in the beginning of the iSth century. On
her return ftie introduced the pra£tice of inoculation
into England, and thence acquired great celebrity. She
cultivated the belles lettres *, and at one period of her
life fhe was the friend of Pope, and at another his
enemy. While they were at enmity with each other.
Lady* Mary Montague embraced every opportunity of
defaming the poet, who well knew how to take re-'
venyc. "Both of them carried their animofity to fo
343 1 MON
44. great a height, that they became the lubje£l of public Montague.
converfation. After a long life, full of lingular and ' v '
romantic adventures, (lie died about the year 1760.
From her we have Letters, written during her travels
from the year 1716 to the year 1718. They have been
tranflated into French, and publilhed at Rotterdam
1764, and at Paris 1783, one vol. 1 2mo. 1 hey are
compofed in a lively, interefling, and agreeable ftyle,
and contain many curious fadts relating to the manners
and government of the Turks, which are nowhere elfe
to be found. The Baron de Tott, who lived many
years at Conftantinople, attacked them with great fe-
verity , but they have been detended with equal zeal
by M. Guis of Marfeilles, who has publilhed a valuable
work on Turkey. It need not appear extraordinary,
that perfons who have vifited the fame country ftiould
not fee things in the fame light. How few travellers
agree in their accounts of the fame objcdls, which they
neverthelefs pretend to have feen and to have examined
with attention.
Montague, Edward Wortley, fon of the former,
palled through fuch variegated feenes, that a bare re¬
cital of them would favour of the marvellous. From
Weftminiler fchool, where he wa- placed for education,
he ran away three feveral times. He exchanged
clothes with a chimney-fweeper, and he followed *T
fome time that feoty occupation. He next joined
himfelf to a fiiherman, and cried flounders in Rother-
hithe. He then failed as a cabin boy to Spain ; where
he had no fooner arrived, than he ran away from the
veflel, and hired himfelf to a driver of mules. After
thus vagabondizing it for fome time, he was diicovered
by the conful, who returned him to his friends in Eng¬
land. They received him with a joy equal to that of
the father of the prodigal fon in the gofpel. lY private
tutor was employed to recover thofe rudiments of learn¬
ing which a life of diflipation, ot blackguardifm, and
of vulgarity, might have obliterated. \\ ortley was
fent to the Weft Indies, where he remained fome time j
then returned to England, ailed according to the dig¬
nity of his birth, was chofen a member, and ferved in
two fucceflive parliaments. His expences exceeding his
income, he became involved in debt, quitted ins native
country, and commenced that wandering traveller he
continued to the time of his death. Having vifited
moft of the eaftern countries, he contracled a partiali¬
ty for their manners. He drank little wine, a great
deal of coffee wore a long beard •, fgioked much :
and, even whilft at Venice, he was habited in the eaft¬
ern ftyle. He fat crofs-legged in the Turkifti faihion
through choice. With the Hebrew, the Araific, the
Chaldaic, and the Perfian languages, he was as well ac¬
quainted as with his native tongue. He publiftied fe¬
veral pieces. One on the “ Rife and Fall of the Ro¬
man Empire.” Another an exploration of “ The
Caufes of Earthquakes.” As this gentleman was
remarkable for the uncommon incidents which at¬
tended his life, the clofe of that life was no lefs
marked with Angularity. He had been early mar¬
ried to a woman who afpired to no higher a, cha¬
racter than that of an induftrious walherwoman. As
the marriage W'as folemnized in a frolic, Wortley ne¬
ver deemed her fuflnciently the wife of his bofom to
cohabit with her. She was allowed a maintenance.
She lived contented, and was. too fubmiflive to be
tgrqublefoms-
MON [ 34.4. ]
Tvlontague troublefome on account of the conjugal rites. Mr Mon- Marcus
Montanifts. ta8ue> on t^e oth^r hand, was a perfeft patriarch in his
v—■—vmm, manners. He had wives of almoft every nation. When
he was with Ali Eey in Egypt, he had his houfehold
of Egyptian females, each ftriving who (hould be the
happy (he who could gain the greateft afcendency
over this. Anglo-Eaftern balhaw. At Conftantinople,
the Grecian women had charms to captivate this un¬
fettled wanderer. In Spain a Spanifh brunette, in
Italy the olive-complexioned female, were folicited to
partake the honours of the bridal bed. It may be
alked what became of this group of wives ? Mr Mon¬
tague was continually (hifting the place, and confe-
quently varying, the fcene. Did he travel with his
wives as the patriarchs did with their flocks and herds?
No fuch thing. Wortley, confidering his wives as
bad travelling companions, generally left them behind
him. It happened, however, that news reached his
ears of the death of the original Mrs Montague the
wafherwnman. Wortley had no iflue by her j and
without iiTue male, a very large eftate would revert to
the fecond fon of Lord Bute. Wortley owing the fa¬
mily no obligations, was determined, if poflible, to
defeat their expeftations. He refolved to return to
England and marry. He acquainted a friend with his
intentions : and he commiflioned that friend to adver-
tife for any young decent woman who might be in a
pregnant (late. Several ladies anfwtred it. One out
of the number was felefted, as being the mod eligible
object. She waited with eagernefs for the arrival of
her expected bridegroom j but, behold, whilft he was
on his journey, death very impertinently arrefted him
in his career.
MONTAGUE IJland, one of the Hebrides, in the South
fea near Sandwich bland. E. Long. 168. 37. S. Lat.
17. 26.
MONTAIGNE, Michel de, a French gentleman,
was born in Perigord in I533. His father educated
him with great care, and made him learn Latin as
other children learn their mother tongue. His tutors
■Were Nicholas Gronchi, who wrote De Comitiu Rotna-
twrum; William Guerenti, who wrote on Ariftotle ;
George Buchanan ; and M. Anthony Muret. He was
alfo taught Greek by way of recreation 5 and becaufe
fome think that darting children out of their deep
fpoils their underdanding, he was awakened every
morning with the found of mufic. He was counfellor
for a while in the parliament of Bourdeaux ; after¬
wards made mayor of Bourdeaux. He publifhed his
E/Jays, fo much known in the world, in 1580. Mon¬
taigne had a great deal of wit and fubtlety, but no fmall
Ihare of conceit and vanity. The learned and ingenious
are much divided in their opinion about his works. He
died in 1592.
MONTALCINO, a fmall populous town of Italy
in Tufcany, and in the territory of Sienna, with a bi-
fliop’s fee. It is feated on a mountain, 17 miles fouth-
ead of Sienna, and 44 fouth-ead of Florence. E. Long.
II. 30. N. Lat. 43. 7.
MONTALTO, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the
Marca of Ancona ; feated on the river Monacio, 10
miles north of Afcoli, and 45 fouth of Ancona. E.
Long. 13. 30. N. Lat. 42. $4.
MON 1 AN IS I S, Chridian heretics, who fprang
np about the year 171, in the reign of the emperor
M O N
Aurelius. They were fo called from their Montanifts
leader, the herefiarch Montanus, a Phrygian by birth ;
whence they are fometiraes dyled Phrygians and Cata-
phrygians.
Montanus, it is faid, embraced Chridianity in hopes
of rifing to the dignities of the church. He pretended
to infpiration ; and gave out, that the Holy Ghod had
indruded him in feveral points, which had not been
revealed to the apodles. Prifcilla and Maximilla, two
enthufiadic women of Phrygia, prefently became his
difeiples 5 and in a (hort time he had a great number
of followers. The bifliops of Afia being adembled
together, condemned his prophecies, and excommuni¬
cated thofe who difperfed them. Afterwards they
wrote an account of what had pafled to the wedern
churches, where the pretended prophecies of Montanus
and his followers were likewife condemned.
The Montanids, finding themfelves expofed to the
cenfure of the whole church, formed a fchifm, and fet
up a didind fociety under the diredion of thofe who
called themfelves prophets. Montanus, in conjundion
with Prifcilla and Maximilla, was at the head of the
(cd.
Thefe fedaries made no alteration in the creed.
They only held that the Holy Spirit made Montanus
his organ for delivering a more perfed form of difei-
pline than what was delivered by the apodles. They
refufed communion for ever to thofe who were guilty
of notorious crimes, and believed that the bifliops had
no authority to reconcile them. They held it unlaw¬
ful to fly in time of perfecution. They condemned fe¬
cond marriages, allowed the diflblution of marriage,
and obferved three lents.
The Montanids became feparated into tivo branches,
one of which -were the difciples of Proclus and the
other of Aifchines. The latter are charged with fol¬
lowing the heterodoxy of Praxes and Sabellius con¬
cerning the Trinity.
MONl ARGIS, a confiderable towrn of France, in
the Orleannois, and capital of the Gatinois; feated on
the river Loire, 62 miles fouth of Paris. E. Long-. 2.
36. N. Lat. 48. 1.
MONTAUBAN, a confiderable town of France
in Guienne, and territory of £)uerey, feated on the
river Tarne, 20 miles north of Touloufe. E. Long. 1.
27. N. Lat. 43. 56.
MONl BAZON, a town of France, in Touraine,
135 miles fouth-wed of Paris. E. Long. 0.45. N. Lat.
47. 17.
MONTBELLIARD, a drong town of France, ca¬
pital of a province of the fame name, between Alface
and the Franche Compte, feated near the rivers Alaine
and Doux, 33 miles wed of Bade, and 45 north-ead of
Bezar$on. E. Long. 6. 30. N. Lat. 47. 31.
MONTBLANC, a town of Spain in the province
of Catalonia, 15 miles north of Tarragon. E. Long. I*
5. N. Lat. 41. 20.
MON l BRISION, a confiderable town of France,
and capital of Forez, feated on the river Veziza, 40
miles wed of Vienne, and 250 fouth by ead of Paris.
E. Long. 4. 27. N. Lat. 45. 32.
MONTECC HIO, a confiderable town of Italy, in
the duchy of Reggio, 10 miles fouth-ead of Parma,
and eight north-wed of Reggio. E. Long. 15. 54.
N. Lat. 38. 8.
MONTE kalco,
Montec-
chio.
MON r 345 ] M O N
Monte- MONTE-Falco, a town of Italy, in the territory
falco 0£ j]ie Church and duchy of Spoletto 5 feated on a
Montcf mountain near the river Clitunno, 12 miles weft ot
quieii.” Spoletto. E. Long. 12. 40. N. Lat. 42. 58.
—* MONTE-Falcone, a town of Italy, in Fruili, with
a caftle. It belongs to the Venetians, and is near the
river Ponzano, 10 miles north-weft of Aquileia, and
12 north-weft of Triefte. E. Long. 13. o. N. Lat.
46. 4.
MONTE-Fiafcone, a fmall but populous town of Italy,
in the territory of the Church, with a bithop’s fee •,
feated on a mountain, near the lake Bolfena, in a coun¬
try abounding with excellent wine, 12 miles fouth-weft
of Orvieto, and 45 north-weft of Rome. E. Long.
12. 4. N. Lat. 42. 26.
MONTE-Mar a no, a populous town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the Farther Principato ;
feated on the river Galore, 18 miles fouth of Bene-
vento. E. Long. 15. O. N. Lat. 40. 48.
MONTE-Mor-o-novo, or Monte-major-el-novo, a eon-
ftderable town of Portugal, on the road from Lift)on
to Badajoz. W. Long. 9. 35. N. Lat. 38. 42.
Monte-Mor-o-velho, or Monte-major-el-velho, a town
of Portugal in the province of Beira, with a very large
caftle, feated in a fertile country, 10 miles fouth-weft
of Coimbra, and 83 north of Litbon. W. Long. 8. 9.
N. Lat. 40. 5.
MONTE-Pelofo, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the Bafilicata 5 feated on a
mountain near the river Bafiento, 14 miles eaft of Ci-
renza. E. Long. 16. 28. N. Lat. 40. 46.
MONTE-PnlJiano, a town of Italy, in Tufcany, with a
bilhop’s fee 5 feated on a high mountain, near the river
Chiana, in a country noted for excellent wine, 2 <; miles
fouth-eaft of Sienna, and 50 fouth by eaft of Florence.
E. Long. 11. 49. N. Lat. 43. 10.
MONTE-Sanclo, formerly called Mount v/z/wx, a moun¬
tain of Turkey in Europe, on the gulf of Conteffa. It
is called Monte-Samfto, or the Holy Mount, becaufe
there are 22 monafteries thereon, in which are 4000
monks, who never fuffer a woman to come near them.
It is 17 miles fouth of Salonichi. E. Long. 24. 39.
•N. Lat. 40. 27.
MONTE-Verde, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Napl es, and in the Farther Principato, with a bithop’s
fee : 60 miles eaft of Naples. E. Long. 15.42. N. Lat.
40. 51.
MONTEGO BAT, a flourithing town on the north
fide of Jamaica. It has a very confiderable commerce j
150 veffels clear out annually. The harbour is capaci¬
ous ; but expofed to north winds, which at certain times
in the. year blow with great violence. In June 1795,
a fire confumed an immenfe quantity of ftores, and great
part of the town. W. Long. 77. 50. N. Lat. 18. 29.
MONTES A, a very ftrong town of Spain, in the
kingdom of Valencia. It is the feat of an order of
knighthood of the fame name 5 and is five miles from
Xativa. W. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 39. o.
MONTESQUIEU, Charles de Secondat, Ba¬
ron, a moft illuftrious Frenchman, defcended from an
ancient and noble family of Guienne, was born at the
caftle of La Brede, near Bourdeaux, in 1689. The
greateft care was taken of his education *, and at the
age of 20 he had actually prepared materials for his
Spirit of Lavrs, by well digefted extra&S from thofe
Vol, XIV. Part I.
immenfe volumes of civil law which he had ftudicd, Monte
not barely as a civilian, but as a philofopher. He be- t quicu-
came a counfellor of the parliament of Bourdeaux in v
1714, and w7as received prefident h mortier two years
after. In 1721 he publiihed his Perfian Letters*, in
which, under the fcreen of Oriental manners, he fatiri-
zed thofe of France, and treated of feveral important
lubjefts by delicate tranfient glances: he did not avow
this publication ; but vTas no fooner pointed out as the
author, than zeal without knowledge, and envy under
the malk of it, united at once againft the Perfian
Letters. He was received into the French academy in
1728 5 and having previoufiy quitted his civil employ¬
ments, he entirely devoted himfelf to his genius, and was
no longer a magiftrate, but a man of letters. Ha¬
ving thus fet himfelf at liberty, he travelled through
Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Holland, and England,
in which laft country he refided three years, and con-
tracled intimacies with the greateft men then alive j for
Locke and Newton were dead. The refult of his ob-
fervations wTas, “ that Germany was fit to travel in,
Italy to fojourn in, England to think in, and France
to live in.” On his return he retired for two years to
his eftate at La Brede, where he finilhed his work
On the Caufes of the Grandeur and Declenfion of the
Romans; which appeared in 1734. The reputation
acquired by this laft work only cleared the way for his
greater undertaking, the Spirit of Law's, which was
printed at Geneva in 2 vols. 4to, 1750. This was
immediately attacked by the adverfaries of his Perfian
Letters, in a multitude of anonymous pamphlets ; con¬
taining all the reproaches to which a liberal mind is
expofed from craft and ignorance. M. Montefquieu
drew up a defence of this work ; which for truth, mo¬
deration, and delicacy of ridicule, may be regarded as
a model in its way. This great man was peaceably
enjoying that fulnefs of efteem which his great merits
had procured him, when he fell fick at Paris, and
died on the 10th of February 1755.—The following
charafter of this great man is drawn by Lord Chefter-
field. “ His virtues did honour to human nature, his
writings juftice. A friend to mankind, he afferted their
undoubted and unalienable rights with freedom, even
in his owrn country; whofc prejudices in matters of
religion and government he had long lamented, and
endeavoured, not without fome fuccefs, to remove. He
well knew, and juftly admired, the happy conftitution
of this country, where fixed and known law's equally
reftrain monarchy from tyranny, and liberty from li-
centioufnefs. His works will illuftrate his name, and
furvive him, as long as right reafon, moral obligation,
and the true fpirit of law's, ftiall be underftood, re-
fpefted, and maintained.” As to his perfonal qualities,
we are told by his eulogift, M. d’Alembert, that “ he
wras of afweet, gay. and even temper. His converfation
w'as fpirited, agreeable, and inftrudlive. Nobody told a
ftory in a more lively manner, or with more grace and
lefs affectation. He had frequent abfenee of mind ;
but always awaked from it by fome unexpected ftroke
that re-animated the languithing converfation. Though
he lived with the great, he retired whenever he could
to his eftate in the country, and there met his books,
his philofophy, and his repofe. Surrounded at his
leifure hours with peafants, after having ftudied man
in the commerce ef the world, he ftudied him in thole
X x fimple
♦
MON r 346 1 M O N
Montef- fire pic people folely inflru<5ted by nature. With them
he cheerfully con vet fed 5 he endeavoured, like Socrates,
Mo.-teiu- to hn<i nu{: iheir geniu1-, and appeared as happy with
ma. them as in the molt brilliant aflemblies ; efpecially
when he reconciled their differences, and by his bene¬
ficence relieved them horn their diilreiTe.^.'1
Eefxdes the works already mentioned, M. Montef-
quieu wrote feveral Itnal! pieces, as the Te mple of Gni-
dus, Ly ln:; h; s, ana ,m 11 flay up m Tafte. which is left
undniflied i.iis w rks hava: been colledled once his
death, aid printed at Paris in a fplendid edition, in
quar:o 1 hey have like wife all of them been tranflated
into Lngliili
MONTEZUMA, or Montezuma, was emperor
or kn g of M'xieo when Cortez invaded that coun¬
try in 1 - i8, in ited thither, as he pretended, by the
inhabitants, whole rhildren Montezuma, in the blind-
ncls 01 his fuperftition, had facrificed to his idols. The
warlike animals on whieh the Spaniih officers were
mourned, the artificial thunder with which they were
arm.-, d, the wooden caftles on which they had croffed
the ocean, the armour with which they were covered,
the viftories which they gained wherever they went;
all thefe circumffances, added to that foolifh difpofition
to wonder which always characterizes a Ample people,
fo operated upon the minds of the Mexicans, that when
Cortez arrived at the city of Mexico, he was received
by Montezuma as his mafter, and by the inhabitants
as a god. At firlt they fell down in the ftreets when
a-Spaniih valet pafied by ; but by degrees the court of
Montezuma grew familiar with the Grangers, and ven¬
tured to treat them as men. Montezuma, unable to
expel them by force, endeavoured to infpire them with
confidence at Mexico by expreflions of friendlhip,
while he employed fecret means to weaken their power
in other quarters. With this view, one of his generals,
who had private orders to that purpofe, attacked a
party of the Spaniards who were Rationed at Vera
Cruz j and, although his troops were unfuccefsful, yet
three or four of the Spaniards were killed. The head of
one of them was carried to Montezuma. In confequence
of this, Cortez did what has been reckoned one of the
boldefi: politic al llrokes that ever was performed. He
van to the palace, followed by fifty of his troops ; and,
by perfuafion and threats, carried the emperor prifoner
into the Spaniih quarters. He afterwards obliged him
to deliver up thofe who had attacked his troops at
Vera Cruz : and, like a general who punilhes a com¬
mon foldier, he loaded Montezuma with chains. He
next obliged him to acknoAvledge himfelf in public the
vaffial of Charles V. j and, in name of tribute for this
homage, Cortez received 600,000 merks of pure gold.
Montezuma foon afterwards fell a facrifice to his fub-
miflion to the Spaniards. He and Alvaro, the lieu¬
tenant of Cortez, were befieged in the palace by
200,000 Mexicans. The emperor propofed to Ihovr
himfelf to his fubie61s, that he might perfuade them
to delid from the attack : but the Mexicans no longer
conlidered him in any other light but as the Have of
foreign conquerors. In the midft of his fpeech, he
received a blow with a Rone which wounded him mor¬
tally. •, and he expired foon after, A. D. 1520.— See
Cortez. This unfortunate prince left two fons and
three daughters, who embraced the ChriRian faith.
The eldeR received baptifm, and obtained from Charles
V. lands, revenues, and the title of count de Montezu- Montezu.
ma. He died in 1608 ; and his family is one of the raa
moR poweriul in Spain. „ !!
MON1 f EURA J , a province of Italy, with the otlt^crQ^
title of a duchy j bounded on the eaR by the duchy of
Milan, and part of the territory of Genoa j on the
north, by the Vercellefe and Canavefe j on the wcR, by
Piedmont properly fo called; and on the fouth by the
territory of Genoa, from whence it is feparated by the
Apennine mountains. It contains 200 towns and
cattles j and is very fertile and well cultivated, abound¬
ing in corn, wine, oil, and filk. It belongs to the king
ot Sardinia, and Cafal is the capital town.
MONTFORT, a town of France, in Upper Bre¬
tagne, feated on the River Men, 1 2 miles from Rennes.
V*7. Long. 1. 58. N. Lat. 48. 8.
Montfort, a handfome and Rrong town of the
Netherlands, in the United Provinces, with an ancient
cattle ; feated on the river Yflei, feven miles from
Utrecht. E. Long. 5. o. N. Lat. 52. 4.
Montfort, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Suabia, on the confines of Tirol, 16 miles fouth of
Lindow, and the lake ConRance. It is capital of a
country of the fame name, which has been almoR all
purchafed by the houfe of AuRria. E. Long. 9. 51.
N. Lat. 4’7. 22.
Montfort-DE-lemos, an ancient town of Spain,
in the kingdom of Galicia, with a magnificent caRle,
where the Comarca of Lemos refides. It is feated in
a fertile country, 25 miles north-eaR of Orenfa, and 55
fouth-eaR of Compoflella. W. Long. 7. 9. N. Lat.
42. 28.
Montfort-l’amuly, a town in the Me of France,
with the title of a duchy, 25 miles from Paris. E. Long.
2. 50. N. Lat. 48. 45.
MONTGATZ, a town of Lower Hungary, in the
county of Pereczas, with a Rrong fortrefs. It is en-
compaffed with a great morafs, and art and nature have
rendered it almoR impregnable. It was defended by the
princefs Ragotlky, wife of Count Tekeli, when befieged
by an army of the imperiaiifls, who were obliged to raife
the fiege in 1688. E. Long. 21. 55. N. Lat. 46. 26.
MONTGERON, Louis-Basile-Carre de, was
born at Paris in 1686: his father was mafler of re-
queRs. He was fcarcely 25 years of age when he pur¬
chafed the place of counfellor in parliament, where by
his wit and external qualifications he gained confider-
able reputation. Deeply engaged in all the vices
which flow from irreligion, he was converted by an
extraordinary circumflance. He went on the 7th of
September 1731 to the tomb of Deacon Paris, with
an intention to examine, with the rigour of the fevereft
critic, the miracles whieh were reported to be per¬
formed there. But, according to his own account, he
felt himfelf fuddenly beat to the earth by innumerable
flaflies of light with which he was furrounded. Hi*
incredulity was converted into flaming zeal, and he
became the apoflle of the faint whom he formerly ri¬
diculed. From that moment he devoted himfelf to
the fanaticifm of convuljions, with the fame impetuo-
lity of charafler with which he had run into the moft
fliameful exeeffes. He had not long been the difciple
of Janfenifm when he fuffered perfecution. When
the chamber of inquefls was baniflied in 1732, he
was fent into the mountains of Auvergne 3 which, in-
Read
MON [ 347 ] MON
Montgeron ftead of cooling, tended rather to inflame his zeal.
' II During his exile, he formed the plan of collecting the
proofs of the miracles wrought at the tomb of the
, abbe Paris, and of compofing what he called a De-
monjlration of them. On his return to Paris, he pre¬
pared to execute this plan j and on the 29th of July
I737> aftaally prefented to the king at Verfailles
a volume in quarto fuperbly bound. I his work he
accompanied with a fpeech, which is a mixture of
zeal and argument in a tolerable ftyle. In confe-
quence of this work, which fome confider as a maiter-
piece of eloquence, and others as a mafs of abfurdi-
ties, he was committed to the Baflile. After a few
months confinement, he was fent to an abbey of Bene-
diftine monks in the diocefe of Avignon } whence he
was in a fhort time carried to Viviers. He was after¬
wards confined in the citadel of Valence, where he
died, A. D. 1574, aged 68. The work which he
prefented to the king was entitled La vente des Mira¬
cles operees par l"1 intercejfion de M. Pans, &c. &c.—
The critics, even to this day, feem to be guided in
their opinion concerning this book either by hatred or
by enthufiafm. “ It would be extremely ralh (fays
the abbe de St Pierre, in the fecond volume of his
Annales, p. 593.) to maintain with the Molinifts, that
no miraculous cure was ever performed at the tomb
of the abbe Paris; and to fay with the Janfenifts, that
thefe cures were performed by a fupernatural power,
would be the height of fanaticifm. The truth is, (adds
the fame author), that no miracle appears ever to have
been performed at this tomb except in the cure of the
human body j in all other cafes, there would have been
the want of that imagination on which the whole mi¬
racle depended.” Thus, although Montgeron ventured
to compare thefe prodigies with the miracles of Jefus
Chrift and his apoftles, yet we find no perfon raifed
from the dead, no multiplication of loaves, no command
obeyed by the elements, and no blind or deaf reftored
to their fight or hearing. It belongs to the Author of
nature alone, or to thofe who have derived power from
him, to work fuch miracles as are recorded by the evan-
geliits, or in the hiftory of the apoftles. Montgeron
added a fecond and third volume on the fame fubjeft :
he left alfo in manufcript a work which he compofed
in prifon contre les Incredules. Religion, it muft be
confefled, has had much more powerful advocates.
Fortunately Pafcal and Boftuet are among the num¬
ber : and it could well have wanted both Paris and
Montgeron, whatever virtues they might poffefs in other
refpects.
MONTGOMERY, the capital of a county of the
fame name in North Wales, 158 miles from London,
took its name from Roger de Montgomery earl of
Shrewfbury, who built the caftle. It is called by the
Welfh Tre Valdwin, that is, Baldwin’s town j having
been built by Baldwin, lieutenant of the marches of
Wales, in the reign of William I. The WeHh, after
having put the garrifon to the fword, demolifhed it in
1095; but Henry III. rebuilt it, and granted it the
privileges of a free borough, with other liberties. It is
a tolerably well built town, in a healthful fituation and
fertile foil, with 947 inhabitants in 1801.
MONTGOMERYSHIRE, a county of North
Wales, 40 miles in length and 37 in breadth ; bounded
on the north by Merionethfhire and Denbighfhire, on
the north-caft and eaft by Shroplhire, on the fouth by Montgome
Radnorlhire and Cardiganfliire, and on the weft by the
laft-mentioned county and part of Merionetlilhire. It. — y— 1
is divided into fix hundreds*, and contains five market
towns, 47 parifties, and 47>97^ inhabitants. It lies in
the three feveral diocefes of St Afaph, Bangor, and
Hereford } but fends only two members to parliament,
one for the county, and one for the town of Montgo¬
mery. The air is pleafant and falubrious j but this
county, being extremely mountainous, is not very fer¬
tile, except in the valleys, which afford fome corn and
plenty of pafture *, but the fouth, fouth-eaft, and north-
e:»ft parts, being more level, are extremely fruitful, efpe-
cially a pleafant vale, watered by the Severn.
MONTH, the twelfth part of a year. See Chro¬
nology, N° 17.
Month, in its proper acceptation, is that fpace of
time which the moon takes up in paffing from any
certain point to the fame again, which is called a pe¬
riodical month ; or it is the Ipace of time between two
conjunctions of the moon with the fun, which is called
a fynodicul month. That fpace of time which the fun
takes up in pafling through one fign or 12th part of the
zodiac, is alfo called (but improperly) a month. So that
there are two forts of months; lunar, which are mea-
fured by the moon j and folar, which are meafured by
the fun. The lunar periodical month confifts of 27
days 7 hours 43 minutes 5 feeonds : The lunar fynodi-
cal month is 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes 3 feconds
and 11 thirds. A folar month contains, upon a mean
calculation, 30 days 10 hours 29 minutes 5 feconds.
The Jews, Greeks, and Romans, made ufe of lunar
fynodical months 5 but, to avoid fractions, they con-
fifted alternately of 29 and 30 days. The former, the
Romans called cavi, and the Greeks j the latter
were termed pleni and TrX^Ui.
1. The Hebrew months were ranged differently in
their facred and in their civil year.
Order of the Sacred Year,
Nifan
Jair
Sivan
Thamrnuz
Ab
Elul
Tifri
8 Marfchevan
9 Cajleu
1.0 Thebet
11 Sebat
12 Adar
Anfwcring
to our
' March.
April.
May.
June.
July.
Auguft.
September.
October.
November.
December.
January.
_ February.
Order of the Civil Year.
1 Tifri
2 Marfchevan
3 Cafleit
4 Thebet
tj Sebat
6 Adar
7 Nfm
8 Jair
9 Sivan
10 Thammuz
l\ Ab
12 Elul
Anfwering
to our
Xx 2
f September.
Odober.
November.
December.
January.
February.
March.
April.
May.
June.
July.
Auguft.
Thefe
Month.
MON [ 348
Thefe months being lunar cannot exactly anfwer to
our folar months; but every Jewifli montli muft be con¬
ceived to anfwer to two of ours, and partake of both.
As thefe 12 lunar months confided only of 354 days,
the Jews, in order to bring it nearer to the true year-,
took care every three years to intercalate a 13th month
into the number, which they called Ve-adar, or the
fecond Adar. The new moon was always the beginning
of the month j and it is laid the Jews had people poll¬
ed on elevated places, to give notice to the Sanhedrim
as foon as fire made her appearance: After this, pro¬
clamation was made by found of trumpet, and “ the
fealt of the new moon, the fead. of thfe new moor /’
refounded amonglt the people.
The ancient Hebrew months were of 30 days each,
excepting the laid, which confided of 355 fo that the
year contained 365 days, with an intercalary month
at the end of 120 years, which, by abforbing the odd
hours which remained at the conclufion of each year,
brought it back nearly to its proper place. This
regulation of the year was borrowed from the Egyp¬
tians.
2. The months of the Athenian year, as we have be¬
fore obfcrved, confided alternately of 29 and 30 days.
The firll month, according to Meton’s reformation of
the kalendar, began with the fird new moon after the
the dimmer foldice, and was called hecatombceon, an-
fwering to the latter half of June, and the former half
of July. The order of the months, with the number
of days in each, are as follow :
I Hecatombceon,
1 Metageitnion,
3 Boedrornion,
4 Mcemn&erion^
5 Panepjion,
6 AjitheJlerion,
29
.80
29
3°
29
7 Pojidion,
8 Game lion,
9 Elaphcbolion,
10 Munichion,
11 Thargelion,
12 Scirrophorion,
30
29
30
29
30
29
Each month wras divided into three decades of days
called The fird was called Mrivo; agyepivu or
iTxpivis, or the decade of the beginning of the month ,
the fecond was (ttsu-aylej or the decade of the
middle ; and the third was <p.'bv«>7«;, Tritvopivu or
hvyofias, the decade of the expiring month.
The fird day of the fird decade v7as termed nopwi*,
becaufe the fird month began with the new moon ;
the fecond day wras dtvligx irxutvx; the third rg/lsj Wapivis,
&c. The fird day of the fecond decade was pi-
eruvlos, the fecond hvkgx pso-xvlof, &c.—the days of this
decade wTere alfo called stti ci'ocat, nn deuce, &c.
The fird day of the third decade wras stt eoteth ; the
iecond W'as divhgct eT &c. i. e. the fird, fecond,
&c. after 20, becaufe the lad decade began on the
20th day; This decade was alfo counted by inverfion
thus j (pB-mvloj Cizcftn the 2id, tpSivovlos svvxlti the 22d,
<p^ivofit{ oy^ovi the 23d, and fo of the red to the lad day
of the month, which was called m kxi vsx, the old and
the new, becaufe one part, of that day belonged to
the old and the other to the new moon •, but after the
time of Demetrius, the lad day of the month w'as
called from him Ayp-jlgix; j it fometimes was named
•Zgutxctf.
The Grecian months, thus confiding of 29 and 30
T
] MON
days alternately, fell fhort of the folar year 11 days
6 hours. To remedy this defett, the cycle of four'
years, called was invented.—In this cycle,
after the fird two years, they added an intercalated
month called tpZoXtpoi, confiding of 22 davs j and
again, after the expiration of two years more, they
inferted another month of 23 days, the fourth part of
a day having in the fpace of four years amounted to a
whole day. See Year.
3. The Roman year under Romulus confided of 10
months only, and began with March, which contained
31 days ; then followed April which had 30, May 31,
June 30, ^uinti/is 31, Sextilis 30, September 30, Oc¬
tober 31, November 30, December 30. Thefe 10
months containing no more than 304 days, this ac¬
count W'as in a fhort time found to be deficient. Numa
Pompilius, therefore, took away one day from each of
thefc fix months, April, June, Sextilis, September, No¬
vember, December j and to the fix days thus obtained
he added 51, which was the number that Romulus’s
year, in his opinion, wanted to make it perfedl. Numa
had now 57 days to difpofe of j he therefore divided
them, and condituted two other months, January and
February j the former confiding of 29 and the latter of
28 days. The month of January, which he placed at
the winter foldice, he made indead of March to begin
the year. Thus Numa’s year confided of 355 days :
but this being found 1 o days 6 hours fhort of the folar
year, he made ufe of the intercalation of 90 days at
the expiration of eight years perpetually ; which num¬
ber, being made up of the 11 days and a quarter,
kept the year pretty well to its place. The beginning
of the year in Julius Cadar’s time had anticipated its
true place 67 whole days: thefe he intercalated be¬
twixt November and December : fo that the year con¬
fided, for this one time, of 15 months or 445 days.
This reformation was called the Julian correEHon, and
this year the year of confufion. At the end of 12
years, by the ignorance of prieds, who did not under-
dand intercalation, 12 days had been intercalated for
nine. This was obferved by Augudus Caefar, and rec¬
tified, by ordering 12 years to pafs without any interca¬
lary days. The order and fucceffion of months was
the fame as that of Numa : But January, March, May,
Quintilis, Sextilis, Odlober, and December, had each
31 days j April, June, September 30, and February,
in common years, 28 5 but every fourth year or biffex-
tile 29. This, with a very little difference, is the ac¬
count obferved at prefent. ^uintilis, in compliment to
Julius Caefar was called July, becaufe in this month he
wTas born ; and Sexti/is, in honour of Augudus, was
called Augud ; both which names are dill continued.-—
See Year.
Each month by the Romans was divided into ka¬
lends, nones, and ides, all of which were reckoned back-
wards. The kalends were the fird day of the month.
The nones fell on the feventh, and the ides on the 15th,
of March, May, July, Oftober—but in all other
months the nones were on the fifth, and the ides on
the 13th. For the more eafy comprehenfion of the
Roman manner of dating, according to this divifion of
the months, here follows a table.
March
MontL
)
M O N
ontpelier.
M©nth
March
May
July
October
January
Aug Lift
December
Ka/endce
6
5
4
3.
Pncl. Non.
Nonce
Kalendce
4
Vrid. Non.
Nonce
8
16
Prid. Idas
Idas
'1
16
H
l3
12
11
10
5
4
3
Prid. Kal.
Prid. Non.
Nonce
8
Prid. Idus
Idux
19
18
n
16
I5
H
J3
12
II
10
7
6
5
4
3
Prid.
Kal.
April
June
September
November
February.
Kalendce
Kalendce
! 4
3
Prid. Non.
Nonce
8
5
4
Prid. Idus
Idus
Prid. Idus
Idus
l8
x7
16
r4
r3
I 2
II
TO
5
4
3
Przrf.
AV.
16
J4
!3
12
IO
Prid. Kal.
N. B. Every leap year, February confifting of 29
days, the 24th and 25th of that month are written
fexto Kal. Mart. ; hence leap year is called Bijfextilis.
MO NT I A, a genus of plants belonging to the tri-
andria clafs, and in the natural method ranking with
thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
Index.
MONTINIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
dioecia clafs. See Botany Index.
MONTMEDI, a fmall but ftrong town of France,
in Luxemburg, feated on the river Chire, which di¬
vides it into the upper and lower towns. It is 22
miles fouth-eaft of Sedan, 27 fouth-weft of Luxem¬
burg, and 135 north-eaft of Paris. E. Long. 5. 23.
N. Lat. 49. 32.
MONTMORENCI, Francois Henry de. See
Luxemburg.
MONTMORENCY, a town of France, with the
title of a duchy, remarkable for the tombs of the dukes
of this name. It is feated on a hill, near a large val¬
ley, fertile in fruits, efpecially excellent cherries. E.
Long. 2. 24. N. Lat. 48 eg.
MONTPELIER, one of the fineft towns of France,
and the moll conliderable in the department of Herault,
excepting Thouloufe, is fituated in E. Long. 3. 58. N.
Lat. 43. 37. This town has been long famous for its
felubrious air, and on this account has been the frequent
M O N
But the climate, according to fomeMontpeliei,
- - Montreal.
349 1
refort of invalids,
travellers, is confiderably changed, having at times con-
ftant rains for three months together, and often very
thick fogs. Its fituation, though on an eminence, never
could be healthy ; for between it and the Mediter¬
ranean (which is about three leagues diftant) it is one
continued marfh, covered with noxious vapours, which,
when the fea breeze fets in, blows direftly on the town
and the country adjacent j of the fad eftedls of which,
its unhealthy inhabitants, with their meagre looks, are
the moft convincing proofs.
This city Rands upon a rifing ground fronting the
Mediterranean ; on the other fide is an agreeable plain,
extending about the fame diftance towards the moun¬
tains of the Cevennes. It is reckoned well built, yet
the flreets are in general narrow and the houfes dark.
The inhabitants, many of whom are Proteftants, are
fuppofed to amount to 40,000, are fociable, gay, and
good tempered. The trade of Montpelier is very ex-
tenfive in wine, cordials, oil, verdigris, and faltpetre ;—
and the manufadlures in filk and woollen goods are coiir
fiderable. The markets are well fupplied with fifli, poul¬
try, butcher’s meat, and game, at reafonable rates. The
wine of the country is ftrong and harlh : Burgundy
is dear, and fo is fwcet wine of Frontignan, though
made in the neighbourhor 1 of Cette. Liquors of
various forts are compounded and diflilled at Montr
pelier. The environs are extremely pleafant, having on
one fide La Place de Peyrou, which forms a fine ter¬
race. From thence on a clear day, may be feen to the
e aft ward the Alps, which form the frontiers of Italy j
to the fouth-weft, the Pyrenean mountains, which form.
thofe of Spain, both at about 50 leagues diftant ; and
to the fouthward a moft extenfive view of the Mediter¬
ranean. Not far from thence is a noble aqueduft, with
a double tier of arches 5 by this, water is brought from
a mountain at three leagues diftance, into two bafons
in a fmall elegant temple at the weft end of the town.
Here alfo is a royal garden, where on certain days
public lectures were formerly held on botany. On the
other fide of the town is the efplanade, a beautiful walk,
bordered on each fide by olive trees, from whence
there is a pleafing profpedl of the fea and the country
adjacent to the town. Previous to the revolution,
Montpelier had a univerfity, an academy of faiences,,
and it was the fee of a bifliop.
MONTREAL, an ifland of North America, in the
river St Lawrence, ten leagues in length, and four
leagues broad, and about 60 miles above Quebec. It
•was taken from the French by generals Amherft and
Murray on the 8ih of September 1760. The foil of
the ifland is exceedingly rich and good, producing all
kinds of European fruits and vegetables in great abun¬
dance, with variety of garden fruits. The fouth fide
is the moft inhabited, and of courfe bed cultivated j
and befides the fettlements, which are numerous, the
ifiand is adorned with villas, for the retirement of the
more wealthy merchants during the fummer feafon.
Since this place has been in the poffeflion of Britain, it
has fuffered much by fires, the houfes being moftly built
of wood.
The town of Montreal, fituated on this ifland,
and formerly called Ville Marie, is the fecond place in
Canada for extent, buildings and ftrength 5 and befides
poflefling the advantage of a lefs rigorous climate, for
delightfulnefs
MON
Montreal deliglitfulnefs of fituation is infinitely preferable to Que-
Moati'errat. ^e.C* ^ ^an^s on fide of a hill, Hoping to the fouth,
v y—with many agreeable villas upon it, which, with the
iiland of St Helen, and the river (which is here about
two miles broad), iorm a moll charming landfcape.
1 hough the city is not very broad from north to fouth,
it covers a great length of ground from eaft to weft,
and is nearly as large and populous as (Quebec. The
ftreets are regular, forming an oblong fquare ; the
houfes well built, and in particular the public edifices,
which far exceed thofe of the capital in beauty andcom-
modioufnefs ; the refidence of the knights hofpitallers
being extremely mignificent There are feveral gar¬
dens within the walls, in which, however, the proprie¬
tors have confulted ufe more than elegance, particularly
thofe of the Sifters of the Congregation, the Nunnery
Hofpital, the Recollets, Jefuit Seminary, and (rovernor.
I he number of inhabitants is faid to be between $000
and 6000. By the fituation of the place, the inhabi¬
tants are well fupplied with all kinds of river filli, fome
ot which are unknown to Europeans, being peculiar to
the rivers and lakes of this country. They have like-
wife plenty of black cattle, horfes, hogs, and poultry.
The neighbouring thores fupply them with a great va¬
riety of game in the different feafons ; and the ifiand
abounds with fprings of good water and numerous ri¬
vulets. f he trade in furs is confiderable, and veffels of
2oo tons can come up to the town.
Montreal, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Ar-
ragon, with a caftle, feated on the river Xiloea, 25
miles north-weft of Terville, and 40 fouth-eaft of Cala-
taud. W. Long. 1.2. N. Lat. 41. 9.
Montreal, a town of Sicily, and in the valley of
Mazara, with an archbifhop’s fee ; fcated on a rivulet,
five miles weft of Palermo, and 50 north-eaft of Mazara.
E. Long. 13. 31. N. Lat. 38. 14.
Montreal, or Mount Royal, a fortrefs of Ger¬
many, in the circle of the Lower Rhine, and eleftorate
of 1 riers j feated on the river Mofelle, 22 miles north-
eaft of Triers. E. Long. 7. 6. N. Lat. 49. 59.
MONTROSE, a handfome town of North Britain,
in the (hire of Angus, fituated at the mouth of the ri¬
ver Efk, on the German ocean, 46 miles north-eaft of
Edinburgh. The houfes are neat, and many of them
in the modern tafte. The moft remarkable public
buildings are, the town-houfe, the church, and an ele¬
gant epifcopal chapel.—Montrofe is a parliament town,
and a dukedom in the family of Graham. It ftands
between two rivers, the fouth and north Elks, over the
latter of which there is a handfome ftone bridge, and over
the former there is one of wood. The falmon filheries on
thefe rivers are very extenfive, and form a confiderable
branch of commerce. The harbour is a fine femicircu-
lar baton defended by a handfome ftone pier. A great
number of trading veffels belong to this port. The
population of Montrofe in 1801 amounted to nearly
8000. W. Long. 2. 32. N. Lat. 36. 40.
Montrose, Marquis of. See Graham j and Bri¬
tain, N® 137, 138, 143, 265.
MONTSERRAT, a mountain of Spain, in Catalo¬
nia. one of the moft lingular in the world for lituation,
lhape, and compofition. It ftands fingle, towering over
a hilly country like a pile of grotto work or Gothic
fpires 3 and its height fo great, that to a beholder on the
top the neighbouring mountains appear to be funk to a
5
[ 35° 1
MON
level with the plain. It is compofed of fteep rocks,IVft ntferrkt ^ '
which at a didance feem indented j whence it is faid to v—
have received the name Montferrat from the Latin word
fer? ai a 14 taw.” It is impotfible to defenbe the beau¬
ty, richnefs, and variety, of the landfcapes difeovered
from the moft elevated point: but the extenfivenefs of
the profpeft may be conceived by the reader, upon be¬
ing told that the illands of Minorca and Majorca, which
are at the diftance of 60 leagues, are difeovered from
this elevation.
Montferrat is particularly famous for the adoration
that is paid to an image of the Virgin, which according
to tradition was found in a cave in this mountain by
fome Ihepherds in the year 880. Over this image,
Guthred earl of Barcelona caufed a monaftery and cha¬
pel to be erefted j but after remaining in this recepta¬
cle upwards of 700 years, Philip II. and Philip III.
built a magnificent church for its reception. Innume¬
rable and aftonilhing miracles are aferibed to this holy
image. The convent or monaftery is fituated in a nook
of the mountain ; it feems as if vaft torrents of water,
or fome violent convulfion of nature, had fplit the eaft-
ern face of Montferrat, and formed in the cleft a fuffi-
cient platform to build the monaftery upon. The river
Llobregat roars at the bottom, and perpendicular walls
of rock of prodigious height, rife from the water edge
near half way up the mountain. Upon thefe maffes of
white ftone refts the fmall piece of level ground which
the monks inhabit. Clofe behind the abbey, and in
foine parts impending over it, huge cliffs (hoot up in a
femicircle to a ftupendous elevation : their fummits are
fplit into ftiarp cones, pillars, pipes, and other odd
ftiapes, blanched and bare j but the interftices are filled
up with forefts of evergreen and deciduous trees and
plants. Fifteen hermitages are placed among the
woods ; nay, fome of them on the very pinnacles of the
rocks, and in cavities hewn out of the loftieft of thefe
pyramids.
The monaftery is one of the 45 religious houfes of
the Spanilh congregation of the order of St Benedift 5
their general chapter is held every fourth year at Val¬
ladolid, where the deputies choofe abbots and other
dignitaries for the enfuing quadrennium. In this mo¬
naftery, they eleft for abbot a Catalan and a Caftilian
alternately. Their poffeffions are great, confifting of
nine villages lying to the fouth of the mountain; but
the king has lately curtailed their income about 6000
livres a-year, by appropriating to his own ufe the beft
houfe in each village, fome of which, with their
tythes, are worth 200 dollars per annum. Their ori¬
ginal foundation, in 866, gave them nothing but the
mountain ; and to donations and economy they owre
the great inereafe of their landed property. They are
bound to feed and harbour for three days all poor pil¬
grims that come up and pay their homage to the Vir¬
gin ; and the allowance is a luncheon of bread in the
morning, as much more, with broth at noon, and
bread again at night. Sometimes, on particular fefti-
vals, 700c perfons arrive in one day ; but people of con¬
dition pay a reafonable price for what they eat.—
The number of profeffed monks, according to Mr
Swinburne, is 76 (according to M. Bourgoanne 60) ;
of lay brothers, 28 ; and of finging boys 25 ; befides
phyfician, furgeon, and fervants. The church is a
gloomy edifice 7 and the gilding is much fullied with
the
MON r 351 ] MOO
jfintferrat the fmoke of 85 lamps of filver, of various forms and
*-■'>" lizes, that hang round the cornice of tlie fanftuary.
Funds have been bequeathed by different devotees for
furniflnng them with oil. The choir above Hairs is de¬
corated with the life of Chrittj in good wooden carv¬
ing. A gallery runs on each fide of the chancel, for
the convenience of the monks. A large iron grate di¬
vides the church from the chapel of the Virgin, where
the image Hands in a niche over the altar, before which
burn four tapers in large filver candlefticks, the prefent
of the duke of Medina Celi. In the facrifiy, and
pafiages leading to it, are preflfes and cupboards full
of relicks and ornaments of gold, filver, and precious
Hones } they point out, as the moH remarkable, two
crowns for the virgin and her fon, of inefiimable va¬
lue ; fome large diamond rings; an excellent cameo of
Medufa’s head $ the Roman emperors in alabafler;
and the fword of St Ignatius. But as no offerings to
this miraculous Hatue can be rejedled or otherwife dif-
pofed of, the (helves are crowded with mofi whimfical
ex votos, viz. filver legs, fingers, breads, ear-rings,
watches, two wheeled chaifes, boats, carts, and fuch
like trumpery.
On different parts of the mountain, as already noti¬
ced, are a number of hermitages. Each of thefe fo-
litary retreats, which at a diHance feem deflitute of
every thing, has a chapel, a cell, a well in the rock,
and a little garden. The inhabitant of one of them,
which is dedicated to St Beneto, has the privilege of
making an annual entertainment on a certain day } on
which day all the other hermits are invited, when they
receive the facraraent from the hands of the mountain
vicar, and after divine fervice dine together. They
meet alfo at this hermitage, on the days of the faints
to which their feveral hermitages are dedicated, to fay
mafs and commune with each other. But at other
times they live in a very folitary and reclufe manner,
perform various penances, and adhere to very rigid
rules of abstinence; nor do they ever eat flefh; nor
are they allowed to keep within their walls either dog,
cat, bird, or any living thing, leff their attention
fnould be withdrawn from heavenly to earthly affec¬
tions. MoH of thefe hermits are faid to be perfons of
fortune and family, difguHed with the world, who have
retired thither to devote themfelves to meditation, felf-
denial, and contrition.
Montserrat, one of the Caribbee ides, belonging
to Great Britain. It is a very fmall, but very plea-
fant ifland, fo caHed by Columbus from its refemblance
to the famous mountain near Barcelona in Catalonia.
It lies in W. Long. 61. o. N. Lat. 16 50. having
Antigua to the north-eaH, St ChriHopher’s and Nevis
to the north-weft, and Guadaloupe lying fouth-fouth-
eaft at the diftance of about nine leagues. It is about
nine miles in diameter, and is fuppoied to contain about
40,000 or 50,000 acres. The climate is warm, but
lefs fo than Antigua, and is edeemed very healthy..
The farface is mountainous, but with pleafant, rich, and
fertile valleys ; the hills are covered with cedars and
other fine trees. Here are all the animals as well as
vegetables and fruits that are to be found in the other
i(lands. The inhabitants raifed formerly a confiderable
quantity of indigo. The produce now is chiefiy cotton,
rum, and fugar. There is no good harbour, but three to¬
lerable roads, at Plymouth, Old Harbour, and Ker’sBay.
MONUMENT, in ArehiteEhire^ a building deftined
to preferve ihc memory, &e. of the perfon who raifed
it, or the perfon for whom it was raifed ; inch are a . 'u'° ' ,
maufoleum, a triumphal arch, a pyramid, &c.
MOOD, or Mode. See Mode.
Moods of SijUogifm. See Lock;, N°85.
Mood, or Mode, in Gramm.r, the different manner
of conjugating verbs See Grammar.
MOON, (Z ii’u- ]) ), in sJJironomy, one, of the hea¬
venly bodies, ufually ranked among the planets ; but
with more propriety accounted a fatellite, or fecondary
plant t.
Among the ancients, the moon was an objedt of prime
regard.—By the Hebrews (lie was more regarded than
the (un, and they w’ere more inclined to worfhip her as
a deity. The new moons, or firft days of every month,
w'ere kept as feftivals among them, which were cele¬
brated with found of trumpets, entertainments, and fa-
crifice. (See Numb, xviii. 11. x. 16. I Sam. xx. 5—.
18.). People were not obliged on thefe days to reft.
The feafts of new moons were a miniature reprefentation
of the lead of trumpets, which was held on the firft of
the month Tifri, which was the beginning of the civil
year. The Jews not being acquainted with (he phyfical
caufe of eclipfes, looked upon them, whether of fun or
moon, as figns of the divine difpleafure. The Grecians
looked upon the moon as favourable to marriage; and
the full moons, or the times of conjundlion of fun and
moon, were held the moft lucky feafons for celebrating
marriages ; becaufe they imagined the moon to have
great influence over generation. The full moon was
held favourable for any undertakings by the Spartans ;
And no motive could induce them to enter upon an ex¬
pedition, march an army, or attack an enemv, till the
full of the moon. The moon was fuppofed both by
Greeks and Romans to prefide over child-birth. The
patricians at Rome wore a crefcent on their (hoes, to
diftinguith them from the other orders of men. This
crefcent was called Lunula. Some fay it was of ivory,
others that it was worked upon the (hoe, and others
that it was only a particular kind of fibula or buckle.
For the aftronomical phenomena conne&ed with the
moon, fee Astronomy Index.
Harvejl-Moon.—It is remarkable, that the moon,
during the week in which (he is full in harveft, rifes
fooner after funfetting than (lie does in any other full
moon week in the year. By doing fo, (lie affords an
immediate fupply of light after funfet, which is very-
beneficial to the farmers for reaping and gathering in
the fruits of the earth : and therefore they diftinguifti
this full moon from all the others in the year, by call¬
ing it the harvefl-moon.
Influence of the MOON on the Human Body.—The fa¬
mous Dr Mead was a believer in the influence of the
fun and moon on the human body, and publilhed a book
to this purpofe, entitled De Imperio Solis ac Lunce in
Corpore humano : but this opinion has been exploded by
moft philofophers, as equally unreafonable in itfelf, and
contrary to fa£f. As the moft accurate and fenfible
barometer is not affe&ed by the various pofitions of the
moon, it is not thought likely that the human body
(hould be affe&ed by them. Several learned and in¬
genious men, however, fttll confider Dr Mead’s doc¬
trine as far from being unfounded.
Moon, Influence of on the Earth's Atmofphere.—It
has
3. Periodical,in regard to
the moon’s pafhng the equa¬
tor ■, continues 27 days, 7
hours, 43 minutes.
That a change
will take
place at
MOO [ 352 1
Moon. ^35 been the opinion of the vulgar in almoft all ages
v "and countries, that the changes which take place in
the ftate of our atmofphere, or the changes of the wea¬
ther, depend in a great meafure on certain fituations of
the moon. This particular opinion is alluded to by
Virgil (a), and is applied in the Ihepherd of Banbury’s
rules for judging of the weather (b). We have, under
Meteorologt, N° 90 to 92, given therefult of fome
obi’ervations on the connexion between the changes
of the moon and thofe of the weather.
It can fcarcely be doubted that an opinion fo gene¬
rally received mull be founded on fomething more than
fancy or prejudice \ and indeed the obfervations of fcveral
eminent meteorologitts within the laft thirty years have
contributed materially to favour this opinion. Inde¬
pendent of aftual obfervation, it appears reafonable to
infer, that a body fo large, and fo near the earth, as the
moon, whofe gravitating influence on the earth’s furface
in producing the Jiux and reflux of the flea, cannot be
altogether inactive with refpeft to the air, a fluid much
more fufceptible of changes than the fea.
We have already noticed (METEOROLOGY, N° 14.)
the theory of Mr Luke Howard, on the moon’s influ¬
ence on the mercury of the barometer, and we are nowr
to give a Ihort account of what has been advanced on
her general influence by the philofophers of the conti¬
nent. Among thefe, Signior Toaldo may be faid to
have led the uTay.
From obfervations made at Padua, during fifty years,
on the Hate of the weather that correfponded to certain
changes of the moon, he found that thefe changes were Xhat a change
always accompanied by good or bad weather \ and he at follow
length became enabled to foretel with fome degree of
certainty what would be the Hate of the atmofphere
that fliould follow any fituation of the moon. There
are ten fituations of the moon, which, according to
Toaldo, are capable of producing a fenfible effedl on the
* See A/lro- earth’s atmofphere. Thefe are the flyxigies * or new and
nomy, full moon *, the quadratures •, the apfldes, or apogee and
perigee ; the luniflices, or thefe points when the moon
is neared to our zenith and at the greated diflance from
it; and the moon’s equinoxes. There are three differ¬
ent relations of the moon’s motion producing a corre-
fponding number of revolutions, each having a certain
duration, and each correfponding to fome of the above
ten fituations, as it will be feen by the following table.
Revolutions. Situations.
~ .... . (“New moon.
J. Synodical, ,n regard Firft er_
to the fun; continues 29 days FuU ^oon
12 hours 44 minutes. £ Lail quartir.
2. Anoma/iflicy in regard' 1
to the moon’s courfe *, con- Apogeum.
tinues 27 days 13 hours 43 Perigeum.
minutes. 1
Moo
Afcending equinoxes.
Northern luniflices.
Defcending equinoxes.
^Southern luniiiices.
Sig. Toaldo has calculated a feries of probabilities
that a change of weather will take place on the approach
of any one of thefe ten fituations, and thefe he has ex-
preffed in a tabular form as follows.
New moon
Firff quarter
Full moon
Lafl quarter
Perigeum
Apogeum
Afcending equinox
Northern luniflice
Defcending equinox
Southern luniflice
> is
6:r
5=2
5:4
7:I
4:1
T3:4
11:4
11:4
3=1
New moon with perigee
Ditto with apogee
Full moon with perigee
^Ditto with apogee
> is <
f 33:I
7^
lo:I
8:1
L
N° 90.
Moon.
In general, each of the ten fituations changes the
weather that prevailed under the preceding fituation,
and it feldoms happen that a change of weather takes
place without a coircfponding change in the lunar
fituations. From the inequality of their revolutions,
thefe fituations are often combined, and by this union
their effefl in producing changes of the atmofphere is
greatly increafed, efpecially when a union takes place
between the fyzigies and apfides. Thus,
Thefe combined fituations are generally accompanied
or followed by Horms and tempefls, efpecially when they
take place near the moon’s paffage over the equator.
This is more particularly the cafe in the months of
March and September, and we find that at the new
and full moon in thefe months, the weather takes a
certain charafter, by which it is diflinguiflied for the
fucceeding three or fix months. The fame takes place
at the folflices, efpecially at the winter folflice. The
new moon does not always, however, produce a change
of weather; and this want of effeft is mofl likely to
happen at thofe new moons which are moff diflant from
the apfides.
Though Toaldo confiders it as perfectly afeertained
that each fucceeding fituation of the moon alters that
Hate of the atmofphere which had been produced by
the preceding fituation •, it muff, however, be obferved
that fome fituations of the moon favour good and others
bad weather. Thus the perigee, the new and full
moon, the paffage over the equator, and the northern
luniffice are favourable to bad weather, while the apo-
gee
  “ lunafque fequentes
Ordine refpicies j nunquam te craflina fsdlet
Hora, neque infidiis no&is capiere ferenae.
Georg. I. 424.
(b) I. Horns of the moon obfeure—Rain.
2. When the moon is red—Wind.
3. On the fourth day of the new moon, if bright,
with fliarp horns—No winds nor rain till the month
be flnijhed.
M O O [ 353 1 MOO
Moon, g^e, quadratures, and fouthern lunllUce, are more fa-
vourable to good weather.
The changes produced by the influence of the lunar
Situations, Seldom take place on the exaft days on which
thefe fituations happen, but either precede or follow
them ; and Toaldo has found that, in the fix winter
months, the changes of weather commonly precede the
lunar fituations, whereas in the fix Summer months they
more commonly follow them.
There are certain days before and after new and full
moon, which deferve particular attention in forming
our judgments of the weather, especially the odlants or
the fourth day before new and full moon, as at thefe
times the weather is inclined to change, and it may be
pretty certainly predicted, that a change will follow at
the next lunar Situation. Virgil has particularly noti¬
ced this fourth day as a Sure mark of the Succeeding
weather (c). If the weather continues unchanged on
the fourth, fifth, and Sixth day of the moon, it proves
that the lunar influence is at that time very weak, and
we are to expedt no change till the full moon, or per¬
haps till the next new moon.
Sig. Toaldo compared a diary which he had kept
for many years of the fiate of the barometer with the
ten fituations of the moon, and from the comparifon de¬
duced the following conclufions, viz.
1. That at the time of the moon’s apogee, the mer¬
cury rifes higher by the fixth part of a line than at the
perigee.
2. That at the time of the quadratures it is higher
by the tenth of a line than at the time of the fyzigies.
3. That it is higher by a fourth of a line at the
fouthern than at the northern luniftice. This corre¬
spondence of the lunar fituations with the afcent of the
mercury in the barometer does not hold at the time of
the moon’s paflage through her equinoctial points. The
mercury is then higher, efpecially when (he is pafling in
Libra ; and as fuch fituations of the moon generally in¬
dicate bad weather, this circumftance is not conform¬
able to meteorological obfervations.
In this cafe Toaldo thinks that we muft be guided, in
our judgment of the weather, rather by the moon than
by the barometer.
The cafe is fimilar during the coincidence of the
equinoftial points with the perigee, at which time the
mercury is unufually high j but this coincidence is a
fign'of great irregularity.
According to Toaldo, the rifing and fetting of the
moon, as well as its fuperior and inferior palfage of the
meridian, all which fituations he calls the moon’s angles,
may ferve for foretelling rain. The feafons moil expo-
fed to rain, are the rifing and fetting of the moon j while
its paflage over the meridian is moft favourable to good
weather. It has ever been obferved that during rainy
days, the fky always clears a little while the moon is
pafling the meridian. An exception to this rule mutt,
however, be made when the moon’s angle does not coin¬
cide with that of the fun.
VOL. XIV. Part I.
Bad years take place when the apiides of the moofl Moen.
fall in the four cardinal points of the zodiac, 'i heir -v—
intervals, therefore, are as four to five, eight to nine,
&c. or as the intervals of the paflage of the apiides
through the four cardinal points of the zodiac. Thus
the year 1777 was, in general, a bad year ; and in that
year the apiides of the moon were in the equinoctial
iigns j and it is probable that the years in which the
apiides fall in the iigns Taurus, Leo, Virgo and Aqua¬
rius, will be good and moderate years, as the y«.ar
1776 really was $ and in that year- the apiides of the
moon were in '1 aurus and Virgo.
Every 18th year muit be flmilar. We, however,
cannot depend upon a return altogether the lame, on
account of the three different revolutions of the moon j
and therefore it may happen, that the epoch of this ex¬
traordinary year may be retarded a year or perhap- two.
T hough approximations only are here given, this does
not prevent their being ufeful to farmers, if they only
pay attention to circumitances. Befides, various excep¬
tions mufl: be made for different parts of the earth *, and
it is difficult to determine thefe before-hand, as what
regards this fyftem is applicable to the whole globe j
but when the refult of the fyftem has been improved by
local obfervations, the conjedures for each country will
be attended with more certainty.
The 54th year muft: have a greater fimilarity to the
firft than to all the reft ; becaufe, at this period, the
fituations of the moon, in regard to the fun and the
earth, are again found in the fame points.
The quantity of the rain which falls in nine fucceflive
years, is almoft equal to that which falls in the next
following nine. But this is not the cafe when we com¬
pare in like manner the quantity of rain which falls in
fix, eight, or ten years*. * See Phil
The obfervations of M. Lamarck, though they con- Mag. vol.
firm the opinion of the moon’s general influence on the 1U*
atmofphere, do not agree with thofe of Toaldo, as to
the fituations of that luminary which correfpond to the
changes of the weather. He could not find that agree¬
ment between the fyzigies and quadratures of the moon
and a change of weather, which has been fo much
dwelt on by Toaldo ; but he is of opinion, that we are
to confider the declination of the moon as the principal
caufe of her influence on the atmofphere.
Lalande had conceived the idea that when the moon
entered the northern hemifphere, or had north declina¬
tion, the weather was moft likely to be cold and dry,
and that when {he paffed to tire fouth of the equator, it
was likely to be rainy. The obfervations of Lamarck,
however, tend to eftablifh the contrary opinion.
Lamarck confiders the two-following principles as
eftablifhed by his obfervations \ viz.
1. That it is in the elevation of the moon above, and
her deprefjion below, the equator that we are to fearch for
thofe regularly varied effects which Jbe produces on our
atmofphere.
2. That the determinable circumjlances, which con-
Y y fpire
(c) Luna revertentes cum primum colligit ignes,
Si nigrum obfeuro comprenderit aera cornu 5
Maximus agricolis pelagoque parabitur imber.
At, fi virgineum fuffuderit ore ruborem,
Ventus erit > vento femper rubet aurea Phoebe.
Sin ortu in quarto (namque is certiffimus au&or)
Pura, neque obtufis per coelum cornibus ibit ’7
Totus et ille dies, et qui nafeentur ab illo
Exaftum ad menfem, pluvia ventifque carebunt.
See Note (b Georg. I. 427,
MOO
Moon.
[ 354 ]
MOO
fpire to inct'eafe or diminijh the moon's influence in her
different declinations, are her apogees and perigees, her
conjunBions with and oppofltions to the fun ; and laflhj,
the folar folflices and equinoxes.
Confidering that every lunar month, or every revolu¬
tion of the moon in the zodiac, may be divided into two
dhlinft portions, each containing about fourteen days,
and each giving occafion to a particular atmofpheric
conrtitution, we may aflfume thefe as two circumltances
of importance in meteorology, and wre may call one the
boreal or northern conftitution, viz. that in which the
moon paffes through the fix northern figns of the
zodiac, and the other, the auflral or fouthern conllitu-
tion, viz. that in which the traverfes the fix fouthern
figns.
Lamarck is convinced by obfervation, that in thefe
climates, during a boreal conflitution, there chiefly pre¬
vail foutherly,fouth-\vefterly,and wefterly winds, though
fometimes, in the fummer, the winds pafs to the fouth-
eaft. In general, during this conftitution, the barome¬
ter exhibits only moderate elevations of the mercury ;
moft commonly the feafon is rainy or moift, and the air
loaded with clouds. And, laftly, it is particularly
during this conftitution that we obferve the effedts of
ftorms and tempefts, when the caufes which occafion
them become aftive.
On the contrary, during an auftral conftitution, the
winds which chiefly predominate blow from the north
and north-weft, and in the fummer north-eaft, and even
eafterly winds. In general during this conftitution, the
barometer exhibits confiderable elevations in the column
of mercury, at leaft if the wind is not very ftrong ; the
weather is then moft ufually clear, cold and dry, and
in the fummer it is feldom (we might almoft fay never)
during this conftitution that ftorms are formed.
Thefe atmofpheric conftitutions are not, however, fo
permanently charadlerifed as to render it eafy to diftin-
guifti them at all times by the ftate of the atmofphere.
The atmofpheric air is a moveable fluid, and fo eafily
difplaced, that it is not furprifing that in the temperate
zones, where the influence of the heavenly bodies adls
lefs ftrongly than between the tropics, from various
caufes, that counteract very often the regular influence
of the moon, and tend to mafic and even change its ef¬
fects.
The perturbations which thefe variable caufes pro¬
duce on the regular effedls of the influence of the moon
on the atmofphere, occafion in fadl many variations in
the two atmofpheric conftitutions which we have been
deferibing; and this is doubtlefs the reafon why they
have been hitherto difregarded. M. Lamarck pofitive*
ly aflerts, that thefe perturbations, though frequent, and
fometimes very confiderable, do not prevent the cha-
rafter of each of thefe conftitutions from being remark¬
ed in the greateft number of cafes.
The probability that he finds, according to his ob-
fervations, is eftimated at five out of eight; that is to
fay, out of 48 atmofpheric conftitutions comprehended
in the lunar year, he eftimates there will be found at
leaft 30 agreeing with the principles pointed out in his
memoir} and he adds, that among the difturbing caufes
which modify the before-mentioned effe&s, feveral may
be forefeen, and perhaps even appreciated as to their
quantity of effefl:.
He confiders what is here pointed out as a faff 3 as an
order of things which any one may prove by obferva- Moon,
tion *. * 1 v—
Lamarck has alfo endeavoured to afeertain what truth * Sc®
there may be in the periodical return of the variations^, and 1
of the atmofphere at the end of nineteen years 3 and he Nicbol.
has found, by comparing meteorological obfervations, 4to,
that this return is far from being fo correct as is gene-vo1, iv*
rally believed.
Aftronomers alfo know well, that the cycle of nine¬
teen years is not exa£t within an hour and a half 3 an
error which amounts to a whole day in the courfe of
308 years f. f Phil.
M. Cotte has alfo beftowed much attention on this Yo1'
fubjeft of the moon’s influence ; but appears to think
that our obfervations are not fufficiently numerous or
accurate, to deduce any thing like a correct theory, and
he is not difpofed to go fo far as M. Lamarck.
M. Cotte agrees in general with Mr Luke Howard’s
obfervations on the moon’s influence. (See Meteoro¬
logy). He noted, during the fpace of 34 years and
five months, (from the lit of January 1768, to the
22d of May 1802), the afeending and defeending di-
redtion of the barometer in each of the fyzigies and
quarters of the moon which have occurred through that
period of time. He ftates the total fum of the elevations
and depreflions of the mercury at each of the phafes as
follows.
For 34f Years. New moon, ift Quar. Full Moen. 2el Quar.
Sum of elevations 218 296
 depreflions 281 229
I99
279
290 times.
106
Differences
63 67
80 84
Thefe refults, of nearly 35 years obfervations, con¬
firm, as ivill be feen, the conclufions drawn by Mr How¬
ard, both from his obfervations for one year at Plaif-
towq and thofe made for 10 years in the Royal Society’s
apartments.
It is to be remarked, ift, That the four numbers
which exprefs the differences between the «levations and
depreflions are nearly in an exadl proportion, fince
63 : 67 :: 80 : 85^.
2dly, That the two latter phafes, viz. the full moon
and laft quarter, have more effedl than the two firft.
3dly, He examined what phafes of the moon corre-
fponded to the greateft and leaft height of the mercury
for each month during ten years, and obtained the fol¬
lowing refults.
For 10 Years. New Moon, ift Quar. Full Moon. 2d Quar.
Greateft elevation
occurred at
Greateft depref-
fion occurred at
Differences
26 40
3° 34
26
29
28 times.
27
The fcience may be therefore faid to have advanced
one ftep farther towards perfe£!ion on this occafion 3
and it is to be hoped that, by redoubling our diligence
in multiplying obfervations, and combining them in va¬
rious ways to obtain their refults, its progrefs may be
ftill accelerated. The ufeful purpofes which may be
thereby anfwered in philofophy, agriculture, and medi¬
cine, may be properly urged to obfervers as the means
o£
M O O f 3S5 ] MOO
Moon of fupporting their ardour, and indemnifying them for
il thofe farcafms and reflexions which even fome learned
^oora' , men have been pleafed to bellow upon obfervations of
Phil. this fort, together with their authors *.
Mag. vol. MdON-Ei/es, among horfes, -when the weaknefs of
the eye increafes or decreafes according to the courfe of
the moon ■, fo that in the wane of the moon his eyes
are muddy and troubled, and at new moon they clear
up. This obfervation is probably inaccurate.
MOON-Jtone, or Adularia. See Adularia, Mine¬
ralogy Index.
MOON-Wort. See Lunaria, Botany Index.
MOOR, in country affairs, denotes a traX of land,
ufually overrun with heath.
Moon-Cock, or Gor-Cock. See Tetrad, Ornitho¬
logy Index.
MOOR Land, or tnoory foil, in Agriculture, is a
black, light, and foft earth, very loofe, and without
any admixture of Hones ; and with very little clay or
fand.
MOORE, or More, Edward, an ingenious wrrit-
er, was bred a linen-draper, but quitted bulinefs to join
the retinue of the Mufes j and he certainly had a very
happy and pleating talent for poetry. In his Trial of
Selim the Perlian, he complimented Lord Lyttleton in
an elegant kind of panegyric, couched under the ap¬
pearance of accufation : and his Fables for the Female
Sex, for eafy verlification, poignant fatire, and ftriking
morals, approach nearer to the manner of Gay than
any other of the numerous imitations of that author.
He wrote alfo three dramatic pieces ; The G amefter, a
tragedy j The Foundling, and Gil Bias, comedies.
The fuccefs of thefe was not fuch as they merited, the
firft of them having met with a cold reception, for no
other apparent reafon but becaufe it too nearly touched
a favourite and fafhionable vice ; and the fecond hav¬
ing been condemned for its fuppofed refemblance to Sir
Richard Steele’s Confcious Lovers, but to which good
judges have been inclined to give it greatly the prefe¬
rence. Mr Moore married a lady of the name of Ha¬
milton, daughter to Mr Hamilton table-decker to the
princeffes, who had herfelf a very poetical turn, and
has been faid to have affifted him in the writing of his
tragedy. One fpecimen of her poetry, however, was
handed about before their marriage, and has fince ap¬
peared in print in different colleXions of fongs, parti¬
cularly in one called the Goldfinch. It was addreffed
to a daughter of the famous Stephen Duck 5 and be¬
gins with the following ftanza :
Would you think it, my Duck ? (for the fault I
muff own),
Your Jenny at lafl is quite covetous grown :
Though millions if Fortune thould lavifhly pour^
1 ftill would be wretched if I had not More.
And after half a dozen ftanzas more, in which, with
great ingenuity and delicacy, and yet in a manner that
expreffes a great affeXion, the has quibbled on our au¬
thor’s name, Ihe concludes with the following lines :
You may wonder, my girl, who this dear one can bet
Whofe merit can boaft fuch a conqueff as me :
But you (han’t know his name, tho’ I told you be¬
fore,
It begins with an M, but I dare not fay More.
In the year i'/53> Mr Moore commenced a weekly Moore
mifcellaneous paper, entitled, The World, by Adam , II
Fitts-Adam, in which undertaking he was aflifted by ^0-nland^
Lord Chefterfield with fome Effays. This paper was
colleXed into volumes, and Mr Moore died foon
after.
MOORING, the aX of confining and fecuring a
(hip in a particular llation, by chains or cables, which
are either faftened to the adjacent (bore, or to anchors
in the bottom.
A (hip may be either moored by the head, or by the
head and (tern j that is to fay, (lie may be fecured by
anchors before her, without any behind 5 or (lie may
have anchors out, both before and behind her j or her
cables may be attached to pods, rings, or moorings,
which anfwer the fame purpofe.
When a (hip is moored by the head with her own
anchors, they are difpofed according to the circum-
ftanccs of the place where ihe lies and the time (lie is
to continue therein. Thus, wherever the tide ebbs and
flows, it is ufual to carry one anchor out towards the
flood, and another towards the ebb, particularly where
there is little room to range about ; and the anchors
are laid in the fame manner, if the veffel is moored
head and ftern in the fame place. The fituation of the
anchors, in a road or bay, is ufually oppofed to the
reigning winds, or thofe which are moft dangerous ; fo
that the fliip rides therein with the effort of both her
cables. Thus if (lie rides in a bay, or road, which is
expofed to & northerly wind and heavy fea from the
fame quarter, the anchors paffing from the oppofite
bows ought to lie eaft and weft from each other:
hence both the cables will retain the (hip in her fta-
tion with equal effort againft the aXion of the wind and
fea.
MooRINGS, in fea language, are ufually an affem-
blage of anchors, chains, and bridles, laid athwart the
bottom of a river or haven, to ride the dripping con¬
tained therein. The anchors employed on this occa •
fion have rarely more than one fluke, which is funk in
the water near low-water mark. Two anchors being
fixed in this manner on the oppofite fide of the river,
are furniftred with a chain extending acrofs from one to
the other. In the middle of the chain is a large fquare
link, whofe lower end terminates in a fwivel, which
turns round in the chain as about ah axis, whenever
the drip veers about with the change of the tide. To
this fwivel link are attached the bridles, which are (hort
pieces of cable, well ferved, whofe upper ends are
drawn into the (hip at the mooring ports, and after¬
wards faftened to the mafts or cable bolts. A greait
number of moorings of this fort are fixed in the har¬
bours adjacent to the king’s dock-yards, as Deptford,
Chatham, Portfmouth, Plymouth, &c.
MOORLANDS, a traX fo called, in the north
part of Staffordlhire, -where the land rifes gradually in¬
to fmall hills, which run through the midft of England
in one continued ridge, rifing higher and higher to
Scotland, and fending forth many rivers. The foil here
is fo foul and cold, that the fnows lie almoft all the
year on the tops of the hills 5 and it is withal very rug¬
ged and barren : it, however, yields plenty of coal,
lead, copper, ranee-marble, and millftones 5 and fome
of the limeftone hills bear fuch a fweet though (hort
grafs, as is very grateful to the oxen, of which here is
Moorlands
MOP [ 356 1 M O R
a very good breed. It is obferved here, that the weft
wind always brings rain, and the eaft: and fouth fair
weather; that though this tra£f is full of bogs, it is as
healthy as any other part of the county j and that it
produces the fame plants as the Peak, of Derby.
MOORS. See Morocco.
Moors, in the Ifte of Man, thofe who fummon the
courts for the feveral (headings •, fuch as the lords bai¬
liffs. Every moor has the like office with our bailiff of
the hundred.
MOOSE, or Elk. See Cervus, Mammalia
Index.
MOOT, a difficult cafe argued by the young bar-
rifters and lludents at the inns of court, by way of
exercife, the better to qualify them for praftiee, and
to defend the caufes of their clients. This, which is
called mooting, is the chief exercife of the inns of
court. Particular times are appointed for the arguing
moot cafes: the place where this exercife is performed
was anciently called moot-hall; and there is a bailiff-,
or furvcyor of the moots, annually chofen by the
bench to appoint the moot men for the inns of chan¬
cery, and to keep an account of the performance of
exercifes. The word is formed either from the Saxon
met an, gemetan, “ meeting” j or from the French mot,
“ word.”
MOPSUS, in fabulous hiftory, a celebrated pro¬
phet, fon of Manto and Apollo, during the Trojan war.
He was confulted by Amphimachus, king of Colophon,
who wiffied to know what fuccefs would attend his arms
in a war which he wras going to undertake. He pre¬
dicted the greateft calamities ; but Calchas, who had
been a foothfayer of the Greeks during the Trojan war,
promifed the greateft fucceffes. Amphimachus followr-
ed the opinion of Calchas ; but the prediction of Mop-
fus was fully verified. This had fuch an effeCt upon
Calchas, that he died foon after. His death is attri¬
buted by fome to another mortification of the fame na¬
ture. The twTo foothfayers, jealous of each other’s
fame, came to a trial of their (kill in divination. Cal¬
chas fir ft alked his antagonift, how many figs a neigh¬
bouring tree bore ? 10,000 except one, replied Mopfus,
and one (ingle veffel can contain them all. The figs
were gathered, and his conjectures were true. Mopfus
now to try his adverfary, alked him how many young
ones a certain pregnant fow would bring forth ? Cal¬
chas confeffed his ignorance j and Mopfus immediately
faid that the foiv would bring forlh on the morrow ten
young ones, of which only one (liould be a male, all
black, and that the females ffiould all be knoAvn by
their white ftreaks. The morrow proved the veracity
of his prediction *, and Calchas died by the excefs of
grief which his defeat produced. Mopfus after death
was ranked among the gods, and had an oracle at Ma-
lia, celebrated for the true and decilive anfwers which
it gave.—-Another Mopfus, fon of Ampyx and Chloris,
born at Titareffa in 'i heffaly. He was the prophet
and foothfayer of the Argonauts, and died at his re¬
turn from Colchis by the bite of a ferpent in Libya.
Jafon ereCted him a monument on the fea (hore, where
afterwards the Africans built him a temple, where he
gave oracles. He has often been confounded with the
fon of Manto, as their profeffions and their names were
alike.
MORiEA, a genus of plants belonging to the tri-
andria clafs j and in the natural method ranking under
the 6th order, Enfatte. See Botany Index.
MORAI, is the name given at Otaheite in the
South fca to the burying grounds, which are alfo places
of worftiip. This is a pile of (tone raifed pyramidically
upon an oblong bale or fquare 267 feet long and 87
wide. On each fide is a flight of (teps j thofe at the
(ides being broader than thofe at the ends j fo that it
terminated not in a fquare of the fame figure Avith the
bafe, but in a ridge like the roof of a houfe. There
were 11 of thefe (leps to one of thefe morais, each of
Avhich was 4 feet high, fo that the height of the pile
Avas 44 feet ; each ftep Avas formed of one courfe of
white coral (lone, which Avas neatly fquared and poliflt-
ed 5 the reft of the mafs (for there was no hollow with¬
in) confided of round pebbles, Avhich, from the regula¬
rity of their figure, feemed to have been wrought. The
foundation Avas of rock ftones, Avhich Avere alfo fquared.
In the middle of the top flood an image of a bird carved
in Avood, and near it lay the broken one of a fiffi carA'ed
in (lone. The whole of this pyramid made part of one
fide of a fpacious area or fquare 360 feet by 354, which
Avas Availed in Avitli ftone, and paved Avith flat ftones in
its whole extent. About 100 yards to the Aveft of this
building was another paved area or court, in Avhich
were feveral fmall ftages raifed on Avooden pillars about
feven feet high, Avhich are called by the Indians eveat-
tas, and feem to be a kind of altars, as upon thefe are
placed provifions of all kinds, as offerings to their gods.
On fome of them Avere feen whole hogs, and on others
the (kulls of above 50, befides the (kulls of many dogs.
The principal objetft of ambition among the natives is
to have a magnificent morai. The male deities (foy
they have them of both fexes) are Avorffiipped by the
men, and the female by the women •, and each have
morais, to which the other fex is not admitted, though
they have alfo morais common to both.
Mopfus
II .
Morai.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY, or MORALS.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY is, “ The fcience of
MANNERS oi DUTY 5 which it traces from man’s
nature and condition, and (hows to terminate in his
happinefs.” In other words, it is, ” T he knowledge
of our duty and FELICITY j” or, “ The art of being
virtuous and happy.”
It is denominated an art, as it contains a fyftem of
tides for becoming virtuous and happy. 'Whoever
pra£lifes. thefe rules, attains an habitual power or fa>
cility of becoming virtuous and happy. It is likeAvife
called a fcience, as it deduces thofe rules from the
principles and connexions of our nature, and proves
that the obfervance of them is prod'u&ive.of our happi¬
nefs.
It is an art, and a feience of the higheft dignity, im¬
portance, and ufe. Its object is man’s duty, or his con-
du&
357
Hiftory. MORAL PH
du& in the feveral moral capacities and connexions
which he fuftains. Its office is to direft that condudt j
to ffiow whence our obligations arife, and where they
terminate. Its ufe, or end, is the attainment of hap-
pinefs ; and the means it employs are rules tor the right
conduct of our moral powers.
Moral Philosophy has this in common with Natural
Philofophy, that it appeals to nature or fa£t 3 depends
on obfervation 3 and builds its reafonings on plain un¬
controverted experiments, or upon the fulleft induction
of particulars of which the Subject will admit. We
mult obferve, in both thefe fciences, how nature is af¬
fected, and what her conduCt is in Such and fuch cir-
cumltances: Or, in other words, we mult colleCt the
appearances ol nature in any given inltance 3 trace thefe
to fome general principles or laws of operation ; and
then apply thefe principles or laws to the explaining of
other phenomena.
Therefore Moral Philofophy inquires, not how man
might have been, but how he is, conllituted : not into
what principles or difpolitions his aCtions may be art¬
fully refolved, but from what principles and difpoli¬
tions they aCtually flow : not what he may, by educa¬
tion, habit, or foreign influence, come to be or do, but
what, by his nature, or original conftituent principles,
he is formed to be and do. We difeover the office, ufe,
or deftination of any work, whether natural or artificial,
by obferving its ItruCture, the parts of which it confilts,
their connexion or joint aCtion. It is thus we under-
Itand the office and ufe of a watch, a plant, an eye, or
hand. It is the fame with a living creature of the ra¬
tional or brute kind. Therefore, to determine the of¬
fice, duty, or deftination of man 3 or, in other words,
what his bufinefs is, or what conduCt he is obliged to
purfue 3 Are mull infpeCt his conftitution, take every
part to pieces, examine their mutual relations one to
the other, and the common effort or tendency of the
whole.
It has not been thus, hmvever, that the fcience has
always been taught. The earlieft moralifts did not
ereCt fyftems upon a juft analyfis of the powers of the
human mind 3 nor have all thofe who thought fuch a
foundation neceffary to be laid, deduced their theories
from the very fame principles. As moral truths are
not capable of rigid demonftration, it appears to us,
that avc cannot more properly introduce the fyftem
Avhich avc have adopted, than by giving our readers a
ffiort vieAV of the moft celebrated fyftems that have been
maintained by others. They will thus have an oppor¬
tunity of judging for themfelves of the refpeCtive me
rits of the different theories, and of adopting that which
Ihall appear to them to place practical virtue on the
firmeft bafis.
HlSTOB r of the Science of MORALS.
Whilft there has been a remarkable agreement
1
Various
opinions among the Avriters on morality, as to the particular
Ehecriterf a^ons which are virtuous and thofe Avhich are vici-
onofvir- ous ? and Avhilft they have uniformly taught, that it
tue, &.c. is our duty and our intereft to perform the one and
to avoid the other 5 they have yet differed exceedingly
concerning the tef or criterion virtue, as well as con*
cerning the principle or motive by Avhich men are in¬
duced to nurfue it.. One caufe of this difference in
2
ILO SOPHY.
opinion refpecling matters of fuch univerfal importance,
may perhaps be traced to the miftakes into which
philofophers are apt to fall concerning the original ftate
of man. *
It is very generally taken for granted, that the firft Probable
men Avere favages of the loweft rank, and that the race
gradually civilized itfelf during the courfe of many
fucceeding ages. Without mutual intercourfe, the
progrefs of civilization could never have commenced 3
and as the practice of juftice is abfolutely neceffary to
every fpecies of friendly intercourfe, thofe original fa¬
vages, it is fuppofed, muft have been juft in their deal¬
ings, and juft upon fome principle Avhich has its foun¬
dation in human nature. But to develope the prin¬
ciple by which favages are influenced in their condudt,
no tedious or intricate procefs of reafoning can be ne¬
ceffary. It muft have a place in every mind, and be
inftantaneous in all its decifions. Hence it has been
fuppofed, that the principle to which modern philo¬
fophers have given the name of the moralfenfe, is in-
ftindtive 3 that it is the foie judge of virtue and vice 3
and that its admonitions have fuch authority, as to en¬
force obedience without regard to the confequences of
any adtion.
Other philofophers, Avho deny that the moral fenfs
is inftinftive, and Avho yet fuppofe that the original
ftate of man Avas favage, are forced to pile hypothefis
upon hypothefis, each unnatural in itfelf, and all con-
tradidtory to one another, in order to account for the
commencement of civilization and the formation of fo-
ciety. It has been fuppofed, that the defire of felf-
prefer\ration and the love of power are the governing
principles in human nature 3 that in the favage ftate
every man had a right to every thing svhich he could
feize by fraud or force 3 that all had an innate propen-
fity to invade each other’s property 3 and that hence
Avar, rapine, and bloodfhed, prevailed univerfally, till
the favages difcovered the expediency of uniting under
fome form of government for their mutual protection.
But before the original ftate of man had been made
the bafis of fuch oppofite theories as thefe, it Avould
furely have been proper to inquire upon what grounds
that ft ate has been fuppofed to be favage. To us thefe
grounds appear to be nothing better than mere ima¬
ginations 3 the dreams of poets, and of fuch philofo¬
phers as bend fadts to their own fyftems. In the au¬
thentic hijlory of our fpecies, there is no evidence, in¬
deed there can be no eA'idence, that the firft men Avere
favages 3 and every thing which avc knoAV of human
nature leads us to believe, that had they been fo, tha
race could never have been civilized but by the mira¬
culous interpofition of fome fuperior being. The only
record of the earlieft ages of the world to Avhich the
fmalleft credit is due, reprefents all the nations of tha
earth as having fprung from one pair, and that pair as
having been inftrudted in their duty by their beneficent
Creator. If this be the- fadt, and no confiftent theift
can controvert it, the precepts of morality would be •
originally conveyed from one generation to another 3
not in a fyilematical or fcientific form, but as the iaws jv[ocjes 0f
of the Univerfal Sovereign, Avhofe authority demand-comimmi..
ed implicit obedience. Accordingly Ave find, that eating in-
the firft teachers of morals Avere men of fuperior rank jtri^ori
as well as of eminent talents, who formed co^e<^^ons ijeit mora-
of maxims derived from their anceftors, “ Avith the iu^Si>
vIcav
353
* Bruce's view of perfecting fubordination *, polifhing manners,
Elements of anj educating youth. Such were the proverbs of
of Ethics.C Solomon, the Words of Agur, and the Wifdom of
the fon of Sirach.” Thefe inilrudlors did not analyze
the human mind into its various faculties, and build a
fyftem of morals either upon a particular inilinCl point¬
ing to the fupreme good, or upon the fitnefs of things
difcovered by reafon. Short ifolated fentences were the
mode in which they conveyed their precepts; which
they prefaced by obferving, that “ the fear of the
Lord is the beginning of knowledge 5” and enforced
by the aflurance, that “ length of days, and long life,
and peace, fliould they add to thofe who obeyed them.”
The fayings of the celebrated wdfe men of Greece were
collections of apophthegms, made in the fame manner,
and delivered with fimilar views. Thales and Pytha-
f Bruce's goras f, who founded the one the Ionic and the other
Elements, iJm Italic fchool, made collections of precepts for the
Jield's Hi con^uCI as well of a date as of private life. “ Neither
floryofPbi-^1^ crimes nor the thoughts of bad men (faid Thales)
lofophy. are concealed from the gods. The only method of be¬
ing juit, is to avoid doing that which we blame in
others.” Of Pythagoras it is related by Porphyry and
Laertius, that from Samos he repaired to Delos, and
after prefenting an offering of cakes to Apollo, there
received, or pretended to receive moral dogmas from
the prieftefs ; which he afterwards delivered to his
difciples under the charafter of divine precepts. A-
mongft thefe were the following: That, “ next to
gods and demons, the higheft reverence is due to pa¬
rents and legiflators j and that the laws and cuftoms of
our country are to be religioufly obftrved.”
To thefe maxims or apophthegms, which, for the
fake of delighting the ear and aiding the memory,
were fometimes delivered in verfe, fucceeded, as has
been fuppofed, the mode of inftruCiion by fable or al¬
legory. But the truth feems to be, that this method
of communicating moral and political wifdom was as
ancient as the other j for we have a beautiful fpecimen
of it in the ninth chapter of the book which relates the
tranfaClions of the Judges of Ifrael. The fables of Efop,
too, which were written at a very early period, remain
lading modes of this fpecies of art among the Greeks.
When the indruftors of mankind had proceeded thus
far as to give an artificial form to their precepts, they
foon advanced a dep farther, and reduced their obfer-
vations into claffes or predicaments. Pythagoras, who
vifited Egypt, has been fuppofed to have learned from
its prieds the method of arranging the virtues into dif-
tinft claffes. But it is the opinion of an excellent
| Mr Bruce, writer founded on the previous afpedts of ethics, and
on the comprehenfive talents of the Samian philofopher,
that the honour of the invention ought to be aferibed
to himfelf. Be this as it may, it was obferved by
the inventor, that “ all the maxims of morality might
be referred to the duties which men owe to them-
felves, and the duties which they owe to each other.”
Hence the four cardinal virtues of the ancients, pru¬
dence, TEMPERANCE, FORTITUDE, and JUSTICE of
which the fird three refer to the individual, and the
^ fourth to fociety.
The moral Hitherto leffons in morality had not taken a fyde-
principles matic form ; but they were gradually approaching to
cfSocrates.it. Socrates was perhaps the fird Pagan philofopher
who edabliflied all his precepts on one fure and deady
Uiftory,
bafis. In his Ic&ures and difeourfes, he feems to have
had one great objedt in view J, to conned! the moral 1 Bruce's
maxims which were fitted to regulate the condudl
of mankind, with fublime conceptions refpedting the r^1^-
charadfer and government of a fupreme Being. Thej0^^
fird principles of virtuous condudt which are common
to all mankind, are according to this excellent moral-
id, laws of God: and the conclufive argument by
which he fupports this opinion is, that no man departs
from thefe principles with impunity. “ It is fre-
quently pofiible (fays he) for men to fereen themfelves
from the penalty of human laws, but no man can be
unjud or ungrateful -without differing for his crime ;
lienee I conclude, that thefe laws mud have proceed¬
ed from a more excellent legidator than man.” From
this it would appear, that in the opinion of Socrates,
confcience, or the moral fenfe, approving of any ac¬
tion, is the criterion by Avhich it is known to be vir¬
tuous, and the will of God that which obliges men to
perform it.
Socrates himfelf left no writings behind him, nor, as Origin of
far as we know, offered any regular and complete theory the Greek
of ethics. His difciples, however, who were numerous fe&s.
and didinguidied, became the founders of the celebrat¬
ed Greek fedts. Among them the fird great quedion
was, “ what are the foundations of virtue ?” and the
fecond, “ what are the didindtions betwixt good and
evil, happinefs and mifery ?” The anfwers given to
thefe important quedions divided the philofophers and
their difciples into didindt orders. * EnfitlJi
In anfwer to the former quedion, Plato taught * 6
that “ virtue is to be purfued for its own fake; andTheoricj
that being a divine attainment, it cannot be taught,ct 1
but is the gift of God.” This feems to differ in no¬
thing, but the name, from the dodtrine of thofe mo¬
derns who place the foie foundation of virtue in the
approbation of the moral fenfe. The founder of the
academy indeed has no fueh phrafe as moral fenfe in
any of his writings w ith which we are acquainted ;
but if virtue cannot be taught, and if it is to be pur¬
fued for its own fake, it mud in itfelf be good, and
the objedt of fome feeling, whether called fenfe, in-
finEl, or pafion. His folution of the fecond quedion
agitated among the fedls is not indeed very confident
with this neced'ary inference from his anfwer to the
fird ; but for his inconfidencies wre are not account¬
able. “ Our higheft good (he fays) confids in the
contemplation and knowledge of the firft good, which
is mind or God ; and all thofe things which are called
good by men, are in reality fuch only fo far as they are
derived from the firft and higheft good. The only
power in human nature rvhich can acquire a refem-
blance to the fupreme good, is reafon ; and this re-
femblance confids in prudence, juftice, fandlity, and
temperance.” ^
Ariftotle, the founder of the Peripatetic fchool, vras 0f Arifto^
the pupil of Plato ; but of the twro great moral quef- tie,
tions he gives folutions fomewhat different from thofe
of his mafter. “ Virtue (according to him J) is ei- J Enfield.
ther theoretical or praflical. Theoretical virtue con-
fids in the due exercife of the underftanding; practical,
in the purfuit of what is right and good. Practical vir¬
tue is acquired by habit and exereife.” This theory
feems to differ little from that adopted by Cudwdrth,
Clarke, and Price, which ftiall be confidered afterwards.
With
MORAL PHILOSOPHY,
ii
dd'
f (Ira
1 ijMt
1 Ms
>• i'h
359
liftory. MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
With rfcfpccl to happinefs or good, the doftrine of
Ariftotle is very rational. “ Pleafures (lie fays) are
eflentially different in kind. Difgraceful pleafures are
wholly unworthy of the name. The pureft and nobleft
pleafure is that which a good man derives from virtu¬
ous aftions. Happinefs, which conlilts in a conduct
conformable to virtue, is either contemplative or ac¬
tive. Contemplative happinefs, which confifts in the
purfuit of knowledge and wifdom, is fuperior to adlive
happinefs, becaufe the underftanding is the higher part
of human nature, and the objefts on which it is em¬
ployed are of the nobleft kind. The happinefs which
arifes from external polfeffions is inferior to that which
arifes from virtuous actions; but both are necelfary to
8 produce perfect felicity.”
< thc The Stoics, another celebrated fe£t of Greek phi-
rlcs’ lofophers, maintained *, that “ nature impels every
n^c ’ man to purfue whatever appears to him to be good.”
According to them, “ felf-prefervation and defence is
the firft law of animated nature. All animals necef-
farily derive pleafure from thofe things which are fuit-
ed to them j but the firft: objedt of purfuit is, not plea¬
fure, but conformity to nature. Every one, therefore,
who has a right difcernment of Avhat is good, will be
chiefly concerned to conform to nature in all his ac¬
tions and purfuits. This is the origin of moral obliga¬
tion.” With refpedt to happinefs or good, the Stoical
dodtrine was altogether extravagant: They taught,
that <c all external things are indifferent, and cannot,
affedl the happinefs of man j that pain which does not
belong to the mind, is no evil 5 and that a wife man
will be happy in the midft of torture, becaufe virtue
itfelf is happinefs (a).”
As the Stoics held that there is but one fubftance,
partly adlive and partly paffive, in the univerfe (fee
Metaphysics, N° 261, 262), and as they called the
adlive principle God, their dodlrine, which makes vir¬
tue confift in a conformity to nature, bears no fmall
refemblance to that of thofe moderns who reft moral
obligation on the Divine will. It was therefore on
better grounds than has been fometimes fuppofed, that
Warburton, when charadlerizing the founders of the
Leg. three principal fedts in Greece, reprefented f Plato,
uMofes. a3 the patron of the moral fenfe ; Ariftotle of the e[[efi¬
lial differences; and Zeno, of arbitrary will. Thefe
principles, when feparated from each other, and treated
in the manner of the ancients, may not each be able to
bear the fuperftrudlure which was raifed upon it; but
the principles of moft of the other fedts were much lefs
\Uernal pure, and infinitely more dangerous.
miimmu- Cudworth J, whofe teftimony when relating the
me Mo- dodtrines of antiquity is entitled to the fulleft credit,
I ^ affirms, that Ariftippus the founder of the Cyrenaic
< Ariftip- fchool, Democritus, and Protagoras, with their followers
l:, Demo-among the atomifts, taught, that “the diftindlion be-
fijms, and tween virtue and vice is merely arbitrary ; that no-
' ° ’ thing is juft or unjuft, facred or profane, but as it is
agreeable or contrary to eftabliftied laws and cuftoms j
that what is juft to-day, human authority may make
unjuft; to-morrow j and that prefent pleafure is the fo-
vereign good of man.” IO
With thefe impieties, the moral dodtrines of Epi- and of Epi¬
curus have very unjuftly been confounded. The phyfi- curus.
cal and metaphyfical fyftems of that philofopher are
indeed ftrange compofitions of ingenuity and abfurdity,
truth and falfehood j and the moral precepts of many
of his followers were in the higheft degree licentious
and impure. But his own life was exemplary 5 and
his ethical fyftem, if candidly interpreted, is much
more rational than that of the Stoics ; though it muft
be confelfed, that no fedl produced men of more deter¬
mined virtue than the fchool of Zeno. According to
Epicurus *, “ the end of living, or the ultimate good * Enfield's.
which is to be fought for its own fake, is happinefs. Hiflsry.
The happinefs which belongs to man, is that ftate in
which he enjoys as many of the good things, and fuf-
fers as few of the evils incident to human nature as
poflible ; pafling his days in a fmooth courfe of tran¬
quillity. Pleafure is in its own nature good, as pain is
in its nature evil. The one is therefore to be purfued,
and the other to be avoided, for its own fake. Plea¬
fure and pain are not only good and evil in themfelves,
but they are the meafures of what is good or evil in
every object of defire and averfion j for the ultimate
reafon why we purfue one thing and avoid another is,
becaufe we expert pleafure from the former, and ap¬
prehend pain from the latter.—That pleafure, however,
which prevents the enjoyment of a greater pleafure, or
produces a greater pain, is to be ftiunned and that
pain which either removes a greater pain, or procures a
greater pleafure, is to be endured.”
Upon thefe felf-evident maxims, Epicurus builds his
fyftem of ethics j and proves, with great force of ar¬
gument, “ that a fteady courfe of virtue produces the
greateft quantity of happinefs of which human nature
is capable.” Without •& prudent care of the body, and
a fteady government of the mind, to guard the one from
difeafes and the other from the clouds of prejudice,
happinefs is unattainable. By temperance we enjoy
pleafure, without fuffering any confequent inconveni¬
ence. Sobriety enables us to content ourfelves with
Ample and frugal fare. Gentlenefs, as oppofed to an
irafcible temper, greatly contributes to the tranquillity
and happinefs of life, by preferving the mind from
perturbation, and arming it againft the aflaults of ca¬
lumny and malice. Fortitude enables us to bear thofe
pains which prudence cannot fhun, and banifhes fear
from the mind j and the pra£tice of jujlice is abfolutely
neceffary to the exiftence of fociety, and by confe-
quence to the happinefs of every individual.” Thefe
reafonings come home to every man’s bofom ; and had
not this philofopher, by denying the providence, if
not the being, of God, moft unhappily excluded from
his fyftem the very poflibility of a future ftate of re¬
tribution, his moral philofophy would have been the
moft rational, and of courfe the moft ufeful, of any
that
(a) Since this fhort hiftory was written, a very pleafing view of Stoicifm lias been given to the public in Fer-
gufon’s Principles of Moral and Political Science; a work which the ftudent of ethics will do well to confulU
Perhaps the amiable author may unintentionally have foftened the auftere dogmas of the Porch, by transfufing in¬
to them fomething of the mild fpirit of the gofpel $ but, if fo, he has much improved the fyftem of Zeno,
$6o
II
The eclec¬
tic philofo-
phers of
Alexan¬
dria.
12
Extinction
and revival
of moral
fcience in
Europe-
*3
Theories
of Hobbes,
MORAL PH
that was taught in the fchools of Greece. This enor¬
mous defedt, however, laid it open to the groiled cor¬
ruptions j and by his followers it was in fadt corrupted
fo as to countenance the moil impure and criminal plea-
fures of fenfe.
Thefe feveral fyftems of ethics continued to be cul¬
tivated with more or lefs purity through all the revo¬
lutions of the Grecian dates, and they were adopted
by the Romans after Greece itfelf became a province
of the empire. They had been introduced into Egypt
during the reigns of the Ptolemies, and were taught
with much celebrity in the fchools of Alexandria.—
The philofophy which was moll cultivated in thofe
fchools was that of Plato •, but from a defire of uni¬
formity which took pofTefTion of the Alexandrian Pla-
tonifts, many of the dogmas of Ariftotle and Zeno,
as well as the extravagant fidtions of the eaft, were in¬
corporated with the principles of the old academy.—
The patrons of this heterogeneous mafs have been call¬
ed ecleffic philofophers, becaufe they profeffed to feledt
from each fyftem thofe dodlrines which were rational
and important, and to rejedl every thing which was
falfe or futile j but they added nothing to the purity of
Plato’s ethics, and they increafed the obfcurity and my-
ilicifm of his phyfics and metaphyfics.
After the fubverfion of the Roman empire, every
fpecies of philofophy, if fyllogiflic wrangling deferve
not that name, was banifhed for ages from the fchools
of Europe ; and ethics, properly fo called, gave place to
ecclefiaflical cafuiftry, and to the fludy of the civil and
canon law. When the Greeks, whom the fury and
fanaticifm of Mahomet II. had driven from Conftanti-
nople, introduced into Italy the knowledge of their
own language, the cabinets of ancient philofophy were
again unlocked j the fyftems of the different fe£ts were
•adopted with the utmdft avidity \ and, without ac¬
curate inveftigation of their refpeftive merits, men be¬
came Platonifts, Peripatetics, or Stoics, as fancy or
caprice prompted them to choofe their leaders. The
•cjrof e(p»i of Ariftotle, in particular, had not lefs autho--
rity over his modern admirers than it had of old in the
Lyceum at Athens. At length the fpirit of Luther
and the genius of Bacon broke thefe fetters, and taught
men to think for themfelves as well in fcience as in
religion. In phyfics, the effeds produced by the writ¬
ings of Bacon were great and rapid j for in phyfics the
ancient theories were totally and radically wrong.—
With refpeft to morals, however, the cafe was differ¬
ent. Each of the celebrated fchools of antiquity was
in poffeffion of much moral truth, blended indeed with
error : and long after the Stagyrite and his rivals had
loft all influence in phyfieal fcience, philofophers of
eminence followed them implicitly in the fcience of
ethics.
At this day, indeed, there is hardly a theory of mo¬
rals at all diftinguithed, to which fomething very fimi-
lar may not be found in the writings of the ancients.
 Hobbes adopted the principles of Democritus and
Protagoras, and taught exprefsly that “ there is no
IL OS O PHY. Hiftory.
criterion of juftice or injuftice, good or evil, befides the
laws of each Hate ; and that it is abfurd to inquire at
any perfon except the eftabliflied interpreters of the law,
whether an action be right or wrong, good or evil (b).”
Thefe impious abfurdilies have been often confuted.
Cudvvorth, who compofed his True Intelleciunl Syjlem
of the Univerfe, in order to trace the metaphyfical athe-
ifm of Hobbes to its fource, and to expofe it to the pub¬
lic in all its weaknefs, undertook like wife to overthrow
his ethical fyftem, in a treatife, entitled Of Eternal
and Immutable Morality, That work was left unfinifti-
ed } but the theory of its great author was adopted, il-
luftrated, and very ably fupported, by the do&ors Clarke
and Price. ^
According to thefe three admirable fcholars, “ we 0f Cud
feel ourfelves irrefiftibly determined to approve fome worth,
aflions, and to difapprove others. Some actions we G^rke,
Cahnot but conceive of as right, and others as wrong ; an n ^
and of all adtions we are led to form fome idea, as ei¬
ther ft to be performed or unft, or a* neither fit nor
unfit to be performed, i. e. as indifferent. The power
within us which thus perceives and determines, they
declare to be the underfunding ; and they add, that it
perceives or determines immediately or by intuition,
becaufe right and wrong denote fimple ideas. As there
are fome propofitions, which when attended to necef-
farily determine all minds to believe them, fo are there
fome adtions whofe natures are Rich, that when obferv-
ed, all rational beings immediately and neceffarily ap¬
prove them. He that can impartially attend, it is faid,
to the nature of his own perceptions, and determine that
when he conceives gratitude or beneficence to be right,
he perceives nothing true of them, or underfunds no¬
thing, but only fuffers from a fenfe, has a turn of mind
which appears unaccountable : for the more we ex¬
amine, the more indifputable it will appear to us, that
we exprefs neceffary truth, when we fay of fome adlions
that they are right, and of others that they are wrong.”
It is added, that “ we cannot perceive an adtion to be
right without approving it, or approve it without being
confcious of fome degree of fatisfaffion and compla¬
cency 5 that we cannot perceive an adtion to be wrong
without difapproving it, or difapprove it without being
difpieafed with it; and that theyfry? muft be liked, the
laf difliked } the frf loved, the laf hated.” By the
patrons of this fyftem, obligation to adtion, and rightnefs
of adtion, are held to be coincident or identical. “ Vir¬
tue, they affirm, has a real, full, obligatory power, an¬
tecedently to all laws, and independently of all will \
for obligation is involved in the very nature of it. To
affirm that the performance of that which to omit would
be wrong is not obligatory, unlefs conducive to private
good, or enjoined by a fuperior power, is a manifeft con-
tradidtion *.” * Price's
Few men have deferved better of letters and philo- Review,
fophy than Cudworth, Clarke, and Price ; and yet and Clarke
their theory of morals appears to us to be contradic-
tory and unintelligible. It is certainly romantic, and trit’uteh
founded upon principles which, if they be denied, no
man
(b) Dodlrinas de jufto et injufto, bono et malo, praeter leges in unaquaque civitate conftitutas, authenticas effe
mill us : et utrum aliqua adtio jufta vel injufta, bona vel mala futura fit, a nemine inquirendum effe, prseterquam
ab illis, quibus legum fuarum interpretationem civitas demandaverit. De Cive, p. 343.
Hiftory. MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 36t
man by argument can be compelled to grant. There
is, fay they, an abfolute right and wrong, fitnefs and
unfitnefs, in a&ions j but if fo, the a&ions which are
rig/it and Jit muft be right and fit for fomething, oe-
caufe fitnefs, which refpedts no end, is wholly incon¬
ceivable, To fay that any particular action is Jit, and
yet fit for -no •particular ■purpefe, is juft as abfurd as to
fay that the angles at the bafe of an ifofceles triangle
are equal, but neither to one another, nor to any other
angles-; and we may with no lefs propriety talk of the
relation of equality attaching to a particular angle, and
to nothing elle with which the angle is equal, than of the
ahfolute fitnefs or rightnefs of any a£Hon or courfe of
a£lions. If it be faid that fuch actions are fit and
right, becaufe they tend to promote the harmony of
the world and the happinefs of men, this may be grant¬
ed j but it overturns the intellectual theory from its
very foundation. Actions which are fit and right only
for their eonfequences, are approved and liked for the
fake of thofe confequences j and the happinefs of men,
among whom the virtuous perfon himfelf is certainly
to be included, is the motive or ultimate obligation to
their performance.
Similar to this theory, and liable to the fame objec¬
tions, is that which refolves moral approbation into a
fenfe of propriety : for if actions be approved becaufe
they are proper, it muft be becaufe they are proper for
fome end or purpofe, propriety in the abftraft being a
word without meaning.
ftf Lord Many philofophers, feeling the force of thefe and
Shaftef- of fimilar objections to the intellectual theory of Cud-
»ury, worth, Clarke, and Price, as well as to a fenfe of y>ro-
Hutchefon, priei,j jn the abftra£t, have had recourfe to another hy-
polhefis, apparently better founded. Obferving that all
mankind decide on the morality of characters and ac¬
tions inftantaneouily, without weighing their confe¬
quences in the balance of reafon, they fuppofe that
fuch decifions are made by an inJHnB of our common
nature, implanted in the human breaft by the hand
that formed it. To this inftimft fome of them give
the name of confcience, and others that of moralfenfe,
in contradi£tion to externalfenfe the other great and
univerfal inlet of human knowledge. By this moral fenfe
we intuitively difcover an effential difference in the
quality of all thoughts and a£1 ions, and a general dif-
tinflion of them into good and evil, juft as by the
tongue and palate we difcover an effential difference in
the tafe of all objefts, and a general diftindfion of
them intopleafant and unpleafant. The ableft advocates
for this inftinftive fyftem agree, that the moral fenfe
is the immediate and involuntary criterion of only a
few general truths, which in their joint operation up¬
on the mind, lay the bafis of moral obligation. Others
have carried it to what we think a very dangerous ex¬
treme as by affirming that we cannot prove, in regard
to our moral feelings, that they are conformable to any
extrinfic and eternal relations of things, they feera to
wilh that reafon were baniftied from the fcience of e-
thics. Were this true, it would in many cafes be im-
poftible to diftinguilh the prejudices of early education
from the pure dictates of original inftindl, and the moft
pernicious conduct might be fandlified with the appro¬
bation of what would be deemed the ultimate teft of
virtue and vice.
To remedy the defers of the intellectual and in-
Vol. XIV. Part I.
ftindlive theories of morality, Mr Hume blended them
together j and, upon the broader bafis of reafon and
internal fenfe co-operating with each other, he reared a
fyftem which, though different from thofe of all his pre-
deceffors, he rendered plaulible, and fupported with his
ufual ingenuity. i<$
According to \nxn,fcnlirnent and reafon concur in al- Of Mr
moft all moral determinations j and he proves, that Hume,
for this purpofe, “ there is implanted in the human
breaft a dilinterefted principle of benevolence or fympalhy
which makes men take pleafure in each other’s happi¬
nefs. The merit or demerit of actions confiiis wholly
in their utility or natural tendency to add to the lum
of human happincls; and the lame he holds to be true
of qualities whether bodily or mental. This utility
or natural tendency it is the office of rcafon to dilco-
ver; for that faculty alone can trace relations and con*
fequences. Such qualities or a&ions as reafon difeo-
vers to be ufeful, either to the individual or fociety,
the inftinefive principle of benevolence makes us in-
ftantly approve, and this approbation conftitutes their
morality. Thus temperance, fortitude, courage, in-
duftry, &c. reafon difeovers to be ufeful to him who
poffeffes them j and upon this ditcovery they are ap¬
proved of by the fentiment ot fympathy. They are
therefore moral qualities and the lources of the private
virtues. In like manner, generofty, cheerfulnefs of
temper, mercy, and juftice, are difeovered to be uleful
to fociety, and are accompanied with the approbation
of that fentiment of fympathy which makes ev>.ry man
feel a fatisfa&ion in the felicity of all other men. They
therefore conftitute the facial virtues. Of every qua¬
lity and every aft ion, the merit or demerit, and of con-
fequence the degree of approbation or difapprobation
which is bellowed upon it, is in exa£l proportion to
its utility and the civcumftances of the cafe in which
it occurs. The focial virtues are therefore greater than
thofe which are private, and one focial virtue is greater
than another; but every quality and every aftion which
is ufeful, either to fociety or to the individual, is more or
lefs virtuous, provided the good of the individual be con-
fidered as fubordinate to the good of the public.”
This theory is ingenious; and in placing the merit
of actions in their utility, it furnilhes a criterion of
virtue which can be employed by reafon ; but it feems
not to be wholly free from error, and it is obvioully
defective/ By pretending that the fame fentiment of
approbation is given to ufeful attions voluntarily per¬
formed and to ufeful qualities which are merely con-
ftitutional, Mr Hume confounds the merit of virtuous
habits with the value of natural talents. Yet every
man’s confcioufnefs will furely tell him, that the feel¬
ing or fentiment which attaches to deeds of juftice,
clemency, and beneficence, is very different from that
which attaches to beauty of form, ftrength of body,
vigour of mind, and mere extent of capacity. AH
thefe aftions and qualities are ufeful; but when we ap¬
prove of the former, befides attending to their utility,
we confider them as in the man’s power, and attribute
the merit of them immediately to himfelf. When we
approve, or rather admire, the latter on account of their
utility, we know them to be not in the man’s power,
and we attribute the merit of them immediately to the
Author of nature.
But the defe£ls of this theory are in practice more
Z z pernicious
562
17
A fyftem
of ethics
built upon
religion.
MOTtAL PHILOSOPHY.
pernicious than its errors. The author well obferves
that the end of all moral fpeculations is to teach us our
duty, and by proper reprcfentations of the deformity
of vice and beauty of virtue, to beget correfpondent ha¬
bits, and engage us to avoid the one and embrace the
other j but the theory under review holds out no mo¬
tive fuflicient in all cafes for this purpofe.
It is indeed true, as Mr Hume affirms, that the vir¬
tues which are immediately ufeful or agreeable to the
perfon poffeffed of them, are defirable in a view to
felf-intereft, and that a regard to felf-intereft ought
to engage us in the purfuit. It is likewife true, that
the virtues which are ufeful and agreeable to others, are
generally more defirable than the contrary qualities j
for as by the conftitution of our nature no enjoyment
is fincere without fame reference to company and fo-
ciety ; fo no fociety can be agreeable, or even tolerable,
where a man feels his prefence unwelcome, and difeo-
vers all around him fymptoms of difgull and averfion.
Thefe confiderations he deems fufficient to enforce the
duties of humanity, clemency, and beneficence } but
he dates a cafe himfelf in which they Avould certainly
fail to make a man abtlain from his neighbour’s proper¬
ty. The greater part of property he confiders, and
rightly confiders, as having its foundation in human
laws, which are fo calculated as to preferve the peace
and promote the general^good of the fociety, at the un¬
avoidable expence fometimes of the individual. Now,
in particular incidents, a fenfible knave, by fecretly pur¬
loining from the hoards of a worthlefs mifer, might
make himfelf comfortable and independent for life, with¬
out caufing any breach in the focial union, and even
without hurting a fingle individual. W hat then fhould
hinder him from afting thus ? His felf-intereft rvould
be promoted j and if he poffefled a generous fpirit, he
might gratify his fentiment of benevolence or fympa-
tliy by doing good with his money to the poor, which
the mifer never did. For enforcing the uniform prac¬
tice of juflice in fuch cafes as this, Mr Hume’s theory
of morals contains no adequate motive ; but a very
fufficient one is held out by the fyftem which we are
now to confider.
That fyftem, which feems to have been unknown to
the ancients, is built upon religion, of which indeed
it conftitutes a very effential part •, and thofe by whom
it has been taught, maintain that no other foundation
is fufficient to bear a regular fuperftrufture of pra&ical
ethics. The philofophers of this fchool (d) define vir¬
tue to be “ the doing good to mankind, in obedience
to the will of God, and for the fake of everlafting hap-
pinefs So that with them “ the good of mankind”
is the fubjett, “ the will of God” the criterion or rule,
and “ everlafting happinefs” the motive, of human vir¬
tue. The moral fenfe, fuppofing it real, they confi¬
der as a very inadequate rule of condu<ft, as being in
many cafes difficult to be diftinguiffied from prejudice }
and many of them confidently deny its exiftence. 1 he
other rules, fuch as the ftnefs of things, abftraft right,
the truth of thing’s, the law of reafon, &c. they confider
either as unintelligible, or as relative to fome end by
which the rules muft themfelves be tried. The two
great queftions, which in the fyftem of thefe religious
philofophers demand folution, are : if, By what means
{hall a man in every cafe difeover precilely what is the
will of God ? and, 2il/y, What evidence have we that
there will be a future ftate of retribution and of ever¬
lafting happinefs ?
Of thefe two queftions, the latter belongs wholly to
religion *, and to folve it they call in the aid of revela¬
tion, as well as of that which is called the religion of
nature. The former queftion is in the province of mo¬
rality j and to find anfwers to it which will apply to
every cafe, is the whole bufinefs of their fyftem.
The will of God refpefting human conduct may be
difeovered by reafoning a priori from his exiftence and
attributes, or a poferwri from the tendency ot his
works. Being himfelf independent and all perfeft, it
is inconceivable that his view in creating the world
could be any thing elfe than to communicate fome por¬
tion of his own felicity. (See Metaphysics, N° 312).
This conclufion is agreeable to what we perceive of
his wrorks, in which there are a thoufand contrivances,
all tending to gi\re happinefs to man, and to all ani¬
mated nature ; and of not one of which the natural ten¬
dency is to inflifl pain, or prove ultimately injurious.
Mankind are linked together by various ties, and made
to depend in a great meafure upon each other’s con-
dutt. That condudl, therefore, which is naturally
productive of the greateft fum of human happinefs,
muft be agreeable to the Avill of God ; or, in other
Avords, virtuous conduCl. That, of AArhich the natural
tendency is the reverfe, muft be vicious ; and that
conduCl, if there be any fuch, Airhich tends to produce
neither happinefs nor mifery, muft be indifferent, i. e.
neither morally good nor morally evil. It is to be ob-
ferved, however, that as, prcAuous to their oAvn obedi¬
ence or difobedience, all men ftand in the fame relation
to their Creator, it muft be his Av ill that an equal por¬
tion of the happinefs of Ai'hich human nature is ca¬
pable be communicated to all by whom that nature
is (hared. Whence it folloAVS, that only fuch conduCt
as, if univerfally purfued by all men in the fame ftation
and circumftances, Avould be produClive of the greateft:
fum of human happinefs on the whole, can be agreeable
to the Avill of the Creator ; and that, in judging of the
morality of aClions, we are not to regard their immedi¬
ate confequences in a particular cafe, but their natural
and ultimate tendency if performed in all cafes.
This is a criterion of virtue which difters AA'idely
from the local or occafional utility fet up by Mr
Hume : for the particular confequences of an aClion
and its general tendency may often be at variance, fo
that AA'hat might in certain circumftances be imme¬
diately ufeful, would yet be highly criminal and ul¬
timately pernicious. d he general tendency of ac¬
tions, too, may be always known, and knoAvn Avith the
utmoft certainty : the Avhole of their particular con¬
fequences can never be difeovered. One thing, how¬
ever, is evident, that if all men in their refpedtive fta-
tions Avould regulate their conduft by the natural ten¬
dency
(d) Gastrell, Cumberland, Puffendorff, Norris, Berkeley, Gay, Law, Rutherforth, Soamt.
Jenyns, Dr Johnson, Mr Paley, and Mr Gisborne, &c.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Biftory.
dency of every action, the particular and general confe-
quences of their conduct would be the fame, and the
greateft happinefs would refult from it of which hu¬
man nature is in this world capable. And therefore,
fmce it is only through the perverfenefs of fome perfon
or perfons concerned," that the particular confequences
of any aftion, of which the natural tendency is to pro¬
duce mifertfy can ever bring happinefs to a Angle indivi¬
dual } it can no more be the will of God that we make
thefe occafional and dforted confequences the rule of
our conduft, than it can be his will that the vices of
other men fhould be the bafts of our virtues. Accord¬
ing to this fcheme of morals, which reds all obligation
on private happinefs, the whole difference between an
act of prudence and an adl of duty, is this : T hat in the
former cafe we confider only what we (hall gain or lofe
in this world; in the latter, what we (hall gain or lofe
in the world to come.
Although the patrons of this theory queftion the
reality of the moral fenfe as an inftinft, they allow that
a fentiment of approbation or difapprobation of ac¬
tions, according as they are virtuous or vicious, is ge¬
nerated by the affociating principle (fee Instinct, and
Metaphysics, N°97.)} and that this fentiment,though
factitious, operates inftantaneoufly as if it were inftinc-
tive. They infift that our earlieft aCtions are the re¬
fult of imitation ; that when we firft begin to trace con¬
fequences, education and the deftre of immediate enjoy¬
ment are our only guides \ that as our mind expands
and our knowledge increafes, the hopes and fears of
futurity become the motives, and the will of God the
rule of our eonduft j and that long praftice in virtue,
upon thefe principles, produces habits by which wTe
go on with fatisfaClion in the fame courfe, without
looking forward, on every particular occafton, to the
ultimate confequences and firft motives of our aftions.
Thus do habits of juftice, benevolence, clemency, and
moral approbation, fpring through a proper courfe of
difcipline, out of the felfifti principle; and when thefe
habits are completely formed and deeply rooted, man
has attained the utmoft perfection of which he is capa¬
ble in this ftate of probation, and is fitted for another
f retribution and happinefs. 19
That thefe philofophers have not a juft view of hu-
man nature, when they deny that there are any innate ^ 7
principles of benevolence in man, we ftiall endeavour ^eui>
to (how when we lay the foundation of that theory
which we think deferves to be preferred to all others •,
but we fully agree with a candid and able writer*, who * Stuaifs
feems to confider them as under the fame miftake, “ that ,u
their theory of morals has no tendency to weaken the i0j0phy
foundations of virtue ; and that by the account which th. Human
it gives of the rife of the focial affeCtions, it obviates Mind.
many of the arguments which had formerly been urged
again ft the felfilh fyftem.” Nay, we fcruple not to
confefs, that the mode of inveftigation which it employs
in all cafes to difeover the will of God, may in fome
cafes be neceffary in any fyftem which does not banilh
the ufe of reafon from the fcience of ethics. On this
account, as well as out of refpeCl to the firft moralift f t Jobnfott.
of the age, who affirms, that “ it muft be embraced by
all who are willing to know why they aft, or why they
forbear, to give any reafon of their conduft to them-
felves or to others,” we lhall apply it to one of thofe
cafes of focial duty which Mr Hume’s principle of uti¬
lity could not refolve. Such an example will enable the
meaneft of our readers to decide between the merits of
it and of the theory which we fhall adopt 5 or, as we
rather hope, it will ftiow them that the two theories
lead to the fame praftical conclufions.
Having thus given our readers a flrort view of the molt
celebrated fyftems of ethics which have prevailed from
the earlieft ages of the world to the prefent day, we now'
proceed, agreeably to our definition of the fcience, to
trace man’s duty from his nature and connexions, and
to fhow that the fteady praftice of virtue muft terminate
in his ultimate happinefs.
part 1.
30
Man’s in¬
fant ftate.
Chap. I. O/VMan and his Connexions.
MAN is born a weak, helplefs, delicate crea¬
ture, unprovided with food, clothing, and whatever
elfe is neceffary for fubfiftence or defence. And yet,
expofed as the infant is to numberlefs wants and dan¬
gers, he is utterly incapable of fupplying the former,
or fecuring himfelf againft the latter. But, though
thus feeble and expofed, he finds immediate and fure
refources in the affeBion and care of his parents, who
refufe no labours, and forego no dangers, to nurfe and
rear up the tender babe. By thefe powerful inftinfts,
as by fome mighty chain, does nature link the parent
to the child, and form the ftrongeft mo’ al connexion
on his part, before the child has the leaft apprehenfion
of it. Hunger and third, with all the fenfations that
accompany or are connefted with them, explain them-
felves bv a language ftrongly exproffive, and irrefifti-
bly moving. As the feveral fenfes bring in notices
and informations of furrounding objefts, we may per¬
ceive in the young fpeftator early figns of a growing
wonder and admiration. Bright objefts and ftriking
founds are beheld and heard with a fort of commotion
and furprife. But, without refting on any, he eager¬
ly paffes on from objeft to objeft, ftill pleafed with
whatever is neweft. Thus the love of novelty is
formed, and the paffion of wonder kept aw-ake. By
degrees he becomes acquainted with the moft familiar
objefts, his parents, his brethren, and thofe of the
family who are moft converfant with him. He con-
trafts a fondnefs for them, is uneafy when they are
gone, and charmed to fee them again. Thefe feel¬
ings become the foundation of a moral attachment on
his fide j and by this reciprocal fympathy he forms the
domeftic alliance with his parents, brethren, and other
members of the family. Hence he becomes interefted
in their concerns •, and feels joy or grief hope or fear,
on their account, as wrell as his own. As his affec¬
tions now point beyond himfelf to others, he is deno¬
minated a good or itl creature, as he Hands well or ill
qffeBed to them. Thefe, then, are the firft links of the
Z z 2 moral
;,64 MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Of Man moral chain; the early rudiments, or outlines, of his
and his charafter : his firft rude effays towards agency, freedom,
Connexions. . . 7 J o j ^
t  manhood.
When he begins to make excursions from the nur-
His child- fery, and extends his acquaintance abroad, he forms
hood. a Uttle circle of companions, engages with them in
play, or in quell of adventures •, and leads, or is led
by them, as his genius is more or lefs afpiring. Though
this is properly the feafun in which appetite and paf-
(ion have the afCendant, yet his imagination and intcl-
leBual powers open apace j and as the various images
of things pals before the mental eye, he forms variety
of talles 5 relilhes fome things, and diflikes others, as
his parents, companions, and a thoufand other circum-
llanccs, lead him to combine agreeable or difagreeable
fets of ideas, or reprefent to him objefts in alluring or
odious lights.
As his views are enlarged, his atfive and foetal
powers expand themfelves in proportion ; the love of
aBion, of imitation, and of praife, emulation, curiqftty,
docility, a paffion for command, and fondnefs of change.—
His paffions are quick, variable, and pliant to every
impreflion ; his attachments and difgufts quickly fuc-
ceed each other. He compares things, dillinguilhes
aftions, judges of chara£lers, and loves or hates them,
as they appear well or ill affcfled to himfelf, or to thofe
he holds dear. Meanwhile he foon grows fenfible of
the confequcnces of his own aftions, as they attrafl ap-
plaufe, or bring contempt: he triumphs in the former ;
and is alhamed of the latter, wants to hide them, and
blulhes when they are difeovered. By means of thefe
powers he becomes a fit fubjefl of culture, the moral
tie is drawn clofer, he feels that he is accountable for his
eon duel to others as well as to himfelf, and thus is gra¬
dually ripening for fociety and a£lion.
Hi, youth. As man advances from childhood to youth, his paf¬
fions as well as perceptions take a more extenfive
range. New fenfes of pleafure invite him to new
piwfuits •, he grows fenfible to the attractions of beauty,
feels a peculiar fympathy with the fex, and forms a
more tender kind of attachment than he has yet expe¬
rienced. This becomes the cement of a new moral
relation, and gives a fofter turn to his pafiions and be¬
haviour. In this turbulent period he enters more
deeply into a relijh of friendjhip, company, exercifes,
and diverfons; the love of truth, of imitation, and
of defign, grows upon him *, and as his connexions
fpread among his neighbours, fellow citizens, and coun¬
trymen, his thirf of praife, emulation, and facial af-
feBions grow more intenfe and active. Meanwhile,
It is impoffible for him to have lived thus long without
having become fenfible of tbofe more auguft fignatures
of order, wifdom, and goodnefs, which are ftamped
on the vifiblc creation ; and of thofe ftrong fuggeitions
within lumf'lf of a parent mind, the fource of all in¬
telligence and beauty *, an object as well as fource of
that ' activity, and thofe afpirations which fometimes
roufe his inmoft frame, and carry him out of himfelf
to an almighty and all-governing power : Hence arife
thofe fentiments of reverence, and thofe affections of
gratitude, refignation, and love, which link the foul with
the Author of Nature, and form that moft fublime and
godlike of all connexions.
Man having now reached his prime, either new
23
His man
hood. -paflions fucceed, or the old fet are wound up to a
Part T.
higher pitch. For, growing more fenfible of his con- Of Man
nexiohs with the public, and that particular commu- ar"1 t).'s
nity to which he more immediately belongs ; and tak- , onn^xlon^
ing withal a larger profpect of human life, and its
various wants and enjoyments •, he forms more inti¬
mate friendfliip, grafps at power, courts honour, lays
down cooler plans of intereft, and becomes more at¬
tentive to the concerns of fociety : he enters into fa¬
mily connexions, and indulges thofe charities which
arife from thence. The reigning pafiions of this pe¬
riod powerfully prompt him to provide for the decays
of life : and in it companion and gratitude exert their
influence in urging the man, now in full vigour, to re¬
quite the affection and care of his parents, by fupply-
ing their wants and alleviating their infirmities. 24
At length human life verges downwards $ and old Old age.
age creeps on apace, with its anxiety, love of eafe,
interefednefs,fearfulnefs,forcfight, and love of offspring.
—The experience of the aged is formed to direft,
and their coolnefs to temper, the heat of youth : the
former teaches them to look back on pall follies j and
the latter to look forward into the conftquences of
things, and provide againft the word. Thus ever} age
has its peculiar genius and fet of paflions correiponding
to that period, and meft conducive to the profperity of
the red. And thus are the wants of one period fupplied
by the capacities of another, and the weakneffes of one
age tally to the paffions of another. *5
Befides thefe, there are other paffions and affe&ions Paflions of
of a lefs ambulatory nature, not peculiar to one period,ever)' aEe*
but belonging to every age, and ucling more or lefs in
every breafl throughout life. Such are felf-love, bene¬
volence, love of life, honour, ffame, hope, fear, deftre,
averfon, joy, forrow, anger, and the like. The two
find are affeftions of a cooler ftrain } one pointing to
the good of the individual, the other to that of .he
fpecies : joy and forrow, hope and fear, feem to be
only modifications, or different exertions, of the fame
original affeftions of love and hatred, defre and aver-
fion, arifing from the different circumilances or pofi-
tion of the obje£l defired or abhorred, as it is prefent
or abfent. From thefe likewife arife other fecondary
or occafional paflions, which depend, as to their exifl-
ence and feveral degrees, upon the original affeftions
being gratified or difappointed j as anger, complacence,
confidence, jealoufy, love, hatred, dcjeBion, exultation,
contentment, difguft, which do not form leading paflions,
but rather hold of them. aS
By thefe Ample but powerful fprings, whether Their joint
riodical or fixed, the life of man, weak and indigent
as he is, is preferved and fecured, and the creature is
prompted to a conflant round of a£lion, evfcn to fup-
ply his own numerous and ever-returning wants, and
to guard againft the various dangers and evils to Which
he is obnoxious. By thefe links men are connefted
with each other, formed into families, drawn into par¬
ticular communities, and all united as by a cOtnmon
league into one fyftem or body, wbofe members feel
and fympathife one with another. By this admirable
adjuftrrent of the conftitution of man to his fate, and
the gradual evolution of his powers, order is main¬
tained, fociety upheld, and human life filled with that
variety of paffion and aclion which at once enliven and
diverfify it. , s7 .
This is a fhort fketch of the principal movements of
the 8 r
Ind his
CKiexions.
2$
He judg-
ia or ap-
psving
jr/eijS.
Jirt T. MORALPH
If Man the human mind. Yet thefe movements are not the
whole of man ; they impel to aftion, but do not direct
it: they need a regulator to guide their motions, to
meafure and apply their forces and accordingly they
have one that naturally fuperintends. and diretfs. their
attion. We are confcious of a principle within us,
which examines, compares, and weighs things ; notes
the differences, obferves the forces, and forefees the
confequences, of affeftions and adlions. By this power
we look back on paft times, and forward into futurity,
gather experiences, elfimate the real and compara¬
tive value of obje&s, lay out fchemes, contrive means
to execute them, and fettle the whole ordered eco¬
nomy of life. This power we commonly diftinguilh
by the name of reafon or rejleRion, the bufinefs of
which is not to fuggeft any original notices or fen-
fations, but to canvafs, range, and make dedu£tions
from them. „ .
We are intimately confcious of another principle
within us, which approves of certain fentiments, paf-
/ions, and a Elion s, and difapproves of their contraries.
In confequence of the decilions of this inivard judge,
we denominate fome a&ions and principles of conduft
right, honejl, good; and others wrong, d'fhonejl, ill.
The former excite our cjleem, moral complacence, and
offeElion, immediately and originally of themfelves,
without regard to their confequences, and whether
they affeft our intereft or not. The latter do as natu¬
rally and necefiarily call forth our contempt, /corn, and
averfion. That power by which we perceive this dif¬
ference in affeflions and aflions, and feel a. conie-
quent relirti or diilike, is commonly called confaence or
the moral fenfe. _ ^ f
That there is fuch a power as this m the mind ot
every man of found underftanding, is a facl. which
cannot be controverted •, but whether it be an inllinc-
tive power, or the refult of early and deep-rooted
affociations, has been long and ably debated. I he
queftion is of importance in the fcience of human na¬
ture, as well as in afcertaining the ftandard of practi¬
cal virtue ; but to us it appears that the contending
parties have carried their refpe&ive opinions to danger¬
ous extremes.
When it is affirmed, as it fometiraes has been, that
reafon has nothing to do in ethical fcieuce, but that in
every poffible fxtuation our duty is pointed out and
the performance of it enforced by mere fentinient, the
confequence feems to be, that virtue and vice are no¬
thing permanent in themfelves, but change their na¬
ture according to local circumftances. Certain it is,
that fentiment has in fimilar fituations approved of very
different praftices in different ages and different na-
|n attempt tions. At prefent this fentiment in Europe approves of
' Prove the univerfal pra&ice of jufliee, and of parents, proteft-
‘‘it Jng their children, whether well or ill formed, whether
Uure'no or weak : but in SParta We kn°W that tIieft’
if dexteroufly pra&ifed, was approved, and not unfre-.
quently rewarded *, and that the expofition of lame and
deformed children was not only permitted, but abfo-
lutely enjoined. There is nothing which our confcience
or moral fenfe condemns with greater feverity, or views
as a crime of a deeper dye, than children s unkind
treatment of their aged parents •, yet there are favages,
among whom inftinfls of all kinds ought to prevail in
greater purity than in civilized nations, whofe moral
*
ILOSOPHY.
3®5
ich
owers.
fenfe permits them to put their aged and decrepid pa- Of Man
rents to death. If this fenfe be inftinaive, and the Connexions>
foie judge of right and wrong, how comes it to decide
fo differently on the fame line of conduit in different
ages and diflant countries ? 1 he inftinils of brutes, in
fimilar circumftances, prompt uniformly to fimilar ac¬
tions in every age and in every region where the fpe-
cies is found j and the external fenfes of man aflord
in all nations the fame unvaried evidence concerning
their refpeaive objefts. To thefe obfervations we may
add, that inftinas muft be calculated for the ftate of
nature, whatever that ftate may be, and therefore can¬
not be fuppofed capable of direaing our fteps through
all the labyrinths of poliihed fociety, in which duties
are to be performed that in a ftate of nature w7ould «
never have been thought of.
But though for thefe reafons it is apparent that
mere fentiment, whether called confcience or the.mo¬
ral fenfe, would alone be a very unfafe guide to virtue
in every individual cafe that may occur, we think that
thofe who refolve all fuch fentiment into habit and
the effeft of education, without giving any part of it
to nature, advance an opinion which is equally ill-
founded and not lefs dangerous. There are, indeed,
men who affirm that all benevolence is hypocrifj,
fricndfhip a cheat, public fpirit a farce, fidelity a fnare
to procure truft and confidence j and that while all of
us at bottom purfue only our private intereft, we wear
thofe fair difguifes, in order to put thofe off theii
guard with whom we have to deal, and to expofe
them the more to our wiles and machinations. Others
again, too virtuous to accufe themfelves and all man¬
kind of direft knavery, yet infill, that whatever affec¬
tion one may feel, or imagine he feels, for others, no
paflion is or can be difinterefted ; that the moft gene¬
rous friendlhip, however fincere, is only a modification,
of felf-love ; and that even unknown to ourfelves we
feek only our own gratification, while we appear the
moft deeply engaged in fchemes for the liberty and
happinefs of mankind.
Surely the mildeft of thefe reprefentations is an
exaggerated picture of the felfiftinefs of man. Self-
love is indeed a very powerful as well as an effential
principle in human nature} but that vre have likewife
an inftindtive principle of benevolence, which, without
any particular regard to our own intereft., makes us feel
pleafure in the happinefs of other men, is a fa6l which
we think admits of very complete proof, bor, as.Mr
Hume well argues, “'when a man grieves for a friend,
who could be of no fervice to him, but on the con-,
trary flood in need of his conftant patronage and pro-
te£lion, how is it poffible to fuppofe that fuch paffion-
ate tendernefs arifes from felf-intoreft, which has no ^
foundation in nature ? ^What intereft (alks .the fame Examined,
deep thinker) can a fond mother have in view, who and ftiovm
lofes her health by her affiduous attendance on.her fick
child, and afterwards languifties and dies of grief when
freed* by its death from the flavery of attendance .
Have we no fatisfaftion (continues he) in one man S’
company above another’s, and no defire of the welfare
of our friend, even though abfence or death ffiould
prevent us. from all participation in it.? Or what is
it commonly that gives us any participation in it, even
while alive and prefent, but our affeiftion and regard fo
him ?” Nor is it to contemporaries and individuals
alone.
^66
^n.l’hT alolle’ tLat’ 5ndePendent °f all intereft, we feel a bene-
Connexions.V°lent attachment. We conftantly beftow praife on
w.—,, . aftions calculated to promote the good of mankind,
though performed in ages very diftant and in countries
molt remote j and he who was the author of fuch ac¬
tions is the object of our elteem and affeftion. There
is not perhaps a man alive, however felfilh in his difpo-
fition, who does not applaud the fentiment of that em¬
peror, who, recollecting at fupper that he had done
nothing in that day for any one, exclaimed with regret,
that the day had been loft ! yet the utmoft fubtility of
imagination can difcover no appearance of intereft that
we can have in the generofity of Titus, or find any con¬
nexion of our prefent happinefs with a character remo¬
ved fo far from us both in time and in place. But, as
Hume juftly obferves, if we even feign a character
con lifting of all the molt generous and beneficent quali¬
ties, and give inftances in which thefe difplay them-
felves, after an eminent and moft extraordinary manner,
for the good of mankind, we ftiall inftantly engage the
efteem and approbation of all our audience, who will
never fo much as inquire in what age or country the
accomplilhed perfon lived.
J hefe are fads which cannot be controverted } and
they are wholly unaccountable, if there be not in hu¬
man nature an inftinCtive fentiment of benevolence or
fympathy wdiich feels a difinterefted pleafure in the
happinefs of mankind. But an end in which we feel
pleafure we are naturally prompted to purfue ; and
therefore the fame fentiment impels every man, with
greater or lefs force, to promote the happinefs of other
men, which by means of it becomes in reality his own
good, and is afterwards purfued from the combined
motives of benevolence and felf-enjoyment. For in
obeying this fentiment we all feel an inw ard complacency,
felf-approbation, or confcioufnefs of worth or merit;
and in difobeying it, which cannot be done but with
reluClance, we feel remorfe, or a confcioufnefs of un-
worthinefs or demerit. It appears, however, from bif-
tory, that the fentiment, as it is inftinCtive, points only
to the good of mankind, w'ithout informing us how
that good is to be promoted. The means proper for
this purpofe muft be difeovered by reafon *, and when
they are brought into view’, this fentiment, confcience, or
moralfenfe, inftantly (hows us that it is our duty to
purfue them.
to origi- Hence we fee how different lines of conduCt may in
oVector'T fimilar be approved of as virtuous in dif-
miftaking ^eren^ nations. \\ hen the Spartan expofed his fickly
the extent and deformed child, and when the favage put his aged
of thofe parents to death, neither of them erred from want of
powers; fentiment, or from having fentiments originally differ¬
ent from ours. Their errors refulted from a defeCt in
reafoning. I hey both imagined that they wTere obey-
ing the law of benevolence by preventing mifery : for
a weak and deformed perfon was very ill qualified to
exift with any degree of comfort under the military
conftitution of Sparta, w'here. all were foldiers, and
under the neceflity of enduring the greateft hard-
fhips j and in a ftate where the people have no fixed
habitations, and where, the chafe fupplies even the ne-
ceffaries of life, an aged and infirm perfon is in danger
of perifhing through hunger, by one of the cruelleft
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Part I.
and moft lingering of deaths. The theft allowed in tjt Alan
Sparta, if theft it may be called, was a ftill lefs devia- and nis
tion from the inftinCtive law of benevolence. Boys 1 Onriexions'
were taught to flip as cunningly as they could into the
gardens and public halls, in order to fteal away herbs
or meat; and if they W’ere caught in the faCt, they urere
punifhed for their want of dexterity, lifts kind of
theft, fince it was authorized by the lav' and the con-
fent of the citizens, was no robbery ; and the intention
of the legiflator in allowing it, was to inlpire the Spar¬
tan youth, who were all defigned for war, with the
greater boldnefs, fubtlety, and addrefs ; to inure them
betimes to the life of a foldier ; and to teach them to
ftftft for themfelves, and to live upon little. That the
Spartan legiflator did wrong in giving his countrymen
a conftitution, of which luccefsful war wras the ulti¬
mate objeCl j and that favages, rather than kill their
aged parents, or fuffer them to die of hunger, ought
to cultivate the ground, and abandon the chafe 5 is
readily granted : but the faults of the one as w’ell as
of the other arofe not from any improper decifion of
the moral fenfe, but from a defeCt in their reafoning
powders, which were not able to eftimate the advantages
and difadvantages of different modes of life. In moral
decifions, therefore, confcience and reafon are aiding to
each other. The former principle, when feparated from
the latter, is defective, enjoining only the good of man¬
kind, but unable to point out the means by which it
can be moft effectually promoted j and the latter prin¬
ciple, when feparated from the former, only direCts a
man to do what is moft prudent, but cannot give him a
conception of duty. ^
1 hefe two powers of reafon and confcience are evi- which are
dently principles different in nature and kindixorsx the dlfferent in
paffions and affections. For the paflions are mere force
or power, blind impulfes, afting violently and without thc paffions
choice, and ultimately tending each to their refpeCtive and affec-
objeCts, without regard to the intereft of the others, A0®5*
or of the whole fyftem. Whereas the dire&ing and
judging powers diftinguifti and afeertain the different
forces, mutual proportions and relations, which the
paflions bear to each other, and to the whole 5 recog¬
nize their feveral degrees of merit, and judge of the
whole temper and eonduCl, as they refpeCt either the
individual or the fpecies j and are capable of dire&ing
or reftraining the blind impulfes of paflion in a due
confiftency one with the other, and a regular fubordi-
nation to the whole fyftem. ^
This is fome account of the confituent principles of Divifien 0?
our nature, which, according to their different mix-thepaf-
tures, degrees, and proportions, mould our charafler ^luns^
and fway our conduft in life. In reviewing that large
train of affeClions which fill up the different ftages of
human life, we perceive this obvious diftindion among
them *, that fome of them refpeCt the good of the in¬
dividual, and others carry us beyond ourfelves to the
good of the fpecies or kind. The former have therefore
been called private, and the latter public affeCHons. Of
the firft fort are love of life, of pleefure, of power, and
the like. Of the laft are companion, gratitude, friendfhip,
natural ajfeRion, and the like. Of the private paf¬
fions (d), fome refptft merely the fecurity and defence,
of the creature, fuch as refentment and fear; whereas
others
32
(i)) Here we ufe paflions and affeCHons without diftinClion. Their difference will be marked afterwards.
34
X; fen five
plions.
35
I^vate or
a;>eti.tive
plions.
3^
Pblic paf-
ChJ.
others aim at fome pojitive advantage or good, as wealth,
eafe, fame. The former fort, therefore, becaufe of this
difference of objefts, may be termed defenfive paffxons.
Thefe anfvver to our dangers, and prompt us to avoid
them if we can, or boldly to encounter them when we
The other clafs of private paffions, which purfue
private pojitive good, may be called appetitive. _ How¬
ever, we {hall ftill retain the name of private in con-
tradiftinaion to the defenfive paffions. . Man has a
great variety of wants to fupply, and is capable of
many enjoyments, according to the feveral periods of
his life, and the different fituations in which he is pla¬
ced. To thefe therefore a fuitable train of private paf-
fons correfpond, which engage him in the puifuit of
whatever is neceffary for his lubfiftence or welfare.
Our public or facial affeaions are adapted to the fe¬
veral facial connexions and relations. which we bear to
others, by making us fenfible of their dangers, and in-
terefting us in their rvants, and fo prompting us to fe-
cure them againit one and fupply the other.
This is the fir ft ftep then to difcover the duty
dejlination of man, the having analyzed the principles
of which he is compoled. It is neceffary, in the next
place, to confider in what order, proportion, and meafure,
of thofe inward principles, virtue, or a found moral
temper and right condu6I, confifts \ that we may dif¬
cover whence moral obligation arifes.
Chap. II. QfDuTY, or Moral Obligation.
It is by the end or defign of any power or movement
that we muft direft its motions, and eftimate the degree
of force neceffary to its juft adion. If it want the force
requifite for the obtaining its end, we reckon it defec¬
tive ; if it has too much, fo as to be carried beyond^ it,
we fay it is overcharged ', and in either cafe it is im-
perfeft and ill contrived. If it has juft enough to
reach the Icope, we efteem it right and as it ftiould be.
Let us apply this reafoning to the paffions.
ftafure of The defence and fecurity of the individual being the
ib defen- 0/^ of the defenfive pafjions, that fecurity and defence
®e Paf- muft be the meafure of their frength .or indulgence. If
**' they are fo weak as to prove infufficient for that end,
or if they carry us beyond it, i. e. raife unneceffary com¬
motions, or continue longer than is needful, they are
unfit to anfwer their original defign, and therefore are
in an unfound and unnatural ftatr. The exercife of
fear or of refentment has nothing definable in it, nor
can we give way to either without painful fenfations.
Without a certain degree of them, we are naked and
expofed. With too high a proportion of them, we
are miferable, and often injurious to others. Thus
cowardice or timidity, which is the excefs of fear, in-
ftead of faving us in danger, gives it too formidable an
appearance, makes us incapable of attending to the
beft means of prefervation, and difarms us of courage,
our natural armour. Fool hardinefs, which is the want
of a due meafure of fear, leads us heedlefsly into dan¬
ger, and lulls us into a pernicious fecurity.. Revenge,
i. e. excefjive refentment, by the violence of its commo¬
tion, robs us of that prefence of mind which is often the
beft guard againft iniury, and inclines us to purfue the
Ro-greffor with more feverity than felf-defence requires.
Pufillanimity, or the want of a juft indignation againft
I
MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 367
wrong, leaves us quite unguarded, and tends to fink Of Moral
the mind into a paffive enervated tamenefs. 1 here-. . .
fore, “ to keep the defenfive paflions duly propor¬
tioned to our dangers, is their natural pitch and te-
39
The private paffions lead us to purfue fome pofitive Mea‘uT° ^
37
le mea-
of
javers.
fpecies of private good : that good therefore which is ^ons>
the objedt and end of each muft be the meafure of their
refpedtive force, and diredt their operation. If they
ar« too weak or fuggifh to engage us in the purfuit of
their feveral objedls, they are evidently deficient; but
if they defeat their end by their impetuofity, then are
they drained beyond the juft tone of nature. I hus
vanity, or an excejjive pafiion for applaufe, betrays into
fuch meanneffts and little arts of popularity, as make
us forfeit the honour we fo anxioully court. On the
other hand, a total indifference about the efieem of man~
kind, removes a ftrong guard and {pur to virtue, and
lays the mind open to the moft abandoned profecutions.
Therefore, “ to keep our private paflions and defires pro¬
portioned to our wants, is the juft meafure and pitch
of this clafs of affedtions.” . 40
The defenfive and private paflions do all agree in ( ompara-
general, in their tendency or conducivenefs to the in-tive torce’
tereft or good of the individual. Therefore, when
there is a collifion of intereft, as may fometimes hap¬
pen, that aggregate of good or happinefs, which is com-
pofed of the particular goods to which they reflec¬
tively tend, muft be the common ftandard by which
their comparative degrees of ftrength are to be meafured:
that is to fay, if any of them, in the degree in which
they prevail, are incompatible with the greateft aggre¬
gate of good or moft extenfive intereft of the indivi¬
dual, then are they unequal and difproportionate. For
in judging of a particularfystemox confiitution of powers,
we call that the fupreme or principal end, in which the
aims of the feveral parts or powers coincide, and to
which they are fubordinate j and reckon them in due
proportion to each other, and right with regard to the
whole, when they maintain that fubordination of fub-
ferviency. Therefore, “ to proportion our defenfive
and private paffions in fuch meafure to our dangers
and wants as beft to fecure the individual, and obtain
the greateft aggregate of private good or happinefs, is
their juft balance or comparative ftandard in cafe of
competition.” _ > 41
In like manner as the public or facial affections point Meafure of
at the good of others, that good muft be the meafure
of their force. WLen a particular facial affeClion, as
gratitude or friendfhip, which belongs to a particular
facial connexion, viz. that of a benefaSlor, or of friend,
is too feeble to make us aft the grateful ox friendly part,
that affeftion, being infufficient to anfwer its end, is
defcBive and unfound. If on the other hand, a parti¬
cular paflion of this clafs counteraft or defeat the inte¬
reft it is defigned to promote, by its violence or dif-
proportion, then is that paflion excefiive and irregular.
Thus natural affeBion, if it degenerates into a pajfionate
fondnefs, not only hinders the parents from judging
coolly of the intereft of their offspring, but often
leads them into a moft partial and pernicious indul¬
gence. 42
As every kind affeftion points at the good of its Collifion of
particular objeft, it is poflible there may fometimes be affec'
a collifion of interefts or goods. Thus the regard due l0ns’
to
^6$
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
43
Balance of
affe<fUon.
Of Moral to a friend may interfere with that which we owe to
Oi>li;;at.o.n a commutiity% ln fuch a competition of interefts, it is
evident that tlie greatejl is to be chofen j and that is
tlie greateft intereft which contains the greateft fum or
aggregate of public good, greateft in quantity as well as
duration. This then is the common Jlandard by which
the refpettive forces and fubordinations of the focial
affe&ions muft be adjufted. Therefore we conclude
that “ this clafs of atfeftions are found and regular
when they prompt us to purfue the inter eft of indivi¬
duals in an entire confiftency with the public good or
in other words, “ when they are duly proportioned
to the dangers and wants of others, and to the va¬
rious relations in which we ftand to individuals or to fo-
ciety."
Thus we have found, by an induction of particulars,
the natural pitch or tenor of the different orders of affec¬
tion, confidered apart by themfelves. Now, as the vir¬
tue or perfeElion of every creature lies in following its
nature, or acting fuitably to the juft proportion and
harmony of its feveral powers j therefore, “ the vir¬
tue of a creature endowed with fuch affedtions as man
muft conlift in obferving or adting agreeably to their
natural pitch and tenor.”
But as there are no independent affedtions in the
fabric of the mind, no paflion that ftands by itfelf,
- without fome relation to the reft, we cannot pronounce
of any one, conlidered apart, that it is either too Jlrong
or too weak. Its ftrength and juft proportion muft be
meafured not only by its fubferviency to its own im¬
mediate end, but by the refpedl it bears to the whole
fyftem of affedtions. Therefore we fay a paffion is too
Jlrong, not only when it defeats its own end, but when
it impairs the force of other paflions, which are equally
noceiikry to form a temper of mind fuited to a certain
economy or fate ; and too weak, not merely on account
of its infufficienoy to anfwer its end, but becaufe it
cannot fuftain its part or office in the balance of the
whole fyftem. Thus the love of life may be too frong
when it takes from the regard due to one’s country,
and will not allow one bravely to encounter dangers,
or even death, on its account. Again, The love of
fame may be too weak when it throws down the
fences which render virtue more fecure, or weakens
the incentives which make it more adtive and public
fpirited.
Limits^of ^ it be alked. “ How far may the affedlions towards
private af- private good or happinefs be indulged ?” One limit
factions. was before fixed for the particular indulgence of each,
viz. their fubordination to the common aggregate of
good to the private fyftem. In thefe therefore a due
regard is always fuppofed to be had to health, reputa¬
tion, fortune, the freedom of a&ion, the unimpaired exer-
cife of reafon, the calm enjoyment of one's felf, which
are all private goods. Another limit now refults from
the balance of affection juft named, viz. “ The fecurity
and happinefs of others or, to exprefs it more gene¬
rally, “ a private affedUon may be fafely indulged,
when, by that indulgence, we do not violate the obli¬
gations which refult from our higher relations or public
connexions.” A juft refpect therefore being had to
thefe boundaries which nature has fixed in the breaft
of every man, what fhould limit our purfuits of private
happinefs ? Is nature fallen and penurious ? or, does
Part I,
the God of nature envy the happinefs of his off- Of Moral
fpring ? Obligation,
Whether there is ever a real eollifion of interefts V"'*J
between the public and private fyftem of aflediions, or OollifiLi of
the ends which each clafs has in view, will be alter-iaterelU.
wards confidered j but where there is no eollifion,
there is little or no danger of carrying either, but
efpecially the public affedtions, to excefs, provided both
kinds are kept fubordinate to a difereet and cool Jelf-
love, and to a calm and univerlal benevolence, which
principles ftand as guards at the head of each lylietn.
This then is the condudt of the paflions, confidered [<efujU
as particular and feparate forces, carrying us out to their
refpedtive ends •, and this is their balance or economy,
confidered as compound powers, or powers mutually re¬
lated, adting in conjundtion towards a common end, and
confequenily as forming a fystem or whole.
Now, whatever adjuits or maintains this Subopdiaa.
whatever in the human conftitution is formed for ^/t-tionof
reeling the paflions fo as to keep them from defeatingPowers.
their own end or interfering with each other, nmft be
a principle of a fupenor nature to them, and ought to
diredt their meaiures and govern their proportions.
But it was found that reajbn or reflection is fuch a
principle, which points out the tendency of our paf-
fions, weighs their influence upon private and public
happinefs, and Ihows the bell means of attaining either.
It having been likewife found that there is another
diredting or controlling principle, which we call CON¬
SCIENCE or the moral SENSE, which, by a native kind
of authority, judges of affedlions and actions, pronoun¬
cing fome juft and good, and others unjuf and ill; it
follows, that the paflions, which are mere impulfe or
blind forces, are principles inferior and fubordinate to
this judging faculty. Therefore, if we would follow
the order of nature, i, e. obferve the mutual refpedts
and the fubordination which the different parts of the
human conftitution bear one to another, the pafflons
ought to be fubjedted to the diredtion and authority of
the leading or controlling principles. .
We conclude, therefore, from this induttion, thatIn
the conf itution ox juf economy of human nature confiftsconlift*.
in a regular fubordination of the p aft ions and affections
to the authority of confcience and the dircBion of rea-
fon- ... .49
That fubordination is regular, when the proportion Economy of
formerly mentioned is maintained ; that is to fay, nature or
“ when the defenfve paflions are kept proportioned r,£Il1?tem’
to our dangers; when the private paflions are-proper-per*
tioned to our wants ; and when the public affedtions
are adapted to our public connexions, and proportioned
to the wants and dangers of others.”
But the natural fate, or the found and vigorous con- Hunfan
fitution of any creature, or the jijl economy of itsvirtue end
powers, we call its health and perfection ; and the adtingperft&iofi,
agreeably to thefe, its virtue or goodnefs. Therefore,
“ the health and perfeflwn of man mufi: lie in the
aforefaid fupremacy of confcience and reafon, and in the
fubordinolton of the paffions to their authority and di¬
rection. Arid his virtue or goodnefs mult coniift in adt¬
ing agreeably to that order or economy.”
That fuch an ornament of the mind, and fuch a j10W ^on.
condudt of its powers and paflions, will ftand the teitformable
of reafon, cannot admit of any di'pute. For, upon a realou.
fair
%
f1)
re
Rrt I. MORAL P H
hF Moral faJr examination Into the confequences of things, or
^ligation. tj;ie reiations and aptitudes of means to ends, reafon evi-
' dently demonftrates, and experience confirms it, that,
u to have our defenfive pajjions duly proportioned to
our dangers, is the fureft way to avoid or get clear of
them, and obtain the fecurity we feek after.—To pro¬
portion our private pajfions to our wants, is the bell
means to fupply them ;—and, to adapt our public af-
fe Elions to our facial relations, and the good of others, is
the moft effe&ual method of fulfilling the one, and pro¬
curing the other” In this fenfe, therefore, virtue may
be faid to be a “ conduEl conformable to reafon,” as rea¬
fon difcovers an apparent aptitude, in fuch an order and
economy of powers and paffions, to anfwer the end for
^ which they are naturally formed,
dmexion If the idea of i?ioral obligation is to be deduced mere-
hweenaf-ly from this aptitude or connexion between certain paf-
gdo*5 an<l fions, or a certain order and balance of paflions, and
tl idea of certain end* obtained or to be obtained by them, then
- oral obii- is reafon or refeElion, which perceives that aptitude or
gjion. connexion, the proper judge of moral obligation ; and
on this fuppofition it may be defined, as hath been
done by fome, the connexion between the affeElion and
the end, or, which is the fame thing, between the ac¬
tion and the motive; for the end is the motive or the
fnal caufe, and the affeElion is the aElion, or its imme¬
diate natural caufek A man, from mere felf-love,
may be induced to fulfil that obligation which is found¬
ed on the connexion between the defenfive paffions and
their ends, or the private paffions and their ends; be-
caufe in that cafe his own intereft will prompt him to
indulge them in the due proportion required. But if
he has no affe£lions which point beyond himfelf, no
principle but felf-love, or fome fubtle modification of it,
what (hall intereft him in the happinefs of others,
where there is no connexion between it and his own ?
or what fenfe can he have of moral obligation to pro¬
mote it ? Upon this fcheme, therefore, without public
or focial affection, there could be no motive, and con-
fequently no moral obligation, to a beneficent difinte-
reited conduft.
But if the mere connexion between certain paffions,
or a certain order of paffions, and certain ends, is
what conftitutes or gives us the idea of moral obliga¬
tion, then why may not the appofitenefs of any temper
, 1 or conduct, nay, of any piece of machinery, to obtain
its end, form an equally ftricl moral obligation ? for the
connexion and aptitude are as ftrong and invariable in
the latter inftances as in the former. But as this is
confounding the moft obvious differences of things, we
muft trace the idea of moral obligation to another and a
more natural fource.
ha of it Let us appeal, therefore, to olir inmoft fenfe and
fm expe- experience, “ how we ftand affected to thofe different
Jinee. fets of paffions, in the juft meafure and balance of
which we found a right temper to confift.,, For this is
entirely a matter of experience, in which we muft ex¬
amine, as in any other natural inquiry, “ what are the
genuine feelings and operations of nature, and what af-
feftions or fymptoms of them appear in the given in-
ftance.”
The defenfive paffions, as anger and fear, give us
tffions ralher pain than pleafure, yet we cannot help feeling
lived. aP" them when provoked by injury, or- expofed to harm.
We account the creature imperfedt that wants them,
Vol. XIV. Part I.
IL O S O P H Y.
369
4 S4
hy the
ffenfive
becaufe they are neceffary to his defence. Nay, we Moral
ftiould in fome meafure condemn ourfelves, did we , ^ 1^'Ui0t>,i.
want the neceflary degree of refentment and caution.
But if our refentment exceeds the wrong received, or
our caution the evil dreaded, we then blame ourfelves
for having overadled our part. Therefore, while
we are in danger, to be totally deftitute of them, we
reckon a blameable defeEl, and to feel them in a juft,
i. e. neeeffary meafure, we approve, as fuited to the
nature and condition of fuch a creature as man. But
our fecurity obtained, to continue to indulge them, we
not only difapprove as hurtful, but condemn as unmanly,
unbecoming and mean-fpirited: Nor will fuch a condubt
afford any felf-approving joy when we coolly refiedl
upon it. ^
With regard to the private paffions, fuch as love o/’Why the
life, pleafure, eafe, and the like, as thefe aim at pri- Pnvate.
vate good, and are neceffary to the perfedtion and
happinefs of the individual, we fhould reckon any
creature defeElive, and even blameable, that was defti.
tute of them. Tims, we condemn the man who impru¬
dently ruins his fortune, impairs his health, or expofes
his life we not only pity him as an unfortunate crea¬
ture, but feel a kind of moral indignation and contempt
of him, for having made himfelf fuch. On the other
hand, though a difereet felf-regard does not attraft our
efteem and veneration, yet we approve of it in fome
degree, in a higher and different degree from whafe
we would regard a well-contrived machine, as neceffary
to conftitute a finiftied creature, nay, to complete the
virtuous charadler, as exaftly fuited to our prefent in¬
digent ftate. There are fome paffions refpedling pri¬
vate good, towards which we feel higher degrees of
approbation, as the love of knowledge, of aElion, of ho¬
nour, and the like. We efteem them as marks of an
ingenious mind ; and cannot help thinking the charac¬
ter in which they are wanting remarkably ftupid, and
in fome degree immoral. ^
With regard to the focial affections, as companion, Why the
natural affeElion, friend flip, benevolence, and the like,
we approve, admire, and love them in ourfelves, and,
in all in whom we difeover them, with an efteem and
approbation, if not different in kind, yet furely far fu-
perior in degree, to what we feel towards the other paf¬
fions. Thefe we reckon neceffary, juft, and excellent¬
ly fitted to our ftruCture and ftate; and the creature
which wants them we call defective, ill-conftituted, a
kind of abortion. But the public affeCtions we efteem
as felf-worthy, originally and eternally amiable. ^
But among the focial affeCtions we make an obvious Diftindllon
and conftant diftinCtion, viz. between thofe particularbetween
paffions which urge us with a hidden violence, and un- a^cahn*
eafy kind of fenfation, to purfue the good of their re- affections.
fpeCtive objeCts, as pity, natural affeElion, and the like ;
and thofe calm difpaffionate affeCtions and defires which
prompt us more fteadily and uniformly to promote the
happinefs of others. The former we generally call paf¬
fions, to diftinguifti them from the other fort, which go
more commonly by the name of affeElions, or calm 'de¬
fires. The firft kind we approve indeed, and delight
in; but we feel ftill higher degrees of approbation and
moral complacence towards the laf, and towards all li¬
mitation of the particular inftinCts, by the principle of
univerfal benevolence. The more objeCts the calm af¬
feCtions take in, and the worthier thefe are, their dig-
3 A nity
37°
Of Moral
Obligation,
58
Moral obli
gation.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
nity riles in proportion, and with this our approbation
keeps an exact pace. A character, on the other hand,
which is quite divefted of thefe public affeCtions, which
feels no love for the fpecies, but inftead of it entertains
malice, rancour, and ill will, we reckon totally immo¬
ral and unnatural.
Such then are the fentiments and difpofitions we feel
when thefe feveral orders of affections pafs before the
mental eye.
Therefore, “ that Hate in which we feel ourfelves
moved, in the manner above defcribed, towards thofe
affeCtions and paflions, as they come under the mind’s
review, and in which we are, inftantaneoufly and inde¬
pendently of our choice or volition, prompted to a cor-
refpondent conduCt, we call a date of moral obligation.'1''
Let us fuppofe, for inflance, a parent, a friend, a be-
nefaCtor, reduced to a condition of the utmoft indigence
and diftrefs, and that it is in our power to give them
immediate relief. To what conduCl are we obliged?
what duty does nature dictate and require in fuch a
cafe ? Attend to nature, and nature will tell, with a
voice irrefiftibly audible and commanding to the human
heart, with an authority which no man can filence with¬
out being felf-condemned, and which no man can elude
but at Ins peril, “ that immediate relief ought to be
given.” Again, Let a friend, a neighbour, or even a
itranger, have lodged a depojite in our hands, and after
fome time reclaim it j no fooner do thefe ideas of the
confidence repofed in us, and of property not transfer¬
red, but depoftcd, occur, than we immediately and un¬
avoidably feel and recognize the obligation to reftore it.
In both thefe cafes we fhould condemn and even loathe
ourfelves if we aCfed othcrwife, as having done, or
omitted doing, what we ought not, as having aCted be¬
neath the dignity of our nature ;—contrary to our molt
intimate fenfe of right and wrong :—we fhould accufe
curftlves as guilty of ingratitude, injuftice, and inhu¬
manity,— and be confcious of deferving the cenfure, and
therefore dread the refentment, of all rational beings.—
But in complying with the obligation, we feel joy and
felf-approbation,—are confcious of an inviolable harmo¬
ny between our nature and duty, and think ourfelves
entitled to the applaufe of every impartial fpeClator of
our conduCt.
To deferibe, therefore, what we cannot perhaps de¬
fine, a flate of moral obligation is “ that ftate in which
a creature, endued with fuch fenfes, powers, and af-
Part I,
morally bad aElion, or an immoral a Id ion, is, “ to vio- Of Moral
late a moral obligation knowingly and willingly.” Obligation.
As not an aclion, but a fcries of aclions, conflitute a v-—J
characler ; as not an ajfeEiion, but a fcries of ajf 'eclions, Moral^
conilitute a tetnper; and as we denominate things by racier and”
the grofs, a fortiori, or by the qualities which chiefly temper
prevail in them *, therefore we call that a u morally °cl anf*
dj
S9
Moral
agent.
60
Moral ac¬
tion good
and bad.
feftions as man, would condemn himfelf, and think
lie deferved the condemnation of all others, fhould
he refufe to fulfil it •, but -would approve himfelf, and
expeCt the approbation of all others, upon complying
with it.”
And we call him a moral agent, avIio is in fuch a
fate, or is fubject to moral obligation. Therefore, as
man’s fruElure and connexions often fubjeCt him to fuch
a ftate of moral obligation, we conclude that he is a mo¬
ral agent. But as man may fometimes aft without
knowing what he does, as in cafes of fren%y or dfeafe,
or in many natural funBions; or, knowing what he
does, he may aft without choice or ajfeBion, as in cafes
of necefjity or compu/fion ; therefore, to denominate an
aCtion moral, i. e. approveable, or blameable, it muft be
done knowingly and willingly, or from affeBion and
choice. “ A morally good aBion, then, is to fulfil a
moral obligation knowingly and willingly.” And a
charaBer, in which a feries of morally good aBions pre
vail j” and that a “ morally good temper, in which a
feries of morally good affeBions have the afeendant.”
A bad character and bad temper are the reverfe. But
where the above-mentioned order or proportion of paf-
fions is maintained, there a feries of morally-.gaodi affec¬
tions and uBions will prevail. Therefore, “ to maintain
that order and proportion, is to have a morally good
temper and charaBer.'1'1 But a “ morally good temper
and character is moral reBitudc, integrity, virtue, or the
completion of duty.'1'1
If it be afked, after all, “ how we come by the idea How
“ of moral obligation or duty we may anfwer, That come by
we come by it in the fame way as by our other original^ of
and primary perceptions. We receive them all from mota^
nature, or the great Author of nature. For this idea&
of moral obligation is not a creature of the mind, or de¬
pendent on any previous act of volition j but arifes on
certain occafions, or when certain other ideas are pre-
fented to the mind, as neceffarily, inftantaneoufly, and
unavoidably, as pain does upon too near an approach to
the fire, or pleafure from the fruition of any good. It
does not, for inltance, depend on our choice, whether
we fliall feel the obligation to fuccour a diitrefled parent^
or to reftore a depofite intrufted to us when it is recal¬
led. We cannot call this a compound idea made up of
one or more fimple ideas. We may indeed, nay wre
mult, have fome ideas antecedent to it, e. g. that of a
parent in diftrefs—of a child—able to relieve—of the
relation of one to the other—of a trufl—of right, &c.
But none of thefe ideas conftitute the perception of
obligation. This is an idea quite diftinCt from, and
fomething fuperadded to, the ideas of the correlatives,
or the relation fubfifting between them. Thefe indeed,
by a law of our nature, are the occafion of fuggefting
it; but they are as totally different from it as colours
are from founds. By fenfe of reflection we perceive the
correlatives ; our memory recals the favours or depofite
avc received \ the various circumftances of the cafe are
matters of faCt or experience •, but fome delicate inward
organ or power, or call it what we pleafe, does, by a
certain inilantaneous fympathy, antecedent to the cool
deductions of reafon, and independent of previous in-
ftruCtion, or volition, perceive the moral harmony, the
living, irreffible charms of moral obligation, which im¬
mediately interefts the correfpondent paflions, and
prompts us to fulfil its lawful dictates.
We need not apprehend any danger from the quick- The ufe of
nefs of its decifions, nor be frightened becaufe it looks reafon in
like infinB, and has been called fo. Would ve ap- moral c*^es'
prove one for deliberating long, or reafoning the mat¬
ter much at leifure, whether he fhould relieve a di-
ftreffed parent, feed a ftarving neighbour, or reftore
the truft committed to him ? fhould we not fufpeft
the reafoner of knavery, or of very weak affeCtions to
virtue ? We employ reafon, and worthily employ it,
in examining the condition, relations, and other cir¬
cumftances of the agent or patient, or of thofe with
whom
*3
*4
Pi'ifure
■ the
Ldi of obli-
gien.
Jje iurvey
flpofed.
66
1'ji'ard
ai.tomy of
t fyftem
d:he
Jtud.
MORA L
whom either of them are conne&ed, or, in other words,
the J/ate of the cafe : and in complicated cafes, where
the circumftances are many, it may require no fmall
attention to find the true Hate of the cafe; but when
the relations of the agent or patient, and the circum¬
ftances of the aftion are obvious, or come out i’uch
after a fair trial, we Ihould fcarcely approve him who
demurs on the obligation to that conduct which the
cafe fuggefts.
From what has been faid, it is evident, that it is not
the pleafure or agreeable fenfations, which accompany
the exercife of the feveral affe&ions, nor thofe con-
fequent to the adtions, that conftitute moral obliga-
tion, or excite in us the idea of it. That pleafure is
polterior to the idea of obligation •, and frequently we
are obliged, and acknowledge ourfelves under an obli¬
gation, to fuch affedlions and adtions as are attended
with pain ; as in the trials of virtue, where vre are obli¬
ged to facrifice private to public good, or a prefent
pleafure to a future interest. We have pleafure in ferv-
ing an aged parent, but it is neither the perception nor
profpedt of that pleafure which gives us the idea of ob¬
ligation to that condudt.
Chap. III. The Final Caufes of our moral Faculties
^Perception and Affection.
We have now taken a general profpedt of MAN and
of his moral powers and connexions, and on thefe eredt-
ed a fcheme of dutij, or moral obligation, which feems
to be confirmed by experience, confonant to reafon, and
approved by his molt inward and molt facred fenfes. It
may be proper, in the next place, to take a more par¬
ticular view of the final caufes of thofe delicate fprings
by which he is impelled to adtion, and of thofe clogs by
which he is reftrained from it. By this detail we lhall
be able to judge of their aptitude to anfwer their end,
in a creature endued with his capacities, fubjedt to his
wants, expofed to his dangers, and fufceptible of his
enjoyments ; and from thence we ihall be in a condition
to pronounce concerning the end of his wholeJlruElure,
its harmony with xKsfiate, and confequently its fubfervi-
ency to anfwer the great and benevolent intentions of
its Author.
The fupreme Being has feen fit to blend in the whole
of things a prodigious variety of difcordant and contra¬
ry principles, light and darknefs, pleafure and pain,
good and evil. There are multifarious natures, higher
and lower, and many intermediate ones between the
wide-diftant extremes. Thefe are differently fituated,
varioufly adjufted, and fubjedted to each other, and
all of them fubordinate to the order and perfection
of the whole. We may fuppofe man placed as in a
centre amidft thofe innumerable orders of beings, by
his outward frame drawing to the material fyftem, and
by his inward connected with the intellectual or
moral, and of courfe affefted by the laws which go¬
vern both, or affedled by that good and that ill which
refult from thofe laws. In this infinite variety of re¬
lations with which he is furrounded, and of contingencies
to which he is liable, he feels ftrong attractions to
the good, and violent repulfions or averfions to the ill.
But as good and ill are often blended, and wonder¬
fully complicated one with the other •, as they fome-
timcs immediately produce and run up into each other,
PHILOSOPHY. 371
and at other times lie at great difiances, yet by means Of Percep-
of intervening links introduce one another ; and as
thefe effeCts are often brought about in confequence of (
hidden relations and general laws, of the energy of
which he is an incompetent judge •, it is caly lor him
to miltake good for evil, and evil for good, and con¬
fequently he may be frequently attracted by fuch
things as are deftruCtive or repel fuch as are falutary.
Thus, by the tender and complicated frame of Ids
body, he is fubje&ed to a great variety of ills, to fick-
nefis, cold, heat, fatigue, and innumerable wants. Yet
his knowledge is fo narrow withal, and his reafon fo
weak, that in many cafes he cannot judge, in the way
of inveftigation or reafoning, of the connexions of
thofe effeCls with their refpeCtive caufes, or of the
various latent energies of natural things. He is there¬
fore informed of this connexion by the experience
of certain fenfes or organs of perception, which by a
mechanical inftantaneous motion, feel the good and
the ill, receiving pleafure from one, and pain from the
other. By thefe, without any reafoning, he is taught
to attraCl or choofe what tends to his welfare, and to
repel and avoid what tends to his ruin. T hus, by
his fenfes of tafie and fimell, or by the pleafure he re¬
ceives from certain kinds of food, he is admonilhed
which agree w ith his conllitution } and by an oppo-
fite fenfe of pain he is informed which fort difagree,
or are deftruClive of it ; but is not by means of this
inftruCted in the inward natures and conftitutions of
things- .
Some of thofe fenfes are armed with firong degrees ufe 0fap_
of uneafnefs or pain, in order to urge him to feek after petites and
fuch objeCts as are fuited to them. And thefe re-paffions.
fpeCt his more immediate and prefling wants ; as the
fenfe of hunger, thirfi, cold, and the like ; which, by
their painful importunities, compel him to provide
food, drink, raiment, Jbelter. Thofe inffinCts by which
we are thus prompted with fome kind of commotion
or violence to attract and purfue good, or to repel and
avoid ill, we call appetites and pafjions. By our fenfes
then we are informed of what is good or ill to the pri¬
vate fystem, or the individual; and by our private appe- >
tites and paffons vto are impelled to one, and reftrained
from the other. 53
In confequence of this maclmiery, and the great Man’s out-
train of wants to which our nature fubjects us, we are ward llate,
engaged in a continued feries of occupations, which
often require much application of thought, or great
bodily labour, or both. The neceffaries of life, food,
clothes, fhelter, and the like, mult be provided ) con-
veniencies muft be acquired to render life ftill more
eafy and comfortable. In order to obtain thefe, arts,
induftry, manufactures, and trade are neceffary. And
to fecure to us the peaceable enjoyment of their fruits,
civil government, policy, and laws, muft be contrived,
and the various bufinefs of public life carried on : thus,
while man is concerned and bufied in making provifion,
or obtaining fecurity for himfelf, he is by degrees en« •
gaged in connexions with a family, friends, neighbours-,
a community, or a commonwealth. Hence arife new
v'ants, new interefts, new cares, and new employments.
The paffions of one man interfere with thofe of another.
Interefis are oppofed. Competitions arife, contrary
courfes are taken, Difappointments happen, diftinc-
tions are made, and parties formed. This opens a vaft
3 A 2 feene
tioB and
Affedtion.
69
ProviHong
for it.
7°
By public
fenfes and
paffions.
Pity.
72
Congratu¬
lation.
73
Befer.t-
Bieut.
372 MORAL PH
Of Percep. fcene of diilracHon and embarraffment, and introduces
a mighty train of good and ill, both public and private.
Yet amidft all this confufion and hurry, plans of aftion
muft be laid, confequences forefeen or guarded againft,
inconveniences provided for j and frequently particular
refolutions muft be taken, and fchemes executed, with¬
out reafoning or delay.
Now what provifion has the Author of our nature
made for this neceflitous condition ? how has he fitted
the adtor, man, for playing his part in this perplexed
and bufy fcene ?
Our fupreme Parent, watchful for the whole, has not
left himfelf without a witnefs here neither, and hath
made nothing imperfedf, but all things are double one
againft the other. He has not left man to be informed,
only by the cool notices of reafon, of the good or 2//,
the happinefs or mifenj of his fellow creatures.—He has
made him fenfible of their good and happinefs, but ef-
pecially of their ill and mifery, by an immediate fym-
pathy, or quick feeling of pleafure and of pain.
The latter we call pity or compassion. For the
former, though every one, who is not quite divefted of
humanity, feels it in fome degree, we have not got a
name, unlefs we call it congratulation or joxjful
sympathy, or Xhut good humour which arifes on feeing
others pleafed or happy. Both thefe feelings have been
called in general the public or common sense, jse<v»
by which we feel for others, and are intereft-
ed in their concerns as really, though perhaps lefs fen-
fibly, than in our own.
When we fee our fellow creatures unhappy through
the fault or injury of others, we feel refentment or in¬
dignation againft the unjujl caufers of that mifery.—If
we are conl'cious that it has happened through our fault
or injurious conduct, we feel Jhame; and both thele
claffea offenfes and pajjions, regarding mifery and wrong,
are armed with fuch lharp fenfations of pain, as not on¬
ly prove a powerful guard and fecurity to the fpecies,
or public fystem, againft thofe ills it may, but ferve allb
to leffen or remove thofe ills it does, fuffer. Compaflion
draws us out of ourfelves to bear a part of the misfor¬
tunes of others, powerfully folicits us in their favour,
melts us at the fight of their diftrefs, and makes us in
fome degree unhappy till they are relieved from it. It
is peculiarly well adapted to the condition of human
life, becaufe it is much more and oftener in our power
to do mifehief than good, and to prevent or leffen mi-
fery than to communicate politive happinefs j and there¬
fore it is an admirable reftraint upon the more felfifh
paflions, or thofe violent impulfes that carry us to the
hurt of others.
There are other particular inflin&s or paffons which
intereft us in the concerns of others, even while we
are rhoft bufy about our own, and which are ftrongly
attraftive of good, and repulfive of ill to them. Such
are natural affeEiion, fnendjhip, love, gratitude, defire
of fame, love of fociety, of one's country, and others
that might be named. Nowr as the private appetites and
paflions were found to be armed with ftrong fenfa¬
tions of defire and uneafinefs, to prompt man the
more effe6fually to fuftain labours, and to encounter
dangers in purfuit of thofe goods that are neceffary to
the prefervation and welfare of the individual, and to
avoid thofe ills which tend to his deftrudlion ; in like
manner it was neceffary, that this other clafs of defir.es
74
Public af-
Ce&ions.
ILOSOPHY. Parti,
and affeftions fliould be prompted with as quick fen-Of Percep.
fations of pain, not only to counteradt the ftrength of tl0n aid
their antagonifts, but to engage us in a virtuous a<fti- iAfie(Ctl0t>'
vity for our relations, families, friends, neighbours,
country. Indeed our fenfe of right and wrong will ad-
monilh us that it is our duty, and reafon and experience
farther allure us that it is both our interef and beft
fecurity, to promote the happinefs of others •, but that
fenfe, that reafon, and that experience, •would frequent¬
ly prove but weak and ineffedual prompters to fuch
a conduft, efpeeially in cafes of danger and hard-
Ihip, and amidft all the importunities of nature, and
that conftant hurry in which the private paflions in¬
volve us, without the aid of thofe particular kind affec¬
tions which mark out to us particular fpheres of duty,
and with an agreeable violence engage and fix us down
to them.
It is evident, therefore, that thofe two claffes of Contrail or
affedlion, the private and public, are fet one againft the balance of
other, and defigned to controul and limit each other’s P^10113,
influence, and thereby to produce a juft balance in
the whole *. In general, the violent fenfations of * Vld. Hut-
pain and uneafinefs which accompany hunger, thirft, e£f/o«’.r
and the other private appetites, or too great fatigue
of mind as well as of body, prevent the individualponSt-YmXi,
from runnirg to great exceffes in the exercife of the 1. 2.
higher functions of the mind, as too intenfe thought
in the fearch of truth, violent application to bufinefs
of any kind, and different degrees of romantic heroifm.
On the other hand, the finer fenfes of perception, and
thofe generous defres and affeBions which are connecled
with them, the love of aBion, of imitation, of truth,
honour, public virtue, and the like, are wifely placed
in the oppofite fcale, in order to prevent us from fink¬
ing into the dregs of the animal life, and debafing the
dignity of man below the condition of brutes. So
that, by the mutual rea£Iion of thofe oppofite powers,
the bad effefts are prevented that would naturally re-
fult from their afting fingly and apart, and the good
effefls are produced which each are feverally formed to
produce. _ ... 7^
The fame wholefome oppofition appears likewife inco»traftor
the particular counter-"workings of the private and balance of
public affections one againft the other. Thus cotnpaf-l)Uf'^c ar(l
fion is adapted to counterpoife the love of eafe, of />/«*--
fare, and of life, and to difarm or to fet bounds to re¬
fentment ; and refentment of injury done to ourfelves,
or to our friends who are dearer than ourfelves, pre¬
vents an effeminate compafjion or confernation, and
gives us a noble contempt of labour, pain, and death.
Natural affeBion, friendfbip, love of one's country, nay
•zeal for any particular virtue, are frequently more
than a match for the whole train of felfifh paffions.
—On the other hand, without that intimate over¬
ruling paflion of felflove, and thofe private defires
which are conneCled w ith it, the facial and tender in-
finBs of the human heart wrould degenerate into the
wildeft dotage, the moft torturing anxiety, and down¬
right frenzy. ^
But not only are the different orders or claffes of Contrails
affeftion checks one upon another, but paflions of theamong
fame claffes are mutual clogs. Thus, how many
withheld from the violent outrages of refentment by
fear! and how eafily is fear controlled in its turn,
while mighty wrongs awaken a mighty refentment l
The
Part I.
)f Petcep-
; tion and
Affection.
7S
Particular
perceptions
pr inftincfls
[of approba¬
tion.
MORAL PH
The private pafiions often interfere, and therefore mo¬
derate the violence of each other j and a calm felf-
love is placed at their head, to diredl, influence, and
controul their particular attractions and repullions.
The public affections liketvife reftrain one another 5
and all of them are put under the controul of a calm
difpaflionate benevolence, which ought in like manner
to direCt and limit their particular motions. Thus
moft part, if not all the paflions, have a twofold afpedt,
and ferve a twofold end. In one view they may be
confidered as powers, impelling mankind to a certain
courfe, with a force proportioned to the apprehended
i7ioment of the good they aim at. In another view they
appear as weights, balancing the aftion of the powers,
and controlling the violence of their impulfes. By
means of thefe powers and weights a natural poife is fet¬
tled in the human breaft by its all-wife Author, by
which the creature is kept tolerably fteady and regular
in his courfe, amidff that variety of ftages through
which he muft pafs.
But this is not all the proviflon which God has made
for the hurry and perplexity of the fcene in which
man is deftined to ad. Amidft thofe infinite attrac¬
tions and repulfions towards private and public good
and ill, mankind either cannot often forefee the confe-
quences or tendencies of all their aClions towards one
or other of thefe, efpecially where thofe tendencies
are intricate and point different ways, or thofe confe-
quences remote and complicated ; or though, by care¬
ful and cool inquiry, and a due improvement of their
rational powers, they might find them out, yet, di-
llraded as they are with bufinefs, amufed with trifles,
diflipated by pleafure, and difturbed by paflion, they
either have or can find no leifure to attend to thofe
confequences, or to examine how far this or that con-
dud is produdive of private or public good on the
whole. Therefore, were it left entirely to the flowr
and fober dedudions of reafon to trace thofe tenden¬
cies, and make out thofe confequences, it is evident,
that in many particular inftances the bufinefs of life
mult Hand ftill, and many important occafions of ac¬
tion be loft, or perhaps the groffeft blunders be com¬
mitted. On this account, the Deity, befides that ge¬
neral approbation which we beftow on every degree
of kind affedion, has moreover implanted in man
many particular perceptions or determinations to ap¬
prove of certain qualities or uBions, which, in effed,
tend to the advantage of fociety, and are conneded
with private good, though he does not always fee that
tendency, nor mind that connexion. And thefe per¬
ceptions or determinations do, without reafoning, point
out, and, antecedent to viewrs of intereft, prompt to a
condud beneficial to the public, and ufeful to the pri¬
vate fyftem. Such is that fenfe of candour and veracity,
that abhorrence of fraud and falfehood, that fenfe of fide¬
lity, juf ice, gratitude, greatnefs of mind, fortitude, cle¬
mency, decorum, and that difapprobation of knavery, in-
jufice, ingratitude, meannefs offpirit, cowardice, cruel¬
ty, and indecorum, which are natural to the human
mind. The former of thofe difpofitions, and the ac¬
tions flowing from them, are approved, and thofe of
the latter kind difapproved by us, even abftraded from
the view of their tendency or conducivenefs to the hap-
pinefs or mifery of others, or of ourfelves. In one we
difcern a beauty, a fuperior excellency, a congruity to the
I L O S O P H Y. 373
dignity of man ; in the other a deformity, a littUnefs, aOt Percep-
debafement, of human nature. ^ _ Afeaioi
There are other principles alfo conneded with the . u",
good of fociety, or the happinefs and perfedion of the
individual, though that connexion is not immediately Others of
apparent, which we behold with real complacency and an inffc;rior
approbation, though perhaps inferior in degree, if notOK er'
in kind, fuch as gravity, madefy, fimplicity of deport¬
ment, temperance, prudent economy ; and we feel fome
degree of contempt and diflike where they are want¬
ing, or where the oppofite qualities prevail. Thefe
and the like perceptions or feelings are either different
modifications of the moralfenfe, or fubordmate to it, and
plainly ferve the fame important purpofe, being expedi¬
tious monitors, in the feveral emergencies of a various
and diftraded life, of what is right, what is wrong,
what is to be purfued, and what avoided; and, by the
pleafant or painful confequences which attends them,
exerting their influence as powerful prompters to a fuit-
able condud. 8o
From a flight infpedion of the above-named prin-Theji-gene„
ciples, it is evident they all carry a friendly afped toral teuden-
fociety and the individual, and have a more immediatecies*
or a more remote tendency to promote the perfcBion
or good of both. This tendency cannot be always
forefeen, and would be often miftaken or feldom at¬
tended to by a weak, bufy, fhort-fighted creature like
man, both rafti and variable in his opinions, a dupe to
his own paflions, or to the defigns of others, liable to
ficknefs, to want, and to error. Principles, therefore,
which are fo nearly linked with private fecurity and
public good, by direding him, without operofe reafon¬
ing, where to find the one, and how to promote the other;
and, by prompting him to a condud conducive to both,
are admirably adapted to the exigencies of his prefent
ftate, and wifely calculated to obtain the ends of uni-
verfal benevolence. gr
It were eafy, by confidering the fubjed in anotherpafl-101is fiu
light, to flunv, in a curious detail of particulars, how ted to a
wonderfully the infide of man, or that aftoniftiing train ftate ot
of moral powers and ajfeBions with which he is en-tna1'
dued, is fitted to the feveral ftages of that progrejfive
and probationary ftate through wTich he is deftined
to pafs. As our faculties are narrow and limited, and
rife from very fmall and imperfed beginnings, they
muft be improved by exercife, by attention, and re¬
peated trials. And this holds true not only of our in-
telleBual but of our moral and aBive powers. The for¬
mer are liable to errors in fpeculation, the latter to
blunders in pradice, and both often terminate in mif-
fortunes and pains. And thofe errors and blunders
are generally owing to our paflions, or to our too for¬
ward and warm admiration of thofe partial goods they
naturally purfue, or to our fear of thofe partial ills they
naturally repel. Thofe misfortunes, therefore, lead us
back to confider where our mifeondud lay, and whence
our errors flowed ; and confequently are falutary pieces
of trial, which tend to enlarge our views, to correB
and refine our paflions, and confequently improve both
our intelleBual and moral powers. Our paflions then
are the rude materials of our virtue, which Heaven has
given us to work up, to refine and polifti into a harmo¬
nious and divine piece of workmanftiip. 'They furnith out
the whole machinery, the calms and ftorms, the lights
and (hades of human life. They (how mankind in every
attitude.
374
Of Outy or
V irtue.
Sa
To a pro-
greflive
flate.
Harmony
of our
Itrudlure
anti ftate.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
attitude and variety of eliara&er, and give virtue both
it* iiruggles and ijs triumphs. To conduct them well
in every ilate, is merit j to abide or milapply them, is
demerit.
I he different fets of fetifes, powers, and paffions,
which unfold themfelves in thole lucceffive llages, are
both neceffary and adapted to that r:/ing and progreffive
flate. Enlarging views and growing connexions re¬
quire new paffions and new habits ; and thus the mind,
by thefe continually expanding and finding a progref-
live exercife, rifes to higher improvements, and pulhes
forward to maturity and perfedlion.
In this beautiful economy and harmony of our
ftrudlure, both outward and inward, with that Hale,
we may at once difcern the great lines of our duty
traced out in the faireft and brighteft chara£lers, and
contemplate with admiration a more augutt and mar¬
vellous fcene of divine wifdom and goodnefs laid in the
human brealt, than we lhall perhaps find in the whole
compafs of nature.
From this detail it appears, that man, by his original
Part II,
frame, is made for a temperate, compajfionate, benevo-Oi Duty or
lent, aBive, and progrejive flate. He is flrongly at- Virtue-
traBive of the good, and repuljive of the ills which be-
fal others as well as himfelf. He feels the higheft up- j,,
probation and moral complacence in thofe affections, and economy
in thofe actions, which immediately and direCtly refpeft vIrtue Ha¬
ttie good of others, and the higheft difapprobation and
abhorrence of the contrary. Bolides thefe, he has many
particular perceptions or inJlinBs of approbation, which,
though perhaps not of the fame kind with the others,
yet are accompanied with correfpondent degrees of af-
feCtion, proportioned to their refpeCtive tendencies to
the public good. Therefore, by aCling agreeably to thefe
principles, man aCts agreeably to his ftruCture, and ful¬
fils the benevolent intentions of its Author. But we
call a thing good when it anfwers its end, and a crea¬
ture good, when he aCts in a conformity to his conjlitu-
tion. Confequently, man mull be denominated good or
virtuous when he aCfs iuitably to the principles and de-
f motion of his nature.
PART II.
Chap. I. The principal DiJlinBions <?/'Duty or
Virtue.
WE have now confidered the conjlitution and con¬
nexions of man, and on thofe ereCted a general fyftem of
duty or moral obligation, conf mant to reafon, approved
by his moft facred and intimate fenfe, fuitable to his
mixed condition, and confirmed by the experience of
mankind. We have alfo traced the fnal caufes of his
moral faculties and nffeBions to thofe noble purpofes
they anfwer, with regard both to the private and the
public fystem.
General di- From this induClion it is evident, that there is one
vifibn of order or clafs of duties which man owes to himfelf: an-
other to fociety: and a third to God.
t0 The duties he owes to himfelf are founded chiefly on
one’s felf. the defenjive and private paflions, which prompt him to
purfue whatever tends to private good or happinefs, and
to avoid or ward off whatever tends to private ill or mi-
fery. Among the various goods which allure and foli-
cit him, and the various ills which attack or threaten
him, “ to be intelligent and accurate in feleCting one,
and rejeCling the other, or in preferring the moft excel¬
lent goods, and avoiding the moft terrible ills, when
there is a competition among either, and to be difereet
in ufing the beft means to attain the goods and avoid
the ills, is what we call prudence.'1'1 This, in our in¬
ward frame, correfponds to fagacity, or quicknefs of
fenfe, in our outward.—“ To proportion our defenfve
pa/Jions to our dangers, we mil fortitude ; which always
implies “ a juft mixture of calm refentment or animofi-
ty, and well-governed caution.” And this frmnefs of
mind anfwers to the frength and mufcling of the body.
And “ duly to adjuft our private pafjions to our wants,
or to the refpeCtive moment of the good we affeCt or
purfue, we call temperance; which does therefore al¬
ways imply, in this large fenfe of the word, “ a juft
balance or command of the paffions,”
The fecond clafs of duties arifes from the public or Duties to
facial affeBions, “ the juft harmony or proportion oflo(-iety.
which to the dangers and wants of others, and to the
feveral relations we bear, commonly goes by the name
of juficeV This includes the whole of our duty to
fociety, to our parents, and the general polity of nature ;
particularly gratitude, friend/hip, fncerity, natural affec¬
tion, benevolence, and the other facial virtues : This, be¬
ing the noblejl temper, and fairejl complexion of the foul,
correfponds to the beauty and fne proportion of the per-
fon. The virtues comprehended under the former
clafs, efpecially prudence and fortitude, may likewife be
transferred to this ; and according to the various cir-
cumftances in which they are placed, and the more
confined or more extenfive fphere in which they ope¬
rate, may be denominated private, economical, or civil
prudence, fortitude, &c. Thefe direCI our eonduCt with
regard to the wants and dangers of thofe leffer or great¬
er circles with which they are connected. gg
The third clafs of duties refpeCts the Deity, and Duties to
arifes from the public affeBions, and the feveral glorious
relations, which he fuitains to us as our Creator, Bene-
faBor, Lawgiver, Judge, &c. g9
We choofe to confider this fet of duties in the laft Method,
place ; beeaufe, though prior in dignity and excellency,
they feem to be lajl in order of time, as thinking it
the moft fimple and eafy method to follow the gradual
progrefs of nature, as it takes its rife from individuals,
and fpreads through the focial fyftem, and ftill afeends
upwards, till at length it ftretehes to its almighty Pa¬
rent and Head, and lb terminates in thofe duties which
are highejl and bejl. ^
The duties refulting from thefe relations are, reve- Piety.
rence,.gratitude, love, rejignation, dependence, obedience,
worfhip, praife : which, according to the model of our
finite capacities, muft maintain fome fort of proportion
to the grandeur and perfection of the objeCt whom
we venerate, love, and obey. “ 'This proportion or
hurmony is exprefled by the general name of piety or
devotion^
larfc 11.
MORAL PH
Jf Man’s
Ijduty to
feimfelt.
9l
■nfcience,
2 divifions,
-'Hutch/.
ifor. Infl.
I- ii- c. 3.
. 93
pw eon-
pence is
I be rec-
ried,
devotion," tvliicK is always ftronger or weaker according
to the greater or lefs apprehended excellency of its ob-
je£l. This fublime principle of virtue is the enlivening
foul which animates the moralfujiem, and that cement
which binds and fuO ains the other duties which man owes
to hitnfelf or to fociety.
This then is the general temper and conftitution of
virtue, and thefe are the principal lines or divifions of
duty. To thofe good difpofitions which refpett the
feveral objedls of our duty, and to all aclions which
flow from fuch difpofitions, the mind gives its func¬
tion or teftimony. And this fan&ion or judgment
concerning the moral quality, or the goodnefs ol ac¬
tions or difpofitions, moralifts call confcience. When
it judges of an action that is to be performed, it'is cal-
)ed an antecedent confcience ; and when it palfes fentence
on an aftion which is performed, it is called a fubfe-
quent confcience. The tendency of an aftion to produce
happinefs, or its external conformity to a law, is
termed its material goodnefs. But the good difpofi¬
tions from which an adlion proceeds, or its conformi¬
ty to law in every refpect, conftitutes its formal good¬
nefs.
When the mind is ignorant or uncertain about the
moment of an aftion or its tendency to private or
public good 5 or when there are feveral cireumftances
in the cafe, fome of which, being doubtful, render the
mind dubious concerning the morality of the aftion ;
that is called a doubtful or ferupulous confcience ; if it
miftakes concerning thefe, it is called an erroneous
confcience. If the error or ignorance is involuntary or
invincible, the action proceeding from that error, or
from that ignorance, is reckoned innocent, or not im¬
putable. If the error or ignorance is fupine or affcEl-
ed, i. e. the effedl of negligence, or of affeftation and
wilful inadvertence, the conduft flowing from fuch
error, or fuch ignorance, is criminal and imputable.—
Not to follow one’s confcience, though erroneous and
ill-informed, is criminal, as it is the guide of life ; and
to counteract it, fliows a depraved and incorrigible fpi-
rit. Yet to follow an erroneous confcience is likewife
criminal, if that error which milled the confcience was
the effeft of inattention, or any criminal paflion *.
If it be afked, “ How an erroneous confcience fhall
be reftifxed, fince it is fuppofed to be the only guide
of life, and judge of morals ? we anfwer, In the very
fame way that we would reCtify reafon if at any time
it fhould judge wrong, as it often does, viz. by giving
it proper and fufheient materials for judging right,
i. e. by inquiring into the whole ftate of the cafe, the
relations, connexions, and feveral obligations of the ac¬
tor, the confequences and other circumftances of the
aCtion, or the furplufage of private or public good
which refults, or is likely to refult, from the aCtion or
from the omiflion of it. If thofe circumftances are fair¬
ly and fully ftated, the confcience will be juft and im¬
partial in its decifton 5 for, by a neceflary law of our
nature, it approves and is well affeCted to the moral
form ; and if it feems to approve of vice or immorality,
it is always under tire notion or mafk of fome virtue.
So that, ftriClly fpeaking, it is not confcience which
errs ; for its fentence is always conformable to the
view of the cafe which lies before it; and is juf, upon
the fuppofltion that the cafe is truly fuch as it is repre-
fenled to it. All the fault is to be imputed to the
4
I L O S O P H Y.
agent, who negleds to be better informed, or who,
through weaknefs or wickcdnefs, haftens to pafs fen¬
tence from an imperfeCt evidence.
3/5
Of Man’s
duty to
Himfelf.
Chap. II. Of Mails Duty to Himself. Of the
Nature c/ Good, and the Chief Good.
. .. . . M
Every creature, by the conftitutum of Ins nature, is Divihons of
determined to love himfeli 5 to purfuc whatever tends g00^.
to his prefervation and happinefs, and to avoid what¬
ever tends to his hurt and mifery. Being endued with
fenfe and perception, he mull neceffarily receive plea-
fur e from fome objeCfs, and pain from others. Thofe
objeCls which give plcafurc are called good ; and thofe
which give pain, evil. To the former he feels that
attraction or motion we call defire or love ; to the lat¬
ter, that impulfe we call averfon or hatred.—To ob-
jefts which fuggeft neither pleafure nor pain, and are
apprehended of no ufe to procure one or ward off the
other, we feel neither defirc nor averfon ; and fuch ob¬
jeCls are called indifferent. Thole objeCts which do not
of themfelves produce pleafure or pain, but are the
means of procuring either, we call ufeful or noxious.
Towards them we are afleCled in a fubordinate manner,
or with an indireft and reflective rather than a diredl and
immediate affeCtion. All the original and particular af-
feCiions of our nature lead us out to and ultimately reft
in the firft kind of objeCls, viz. thofe which give imme¬
diate pleafure, and which we therefore call good directly
fo. The calm affeCtion of felflove alone is converfant
about fuch objeCts as are only confequentially good, or
merely ufeful to ourfelves.
But, befides thofe forts of objeCls which we call Moral
good, merely and folely as they give pleafure, or are good,
means of procuring it, there is a higher and nobler
fpecies of good, towards which we feel that peculiar
movement we call approbation or moral complacency ;
and which we therefore denominate moral good. Such
are our affedions, and the confequent aClions to them.
The perception of this is, as has been already obferv-
ed, quite diftinCl in kind from the perception of other
fpecies j and though it may be conneCled with plea¬
fure or advantage by the benevolent conftitution of
nature, yet it conftitutes a good independent of that
pleafure and that advantage, and far fuperior not in
degree only but in dignity to both. The other, viz.
the natural good, confifts in obtaining thofe pleafures
which are adapted to the peculiar fenfes and paftions
fufceptible of them, and is as various as are thofe
fenfes and paftions. This, vi%. the moral, good, lies
in the right conduCl of the feveral fenfes and paflions,
or their juft proportion and accommodation to their
refpeClive objeCls and relations, and this is of a more
Ample and invariable kind. pg
. By our feveral fenfes we are capable of a great va-Human
riety of pleafing fenfations. Thefe ccnftitute diftinCl happinefs,
ends or objeCls ultimately purfuable for their own
fake. To thefe ends, or ultimate objeCls, correfpond
peculiar appetites or affeClions, which prompt the
mind to purfue them. When thefe ends are attained,
there it refts, and looks no farther. Whatever there¬
fore is purfuable, not on its own account, but as fub-
fervient or neceffary to the attainment of fomething
elfe that is intrinfically valuable for its own fake, be
that value ever fo great or ever fo fmall, we call a
meanx
376
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
<>S
Goods of
the body.
99
Good
health;
Part If.
Of Man’s
duty to
Him! elf.
97
Gradation
of goods.
mean, and not an end. So that ends and means con-
ftitute the materials or the very ejfence of our happi-
nefs. Confequcntly happinel's, i. e. human happinefs,
cannot be one Ample uniform tiling in creatures con-
fiituted as tve are, with fuch various fenfes of plea-
fure, or fuch different capacities of enjoyment. Now
the fame principle, or law of our nature, which de¬
termines us to purfue any one end or fpecies of good,
prompts us to purfue every other end or fpecies of
good of which we are fufceptible, or to which our
Maker has adapted an original propenfion. But
amidft the great multiplicity of ends or goods which
form the various ingredients of our happinefs, we
perceive an evident gradation or fuboriination Ant¬
ed to that gradation of fenfes, powers, and pajjions,
which prevails in our mixed and various conftitution,
and to that afeending feries of connexions which
open upon us in the different ftages of our progreflive
ftate.
Thus the goods of the body, or of the externalfenfes,
feem to hold the loweft rank in this gradation or fcale
of goods. Thefe we have in common with the brutes ;
and though many men are brutilh enough to purfue
the goods of the body with a more than brutal fury,
yet, when at any time they come in competition with
goods of an higher order, the unanimous verdift of
mankind, by giving the laft the preference, condemns
the firft to the meaneft place. Goods confifting in
exterior focial connexions, as fame, fortune, power,
civil authority, feem to fucceed next, and are chiefly
valuable as the means of procuring natural or moral
good, but principally the latter. Goods of the intel-
leB are ftill fuperior, as tafe, knowledge, memory,
judgment, &c. The higheft are moral goods of the
mind, dire6tly and ultimately regarding ourfelves, as
command of the appetites and pajjions, prudence, forti¬
tude, benevolence, &c. Thefe are the great objefts of
our purfuit, and the principal ingredients of our hap¬
pinefs. Let us confider each of them as they rife one
above the other in this natural feries or fcale, and touch
briefly on our obligations to purfue them.
Thofe of the body are health, Jlrength, agility, har-
dinefs, and patience of change, neatnefs, and decency.
Good health, and a regular eafy flow of fpirits, are
in themfelves fweet natural enjoyments, a great fund
of pleafure, and indeed the proper feafoning which
gives a flavour and poignancy to every other pleafure.
The want of health unfits us for mod duties of life,
and is efpecially an enemy to the focial and humane af-
fedtions, as it generally renders the unhappy fufferer
peevith and fullen, difgufted at the allotments of Pro¬
vidence, and confequently apt to entertain fufpicious
and gloomy fentiments of its Author. It obftrufts the
free exercife and full improvement of our reafon,
makes us a burden to our friends, and ufelefs to fo-
ciety. Whereas the uninterrupted enjoyment of good
health is a conftant fource of good humour, and good
humour is a great friend to opennefs and benignity of
heart, enables us to encounter the various ills and dif-
appointments of life with more courage, or to fuftain
them with more patience j and, in fhort, conduces
much, if we are otherwife duly qualified, to our afting
cur part in every exigency of life with more firmnefs,
confiftency, and dignity. Therefore it imports us
much to preferve and improve a habit or enjoyment,
without which every other external entertainment is Of Man’*
taftelefs, and moft other advantages of little avail.— (5l!t7't0
And this is belt done by a ftri£t temperance in diet,
and regimen, by regular exercife, and by keeping lco
the mind ferene and unruffled by violent paffions, and How pre-
unfubdued by intenfe and conftant labours, which ferved.
greatly impair and gradually deftroy the ftrongeft con-
ftitutions. Iot
Strength, agility., hardinefs, and patience of change, Strength,
fuppofe health, and are unattainable without it j but aghkys &•«*
they imply fomething more, and are neceffary to guard
it, to give us the perfect ufe of life and limbs, and to
fecure us againft many otherwife unavoidable ills.—
The exercife of the neceffary manual, and of moft of
the elegant arts of life, depends on ftrength and agi¬
lity of body } perfonal dangers, private and public
dangers, the demands of our friends, our families, and
country, require them; they are neceffary in war, and
ornamental in peace •, fit for the employment of a
country and a town life, and they exalt the entertain-
ments and diverfions of both. They are chiefly ob- taine(L *
tained by moderate and regular exercife.
J # o 10^
Few are fo much raifed above want and dependence, pat;ence 0f
or fo exempted from bufinefs and care, as not to be change;
often expofed to inequalities and changes of diet, ex¬
ercife, air, climate, and other irregularities. Now, what
can be fo effeftual to fecure one againft the mifehiefs
arifing from fuch unavoidable alterations, as hardinefs,
and a certain verfatility of conftitution which can bear
extraordinary labours, and fubmit to great changes,
ai
ti
ftw;
ic
iod:
■iter:
1 Jet
it
Ime
without any fenfible uneafinefs or bad confequences.How
104
This is beft attained, not by an over great delicacy tained.
and minute attention to forms, or by an invariable re¬
gularity in diet, hours, and way of living, but rather
by a bold and difereet latitude of regimen. Befides,
deviations from eftablilhed rules and forms of living,
if kept within the bounds of fobriety and reafon, are
friendly to thought and original fentiments, animate
the dull feene of ordinary lift and bufinefs, and agree¬
ably ftir the paffions, which ftagnate or breed ill hu¬
mour in the calms of life.
Neatnefs, cleanlinefs, and decency, to which we may ]q-eatnerSj
add dignity of countenance and demeanour, feem to have decency,
fomething refined and moral in them : at leaft avc ge-&c.
nerally efteem them indications of an orderly, gen¬
teel, and well governed mind, confcious of an inward
worth, or the refpeift: due to one’s nature. Whereas
nafinefs,fovenlinefs, awkwardnefs, and indecency, are
fflrewd fymptoms of fomething mean, carelefs, and
deficient, and betray a mind untaught, illiberal, un-
confcious of what is due to one’s felf or to others.
How much cleanlinefs conduces to health, needs hard¬
ly to be mentioned *, and how neceffary it is to main¬
tain one’s chara£ter and rank in life, and to render us
agreeable to others as well as to ourfelves, is as evi¬
dent.—There are certain motions, airs and geftures,
which become the human countenance and form, in
which we perceive a comelinefs, opennefs, jimp licity,
gracefulnefs ; and there are others, which to our fenfe
of decorum appear uncomely, affeEled, di/ingenuous, and
axvkward, quite unfuitable to the native dignity of our
face and form. The jfr/? are in themfelves the moft
eafy, natural and commodious, give one boldnefs and
prefence of mind, a modeft affurance, an addrefs both
awful and alluring 5 they befpeak candour and great-
nefs
tc,
'Nr,
C I'M
i©5
Ew at-
tned.
107
Qods of
art IT.
f Man’s nefs of mind, raife the moil; agreeable prejudices in
duty to one’s favour, render fociety engaging, command re-
1 fpeft, and often love, and give weight and authority
both in converfation and bufinefs; in tine, they are the
colouring of virtue, which thow it to the grcateft
advantage in whomfoever it is ; and not only imitate,
but in fome meafure fupply it where it is wanting.
Whereas the laft, vi'Z. rudenefs, affectation, indecorum,
and the like, liave all the contrary effedts; they are
burdenfome to one’s felf, a dithonour to our nature, and
a nuifance in fociety. The former qualities or goods
are belt attained by a liberal education, by preferving a
juft fenfe of the dignity of our nature, by keeping the
beft and politeft company, but, above all, by acquir¬
ing thofe virtuous and ennobling habits of mind which
are decency in perfedlion, which will give an air of
unaffedled grandeur, and fpread a luftre truly engaging-
over the whole form and deportment.
We are next to confxder thofe goods which confift
eterior fo- in exterior focial connexions, as fame, fortune, civil
1 conncc- authoritij, power.
The firft has a twofold afpedl, as a good pleafant
in itfelf, or gratifying to an original paflion, and then
as expedient or ufeful towards a farther end. Honour
from the wife and good, on the account of a virtuous
condudt, is regaling to a good man j for then his heart
re-echoes to the grateful found. There are few quite
indifferent even to the commendation of the vulgar.
Though wre cannot approve that conduct which pro¬
ceeds entirely from this principle, and not from good
affection or love of the condu£t itfelf, yet, as it is of¬
ten a guard and additional motive to virtue in creatures
imperfeft as we are, and often diffracted by interfer¬
ing paffions, it might be dangerous to fupprefs it alto¬
gether, however wife it may be to reftrain it within
due bounds, and however laudable to ufe it only as a
fcaffolding to our virtue, which may be taken down
when that glorious ftrufture is finifhed, but hardly till
then. To purfue fame for itfelf, is innocent; to re¬
gard it only as an auxiliary to virtue, is noble ; to feek
it chiefly as an engine of public ufefulnefs is ftill more
noble, and highly praife-worthy. For though the opi¬
nion and breath of men are tranfient and fading things,
often obtained without merit, and loft without caufe ;
yet as our bufinefs is with men, and as our capacity of
ferving them is generally increafed in proportion to
their efteem of us, therefore found and well eftablifhed
moral applaufe may and will be modeftly, not oftenta-
tioufly, fought after by the good; not indeed as a folitary
refined fort of luxury, but as a public and proper in-
ftrument to ferve and blefs mankind. At the fame time
they will learn to defpife that reputation which is
founded on rank, fortune, and any other circumftances
or accomplifhments that are foreign to real merit, or to
ufeful fervices done to others, and think that praife
of little avail which is purchafed without defert, and
beftowed without judgment.
Fortune, power, and civil authority, or whatever is
pjrer, &c. called influence and weight among mankind, are goods
of the fecond diviiion, that is, valuable and purfuable
only as they are ufeful, or as means to a farther end,
viz. procuring or preferving the immediate objects of
enjoyment or happinefs to ourfelves or others. There¬
fore to love fuch goods on their own account, and to
purfue them as ends, not the means of enjoyment,
Vol. XIV. Part I.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
377
Or Man’s
duty to
Himfelf.
top
Ttune
muft be highly prepofterous and abfurd. There can
be no meafure, no limit, to fuch purfuit; all muft be
whim, caprice, extravagance. Accordingly, fuch ap¬
petites, unlike all the natural ones, are increafed by
polTeflion, and whetted by enjoyment. They are al¬
ways precarious, and never without fears, becaufe the
objects lie without one’s felf; they are feldom without
forrowr and vexation, becaufe no acceflion of wealth or 119
power can fatisfy them. But if thofe goods are conli- How far
dered only as the materials or means of private or pu- puHuablc.
blic happinefs, then the fame obligations which bind
us to purfue the latter, bind us likewife to purfue the
former. "We may, and no doubt we ought, to feck
fuch a meafure of wealth as is neceflary to fupply all
our real wants, to raife us above fervile dependence,
and provide us with fuch conveniences as are fuited to
our rank and condition in life. To be regardlefs of
this meafure of .wealth, is to expofe ourfelves to all
the temptations of poverty and corruption : to forfeit
our natural independency and freedom to degrade,
and confequently to render the rank we hold, and the
chara&er we fuftain in fociety, ufelefs, if not con¬
temptible. When thefe important ends are fecured,
we ought not to murmur or repine that we poffefs no
more j yet w’e are not fecliided by any obligation,
moral or divine, from feeking more, in order to give
us that happieft and moft godlike of all powers, the
power of doing good. A fupine indolence in this re-
fpeft is both abfurd and criminal; abfurd, as it robs
us of an inexhaufted fund of the moft refined and
durable enjoyments ; and criminal, as it renders us fo 11T
far ufelefs to the fociety to which we belong. “ That Avarice,
purfuit of wealth which goes beyond the former end,
viz. the obtaining the neceflaries, or fuch convenien-
cies of life, as, in the eftimation of reafon, not of va¬
nity or paflion, are fuited to our rank and condition,
and yet is not directed to the latter, viz. the doing
good, is what we call avarice.’1'1 And “ that purfuit
of power, which after fecuring one’s felf, i. e. having
attained the proper independence and liberty of a ra¬
tional focial creature, is not diredted to the good of ii2
others, is what we call ambition, or the lufl of Ambition.
To what extent the ftridt meafures of virtue will allow
us to purfue either wealth or power, and civil authority,
is not perhaps poflible precifely to determine. That
muft be left to prudence, and the peculiar charadler,
condition, and other circumftances of each man. Only
thus far a limit may be fet, that the purfuit of either
muft encroach upon no other duty or obligation which
we ow'e to ourfelves, to fociety, or to its parent and
head. The fame reafoning is to be applied to power
as to wealth. It is only valuable as an inftrument of
our own fecurity, and of the free enjoyment of thofe
original goods it may, and often does, adminifter to
us, and as an engine of more extenfive happinefs to cur
friends, our country, and mankind. f
Now the beft, and indeed the only way to obtain a How fame
folid and lafting fame, is an uniform inflexible courfe and power
of virtue, the employing one’s ability and wealth inare attain'
fupplying the wants, and ufing one’s power in pro- ed‘
moting or fecuring the happinefs, the rights and liber¬
ties of mankind, joined to an univerfal affability and
politenefs of manners. And furely one will not mrftake
the matter much, who thinks the fame courfe condu¬
cive to the acquiring greater acceflions both of wealth
3 ^ and
Of Man’s
duty to
Himfelf.
114
Goods of
the Intel.
ua.
”5
Their mo¬
ment.
* Philof.
Stoic. Con-
fuc. lib. i.
Ԥ3,4, &c-
116
The plea-
fures they
give.
117
Knowledge
and tafte;
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
and power j efpecxally if he adds to thofe qualifications
a vigorous induftry, a conftant attention to the cha-
rafters and wants of men, to the conjundlures of times,
and continually varying genius of affairs ; and a fteady
intrepid honefly, that Avill neither yield to the allure¬
ments, nor be overawed with the terrors, of that cor¬
rupt and corrupting fcene in which we live. We have
fometimes heard indeed of other ways and means, as
fraud, diffimulation, fervility, and proftitution, and the
like ignoble arts, by which the men of the world (as
they are called, fhrewd politicians, and men of addrefs !)
amafs wealth, and procure power j but as we want ra¬
ther to form a man of virtue, an honeft, contented,
happy man, we leave to the men of the world their
own ways, and permit them, unenvied and unimitated
by us, to reap the fruit of their doings.
The next fpecies of objefts in the fcale of good, are
the goods of the intellect, as knowledge, memory, judge¬
ment, tajle, fag achy, docility, and whatever elfe we call
intellectual virtues. Let us confider them a little, and
the means as well as obligations to improve them.
As man is a rational creature, capable of knowing
the differences of things and aClions *,—as he not only
fees and feels what is prefent, but remembers what is
part, and often forefees w'hat is future ;—as he advances
from fmall beginnings by flow degrees, and with much
labour and difficulty, to knowledge and experience ;—
as his opinions fvvay his paffions,—as his paffions in¬
fluence his conduft,—and as his conduCt draws confe-
quences after it, which extend not only to the prefent
but to the future time, and therefore is the princi¬
pal fource of his happinefs or mifery •, it is evident,
that he is formed for intellectual improvements, and
that it muft be of the utmofl confequence for him to
improve and cultivate his intellectual powers, on
which thefe opinions, thofe paffions, and that conduCt
depend *.
But befides the future confequences and moment of
improving our intellectual powers, their immediate ex-
ercife on their proper objeCts yields the moft rational
and refined pleafures. Knowledge, and a right taffe in
the arts of imitation and dejign, as poetry, painting, fculp-
ture, mu fie, architeBure, afford not only an innocent,
shut a moft fenfible and fublime entertainment. By
thefe the underftanding is inftruCted in ancient and
modern life, the hiftory of men and things, the ener¬
gies and effeCts of the paffions, the confequences of
virtue and vice ; by thefe the imagination is at once
entertained and nouriffied with the beauties of nature
and art, lighted up and fpread out with the novelty,
grandeur, and harmony of the univerfe ; and, in fine,
the paffions are agreeably roufed, and fuitably enga-
o-ed, by the greateft and moft interefling objeCts that
can fill the human mind. He who has a tafte formed
to thofe ingenious delights, and plenty of materials to
gratify it, can never want the moft agreeable exercife
and entertainment, nor once have reafon to make that
fafhionable complaint of the tedioufnefs of time. Nor
can he want a proper fubjeCt for the difeipline and im¬
provement of his heart. For, being daily converfant
with beauty, order, and dejign, in inferior. fubjeCts, he
bids fair for growing in due time an admirer of what
is fair and wrell-proportioned in the conduCl of life and
the order of fociety, which is only order and defign
exerted in their higheft fubjeCt. He will learn to
Part II,
transfer the numbers of poetry to the harmony of the Of Man’s
mind and of well-governed paffions j and, from admi-
ring the virtues of others in moral paintings, come to ' e ^
approve and imitate them himfelf. Therefore, to cul¬
tivate a true and correB tajle muft be both our intereft
and our duty, when the circumftances of our ftation
give leifure and opportunity for it, and when the doing
it is not inconfiftent with our higher obligations or en¬
gagements to fociety and mankind. IIg
It is beft attained by reading the beft books, where How at-
good fenfe has more the afeendant than learning, and tained.
which pertain more to praBice than to /peculation ; by
ftudying the beft models, i. e. thofe which profefs to
imitate nature moft, and approach the neareft to it,
and by converfing with men of the moft refined tafte,
and the greateft experience in life. up
As to the other intellectual goods, what a fund of Other in-
entertainment muft it be to inveftigate the truth and
various relations of things, to trace the operations ofSoods’
nature to general laws, to explain by thefe its mani¬
fold phenomena, to underftand that order by which
the univerfe is upheld, and that economy by which it
is governed ! to be acquainted with the human mind,
the connexions, fubordinations, and ufes of its powers,
and to mark their energy in life ! how agreeable to
the ingenious inquirer, to obferve the manifold rela¬
tions and combinations of individual minds in fociety,
to difeern the caufes why they flourilh or decay, and
from thence to afeend, through the vaft fcale of be¬
ings, to that general Mind which prefides over all j
and operates unfeen in every fyftem and in every age,
through the whole compafs and progreffion of nature ’
Devoted to fueh entertainments as thefe, the contem¬
plative have abandoned every other pleafure, retired
from the body, fo to fpeak, and fequeftered themfelves
from focial intercourfe : for thefe, the bufy have often
preferred to the hurry and din of life the calm retreats
of contemplation ; for thefe, when once they came to
tafte them, even the gay and voluptuous have thrown
up the lawlefs purfuits of fenfe and appetite, and ac¬
knowledged thefe mental enjoyments to be the moft
refined, and indeed the 0/2/fy luxury. Befides, by a juft
and large knowledge of nature, we recognize the per¬
fections of its Author; and thus piety, and. all thofe
pious affeCtions which depend on juft fentiments of
his charaCter, are awakened and confirmed 5 and a
thoufand fuperftitious fears, that, arife from partial
views of his nature and works, will of courfe be ex¬
cluded. An extenfive profpeCt of human life, and of
the periods and revolutions of human things, will con¬
duce much to the giving a certain greatnefs of mind,
and a noble contempt to thofe little competitions about
power, honour, and wealth, which difturb and divide
the bulk of mankind *, and promote a calm endurance
of thofe inconveniencies and ills that are the common
appendages of humanity. Add to all, that a juft know¬
ledge of human nature, and of thofe hinges upon which
the bufinefs and fortunes of men turn, will prevent our
thinking either too highly or too meanly of our fel¬
low creatures, give no fmall fcope to the exercife of
friendfhip, confidence, and good will, and at the. fame
time brace the mind with a proper caution and diftruft
(thofe nerves of prudence), and give a greater maftery
in the conduCt of private as -well as public lite. There¬
fore, by cultivating our intellectual abilities, we ffiall
limfelf.
: 120
mv at
tsied.
121
Rral
g)ds.
rt II. MORAL PH
Man’s bcft promote and fecure our intereft, and be qualified
uty to for a^|ing our part in fociety with more honour to our-
felves, as well as advantage to mankind. Confequent-
ly, to improve them to the utmoft of our power is our
duty •, they are talents committed to us by the Al¬
mighty Head of fociety, and we are accountable to
him for the ufe of them.
The intellectual virtues are belt improved by accu¬
rate and impartial obfervation, extenfive reading, and
unconfined converfe with men of all characters, efpe-
cially with thofe who to private Itudy, have joined the
widelt acquaintance with the world, and greatelt prac¬
tice in affairs 5 but, above all, by being much in the
world, and having large dealings with mankind. Such
opportunities contribute much to divelt one of preju¬
dices and a fervile attachment to crude fyltems, to open
one’s views, and to give that experience on which the
molt ufeful becaufe the molt practical knowledge is
built, and from which the furelt maxims for the con¬
duct of life are deduced.
The highelt goods which enter into the compofition
of human happinefs are moral goods of the mind, di-
reCtly and ultimately regarding ourfelves ; as command
of the appetites and pajjions,prudence and caution, magna-
nimity, fortitude, humility, love of virtue, love of God, re-
fgnation, and the like. Thefe fublime goods are goods
by way of eminence, goods recommended and enforced
by the molt intimate and awful fenfe and confcioulnefs
of our nature j goods that conllitute the quinteffence,
the very temper of happinefs, and form that complexion
of foul which renders us approveable and lovely in the
fight of God ; goods, in fine, which are the elements
of all our future perfection and felicity.
Molt of the other goods we have confidered depend
partly on ourfelves, and partly on accidents which we
can neither forefee nor prevent, and refult from caufes
which we cannot influence or alter. They are fuch
goods as we may poffefs to-day and lofe to-morrow,
and which require a felicity of conftitution and talents
to attain them in full vigour and perfection, and a feli¬
city of conjunctures to fecure the poffeffion of them.
Therefore, did our happinefs depend altogether or
chiefly on fuch tranfitory and precarious poffelfions, it
were itfelf molt precarious, and the higheft folly to be
anxious about it. But though creatures, conftituted
as we are, cannot be indifferent about fuch goods, and
mult fuffer in fome degree, and corifequently have our
happinefs incomplete without them, yet they weigh
but little in the fcale when compared with moral goods.
By the benevolent conllitution of our nature, thefe
are placed within the fphere of our aCtivity, fo that no
man can be dellitute of them unlefs he is firlt want¬
ing to himfelf. Some of the wifelt and bell of man¬
kind have wanted molt of the former goods, and all
the external kind, and felt moll of the oppofite ills,
fuch at leall as arife from without; yet by poffefling
•the latter, viz. the moral goods, have declared they
were happy } and to the conviction of the molt im¬
partial obfervers have appeared happy. The worlt of
men have been furrounded with every outward good
123
tieir mo-
i&nt.
IL O S O P H Y. 379
and advantage of fortune, and have poffeffed great Of Man’s
parts 5 yet for want of moral reCtitude, have been, and
have confeffed themfelves, notorioufly and exquifitely . 't __ >
miferable. The exercife of virtue has fupported its vo¬
taries, and made them exult in the midlt of tortures al-
molt intolerable 5 nay, how often has fome falfe form
or lhadow of it fultained even the greatelt (e) villains
and bigots under the fame preffures ! But no external
goods, no goods of fortune, have been able to alleviate
the agonies or expel the fears of a guilty mind, confci-
ous of the deferved hatred and reproach of mankind,
and the jult difpleafure of Almighty God. 1*3
As the prefent condition of human life is wonder-The mixed
fully chequered with good and ill, and as no height
llation, no affluence of fortune, can abfolutely enfure j;fe reqUjres
the good, or fecure again!! the ill, it is evident that a particular
great part of the comfort and ferenity of life mult lie virtues,
in having our minds duly affeCted with regard to both,
i. e. rightly attempered to the lofs of one and the fuf-
ferance of the other. For it is certain that outward
calamities derive their chief malignity and preffure
from the inward difpofitions Avith which avc receive
them. By managing thefe right, we may greatly abate
that malignity and preffure, and confequently diminilh
the number, and Aveaken the force, of the ills of
life, if Are Ihould not have it in our poAver to obtain a
large lhare of its goods. There are particularly three
virtues which go to the forming this right temper to-
Avards ill, and Avhich are of lingular efficacy, if not to¬
tally to remove, yet Avonderfully to alleviate, the cala¬
mities of life. Thefe are fortitude or patience, humility,
and refignation. *34
Fortitude is that calm and Iteady habit of mind Fortitude.
Avhich either moderates our fears, and enables us
bravely to encounter the profpeCt of ill, or renders the
mind ferene and invincible under its immediate pref¬
fure. It lies equally diltant from ralhnefs and cowar¬
dice : and though it does not hinder us from feeling,
yet prevents our complaining or Ihrinking under the
Itroke. It always includes a generous contempt of,
or at lealt a noble fuperiority to, thofe precarious
goods of Avhich avc can enfure neither the poffeffion
nor continuance. The man therefore Avho poffeffes
this virtue in this ample fenfe of it, Hands upon an
eminence, and fees human things beloAV him j the
tempelt indeed may reach him, but he Hands fecure
and collected againff it upon the balls of confcious vir¬
tue, Avhich the fevereff Horms can feldom lhake, and
never overthrow.
125
Humility is another virtue of high rank and dignity, Humilitj*.
though often miflaken by proud mortals for meannefs
and pufillanimity. It is oppofed to pride, which com¬
monly includes in it a falfe or overrated eHimation of
our oAvn merit, an afcription of it to ourfelves as its
only and original caufe, an undue comparifon of our¬
felves Avith others, and in confequence of that fuppofed
fuperiority, an arrogant preference of ourfelves, and a
fupercilious contempt of them. Humility, on the other
hand, feems to denote that modeH and ingenuous
temper of mind, which arifes from a juff and equal
3 B a eflimatc
(e) As Ravaillac, who affaffinated Henry IV, of France j and Balthafar Geraerd, who murdered William I.
prince of Orange,
380
Of Man’s
duty to
Himfelf.
126
Refigna-
tion.
117
Chief good,
vbjeftivc
and formal
t*8
Corollaries.
ellimate of our own advantages compared with thofe
of others, and from a fenfe of our deriving all origi¬
nally from the Author of our being. Its ordinary at¬
tendants are mildnefs, a gentle forbearance, and an eafy
unaffuming humanity with regard to the imperfe6tions
and faults of others; virtues rare indeed, but of the
faireft complexion, the proper offspring of fo lovely a
parent, the belt ornaments of fuch imperfe6t creatures
as we are, precious in the fight of God, and wrhich
fweetly allure the hearts of men.
Re/ignation is that mild and heroic temper of mind
which arifes from a fenfe of an infinitely wife and
good providence, and enables one to acquiefce with a
cordial affeftion in its juft appointments. This virtue
has fomething very particular in its nature, and fublime
in its efficacy. For it teaches us to bear ill, not only
with patience, and as being unavoidable, but it trans¬
forms, as it were, ill into good, by leading us to con-
fider it, and every event that has the leaft appearance
of ill, as a divine difpenfation, a wife and benevolent
temperament of things, fubfervient to univerfal good,
and of courfe including that of every individual, efpe-
cially of fuch as calmly ftoop to it. In this light, the
adminiftration itfelf, nay every aft of it, becomes an
objeft of affeftion, the evil difappears, or is converted
into a balm which both heals and nouriffieth the mind.
For though the firft unexpefted accefs of ill may fur-
prife the foul into grief, yet that grief, when the mind
calmly reviews its objeft, changes into contentment,
and is by degrees exalted into veneration and a divine
compofure. Our private will is loft in that of the Al¬
mighty, and our fecurity againft every real ill refts on
the fame bottorii as the throne of him who lives and
reigns forever.
. Before wre finiffi this feftion, it may be fit to obferve,
that as the Deity is the fupreme and inexhaufted
' fource of good, on whom the happinefs of the whole
creation depends j as he is the higheft objeft in nature,
and the only objeft who is fully proportioned to the in-
telleftual and moral porversofthe mind, in whom they
ultimately reft, and find their moft perfeft exercife and
completion } he is therefore termed the Chief good of
i?ian, objeftively confidered. And virtue, or the pro¬
portioned and vigorous exercife of the feveral powers
and affeftions on their refpeftive objefts, as above de-
feribed, is, in the fchools, termed the chief good, formal¬
ly confidered, or its formal idea, being the inward tem¬
per and native conftitution of human happinefs.
From the detail we have gone through, the following
corollaries may be -deduced.
1. It is evident, that the happinefs of fuch a pro-
grejjive creature as man can never be at a ftand, or
continue a fixed invariable thing. His finite nature,
let it rife ever fo high, admits ftill higher degrees of
improvement and perfeftion. And his progreffion in
improvement or virtue always makes way for a pro¬
greffion in happinefs. So that no poffible point can
be afligned in any period of his exiftence in which he
ia perfeftly happy, that is, fo happy as to exclude high¬
er degrees of happinefs. All his perfeftion is only
comparative. 2. It appears that many things muft
confpire to complete the happinefs of fo various a
creature as man, fubjeft to fo many wrants, and fuf-
ceptible of fuch different pleafures. 3. As his capaci¬
ties of pleafure cannot be all gratified at the fame
4
MORAL PHILOSOPHY. part n,
time, and muft often interfere with each other in fuch Duties of
a precarious and fleeting ftate as human life, or be Societn
frequently difappointed, perfeft happinefs, i. e. the
undifturbed enjoyment of the feveral pleafures of
which we are capable, is unattainable in our prefent
ftate. 4. That ftate is moft to be fought after, in
which the feweft competitions and dilappointments
can happen, which leait of all impairs any fenfe of
pleafure, and opens an inexhaufted fouree of the moft
refined and lalting enjoyments. 5. That ftate which
is attended with all thofe advantages, is a ftate or
courfe of virtue. 6. Therefore, a ftate of virtue, in
which the moral goods of the mind are attained, is the
happief fate.
Chap. III. c/"Society.
Sect. I. Filial and Fraternal Duty.
As wre have followed the order of nature in tracing
the hiftory of man, and thofe duties which he owes to
himfelf, it feems reafonable to take the fame method
with thofe he owes to fociety, which conftitute the
fecond clafs of his obligations.
His parents are among the earlieft objefts of his at- Connexion
tenlion 5 he becomes fooneft acquainted with them, of parents,
repofes a peculiar confidence in them, and feems to
regard them with a fond affeftion, the early progno-
ftics of his future piety and gratitude. Thus does nature
diftate the firft lines of filial duty, even before a juft
fenfe of the connexion is formed. But when the child
is grown up, and has attained to fuch a degree of un-
derftanding, as to comprehend the moral tie, and be
fenfible of the obligations he is under to hfs parents j
when he looks back on their tender and difinterefted
affeftion, their inceffant cares and labours in nurfing,
educating, and providing for him, during that ftate in
which he had neither prudence nor ftrength to care
and provide for himfelf, he muft be confcious that he
owes to them thefe peculiar duties.
1. To reverence and honour them, as the inftruments Duties to
of nature in introducing him to life, and to that ftate parents,
of comfort and happinefs which he enjoys $ and there¬
fore to efleem and imitate their good qualities, to al¬
leviate and bear with, and fpread, as much as poffible,
a decent veil over their faults and weaknefles.
2. To be highly grateful to them, for thofe favours
which it can hardly ever be in his power fully to re¬
pay j to flrow this gratitude by a ftrift attention to
their wants, and a felicitous care to fupply them ; by
a fubmiflive deference to their authority and advice,
efpecially by paying great regard to it in the choice of
a wife, and of an occupation j by yielding to, rather
than peeviflrly contending with, their humours, as re¬
membering how oft they have been perfecuted by his 5
and, in fine, by foothing their cares, lightening their
forrows, fupporting the infirmities of age, and making
the remainder of their life as comfortable and joyful as
pofiible.
As his brethren and fifters are the next with whom Duties to
the creature forms a facial and moral connexion, to '’rel^ren
them he owes a fraternal regard j and with theman^ ^ers‘
ought he. to enter into a ftrift league of friendfhip,
mutual fympathy, advice, affiftance, and a generous
intercourfe of kind offices, remembering their relation
to
irt II.
MORAL PH
ities of to common parents, and that brotherhood of nature
>ciety- which unites them into a clofer community of iatereil
and affection.
Sect. II. Concerning Marriage.
1132
Oancxion
\fli the
)tt;r fex.
g;|iands of
^5 COH-
ndon.
1 *34
■jlbral ends
^mar-
*ge.
When man arrives to a certain age, he becomes
fenfible of a peculiar fympathy and tendernefs towards
the other fex 5 the charms of beauty engage his atten¬
tion, and call forth new and fofter difpofitions than
he has yet felt. The many amiable qualities exhibit¬
ed by a fair outfide, or by the mild allurement of fe¬
male manners, or which the prejudiced fpe£lator with¬
out much rcafoning fuppofes thofe to include, with
feveral other circumltances both natural and accident¬
al, point his view and affeftion to a particular ob-
jeft, and of courfe contraft that general rambling re¬
gard, which was loft and ufelefs among the undiftin-
guilhed crowrd, into a peculiar and permanent attach¬
ment to one woman, which ordinarily terminates in the
moft important, venerable, and delightful connexion in
life.
The ftate of the brute creation is very different from
that of human creatures. The former are clothed
and generally armed by their ftrufture, eafily find
what is neceffary to their fubfiftence, and foon attain
their vigour and maturity ; fo that they need the
care and aid of their parents but for a ftrort while ;
and therefore we fee that nature has aftigned to them
vagrant and tranfient amours. The connexion being
purely natural, and merely for propagating and rear¬
ing their offspring, no fooner is that end anfwered,
than the connexion diffolves of courfe. But the hu¬
man race are of a more tender and defencelefs confti-
tution *, their infancy and non-age continue longer ;
they advance flowly to ftrength of body and maturi¬
ty of reafon ; they need conftant attention, and a long
feries of cares and labours, to train them up to de¬
cency, virtue, and the various arts of life. Nature has
therefore, provided them with the moft affectionate
and anxious tutors, to aid their weaknefs, to fupply
their wants, and to accomplifh them in thofe neceffary
arts, even their own parents, on whom ftie has devolved
this mighty charge, rendered agreeable by the moft al¬
luring and powerful of all ties, parental affection. But
unlefs both concur in this grateful talk, and continue
their joint labours, till they have reared up and planted
out their young colony, it muft become a prey to every
rude invader, and the purpofe of nature in the original
union of the human pair be defeated. Therefore our
ftrutfture as well as condition is an evident indication,
that the human fexes are deftined for a more intimate,
for a moral and lafting union. It appears likewife,
that the principal end of marriage is not to propagate
and nurfe up an offspring, but to educate and form minds
for the great duties and extenfive deftinations of life.
Society muft be fupplied from this original nurfery
with ufeful members, and its faireft ornaments and fup~
ports.
The mind is apt to be diffipated in its views and
afts of friendfhip and humanity j unlefs the former be
direfted to a particular object, and the latter employ¬
ed in a particular province. When men once indulge
in this diffipation, there is no flopping their career •,
they grow infenlible to moral attractions 3 and, by ob-
ILOSOPHY. 381
ftruCling or impairing the decent and regular exer- Duties of
cife of the tender and generous feelings of the human Society.
heart, they in time become unqualified for, or averfe
to, the forming a moral union of fouls, which is the
cement of fociety, and the fource of the pureit do*
meftic joys. Whereas a rational, undepraved love,
and its fair companion, marriage, colled a man’s views,
guide his heart to its proper objeCt, and, by confining
his affeCtion to that objeCt, do really enlarge its in¬
fluence and ufe. Befides, it is but too evident from
the conduCt of mankind, that the common ties of hu¬
manity are too feeble to engage and intereft the paf-
fions of the generality in the affairs of fociety. The
connexions of neighbourhood, acquaintance, and gene¬
ral intercourfe, are too wide a field of aCtion for many,
and thofe of a 'public or community are fo for more \
and in which they either care not or know not how to
exert themfelves. Therefore nature, ever wife and be¬
nevolent, by implanting that ftrong fympathy which
reigns between the individuals of each fex, and by
urging them to form a particular moral connexion, the
fpring of many domeftic endearments, has meafured out
to each pair a particular fphere of aElion, proportioned
to their views, and adapted to their refpeCtive capaci¬
ties. Befides, by interelting them deeply in the con¬
cerns of their own little circle, fhe has connected them
more clofely with fociety, which is compofed of parti¬
cular families, and bound them down to their good be¬
haviour in that particular community to which they be¬
long. This moral connexion is marriage, and tMis.fphere
of a cl ion is ■a family. T
Of the conjugal alliance the following are the natu- Duties of
ral laws. Firit, Mutual fidelity to the marriage bed. marriage.
Difloyalty defeats the very end of marriage } diffolves
the natural cement of the relation j weakens the moral
tie, the chief ftrength of which lies in the reciprocation
of affeCtion ; and by making the offspring uncertain,
diminifhes the care and attachment neceffary to their
education.
2. A confpiration of counfels and endeavours to pro¬
mote the common intereft of the family, and to educate
their common offspring. In order to obferve thefe
laws, it is neceffary to cultivate, both before and during
the married ftate, the ftrifteft decency and chaftity of
manners, and a juft fenfe of what becomes their refpec-
tive characters.
3. The union muft be inviolable, and for life. The
nature of friendftiip, and particularly of this fpecies of
it, the education of their offspring, and the order of
fociety and of fucceflxons, which would other wife be
extremely perplexed, do all feem to require it. To
preferve this union, and render the matrimonial ftate
more harmonious and comfortable, a mutual efteem .
and tendernefs, a mutual deference and forbearance,
a communication of advice, and affiftance and autho¬
rity, are abfolutely neceffary. If either party keep
rvithin their proper departments, there need be no
difputes about power or fuperiority, and there will be
none. They have no oppofte no feparate interefts, and
therefore there can be no juft ground for oppofition of
conduft. .
From this detail, and the prefent ftate of things, in Polygamy,
which there is pretty near a parity of numbers of both
fexes, it is evident that polygamy is an unnatural Hate 5
and though it ihould be granted to be more fruitful
of
382 MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Duties o( 0f children, 'which however it is not found to be, yet
, Souety. ^ jj. js no f0 for rearing minds, which feems
to be as touch, if not more, the intention of nature than
the propagation of bodies.
Part II.
*37.
Connexion
of parents
and chil¬
dren.
*3*
The autho¬
rity fbund-
•ed on that
connexion.
*39
Duties of
parents.
140
Jiducation.
Sect. III. Of Parental Duty.
The connexion of parents with their children is a
natural confequence of the matrimonial connexion ;
and the duties which they owe them rcfult as natural¬
ly from that connexion. The feeble Hate of children,
fubjedt to fo many wants and dangers, requires their
inceffant care and attention ; their ignorant and uncul¬
tivated minds demand their continual inflrudfion and
culture. Had human creatures come into the world
with the full ftrength of men, and the weaknefs of rea-
fon and vehemence of paflions which prevail in chil-
dreny they would have been too flrong or too ftubborn
to have fubmitted to the government and inftrudlion of
their parents. But as they were defigned for a progref-
fion in knowledge and virtue, it was proper that the
growth of their bodies fhould keep pace with that of
their minds, left the purpofes of that progreftion (hould
have been defeated. Among other admirable purpofes
which this gradual expanfion of their outward as well
as inward ftrudture ferves, this is one, that it affords
ample fcope to the exercife of many tender and gene¬
rous affedlions, which fill up the domeftic life with a
beautiful variety of duties and enjoyments ; and are of
courfe a noble difcipline for the heart, and a hardy kind
of education for the more honourable and important
duties of public life.
The above-mentioned xveak and ignorant ftate of
children feems plainly to inveft their parents with fuch
authority and power as is neceffary to their fupport,
proteftion, and education \ but that authority and
power can be conftrued to extend no farther than is
neceffary to anfwer thofe ends, and to laft no longer
than that w'eaknefs and ignorance continue ; -wherefore,
the foundation or reafon of the authority and power
ceafing, they ceafe of courfe. Whatever power or au¬
thority then it may be neceffary or lawful for parents to
exercife during the non-age of their children, to affume
or ufurp the fame when they have attained the maturity
or full exereife of their ftrength and reafon would be ty¬
rannical and unjuft. From hence it is evident, that pa¬
rents have no right to punifti the perfons of their chil¬
dren more feverely than the nature of their wardfhip
requires, much lefs to invade their lives, to encroach
upon their liberty, or transfer them as their property to
any mafter whatfoever.
The firft clafs of duties which parents owe their chil¬
dren refpedl their natural life \ and thefe comprehend
proteftion, nurture, provifion, introducing them into
the world in a manner fuitable to their rank and for¬
tune, and the like.
The fecond order of duties regards the intelleBual
and moral life of their children, or their education in
fuch arts and accompliftiments as are neceffary to qua¬
lify them for performing the duties they owe to them-
felves and to others. As this was found to be the prin¬
cipal defign of the matrimonial alliance, fo the fulfil¬
ling that defign is the mofi: important and dignified of
all the parental duties. In order therefore to fit the
child for a£Hng his -part wifely and worthily as a
3
man, as a citizen, and a creature of God, both parents Duties of
ought to combine their joint wifdom, authority, and Society,
power, and each apart to employ thofe talents which *
are the peculiar excellency and ornament of their re-
fpedlive fex. The father ought to lay out and fuperin-
tend their education, the mother to execute and ma¬
nage the detail of which fhe is capable. The former
fhould direft the manly exertion of the intelle61ual and
moral powers of his child. His imagination, and the
manner of thofe exertions, are the peculiar province
of the latter. The former fhould advife, protect, com¬
mand, and, by his experience, mafculine vigour, and
that fuperior authority which is commonly afcribed
to his fex, brace and ftrengthen his pupil for aBive
life, for gravity, integrity, and firmnefs in fuffering.
The bufinefs of the latter is to bend and foften her
male pupil, by the charms of her converfation, and
the foftnefs and decency of her manners, for facial life,
for politenefs of tafte, and the elegant decorums and
enjoyments of humanity ; and to improve and refine
the tendernefs and modefty of her female pupil, and
form her to all thofe mild domeftic virtues which are
the peculiar charafteriftics and ornaments of her fex :
To conduct the opening minds of their fweet charge
through the feveral periods of their progrefs, to af-
fift them in each period, in throwing out the latent
feeds of reafon and ingenuity, and in gaining frefh ac-
ceffions of light and virtue 5 and at length, with all
thefe advantages, to produce the young adventurers
upon the great theatre of human life, to play their
feveral parts in the fight of their friends, of fociety,
and mankind.
Sect. IV. Herile and Servile Duty.
141
In the natural courfe of human affairs, it muft necef- The ground
farily happen that fome of mankind will live in plenty of this con-
and opulence, and others be reduced to a ftate of in-r,ex*«n*
digence and poverty. The former need the labours
of the latter, and the latter provifion and fupport of
the former. This mutual neceffxty is the foundation
of that connexion, whether we call it moral or civil,
which fubfifts between mafters and fervants. He who
feeds another has a right to fome equivalent, the labour 143
of him whom he maintains, and the fruits of it. And The contii-
he who labours for another has a right to expect thattI0ns
• ox "V1CC#
he fliould fupport him. But as the labours of a man of
ordinary ftrength are certainly of greater value than
mere food and clothing \ becaufe they would actually
produce more, even the maintenance of a family, were
the labourer to employ them in his own behalf 5 there¬
fore he has an undoubted right to rate and difpofe of
his fervice for certain wages above mere maintenance $
and if he has incautioufly difpofed of it for the latter
only, yet the contrail being of the onerous kind, he
may equitably claim a fupply of that deficiency. If
the fervice be fpecified, the fervant is bound to that
only ; if not, then he is to be conftrued as bound only
to fuch fervices as are confiftent with the laws of juftice
and humanity. By the voluntary fervitude to which
he fubjedls himfelf, he forfeits no rights but fuch as
are neceffarily included in that fervitude, and is ob¬
noxious to no puniftiment but fuch as a voluntary
failure in the fervice may be fuppofed reafonably to
require. The offspring of fuch fervants have a right to
that
lartll. MORAL PH
Lties of that liberty which neither they nor their parents have
■Society, forfeited.
I—v ' As to thofe who, becaufe of fome heinous ottence,
‘4a3fe of or for fome notorious damage, for which they cannot
lat offen-otherwife compenfhte, are condemned to perpetual fer-
irs. vice, they do not, on that account, forfeit all the rights
of men 5 but thofe, the lofs of which is neceffary to fe-
cure fociety againft the like offences for the future, ©r
to repair the damage they have done. . #
« I448 of With regard to captives taken in war, it is barba-
iptives? ° rous and inhuman to make perpetual flaves of them, un-
lefs fome peculiar and aggravated circumfiances or
guilt have attended their hoftility. Ihe bulk of the
fubjeas of any government engaged in war may be
fairly efteemed innocent enemies } and therefore they
have a right to that clemency which is confident with
the common fafety of mankind, and the particular fe-
curity of that fociety againft which they are engaged.
Though ordinary captives have a grant of theii lives,
yet to pay their liberty as an equivalent is much too
high a price. There are other ways of acknowledging
or returning the favour, than by furrendering what is
* Hut chef, far dearer than life itfelf *. I o thofe who, under pretext
Jlbr. Injl. of the neceflities of commerce, drive the unnatural trade
J&//. lib. iii.0f bargaining for human flefh, and configning their in-
nocent but unfortunate fellow creatures to eternal fer-
vitude and mifery, we may addrels the words of a fine
writer ^ lt Let avarice defend it as it will, there is an
honeft relu&ance in humanity againft buying and fell¬
ing, and regarding thofe of our own fpecies as our
wealth and polTetTions.”
Sect. V. Social Duties of the private Kind.
Hitherto we have confidered only the domejlic econo¬
mical duties, becaufe thefe are firft in the progrefs of
nature. But as man palfes beyond the little circle of
a family, he forms connexions with relations, filends,
neighbours, and others ; from whence refults a new
train of duties of the more private focial kind, as
“ friendftiip, chaftity, courtefy, good neighbourhood,
| charity, forgivenefs, hofpitality.”
Ian’s apti- Man is admirably formed for particular focial at-
’[de for fo-tachments and duties. There is a peculiar and ftrong
hfy. propenfity in his nature to be affected with the fenti-
ments and difpofitions of others. Men, like certain
mufical inftruments, are fet to each other, fo that the
vibrations or notes excited in one raife correfpondent
notes and vibrations in the others. The impulfes of
pleafure or pain, joy or forrow, made on one mind, are
by an inftantaneous fympathy of nature communicated
in fome degree to all 5 efpecially when hearts are (as
a humane writer expreffes it) in unifoti of kindnefs }
the joy that vibrates in one communicates to the other
alfo. We may add, that though joy thus imparted
fwells the harmony, yet grief vibrated to the heart of
a friend, and rebounding from thence in fympathetic
notes, melts as it were, and almoft dies away. All
the paflions, but efpecially thofe of the focial kind,
are contagious } and when the paffions of one man
mingle with thofe of another, they increafe and mul¬
tiply prodigioufly. There is a moft moving eloquence
in the human countenance, air, voice, and gefture,
wonderfully expreflive of the molt latent feelings and
paflions of the foul, which darts them like a fubtle
ILOSOPHY. 383
flame into the hearts of others, and raifes correfpon- Duties of
dent feelings there : friendftiip, love, good humour,, 0Clf’ty' ,
joy, fpread through every feature, and particularly *
(hoot from the eyes their fofter and fiercer fires with
an irrefiftible energy. And in like manner the oppo-
fite paffions of hatred, enmity, ill humour, melancholy,
diffufe a fullen and faddening air over the face, and,
fl a filing from eye to eye, kindle a train of fimilar paf¬
fions. By thefe, and other admirable pieces of ma¬
chinery, men are formed for fociety and the delightful
interchange of friendly fentiments and duties, to increafe
the happinefs of others by participation, and their own
by rebound j and to diminifti, by dividing, the common
flock of their mifery. M6
The firft emanations of the /oc-m/principle beyond Duties an-
the bounds of a family lead us to form a nearer con-^S™^
junction of friendftiip or good will with thofe who are[ation>
anywife connected with us by blood or domejlic al¬
liance. To them our affe&ion does commonly exert
itfelf in a greater or lefs degree, according to the
nearnefs or diftance of the relation. And this pro¬
portion is admirably fuited to the extent .of our powers
and the indigence of our ftate j for it is only within
thofe leffer circles of confanguinity or alliance that
the generality of mankind are able to difplay their a-
bilities or benevolence, and confequently to uphold
their connexion with fociety, and fubferviency to a
public intereft. Therefore it is our duty to regard
thefe clofer connexions as the next department to that
of a family, in which nature has marked out for us a
fphere of a&ivity and ufefulnefs; and to cultivate the
kind affe&ions which are the cement of thefe endear¬
ing alliances. - _ #
Frequently the view of diftinguiftiing moral quali- ingfedienti
ties in fome of our acquaintance may give birth tooffriend-
that more noble connexion we call FRIENDSHIP, which ^hp.
is far fuperior to the alliances of confanguinity. For
thefe are of a fuperficial, and often of a tranfitory na¬
ture, of which as they hold more of inf in £1 thin of rea-
fon, we cannot give fuch a rational account. But
friendfhip derives all its ftrength and beauty, and the
only exiftence which is durable, from the qualities of
the heart, or from virtuous and lovely difpofitions.
Or, ftiould thefe be wanting, they or fome fhadow of
them muft be fuppofed prefent.—Therefore friendjhip
may be defcribed to be, “ The union of two fouls by¬
means of virtue, the common objeft and cement of
their mutual affe&ion.” Without virtue, or the fup-
pofition of it, friendftiip is only a mercenary league, an
alliance of intereft, which muft diffolve of courfe when
that intereft decays or fubfifts no longer. It is not fo
much any particular paflion, as a compofition of fome
of the nobleft feelings and paflions of the mind. Good
fenfe, a juf tafe and love of virtue, a thorough candour
and benignity of heart, or what we ufually call a good
temper, and a generous fympathy of fentiments and
affe&ions, are the neceffary ingredients of this virtuous
connexion. When it is grafted on efteem, {Lengthen¬
ed by habit, and mellowed by time, it yields infinite
pleafure, ever new and ever growing •, is a noble fup-
port amidft the various trials and vicitlitudes of life, and
a high feafoning to moft of our other enjoyments.—•
To form and cultivate virtuous friendftiip, muft be
very improving to the temper, as its principal objeEl
is virtue, fet off with all the allurement of countenance.
3^4
Duties of
Society,
148
Its duties.
M9
Love and
chaftity.
* See Sedt,
ii. of this
chapter.
ait, and manners, fhining forth in the native graces
; manly honeft fentiments and affedlions, and ren¬
dered vifibte as it were to the friendly fpe61ator in
a conduif unafFeftedly great and good j and as its
ptincipal exercifes are the very energies of virtue, or
its. eiTeet and emanations. So that wherever this
amiable attachment prevails, it aviII exalt our admira¬
tion and attachment to virtue, and unlefs impeded in
its courfe by unnatural prejudices, run out into a
friendlhip to the human race. for as no one can
merit, and none ought to ufurp, the facred name
of friend, who hates mankind 5 lo whoever truly loves
them, pojTefics the moft elTential quality of a true
friend.
1 he duties of friendlhip are a mutual efteem of each
other, unbribed by interefl, and independent of it j a
generous confidence, as far dillant from fufpicion as
from rel'erve; an inviolable harmony of fentiments and
difpofitions, of defigns and interefts *, a fidelity unlha-
ken by the changes of fortune \ a conltancy unalterable
by didance of time or place j a refignationof one’s per-
ional interelf to thofe of one’s friend, and a recipro¬
cal, unenvious, unreferved exchange of kind offices. 
But, amidlt all the exertions of this moral connection,
humane and generous as it is, we mult remember that
it operates within a narrow Iphere, and its immediate
operations refpedt only the individual; and therefore
its particular impulfes mult ftill be fubordinate to a
more public interelf, or be always directed and con¬
trolled by the more extenfive connexions of our na¬
ture.
When our friendlhip terminates on any of the other
fex, in whom beauty or agreeablenefs of perfon and
external gracefulnefs of manners confpire to exprefs
and heighten the moral charm of a tender honelt heart,
and fweet, ingenuous, modelt temper, lighted up by
good ienfe; it generally grows into a more foft and
endearing attachment. \\ hen this attachment is im¬
proved by a growing acquaintance with the worth of
its object,. is conduced by diferetion, and iflues at
length, as it ought to do, in the moral connexion for-
. merly mentioned*, it becomes the fource of many
amiable duties, of a communication of paffions and in-
terelfs, of the molt refined decencies, and of a thou-
fand namelefs deep-felt joys of reciprocal tendernefs
and love, flovying from every look, word, and atfion.
Here friendfhip abls with double energy, and the na¬
tural confpires with the moral charms to Ifrengthen
and fecure the love of virtue. As the delicate nature
of female honour and decorum, and the inexprelfible
grace of a chalfe and modelt behaviour are the furelf
and indeed the only means of kindling at firlf, and ever
after of keeping alive, this tender and elegant flame,
and of accomplifhing the excellent ends defigned by
it; to attempt by fraud to violate one, or, under pre¬
tence of paffion, to fully and corrupt the other, and,
by fo doing, to expofe the too often credulous and un¬
guarded object, with a wanton cruelty, to the hatred
ot her own fex and the fcorn of ours, and to the
loweft infamy of both, is a conduft not only bafe and
criminal, but inconfiftent with that truly rational and
refined enjoyment, the fpirit and quinteffence of which
are derived from the balhful and facred charms of virtue
kept untainted, and therefore ever allurine to the lover’s
heart.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Part II
Courtefy, good neighbourhood, affability, and the like Untie. ot'
duties, which are founded on our private focial con- Society,
nexions, are no Id’s necelfary and obligatory to crea- ^
tures united to fociety, and fupporting and fupport-
ed by each other in a chain of mutual want and de-good ''
pendence. Ihey do not confiit in a fmooth addrefs, neighbour,
an artificial or obfequious air, fawning adulations or hood»
a polite fervility of manners ; but in a juft and mo-
deft fenfe of our own dignity and that of others,
and of the reverence due to mankind, efpecially to
thofe who hold the higher links of the focial chain ;
in a difereet and manly accommodation of ourfelves
to the foibles and humours of others; in a ftrid ob-
fervance of the rules of decorum and civility; but,
above all, in a frank obliging carriage, and generous
interchange of good deeds rather than words. Such a
conduct is of great ufe and advantage, as it is an excel¬
lent fecurity againft injury, and the beft claim and re¬
commendation to the efteem, civility, and univerfal re-
fpeft of mankind. This inferior order of virtues unites
the particular members of fociety more clofely, and
forms the leffer pillars of the civil fabric ; which, in
many inftances, fupply the unavoidable defers of laws,
and maintain the harmony and decorum of focial inter-
courfe, where the more important and effential lines of
virtue are wanting. ’
Charity and forgivenefs are truly amiable and ufe-Chanty,
ful duties of the focial kind. There is a twofold di-fergiveneft,
ftin&ion of rights commonly taken notice of by moral
writers, viz. perfett and imperfett. To fulfil the for¬
mer, is neceflary to the being and fupport of fociety ;
to fulfil the latter, is a duty equally facred and obliga-
tory, and tends to the improvement and profperity of
fociety ; but as the violation of them is not equally pre- v
judicial to the public good, the fulfilling them is not
fubje&ed to the cognizance of law, but left to the can¬
dour, humanity, and gratitude of individuals. And by
this means ample fcope is given to exercife all the ge-
nerofity, and difplay the genuine merit and luftre, of
virtue. I hus the wants and misfortunes of others call
for our charitable affiftance and feafonable fupplies.
And the good man, unconftrained by law, and uncon¬
trolled by human authority, will cheerfully acknow¬
ledge and generoufly fatisfy this mournful and moving
claim ; a claim fupported by the fandlion of heaven,
©f whofe bounties he is honoured to be the grateful
truftee. If his own pcrfeEi rights are invaded by the
injnftice of others, he will not therefore rejeft their
imperfeEl right to pity and forgivenefs, unlefs his grant
of thefe fhould be inconfiftent with the more exten¬
five rights of fociety, or the public good. In that cafe
he will have recourfe to public juftice and the laws,
and even then he will profecute the injury with no un-
neceffary feverity, but rather with mildnefs and hu¬
manity. When the injury is merely perfonal, and of .
fuch a nature as to admit of alleviations, and the for¬
givenefs of which would be attended with no worfe
confequences, efpecially of a public kind, the good
man will generoufly forgive his offending brother.
And it is his duty to do fo, and not to take private re¬
venge, or retaliate evil for evil. For though refent-
ment of injury is a natural paflion, and implanted, as
was obfervedf above, for wife and good ends; yet,fSeePattL
confidering the manifold partialities which moft men chap. ii.
have for themfelves, was every one to a<ft as judgeandiv-
m
til.
ar
)uties of
society.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
385
I 152 _
iofpitali-
s.
in lus own caufe, and to execute the fentence dila¬
ted by his own refentment, it is but too evident that
mankind would pafs all bounds in their fury, and the
lait fufierer be provoked in his turn to make full re-
prifals. So that evil, thus encountering with evil,
would produce one continued feries of violence and
miiery, and render fociety intolerable, if not imprac¬
ticable. t herefore, where the fecurity of the indivi¬
dual, or the good of the public, does not require a
proportionable retaliation, it is agreeable to the general
la w of benevolence, and to the particular end of the
patiion (which is to prevent injury and the mifery oe-
calioned by it), to forgive perfonal injuries, or not to
return evil for evil. This duty is one of the noble re¬
finements which Chrijlinnity has made upon the gene¬
ral maxims and practice of mankind, and enforced,
with a peculiar ftrength and beauty, by fanftions no
lefs alluring than awful. And indeed the practice of it
is generally its own reward 5 by expelling from the mind
the moft dreadful intruders upon its repofe, thofe ran¬
corous paflions which are begot and nurfed by refent¬
ment, and by difarming and even fubduing every enemy
one has, except fuch as have nothing left of men but the
outward form.
The moft enlarged and humane connexion of the
private kind feems to be the hofpitable alliance, from
which flow the amiable and difinterefted duties wre
owe to ftrangers. If the exercife of paftlons of the
moft private and inltindtive kind is beheld with moral
approbation and delight, how lovely and venerable
muft thofe appear which refult from a calm philan¬
thropy, are founded in the common rights and con¬
nexions of fociety, and embrace men, not of a par¬
ticular fe£t, party, or nation, but all in general without
diftindtion, and without any of the little partialities of
felf-ibve.
Sect. VI. Social Duties of the Commercial Kind.
153 _ ;
itsuner- The next order of connexions are thofe which arife
■d duties, from the wants and weaknefs of mankind, and from the
various circumdances in which their different fituations
place them. Thefe we may caW. commercial connections,
and the duties which refult from them commercial du¬
ties, as ju/lice, fair-dealing, Jincerity,fidelity to compacts,
154 and the like.
"heir foun- Though nature is perfedt in all her works, yet fhe
has obferved a manifeft and eminent diftindtion among
them. To all fuch as lie beyond the reach of human
fkill and power, and are properly of her own depart¬
ment, fhe has given the finifhing hand. Thefe man
may defign after and imitate, but he can never rival
them, nor add to their beauty or perfedfion. Such are
the forms and ftrudhire of vegetables, animals, and
many of their produdtions, as the honey comb, the
fpider’s web, and the like. There are others of her
works which (he has of defign left unfinifhed, as it
wrere, in order to exercife the ingenuity and power
of man. She has prefented to him a rich profufion of
materials of every kind for his conveniency and ufe j
but they are rude and unpoliftied, or not to be come
at without art and labour. Thefe therefore he muft
apply, in order to adapt them to his ufe, and to enjoy
them in perfedtion. Thus nature hath given him an
anfinite variety of herbs, grains, foflils, minerals, woods,
Vol. XIV. Part I.
wion.
water, earth, air, and a thoufand other crude mate- TJutie- of
rials, to fupply his numerous wants. But he uiuit low, v~°ciery- ^
plant, dig, refine, polith, build, and, in Ihort, nvanu v
fadture the various produce of nature, in order to
obtain even the neceffaries, and much more the
conveniences and elegancies of life. Thefe then
are the price of his labour and induftry, and, without
that, nature will fell him nothing. But as the wants
of mankind are many, and the fingle ftrength of indi¬
viduals fmall, they could hardly find the neceffaries,
and much lefs the conveniences of life, without unit¬
ing their ingenuity and ftrength in acquiring thefe, and
without a mutual intercourfe of good offices. Some
men are better formed for fome kinds of ingenuity
and labour, and others for other kinds ; and differ¬
ent foils and climates are enriched with different pro-
duftions j fo that men, by exchanging the produce of
their refpedtive labours, and fupplying the wants of
one country with the fuperfluities of another, do in
eftedl diminifh the labours of each, and incrcafe the
abundance of all. T his is the foundation of all com¬
merce, or exchange of commodities and goods, one
with another ; in order to facilitate which, men
have contrived different fpecies of coin, or money,
as a common ftandard by which to eftimate the
comparative values of their refpeflive goods. But
to render commerce fure and effcdfual, juftice, fair¬
dealing, Jincerity, and fidelity to compa&s, are abfolutely
neceffary. t
Jufiice or fair-dealing, or, in other word.'-, a dif-Juftice ;
pofition to^ treat others as we would be treated by
them, is a virtue of the firft importance, and infepa-
rable from the virtuous charadfer. It is the cement of
fociety, or that pervading fpirit which conned!* its
members, infpires its various relations, and maintains
the order and fubordination of each part of the whole.
Without it, fociety would become a den of thieves and
banditti, hating and hated, devouring and devoured, by
one another.
And here it may be proper to take a view of Mr
Hume’s fuppofed cafe of the fenfible knave and the
worthlefs mifer (N° 16), and confider what would be
the duty of the former according to the theory of thofe
moralifts who hold the will of God to be the criterion
or rule, and everlafiing happinefs the motive of human
virtue. x
It has been already obferved, and the truth of the univerfally
obfervation cannot be controverted, that, by fecretly a duty on
purloining from the coffers of a mifer, part of that t^ie P™*1-
gold which there lies ufelefs, a man might in parti- ^h^hold0 *
cular circumftances promote the good of fociety, the will of
without doing any injury to a fingle individual: and God to be
it was hence inferred, that, in fuch circumftances, itthe cr^eri"
would be no duty to abftain from theft, were local uti- ^e°f vir“
lity arifing from particular confequences the real crite¬
rion or ftandard of juftice. Very different, however,
is the conclufion which muft be drawn by thofe who
confider the natural tendency of aiffions, if univerfally
performed, as the criterion of their merit or demerit,
in the fight of God. Such philofophers attend, not
to the particular confequences of a fingle a&ion in
any given cafe, but to the general confequences of the
principle from which it flows, if that principle were
univerfally adopted. You cannot (fay they) permit
one a£lion and forbid another, without Ihowing a dif-
3 C ferenc©
386 MOR A L PH
DatuMi of ference between them. The fame fort of actions,
, Societvr , therefore, mutl be generally permitted or generally
forbidden. But were every man allowed to afcertain
for himfelf the circumftances in which the good of fo-
ciety would be promoted, by fecretly abifrafting the
fuperfluous wealth of a worthlefs mifer, it is plain that
no property could be fccure; that all incitements to
indultry would be at once removed j and that, what¬
ever might be the immediate confequences of any par¬
tial ar theft, the general and nccejfary confequences of
the principle by which it was authorized mull foon
prove fatal. Were one man to purloin part of the
riches of a r al mifer, and to confider his conduft as
vindicated by his intention to employ thofe riches in
afls of generolity, another might by the fame fort of
cafuiilry think himfelf authorized to appropriate to
himfelf part of his wealth; and thus theft would
fpread through all orders of men, till fociety were dif-
folved into feparate, hotrile, and favage families, mu¬
tually dreading and fhunning each other. The general
confequences, therefore, of encroaching upon piivate
property tend evidently and violently to univerfal mi-
fery.
On the other hand, indeed, the particular and im¬
mediate confequences of that principle which confi
ders every man’s property as facred, may in fome cafes,
fuch as that fuppofed, be in a fmall degree injurious
to a few tamilies in the neighbourhood of the mifer
and the knave. But that injury can never be of long
duration •, and it is infinitely more than counterbalan¬
ced by the general good confequences of the principle
from which it accidentally refults ; for thefe confe¬
quences extend to all nati >ns and to all ages. With¬
out a facred regard to property, there could neither be
arts nor induftry nor confidence among men, and
happinefs would be for ever banilhed from this world.
But the communication of happinefs being the end
which God had in view when he created the world,
and all men (landing in the fame relation to him, it is
impoffible to fuppofe that he does not approve, and will
not ultimately reward, thofe voluntary actions of which
the natural tendency is to increafe the fnm of human
happinefs *, or that he does not difapprove, and will
not ultimately pimifh, thofe which naturally tend to
aggravate human mifery. The conclufion is, that a
ftriel adherence to the principle of juftice is univerfal-
ly, and in all poflible circnmftances, a duty from which
we cannot deviate without offending our Creator, and
ultimately bringing mifery upon ourfelves.
Sincerity. Sincerity, or veracity, in our words and actions, is
another virtue or duty of great importance to fociety,
being one of the great bands of mutual intercom fe,
and the foundation of mutual trull. Without it, fo¬
ciety would be the dominion of miflruil, jealoufy, and
fraud, and converfution a traffic of lies and diffimula-
tion. It includes in it a conformity of our words
with our fentiments, a correfpondence between our
aflions and difpofitions, a ftrifr regard to truth, and an
irreconcilable abhorrence of falfehood. It does not
indeed require, that we expofe our fentiments indif-
ereetly, or tell all the truth in every cafe •, but certainly
it does not and cannot admit the lead violation of
truth or contradiction to our fentiments. For if thefe
bounds are once puffed, no poffible limit can be affigned
where the violation fhall flop, and no pretence of pri-
3
ILOSOPHY. Part II, 5
vate or public good can poffibly counterbalance the ill rsuties of
confequences of fuch a violation. Society.
Fidelity to promifes, compa&s, and engagements, is v~" ^
likewife a duty of fuel) importance to the fecurity of pijeiitv tt
commerce and interchange of benevolence among premifes,
mankind, that fociety would foon grow intolerable eon,Pi‘£:lt*
without the drift obfervance of it. Hobbes, and i'*c’
others who follow the fame track, have taken a wonder¬
ful deal of pain1 to puzzle this fubjeft, and to make all
the virtues of this fort merely artificial, and not at all
obligatory, antecedent to human conventions. No
doubt compafts fuppofe people who make them •, and
promifes perfons to whom they are made ; and there¬
fore both fuppofe fome fociety, more or lefs, between
thofe who enter into thefe mutual engagements. But
is not a coin pa ft or promife binding, till men have
agreed that they (hull be binding ? or are thev only
binding, becaufe it is our intered to be bound by them,
or to fulfil them ? Do not we highly approve the man
who fulfils them, even though they diould prove to be
againd bis intereif ? and do not we condemn him as
a knave who violates them on that account ? A promife
is a voluntary declaration by words, or by an aftion
equally fignificant, of our refidution to do fomething
in behalf of another, or for his fervice. When it is
made, the perfon who makes it is by all fuppofed un¬
der an obligation to perform it. And he to whom it
is made mav demand the performance as his right.
That perception of obligation is a fimple idea, and is
on the fame footing as our other moral perceptions,
which mav be deferibed by indances, but cannot be
defined. Whether we have a perception of fuch ob¬
ligation quite didinft from the intered, either public
or private, that may accompany the fulfilment of it,
mud be referred to the confcience of every indivi¬
dual. And whether the mere fenfe of that obligation,
apart from its concomitants, is not a fufficient induce¬
ment or motive to keep one’s promife, without having
recourfe to any felfifn principle of our nature, mud
be likewife appealed to the confcience of every honed
man. I
It may, however, be not improper to remark, that Shown O
in this, as in all other indances, our chief good is he duties
combined with our duty. “ Men aft from expefta-
tion. Expeftation is in mod cafes determined by tlje rjty
aflurances and engagements which we receive from of the mo-
others. If no dependence could be placed upon thefe
afiurances, it would be impoffible to know what judge¬
ment to form of many future events, or how to regu¬
late our conduft with refpeft to them. Confidence,
therefore, in promifes, is effential to the intercourfe of
human life, becaufe without it, the greated part of our
conduft would proceed upon chance. But there could
be no confidence in promifes, if men were not obliged
to perform them. Thofe, therefore, who allow not
to the perceptions of the moral fenfe all that autho¬
rity which we attribute to them, mud dill admit the
obligation to perform promifes •, becaufe fuch perform¬
ance may be fhown to be agreeable to the will of
God, in the verv fame manner in which, upon their
principles, we have fhown the uniform praftke of judice
to be fo. ld0
Fair dealing and fidelity to cotnpaSls require that we What thofe
take no advantage of the ignorance, paffion, or inca-duties re-^
pacity of others, from whatever caufe that incapacity 1uire*
arifes }
art ir. MORAL P H
Jutie1. of arifes ;—that tve be explicit and candid in rnatving
iodety. Bargains, iuft and faithful in fulfilling our part of them.
   And if the other party violates his engagements, re-
drefs is to be fought from the laws, or from thofe who
are intruded with the execution of them. In fine, the
commercial virtues and duties require tha»t we not only
do not invade, but maintain the rights, of others •,—
that we be fair and impartial in transferring, bartering,
or exchanging property, whether in goods or fervice 5
and be inviolably'faithful to our word and our en¬
gagements, where the matter of them is not (rimi-
nal, and where they are not extorted by force. See
Promise.
Sect. VII. Social Duties of the Political Kind.
We are now arrived at the laft and higheft order of
duties refpedhng fociety, which refult from the exerciie
of the molt generous and heroic affedtions, and are
161 founded on our molt enlarged connexions.
Ilitical The focial principle in man is of fuch an expanfive
finec- natUre, that it cannot be confined within the circuit
^ of a family, of friends, or a neighbourhood ; it fpreads
into wider fyitems, and draws men into larger confe¬
deracies, communities, and commonwealths. It is in
thofe only that the higher powers of our nature attain
the higheft improvement and perfe£tion of which they
are capable. T hele principles hardly find obje6ts in
the folitary ftate of nature. There the principle of
action rifes no higher at fartheft than natural affeBion
towards one’s offspring. There penonal or family
wants entirely engrofs the creature’s attention and la¬
bour, and allow no leilure, or if they did, no exer-
cife for views and affeftions of a more enlarged kind.
In foiitude all are employed in the fame way, in pro¬
viding for the animal life. And even after their ut-
moft labour and care, Angle and unaided by the in-
duftry of others, they find but a forry fupply of their
wants, and a feeble precarious fecurity againft dan¬
gers from wild beafts ; from inclement Ikies and fea-
fons j from the miftakes or petulant paffions of their
fellow creatures*, from their preference of themfelves
to their neighbours ; and from all the little exorbi-
tancies of felf-love. But m fociety^ the mutual aids
which men give and receive fhorten the labours, of
each, and the combined ftrength and reafon of indivi¬
duals give fecurity and protection to the whole body.
ThereJ is both a variety and fubordination of genius
among mankind. Some are formed to lead and direCt
others, to contrive plans of happinefs for individuals
and of government for communities, to take in a pu¬
blic intereft, invent laws and arts, and fuperinte.nd
their execution, and, in ftiort, to refine and civilize
human life. Others, who have no fuch good heads,
may have as honeft hearts, a truly public fpirit, love
of liberty, hatred of corruption and tyranny, a gene¬
rous fubmiflion to laws, order, and public inftitutions,
and an extenfive philanthropy. And others, who
have none of thofe capacities either of heart or head,
may be well formed for manual exercife and bodily
labour. The former of thefe principles have no fcope
in foiitude, where a man’s thoughts and concerns do
all either centre in himfelf or extend no farther than
a family *, into which little circle all the duty and vir¬
tue of the folitary mortal is crowded. But foeiety
ILOSOPHY. 3S7
fin (is proper objeas and exercifcs for every genius, Duties of
and the nobleft objects and exercifes for the nobleil ^ ^
geniufes, and for the higheft principles in the human
conftitution *, particularly for that warmeft and moft
divine paflion which God hath kindled in our bofoms,
the inclination of doing good, and reverencing our
nature j which may find here both employment and
the moft exquifite (atisfaftion. In fociety, a man has
not only more leifure, but better opportunities, of ap¬
plying his talents with much greater perfedlion and
fuccefs, efpecially as he is furnithed with the joint ad¬
vice and afliftance of his fellow creatures, who are
now more clolely united one with the other, and fuf-
tain a common relation to the fame moral fyftem or
community. This then is an objeft proportioned to
his moft enlarged focial affeftions *, and in ferving it
he finds fcope for the exercife and refinement of hi*
higheft intelleftual and moral powers. Therefore fo¬
ciety, or a fate of civil government, refts on thefe two
principal pillars, “ That in it w-e find fecurity againft:
thofe evils which are unavoidable in foiitude,—and
obtain thofe goods, fome of which cannot be obtain¬
ed at all, and ethers not fo well, in that ftate where
men depend folely on their individual lagacity and in-
duftry.”
From this ftiort detail it appears, that man is a /i)-
cial creature, and formed for a foetal ftate and that
fociety, being adapted to the higher principles and
deftinations of his nature, muft of neceflity be his na¬
tural ftate. ^ _ i6»
The duties fuited to that ftate, and refulting from Political
thofe principles agd deftinations, or, in other words, duties,
from our focial paftions and focial connexions, or re-
lalion to a public fyftem, are, love of our country,
refignation and obedience to the laws, public fpirit, love
of liberty, facrifice of life and all to the public, and the
like. 163
Love of our country, is one of the nobleft paffions Love of
that can warm and animate the human breaft. It in-^ne’s ex¬
cludes all the limited and particular affe&ions to ourtry‘
parents, friends, neighbours, fellow citizens, country¬
men. It ought to direft and limit their more confined
and partial aftions within their proper and natural
bounds, and never let them encroach on thofe facred
and firft regards we owe to the great public to which
we belong. Were we folitary creatures, detached
from the reft of mankind, and without any capacity
of comprehending a public interef, or without affec¬
tions leading us to defire and purfue it, it would not
be our duty to mind it, nor criminal to negleft it. But
as we are parts of the public fyHem, and are not only
capable of taking in large views of its interefts, but by
the ftrongeft affections connefted with it, and prompt¬
ed to take a {hare of its concerns, we are under the
moft facred ties to profeeute its fecurity and welfare
■with the utmoft ardour, efpecially in times of public
trial. This love of our country does not import an at¬
tachment to any particular Ibil, climate, or fpot of
earth, where perhaps we firft drew our breath, though
thofe natural ideas are often affociated with the moral
ones, and, like external figns or fymbols, help to af-
certain and bind them ; but it imports an affe&ion to
that moral fyfem, or community, which is governed
by the fame laws and magiftrates, and whofe feveral
parts are varioufty conne£ted one with the other, and
^ < 3 C 2 all
388 MORAL PH
^Socict 01 Unj^e<^ llPon the bottom of a common interefl. Per-
' , haps indeed every member of the community cannot
comprehend fo large an ob;e£t, eipecially if it extends
through large provinces, and over vail trafts of land j
and itill lefs can he form fuch an idea, if there is no
public, i. e. if all are fubjedf to the caprice and unli¬
mited will of one man ; but the preference the gene¬
rality ihow to their native country, the concern and
longing after it which they exprefs when they have
been long abfent from it; the labours they undertake
and fufferings they endure to fave or ferve it, and
the peculiar attachment they have to their country¬
men, evidently demonffrate that the pafTion is natu¬
ral, and never fails to exert itfelf when it is fairly dif-
engaged from foreign clogs, and is diredfed to its pro¬
per objedf. . Wherever it prevails in its genuine vigour
and extent, it 1 wallows up all fordid and felfifh regards j
it conquers the love of enfe, power, pleafure, and
wealth; nay, when the amiable partialities of friend-
Jhip, gratitude, private affeElion, or regards to a fami-
ly, come in competition with it, it will teach us bravely
to facrifice all, in order to maintain the rights, and
promote or defend the honour and happinefs, of our
164 country.
amfobedi-11 Rtf§nati™ and. obedience to the laws and orders of
ence to the ^ie ^oc*ety which we belong, are political duties
laws, 6cc. neceflary to its very being and fecurity, without which
it muff foon degenerate into a Rate of licentioufnefs and
anarchy. The welfare, nay, the nature of civil fo-
ciety, requires, that there fhould be a fubordination of
orders, or diverfity of ranks and conditions in it
that certain men, or orders of men, be appointed to
fuperintend and manage fuch affairs as concern the
public lafety and happinefs ;—that all have their par¬
ticular provinces afligned them j that fuch a fubordi¬
nation be fettled among them as none of them may
interfere with another 5 and finally, that certain rules
or common meafures of aElion be agreed on, by which
each is to difcharge his refpedlive duty to govern or
be governed, and all may concur in fecuring the order,
and promoting the felicity, of the whole political
body . Thofe rules of aElion are the laws of the com¬
munity •, and thofe different orders are the feveral of¬
ficers or magiftrates appointed by the public to explain
them, and fuperintend or afM in their execution. In
confequence of this fettlement of things, it is the duty
of each individual to obey the laws enadfed ; to fubmit
to the executors of them with all due deference and
homage, according to their refpeaive ranks and dig¬
nity, as to the keepers of the public peace, and the
guardians of public liberty ; to maintain his own rank,
and perform the fundlions of his own ffation, with di¬
ligence, fidelity, and incorruption. The fuperiority
of the higher orders, or the authority with which the
Hate has inverted them, entitle them, efpecially if they
employ their authority well, to the obedience and fub-
miflion of the lower, and to a proportionable honour
and refpedf from all. The fubordination of the lower
ranks, claims protedlion, defence, and fecurity from
the higher. And the laws, being fuperior to all, re¬
quite the obedience and fubmiffion of all, being the
laft refort, beyond which there is no decifion or ap¬
peal.
Public fpirit, heroic ‘zeal, love of liberty, and the
•thenpolitical duties, do, above all others, recommend
r** i
1 L O S O P H Y. part IIt
thofe who pradlife them to the admiration and ho- Duties of
mage of mankind \ becaufe, as they are the offspring
of the nobleft minds, fo are they the patents of the  
greateft bleffing to fociety. Yet, exalted as they are, Foumi tioti
it is only in equal and free governments where they of public
can be exercifed and have their due effedt ; for there’P11^ iove
only does a true public fpirit prevail, and there only 01 libert^
fw public good made the flandard of the civil con- C'
dilution. As the end of lociety is the common mte-
rejl and welfare of the people afibciated, this end muft
of neceffity be \\w fupreme law, or common Jlandard, by
which the particular rules of action of the feveral
members of the fociety towards each other are to be
regulated. But a common interejl can be no other than
that which is the refult of the common reafon or com¬
mon feehogs of all. Private men, or a particular or¬
der of men, have intererts and feelings peculiar to
themfelves, and of which they may be good judges j
but thefe may be feparate from, and often contrary to,
the interefts and feelings of the reft of the fociety j
and therefore they can have no right to make, and
much lefs to impofe, laws on their fellow citizens, in-
confiftent with, and oppofite to, thofe interefts and
thofe feelings. I herefore, a fociety, a government, or
real public, truly worthy the name, and not a confe¬
deracy of banditti, a clan of lawlefs favages, or a band
of Haves under the whip of a mailer, muft be fuch a
one as confifts of freemen, choofing or confenting to
laws themfelves j or, fince it often happens that they
cannot aflemble and act in a colleEhve body, delega¬
ting a fufficient number of reprefentatives, i. e. fuch
a number as ftiail moft fully comprehend, and moft e-
qually reprefent, their common feelings and common inte-
refls, to digeft and vote laws for the conduff and con-
troul of the whole body, the moft agreeable to thofe
common feelings and common interefts.
A fociety thus conftituted by common reafon, and Political
formed on the plan of a common interejl, becomes im- duties of :
mediately an objeft of public attention, public venera-every dti''
tion, public obedience, a public and inviolable attach-zen‘
ment, which ought neither to be feduced by bribes,
nor awed by terrors; an objeft, in fine, of all thofe
e.xtenfive and important duties which arife from fo glo¬
rious a confederacy. To watch over fuch a fyftem •,
to contribute all he can to promote its good by his
reafon, his ingenuity, his ftrengtb, and every other
ability, whether natural or acquired 5 to refill, and,
t° the. utmoft of his power, dc feat every encroachment
upon it, whether carried on by a fecret corruption or
open violence ; and to facrifice his eafe, his wealth, his
power, nay life itfelf, and, what is dearer, ftill, his fa¬
mily and friends, to defend or fave it, is the duty, the
honour, the intereft, and the happinefs of every citi¬
zen 5 it will make him venerable and beloved ivhile he
lives, be lamented and honoured if he falls in fo glori¬
ous a caufe, and tranfmit his name with immortal re¬
nown to the lateft pollerity.
As the People are the fountain of power and au-Ofthe
thority, the original feat ol majefty, the authors ofPe°ple*
laws, and the creators of officers to execute them ; if
they ftiall find the power they have conferred abufed
by their truftees, their majefty violated by tyranny or
by ufurpation, their authority proftituted to fupport
violence or fereen corruption, the laws grown perni¬
cious through accidents unforefeen or unavoidable, or
rendered
■t II.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
3*9
tty to
tod
fays,
rendered xneffe&ual through the infidelity and corrup¬
tion of the executors of them ; then it is their right,
and what is their ri ,ht is their duty, to refume that
delegated power, and call their trultees to an account *,
to refill the ufurpation, and extirpate the tyranny ; to
rellore their fullied majelty and profthuted authority ;
to fufpend, alter, or abrogate thofe laws, and punilh
their unfaithful and corrupt officers. Nor is it the duty
only of the united body 5 but every member of it ought,
according to his refpetlive rank, power, and weight in
the community, to concur in advancing and fupporting
thefe glorious defigns.
Refiftance, therefore, being undoubtedly lawful in
extraordinary emergencies, the quellion, among good
reafoners, can only be with regard to the degree of
neceffity which can jullify refillance, and render it ex¬
pedient or commendable. And here we mull acknow¬
ledge, that, with Mr Hume *, “ we lhall always in¬
cline to their lide that draw the bond of allegiance
very clofe, and who conlider an infringement of it as
the lall refuge in defperate cafes, when the public is
in the higheft danger from violence and tyranny. For
befides the mifchiefs of a civil war, which commonly
attends infurre£lion, it is certain, that where a difpo-
lition to rebellion appears among any people, it is one
chief caufe of tyranny in the ruV?rs, and forces them
into many violent meafures, which, had every one been
inclined to fubmiffion and obedience, they would never
have embraced. Thus the tyrannicide, or affaffination
approved of by ancient maxims, inftead of keeping
tyrants and ufurpers in awe, made them ten times more
fierce and unrelenting 5 and is now juftly abolifhed on
that account by the laws of nations, and univerfally con¬
demned, as a bafe and treacherous method of bringing
to juftice thofe difturbers of fociety.”
Chap. IV. Duty to God.
Of all the relations which the human mind fuftains,
that which fubfilis between the Creator and his crea¬
tures, the fupreme Lawgiver and his JubjeBs, is the
higheft and the beft. This relation arifes from the na¬
ture of a creature in general, and the conjhtution of the
human mind in particular $ the nobleft powers and affec¬
tions of which point to an univerfal Mind, and would be
imperfeft and abortive without fuch a diredlion. How
lame then muft that fyftem of morals be, which leaves
a Deity out of the queftion ! How difconfolate, and how
deftitute of its firmeft fupport!
It does not appear, from any true hiftory or expe¬
rience of the mind’s progrefs, that any man, by any
formal dcduclion of his difcurfive power, ever reafon-
ed himfelf into the belief of a God. Whether fuch a
belief is only feme natural anticipation of foul, or is
derived from father to fon, and from one man to ano¬
ther, in the way of tradition, or is fuggefted to us in
confequence of an immutable law of our nature, on be¬
holding the auguft afpedl and beautiful order of the
univerfe, we will not pretend to determine. What
feems moft agreeable to experience is, that a fenfe of
its beauty and grandeur, and the admirable fitnefs of one
thing to another in its vaft apparatus, leads the mind
neceffarily and unavoidably to a perception of a de/ign,
or of a defgning caufe, the origin of all, by a progrefs
as fimple and natural as that by which a beautiful pic*
i(S8-
Atence
»Rwl.
ture or a fne building fuggefts to us the idea of an ex- Duty to
cellent artift. For it feems to hold univerfally true, that 11()c1' ,
wherever we dilctrn a tendency or co-operation oj things
towards a certain ena, or producing a common effett,
there, by a neceifary law of affectation, we apprehend
de/ign, a dejigning energy or caufe. No matter whether
the objects are natural or artificial, Hill that fuggeftion
is unavoidable, and the connexion between the ejf eB and
its adequate caufe obtrudes itfelf on the mind, and it re¬
quires no nice learch or elaborate deduction of reafon
to trace or prove that connexion. We are particu¬
larly latisfied of its truth in the fubjedl before us by a
kind of direCl intuition j and we do not feem to attend
to the maxim we learn in fchools, “ That there can¬
not be an infinite feries ol caufes and ejfeBs producing
and produced by one another.” That maxim is fami¬
liar only to metaphyficians •, but all men of found un-
derlianding are led to believe the exiftence of a God.
We are confcious of our exifence, of thought, fentiment,
and pafjion, and fenfible withal that thefe came not of
ourfelves j therefore we immediately recognize a parent
mind, an original intelligence, from whom we borrowed
thofe little portions of thought and adlivity. And
while wre not only feel kind affedlions in ourfelves, and
difeover them in others, but likewife behold round us
fuch a number and variety of creatures, endued w ith
natures nicely adjufted to their feveral ftations and
economies, fupporting and fupported by each other,
and all fuftained by a common order of things, and (har¬
ing different degrees of happinefs according to their
refpedlive capacities, W'e are naturally and neceftarily
led up to the Father of fuch a numerous offspring, the
fountain of fuch wide-fpread happinefs. As we con¬
ceive this Being before all, above all, and greater than
all, we naturally, and without reafoning, aferibe to
him every kind of perfection, wifdom, power, and
goodnefs without bounds, exifting through all time,
and pervading all fpaee. We apply to him thofe glo- His relation
rious epithets of our Creator, Preferver, BenefaBor, thet0 t'16
fupreme Lord and Lawgiver of the whole fociety of ra_manmin
tional and intelligent creatures. Not only the imper-
fedlions and wants of our being and condition, but
fome of the nobleft inftindts and affedlions of our
minds, connedl us with this great and univerfal nature.
The mind, in its progrefs from objedl to objedl, from
one charadler and profpeCt of beauty to another, finds
fome blemiffi or deficiency in each, and foon exhaufts
or grows weary and diffatisfied with its fubjeCt ; it
fees no character of excellency among men equal to
that pitch of efieem which it is capable of exerting ;
no objeCt within the compafs of human things ade¬
quate to the ftrength of its affeCtion : nor can it (lay
anywhere in this felf-expanfive progrefs, or find repofe
after its higheft flights, till it arrives at a Being of
unbounded greatnefs and worth, on whom it may em¬
ploy its fublimeft powers without exhaufting the fub-
jeCl, and give fcope to the utmoft force and fulnefs of
its love without fatiety or difguft. So that the nature
of this Being correfponds to the nature of man ; nor
can his intelligent and moral powers obtain their entire
end, but on the fuppofition of fuch a Being, and with¬
out a real fympathy and communication with him.
The native propenfity of the mind to reverence what¬
ever is great and wonderful in nature, finds a proper
ohjeCl of homage in him who fpread out the heavens
and -
*7*
Immorality
of impiety.
. I7t .
Right opi¬
nions of
God.
173
Rational
faitin
and the earth, and who fuftalns and governs iije whole
of things. The admiration of beauty, the love of or¬
der, and (he complacency \\t feel in goodneis, mull rile
to the highelt pitch, and attain the full vigour and p y
of their operations, when they unite in him who is the
fum and fouree of all perfection.
It is evident from the flighteft furvey of morals,
that how punctual foever one may be in performing
the duties which refult from our relations to mankind,
yet to be quite deficient in performing thofe which
arife from our relation to the Almighty, mult argue a
Itrange perverfion of reafon or depravity of heart. If
imperfeCt degrees of worth attraCl our veneration, and
if the want of it would imply an infenfibility, or,
which is worfe, an averfion to merit, what lamenefs
of affeCtion or immorality of character mult it be to
be unaffeCted with, and much more to be ill-affeCted
to, a Being of fuperlative worth 1 To love fociety, or
particular members of it, and yet to have no fenfe of
our connexion with its Head, no affeCtion to our com¬
mon Parent and BenefaCtor ; to be concerned about
the approbation or cenfure of our fellow creatures, and
yet to feel nothing of this kind towards him who fees
and weighs our aCtions with unerring wifdom and
juftice, and can fully reward or punifh them, betrays
equal madnefs and partiality of mind. It is plain,
therefore, beyond all doubt, that fome regards are due
to the great Father of all, in whom every lovely and
adorable quality combines to infpire veneration and
homage.
As it has been obferved already, that our affeElions
depend on our opinions of their objeCts, and generally
keep pace with them, it inuft be of the higheft im¬
portance, and feems to be among the firft duties we
owe to the Author of our being, “ to form the leaf!
imperfeCt, fince we cannot form perfeCl, conceptions
of his charaBer and adminijlration.'" For fuch concep¬
tions, thoroughly imbibed, will render our religion ra¬
tional, and our difpojitions refined. If our opinions are
diminutive and diftorted, our religion will be fuper-
ftitious, and our temper abjeCt. Thus, if we afcribe
to the Deity that falfe majefty which confiiis in the
unben-evolent and fallen exercife of mere willot power,
or fuppcfe him to delight in the proftrations of fervile
fear, or as fervile praife, he will be worfhipped with
mean adulation and a profufion of compliments. Far¬
ther, If he be looked upon as a ftern and implacable
Being, delighting in vengeance, he will be adored with
pompous offerings, facri frees, or whatever elfe may be
thought proper to foothe and mollify him. But if
we believe perfeB goodnefs to be the character of the
fupreme Being, and that he loves thofe moft who re-
femble him molt, the worfhip paid him will be rational
and fublime, ai]d his worfhippers will fetk to pleafe
him by imitating that goodnefs which they adore.
The foundation then of all true religion is a rational
faith. And of a rational faith thefe feem to be the
chief articles, to believe, “that an infinite all-perftCt
Mind exilts, who has no oppofite nor any feparate in-
terelt from that of his creatures : that he fuperintends
and governs all creatures, and things 5—that his good¬
nefs extends to all his creatures, in different degrees
indeed, according to their refpeCtive natures, but with¬
out any partiality or envy :—that he does every thing
for the belt, or in a fubferviency to the perfection and
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Part II
happinefs of the whole 5 particularly that he direCts Duty to
and governs the affairs of men, infpeCts their aCtions, ^ot*-
ditiinguifhes the good from the had, loves and befriends
the former, is dilpleafed with and pities the latter in
thi' world, and will according to their refpeCtive de-
(erts reward one and punilh the other in the next 5  
that, in fine, he is always carrying on a fcheme of vir¬
tue and happinefs through an unlimited duration ; and
is ever guiding the univerfe, through its fuccelfive
Itages and periods, to higher degrees of perfection and
felicity.” 1 his is true Theifm, the glorious fcheme
of divine faith ; a fcheme exhibited in all the works
of God, and executed through his whole adminiltra-
tion.
174.
1 his faith, wrell founded and deeply felt, is nearly Morality sf
connected with a true moral tafe, and hath a powerfultheifin*
efficacy on the temper and manners of the theilt. He
who admires goodnefs in others, and delights in the
praCtice of it, mult be confcious of a reigning order
within, a reCtitude and candour of heart, which dif-
pofes him to entertain favourable apprehenfions of men,
and, from an impartial furvey of things, to prefume
th-at good order zwd good meaning ^revnWm the univerfe j
and if good meaning and good order, then an order¬
ing-, an intending mind, who is no enemy, no tyrant to
his creatures, but a friend, a benefiBor, an indulgent
fovereign. On the other hand, a bad man, having no- r73.
thing goodly or generous to contemplate within, no right ^^eifsa
intentions, nor honelty of heart, fufpeCts every perfon
and every thing; and, beholding nature through the
gloom of a felfilh and guilty mind, is either averfe to
the belief of a reigning order, or, if he cannot fupprefs
the unconquerable anticipations of a governing mind,
he is prone to tarniffi the beauty of nature, and to im¬
pute malevolence, or blindnefs and impotence at lealt,
to the Sovereign Ruler. He turns the univerfe into
a forlorn and horrid wafte, and transfers his own cha¬
racter to the Deity, by aferibing to him that uncom¬
municative grandeur, that arbitrary or revengeful fpi-
rit, which he affeCts or admires in himfelf. As fuch
a temper of mind naturally leads to atheifm, or to a fu-
perfition fully as bad; therefore, as far as that temper de¬
pends on the unhappy creature on whom it prevails, the
propenfity to atheifm or fuperftition confequent thereto
mult be immoral. Farther, If it be true that the belief
or fenfe of a Deity is natural to the mind, and the evi¬
dence of his exiltence reflected from his works fo full as
to {trike even the molt fuperficial obferver with convic¬
tion, then the fupplanting or corrupting that fenfe, or
the want of due attention to that evidence, and, in con-
fequence of both, a fupine ignorance or affeCted unbe¬
lief of a Deity, mult argue a bad temper or an immoral
turn of mind. In the cafe of invincible ignorance, or a
very bad education, though nothing can be concluded
direCtly againlt the character ; yet whenever ill paffions
and habits pervert the judgment, and by perverting the
judgment terminate in atheifm, then the cafe becomes
plainly criminal.
But let cafuilts determine this as they will, a true The con-
faith in the d ivine character and adminiftration is ge-neiftionof
nerally the confequence of a virtuous Hate of mind. an^
The man who is truly and habitually good, feels the ''irlue‘
love of order, of beauty, and g^ednefs, in the ftrongeft
degree ; and therefore cannot be infenfible to thofe ema¬
nations of them which appear in all the works of God,
nor
rt II.
77
ty to nor help loving their fupreme fource and model. He
od- cannot but think, that he who has poured iuch beauty
and goodnefs over all his works, muit himfelf delight in
beauty and goodnefs, and what he delights in mult be
both amiable and happy. Some indeed there are, and
it is pity there ihould be any inch, who, through the
unhappy influence of a wrong education, have entertain¬
ed dark and unfriendly thoughts of the Deity and his ad-
miniifration, though otherwife of a virtuous temper them-
felves. _ However, it muft be acknowledged, that lueh
fentiments have, for the molt part, a bad effeft on the
temper j and when they have not, it is becaule the un¬
depraved aflfe£Hons of an honed heart are more power¬
ful in their operation than the fpeculative opinions of an
ill-informed head.
es' if But wherever right conceptions of the Deity and his
tilde, providence prevail, when he is coniidered as the inex-
1 ^tc’ handed lource of light, and love, and joy, a- acting
in the joint character of a Father and G ve' nor, impart¬
ing an endlefs variety of capacities to his creatures,
and fupplying them with every thing neceffary to
their full completion and happinefs ) what veneration
and gratitude mud fuch conceptions, thoroughly re¬
lieved, excite in the mind ? How natural and delight¬
ful mud it be to one whofe heart is open to the per¬
ception of truth, and of every thing/iw, g eat, and
wonderfu' in nature, to contemplate and adore him
who is the fird fair, the fird great, and fird wonderful;
in whom wifdom, power, and goodnefs, dwell vitallv, ef-
fentially, originally, and a£t in perfect concert ? What
grandeur is here to fill the mod enlarged capacity,
what beauty to engage the mod ardent love, what a mafs
of wonders in fuch exuberance of perfection to aftonifti
and delight the human mind through an unfailing du-
? ration !
eraffec- If the Dehy is confidered as our fupreme Guardian
s. and Ben ifaff or, as the Father of Mercies, who loves
his creatures with infinite tendernefs, and in a particu¬
lar manner all good men, nay all who delight in good¬
nefs, even in its mod imperfeCt degrees; what refig-
nation, what dependence, what generous confidence,
what hope in God and his all-wife providence, mud
arife in the foul that is poflefled of fuch amiable views
of him ! All thofe exercifes of piety, and above all a
fuperlative edeem and love, are direCted to God as to
their natural, thei ultimate, and indeed their only ade¬
quate and though the immenfe obligations we
have received from him may excite in us more lively
feelings of divine goodnefs than a general and abdraCf-
ed contemplation of it, yet the affeftions of gratitude
and love are of themfelves of the generous difmtereded
kind, not the refult of felf-intered, or views of reward.
A perfect charaCter, in which we always fuppofe infi¬
nite goodnefs, guided by unerring wifdom, and fun-
ported bv almighty power, is the proper objeCt of per¬
fect love ; which, as fuch, we are forcibly drawn to
purfue and to a'pire after. In the contemplation of the
divine nature and attributes, we find at laft what the
ancient philofophers fought in vain, the SUPREME AND
SOVEREIGN GOOD \ from which all other goods arife,
and in which they are all contained. The Deity there¬
fore challenges our fupreme and fovereign love, a lenti-
mcnt which, whbfoever indulges, mult be confirmed in
the love of virtue, in a defire to imitate its all perfeft
pattern, and in a cheerful fecurity that all his great
MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 391
concerns, thofe of his friends and of the univerfe, {hall Duty to
be abfolutely lafe under the conduft of unerring wif- u God'
dom and unbounded goodneis. It is in his care and
providence alone that the good man, who is anxious
for the happinefs of all, finds perfect ferenity ; a fereni-
ty neither ruflied by partial ill nor foured by private
difappointment.
When we confider the unltained purity and abfolute Repent-
perfe&ion ol the divine nature, and reflect wiihal onance, Stc,
the imperfection and various blemilhes of our own, we
mult fink, or be convinced we ought to fink, into the
deepeft humility and proflration of foul before him who
is fo wonderfully great and holy. When, further, we
call to mind what low and languid feelings we have of
the divine prefence and majeity, what infenfibility of
hh fatherly and univerfal goodnefs, nay, what un-
gialefui returns wre have made to it, how far we
come ihort of the perfection of his law and the dignity
of our own nature, how much we have indulged the iel-
fifh paflions, and how little we have chenfhtd the be¬
nevolent (.nes •, we mult be contch us that it is our duty
to repent of a temper and conduct fo unworthy our na-
ture and unbecoming our obligations to its Author, and
to refolve and endeavour to ad a wder and better part
for 1 he future. t8o
Neverthelefs, from the charader which his works Hopes of
exhibit of him, from thofe de'ays or alleviations of pu-Paruon*
niihment which offenders often experience, and from
the merciful tenor of Ins ad1 i ill ratio’ in many other
inltances, the fincere penitent may entertain good hopes
that his Parent and Judge will not be Arid to mark
iniquity, but will be propitious and favourable to him,
if he honeitly endeavours to avoid his fotnie i pradices,
and fubdue his former habits, and to live in a greater
conformity to the divine will for the future, it any
doubts or fears Ihould Itill remain, how far it may be
confident with the reditude and equity of the dn ine
government to let his n iquities pafs unpuniihed, yet lie
cannot think it nnfuitable to his paternal clemency and
wifdom to contrive a method of retrit ving the penitent
offender, that (hall uni e and reconcile the majefty and
mercy of his government. If rcafon cannot of itfelf
fugged fuch a (theme, it gives at lead fome ground to
exprd it. But though natural religion cannot let in
moral light and affu'ance on fo interefting a lubjed,
vtt it wid teach the humble lot id to wait with great
fubmiflion lor any farther intimations it may pleafe the
fupreme Governor to give of his will; to examine with
candour and impartiality whatever evidence (hall be
propofed to him of a divme revelation, whether that evi¬
dence is natwol or fupernatural; to embrace it with
veneration and che* rfulnefs, if the evidence is clear and
convincing ; and, finally, it it bring to light any new
relations or connexion , natural religion will perfuadc its
fincere votary faithfully to comply with the obligations,
and perform the duties which refult from thofe relations
and connexions. This is theifm, piety, the completion
of morality l ,gt
We muit farther obferve, that all thofe afFedions W, rlt ip,
which we fuppofed to regard the Deity as their imme- ■. r ife,
diate and primary objeft. are vital energies of the foul,
and confequently exert themfelves into ad, and, like^' k’
all other energies, gain tlrength or greater adivity by
that exertion. It is therefore our duty as wt 11 as high-
eit intercf, often at dated times, and by decent and fo-
lema
59 2
3 Cuclt0 ^emn a<^S’ t0 conteniP^ate ancl adore the grtaL Original
v ui our exigence, the Parent of all beauty and of all
good ; to exprels our veneration and love by an awtul
and devout recognition ot his perfedions *, and to evi¬
dence our gratitude by celebrating his goodnefs, and
thankfully acknowledging all his benefits. It is like-
tvife our duty, by proper exerciies of forrow and humi¬
liation, to confefs our ingratitude and folly •, to lignify
our dependence on God, and our confidence in his
goodnefs, by imploring his blefTmg and gracious con¬
currence in aflilting the weaknefs and curing the cor¬
ruptions of our nature •, and, finally, to teftify our fenfe
of his authority, and our faith in his government, by
devoting ourfelves to do his will, and refigning ourfelves
to his difpofal. Thefe duties are not therefore obliga¬
tory, becaufe the Deity needs or can be profited by
them ; but as they are apparently decent and moral,
fuitable to the relations he fuitains of our Creator, Be-
nefaBor, Lawgiver, and Judge; expreflive of our ftate
and obligations ; and improving to our tempers, by
making us more rational, foeial, god-like, and confe-
iS« quently more happy.
External We have now confidered Internal piety, or the
fvorfhip. worfhip of the mind, that which is in fpirit and in
truth *, we fhall conclude the fe&ion with a fhort ac¬
count of that which is External. External worlhip
is founded on the fame principles as internal, and of
as drift moral obligation. It is either private or pub¬
lic. Devotion that is inward, or purely intellectual, is
too fpiritual and abftrafted an operation for the bulk
of mankind. The operations of their minds, fuch efpe-
cially as are employed on the mod fublime, immaterial
objefts, mud be adided by their outward organs, or by
Part II,
tome help from the imagination ; otlierwife they will Di ty to
foon be ditfipated by femible impredions, or grow tire- G ,!-
fome if too long continued. Ideas are fuch fleeting
things, that they mud be fixed j and fo fubtle, that
they mud be expreffed and delineated, as it were, by
fenfible marks and images; other wife we cannot attend
to them, nor be much afiefted by them. Therefore,
verbal adoration^ prayer, praife, thankfgiving, and cun-
JeJJion, are admirable aids to inward devotion, fix our
attention, compofe and enliven our thoughts, imprefi
us more deeply with a fenfe of the awful prefence in
which we are, and, by a natural and mechanical fort of
influence, tend to heighten thofe devout feelings and af¬
fections which we ought to entertain, and after this
manner reduce into formal and explicit aft. ^
This holds true in a higher degree in the cafe of Public
public worlhip, where the prefence of our fellow-crea-wor^P*
tures, and the powerful contagion of the facial aflec-
tions, confpire to kindle and fpread the devout flame
with greater warmth and energy. To conclude : As
God is the parent and head of the facialfystem, as he
has formed us for a facialfate, as by one we find the
heft fecurity again!! the ills of life, and in the other
enjoy its greateit comforts, and as, by means of both,
our nature attains its higheft improvement and perfec¬
tion ; and moreover, as there are public bleffings and
crimes in which we all ftiare in fome degree, and mb^
lie wants and dangers to which all are expofed—it is
therefore evident, that the various and folemn offices
of public religion are duties of indifpenfable moral ob¬
ligation, among the belt cements of fociety, the firm¬
ed prop of government, and the faired ornament of
both.-
MORAL PHILOSOPHY
PART III.
Chap. I. (y Practical Ethics, or Ma Culture
oj the Mind.
t84
Dignity WE have now gone through a particular detail of
ami import-tjjg feverai duties we owe to Ourselves, to Society,
fub eft t!lC anc^ to ^0D* conddering the firf order of duties,
we jud touched on the methods of acquiring the differ¬
ent kinds of goods which we are led by nature to pur-
fue} only we left the confideration of the method of
acquiring the moral goods of the mind to a chapter by
itfelf, becaufe of its fingular importance. This chapter
then will contain a brief enumeration of the arts of ac¬
quiring virtuous habits, and of eradicating vicious ones,
as far as is conddent with the brevity of fuch a work :
a fubjeft of the utmod difficulty as well as importance
in morals; to which, neverthelefs, the lead attention
has been generally given by moral writers. This will
properly follow a detail of duty, as it will direft us to
fuch means or helps as are mod neceflary and conducive
to the praftice of it.
Sen fib !e In the fird part of this inquiry avc traced the order
ideas and in which the paffions dioot up in the different periods
^uman ^e* ^ ^a*- order is n°t accidental or depend¬
ent on the caprice of men, or the influence of cudom
and education, but arifes from the original conflitution
end laws of our nature j of tvhich this is one, viz.
“ That fenfible objefts make the fird and dronged im-
preffions on the mind.” Thefe, by means of our out-
Avard organs, being conveyed to the mind, become ob¬
jefts of its attention, on which it reflefts Avhen the out¬
ward objefts are no longer prefent, or, in other wrords,
Avhen the impreffions upon the outAvard organs ceafe.
Thefe objefts of the mind’s refleftion are called ideas
or notions. ToAvards thefe, by another laAv of our na¬
ture, we are not altogether indifferent ; but correfpond-
ent movements of defre or averfion, love or hatred,
arife, according as the objefts Avhich they denote made
an agreeable or difagreeable impredion on our organs.
Thofe ideas and offedlions Avhich we experience in the
firf period of life, we refer to the body, or to fenfe;
and the tafie, which is formed toAvards them, avc call
"3l fenfible, or a merely natural tafie; and the objefts
correfponding to them we in general call good or plea-
fanL . . Ig5
But as the mind moves forAvard in its courfe, it ex- jcjeas 0f
tends its views, and receives a neAv and more beauty a»i
fet of ideas, in Avhich it obferves uniformity, variety, a fine tafte-
fimilitude, fymmetry of parts, reference to an end, no¬
velty, grandeur. Thefe compofe a vad train and diver-
fity of imagery, Avhich the mind compounds, divides,
and moulds into a thoufand forms, in the abfence of j
thofe objefts Avhich fird introduced it. And this more (
complicated imagery fuggeds a new train of defires and
affeBions, 1
Prt ITT. MORAL PH
( ture of affeclicns, full as fpnglitly and engaging as any which
Mind. ]iave yet appeared. This whole clafs of perceptions or
_ impre(Jions is referred to the imagination, and forms a
higher tafte than the fenjible, and which has an imme¬
diate and mighty influence on the finer paflions of our
nature, and is commonly termed a fine tafie.
The objects which correfpond to this tafte we ufe to
call beautiful, great, harmonious, or wonderful, or in ge-
s neral by the name of beauty.
al ideas The mind, ftill puftiing onwards and increafmg its
; n a mo- ftock of ideas, afcends from thofe to a higher fpecies of
raialte. objeifts, viz. the order and mutual relations of minds to
each other, their reciprocal cfifeRions, charaBers, ac¬
tions, and various afpeEls. In thefe it difcovers a beau¬
ty, a grandeur, a decorum, more interefting and allur¬
ing than in any of the former kinds. Thefe objefts, or
the notions of them, pafling in review before the mind,
do, by a neceffary law of our nature, call forth ano¬
ther and nobler fet of affections, as admiration, eficem,
love, honour, gratitude, benevolence, and others of the
like tribe. This clafs of perfeBions, and their corre-
fpondent affeBions, wre refer, becaufe of their objefts
{manners'), to a moral fenfe, and call the tafie or tem¬
per they excite, moral. And the objects which are
agreeable to this tafie or temper we denominate by the
general name of moral beauty, in order to diftinguifti it
from the other, which is termed natural.
Thefe different fets of ideas or notions are the ma¬
terials about which the mind employs itfelf, which it
blends, ranges, and diverfifies ten thoufand different
ways. It feels a ftrong propenlion to conned! and ai-
fociate fhofe ideas among which it obferves any fimili-
tude or any aptitude, whether original and natural, or
cu/lomary and artificial, to fuggeft each other. See
Metaphysics.
But whatever the reafons are, w hether fimilitude, co-
aliiation. exigence, caufialily, or any other aptitude or relation, why
any twn or n'.ore ideas are connedfed by the mind at
firft, it is an eftabliftied law of our nature, “ that when
two or more ideas have often ftarted in company, they
form fo ftrong an union, that it is very difficult ever af¬
ter to feparate them.” Thus the lover cannot feparate
the idea of merit from his mifirefs; the courtier that of
dignity from his title or ribbon ; the mifer that of happi-
nefs from his bags. It is thefe affociations of worth or
happinefs with any of the different fets of objeBs or ima¬
ges before fpecified that form our tafie or complex idea
of good. By another law of our nature, “ our affeBions
follow and are governed by this tafie. And to thefe
affeBions our charaBer and conduB are ftmilar and pro¬
portioned on the general tenor of which our happinefis
principally depends.”
Lading As all our leading paffions then depend on the di-
paiions fol- redlion which our tafie takes, and as it is ahvays of
•'•mite. farne ftrain with our leading affociations, it is worth
while to inquire a little more particularly how thefe
are formed, in order to deted! the fecret fources from
whence our paffions derive their principal ftrength,
their various rifes and falls. For this will give us the
true key to their management, and let us into the
right method of corredling the bad and improving the
good.
"ftimpor- JsJo 0f obiecls make fo powerful an impreflion
ulof the on us as ^10^e are immediately impreffed on our
iwgina ficnfest or ftrongly painted on our imaginations. W hat-
C ' VOL, XIV. Fart I.
189
Li’s of
Y9©
191
I L O S O P H Y. 39.
ever is purely intcllcSiucil^ ss abilracletl or fcientific of
truths, the fubtle relations and differences of things,
has a fainter fort of exiftence in the mind 5 and though
it may excrcife and whet the memory, the judgment,
or the reafoning power, gives hardly any impulfe at all
to the aBive powers, the paffions, which are the main
fprings of motion. On the other hand, were the mind
entirely under the diredlion of fenfe, and impreffible on¬
ly by fuch objects as are prefent, and ftrikefomc of the
outward organs, we ftiould then be precifely in the ftate
of the brute creation, and be governed folely by infiinB
or appetite, and have no power to controul whatever im-
preffions are made upon us : Nature has therefore en¬
dued us with a middle faculty, wonderfully adapted to
our mixed ftate, which holds partly of Jcnfe and partly
of reafon, being ftrongly allied to the former, and the
common receptacle in which all the notices that come
from that quarter are treafured up 5 and yet greatly
fubfervient and minifterial to the latter, by giving a
body, a coherence, and beauty to its conceptions. This
middle faculty is called the imagination, one of the moft
bufy and fruitful powers of the mind. Into this com¬
mon ftorehoufe are likewife carried all thofe moral
forms which arc derived from our moral faculties of
perception } and there they often undergo new changes
and appearances, by being mixed and wrought up with
the ideas and forms of fienfible or natural things. By
this coalition of imagery, natural beauty is dignified and
heightened by moral qualities and perfeBions, and mo¬
ral qualities are at once exhibited and fet off by natural
beauty. The fenjible beauty, or good, is refined from
its drofs by partaking of the moral; and the moral re¬
ceives a ftamp, a vifible character and currency, from
the fcnfible. 192
As we are firft of all accuftomed to fierfiblc impref-Its energy
fions and fienfible enjoyments, we contract early a
relifb or love of pleafure, in the lower fenfe of the word.
In order, however, to juftify this relifh, the mind, as mg fenf.ble
it becomes open to higher perceptions of beauty and pleafures;
good, borrows from thence a noble fet of images, ■as fine
tafie, generofity, facial affeBions, friendfhip, good fcl-
lowfhip, and the like •, and, by dreffing out tiie old
purfuits with thefe new ornaments, gives them an addi¬
tional dignity and luftre. By thefe ways the dejire of a
table, love of finery, intrigue and pleafure, are vaftly in-
creafcd beyond their natural pitch, having an impulfe
combined of the force of the natural appetites, and of
the fuperadded ftrength of thofe pafftons which tend to ^
the moral fpecies. When the mind becomes more fen- :n height-
fible to tbofe objects or appearances in which it per- ering the.
ceives beauty, uniformity, grandeur, and harmony, as pleaiures
fine clothes, elegant furniture, plate, phftures, gardens,
houfes, equipage, the beauty of animals, and particu-g^
larly the attractions of the fexg to thefe objects the
mind is led by nature or taught by cufiom, the opinion
and example of others, to annex certain ideas of moral
chcraBer, dignity, decorum, honour, liberality,, tender-
nefs, and aBive or facia! enjoyment. The confequenee
of this affoexation is, that the objects to which thefe are
annexed muft rife in their value, and be purfued with
proportionable ardour. The enjoyment of them is often
attended*with pleafure; and the mere P'ffeffon of them,
where that is wanting, frequently draws rcfpeCt from
one’s fellow-creatures : This refpeB is, by many,
thought equivalent to the pleafure of enjoyment. Hence
3 D it
394
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Part III.
194
in railing
tne value
lymbols,
&CC,
i?S
yi height¬
ening the
value of
wealth,
Culture of happens that the idea of happinefs is connected with
the .Muitl tjie rfierepojfeffion, wliieh is therefore eagerly fought af¬
ter without any regard to the generous ufe or honourable
enjoyment. Thus the paflion, retting on the means, not
the end, i. e. lofing tight of its natural objedt, becomes
wild and extravagant.
In fine, any object, or external denomination, a Jlaff,
a garter, a cup, a crown, a title, may become a moral
pi - emal or emblem of merit, magnificence, or honour, ac¬
cording as thefe have been found or thought, by the
poflefifors or admirers of them, to accompany therri j
yet, by tile deception formerly mentioned, the merit
or the conduB which entitled, or tliould entitle to thofe
marks of diflindtion, thall be forgot or neglected, and
the badges themfelves be pafilonately affedted or pur-
fued, as including every excellency. If thefe are at¬
tained by any means, all the concomitants which na¬
ture, cuflom, or accidents have joined to them, will be
fuppofed to follow of courfe. Thus, moral ends with
which the unhappy admirer is apt to colour over his
pafiion and views will, in his opinion, juftify the molt
immoral means, as projlitution, adulation, fraud, treachc-
nj, and every fpecies of knavery, whether more open or
more difguifed.
When men are once engaged in aclive life, and find
that wealth and power, generally called interest, are
the great avenues to every kind of enjoyment, they are
power,’occ. apt to throw in many engaging moral forms to the ob-
jedt of their purfujt, in order to jultify their paflion,
and varnifli over the meafures they take to gratify it, as
independency on the vices or pajfions of others, provifion
and fecurity to themfelves and friends, prudent economy
or well-placed charity, facial communication, fujeriority
to their enemies, who are all villains, honourable fervice,
and many other ingredients of merit. To attain fuch
capacities of ufefulnefs or enjoyment, what arts, nay
what meannefles, can be thought blameable by thofe
cool purfuers of interelt r—Nor have they whom the
gay xvorld is pleafed to indulge with the title of men of
pleafure, their imaginations lefs pregnant with moral
images, with which they never fail to ennoble, or, if
they cannot do that, to palliate their grofs purfuits.
'4'hus admiration of wit, ai fentiments and merit, friend-
fhip, love, generous fympathy, mutual confidence, giving
and receiving pleafure, are the ordinary ingredients with
which they feafon their gallantry and pleafurable enter¬
tainments ; and by which they impofe on themfelves,
and endeavour to impofe on others, that their amours
are the joint iffue of good fenfe and virtue.
Thefe affbeiations, varioufly combined and propnr-
ence on all tjone(j by the imagination, form the chief private paf-
the pullioas. £ons^ g0vern the lives of the generality, as the
love cf action, of pleafure, power, wealth, zn&fame ;
they influence the defenfive, and affedt the public paf-
flons, and raifeyby or furrow as they are gratified or
difappointed. So that in effedt thefe affociations of
good and evil, beauty and deformity, and the paflions
they raife, are the main hinges of life and manners, and
the great fources of our happinefs or mifery. It is evi¬
dent,' therefore, that the whole of moral culture mull
depend on giving a right diredlion to the leading pafi
jions, and duly proportioning them to the value of the
objects or goods purfued, under what name foever they
may appear.
Now, in order to give them this right dire Elion and
196
Tts influ-
due proportion, it appears from the foregoing detail, Culture of
that thofe ajjbciations of ideas, upon which the paflions Mind,
depend, mufl: be duly regulated 5 that is to fay, as an
exorbitant paflion for wealth, pleafure, or power, flows MoraUmU
from an ajfocialion or opinion, that more beauty andmre, by
good, whether natural or moral, enters into the enjoy-corre<^I1|
meat or pofleflion of them, that really belongs to ei-our or
ther ; therefore, in reftoring thofe paflion* to their juftj^nfY' *
proportion, we mufl; begin with correcting the opinion,
or breaking the falfe ajfociation, or, in other words, we
mufl. decompound the complex phantom of happinefs or
good, which we fondly admire •, difunite thofe ideas that
have no natural alliance ; and feparate the original idea
of wealth, power, or pleafure, from the foreign mix¬
tures incorporated with it, which enhance its value, or
give it its chief power to enchant and feduce the mind.
For inftance, let it be confidered how poor and inconfi-
derable a thing wealth is, if it be disjoined from real
ufe, or from ideas of capacity in the poffeflbr to do good,
from independence, generofty, provijion for a family or
friends, and facial communication with others. By this
Jlandard let its true value be fixed ; let its mifapplica-
tion, or unbenevolent enjoyment, be accounted fordid
and infamous ; and nothing worthy or eftimable be af-
cribed to the mere pojftfjion of it, which is not borrow¬
ed from \\s generous ufe. ^ |
If that complex form of good which is called pleafurehy {tii-Ae.
engage us, let it be analyzed into its conftituent prin-nial, and a
ciples, or thofe allurements it draws from the /^ar/counter-
and imagination, in order to heighten the low part of^krocei" ^
the indulgence; let the feparate and comparative mo¬
ment of each be diftindlly afeertained and deduced from
that grofs part, and this remainder of the accumulated
enjoyment will dwindle down into a poor, infipid, tran-
fitory thing. In proportion as the opinion of the good
purfued abates, the admiration mufl; decay, and the paf-
Jions lofe ftrength of courfe. One effedlual way to
lower the opinion, and confequently to weaken the ha¬
bit founded upon it, is to pradlife lelfer pieces of felf-
denial, or to abltain, to a certain pitch, from the pur-
fuit or enjoyment of the favourite object j and, that this
may be the more eafily accompliflied, one mult avoid
thofe occafions, that company, thofe places, and the
other circumftances, that inflamed one and endeared the
other. And, as a counter-procefs, let higher or even
different enjoyments be brought in view, other pafiions
played upon the former, different places frequented,
other exercifes tried, company kept with perfons of a
different or more corredt way of thinking both in natu¬
ral and moral fubjedls.
As much depends on our fetting out well in life, let j,y a found
the fancy, which is apt to be very florid and and natural
luxuriant, be early accuflomed by infruElion, example, education.
and fignificant moral exercifes, nay, by looks, geflures,
and every other teftlmony of juft approbation or blame,
to annex ideas of merit, honour, and happinefs, not to
birth, drefs, rank, beauty, fortune, power, popularity,
and the like outward things, but to moral and truly vir¬
tuous qualities, and to thofe enjoyments which fpringfrom
a well-informed judgment and a regular condudl of the
affedtions, efpecially thofe of the facial and difintcrejled
kind. Such dignified forms of beauty and good, often
fuggefted, and, by moving pidlures and examples warm¬
ly recommended to the imagination, enfcced by the au¬
thority of confidence, and demonitrated by reafon to be
the
I 200
Brightly
<jpyins
hman na-
Iturc of the fureft means of enjoyment, and the only indepen-
Miud. undeprlvable, and durable goods, will be the bell
counterbalance to meaner pafiions, and the firmeft foun¬
dation and fecurity of virtue.
It is of great importance to the forming a jujl tajie,
or pure and large conceptions of happinefs, to iludy and
underftand human nature well, to remember what a
complicated fyltem it is, particularly to have deeply
imprinted on our mind that gradation offenfes, fa¬
culties, and powers of enjoyment formerly mentioned,
and the fubordination of goods refulting from thence,
which nature points out, and the experience of man¬
kind confirms. Who, when they think ferioufly, and
are not under the immediate influence of feme vio¬
lent prejudice or paflion, prefer not the pleafures of ac¬
tion, contemplation, fociety, and moft exercifes and joys
of the moral kind, as friendfhip, natural affeSlion, and
the like, to all fenfual gratifications whatfoever ? Where
the different fpecies of pleafure are blended into one
complex form, let them be accurately diftinguiflied, and
be referred each to its proper faculty and fenfe, and
examined apart what they have peculiar, w’hat common
I 20I with others, and what foreign and adventitious. Let
bcompar- wealth, grandeur, luxury, love, fame, and the like, be
ii: the tried by this teft, and their true alloy will be found out.
“jntjnt^ Let it be further confidered, whether the mind may
ants of " not ke eafy and enjoy itfelf greatly, though it want
dl’erent many of thofe elegancies and fuperfluities of life which
fome poffefs, or that load of wealth and power which
others eagerly purfue, and under which they groan.
Let the difficulty of attaining, the precarioufnefs of pof-
fefiing, and the many abatements in enjoying over¬
grown wrealth and envied greatnefs, of which the weary
poffeffors fo frequently complain, as the hurry of bufi-
nefs, the burden of company, of paying attendance to
the few, and giving it to many, the cares of keeping,
the fears of lofing, and the defires of increafing what
they have, and the other troubles which accompany
this pitiful drudgery and pompous fervitude ; let thefe
and the like circumftances be often confidered, that are
conducive to the removing or leffening the opinion of
fuch goods, and the attendant pafjion or fet of paffions
will decay of courfe.
Let the peculiar bent of our nature and chara&er be
our own obferved, whether we are moft inclined to forj1 affoci-
Itnt and ations and reliffi objects of the fenfible, intellectual, or
moral kind. Let that wffiich has the afeendant be par¬
ticularly watched ; let it be dire&ed to right objefts,
be improved by proportioned exercifes, and guarded by
proper checks from an oppofite quarter. Thus the fen-
Jible turn may be exalted by the intellectual, and a tafte
for the beauty of the fine arts, and both may be made
fubfervient to convey and rivet fentiments highly moral
and public fpirited. This inward furvey muft extend to
the firength and weahnejfes of one’s nature, one’s condi¬
tions, connexions, habitudes, fortunes, fiudies, acquaint¬
ance, and the other circumftances of one’s life, from
which every man will form the jufteft eftimate of his
own difpofitions and character, and the beft rules for
corredling and improving them. And in order to do
this with more advantage, let thofe times or criticalfea-
fons be watched when the mind is beft difpofed towards
a change j and let them be improved by rigorous refo-
lutions, promifes, or whatever elfe will engage the mind
MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 395
to perfevere in virtue. Let the conduCi, in fine, be of- lf
the Mind.
502
bobferv.
(iirader,
t.
ten reviewed, and the caufes of its corruption or improve- , ^ ^
ment be carefully obferved. 203
It will greatly conduce to refine the moral tafie and bj frequent
ftrengthen the virtuous temper, to accuftom the mind tonioral exer-
the frequent exercife of moralfentiments and determina- cu s •
tions, by reading hifiory, poetry, particularly of the
piCturefque and dramatic kind, the ftudy of the fine
arts; by converfing with the moft eminent for good
fenfe and virtue ', but above all, by frequent and re¬
peated ads of humanity, compoffion, ft iendjhip, polite-
nefs, and hofpitality. It is exercife that gives health
and ftrength. He that reafons moft frequently be¬
comes the wifeft, and moft enjoys the pleafures of
wifdom. He who is moft often affeded by objects of
compaffion in poetry, hiftory, or real life, will have his
foul moft open to pity, and its delightful pains and
duties. So he alfo who pradifes moft diligently the
offices of kindnefs and charity, will by it cultivate
that difpofition from whence all his pretenfions to per-
fonal merit muft arife, his prefent and his future happi¬
nefs. 204-
An ufeful and honourable employment in life sn no-
adminifter a thoufand opportunities of this kind, Jind.
greatly ftrengthen a fenfe of virtue and good affedions,1
which muft be nouriflied by light training, as wrell as
our underftandings. For fuch an employment, by en¬
larging one’s experience, giving a habit of attention
and caution, or obliging one, from neceffity or intereft,
to keep a guard over the paffions, and ftudy the out¬
ward decencies and appearances of virtue, will by de¬
grees produce good habit, and at length inunuate the
love of virtue and honefty for its own fake. 205
It is a oreat inducement to the exercife of benevo- by viewing
lence to view nature in a favourable light, tomenana.
obferve the charaders and circumftances of mankind a fajr pgilt.
on the fairefi fides, to put the beft conftrudions on
their adions they will bear, and to confider them as
the refult of partial and mifiahen rather than ill affec¬
tions, or, at worft, as the exceffes of a pardonable felf-
love, feldom or never the effed of pure malice. 206
Above all, the nature and confequences of virtue and by anfule-
vice, their confequences being the law of our nature1^’011 arK*
and will of heaven 5 the light in which they appear to CXer
our fupreme Parent and Lawgiver, and the reception
they will meet with from him, muft be often attend¬
ed to. The exercifes of piety, as adoration and praife
of the divine excellency, invocation of and dependence
on his aid, confeffion, thankfgiving, and refignation, are
habitually to be indulged, and frequently performed,
not only as medicinal, but highly improving to the
temper. 207
To conclude : It will be of admirable efficacv to-by juft
wards eradicating bad habits, and implanting good'*1*™*
ones, frequently to contemplate human life as the grout ^
nurfery om future and immortal exifience, as that flntene^\on
of probation in which we are to be educated for a divine with a fu-
life ; to remember, that our virtues or vices will be //w-ture.
mortal as ourfelves, and influence our future as well as
our prefent happinefs—and therefore, that every difpo¬
fition and adion is to be regarded as pointing beyond
the prefent to an immortal duration.—An habitual atten¬
tion to this wide and important connexion will give a vaft
compafs and dignity to our fentiments and adions, a no-
3 D 2 ble
396
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Part III,
Motives to blc fuperiority to tlie pleafures and pains of life, and a
' utue' generous ambition to make our virtue as immortal as
our being.
Chap. II. Motives to Virtue from Perfonal
Happiness.
ic 8
Motives
from p«r~
tonal hap-
pinefs.
* Vide
Tart I.
chap. i. ii.
&.C.
acp
Rappinefs
cf virtue
from with
in.
We have already confidered our obligations to the
practice of virtue, ariting from the conjiitution of our
nature, by which we are led to approve a certain order
and economy of affe&ions, and a certain courfe of attion
correfpondent to it *. But, befides this, there are fe-
veral motives which fhengthen and fecure virtue,
though not themfelves of a moral kind. Thefe are,
its tendency to perfonal happinefs and the contrary ten¬
dency of vice. “ Perfonal happinefe arifes either from
the llate of a man’s own mind, or from the ftate and
difpofition of external caufes towards him.”
We lhall firft examine the “ tendency of virtue to
happinefs with refpeft to the ftate of a man’s own
mind.” This is a point of the utmoft confequence in
morals, becaufe, unlefs we can convince ourfelves, or
{how to others, that, by doing our duty, or fulfilling
our moral obligations, we confult the greateft fatisfac-
tion of our own mind, or our higheft intereft on the
whole, it will raife ftrong and often unfurmountable
prejudices againft the practice of virtue, efpecially
■whenever there arife any appearances of oppoftion be¬
tween our duty and ourfatisfaBion or intercf. To crea¬
tures fo defirous of happinefs, and averfe to mifery,
as we are, and often fo oddly fituated amidft contend¬
ing paflions and interefts, it is neceftary that virtue
appear not only an honourable but a pleafng and benefi¬
cent form. And in order to juftify our choice to our-
felves as well as before others, we muft ourfelves feel
and be able to avow in the face of the whole world,
that her ways are ways of pleafantnefs, and her paths
the paths of peace. This will ftiow, beyond all con-
tradiftion, that w'e not only approve, but can give a
2I0 ftifficient reafon for what we do.
Influence of Let any man in a cool hour, when he is difengaged
vice on the from bufinefs, and undifturbed by paflion (as fucb cool
hours will fometimes happen), fit down, and ferioufly
refleft with himfelf what ftate or temper of mind he
would choofe to feel and indulge, in order to be eafy
and to enjoy himfelf. Would he choofe, for that pur-
pofe, to be in a conftant diflipation and hurry of
thought; to be difturbed in the exercife of his rea¬
fon •, to have various and often interfering phantoms
of good playing before his imagination, foliciting and
diftra&ing him by turns, now foothing him with amuf-
ing hopes, then torturing him with anxious fears j and
to approve this minute what he {hall condemn the
next ? Would he choofe to have a ftrong and painful
fenfe of every petty injury ; quick apprehenfions of
every impending evil} hiceffant and infatiable defires
of power, wealth, honour, pleafure *, an irreconcilable
antipathy agaftift all competitors and rivals •, infolent
and tyrannical difpofitions to all below him j fawning,
and at the fame time envious, difpofitions to all above
him j with dark,, fufpieions and jealoufies of every
mortal ? Would he choofe neither to love nor be belov¬
ed of any •, to have no friend in whom to confide, or
with whom to interchange his fentiments or defigns •,
no favourite, on whom.to beftow his kindnefs, or vent
4,
temper of
the niinfl.
his paflions; in fine, to be confcious of no merit with From Hap.
mankind, no efteem from any creature, no good affec- P‘nels-
tion to his Maker, no concern for, nor hopes of, his ■ 10
approbation j but, inftead of all thefe, to hate, and
know that he is hated, to condemn, and know that he
is condemned by all 5 by the good, becaufe he is fo un¬
like ; and by the bad becaufe he is fo like themfelves \
to hate or to dread the very Being that made him j
and, in fliort, to have his breaft the feat of pride and
paflion, petulance and revenge, deep melancholy, cool
malignity, and all the other furies that ever poffeffed
and tortured mankind ?—Would our calm inquirer af¬
ter happinefs pitch on fuch a ftate, and fuch a temper
of mind, as the moft likely means to put him in pof-
feflion of his defired eafe and felf-enjoyment ? 21I
Or would he rather choofe a ferene and eafy flow of influence 0f ,
thought $ a reafon clear and compofed ; a judgment virtue ou
unbiafled by prejudice, and undiftradled by paflion j a ^ tenlF#lf*
fober and well-governed fancy, which prefents the
images of things true, and unmixed with delufive and
unnatural charms, and therefore adminifters no impro¬
per or dangerous fuel to the paflions, but leaves the
mind free to choofe or reject, as becomes a reafonable
creature j a fweet and fedate temper, not eafily ruf¬
fled by hopes or fears, prone neither to fufpicion nor
revenge, apt to view men and things in the faireft
lights, and to bend gently to the humours of others
rather than obftinately to contend with them ? Would
he choofe fuch moderation and continence of mind, as
neither to be ambitious of power, fond of honours, co¬
vetous of wealth, nor a Have to pleafure; a mind of
courfe neither elated with fuccels, nor dejefted with
difappointment j fuch a modeft and noble fpirit as
fupports power without infolence, wears honour with¬
out pride, ufes wealth without profufion or parfimony j
and rejoices more in giving than in receiving pleafure j
fuch fortitude and equanimity as rifes above misfor¬
tunes, or turns them into blefiings j fuch integrity
and greatnefs of mind, as neither flatters the vices,
nor triumphs over the follies of men ; as equally fpuras
fervitude and tyranny, and will neither engage in low
defigns, nor abet them in others ? Would he choofe,
in fine, fuch mildnefs and benignity of heart as takes
part in all the joys, and refufes none of the forrows, of
others $ ftands well affected to all mankind 5 is confci¬
ous of meriting the efteem of all, and of being beloved
by the beft j a mind which delights in doing good •
without any (how, and yet arrogates nothing on that
account; rejoices in loving and being beloved by its
Maker, a61s ever under his eye, refigns itfelf to his
providence, and triumphs in his approbation ? Which
of thefe difpofitions would be his choice in order to
be contented, ferene, and happy ? The former tem¬
per is VICE, the latter virtue. Where one prevails,
there misery prevails, and by the generality is ac¬
knowledged to prevail. Where the other reigns, there
happiness reigns, and by the confeflion of mankind
is acknowledged to reign.. The perfeBion of either
temper is mifery ox happinefs in perfeBion.—There¬
fore, every approach to either extreme is an approach
to mifery or to happinefs ; i. e. every degree of vice or
virtue is accompanied with a proportionable degree of
mifery ox happinefs. 212
The principal alleviations of a virtuous man’s cala-The allevi-
mities are thefe:—That though fome of them mayatlons
lw;lUs-
rt in. MORAL PH
]Jtt«sto have been the effect of his imprudence or rveakncfs,
irtue.
yet few of them are fharpened by a fenfe of guilt, and
none of them by a confcioufnefs ot wickednefs, which
furely is their keeneft fling that they are common
to him with the belt of men that they feldom or
never attack him quite unprepared, but rather guarded
with a confcioufnefs of his own fincerity and virtue,
with a faith and truft in Providence, and a firm refig-
nation to its perfect orders that they may be im¬
proved as means of corre&ion, or materials to give
fcope and ftability to his virtues j—and, to name no
more, they are confiderably leffened, and often Sweet¬
ened to him, by the general Sympathy of the wife and
^ His enjoyments are more numerous, or, if lefs nu¬
merous, yet more intenfe than thofe of the bad man .
for he {hares in the joys of others by rebound } and
every increafe of general or particular happinefs is a real
addition to his own. It is true, Ids friendly Sympathy
with others fubje&s him to fome pains which the hard-
hearted wretch does not feel-, yet to give a loofe to
it, is a kind of agreeable difcharge. It is Such a Sor¬
row as he loves to indulge} a fort of pleating angui i
that fweetly melts the mind, and terminates in a felf-
approving joy. Though the good _ man may want
means to execute, or be difappointed in the fucceis o^,
jL^Part II. his benevolent purpofes } yet, as was formerly fob-
|ay. ii
114
Served, he is ftill confcious of good affedion, and that
confcioufnefs is an enjoyment of a more delightful
favour than the greateft triumphs of fuccefsful vice.
If the ambitious, covetous, or voluptuous, are difappoint¬
ed, their paflions recoil upon them with a fury propor¬
tioned to their opinion of the value of what they pur-
fue, and their hope of fuccefs -, while they have no-
thino- within to balance the difappointment, unlefs it
is an ufelefs fund of pride, which, however, frequently
turns mere accidents into mortifying affronts, and ex¬
alts grief into rage and frenzy. . Whereas the meek,
humble, and benevolent temper, is its own reward, is
Satisfied from within and, as it magnifies greatly the
pleafure of fuccefs, fo it wonderfully alleviates, and m
a manner annihilates, all pain for the want of it.
As the good man is confcious of loving and wifii-
ing well to all mankind, he muft be fenfible of his de-
ferving the efteem and good-will of all } and this fup-
pofed reciprocation of focial feelings is, by the very
frame of our nature, made a fource of very intenfe and
enlivening joys. Ey this Sympathy of affeftions and
interefts, he feels himfelf intimately united with the
human race ; and, being fenfibly alive over the whole
fyffem, his heart receives and becomes refponfive to
every touch given to any part. So that, as an eminent
philofopher * finely expreffes it, he gathers contentment
and delight from the pleafed and happy ftates of thofe
around him, from accounts and relations of fuch hap¬
pinefs, from the very countenances, geftures, voices,
and founds, even of creatures foreign to our kind,
whofe figns of joy and contentment he can any way
difcern.
Do not in- Nor do thofe generous affections flop any other na-
terfere with tural fource of joy whatever, or deaden his fenfe of
3ther joys. any innocent gratification. They rather keep the
feveral fenfes and powers of enjoyment open and difen-
gaged, intenfe and uncorrupted by riot or abufe ; as
is evident to any .one who confiders the diflipated, un-
'rom me¬
lted ef-
eem and
empathy.
» Vide
jhafteib.
Inq. into
Virtue,
Book II.
215.
Do not in
ILOSOPHY. 397
feeling Hale of men of pleafure, mMtion or mrereT?, from Hap-
and compares it with the ferene and gentle ftate ot a  ,
mind at peace with itfelf, and friendly to all mankind, 2i6
unruffled by any violent emotion, and fenfible to every The mifeiy
good-natured and alluring joy. f rthe private
It were eafy, by going through the different Sets o
affeCtions mentioned formerly f, to {how, that it is only + ^p^t I.
by maintaining the proportion fettled there, that the chap. i. u.
mind arrives at true repofe and Satisfaction. II jear
exceeds that proportion, it finks into melancholy and
deieCtion. If anger paffes juft bounds, it ferments into
ra<re and revenge, or fubiides into a fullen corroding
gloom, which embitters every good, and renders one
exquifitely fenfible to every ill. The prwate paffions,
the love of honour efpecially, whofe impulfes are more
o-enerous, as its eficCts are more diffuiive, are initru-
ments of private pleafure but if they are difpropor-
tioned to our wants, or to the value of their tevcral
obieCts, or to the balance of other paflions equally ne-
ceffary and more amiable, they become inftrumcnts of
intenfe pain and mifery. For, being now deftitute ot
that counterpoife which held them at a due pitch,
they grow turbulent, peevifti, and revengeful, the cauie
of conftant reftleffnefs and torment, fometimes flying
out into a wild delirious joy, at other times fettling
in a deep fplenetic grief. The concert between rea-
fon and paflion is then broke : all is diffonance and
diftraflion within. The mind is out of frame, and feels
an agony proportioned to the violence of the reigning
paflion. r , 217
The cafe is much the fame, or rather worle, when xn the pu-
any of the particular kind affe&ions are out of their bhc affec-
natural order and proportion-, as happens in the cafeUou-
of effeminate pity, exorbitant love, parental dotage, or
any party paffton, where the juft regards to fociety are
fupplanted. The more focial and difinterefed the paf-
fion is, it breaks out into the wilder exceffes, and makes
the more dreadful havock both within and abioad j as
is but too apparent in thofe cafes where a falfe fpecies
of religion, honour, •zeal, or party-rage, has feized on
the natural enthufiafm of the mind, and worked it up
to madnefs. It breaks through all ties natural ci¬
vil, difregards the moft facred and folemn obligations,
file’nces every other affeCHon whether public or private,
and transforms the moft gentle natures into the moft
favage and inhuman. „ r
Whereas, the man who keeps the balance affeBion
even, is eafy and ferene in his motions mild, and yet
affectionate j uniform and confiftent with himielt : ispafii0ns. .
not liable to difagreeable collifions of interefts and paf¬
fions } gives always place to the moft friendly and hu¬
mane affeCtions, and never to difpofitions or aas of re¬
fen tment, but on high occafions, when the fecunty of
the private, or welfare of the fyftem, or the great
interefs of mankind, neceffarily require a noble indig¬
nation 5 and even then he obferves a juft meafure in
wrath ; and laft of all, he proportions every paflion to
the value of the objeCt he affeCts, or to the importance
of the end he purfues. * 1 z /j 219
To fum up this part. of the argument, the - honejt Sum of the
and good man has eminently the advantage of the knav- argument,
ifh and felfiff wretch in every refpeCt. The pleafures
which the laf enjoys flow chiefly from external ad¬
vantages and gratifications ; are fuperfidal and tranfi-
tory ; dallied with long intervals of fatiety, and fie-
7 7 quent
39?’
Motives
Virtue
210
External
effects of
virtue.
221
On the
bod/.
212
On one’s
fortune, in-
tereft, &c.
to quent returns of remorfe and fear ; dependent on fa¬
vourable accidents and conjunctures j and fubjected to
the humours of men. But the good man is fatisfied
from himfelf; his principal pofleffions lie within, and
therefore beyond the roach of the caprice of men or
fortune ; his enjoyments are exquifite and permanent ;
accompanied with no inward checks to damp them,
and always with ideas of dignity and felf-approbation ;
may be tailed at any time, and in any place. The
gratifications of vice are turbulent and unnatural, ge¬
nerally arifing from the relief of paflions in themfelves
intolerable, and ifluing in tormenting redeClion •, often
irritated by difappointment, always inflamed by en¬
joyment, and yet ever cloyed with repetition. The
pleafures of virtue are calm and natural j flowing from
the exercile of kind affeClions, or delightful reflections
in confequence of them; ndt only agreeable in the
profpeft, but in the prefent feeling; they never fatiate
nor lofe their relilh ; nay, rather the admiration of vir¬
tue grows llronger every day ; and not only is the de¬
lire but the enjoyment heightened by every new grati¬
fication ; and, unlike to moll others, it is increafed,
not diminilhed, by fympathy and communication.—In
fine, the fatisfaClions of virtue may be purchafed with¬
out a bribe, and poffefied in the humblefl as xvell as the
molt triumphant fortune ; they can bear the ItriCtelt
review', do not change with circumltances, nor grow
old with time. Force cannot rob, nor fraud cheat us
of them; and, to crown all, inllead of abating, they
enhance every other pleafure.
But the happy confequences of virtue are feen not
only in the internal enjoyments it affords a man, but
“ in the favourable dilpofition of external caufes to¬
wards him, to which it contributes.”
As virtue gives the fober pofleflion of one’s felf,
and the command of one’s paflions, the confequence
mull be heart’s eafe, and a fine natural flow of fpirits,
which conduce more than any thing elfe to health and
long life. Violent paflions, and the excefles they occa-
fion, gradually impair and wear down the machine.
But the calm placid Hate of a temperate mind, and the
healthful exercifes in which virtue engages her faithful
votaries, preferve the natural funClions in full vigour
and harmony, and exhilarate the fpirits, which are the
chief inflruments of aClion.
It may by fome be thought odd to aflert, that vir¬
tue is no enemy to a man’s fortune in the prefent Hate
of things.—But if by fortune be meant a moderate or
competent lhare of wealth, power, or credit, not over¬
grown degrees of them ; what Ihould hinder the vir¬
tuous man from obtaining that ? He cannot cringe or
fawn, it is true, but he can be civil and obliging as
well as the knave ; and furely his civility is more allu¬
ring, beeaufe it has more manlinefs and grace in it than
the mean adulation of the other: he cannot cheat or
undermine ; but he may be cautious, provident, watch¬
ful of occafions, and equally prompt with the rogue
in improving them : he fcorns to proftitute himfelf as
a pander to the paflions, or as a tool to the vices, of
mankind ; but he may have as found an underftanding
and as good capacities for promoting their real interefts
as the verieft court Have: and then he is more faithful
and true to thofe who employ him. In the common
courfe of bufinefs, lie has the fame chances with the
knave of acquiring a fortune, and rifing in the world.
5
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Part III,
He may have equal abilities, equal induftry, equal at-From H*p.
tention to bufinefs ; and in other refpedls he has greatly ptoefs,
the advantage of him. . People love better to deal with ' 
him ; they can trull him more; they know he wfill not
impofe on them, nor take advantage of them, and can
depend more on his word than on the oath or ftrongeil
lecurities of others. Whereas what is commonly called
cunning, which is the offspring of ignorance, and con-
11 ant companion of knavery, is not only a mean-fpirited,
but a very Ihort-fighted talent, and a fundamental ob-
llacle in the road of bufinefs. It may indeed procure
immediate and petty gains; but it is attended with
dreadful abatements, which do more than overbalance
them, both as it finks a man’s credit when difeovered,
and cramps that largenefs of mind which extends to the
remotell as well as the neareft interelf, and takes in the
moll durable equally with the moll tranfient gains. It
is therefore eafy to fee how much a man’s credit and re¬
putation, and confequently his fuccefs, depend on his
honelly and virtue.
With regard to fecurity and peace with his neigh-On one’s
hours, it may be thought, perhaps, that the man of a peace and
quiet forgiving temper, and a flowing benevolence and^^^F'
courtefy, is much expofed to injury and affronts from
every proud or peevilh mortal, xvho has the power or
will to do mifehief. If we fuppofe, indeed, this quiet-
nefs and. gent/enefs of nature accompanied with cowar¬
dice and pufillanimity, this may often be the cafe ; but
in reality the good man is bold as a lion, and fo much
the bolder fer being the calmer. Such a perfon will
hardly be a butt to mankind. The ill natured will be
afraid to provoke him, and the good natured wfill not
incline to do it. Befides, true virtue, which is con¬
duced by reafon, and exerted gracefully and without
parade, is a moll infinuating and commanding thing ;
if it cannot difarm malice and refentment at once it
will wear them out by degrees, and fubdue them’at
length. How many have, by favours and prudently
yielding, triumphed over an enemy, who would have
been inflamed into tenfold rage by the fierce!! oppofi-
tion ! In fine, goodnefs is the moll univerfally popular
thing that can be.
To conclude ; the good man may have fome ene- On one’s
mies, but he will have more friends ; and, having given
fo many marks of private friendlhip or public virtue
he can hardly be deftitute of a patron to protedl, or a
fanCuary to entertain him, or to proteC or entertain
his children when he is gone. Though he Ihould have
little elfe to leave them, he bequeaths them the fairelf,
and generally the moll unenvied, inheritance of a good
name, which, like good feed fown in the field of futu¬
rity, will often raife up unfolicited friends, and yield
a benevolent harvefl of unexpefted charities. But
Ihould the fragrance of the parent’s virtue prove offen-
five to a perverfe or envious age, or even draw per-
fecution on the friendlefs orphans, there is one in
heaven who will be more than a father to them, and
recompenfe their parent’s virtues by fhowering dowrn
bleflings on them.
Chap. III. Motives Virtue/^ot the Being and
Providence of God.
Besides the interelting motive mentioned in the Two exter-
laft Chapter, there are two great motives of virtue nal motives
flriaiytovirtue-
rt HI. MORA L P H
lives to ftri&Iy connefted with human lift, and refulting from
irtue. t|ic very conftitution of the human m nd. The firfl: is
* the Being and Providence of God •, the fecondis the
Immortality of the Soul, with future rewards and
^6 punijhments.
r im- It appears from Chap. IV. of Part II. that vian, by
ace. the conjlitution of his nature, is defigned to be a Ul-
ligious Creature. He is intimately connected with
the Deity, and neceffarily dependent on him. From that
connexion and neceflary dependence refult various obliga¬
tions and duties, without fulfilling which, lome ot his
fublimeft powers and aftedtions would be incomplete
and abortive. If he be like wife an Immortal creature,
and if his prefent conduct ihall affect \as future happinefs
in another ftate as well as in the prefent, it is evident that
we take only a partial view of the creature, it we leave
out this important property of his nature *, and make a
partial ejlimate of human life, if we {trike out of the
account, or overlook, that part of his duration ivhich
runs out into eternity.
jf7 It is evident from the above-mentioned Chapter,
that “ to have a refpedt to the Deity in our temper
and condudt, to venerate and love his character, to
adore his goodnefs, to depend upsn and rejign ourfelves
to his providence, to feeh his approbation, and aB under
a fenfe of his authority, is a fundamental part of moral
virtue, and the completion of the highejl dfiination of our
2j3 nature y
ipport to But as piety is an effential part of virtue, fo likewife
ue ; it is a great fupport and enforcement to the practice of
it. To contemplate and admire a Being of fuch tranf-
cendent dignity and perfection as God, muff naturally
and neceffarily open and enlarge the mind, give a
freedom and amplenefs to its powers, and a grandeur
and elevation to its aims. For, as an excellent divine
obferves, “ the greatnefs of an objeCt, and the excel¬
lency of the a£t of any AGENT about a tranfeendent
objeCt, doth mightily tend to the enlargement and im¬
provement of his faculties.” Little objeCts, mean
company, mean cares, and mean bufmefs, cramp the
mind, contraCt its views, and give it a creeping air
and deportment. But when it foars above mortal cares
and mortal purfuits into the regions of divinity, and
converfes with the greateft and belt of Beings, it
fpreads itfelf into a wider compafs, takes higher flights
in reafon and goodnefs, becomes godlike in its air and
manners. Virtue is, if one may fay fo, both the ejfeEt
and caufe of largenefs of mind. It requires that one
think freely, and aft nobly. Now what can conduce
more to freedom of thought and dignity of aftion,
than to conceive worthily of God, to reverence and
adore his unrivalled excellency, to imitate and tran-
feribe that excellency into our own nature, to remember
our relation to him, and that ive are the images and
reprefentatives of his glory to the reft of the creation ?
Such feelings and exercifes muft and will make us
fcorn all aftions that are bafe, unhandfome, or un¬
worthy our ftate; and the relation we hand in to
God rvill irradiate the mind with the light of wif-
dom, and ennoble it with the liberty and dominion of
220
(uai'd
Dement
virtue.
virtue.
The influence and efficacy of religion may be con-
fidered in another light. We all know that the pre¬
fence of a friend, a neighb ur, or any number of fpec-
tators, but efpecially an auguft affembly of them, ufes
I L O S O P H Y. 399
to be a confidcrable check upon the conduft of one From th?.
who is not loft to aii fenfe of honour and fhame, and
contributes to reftrain many irregular fallies of paihon. Soul.
In the fame manner we may imagine, that the awe I- .."y —J
of fome fuperior mind, who is fuppofed privy to our
fecret conduft, and armed with full power to reward
or punifti it, will impede a reftraint on us in luch ac¬
tions as fall not under the controul or animadverfon of
others. If wre go ftill higher, and fuppofe our inmoft
thoughts and darkeft defigns, as well as our moft fe¬
cret aftions, to lie open to the notice oi the fupreme
and univerfal Mind, who is both the jpetiator nub judge
of human aftions, it is evident that the belief oi lo au¬
guft a prefence, and fuch awful infpeftion, muft carry
a reftraint and weight with it proportioned to the
ftrength of that belief, and be an additional motive to
the praftice of many duties which would not have been
performed without it. 230
It may be obferved farther, that “ to live under an Exercifes
habitual fenfe of the Deity and his great adminif ration,pie^rrr
is to be converfant with wfdom, order, and beauty, in ™
the higheft fubjefts, and to receive the delightful re¬
flexions and benign feelings which thefe excite while
they irradiate upon him from every feene of nature and
providence.” How improving muft fuch views be to
the mind, in dilating and exalting it above thofe puny
interefts and competitions which agitate and inflame the
bulk of mankind agaiait each other !
Chap. IV. Motive to Virtue from the Immorta¬
lity of the Soul, &c.
231
The other motive mentioned was the immortality of Metaphy-
the foul, with future rewards and punifhments. The^^1"^"
meiaphyfcal proofs of the foul’s immortality are com- its immcr_
monly drawn from—its fmple, uncompounded, and indi- tality.
vfible nature \ from whence it is concluded, that it can¬
not be corrupted or extinguiftied by a diffolution or de-
ftruftion of its parts :—from its having a beginning of
motion within itfelf; whence it is inferred, that it can¬
not difeontinue and lofe its motion :—from the different
properties of matter and mind, the fuggifnefs and inac¬
tivity of the one, and the immenfe aShvity of the other;
its prodigious flight of thought and imagination ; its pe¬
netration, memory, for efght, and anticipations oi futurity;
from whence it is concluded, that a being of fo divine
a nature cannot be extinguiftied. But as thefe meta-
phyfical proofs depend on intricate reafonings concern¬
ing the nature, properties, and difinciions of body and
mmd, with which we are not very well acquainted, they
are not obvious to ordinary underftandings, and arc fel-
dom fo convincing even to thofe of higher reach, as not
to leave fome doubts behind them. Therefore perhaps
it is not fo fafe to reft the proof of fuch an important
article on what many may call the fubtilities of fchool
learning. Thofe proofs which are brought from ana¬
logy, from the moral confiitution and phenomena of the
human mind, the moral attributes of God, and the pre¬
fent courfe of things, and which therefore are called
the moral arguments, are the plained: and generally the
moft fatisfying. We {hall fcleft only one or two from
the reft. _ 2.33
In tracing the nature and defination of any being, r''7or^
we form the fureft judgment from his powers of adhon,
and the fcope and limits of thefe, compared with his
fate,
406
MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
Motives to J}ate, or ivith that Jle/d in which they are exercifed. If
, Virtl1*' , this being pafles through different ftates, or fields of
aftion, and avc find a fuccejjion of powers adapted to
the difterent periods of his progrefs, we conclude that
he was deftined for thofe fucceffive ftates, and reckon
his nature progreffive. If, befides the immediate fet of
powers which fit him for aftion in his prefent date,
we obferve another fet which appear fuperiluous if he
were to be confined to it, and which point to another
or higher one, we naturally conclude, that he is not
defigned to remain in his prefent ftate, but to advance
to that for which thofe fupernumerary powers are
adapted. Thus we argue, that the infett, which has
wings forming or formed, and all the apparatus pro¬
per for flight, is not deftined always to creep on the
ground, or to continue in the torpid ftate of adhering
to a Avail, but is defigned in its feafon to take its flight
in air. \V ithout this farther deftination, the admi¬
rable mechanifm of Avings and the other apparatus
Avould be ufelefs and abfurd. The fame kind of rea-
foning may be applied to man, while he Ih'es only a
fort of vegetative life in the Avomb. He is' furnithed
even there Avith a beautiful apparatus of organs, eyes,
ears, and other delicate fenfes, Avhich receive nourifti-
ment indeed, but are in a manner folded up, and have
no proper exercife or ufe in their prefent confine-
* Vide Lu- tuent *. Let us fuppofe fome intelligent fpeflator,
dov. Viv. avIio never had any connexion Avith man, nor the leaft
(le Re tig. acquaintance Avith human affairs, to fee this odd phe-
Lib II. de nomenon> a creature formed after fuch a manner, and
vita Uteri, placed in a lituation apparently unfuitable to fuch va-
&c. rious machinery : muft he not be ftrangely puzzled
about the ufe of his complicated ftrufture, and rec¬
kon fuch a profufion of art and admirable Avorkman-
fliip loft on the fubjeft ; or reafon by Avay of anticipa¬
tion, that a creature endued with fuch various yet un¬
exerted capacities, Avas deftined for a more enlarged
fphere of aftion, in Avhich thofe latent capacities {hall
have full play ? the vaft variety and yet beautiful fym-
metry and proportions of the fe\-eral parts and organs
with Avhich the creature is endued, and their apt cohe-
lion Avith, and dependence on, the curious receptacle of
their life and nourifliment, would forbid his concluding
the Avhole to be the birth of chance, or the bungling
effort of an unlkilful aitift ; at leaft Avould make him
demur a Avhile at fo harfli a fentence. But if, Avhile
he is in this ftate of uncertainty, we fuppofe him to
fee the babe, after a feAV fuccefsful ftruggles, throAV-
ing off his fetters, breaking loofe from his little dark
prifon, and emerging into open day, then unfolding his
reel ufe and dormant poAvers, breathing in air, gazing at
light, admiring colours, founds, and all the fair variety
of nature, immediately his doubts clear up, the proprie¬
ty and excellency of the workmanftiip daAvn upon him
with full luftre, and the whole myftery of the firft pe¬
riod is unravelled by the opening of this iicav feene.
Though in this fecoml period the creature lives chiefly a
kind of animal life, i. e. oifenfe and appetite, yet by va¬
rious trials and obfervations he gains experience, and by
the gradual evolution of the poAvers of imagination he
ripens apace for a higher life, for exercifing the arts of
defign and imitation, and of thofe in which ftrength or
dexterity are more requifite than acutenefs or reach of
judgment. In the fucceeding rational or inteUeflual
period, his underfunding, which formerly crept in a
Part III
loAver, mounts into a higher fphere, canvaffes the na- from the
tures, judges of the relations of things, forms fchemes,
deduces confequences from what is paft, and from pre-
fent as AVell as paft collefts future events. By this fuc- i j
ceflion of ftates, and of correfpondent culture, he groAVS
up at length into a moral, a facial, and a political crea¬
ture. This is the laft period at Avhich Ave perceive him
to arrive in this his mortal career. Each period is intro-
duftory to the next fucceeding one ; each life is a field
of exercife and improvement for the next highert'one j
the life of the foetus for that of the infant, the life of
the infant for that of the child, and all the loAver for
the higheft and beft —But is this the laft period of? See
nature’s progreflion ? Is this the utmoft extent of her ^utl.er s
plot, where flie winds up the drama, and difmiffes the part
a£lor into eternal oblivion ? Or does he appear to be
inA'-efted Avith fupernumerary poAvers, Avhich have not
full exercife and fcope even in the laft feene, and reach
not that maturity or perfedlion of Avhich they are capa¬
ble •, and therefore point to fome higher feene where
he is to fuftain another and more important chara&er
than he has yet fuftained ? If any fuch there are,
may avc not conclude by analogy, or in the fame Avay
of anticipation as before, that he is deftined for that
after part, and is to be produced upon a more auguft
and folemn ftage, Avhere his fublimer powers {hall have
proportioned aftion, and his nature attain its comple¬
tion.
If avc attend to that curiofty, or prodigious thirf of Powers in
knowledge, Avhich is natural to the mind in every pe- man which
riod of its progrefs, and confider Avithal the endlefs ^aa
round of bufinefs and care, and the various hardftiips to ~ ‘
Avhich the bulk of mankind are chained down ; it is Intellec-
evident, that in this prefent ftate it is impoffible to ex- tual.
pe<ft the gratification of an appetite at once fo infa-
tiable and fo noble. Our fenfes, the ordinary organs by
Avhich knoAvledge is let into the mind, are always im-
perfetl, and often fallacious j the advantages of aflift-
ing or correfting them are poffeffed by few ; the diffi¬
culties of finding out truth amidft the various and con-
tradidlory opinions, interefts, and paflions of mankind,
are many ; and the wants of the creature, and of thofe
with Avhom he is conne6led, numerous and urgent: fo
that it may be faid of moft men, that their intelleclual
organs are as much {hut up and fecluded from proper
nourhhment and cxercife in that little circle to which
they are confined, as the bodily organs are in the
Avomb. Nay, thofe who to an afpiring genius have ad¬
ded all the affiftances of art, leifure, and the moft liber¬
al education, Avhat narroAV profpe&s can ev'en they take
of this unbounded feene of things from that little emi¬
nence on Avhich they ftand ? and how eagerly do they
ftill grafp at neAv difeoveries, Avithout any fatisfa<ftion or
limit to their ambition ?
But fhould it be faid, that man is made for a&ion, Morei
and not ior fpeculation, or fruitlefs fearches after know- powers,
ledge, Ave alk, For what kind of action ? Is it only for
bodily exercifes, or for moral, political, and religious
ones ? Of all thefe he is capable •, yet, by the unavoid¬
able circumftances of his lot, he is tied doAvn to the
former, and has hardly any leifure to think of the lat¬
ter, or, if he has, wants the proper inftruments of ex¬
erting them. The love of virtue, of one's friends and
country, the generous fympathy with mankind, and heroic
•zeal of doing good, which are all fo natural to great and
good
jirtlll. MO HAL PH
j tives to good minds, and fome traces of which are found in the
rii-tue. lowed, are feldom united with proportioned means or
V “"yopportunities of exerciiing' them : fo that the moral
fpring, the noble energies and impulfes of the mind, can
hardly find proper fcope even in the moit fortunate con¬
dition j but are much deprefied in fome, and almott en¬
tirely reft rained in the generality, by the numerous
clogs of an indigent, fickly, or embarralfed life. Were
fuch mighty powers, fuch godlike aftections, planted in
the human breaft to be folded up in the narrow womb
of our prefent exiftence, never to be produced into a
more perfeB life, nor to expatiate in the ample career of
immortality ?
*3^. ^ Let it be confidered, at the fame time, that no pof-
^ ires' of fedion, no enjoyment, within the round of mortal things,
t lienee is commenfurate to the defires, or adequate to the capa-
a happi- cities, of the mind. The moft exalted condition has its
15 abatements ; the happieft conjuncture of fortune leaves
many withes behind; and, after the higheft gratifica¬
tions, the mind is carried forward in purfuit of new
ones without end. Add to all, the fond dejire of im-
mortality, the fecret dread of non-exijlence, and the
high unremitting pulfe of the foul beating for perfeBion,
joined to the improbability or the impoflibility of attain¬
ing it here; and then judge whether this elaborate
ftrufture, this magnificent apparatus of imvard powers
and organs, does not plainly point out an hereafter, and
intimate eternity to man ? Does nature give the finithing
touches to the lefler and ignoble inftances of her Ikill,
and raife every other creature to the maturity and per¬
fection of his being; and {hall (lie leave her principal
workmanfhip unfiniftied ? Does the carry the vegetative
and animal life in man to their full vigour and higheft
deftination •, and (hall file fuffer his intelleBual, his mo¬
ral, his divine life, to fade away, and be for ever extin-
gui fhed ? Would fuch abortions in the moral world be
congruous to that perfeBion of wifdom and goodnefs
a.37 which upholds and adorns the natural?
erefore We muft therefore conclude from this detail, that
i rtaJ11" ^ie Prefentfate, even at its beft, is only the WOMB of
man’s being, in which the nobleft principles of his
nature are in a manner fettered, or fecluded from a
correfpondent fphere of aCtion \ and therefore deftined
for a future and unbounded ftate, wrhere they (hall
emancipate themfelves, and exert the fulnefs of their
ftrength. The moft accomplifhed mortal, in this low
and dark apartment of nature, is only the rudiments
of what he (hall be when he takes his ethereal flight,
and puts on immortality. Without a reference to
that ftate, man were a mere abortion, a rude unfinifih-
ed embryo, a monfter in nature. But this being once
fuppofed, he ftill maintains his rank of the mafter-
piece of the creation 5 his latent pow?ers are all fuitable
to the harmony and progreffon of nature j his noble af-
pirations, and the pains of his dilfolution, are his ef¬
forts towards a fecond birth, the pangs of his delivery
into light, liberty, and perfeClion •, and death, his dif-
charge from gaol, his feparation from his fellowr pri-
foners, and introduction into the affembly of thofe he¬
roic fpirits who are gone before him, and of their
great eternal Parent. The fetters of his mortal coil
being loofened, and his prifon walls broke down, he
will be bare and open on every fide to the admiffion of
truth and virtue, and their fair attendant happinefs ;
every vital and intelleBual fpring will evolve itfelf with
k Vol. XIV. Part II.
ILOSOPHY. 401
a divine clafticity in the free air of heaven. lie will From ti e
not then peep at the univerfe and its glorious Author
through a dark grate or a grofs medium, nor receive ySoul 1
the reflections of his glory through the ftrait openings 1 v—^
of fenfible organs : but will be all eye, all ear, all ethe¬
real and divine feeling*. Let one part, however, of * F/A? Re¬
tire analogy be attended to : That as in the womb we
receive our original conftitulion, form, and the effen- ^ ^ *
tial famina of our being, which we carry along with '
us into the light, and which greatly affcCl the fuc-
ceeding periods of our life 5 fo our temper and condi¬
tion in the future life will depend on the conduCt we
have obferved, and the character we have formed, in
the prefent life. We are here in miniature what we
{hall be at full length hereafter. The firft rude [ketch or
outlines of reafon and virtue muft be drawn at prefent,
to be afterwards enlarged to the future and beauty of
angels. 235
This, if duly attended to, muft prove not only a Immortal:.
guard, but an admirable incentive to virtue. For he ty a guard
who faithfully and ardently follows the light of know-
ledge, and pants after higher improvements in virtue, tue>
will be wonderfully animated and inflamed in that pur¬
fuit by a full conviftion that the feene does not clofe
with life—that his ftruggles, arifing from the weaknefs
of nature and the ftrength of habit, will be turned into
triumphs—that his career in the track of wifdom and
goodnefs will be both fwifter and fmoother—and thofe
generous ardours with which he glows towards heaven,
i. e. the perfeBion and immortality of virtue, will find
their adequate ohjeCf and exercife in a fphere propor-
tionably enlarged, incorruptible, immortal. On the
other hand, what an inexpreffible damp muft it be to
the good man, to dread the total extinCfion of that
light and virtue, without which life, nay, immortality
itfelf, were not worth a fingle wifti ? 2,
Many writers draw their proofs of the immortality proof frotn
of the foul, and of a future ftate of rewards and pu-the inequa-
nilhments, from the unequal diftribution of thefe here. luy of pre-
It cannot be diflembled that wicked men often efcape
the outward punifliment due to their crimes, and do
not feel the imvard in that meafure their demerit feems
to require, partly from the calloufnefs induced upon
their nature by the habits of vice, and partly from
the diflipation of their minds abroad by pleafure or
bufinefs—and fometimes good men do not reap all the
natural and genuine fruits of their virtue, through the
many unforefeen or unavoidable calamities in which
they are involved. To the fmalleft refleCfion, how¬
ever, it is obvious, that the natural tendency of virtue
is to produce happinefs j that if it wrere univerfally
praCtifed, it would, in faft, produce the greateft fum
of happinefs of which human nature is capable 5 and
that this tendency is defeated only by numerous indi¬
viduals, who, forfaking the laws of virtue, injure and
opprefs thofe who fteadily adhere to them. But the
natural tendency of virtue is the refult of that confti-
tution of things which was eftabliftred by God at the
creation of the world. This being the cafe, rve muft;
either conclude, that there will be a future ftate, in
which all the moral obliquities of the prefent fhall be
made ftraight j or elfe admit, that the defigns of infi¬
nite wifdom, goodnefs, and power, can be finally de¬
feated by the perverfe conduft of human weaknefs.—
But this laft fuppofition is fo extravagantly abfurd,
3 E that
402
MORAL PHILOSOPHY,
*40
jBehef of
immortali¬
ty, Sec. a
great fup-
port amidft
trials.
^Vkmet0 t^at t^ie a ^utur'5 ftate, the only other poflible
l ^ ^ _ alternative, may be pronounced to have the evidence of
perfect demonftration.
Virtue has prefent rewards, and vice prefent punifh-
ments annexed to it; fuch rewards and punilhments as
make virtue, in molt cafes that happen, far more eli¬
gible than vice : but, in the infinite variety of human
contingencies, it may fometimes fall out, that the in¬
flexible practice of virtue (hall deprive a man of con-
fiderable advantages to himfelf, his family, or friends,
which he might gain by a well-timed piece of roguery ;
fuppofe by betraying his truft, voting againft his con-
fcience, felling his country, or any other crime where
the fecurity againfl difeovery fhall heighten the temp¬
tation. Or, it may happen, that a ftrift adherence to
his honour, to his religion, to the caufe of liberty
and virtue, (hall expofe him, or his family, to the lofs
of every thing, nay, to poverty, flavery, death itfelf,
or to torments far more intolerable. Now what fhall
fecure a man’s virtue in circumftances of fuch trial ?
What fhall enforce the obligations of confcience againfl;
the allurements of fo many interefls, the dread of fo
many and lo terrible evils, and the almoft unfurmountable
averfion of human nature to exceflive pain ! The con-
flifl is the greater, when the circumftances of the crime
are fuch as eafiiy admit a variety of alleviations from
neceflity, natural affeliion, love to one^s family or friends,
perhaps in indigence : thefe will give it even the air of
virtue. Add to all, that the crime may be thought to
have few bad confequences,—may be eafiiy concealed,—
or imagined poflible to be retrieved in a good meafure
by future good condufl. It is obvious to which fide
moft men will lean in fuch a cafe •, and how much need
there is of a balance in the oppofite fcale, from the con-
fideration of a God, of a Providence, and of an immor¬
tal fate of retribution, to keep the mind firm and un¬
corrupted in thofe or like inftances of fingular trial or
241 diftrefs.
In the ge- But without fuppofing fuch peculiar inftances, a
fenfe of a governing Mind, and a perfuafion that vir¬
tue is not only befriended by him here, but will be
crowned by him hereafter with rewards fuitable to its
nature, vaft in themfelves, and immortal in their du¬
ration, muft be not only a mighty fupport and incen¬
tive to the practice of virtue, but a ftrong barrier
againft vice. The thoughts of an Almighty Judge,
and of an impartial future reckoning, are often alarm¬
ing, inexpreflibly fo, even to the ftouteft offenders.
On the other hand, how fupporting muft it be to the
good man, to think that he a<5ls under the eye of his
Soui.
242
Part III,
friend, as well as judge ! How improving, to confider From the
the prefent fate as connected with a future one, and ^mraorta*i-
every relation in which he Hands as a fchool of difeip/ine ty tlle
for his affection r ; every trial as the exercife of fome vir¬
tue ; and the virtuous deeds which refult from both,
as introductory to higher feenes of aElion and enjoyment!
Finally, How tranfporting is it to view death as his dif-
charge from the warfare of mortality, and a triumphant
entry into a ftate of freedom, fecurity, and perfection,
in which knowledge and wifdom ftiall break upon him
from every quarter ; where each faculty {hall have its
proper objedt : and his virtue, w'hich was often damped
or defeated here, {hall be enthroned in undifturbed and
eternal empire ?
On reviewing this fliort fystern of morals, and the Advanta-
motives which fupport and enforce it, and comparing ?es the
both with the Christian fcheme, what light and vigour
do they borrow from thence ! How clearly and fully and it*’con.
does Christianity lay open the connexions of our na- nexion with
ture, both material and immaterial, and future as well natural re-
as prefent! What an ample and beautiful detail does it !isionv”
prefent of the duties we owe to God, to fociety, and u '
ourfelves, promulgated in the moft fimple, intelligible,
and popular manner j divefted of every partiality of
fe£l or nation •, and adapted to the general ftate of
mankind ! With what bright and alluring examples does
it illuftrate and recommend the praftice of thofe du¬
ties : and with what mighty fanEiions does it enforce
that pradlice ! How ftrongly does it deferibe the cor¬
ruptions of our nature *, the deviations of our life from
the rule of duty, and the caufes of both ! How marvel¬
lous and benevolent a plan of redemption does it un¬
fold, by which thofe corruptions may be remedied,
and our nature reftored from its deviations to tranfeend-
ent heights of virtue and piety ! Finally, What a fair
and comprehenfive profpe<ft does it give us of the ad¬
min f ration of God, of which it reprefents the prefent
fate only as a fmall period, and a period of warfare and
triall How folemn and unbounded are the feenes which
it opens beyond it ! the refurre&ion of the dead, the
general judgment, the equal difribution of rewards and
punifbments to the good and the bad ; and the full com¬
pletion of divine wifdom and goodnefs in the final efa-
blfoment of order, perfeElion, and happinefs! How
glorious then is that Scheme of Religion, and how
worthy of affeblion as well as of admiration, which, by
'making fuch difeoveries, and affording fuch afffances,.
has difelofed the unfading fruits and triumphs of vir¬
tue, and fecured its interefts beyond the power of
TIME and CHANCE.
M O R
Moral MORAL Senfe, that whereby we perceive what is
.11 good, virtuous, and beautiful, in a&ions, manners, and
cbara&ers. See MORAL Philofophy.
MORALITY. See Moral Philofophy.
MORANT-Point, the moft eafterly point or promon¬
tory of the ifland of Jamaica, in America. W. Long.
75. c6. N. Lat. 17. 56.
MORASS, a marfh, fen, or low moift ground, which
receives the waters from above without having any de-
feent to carry them off again. Somner derives the
M O R
word from the Saxon meife, “ lake j” Salmafius from Morals,
mare, “ a collection of waters }” others from the Ger- Moral,
man maraf, “ a muddy place j” and others from marefe, T
of maricetum, a marifeis, i. e. rufties. See Draining,
Agriculture Index.
In Scotland, Ireland, and the north of England, there
is a particular kind of moraffes called moffes, or peat-
tnoffes, whence the country people dig their peat or turf
for firing. See Moss.
MORATj or Murten, a confiderable town oF
Switzerland,
M O R
[ 40.3 ]
M O R
'Torat,
lorata.
Switzerland, capital of a bailiwick of the fame name,
belonging to the cantons oi Bern and Friburg. It is
feated on the lake Moral, on the road from Avenche
to Bern, 10 mile* weft of Bern and 10 miles north-eaft
of Friburg. The lake is about fix miles long and two
broad, and the country about it pleafant and well cul¬
tivated. JL he lakes of IVdorat and Neufchatel are
parallel to each other, but the latter is more elevated,
difcharging itfelf by means of the river Broye into
the lake of Neufchatel. According to M. de Luc,
the former is 1 5 French feet above the level of Neuf¬
chatel lake 5 and both thefe lakes, as well as that of
Bienne, feem formerly to have extended confiderably
beyond their prefent limits, and from the pofition of
the country appear to have been once united. Former¬
ly the large fifti named Jilurus glanis, or the faluth,
been there long before that town was unhappily befieged •
and burnt} however, efcaping the flames, they fled in MoraM.t.
the utmoft diftrefs to Hammelburg. This place they
were alfo obliged to quit, and were reduced to the laft
extremities, when the eleftor Palatine invited Grunth-
ler to be profeflbr of phyfic at Heidelberg. He en¬
tered on his new office in 1354; but they no fooner
began to tafte the fweets of repole, than a difeafe, oc-
cafioned by the diltreffes and hardfhips they had fuf-
fered, feized upon Morata, who died in 1555, in the
20th year of her age \ and her huffiand and brother
did not long furvive her. She compofed feveral works,
great part of which were burnt with the town of
Schweinfort ; the remainder, which confift of orations,
dialogues, letters, and tranflations, were collefted and
publilhed under the title of Olympic Fulvi<e Mora/a',
frequented thefe lakes, but has not been caught in them famines doBiJJimct, etplane divines, opera omnia quee hue-
n 1 .• n 'i'i  ! iner'int • mnhii ? i./p In Iprunat mrintn v
■y °f
ance.
for a long time paft. The environs of this town and
lake were carefully examined by Mr Coxe, during his
refidence in Switzerland, who made feveral excursions
acrofs the lake to a ridge of hills fituated betwixt it
and Neufchatel. Here are many delightful profpefts •,
particularly one from the top of Mount Vuilly, which,
he fays, is perhaps the only central fpot from which
the eye can at once comprehend the vaft amphitheatre
formed on one fide by the Jura ftretching from the
environs of Geneva as far as Bafle, and, on the other,
by that ftupendous chain of fnowy Alps which extend
from the frontiers of Italy to the confines of Germany,
and is loft at each extremity in the horizon. Moral is
celebrated for the obftinate defence it made againft
Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and for the battle
which afterwards followed on the 22d of June I470>
where the duke was defeated, and his army almoft en-
See Hif- tirely deftroyed *. Not far from the town, and ad¬
joining to the high road, there ftill remains a monu¬
ment of this vi&ory. It is a fquare building, filled
with the bones of Burgundian foldiers who were fiain
at the fiege and in the battle; the number of which ap¬
pears to have been very confiderable. There are feve¬
ral inferiptions in the Latin and German languages
commemorating the victory.
MORATA, Olympia Fulvia, an Italian lady,
diftinguiffied for her learning, was born at Ferrara, in
1526. Her father, after teaching the belles lettres in
feveral cities of Italy, was made preceptor to the two
young princes of Ferrara, the fons of Alphonfus I.
The uncommon abilities he difeovered in his daughter
determined him to give her all the advantages of edu¬
cation Meanwhile the princefs of Ferrara ftudying
polite literature, it was judged expedient that ffie
fhould have a companion in the fame purfuit 5 and Mo¬
rata being called, (he was heard by the aftoniffied
courtiers to declaim in Latin, to fpeak Greek, and
to explain the paradoxes of Cicero. Her father dying,
Ihe was obliged to return home to take upon her the
management of family affairs, and the education of her
brother and three fifters ; both which ffie executed
with the greateft diligence andfuccefs. In the mean time
Andrew Grunthler, a young German phyfician, had
married her, and with him Ihe went to Germany,
taking her brother along with her, whom ffie inftrudled
in the Latin and Greek tongues j and after flaying a
ffiort time at Augffiurg, went to Schweinfort in Fran¬
conia, where her huffiand was born : but they had not
tenus invenin potuermt; quibus Ccslii fecundi curioms
epifolee ac orationes acccfferunt.
MORAVIA, a river of Turkey in Europe, nffiich
rifes in Bulgaria, runs north through Servia by Nifia,
and falls into the Danube at Semendria, to the eaft-
ward of Belgrade.
Moravia, a marquifate of Germany, derives the
name of Mahern, as it is called by the Germans, and of
Morawa, as it is called by the natives, from the river
of that name, which rifes in the mountains of the coun¬
ty of Glatz, and paffes through the middle of it. It is
bounded to the fouth by Auftria, to the north by Glatz
and Silefia, to the iveft by Bohemia, and to the eaft
by Silefia and Hungary j being about 120 miles in
length and ICO in breadth.
A great part of this country is overrun with woods
and mountains, where the air is very cold, but much
wholefomer than in the low grounds, which are full
of bogs and lakes. The mountains, in general, are
barren 5 but the more champaign parts tolefably fer¬
tile, yielding corn, with plenty of hemp and flax, good
faffron, and pafture. Nor is it altogether deftitute of
wine, red and white, fruits, and garden fluff. Moravia
alfo abounds in horfes, black cattle, ffieep, and goats.
In the woods and about the lakes there is plenty of
wild fowl, game, venifon, bees, honey, hares, foxes,
wolves, beavers, &c. This country affords marble,
alum, iron, fulphur, faltpetre, and vitriol, with mineral
waters, and wrarm fprings; but fait is imported. Its
rivers, of which the March, Morawa, or Morau, are
the chief, abound with trout, crayfiffi, barbels, eels,
perch, and many other forts of fifti.
The language of the inhabitants is a dialed! of the
Sclavonic, differing little from the Bohemian •, but the
nobility and citizens fpeak German and French.
Moravia was anciently inhabited by the Quadi, who
were driven out by the Sclavi. Its kings, who were
once powerful and independent, afterwards became de¬
pendent on, and tributary to, the German emperors
and kings. At laft, in the year 908, the Moravian
kingdom wras parcelled out among the Germans, Poles,
and Hungarians. In 1086, that part of it properly
called Moravia was declared a marquifate by the Ger¬
man king Henry IV. and united with Bohemia, to
wffiofe dukes and kings it hath ever fince been fubjeft.
Though it is not very populous, it contains about 42
greater or walled towns, 17 fmaller or open towns,
and 198 market towns, befides villages, &c. The
3 E 2 ftates
M O R
Mora ia
li
Morbus.
[ 404 ]
M O R
ftates of the country confift of the clergy, lords, knights,
and burgefles *, and the diets, when funimoned by the
regency, are held at Brunn. The marquifate is Hill
governed by its own peculiar conlHtutions, under the
dire&orium in publicis et camera/ibusy and the fupretne
judicatory at Vienna. It is divided into fix circles,
each of which lias its captain, and contributes to its
fovereign about one-third of what is exafted of Bohe¬
mia. Towards the expences of the military eftabliih-
mcntof the w hole Auftnan hereditary countries, itsyear-
ly quota is 1,856,490 florins. Seven regiments of foot,
one of cuirafliers, and one of dragoons, are ufually
quartered in it.
Chriftianity wras introduced into this country in the
9th century ; and the inhabitants continued attached to
the church of Rome till the 15th, when they efpoufed
the doftrine of John Hufs, and threw off Popery : but
after the defeat of the elector Palatine, whom they had
chofen king, as well as the Bohemians, the emperor
Ferdinard 11. re-eflablilhed Popery 5 though there are
llill fome Proteftants in Moravia. The bifhop of Ol-
mutz, who Hands immediately under the pope, is at
the head of the ecclefiaflics in this country. The fu-
preme ecclefiaftical jurifdiftion, under the bifhop, is veil¬
ed in a confirtory.
The commerce of this country is inconfiderable. Of
what they have, Brunn enjoys the principal part. At
Iglau and Trebitx are manufaftures of cloth, paper,
gunpowder, &c. There are alfo fome iron works and
glafs houfes in the country.
The inhabitants of Moravia in general are open-
hearted, not eafy to be provoked or pacified, obedient
to their mafters, and true to their promifes ; but credu¬
lous of old prophecies, and much addifted to drinking,
though neither fuch fots or bigots as they are reprefent-
ed by fome geographers. The boors, indeed, upon the
river Hank, are faid to be a thievifh, unpoliihed, brutal
race. The fciences now begin to lift up their heads a
little among the Moravians, the univerfity of Olmutz
having been put on a better footing •, and a riding aca¬
demy, with a learned fociety, have been lately eftablifh-
ed there.
MORAVIAN brethren. See Hernhutters,
and Unit as Fratrum.
MORAW, or Morava, a large river of Germany,
which has its fource on the confines of Bohemia and
Silefia. It traverfes the whole of Moravia, waters Ol¬
mutz and Hradifch, and receiving the Taya from the
confines of Lower Hungary and Upper Auftria, fepa-
rates thefe two countries as far as the Danube, into
which it falls.
MORBID, among phyfieians, fignifies “ difeafed or
corrupt a term applied either to an unfound confti-
tution, or to thofe parts or humours that are affe&ed by
a difeafe.
MORBUS comitiALIS, a name given to the epi-
lepfy ; becaufe if on any day when the people were
aflembled in comitia upon public bufinefs, any perfon
fuddenly feized with this diforder fliould fall down,
the aflembly was diflblved, and the bufinefs of the comi-
tia, however important, was fufpended. See Comitia.
MORBUS Regius, the fame with the Jaundice. See
Medicine Index.
Morbus, or Difeafe, in Botany. See Varietas.
More.
MORDAUNT, Charles, earl of Peterborough, a Morel aunt
celebrated commander both by fea and land, was the
ion of John Lord Mordaunt Vifcount Avalon, and vras
born about the year 1658. In 1675 he fucceeded his
father in his honours and eftate. While young he fer-
ved under the admirals Torrington and Narborough in
the Mediterranean againft the Algerines-, and in 1680
embarked for Africa with the earl of Plymouth, and
diflinguiflied himfelf at Tangier when it was befieged
by the Moors. In the reign of James II. he voted
againft the repeal of the tefl: aft 5 and difliking the
meafures of the court, obtained leave to go to Hol¬
land to accept the command of a Dutch fquadron in
the Weft Indies. He afterwards accompanied the
prince of Orange into this kingdom 5 and upon his
advancement to the throne, was fworn of the privy-
council, made one of the lords of the bedchamber to
his majefty, alfo firft commiflioner of the treafury, and
advanced to the dignity of earl of Monmouth. But
in November 1690 he was difmifled from his poft in
the treafury. On the death of his uncle Henry earl
of Peterborough in 1697, he fucceeded to that title j
and, upon the acceflion of Queen Anne, was invefted
with the commiflion of captain-general and governor
of Jamaica. In 1705 he was fworn of the privy-
council and the fame year declared general and com¬
mander in chief of the forces fent to Spain, and joint
admiral of the fleet with Sir Cloudfley Shovel, of
Avhich the year following he had the foie command.
His taking Barcelona with a handful of men, and af¬
terwards relieving it when greatly diftrelfed by the
enemy ; his driving out of Spain the duke of Anjou,
and the French army, which confifted of 2^,000 men,
though his otvn troops never amounted to 10,000}
his gaining pofleftion of Catalonia, of the kingdoms of
Valencia, Arragon, and the iile of Majorca, with part
of Murcia and Caftile, and thereby giving the earl of
Galway an opportunity of advancing to Madrid with¬
out a blow ; are aftonifhing inftances of his bravery
and eonduft. For thefe important fervices his lord-
lliip was declared general in Spain by Charles III.
afterwards emperor of Germany 5 and on his return
to England he received the thanks of the houfe of-
lords. His lordlhip was afterwards employed in feveral
embaflies to foreign courts, inftalled knight of the Gar¬
ter, and made governor of Minorca. In the reign of
George I. he was general of all the marine forces in
Great Britain, in which poft; he was continued by King
George II. He died in his paflage to Lifbon, where
he was going for the recovery of his health, in 1735.
His lordlhip was diftinguiftied by various (hining qua¬
lities : for, to the greateft perfonal courage and refolu-
tion, he added all the arts and addrefs of a general; a
lively and penetrating genius 5 and a great extent of
knowledge upon almoft every fubjeft of importance
within the cornpafs of ancient and modern literature j
hence his familiar letters, inferted among thofe of his
friend Mr Pope, are an ornament to that excellent col-
ledtion.
MORDELLA, a genus of infefts of the coleoptera
order. See Entomology Index.
MORE, Sir Thomas, lord high chancellor of
England, the fon of Sir John More, knight, one of the
judges of the King’s Bench, was born in the year 1480,
M O R
in Milk-flreet London. He was firft fent to a
1 at St Anthony’s in I'hreadneedle ftreet j and after¬
ward introduced into the family of Cardinal Moreton,
who in 1497 fent him to Canterbury college in Ox¬
ford. During his refidence at the univeriity he con-
ftantly attended the lectures of Linacre and Grocinus,
on the Greek and Latin languages. Having in the
fpace of about two years made confiderable proficiency
in academical learning, he came to New Inn in Lon¬
don, in order to ftudy the law ; whence, after lome
time, he removed to Lincoln’s Inn, of which his fatlier
■was a member. Notwithstanding his application to
the law, however, being now about 20 years old, he
wras fo bigotted to monkilh difcipline, that he wore a
hair ftiirt next his fkin, frequently faded, and often
flept on a bare plank. In the year 1503, being then
a burgefs in parliament, he diltinguiihed himfelf in the
houfe, in oppofition to the motion for granting a
fubfidy and three fifteenths for the marriage of Hen¬
ry VII.’s eldeft daughter, Margaret, to the king of
Scotland. The motion was rejected 5 and the king
■was fo highly offended at this oppofition from a beard-
lefs boy, that he revenged himfelf on Mr More’s father,
by fending him, on a frivolous pretence, to the Tower,
and obliging him to pay tool, for his liberty. Being
now called to the bar, he was appointed law reader at
Furnival’s inn, which place he held about, three years ;
but about this time he alfo read a public le&ure^ in
the church of St Lawrence, Old Jewry, upon St Au-
ftin’s treatife De Civitate Dei, with great applaufe. He
had indeed formed a defign of becoming a Francifcan
friar, but was diffuaded from it; and, by the advice
of Dr Colet, married Jane, the eldeft daughter of John
Colt, Efq. of Newhall in Effex. In 1508 .he was ap¬
pointed judge of the ftieriff’s court in the city of Lon¬
don, was made a juftice of the peace, and became very
eminent at the bar. In 1516 he went to Flanders in
the retinue of Bilhop Tonftal, and Dr Knight, who
were fent by King Henry VIII. to renew tue alliance
with the archduke of Auftria, afterwards Charles V.
On his return, Cardinal Wolfey would have engaged
Mr More in the fervice of the crown, and offered him
a penfion, which he refufed. Neverthelefs, it was
not long before he accepted the place of mafter of
the requefts, wras created a knight, admitted of the
privy council, and in 15 20 made treafurer of the ex¬
chequer. About this time he built a houfe on the
bank of the Thames, at Chelfea, and married a fecond
wife. This wife, whole name was Middleton, and a
widow, was old, ill tempered, and covetous •, neverthe¬
lefs Erafmus fay1, he was as fond of her as if ftie were a
young maid.
In the 14th year of Henry VIII. Sir Thomas More
was made fpeaker of the houfe of commons: in which
capacity he had the refolution to oppofe the then
powerful minifter, Wolfey, in his demand of an op-
preflive fubfidy ; notwithftanding which, it was not long-
before he was made chancellor of the duchy of Lanca-
fter, and was treated by the king w Angular familiari¬
ty. The king having once dined with Sir Thomas at
Chelfea, walked with him near an hour in the garden,
with his arm round his neck. After he was gone, Mr
Roper, Sir The lias’s fon-in-Iaw, obferved how happy
he was to be fo familiarly treated by the kmg : to which
[ 405 3 M O R
lehool Sir Thomas replied, “ I thank our lord, fon Roper, I ^
find his grace my very good lord indeed, and believe
he doth as Angularly favour me as any fubjeft within
this realm : how belt, I muft tell thee, 1 have no caufe
to be proud thereof j for if my head would win him a
cable hi France, it wmuld not fail to go oft.” Bronx
this anecdote it apears, that Sir Ihomas knew his
grace to be a villain.
in 1526 he was fent with Cardinal Wolfey and
others, on a joint tmbaffy to 1 ranee, and in 1529
with Bilhop Tonftal to Cambray. i he king, it fee ms,
was fo well fatisfied with his lervices on Uxefe occa-
fions, that in the following year, Wolfey being dii-
graced, he made him chancellor j which feems. the
more extraordinary, when we are told that Sir 1 ho-
mas had repeatedly declared his difapprobation of the
king’s divorce, on which the great defen/or Jidn was fo
politively bent. Having executed the office of chan¬
cellor about three years, with equal wifdom and inte¬
grity, he refigned the feals in 1533’ prooably to avoid
the danger of his refilling to confirm the king’s di¬
vorce. He now retired to his houfe at Chelfea ; dit~
milled many of his fervants fent his childre n with
their reipeblive families to their own houles (lor hi¬
therto, he had, it feems, maintained all his children,
with their families, in his own houfe, in the true ftyle
of an ancient patriarch } and fpent his time in ftudy
and devotion : but the capricious tyrant would not fuf-
fer him to enjoy his tranquillity. Though now re¬
duced to a private ftation, and even to indigence, his
opinion of the legality of the king’s marriage with
Anne Boleyn w;as deemed of lo much importance, that
various means were tried to procure his approbation \
but all perfuafion proving ineileftual, he was, with
fome others, attainted in the houfe of lords of niifpii-
fion of treafon, for encouraging Elizabeth Barton,
the nun of Kent, in her treafonable praftiees. His
innocence in this affair appeared fo clearly, that they
Avere obliged to ftrike his name out of the bill. Fie
Avas then accufed of other crimes, but with the fame
effedl 5 till, refufing to take the oath enjoined by the
act of fupremacy, he xvas committed to the ioAver,
and, after 15 months imprifonment, was tried at the
bar of the king’s bench for high treafon, in denying
the king’s fupremacy. The proof rtfted on the foie
evidence of Rich the lolicitor general, Avhom Sir 1 ho-
mas, in his defence, fufficiently diferedited 5 neverthe¬
lefs the jury brought him in guilty, and he Avas con¬
demned to fuffer as a traitor. The merciful Flarry,
hoAvever, indulged him Avith fimple decollation 5 and
he Avas accordingly beheaded on lower hill, on the.
5th of July 1535. His body, which Avas firft interred
in the Tower, Avas begged by his daughter Margaret,
and depoftted in the chancel of the church at Chelfea,
where a monument, with an infenption written by
himfelf, had been fome time before erefted. This mo¬
nument with the infeription is ftill to be feen in that
church. The fame daughter, Margaret, alfo procured
his head after it had remained 14 days upon London
bridge, and placed it in a vatut belonging to the
More.
Roper family, under a chapel adjoining to St Dun-
ftan’s church in Canterbury. Sir 'I homas More Avas
a man of fome learning, and an upright judge : a very
prieft in religion, yet cheerful, and even affedledly
witty
More,
Morel.
M 0 R [ 406
■witty (a). He wanted not fagacity, wliere religion was
out of the queftion j but in that his faculties were fo en¬
veloped as to render him a weak and credulous enthu-
ia t. He left one fon and three daughters : of whom
Margaret, the eldeft, was very remarkable for her
knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages. She
married a Mr Roper of Wellhall in Kent, vvhofe life
ox Sir Thomas More was publilhed by Mr Hearne at
Oxford in 1716. Mrs Roper died in 1 ^44 ; and was
buried in the vault of St Dunftan’s in Canterbury, with
her father s head in her arms.
, . S}rT 1was the author of various works, though
his Jtopza is the only performance that has furvived in
tne efteem of the world 5 owing to the reft being chief-
ly O a polemic nature : his anfwer to Luther has only
gained him the credit of having the beft knack of any
man in Europe, at calling bad names in good Latin.
f works were coReded and publifhed by
order of Queen Mary, m 1557 ; his Latin, at Bafil,
ln I5b.L aud at Louvain, in 1566.
MORE A, formerly called the Pe/oponnefus, is a
peninfula to the fouth of Greece, to which it is joined
by the ifthmus of Corinth. Its form refembles a mul¬
berry leaf, and its name is derived from the great num-
ber of mulberry trees which it produces. It is about
loo miles in length, and 130 in breadth. The air is
temperate, and the land fertile, except in the middle
where it is full of mountains, and is watered by a
great number of rivers. It is divided into three pro¬
vinces j Scania, Belvedera, and Erazzo-di-Maina. It
was taken from the Turks by the Venetians in 1687 :
Tvf it^T in I71S‘ The fanSiac of the
Morea refides at Modon. See Greece and Pelopon¬
nesus.
MOREL, the name of feveral celebrated printers to
the kings of France, who, like the Stephens, were
alio men of great learning.
Frederic Morel, who was interpreter in the Greek
and Latin tongues, ^s well as printer to the king, wras
heir to Vafcofan, whofe daughter he had married. 
tie was born in Champagne, and he died in an ad¬
vanced age at Paris 1583. His fons and grandfons
trode m his fteps; they diiiinguifhed themfelves in li¬
terature, and maintained alfo the reputation which he
had acqmred by printing. The edition of St Gregory
vfNy(Ja, by his fon Claude Morel, is held in great
eftimation by the learned.
Morel, Frederic, fon of the preceding, and ftill
more celebrated than his father, was profeffor and in¬
terpreter to the king, and printer in ordinary for the
Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and French languages. He
was fo devoted to ftudy, that when he was told his
wife was at the point of death, he would not ftir till
he had fimftied the fentence which he had begun. Be¬
fore it was finiftied, he was informed that fhe was ac-
]
M O R
tually dead : / amforryfor it (replied he coldly), (he Morel
was an exce lent woman. This printer acquired great II
reputation from the works which he publilhed, which Mor^
were very numerous and beautifully executed. From '
the manufenpts in the king’s library, he publifhed fe¬
veral treatifes of St Bafil, Theodoret, St Cyrille : and
he accompanied them with a tranflation. His edition
of the. works of CEcumenius and Aretas, in 2 vols
M f u eemed* ^ ^ after diftinguiihing '
xmfelf by his knowledge m the languages, he died
June 27. 1630 at the age of 78. His fons and grand-
ions followed the fame profeflion.
Morel, m/llarn, regius profeffor of Greek, and
thredor of the king’s printing houfe at Paris, died
1504. He compofed a DiSHonnaire Grec-Latin Fran-
pots, which was publilhed in quarto in 1622, and
iome other works which indicate very extenfive learn-
mg. His editions of the Greek authors are exceed¬
ingly beautiful. This great fcholar, who was of a
different family from the preceding, had a brother
named John who died in prifon (where he had been
confined for herefy) at the age of 20, and whofe body
was dug out of the grave, and burnt Feb. 27. icco
1 hey were of the parifh of Tilled, in the county of
Mortem in Normandy. J
_ MORENA, in Ancient Geography, a diftrief or di-
vifion of Myfia, m the Hither Afia. A part of which
was occupied by Cleon, formerly at the head of a
band of robbers, but afterwards prieft of Jupiter Ab-
rettenus, and enriched with poffeflions, firft by Antony
and then by Csefar. * ’
MORESQUE, Moresk, or Mori/ho, a kind of
painting, carving, &c. done after the manner of the
Moors ; confifting of feveral grotefque pieces and com-
partiments promifcuoufly intermingled, not containing
any perfed: figure of a man, or other animal, but a wild
relemblance of birds, beafts, trees, &c. Thefe are alfo
called arabefques, and are particularly ufed in embroi¬
deries, damafk work, &c.
Moresque Dances, vulgarly called Morrice dances,
are thole altogether in imitation of the Moors, as fa-
rabands, chacons, &c. and are ufually performed with
caftanets, tambours, &c.
There are few country places in England where the
morrice dance is not known. It was probably intro¬
duced about, or a little before, the reign of Henry VIII.
and is a dance of young men in their Hurts, with bells
at their feet, and ribbands of various colours tied round
their arms and flung acrofs their fhoulders.
MORGAGNA. See Fata.
MORGAGNI, John Baptist, do&or of medicine,
firlt profeilor of anatomy in the univerfity of Padua,
and member of feveral of the moft eminent focieties of
karned men in Europe, was born in the year 1682, at
I orli, a town in the diftrid of La Romagna in Italy.
His
"'T1/’ he COuld not re‘lra!’' •>» ex-ention. The day being come he
aicended the fcaffold, which feemed fo weak that it was ready to fall : whereupon “ I nravTfL S’ l l
me fafe up, and for my coming down let me fhift for mvklf ” w; ’ w»ereupon, 1 pray (laid he) fee
executioner, and with a cheerful countensnnp f M “ pi I ' l ^tS- Prayers being ended, he turned to the
office: my neck is verv ffiort xlr L [ d’ c P1^ Up th^ fPmts’ man> and be not afraid to do thy
head unon the hlorlr d ^e betd therefore thou ftnke not awry for favmg thy honefty.” Then laying his
toJ” ’ 116 ^ h,m ftSy Untl‘ he had PUt afide b-rd. %-g.1 That had Lor committed^
M O U [ 407 ] M O R
jjrga^ni. His parents, who were in eafy circumftances, allowed
W—; him to follow that courfe in life his genius dictated.
He began his ftudies at the place of his nativity *, but
foon after removed to Bologna, where he obtained the
degree of Doftor of Medicine, when he had but juft
reached the 16th year of his age. Here his peculiar
tafte for anatomy found an able preceptor in Valfalva,
who beftowed on him the utmoft attention ; and fuch
was the progrefs he made under this excellent mafter,
that at the age of 20 he himfelf taught anatomy with
high reputation. Soon, however, the fame of his pre¬
lections, and the number of his pupils, excited the
jealoufy of the public profeflbrs, and gave rife to in¬
vidious perfecutions. But his abilities and prudence
gained him a complete triumph over his enemies ; and
all oppofition to him was finally terminated from his
being appointed by the fenate of Bologna to fill a me¬
dical chair, which foon became vacant. But the du¬
ties of this office, although important, neither occu¬
pied the whole of his time, nor fatisfied his anxious
defire to afford inftruftion. He ftill continued to la¬
bour in fecret on his favourite fubjeCt, and foon after
communicated the fruits of thefe labours to the public
in his Adverfaria Anatomica, the firft of which was pub-
liffied in the year 1706, the fecond and third in 1717,
and the three others in 1719. The publication of this
excellent work fpread the fame of Morgagni far be¬
yond the limits of the ftate of Bologna. Such was his
reputation, that the wife republic of Venice had no
hefitation in making him an offer of the fecond chair
of the theory of medicine in the univerfity of Padua,
then vacant by the death of M. Molinetti j and, to
enfure his acceptance, they doubled the emoluments
of that appointment. While he was in this department,
he publiffied his treatife, entitled Nova InJHtutionum
medicarum idea, which firft appeared at Padua in the
year 1712. From this work his former reputation fuf-
fered no diminution. And foon after he rofe, by dif¬
ferent fteps, to be firft profeffor of anatomy in that
celebrated univerfity. Although Morgagni was thus
finally fettled at Padua, yet he gave evident proofs of
his gratitude and attachment to Bologna, which he
confidered as his native country with refpeft to the
fciences. He exerted his utmoft efforts in eftabliffiing
the academy of Bologna, of which he was one of the
firft affociates 5 and he enriched their publications with
feveral valuable and curious papers. Soon after this,
the Royal Societies of London and Paris received him
• among their number. Not long after the publication
of his Adverfaria Anatomica, he began, much upon
the fame plan, his Epijlolcc Anatomic#, the firft of
which is dated at Padua in the beginning of April
1726. The works of Morgagni which have already
been mentioned, are to be confidered, in a great mea-
fure, as ftri&ly anatomical : but he was not more emi¬
nent as an anatomift, than as a learned and fuccefsful
phyfician. In the year 1760, when he was not far di-
ftant from the 80th year of his age, he publiffied his
large and valuable work De caufis et fedibus morborum
per anatomen indagatis. This laft and moft important
of all his productions will afford convincing evidence
of his induftry and abilities to lateft pofterity. Befides
thefe works, he publiffied, at different periods of his
life, feveral mifcellaneous pieces, which were after¬
wards collected into one volume, and printed under his
i
own eye at Padua, in the year 1765. It does not ap¬
pear that he had in view any future publications ; but
he intended to have favoured the world Avith a com¬
plete edition of all his works, Avhich Avould probably
have been augmented Avith many neAv obfervations. In
this he was engaged when, on the 5th of December
1771, after he had nearly arrived at the 90th year of
his age, death put a period to his long and glorious
career in the learned world.
MORGANA, or Morgagna, Fata. See Fata.
MORGES, a town of Swifferland in the canton of
Berne, a place of fome trade, and fituated on the lake
of Geneva, five miles from Laufanne. E. Long. 6. 42.
N. Lat. 46. 29.
MORGO, anciently Amorgos, an ifland in the Ar¬
chipelago, which produces svine, oil, and corn. It is
Avell cultivated, and the inhabitants are affable, and ge¬
nerally of the Greek church. The beft parts belong
to a monaftery. The greateft inconvenience in this
ifland is the Avant of Avood. It is 30 miles in circumfe¬
rence. E. Long. 26. 15. N. Lat. 36. 30.
MORIAH, one of the eminences of Jerufalem j on
which Abraham went to offer his fon, and David
Avanted to build the temple, which was aftenvards exe¬
cuted by Solomon : The threffiing floor of Araunah ;
originally narrow, fo as fcarce to contain the temple,
but enlarged by means of ramparts j and furrounded
Avith a triple wall, fo as to add great ftrength to the
temple, (Jofephus). It may be confidered as a part
of Mount Sion, to which it Avas joined by a bridge and
gallery, (Id.)
MORILLES, a kind of muffiroom, about the fize
of a Avalnut, pierced Avith holes like a honey-comb, and
faid to be good for creating an appetite. It is often
ufed in fauces and ragouts.
MORINA, a genus of plants belonging to the di-
andria clafs; and in the natural method ranking under
the 48th order, Aggregate. See Botany Index.
MORINORUM Castellum, m Ancient Geography,
Amply Caftellum (Antonine) ; fituated on an emi¬
nence, Avith a fpring of water on its top, in the terri¬
tory of the Morini. Now Mont Cajfel, in Flanders.
M GRIND A, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 48th order, Aggregates. See Botany In*
dex.
MORISON, Robert, phyfician and profeffor of
botany at Oxford, was born at Aberdeen in 1620,
bred at the univerfity there, and taught philofophy for
fome time in it but having a ftrong inclination to bo¬
tany, made great progrefs in that feience. The civil
Avars obliged him to leave his country 5 which, how¬
ever, he did not do till he had firft fignalized his zeal
for the intereft of the king, and his courage, in a battle
fought betAveen the inhabitants of Aberdeen and the
Preffiyterian troops on the bridge of Aberdeen, in Avhich
he received a dangerous wound on the head. As foon
as he was cured of it, he went into France ; and fixing
at Paris, he applied affiduoufly to botany and anatomy.
He was introduced to the duke of Orleans, who gave
him the direction of the royal gardens at Blois. He
exercifed the office till the death of that prince, and
aftenvards went over to England in 1660. Charles II.
to whom the duke of Orleans had prefented him at
Blois, fent for him to London, and gave him the title
af-
Morgagni
I!
Moriion.
r
MorrToti
il
Morlachia
M O Tl ' [408
of his phyjtcian, and that of profcjjbr royal of botany,
wiih a penfion of 200I. per annum. The Praluchum
Boteinicum, which he publifhed in 1669, procured him
fo much reputation, that the univerfity of Oxford in¬
vited him to the profcflorfhip of botany in 1669;
which he accepted, and acquitted himfelf in it with
great ability. He died at London in 1683, aged 63.
He publifhed a fecond and third part of his Hiflory
of Plants, in 2 vols. folio •, with this title, Plantarum
Hfloria Oxonicnfs Vniverfalis. The fir It part of this
excellent work has not been printed ; and it is not
kn6wn what has become of it.
MORISONI A, a genus of plants belonging to the
monadelphia clafs, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 23th order, Putaminece. See Botany
Index.
MORLACHIA, a mountainous country of Dal¬
matia. The inhabitants are called Mor/acks or Mor-
lacchi; they inhabit the pleafant valleys of Koter, along
the rivers Kerha, Oettina, Narenta, and among the
inland mountains of Dalmatia. The inhabitants are by
fotae faid to be of Walachian extra&ion, as is indicated
by their name; Morlachia being a contradtion of
Mauro Walachia, that is, Black Walachia : and the
Walachians are faid to be dofeendants of the ancient
Roman colonies planted in thefe countries. This, how¬
ever, is denied by the Abbe Fortis, who publifhed a
volume of travels into that country. He informs us,
that the origin of the Morlacchi is involved in the
darknefs of barbarous ages, together with that of many
other nations, refembling them fo much in cufloms and
language, that they may be taken for one people, dif-
perfed in the vaft tradls from the Adriatic fea to the
Frozen ocean.
With regard to the etymology of the name, the
Abbe obferves, that the Morlacchi generally call them-
felves, in their own language, Vlafji; a national term,
of which no veflige is found in the records of Dal¬
matia till the 13th century. It fignifies powerful men,
or men of authority; and the denomination of Moro
Vlafji, corruptly Morlacchi, as they are now called,
may perhaps point out the original of the nation. This
word mav poflibiy fignify the conquerors that came from
the fea ; moor, in all the dialedts of the Sclavonian
language, fignifying the fea.
With regard to the charadter of thefe people, we
are informed that they are much injured by their ma¬
ritime neighbours. The inhabitants of the fea coaft
of Dalmatia tell many frightful Itories of their avarice
and cruelty : but thefe, in our author’s opinion, are all
either of an ancient date, or if any have happened in
latter times, they ought rather to be aferibed to the
corruption of a few individuals, than to the bad dif-
pofition of the nation in general *, and though thievifh
tricks are frequent among them, he informs us, that
a ft ranger may travel fecurely through their coun¬
try, wThcre he is faithfully efcorted, and hofpitably
treated.
As to the Morlacchi themfelves, they are repre-
fenied as open and fincere to fueh a degree, that they
would be taken for fimpletons in any other country •,
and by means of this quality they have been fo often
duped by the Italians, that the faith of an Italian and
the faith of a do$, are fynonymous among the Morlacchi.
They are very hofpitable to ftrangers j and their hof-
] M O R
pitality is equally confpicuous among the rich and poor. MorlacWj,
The rich prepares a roaited lamb or fheep, and the 'Y'—
poor with equal cordiality offers whatever he has } nor
is this generofity confined to ftrangers, but generally
extends itlelf to all who are in want. When a Mor-
lack is on a journey, and comes to lodge at a friend’s
houfe, the eldeft daughter of the family, or the new
married bride, if there happen to be one, receives and
kiffes him when he alights from his horfe or at the
door of the houfe: but a foreigner is rarely favoured
with thefe female civilities; on the contrary, the wo¬
men, if they are young, hide themfelves, and keep out
of his way.
The Morlacchi in general have little notion of do-
meftic economy, and readily confume in a week as
much as would be fufhcienfc for feveral months, when¬
ever any occafion of merriment prefents itfelf. A mar¬
riage, the holiday of the faint protector of the family,
the arrival of relations or friends, or any other joyful
incident, confumes of courfe all that there is to eat
and to drink in the houfe. Yet the Morlack is a great
economift in the ufe of his wearing apparel ; for
rather than fpoil his new cap, he takes it off, let it
rain ever fo hard, and goes bareheaded in the ftorm.
In the fame manner he treats his ftioes, if the road is
dirty and they are not very old. Nothing but an abfo-
lute impoffibility hinders a Morlack from being punc¬
tual ; and if he cannot repay the money he borrowed
at the appointed time, he carries a fmall prefent to his
creditor, and reqdefts a longer term.
Friendihip is lafting among the Morlacchi. They
have even made it a kind of religious point, and tie
the facred bond at the foot of the altar. The Sclavo¬
nian ritual contains a particular benediblion for the fo-
lemn union of two male or twro female friends in the
prefence of the congregation. The male friends thus
united are called Pobratimi, and the female Pofefreme,
which means half-brothers and half-lifters. From thofe
confecrated friendlhips among the Morlacchi and other
nations of the fame origin, it lliould feem that the
fworn brothers arofe ; a denomination frequent enough
among the common people of Italy and in many parts
of Europe. The difference between thefe and the
Pobratimi of Morlachia confifts not only in the want of
the ritual ceremony, but in the defign of the union
itfelf. For, among the Morlacchi, the foie view is
reciprocal ferviee and advantage 5 but fuch a brother¬
hood among the Italians is generally commenced by
bad men, to enable them the more to hurt and difturb
fociety.
But as the friendlhips of the Morlacchi are ftrong
and facred, fo their quarrels are commonly unextin-
guifhable. They pafs from father to fon j and the
mothers fail not to put their children in mind of their
duty to revenge their father if he has had the mis¬
fortune to be killed, and to fhoW them often the
bloody Hurt and arms of the dead. And fo deeply
is revenge rooted in the minds of this nation, that
all the miffionaries in the world wrould not be able
to eradicate it. A Morlack is naturally inclined to
do good to his fellow creatures, and is full of grati¬
tude for the fmalleft benefit 5 but implacable if injured
or infultcd.
A Morlack who has killed another of a powerful
family, is commonly obliged to fave himfelf by flight*
and
M O R [
and to keep out of the way for feveral years,
during that time he has been fortunate enough to
efcape the fearch of his purfuers, and has got a imall
fum of money, he endeavours to obtain pardon and
peace ^ and, that he may treat about the conditions
in perfon, he afks and obtains a fafe conduft, which
is faithfully maintained, though only verbally granted.
Then he finds mediators: and, on the appointed day,
the relations of the two hoftile families are affembled,
and the criminal is introduced, dragging himfelf along
on his hands and feet, the mufket, piftol, or cutlafs,
with which he committed the murder, hung about his
neck ; and while he continues in that humble pofture,
one or more of the relations recites a panegyric on
the dead, which fometimes rekindles the flames of
revenge, and puts tue poor proilrate in no imall dan¬
The Morlacks, whether they happen to be of the
Roman or of the Greek church, have very Angular
ideas about religion : and the ignorance of their teach¬
ers daily augments this monftrous evil. They are as
firmly perfuaded of the reality of witches, fairies, en¬
chantments, no&urnal apparitions, and fortileges, as
if they had feen a thoufand examples of them. Nor
do they make the leafl doubt about the exiftence of
vampires: and attribute to them, as in Tranfylvania,
the fucking the blood of infants. Therefore, when
a man dies fufpf&ed of becoming a vampire, or vu-
kodlak, as they call it, they cut his hams, and prick
his whole body with pins; pretending, that after this
operation he cannot walk about. There are even in-
ftances of Morlacchi, who, imagining that they may
poffibly third: for children’s blood after death, entreat
their heirs, and fometimes oblige them to promife, to
treat them as vampires when they die.
A molt perfect difeord reigns in Morlachia, as it
generally does in other parts, betiveen the Latin and
Greek communion, which their refpeftive priefts fail
not to foment, and tell a thoufand little fcandalous fto-
ries of each other. The churches of the Latins are
poor, but not very dirty; thofe«of the Greeks are
equally poor, and fhamefully ill kept. Our author
has feen the curate of a Morlack village fitting on the
ground in the churchyard, to hear the confcflion of
women on their knees by his fide : a ftrange pofture
indeed ! but a proof of the innocent manners of thofe
good people, who have the moft: profound veneration
for their fpiritual pallors, and a total dependence upon
them'; who, on their part, frequently make ufe of a
difeipline rather military, and correff the bodies of
their offending flock with the cudgel.
Innocence, and the natural liberty of paftoral ages,
are Hill preferved among the Morlacchi, or at leaf!
many traces of them remain in the places fartbeft: di-
ftant from our fettlements. Pure cordiality of fenti-
ment is not there reftrained by other regards, and dif-
plays itfelf without any diftintffion of circumftances. A
young handfome Morlack girl, who meets a man of her
diftrift on the road, kifles him affectionately, without
the leafl: imputation of impropriety ; and M. Fortis
has feen all the women and girls, all the young men
and old, kifling one another as they came into the
churchyard on a holiday ; fo that they looked as if
they all belonged to one family. He often obferved
the fame thing on the road, and at the fairs in the ma-
Vol. XIV. Part II.
4°9 J M O R ,
If ritime towns, where the Morlacehi came to fell their MoiLalu.
. 7 1   \j ■—1 * *
commodities.
The drefs of the unmarried Avomen is the moll com¬
plex and whimfical, in refpecl to the ornaments of the
head ; for when married they are not allowed to u'car
any thing elfe but a handkerchief, either white or co¬
loured tied about it. The girls ufe a fcarlet cap, to
Avhich they commonly hang a veil falling doAvn on the
innldcrs. as a mark of their virginity. 1 he better
ftioulders, as a mark of their virginity,
fort adorn their caps with firings of filver coins, a-
mong Avhich are frequently feen very ancient and va¬
luable ones ; they have moreover ear rings of very cu¬
rious Avork, and (mail filver chains Avith the figures of
half moons faftened to the ends of them. But the poor
are forced to content themlelves Avith plain caps ; or if
they haA^e any ornaments, they confift only of fmall
exotic {hells, round glafs beads, or bits of tin. ihe
principal merit of thefe caps, which conftitute the
good tafte as Avell as vanity of the Morlack young
ladies, is to attract and fix the eyes of all who are
near them by the multitude of ornaments, and the
noife they make on the leaft motion of their heads.
Both old and young women Avear about their necks
large firings of round glafs beads, of various fize and
colour ; and many rings of brafs, tin, or filver, on
their fingers. Their bracelets are of leather covered
Avith Avrought tin or filver ; and they embroider their
ftomachers, or adorn them with beads or fhclls. But
the ufe of flays is unknoAvn, nor do they put Avhale-
bone or iron in the flomacher. A broad Avoollen
girdle furrounds their petticoat, which is commonly
decked Avith fhells, and of blue colour, and therefore
called modrina. Their goAvn as well as petticoat, is
of a kind of ferge ; and botli reach near to the ancle :
the goAvn is bordered Avith fcarlet, and called J'adak.
They ufe no modrina in fummer, and only Avear the
fadak Avithout fleeves over a linen petticoat or fhift.—
The girls always Avear re^l {lockings ; and their fhoes
are like thofe of the men, called opanke. The foie is
of undrefled ox hide, and the upper part of fheep’s fkin
thongs knotted, Avhich they call apute; and thefe they
fallen above the ancles, fomething like the ancient co¬
thurnus. The unmarried Avomen, even of the richefl
families, are not permitted to Avear any other fort of
fhoes; though after marriage, they may, if they will, lay
afide theopanke, andufe the Turkifh flippers. The girls
keep their hair trefled under their caps, but Avhen mar¬
ried they let it fall difhevelled on the breaft ; fometimes
they tie it under the chin ; and always have medals,
beads, or bored coins, in the Tartar or American mode
tAvifled amongfl it.
Nothing is more common among the Morlacchi than
marriages concluded betAveen the old people of the re-
fpeflive families, efpecially Avhen the parties live at a
great dillance, and neither fee nor knoAV each other;
and the ordinary motive of thefe alliances is the am¬
bition of being related to a numerous and poAverful fa¬
mily, famous for having produced valiant men. A de¬
nial in fuch cafes is very rare ; nor does the father of
the maid inquire much into the circumftances of the fa¬
mily that afks her. Sometimes a daughter of the mafler
is given in marriage to the fervant or tenant, as was
ufual in patriarchal times; fo little are the women re¬
garded in this country. But on thefe oceafions, the
Morlacchi girls enjoy the privilege of refufal. lor he
3 F who
Merlacchl.
M O R [4
who afls by proxy, liaving obtained his fuit, is obliged
to go and bring the bridegroom : and, if on feeing
each other, the young people are reciprocally content,
the marriage is concluded, but not otherwife. In fome
parts it is the cultom for the bride to go to fee the houfe
and family of the propofcd huiband, before ftie gives
a definitive anfwer j and if the place or perfons are
difagreeable to her, the is at liberty to annul the con-
traft.
The bride is condu&ed to a church, veiled, and fur-
rounded by the friends of the bridegroom, or fvuti, as
they are called, on horfeback j and the facred cere¬
mony is performed amidit the noife of mufkets, piltols,
barbaric fhouts and acclamations, which continue till
the return to her father’s houfe or to that of her huf-
band, if not tar off. The firft day’s entertainment is
fometimes made at the bride’s houfe, but generally at
the bridegroom’s, whither the fvati batten immediately
after the nuptial benediction ; and at the fame time three
or four men run on foot to tell the good news; the firft
who gets to the houfe has a kind of a towel embroidered
at the ends, as a premium. The domachin, or head of
the houfe, comes out to meet his daughter-in-law j and
a child is handed to her, before the alights, to carefs it;
and if there happen to be none in the houfe, the child
is borrowed from one of the neighbours. When the
alights, tire kneels down, and kiifes the threfhold.—
Then the mother-in-law, or in her place fome other
female relation, prefents a corn fieve, full of difterent
kinds of grain, nuts, almonds, and other fmall fruit,
which the bride fcatters upon the fvati, by handfuls,
behind her back. The bride does not fit at the great
table the firft day, but has one apart for herfelf, the
two diveri, and the ftacheo. The bridegroom fits at
table with the fvati ; but in all that day, confecrated to
the matrimonial union, he muft neither unloofen nor cut
any thing whatever. The knum carves his meat, and
cuts his bread. It is the domachin’s bufinefs to give
the toafts •, and the ftari-fvat is the firft who pledges
him. Generally the bukkara, a very large wooden
cup, goes round, firft to the faint proteClor of the fa¬
mily 5 next to the profperity of the holy faith *, and
fometimes to a name the moft fublime and venerable.
The moft extravagant abundance reigns at thefe feafts ;
and each of the fvati contributes, by fending a fhare
of provifions. The dinner begins with fruit and
cheefe } and the foup comes laft, juft contrary to our
cuftom. All forts of domeftic fowls, kid, lamb, and
fometimes venifon, are heaped in prodigal quantities up¬
on their tables,
Thefe nuptial feafts, called fdrave by the ancient
Huns, are by the Morlacchi called fdravixe, from
whence the Italian wordJlravvzKO is undoubtedly de¬
rived. They continue three, fix, eight, or more days,
according to the ability or prodigal difpofition of the
family where they are held. 'The new married wife
gets no inconfiderable profit in thefe days of joy ; and
it ufually amounts to much more than all the portion
fire brings with her, which often confifts of nothing
but her own clothes and perhaps a cow •, nay, it hap¬
pens fometimes that the parents, inftead of giving
money with their daughter, get fomething from the
bridegroom by way of price. The bride carries water
every morning, to walh the hands of her guefts as long
as the feafting lafts •, and each of them throws a fmall
5
10 3 M O It
piece of money into the bafon after performing that func- Morlacchi,
tion, which is a very rare one among them, excepting on IVIornay.
fucli occafions. ' 1 v''1—^
The Morlacchi pafs their youth in the woods, attend¬
ing their flocks and herds ; and in that life of quiet and
leifure they often become dextrous in carving with a fim-
ple knife : they make wooden cups, and whiftles adorn¬
ed with fanciful bafs reliefs, which are not void of merit,
and at leaft ftiow the genius of the people.
MORNAY, Philippe de, feigneur du Pleflis
Marly, was born at Buhy or Eilhuy in Upper Norman¬
dy in France, in 1549, and was educated at Paris.
What was then thought a prodigy in a gentleman, he
made a rapid progrefs in the belles lettres, in the
learned languages, and in theology. He was at firft
deftined for the church ; but the principles of Calvi-
nifm, which he had imbibed from his mother, effec¬
tually excluded him from the ecelefiaftical preferments
to which he was entitled by his intereft, abilities,
and birth. After the horrible maffacre of St Bartho¬
lomew, Philippe de Mornay made the tour of Italy,
Germany, England, and the Low Countries ; and he
was equally improved and delighted by his travels.
Mornay afterwards joined the king of Navarre, at that
time leader of the Proteftant party, and fo well known
fince by the name of Henry IV. This prince fent
Mornay, -who employed his whole abilities, both as
a foldier and a writer, in defence of the Protellant
eaufe, to condudl a negociation with Elizabetli queen
of England 5 and left him wholly to his own diferetion
in the management of that bufinefs. He was fuccefs-
ful in almoft every negociation, becaufe he conduc¬
ed it like an able politician, and not with a fpirit of
intrigue. He tenderly loved Henry IV. and fpoke
to him on all occafions as to a friend. When he was
wounded at Aumale, he wrote to him in thefe words :
“ Sire, You have long enough a&ed the part of
Alexander, it is now time you fhould aC that of
Caefar. It is our duty to die for your majefty, &c.
It is glorious for you, Sire, that I dare venture to tell
you it is your duty to live for us.” This faithful
fubjedl did every thing in his power to raife Henry
to the throne. But when he deferted the Proteftant
faith, he reproached him in the bittereft manner, and
retired from court. Henry ftill loved him 5 and was
extremely affeCed with an infult which he received in
1597 from one Saint Pbal, who beat him with a
cudgel, and left him for dead. Mornay demanded
juftice from the king, who gave him the following
anfwer, a proof as well of his fpirit as of his goodnefs
of heart. “ Monfieur Dupleflis, I am exceedingly, of¬
fended at the infult you have received ; and I lympa-
thize with you both as your fevereign and your friend.
In the former capacity, I ftiall do juftice to you and
to myfelf *, and had I luftained only the charaCer of
your friend, there are few perhajis who would have
drawn their fword or iacrificed their life more cheer¬
fully in your caufe. Be fatisfied, then, that I will aC
the part of a king, a mafter, and a friend,” &c. Mor¬
nay’s knowledge, probity, and valour, made him the
foul of the Proteftant party, and procured him the
contemptuous appellation of the Pope of the Huguenots.
He defended their doCrines both by fpeech and writ¬
ing. One of his books on the Iniquity of the Mafs,
having ftirred up all the Catholic divines, he refufed
to
ornay
11 '
'loroc.
M O R [4
to make any reply to their cenfures and cnticifms
except in a public conference. This was accordingly
appointed to be held A. D. 1600, at Fountainbleau,
where the court then was. The two champions were,
Du Perron biiliop of Evreux, and Mornay. After a
rreat many arguments and replies on both fides, the
viftory was adjudged to Du Perron. He had boafted
that he would point out to the fatisfadion of every
one five hundred errors in his adverfary’s book, and
he partly kept his word. I he Calviniils did not fail
to claim the victory on this occafion, and they ftill
continue to do fo. This conference, inftead of putting
an end to the differences, was produ&ive of new quarrels
■among the controverfialifts, and of much profane wit
among the libertines. A Huguenot minifter, who was
prefent at the conference, obferved with great concern
to a captain of the fame party,—“ The bifhop of E\ reux
has already driven Mornay from feveral ftrong holds.'”
“ No matter (replied the foldier), provided he does not
drive him from Saumur.” This was an important
place on the river Loire, of which Dupleftis was go¬
vernor. Hither he retired, his attention being con-
ftantly occupied in defending the Huguenots, and in
making himfelf formidable to the Catholics. When
Louis XIII. was making preparations againft the Pro-
teftants, Dupleffis wrote him a letter, diffuading him
from fuch a meafure. After employing the mo'ft
plaufible arguments, he concludes in the^ following
manner : 44 lo make war on the fubjeft, is an indi¬
cation of weaknefs in the government. Authority
confills in the quiet fubmiflion of the people, and is
eftablilhed by the prudence and juftice of the governor.
Force of arms ought never to be employed except in re¬
pelling a foreign enemy. The late king would have fent
the new minifters of flate to learn the firft elements of
politics, who like unfkilful furgeons would apply violent
remedies to every difeafe, and advife a man to cut off an
arm when his finger aches.” Thefe remonftrances pro¬
duced no other effedl than the lofs of the government of
Saumur, of which he was deprived by Louis XIIL in
1621. He died two years after, November II. 1623,
aged 74, in his barony de la Foret-fur-Seure in Poitou.
The Proteftant caufe never had an abler fupporter, or
one who did it more credit by his virtues and abi¬
lities.
Cenfeur des courtifans, ?nais a la cour aime ;
Fier ennemi de Fotne^ et de Rotne ejlwie.—Hl.XRl ADE.
The following is a lift of his works : 1. Un Iraite
de FEucharifte, 1604, in folio. 2. Un Trade de la
verite de la Religion Chretienne, 8vo. 3. A book entit- d
La Mi/Jlere dUniquite, 4to. 4. Un difcours fur le droit
pretendu par ceux de la maifon de Gufe, 8vo. 5. Cu¬
rious and interefting Memoirs from the year 1572 to
1629, 4 vols. qto. valuable. 6. Letters; which are
written with great fpirit and good fenfe. David des
Liques has given us his life in quarto ; a book more in¬
terefting for the matter than the manner.
MORNE-GAROU, a very remarkable volcanic moun¬
tain on the ill and of St Vincent’s in the Weft Indies.
It was vifited by Mr James Anderfon furgeon in the
year 1764. See St Vincents.
MOROC, or Maroc, a beautiful bird of Abyflinia,
defcribed by Mr Bruce, who thinks its name is derived
from mar, “ honey,” though he fays that he never heard
i ] M O R
it was further concerned in the honey than deftroying Motoe
bees. It feems to purfue thofe infers out of enmity or
diverfion as well as lor food, leaving great numbers dead i
on the ground, befides thofe which it devours for food.
The moroc refembles the cuckoo in fize and fiiapej
but differs in other refpefts. Its mouth is very wide,
the opening reaching almoft to its eyes 5 the infide ot
the mouth and throat yellow, the tongue (harp-point¬
ed, and capable of being drawn almoft half its length
out of the mouth beyond the point of its beak, and is
very flexible. T he head and neck are brown, without
any mixture of other colours : there are likcwifc a num¬
ber of very fmall and fcarcely vifible hairs at the root ol
the beak.
This feems to be the bird mentioned by Sparman
under the name of cucnlus indicator, which (he fays)
has the Angular property of difeovering the nefts of wild
bees, and leading travellers by a certain cry to the place
where the treafure is depofited. According to Spar-
man’s account, it makes known thefe difeoveries by the
fame cry to foxes as well as to the human fpecies ; but
Jerome Lobo, who mentions the Abyflinian bird, takes
no notice of the foxes, though he mentions its finging
melodioufiy when it arrives at the place where the honey
is depofited. Both thefe accounts are feverely criticifed
by Mr Bruce, who fays, that honey is fo abundant on
every hillock and every tree, that a bird poffefling this
faculty could be of no ufe to man or to any other ani¬
mal in that country, and that having never heard of
fuch a bird in Abyflinia, he confiders the account of it
as a fiiftion.
MORNING, the beginning of the day, or the time
of the fun rifing. The aftronomers reckon morning,
mane, from the time of midnight to that of mid-day.
Thus an eclipfe is faid to begin at 11 o’clock in the
morning, &c.
Morning ftar, is the planet Venus, when a little to
the weft ward of the fun ; that is, ivhen (he rifes a little
before. In this (ituation (lie is called by the Greeks
Phofphorus ; by the Latins Lucifer, &c. _ 1
MOROCCO, an empire of Africa, comprehending Situation *
a confiderable part of the ancient Mauritania, is bound- ^nd. boun-
ed on the weft by the Atlantic ocean ; on the eaft by d‘ur‘cs-
the river Mulvya, which feparates it from Algiers *, on
the north by the Mediterranean ; and on the fouth by
Mount Atlas, or rather by the river Sus, which di¬
vides it from the kingdom of Tafilet. Its greateft length
is from the north-eaft to the fouth-weft, amounting to
above 590 miles •, its breadth is not above 260 where
broadeft, and in the narrowed places it is not above half
that breadth. 2
The ancient hiftory of Morocco has been already Hiftory.
given under the article Mauritania. It continued
under the dominion of the Romans upwards of 400
years. On the decline of that empire it fell under
the Goths, who held it till about the year 600, when
the Goths were driven out by the Vandals, the Van¬
dals by the Greeks, and they in their turn by the
Saracens, who conquered not only this empire, but
we may fay the whole continent of Africa 5 at lead
their religion, one way or other, is to be found in all
parts of it. The Saracen empire did not continue
long united under one head, and many princes fet up
for themfelves in Africa as well as elfewhere, through
whofe diffenfions the Almoravides were at length
3 F 2 raifed
Morocco.
5
Govern-
hient.
4
Account of-
the black
troo.ps..
M O R [ 412 ] M O R
raifed to the fovereignty, as related under the article
Algiers, N° 2. Yufef, or Jofeph, the fecond mo¬
narch of tliat line, built the cily of Morocco, con¬
quered the kingdom of Fez, and the Moorilh domi¬
nions in Spain ; all which were loft by his grandfon
Abbu Hali, who wras defeated and killed by the Spa¬
niards. On this prince’s death the crown palled to
the Mohedians, or Almohedes, with whom it had not
continued above three generations, when Mohammed
the fon of A1 Manfur loft the famous battle of Sierra
Morena, in which 200,000 Moors were flain, and in
confequence of which Alphonfo X. retook a great
many of the Moorilh conquefts immediately after.
Mohammed died foon after this difgrace, and left
feveral Ions, between whom a civil war enfued, during
which the viceroys of Fez, Tunis, and Tremefen, found
means to eftablilh themfelves as independent princes.
At length one of the princes of the royal blood of
Tremefen having defeated the Almohedes, made him-
felf mafter of the kingdoms of Morocco and Fez, and
entailed them on his own family. In a ftiort time,
however, this family wras expelled by the Merini, the
Merini by the Oatazes, and thefe by the Sharifs of
Hafeen, who have kept the government ever fince.
Nothing can be conceived more unjuft and defpotic
than the government of Morocco, and nothing more de¬
generate than the charadter of the people. The em¬
peror is allowed to have not only an uncontrollable
powrer over the lives and fortunes of his fubjedls, but
in a great mcafure over their confciences, in as much as
he is the only perfon who, as the fucceffor of the pro¬
phet, has a right to interpret the Koran ; and appoints
all the judges under him, of whom thofe of Morocco
and Fez are the chief, whofe bufinefs it is to explain
and difpenfe all matters relating to their religion and
who, being his creatures and dependents, dare not fteer
otherwife than as he diredts. Whenever therefore the
laws are enadted by him, and proclaimed by his gover¬
nors in all the provinces, as is commonly done, that none
may plead ignorance, they are everywhere received
with an implicit and religious fubmiflion. On the
other hand, the fubjedls are bred up with a notion, that
thofe who die in the execution of his command are en¬
titled to an immediate admittance into paradife, and
thofe who have the honour to die by his hand to a ftill
greater degree of happinefs in it. After this we need
not 'wonder at finding fo much cruelty, oppreflion, and
tyranny on the one fide, and fo much fubmiffion, paf-
fivenefs and mifery on the other.
This latter, however, extends no farther than the
Moors : for as to the mountaineers, the fubjedlion and
tribute they pay to thofe tyrants was always involun¬
tary and as for the negroes, their zeal and attachment
is owing merely to the great fway and power which
they have gained in the government, on various ac¬
counts. They were firft introduced, or rather their im¬
portation increafed,. by the policy of Muley Iftimael, a
late emperor, at a period when there was a great de-
creafe of population in the empire, occafioned in fome
degree by the enormous cruelties exercifed by its former
fovereigns, who have been known not unfrequently,
through a flight difguft, to abandon a "whole town or
province to the fword. In the charadler of Muley Ifti¬
mael ivere found the moft fingulaV inconfiftencies ; for
it is certain, that although a tyrant, yet in other re-
4
fpe&s, as if to repair the mifehief which he committed, Morocco. *
he left nothing undone for the encouragement of popu- v—J ■
lation.—He introduced large colonies of negroes from
Guinea •, built towns for them, many of which are
ftill remaining, affigned them portions of land, and
encouraged their increafe by every poflible means.
He foon initiated them in the Mahometan faith 5 and
had his plan been followed, the country by this time
would have been populous, and probably fiourifhing.
As the negroes are of a more lively, aftive and enter-
prifing difpofition than the Moors, they might foon
have been taught the arts of agriculture 5 and their An¬
gular ingenuity might have been directed to other ufe-
ful purpofes. It is true, Muley Iftimael, when he
adopted this plan, had more obje&s in view than that
of merely peopling his dominions. He faw plainly that
his own fubjefts were of too capricious a difpofition to
form foldiers calculated for his tyrannical purpofes.
They had uniformly manifefted an inclination to change
their fovereigns, though more from the love of variety
than to reform the government, or reftrain the abufes
of tyranny. Muley Iflimael had difeernment enough
to fee, that by forming an army of flaves, wdiofe foie
dependence ftiould reft upon their mafter, he could eafily
train them in fuch a manner as to aft in the ftrifteft
conformity to his wifties. He foon learnt that the
great objeft with the negroes was plenty of money and
liberty of plunder 5 in thefe he liberally indulged them,
and the plan fully anfwered his expeftations. Though,
however, Muley Iftimael had no great merit in introdu¬
cing fubjefts for the purpofes of tyranny, yet the good
effefts of this new colonization were very generally ex-
perienced. By intermarrying among themfelves, and
intermixing among the Moors (for the Moors Avill keep
negro women as concubines, though they feldom marry
them), a new race of people ftarted up, who became a*
ufeful fubjefts as the native inhabitants, and brought the
empire into a much more flourifliing ftate than it had
ever been in fince their great revolution.
Sidi Mahomet, his grandfon and fucceffor, had dif¬
ferent views, and was actuated by different motives.
From his inordinate avarice, he ceafed to aft towards
his black troops in the generous manner which had di-
ftinguiftied his predeceffor Muley Iflimael 5 and they
foon ftiowed themfelves difeontented with his conduft.
They offered to place his eldeft fon Muley Ali, on the
throne ; but this prince, not unmindful of the duty
which he owed his father and fovereign, declined their
offer. They next applied to Muley Yazid, who at firft
accepted of the afliftance they tendered, but in a ftiort
time relinquifhed the plan. Sidi Mahomet, dilgufted
with this conduft of the negroes, determined to curb
their growing power, by dilbanding a confiderable part
of thefe troops, and banifliing them to diftant parts of
the empire. ^
A moft flagrant fpecies of defpotifm, which renders Defpotifm
the emperors more formidable to their fubjefts, is their of the era-
making themfelves their foie heirs, and, in virtue of that, Perors*
feizing upon all their effefts, and making only fuch pro-
vifion for their families as they think proper ; and often,
on fome frivolous pretence, leaving them deftitute of
any, according to the liking or diflike they bear to the
deceafed j fo that, upon the whole, they are the only ma¬
kers, judges, and interpreters, and in many inftances
like wife the executioners, of their own laws, which have
no .
farocco.
6
jimini-
ft tioa of
|byal rcve-
M O R [4i
no other limits than their own arbitrary will. The
titles which the emperors of Morocco aiTume, are thofe
of Mojl glorious, mighty, and noble emperor of Afnc ;
king of Fe% and Morocco, Tafilet, Suz, Dorha, and all
the Algarbe, and its territories in Afric ; grand Sharif
(or, as others write it, Xarif that is, fucceffor, or vice¬
gerent), of the great Prophet Mohammed, by.
The judges or magiftrates who aft immediately under
the emperor are either ipiritual or temporal, or rather
ccclefiatlical and military. The mufti and the cadis are
judges of alt religious and civil affairs j and the bafhaws,
governors, alcaides, and other military officers, of thofe
that concern the ilate or the army : all of them the molt
obfequious creatures and Haves of their prince, and no
lefs the rapacious tyrants of Ids fubjefts, and from whom
neither juttice nor favour can be obtained but by mere
dint of money and extortionate bribery, from the high-
eft to the loweft. Neither can it indeed be otherwife
in fuch an arbitrary government, where the higheft
polls muft not only be bought of the prince at a molt
extravagant price, and kept only by as exorbitant a tri¬
bute, which is yearly paid to him, but where no one is
fure to continue longer than he can bribe feme of the
courtiers to infrnuate to the monarch that he pays to the
utmoft of his power and much beyond what -was expec¬
ted from him. There are initances of the fultan eleva¬
ting at once a common foldier to the rank of a balhaw,
or making him a confidential friend ; the following day
he would perhaps imprifon him, or reduce him again to
the ftation of a private foldier. Yet fuch is the difpo-
fition of thefe people, that they have an unbounded
thirft for rank and power with all their uncertainties ;
and what is more extraordinary, when they have ob¬
tained a high ftation, they feldom fail to afford their
fovereign a plea for ill treating them, by abiding' in
fome way or other their truft..
From what has been faid,. it may be reafonably con¬
cluded that the revenue arifing to the emperor from the
laft-mentioned fource, that of bribery, extortion, and
confifeation, muft be very confiderable, though there is
no poffibility to make any other conjefture of its real
amount than that it muft be an immenfe one. _ Another
confiderable branch is the piratical trade, which brings
the greater income into his treafury, as he is not at any
expence either for fitting out of corfair vefiels, or main¬
taining their men ; and yet has the tenth of all the car¬
go and of all the captives *, befides -which, lie appropri¬
ates to himfelf all the reft of them, by paying the cap-
tors 50 crowns per head, by which means he engroffes
all the {laves to his own fervice and advantage. This
article is indeed a very confiderable addition to his re¬
venue, not only as he fells their ranfom at a very high
rate, but likewife as he has the profit of all their labour,
without allowing them any other maintenance than a
little bread and oil, or any other affiftance when fick,
than what medicines a Spanifh convent, which he tole¬
rates there, gives them gratis ; and which, neverthelefs,
is forced to pay him an annual prefent for that tolera¬
tion, befides furnifhing the court with medicines, and
the flaves with lodging and diet when they are not able
to work. Another branch of his revenue confifts in the
tenth part of all cattle, corn, fruits, honey, wax, hides,
rice, and other produfts of the earth, which is exafted
of the Arabs and Brebes, as well as of the natives j and
thefe are levied, or rather farmed, by the bafhaws, go-
3 ] M O R
vernors, alcaides, &c. with all poffible feverity. The , Morocco,^
Jews and Chriftians likewife pay an income or capita¬
tion, the former of fix crowns per head on all males from
1 t years and upwards, befides other arbitrary impofts,
fines, &c. That on the Chriftians, for the liberty of
trading in his dominions, rifes and falls according to
their number, and the commerce they drive 5 but which,
whatever it may bring yearly into his coffers, is yet de¬
trimental to trade in general, feeing it difeourages
great numbers from fettling there, notwithftanding the
artful invitations which the emperors and their minifters
make ufe of to invite them to it ; for, befides thofe ar¬
bitrary exaftions, there is ftill another great hardfhip
attending them, viz. that they cannot leave the country
without forfeiting all their debts and effects to the
crown. The duties on all imports and exports is ano¬
ther branch of his income, the amount of which, it is
faid, does not exceed 165,000!. per annum. 8
The climate of the empire of Morocco is in general
fufficiently temperate, healthy, and not fo hot as its fitu-
ation might lead us to fuppofe. I he chain of moun¬
tains which form Atlas, on the eaftern fide, defends
it from the eaft winds, that would fcorch up the earth
wrere they frequent. J. he fummit of thefe mountains
is always covered with fnow 5 and their abundant de¬
fending ftreams fpread verdure through the neigh¬
bourhood, make the winter more cold, and temper the
heats of fummer. The fea on the weft fide, which ex¬
tends along the coaft from north to foulh, alio refrefhes
the land with regular breezes, that feldom vary accord¬
ing to their feafons. At a diilance from the lea, with¬
in land, the heat is fo great, that the rivulets become
dry in fummer 5 but as in hot countries deivs aie plen¬
tiful, the nights are. there always cool. The rains are
tolerably, regular in winter j and are even abundant,
though the atmofphere is not loaded with clouds as in
northern latitudes, i hofe rams -which fall by intervals
are favourable to the earth, and increale its fecundity.
In January the country is covered with verdure, and
enamelled' with flowers. Barley is cut in March, but
the wdieat harveft is in June. All fruits are^ early in this
climate j and in forward years the vintage is over in the
beginning of September. 1 hough in general theie is
more uniformity and lefs variation in hot than in north¬
ern climates, the firft are neverthelefs expofed _ to the
intemperance of weather : too heavy rams often impede
the harveft 5 and drought has ftill greater inconvenien¬
ces, for it enfures the propagation of locufts. . 9 ^
The foil of Morocco is exceedingly fertile. It. is Soil, and
moft fo in the inland provinces. On the weftern coaft
it is in general light and ftony, and is better adapted to
the vine and olive than the culture of wheat. A hey an¬
nually burn, before the September^ rains, the ftubble,
which is left rather long j and this and the dung of
cattle, every day turned" to pafture, form the foie ma¬
nure the land receives. The foil requires but little
labour, and the ploughing is fo light that the furrows
are fcarcely fix inches deep-j for which realon, in fome
provinces, wooden ploughfliares are ufed for cheap-
nefs. 16''
The empire of Morocco might funply itfelf with aUpmduc
neceffaries, as well from the abundance and nature oftlom‘
its produfts, as from the few natural or artificial wants
of the Moors occafioned by climate or education. Its
wealth confifts in the fruitfulnefs of its foil; its corn,
fruits.
'Mbrocco.
M O R [ 4t
fruits, flocks, iiax, fait, gums, and wax, tvould not only
fupply its neceffities, but yield a fuperflux, which might
become an objeft of immenfe trade and barter with
other nations. Such numerous exports might return an
inexhauftible treafurc, were its government fixed and
fecure, and did fubjects enjoy the fruits of their labour
and their property in fafety. The increafe of corn in
Morocco is often as fixty to one, and thirty is held to
be but an indifferent harveft.
The Moors, naturally indolent, take little care of the
culture of their fruits. Oranges, lemons, and thick
fkinned fruits, the trees of which require little nurture,
grow in the open fields; and there are very large plan¬
tations of them found, which they take the trouble to
water in order to increafe their produft. Their vines,
which yield excellent grapes, are planted as far as the
33d degree, as in the fouthern provinces of France, and
are equally vigorous. But at Morocco, where they
yield a large and delicious grape, they are fupported by
vine poles five and fix feet above ground 3 and as they
are obliged to be watered, the little wine made there is
feldom preferved. Figs are very good in fome parts of
the empire, but torvard the fouth they are fcarcely ripe
before they are full of worms-, the heats and night
dews may, perhaps, contribute to this fpeedy decay.
Melons, for the fame reafon, are rarely eatable ; they
have but a moment of maturity ; which paffes fo rapidly
that it is with difficulty feized. Water melons are
everywhere reared, and in fome provinces are excellent.
Apricots, apples, and pears, are in tolerable plenty in
the neighbourhood of Fez and Mequinez, where water
is lefs fcarce and the climate more temperate. But in
the plain, which extends along the weftern coaft, thefe
delicate fruits are very indifferent, have lefs juice or tafte,
and the peaches there do not ripen. The tree called
the prickly qaear, or the Barbary fig, h plentifully
found in the empire of Morocco and is planted round
vineyards and gardens, becaufe its thick and thorny
leaves, which are wonderfully prolific, form impene¬
trable hedges. From thefe leaves a fruit is produced,
covered with a thorny fkin, that muff be taken off with
care. This fruit is mild, and full of very hard, fmall
kernels. The olive is everywhere found along the coaft,
but particularly to the fouth.
In the province of Suz, between the 25th and 30th
degrees, the inhabitants have an almond harveft, which
varies little becaufe of the mildnefs of the climate ; but
the fruit is fmall, for which reafon they take little care
of the trees, and they degenerate with time. The palm
tree is common in the fouthern provinces of Morocco
but dates ripen there with difficulty, and few are good
except in the province of Suz and toward Tafilet. On
the coaft of Sallee and Mamora there are forefts of oak,
which produce acorns near two inches long. They
tafte like chefnuts, and are eaten raw and roafted. Salt
abounds in the empire, and in fome places on the coaft
requires only the trouble of gathering. Independent
of the fait pits formed by the evaporation of the foft
water, there are pits and lakes in the country whence
great quantities are obtained. It is carried even as
far as Tombut, whence it paffes to the interior parts of
Africa.
The Moors cultivate their lands only in proportion
to their wants ; hence twro-thirds of the empire at leaft
lie wafte. Here the down, that is, the fan or wild palm
4 1
M o It
tree, grows in abundance 5 and from which thofe people, Morocco,
when neceffity renders them induftrious, find great ad- *—
vantage. 1 he Ihepherds, mule-drivers, camel drivers,
and travellers, gather the leaves, of which they make-
mats, fringes, balkets, hats, Jhoaris or large wallets to
carry corn, twine, ropes, girths, and covers for their
pack faddles. This plant, with which alfo they heat
their ovens, produces a mild and refinous fruit that ri¬
pens in-September and October. It is in form like the
raifin, contains a kernel, and is aftringent and very pro¬
per to temper and counteraft the effedts of the watery
and laxative fruits, of which thefe people in fummer
make an immoderate ufe.
Unacquainted with the fources of wealth of which Mines”
their anceftors were pofieffed, the Moors pretend there
are gold and filver mine? in the empire, which the em¬
perors will not permit to be worked, left their fubjefts
ffiould thus find means to {hake off their yoke. It is
not improbable but that the mountains of Atlas may
contain unexplored riches -, but there is no good proof
that they have ever yielded gold and filver. There are
known iron mines in the fouth j but the working of
them has been found fo expenfive, that the natives would
rather ufe imported iron, notwithftanding the heavy
duty it pays, by which its price is doubled. There are
copper mines in the neighbourhood of Santa Cruz,
which are not only fufficient for the fmall confumption
of the empire, where copper is little ufed, but are alfo
an object of exportation, and would become much more
fo were the duties lefs immoderate.
Neither the elephant nor the rhinoceros is to be found Animals,
either in this or the other ftates of Barbary ; but the
deferts abound with lions, tigers, leopards, hyaenas, and
monftrous ferpents. The Barbary horfes were formerly
very valuable, and thought equal to the Arabian.
Though the breed is now faid to be decayed, yet
fome very fine ones are occafionally imported into Eng¬
land. Camels and dromedaries, affes, mules, and kum-
rahs (a moft ferviceable creature, begot by an afs upon
a cow), are their beafts of burden. Their cows are
but fmall, and barren of milk. Their flreep yield but
indifferent fleeces, but are very large, as are their goats.
Bears, porcupines, foxes, apes, hares, rabbits, ferrets,
weafels, moles, chameleons, and all kinds of reptiles, are
found here. Partridges and quails, eagles, hawks, and
all kinds of wild fowl, are frequent on the coaft.
The principal mountains form the chain which goes Mountains
under the name of Mount At/as, and runs the whole &-c.
length of Barbary from eaft to weft, pafling. through
Morocco, and abutting upon that ocean which feparates
the eaftern from the weftern continent, and is from this
mountain called the Atlantic Ocean. See Atlas. The
principal rivers, befides the Malva or Mulvya above
mentioned, which rifes in the deferts, and running from
fouth to north divides Morocco from the kingdom of
Algiers, are the Suz, Ommirabih, Rabbata, Earache,
Darodt, Sebon, Gueron, and Tenfift, which rife in
Mount Atlas, and fall into the Atlantic ocean. T4
The traffic of the empire by land is either with Ara- Inland
bia or Ncgroland : to Mecca they fend caravans, con-traffic,
lifting of feveral thoufand camels, horfes, and mules,
twice every year, partly for traffic, and partly on a
religious account; for numbers of pilgrims take that
opportunity of paying their devotions to their great
prophet. • The goods they carry to the eaft are woollen
manufattures,
M O Ft [ 4i5 ] M O R
Mrocco. manufactures, leather, indigo, cochineal, and oftrich
feathers j and they bring back from thence, filk,
muflins, and drugs. By their caravans to Negroland,
they fend fait, filk, and woollen manufadlures, and
bring back gold and ivory m return, but chiefly ne-
E5 groes.
Tnfie. V The caravans ahvays go flrong enough to defend thcm-
felves againll the wild Arabs in the defects of Africa
and Alia} though, notwithftanding all their vigilance,
feme of the flragglers and baggage often fall into their
hands : they are alfe forced to load one-half of their
camels with water, to prevent their perifhing with
drought and third in thofe inhofpitable deferts. And
u there is ilill a more dangerous enemy, which is the fand
■ itfelf: when the winds rife, the caravan is perfeftly
blinded with dull j and there have been inftances both
in Africa and Afia, where whole caravans, and even
(16 armies, have been buried alive in the fands.
Fotign The natives have hardly any trading veffels, but are
tonnerce. pe^om without feme corfairs. Thefe, and European
merchant fhips, bring them whatever they want from
abroad •, as linen and woollen cloth, fluffs, iron wrought
and unwrought, arms, gunpowder, lead and the like :
for which they take in return, copper, wax, hides,
Morocco leather, wool (which is very fine),, gums,
feap, dates, almonds, and other fruits. The duties paid
by the Englifh in the ports of Morocco are but half
thofe paid by other Europeans. It is a general obfer-
vation, that no nation is fond of trading with thefe
Hates, not only on account of their capricious defpotifm,
, but the villany of their individuals, both natives and
ali I Jews, many of whom take all opportunities of cheating,
17 and when detedled are feldom punifhed.
Lid7 The land forces of the emperor of Morocco confifl
foes. principally of black troops, and feme few white 3
amounting altogether to an army of about 36,000 men
upon the eftablifhment, two-thirds of which are cavalry.
This eftablifhment, however, upon occafion, admits of a
conCderable increafe, as every man is fuppofed to be a
feldier, and when called upon is obliged to acl in that
capacity. About 6000 of the Handing forces form the
emperor’s body guard, and are always kept near his
perfon ; the remainder are quartered in the different
towns of the empire, and are under the charge of the
bafhaws of the provinces. They are all clothed by the
emperor, and receive a trifling pay 3 but their chief de-
,j pendence is on plunder, which they have frequent op-
ii£! ; portunities of acquiring.
The black troops are naturally of a very fiery difpo-
fition, capable of enduring great fatigue, hunger, thirft,
and every difficulty to which a military life is expofed.
They appear well calculated for fkirmifhing parties, or
for the purpofe of haraffing an enemy 3 but were they
obliged to undergo a regular attack, from their total
want of difeipline they would foon be routed. In all
their manoeuvres they have no notion whatever of order
and regularity, but have altogether more the appear-
18 ance of a rabble than of an army.
The emperor’s navy confifts of about 15 fmall fri-
i I gates, a few xebecks, and between 20 and 30 row-gal¬
leys. The whole is commanded by one admiral ; but
as thefe veffels are principally ufed for the purpofes of
piracy, they feldom unite in a fleet. The number of
the feamen in fervice is computed at 6000.
The coins of this empire are a fluce, a blanquil, and Morocco,
ducat. The fluce is a fmall copper coin, 20 whereof ' ^ J
make a blanquil, of the value of twopence ftcrling.
T ire blanquil is of filver, and the ducat of gold, not
unlike that of Hungary, and worth about nine fhillings.
Both thefe pieces are fe liable to be clipped and filed
by the Jews, that the Moors always carry feales in their
pockets to weigh them 3 and when they are found to be
much diminiftred in their weight, they are recoined by
the Jews, who are matters of the mint, by which they
gain a confiderable profit 3 as they do alio by exchan¬
ging the light pieces for thofe that are full weight. Mer¬
chants accounts are kept in ounces, 10 of which make
a ducat 3 but in payments to the government, it is laid
they reckon 17 one-half for a ducat. 20
With refpe& to religion, the inhabitants of Morocco Religion
are 'Mohammedans, ot the feet of Ali 3 and have a and
mufti or high-prieft, who is alfo the fupreme civil ma-
giftrate, and the laft refert in all caufes ecclefiaftical and
civil. They have a great veneration for their hermits,
and for idiots and madmen 3 as well as for thofe who
by their tricks have got the reputation of wizzards: all
whom they look upon as infpired perfons, and not only
honour as faints while they live, but build tombs and
chapels over them when dead 3 which places are not
only religioufly vifited by their devotees far and near,
but are efteemed inviolable lanfluaries for all forts of
criminals except in cafes of treafon.
Notwithftanding the natives are zealous Mohamme¬
dans, they allow foreigners the free and open profef-
fion of their religion, and their very flaves have their
priefts and chapels in the capital city 3 though it muft
be owned that the Chriftian flaves arc here treated cr
with the utmoft cruelty. Here, as in all other Mo- Laws,
hammedan countries, the Alcoran and their comments
upon it are their only written laws 3 and though in
feme inftances their cadis and other civil magiftrates
are controlled by the arbitrary determinations of their
princes, balhaws, generals, and military officers, yet
the latter have generally a very great deference and
regard for their laws. Murder, theft, and adultery,
are commonly punifhed with death : and their puniih-
ments for other crimes, particularly thofe againft the
ftate, are very cruel 3 as impaling, dragging the prifon-
er through the ftreets at a mule’s heels till all his flefli
is torn off, throwing him from a high tower upon iron
hooks. 22
The inhabitants of the empire of Morocco, known Inhabitants
by the name of Moors, are a mixture of Arabian and of the em-
African nations formed into tribes 3 with the origin f):re Mo_
of whom we are but imperfectly acquainted. Thefe
tribes, each ftrangers to the other, and ever divided by
traditional hatred or prejudice, feldom mingle. It feems
probable that moft of the carts who occupy the provin¬
ces of Morocco have been repulfod from the eaftern to
the weftern Africa, during thofe different revolutions
by which this part of the world has been agitated 3 that
they have followed the ftandard of their chiefs, whofe
names they have preferved 3 and that by thefe they,
as well as the countries they inhabit, are diftinguiihed.
At prefent thefe tribes are called cafiles or cabiles,
from the Arabic word kobei/a ; and they are fe nume¬
rous, that it is impoffible to have a knowledge of them
frforoecB.
4.1
TheBrebes,
or Vloun-
taineers.
44
The Moors
of the coun¬
try.
45
Their Am¬
ple way of
life.
26
Occupa¬
tions of the
women,
&e.
M O R [ 41
The native fubjefls of the empire of Morocco may
be divided into two principal clafles j the Brebes and
the Moors.
The etymology of the name, and the origin of the
people, of the firif: clafs, are equally unknown. Like
the Moors, at the time of the invafion by the Arabs,
they may have adopted the Mahometan religion, which
is confonant to their manners and principal ufages ; but
they are an ignorant people, and obferve none of the
precepts of that religion, but the averfion it enjoins
againft other modes of worfliip.
Confined to the mountains, the Brebes preferve great
animofity again 11 the Moors, whom they confound with
the Arabs, and confider as ufurpers.—They thus con-
traft in their retreats a ferocity of mind, and a {Length
of body, which makes them more fit for war and every
kind of labour than the Moors of the plain in general
are. The independence they boaft of gives even a
greater degree of expreffion to their countenance. The
prejudices of their religion make them fubmit to the
authority of the emperors of Morocco ; but they throw
off the yoke at their pleafure, and retire into the moun¬
tains, where it is difficult to attack or overcome them.
'Pile Brebes have a language of their own, and never
marry but among each other. They have tribes or ca-
files among them who are exceedingly powerful both
by their number and courage.
The Moors of the plains may be diftinguifhed into
thofe who lead a paftoral life, and thofe who inhabit
the cities.
The former live in tents ; and that they may allow
their ground a year’s rell, they annually change the
place of their encampments, and go in fearch of frefli
pafturage ; but they cannot take this ftep without ac¬
quainting their governor. Like the ancient Arabs,
they are entirely devoted to a pafforal life : their en¬
campments, which they call douchars, are compofed of
feveral tents, and form a crefcent $ or they are ranged
in two parallel lines, and their flocks, when they return
from pafture, occupy the centi'c.
The tents of the Moors, viewed in front, are of a
conical figure •, they are from 8 to 10 feet high, and
from 20 to 25 feet long 5 like thofe of high antiquity,
they refemble a boat reverfed. They are made of
cloth compofed of goats and camels hair, and the leaves
of the wild palm, by which they are rendered impervi¬
ous to water*, but at a dillance their black colour gives
them a very difagreeable look.
The Moors, when encamped, live in the greateft
fimplicity, and exhibit a faithful pi61:ure of the inhabi¬
tants of the earth in the firft ages of the world. The
nature of their education, the temperature of the cli¬
mate, and the rigour of the government, diminifh’ the
wants of the people, who find in their plains, in the
milk and wool of their flocks, every thing neceffary for
food and clothing. Polygamy is allowed among them j
a luxury fo far from being injurious to a people who
have fewr wants, that it is a great convenience in the
economy of thofe focieties, becaufe the women are in¬
truded with the whole care of the domeftic manage*
ment. In their half-clofed tents, they are employed in
milking the cows for daily ufe 5 and when the milk
abounds, in making butter, in picking their corn, their
barlev, and pulfe, and grinding their meal, which they
do daily in a mill compofed of two ftones about 18
6 ]
M O R
inches in diameter, the uppermoft having a handle, and Moroeej,
turning on an axis fixed in the under one : they make
bread likewife every day, which they bake between
two earthen plates, and often upon the ground after it
has been heated by fire. Their ordinary food is the
coofcoofoo j which is a pafte made with their meal in
the form of fmall grains like Italian pafte. This coof¬
coofoo is drefled in the vapour of boiling foup, in a hol¬
low* difti perforated with many fmall holes in the bot¬
tom, and the difh is enclofed in a kettle where meat is
boiled ; the coofcoofoo, which is in the hollow difti,
grows gradually foft by the vapour of the broth, with
which it is from time to time moiftened. This fimple
food is very nourilhing, and even agreeable when one
has got the better of the prejudices which every nation
entertains for its ovrn cuftoms. The common people
eat it with milk or butter indifferently 5 but thofe of
higher rank, fuch as the governors of provinces and
lieutenants, who live in the centre of the encampments,
add to it fome fucculent broth, made with a mixture
of mutton, poultry, pigeons, or hedgehogs, and then
pour on it a fufficient quantity of frefti butter.
The women in their tents fpin wool, and weave it
into cloth on looms fufpended the whole length of the
tent. Each piece is about five ells long, and one and
a half broad j it is neither dreffed nor dyed, and it has
no feam *, they w'afti it when it is dirty *, and as it is the
only habit of the Moors, they wear it night and day.
It is called haick, and is the true model of the ancient
draperies.
The Moors of the plain wear nothing but their Drcfs^cc,
woollen fluff; they have neither Hurts nor drawers.
Linen among thefe people is a luxury known only to
thofe of the court or the city. The whole wardrobe of
a country Moor in cafy circumftances confifts in a haick
for winter, another for fummer, a red cap, a hood, and
a pair of flippers. The common people both in the
country and in towns wear a kind of tunick of woollen
cloth, white, gray, or ftriped, which reaches to the
middle of the leg, with great fleeves and a hood } it re-
fembles the habit of the Carthufians.
The women’s drefs in the country is likewife confin¬
ed to a haick, which covers the neck and the {boul¬
ders, and is faftened with a filver clafp. The orna¬
ments they are fondeft of are ear rings, which are ei¬
ther in the form of rings or crefcents, made of filver,
bracelets, and rings for the fmall of the leg j they wear
thefe trinkets at their moft ordinary occupations 5 lefs
out of vanity than becaufe they are unacquainted with
the ufe of cafkets or cabinets for keeping them. They
alfo wear necklaces made of coloured glafs beads or
cloves ftrung on a cord of filk.
The Moors confider their wives lefs in the light of
companions than in that of {laves deftined to labour.
Except in the bufinefs of tillage, they are employed
in every fervile operation j nay, in fome of the poorer
quarters a woman is often feen yoked in a plough along
with a mule, an afs, or fome other animal. When the
Moors remove their douchars, all the men feat them-
felves in a circle on the ground ; and with their elbows
refting on their knees, pais the time in converfation,
while the women ftrike the tents, fold them up into
bundles, and place them on the backs of their camels
or oxen. The old women are then each loaded with
a parcel, and the young carry the children on their
flioulders
llotocco.
is
futiages,
t’.
*9
Intertain-
»ent of
ravellers.
30
Markets.
M O R
[ 4i7 1
M 0 R
fhouldevs furpended in a cloth girt round their bodies.
In the more fouthern parts the women are likewife em¬
ployed in the care of the horfes : the hufband, who in
thefe climates is always a defpot, iffues his orders, and
feems only made to be obeyed.
The marriage ceremonies of the Moors that live in
tents pretty much reXemble thofe of the fame people
that live in the cities. In the douchars they are gene¬
rally moft brilliant and gay j the ftrangers that pafs
along are invited, and made to contribute to the fealt j
but this is done more from politenefs than from any
mercenary motive.
The tribes of the plain generally avoid mixing by
marriage with one another : the prejudices that divide
thefe people are commonly perpetuated } or, if they
are partially healed, they never fail to revive upon
trifling occafions, fuch as a ftrayed camel, or the pre¬
ference of a pafture or a well. Marriages have fome-
times taken place among them, that, fo far from ce¬
menting their differences, have occafioned the moil tra¬
gical feenes, Hufhands have been known to murder
their wives, and women their hufbands, to revenge na¬
tional quarrels. _ k
Parents are not encumbered with their children,
however numerous they may be, for they are very early
employed in domeftie affairs } they tend the flocks,
they gather wood, and they afiift in ploughing and
reaping. In the evening, when they return from the
field, all the children of the douchar affemble in a com¬
mon tent, where the iman, who himfelf can hardly
fpell, makes them read a few fentences from the Koran
written on boards, and inftru&s them in their religion
by the light of a fire made of ftraw, of bufhes, and
cow dung dried in the fun. As the heat is very great
in the inland parts of the country, children of both fexes
go quite naked till the age of nine or ten.
The douchars difperfed over the plains are always in
the neighbourhood of fome rivulet or fpring, and they
are a kind of inns for the reception of travellers. There
is generally a tent erefled for their ufe, if they have
not brought one along with therfi, where they are ac¬
commodated with poultry, milk, and eggs, and with
whatever is neceffary for their horfes. Inflead of wood
for fuel, they have the cow dung, which, when mixed
with charcoal, makes a very brifk fire. A guard is
always fet on the tents of travellers, efpecially if they
are Europeans, becaufe the opinion of their wealth
might tempt the avidity of the Moore, who are natu¬
rally inclined to thieving.
With refpeft to the roads, a very judicious policy
is eftablUhed, which is adapted to the chara&er of the
Moors, and to their manner of life. The douchars are
refponfible for robberies committed in their neighbour¬
hood and in fight of their tents : they are not only
obliged to make reftitution, but it gives the fovereign
a pretence for exa&ing a contribution proportioned to
the abilities of the douchar. In order to temper the
rigour of this law, they are made refponfible only for
fuch robberies as are committed during the day ; thofe
that happen after funfet are not imputed to them, as
they could neither fee nor prevent them : on this ac¬
count, people here travel only from funrifing to fun-
fetting.
To facilitate the exchange of neceffaries, there is in
the fields every day, except Friday, which is a day of
VoL* XIV. Part II.
prayer, a public market in the different quarters of Moroc _
each province. The Moors of the neighbourhood af¬
femble to fell and buy cattle, corn, pulie, dried fruits
carpets, haicks, and in Ihort all the produdhons of
the country. This market, which is railed Soc, re-
fembles our fairs. The buftle of the people who go
and come, gives a better idea of the manner of life of
the Moors than can be had in the cities. I he al¬
caides, who command in the neighbourhood, always at¬
tend thefe markets with foldiers to keep the peace j as
it frequently happens that the grudges which thefe tribes
harbour againll one another break out upon fuch occa¬
fions into open violence. 3*
The Moors who inhabit the cities differ from the Of the
others only in having a little more urbanity and ajwe]]jncj>
more eafy deportment. I hough they have the fame t-es>
origin with thofe of the plains, they aftedl to decline
all intercourfe with them, borne writers, iv ithout any
foundation, have given the name of Arabs to the in¬
habitants of the towns, and that of Moors to thofe
of the plains. But the greater part of the cities of this
empire are more ancient than the invafion of the Arabs,
who themfelves lived in tents. _ 3*
The houfes in moft of the towns in this empire ap-Their
pear at a little diftance like vaulted tombs in a church-
yard } and the entrance into the belt of them has but
a mean appearance. The rooms are generally on the
ground floor, and whitened on the outfide. As the
roofs are quite flat, they ferve as verandas, where the
Mooriih women commonly fit for the benefit of the
air } and in fome places it is poffible to pafs nearly oyer
the whole town without having occafion to defeend in¬
to the ftreet.
As the beft apartments are all backwards, a liable,
or perhaps fomething worfe, is the place to which vifi-
tors are firft introduced. Upon entering the houfe,
the ftranger is either detained in this place, or in the
ftreet, till all the women are defpatched out of the way \
he is then allowed to enter a fquare court, into which
four narrow and long rooms open by means of huge
folding doors, which, as they have no windows, ferve
likewife to introduce light into the apartments. The
court has generally in its centre a fountain; and if it
is the houfe of a Moor of property, it is flooied with
blue and white chequered tiling. None of the cham¬
bers have fire places j and their vidluals are always
dreffed in the court-yard in an earthen ftove heated with
charcoal. When the vifitor enters the room, where he
is received by the mafter of the houfe, he finds him fit¬
ting crofs-legged and barefooted on a mattrefs, covered
with fine white linen, and placed on the floor or elfe on
a common mat. This, with a narrow piece of carpct-
inc, is in general the only furniture he will meet with
in Moorifli houfes, though they are hot deftitute of
other ornaments. ... . , 33
The wardrobe of the inhabitants of cities is but little Drefs of tH@>
different from that of thofe who live in tents.—Like the men.
latter, they have a haieik, and a hood more or Itfs fine,
and have alfo a hood of coarfe European cloth of dark
blue for the winter. What farther diftinguifhes them
from the country Moors is, that they w ear a (lyirt and
linen drawers, and an upper garment of cotton in fum-
mer, and of cloth in winter, which they call a caftan.
The white or blue hood, the purpofe of which feems to
be to guard againft bad weather, and which is called
a G bernus,
Morocco.
34
Drefs of the
ladies.
S3
Negroes.
Renega-
Uoes.
M OR [ 4
bernus, is likeAvife a ceremonial part of drefs ; Avithout
Avhich, together Avith fabre and canjer (or dagger) AA-orn
in a bandelier, perfons of condition mver appear before
the emperor.
The Moorifh Avomen Avho live in cities are, as in
other nations, more addidled to fhoAV and finery in drefs
than thofe of the country ; but they generally leave
the houfe only one day in the Aveek, they feldom drefs
therafelves. Not alloAved to receive male vifitors, they
remain in their houfes employed in their families, and
fo totally in defhabile that they often Avear only a Ihift,
and another coarfer Ihift OArer the firft, tied round their
Avaift, Avith their hair plaited, and fometimes Avith,
though often Avithout, a cap. When drefled, they
Avear an ample and fine linen fhift, the bofom embroid¬
ered in gold ; a rich caftan of cloth, Itufif, or velvet,
Avrorked in gold ; and one or ts\ro folds of gauze, ftreak-
ed Avith gold and filk, round the head, and tied behind
fo as that the fringes, intermingled Avith their treffes,
defcend as Ioav as the Avaift j to Avhich fome add a rib¬
band of about two inches broad, Avorked in gold or
pearls, that encircles the forehead in form of a diadem.
Their caftan is bound round their Avaift by a crimfon
velvet girdle, embroidered in gold, Avith a buckle of
gold or filver, or elfe a girdle of tamboured fluff, ma¬
nufactured at Fez.
The Avomen have yelloAv flippers, and a cuftom of
Avearing a kind of flocking of fine cloth fomeavhat large,
Avhich is tied beloAV the knee and at the ankle, over
Avhich it falls in folds. This flocking is lefs calculated
to flioAV Avhat avc call a handfome leg, than to make it
appear thick ; for to be fat is one of the rules of beauty
among the Moorilli Avomen. To obtain this quality,
they take infinite pains, feed Avhen they become thin on
a diet fomeAvhat like forced meat balls, a certain quan¬
tity of Avhich is given them daily ; and in fine, the fame
care is taken among the Moors to fatten young Avomen
as is in Europe to fatten fowls.
The Negroes, Avho conflitute a large proportion of
the emperor’s fubjeCts, are better formed than the
Moors ; and as they are more lively, daring, and ac-
ti\'e, they are intruded Avith an important fhare in the
executive part of government. They conftitute in fa£t
the moft confiderable part of the emperor’s army, and
are generally appointed to the command of provinces
and towns. This circumftance naturally creates a jea-
loufy betAveen them and the Moors, the latter confider-
ing the negroes as ufurpers of a poAver Avhich they have
no right to affume. Befides thofe negroes Avhich form
the emperor’s army, there are a great many others in
the country, Avho either are or have been Haves to pri¬
vate Moors : every Moor of confequence, indeed, has
his proportion of them in his fervice. To the difgrace
of Europe, the Moors treat their Haves Avith humanity,
employing them in looking after their gardens, and in
the domeftic duties of their houles. They alloAV them
to marry among themfelves } and after a certain num¬
ber of years, fpontaneouHy prefent them with the in¬
valuable boon of liberty. They foon are initiated in
the Mahometan perfuafion, though they fometimes in¬
termix Avith it a few of their original fuperftitious cu¬
ftom?. In every other refpedl they copy the drefs and
manners of the Moors.
Among the inhabitants of Morocco there is ano¬
ther clafs, of whom we muft not omit to make men-
3?
18 ] M O R
tion. Thefe are the Renegadoes, or foreigners, who Morocco.
have renounced their religion for the faith of Maho-' r—^
met. Of thefe there are a great number Avho have
been originally Jcavs : they are held in little eftimation
by the Moors j and would be held in abhorrence by
the Jcavs, if they durft freely exprefs their averfion.
The families of thefe apoftates are called Toornadis :
not having at any time married Avith the Moors, they
ftill preferve their ancient charadleriftics, and are knoAvn
almoft at fight to be the progeny of thofe Avho formerly
embraced the Mahometan religion. The Chriftian re¬
negadoes are but feAV •, and generally are fugitrve pecu¬
lators of Spain, or men fallen from poAver, who becaufe
of their mifconduft, or in defpair, quit one unfortunate
fituation for another much more deplorable.
The Jews Avere formerly very numerous in this em-Jews^
pire. After being profcribed in Spain and Portugal,
multitudes of them paffed over to Morocco, and fpread
themfelves through the toAvns and over the country.
By the relations they themfelves give, and by the ex¬
tent of the places afligned them to dwell in, it Avould
appear there Avere more than 30,000 families, of Avhom
at prefent there is fcarcely a refidue of one-tAvelfth 5 the
remainder either having changed their religion, funk
under their fufferings, or fled from the vexations they
endured, and the arbitrary taxes and tolls impofed upon
them. The Ji5AArs poffefs neither lands nor gardens, nor
can they enjoy their fruits in tranquillity : they muft;
Avear only black 5 and are obliged, Avhen they pafs near
mofques, or through ftreets in Avhich there are fanc-
tuaries, to walk barefoot. The loAveft among the Moors
imagines he has a right to ill-treat a Jcav •, nor dares
the latter defend himfelf, becaufe the Koran and the
judge are always in favour of the Mahometan.—Not-
withftanding this ftate of oppreflion, the Jbavs have ma¬
ny advantages over the Moors : they better underftand
the fpirit of trade ) they aft as agents and brokers, and
profit by their oAvn cunning and the ignorance of the
Moors. jg
The Moors, who derive their language and religion State of
from the Arabs, feem not in any manner to have par-know^e^?e
ticipated of their knoAvledge. United and confound-
ed as thofe of Morocco have been with the Moors of
Spain, the latter of Avhom cultivated the arts and gaAre
birth to Averroes, and many other great men, the
Moors of this empire have preferved no traces of the
genius of their anceftors. They have no conception of
the fpeculative fciences. Education confifts merely in
learning to read and Avrite 5 and as the revenues of the
learned are derived from thefe talents, the priefts and
talbes among them are the foie depofitories of thus much
knoAvledge : the children of the Moors are taught in
their fchools to read and repeat fome fixty leffons, fe-
lefted from the Koran, Avhich for the fake of economy
are Avritten upon fmall boards.
The Moors Avho formerly inhabited Spain gave great
application to phyfic and aftronomy} and they have
left manuferipts behind them Avhich ftill remain monu¬
ments of their genius. The modern Moors are infinite¬
ly degenerate ; they have not the leaft inclination to
the ftudy of fcience; they know the properties of fome
fimples; but as they do not proceed upon principle, and
are ignorant of the caufes and effefts of difeafes, they
generally make a wrong application of their remedies.
Their moft ufeful phyficians are their talbes, their fa-.
kirSj
M O R [ 4i
otocco. tirs, and their faints, in whom they place a fuperflitious
* rv—' confidence.
Notwithftanding the Moors have occupied themielves
little in the ftudy of aftronomy, they have been eager
after aftrology. J- his imaginary fcience, which made
fo rapid a progrefs at Rome in (pile of the edicfs of the
emperors, may be conceived to make ft ill greater ad¬
vances among a people wholly ftupid and ignorant, and
ever agitated by the dread of prefent evils, or the hope
of a more happy futurity. Magic, the companion of
aftrology, has here alfo found its followers, and is par¬
ticularly ftudied by the talbes in the fouthern parts,
who fuccefsfully ufe it in impofing upon Moorilh credu¬
lity with ftrange dreams and ambiguous forebodings and
,0 prophecies.
Hinufac- The Mooriih manufactures are—The haick, which
tfes and as was before obferved, is a long garment compofed of
t*de5- white wool and cotton, or cotton and filk woven to¬
gether, and is ufed by the Moors for the purpofe of
covering their under drefs when they go. abroad, which
they do by totally wrapping themfelves in it in a care-
lefs but eafy manner *, filk handkerchiefs of a particu¬
lar kind, prepared only at Fez.*, filks checquered with
cotton *, carpeting, little inferior to that of I urkey j
beautiful matting, made of the palmetto or wTild palm
tree} paper of a coarfe kind ^ cordovan, commonly
called Morocco leather ; gunpowder of an inferior na¬
ture *, and long-barrelled mulkets, made of Bifcay
iron. The Moors are unacquainted with the mode
of calling cannon : and therefore thofe few which are
now in the country are obtained from Europeans.—
The manufacture of glafs is likewife unknown to
them; as indeed they make great ufe of earthen ware,
and have few or no windows to their houfes, this com¬
modity may be of lefs importance to them than many
others. They make butter, by putting the milk into
a goat lkin, with its outward coat turned inwards, and
{baking it till the butter calleCls on the fides,. when it
is taken out for ufe. From this operation it proves
always full of hairs, and has an infipid flavour.. Their
cheefe confifts merely of curds hardened and dried, and
has uniformly a difagreeable tafte. 1 he bread in fome
of the principal towns, particularly at Tangier and
Sallee, is remarkably good, but in many other places
it is coarfe, black, and heavy.
Their looms, forges, ploughs, carpenters tools, &c.
are much upon the fame conftruCfion with the unim¬
proved inftruments of the fame kind which are ufed
at this time in fome parts of Europe, only ftill more
clumfily finifhed. In.their work, they attend more
[to ftrength than neatnefs or convenience 5 and, like all
other ignorant people, they have no idea that what
they do is capable of improvement. It is probable,
indeed, that the Moors have undergone no very material
change fince the revolution in their arts and fciences,
which took place foon after their expulfion from Spain.
Previous to that period, it is well known they were an
enlightened people, at a time when the greater part
of Europe was involved in ignorance and barbarifm j
but owing to the weaknefs and tyranny of their princes,
they gradually funk into the very oppofite extreme,
and may now be confidered as but a few degrees
removed from a favage ftate.
Their mofques or places of public worftiip are ufually
large fquare buildings, compofed of the fame materials
9 ] M o R
as the houfes. The building confifts of. broad and , :0-1
lofty piazzas, opening into a iquare court, in a manner ^
in fome degree fimilar to the Royal Eixchange of Lon- peijgjous
don. In the centre of the court is a large fountain, ceremonies,
and a fmall ftream furrounds the piazzas, where the
Moors perform the ceremony of ablution.. The court
and piazzas are floored with blue and white chequer¬
ed tiling j and the latter are covered with matting,
upon which the Moors kneel while repeating their
prayers. In the moft confpicuous part of the mofque
fronting the eaft, ftands a kind of pulpit, where the
talbe or prieft occafionally preaches. 1 he Moors al¬
ways enter this place of worlhip barefooted, leaving
their flippers at the door. On the top of the mofque,
is a fquare fteeple with a flag ftaff, whither at ftated
hours the talbe afcends, hoifts a white flag, and calls
the people to prayers, for they have no bells. From
this high fituation the voice is heard at a confiderable
diftance j and the talbes have a monotonous mode
of enunciation, the voice finking at the end of every
ftiort fentence, which in fome meafure refembles the
found of a bell. The moment the flag is difplayed, every
perfon forfakes his employment, and goes to prayers.
If they are near a mofque, they perform their devo¬
tions within it, other wife immediately on the fpot
where they happen to be, and always with their faces
towards the eaft, in honour of their prophet Mahomet,
who it is well known was buried at Medina.
Their Sabbath is on our Friday, and commences
from fix o’clock the preceding evening. On this day
they ufe a blue flag inftead of the white one. As it
has been prophefied that they are to be conquered by
the Chriftians on the Sabbath day, the gates of all the
towns and of the emperor’s palaces are ftrut when at
divine fervice on that day, in order to avoid being fur-
prifed during that period. Their talbes are not di-
ftinguiftied by any particular drefs.
The Moors have three folemn devotional periods in
the courfe of the year. The firft, which is named Aid
de Cabier, is held in commemoration of the birth of
Mahomet. It continues feven days *, during which pe¬
riod, every perfon who can afford the expence kills a
{heep as a facrifice, and divides it among his friends.
The fecond is the Ramadam. This is held at the fea-
fon when Mahomet difappeared in his flight from Mec¬
ca to Medina. Every man is obliged at that period
to faft (that is, to abftain from animal food from fun-
rife to funfet each day) for 30 days ; at the expiration
of which time a feaft takes place, and continues a week.
The third is named Llajhore, and is a day fet apart
by Mahomet for every perfon to compute the value of
his property, in order for the payment of xakat, that
is, one-tenth of their income to the poor, and other
pious ufes. Although this feaft only lafts a Angle day,
yet it is celebrated with far greater magnificence than
either of the others.
The Moors compute time by lunar months, and
count the days of the week by the firft, fecond, third,
&c. beginning from our Sunday. They ufe a common
reed for writing, and begin their manufcripts from right
to left. r
The Moors of the empire of Morocco, as well as Language
thofe to the northern limits of Africa, fpeak Arabic ; of the
but this language is corrupted in proportion as we re- Moors-
tire farther from Alia, where it firft took birth *, the
3 G 2 intermixture
M O R
Morocco.
[ 420 ]
M O It
.4*
Their fem.
per and
diipofition.
43
Mode of 11
>ring, man¬
ners, See.
intermixture which has happened among the African
nations, and the frequent tranfmigrations of the Moors,
during a fucceflion of ages, have occafioned them to
lofe the purity of the Arabic language j its pronun¬
ciation has been vitiated, the ufe of many words loft,
and other foreign words have been introduced without
thereby rendering it more copious ; the pronunciation
of the Africans, howTever, is foftcr to the ear and lefs
guttural than that of the Egyptians. The language,
when written, is in effeeft much the fame at Morocco
as at Cairo, except that there are letters and expreflions
among the Moors which differ from thofe of the Orien¬
tal Arabs, who, however, underftand the Moors in con-
verfation, notwithftanding their vitiated manner of pro¬
nouncing. They mutually read each others writings
with fome difficulty.
The Moors are naturally of a grave and penffve dif-
pofition, fervid in profeflions of friend (hip, but very
infincere in their attachments. They have no eurio-
ftty, no ambition of knowledge ; an indolent habit,
united to the want of mental cultivation, renders them
perhaps even more callous than other unenlightened
people to every delicate fenfation ; and they require
more than ordinary excitement to render them fenlible
of pleafure or of pain. This languor of fentiment is,
however, unaccompanied with the fmalleft fpark of
courage or fortitude. When in adverfity, they mani-
feft the moft abject fubmiffion to their fuperiors j and
in profperity their tyranny and pride are infupportable.
Per tonal cleanlinefs has been confidered as one of
thofe circumfiances which ferve to mark and deter¬
mine the civilization of a people.. It was in vain that
Mahomet enioined the frequency of ablution as a re¬
ligious duty to the Moors. Their drefs, which fhould
be white, is but feldom wathed •, and their whole ap¬
pearance evinces that thcyr perform this branch of their
religious ceremonies in but a flovenly manner. With
this degree of negligence as to their perfons, we may be
juftly furprifed to find united a moft fcrupulous nicety
in their habitations and apartments. They enter their
chambers barefooted, and cannot bear the flighteft de¬
gree of contamination near the place where they are
leated. This delicacy again is much confined to the
infides of their houfes. The ftreets receive the whole
of their rubbifh and filth and by thefe means the
ground is fo raifed in moft parts of the city of Morocco,
that the new buildings always Hand confiderably higher
than the old.
W7ith refpefl to the hours for eating, the people of
this country are remarkably regular. Very foon after
daybreak they take their breakfaft, which is generally
a compofi'ion of flour and water boiled thin, together
with an herb which gives it a yellow tinge. The male
part of the family eat in one apartment and the fe-
maY in another. The children are not permitted to
eat with their parents, but take their meals afterwards
with the fervants ; indeed in moff other refpefts they
are treated exaftly as fervants or Haves by their pa¬
rents. The mefs is put into an earthen bowl, and
brought in upon a round wooden tray. It is placed
in the centre of the guefts, who fit crofs-legged either
on a mat or on the floor, and who form a circle for
the purpofe. Having previoufly waffled themfelves, a
ceremony always performed before and after meals,
each perfon with his fpoon attacks vigoroufly the
bowl, while they diverfify the entertainment by eat- Moreceo.
ing with it fruit or bread. At twelve o’clock they ““V—
dine, performing the fame ceremonies as at breakfaft.
For dinner, from the emperor down to the peafant, their
dilh is univerfally coofcoofoo, the mode of preparing
which has been already deferibed. The dilh is brought
in upon a round tray and placed on the floor, round
which the family fit as at breakfaft, and with their fin¬
gers commit a violent affault on its contents : they ar&
at the lame time, however, attended by a Have or do-
meftic, who prefents them with water and a towel oc-
cafionally to wafli their hands. From the want of the
fimple and convenient invention of knives and forks,,
it is not uncommon in this country to fee three or four
people pulling to pieces the fame piece of meat, and
afterwards with their fingers ftirring up the pafte or
coofroofoo, of which they often take a whole handful
at once into their mouth. At funfet they fup upon the
fame diffi 5 and indeed fupper is their principal meal.
But the common people muff; content themfelves witF
Ja little bread and fruit inftead of animal food, and Heep
in the open ilreets. This kind of exiftence feems ill
calculated to endure even in an inaftive ftate ; far more
fevere mull it therefore be to thofe who exercife the
laborious employment of couriers in this country, who
travel on foot a journey of. three hundred or four
hundred miles at the rate of between thirty or forty
miles a-day, without taking any other nourilhment than
a little bread, a few figs, and fome water, and who
have no better flielter at night than a tree. It is
wonderful with what alacrity and perfeveranee thefe
people perform the moft fatiguing journeys al all feafons
of the year. There is a regular company of them in
every town, who are ready to be defpatched at a mo¬
ment’s tvarning to any part of the country their em¬
ployers may have occafion to fend them.
As the Moors are not fond of admitting men into
their houfes except upon particular occafions, if the
■weather be fine they place a mat, and fometimes a
carpet, on the ground before the door, feat themfelves
upon it crofs-legged, and receive their friends, who
form a circle, fitting in the fame manner, with their
attendants on the outfide of the groupe. Upon thefe
occafions they either drink tea or fmoke and convene*
The ftreets are fometimes crowded with parties of this
kind ; fome engaged in playing at an inferior kind of
chefs or draughts, at which they are very expert ; but
the majority in converfation. The people of this
country, indeed, are fo decidedly averfe to Handing
up, or walking about, that if only two or three people
meet, they fquat themfelves down in the firft clean
place they can find, if the converfation is to hold but
for a few minutes. 44
The Moors have in general but few amufements ; Their a-
the fedentary life they lead in cities is little variegated niuienientJ*
except by the care they take of their gardens, which
are rather kept for profit than pleafure. Moft of
thefe gardens are planted w ith the orange, the lemon
tree, and the cedar, in row7s, and in fuch great quanti¬
ties, that the appearance is rather that of a foreft than
that of a garden. The Moors fometimes, though rare¬
ly, have mufic in thefe; retreats : a ftate of fiavtry but
ill agrees with the love of pleafure : the people of Fez
alone, either from a difference in education, or be-
caufe their organs and fenfibility are more delicate,
make
M
\S
Mnagc-
met of
kabs.
4«
L e of
BXLC.
MOB [42
make mufic a part of their amufements. There are
'not in Morocco, as in Turkey, public coffee-houfes,
■where people meet to inquire the news ot the day ,
but inltead of thefe, the Moors go to the barbers
{hops, which in all countries feem to be the rendezvous
of newfmongers. Thefe (hops are furrounded by bench¬
es • on which the cuftomer, the inquifitive, and the
idle, feat themfelves, and when there are no more places
vacant, they crouch on the ground like monkeys.
A common diverfion in the towns where there are
foldiers, as well as in the country, is what the Moors
call the game of gunpowder; a kind of military ex-
ercife, that is the more pleafmg to thefe people, in-
afmuch as, by the nature of their government, they
all are, or are liable to become, foldiers therefore all
have arms and horfes. By explofions of powder too,
they manifeft their feftivity on their holidays. 1 heir
game of gunpowder confifts in two bodies^ of horie,
each at a diftance from the other, galloping in fuceef-
five parties of four and four, and firing their pieces
charged with powder. Their chief art is in galloping
up to the oppofite detachment, fuddenly (lopping, fir¬
ing their mufkets, facing about, charging, and return-
in- to the attack ; all which manoeuvres are imitated
by their opponents. The Moors take great pleafure in
this amufement, which is only an imitation of then mi¬
litary evolutions. .
The common topics for cotiverfation among the
Moors, are the occurrences of the place, religion,
their women, but above all their horfes. This lad to¬
pic, indeed, appears to occupy bv far the greatetl por¬
tion of their attention. Thefe animals are feldom kep
in (tables in Morocco. They are watered and fed only
once a-day, the former at one o’clock at noon, and the
latter at funfefc: and the only one mode which they uie
to clean them is by waffling them all over m a river
two or three times a-week, and differing them to dry
themfelves. , rr ’
Like all barbarous nations, the Moors are paliion-
ately fond of mufic, and fome few have a tafte for poe¬
try. Their (low airs, for want of that variety which is
introduced when the fcience has attained a degree of
perfeaion, have a very melancholy famenefs ; but fome
of their quick tunes are beautiful and fimple, and par¬
take in fome degree of the charaaeriftie melody of the
Scotch airs. The poetry of their fongs, the conftant
fubiea of which is love, though there are few nations
perhaps who are lefs fenfible of that paflion, has certain¬
ly lefs merit than the mufic.
^ Their inftruments are a kind of hautboy, which
differs from ours only in having no keys ; the mando¬
line, which they have learnt to play upon from their
neighbours the Spaniardsanother inftrument, bearing
fome refemblance to a violin, and played upon in a 1-
milar manner, but with only two firings; the large
drum, the common pipe, and the tabor. Thefe united,
and accompanied with a certain number, of voices, upon
many occafions form a band, though folo mufie is more
common in this unfocial country. .
The- Moors marry very young, many of their fe¬
males not being more than _ 1 2 years of ag» at their
nuptials. As Mahometans, it is well known that their
religion admits of polygamy to the extent of four
wives, and as many concubines as they pleafe ; but if
we except the very opulent, the people feldom avail
x ] MOB
themfelves of this indulgence, fince it entails on them , Momco^
a vail additional expence in houfe-keeping, and m pro¬
viding for a large family. In contra&ing marriage,
the parents of both parties are the only agents; and the
intended bride and bridegroom never lee each other 4?
till the ceremony is performed. The marriage lettle-Marnage
ments are made before the cadi; and then the friends ceremonies,
of the bride produce her portion, or i( not, the hul-
band agrees to fettle a certain fum upon her m cale
he (hould die, or divorce her on account of barrennefs,
or any other caufe. 1 he children of the wives have
all an equal claim to the effe&s of the father and
mother, but thofe of the concubines can each only claim
half a (hare. , .,
When the marriage is finally agreed upon, the bride
is kept at home eight days, to receive her female
friends, who pay congratulatory vifits every day. At
the fame time a talbe attends upon her, to converie
with her relative to the folemn engagement on which
(he is about to enter : on thefe occafions he commonly
accompanies his admonitions with finging a pious hymn„
which is adapted to the folemnity. The bridegroom,
on the other hand, receives vifits from his male friends
in the morning, and in the evening rides through the
town accompanied by them, fome playing on hautboys
and drums, while others are employed in firing volleys
of mulketry. In all their fefiivals the diicharge ot
muflcetry indeed forms a principal part of the enter¬
tainment. Contrary to the European mode, which
particularly aims at firing with exaftnefs, the Moors
difcharge their pieces as irregularly as poflible, fo as
to have a continual fucceffion of reports for a few mi-
nutes. , .. . .
On the day of the marriage, the bride in the even-
ino- is put into a fquare or octagonal cage about twelve
feet in circumference, which is covered with fine white
linen, and fometimes with gaufes and filks of various
colours. In this vehicle, which is placed on a mule,
(he is paraded round the ftreets, accompanied by her
relations and friends, fome carrying lighted, torches,
others plaving on the hautboys, and a third parly
again firing volleys of muflcetry. In this manner (he
is carried to the houfe of her intended hulhand, who
returns about the fame time from performing fimilar
ceremonies. On her arrival, (lie is placed m an apart¬
ment by herfelf, and her htilband is introduced to her
alone for the firft time, who finds her fitting on a filk
or velvet cufliion (fuppofing her to be a perfon of con-
fequence), with a fmall table before her, upon which
are two wax candles lighted. Her (hift, or more pro¬
perly (hirt, hangs down like a train behind her, and
over it is a filk or velvet robe with clofe fleeves, which
at the bread and wrifts is embroidered with gold; this
drefs reaches fomething lower than the calf of the leg.
Round her head is tied a black filk fcaif, which hangs
behind as low as the ground. Thus attired, the bride
fits with her hands over her eyes, when her hufband
appears, and receives her as his wife without any. fur¬
ther ceremony : for the agreement made by the friends
before the cadi is the only fpecific contradt which is
thought neceffary.
If the hufband (hould have any reafon to fufpedt that
his wife has not been ftridlly virtuous, he is at liberty
to divorce her and take another. For fome time after
marriage, the family and the friends are engaged in
0 mucks
48.
■Oircumci
fion.
49
5°
Funeral
rites.
M O R [4
Morocco ^ mucli feafting, and a variety of amufements, which laft
v a longer or Ihorter time according to the circumftances
of the parties. It is ufually cuftomary for tlie man
to remain at home eight days and the woman eight
months after they are firft married ; and the woman is
at liberty to divorce herfelf from her hufband, if Ihe
can prove that he does not provide her with a proper
fubfiftence.
Women fuffer but little inconvenience in this coun¬
try from child-bearing; they are frequently up the
next day, and go through all the duties of the houfe
with the inlant upon their backs. In celebrating the
rite of circumcifion, the child is dreffed very fumptu-
oully, and carried on a mule, or, if the parents are in
poor circumftances, on an afs, accompanied with flags
flying and muficians playing on hautboys and beating
^ drums. In this manner they proceed to the mofque,
Education where the ceremony is performed. Children, as foon
of children, as they can be made in the leaft degree ufeful, are put
to the various kinds of labour adapted to their age and
ftrength. Others, whofe parents are in better circum¬
ftances, are fometimes fent to fchool ; and thofe who are
intended for the church, ufually continue their ftudies
till they have nearly learnt the Koran by rote. In that
cafe they are enrolled among the talbes, or learned men
of the law ; and upon leaving fchool are paraded round
the ftreets on a horfe, accompanied by mufic and a
large concourfe of people.
When any perfon dies, a certain number of women
are hired for the purpofe of lamentation 5 in the per¬
formance of w’hich, nothing can be more grating to
the ear, or more unpleafant, than their frightful moans,
or rather bowlings : at the fame time, thefe mercenary
mourners beat their heads and breafts, and tear their
cheeks with their nails. The bodies are ufually buried
a few hours after death. Previous to interment, the
corpfe is waflied very clean, and fewed up in a ftiroud,
with the right hand under the head, which is pointed
towrards Mecca : it is carried on a bier fupported upon
men’s (boulders, to the burying place, which is always,
with great propriety, on the outfide of the town, for
they never bury their dead in the mofques, or within
the bounds of an inhabited place.
Morocco, a city of the kingdom of Morocco in
Earbary, lying about 120 miles to the north of Tarudant,
90 to the eaft of Mogodore, and 350 to the fouth of
Tangier. It is fituated in a beautiful valley, formed by
a chain of mountains on the northern fide, and thofe
of Atlas, from which it is diftant about 20 miles, on
the fouth and eaft. The country which immediately
furrounds it is a fertile plain, beautifully diverfified
with clumps of palm trees and (hrubs, and watered by
fmall and numerous ftreams Avhich defcend from Mount
Atlas. The emperor’s out gardens, which are fituated
at the diftance of about five miles to the fouth of the
city, and are large plantations of olives Availed in, add
confiderably to the beauty of the fcene.
Morocco, though one of the capitals of the empire
(for there are three, Morocco, Mequinez, and Fez),
has nothing to recommend it but its great extent and
the royal palace. It is enclofed by remarkably ftrong
Avails built of tabby, the circumference of which is
about eight miles. On thefe walls there are no guns
mounted ; but they are flanked with fquare towers,
and furrounded by a wide and deep ditch. The city
22 ] M O U
has a number of entrances, confifting of large double Morocco
porches of tabby in the Gothic ftvle, the gates of1 VT|
which are regularly (hut every night at certain hours.
As polygamy is allowed by the Mahometan religion,
and is fuppofed in fome degree to affeft population, it
would be difficult to form any computation near the
truth with refpedt to the number of inhabitants which
this city may contain. The mofques, which are the
only public buildings except the palace worth noticing
at Morocco, are more numerous than magnificent j
one of them is ornamented with a very high and fquare
toAver, built of cut done, which is vifible at a conlider-
able diftance from the city. The ftreets are very nar-
roAV, dirty, and irregular, and many of the houfes are
uninhabited and falling to ruin. Thofe which are de¬
cent and refpeclable in their appearance are built of
tabby, and enclofed in gardens. That of the effendi
or prime minifter (according to Mr Lempriere, from
7W * this account is tranferibed), was among » PuWi(M
the beft in Morocco. I his houfe, Avhich confided ofinx75I
tAvo (lories, had elegant apartments both above and be-
Ioav, furniftied in a ftyle far fuperior to any thing our
author ever faiv in that country. The court, into
Avhich the lower apartments opened, was very neatly
paved with glazed blue and white tiling, and had in
its centre a beautiful fountain. The upper apartments
were connedled together by a broad gallery, the bal-
lufters of which were painted of different colours.
1 he hot and cold baths Avere very large, and had every
convenience Avhich art could afford, Into the garden",
which was laid out in a tolerably neat ftyle, opened a
room adjoining to the houfe, which had a broad arched
entrance but no door, beautifully ornamented with
chequered tiling ; and at both ends of the apartment
the walls were entirely covered with looking glafs.
The flooring of all the rooms was covered with beau¬
tiful carpeting, the walls ornamented with large and
valuable looking glaffes, intermixed with watches and
clocks in glafs cafes. The ceiling was carved wood¬
work, painted of different colours j and the Avhole was
in a fuperior ftyle of Moorifti grandeur. This and a
feAV others are the only decent habitations in Morocco.
'Ihe generality of them ferve only to imprefs'the tra¬
veller with the idea of a miferable and deferted city.
The Elcaifferia is a particular part of the towui
where (luffs and other valuable articles are expofed to
fale. It confifts of a number of fmall (hops, formed in
the Avails of the houfes, about a yard from the ground,
of fuch a height wdthin as juft to admit a man to fit
in one of them crofs-legged. The goods and draAvers
are fo arranged round him, that Avhen he ferves his cu-
ftomers, who are (landing all the time out in the ftreet,
he can reach down any article he Avants without be¬
ing under the neceftity of moving. Thefe (hops, which
are found in all the other towns of the empire, are fuffi-
cient to afford a ftriking example of the indolence of
the Moors. There are three daily markets in different
parts of the toA\rn of Morocco where provifions are
fold, and tAvo Aveekly fairs or markets for the difpofal
of cattle. The city is fupplied with water by means
of Avooden pipes connefled Avith the neighbouring
ftreams, which empty themfelves into refervoirs placed
for the purpofe in the fuburbs, and fome feAV in the
centre of the toAvn.
The caftle is a large and ruinous building, the outer
. Avails
M O R [ 423 ] M O R
Walls of which enclofe a fpace of ground about three
miles in circumference. It has a mofque, on the top of
which are three large balls, formed, as the Moors allege,
of folid gold, d he caftle is almofl a town of itfelf 5
it contains a number of inhabitants, who in fome de¬
partment or other are in the fervice of the emperor,
and all under the direction of a particular alcaide, who
is quite independent of the governor of the town. On
the outlide of the cattle, between the Moorilh town
and the Jewdry, are feveral fmall diitin£t pavilions, en-
clofed in gardens of orange trees, which are intended
as occalional places of relidence for fuch of the empe¬
ror’s fons or brothers as happen to be at Morocco. As
they are covered with coloured tiling, they have at a
fmall diftance rather a neat appearance ; but upon ap¬
proaching or entering them, that effedt in a great mea-
fure ceafes.
The Jews, who are at this place pretty numerous,
have a feparate town to themfelves, walled in, and un¬
der the charge of an alcaide, appointed by the empe¬
ror. It has two large gates, which are regularly ihut
every evening about nine o’clock j after which time no
perfon whatever is permitted to enter or go out of the
Jewdry till they are opened again the following morn¬
ing. The Jews have a market of their own; and when
they enter the Moorilh town, caftle, or palace, they are
always compelled to be barefooted.
The palace is an ancient building, furrounded by a
fquare wall, the height of which nearly excludes from
the view of the fpedtator the other buildings. Its
principal gates are conftrudted with Gothic arches,
compofed of cut ftone, which conduct to feveral open
and fpacious courts } through thefe it is neceflary to
paftrbefore we reach any of the buildings. Thefe open
courts were ufed by the late emperor for the purpofes
of tranfa&ing public bufmefs and exercifing his troops.
The habitable part conftfts of feveral irregular fquare
pavilions, built of tabby, and whitened over } fome of
which communicate with each other, others are diftindt,
and moft of them receive their names from the different
towns of the empire. The principal pavilion is named
by the Moors the Douhar, and is more properly the
palace or.feraglio than any of the others. It conftfts of
the emperor’s place of refidence and the harem, form¬
ing altogether a building of conftderable extent. The
other pavilions are merely for the purpofes of pleafure
or buftnefs, and are quite diftindt from the douhar. The
Mogodore pavilion, fo named from the late emperor’s
partiality to that town, has by far the faireft claim to
grandeur and magnificence. This apartment was the
work of Sidi Mahomet, and is lofty and fquare. It is
built of cut ftone, handfomely ornamented with win¬
dows, and covered with varniftjed tiles of various co¬
lours ; and its elegance and neatnefs, contrafted alto¬
gether with the fimplicity and irregularity of the other
buildings, produce a moft ftriking effedt. In the in-
fide, befides feveral other apartments, we find in the pa¬
vilion a fpacious room floored with blue and white
chequered tiling, its ceiling covered with curioufly
carved and painted wood, and its ftuccoed walls vari-
oufly ornamented with looking glaffes and watches, re¬
gularly difpofed in glafs cafes. To this pavilion the
late emperor manifefted an exclufive preference, fre¬
quently retiring to it both for the purpofe of bufinefs
3
and of recreation. The apartments of the emperor Moroeco
have in general a much fmaller complement of furniture ^
than thole of the Moors in the inferior walks of life. ■
Handfome carpeting, a mattrefs on the ground covered
with fine linen, a couch, and a couple of European bed-
fteads, are the principal articles they contain. The
gardens within the walls of the palace, of which he
has feveral, are very neat j they contain orange and
olive trees, varioufly difpofed and arranged, and inter¬
fered with ftreams of water, fountains, and refervoirs.
Thofe on the outfide are nothing more than large trails
of ground, irregularly planted with olives } having four
fquare walks, and furrounded by walls.
Morocco, or Marroquin, the Ikin of a goat, or
fome other animal refembling it, dreffed in fumach
or galls, and coloured at pleafure; much ufed in
bookbinding, &c. The name is commonly derived
from the kingdom of Morocco, whence it is fuppofed
the manner of preparing thefe Ikins was firft borrow¬
ed. We have Morocco Ikins brought from the Le¬
vant, Barbary, Spain, Flanders, and France j red, black,
yellow, blue, Stc. For the manner of preparing them,
fee Leather.
MORON, a town of Spain, in Andalufia, feated in
a fertile plain about 30 miles fouth-eaft: of Seville.
W. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat. 37. o.
MORPETH, a handfome town of Northumber¬
land, 14 miles from Newcaftle, 286 miles from Lon¬
don, is an ancient borough by prefcription, with a
bridge over the Wanfbeck. It had once an abbey
and a caftle, now in ruins, fituated about a quarter of
a mile fouth of the town and river Wanfljeck, on an
eminence which overlooks both. The market-place is
conveniently fituated near the centre of the town ; and
an elegant townhoufe was built by the Carlifle family
in 1714, in which the quarter-feflions is held for the
county. It is built of hewn ftone, with a piazza. The
church being a quarter of a mile diftant from the town,
a tower containing a good ring of bells ftands near the
market place. Near the bridge is the county gaol, a
modern ftru&ure. Here are a free grammar fchool, a
chapel near the river, on the fite of a chantry that was
granted for the fupport of the foundation of the fchool,
which was part of the old ftrudlure, and an hofpital for
infirm people. In 1215, the townfmen themfelves
burnt their town, out of pure hatred to King John, that
he might find no fhclter there. Here is a good market
on Saturday for corn, cattle, and all neceffary provi-
fions ; and there is another on Wednefday, the greatetl
in England except Smithfield, for live cattle. This
is a poll town and a thoroughfare, with many good
inns, and plenty of fifh ; and here are feveral mills.—
The earl of Carlifle’s fteward holds a court here twice
a-year, one of them the Monday after Michaelmas,
when four perfons are chofen by the free burgeftes,
who are about 107, and prefented to the fteward, who
names two of them to the bailiffs, who, Avith feven
aldermen,, are its governors for the year enfuing. In
1801 the inhabitants amounted to nearly 3000. It has
feveral fairs, and fends two members to parliament. W.
Long, 1. 24. N. Lat. 55. 12.
MORPHEUS, in fabulous hiftory, the god of
fleep, or, according to others, one of the minifters of
Somnus. He caufed fleepinefs, and reprefented the
forms
Mortality.
M O R t 424 ] M
Morpheus forms of dreams. Ovid flyles him the kindeft af the nor has this fubje£, though
deities; and he is ufually defcribed in a recumbent po-
fture, and crowned with poppies.
MORRERI, Lewis, author of the Hiftorical Dic¬
tionary, was born at Barge mont in Provence, in 1643-.
He learned rhetoric and philofophy at Aix, and di¬
vinity at Lyons. At 18 years of age he wrote a fmall
piece, entitled Le Pays d'Amour, and a colleftion of
the fineft French poems entitled. Doux piuijirs de la
Poejie. He learned Spanifh and Italian) and tranllated
out of Spanilh into French the book entitled La Per-
feSiion Chretienne de Rodrigue*. He then refined the
Saints Lives to the purity of the French tongue. Be¬
ing ordained prieft, he preached at Lyons, and under¬
took, when he was but 30 years of age, a new Hifto¬
rical Dictionary, printed at Lyons in one vol. folio,
1673. But his continual labour impaired his health )
fo that he died in 1680, aged 37. His fecond volume
was publiftred after his death } and four more volumes
have fince been added. He left fome other wTorks be¬
hind him.
MOllRHINiV or Murrhina vasa, were a fort of
cups or vafes made ufe of by the ancients for drinking
out of, and other purpofes. Authors are not agreed as
to the fubftance of which they -were made. Some fay
it wras a ftone •, fome affert that it was a fluid condenfed
by being buried under ground. All that we know con¬
cerning it is, that it was known by the name of murrha,
and that Heliogabalus’s chamber pot was made of it.
The word is fometimes written myrrhina.
MORRISE-dances. See MORESg>UE-Dances.
MORS, Death, one of the infernal deities, born
of Night without a father. She was worlhipped by
the ancients with great folemnity. She was not repre-
fented as an a&ually exifting power, but as an imagi¬
nary being. Eurijpides introduces her in one of his
tragedies on the ftage. The moderns reprefent her as
a fkeleton armed with a fcythe and a fcimeter.
MORSE. See Trichecus, Mammalia Index.
MORTALITY, a term frequently ufed to fignify
a contagious difeafe, which deftroys great numbers of
either men or beads.
Bills of Mortality, are accounts or registers fpeci-
fying the numbers born, married, and buried in any
parilh, town, or diftriCL In general they contain
only thefe numbers ; and, even when thus limited, are
of great ufe, by fhowing the degrees of healthinefs and
prolificknefs, and the progrefs of population in the
places where they are kept. It is therefore much to
be wilhed, that fuch accounts had been always cor-
reCIly kept in every kingdom, and regularly publilhed
at the end of every year. We fhould then have had
under our infpeftion the comparative ftrength of every
kingdom, as far as it depends on the number of inha¬
bitants, and its increafe or decreafe at different periods.
But fuch accounts are rendered more ufeful, when they
include the ages of the dead, and the diftempers of
which they have died. In this cafe they convey fome
of the moft important inftruftions, by fumiftiing us
with the means of afcertaining the law which governs
the wafte of human life, the values of annuities depend¬
ent on the continuance of any lives, or any furvivor-
fhips between them, and the favourablenefs and unfa-
vourablenefs of different fituations to the duration of
human life. There are but few regifters of this kind j
O R
fo interefting to mankind, Mortditt
ever engaged much attention till lately. The firft bills *
containing the ages of the dead were thofe for the
town of Breflaw in Silefia. It is well known what ufe
has been made of thefe by Dr Halley, and after him
by De Moivre. A table of the probabilities of the
duration of human life at every age, deduced from
them by Dr Halley, has been publilhed in the Philo-
fophical Tranfa&ions, (fee the Abridgement, vol. iii.
p. 699.) and is the firft table of that fort that has been
ever publilhed. Since the publication of this table
fimilar bills have been eftablilhed in a few towns of
this kingdom , and particularly in London, in the year
1728, and at Northampton in 1735.
Two improvements of thefe regifters have been pro-
pofed : the firft is, That the fexes of all that die in
every period of life ftiould be fpecified in them, under
the denomination of boys, married men, widowers, and
bachelors ; and of girls, married women, widows, and
virgins. The fecond is, That they Ihould fpecify the
number of both fexes dying of every diftemper in
every month, and at every age. See the end of the 4th
effay in Dr Price’s Treatife on Reverlionary Payments.
Regifters of mortality thus improved, when compared
with records of the feafons, and with the circumftances
that difcriminate different fituations, might contribute
greatly to the increafe of medical knowledge ; and
they would afford the neceffary data for determining
the difference between the duration of human life
among males and females j for fuch a difference there
certainly is much in favour of females, as will appear
from the following fadls.
At Northampton, though more males are born than
females : and nearly the fame number die j yet the
number of living females appeared, by an account ta¬
ken in 1746, to be greater than the number of males,
in the proportion of 2301 to I77°> or 39 to 3°-
At Berlin it appeared, from an accurate account
which was taken of the inhabitants in 1747* that the
number of female citizens exceeded the number of male
citizens in the proportion of 459 to 391. And yet
out of this fmaller number of males, more had died for
20 years preceding 1751, in the proportion of 19
to J7.
At Edinburgh, in 1743, the number of females
was to the number of males as 4 to 3. (See Mait¬
land’s Hiftory of Edinburgh, p. 220). But the fe¬
males that died annually from 1749 to 1758, were to
the males in no higher proportion than 3f to 3.
Fie that w'ill take the pains to examine the accounts
in Phil. Tranf. Abr. vol. vii. part iv. p. 46, &c. will
find, that though in the towns there enumerated, the
proportion of males and females born is no higher than
19 to 18, yet the proportion of boys and girls that
die is 8 to 7 j and that, in particular, the ftill-born
and chryfom males are to the ftill-born and chryfom
females as 3 to 2.
In 39 parilhes of the diftrift of Vaud in Switzer¬
land, the number of males that died during ten years
before 1766 was 8170 *, of females 8167; of whom
the numbers that died under one year of age were 1817
males and 1305 females; and under ten years of age,
3099 males and 2598 females. In the beginning of
life, therefore, and before any emigrations can take
place, the rate of mortality among males appears to
be
M O R ['42
ortallty. be greater than among females. And this is rendered
'" yet more certain by the following accounts. At Ve-
vey, in the diftrift of Vaud juft mentioned, there died
in the courfe of 20 years, ending at 1764, in the firft
month after birth, of males 135 to 89 females ; and in
the firft year 225 to 162. To the fame effect it ap¬
pears from a table given by Sufmilch, in his Gottliche
Ordnung, vol. ii. p. 317, that in Berlin 203 males die
in the firft month, and but 168 females 5 and in the
firft year, 489 to 395 ; and alfo, from a table of
Struyck’s, that in Holland 396 males die in the firft
year to 306 females.
The authorities for the fadts here mentioned, and
much more on this fubjedt, may be found in the 4th
effay in Dr Price’s Treatife on Reverfionary Pay¬
ments, and in the fupplement at the end of that
treatife.
We ftiall here only add the following table, taken
from a memoir of Mr Wargentin’s, publilhed in the
qolledlion of the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of
Sciences at Stockholm, printed at Paris in 1772.
In all Sweden for nine years, ending in 1763, the
proportion of females to males that died out of a given
number living, was
Under the age of one year,
From 1 to 3 years of age,
3 5 —
5—10 —
10—15 —
is—20 —
20—25 —
25—3° —
3°—35 * —
35—40 —
40—45 —
45—5° ~
5©—55 —
55—6o —
60—65 —
65—70 —
70—80 —
8 b—90 —
Above 90 —
1000 to 1099
1000— 1022
1042
I074
1080
1097
1283
1161
993
H59
i“5
I34°
T339
1292
1115
1080
1022
1046
I044
Regifters of mortality on the improved plan before
mentioned, were eftablithed in 1772 at Chefter, and
alfo in 1773 at Warrington in Laneafhire •, and they
are fo comprehenfive and corredt, that there is reafon
to expedl they will afford much inftrudlion on the fub-
jedt of human mortality, and the values of lives.
But the country moft diftinguiftied in this refpedt
is Sweden : for in that kingdom exadt accounts are
taken of the births, marriages, and burials, and of the
numbers of both fexes that die at all ages in every
town and diftridt, and alfo at the end of every period
of five years, of the numbers living at every age :
and at Stockholm a fociety is eftablithed, whofe bufi-
nefs it is to fuperintend and regulate the enumerations,
and to colledt from the different parts of the king¬
dom the regifters, in order to digeft them into tables
of obfervation. Thefe regulations were begun in
Sweden in IJSS > and tables, containing the refult of
them from 1755 to 1763, have been publithed in Mr
Wargentin’s memoir iuft referred to j and the moft
Vol. XIV. Part II,
5 ] M O U
material parts of them may be found in an effay by Mortality
Dr Price on the Difference between the Duration oi ' v
Human Life in Towns and in Country Parithes,
printed in the 65th volume of the Philofoph. Tranf.
Part II.
In the fourth effay in Dr Price’s Treatife on Re¬
verfionary Payments and Lite Annuities, the follow¬
ing account is given of the principles on which tables
of obfervation are formed from regifters of mortality *,
and of the proper method of forming them, fo as to
render them juft reprefentations of the number of in¬
habitants, and the probabilities of the duration of hu¬
man life in a town or country.
In every place which juft fupports itfelf in the nurm
ber of its inhabitants, without any recruits from other
places; or where, for a courfe of years, there has
been no increafe or decreafe *, the number of perfons
dying every year at any particular age, and above it,
mult be equal to the number of the living at that
age. The number, for example, dying every year at
all ages from the beginning to the utmoft extremity
of life, muft, in fuch a fituation, be juft equal to the
whole number born every year. And for the fame
reafon, the number dying every year at one year of
age and upwards, at two years of age and upwards,
at three and upwards, and fo on, muft be equal to
the numbers that attain to thofe ages every year 5 or,
which is the fame, to the numbers of the living at
thofe ages. It is obvious, that unlefs this happens,
the number of inhabitants cannot remain the fame. If
the former number is greater than the latter, the inha¬
bitants muft decreafe j if lefs, they muft increafe.
From this obfervation it follows, that in a town or
country where there is no increafe or decreafe, bills of
mortality which give the ages at which all die, will
fhow the exa£t number of inhabitants, and alfo the ex-
aft law according to which human life waftes in that
town or country.
In order to find the number of inhabitants, the mean
numbers dying annually at every particular age and up¬
wards muft be taken as given by the bills, and placed
under one another in the order of the fecond column of
the following tables. Thefe numbers will, it has ap¬
peared, be the numbers of the living at I, 2, 5, 8tc.
years of age j and confequently the fum diminifhed by
half the number born annually will be the whole num¬
ber of inhabitants.
This fubtraftion is neceffary, for the following rea¬
fon. In a table formed in the manner here direfted,
it is fuppofed that the numbers in the fecond column
are all living together at the beginning of every year.
Thus the number in the fecond column oppofite to
O in the firft column, the table fuppofes to be all juft
born together on the firft day of the year. The num¬
ber, likewife, oppofite to 1, it fuppofes to attain to
one year of age juft at the fame time that the former
number is born. And the like is true of every num¬
ber in the fecond column. During the courfe of the
year, as many ivill die at all ages as were born at the
beginning of the year, and confequently, there will
be an excefs of the number alive at the beginning of
the year above the number alive at the end of the
year, equal to the whole number of the annual births j
and the true number conftantly alive together, is the
arithmetical mean between thefe twTo numbers j or a-
3 H grceably
M O R
[ 426 ]
M O R
Mortality, greeably to the rule here given, the fum of the num-
’ bers in the fecond column of the table leffened by half
the number of annual births.
In fuch a feries of numbers, the excefs of each num¬
ber above that which immediately follows it will be the
number dying every year out of the particular number
alive at the beginning of the year j and thefe exceffes
fet down regularly as in the third column of the table
to which we have referred, will (how the different rates
at which human life waftes through all its different pe¬
riods, and the different probabilities of life at all par¬
ticular ages.
It muft be remembered, that what has been now
faid goes on the fuppofition, that the place whofe
bills of mortality are given, fupports itfelf, by pro¬
creation only, in the number of its inhabitants. In
towns this very feldom happens, on account of the lux¬
ury and debauchery which generally prevail in them.
They are, therefore, commonly kept up by a conftant
acceflion of ftrangers, who remove to them from coun¬
try parilhes and villages. In thefe circumflances, in
order to find the true number of inhabitants, and pro¬
babilities of life, from bills of mortality containing an
account of the ages at which all die, it is necelfary
that the proportion of the annual births to the annual
fettlers fhould be known, and alfo the period of life
at which the latter remove. Both thefe particulars
may be difcovered in the following method.
If for a courfe of years there have been no fenfible
increafe or decreafe in a place, the number of annual
fettlers will be equal to the excefs of the annual bu¬
rials above the annual births. If there be an increafe,
it will be greater than this excefs. If there be a de¬
creafe, it will be lefs.
The period of life at which thefe fettlers remove,
will appear in the bills by an increafe in the number
of deaths at that period and beyond it. Thus in the
London bills the number of deaths between 20 and
30 is generally above double, and between 30 and
40 near triple the number of deaths between 10 and
20 ; and the true account of this is, that from the
age of 18 or 20 to 35 or 40, there is an afflux of people
every year to London from the country, which occa-
lions a great increafe in the number of inhabitants at
thefe ages , and confequently raifes the deaths for all
ages above 20 confiderably above their due proportion
when compared with the number of deaths before 20.
This is obfervable in all the bills of mortality for towns
with wfflich we are acquainted, not even excepting the
Brellaw bills. Dr Halley takes notice, that thefe bills
gave the number of deaths between 10 and 20 too
fmall. This he conlidered as an irregularity in them
owing to chance ; and, therefore, in forming his table
of obfervations, he took the liberty fo far to correft it,
as to render the proportion of thofe w'ho die to the liv¬
ing in this divifion of life nearly the fame w'ith the pro¬
portion which, he fays, he had been informed die annu¬
ally of the young lads in Chrift Church hofpital But
the truth is, that this irregularity in the bills was deri¬
ved from the caufe we have juft affigned. During the
live years for which the Breftaw bills are given by Dr
Halley, the births did indeed a little exceed the bu¬
rials ; but it appears that this was the effect of fome
peculiar caufes that happened to operate juft at that
time j for during a complete century, from 1633 to
1734, the annual medium of births was 1089, and of Mortality,
burials 1256. This town, therefore, muft have been "““■V-—
all along kept up by a number of yearly recruits from
other places, equal to about a feventh part of the yearly
births.
It appears from the account in the Philofophical
Tranfadlions (Abridgement, vol. vii. N° 382, p. 46,
&c.), that from 1717 to 1725, the annual medium of
births at Breflaw was 1252, of burials T507 j and alfo
that much the greateft part of the births died under
10 years of age. From a table in Sufmilch’s works,
vol. i. p. 38, it appears that in reality the greater
part of all that die in this town are children under five
years of age.
What has been now obferved concerning the period
of life at which people remove from the country to fet¬
tle in towns, would appear fufficiently probable were
there no fuch evidence for it as has been mentioned *, for
it might well be reckoned that thefe people in general
muft be fingle perfons in the beginning of mature life,
who not having yet obtained fettlements in the places
where they were born, migrate to towns in queft of em-
plovments.
Having premifed thefe obfervations, it will be pro¬
per next to endeavour to explain diftin<flly the effect
which thefe acceffions to towns muft have on tables
of obfervation formed from their bills of mortality.
This is a fubjeft proper to be infifted on, becaufe
miftakes have been committed about it j and becaufe
alfo the difeufflon of it is neceffary to ftiow how near
to truth the value of lives comes as deduced from fuch
tables.
The following general rule may be given on this
fubjeft. If a place has for a courfe of years been
maintained in a ftate nearly ftationary, as to number
of inhabitants, by recruits coming in every year, to
prevent the decreafe that would arife from the ex¬
cefs of burials above the births, a table formed on the
principle, “ that the number dying annually after
every particular age, is equal to the number living
at that age,” will give the number of inhabitants,
and the probabilities of life, too great, for all ages
preceding that at which the recruits ceafe : and af¬
ter this it wTill give them right. If the acceffions are
fo great as to caufe an increafe in the place, fuch a
table will give the number of inhabitants and the
probabilities of life too little after the age at which
the acceffions ceafe •, and too great if there is a decreafe.
Before that age it will in both cafes give them too
great •, but mod: confiderably fo in the former cale, or
wThen there is an increafe.
Agreeably to thefe obfervations, if a place increafes
not in confequence of acceffions from other places,,
but of a conftant excefs of the births above the deaths,
a table conftru&ed on the principle that has been
mentioned will give the probabilities of life too low
through the whole extent of life 5 becaufe in fuch-
circumftances the number of deaths in the firft ftages
of life muft be too great in comparifon of the number
of deaths in the latter ftages ; and more or lefs fo as
the increafe is more or lefs rapid. The contrary in all
refpe&s takes place where there is a decreafe ariling
from the excels of the deaths above the births..
For example : Let us fuppofe that 244 of thofe
born in a totvn attain annually to 20 years of age,
and
#
[ 427 1 MOB.
iTiow like wife at what parts of life the errors in fuch Mortal^
tables are molt confiderable, and how they may be in a v
MOB
jrtallty. and that 250 more, all likewife 20 years of age, come
—v —■,i 1 into it annually from otlier places, in confequence of
which it has for a courfe of years been juft maintained
in the number of its inhabitants, without any fenfible
increafe or decreafe : in theie circumftances, the num¬
ber of the living in the town of the age of 20 will
be always 244 natives, and 250 fettlers, or 494 in all j
and fmce thefe are fuppofed all to die in the town,
and no more recruits are fuppofed to come in, 494
will be likewife the number dying annually at 20
and upw'ards. In the fame manner it will appear, on
thefe fuppofitions, that the number of the living at e-
very age fublequent to 20 will be equal to the number
dying annually at that age and above it ) and con-
fequently that the number of inhabitants and the de¬
crements of life, for every fuch age, will be given ex¬
actly by the table. But for all ages before 20, they
will be given much too great. For let 280 of all born
in the town reach 10 ; in this cafe, 280 will be the
true number of the living in the town at the age of io*,
and the recruits not coming in till 20, the number
given by the bills as dying between 10 and 20 will be
the true number dying annually of the living in this
diviiion of life. Let this number be 36 j and it will
follow that the table ought to make the numbers of the
living at the ages between 10 and 20, a feries of decrea-
fing means between 280 and (280 diminilhed by 36, or)
244. But in forming the table on the principle juft
mentioned, 250 (the number above 20 dying annually
in the town who were not born in it) will be added to
each number in this feries 5 and therefore the table will
give the numbers of the living, and the probabilities of
life in this divifion of life, almoft twice as great as they
really are. This obfervation, it is manifeft, may be ap¬
plied to all the ages under 20.
It is neceflary to add, that fuch a table will give the
number of inhabitants and the probabilities of life
equally wrong before 20, whether the recruits all come
in at 20, agreeably to the fuppolition juft made, or only
begin then to come in. In this laft cafe, the table will
give the number of inhabitants and probabilities of
life too great throughout the whole extent of life, if the
recruits come in at all ages above 20. But if they
ceafe at any particular age, it will give them right only
from that age ; and before, it will err all along on the
fide of excefs *, but lefs confiderably between 20 and
that age than before 20. For example : if, of the 250
fuppofed to come in at 20, only 150 then come in,
(and the reft at 30 *, the number of the living will be
given 100 too high at every age between 20 and 30 }
but, as juft fhown, they will be given 250 too high at
every age before 20. In general, therefore, the num¬
ber of the living at any particular age muft be given by
the fuppofed table as many too great as there are annual
fettlers after that age •, and if thefe fettlers come in at
all ages indifcriminately, during any certain interval of
life, the number of inhabitants and the probabilities of
life will be continually growing lefs and lefs wrong, the
nearer any age is to the end of that interval. Thefe
obfervations prove, that tables of obfervation formed in
the common way, from bills of mortality for places
where there is an excefs of the burials above the births,
muft be erroneous for a great part of the duration of
life, in proportion to the degree of that excefs. They
great meafure corrected.
All this (hall be exemplified in the particular cafe of
London.
The number of deaths between the ages of 10 and
20 is always fo fmall in the London bills, that it leems
certain few recruits come to London under 20, or
at leaft not fo many as before this age are fent out for
education to fchools and univerfities. After 20 great
numbers come in till 30, and fome perhaps till 40 or
50 : but at every age after 50, it is probable that more
retire from London than come to it. The London
tables of obfervation, therefore, being formed on the
principle already mentioned, cannot give the probabili¬
ties of life right till 40. Between 30 and 40 they muft
be a little too high *, but more fo between 2c and 30,
and moft of all fo before 20. It follows alfo that thefs
tables muft give the number of inhabitants in London
much too great.
The firit of the following tables is formed in the
manner here explained, from the London bills for 10
years, from to 1^68, and adapted to 1000 bom
as a radix. The fum of the numbers in the fecond
column, diminiftied by half the number born, is 25.757.
According to this table, then, for every 1000 deaths in
London there are 25^ as many inhabitants ; or, in
other words, the expeftation of a child juft born is
25^ ; and the inhabitants are to the annual burials as
2,5^ to 1. But it has appeared, that the numbers in
the fecond column, being given on the fuppontion that
all thofe who die in London were born there, muft. be
tao great j and we have from hence a demonftration,
that the probabilities of life are given in the common
tables of London obfervations too high for at leaft the
fir ft 30 years of life ; and alfo, that the number of in¬
habitants in London muft be lefs than 25^ multiplied
by the annual burials. The common tables, therefore,
of London obfervations undoubtedly need corre&ion, as
Mr Simpfon fuggefted, and in fome meafure performed j
though too imperfettly, and without going upon any
fixed principles, or fhowing particularly how tables of
obfervation ought to be formed, and how far in differ¬
ent circumftances, and in different ages, they are to be
depended on. The way of doing this, and in general the
right method of forming genuine tables of obfervation
for towns, may be learned from the following rule :
“ From the fum of all that die annually, after any
given age, fubtraft the number of annual fettlers after
that age *, and the remainder will be the number of the
living at the given time.”
This rule can want no explication or proof after
what has been already faid.
If, therefore, the number of annual fettlers in i
town at every age could be afeertained, a perfe6t table
of obfervations might be formed for that town from
bills of mortality, containing an account of the ages
at which all die in it. But no more can be learned
in this inftance from any bills, than the whole num¬
ber of annual fettlers, and the general divifion of life
in which they enter. This, however, may be fuffi-
cient to enable us to form tables that {hall be tolerably
exa£t. For inftance : Suppofe the annual deaths ia
a town which has not increafed or decreafed, to have
3 H 2
M O R [ 428 ] M O R
Mortality, been lor many years in the proportion ©f 4 to 3 to
v the annual births. It will hence follow, that £ of
the perfons who die in fuch a town are fettlers, or
emigrants from other places, «tnd not natives j and the
hidden increafe in the deaths after 20 will alfo fliow,
agreeably to what was before obferved, that they enter
after this age. In forming, therefore, a table for
fuch a town, a quarter of all that die at all ages
throughout the whole extent of life mull be deduc¬
ed from the fum of all that die after every given age
before 20 ; and the remainder will be the true num¬
ber living at that given age. And if at 20, and
every age above it, the deduction is omitted, or the
number of the living at every fucli age is taken the
fame with the fum of all that die after it, the refult
will be (fuppofing molt of the fettlers to come in be¬
fore 30, and all before 40) a table exaft till 20; too
high between 20 and 30; but nearly right for fome
years before 40 ; and after 40 exaft again. Such a
table, it is evident, will be the fame with the table
lalt defcribed at all ages above 20, and different from it
only under 20. It is evident alfo, that on account of
its giving the probabilities of life too great for feme
years after 20, the number of inhabitants deduced
from it may be depended on as fomewhat greater than
the trutli; and more or lefs fo, as the annual recruits
enter in general later or fooner after 20.
Let us now con lid er what the refult of thefe re¬
marks will be, when applied particularly to the London
bills.
It mull be here firft obferved, that at lead one quar¬
ter of all that die in London are fupplies or fettlers from
the country, and not natives. The medium of annual
burials for 10 years, from 1759 to 1768, was 22,956 j
of births 15,710. The excefs is 7246, or near a third
of the burials. The fame excefs during 10 years before
1750 was 10,500, or near half the burials. London
was then decrealing. For the lad 12 or 15 years it
has been increafing. This excefs, therefore, agree¬
ably to the foregoing obfervations, w’as then greater
than the number of annual fettlers, and it is now lefs.
It is however here fuppofed, that the number of an¬
nual fettlers is now no more than a quarter of the an¬
nual burials, in order to allow for more omidions. in
the births than the burials j and alfo, in order to be
more fure of obtaining refults that lhall not exceed the
truth.
Of every 1000 then who die in London only 750
are natives, and 250 are recruits who come to it after
18 or 20 years of age j and, confequently, in order to
obtain from the bills a more correfl table than the fird
of the following tables, 250 mud be fubtradled from
every one of the numbers in the fecond column till 20;
and the numbers in the third column mull be kept the
fame, the bills always giving thefe right. After 20,
the table is to be continued unaltered j and the refult
will be, a table which will give the numbers of the
living at all ages in London much nearer the truth
but dill fomewhat too high. Such is the fecond of
the following tables. The fum of all the numbers in
the fecond column of this table, diminifhed by 500, is
20,750. For every 1000 deaths, therefore, in London,
there are, according to this table, 20,750 living perlons
in it j or for every fingle death 20^ inhabitants. It
I
was before fhown, that the number of inhabitants in Mortality,. *
London could not be fo great as 25^ times the deaths, —v-—J ^
It now appears (fmce the numbers in the fecond co¬
lumn of this table are too high) that the number of in¬
habitants of London cannot be fo great as even 20^
times the deaths. And this is a conclufion which every
one, who will bedow due attention on what has been
faid, will find himfelf forced to receive. It will not be
amifs, however, to confirm it by the following facl, the
knowledge of which is derived from the particular in¬
quiry and information of Mr Harris, the late ingenious
mader of the royal mathematical fchool in Chrid-
Church hofpital. The average of lads in this fchool
has, for 30 years pad, been 831. They are admitted
at all ages between 7 and 11 j and few day beyond
16: they are therefore, in general, lads between the
age of 8 and 16. They have better accommodations than
it can be fuppofed children commonly have ; and about
300 of them have the particular advantage of being
educated in the country. In fuch circumdances it may
be well reckoned, that the proportion of children dying
annually mud be lefs than the general proportion of
children dying annually at the fame ages in London.
The faft is, that for the lad 30 years 11^ have died
annually, or one in 7of-.
According to Table II. one in 73 dies between 10
and 20, and one in 70 between 8 and 16. That table,
therefore, probably gives the decrements of life in Lon¬
don, at thefe ages, too little, and the numbers of the
living too great: and if this is true of thefe ages, it
mud be true of all other ages under 20 5 and it follows
demondrably, in conformity to what was before diown,
that more people fettle in London after 20 than the
fourth above fuppofed; and that from 20 to at lead 30
or 35, the numbers of the living are given too great, in
proportion to the decrements of life.
In this table the numbers in the fecond column are
doubled at 20, agreeably to what really happens in
London; and the fum of the numbers in this column
diminifhed by half the whole number of deaths, gives
the expeftation of life, not of a child jud bora, as in
other tables, but of all the inhabitants of London at
the time they enter it, whether that be at birth or
at 20 years of age. The expectations, therefore, and
the values of London lives under 20, cannot be calcu¬
lated from this table. But it may be very eafily fitted
for this purpofe, by finding the number of births which,
according to the given decrements of life, will leave
494 alive at 20 5 and then adapting the intermediate
numbers in fuch a manner to this radix, as to preferve
all along the number of the living in the fame pro¬
portion to the numbers of the dead. This is done in
the third of the followung tables j and this table may
be recommended as better adapted to the prefent date
of London than any other table. The values of lives,
however, deduced from it, are in general nearly the
fame with thofe deduced by Mr Simpfon from the
London bills as they dood forty years ago} the main
difference is, that after 52, and in old age, this table
gives them fomewhat lower than Mr Simpfon’s table.
The fourth and fifth of the following tables, compared
with the two lad, will give a didinfl and full view of
the difference between the rate of human mortality in
great towns and in country paridies and villages.
TABLE
M O R
M O R [ 429 ]
TABLE I.
Showing the Probabilities of Life in London, on the
fuppofition that all who die in London were born
there. Formed from the Bills for, 10 years, from
17 1^9 to 1768.
TABLE III.
Showing the true Probabilities of Life in London for
all ages. Formed from the Bills for 10 years, from
1759 to 1768.
Mortality.
Age?
Peri'ons
living.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
M
15
16
*7
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
>ecr.
of Life
IOOO
760
66l
619
59°
569
558
548
541
535
53°
526
C22
518
5*5
512
5°9
5°6
5°3
499
494
487
479
471
463
455
447
439
431
422
4X3
He'-
Perfons.
Lving.
240
99
42
29
21
IX
10
7
6
5
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
4
5
7
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
31
3 2
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
5°
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
Deer
f Lft
4°4
395
386
377
368
359
35°
34i
332
522
312
3°2
292
282
272
262
252
242
233
224
2I5
206
198
190
183
176
169
162
l55
J47
J39
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
9
9
9
9
8
8
7
7
7
7
7
A.ge*
-’erfons
living.
62
63
64
6 5
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
l9
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
n 89
8 | 90
8
Deer.
ofLife
132
125
118
111
104
97
90
83
76
70
64
58
53
48
43
S8
33
29
25
22
!9
16
13
11
9
7
5
4
3
TABLE II.
Showing the true probabilities of Life in London till
the age of 19.
Age*
Perform
living.
Deer.
ofLife
Ages.
Perfons
living
Deer.
ofLife
Age?
Psrfons
living.
Deer.
ofLife'
75°
5!°
411
369
34°
3I9
308
298
291
240
99
42
29
21
11
10
7
6
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
285
280
276
272
268
265
262
259
256
18
J9
20
21
&c.
253
249
494
487
&c.
fhe numbers in the
fecond column to be
continued as in the
lait table.
All the bills, from Avhich the following tables are
formed, give the numbers dying under I as well as un¬
der 2 years j and in the numbers dying under 1 are in¬
cluded, in the country parilli in Brandenburg and at
Berlin, all the ftillborns. All the bills alfo give the
numbers dying in every period of five years.
TABLE
Mortality.
M O R
TABLE IV.
[ 430 3
M O R
TABLE V.
Mortal^
Showing the Probabilities of Life in the Diftridt of
Vaud, Switzerland, formed from the Regifters of 43
Parithes, given by Mr Muret, in the Firft Part of
the Bern Memoirs for the Year 1766.
Age.
10
11
12
*3
15
16
17
18
*9
20
21
22
23
24
*5
26
27
28
29
3°
Living.
1000
811
765
735
7I5
701
688
677
667
659
653
648
643
639
635
631
626
622
618
614
610
606
602
597
59 2
587
582
577
572
567
563
Deci.
• ^ge-
189
46
30
20
14
23
11
10
8
6
Living.
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
<8
59
60
61
Deer.
558
553
548
544
539
533
527
520
5I3
506
coo
494
488
482
476
469
461
451
441
431
422
4r4
406
397
388
377
364
348
331
3X4
299
7
8
10
10
10
11
!3
16
*7
15
23
Age.
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
Living.
286
274
262
250
236
220
20 2
184
l68
r53
140
129
119
109
98
85
71
58
46
36
29
24
20
J7
J4
11
9
7
90
Deer.
12
12
12
M
16
18
18
16
*5
J3
11
10
10
11
23
J4
l3
12
10
7
5
4
3
Showing the Probabilities of Life in a Country Parilh
in Brandenburg, formed from the Bills for 50 Years,
from 1710 to 1759, as given by Mr Suimilch, in his
Gottliche Ordnung.
Age
IO
12
23
M
25
16
*7
18
J9
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Living. Deer.
IOCO
775
718
687
664
642
622
607
595
585
577
570
564
559
554
549
544
539
535
531
527
522
5*7
5*2
507
CO 2
498
495
492
489
486
2^5
57
3*
23
22
20
*5
12
10
8
4 i
3
3 !
3 |
3
Age L'ving. {Deer
3*
32
33
34
482
477
472
467
35
3 6
37
38
39
40
4*
4-2
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
5*
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
462
456
450
444
438
432
427
422
4*7
412
407
400
394
388
381
374
367
359
35*
343
334
324
3*4
3°4
293
282
271
10
10
10
11
11
11
11
Age.
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
7*
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
Living,
260
248
236
224
213
202
I90
178
166
*53
*38
122
107
93
80
68
59
5*
44
38
32
25
21
*5
11
8
6
4
3
2
1
Deer.
12
12
12
11
11
12
12
12
*3
*5
l6
*5
*4
*3
12
o
8
7
TABLE
M O R
[ 43i ]
M O R
Mortality,
TABLE VI.
Showing the Probabilities of Life at Vienna, form¬
ed from the Bills for eight Years, as given by
Mr Sufmileh, in his Gottliche Ordnung, page 32,
Tables.
TABLE VII.
Showing the Probabilities of Life at Berlin, formed
from the Bills for Four Years, from 1752 to 1755,
given by Mr Sufmilch in his Gottliche Ordnung,
vol. ii. p. 37, Tables.
Age.
Living
Deer
Age.
Liv.ng. Deer | \ge.
Living.
10
11
12
J3
H
15
16
17
18
r9
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
1427
903
752
691
618
524
I5I
61
73
45
32
33
34
573
552
536
523
SH
21
*3
9
7
35
36
37
38
39
5°7
<ro2
498
494
490
486
482
477
472
467
461
455
449
443
436
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
428
421
412
4°3
394
55
56
57
58
59
3°
31
385
376
60
61
62
63
368
361
354
347
339
330
320
310
3°°
290
281
274
266
259
252
245
238
231
2 24
217
210
203
*95
187
179
I7I
.63
I54
J45
I37
I3Q
124
8
8
10
10
10
10
9
8
7
7
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
118
112
106
99
92
86
80
74
68
62
57
52
47
42
37
32
28
24
21
17
lS
11
9
7
Brief o/'MORT ANCESTRY, in Scots Law ; an¬
ciently the ground of an aftion at the inltance of an
heir, in the fpecial cafe where he had been excluded
from the poffeflion of his anceftor’s eftate by the fupe-
rior, or other perfon pretending right.
MORTAR, a preparation of lime and fand mixed
with water, which ferves as a cement, and is ufed by
mafons and bricklayers in building walls of ftone and
brick. See Lime, Chemistry Index.
MoRTAR, a chemical utenfil, very ufeful for the di-
vifion ef bodies, partly by percufiion and partly by
grinding. Mortars have the form of an inverted bell.
The matter intended to be pounded is to be put into
them, and there it is to be (truck and bruifed by a
long inftrument called a. pejt/e. The motion given to
the peftle ought to vary according to the nature of the
fubftances to be pounded. Thofe which are eafily bro¬
ken, or which are apt to fly out of the mortar, or
which are hardened by the ftroke of the peftle, require
that this initrument (hould be moved circularly, rather
by grinding or bruifing than by ftriking. Thofe fub¬
ftances which are foftened by the heat occafioned by
rubbing
M O It [ 432 ] M O R
Mortar, rubbing and percuflion, require to be pounded very
1 v {lowly. La dy, Thofe which are very hard, and which
are not capable of being foftened, are eafily pounded
by repeated ftrokes of the peftle. They require no
bruifing but when they are brought to a certain degree
of finenefs. But thefe things are better learned by ha¬
bit and praftice than bv any directions.
As mortars are indruments which are conftantly
ufed in chemiftry, they ought to be kept of all lizes and
materials j as of marble, copper, glafs, iron, grittlone,
and agate. The nature of the fubftance to be pounded
determines the choice of the kind of mortar. The
hardnefs and diffolving power of that fubftance are par¬
ticularly to be attended to. As copper is a metal,
which is foluble by almoft all menftrua, and hurtful to
health, this metal is rarely or never employed for the
purpofe of making mortars.
One of the principal inconveniences of pulveriza¬
tion in a mortar proceeds from the fine powder which
rifes abundantly from fome fubftances during the ope¬
ration. If thefe fubftances be precious, the lofs will
be confiderable j and if they be injurious to health,
they may hurt the operator. Thefe inconveniences
may be remedied, either by covering the mortar with
a fkin, in the middle of which is a hole, through which
the peftle pafles; or by moiftening the matter wTith a
little water when this addition does not injure it j or,
laftly, by covering the mouth and nofe of the operator
with a fine cloth, to exclude this powder. Some fub¬
ftances, as corrofive fublimate, arfenic, calces of lead, Mortal
cantharides, euphorbium, &c. are fo noxious, that all
thefe precautions ought to be ufed, particularly when
a large quantity is pounded.
Large mortars ought to be fixed upon a block of
wood, fo high, that the mortar {hall be level with the
middle of the operator. When the peftle is large and
heavy, it ought to be fufpended by a cord or chain
fixed to a moveable pole placed horizontally above the
mortar : this pole confiderably relieves the operator,
becaufe its elafticity aflifts the railing of the peftle.
MORTAR-Piece, in the military art, a (hort piece
of ordnance, thick and wide, proper for throwing bombs,
carcafes, {hells, ftones, bags filled with grape-fhot, &.c.
See Gunneky, N° 50.
Land MORTARS, are thofe ufed in fieges, and of late
in battles, mounted on beds made of folid timber, con-
lifting generally of four pieces, thofe of the royal and
cohorn excepted, which are but one {ingle block j
and both mortar and bed are tranfported on block-
carriages. There is likewife a kind of land mortars,
mounted on travelling carriages, invented by Count
Buckeburg, whie^ may be elevated to any degree j
whereas ours are fixed to an angle of 45 degrees, and
firmly laftied Avith ropes. The following table {hows
the weight of land mortars and {hells ; together with
the quantity of powder the chambers hold when full i
the weight of the {hells, and powder for loading them.
Sea MORTARS, are thofe which are fixed in bomb
veffels for bombarding places by fea : and as they are
generally fired at a much greater diftance than that
which is required by land, they are made fomewhat
longer and much heavier than the land mortars. The
following table exhibits the weight of the fea mortars
and {hells, and alfo of their full charges.
Nature of the mortar.
10-inch howitzer.
13-inch mortar.
10-inch mortar.
Powder con¬
tained in the
chamber
when full.
Weight of
the mortar.
lb oz.
12 O
30 O
12 O
U. qr. lb.
21 2 26
8l 2 I
34 2 11
Weight of
the fhell
when fixed
lb.
198
93
Wcght of
power con¬
tained in
the fliell.
lb. oz.
7 o
To Charge or Load a MORTAR, the proper quantity
of gunpowder is put into the chamber, and if there be
any vacant fpace they fill it up with hay 5 fome choofe
a wooden plug: over this they lay a turf, fome a wood
^n tampion fitted to the bore of the piece j and laftly
the bomb j taking care that the fufe be in the axis
thereof, and the orifice be turned from the muzzle of
the piece : what fpace remains is to be filled up with
hay, ftraw, turf, &c. fo as the load may not be explod¬
ed without the utmoft violence.
The
M O R
[ 433 ]
M O R
ortar. The quantity of gunpowder to be ufcd is found by
dividing the weight of the bomb by 30 $ though this
rule is not always to be ftriflly obferved.
When the proper quantity of powder neeeflary to
charge a fea mortar is put into the chamber, it is co¬
vered with a wad well beat down with tne rammer.
After this the fixed {hell is placed upon the wad, as
near the middle of the mortar as poflible, with the
fufe hole uppermoft, and another wad preffed down
clofe upon it, fo as to keep the {hell firm in its pofition.
The officer then points the mortar according to the
propofed inclination.—When the mortar is thus fixed,
the fufe is opened 5 the priming iron is alfo thruft into
the touch-hole of the mortar to dear it, after which it
is primed with the fineft powder. This done, two of
the matroffes or failors, taking each one of the matches,
the firit lights the fufe, and the other fires the mortar.
The bomb, thrown out by the explofion of the powder,
is carried to the place intended: and the fufe, which
ought to be exhaufted at the inllant of the {hell’s falling,
inflames the powder contained in it, and burfts the {hell
in fplinters *, which, flying off circularly, occafion in¬
credible mifchief wherefoever they reach.
If the fervice of mortars ffiould render it neceffary to
ufe pound {hots, 200 of them with a wooden bottom are
to be put into the 13 inch mortar, and a quantity of
powder not exceeding 5 pounds and IOO of the above
{hot with 24- pounds of powder, for the 10 inch mortar,
or three pounds at moft.
To Elevate the MORTAR fo as its axis may make any
given angle with the horizon, they apply the artillery
level or gunner’s quadrant. An elevation of 70 or 8°
degrees is what is commonly chofen for rendering mor¬
tars moft ferviceable in calling {hells into towns, forts,
&c. though the greateft range be at 45 degrees.
All the Englifti mortars are fixed to an angle of 45
degrees, and lalhed ftrongly with ropes at that elevation.
Although in a fiege there is only one cafe in which
{hells ftiould be thrown with an angle of 45 degrees j
that is, wffien the battery is fo far off that they cannot
otherwife reach the ivorks ■, for when {hells are thrown
out of the trenches into the works of a fortification, or
from the town into the trenches, they fhould have as
little elevation as poffible, in order to roll along, and
not bury themfelves} whereby the damage they do,
and the terror they occafion, are much greater than
if they fink into the ground. On the contrary, when
(hells are thrown upon magazines or any other buildings,
with an intention to deftroy them, the mortars ftiould be
elevated as high as poffible, that the {hells may acquire
a greater force in their fall, and eonfequently do greater
execution.
If all mortar pieces were, as they ought to be, exaftly
fimilar, and their requifites of powder as the cubes
of the diameters of their feveral bores, and if their
{hells, bombs, carcaffes, Sec. were alfo fimilar •, then,
comparing like with like, their ranges on the plane
of the horizon, under the fame degree of elevation,
would be equal; and confequently one piece being well
proved, i. e. the range of the grenade, bomb, carcafs,
&c. being found to any degree of elevation, the whole
work of the mortar piece would become very eafy and
exafl.
But fince mortars are not thus fimilar, it is required,
Vol. XIV. Part II.
that the range of the piece, at fome known degree of
elevation, be accurately found by mealuring \ and tronx
hence all the other ranges may be determined.
Thus, to find the range of the piece at any other
elevation required j lay, As the fine of double the angle
under which the experiment was made, is to the line of
double the angle propofed, fo is the range known to the
range required.
Suppofe, for inftance, it be found, that the range of
a piece, elevated to 30°, is 2o~0 yards : to find the
range of the fame piece with the fame charge when,
elevated to 45° ; take the fine of 6o°, the double of 30°,
and make it the firil term of the rule of three j the
fecond term muft be the fine of tyO°, the double of 45°»
and the third the given range 2000 j the fourth term
will be 2310, the range of the piece at 450. If the
elevation be greater than 450, inftead of doubling it,
take the fine of double its complement to 90°. As
fuppofe the elevation of a piece be 50°, take the fine of
8o°, the double of 40*. Again, If a determinate di-
ftance to which a thot is to be caft, be given, and the
angle of elevation to produce that effect be required ;
the range known muft be the firft term in the rule of
three, which fuppofe 2000 yards j the range propofed,
which we fuppofe 1600 yards, the fecond term j and
the fine of 60 double of the elevation for the range of
2000 yards, the third term. The fourth term will
be found the fine of 430 52', whofe half 21° 56' is the
angle of elevation the piece muft have to produce the
deftred effeft. And if 21° 56' be taken from 90% you
will have 68° 4' for the other elevation of the piece,
with which the fame effedl will likewife be produced.
Note, To avoid the trouble of finding fines of double
the angles of the propofed elevations, Galileo and J orri-
celli give us the following table, wherein the fines of
the angles fought are had by infpeftion.
Moitajf.
Degrees
90
89
88
87
86
85
84
83
82
81
80
79'
78
77
76
75
74
73
72
71
70
69
68
67
Degrees.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
xo
11
12
*3
J4
15
16
J7
18
*9
20
21
22
23
Ranges.
3 49
698
*04 5
1392
I73^
2709
2419
2556
3°90
3420
3746
4067
4384
4695
5°oo
5299
5592
587c
6157
6428
6691
6947
7J93
Degrees
O
66
65
64
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
5°
49
48
47
46
45
Degrees.
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
Ranges.
7431
7660
7880
8090
8290
8480
8660
8829
8988
9£35
9272
9397
9511
9613
97°3
9781
9841
9933
9945
9976
9994
IOOOO
31
The
Mortar,
Mortage.
M O R [ 434 ] M O R
I’lie ufe of the table Is obvious. Suppofe, for in-
fiance, it be known by experiment, that a mortar ele¬
vated 150, charged with three pounds of powder, Avill
throw a bomb to the difiance of 350 fathoms j and it
be required, with the lame charge, to throw a bomb
loo fathoms farther ; feek in the table the number an-
fwering to 15 degrees, and you will find it 5000. Then
as 350 is to 450, fo is 5000 to a fourth number, which
is 6428. Find this number, or the neareft to it, in the
table, and againfi it you will find 20° or 70° j the pro¬
per angles of elevation.
MORTGAGE, in Law, (mortuum vadium, or dead
pledge), is where a man borrows of another a fpecific
fum (e. g. 200I.), and grants him an eftate in fee, on
condition that if he, the mortgager, (hall pay the mort¬
gagee the faid lum of 200I. on a certain day mentioned
in the deed, that then the mortgager may re-enter on
the eftate fo granted in pledge *, or, as is now the more
ufual way, that the mortgagee (hall re-convey the eftate
to the mortgager : in this cafe the land which is fo put
in pledge, is by law, in cafe of nonpayment, at the
time limited, for ever dead and gone from the mortga¬
ger ; and the mortgagee’s eftate in the lands, is then
no longer conditional, but abfolute. But fo long as it
continues conditional, that is, between the time of
lending the money and the time allotted for payment,
the mortgagee is called tenant in mortgage. But as it
was formerly a doubt, whether, by taking fuch eftate
in fee, it did not become liable to the wife’s dower, and
ether encumbrances of the mortgage (though that doubt
has been long ago overruled by our courts of equity),
it therefore became ufual to grant only a long term of
years, by way of mortgage} with condition to be void
on repayment of the mortgage money : which courfe
lias been fince continued, principally becaufe on the
deatli of the mortgagee fuch term becomes veiled in his
personal reprefentatives, who only are entitled in equi
ty to receive the money lent, of whatever nature the
mortgage may happen to be.
As foon as the eftate is created, the mortgagee may
immediately enter on the lands j but is liable to be dif-
polTefled, upon performance of the condition by pay¬
ment of the mortgage money at the day limited. And
therefore the ufual way is to agree that the mortgager
(hall hold the land till the day afligned for payment :
when, in cafe of failure, whereby the eftate becomes
abfolute, the mortgagee may enter upon it, and take
pofteflion, without any poffibility at law of being af¬
terwards evhfted by the mortgager, to whom the land
is now for ever dead. But here again the courts of
equity interpofe and though a mortgage be thus for¬
feited, and the eftate abfolutely veiled in the mortga¬
gee at the common law, yet they -will confider the real
value of the tenements compared with the fum borrow¬
ed. And if the eftate be of greater value than the fum
lent thereon, they will allow the mortgager at any rea-
fonable time to recal or redeem his eftate j paying to
the mortgagee his principal, intereft, and expences :
for otherwife, in ftriftnefs of law, an eftate worth 1000I.
might be forfeited for non-payment of tool, or a lefs
fum. This reafonable advantage, allowed to mortga¬
gers, is called the equity of redemption ; and this en¬
ables a mortgager to call on the mortgagee, Avho has
poffeflion of his eftate, to deliver it back, and account
for the rents and profits received on payment of his
3
whole debt and intereft, thereby turning the mortuum
into a kind of vivum vadium; (fee Vadium). But,
on the other hand, the mortgagee may either compel
the fale of the eftate, in order to get the whole of his
money immediately j or elfe call upen the mortgager to
redeem his eftate prefently, or, in default thereof, to
be for ever foreclofed from redeeming the fame ; that
is, to lofe his equity of redemption without poflibility of
recal. And alfo, in fome cafes of fraudulent mortga¬
ges, the fraudulent mortgager forfeits all equity of re¬
demption whatfoever. It is not, however, ufual for
mortgagees to take poffeftion of the mortgaged eftate,
unlefs where the fecurity is precarious, or fmall 5 or
where the mortgager negledls even the payment of in¬
tereft : when the mortgagee is frequently obliged to
bring an ejeflment, and take the land into his own
hands, in the nature of a pledge, or the pignus of the
Roman law : whereas, while it remains in the hands of
the mortgager, it more refembles their hypotheca,
which was where the pofleflion of the thing pledged re¬
mained with the debtor. But by ftatute 7 Geo. II.
c. 20. after payment or tender by the mortgager of
principal, intereft, and cods, the mortgagee can main¬
tain no ejedlment; but may be compelled to re-aflign
his (ecurities. In Glanvil’s time, when the univerfal
method of conveyance was by livery of feifin or corpo¬
ral tradition of the lands, no gage or pledge of lands
was good unlefs poffeftion was alio delivered to the cre¬
ditor *, Ji non fequatur ipfius vadii traditio, curia domini
regis Jiujufmodi privates ednventiones tueri non folet: for
which the reafon given is, to prevent fubfequent and
fraudulent pledges of the fame land ; cum in tali cafu
pojjit eadem res p/uribus aliis creditoribus turn prms turn
pojlerius invadiari. And the frauds which have arifen,
fince the exchange of thefe public and notorious convey¬
ances for more private and fecret bargains, have well
evinced the wifdom of our ancient law.
MORTIER, an enfign of dignity, which was borne
by the chancellor and grand prefidents of the parliament
of France. That borne by the chancellor was a piece
of cloth of gold, edged and turned up with ermine y
and that of the firft prefident was a piece of black vel¬
vet edged with a double row of gold lace.
MORTIFICATION, or Gangrene. See Me¬
dicine and Surgery Index.
Mortification, in religion, any fevere penance ob-
ferved on a religious account. See Fast.
MORTISE, or Mortoise, in carpentry, &c. a
kind of joint wherein a hole of a certain depth is made
in a piece of timber, which is to receive another piece
called a tenon.
MORTMAIN, or Alienation in Mortmain {in
mortaa manu), is an alienation of lands or tenements to
any corporation, foie or aggregate, eeclefiaftical or tem¬
poral * : but thefe purchafes having been chiefly made See Co-
by religious houfes, in confequence whereof the lands^oralii
became perpetually inherent in one dead hand, this
hath occafioned the general appellation of mortmain to
be applied to fuch alienations, and the religious houfes
themfelves to be principally confidered in forming the
ftatutes of mortmain : in deducing the hiftory of which
ftatutes, it will be matter of curiofity to obferve the
great addrefs and fubtle contrivance of the ecclefiaftics,.
in eluding from time to time the laws in being, and the
zeal with which fucceflive parliaments have purfued
them
4*
M OB. [ ^
Mortmain, them through all their fineffes: how new remedies were
v —> ftiH the parents of new evafions j till the legiflature at
laft, though with difficulty, hath obtained a decifive
viftory. _
By the common law any man might difpofe of his
lands to any other private man at his own difcretion,
efpecially when the feodal reftraints of alienation were
worn away. Yet in confequence of thefe it was al¬
ways, and is ftill neceffary, for corporations to have a
licenfe of mortmain from the crown, to enable them to
Blaci/t’ purchafe lands : for as the king is the ultimate lord of
■Commtnt- every fee, he ought not, unlefs by his own confent, to
lofe his privilege of efcheats and other feodal profits,
by the veiling of lands in tenants that can never be at¬
tainted or die. And fuch licenfes of mortmain feem to
have been neceffary among the Saxons above 60 years
before the Norman conquelt. But, befides this gene¬
ral licenfe from the king as lord paramount of the king¬
dom, it was alfo requifite, whenever there was a mefne
or intermediate lord between the king and the alienor,
to obtain his licenfe alfo (upon the fame feodal princi¬
ples) for the alienation of the fpecific land. And if no
fuch licenfe was obtained, the king or other lord might
refpedtively enter on the land fo alienated in mortmain,
as a forfeiture. The nccelhty of this licenfe from the
crown was acknowledged by the Conllitutions of Cla¬
rendon, in refpeft of advowfons, which the monks al¬
ways greatly coveted, as being the groundwork of fub-
fequent appropriations. Yet fuch were the influence
and ingenuity of the clergy, that (notwithftanding this
fundamental principle) we find that the largell and
moll confiderable donations of religious houfes happen¬
ed within lefs than two centuries after the Conqueft.
And (when a licenfe could not be obtained) their con¬
trivance feems to have been this : I hat as the forfei¬
ture for fuch alienations accrued in the firft place to the
immediate lord of the fee, the tenant who meant to
alienate firft conveyed his lands to the religious houfe,
and inftantly took them back again to hold as tenant
to the monaftery : which kind of inftantaneous feifin
was probably held not to occafion any forfeiture : and
then, by pretext of fome other forfeiture, furrender, or
efcheat, the fociety entered into thofe lands in right of
fuch their newly acquired figniory, as immediate lords
of the fee. But when thefe donations began to grow
numerous, it was obferved that the feodal fervices, or¬
dained for the defence of the kingdom, were every day
vifibly withdrawn 5 that the circulation of landed pro¬
perty from man to man began to ftagnate; and that the
lords were curtailed of the fruits of their figniories, their
efcheats, wardffiips, reliefs, and the like : and there¬
fore, in order to prevent this, it was ordained by the
fecond of King Henry III.’s great charters, and af¬
terwards by that printed in our common ftatute books,
that all fuch attempts ftiould be void, and the land for¬
feited to the lord of the fee.
But as this prohibition extended only to religious
houfes, biffiops and other foie corporations were not in¬
cluded therein •, and the aggregate ecclefiaftical bodies
(who, Sir Edward Coke obferves, in this were to be
commended, that they ever had of their counfel the beft
learned men that they could get) found many means
to creep out of this ftatute, by buying in lands that
were bona fide holden of themfelves as lords of the fee,
and thereby evading the forfeiture ; or by taking long
5 ] MOB
leafes for years, which firft introduced thofe extenfive tMortmairt»
terms, for a thoufand or more years, which are now fo
frequent in conveyances. 1 his produced the ftatute
de religiofis, 7 Edw. 1. j which provided, that no per-
fon, religious or other whatfoever, fliould buy, or fell,
or receive under pretence of a gift, or term of years, or
any other title whatfoever, nor Ihould by any art or in¬
genuity appropriate to himfelf, any lands or tenements
in mortmain} upon pain that the immediate lord of the
fee, or, on his default for one year, the lords para¬
mount, and in default of all of them, the king, might
enter thereon as a forfeiture.
This feemed to be a fufficient fecurity againft all
alienations in mortmain : but as thefe ftatutes extend¬
ed only to gifts and conveyances between the parties,
the religious houfes nowr began to let up a fictitious
title to the land, which it was intended they Ihould
have, and to bring an aCtion to recover it againft the
tenant *, who, by fraud and collufion, made no defence,
and thereby judgment was given for the religious
houfe, vffiich then recovered the land by a fentence of
law upon a fuppofed prior title. And thus they had the
honour of inventing thofe fictitious adjudications of
right, which are fince become the great affurance of
the kingdom, under the name of common recoveries.
But upon this the ftatute of Weftminfter the fecond,
13 Edw. I. c. 32. enadted, that in fuch cafes a jury
ffiall try the true right of the demandants or plaintiffs
to the land j and if the religious houfe or corporation
be found to have it, they ftiall ftill recover feifin •, other-
wife it (hall be forfeited to the immediate lord of the
fee, or elfe to the next lord, and finally to the king,
upon the immediate or other lord’s default. And the
like provifion was made by the fucceeding chapter, in
cafe the tenants fet up croffes upon their lands (the
badges of knights templars and hofpitallers) in order to
protedl them from the feudal demands of their lords,
by virtue of the privileges of thofe religious and mili¬
tary orders. And fo careful was this provident prince
to prevent any future evafions, that when the ftatute
of quia emptoresy 18 Edw'. I. aboliflied all fub-infeuda-
tions, and gave liberty for all men to alienate their
lands to be holden of their next immediate lord, a pro-
vifo was inferted that this ffiould not extend to autho¬
rize any kind of alienation in mortmain. And when
afterwards the method of obtaining the king’s licenfe by
writ of ad quod damnum was marked out by the ftatute
27 Edw. I. ft. 2. it was farther provided by ftatute
34 Edw. I. ft. 3. that no fuch licenfe ihould be ef¬
fectual without the confent of the mefne or intermediate
lords.
Yet ftill it was found difficult to fet bounds to ec-
clefiaftical ingenuity : for when they were driven out
of all their former holds, they deviled a new method
of conveyance, by which the lands were granted, not
to themfelves direCtly, but to nominal feoffees to the
ufe of the religious houfes •, thus diftinguiffiing be¬
tween the poffeffion and the ufe, and receiving the ac¬
tual profits, while the feifin of the land remained in
the nominal feoffee } who was held by the courts
of equity (then under the dire6tion of the clergy) to
be bound in confcience to account to his ccfmj que
ufe for the rents and emoluments of the eftate. And
it is to thefe inventions that our pra<5tifers are indebt¬
ed for the introduction of ufes and trufts, the founda-
3 I 2 tion
M O R
[ 436 ]
M O R
Mortmain, tion of modern conveyancing. But unfortunately for
the inventors themfelves, they did not long enjoy the
advantage of their new device j for the flatute 1 5 Rich¬
ard II. c. 5. enafts, that the lands whicli had been fo
purchafed to ufes Ihould be admortifed by licenfe from
the crown, or elfe be fold to private perfons $ and that,
for the future, ufcs fhall be fubje£t to the Ratutes of
mortmain, and forfeitable like the lands themfelves.
And whereas the ftatutes had been eluded by purcba-
fing large trafls of land adjoining to churches, and con-
fecrating them by the name of churchy arch, fuch fub-
tile imagination is alfo declared to be within the com-
pafs of the ftatutes of mortmain. And civil or lay cor¬
porations, as well as ecclefiaftical, are alfo declared to
be within the mifchief, and of courfe within the remedy
provided by thofe falutary laws. And laftly, As during
the times of popery lands were frequently given to fu-
perftitious ufes, though not to any corporate bodies j
or were made liable in the hands of heirs and devifees
to the charge of obits, chantries, and the like, which
were equally pernicious in a well-governed Rate as ac¬
tual alienations in mortmain $ therefore at the dawn of
the Reformation, the ftatute 23 Hen. VIII. c. 10. de¬
clares, that all future grants of lands for any of the
purpofes aforefaid, if granted for any longer term than
20 years, (hall be void.
But, during all this time, it was in the power of the
crown, by granting a licenfe of mortmain, to remit
the forfeiture, fo far as related to its own rights ; and
to enable any fpiritual or othw corporation to purchafe
and hold any lands or tenements in perpetuity : which
prerogative is declared and confirmed by the ftatute
18 Edw. III. ft. 3. c. 3. But as doubts were conceived
at the time of the Revolution how far fuch licenfe was
valid, fince the king had no power to difpenfe with the
ftatutes of mortmain by a claufe of non ohjlantc, which
was the ufual courfe, though it feems to have been un-
neceflary ; and as, by the gradual deelenfion of mefne
figniories through the long operation of the ftatute of
quia emptores, the rights of intermediate lords were re¬
duced to a very fmall compafs ; it was therefore pro¬
vided by the ftatute 7 & 8 W. III. c. 37. that the
crown for the future at its own difcretion may grant li-
cenfes to alienate or take in mortmain, of whomfoever
the tenements may be liolden.
After the diflblution of monafteries under Hen. VIII.
though the policy of the next popifti fucceffor affected
to grant a fecurity to the pofleflors of abbey lands,
yet, in order to regain fo much of them as either the
zeal or timidity of their owners might induce them to
part wdth, the ftatutes of mortmain were fufpended for
20 years by the ftatute I & 2 P. & M. c. 8. and dur¬
ing that time any lands or tenements were allowed
to be granted to any fpiritual corporation without any
licenfe whatfoever. And long afterwards, for a much
better purpofe, the augmentation of poc r livings, it
was enabled by the ftatute 17 Car. II. c. 3. that ap-
propriators may annex the great tithes to the vicarages,
and that all benefices under look per annum may be
augmented by the purchafe of lands, without licenfe
of mortmain in either cafe } and the like provifion hath
been finee made in favour of the governors of Queen
Anne’s bounty. It hath alfo been held, that the fta¬
tute 13 Hen. VIII. before-mentioned, did not extend
to any thing but fuperftitious ufes j and that therefore
a man may give lands for the maintenance of a fchool, Mortmain,
an hofpital, or any other charitable uies. But as it ^rtcarr.
was apprehended from recent experience, that perfons
on their deathbeds might make large and improvident
difpolitions even for thefe good purpofes, and defeat
the political ends of the ftatutes of mortmain ; it is
thereiore enabled by the ftatute 9 Geo. II. c. 36. that
no lands or tenements, or money to be laid out thereon,
lhall be given for or charged with any charitable ufes
whatfoever, unlefs by deed indented, executed in the
prefence ot two witneftes 1 2 kalender months before the
death of the donor, and enrolled in the court of chan¬
cery within fix months after its execution (except
Rocks in the public funds, which may be transierred
within fix months previous to the donor's death), and
unlefs fuch gift be made to take eft'edl immediately,
and be without power of revocation j and that all other
gifts lhall be void. The two univerfities, their colleges,
and their fcholars upon the foundation of the colleges
of Eton, Winchefter, and Weftminfter, are excepted
out of this afl : but fuch exemption was granted with
this provifo, that no college lhall be at liberty to pur¬
chafe more advowfcns than are equal in number to one
moiety of the fellows or ftudents upon the refpedlive
foundations.
MORTUARY, in Law, is a fort of ecclefiaftical he-
riot *, being a cuftomary gift claimed by and due to * see
the miniller in very many parilhes on the death of his Heriot.
parilhioners. They fetm originally to have been only
a voluntary bequelt to the church 5 being intended, as
Lyndewode informs us from a conftitution of Archbi-
ftiop Langham, as a kind of expiation and amends to
the clergy for the perfonal tithes, and other ecclefiaf¬
tical duties, which the laity in their life time might
have negle&ed or forgotten to pay. For this purpofe,
after the lord’s heriot or belt good was taken out, the
fecond belt chattel was referved to the church as a
mortuary. And therefore in the laws of King Canute,
this mortuary is called foul-fcot, or fymbolum animce.
And, in purfuance of the fame principle, by the lawrs
of Venice, where no perfonal tithes have been paid du¬
ring the life of the party, they are paid at his death
out of his merehandife, jewels, and other moveables.
So alfo, by a fimilar policy in France, every man that
died without bequeathing a part of his eftate to the
church, which was called dying without confejjion, was
formerly deprived of Chriftian burial •, or, if he died
inteftate, the relations of the deceafed, jointly with the
bifhop, named proper arbitrators to determine what he
ought to have given to the church, in cafe he had
made a will. But the parliament, in 1409, redrefled
this grievance-
It was anciently ufual in England to bring the mor¬
tuary to church along with the corpfe when it came
to be buried •, and thence it is fometimes called a corpfe-
prefent; a term which befpeaks it to have been once
a voluntary donation. However, in Bra£ton’s time, fo
early as Henry III. we find it rivetted into an efta-
blilhed cuftom ; infomuch that the bequefts of heriots
and mortuaries were held to be neceffary ingredients in
every teftament of chattels. Imprimis autem debet qui-
libet, qm tejiamentum fecerit, dominum fuum de mehori
re quam habuerit recognofcere ; et pojlea ecciejiam de alia
memre: the lord mull have the belt good left him as
a heriot 5 and the church the fecond beft as a mor¬
tuary,.
M O R
[ 437 3
M O S
ary. tuary. But yet this cuftom was different in difFeient
^ places : in quibujdam locis habet eccicfxa melius animal
de confuetudine; in quitufdam fecundum^ vel tertmrn
melius; et in quibujdam nihil: et idea conftderanda ejt
confuetudo loci. This cuftom ftill varies m different
places, not only as to the mortuary to be paid, but the
perfon to whom it is payable. In Wales a mortuary or
corfe prefent was due upon the death of every cleigy-
man to the bilhop of the diocefe } till aboliihed, upon
a recomoenfe given to the biftiop, by the ftatute, 12
Ann. ft. 2. c. 6. And in the archdeaconry of Che-
fter a cuftom alfo prevailed, that the biftiop, who is
alfo archdeacon, fliould have, at the death of every
clergyman dying therein, hisbeft horfe or mare, bridle,
faddle, and fpurs ; his beft gown or cloak, hat, upper
garment under his gown, and tippet, and alfo his beft
fignet or ring. But by ftatute 28 Geo. II. c. 6. tins
mortuary is directed to ceafe, and the act has fettled
upon the biftiop an equivalent in its room. The king’s
claim to many goods, on the death of all prelates m
England, feems to be of the fame nature; though Sir
Edward Coke apprehends, that this is a duty upon
death, and not a mortuary : a diftin6tion which feems
to be without a difference. For not only the king’s
ecclefiaftical charader, as fupreme ordinary, but alfo
the fpecies of the good claimed, which bear fo near a
refemblance to thofe in the archdeaconry of Chefter,
which was an acknowledged mortuary, puts the matter
out of difpute. The king, according to the record
vouched by Sir Edward Coke, is entitled to fix things j
the biftiop’s beft horfe or palfrey, with his furniture j
his cloak or gown, and tippet *, his cup and cover ; his
bafon and ewer j his gold ring 5 and laftly, his muta
canum, his mew or kennel of hounds.
This variety of cuftoms with regard to mortuaries,
giving frequently a handle to exadions on the one fide,
and frauds or expenfive litigations on the other, it
was thought proper by ftatute 21 Henry VIII. c.
to reduce" them to fome kind of certainty. For this
purpofe it is enaded, that all mortuaries, or corfe-
prefents to parfons of any parifti, fhall be taken in the
following manner, unlefs where by cuftom lefs or none
at all is due •, viz. for every perfon who does not leave
goods to the value of ten marks, nothing; for every
perfon who leaves goods to the value of ten marks and
under 30 pounds, 3s. 4ft. •, if above 30 pounds, and un¬
der 40 pounds, 6s. 8d. •, if above 40 pounds, of what
value foever they may be, 10s. and no more. And no
mortuary ftvall throughout the kingdom be paid for
the death of any feme-covert 5 nor for any child; nor
for any one of full age, that is not a houfekeeper j nor Mortuary
for any wayfaring man •, but fuch wayfaring man s mor-
tuary ftiall be paid in the parifti to which he belongs. x.aw.
And upon this ftatute Hands the law of mortuaries to v 
this day. f .
MORUS, the Mulberry Tree, a genus ot plants
belonging to the monoecia clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 53d order, bcabridic. See BO¬
TANY Index. . r T3 1 •
MOSA, in Ancient Geography, a river oi Relgica,
rifing in Mount Vogefus on the borders of the Lingones,
and which, after receiving a part of the Rhine ^alled
Vahalis, forms the iftand of the Batavi, and pafles off
into the fea, at the diftance of 80 miles. Now called
the Mr.cfe, or Meufe; riling in Champagne, on the
borders of the county of Burgundy, or Franche
Compte, at a village called Meufe, whence the appella¬
tion j and running north through Lorrain and Cham¬
pagne into the Netherlands: it afterwards direds its
courfe north-eaft and then weft ; and joining the Waal,
runs to Dort, and falls into the German fea, a little be¬
low the Briel. _ , .
MOS At, Pons, in Ancient Geography, fuppoled to be
Maeftricht, fttuated on the Maefe. E. Long. 5. 40.
N. Lat. 50. 55.
MOSAIC Law, or the Law of MOSES, is the molt Wilfon’s
ancient that we know of in the world, and is of three
kinds j the moral law, the ceremonial law, and the K •
judicial law. The different manner in which each of
thefe wras delivered, may perhaps iuggeft to us a right
idea of their different natures. I he moral lawr, or
ten commandments, for inftance, was delivered on the
top of the mountain, in the face of the whole world,
as being of univerfal influence, and obligatory on all
mankind. The ceremonial was received by Moles in
private in the tabernacle, as being of peculiar concern,
belonging to the Jews only, and deftined to ceafe
when the tabernacle was down, and the vail of the temple
rent. As to the judicial law, it was neither fo public¬
ly nor fo audibly given as the moral lawr, nor yet fo
privately as the ceremonial this kind of law being of
an indifferent nature, to be obferved or not obferved,
as its rites fuit with the place and government under
which we live. The five books of Mofes called the
Pentateuch, are frequently ftyled, by way of emphafis
the Law. This was held by the Jews in fuch vene¬
ration, that they would not allow it to be laid upon the
bed of any fick perfon, left it fliould be polluted by
touching the dead.'
A TABLE or HARMONY of the MOSAIC LAW, digefted into proper Heads, with
References to the feveral Parts of the Pentateuch where the refpedhve Laws occur.
Class I. The Moral Law written on the two Tables,, containing
the Ten Commandments.
The firfl table, which includes
The firft commandment
The fecond commandment,
The third commandment,
Exod.
chap.
20. 23.
20.23.34
20. 23.
Levitic.
chap.
19. 20.26
Numb.
chap.
:1
Deut.
chap,
5- 6. 13-
4.5.6.7.8.
10.11.12.
13-
S'
The
M O S
[ 433 ]
Mofaic
-Law.
The fourth commandment,
The fecond table includes
The fifth commandment,
The fixfh commandment,
The feventh commandment,
The eighth commandment,
The ninth commandment,
The tenth commandment,
The fum of both tables,
Class II. The Ceremonial Law may be fitly reduced to the
following heads, viz.
Of the holy place, - - _
Of the matter and ftru&ure of the tabernacle.
Of the inftruments of the fame, viz.
The laver of brafs, - _
The altar of burnt offering,
The altar of incenfe, - - -
The candleflick of pure gold,
The table of fliew-bread,
Of the priefts and their veflments for glory and beauty,
Of the choofing of the Levites,
Of the priefts office in general,
Of their office in teaching,
Of their office in bleffing,
Of their office in offering ; which function largely fpreading itfelf,
is divided into thefe heads, viz.
What the facrifice ought to be,
Of the continual fire, - -
Of the manner of the burnt offerings,
 the peace offerings,
Of the manner of the facrifices according to their feveral kinds, viz.
For fin committed through ignorance of the law,
For fin committed through ignorance of the faft,
For fin committed wittingly, yet not through impiety,
The fpecial law of facrifices for fin,
Of things belonging to the facrifices,
Of the ffiew-bread, - - -
Of the lamps, - * -
Of the fweet incenfe, - - -
Of the ufe of ordinary oblations, whereof there were feveral kinds
obferved by the priefts,
Of the confecration of the high priefts and other priefts,
Of the confecration and office of the Levites,
Of the dwelling of the Levites,
Of the anointing the altar, and all the inftruments of the ta¬
bernacle,
Of the continual daily facrifices,
Of the continual Sabbath day’s facrifices,
Of the folemn facrifice for feaft days, which were diverfe, and had
peculiar rites, diftinguiffied into thefe, viz.
Of trumpets, -
Of beginning of months,
Of the three moft folemn feafts in general,
Of the feaft of paffover,
Of the feaft of pentecoft,
Of the feaft of tabernacles,
Of the feaft of blowing the trumpets,
M o s
Gen. ix.
M O S [ 439 ]
Of the feafl of expiation,
Of the firft fruits,
Of tythes,
Of fruits growing and not eaten of,
Of the firft born,
Of the fabbatical year,
Of the year of jubilee,
Of vows in general,
What perfons ought not to make vows,
What things cannot be vorved,
Of redemption of vows,
Of the vows of the Nazarites,
Of the laws proper for the priefts, viz.
Of pollutions,
Of the high prieft’s mourning,
Of his marriage,
Of the mourning of the ordinary priefts,
Of their marriage,
Of their being forbidden the ufe of wine, &c.
Of fan&ified meats,
Of the office of the Levites, viz.
Teaching,
Offering,
Other promifcuous ceremonial laws, viz.
Of uncleannefs in general,
Of uncleannefs in meats, viz.
Of blood, -
Of fat, -
Of dead carcafes,
Other meats, and diverfe living creatures,
Of uncleannefs in the iffue of feed and blood,
In the dead bodies of men,
In the leprofy,
Of circumcifion, - - Gen. xvii.
Of the water of expiation,
Of the mourning of the Ifraelites,
Of mixtures,
Of their garments, and writing the law privately,
Of young birds not to be taken with the dam,
Of their paddle ftaves,
Class III. The Political Law.
N. B. The Magiftrate is the keeper of the precepts of both
Tables, and to have refpeft to human focicty 5—therefore
the Political laws of the Ifraelites are referred to both the
Tables, and are to be reduced to the feveral precepts of the
Moral Law.
Laws referred to the firft table, namely,
Ift, To the firft and fecond commandments, viz.
Of idolaters and apoftates.
Of abolithing idolatry, _ - .
Of diviners and falfe prophets,
Of covenants with other gods,
2d, To the third commandment, viz.
Of blafphemies, ...
3d, To the fourth commandment, viz.
Of breaking the Sabbath,
Political laws referred to the fecond table,
M O S
ift, To
M 0 S
Moftiic
Law.
[ 440 ]
M 0 S
ill, To the fifth commandment, viz. - .
( Of magiftrates and their authority,
Of the power of fathers, - - -
2d, To the fixth commandment, viz.
Of capital punifhments, ...
Of wilful murder, - - -
Of manflaughter unwittingly committed, and of the cities
fuge, “
Of heinous injury, ...
Of punifliments not capital, ...
Of the law of war, ...
3d, To the feventh commandment, viz.
Of unlawful marriages, ...
Of fornication, - - - - -
Of whoredom, ....
Of adultery and jealoufy, ...
Of copulation again!! nature, ...
Of divorcements, - - - - -
Other matrimonial laws, . . . -
4th, To the eighth commandment, viz.
Of the punifhment of thefts,
Of facrilege, ....
Of not injuring ftrangers, - * -
Of not defrauding hirelings,
Of juft weights, - _ . _
Of removing the land-mark, ...
Of loft goods, - -
Of ftrayed cattle, ...
Of corrupted judgments, ....
Of fire breaking out by chance,
Of manftealing, - - . -
Of the fugitive fervant, - - -
Of gathering fruits, ...
Of contracts, viz. ...
Borrowing, - - - -
Of the pledge, - - - -
Of ufury, ....
Of felling, ....
Of the thing lent, ...
Of a thing committed to be kept,
Of heirs, ....
5th, To the ninth commandment, viz.
Of witneffes, - -
The eftabliftung the political lav/,
The eftabliftung the divine law in general,
From the dignity of the lawgiver,
From the excellency of the laws,
From the promifes,
From the threatenings,
of re-
}
Exod.
chap.
18. 30
21.
21.
21.
22.
22.
21.
22.
22. 23.
22.
22. 23.
23-
22.
22.
22.
21.
22.
Levitic.
chap.
15.19.23.
24.
23-
24.
24.
18. 20.
19.
21.
19. 20.
t8. 2?.
18. 20.
19.
19.
19.
19.
19. 23.
25-
25-
Numb.
chap.
9.20.22.
18. 26.
26.
11.
35-
35-
{
-{
Deut,
chap.
-{
-f
-!
1. 13. 17
23-
21. 24.
19.
19.21.22,
25-
25-
25-
7. 21.
23*
22.
24.
21.22.24,
25-
10.
26. 25.
25-
J9.
22.
16. 24.
24.
23-
23. 24.
I5*
24.
23-
I5*
17.19.
4-
6. 11. 29.
3°- 31-
4:5.6 7.8.
ro.26.27.
4.26.
4. 5. 6. 7.
10.11.12.
28.
4. 7. 11.
27.28.29.
30-
MOSAIC, or Mosaic Work, an affemblage of of ftucco, in fuch a manner as to imitate the colours
little pieces of glafs, marble, precious ftones, &c. of and gradations of painting. The critics are divided
various colours, cut fquare, and cemented on a ground as to the origin and reafon of the name. Some derive
it
Mofaio
Law.
M O S
[ 44
MA*. It from mofakum, a corruption of mufaicum, as that is
'-of mufivum, as it was called among the Komans.
Scaliger derives it from the Greek, pas-*, and imagines
the name was given to this fort of works as being veiy
fine and ingenious. Nebricenfis is of opinion it was
fo called, becaufe ex Mis picluris ornabantur tnufca.
i. Method of performing mofaic work of glafs is
this : They provide little pieces of glafs, of as many
different colours and fizes as poflible.
Now, in order to apply thefe feveral pieces, and out
of them to form a picture, they in the firff place pro¬
cure a cartoon or dellgn to be drawn 5 this is tran -
ferred to the ground or plafter by chalking as in paint¬
ing in frefco. See hRESCO. ^
"As this plafter is to be laid thick on the wall, and
therefore will continue frefli and foft a confiderable
time, fo there may be enough prepared at once to
ferve for as much work as will take up three or four
This plafter is compofed of lime made of hard
ft one, with brick dull very fine, gum tragacanth, and
whites of eggs; when this plafter has been thus pre¬
pared and laid on the wall, and made the defign of
what is to be reprefented, they take out the little pieces
of glafs with a pair of plyers, and range them one after
another, ftill keeping ftriftly to the light, fhadow, dif¬
ferent teints and colours reprefented in the defign be¬
fore *, preffing or flatting them down with a ruler,
which ferves both to fink them within the ground and
to render the furface even.
Thus, in a long time, and with a great deal of la¬
bour, they finilh the work, which is ftill the more
beautiful, as the pieces of glafs are more uniform and
ranged at an even height.
Some of thefe pieces of mofaic work are performed
with that exa&nefs, that they appear as fmooth as a
table of marble, and as finifhed and mafterly as a paint¬
ing in frefco } with this advantage, that they have a
fine luftre, and will laft ages. .
The fineft works of this kind that have remained till
our time, and thofe by whom the moderns have retriev¬
ed the art, which was in a manner loft, are thofe in the
church of St Agnes, formerly the temple of Bacchus,
at Rome ; and fome at Pifa, Florence, and other cities
of Italy. The moft efteemed among the works of the
moderns are thofe of Jofeph Pine and the Chevalier
Lanfranc, in the church of St Peter at Rome: there are
alfo very good ones at Venice.
2. The method of performing mofaic work of marble
is tliis : The ground of mofaic works, wholly marble,
is ufually a maflive marble either white or black.. On
this ground the defign is cut with a chifel, after it has
been firft chalked. After it has been cut of a confider¬
able depth, i. e. an inch or more, the cavities are filled
up with marble of a proper colour, firft fathioned ac¬
cording to the defign, and reduced to the thicknefs of
the indentures with various inftruments. To make the
piece thus inferted into the indentures cleave faft, whofe
feveral colours are to imitate thofe of the defign, they
ufe a ftucco, compofed of lime and marble dull; or a
kind of maftich, which is prepared by each workman,
after a different manner peculiar to himfelf. The
figures being marked out, the painter or fculptor him¬
felf draws with a pencil the colours of the figures not
determined by the ground, and in the fame manner
Vol. XIV. Part II.
i ] M O S
makes ftrokes or hatchings in the place where Ihadow's Mofaic.
are to be : and after he has engraven with th • chifelv——r—
all the ftrokes thus drawn, he fills them up with a black
maftich, cornpofed partly of Burgundy pitch poured on
hot ; taking off afterwards what is fuperfluous with a
piece of foft Hone or brick, which, together with water
and beaten cement, takes away the maftich, polilhesthe
marble, and renders the whole fo even that one. would
imagine it only confilted of one piece. 1 his is the kind
of mofaic work that is feen in the pompous church of
the invalids at Paris, and the fine chapel at Verfailles,
with which fome entire apartments of that palace arein-
cruftated.
3. As for mofaic wnrk of precious ftones, other and
finer inftruments are required than thofe ufed in marble;
as drills, wheels, 8cc. ufed by lapidaries and engravers
on ftone. As none but the richeft marbles and ftones
enter this work, to make them go the farther, they
are fawn into the thinneft leaves imaginable, fcarcely
exceeding tadf a line in thicknefs j the block to be fawn
is fattened firmly with cords on the bench, and only
raifed a little on a piece of wood, one or twro inches
high. Two iron pins, which are on one fide the block,
and which ferve to fatten it, are put into a vice con¬
trived for the purpofe\ and with a kind of faw or bow,
made of fine brafs wire, bent on a piece of fpongy
wood, together with emery fteeped in water, the leaf
is gradually fafhioned by following the ftroke of the
defign made on paper, and glued on the piece. When
there are pieces enough fattened to form an entire flower,
or fome other part of the defign, they are applied to
the ground.
The ground which fupports this mofaic work is
ufually of freeftone. The matter with which the
ftones are joined together is a maftich, or kind of
ftucco, laid very thin on the leaves as they are falhion-
ed *, and this being done, the leaves are applied with
plyers.
If any contour, or fide of a leaf, be not either fquared
or rounded fulficiently, fo as to fit the place exactly
into which it is to be inferted, when it is too large, it is
to be brought down with a brafs file or rafp ; and if it
be too little, it is managed with a drill and other inftru¬
ments ufed by lapidaries.
Mofaic work of marble is ufed in large works, as in
pavements of churches, bafilics, and palaces 5 and in
the incruftation and veneering of the walls of the fame
edifices.
As for that of precious ftones, it is only ufed in fmall
works, as ornaments for altar pieces, tables for rich
cabinets, precious ftones being fo very dear.
4. Manner of performing mofaic work of gijpfum.
Of this ftone calcined in a kiln, beaten in a mortar and
lifted, the French workmen make a fort of artificial
marbles, imitating precious ftones ; and of thefe they
compofe a kind of mofaic work, which does not come
far fhort either of the durablenefs or the vivacity of the
natural ftones j and which befides has this advantage
that it admits of continued pieces or paintings of entire
compartments without any vifible joining. .
Some make the ground of plafter of Paris, others of
freeftone. If it be of plafter of Paris, they fpread it
in a wooden frame, of the length and breadth of the
work intended, and in thicknefs about an inch ard a
half. This frame is fo contrived, that the tenons being
3 K only
M O S [ 442 ] M O S
Mofaic. only joined to the mortifes by tingle pins, they may be
v taken afunder, and the frame be difmounted when the
plafter is dry. The frame is covered on one fide with
a ftrong linen cloth, nailed all round; which being
placed horizontally with the linen at the bottom, is
filled with plafter palfed through a wide fieve. When
the plafter is half dry, the frame is fet up perpendicu¬
larly, and left till it is quite dry; then it is taken out,
by taking the frame to pieces.
In this mofaic, the ground is the moft important
part. Now in order to the preparation of this lifted
gypfum, which is to be applied on this ground, it is
diitolved and boiled in the belt Englifh glue, and mixed
wdth the colour that it is to be of •, then the whole is
wmrked up together into the ufual confiftence of plafter,
and then is taken and fpread on the ground five or fix
inches thick. If the work be fuch, as that mouldings
are required, they are formed with gouges and other
inftruments.
It is on this plafter, thus coloured like marble or
precious ftone, and which is to ferve as a ground to a
work, either of lapis, agate, alabafter, or the like,
that the defign to be reprefented is drawn : having
been firft pounced or chalked. To hollow' or imprels
the defign, they ufe the fame inftruments that fculptors
do; the ground whereon they are to work not being
much lefs hard than the marble itfelf. The cavities
being thus made in the ground, are filled with the
lame gypfum boiled in glue, only differently coloured,
and thus are the different colours of the original repre¬
fented. In order that the neceffary colours and teints
may be ready at hand, the quantities of the gypfum
are tempered with the feveral colours in pots. After
the defign has been thus filled and rendered vilible, by
half polilhing it with brick and foft ftone, they go over
it again, cutting fuch plates as are either to be weaker
or more Ihadowed, and filling them with gypfum j
which Avork they repeat till all the colours being added
one after the other, reprefent the original to the life.
When the Avork is finilhed, they fcour it Avith foft ftone,
fand, and water j after that Avith a pumice ftone 5 and
in the laft place poliih it Avith a wooden mullet and
emery. Laftly, they give it a luftre, by fmearing it
over with oil, and rubbing it a long time Avith the palm
of the hand, which gives it a lustre nowife inferior to
that of natural marble.
5. In Clavigero’s hiftory of Mexico is deferibed a
curious kind of mofaic Avork, made by the ancient
Mexicans of the moft delicate and beautiful feathers of
birds. They railed for this purpofe various fpecies of
birds of fine plumage Avith Avhich that country abounds,
not only in the palaces of the king, where there Avere
all forts of animals, but likeAvife in private houfes ;
and at certain fcafons they carried off their feathers
to make ufe of them on this kind of work, or to
fell them at market. They fet a high value on the
feathers of thofe Avonderful little birds Avhich they
called Hmt’zit'zi/in. and the Spaniards Picafores, on ac¬
count of the fmallnefs, the finenefs, and the various
colours of them. In tliefe and other beautiful birds,
nature fupplied them with all the colours Avhich art
can produce, and alfo fome which art cannot imitate.
At the undertaking of every mofaic Avork feveral ar-
tifts affembled : After having agreed upon a defign,
and taken their meafures and proportions, each artift
charged himfelf Avith the execution of a certain part Mofcic,
of the image, and exerted himlelf fo diligently in it,
Avith fuch patience and application, that he frequently . i:>1(lue-
fpent a Avhole day in adjuiling a feather j firft trying *
one, then anothor, viewing it fometimes one Avay, then
another, until he found one Avhich gave his part that
ideal perfe£tion propofed to be attained. When the
part which each artift undertook Avas done, they af¬
fembled again to form the entire image from them..—
If any part was accidentally the leaft deranged, it Avas
Avrought again until it Avas perfectly finifhtd. 'I hey
laid hold of the feathers Avilh fmall pinchers, that they
might not do them the leaft injury, and patted them
on the cloth with tzauhth, or fome other glutinous mat¬
ter j then they united all the parts upon a little table,
or a plate of copper, and flattened them foftly until they
left the furface of the image fo equal and fmooth that
it appeared to be the work of a pencil.
T hefe Avere the images fo much celebrated by the
Spaniards and other European nations. Whoever be¬
held them w'as at a lofs whether he ought to have
praifed moft the life and beauty of the natural colours,
or the dexterity of the artift and the ingenious difpo-
fition of art. “ Thefe images (fays Acoiia) are defer-
vedly admired •, for it is wonderful how it was poffible,
Avith the feathers of birds, to execute works fo fine and
fo equal, that they appear the performance of the pen¬
cil ; and, Avhat neither the pencil nor the colours in
painting can effeft, they have, Avhen viewed from a
fide, an appearance fo beautiful, fo lively, and animat¬
ed, that they give delight to the fight. Some Indians,
Avho are able artifts, copy Avhatever is painted Avith a
pencil fo perfe£lly Avith plumage, that they rival the
beft painters of Spain.” Thefe works of feathers Avere
even fo highly efteemed by the Mexicans as to be va¬
lued more than gold. Cortes, Bernal Diaz, Gomara,
Torquemada, and all the other billorians who faw them,
Avere at a lofs for exprefnons fufficient to praife their
perfection. Several works of this kind, our author
fays, are ftill prefer\'ed in the muftums of Europe,
and many in Mexico ; but feAV, he apprehends, belong
to the fixteenth century, and fiill fewer, if any, are
of thofe made before the conqueft. The mofaic
works alfo Avhich the Mexicans made of broken fhells
Avere extremely curious : this art is ftill pradifed in
Guatimala.
MOSAMBIQUE, a kingdom of Africa, lying
fouth of Quiloa, and taking its name from the chief
town, which is fituated on an ifland, at the mouth of
a river of the fame name, in 15 deg. S. Lat. The
ifland is 30 miles in circumference, and very populous,
though the air is faid to be very hot, and the foil in
general dry, fandy, and barren } yet they have moft
of the tropical fruits, Avith black cattle, hogs, and
ftreep. There is a kind of fowl here, both the feathers
and flefh of which are black, infomuch that, Avhen they
are boiled, the broth looks like ink ; and yet their
fteftr is very delicate and good food. The toAvn of
Mofambique is regularly fortified, and has a good har¬
bour, defended by a citadel, with feveral churches and
monafteries. The Portuguefe flapping to and from
India touch here for refreftiments. As the ifland a-
bounds in cattle, the Portuguefe daughter and fait up
a great deal of beef, which they aftenvards fend to
the Brazils, or fell to the European flapping. They
M 0 S
[ 443 ]
M O S
Mofam-
bique
II
Mofcow
alfo barter European goods Avitb the natives for gold,
elephants teeth, and Haves. There is another town,
called Mongala, fituated alio on an iHand, and garri-
- foned bv the Portuguefe, being their chief magazine
for European goods. The gold they receive from the
natives is found near the furface of the earth, or in the
fands of rivers } no gold mines, or at lead; very few, be¬
ing at prefent wrought in Africa.
°MOSCH10N, a name common to four different
writers, whofe compofitions, character, and native
place, are unknown. Some fragments of their writings
remain, fome few verfes, and a treatife Dc tnuhciutn
ajfe&ibur. . .
MOSCHUS a Grecian poet of antiquity, umally
coupled with Bion ; and they were both of them co-
temporaries with 1 heocritus. In the time of the latter
Grecians, all the ancient idylliums were colle&ed
and attributed to Theocritus; but the claims of Mof-
chus and Bion have been admitted to fome few little
pieces 5 and this is fufhcient to make us inquifitive
about their chara&ers and dory ; yet all that can be
known about them mud; be collefted from their own
remains. Mofchus, by compofing his delicate elegy
on Bion, has given the bed: memorials of Bion’s life.
See Bion. Mofchus and Theocritus have by fome
critics been fuppofed the fame perfon ; but there are
irrefragable evidences again!! it : others will have him
as well as Bion to have lived later than Theocritus,
upon the authority of Suidas: while others again fup-
pofe him to have been the fcholar of Bion, and pro¬
bably his fucceffor in governing the poetic ichool 5
which, from the elegy of Mofchus, does not feem un¬
likely. Their remains are to be found in all the edi¬
tions of the Poetcv Minores.
Moschus, a genus of quadrupeds, of the order of pe~
cora, having no horns. See Mammalia Index.
MOSCOW, the chief province of the empire of
Ruflia, deriving its name from the river Mufcova, or
Molkva, on which the capital is dtuated. It was from
this duchy that the czars of old took the title of dukes
of Mufcovy. The province is bounded on the north
by the duchies of Twere, Rodow, Sufdal, and \\ o-
lodimer •, on the fouth by Rezan, from which it is fe-
parated by the river Oeca; on the ead by the princi¬
pality of Cachine, and the fame river Occa parting it
from Nid-Novogorod *, and on the wed by the duchies
of Rzeva, Bielar and Smolenlko. It extends about 200
miles in length, and about 100 in breadth *, and is
watered by the Molkva, Occa, and Clefma, which fall
into the Wolga : neverthelefs, the foil is not very fer¬
tile. The air, however, though {harp, is falubrious •,
and this confideration, with the advantage of its be¬
ing fituated in the midd of the bed provinces in the
empire, induced the czars to make it their chief refi-
dence. In the wedern part of Mofcow is a large fo-
red, from whence flows the celebrated river Dnieper, or
Borvdhenes, which, traverfing the duchy of Smolenlko,
winds in a ferpentine courfe to Ukraine, Lithuania, and
Poland.
Moscow, the capital of the above province, and till
the beginning of the lad century the metropolis of
all Ruflia, is fituated in a fpacious plain on the banks
of the river Molkva. E. Long. 37. 31. N. Lat. 55.45.
The Ruflian antiquaries differ eonfiderably in their opi¬
nions concerning the fir A foundation of Mofcow } the
following relation, Mr Coxe fays, is generally efleemed ^
by the bell authors the molt probable account.
Kiof was the metropolis, when George fon of Vla¬
dimir Monon aka afcended in 1154 the Ruflian throne.
That monarch, being infulted in a progrefs through
his diminions b} a i;ch ami powerful nobleman named
Stephen Kutchko, put him to death, and eonfifcaied
his domains, which confi ed of the lands now occu¬
pied by the city of MoLow and the adjacent terri¬
tory. Pleafed with the fnnation of the ground lying
at the conflux of the M< fkva at d Neglina, he laid the
foundation of a new town, which he called Molkva
from the river of that name. Upon the demife of
George, the new town was not negle&ed by his fon
Andrew, who transferred the feat of empire from
Kiof to Vladimir •, but it fell into fuch decay under
his immediate fucceffors, that when Daniel, fon of
Alexander Nevlki, received, in the divifion of the em¬
pire, the duchy of Mufcovy as his portion, and fixed
his refidence upon the conflux of the Molkva and Ne¬
glina, he may be faid to have new founded the town.
The fpot now occupied by the Kremlin was at that
time overlpread with a thick wood and a morafs, in
the midft whereof was a fmall itland containing a fingle
wooden hut. Upon this part Daniel conftrudted
churches and monafteries, and various buildings, and
enclofed it with wooden fortifications : he firlt affumed
the title of duke of Mofcovv; and was fo attached to
this fituation, that when in 1304 he fucceeded his^
brother Andrew Alexandrovich in the great duchy of
Vladimir, he did not remove his court to Vladimir,
but continued his refidence at Mofcow, which then be¬
came the capital of the Ruflian dominions. His fuc-
ceflbrs followed his example ; among whom his fon
Ivan confiderably enlarged the new metropolis, and in
1367 his grandfon Demetrius Ivanovitch Donlki fur-
rounded the Kremlin with a brick wall. Thefe new
fortifications, however, were not ftrong enough to pre¬
vent Tamerlane in 1382, from taking the town after a
Ihort fiege. Being foon evacuated by that defultory
conqueror, it again came into the pofleflion of the
Ruffians but was frequently invaded and occupied
by the Tartars, who in the 14th and 15th centuries
overran the greateft part of Ruffia, and who even
maintained a garrifon in Mofcow until they were finally
expelled by Ivan Vaflilievitch I. To him Mofcow is
indebted for its principal fplendour, and under him it
became the principal and molt confiderable city of the
Ruffian empire.
Mofcow continued the metropolis of Ruffia until the
beginning of the 18th century, when, to the great dif-
fatisfabbion of the nobility, but with great advantage
probably to the ftate, the feat of empire was transferred
to Peterlhurgh.
Notwithftanding the predilection which Peter con¬
ceived for Peterlhurgh, in which all the fucceeding
fovereigns excepting Peter the II. have fixed their re¬
fidence, Mofcow, according to Mr Coxe, is ftill the
molt populous city of the Ruffian empire. Here the
chief nobles who do not belong to the court refide:
they here fupport a large number of retainers •, they
love to gratify their talte for a ruder and more expen-
five magnificence in the ancient ftyle of feudal grandeur 5
and are not, as at Peterlhurgh, eclipfed by the fuperior
iplendour oi the court.
2 K 2 Mofcow
Mofcow
M O S [ 444 ] M O S
P/forcow. Mofcow is rt prefen ted as the largefl toAvn in Eu-
rope j its circumference wiijiin the rampart, which
enclofes the fuburbs, being exaftly 39 verfts or 26
miles -y but it is built in fo draggling and disjointed a
manner, that its population in no degree correfponds
to its extent. Some Ruffian authors ifate its inhabi¬
tants at 500,000 fouls, a number evidently exaggera¬
ted. According to a computation, which Mr Coxe
fay-> m:1' be depended upon, Mofcow contains within
the ramparts 250,000 fouls, and in the adjacent vil¬
lages 50,000. The dreets of Mofcow are in gene¬
ral exceedingly long and broad ; fome of them are
paved ; others, particularly thofe in the fuburbs, are
formed with trunks of trees, or are boarded with
planks like the floor of a room 5 wretched hovels are
blended with large palaces ; cottages of one dory
dand next to the mod fuperb and dately manfions.
Many brick dnndures are covered with wooden tops 5
fome of the wooden houfes are painted } others have
iron doors and roofs. Numerous churches prefent
themfelves in every quarter, built in a peculiar dyle of
archite&ure ; fome with domes of copper, others of
tin, gilt or painted green, and many roofed with wood.
In a word, fome parts of this vad city have the look
of a fequedered defert, other quarters of a populous
town *, fome of a contemptible village, others of a great
capital.
Mofcow may be confidered as a town built upon the
Afiatic model, but gradually becoming more and more
European, and exhibiting in its prefent date a motley
mixture of difcordant archite&ure. It is didributed
into the following divifions. 1. The Kremlin. This
Hands in the central and highed part of the city 5 is of
a triangular form, and about two miles in circumfe¬
rence 5 and is furrounded by high walls of done and
brick 5 which were conflnnded in the year 1491, un¬
der the reign of Ivan Vaffdievitch I. It contains the
ancient palace of the czars, feveral churches, two
convents, the patriarchal palace, the arfenal now in
ruins, and one private houfe, which belonged to Boris
Godunof before he was raifed to the throne. 2. Khi-
taigorod, or the Chinefe town, is enclofed on one fide
by that wall of the Kremlin which runs from the
Mofkva to the Neglina 5 and on the other fide by a
brick wall of inferior height. It is much larger than
the Kremlin, and contains the univerfity, the printing-
houfe and many other public buildings, and all the
tradefmen’s (hops. The edifices are modly duccoed or
white waihed, and it has the only dreet in Mofcow in
•which the houfes dand clofe to one another -without
any intervals between them. 3. The Bielgorod, or
White Town, which runs quite round the two pre¬
ceding divifions, is fuppofed to derive its name from
a white wall with which it was formerly enclofed, and
of which fome remains are dill to be feen. 4. Sem-
lainogorod, which environs all the three other quarters,
takes its denomination from a circular rampart of earth
with which it is encompaffed. Thefe two lad mention¬
ed divifions exhibit a grotefque groupe of churches, con¬
vents, palaces, brick and wooden houfes, and mean ho¬
vels, in no degree fuperior to peafants cottages. 5. The
Sloboda, or fuburbs, form a vad exterior circle round all
the parts already defcribed, and are inveded with a lowr
rampart and ditch. Thefe fuburbs contain, befide build¬
ings of all kinds and denominations, corn fields, much
open pafture, and fome fmall lakes, which give rife to Mofcowj
the Neglina. The river Mojlva, from which the city 'l" “
takes its name, flow's through it in a winding channel ;
but excepting in fpring is only navigable for rafts. It
receives the Yaufa in the Semlainogorod, and the Ner
glina at the weftern extremity oi the Kremlin ; the beds
of both thefe lad-mentioned rivulets are in dimmer lit¬
tle better than dry channels.
The places of divine worfliip at Mofcow are exceed¬
ingly numerous j including chapels, they amount to above
1000 : there are 484 public churches, of which 199 are
of brick j and the others of wood ; the former are com¬
monly duccoed or white-waflied, the latter painted of a
red colour. The mod ancient churches of Mofcow are
generally fquare buildings, with a cupola and four fmall
domes, fome whereof are of copper or iron gilt 5 others
of tin, either plain or painted green. Thefe cupolas
and domes are for the mod part ornamented with crofies
entwined Avith thin chains or wires. The church of the
Holy Trinity, fometimes called the church of Jerufalem,
which Hands in the Khitaigorod, clofe to the gate lead¬
ing into the Kremlin, has a kind of high deeple and
nine or ten domes : it was built in the reign of Ivan Vaf-
filievitch II. The infide of the churches is moflly com-
pofed of three parts j that called by the Greeks oieovetot,
by the Ruffians trapeza} the body } and the fandluary
or flirine. Over the door of each church is the portrait
of the faint to Avhom it is dedicated, to which the com¬
mon people pay their homage as they pafs along, by ta¬
king off their hats, eroding themfelves, and occafionaliy
touching the ground Avith their heads. The bells, Avhich
form no inconfiderable part of public worfliip in this coun¬
try, as the length or fhortnefs of their peals afeertains the
greater or lefler fanftity of the day, are hung in belfrys
detached from the church : they do not fwing like our
bells; but are fixed immoveably to the beams, and are
rung by a rope tied to the clapper and pulled fideAvife.
Some of thefe bells are of a dupendous fize ; one in the
toAver of St Ivan’s church weighs 3551 Ruffian poods,
or 127,836 Englifh pounds. It has ahvays been edeem-
ed a meritorious aft of religion to prefent a church Avith
bells j and the piety of the donor has been meafured by
their magnitude. According to this mode of edimation,
Boris Godunof, Avho gave a bell of 288,000 pounds to
the cathedral of MofcoAV, Avas the mod pious fovereign
of Ruffia, until he was furpaffed by the emprefs Anne,
at whofe expence a bell Avas cad Aveighing 432,000
pounds, and which exceeded in bignefs every bell in the
knoivn world. The height of this enormous bell is 19
feet, its circumference at the bottom 21 yards 11 inches j
its greated thicknefs 23 inches. The beam to Avhich this
vad machine Avas fadened being accidentally burnt, the
bell fell doAvn, and a fragment was broken off towards
the bottom, which left an aperture large enough to ad¬
mit two perfons abread Avithout dooping.
The palace, inhabited by the ancient czars, dands at
the extremity of the Kremlin. Part of this palace is old,
and remains in the fame date in which it Avas built un¬
der Ivan Vaffilievitch I. The remainder has been fuc-
ceffively added at different intervals, without any plan,
and in various dyles of architefture, Avhich has produced
a motley pile of building, remarkable for. nothing but
the incongruity of the feveral drufturcs. The top is
thickly fet with numerous little gilded fpires and globes 5
and a large portion of the front is decorated Avith the arms
M O S [ 445 1 M O 3
Mofcow, 0f all the provinces which compofe the Ruffian empire.
—The apartments are in general exceedingly Imall, ex¬
cepting one fingle room called the council chamber, in
which the ancient czars ufed to give audience to foreign
ambaffadors, and which has been repeatedly deforibed
by feveral Englifh travellers who vifited Mofcow before
the imperial reiidence was transferred to Peterfburgh.
The room is large and vaulted, and has in the centre an
enormous pillar of done which fupports the ceiling. In
this palace Peter the Great came into the world, in the
year 1672. In that part called the treafury are depofited
the crown, jewels, and royal robes, ufed at the corona¬
tion of the fovereign, befides feveral curiohties relative
to the hiltory of the country. Of the great number of
churches contained in this city, two in particular, name¬
ly, that of St Michael and that of the Affumption of the
Virgin Mary, are remarkable •, the one for being the
place where the fovereigns of Ruffia were formerly in¬
terred, and the other where they are crowned. Thefe
edifices, which are fituated in the Kremlin, are both in
the fame Ilyle of architefture ; and their exterior form,
though modelled according to the ancient ftyle of the
country, is not abfolutely inelegant. In the cathedral
of St Michael, which contains the tombs of the Ruffian
fovereigns, the bodies are not, as with us, depofited in
vaults, or beneath the pavement, but are entombed in
raifed fepulchres, moftly of brick, in the ftiape of a
coffin, and about two feet in height. When Mr Coxe
vifited the cathedral, the mod ancient were covered
with palls of red cloth, others of red .velvet, and that of
Peter II. with gold tiffue, bordered with filver fringe
and ermine. Each tomb has at its lower extremity a
fmall filver plate, upon which is engraven the name of
the deceafed fovereign, and the era of his death.
The cathedral of the Affumption of the Virgin Mary,
which has long been appropriated to the coronation of
the Ruffian fovereigns, is the moll fplendid and magni¬
ficent in Mofcow/ The fcreen is in many parts covered
with plates of folid filver and gold richly worked. From
the centre of the roof hangs an enormous chandelier of
malfy filver, weighing 2940 pounds: it was made in
England, and was a prefent from Morofof, prime mini-
11 er and favourite of Alexey Michaelovitch. The facred
utenfils and epifcopal veftments are extraordinarily rich,
but the tafte of the workmanlhip is in general rude, and
by no means equal to the materials. Many of the
paintings which cover the infide walls are of a cololfal
lize : fome are very ancidnt, and were executed fo early
as in the latter end of the 15th century. It contains,
amongft the reft a head of the Virgin, fuppofed to have
been delineated by St Luke, and greatly celebrated in
this country for its fandlity and the power of working
miracles. Its face is almoft black ; its head is orna¬
mented with a glory of precious Hones, and its hands
and body are gilded, which gives it a moll grotefque
appearance. It is placed in the Ikreen, and enclofed
within a large filver covering, which is only taken off
on great fellivals, or for the curiofity of ftrangers. In
this cathedral are depofited the remains of the Ruffian
patriarchs.
The place in the Khitaigorod, where the public ar¬
chives are depofited, is a ftrong brick building, contain¬
ing fevera1 vaulted apartments with iron floors. Thefe
archives, confining of a numerous- colledlion of Hate pa¬
pers, were crowded into boxes and thrown afide like com-
5
mon lumber, until the emprefs Catharine ordered them ( Mofcow. ^
to be revifed and arranged. In conformity to this man- v 1 "J
date, Mr Muller has difpofed them in chronological or¬
der with fuch per fed! regularity, that any fingle docu¬
ment may be infpedted with little trouble. 1 hey are-
enclofed in feparate cabinets with glafs doors : thofe re¬
lative to Ruffia are all clafftd according to the feveral
provinces which they concern *, and over each cabinet is
infcribed the name of the province to which it is appro¬
priated. In the fame manner the manuferipts relative to
foreign kingdoms are placed in feparate divifions under
the refpedtive titles of Poland, Sweden, England,
France, Germany, &c.
The univerfity of Mofcow, all fituated in the Khitai¬
gorod, was founded, at the inftance of Count Shuvalof,
by the emprefs Elizabeth, for 600 ftudents j who are
clothed, boarded, and inftructed, at the expence of
the crown. Befides this inllitution, there are two
gymnafia or feminaries for the education of youth, en¬
dowed alfo by Elizabeth j in which are taught, by
twenty-three profeffors, divinity, claffics, pbilofophy,
the Greek, Latin, Ruffian, German, French, Italian,
and Tartar languages j hiftory, geography, mathema¬
tics, archite&ure, fortification, artillery, algebra, draw¬
ing and painting, mufic, fencing, dancing, reading and
writing.
Mofcow' is the centre of the inland commerce of
Ruffia, and particularly connedls the trade between
Europe and Siberia. The only navigation to this city
is formed by the Molkva, which falling into the Occa
near Columna, communicates by means of that river
with the Volga. But as the Molkva is only navigable
in fpring upon the melting of the fnow’s, the principal
merehandife is conveyed to and from Mofcow upon
fledges in winter. The whole of the retail trade is car¬
ried on in the Khitaigorod j where according to a cus¬
tom common in Ruffia, as well as in moft kingdoms of
the Eaft, all the fhops are colledted together in one fpot.
The place is like a kind of fair, confiding of many rows
of low brick buildings j the intervals between them re-
fembling alleys. Thefe (hops or booths occupy a con-
fiderable fpace j they do not, as with us, make part of
the houfes inhabited by the tradefmen, but are quite de¬
tached from their dwellings, which for the moft part are
at fome diftance in another quarter of the town. The
tradefman comes to his ftiop in the morning,, remains
there all day, and returns home to his family in the af¬
ternoon. Every trade has its feparate department j and
they who fell the fame goods have booths adjoining to
each other. Furs and Ikins form the moft confiderable
article of commerce in Mofcow ; and the ftiops which
vend thofe commodities occupy feveral ftreets.
Amongft the curiofities of Mofcow, the market for
the fale of houfes is not the leaft remarkable. It is
held in a large open fpace in one of the fuburbs j and
exhibits a great variety of ready made houfes, thickly
ftrewed upon the ground. The purchafer who tvants
a dAvelling, repairs to this fpot, mentions the number
of rooms he requires, examines the different timbers,
which are regularly numbered, and bargains for that
which fuits him. The houfe is fometimes paid for
on the fpot, and taken away by the purchafer 5 or
fometimes the vender contrails to tranfport and eredl it
upon the place ivhere it is defigned to ftand. It may
appear incredible to affert, that a dwelling may be thus
bought.
M O S [ 446 ] M O S
Mofcow. bought, removed, raifed and inhabited, u itliin thefpace
v _ of a week ; but we iball conceive it prafticable by con-
fidering that thefe ready-made houfes are in general
merely colleftions of trunks of trees tenoned and mor-
tifed at each extremity into one another, fo that nothing
more is required than the labour of tranfporting and ad-
jufting them. But this fummary mode of building is
not always peculiar to the meaner hovels ; as wooden
ft matures of very large dimenfions and handfome appear¬
ance are occafionally formed in RufTia with an expedi¬
tion almoft inconceivable to the inhabitants of other
countries. A remarkable inftanee of this defpatch was
difplayed the laft time the emprefs came to Mofcow.
Her majefty propofed to refide in the manfion of Prince
Galitzin, which is efteemed the completed edifice in this
city *, but as it was not fufficiently fpacious for her re¬
ception, a temporary addition of wood, larger than the
original houfe, and containing a magnificent fuite of a-
partments, was begun and finifhed within the fpace of fix
weeks. 'Phis meteor-like fabric was fo handfome and
commodious, that the materials which were taken down
at her majefty’s departure, were to be re-conftrufled as a
kind of imperial villa upon an eminence near the city.
Mr Coxe mentions an admirable police in this city for
preventing riots, or for flopping the concourfe of people
in cafe of fires, which are very frequent and violent in
thofe parts, where the houfes are moftly of wood, and
the llreets are laid with timber. At the entrance of
each ftreet there is a chevaux-de-frize gate, one end
whereof turns upon a pivot, and the other rolls upon a
wheel ; near it is a centry box in which a man is occa-
fionally ftationed. In times of riot or fire the centinel
{huts the gate, and all pafiage is immediately flopped.
Among the public inftitutions of Mofcow, the moft
remarkable is the Foundling Hofpital, endowed in 1764
by the emprefs Catharine, and fupported by voluntary
contributions and legacies, and other charitable gifts.
In order to encourage donations, her majefty granted to
all benefaflors fome'valuable privileges, and a certain
degree of rank in proportion to the extent of their libe¬
rality. Among the principal contributors muft be men¬
tioned a private merchant named Dimidof a perfon of
great wealth, who has expended in favour of this chari¬
ty above I00,000l. The hofpital, which is fituated in
a very airy part of the town upon a gentle afeent near
the river Mofkva, is an immenfe pile of building of a
quadrangular fiiape, part of which Avas only finilhed
when Mr Coxe (whofe account we are tranferibing) was
at Mofcow. It contained, at that time, three thoufand
foundlings ; and, when the whole is completed, will re¬
ceive eight thoufand. The children are brought to the
porter’s lodge, and admitted without any recommenda¬
tion., The rooms are lofty and large *, the dormitories,
which are feparate from the work rooms, are very airy,
and the beds are not crowded : each foundling, even
each infant, has a feparate bed The children remain
two year*; in the nurfery, when they are admitted into
the loweft claft; the boys and girls continue together
until they are feven years of age, at which time they are
feparated. They all learn to read, write, and caft ac
counts. The boys are taught to knit; they occafionally
card hemp, flax, and wool, and work in the different
manufa&ures. The girb learn to knit, net, and all
kinds of needle work ; thev fpin and weave lace •, they
are employed in cookery, baking, and houfe work of all
forts. At the age of fourteen the foundlings enter into Mofcow
the firft clafsj -when they have the liberty of choofing
any particular branch of trade •, and for this purpofe ‘
there are different fpecies of manutaclures eftabliftu d
in the hofpital, of which the principal are embroidery,
;filk ftockings, ribbands, lace, gloves, buttons, and cabi¬
net work. A feparate room is appropriated to each trade.
Some boys and girls are inilrufted in the French and
German languages, and a few boys in the Latin tongue •,
others learn nmiic, drawing, and dancing. Mofcow
was taken and plundered by the French in 181 2.
MOSELLE, a river of Germany, which riles in the
mountains of Vofges in Lorraine, and lalls into the
Rhine at Coblentz.
Moselle is alfothe name of a department of France,
which includes part of the late province of Lorrain.
MOSES, the fon of Amram and Jochebed, was
born in the year 1571 before Chrift. Pharaoh king
of Egypt, perceiving that the Hebrews were become
a formidable nation, iffued forth an edidl commanding-
all the male children to be put to death. To avoid
this cruel edift, Jochebed, the mother of Mofes, having-
concealed her fon for three months, at length made an
ark or balket of bulrufhes, daubed it with pitch, laid
the child in it, and expofed him on the banks of the
Nile. Thermuthis the king’s daughter, who happen¬
ed to be walking by the river’s fide, perceived the
floating cradle, commanded it to be brought to her,
and ftruck with the beauty of the child, determined
to preferve his life. In three years afterwards the
princefs adopted him for her own fon, called his name
Mofes, and caufed him be diligently inftrudled in all
the learning of the Egyptians. But his father and.
mother, to whom he was reftored by a fortunate acci¬
dent, were at ftill greater pains to teach him the hi-
ftory and religion of his fathers. Many things are
related by hiftorians concerning the firft period of Mo-
fes’s life, which are not to be found in the Old Fe-
ftament. According to Jofephus and Eufebius, he
made war on the Ethiopians, and completely defeated
them. They add, that the city Saba, in which the
enemy had been forced to take refuge, was betrayed
into his hands by the king’s daughter, who became
deeply enamoured of him, when ftie beheld from the
top of the walls his valorous exploits at the head of
the Egyptian army. But as the truth of this expedi¬
tion is more than doubtful, we {hall therefore confine
ourfelves to the narrative of facred writ, which com¬
mences at the fortieth year of Mofes’s life. He then
left the court of Pharaoh, and went to vifit his coun¬
trymen the Hebrews, who groaned under the ill ufage
and oppreflion of their unfeeling mailers. Having
perceived an Egyptian fmiting a Hebrew, he flew
the Egyptian, and buried him in the fand. But he
was obliged, in confequence of this murder, to fly into
the land of Midian, where he married Zipporah, daugh¬
ter of the prieft Jethro, by whom he had two fons,
Geiftiom and Eliezar. Here he lived 40 years •, dur¬
ing which time Ins employment was to tend the
flocks of his father-in-law. Having one day led his
flock towards Mount Horeb, God appeared to him
in the midft of a bufti which burned with fire but was
not confumed, and ccmmanded him to go and deliver
his brethren fr< rn their bondage. Mofes at firft re-
fufed to go ; but was at length prevailed on by two mi¬
racles
M O S [ 447 ] M O S
Moles, racks which the Almighty wrought for his convic- determined to follow the fame courfe j but God caufed Mofes.
   tion. Upon his return to Egypt, he, together with a violent wind to blow, which brought back the waters
his brother Aaron, went to the court of Pharaoh, and to their bed, and the whole army of Pharaoh perifhed
told him that God commanded him to let the He¬
brews go to offer facrifices in the defert of Arabia.
But the impious monarch difregarded this command,
and caufed the labour of the Ifraelites to be doubled.
The meffengers of the Almighty again returned to
the king, and wrought a miracle in his fight, that they
might move his heart, and induce him to let the people
depart. Aaron having caff down his miraculous rod,
it was immediately converted into a ferpent: but the
fame thing being performed by the magicians, the
king’s heart was hardened more and more j and his
obftinacy at laft drew down the judgments of the Al¬
mighty on his kingdom, which was afflidled with ten
dreadful plagues. The firft was the changing of the
waters of the Nile and of all the rivers into blood, fo
that the Egyptians died of thirft. In confequence of
the fecond plague, the land was covered with innumer¬
able fwarms of frogs, which entered even into Pha¬
raoh’s palace. By the third plague, the duff was con¬
verted into lice, which cruelly tormented both man
and bead. The fourth plague wras a multitude of de-
ftru&ive flies which fpread throughout Egypt, and in-
feiled the whole country. The fifth was a hidden pe-
ftilence, which deftroyed all the cattle of the Egypti¬
ans, without injuring thofe of the Ifraelites. The fixth
produced numberlefs ulcers and fiery boils upon man
and upon beaft. The feventh was a dreadful ftorm of
hail, accompanied with thunder and lightning, which
deftroyed every thing that was in the field, whether
man or beaft, and fpared only the land of Goftien,
where the children of Ifrael dwelt. By the eighth
plague fwarms of locufts were brought into the country,
which devoured every green herb, the fruit of the trees
and the produce of the harveft. By the ninth plague
thick darknefs covered all the land of Egypt, except
the dwellings of the children of Ifrael. The tenth and
laft plague was the death of the firftborn in Egypt,
who were all in one night cut off by the deftroying an¬
gel, from the firftborn of the king to the firftborn of
the flaves and of the cattle. This dreadful calamity
moved the heart of the hardened Pharaoh, and he at
length confented to allow the people of Ifrael to depart
from his kingdom.
Profane authors who have fpoken of Mofes, feem
to have been in part acquainted with thefe mighty
wonders. That he performed miracles, muft have been
allowed by many, by whom he was confidered as a fa¬
mous magician •, and he could fcarcely appear in any
other light to men who did not acknowledge him for
the meffenger of the Almighty. Both Diodorus and
Herodotus mention the diftreffed ftate to which Egypt
was reduced by thefe terrible calamities. The Hebrews,
amounting to the number of 600,000 men, without
reckoning women and children, left Egypt on the 15th
day of the month Nifan, which, in memory of this de¬
liverance, was thenceforth reckoned the firft month of
their year. Scarcely had they reached the (here of the
Red fea when Pharaoh with a powerful army fet out in
purfuit of them. On this occafion Mofes ftretched
forth his rod upon the fea *, and the waters thereof be¬
ing divided, remained fufpended on both fides till the
Hebrews paffed through dry-footed.—The Egyptians
X
in the waves.
After the miraculous paffage of the Red fea, the
army proceeded towards Mount Sinai, and arrived at
Marah, where the waters were bitter j but Mofes, by
cafting a tree into them, rendered them fit for drinking.
Their tenth encampment was at Rephidim, where Mo¬
fes drew water from the rock in Horeb, by fmiting it
with his rod. Here likewife Amalek attacked Ifrael.
While Joffma fought againft the Amalekites, Mofes
flood on the top of a hill, and lifted up his hands 5 in
confequence of which the Ifraelites prevailed, and cut
their enemies in pieces. They at length arrived at the
foot of Mount Sinai on the third day of the ninth
month after their departure from Egypt. Mofes hav¬
ing afeended feveral times into the mount, received the
law from the hand of God himfelf in themidft of thun¬
ders and lightnings, and concluded the famous cove¬
nant betwixt the Lord and the children of Ifrael.
When he defeended from Sinai, he found that the peo¬
ple had fallen into the idolatrous worlhip of the golden
calf. The meffenger of God, fhocked at fuch ingrati¬
tude, broke in pieces the tables of the law which he
carried in his hands, and put 23,000 of the tranlgref-
fors to the fword. He afterwards reafeended into the
mountain, and there obtained new tables of ftone on
which the law was inferibed. When Mofes defeended,
his face Ihone fo that the Iraelites dared not to come
nigh unto him, and he was obliged to cover it with a
veil. The Ifraelites were here employed in conftrudling
the tabernacle according to a pattern fhown them by
God. It was erected and confecrated at the foot of the
Mount Sinai on the firft day of the firft month of the
fecond year after their departure from Egypt; and it
ferved the Ifraelites inftead of a temple till the time of
Solomon, who built a houfe for the God of his fathers
after a model ftiown him by David.
Mofes having dedicated the tabernacle, he confecrat¬
ed Aaron and his fons to be its minifters, and appoint¬
ed the Levites to its fervice. He likewife gave various
commandments concerning the worlhip of God and
the political government of the Jews. This was a
theocracy in the full extent of the word. God him¬
felf governed them immediately by means of his fer-
vant Mofes, whom he had chofen to be the interpret¬
er of his will to the people 5 and he required ail the
honours belonging to their king to be paid unto himfelf.
He dwelt in his tabernacle, which was fituated in the
middle of the camp, like a monarch in his palace. He
gave anfvvers to thofe who conlulted him, and himfelf
denounced punilhments againft the tranfgreffors of his
laws. This properly was the time of the theocracy, taken
in its full extent; for God was not only confidered as
the divinity who was the objeft of their religious
worlhip, but as the fovereign to whom the honours of
lupreme majefty were paid. The cafe was nearly the
fame under Jolhuaj who, being filled with the fpirit
of Mofes, undertook nothing without confulting God.
Every meafure, both of the leader and of the people,
was regulated by the direffion of the Almighty, Avho
rewarded their fidelity and obedience by a feries of
miracles, vibfories, and fucceffes. After Mofes had
regulated every thing regarding the civil adminiftra-
M 0 S [ 4+S ] M O S
Mofes, tion, and the marching of the troops, he led the Ifrael-
Mci'i'-im. j.0 tiie confines 0f Canaan, to the foot of Mount
* Nebo. Here the Lord commanded him to afcend
into the mountain j whence he (howed him the pro-
mifed land, av herein to he was not permitted to enter.
He immediately after yielded up the ghoft, Avithout
ficknefs or pain, in the 120th year of his age, and
I4S1 years before Jefus Chrift.
Mofes is inconteltahly the author of the firft fi\re
books of the Old Teftament, which go by the name
of the Pentateuch ; and Avhieh are acknowledged to be
infpired, by the Jews and by Chriftians of every per-
fuaiion. Some, however, have denied that Mofes Avas
the author of thefe books ; and have founded their opi¬
nion on this, that he always fpeaks of himfelf in the
third perfon. But this manner of Avriting is by no
means peculiar to Mofes: it occurs alfo in feveral ancient
hiflorians •, fuch as Xenophon, Caefar, Jofephus, &.c. Avho
poffelTed of more modefty or good fenfe than fome mo¬
dem hiftorians, Avhofe egotifm is altogether difgufting,
have not like them left to pofterity a fpe£tacle of ridicu¬
lous vanity and felf-conceit. After all, it is proper to ob-
ferve, that profane authors have related many falfehoods
and abfurdities concerning Mofes, and concerning the
origin and the religion of the Jews, Avith tvhich they tvere
but little acquainted. Plutarch, in his book concerning
His and Ofiris, fays that Judaeus and Hierofolymus
were brothers, and defended from Typhon ; and that
the former gave his name to the country and its inha¬
bitants, and the latter to the capital city. Others fay
that they came from Mount Ida in Phrygia. Strabo is
the only author Avho fpeaks any thing like reafon and
truth concerning them ; though he too fays that they
Avere defeended from the Egyptians, and confiders Mo-
fss their legillator as an Egyptian prieft. He acknoAV-
ledges, however, that they Avere a people ftri&ly juft
and. fincerely religious. Other authors by whom they
are mentioned, feem not to have had the fmalleft ac¬
quaintance either Avith their laAA’s or their worlhip.
They frequently confound them Avith the Chriftians, as
is the cafe Avith Juvenal, Tacitus, and Quintilian.
MOSHEIM, John Laurence, an illuftrious Ger¬
man divine, Avas born in 1695, of a noble family, which
might feem to open to his ambition a fair path to civil
promotion 5 but his zeal for the interefts of religion, his
thirft after knowledge, and particularly his tafte for fa-
cred literature, induced him to confecrate his talents to
the fervice of the church. The German univerfities
loaded him Avith literary honours ; the king of Den¬
mark invited him to fettle at Copenhagen •, the duke of
Brunfwick called him thence to Helmftadt, Avhere he
filled the academical chair of divinity j Avas honoured
Avith the chara6ter of ecclefiaftical counfellor to the
court ; and prefided over the feminaries of learning in
the duchy of Wolfenbuttle and the principality of
Blackenburgh. When a defign Avas formed of giving
an uncommon degree of luftre to the univerfities of Got¬
tingen,, by filling it Avith men of the firft rank in let¬
ters, Dr Mofheim Avas deemed worthy lo appear at the
head of it, in quality of chancellor ; and here he died,
in 17 5, uni\rerfally-lamented. In depth of judgment,
in extent of learning, in purity of tafte, in the porvers
of eloquence, and in a laborious application to all the
A'arknw.branches of ecucUtion and philofophy, he had
certainly very few fuperjors. His Latin tranilation of
CudAvorth’s Intellectual Syftem, enriched with large Mofneim
annotations, difeovered a profound acquaintance Avith II
ancient learning and philofophy. His illuitrations of, Ai0<c[ue>
the Scriptures, his labours in defence of Chriftianity,
and the light he calt upon religion and philofophy, ap¬
pear in many volumes of facred and profane literature ;
and the Eeclefiaftical Hiftory, from the birth of Chrift
to the begianing-of the iftth century, is unqueftionably
the beft that is extant. This Avork, Avritten in Latin,
has been tranflated into Englifti, and accompanied Avith
notes and chronological tables by Archibald Mac¬
laine, D. D. and from this tranfiator’s preface to the
fecond edition, 1758, in 5 vols 8vo, this fhort account
is taken.
MOSKITO, or Mosquito country, is fituated in
North America, between 85 and 88 degrees of Aveft
longitude, and between 13 and 15 degrees of north la¬
titude j having the north fea on the north and eaft,
Nicaragua on the fouth, and Honduras on the Aveft j
and indeed the Spaniards efteem it a part of the princi¬
pality of Honduras, though they have no colonies in
the Molkito country. When the Spaniards firft invad¬
ed this part of Mexico, they malfacred the greateft part
of the natives, which gave thofe that efcaped into the
inacceflible part of the country an infuperable averfion
to them ; and they have always appeared ready to join
any Europeans that come upon their coafts againft the
Spaniards, and particularly the Englifti, Avho fre¬
quently come hither j and the Molkito men being ex¬
cellent markfmen, the Englilh employ them in ftriking
the manati filh, &c. and many of the Molkito In¬
dians come to Jamaica, and fail Avith the Englilh in
their voyages.
Thefe people are fo fituated betAveen moraffes and
inacceftible mountains, and a coaft full of rocks and
fhoals, that no attempts againft them by the Spa¬
niards, Avhom they mortally hate, could ever fucceed.
Neverthelefs, they are a mild inoffenfive people, of
great morality and virtue, and Avill never trull a man
Avho has once deceived them. They have fo great a
veneration toAvards the Englilh, that they have fpon-
taneoufly put themfelves and their lands under the
protedlion and dominion of the croAvn of England.
This was firft done Avhen the duke of Albermarle Avas
governor of Jamaica, and the king of the Molkitos re¬
ceived a commiftion from his grace, under the feal of
that illand •, and fince this time they have been fteady
in their alliance Avith the Englilh. But in the year
1786, this country was ceded to Spain, and confequent-
ly became a Spanilh province.
MOSQUE, a temple or place of religious Avorlhip
among the Mahometans.
All mofques are fquare buildings, generally conftruc-
ted of ftone. Before the chief gate there is a fquare
court paved Avith white marble } and Ioav galleries
round it, Avhofe roof is fupported by marble pillars.
In thefe galleries the Turks Avalh themfelves before
they go into the mofque. In each mofque there is a
great number of lamps ; and betAveen thefe hang many
cryftal rings, oftriches eggs, and other curiofities, which,
when the lamps are lighted, make a fine Ihow. As it
is not lawful to enter the mofque Avith ftockings or Ihoes
on, the pavements are covered AA’ith pieces of fluff few-
ed together, each being Avide enough to hold a row of
men kneeling, fitting, or proftrate. The women are
not
Mofque,
Mots
M O S [ 449 1
not allowed to enter the mofque, but ftay in the porches fture as when growing
M O S
without. About every tnolque there are fix high
towers, called minarets, each of which has three little
open galleries, one above another : thefe towers, as well
as the tnofques, are covered with lead, and adorned
with gilding and other ornaments j and from thence,
jnftead of a bell, the people are called to prayers by
    o o Many of thofe trees are bro¬
ken or cut off near the roots, and lie along, and this
ufually in a north ealt direftion'. People who have
been willing to account for this, have ufually refolved
it into the effeft of the deluge in the days of Noah ;
but this is a very wild conjecture, and is proved falfe
by many unanfwerable arguments. The waters of this
Mofs.
initeaci oi a me i j ^ ^ ® . .
certain officers appointed for that purpofe. Molt of the deluge might indeed have walhed together a great
mofques have a kind of hofpital belonging to them, in number of trees, and buried them under loads of
which travellers of what religion foever, are entertained
three days. Each mofque has alfo a place called tarbe,
which is the burying-place of its founders j within which
tomb fix or feven feet long, covered with green
is a
velvet or fatin •, at the ends of which are two tapers,
and round it feveral feats for thofe who read the Koran
and pray for the fouls of the deceafed.
MOSS, or Mosses. See Musci, Botany Index.
MOSS on Trees, in gardening. The growth of large
quantities of tnofs on any kind of tree is a di^ temper of
very bad confequence to its increafe, and muen damages
the fruit of the trees of our orchards.
The prefent remedy is the feraping it off from the
body and large branches by means of a kind of wrood-
en knife that will not hurt the bark, or with a piece
of rough hair cloth, which does very well after a foak-
ino- ram. But the moil effeClual cure is the taking
away the caufe. This is to be done by draining off
all the fuperfluous moiflure from about the roots of
the trees, and may be greatly guarded againft in the
fir If planting of the trees, by not fetting them too
If trees (land too thick in a cold ground, they will
always be covered with mofs \ and the bed way to
remedy the fault is to thin them. When the young
branches of trees are covered with a long^ and fhaggy
mofs, it will utterly ruin them j and there is n i way to
prevent it but to cut off the branches near the trunk,
and even to take off the head of the tree if neceffary j
for it will fprout again ; and if the caufe be in the
mean time removed by thinning the plantation, or drain¬
ing the land and ftirring the ground well, the young
fhoots will continue clear after this.
If the trees be covered with mofs in confequence
of the ground’s being too dry, as this will happen from
either extreme in the foil, then the proper remedy is
the laying mud from the bottom of a pond or river
pretty thick about the root, opening the ground to
feme diftance and depth to let it in ; this will not only
cool it, and prevent its giving growth to any great
quantity of mofs, but it will alfo prevent the other
great mifehief w'hich fruit-trees are liable to in dry
grounds, which is the falling off of the fruit too
early.
The moffes which cover the trunks of trees, as they
always are frefheft and moft vigorous on the fide which
points to the north, if only produced on that, ferve to
preferve the trunk of the tree from the feverity of the
north winds, and dire£I the traveller in his way, by al¬
ways plainly pointing out that part of the compafs.
Moss is alfo a name, given to boggy ground in many
parts of England, other wife called 'd jen and bog.
In many of thefe grounds, as w*ell in England and
Ireland as in other parts of the world, there are found
vaft number of trees Handing with their flumps ere6t,
grid their roots piercing the ground in a natural po-
^ VOL. XIV. Part II.
   7          
earth •, but then they would have lain irregularly and
at random j whereas they all lie lengthwdfe from fouth-
weff to north-eail, and the roots all Hand in their na¬
tural perpendicular poflure, as clofe as the roots of trees
in a foreft.
Befides, thefe trees are not all in their natural Hate,
but many of them have the evident marks of human
workmanfhip upon them, fome being cut down with an
axe, fome fplit, and the wedges ftill remaining in them ;
fome burnt in different parts, and fome bored through
with holes. Thefe things are alfo proved to be of a
later date than the deluge, by other matters found among
them, fuch as utenfils of ancient people, and coins of
the Roman emperors.
It appears from the whole, that all the trees which
we find in this foflile flate, originally grew in the very
places where we now find them, and have only been
thrown down and buried there, not brought from elfe-
where. It may appear indeed an objeftion to this opi¬
nion, that moft of thefe foflile trees are of the fir kind 5
and that Caefar fays exprefsly, that no firs grew in Bri¬
tain in his time ; but this is eafily anfwered, by obfer-
ving, that thefe trees, though of the fir kind, yet are
not the fpecies ufually called the Jir, but pitch-tree j
and Caefar has no where faid that pitch-trees did not
grow in England. Norway and Sweden yet abound
with thefe trees ; and there are at this time whole fo~
refts of them in many parts of Scotland, and a large
number of them wild upon a hill at Wareton in Staf-
fordfhire to this day.
In Hatfield marfh, where fuch vaft numbers of the
foflile trees are now found, there has evidently once
been a whole foreft of them growing. The laft of
thefe was found alive, and growing in that place
within 70 years laft paft, and cut down for fome com¬
mon ufe.
It is alfo objected by fome to the fyftem of the firs
growing w'here they are found foflile, that thefe coun¬
tries are all bogs and moors, whereas thefe forts of
trees grow only in mountainous places. But this is
founded on an error j for though ih Norway and Swe¬
den, and fome other cold countries, the fir kinds all
grow upon barren and dry rocky mountains, yet in
-warmer places they are found to thrive as well on wet
plains. Such are found plentifully in Pomerania, Li¬
vonia, and Courland, &c. and in the weft parts of New
England there are vaft numbers of fine ftately trees of
them in low grounds. The whole truth feems to be,
that thefe trees love a fandy foil; and fuch as is found
at the bottoms of all the mofles where thefe trees are
found foflile. The roots of the fir kind are always
found fixed in thefe ; and thofe of oaks, where they
are found foflile in this manner, are ufually found fixed
in clay j fo that each kind of tree is always found root¬
ed in the places where they Hand in their proper foil 5
and there is no doubt to be made but that they ori-
3 L ginally
M O S [ 450 ] M O S
Mow, gmally grew there. When we have thus found that
”~w" all the K>llile trees we meet with once grew in the places
where they are now buried, it is plain that in thefe
places there were once noble foreils, which have been
deftroyed at fome time ; and the queftion only remains
how and by whom they were deftroyed. This we have
reafon to believe, by the Homan coins found among
them, was done by the people of that empire, and that
at the time when they were eltablilhed or eftablilhing
themfelves here.
Their own -hiftorian tells us, that when their armies
purfued the wild Britons, thefe people always Ihelter-
ed themfelves in the miry woods and low watery fo-
refts. Csefar exprefsly fays this •, and obferves, that
Caftibelanus and his Britons, after their defeat, palled
the Thames, and lied into fuch low moraffes and
woods, that there was no purfuing them : and we find
that the Silures fecured themfelves in the fame man¬
ner when attacked by Oftorius and Agricola. The
fame thing is recorded of Venutius king of the Bri-
gantes, who Hed to fecure himfelf into the boggy fo-
refts of the midland part of this kingdom : and Hero-
dian exprefsly fays, that in the time of the Romans
pulhing there conquells in thefe illands, it was the cu-
llom of the Britons to fecure themfelves in the thick
forefts which grew in their boggy and wet places, and
when opportunity offered, to ilfue out thence and fall
upon the Romans. The confequence of all this was
the deftroying all thefe forefts ; the Romans finding
themfelves fo plagued with parties of the natives ilfuing
out upon them at times from thefe forefts, that they
gave orders for the cutting down and deftroying all
the forefts in Britain which grew on boggy and wet
grounds. Thefe orders were punctually executed 5
and to this it is owing that at this day we can hardly
be brought to believe that fuch forefts ever grew with
us as are now found buried.
The Roman hiftorians all agree, that when Sue¬
tonius Paulinus conquered Anglefea, he ordered all
the woods to be cut down there, in the manner of
the Roman generals in England : and Galen tells us,
that the Romans, after their conqueft in Britain, kept
their foldiers conftantly employed in cutting down fo¬
refts, draining of marfhes, and paving of bogs. Not
only the Roman foldiers were employed in this man¬
ner, but all the native Britons made captives in the
wars were obliged to aftift in it : and Dion Caftius tells
Us, that the emperor Severus loft no lefs than 50,000
men in a few years time in cutting down the woods and
draining the bogs of this illand. It is not to be won¬
dered at, that fuch numbers executed the immenfe de-
ftruftion which we find in thefe buried forefts. One of
the greateft fubterranean treafures of wood is that near
Hatfield ; and it is eafy to prove, that thefe people, to
whom this havock is thus attributed, were upon the
fpot where thefe trees now lie buried The common
road of the Romans out of the fouth into the north,
was formerly from Lindum (Lincoln), to Segelochum
(Little Burrow upon Trent), and from thence to
Danum (Doncafter), where they kept a Handing gar-
rifon of Crifpinian horfe. A little off on the eaft, and
north-eaft of their road, between the two laft-named
towns, lay the borders of the greateft foreft, which
fwarmed Avith Avild Britons, Avho Avere continually mak¬
ing their follies out, and their retreats into it again, in¬
tercepting their provifions, taking and deftroying their
carriages, killing their allies and paffengers, and dif-
turbing their garrifons. This at length fo exafperated
the Romans, that they Avere determined to deftroy it j
and to do this fafely and effectually, they marched
againft it Avith a great army, and encamped on a great
moor not far from Finningly : this is evident from their
fortifications yet remaining.
There is a fmall town in the neighbourhood called
OJlerJield; and as the termination field feems to have
been given only in remembrance of battles fought near
the toAvns whole names ended Avith it, it is not impro¬
bable that a battle Avas fought here betAveen all the Bri¬
tons who inhabited this foreft and the Roman troops
under Oftorius. The Romans flew many of the Bri¬
tons, and drove the reft back into this foreft, Avhich at
that time overfpread all this Ioav country. On this the
conquerors taking advantage of a ftrong fouth-Avel!
Avind, fet fire to the pitch-trees, of Avhich this foreil
was principally compofed ; and Avhen the greater part
of the trees Avere thus deftroyed, the Roman foldisrs
and captive Britons cut doAvn the remainder, except a
feAV large ones Avhich they left Handing as remembran¬
ces of the deftruftion of the reft. Thefe Angle trees,
hoAvever, could not Hand long againft the Avinds, and
thefe falling into the rivers which run through the coun¬
try, interrupted their currents; and the Avater then,
overfpreading the level country, made one great lake,
and gave origin to the mofl'es or moory bogs, which
Avere aftenvards formed there, by the AVorkings of the
waters, the precipitation of earthy matter from them,
and the putrefadlion of rotten boughs and branches of
trees, and the vaft increafe of water-mofs and other
fuch plants Avhieh groAv in prodigious abundance in all
thefe forts of places. Thus Avere thefe burnt and felled
trees buried under a new-formed fpongy and watery
earth, and afterAvards found on the draining and dig¬
ging through this earth again.
Hence it is not ftrange that Roman Aveapons and
Roman coins are found among thefe buried trees j and
hence it is that among the buried trees fome are found
burnt, fome chopped and heAvn j and hence it is that
the bodies of the trees all lie by their proper roots, and
Avith their tops lying north-eaft, that is, in that di-
reftion in Avhich a fouth-weft Avind Avould have blown
them doAvn : hence alfo it is, that fome of the trees
are found with their roots lying flat, thefe being not
cut or burned doAvn, but bloAvn up by the roots after¬
Avards Avhen left Angle $ and it is not Avonderful, that
fuch trees as thefe (hould have continued to groAv even
after their fall, and flioot up branches from their fides
which might eafily groAv into high trees. Phil. Tranf.
N° 275->
By this fyftem it is alfo eafily explained Avhy the
moor foil in the country is in fome places tAvo or three
yards thicker than in others, or higher than it was for¬
merly, fince the growing up of peat-earth or bog-
ground is Avell knoAvn, and the foil added by overflow¬
ing of Avaters is not a little.
As the Romans Avere the deftroyers of this great
and noble foreft, fo they Avere probably alfo of the fe-
veral other ancient forefts j the ruins of Avhich fur-
nilh us Avith the bog-Avood of Staffordlhire, Lanca-
fliire, Yorkfhire, and other counties. But as the Ro¬
mans were not much in Wales, in the Me of Man, or
in
M O S [45
in Ireland, it is not t© be fuppofed that fore ft s cut down
hy thefe people gave origin to the foffile wood found
there j but though they did not cut down thefe fo-
refts, others did j and the origin of the bog-wood is
<the fame with them and with us. Holingfhed informs
us, that Edward I. being not able to get at the Welth
becaufe of their hiding themfelves in boggy woods,
gave orders at length that they fhould all be deftroyed
by fire and by the axe *, and doubtlefs the roots and bo¬
dies of trees found in Pembrokeihire under ground, are
the remains of the execution of this order. 1 he foffile
wood in the bogs of the ifiand ol IVfan is doubtlefs ot
the fame origin, though we have not any accounts ex¬
tant of the time or occafion of the forefts there being
deftroyed •, but as to the foffile trees of the bogs of Ire¬
land, we are exprefsly told, that Henry II. when he
conquered that country, ordered all the woods to be
cut down that grew in the low parts of it, to fecure his
conquefts, by cutting away the places of refort of re¬
bels. For a fuller detail of the natural hiftory of mof-
fes, fee Effays on this fubject by the Rev. Mr Rennie
of Kilfyth.
MoviNG-MOSS. We have an account in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfaftions of a moving mofs near Church-
town in Lancathire, which greatly alarmed the neigh¬
bourhood as miraculous. The mofs was obferved to
rife to a furprifing height, and foon after funk as
much below the level, and moved flowly towards the
fouth.
A very furprifing inftance of a moving mofs is that
of Solway in Scotland, which happened in the year
1771, after fevere rains which had produced terrible
inundations of the rivers in many places. For the
better underftanding of this event, we (hall give the
following defcription of the fpot of ground where it
happened. Along the fide of the river Elk there is a
vale, about a mile broad, lefs or more in different
places. It is bounded on the fouth-eaft by the river
Elk, and on the north-weft by a fteep bank 30 feet
in height above the level of the vale. From the top
of the bank the ground rifes in an eafy afcent for
about a quarter of a mile, where it is terminated by tire
mofs j which extends about two miles north and fouth,
and about a mile and a half eaft and weft, and is
bounded on the north-weft by the river Sark. It is
probable that the folid ground from the top of the
bank above the vale was continued in the fame direc¬
tion under the mofs, before its eruption, for a confider-
able fpace *, for the mofs at the place where the erup-
tkm happened, was inclined towards the Hoping
ground. From the edge of the mofs there was a
gully or hollow, called by the country people the gap,
and faid to be 30 yards deep where it entered the vale *,
down which ran a fmall rill of water, which was often
dry in fummer, having no fupply but what filtered from
the mofs. The eruption happened at the head of this
gap, on Saturday November 16. 1771, about ten or
eleven at night, when all the neighbouring rivers and
brooks were prodigioufly fwelled by the rains. A large
body of the mofs was forced, partly by the great fall of
rain, and partly by fome fprings below it, into a fmall
beck or burn, which runs within a few yards of its bor¬
der to the fouth-eaft. By the united preffure of the wa¬
ter behind it, and of this beck, which was then very
high, it was carried down a narrow glen between two
[ ] MOT
banks about 300 feet high, into a wide and fpacious
plain, over part of which it Ipread with great rapidity. jyrotlon>
The mofs continued for fome time to fend off confider-
able quantities j which, being borne along by the tor¬
rent on the back of the firft great body, kept it for
many hours in perpetual motion, and drove it ilill far¬
ther on. This night at leaft 400 acres of fine arable-
land were covered with mois from 3 to 12 or 15 feet
deep. Several houfes tvere deftroyed, a good deal oi
corn loft, See, but all tire inhabitants efcaped. When
the waters iubfided, the mofs alio ceafed to flow •, but
two pretty confiderable ftreams continued to run from
tire heart of it, and carried off tome pieces of mofiy
matter to the place where it burft. There they joined
the beck already mentioned *, which, with this addition,
refumed its former channel •, and, with a little affiftance
from the people of the neighbourhood, made its way
to the Elk, through the midft of that great body of
mofs which obftrufted its courfe. T hus, in a great
meafure drained, the new mofs fell feveral feet, when
the fair weather came in the end of November, and
fettled in a firmer and more folid body on the lands it
had overrun. By this inundation about 800 acres of
arable ground were overflowed before the mofs flopped,
and the habitations of 27 families deftroyed. Tradition
has preferved the memory of a limilar inundation in
Monteith In Scotland. A mofs there altered its courfe
in one night, and covered a great extent of ground.
Moss Troopers, a rebellious fort of people in the
north of England, who lived by robbei'y and rapine,
not unlike the tories in Ireland, the bucaniers in Ja¬
maica, or banditti of Italy. The counties of Northum¬
berland and Cumberland were formerly charged with
a yearly fum, and a command of men, to be appointed
by juftices of the peace, to apprehend and fupprefs
them.
MOSTRA, in the Italian mufic, a mark at the end
of a line or fpace, to flrew that the firft note of the next
line is in that place : and if this note be accompanied
with a ftiarp or flat, it is proper to place thefe charac¬
ters along with the moftra.
MOSUL, or Mousul. See Mousul.
MOTACILLA, the Wagtail and Warbler 5
a genus of birds of the order of pafferes. See Orni¬
thology Index.
MOTE, in law books, fignifies court or convention j
as wrard mote, burgh mote, {wain mote, &c.
Mote was alfo ufed for a fortrefs or caftle j as mot a
de IVmdfor, &c.
Mote alfo denoted a {landing water to keep fiffi in •,
and fometimes a large ditch encompaffing a caftle or
dwelling houfe.
MOTE-Bel/, or Mot-Bell, the bell fo called, which
was ufed by the Englifh Saxons to call people together
to the court. See FoLKMOTE.
MOTH. See Phal^ena, Entomology Index.
MOTHER, a term of relation, denoting a woman
who hath born a child.
MOTHER-of-Fearl. See lyiYTILUS, CONCHOLOGY
Index. *
MOTION is now generally confidered as incapable Motions
of definition, being a limply idea or notion received by
the fenfes. The ancients, however, thought different¬
ly. Some of them defined it to be a paffage out of
one Jiate into another > which conveys no idea to him
3 L 2 wh*
Motion.
Several de¬
finitions of.
* See An
EJfay on the
Powers
and Me-
chanifn of
Nature, by
llobert
Young.
f S ee Dr
Reid’s ac¬
count of
Ariftotle’s
logic, in
Lord
Karnes’s
Sketches
of Alan.
Shown not
to declare
what the
thing is;
and there¬
fore to be
no defini¬
tion.
MOT [ 45
who is ignorant of the nature of motion.—The Peripa¬
tetic definition has been mentioned elfewhere and fhown
to be wholly unintelligible, as well as their celebrated
divifion ol motion into four clafles, belonging to the
three categories, quality, quantity, and where; (fee
Metaphysics, N° j88, 189, 190.). The Cartefi-
ans, too, among the moderns, pretend to define mo¬
tion, by calling it a paffage or removal of one part of
matter, out of the neighbourhood of thofe parts to
which it is immediately contiguous, into the neighbour¬
hood of others. Borelli defines motion to be the fuc-
ceflive palfage of a body from place to place. Others
fay that it is the application of a body to different parts
of infinite and immoveable fpace 5 and a late writer* of
uncommon acutenefs has given as a definition of mo¬
tion—change of place.
We have elfewhere offered our opinion of every pof-
fible.attempt to define motion: but as the author of
the laft quoted definition has endeavoured to obviate
fuch objections as ours, candour requires that he be
heard for himfelf. “it is laid (he obferves) by fome,
that change implies motion, and therefore cannot be a
part of its definition, being the very thing defined. To
this 1 anfvver, We are fpeaking of the ienlible idea of
motion, as it appears to our fight j now changes do ap¬
pear to our view, and to all our fenfes, which give us
no idea of motion. (Changes in heat or cold ; in co¬
lour, flavour, fmell, found, hardnefs, foftnefs, pain,
pwafure j in thefe, and many other ideas, changes do
not produce ideas like that produced by a ball rolling
or a Itone falling. We may perhaps ultimately trace
them to motion, but to inlenfible motions j to motions
which arife only in reflexion, and conftitute no part
of the aftual idea of change. We can therefore con¬
ceive of change, without conceiving at the fame time of
motion.—Change is a generic idea, including many
fpecies ; motion, as a fenfible idea, is a fpecies of that
genus. Change is therefore a neceffary part of the de¬
finition of motion j it marks the genus of the thing de¬
fined. Motion is a change ; but as there are many
fpecies of change, which of thofe fpecies is motion ?
The anfwer is, It is a change of place. This marks
the fpecies •, and diftinguilhes it from change of colour,
of temperament and figure.”
This is the ableft defence of an attempt to define mo¬
tion that we have ever feen *, and at firft vieAV the defi¬
nition itfelf appears to be perfect. Ariftotle, the prince
of definers, “ confiders a definitionf as a fpeech declar¬
ing what a thing is. Every thing effential to the thing
defined, and nothing more, muff be contained in the
definition. Now the effence of a thing confifts of
thefe two parts : firft, what is common to it with other
things of the fame kind j and fecondly, what tliflin-
guifhes it from other things of the fame kind. The
firft is called the genus of the thing j the fecond, its
Specific difference. The definition, therefore, confifts of
thefe two parts.”
In obedience to this rule, the definition under con-
fideration feems to confift of the genus, fignified by the
word change; and of thz fpecific difference, denoted by
the words ofplace. But does the fpeech change of place
really declare what motion is ? We cannot admit that
it does j as, in our apprehenfion, a change of place is
the effetl of motion, and not motion itfelf. Suppofe a
lover of diale&ic undertaking to define the ftroke by
]
M O T
which lie faw his neighbour wounded with a bludgeon-, Motion,
what fliould we think of his art were he to call’ it a “J
contufion on the head ? He might fay that contufion is
a general term, as contufions may be produced on the
arms, on the legs, and on various parts of the body j
and as there are many fpecies of contufion, if he were
a iked which of thofe fpecies was the ftroke to be de¬
fined, he might anfwer, “ a contufion on the head.”
Here would be apparently the genus and fpecific differ¬
ence ; the former denoted by contufion, and the latter
by the words on the head. But rvould this be a defini¬
tion of a ftroke ? No, furely : a contufion on the head,
may be the effeEl of a ftroke ; but it can no more be
\\\g ftroke itfef than a blow can be a bludgeon, or a
flelh wound the point of a fword. Equally evident it
is, that a change of place cannot be motion j be-
caufe every body mult have been actually moved be¬
fore we can difeern, or even conceive, a change of its
place.
The aB of changing the place would perhaps, come
nearer to a definition of motion ; but fo far would it be
from “ a fpeech declaring what motion is,” that we are
confident a man who had never by any of his fenfes
perceived a body in aftual motion, would acquire no
ideas whatever from the words “ a<ft of changing
place.” He might have experienced changes in heat,
cold, fmell, and found j but he could not poflibly com¬
bine the ideas of fuch changes with the fignification of
the word place, wrere he even capable of underftanding
that rvord, which to us appears to be more than doubt¬
ful. (See Metaphysics, N° 40, 41.).
The diftin&ions of motion into different kinds have Tke diftinc-
been no lefs various, and no lefs infignificant, than the tions of mo-
feveral definitions of it. The moderns who reje£t thetIon *nt0
Peripatetic divifion of motion into four claffes, yet con-?1.ff1rc.nt,
fider it themfelves as either ahfolute or relative. Thus nitkajm
we are told, that “ abfolute motion is the change of ab-
folute place, and that its celerity muft be meafured by
the quantity of abfolute fpace w hich the moving body
runs through in a given time.” “ Relative motion, on
the other hand, is a mutation of the relative or vulgar
place of the moving body, and has its celerity eftimated
by the quantity of relative fpace run through.”
Now it is obvious, that this diftin&ion conveys no
ideas without a farther explanation of the terms by
which it is expreffed 5 but that explanation is impoffi-
ble to be given. Thus, before we can underftand what
abfolute motion is, we muft underftand what is meant by
abfolute place. But abfolute place is a contradi&ion j
for all place is relative, and confifts in the pofitions of
different bodies with regard to one another. Were a
globe in the regions of empty fpace to be put in mo¬
tion by Almighty Power, and all the reft of the corpo¬
real world to be foon afterwards annihilated, the mo¬
tion would undoubtedly continue unchanged ; and yet,
according to this diftimftion, it would be at firft rela¬
tive, and afterwards abfolute. That the beginning of
fuch a motion would be perceptible, and the remainder
of it imperceptible,^ is readily granted j but on this ac-Tj,e
count to confider it as of tw-o kinds, is as abfurd as tonions°of"
fuppofe the motion of the minute hand of a clock to be the Carte-
affedled by our looking at it. Cans and of'
Leaving therefore thefe unintelligible diftinftions, N.fw^)n
we now' come to confider a queftion ftill of a very ab- thtffource
ftrufe nature, but much agitated among philofophers, of motion, •
viz.
Mo'ion.
MOT [ 453 ]
viz. What is the.original fourcc of motion in the crea- make,
tion : Is it natural to matter ? or are we to afcribe it
to the immediate and continual agency of fome imma¬
terial being ? The former has been ftrenuouily argued
by the Cartefians, and the latter by the Newtonians.
The arguments of the former, founded upon the chime¬
rical hypothefis of vortices and the original conftruc-
tion of matter, were evidently inconclufive } and the
hypothefis of Sir Ifaac Newton, who aflerted that it
was naturally incapable of motion, appeared more pro-
bable. To account for the quantity of motion in the
univerfe, therefore, it became neceffary to have recourfe
either to the Deity, or to fome fubordinate fpiritual
agent 5 and this became the more neceffary, as the doc¬
trine of an abfolute vacuum in the celeftial fpaces, that
is, throughout the incomparably greateil part of the
creation, was one of the fundamental maxims of the
fyftem. As it was abfolutely denied that matter exift-
ed in thefe fpaces, and it wras plain that the celeftial
bodies affe£ted one another at immenfe diftances, the
powers of attraction and repulfion were naturally called
in as the fources of motion by their impulfe upon inert
and fluggilh matter. Thefe being admitted, a fpecu-
lation enfued concerning their nature. Spiritual, it
was confeffed, they were j but whether they were, to
be accounted the immediate action of the divine Spirit
himfelf, or that of fome fubordinate and inferior ipirit,
was a matter of no little difpute. Sir Ifaac Newton,
towards the latter part of his life, began to relax fome-
what of the rigidity of his former dodlrine } and allow¬
ed that a very fubtile medium, which he called cether,
might be the caufe of attra&ion and repulfion, and
thus of the whole phenomena of nature. Since his
time the multitude of difeoveries in eledlrieity, the fi-
milarity of that fluid to fire and light, with the vaft
influence it has on every part of the creation with
which we are acquainted, have rendered it very pro¬
bable that the aether mentioned by Sir Ifaac is no other
than the element of fire, “ the moft fubtile f and ela-
ftic of all bodies, which feems to pervade and expand
itfelf throughout the whole univerfe. Eledftrical ex¬
periments (how that this mighty agent is everywhere
prefent, ready to break forth into a&ion, if not re-
ftrained and governed with the greateft wifdom. Be¬
ing always reftlefs and in motion, it actuates and en¬
livens the whole vifible mafs j is equally fitted to pro¬
duce and to deftroy •, diftinguilhes the various ftages
of nature, and keeps up the perpetual round of gene¬
rations and corruptions, pregnant with forms which
it conftantly fends forth and reforbs. So quick in its
motions, fo fubtle and penetrating in its nature, fo ex-
tenfive in its effe&s, it feemeth no other than the vege¬
tative foul or vital fpirit of the -world.
“ The animal fpirit in man is the inftrument both
nions of .the 0£ £enpe an(j motion. To fuppofe fenfe in the corpo-
thbfubieft. rea^ wor^ would be grofs and unwarranted j but loco¬
motive faculties are evident in all its parts. The Py¬
thagoreans, Platonifts, and Stoics, held the world to
be an animal \ though fome of them have chofen to
confider it as a vegetable. However, the phenomena
do plainly thow, that there is a fpirit that moves, and
a mind or providence that prefides. This providence,
Plutarch faith, was thought to be in regard to the
Avorld what the foul is in regard to man. The order
and courfe of things, and the experiments we daily
MOT
thow that there is a mind which governs and
Motion,
6
A fubtTe
sether the
probable
caufe of
attra&ion
and repul-
fion.
f Sins,
No 153,
See.
7.
The opi
attuates this mundane fyftem as the proper and real
agent and caufe ; and that the inferior inftrumental
caufe is pure aether, fire, or the fubftance of light,
which is applied and determined by an infinite mind
in the macrocofm or univerfe, with unlimited power,
and according to ftated rules, as it is in the microcofm
with limited power and fkill by the human mind. We
have no proof either from experiment or reafon of any
other agent or efficient caufe than the mind or fpirit.
When, therefore, we fpeak of corporeal agents, or cor¬
poreal caufes, this is to be underftood in a different,
fubordinate, and improper fenfe *, and fuch an agent
we know light or elementary fire to be.” 8
That this elementary fire, abforbed and fixed inallExperi-
bodies, may be the caufe of the univerfal principle of
gravity, is made fufficiently evident by numberlefs ex- g,.
periments. Homberg having calcined in the focus ofthermay
a burning glafs fome regulus of antimony, found that be the un¬
it had gained one-tenth in weight, though the regu-
lus, during the whole time of the operation, fent upp]anetary
a thick fmoke, and thereby loft a confiderable part of motions/
its owTn fubftance. It is vain to allege that any he- &.c.
terogeneous matter floating in the air, or that the air
itfelf, may have been hurried into the mafs by the ac¬
tion of the fire, and that by this additional matter the
weight was increafed ; for it is known experimentally,
that if a quantity of metal be even hermetically fecur-
ed within a veffel of glafs to keep off the air and all
foreign matter, and the veffel be placed for fome time
in a ftrong fire, it will exhibit the fame effeift. “ I have
feen the operation performed (fays Mr Jones-f-) on two
ounces of pewter filings, hermetically fealed up in a
Florence flalk, which in tw’o hours gained 55 0f Natural
that is nearly one 17th. Had it remained longer m Philojopby.
the fire, it might probably have gained fomething
more \ as, in one of Mr Boyle’s experiments, fteel filings
were found to have gained a fourth.
“ Of accounting for thefe effects there are but two
poflible ways : 1. If the quantity of matter be the
fame, or, in the cafe of calcination, be fomewhat lefs,
after being expofed to the aftion of the fire, while
the gravity of the whole is become greater 5 then
does it follow, that gravity is not according to the
quantity of matter, and of courfe is not one of its
properties. 2. If there be an increafe of the mafs,
it can be imputed to nothing but the matter of light
or fire entangled in its paffage through the fubftance,
and fo fixed in its pores, or combined with its folid
parts, as to gravitate together with it. Yet it is cer¬
tain, from the phenomenon of light darting from the
fun, that this elementary fire does not gravitate till it
is fixed in metal, or fome other folid fubftance.—Here
then we have a fluid which gravitates, if it gravitate at
all, in fome cafes and not in others. So that which
way foever the experiment be interpreted, we are forced
to conclude that elementary or folar fire may be the
caufe of the law of gravitation.”
That it is like wife in many cafes the caufe of repul¬
fion, is known to every one who has feen it fufe metals,
and convert water and mercury into elaftic vapour.
But there is a fa£t recorded by Mr Jones, which feems
to evince that the fame fluid, which as it iffues from
the fun exhibits itfelf in the form of light and heat,
is in other circumftances converted into a very fine air,
or
Motion.
  y—.
9 .
The exig¬
ence of fuch
an seitier,
however,
does nor
completely
folve the
phenome-
»a.
MOT [ 454 ]
; or C°U sether, which rufhes very forcibly towards the material
body of that luminary. “ As a fequel to what has
been obferved (fays he) concerning the impregnation
of folid fubftances with the particles of fire, give me
leave to fubjoin an experiment of M. de Stair. He tells
us, that upon heating red lead in a glafs, whence the
air was exhaufted by the rays of the fun collefted in
a burning glafs, the veflel in which the faid red lead
was contained burft in pieces with a great noife. Now,
as all explofions in general muft be aferibed either to
an admiflion of the air into a rarefied fpace, or to what
is called the generation of it j and as air was not admit¬
ted upon this occafion, it muft have been generated
from the calx within the veflel ; and certainly was fo,
becaufe Dr Hales has made it appear that this fub-
ftance, like crude tartar and many others, will yield
a confiderable quantity of air in diftillation. What
went into the metal therefore as jire, came out of it
again as air; which in a manner forces upon us con-
elufions of ineftimable value in natural philofophy, and
fuch as may carry us very far into the moft fublime
part of it.”
One of the conclufions which the ingenious author
thinks thus forced upon us, is, that the motion of the
planets round the fun, as well as round their own axes, is
to be attributed to the continual agency of this fluid,
under its two forms of elementary fire and pure air. As
fire and light, we know that it rulhes with inconceiv¬
able rapidity from the body of the fun, and penetrates
every corporeal fubftance, exerting itfelf fometimes with
fuch force as nothing with which we are acquainted is
able to refill. If it be indeed a fa61, that this ele¬
mentary fire, or principle of light and heat, afterwards
cools, and becomes pure air, there cannot be a doubt,
but that under fuch a form it will return writh great
force, though furely in a fomewhat different direction,
towards the fun, forming a vortex, in which the planets
are included, and by which they muft of courfe be car¬
ried round the centre. Mr Jones does not fuppofe
that the air into which the principle of light and heat
is converted, is of fo grofs a nature as our atmofphere.
He rather confiders it as cool aether, juft as he repre-
fents light to be aether heated : but he maintains, that
this aether, in its aerial form, though not fit for human
refpiration, is a better pabulum of fire than the air
which we breathe.
This theory is exceedingly plaufible j and the au¬
thor fupports it by many experiments. He has not,
indeed, convinced us that the folar light is converted
or convertible into pure air ; but he has, by juft reafom
ing from undoubted faffs, proved that the whole ex-
panfe of heaven, as far as comets wander, is filled not
only wdth light, which is indeed obvious to the fenfes,
but alfo with a fluid, which, whatever it may be called,
fupplies the place of the air in feeding the fire of thefe
ignited bodies.
f hat the motion of the heavenly bodies fhould re-
fult from the perpetual agency of fuch a medium, ap¬
pears to us a much more rational hypothefis, than that
which makes them a£l: upon each other at immenfe di-
ftances through empty fpace. But the hypothefis is
by no means fo complete a folution of the phenomena
as fome of Its fond admirers pretend to thin k it. This
fluid, whether called aether, heat, light, or air, is ftill
MOT
. and the queftion returns upon him who Motion,
imagines that it is fuflicient to account for gravitation,
repulfion, magnetifm, and cohefion, &c. “ What
moves the fluid itfelf, or makes the parts of which it
is compofed cohere together ?” However widely it
may be extended, it is incapable of pofitive infinity j
and therefore may be divided into parts feparated from
each other £ lo that it muft be held together by a fo¬
reign force, as well as a ball of lead, or a piece of wax.
As matter is not eflentially a&ive, the motion of this
sether, under both its forms, muft likewife be confidered
as an effeft, for which we do not think that any pro¬
pelling power in the body of the fun can be admitted
as a fufficient caufe. For how comes the fun to poffefs
that power, and what makes the fluid return to the
fun ? We have no notion of power, in the proper fenfe
of the wTord, but as intelligence and volition \ and, by
the pious and excellent author of the Eflfay on the Firft
Principles of Natural Philofophy, we are certain that
the fun was never fuppofed to be intelligent.
Bilhop Berkeley, who admits of light or tether as It is ther«-
the inftrumental caufe of all corporeal motion, gets rid^6 fiy
of this difficulty, by fuppofing, with the ancients, thatfo1?^ fuP‘
this powerful agent is animated. “ According to thej°|^a[°db*
Pythagoreans and Platonifts (fays his Lordftiip *), * Sir is,
there is a life infufed throughout all things ; the jn^N0 277.
TTUP TiftHKoi, an intelleftual and artificial fire, an
inward principle, animal fpirit, or natural life, produ¬
cing and forming within, as art doth without; regulat-
ing,. moderating, and reconciling the various motions,
qualities, and parts of this mundane fyftem. By virtue
of this life, the great mafles are held together in their
ordinary courfes, as well as the minuteft particles go¬
verned in their natural motions, according to the feveral
laws of attraction, gravity, eleCtricity, magnetifm, and
the reft. It is this gives inftinCts, teaches the fpider her
web, and the bee her honey. This it is that direfts the
roots of plants to draw forth juices from the earth, and
the leaves and cortical veflels to feparate and attraCl
fuch particles of air and elementary fire as fuit their
refpeCtive natures,”
'Phis life or animal fpirit feems to be the fame thing
which Cudworth calls plaftic nature, and which has
been confidered elfewhere. (See Metaphysics, N°
200, and FLASTIC Nature). We fhall therefore difmifs
it at prefent, with juft admitting the truth of the bi-
ftiop’s pofition, “ that if nature be fuppofed the life
of the world, animated by one foul, compared into
one frame, and directed or governed in all its parts by
one fupreme and diffinft intelligence, this fyftem can¬
not be accufed of atheifm, though perhaps it may of
miftake or impropriety.” ^
A theory of motion fomewhat fimilar to that of Anewthe-
Berkeley, though in feveral refpefts different from it, orv of mo-
was not many years ago ftated with great clearnefs,tion>
and fupported with much ingenuity, in An Effay on the
Powers and Mechanifm of Nature, intended to improve,
and more firmly eftablilh, the grand fuperftru&ure of
the Newtonian fyftem. Mr Young, the author of the
effay, admits with moft other philofophers of the prefent
age, that body is compofed of atoms which are impene¬
trable to each other, and may be denominated folid.
Thefe atoms, however, he does not coofider as primary
and Ample elements, incapable of refolution into prin¬
ciples :
MOT [ 455 ] MOT
Motion, ciples j but thinks that they are formed by certain mo-
tions of the parts of a fubftance immaterial and eifen-
14 tially aftive.
by fuppof- As this notion is uncommon, and the offspring of
Ing that a a vigorous mind, we {hall confider it more attentively
fubftance uruler the article PLASTIC Nature. It is mentioned at
active per- Pre^ent as a necelfary introduftion to the author’s theory
vades the of motion, of which he attributes both the origin and
univerfe. the continuance to the agency of this elementary fub¬
ftance pervading the moft folid atoms of the denfeft bo¬
dies. Of every body and every atom he holds the con-
ftituent principles to be elfentially a£tive : but thofe
principles aft in fuch a manner as to counterbalance each
other •, fo that the atom or body confidered as a whole
is inert, unlefs in fo far as it reftfts the comprelfion or
feparation of its parts. No body or atom can of itfelf
begin to move, or continue in motion for a Angle in-
ftant: but being pervious to the aftive fubftance, and
coalefcing with it, that fubftance, when it enters any
body, it carries it along with it, till, meeting fome o-
ther body in the way, either the whole of the aftive
fubftance lodged in the former body palfes into the ob-
ftacle, in which cafe the impelling body inftantly ceafes
to move : or elfe part of that fubftance palfes into the
obftacle, and part remains in the impelling body ; and
in this cafe both bodies are moved with a velocity in
proportion to the quantity of matter which each con¬
tains, combined with the quantity of aftive fubftance
by which they are refpeftively penetrated.
Proofs of In order to pave the way for his proof of the exift-
the exift- ence of one uniform aftive fubftance, he obferves, that
ence of fuch (4 cJiange being an effentially eonftituent part of mo-
a fubftance. an^ c]iange implying aftion, it follows that all
motion implies action, and depends on an aBive caufe.
Every motion (he continues) has a beginning, a mid¬
dle, and an end. The beginning is a change from reft
to motion ; the middle is a continuance in motion $
the end is a change from motion to reft.” He then
proceeds to ftiow, that the beginning of motion is by
an aftion begun 5 the continuance of motion by an
aftion continued $ and the end of motion by a celfation
of aftion.
“ The firft of thefe pofttions is admitted by every
body. That the continuance of motion is by an aftion
continued, will be proved, if it (hall be drown that the
continuance of a motion is nothing different from its
beginning, in regard to any point of time affumed in
the continued motion. Now the beginning of mo¬
tion (he fays) confifts in the beginning of change of
place. But if any given portions of time and of {pace
are affumed, a body beginning to move in the com¬
mencement of that time, and in the firft portion of
the fpace affumed, then and there begins that parti¬
cular motion: and whether before the body began to
move in that fpace it was moving in other fpaces and
times, has no relation to the motion in queftion ; for
this being in a fpace and time altogether diftinft, is a
diftinft motion from any which might have preceded
it immediately, as much as from a motion which pre¬
ceded it a thoufand years before. It is therefore a new
motion begun •, and fo it may be faid of every affumable
point in the continued motion. The term continued
ferves only to conneft any two diftinft motions, the end
of one with the beginning of the other} but does not
deftroy their diitinftnefs.”
2
He then proceeds to combat, which he does very Motion,
fuccefsfully, the arguments by which the more rigid
Newtonians endeavour to prove that a body in mo¬
tion will continue to be moved by its own inertia, till
ftopt bv fome oppofite force. Having done this, he
eftablilhes the contrary conclufion by the following
fyllogifms:
“ I. Whatever requires an aftive force to Hop its
motion, is difpofed to move.
Every body in motion requires an aftive force to
flop its motion:
Therefore every body in motion is difpofed to
move.
“ II. Whatever is difpofed to motion is poffeffed of
aftion.
But a body in motion is difpofed to continue in
motion :
Therefore a body in motion is poffeffed of aftion.
Thus it appears, that the middle part of any motion is
aftion equally with the beginning.
“ The laft part of motion is its termination. It is
admitted that all motion is terminated by an aftion
contrary to the direftion of the motion. It is ad¬
mitted, too, that the moving body aBs at the time its
motion is deftroyed. Thus the beginning and the end of
any uniform motion are confeffed to be aftions j but
all the intermediate continuation which connefts the
beginning wftth the end is denied to be aftion. What
can be more unaccountable than this denial ? Is it not
more confonant to reafon and analogy, to afcribe to the
whole continued motion one uninterrupted aftion ?
Such a conclufion true philofophy, we think, requires
us to make.
“To move or aft, is an attribute which cannot be
conceived to exift without a fubftance. The aBion of
a body in motion is indeed the attribute of the body,
and the body relatively to its own motion is truly a
fubftance, having the attribute or quality of motion.
But the body being a name fignifying a combination
of certain ideas, which ideas are found to arife from
aftion (fee PLASTIC Nature), that aftion which is pro-
duftive of thofe ideas whofe combination we denomi¬
nate body, is of the nature of an attribute fo long as it
is confidered as conftituted of aftion—To this attribute
we muft neceffarily aflign its fubftance. The aftions
which conftitute body muft be aftions of fomething, or
there muft be fomething which afts. What then is
this active something, from whofe agency we get
the idea of body, or whofe aftions conftitute body ? Is
it not fufficient that it is fomething aftive ? A name
might be furely given it, but a name would not render
the idea more clear. Its defcription may be found in
every fenfation; it is colour to the eye, flavour to the
palate, odour to the nofe, found to the ear, and feeling
to the touch; for all our fenfatiens are but fo many ways
in which this ACTIVE something is manifefted to us.
A fubftratum of folidity philofophers have imagined to
exift, and have in vain fought to find. Our active
substance is tire fubftratum fo long fought for, and
with fo little fuccefs. We give it a quality by which
it may be perceived j it acts. One modification of
aBion produces matter, another generates MOTION.
Thefe modifications of aftion are modes of the aftive
fubftance, whofe prefence is aftion: matter and motion
conftitute
MOT [45^] MOT
.Motion.
14 .
Which is
unintelli¬
gent,
*5.
and nei¬
ther matter
nor mind.
conftitute the whole of nature. There is therefore
THROUGHOUT NATURE AN ACTIVE SUBSTANCE, THE
CONSTITUENT ESSENCE OF MATTER, AND IMMEDIATE
NATURAL AGENT IN ALL EFFECTS.”
By an argument which we do not think very con*
clufive, our author determines this a&ive fubftance
to be unintelligent. “ In our fenfations individually,
not difcovering (fays he) the traces, not feeing the
charadters of intelligence, but finding only adtion pre-
fent and neceffary, our inferences go no farther than
our obfervations warrant us to do j and we conclude
in all thefe things an adlion only, and that aclion un¬
intelligent.” Having given our opinion of real agency
elfewhere (fee Metaphysics, N° 118.), we lhall
not here flop to examine this reafoning.—We may
however alk, Whether all our fenfations individually
be not excited for a certain end? If they be, accord¬
ing to our author’s mode of arguing in another place,
the exciting agent Humid be an intelligent being. By
this we are far from meaning to deny the reality of
a fecondary or inftrumental caufe of fenfation which
is deftitute of intelligence. We are ftrongly inclined
to think that there is liich a caufe, though our per-
fuafion refults not from this argument of our author’s.
In our opinion, he reafons better when he fays, “ that
a fubordinate agent conftrudled as the matter of crea¬
tion, invefted with perpetual laws, and producing agree¬
ably to thofe laws all the forms of being, through the
varieties of which inferior intelligences can, by pro-
greflive Heps, arrive ultimately at the fupreme con¬
triver, is more agreeable to our ideas of dignity,
and tends to imprefs us with more exalted fenti-
mcnts, than viewing the Deity diredlly in all the in¬
dividual impreffions we receive, divided in the infi¬
nity of particular events, and unawful, by his conti¬
nual prefence in operations to our view infignificant and
mean.”
This active fubftance, or fecondary caufe, our au¬
thor concludes to be neither matter nor mind. “ Mat¬
ter (fays he) is a being, as a whole quiefcent and in-
aftive, but conrtituted of aftive parts, which refift fe-
paration, or cohere, giving what is ufually denomi¬
nated folidity to the mafs. Mind is a fubftance which
thinks. A being which fhould anfwer to neither of
thefe definitions, would be neither matter Mor mind j
but an immaterial, and, if I may fo fay, an immental
fubftance.” Such is the aftive fubftance of Mr Young,
which, confidered as the caufe of motion, feems not to
differ greatly from the p/ajlic nature, hylarchical prin¬
ciple, or vis gemtrix, of others. The manner in which
it operates is indeed much more minutely detailed by
our author than by any other philofopher, ancient or
modern, with whofe writings we have any acquaint-
16
The man¬
ner in
whi h it is
fuppofe l
to operate.
“ Every thing (he fays) muft be in its own nature
either difpofed to reft or motion •, confequcntly the
active substance muft be confidered as a being- na-
turally either quiefcent er motive. But it cannot be
naturally quiefcent •, for then it could not be atffive, be-
caufe aftivity, which is a tendency to motion, cannot
originate in a tendency to reft. Therefore the ACTIVE
SUBSTANCE is by nature motive, that is, tending to mo¬
tion. The ACTIVE substance is not folid, and does
not refift penetration. It is, therefore, incapable of
impelling or of fuftaining impulfe. Whence it follows,
that as it tends to move, and is incapable of having its Motion,
motion impeded by impulfe, it muft aftually and conti-
nually move : in other words, MOTION IS ESSENTIAL
TO THE ACTIVE SUBSTANCE.
“ In order that this fubftance may aB, fome other
thing upon which it may produce a change is necef¬
fary j lor whatever fuffers an a£Iion, receives fome
change. T_he active fubftance, in acting on fome other
thing, muft impart and unite itfelf thereto ; for its ac¬
tion is communicating its attivity. But it cannot com¬
municate its activity without imparting its fubftance :
beeaufe it is the fubftance alone which poffeffes activity,
and the quality cannot be feparated from the fubftance.
Therefore the active substance acts by uni¬
ting ITSELF WITH THE SUBSTANCE ON WHICH IT
acts. The union of this fubftance with bodies, is not
to be conceived of as a junfHon of fmall parts intimate¬
ly blended together and attached at their furfaces 5 but
as an entire diffufion and incorporation of one fubftance
with another in perfect coalefcence. As bodies are not
naturally adftive, whenever they become fo, as they al¬
ways do in motion, it muft be by the acceflion of
fome part of the active fubftance. The a<?tive fub¬
ftance being imparted to a body, penetrates the molt
folid or refitting parts, and does not refide in the pores
without, and at the furfaces of the folid parts. For the
aftivity is imparted to the body itfelf j and not to its
pores, Avhich are no parts of the body : therefore if the
active fubftance remained within the pores, the caufe
would not be prefent with its effect ; but the caufe
would be in one place and the effed in another, which
is impoflible.
“ Bodies by their impulfe on others lofe their adi-
vity in proportion to the impulfe. This is matter of
obfervation. Bodies which fuffer impulfe acquire ac¬
tivity in proportion to the impulfe. This alfo is mat¬
ter of obfervation. In impulfe, therefore, the adive
fubftance paffes out of the impelling body into the
body impelled. For fince bodies in motion are adive,
and adivity confifts in the prefence of the adive fub¬
ftance, and by impulfe bodies lofe their adivity, there¬
fore they lofe their adive fubftance, and the lofs is
proportional to the impulfe. Bodies impelled acquire
adivity j therefore acquire adive fubftance, and the
acquifition is proportioned to the impulfe. But the
adive fubftance loft by the impelling body ought to
be concluded to be that found in the other; becaufe
there is no other receptacle than the impelled body to
which the fubftance parted from can be traced, nor
any other fource than the adive body whence that
which is found can be derived. Therefore, in impulfe,
the adive fubftance ought to be concluded to pafs from
the impelling body to the body impelled. The flow¬
ing of fueh a fubftance is a fufficient caufe of the com¬
munication of adivity, and no other rational caufe can
be afligned.
“ The continued motion of a body depends not
upon its inertia, but upon the continuance of the ac¬
tive fubftance within the body. The motion of a
body is produced by the motion of the adive fub¬
ftance in union with the body. It being evident, that
fince the adive fubftance itfelf does always move, what¬
ever it is united to will be moved along with it, if no
obftacle prevent. In mere motion, the body moved
is the patient, and the adive fubftance the agent. In
impulfe,
MOT
[ 457 1
MOT
*7
[produces
tmpulfe,
Impulfe, the body in motion may be confide red as kn
agent, as it is made aftive by its aftive fubftance.y-
While the aftive fubftanee is flowing out of the aftive
body into the obftacle or impelled body, the a&ive
body will prefs or impel the obftaele. For while the
aftive fubftance is yet within the body, although flow¬
ing through it, it does not ceafe to impart to the body
its own nature, nor can the body ceafe to be aftive
becaufe not yet deprived of the active fubftance. 1 here-
fore during its palling out of the body, fuch portion of
the adtive fubftance as is yet within, is urging and dif-
poiing the body to move, in like manner as if the adtiv e
fubftance were continuing in the body ; and the body
being thus urged to move, but impeded from moving,
preffes or impels the obftacle.
« We fee here (fays our author) an obvious explana¬
tion of impulfe ; it confifts in the flowing of the motive
fubftance from a fource into a receptacle and he
thinks, that although the exiftence of fuch a fubftance
had not been eftablilhed on any previous grounds, the
communication of motion by impulfe does alone afford
a fufficient proof of its reality
ciple of union is implied in the revolving or circulating ^
movements of the adlive fubftance.
But we may alio a flume (he fays) a priori, that a
principle of union is a general larv of nature} became
we fee in fadl all the component parts of the univerfc
are united fyftems, which fucceflively combine into
larger unions, and ultimately form one whole.” Let
us then fuppofe the fun with all his planets, primary
and fecondary, to be already formed for the purpofe ot
making one fyftem, and the orbits of all of them, as
well as thefe great bodies themfelves, to be pervaded
by the adlive fubftance, which neceifarily exifts in a
ftate of motion, and is the caufe of the motion ot every
thing corporeal. “ If to this motion a principle ot
union be added, the effedt of fuch a principle would be
a determination of all the parts of the adlive fubftance,
and of courfe all the bodies to which it is united, to¬
wards a common centre, which would be at reft, and
void of any tendency in any diredtion. But this determi¬
nation of all the parts of the fyftem towards a common
centre, tends to the deftrudlion both of the motion of
the adlive lubftance and of the fyftem 5 for flrould all
umcienr proui or us icaiujr.    _ . ' ' . f
He employs the agency of the fame fubftance to ac- the parts continually approximate from a circumference
is
and eaufes
the motion
of the hea¬
venly bo¬
dies.
count for many other apparent adlivities in bodies,
fuch as thofe of fire, eleflricily, attraciion, repuljion,
elajticity, &c. All the apparent origins of corporeal
adlivity ferve, he lays, to impart the adlive lubftance to
bodies $ u and where adlivity is without any manifejl
origin, the adlive fubftance is derived from an invifible
fource.”
Our limits will not permit us to attend him in his
folution of all the apparent adlivities in bodies ; but the
orbicular motions of the planets have been accounted for
in fo many different ways by philofophers ancient and
modern, and each account has been fo little fatisfadlory
to him who can think, and willies to trace effedls from
adequate caufes, that we conlider it as our duty to lur-
nilh our readers with the account of this phenomenon
which is given by Mr Young.
The queftion which has been fo long agitated,
“ Whence is the origin of motion ?” our author con-
fiders as implying an abfurdity. “It fuppoies (fays
he) that reft was the primitive ftate of matter, and
that motion was produced by a fubfequent adl. But
this fuppofttion mull ever be rejedted, as it is giving
precedency to the inferior, and inverting the order of
nature.” * The fubftance wfliich he holds to be the
bafis of matter is effentially adlive \ and its adlion is
motion. This motion, however, in the original ele¬
ment, was power without diredlion, agency without
order, adlivity to no end. To this power it was ne-
ceffary that a Law ftiould be fuperadded 5 that its
agency. Ihould be guided to fome regular purpofe, and
its motion confpire to the produdlion of fome uniform
effedls. Our author Him vs, or endeavours to Ihow,
by a procefs of reafoning which Ihall be examined elfe-
where, that the primary atoms of matter are produced
by the circular motion of the parts of this fubllance
round a centre 5 and that a ftmilar motion of a num¬
ber of thefe atoms around another centre common to
them all, produces what in common language is called
a folid body ; a cannon ball, for inftance, the terreftrial
globe, and the body of the fun, &c. In a word, he
labours to prove, and with no fmall fuccefs, that a prin-
Vol. XIV. Part II.
towards a centre, the fun and planets would at lall
meet, and form one folid and quiefeent mafs. But to
preferve exiftenee, and eonfequently motion, is the firlt
law of the adlive fubftance, as of all being 5 and it
cannot be doubted, that to preferve diftindt the feveral
.parts of the folar fyftem, is the firil law given to the
fubftanee actuating that fyftem. The union of the fy¬
ftem is a fubfequent law.
“ When the direSi tendency of any inferior law is
obviated by a higher law, the inferior law will operate
indireci/y in the manner the neareft to its diredl ten¬
dency that the fuperior law will permit. If a body in
motion be obliquely obftrudted, it will move on in a
diredlion oblique to its firlt motion. Now the law of
union, which pervades the folar fyftem, being conti¬
nually obftrudted by the law of felf-prefervation, the
motion of the adlive fubftance, and of the bodies to
which it is united, can be no other than a revolving
motion about the common centre of approach, towards
which all the parts have a determination. But when
this revolution has adtually taken place, it gives birth
to a new tendency, which fuperfedes the operation of
the law of felf-prefervation. It has been fliown, that
the motion effential to the adlive fubftance, required to
be governed by fome law to give being to an orderly
ftate of things. Now, there are motions fimple and
motions complex ; the more fimple is in all things firll
in order, and out of the more fimple the more complex
arifes in order pofterior. T he moll fimple motion is
redlilineal j therefore a redlilineal motion is to be eon-
fidered as that which is the original and natural ftate
of things, and confequently that to which all things
tend. It will follow from hence, that when any por¬
tion of adlive fubftance in which the law of union ope¬
rates, has in the manner above explained, bben com¬
pelled to affume a revolving motion, that is, a motion
in fome curve •, a tendency to a redlilineal motion will
continually exift in every part of the revolving por¬
tion, and in every point of the curve which it deferibes
during its revolution. And this fedtilineal tendency
will be a tendency to recede from the centre in every
3 M point
Motioi).
MOT [ 458 ] MOT
Motion, point of tlie revolving orbit, and to proceed in a tan-
v gent t0 the orbit at each point. Thefe two tenden¬
cies, if not originally equal, mult neceflarily in all cafes
arrive at an equality. For the tendency towards the
centre, called the centripetal tendency, that is, the law
of union, operating fir ft, if we fuppofe the motion ap¬
proaches the centre, the tendency to recede from it,
called the centrifugal tendency, will have its proportion
to the centripetal continually increafed as the orbit of
revolution grows lefs, fo as ultimately to equal the cen¬
tripetal tendency, and reftrain the motion from its cen¬
tral courfe, at which point it will no longer feek the
centre but revolve round it.”
As our author holds that every atom of matter is
formed by the motion of parts of the aftive fubftance,
and every body formed by the motion of atoms j fo he
maintains, not only that the fun, moon, earth, planets,
and ftars, are penetrated by the fame fubftance, but
that each is the centre of a vortex of that fubftance,
and that of thefe vortices fome are included within
others. “ The fubtle revolving fluid, the centre of
whofe vortex the earth occupies, not only furrounds
but pervades the earth, and other vortices their earths,
to their centres 5 and the earth and planets are by its re¬
volutions carried around on their own axes. The earth
is an inaftive mafs, and all its component maffes are fe-
verally as well as collectively inactive j but the earth
and ail its parts have various colleftive and feparate
movements, imparted from the fluid which furrounds,
pervades, and conftitutes it. Being immerfed together
with its proper furrounding fphere or vortex in the
larger fphere or vortex of the fun, it is carried thereby
in a larger orbit about the fun, at the fame time that
by the revolution of its proper fphere it rotates on its
19 own axis.”
Objections Such is the moft complete view which our limits
to this -will permit us to give of Mr Young’s theory of mo-
iheory. tion. To the philofopher who confiders experiment
as the only teft of truth, and who in all his inquiries
employs his hands more than his head, we are fully
aware that it will appear in no better light than as
“ the bafelefs fabric of a vifion.” Even to the intel-
ledtual philofopher who is not frightened at the tvord
metaphyjics, we are afraid that fuch an active fubftance
as the author contends for, will appear as inadequate
to the production of the phenomena of gravitation and
repulfion as the material aether of Mr Jones and his
followers. A being void of intelligence, whether it
be material or immaterial, quiefcent or motive, cannot
be the fubje£t of law, in the proper fenfe of the word.
The laws of which Mr Young fpeaks as necefiary to
regulate the motions of the aftive fubftance, muft be
mere forces, applied by fome extrinfic and fuperior
powder. And fince u motion, as it is effentinl to the
aftive fubitance, is power without direction, agency
without order, a&ivity to no end ; fince it is of fuch a
nature, that from its unguided agitations there could
refult neither connection, order, nor harmony ;” it fol¬
lows that thofe extrinfic forces muft be perpetually
applied, becaufe what is effential to any fubftance can
never be deftroyed or changed fo long as the fubftance
itfeif remains.
Forces producing order out of confufion, can be ap¬
plied only by a being poflefled of intelligence \ and if
the immediate and perpetual, agency of an intelligent
4
being be neceflary to regulate the motions of the ac- Motion,
tive fubftance, that fubftance itfeif may be thought u—
fuperfluous, and its very exiftence be denied. Entia
non funt mu/tiplicanda abfque necefjitate, is a rule of phi-
lofophizing which every man of fcience acknowledges
to be juft. And it will hardly be denied that the
immediate and perpetual agency of an intelligent being
upon Mr Jones’s etherial fluid, or even upon the mat¬
ter of folid bodies themfelves, would be capable of
producing every kind of motion without the inftru-
mentality of a fubftance which is neither mind nor
matter.
Such, we conceive, are the objections which our
metaphyfical readers may make to this theory. Part
of their force, however, will perhaps be removed by
the ingenious manner in which our author analyzes
matter into an immaterial principle. But fo much of it
remains, that the writer of this article is inclined to
believe that no mechanical account can be given of the
motions of the heavenly bodies, the growth of plants,
and various other phenomena which are ufually folved 20
by attraction and repulfion. In the prefent age, phi-Other tlieo-
lofophers in general are ftrangely averfe from admitting ries more
on any occafion the agency of mind ; yet as every e^"
fed muft have a caule, it is furely not irrational to at¬
tribute fuch effeCts as mechanifm cannot produce to
the operation either of intelligence or inftinCt. To
fuppofe the Deity the immediate agent in the great
motions of the univerfe, has been deemed impious j
and it muft be confeffed that very impious conclufions
have been deduced from that principle. But there is
furely no impiety in fuppofing, with the excellent bi-
(hop of Cloyne, that the fluid which is known to
pervade the folar fyftem, and to operate with refiftlefs
force, may be animated by a powerful mind, which
ads inftinClively for ends of which itfeif knows no¬
thing. For the exiftence of fuch a mind, no other
evidence, indeed, can be brought than what is afford¬
ed by a very ancient and very general tradition, and
by the impoflibility of accounting for the phenomena
upon principles of mere mechanifm. Perhaps fome of
our more pious readers may be inclined to think that
the Supreme Being has committed the immediate go¬
vernment of the various planetary fyftems to powerful
intelligences, or ANGELS, who, as his minifters, direft
their motions with wifdom and forefight. Such an
opinion is certainly not abfurd in itfeif j and it feems
to be countenanced by an ancient writer *, who, though * pjai c;:7^
not known by the name of a philofopher, knew as
much of the matter as any founder of the moft cele¬
brated fchool.
To object to either of thefe hypothefes, as has beeiv
fometimes done, that it reprefents the government of
the world as a perpetual miracle, betrays the groffeft
ignorance; for we might as well call the movements-
of the bodies of men and brutes, which are certainly
produced by minds, miraculous. We do not affirm
that either hypothefis is certainly true j but they are
both as probable and as fatisfaiftory as the hypothefis
which attributes agency to attraftion and repulfion, to
a ffibtle aether, or to a fubftance which is neither mind
nor matter. Were the immediate agency of intelleft
to. be admitted, there would be no room for many of
thofe difputes which have been agitated among philo-
fophers, about the increafe or diminution of motion:
and Me-
ch aw h
&c. ^
M O T
Motion, in the unxverfe j becaufe an intelligent agent
-v—' could begin motion as well as carry it on, might in-
creafe or diminilh it as he fhould judge proper. If in-
ftin&ive agency, or fomething fimilar to it, be adopt¬
ed, there is the fame room for inveftigation as upon
the principles of mechanifm j becaufe inftindt works
blindly, according to Heady laws impofed by a fuperior
mind, which may be difeovered by obfervation of their
effedts. As we confider this as by much the moft pro-
„ t bable hypothefis of the two, -we find ourfelves involved
The quef- in the following queltion : “ If a certain quantity of
tion, Whc- motion was originally communicated to the matter of
ther the t]ie uniVerfe, how comes it to pafs that the original
origmat^ ^ quantity Hill remains ?” Confidering the many op-
nurti^n m° pofite and contradictory motions which fince the crea-
the world tion have taken place in the univerfe, and which have
remains un- undoubtedly deftroyed a great part of the original
anfwered? (luant^ty» ^7 ^'hat means has that quantity been re-
' ftored ?
If this queltion can be folved by natural means, it
mult be upon the principles of New'ton ; for, “ in every
* Young's cafe * where quantities and relations of quantities are
EJfay on required, it is the province of mathematics to fupply
ihe Powers t]ie information fought ; “ and all philofophers agree
that Sir Ifaac’s doctrine of the compofition and refo-
lution of motion, though in what refpedts the heaven¬
ly bodies it may have no phyfical reality, is fo mathe¬
matically juft, as to be the only principle from which
the quantity of motion, or the force of powers, can
in any cafe be computed. If we choofe to anfwer the
queftion, by faying that the motion left is reftored by
the interpofition of the Deity, then we might as well
have had recourfe to him at firft, and fay that he alone
is the true principle of motion throughout the crea¬
te tion. ^
The Car- Before we are reduced to this dilemma, however,
tefians, and it is necelTary, in the firft place, to inquire whether
there is or can be any real diminution of the quantity
of motion throughout the univerfe ? In this queltion
the Cartefians take the negative fide 5 and maintain,
that the Creator at the beginning impreffed a certain
quantity of motion on bodies, and that under fuch
laws as that no part of it Ihould be loft, but the fame
portion of motion Ihould be conftantly preferved in
matter : and hence they conclude, that if any moving
body ftrike on any other body, the former lofes no
more of its motion than it communicates to the latter.
Sir Ifaac Newton takes the contrary fide, and argues
hyNewton. in the following manner: “From the various com-
pofitions of twro motions, it is manifeft there is not al¬
ways the fame quantity of motion in the world 5 for if
two balls, joined together by a (lender wire, revolve
with an uniform motion about their common centre
of gravity, and at the fame time that centre be carried
uniformly in a right line drawn in the plane of their
circular motion, the fum of the motions of the two
balls, as often as they are in a right line, drawn from
their common centre of gravity, will be greater than
the fum of their motions when they are in a line per¬
pendicular to that other. Whence it appears, that
motion may be both generated and loft. But, by rea-
fon of the tenacity of fluid bodies, and the friftion of
their parts, with the weaknefs of the elaftic power in
folid bodies, nature feems to incline much rather to
the deftru&ion than the production of motion } and
[ 459 1 MOT
which in reality, motion becomes continually lefs and lefs.—
For bodies which are either fo perfe&ly hard or fo
foft as to have no elaftic power, will not rebound from
each other 5 their impenetrability will only ftop their
motion. And if twro fuch bodies equal to one ano¬
ther be carried with equal but oppofite motions, fo
as to meet in a void fpace, by the laws of motion they
muft ftop in the very place of concourfe, lofe all their
motion, and be at reft for ever, unlefs they have an elaf¬
tic power to give them a new motion. If they have
elafticity enough to make them rebound with one-fourth,
one-half, or three-fourths, of the force they meet with,
they will lofe three-fourths, one-half, or one-fourth, of
their motion. And this is confirmed by experiments :
for if two equal pendulums be let fall from equal heights,
fo as to ftrike full upon each other 5 if thofe pendulums
be of lead or foft clay, they will lofe all, or almoft all,
their motion ; and if they be of any elaftic matter, they
will only retain fo much motion as they receive from
their elaftic power.”
Motion, therefore, being thus, in the opinion of our
celebrated author, /o/?, or abfolutely chJIroijed, it is ne-
ceflary to find fome caufe by which it may be renewed.
Such renovation Sir Ifaac attributes to atfive princi¬
ples j for inftance, “ the caufe of gravity, whereby the
planets and comets preferve their motions in their or¬
bits, and all bodies acquire a great degree of motion
in falling ; and the caufe of fermentation, whereby the
heart and blood of animals preferve a perpetual warmth
and motion, the inner parts of the earth are kept per¬
petually warmed ; many bodies burn and thine, and
the fun himfelf burns and ftiines, and with his light
warms and cheers all things.”
Elafticity is another caufe of the renovation of mo¬
tion mentioned by Sir Ifaac. “ We find but little mo¬
tion in the world (fays he), except what plainly flows
either from thefe a£Hve principles, or from the com¬
mand of the wilier.”
With regard to the
Motion.
24
to the deJlruBion or pofitive iofs of No power
motion, however, we muft obferve, that notwithftand-m(|n*n
ing the authority of Sir Ifaac Newton, it is altogether ,]egr0yej
impoflible that any fuch thing can happen. All mov¬
ing bodies which come under the cognizance of our
fenfes are merely paflive, and acted upon by fome¬
thing which avc call powers or fluids, and Avhich are
to us totally invifible. Motion, therefore, cannot be
loft without a deftruftion or diminution of one of
thefe powers, which avc have no reafon to think can
ever happen. When txvo pendulums ruth againft each
other, the motion is the mere effedt of the adtion of
gravity ; and that adtion, Avhich in this cafe is the
power, continues to be the very fame Avhether the pen¬
dulum moves or moves not. Could motion, therefore,
be exhaufted in this cafe, xve muft fuppofe, that by fe-
parating two pendulums to the fame diftance from each
other, and then letting them come together for a great
number of times, they Avould at laft meet with lefs
force than before. But there is certainly not the lead
foundation for this fuppofition 5 and no rational perfon
Avill take it into his head, that fiippofing the xvhole
human race had employed themfelves in nothing elfe
from the creation to the prefent diy, but feparating
pendulums and letting them ftop each other’s motion,
they Avould noxv come together xvith lefs force than
they did at firft. Power, therefore, Avhich is the caufe
3 M 2 of
MOT
[ 460 ]
MOT
Motion, of motion, is abfolutely indeftru&ible. Powers may
indeed counteract one another, or they may be made
to counteract themfelves 5 but the moment that the
obftacle is removed, they (how themfelves in their prif-
tine vigour, without the lead; fymptom of abatement
or decay.
Whether, therefore, we reckon the ultimate fource
of motion to be fpiritual or material, it is plain that it
muft be to our conceptions infinite; neither will the
phenomena of nature allow us to give any other ex¬
planation than we have done : for no power whatever
can lofe more than its own quantity ; and it feems ab-
furd to think that the Deity would create the world
in fuch a manner that it would ultimately become im¬
moveable, and then have recourfe to unknown prin¬
ciples to remedy the fuppofed defeCt. On the prin¬
ciple we have now juft laid down, however, the mat¬
ter becomes exceedingly plain and obvious. The Crea¬
tor at firrt formed two oppofite powers, the aCtion of
which is varied according to the circumftances of the
bodies upon which they aft ; and thefe circumftances
are again varied by the aClion of the powers themfelves
in innumerable ways upon one another, and the ap¬
proach of one body to another, or their receding to
a greater diftance. Where thefe powers happen to
oppofe each other direCtly, the body on which they
aCh is at reft when they aCt obliquely, it moves in
the diagonal ; or if the force aCting upon One fide is
by any means leflened, the body certainly muft move
towards that fide, as is evident from the cafe of the
atmofphere, the preffure of which, when removed from
one fide of a body, will make it move very violently
towards that fide \ and if we could continually keep
off the preffure in this manner, the motion Avould af-
furedly be perpetual. We murt not imagine that mo¬
tion is defrayed becaufe it is count eracled; for it is im-
poffible to deftroy motion by any means but removing
the caufe ; counteracting the effeft is only a tempo¬
rary obftacle, and muft ceafe whenever the obftacle is
removed. Nature, therefore, having in itfelf an mfi-
nite quantity of motion produces greater or leffer mo¬
tions, according to the various aftion of the moving
powers upon different bodies or upon one another,
without a poflibility of the general flock being either
augmented or diminiihed, unlefs one of the moving
powers was to be withdrawn by the Creator ; in which
cafe, the other would deftroy the whole fyftem in an
inftant. As to the nature of thefe great original
of the mov-powers, we muft confefs ourfelves totally ignorant j
ing powers nor do wre perceive any data from which the nature
unknown. 0f can inveftigated. The elements of light,
air, &c. are the agents j but in what manner they aft,
or in Avhat manner they received their aft ion, can be
known only to the Creator.
Perpetual MOTION, in Mechanics, a motion which is
fupplied and'renewed from itfelf, without the interven¬
tion of any external caufe ; or it is an uninterrupted
communication of the fame degree of motion from one
part of matter to another, in a circle or other curve re¬
turning into itfelf, fo that the fame momentum ftill re¬
turns undiminiflied upon the firft mover.
The celebrated problem of a perpetual motion con-
fifts in the inventing a machine, which has the prin¬
ciple of its motion within itfelf. M. de la Hire has de-
3
=5
The nature
monftrated the impoflibility of any fuch machine, and Motion,
finds that it amounts to this, viz. to find a body which is v—*
both heavier and lighter at the fame time, or to find a
body which is heavier than itfelf.
Animal MOTION, that which is performed by animals
at the command of the mind or will.
Though all the motions of animals, whether volun¬
tary or involuntary, are performed by means of the
mufcles and nerves, yet neither thefe nor the fubtile
fluid which refides in them are to be accounted the ul¬
timate fources of animal motion. They depend entire¬
ly upon the mind for thofe motions which are properly
to be accounted animal. All the involuntary motions,
fuch as thofe of the blood, the heart, mufcles, organs
fubfervient to refpiration and digeftion, &c. are to be
claffed with thofe of vegetables ; for though no vege¬
tables have them in fuch perfection as animals, there
are yet traces of them to be found evidently among ve¬
getables, and that fo remarkable, that fome have ima¬
gined the animal and vegetable kingdoms to approach
each other fo nearly that they could fcarce be diftin-
guifhed by a philofophic eye. See Muscle.
Though the motions of animals, however, depend on
the aftion of the mind or of the will, external objefts
feem originally to have the command of the mind itfelf \
for unlefs an animal perceive fomething, it will not be
inclined to aft. By means of the ideas once received,
indeed, and retained in the memory, it acquires a felf-
moving power, independent of any objeft prefent at the
time, which is not the cafe with vegetables j for how¬
ever they may aft from a prefent impulfe, their motions
never appear to be derived from any fource which may
not be accounted ftriftly mechanical.
According to fome, motion is the caufe of fenfation
itfelf; and indeed it feems very probable that the mo¬
tions of that fubtle fluid, called light or ele&ricity, in
our bodies always accompany our fenfations j but
whether thefe be the caufe, or only the medium, of
fenfe, cannot be difeovered.
Though all animals are endoAved with a poAA’er of vo¬
luntary motion, yet there is a very great variety in the
degrees of that poAver ; to determine which no certain
rules can be affigned 5 neither can AA'e, from the fitu-
ation and manner of life of animals, derh’-e any probable
reafon why the motion of one ftiould differ fo Arery much
from that of another. This difference does not arife
from their fize, their ferocity, their timidity, nor any
other property that A\re can imagine. The elephant,
though the ftrongeft land animal, is by no means the
floAveft in its motions j the horfe is much fwifter than
the bull, though there is not much difference in their
fize a greyhound is much fAvifter than a cat, though
the former be much larger, and though both live in the
fame manner, viz. by hunting. Among infefts the
fame unaccountable diverfity is obfervable. The loufe
and flea are both vertnine, are both nearly of the fame
fize, and both feed on the bodies of animals 5 yet there
is no comparifon betAveen the fwiftnefs of their motions :
Avhile the bug, Avhich is much larger than either, feems
to have a kind of medium fwiftnefs betAveen both.—
This very remarkable circumftance feems not even to
depend on the range which animals are obliged to take
in order to procure food for themfelves : the motion
of a fnail is floAver than that of an earth worm ; while
that
*
MOT
[ 46
Motion.
that of many caterpillars is much quicker than either ;
though we can fcarce determine which of the three has
LllUUyil »vv-axx — —   •, r J
the o-reateft or the lead extenfive range for its food.
n JxrCrtLClt U-l.     O 9 f
Of all animals the Ihell filh move the floweft, mio-
much that fome have fuppofed them to be entirely de-
ftitute of locomotive powers ■, and mufcles particulai-
ly are denied to have any faculty of this kind. iLvery
one knows that thefe animals can open and Unit their
{bells at pleafure ; and it cannot efcape obfervation, that
in every mufcle there is a fleihy protuberance of a much
redder colour than the reft. This has been thought
to be a tongue or probofcis, by which the animal takes
in its food; but is in reality the inftrument of its mo¬
tion from place to place. This protuberance is divided
into two lobes, which perform the office of feet. When
the river mufcle is inclined to remove from its ftation,
it opens its {hells, thrufts out this protuberance, and
dio-s a furrow in the fand j and into this furrow, by the
aftion of the fame protuberance, the {hell is made to
fall in a vertical pofition. It is recovered out of this
into the former horizontal one, by puftiing back the
fand with the fame tentacula, lengthening the furrow,
and thus the animal continues its journey by a conti¬
nual turning topfy-turvy.—Marine mufcles perform
their motions in the fame manner, and by fimilar m-
ftruments. In general they are firmly attached to rocks
or fmall ftones by threads about two inches long, which
are fpun from a glutinous fubftance in the protuberances
already mentioned.
Other animals which inhabit bivalved {hells, per¬
form their motions by a kind of leg or foot; which,
however, they can alter into almoft any figure they
pleafe. By means of this leg they can not only fink
into the mud, or rife out of it at pleafure, but can
even leap from the place where they are ; and this can
be done by the limpit, which people are apt to ima¬
gine one of the moft fluggilh animals in nature.—When
this creature is about to make a fprmg, it fets its {hell
on edge, as if to dimmiffi friftion j then, ftietching
out the leg as far as poffible, it makes it embrace a
portion of the {hell, and by a fudden movement, fimi¬
lar to that of a fpring let loofe, it ftrikes the earth
with its leg, and aftually leaps to a confiderable dif-
The fpout, or razor-fiffi, is faid to be incapable of
moving forward horizontally on the furface j but it
digs a hole {ometimes two leet deep m the fand, m
which it can afcend or defcend at pleafure. The leg,
by which it performs all its movements, is flefhy, cy¬
lindrical, and pretty long *, and the animal can at plea¬
fure make it aflume the form of a ball. When lying
on the furface of the fand, and about to fink into it,
the leo-'is extended from the inferior end of the {hell,
and makes the extremity of it take on the. form of a
{hovel, Iharp on each fide, and terminating in a point.
With this inftrument the animal makes a hole in.the
fand; after which it advances the leg ftill farther into
it, makes it affume the form of a hook, and with this,
as a fulcrum, it obliges the {hell to defcend into the
hole. This operation is continued until the whole
fhell be covered •, and when the animal wiffies to re¬
gain the furface, it makes the extremity of the leg to
affume the form of a ball, and makes an effort to ex¬
tend it. The ball, however, prevents any farther de-
fcent, and the reaftion of the mufcular effort raifes up
! ] MOT
the whole ffiell, which operation is continued until it
reaches the furface $ and it is furprifing with what faci¬
lity thefe motions are accompliihed by an animal feem-
ingly fo little qualified to move at all. Another parti¬
cularity in this fiffi is, that though it lives among alt
water, it abhors fait fo much, that when a little is.thrown
into its hole it inftantly leaves it. But it is ftill more
remarkable, that if you once take hold of the fpout-fifti,
and then allow it to retire into its hole, it cannot then
be driven out by fait; though unlefs it. be taken hold
of by the hand, the application of fait will make it come
to the furface as often as you pleafe.
All other {hell fifti, even thofe apparently the moft
fluggifh and deftitute of any apparatus for motion, an.
found to be furnifhed with fuch inftruments as enable
them to perform all thole movements for which the\
have any occafion. JLhus the feallop, a well-known
animal inhabiting a bivalved {hell, can both Iwim up¬
on the furface of water and move upon land. . When
it happens to be deferted by the tide, it opens hs fhell
to the full extent, and {hutting it again with a .hidden
jerk, the reaftion of the ground gives fuch an impulfe
to the whole, that it fometimes fprings five or fix
inches from the ground 5 and by a continued repeti¬
tion of this aftion, it gradually tumbles forward until
it regains the Avater. Its method 01 failing is itill
more curious. Having attained the lurface Oa the
water by means unknorvn to us, it opens the fhell,
and puts one-half above water, the other with the body
of the animal in it remaining below. Great numbers
of them are thus frequently feen failing in company
with their {hells {ticking up above water when the
weather is fine, and the w'ind afting upon them as fails j
but on the leaft alarm they inftantly ftmt their {hells,
and all fink to the bottom together.
The oyfter has generally been fuppofed one of the
moft fluggifh animals in nature, and totally incapabh.
of voluntary motion j but from the refearches of the
Abbe Dicquemarre, this opinion feems to be errone¬
ous. The oyfter, like many other bivalved. fhell-fifh,
has a power of fquirting water out from its body j
and this property may eafily be obferved by putting
fome of them into a plate with as much.fea water as
will cover them. I he Avater is ejefted AVith fo much
force, as not only to repel the approach of ordinary
enemies, but to move the Avhole animal backwards or
fidewife, in a direftion contrary to that in Avhich the
Avater Avas ejefted. It has been alfo luppofed, that
oyfters are deftitute of fenfation 5 but M. Dicquemarre
has IhoAvn, that they not enly poffefs fenfation, but
that they are capable of deriving knoAvledge from ex¬
perience. When removed from fuch places as are en¬
tirely covered Avith the fea, when deftitute of expe¬
rience, they open their {hells and die in a feAV days}
but if they happen to elcape this danger, and the Ava-
ter covers them again, they Avill not open their {hells
again, but keep them {hut, as if warned by experience
to avoid a danger fimilar to Avhat they formerly under-
Avent.
The motions of the fea-urchin are perhaps more cu¬
rious and complicated than thofe of any other animal.
It inhabits a beautiful multivalved {hell, divided into
triangular compartments, and covered Avith great num¬
bers of prickles j from which laft circumftance it re¬
ceives the name of fea urchin or fea hedgehog.. The
triangles
Motion.
I
Motion.
mot [ 462 ] MOT
triangles are feparated from one another by regular
^ belts, and perforated by a great number of holes, from
every one of which iffues a tlelhy horn fimilar to that
or a fnail, and capable of moving in a fimilar manner.
The principal ufe of thefe horns feems to be to fix the
animal to rocks or ftones, though it like wife makes
ufe of them in its progreflive motion. By means of
thefe horns and prickles, it is enabled to walk either
on its back or its belly ; but it moft commonly makes
ufe of thofe which are near the mouth. Occafionally
it has a progreflive motion by turning round like a
wheel.
J he animals caWcA fea-nett/es or medufce, though ex¬
tremely flow in their motions, are neverthelefs evidently
capable of moving at pleafure from place to place. The
variety of their figure is fuch, that it is difficult to affign
them any determinate figure whatever. In general,
however, they referable a truncated cone, the bafe of
which is applied to the rock to which they adhere.
Their colours are various, whitifh, brown, red or green-
ith: the mouth is very large j and when opened appears
furrounded with filaments refembling the horns of fnails,
which being difpofed in three rows around it, give
the animal the appearance of a flower ; and through
every one of thefe the animal has the power of fquirting
the fea water. The ftruflure of thefe animals is ex¬
tremely lingular ; they conlifting all of one organ, viz.
a ftomach. When fearching for food, they extend
their filaments, and quickly entangle any fmall ani¬
mals that come within their reach. The prey is inflant-
ly fwallowed, and the mouth ffiut clofe upon it like a
purfe j in which ftate it remains for many days before
the nutritive parts are extra&ed. The animal, though
Icarcely an inch or an inch and a half in diameter, is
neverthelefs fo dilatable, that it can fwallow large
whelks and mufcles, the fliells of which are thrown out
by the mouth after the nutritive parts have been ex-
haufted. Sometimes the fhell is too large to be voided
this way ; in which cafe the body of the animal fplits,
and the fhell is voided through the opening, which in a
fliort time heals up again. The progreflive motion of
this creature is fo flow, that it refembles that of the
hour hand of a clock, and is performed by means of in¬
numerable mufcles placed on the outfide of the body.
All thefe are tubular, and filled with a fluid, which
makes them projeft like prickles. On occafion it can
likewife loofen the bafe of the cone from the rock, and
inverting its body, move by means of the filaments
already mentioned, which furround the mouth j but
even the motion performed in this manner is almoft as
flow as the other.
Some animals are capable of moving backwards, ap¬
parently with the fame facility that they do forwards,
and that by means of the fame inftruments which move
them forward. The common houfe fly exhibits an
inftance of this, and frequently employs this retrograde
motion in its ordinary courfes j though we cannot
know the reafon of its employing fuch an extraordinary
method. Another remarkable inftance is given by Mr
Smellie in the mafon-bee. This is one of the folitary
fpecies, and has its name from the mode of conftru&ing
its neft with mud or mortar. Externally this neft has
no regular appearance, but at firft fight is taken for a
quantity of dirt adhering to the wall} though the inter¬
nal part be furniftied with cells in the fame regular
manner with the nefts of other infe&s of the bee kind. Motior,
When this bee leaves its neft, another frequently '"““■"v™"""
takes pofleffion of it ; in which cafe a battle never fads
to enfue on the return of the real proprietor. The
difpute is decided in the air j and each party endea¬
vours to get above the other, as birds of prey are wont
to do in order to give a downward blow. The under-
moft one, to avoid the ftroke, inftead of flying forward
or laterally, always flies backward. The encounter is
fo violent, that when they ftrike, both parties fall to
the ground.
Vegetable MOTION. Though vegetables have not the
power of moving from one place to another like animals,
they are neverthelefs capable of moving their different
parts in fuch a manner as would lead us to fufpeft that
they are actuated by a fort of inftinft. Hence many
have been induced to fuppofe, that the animal and ve¬
getable kingdoms are in a manner indiftinguifhable from*
one another 5 and that the higheft degree of vegetable
life can hardly be known from the loweft degree of ani¬
mal life. The effential and infuperable diffin&ion, how¬
ever, between the two, is the faculty of fenfation, and
loco-motion in eonfequence of it. Were it not, indeed,
for the manifeftation of fenfe by moving from one place
to another, we ffiould not be able to tell whether vege¬
tables were poffeffed of fenfation or not; but whatever
motions they may be poffeffed of, it is certain that no
vegetable has the faculty of moving from one place to
another. Some have endeavoured to diitinguilh the two
kingdoms by the digeffion of food ; alleging that plants
have no proper organs, fuch as a ftomach, &c. for tak¬
ing in and digeffing their aliment. But to this it has
been replied, that the whole body of a vegetable is a
ftomach, and abforbs its food at every pore. This,
however, feems not to be a fufficient anfwer. All ani¬
mals take in their food at intervals, and there is not a
fingle inftance of one which eats perpetually. The
food is alfo taken into the body of the animal, and
application of the parts made by means of the internal
organization of the vifeus $ but in vegetables, their
whole bodies are immerfed in their food, and abforb
it by the furface, as animal bodies will fometimes ab-
lorb liquids when put into them. The roots of a tree
indeed will change their direflion when they meet with
a ftone, and will turn from barren into fertile ground j
but this is evidently mere meehanifm, without any
proof of will or fenfation ; for the nouriftiment of the
root comes not from the ftone, but from the earth
around it; and the increafe in fize is not owing
to any expanfion of the matter which the root already
contains, but to the appofition of new matter ; wffience
the increafe of fize muft always take place in the di»
re&ion from whence the nouriffiment proceeds. On
this principle alfo may we explain the reafon why the
roots of a tree, after having arrived at the edge of a
ditch, inftead of fhooting out into the air, will creep
down the one fide, along the bottom, and up the
other.
In their other movements the vegetables difeover no¬
thing like fenfation or defign. They will indeed uni¬
formly bend towards light, or towards water; but in
the one cafe we muft attribute the phenomenon to the
action of the elements of light and air upo.n them $
and in the latter, the property feems to be the fame \
with what in other cafes we call attra&ion. Thus, if
a
MOT [ 46
, Motion, a root be uncovered, and a wet iponge placed near it
<i  •' a direftian different from that in which the root
was proceeding, it will foon alter its pofition, and
turn towards the fponge } and thus we may vary the
direction of the root as often as we pleafe. The ef¬
forts of a plant to turn from darknefs or {hade into
funfhine are very remarkable } as in order to accomplifh
this, not only the leaves will be inclined, but even the
Items and branches twiffed. When a wet fponge is
held under the leaves of a tree, they bend down in
order to touch it. If a veffel of water be put within
fix inches of a growing cucumber, in lefs than 24
hours the latter will alter its direction ; the branches
will bend towards the water, and never alter their
courfe until they come in contact with it. The moft
I remarkable inftance of this kind of motion, however, is,
that when a pole is brought near a vine, the latter will
turn towards it, and never ceafe extending its branches
till it lays hold of the fupport.
The motions of the fenfitive plant, and others of
the fame kind, have been confidered as very wonder¬
ful } but it is doubtful if any of them be really more
fo than that of the vine juft mentioned. None of
thefe fhow any kind of propenfity to move without an
actual touch. A very flight one, indeed, makes the
fenfitive plant contra#, and the whole branch, toge¬
ther with the leaves, bend down towards the earth.—
Thefe phenomena are by fome afcribed to ele#ricity.
Even the motions of the hedyfaritm gyrans, which at
firft fight feem fo much more furpriflng than thofe of
the fenfitive plant, may it is fuppofed admit of ex¬
planation upon the fame principle. The American
plant called dioncea mufcipula, or Venus's fly-trap, is
another example of very wonderful mechanifm in ve¬
getables, though even this does not argue any degree
of fenfation in this plant more than in others. The
leaves of the dionEea are jointed, and furnifhed with
two rows of prickles. A number of fmall glands upon
the furface fecrete a fweet juice which entices flies to
come and fettle upon it; but the moment thefe infedfts
touch the fatal fpot, the leaves fold up, and fqueeze
them to death between the prickles. The leaves fold
up in the fame manner when the plant is touched with
a ftraw or pin. The drofera rotun difolia and long folia,
round and long-leafed fundew, plants of our own coun¬
try, not uncommon in boggy ground, poffefs a fimilar
ftrufture, and perform fimilar functions.
The folding up of the leaves of certain plants in the
abfence of the fun’s light, called their Jleep, affords
another very curious inftance of vegetable motion.—
Almoft all vegetables, indeed, undergo fuch a remark¬
able change in the night, that it is difficult to know
exaftly bow many kinds do really fleep. They fold up
their leaves in many different ways ; but all agree in
difpofing of them in fuch a manner as to afford the beft
proteflion to the young ftems, flowrer buds or fruit..
The leaves of the tamarind tree contra# round the
young fruit in order to prote# it from no#urnal cold j
and thofe of fenna, glycina, and many other papiliona¬
ceous plants, difpofe of their leaves in the fame man¬
ner. The leaves of the chickweed, afclepias atriplex,
&c. are difpofed in oppofite pairs. In the night time they
rife perpendicularly, and join fo clofe at the top that
the flowers are concealed by them. In like manner do
the leaves prote# the flowers of the fida or althaea theo-
3 ] M O T
phrafti, oenothera, folanum, and the Egyptian vetch.
All thefe are ere#ed during the night; but thofe of the u
white lupine, in time of fleep, hang down.
The flowers of plants alfo have motions peculiar to
themfelves. Many of them during the night are en-
clofed in their calyxes. Some, particularly thofe of
the German fpurge, geranium ftriatum, and common
whitlow grafs, when afleep, bend towards the earth j
by which means the noxious effe#s of rain or dew are
prevented. All thefe motions have been commonly
afcribed to the fun’s rays \ and Mr Smellie informs us
that in fome of the examples above mentioned the ef-
fe#s were evidently to be afcribed to heat : but plants
kept in a hot-houl'e, where the temperature of the
day and night are alike, contra# their leaves, and fleep
in the fame manner as if they were expofed to the open
air ; “ whence it appears (fays he), that the fleep of
plants, is owing rather to a peculiar law, than to a
quicker or flower motion of the juices.” He fufpe#s,
therefore, that as the fleep of plants is not ow ing to
the mere abfence of heat, it may be occafioned by the
want of light} and to afeertain this he propofes an
experiment of throwing upon them a ftrong artificial
light. “ If notwithftanding this light (fays he), the
plants are not roufed, but continue to fleep as ufual,
then it may be prefumed that their organs, like thofe
of animals, are not only irritable, but require the re¬
paration of fome invigorating influence which they
have loft while awake, by the agitations of the air and
of the fun’s rays, by the aft of growing, or by fome
other latent caufe.” On this, however, we mull re¬
mark, that the throwing of artificial light upon plants
cannot be attended with the fame confequences as that
of the light of the fun, unlefs the former wrere as
ftrong as the latter, which is impoflible \ and even
granting that we could procure an artificial light as
ftrong as that of the fun, a difference might be occa¬
fioned by the different direftions of the rays, thofe of
the fun being very nearly parallel, while the rays of
all artificial light diverge very greatly. If, therefore,
we are to make an experiment of this kind, the rays
ftiould be rendered parallel by means of a burning
mirror. Here again we u7ould be involved in a diffi¬
culty } for the rays of the fun proceed all in one di-
reftion j but as of neceffity we muft employ different
mirrors in our experiment, the light muft fall upon the
plant in different direftions, fo that we could not rea-
fonably expe# the fame refult as when the plants are
direftly expofed to the rays of the fun.
The motion of plants, not being deducible from
fenfation, as in animals, muft be afcribed to that pro¬
perty called irritability ; and this property is poffeffed
infenflbli) by the parts of animals in a greater degree
than even by the moft irritable vegetable. The muf-
cular fibres will contra# on the application of any fli-
mulating fubftance, even after they are detached from
the body to which they belonged. The heart of a frog
will continue to beat when pricked with a pin for feve-
ral hours after it is taken out of the body. The heart
of a viper, or of a turtle, beats diftinftly from 20 to
30 hours after the death of thefe animals. When the
inteftines of a dog, or any other quadruped, are fud-
denly cut into different portions, all of them crawl a-
bout like worms, and contra# upon the flighteft touch.
The heart, inteftines, and diaphragm, are the moft
irritable
Motion.
—'v-—
MOT [ 464 1 M O T
Motion. Irritable parts of animal bodies 5 and to dlfcover whe-
ther this quality refides in all plants, experiments thould
be made chiefly on leaves, flowers, buds, and the ten¬
der fibres of the roots.
The motions of plants are univerfally afcribed by
our author to irritability, to which alfo we have afcribed
them under the article Animal. The term, however,
requires an explanation j and to give this in an intelli¬
gible manner requires fome attention. The motl ob-
vious comparifon is that of an ele&rificd thread; which
on the approacli of any uneleftrified fubftance, tbows a
variety of motions, equally furprifing with thofe of the
parts of plants or the mufcular fibres cut out of the
body. Could we fuppofe that the ele&ricity of a thread
might be preferved after it was cut off from the eleftri-
fying fubftance, it would thow as much irritability as
even the mufcular fibres, or portions of the inteftines of
animals. We know, from the hiftory of the torpedo,
eledlrical eel, &c. that there are animals in which the
ele6tric fluid a£b in fuch a manner as to produce a much
more powerful effect than that of giving motion to the
leaves of plants. The readinefs, therefore, with which
this fluid is thrown into agitations rvhen any fubftance
in which it a£ts is touched, is without doubt the irrita¬
bility in queftion ; but we have from thence no more
reafon to aferibe fenfation to thefe irritable bodies, than
to an electrified bottle when it difeharges itfelf, or
makes a cork ball play around it.
In a paper read before the Academy of Sciences at
Paris, by M. Brouffonet, the author inclines to con¬
found irritability and fenfibility together. The dif¬
ferent parts of plants (fays he) enjoy the faculty of
motion-, but the motions of a vegetable are very diffe¬
rent in their nature from thofe of an animal : the moft
fenfible, thofe that are produced with moft rapidity in
plants, are always influenced by fome ftimulating caufe.
Irritability, which is nothing but fenfibility made ma-
nifeft by motion, is a general law to which nature has
fubieCled all living beings and it is this that conti¬
nually watches over their prefervation. Being more
powerful in animals than in plants, it may be often
eonfounded in thefe laft with phenomena that depend
on a quite different caufe. In the vegetable it is only
the organ which is expofed to the aClion of the ftimu¬
lating power that moves. Irritation in particular pla¬
ces never produces that prompt combination of fenfa-
tions which we obferve in animals ; in confequence of
which certain parts are put in motion without being
direftly affe&ed, and which otherwife might have been
paflive.
“ The more perfect the organization in the differ¬
ent parts of animals is, the more apparent are the figns
of irritability. The parts that come neareft to thofe
of vegetables, and in which of confequence the organi-.
zation is moft imperfect, are the leaft irritable. The
fame law holds with regard to plants; but the refult
is oppofite : the figns of irritability are moft fenfible in
proportion to the analogy of the parts with thofe of
animals 5 and they are imperceptible in thofe that are
difiimilar. This affer.tion is proved by what we obferve
In the organs deftined in vegetables to perpetuate the
fpecies. Thofe parts alone feem fenfible to ftimuli j
the bark, leaves, ftalks, and roots fhoving no figns of
irritability.
<c The motions effentially vital, which have in plants
the greateft affinity with thofe of animals, are the courfe Motion,
of the fap, the paffage of the air in the trachea, the -y—
different petitions which the flowers of certain plants
take at certain hours of the day, &c. But if we attend
to the manner in which all thefe motions in plants are
performed, we {hall find that they prefent a greater
number of modifications than the analogous motions
that take place in animals. The temperature of the
atmofphere, its agitation, light, &c. have great influ¬
ence on the motions of plants, by accelerating or re¬
tarding the courfe of their fluids j and, as they can¬
not change their place, thefe variations produce in
them changes more obvious and more uniform than in
animals.”
Our author now proceeds to inform us, that fome of
the motions of plants are occafioned by the rarity of
the puices in plants, and others by their abundance.
Of the former kind are thofe by which the captules of
fome plants fuddenly burft with a fpring, and throw
their feeds to fome diftance. Of the other kind are
the a6tion of the ftamina in the parietaria, the inflec¬
tion of the peduncles of flowers, and of the piftilla.
“ Thofe motions (fays he) which are particularly ob-
ferved in the organs deftined to the reproduction of
the individual, not appearing except in circumftances
that render them abfolutely neceffary, feem in tome
meafure to be the efteCt of a particular combination:
they are, however, merely mechanical 5 for they are
always produced in the fame wTay and in the fame cir-
cumftances. Thus the rofe of Jericho, and the dry fruit
of feveral fpecies of mefetnbryanthemum, do not open but
when their veffels are full of water.
“ The fudden difengagement of fluids produces a
kind of motion. To this caufe wre muft attribute a
great number of phenomena obfervable in the leaves
of feveral plants, and which do not depend on irrita¬
bility. The fmall glands in each leaf of the dioncea
are no fooner puneffured by an infeCt, than it inftantly
folds up and feizes the animal: the punflure feems to
operate a difengagement of the fluid which kept the
leaf expanded by filling its veffels. \ his explanation
is the more probable, that in the early ftate of the
vegetation of this plant, when the fmall glands are
hardly evolved, and when probably the juices do not
run in fufficient abundance, the leaves are folded up
exactly as they appear when punctured by an infedt at
a more advanced period. We obferve a phenomenon
fimilar to this in both fpecies of the drofera (fun-dew),
mentioned above. The mechanifm here is very eafily
obfervable ; the leaves are at firft folded up the juices
are not yet propelled into the fine hairs w'ith which
they are covered ; but after they are expanded, the
prefence of the fluid is manifeft by a drop feen at the
extremity of each hair : it is by abforbing this fluid that
an infeCl empties the veffels of the leaf, which then folds
up, and refumes its firft ftate : the promptitude of the
aftion is proportioned to the number of hairs touched
by the infedt. This motion in fome degree refembles
that which takes place in the limb of an animal kept
in a ftate of flexion by a tumor in the joint; when the
matter which obftruCted the motion is difeharged, the
limb inftantly refuraes its former pofuion. The phe¬
nomena that depend on the abundance of fluids arc
particularly evident in plants which grow in wet foils;
the drofera and dinner a are of this kind : and it is known
Motion
11 r
Motouau:
MOT [
by the experiments of Meff. Du Fay and Du Hamel,
that fenfitive plants are particularly fenfible when the
t fun is obfcured by clouds and the air warm and moift.
The influence of external caufes fometimes fo modifies
the vital motions in plants, that we would be tempted
to afcribe them to volition, like thofe that depend^ en¬
tirely on that faculty in animals. If we fet a pole in
the ground near a twining plant, it always lays hold of
the pole for fupport, in whatever place we put it. I he
fame thing occurs in the tendrils of the vine } which
always attach themfelves to the fupport prefented them,
on whatever fide it may be placed, provided they can
reach it: but thefe motions are entirely vital : the
twining plants and the tendrils direft themfelves to
every quarter, and confequently cannot fail of meet¬
ing with the bodies within their reach. Thefe mo¬
tions are performed as long as the parts continue to
grow *, but when they ceafe to elongate, if they have
not been able to reach any body on which they can fix,
they l^end back upon themfelves. 1 his and other ob-
fervations {how how far the vital motions in plants may
be modified by external caufes, and how elfentially
they differ from thofe that are the effe& of volition in
animals.
u Some plants appear endowed with no fort of mo¬
tion : fome have leaves that can move in different di¬
rections : their motions are generally modified by dif¬
ferent caufes; but none appear fo eminently poffeffed
of this quality as the hedysarum gyrans of Linnaeus.—
No part of this plant fhows any figns of irritability upon
application of ftimuli : and the motion of its foliola
ceafes when the leafets are agitated by the wind.—
When the fun is warm, the little leaves of the hedy-
farum are alfo immoveable ; but when the weather is
warm and moift, or when it rains, they move very
freely. This motion feems indifpenfably neceffary to
the plant; for it begins as foon as the firfi leaves un¬
fold, and continues even during the night 5 but in
time it grows weaker. In our ftoves it is moft confi-
derable during the fir ft year j in the fecond, it is not
very fenfible : in its native place all the leaves have a
motion never obferved here. The moving leafets are
moft agitated while the plants are in full flower, and
the procefs of fruClification goes on. The ofcillatory
motion is fo natural to it, that it not only remains for
three or four days in the leafets of a branch that has
been cut off and put in water, but is even continued
though the branch be expofed to the air. The leaves
feem to perform the office of the heart in vegetables.
When a plant is ftripped of its leaves, the progrefs of
vegetation is arrefted •, and fuch vegetables referable
thofe animals which have a periodical fleep, induced by
a diminution of the aClion of the heart. Many plants
hardly fhow any figns of motion •, many feem alfo whol¬
ly cataleptic j which is rarely if ever found in animals.
The footftalks of the flowers of dracocephalum, a Vir¬
ginian plant, preferve themfelves in whatever pofition
they are placed.
Mufcular Motion. See Muscle.
MOTIVE, is fometimes applied to that faculty of
the human mind, by which we purfue good and avoid
evil. Thus Hobbes diftinguifhes the faculties of the
mind into two forts, the cognitive and motive.
MOTOUALIS, a fmall nation of Syria, inhabiting
to the eaft of the country of the Druses, in the valley
VOL. XIV. Part II.
4^5 ] MOT
which feparates their mountains from thofe of Damaf- A-otoin;':,‘i
cus * of which the following account is given by Vol-
ney in his Travels, vol. ii.
The charaCteriftie diftinftion between them and the
other inhabitants of Syria (fays our author) .is, that
they, like the Perfians, are of the feCt of Ali, w hile
all the Turks follow that of Omar or Moaouia. . This
diftinClion, oecafioned by the fchifm which in the
36th year of the Hegira arofe among the Arabs, re-
fpecting the fucceffors of Mahomet, is the caufe of an
irreconcilable hatred between the two parties. I he
fetftaries of Omar, who eonfider themfelves as the only
orthodox, affume the title of Sonnites, which has that
fignification, and term their adverfaries Shiites, that is
^• iocfaries of Alid^ 1 he word fylotoucih has the fame
meaning in the dialed! of Syria. The followers of
Ali, diffatisfied with this name, fubftitute that of Adlia,
which means “ affertors of juftice,” literally “ Jufti-
ciarians a denomination which they have affumed
in confequence of a dodtrinal point they advance in
op pofition to the Sonnite faith. A fmall Arabic trca-
tife, entitled Theological Fragments concerning the
Sedts and Religions of the World, has .the following
paffage:
“ Thefe fedlaries who pretend that God adls only
on principles of juftice, conformable to human reafon,
are called Ad/ia or Jujiiciarians. God cannot (fay
they) command an impradticable worftiip, nor ordain
impoftible adtions, nor enjoin men to perform what is
beyond their ability ; but wherever he requires obedi¬
ence, will beftow the power to obey. He.removes the
caufe of evil, he allows us to reafon, and impofes only
Avhat is eafy, not what is difficult *, he makes no man
refponfible for the adtions of another, nor punifhes
him for that in which he has no part •, he imputes not
as a crime what himfelf has created in man } nor does
he require him to avoid what deftiny has decreed.—
This would be injuftice and tyranny,, of which God
is incapable, from the perfedtion of his being. Lo
this dodtrine, which diametrically oppofes the fyftem
of the Sonnites, the Motoualis add certain ceremonies
which increafe their mutual averfion. They curfe
Omar and Moaouia as rebels and ufurpers ; and cele¬
brate Ali and Hofain as faints and martyrs. They
begin their ablutions at the elbow, inftead of the end
of the finger, as is cuftomary with the 1 urks $ they
think themfelves defiled by the touch of ftrangers j and,
contrary to the general pradtice of the Eaft, neither eat
nor drink out of a veffel which has been ufed by a per-
fon not of their fedt, nor will they even fit with fuch at
the fame table.
Thefe dodtrines and cuftoms, by feparating the Mo¬
toualis from their neighbours, have rendered them a
diftindt fociety. It is faid they have long exifted as
a nation in this country, though their name has never
been mentioned by any European writer before the
18th century; it is not even to be found in the maps
of D’Anville : La Roque, who left their country not
a hundred years ago, gives them the name of Ante-
diens. Re this as it may, in later times their wars,
robberies, fucceffes, and various changes of fortune,
have rendered them of confequence in Syria.. Till about
the middle of this century, they only poffeffed Balbec
their capital, and a few places in the valley,.and Anti-
Lebanon, which feems to have been their original
3 N country.
mot [ 466 ] M O U
Motoualis, country. At that period we find them under a like
, Mott:0- , government with the Druzes, that is to fay, under
a number of Shaiks, with one principal chief of the
family of Harfoufli. After the year 1750 they eita-
blifhed themfelves among the heights of Bekaa, and
got footing in Lebanon, where they obtained lands
belonging to the Maronites, almoft as far as Belharrai.
They even incommoded them fo much by their ravages,
as to oblige the emir Youfef to attack them with open
force and expel them 5 but on the other fide, they
advanced along the river even to the neighbourhood
of Sour (Tyre). In this fituation, Shaik Daher had
the addrefs, in 1760, to attach them to his party.—
The pachas of Saide and Damafcus claimed tributes,
which they had neglected paying, and complained of
feveral robberies committed on their fubjefts by the
Motoualis; they were defirous of challifing them $
but this vengeance was neither certain nor eafy.
Daher interpofed} and by becoming fecurity for the
tribute, and promifing to prevent any depredations,
acquired allies who were able, as it is faid, to arm
10,000 horfemen, all refolute and formidable troops.
Shortly after they took poffeflion of Sour, and made
this village their principal fea port. In 1771 they
were of great fervice to Ali Bey and Daher againft
the Ottomans. But Emir Youfef having in their ab-
fence armed the Druzes, ravaged their country. He
was befieging the cattle of Djezin, when the Motoualis,
returning from Damafcus, received intelligence of
this invafion. At the relation of the barbarities com¬
mitted by the Druzes, an advanced corps, of only
500 men, were fo enraged, that they immediately
rufhed forward againtt the enemy, determined to perith
in taking vengeance. But the furprife and confufion
they occafioned, and the difeord which reigned be¬
tween the two factions of Manfour and Youfef, fo
much favoured this defperate attack, that the whole
army, confifting of 25,000 men, was completely over-
thrown.
In the following year, the affairs of Daher taking
a favourable turn, the zeal of the Motoualis cooled to-
•wards him, and they finally abandoned him in the ca-
taftrophe in which he loft his life. But they have
fuffered for their imprudence under the adminiftration
of the pacha -who fucceeded him. Since the year
1777, Djezzar, mafter of Acre and Saide, has incef-
fantly laboured to deftroy them. His perfecution for¬
ced them in 1784 to a reconciliation with the Druzes,
and to enter into an alliance with the emir Youfef.
Though reduced to lefs than 700 armed men, they
did more in that campaign than 15,000 or 20,000
Druzes and Maronites affembled at Dair-el-Kamar.
They alone took the ftrong fortrefs of Mar-Djebaa^
and put to the fword 50 or 60 Epirots Avho defended
it. But the mifunderftanding which prevailed among
the chiefs of the Druzes having rendered abortive all
their operations, the pacha has obtained poffeflion of
the whole valley, and the city of Balbec itfelf. At
this period not more than 500 families of the Motoualis
remained, who took refuge in Anti-Lebanon, and
the Lebanon of the Maronites; and, driven as they
now are from their native foil, it is probable they will
be totally annihilated, and even their very name become
extin ft.
MOTTO, in armoury, a fhort fentence or phrafe,
carried in a fcroll, generally under, but fometimes over, Motto
the arms: fometimes alluding to the bearing, fome- H
times to the name of the bearer, and fometimes con- ,
taining whatever pleafes the fancy of the devifer.
MOVEABLE, in general, denotes any thing ca¬
pable of being moved.
MOVEABLE Feajls, are fuch a^ are not always held
on the fame day of the year or month 5 though they be
on the fame day of the week. See Feasts,
Thus, Eafter is a moveable feaft, being always held
on the Sunday which falls upon or next after the firft
full moon following the 21ft of March.
All the other moveable feafts follow Eafter, i. e. they
keep their diftance from it j fo that they are fixed with
refpeft thereto.
Such are Septuagefima, Sexagefima, Afti Wednef-
day, Afcenfion day, Pentecoft, Trinity Sunday, &c^
which fee under their proper articles, Septuagesima,
&c.
MOVEABLE ^ubjeB, in Law, any thing that moves
itfelf, or tan be moved } in contradiftinftion to immove¬
able or heritable fubjefts, as lands, houfes, &c.
MOVEMENT, Motion, a term frequently ufed in
the fame fenfe with automaton.
The moft ufual movements for keeping time are
watches and clocks: the firft are fuch as {how the parts
of time, and are portable in the pocket; the fecond,
fuch as publifti it by founds, and are fixed as furniture^.
See Horology.
Movement, in its popular ufe among us, fignifies
all the inner works of a watch, clock, or other engine,
which move, and by that motion carry on the defign of
the inftrument.
The movement of a clock or watch is the infide, or
that part which meafures the time, ftrikes, &c. exclu-
five of the frame, cafe, dial plate, &c.
The parts common to both of thefe movements are,
the main-fpring, with its appurtenances j lying in the
fpring box, and in the middle thereof lapping about
the fpring-arbor, to which one end of it is faftened,
A-top of the fpring-arbor is the endlefs ferew and its
wheel j but in fpring-clocks, this is a ratchet-wheel with
its click, that flops it. That which the main-fpring
draws, and round which the chain or firing is wrapped,
is called the fufy ; this is ordinarily taper j in large
works, going with weights, it is cylindrical, and called,
the barrel. The fmall teeth at the bottom of the fufy
or barrel, which flop it in winding up, is called the
ratchet; and that Avhicli flops it when wound up, and
is for that end driven up by the fpring, the garde-gut.
The wrheels are various: the parts of a wheel are, the
hoop or rim, the teeth, the crofs, and the collet or
piece of brafs foldered on the arbor or fpindle whereon
the wheel is rivetted. The little wheels playing in the
teeth of the larger are called pinions ; and their teeth,
which are 4, 5, 6, 8, &c. are called leves ; the ends of
the fpindle are called pivots ; and the guttered wheel,
with iron fpikes at bottom, wherein the line of ordi¬
nary clocks runs, the pulley. We need not fay any
thing of the hand, ferews, wedges, flops, &c. See
Wheel, Fusy, &c.
Perpetual MOVEMENT. See Perpetual MOTION.
MOUFET, Thomas, a celebrated Englifti phyfi-
cian, was born at London, and praftifed medicine
with great reputation. Towards the latter end of his
life
M O U [ 467 ] M O U
Ifoufet life he retired to the country, and died about the year
", 1600. This phyfician is known by a work which was
, hep-un by Edward Wotton, and printed at London in
1634, folio, with the title of Theatrum InfcBorum. A
tranilation of it into Englifh was publilhed at London
•in 1658, folio. Martin Lifter gives a very unfavour¬
able opinion of this book : “ As Moufet (fays he)
made ufe of Wotton, Gefner, &.c. an excellent, work
might have been expe£ted from him •, and yet his Thea¬
trum is full of confufion, and he has made a very bad
ufe of the materials with which thefe authors have fur-
niftied him. He is ignorant of the fubjeff of which he
treats, and his manner of expreflion is altogether bar¬
barous. Befides this, he is extremely arrogant, to fay
no worfe ; for though he has copied Aldrovandus in in¬
numerable places, he never once mentions his name.”
But Ray thinks that Lifter, by exprefting himfelf in this
manner, has not done juftice to Moufet $ and he main¬
tains that the latter has rendered an effential fervice to
the republic of letters.
MOUG-DEN, or Chen-YANG j a city of Chinefe
Tartary, and capital of the country of the Mantchews
or Eaftern Tartars. Thefe people have been at great
pains to ornament it with feveral public edifices, and
to provide it with magazines of arms and ftorehoufes.
They confider it as the principal place of their nation j
and fince China has been under their dominion, they
have eftabliftied the fame tribunals here as at Peking,
excepting that called Lii-pcu : thefe tribunals are com-
pofed of Tartars only ; their determination is final j
And in all their a61s they ufe the Tartar characters and
language. The eity is built on an eminence ; a num¬
ber of rivers add much to the fertility of the furround¬
ing country. It may be confidered as a double city,
of which one is enclofed within the other : the interior
contains the emperor’s palace, hotels of the principal
mandarins, fovereign courts, and the different tribu¬
nals ; the exterior is inhabited by the common people,
tradefmen, and all thofe who by their employments
or profeffions are not obliged to lodge in the interior.
The latter is almoft a league in circumference ; and the
walls which enclofe both are more than three leagues
round : thefe walls were entirely rebuilt in 1631, and
repaired feveral times under the reign of Kang-hi.
MOULD, or Mold, in the mechanic arts, See. a
cavity artificially cut, with a defign to give its form or
impreflion to fome fofter matter applied therein. Moulds
are implements of great ufe in fculpture, foundery, &c.
The workmen employed in melting the mineral or
metallic ore dug out of mines, have their feveral moulds
to receive the melted metal as it comes out of the fur¬
nace j but thefe are different according to the diverfity
of metals and works. In gold mines, they have moulds
for ingots j in filver mines, for bars ; in copper and
lead mines, for pigs or falmons j in tin mines, for pigs
and ingots ; and in iron mines, for fows, chimney backs,
anvils, caldrons, pots, and other large utenfils and mer-
chandifes of iron j which are here caft, as it were, at
£rft hand.
Moulds of founders of large works, as ftatues, bells,
guns, and other brazen works, are of wax, fupported
within-fide by what we call a core, and covered with-
out-fide •with a cape or cafe. It is in the fpace which
the wax took up, which is afterwards melted away to
leave it free, that the liquid metal runs, and the work
is formed ; being carried thither through a great num- Moulds,
ber of little canals, which cover the whole mould. See T" »
Foundery.
Moulds of moneyers are frames full of fand, where¬
in the plates of metal are caft that are to ferve for the
linking of fpecies of gold and filver. See Coining.
A fort of concave moulds made of clay, having
within them the figures and inferiptions of ancient
Roman coins, are found in many parts of England, and
fuppofed to have been ufed for the calling of money.
Mr Baker having been favoured with a fight of fome
of thefe moulds found in Shropfhire, bearing the lame
types and inferiptions with fome of the Roman coins,
gave an account of them to the Royal Society. They
were found in digging of fand, at a place called Ryton
in Shroplhire, about a mile from the great Watling-
ftreet road. They are all of the fize of the Roman de¬
narius, and of little more than the thicknefs of our
halfpenny. They are made of a fmooth pot or brick
clay, which feems to have been firll well eleanfed from
dirt and land, and well beaten or kneaded, to render it
fit for taking a fair impreffion. There were a great
many of them found together, and there are of them
not unfrequently found in Yorkshire j but they do not
feem to have been met with in any other kingdom, ex¬
cept that fome have been faid to be once found at
Lyons. They have been fometimes found in great
numbers joined together fide by fide, on one flat piece
of clay, as if intended for the calling of a great num¬
ber of coins at once j and both thefe, and all the others
that have been found, feem to have been of the empe¬
ror Severus. They are fometimes found imprefled on
both fides, and fome have the head of Severus on one
fide and fome well known reverfe of his on the other.
They feem plainly to have been intended for the coin¬
age of money, though it is not eafy to fay in what
manner they can have been employed for that purpofe,
efpecially thofe which have impreflions on both fidcs,
unlefs it may be fuppofed that they coined two pieces
at the fame time by the help of three moulds, of which
this was to be the middle one. If by difpofing thefe
into fome fort of iron frame or cafe, as our letter-
founders do the brafs moulds for calling their types, the
melted metal could be eafily poured into them, it would
certainly be a very eafy method of coining, as fuch
moulds require little time or expence to make, and
therefore might be fupplied with new ones as often as
they happen to break.
Thefe moulds feem to have been burnt or baked
fufficiently to make them hard *, but not fo as to ren¬
der them porous like our bricks, whereby they would
have loft their fmooth and even furface, which in thefe
is plainly fo clofe, that whatever metal Ihould be form¬
ed in them would have no appearance like the fand-
holes by which counterfeit coins and metals are ufually
detefted.
Moulds of founders of fmall works are like the
frames of coiners : it is in thefe frames, which are
likewife filled with fand, that their feveral works are
falhioned ; into which, when the two frames of which
the mould is compofed, are rejoined, the melted brafs is
run.
Moulds of letter-founders are partly of fteel and
partly of wood. The wood, properly fpeaking, ferves
only to cover the real mould which is within, and to
3 N 2 prevent
M O U [ 468 ] M O U
prevent tlie workman, who holds it in his hand, from
being incommoded by the heat of the melted metal.
Only one letter or type can be formed at once in each
mould. See Letter Foundery.
Moulds, in the manufafture of paper, are little
frames' compofed of feverai brafs or iron wires, fatten¬
ed together by another wire it ill finer. Each mould is
of the bignefs of the iheet of paper to be made, and has
a rim or ledge of wood to which the wires are fattened.
Thefe moulds are more ufually called frames or forms.
See PAPER-Making.
Moulds, with furnace and crucible makers, are made
of wood, of the fame form with the crucibles j that is, in
form of a truncated cone : they have handles of wood
to hold and turn them with, when being covered with
the earth, the workman has a mind to round or flatten
his veflel.
Moulds for leaden bullets are little iron pincers,
each of whofe branches terminates in a hemifpherical
concave, which when flmt form an entire fphere. In
the lips or fides where the branches meet is a little jet
or hole, through which the melted lead is conveyed.
Laboratory MOULDS are made of -wood, for filling
and driving all forts of rockets and cartridges, &c.
Glaziers MOULDS. The glaziers have two kinds of
moulds, both ferving to caft their lead: in the one they
call the lead into long rods or canes fit to be drawn
through the vice, and the grooves formed therein ; this
they fometimes call ingot-mould. In the other, they
mould thofe little pieces of lead a line thick and two
lines broad, faftened to the iron bars. Thefe may be
alfo call in the vice.
Goldfmiths MOULDS. The goldfmiths ufe the bones
of the cuttle fifh to make moulds for their fmall works j
which they do by prefling the pattern between two
bones, and leaving a jet or hole to convey the metal
through, after the pattern has been taken out.
Mould, among mafons, is a piece of hard wrood or
iron hollowed within fide, anfwerable to the contours
of the mouldings or cornices, &c. to be formed. This
is otherwife caliber.
Moulds, among plumbers, are the tables on which
they call flieets of lead. Thefe they fometimes call
limply tables. Befides which they have other real
moulds, wherewith they caft pipes without foldering.
See each deferibed under Plumbery.
Moulds, among the glafs grinders, are wooden
frames, whereon they make the tubes wherewith they
fit their perfpeftives, telefcopes, and other optic ma¬
chines. Thefe moulds are cylinders, of a length and
diameter according to the ufe they are to be applied
to, but always thicker at one end than the other, to
facilitate the Aiding. The tubes made on thefe moulds
are of twro kinds 5 the one limply of pafteboard and
paper; the other of thin leaves of "wood joined to the
pafteboard. To make thefe tubes to draw out, only
the laft or innermoft is formed on the mould \ each
tube made afterwards ferving as a mould to that which
is to go over it, but without taking out the mould from
the firft. See Grinding.
Moulds ufed in balket-making are very fimple, con¬
fining ordinarily of a willow or ofier turned or bent in¬
to an oval, circle, fquare, or other figure, according to
the balkets, panniers, hampers, and other utenfils in¬
tended. On thefe moulds they make, or more properly
4
meafure, all their work ; and accordingly they have Moulds
them of all fizes, lhapes, &c. II
Mould, in (hip-building, a thin flexible piece of -^0ll|mct^
timber, ufed by fhipwrights as a pattern wLereby to
form the different curves of the timbers, and other com-
paffing pieces in a fliip’s frame. There are two forts of
thefe, viz. the bend mould and hollow mould \ the form¬
er of thele determines the convexity of the timbers, and
the latter their concavity on the outfide, w here they ap¬
proach the heel, particularly towards the extremities of
the veffel. The figure given to the timbers by this
pattern is called heir bevelling.
Moulds, among tallow chandlers, are of two kinds:
the firft for the common dipped candles, being the vef¬
fel wherein the melted tallow is difpofed, and the wick
dipped. This is of wood, of a triangular form, and
fupported on one of its angles: fo that it has an open¬
ing of near a foot a-top: the other, ufed in the fabric
of mould candles, is of brafs, pewter, or tin.—Here
each candle has its feverai mould. See Candle.
Mould, among gold-beaters, a certain number of
leaves of vellum or pieces of gut, cut fquare of a cer¬
tain fize, and laid over one another, between which
they put the leaves of gold and filver which they beat
on the marble with the hammer. See Gold Leaf.
They have four kinds of moulds \ two whereof are
of vellum and two of gut •, the fmalleft of thofe of
vellum confifts of 40 or 50 leaves j the largeft contains
100 : for the others, each contains 500 leaves. The
moulds have all their feverai cafes, confiding of two
pieces of parchment, ferving to keep the leaves of the
mould in their place, and prevent their being diforder-
ed in beating.
Mould, in Agriculture, a general name for the foft
earthy fubftance with which the dry land is generally
covered, and in which all kinds of vegetables take root
and grow. It is far from being an homogeneous fub¬
ftance j being compofed of decayed animal and vege¬
table matters, along with calcareous, argillaceous, and
filiceous earths, mixed together in various proportions,
and with the different degrees of moifture, conftituting
every variety of Soil.
MOULDINESS, is a white down or lanugo, which
is produced on the furface of animal or vegetable mat¬
ters in a (late of putrefadtion 5 and which viewed
through a microfcope appears like a kind of meadow,
out of which arife herbs and flowers. See Mucor,
Botany Index.
MOULDING, any thing caft in a mould, or that
feems to have been fo, though in reality it were cut
with a chifel or the axe.
Mouldings, in ArcIiteBure, proje&ures beyond
the naked wall, column, wainfeot, &e. the affemblage
of which forms corniches, door cafes, and other deco¬
rations of Architecture. See that article.
MOULINET is ufed in Mechanics, to fignify a
roller, which being croffed with two levers, is ufually
applied to cranes, capftans, and other forts of engines
of the like nature to draw ropes, heave up Hones,
&c.
Moulinex is alfo a kind of turnftile or wooden
crofs, which turns horizontally upon a Hake fixed in
the ground; ufually placed in paffages to keep out
horfes, and to oblige paffengers to go and come one by
one, Thefe moulinets are often fet near the outworks
M O U [ 4<
Moulmct of fortified places at the fides of the barriers, through
II which people pals on foot.
Mountain.^ MOULINS, a town of France, in the department
^ of Allier, and containing about 16,000 inhabitants.
The houfes ot the Chartreux, and that of the \ dila¬
tion, are magnificent. It has a conliderable trade in
cutlery ware, and is feated on the river Adder, in a
pleafant fertile plain, almoft in the middle ot trance,
30 miles fouth of Nevers, and 55 north of Clermont.
E. Long. 3. 25. N. Lat. 46. 34.
MOULTON, North, a town of Devonlhire, on the
river Moul.
Moulton, South, on the fame ftream, 182 miles
from London. This, as well as the former, was
anciently royal demefne. It fent members to parlia¬
ment in the reign of Edward I. confilts of a mayor, 1 8
capital burgelfes, a recorder, town clerk, and 2 fer-
jeants at mace. Its chief manufactures are ferges,
lhalloons, and felts j and a confiderable market for
wool.
MOULTING, or Molting, the falling olf or
change of hair, feathers, Ikins, horns, or other parts of
animals, happening in fome annually, in others only at
certain ftages of life.
The generality of animals moult in the fpring. The
moulting of a hawk is called mewing. The moulting
of a deer is the quitting of his horns in February or
March. The moulting of a ferpent is the putting off
his Ikin. See ExuviiE.
MOUND, a term ufed for a bank or rampart, or
other fence, particularly that of earth.
Mound, in Heraldry, a ball or globe with a crofs
upon it, fuch as our kings are ufually drawn with,
holding it in their left hand, as they do the feeptre in
the right.
MOUNT, an elevation of earth, called alfo moun¬
tain. See Mountain.
Mount Edgecumbe, a prodigious high peak, at the
entrance of Cook’s ftrait, in New Zealand, on the welt
fide. Its height is fuppofed not to be much inferior to
that of the Peak of TenerifFe,
Mount Sorrel, a town in Leicefterlhire, fo named
from a high mount or folid rock adjoining to the town,
of a dulky red or forrel-coloured done, extremely hard.
Of rough Hones hewn out of this rock the town is
built. It has a market on Mondays. It was noted
formerly for its caftle, and is feated on the river Stour,
over which there is a bridge. It is 20 miles fouth-eail
by fouth of Derby, and 105 north-well by north of
London. W. Long. 1. 9. N. Lat. 52. 45.
MOUNTS of Piety, certain funds or eltablilhments in
Italy, where money is lent out on fome fmall fecurity.
There were alfo mounts of piety in England, raifed by
contribution for the benefit of people ruined by the ex¬
tortions of the Jews.
MOUNTAIN {Mans'), a confiderable eminence of
land, elevated above the furrounding country : It is
commonly-full of inequalities, cavities more or lefs ex-
pofed, and ftrata uncovered. For the natural hillory
of mountains, fee Mountain, Geology Index.
i9 ] M O U
At tv aB ion of MOUNTAINS. This is a late difeovery, Mountain,
and a very confiderable confirmation of Sir Ifaac New- v
ton’s theory of univerfal gravity. According to the
Newtonian fyftem, an attractive power is not only
exerted between thofe large maffes of matter which
conftitute the fun and planets, but likewife between
all comparatively fmaller bodies, and even between the
fmalleit particles of which they are compwfed. A-
greeably to this hypqthefis, a heavy body, which ought
to gravitate or tend toward the centre of the earth, in
a direction perpendicular to its lurface, fuppofing the
faid furface to be perfeftly even and ipherical, ought
likewife, though in a lefs degree, to be attrafted and
tend towards a mountain placed on the earth’s lur¬
face j fo that a plumb line, for inllance, of a quadrant,
hanging in the neighbourhood of fuch a mountain,
ought to be drawn from a perpendicular fituation, in
confequence of the attractive power of the quantity of
matter of which it is compofed aCting in a direction dif¬
ferent from that exerted by the whole mafs of matter in
the earth, and with a proportionably inferior degree of
force.
Though Sir Ifaac Newton had long ago hinted at an
experiment of this kind, and had remarked, that ‘‘ a
mountain of an hemifpherical figure, three miles high
and fix broad, would not, by its attraction, draw the
pltimb line two minutes out of the perpendicular (e)
yet no attempt to afeertain this matter by adtual expe¬
riment was made till about the year 1738-, when tha
French academicians, particularly MeiTrs Bouguer and
Condamine, who were fent to Peru to meafure a de¬
gree under the equator, attempted to difeover the at¬
tractive power of Chimboraco, a mountain in the pro¬
vince of Quito. According to their obfervations, w'hich
were however made under circumltances by no means
favourable to an accurate folution of fo nice and dif¬
ficult a problem, the mountain Chimboraco exerted an
attraction equal to eight feconds. Though this expen-
ment was not perhaps fufficient to prove fatisfaCtorily
even the reality of an attraction, much lefs the precife
quantity of it; yet it does not appear that any Iteps had
been fince taken to repeat it.
Through the munificence of his Britannic majelty,
the Royal Society were enabled to undertake the exe¬
cution of this delicate and important experiment ; the
altronomer royal was chofen to conduCt it. After va¬
rious inquiries, the mountain Schehallien, fituated near¬
ly in the centre of Scotland, was pitched upon as the
molt proper for the purpofe that could be found in this
illand. Therobfervations were made by taking the me¬
ridian zenith diltances of different fixed liars, near the
zenith, by means ot a zenith feCtor of ten feet radius j
firit on the fouth, and afterwards on the north fide of
the hill, the greatelt length of which extended in an
ealt and welt direction.
It is evident, that if the mafs of matter in the hill
exerted any fenfible attraction, it would caufe the
plumb-line of the feCtor, through which an obferver
viewed a liar in the meridian, to deviate from its per¬
pendicular fituation, and would attraCt itcontrariwife at
the
(e) By a very eafy calculation it is found that fuch a mountain would attraCt the plumb line l' 187 from the
perpendicular..
M O U [ 470 ] M O U
Mountains, tlie two ftations, thereby doubling the effeft. On the
v foutli fide the plummet would be drawn to the north¬
ward by the attractive power of the hill placed to the
northward of it : and on the north fide, a contrary and
equal deflection of the plumb line would take place in
confequence of the attraction of the hill now to the
fouthward of it. The apparent zenith diilances of
the itars wTould be affected contrariwife } thofe being
increafed at the one itation which were diminithed at
the other : and the correfpondent quantities of the
deflection of the plumb line would give the obferver
the fum of the contrary attractions of the hill, aCting
on the plummet at the two itations j the half of which
will of courfe indicate the attractive power of the
hill.
The various operations requifite for this experiment
lafted about four months j and from them it appears
that the lum of the two contrary attractions of the
mountain Schehallien, in the two temporary obferva-
tions which were fucceflively fixed half way up the hill
(where the effeCt of its attraction would be greatelt),
was equal to ll".6. — From a rough computation,
founded on the known law of gravitation, and on an
affumption that the denfity of the hill is equal to the
mean denlity of the earth, it appears that the attraction
of the hill fliould amount to about the double of this
quantity. From thence it was inferred that the denftty
of the hill is only about half the mean denfity of the
earth. It does not appear, however, that the moun¬
tain Schehallien has ever been a volcano, or is hollow j
as it is extremely folid and denfe, and feemingly com-
pofed of an entire rock.
The inferences drawn from thefe experiments may
be reduced to the following :
“ 1. It appears, that the mountain Schehallien ex¬
erts a fenfible attraction ; therefore, from the rules of
philofophizing, we are to conclude, that every moun¬
tain, and indeed every particle of the earth, is endued
with the fame property, in proportion to its quantity of
matter.
“ 2. The law of the variation of this force, in the
inverfe ratio of the fquaves of the diftances, as laid
down by Sir Ifaac Newton, is allb confirmed by this
experiment. For if the force of attraelion of the hill
had been only to that of the earth, as the matter in the
hill to that of the earth, and had not been greatly in¬
creafed by the near approach to its centre, the attrac¬
tion thereof muff have been wholly infenfible. But
now, by only fuppofing the mean denfity of the earth
to be double to that of the hill, which feems very pro¬
bable from other conliderations, the attraClion of the
hilt will be reconciled to the general law of the varia¬
tion of attraClion in the inverfe duplicate ratio of the
diftances, as deduced by Sir Ifaac Newton from the
comparifon of the motion of the heavenly bodies with
the force of gravity at the furface of the earth 5 and
the analogy of nature will be preferved.
“ 3. We may now, therefore, be allowed to admit
this law, and to acknowledge, that the mean denfity
of the earth is at leaft double of that at the furface ;
and confequently that the denfitv of the internal parts
of the earth is much greater than near the furface.
Hence alfo, the whole quantity of matter in the earth
will be at leaft as great again, as if it had been all com-
pofed of matter of the fame denfity with that at the
furface j or will be about four or five times as great as Mountain*,
il it were all compofed of water.—This conclufion, Mr
Malkelyne adds, is totally contrary to the hypothefis
of fome naturalifts, ‘ who fuppofe the earth to be only
a great hollow {hell of matter ; fupporting itfelf from
the property of an arch, with an immenfe vacuity in the
midlt of it.’ But were that the cafe, the attraClion of
mountains, and even fmaller inequalities in the earth’s
furface would be very great, contrary to experiment,
and would affieCl the meafures of the degrees of the me¬
ridian much more than we find they do ; and the vari¬
ation of gravity, in different latitudes, in going from
the equator to the poles, as found by pendulums, would
not be near fo regular as it has been found by experi¬
ment to be.
“4. As mountains are by thefe experiments found
capable of producing fenfible defleClions of the plumb
lines of aftronomical inftruments ; it becomes a matter
of great importance, in the menfuration of degrees in
the meridian, either to choofe places where the irregu¬
lar attraClion of the elevated parts may be fmall j or
where, by their fituation, they may compenfate or
counteradft the effeCls of each other.”
For meafuring the heights of mountains, fee Baro¬
meter.
Burning Mountains. See ^Etna, Hecla, Vesu¬
vius ; fee alfo Volcano, Geology hide*:.
Marble MOUNTAINS. Of thefe there are great num¬
bers in Egypt, from which, though immenfe quantities
have been carried off for the multitude of great works
ere<5led by the ancient Egyptians ; yet in the opinion
of Mr Bruce, who paffed by them in his journey to A-
byffinia, there is Hill a fufficient fupply to build Rome,
Athens, Corinth, Syracufe, Memphis, Alexandria, and
half a dozen more of fuch cities.
The firll mountain of this kind mentioned by Mr
Bruce is one oppofite to Terfowey, confiding partly of
green marble, partly of granite, with a red bluih upon
a gray ground, and fquare oblong fpots. Here he law
a monftrous obelifk of marble very nearly fquare, bro¬
ken at the end, and nearly 30 feet long and 19 feet in
the face. Throughout the plain there were Scattered
fmall pieces of jafper, with green, white, and red fpots
called in Italy diafpro fauguineo ; and all the moun¬
tains upon that fide feemed to confift of the fame mate¬
rials. From Mr Bruce’s defeription of thefe mountains,
it would appear that they are compofed of ferpentine,
and not of calcareous marble.
Written MOUNTAIN, Mountain of Irfcriptions, or Ji-
bel-al-Mokatteb, a fuppofed mountain or chain of moun¬
tains, in the w ildernefs of Sinai ; on which, for a
great extent of fpace, the marble of which the moun¬
tain confifts is inferibed with innumerable charaClers,
reaching from the ground fometimes to the height of
12 or 14 feet. Thefe were mentioned by a Greek au¬
thor in the third century, and fome of them have been
copied by Pococke and other late travellers j but, after
all, there is Hill a very great uncertainty even of the
exifence of fuch mountain or mountains. The vaft
number of thefe inferiptions, the defert place in which
they are found, and the length of time requifite for ex¬
ecuting the talk, have induced a notion by no means
unnatural, that they are the work of the Ifraelites dur¬
ing their forty years wandering in the wildernefs. Ci¬
thers are of opinion that they contain nothing of any
importance,
M O U [ 47i 3
[fountains, importance, but confift merely of tbe names of travel- of the people.
M O U
He fuppofes that it might have been Mountains.
lers and the dates of their journeys.
M. Niebuhr, who viiited this country during his
travels in the eaft, made every attempt in his power,
though without fuccefs, to obtain a fight of this cele¬
brated mountain. On applying to fome Greeks at Suez,
they all declared that they knew nothing of the written
mountain : they, however, directed him to an Arabian
flieik, who had paffed all his lifetime in travelling be¬
tween Suez and Mount Sinai; but lie knew no more
of it than the former. Underftanding, however, that
a confiderable reward would be given to any perfon
who would conduft them thither, this Arab directed
them to another } who pretended not only to know
that mountain, but all others upon which there were
any infcriptions throughout the defert. On inquiring
particularly, however, our travellers found that he was
not to be depended upon *, fo that they were obliged to
have recourfe to a fourth Iheik, who by his converfa-
tion convinced them that he had feen mountains with
infcriptions in unknown char afters upon them. It does
not appear, however, that this perfon was very capable,
more than the reft, of leading them to the place they
fo much wiftied for } though he condufted them to
fome rocks upon which there were infcriptions in un¬
known charafters. They are moft numerous in a nar¬
row pafs between two mountains named Om-er ridjlein ;
and, fays M. Niebuhr, “ the pretended Jibel-el-Mo-
katteb may poffibly be in its neighbourhood.” Some
of thefe infcriptions were copied by our author 5 but he
does not look upon them to be of any confequence.
“ They feem (fays he) to have been executed at idle
hours by travellers, who were fatisfied with cutting the
unpoliftied rock with any pointed inftrument, adding to
their names and the date of their journeys fome rude
figures, which befpeak the hand of a people but little
Ikilled in the arts. When fuch infcriptions are execu¬
ted with the defign of tranfmitting to pofterity the me¬
mory of fuch events as might afford inftruftive lelfons,
greater care is generally taken in the preparation of the
ftones, and the infcriptions are engraven with more re¬
gularity.”
When N. Niebuhr arrived at laft at the mountain
to which the (heik had promifed to conduft him, lie
did not find any infcriptions ; but on climbing up to
the top, he found out an Egyptian cemetery, the ftones
of which were covered with hieroglyphics. The tomb
ftones are from five to feven feet in length, fome ftand-
ing on end and others lying flat ; and “ the more care¬
fully they are examined (fays he), the more certainly
do they appear to be fepulchral ftones, having epitaphs
infcribed on them. In the middle of thefe ftones is a
building, of which only the walls norv remain •, and
within it are likewife a great many of the fepulchral
ftones. At one end of the building feems to have been
a fmall chamber, of which the roof ftill remains. It
is fupported upon fquare pillars ; and thefe, as well as
the walls of the chamber, are covered with hierogly¬
phic infcriptions. Through the whole building are va¬
rious bufts executed in the manner of the ancient E-
gyptians. The fepulchral ftones and the bufts are of
hard and fine grained fand ftone.” M. Niebuhr is of
opinion that this cemetery was not the work of the E-
gyptians themfelves, but of fome colony which came
from Egypt, and had adopted the manners and cuftoms
built by the Arabs, who had conquered Egypt under
the ftiepherd kings, and adopted the Egyptian manners
during their refidence there. As it mult have belong¬
ed to an opulent city, however, he owns that there is
a great difficulty in accounting for the exiftence of fuch
a city in the midft of a defert.
The tranflator of Volney’s travels afcribes thefe in¬
fcriptions to the pilgrims who vifit Mount Sinai. But
to this, as well as to every other conjefture, there is
this objeftion, that whether the infcriptions be well
executed or not, whether they contain matters of im¬
portance or not, they ought to have been written in a
language which fomebody could underftand ; but from
the copies that have been taken of them by Dr Po-
cocke and others, it does not appear that they could be
explained either by him or any other perfon.
When Dr Clayton, bilhop of Clogher, vifited this
part of the world about the year 1723, he exprefled
the greateft defire to have the matter concerning this
written mountain or mountains afcertained, and even
made an offer of 500I. fterling to any literary perfon
who would undertake the journey and endeavour to de¬
cypher the infcriptions 5 but no fuch perfon has appear¬
ed, and the exiftence of the mountains is teftified only
by the fuperior of a convent at Cairo, who gave that
mentioned in the beginning of this article. Until that
part of the world, therefore, become more acceffible to
travellers, there is but little hope that we can come to
any certainty in the matter. M. Niebuhr plainly,
from his own accounts, had not influence enough
with the Arabs to fhow him almoft any thing, as they
refufed to conduft him even to the fummit of Mount
Sinai.
White Mountains. See New Hampshire.
MOUNTAINS of the Moon, a chain of mountains in
Africa, extending between Abyffinia and Monomotapa,
and fo called from their great height.
MOUNTAINS of the Lions, alfo in Africa, divide Ni-
gritia from Guinea, and extend as far as Ethiopia.
They were ftyled by the ancients the mountains of God,
on account of their being greatly fubjeft to thunder and
lightning.
MOUNTAIN of Forty Days ; a mountain of Judea, fi-
tuated in the plain of Jericho to the north of that city*
According to the abbe Mariti’s defeription, the fummit
of It is covered neither with flirubs, turf, nor earth ; it
confifts of a folid raafs of white marble, the furface of
which is become yellow by the injuries of the air.
“ The path by which you afeend to it (fays our author)
fills one with terror, as it rifes with a winding courfe
between two abyfies, which the eye dares fcarcely be¬
hold. This path is at firft pretty broad, but it at
length becomes fo confined, that one can with difficulty,
place both feet upon it at the fame time. When wTe
had afeended a little higher, wre found an Arab ftretch-
ed out on the path, who made us pay a certain toll for
our paflage. Elere the traveller requires courage. One
of the parapets of the path being broke, we clung to
the part which remained until we had reached a fmall
grotto, fituated very commodioufly, as it gave us an op¬
portunity of recovering our breath. When wre had
refted ourfelves a little, we purfued our courfe, which
became ftill more dangerous. Sufpended almoft from
the rock, and having before our eyes all the horror of
the
M O U [ 472 ] * M O U
Mountain, the precipice, we could advance only by dragging one
Mourning. foot a£^er the other •, fo that had the fmalleft fragments
given way under us, we fhould have been hurried to the
bottom of this frightful abyfs.
“ This mountain is one of the higheft in the province,
and one of its moft facred places. It takes its name
from the rigorous fall which Chrift obfervcd here after
having triumphed over the vanities of the world and
the power of hell. In remembrance of this miracle, a
chapel was formerly conilrufled on the fummit of the
mountain. It may be feen from the plain, but we
could not approach it, as the path was almoft entirely
deflroyed. It, however, may be acceffiblc on the
other fide of the mountain, which we did not vifit. A
great many fcattered grottos arc feen here j in one of
which, according to Quarefmius, were depofited the
bodies of feveral anchorets, which are dill entire. I
have heard the fame thing afferted in the country", but
I could never meet with any perfon who had feen them.
Here we enjoyed the moft beautiful profpefl imagina¬
ble. This part of the mountain of Forty Days over¬
looks the mountains of Arabia, the country of Gilead,
the country of the Ammonites, the plains of Moab, the
plain of Jericho, the river Jordan, and the whole extent
of the Dead fea. It was here that the devil faid to the
Son of God, ‘ All thefe kingdoms will 1 give thee, if
thou wilt fall down and worfhip me.”
MOURNING, a particular drefs or habit -worn to
fignify grief on fome melancholy occafion, particularly
the death of friends or of great public charadlers.—
The modes of mourning are various in various coun¬
tries •, as alfo are the colours that obtain for that end.
In Europe, the ordinary colour for mourning is black •,
in China, it is white •, in Turkey, blue or violet *, in
Egypt, yellow •, in Ethiopia, brown. White obtained
formerly in Caftile on the death of their princes. Her¬
rera obferves, that the lad time it was ufed was in 1498,
nt the death of Prince John. Each people pretend to
have their reafons for the particular colour of their
mourning : white is fuppofed to denote purity •, yellow,
that death is the end of human hopes, in regard that
leaves when they fall, and flowers when they fade, be¬
come yellow : brown denotes the earth, whither the
dead return ; black, the privation of life, as being the
privation of light : blue exprefles the happinefs which
it is hoped the deceafed does enjoy j and purple or vio¬
let, forrow on the one fide, and hope on the other, as
being a mixture of black and blue.
Mourning, among the ancients, wras expreffed va¬
rious ways.
Amongft the jews, on the death of their relations
or intimate friends, grief or mourning wras fignified
by creeping, tearing their clothes, fmiting their breads,
or tearing them with their nails, pulling or cutting off
their hair and beards, walking foftly, i, e. barefoot,
lying upon the ground, fading, or eating upon the
ground. They kept themfelves clofe (hut up in their
houfes, covered their faces, and abfiained from all
work, even reading the law, and faying their ufual
prayers. They neither dreffed themfelves, nor made
their beds, nor (haved themfelves, nor cut their nails,
nor went into the bath, nor faluted any body : fo that
fulkinefs feems to have been an indication of forrow,
and dirtinefs of didrefs. The time of mourning a-
rnong the Jews was generally feven days; though this
was lengthened or fhortened according to circumfian- Mourning,
ces *, but 30 days were thought fufficient upon the fe-
vered occafions. The different periods of the time of
mourning required different degrees of grief, and differ¬
ent tokens of it
The Greeks, on the death of friends, drowed their .
forrow by fecluding themfelves from all gaiety, en¬
tertainments, games, public folemnities, the enjoy¬
ment of wine, and the delights of mude. They fat in
gloomy and folitary places, dripped themfelves of all
external ornaments, put on a coarfe black duff by way
of mourning, tore their hair, fhaved their heads, rolled
themfelves in the dud and mire, fprinkled afhes on their
heads, fmote their breads with their palms, tore their
faces, and frequently cried out with a lamentable voice
and drawfling tone, reiterating the interjeflion s,«, s, e j
hence funeral lamentations were called EAeysu If they
appeared in public during the time of mourning, they
had a veil thrown over their faces and heads. During
the funeral proceflion, certain perfons called
marched before, and fung melancholy drains
called cyepvg/t.ioi Aivei, and AtMvoi. Thefe vocal
mourners fung thrice during the proceflion round the
pile and round the grave. Flutes were alfo ufed to
heighten the folemnity. At the funerals of foldiers, their
fellow foldiers who attended, as a tedimony of their af-
diftion, held their diields, their fpears, and the red; of
their armour, inverted.
The tokens of private grief among the Romans were
the fame as thofe already obferved as cudomary among
the Greeks. Black or dark brown vrere the colours of
the mourning habits worn by the men ; they were alfo
common to the women. The mourning of the emperors
at fird was black. In the time of Augudus, the women
wore white veils, and the red of their drefs black. From
the time of Domitian they wrore nothing but white ha¬
bits, without any ornaments of gold, jewels, or pearls.
The men let their hair and beards grow, and wore no
■wreaths of dowers on their heads while the days of
mourning continued. The longed time of mourning
was ten months : this was Numa’s edablidmient, and
took in his whole year. For a widow to marry during
this time was infamous. Mourning was not ufed for
children who died under three years of age. From this
age to ten they mourned as many months as the child
was years old. A remarkable vi£lory, or other happy
event, occadoned the fhortening of the time of mourn¬
ing : The birth of a child, or the attainment of any
remarkable honour in the family, certain feails in ho¬
nour of the gods, or the confecration of a temple, had
the fame effedl. After the battle of Cann®, the com¬
monwealth decreed that mourning fliould not be worn
for more than 30 days, that the lofs might be forgotten
as foon as poffible. When public magiftrates died, or
perfons of great note, alfo when any remarkable cala¬
mity happened, all public meetings were intermitted,
the fchools of exercife, baths, (hops, temples, and all
places of concourfe were flmt up, and the whole city put
on a face of forrow ; the fenators laid afide the latichve^
and the confuls fat in a lower feat than ordinary. This
was the cuflom of Athens alfo, and was obferved upon
the death of Socrates not long after he had been fen-
fenced to death by their judges,
Pra-Jicce, or mourning women, (by the Greeks called
went about the ftreets s this was cuflo-
iiiary
M O U
[ 473 J
M O U
dournmg
Moufui.
tnary among tlie Jews as well as the Greeks and Romans,
(Jerem. ix. 17.)
MOUSE. See Mus, Mammalia Index.
Mouse-Ear. See Milracii'm, ~i Botany Index.
Mouse-Tail. See Myosurus, $
Dor-MOLSE. See Myoxus, J MAMMALIA Index.
Mirevo-Mouse. See Sorex, }
MOUSELLE, the name of an Eaft Indian tree,
with white tubular flowers, which fall off every day in
great plenty. They are of a fweet agreeable fmell,
and the Gentoos are very fond of wearing them,
ftringing and hanging them about their necks and
arms. The fruit is a pale red cherry, of the ftiape and
fize of our white heart cherry, but the fooftalk is not
quite fo long. 1 his fruit has a itone in it, containing
a bitter oily kernel. The Indians rub with this oil
any part ftung by a fcorpion or bitten by a centipede,
which it foon cures. The crows are very fond of the
fruit. _
MOUSUL, or Mosul, a large city of Turkey in
Alia, and capital of a beglerbegate, {lands on the weft
bank of the Tigris, in the latitude, according to Mr
Ives’s obfervation, of 36° 30' north. It is furrounded
with ftone walls, but has many of its ftreets lying wafte.
Tavernier fpeaks of it as a ruined place, wuth only
two blind markets and a forry caftle 5 yet, he fays,
that it is much frequented by merchants, and that its
bafha commands 3000 men. There is a bridge of boats
over the Tigris-, and the city is a thoroughfare from
Perfia to Syria, which makes it a place of trade, and
which is more augmented by a conftant traffic from
this place to Bagdad, f he country on this fide the
river is fandy and barren 5 but on the oppofite fide
k is exceedingly fruitful, yielding good crops of corn
and fruit in abundance. Mr Ives fays it was the beft
built city he had feen in Turkey ; but had nothing in
it to attract the notice of an European. It was be-
fieged for near fix months by Nadir Shah without fuc-
cefs. Breaches were frequently made in the walls,
and affaults continued for three days fuoceflively ; but
the affailants were conftantly repulfed, and the breaches
made in the day time repaired during the night. The
befieged had unanimoufiy refolved to die rather than
to fubmit. The Turks declared, that ftiould the place
be forced to furrender, they were determined to put
to death all their wives and daughters firft, that they
might not fall into the vile hands of the abhorred Per-
fians. The place was therefore defended with uncom-
XEon bravery 5 even the women and children exerted
themfelves with the greateft alacrity. Ihe Chriftians
behaved in fueh a manner as to gain the efteem and ad¬
miration of the other inhabitants ^ and fome of their
churches being demolifhed, they were afterwards repair¬
ed at the expence of government.
In this city there are a great many mofques, the
Jargeft and moft (lately of which is ornamented on the
top with green tiles. At the doors of thefe houfes
there are ufually inferiptions in gilt letters, declaring
the awfulnefs of the building, as being the houfe of
God. One of them has a minaret which bends like
thofe of Bagdad. Some of the moft bigotted Turks
fay, that Mahomet faluted this minaret as he paffed ;
on which it bent its head in reverence to the prophet,
and ever after continued in that fituation. The ma-
Vol, XIV. Part II.
nufa£ture of this city is mujfolen (muffin), which i' blade
very ftrong and pretty fine. In the year 1757'
city and the country adjacent were vifited by a dread¬
ful famine, owing to the preceding hard winter, and
innumerable multitudes of loeufts, by wnich toe fruits
of the earth were deftroyed. When Mr Ives v\as
there in 1758, the country was comparatively depopu¬
lated. Almoft all the brute creation had been de¬
ftroyed for the fubfiftence of man. During the famine,
the people had eaten dogs, and every kind of animai
which is held in abhorrence at any other time, not
fpanng even their own children} and the dead bodies
lay in the ftreets for want of people to bury them.
Their fruit trees were alfo deftroyed by the froft; fo
that when our author was there fcarcely any fruit could
be had. The neighbouring mountains afford filver
mines} and they would yield much quickfilver if the
Turks had either the {kill or inclination to work them
to advantage. Lanza fays, that fome time ago an
Englifhman who travelled through this country got
two or three bottles of it, which he prefented to the
baftia as a fpecimcn of what might be done in that
way : but no farther attempt was made. Here alfo
are fome lead mines, which fupply as much of that
metal as furnifties them with bullets and fome neceffary
utenfils.
MOU-TAN or Peony Shrub of China : alfo call¬
ed hoa-ouang, or il the king of flowers,” and peleang-
kin, “ an hundred ounces of gold,” in allufion to the
exceffive price given formerly by fome of the virtuofi
for certain fpeci'es of this plant. I he mou-tan feems
to claim pre-eminence, not only on account of the
fplendour and number of its flowers, and of the fweet
odour which they diffufe around, but alfo on account
of the multitude of leaves which compofe them, and
of the beautiful golden fpots with which they are in-
terfperfed. This plant, which is of a fhrubby nature,
fhoots forth a number of branches, which form a top
almoft as large as thofe of the fineft orange trees.
MOUTH, in Anatomyy a part of the face, confift-
ing of the lips, the gums, the infides of the cheeks,
the palate, the falival glands, the os hyoides, the uvula,
and the tonfils j which fee under the article Ana¬
tomy.
Mr Derham obferves, that the mouth in the feveral
fpecies of animals is nicely adapted to the ufes of fuch
a part, and well fized and fhaped for the formation of
fpeech, the gathering and receiving of food, the catch¬
ing of prey, See. In fome creatures it is wide and
large, in others little and narrow : in fome it is formed
with a deep incifure into the head, for the better Catch¬
ing and holding of prey, and more eafy comminution of
hard, large, and troublefome food j and in others with
a fhorter incifure, for the gathering and holding of her¬
baceous food. In birds it is neatly fhaped for piercing
the air 5 hard and horny, to fupply the want of teeth;
hooked, in the rapacious kind, to catch and hold their
prey 5 long and (lender in thofe that have their food to
grope for in mooriffi places j and broad and long in thofe
that fearch for it in the mud. Nor is the mouth lefs
remarkable in infefls 5 in fome it is forcipated, to catch,
hold, and tear the prey, in others aculeated, to pierce
and wound animals, and fuck their blood} in others,
ftrongly rigid, with jaws and teeth, te gnaw and ferape
-3 O out
MouGt
11 .
Mouth.
Mouth
II
Muffle.
M U F [ 474 ] m
out their food, carry burdens, perforate the earth, nay which is a reft angular plane.
the hardell wood, and even ftones themfelves, for houfes
and nefts for their young.
MOWEE, one of the Sandwich idands, difcovered
by Captain Cook, is 162 miles in circumference. A
low ilthmus divides it into two circular peninfulas,
of which the eaftern is double the fize of the weftern.
The mountains in both rife to a great height, and may
be feen at the diftance of more than 30 leagues. The
northern fhores, like thofe of Owhyhee, afford no found¬
ings, and the country prefents the fame appearance of
verdure and fertility. The number of inhabitants is
computed at about 65,000. W. Long. 175. 56. N. Lat.
20. id-
IYIOXA, or IVIugwort of China, is a foft lanugi-
nous fubftance, prepared in Japan from the young leaves
of a fpecies of artemisia, by beating them together
wLen thoroughly dried, and rubbing them betwixt the
hands till only the fine fibres are left. The down on
the leaves of mullein, cotton, hemp, &c. anfwers the
fame purpofe.
In the Eaftern countries it is ufed by burning it on
the fkin : a little cone of the moxa is laid upon the
part, previoufly moiftened, and fet on fire at the top
it burns down with a temperate gknving heat, and pro¬
duces a dark coloured fpot, the exulceration of which
is promoted by applying a little garlic -, the ulcer is left
to difeharge, or is foon healed, according to the inten¬
tion in ufing the moxa.
MOYRA. See Moira.
MUCILAGE, in Pharmacy, is in general any vifeid
or glutinous liquor.
Mucilage alfo imports the liquor which princi¬
pally ferves to moiften the ligaments and cartilages of
the articulations, and is fupplied by the mucilaginous
glands.
MUCOR, in Botany, a genus of the order of fungi,
belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of plants. See Bo¬
tany Index..
MUCUS, a mucilaginous liquor fecreted by certain
glands, and ferving to lubricate many of the internal-
cavities of the body. In its natural ftate it is generally
limpid and colourlefs ; but, from certain caufes, affumes
a thick confiftence and a whitilh colour like pus. For
the diftinguifhing charafters between pus and mucus,
fee Chemistry, N° 2769.
MUCK, or Running a Muck, is a practice that
has prevailed time immemorial in Batavia. To run
a muck, in the original fenfe of the word, is to get
intoxicated with opium, and then ruth into the ftreet
with a drawn weapon, and kill any one that comes in
the way, till the party is himfelf either killed or taken
prifoner. If the officer take one of thefe amocks or
mohawks (as they have been called by an eafy corrup¬
tion) alive, he has a confiderable reward ; and the un¬
happy wretch is always broken alive on the wheel :
but fuch is the fury of their defperation, that three
out of four are neceffarily deftroyed in attempting to
fecure them.
MUD-iguana. See Muraina, Ichthyology
Index.
MUFFLE, in Chemijlry, a veffel employed in fome
metallurgic operations. In figure it reprefents an ob¬
long arch or vault, the hinder part of which is clofed
by a femieircular plane, and the lower part or floor of
3'
U L
„ * It is a little oven that is Muffle
placed horizontally in affay and enamelling furnaces
fo that its open fide correfponds with the door of the fire- Mulberi7*
place of the furnace. Under this arched oven fmall
cupels or crucibles are placed j and the fubftances con¬
tained are thus expofed to intenfe heat without contaft
of fuel, fmoke, or affies.
MUF1I, the chief of the ecclefiaftical order, or
primate of the Muffulman religion. The authority of
the mufti is very great in the Ottoman empire 5 for
even the fultan himfelf, if he would preferve any ap¬
pearance of religion, cannot, without hearing his opi¬
nion, put any perfon to death, or fo much as inflift
any corporal punifhment. In all a&ions, efpecially
criminal ones, his opinion is required, by giving him
a writing in which the cafe is ftated under feigned
names ; which he fubferibes with the words, He Jhall,
ere Jhall not, be punijhed. Such outward honour is paid
to the mufti, that the grand fignior himfelf rifes up to
him, and advances feven fteps to meet him when he
comes into his prefence. He alone has the honour of
kiffing the fultan’s left fhoulder, whilft the prime vizier
kiffes only the hem of his garment. When the grand
fignior addreffes any writing to the mufti, he gives him
the following titles : To the Efad, the wifejl of the wifet
inflruEled in all knowledge, the mojl excellent of excel-
lents, abftaining from things unlawful, the fpritig of vir¬
tue and of true fcience, heir of the prophetic docirines,
refolver of the problems of faith, revealer of the ortho¬
dox articles, key of the treofures of truth, the light to
the doubtful allegories, frengthened with the grace of
the fupreme Leg flat or of mankind, may the Mofl High
God perpetuate thy virtues ! The eleftion of the mufti
is folely in the grand fignior, who prefents him with a
veft of rich fables, &c. If he is convitted of treafon
or any great crime, he is put into a mortar kept for
that purpofe in the Seven Towers at Conftantinople, and
pounded to death.
MUGGLETONIANS, a religious fe£t which arofe
in England about the year 1657 ? denominated from
their leader Lodowick Muggleton, a journeyman tay-
lor, who, with his afibciate Reeves, fet up for great pro¬
phets, pretending, as it is faid, to have an abfolute power
of faving and damning whom they pleafed j and giving
out that they were the two laft witneffes of God that
fhould appear before the end of the world.
MUGIL, the Mullet, a genus of fifties belonging
to the order of abdominales. See Ichthyology Index.
MUGWORT, a fpecies of Artemisia j which fee,.
Botany Index.
MUID, a large meafure in ufe among the French,
for things dry. The muid is no real veffel ufed as a
meafure, but an eftimation of feveral other meafures 5
as the feptier, mine, minot, buftiel, &c.
Muid, is alfo one of the nine calks-, or regular vef-
fels ufed in France, to put n ine and other liquors in.
1 he muid of wine is divided into two demi-muids, four
quarter-muids, and eight half-quarter muids, containing
36 feptiers.
MULATTO, a name given in the Indies to thofe who
are begotten by a negro man on an Indian or white wo¬
man, or by an Indian or white man on a negro woman.
MULBERRY. See Morus, Botany Index.
MlJLBEKRT-Cyder, a name given by the people of
Devonfhire, and fome other parts of England, to a
fort
M U L t 47
Mulberry fort of cyder rendered very palatable by an admixture
II. of mulberry juice in the making 5 they choofe for this
Mulier. ^ pUrp0fe t]ie ripeft and blacked mulberries, and pref-
~Mm '1 n fing ovrt their juice, and mixing it with a full bodied
cyder at the time of the grinding and prefling, give juft
fo much of it as adds a perceptible flavour.. It is
very worthy the attention of people who live in other
countries, where ftrong and good cyder is made, that
this renders it a fort of wine much more agreeable than
any other Englifti liquor, and might, be brought into
general ufe, to the great advantage of the dealer. The
colour of this liquor refembles that of the brighteft red
wine, and the flavour of the mulberry never goes off.
Phil. Tranf. N0 133.
MULCT, a fine of money laid upon a man who has
committed fome fault or mifdemeanour.
MULE, a mongrel kind of quadruped, ufually ge¬
nerated between an afs and a mare, and fometimes
between a horfe and a (he afs ; but the fignification of
the word is commonly extended to every kind of ani¬
mal produced by a mixture of two different fpecies.
See Mammalia Index.
Mules, among gardeners, denote a fort of vege¬
table monfters produced by putting the farina fcecun-
dans of one fpecies of plant into the piftil or utricle of
another.
The carnation and fweet-william being fomewhat
alike in their parts, particularly their flowers, the farina
of the one will impregnate the other, and the feed fo
enlivened will produce a plant differing from either.
An inftance of this we firft had in Mr Fairchild’s gar¬
den at Hoxton •, where a plant is feen neither fweet-
william nor carnation, but refembling both equally :
this was raifed from the feed of a carnation that had
been impregnated by the farina of the fweet-william.
Thefe couplings being not unlike thofe of the mare
with,the afs, which produce the mule, the fame name is
given them 5 and they are, like the others, incapable of
multiplying their fpecies.
This furnifties a hint for altering the property and
tafte of any fruit, by impregnating one tree with the
farina of another of the fame clafs ; e. gr. a codlin with
a pear-main, which will occafion the codlin fo impreg¬
nated to laft a longer time than ufual, and to be of a
{harper tafte.
MULHAUSEN, an imperial and Hanfeatic town
of Germany, in Upper Saxony, and in Thuringia, un¬
der the proteftion of the ele£tor of Saxony 5 feated in
a fertile country, on the river Unftrutht, 15 miles north-
eaft of Eifenach, and 45 eaft by fouth of Caffel. E.
Long. 10. 49. N. Lat. 51. 13.
, Mulhausen, a confiderable town of Germany, in
. Alface, and capital of a republic in alliance with the
Swifs. It is populous, well built, and adorned with
handfome public ftruftures } feated in a pleafant fertile
country, on an ifland formed by the river* 111, 15 miles
north-weft of Bafle, and 20 eaft of Befort. E. Longs
7. 24. N. Lat. 47. 48.
MULIER, in Law, fignifies the lawful iffue born
in wedlock, though begotten before. The mulier is
preferred to an older brother born out of matrimony ;
as for inftance, if a man has a fon by a woman before
_ marriage, which iffue is a baftard, and afterwards mar¬
ries the mother of the baftard, and they have another
Ion, this feco'nd fon is mulier and lawful, and ftiall be
5 j M U L
heir of the father ; but the other can be heir to no Mujiet
perfon *. By the civil law, where a man has iffue by Mull"ngai.(
a woman, if after that he marries her, the iffue is u
mulier. * See the
MULL, one of the Weftern iflands of Scotland, about article
25 miles long, and as much in breadth. It is in ge-
neral rocky and barren, not producing a fufficient
quantity of corn for the inhabitants ; but a great num¬
ber of cattle are annually exported, tvhich with the fifti-
ings and a confiderable quantity of kelp are the only
articles of commerce. It is deeply indented with bays
arid creeks, forming in feveral parts good natural har¬
bours. There are no villages except 'lobermorey, near
the northern point of the ifland, where a fiftiing ftation
has been fixed. The ifland was originally part of. the
dominions of the Lords of the Hies 5 but in after times
it became a part of the poffeffions of the ancient family
of Macleans, who ftill retain a confiderable part. The
duke of Argyll is alfo a confiderable proprietor. . The
ruins of feveral ancient caftles are feen on this ifland.
The population of Mull, in 1795, amounted to about
8000 perfons.
Mull of Cantyre. See Cantyre.
Mull of Galloway. See GalloWay.
MULLEIN. See Verbascum, Botany Index.
MULLER, or Regiomontanus, John, a cele¬
brated aftronomer of the 15th century, was born at
Koningfhoven in Franconia in 1436, and acquired
great reputation by publifhing an abridgement of Pto¬
lemy’s Almageft, which had been begun by Purback.
He went to Rome to perfeft himfelf in the Greek
tongue, and to fee the Cardinal Baffarion 5 but finding
fome faults in the Latin tranflation of George de Tre-
bizond, that tranflator’s fon affaffinated him in a fccond
journey he made to Rome in 147^ where Pbpe Sixtus
IV. had provided for him the archbifhopric of Ratifhon,
and had fent for him to reform the calendar. Others
fay that he died of the plague.
" Muller, or Mullar, denotes a (tone flat and even at
bottom, but round a-top j ufed for grinding of matters
on a marble.—The apothecaries ufe mullers to prepare
many of their teftaceous powders $ and painters for their
colours, either dry or in oil.
Muller is an inftrument ufed by the glafs-grinders ;
being a piece of wood, to one end whereof is cement¬
ed the glafs to be ground, whether convex in a bfi-
fon, or convave in a fphere or bowl.— I he muller is
ordinarily about fix inches long, turned round : the.
cement ufed is compofed of allies and pitch. See
Grinding.
MULLERAS, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Upper Saxony, and marquifate of Brandenburg,
feated 38 miles fouth of Berlin, upon a canal which
joins the Oder and the Spree. This canal is 15 miles
in length, 10 yards in breadth, and feven feet in depth.
It was eight years in making ; and fince that time
the cities of Hamburg and Breflaw have carried on
great trade by water. E. Long. 14. 50. N. Lat. 52,
21.
MULLET. See Mugil, Ichthyology Index.
Mullet, or Mollet, in Heraldry, a bearing in form
of the rowel of a fpur, which it originally repre-
fented.
MULLINGAR, the county town of Weftmeath,
and province of Leinfter, in Ireland, 38 miles from
3 O as Dublin*
MUM [ 4?6 ] MU M
Mullingar Dublin. N. Lat. ^3. 30. W. Long. 7. 50. Within a
Mum m*1ies are ruins thi® church, and alfo thofe
» ^ of a caflle. It is fituated on the river Feyle. It holds
a great wool fair, and is a place of good trade. In
1227, the priory of St Mary, formerly known by the
name of The Houfe of God of Mullingar, was founded
here by Ralph de Petyt bilhop of Meath, for regular
canons of the order of St Augullin. A Dominican
friary wras alfo founded here in 1237 by the family of
Nugent j fome ruins of which ft ill remain. In 1622,
the friars of Multifarnham began to ere£t a houfe there
for friars of the order of St Francis, but it was never
completed.
MULL US, the Surmullet, a genus of fifties be¬
longing to the order of thoracici. See Ichthyology
Index.
MULTIPLE, in Arithmetic, a number which com¬
prehends fome other feveral times j thus 6 is a multiple
of 2, and 12 is a multiple of 6, 4, and 3 j comprehend¬
ing the firft twice, the fecond thrice, &c.
Action of MULTIPLEPOINDING, in Scott
Law. See Law, N° clxxxiii 24.
MULTIPLICAND, in Arithmetic, the number to
be multiplied by another. See Arithmetic.
MULTIPLICATION, in general, the a«ft of in-
creafing the number of any thing.
Multiplication, in Arithmetic, is a rule by which
any given number may be fpeedily increafed, accord¬
ing to any propofed number of times. See Arith¬
metic.
Multiplication, in Algebra. See Algebra.
MULTIPLICATOR, or Multiplier, in Arith¬
metic, the number by which any other is multiplied, or
the number of times it is fuppofed to be taken.
MULTIPLICATUS flos, a luxuriant flower,
whofe petals are multiplied fo as to exclude a part or
the whole of the ftamina.
MULTIPLYING GLASS, in Optics, a glafs where¬
with objedls appear increafed in number. See Optics.
MULTURE in Scots Law, a certain ftipulated
quantity of meal given as payment to the proprietor
or tackfman of a mill for grinding the corn: and all
corn ground on farms thirled to the mill is obliged to
pay multure whether the corn be ground at that mill or
elfe where.
MULVIA, a river of Barbary in Africa, which
rifes in,.the mountains of Atlas, and divides the em¬
pire of Morocco from that of Algiers, and then falls
into the Mediterranean, to the weft ward of Marfal-
quiver.
MUM, a kind of malt liquor much drunk in Ger¬
many, and chiefly brought from Brunfwick, which is
the place of moft note for making it. The procefs of
brewing mum, as recorded in the townhoufe of that
city, is as follows : Take 63 gallons of water that has
been boiled till one third part is confumed, and brt w
it with feven buftiels of wheaten malt, one buftiel of
oat meal, and one buftiel of ground beans. When it
is tunned, the hoglhead muft not be filled too full at
firft : as foon as it begins to work, put into it three
pounds of the inner rind of fir, one pound of the tops
of fir and beech, three handfuls of carduus benedhftus,
a handful or two of the flower of rofa folis: add bur-
net, betony, marjoram, avens, pennyroyal, and wild
thyme, of each a handful and a half j of elder flowers,
2
two handfuls or more ; feeds of cardamom bruifed, 30 Muai
ounces; barberries bruifed, one ounce : when the li- [)
quor has worked a while, put the herbs and feeds into. Mummy-
the vefiel j and, after they are added, let it work over
as little as poflible j then fill it up: laftly, when it is
flopped, put into the hogfhead ten new-laid eggs un¬
broken ; flop it up clofe, and ufe it at two years end.
The Englith brewers, inftead of the inner rind of fir,
ufe cardamom, ginger, and faflafras j and alfo add ele¬
campane, madder, and red fanders.
MUMMIUS, L. a Roman conful fent againft the
Achaeans, whom he conquered B. C. 147. He de-
ftroyed Corinth, Thebes, and Chalcis, by order of the
fenate, and obtained the furname of Achaicus from his
viftories. Fie did not enrich himfelf with the fpoils of
the enemy, but returned home without any increafe
of fortune. He was fo little acquainted with the va¬
lue of the paintings and works of the moft celebrated
artifts of Greece which were found in the plunder of
Corinth, that he faid to thofe who conveyed them to
Rome, that if they loft or injured them, they fhould
makes others in their ftead.
MUMMY, a body embalmed or dried, in the man¬
ner ufed by the ancient Egyptians; or the compofition
with which it is embalmed. There are two kinds of
bodies denominated mummies. The firft are only car-
cafes dried by the heat of the fun, and by that means
kept from putrefa&ionthefe are frequently found in
the fands of Libya. Some imagine, that thefe are
the bodies of deceafed people buried there on purpole
to keep them entire without embalming} others think
they are the carcafes of travellers w ho have been over-
whelmed by the clouds of fand raifed by the hurri¬
canes frequent in thofe deferts. The fecond kind of
mummies are bodies taken out of the catacombs near
Cairo, in which the Egyptians depofited their dead af¬
ter embalming. See Embalming.
We have two different fubftances preferved for me^
dicinal ufe under the name of mummy, though both in
fome degree of the fame origin. The one is the dried
and preferved flefti of human bodies, embalmed with
myrrh and fpices j the other is the liquor running
from fuch mummies, when newly prepared, or when
affe&ed by great heat or damps. The latter is fome-
times in a liquid, fometimes of a folid form, as it is
preferved in vials well flopped, or fuffered to dry and
harden in the air. The firft kind of mummy is brought
to us in large pieces, of a lax and friable texture,
light and fpongy, of a blackith brown colour, and of¬
ten damp and clammy on the furface : it is of a ftrong
but difagreeable fmell. The fecond kind of mummy,
in its liquid ftate, is a thick, opaque, and vifeous
fluid, of a blackilh colour, but not difagreeable fmell.
In its indurated ftate, it is a dry folid fubftance, of
a fine ftiining black colour, and clofe texture, eafily
broken, and of a good fmell *, very inflammable, and
yielding a Icent of myrrh and aromatic ingredients
while burning. This, if we cannot be content with¬
out medicines from our own bodies, ought to be the
mummy ufed in the (hops •, but it is very fcarce and
dear ; while the other is fo cheap, that it will always
be -moft in ufe.
All thefe kinds of mummies are brought from E-
gypt. But we are not to imagine, that any body
breaks up the real Egyptain mummies, to fell them in
pieces
M U N
[ 477 ]
M U N
Mummy pieces to the druggifts, as they make a much better
II market of them in Europe whole, when they can con-
Munda- trive to get them. What our druggi'fts are fupplied
—* -with, is the ilefh of executed criminals, or of any
other bodies the Jews can get, who fill them with the
common bitumen, fo plentiful in that part of the
world •, and adding a little aloes, and two or three
other cheap ingredients, fend them to be baked in. an
oven, till the juices are exhaled, and the embalming
matter has penetrated fo thoroughly that the flefli will
^ keep and bear tranfporting into Europe. Mummy has
been efteemed refolvent and balfamic : but whatever
virtues have been attributed to it, feem to be fuch. as
depend more upon the ingredients ufed in preparing
the flefh than in the flefh itfelf 5 and it would furely
be better to give thofe ingredients without fo (hocking
an addition.
There are found in Poland a kind of natural mum¬
mies, or human bodies preferved without the afiiftance
of art. Thefe lie in confiderable numbers in fome of
the vaft caverns in that country. They are dried with
the flefli and (kin ftirunk up almofl: clofe to the bones,
and are of a blackifli colour. In the wars which fe-
veral ages ago laid wafte that country, it yvas com¬
mon for parties of the weaker fide to retire into thefe
caves, where their enemies, if they found them out, fuf-
focated them by burning draw, &c. at the mouth of
the cavern, and then left the bodies } which, being
out of the way of injuries from common accidents, have
lain there ever (ince. .
Mummy, among gardeners, a kind of wax ufed in
grafting and planting the roots of trees, made in the
following manner : Take one pound of black pitch,
and a quarter of a pound of turpentine j put them to¬
gether into an earthen pot, and fet them on fire in the
open air, holding fomething in your hand to cover and
quench the mixture in time, which is to be alternately
lighted and quenched till all the nitrous and volatile
parts be evaporated. To this a little common wax is
to be added $ and the compofition is then to be fet by
for ufe.
MUMPS. See Medicine Index.
MUNDA, an ancient town of Spain, in the king¬
dom of Granada, feated on the declivity of a hill, at
the bottom of which runs a river. W. Long. 4. 13.
N. Lat. 48. 15.
This city was anciently famous for a viclory gained
by Casfar over the two Tons of Pompey, who had col¬
lected an army in Spain after the defeat of their father
at Pharfalia. See (Hiflory <?/) Rome.
The Pompeys polled their army advantageoufly on
a rifing ground, whereof one fide was defended by the
city of Munda, and the other by a fmall river which
watered the plain, and by a marfh : fo that the enemy
could not attack them but in front. Caefar likewife
drew up his troops with great art, and having advan*
ced a little way from his camp, ordered them to
halt, expelling the enemy would abandon their advam'
tageous pod, and come to meet him. But as they did
not dir, Ccefar made as if he intended to fortify him.
felf in that pod ; which induced the young general, who
looked upon this as a fign of fear, to advance into the
plain, and attack the enemy before they could fecure
themfelves with any works. . Pompey’s army was by
far the mod numerous; for it confided of 13 legions,
6000 horfe, and an incredible number of auxiliaries,
among whom wTere all the forces of Bocchus king of "
Mauritania, commanded by his two fons, both youths
of great valour and bravery. Cseiar had 80 cohorts,
three legions, to wit, the third, the fifth, and the
tenth, and a body of 8000 horfe. As the enemy
drew near, Caefar betrayed a great deal o( uneafinefs
and concern, as if he were doubtful of the iuecefs,
knowing he was to engage men no way inferior in va¬
lour and experience to his own, and commanded by
officers who had on many occafions given (ignal proofs
of their bravery and condudl. Cneius, the elder of
the two brothers, was generally looked upon as an
able commander ; and Labienus, who had revolted,
efleemed fcarce inferior to himfelf.
However, the dictator, defirous to put an end to
the civil war, either by his own death or that of his
rivals, gave the fignal for the battle, and fell upon the
enemy with his ufual vigour and refolution. At the
firft onfet, which was dreadful, the auxiliaries on both
fides betook themfelves to flight, leaving the Romans
to decide their quarrel by themfelves. Then the le¬
gionaries engaged with a fury hardly to be expreffed j
Csefar’s men being encouraged by the hopes of putting
an end to all their labours by this battle } and thofe of
Pompey exerting themfelves out of necetfity and def-
pair, lince moli of them expe&ed no quarter, as hav¬
ing been formerly pardoned. Never was viftory more
obflinately difputed. Caefar’s men, who had been al¬
ways ufed to conquer, found themfelves fo vigoroutly
charged by the enemy’s legionaries, that they began
to give ground ; and though they did not turn their
backs, yet it was manifeil that (hame alone kept them,
in their pods. All authors agree, that Cahar had never
been in fo great danger; and he himfelf, when he came
back to his camp, told his friends, that he had often
fought for victory, but this was the firfl time he had ever
fought for life. Thinking himfelf abandoned by (or-
tune, which had hitherto favoured him, he had fome
thoughts of ftabbing himfelf with his own (word, and
by a voluntary death preventing the difgrace of a de¬
feat : but returning foon to himfelf, and concluding it
would be more to his reputation to fall by the enemy’s
hand at the head of his troops, than, in a fit of defpair,
by his own, he difmounted from his horfe, and (hatch¬
ing a buckler from one of his legionaries, he threw him¬
felf like a man in defpair into the midft of the enemy j
crying out to his men, Are you not ajhamed to deliver
your general into the hands, oj boys? At thefe words,
the foldiers of the tenth legion, animated by the ex¬
ample of their general, fell upon the enemy with frefli
vigour, and made a dreadful havoek of them. But in
fpite of their utmod efforts, Pompey’s men dill kept
their ground, and, though greatly fatigued, return¬
ed to the charge with equal vigour. Then the Cte-
fareans began to defpair of viclory •, and the dictator,
running through the ranks of his dilheartened legion¬
aries, had much ado to keep them together. The
battle had already lafted from the rifing to the fetting
of the fun, without any confiderable advantage on either
fide.
At length a mere accident decided the dilpute in,
favour of the dictator. Bogud, a petty king of Mau¬
ritania, had joined Caefar foon after his arrival in Spain,
with fome fquadrons of Numidian horfe } but, in the
very
Munda.
MuncU
" II
Munich.
M y N t 478 ] M
very ^ beginning of the battle, being terrified at the nefs. The number of the
fhouting of the foldiers, intermingled with groans, and
, the clalhing of their arms, he had abandoned his poll,
and retired with the auxiliaries under his command to
a rifirig ground at a fmall diflance from the enemy’s
camp. There he continued the whole day an idle
fpeftator of the battle that was fought in the plain.
Eut towards the evening, partly out of flrame and
partly out of compaffion for his friend Cmfar, he re-
folved to fall upon Pompey’s camp ; and accordingly
flew thither with all the forces he had with him. La-
bienus, apprifed of his defign, haftened after him to the
defence of the camp ; which Caefar obferving, cried to
his legionaries, Courage, fellow foldiers ! the vidlory at
length is ours ; Labienus flies. This artifice had the
U N
defired effect : Caefar’s men, believing that Labienus
vTas truly fled, made a laft effort, and charged the vdng
he commanded fo brifkly, that after a moft obftinate
difpute they put them to flight.
I hough the enemy’s left wing was thus entirely
defeated, the right wing, where the elder Pompey
commanded, ftill kept their ground for fome time.
Pompey difmounting from his horfe, fought on foot
like a private man in the firft line, till moft of his le¬
gionaries being killed, he was forced to fave himfelf
by flight from falling into the enemy’s hands. Part
of his troops fled back to their camp, and part took
ftrelter in the city of Munda. The camp wras imme¬
diately attacked, and taken fword in hand ; and as
for the city, Caefar, without lofs of time, drew a line
of circumvallation round it. This vi&ory was gained
on the 16th of the kalends of April, i. e. according to
our w^ay of counting, on the 17th day of March, when
the Dionyfian feftival, or the Liberalia, wrere celebrated
at Rome ; the very day, as Plutarch obferves, in which
Pompey the Great, four years before, had fet out for
the wrar. In this aftion Pompey loft 30,000 men ;
among whom were the famous Labienus, Attius Va¬
rus, and 3000 Roman knights. Seventeen officers of
diftimftion were taken, and all the enemy’s eagles and
enfigns, together with Pompey’s fafees, which he had
affumed as governor of Spain. On Cmfar’s fide, only
1000 men wrere killed and 500 wounded.
MUNDIC, or Marcasite, an old name for py¬
rites of copper or iron. See Ores of Copper and Iron,
Mineralogy Index.
MUNDINGOES, the name of a people who live
on the fides of the river Gambia in Africa, and who
are of a jet black colour, ftrong, and well made. They
have a prieft fent over every year from one of the Cape
de Verd iflands to chriften and marry.
MUNDUS PATENS, the open world, in Roman an¬
tiquity, a folemnity performed in a fmall temple, of a
round form like the world, dedicated to Dis and the
reft of the infernal gods. This temple wras opened but
three times in the year, viz. the 24th of Auguft, the
4th of Oftober, and the 7th of November. During
thefe days, the Romans believed hell was open *, on
thefe days therefore they never offered battle, lifted fol¬
diers, put to fea, or married.
MUNICH, a town of Germany, capital of the
whole duchy of Bavaria, and the refidence of the elec¬
tor. It Hands on the Ifer, 70 miles fouth of Ratif-
bon and 214 weft of Vienna, being one of the moft
plea fan t and populous cities of Germany for its big-
inhabitants is faid to be Munich,
about 40,000. Having been built at firft on a fpot Municipal
of ground belonging to a convent, it had from thence
in German the name of Munchen, i. e. Monk's town,
and a monk for its arms. The ele&or’s palace here is
a very grand ftrudfture, confifting of feveral courts,
furniflied and adorned in the moft magnificent manner,
with tapeftry, gilding, fculpture, ftatues, and paintings.
It contains an amazing collection of jewels, antiquities,
and curiofities. The great hall is 118 feet long and
52 broad ; and the ftaircafe leading to it, from top to *
bottom of marble and gold. In the hall of antiquities
are 354 bufts and ftatues of jafper and porphyry, brafs
and marble. In this palace is a library, containing a vaft
collection of books, and many valuable manuferipts, in
moft languages, ancient and modern 5 and a chamber of
rarities, among wdiich is the picture of a bravo or affaf-
fin, who is faid to have committed 345 murders with
his own hand, and to have been accomplice in, or
privy to, 400 more. The treafury in the chapel con¬
tains alfo a vaft number of pictures, precious ftones,
medals, veffels of gold and filver, &c. Among other
Curiofities, here is a cherry ftone with 140 heads dif-
tinCtly engraved upon it. The gardens of the palace
are alfo very fine, and it is faid a fecret paffage leads
from it to all the churches and convents in the towrn.
There is a great number of other fine buildings in this
city, public and private, particularly the riding houfe,
town houfe, opera room, the Jefuits college, the large
edifice for tournaments, the churches, convents, foun¬
tains, &c. Its manufactures are thofe of filk, particu¬
larly velvet, w’oollen cloths, and tapeftry 5 and it has
two annual fairs, at which great quantities of fait, wine,
&c. are fold. The ftreets are broad and regular ; and
moft of the houfes wrell built, and painted on the out-
fide. The market place is extremely beautiful. Not
far from Munich are four other palaces, with fine gar¬
dens, belonging to the eleftor, viz. thofe of Sleifheim,
Nymphenburg, Dauchau, and Starenberg. The firft
and laft are about three leagues from the capital ; the
fecond about half a league ; and the third about two*
at a market town.of the fame name. It wras unfuccefs-
fully attacked by the French in 1796.
Munich, Count de, was the favourite of the cza¬
rina Ann, and was 'concerned in all' the events of her
reign. Being appointed general of her armies, He
gained great advantages over the Crim Tartars, beat
the Turks, A. D. 1739, in an engagement near Choc-
zim, anff took that city together with Jaffi the capital
of Moldavia. He was afterwards'prinm'rnmiftm to
the czar I wan VI. but in a fhort time after he was
accufed of employing the power which his office con¬
ferred on him to gratify his own ambition and private
refentment. The emprefs Elizabeth brought him to
trial, and he was condemned to lofe his life, A. D.
1742. This fentence was mitigated to banifhment
into Siberia, Avhither many of the viCHms of his power
had been exiled. He was recalled by Peter III. A. D.
1762, and declared field marfhal. Upon the death of
this prince, the emprefs Catharine II. appointed him
direClor general of the ports of the Baltic. He died
on the 8th of OCtober 1767, at the age of 84.
MUNICIPAL, in the Roman civil lavq an epithet
which fignifies invefted with the rights and privilege?
of Roman citizens. See Municipium.
Municipals
Municipal
II
Juniler.
M UN [ 479 1 MUR
"Municipal, among us, is applied to tlie laws that
obtain in any particular city or province. And thofe
are called municipal officers who are elected to defend
the interefts of cities, to maintain their rights and pri¬
vileges, and to preferve order and harmony among the
citizens •, fuch as mayors, fheriffs, confuls, &c.
MUNICIPES, an appellation given by the Romans
to the inhabitants of the municipia or municipal cities.
See Municipium.
MUNICIPIUM, in Roman antiquity, a corporation
borough, or enfranchifed city or town, where the inha¬
bitants enjoyed their own laws and cuftoms, and at the
fame time were honoured with the privileges of Roman
citizens j but then this privilege generally reached no
further than the bare title. Some indeed, .by parti¬
cular merit, obtained the liberty of votes, which occa-
fioned that diftinction of muncipium fine fuffiragio, and
municipium cum fuffiragio.—The inhabitants of the mu¬
nicipium fine fuffiragio were called barely Romani, but
thofe of the municipium cum fuffiragio were called cives
Romani.
The difference between proper citizens of Rome
and the inhabitants of the municipium may be thus ex-
preffed. The proper citizens of Rome were, I. Re-
giftered in the cenfus ; 2. Had the right of fuffrage
and of bearing honours ; 3. Were afleffed in the poll-
tax ; 4. Served in the legions ; 5. Ufed the Roman
laws and religion ; 6. Were called fair it es and po-
pulus Romanus : Whereas the municipes enjoyed the
three firft of thefe privileges, but were denied the three
laft.
MUNITION, the provifions with which a place is
furnifhed in order for defence ; or that which follows
a camp for its fubfiftence.
MUNITION Ships, are thofe that have ftores on board
in order to fupply a fleet of men of war at fea. In an
engagement, all the munition fhips and viftuallers at¬
tending the fleet take their ftation in the rear of all
the reft •, they are not to engage in the fight, but to
attend to fuch diredtions as are fent to them by the ad¬
miral.
MUNSTER, in Latin Monomia, and in Irifh Moun,
the moft foutherly province of Ireland •, bounded on
the north by Leinfler and Connaught, and on the eaft,
weft, and fouth, by the ocean. It contains the coun¬
ties of Cork, Clare, Kerry, Limerick, Tipperary, and
Waterford ; and 3,289,932 Irifh plantation acres, 740
parifhes, 63 baronies, and 26 boroughs. It is about
12? miles long and 120 broad ; and its principal town
is Cork. Its ancient name was Mumhan ; and in lat¬
ter ages it was divided into Defmond or South Munfter,
Ormond or Eaft Munfter, and Thomond or North Mun¬
fter. It lies between 51. 15. and •53. o. N. Lat. and
7. 10. and 10. 40. W. Long.
Munster, a territory of Germany in ne circle of
Weftphalia \ bounded on the north by Embden and
Oldenburg, on the fouth by the county of Mark and
duchy of Weftphalia, on the weft by the county of
Bentheim and the United Provinces, and on the eaft
by the bifhoprics of Ofnaburgh and Paderborn together
with the county of Ravenfberg. It is the largeft of
all the Weftphalian bifhoprics, being in length about
80 miles, and in breadth from 20 to 60. It is divided
into 13 bailiwicks : and though in general but a bar¬
ren country, has fome fruitful plains, with woods, and
quarries of ftone. The inhabitants, excepting a few of
the nobility and gentry, are all Roman Catholics 5
though Lutheranifm had once a confiderable footing
here. The bifhop, who is generally alfo eleftor of
Cologne, has a revenue from hence of about 70,000
pounds, and can maintain 8000 men. In confequence
of an unjuft cuftom, unknown in the reft of the em¬
pire, he is heir to all ftrangers who die in the country
without children. In the matricula he is rated at 30
foot and 118 horfe *, or 832 florins monthly in lieu of
them. His chapter confifts of 40 canons, who are all
noble.
Munster, a city of Germany, capital of a bifhopric
of the fame name and of all Weflphalia, Hands at the
conflux of the river Aa with the Ems, in E. Long. 7.
49. N. Lat. 52. o. It is of a circular form, large, and
well fortified both by nature and art. It has a fine
citadel called the Brille, eredled by a bifhop named
Bernard van Galen in order to awe the burghers. The
dean and chapter now eleft the bifhop ; but till the be¬
ginning of the 13th century he was nominated by the
emperor. This city has been rendered famous by three
remarkable tranfaftions. 1. By the peace concluded
here in 1648, which put an end to the war of 30 years 5
occafioned by the perfecuting fpirit of bigotted Papifts,
who chofe rather to plunge their country into all the
calamities of war than allow liberty of confcience to the
Proteftants. By this peace, however, they confented,
much againft their inclinations, to grant them a tolera¬
tion. 2. By the diforders and difturbances occafioned
here in 1553, by a parcel of enthufiafts, headed by a
taylor, called John of I.cyden from the place of his
birth, who turned out the magiftrates, and took pof-
feflion of the city, where they perpetrated the moft hor¬
rid villanies and cruelties. 3. For the noble, though
unfuccefsful, efforts it made in defence of its liberties
againft the tyranny and oppreffion of the above men¬
tioned turbulent and bloody-minded bifhop, Bernard
van Galen. In this city are a great number of con¬
vents and other religious houfes, many of them ftately
piles, and furrounded with beautiful gardens.
MUNYCHIA, or Munichius Portus, in Ancient
Geography, a village and port of Athens, nearer to the
city, fortified in the fame manner as the Piraeus, to the
eaft of which it lay, or between it and the promontory
Sunium, at the mouth of the Uiffus. Strabo fays it was
an eminence in form of a peninfula, at the foot of
which flood three harbours, anciently encompaffed with
a wall, taking within its extent the Piraeus and other
harbours full of docks, with the temple of Diana Mu-
nyehia ; taking its name from Mynichus, the founder of
the temple.
Munychia, an anniverfary folemnity obferved at
Athens, in honour of Diana, on the 16th of the month
Munychion. Cakes were oftered on the occafion, called
ctptpiQwvns.
MUNYCHION, the tenth month of the Athenian
year, containing 29 days, and anfwering to the latter
part of our March and the beginning of April. It
was fo called from the feftival Munychia, which was
obferved in this month. See Month and Muny¬
chia.
MUPHTI. See Mufti.
MURiENA, or Eel ; a genus of fifties, belong¬
ing to the order of apodes. See Ichthyology Index.
MURAL,
Munfter
II
Mursena.
MUR [ 480 ] MUR
Mural MURAL, fomething belonging to a wall, which
^ the Latins call murus.
ur' 'a' , MURAL Crown, among the ancient Romans. See
Crown.
MURAL arch, is ft wall, or walled arch, placed ex*
aftly in the plane of the meridian, i. e. upon the meri¬
dian line, for the fixing of a large quadrant, fextant,
or other inftrument, to obferve the meridian altitudes,
&c. of the heavenly bodies.
Tycho Brahe was the firft who ufed a mural arch
in his obfervations j after him Hevelius, Mr Flam-
ftead, De la Hire, &c. ufed the fame means. See A-
STRONOMY.
MURANUM, in Ancient Geography, a town on
the confines of Lucania. Now Morano ; a citadel in
Calabria Citra, at the fprings of the Sybaris, midway
between the Sinus Tarentinus to the eaft, and the Tuf-
can fea to the weft. Suppofed to have arifen from
the ruins of Syphaeum, a town of the Bruttii mentioned
by Livy.
MURATORI, LEwris Anthony, a learned and
celebrated Italian writer, born at Vignoles,'in the ter¬
ritory of Bologna, in 1672. He early difeovered an
extreme fondnefsfor the learned languages and fciences $
. and this was feconded by an excellent education.
After having completed his firft ftudies, he embraced
the ftate of an ecclefiaftic j and applied himfelf to
polite literature, philofopby, theology, civil law, an¬
tiquities, and other fciences ; by which means he be¬
came in a manner univerfally learned. He was fcarcely
22 years of age when he was made librarian of the
Ambrofian library at Milan. In 1700 the duke of
Modena, his fovereign, recalled him, and made him
his librarian, and keeper of the archives of his duchy.
Muratori difeharged this double employment during
the reft of his life, and had no other benefice than the
provoftftiip of Santa Maria del Pompofa. The princi¬
pal of his works are,— r. Anecdota, or a colleftion of
pieces taken from the Ambrofian library, 2 vols 4to,
with learned notes and diflertations. 2. A treatife on
the perfection of the Italian poetry, 2 vols 4to.
3. Anecdota Grceca, 3 vols 4to. 4. A genealogical
hiftory of the houfe of Modena, 2 vols folio. 5. An
excellent collection ®f the writers of the Italian hiftory,
27 vols folio, with learned notes. 6. Another collec¬
tion, under the title of Antiquitates Italics. 7. A
collection of ancient inferiptions, under the title of
Novus Thefaurus, 6 vols folio. 8. The annals of Italy,
12 vols 4to, in Italian, &c. 9. Letters, diflertations,
Italian poems, &c.
MURCIA, the Pagan goddefs of idlenefs. The
name is taken from murcus or murcidus, an obfolete
word, fignifying a dull, flothful, or lazy perfon.—
The ftatues of this goddefs were always covered with
duft and mofs, to exprefs her idlenefs and negligence.
Sl>e had a temple in Rome, at the foot of the Aven-
tine mount.
Murcia, a kingdom in Spain, bounded on the
north by New Caftile, on the eaft by the kingdom of
Valencia, on the weft by Andalufia and Granada, and
on the fouth by the Mediterranean fea. It is about
62 miles in length, and 58 in breadth ’, and its prin¬
cipal river is the Segura. The foil is dry, becaufe it fel-
dom rains, and therefore it produces little corn or
•wine) but there is-plenty of oranges, citrons, lemons,
olives, almonds, mulberries, rice, pulfe, and fugar. It Murci*,
has alfo a great deal of filk. It was taken from the Murt^er-
Moors in 1 265. The air is very healthful.
Murcia, a large, handfome, and populous town of
Spain, capital of a kingdom of the fame name. It is
a biftiop’s fee, and contains fix parilhes. The cathe¬
dral is a molt fuperb edifice, with the ftairs of the
fteeple fo contrived that a man may ride up to the
top, either on horfeback or in a coach. It is fituated
in a pleafant plain, which abounds in fine gardens about
the city, and in which are the beft fruits in Spain, It
is feated on the river Segura, in W. Long. 8. 36. N.
Lat. 37. 48.
MURDER, or Murther, the aeft of killing ano¬
ther with violence and injuftice. The word comes
from the Saxon month, “ death j” which fome will have
to fignify a violent death j wdience the barbarous La¬
tin murdrum and tnodrum.
Among the number of popular errors, is the notion
which has obtained, that the dead body would bleed
in the prefence or upon the touch of the murderer.
The crime of murder is puniftied with death in al
moft all nations.
Murder, or Murther, in Law, is thus defined, er
rather deferibed, by Sir Edward Coke : “ When a
perfon, of found memory and diferetion, unlawfully
killeth any reafonable creature in being, and under the
king’s peace, with malice aforethought, either exprefs
or implied.” The beft way of examining the nature
cf this crime will be by confidering the feveral branches
of this definition.
1. It muft be committed by a perfon of found me¬
mory and diferetion : for lunatics or infants are inca¬
pable of committing any crime 5 unlefs in fuch cafes
where they flww a confcioufnefs ol doing wrong, and
of courfe a diferetion or difeernment between good and
evil.
2. Next, it happens when a perfon of fuch found
diferetion unlawfully killeth. The unlawfulnefs arifes
from the killing without warrant or excufe : and there
muft alfo be an aftual killing to conftitute murder )
for a bare aflfault, with intent to kill, is only a great
mifdemeanor, though formerly it was held to be murder.
The killing may be by poifoning, ftriking, ftarving,
drowning, and a thoufand other forms of death, by
which human nature may be overcome. Of thefe the
moft deteftable of all is poifon ; becaufe it can of all
others be the leaft prevented, either by manhood or
forethought. And therefore, by the flat. 22 Hen. VIII.
c. 9. it wras made treafon, and a more grievous and
lingering kind of death was inflifted on it than the
common law allowed; namely, boiling to death: but this
aft did not live long, being repealed by 1 Edw. VI. c.
12. There ivas alio, by the ancient common law, one
fpecies of killing held to be murder, which may be du¬
bious at this day, as there hath not been an inftance
wherein it has been held to be murder for many ages
paft, viz. bearing falfe witnefs againft another, with an
exprefs premeditated defign to take away his life, fo as
the innocent perfon be condemned and executed. Ibe
Gothic laws puniflhed in this cafe both the judge, the
witnefles, and the profecutor ) and, among the Romans,
the lex Cornelia de ficariis, p uni filed the falfe witnefles
with death, as being guilty of a fpecies of aflaflination.
And there is no doubt but this is equally murder in foro
confcieniiat
M U H [ 481 1 M U K
Confcientia as killing with a fword; though the modern
law (to avoid the danger of deterring witneffes from
oiving evidence upon capital prolecutions, it it muft be
at the peril of their own lives) has not yet punilhed^ it
as fuch. If a man, however, do fuch an act, ot which
the probable confequence may be, and eventually is,
death-, fuch killing may be murder, although no ftroke
be (truck by himfelf, and no killing may be primarily
intended : as was the cafe of the unnatural fon who ex-
pofed his lick father to the air againit his will, by
reafon whereof he died 5 and of the harlot, who laid
her child under leaves in an orchard, where a kite
(truck and killed it. So too, if a man have a b\-a(t
that is ufed to do mifchief 5 and he, knowing it,
foffers it to go abroad, and it kills a man} even this
is manflaughter in the owner; but if he have purpofely
turned it loofe, though barely to frighten people, and
make what is called fport^ it is with us (as in the
Jewith law) as much murder as if he had incited a
bear or dog to worry them. If a phylician or fur-
geon give his patient a potion or plalter to cure him,
which, contrary to expectation, kills him, this is nei¬
ther murder nor manflaughter, but mifadventure } and
he (hall not be puniflied criminally, however liable he
might formerly have been to a civil aCtion for negleft
or ignorance } but it hath been holden, that if it be
not a reguiar phyfician or furgeon who adminifters the
medicine, or performs the operation, it is manflaughter
at the lead. Yet Sir Matthew Hale very juftly que-
ftions the law of this determination ; fince phyfic and
halves were in ufe before licenfed phyficians and bur¬
geons : wherefore he treats this doctrine as apocry¬
phal, and fitted only to gratify and flatter licentiates
and doCtors in phyfic ; though it may be of ufe to make
people cautious and wary how they meddle too much in
fo dangerous an employment. In order alfo to make
the killing murder, it is requifite that the party die with¬
in a year and a day after the (troke received, or caufe
of death adminiftered j in the computation of which the
•whole day upon which the hurt was done (hall be reck¬
oned the firft.
3. Farther : The perfon killed mud be “ a reafon-
able creature in being, and under the hing's peace ” at
the time of the killing. Therefore to kill an alien, a
Jew, or an outlaw, who are all under the king’s peace
or protection, is as much murder as to kill the moll
regular-born Englifhman-, except he be an alien-enemy,
in the time of war. To kill a child in its mother’s
womb, is now no murder, but a great mifprifion ; but if
the child be born alive, and dieth by reafon of the po¬
tion or bruifes it received in the womb, it feems, by the
better opinion, to be murder in fuch as adminiftered or
gave them. As to the murder of baftard children, fee
Bastard.
4. Laftly, The killing muft be committed “ with
malice aforethought” to * :ake it the crime of murder.
This is the grand criterion which now diftinguifties
murder from other killing: and this malice prepenfe,
malitia preecogitata, is not fo properly fpite or malevo¬
lence to the deceafed in particular, as any evil defign
in general -, the diCtate of a wicked, depraved, and ma¬
lignant heart } un difpofition a faire une mal chcfe : and
it may be either exprefs, or implied, in law. Exprefs
malice is when one, with a fedate deliberate mind and
formed defign, doth kill another, which formed de-
VOL. XIV. Part II.
fign is evidenced by external circum(lances difeovering
that inward intention ; as lying in wait, antecedent '
menaces, former grudges, and concerted fchemes to
do him fome bodily harm. This takes in the cafe of
deliberate duelling, where both parties meet avowedly
with an intent to murder : thinking it their duty, as
gentlemen, and claiming it as their right, to wanton
with their orvn lives and thofe of their fellow creatures j
without any warrant or authority from any power ei¬
ther divine or human, but in diredl contradiflion to
the laws both of God and man and therefore the law
has juftly fixed the crime and puniftiment of murder on
them, and on their feconds alfo. Yet it requires fuch
a degree of paflive valour to combat the dread of even
imdeferved contempt, arifing from the falfe notions of
honour too generally received in Europe, that the
ftrongeft prohibitions and penalties of the law will ne¬
ver be entirely effeftual to eradicate this unhappy cu-
ftom, till a method be found out of compelling the
original aggreflor to make fome other fatisfadlion to
the affronted party, which the world (hall efteem
equally reputable as that which is now given at the
hazard of the life and fortune, as well of the perfon
infulted, as of him who has given the infult. Alfo,
if even upon a hidden provocation one beats another,
in a cruel and unufual manner, fo that he dies, though
he did not intend his death, yet he is guilty of murder
by exprefs malice ; i. e. by an exprefs evil defign, the
genuine fenfe of malitia : As when a park-keeper tied
a boy that was dealing wood to a horfe’s tail, and
dragged him along the park } when a mailer correcled
his fervant with an iron bar, and a fchoolmafter (lamp¬
ed on his fcholar’s belly, fo that each of the fufferers
died j thefe were juftly held to be murders, becaufe
the correftion being exceflive, and fuch as could not
proceed but from a bad heart, it was equivalent to a
deliberate a£l of (laughter. Neither (hall he be guilty
of a lefs crime who kills another in confequence of
fuch a wilful a£t as (hows him to be an enemy to all
mankind in general j as going deliberately, and with
an intent to do mifchief, upon a horfe ufed to ftrike,
or coolly difeharging a gun among a multitude of
people. So if a man refolves to kill the next man he
meets, and does kill him, it is murder, although he
knew him not *, for this is univerfal malice. And if
two or more come together to do an unlawful aft
againft the king’s peace, of which the probable con¬
fequence might be bloodlhed j as to beat a man, to
commit a riot, or to rob a park, and one of them kills
a man; it is murder in them all, becaufe of the un¬
lawful aft, tiiv.malitia prcecogitata, or evil intended be¬
forehand.
Alfo in many cafes where no malice is expreffed, »he
law will imply it: as, where a man wilfully poifons
another, in fuch a deliberate aft the law prefumes ma¬
lice, though no particular enmity can be proved. And
if a man kills another fuddenly, without any, or with¬
out a confiderable provocatign, the law implies malice j
for no perfon, unlefs of an abandoned heart, would be
guilty of fuch an aft upon a flight or no apparent caufe.
No affront, by words or geftures only, is a fufficient
provocation, fo as to excufe or extenuate fuch afts of
violence as manifeftly endanger the life of another.
But if the perfon fo provoked had unfortunately killed
the other, by beating him in fuch a manner as (bowed
3 p only
Murder.
—-V—~
Murder.
MUR [ 482 ] MUR
only an intent to chaftife and not to kill him, the law
To far confiders the provocation of contumelious beha¬
viour, as to adjudge it only manflaughter, and not mur¬
der. In like manner, if one kills an officer of juftice,
either civil or criminal, in the execution of his duty, or
any of his a {lift ants endeavouring to conferve the peace,
or any private perion endeavouring to fupprefs an affray
or apprehend a felon, knowing his authority or the in¬
tention with which he interpofes, the law will imply
malice, and the killer {hall be guilty of murder. And
if one intends to do another felony, and undefignedly
kills a man, this is alfo murder. Thus if one {hoots at
A, and miffes him, but kills B, this is murder ; becaufe
of the previous felonious intent, which the law transfers
from one to the other. The fame is the cafe, where
one lays poifon for A, and B, againlt whom the pri-
foner had no malicious intent, takes it, and it kills him,
this is likewife murder. So alfo, if one give a woman
with child a medicine to procure abortion, and it oper¬
ates fo violently as to kill the woman, this is murder
in the perfon who gave it. It were endlefs to go
through all the cafes of homicide, which have been ad-
judged, either exprefsly or impliedly, malicious : thefe
therefore may fuffice as a fpecimen } and we may take
it for a general rule, that all homicide is malicious, and
of courfe amounts to murder, unlefs where jullified by
the command or permiflion of the law ; excufed on a
principle of accident or felf-prefervation ; or alleviated
into manflaughter, by being either the involuntary con-
fequence of fome aft, not itriftly lawful, or (if volun¬
tary) occafioned by fome hidden and fufficiently violent
provocation. And all thefe circumftances of juftifica-
tion, excufe, or alleviation, it is incumbent upon the
prifoner to make out, to the fatisfadlion of the court
and jury, the latter of whom are to decide whether the
circumftances alleged are proved to have a£tually ex-
ifted ; the former, how far they extend to take away
or mitigate the guilt. For all homicide is prefumed
to be malicious, until the contrary appeareth upon evi¬
dence.
The punifliment of murder, and that of man-flaugh-
ter, were formerly one and the fame ; both having the
benefit of clergy ; fo that none but unlearned perfons,
who leaft knew the guilt of it, were put to death for
this enormous crime. But now, by feveral ftatutes,
the benefit of clergy is taken away from murderers
through malice prepenfe, their abettors, procurers,
and counfellors. In atrocious cafes it was frequently
ufual for the court to diretft the murderer, after exe¬
cution, to be hung upon a gibbet in chains near the
place where the faff was committed } but this was no
part of the legal judgment y and the like is ftill fome-
times pra&ifed in the cafe of notorious thieves. This,
being quite contrary to the exprefs command of the
Moiaical law, feems to have been borrowed from the
civil law 5 which, befides the terror of the example,
gives alfo Another reafon for this pradtice, viz. that it
is a comfortable fight to the relations and friends of
the deceafed. But now, in England, it is enadled
by ftatute 25 Geo. II. c. 37. that the judges, before
whom any^erfon is found guilty of wilful murder,
{hall pronounce fentence immediately after convidtion,
unlefs he fees eaufe to poifpone it; and fhall in paf-
fing fentence diredf him to be executed on the next
day but one (unlefs the fame {hall be Sunday, and
then on the Monday following), and that his body Murder
be delivered to the furgeons to be diffedted and anato- H .
mized ; and that the judge may diredt his body to be ‘V!u:'rlur'^e,
afterwards hung in chains, but in nowife to be buffed
without diffedtion. And, during the ftiort but awful
interval between fentence and execution, the prifoner
{hall be kept alone, and fuftained with only bread and
W’ater. But a power is allowed to the judge, upon
good and fufficient caufe, to refpite the execution, and
relax the other reftraints of this adl. See farther, Par¬
ricide, and PETIT Treafon.
Murderers, or Murdering Pieces, in a {hip, are
fmall pieces of ordnance, either of brafs or iron, w'hich
have chambers put in at their breeches. They are
ufed at the bulk-heads of the fore-caftle, half-deck, or
fteerage, in order to clear the deck, on the {hip’s be¬
ing boarded by an enemy.
MURENA. See Muraina, Ichthyology In¬
dex.
MURENGERS, two officers of great antiquity in
the city of Chefter, annually chofen out of the aider-
men, to fee the walls kept in repair, and to receive a
certain toll for that purpofe.
MUREX, a genus of animals belonging to the order
of vermes teftacea. See Conchology Index.
Murex, a caltrap or iron inftrument, with fliarp
points projedling in every diredtion, ufed by the Romans
as a defence againft the enemy’s horfe j fo called, pro¬
bably from fome refemblance to the fpines on the {hell
of the murex.
MURGI, or Murgis, in Ancient Geography, the
laft town of Baetica, next the Tarraconenfis : the Urce
of Ptolemy. Now Muxara, a port-town of Granada,
on the Mediterranean. W. Long. i^o'. N. Lat. 370 6'.
MURIA, the Latin name of common fait. See
Soda, Muriate of, Chemistry Index.
MURIATIC acid. See Chemistry Index. This
acid, according to the views of Sir H. Davy, is compofed
of chlorine (the oxymuriatic acid of all chemifts former¬
ly, and of fome ftill) and hydrogen.
MURINA, or Murines, a delicious fweet wine,
medicated with fpices, and the ufual drink of the ladies
of antiquity.
MURRAIN, or Gargle, a contagious difeafe among
cattle. See Farriery Index.
MURRAY, or Moray, the name of a diftridt in
the north of Scotland, which, in a former divifion of the
kingdom, was denominated a province. This diftridt
includes the counties of Banff, Elgin and Nairn. The
county of Elgin, the middle divifion of this diftridt, is
ftill known by the name of Morayfliire.
MURRHINE, Murrhinus, in antiquity,
an appellation given to a delicate fort of ware brought
from the eaft, whereof cups and vafes were made, which
added not a little to the fplendour of the Roman ban¬
quets. Critics are divided concerning the matter of the
pocula or vafa murrhina, murrina, or murrea. Some will
have them to have been the fame with our porcelain or
china ware. The generality held them to have been made
of fome precious kind of ftone, which was found chiefly,
as Pliny tells us, in Parthia, but more efpecially in Car-
mania. Arrian tells us, that there was a great quantity
of them made at Diofpolis in Egypt. This he calls
another fort of murrhina work j and it is evident, from
all accounts, that the murrhina of Diofpolis was a fort
of
M U S
[
Murrhine of glafs wave, made in imitation of tlie povcelain 01
|j murrha of India. There is fome difference in the ac-
t Mutaeas. counts gjven by pbny and Martial of the murrhina vafa.
The fir It author fays, that they would not bear hot li¬
quors, but that only cold ones were drank out of them.
The latter, on the other hand, tells us, that they bore
hot liquors very well. If we credit Pliny’s account,
their porcelain was much inferior to our’s in this parti¬
cular. Some conjefture them to have been of agate,
others of onyx, others of coral. Baronius, doubtlefs,
was fartheft out of the way, when he took them to be
made of myrrh, congealed and hardened. Some have
fuppofed thefe vellels to be made of cryftal, but this is
contrary to the account of all the ancients. The Greeks
had the words Kgvs-asAA*?, for cryftal, and for
myrrh, very common among them 5 and therefore if
thefe veffels had been made of either of thefe fubftances,
they would in fome places have called them fmyrna or
cryftalline. On the contrary, the moft correft among
them call them murrhina or morrina. The cups made
of cryftal, which were alfo in ufe at thofe times were
called cryftallina, and thefe murrhina or murrhaea, by
way of keeping up the diftinftion j and Martial tells us,
that the ftone they were made of was fpotted or varie¬
gated, calling them pocula maculofe murrae. And
Statius mentions the cryftalline and murrhine cups in
the fame fentence, but as different things, not the fame.
Arrian mentions alfo the pogptet; which his inter¬
preters cenfure as an error of the copies, and would alter
into myrrha, the name of the gum myrrh.
Pompey is recorded as the firft who brought thefe
murrhine veffels out of the eaft, which he exhibited
in his triumph, and dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus.
But private perfons were not long without them. So
fond in effett did the Roman gentry grow of them,
that a cup which held three fextaries was fold for 70
talents. T. Petronius, before his death, to fpite Nero
(or as Pliny expreffes it, ut menfam ejus exJnrredaret,
to difinherit his table), broke a bafon, trulla murrhina,
valued at 300 talents, on which that emperor had fet
his heart.
MUS, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to the order
of Glives. See Mammalia Index.
MUSA, the Plantain-tree j a genus of plants be¬
longing to the polyandria clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the eighth order, Scituminece. See
Botany Index.
MUSiEUS, an ancient Greek poet, was, according
to Plato and Diodorus Siculus, an Athenian, the fon of
Orpheus, and chief of the Eleuftnian myfteries inftitut-
ed at Athens in honour of Ceres : or, according to
others, he was only the difciple of Orpheus ; but from
the great refemblance which there was between his
character and talents and thofe of his mafter, by giving
a ftronger outline to the figure he was called his fan, as
thofe were ftyled the children of dpollo who cultivated
the arts of which he was the tutelar god.
Mufseus is allowed to have been one of the firft poets
who verfified the oracles. He is placed in the Arun-
delian marbles, epoch 15. 1426 B. C. at which time
his hymns are there faid to have been received in the
celebration of the Eleufinian myfteries. Laertius tells
us, that Mufeeus not only compofed a theogony, but
formed a fphere for the ufe of his companions ; yet as
this honour is generally given to Chiron, it is more na-
Mufasus
483 1 MUS
tural to fuppofe, with Sir Ifaac Newton, that he enlar¬
ged it with the addition of feveral conftellations after Muf^en_
the conqueft of the golden fleece. The fphere itfelf
fhows that it was delineated after the Argonautic expe   
dition, which is defcribed in the afterifms, together
with feveral other more ancient hiftories of the Greeks,
and without any thing later ; for the (hip Argo was the
firft long veffel which they had built: hitherto they
had ufed round fhips of burthen, and kept within fight
of the (bore; but now, by the didates of the oracle,
and confent of the princes of Greece, the flower of that
country fail rapidly through the deep, and guide their
(hip by the ftars.
Mufseus is celebrated by Virgil in the charader of
hierophant, or prieft of Ceres, at the head of the moft
illuftrious mortals who have merited a place in Elyfium.
Here he is made the condudor of ALneas to the recefs
where he meets the (hade of his father Anchifes.
A hill near the citadel of Athens was called Mu-
fasum, according to Paufanias, from Mufaeus, who ufed
to retire thither to meditate and compofe his religious
hymns ; at which place he was afterwards buried. The
works which went under his name, like thofe of Or¬
pheus, were by many attributed to Onomacritus. No¬
thing remains of this poet now, nor were any of his
writings extant in the time of Paufanias, except a
hymn to Ceres, which he made for the Lycomides.
And as thefe hymns were likewife fet to mufic, and
fung in the myfteries by Mufteus himfelf in the cha-
rader of prieft, lie thence perhaps acquired from fu¬
ture times the title of muficiun, as well as of poet ; the
performance of facred mufic being probably at firft con¬
fined to the priefthood in thefe celebrations, as it had
been before in Egypt, whence they originated. How¬
ever, he is not enumerated among ancient muficians by
Plutarch ; nor does it appear that lie merited the title
of fon and fuccefor to Orpheus for his mufical abilities,
fo much as for his poetry, piety, and profound know¬
ledge in religious myfteries.
MUSCA, the Ely ; a genus of infeds belonging to
the order ofdiptera. See Entomology Index.
Muse a, a name given to fuch perfons among the
Romans as officiouily thruft themfelves into the compa¬
ny of their fuperiors and thofe who defpifed them, by
finding means of getting admittance to entertainments
without invitation, and without a welcome : So that
mufece were the fame as parafites, who were frequently
by the Greeks termed Mvtxt. See Parasite.
MUSCADINE, a rich wine, of the growth of
Provence, Languedoc, Cividad, &c.—The word is
fuppofed to be derived from mujk ; the wine being fup¬
pofed to have a little of the fmell of that perfume}
others from mufea, “ a fly,” becaufe the flies are ex¬
tremely fond of its grapes } as the Latins had their vt~
nutn apianum, fo called ab apibus, from the bees which
fed on it.
The procefs for making mufeadine at Frontignac, is
the following : The mufeadine grapes are allowed to be
half dried on the vine 5 and as foon as they are gathered,
they are trod and preffed, and the liquor is tunned,
without letting it ftand to ferment in the fat j the lee
which remains is fuppofed to produce the peculiar fla¬
vour of this wine.
MUSCHENBROECK, Peter de, a very diftin-
miiftied natural philofopher and mathematician, was
3 P 2 born
M U S [ 484 ] M U S
Mufchen- born at Utrecbt a little before 1700. He was firft pro-
broeck fefpor in bis own univerfity, and afterwards invited to
the chair at Leyden, where he died full of reputation
.— ^ , gn<-1 honours in 1761. He was a member of feveral
academies •, particularly the Academy of Sciences at
Paris. He was the author of feveral works in Latin,
which are frequently referred to, and all of which dif-
cover great penetration and exadtnefs of the fubjedts of
which he treats. He was alfo confummate in the know¬
ledge of law.
MUSCI, Mosses, one of the orders of the clafs
cryptogamia } which fee, Botany Index.—The ancients
took the mofs of trees to be the effedl of a diforder or
difcompofure of the texture of the bark } or at moft a
kind of little filaments arifing from the bark : but the
moderns find, by more accurate obfervation, that mof-
fes are real diftind! plants, -whofe feed, being extremely
fmall, is enclofed in little capfules $ which burliing of
themfelves, the feed is carried off by the winds 5 till,
falling into the inequalities of the bark of trees, it is
there flopped, takes root, and feeds at the expence of
the tree, as mouldinefs does on bread, &c.
MUSCLE, or Mussel. See Mytulus, Concho-
logy Index.
MUSCOVY. See Russia.
Muscovr G/afs, or Glimmer. See Mica, Mine¬
ralogy Index.
MUSCULUS, a military machine, made ufe of by
the Romans to cover and protedt the foldiers while
they approached and undermined the walls of befieged
places, or filled the ditches. It feems to have refem-
bled the tefludo in form, but w'as fmaller in fize. See
Testudo.
M US El A, were Grecian feftivals in honour of the
Mufes, celebrated with games every fifth year, parti¬
cularly by the Thefpians. The Macedonians alfo ob-
ferved a feflival of the fame name in honour of Jupi¬
ter and the Mufes, which lafled for nine days, and
was celebrated with ftage plays, fongs, and poetical
compofitions.
MUSES, certain fabulous deities among the Pa¬
gans, fuppofed to prefide over the arts and fciences :
for this reafon it is ufual for the poets, at the be¬
ginning of a poem, to invoke thefe goddeffes to their
aid.
The Mufes were originally only fingers and muficians
in the fervice of Ofiris, or the great Egyptian Bacchus,
under the inftrudlion and guidance of his fon Orus j
but in fucceeding times they were called the daughters
of Jupiter and Mnemofyne or Memory.
Thefe are the only pagan divinities wdiofe worfhip
has been continued through all fucceeding changes in
the religion and fentiments of mankind. Profefl'ors of
every liberal art in all the countries of Europe flill revere
them } particularly the poets, who feldom undertake
the {lighted: work without invoking their aid.
Sir Ifaac Newton tells us, that the finging women
of Ofiris were celebrated in Thrace by the name of
the Mufes ; and that the daughters of Pierius, a Thra¬
cian, imitating them, were celebrated by the fame Mufes.
name. —y—
Diodorus Siculus informs us, that Aleman of Mef-
fene, a lyric poet who flouriflied in the 27th Olympiad,
670 years B. C. makes them the daughters of Uranus
and Terra. It has been aiferted by fome ancient writ¬
ers, that at firft they were only three in number ; but
Homer, Hefiod, and other profound mythologifts, ad¬
mit of nine (a).
In his hymn to Apollo, Homer fays,
——By turns the nine delight to ling.
And Hefiod, in his Theogony, names them all.—They
are faid feverally to prefide over fome art or fcience, as
mufic, poetry, dancing, aftronomy. By fome they are
called virgins, becaufe the virtues of education appear
unalterable : they are called mufes from a Greek word Burney ;
which fignifies to explain myfteries, becaufe they have Hiji. of
taught things the moft curious and important to know,
and which are above the comprehenfion of vulgar
minds. Each of their names is faid to include fome
particular allegory j Clio, for inftance, has been thus
called, becaufe thofe who are praifed in verfe acquire
immortal fame ; Euterpe, on account of the pleafure
accruing to thofe who hear learned poetry 5 Thalia im¬
plies for ever flourilhing \ Melpomene, that her melody
infinuates itfelf into the inmoft receffes of the foul j
Terpf chore marks the pleafure which thofe receive who
are verfed in the liberal arts j Erato feems to indicate,
that the learned command the efteem and friendftiip of
all mankind j Polyhymnia, that many poets are become
immortal by the number of hymns which they have ad-
dreffed to the gods j Urania, that thofe whom Ihe in-
ftrufts elevate their contemplations and celebrity to the
heavens and the ftars } and laftly, the exquifite voice of
Calliope has acquired her that appellation, as the inven-
trefs and guardian of eloquence and rhetoric.
An epigram of Callimachus gives the attributes of
the Mufes in as many lines.
Calliope the deeds of heroes fings 5
Great Clio fweeps to hiftory the firings
Euterpe teaches mimes their filent {how $
Melpomene prefides o’er feenes of wo }
Terpf chore the flute’s foft pow’r difplays ;
And Erato gives hymns the gods to praife ;
Polymnia?s {kill infpires melodious ftrains j T
Urania wife, the ftarry courfe explains ; >
And gay T^a/za’/glafs points out where folly reigns. J
This epigram does not, however, exaftly correfpond
with the ideas of other poets, or of the ancient painters,
in charadlerizing the attributes of the Mufes. The an¬
cients had numberlefs ingenious and fanciful ideas con¬
cerning the mufes, which we have not room to recite.
—“ It feems (fays the abbe Barthelemi f) as if the firft f Travels
poets, enchanted with the beauties of nature, occafion-o/ Ana-
ally were led to invoke the nymphs of the woods, hills,
and fountains ; and that yielding to the prevailing tafte vo
for allegory, they gave them names relative to the in-^' 1
fluence
(a) It has been faid, that when the citizens of Sicyon direfted three fldlful ftatuaries to make each of them
flatues of the three Mufes, they were all fo well executed, that they did not know which to choofe, but ere&ed
all the nine, and that Hefiod and Horner only gave them names.
Mufes,
Mufe'.'r
M U S [
fluence they might be fuppofed to have over the pro-
duel ions of the mind. At firft three Mufes only were
' admitted, Melete, Mneme, and Aoede : that is to lay,
the meditation or reflection neceflary to ftudy j memo¬
ry which records illuitrious deeds-, and fong, which
accompanies their recital. In proportion as improve¬
ment was made in the art of verfification, its characters
and effects were perfonified, the number ot the Mules
increafed, and the names they now received referred to
M U S
485 3
divided into many companies or colleges according to
the fciences of which they were the profelTors , and to
each of thefe houfes or colleges was allotted a handlome
revenue. The foundation of this eftablilhment is attri¬
buted to Ptolemy Philadelphus, who here placed his
library. Hence the word mufeum is now applied to
any place fet apart as a repofitory for things that have
an immediate relation to the arts.
The mufeum at Oxford, called the AJhtno/eun mu-
. - f* 1 1 1*  TT A «-»A A
increafed, and the names they now receive re eru_ . li 0f bulding, erefted at the expence
t.re charms of ^ ^ ?
LUC ouaiina Wi. ,    . o • r • a!
its language, the pleafure and gaiety it inipires, the
fong and dance which add to it new charms, and the
dory with which it is crowned. Afterwards were al-
fociated with them the Graces, whofe employment it is
to embellilh poetry, and Love who is fo frequently its
obi eft. Thefe ideas took birth in a barbarous country,
in Thrace, where Orpheus, Linus, and their difciples,
fuddenly appeared in the midft of _ ignorance. I he
Mufes were honoured there on the Pierian mount; and
extending their dominion, fucceffively took their fta-
tions on Pindus, ParnaiTus, Helicon, and all thofe io-
of the univerlity, at the weft end of the theatre, at
which fide it has a magnificent portal, fuftained by pil-
lar< of the Corinthian order. The front, which is to
the ftreet, extends about 60 feet, where there is this
infeription over the entrance in gilt charafters, Mufeum
AJhmoleanum, fchola naturalis hijiorue^ qfficina chjmi-
ca It was begun in 1679, and fimftied in 1683,
when a valuable colleftion of curiofities was prefented
to the univerfity by Elias Afhmole, Efq. which were
the fame day repofited there : feveral acceffions have
been fince made to the mufeum j among which are Mo¬
tions on Pindus, Parnaffus, Helicon, ana al 1 - , . d h Egyptian antiquities, an entire
litary places where the pamters ef nature bounded tt;qllitgf altars, Jdals, lamps, &c.
by the moft pleafing images, experience the divine
glow of infpiration.”
Pythagoras, and afterwards Plato, make the Mules
the foul of the planets in our fyftem; from whence the
imaginary mufic of the fpheres.
MUSEUM, a name which originally figmfied a
part of the palace of Alexandria, which took up at
leaft one-fourth of the city. _ This quarter was called
the mufeum, on account of its being fet apart for the
Mufes and the ftudy of the fciences. Here were
lodged and entertained the men of learning 3 who were
iUgiy dllVA. vfVi J7 111 Q
mummy, Roman antiquities, altars, medals, lamps, otc.
and a variety of natural curiofities.
For an account of the Britifti mufeum, fee LONDON,
N° 146. _
MUSHROOM. See Fungi, Botany Index.
To try the quality of muftirooms :—Take an onion,
and ftrip the outer (kin, and boil it with your mufii-
rooms: if the onion become blue or black, there are
certainly dangerous ones amongft them 3 if it remain
white, they are good.
MUSIC;
Definition, enppjE art of combining founds in a manner agree-
1 able to the ear. This combination may be either
fimultaneous or fucceflive: in the firft cafe, it confti-
tutes harmony 3 in the laft, melody. But though the
fame founds, or intervals of found, which give plea¬
fure when heard in fucceflion, will not always produce
the fame effeft in harmony 3 yet the principles which
conftitute the fimpler and more perfeft kinds of har¬
mony, are almoft, if not entirely, the fame with thole
of melody. By perfeH harmony, we do not here mean
that plenitude, thofe complex modifications of harmo¬
nic found, which are admired in praftice 3 but that har¬
mony which is called perfeB by theoricians and artifts 3
that harmony which refults from the coalefcence of
fimultaneous founds produced by vibrations in the pro¬
portions of thirds, fifths, and oftaves, or their dupli-
CatThe principles upon which thefe various combina¬
tions of found are founded, and by which they are re¬
gulated, conftitute a fcience, which is not only exten-
live but profound, when we would inyeftigate the Prin"
ciples from whence thefe happy modifications of found
remit, and by which they are determined 3 or when we
would explore the fenfations, whether mental or cor¬
poreal, with which they affeft us. I he ancient defini¬
tions of mufic are not proportioned in their extent
to our prefent ideas of that art 3 but M. Rouffeau bo-
trays a temerity highly inconfiftent with the philofo-
phical charafter, when from thence he infers, that their
ideas were vague and undetermined. Every foul lui-
ceptible of refinement and delicacy in tafte or fenti-
ment, mull be confcious that there is a mufic in aftion
as well as in found 3 and that the ideas of beauty and
decorum, of harmony and fymmetry, are, if we may
ufe the expreflion, equally conftituent of vifible as of
audible mufic. Thofe illuftrious minds, whofe com-
prehenfive profpefts in every fcience where tafte and
propriety prevail took in nature at a Angle glance,
would behold with contempt and ridicule thole narrow
and microfcopic views of which alone their fucceilors
in philofophy have difeovered themfelves capacious.
With thefe definitions, however, we are lefs concerned,
as they bear no proportion to the ideas which are now
entertained of mufic. Nor can we follow M. Roufleau,
from whatever venerable fources his authority may bo
derived, in adopting his Egyptian etymology for the
Avord rrmfic. The eftabliftied derivation from Muja
could only be queftioned by a paradoxical genius.
That mufic had been praftifed in Egypt before it was
known as an art in Greece, is indeed a faft which can¬
not be queftioned 3 but it does not thence follow that
the Greeks had borrowed the name as well as the art
from
486
■* See Com-
pofitwn.
M U S
from Egypt. If the art of mufc be fo natural to man
that vocal melody is practifed wherever articulate
founds are ufed, there can be little reafon for deducing
the idea of mufic from the whiftling of winds through
the reeds that grew on the river Nile. And indeed,
when Ave refleft with how eafy a tranfition avc may pafs
from the accents of fpeaking to diatonic founds ; when
Ave obferA'e hoAV early children adapt the language of
their amufements to meafure and melody, hoAvever rude j
when we conlider hoAV early and univerfally thefe prac¬
tices take place—there is no avoiding the conclufion,
that the idea of mulic is connatural to man, and im¬
plied in the original principles of his conllitution. We
ha^e already faid, that the principles on Avhich it is
founded, and the rules by Avhich it is conducted, con-
ftitute a fcience. The fame maxims Avhen applied to
pradtiee form an art : hence its firfl and molt capital
diviiion is into fpeculative and praBical mufic.
Speculative mufic is, if we may be permitted to ufe
the expreflion, the knoAvledge of the nature and ufe of
thofe materials Avhieh corapofe it, or, in other Avords,
of all the ditYerent relations between the high and loAAr,
betAAfeen the harlh and the fweet, betAveen the fAvift and
the flow, betAveen the ftrong and the Aveak, of Avhich
founds are fufceptible : relations Avhieh, comprehend¬
ing all the poflible combinations of mufic and founds,
feera likeAvife to comprehend all the caufes of the im-
preffions Avhich their fucceflion can make upon the ear
and upon the foul.
PraBical mufic is the art of applying and reducing
to praftice thofe principles which refult from the theory
of agreeable founds, whether fimultaneous or fuccef-
five ; or, in other Avords, to condudl and arrange founds
according to the proportions refulting from confonance,
from duration and fucceflion, in fuch a manner as to
produce upon the ear the effeft which the compofer
intends. This is the art which Ave call compqfition *.
With refpeft to the aftual production of founds by
voices or inrtruments, Avhich is called execution, this
department is merely mechanical and operative : Avhich,
only prefuppofing the poAvers of founding the intervals
true, of exaClly proportioning their degrees of dura¬
tion, of elevating or deprefling founds according to
thofe gradations Avhich are preferibed by the tone, and
to the value required by the time, demands no other
knoAvledge but a familiar acquaintance Avith the charac¬
ters ufed in mufic, and a habit of exprefling them with
promptitude and facility.
Speculative mufic is likeAvife divided into two depart¬
ments ; viz. the knoAvledge of the proportions of founds
or their intervals, and that of their relative durations \
that is to fay, of meafure and of time.
The firfl; is Avhat among the ancients feems to haA’e
been called harmonical mufic. It (hows in Avhat the
nature of air or melody confifts } and difeovers Avhat
is confonant or difeordant, agreeable or difagreeable, in
the modulation. It difeovers, in a Avord, the effeCts
Avhich founds produce on the ear by their nature, by
their force, and by their intervals ; Avhich is equally
aoplicable to their confonance and their fucceflion.
J he fecond has been called rhythmical, becaufe it
treats of founds with regard to their time and quantity.
It contains the explication of their continuance, of their
proportions, of their meafures, whether long or fhort,
quick or flow, of the different modes of time and the
I C.
parts into which they are divided, that to thefe the fuc¬
ceflion of founds may be conformed.
PraBical mufic is like wife divided into two depart¬
ments, which correfpond to the tivo preceding.
That which anfwers to harmonical mufic, and which
the ancients called melope'e, teaches the rules for com¬
bining and varying the intervals, Avhether confonant or
diflonant, in an agreeable and harmonious manner.
The fecond, Avhich anfwers to the rhythmical mufic,
and which they called rhythmope'e, contains the rules
for applying the different modes of time, for under-
ftanding the feet by which verfes Avere fcanned, and the
diverfities of meafure j in a word, for the pra&ice of
the rhythmus.
Mufic is at prefent divided more Amply into melody
and harmony ; for fince the introduction of harmony, the
proportion betAveen the length and fliortnefs of founds,
or even that between the diftance of returning cadences,
are of lefs confequence amongfl us. For it often hap¬
pens in modem languages, that the verfes affume their
meafures from the mufical air, and almoff entirely lofe
the imall (hare of proportion and quantity which in
themfelv’es they poffefs.
By melody the fucceffions of found are regulated in
fuch a manner as to produce pleafing airs. See Mr.-"
LODY.
Harmony confifts in uniting to each of the founds,
in a regular fucceflion, tAvo or more different founds,
which fimultaneoufly ftriking the ear foothe it by their
concurrence. See Harmony.
Mufic, according to Rouffeau, may be, and perhaps
likeAvife ought to be, divided into the physical and the
imitative. The firft is limited to the mere mechanifm of
founds, and reaches no farther than the external fenfes,
without carrying its impreflions to the heart, and can
produce nothing but corporeal fenfations more or lefs
agreeable. Such is the mufic of fongs, of hymns, of
all the airs which only confift in combinations of melo¬
dious founds, and in general all mufic which is merely
harmonious.
It may, hoAvever, be queftioned, whether every found,
eAren to the moft Ample, is not either by nature or by
early and confirmed affociation, imitative. If we may
truft our oAvn feelings, there is no fuch thing in nature
as mufic which gives mechanical pleafure alone. For
if fo, it muft give fuch pleafure as Ave receive from
taftes, from odours, or from other grateful titillations j
but we abfolutely deny that there are any mufical fen¬
fations or pleafures in the fmalleft degree analogous to
thefe. Let any piece of mufic be refolved into its ele¬
mentary parts and their proportions, it Avill then eafily
appear from this analyfis, that fenfe is no more than
the vehicle of fuch perceptions, and that mind alone
can be fufceptible of them. It may indeed happen,
from the number of the performers and the complica¬
tion of the harmony, that meaning and fentiment may
be loft in the multiplicity of founds; but this, though
it may be harmony, lofes the name of mufic.
The fecond department of this divifion, by lively and
accentuated inflections, and by founds Avhich may be
faid to fpeak, expreffes all the paflions, paints every"
poflible picture, reflects every object, fubjects the
whole of nature to its (kilful imitations, and imprefl'es
even on the heart and foul of man fentiments proper to
affect them in the moft fenfible manner. This, conti¬
nues
M U S
I c.
nues he, which is the genuine lyric and theatrical mu-
iic, was what gave double charms and energy to ancient
poetry 5 this is Avhat, in our days, we exert ourfelves in
applying to the drama, and what our fingers execute
on the Itage. It is in this mufic alone, and not in har¬
monics or the refonance of nature, that we mult expedt
to find accounts of thofe prodigious eftedts which it for¬
merly produced. _
But, with M. Rouffeau’s permidion, all mufic which
is not in fome degree charadlerifed by theie pathetic
and imitative powers, deferves no better name than that
of a mujical jargon, and can only be effectuated by fuch
a complication and intricacy of harmony, as may con¬
found, but cannot entertain the audience. This cha¬
racter, therefore, ought to be added as effential to the
definition of mufic} and it mult be attributed to our
negledt of this alone, whilft our whole attention is be¬
llowed on harmony and execution, that the belt per¬
formances of our artifts and compofers are heard with
liltlefs indifference and ofcitation, nor ever can conci¬
liate any admirers, but fuch as are induced, by pedan¬
try and affedtation, to pretend what they do not feel.
Still may the curfe of indifference and inattention pur-
fue and harnnv up the fouls of every compofer or per¬
former, who pretends to regale our ears with this mu-
fical legerdemain, till the grin of fcorn, or the hils of
infamy, teach them to corredt this depravity of tafte,
and entertain us with the voice of nature !
Whilft moral effedts are fought in the natural elfedts
of found alone, the fcrutiny will be vain, and difputes
will be maintained without being underltood : but
founds as reprefentatives of objedts, whether by nature
or affociation, introduce new feenes to the fancy and
new feelings to the heart; not from their mechanical
powers, but from the connedlion eftablifhed by the Au¬
thor of our frame between founds and the objedt which
either by natural refemblance or unavoidable alfociation
they are made to reprefent.
It would feem that mufic was one of thofe arts
which were firfl difcovered : and that vocal was prior
to inftrumental mufic, if in the earlieft ages there
was any mufic which could be faid to be purely inftru-
mental. For it is more than probable, that mufic was
originally formdd to be the vehicle of poetry } and of
confequence, though the voice might be fupported and
accompanied by inilruments, yet mufic was never in¬
tended for inftruments alone.
We are told by ancient authors, that all the laws,
whether human or divine, exhortations to virtue, the
knowledge of the characters and adtions of gods and
heroes, the lives and atchievements of illuflrious men,
were written in verfe, and fung publicly by a quire to
the found of inflruments *, and it appears from the
Scriptures, that fuch from the earlieft times was the
cuftom among the Ifraelites. Nor was it poftible to
find means more efficacious for imprefling on the mind
of man the principles of morals, and infpiring the
love of virtue. Perhaps, however, this was not the re-
fult of a premeditated plan ; but infpired by fublime
fentiments and elevation of thought, which in accents
that were fuited and proportioned to their celeftial na¬
ture endeavoured to find a language worthy of them-
ielves and expreflive of their grandeur.
It merits attention, that the ancients were duly fen-
ilble of the value and importance of this divine art,
not only as a fymbol of that univerfal order and fym-
melry which prevails through the whole frame of ma¬
terial and intelligent nature, but as produdlive of the
moft momentous effedls both in moral and political
life. Plato and Ariftotie, who difagreed almoft in
every other maxim of politics, are unanimous in their
approbation of mufic, as an efficacious inftrument in
the formation of the public charadter and in condudt-
ing the ftate ; and it was the general opinion, that
whilft the gymnaftic exercifes rendered the conftitution
robuft and hardy, muftc humanifed the character, and
foftened thofe habits of roughnefs and ferocity by
which men might otherwife have degenerated into fa-
vages. The gradations by which voices were exerted
and tuned, by which the invention of one inftrument
fucceeded to another, or by which the principles of
mufic were colledted and methodifed in fuch a manner
as to give it the form of an art and the dignity of a
feience, are topics fo fruitful of conjedture and fo void
of certainty, that we muft leave them to employ minds
more fpeculative and inventions more prolific than
ours, or transfer them to the H/jlory of mufic as a more
proper place for fuch difquiiitions. For the amufe-
ment of the curious, Roufleau in his Mujical Di£iionary,
Plates C and N, has tranferibed fome fragments of
Grecian, Perfian, American, Chinefe, and Swils mufic,
with which performers may entertain themlelves at
leifure. When they have tried the pieces, it is imagin¬
ed they will be lefs fanguinely fond than that author of
aferibing the power of mufic to its affinity with tne na¬
tional accents where it is compofed. This may doubt-
lefs have its influence •, but there are other caufes more
permanent and lefs arbitrary to which it owes its moft
powerful and univerfal charms.
The mufic now moft generally celebrated and prac-
tifed is that of the Italians, or their fuccefsful imita¬
tors. The Engliffi, from the invafion of the Saxons,
to that more late though lucid era in which they im¬
bibed the art and copied the manner of the Italians,
had a mufic which neither pleafed the foul nor charm¬
ed the ear. The primitive mufic of the French de¬
ferves no higher panegyric. Of all the barbarous na¬
tions, the Scots and Irilh feem to have pofleffed the
moft affedling original mufic. The firft conlifts of a
melody chara&erifed by tendernefs : It melts the foul
to a pleafing penfive languor. The other is the na¬
tive expreflion of grief and melancholy. Taffoni in¬
forms us, that in his time a prince from Scotland had
imported into Italy a lamentable kind of mufic from
his own country •, and that he himfelf had compofed
pieces in the fame fpirit. From this expreflive though
laconic defeription, we learn that the character of our
national mufic was even then eftabliftied ; yet fo grofs
is our ignorance and credulity, that we aferibe the
beft and moft impaffioned airs which are extant among
us to David Rizzio } as if an Italian lutanift, who
had lived fo ftiort a time in Scotland, could, at once, as
it were by infpiration, have imbibed a fpirit arid com¬
pofed in a manner fo different from his own. It is
yet more furprifing that Geminiani ftiould have enter¬
tained and publiftied the fame prejudice, upon the mi-
ferable authority of popular tradition alone 5 for the
fa6l is authenticated by no better credentials. The pri¬
mitive mufic of the Scots may be divided into the mar¬
tial, the pa joral, and the fejlivc. The jirjl confifts
cither
483
MUST C.
either In marches, which were played before the chief¬
tains, in imitation of the battles which they fought,
or in lamentations for the cataflrophes of war and the
e&tin&ion of families. Thefe vvild effuiions of natural
melody preferve feveral of the rules preformed for com-
polition. The drains, though rude and untutored, are
frequently terrible or mournful in a very high degree.
The port or march is fometimes in common, fometimes
in treble time ; regular in its meafures, and exadt in
the diitance between its returning cadences; mod fre¬
quently, though not always, loud and brilk. The pi¬
broch, or imitation of battles, is wild, and abrupt in
its trandtions from interval to interval and from key
to key •, various and defultory in its movements •, fre¬
quently irregular in the return of its cadences •, and
in thort, through the whole, feems infpired with fuch
fury and enthufiafm, that the hearer is irrefidibly in-
fedfed with all the rage of precipitate courage, not-
withdanding the rudenefs of the accents by which it is
kindled. To this the pajloral forms a driking contrad.
Its accents are plaintive, yet foothing; its harmony
generally flat •, its modulations natural and agreeable $
its rhythmus Ample and regular} its returning caden¬
ces at equal didance ; its tranfitions from one concin-
nous interval to another, at lead for the mod part } its
movements flow, and may be either in common or
treble time. It fcarcely admits of any other harmony
than that of a Ample bafs. A greater number of parts
would cover the air, and dedroy the melody. 1o this
we fliall add what has been faid upon the fame fubjefl
by Dr Franklin. Writing to Lord K  —, he
proceeds thus :
4‘ Give me leave, on this occaAon, to extend a little
the fenfe of your poAtion, ‘ That melody and harmony
are feparately agreeable, and in union delightful
and to give it as my opinion, that the reafon why the
Scotch tunes have lived fo long, and will probably live
for ever (if they efcape being difled in modern afledt-
ed ornament), is merely this, that they are really com-
poAtions of melody and harmony united, or rather
that their melody is harmony. I mean, the Ample
tunes fung by a Angle voice. As this will appear pa¬
radoxical, I mud explain my meaning. In common
acceptation, indeed, only an agreeable fuccejjion of
founds is called melody; and only the coexi/ience of
agreeable founds harmony. But Ance the memory is
capable of retaining for fome moments a perfedl idea
of the pitch of a pad found, fo as to compare it with
the pitch of a fuceeeding found, and judge truly of
their agreement or difagreement, there may and does
arife from thence a fenfe of a harmony between the pre-
fent and pad founds, equally pleaAng with that between
two prefent founds. Now the condruftion of the old
Scotch tunes is this, that almod every fucceeding em-
phatical note is a third, a Afth, an o£tave, or in fliort
fome note that is in concord with the preceding note.
Thirds are chiefly ufed, which are very pleaAng con¬
cords. I ufe the word emphatical, to didinguifli thofe
notes which have a drefs laid on them in Anging the
tune, from the lighter connecting notes that ferve
merely, like grammar-articles in common fpeech, to
tack the whole together.
“ That we have a mod perfect idea of a found jud
pad, I might appeal to ali acquainted with muAc, who
Anew how eafy it is to repeat a found in the fame
pitch with one jud heard. In tuning an inflrumeht, a
good ear can as eaAly determine that two drings are
in unifon by founding them feparately, as by founding
them together 5 their difagreement is alfo as eaAly, I
believe I may fay more eaAly and better didinguithed
when founded feparately 5 for when founded together,
though you know by the beating that one is higher
than the other, you cannot tell which it is. I have
afcribed to memory the ability of comparing the pitch
of a prefent tone with that of one pad. But if there
ihould be, as poflibly there may be, fomething in the
ear Amilar to what vre And in the eye, that ability
would not be entirely owing to memory. Poflibly the
vibrations given to the auditory nerves by a particular
found may aftually continue for fome time after the
caufe of thefe vibrations is pad, and the agreement or
difagreement of a fubfequent found become by compari-
fon with them more difcernible. For the impredion
made on the vifual nerves by a luminous objedl will
continue for 20 or 30 feconds.”
After fome experiments to prove the permanency of
viflble impreflions, he continues thus :
“ Farther, when we conAder by whom thefe ancient
tunes were compofed, and how they were Ard per¬
formed, we flrall fee that fuch harmonical fucceffion
of founds was natural, and even neceflary in their con-
ftruedion. They were compofed by the minflrels of
thofe days, to be played on the harp accompanied by
the voice. The harp was flrung with wire, which
gives a found of long continuance ; and had no con¬
trivance like that of the modern harpflehord, by
which the found of the preceding note can be flopt
the moment a fucceeding note begins. To avoid
a (dual difeord, it was therefore neceffary that the fuc¬
ceeding emphatic note flrould be a chord with the pre¬
ceding, as their founds mud exid at the fame time.
Hence arofe that beauty in thofe tunes that has fo
long pleafed, and will pleafe for ever, though men
fcarce know why. That they were originally com¬
pofed for the harp, and of the mod Ample kind, I
mean a harp without any half-notes but thofe in the
natural fcale, and with no more than two o<flaves of
firings, from C to C, I conje<dure from another cir-
cumftance *, which is, that not one of thefe tunes really
ancient, has a Angle artifleial half-note in it; and that
in tunes where it is mod convenient for the voice to ufe
the middle, notes of the harp, and place the key in F,
there the B, which if ufed flrould be a B flat, is al¬
ways omitted, by pafling over it with a third. The
connoiffeurs in modern mufic will fay I have no tade j
but I cannot help adding, that I believe our anceflors,
in having a good fong, diflin&ly articulated, fung to
one of thofe tunes, and accompanied by the harp, felt
more real pleafure than is communicated by the gene¬
rality of modern operas, exclufive of that ariflng from
the feenery and dancing. Mod tunes of late compo-
Ation, not having this natural harmony united with
their melody, have recourfe to the artificial harmony
of a bafs, and other accompanying parts. This fup-
port, in my opinion, the old tunes do not need, and
are rather confuled than aided by it. Whoever has
heard James Ofwald play them on his violincello, will
be lefs inclined to difpute this with me. I have more
than once feen tears of pleafure in the eyes of his
auditors: and yet I think, even his playing thofe tunes
would
489
iftory. •'* U
would pleafe more if he gave them lefs modern orna¬
ment.”
As thefe obfervations are for the mod part true, and
always ingenious, we need no other apology for quot¬
ing them at length. It is only proper to remark, that
the tranfition in Scots muilc by confonant intervals,
does not feem, as Dr Franklin imagines, to arife from
the nature of the inftruments upon which they played.
It is more than probable, that the ancient Britilh harp
was not fining with wire, but with the fame materials
as the Welfh harps at prefent. Thefe firings have not
the fame permanency of tone as metal 5 fo that the
found of a preceding emphatic note mull have expired
before the fubfequent accented note could be introdu¬
ced. Befides, they who are acquainted with the ma¬
noeuvre of the Iriih harp, know well that there is a
method of difcontinuing founds no lefs eafy and effec¬
tual than upon the harpffchord. When the performer
HISTORY
To ac«u- MUSIC is capable of fo infinite a variety, fo greatly
lte ac_ does the mofl Ample differ from the mofl complex, and
itTfbte of multiplied are the degrees between thefe two ex-
mfic in tremes, that in no age could the incidents refpefling
le earlier that fafcinating art have been few or uninterefling.
ges of the But, that accounts of thefe incidents fhould have been
or^‘ handed down to us, fcanty and imperfect, is no matter
of furprife, when we recoiled! that the hiflory of mufic
is the hiflory only of founds, of which writing is a very
inadequate medium ; and that men would long employ
themfelves in the. pleafing exercife of cultivating mufic
before they poffeffed either the ability or the inclination
to record their exertions.
No accurate traces, therefore, of the actual flate of
. mufic, in the earlier ages of the world, can be difcern-
ed. Our ideas on the fubjedt have no foundation firm¬
er than conjedlufe and analogy.
It is probable, that among all barbarous nations
fome degree of fimilarity is difcernible in the flyle of
their mufic. Neither will much difference appear du¬
ring the firfl dawnings of civilization. But in the
more advanced periods of fociety, -when the powers
of the human mind are permitted without obftacle to
exert their native adlivity and tendency to invention,
and are at the fame time affedted by the infinite variety
of circumflances and fituations which before bad no ex-
iflence, and which in one cafe accelerate, and in ano¬
ther retard } then that fimilarity, once fo diflinguifhable,
gives place to the endlefs diverfity ©f which the fubjedt
is capable.
lufic not The pradtice of mufic being univerfal in all ages and
ie inven- a]] nations, it would be abfurd to attribute the invention
ze man^ ^ie art an7 one man. It muff have fuffered a re¬
gular progreffion, through infancy, childhood, and
youth, before it could arrive at maturity. The firfl
attempts muff have been rude and artlefsi Perhaps the
firfl flute was a reed of the lake.
No nation has been able to produce proofs of anti¬
quity fo indifputable as the Egyptians. It would be
vain, therefore, to attempt tracing mufic higher than
■gyptian the hiflory of Egypt.
iulk. Bv comparing the accounts of Diodorus Siculus
VOL. XIV,''Part II.
S I C.
finds it proper to interrupt a note, he has no more to do
but return his finger gently upon the firing immediate¬
ly flruck, which effedlually flops its vibration.
That fpecies of Shots mufic which we have diftin-
guifhed by the name of feftrve feems now limited to reels
and country-dances. Thefe may be either in common
or treble time. They mofl frequently confifl of two
ft rains : each of thefe contains eight or twelve bars.
They are truly rhythmical; but the mirth which they
excite feems rather to be infpircd by the vivacity of tho
movement, than either by the force or variety of the
melody. They poffefs a manoeuvre and expreflion pecu¬
liar to themfelves, which it is impoffible to defcribe, and
which can only be exhibited by good performers.
Having thus far purfued the geheral idea of mufic,
we fliall, after the hiflory, give a more particular detail
of the fcience.
OF MUSIC.
and of Plato, there is reafon to fuppofe, that in very
ancient times the fludy of mufic in Egypt was con¬
fined to the prieflhood, who ufed it only on religious
and folemn occafions ; that, as well as fculpture, it
was circumfcribed by law ; that it was efleemed fa-
cred, and forbidden to be employed on light or com¬
mon occafions} and that innovation in it was prohi¬
bited : But what the ftyle or relative excellence of
this very ancient mufic tVas, there are no traces by
which we can form an accurate judgment. After the
reigns of the Pharaohs, the Egyptians fell by turns
under the dominion of the Ethiopians, the Perfians,
the Greeks, and the Romans, By fucli revolutions,
the manners and amufements of the people, as well as
their form of government, muff have been changed.
In the age of the Ptolemies, the mufical games and
contefls inflituted by thofe monarchs were of Greek
origin, and the muficians who performed were chiefly
Greek.
The melt ancient monuments of human art and in^
duflry, at prefent extant at Rome, are the obelilks
brought thither from Egypt, two of which are faid to
have been erected by Sefoltris at Heliopolis, about 400
years before the fiege of Troy, Thefe were by tbe or¬
der of Auguftus brought to Rome after the conqueft
of Egypt. One of them called guglia rotta, or the
broken pillar, which during the hacking of the city in
1527 was thrown down and broken, ftill lies in the
Campus Martius-. On it is feen the figure of a mufi- An Egyp-
cal inftrument of two firings, and with a neck. It re- dan mufical
fembles much the calafcione Hill ufed in the kingdomluftr,jmeilU
of Napl es.
This curious relick of antiquity is mentioned, be-
caufe it affords better evidence than, on the fubjedl
of ancient mufic, is ufually to be met with, that the
Egyptians, at fo very early a period of their hillory,
had advanced to a confiderable degree of excellence
in the cultivation of the arts. By means of its neck,
this inftrument was capable, with only two firings,
of producing a great number of notes. Thefe two
firings, if tuned fourths to each other, would furnifh
that feries of founds called by the ancients heptachord^
3 Q which
490
The Egyp¬
tian Her¬
mes the in¬
ventor of
the lyre.
The fingle
fiute of the
Egyptians.
M U S
tvliich confifts of a conjunfl tetrachord as B, C, D,
E; E, F, G, A j if tuned fifths, they would pro¬
duce an odtave, or two disjunft tetrachords. The
calafcione is tuned in this lafl manner. The annals
of no nation other than Egypt, for many ages after
the period of the obelilk at Heliopolis, exhibit the
veftige of any contrivance to Ihorten firings during
performance by a neck or finger-board. Father Mont-
faucon obferves, that after examining 500 ancient lyres,
harps, and citharas, he could difcover no fuch thing.
Egypt indeed feems to have been the fource of hu¬
man intelligence, and the favourite refidence of genius
and invention. From that celebrated country did the
Greeks derive their knowledge of the firfl elements of
thofe arts and feiences in which they afterwards fo emis-
nently excelled. From Greece again did the Romans
borrow their attainments in the fame purfuits. And
from the records of thofe different nations have the
moderns been enabled to accomplifh fo wonderful an
improvement in literature.
The Hermes or Mercury of the Egyptians, firnamed
Trifmegi/ius, or thrice illujlrious, who was, according
to Sir Ifaac Newton, the fecretary of Ofiris, is cele¬
brated as the inventor of mufic. It has already been
obferved, that no one perfon ought ftridlly to be call¬
ed the inventor of an art which feems to be natural to,
and coeval with, the human fpecies ; but the Egyptian
Mercury is without doubt entitled to the praife of ha¬
ving made flriking improvements in mufic, as well as
of having advanced in various refpefts the civilization
of the people, whofe government was chiefly committed
to his charge. The account given by Apollodorus of
the manner in which he accidentally invented the lyre,
is at once entertaining and probable. “ The Nile
(fays Apollodorus), after having overflowed the whole
country of Egypt, when it returned within its natural
bounds, left on the fhore a great number of dead ani¬
mals of various kinds, and among the reft a tortoife ;
the flefh of which being dried and wafted by the fun,
nothing remained within the ftiell but nerves and car¬
tilages, and thefe being braced and contrafted by the
drying heat became fonorous. Mercury, walking along
the banks of the Nile, happened to rtrike his foot a-
gainft this (hell ; and was fo pleafed with the found pro¬
duced, that the idea of a lyre ftarted into his imagina¬
tion. He conftrmfted the inftrument in the form of a
tortoife, and ftrung it with the dried finews of dead
animals.”
How beautiful to conceive the energetic powers of
the human mind in the early ages of the world, ex¬
ploring the yet undifeovered capabilities of nature, and
direfted to the inexhauftible ftorc by the finger of God
in the form of accident !
The monaulos, or fingle flute, called by the Egyp¬
tians photinx, was probably one of the moft ancient
inftruments ufed either by them or any other nation.
From various remains of ancient fculpture, it appears
to have been fliaped like a bull’s horn, and was at firft,
it may be fuppofed, no other than the horn itfelf.—
Before the invention of flutes, as no other inftrument
except thofe of percuflion were known, mufic muft
have been little more than metrical. When the art of
refining and lengthening founds was firft difeovered,
the power of mufic over mankind, from the agreeable
furprife occafioned by foft and extended notes, was
4
I C. Hiflory.
probably irrefiftible. At a time when all the reft of
the world was involved in favage ignorance, the Egyp¬
tians were polfelfed of mufical inftruments capable of
much variety and expreflion.—Of this the aftoniftiing
remains of the city Thebes ftill fubfifting afford ample
evidence. In a letter from Mr Bruce, ingroffed in Dr
Burney’* hiftory of Mufic, there is given a particular
defeription of the Theban harp, an inftrument of ex- 'i hv Tlie-
tenfive compafs, and exquifite elegance of form. It is ban harp of
accompanied with a drawing taken from the ruins of an P1-
ancient fepulchre at Thebes, fuppofed by Mr Bruce to
be that of the father of Sefoftris.
On the fubjedl of this harp, Mr Bruce makes the
following ftriking obfervation. It overturns all the
accounts of the earlieft ftate of ancient mufic and in¬
ftruments in Egypt, and is altogether, in its form, or¬
naments, and compafs, an inconteftable proof, ftronger
than a thoufand Greek quotations, that geometry,
drawing, mechanics, and mufic, were at the greateft
perfection when this harp was made $ and that what
we think in Egypt was the invention of arts was only
the beginning of the sera of their reft oration.”
Indeed, w hen the beauty and powers of this harp,
along with the very great antiquity of the painting
which reprefents it, are confidered, fuch an opinion as
that which Mr Bruce hints at, does not feem to be de¬
void of probability.
It cannot be doubted that during the reigns of the
Ptolemies, wrho were voluptuous princes, mufic muft;
have been much cultivated and encouraged. The fa¬
ther of Cleopatra, who was the laft of that race of
kings, derived his title of auletes, or flute-player, from
his exceflive attachment to the flute. Like Nero, he
ufed to array himfelf in the drefs of a tibicen, and exhi¬
bit his performance in the public mufical contefts.
Some authors, particularly Am. Marcellinus and M.
Pau, refufe to the Egyptians, at any period of their
hiftory, any mufical genius, or any excellence in the
art; but the arguments ufed to fupport this opinion feem
to be inconclufive, and the evidences of the oppofite de-
cifion appear to be inconteftable.
The facred Scriptures afford almoft the only mate- Hebmv
rials from which any knowledge of Hebrew mufic can mufic
be drawn. In the rapid fketch, therefore, of ancient
mufic which we mean to exhibit, a very few obferva-
tions are all which can properly be given to that de¬
partment of our fubjeft.
Mofes, who led the Ifraelites out of Egypt, was
educated by Pharaoh’s daughter in all the literature
and elegant arts cultivated in that country. It is pro¬
bable, therefore, that the tafte and ftyie of Egyptian
mufic would be infftfed in fome degree into that of the
Hebrews. Mufic appears to have been interwoven
through the v'hole tiffue of religious ceremony in Pa-
leftine. The priefthood feem to have been muficians
hereditarily and by office. The prophets appear to
have accompanied their infpired effufions with mufic 5
and every prophet, like the prefent improvifatori of
Italy, feems to have been accompanied by a mufical in¬
ftrument.
Mufic, vocal and inftrumental, conftituted a great
part of the funeral ceremonies of the Jews. The pomp
and expence ufed on thefe occafions advanced by de¬
grees to an exceflive extent. The number of flute-
players in the proceflions amounted fometimes to feveral
hundreds,
491
Hiftory.
hundred ,
Jofephm,frequently for 30 days*
M U
and the attendance of the guefts continued
lb. iii. c. 9.
loarfe and
loify.
Grecian
ilnufic.
'L'he Hebrew language abounds with confonants,
and has fo few vowels, that in the original alphabet
they had no eharafters. It mull, therefore,^ have been
harfh and unfavourable to mulic. 1 heir inftruments
of mulic were chiefly thofe of perculhon j io that,
both on account of the language and the inftruments,
the mulic muft have been coarfe and noify. 1 he vail
numbers of performers too, whom it was the tafte of
the Hebrews to colledl together, could with luch a lan¬
guage and fuch inftruments produce nothing but cla¬
mour and jargon. According to Jofephus, there weie
200,000 mulicians at the dedication of Solomon s
tern[fte. Such are the circumftances from which only
an idea of Hebrew mulic can be formed •, for the Jews,
neither ancient nor modern, have ever had any charac¬
ters peculiar to mulic } and the melodies ufed in their
religious ceremonies have at all times been entirely tia-
ditional. ,
Cadmus, with the Phoenician colony which he led
into Greece, imported at the fame time, various, arts
Into that country. By the aftiftance of his Phoenician
artificers, that chief difcovered gold in Thrace and
copper at Thebes. At Thebes that metal is.ftill term¬
ed cadmia. Of thefe materials, and of iron, they
formed to themfelves armour and inftruments of war. ,
Thefe they ftruck againft each other during their
dances at facrifices, by which they firft obtained the
idea of mulic. Such is the account given of the ori¬
gin of that fpecies of mufic in Greece produced by
inftruments of pereuftion. The invention of wind in¬
ftruments in Greece is attributed to IVImerva j anu to
the Grecian Mercury is afligned, by the poets and
hiftorians of that country, the honour of many difco-
veries probably due to the Egyptian Hermes, paiticu-
larly the invention of ftringed inftruments. . The lyre
of the Egyptian Mercury had only three firings; that
of the Grecian feven : The laft was perhaps no more
than an improvement on the other. \\ hen the Greeks
deified a prince or hero of their own country, they
ufually aftigned him an Egyptian name, and with the
name bellowed on their new divinity all the actions,
attributes, and rites of the original.
The Grecian lyre, although faid to have been in¬
vented by Mercury, was cultivated principally by
Apollo, who firft played upon it with method, and
accompanied it with the voice. I he celebrated con-
teft between him and Marfyas is mentioned by various
authors $ in which, by conjoining the voice with his
lyre (a combination never before attempted), his mufic
was declared fuperior to the flute of Marfyas.. i he
Progrefs of progrefs of the lyre, according to Diodorus Siculus,
the Grecian is the following. “ The mufes added to the Grecian
S I c.
cumftances together, we may pci haps acquire fome
knowledge of the progrefs of mufic, or at leaft of the
extenfion of its fcale in the higheft antiquity. Mefe,
in the Greek mufic, is the fourth found of the fecond
tetrachord of the great fyftem, and firft tetrachord in¬
vented by the ancients, anfwering to our A, on the
fifth line in the bafe. If this found then was added to
the former three, it proves that the moft ancient te¬
trachord was that from E in the bale to A ; and that
the three original firings in the Mercurian and Apol¬
lonian lyre rvere tuned E, F, G, which the Greeks call
hypate mefon, parky pate viefon, and mefon dtatonos : l he
addition, therefore, of mefe to thefe, completed the firft;
and moft ancient tetrachord E, F, G, A. 1 he .firing
lichanos again being added to thefe, and anfwering to
our D on the third line in the bafe, extended the com-
pafs downwards, and gave the ancient lyre a regular
feries of five founds. The two firings hyp.ate and par-
hypate, correfponding wdth our B and C in the bafe,
completed the heptachord or feven founds, b, c, d, e, f,
g, a ; a compafs which received no addition till after
the days of Pindar.
It might perhaps be expe6led, that in a hiftory of
Greek mufic fomething ought to be faid concerning
the mufes, Apollo, Bacchus, and the other gods and
demi-gods, who in the mythology of that country ap¬
pear to have promoted and improved the art. But
fuch a difcuflion would be too diffufive, and involve too
much foreign matter for the plan we have chofen to
adopt. We cannot avoid, however, making a few
obfervations on the poems of Homer, in fo far as con-
nefted with our fubjeft. It has been imagined, with
much appearance of probability, that the occupation
of the firft poets and muficians of Greece refembled Occupation
that of the Celtic and German bards and the fcalds *1^ firft
of Iceland and Scandinavia. . They fung their poems
in the ftreets of the cities and in the palaces of princes.^ Greece.
They were treated with high refpeft, and regarded as
infpired perfons. Such was the employment, of Ho-
His poems, fo juftly celebrated, exhibit the
lyre.
lyre the firing called viefe; Linus that of lichanos j
and Orpheus and Thamyras thofe firings which are
named hypate and parhypate.’' It has been already
mentioned, that the lyre invented by the Egyptian
Mercury had but three firings. By putting thefe cir-
moft authentic pi&ure that can be found in the annals
of antiquity, although perhaps fomewhat highly co¬
loured, of the times of wdiich he wrote and in which
he lived. Mufic is always named throughout the Iliad
and Odyffey with rapture; but as in thefe poems no
mention is made of inftrumental mufic unaccompanied
with poetry and finging, a confiderable fhare no doubt
of the poet’s praifes is to be attributed to the poetry.
The inftruments moft frequently named are the lyre,
the flute, and the fyrinx. The trumpet appears not
to have been known at the fiege of Troy, although
it had come to be in ufe in the days of Homer him-
felf. From the time of Homer till that of Sappho,
there is almoft a total blank in literature. Only a few
fragments remain of the works of thofe poets and mu¬
ficians whofe names are preferved as having flourifhed
between thofe periods (a). During the century which
elapfed between the days of Sappho and thofe of .Ana¬
creon, no literary produclions are preferved entire.-—
3 (£ 2 From
f a) Hefiod lived fo near to Homer, that it has been difputed which of them is the moft ancient. It is now,
we believe, univerfally admitted, that the palm of antiquity is due to Homer'*, but we confider them as having
both flour!died in the fame era.
492
M U
From Anacreon to Pindar there is another chafin of
near a century. Subfequent to this time, the works
Hill extant of the three great tragic poets, ./Efchylus,
Sophocles, and Euripides, together with thofe of Plato,
Ariftotle, Ariitoxenus, Euclid, Theocritus, Callima¬
chus, Polybius, and many others, produced all within
n fpace lefs than 300 years, diltinguifh this illuftrious
and uncommon period as that in which the whole
powers of genius feem to have been exerted to illumi¬
nate and inftrudt mankind in future ages. Then it
was that eloquence, poetry, mufic, archite&ure, hillory,
painting, fculpture, like the fpontaneous bloflbms of na¬
ture, flourifhed without the appearance of labour or of
art.
I he poets, as well epic as lyric and elegiac, were all
likewife muficians \ fo ftridly conne&ed were mufic and
poetry for many ages. It would afford amufement to
colie£1 the biographical anecdotes of thefe favourites of
genius, and to aflign to each the refpeftive improvements
made by him in mufic and poetry ; but our limits do
not admit of fo extenfive a difquifition j for which,
therefore, reference muff be made to the editors and
commentators of thefe authors, and to the voluminous
hiffories of mufic lately publifiied.
The inven- I he invention of notation and mufical chara<ffers
tion of mu- marked a diftinguifiied sera in the progrefs of mufic.
raders ^ ^iere arc a diverfity of accounts refpe&ing the perfon
to whom the honour of that invention is due 5 but the
evidences feem to preponderate in favour of Terpander,
a celebrated poet and mufician, to whofe genius mufic
is much indebted. He fiourifhed about the 27th Olym¬
piad, or 671 years before Chrift.
Before that valuable difcovery, mufic being entirely
traditional, muff have depended much on the memory
and tafte of the performer.
There is an incident mentioned in the accounts
handed down to us of the Olympic games, which may
ferve in fome degree to mark the charafler of mufic
at the time in which it happened. Lucian relates that
a young flute-player named Harmonides, at his firft
public appearance in thefe games, began a folo with fo
violent a blaft, on purpofe to furprife and elevate the
audience, that he breathed his lajl breath into his flute.
Vociferous ancl died on the fpot. When to this anecdote, won-
tho Greeks to us’ almoft incredible, is added that cir-
'cumftance, that the trumpet-players at thefe public ex¬
hibitions expreffed an excefs of joy when they found
their exertions had neither rent their cheeks nor burft
their blood-veffels, fome idea may be formed of the
noify and vociferous ftyle of mufic which then pleafed j
and from fuch fafts only can any opinion be obtained
of the atffual Hate of ancient mufic.
In whatever manner the flute was played on, there
is no doubt that it was long in Greece an inftrument
of high favour, and that the flute-players were held
in much eftimation. The flute ufed by Ifmenias, a
celebrated Theban mufician, coft at Corinth three ta¬
lents, or 581I. 5s. If, fays Xenophon, a bad flute-
player would pafs for a good one, he muff, like the
great flute-players, expend large fums on rich furniture,
and appear in public with a great retinue of fervants.
^ J Hiftory,
The ancients, it appears, vverenotlefsextravagantExtrava-
in gratifying the miniflers of their pleafures than our-ganceof
felves. Amoebaeus, a harper, was paid an Attic talent, ti‘.e anc,ent3
or 193b 15s. per day for his performance (b). fpeft to*
It is proper to add, that the celebrated muficians ofniufic.
Greece who performed in public were of both fexes ;
and that the beautiiul Lamia, who was taken captive
by. Demetrius, in the fea engagement in which he van-
quilhed Ptolemy Soter, and who herfelf captivated her
conqueror, was a public performer, as well as were
many other elevated female fpirits, who are recorded
by ancient authors in terms of admiration, and of whom,
did our limits here admit of biography, wre would treat
with pleafure. The philofophers of Greece, whofe capa¬
cious minds grafped every other objed of human intel¬
ligence, were not inattentive to the theory of mufic, or
the philofophy of found. This department of fcience be¬
came the fource of various feds, and of much diverfity
of opinion.—The founders of the moil diftinguiflied
fed s were Pythagoras and Ariftoxenus.
Like every other , people, the Romans, from their Roni t i
firft origin as a nation, were poffeffed of a fpecies ofmufie.n
mufic which might be diftinguiflied as their own. It
appears to have been rude and coarfe, and probably
was a variation of the mufic in ufe among the Etruf-
cans and other tribes around them in Italy; but as
foon as they began to open a communication with
Greece, from that country, with their arts and philo¬
fophy, they borrowed alfo their mufic and mufical in-
ftruments. No account, therefore, of Roman mufic
is to be expeded that would not be a repetition
of what has been faid on the fubjed of the mufic of
Greece.
# The ex.eeflive vanity of Nero with refped to mufic, Vanjt of
difplayed in his public contentions for fuperiority with Nero with
the moft celebrated profeffors of the art in Greece refpeift to
and Rome,, is knowrn to every one converfant in themu^c‘
hiftory of Rome. The folicitude with which that
deteftable tyrant attended to his voice is curious, and
will throw fome light on the pradices of fingers in
ancient times. He wras in ufe to lie on his back, with
a thin plate of lead on his ftomach. He took frequent
emetics and cathartics, abftaincd from all kinds of
fruits and fuch meats as were held to be prejudicial to
finging. Apprehenfive of injuring his voice, he at
length defifted from haranguing the foldiery and the
fenate ; and after his return from Greece eftabliihed
an officer (Phonafcus) to regulate his tones in fpeak-
ing.
Moft nations, have confented in introducing mufic Saered
into , their, religious ceremonies. That art was early mufic
admitted into the rites of the Egyptians and Hebrews ;
and that it conftituted a confiderable part of the Gre¬
cian. and Roman religious fervice, appears from the
writings of many ancient authors. The fame pleafing
art foon obtained an introdudion into the Chriftian
church, as the Ads of the Apoftles difeover in many
paffages. There remain no fpecimens of the mufic
employed in the worfliip of the primitive Chriftians ^
but probably it wras at firft the fame with that ufed in
the Pagan rites of the Greeks and Romans. The
pradice
(b) Rofcius gained 500 feftertia, or 4036b os. 2d. fterling.
I
M U
493
practice of chanting the pfalras was introduced into
the weftern churches by St Ambrofe, about 35'3 years
after Chrift. In the year 6oo, the method of chant¬
ing was improved by St Gregory the Great. I he
Ambrofian chant contained four modes. In the Gre¬
gorian the number was doubled. So early as the age
of Conftantine the Great, prior to either of the pe¬
riods lalt mentioned, when the Chriftian religion fnif
obtained the countenance of power, inftrumental mu-
fic came to be introduced into the lervice ot the church,
troducad Jn England, according to If it hop Stillingfleet, mulic
t° the was employed in the church fervice, fir ft by St Auguf-
ngli}Jl tine, and afterwards much improved by St Dunftan,
bUrC who’ was himfelf an eminent mufician, and who is faid
to have firff furniihed the Englifh churches and con¬
vents with the organ. The organ, the moft majeftic
of all inftruments, feems to have been an improvement
of the hydraulican or water organ of the Greeks.—
The firft'organ feen in France was fent from Conffan-
tinople in 757, as a prefent to King Pepin from the
emperor Conftantine Copronymus VI. In Italy, Ger¬
many, and England, that inftrument became frequent
during the 10th century.
During the dark ages no work of genius or tafte m
any department of fcience feems to have been produ¬
ced in any part of Europe j and except in ItaH,
where the cultivation of mufic was rather more the
obje£f of attention, that art was negle&ed equally with
all others. There has always been obferved a corre-
fpondence in every country between the progrefs of
mufic and the cultivation of other arts and fciences.
In the middle ages, therefore, when the moft fertile
provinces of Europe were occupied by the Goths,
Huns, Vandals, and other barbarous tribes, whofe
language was as harfh as their manners were fayage,
little perfe&ion and no improvement of mufic is to
be looked for. Literature, arts, and refinements,
rhe great were encouraged more early at the courts of the Ko-
mprove- man pontiffs than in any other country ; and owing to
merits in t] at c;rcUmftance it is, that the fcale, the counter-
melodies, the dramas religious and fe-
in Italy. eular, the chief graces and elegancies of modern mu¬
fic, have derived their origin from Italy. In modern
times, Italy has been to the reft of Europe what an¬
cient Greece was to Rome. The Italians have aided
the civilization of their conquerors, and enlightened
the minds of thofe whofe fuperior prowefs had enflaved
them. . . ,, , .
Having mentioned counterpoint, it would be im¬
proper not to make one or two obfervations on an in¬
vention which is fuppofed to have been the fource of
great innovation in the praflice of mufic. Counter¬
point, or mufic in parts, feems to be an invention
purely modern. The term harmony meant in the
language of antiquity what is now underftood by me-
Coumter- Indy. Guido, a monk of Arezzo in 1 ufcany, is, in
the general opinion, fuppofed to have entertained the
firft idea of counterpoint about the year 1022: an art
which, fince his time, has experienced gradual and im¬
perceptible improvements, far exceeding the powers
or comprehenfion of any one individual. T. he term
counterpoint, or contra punBum, denotes its own ety¬
mology and import. Mufieal notation wras at one time
performed by fmall points 3 and the prefent mode is
s 1 c.
only an improvement of that practice. Counterpoint,
therefore, denotes the notation of harmony or mufic
in parts, by points oppofite to each other. The im¬
provements of this important acquifition to the art of
mufic kept pace at firft with thofe of the organ 3 an in¬
ftrument admirably adapted to harmony : And both
the one and the other were till the 13th century em¬
ployed chiefly in facred mufic. It was at this period
that facred mufic began to be cultivated.
Before the invention of charadlers for time, mufic
in parts muft have confifted entirely of Jimple counter¬
point, or note againft note, as is ftill praftifed in pial-
mody. But the happy difcovery of a time-table ex¬
tended infinitely the powers of combined founds. The
ancients had no other refource to denote time and
movement in mufic except two charafters (—
equivalent to a long and a ftiort fyllable. But time
is of fuch importance in mufic, that it can impart
meaning and energy to the repetition of the fame
found. Without it variety of tones has no effect with
refpeft to gravity and acutenefs. The invention of The inven-
the time-table is attributed by almoft all the writers
on mufic of the laft and prefent century to John de
Muris, who flouriftied about the year 133°*
a manufeript of John de Muris himfelf, bequeathed
to the Vatican library by the Queen of Sweden, that
honour feems to be yielded to Magifter Franco, who
appears to have been alive as late at leaf! as 1083.
John de Muris, however, who there is fome caufe to
believe was an Englilhman, though not the inventor
of the cantus menfurabi/is, did certainly by his nume¬
rous writings greatly improve it. His traft on the
Art of Counterpoint is the moft clear and ufeful effay
on the fubjeft of which thofe times can boaft.
In the nth century, during the firft crufade, Eu¬
rope began to emerge from the barbarous ftupidity
and ignorance which had long overwhelmed it. \\ hile
its inhabitants were exercifing in Afia every fpecies of
rapine and pious cruelty, art, ingenuity, and'reafon,
infenfibly civilized and foftened their minds. Then it
was that the poets and fongfters, known by the name
of Troubadours, -who firft appeared in Provence, inftitu- FrouW
ted a new profeffion 3 which obtained the patronage dours.
of the count of Poiftou, and many other princes and
barons, who had themfelves cultivated mufic and po¬
etry with fuccefs. At the courts of their munificent
patrons the troubadours were treated with refpeft.
The ladies, whofe charms they celebrated, gave them
the moft generous and flattering reception. The fuc¬
cefs of fome infpired others with hopes, and excited
exertions in the exercife of their art ; impelling them
towards perfection with a rapidity which the united
force alone of emulation and emolument could occa-
fion. Thefe founders of modern verfification, con-
ftruCting their fongs on plans of their own, claflical au¬
thority, either through ignorance or defign, was en¬
tirely difregarded. it does not appear, however, du¬
ring the cultivation and favour of Provencal literature,
that any one troubadour fo far outftripped the reft as
to become a model of imitation. The progrefs of tafte
muft ever be impeded by the ignorance and caprice of
thofe who cultivate an art without fcience or prin¬
ciples.
During almoft two centuries after the arrangement
of
3
494
The harp
the favour¬
ite inttru-
sttent of
the Trou¬
badours.
The viol
or violin.
M U
of the loale attributed to Guido, and the invention of
the time-table afcribed to Franco, no remains of fecu-
lar mufic can be difcovered, except thofe of tlie trou¬
badours or Provencal poets. In the fimple tunes of
thefe bards no time indeed is marked, and but little
variety of notation appears: It is not difficult, how¬
ever, to difcover in them the germs of the future me¬
lodies, as well as the poetry of France and Italy. Had
the poetry and mufic of the troubadours been treated
of in an agreeable manner by the writers who have cho-
len that fubjeef, it would have been difcovered to be
•worthy of attention •, the poetry, as interefting to li¬
terature j the melody to which it was fung, as curious
to the mufical hiftorian.
Almoil every fpecies of Italian poetry is derived
from the Provencals. Air, the moft captivating part
ot lecular vocal mufic, feems to have had the fame ori¬
gin. I he moft ancient ftrains that have been fpared
by time, are luch as were fet to the fongs of the trouba¬
dours. 1 he Provencal language began to be in favour
with poets about the end of the loth century. In the
12th it became the general vehicle, not only of poetry,
but of profe, to all svho were ignorant of Latin. And
ihefe were not the laity only. At this period violars,
or performers on the vielle or viol, jug/urs or flute-
players, mufars or players on other inftruments, and
comics or comedians, abomaded all over Europe. This
fwarm of poet-muficians, who were formerly compre¬
hended in France under the general title of jongleurs,
travelled from province to province, finging their verfes
at the courts of princes. 1 hey were rewarded with
clothes, horfes, arms, and money. Jongleurs or mufi-
eians were employed often to fing the verfes of trouba¬
dours, who themfelves happened to be deficient in voice
or ignorant of mufic. The term troubadour, therefore,
implies poetry as wTell as mufic. The jongleurs, mene-
trjers, ftrollers, or minftrels, were frequently muficians,
without any pretenfions to poetry. Thefe laft have
been common at all times ; but the troubadour or bard
has diftinguiftied a particular profeffion, either in ancient
or modern times, only during the early dawnings of li¬
terature.
In the 13th century the fongs were on various fub-
jetts 5 moral, merry, amorous : and at that time me¬
lody feems to have been little more than plain fong or
chanting. The notes were fquare, and written on
four lines only like thofe of the Romifii church in the
cliff C, and without any marks for time. The move¬
ment and embellifhments of the air depended on the
abilities of the finger. Since that time, by the culti¬
vation of the voice modern mufic has been much ex¬
tended, for it was not till towards the end of St Lewis’s
reign that the fifth line began to be added to the
ftave. The finger always accompanied himfelf with an
inffrument in unifon.
As the lyre is the favourite inftrument in Grecian
poetry, fo the harp held the fame place in the eftima-
tion of the poets who flouriihed in the period of which
we at prefent ipeak. A poet of the 14th century,
Machau, wrote a poem on the fubjea of the harp
alone ^ in which he affigni to each of its 25 firings an
allegorical name $ calling one liberality, another wealth,
&c.
The infirumenfc which frequently accompanied, and
indeed difputed the pre-eminence with the harp, was
' Hiftory,
the viol. Till the 16th century this inftrument was
furmihed with frets j after that period it was reduced
to four firings : and ftill under the denomination of
violin holds the firft place among the treble inftruments.
I he viol was played with a bow, and differed entirely
from the vielle, the tones of which were produced by
the fridtion ot a wdxeel; The wheel performed the part
of a bow. *
Britifh harpers were famous long before the con-
queft. 1 he bounty of William of Normandy to his
joculator or bard is recorded in the Doomfday book.
I he harp leems to have been the favourite inftrument
in Britain for many ages, under the Britilh, Saxon,
Damui, and Norman kings. The Jiddle, however, is
mentioned fo early as 1200 in the legendary life of St
Chriftopher. The ancient privileges of the minftrels
at the fairs of Chefter are well known in the hiftory of
England. J
The extirpation of the bards of Wales by Edward I.
is like wife too familiar an incident to be" particularly
mentioned here. His perfequting fpirit, however, feems
to have been limited to that principality; for we learn 5
that at the ceremony of knighting his fon, a multitude
of minftrels attended.
In I3ISf during the reign of Edward II. fuch ex-
tenfive privileges were claimed by the minftrels, and
fo many difiolute perfons affumed that charadler, that
it became neceffary to reftrain them by exprefs laws.
The father of our genuine poetry, who in the 14th
century enlarged our vocabulary, polilhed our num-
beis, and with acquifitions from France and Italy aug¬
mented our ftore of knowledge (Chaucer), entitles one
of his poems The Hiftory of St Cecilia; and the ce-St CecI1Ia
k mated patronefs of inufic nuift no doubt be men-
tioned in a hiftory of the art. Neither in Chau¬
cer, however, nor in any of the hiftories or legendary
accounts of this faint, does any thing appear to au¬
thorize the religious veneration paid to her by the vo¬
taries of mufic ; nor is it eafy to difcover whence it has
arifen.
As an incident relative to the period of which we
fpeak, it may be mentioned, that, according to Spel-
man, the appellation of DoElor was not among the de- onv;n 0f
grees granted to graduates in England fooner than the degree
the reign of King John, about 1207; although, in of Mas. B:
Wood’s hiftory of Oxford, that degree is faid to have
been conferred, even in mufic, in the reign of Hen¬
ry II. It is known that the title was created on the
continent in the 12th century ; and as, during the
middle, ages, mufic was always ranked amon«- the
feven liberal arts, it is likely that the degree Avas ex¬
tended to it.
After the invention of printing, an art which has
tended to diffeminate knowledge Avith wonderful ra¬
pidity among mankind, mufie, and particularly coun¬
terpoint, became an objeiff of high importance. The
names of the moft eminent compofers Avho fiourifhed
England, from that time to the Reformation, Avere,
Fairfax, William of Newark, Sheryngham, Turges.
Banifter, Tudor, Taverner, Tye, Johnfon, Parfons 1
to Avhom may be added John Marbeck, who fet the
Avhole Englifh cathedral fervice to mufic.
Before this period Scottifii mufic had advanced toScottifli
a high degree of perfe&ion. James I. was a great
compofer of airs to his oavh verfes ; and may be confi-
dered
liftory. M U
dered as the father of that plaintive melody which in
Scotch tunes is fo pleating to a tafte net vitiated by
modern affe&ation. Befides the teftimony of Fordun
and Major, who may be fufpefted of being under the
influence of national prejudice, we have that of Alef-
fandro Teflani, to the mufical fkill of that accomplifli-
ed prince. “ Among us moderns (fays this foreigner)
we may reckon Jatnes king of Scotland, who not only
compofed many facred pieces of vocal mufle, but alio
of himfelf invented a new kind of muftc, plaintive and
melancholy, different from all others ; in which he has
been imitated by Carlo Gefueldo prince of Venofa, who
in our age has improved mufic with new and admirable
inventions.”
Under fuch a genius in poetry and mufle as King
James I. it cannot be doubted that the national mufic
mufl: have been greatly improved. We have feen that
he compofed feveral anthems, or vocal pieces of fa¬
cred mufic, which (hows that his knowledge of the fei-
ence muit have been very confiderable. It is likewife
known, that organs were by him introduced into the
cathedrals and abbeys of Scotland, and choir-fervice
brought to fuch a degree of perfection, as to fall little
fhort of that eflabliihed in any country of Europe.—
By an able and ingenious antiquary * the great
era of mufic, as of poetry, in Scotland, is fuppofed to
have been from the beginning of the reign of James I.
down to the end of the reisjn of James V. During
•See Tyt-
ir's Dif-
ytation
m the
lid.
hitch Mu-1 _ _ # _
j, vol. i. of that period flourifhed Gavin Douglas bifhop of Dun-
jje T-ranf- keld, Ballenden archdeacon of Murray, Dunbar, Hen-
itions of ryfon, Scott, Montgomery, Sir David Lindfey, and many
lj Anti qua- others, whofe fine poems have been preferved in Ba-
i£s in Scot- natyne’s Collection, and of which feveral have been
publifhed by Allan Ramfay in his Evergreen.
Before the Reformation, as there wras but one reli¬
gion, there wras but one kind of facred mufic in Eu¬
rope, plain chant, and the defcant built upon it.—
That mufic likewife was applied to one language only,
the Latin. On that account, the compofitions of Italy,
France, Spain, Germany, Flanders, and England,
kept pace in a great degree with each other in ityle
and excellence. All the arts feem to have been the
companions, if not the produce, of fuccefsful commerce:
they appeared firft in Italy, then in the Hanfeatic
towns, next in the Netherlands •, and during the 16th
century, when commerce became general in every part
of Europe.
In the 16th century mufic was an indifpenfable part
the 16th
tntury
.ufic an
difpen-
'Ible part
if educa-
Iton.
of polite education: All the princes of Europe were
inftruCted in that art. There is a colle&ion preferved
in manuleript called fucen Edizabetii’s Virginal Book.
If her majefty was able to execute any of the pieces in
that book, the rnufl: have been a great player; a month’s
practice would not be fufficient for any mailer now in
Europe to enable him to play one of them to the end.
Tallis, Angularly profound in mufical compofition, and
Bird his admirable fcholar, were two of the authors of
this famous collection.
During the reign of Elizabeth, the genius and learn¬
ing of the Britifh muficians wrere not inferior to any
on the continent; an obfervation fcarcely applicable at
any other period of the hiftory of this country. Sa¬
cred mufic was the principal obje6t to Iludy all over
Europe.
The moil eminent mufical theorifts of Italy, who
S I C. 495
fiouriflied in the 16th century, were, Franchinus Ga- Eminent
fierius, or Gafforio of Lode, Pietro Aaron of Flo-
rence, Lodovieo Fogliano, Giov. Spatro, Giov. Ma* (iuring the
ria da Tercntio Lanfranco, Steffano Uanneo, Anton. 16th cen-
Francifco Done, Luigi Dentice, Nieolo \ icentino, tury.
and Giofeffo Zarlino, the molt general, voluminous,
and celebrated theorilt of that period, Vincentio Gali¬
lei, a Florentine nobleman, and father of the great Ga¬
lileo Galilei, Maria Artufe of Bologna, Orafeo Te-
grini, Pietro Pontio, and Lodovico Zacconi.
The principal Roman authors were, Giovanni An-
muccia, Giovanni Pierluigi da Paleftrina, juftly cele¬
brated, Ruggiero Giovanelli, Luca Marenzio, who
brought to perfedtion madrigals, the molt cheerful
fpecies of fecular mufic.
Of the Venetians, Adrian Willaeri is allowed to be
at the head.
At the head of the Neapolitans is defervedly placed
Rocco Rodio.
At Naples, too, the illultrious dilettante, Don Carlo
Gefualdo prince of Venofa, is highly celebrated. He
feems, however, to have owed much of his fame to his
high rank.
Lombardy might alfo furnifh an ample lift of eminent
muficians during the 16th century, of whom, however,
our limits will not admit of a particular enumeration :—
The chief of them were, Conftanzo Porta, Gaftoldi,
Bifli, Cima, Vocchi, and Montcverde.
At Bologna, befides Artufi already mentioned, An¬
drea Rota of the fame city appears to have been an ad¬
mirable contrapundlift.
Francifco Corteceia, a celebrated organift and com-
pofer, and Aleffandro Strigglio, a lutanift and volu¬
minous compofer, were the moft eminent Florentines.
The inhabitants of the extenfive empire of Germany hi Germa-
have long made mufic a part of general education.—ny*
They hold the place, next to Italy, among the moft
fuccefsful cultivators of the art. During the 16th cen¬
tury, their moft eminent compofers of mufic and wri¬
ters on the fubjedt w'ere, Geo. Reifchius, Michael Rof-
wick, Andreas Ornithorparchus, Paul Hofhaimer,
Lufpeinius, Henry Loris or Lorit, Faber, Fink, Hof-
man, and many others whom it would be tedious to
mention; and for a particular account of whofe trea-
tifes and compofitions we muft refer to more volumi¬
nous hiftories of mufic.
In France, during, the i6th century, no art except*" France,
the art of Avar made much progrefs in improvement.-—
Ronfard, Baif, Goudimel, Claud le Jeune, Caurroy,
and Maudit, are the chief French muficians of that
period..
In Spain, mufic wras early received into the circle ofSp^1**
feiences in the univerfities. The mufical profefiorfliip
at Salamanca was founded and endowed by Alfonzo the
Wife, king of Caftile.
One of the moft celebrated of the Spanifti muficians
was Francis Salinas, who had been blind from his in¬
fancy. He was a native of Burgos.
D. Criftofero Morales, and Tomafo Lodovico da
Vittorio, deferve likewife to be mentioned ; and to
mention them is all we can attempt; the purpofe of
which is, to excite more minute inquiry by thofe who
may choofe to inveftigate the fubjedt particularly.
The Netherlands, likewife, during the period of which Die Ne-
we have been fpeaking, produced eminent compofers ; thei!aric'1'i*
of
496
Mufical
compoicrs
in England
during the
17th cen¬
tury.
Mean {late
of the opera
in the be¬
ginning of
the iSth
century.
State of
tnufie in
France in
the 17th
■century.
MUSI C.
Hiitoryt
ot whom we may mention Verletot, Gombert, Arka-
delt, Berchem, Richefort or Ricciafort, Crequilon Le
Cock or Le Coq, Canis, Jacob Clemens Non Papa,
Pierre Manchicourt, Barton, Kerl, Rore, Orlandi dx
Laflb, and his fons Ferdinand and Rodolph.
In the 17th century, the mufical 'writers and com-
pofers who acquired fame in England, were, Dr Na¬
thanael Giles, Thomas Tomkins, and his fon of the
fame name ; Elway Bevin, Orlando Gibbons, Dr Wil¬
liam Child, Adrian Batten, Martin Pierfon, William
Lawes, Henry Lawes, Dr John Wilfon, John Hilton,
John Play ford, Captain Henry Cook, Pelham Hum¬
phrey, John Blow, William Turner, Dr Chriftopher
Gibbons, Benjamin Rogers, and Henry Purcell. Of
thefe, Orlando Gibbons, Pelham Humphrey, and Henry
Purcell, far excelled the reft.
About the end of the reign of James I. a mufic lec¬
ture or profeflbrflup was founded in the univerfity of
Oxford by Dr William Hychin.
In the reign of Charles I. a charter was granted to
the muficians of Weftminfter, incorporating them, as
the king’s muficians, into a body politic, with powers
to profecute and fine all who, except themfelves, rtiould
“ attempt to make any benefit or advantage of mufic in
England or Wales 5” powers which in the fubfequent
reign were put in execution.
About the end of the reign of Charles II. a paf-
fion feems to have been excited in England for the
violin, and for pieces exprefsly compofed for it, in
the Italian manner (b). Prior to 1600, there was
little other mufic except mafles and madrigals, the two
principal divifions of facred and fecular mufic ; but from
that time to the prefent, dramatic mufic becomes the
chief objeft of attention. The mufic of the church
and of the chamber continued indeed to be cultivated
in Italy with diligence, and in a learned and elaborate
ityle, till near the middle of the century ; yet a revo¬
lution in favour of melody and expreflion was prepar¬
ing, even in facred mufic, by the fuccefs of dramatic
compofition, confifting of recitation and melodies for
a fingle voice. Such melodies began now' to be pre¬
ferred to mufic of many parts ; in which canons, fugues,
and full harmony, had been the produftions which
chiefly employed the marter’s ftudy and the hearer’s
attention.
So late as the beginning of the 18th century, ac¬
cording to Riccoboni, the performers in the operas
of Germany, particularly at Hamburg, “ were all
tradefmen or handicrafts. Your ftioemaker (fays he)
wTas often the firft performer on the ftage j and you
might have bought fruit and fweetmeats of the fame
girls, whom the night before you had feen in the cha-
radters of Armida or Semiramis. Soon, howrever, the
German opera arofe to a more refpeftable fituation 5 and
even during the 17th century many eminent compofers
flourifhed in that country.”
The lift of great muficians "which France produced
during the early part of the fame century is not nu¬
merous. Mufic' feems to have been but little culti¬
vated in that country, till the operas of Lulii, under
the powerful patronage of Louis XIV. excited public
attention.
The favourite finging-marter and compofer of France,
about the middle of the jyth century, was Michael
Lambert. John Baptift Lulii, foon after this time,
rofe from the rank of a menial fervant to fame, opulence,
and nobility, by his Ikill in mufical compofitions. The
celebrated finger La Rochois was taught finging and
adting by Lulii.
La Maupin the fucceflor of La R^chois, on ac-Curious
count of her extraordinary character and romantic ad- anecdotes
ventures, deferves to be mentioned. She eloped from^a treilc^
her hulband with a fencing-mafter, of whom rtie learnt 13
the fmall fword. She became an excellent fencer. At
Marfeilles fire entertained a ftrange attachment to a
young lady, who was feized with a whimfical fondnefs
in return, on account of which the latter was confined
in a convent. La Maupin obtained admiflion into the
fame convent as a novice. She let fire to the building,
and in the confufion carried off her favourite. At Paris
when fire appeared on the ftage in 1695, Dumeni a
finger having affronted her, fire put on men’s clothes,
and infilled on his drawing his fword and fighting her.
When he refufed, fire caned him, and took from him
his watch and fnuff-box as trophies of her victory. At
a ball given by Monfieur brother of Louis XIV. {he
again put on men’s clothes; and having behaved im¬
pertinently to a lady, three of the lady’s friends, fuppo-
fing La Maupin to be a man, called her out. She
killed them all } and returning coolly to the ball, told
the ftory to Monfieur, who obtained her pardon. She
became afterwards miftrefs to the elector of Bavaria.
This prince quitting her for the countefs of Arcos,
fent her by the count, hufband of that lady, a purfe of
40,000 livres. She threw it at the count’s head, tell¬
ing him, it was a recompenfe worthy of fuch meannefs
as he difplayed. At laft, feized with a fit of devotion,
fire recalled her hufband, and fpent the remainder of
her life in piety. She died in 1 707 at the age only of
34- . . , , .
The Englilh mufician whom we laft mentioned was Chief com-'
the celebrated Purcell. After his time the chief com-P0^ f°r I
pofers for the church were Clarke, Dr Holden, Dr '
Creyghton, Tucker, Aldrich, Golwin, Weldon, Drm
Crofts, Dr Greene, Boyce, and Nares 5 to whom may
be added John Stanley, who attained high proficiency
in mufic, although from two years old totally deprived
of fight.
The annals of modern mufic have hitherto furnifh-
ed no event fo important to the progrefs of the art as
the invention of recitative or dramatic melody *, a ftyle
of mufic which refembles the manner of the ancient
rhapfodifts.
The Orfeo of Politian was the firft attempt at mu-Firft mufl-j
fieal drama. It was afterwards perfected by Metafta-Ca^ <lrania*
fio. No mufical dramas fimilar to thofe afterwards
known
(b) The moft celebrated violin players of Italy, from the 16th century to the prefent time, have been Farina,
M. Angelo Rofli, Baffani the violin-mafter of Corelli, the admirable Angelico Corelli himfelf, Torelli, Alberti,
Albenoni, Teffarini, Vivaldi, Geminiani one of the moft diftinguifhed of Corelli’s fcholars, Tartini, Veracini,'
Barbella, Locatelli, Ferrari, Martini, Boccherini, and Giardku.
■
ichs.
Eiftory. M U S
known by tbe names of opera and oratorio, had exift-
ence in Italy before the beginning of the 17th cen¬
tury. It \vas about the 1600, or a little before that
time, that eunuchs were firft employed for fmging m
Italy. . . , .
rft ling- There feem to have been xxo jinging. eunuchs in an-
g eu- cient times, unlefs the galli ^ or archigalli, pnelis oi
Cybele, were fuch. Caftration has, however, at all
times been praftifed in eaflern countries, for the pur-
pofe of furnilhing to tyrannic jealoufy guards of fe¬
male chaftity ; but never, fo far as modern writers on
the fubjeft have difcovered, merely to preferve the
voice, till about the end of the 16th century.
At Rome, the firft public theatre opened for the ex¬
hibition of mufical dramas, in modern times, vas tl
Torre de Nona, where in 1671 Giafone was perform¬
ed. In 1679, the opera of Dou e Amore, fet by the
famous organift Bernardo Pafquini, was reprefented at
Nilla Sala de Signori Caprunica ; a theatre which ft ill
fubfifts. In the year 1680, VOneJla negP Amore was
exhibited ; the firft dramatic compofition of the elegant,
profound, and original Aleffandro Scarlatti.
The inhabitants of Venice have cultivated and en¬
couraged the mufical drama with more zeal and di¬
ligence than the reft of Italy, during the end of the
laft and beginning of the prefent century -, yet the
opera \vas not eftablifhed in Venice before the year
1637. In that year the firft regular drama was per¬
formed. It was Andromeda.
Opera of In 1680 the opera of Berenice was exhibited at
Berenice. Padua with fuch aftoniftiing fplendour as to merit
notice. There were chorufes of 100 virgins, 100
foldiers, IOO horfemen in iron armour, 40 cornets of
horfe, 6 trumpeters on horfeback, 6 drummers, 6 en-
figns, 6 faekbuts, 6 great flutes, 6 minftrels playing
on Turkifti inftruments, 6 others on o&ave flutes, 6
pages, 3 fergeants, 6 cymbalifts. There were 12
huntfmen, 12 grooms, 6 coachmen for the triumph }
6 others for the proceflion •, 2 lions led by two lurks, 2
elephants by two others, Berenice’s triumphal car drawn
by 4 horfes, 6 other cars with prifoners and fpoils
drawn by 12 horfes, 6 coaches. Among the fcenes
and reprefentations in the firft aft were, a. vaft plain
with two triumphal arches, another plain with pavilions
and tents, and a foreft for the chafe. In aft third,
the royal drefling room completely furniftied, ftables
with too live horfes, portico adorned with tapeftry,
and a ftupendous palace in perfpeftive. At the end
of the firft aft were reprefentations of every kind of
chafe, wild boar, flag, deer, bears. Ap the end of
the third aft, t-an enormous globe, defcending as from
the Iky, divided itfelf into other globes fufpended in the
air, and ornamented with emblematical figures nf time,
fame, honour, &c.
Early in the laft century, machinery and decoration
ufurped the importance due to poetry and mufic in fuch
exhibitions.
Few inftances occur of mufical dramas at Naples
till the beginning of the prefent century. Before the
time of the elder Scarlatti, it feems as if Naples had
been lefs fertile in great contrapuntifts, and lefs di¬
ligent in the cultivation of dramatic mufic, than any
ether ftate of Italy. Since that time all the reft of
Europe has been furniftied with compofers and perfor¬
mers from that city.
Vol. XIV. Part II.
I c.
497
The word opera feems to have been familiar to French
Engliih poets from the beginning of the laft cerftury. ^ opera
Sti/o recitativo, a recent innovation even m Italy, is
mentioned by Ben Johnfon fo early as 1617. From
this time it was ufed in mafques, occaiionally in plays,
and in cantatas, before a regular drama wholly let to
mufic was attempted. By the united abilities of (^ui-
nault and Lulli, the opera in France had arilen to
high favour. This circumftance aftyrded encourage¬
ment to feveral attempts at dramatic mufic in Eng¬
land by Sir William D’Avenant and others, before
the mufic, language, or performers of Italy were em¬
ployed on our ft age. Pieces, ftyled dramatic operas,
preceded the Italian opera on the ftage of England.
Thefe were written in Englilh, and exhibited with a
profufe decoration of feenery and habits, and nith
the beft fingers and dancers that could be procured :
Pfyche and Circe are entertainments of this kind :
The Tempeft and Macbeth were afted with the fame
accompaniments.
During the 17th century, whatever attempts were
made in mufical drama, the language lung was always
Englilh. About the end of that century, however, Ita¬
lian’ finging began to be encouraged, and vocal as well
as inftrumental muficians from that country began to
appear in London.
The firft mufical drama, performed wholly after the
Italian manner in recitative for the dialogue or naira-
tive parts, and meafured melody for the airs, was Ar-
finoe Queen of Cyprus, tranflated from an Italian opera
of the fame name, written by Stanzani of Bologna-
The Englilh verfion of this opera was fet to mufic by
Thomas Clayton, one of the royal band, in the reign of
William and Mary. The fingers were all Englilh,
Meflrs Hughes, Leveredge, and Cook*, Mrs lofts,
Mrs Crofs, and Mrs Lyndfey. The tranflation of Ar-
fince, and the mufic to which it is fet, are execrable ;
yet fuch is the charm of novelty, that this miferable
performance, deferving neither the name of a drama by
its poetry, nor of an opera by its mufic, fuftamed 24 re¬
prefentations, and the fecond year 11.
Operas, notwithftanding their deficiencies in poetry,
mufic and performance (no foreign compofer or emi¬
nent finger having yet arrived), became fo formidable
to our aftors at the theatres, that it appears from the
Daily Courant, 14th January 1707, a fubfeription was
opened “ for the encouragement of the comedians aft-
ing in the Haymarket, and to enable them to keep
the diverfion of plays under a feparate intereft from
operas.”
Mr Addifon’s opera of Rofamond appeared about
this time j but the mufic fet by Clayton is fo contemp¬
tible, that the merit of the poetry, however great,
could not of itfelf long fupport the piece. The choice
of fo mean a compofer as Clayton, and Mr Addifon s
partiality to his abilities, betray a want of mufical tafte
in that elegant author.
The firft truly great finger who appeared on the
ftage of Britain was Cavalier Nico/ino Grimaldi, com¬
monly known by the name of Nicolim. He was a
Neapolitan ; and though a beautiful finger indeed,
■was ftill more eminent as an after. In the latler,
N° 115. the elegance and propriety of his aftion are*SeeaIj0
particularly delcribed *. Recently before his appear- Spectator,
ance, Valentini Urbam, and a female finger called d he vul i. ISi'J
~ R Baronefs, I5*
498
Arrival of
Handel in
England.
Pro^refs of
the opera
unde' ins
manage¬
ment.
M U
Barone/s, arrived. Margarita de i’Epxni, who afterwards
married Dr Pepufch, had been in this country lome
time before.
The firft opera performed whol/ij in Italian, and hj
Italian Jingers, was Almuhide. As at prefent, fo at
that time, operas were generally performed twice a
week.
The year 1710 is diilinguiflied in the annals of ma¬
fic by the arrival in Britain of George Frederick Han¬
del. Handel had been in the fervice of the eleftor of
Hanover, and came.firft to England on a vifit o: cu-
riofily. The fame of this great mnfieian had pene¬
trate! into this country before he himfelf arrived in it;
and Aaron Hill, then in the direction of the Haymar-
ket theatre, inttantly applied to him to compofe an
opera. It was Rinaldo; the . nirable nmdc of which
he produced entirely in a fortnight. Soon af er this
period appeared, for the firtt time as an op ra finger,
the celebrated Mrs Anaftafia Robinfon. Mrs Robin-
fon, who was the daughter of a portrait painter, made
her firft public exhibitions in the concerts at York-
bmkiings ; and acquired fo much the public favour,
that her father was encouraged to take a houfe in Gol¬
den Square, for the pmpofe of eftablilhing weekly
concerts and affemblies, in the manner of Cunverfa-
%ioni, which became the refort of the moil polite audi¬
ences.
Soon after Mrs Robinfon accepted an engagement
at the Opera, where her falary is faid to have been
lo:>ol. and her other emoluments equal to that fum.
She quitted the ftage in confequence of her marriage
with the gallant earl of Peterborough, the friend of
Pope and Swift. The eminent virtues and accomplifh-
ments of this lady, who died at the age of 88, entitled
her to be mentioned even in a compend too fhort for
biography.
The conducing the opera having been found to be
more expenfive than profitable, it was entirely fufpend-
ed from 1717 till 172c, when a fund of 50,000!. for
fupporting and carrying it on was fubferibed by the
firfl perfonages of the kingdom. The fuhfcribers, of
whom King George I. was one for 1000I. Avere for¬
med into a fociety, and named The Royal Academy
of Mufic. Handel was commiffioned to engage the
performers: For that purpofe he went to Drefden,
Avhere Italian operas Avere at that time performed in
the moil fplendid manner at the court of Auguftus
cleflor of Saxony, then king of Poland. Here Han¬
del engaged Senefino-Berenfladt, Bofchi, and the Du¬
ran (lanti.
In the 1723, the celebrated Francefca Cuzzoni ap¬
peared as a firfl rate finger; and two years afterAvards
anwed her diftinguifhed rival Signora Fauftina Bor-
doni.
In a cantabile air, though the notes Cuzzoni added
Avere feuv, fhe never loft an opportunity of enriching
the cantilena Avith the moft beautiful embellifhments.
Her fhake Avas perfect. She pefti (Ted a creative fancy ;
and fixe enjoyed the power of occafionally accelerating
and retarding the meafure in the moft artificial and
able manner, by Avhat is in Italy called tempo rubato.
Her high notes Avere unrivalled in clearnefs and fweet-
nels. Her intonations Avere fo juft and fo fixed, that
it fe med as if fhe had not the poAver to ling out of
tune.
S 1 C. HUioryf
Fauftina Bordoni, wife of the celebrated Saxon
compofer Halle, invented a new kind of finging, by
running divifions, Avith a neatnefs and velocity which
aftoniihed all who heard her. By taking her breath
imperceptibly, ftie had the art of fuftaining a note ap¬
parently longer than any other finger. Fler beats and
trills Avere ftrong and rapid ; her intonation perfedt.
Her profeffional perfedlioi.s were enhanced by a beau¬
tiful face, fine fymmetry of figure, and a countenance
and gefture on theflage which indicated an entire intel¬
ligence and pofleflion of the feveral parts ailutted to
her.
Theft Iavo angelic performers excited fo fignally the
attention of the public, that a party fpirit between the
abettors of the one and ol the other Avas formed, as vio¬
lent and as inveterate almolt as any of thole that had
ever occurred relative to matters either theological or
political; yei fo diifindl Avere their ftylcs of finging, fo
different their talents, that the praife of the one w as no
reproach to the other.
In lefs than feven years, the Avhole 50,000!. fubferi¬
bed by the Royal Academy, befides the produce of ad-
miffion to nort-fubferibers, was expended, and the go¬
vernor and directors of the fociety relinquiihed the
idea of continuing their engagements 5 confequently,
at the clofe of the feafon 1727, the whole band of
fingers difperfed. The next year avc find Senefino, Fau¬
ftina, Balde, Cuzzoni, Nicolini, Farinelli, and Bofehe,
at Venice.
Handel, hoAvever, at his own rifk, after a fufpen-
fion of about a tAvedvemonth, determined to recom¬
mence the Opera; arid accordingly engaged a band of
performers entirely neAV. Thefe Avere Signior Bernac-
chi, Signora Merighi, Signora Strada, Signior Anibale
Pio Fabri, his Avife, Signora Bertoldi, and John God-
frid Reimfchneider.
The facred mufical drama, or oratorio, Avas invent-xnverit;0n
ed early in the 14th century. Every nation in Europe of the ora-
feems firft to have had recourfe to religious fubjecls f r an(i
dramatic exhibitions. The oratorios had been common i
in Italy during the laft century. They had ne\-er beent0 England.
publicly introduced in England, till Handel, llimulated
by the rivallhip of other adventurers, exhibited in 1732
his oratorios of Efther, and of Acis and Galatea, the
laft of Avhieh he had compofed tAvelve years before for
the duke of Chandos’s chapel at Cannons. The moft
formidable oppofition which Flandel met Avith in his.
conduct of the Italian opera was a iicav theatre for
exhibiting thefe operas, opened by fubfeription in Lin-
coln’s-inn Fields, under the conduct of Nicola Porpora,
a refpeftable compofer. A difference having occurred
between Handel and Senelino ; Senelino had for fome
time deferted the Hay market, where Handel managed,
and was uoav engaged at the rival theatre of Lincoln’s-
inn Fields. To fupply the place of Senefino, Handel
brought over Giovanni Carejlini, a finger of the moft
extenfive poAvers. His voice Avas at firft a poAverful
and clear foprano : AfterAvards it changed into the
fulleft, fineft, deepeft counter-tenor that has perhaps
ever been heard. Careftini’s perfon was tall, beautiful,
and majeftic. He rendered every thing he fung inte-
refting by energy, tafte, and judicious embellifhment.
In the execution of difficult divifions from the cheft,
his manner Avas articulate and admirable. It Avas the
opinion of Haffe, as well as other eminent profeffors,
thai
499
jliftory-
M U
that whoever had not heard Careftini, was unacquaint¬
ed with the moft pertcft ftyle ot tinging. 1 he opera
under the direction of Porpora was removed to the
Hayrnarket, which Handel had left. Handel occu¬
pied the theatre of LincolnVinn Fields; but his rivals
now acquired a vaft advantage of attraction, by the
aeceffion of Carlo Brofchi detto Farinelli to their
part, who at this time arrived. This renowned finger
feems to have tranfcended the limit of all ante¬
rior vocal excellence. No vocal performer of the pre-
fent century has been fo unanimoufly allowed to potiefs
an uncommon power, iweetnefs, extent, and agility
of voice, as Farinelli. Nicolini, Senefino, and Ca-
reftini, gratified the eye as much by the dignity, grace,
and propriety of their a£lion and deportment, as the
ear, by the judicious ufe of a few notes within the li¬
mits of a fmall compafs of voice ; but Farinelli, with¬
out the afiifiance of fignificant geftures or graceful at¬
titudes, enchanted and aftoniihed his hearers, by the
force, extent, and mellifluous tones of the mere organ,
when he had nothing to execute, articulate, or exprefs.
Though during the time of finging he was as motion-
lefs as a ftatue", his voice was fo a£Hve that no inter¬
vals were too clofe, too wide, or too rapid, for his exe¬
cution.
Handel having loft a great part of his fortune by the
opera, was under the neceflity of trying the public gra¬
titude in a benefit, which wras not difgraced by the event.
The theatre, for the honour of the nation, was fo crowd¬
ed, that he is faid to have cleared Rool.
After a fruitlefs attempt by Heidegger, the coad¬
jutor of Handel in the conduft of the opera, and pa¬
tentee of the King’s Theatre in Haymarket, to procure
a fubfcription for continuing it, it wTas found neceflary
to give up the undertaking.
It was about this time that the fiatue of Handel was
ere&ed in Vauxhall, at the expence of Mr Tyers, pro¬
prietor of thofe gardens.
The next year (1739) Handel carried on oratorios
at the Haymarket, as the opera there was fufpended.
The earl of Middlefex now undertook the troublefome
office of imprefario of the Italian opera. He engaged
itevlv«d. the King’s theatre, with a band of fingers from the
continent almoft entirely new. Calluppi was his com-
pofer. Handel, almoft ruined, retired at this time to
Ireland, where he remained a confiderable time. In
1744 he again attempted oratorios at the King’s theatre,
which was then, and till 1746, unoccupied by the opera,
on account of the rebellion.
The arrival of Giardini in London this year forms
a memorable aera in the biftory of inftrumental mufic of
England. His powers on the violin were unequalled.
The fame year Dr Croza, then manager of the opera,
eloped, leaving the performers, and innumerable trades
people, his creditors. This incident put an end to operas
of all kinds for feme time.
This year a comic opera, called // Fi/ofofo di Cam¬
pania. compofed by CaUupni, was exhibited, which
furpafled in mufical merit all the comic operas per¬
formed in England till the Bicona Fig Hula. Signora
Paganini acquired fuch fame by the airs allotted to
her in that piece, that the crowds at her benefit were
beyond example. Caps wrere loft, gowns torn in pieces,
and ladies in full drefs, without fervants or carriages,
jbpera m
I England
tiven up.
SIC.
were obliged to walk home, amidfi; the merriment of
the fpedftators on the ftreets. _ „
At this period the arrival of Giovanni Manzoli mark- 1764 and
cd a fplendid era in the annals of mufical drama, by
conferring on fenous opera a degree ot importance to
•which it had leldom yet arifen iince its eftabliftunent in
England. IVlauzoii s voice was the molt powerful and
voluminous foprano that had been heard lince the time
of Farinelli : His manner of finging was grand, and
full of tafte and dignity.
At this time Tenducci, who had been in England renduect,
fome time before, and was now returned much im¬
proved, performed in the ftation of fecond man to
Manzoli.
Gaetano Guadagni made a great figure at this time. 17^9- .
He had been in this country early in life (i748), _asGuatia§m*
ferious man in a burletta troop of fingers. His voice
was then a full and well-toned counter tenor ; but he
fung wildly and carelefsly. The excellence of his voice,
however, attratted the notice of Handel, who affign-
ed him the parts in his oratorios, the Meffiah and Sam-
fon, which had been originally compofed for Mrs Cib¬
ber. He quitted London for the firft time about 1753.
The higheft expectations of his abilities were raifed .by
fame before his fecond arrival, at the time of which
we treat. As an aClor he feems to have had no equal
on any ftage in Europe. His figure was uncommonly
elegant and noble ; his countenance replete with beau¬
ty, intelligence, and dignity ; his attitudes were full
of grace and propriety. Thofe who remembered his
voice when formerly in England xvere now difappoint-
ed : It was comparatively thin and feeble : He had now
changed it to a foprano, and extended its compafs from
fix or feven notes to fourteen or fifteen, i he mufic
he fung was the moft fimple imaginable ; a lew notes
with frequent paufes, and opportunities of being libe¬
rated from the compofer and the band, were all he re¬
quired. In thefe effufions, feemingly extemporaneous,
he difplayed the native power of melody, unaided by
harmony or even by unifonous accompaniment . I ne
pleafure he communicated proceeded principally from
his artful manner of diminiftiing the tones of his voice,
like the dying notes of the iEolian harp. Moft other
fingers affecft a fwell, or me//a de voce ; but Guadagni,
after beginning a note with force, attenuated it fo deli¬
cately that it pofieffed all the effteft of extreme diftance.
During the feafon 1770 and 1771, Tenducci was the
immediate fucceffor of Guadagni, i his performer,
who appeared in England firft only as a finger of the
fecond or third clafs, was during his refidence in Scot¬
land and Ireland fo much improved as to be well re¬
ceived as firft man, not only on the ftage of London,
but in all the great theatres of Italy.
It was during this period that dancing feemed firft
to gain the afeendant over mufic by the fuperior talents
of Mademoifelle Heinel, whofe grace and execution
were fo perfe6t as to ecliple all other excellence.
In the firft opera performed this feafon (Lucco Vero) 1773.
appeared Mifs Cecilia Davies, known in Italy by the Vbis Da-
name of LTnglefina. Mifs Davies had the honour ofVies*
being the firft Engliih woman who had ever been
thought worthy of finging on any ftage in Italy. She
even performed wTith eclat the principal female charac¬
ters on many of the great theatres of that country.
3 R 2 Gabrielli
5oo M U
Gabrielli only on tlie Continent was faid to furpafs her.
Her voice, though not of great volume, was clear and
perfectly in tune-, her {hake was open and diitindt, with¬
out the fluggifhnefs of the French cadence. The flexi¬
bility of her throat rendered her execution equal to the
xnofl; rapid divifions.
Next feafon introduced Venanzio Ravygini, a beauti¬
ful and animated young man j a compofer as well as a
finger.—His voice was fvveet, clear, flexible j in compafs
more than two oftaves.
Caterina The feafon 1775 and 1776 was rendered memorable
Gabrielli. ]jy tjie arrival of the celebrated Caterina Gabric/ii, ilyled
early in life La Cuochetina, being the daughter of a
cardinal’s cook at Rome. She had, however, in her
countenance and deportment no indications of low birth.
Her manner and appearance depi61ed dignity and grace.
So great was her reputation before her arrival in Eng¬
land for flnging and for caprice, that the public, ex¬
pecting perhaps in both too' much, were unwilling to al¬
low her due praife for her performance, and were apt to
afcribe every thing Ihe did to pride and infolence. Her
voice, though exquifite, was not very powerful. Her
chief excellence having been the neatnefs and rapidity
of her execution, the furprife of the public muft have
been much diminiflied on hearing her after Mifs Davies,
who fung many of the fame fongs in the fame ftyle, and
with a neatnefs fo nearly equal, that common hearers
could diftinguifh no difference. The difcriminating cri¬
tic, however, might have difcovered a fuperior fweetnefs
in the natural tone of Gabrielli’s voice, an elegance in
the finiflung of her mufical periods or paflages, an accent
and precifion in her divilions, fuperior not only to Mifs
Davies, but to every other finger of her time. In flow
movements her pathetic powers, like thofe in general of
performers molt renowned for agility, were not exqui-
fltely touching.
Agujari at About the time of which we have been treating, the
tiie Fun- proprietors of the Pantheon ventured to engage Agujari
at the enormous falary of 100I. per night, for finging
two fongs only : Lucre%ia Agujari was a truly wonder¬
ful performer. The lower part of her voice was full,
round, and of excellent quality its compafs amazing.
She had two oftaves of fair natural voice, from A on
the fifth line in the bafe to A on the fixth line in the
treble, and beyond that in ah fhe had in early youth
more than another oCtave. She has been heard to afcend
to B b in altijjimo. Her fliake was open and perfect: her
intonation true -, her execution marked and rapid the
Ryle of her finging, in the natural compafs of her voice,
grand and majeftic.
Anna ln 1776 arrived Anna Pozzi, asfucceffor to Gabriel-
rozzi. she poffefled a voice clear, fweet, and powerful }
but her inexperience, both as an adtrefs and as a finger,
produced a contrail very unfavourable to her when com¬
pared with fo celebrated a performer as Gabrielli. Af¬
ter that time, however, Pozzi, with more ftudy and
knowledge, became one of the bell and moll admired
female fingers iu Italy.
Ceorgi. After the departure of Ajugari for the fecond and
laft time, the managers of the Pantheon engaged Georgi
as her fucceffor. Her voice was exquifitely fine, but
totally uncultivated. She was thereafter employed as
the firll woman in the operas of the principal cities of
Italy.
S I C. Hiftory,
During the feafons 1777 and 1778, the principal Roncuglia
fingers at the opera in London were Francefco Ron-anc* Danze.
caglia and Francefco Danze, afterwards Madame Le
Brun.
Roncaglia pofleffed a fweet toned voice 5 but of the
three great requifites of a complete ftage finger, pathos,
grace, and execution, which the Italians call cantabiley
graxiofa, and bravura, he could lay claim only to the
fecond. His voice, a voce de camera, when confined to
the graxiofa in a room, left nothing to wilh for.
Danze had a voice well in tune, a good lhake, great
execution, prodigious compafs, with great knowledge
of mufic ; yet the pleafure her performance imparted
was not equal to thefe accomplilhments. But her ob-
je£l was not fo much pathos and grace, as to furprife
by the imitation of the tone and difficulties of initru-
ments.
This year Gafparo Pacchierotti appeared in London, Pacehie-
whither his high reputation had penetrated long before. rotti*
The natural tone of his voice was interefting, fweet, and
pathetic. His compafs downwards was great, with an
afcent up to B b, and fometimes to C in alt. He pof-
fefied an unbounded fancy, and the power not only of
executing the moll difficult and refined paffages, but of
inventing embellilhment entirely new. Ferdinando Ber-
tom, a well known compofer, came along with Pacchie¬
rotti to Britain.
About this time dancing became an important branch bancing
of the amufements of the opera houfe. Mademoifelle gains the
Heinel, M.Vellris leJeune, MademoifelleBaccelli, had, a!cenclant
during fome years, delighted the audience at the opera} ^The'cM-
but on the arrival of M. Vellris 1’Aine, pleafure was xa houfe.
exchanged for ecflafy. In the year 1781, Pacchierotti
had by this time been fo frequently heard, that his fing¬
ing was no impediment te converfation j but while the
elder Vellris was on the ftage, not a breathing was to
be heard. Thofe lovers of mufic who talked the loudell
while Pacchierotti fung, were in agonies of terror lell
the graceful movements of Vellris, le dieu de la danse,
ffiould be difturbed by audible approbation. After that
time, the, moll mute and refpe&ful attention was paid
to the manly grace of Le Picq, and the light fantaftic
toe of the younger Veftris -, to the Roffis, the Theo¬
dores, the Coulons, the Hillinglburgs -, while the flight¬
ed fingers were difturbed, not by the violence of applaufe,
but the clamour of inattention.
The year 1784 was rendered a memorable era in the Comme-
annals of mufic by the fjflendid and magnificent man- morat;i01} °f
ner in which the birth and genius of Handel were
celebrated in Weftminfter Abbey and the Pantheon, by fter Abbey,
five performances of pieces felefted from his own works,
and executed by a band of more than 500 voices and
inftruments, in the prefence and under the immediate
aufpices of their majefties and the firft perfonages of
the kingdom. The commemoration of Handel has
been fince eftabliffied as an annual mufical feltival for
charitable purpofes j in which the number of per¬
formers and the perfection of the performances have
continued to increafe. In 178 5 the band, vocal and
inftrumental, amounted to 616 : in 178-6 to 741 ; in
1787 to 806 } and in fubfequent years to Hill greater
numbers.
Dr Burney publifhed An Account of the Mufical
Performances in Commemoration of Handel, for the
benefit
liftory. ^ ^
' benefit of the Mufical Fund. The members and guar¬
dians of that fund are now incorporated under the title
of Roj/a/ Society of Mu/icians. See Handel. _
This year Pacehierotti and his friend Bertoni lett
England. About the fame time our country was de¬
prived of the eminent compofer Sacchini, and^ Giar-
dini the greateft performer on the violin now m Eu-
I lt ^A’s a compenfation for thefe Ioffes, this memorable
p Madame year ^ diftinguilhed by the arrival of Madame Mara,
jar a. whofe performance in the commemoration of Handel
in Weftminfter Abbey infpired an audience of 3000 ot
the firff people of the kingdom, not only with plealure
but with ecftacy and rapture. _
... In 1786 arrived Giovanni Rubinelh. His voice was
U nC ^ a true and full contr’alto from C in the middle of the
fcale to the odtave above. His ftyle was grand j his
execution neat and diftind j his tafte and embelliftiments
new, felea, and mafterly. 1 , ,
v new In 1788 a new dance, compofed by the celebrated
ance by M. Noverre, called Cupid and Pfyche, was exhibited
No- aiong with the opera La Locandiera, which produced
an effeft fo uncommon as to deferve notice. So great
was the pleafure it afforded to the fpeftators, that
Noverre was unanimoufly brought on the ftage and
crowned with laurel by the principal performers, i his,
though common in France, was a new mark of appro¬
bation in England.
w c This year arrived Signior Luige Marchefi, a linger
raC whofe talents have been the fubjeft of praife and ad¬
miration on every great theatre of Europe. Marchefi s
ftyle of finging was not only elegant and refined_ in. an
uncommon degree, but often grand and full oi dignity,
particularly in his recitative and occafional low. notes.
His variety of embellilhment and facility of running ex¬
tempore divifions were ivonderful. . Many of his graces
were elegant and of his own invention.
• The three greateft Italian fingers of thefe times were
nited di’a- certainly Pacchierotti, Rubinelli, and Marchefi. In
rafters of difcriminating the feveral excellencies of thefe great
Pacchie- performers, a very refpeftable judge, Dr Burney, has
r0ti;-’ Rlf i' particularly praifed the fweet and touching voice of
Marchefi Pacchierotti ; his fine (hake, his exquifite taftc, Ins
great fancy, and his divine expreflion in pathetic fongs :
Of Rubinelli’s voice, the fulnefs, fteadinefs, and. ma-
je,fty, the accuracy of his intonations, his judicious
graces ; Of MarchelPs voice, the elegance and fic xibi-
fity, his grandeur in recitative, and his boundlefs fancy
and embellifhments.—Having mentioned Dr Burney,
we are in juftice bound to acknowledge the aid we have
derived from his hiftory *, a work which we greatly pre¬
fer to every other modern produflion on the fubjeft.
During the latter part of the 18th century many
eminent compofers flourilhed on the continent } fuch as
Xomelli, the family of the Bachs, Gluck, Haydn, and
many others, whofe different ftyles and excellencies
would well deferve to be particularized, would our
sic. ^
ftage at Drury-lane as a finger. The fame year in¬
troduced Mils Cecilia Young, afterwards the wile ot
Dr Arne. Her ftyle of finging was infinitely luperior
to that of anv other Engiifti woman of her time.
Our favourite muficians at this time were, Dubourg, Favourite
Clegg, Clarke, and Felling, on the violin > Ky tch niuficia •
on the hautboy *, Jack Felting on the German flute ;
Ballon on the common flute •, Karba on the balloon j.
Valentine Snow on the trumpet: and on the organ,
Rofeingrave, Green, Robinfon, Magnus, Jack James,
and the blind Stanley, who feems to have been pre¬
ferred. The favourite playhoufe finger was Salway j
and at concerts Mountier of Chichefter.
As compofers for our national theatre, Pepufch and
Galliard feem to have been unrivalled till 1.732 •, when
two competitors appeared, who were long in poffeffion
of the public favour : We allude to John Irederick
Lampe and Thomas Augultus Arne.
In 1736 Mrs Cibber, Avho had captivated every
hearer of fenfibility by her native fweetnefs of voice
and powers of expreflion as a finger, made^her firlt
attempt as a tragic adtrefs. I he fame year Beard be¬
came a favourite finger at Covent-garden. At this
time Mifs Young, afterwards Mrs Arne, and her two
fillers Ifabella and Efther, were the favourite Englifli
female fingers. .
In 1738 Avas inftituted the fund for the lupport ot Fund wr
decayed muficians and their families. . S?
It Avas in 1745 that Mr Tyers, proprietor of V aux-
hall gardens, firft added vocal mufic to the other enter¬
tainments of that place. A Ihort time before Ranelagh
had become a place of public amufement.
In 1749 arrived Giardini, Avhole great tafte, hand, Arrival cu
and llyle in playing on the violin, procured him uni-Giar ir‘!’
verfal admiration. A few years after his arrival he
formed a morning academia or concert at his houfe,
compofed chiefly of his fcholars.
About this time San Martini and Charles Avifon
Avere eminent compofers.
Of near 150 mufical pieces brought on our national
theatres within 40 years, 38 of. them at leaft Avere
fet by Arne. T he ftyle of this compofer, if ana- styie of
lyzed, would perhaps appear to be neither Italian Arne,
nor Englilh } but an agreeable mixture of both and of
Scotch.
The late earl of Kelly, Avho died fome years ago, The earl of
deferves particular notice, as poffeffed of a very eminent Kelly,
degree of mufical fcience, far fuperior to other dilettanti,
and perhaps not inferior to any profeffor of his time,
q^here Avas no part of theoretical or pra6lical mufic in
Avhich he Avas not thoroughly verfed : He poffeffed a
ftrength of hand on the violin, and a genius for compo-
fition, Avith Avhich few profeffors are gifted.
Charles Frederic Abel Avas an admirable mufician -
limits permit. With the fame regard to brevity, avc can
Sovereign 1 ~ .• .i i . i_? r n—iT.„
urincefdi- do no more than juft mention the late king of Pruffia,
lettanti. the late eleftor of Bavaria, and Prince LobkoAvitz, as
eminent dilettanti of modern times.
Befides the opera fingers whom avc have mentioned,
Singers on ^ theatres and public gardens have exhibited fingers
amUrTnub- of^confiderable merit. °In 1730 Mifs Rafter, after-
lie gardens. Avards the celebrated Mrs Clive, firit appeared on llie
His performance on the viol da gamba was in every
particular complete and perfect. He had a hand Avhich
no difficulties could embarrafs 5 a tafte the moft re¬
fined and delicate ; a judgment fo correft and certain
as never to permit a fingle note to efcape him Avith-
out meaning. His compofitions were eafy and ele¬
gantly Ample. In writing and playing an adagio he
Avas fuperior to all praife j the moft; pleafing yet learn¬
ed modulation, the richeft harmony, the moft elegant
and poliftied melody, Avere all expreffed Avith the moft
exquifite feeling, tafte, and fcience. His manner of
playing
Abel.
502
Mrs Bil-
lington.
The catch-
club and
the concert
of ancient
mufic.
Madame
Graflini.
Madame
Catalan!.
M U
playing an adagio foon became the model of imitation
tor all our young performers on bowed inftruments.
Rartholemon Cervetto, Cramer, and Crofdil, were in
this refpeft to be ranked as of his fckool. All lovers
of mufic mull have lamented that Abel in youth had
not attached himfelf to an inftrument more worthy of
bis genius, talle, and learning, than the viol da gamba,
that remnant of the old ehelt of viols which during the
17th century was a necefl'ary appendage of a nobleman’s
or gentleman’s family throughout Europe, previous to
the admiffion of violins, tenors, and bafles, in private
houfes or public concerts. Since the death of the late
eleftor of Bavaria, (who was next to Abel the bell
performer on the viol da gamba in Europe), the in-
flrument feems quite laid afide. It was ufed longer in
Germany than elfewhere; but the place of gambill
feems now as much fupprelfed in the chapels of German
princes as that of lutanift. The celebrated performer
on the violin, Lolle, came to England in 1785. Such
was his caprice, that he was feldom heard j and fo ec¬
centric was his ftyle and compofition, that by many he
was regarded as a madman. He was, however, during
his lucid intervals a very great and expreffive performer
in the ferious ftyle.
Mrs Billington, after diftinguilhing herfelf in child¬
hood as a neat and expreffive performer on the piano¬
forte, appeared all at once in 1786 as a fweet and cap¬
tivating finger. In emulation of Mara and other great
bravura fingers, ffie at fir ft too frequently attempted
paflages of difficulty j afterward, however, fo greatly
was ffie improved, that no fong feemed too high or too
rapid for her execution. Now, at the diftance of 20
years, ffie retains her high reputation. The natural
tone of her voice is fo exquifitely fweet, her know¬
ledge of mufic fo confiderable, her ffiake fo true, her
clofes and embelliffiments fo various, her expreffions fo
grateful, that envy only or apathy could hear her with¬
out delight.
The prefent compofers, and performers of the firft
clafs, are fo well known to the lovers of the art, that
it would be needlefs and improper to mention them
particularly.
The Catch-club at the Thatched Houfe, inftituted
in 1762 by the earl of Eglinton, the duke of Oueenf-
berry, and others ; and the concert of ancient mufic,
fuggefied by the earl of Sandwich in 1776, have had a
beneficial efFefl in improving the art.
Two female performers have lately appeared of di-
ftinguiffied eminence.
Madame Graffini had exhibited her vocal powers in
Paris with extraordinary applaufe, and arrived in Lon¬
don in ISO?, where (lie excited uncommon admiration.
She appeared in Zaira, where the difplay of her powers
not only pleafi d, but ffie aftoniffied, when it was con-
fidered that the compafs of her voice did not exceed
eight or ten notes.
The year following Madame Catalani divided the
public attention with Graffini.—This eminent perform¬
er is a native of Sinigaglia in Italy, Avhere her father
was a finger of the comic order.
She was educated in a convent. The virtuous im-
S ^ C. K iftory,
pretfions the there received, have continued ever fince
invariably to imiuence her conduct.
Her father foon difeovered the excellence and the
value of her vocal powers, which were firil exhibited
on the provincial theatres of Italy.—He foon carried
her to Spain, where ffie attained very high celebrity.
It was there her Im/band, M. de Valabregue, firft paid
his addrefles to her 5 and it was not till after a perfeve-
ranee of feven months that he at lait obtained her con-
fent to unite her fortunes with his. Her hefitation
proceeded from the reludance of her father, at once to
be deprived of his daughter, and of the very great emo¬
lument which ihe brought him. M. de Valabregue
had been an officer in the French army under General
Moreau.
From Spain Madame Catalani (for ffie has retained
her father’s name), proceeded to Portugal, where, fhe
accepted an engagement to come to London. She tra¬
velled through France, and at Paris appeared at an oc-
cafional concert, where her fame was fo great, that the
ufual price of admiffion was trebled. She particularly
attracted the attention of the lingular man who now
holds the imperial fceptre of the continent of Europe.
He ordered her a penfion (its value is about 30I. per
annum) ; and it was with much difficulty, and only
through the interference of the Britiffi ambaflador
(the earl of Lauderdale) then at Paris, that {he was
permitted to leave that capital, and proceed on her
journey.
In the dramatic mufic of the opera, this finger is far
fuperior to any performer ever heard in this country.
Her merit in Semiramide, in particular, prefents al-
moft the idea of perfedlion. Her voice is equal to the
moft difficult execution, while her countenance is inte-
refting, her geftures graceful, and her perfon elegant.
It has been reported that (lie does not ling in tune ; but
it is an undeniable fa£l, vouched by the firft muficians,
that ffie poffeffes a moft accurate ear. Every vocal
performer occafionally emits a falfe found in confe-
quenee of fome temporary organic caufe.
Catalani’s cafy and clear articulation are particularly
ftriking, her tones are full and liquid. Her cadences
are appropriate and mafterly. She has a pradlice of
rapidly defcending in half notes, which has excited ad¬
miration chiefly by its entire novelty. The clearnefs
and rapidity difplayed by her in chromatic paffages ex¬
cite aftonifhrnent •, and file combines mellownefs with
diftinftnefs, a high qualification, which Mara firft
taught us to appreciate. In the courfe of fummer
1807, Madame Catalani vifited the provincial theatres
of England, and appeared likewife in Dublin, Edin¬
burgh, and Glafgow. Her total receipts for that year
are faid to have exceeded 15,000!.
We have been fome what particular in our account
of mufical affairs in our own country during the ibth
century, as what would be moft interefting to general
readers, and of which a well-informed gentleman would
not w'iffi to be ignorant. The profeflbr and connoifleur
will have recourfe to difquifitions much more minute
than thofe of which our limits can be fuppofed to
admit.
2
ELEMENTS
lements*
MUSIC.
503
ELEMENTS OF MUSIC,
Theoretical and Practical (c).
PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE.
ific con
jred in
ouble
1^.
Ugrefs
br arts
fcien-
MUSIC may be confidered, either as an art, which
has for its objedt one of the greateit pleafures of which
our fenfes (d) are fufceptible j or as a feience, by which
that art is reduced to principles. This is the double
view in which we mean to treat of mufic in this work.
It has been the cafe tvith mufic as with all the other
inuficJike ar£S invented by man : fome fadls were at firft difcover-
1 ° °' ed by accident j foon afterwards reflection and obferva-
tion inveftigated others : and from thefe fadts, proper¬
ly difpofed and united, philrifophers were not flow in
forming a body of fcience, which aftertvards increafed
by degrees.
The firfl: theories of mufic were perhaps as ancient
as the earlieft age which we know to have been diftin-
guifhed by philofophy, even as the .age of Pythagoras }
nor does hiftory leave uc any room to doubt, that from
the period ■when that philofopher taught, the ancients
cultivated mufic, both as an art and as a fcience, with
great afliduity. But there remains to us much uncer¬
tainty concerning the degree of perfedfion to which
they brought it. Almoit every queftion which has
been propofed with refpedt to the tnufic of the ancients
has divided the learned ; and probably may ftill conti¬
nue to divide them, for want of monuments fufficient in
their number, and inconfeftable in their nature, from
whence we might be enabled to exhibit te hi monies and
difcoveries inftead of fuppofitions and conjedlures. In
the preceding hiilory we have Rated a few fadls refpedt-
ing the nature of ancient mufic, and the inventors of
the feveral mufical inltruments j but it were to be wifli-
ed, that, in order to elucidate, as much as poflible, a
point fo momentous in the hiftory of the fciences, fome
perfon of learning, equally Ikilled in the Greek lan¬
guage and in mufic, Ihould exert himfelf to ur i.e d r^ie
difcufs in the fame work the molt probable . : : n s
le-
eftablifhed or propofed by the learned, upon a lubjedl • ;aratuin
fo difticult and curious. This philofophical hiftory of ,r, titera-
ancient mufic is a work which might highly embeliiib tr
the literature of our times.
In the mean time, till an author can be found fufti-
ciently initrudted in the arts and in hiftory to under¬
take fuch a labour with fuccefs, we fliall content our-
felves with coniidering the prefent hate of mutic, and
limit our endeavours to the explication of thofe accef-
fions which have accrued to the theory of mufic in thefe
latter times.
There are two departments in mufic, melody * and * See Me
harmony f. Melody is the art of arranging i'everal'od' -
founds in fuccefiion one to another in a manner agree ^ ^ee ^ar
able to the ear ; harmony is the art of pleafing that or-rn0?7^'
gan by the union of feveral founds which are heard at
one and the fame time. Melody has been known and
felt, through all ages : perhaps the fame cannot be af¬
firmed of harmony (e) 5 we know not whether the an¬
cients made any ufe of it or not, nor at what period it
began to be pradtifed.
Not but that the ancients certainly employed in their
mufic
(c) To deliver the elementary principles of mufic, theoretical and praftical, in a manner which may prove at
once entertaining and inftruflive, without protradting this article much beyond the limits preferibed in our plan,
appears to us no eafy talk. We therefore hefitated for fome time whether to try our own ftrength, or to follow
fome eminent author pn the fame fubjecft. Of thefe the laft feemed preferable. Amongft thefe authors, none ap¬
peared to us to have written any thing fo fit for our purpofe as M. d’Alembert, whofe treatife on mufic is the
moft methodical, perfpicuous, concife, and elegant difiertation on that fubjedl w ith which wre are acquainted. As
it was unknowoi to moft Englifh readers before a former edition of this work, it ought to have all the merit of an
original. We have given a tranftation of it; and in the notes, we have added, from the works of fucceeding au¬
thors, and from our own obfervations, fuch explanations as appeared neceflary, to adapt the work to the pre¬
fent day.
(d) In this paffage, and in the definitions of melody and harmony, our author feems to have adopted the vul¬
gar error, that the pleafures of mufic terminate in corporeal fenfe. He would have pronounced it abfurd to af-
fert the fame thing of painting. Yet if the former be no more than a mere pleafure of corporeal fenfe, the lat¬
ter muft likewife be ranked in the fame predicament. We acknowledge that corporeal fenfe is the vehicle of
found •, but it is plain from our immediate feelings, that the refults of found arranged according to the princi¬
ples of melody, or combined and difpofed according to the laws of harmony, are the objects of a reflex or inter¬
nal fenfe.
For a more fatisfaflory difcuflion of this matter, the reader may confult that elegant and judicious treatife on
Mufieal Expreffion by Mr Avifon. In the mean time it may be neceffary to add, that, in order to flnm the ap¬
pearance of affeftation, we ftiall ufe the ordinary terms by which mufical fenfation^ or the mediums by which
they are conveyed, are generally denominated.
(e) Though no certainty can be obtained what the ancients underftood of harmony, nor in what manner and
in what period they praftifed it ; yet it is not without probability, that, both in fpeculation and practice, they
were in poflelflon of what we denomiate counterpoint. Without fuppofing this, there are fome pafiages in the
Greek authors which can admit of no fatisfaclory interpretation. See the Origin and Progrefs of Language, vol. ii>
Befides,
5°+
MUSIC.
The origin
of arts of¬
ten acci¬
dental, and
their pro-
grefs gra-
• dual.
Preliminary mufic tliofe chords which were moft perfect and fimple j
Diicourfe. puch ^ the odlave, the fifth, and the third j but it
feems doubtful whether they knew any of the other con-
fonances or not, or even whether in practice they could
deduce the fame advantages from the fimple chords
which were known to them, that have afterwards ac¬
crued from experience and combinations.
If that harmony which we now pra&ife owes its ori¬
gin to the experience and reflection of thfe moderns,
there is the highelt probability that the firlt eflays of
this art, as of all the others, were feeble, and the pro-
grefs of its efforts almoft imperceptible 5 and that, in
the courfe of time, improving by fmall gradations,
the fucceflive labours of feveral geniufes have elevated
it to that degree of perfe&ion in which at prefent we
find it.
The firft inventor of harmony efcapes our inveftiga-
tion, from the fame caufes which leave us ignorant of
thofe who firft invented each particular fcience •, be-
caufe the original inventors could only advance one ftep,
a fucceeding difcoverer afterwards made a more fenfible
improvement, and the firft imperfeCl effays in every kind
were loft in the more extenfive and linking views to
which they led. Thus the arts which we now enjoy,
are for the moft part far from being due to any particu¬
lar man, or to any nation exclufively : they are produ¬
ced by the united and fucceflive endeavours of man¬
kind ; they are the refults of fuch continued and united
reflections, as have been formed by all men at all pe¬
riods and in all nations.
It might, however, be wilhed, that after having a£
certained, with as much accuracy as poflible, the Hate
of aneient mpfic by the fmall number of Greek authors
which remain to us, the fame application were imme¬
diately deeded to inveftigate the firft irtconteftable
traces of harmony which appear in the fucceeding ages,
and to purfue thofe traces from period to period. The
produCts of thefe refearches would doubtlefs be very im-
perfeCt, becaufe the books and monuments of the mid¬
dle age's are by far too few to enlighten that gloomy
and barbarous era *, yet thefe difcoveries would ftill be
precious to a philofopher, who delights to obferve the
human mind in the gradual evolution of its powers,
and the progrefs of its attainments.
The firft compofitions upon the laws of harmony
tionsofthe which we know, are of no higher antiquity than two
laws of har- ages prior to our own •, and they Were followed by many
mony re- 0thers. But none of thefe effays was capable of fatis-
imperfed: t^ie concerning the principles of harmony :
1 they confined themfelves almoft entirely to the fingle
occupation of colleCling rules, without endeavouring to
account for them ; neither had their analogies one with
another, nor their common fource, been perceived}
a blind and unenlightened experience was the only
compafs by which the artift could direCl and regulate
his courfe.
Delinea-
Elements,
M. Rameau was the firft who began to transfufe light Preliminary
and order through this chaos. In the different tones J)llC0U1-re.
produced by the fame fonorous body, he found thej^j ve~
moft probable origin of harmony, and the caufe of that not dedu-
pleafure which we receive from it. His principle hecedfrom
unfolded, and ihowed how the different phenomena of iipy P™1-
mufic were produced by it : he reduced all the confa-^
nances to a fmall number of fimple and fundamental moau>
chords, of which the others are only combinations or
various arrangements. He has, in fhort, been able to
difcover, and render fenfible to others, the mutual de¬
pendence between melody and harmony.
Though thefe different topics may be contained in the The au-
writings of this celebrated artift, and in thefe writings thor’s mo»
may be underftood by philofophers who are likewife t*ves f°r
adepts in the art of mufic j ftill, however, fuch muficians^J?nJ^
as were not philofophers, and fuch philofophers as were ments. * ^
not muficians, have long defired to fee thefe objects
brought more within the reach of their capacity. Such
is the intention of the prefent treatife; in which we
claim no other merit than that of having developed,
elucidated, and perhaps in fome refpefts improved, the
ideas of another (r).
The firft edition of this effay, publilhed in iy52,Impr6ve-
having been favourably received, we have endeavoured ment*
to render this more perfect. The detail which is meant
to be given of my labour, will prefent the reader with Account of
a general idea of the principle of M. Rameau, of the the woikia
confcquences deduced from it, of the manner in which general.
I have difpofed this principle and its confequences j in
fhort, of what is ftill wanting, and might be advanta¬
geous to the theory of this delightful art; of what ftill
remains for the learned to contribute towards the per-
feilion of this theory j of the rocks and quickfands
which they ought to avoid in this refearch, and
which could ferve no other purpofe than to retard their
progrefs.
Every fonorous body, befides its principal found, RarMeau>3
likewife exhibits to the ear the 12th and 17th major origin of
of that found. This multiplicity of different yet con-harmony,
cordant founds, known for a confiderable time, confti-
tutes the bafis of the whole theory of M. Rameau, and
the foundation upon which he builds the whole fuper-
ftrufture of a mufical fyftem*. In thefe our elements * See Sy>
may be feen, how from this experiment one may de-^w*
duce, by an eafy operation of reafon, the chief points
of melody and harmony j the perfeft f chord, as well j see
major as minor \ the two J tetrachords employed in leei-tre,chord.
cient mufic ; the formation of our diatonic || fcale \ the II See D/a-
different values \ which the fame found may have in ^
that fcale, according to the turn which is given to the^
bafs } the alterations * which we obferve in that See fty}.
fcale, and the reafon why they are totally impercepti- * See Altf
ble to the ear; the rules peculiar to the mode f major i ^eeikTo^,
the difficulty in % intonation of forming three tones || in j gee Into*
fucceflion ; the reafon why two perfeft chords are pro- nati0n.
feribed || See Tone*
Befides, we can difeovtr feme veftiges of harmony, however rude and imperfeft, in the hiftory of the Gothic
ages, and amongft the moft barbarous people. This they could not have derived from more cultivated countries,
becaufe it appears to be incorporated with their national mufic. The moft rational account, therefore, which can
be given, feems to be, that it was conveyed in a mechanical or traditionary manner through the Roman provinces
from a more remote period of antiquity.
.(f) See M. Rameau’s letter upon this fubjedl, Merc, dc Mai, 1752.
llements _ ^ ^ ^
eliminary (bribed in immediate fuccefllon in the diatonic order j
nfcourfe. ^.jie origin of the minor mode, its fubordination to the
rv7T; mode major, and its variations j the ufe of ddcord ^ •,
tlio raufes of fucb effefts as are
'om inant.
, the caufes of fuch effedls as are produced by different
See Ciro-kinds of mufic, whether diatonic, chromatic *, 01 en-
-itic. harmonic f ", the principles and laws of temperament f.
In this difeourfe we can only point out thole different
See°7V;«- objects, the fubfequent effay being defigned to explain
,-ament, them with the minutenefs and precifion which they re-
One end which we have propofed in this treatne,
was not only to elucidate, but to fimplify the difeove-
ries of M. Rameau.—For inftance, befides the funda¬
mental experiment mentioned above, that celebrated
mufician, to facilitate the explication of certain phe¬
nomena, had recourfe to another experiment \ that
which (hows that a fonorous body (truck and put in
vibration, forces its 12th and 17th major in defeending
to divide themfelves and produce a tremulous found.
The chief ufe which M. Rameau made of this fecond
experiment was to inveftigate the origin of the minor
mode, and to account for fome other rules eftablifhed
in harmony , but we have found means to deduce fiom
the firft experiment alone the formation of the minor
mode, and, befides, to difengage that formation from
all queftions foreign to it.
In fome other points alfo, (as, the origin of the
See Sub- chord of the fub-dominant *, and the explication of the
feventh in certain cafes) it is imagined that we have
fimplified, and perhaps in fome meafure. extended the
principles of the celebrated artift.
We have likewife baniftied every confideration of
geometrical, arithmetical, and harmonical proportions
and progreffions, which have been fought in the mix¬
ture and protradion of tones produced by a fonorous
body; perfuaded as we are, that M. Rameau was under
no neceffity of paying the lead regard to thefe propor¬
tions, which we believe to be not only ufelefs, out even,
if we may venture to fay fo, fallacious when applied to
the theory of mufic. In (liort, though the relations
produced by the odave, the fifth, and the third, &c.
were quite different from what they are 5 though in
thefe chords we (hould neither remark any progreffion
nor any law 5 though they (hould be incommenfurable
one with another •, the protraded tone or a fono¬
rous body, and the multiplied founds which refult
from it, are a fufficient foundation for the whole har¬
monic fyftem.
oretical But though this work is intended to explain the
uficians theory of mufic, and to reduce it to a fyftem more
:^oned , complete and more luminous than has hitherto been
0 'tho ad- done, we ought to caution our readers againft mifappre-
iiLflion of henfion either of the nature of our fubjed or of the
nathemati- purpofe of our endeavours.
,1 - We muft not i-,ere i00k for that ftriking evidence which
is peculiar to geometrical difeovenes alone, and which
can be fo rarely obtained in thefe mixed difquifitions,
where natural philofophy is likewife concerned. Into
the theory of mufical phenomena there muft always en¬
ter a particular kind of metaphyfics, which thefe phe¬
nomena implicitly take for granted, and which brings
along with it its natural obfeurity. In this fubjed,
therefore, it would be in vain to exped what is called t/c-
monftration: it is much to have reduced the principal
fads to a confident and conneded fyftem j to have de-
Yol, XIV, Part II.
:alor me-
[aphyfical
principles
:S raufic.
I G. .5°5
duced them from one Ample experiment j and to have
eftabliihed upon this foundation the moft common and  
effential rules of the mufical art. But if the intimate
and unalterable convidion which can only be produced
by the ftrongeft evidence is not here to be required,
we muft alfo doubt whether a clearer elucidation of our
fubjed be poflible. _ • r t
After this declaration, it will not excite furprife,
that, amongft the fads deduced from our fundamental
experiment, fome (hould immediately appear to depend
upon that experiment, and others to refult from it in a
way more remote and lefs dired. In difquifitions of
natural philofophy, where we are fcarcely allowed to
ufe any other arguments than thofe which arife from
analogy or congruity, it is natural that the analogy
(hould be fometimes more and fometimes lefs fenfible. j
and ive will venture to pronounce that mind very un-
philofophical, which cannot recognife and diltinguifli
this gradation and the different circumftances on
which it proceeds. It is not even furprifing, that, in a
fubjed where analogy alone can take place, this conduc-
trefs {hould defert us all at once in our attempts to ac¬
count for certain phenomena. This likewife happens
in the fubjed which we now treat ^ nor do ve conceal
the fad, however mortifying, that there are certain
points (though their number be but fmall) which ap¬
pear dill in fome degree unaccountable from our prin¬
ciple. Such, for inftance, is the procedure of the dia¬
tonic fcale of the minor mode in defeending, the for¬
mation of the chord commonly termed the Jixth re-
dundant f or fuperjluous, and fome other fads of lefs f See Re-
iraportance, for which as yet we can fcarcely offer zuy dundant.
fatisfadory account except from experience alone.
Thus, though the greateft number of the pheno¬
mena of mufic appear to be deducible in a fimple and
eafy manner from the protraded tone of fonorous bo¬
dies, it ought not perhaps with too much temerity to
be affirmed as yet that this mixed and protraded tone
is demonjlnatively the only original principle of harmo¬
ny. But in the mean time it would not be lefs unjuft Rameau’s
to rejed this principle, becaufe certain phenomena ap-!jnni ry
pear to be deduced from it with lefs fuccefs than others.
It is only neceffary to conclude from this, either thatyet ac.
by future ferutinies means maybe found for reducing counted for
thefe phenomena to this principle ; or that harmony all the phe-
has perhaps fome other unknown principle, more ge-^°^aot
neral than that which refults from the protraded and Perha*ps
compounded tone of fonorous bodies, and of which this fome other
is only a branch ; or, laftly, that we ought not perhaps may be ne-
to attempt the redudion of the whole fcience of mufic c<dai7-
to one and the fame principle } which, however, is
the natural effed of an impatience fo frequent even
among philofophers themfelves, which induces them to
take a part for the whole, and to judge of objeds in
their full extent by the greateft number of their appear¬
ances.
In thofe feiences which are calledphjjico mathemati¬
cal (and amongft this number perhaps the fcience of
founds may be placed), there are fome phenomena
which depend only upon one fingle principle and one
fingle experiment : there are others which neceffarily
fuppofe a greater number both of experiments and
principles, wbofe combination is indifpenfable in form¬
ing an exad and complete (yftem ; and mufic perhaps
is "in this laft cafe. It is for this reafon, that whilft
3 S we
5° 6 MUSI C. Elements,
rreaminpry ^Ve beftow on M. Rameau all due praife, we Ihould
,Di cour^- not at tlie fame time neglect to Simulate the learned
in tlieir endeavours to carry them flill to higher de¬
grees of ptrfeftion, by adding, if it is poflible, fuch
improvements as may be wanting to confummate the
fcience.
W hatever the refult of their efforts may be, the re¬
putation of this intelligent artifl has nothing to fear :
he will flill have the advantage of being the firft who
rendered mufic a fcience worthy of philofophical atten¬
tion ; of having made the practice of it more Ample
and eafy ; and of having taught mufieians to employ in
this fubjeft the light of reafon and analogy.
We would the more willingly perfuade thofe who
are Ikilled in theory and eminent in praftice to extend
and improve the views of him who before them pur-
fued and pointed out the career, becaufe many amonglt
them have already made laudable attempts, and have
. even been in forae meafure fuccefsful in diffufing new
7 arthi's light through the theory of this enchanting art. It
meats was with this view that the celebrated Tartini has pre-
fented us in 1754 with a treatife of harmony, founded
on a principle different from that of M. Rameau. This
principle is the refult of a moft beautiful experi¬
ment (g). If at once ttvo different founds are produ¬
ced from two inftruments of the fame kind, thefe two
founds generate* a third differert from both the Preliminary
others. We have inferted in the VncyclopSdie, under ^hcourfe.
the article Fundamental, a detail oi this experiment ac-
cording to M. Martini ; and we owe to the public anrat^ <W"
information, of which in compofing this article we were^ j..
ignorant: M. Romieu, a member of the Royal Socie- veryorTi
ty at Montpelier, had prefented to that fociety in the naily due*
year 1753, before the work of M. Tartini had appear-to Komieu,
ed, a memorial printed the fame year, and where may
be found the fame experiment difplayed at full length.
In relating this facf, which it was neceffary for us to
do, it is by no means our intention to detradl in any
degree from the reputation of M. Tartini ; we are
perfuaded that he owes this dilcovery to his own re-
fearches alone : but we think ourfelves obliged in ho¬
nour to give public teftimony in favour of him who
was the firft in exhibiting this difcovery.
But whatever be the cafe, it is in this experiment
that M. Tartini attempts to find the origin of har¬
mony : his book, however, is written in a manner fo
obfcure, that it is impoffible for us to form any judge¬
ment of it j and we are told that others diftinguilhed
for their knowledge of the fcience are of the fame opi¬
nion. It were to be wiftted that the author would
engage fome man of letters, equally praftifed in mufic
and Ikilled in the art of writing, to unfold thefe ideas
which
(g) Had the utility of the preliminary difcourfe in which we are now engaged been lefs important and ob¬
vious than it really is, we fhould not have given ourfelves the trouble of tranllating, or our readers that of
perufing it. But it muft be evident to every one, that the cautions here given, and the advices offered, are no
lefs applicable to ftudents than to authors. The firft queftion here decided is, Whether pure mathematics can be
fuccefsfully applied to the theory of mufic ? The author is juftly of a contrary opinion. It may certainly be
doubted with great juftice, whether the folid contents of fonorous bodies, and their degrees of cohefion or
elafticity, can be afcertained with fufficient accuracy to render them the fubjefts of mufical fpeeulation, and to
determine their effe£ls with fuch precifion as may render the conclufions deduced from them geometrically true.
It is admitted, that found is a fecondary quality of matter, and that fecondary qualities have no obvious con¬
nexion which we can trace with the fenfations produced by them. Experience, therefore, and not fpeculation,
is the grand criterion of mufical phenomena. For the effedls of geometry in illuftrating the theory of mufic (if
any will ftill be fo credulous as to pay them much attention), the Englifti reader may confult Smith’s Harmonics,
Malcolm’s Differtation on Mufic, and Pleydel’s Treatife on the fame fubjedt inferted in a former edition of this
work. Our author next treats of the famous difcovery made by Signor Tartini, of which the reader may accept
the following compendious account.
If two founds be produced at the fame time properly tuned and with due force, from their conjundtion a
third found is generated, fo much more diftindlly to be perceived by delicate ears as the relation between the
generating founds is more Ample ; yet from this rule we muft except the unifon and odlave. From the fifth
is produced a found unifon with its loweft generator ; from the fourth, one which is an odlave lower than the
higheft of its generators *, from the third major, one which is an odlave lower than its loweft ; and from the
fixth minor (wrhofe higheft note forms an odtave with the lovreft in the third formerly mentioned) will be pro¬
duced a found lower by a double odlave than the higheft of the leffer fixth 5 from the third minor, one which
is double the diftance of a greater third from its loweft ; but from the fixth major (whofe higheft note makes
an odlave to the loweft in the third minor) wTill be produced a found only lowTer by double the quantity of a
greater third than the higheft; from the fecond major, a found lower by a double odlave than the lov7eft ;
from a fecond minor, a found lower by triple the quantity of a third major than the higheft •, from the interval
of a diatonic or greater femitone, a found lower by a triple odlave than the higheft 5 from that of a minor or
chromatic femitone, a found lower by the quantity of a fifth four times multiplied than the loweft, &c. &c.
But that thefe mufical phenomena may be tried by experiments proper to afcertain them, two hautboys tuned
with fcrupulous exadlnefs muft be procured, whilft the muficians are placed at the diftance of fome paces one
from the other, and the hearers in the middle. The violin will likewife give the fame chords, but they will be
lefs diftindlly perceived, and the experiment more fallacious, becaufe the vibrations of other firings may be fup-
pofed to enter into it.
If our Englifti reader fliould be curious to examine thefe experiments and the dedudfions made from them in
the theory of mufic, he will find them clearly explained and illuftrated in a treatife called Principles and Power
of Harmony, printed at London in the year 1771*
Elements. _ MUSIC.
reliminary which he has not communicated with Sufficient perfpicm-
Dilcourfe. ty and from whence the art might perhaps derive con-
— ' fiderable advantage if they were placed in a proper
light. Of this we are fo much the more perfuaded, that
even though this experiment thould not be regarded by
others in‘the fame view with M. Tartini as the foun¬
dation of the mufical art, it is neverthelefs extremely
probable that one might ufe it with the greateil ad¬
vantage to enlighten and facilitate the practice of har-
^Tn exhorting philofophers and artifts to make new at¬
tempts for the advancement of the theory of mufic, we
ought at the fame time to caution them agamit miitak-
ing the real end of their refearches. Experience is the
only foundation upon which they can proceed *, it is
alone by the obfervation of fafts, by bringing them to¬
gether in one view, by {bowing their dependency upon
one, if poffible, or at lead upon a very fmall number of
primary fads, that they can reach the end to which
they fo ardently afpire, the important end of edabliffi-
|pg a theory of mufic, at once great, complete and lu¬
minous. The enlightened philofopher will not attempt
the explanation of fafts, becaufe he knows how little
[Mechanicalfuch explanations are to be relied on. To eflimate
lonclufions them according to their proper value, it is only neeel-
■nadequate pary t() confider the attempts of natural philofophers
lothefmia-^ have d;fcovered the greateft fkill in their fcience,
icalpheno-to explain, for indance, the multiplicity of tones pro¬
duced by fonorous bodies. Some having remarked
(what is by no means difficult to conclude) that the
univerfal vibration of a mufical firing is a mixture of
Several partial vibrations, infer, that a fonorous body
ought to produce a multiplicity of tones, as it really
does. But why ffiould this multiplied found only ap¬
pear* to contain three, and why thefe three preferable
to others ? Others pretend that there are particles in
the air, which, by their different degrees of tenfion, be¬
ing naturally fufceptible of different ofcillations, pro¬
duce the multiplicity of found in queilion. But what
do we know of all this ? And though it Humid even be
^ranted, that there is fuch a diverfity of tenfion in
thefe aerial particles, how ffiould this diverfity prevent
them from being all of them confounded in their vibra¬
tions by the motions of a fonorous body ? What then
fhould be the refult, when the vibrations arrive at our
ears, but a confufed and inappretiable * noife, where
one could not diftinguifh any particular found ?
nentt.
* See 7«-
Vappreti-
\ able.
5°7
If philofophical muficians ought not to lofe their^ehminary
time in fearching for mechanical explications of the — ,
phenomena in muiic, explications which will always be Metaphyfi-
found vague and unfatisfatffory j much lefs is it their cal conciu-
province to exhauft their powers in vain attempts to^s
rife above their fphere into a region Hill more remote '
from the profpecf of their faculties, and to loie them-
felves in a labyrinth of metaphyfical {peculations upon
the caufes of that pleafure which we feel from harmo-
iiy. In vain would they accumulate hy pot he {is on hy-
pothefis, to find a reafon why fome chords Humid pleaie
us more than others. i he futility of thefe fuppoiiti-
tious accounts mult be obvious to every one who has
the leait penetration. Let us judge of the reit by the
mod probable which has till now been invented for
that purpofe. Some aferibe the different degrees of
pleafure which we feel from chords, to the more or
lefs frequent coincidence of vibrations ; others to the
relations which thefe vibrations have among themfelves
as they are more or lefs fimple. But why ihould this
coincidence of vibrations, that is to fay, tneii limul-
taneous impulfe on the fame organs of {eolation, anti
the accident of beginning frequently at the fame time,
prove fo great a fource of pleafure i1 Upon what is
this gratuitous fuppofition founded ? And though it
Ihould be granted, would it not follow, that the fame
chord Ihould fucceffively and rapidly afTeft us with
contrary fenfations, fince the vibrations are alternate¬
ly coincident and diferepant ? On the other hand,
how 'Ihould the ear be fo fenfible to the funplicity
of rex itions, whilff for the moff part thefe relations
are entirely unknown to him whofe organs are not-
withffanding fenfibly affected with the charms of a.
grecable mufic ? We may conceive without difficulty
how the eye judges of relations * but how does the ear
form fimilar judgments ? Befides, why. ffiould certain
chords which are extremely pleafing in themfelves,
fueh as the fifth, lofe almoft nothing of the pleafure
which they give us, when they are altered, and of
confequence when the fimplicity of.their relations are
deffroyed j whilff other chords, which are likewife ex¬
tremely agreeable, fuch as the third, become harfli al-
moff by the fmalleft alteration ; nay, whilft the moil
perfeft and the moff agreeable of all chords, the
oftave, cannot fuffer the moft inconfiderable change ?
Let us in fincerity confefs our ignorance concerning
the genuine caufes of thefe effedts (h). The meta-
3 S 2 phyfical
We have as great an averfion as our author to the explication of mufical phenomena from mechanical
T>rinciples : yet we fear the following obfervations, deduced from irrefiftible and univerfal experience, evidently
Cv that he latter neceffarily depend on the former. It is, for inftance, nn.ver&lly allowed, that d.lfonances
orate and concords plcafe a mufical ear: It is likewife no lefe unammoufiy agreed, that .n proportion as a
Sord is perfefl, the pinafore is increafed; now the perfeflion of a chord confilts in the regularity and ire-
quency of coincident ofeillations between two fonorous bodies impelled to vibrate : thus the third ,s a chord
lefs perfect than the fifth, and the fifth than the oiffave. Of all thefe confonances, then fore, uic “ - ■ is moft
‘leafing'to the ear; the fifth next, and the third lad. In abfolute difeords, the vibrations are never coin¬
cident and of confequence a perpetual pulfation or jarring is recogn.fed between the protrafled .ounds, which
exceedingly hurts the ear; but in proportion as thevibrationscomc.de, thofe pulfat.ons are fuperfeded and
a kindred formed betwixt the two continued founds, which delights even the corporeal fenfe : hat relation
therefore without recognizing the aptitudes which produce it, muft be the obvious caufe of the plea ue winch
chord, oive to the ear. What we mean by coincident vibrations is that while one fonorous body performs
a give,renumber of vibrations, another performs a different number ,n the fame time : fo that toe vibrations
of the quickeft muft fometimes be fimultaneous with thofe of the flowed, as will plainly appear from the
5°8 M U
! leliminai-y phyncal cor.jcftures concerning the acouftie organs
i are probably in the fame predicament with thofe
which are formed concerning the organs of vifion,
if one may fpeak fo, in which philofophers have
even till now made fuch inconfiderable progrefs, and
in all likelihood will not be furpaffed by their fuc-
celfors.
Since the theory of mulic, even to thofe who con¬
fine themfelves within its limits, implies queftions from
which every wife mufician will abftain j with much
greater reafon fliould they avoid idle excurfions beyond
the boundaries of that theory, and endeavours to invef-
tigate between mufic and the other fciences chimerical
relations which have no foundation in nature. The
fingular opinions advanced upon this fubject by feme
even of the molt celebrated muficians, deferve not to
be refeued from oblivion, nor refuted ; and ought only
to be regarded as a new proof how far men of genius
may err, when they engage in fubje&s of which they
are ignorant.
The rules which we have attempted to eftablilh con¬
cerning the track to be followed in the theory of the
mufical art, may fuffice to (how our readers the end
which we have propofed, and which we have endea¬
voured to attain in this Work. We have here (we
repeat it), nothing to do with the mechanical prin¬
ciples of protrafled and harmonic tones produced by
fonorous bodies; principles which have hitherto been and
perhaps may yet be long explored in vain : wre havelefs
to do with the metaphyfical caufes of the fenfations im-
pjreffed on the mind by harmony 5 caufes which are Hill
lefs difeovered, and which, according to all appearances,
will remain latent in perpetual obfeurity. We are
alone concerned to fliow how the principal laws of har-
S I C. Elements.
mony may be deduced from one fingle experiment; Preliminary
for which, if we may fpeak fo, preceding artiils have Phicouifc.
been under a necelhty of groping in the dark. —y—j
With an intention to render this work as generally
ufeful as poffible, we have endeavoured to adapt it to the
capacity even of thofe who are abfolutely uninltru&ed
in mufic. To accomplifh this defign, it appeared ne-
celfary to purfue the following plan.
To begin with a Ihort introduction, in which are pian 0f tlie
defined the technical terms molt frequently ufed in this treatife. 1
art; fuch as chords harmony, key, third,Jfth, oElave, &c.
Afterwards to enter into the theory of harmony,
which is explained according to M. Rameau, with all
poflible perl'picuity. This is the fubjeCt of the Firjl
Part; which, as well as the introduction, prefuppofes
no other knowledge of mufic than that of the names of
the notes, C, D, E, F, G, A, B, which all the world
knows (1). .
The theory of harmony requires fome arithmetical
calculations, neceffary for comparing founds one with
another. Thefe calculations are fhort, limple, and may
be comprehended by every one j they demand no
operation but what is explained, and which every
fchool-boy may perform. Yet, that even the trouble of
this may be fpared to fuch as are not difpofed to take it,
thefe calculations are not inferted in the text, but in the
notes, which the reader may omit, if he can take for
granted the propofitions contained in the text which
will be found proved in the notes.
Thefe calculations we have not endeavoured to mul¬
tiply ; we could even have wiftied to fupprefs them, if
it had been poffible : fo much did it appear to us to be
apprehended that our readers might be mifled upon
this fubjeCt, and might either believe, or fufpeCt us of
believing,
following deduction : Between the extremes of a third, the vibrations of the higheft are as 5 to 4 of the
loweft; thofe of the fifth as 3 to 2 5 thofe of the oCtave as 2 to 1. Thus it is obvious, that in proportion to
the frequent coincidence of periodical vibrations, the compound fenfation is more agreeable to the ear. Now,
to inquire why that organ fhould be rather pleafed with thefe than with the pulfation and tremulous motion
of encountering vibrations which can never coalefce, would be to alk why the touch is rather pleafed with
poliffied than rough furfaces ; or, why the eye is rather pleafed with the waving line of Hogarth than with
fharp angles and abrupt or irregular prominences ? No alteration of which any chord is fufceptible will hurt
the ear unlefs it ffiould violate or deftroy the regular and periodical coincidence of vibrations. When altera¬
tions can be made without this difagreeable effeCt, they form a pleafing diverfity } but ftill this faCt corro¬
borates our argument, that in proportion as any chord is perfeCt, it is impatient of the fmallefl alteration j
for this reafon, even in temperament, the oCtave endures no alteration at all, and the fifth as little as
poffible.
(1) In our former editions, the French fyllabic names of the notes nt, re, mi,fa,fol, la,Ji, were retained, as be¬
ing thought to convey the idea of the relative founds more diftinCtly than the feven letters ufed in Britain. It is no
doubt true, that by conftantly ufing the fyllables, and confidering each as reprefenting one certain found in the
fcale, a finger will in time affociate the idea of each found with its proper fyllable, fo that he will habitually
give ut the found of the firft or fundamental note, re that of a fecond, mi of a third, &c. but this requires a long
time, and much application : and is, befides, ufelefs in modulation or changes of the key, and in all inftrumental
mufic. Teachers offol-fa'big as it is called, or finging by the fyllables, in Britain, have long difearded, (if they
ever ufed), the fyllables ut, re, and and the prevalent, and we think, the founder opinion is now, that a fcholar
will, by attending to the founds themfelves rather than to their names, foon learn their diftinft charafters and
relations to the key, and to each other, and be able of courfe to affign to each its proper degree in the fcale which
he employs for the time, by whatever name the note reprefenting that degree may be generally known. See
Holden's FJfay towards a Rational Sii/lem of Mvfic, Part I. chap. x. § 32, 33.
We have therefore, in our prefent edition, preferred to the French fyllables the Britiffi nomenclature by the
letters C, D, E, F, G, A, B, as being more fimple, more familiar to Britiffi muficians, and equally applicable to
inftrumental as to vocal mufic,,.
lements.
M U
■liminary believing, all this arithmetic ncccflary to form an artift.^
^ourie. Calculations may indeed facilitate the underftanding of
certain points in the theory, as of the relations between
the different notes in the gammut and of the tempera¬
ment but the calculations neceffary for treating of
thefe points are fo fimple, and of fo little, importance,
that nothing x:an require a lei’s oftentatious difplay.
Let us not imitate thole muficians, who, believing them-
felves geometers, or tii(>fe geometers who, believing
themfelves mulicians, fill their writings vvith ligures
upon figures : imagining, perhaps, that this apparatus
is neceffary to the art. 1 he propenfity of adorning
their works with a falfe air of fcience, can only impofe
upon ignorance, and render their treatifes more oblciue
and lei’s mftrudtive.
athema- This abule of geometry in mufic may be condemned
:al con- u'ith fo much more reafon, that in this lubject the
ifions not foundations of thofe calculations are in fame manner
Tenfible hypothetical, and can never arife to a degree of cer-
ijedts tainty above hypothefis. The relation of the octave, as
ithout j to 2, that of the fifth as 2 to 3, that of the third
■ution- major as 4 to 5, &c. are not perhaps the genuine re¬
lations effablilhed in nature } but only relations, which
approach them, and fuch as experience can difeover.
For are the refults of experience any thing more but
mere approaches to truth ?
But happily thefe approximated relations are fuffi-
cient, though they fliould not be exadfly agreeable to
truth, for giving a fatisfa&ory account of thofe phe¬
nomena which depend on the relations of found ; as
in the difference between the notes in the gammut, of
the alterations neceffary in the fifth and third, of the
different manner in which inftruments are tuned, and
other faffs of the fame kind. If the relations of the
oflave, of the fifth, and of the third, are not e.xaffly
fuch as we have fuppofed them, at leaf! no experiments
can prove that they are not fo ; and fince thefe rela¬
tions are fignified by a fimple expreflion, fince they are
befides fuflicient for all the purpofes of theory, it would
be ufelefs, and contrary to found philofophy, to invent
other relations in order to form the balls of any fyftem
of mufic lefis eafy and fimple than that which vve have
delineated in this treatife.
The fecond part contains the moft effential rules or
ee Coot-compofition or in other words the practice of liar-
ojition. mony. Thefe rules are founded on the principles laid
down in the Jirj} part 1 yet thofe who wifli to underffand
no more than is neceffary for practice, without explor¬
ing the reafons why fuch pra^ical rules are neceffary,
may limit the objefts of their ftudy to the introdu3ion
and the fecond part. They who have read \.\\ef rf party
will find at every rule contained in the fecond, a refer¬
ence to that paffage in the firf where the reafons for
eftablilhing that rule are given.
That we may not prefent at once too great a num-
S I c. 509
ber of objeas and precepts, we have transferred to the Preliminary
notes in the fecond part fcveral rules and obfervations , ,
which are lefs frequently put in pradice, which perhaps Some rules,
it may be proper to omit tjll tlic ticatiic is road a io- account
cond time, when the reader is well acquainted with the of their ^
effential and fundamental rules explained in it. transferred
This 1'econd part prefuppofes, no more than the In it, totyie notes.
any habit of finging, nor even any knowledge of mu fie }
it only requires that one Ihould know, not even the in¬
tonation, but merely the pofition ot the notes in the
cleft' F on the fourth line, and that ot G upon the fe¬
cond : and even this knowledge may be acquired from
the work itfelf; for in the beginning of the fecond part
we explain the pofition ot the clefts and of the notes.
Nothing is neceffary but to render it a little iamiliar,
and any difficulty in it will difappear.
It would be wrong to expect here all the rules of All the
compofition, and efpecially thofe which cliiect the c0rnpofi_
compofition of mufic in feveral parts, and. which, being t-on not to
lefs levere and indifpenfable, may be chiefly acquired expedted
by prabtice, by ftudying the moft approved models, in an cle-
by the affiftance of a proper mafter, but above all by
the cultivation of the ear and of the tafte. I his trea¬
tife is properly nothing elfe, if the expreffion may be
allowed, but the rudiments of mufic, intended for ex¬
plaining to beginners the fundamental principles, not
the prabbical detail of compofition. I hofe who wiffi to
enter more deeply into this detail, will either find it in
M. Rameau’s treatife of harmony, or in the code of
inufie which he publiflied more lately (k), or
the explication of the theory and praflice of mufic by
M. Bethizi (l) ; this laft book appears to us clear and
methodical (m).
Is it neceffary to add, that in order to compofe Nature ti e
mufic in a proper tafte, it is by no means enough to effential
have familiarized with much application the principles ™^rca|
explained in this treatife? Here can only be learned
the mechanifm of the art} it is the province of nature tion.
alone to accomplifh the reft. W ithout her affiftance, it
is no more poffible to compofe agreeable mufi.c by ha¬
ving read thefe elements, than to write verfes in a pro¬
per manner with the Hibtionary of Richelet. In one
word, it is the elements of mufic alone, and not the
principles of genius, that the reader may expeft to find
in this treatife.
DEFINITIONS.
I. What is meant by Melody, by Chord, by Harmony, by
Interval.
1. Melody is a feries of founds which fucceed one to Melody,
another in a manner agreeable to the ear. what.
2. A Chord is a combination of feveral founds heard Chord andi
together ; and Harmony is properly a feries of chords ha™10nA-
of which the fucceffion pleafes the ear. A Angle chord w iat‘
is
(k) From my general recommendation of this code, I except the refleaions on the principle of found which
are at the end, and which I ffiould not advife any one to read.
(l) Printed at Paris by Lambert in the year 1754.
(m) In addition to the works mentioned in the text, we recommend to our readers, Holden s Effay, Gla goiv
*770, Edin. 1805 j Kollmann’s Effay on Mufical Harmony, 1796 *, his Effay on Mufical Compofition, fol. 1799 ;
Shield’s Introduftion, 1.800.) and Dr Callcott’s Mufical Grammar, 1806.
See Inter-
wl.
5 TO MU
Definitions. like wife fonietimes called harmony, to fignify the coa-
lefcence of the founds which form the chord, and the
fenfation produced in the car by that coalefcence. We
fhall occafionally ufe the word harmony in this laft
fenfe, but in fuch a manner as never to leave our mean¬
ing ambiguous.
3. An Interval, in melody and harmony, is the di-
flanpe, or difference in pitch, between one found, and
another higher or lower than it.
4. That we may learn to diftinguifh the intervals,
and the manner of perceiving them, let us take the
ordinary fcale C, D, E, F, G, A, B, c, which every
perfon whofe ear or voice is not extremely falfe natural¬
ly modulates. The following obfervations will occur
to us in finging this fcale.
The found D is higher or (harper than the found
C, the found E higher than the found D, the found
F higher than the found E, &c. and fo through the
whole o£tave ; fo that the interval, or the diftance
from the found C to the found D, is lefs than the
interval or diftance between the found C and the
found E, the interval from C to F is lefs than that
between C and F, &e. and in ftiort that the interval
from the firft to the fecond C is the greateft of all.—
Account of
the fimple
intervals.
S I C. Elements,
To diftinguifti the firft from the fecond C, we have mark- definitions
ed the laft with a fmall letter (n). ' vc-w
5. In general, the interval between two founds isThedi-
proportionably greater, as one of thefe founds is high-ftin<^ion
er or lower with relation to the other : but it is necef- J)etween
fary to obferve, that two founds maybe equally high "I
or low, though unequal in their force. The firing of acute an(j
a violin touched with a bow produces always a found grave,
equally high, whether ftrongly or faintly ftruck j the
found will only have a greater or leffer degree of
ftrength. It is the fame with vocal modulation j let
any one form a found by gradually fwelling the voice,
the found may be perceived to increafe in force, whilft
it continues always equally low or equally high.
6. We muft likewife obferve concerning the fcale, £etW(.en
that the intervals between C and D, between D and tonic and
E, between F and G, between G and A, between A frmitonic
and B, are equal, or at lead nearly equal j and that lr•tervais•
the intervals between E and F, and between B and C,
are likewife equal among themfelves, but conlift almoft
only of half the former. This fact is known and re-
cognifed by every one : the reafon for it (hall be given
in the fequel ; in the mean time every one may afeer-
tain its reality by the afiiftance of an experiment (o).
7. It
(n) We (hall afterwards find that three different feries of the feven letters are ufed, which we have diftinguiftied
by capitals, fmall Roman, and Italic chara6ters. When the notes reprefented by fmall Roman charadters occur
in this treatife we (hall, merely to diftinguifti them from the typography of the text, place them in inverted
commas, thus ‘c’, ‘d’, &c.
(o) This experiment may be eafily tried. Let any one fing the fcale C, D, E, F, G, A, B ‘c’, it will be
immediately obferved without difficulty, that the laft four notes of the odtave G, A, B, ‘c’, are quite fimilar to
the firft C, D, E, F •, infomuch, that if, after having fung this fcale, one would choofe to repeat it, beginning with
C in the fame tone which was occupied by G in the former fcale, the note D of the laft fcale would have the
fame found with the note A in the firft, the E with the B, and the F with the (c\
Whence it follows, that the interval between C and I), is the fame as between G and A } between D and F,
as between A and B, and E and F, as between B and ‘c\
From D to E, from F to G, there is the fame interval as from C to D. To be convinced of this, we need
only fing the fcale once more*, then fing it again, beginning with C, in this laft fcale, in the fame tone which
was given to D in the firft ; and it will be perceived, that the D in the fecond fcale will have the fame found,
at lead as far as the ear can difeover, with the E in the former fcale ; whence it follows, that the difference be¬
tween D and E is, at leaft as far as the ear can perceive, equal to that between C and D. It will alfo be
found, that the interval between F and G is, fo far as our fenfe can determine, the fame with that between C
and D.
1 his experiment may perhaps be tried with fome difficulty by thofe who are not inured to form the notes
and change the key *, but fuch may very eafily perform it by the affiftance of a harpfichord, by means of which
the performer will be faved the trouble of retaining the founds in one intonation whilft he performs another. In
touching upon this harpfichord the keys G, A, B, cfand in performing with the voice at the fame time
C, D, E, f, in fuch a manner that the fame found may be given to C in the voice with that of the key G
in the harpfichord, it will be found that D in the vocal intonation fhall be the fame with A upon the harpfi¬
chord, &c. ‘
It will be. found likewife by the fame harpfichord, that if one fhould fing the fcale beginning with C in the
fame tone with E on the inftrument., the D, which ought to have followed C, will be higher by an extremely
perceptible degree than the F which follows E : thus it may be concluded, that the interval between E and
F is lefs than between C and D ; and if one would rife from F to another found which is at the fame diftance
from x1, as F from E, he would find, in the fame manner, that the interval from E to this new found is almoft the
fame as that between C and 1). Ihe interval then from E to F is nearly half of that between C and D.
Since then, in the fcale thus divided, S ’
tj, A, si, ‘c ,
the firft divifion is perfectly like the laft j and linee the intervals between C and D, between D and E, and be¬
tween F and G, are equal; it follows, that the intervals between G and A, and between A and B, are likewife
equal to everv one of the three intervals between C and D, between D and E, and between F and G ; and that
the intervals between E and I and between B and ‘c’ are alfo equal, but that they only conftitute one half of the
others.
I ements.
*
c
*
t
M U
d mi-
what.
T ’d ma-
jo what.
Lfnitions. <7. It is for this reafon that they have called the inter-
   val from E to F, and from B to C, a femitone ; where¬
as thofe between C and D, D and E, I and G, G and
A, and A and B, are tones.
ate The tone is likewife called a fecond major *, and the
'LIV femitone a fecond minor f.
x 8. To defeend or rife diatonically, is to defcend or
j Inter- rjfe £rom one found to another by the interval of a
tone or of a femitone, or in general by feconds, whether
major or minor ; as from 13 to C, or from C to D,
from F to E, or from E to F,
II. The terms by which the different Intervals of the
Scale are denominated.
o. An interval compofed of a tone and a femitone,
as from E to G, from A. to G, or from 13 to F, is
called a third minor.
An interval compofed of two fall tones, as from C
to E, and from F to A, or from G to B, is called a third
major.
An interval compofed of two tones and a femitone, as
from C to F, or from G to C, is called * fourth.
An interval confifting of three fall tones, as from F
to B, is called a tritone or fourth redundant.
An interval confifting of three tones and a femitone,
as from C to G, from F to 0, from 13 lo A, or from
E to B, &c. is called -a. fifth.
An interval compofed of three tones and two femi-
tones, as from E to C, is called -afixth minor.
An interval compofed of four tones and a femitone,
as from C to A, is called a fixth majoi.
*An interval confifting of four tones and two femi-
’ tones, as from 13 to C, is called afcventh minor.
An interval compofed of five tones and a femitone,
as from C to B, is called a feventh major.
And in ftiort, an interval confifting of five tones and
two fcmitones, as from C to ‘c’ is called an oBaye.
Several of the intervals now mentioned, are diftinguifli-
ed by other names, as may be feen in the beginning of
the fecond part; but thofe now given are the moft com¬
mon, and the only terms which our prefent purpofe de¬
mands.
10. Two founds equally high, or equally low, how-
wit.
Sbh ml-
k what.
SIC. 511
ever unequal in their force, are faid to be in unifon one Definitions.
with the other. _
11. If two founds form between them any interval,
whatever it be, we fay, that the higheft when afeend-
ing is in that interval with relation to the low'eft } and
when defeending, we pronounce the loweft in the fame
interval with relation to the higheft. Thus in the third
minor, E, G, where E is the loweft and G the higheft
found, G is a third minor from E afeending, and E is
a third minor from G in defeending.
1 2. In the fame manner, if, fpeaking of two fono-
rous bodies, we ftiould fay, that the one is a fifth above
the other in afeending ; this infers that the found given
by the one is at the diftance of a fifth afeending from
the found given by the other.
III. Of Intervals greater than the OBave.
13. If, after having fung the fcale C, D, E, F, G, Fig. 2.
A, B, c, one would carry this fcale ftill farther in
afeent, it would be difeovered without difficulty that
a new fcale would be formed, ‘c, d, e, f’, &c. entirely
fimilar to the former, and of which the founds will be
an octave afeending, each to its correfpondent note in
the former fcale ; thus ‘d’, the fecond note of the fecond
fcale, will be an o£tave in afeent to the D of the firft
fcale 5 in the fame manner ‘o’ fliall be the odtave to E,
&c. and fo of the reft.
14. As there are nine notes from the firft C to the 7^4,
fecond ‘d1, the interval between thefe two founds is call- what,
ed a ninth, and this ninth is compofed of fix full tones
and two femitones. For the fame reafon the interval
from C to ‘f’ is called an eleventh, and the interval be¬
tween C and ‘g1 a twelfth, &c.
It is plain that the ninth is the oflave of the fecond, Eleventh
the eleventh of the fourth, and the twelfth of the ar‘''1
fifth, &c. . ■ What-
The oftave above the oclave of any found is called a
double oBave * ; the enftave of the double oeftave is call- * Sf
ed a triple oBave, and fo of the reft. double
The double oftave is likewife called a fifteenth : and Obta-ve.
for the fame reafon the double offave of the third is
called a feventeenth, the double oftave of the fifth a
nineteenth, &c. (p).
IV.
(p) Let us fuppofe two vocal firings formed of the fame matter, of the fame thicknefs, and equal in their ten-
fion, but unequal in their length •, it will be found by experience,
\fi, That if the ftiorteft is equal to half the longeft, the found which it will produce muft be an oftave above
the found produced by the longeft.
2r//?/, That if the (horteft conftitutes a third part of the longeft, the found which it produces muft be a twelfth
above the found produced by the longeft,
3<//y. That if it conftitutes the fifth part, its found will be a feventcenth above.
Bcfides it is a truth demonftrated and generally admitted, that in proportion as one mufical firing is lefs than
another the vibrations of the leaft will be more frequent (that is to fay, its departures and returns through the
fame fpace) in the fame time ; for inftance, in an hour, a minute, a fecond, &c. in fuch a manner that one firing
which conftitutes a third part of another, forms three vibrations, whilft the largeft has only accomplifhed one.
In the fame manner, a firing which is one half lefs than another, performs twm vibrations, whilit the other only
completes one 5 and a firing which is only the fifth part of another, will perform five vibrations in the fame time
which is occupied by the other in one.
From thence it follows, that the found of a firing is proportionally higher or lower, as the number of its vi¬
brations is greater or fmaller in a given time ; for inftance, in a fecond.
It is for that reafon, that if we reprefent any found whatever by 1, one may reprefent the o£lave above by 2,
that is to fay, by the number of vibrations formed by the firing which produces the o6lave, whilft the longeft
firing onlv vibrates once 3 in the fame manner we may reprefent the twelfth above the found 1 by 3, the feven-
5 teenth
M U S
Definitions.
1 v ' IV. What is meant by Sharps and Flats.
Sharps and I It is plain that one may imagine the five tones
flats, what, which enter into the fcale, as divided each into two
See Inter- femitones 5 thus one may advance from C to D, form-
val' ing in his progrefs an intermediate found, which fhall
be higher by a femitone than C, and lower in the fame
degree than I). A found in the fcale is called
when it is raifed by a femitone *, and it is marked with
this character $ : thus C $ fignifies C ftarp, that is to
fay, C raifed by a femitone above its pitch in the natu¬
ral fcale. A found in the fcale depreffed by a femitone
is called fat, and is marked thus, \) : thus A \) fignifies
A fat, or A depreffed by a femitone.
V. What is meant by Confonances and Difbnances.
Confo- 16. A chord compofcd of founds whofe union or
nance, coalefcence pleafes the ear is called a confonance ; and
what. foUnds which form tins chord are faid to be confo-
Sve Chord.
I C. Elements,
nant one with relation to the other. The reafon of this Definitions,
denomination is, that a chord is found more perfect, as v*—J
the founds which form it coalefce more clofely among 4
themfelves. «
17. The o£tave of a found is the moll: perfedl of con- (
fonances of which that found is fufceptible ; then the
fifth, afterwards the third, See. This is a fact founded f
on experiment.
18. A number of founds fimultaneoufly produced ®!^’onancel
whofe union is difpleafing to the ear is called a diffb- w^at-
nance, and the founds which form it are faid to be dif-
fonant one with relation to the other. The fecond,
the tritone, and the feventh of a found, are diifonants See T>if~
writh relation to it. Thus the founds C D, C B, ox cord.
F B, &c. fimultaneoufly heard, form a diflonance.
The reafon which renders diflonance difagreeable, is,
that the founds which compofe it, feem by no means
coalefcent to the ear, and are heard each of them by
itfelf as diftindl founds, though produced at the fame
time.
FART I. THEORY OF HARMONY.
Chap. I. Preliminary and Fundamental Experi¬
ments.
Experiment I.
19. WHEN a fonorous body is ftruck till it gives
a found, the ear, befides the principal found and its
oftave, perceives two other founds very high, of which
one is the twelfth above the principal found, that is to
fay, the oflave to the fifth of that found } and the other
is the feventeenth major about the fame found, that is to
fay, the double odlave of its third major.
20. This experiment is peculiarly fcnfible upon the
thick firings of the violoncello, of which the found be¬
ing extremely low, gives to an ear, though not very
much praftifed, an opportunity of diftinguiihing with
fufficient eafe and clearnefs the twelfth and feventeenth
now in queftion (£>_).
' 21.
teenth major above 5, &c. But it is very neceflary to remark, that by thefe. numerical exprefiions we do not
pretend to compare founds as fuch •, for founds in themfelves are nothing but mere fenfations, and it cannot be
faid of any fenfation that it is double or triple to another : thus the exprefiions I, 2, 3, &c. employed to denomi¬
nate a found, its odlave above, its twelfth above, &c. fignify only, that if a firing performs a certain number
of vibrations, for inftance, in a fecond, the firing which is in the odlave above fliall double the number in the
fame time, the firing which is in the twelfth above ftiall triple it, &c.
Thus to compare founds among themfelves is nothing elfe than to compare among themfelves the numbers of
vibrations which are formed in a given time by the firings that produce thefe founds.
(qJ Since the o£tave above the found 1 is 2, the odtave below that fame found fliall be ; that is to fay, that
the firing which produces this o£lave lhall have performed half its vibration, whilft the firing which produces the
found 1 fliall have completed one. To obtain therefore the oftave above any found, the operator mufi multiply
the quantity which exprefles the found by 2) and to obtain the osfiave below, he mufi: on the contrary divide the
fame quantity by 2.
It is for that reafon that if any found whatever, for inftance C, is denominated
Its odlave above will be - - -
Its double odlave above . - _
Its triple odlave above - - - '
In the fame manner its odlave below will be - -
Its double odlave below „ . . -
Its triple odlave below - - -
And fo of the reft.
Its twelfth above ^ -
Its twelfth below -
Its 17th major above
Its 17th major below
The fifth then above the found 1 being the odlave beneath the twelfth, fliall be, as we have immediately oh-
4 ferved,
P rt I.
■ory of 21. Tlie principal found Is called tlie generator. ,
mony-1 and the two other founds which it produces, and ^\ith
which it is accompanied, are, inclufive of its octave,
ir. called its hannotncs f.
tn <■ c,
INI U
G( srator,
Har-
Experimekt II.
22. There is no perfon infenfible of the refemblance
with fubfills between any found and its oitave, whe¬
ther above or below. Thefe two founds, when heard
together, almoft entirely coalefce in the organ of fen-
fation. We may betides be convinced (by two facts
which are extremely nmple) ot the facility with which
one of thefe founds may be tak.cn for the other.
Let it be fuppofed that any perfon has an inclina¬
tion to fing a tune, and having at firtt begun this air
VOL. XIV. Part II.
SIC. • 513
upon a pitch too high or too low for his voice, fo that TWory of
he is obliged, left he thould drain hrmfelf too much, d
to fing the tune in queftion on a key higher or lower
than the firit *, he will naturally, without being initiated
in the art of mufic, take his new key in the oftave be¬
low or the oClave above the firtl } and in order to take
this key in any other interval except the octave, he will
find it necefiary to exert a lenfible degree of attention.
This is a faCl of which we may eafily be perfuadcd by
experience.
Another facl. Let any perfon fing a tune in. our
prefence, and let it be fung in a tone too high or too
low for our voice j if we with to join in finging this
air, we naturally take the odlave below or above, and
frequently, in taking this oflave, we imagine it to be
the unifon (o'*).
^ 3 T Chap.IL
ferved 4 5 which fignifies that this tiring performs | vibrations j that is to fay, one vibration anu a half during a
above that twelfth. In effect, the twelfth below C, for inftance, is I, of which the double o£tave/is the fourth
above c. Since then the twelfth below I is it follows that the double oftave above this twelfth, that is to fay,
the fourth from the foued 1 in afeending, will be | multiplied by 4, or t r n ^ .1 . .1 „
In thort, the third major being nothing elfe but the double oftave beneath the feventeenth, it follows, that the.
third major above the found 1 will be 5 divided by 4, or in other words , ,
The third major of a found, for inftance the third major E, from the found C, and its hath G form between
them a third minor E, G ; now E is |, and G 1, by what has been immediately demonllrated : from whence it
follows, that the third minor, or the interval between E and G, (hall be expreffed by the relation of the fraaion £
t0 To determine this relation, it is neceffary to remark, that are the fame thing with V, and that d are the
fame thing with V° : fo tliat I ihali be t0 4 in the ^me relation as V° t° V > ls la>7’ in
tion as iogto 12, or as 5 to 6. If, then, two founds form between themfelves a third minor, and that the hrL is
reprefented by 5, the fecond {hall be expreffed by 6 ; or, what is the fame thing, if the firft is icprefcnted by 1,
^ThuTthe third minor, an harmonic found which is even found in the protrafted and coalefcent tones of a
fonorous body between the found E and G, an harmonic of the principal found, may be expelled by the
^ &N. One may fee by this example, that in order to compare two founds one with another which are expreffed
by fraftions, it is neceffary firft to multiply the numerator of the fraftion which expreffes the firft by the denomi¬
nator of the fraftion which expreffes the fecond, which will give a primary number 5 as here the numeia.01 5 of
the fraftion multiplied by 2 of the fraction |, has given 10. Afterwards may be multiplied the numerator of
the fecond fraftion by the denominator of the firft, which will give a fecondary number, as here 1 2 is the produft
of 4 multiplied by 2 ; and the relation between thefe two numbers (which in the preceding example are 10 and
12), will exprefs the relation between thefe founds, or, what is the fame thing, the interval which there is be¬
tween the ore and the other 5 in fuch a manner, that the farther the relation between thefe founds departs from
unity, the greater the interval will be. . , , , r • -i 1 • 1 „
Such is the manner in which we may compare two founds one with another whofe numerical value is ' «
We fhall now (how the manner how the numerical expreflion of a found may be obtained, when the relation
which it ought to have with another found is known whofe numerical exprefiion is given _ .
Let us fuppofe, for example, that the third major of the fifth ! is fought. That third major ought to be, b)
what has been ftiown above, the 4 of the fifth ; for the third major of any found whatever is the * of that found
We muft then look for a fraftion which expreffes the | of 4; which is done by multiplying the numerators and
denominators of both fraftions one by the other, from whence refults the new .raftion ^ . It will likewiic be
found that the fifth of the fifth is •£, becaufe the fifth of the fifth is the 4 of i- ‘
Thus far we have only treated of fifths, fourths, thirds major and minor, in afeending; now it is extremely ea,}
to find by the fame rules the fifths, fourths, thirds major and minor in descending, l or fuppoie L equal to I,
we have foen that its fifth, its fourth, its third, its major and minor m afeending, are, ,, T, ^, x- 10 f
fifth, its fourth, its third, its major and minor in defeending, nothing more is neceflary than to reverit e e
fraftions, which will give T* 4* „ ^ . i • i • j* • j* •«. 1  - u,r .
fo*) It is not then imagined that we change the value of a found in multiplying or dividing it by 2» 4>
by 8 &c. the number which expreffes thefe founds, fince by thefe operations we do nothing but take the Ample
double, or triple oftave, &c. of the found in queftion, and that a found coalefces with its oftave.
5H
Theory of
Harmony. Chap. II. 'The Origin of the Modes Major and
Minor ; of the moji natural Modulation^ and the
mojl perfedl Harmony.
M U S I C.
Funda¬
mental and
harmonics,
what.
Harmony
reduced to
chords,
fifths, and
odtaves.
Mode ma¬
jor, what.
See Mode.
See like-
wile Inter-
•val.
Mode mi¬
nor, what.
23. To render our ideas ftill more precife and per¬
manent, we (hall call the tone produced by the {one¬
rous body C : it is evident, by the firft experiment,
that this found is always attended by its 12th and 17th
major 5 that is to fay, with the odtave of G, and the
double odlave of E.
24. 1 his odlave of G then, and this double o6fave
of E, produce the moft perfedl chord which can be
joined with C, fmee that chord is the work and choice
of nature (r).
25. For the fame reafon, the modulation formed by
C with the oftave of G, and the double oflave of E,
fung one after the other, would likewife be the moft
fimple and natural of all modulations which do not de-
feend or afeend dire&ly in the diatonic order, if our
voices had fufficient compafs to form intervals fo great
without difficulty : but the eafe and freedom with
which we can fubftitute its o&ave to any found, when
it is more convenient for the voice, afford us the means
of reprefenting this modulation.
26. It is on this account that, after having fung the
tone C, w'e naturally modulate the third E, and the fifth
G, inftead of the double oflave of E, and the odtave
of G j from whence we form, by joining the o&ave of
the found G, this modulation, C, E, G, ‘c’, which in
effedl is the fim; left and eafieft of them all; and which
likewife has its origin even in the protradled and com¬
pounded tones produced by a fonorous body.
27. The modulation C, E, G, ‘c’, in which the chord
C, E, is a third major, conftitutes that kind of harmony
or melody which we call the made major ; from whence
it follows, that this mode refults from the immediate
operation of nature.
28. In the modulation C, E, G, of which wre have
now been treating, the founds E and G are fo propor-
Part 1,
tioned one to the other, that the principal found C Theory of
(art. 19.) caufes both of them to relbund j but the fe- Harmony,
cond tone E does not caufe G to refound, which onlyV—
forms the interval of a third minor.
29. Let us then imagine, that, inftead of this found
E, one fhould fubftitute between the (bunds C and G,
another note which (as well as the found C) has the
power of caufing G to refound, and which is, however,
different from the found C ; the found which we explore
ought to be iuch, by art. 19. that it may have for its
17th major G, or one of the oblaves of G $ of confe-
quence the found which we feek ought to be a 17th
major below G, or, what is the fame thing, a third
major below the fame G. Now the found E being a
third minor beneatli G, and the third major being
(art. 9 ) greater by a femitone than the third minor, it
follows, that the found of which we are in fearch fliall
be a femitone beneath the natural E, and of confe-
quence E \).
30. This new arrangement, C, E [?, G, in which
the founds C and E b have both the power of caufing
G to refound, though C does not caufe E h to refound,
is not indeed equally perfedl with the firft arrangement
C, E, G ; becaufe in this the two founds E and G are
both the one and the other generated by the principal
found C ; whereas, in the other, the found E is not
generated by the found C j but this arrangement C,
Eb,G, is likewife didlated by nature (art. 19.), though
lefs immediately than the former j and accordingly ex¬
perience evinces that the ear accommodates itfelf almoft
as wrell to the latter as to the former.
31. In this modulation or chord C, E [g G, C, Origin of
it is evident that the third from C to E h is minor; mo<le mi-
and fuch is the origin of that mode which we call
minor (s). See alfo i
32. The moft per fed! chords then are, 1. All chords Interval.
related one to another, as C, E, G, ‘c’, confifting ofperfe)^.
any found, of its third major, of its fifth, and of itsehonls*
odlave. 2. All chords related one to another, as Cwhat*
E h, G, ‘c’, confifting of any found, of its third
minor.
(r) T he chord formed with the twelfth and feventeenth major united with the principal found, being exadlly
conformed to that which is produced by nature, is likewife for that reafon the moft agreeable of all 5 efpecially
when the compofer can proportion the voices and inftruments together in a proper manner to give this chord its
full eftedt. M. Rameau has executed this with the greateft fuccefs in the opera of Pygmalion, page 34. where
Pygmalion fings with the chorus 1?amour triomphe, &c. : in this palfage of the chorus, the two parts of the vocal
and inftrumental baffes give the principal found and its odlave j the firft part above, or treble, and that of the
counter-tenor, produce the feventeenth major, and its odlave, in defeending } and the fecond part, or tenor abo
gives the twelfth.
See fig. 3. (s) The origin which we have here given of the mode minor, is the moft fimple and natural that can poflibly
be given. M. Rameau deduces it, more artificially, from the following experiment.— If you put in vibration a
mufical firing HI, and if there are at the fame time contiguous to this two other firings KN, RW, of which
the firft (hall be a twelfth, and the fecond a feventeenth major below the firing HI, the firings KN, RW will
vibrate without being (truck as foon as the firing HI fliall give a found, and divide themfelves by a kind of un¬
dulation, the firft into three, the laft into five equal parts j in fuch a manner, that, in the vibration of the firing
KN, you may eafily diftinguifh two points at reft LM, and in the tremulous motion of the firing RW, four qui-
efeent points S, T, U, V, all placed at equal diftances from each other, and dividing the firings into three or
five equal parts. In this experiment, fays M. Rameau, if we reprefent by the note C the tone of the firing HI,
the two other firings will reprefent the founds F and A \) ; and from thence M. Rameau deduces the modulation
F, A b> C, and of confequence the mode minor. The origin which we have afligned to the minor mode, ap¬
pears more dire£l and more fimple, becaufe it prefuppofes no other experiment than that of art. 19. and becaufe
alfo the fundamental found C is ftill retained in both the modes, without being obliged, as M. Rameau found
himfelf, to change it into F.
I. . M U
ieory of minor, o£ its fifth, and of its oflave. In eftett, thofe
innony. tw0 of chords are exhibited by nature *, but the
~m~J fir ft more immediately than the fecond. The firft are
called perfect chords major, the fecond perfect chords
minor.
Chap. IIL Of the Succeffton by Fifths, and of the
Laws which it obferves.
Inda- 23* Since the found C caufes the found (j to be
ntalbafs^ean^ and is itfelf heard in the found F, which founds
G and F are its two twelfths, we may imagine a modu¬
lation compofed of that found C and its two twelfths,
or, which is the fame thing (art. 22.), of its two fifths,
F and G, the one below, the other above •, which gives
the modulation or feries of fifths F, C, G, which we call
the fundamental bafs of C- by fifths.
We ihall find in the fequel (Chap. XVIII.), that
there may be fome fundamental bals by thirds, de¬
duced from the two feventeenths, of which the one is
an attendant of the principal found, and of which the
other includes that found. But we muft advance ftep
by ftep, and fatisfy ourfelves at prefent to confider im¬
mediately the fundamental bafes by fifths.
34. Thus, from the found C, one may make a tran-
fition indifferently to the found G, or to the found ft.^
3 One may', for the fame reafon, continue this
kind of fifths in afcending, and in defcending, from C,
in this manner :
Eh, BIj, F, C, G, D, A, &c.
And from this feries of fifths one may pafs to any
found which immediately precedes or follows it.
sception 36. But it is not allowed in the fame manner to pafs
the rule. £rom one found to another which is not immediately
contiguous to it j for mftance, ftom C to 13, or from
D to C : for this very fimple reafon, that the found D
is not contained in the found C, nor the lound C in
that of D ; and thus thefe founds have not any alliance
the one with the other, which may authorife the tranfi-
tion from one to the other.
Vo per- 37. And as thefe founds C and D, by the firft ex-
idt chords periment, naturally bring along with them the perfect
fuecef- _ chords confiding of greater intervals C, E, G, ‘c’, and
onprofcn-jj^ ^ <cp . hence may be deduced this rule, That
’ed' two perfect chords, efpecially if they are major (t),
cannot fucceed one another diatonically in a funda¬
mental bafs j we mean, that in a fundamental bafs two
founds canned be diatonically placed in fucceffion, each
of which, with its harmonics, forms a perfect chord,
efpecially if this perfed chord be major in both.
Chap. IV. Of Modes in General,
! Vfode in 38. A ifcTODE, in mufic, is, the order of founds, pre-
Ijreneral, fpribed, as well in harmony as melody, by the feries of
ffeat.
SIC. 515
fifths. Thus the three founds F, C, G, and the har- Theory ot
monies of each of thefe three founds, that is to lay, Mdr°10 yh
their thirds major and their filths, compofe all the majoi
inodes which are proper to C.
29. The ieries of fifths then, or the fundamental bafs Modes,
F, C, G, of which C holds the middle fpace, may behowrepre-
regarded as reprefenting the mode of C. One may 0£-
like wife take the feries of fifths, or fundamental bals,
C, G, D, as reprefenting the mode of G ; in the fame
manner Bj?, F, C, will reprefent the mode of F.
Thus the mode of G, or rather the fundamental bafs
of that mode, has two founds in common with the fun¬
damental bafs of the mode of G. It is the lame with
the fundamental bafs of the mode F.
40. The mode of C (F, C, G) is called the prmcipal
mode with refpett to the modes of thefe two fifths, which mode, and
are called its two adjunBs. adjuncts,
41. It is then, in fome meafure, indifferent to thejV‘l^_
ear whether a tranfition be made to the one or to thejunR.
other of thefe adjuncts, fince each of them has equally >1 odes re-
two founds in common with the principal mode. Yet Whed m
the mode of G feems a little more eligible : for G is
heard amongft the harmonics of C, and of confequence foun(is are
is implied and fignified by C 5 whereas C does not common,
caufe F to be heard, though C if* included in the fame 1
found F. It is hence that the ear, affe&ed by the
mode of C, is a little more prepoffeffed for the mode
of G than for that of F. Nothing likewife is more
frequent, nor more natural, than to pafs .from the mode
of C to that of G.
42. It is for this reafon, as well as to diftiifguilh Dominant
the two fifths one from the other, that we call G the ^'da^'do'
fifth above fthe generator the dominant found, and the vvhat_
fifth F, below the generator, tht fubdominant. See Domi-
43. As in the feries of fifths, we may indifferently n.int
pafs from one found to that which is contiguous : fo tVanfition
having paffed from the mode of C to that of G, one
may from thence proceed to the mode of D. And on how t0 be
the other hand, having paffed from the mode of C to managed,
that of F we may then pafs to the mode of Bfo But it
is neceffary, however, to obferve, that the ear, which
has been immediately affe&ed with the principal mode,
feels always a ftrong propenfity to return to it. Thus
the further the mode to which we make a tranfition is
removed from the principal mode, the lefs time we ought
to dwell upon it} or rather, to fpeak in the terms of
the art, the lefs ought the phrafe (u) of that mode lo
be protradled.
Chap. V. Of the Formation of the Diatonic Scale
as ufed by the Greeks.
44. From this rule, that two founds which are con¬
tiguous may be placed in immediate fucceffion in the
feries of fifths, F, C, G, it follows, that one may
2 T 2 form
(t) We fay efpecially if they are major ; for in the major chord D, F$, A, ‘d’, befides that the founds C and D
have no common harmonical relation, and are even diffonant between themfelves (art. 13.), it will likewife be
found, that F$ forms a diffonance with C. The minor chord D, F, A, ‘d% would be more tolerable, becaufe the
natural F, which occurs in this chord carries along with it its fifth C, or rather the odtave of that fifth : It has
likewife been fometimes the pra&ice of compofers, though rather by a licence indulged them than ftriftly agree¬
able to their art, to place a minor in diatonic fucceffion to a major chord. 1
(u) As the mere Engliffi reader, unacquainted with the technical phrafeology of mufic, may be lurpnfed at
5i6 M U
Theory of- form this modulation, or this fundamental bafs, by
Harmony G, C, G, C, F, C, F.
See fi;. 4. . 4>5" of t!)e founds which forms this modula-
Formation |ion brings neccFarily along with itftlf its third major,
of the its fifth, and its o&nve ; infomuch that he who, for
Snicfcale" inftance» fings tiitJ note G? ma>' be reckoned to fing at
by the fun- the faQ:!e tinie fbe ootes G, B, ‘d, g1 : in the fame
ri»rnental manner the found C in the fundamental bafs brings
bafs. along with it this modulation, C, E, G, C : and, in
fliort, the found F brings along with it F, A, C, ‘f\
This modulation then, or this fundamental balk
G, C, G, C, F, C, F,
gives the following diatonic feries,
E, c, d, e, f, g, a’ j
Jet fig. 4. which is precifely the diatonic fcale of the Greeks. We
are ignorant upon what principles they had formed this
icale } but it may be lenfibly perceived, that that feries
arifes from the bafs G, C, G, C, F, C, F; and that
of cocfequence this bafs it juflly called furuhmentttl, as
being the real primitive modulation, that which condu&s
the ear, and which it feels to be implied in the diatonic
modulation, B, ‘c, d, e, f, g, a’ (x).
46. We fhall be flill more convinced of this truth
by the following remarks.
^ I Part L
In the modulation B, ^c, d, e, f, g, a’, the founds ‘d’ Theory of
and ‘f’ form between themfelves a third minor, which Haimony.
is not fo perfectly true as that between ‘e’ and ‘g’ (y). ' 
Neverthelcfs, this alteration in the third minor between
‘d’ and ‘f’ gives the ear no pain, becaufe that ‘d’ and that
‘f ’ which do not form between themfelves a true third
minor, form, each in particular, confonances perfectly
juft with the founds in the fundamental bafs which cor-
refpond with them : for ‘d’ in the fcale is the true fifth
of G, which anfwers to it in the fundamental bafs; and
‘f’_ in the fcale is tlie true octave of F, which anfwers to
it in the fame bafs.
47. If, therefore, thefe founds in the fcale form con- Altered in.
fonances perfectly true with the notes which correfpond tervals, no'
to them in the fundamental bafs, the ear gives itlelf0bje<fti°n*
little trouble to inveftigate the alterations which there
may be in the intervals which thefe founds in the fcale
form between themfelves. This is a new proof that
the fundamental bafs is the genuine guide of the ear
and the true origin of the diatonic feale.
48. Moreover, this diatonic fcale includes only fevenHestons
founds, and goes no higher than ‘b’, which would why this
be the oftave of the firft : a new fingularity, for which fcale in~
a reafon may be given by the principles above eftablifti-01,]#
ed. founds.
the ufe of the phrafe when transferred from language to that art, we have thought proper to infert the defini¬
tion of Rouffeau. 1
A phrafe, according to him, is in melody a feries of modulations, or in harmony a fueceflion of chords which
iorm without interruption a fenfe more or lefs complete, and which terminates in a repofe by a cadence more or
lefs perfedt.
(x) Nothing is eafier than to find in this fcale the value or proportions of each found ivith relation to the found
Cj which we call 1 •, for the two founds G and F in the bafs are 4 and 4 j from whence it follows,
1. That ‘c’ in the fcale is the o&ave of C in the bafs 5 that is to fay, 2.
2. That ‘b’ is the third major of Gthat is to fay | of 4 (note q/), and of confequence ’J.
3. I hat ‘d’ is the fifth of G ; that is to fay 4 of 4, and of confeq utsnce J*
4. That ‘e’ is the third major of the oftave of C, and of confequence the double of 4 ; that is to fay, 5.
5. i hat ‘f1 is the double octave of F of the bafs, and confcquently -|*
6i 1 hat ‘g’ of the fcale is the oflave of G of the bafs, and confequently 3.
7. I hat ‘a’ in the fcale is the third major of ‘f ’ of the fcale 5 that is to fay, 4 of 4, or tt°'
Hence then will refult the following table, in which each found has its numerical value above or below it.
Diatonic C V 2 f 4 t 3 t°
Scale. I B, c, d, e, f, g, a.
Fundamental C G, C, G, C, F, C, F.
Bafs. I 4 1, F 1 t 1 T
And if, for the conveniency of calculation, we choofe to call the found C of the fcale 1 ; in this cafe
we have only to divide each of the numbers by 2, which reprefent the diatonic fcale/ and we (hall
nave
IS T
SZ 1
7 T T ^ T
B, c, d, e, f, g, a.
(y) In order to compare ‘d’ with *£’, we need only compare | with 4 ; the relation between thefe fraHions will
be, (note c) that of 9 times 3 to 8‘times 4; that is to fay, of 27 to 32 : the third minor, then, from ‘d’ to ‘P is
not true ; becaufe the proportion of 27 to 32 is not the fame with that of 5 to 6, thefe two proportions beino-
between themfelves as 27 times 6 is to 32 times 5, that is to fay, as 162 to 160, or as the halves of thefe two.
numbers, that is to lay, as 81 to 80.
M. Rameau, when he publilhed, in 1726, his New theoretical and practical System of Aluftc, had not as yet
found the true reafon of the alteration in the confonance which is between ‘d’ and ‘fand of the little attention
which the ear pays to it. For he pretends, in the work now quoted, that there are two thirds minor, one in the
proportion of 5 to 6, the other in the proportion of 27 to 32. But the opinion which he has afterwards adopted
feems much preferable. In reality, the genuine third minor, is that which is produced by nature between ‘e’ and
‘g’, in the continued tone of thofe fonorous bodies of which ‘e’ and ‘g’ are the two harmonics : and that third minor
which is in the proportion of 5 to 6, is likewife that which takes place in the minor mode, and not that third
sxunor which is falfc and different, being* in the proportion of 27 to 32,
Part I. M U
Theory of ed. In reality, in order that the found ‘b’ may fucceed
Harmony, immediately in the feale to the found ‘a1, it is neceffary
that the note ‘g’, which is the only one from whence
‘b’ as a harmonic may be deduced, fhould immediately
fucceed to the found ‘f’, in the fundamental bafs, which
i,s the only one from whence ‘a’ can be harmonically de¬
duced. Now, the diatonic fucceffion from F to G
cannot be admitted in the fundamental bafs, according
to what we have remarked (art. 36.). ihe founds ‘a’
and ‘b’, then, cannot immediately fucceed one another
in the fcale : we lhall fee in the fequel why this is not
the cafe in the feries ‘c, d, e, f, g, a, b\ c, which
begins upon C } whereas the fcale in queftion here be¬
gins upon B.
Comple- 49. The Greeks likewife, to form an entire o&ave,
tion of the added below the firit B the note A, which they di-
Greek oc- ftmgmfhed and feparated from the reft of the leale,
which for that reafon they called proftambanomene, that
is to fay, a ftring or note fubadded to the fcale, and
put before B to form the entire odave.
50. The diatonic fcale B, ‘e, d, e, f, g, a’, is compofed
of two tetrachords, that is to fay, of two diatonic fcales,
of two fimi- eaG]j confifting of four founds, B, ‘c, d, e’, and 'e, f,
lar conjunc-^ Thefe two tetrachords are exactly fimilar ; for
chords.tla' fr°m ‘e’ to ‘f’ there is the fame interval as from B
to ‘c’, from ‘f’ to ‘g’ the fame as from ‘c’ to
‘d’, from ‘g’ to ‘a’ the fame as from ‘d’ to ‘e’
(z) : this is the reafon why the Greeks diftinguiftied
thefe two tetrachords \ yet they joined them by the
note ‘a’ which is common to both, and which gave
them the name of conjunctive tetrachords.
Intervals in 51- Moreover, the intervals between any two founds,
both tetra- taken in each tetrachord in particular, are precifely
true : thus, in the firft tetrachord, the intervals of C ‘e%
and B ‘d’, are thirds, the one major and the other mi¬
nor, exactly true, as well as the fourth B ‘e1 (aa) \ it is
the fame thing with the tetrachord ‘e, f, g, a’, fince this
tetrachord is exaftly like the former.
52. But the cafe is not the fame when we compare
two founds taken each from a different tetrachord ; for
we have already feen, that the note ‘d’ in the firft tetra-
tetrachords chord forms with the note ‘f’ in the fecond a third mi-
diffimilar. nor, which is not true. In like manner it will be
tave.
See Prc-
Jtambano-
rnene.
The fcale
compofed
chords
equal.
Intervals
between
the notes of
S I C. 517
found, that the fifth from ‘d’ to ‘a’ is not exaclly true, Theory of
which is evident \ for the third major from ‘f ’ to ‘a’ is ,H:iI1^ur)y‘,
true, and the third minor from ‘d’ to ‘f ’ is not fo : now,
in order to form a true fifth, a third major and a
third minor, which are both exactly true, are neccf-
fary.
^3. From thence it follows, that every confonance Another
is abfolutely perfect in each tetrachord taken by it-reafon^
felf *, but that there is fome alteration in palling from
one tetrachord to the other. "I his is a new rea- pcaje int0
fon for diftinguilhing the fcale into thefe twq tetra- two tetra¬
chords. _ _ chords-
54. It may be afcertained by calculation, that in the The fource
tetrachord B, ‘c, d, e’, the interval, or the tone from ‘d’ of tones
to ‘e\ is a little lefs than the interval or tone from ‘c’ to ^“^vef-
‘d’ (BB). In the fame manner, in the fecond tetrachord t-gate^<
‘e, f, g, a’, which is, as we have proved, perfe&ly fimi¬
lar to the firft, the note from ‘g’ to ‘a’ is a little lefs than
the note from ‘P to ‘g\ It is for this reafon that they
diftinguifh two kinds of tones ; the greater tone *, as Greater
from ‘c’ to ‘d’, from ‘F to ‘g’, &c. •, and the leffer f, tone. *See
from ‘d’ to ‘e’, from ‘g’ to ‘a’, &c. InUrvaL
0 . Lefler tone*
*1* See Intcv^
Chap. VI. The formation of the Diatonic Scale among vaL
the Moderns^ or the ordinary Gammut.
$5. We have juft ftiotvn in the preceding chapter, The mo-
how the fcale of the Greeks is formed, B, ‘c, d, e, g, a’, dem fcale,
by means of a fundamental bafs compofed of three toim“
founds only, F, C, G ; but to form the fcale ‘c, d, e, f,
g, a, b,’ c, which we ufe at prefent, we muft neceffari-
ly add to the fundamental bafs the note D, and form,
with thefe four founds F, C, G, D, the following fun¬
damental bafs :
C, G, C, F, C, G, O, G, C ; H. s.
from whence we deduce the modulation or fcale See Scale,
‘c, d, e, f, g, a, b\ r.
In effe£l (cc), ‘c1 in the fcale belongs to the harmony
of C which correfponds with it in the bafs •, ‘d’, which
is the fecond note in the gammut, is included in the
harmony of G, the fecond note of the bafs j ‘e’, the
third note of the gammut, is a natural harmonic of C,
which is the third found in the bafs, &c.
56. Hence
(z) The proportion of B to *c’ is as U to 1, that is to fay as 15 to 16 j that between ‘e’ and ‘f is as ? to T,
that is to fay (note o), as 5 times 3 to 4 times 4, or as 15 to 16 : thefe two proportions then are equal In the
fame manner, the proportion of ‘c’ to ‘d’ is as 1 to f, or zs 8 to 9 j that between ‘f’ and ‘g’ is as T to 4 J that is
to fay (note Q_), as 8 to 9. The proportion of ‘e’ to ‘c’ is as 4 to or as 5 t0 4 ? t^iat between f and a is
as 4 to 4, or as S to 4 : the proportions here then are likewife equal. _
(aa) The proportion of ‘e’ to ‘c’ is as 4 to 1, or as 5 to 4, which is a true third major ; that from d to b is
as 4- to 4i ; that is to fay, as 9 times 16 to 15 times 8, or as 9 times 2 to 15, or as 6 to 5. _ In like manner we
lhall find, that the proportion of ‘c’ to ‘b’ is as 4 to 44 j that is to fay, as 5 times 16 to 15 times 4, or as 4 to 3,
which is a true fourth. o 1 • r
(BB) The proportion of ‘d’ to ‘c’ is as | to 1, or as 9 to 8 ; that of f to ‘d is as 4 to that is to fay, as 40
to 36, or as 10 to 9 : now is lefs removed from unity than ■§■ j the interval then from d to e is a little lefi>
than that from ‘c’ to ‘d’. , . v , . . 0 .
If any one would wdlh to know the proportion which ^ bear to he will find (note <^) that it is as 8 times
10 to 9 times 9, that is to fay, as 80 to 81. Thus the proportion of a leffer to a greater tone is as 80 to 81 3 this
difference between the greater and leffer tone is what the Greeks called a comma. .
We may remark, that this difference of a comma is found between the third minor when true and harmom-
cal, and the fame chord when it fuffers alteration ‘d\ ‘f\ of which we have taken notice m the kale (note y) j
for we have feen, that this third minor thus altered is in the proportion of 80 to 8 r with the true third minoi.
fee) The values or eftimates of the notes fhall be the Ikme in this as m the former fcale, excepting only the
v ^ 2 tone
JiS
Theary of
Harmony.
The Greek
diatonic
fcalt* fun-
pler than
ours, and
why.
The note
g twice
repeated in
the diatonic
fcale from
its harmo¬
nic rela¬
tions to the
fundamen¬
tal bafs.
The mo¬
dern f'ale
compofed
of two dif-
jundtive te-
trachords
of different
modes.
The mode
of G in¬
troduced in
the funda¬
mental bafs
productive
of cenve-
tdences.
M U S
56. Hence it follows, that the diatonic fcale of the
Greeks is, at leaft in fome refpe&s, more fimple than
ours} fince tlie fcale of the Greeks (chap, v.) may¬
be formed alone from the mode proper to C j whereas
ours is originally and primitively formed, not only from
the mode of C (F, C, G), but like wife from the mode
of G, (C, G, D).
It will likewife appear, that this laft fcale confills of
two parts ; of which the one, ‘c, d, e, f, g,’ is in the
mode of C ; and the other, ‘g, a, b,’ c, in that of G.
57. For this reafon the note ‘g’ is twice repeated in
immediate fucceflion in this fcale •, once as the fifth of
C, which correfponds with it in the fundamental bafs ;
and again as the oftave of G, which immediately fol¬
lows G in the fame bafs. Thefe two confecutive ‘gV
are other wife in perfeft unifon. For this reafon we
fing only one of them when we modulate the fcale ‘c,
d, e, f, g, a, b,’ c ; but this does not prevent us from
employing a paufe or repofe, exprelfed or underftood,
after the found ‘f\ There is no perfon who does not
perceive this whilft he himfelf fings the fcale.
58. The fcale of the moderns, then, may be confi-
dered as confifting of two tetrachords, disjunctive in¬
deed, but perfeftly fimilar one to the other, ‘c, d, e, P,
and ‘g, a, b, c’, one in the mode of C, the other in that
of G. We fhall fee in the fequel, by what artifice one
may caufe the fcale ‘c, d, e, f, g, a, b, c’, to be regarded
as belonging to the mode of C alone. For this pur-
pofe it is neceflary to make fome changes in the funda¬
mental bafs, which we have already afligned : but this
lhall be explained at large in chap. xiii.
59. The introduction of the mode proper to G in
the fundamental bafs has this happy effeCt, that the
notes ‘f, g, a, b’, may immediately fucceed each other in
afcending the fcale, which cannot take place (art. 48.)
in the diatonic feries of the Greeks, becaufe that feries
is formed from the mode of G alone. Whence it
follows:
I C. Part I.
1. That we change the mode at every time when Theory
we modulate three whole tones in fucceffion. Harmony.
2. That if thefe three tones are fung in fucceflion in v'~ J
the fcale ‘c, d, e, f, g, a, b’, c, this cannot be done but
by the afliftance of a paufe expreffed or underflood af¬
ter the note ‘P} infomuch,that the three tones ‘f g,’ ‘g a’,
‘a b’, are fuppofed to belong to two different tetra¬
chords.
60. It ought not then any longer to furprife us, Change cf
that we feel fome difficulty whilft we afcend the fcale mode the
in finging three tones in fucceflion, becaufe this is^a^.le^*^e
impracticable without changing the mode ; and if one fm.-r^ J m
paufes in the fame mode, the fourth found above the three con-
firft note will never be higher than a femitone above fecutive
that which immediately precedes it ; as may be feen by ton®s. al”
‘c, d, e, P, and by ‘g, a, b’, c, where there is no moreten In^‘
than a femitone between ‘e’ and ‘f’, and between ‘b’
and c.
61. We may likewife obferve in the fcale ‘c, d, e, P, Intervals,
that the third minor from ‘d’ to ‘P, is not true, for the thongh al-
reafons which have been already given (art. 49.). Hthemfelves
is the fame cafe with the third minor from ‘a’ to c, and form true ’
with the third major from ‘P to ‘a’} but each of thefe confonances
founds forms otherwife confonances perfeftly true, w>th the
with their correfpondent founds in the fundamental
bafs r tal ba^’
6 2. The thirds ‘a’ <r, ‘fa’, which were true in the former
fcale, are falfe in this ; becaufe in the former fcale ‘a’
was the third of ‘P, and here it is the fifth of 1), which
correfponds with it in the fundamental bafs.
63. Thus it appears, that the fcale of the Greeks pewcr aj.
contains fewer confonances that are altered than ours tered con-
(rd) ; and this likewife happens from the introduc- fonances in
tion of the mode of G into the fundamental bafs G^ee^
y- x iCsilc than
v # ... in ours.
We fee likewife that the value of ‘a’ in the diatonic
fcale, a value which authors have been divided in afcer-
taining, folely depends upon the fundamental bafs, and
that
tone ‘a’ ; for ‘d’ being reprefented by f, its fifth will be expreffed by ) fo that the fcale will be numerically fig-
nified thus :
T 9 5 43 l 7 1 S ~
1 -g- T T s' T-g- "S' z
c, d, e, f, g, a, b, c, ^
Where you may fee, that the note V of this fcale is different from that in the fcale of the Greeks; and that tlve
<a’ in the modern feries Hands in proportion to that of the Greeks as 4-5 t° -yj that is to fay, as 81 to 80; thefe
two ‘aV then likewife differ by a comma.
(dd) In the fcale of the Greeks, the note ‘a’ being a third from ‘P, there is an altered fifth between ‘a’ and ‘d’:
but in ours, ‘a’ being a fifth to ‘d’, produces tivo altered thirds, ‘f a’ and ‘a’ c ; and likewife a fifth altered, ‘a’ e,
as we ffiall fee in the following chapter. Thus there are in our fcale two intervals more than in the fcale of the
Greeks which fuffer alteration.
(ee) But here it may be with Ibme colour objefled : The fcale of the Greeks, it may be faid, has a fundamen¬
tal bafs more fimple than ours j and befides, in it there are fewer chords which will not be found exactly true ;
why then, notwithftanding this, does ours appear more eafy to be fung than that of the Greeks ? The Grecian
feale begins with a femitone, ivhereas the intonation prompted by nature feems to impel us to rife by a lull tone
at once. This objection may be thus anfwered. The fcale of the Greeks is indeed better difpofed than ours for
the fimplicity of the bafs, but the arrangement of ours is more fuitable to natural intonation. Our fcale commen¬
ces by the fundamental found c, and it is in reality from that found that we ought to begin } it is from this that
all the others naturally arife, and upon this that they depend ; nay, if we fpeak fo, in this they are included :
on the contrary, neither the fcale of the Greeks, nor its fundamental bafs, commences with C 5 but it is from
this C that we muft depart, in order to regulate our intonation, whether in nfing or defcending •, now, in al-
•■cending from £c’, the intonation, even of the Greek fcale, gives the feries ‘c, d, e, f, g, a’ : and fo true is it that
4he fundamental found C is here the genuine guide of the car, that if, before we -modulate the found ‘c’, ve
q fhould
Part I. M U
Theory of that it mufl be different according as the note ‘a1 ha
Hurmouy. or £or bafs> gee the note (cc).
U—Y——»
Chap. VII. Of Temperament.
Tempera- 64. The alterations which we have obferved in the
merit, why intervals between particular founds of the diatonic fcale,
neceflary. riaturally lead us to fpeak of temperament. To give a
clear idea of this, and to render the neceflity of it pal¬
pable, let us fuppofe that we have before us an inftru-
xnent with keys, a harpfichord, for inftance, confiding
of feveral odlavcs or fcales, of which each includes its
twelve femitones.
See fig- 6, Let us choofe in that harpfichord one of the drings
which will found the note C, and let us tune the dring
G to a perfeft fifth with C in afcending; let us after-
wards tune to a perfect fifth with this G the ‘d’ which is
above it •, we fliall evidently perceive that this ‘d’ xvill
be in the fcale above that from which we fet out : but
it is alfo evident that this ‘d’ mud have in the fcale a D
which correfponds with it, and which mud be tuned a
true oftave below ‘d’ j and between ‘d’ and G there
s I c.
519
fhould be the interval of a fifth 5 fo that the D in the
fird fcale will be a true fourth below the G of the fame
fcale. We may afterwards tune the note A of the fird
fcale to a jud fifth with this lad D •, then the note ‘e’
in the highed fcale to a true fifth with this new A, and
in confequence the E in the fird fcale to a true fourth
beneath this fame A : Having finilhed this operation,
it will be found that the lad E, thus tuned, will by no
means form a jud third major from the found C (ff) :
that is to fay, that it is impoflxble for E to conditute
at the fame time the third major of C and the true fifth
of A j or, rvhat is the fame thing, the true fourth of
A in defcending.
65. If, after having fucceffively and alternately tuned
the drings C, G, ‘d’, A, E, in perfect fifths and fourths
one from the other, we continue to tune fuccedively by
true fifths and fourths the drings E, B, F$C, C$(, G$C,
‘d^’, E$, B$; we diall find, that, though B$, being
a femitone higher than the natural note, diould be equi¬
valent to‘c’natural, it will by no means form a jud oc¬
tave to the fird C in the fcale, but be confiderably
higher (gg) } yet this B$ upon the harpfichord ought
not
Theory vl
Harmony.
fhould attempt to rife to it by that note in the fcale which is mod immediately contiguous, we cannot reach
it but by the note B, and by the femitone from B to ‘c\ Now to make a tranfition from B to ‘c’, by this fe¬
mitone, the ear mud of necedity be predifpofed for that modulation, and confequently preoccupied with the
mode of C : if this were not the cafe, we diould naturally rife from B to ‘c$’, and by this operation pafs into an¬
other mode.
(ff) The A confidered as the fifth of D is -?-J, and the fourth beneath this A will conditute T of that is to
fay, *, then diall be the value of E, confidered as a true fourth from A in defcending : now E, confidered
as the third major of the found C, is 4> or f f : thefe two E’s then are between themfelves in the proportion of
81 to 80 •, thus it is impodible that E diould be at the fame time a perfedt third major from C, and a true fourth
beneath B.
(gg) In effedt, if you thus alternately tune the fifth above and the fourth below, in the fame odtave, you may
here fee what will be the procefs of your operation.
C, G, a fifth } D a fourth 5 A a fifth ; E a fourth ; B a fifth ; F$ a fourth; a fifth ; G$ a fourth: ‘d^’ a
fifth; A$ a fourth ; ‘e^’ or ‘f^’ a fifth; B$: a fourth: now it will be found, by a very eafy computation, that
the fird C being reprefented by 1, G lhall be -J, D •§•, A L 44, &c. and fo of the red till you arrive at
B$, which will be found This fradtion is evidently greater than the number 2, which expreffes thei
perfedt odtave c to its correfpondent C : and the odlave beloxv B$ would be one half of the fame fradiion, that
is to fay which is evidently greater than C reprefented by unity. This lad fradiion 144^44' Is compo-
fed of two numbers; the numerator of the fradiion is nothing elfe but the number 3 multiplied 11 times in fuc-
cedion by itfelf, and the denominator is the number 2 multiplied 18 times in fuccedion by itfelf. Now it is evi¬
dent, that this fradiion which expreffes the value of B$, is not equal to the unity which expreffes the value of
the found C, though upon the harpfichord, B^: and C are identical. This fradiion riles above unity by
T444"r?» that is to fay, by about ; and this difference was called the comma of Pythagoras. It is palpable
that this comma is much more confiderable than that which we have already mentioned (note be), and which is
only -gV•
We have already proved that theferiesof fifths produces a ‘c’ different from B$, the feries of thirds major gives
another Hill more different. For, let us fuppofe this feries of thirds, C, E, G^:, B$:, we ftiall have E equal
to 4, to 4-4, an(I B to whofe odtave below is 4-44 5 from whence it appears, that this lad; B is lefs than
unity (that is to fay than C), by T|T, or by or near it: A new comma, much greater than the preceding,
and which the Greeks have called apotome major.
It may be obferved, that this B:$, deduced from the feries of thirds, is to the B$ deduced from the feries of
fifths, as -444 is to 444444 *• that is to fay, in multiplying by 524288, as 125 multiplied by 4096 is to 531441,
or as 51200 to 531441, that is to fay, nearly as 26 is to 27 : from whence it may be feen, that thefe two B’s^i
are very confiderably different one from the other, and even fufficiently different to make the ear fenfible of
It; becaufe the difference confifts almoff of a minor femitone, whofe value, as will afterwards be feen (art. 139.),.
S* 15
‘’Ilf.* ,
Moreover, if, after having found the G$ equal to 44, we then tune by fifths and by fourths, G$, ‘d$’, A$,
C$, B$, as we have done with refpedl to the firft feries of fifths, we find that the B$: mull be 4#44 ? its differ-
rence, then, from unity, or, in other words, from C, is that Is to fay, about ^; a comma Hill lefs than
any of the preceding, and which the Greeks have called apotome minor.
In-
520 M U S
jheory of not to be different from the c<5lave above C ; for every
^ an(j every ‘c’ is the fame found, fmce the o£tave or
lleafons ^ie fca^e only confids of twelve femitones. )
and rules 66. From thence it neceffarily follows, I. That it is
for tempe- impoflible that all the octaves and all the fifths Ihould
lament. jup. at fame time, particularly in inllruments
which have keys, where no intervals lefs than a femi-
tone are admitted. 2. That, of confcquence, if the
fifths are juilly tuned, fome alteration muft be made in
the oftaves; now the fympathy or found which fub-
fifts between any note and its oftave, does not permit
us to make fuch an alteration : this perfeft coalefcence
of found is the caufe why the oftave fhould ferve as li¬
mits to the other intervals, and that all the notes which
rife above or fall below the ordinary fcale, are no more
than replications, i. e. repetitions, of all that have gone
before them. For this rcafon, if the oflave were al¬
tered, there could be no longer any fixed point either
in harmony or melody. It is then abfolutely neceffary to
tune the ‘c’ or in a juft odftave with the firft •, from
whence it follows, that, in the progreffion of fifths, or,
what is the fame thing, in the alternate feries of fifths
and fourths, C, G, D, A, E, B, F$, C$>, G$, ‘d^:’,
•A$, ‘e^’, B$, it is neceffary that all the fifths ftiould
be altered, or at leaft fome of them. Now, fince there
is no reafon why one Ihould rather be altered than an¬
other, it follows, that we ought to alter them all equal¬
ly. By thefe means, as the alteration is made to in¬
fluence all the fifths, it will be in each of them almoft
I C. Part I.
imperceptible; and thus the fifth, which, after the oc- Theory of
tave, is the moft perfect of all confonances, and which Harmony,
we are under the neceflity of altering, muft only be al-
tered in the leaft degree poflible.
67. It is true, that the thirds will be a little harfh :
but as the interval of founds which conftitutes the
third, produces a lefs perfect coalefcence than that of
the fifth, it is neceffary, fays M. Rameau, to facrifice
the juftiee of that chord to the perfection of the fifth ;
for the more perfect a chord is in its own nature, the
more difpleafing to the ear is any alteration which can
be made in it. In the oCtave the leaft alteration is in-
fupportable.
68. This change in the intervals of ihftruments Its defini-
which have, or even which have not, keys, is that which tion.
we call temperament.
69. It refults then from all that we have now faid, Principle
that the theory of temperament may be reduced to wlience h*
this queftion.—The alternate fucceffion of fifths and [^deduced
fourths having been given, (art. 66.), in which B$C
or C is not the true oftave of the firft C ; it is propo-
fed to alter all the fifths equally, in fuch a manner that
the two C’s may be in a perfect o61ave the one to the
other.
70. For a fblution of this queftion, we muft begin practical
with tuning the two C’s in a perfeft oftave the one to dire<flions
the other ; in confequence of which, we will render alltor temPe-
the femitones which compofe the odlave as equal asiament‘
pofiible. By this means (hh) the alteration made in
each
In a word, if, after having found E equal to ^ in the progreffion of thirds, ure then tune by fifths and fourths
-E, B, F$, C$, &c. we {hall arrive at a new B'#!, which (hall be an<^ which will not differ from unity
but by about which is the laft and fmalleft of all the commas; but it muft be obferved, that, in this cafe,
the thirds major from E to G$, from G$ to B$ or C, &c. are extremely falfe, and greatly altered.
(hh) All the femitones being equal in the temperament propofed by M. Rameau, it follows, that the twelve fe¬
mitones C, C$, D, D$, E, E$, &c. {ball form a continued geometrical progreflion ; that is to fay, a feries in
which C fliall be to in the fame proportion as Cjj& to D, as D to Sec. and fo of the reft.
Thefe twelve femitones are formed by a feries of thirteen founds, of which C and its otftave ‘c’ are the firft and
laft. Thus to find by computation the value of each found in the temperament, which is the prefent objeSl of
our fpeculations, our ferutiny is limited to the inveftigation of eleven other numbers between I and 2 which may
form with the 1 and the 2 a continued geometrical progreffion.
However little any one is pra&ifed in calculation, he will eafily find each of thefe numbers, or at leaft a num¬
ber approaching to its value. Thefe are the charadters by which they may be expreffed, which mathematicians
will eafily underftand, and which others may negledl.
C D 1% E F F$ G
11 12 11 12 12 11 12
I 2 v'2*
A A%
^2* \f 2* -v/2* V*6 \/'2 V*
B ‘c’
X2 12 12 12
^2» v/2*0 V” V/”
It is obvious, that in this temperament all the fifths are equally altered. One may likewife prove, that the al¬
teration of each in particular is very inconfiderable ; for it will be found, for inftance, that the fifth from C to G,
which fhould be F, ought to be diminifhed by about TV of -j-j; that is to fay, by a quantity almoft; incon¬
ceivably fmall.
It is true, that the thirds major will be a little more altered ; for the third major from C to E, for inftance,
ffiall be increafed in its interval by about T4o- : but it is better, according to M. Rameau, that the alteration
Ihould fall upon the third than upon the fifth, which after the odtave is the moft perfedl chord, and from the per-
fedtion of which we ought never to degenerate but as little as poftible.
Befides, it ha^ appeared from the feries of thirds major C, E. G$, B$, that this laft B$ is very different from
‘c’ (note gg); from whence it follows, that if we would tune this B^ in unifon with the odlave ©f C, and alter
at the fame time each of the thirds major by a degree as fmall as poffible, they muft all be equally altered. This
is wha occurred in the temperament which we propofe ; and if in it the third be more altered than the fifth, it is
a confequence of the difference which we find between the degrees of perfi dlion in thefe intervals ; a difference
with which if we may fpeak fo, the temperament propofed conforms itfelf. Thus this diverfity of alteration is
rather advantageous than inconvenient.
Fart I. ^ ^
Theory of each fifth will be very confiderable, but equal in all of
Harmony. t}iem#
h" y— yi. In this, then, the theory of temperament con-
rnethoTof lifts : but as it would be difficult in practice to tune a
tempera, harpfichord or organ by thus rendering all the femi-
ment pro- tones equal, M. Rameau, in his Generation Harmonique,
pofed, jias furni{hed us with the following method, to alter all
the fifths as equally as poffible.
72. Take any key of the harpfichord which you
pleafe ; but let it be towards the middle of the inftru-
ment *, for inftance, C : then tune the note G a fifth
above it, at firft with as much accuracy as poffible 5
this you may imperceptibly diminiffi : tune afterwards
the fifth to this with equal accuracy, and diminiih it in
the fame manner } and thus proceed from one fifth to
another in afcent : and as the ear does not appreciate fo
exa&ly founds that are extremely ffiarp, it is necelfary,
when by fifths you have rifen to notes extremely high,
that you ffiould tune in the moft perfect manner the oc¬
tave below the laft fifth which you had immediately
Vol. XIV. Part II.
SIC. 521
formed } then you may continue always in the fame Theory of
manner ■, till in this procefs you arrive at the laft fifth
from E>& to B$>, which Ihould of themfelves be in
tune } that is to fay, they ought to be in fuch a ftate,
that B$, the higheft note of the two which compofe
the filth, may be identical with the found C, with
which you began, or at leaft the o&ave of that found
perfectly juft : it will be neceffary then to try if this
C, or its o£tave, forms a juft fifth with the laft
found E$ or F, which has been already tuned. If
this be the cafe, we may be certain that the harpfi¬
chord is properly tuned. But if this laft fifth be
not true, in this cafe it will be too iharp, and it i?
an indication that the other fifths have been too
much diminiflied, or at leaft fome of them } or it will
be too flat, and confequently difeover that they have
not been fufficiently diminiffied. We muft then be¬
gin and proceed as formerly, till we find the laft fifth
in tune of itfelf, and without our immediate interpofi-
tion (11).
3U By
(11) We have only to acknowledge, with M. Rameau, that this temperament is. far remote from that
which is now in pradfice : it may here be feen m what this laft temperament confifts as applied to the organ or haip-
fichord. They begin with C in the middle of the keys, and they flatten the four firft fifths G, D, A, E, till
they form a true third major from E to C $ afterwards, fetting out from this E, they tune the fifths B, F$, C^,
G$, but flattening them ftill lefs than the former, fo that G$ may almoft form, a true third major with E.
"When they have arrived at G$, they ftop } they refume the firft C, and tune to it the fifth F in defeending,
then the fifth Bt>, &c and they heighten a little all the fifths till they have arrived at A[?, which ought to be the
fame with the G)gC already tuned. .
If, in the temperament commonly praclifed, fome thirds are found to be lefs altered than in that prescribed by
M. Rameau, in return, the fifths in the firft temperament are much more falfe, and many thirds are likewife fo;
infomuch, that upon a harpfichord tuned according to the temperament in common ufe, there are five or fix modes
which the ear cannot endure, and in which it is impoffible to execute any thing. On the contrary, in the tem¬
perament fuggefted by M. Rameau, all the modes are equally perfedt } which is a new argument in its favour,
fmee the temperament is peculiarly neceffary in palling from one mode to another, without (hocking the ear.;
for inftance, from the mode of C to that of G, from the mode of G to that of D, &c. It is .true, that this uni¬
formity of modulation will to the greateft number of muficians appear a defedt: for they imagine, that, by tuning
the femitones of the fcale unequal, they give each of the modes a peculiar charadler ; fo that, according to them,
the fcale of C,
C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C,
is not perfedlly fimilar to the gammut or diatonic fcale of the mode of E,
E, F$, Gj&, A$, B, c$, d$, e, f ^ f
which, in their judgment, renders the modes of C and E proper for different manners of expreffion. But af¬
ter all that we have faid in this treatife on the formation of diatonic intervals, every one Ihould be convinced,
that, according to the intention of nature, the diatonic fcale ought to be perfedtly the fame in all its modes :
The contrary opinion, fays M. Rameau, is a mere prejudice of muficians. I he charadter of an air arifes chiefly
from the intermixture of the modes ; from the greater or leffer degrees of vivacity in the movement; from the
tones, more or lefs grave, or more or lefs acute, which are affigned to the generator of the mode ; and from the
chords more or lefs beautiful, as they are more or lefs deep, more or lefs flat, more or lefs (harp, which are found
In Ihort, the laft advantage of this temperament is, that it will be found conformed with, or at le.aft very little
different from that which is pradtifed upon inftruments without keys ; as the bafs-viol, the violin,, in which tnie
fifths and fourths are preferred to thirds and lixths tuned with equal accuracy ; a temperament which appears in¬
compatible with that commonly ufed in tuning the harpfichord.
Yet M. Rameau, in his New System of Mu/ic, printed in 1726, adopted the ordinary temperament. In that
work, (as may be feen chap, xxiv.), he pretends that the alteration of the fifths is much more fupportable
than that of the thirds major ; and that this laft interval can hardly fuffer a greater alteration than the octave,
which, as we know, cannot fuffer the flighteft alteration. He fays, that if three firings are tuned, one by an oc¬
tave, the other by a fifth, and the next by a third major to a fourth firing,, and if a found be produced from the
laft, the firings tuned by a fifth will vibrate, though a little lefs true than it ought to have been ; but that the
odlave and the third major, if altered in the leaft degree, will not vibrate : and he adds, that the temperament
which is now pradifed, is founded upon that principle. M. Rameau goes ftill farther ; and as, in the ordinary
1 temperament.
I c.
522
Tiieory of
Harmony
Alterations
by either
method
hardly dif-
agrecable.
M U S
By this method all the twelve founds which compofe
one at the leaks lhall be tuned : nothing is neceffary
but to tune with the greatelt poffible exadtnefs their
octaves in the other fcales, and the harpliehord Hiall be
well tuned.
We have given this rule for temperament from M.
Ram. au j and it belongs only to dilinterelted artiils to
judge of it. However this queition be determined, and
whatever kind of temperament may be received, the
alteration which it produces in harmony will be but
very final!, or not perceptible to the ear, whofe attention
is entirely engrofled in attuning itfelf with the funda¬
mental bafs, and which fuffers, without uneafinefs, thefe
alterations, or rather takes no notice of them, becaufe
it liipplies from itfelf what may be wanting to the truth
and perfection of the intervals.
Simple and daily experiments confirm what we now
advance. Liftcn to a voice which is accompanied, in
linging, by different inftruments j though the tempera¬
ment of the voice, and the temperament of each of the
inftruments, are all different one from another, yet you
will not be in the leaft affe&ed with the kind of caco¬
phony which ought to refult from thefe diverfities, be¬
caufe the ear fuppofes thefe intervals true, of which it
does not appreciate differences.
We may give another experiment. Let the three
keys E, G, B be ftruck upon an organ, and the minor
perfect chord only will be heard ; though E, by the con-
flru£lion of that inftrument, muff caufe G $ likewife
to be heard •, though G fhould have the fame effe<R
upon D, and B upon F $ ; infomuch that the ear is
at once affe&ed with all thefe founds, D, E, F $(, G,
G B : how many diflbnances perceived at the fame
time, and what a jarring multitude of difcordant fenfa-
tions, would refult from thence to the ear, if the per-
fe£t chord with which it is preoccupied had not power
entirely to abffra£f its attention from fuch found as
might offend !
Chap. VIII. Of Repofes or Cadences (kk).
Fart I.
Theojy of
Harmony.
73. In a fundamental bafs whofe procedure is by ptrfeft Tml
fifths, there always is, or always may be, a repofe, or imperfedt,
crifis, in which the mind acquielces in its tranfitionw,iat and
from one found to another : but a repofe may be more
or lefs diftinctly fignified, and of confequenee more or
lefs perfect. If one fhould rife by fifths ; if, for in- See Repofe
fiance, wre pafs from C to G j it is the generator which01 Catience*
palfes to one of thefe fifths, and this fifth was already
pre-exiftent in its generator : but the generator exiits
no longer in this fifth 5 and the ear, as this generator
is the principle of all harmony and of all melody, feels
a defire to return to it. Thus the tranfition from a
found to its fifth in afeent, is termed an imperfeEi re¬
pofe, or imperfeEi cadence; but the tranfition from any
found to its fifth in defeent, is denominated a peifecl
cadence, or an abfolute repofe : it is the offspring which
returns to its generator, and as it were recovers its ex-
iftence once more in that generator itfelf, with which
when founding it refounds (chap. i.).
74. Amongft abfolute repofes, there are feme, if Perfeift ca-
we may be allowed the expreflion, more abfolute, that (fences
is to fay, more perfect, than others. Thus in the fun- 1m°re °J _
damental bafs
C, G, C, F, C, G, D, G, C, d y
which forms, as we have feen, the diatonic fcale of the
moderns, there is an abfolute repofe from L> to G, as
from G to C *, yet this laft abfolute repofe is more per-
feCt than the preceding, becaule the ear, prepoffefied
with the mode of C by the multiplied impreffion of the
found C which it has already heard thrice before, feels
a defire to return to the generator C j and it according¬
ly does fo by the abfolute repofe G C.
75. We may ftill add, that what is commonly called Cidence in
cadence in melody, ought not to be confounded with melody dif-
what we name cadence in harmony. ferent from
J _ what it is
■*-n in harmony.
temperament, there is a neceflity for altering the laft thirds major, and to make them a little more fharp, that
they may naturally return to the o&ave of the principal found, he pretends that this alteration is tolerable, not
only becaufe it is almoft infenfible, but becaufe it is found in modulations not much in ufe, unlefs the compofer
fhould choofe it on purpofe to render the exprefiion ftronger. “ For it is proper to remark (fays he), that we re¬
ceive different imnrefiions from the intervals in proportion to their different alterations : for initance, the third
major, which naturally elevates us to joy, in proportion as we feel it, heightens our feelings even to a kind of
fury, when it is tuned too fharp 5 and the third minor, which naturally infpires us with tendernefs and ferenity,
depreffes us to melancholy when it is too flat.” All this is very different from what this celebrated mufician af-
Avards exhibited in his Generation Harmoniquc, and in the performances which followed it. From this we can
only conclude, that the reafons which, after him, we have urged for the new temperament, muff without doubt
have appeared to him very ftrong, becaufe in his mind they had fuperfeded thofe which he had formerly adduced
in favour of the ordinary temperament.
We do not pretend to give any decifion for either the one or the other of thefe methods of temperament, each
of which appears to us to have its particular advantages'. We {hall only remark, that the choice of the one or
the other muft be left abfolutely to the tafte and inclination of the reader j without, however, admitting this choice
to have any influence upon the principles of the fyffem of mufic, which we have followed even till this period, and
which muff always fubfift, whatever temperament we adopt.
(kk) That the reader may have a clear idea of the term before he enters upon the fuhjeft of this chapter, it
may be neceffary to caution him againft a miftake into which he may be too eafily led by the ordinary fignifiea-
tion of the word repofe. In mufic, therefore, it is far from being fynonymous with the word ref. It is, on the
contrary, the termination ofamufical phrafe which ends in a cadence more or lefs emphatic, as the fentiment im¬
plied in the phrafe is more or lefs complete. Thus a repofe in mufic anfwers the fame purpofe as punftuation in
language. See Repose, in Rouffeau’s Mufical Dictionary.
Part I.
M U
Theory of In tlic fir ft cafe, this word only fignifies an agree-
Harmony. able and rapid alteration between two contiguous
U,^v ' founds, called likewife a trill or jhake ; in the fecond,
it fignifies a repofe or clofe. It is however true, that
this lhake implies, or at leaft frequently enough pre-
fages, a repofe, either prefent or impending, in the fun¬
damental bais (ll).
Cadences in <76. Since there is a repofe in pafnng from one found
the funda- to another in the fundamental bafs, there is alfo a
mental bars ofe in pa{plng frora one note to another in the dia-
the diatonic tonic fcale, which is formed from it, and which this
foie, and bafs reprefents: and as the abfolute repole G C is
which the 0f aq others the moft perfect in the fundamental bals,
molt per- tlie repofe from B to‘c’, which anfwers to it in the
foc1' fcale, and which is likewife terminated by the genera¬
tor, is for that reafon the moft perfeift of all others in
the diatonic fcale afcending.
Definition 77. It is then a law dictated by nature itfelf that if
and ule of a you would afeend diatonically to the generator of a
fenfible mode, you ean only do this by means of the third ma-
note‘ jor from the fifth of that very generator. . This third
major, which with the generator forms a femitone, has for
See Senfible that reafon been called the fenjible note or lending note,
Note. as introducing the generator, and preparing us for the
moil; perfect repofe.
We have already proved, that the fundamental bafs
is the principle of melody. We ftiall befides make it
appear in the fequel, that the effeft of a repofe in me¬
lody arifes folely from the fundamental bafs.
Chap. IX. Of the Minor Mode and its Diatonic
Series.
Thediato- 78. In the fecond chapter, we have explained (art.
nic feries of 20. 30. 31. and 32.) by what means, and upon what
the minor principle, the minor chord C, Ej?, G, ‘c’, may be for-
mode afcer-med^ ^ch is the charafteriftical chord of the minor
different^ mode. Now what we have there laid, taking. C for
examples, the principal and fundamental found, we might likewife
have faid of any other note in the fcale, aflumed in the
fame manner as the principal and fundamental found :
but as in the minor chord, C, E[g G, ‘c’, there, occurs
an Eh which is not found in the ordinary diatonic fcale,
we (hall immediately fubftitute, for greater cafe and
conveniency, another chord, which is likewife minor and
exa£Vly fimilar to the former, of which all the notes are
found in the fcale.
79. The fcale affords us three chords of this kind, viz.
D, F, A, ‘d’; A, ‘c, e, a’ 5 and E, G, B, ‘e\ Among
thefe three we (hall choofe A, ‘c, e, a’} becaufe this
chord, without, including any ftiarp or flat, has two
founds in common with the major chord C, E, G, c }
and befides, one of thefe two founds is the very fame ‘c’:
fo that this chord appears to have the moft. immediate,
and at the fame time the moft fimple, relation with the
chord C, E, G, ‘o’. Concerning this we need only add,
that this preference of the chord A, ‘c, e, a’, to every
other minor chord, is by no means in itfelf neceffary
for what we have to fay in this chapter upon the dia-
S I C. 5*1
tonic fcale of the minor mode. We might in the fame theory of
manner have chofen any other minor chord j and it is
only, as we have faid, for greater eafe and conveniency
that we fix upon this.
8d. In every mode, whether major or minor, the Tonic or
'principal found which implies the perieft chord, whe-key in bar*
ther major or minor, is called the tonic note or key ; thus ""'J*
C is the key in its proper mode, A in the mode of A, gee pr;nc;_
&c. Having laid down this principle, pal.
81. We have fhown how the three founds, F, C, See Tonic.
G, which conilitute (art. 38.) the mode of C, of which 1 he
the fir ft, F, and the laft, G, are the two fifths of C, one fc°"e°pUr,.e
defending, the other riling, produce the fcale, B, ‘c, d,fueci
e, f, g, a’, of the major mode, by means of the fun-See fig. 4.
damental bafs G, C, G, C, F, C, F ^ let us in the
fame manner take the tlmee founds D, A, E, which
conftitute the mode of A, for the fame reafon that the
founds F, C, G, conftitute the mode of C ; and of them
let us form this fundamental bafs, perfeftly like the pre¬
ceding E, A, F, A, D, A, D ; let us afterwards place See fig. 7.
below each of thefe founds one of their harmonics, as
we have done (chap, v.), for the firft fcale of the major
mode •, with this difference, that we muft fuppofe D and
A as implying their thirds minor in the fundamental
bafs to eharafterize the minor mode; and we fhall have
the diatonic fcale of that mode,
G$, A, B, ‘c, d, e, f\
82. The G$, which correfponds with E in the fun¬
damental bafs, forms a third major with that E, though
the mode be minor •, for the fame reafon that a third
from the fifth of the fundamental found ought to be ma¬
jor (art. 77.) when that third rifes to the fundamental
found A.
83. It is true, that, in caufing E to imply its third
minor G, one might alfo rife to A by a diatonic pro-or arr?‘
grefs. But that manner of riling to A would be lefs
perfect than the preceding-, for this reafon (art..76.),
that the abfolute repofe or perfeft cadence E, A, in the
fundamental bafs, ought to be reprefented in the moft
perfeft manner in the two notes of the diatonic Icale
which anfwer to it, efpecially when one of thefe two
notes is A, the key itfelf upon which the repofe is made.
From whence it follows, that the preceding note G
ought rather to be fliarp than natural; becaufe G$, '
being included in E (art. 19.), much more perfe&ly
reprefents the note E in the bafs, than the natuial G
could do, which is not included in E.
84. We may remark this firft difference between Diverfities
, 7 1 J in the fcales
the fcale „ £ , f, ofthema-
G$, A, B, C, d,e, f , . jor and mi-
and the fcale which correfponds with it in the major nor nlode.
mode
B, ‘c, d, e, f, g, a’,
that from ‘e’ to ‘F which are the two laft notes of the
former fcale, there is only a femitone 5 whereas .rom g
£0 <a,j which are the two laic founds of the lattei feiies,
there is the interval of a complete tone but this is not
the only difciimination which may be found between
the fcales of the two modes.
3 U 2 8j- To
(liT M. Rouffeau, in his letter on French muftc, has called this alternate undulation of different founds a trill,
from the Italian word trillo, which fignifies the fame thing j and fome French muficians already appear to nave
adopted this expreffion.
524
Theory of
Harmony
Inveftiga-
tion of
thefe differ¬
ences and
their rea-
fons.
See fig. 5.
See fig. 8.
Difference
between
the two
icales of
the minor
M U
85. To inveftigate thefe difterenees, and to difcover
the reafon for which they happen, we ihall begin by
forming a new diatonic fcale of the minor mode, fimi-
lar to the fecond fcale of the major mode,
‘c, d, e, f, g, g, a, b’, r.
That laft feries, as we have feen, was formed by
means of the fundamental bafs F, C, G, D, difpofed in
this manner,
C, G, C, F, C, G, D, G, C.
Let us take in the fame manner the fundamental
bafs D, A, E, B, and arrange it in the following order,
A, E, A, D, A, E, B, E, A,
and it will produce the fcale immediately fubjoined,
A, B, ‘c, d, e, e, f$, g^, a’,
in which ‘c’ forms a third minor with A, which in the
fundamental bafs correfponds with it, which denomi¬
nates the minor mode •, and, on the contrary, forms
a third major with E in the fundamental bafs, becaufe
‘g$’ rifes towards ‘a’ (art. 8 a. 83.).
86. We fee bcfides an ‘f$’, which does not occur in
the former,
G$, A, B, ‘c, d, e, f’,
where ‘f’ is natural. It is becaufe, in the firfl fcale, ‘f’
is a third minor from D in the bafs j and in the fecond,
‘f$’ is the fifth from B in the bafs (mm).
87. Thus the two fcales of the minor mode are ftill
in this refpeft more different one from the other than
the two Icales of the major mode } for we do not re¬
mark this difference of a femitone between the twTo
mode great¬
er than
thoie of the
major.
*f’ and ‘g’
fliarp in the
minor
mode, and
■why.
The cafe
different in
defcending,
and why.
Explication
of the de¬
fcending
icale in the
minor
mode from
a funda¬
mental bafs
difficult.
fcales of the major mode. We have only obferved
(art. 63.) fome difference in the value of A as it ftands
in each of thefe fcales, but this amounts to much lefs
than a femitone.
88. From thence it may be feen why ‘f’ and ‘g’ are
lharp when afcending in the minor mode ; befides the
‘f1 is only natural in the firlt fcale G^(, A, B, ‘c, d, e,
‘f’, becaufe this ‘P cannot rife to ‘g)^’, (art. 48.).
89. It is not the fame cafe in defcending. For E,
the fifth of the generator, ought not to imply the third
major ‘g'$\ but in the cafe when that E defcends to
the generator A to form a perfcft repofe (art. 77. and
83.) 5 and in this cafe the third major ‘g^’ rifes to the
generator ‘a’ : but the fundamental bafs AE may, in
defcending, give the fcale ‘a, g’, natural, provided ‘g1
does not rife again to ‘a’.
90. It is much more difficult to explain how the ‘P
which ought to follow this ‘g’ in defcending, is natural
and not fliarp •, for the fundamental bafs
A, E, B, E, A, D, A, E, A,
produces in defcending,
‘a, g, f$, e, e, d, c’, B, A.
And it is plain that the ‘P cannot be otherwife than
S I c.
Part I.
fharp, fince ‘f^’ is the fifth of the note B of the fun- Theory of
damental bafs. Experience, however, evinces that the Hannuny.
‘P is natural in defcending in the diatonic fcale of the T"—,J
major mode of A, efpecially when the preceding ‘g1 is
natural : and it muft be acknowledged, that here the
fundamental bafs appears defedlive.
M. Rameau has attempted the following folution of Rameaub
this difficulty. In the diatonic fcale of the minor mode f’fIut!on>
in defcending, (‘a, g, f, e, d, c’, B, A,) ‘g’ may be re-^
garded fimply as a note of paffage, merely added to give yet unfatis*
fweetnefs to the modulation, and as a diatonic gradation fadtory.
by which we may defeend to ‘P natural. This is eafily
perceived, according to M. Rameau, by the fundamen¬
tal bafs,
A, D, A, D, A, E, A,
which produces
‘a, f, e, d, c’, B, A ;
which may be regarded, as he fays, as the real fcale of
the minor mode in defcending j to which is added ‘g’ na¬
tural between ‘a’ and ‘P, to preferve the diatonic order.
This appears the only poffible anfwer to the difficulty-
above propofed : but we know not whether it will fully
fatisfy the reader ; whether he will not fee with regret,
that the fundamental bafs does not produce, to fpeak
properly, the diatonic fcale of the minor mode in def-
cent, when at the fame time this fame bafs fo happily
produces the diatonic fcale of that identical mode in af¬
cending, and the diatonic fcale of the major mode whe¬
ther in rifing or defcending (nn).
Chap. X. Of Relative Modes,
91. Two modes of fuch a nature that we can pafs
from the ene to the other, are called relative inodes, lyfodes re*
Thus the major mode of C is relative to the major lative,
mode of F and to that of G. It has alfo been feen what,
how many intimate connexions there are between theSee Mode*
major mode of C, and the minor mode of A. For,
1. The perfefl chords, one major, C, E, G, ‘c’, the other
minor, A, ‘c, e, a’, which characterize each of thofetwo
kinds of modulation * or harmony, have two founds in * Qee
common, ‘c’ and ‘e’. 2. The fcale of the minor mode of dulation.
A in defeent, abfolutely contains the lame founds with
the fcale of the major mode of C.
Hence the tranfition is fo natural and eafy from the
major mode of C to the minor mode of A, or from the
minor mode of A to the major mode of C, as experience
proves. »
92. In the minor mode of E, the minor perfect
chord E, G, B, ‘e’, which chara&erizes it, has like wife
two founds, E, G, in common with the perfect chord
major C, E, G, ‘c’, which chara&erizes the major mode
of'
(mm) Befides, without appealing to the proof of the fundamental bafs, ‘f$’ obvioully prefents itfelf as the fixth
note of this fcale ; becaufe the feventh note being necefl'arily ‘g^’ (art. 77.) if the fixth were not ‘f^’, but ‘l'l|’,
there would be an interval of three femitones between the lixth and the feventh, confequently the fcale would not
be diatonic, (art. 8.).
(nn) W hen ‘g’ is faid to be natural in defcending the diatonic fcale of the minor mode of A, it is only meant
that this ‘g’ is not neceflarily ffiarp in delcending as it is in riling } for it may be ffiarp, as may be proved by
numberlefs examples, of which all mufical compofitions are full. It is true, that when ‘g’ is found ffiarp in def-
cending to the minor mode of A, we are not fure that the mode is minor till the ‘P or ‘c’ natural is found j both
of which imprefs a peculiar charafler on the minor mode, viz. ‘c’ natural, in rifing and in defcending, and the ‘P
natural in defcending.
Part T.
M U
Theory of of C. But the minor mode of E is not fo clofely_ re-
H: rmony. jate^ nor aiiied to the major mode of C as the minor
mode of A ; becaufe the diatonic fcaie of the minor
mod^ of E in defcent, has not, like the feries of the
minor mode of A, all thefe founds in common with the
fcaie of C. In reality, this fcaie is ‘e, d, c’, B, A, Or, 1^,
E ivhere there occurs an ‘f’ lharp which is not in the
fcaie of C. Though the minor mode of E is thus lefs
relative to the major mode of C than that of A ; yet
the artift does not hefitate fometimes to pafs immediate¬
ly from the one to the other.
When we pafs from one mode to another by the in¬
terval of a third, whether in defeending or riung, as
from C to A, or from A to C, from C to E, or from
E to C, the major mode becomes minor, or the minor
mode becomes major. # .
93. There is ttill another minor mode, into which
an immediate tranfition may be made in iffuing from
the major mode of C. It is the minor mode of C
itfelf in which the perfeft minor chord C,.E[?, G, ‘c ,
has two founds, C and G, in common with the per-
feft major chord C, E, G, ‘c\ Nor is there any thing
more common than a tranfition from the major mode
of C to the minor mode, or from the minor to the
major (oo).
Chap. XI. Of DiJJonance.
Cafes in
which the
mode is un¬
certain.
How we
may invef
tigate the
generator
and its
fifths, and
by that
means de¬
termine the
mode.
94. We have already obferved, that the mode of C
(F, C, G,) has two founds in common with the. mode
of G (C G D) } and two founds in common with the
mode of F (Bb, F, C) •, of confequence, this procedure
of the bafs C G may belong to the mode oi G, or to
the mode of G, as the procedure of the bafs F C, or
C F, may belong to the mode of C or the mode ot b.
When one therefore paffes from C to F or to G m a
fundamental bafs, he is Hill ignorant what mode he is
in. It would be, however, advantageous to know it,
and to be able by fome means to diftinguifti the genera¬
tor from its fifths.
oc. This advantage may be obtained by uniting at
the fame time the founds G.and F in the fame har¬
mony, that is to fay, by joining to the harmony G, B,
‘d’ of the fifth G, the other fifth F in this manner,
G B ‘d f ’ • this ‘f ’ which is added, forms a diffonance
with G fart.’18.). Hence the chord G, B, ‘d f\ is
called a difonant chord, or a chord of the feventh. It
ferves to 'diftinguifti the fifth G from the generator C,
which always implies, without mixture or alteration,
SIC. . 525
the per feel chord C, E, G, ‘c\ refulting from nature it-
felf (art. 32.). By this we may lee, that when we pais , / ,
from C to G, one piles at the fame time from C to F,
becaufe ‘P is found to be comprehended in the chord
of G j and the mode of C by thefe means plainly ap¬
pears to be determined, becaufe there is none but that
mode to which the founds F and G at once belong.
96. Let us now fee what may be added to the kar" an?e*
mony F, A, C, of the fifth F below the generator, tof^^ J
diftinguiih this harmony from that of the generator. contjnue(jt
It feems probable at firft, that we fliould add to it the
other fifth G, fo that the generator C, in pafting to
F, may at the fame time pafs to G, and that by this
the mode fhould be determinedbut this introduftion.
of G, in the chord F, A, C, would produce two fe-
conds in fucceflion, F G, G A, that is to fay, two
diflonances whofe union would prove extremely harm,
to the ear ; an inconvenience to be avoided. For if,
to diftinguifti the mode, wTe fhould alter the harmony
of the fifth F in the fundamental bafs, it muft only be
altered in the leaft degree poflible. .
97. For this reafon, inftead of G, we fhall take its Chord of
fifth ‘ d\ the found that approaches it the neareft, and
we fhall have, inftead of the fifth F, the chord F, A,
‘c, d’, which is called a chord of the great fixth.
One may here remark the analogy there is obferved
between the harmony of the fifth G and that of the
98FThe fifth G, in riling above the generator, g'Jf
a chord entirely confiiting ot thirds afeending from G,cesc(mtU
C, B, ‘d, P •, now the fifth F being below the genera-^4.
tor C in defeending, we fhall find, as we go lower by
thirds from ‘c’ towards E, the fame founds ‘c% A, F,
D, which form the chord F, A, ‘c, d’, given to the
fifth F. , . , , .
99 It appars befides, that the alteration ot the har¬
mony in the two fifths confifts only in the third minor
1), F, which was reciprocally added to the harmony of
thefe two fifths.
Chap. XII. Of the Double life or Employment oj
Difonance.
100 It is evident by the refemblance of founds to Account of
their ofiaves, that the chord F, A, ‘c, d’, is ■" f"“P
the fame as the chord D, F, A, ‘o’, taken myerfely f, ^/
that the inverfe of the chord C, A, F, D, has beentSee 7*.
found (art. 98.) in defeending by thirds, from the ge-verted.
nerator C (pp).
101. Ihe
tranfition, however, is not frequent. # t^FFGAB ‘e$, d\ one ‘c’ fharp which is not
The minor mode of D has only in its fealc afeen mg ’ ’ ’ ^ made’ without grating the ear, from the
found in the fcaie of C. For this rea.on a 1 ^^ is iefs immediate than the former, becaufe the chords
G A-Tnd D, F,t 'in common, one cannot (art. 37.) pafs immediately
aeration Barnmiique), appears to confider th ’.gw..’fnarticularly in n. 116. of the fame performance),
E, A, ‘c, d’, which is that chord reverfed; in other V^s (Vz^rly m p ^ ^ ^ ^
he feems to confider the firft of thefe chords as nothing elfe but the reverie thlj
1
526
M U
iheoryot' I0I> Xhe cliord D, F, A, V, is a chord of the
i feventh like the chord G, B, ‘d, f’j with this only differ-
Difference en^e, that the latter in the third G, B, is major: where-
between as in the former, the third D, F, is minor. If the F
dominant were tharp, the chord D, F$, A, ‘c’, would be a ge-
dondnant nu‘ne c^or^ ^ the dominant, like the chord G, B, D, '£’;
and as the dominant G may defcend to C in the fun¬
damental bafs, the dominant D implying or carrying
with it the third major F$ might in the fame manner
defcend to G.
102. Now if the F$ (hould be changed into F natu¬
ral, D, the fundamental tone of this chord D, F, A, ‘c’,
might llill defcend to G j for the change from F^: to
F natural will have no other effedl, than to preferve
the impreflion of the mode of C, inilead of that of the
mode of G, which the F$ would have here introdu¬
ced. The note D will, however, preferve its cha-
rafter as a dominant, on account of the mode of
C, which forms a feventh. Thus in the chord of which
we treat, (D, F, A, ‘c’), D may be conlidered as an im-
perfeci dominant: ive call it imperfect, becaufe it carries
with it the third minor F, inftead of the third major
F$. It is for this reafon that in the fequel we fliall call
<5PP ^ fimply the dominant, to dillinguiih it from the dominant
minant " be named the tonic dominant f.
103. Thus the founds F and G, which cannot fuc-
ceed each other (art. 36.) in a diatomic bals, when
they only carry with them the perfeft chords FAC,
G B d, may fucceed one another, if ‘d’ be added to
the harmony of the firft, and ‘f’ to the harmony of
the fecond ; and if the firfl chord be inverted, that is
to fay, if the two chords take this form, D, F, A, C,
G, B, d, a.
Seeming 104. Befides, the chord F, A, ‘c, d’, being allowed
contradic- to fuccet.d t]ie perfect chord C, E, G, ‘c’, it follows for
cited. rCC°n* the fame reafons, that the chord C, E, G, C may be fuc-
ceeded by D, F, A, ‘c’ j which is not contradi61ory to
what we have above faid (art. 37.), that the founds C
and D cannot fucceed one another in the fundamental
bafs : for in the paffage quoted, wre had fuppofed that
both C and D carried with them a perfeft chord ma¬
jor ; whereas, in the prefent cafe, D carries the third
minor E, and likewife the found ‘c’, by which the
chord DFA ‘c1 is connefled with that which precedes it
C E G ‘c’ 5 and in which the found ‘c’ is found. Be-
fides, this chord, DFA ‘c’, is properly nothing elfe but
the chord F A ‘c d’ inverted, and if we may fpeak fo,
difguifed.
105. This manner of prefenting the chord of the
SIC' Part I.
fubdominant under two different forms, and of employ- Theory of
ing it under thefe two different forms, has been called Harmonr-
by M. Ivameau its double office or employment^. ThisDouWeTe ^
is the fource of one of the fineit varieties in harmony ;ploymen™'
and we ihall fee in the following chapter the advantages what, and
which refult from it. why fo
V^e may add, that as this double employment ig
kind of licenfe, it ought not to be praftiled wTithout^/f Employ.
feme precaution. We have lately feen that the chords D ment.
F A ‘c’, confidered as the inverfe of F A ‘c d, may fuc¬
ceed to C EG ‘c’, but this liberty is not reciprocal: and
though the chord F A ‘ c d’ may be followed by the
chord C E G ‘c’, we have no right to conclude from
thence that the chord D f A ‘c’, confidered as the in¬
verfe of F A ‘c d’, may be followed by the chord C E G
‘c’. For this the reafon (hall be given in chap. xvi.
Chap. XIII. Concerning the Ufe of this Double Em¬
ployment, and its Rules.
106. We have (hown (chap, xvi ) how the diatonic By the
fcale, or ordinary gammut, may be formed from the double ufe
fundamental bafs F, C, G, D, by twice repeating thecl the
note G in that feries ; fo that this gammut is primitive-j£^d~men’
ly compofed of tw-o fimilar tetrachords, one in the chord, the
mode of C, the other in that of G. Now it is poffible, *mPje(H°n
by means of this double employment, to preferve theof the mocIe
impreflion of the mode of C through the whole extent
of the feale, without twice repeating the note C, or1 c ’ *
even without fuppofing this repetition. For this effedt
wre form the following fundamental bafs,
C, G, C, F, C, D, G, C :
in which C is underflood to carry with it the perfedl:
chord C E G V ; G, the chord G B ‘d F; F the chord
F A ‘c d’ ; and D, the chord DFA ‘c\ It is plain
from w hat has been faid in the preceding chapter, that in
this cafe C may afeend to D in the fundamental bafs,
and D defcend to G, and that the impreflion of the
mode of C is preferved by the ‘P natural, which forms
the third minor ‘d P, inftead of the third major which
D ought naturally to imply.
107. This fundamental bafs will give, as it is evi¬
dent, the ordinary diatonic feale,
‘c, d, e, f, g, a, b’, r,
which of confequenee will be in the mode of C alone ;
and if one ftiould choofe to have the fecond tetrachord
in the mode of G? it will be neceffary to fubllitute
‘f$’ inftead of ‘fij’ in the harmony of D (<^).
108. Thus the generator C may be followed accord¬
ing
this great artift has neither expreffed himfelf upon this fubjeft with fo much uniformity nor with fo much precifion
as is required. We think that there is lome foundation for eonfidering the chord F, A,‘c, d’, as pri¬
mitive : I. Becaufe in this chord, the fundamental and principal note is the fubdominant F, which ought in effeeff
to be the fundamental and principal found in the chord of the fub-dominant. 2. Becaufe that without having
recourfe, with M. Rameau, to harmonical and arithmetical progreflions, of which the confideration appears to us
quite foreign to the queftion, we have found a probable and even a fatisfa&ory reafon for adding the note ‘d’ to
the harmony of the fifth F (art. 96. and 97.). The origin thus afligned for the chord of the fub-dominant ap¬
pear to us the moft natural, though M. Rameau does not appear to have felt its full value ; for fcarcely has it
been flightly infinuated by him.
(p^) It is obvious that this.fundamental bafs C, G, C, F, C, D, G, C, which formed the afeending fcale
‘c, d, e, f, g, a, b’, c, cannot by inverting it, and taking it inverfely in this manner, C, G, D, C, F, C, G, C,
form the diatonic fcale c, ‘b, a, g, f, e, d, c\ in defeent. In reality, from the chord G, B, ‘d, P, we cannot
pafs to the chord D, F, A, ‘c’, nor from thence to C, E, G ‘c’. For this reafon, in order to have the fundamental
bats
Part I.
Theory of
Harmony.
Diverfities
in the mi-
lor mode
nore mx-
nerous
than in the
najor.
Inveftiga-
tion whe¬
ther art,
in confe-
quence of
feme fuc-
tefsfal ad¬
vances,
may not be
carried far-
I ther.
Different
(chords of
the fe.
'«enth.
M U
xng to pleafure in afcending diatonically either by a
tonic dominant (D A C), or by a fimple dominant
(DF AC).
109. In the minor mode of A, the tonic dominant
E ought always to imply its third major E G$, when
this dominant E defcends to the generator A (art. 83.) j
and the chord of this dominant thall be E B ‘d’, en¬
tirely limilar to G B ‘d f\ With reipeft to the fub-do-
minant D, it will immediately imply the third minor
F, to denominate the minor mode } and we may add
B above its chord D F A, in this manner D F A B, a
chord limilar to that of F A ‘c d’ 5 and as w’e have de¬
duced from the chord F A (c d’ that of D F A ‘c’, we
may in the fame manner deduce from the chord D F A
B ‘a’ a new chord of the feventh B ‘d f a’, which will
exhibit the double employment of dijfonances in the mi¬
nor mode.
110. One may employ this chord B cd f a’, to pre-
ferve the impreffion of the mode of A in the diatonic
fcale of the minor mode, and to prevent the neceffity
of twice repeating the found E } but in this cafe, the
F mull be rendered {harp, and the chord changed to B
‘d f$ a’, the fifth of B being ‘f’^, as we have feen above.
This chord is then the inverfe of D F$ A B, the fub-
dominant implying the third major, which ought not
to furprife us 5 for in the minor mode of A, the fecond
tetrachord E F$ G$ A is exaftly the fame as it would
be in the major mode of A : Now, in the major mode
of A the fubdominant D ought to imply the third ma-
jor F$.
in. Hence the minor mode is fufceptible of a much
greater number of varieties than the major : the major
mode is found in nature alone j whereas the minor is
in fome meafure the produfl of art. But, in return,
the major mode has received from nature, to which it
owres its immediate formation, a force and energy which
the minor cannot boaft.
Chap. XIV. Of the different Kinds of Chords of the
Seventh.
112. The difibnance added to the chord of the do¬
minant and of the fubdominant, though in fome mea¬
fure fuggefted by nature (chap, xi.), is neverthelefs a
work of art ; but as it produces great beauties in har¬
mony by the variety which it introduces into it, let us
SIC. . 527
difcover whether, in confequence of this firlt advance, Theory »f
art may not ftill be carried farther. Harmony.^
113. We have already three different kinds of chords v"
of the feventh, viz.
1. The chord G B ‘d fcompofed of a third major
followed by two thirds minor.
2. The chord D F A ‘c’, or B ‘d f$ a’, a third major
between two minors.
3. The chord B ‘d f a’, two thirds minor followed
by a major.
114. There are ftill two other kinds of chords of the
feventh which are employed in harmony } one is com¬
pofed of a third minor between two thirds major, C E G
B, or F A ‘c e’ j the other is wholly compofed of thirds
minor Gi^ B ‘d fk Thefe two chords, which at firft ap¬
pear as if they ought not to enter into harmony if we
rigoroufly keep to the preceding rules, are neverthelefs
frequently pradlifed with fuccefs in the fundamental bafs.
The reafon is this :
115. According to what has been faid above, if we The chords
would add a feventh to the chord C E G, to make deferib-
a dominant of C, one can add nothing but B^ ; andff ^"di-
in this cafe C E G B[) ■would be the chord of the tonic w^jia
dominant in the mode of F, as G B ‘d f’ is the chord
of the tonic dominant in the mode of C j but if we
would preferve the impreffion of the mode of C in the
harmony, we change this Bfr into B natural, and the
chord C E G Bfr becomes C E G B. It is the fame cafe
with the chord F A ‘c e’, which is nothing elfe but the
chord F A ‘c ej)’ •, in which one may fubftitute for ‘ej?’,
‘e’ natural, to preferve the impreffion of the mode of
C, or that of F.
Befides, in fuch chords as C E G B, F A ‘c e% the
founds B and ‘e’, though they form a difforiance with
C in the firft cafe, and with F in the fecond, are never¬
thelefs fupportable to the ear, becaufe thefe founds B
and ‘e’ (art. 19.) are already contained and underftood,
the firft in the note E of the chord C E G B, as like-
wife in the note G of the fame chord j the fecond in the
note A of the chord FA ‘c e’, as likewife in the note ‘c’
of the fame chord. All together then feem to allow the
artift to introduce the note B and ‘e’ into thefe two
chords (rr).
116. With refpefl to the chord of the feventh G$ Chords of
B ‘d f’, wholly compofed of thirds minor, it may be re- ^t-eve^1
garded as formed from the union of the two chords of anc, ex_
the plained.
bafs of the fca'le, c, ‘b, a, g, f, e, d, c’, in defeent, We mull either determine to invert the fundamental bafs men¬
tioned in art. 55. in this manner, C, G, D, G, C, F, C, G, C, in which the fecond G and the fecond C anfwer
to the G alone in the fcale •, or otherwife we muff form the fundamental bafs C, G, D, G, C, G, C, in which all
the notes imply perfedl chords major, except the fecond G, which implies the chord of the feventh G, B, ‘d, f’,
and which anfwers to the two notes of the fcale G, F, both comprehended in the chord G, B, ‘d, f’.
Whichever of thefe two bafes we fhall cboofe, it is obvious that neither the one nor the other ftiall be wholly
in the mode of C, but in the mode of C and in that of G. Whence it follows, that the double employment
which gives to the fcale a fundamental bafs all in the fame mode when afeending, cannot do the feme in defeend-
ing ; and that the fundamental bafs of the fcale in defeending will be neceffarily in two different modes.
(rr) On the contrary, a chord fuch as C E[j G B, in which E would be flat, could not Be admitted in harmony,
becaufe in this chord the B is not included and underftood in E]). It is the fame cafe with feverai other chords,
fuch as B D F A$, B F A, &c. It it true, that in the laft of thefe chords, A is included in F, but it is not
contained in D$ j and this likewife forms with F and with A a double diffonance, which, joined with the
diffonance B F, would neceffarily render tin:-; chord not very pleafing to the ear j we ftiall yet, however, fee ill
the fecond part, that this chord is fometimes ufed. 5
5 2 B MU
Theory of the dominant and of the fub-donunant in the minor
.Hai:nr,ay-, mode. In effea, in the minor mode of A, for initance,
i thefe two chords are E G$ B, ‘d’, and D E A B, whofe
union produces E B, ‘d, f, a’. Now, if we fhould
fuffer this chord to remain thus, it would be difagree-
able to the ear, by its multiplicity of diflbnances, D E,
E F, F G$, A B, D G$:, (art. iS.); fo that, to avoid
this inconveniency, the generator A is immediately ex¬
punged, which, (art. 19.) is as it were underitood in
D, and the fifth or dominant E, whofe place the fenfible
note G$ is fuppofed to hold : thus there remains only
the chord G$ B ‘df’, wholly compofed of thirds mi¬
nor, and in which the dominant E is confidered as un-
derftood: in fuch a manner that the chord G $ B‘d f ’ re-
prefents the chord of the tonic dominant E G$B ‘d’, to
which we have joined the chord of the fub-dominant
D F A B, but in which the dominant E is always rec¬
koned the principal note (ss).
117. Since, then, from the chord EG$B ‘d’, we may
pafs to the perfect A C ‘e a’, and vice verfa, we may
in like manner pafs from the chord G$B ‘d f’ to the
chord A C ‘e a’, and from this laft to the chord
G$B ‘d f ’: this remark will be very ufeful to us in
the fequel.
Chap. XV. Of tlx Preparation of Difcords.
Difibnance.t ug. In every chord of the feventh, the higheft
what. note, that is to fay, the feventh above the fundamen¬
tal, is called a diffonunce or difcord; thus ‘f ’ is the dilTo-
nance of the chord GB‘df’j ‘c’ in the chord D F,
A ‘c’, &c.
Manner of 119. When the chord G B ‘d f’ follows the chord
preparing C E G ‘c\ as often happens, it is obvious that we do not
difionances - - -   --- - • , .
S I C,
Part I,
ed.
■elrigat- the diflbnance ‘f’ in the preceding chord C E G ‘c\
Nor ought it indeed to be found in that chord; for this
diflbnance is nothing elfe but the fub-dominant added to
the harmony of the dominant to determine the mode :
now, the fub-dominant is not found in the harmony of
the generator.
120. For the fame reafon, when the chord of the fub-
dominant F A ‘c d’ follows the chord C E G ‘c’, the
note ‘d’, which forms a diffonance with ‘c’, is not found
in the preceding chord.
It is not fo when the. chord D F A ‘c’ follows the
chord C E G ‘c’ j for ‘o’ which forms a diflbnance
in the fecond chord, Hands as a confonance in the pre¬
ceding.
121. In general, dilfonanee being the production of
art (chap, xi.), efpecially in fuch chords as are not of
me cm the tonic dominant nor fub-dominant, the only means
when found to prevent its difplealing the ear by appearing too hete-
Jr. pre ed- rogeneous to the chord, is, that it may be, if we may
I chords, f0j announced to the ear by being found in the
Diflbnance
is only to¬
lerable to
the ear
m
ing
preceding chord, and by that means connect the two Theory of
chords. Hence follows this rule : Harmony.
122. In every chord of the feventh, which is n°tpiep ;I. t;on
the chord of the tonic dominant, that is to fay, (art.0f diffonan-
102.) which is not compofed of a third major followedces how
by two thirds minor, the dilfonance which this chord Penormeth
forms ought to Hand as a confonance in the chord which
precedes it.
This is what we call a prepared diffonance. See Pre*
123. Hence, in order to prepare a dilfonance, the pa ration,
fundamental bafs mufl necelfarily afcend by the interval
of a fecond, as
C E G ‘c’, D F A ‘c’ 5
or defcend by a third, as
C E G ‘c\ A C E G ;
or defcend by a fifth, as
C E G ‘c\ FACE:
in every other cafe the diffonance cannot be prepared.
This may be eafily afcertained. If, for inflance, the fun¬
damental bafs rifes by a third, as C E G ‘c’, E G B ‘d’,
the diffonance ‘d’ is not found in the chord C E G ‘c’.
The fame might be faid of C E G ‘c’, G B ‘d f’, and
C E G ‘c’, B D ‘fa’, in which the fundamental bafs
rifes by a fifth or defcends by a fecond.
124. When a tonic, that is to fay, a note which car¬
ries with it a perfedl chord, is followed by a dominant
in the interval of a fifth or third, this fucceflion may be
regarded as a procefs from that fame tonic to another,
which has been rendered a dominant by the addition of
the diffonance.
Moreover, we have feen (art. 119. and 120.) that a
difl'onance does not require preparation in the chords of
the tonic dominant and of the fub-dominant: whence
it follows, that every tonic carrying with it a perieft
chord, may be changed into a tonic dominant (if the
perfect chord be major), or into a fub-dominant (whe¬
ther the chord be major or minor) by adding the diffo¬
nance all at once.
Chap. XVI. Of the Rules for refolving Diffo-
nances.
12J. We have feen (chap. v. and vi.) how theDiflbnan-
diatonic fcale, fo natural to the voice, is formed by the ces to be
harmonies of fundamental founds; from whence it fol-
lows, that the moff natural fuccefiion of harmonical jif ifed
founds is to be diatonic. To give a diffonance then, amt made
in fome meafure, as much the chara&er of an harmo- to appear
nic found as may be poflible, it is neceffary that this™^* cha-
diffonance, in that part of the modulation where it is
found, fliould defcend or rife diatonically upon another
note, which may be one of the confonances of the fub-
fequent chord.
126. Now in the chord of the tonic dominant itint^g
ought chord of
the tonic
dominant,
the diffb-
(ss) We have feen (art, 109.) that the chord B ‘dfa’, in the minor mode of A, may be regarded as the in-fliould ra-
verfeof the chord D F A B ; it would likewife feem, that, in certain cafes, this chord B ‘d f a’ mav be confidered as
compofed of the two chords G B ‘d f’, F A ‘c d’ of the dominant and of the fub-dominant of the major mode of C j an(j
which chords ma) be joined together after having excluded from them, 1. The dominant G, reprefented by itswhy.
third major B, which is prefumed to retain its place 2. The note C which is underflood in F, which will form
this chord B ‘d f ah The chord B ‘d f a’, confidered in this point of view, may be underflood as belonging to the
major mode of C upon certain occafions.
Part I. . . . M °
Theory of oug'lit fattier to defcend than to rife } foi this reafon,
Harmony. Let us take, for inftance, the chord G B ‘d f ’ followed
by the chord C E G ‘c’ •, the part which formed the dif-
fonance <f, ought to defcend to £e, rather than life to g ,
though both the founds E and G are found in the iub-
fequent chord C E G ‘c’; becaufe it is more natural and
more conformed to the connexion which ought to be
found in every part of the mufic, that G ihould be found
in the fame part where G has already been founded,
whilit the other part was founding ‘f’, as may be here
feen (Parts Firit and Fourth).
Firft part,
Second,
Third,
Fourth,
Fundamental bafs,
4f
‘d
B
G
G
Confequen-
ces of the
former
rule.
Another
confe-
quence.
But is de¬
duced fnam
the former
propor¬
tions.
Difibnance
refolved,
What.
See Rejoin-
tion.
127. So, in the chord of the fimple dominant D F A
‘c’, followed by G B d ‘f\ the ditfonance ‘c’ ought ra¬
ther to defcend to B than rife to ‘d\
128. And, for the fame reafon,.in the chord of the
fub-dominant FA ‘cd\ the diffonance ‘d’ ought to rife
to ‘e’ of the following chord C EG ‘c’, rather than
defcend to ‘c’ 5 whence may be deduced the following
rules.
129. i°, In every chord of the dominant, 'whether
tonic or fimple, the note which conftitutcs the feventh,
that is to fay the diffonance, ought diatonically to de¬
fcend upon one of the notes which form a conionance in
the fubfequent chord.
2°, In every chord of the fub-dominant, the dnTo-
nance ought to rife diatonically upon the third of the
fubfequent chord.
130. A diflonance 'which defeends or rifes diatoni¬
cally according to thefe two rules, is called a dijjbnance
refolved.
From thefe rules it is a neeeflary refult, that the
chord of the feventh DFA ‘c’, though it fhould even
be confidered as the inverfe of F A ‘c d’, cannot be iuc-
ceeded by the chord C E G ‘c’, fince there is not in this
lafl chord the note B, upon which the diffonance ‘c’ of
the chord D F A ‘c’ can defcend.
One may befides find another reafon for this rule,
in examining the nature of the double employment of
diffonances. In effeft, in order to pafs from DFA ‘c’,
to C E G ‘c’, it is neceffary that DF A‘c’ fhould in this
cafe be underflood as the inverfe of F A‘c d’. Now the
chord D F A ‘c’ can only be conceived as the inverfe of
F A ‘c d’, when this chord DF A ‘c’ precedes or imme¬
diately follow's the C E G ‘c’ 5 in every other cafe the
chord DFA ‘c’ is a primitive chord, formed from the
perfedl minor chord DF A, to which the diffonance ‘c’
was added, to take from D the chara&er of a tonic.
Thus the chord DFA ‘c’, could not be followed by the
chord C E G ‘c’, but after having been preceded by the
fame chord. Now, in this cafe, the double employment
would be entirely a futile expedient, without producing
any agreeable effect: beeaufe, inflead of this fucceffion
of chords, C E G ‘c’, DFA ‘c% C E G ‘c’> it would be
much more eafy and natural to fubilitute this other, w'hich
furniflies this natural fucceflion C E G ‘c’, F A ‘c d’,
C E G ‘c’. The proper ufe of the double employment is,
that, by means of inverting the chord of the fub-domi-
nant, it may be able to pafs from that chord thus inverted
Vol. XIV. Part II,
SIC. 529
to any other chord except that of the tonic, to which it Theory of
naturally leads.
Chap. XVII. Of the Broken or Interrupted
Cadence.
131. In a fundamental bafs which moves by fifths,
there is always, as we have formerly obferved (chap.
viiii), a repofe more or lefs perfect from one lound to t0 fcuftd
another ; and of confequence there mull like wile be a in the fun-
repofe more or lefs perfect from one found to another damental
in the diatonic feale, which refults from that bafs.— >a **
It may be demonitrated by a very fimple experiment,
that the caufe of a repoie in melody is folely in the.
fundamental bafs expreffed or underilood. Let any
perfon fing thefe three notes ‘c d g’, performing on the
‘d’ a {hake, which is commonly called a cadence ; the
modulation will appear to him to be finifhed atter the
fecond ‘c’, in fuch a manner that the ear will neither
expert nor wifh any thing to follow. The cafe vrill be
the fame if wre accompany this modulation with its
natural fundamental bafs C G C : but if, inflead ot
this bafs, we fhould give it the following, C G A:
in this cafe the modulation £c d c’ w'ould not ap¬
pear to be finiihed, and the ear would itill expeft and
defire fomething more. This experiment may eafily
be made.
132. This paflage G A, when the dominant G diato- Broken-ca-
nically afeends upon the note A initead of defeending^®5^
by a fifth upon the generator C, as it ought naturally to why/
do, is called a broken cadence ; becaufe the perfect ca- see Ca¬
dence G C, which the ear expected after the dominantrfence.
G, is, if we may fpeak fo, broken and fufpended by the
tranfition from G to A.
133. Hence it foliow's, that if the modulation £c d c*
appeared finiihed when we fuppofed no bais to it at ali,
it is becaufe its natural fundamental bafs C G C is im¬
plied ; for the. ear defires fomething to follow this modu¬
lation, as foon as it is reduced to the neceflity of hearing
another bafs.
134. The broken cadence may be confidered as ha- Origin of
ving its origin in the double employment of dijfonunces
fince this cadence, like the double employment, only tjie doukie
confifts in a diatonic procedure of the bafs afeending emp!oy-
(chap. xii.). In effedt, nothing hinders us to defcend ment of
from the chord G B £df’ to the chord CEG A by con-^^onan
verting the tonic C into a fub-dominant, that is to fay,
by pailing all at once from the mode of C to the mode
of G : now to defcend from G B £d f ’ to C E G A is
the fame thing as to rife from the chord G B £d f ’ to
the chord A £c e g’, in changing the chord of the
fub-dominant C E G A for the imperfedt chord of the
dominant, according to the laws of the double employ¬
ment.
135. In this kind of cadence, the diffonance of the
firft chord is refolved by defeending diatonically upon Manner of
the fifth of the fubfequent chord. For initance, in performing
the broken cadence G B £df’, A £c e g’, the diiTonanceff^-
‘f’ is refolved by defcendxng diatonically upon the
fifth £e’.
136. There is another kind of cadence, called an in¬
terrupted cadence, where the dominant defeends by a Interrupteil
third to another dominant, initead of defeending by acaffmee,
fifth upon the tonic, as in this fucceffion of the hafs^ a *
3X G B £d fdente*
Origin of
this kind of
like wife in
the tumble
employ¬
ment.
M U
Gr B ‘d f’, E G B ‘d’; in the cafe of an interrupted ea-
d'"icc ‘ i_ diflunance of the former chord is refolved by
deicendin^' diatonically upon the octave of the funda-
muiital noic of the fubf quent chord, as may be here
fee n, w}r ■ ‘f1 is refolved upon the oflave of E.
i ^7. This kind of interrupted cadence has likewife
its origin in the double employment of diffonances. For
let us mpofe thefe two chords in fucceflion, G B ‘d f’,
G B ‘d e\ where G is i'uccetlively a tonic dominant and
fub-dominant : that is to fay, in which we pafs from
the mode of C to the mode of D ; if we fhould change
the fecond of thefe c hords into the chord of the domi¬
nant, according to the laws of the double employment,
"we Ihall have the interrupted cadence G B ‘d f’, E G
B £d’.
S I c.
Part H
Chap. XVIII. Of the Chromatic Species.
Fundamen¬
tal bah
formed by
thirds ma
jor
A chroma¬
tic interval
or minor
femitone,
how found.
See fig-. 10,
13S. The feries or fundamental bafs by fifths pro¬
duces the diatonic fpecies in common ufe (chap, vi,) ;
now the third major being one of the harmonics of a
fundamental found as well as the fifth, it follows,
that we may form fundamental baffes by thirds ma¬
jor, as we have already formed fundamental baffes by
fifths.
139. If then we fhould form this bafe C, E, G$,
the two firft founds carrying each along with it their
thirds major and fifths, it is evident that C will give
G, and that E will give G$C : now the femitone which
is between this G and this G$ is an interval much lefs
than the femilone which is found in the diatonic fcale
between E and F, or between B and ‘c’. This may
be afeertained by calculation (tt) : and for this reafon
the femitone from E to F is called major, and the other
minor (uu).
140. If the fundamental bafs Ihould proceed by
thirds minor in this manner, C, E(?, a fucceflion
which is allowed when we have invefligated the origin
of the minor mode (chap, ix.), we lhall find this mo-
dulation G, G[;, which would likewife give a minor Theory of
femitone (xx). Harmony.
141. Ihe minor femitone is hit by youner nrafti- l ' ~ f
tioners in intonation with more difficulty than the le- tion minor
mitone major. For which this realbn may be affign-femitone
ed: The femitone major which is found in the diato-diffic.ult to .
nic fcale, as from E to F, refults from a fundamen- and
tal bafs by fifths C F, that is to fay, by a fucceffion ^
which is molt natural, and for this reafon the eafieft
to the ear. On the contrary, the minor femitone arifes
from a fucceffion by thirds, which is Hill lefs natural
than the former. Hence, that fcholars may truly hit
the minor femitone, the following artifice is employ¬
ed. Let us fuppofe, for inftance, that they intend to
rife from G to G^ j they rife at firil from G to A,,
then defeend from A to G'$; by the interval of. a fe¬
mitone major : for this G ffiarp, which is a femitone
major below A, proves a femitone minor above G. [See
the notes (tt) and (uu).]
142. Every procedure of the fundamental bafs by Minor fe-
thirds, whether major or minor, riling or defeending, mitone ^
gives the minor femitone. This we have already feen be found 111
from the fucceffion of thirds in afeending. The feries cedurJ of"
of thirds minor in defeending, C A, gives, C, C^thefunda-
(yy) j and the feries of thirds major in defeending, C, mental
A, gives C, C), (zz)._
143. The minor femitone conflitutes the fpecies, The minor
called chromatic ; and with the fpecies which moves by femitone,
diatonic intervals, refulting from the fucceffion of when pre¬
fifths (chap. v. and vi.), it comprehends the whole of valennt’
melody. conlhtutes
J chromatic
mulic.
Chap. XIX. Of ihe Enharmonic Species.
144. The two extremes, or higheft and lovreft notes, Diefis or
C G$, of the fundamental bafs by thirds major CEG$, enharmo-
give this modulation ‘c’ B^j and thefe two founds ‘o’m<j lnter-
B$, differ between themfelves by a fmall interval which
is called the diijis, or enharmonic fourth* of a tone (3A), formed.
which * See
Fourth of a
■ Tone.
(tt) In reality, C being fuppofed I, as we have always fuppofed it, E is f and : n°w G being ■!, G$
then lhall be to G as 44 to 4 ; that is to fay, as 25 times 2 to 3 times 16 : the proportion then of G^ to G is
Fig. 11.
as 25 to 24, an interval much lefs than that of 16 to 15, which conftitutes the femitone from ‘c1 to B, or from
F to E (note z).
(uu) A minor joined to a major femitone will form a minor tone ; that is to fay, if one rifes, for inftance, from
E to F, by the interval of a femitone major, and afterwards from F to F$( by the interval of a minor femitone, the
interval from. E to F'$ will be a minor tone. For let us fuppofe E to be I, F will be 44, and F^i will be 4|- of
44 j that is to fay, 25 times 16 divided by 24 times 15, or ; E then is to F^ as one is to y, the interval
which conftitutes the minor tone (note EB).
With refpeft to the tone major, it cannot be exaflly formed by two femitones ; for, t. Two major femitones in
immediate fucceffion would produce more than a tone major. In effedl, 44 multiplied by 44 gives which is
greater than 4, the interval which conftitutes (note be) the major tone. 2. A femitone minor and a femitone major
would give lefs than a major tone, fince they amount only to a true minor. 3. And, a fortiori, two minor femi¬
tones would ftill give lefs. ,
(xx) In effeft, Ej? being 4, G[? will be 4 of 4 j tliat is to fay, (note Q_) : now the proportion of 4 to If
(note qJ is that of 3 times 25 to 2 times 36 that is to fay, as 25 to 24.
(yy) A being 4 C$ is | of |; that is to fay 4|, and C is 1 : the proportion then between C and is that
of 1 to If, or of 24 to 25.
(zz) At) being the third major below C, will be £ (note q_) : Ct?, then, is | of | j that is to fay The pro¬
portion, then, between C and Cj?, is as 25 to 24.
^3 a) G$ being 4| and being f of 44, we lhall have B$ equal (note Q_) to '-f-j, and its o£tave below
fliali be VV5 j an interval lefs than unity by about TI-g- or It is plain then from this fra&ion, that the
in queftion muft be conliderably lower than C.
M U
wliicli is tlie differ'enCe between a femitone major and a
femitone minor (3 b). This quarter tone is inappre-
tiable by the ear, and impracticable upon feveral of our
inftruxnents. Yet have means been found to put it in
pradlice in the following manner, or rather to perform
what will have the fame effeCl upon the ear.
145. We have explained (art. ri6.) in what man¬
ner the chord G$ B ‘d P may be introduced into the
minor mode, entirely confifting of thirds minor perfect¬
ly true, or at lealt fuppofed fuch. This chord fupply-
ing the~place of the chord of the dominant (art. 1 16.)
from thence we may pafs to that of the tonic or gene¬
rator A (art. 117.). But we mult remark,
1. That this chord B ‘d P, entirely confifting of
thirds minor, may be inverted or modified according
to the three following arrangements, B ‘d f g$\ D
F G^B, FG^B ‘d’•, and that in all thefe three dif¬
ferent ftates, it will ftill remain compofed of thirds mi¬
nor •, or at leaft there will only be wanting the enhar¬
monic fourth of a tone to render the third minor be¬
tween F and G$C entirely juft 5 for a true third minor,
as that from E to G in the diatonic fcale, is compofed
of a femitone and a tone both major. Now from F to G
there is a tone major, and from G to G$ there is only a
minor femitone. There is then wanting (art. 144.) the
enharmonic fourth of a tone, to render the third F G$
exaCtly true.
2. But as this divifion of a tone cannot be found in
flie gradations of any fcale practicable upon molt of our
Part. I.
Theory of
Harmony.
Manner of
feemingly
introducing
this inter¬
val upen
inftruments
of fixed
kales.
S t C. 531
inftruments, nor be appretiated by the ear,., the ear Theory of
takes the different chords. b
B ‘d’ ‘P ‘g^’ *
1) F G& B
F G$ B ‘d\
which are abfolutely the fame, for chords compofed
every one of thirds minor are exaClly juft.
Now the chord G$B ‘d P, belonging to the minor
mode of A, where G$ is the feniible note 5 the chord
B ‘d f g$\ or B'd f a[>’, will, for the fame reafon, be¬
long to the minor mode of C, where B is the fenftble
note. In like manner, the chord G F G$ B, or
D F A|? ‘eh’, will belong to the minor mode of E[;,
and the chord FG$B ‘d’, or F Ah ‘ch ehh*> to the mi¬
nor mode of Gh- /
After having palled then by the mode of A to the
chord G$; B ‘d P (art. x 17.), one may by means of this
laft chord, and by merely fatisfying ourfelves to invert
it, afterwards pafs all at once to the modes of C minor,
of Eh minor, or of Gh minor ; that h to fay, into the
modes which have nothing, or almoft nothing, in com¬
mon with the minor mode of A, and which are entire-
lyr foreign to it (3 c).
146. It muft, however, be acknowledged, that aThealtera-
tranfition fo abrupt, and fo little expeCled, cannot de- t’on» k°w-
ceive nor elude the ear ; it is itruck with a fenfation^Jj
fo unlooked-for, without being able to account for the effeCtcfaied
pafl’age to itfelf. And this account has its foundation abrupt and
in the enharmonic fourth of a tone ; which is overlook-lAhibkx
3X2 ed
This interval has been called the fourth of a tone, and this denomination is founded on reafon. In effeCf, we
may diftinguifh in mulic four kinds of quarter tones.
1. The fourth of a tone major : now, a tone major being and its difference from unity being 4-, the differ¬
ence of this quarter tone from unity xvill be almoft the fourth of ; that is to fay,
2. The fourth of a tone minor j and as a tone minor, which is ’g°, differs from unity by the fourth of a mi¬
nor tone will differ from unity about
3. One half of a femitone major ; and as this femitone differs from unity by one half of it will differ from
Unity about
4. Finally, one half of a femitone minor, which differs from unity by ^ : its half then will be f-%.
The interval, then, which forms the enharmonic fourth of a tone, as it does not differ from unity but by
may juftly be called the fourth of a tone, ftnee it is lefs different from unity than the largeft interval of a quarter
tone, and more than the leaft.
We fhall add, that fince the enharmonic fourth of a tone is the difference between a femitone major, and a fe¬
mitone minor ; and fince the tone minor is formed (note uu) of two femitones, one major and the other minor;
it follows, that two femitones major in fucceffion form an interval larger than that of a tone by the enharmonic
fourth of a tone ; and that two minor femitones in fucceflion form an interval lefs than a tone by the fame fourth
of a tone.
(3 b) That is to fay, that if you rife from E to F, for inftance, by the interval of a femitone major, and after¬
wards, returning to E, you ffiould rife by the interval of a femitone minor to another found which is not in the
fcale, and which I fhall mark thus, F-}-, the two founds F-f- and F will form the enharmonic fourth of a tone :
for E being I, F will be and F-j-l^ : the proportion then between F-j- and F is that of 44 to 44 (note of ;
that is to fay, as 2? times 15 to r6 times 24 ; or otherwife, as 25 times 5 to r6 time' 8 or as 125 to 128.
Now this proportion is the fame which is found, in the beginning of the preceding note, to exprefs the enharmo¬
nic fourth of a tone.
(3 c) As this method for obtaining or fupplying enharmonic gradations cannot be praftifed on every occafion
when the compofer or praftitioner would wifh to find them, efpecialiy upon inftruments where the fcale is fixed
and invariable, except by a total alteration of their economy, and re-tuning the itrings, Dr Smith in his Harmo¬
nics has propofed an expedient for redreffing or qualifying this defeft, by the addition of a greater number of keys
or firings, which may divide the tone or femitone into as many appretiable or fenfible intervals as may be necef-
fary. For this, as well as for the other advantageous improvements which he propofes in the ftrudlure of inftru¬
ments, we cannot with too much warmth recommend the perufal of his learned and ingenious book to fuch of our
readers as afpire to the character of genuine adepts in the theory of mufic.
5 3 2 MU
Theory of ed a? nothing, becaufe it is inappretiable by the ear $
Harm ny. ^ though its value is not afcertained, the
v whole harfhnefs is fenlibly perceived. The inftant of
furprife, however, immediately vanilhes; and that afto-
nilhment is turned into admiration, when one feels him-
felf tranfported as it were all at once, and almoil imper¬
ceptibly, from one mode to another, which is by no
means relative to it, and to which he never could have
immediately palled by the ordinary feries of fundamen¬
tal notes.
Chap. XX. Of the Diatonic Enharmonic Species,
147. If we form a fundamental bafs, which rifes al¬
ternately by fifths and thirds, as F, C, E, B, this bafs
See fig. 12. will give the following modulation ‘f, e, e, d'^’5 in
which the femitones from ‘f’ to ‘e’, and from ‘e’ to ‘d$’,
are equal and major (30).
This fpecies of modulation or of harmony, in which
g all the femitones are major, is called the enharmonic
manic*diatonic fpecies. The major femitones peculiar to this
fpecies give it the name of diatonic, becaufe major fe¬
mitones belong to the diatonic fpecies •, and the tones
which are greater than major by the excefs of a fourth,
refulting from a fucccffion of major femitones, give it
the name of enharmonic (note 3 a).
Chap. XXL Of the Chromatic Enharmonic Species.
Chromatic
enharmo -
xhc inter¬
vals, how
formed.
See fig. 13.
From this
fpecies, the
efiedls of
harmony
and melo¬
dy appear
to be in the
fundamen¬
tal bafs.
Diatonic
fpecies moft
agreeable,
and why.
The chro¬
matic next.
Laftly, the
enharmo-
148. If we pafs alternately from a third minor in
defeending to a third major in rifing, as C, C, A, C$,
C$, rve (hall form this modulation (t[), e, e, e e$’, in
which all the femitones are minor (3E).
This fpecies is called the chromatic enharmonic fpe¬
cies : the minor femitones peculiar to this kind give it
the name of chromatic, beeaufe minor femitones belong
to the chromatic fpecies ; and the femitones which are
lefl'er by the diminution of a fourth refulting from a fuc-
ceflion of minor femitones, give it the name of enhar¬
monic (note 3 F).
149. Thefe new fpecies confirm what xve have all
along faid, that the whole effects of harmony and me¬
lody refide in the fundamental bafs.
150. The diatonic fpeeies is the moil agreeable, be¬
caufe the fundamental bafs which produces it is form¬
ed from a fucceflion of fifths alone, which is the moft
natural of all others.
151. The chromatic being formed from a fucceflion
of thirds, is the moft natural after the preceding.
152. Finally, the enharmonic is the leaft agreeable
of all, becaufe the fundamental bafs which gives it is
SIC. Part I.
not immediately indicated by nature. The fourth of Theory of
a tone which conftitutes this fpecies, and which is it- Harmony.
felf inappretiable to the ear, neither produces nor can
produce its effect, but in proportion as imagination
fuggelis the fundamental bat's from whence it refults \
a bafs whofe procedure is not agreeable to nature, fince
it is formed of two founds which are not contiguous one
to the other in the feries of thirds (art. 144.).
Chap. XXII. Showing that Melody is the Offspring
oj Harmony.
153. All that we have hitherto faid, as it feems to The dTecfts-
me, is more than fufficient to convince us, that melody of mekxly
has its original principle in harmony ; and that it is int0 invef-
harmony, expreffed or underftood, that we ought to
look for the effefts of melody. exprefied
154. If this Ihould ftill appear doubtful, nothing more or under-
is neceflary than to pay due attention to the firft expe- flood,
riment (art. 19.), where it may be fecn that the prin¬
cipal found is always the loweft, and that the (harper
founds which it generates are with relation to it what
the treble of an air is to its bafs.
155. Yet more, we have proved, in treating of the
broken cadence (chap, xvii.), that the diverfification of
bafles produces effects totally different in a modulation
which, in other refpedts, remains the fame.
156. Can it be ftill neceffary to adduce more con¬
vincing proofs ? We have but to examine the different
baffes which may be given to this very fimple modula¬
tion GC. It will be found fufceptible of many, and
each will give a different character to the modula¬
tion GC, though in xtfelf it remains always the fame.
We may thus change the whole nature and effedts of a
modulation, without any other alteration than that of
its fundamental bafs.
M. Rameau has (liown, in his New System of Mafic,
printed at Paris 1726, p. 44. that this modulation
G, C, is fufceptible of 20 different fundamental bafles.
Now the fame fundamental bafs, as may be feen in our
fecond part, will afford feveral continued or thorough
baffes. How many means, of eonfequcnce, may be prac-
tifed to vary the expreflion of the fame modulation ?
157. From thefe different obfervations it may be Confequen-
concluded, 1. That an agreeable melody, naturally im-ces deduci-
plies a bafs extremely fweet and adapted for finging j
and that reciprocally, as mulieians exprefs it, a bafs of cipie,™'
this kind generally prognofficates an agreeable me¬
lody (3 F).
2. That the character of a juft harmony is only to
form in fome meafure one fyftem with the modulation,
fo
(3 d) It is obvious, that if F in the bafs be fuppofed 1, ‘f’ of the fcale will be 2, C of the bafs \ and ‘e1 of
the icale of \, that is, ; the proportion of ‘f’ to ‘e1 is as 2 to , or as 1 to Now E of the bafs being
likewife ^of 4, or ; B of the bafs is \ of Tf, and its third major I)$ ^ of -I °f V> or V °f V 1 third
major, approximated as much as poffible to ‘e’ in the fcale by means of oclaves, will be 44 V : ‘e’ ^ien °f the
Icale will be to which follows it, as 'f is to 44 V> to fay, as 1 to 44* U10 feniitones then from
‘f’ to ‘e’, and from ‘e’ to ‘d1^, are both major.
(3 e) It is evident that ‘e’jj is -f (note Q_), and that ‘e’ is 4 : thefe two ‘e’s, then, are between themfelves as -f-
to 4? that is to fay, as 6 times 4 to 5 times 5, or as 24 to 25, the interval which conftitutes the minor femitone.
Moreover, the A of the bafs is and C $4 of 4? or 44 : then is 4 of |4» the ‘e’ in the fcale is likewife to
the ‘e’^ which follows it, as 24 to 25. All the femitones therefore in this fcale are minor.
(3 f) Many compofers begin with determining and writing the bafs j a method, however, which appears in
j general
Part II. , . M U
Principles fo tliat from the whole taken together, the ear may only
of Compofi- receive, if we may fpeak fo, one limple and indivilible
tI0n‘ impreffion.
q. That the character of the fame modulation may
be diverfified, according to the character of the bafs
which is joined with it.
But notwithftanding tlie dependency of melody up¬
on harmony, and the fenlible influence which the lat¬
ter may exert upon the former j we mult not however
conclude, with feme celebrated muficians, that the
effects of harmony are preferable to thofe of melo¬
dy. Experience proves the contrary. [See, on this
account, what h written on the licenfe of mufic, print¬
ed in tom. iv. of D’Alembert’s Melanges de Literature,
p. 448 ]
S I c.
Central Remark.
The diatonic fcale or gammut being compofed of
twelve femitones, it is clear that each of thefe femi-
tones taken by itfelf may be the generator of a mode;
and that thus there muft be twenty-four modes in all,
twelve major and twelve minor. \Ve haveaffumed the
major mode of C, to reprefent all the major modes in
general, and the minor mode of A to reprefent tho
modes minor, to avoid the difficulties arifing from fharps
and flats, of which we muft have encountered either a
greater or leffer number in the other modes. But the
rules we have given for each mode are general, what¬
ever note of the gammut be taken for the generator of
a mode.
533
Principle*
of Com poll-
tion.
PART II, PRINCIPLES AND RULES OF COMPOSITION.
Com ofi- 158. COMPOSITION, called alfo counterpoint, \s
tion m har- not only the art of compofing an agreeable air, but alfo
mony, that of compofing feveral airs in fuch a manner that w lien
what- heard at the fame time, they may unite in producing an
ftln°mJ>0~agreeable and delightful to the ear*, this is what
^ l<>n we call compofuig mufic in feveral parts.
The higheft of thefe parts is called the treble, the
loweft is termed the bafs ; the other parts, when there
are any, are termed middle parts ; and each in particu¬
lar is fignified by a different name.
Chap. I. Of the Different Names given to the fame
Interval.
Particular
intervals
fignified by
different
names, Snd
why.
Second re¬
dundant,
what.
Why fo
called.
Falfe fifth,
what.
159. In the introduction (art. 9.), we have feen a
detail of the moil common names given to the different
intervals. But particular intervals have obtained dif¬
ferent names, according to circumftances •, which it is
proper to explain. .
160. An interval compofed of a tone and a femi-
tone, which is commonly called a third minor, is like-
wife fometimes called a fecond redundant; fuch is tne
interval from C to D$ in afeending, or that of A to
Gt? defeending.
This interval is fo termed, becaufe one of the lounds
which form it is always either {harp or flat, and .that,
if that lharp or flat be taken away, the interval will be
that of a fecond (30).
161. An interval compofed of two tones and two
femitones, as that from B to ‘f’, is called a falfe fifth.
This interval is the fame with the tritone (art. 9.), fince
two tones and two femitones are equivalent to three
tones. There are, however, reafons for diftinguifliing
them, as will appear below.
162. As the interval from C to D$ in afeendingImh re-
has been called a fecond redundant, we likewife call *
the interval from C to G$ in afeending, fifth redun¬
dant, or from B to E[i in defeending, each of which in¬
tervals is compofed oi four tones (3 H.)
This interval is, in the main, the fame with that ofDiftin-
the fixth minor (art. 6.) : but in the fifth redundant guilh*j
there is always a (harp or flat * xnfomuch, that if this™^.®
{harp or flat were removed, the interval would become non
a true fifth.
163. For the fame reafon, an interval compofed of Seventh di-
three tones and three femitones, as from G$ to ‘f’ in
afeending, is called a feve nth diminijhed; becauie, if
we remove the fliarp from G, the interval from G.to
‘f’ will become that of an ordinary feventh. The in¬
terval of a feventh diminifhed is in other refpe£ls the
fame with that of the fixth major (art. 9.) (3 1).
164. The major feventh is likewife fometimes called Seventh
z feventh redundant (3 k). Redundant
, r 1 coincident.
Chap. II. Comparifon of the Different Intervals.
165. If we fing ‘c’ B in defeending by a fecond, Notes in
and afterwards C B in afeending by a feventh, thefe ^erent^
two B’s fhall be oflaves one to the other ; or, as wefcales repH_
commonly exprefs it, they will be replications one of cations each
the other. of the
166. On account then of the refemblance between other.
general more proper to produce a learned and harmonious mufic, than a ftrain prompted by genius and animated
by(e,nGh)UFormthe fame reafon, this interval Is frequently termed by Engliili muficians an extreme Jbarp fecond.
(o Hi This interval is ufually termed by Englifti theorifts a Jharp fijth. # .
jV The material difference between the diminiftied feventh and the major fixth is, thatthe former always
implies a divifion of the interval into .three minor thirds, whereas a divifion into a fourth and third major, or into
a fecond and major and minor third, is ufually fuppofed m the latter. ,.ft. •. 1 . r inftance the
(2 kI The chief ufe of thefe different denominations is therefore to diftinguifti chords, tor inltance, ti
chord of die redundant fifth and that of the diminiftied feventh are different from the chord of tbe ^
chord of the feventh redundant, from dial of the feventh major. This will be explained m the tollowing
chapters.
534
Principles
of ompofi-
tion
  -
Hence to
del’eend to
one replica¬
tion, and
rife to ano¬
ther, has
the fame
effefl.
Detail of
replica^
tions.
Examples
of this.
M U
every found and its o£tave (art. 52.), it follows, that
to rife by a/eventh, or defeend by a fecond. amount to
the lame thing.
167- In like manner, it is evident that the lixth def-
cending is nothing but a replication of the third afeend-
ing, nor the .fourth defeending but a replication of the
fifth afeendiitp-.
O
168. I'he following expreflions either are-or ought
to be regarded as fynonymous.
To rife by a fecond.—To defeend by a feventh.
To defeend by a fecond.—To rife by a feventh.
1 o rile by a third.—To defeend by a fixth.
To defeend by a third.—To rife by a fixth.
To rife by a fourth.—To defeend by a fifth.
To defeend by a fourth.—To rife by a fifth.
^ I Part II,
169. Thus, therefore, we fliall employ them indiffer- Principles
ently the one for the other ; fo that when we fay, forof ( 0,r‘P°fi-
inftance, to rife by a third, it may be laid with equal, ti0n^
propriety to defeend by a fixth, &c.
Chap. III. Oy the Cihffs; of the Value or Quanti¬
ty ; of the Rhythm ; and of Syncopation
170. There are three cleffs* in mulls
O;; the C cliff |H! ; and the G cleff
the F cleff * See Cleff.
tl Cleffs,
<S> • what,
TJie F cleff is placed on the fourth line (3 l) or on and how
the third *, and the line on which this cleff is placed gives placed,
the name of F to all the notes on that line. " Plate
ihe C cleft is placed on the fourth, the third, the FCCtLV*
fecond, or the firft line : and in thefe different pofitions ^
all
(3 L) Our author has treated this part of his fubjedl with fomewhat lefs perfpicuity than ufual. He has neither
defer!bed the llaffs or fyftems of lines on which the cleffs are placed, nor explained their relation to each other.
We have therefore attempted to fupply the deficiency.
Mufical founds, like language, are reprefented by written characters, by which their gravenefs or acutenels,
their duration, and the other qualities intended to be affigned to them, are accurately diftinguilhed.
I he characters which denote the gravenefs or acutenels, or, as it is termed, the pitch of founds, are intended to
reprefent the ordinary limits of the human voice, in the exercife of which, or the employment of inftruments of
nearly the fame compafs with it, all practical mufic confifts.
From the loweit diftinct note,^ without ftraining, of the mafeuline voice, to the higheft note generally produced
by the female voice, there is an interval of three octaves, or twenty-two diatonic notes.
, Thefe no.tes are reprefented by characters deferibed alternately on eleven parallel lines, and the fpaces between
them, forming what avc fhall here term the generalfystetn.
1 he characters reprefenting the notes are differently formed according to their duration, but with this we have
at prefent no concern. We (hall employ the fimpleft, a fmall circle or ellipfe.
I he whole extent of the human voice, then, if deferibed upon the generalfystem, would be reprefented as at
Plate CCCLV. fig. r. 1
i he mafeuline voice, rifing from the loweft note of the general fyftem, will, generally fpeaking, reach the
note on the central line 5 and an ordinary female voice Avill reach the fame note, defeending from the higheft.
Male voices more acute, and female voices graver than ufua], Avill confequently execute this note with greater
facility. 6
This central note, then, being producible by every fpecies of voice, has been affumed as a fundamental or key
note, by which all the others are regulated (art. 4.). And to it is affigned the name of C, by which, in the theo¬
ry of harmony, (as avc have feen), the fundamental found of the diatonic fcale is diftinguilhed.
1 he other notes take their denominations accordingly. The note beloAV it is B, that above it ‘d’ &c. • and
to diftinguilh this central C from its odlaves, it is called the middle or tenor C.
As no human voice can execute the Avhole tAventy-tAvo notes, the general fyftem is divided into portions of five
lines, each portion reprefenting the compafs of an ordinary voice; and different portions are made ufe of, accord¬
ing to the gravenefs or acutenefs of different voices.
. ^ l*nes this fiate form Avhat is called ^Jlaff. Each ftaff is fubdivided into lines and fpaces. On the
lines, and in the fpaces, the heads of the notes are placed. I he lines and fpaces are counted upwards, from the
loAveft to the higheft 5 the loAveft line is termed the/ry? line; the fpace between it and the fecond line is denomi¬
nated firjl/pace, and fo on. Both lines and fpaces have the common name of degrees ; the ftaff thus contains
nine degrees, viz. five lines and four fpaces. /
l o afeertam what part of the general fyftem is formed by a/laf, one of the clefs mentioned in the text is placed
at the beginning of the fiaff, on one or other of the lines of it.
1 he C or-tenor cleff ahvays denotes the line on which it is placed to be that Avhicli carries the tenor C. The
G or treble cleff diftinguifhes the line carrying ‘g’, the perfea fifth above the tenor C. And the F or bafs cleff
afeertams the line which reprefents F the perfect fifth below the tenor C.
The. figures of the cleffs, (which are chara&ers gradually corrupted from the Gothic C, G, and F) and their
places in the general fyftem, appear on Plate CCCLV. fig. 2.
By this difpofition of the clefts, we fee that the llaff, Avhich includes the line bearing the treble cleff, is formed
by the five higheft lines of the general fyftem ; and that the ftaff which comprehends the bafs cleff confifts of the
five loweft.
I In- cemral line, Avhich carries the tenor C, belongs neither to the treble nor the bafs ftaves. But as that note
frequently occurs in compofition Avritten on thefe ftaves, a fmall portion of the tenor line is oocafionally introduced
beloAV the treble cleff and above that of the bafs (fig. 3.).
As
s 1 c- _ S3S
The natural (marked thus lj) reftores to its natural Principles
value a note which had been raifed or depreffed by a ( omP°-r*-
r L J tioa
iemitone. v ^ j
I73* When a fliarp or a flat is placed at the cleff,Fig. 8.
all the notes upon the line or fpace on which this
(harp or flat is marked, are fharp or Hat. For inftance,
if in the cleff of G a fharp be placed on the higheft
line, which is the place of ‘f, all the notes on that
line will be [fty'— to reftore them to their original va¬
lue of [p natural, a tjmuft be placed before them.
In the fame manner, if a flat be marked at the cleff, Fig p*
all the notes on the fame line or fpace with the flat will
be flat ; to reftore them to their natural ftate, a tj muft
be placed before them (3 m).
174. Every piece of mufic is divided into different Bars and
equal 1 irnef’
x what.
As notes ftill more remote from the ftaff in ufe are fometimes introduced, fmall portions of the lines to which
thefe lines belong are employed in the fame manner. Thus, if in writing in the bafs ftaff we want the note properly
placed on the loweft line of the treble ftaff, we draw twofhort lines above the bafs ftaff, onereprefenting the tenor line,
and the other the loweft line of the treble ftaff, and on this laft fhort line we place the note in qucftion, (fig. 4.).
On the other hand, if, in writing on the treble ftaff, we would employ a note properly belonging to the bafs ftaff,
we place it below the treble ftaff, and infert the requifite ihort lines, reprefenting the corrcfponding lines of the ge¬
neral fyftem (fig. 5.).
The occafional fhort lines thus employed are termed /eger lines.
The fame expedient is ufed to represent notes beyond the limits of the general fyftem. Thus, wre write the F
which is one degree lower than the loweft G of the bafs ftaff, on the fpace below that G 5 the E immediately
lower, or on a leger line below the bafc ftaff, and fo on. Notes in this pofition are termed double; thus, the F
juft mentioned is double F, or FF •, the E, double E, or EE, &c.
Again, the ‘a’ above the higheft ig‘) of the treble ftaff is placed on a leger line above that ftaff. The ‘£’ is
placed on the fpace above the leger line : The next note ‘c’ is let on a fecond leger line, and fo on. Thefe high
notes are, in compofitions for fome inftruments, carried more than an odtave above the general fyftem. Thofe in
the firft odftave are faid to be in alt; thofe beyond it, to be in altijjimo.
The tenor or C cleff is employed to form different intermediate ftaves between the treble and bafs, according to
the compafs of the voice or inlfrument for which the ftaff is wanted.
Compofitions for the graved: mafculine voices and inftruments are written on the bafs cleff, and thofe for fe¬
male voices and inftruments higheft in tone, on the treble ftaff *.
For mafculine voices next in depth to the bafs, and for the higher otftave of the violoncello and baffoon,
a ftaff, called the tenor JlaJf, is formed by adding to the tenor line the three higheft lines of the bafs ftaff and the
loweft line of the treble (fig. 6. 1.).
For the hiffheft mafculine voices, which are called counter tenor, and for the tenor violin, a ftaff is formed by
the tenor line, the two higheft liites of the bafs, and the two loweft of the treble ftaff (fig. 6. 2.).
For the graveft female voices, which are called rnexzo foprano, the tenor line and four loweft lines of the treble
form a ftaff (fig. 6. 3.).
The relation of all the ftaves to the general fyftem, and to each other, will appear from fig. 6.
The bafs cleff on the third line, the tenor cleff on the fecond, and the treble cleff on the firft, rarely occur, ex¬
cept in old French mufic.
The tenor cleff, and the ftaves diftinguifhed by it, are now lefs frequently ufed than the treble and baifs cleffs.
Thofe who cultivate mufic only as an amufement find it irkfome to learn fo many modes of notation. I he tenor
ftaves are accordingly banifhed from compofitions for keyed inftruments. Secular compofitions for voices are like-
"wife now written in the treble and bafs ftaves only 5 although in this there is fome inaccuracy, as the tenor parts
now written in the treble ftaff, muft often be fung an oclave below that in which they appear. The chief ufe of
the tenor cleff is in choral mufic and compofitions for the baffoon and tenor violin j and its principal advantagej
the facility of reading ancient mufic, which is almoft exclufively written in this cleff, has feldom been deemed an
infufficient recompenfe for the labour of acquiring it.
(3 m) The difpofition of fharps or flats at the cleff, which is termed the Jignature, depends upon the mode, or
tone affumed in the compofition as a fundamental or key note, and will be afterwards explained.
The fharps or flats of the fignature affeft not only the notes placed on the fame degree with themfelves, as men¬
tioned in the text, but alfo all the notes of the fame letter, in every oaave throughout the movement.
The fharps or flats of the fignature determine the fcale in which the movement is compofed, and are therefore faid
to be ejjential; thofe which occur in the courfe of the piece on an occafional change of the fcale, are termed accidental.
* Compofitions for Trench horns are written in the treble ftaff, although the tone of the inftrument be very grave ; but this is be-
caufe the horn is borrowed from, and has the fame natural intervals with the Irumpet, which is an acute iuftiument.
5
Part IT
Principles
, of Compofi¬
tion.
Fig 7- 3-
Names of
the notes to
be invefti-
gated from
the pofi¬
tion of the
cleffs.
Marks and
power of
lharps, flats,
and natu-
als.
M U
all the notes on the fame line with the cleff take the
name of C.
The G cleff is placed on the fecond or firft line ;
and all the notes on the line of the cleff take the name
of G.
171. As the notes are placed on the lines, and in
the f'paces between the lines, the name of any note may
be di {'covered from the pofition of the cleff. Thus, in
the F cleff, the note cn the loweft line is G ; the note
on the fpace between the two firft lines A j the note on
fecond line B, &c.
172. A note before which there is a fharp (marked
thus %) muft be raifed by a femitone •, and if there be
a flat (marked 1?) before it, it muft: be depreffed by a
femitone.
536
Principles
°f Compofi-
tion.
< J
See Time.
MUSIC.
Part II.
equal times, called meafures ; and each meafure is like-
wile divided into different times.
There are properly two kinds of meafures or modes of
time •, the meafure of two times, or common time, mark¬
ed by the figure 2 at the beginning of the time (fig. lo.1) •,
and the meafure of three times, or triple time, marked
by the figure 3 placed in the fame manner (fig. 11.).
The different meafures are diftinguilhed by perpendi¬
cular lines (3 N), called ba7's.
In a meafure, we diftinguilh between the flrong and
the weak time : the Jlrong time is that which is beat ;
the weak, that in which the hand or foot is raifed. A
meafure confiding of four times ought to be confider-
ed as compounded of two meafures, each confiding of
two times : thus there are in this meafure two Jlrong
and two weak times. In general by the words Jlrong
and weak even the parts of the fame time are didin- Principles
guidied ; thus, the fird note of each time is confideredot (ornF°fi.
as Jlrong and the others as weak. , ^ ‘ ^
175. The longed of all notes is a Jetnibreve. A mi- t he value
nim is half its value 5 that is to fay, two minims are to of notes m
be performed in the time occupied by one femibreve. duration.
A minim in the fame manner is equivalent to twori^'I2‘
crotchets, the crotchet to twro quavers (3 o). Syncopa-
176. A note which is divided into two parts by ation)
bar, that is, which begins at the end of a meafure, and s<.e Smc(i
terminates in the meafure following, is called a fijneo-pati0'n.
pated note (3 p).
179. A note followed by a point or dot is increafed Vadle of
half its value. Thus a dotted femibreve is equivalent‘h^lntei*
_ • ij** • nOcC»
to a femibreve and a minim, a dotted minim, to a mi¬
nim and a crotchet, &c. (Fig. 17.) (3 Q_).
Chap.
(3 n) All the notes, therefore, contained between twro bars conditute one meafure ; although in common lan¬
guage the word bar is improperly ufed for meafure.
(3 o) The notes, in their figure, confid of a head and a Jlem, except the femibreve, which has a head only.
The place of the note in the daff is determined by the head, which mud be placed on the line, or in the fpace,
affigned to the note. The Jlem may be turned either up or down.
The quaver is equivalent to two femiquavers, and the femiquaver to twro detm-femiquavers. In modern mu fie
the demi-femiquaver is alfo fubdivided. r 0 . .
The quaver and the notes of fiiorter duration may be grouped together, by two, three, or four, &c. and joined
by as many black lines acrols the ends of the dem as there are hooks in the fingle note (fig. 12.). 11ns airange-
ment is convenient in writing, and afiids the eye in performance.
When quavers, or the diorter notes, are to be repeated in the fame degree for a time equal to the duration of
a longer note, the iterations are, by a fort of mufical fhort-hand, reprefented by writing the long note only, and
placing over or under it, as many diort lines as the fiiort note has hooks (fig. I30' And the repetition of a feries
of fiiort notes is reprefented by merely writing for each repetition as many diort lines as there are hooks to the
diort notes of which the feries is compofed (fig. 14.).
(3 p) A note in the middle of a meafure is alfo faid to be fyncopated when it begins on zJlrong, and ends on a
weak part of the meafure, (fee fig. 13.) where D, C, and B are each of them fyncopated.
A note which of itfelf occupies one, two, or more meafures, is not faid to be lyncopatcd, but continued or pro-
trotted. See fig. 16. ,
(3 0.) Notes have fometimes in modern mufic a double dot after them, which makes them longer by three-
fourths. Thus a minim twice dotted is equal to three crotchets and a half, or feven quavers, &c.^
Our author, in this chapter, has omitted the explanation of rejls, and of the particular modifications of time.
liejls are characters indicating the temporary fufpenfion of mufical founds. I here are as many different red*
as there are notes. Thus the femibreve r£lt indicates a paufe of the duration of a femibreve 3 the minim reit, of
a minim, &c. (fig. 18.). # .
The femibreve reft alfo denotes the filence of one entire meafure, in triple as wrell as common time. 1 he
filence of feveral meafures is marked as in fig. 18. j but where the filence exceeds three bars, the number isufual-
ly marked over the refts.
Common time is either of a femibreve, or of a minim to the meafure.
Common time of a femibreve is indicated by the letter C at the cleff, fig. I. of Plate CCCLVI. When it is
meant to be fomewhat quicker than ufual, a perpendicular line is drawn through the C, (fig. 2.)-
Common time of a minim to the meafure, which is called hatf time, is indicated by the fraction that is, two-
fourths of a femibreve, or two crotchets equal to a minim, (fig. 3.).
In triple time the meafure confifts of three minims, three crotchets or three quavers, fix crotchets or fix quavers,
nine quavers or twelve quavers.
Triple time of three minims is marked at the cleff \, that is, three halves of a femibreve, (fig. 4.)
Triple time of three crotchets is indicated by the fra&ion %, (three-fourths of a femibreve) (fig. 5.) and that of
three quavers by 4 (three-eighths of a femibreve), (fig. 6.).
In the laft three examples the meafure is divided into three times, of which the firft isJJrvng, and the two others
weak.
The meafure of fix crotchets is marked (fig. 7.) > and that of fix quavers (hg* 8.). In botn there are two
times, of which the firft is ftrong, and the fecond weak.
The meafure of nine quavers is marked •§■, (fig. 9.) ; and is divided into one ftrong and two weak times. That
of twelve quavers is marked (fig. 10.) 5 and is accented as if it were two meafures of fix quavers.
The meafures of £ and T97 rarely occur.
Three notes arc often performed in the time of twro of the fame name, and are then termed triplets, (fig. 11.)
where
Part H. ^ ^
Principles^ _ .
ofCompofl- Chap. IV. Definition of the principal Chords.
i tion.
tion.
Perfodl
chords,
what.
Chord of
thefeventh
what, and
how to be
pradtil'ed.
Thofe of
different
kinds.
Of the
greater
fixth,
what.
Plate
CCCLVII.
Tonic,
what, and
its chords,
how figur¬
ed.
Dominant,
what, and
how figur-
178 (3 R.) The chord compofed of a third, a fifth,
and an odtave, as C, E, G, C, is called a perfeB chord
^ If the third be major, as in C, E, G, C, the perfecl
chord is denominated major: if the third be minor, as
in A, C, E, A, the perfea chord is minor. The per¬
fect chord major conftitutes the major mode; and
the perfect chord minor, the minor mode (art. 31.).
170. A chord compofed of a third, a fifth, and a
Seventh, as G, B, D, F, or D, F, A, C, &c. is called a
chord of the feventh. Such a chord is wholly compoied
of thirds in afeending. #
All chords of the feventh are praftifed m harmony,
fave that which might carry the third minor and the
feventh maior, as C Eij G B j and that which might
carry a falfe fifth and a feventh major, B D F
(chap. xiv. Part I.).
1 So. As thirds are either major or minor, and as
they may be differently arranged, it is clear that there
are’ different kinds of chords of the feventh j there is
even one, B D F A, which is compofed of a third, a
falfe fifth, and a feventh. _ ,
181. A chord compofed of a third, a fitth, and a
fixth, as F A C D, D F A B, is called a chord of the
greaterfxth. , .
182. Every note which carries a perfett chord is
called a tonic ; and a perfect chord is marked by an
8, by a 3, or by a 5, which is written above the note •,
but frequently thefe numbers are fuppreffed. Thus in
the example I. the two C’s equally carry a perfeft
chord. < _ .
183. Every note which carries a chord of the (eventh
is called a dominant (art. 10 2.) j and tnis chord is
marked by a 7 written above the note. I hus in the
example 11. D carries the chord -n FAC, and G the
chord G B D F. , .
It is neceffary to remark, that among the chords
Vol. XIV. Part II.
S I C. 537
of the feventh we do not reckon > the chord of tte
feventh diminilhed, which is only improperly called a ^
chord of the feventh ; and of which we lhall fay more   ,
below. 1 1 r i j •
184. Every note which carries the chord ot theSub-domi
104, X^VCIY »» wax-**    --
great fixth, is called z fubdominant, (art. 97. and 42.) nant ^hat,
and is marked with a 6. Thus in the example ni-fi red.
F carries the chord of F A C D. Ihe lixth ffiould
always be major, (art. 97* an<I 109.). .
rSc. In every chord, whether perfed, or a chord Furdamen-
of the feventh, or of the great fixth, the note winch ^not®,
carries this chord, and which is the flatteft or loweft,
is called the fundamental note. Thus C in the ex- See Funda*
ample 1. D and C in the example II. and F in the ex- mental.
ample ill. are fundamental notes.
186. In every chord of the feventh, and of the §ieat V
fixth, the note which forms the feventh or fixth above ^
the fundamental, that is to fay, the higheft note of the
chord, is called a diffonance. Thus in the chords of
the feventh G B D F, D F A C, F and C are the
diffonances, viz. F with relation to G in the firft chord,,
and C with relation to D in the fecond. _ In the chord
of the great fixth F A C D, D is the diflonance (art-
1 20.) j but that D is only, properly fpeaking, a diffon¬
ance with relation to C from which it is a fecond, and
not with refpett to F from which it is * fixth major (art.
17. and 18.). . . , _
187. When a chord of the feventh is compoied ot Torn* and
a third major followed by two thirds minor, the fun- d°-
damental note of this chord is called the tonic domu what‘ ’
nant. In every other chord of the feventh the funda¬
mental is called the funple dominant (art. 102.). T hus
in the chord G B f> F, the fundamental G is the tonic
dominant; but in the other chords of the feyenth, as
C E G B, D F A C, &c. the fundamentals C and i)
are fimple dominants.
188. In every chord, whether perfect, or ot the Major
feventh, or of the fixth, if it is meant that the third'chords,
above the fundamental note tliould be major thoughhowren-^
it be naturally minor, a tliarp muff be placed above the ^ wd
3 Y fundamental verfa.
| ed.
where the group, of quaver, in the fecond meafure are triplet,, and each triplet occupie, the time of two quaver,
only. Triplets alfo occur in triple time, fig. 1 2.
Certain other characters will be with propriety explained liere* , 1 e oaufe protrafled. See
The Paufe fignifies that the regular time is to be delayed, and the note ma k V 1
fig. ta. where the paufe is on the laft note of the fecond meafure. . movement muff be repeated.
The Repeat, a charafter refembling an S, denotes, that the following part o
Sethf (fig. 15.) is placed at the end of the ftaff, to (hew upon what degree the firft note of the following
""whenriK inner fide, of two bar, are dotted, the meafure, between them are to be repeated (fig. >6.). The
word bis is fometimes placed over fuch paflages. . . .r ti double bar be dotted on one
The double bar diffingujfhes the -d o a — - ft™" %• >70; If Uw doub.^ ^ ^ Uie
or both fides, the ffrain is to be repeated (fig. 13.). i ^ b ly marks t}ie conclufion of the
ftrain terminates before the end of a meafure, as is often the cale, the double ba. omy ma
ftrain, but the time is kept exactly as if it were not mfert^; tll@ flur tbe crefCendo, the diminuen-
d„; &:.gsrrtfn“ rt t ^ ^^ <* ^ bew»
the performer only. See SHAKE, otc.
(3 a) In this part of our ‘ ^
letters only, as the general na.m-*  - r . 5- - r.
harmonics may be arranged in different oftaves. Their different. pofi
wnderftood from the examples in the plates.
53 S M U
Principles fundamental note. For example, if we would mark the
Per^e<-^ major chord D F^l A D, as the third F above
  — ■ is naturally minor, we place above D a (harp, as in
Example IV. In the fame manner, the chord of the
feventh D A C, and the chord of the great fixth
D F$ A B, is marked with a ^ above D, and above
the $ a 7 or a 6 (fee v. and vi.).
On the contrary, when the third is naturally major,
and if we would render it minor, we place above the
fundamental note a [?. Thus the example vu. vm.
ix. (how the chords G B[? D G G B[? D F, G D E
(3 s)-
Chap. V. Of the Fundamental Bafs.
Fane!amen- 1^9- LET a modulation be invented at pleafure ; and
tal bafs under this modulation let there be fet a bafs compofed
how form- of different notes, of which fome may carry a perfect
chord, others that of the feventh, and others that of
the great fixth, in fuch a manner that each note of the
modulation which anfvvers to each of the bafs, may be
one of thofe which enters into the chord of that note in
the bafs ; this bafs being compofed according to the
rules which (hall be immediately given, will be the
fundamental bafs of the modulation propofed. See
Part I. where the nature and principles of the fundamen¬
tal bafs are explained.
See Ttincta- Thus (Exam, xvi.) it will be found that this modula-
tnental tion, C D E F G A B C, has or may admit for its fun¬
damental bafs, CGCFCDGC.
In reality, the firft note C in the upper part is
found in the chord of the firif note C in the bafs,
winch chord is G E G C 5 the fecond note 13 in the
treble is found in the chord G B D G j which is the
chord of the fecond note in the bafs, &c. and the bafs
is compofed only of notes which carry a perfedl chord,
S T C. Part II.
or that of the feventh, or that of the great fixth. principles
Moreover it is formed according to the rules which we EomP°fi*
are now about to give. , tl°n~ (
Chap. VI. Rules for the Fundamental Bafs.
190. All the notes of the fundamental bafs being Rules for
only capable of carrying a perfedt chord, or the chord the forma-
of the feventh, or that of the great fixth, are either T‘°l? the
tonics, or dominants, or fub-dominants 5 and the do-ba i*'
minants may be either fimple or tonic.
The fundamental bafs ought always to begin with
a tonic, as much as it is pradlicable. And now follow
the rules for all the fucceeding chords j rules which
are evidently derived from the principles eftablifhed in
the Firf Part of this treatife. To be convinced of
this we (hall find it only necefiary to review the articles
34, 91, 122, 124, 126, 127.
Rule I.
191. In every chord of the tonic, or of the tonic
dominant, it is neceffary that at lead one of the notes
which form that chord (hould be found in the chord
that precedes it.
Rule II.
192. In every chord of the fimple dominant, it is
necellary that the note which conilitutes the feventh,
or diflbnance, Ihould likewife be found in the preceding
chord.
Rule III.
193. In every chord of the fub-dominant, at lead
one of its confonances mud be found in the preceding
chord. Thus, in the chord of the fub-dominant F A
C D, it is neceffary that F, A, or C, which are the
eonfonances
(3 s) ^Te iriay only add, that there is no occafion for marking thefe (harps or flats when they are originally
placed at the cleff. For indance, if the fliarp be upon F which indicates the key of G (fee Exam, x.) it is fuf-
ficient to write D, without a (harp, to mark the perfefl chord major of D, D F$ A D. In the fame manner,
in the Example XI. where the flat is at the cleff upon B, which denotes the key of F, it is fuflicient to write G,
to mark the perfect chord minor of G Bj? D G.
But Avhere there is a (harp or a flat at the cleff, if we would render the chord minor which is major, or
vice verfa, we mud place above the fundamental note a t| or natural. Thus the Example xil. marks the minor
chord 1) F A I), and Example xm. the major chord G B D G.—Sometimes, in lieu of a natural, a flat is
ufed to fignify the minor chord, and a (harp to fignify the major. Thus Example xiv. in the key of G, marks
the minor chord D F A D, and Example xv. in F, the major chord G B D G.
\\ hen in a chord of the great fixth, the diffonance, that is to fay, the fixth, ought to be (harp, and when the
(harp is not found at the cleff, we write before or after the 6 a } and if this fixth (hould be flat according ta
the cleff, we write a \\.
In -the fame manner, if in a chord of the feventh of the tonic dominant, the diffonance, that is to fay, the
feventh, ought to be flat or natural, we write by the fide of the feventh a h or a fc). Many muficians, when a
feventh from the fimple dominant ought to be altered by a (harp or a natural, have likewife written by the fide of
the feventh a $ or a tj ; but M. Rameau fuppreffes thefe characters. The reafon (hall be given below, when we
fpeak of chords by fuppofition.
If there be one fliarp at the cleff, and if we would mark the chord G B D Flj or the chord ACE F!j, we
ought to place before the feventh or the fixth a fc) or a [?.
In the fame mariner, if there be one flat at the cleff, and if we would mark the chord C E G B{(, we ought
to place before the feventh a $ or a 1} •, and fo of the reft.
All thefe intricate combinations of figuring (hew the fuperior convenience of the modern method of Avriting the
notes themfelves inftead of the figures, Avhich has the farther advantage of exhibiting the proper arrangement of
the chord, fee Example 11.
Part II.
M U
Principles
of t'ompoli-
tion.
confonanees of the chord, (hould be found in the chord
preceding. The diffonance D may either be found in
it or not.
Rule IV.
194. Every Ample or tonic dominant ought to de¬
fend by a fifth. In the find cafe, that is to fay,
when the dominant is fimple, the note which follows
can only be a dominant *, in the fecond it may be. any
one; or, in other words, it may either be a tonic, a
tonic dominant, a fimple dominant, or a lub-dominant.
It is neceffary, however, that the conditions prefcribed
in the fecond rule ihould be obferved, if it be a fimple
dominant.
This laft reflection is neceffary, as will prefently be
feen. For, let us affume the fucceffion of the two
chords AC$ EG, 1) t AC (Tee Exam, xvil.), this
fucceffion is by no means legitimate, though in it the
firft dominant defcends by a fifth} becaufe the C which
forms the diffonance in the fecond chord, and which
belongs to a fimple dominant, is not in the preceding
chord. But the fucceffion will be admiffible, if, with¬
out meddling with the fecond chord, we take away the
fharp carried by the C in the firft j or it, without
meddling with the firft chord, we render C and h ftiarp
in the fecond (3 t); or, if we fimply render the D of
the fecond chord a tonic dominant, in caviling it to carry
F$ inftead of FI} (119. and 122.).
It is likewife by the fame rule that we ought to
reieCl the fucceffion of the two following chords,
DFAC,GBDF$;
(fee Exam, xvili.).
Rule V.
19^. Every fub-dominant ought to rife by a fifth 5
and the note which follows it may, at pleafure, be either
a tonic, a tonic dominant, or a iub-doniinant.
Remark.
Other rules Of the five fundamental rules which have now been
fubilituted. given, inftead of the three firft, one may fubftitute
the three following-, which are confecpicnccs from
them.
Rule I.
If a note of the fundamental bafs be a tonic, and
rife by a fifth or a third to another note, that fecond
SIC. , 539
note may be either a tonic (34. & 91.), fee Examples Principles
xix. and xx. (3 u) \ a tonic dominant (124.), fee01
xxi. and xxil. j or a fub-dominant (124.), fee xxm. ... *
and xxiv j or, to exprefs the rule more fimply, that
fecond note may be any one, except a fimple domi¬
nant.
Rule II.
If a note of the fundamental bafs be a tonic, and
defcend by a fifth or a third upon another note, this
fecond note may be either a tonic (34. & 91.) fee
Exam. xxv. and xxvi.} or a tonic dominant, or a
fimple dominant, yet in fuch a manner that the rule of
art. 192. may be obferved (124.), fee xxvn. xxvm.
xxix. and xxx. } or a fub-dominant (124.), fee xxxi.
and xxxii.
The fucceffion of the bafs C E[j G C, I A C E, is
excluded by art. 192.
Rule III.
If a note in the fundamental bafs be a tonic, and
rife by a fecond to another note, that note ought to be
a tonic dominant, or a fimple dominant (101. &• 102.).
See xxxiv. and xxxv. (3 x).
We muft here advertife our readers, that the exam¬
ples xxxvi. xxxvn. xxxvm. xxxix. belong to the
fourth rule above, art. I94-? au<^ ^ie examples XL.
XLI. xlii. to the fifth rule above, art. 195. See the
articles 34, 35, 121, 123, 124.
Remark I.
196. The tranfition from a tonic dominant to a Perfect and
tonic is called an abfolute repofe, or a perjefi cadence ca,?ences
(73.); and the tranfition from a fub-dominant to awhatj ^
tonic is called an impevfeB or irregular cadence (73.) ; how em-
the tonic falls upon the accented part of the bar. See ployed.
XLIII. XLIV. XLV. XLVI.
Remark II.
197. We muft avoid, as much as we can, fyncopa-Syncopa¬
tions in the fundamental bafs 5 that the ear may accu-
rately cliftinguifh the primarily accented part of a mea- iH the fun_
fare, by means of a harmony different from that which damental
it had before perceived in the laft unaccented part of the bafs by
preceding meafure. Neverthelefs fyncopation may be ^cen^-*
fometimes admitted in the fundamental bafs, but it is
by a licenfe (3 y),
^ 0 q Y 2 Chap.
( , t) In this chord it is neceffary that the C and F fhould be (harp at the fame time ; for the chord D F A C*.
in which C would be fharp without the I, is excluded by art. 179* . 1 r .1 ■' u 4i la
(ou) When the bafs rifes or defcends from one tonic to another by the mterval of a third, the mode is
commonly chanced • that is to fay, from a major it becomes a minor. For mftance, if we afeend froni the
toXT to tire tonic E, the major mode if C, C E G C, trill be changed into the mmor mode of E,
E G B E. We muft never afeend from one tonic to another, tv hen there is no found common toboththetr modes .
for example, we cannot rife from the mode of C, CEGC, to the minor mode of E[),_E[) Gjr BJ) El, (91.).
„ , x) Thus all the intervals, viz. the third, the fifth, and fecond may be admitted in the fundamental bafs, ex-
cept that of a Htcond in defending^
LidiCr'ihfTTpart. inoonofition to the great principle of conneffion, which preferrbes that tlrere ftiould be at
leaft one notein common between a preceding Jnd a fubfequent chord “ 'Zl
minute detail of thefe licences in an elementary work, where the firft and moft eflential rules of
<>uf’V)0 TheTafe'notes which may be found feveral times in the fundamental bafs in fuceeflion with a siif.
M U
540
Principles
of Compo-
tion
Chap. VII. Of the Rules 'which ought to he ohferved
in the Treble with relation to the Fundamental Bafs.
Definition The treble is nothing eife but a modulation
ol tiebie. above the fundamental bafs, and whofe notes are found
in the chords of that bafs which correfponds with it
(189.). Thus in Ex. xvi. the fcale C D E F G AB C,
is a treble with refpecft to the fundamental bafs C G C
FCD G C.
One note 199. We are about to give the rules for the treble ;
m ’Ee tre- but firit we think it neceifary to make the two follow-
ble or bafs • _ 1
r me remarks.
may antwer o _ . , . . .
to its cor- I* It is obvious, that many notes ol the treble may
rcfpondent anfwer to one and the fame note in the fundamental
parts, and bafs, when thefe notes belong to the chord of the
v''br' fame note in the fundamental bafs. For example, this
modulation C E G E C, may have for its fundamental
bafs the note C alone, becaufe the chord of that note
comprehends the founds C, E, G, which are found in
the treble.
2. In like manner, a Tingle note in the treble may,
for the fame reafon, anfwer to feveral notes in the bafs.
For inftance, G alone may anfwer to thefe three notes
in the bafs, C G C (3 z).
Rule I. Tor the TREBLE.
200. If the note which forms the feventh in a chord
s 1 c.
Part II.
of the fwiple dominant, is found in the treble, the note Principles
which precedes it mult be the very fame. This is what0* ^omlJ°li-
we call a difeord prepared (1 22.). For inflance, let us , f
fuppofe that the note of the fundamental bafs lhall be
D, bearing the chord of the fimpie dominant D F A C ;
and that this C, which (art. 18. and 118.) is the dif-
fonance, fliould be found in the treble ; it is neceffary
that the note which goes before it in the treble (hould
likewife be a C.
201. According to the rules which we have given
for the fundamental bafs, C will always be found in the
chord of that note in the fundamental bafs which pre¬
cedes the fimpie dominant D. See XLVIH. xlix. L.
In the firfl: example the diifonance is C, in the fecond
G, and in the third E : and thefe notes are already in
the preceding chord (4 a).
Rule II.
202. If a note of the fundamental bafs be a tonic
dominant, or a fimpie dominant, and if the diifonance
be found in the treble, this diifonance in the fame
treble ought to defeend diatonically. But if the note
of the bafs be a fub-dominant, it ought to rife diatoni¬
cally. This diifonance, which rifes or defeends diatoni¬
cally, is what we have called a diffonance faved or re-
folved (129, 130.). See LH. Lin. Liv.
203. According to the rules for the fundamental bafs
which we have given, the note upon which the difibn-
ance
ferent harmony. For infiance, the tonic C, after having carried the chord C E G C, may be follow ed by ano¬
ther C which carries the chord of the feventh, provided that this chord be the chord of the tonic dominant C E G B£j.
In the fame manner, the tonic C may be followed by the fame tonic C, w hich may be rendered a fub-domi¬
nant, by caufing it to carry the chord C E G A.
A dominant, whether tonic or fimpie, fometimes defeends or rifes to another by the interval of a tritone or
falfe fifth. For example, the dominant F carrying the chord FACE, may be followed by another dominant
B carrying the chord B D F A. This is a licence in which the mufician indulges himfelf, that he may not be
obliged to depart from the fcale in which he is; for inftance, from the fcale of C to which F and B belong. If
one fhould defeend from E to B^j by the interval of a juft fifth, he would then depart from that fcale, becaufe
Bb is no part of it.
(3 z) There are often in the treble feveral notes which may, if we choofe, carry no chord, and be regarded
merely as notes of paffage, ferving only to conneft between themfelves the notes that do carry chords, and to
form a more agreeable modulation. Thefe notes of paffage are commonly quavers. See Example XLVH.
(Plate CCCLVIII). in which this modulation C D E F G, may be regarded as equivalent to this other, CFG,
as D and F are no more than notes of pafiage. So that the bafs of this modulation may be fimply C G.
When the notes are of equal duration, and arranged in a diatonic order, the notes which are accented ought
each of them to carry chords. Thofe which are unaccented, are mere notes of paflage. Sometimes, however,
the unaccented note may be made to carry harmony \ but the duration of this note is then commonly increafed
by a point placed after it, which proportionably diminifties the continuance of the accented note, and makes it
pafs more fwiftly.
When the notes do not move diatonically, they ought generally all of them to enter into the chord which is
placed in the lower part correfpondent with thefe notes.
(4 a) There is, however, one cafe in which the feventh of a fimpie dominant may be found in a modulation
without being prepared. It is when, having already employed that dominant in the fundamental bafs, its feventh
is afterwards heard in the modulation, while the dominant is ftill retained. For inftance, let us imagine this
modulation,
C I DCB C Dj
I 7 7
and this fundamental bafs, C { D G C G j
7
(fee example Li.); the D of the fundamental bafs anfwers to the two notes D C of the treble. The diftbnance C
7
has no need of preparation, becaufe the note D of the fundamental bafs having already been employed for the D
which precedes C, the diffonance C is afterwards prefented, below which the chord D may be preferved, or
JL>FAC.
Part II.  M U
Principles ance ought to defcend or rife will always be found in
cf Compoii- {jie fublequent chord (4 b).
! tion.
' Chap. VIII. Of the Continued Bafs and its Rides.
t S e Corti 204* TH1E continuedX bafs, is a fundamental bafs
Vucd whofe chords are inverted. _ We invert a chord when
r„t- we change the order of the notes which compofe it.
bafs! what. For example, if, inftead of the chord G B D F, we fhould
Chord in- fay B D F G or D F G B, &c. the chord is inverted,
verted, Jfie wayS in which a PERFECT CHORD may be IN-
hovv- VERTED.
S I c.
and a fixth, is called the chord of the tritonc, and is
marked as in Example lxi. (4 d).
207. In the chord of the ample dominant D F A C,
we find,
1. F A C D, a chord of the great fixth, which is
compofed of a third, a fifth, and a fixth, and which is
figured with a See LX1I. (4 e).
2. A C D F, a chord of the lefier fixth, which is fi¬
gured with a 6. See lxiii. (4 F).
3. C D F A, a chord of the fecond, compofed of a
fecond, a fourth, and a fixth, and which is marked with
a 2. See LXIV. (4 c).
54T
Principles
of C'ompofi-
tion.
205. The perfect chord C E G C may be inverted
in two different ways.
1. E G C E, which we call a chord of the fixth,
compofed of a third, a fixth, and an odtave j and in this
cafe the bafs note E is marked with a 6. (See LVi.).
2. G C E G, which we call a chord of the fixth and
fourth, compofed of a fourth, a fixth, and an oftave j
and it is marked with a f. (See LVH.).
The perfect minor chord is inverted in the fame
manner.
The ways in which the CHORD of the SEVENTH may be
Inverted.
206. In the chord of the tonic dominant, as G B D I,
the third major B above the fundamental note G is
called a fenfible note (77.) ; and the inverted chord B
X) F G compofed of a third, a falfe fifth and a fixth, is
called the chord of the falfe fifth, and is marked as in
examples lviii. and Lix.
The chord D F G B, compofed of a third, a fourth,
and a fixth, is called the chord of the fenfiole fixth, and
marked as in Example LX. (4 c). In this chord, the
third is minor, and the fixth major.
The chord F G B D, compofed of a fecond, a tritone,
The ways in which the CHORD of the fub-DQMlNANT
may be Inverted.
208. The chord of the fub-dominant, as F A C D,
may be inverted in three different manners j but the
method of inverting it which is moft in practice is the
chord of the lefier fixth A C D F (lxiii.), and the
chord of the feventh D F A C. See lxv.
Rules for the Continued Bass.
209. The continued bafs is a fundamental bafs',
whofe chords are only inverted in order to render it
more in the tafte of iinging, and fuitable to the voice.
See LXVI. in which the fundamental bafs which in it-
felf is monotonic and little fuited for finging, C G C G C
G C, produces, by inverting its chords, this continued
bafs highly proper to be fung, C B C D E h E, &c. (4 h).
The continued bafs then is properly a treble with
refpedf to the fundamental bafs. Its rules immediately
follow, which are properly thofe already given for the
treble.
Rule I.
210. Every note which carries the chord of the falfe
fifth,
(, When the treble fyncopates in defeending diatonically, it is common enough to make the fecond part of
the fyncope carry a difeord, and the firft a concord. See Example LV. where the firft part of the fyncopated note
G is in concord with the notes C E G C, which anfwers to it in the fundamental bats, and where the fecond
part is a dilfonance in the fubfequent chord A C E G. In the fame manner the firil part of the fyncopated note
F is in concord with the notes I) F A C, which anfwer to it; and the fecond part is a diffonance in the fubfequent
chord G B D F, which anfwer to it, &c.
(a c) This chord is called by Englifh muficians, the chord of the third and fourth, and generally figured 3.
(4 d) This chord is in England called the chord of the fecond and fourth, and is figured 6
(4 E) We are obliged to mark likevvife, in the continued bafs, the chord of the fub-dommant with a 5
in the fundamental bafs is figured with a 6 alone ; and this to diftmguilh it from the chords of the fixth and of the
leffer fixth. (See examples lvi. and lxiii.). The chord of the great fixth m the fundamental bafs carries always
the fixth major, whereas in the continued bafs it may carry the fixth minor. For mftance, the chord of the
feventh C E G B, gives the chord of the great fixth E G B C, thus improperly called, fince the fixth from E
t0 (4 f)1TM- Rameau has juftly obferved, that we ought rather to figure this leffer fixth with a } to diftmguifh it
from the fenfible fixth which arifes from the chord of the tonic dominant, and from the fixth w hich arues from
the perfea chord. In the mean time he figures in his works with a 6 alone the leffer fifths which do not aufe
from the tonic dominant 5 that is to fay, he figures them as thofe which arife from the perfeJ chord , and we
have followed him in that notation, though we thought with him, that it would be better to. mark this chord by
a particuiar figUhord ^ ^ feventh B D F A gives, when inverted, the chord F A B D, compofed of a third a
tritone and a fixth. The chord is commonly marked with a 6, as if the tritone were a juft fourth. It is his
bufinefs who performs the accompaniment, to know whether the fourth above F be a tntone or a fourth redundant, .
One may figure this chord thus, 3*.
(4 h) The continued bafs is propertionably adapted to finging, as the founds which form it more fcrupuloufly
542 M U
Principle? fifth, and whicli of confcquence muft be what we have
<tion'K>^*ca^ec* a fenftble nofe' ought (77.) to rife diatonically
upon the note which follows it. Thus in example
Lxiv. the note B, carrying the chord of the falfe fifth,
rifes diatonically upon C (4 1).
Rule II.
211. Every note carrying the chord of the tritone
Ihould defcend diatonically upon the fubfequent note.
Thus in the fame example lxvi. F, which carries the
chord of the tritone figured with a 4+, deicends diato¬
nically upon E (art. 202.).
Rule IIL
212. The chord of the fecond is commonly put in
pra&ice upon notes which are fyncopated in defcend-
s I C, Part II.
ing, becaufe thefe notes are diffonanccs which ought to Principles
be prepared and refolved (200. 302.). See the exam-0* c?mP°fi*
pie lxvii. where the feeond C, which is fyncopated, . - ^ j
and which defcends afterwards upon B, carries the chord
of the fecond (4K).
Chap. IX. Of fome Licenfes ajfumed in the Funda¬
mental Bafs.
§ 1. Of Broken and Interrupted Cadences.
213. The broken cadence is executed by means of a Broken ca.
dominant which rifes diatonically upon another, or upon(*®^e’^w
a tonic by a licenfe. See, in the example lxxiv. G A, CX U e
(132. and 134.)*
214. The interrupted cadence is formed by a do-Interrupted
minant, cadence,
how form-
 —    ed.
obferve the diatonic order, becaufe this order is the moll; agreeable of all. We muft therefore endeavour to pre-
ferve it as much as poflibie. It is for this reafon that the continued bafs in Example LXV. is much more in the
tafte of finging, and more agreeable, than the fundamental bafs which anfwers to it.
(41) The continued bafs being a kind of treble with relation to the fundamental bafs, it ought to obferve the
fame pules with refpedl to that bafs as the treble. Thus a note, for inftance D, carrying a chord of the feventh
D F A C, to which the chord of the fub-dominant FACE correfponds in the fundamental bafs, ought to rife
diatonically upon E, (art. 129. N° 1. and art. 202.).
(4 k) When there is a repofe in the treble, the note of the continued bafs ought to be the fame with that of the
fundamental bafs, (fee Example LXVIII.). In the clofes which are found in the treble at 1) and C (meafures fe¬
cond and fourth), the notes in the fundamental and continued bafs are the fame, viz. G for the firft cadence, and
C for the fecond. This rule ought above all to be obferved in cadences w hich terminate a piece or a modu¬
lation.
It is neceffary, as much as poftible, to prevent coincidences of the fame notes in the treble and continued bafs,
unlcfs the motion of the continued bafs fhould be contrary to that of the treble. For example, in the firft note of
the feeond meafure in Example lxix. D is found at the fame time in the continued bafs and in the treble } but
the treble rifes from C to D, and from D to E, whilft the bafs defcends from E to 13, and from D to C.
Two oftaves, or two fiftFs, in fucceffion, muft likewife be. avoided. For inftance, in the treble founds G E,
the bafs muft be prevented from founding G E, C A, or D B ; becaufe in the firft cafe there are two offaves in
fucceflion, E againft E, and G again ft G j and becaufe in the fecond cafe there are two fifths in fuccefiion, C
againft E, and A againft G, or 13 againft G, and B againft E. This rule, as well as the jrreceding, is found¬
ed upon this principle, that the continued bafs ought not to be a copy of the treble, but to form a different
melody.
Every time that feveral notes of the continued bafs anfvver to one note alone of the fundamental, the compofer
fatisfies himfelf with figuring the firft of them. Nay he does not even figure it if it be a tonic ; and he draws
above the others a line, continued from the note upon which the chord is formed. See Example lxx. (Plate
CCCL1X.) where the fundamental bafs C gives the continued bafs C E G E } the two E’s ought in this bafs to
carry the chord 6, and G the chord ® : but as thefe chords are comprehended in the perfetft chord C E G C,
which is the firft of the continued bafs, we place nothing above C, only wTe draur a line over C E G E.
In like manner, in the fecond meafure of the fame example, the notes F and D of the continued bafs, arifing
from the note G alone of the fundamental bafs w'hich carries the chord G B 13 F, we think it fufficient to figure
F only, and to draw a line above F and D becaufe the fame harmony is ufed with both.
It ftiould be remarked, that this F ought naturally to defcend to E ; but this note is confidered as fubftfting fo
long as the chord fubfifts; and when the chord changes, we ought neceffarily to find the E, as may be leen by
that example.
In general, whilft the fame chord fubfifts in paffing through different notes, the chord is reckoned the fame as
if the firft note of the chord had fubfifted ; in fueh a manner, that, if the firft note of the chord is, tor inflanee,
the fenfible note, wre ought to find the tonic when the chord changes. See Example LXXI. where this continued
bafs, C B D R G C, is reckoned the fame with thi-', C, B C. (Example LXXll.).
If a fingle note of the continued bafs anfwers to feveral notes of the fundamental bafs, it is figured with the dif¬
ferent chords which agree to it. For examnle, the note G in a continued bafs may anfwer to this fundamental
bafs C G C, (fee example LXXIII.) ; in this cafe, we may regard the note G as divided into three parts, of which
the firft carries the chord the fecond the chord 7, and the third the chord
We (hall repeat here, with refpefl to the rules of the continued bafs, what we have formerly faid concerning
the rules of the fundamental bafs in the note upon the third rule, art. 193. The rules of the continued bais have
exceptions, which pradlice and the perufal of good authors will teach. There are likewife feveral other rules
which might require a confiderable detail, and which will be found in the Treatife of Harmony, by M. Rameau,
and
’art II. M U
Principles niinant which defcends hy a third upon another
>f tompoli- gee^ jn ^.]ie example lxxv. G E (4l)-
t^n~ . Thefe cadences ought to be permitted but rarely and
with precaution.
2. 0/'Supposition.
?h#rcl by 215. When a dominant is preceded by a tonic in
uppofition the fundamental bafs, we add fometimes, in the con-
'Vhat’ tinued bafs to the chord of that dominant, a new note
which is a third or a fifth below } and the chord which
refults from it in this continued bafs is called a chord by
iee Suppo-
• ‘ition.
JuppoJUion-
For example, let us fuppofe, that in the fundamental
bafs we have a dominant G carrying the chord of the
feventh G B D F *, let us add to this chord the note
C, which is a fifth below the dominant, and we fhall
have the total chord C G B 13 F, or C 13 I' Cx, which
is called a chord by fuppojimn (4 m).
SIC. 543
Principles
Of the different kinds of Chords by Suppojition. of
216. Chords by fuppofition are of different kinds. v
For inftance, the chord of the tonic dominant G B D F
gives,
1. By adding the fifth C, the chord C G B D F, Thefe
called a chord of the feventh redundant, and compofed re"t chords
of a fifth, feventh, ninth, and eleventh., is %ured *”rj.
with a \ fee i.xxvi. (4 n). This chord is not prac-cd.
tifed but upon the tonic. They fometimes leave out the
fenfible note, for reafons which we lhall give in the note
(4 o), upon the art. 219 ; it is then reduced to C F G D,
and marked with £ or
2. By adding the third E, we {hall have the chord
EG B D E, called a chord of the ninth, and compofed
of a third, fifth, feventh, and ninth. And it is figured
with a 9. This third may be added to every third of
the dominant. See lxxvii.
3- If
and elfewrhere. Thefe rules, which are proper for a complete differtation, did not appear indiipemably neceilary
in an elementary effay on traffic, fuch as the prefent. the books which we have quoted at the end of out prelimi¬
nary difeourfe will more particularly inftruft the reader concerning this practical detail.
( 1 l) One may fometimes, but verv rarely, cauic ieveral tonics in lucceffion to tollow one another in afeending
or defeending diatonieally, as C E G C, 13 F A D, Bfr 13 F Bb ; but, befides that this fucceffion is harih, it is
neeeffary, in order to render it pradicable, that the fifth below the fir ft tonic fiiould be found in the chord of the
tonic following, as here F, a fifth below the firft tonic C, is found in the chord 13 F A 13, and in the chord Bfc
D F B{? (37. and note t). ... r r , ^ 1 • 1 1 •
Til m) Though fuppofition be a kind of licenle^ yet it is in fome meafuie founded on the experiment ielated in
the note fs), where you may lee that every principal or fundamental found cauies its twelfth and feventeenth ma-
l‘or in defeending to vibrate, whilft the twelfth and the feventeenth major afeending refound : which feems to au¬
thorize us in certain cafes to join with the fundamental harmony this twelfth and feventeenth in dclcending j or,
Which is the fame thing, the fifth or the third beneath the fundamental found.
Even without having recourfe to tills experiment, we may remark, that the note added beneath the fundamen¬
tal found, caufes that very fundamental found to be heard. For initance, C added beneath G, caufes G to re¬
found. Thus G is found in fome meafure to be implied at C. i t 1 u tv -p
If the third added beneath the fundamental found be minor, for example, if to the chord G B D I, w'e add
the third E, the fuppofition is then no longer founded on the experiment, which only gives the feventeenth major,
or, what is the fame thing, the third major beneath the fundamental found. In this cale the addition of the third
minor mull be confidered as an extenfion of the rule, which in reality has. no foundation in the chords emitted by
a fonerous body, but is authorized by the fanftion ot the ear and by practical experiment. .
(4N) Many muficians figure this chord with a : M. Rameau luppreffes this. 2, and merely marks it to
fee the feventh redundant by a 7$ or $7. But it may be faid, how {hall we diftinguijh this chord from the
feventh major, which, as it would feem, ought to be marked with a 7$ ? M. Rameau anfwers, that there is no
danger of miftake, becaufe in the feventh major, as the feventh ought to be prepared, it is found in the prece¬
ding chord 5 and thus the tharp fubfifting already in the preceding chord, it would be uielels to repeat it,
7
$
Thus D G, according to M. Rameau, would indicate D F*A C, G B D If we would change F$ of the
fecond chord into FE it would then be neceffary to write 13 G. In notes fuch as C, whofe natural feventh is
major the figure 7 preceded or followed by a lharp will fufficiently ferve to difiinguilli the chord of the feventh
redundant C G B D F, from the fimple chord of the feventh C E G B, which is marked with a 7 alone. All this
appears juft and well founded. . . , r p • n. . .1
(4 o) Suppofition introduces into a chord diffonances which were not in it before. For inftance, if to the
chord E G B D, we Ihould add the note of fuppofition C defeending by a third, it is plain that, befides the dif-
fbnance between E and D which was in the original chord, we have two new diffonances, C B, and C 13 J that
is to fay, the feventh and the ninth. Thefe diffonances, like the others, ought to be prepared and rdolved. They
are prepared by being fyncopated, and refolved by defeending diatonieally upon one of the confonane.es of the
fubfequent chord. The fenfible note alone can be refolved in afeending : but it is even neceffary that this fenfible
note ftiould be in the chord of the tonic dominant. As to the diffonances which, are found in. the primitive chord,
they fhould always follow the common rules. (See art. 202.).
Occafion*
when re¬
trench¬
ments of
chords are
proper.
544 M U S
Principles 3. If to a chord of the firnple dominant, as D F A C,
f Compofi-we {|loUid add the fifth G, tve would have the chord G
D F A C, called a chord of the eleventh, and which is
figured with a ^ or (See LXXVIII.).
Observe.
217. When the dominant is not a tonic dominant,
we often take away fome notes from the chord. For
example, let us fuppofe that there is in the fundamen¬
tal bafs this fimple dominant E, carrying the chord E
G B D : if there ihould be added the third C beneath,
we fhall have this chord of the continued bafs C E G
B D •, but wre fupprefs the feventh B, for reafons which
fhall be explained in the note upon art. 210. In
this ftate the chord is limply compofed of a third,
fifth, and ninth, and is marked with a 9. See LXXIX.
(4 p)*
218. In the chord of the fimple dominant, as D F
A C, when the fifth G is added, wre frequently oblite¬
rate the founds F and A, that too great a number of
diflbnances may be avoided, which reduces the chord
to G C D. This laft is compofed only of the fourth
and the fifth. It is called a chord of the fourth, and it
is figured with a 4 (4 Q.) (fee lxxx.).
219. Sometimes we only remove the note A, and
then the chord ought to be figured w'ith 4 or ^ (4 r).
220. Finally, in the minor mode, for example, in
■ that of A, where the chord of the tonic dominant (109),
is E G^B D ; if_we add to this chord the third C be¬
low', we lhall have E G^B D, called the chord of the
ffth redundant, and compofed of a third, a fifth redun¬
dant, a feventh and a ninth. It is figured as in lxxxi.
(4 s)-
\ Of the Chord of the Diminished Seventh.
221. In the minor mode, for inftance, in that of A,
£ a fifth from A is the tonic dominant (109), and
venth what, carrjcs t]ie cl10rd E G^B D, in which G is the fenfible
and how
figured.
Chord of
the fifth re
dundant
what, and
how figu¬
red.
Chord of
the flat fe-
I C. Part II.
note. For this chord we fometlmes fubftxtnte G Bi^D F, Principles
(116), all compofed of minor thirds and which has^“P0**1*
for its fundamental found the fenlible note G$(. I his . ^
chord is called a chord of the fiat or dimintfhed feventh.
and is figured with a in the fundamental bafs, (fee
lxxxiv.) j but it is always confidered as reprefenting
the chord of the tonic dominant.
222. This chord by inverfion produces in the conti-Chords pro.
nued bafs the following chords :
1. The chord B D F G$, compofed of a third, falfe bafs by th;$
fifth, and fixth major. They call it the chord of /A what, and
fixth fenfible and falfe fifth; and it is figured as inhowfigur.
Exam, lxxxv. (Plate CCCLX.). _
2. The chord D F G$B, compofed of a third, a tri¬
tone, and a fixth. It is called the chord of the trifne
and third minor ; and marked as in exxxvi.
3. The chord F G^B D, compofed of a fecond re¬
dundant, a tritone, and a fixth. It is called the chord
of the fecond redundant, and figured as in LXXXVH.
(4 t).
223. Befides, fince the chord G)$( B D F reprefents Alterations
the chord E G^B D, it follow's, that if we operate by^niuPP^
fuppofition upon the nrft of thefe chords, it muif be per- whi^h t‘hey
formed as one would perform it upon E G$B D } that produce,
is to fay, that it will be neceffary to add to the chord what, ar.d
G$B 1) F, the notes C or A, which are the third or^w fiSur"
fifth below E, and which will produce,
1. By adding C, the chord C G)ftB D F, compofed
of a fifth redundant, a feventh, a ninth, and eleventh,
which is the oftave of the fourth. It is called a chord
of the fifth redundant and fourth, and marked as in
LXXXV1II.
2. By adding A, we lhall have the chord A G$B
DF, compofed of a feventh redundant, a ninth, an
eleventh, and a thirteenth minor, which is the o61ave
of the fixth minor. It is called the chord of the
feventh redundant and fixth minor, and marked as in
lxxxix. It is of all chords the molt harfh, and the
molt rarely pra£tifed (4U),
Chap.
(4 p) Several muficians call this lalt chord the chord of the ninth; and that which, with M. Rameau, w'e
have limply called a chord of the ninth, they term a chord oj the ninth and feventh. J his lalt chord they mark
w ith a , but the denomination and figure ufed by M. Rameau are more fimple and can lead to no error;
becaufe the chord of the ninth always includes the feventh, except in the cafes of which we have already
fpoken.
(4 Q.) England it is figured 4.
(4 r) We often remove fome diffonances from chords of fuppofition, either to foften the harllme.s of the chord,
or to remove difeords which can neither be prepared nor refolved. For inltance, let us fuppofe, that in the con¬
tinued bafs the note C is preceded by the fenlible note B carrying the chord of the falfe fifth, and that we Ihould
choofe to form upon this note C the chord CEGBD, we mull obliterate the feventh B, becaufe in retaining it
we Ihould deftroy the effett of the fenfible note B, which ought to rife to C.
In the fame manner, if to the harmony of a tonic dominant GBDF, one fhould add the note by fuppofition C,
it is ufual to retrench from this chord the fenlible note B \ becaufe, as the D ought to delccnd diatonically. to C,
and the B to rife to it, the effeft of the one wmuld delfroy that of the other. T Ids above all takes place in the
fufpenpon, concerning which we lhall prefently treat.
(4 s) Suppoftion produces what we call fufpenfion ; and which is aim oil the fame thing, but pen lion con fills in
retaining as many as poffible of the founds in a preceding chord, that they may be heard in the chord which fuc*
eeeds. For inlfance, in Example lxxxii. the C bearing $7 is a fuppofition; but in Example EXXXJIl. it is a
fufpenfion, becaufe it fufpends or retards the perfe61 chord C E G C which the ear experts alter the tonic domi¬
nant G B D F. ( , , <
(4T) The chord of the diminilhed feventh, and the three derived from it, are termed chords of fubjhtution.
They are in general harlh, and proper for imitating melancholy objects, ^ .
(a uj As the chord of the diminilhed feventh G^B D F, and the chord of the tonic dominant E C$ BD, only
J differ
Part IT.
MUSI C.
545
Principles _
cf Compofi- Chap. X. Of fame licences ufed in the Treble and
^ t1**1-- Continued Bafs.
iiccnfe ift. 224. Sometimes in a treble, the diflbnance which
ought to have been refolved by defcending diatonically
upon the fucceeding note, inilead of defcending, on the
contrary rifcs diatonically : but in that cafe, the note
upon which it ought to have defcended mult be found
in fome of the other parts. This licenle ought to be
rarely pradtifed.
In like manner, in a continued bnfs, the diffonance
in a chord of the fub-dominant inverted, as A in the
chord A C E G, inverted from C E G A, may fome-
times defcend diatonically inftead of riling as it ought
to do, art. I 29. N° 2. 5 but in that cafe the note ought
to be repeated in another part, that the diffonance may
be there refolved in afcending.
LicenCe 2d. 225- Sometimes likewife, to render a continued bafs
more agreeable by cauling it to proceed diatonically,
we place between two founds of that bafs a note which
belongs to the chord of neither. See Example xcn. in
which the fundamental bafs G C produces the continued
bafs G A B G C, where A is added on account of the
diatonic modulation. This A has a line drawn above
it, to fhow its refolution by pafling under the chord
G B D F.
In the fame manner, (fee XCHI.) this fundamental
bafs C F may produce the continued bafs C D E C I,
VOL. XIV. Part II.
where the note D, which is added, paffes under the Principles
chord c EG c. °fc””roli
m peti¬
tion.
Chap. XI. Containing the Method of finding the
Fundamental Bafs when the continued Bafs is
figured.
226. As the continued bafs alone appears in praftical How to find
compofitions, it becomes neeeflary to know how to findtne
the fundamental bafs when the continued bafs is ^gur'^"^the
ed. This problem may be eatily folved by the follow-contjnue(i
ing rules. Is figured.
227. I. Every note which has no figure in the con¬
tinued bafs, ought to be the fame, and without a figure
in the fundamental bafs; it is either a tonic, or reckoned
fuch (4 x).
2. Every note which in the continued bafs carries a
6, ought in the fundamental bafs to give its third be¬
low not* figured *, or its fifth below marked with a 7. * See F*-
We lhall didinguith thefe two cafes below. See
and the note (4 y).
3-. Every note carrying ^ gives in the fundamental
bafs its fifth below not figured. See lvii.
4. Every note figured with a 7, or a tj, is the fame
in both baifes, and with the fame figure (4 y).
5. Every note figured with a 2 gives in the funda¬
mental bafs the diatonic note above figured with a 7.
See lxiv. (42).
6. Every note marked with a 4 gives in the funda-
3 Z mental
difter one from the other by the notes E and F; one may form a diatonic modulation of thefe two notes, and then
the fundamental bafs does nothing but pafs from the tonic dominant to the fenfible note, and from that note to the
For the fame reafon, as the chord of the diminilhed feventh G)&B D F, and the chord B D b A, vhich carries
the fifth B of the tonic dominant E, only differs by the fenfible note G$, and the tonic A ; one may lometimes,
while the treble modulates G$ AG$ AG$ A, afeend in the fundamental bafs, from the bafs note to the third above,
provided one defcend at laft from thence to the tonic dominant, and from thence to the tonic; (ice xti.). Ilu:-
and the preceding examples are licenfes. , . . 1 u
(4 x) We fay a tonic, or reckonedfuch, becaufe it may perhaps be a dominant from Wrucn the diffonance nas been
removed. But in that cafe one may know that it is a real dominant by the note which precedes it For inffance,
if the note G, carrying a perfeft chord, is preceded by D a fimple dominant, carrying the chord 13 b I , t tat
note G is not a real tonic ; becaufe, in order to this, it would have been neceffary that D ihould have been a tonic
dominant, and thould have carried the chord D F^A C ; and that a fimple dominant, as D, carrying the chord
D F A C, ftiould only naturally defcend to a dominant, (art. 194.). _ . , „ , . , r j u
(4 y) Sometimes a note which carries a 7 in the continued bafs, gives in the fundamental bafs its third abovr,
figured with a 6. For example, this continued bafs ABC gives this fundamental bafs C G C ; but in this cafe
it is neceffary that the note figured with a 6 ffiould rife by a fifth, as we fee here C nic to •
(4 z) A note figured with a 2, gives likewife fometimes in the fundamental bafs its fourth above figured
with a 6 ; but it is neceffary in that cafe that the note figured with a 6, may even here rife to a fifth. (Sec
n°Theft:*variations in the fundamental bafs, as well in the chord concerning which we now treat, as in the chord
-fio-ured with a 7, and in two others which (hall afterwards be mentioned (art. 228. and 229.,, are cauied by a de¬
ficiency in the figns proper for the chord of the fub-dominant, and for the different arrangements by which it is
111 M. PAbbe Rouffier, to redrefs this deficiency, had invented a new manner of figuring the continued bafs.
His method is molt fimpk for thofe who know the fundamental bafs. It confifts m expreffmg each chord by
only fignifying the fundamental found with that letter of the fcale by which it is denominated, to which^is jomei
a for tf, or a 6, in order to mark all the difeords. Thus the fundamental chord of the feventh D F A C is gxprel-
fed by a D; and the fame chord, when it is inverted from that of the fub-dominant F A C D, is charaftenzed by
F ; the chord of the fecond C D F A, inverted from the dominant D F A C, is likewife reprefented by
■ P ; -and. the fame chord C D F A, inverted from that of the fub-dominant F A C D, is figmfied by I’ ; the cafeis
4&
M U
Pripcipiftt mental bafs the diatonic note above, figured with a 7.
of (ompofi- (see LXt.).
tiun. ' „ y
*7— t 1 1 7- J^very note figured with a g gives its third below
figured with a 7. (See LVIII.).
8. Every note marked with a d gives the fifth be¬
low marked w ith a 7 ; (fee lx.) and it is plain by
art. 187. that in the chord of the feventh, of w hich we
treat in thefe three lalt articles, the third ought to be
major, and the feventh minor, this chord of the feventh
being the chord of the tonic dominant. (See art. 102.).
9. Every note marked with a 9 gives its third above
figured with a 7. (See lxxvii. andi.xxix,).
10. Every note marked with a -§ gives the fifth a-
bove figured with a 7. (See lxxviii.).
11. Every note marked with a $5, or with a -j-5,
7
gives the third above figured with a $. (See lxxxi.).
12. Every note marked with a '$7 gives a fifth above
figured with a 7, or with a $. (See LXXVI.). It is
the fame cafe with the notes marked J, |, or 4: which
fhow’s a retrenchment, either in the complete chord of
the eleventh, or in that of the feventh redundant.
13. Every note marked with a 4 gives a fifth above
7
figured with a 7, or a $(. (See lxxx.).
14. Every note marked with a $6 gives the third
minor below, figured with a (See Lxxxv.).
4
15. Every note marked with a h gives the tritone a-
bove figured with a rf. (See lxxxvi.).
16. Every note marked with a $2 gives the fecond
redundant above, figured with a (See LXXXVli.).
17. Every note marked with a gives the fifth
redundant above, figured with a#. (See LXXXVill.).
18. Every note marked with a^J gives the feventh
redundant above, figured with a ij.
(5 a).
Remark.
(See lxxxix.).
A difficulty 228. We have omitted two cafes, which may caufe
in finding fome uncertainty,
the funda¬
mental
bafs.    
S I C. Part II.
The firft is that where the note of the continued bafs
is figured with a 6. We now prefent the reafon of the
difficulty.
Suppofe we ffiould have the dominant D in the fun¬
damental bafs, the note which anfwers to it in the con¬
tinued bafs may be A carrying the figure 6 (fee
XIV. j j that is to fay, the chord A. C i) F ; now
if we ffiould have the fubdominant F in the fundamen¬
tal bafs, this lubdominant might produce in the conti¬
nued bafs, the fame note A figured with a 6. When
therefore we find in the continued bafs a note marked
W'ith a 6, it appears at firrt uncertain whether ive
ffiould place in the fundamental bafs the fifth below
marked with a 7> or the third beloiv marked with
a 6.
229. The fecond cafe is that in which the conti- Another.
nued bafs is figured with a For inftance, if there
6
T #
ffiould be found F in the continued bafs, rve may be
ignorant whether ive ought to infert in the funda¬
mental bafs I marked with a 6, or D figured with
a 7-
230. This difficulty may be removed by leaving for Solution.
Rn mflant this uncertain note in fulpenfe, and m exa¬
mining the fucceeding note of the fundamental bafs ;
for if that note be in the prefent cafe a fifth above F,
that is to fay, if it be C, in this cafe, and in this alone,
we may place F in the fundamental bafs. It is a confe-
quence of this rule, that in the fundamental bafs every
fub-dominant ought to rife by a fifth (195).
Chap. XII. What is meant by being in a Mode or
Tone.
231. In the firft part of this treatife (chap. vi.) we Method of
have explained, how by the means of the note C, and determin-
of its two-fifths G and F, one in afeending, which is ingdth*
called a tonic dominant, the other in defeending, which which we
is called fub-dominant, the fcale C D E FA B C may are.
be found : the different founds which form this fcale
compofe
Principles
of Conipofi,
tion.
the fame when the chords are differently inverted. By this means it would be impoffible to miilake either with re-
to the fundamental bafs of a chord, or with refipeft to the note which forms its diffonance, or with refpeft to
the nature and fpecies of that difeord. ^
( 9 a) We may only add, that here, and in the preceding articles of the text, we fuppofe, that the continued
bafs is figured in the manner of M. Rameau. For it is proper to obferve, that there are not, perhaps, two mu-
ficians who eharadlcrize their chords with the fame figures j which produces a great inconveniency to the perfon
who plays the accompaniments : but here we do not treat of accompaniments. We prefer the continued baffes
of M. Rameau to all the others, as by them the fundamental bafs will be moft eafily difeovered.
M. Rameau only marks the leffer fixth by a 6 without a line, when this leffer fixth does not refult from the
chord of the tonic dominant 5 in fueh a manner that the 6 renders it uncertain whether in the fundamental bafs
we ought to choofe the third or the fifth below 5 but it will be eafy to fee whether the third or the fifth is fignified
by that figure. This may be diftinguiffied, 1. In obferving which of the two nates is excluded by the rules of the
fundamental bafs. 2. If the two notes may with equal propriety be placed in the fundamental bafs, the preference
muft be determined by the tone or mode of the treble in that particular paffage. In the following chapter we
(hall give rules for determining the mode (note 3 z). 6 ^
These is a chord of which we have not fpoken in this enumeration, and which is called the chord of the fixth
redundant. This chord is compofed of a note, of its third major, of its redundant fourth or tritone, and its re¬
dundant fixth, as h A B D$. . It is marked with a 6%. It appears difficult to find a fundamental bafs for this
chord ; nor is it indeed much in ufe amongft us. (See the note upon the art. 115.).
This chord is called in England the chord of the extreme fharp fixth. When accompanied by the third only
it is called the Italian fixth. When the fifth is fubffituted for the tritone, it has been called the German fixth.
Part II. M U S
principles compofe the major mode of C, becaure the third E
«f Compoii-above C is major. If therefore we would have a mo-
tton. dotation in the major mode of C, no other founds mull
enter into it than thofe which compofe this fcale 5 in
fuch a manner that if, for inttance, we ihould find
in this modulation, this F$C difcovers to us that we are
not in the mode of C, or at leaft that, if we have been
in it, we are no longer fo.
232. In the fame manner, if we form this fcale in af-
cending All C)& D E F)& G$A, which is exactly fi-
milar to the fcale CDEFGABC of the major mode
of C, this fcale, in which the third from A to C)ft is
major, fhall be in the major mode of A •, and if we in¬
cline to be in the minor mode of A, we have only to
fubilitute for C lharp C natural; fo that the major
third A C$ may become minor AC: we (hall have
then
ABCDEF# G« A,
which is (85.) the fcale of the minor mode of A in af-
cending j and the fcale of the minor mode of A in de-
fcending (hall be (90.),
A G F E C D B A,
in which the G and F are no longer (harp. For it is a
fingularity peculiar to the minor mode, that its fcale is
not the fame in riling as in defcending (89.).
233. This is the reafon why, when we with to be¬
gin a piece in the major mode of A, we place three
what fharps (harps at the cleff upon F, C, and G ; and on the eon-
ami flats trary, in the minor mode of A, we place none, becaufe
placed at t^e minor mode of A, in defcending, has neither (harps
the cleff nor flats.
in the ma- 234. As the fcale contains twelve founds, each di-
jor mode offtant from the other by the interval of a femitone, it is
A, and why 0bvious that each of thefe founds can produce both a
omitted in major and a minor mode, which conftitute 24 modes
the minor upon the whole. Of thefe we (hall immediately give a
modem de-tah]e, which may be very ufeful to difcover the mode
in which we are.
Hence it
appears
(tending;.
Modes 24
in the
whole.
A TABLE of the Different Modes.
Major Modes.
Map Mode.
of C J C, D, E, F, G, A, B, c.
of G j G, A, B, c, d, e, {% g.
I c.
of D j D, E, F^, G, A, B, c$, d.
of A $ A, B, c)ft, d, e, f^(, gift, a.
of E j E, F«, G«, ABc*,d*,e.
of B; B, c)g(, d)ft, e, f$, g$, a)&, b.
Of F*. F«, At, B, c)&, dt, t%, i
} D1'- ^ r- Gl'' ^ Bt>’ c> dl’-
0°fAG*' | Al), Bl), c, (It), (■[), f, g, at).
^E^’^Epr.C, At), Bt), c, d, CD-
oJ B*;’ } E1'- C> D- F> G> A> El'-
ot rtf;’ } F> G> A’ c> d- e-f-
II c*’ } C’ D> E- F> G- A> B' c-
(See Ex. xciv.).
547
Principles
of Compofi-
tion.
1 V  
(5B)*
Minor Modes.
Of A.
In defcending. A G F E D C B A.
In riling. AB C D E F$( Gt A.
Of E.
In defcending. e d c B AG F$ E.
In rifing. E F)g( GAB ct d)^ e.
Of B.
In defcending. B A G F^C E D C>(<B.
In rifing. B C« D E F* G% At B.
Of Yt.
In defcending. f^i e d ot B A G)§; E.^C.
In rifing. F$( G^i A B Ct d)^ et f^»
Of ct.
In defcending. Ct B A G)& F)§: E D)^ Ct-
In rifing. C)£( D)j<( Eh)^ G)^ At C)^.
Of G^ or At?.
In defcending. g$ ed$ ct B At Gt.
In Tiling. At? Bl; Ct? fit? et? fg aj?.
Of D)& or Et?.
In defcending. ej? d[? cj? I'>tl At? Gt? F jL[?.
In rifing. Et? FG[? At? Btl cdet?.
Of At or Bt?.
In defcending. Bt? At), Gt? F Ej? D[? C Bt?.
In rifing. Dt? C Dl; Et? F G A Bt?.
3 Z 2 Of
(5 b) The major mode of F$, of C^i, and of G$, are not much praftifed.
When a piece begins upon C$>, there ought to be feven fharps placed at the cleff: but it is more convenient
only to place five flats, and to fuppofe the key Dt?, which is almotl the fame thing with C'$. For tins rcalon we
fubffitute here the mode of D[?, for that of Ct.
It is dill much more neceffary to fubflituLe the mode of At? for that of Gt', (he fcale of the major mode of
Gt is, Gt, At, ^t, Ct, d«, et, g, gt,
in which it appears that there are at the fame time both a ‘gt]1 and a ‘gt’ '• it would then be neceffary, even at
the fame time, that upon G there (hould and fhould not be a (harp at the cleff; which is inconfiftent. It is true
that this inconvenience may be avoided by placing a (harp upon G at the cleff, and by marking the note G with
a natural through the courfe of the mufic wherever it ought to be natural ; but this would become troublefome,
above all if there (hould be occafion to tranfpofe. In the article 236. we (hall give an account of tranfpofition.
We might likewife in this feries, inftead of G natural, which is the note immediately before the laft, fubftitute
F$#>, that is to fay, F twice (harp : which, however, is not abfolutely the lame found wfith G natural, efpecial-
ly upon inftruments whofe fcales are fixed, or wrhofe intervals are invariable. But in that cafe two (harps mull be
placed at the cleff upon F, which would produce another inconvenience. But by fubftituting A*t? tor G$, the
trouble is eluded.
The double (harp, however, is incidentally ufed, when in a compofition in the key of F)$( there is an occafional
modulation into the dominant of that key, and it is diilinguiftied by the character X or tt-
M U S I C.
548
Principles Of or F^.
(le^"cen(iing- f F e)? c B1j A[? GF.
In riling. F G B[? c d e f.
Of C.
In defcending. c B[? A\) G F E[) D C.
In riling. C 1) El? F G A B c.
Of G.
In defcending; gfe[?dCBt? AG.
In riling. GABJ) cdef$g.
Of D.
In defcending. dcB[? AGFED.
In riling. D E F G A B c'$ d (5 c).
Modes 235- Tbefe then are all the modes, as well major as
crowded minor. Thofe which are crowded with lharps and
with fliarps flats are little praftifed, as being extremely difficult in
and Hats execution.
little prac-
fcifed.
Part II.
236. Hence it follows, Principles
1. That when there are neither {harps nor flats at the0* <“oniP°li-
cleff, the piece begins in the major mode of C, or in. v ‘
the minor mode of A. Itcfults,
2. That when there is one lharp, it will always be
placed upon F, and that the piece begins in the major
mode of G, or the minor of E, in fuch a manner that
it may be fung as if there were no lharp, by linging B
inllead of F$(, and in linging the tune as if it had been
in another cleff. For inttance, let there be a lharp up¬
on F in the cleff of G upon the firft line ; one may then
ling the tune as if there were no fharp ; and as if, in-
ftead of the cleff of G upon the firft line, it were the
cleff of C ; for the F$, when changed into B, will re¬
quire that the cleft' of G ffiould be changed to the cleff
of C, as may be eafily feen. This is what we call
tranfpojition (5 d). ^ _ See Tranji
237. It is evident, that when F$ is changed intopofition.
3>,
(5 c) We have already feen, that in eacli mode, the principal note is called a tonic ; that the fifth above that
note is called a tonic dominant, or the dominant of the mode, or limply a dominant; that the fifth below the tonic,
or, what is the fame thing, the fourth above that tonic, is called a fub-dominant; and in Ihort, that the note
which forms a femitone below the tonic, and which is a third major from the dominant, is called a fenfble note.
The other notes have likewife in every mode particular names which it is advantageous to know. Thus a note-
which is a tone-immediately above the tonic, as D in the mode of C, and B in that of A is termed a fuper-tonic;
the following note, which is a third major or minor from the tonic, according as the chord is major or minor,
fuch as E in the major mode of C, and C in the minor mode of A, is called a mediant; and the note
which is a tone above the dominant, fuch as A, in the mode of C, and F$C in that of A, is called a fuper-
dorninant.
(j d) Though our author’s account of this delicate operation in mufic will be found extremely juft and com¬
pendious j- though it proceeds upon fimple principles, and comprehends every poffible contingency ", yet as the
manner of thinking upon which it depends may be lefs familiar to Englilh readers, if not profoundly Ikilled in
mufic, it has been thought proper to give a more familiar, though lefs comprehenfive, explanation of the manner
in which tranfpoftion may be executed.
It will eafily occur to every reader, that if each of the intervals through the whole diatonic feries -were equal,
in a mathematical fenfe, it would be abfolutely indifferent upon what note any air were begun, if within the com-
pafs of the gammut 5 becaufe the fame equal intervals mult always have the fame effefts. But fince, befides the
natural femitones, there is another diftinftion of diatonic intervals into greater and leffer tones ; and fince thefe
vary their pofitions in the feries of an odtave, according as the note from whence you begin is placed, that note is
confequently the beft key for any tune whofe natural feries is moll exactly correfpondent with the intervals v'hich
that melody or harmony requires. But in inffruments whofe feales are fixed, notwithftanding the temperament
and other expedients of the fame kind, fuch a feries is far from being eafily found, and is indeed in common prac¬
tice almolt totally neglected. All that can frequently be done is, to take care that the ear may not be fenftbly
ftiocked. This, however, would be the cafe, if, in tranfpofing any tune, the fituation of the femitones, whether
natural or artificial, were not exaftly correfpondent in the feries to which your air mult be tranfpofed, with their
pofitions in the fcale from which you tranfpofe it. Suppofe, for inftance, your air ffiould begin upon C, requiring
the natural diatonic feries through the whole gammut, in which the diftance betAveen E and F, as alfo that be¬
tween B and C, is only a femitone. Again, fuppofe it neceffary for your voice, or the inftrument on which you
play, that the fame air fhould be tranfpofed to G, a fifth above its former key •, then becaufe in the firft feries the
intervals between the third and the fourth, feventh and eighth notes, are no more than femitones, the fame inter¬
vals muft take the fame place in the odtave to which you tranfpofe. Now, from G, the note with which you pro-
pofe to begin, the three tones immediately fucceeding are full \ but the fourth C is only a femitone •, it may there¬
fore be kept in its place. But from F, the feventh note above, to G, the eighth, the interval is a full tone,
which mult confequently be redreffed by railing the F a femitone higher. Thus the fituations of the femitonic
intervals in both odtaves will be correfpondent} and thus, by conforming the pofitions of the femitones in the oc¬
tave to which you tranfpofe, with thofe in the oftave in which the original key of the tune is contained, you will
perform your operation with as much fuccefs as the nature of fixed feales can admit.
The order to be obferved in thefe alterations of the intervals, is deduced from the relation which the fifth
afeending and defcending bear to the fundamental (art. 34, 35.) *, and therefore the farther we depart from the
natural fundamental C by a feries of fifths afeending or dtfeending, the alterations, and confequently the number
lharps or flats indicating them, will be the greater.
Thus if G, which is the perfect fifth afeending from , therefore the note molt nearly allied to C (art. 39, 40.)',
be
3
Part II
Principles
[f Corapoli-
! tion.
Ml the
,nodes re-
lucible to
he major
Jjf C and
■he minor
jf A.
M U
B, G muft be clianged into C, and iL into A. ’Ihus,
by tranfpofition, the air has the fame melody as if it
were in the major mode of C, or in the minor mode of
A. The major mode then of G, and the minor of E,
are by tranfpofition reduced to thofe of C major, and
of A minor. It is the fame cafe with all the other
modes (5 e).
SIC. 549
Principles
Chap. XIII. To find the Fundamental Bafs of a of Compofi-
given Modulation. < „—v,j
238. As we have reduced to a very fmall number Method of
the rules of the fundamental bafs, and thofe which inf”J^n_
the treble ought to be obferved with relation to this taj ^aps t0 a
bais, given air
not diffi-
   — — cult, and
, why.
be taken for a fundamental, F, which is the feventh of the fcale of G, muft be. made ftiarp, that it may he a
whole tone from the ftxth E, and only a femitone from the key note G, according to the laws of the diatonic
iccile Tcirt* *7*70* See Ex« xciv# I# 2* _ ^ ..
Acrain if D the perfeft fifth afeending from G, and the fecond in the feries of progreffive fifths aicendmg
fromt be ufed as a fundamental, C, which is the feventh of the fcale of D, muft, to render it the fenfible or
leading’note (art. 77.), be made ftiarp in addition to F 5 fo that in the feale of D, there are two fliarps, r and U
SeCfEx. above and t]ie in the feries of fifths afeending from C, be the.fundamental, the
feventhG muft, in addition to F and C, be made (harp, for the fame reafon (4.) ; and fo on, in the fcale of E,
which is next in order, F, C, G, and D, muft be ftiarp (5.) : in that of B, the (harps muft be F, C, Gr
’The perfeft fifth above B is F$, and in that fcale F, C, G, D, A, and E, muft be (harp (7.). And in the
next fcale all the notes of the fyftem are (harp (8.). n u r
This, for the reafons mentioned in the note (5 b), is the laft fcale to which we can properly go by the progrei-
Returning to the natural fcale of C, if, inftead of affuming G, the perfeft fifth above, for a fundamental, we
take F the nerfeft fifth below B, which is the fourth note above F, and forms a tntone or (harp fourth
to it, mutt, to become a perfeft fourth, according to the laws of the diatonic fcale, (art. 60.) be made
Proceeding; with the feries of fifths defeending, if Bj?, which is the perfett fifth below F, be taken for.a funda-
mesital ; E, which, in its natural date, is the tritone or (harp fourth to Bt?,- muft, to become the diatonic fourth
(art. 60.), alfo be rendered flat (11.). . , _ . . , r r , , .1
If Eh which is the perfect fifth below B^, and the third in the feries of fifths defeending from C, be made the
fundamental, A, the (harp fourth, muft, to become the diatonic fourth, be made flat, and the flats marked at the
To for in the next fcale in the feries of fifths defeending, which is that of A flat, D muft be flattened 3 and B,
E. A, and D, are marked flat at the cleff (9.). . 1 rr x 'ru*
The next fcale, that of D flat, is formed by flattening G, and adding its flat to the others at the cleft (b.). I his
is the fcale recommended to be ufed rather than that of C$. (See note 5 b). ,, . a ^
We do not proceed farther with the feries of fifths defeending, fince the next feale, that of Gt>, would juft or
very nearly exhibit the founds already reprefented by the fcale of F$ (7.). I his fcale is however, fometimes
written in the kev of G flat, and we even meet with the fcale of its fifth below, C flat, and, with an occanonal
modulation from {hat key intu its fifth below, F flat, where B being neceffanly twice flattened, is diftmguiflied by
this charafler p, or \)\), called a double flat.
We have thus feen, ift, That each of the notes of the diatonic fcale of C, and each of the femitones into which
the whole tones of that fcale are divided, may be taken for the fundamental note of a diatonic fcale, called the
fca/e of that note 2dly, That the notes of the natural fcale are more or lefs altered, as the note affumed for a
fundamental is more o/lefs diftant from C, in a progreflion of fifths .afeending or defeending sdly, I hat in t e
progreflion by fifths afeending, the notes are altered by (harps, and in the progreflion by fifth, defeending 1 e
[iterations are by flats. 4thly, That in the alteration by fliarps, the laft (harp is always on the. feventh or fenfible
note of the fca^: and where there are more than one, is always on the fifth above the fliarp immediately prece¬
ding : and ill the alteration by flats, the laft flat is always on the.fourth of the fcale j and where there are more
than one, is always on the fifth below the flat immediately pieceding. . ^ , r .1 •
The fignatures of (harps and flats at the clefts, belonging to the twelve major feales, are alfo ufed for thei -
lative minor feales. The occafional elevation and depreflion of the fixths and fevenths of the minor feales, are de¬
noted by occafional (liarps and flats placed before thefe notes. . T ... p tVbrp one
(c e) Many muficians, and amongft others the ancient muficians of France, as Lulli, Campia, &c. place one
flat left in the minor mode : fo that in the minor mode of D, they place nerther (harp nor flat at the cleff; m
the minor mode of G, one flat only 5 in the minor mode of C, two flats, &c
This practice in itfelf is fuffieiently indifferent, and fcareely merits the trouble of a difpute. V et the method
which we have here deferibed, according to M. Rameau, has the advantage of reducing all the modes to two ,
and befides it is founded upon this Ample and very general rule, That m the major mode, we muft ? ace /
(harps or flats at the cleft, as are contained in the diatonic fcale of that mode m afeending, and m the mmo*
mode, as many as are contained in that fame fcale in defeending.
$5° M U
Principles bafs, it fhould no longer be difficult to find the funda-
0t ^on'011 menta^ OI" a given modulation, nay, frequently to
>— y find feveral; for every fundamental bafs will be legiti¬
mate, when it is formed according to the rules which
we have given (chap, vi.) ; and that, befides this, the
dillonances which the modulation may form with this
bals, will both be prepared, if it is necefiary that they
thouid be lo, and always refolved f).
Difficulty of 239 the greateft utility in fearching for the
affigning fundamental bafs, to know what Is the tone or mode
general of the melody to which that bafs Ihould correfpond.—
alVertainii' ^utat ^hHcult in this matter to affign general rules,
' the6 mode anc^ Muchas are abfolutely without exception, in which
a melody nothing may be left that appears indifferent or difcre-
whofe fun- tionary j becaufe fo me times we feem to have the free
damental cl10ice of referring a particular melody either to one
mode or another. For example, this melody G C may
belong to all the modes, as well major as minor, in
which G and C are found together; and each of thefe
two founds may even be coniidered as belonging to a
different mode.
240. We may fometimes, as it ffiould feem, operate
without the knowledge of the mode, for two reafons;
1. Becaufe, fince the fame founds belong to feveral
different modes, the mode is fometimes confiderably
undetermined 5 above all, in the middle of a piece, and
during the time of one or two bars. 2. Without giving
ourfelves much trouble about the mode, it is often Ef¬
ficient to preferve us from deviating in compofition, if
we obferve in the fimplcft manner the rules above pre-
feribed (chap, vi.) for the procedure of the fundamental
bafs.
241. In the mean time, it is above all things ne-
i ceffary to know in what mode we operate at the be-
of'tKe mode SinnIng of tlie Piece> hecaufe it is indifpcnfable that
in begin- ^■ie fundamental bafs fliould begin in the tame mode,
iiing a piece and that the treble and bafs thouid likewife end in it j
indiipen- nay, that they thouid even terminate in its fundamental
note, which in the mode of C is C, and A in that of
A, &c. Befides, in thofe paffages of the modulation
where there is a cadence, it is generally neceffary that
the mode of the fundamental bats thouid be the fame
with that of the part to which it correfponds.
242. To know upon what mode or in what key a
piece commences, our inquiry may be entirely reduced
rinuedC°n* t0 l^e major mode of C from the minor of A.
For we have already feen (art. 236. and 237.), that all
the modes may be reduced to thefe two, at leaft in the
bafs is
; fought.
Reafom
why we
may pro¬
ceed with¬
out the
knowledge
of the
mode, and
how we
may be
preferved
from devi¬
ating in
compoli-
tion.
fable, and
why.
Inveftiga-
tion of the
S I c.
beginning of the piece. We fhall now therefore give a
detail of the different means by which thefe two modes
may be diffinguiffied.
1. From the principal and chara&eriftical founds of
the mode, which are C E G in the one, and A C E in
the other ; fo that if a piece Ihould, for inftance, begin
thus, A C E A, it may be almoft conilantly concluded,
that the tone or mode is in A minor, although the notes
ACE belong to the mode of C.
2. From the fenfible note, which is B in the one, and
G $ in the other ; lo that if G$ appears in the firft
bars of a piece, we may be certain that we are in the
mode A.
3. From the adjumffs of the mode, that is to fay,
the modes of its two-fifths, which for C are F and G,
and L) and E for A. For example, if after having be¬
gun a melody by fome of the notes which are common
to the modes of C and of A (as E E> E F E D C B
C), we Ihould afterwards find the mode of G, which we
afeertain by the F$, or that of F which we afeertain
by the Bl; or Ct|, we may conclude that we have begun
in the mode of C ; but if we find the mode of D, or
that of E, which we afeertain by B[?, C$, or &c.
we conclude from thence that we have begun in the
mode of A.
4. A mode is not ufually changed, efpecially in
the beginning of a piece, unlefs in order to pafs jnto
one or other of the modes molt relative to it, which
are the mode of its fifth above, and that of its third
below, if the original mode of major, or of its third
above if it be minor. Thus, for inftance, the modes
which are molt intimately relative to the major mode
of C, are the major mode of G, and that of A minor,
brom the mode of C we commonly pafs either into
the one or the other of thefe modes; fo that we may
fometimes judge of the principal mode in which we
are, by the relative mode which follows it, or which
goes before it, when thefe relative modes are decifively
marked. Befides thefe two r< lati e modes, there are
likewile two others into which the pnndpal mode may
pals, but lefs frequently, viz. the mode of its fifth below,
and that of its third above, as F and E for the mode of
C(JG).
3. 1 he modes may ftill be likewife diftinguilhed by
the cadences of the melody. Thefe cadences ought to
occur at the end of every two, or at moil of every four
bars, as in the fundamental bals: now the note of
the fundamental bafs which is moft fuliable to thefe
doles.
1 arc U(
Principle,
of Com poll,
tion.
iVi cans by
which the
medes may
be deter¬
mined.
(5 F)r ^tet] t/ia{ we are upon a particular hey or fcalc, inllead of faying that we are in a particular
mode. T he following expreffions therefore are fynonymous } fuck a piece is in C major, or in the mode of Q, ma¬
jor, or in the hey of C major, or in the fcale of C major,
(5 G) ^ certain that the minor mode of E has an extremely natural connection with the mode of C, as has
been proven (art. 92.) both by arguments and by examples. It has likewife appeared in the note upon the art. 93.
that the minor mooe of 1) may be joined to the major mode of C : and thus in a particular fenfe, this mode may
be confidered as relative to the mode of C, but it is ftill lefs lo than the major modes of G and F, or than thofe
of A and E minor -, becaufe we cannot immediately, and without licence, pafs in a fundamental bafs from the
perfeft minor chord of C to the perfect minor chord of I) ; and if you pafs immediately from the major mode of
C to the minor mode of D in a fundamental bafs, it is by paffmg, for inftance, from the tonic C, or from E G C,
to the tonic dominant of D, carrying the chord A C$( E G, in which there are two founds, E G, which are
found in the preceding chord, (c.x. xcv.) or otherwise from C E G C to G Bp I) E, a chord or the fub domi¬
nant in the minor mode of D, which chord has likewife two founds, G and E, in common with that which went
immediately before it. See Ex. xcvi.
‘art II.
MUSI C.
’rinciples
Compoli-
iSee Ca-
\nce.
iaving af-
jrttained
je mode,
l-e far.da-
tental bafs
It diffi-
Ilt.
clofes *, is always eafy to be found. For the founds
which occur in the treble, M. Rameau may be con¬
futed, p. 54. of his Nouveau Systeme de Mujique theo-
rique et pratique (5 h).
When the mode is afcertained, by the different
means which we have pointed out, the fundamental bais
will coft little pains. For in each mode there are three
fundamental founds.
1. The tonic of the mode, or its. principal found,
which carries always the perfeft chord major or minor,
according as the mode itfelf is major or minor.
Major mode of C, C E G ‘c’.
Minor mode of A, ACE A.
2. The tonic dominant, which is a fifth above the
tonic, and which, whether in the major or minor mode,
always carries a chord of the feventh, compofed of a
third major followed by two thirds minor.
Tonic dominant.
Major mode of C, G B D ‘f’.
Tonic dominant.
, Minor mode of A, E G)& B ‘d’.
3. The fub-dominant, which is a fifth below the
tonic, and which carries a chord compofed of a third,
fifth, and fixth major, the third being either greater
or lelfer, according as the mode is major or minor.
Sub-dominant.
Major mode of C, FAC ‘d’.
Minor mode of A, D F A B.
Thefe three founds, the tonic, the tonic dominant,
and the fub-dominant, contain in their chords all the
notes which enter into the fcale of the mode j fo that
when a melody is given, it may almoft always be
found which of thefe three founds fhouid be placed in
the fundamental bafs, under any particular note of the
upper part. Yet it fometimes happens that not one
of thefe notes can be ufed. For example, let it be
fuppofed that we are in the mode of C, and that we
find in the melody thefe two notes A B in fuceeffion )
if we confine ourfelves to place in the fundamental
bafs one of the three founds C G F, we thall find
nothing for the founds A and B but this fundamental
6 7 6 7 .
bafs F G 5 now fuch a fucceffion as F to G is pro¬
hibited by the fifth rule for the fundamental bafs, accord¬
ing to which every fub-dominant, as F, fiiould rife by a
55 r
fifth ; fo that F can only be followed by C in the 0f CompdL
fundamental bafs, and not by G. . tK>n' .
To remedy this, the chord of the fub-dominant F
A C ‘d’ muff be inverted into a fundamental chord of
the feventh, in this manner, D F A ‘c’, which has been
called the double employment (art. 105.) becaufe it is a
fecondary manner of employing the chord of the fub-
dominant. By thefe means we give to the modulation
7 7
A B this fundamental bafs D G j which procedure is
agreeable to rules. See Ex. xcvil.
Here then are four chords, C E G ‘c’, G B D ‘f%
FAC ‘d’, D F A ‘c\ which may be employed in the
major mode of C. We fhall find in like manner, for
the minor mode of A, four chords.
A C ‘e a’, E G$ B ‘d\
D F A B, BD ‘f a’.
And in this mode we fometimes change the laft of
thefe chords into B D ‘f$ a’, fubffituting the ‘f^t’ for
‘ft]’. For inltance, if we have this melody in the minor
mode of A, E F)& G)$( A, we would caufe the firft
note E to carry the perfedf chord A C E A ; the fecond
note F$ to carry the chord of the feventh B D F$ A j
the third note G$, the chord of the tonic dominant E
G$: B D, and the lalt the perfedt chord A C E A..
See Ex. xcviii.
On the contrary, if this melody is given always in
the minor mode, A A G$ A, the fecond A being
fyncopated, it might have the fame bafs as the modula¬
tion E F$ G$ A, with this ditference alone, that FI]
might be fubftituted for F$ in the chord B D F:& A,
the better to mark out the minor mode. See Exam.
XCIX.
Befides thefe chords which we have juft mentioned,
and which may be regarded as the principal chords of
the mode, there are (till a great many others $ for ex¬
ample, the feries of dominants,
77777 77777
CADGCF BEADGC,
■which are terminated equally in the tonic C, either
entirely belong, or at leaf! may be reckoned as be¬
longing (ji) to the mode of C 5 becaufe none of thele
dominants are tonic dominants, except G, which is
the tonic dominant of the mode of C ; and befides, be¬
caufe the chord of each of thefe dominants forms no
other
(5 h) All thefe different manners of diftinguiftiing the modes ought, if we may fpeak fo, to give mutual light
and affiftance one to the other. But it often happens, that one of thefe figns alone is not fufficient to determine
the mode^and may even lead to error. For example, if a piece of mufic begins with thefe three notes, E C G,.
we inuft not with too much precipitation conclude from thence that vre are in the major mode of C, although
thefe three founds, E C G, be the principal and charafterifiical founds in the major mode of C : we may be in
the minor mode of E, efpecially if the note E fhouid be long.
(^l)! have faid, that they may be reckoned as belonging to this mode, for two reafons : I. Becaufe, properly
fpeaking, there are only three chords w'hich effentially and primitively belong to the mode of C, viz. C car¬
rying the perfeft chord, F carrying that of the fub-dominant, and G that of the tonic dominant, to which we
may join the chord of the feventh, D F A C (art. 105.) : but we here regard as extended the feries of dominants
in queftion, as belonging to the mode of C, becaufe it preferves in the ear the impreflion of that mode. 2. In a
feries of dominants, there are a great many of them which likewife belong to other modes 5 for inftance, the
fimple dominant A belongs naturally to the mode of G, the fimple dominant B to that of A, &c. Thus it is
only improperly, and by way of extenfion, as I have already faid, that we regard here thefe dominants as belong¬
ing to the mode of C,
552
M U
Principles other founds than fuch as belong to the fcale of C. See
of Compofi- (
But if we were to form this fundamental bafs,
7 7 7 7&
C A D G C,
confidering the laft C as a tonic dominant in this man¬
ner, C E G Bfr ; the mode would then be changed at
the fecond C, and we Ihould enter into the mode of
F, becaufe the chord C E G B[} indicates the tonic
dominant of the mode of F •, befides, it is evident that
the mode is changed, becaufe Bj? does not belong to the
fcale of C. See Ex. Cl.
In the fame manner, were we to form this fundamen¬
tal bafs
s
1 t 1 6
C A D G C,
confidering the laft C as a fub-dominant in this man¬
ner, C E G A *, this lall C would indicate the mode of
G, of which C is the fub-dominant. See Ex. cil.
In like manner, Hill, if in the firft feries of domi¬
nants, we caufed the firll: D to carry the third major, in
this manner, D F$ A ‘c’ ; this D having become a to¬
nic dominant, -would fignify to us the major mode of G,
7 .
and the G which Ihould follow it, carrying the chord
B D ‘f’, would relapfe into the mode of C, from whence
we had departed. See Ex. cm.
Finally, in the fame manner, if in this feries of do¬
minants, we fiiould caufe B to carry F^ in this man¬
ner, B D F$ A, this F would lhowT that we had de¬
parted from the mode C, to enter into that of G. See
Ex. civ.
A rule for
difeover-
ing the
changes of
mode.
Hence it is eafy to form this rule for difeovering the
changes of mode in the fundamental bafs.
i. When v-e find a tonic in the fundamental bafs,
we are in the mode of that tonic } and the mode is ma¬
jor or minor, according as the perfect chord is major or
minor.
I c.
Part II.
tion.
2. When we find a fub-dominant, we are in the Principles
mode of the fifth above that fub-dominant*, and the <^niPofi*
mode is major or minor, according as the third in the v
chord of the fub-dominant is major or minor.
3. When we find a tonic dominant, we are in the
mode of the fifth below that tonic dominant. As the to¬
nic dominant carries always the third major, it cannot be
afeertained from this dominant alone, whether the mode
be major or minor : but it is only necefi’ary to examine
the following note, which muft be the tonic of the
mode in which he is 5 by the third of this tonic it will
be difeovered whether the mode be major or minor.
243. Every change of the mode fuppofesa cadence *,
and when the mode changes in the fundamental bafs,
it is almoft always either after the tonic of the mode
in which we have been, or after the tonic dominant of
that mode, confidered then as a tonic by favour of a
clofe which ought neceflarily to be found in that place:
Whence it happens that cadences in a melody for the
moft part prefage a change of mode which ought to
follow them.
244. All thefe rules, joined with the table of modes
which we have given (art. 234.), will ferve to difeover
in what mode wre are in the middle of a piece, efpeci-
ally in the moft eflential pafiages, as cadences (5 k).
Chap. XIV. Of the Chromatic and Enharmonic.
245. We call that melody chromatic which is com-
pofed of feveral notes in fucceflion, whether rifing or
defeending by femitones. See cv. and CVI.
246. When an air is chromatic in defeending, the
moft natural and ordinary fundamental bafs is a con¬
catenated feries of tonic dominants; all of which fol¬
low one another in defeending by a fifth, or, which
is the fame thing, in rifing by a fourth. See Ex. CV.
(i L)*
247*
Chromatic,
what.
To an air
defr ending
by chro¬
matic in¬
tervals,
fundamen¬
tal bafs,
what.
(5 k) Two modes are fo much more intimately relative, as they contain a greater number of founds common
to both } for example, the minor mode of C and the major of G, or the major mode of C and the minor of A :
on the contrary, two modes are lefs intimately relative as the number of founds which they contain as common to
both is fmaller ; for inftance, the major mode of C and the minor of B, &c.
When the compofer, led away by the current of the modulation, that is to fay, by the manner in which
the fundamental bafs is conftituted, into a mode remote from that in which the piece -was begun, he ought to con¬
tinue in it but for a fliort time, becaufe the ear is always impatient to return to the former mode.
(5 l) We may likewife give to a chromatic melody in defeending, a fundamental bafs, into which may enter
chords of the feventh and of the diminilhed feventh, which may fucceed one another by the intervals of a falfe
fifth and a fifth redundant : thus in the Example evil, where the continued bafs defeends chromatically, it may
eafily be feen that the fundamental bafs carries fucceffively the chords of the feventh and of the feventh diminifti-
ed, and that in this bafs there is a falfe fifth from D to G$, and a fifth redundant from G$ to C.
The reafon of this licence is, as it appears to us, becaufe the chord of the diminilhed feventh may be con¬
fidered as reprefenting (art. 221.) the chord of the tonic dominant j in fuch a manner that this fundamental
bafs
7
7 ? 7 7 7 $
A D G$ C F$ B E A
(fee Example cviii.) may be confidered as reprefenting (art. 116.) that which is written below,
7^ 7 7 7 ^
A D E C F$ B E A.
Now this laft fundamental bafs is formed according to the common rules, unlefs that there is a broken ca-
7
%
dence from D to E, and an interrupted cadence from E to C, which are licenfes (art. 213. and 214.).
Music.
C D EF G A Be
c d
PL-ITE CCCLIV.
f g a b <•
CGCFCDGC
' /m.2. C D EF G A Be d ef a- a b<? d ef q a 6
y ^ '■ J/' '.m,/
CQ^/ieQ^m/^/tcc ' Jrsr/p p/ //isr ^/ rs/p. /
B c d e f g a
^.#:
^G_C G C F C F
' '/'u/if/rt/rtf/tAf/ /st
T U V 
^(4/v>/r///Pr • //ucsfr/
'jZaA ■ /
_ jg gi &c
. E Gjf
G
^ fed e f g g a b c
C F C G D G C | q
' ^ ' / C/'
VP ' /f//?Yr. r
e
E
B#
Gf
c y//s r S's/nr/s/v/tsv? /<//y,
^ 6. C^Cif, D, D^EJEjf, -F,Fl G, G^A^A^^^^x^
'/Soa/e
'rate ry^tat
ty//e f /cetye ed f/te ryM'<na?' ryZ/pt/e
^G A B c7 d e f
'r^ra/et
d#
1 1
^5 |
M ^
|N
VjE A E A D A D
r Vy. j2
F
E B
Qj/Ae ^ Auv 7eA c
t '//<> > A’tYw/ /tr/e r/ /Art . Alt//at >. /JAtAe
^A Bed e e f| gff a
C PYZt
J^y7. <$'
'Ater. 43
l^AEADAEBEA
(JZ Adp dA/a/etrAa /v /PviAt A AA>ayt
C C A c# C#
T&UreAzZa/dZ Smfe. *
•. I /
.r
■ • x: -.
'V -
it
'' ^
i •■
. i
Music.
PZATE CCCLV
Fitr.l.
n
-e-Q-
FigA.
Tenor Li tit1 
  O o
§ n'^
O ° ~ I f nni1 I .Mu—
 Treble Cleff
  Tenor ClefT^
II Bass Cleff
m
F’g- -3.
Fi^r. 3.
Fig. 6.
F c S
3
-O'Tenor C
Bt
Fig. 4.
F c F c
P'S:8- Fig-5-
^O0^:
Fig lO.
1^1 Mina sure _
imc Time
^4 Mcasu
Fig. 11.
Tf^-Timn 2^Time \\lft)3
^ With two^Times.
Fig. U.
Semibreve. Minims . Crotchets . Quavers.
Fig. 13.
Semiquavers
Demisemiquavers.
Fig. IS.
# *
to
Si
Fig. K
equivalent to
Ficr. 17-
ii
Fig. 18. Rests.
Rests of several Bars.
^~ ii
IX
Semibreve ) Min.Rest Crot.Rest Quav.Rest Semiq.Rest Demis.Rest 2 Bar Rest 3 Bar Rest 4 Bar Rest 5 Bar Rest.
__ f jy.jirrAz&aijSat Jte/Zo
or Bar Rest
%
Music.
PLATE CCCLVZ.
F.g.l
FiV. 2.
1
t
%
Music.
PLATE CCCLVJJ.
♦
I
,
&
;
i
i
t
\
■f
\
$
*■
Y:
T ’
Music.
PLATE CCCLV/L/
LIX. LX. LXI. LXII. LXIII. LXIV. LXV. LXVI.
Music. plate cccllz
Fund. Bass.
LXXIX. LXXX. LXXXI. LXXXII. LXXXIII. LXXXIV.
Music.
PLATE CCCL.Y.
XCI1. XCIII.
i
* V.’
r
Music.
PLATE CCCLM
XCVI.
XCVII.
#
XCVIII.
XCIX.
I
i
M
^r
~$r
I
I
7
# 7
3 1
I
i
I
Fund. Bass.
F.B.
cii. cm. civ.
F.B.
F.B.
fru?p .e
Music.
PLATE CCCLZH.
Part II
M U
Principles
of Compo-
fition.
Attending,
I what,
Enharmo¬
nic little
pradlifed.
Defign,
what.
See Imi¬
tation.
Imitation,
I what.
* See Air,
€an»n,
Fugue,
247. When the air is chromatic in afcending, one
may form a fundamental bafs by a feries of tonics and
of tonic dominants, which fucceed one another alter¬
nately by the interval of a third in defcending, and of
a fourth in afcending, (fee Ex. CVI.). I here are many
other ways of forming a chromatic air, whether in
rifing or defcending; but thefe details in an elemen¬
tary effay are by no means necelfary.
248. The enharmonic is very rarely put in practice j
and we have explained its formation in the firft book,
to which we refer our readers.
See Ftefign.
Chap. XV. Of Defign, Imitation, and Fugue,
249. In mufic, the name of defgn, oxfubjeB, is ge¬
nerally given to a particular air or melody, which the
compofer intends fliould prevail through the piece;
whether it is intended to exprefs the meaning of words
to which it may be fet, or merely infpired by the im-
pulfe of talle and fancy. In this laft cafe, defign is
diftinguilhed into imitation fugue.
250. Imitation confifts in caufing to be repeated the
melody of one or feveral meafures in one (ingle part,
or in the whole harmony, and in any of the various
modes that may be chofen. When all the parts, abfo-
lutely repeat the fame air * or melody, and beginning
one after the other, this is called a canon (5M).
Fugue confifts in alternately repeating that air in the
treble, and m the bafs, or even m all the part?, n tLeio
are more than two.
VOL. XIV. Part II.
S I c.
251. Imitation and fugue are fometimes conduced
by rules merely deducible from talte, which may be
feen in the 3 3 2d and following pages of M. Rameau’s
Treatife on Harmony ; where will likewife be found a
detail of the rules for compolition in feveral parts.
The chief rules for compolition in feveral parts are,
that the difcords (hould be found, as much as poflible,
prepared and refolved in the fame part; that a dif-
cord Ihould not be' heard at the fame time in feveral
parts, becaufe its harlhnefs would dilguft the ear;
and that in no particular part there Ihould be found
two odtaves or two filths in fucceflion (5N) with re-
fpedl to the bafs. Muficians, however, do not helitate
fometimes to violate this precept, when tafte or occa-
fion require. In mufic, as in all the other line arts, it
is the bulinefs of the artift to alfign and to obferve rules;
and province of men of tafte and genius to find the ex¬
ceptions.
553
Principles
of Compo-
fition.
Principal
rules for
compofing
in feverai
parts*
APPENDIX.
The treatife of D’Alembert is well entitled to theme»
rit of accuracy ; but perhaps a perfon who has not par¬
ticularly ftudied the fubjeft, may find difficulty in fol-
lotving the fcientific dedmftions of that author.—We
fubjoin, therefore, a few general obfervations on the
philofophy of mufical found, commonly called harmo¬
nics, which may perhaps convey the full portion of
knowledge of the theory of mufio, with which one in
4 A fearch
( c m) Compofitions in ftrift canon, where one part begins with a certain fubjeft, and the other parts are
bound to repeat the very fame fubjeft, or the reply, as it is called, in the umfon fifth, fourth or oftave,
depend on the following rules, which are nothing more than a fummary of the fyftem explained by our au-
^T.' The chords to be employed are the tonic, and its two adjunds ; the fubdominant, fufceptible of an added
fixth. and the dominant, fufceptible of an added feventh. , „ , , rr c j
2. The fubieft muft begin in the harmony of the tonic, and as the fundamental progreffion from the domi¬
nant to the fubdominant is not permitted (art. 33, 36.), the fubdominant muft follow the tonic, and the dominant
the fubdominant, thus,
S G C F G C &-
a. As the diatonic fcale confifts of two tetrachords, of which the firft is alfo the fecond tetrachord of the
mode of the fub-dominant, and the fecond the firft tetrachord of the dominant ; fo, in canon, when the reply is
meant to be in the mode of the dominant, the fubjeft muft be in the firft tetrachord of the tonic, by which means
the correfponding firft tetrachord of the dominant being the fecond tetrachord of the tonic, the whole piece is
truly in that mode. On the other hand, if the reply is to be in the mode of the fub-dommant, the fubjeft muft
be in the fecond tetrachord of the tonic, the correfponding tetrachord of the fub-dominant being the firft tetra¬
chord of the tonic, and the mode of the tonic being thus preferved. . , j 1 t t
4. For the fame reafon, where the reply is in the dominant, the fubjeft is only allowed to modulate o
the4mode of the fub-dominant, and the reply of courfe into that of the tonic. And where the reply is in re
dominant the fubieft is to modulate only into the mode of the fub-dominant the reply following of courfe
into that of the tonic. Were the contrary modulation permitted, the reply would depart too far from the mode of
when the reply is to be in the mode of the dominant it muft . commence m the meafure bearing that
harmony ; and in the fame way, the reply in the fub-dominant muft begin 111 the meafure w hich bears he h -
“Tf7thefe1 rules "be o'bftrved, and due attention paid to the preparation and refolution of diffonances compofitmn
in ftrift canon, in any number of parts, will be found to be by no means difficult. See Ex. cix. and cx.
(An) Yet there may be two fifths in fucceffion, provided the parts move m contrary direftions, or m other
Words, if the progrefs of one part be afcending, and the other defcending ; but in th^.cafe
two fifths, they are a fifth and a twelfth : for example, if one of the parts in defcending Ihould found I D, and
the other ‘ca’ in rifing, C is the fifth of F, and ‘a’ the twelfth of
554 M U
General ft;arch only of general information, and not a profefTed
Obte.va- ftudent of this particular fcience, would choofe to reft
Haj-momcs. latffiedt
^ ,.,1 The theory of mufical found, which only in the be¬
ginning of the prefent century was ultimately eftablifh-
ed by mathematical demonftration, is no other than
that which diftinguiihed the ancient mufical fe£t who
followed the opinions of Pythagoras on that fubje£V.
No part of natural philofophy has been more fruit¬
ful of hypothefis than that of which mufical found is the
object. The mufical fpeculators of Greece arranged
themfelves into a great number of fedls, the chief of
whom were the Pythagoreans and the Ariftoxenians.
Pythagoras fuppofed the air to be the vehicle of
found •, and the agitation of that element, occafioned
by a fimilar agitation in the parts of the founding body,
to be the caufe of it. The vibrations of a firing or
other fonorous body, being communicated to the air,
affe£led the auditory nerves with the fenfation of found •,
and this found, he argued, was acute or grave in pro¬
portion as the vibrations were quick or flow.—He dif-
covered by experiment, that of two firings equal in
every thing but length, the fliorter made the quicker
vibrations, and emitted the acuter found :—in other
words, that the number of vibrations made in the fame
time by two firings of different lengths, -was inverfely
as thofe lengths ; that is, the greater the length the
fmatler the number of vibrations in any given time.
Thus found, confidcred in the vibrations that caufe it,
and the dimenfions of the vibrating body, came to be
reduced to quantity, and as fuch was the fubjeft of cal¬
culation, and expreflible by numbers.—For inflanee,
the two founds that form an oflave could be expreffed
by the numbers I and 2, which would reprefent either
the number of vibrations in a given time, or the length
of the firings ; and would mean, that the acuter found
vibrates twice, while the graver vibrates once •, or that
the firing producing the lower found is twice the
length of that which gives the higher. If the vibra¬
tions were confidered, the higher found wras as 2, the
lower as I j the reverfe, if the length was alluded to.
In the fame manner, in the fame fenfe, the 5th would
be exprefled by the ratio of 2 to 3, and the 4th by that
of 3 to 4.
Ariftoxenes, in oppofition to the calculations of Py¬
thagoras, held the ear to be the foie flandard of mufi¬
cal proportions. That fenfe he accounted fufficiently
accurate for mufical, though not for mathematical pur-
pofes ’, and it was in his opinion abfurd to aim at an
artificial accuracy in gratifying the ear beyond its own
power of diftin£lion. He, therefore, rejedled the velo-
S I C. Appendix.
cities, vibrations, and proportions of Pythagoras, as General
foreign to the fubjed, in fo far as they iubftituted Gbferva-
ahjlrucl caufes in the room of experience, and made tlons on
mufic the objed of intelleB rather than oifenfe. G .a monies.
Of late, however, as has been already mentioned,
the opinions of Pythagoras have been confirmed by ab-
folute demonftratien \ and the following propofitions,
in relation to mufical found, have pafled from conjec¬
ture to certainty.
Sound is generated by the vibrations of elaftic bodies,
which communicate the like vibrations to the air, and
thefe again the like to our organs of hearing. This is
evident, becaufe founding bodies communicate tremors
to other bodies at a diltance from them. The vibrating
motion, for inftance, of a mufical firing, excites motion
in others, whofe tenfion and quantity of matter difpofe
their vibrations to keep time with the undulations of air
propagated from it (the firing firft fet in motion).
If the vibrations be ifochronous, and the found mufi¬
cal, continuing at the fame pitch, it is faid to be acuter,
fharper, or higher, than any other found whofe vibra¬
tions are flower; and'graver, flatter, or lower, than
any other whofe vibrations are quicker.—For while a
mufical firing vibrates, its vibrations become quicker
by increafing its tenfion or diminifhing its length ; its
found at the fame time will be more acute : and, on
the contrary, by diminifhing its tenfion or increafing
its length, the vibrations will become flower and the
found graver. The like alteration of the pitch of the
found will follow, by applying, by means of a weight,
an equal degree of tenfion to a thicker or heavier and
to a fmaller or lighter firing, both of the fame length,
as in the fmaller firing the mafs of matter to be moved
by the fame force is lefs.
If feveral firings, however, different in length, denfitv,
and tenfion, vibrate altogether in equal times, their founds,
will have all one and the fame pitch, however they may
differ in loudnefs or other qualities.—They are called
unifons. The vibrations of unifons are ifochronous.
The vibrations of a mufical firing, whether wider or
narrower, are nearly ifochronous. Otherwife, while
the vibrations decreafe in breadth till they ceafe, the
pitch of the found could not continue the fame (which
we perceive by experience it does), unlefs where the
firft vibrations are made very violently ; in which cafe,
the found is a little acuter at the beginning than after*
wards.
Lailly, The word vibration is under flood to mean
the time which paffes between the departure of the
vibrating body from any affigned place and its return
to the fame.
M U S
Mufic, G/afs-MuSIC. See Harmonica.
Mulimon. MUSIMON, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of an
11 ' animal efteemed a fpecies of fheep, deferibed by the
ancients as common in Corfica, Sardinia, Barbary,
and the north-eaft parts of Afia. It has been doubted
•whether the animal deferibed under this name is now
any ivhere to be found in the world , and whether it
Was not, probably, a fpurious breed between two ani¬
mals of different fpecies, perhaps the fheep and goat,
M U S
which, like the mule, not being able to propagate its Mufimon.
fpecies, the production of them may have been difeon- ——7—^
tinned.
Buffon fuppofes it to be the fireep in a wild ftate;
and it is deferibed as fueh by Mr Pennant. Thefe
animals live in the mountains, and run with great
fwiftnefs among the rocks. Thofe of Kamtfehatka
are fo flrong, that iO men can fcarce hold one ; and
the horns are fo large as fometimes to weigh 30 pounds,
and
M U S [ 555 1 M U T
Mufimon and fo capacious that young foxes often fhelter them-
II felves in the hollow of fuch as by accident fall off in the
Muffitlinan.
defects.
MUSIVUM aurum. See Chemistry, N° 1806.
MUSK, a very ftrong fcented fnbffance, found in a
bag under the belly of a fpecies of raofchus. See
Moschus, Mammalia Index. And for an account of
the nature and properties of mulk, fee Materia Me¬
dic a. Index.
Mi.'SK Animal. See Moschus,T
MuskOx. See Bos, S- Mammalia//h&w.
Musk Rat. See Castor, J
MUSKET, or Musqjiet, properly a fire-arm borne
on the (boulder, and ufed in war ; to be fired by the
application of a lighted match.
The length of the barrel is fixed to three feet eight
inches from the muzzle to the touch-pan, and its bore
is to be fuch as may receive a bullet of 14 in a pound,
and its diameter differs not above one part from
that of the bullet.
Mulkets were anciently borne in the field by the
infantry, and were ufed in England fo lately as the be¬
ginning of the civil wars. At prefent they are little
ufed, except in the defence of places-, fufetesor fire-locks
having taken their place and name.
MUSKETOON, a kind of (hort thick mufket,
whofe bore is the 38th part of its length; it carries
five ounces of iron, or (even and a half of lead, with an
equal c|uantity of powder. i'his is the iliorteft kind
of blunderbuffes.
MUSLIN, a fine fort of cotton cloth, which bears
a downy knot on its furface. There are feveral forts of
muffins brought from the Eaft Indies, and more parti¬
cularly from Bengal; fuch as doreas, betelles, mulmuls,
tanjeebs, &c. Muffin is now manufaclured in Britain,
and brought to very great perfeftion.
MUSQUETOE. See Culex,Entomology
MUSSULMAN, or MusylmaN, a title by which
the Mahometans diftinguffh themfelves ; fignifying, in
the Turkiffi language, “ true believer, or orthodox.”
See Mahometanism.
In Arabic, the word is written Mqflem, Mojleman,
or Mofolman. The appellation was firft given to the
Saracens, as is obferved by Leunclavius.—There are
two kinds of Muffulmans, very averfe to each other j
the one called Sonnites, and the other Shiites.—The
Sonnites follow the interpretation of the Alcoran
given by Omar -, the Shiites are the followers of Ali.
The fubje&s of the king of Perfia are Shiites j and
thofe of the grand fignior, Sonnites. See SoNNA, and
Alcoran.
According to fome authors the word Muffulman fig-
nifies/«m/, that is, predeftinated : and hence the Ma¬
hometans give themfelves the appellation, as believ*
ing they are all predeftinated to falvation.—Marti-
nius is more particular as to the origin of the name j
which he derives from the Arabic cboia, mufalem,
“ faved, fnatched out of danger:” the Mahometans,
he obferves, eftabiifhing their religion by fire and
fword, maffacred all thole who would not embrace it,
and granted life to all that did, calling them Mufful¬
mans, q. d. erepti 2 periculo ; whence the word, in
courfe of time, became the diftinguilhing title of all
thofe of that feft, who have affixed to it the fignifica-
tion of true believers.
MUST, Mustum, fweet wine newly preffed from Muffulman
the grape -, or the new liquor preffed from the fruit be-
fore it is fermented. See Wine. ■ ^ - «
MUSTARD. See Sinapi, Botany Index.
MUSTARD Seed. For an account oi its medical qua¬
lities, fee Materia Medica I-ndeX.
MUSTELA, the Otter and Weasel ; a genus
of quadrupeds of the order of ferte. See Mammalia
Index.
MUSTER, in a military fenfe, a review of troops
under arms, to fee if they be complete and in good
order j to take an account of their numbers, the con¬
dition they are in, viewing their arms and accoutre¬
ments, &c.
Muster-Mojlef general, or Commi([ary-general of the
MUSTERS i one who takes account of every regiment,
their number, horfes, arms, &c. reviews them, fees the
horfes be well mounted, and all the men well armed
and accoutred, &c.
Muster-Rolls, lifts of fiddlers in each company,
troop, or regiment, by which they are paid, and the
ftrength of the army is known.
MUTABILITY is oppofed to immutability, sice
Immutability.
MUTATION, the a<51 of changing, or fometimes
the change itfelf.
Mutation, in the ancient mufic, is applied to the
changes or alterations that happen in the order of the
founds which compofe the melody.
MU PATTONES, among the Romans, poft ftages,
or places where the public couriers were fupplitd with
freffi horfes.—The mutationes were wholly defigned for
the ufe of thefe couriers, or meffengers of ftate j in
which refpeft they differ from manjtones.
MUTCHKIN, a liquid meafure ufed in Scotland j
it contains four gills, and is the fourth part of a Scotch
pint.
MUTE, in a general fenfe, fignifies a perfon that
cannot fpeak, or has not the ufe of fpeech.
Mute, in Law, a perfon that ftands dumb or fpeech-
lefs when he ought to anfwer, or to plead. See Ar¬
raignment.
Mute, in Grammar, a letter which yields no found
without the addition of a vowel. The Pimple confo-
nants are diftinguiflied into mutes and liquids, or
femivowels. See the articles Consonant, Liquid,
&.c.
The mutes in the Greek alphabet are nine, three of
which, viz. tt, k, t, are termed tenues; three /3, y,
termed me dice; and three <p, 0, termed afpiratce. See
the article Aspirate, &c.
The mutes of the Latin alphabet are alfo nine, viz.
B, C, D, G, I, K, P, T.
MUTILATION, the retrenching or cutting away
any member of the body.
This word is alfo extended to ftatues and buildings,
where any part is wanting, or the proje&ure of any
member, as a cornice or an impoft, is broken off. It
is fometimes alfo ufed in a more immediate manner
for caftration : (See Castration and Eunuch). The
pra&ice of this fort of mutilation is of various kinds :
the Hottentots are faid to cut away one teftiele from
their children upon fuppofition that they are thereby
made lighter and more adlive for running. In other
countries, poor people completely mutilate their boys,
4 A 2 to
M U T [ 556 1 M U T
Mutina.
Mutilation to prevent the mifery and want which would attend
their offspring. Thofe who have nothing in view but
the improvement of a vain talent, or the formation of
a voice which disfigures nature, as wras the cafe for¬
merly in Italy, are contented with cutting awray the
tefticles. But in fome countries of Afia, efpecially
among the Turks, and in a part of Africa, thofe whom
jealoufy infpires with diftruft would not think their wives
fafe in the cuftody of fuch eunuchs: They employ no
(laves in their feraglios who have not been deprived of
all the external parts of generation.
Amputation is not the only means of accompliftiing
this end. Formerly, the growth of the tefticles was
prevented, and their organization deftroyed by fimple
rubbing, while the child was put into a warm bath
made of a deco&ion of plants. Some pretend that by
this fpecies of caftration the life is in no danger. Am¬
putation of the tefticles is not attended with much
danger 5 but complete amputation of the external parts
of generation is often fatal. This operation can only
be performed on children from feven to ten years of
age. Eunuchs of this kind, owing to the danger at¬
tending the operation, coft in Turkey five or fix times
more than others. Chardin relates, that this operation
is fo painful and dangerous after 15 years of age, that
hardly a fourth part of thofe by whom it is undergone
efcape with life. Pietro della Valle, on the contrary,
informs us, that in Perfia thofe who fuffer this cruel and
dangerous operation as a puniftiment for rapes and other
crimes of this kind, are eafily cured though far ad¬
vanced in life ; and that nothing but allies is applied to
the wound.
There are eunuchs at Conftantinople, throughout
all Turkey, and in Perfia, of a gray complexion : they
come for the moft part from the kingdom of Gol-
conda, the peninfula on this fide the Ganges, the king¬
doms of Affan, Aracan, Pegu, and Malabar. Thofe
from the gulf of Bengal are of an olive colour. There
are fome white eunuchs who come from Georgia and
Circaflia, but their number is fmall. The black eu¬
nuchs come from Africa, and efpecially from Ethiopia.
Thefe, in proportion to their horrible appearance, are
the more efteemed and coft dearer. It appears that
a very confiderable trade is carried on in this fpecies of
men ; for Tavernier informs us, that when he was in
the kingdom of Golconda, in the year 1657, 22,000
eunuchs were made in it. In that country they are
fold at the fairs.
The objeft of improving the voice by means of this
fpecies of mutilation, it is faid, often fails ; for of 2000
vidlims to the luxury and extravagant caprices of the
art, hardly three are found who unite good talents with
good organs. The other languiftiing and inaftive
wretches are, in fome meafure, outcafts from both fexes,
and paralytic members in the community. But let us
pay the tribute which is due to that virtuous pontiff
Pope Clement VIII. who, liftening to the voice of
modefty and humanity, profcribed and aboliftied this
deteftable and infamous practice. Mutilation, he
declared was the moft abominable and difgraceful of
crimes.
M UTIL LA, a genus of infedls belonging to the or¬
der of hymenoptera. See Entomology Index.
MUTINA, in Ancient Geography, a noble city of the
Cifpadana, made a Roman colony in the fame year with
Parma, fituated between the rivers Gabellus and Scul- Mutina
tenna, on the Via iEmilia. Here D. Brutus being be- II.
fieged by Antony, was relieved by the confuls Hirtius , MlUlus-y
and Paufa. The Greeks called it Mntine; except Po- ’ J
lybius, in whom it is Motine ; and in Ptolemy Mutina,
after the Roman manner.—Now Modena, a city of
Lombardy, and capital of a cognominal duchy. E.
Long. ix. 20. N. Lat. 44. 45.
MUTINY, in a military fenfe, to rife againft autho¬
rity.—“ Any officer or foldier who (hall prefume to ufe
traiterous or difrefpe&ful words againft the facred per-
fon of his majefty, or any of the royal family, is guilty
of mutiny.
“ Any officer or foldier who (hall behave himfelf
with contempt or difrefpeft towards the general or
other commander in chief of our forces, or thall fpeak
•words tending,to their hurt or dithonour, is guilty of
mutiny.
“ Any officer or foldier who (hall begin, excite, caufc,
or join in, any mutiny or fedition, in the troop, com¬
pany, or regiment, to which he belongs, or in any other
troop or company in our fervice, or in any party, poft,
detachment, or guard, on any pretence whatfoever, is
guilty of mutiny.
“ Any officer or foldier who, being prefent at any
mutiny or fedition, does not ufe his utmoft endeavours
to fupprefs the fame, or coming to the knowledge of
any mutiny, or intended mutiny, does not without de¬
lay give information to his commanding officer, is guilty
of mutiny.
“ Any officer or foldier, wrho (hall ftrike his fuperior
officer, or draw, or offer to draw7, or (hall lift up any
weapon, or offer any violence againft him, being in the
execution of his office, on any pretence whatfoever, or
(hall difobey any lawful command of his fuperior officer,
is guilty of mutiny.1’
Mutiny AEl. See Militar y State.
MUTIUS, Caius, furnamed Codrus, and afterwards
Sccevola, was one of the illuftrious Roman family of the
Mutii, and rendered his name famous in the war be¬
tween Porfenna king of Tufcany and the Romans,
That prince refolving to reftore the family of Tarquin
the Proud, went to befiege Rome 507 B. C. Mutius
refolved to facrifice himfelf for the fafety of his coun¬
try ; and boldly entering the enemy’s camp, killed
Porfenna’s fecretary, whom he took for Porfenna him¬
felf. Being feized and brought before Porfenna, he
told him boldly,- that 300 young men like himfelf had
fworn to murder him 5 but Jince this hand has miffed
thee, continued he, it tm/Jl be punijhcd; then putting
his right hand on the burning coals, he let it burn
with fuch conftancy as aftonifhed the beholders. The
king, amazed at the intrepidity of this young Roman,
ordered that lie ftiould have his freedom and return to
Rome, and foon after concluded a peace with the Ro¬
mans. From this action Mutius obtained the furname
of Sccevola, “ or left-handed,” which was enjoyed by
his family.
MUTIUS Sccevola, if. furnamed the Augur, was an
excellent civilian, and inftructed Cicero in the laws.
He was made praetor in Afia 5 was afterwards conful,
and performed very important fervices for the re¬
public.
He ought not to be confounded with Quintus Mu¬
tius Scccvola, another excellent civilian, who was prae¬
tor
Mutius
II
Mycenae.
M Y C t 557 3
tor in Afia, tribune of the people, and at length con- ther Prcetus.
ful, 95 B. C. He governed Afia with fuch prudence
, and equity, that his example was propofed to the go- *
vernors who were fent into the provinces. Cicero fays,
« that he was the moft eloquent orator of all the ci¬
vilians, and the moft able civilian of all the orators.”
He was aiTaflinated in the temple of \ efta, during the
wars of Marius and Sylla, 82 B. C.
MUTTON, the common name of the fleflr of a
fheep after the animal has been killed. Mutton has
been commonlv preferred to all the flefhes of quadru¬
peds. And indeed, befides its being more perfeft, it
has the advantage over them of being more generally
fuited to different climates : whereas beef, e. g. re¬
quires a very nice intermediate ftate, which it feems
to enjoy chiefly in England ; for although Scotland
fupplies what are reckoned the beft cattle, it is in the
rich Englifti paftures that they are brought to perfec¬
tion. Now the fheep can be brought almoft to the
fame perfe&ion in this bleak northern region as in the
fouthern countries.
MUTUAL, a relative term, denoting fomething
that is reciprocal between two or more perfons.^
Thus we fay, mutual ajjiftance, mutual averfion, &c.
There are mutual or reciprocal duties, offices, &c. be¬
tween fuperiors and inferiors ^ as the king and his fub-
jetts, the mafter and his fervants, &c.
Vaugelas makes a diftindtion between mutual and re¬
ciprocal: mutual, according to him, is underftood of
what is between two only *, and reciprocal, of what is
between more than two : but this diftindlion is little
regarded in common ufe.
MUTULE, in ArchiteBure, a kind of fquare mo-
dillion fet under the cornice of the Doric order.
MUTUNUS, or Mutinus, in Fabulous HiJlonj, a
deity among the Romans, fimilar to the Priapus of the
Greeks.
MUZZLE of a Gun or Mortar, the extremity at
which the powder and ball is put in ; and hence the
muzzle ring is the metalline circle or moulding that
furrounds the mouth of the piece.
MY A, the Gaper ; a genus of (hell fiffi. See Con-
CHOLOGY Index.
MYAGRUM, Gold of Pleasure, a genus of
plants, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs 5 and in the
natural method ranking under the 39th order, Siliquo-
fce. See Botany Index.
MYCALE, a city and mountain of Caria; alfo a
promontory of Afia oppofite Samos, celebrated for a
battle which was fought there between the Greeks and
Perfians about the year of Rome 275. The Perfians
were about lOO.OOO men, who had juft returned from
the unfuccefsful expedition of Xerxes in Greece.—
They had drawn their fhips to the fhore, and fortified
themfelves ftrongly, as if determined to fupport a fiege.
They fuffered the Greeks to difembark from their fleet
without the leaft moleftation, and were foon^obliged to
give way before the cool and refolute intrepidity of an
inferior number of men. The Greeks obtained com¬
plete vhftory, flaughtered fome thoufands of the enemy,
M Y G
Argos and Mycenae were their capitals.
<—Thefe, as belonging to the fame family, and diftant
only about 50 ftadia or fix miles and a quarter from
each other, had one tutelary deity, Juno, and were
jointly proprietors of her temple, the Heraeum, which
was near Mycenae. It was here that Agamemnon
reigned. He enlarged his dominions by his valour and
good fortune, and poffeffed, befides Mycenae, the re¬
gion about Corinth and Sicyon, and that called after¬
wards Achaea. On his return from Troy, he was flain
with his companions at a banquet. Mycenae then de¬
clined : and under the Heraclidae was made fubje<5t to
Argos. (See Argos and Argeia). The Mycenaeans
fending 80 men, partook with the Lacedaemonians in
the glory acquired at Thermopylae. The jealoufy of
the Argives produced the deftruftion of their city,
which was abandoned after a fiege, and laid wafte in
the firft year of the 78th Olympiad, or 466 years be¬
fore Chrift. Some part of the wall remained in the
fecond century, with a gate on which were lions, a
fountain, the fubterraneous edifices where Atreus and
his fons had depofited their treafures, and, among other
fepulchral monuments, one of Agamemnon, and one of
his fellow foldiers and fufferers.
MYCONE, an ifland of the Archipelago, fituated
in E. Long. 25. 51. N. Lat. 37. 28. It is about 36
miles in circuit, and has a totvn of the fame name,
containing about 3000 inhabitants. The people of
this ifland are faid to be the beft Tailors in the Archi¬
pelago, and have about 150 veffels of different fizes.
The ifland yields a fufficient quantity of barley for the
inhabitants, and produces abundance of figs, and fome
olives •, but there is a fcarcity of wyater, efpecially in
Mycenae
II
Myginda.
burned their camp, and failed back to Samos with an
immenfe booty, in which were 70 chefts of money.
MYCENiE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ar-
golis, in Peloponnefus. The kingdom of the Argives
was divided into two portions by Acrifius and his bxo-
fummer, there being but one well in the ifland.
There are a great number of churches and chapels,
wTith fome monafteries.
MYCONUS, in Ancient Geography, one of the
iflands called Cyclades, near Delos, under which the
laft of the Centaurs flain by Hercules are feigned to lie
buried. Hence the proverb, Omnia fub mam Myconum
conger ere, applied to an injudicious or unnatural far¬
rago. Myconii, the people, noted for baldnefs. Hence
Myconius, a bald perfon. According to Strabo, the
inhabitants became bald at the age of 20 or 25 ; and
Pliny fays that the children were always born without
hair. The ifland was poor, and the inhabitants very
avaricious ; whence Archilochus reproached a certain
Pericles, that he came to a feaft like a Myconian ; that
is Avithout previous invitation. Now called Mycone,
which fee.
MYCTERIA, the Jabiru, a genus of birds be¬
longing to the order of grallae. See Ornithology
Index.
MYGDONIA, in Ancient Geography, a diftrift of
Macedonia, to the north of the Sinus Thermaicus, and
eaft of the river Axius, which feparates it from Bot-
tseis, and weft of the river Strymon, (Pliny). Alfo a
diftrift of Mefopotamia, which took its name from that
of Macedonia, running along the Euphrates, from
Zeugma down to Thapfacus, extending a great way eaft:,
becaufe Nifibis was reckoned to it.
MYGINDA, a genus of plants belonging to the
tetrandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
wuth thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
Index,
MYIAGRUS,
M Y L
Myiacpis MYIAGRUS DEUS, in the   v QJ y
My I a fa. a nanie given fometimes to Jupiter, and iometimes to
j Hercules, on occalion of their being facrificed to for
the driving away the vail numbers of flies which in-
feltcd the faerifices on certain public occafions. The
word is ufually fpelt Myagrus; but this mull be an
error, as this word does not exprefs the flij-deftroyer,
but the moufe~deJlroyer; and we have it fuihciently tef-
' titled by the ancients, that flies were the only crea¬
tures againft whom this deity was invoked. Pliny
■ calls this deity alfo Myiodes ; and tells us, that the Hies
which ufed to pefter the Olympic rites went away in
■whole clouds on the facrificing a bull to this god. We
• find in Athenseus alfo, that this facrificing to the god
of flies at tne Olympic games was a conflant cuftom.
Some diltinguifh thefe two deities, and tell us that the
latter or Myiodes, ufed to vifit the nations in ven¬
geance, with a vaft multitude of dies : and that, on
paying him the due honours of a facrifice, they all
went away again j and this feems to agree with what
Pliny tells us in fome places.
At the time of the Olympic games, Jupiter was
worfhipped under the name of Apomifes or Myiagrus
Deus, to fupplicate the deftru&ion of thofe troublefome
creatures. This happened only once in many years,
when the facrifices wrere performed there j but the
Elians worfhipped him continually under this name, to
deprecate the vengeance of heaven, which ufually fent,
as they expreffed it, an army of flies &nd other infers,
toward the latter end of the fummer, that infefled the
whole country with ficknefs and peftilence.
MTI ODES DEUS, in the heathen mythology, a
name fometimes given to Hercules, but more frequent¬
ly to Jupiter, to whom a bull was facrificed, in order
to make him propitious in driving away the flies that
infefted the Olympic games.
MYLAL, in Ancient Geography, a Greek city fitua-
ted on an ifthmus of a cognominal peninfula, on the
nortli-eafl fide of the ifland. Mylaei, or Mylenfes, the
people. A town built by thofe of Zancle (Strabo).
Mylaeus, the epithet, as Mylaeus Campus, mentioned
by Polybius. Now' called Miiaz.'z-o, a port town of
Sicily, in the Val di Demona. E. Long. 15. 5. N.
Lat. 38. 36.
MYLASA, or Mylassa, in Ancient Geography, a
noble city of Caria in Afia Minor, fituated about three
leagues from the Sinus Ceramicus. It was the capital
of Hecatomnus king of Caria, and father of Maufolus.
Pliny fpeaks of Menander king of Caria, and fays that
the Rhodians preferved with the greatefl care his por¬
trait painted by Apelles : but it was not in honour of
this Menander that a Corinthian pillar was erefted at
Mylafa, which flill exifls, and on which is to be feen
the following infcription : “ The people eroded this
pillar in honour of Menander, the fon of Uliades, and
grandfon of Euthydemus, the benefador of his country,
and whofe anceftors rendered it great fervices alfo.”
Euthydemus, the grandfather of this Menander, lived
in the time of Julius Ca-far and Auguflus. Caria was
taken by Mithridates, and afterwards by Labientis,
whofe father had been one of Csefar’s generals. Hy-
brias, whofe eloquence and valour defervedly entitled
him to a diilinguifhed rank among his countrymen, in
vain encouraged them to make a moft obftinate defence
2
[ 558 ] M y o
heathen mythology, while it was befieged by the latter. He himfelf was
obliged to yield to necefLty, and to take refuge at
Rhodes: but Icarcely had the conqueror quitted the
city, when Hybnas returned, and reltored liberty to
his country.—Not content with rendering it this fer-
vice, lie alio deflroyed the power of a dangerous citi¬
zen, whofe riches and talents rendered him a necefiary
evil. Euthydemus, often banilhed, and as often re¬
called^ always too powerful in a Hate the independence
of which he threatened, faw Ids ambition checked by
the zeal and atfivity of Hybrias. The Romans left to
Mylafa that liberty of which it rendered itfelf fo worthy,
by the great efforts it made to preferve it. Pliny calls
it Mylafa libera. Strabo informs us, that it was one
of the moft magnificent cities of antiquity, and one of
thofe, the temples, porticoes, and other public monu¬
ments of which were highly admired. A quarry of
white marble in the neighbourhood furnifhed it with
abundance of materials for ere&ing thefe edifices.—
J he Mylafians had two temples dedicated to Jupiter,
one fituated in the city, which was named Ofogo, and
another built on a mountain, at the diftance of 60
leagues. The latter was dedicated to Jupiter Stralius,
Jupiter the Warrior. His ftatue, which was very an¬
cient, infpired great veneration j people came from all
quarters to implore his prote&ion j and for the greater
accommodation of his votaries a paved way was con-
ftrufted, which reached from Mylafa to this venerable
fabric. This city is now called Melaffo, and, according
to Dr Chandler, is ftill a large place.—The houfes are
numerous, but chiefly of plafter, and mean, with trees
interfperfed. The air is accounted bad j and fcorpions
abound as anciently, entering often at the doors and
window's, and lurking in the rooms. The plain is fur-
rounded by lofty mountains, and cultivated. Round
the town are ranges of broken columns, the remnants
of porticoes, nowr with rubbifti bounding the vineyards.
A large portion of the plain is covered with fcattered
fragments, and with piers of ordinary aquedufts ; befides
inferiptions, moftly ruined and illegible. Some altars
Mylafa
tt
’yomannr.
dedicated to Hecatomnus have been difeovered. Of
all the ancient temples which formerly ornamented this
city, one only efcaped the power of time, the blind
zeal of the early Chriftians, and the barbarous fuperfti-
tion of the Mahometans. This monument was dedica¬
ted to Auguftus and the divinity of Rome. When Po-
cocke vifited Melaffo, it was perfect and entire j but at
prefent no traces of it remain, except a few fragments,
which have been employed to conftruft a Turkilh
mofque.
MYLOGLOSSUM, in Anatomy. See Anatomy,
Table of the Mufcles.
MYLOHYOIDAiUS. Ibid.
MYOLOGY, (formed of p.v<;. “ a muffle,” and
Xoyog, “ diffourfe”), in anatomy, a defeription of the
mufcles j or the knowledge of w hat relates to the
mufcles of the human body. Ibid.
MYOMANCY, a kind of divination, or method of
foretelling future events by means of mice.
Some authors hold myomancy to be one of the moft
ancient kinds of divination ; and think it is on this
account that Ifaiah, Jxvi. 17. reckons mice among the
abominable things of the Idolaters. Rut, befide that,
it is not certain that the Hebrew word ufed by
the
M Y R [ 559 ] M Y R
Vlyomancy the prophet fignifies a moufe, it is evident it is not the
jl divination by that animal, be it what it will, that is
Mynitica |-p0^en 0f? eating it.
l"J" v ™ MYOPIA, Short-sightedness*, a fpecies of vi-
iion wherein objefts are feen only at Imall diftances.
See Medicine, Na 361.
MYOSOTIS, Scorpion-grass ; a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 41ft order, Afperifolice. See
Botany Index.
MYOSURUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 26th order, Multifiiiquce. See Botany In¬
dex.
MYOXUS, the Dormouse, a genus of quadrupeds
belonging to the order of glires. See Mammalia In¬
dex.
MYRIAD, a term fometimes ufed to denote ten
thoufand.
MYRICA, Gale, or Sweet-willow, a genus of
plants belonging to the dioecia clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 5th order, Amentaceee. See
Botany Index.
MYRIOPHYTLLUM, a genus of plants belonging
to the moncecia clafs, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 15th order, Inundates. See Botany
Index.
MYRISTICA, the Nutmeg-tree, in Botany, a
genus of plants belonging to the clafs dioecia, and or¬
der fyngenefia, and of the natural order, Lauri. The
defeription of this genus having been omitted in its pro¬
per place under Botany, we fnall here introduce a
fliort account of it.—The male calyx is monophyllous,
ftrong, and parted into three lacinice of an oval fhape,
and ending in a point: it has no corolla. In the mid¬
dle of the receptacle rifes a column of the height of the
calyx, to the upper part of which the antherae are at¬
tached. They vary in number from three to twelve
or thirteen.—The female calyx and corolla as in the
male, orr a dillinct tree. The germen of an oval
fhape *, the llyle fhort, with a bifid ftigma, the laci-
nii of which are oval and fpreading.—The fruit is of
that fort called drupa. It is flefhy, roundifh, fome¬
times unilocular, fometimes bivalved, and burfts when
ripe at the fide. The feed is enveloped with a flefhy
and fatty membranous fubftance which divides into
filaments (this, in one of the fpecies, is the mace of
the (hops). The feed or nutmeg is round or oval
fhaped, unilocular, and contains a fmall kernel, varie¬
gated on the furface by the fibres running in the form
of a ferew.
Species.—There are five fpecies of this genus ac¬
cording to fome authors ; but feveral of thefe being
only varieties, may be reduced into three, viz.
1. Myriftica fatua, or w’ild nutmeg: this grows in
Tobago, and rifes to the height of an apple-tree ; has
oblong, lanceolated, downy leaves, and hairy fruit :—•
the nutmeg of which is aromatic, but w'hen given in¬
wardly is narcotic, and occafions drunkennefs, delirium,
and madnefs, for a time.
2. The myriftica febifera, (Virola Sebfera Aublet,
page 904. tab. 345.) a tree frequent in Guiana, rifing
to 40 or even to 60 feet high *, on wounding the trunk
of which, a thick, acrid, red juice runs out. Aublet
fays nothing of the nutmegs being aromatic } he only
obferves, that a yellow fat is obtained from them, which Myriftica.
ferves many economical and medical purpoies, and that »
the natives make candles of it.
3. The myriftica mofehata, or nutmeg, rifes to the
height of 30 feet, producing numerous branches ; the
bark of the trunk is of a reddifti browm, but that of the
young branches is of a bright green colour : the leaves
are neatly elliptical, pointed, undulated, obliquely
nerved, on the upper fide of a bright green, on the un¬
der whitiih, and ftand alternately upon footftalks : the
flowers are fmall, and hang upon llender peduncles,
proceeding from the axillte of the leaves: they are both
male and female upon feparate trees.
M. Schwartz, who has carefully examined this as
well as the two firft fpecies, preferved in fpirits, places
them among the monadelphia.
The nutmeg has been fuppofed to be the comacum
of Theophraftus, but there feems little foundation for
this opinion ; nor can it with more probability be
thought to be the chryfobalunos of Galen. Our firft
knowledge of it was evidently derived from the Ara¬
bians *, by Avicenna it was called jiaufiban, or jiaufi-
band, which fignifies nut of Banda. Rumphius both
figured and deferibed this tree } but the figure given
by him is fo imperfeft, and the defeription fo confufed,
that Linnaeus, who gave it the generic name myrijiica,
was unable to aflign its proper chara&ers. M. Lamarck,
informs us, that he received feveral branches of the my¬
riftica, both in flower and fruit, from the ifle of France,
where a nutmeg-tree, which was introduced by Mon-
fieur Poivre in 17 70, is noiv very large, and continu¬
ally producing flowers and fruit. From thefe branches,
which were fent from Monf. Cere, direflor of the king’s
garden in that ifland, Lamarck has been enabled to
deferibe and figure this and other fpecies of the myrif¬
tica. See Plate CXXIV. Botany.
Fig. a. A fprig with fructification. The drupa of
the natural fize, and burfting open. Fig. b. The full-
grown fruit cut lengthwife. Fig. c. Another feftion
of the fame. Fig. d. The nutmeg enveloped with its
covering, the mace. Fig. e. The fatty membrane or
mace fpread out. Fig.yi The nutmeg of its natural
fize. Fig. g. The fame with its external tegument re¬
moved at one end. Fig. h. The fame with its outer
tegument entirely removed. Fig. i. A tranfverfe fec-
tion of the nutmeg.
The feeds or kernels called nutmegs are well known,
as they have been long ufed both for culinary and me¬
dical purpofes. Diftilled with water, they yield a
large quantity of eflential oil, refembling in flavour
the fpiee itfclf j after the dill illation an infipid feba-
ceous matter is found fwimming on the wrater ; the
deco&ion infpiffated, gives an extract of an undftuous,
very lightly bitterilh tafte, and with little or no aftrin-
gency. Rectified fpirit extracts the whole virtue of
nutmegs by infufion, and elevates very little of it in
diftillation ; hence the fpirituous extract poffefles the
flavour of the fpice in an eminent degree.
Nutmegs, when heated, yield to the prefs a confider-
able quantity of limpid yellow oil, which on cooling
concretes into a febaceous confiftence. In the ftiops
we meet with three forts of unftuous fubftanees, called
oil of mace, though really exprefled from the nutmeg.
The beft is brought from the Eaft Indies in ftone
jars} this is of a thick confiftence, of the colour of
mace,.,
M Y R [ 560 ] M Y R
mace, and has an agreeable fragrant fmell; the fe-
cond fort, which is paler coloured, and much inferior
in quality, comes from Holland in folid maffes, gene¬
rally flat, and of a fquare figure : the third, which is
the worlt of all, and ufually called common oil of mace,
is an artificial compofition oi fevum, palm oil, and the
like, flavoured with a little genuine oil of nutmeg.
Method of gathering and preparing Nutmeg.—When
the fruit is ripe the natives afcend the trees, and ga¬
ther it by pulling the branches to them with long hooks.
Some arc employed in opening them immediately, and
in taking oflf the green Ihell or firit rind, which is laid
together in a heap in the woods, where in time it pu¬
trefies. As foon as the putrefaftion has taken place,
there fpring up a kind of muthrooms called boleti mof-
chatyni, of a blackifh colour, and much valued by the
natives, who confider them as delicate eating. When
the nuts are dripped of their fird rind, they are carried
home, and the mace is carefully taken off with a fmall
knife. The mace, which is of a beautiful red, but af¬
terwards afl'umes a darkith or reddifh colour, is laid to
dry in the fun for the fpace of a day, and is then re¬
moved to a place lefs expofed to his rays, where it re¬
mains for eight days, that it may foften a little. 1 hey
afterwards moiden it with fea water, to prevent it from
drying too much, or from lofing its oil. I hey are
careful, however, not to employ too much water, led it
fhould become putrid, and be devoured by the worms.
It is lad of all put into fmall bags, and fqueezed very
clofe.
The nuts which are dill covered with their ligne¬
ous fhell, are for three days expofed to the fun, and
afterwards dried before a fire till they emit a found
when they are Ihaken 5 they then beat them with
fmall dicks in order to remove their fhell, which flies
off in pieces. Thefe nuts are diflributed into three
parcels, the fird of which contains the larged and mod
beautiful, which are dedined to be brbught to Eu¬
rope ; the fecond contains luch as are referved for the
ufe of the inhabitants and the third contains the fmall-
ed, which are irregular or unripe. 'I hefe are burnt $
and part of the red is employed for procuring oil by
preffuro. A pound of them commonly gives three
ounces of oil, which has the confidence of tallow, and
has entii*ely the tade of nutmeg. Both the nut and
mace, when diddled, afford an effential, tranfparent,
and volatile oil, of an excellent flavour.
The nutmegs which have been thus felefled would
foon corrupt if they were not watered, or rather
pickled, with lime-water made from calcined died filh,
which they dilute with fait water till it attain the
confidence of fluid pap. Into this mixture they
plunge the nutmegs, contained in fmall bafkets, two
or three times, till they are completely covered over
with the liqour. They are afterwards laid in a heap,
where they heat, and lofe their fuperfluous moidure
by evaporation. When they have fweated fufficient-
ly, they are then properly prepared, and fit for a fea
voyage.
In the ifland of Banda, the fruit of the nutmeg tree
is preferved entire in the following manner : When it
is almod ripe, but previous to its opening, it is boiled
in water and pierced with a needle. They next lay
it in water to foak for ten days, till it has lod its four
and lharp tafte. They then boil it gently in a.fyrup Myriftica.
of fugar, to which, if they with it to be hard, a little ——v——
lime is added. This operation is repeated for eight
days, and each time the fyrup is renewed. The fruit
when thus preferved is put tor the lad time into a
pretty thick fyrup, and is kept in earthen pots clofely
fhut.
Thefe nuts are likewife pickled with brine or with
vinegar •, and when they intend to eat them, they
fird deep them in frelh water, and afterwards boil them
in fyrup of fugar, See.
Nutmegs preferved entire are prefented as def-
ferts, and the inhabitants of India fometimes eat them
when they drink tea. Some of them ufe nothing but the
pulp ; others likewife chew the mace j but they gene¬
rally throw away the kernel, which is really the nut¬
meg. Many who perform lea voyages to the north
chew this fruit every morning.
The medicinal qualities of nutmeg are fuppofed to
be aromatic, anodyne, domachic, and redringent •, and
with a view to the lad-mentioned effects, it has been
much ufed in diarrhoeas and dyfenteries.
Remarks on the Trade of Nutmegs.—Nutmeg trees
grow in feveral iflands in the ealtern ocean. The wood
pigeon of the Moluccas is unintentionally a great plan¬
ter of thefe trees, and diffeminates them in places where
a nation, powerful by its commerce, thinks it for its in-
tered that they fliould be rooted out and dedroyed.
The Duteh, whofe unwearied patience can furmount
the greated obdacles, formerly appropriated to them-
felves the crop of nutmeg, as well as that of cloves and
cinnamon, growing in the iflands of Ternate, Ceylon,
&c. either by right of conqued or by paying fubfidies to
the iflanders, who find thefe much more profitable than
the former produce of their trees. It is neverthelefs
true, that they have prevailed upon or compelled the
inhabitants of the Moluccas to cut down and root out
all the clove trees, which they have preferved only in
the iflands of Amboyna and Ternate, which are in a
great meafure fubjeft to them. We know for certain,
that the Dutch pay 18,000 rixdollars yearly to the
king of Ternate, by way of tribute or gift, in order
to recompenfe him for the lofs of his clove trees in
the other Molucca iflands ; and that they are moreover
bound by treaty to take at 3id. a pound, all the cloves
brought by the natives of Amboyna to their maga¬
zines.
The Dutch had formerly immenfe and very rich ma¬
gazines of thefe precious aromatics, both in India and
Europe. It is faid, that they had a&ually by them the
produce of 16 years, and never fupplied their neighbours
with the lad, but always with the olded crop: in 1760
they fold what was laid up in 17445 and when they
had too great a quantity of cloves, nutmeg, &.c. in
their magazines, they threw them into the fea, or de¬
droyed them by burning. On the 10th of June 1760,
M. Bomare faw at Amderdam, near the Admiralty, a
fire, the fuel of which was valued at 8,000,000 of
livres 5 and as much was to be burned on the day fol¬
lowing. The feet of the fpe&ators were bathed in the
effential oil of thefe fubdances 5 but no perfon was al¬
lowed to gather any of it, much lefs to take any of the
fpices which were in the fire. Some years before,
upon a fimilar occafion, and at the fame place, a poor
man
M Y R [ 56
Myriftica man wlio had taken up feme nutmegs winch nad rolled
li out of the fire, was, as M. Bomare was informed, feized
' M>’rrh , ancj condemned to immediate execution.
~ T But after all, although the fpice trade is lefs exclu-
fively limited to the Dutch of late years, it does not
appear that the price of Eaft Indian ipiceries is in any
degree reduced to the conlumer.
MYRMECOPHAGA, or Ant-bear, a genus of
quadrupeds, belonging to the order of bruta. See
MALIA Index. r - r CL
MYRMELEON, or Ant-lion, a genus of infetts
of the neuroptera order. See Entomology Index.
MYRMIDONS, Myrmidones, in antiquity j a
people in the fouthern borders of Theilaly, who ac¬
companied Achilles to the I rojan war. They re¬
ceived their name from Myrmidon, a fon of Jupitfer
and Eurymedufa, who married one of the daughters
of iEolus, fon of Helen. Elis fon Aftor married
iEgina the daughter of iEfopus. He gave his name
to his fubjeas, who dwelt near the river Peneus in
Theffaly. According to fome, the Myrmidons re¬
ceived their name from their having arifen from ants
or pifmires, upon a prayer put up for that purpofe by
King ^Eacus to Jupiter, after his kingdom had been
difpeopled by a fevere peftilence. According to Strabo,
they received it from their induftry, becaule they imi¬
tated the diligence of the ants, and like them were in¬
defatigable, and were continually employed in cultivat¬
ing the earth.
‘myrmillones were gladiators of a certain
kind at Rome, who fought againft the Retiarii. Their
arms were a fword, head-piece, and Ihield. On the
top of the head piece they wore a filh embuffed, called
whence their name is by fome fuppofed to be
derived. The Retiarii, in their engagements, made ufe
of a net, in which they endeavoured to entangle their
adverfaries *, and fung during the fight, “ Non te peto,
pifeem peto ; quid me fog is, Galle “ I aim not at
thee, but I aim at thy fiih; why doft thou fhun me, O
Gaul ?” The Myrmillones were called Galll, becaufe
they wore Gallic armour. They were alfo named Se-
cutores. This kind of gladiators was fuppreffed by Ca-
haula. See Gladiators, Retiarii, &-c.
°MYROB ALANS, a kind of medicinal fruit brought
from the Indies, of which there are five kinds. 1. 1 he
citrine of a vellowifh red colour, hard, oblong, and the
fize of an olive. 2. The black or Indian myrobalan,
of the bignefs of an acorn, wrinkled and without a
{tone. 3. Chebulic myrobalans, which are of the fize
of a date, pointed at the end, and of a yellowith brown.
4. Emblic, which are round, rough, the. fize of gall,
and of a dark brown. 5. Balleric, which are hard,
round, of the fize of an ordinary prune, lefs angular
than the reft, and yellow. They are all flightly pur¬
gative and aftringent. The word comes from the
Greek ftvgov, “ ointment,” and getXuvo;, “ acorn,” as
being in the form of acorns, and uftd in medicine..
MYRON, an excellent Grecian ftatuary, flourithed
442 B. C. The cow he reprefented in brafs was an
admirable piece of workmanftup, and was the occafion
of many fine epigrams in Greek.
MYROXYLON, a genus of plants belonging to
the decandria clafs. See Botany Index.
MYRRH, a gummy-refinous concrete juice, which
Vol. XIV. Part IE
i ] M Y S
is brought fiom the Eaft Indies or from Abyfiinia. See Myph
Materia Medica bidex. biyfo
It is affirmed by fome, that the myrrh we have at
prefent is not equal in quality to that of the ancients,
and lias not that exquifite fmell which all authors a-
feribe to the latter. They aromatized their moft deli¬
cious wines with it} and it was prefented as a very va¬
luable perfume to our Lord while he lay in the manger.
It was this gum alfo which was mingled with the
wine given him to drink at his paflion, to deaden his
pains, and produce a ftupor. (See Mark xv. 32.). "Ih®
gall mentioned on the fame occafion by St Matthew is
probably the fame with myrrh $ for any thing bitter
was ufually diftinguifhed by the name of gall. I he
Hebrews were aecuftomed to give thofe that were exe¬
cuted fome ftupefying draught. The difficulty which
arifes from the feeming difference betwixt the two evan-
gelifts, by fome is folved by faying, that St Matthew,
writing in Syriac, made ufe of the word marrn, which
fignifies “ myrrh, bitternefs, or gall 5” but the Gig a
tranflator has taken it for gall, and St Mark for myrrh.
Others think that our Saviour’s drink was mingled
with myrrh as a ftupefying drug : but fuppofe that the
foldiers out of wanton cruelty and inhumanity, infured
gall-, which was the reafon, fay they, why, when he
had tailed, he refufed to drink.
MYRRHINE, or Murrine. See Murrine.
MYRSINE, a genus of plants belonging to the pent-
andria clafs, and in the natural method ranking under
the 18th order, Bicornes. See Botany Index.
MYR L'lFORM, in Anatomy, an appellation given
to feveral parts, from their refembling myrtle berries.
MYRTLE. See Myrtus, Botany Index.
MYRTOUM MARE, a part of the iEgean fea, ly¬
ing between Euboea, Peloponnefus and Atlica. It
receives this name from IVTyrto a woman, or from
Myrtos a fmall ifland in the neighbourhood, or from
Myrtilus the fon of Mercury who was drowned there,
&c.
MYRTUS, in Ancient Geography, a fmall ifland
near Caryftus in Euboea, which gave name to the mare
Myrtoum. Others, according to Paufanias, derive the
appellation from Myrto, the name of a w»man. Strabo
extends this fea between Crete, Argia, and Attica.
Paufanias beginning it at Euboea, joins it at Helena,
a defert ifland, with the AEgean fea. Ptolemy carries
it to the coaft of Caria. Pliny fays, that the Cyclades
and Sporades are bounded on the weft by the Myitoan
coaft of Attica.
Myrtus, the Myrtle, a genus of plants belonging
to the icofandria clafs ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 19th order, Hefoendece. See Botany
Index.
MYSIA, a country of Afia Minor, generally di¬
vided into Major and Minor. Myfia Minor was bound¬
ed on the north and weft by the Propontis and Bithy-
nia, and Phrygia on the fouthern and eaftern borders.
Myfia Major had iEolia on the foUth, the Aegean fea
on the weft, and Phrygia on the north and eaft.. Its
chief cities ivere Cyzicum, Lampfacus, &c. The inha¬
bitants were once very ivarlike ; but they greatly dege¬
nerated, and the words Mysorum ultimus wefe empha¬
tically ufed to fignify a perfon of no merit. I he an¬
cients generally hired them to attend their funerals as
4 B mourners,
Myfia,
Myfon.
M Y S i 562 ] M Y S
mourners, becaufe they were naturally melancholy and
inclined to (lied tears. They were once governed by
monarchs. They are fuppefed to be defcended from
the Myfians of Europe, a nation who inhabited that
part of Thrace which was lituated between Mount
Haemus and the Danube.
MYSON, a native of Sparta, one of the feven wife
men of Greece. When Anaeharfis confulted the ora¬
cle of Apollo, to know which was the wifefl man in
Greece, he received for anfwer, he who is now plough- Myfon,
ing his fields. This was Myfon. Myfore.
MYSORE, or Mysorean Dominions, a kingdom ^“~v—«
of Alia, in the Eaft Indies, including the territories
ufurped or fubdued by Hyder Ali, and tranfmitted to
his fon Tippoo Saib, but now fubjedt to the Britifh go¬
vernment. For an account of the conqueft of which*
fee India.
MYSTERIES.
s
The gra¬
dual intro¬
duction of
myflerie*
into reli¬
gion.
*
Etymo¬
logy and
import of
the term.
tY ELIGION, in its original form, was fimple and
intelligible. It was intended for the inftrudlion
and education of all ranks of men ; and of confequence
its dodtrines were on a level with vulgar capacities. The
Jewilh difpenfation was openly pradfifed : nothing was
performed in fecret; every article was plain, open, and
acceflible. The divine Author of the Chriftian econo¬
my commanded his difciples to preach his dodlrine in
the mofl public manner : “ What ye have heard in fe¬
cret (fays he) preach openly ; and what I have taught
you in private teach ye publicly, and proclaim it on the
houfe tops.” Such are the charms of truth, and fuch
the charadter of that religion which came down from
heaven, that they, as it were, “ delight, and lift up
their voice in the ilreets, and cry in the chief places of
concourfe.”
But fuch is the depravity of the nature of man, that
the noblelt inflitutions degenerate in his hands. Reli¬
gion itfelf, originally pure, firaple, and amiable, under
his management has often been transformed into pollu¬
tion, perplexity, and deformity. The minifters of re-
whofe province it was to guard the facred de-
polite, and to fecure it from foreign and fpurious in¬
termixtures, have generally been the firft innovators,
and the firft and moft induftrious agents in corrupting
its integrity and tarnifhing its beauty. Avarice and
ambition prompted that clafs of men to deviate from
the original plainnefs and fimplicity of religious infti-
tutions, and to introduce articles, rites, and ufages,
which might furnifh them ivith opportunities of grati-
fying thefe unhallowed and infatiable paflions. Hence
diftinftions unknown to pure and undefiled religion
were fabricated ; and that heavenly inftitution, hereto¬
fore, one, fimple, indivilible, was divided into two par¬
titions : the one popular and public 5 the other dark,
fecret, and myfterious. The latter of thefe we intend as
the fubjedt of this article.
The Englifh word myjlenj is derived from the Greek
fAvo-Tmov; and in its modern acceptation imports fome-
thing above human intelligence, fomething awfully ob-
feure and enigmatical; any thing artfully made difficult;
the fecret of any bufinefs or profeffion. The word is
often ufed by the founder of the Chriftian religion, and
more frequently by his apoftles, efpecially St Paul. In
thefe cafes, it generally fignifies thofe dottrines of
Ghriftianity which the Jews, prior to the advent of the
Meffiah, either did not or could not underhand. The
Trinity in Unity, and the Unity in Trinity ; the in¬
carnation of the Son of God } the union of two na¬
tures in one and the fame perfon, &c. we generally
call myjleries, becaufe they are infinitely above human
comprehenfion. All thefe fignifications are out of the
queftion at prefent. Our intention in this article is0b e^of
to lay before our readers the fulleft and faireft account this article*
we have been able to colledt, of thole ccTrog^Tas, or J'ecret
rites, of the Pagan fuperftition, which were carefully
concealed from the knowledge of the vulgar, and which
ar# univerfally known under the denomination of my~
Jleries.
The word is evidently deduced from (s.vrr,£ j
but the origin of this laft term is not altogether fo ob¬
vious. The etymologies of it exhibited by the learned
are various ; feme of them abfurd and inconfiftent,
others foolilh and futile. Inftead of fatiguing our
readers with a detail of thefe, w hich would be equally
unentertaining and uninterefting, we ffiall only produce
one, which to us appears to come neareft the truth.
The myfteries under confideration at prefent were cer¬
tainly imported into Greece from the eaft. In thole
regions, then, w;e ought of courfe to look for the etymo¬
logy of the word. Miflor or mijlur, in Hebrew, fignifies
“ any place or thing hidden or concealed.” As
this word implies a kind of definition of the nature
of the thing intended, and as it is one of the excel¬
lencies of original languages to apply vocables with,
this propriety, we find ourfelves ftrongly inclined to
affign the word mijhir as the root of the term
myjler.
_ We have already obferved, that the avarice and am- Motives
bition of the Pagan priefthood probably gave birth to the i»tro-
the inftitution of the myfteries. To this obfervation ducTon of
we may now add, that the minifters of that fuperfti-lhe rayft&*
tion might poffibly imagine, that fome articles of their neS‘
ritual were too profound to be comprehended by the
vulgar j others, too facred to be communicated to a
defeription of men, whom the inftitutions of civil foeie-
ty had placed in a fituation not only fubordinate but
even contemptible. It was imagined, that things fa¬
cred and venerable would have contra&ed a taint and
pollution by an intercourfe with fordid and untutored
fouls. Thefe appear to us the moft probable motives
for making that odious and pernicious diftimftion be¬
tween the popular religion and that contained in the
facred and myfterious ritual.
The learned Bilhop Warburton is pofitive, that the
myfteries of the Pagan religion were the invention of
Icgillators * and other great perfonages, whom fortune * .
or their own merit had placed at the head of thofe civil^
focieties which were formed in the earlieft ages in dif-
ferent parts of the world. It is with relu&ance, and
indeed
M Y S T
5 indeed with diffidence, that we prefume to differ in
Vefiso?0* 0Ur ^en^ments from fuch refpeciable authority. What-
fVvarburton ever hypothefis this prelate had once adopted, fo exten-
£11 founded, five was his reading, and fo exuberant his intelleftual
refourees, that he found little difficulty in defending
it by an appearance of plaufibility, if not of rational
argumentation. The large quotations he has adduced
from Plato and Cicero, do indeed prove that the fages
and legiflators of antiquity fometimes availed them-
felves of the influence derived from the dodtrines of
the myfteries, and from the authority they acquired
by the opinion of their having been initiated in them j
but that thofe men were the inventors and fabricators
of them is a pofltion for which his quotations do not
furnilh the moft flender prefumption. At the fame
Itime, we think it not altogether certain, that the doc¬
trine of a divine Providence, and a future ffate of re¬
wards and punifhments, were revealed in the myfteries
with all the clearnefs and cogency which is pretended
by his lordffiip.
But granting that the fabric was raifed by the hands
of fages and legiflators, wre imagine it would be rather
difficult to difeover what emolument that defeription
of men could propofe to derive from the enterprife.—
The inftitution was evidently, and indeed confeffedly,
xlevifed to conceal from the million thofe Very doc¬
trines and maxims, which had they known and em¬
braced them, w7ould have contributed moft effeftually
to difpofe them to fubmit to thofe wife regulations
which their governors and legiflators Aviffied moft ar¬
dently to eftablifti. Experience has taught, that no¬
thing has a more commanding influence on the minds
of the vulgar, than thofe very dogmas, Avhich, accord¬
ing to the Biffiop, were communicated to the initi¬
ated. A convidlion of the unity of the Deity, of
his Avifdom, poAver, goodnefs, omnipre'fence, Stc. the
fteady belief of the immortality of the human foul,
and of a future ftate of reAvards and punifliments, haAre
in all ages, and in all countries, proved the firmeft
fupports of legal authority. The very fame do&rines,
in the darvn of Chriftianity, contributed, of all other
methods, the moft effedtually to tame and civilize the
favage (a) inhabitants of the northern regions of Eu¬
rope. Suppoftng* thofe principles to have been incul¬
cated by the myfteries, the moft prudent plan legifla¬
tors could have adopted, vvould have been to publiffi
them to all mankind. They ought to have fent forth
apoftles to preach them to the favages whom they had
-undertaken to civilize. According to the learned
prelate, they purfued the oppoftte courfe, and deprived
themfelves of thofe very arms by Avhich they might
have encountered and ovrerthroAvn all the armies of
5 favagifm.
Myfteries Of all the legiflators of antiquity, the Cretan alone
of Eleufxs was prudent enough to forefee and adopt this rational
repealed5 P^an* Diodorus the Sicilian informs us *, that the
publicly in myfteries of Eleufis, Samothracia, &c. which Avere
Crete. elfeAvhere buried in profound darknefs, Avere among
* Db. v. the Cretans taught publicly, and communicated to all
L R I E S. 563
the Avorld. Minos, hoAvet'cr, was a fuecefsful legilla-
tor; and his intercourfc with Jupiter Idaeus extended
his influence and eftabliffied his authority. He Avas
not under the neceflity of calling in the myfteries to
his affiftance : on the contrary, it is highly probable
that the univerfal knoAvledge of the dodrines of the
myfteries among his countrymen contributed in a con-
fiderable degree to facilitate his labour, and enfure his
fuccefs.
The divine Author of tire Chriftian economy, view¬
ed in the light of a human legiflator, faAv the propriety
of this procedure. Nothing Avas concealed in his infti-
tutions ; nothing was veiled Avith myftery, or buried
in darknefs. The fuccefs Avas anlwerable to the wif-
dom of the plan. The million flocked to the evangeli¬
cal ftandard : the gofpel Avas preached to the poor, to
the illiterate and the vulgar ; and the meaneft of man¬
kind eagerly embraced its maxims. Wherever it pre¬
vailed, it produced civilization, morality, fobriety, loy¬
alty, and every other private and focial virtue.—Upon
the fuppofition that the myfteries had contained and in¬
culcated the principles and prafti-ces Avhich the prelate
fuppofes they did, the civilizers of mankind, legiflators,
magiftrates, and princes, ought to have combined to
make them public for the fake of their oAvn tranquilli¬
ty, and the more effeftual fupport of their authority
and influence. 7
Upon the whole, avc are inclined to bd-ieve that the Myfterie*
myfteries Avere the offspring of Egyptian prieftcraft. ^
They were inftituted Avith a vieAV to aggrandize that Igy^ian
order of men, to extend their influence, and enlarge prieftcraft;
their revenues. To accomplifli thofe felfifh proje(fts,but
they applied every engine toAvards befotting the mul¬
titude Avith fuperftition and enthufiafm. They taught
them to believe, that themfelves Avere the diftinguiffied
favourites of heaven ", and that celeftial dodlrines had
been revealed to them, too holy to be communicated
to the profane rabble, and too fublime to be compre¬
hended by vulgar capacities. It is, aatc confefs, ex¬
ceedingly probable, that after the myfteries were in¬
ftituted, and had acquired an exalted reputation in the
Avorld, legiflators, magiftrates, judges, and potentates,
joined in the impofture, with the fame vieAVS and from 8
the fame principles. Princes and legiflators, who adopted by
found their advantage in overawing and humbling the
multitude, readily adopted a plan Avhich they found fo
artfully fabricated to anfwer thefe very purpofes. They
had intereft enough with the facerdotal (b). myfta-
gogues, to induce them to alloAV them to participate in
thofe venerable rites Avhich had already eftabliflied the
authority of that defeription of men in whofe hands
they Avere depofited. 1 he vieAvs of both parties Avere
exattly congenial. The refpeft, the admiration, and
dependance on the million, Avere the ultimate objedls
of their ambition reApeftively.—Priefts and princes
Were actuated by the very fame fpirit. The combina¬
tion Avas advantageous, and of confequence harmoni¬
ous. For thefe reafons we have taken the liberty of
differing from his Lordfliip of Gloucefter with refpe&
4 B 2 to
(a) The Germans, Ruffians, and Scandinavians, who were never thoroughly civilized till the gofpel was
preached among them. _ _ # .
(b) The myftagogues were the minifters who a£ted the chief part in celebrating the myfteneSi
564
9
Hypothefis
of Vlo-
Ihvim
TO
fingular
am; i ue-
fenllbie.
II
Our firft
pofifion
Supported
by the cha-
raster of
the prieds
of ulgypt.
* Diodor.
Sicul. lib. i
M Y S T E R I E S.
to the perfons who firfl inftltuted the feeret myfteries of
the Pagan religion.
Another writer of confiderable reputation in the
republic of letters, is of opinion, that the myfteries
were entirely commemorative ; that they were inttitut-
ed with a view to preferve the remembrance of heroes
i*nd great men, who had been deified in confideration
of their martial exploits, ufeful inventions, public vir¬
tues, and efpeeially in confequence of the benefits by
them conferred on their contemporaries.—According to
him, the (c) myfteries of Mithras were eftablilhed for
this very purpofe. It would be no difficult matter
to prove that the Perfian deity of that name was the
fun, and that his name and infignia jointly afeertain
the truth of this affettion. The fame writer extends
this obfervation to the myfteries of the Egyptians,
Phoenicians, Greeks, Hetrufeans \ and in a word, to
all the inftitutions of that fpecies throughout the world.
In oppofition to this lingular opinion, it may be argued,
we think with fome fbow of reafon, that the method
of preierving the memory of great and illuftriuus men
generallv adopted, was the eftabliffiing feltivals, cele¬
brating games, offering faerifees, finging hynins,
dances, &c. We can recolleft no fecret myfteries in-
ftituted for that purpofe at leaft in tlieir original in¬
tention. If any ufage of the commemorative kind was
admittod, it was fuperinduced at fome period pofterior
to the primarv inftitution. At the fame time, upon the
fuppofition that the orgia of Bacchus were the fame with
thofe of the* Egyptian Oliris, and that the myfteries of
Ceres exhibited at Eleufis were copied from thofe of f.he
Egyptian Ifis, and allowing that the former was the
fun, and the latter the moon } it will be difficult to
find out the human perfons whofe exploits, adventures,
inventions, &c. were intended to be immortalized by
thofe inftitutions. Upon the whole, the myfteries were
performed in fecret ; they were intended to be com¬
municated only to a ferv ; of courfe, had they been in-
llituted with a vieiv to immortalize the memory of
heroes and great men, the authors would have afled
the moft foolifti and inconfiftent part imaginable.—In-
Head of tranfmitting the fame of their heroes with eclat
to pofterity, they would by this procedure have con-
figned it to eternal oblivion.
We muft then recur to our firft pofition. The my¬
fteries wTere the offspring of bigotry and piieftcraft }
they originated in Egypt, the native land of idola-
'try. In that country the priefthood ruled predomi¬
nant. The kings were engrafted into their body be¬
fore they could afeend the throne. They were pof-
feffed of a third part * of all the land of Egypt. The
•facerdotal funftion was confined to one tribe, and was
tranfmitted unalienably from father to fon. All the
orientals, but more efpeeiallv the Egyptians, delight¬
ed in mvfterious and allegorical doctrines. Every
maxim of morality, every tenet of theology, every
dogma of philofophy, was wrapt up in a veil of alle¬
gory and myfticifm. This propenlity, no doubt, con-
fpired with avarice and ambition to difpofe them to a
dark and myfterious lyitem of religion. Befides, the
Egyptians were a gloomy f race of men ; they delighted f Plutarch-
in darknefs and lolitude. Their facred rites were sre-
O
nerally celebrated with melancholy airs, weeping, and
lamentation. This gloomy and unfocial bias of mind
muft have ftimulaled them to a congenial mode of wor-
ftfip. In Egypt then we are to fearch for the origin
of the myfteries. Both the nature of the inftitution
and the genius of the people confirm this pofition ; and
hiftorians, both ancient and modern, arc agreed in ad¬
mitting the certainty of the fadl. J2
The Ofiris of Egypt, every body knows, was theThe Ofiris
original Bacchus ; as the Ifis ol the fame country was and Ifi- of
the Ceres of the Greeks, i he rites of Oliris were^pP^ t^e
performed with loud ftirieks and lamentations when J“, .
• i rr , . . and t eres
lie was put into the coffin ; and with the moft extra-0t Gieece.
vagant mirth, when he was in a manner railed from
tin dead, or fuppofed to be found again. '1 heir hymns
were upon the whole always eompoled in melancholy
affc&ing Itrains •, and conlifted of lamentations fur the
lufs of Ofiris, the myilic flight of Bacchus, the wan¬
derings of Ifis, and the lufferings f of the gods. 'I he j piUf. If.
Canaanites, who were a kindred tribe of the Mizraimef Ofir.
or Egyptians, imitated them in their facred rites. At?
By bias. Eery t us, Sidon, and afterwards at lyre, they chap viii.
ufed particularly mournful dirges for the death of Ado-awrf Ncnni
nis or 1 am muz , who was the fame with the Egyp- Ul0nyf
tian Ofiris, i. e. the fun. ^
The Egyptians, then, naturally inclined to gloom Deaih of
and fecrecy, inltituted a mode of worlhip congenial Ofiris and
with their natural difpofition .of mind. The recefs of'^l^erlrSs
the fun towards the fouthern ht mifphere, was the
death % of Ofiris \ the wanderings of Ills in fearch of*
her hufband and brother, allegorically imported the
longing of the earth f for the return of the fructifying ^ -r uU
influence of llic fnlar heat. et ^ir' |
When that luminary returned towards the fummer
folftice, and grain, trees, fruits, herbs, and flowers
adorned the face of nature, another feftival wras cele¬
brated of a very different complexion from that of the
former. In this feafon all Egypt was diffolved in the
moft extravagant mirth and jollity. Turing the cele¬
bration of thofe feftivals, the priefts formed allegorical
reprefentations of the fun and the earth (d). 1 hey
perfonified the one and the other, and allegorized their
motions, afpedls, relations, fympathies, acceffes, re-
ceffes, &c. into real adventures, peregrinations, fuffer-
ings, contefts, battles, victories, defeats, and fo forth.
Thefe, in procefs of time, were held up to the vulgar
as real occurrences ; and thefe in a few ages became
the moft effential articles of the popular creed. From
this fource were derived the conquefts of Dionyfus or
Bacchus, fo beautifully exhibited by Nonnus in his
Dionyfiacs j
(c) Principio hoc ego qusdem controverfia vacare, arbitror, myftena quae vocantur, ri u> fuiffe idcirto inftitutos
ne memoria petiret ve rum beneficiorum, inventorum, fatorum rerum geftarum quibus primi populoium condi-
tores, aut a’ii prseclari homines, decus nomen, et famam, inter fuos fibi comparaverant. Neque haec cuiquam
fententia mirabilis videri poterit. Cud. Si/Ji. bitelleCl. ed. Mojhemii, p. 329.
(d) Ifis, among the Egyptians, fometimes fignifies the moon, and fometimes the earth,
2
SSj
MYSTERIES.
I TS
jiecreh re-
Ipefling
i he objects
|>f worfliip
seveaied in
f!.he mylte-
ies.
id
Chief: d-
vantage oi
(the myfte-
* De Nat
Deonm,
Dionyfiacs ; the wanderings of lo, wonderfully adorned
by ^Efchylus j and the labours of Hercules, afterwards
ufurped by the Greeks.
Whether the Egyptians deified mortal men in the
earlieft ages has been much controverted, j ablonlki f
has taken much pains to prove the negative. Diodo¬
rus t allures us, that they paid their monarchs a kind
of divine adoration, even in their litetime. Plutarch
tells us plainly §, that fome were of opinion that Ills,
Ofiris, Horus, Anubis, Typhon, were once mortal
perfons, who were exalted into demons after their death.
The Sicilian, in his hiltory of Ills and Oliris, Pan, Her¬
mes, &c. plainly reprefents them as human perfonages j
and informs us, that the Egyptians imagined, that after
their deceafe they tranfmigrated into particular liars.
From thefe authorities, we are inclined to believe that
the Egyptians, as well as the other Pagans, did actual¬
ly deify perfons who had diftinguilhed themfeives in
their days of nature by prowefs, wifdom, ufetul arts,
and inventions. This was a conftant pradHce among
the Greeks, who probably learned it from the people in
queltion.
The exploits of thefe heroes had been difguifed by
allegorical traditions and hieroglyphical reprefentations.
They had been magnified beyond all dimenfions, in or¬
der to allonith and intimidate the vulgar. 'I hey had
been interlarded with the moll extravagant fables, in
order to gratify their propenfity towards the marvel¬
lous. All thefe fecrets were developed in the myfteries.
The catechumens (e ) were informed of every particular
relating to the birth, the life, the exploits, the adven-
tures, the misfortunes, and deceafe of thofe heroic per-
fonages, and when, and by what means, they had at¬
tained to the high rank of divinities. At the fame
time we think it highly probable, that thofe demi-gods
were reprefented in their date of exaltation and heaven¬
ly fplendour. The magicians of Egypt were abundant¬
ly qualified for exhibiting angels in machines. 1 he
fouls of virtuous men, who had not been eminent enough
to merit the honour of deification, were ftiown in all
the perfection of Elyfian felicity, and perhaps the fouls
of tyrants, and of the children of (f) Typhon, were
fhoWn in Tartarus, fufferingall the extremes of infernal
punifhment. From thefe exhibitions the myftagogues
might naturally enough take occafion to read their pu¬
pils fuitable lectures on the happy tendency of a virtu¬
ous conduct, and the difimnour and mifery confequent
upon a contrary courfe. They might fet before them
immortal renown, deification, and Elyfium, on the one
hand, and eternal infamy and mifery on the other. This
will probably be deemed the chief advantage accruing
from this inftitution.
Befides the communications above mentioned, the
catechumens were taught many fecrets of phyfiology,
or the nature of the phenomena of the world. This
Pharnutus* every where affirms, efpecially in his lait
book towards the end. Plutarch too informs us, that
many of the Greek philofophers were of opinion, tbit
molt of the Egyptian fables were allegorical details of
phyfical operations. Eufebius acquaints us f, thatj Prctp.
the phyfiology, not only of the Greeks, but likewifeEvangel.
of the barbarians, was nothing elfe but a kind of
fcience of nature, avconcealed and dark theology, in¬
volved in fable and fiftion, whofe hidden nvyfteries
were fo veiled over with enigmas and allegories, that
the ignorant million were as liltle capable of compre¬
hending what was faid as what was fupprefled in fi-
lence. This, fays he, is apparent from the poems of
Orpheus and the fables of the Phrygians and Egyp¬
tians. Dionyfius of Halicarnaffus likewife obferves J, j Antiq.
that the fables of the Greeks detail the operations isiRom.
nature by allegories. Proclus § makes the fame ob- § in Tim.
fervation concerning the people in queilion. Ihe
Egyptians, fays he, taught the latent operations of
nature by fables. 17
Thefe phy liological fecrets were no doubt expounded Phyfiologi-
to the initiated; and that the Egyptian prielis werecal lecr*‘t*
deeply fkilled in phyfiological fcience, can fcarce be
queftioned, if we believe that Jannes and Jambres ri-tter;es 0f
vailed Mofes with their enchantments. The preceding Egypt,
detail comprehends all that was revealed to the Epoptae
in the original Egyptian myfteries. What articles
might have been introduced afterwards we cannot pre¬
tend to determine.
Be that as it may, one thing is certain, namely, that
the vulgar were excluded from all thole choice lecrets,
which were carefully referved for the nobility and
facerdotal tribes. To them it was given to know the
myfteries of the kingdom of darknefs 5 but to thofe
who were without, all was my fiery and parable. While
the laity fed on hufks, the clergy and the quality
feafted on royal dainties. The priefts who had de-
vifed thefe allegories underftood their original import,
and bequeathed it as an ineftimable legacy to their
children. Here then we have the primary objeft of
the myfteries, namely, to develope to the initiated the
original and rational import of thofe allegorical and
myftieal do&rines which were tendered to the uniniti¬
ated, wrapt up in impenetrable allegory and obfeurity.
To the former, thefe were communicated and explain¬
ed : The latter were obliged to ftand at an awful di-
ftance, and retire as the Procul, 0 procul ejle profanit
thundered in their ears.
Thefe allegorical traditions originated in Egypt, (fee
Mythology.) It was the general bias of the orien¬
tal genius. The Egyptians, however, according to the
molt authentic accounts (g), were the greateft profi¬
cients in that fcience. The original fubjedt of thefe
inftitutions were, we imagine, the articles we have fpe-
cified above : but in procefs of time, according to the
natural courfe of things, numerous improvements were
made, and many new rites, ceremonies, ufages, and even
dodlrines, were fuperinduced, which were utterly un¬
known to the original hierophants (h). Simplicity is,
(e) Catechumens were pupils who were learning the elements of any fcience.
(f) Typhon was the evil genius, or devil, of the Egyptians. ....
(g) As early as the age of Jofeph, the Egyptians were fkilled in the interpretations of dreams, divinations,
Stc. and in the age of Mofes they were become wife men, magicians, &c. . ... ,
(h) Hierophant imports a prieft employed in explaining the doarines, rites, &c. communicated to the initiated.
566
MYSTERIES.
for the moft part, one of the diftinguiftung charadters of formation. Euripides and Aridophancs fe^*m to have
a new inftitution j but fucceeding architeds generally paved the way for the prince of Roman poets. Plato + , ,
imagine that fomething is dill wanting to complete the and fome of the other philofophers have drown by their ‘ P
beauty, the regularity, the uniformity, the magnifi- deferiptions or allufions, that the whole apparatus of
cence, and perhaps the conveniency of the drudure. Tartarus and Elyfmm had become a hackneyed topic
Hence, at length, it comes to be fo overloaded with ad- fome centuries before Virgil was born. This incom-
ventitious drapery, that its primary elegance and fym- parable poet borrowed his ideas from Homer, Arifto-
metry are altogether defaced. This was the cafe with phanes, Euripides, Plato, &c. Thefe, under his plaf-
the earlied Egyptian myderies. Their fubjed was at tic hand, in the fixth ALneid, grew into a fydem beau-
fird Ample and eafy to be comprehended ; in time it tiful, regular, uniform, and confident. The materials
l8 became complex, intricate, and unintelligible. he has employed were created to his hand ; he had
Temples In order to celebrate thofe myderies with the greater only to colled, polilh, arrange, and conned them. 
where the fecrecy, their temples were fo condruded as to favour The fentiments colleded from the Platonic philofophy,
werefede ^ art^ce t^e Priefts‘ fanes, in which they and the inimitable epifode copied from the annals of
brated. u^ec* to execute thdr facred fundions, and to perform Rome, by the maderly Ikill which he has difplayed in
the rites and ceremonies of their religion, wrere fub- the application of them, form the chief excellencies of
terraneous apartments, condruded with fucli wonder¬
ful fldll and dexterity, that every thing that appeared
in them breathed an air of folemn fecrecy. Their
walls were covered with hieroglyphic paintings and
fculpture, and the altar was dtuated in the centre of
Z^Norden, ^]ie apartment. Modern J travellers have of late years
coikc'&J difeovered fome vediges of them, and bear witnefs to
the above defeription of thofe dark abodes (i). In
thofe fubterraneous manfions, which the prieds of that
ingenious nation had planned with the mod confum-
mate (kill, the kings, princes, and great men of the
date, encountered the dangers and hardlhips contrived
to prove their prudence, fortitude, patience, abdinence,
&c. Thefe w'ere appointed to try their merit j and by
thefe the hierophants vrere enabled to decide whether or
not they were duly qualified for receiving that benefit.
Upon thefe occafions, we may believe, abundance of
thofe magical tricks were exhibited, for which the ma¬
gicians of Egypt were fo much celebrated among the
ancients. The drange and adonifiiing fights, the al¬
ternate fuccefiions of light and darknefs, the hideous
fpedtres expofed to view, the frightful bowlings re¬
echoed by thefe infernal domes, the feenes of Tartarus
and Elyfium, exhibited alternately and in quick fuccef-
fion, mud have made a deep and lading impreflion on
the mind of the affrighted votary (k). Thefe feenes
wTe drall deferibe more fully in the fequel.
The Gre- From the feenes exhibited in celebrating the Egyp¬
tian Infer- tian myderies, efpecially thofe of Ifis and Ofiris, the
coYd§1°nS ^reeks feem to have copied their ideas of the infernal
from the regions, and the fubterraneous manfions of departed
Egyptian fouls. Many colonies of Egyptians fettled in Greece,
inyfteries. From thefe the uotioi (l), or mod early bards of
Greece, learned them imperfectly. Of courfe, we
find Homer’s account of the infernal regions, and of
the date of departed fouls, lame and incoherent. Suc¬
ceeding bards obtained more full and more didindt in-
the piece. For the red, he could well difpenfe with
going to Eleufis (m) : every old woman in Athens and
Rome could repeat them.
Egypt was then the native land of myderies as well Myftefies
as of idolatry. Every god and goddefs refpedively brought
had their myderies 5 but as thofe of Ifis and Ofiris from Egypt
were the mod celebrated, they of courfe became prin- lnt° Peifia
eipal objedts of purfuit as well as of imitation to the an Itece‘
neighbouring nations. Thefe, as is generally believed,
were carried into Perfia by Zoroadres, or Zerdulht,
by whom they were confecrated to Mithras. On thefe
■we fliall make fome obfervations in the fequel.—Or¬
pheus imported them into Thrace 5 Cadmus brought
them into Eceotia, where they were facred to Bacchus.
Inachus edablilhed them at Argos in honour of Juno,
the fame with Ifis (n) j Cyniras in Cyprus, where they
w1 * * * * * 7ere dedicated to Venus. In Phrygia they were facred
to Cybcle, the mother of the gods.
Our learned readers, who will probably refledt
that the Egyptians were in ancient times inhofpitable
to drangers, will perhaps be furprifed that this fadi- u
dious and jealous people were fo ready to communicate
the arcana of their religion to foreigners.—But they
will pleafe recoiled!, that a great part of Greece wras
planted with colonies from Egypt, Phoenicia, Paledine,
&c. This we could eafily prove, did the bounds pre-
feribed us admit fuch a digrefiion. Orpheus, if not an
Egyptian, wras at lead of oriental extradlion. Inachus,
Cadmus, and Melampus, are univerfally allowed to
have been Egyptians. Erechtheus, in whofe reign the
Eleufinian myderies were edablifhed, was an Egyptian
by birth, or at lead fprung from Egyptian ancedors.
The Egyptians, then, in thofe early ages, did not view
the Greeks in the light of aliens, but as a people
nearly related either to themfelves or the Phoenicians,
%vho were their brethren. Upon this connexion we
imagine it vras, that in later times mod of the fages of
Greece,
(1) See an excellent defeription of thefe fubterraneous abodes, and of the procefs of probation carried on there,
in a French romance, entitled The Life of Sethos.
(k) Perfons who had defeended into Trophonius’s vault were faid to have been fo terrified with fhocking fights,
that they never laughed during the remainder of their lives.
(l) Thefe wrere drolling poets like our mindrels, wrho frequented the houfes of the great men of Greece, anti
entertained the company upon public occafions with finging and tales of other times.
(m) Bidrop Warburton has, with much ingenuity, and a vad profufion of reading, endeavoured to prove that
Virgil borrowed the whole feenery of the fixth AEneid from the fources mentioned in the text.
(n) Ifis was the moon, and the original Juno was the fame planet.
-f-*-
1 IT
lyfteries
« Mithras,
Jcchns,
*d Ceres,
«e moft
«guft.
iRelifr
it. Per/a-
km.
at
kcount of
te myfte-
i»s of Mi-
tras.
M Y S T
Greece, efpecially of Athens, found fo hofpitable a
reception among that people. They probably viewed
them in the light of propagandi $ apollles able and
willing to diffeminate their idolatrous rites. This ob-
fervation, which might be fupported by numberlefs au¬
thorities, did the nature of the prefent inquiry permit,
will, we think, go a great way towards obviating the
objection.
Although, as has been obferved, every particular
deity had his own peculiar myfterious facred rites, yet
of all others thofe of Mithras, Bacchus (o), and Ceres,
were deemed the moil auguft, and -were moil univerfal-
ly and moil religiouily celebrated. To thefe, therefore,
we ihall in a good meafure confine ourfelves upon this
occafion. If our readers ihall become intimately ac¬
quainted with thefe, they may readily difpenfe with the
knowledge of the reft, which are, indeed, no more than
ftreams and emanations from thefe fources. We ihall
then, in the firft place, prefent to our readers a brief
Iketch of the myfteries of Mithras.
Mithras, or, according to the Perfian, Mi/ir, was
one of the great gods of the Afiatics. His woriliip
was for many ages confined to Perfia. Afterwards,
however, it was propagated fo far and wide, that fome
have imagined they had difcovered veftiges of it even
in Gaul. Mihr, according to Dr Hyde *, fignifies
love, and likewife the fun. If we might prefume to
differ from fo a refpectable an authority, we fhould con-
jedlure that it is a cognate of the Hebrew word muthir,
“ excellentia, praeftantia.” That there was an analogy
between the Hebrew and old Perfian, is generally ad¬
mitted by the learned. Be that as it may, Mithras
was the fun (p) among the Perfians ; and in honour
of that luminary this inftitution was eftabliihed. Mi¬
thras, according to Plutarch (qJ, was the middle god
between Oramaz and Ariman, the twm fupreme divi¬
nities of Perfia. But the fa6l is, the folar planet vras
the vifible emblem of Oramaz, the good genius of the
Perfian tribes, and the fame with the Ofiris of the
Egyptians. From thefe people, fome have imagined
that Zoroaftres (r), or Zerduftit, borrowed his my¬
fteries of Mithras. To this opinion we cannot give
our affent, becaufe the probationary trials to be under¬
gone by the candidates among the former -were much
more favage and fanguinary than among the latter.—
Both, however, were inflituted in honour of the fame
deity ; and probably the fcenes exhibited, and the in¬
formation communicated in both, were analogous 5 a
circumftance which perhaps gave birth to the opinion
above mentioned.
E R I E S. 567
The grand feftival of Mithras was celebrated fix
days, in the middle of the month Mihr (s). Upon
thefe days, it was lawful for the kings of Perfia to get
drunk and dance. On this feftival, we imagine, the
candidates for initiation, having duly proved their vo¬
cation, were folemnly admitted to the participation of
the myfteries.
Zoroaftres (t) worfhipped Mithras, or the Sun, in a
certain natural cave, which he formed into a temple,
and filled up in a manner exadlly mathematical. There
Mithras was reprefented as prefiding over the lower
world with all the pomp of royal magnificence. In
it too were feen the fymbols of Mithras and of the
world, philofophically and mathematically exhibited,
to be contemplated and w'orflupped. This deity was
fometimes reprefented as mounted on a bull, which he
is breaking, and which he kills with a fword. On
fome bas reliefs ftill exifting, he appears as a young
man with his tiara turned upward, after the manner of
the Perfian kings. He is clothed with a fhort tunic and
breeches, after the Perfian faftiion. Sometimes he wears
a fmall cloak. By his fides are feen other human figures,
with tiaras of the fame falhion on their heads, but with¬
out cloaks. One of thefe figures commonly holds in his
one hand a torch lifted up \ in the other, one turned
downward. Sometimes over the cave are feen the cha¬
riots of the fun and moon, and divers conftellations, fuch
as cancer, fcorpio, &c.
In one of thofe caves the ceremonies of initiation Probation-
were performed; but before the candidate could be ary exer-
admitted, he was forced to undergo a courfe of pro- C1.les Pre"
bationary exercifes, fo numerous and fo rigorous, that
very few had courage and fortitude enough to go through
them. He was obliged to live a life of virtue and
abftinence for the fpace of feven years previous to the
period of his initiation. Some months before it, he was
obliged to fubmit to a long and auftere fall, which
continued fifty days. He was to retire feveral days
to a deep and dark dungeon, where lie was fucceffively
expofed to all the extremes of heat and cold. Mean¬
time he frequently underwent the baftinado, which
the priefts applied without mercy. Some fay this fu-
ftigation continued two whole days, and was repeated
no lefs than 15 times. In the courfe of thefe proba¬
tionary exercifes, the candidate was generally reduced
to a Ikeleton : and we are told, that there have been
feveral inftances of perfons who have periftied in the
attempt.
Upon the eve of the initiation, the afpirant was
obliged to * brace on his armour, in order to encoun- * jul p-r^
ter micus.
(o) Bacchus was the Ofiris of the Egyptians, and Ceres was Ifis of the fame people.
(p) Moftieim, in his notes on Cudworth’s Intelleilual Syftem, p. 330. has taken much pains to prove that
Mithras was a deified mortal; but wre cannot agreee wdth that learned man in this point.
(q_) Ifis and Ofiris, p. 369. 1. 20. from the bottom. This philofopher makes Zoroafter, according to fome,
5000 years prior to the Trojan war. This date is certainly extravagant. We cannot, however, agree, with fome
moderns, wrho make him contemporary with Darius Hyftafpes, the immediate fueceffbr of Cambyfes, becaufe it
contradidls all antiquity.
(r) M. Silohwette, Differ, v. p. 17. afferts that Zoroaftes was initiated among the Egyptians.
(s) The month Mehr began September 30. and ended Oflober 30.
(t) See Dr Hyde de Rel. vet. Perf. pages 16, 17. Mr Bryant’s Anal. vol. i. p. 232. Porphyr. de Antro
Nymph, p. 254. This philofopher often mentions the cave of Mithras, and always attributes the inftitution of
his rites to Zoroafter.
3
568
M Y S T
ter giants and favage monfters. In thofe fpacious
fubterraneous maniions a mock hunting was exhibited.
The prietts and all the iubordmate officers of the
temple, transformed into lions, tygcrs, leopards, boars,
wolves, and other lavage creatures, alTailed him with
loud bowlings, roaring, and yelling, and every mltance
of ferine fury. In thofe mock combats, the hero was
often in danger of being really worried, and always ^me
off with bruifes and wounds. Lampridius informs us,
that w hen the emperor Commodus was initiated, he ac¬
tually carried the joke too far, and butchered one of the
priells who attacked him in the figure of a wild beaft.
The Perfians worfhipped Mithras or the Sun by a per¬
petual fire j hence the votary was obliged to undergo a
fiery trial j that is, to pafs feven times through the
facred fire, and each time to plunge himfelf into cold
water. Some have made thefe probationary penances
amount to 80 others have thought that they were in
all only 8. As we find no good authority for either
of thefe numbers, we think ourfelves at liberty to ha¬
zard the following conjeaure : The numberwas
deemed facred over all the eaff. I he Mithriac pe¬
nances we imagine wrere either feven, or if they ex¬
ceeded it, were regulated by feven repetitions of that
number. The candidate having undergone all thefe
torturing trials with becoming patience and fortitude,
was declared a proper fubjea for initiation. . But be-
fore his admiffion he was obliged to bind himfelf by
Oath of moft ffilemn oath, with horrible imprecations an-
fecrecy- nexed, never to divulge any fingle article of all that
ffiould. be communicated to him in the courfe of his
initiation. - .
Revelations What ccrt^ql* or ineffable fecrets were imparted to
in the my- the initiated, it is impoffible at this diftance of time to
itenes of d;fcovcr with any tolerable degree of certainty. We
Mithras. however, reft affured, that the moft authentic
tradition concerning the origin of the univerle j the na¬
ture, attributes, perfe&ions, and operations, of Oro-
mafd j the baleful influences of Ariman; and the be¬
nign effefts of the government of Mithras, were un¬
folded and inculcated. The fecret phenomena of na¬
ture, as far as they had been difeovered by the Magi,
were likewife exhibited ; and the application of their
effe&s, to artoniffi and delude the vulgar, were taught
both in theory and praaice. The exercife of public
and private virtues was warmly recommended ; and
vice reprefented in the moft odious and fi ightful co¬
lours. Both thefe injunaions were, we may luppofe,
enforced by a difplay of the pleafures of Elyfium and
the pains of Tartarus, as has been obferved above in de-
feribing the mylleries of the Egyptians.
Thofe initiations are mentioned by Lampridius in
, . the life of Commodus, and likewife by Juftin -f- and
Try phone.’1 Tertullian J, who both flouriffied in the fecond centu-
E R I E S.
ry. The laft of thefe two fpeaks of a kind of baptifm,
which ‘ wathtd trom the fouls of the initiated all the
ftains which they had contraded during the eourfe of
their lives prior to their initiation. lie at the fams
tune mentions a particular mark which was imprinted
upon them (u), of an offering of bread, and an emblem
of the refurredion; which particulars, however, he
does not deferibe in detail. In that offering, which
was accompanied with a certain form of prayer, a vef-
fel of water was offered up with the bread. The fame
father elfewhere informs us, that there was prefented to
the initialed a crown fufpended on the point of a iword ;
but that they were taught to fay, Mithras is my
crown. By this aniwer was intimated, that they look¬
ed upon the fervice of that deity as their chief honour
and ornament.
After that the Teletae (x) were finiffied, the pupil
was brought out of the cave or temple, and with great
folemnity proclaimed a lion of Mithras (y) 5 a title
which imported ftrength and intrepid courage in the
fervice of the deity. 1 hey yvere now conlecrated to
the god, and were fuppofed to be under his immediate
prote&ion j an idea which of courfe animated them to
the molt daring and dangerous enterprifes. .
The worftiip of Mithras was introduced into the Ro¬
man empire towards the end of the tepublic, where it
made very rapid progrefs. When Chnftianity began
to make a figure in the empire, the champions for Pa-
ganifm thought of propofing to men the worffiip of this
power of benevolence, in order to counterbalance or an¬
nihilate that worftiip which the Chriftians paid to Jefus
Chrift the true Sun of righteoufnefs. But this mode
was foon abolifhed, together with the other rites of Pa-
ganifm. The Perfian grandees often affedled names
compounded with Mithras j hence Mithridates, Mi-
throbarzanes, &c. Hence, too, the precious ftone
called Mithridat f, which by the reflection of the fun f Solims,
fparkled with a variety of colours. There is likewifecap. 10. j
a certain pearl of many different colours, which they
call Mithras. It is found among the mountains near
the Red fea *, and when expofed to the fun, it fparkles
with a variety of dyes. We find likewife a king of ^
Egypt of that name, who reigned at Heliopolis j who
being commanded in a dream to ereCt an obelifk to the
folar deity, reared a moft prodigious one in the neigh¬
bourhood of that city. 2(j L
The votaries of Mithras pretended that lie was fprung >vj;tiiras E
from a rock, and that therefore the place tvhere thefaid ohav* 1
myfterious ceremonies were communicated to the ini-fprungfroo \\
tiated was always a cave. Many different reafons have
been afligned for the origin of this rock-born deity,
moft of which appear to us uiifatisfa&ory. If our
readers will be obliging enough to accept of a fimple !j
and obvious conjeClure, they may take the following:
A 1
\ De pree-
rcript. ad-
ver. li<x-
-et.
(0) In allufion to this praaice of Imprinting a facred mark, probably on the forehead of the initiated, we find
the iniunaion to the angel, Ezek. chap. ix. ver. 4. and the Revelation f „
(x) The rriyfteries were called Te/etce, which imports, “ the rites which confer perffiaion. • /i ir e
(y) Tertu/l adv. Marc. p. 55. The prlefts of Mithras were called the lions of Mithras, md. his pmfteffes
lioneffes : forne fay hycenas. The other inferior rtmiifters were called eagles, hawks, ravens, &c. and on ^ir e-
ftivals they wore malks correfponding to their titles, after the Egvptian manner where the priefts appeared at the
ceremonies with malks refembling the heads of lions, apes, dogs, See. a circumftance which furmffies a prefump-
tion that the myfteries of Mithras were ol Egyptian original.
s6o
M Y S T E II 1 E S.
A rock is the fymbol of ftrength and ftability (z) ; the
dominion of Mithras, in the opinion of his votaries,
was firm as a rock, and liable as the everlafting hills.
If our readers fliould not admit the probability of this
conjecture, we would beg leave to remit them to the
learned Mr Bryant’s Analysis of Mythology, where they
will find this point difeuffed with deep refearch and
wonderful ingenuity. Whatever may have been the
Origin of this opinion with relation to the birth of Mi*-
thras, it is certain that fome reverence to rocks and
caves was kept up a long time even after the eflablifh-
ment of Chriflianity. Hence the prohibition given to
ibme of the profelytes to that religion, that they fliould
no more prefume to offer up their prayers ad petras, at
the rocks (a).
We fhall conclude our account of the myfleries of
Mithras, with a paffage from M. Anquetil, to whom
we are fo much indebted for what knowledge we have
of the Perfian theology, and in which the functions of
that deity are briefly and comprehenfively delineated.
“ The peculiar functions of Mithras are to fight conti¬
nually againft Ahriman and the impure army of evil
genii, whofe conflant employment is to fcatter terror
and defolation over the univerfe \ to proteCl the frame
of nature from the demons and their productions. For
this purpofe he is furnifhed with a thoufand ears and a
thoufand eyes, and traverfes the fpace between heaven
and earth : his hands armed with a club or mace. Mi¬
thras gives to the earth light and fun : he traces a
courfe for the waters : he gives to men corn, paftures,
and children ; to the world virtuous kings and war¬
riors ; maintains harmony upon earth, watches over the
law,” &c. As the hiitory of Mithras, and the nature
of his myfteries, are not generally known, we imagined
it would be agreeable to many of our readers to have
the moft important articles relating to that lubjeCl laid
before them as it were in detail.
We now proceed to the orgia or myfteries of Bac¬
chus, which we fhall introduce with a brief hiftory of
that deity. The original Dionyfus or Bacchus Was the
Ofiris of the Egyptians, which laft was the Sun (b).
Whether there was an Egyptian monarch of that name,
as Diodorus Siculus affirms *, has no manner of con¬
nexion with the prefent difquifition. The Greek
name of that deity is plainly oriental, being compound¬
ed of di, “ bright,” and na/la or nafa, in the iEolic
Bacchus the ftialeCt nufa, “ a prince.” This name was imported
--h from the eaft by Orpheus, Cadmus, or by whoever elfe
communicated the worfhip of Ofiris to the Greeks.
That the Dionyfus of the Greeks was the fame with
the Ofiris of the Egyptians, is univerfally allowed.
}■ Lib. ii. Herodotus tells us exprcfsly f, that O/iris is Dionysus
:ap. 144. ;n Greek language : Martianus Capellus, quoted
\\Theol. abovej expreffes the very fame idea J. The original
litpfj' Ofiris was then the fun } but the Dionyfus or Bacchus
cap. 1. VOL. XIV. Part II.
^fy Items
f Bacchus
* Lib.
■iS
of the Greeks was the fame with the Ofiris of the E-
gyptians ; therefore the Bacchus or Dionyfus of the
Greeks was likewife the fame luminary.
The name Ofiris has much embarraffed critics and
etymologifts. The learned Jablonfki §, inftead of de-§ Pawtfc,
lineating the character, attributes, operations, adven-
tures, exploits, and peculiar department affigned this
deity by his votaries, has fpent much of his pains on
trying to inveftigate the etymology of his name. If
it be granted, which is highly probable, that the He¬
brew and Egyptian tongues are cognate dialects, we
fhould imagine that it is actually the Chofher or Ofihir
of the former language, which imports, “ to make rich,
to become rich.” Indeed the words Ofiris and Ifis
were not the vulgar names of the fun and moon among
the Egyptians, but only epithets importing their quali¬
ties. The name of the fun among that people was Phn
or Phry, and that of moon loh, whence the Greek /o.
The term Ofiris was applied both to the fun and to the
river Nile *, both which by their influence contributed
refpedtively to enrich and fertilize the land of Egypt.
It was a general cuftom among the orientals to de¬
nominate their princes and great men from their gods,
demigods, heroes, &c. When the former were ad¬
vanced to divine honours, they were in procefs of time
confounded with their archetypes. The original di¬
vinities were forgotten, and thefe upftart deities ufurp-
ed their place and prerogatives. In the earlieft pe¬
riods of the Egyptian monarchy, there appeared twTo
illuftrious perfonages Ofiris and Ifis. 'I hefe were the
children'of Cronus j and being brother and filter, they
were joined in matrimony, according to the cuftom of
the Egyptians. As the brother and hufband had af-
fumed the name of the Sun, fo the filter and confort
took that of IJis, that is, “ the woman j|,” a name which \Hora£ollt>,
the Egyptians applied both to the moon and to thecaP,B*
earth, in confequence of the fimilarity of their na¬
ture, their mutual fympathy, and congenial fecundity. ^
Ofiris having left his confort Ifis regent of the king- Exploits of
dom, with Hermes as her prime minifter, and Hercu-Ofiris.
les as general of her armies, quitted Egypt with a nu¬
merous body of troops, attended by companies of
fauns (c), fatyrs, finging women, muficians, &c. and
traverfed all Afia to the eaftern ocean. He then return¬
ed homeward through the Upper Afia, Thrace, Pon-
tus, Alia Minor, Syria, and Paleftine. Wherever he
marched he conferred numberlefs benefits on the fa-
vage inhabitants. He taught the art of cultivating
the ground, preferving the fruits of the earth, and di-
ftinguifhing the wholefome and nutritive from the un-
wholefome and poifonous. He inftrufted them in the
culture of the vine ; and where vines could not be pro¬
duced, he communicated to them the method of pro¬
ducing a fermented liquor from barley, very little in¬
ferior to wine itfelf. He built many cities in different
4 C parts
(z) Our Saviour probably alludes to this emblem, when he talks of building his church «n a rock ; and adds^
that the gates of hell fhould not prevail againfi it.
(a) The Caledonian druids feem to have regarded certain ftones with a fuperftitious veneration, in which the
Catholics imitated them. There are in fever:*! places of Scotland large ftones, which the vulgar call lecre ftenes,
i. e. wre imagine, lecture. # ..
(b) See Macrob. lib. i. cap. 21. p. 247. bottom. Diogenes Laert. inprocemio, par. 10. Martian.' Cape!, lib. ii.
Tablonfki, vol. i. lib. ii. 415. par. 3. Plut. Ifis et Ofir. pafiim.
(c) Men and women drelfed in the habits of thofe rural deities.
57°
MYSTERIES.
parts of the globe, planted numerous colonies (d), and
wherever he dire61 ed his courfe instituted juft and
wholefome laws, and eftablifhed the rites and ceremo¬
nies of religion, and left priefts and catechifts of his
train to teach and inculcate the obfervance of them.
In ftiort, he left everywhere lafting monuments of his
progrefs, and at the fame time ot his generofxty and
beneficence. Where he found the people docile and
fubmiftive, he treated them with kindnefs and huma¬
nity : if any (bowed themfelves obftinate, he compel¬
led them to fubmit to his inftitutions by force of
arms.
At the end of three years, he returned to Egypt,
where his brother Typhon, a wicked unnatural mon-
3° fter, had been forming a confpiracy againft his life.
H;s death. traitorous defign he foon after accomplilhed in
the following manner: He invited Ofiris, with fome
other perfons whom he had gained over, to an enter¬
tainment. When the repaft was finilhed, he produced
a beautiful coffer, highly finifhed, and adorned with
ftuds of gold ; promifing to bellow it on the perfon
whom it (hould fit beft. Ofiris was tempted to make
the experiment. The confpirators nailed down the
cover upon him, and threw the coffer into the river.
This coffer, which was now become the coffin of Ofiris,
was, they tell us, wafted by the winds and wTaves to
the neighbourhood of Byblus, a city of Phoenicia, where
it was caft on fhore, and left by the waves at the foot
3* of a tamarind tree.
' '^otlfis mean time, difconfolate and forlorn, at-
infoarch tended by Anubis, was ranfacking every quarter in
•f his body, fearch of her beloved Ofiris. At length being inform¬
ed by her faithful attendant and guardian, that his bo¬
dy was lodged fomewhere in the neighbourhood of By¬
blus, (lie repaired to that city. There, they fay, (lie
was introduced to the queen, and after (e) a variety of
adventures (he recovered the corpfe of her hulhand,
which, of courfe, (he carried back with her to Egypt:
but the mifehievous Typhon, ever on the watch, found
her on the banks of the Nile j and having robbed her
of her charge, cut the body into 14 parts, and fcatter-
ed them up and down. Now, once more, according
to the fable, Ifis fet out in quell of thofe parts, all of
which, only one excepted, (lie found, and interred in
the place where (lie found them ; and hence the many
tombs of Ofiris in that country. Thefe tombs were de¬
nominated tapojins by the natives. Many other fabu¬
lous adventures were aferibed to thofe two perfonages,
which it is not our province to enumerate at prefent.
If our readers (hould wiffi to be more minutely inform¬
ed on this fubjefl, they may have recourfe to the au¬
thors mentioned in the laft-quoted author, or to the
learned Mr Bryant’s Analyfis of Ancient Mythology,
and M. Cour de Gebelin, where they will find matter
enough to gratify their curiofity. 32
To commemorate thofe adventures, the myfteries of Them) ftp.
Ifis and Ofiris were inftituted ; and from them both ot ftb
thofe of Bacchus and Ceres, among the Greeks, were.0i’r's
derived. Of the Egyptian (olemmty, we have an ex-jn comnie_
a6k epitome in one ot the fathers of the church to the moiation of
following purpofe: “ Here follows (fays he) an epi-thole ad-
tome of the myfteries of Ifis and Ofiris. They deplore venturcs*
annually, with deep lamentations and (haved heads, the
cataftrophe of Ofiris over a buried ftatue of that mo¬
narch. They beat their breads, mangle their arms,
tear open the fears of their former wounds ; that by an¬
nual lamentations the cataftrophe of his miferable and
fatal death may be revived in their minds. When they
have pra6tifed thefe things a certain number of days,
then they pretend that they have found the remains of
his mangled body ; and having found them, their fur¬
row's are lulled afleep, and they break out into immo¬
derate joy.” What maxims of morality, fecrets of phy-
fiology, or phenomena of aftronomy, were couched un¬
der this allegorical procefs, is not our bufmefs to invef-
tigate in this place. W7e (hall only obferve, that, in
all probability, Ofiris and Ifis were fovereigns of Egypt
at a very early period *, that they had conferred many
fignal benefits on their fubje6ls, who, influenced by a
fenfe of gratitude, paid them divine honours after their
deceafe 5 that in procefs of time they were confounded
with the fun and the moon *, and that their adventures
were at length magnified beyond all credibility, inter¬
larded with fables and allegories, and employed in the
myfteries as channels to convey a variety of inftrudlions
to the initiated. ^3
Be that as it may, it is certain that the very fame Tran!!fer.
mode of worfhip was eftablilhed at Byblus, and in af- red to By-
ter ages transferred to Tyre. The Mizraim and Cha-blus and
naanim wrere nearly connedled by blood, and their re-
ligious ceremonies were derived from the very fame rjs wa9
fource. By what medium the worftiip of Ofiris at called
Abydus and Tyre was connefled, w'e (hall leave to and br¬
others to explain ; we (hall only obferve, that among
the Phoenician* this deity obtained the names Adonis
and Bacchus. The former is rather an (r) epithet
than a name : the latter is evidently an allufion to
the weeping and lamentation (g) with which the rites
were performed. We find another name of that divi¬
nity mentioned in Scripture (h) j but that term is
plainly of Egyptian original: we (hall now proceed to
the myfteries of Ofiris as they were celebrated among
the Greeks and Thracians, under the name of the Or-
gia of Dionysus or Bacchus f. j pzW. si-
Orpheus, the celebrated Thracian philofopher, had cuL Vetfus
travelled into Egypt in quell of knowledge } and from de Idol.
that
(d) Many have thought this expedition fabulous j but the numberlefs monuments of Egyptian aiehite61ure,
fculpture, and ftatuary, lately difeovered in the eaft, confirm it. .
(e) For the conquefts and adventures of Ofiris and Ifis, w'e muft fend our learned readers to Hiod. 01c.
Bibl. 1. i. and Plut. Ifis et Ofiris, p. 256. et feq. which we have been obliged to abridge, in confequence 01 the
narrow limits preferibed us. .
(f) Adonis is evidently the Hebrew Adorn, “ my lord,” and imports the fovereignty oi the deity.
(g) Bacchus is derived from the Phoenician tvord bahah, “ to weep.” This was the name embraced by ths
Homans. . .
(h) Ezek, chap. viii. ver. 14-. Tammu% is the name of one of the months ol the Egyptian year..
MYSTERIES.
that country, according to the moil: authentic accounts,
he imported the Bacchanalian rites and inflitutions.
Some have affirmed that this fame Orpheus being inti¬
mately acquainted with the family of Cadmus, commu¬
nicated thefe rites to them, and endeavoured to transfer
them to the grandfon of that hero, which grandfon be¬
came afterwards the Grecian Bacchus. It is, however,
we think much more probable, that thofe rites were
and thence imported from Egypt or Phoenicia, by (l) Cadmus
imported himfelf, who was a native of the former country, and
by Cadmus js tj10UCT|lt to have fpent fome time in the latter, before
mto Bceo- ^ emjgratecj jn qUeft 0f a fettlement in Boeotia. It is
faid that Semele, the daughter of Cadmus, and the
mother of the Grecian Bacchus, was ftruck with light¬
ning at the very inftant of his birth. The child was,
in all probability, denominated Bacc/iur (k), from the
forrow and lamentation this melancholy accident had
occafioned in the family. Cadmus, in order to conceal
the diffionour of his daughter, might, we imagine, con¬
vey away his infant grandfon to fome of his relations in
Phoenicia or Egypt. There he was educated and in-
ftrudled in all the myfteries of Ifis and Ofiris, and at
the fame time initiated in all the magical or juggling
tricks of the Egyptian priefts and hierophants. Thus
accompliffied, when he arrived at manhood, he returned
to Thebes with the traditional retinue of the original
deity of the fame name j and claimed divine honours
accordingly. This claim, however, was not admitted
without much oppofition •, Pentheus, another grandfon
of Cadmus, was torn to pieces by the frantic Baccha¬
nalians upon Mount Citheron, becaufe he attempted to
interrupt them in celebrating the orgia. Some have
thought that Cadmus loft his kingdom for the fame
reafon •, but this we think is by no means probable :
we ftiould rather imagine that the old prince was privy
to the whole procefs, and that it was originally planned
by him, with a view to attraift the veneration of his
new fubjefts, by making them believe that there was a
divinity in his family.
The actions Be that as it may, the vain-glorious Greeks attribu-
of Ofiris ted all the aftions of the Egyptian hero to their new
attributed Bacchus j and according to their laudable pra&ice, en-
to the Gre-jn numberlefs adventures in which his proto-
•hul a» type had no (hare. Moft of thofe are futile and unen¬
tertaining (l). The Greeks commonly adopted fome
oriental perfonage as the hero of their mythological
rhapfodies. Him they naturalized and adopted into
fome Grecian family, and fo he became their own. To
him they aferjbed all the adventures and exploits of the
oriental archetype from whom he was copied. Confe-
quently in the orgia (m), every thing was colledled
that had been imported from the eaft relating to Ofiris j
and to that farrago Avas joined all that the Grecian
rhapfodifts had thought fit to invent, in order to amufe
the credulous multitude. This, hoAvever, was not the
Avhole of the misfortune : The adventures of Ofiris Avere
deferibed by the Egyptian hierophants, veiled Avith al¬
legorical and hieroglyphical myfteries. Thefe the per-
fons who imported them into Greece did not thorough¬
ly comprehend, or if they did, they were not inclined
to communicate them found and unfophifticated. Be-
fides, many oriental terms Avere retained, the import of
which Avas in procefs of time loft or diftorted. Hence
the religious ceremonies of the Greeks became a med¬
ley of inconfiftencies. The myfteries of Bacchus, in
particular, Avere deeply tinftured with this meretricious
colouring } the adventures of the Theban pretender
Avere grafted upon thofe of the Egyptian archetype,
and out of this combination Avas formed a tiflue of ad¬
ventures difgraceful to human nature, abfurd, and in-
confiftent. Indeed the younger or Theban Bacchus
feems to have been a monfter of debauchery j where¬
as the Egyptian is reprefented as a perfon of an op-
pofite character. Of courfe the myfteries of the
former Avere attended Avith the moft (hocking abomina¬
tions. 3<r
Thefe myfteries, as has been obferved above, Avere Myfteries
firft celebrated at Thebes the capital of Boeotia, under of Bacchus
the aufpices of the family of Cadmus. From this
country they gradually found their Avay into Greece, J ’
and all" the neighbouring parts of Europe. They Avere
celebrated once every three years (n), becaufe at the
end of three years Ofiris returned from his Indian ex¬
pedition. As the Greeks had impudently transferred
the aftions of the Egyptian hero to their upftart divi¬
nity, the fame period of time Avas obferved for the cele¬
bration of thofe rites in Greece that had been ordained
for the fame purpofe in Egypt.
When the day appointed for the celebration of the Procefe of
orgia (o) approached, the priefts iiTued a proclama- cele-
tion, enjoining all the initiated to equip themfelvesbratlon*
according to the ritual, and attend the proceffion on
4 C 2 the
(l) Cadmus and Melampus, Avho Avere both Egyptians, introduced the Bacchanalia into Greece. The Egyp¬
tian or oriental name of Bacchus was Dinufi, that is, “ the prince of light.” Cadmus had learned the name Bac¬
chus from the Phoenicians. . , T . , „ , , -
(k) We have omitted the immenfe farrago of fable relating to the connexion betAveen Jupiter and bemele as oi
little importance to our readers. .
(L) Nonnus, an Egyptian of Pentapolis, has colleaed all the fabulous adventures of Bacchus, and exhibited
them in a beautiful but irregular poem : To this we muft refer our learned readers. Of the Dionyfiacs we have
a moft judicious (ketch, Gebelin. Calend. p. 553. et feq.
The orgia belonged to all the Mydones, but to thofe of Bacchus in a peculiar manner#
(if j Hence thefe orgia Avere called Triteria. , .
(o) According to Clem. Alexand. Cohort, page 12. Pott, the word erg,a is derived from orge, which ng-
ilifies 4‘ anger,” and originated from the refentment of Ceres againft Jupiter, in confequence of a moft outra¬
geous infult he had offered her with fuccefs. We (hould rather imagine it derived from the Hebrew word
JUos;, fignifying a “ cheft or coffer,” alluding to the calket which contained the facred fymbols ot the god.-.
The Egyptians or Phcenicians might write and pronounce, argoz, ovgoz^ ox in fome manner nearly reiembling
wgia*
572
33
The my-
iterious
coffer, with
Us contents.
MYSTERIES.
the day appointed. The votaries were to drefs them-
felves in coats of deer-fkins, to loofe the fillets of their
hair, to cover their legs with the fame fluff with their
coats, and to arm themfelves with thyrfi, which were a
kind of fpears wholly of wood entwined with leaves
and twigs of the vine or ivy. It is faid that the Bac¬
chanalians, efpecially the Thracians, ufed often to
quarrel and commit murder in their drunken revels;
and that in order to prevent thofe unlucky accidents,
a law was enacted, that the votaries, inftead of real
fpears, fhould arm themfelves with thofe fham weapons
which were comparatively inoffenfive. The ftatue of
the deity, which was always covered with vine or ivy
leaves, was now taken down from its pedeltal, and
elevated on the fhoulders of the prielts. The ca¬
valcade then proceeded nearly in the following man¬
ner :
Firfl of all, hymns were chanted in honour of Bac¬
chus, who was called the Power of dances, fmi/es, and
jejls ; while at the fame time he was deemed equally
qualified for the exploits of war and heroifm. Horace,
in fome of his dithyrambic odes, has concifely pointed
out the fubje&s of thofe Bacchanalian fongs. In the
collection of hymns fabuloufly attributed to Orpheus,
we find feveral addreffed to this deity (p), each under
a different title, derived from the different appellations
of the god. All thefe names are of oriental original,
and might eafily be explained, did the bounds prefcri-
bed us admit of etymological difquifitions.
The hymn being finifhed, the firft divifion of the vo¬
taries proceeded, carrying a pitcher of wine, with a
bunch of the vine. Then followed the he-goat; an
animal odious to Bacchus, becaufe he ravages the vines.
The chanting the hymns, the facrificing the he-goat,
and the revels, games, and diverfions, with which the
celebration of thofe rites was attended, gave birth to
the dramatic poetry of the Greeks; as the perfons ha¬
bited in the drefs of Fauns, Sylvans, and Satyrs (q^),
furnidied the name of another fpecies of poetry of a
coarfer and more forbidding afpeft.
Then appeared the myfterious coffer or bafket, con¬
taining the fecret fymbols of the deity. Thefe were the
phallus (r), fome grains of fefama, heads of poppies,
pomegranates, dry Items, cakes baked of the meal of
different kinds of corn, fait, carded wool, rolls of ho¬
ney, and eheefe; a child, a ferpent (s), and a van (t).
Such was the furniture of the facrcd coffer carried in
the folemn Bacchanalian procefiion. The inventory gi¬
ven by fome of the fathers * of the church is fomewhat * Clem
different. They mention the dye, the ball, the top, Alexand.
the wheel, the apples, the looking-glafs, and the fleece.
T he articles firft mentioned feem to have been of E-
gyptian original; the laft were certainly fuperinduced
by the Greeks, in allufion to his being murdered and
torn in pieces when he was a child by the machinations
of Juno, who prevailed with the Titans to commit the
horrid deed. Thefe laft feem to have been memorials
of his boyifh playthings ; for, fays Maternus, “ the
Cretans f, in celebrating the rites of the child Bacchus, f DeErrer?
acted every thing that the dying boy either faid, or did, Prof. Cent,
or fuffered. They likervife (fays he) tore a live bull
in pieces with their teeth, in order to commemorate the
difmembering of the boy.” For our part, we think, that
if fuch a beaftly rite was pra&ifed, it was done in com¬
memoration of the favage manner of life which had pre¬
vailed among men prior to the more humane diet in¬
vented and introduced by Ifis and Ofiris. Be that as Human fa-
it may, we learn from Porphyry J, that in the ifland of crifkes.
Chios they ufed to facrifice a man to Bacchus, and that t D* AbJH-.
they ufed to mangle and tear him limb from Yimb.n€ntia'
This was no doubt praftifed in commemoration of the
cataftrophe mentioned above.
The orgia of this Pagan god were originally Ample
enough ; but this unfophiflicated mode vcas of no long
continuance, for riches foon introduced luxury, which
quickly infedled even the ceremonies of religion. On
the day fet apart for this folemnity, men and women
crowned with ivy, their hair difhevelled, and their bo¬
dies almofi: naked, ran about the ftreets, roaring aloud
Evohc (u) Bacche. In this rout were to be feen peo¬
ple intoxicated at once with wine and enthufiafm,
dreffed like Satyrs, Fauns, and Sileni, in fuch fcanda-
lous poftures and attitudes, with fo little regard to mo- ^ . 1°
deity and even common decency, that we are perfuaded tempt of
our readers will readily enough forgive our omitting to decency,
defcribe them. Next followed a company mounted up¬
on affes, attended by Fauns, Bacchanals, Thyades, Mi-
mallonides, Naiads, Tityri, &.c. who made the adja¬
cent places echo to their frantic fhrieks and bowlings. %
After this tumultuous herd were carried the ftatues of
Yi£lory
(p) Thefe ffand bctw'een the 41 and 52 ; one to Lenaeus, or the preffer ; one to Libnites, or the winnower ;
one to Beffareus, or the vintager ; one to Sabazius the god of reft ; to Myfes, or the Mediator, &c.
(Q.) F>acier, Cafaubon, and other French critics, have puzzled and perplexed themfelves to little purpofe about
the origin of this word, without confidering that it was coeval to dramatic poetry.
(r) The phallus was highly refpe&ed by the Egyptians, and was ufed as the emblem of the fecundity of the
human race.
(s) That reptile was in high veneration among the Egyptians. See Eufeb. Praep. Evang. lib. i. page 26.
Steph. where we have a minute detail of the fymbolieal properties of that creature, according to Taautos the great
legiflator of that people.
(t) Servius in Georg. I. Virg. ver. 166. Myftica vannus lacchi. The van, fays he, is an emblem of that
purifying influence of the myfteries, by which the initiated were cleanfed from all their former pollutions, and
qualified for commencing a holy courfe of life.
(u) Clem. Alexand. Cohort, page 11. Pott, derives this word from Cheveh, the mother of mankind, who, firft:
opened the gate to that and every other error; but wre are rather inclined to believe that it comes from the orien¬
tal word Heve, which fignifies a “ ferpentwhich among the Egyptians was facred to the fun, and was likewife
the emblem of life and immortality. It then imported a prayer to Bacchus for life, vigour, health, and every
ether blefling. 3
573
M Y S T E R I E S.
Vi^lory and altars in form of vine-fets, crowned with
ivy, fmoking with incenfe and other aromatics. Then
appeared feveral chariots loaded with thyrfi, arms, gar¬
lands, calks, pitchers, and other vafes, tripods, and
vans. The chariots were followed by young virgins of
quality, who carried the bafkets and little boxes, which
in general contained the myfterious articles above enu¬
merated. Thefe, from their office, were called cijlo-
phorce. The phallophori (x) followed them, with a
chorus of itophallophori habited like Fauns, counter¬
feiting drunk perfons, finging in honour of Bacchus
fongs and catches fuited to the occalion. 1 he procef-
fion was clofed by a troop of Bacchanalians crowned
with ivv, interwoven with branches of yew and with
ferpents *. Upon fome occalions, at thofe fcandalous
feftivals, naked women wffiipped themfelves, and tore
their fkin in a mod barbarous manner. The proceffion
terminated on Mount Citheron, when it fet out from
Thebes ; and in other places, in fome diftant unfre¬
quented defert, where the votaries praftifed every fpe-
cies of debauchery with fecrecy and impunity. Or¬
pheus faw the degeneracy of thofe ceremonies } and in
endeavouring to reform them he probably loft his life.
Pentheus fuffered in the like attempt, being torn in
pieces by the Bacchanalians on Mount Citheron, a-
mong whom were his own mother and his aunts. The
Greeks, who were an airy jovial people, feem to have
paid little regard to the plaintive part of the orgia •, or
rather, we believe, they a£ted with howling and frantic
exclamations, often enhanced by a combination of
drunkennefs, ecftacy, and enthufiaftic fury.
What fecrets, religious, moral, political, or phyfi-
cal, were communicated to the votaries, it is impof-
lible to determine with any degree of certainty.—
One thing we may admit, namely, that the doctrines
difcovered and inculcated in the orgia, were originally
the very fame which the apoftles of the feft had im¬
bibed in Egypt and Phoenicia \ and of which we have
given a brief account near the beginning of this article.
It is, however, probable, that the fpurious or Theban
Bacchus had fuperadded a great deal of his own inven¬
tion, which, we may believe, was not altogether fo
found and falubrious as the original doffrine. How¬
ever that may be, the initiated were made to believe
that they wTere to derive wonderful advantages from the
participation of thofe rites, both in this life and that
which is to come. Of this, however, we fhall talk more
at length by and bye, in our account of the Eleuftnian
myfteries.
To detail the etymology of the names of this Pagan
deity, the fables relating to his birth, his education,
his transformations, his wars, peregrinations, adven¬
tures, the various and multiform rites with which he
was worihipped, would fvvell this article to a moft im¬
moderate fize. If any of our readers ffiould wiffi to
be more minutely and more accurately acquainted with
this fubjeft, we muft beg leave to remit them to Diod.
Sic. Apollod. Bibl. Euripid. Bacchae, Ariftophanis Ra¬
nge, Nonn. Dionyf. 5 and among the moderns, to Ban.
Mythol. Volf, de Orig. Idol. Monf. Fourmont, Re¬
flexions fur Porigine des anciens peuples, Mr Bryant’s
Analyf. and efpecially to Monf. Cour de Gebelin, Ca-
lendries ou Almanach. That prince of etymologifts,
in his account of the feftival of Bacchus, has given a
moft acute and ingenious explication of the names and
epithets of that deity. For our part, we have endeavour¬
ed to colled! and exhibit fuch as we judged moft impor¬
tant, moft entertaining, and moft initrudtive, to the lefs
enlightened claffes of our readers.
We nowr proceed to the Eleufiman myfterxes, which, £ieugnjart-
among the ancient Greeks and Romans, were treated myfteries
with a fuperior degree of awe and veneration. Thefe inftituted in
were inftituted in honour of Ceres, the goddefs of ^
corn *, wffio, according to the moft authentic accounts,
w’as the Ifis of the Egyptians. The myfteries of Oft-
ris and Ifis have been hinted at in the preceding part
of this article. They were originally inftituted in ho¬
nour of the fun and moon, and afterwards confecrated
to an Egyptian prince and princefs *, who, in confe-
quence of their merits, had been deified by that people.
We know of no more exa6! and brilliant defeription of
the ceremonies of that goddefs, in the moft poliffied ages
of the Egyptian fuperftition, than what we meet with in
the wdtty and florid Apuleius-f-, to to which we muft take f Lib. ix»-
the liberty to refer our more curious readers. Our bufi-
nefs at prefent ffiall be to try to inveftigate by what
means, and upon what occafion, thofe myfteries were in¬
troduced into Attica, and eftablifhed at Eleufis. A pal-
fage from Diodorus Siculus §, which we ffiall here tranf- § Lib. i,
late, will, :we think, throwr no inconfiderable light on
that abftrufe part of the fubjeft.
“ In like manner with him (Cecrops), fays that ju¬
dicious hiftorian, they tell us, that Erechtheus, a prince
of Egyptian extraction, once reigned at Athens. Of
this fad they produce the following evidence: A fcorch- Qn ^at
ing drought, during the reign of this prince, prevailed occaflon
over almoft all the habitable world, except Egypt j mtroduceJ
which, in confequence of the humidity of its foil, was hlt0 Auita.
not affeCted by that calamity. The fruits of the earth
wrere burnt up; and at the fame time multitudes of people
perifhed by famine. Erechtheus, upon this occafion, as
he wTas conne&ed with Egypt, imported a vaft quan¬
tity of grain from that country to Athens. I he peo¬
ple, who had been relieved by his munificence, unani-
moufly elefted him king. Being invefted with the go¬
vernment, he taught his fubjeCts the myfteries of Ceres
at Eleufis, and the mode of celebrating the facred cere-
monies, having transferred from Egypt the ritual for
that purpofe. In thofe times the goddefs is faid to have
made her appearance at Athens three feveral times ; be-
caufe, according to tradition, the fruits of the earth
which bear her name were then imported into Attica.
On this account the feeds and fruits of the earth were
faid to be the invention of that deity. Now the Athe¬
nians themfelves acknowledge, that, in the reign of
Erechtheus, the fruits of the earth having periffied for
W'ant of rain, the arrival of Ceres in their country did
actually happen, and that along with her the bleffingof
corn
(x) The phallus w7as the fymbol of the fruCtifying power of Nature. I he itophallus was the type of that
power in aCt.
574
MYSTERIES.
corn was reftored to the earth. They tell us at the fame
time, that the teletse and the my 11 cries of that goddefs
were then received and inftituted at Eleufis.”
Here then we have the whole myltery of the arrival
©t Ceres in Attica, and the inftitution of her myfteries
at Eleufis, unveiled. The whole is evidently an orien¬
tal allegory. The fruits of the earth had been deftroy-
ed by a long courfe of drought: Egypt, by its peculiar
fituation, had been preferved from that dreadful cala¬
mity. Ere&heus, in confequence of his relation to the
Egyptians, imported from their country a quantity of
grain, not only fufficient for the confumption of his own
fubje&s, but alfo a great overplus to export to other
parts of Greece, Sicily, Italy, Spain, &c. Triptolemus,
another Egyptian, was appointed by Erechtheus to export
tills fuperiluous flore. That hero, according to Phere-
cydes, was the fon of Oceanus and Tellus, that is, of
the fea and the earth ; becaufe his parents were net
known, and becaufe he came to Eleufis by fta. The
fhip in which he failed, when he diftributed his corn
to the weftern parts of the world, was decorated with
the figure of a winged dragon : therefore, in the alle¬
gorical ilyle of his countiy, he was faid to be wafted
through the air in a chariot drawn by dragons. Thofe
creatures, every body knows, w’ere held facred by the
Egyptians.
Wherever Triptolemus difpofed of his corn, thither
were extended the wanderings of Ceres. In order to
elucidate this point, we muft obferve, that along with
the grain imported from Egypt, Erechtheus, or Trip¬
tolemus, or both, tranfported into Attica a cargo of
priefis and prieftefies from the temples of Bufiris, a
* Herod. cJty which lay in the * centre of the Delta, where the
goddefs Ifis had a number of chapels ere&ed for her
worlhip. The prefidents of thefe ceremonies, like all
other bigots, gladly laid hold on this opportunity of
propagating their religious rites, and difieminating
the worlhip of the deities of their country. That the
Egyptian priefis u7ere zealous in propagating the dog¬
mas of their fuperftition, is abundantly evident from
the extenfive fpreading of their rites and ceremonies
over almofl all Afia and a confiderable part of Europe.
The Greek and Roman idolatry is known to have ori¬
ginated from them 5 and numberlefs monuments of their
% Ajlatie impious worfhip are ftill extant in Perfia J, India, Ja-
vol 1 aml^ Pan’ Tartary> Our inference then is, that the
y ‘ worfhip of Ifis was introduced into every country where
Triptolemus fold or difpofed of his commodities.-—
Hence the wanderings of Ceres in fearch of her daugh¬
ter Proferpine who is generally called Core. The
famine occafioned by the drought deftroying the frulta
of the ground, imports the lofs of Proferpine. The
reftoration of the corn in various parts of the earth, by
frelh fupplies from Egypt from time to time, imports
the wanderings of Ceres in quell of Proferpine. The
whole procefs is an oriental allegory. The difappear-
ing of the fruits of the earth, of which Proferpine, or
Perfephonef, or Perefephone (y), is the emblem, is f Plutarch,
tlie allegorical rape of that goddefs. She was feized et
and carried off by Pluto, fovereign of the infernal re¬
gions. The feed committed to the earth in that dry fea-
fon appeared no more, and wTas, confequently, faid to
dwell under ground with Pluto. It w?as then that Ceres,
that is, corn imported from Egypt, fet out in quell of her
daughter. Again, When the earth recovered her prif-
tine fertility, the Core, or maid, was found by her mother
Ceres, that is, the earth ; for Ifis, among the Egyptians,
frequently fignified the earth. The wanderings of Ifis
in fearch of Ofiris furnifhed the model for the peregri¬
nations of Ceres.
Ceres, the Roman name of the goddefs of corn, was Different'
unknown to the modern Greeks. They always deno-names of
minated her Da/nater (z), which is rather an epithet Ceres,
than a proper name. The Greeks, who always affedl-
ed to pafs for originals, we think, fuppreffed the Egyp¬
tian name on purpofe, to conceal the country of that
deity. As a proof of the probability of this conjec¬
ture, it may be obferved, that they metamorphofed the
wanderings of Ifis in fearch of Ofiris into the peregri-
nations of Ceres in quell of Proferpine. The Romans
who were lefs ambitious of the charadler of originality,
retained one of her oriental names (aa). Ceres, fays
Diodorus, appeared thrice in Attica during the reign of
Erechtheus •, which feems to import, that fleets loaded
with corn had thrice arrived in that country from Egypt
during that period.
Cecrops, the firlt king of Attica, had ellablilhed the
worlhip of the Saitic Athena or Minerva in that region,
and confecrated his capital to that deity. Ereflheus,
in his turn, introduced the worlhip of Ifis, or Damater,
who in all appearance was the tutelar deity of Bufiris
his native city. The fubje6ls of Cecrops were a colony Contentiotis
of Saites, and readily embraced the wTorlhip of Miner- at Athens
va •, but the aborigines of that dillridl being accuf- refpeding
tomed to a maritime, perhaps to a piratical, courfe ofj^1”^™
life, were more inclined to conlecrate their city totune tj,e"
Neptune the god of the fea, and to conllitute him their immediate
guardian and prote6lor. Cecrops by a llratagem fe- caufe of
cured the preference to Minerva his favourite divinity,
Erechtheus, in order to give equal importance to his”^*^
patronefs,
(y) This word feems to be formed of two Hebrew terms, p/ieri “ fruit,” and V&aphon, or teephon, u abfeondit,
recondidit.”
(z) Damater is compounded of the Cbaldaic particle cfo, “ the,” and 7nater, “ mother.” As Ifis often fignified
the earth, the Greeks naturally adopted that title $ becaufe, according to them, that element is the mother of all
living. In the very fame manner they difearded the word Juno, an original title of the moon, and fubfiituted He¬
rn, which intimates “ miftrefs or lady.”
(aa) According to fome of the Latin etymologifls, Ceres, or rather Geres, is derived from gero, (< to bear, to
carry,” becaufe the earth bears all things ; or becaufe that element is the general fruit-bearer. But as this term
came to Italy immediately from the eafl, and not by the medium of Greece, we would rather incline to adopt an
oriental etymology. The Hebrew word cheres fignifies arare, “ to plough j” a name naturally applicable to thfc
goddefs of hufbandry, 4
575
MYSTERIES.
§>
i 46
Krcum-
|j in At-
ta,
patronefs, had the addrefs to institute the Eleufinian
myfteries •, and to accompliih his defign laiu hold on
the opportunity above mentioned.
This appears to us the moft probable account of the
origin and inifitution of the Eleuhnian myfteries 5 for
which the Sicilian hiftorian has indeed furnifhed the clue.
We ihall now proceed to detail fomo other circumftances
which attended the original inilitution of thefe far-famed
ceremonies.
The archprieftefs who perfonated the newly import-
\ipollod. ed deity was entertained by one Celeus f, who was
j^/. lib. iii. either viceroy of that petty diiiridt of which Eleufis
I3* was the capital, or fome confiderable perlonagc in that
city7 or its neighbourhood. Upon her immediate ar-
imees at- rival, according to the fabulous relations of the Greeks,
{iding the a farce wras adted not altogether fuitable to the cha-
[t appear-rafter of a goddefs whofe myfteries were one day to
ice of Ce- geemeg f0 facred and auftere. Thefe coarfe recep¬
tions, and other indecencies attending the fnft ap¬
pearance of the goddefs, that is, the Egyptian dame
who a {fumed her charafter, were copied from the like
unhallowed modes of behaviour praftifed on occa-
fion of the folemn proceflions of her native country.
Thefe fcommata, or coarfe jokes, had an allegorical
fignincation in Egypt ; and among the moft ancient
Greeks the very fame fpirit was univerfally diffufed by
the oriental colonifts who from time to time arrived
and fettled among them. In procefs of time they aban¬
doned the figurative and allegorical ftyle, in confequence
of their acquaintance with philofophy and abftraft
reafoning. In the ceremonies of religion, however,
the fame allegorical and typical reprefentations which
had been imported from the eaft wrere retained ; but
the Grecian hierophants in a flrort time loft every idea
of their latent import, and religious, moral, or phyfi-
cal interpretation. Accordingly, this lhameful ren¬
counter between Ceres and Banbo (bb), or jambe, was
retained in the myfteries, though we think it was co¬
pied from Egypt, as was faid above, where even that
obfeene aftion was probably an allegorical reprefenta-
tion of fomething very dift'erent from what appeared to
the Greeks.
At the fame time that Ceres arrived in Attica,
Bacchus likewife made his appearance in that country.
He wa.: entertained by one Icarus ; whom, as a re¬
ward for his hofpitality, he inftrufted in the art of cul¬
tivating the vine, and the method of manufafturing
wine. Thus it appears that both agriculture and the
art of managing the vintage were introduced into A-
thens much about the fame time. Ceres wras no other
than a prieftefs of Ifis ; Bacchus was no doubt a prieft
of Ofiris. The arrival of thofe two perfonages from
Egypt, with a number of inferior priefts in their train,
produced a memorable revolution in Athens, both with
refpeft to life, manners, and religion. The facred rites
of Ifis, afterwards fo famous under the name of the
Eleufinian myfteries, date their inftitution from this pe¬
riod.
#1 *7
feres and
Ihcchus,
nho they
ffere.
W1 ten this company of propagandi arrived at Eleu-
fis, they were entertained by fome of the moft refpeft-
able perfons who then inhabited that ditirift. Their
names, according to Clem. Alexand. were Banbo,
Dyfaulis, Triptolemus, Eumolpus, and Eubulus. From
Eumolpus were defeended a race of priefts called Eu-
molpidae, who figured at Athens many ages after.
Triptolemus was an ox herd, Eumolpus a (hepherd,
and Eubulus a fwine herd. Thefe were the firft apoftles
of the Eleufinian myfteries. They were inftrufted by
the Egyptian miffionaries ; and they, in their turn, in¬
ftrufted their luccelfors. Erechtheus, or, as fome fay,
Pandion, countenanced the feminary, and built a fmall
temple for its accommodation in Eleufis, a city of At¬
tica, a few miles weft from Athens, and originally one
of the twelve diftrifts into which that territory w;as di¬
vided. Here then we have arrived at the feene of thofe
renowned myfteries, which for the fpace of near 2000
years were the pride of Athens and the wonder of the
world. 48
The myfteries were divided into the greater and lef-Eleufinian
fer. The latter were celebrated at Agree, a fmall town
on the river Ilyffus : the former were celebrated in the ^ greater"
month which the Athenians called Boedromion (cc) •, the and letter,
latter in the month Anthefterion (dd). The leifer myf¬
teries, according to the fabulous legends of the Greeks,
Avere militated in favour of the celebrated Hercules.
That hero being commanded by Euryftheus to bring up
Cerberus from the infernal regions, Avas defirous of be¬
ing initiated in the Eleufinian myfteries before he en¬
gaged in that perilous undertaking. He addrefled him-
felf to Eumolpus the hierophant for thatpurpofe. There
Avas a law among the Eleufinians prohibiting the initia¬
tion of foreigners. The prieft not daring to refufe the
benefit to Hercules, Avho Avas both a friend and bene-
faftor to the Athenians, advifed the hero to get him-
felf adopted by a native of the place, and fo to elude
the force of the law. He Avas accordingly adopted by
one Pyolius, and fo was initiated in the lelfer myfteries,
which Avere inftituted for the firft time upon that ocea-
fion. This account has all the air of a fable. The lefter
myfteries were inftituted by Avay of preparation for the
greater. ^
The perfon Avho was to be initiated in the lefler Aufterities -
myfteries, as well as in the greater, Avas obliged toan(*rites
praftife the virtue of chaftity a confiderable time be-°
fore his admiftion. Befides, he Avas to bind himfelf by
the moft folemn voavs not to di\rulge any part of the
myfteries. At the fame time, he Avas, according to the
original inftitution, to be a perfon of unblemilhed mo¬
ral character. Thefe were preliminaries indifpenfably
neceffary in order to his admiftion. A bull Avas facri-
ficed to Jupiter, and the hide of that animal, called
by a peculiar name (A<a$ was carefully pre-
ferved and carried to Eleufis, where it was fpread un¬
der the feet of the initiated. The candidate Avas then
purified by bathing in the river Ilyffus, by afperfions
with fait Avater or fait, Avith laurel, barley, and paffing
through
(bb) Apollod. Bib. ubi fupra. Clem. Alexand. Cohort, page 17. where the ftory is told with very little re-
ferve.
(cc) The third month of the Athenian year, anfwering to our September.
(dd) The eighth month, anfwering to our February j but Meurfius makes it November.
576
5^
ioto the
lefTer my-
fteries; of
which
Sl
there were
feveral
M Y S T
tlirougti tlie fire : all vvliicli rites were attended with
incantations and other ufages equally infignificant and
ridiculous. Laft of all, a young fow was facrificed to
Ceres; and this animal, according to the ritual, be¬
hoved to be with pigs; and before it was killed it was
to be wafhed in Cantharus, one of the three harbours
which formed the Piraeus.
All thefe ceremonies duly performed, the candidate
was carried into the hall appointed for the purpofe of
initiation. There he was taught the firft elements of
thofe arcana which were afterwards to be more fully
and more clearly revealed in the more auguit myfteries
of Eleufis. The pupils at Agrae were called Mystce,
which may intimate probationers ; whereas thofe of
Eleufis were denominated Epopta, importing that they
faw as they were feen.
The leffer myfteries were divided into feveral ftages,
and candidates were admitted to them according to
f n^intef*1 t'heir quality and capacity refpeftively. Thofe who
vaU be- " 'vvere initiated in the loweft were obliged to wait five
tween years before they were admitted to the greater. Thofe
them. who had partaken of the fecond kind underwent a no^-
viciate of three years ; thofe who had been admitted to
the third, one of two years ; and thofe who had gone
through the fourth were admitted to the greater at the
end of one year ; which was the (horteft period of pro¬
bation a candidate for that honour could legally under¬
go. Such Was the procefs generally obferved in admi-
52 niftering the lefler myfteries.
Xone but With refpeft to the greater myfteries, it is probable
natives of t]iat originally none but the natives of Attica W'ere ad-
sinaUy5ad-"fitted to partake of them. In procefs of time, how-
fnitted to ever, the pale was extended fo far and wide as to com-
the greater prehend all who fpoke the Greek language. All fo-
xnylteries. reJgners wrere debarred from thofe facred rites. They
tell us, however, that Hercules, Bacchus, Caftor and
Pollux, AEfculapius, and Hippocrates, were initiated
in an extraordinary manner, from a regard to their
high charatter and heroic exploits. All barbarians,
too, were excluded ; yet Anacharfis the Scythian was
indulged that privilege, in confequence of his reputa¬
tion for fcience and philofophy. All perfons guilty
of manflaughter, though even accidentally or invo¬
luntarily, all magicians, enchanters ; in a word, all
impious and profane perfons, were exprefsly prohibited
the benefit of this Pagan facrament. At laft, however,
the gate became wider, and crowds of people, of all
nations, kindreds, and languages, provided their cha-
rafter was fair and irreproachable, rufhed in by it.
In procefs of time the Athenians initiated even their
infants ; but this, we imagine, muft have been a kind
of luftration or purification, from which it was fuppofed
that they derived a kind of moral ablution from vice,
and were thought to be under the peculiar prote&ion
of the goddefs.
The celebration of the myfteries began on the 15th
S3
■Celebration
lalted nine
•days; but
day of the month Boedromion ; and, according to
mort ancient authors, lafted nine days. Meurfius
has enumerated the tranfaftions of each day, which
are much too numerous to fall within the compafs of
this article ; we muft therefore refer our curious reader
to the author juft mentioned. Some days before the
commencement of the feftival, the praecones, or public
criers, invited all the initiated, and all the pretenders
to that honour, to attend the feftival, with clean
E R I E S.
hands and a purd heart, and the knowledge of the
Greek language. C4
On the evening of the r 5th day of the month call- was per- 1
ed Boedromion the initiations commenced. Our read- f°rmtd on¬
ers will obferve, that all the moft facred and folemn
rites of the Pagan fuperftition were performed during s 1
the night: they were indeed generally Works of dark-
nefs. On this day there was a folemn cavalcade of
Athenian matrons from Athens to Eleufis, in «arriages
drawn by oxen. In this proceflion the ladies ufed to
rally one another in pretty looie terms, in imitation,
we fuppofe, of the Iliac proceflion deferibed by Hero- -
dotus, which has been mentioned above. The moft The Mun¬
remarkable object in this proceflion was the Mundus ^us t'ereris.
Cereris, contained in a fmall coffer or balket. This
was carried by a feleft company of Athenian matrons,
who, from their office, were ftyled Camphorce. In this
coffer were lodged the comb of Ceres, her mirror, a
ferpentine figure, fome wheat and barley, the pudenda
of the two fexes, and perhaps fome other articles which
we have not been able to difeover. The proceflion
ended at the temple, where this facred charge was de-
pofited with the greateft folemnity.
We have no defeription of the temple of Eleufis
upon record. Paufanias intended to have deferibed
it ; but fays he was diverted from his defign by a
dream *. Strabo informs us that the myftic famftua- * ix.
ry was as large as a theatre, and that it was built by
Ictinus f. In the porch, or outer part of this temple, | See TLku*
the candidates were crowned with garlands of flowers,yk.
which they called himera, or “ the defirable.” They .5s
were at the fame time drefled in new garments, which ^c^ndu
they continued to wear till they were quite worn out. <iat«s]
They then wafhed their hands in a laver filled with
holy water ; a ceremony which intimated the purity of ^
their hearts and hands. Before the doors were locked, Care to
one of the officers of the temple proclaimed with a keep the
loud voice a ftern mandate, enjoining all the unini- orinuiatea
tiated to keep at a diftance from the temple, and de- "
nouncing the moft terrible menaces if any fliould dare
to diftuib or pry into the holy myfteries. Nor -were
thefe menaces without effe£l : for if any perfon was
found to have crotvded into the fanftuary even through
ignorance, he was put to death without mercy. Every
precaution having been taken to fecure fecrecy, the
initiatory ceremonies now began. But before we de-
feribe thefe, we muft lay before our readers a brief ac¬
count of the miniilers and retainers of thefe fecrets of
paganifm.
The chief minifter of thefe far-famed myfteries The hiero-
was the hierophant. He was ftyled King, and enjoy-phant.
ed that dignity during life, and was always by birth
an Athenian. He prefided in the folemnity, as is evi¬
dent from his title. This perfonage, as wre learn from
Eufebius, reprefented the Demiurgus, or Creator of
the world. “ Now in the myfteries of Eleufis (fays
that father) the hierophant is dreffed out in the figure
of the demiurgus.” What this demiurgus was, we
learn from the fame writer. As this whole infti-
tution was copied from the Egyptians, we may reft
allured that the figure of the Eleufinian Demiurgus
was borrowed from the fame quarter. “ As for the
fymbols of the Egyptians (fays he, quoting from Por¬
phyry $), they are of the following complexion. The} prip,
Demiurgus, whom the Egyptians call Cneph, is figured Evan,
as
577
MYSTERIES.
59
The dadu-
ihus.
<o
the prlefts.
<Tx
The herald-
6z
he cura-
ors, See.
Juftin.
'tufeb.
'Icm. Alex
, 63
'the petro-
64
lommence-
nen^ of the
tiitiauons.
as a man of an azure colour, ftiadcd with black, hold¬
ing in his right hand a feeptre and in his lett a girdle,
and having on his head a royal wing or feather wreath¬
ed round.” Such, we imagine, was the equipment of
the Eleufinian hierophant. This perfon was likewife
ftvled Prophet. He was to be of the family of the
Eumolpidte ; was obliged to make a vow of perpetual
challity 5 and even his voice, hair, and attitude, were
adjulied to the ritual.
The next minifter was the daduchus, or torch-
bearer •, who, according to the father above quoted,
was attired like the fun. This minifter refembled the
fun, becaufe that luminary was deemed the vilible type
of the fupreme Demiurgus, and his vicegerent in go¬
verning and arranging tire affairs of this lower world.
The third was the perfon who officiated at the altar.
He was habited like the moon. His office was to im¬
plore the favour of the gods for all the initiated. We
ftiould rather imagine, that the perfon at the altar, as
he refembled the moon, was intended to reprefent the
goddefs herfelf: for the Egyptian Ifis, who was the
archetype of Ceres, was fometimes the moon and
fometimes the earth.
The facred herald was another principal aftor in
this folemn exhibition. His province was to recite
every thing, that, according to the ritual, was to be
communicated to the novices 5 and he probably repre-
fented Thyoth or Thoth, that is Hermes or Mercury,
the interpreter of the gods.
Beftdes thefe, there Avere five epimeletae or curators,
of whom the king was one, Avho jointly dire&ed the
Avhole ceremonial. Laftly, There AA^cre ten priefts to
offer the facrifices. There were no doubt many officers
of inferior note employed upon thefe occafions •, but
thefe Avere only inlignificant appendages, Avhofe depart¬
ments have not been tranfmitted to pofterity.
After this detail of the minifters of this folemn fer-
vice, avc return to the myflee, or candidates for initia¬
tion. Some of the fathers of the church f mention a
hymn compofed by the celebrated Orpheus, Avhich was
fung bv the myftagogue or king upon that occafion.
This hymn appears to us one of thofe fpurious com-
pofitions Avhich abounded in the firft ages of Chrifti-
anity, and Avhich the pious apologifts often adopt¬
ed without fufficient examination. That fome fa¬
cred hymn Avas. chanted upon that occafion, we
think highly probable ; but that the one in queftion
Avas either compofed by Orpheus, or ufed at the open¬
ing of thefe ceremonies, to us appears fomewhat pro¬
blematical.
Before the ceremony opened, a book Avas produced,
which contained every thing relating to the teletae.
This Avas read over in the ears of the myftae •, Avho
Avere ordered to write out a copy of it for themfelves.
This book Avas kept at Eleufis in a facred repofitory,
formed by tAro ftones exadtly fitted to each other, and
of a very large fize. This repofitory was called petroma.
At the annual celebration of the greater myfteries,
thefe ftones Avere taken afunder, and the book taken
out; Avhich, after being read to the myftae, Avas repla¬
ced in the fame cafement.
The initiations began Avith a reprefentation of the
Avanderings of Ceres, and her bitter and loud lamen¬
tations for the lofs of her beloved daughter. Upon
this occafion, no doubt, a figure of that deity A\ras
VOL. XIV. Part II.
difplayed to the myftas, Avhile loud lamentations echoed
from every corner of the fandtuary. One of the com¬
pany having kindled a firebrand at the altar, and
fprung to a certain place in the temple, waving
the torch Avith the utmoft fury, a fecond fnatehed
it from him, roaring and Avaving it in the fame
frantic manner j and a third, fourth, &.e. in the moft
rapid fucceffion. This Avas done to imitate Ceres, who
Avas laid to have perluftrated the globe of the earth
with a darning pipe in her hand, winch Ihe had lighted
at Mount Etna.
When the pageant of the goddefs Avas fuppofed to
arrive at Eleulis, a folemn paule enlued, and a few
trifling queftions w'ere put to the my die : What thefc Queftioris
queftions were, is evident from the anlwers. “ I havcPut t0
failed j I have drunk the liquor j I have taken the con - m-
tents out of the coffer 5 and having performed the cere¬
mony, have put them into the hamper : I have taken
them out of the hamper, and put them again in the
coffer.” The meaning of thefe anfwers, we conjecture,
Avas this : “ I have failed, as Ceres failed while in
fearch of her daughter ; I have drunk off the wort as
Ihe drank when given her by Banbo j I have perform¬
ed Avhat Ceres taught her firft difciples to perform,
Avhen Hie committed to them the facred hamper and
coffer.” After thefe interrogatories, and the luitable
refponfes, the tnundus Cereris Avas difplayed before the
eyes of the myltae, and the myjiagogue or hierophant,
or perhaps the facred herald by his command, read a
ledture on the allegorical import of thole facred fym-
bols. This Avas heard with the Aioll profound atten¬
tion \ and a folemn filence prevailed throughout the
fane. Such Avas the firft a<9t of this religious farce,
Avhich perhaps confifted originally of nothing more. gg
After the expofition of the mundus Cereris, and the Traditions
import of her Avanderings, many traditions were com- refpecting
municated to the myitm concerning the origin of the of^iTuni-
univerfe and the nature of things. The doftrines deli- verfeJ .
vered in the greater myfteries, fays Clem. Alex. “ re¬
late to the nature of the univerfe. Here all inftruClion
ends. Things are feen as they are j and nature, and
the things of nature, are given to be comprehended.”
To the fame purpofe Cicero : “ Which points being
explained and reduced to the ftandard of reafbn, the
nature of things, rather than that of the gods, is difeo-
vered.” The father of the univerfe, or the fupreme
demiurgus, was reprefented as forming the chaotic mafs
into the four elements, and producing animals, vege¬
tables, and all kinds of organized beings, out of thofe
materials. They fay that they were informed of the
fecrets of the anomalies of the moon, and the eclipfes of
the fun and moon; and, according to Virgil,
Unde hominum genus, et pecudes, unde imher et ignes.
What fyftem of cofmogony thofe hierophants adopted,
is evident from the palfage above quoted from Eufebius 5
and from the account immediately preceding, it Avas
that of the moft ancient Egyptians, and of the orientals
in general. This cofmogony is beautifully and energe¬
tically exhibited in Plato’s Timteus, and in the genuine
fpirit of poetry by Ovid in the beginning of his Meta-
morphofes. . <57
The next feene exhibited upon the ftage, on this Exploits of
folemn occafion, confifted of the exploits and adventures the gods,
of the gods, demigods, and heroes, who had from time and
4 D to
373 M Y S T
to time, been advanced to divine honours. Thefe
were difplayed as paffing before the myitae in pageants
fabricated for that important purpofe. This was the
original mode among the Egyptians, and was no doubt
followed by their Eleufinian pupils. Thefe adventures
were probably demonllrated to have been allegorical,
fvmbolical, hierogiyphical, &c. at leaf! they were exhi¬
bited in fuch a favourable point of view as to difpel
thofe abfurdities and inconfiflencies with which they
63 were fophi(treated by the poets and jhe vulgar,
their ori- With refpeft to the origin of thofe factitious deities,
Sin* it was difeovered that they had been originally men
who had been exalted to the rank of divinity, in con-
fequenee of their heroic exploits, their ufeiul inventions,
their beneficent actions, &o. This is fo clear from the
two paffages quoted from Cicero, by Bifhop Warbur-
f Liv. I.f.g'. ton -f, that the faCt cannot be contradicted. But that
prelate has not informed us fo precifely, whether the
myltagogues reprefented thorn as nothing more than
dead men, in their prelent date, or as beings who were
aCtually exiiting in a deified ftate, and executing the
functions afiigned them in the rubric of Paganifm. Ano¬
ther query naturally occurs •, that is, to what purpofe
did the mvftagogues apply this communication ? That
the hierophants did aCtually reprefent thofe deified mor¬
tals in the latter predicament, is obvious from another
paflage quoted from Cicero by the fame prelate, which
we (hall tranferibe as tranflated by him : “ What
think you of thofe who affert that valiant, or famous,
or powerful men, have obtained divine honours after
death ; and that thefe are the very gods now become
the objeCts of our worlhip, our prayers, and adoration ?
Euhemerus tells us, when thefe gods died, and where
they lie buried. I forbear to fpeak of the facred and
augud rites of Eleufis. I pafs by Samothrace and the
mylteries of Lemnos, whofe hidden rites are celebrated
in darknefs, and amidft the thick (hades of groves and
forefts.” If, then, thofe deified mortals were become
the objeCts of worfhip and prayers, there can be no
doubt of the belief of their deified exittence. The allu-
fion to the Eleufinian and other Pagan mylteries to¬
wards the clofe of the quotation, places the queflion
beyond the reach of eontroverfy. But though, accor¬
ding to this account, “ there were gods many and lords
many j” yet it is evident from the paflage quoted from
Eufebius in the preceding part of this article, that the
69 unity of the Supreme Being was maintained, exhibited,
Unity of an(^ Inculcated. This was the original doClrine of the
thefupreme p;eropPants 0f Egypt : It was maintained by Thales
maintained and all the retainers of the Ionian fchooL It was the
in the myf- doClrine of Pythagoras, who probably gleaned it no in
tenes. country juft mentioned, in connexion with many
other dogmas which he had the afiurance to claim as
his own.
But however the unity, and perhaps fome of the moft
obvious attributes, of the Supreme Author of nature,
might be illuftrated and inculcated, the tribute of ho¬
mage and veneration due to the fubordinate divinities
was by no means negleCIed. The initiated were taught
to look to the dii majorum gentium with a fuperior de¬
gree of awe and veneration, as beings endowed with an
ineffable meafure of power, wifdom, purity, goodnefs,
Offices of See. Thefe were, if we may ufe the expreftion, the
the other prime favourites of the Monarch of the univerfe, who
£adi’ were admitted into his immediate prefence, and who
3
E R I E S.
received his behefts from his own mouth, and commu¬
nicated them to his fubordinate officers, prefefts, lieu¬
tenants, &c. Thefe they were exhorted to adore j to
them they were to offer facrifices, prayers, and every
other act of devotion, both on account of the excellency
of their nature and the high rank they bore at the
court of heaven. They were inftrufted to look up to
hero gods and demigods, as being exalted to the high
rank of governors of different parts of nature, as the
immediate guardians and protestors of the human race j
in (hurt, as gods near at hand, as prompters to a virtu¬
ous courfe, and affiftants in it as ready upon all occa-
fions to confer bleffings upon the virtuous and deferving.
Such were the doftrines taught in the teletae with re-
fpeeft to the nature of the Pagan divinities, and the
vvorlhip and devotion enjoined to be offered them by
the myfteries. ^
As the two principal ends propofed by thefe ini- Excellent
tiations were the exereife of heroic virtues in men,plan for ic.
and the practice of lincere and uniform piety by thecomphffi-
eandidates for immortal happinefs, the hierophants ^!s
had adopted a plan of operations excellently accom-poled in the
modated to both thefe purpofes. The virtuous con-myfteries.
dudl and heroic exploits of the great men and demi¬
gods of early antiquity, were magnified by the moft
pompous eulogiums, enforced with fuituable exhorta¬
tions to animate the votaries to imitate fo noble and
alluring an example. But this was not all: the he¬
roes and demigods tbemfelves were dtfpiayed in pa¬
geants, or vehicles of celrftial light. Their honours,
offices, habitations, attendants, and other appendages,
in the capacity of demons, -were exhibited with all
the pomp and fplenclour that the facerdotal college were
able to devife. The hidden glare of mimic light, the
melting mufic Healing upon the ear, the artificial
thunders reverberated from the roof and walls of the
temple, the appearance of fire and ethereal radiance,
the vehicles of (lame, the effigies of heroes and de¬
mons adorned with crowns of laurel emitting rays
from every fprig, the fragrant odours and aromatic
gales which breathed from every quarter, all dexter-
oufly counterfeited by facerdotal mechanifm, muft
have filled the imagination of the aftoniihed votaries
with pictures at once tremendous and tranfporting ;
Add to this, that every thing was traafafted in the
dead of night amidft a difmal gloom ; whence the
moft bright effulgence inflantaneoufiy burft upon the
fight. By this arrangement the afpirants to initia¬
tion were wonderfully animated to the pradliee of
virtue while they lived, and infpired with the hope
of a blefftd immortality when they died. At the
fame time, their awe and veneration for the gods of
their country were wonderfully enhanced by reflefling
on the appearances above deferibed.. Accordingly
Strabo very judicioufly obferves, “ that the myitical
fecrecy of the facred rites preferves the majefty of the
Deity, imitating its nature, which efcapes our sppre-
benfion. For thefe reafons, in celebrating the teletae,
the demons were introduced in their deified or glorified
ftate.
But as all the candidates for initiation might not
afpire to the rank of heroes and demigods, a more
eafy and a more attainable mode of conducft, in order
to arrive at the palace of happinefs, behoved to be
opened. Private virtues were inculcated, and thefq
tot>
579
M Y S T E R I E S.
72 too were to meet a condign reward. But alas ! this
rivate vir- prcfent life is too often a chequered feene, where vir-
aes ineul- tue is depreffed and trodden under foot, and vice lifts
lytteries, C«P its head and rides triumphant. It is a dictate of
y the doc-common fenfe, that virtue fhould fooner or later emerge,
Irine of a ancl vice fink into contempt and inifery. Here then
^ture ftate. tjie conci u^.ors Gf t}ie myfteries, properly and natural¬
ly, adopted the doftrine of a future date of rewards
and; punifhments. The dogma of the immortality of
the human foul was elucidated, and carefully and pa¬
thetically inculcated. This dodtrine was likewife im-
i ii. ported from Egypt 5 for Herodotus * informs us,
“ that the Egyptians were the fir ft people who main¬
tained the immortality of the human foul.” The
Egyptian immortality, however, according to him, was
I only the metempfyehofis or tranfmigration of fouls.
This was not the fyftem of the ancient Egyptians, nor
■ indeed of the teletae. In thefe, a metempfyehofis was
admitted ; but that was carried forward to a very di-
ftant period, to wit, to the grand Egyptian period of
36,000 years.
, 73 As the myftagogues well knewT that the human mind
ElyfiunT ° ’1S more powerfully affedted by objedts prefented to the
snd Tarta- eyes than by the moft engaging inftrndfions conveyed
{■ns. bV the ear, they made the emblems of Elyfium and
Tartarus pafs in review before the eyes of their no¬
vices. There the Elyfian feenes, fo nobly deferibed
by the Roman poet, appeared in mimic fplendour } and,
on the other hand, the gloom of Tartarus, Charon’s
boat, the dog of hell, the Furies with trelfes of fnakes,
the tribunal of Minos and Rhadamanthus, &c. wrere
difplayed in all their terrific ftate. Tantalus, Ixion,
Sifyphus, the daughters of Danaus, &c. were repre-
fented in pageants before their eyes. Thefe exhibitions
were accompanied with moft; horrible cries and bowl¬
ings, thunders, lightning, and other objedts of terror
which we fliall mention in their proper place.
No contrivance could be better accommodated to
animate the pupils to the pradtice of virtue on the one
hand, or to deter them from indulging vicious pafiions
on the other. It refembled opening heaven and hell
to a hardened finner. The pradtices inculcated in ce¬
lebrating the myfteries are too numerous to be detail-
74 ed in this imperfedt Iketch. The worftiip of the gods
ifhe three was ftridfly enjoined, as has been Ihown above. The
avysof three lawrs generally aferibed to Triptolemus were in-
piptole- culcated, r. To -honour their parents j 2. To honour
the gods with the firft fruits of the eartli; 3. Not to
treat brute animals with cruelty. Thefe laws vrere
imported from Egypt, and were communicated to the
Eleufinians by the original miffionaries. Cicero makes
the civilization of mankind one of the moft beneficial
effedls of the Eleufinian inftitutions: “ Nullum mihi,
cum multo eximia divinaque videntur Athente tuae pe-
periflfe; turn nihil melius illis myfteriis, quibus ex
agrefti immanique vita, exculti ad humanitatem, et mi-
tlgati fumus •, initiaque, ut appellantur, ita revera prin-
cipia vitae cognovimus j neque folum cum ledlitia vi-
vendi rationem accepimus, fed etiam cum fpe meliore
moriendi.” Hence it is evident that the precepts of
humanity and morality were warmly recommended in
thefe inftitutions. The virtue of humanity was ex¬
tended, one may fay, even to the brute creation, as
appears from the laft of Triptolemus’s law's above
quoted. Some articles were enjoined in the teletee
which may appear to us of lefs importance, which*
however, in the lymbolical ftyle of the Egyptians, were
abundantly fignificant. The initiated were “ command¬
ed to abftain from the flefti of certain birds and fifties j
from beans, from pdm«granates and apples, which
were deemed equally polluling. It was taught, that
to touch the plant of afparagus was as dangerous as
the moft deadly poifon. Now, fays Porphyry, who¬
ever is verfed in the hiftory of the vijioju, know's for
what reafon they were commanded to abitain from the
flefti of birds.” f ^
The initiated then bound themfelves by dreadful oaths The initia-
to obferve moft confcientioully and to pradtile every ted bound
precept tendered to them in the courfe of the teletae '7*
and at the lame time never to divulge one article ot0^ferve th6
all that had been heard or feen by them upon that oc-precepts of
cafion. In this they were fo exceedingly jealous, that the mylte-
Alfchylus the tragedian was in danger of capital pu-n<*‘
niftiment, for having only alluded to one of the Eleu¬
finian arcana in a tragedy of his \ and one of the ar¬
ticles of indi&ment againfl; Diagoras the Melian was,
his having fpoken difrefpeftfully of the myfteries, and
diffuaded people from partaking of them. It muft:
then be allowed, that the inftitution of the myfteries
was of infinite advantage to the Pagan world. They
were indeed a kind of facraments, by which the initiat¬
ed bound themfelves by a folemn vow to pradtife piety
towards the gods, juft ice and humanity towards their
fellow men, and gentlenefs and tendernefs towards the
inoffenfive part of the brute creation. The Pagans
themfelves were fo thoroughly convinced of this lacl,
that in their difputes with the apologifts for Chriftiani-
ty, they often appealed tp the teletae, and contrafted
their maxims with the moft fublime dodfrines of that
heavenly inftitution.
In order to imprefs thefe maxims the more deeply
upon the minds ®f the novices, and to fix their atten¬
tion more ftedfaftly upon the ledfures which were de¬
livered them by the myftagogue or the facred herald,
a mechanical operation was played off at proper inter¬
vals during the courfe of the celebration. “ Towards
the end of the celebration (fays Slobams), the whole
feene is terrible ; all is trembling, fhuddering, fweat, ^
and aftoniftnnent. Many horrible fpedlres are feen, Homble
and ftrange cries and bowlings uttered. Light fuc-ani
coeds darknefs j and again the blackeft darknels the
moft glaring light. Now appear open plains, flowery nate]y
meads, and waving groves j where are feen dances and bitech
chorufes 5 and various holy phantafies enchant the light.
Melodious notes are heard from far, with all the liib-
lime fymphony of the facred hymns. The pupil now
is completely per fed!, is initiated, becomes free, re¬
leafed, and walks about with a crown on his head,
and is admitted to bear a part in the facred rites.” A-
riftides de Myft. Eleuf. calls Eleufis “ a kind of temple
of the whole earth, and of all that man beholds done
in the moft dreadful and the moft exhilarating manner.
In what other place have the records of fable fung of
things more marvellous ? or in what region upon earth
have the objedts prefented to the eye borne a more ex-
adl refemblance to the founds which ftrike the ear.?
What objedt of fight have the numberlefs generations
of men and women beheld comparable to thefe exhi¬
bited in the ineffable myfteries?” To the fame pur-
nofe, Pletbo, in the oracles of Zoroaftres, informs us,
4 D 2 “ that
5So MYSTERIES.
11 that frightful and fliocking apparitions, in a variety
of forms, ufed to be difplayed to the myftae in the
courfe of their initiation.” And a little after, he adds,
“ that thunder and lightning and fire, and every thing
terrible which might be held fymbolical of the divine
prefence, were introduced.” Claudian, in his poem
De Rapta Proferpina, gives an elegant, though brief,
defcription of this phenomenon, which throws fome light
on the pafl’ages above quoted.
Jam mihi cernuntur trepidis delubra tnoveri
Sedibus et clarum dis pergere cuhnina lucent,
Advert turn tejlata Dea, jam magnus ab imis
Auditur fremitus terris, templumque remugit
Cccropidum.
The fight of thofe appearances was called the Antopfia,
or “ the real prefence :” hence thofe rites were forae-
times called Epopttca. The Epoptce were actually ini¬
tiated, and were admitted into the San Bum SanBorutn,
and bore a part in the ceremonial: whereas the mi]Jl&,
who had only been initiated in the lefler myfleries at
77 Agrae, were obliged to take their ftation in the porch
A kind of 0f the temple. The candidates for initiation bathed
abhitionin t^em^ves in holy water, and put on new clothes, all
the mylte- hnenj which they continued to wear till they were
ries. quite torn, and then they were confecrated to Ceres
and Proferpine. From the cerc*r,ony of bathing they
were denominated Hydrant; and this again tvas a kind
of baptifmal ablution. Whether the phrafes of wafhing
away fin, putting on the Lordjefus Chrifi, putting of the
old man with kis deeds, putting on a robe of righteoufiiefs,
being buried in baptifm, the words my fiery, perfeB, per-
feBion, which occur fo frequently in the New Tefta-
ment, efpecially in the writings of the apoftle St Paul,
are borrowed from the Pagan myfteries, or from ufages
current among the Jews, we leave to our more learned
i-eaders to determine.
The Epoptae having fulfained all thofe fiery trials,
heard and feen every thing requifite, taken upon them
the vows and engagements above narrated, and, in a
word, having (hown themfelves good foldiers of Ceres
and Proferpine, were now declared perfeB men. They
The initi- might, like Cebes’s virtuous man, travel wherever they
ated decla- chofe ; thofe wild beafts (the human paffions) which
tyrann^e over reft °f mankind, and often deftroy
them, had no longer dominion over them. They were
now not only perfeB but regenerated mew. They were
now crowned with laurel, as was faid above, and dif-
mifl'ed with two barbarous words, Key! cp,7rot%, Konx
ompax, of which perhaps the hierophants themfelves
did not comprehend the import. They had been in¬
troduced by the firft Egyptian miflionaries, and re¬
tained in the facra after their fignification was loft.
This was a common pra&ice among the Greeks. In
the adminiftration of their religious ceremonies, they
retained many names of perfons, places, things, cu-
ftoms, &c. which had been introduced by the Phoeni¬
cians and Egyptians, from whom they borrowed their
fyftem of idolatry. Thefe terms conftituted the lan¬
guage of the gods, fo often mentioned by the prince
of poets. I o us the words in queftion appear to be Sv.
riac, and to fignify, Be vigilant, be innocent.
Numerous and important were the advantages fuppo-
fed to redound to the initiated, from their being admit¬
ted to partake of the myfteries, both in this life and
that which is to come. 1'irft, They were highly ho¬
noured, and even revered by their contemporaries. In¬
deed, they were looked up to as a kind of facred per¬
fons : they were, in reality, confecrated to Ceres and
Proferpine. Secondly, They were obliged by their oath
to pradlife every virtue, religious, moral, political, pub¬
lic, and private. Thirdly, They imagined, that found
advice and happy meafures of condudl were fuggefted
to the initiated by the Eleufinian goddefies. Accord-
ingly, fays Pericles the celebrated Athenian ftatefman,
“ I am convinced, that the deities of Eleufis infpired
me with this fentiment, and that this ftratagenr was
fuggefted by the principle of the myftic rites.” There
is a beautiful paffage in Ariftophanes’s * comedy of the* A(ft h
Ranae to the very lame purpofe, of which we ftiall fub-
join the following periphrafis. It is fung by the chorus
of the initiated.
Let us to flow’ry meads repair,
With deathlefs rofes blooming,
Whofe balmy fweets impregn the air,
Both hills and dales perfuming.
Since fate benign our choir has join’d,
We’ll trip in myftic meafure;
In fweeteft harmony combin’d
We’ll quaff full draughts of pleafure.
For us alone the pow’r of day
A milder light difpenfes j
And ftieds benign a mellow’d ray
To cheer our ravifh’d fenfes :
For we beheld the myftic fhow,
And brav’d Eleufis’ dangers.
We do and know the deeds we owe
To neighbours, friends, and ftrangers.
Euripides, in his Bacchae (e), introduces the cho¬
rus extolling the happinefs of thofe who had been ac¬
quainted with God, by participating in the holy my¬
fteries, and whofe minds had been enlightened by the
myftical rites. They boaft, “ that they had led a holy
and unblemifhed life, from the time that they had been
initiated in the facred rites of Jupiter Id*us, and from
the time that they had relinquiftied celebrating the
nofturnal rites of Bacchus, and the banquets of raw
flefti torn off living animals.” To this fan&ity of life
they had no doubt engaged themfelves, when they
were initiated in the myfteries of that god. The Eleu¬
finian Epoptse derived the fame advantages from their
facramental engagements. Fourthly, The initiated
were imagined to be the peculiar w^ards of the Eleu¬
finian goddeffes. Thefe deities were fuppofed to
watch over them, and often to avert impending dan¬
ger, and to refeue them when befet with troubles 
Our readers will not imagine that the initiated reaped
much benefit from the proteftion of his Eleufinian
tutelary deities j but it was fufficient that they believ¬
ed
(e) Aft I. near the beginning, and in many other places.
MYSTERIES. 581
ed the fa£t, and a&ually depended upon their inter-
pofition. Fifthly, The happy influences of the telctae,
were fuppofed to adtninifter confolation to the Epoptae
in the hour of diflolution j for, fays Ifocratcs, “ Ceres
bellowed upon the Athenians two gifts of the greatefl:
importance } the fruits of the earth, which were the
caufe of ©ur no longer leading a favage courfe of life j
and the teletae, for they who partake of thefe entertain
more pleafant hopes both at the end of life, and eterni-
# Ariflides, ty afterwards.” Another author * tells us, “ that the
ie Myjl. initiated were not only often refcued from many hard-
fhips in their lifetime, but at death entertained hopes
that they Ihould be raifed to a more happy condition.”
Sixthly, After death, in the Ely flan fields, they were
to enjoy fuperior degrees of felicity, and were to balk
in eternal funlhine, to quaff neftar, and feaft upon
ambrolia, &c.
Interefted- The prielts were not altogether aifinterefted in this
iefs of the falutary procefs. They made their difeiples believe,
'riefts that the fouls of the uninitiated, when they arrived in
the infernal regions, Ihould roll in mire and dirt, and
with very great difficulty arrive at their deftined man-
• Phado. lion. Hence Plato introduces Socrates f obferving,
“ that the fages who introduced the teletae had poli-
tively affirmed, that whatever foul Ihould arrive in the
infernal manlions unhoufell''d and unanneal'd, fhould lie
there immerfed in mire and filth.” And as to a future
ft ate (fays Ariftides), “ the initiated lhall not roll in
mire and grope in darknefs *, a fate which awaits the
unholy and uninitiated.” It is not hard to conceive
with what a commanding influence fuch dodlrines as
thefe mull have operated on the generality of man-
So kind.
Remarks of When the Athenians advifed Diogenes to get him-
Diogenes felf initiated, and enforced their arguments wdth the
hen«.ntlf' above confiderations, “ It will be pretty enough^ (re¬
plied the philofopher) to fee Agefilaus and Epaminon-
das wallowing in the mire, while the moft contemptible
rafcals who have been initiated are ftrutting in the
iflands of blifs.”
When Antifthenes -was to be initiated in the Or¬
phic myfteries, and the prieft was boafting of the many
aftonifhing benefits which the initiated fliould enjoy
Ling. in a future ftate f, “ Why, forfooth, (fays Antif-
r-aert. thenes), ’tis wonder your reverence don’t e’en hang
gI yourfelf in order to come at them the fooner.”
Ml the When fueh benefits were expe&ed to be derived
Ivorld from the myfteries, no wonder if all the world crowd-
jowd to e(i j-0 Eleufinian Itandard. After the Macedonian
!ileufis. conquefts, the hierophants abated much of their ori¬
ginal ftri&nefs. By the age of Cicero, Eleufis was a
temple whither all nations reforted to partake of the
benefits of that inftitution. We find that almoft all
the great men of Rome were initiated. The hiero¬
phants, however, would not admit Nero on account of
the profligacy of his chara6ter. Few others were re-
fufed that honour •, even the children of the Athe¬
nians were admitted. But this, avc think, was rather
a luftration or confecration, than an initiation. Per¬
haps it paved the way for the more auguft ceremony,
as the Chriftian baptifm does among us for the other
82 lacrament.
Degenera- That this inftitution gradually degenerated, can
y of the hardly be queftioned ; but how much, and in what
»y cries. p0-nts^ we have not been able to inveftigate. The fa¬
thers of the church, from whom that charge is chiefly
to be collected, are not always to be trufted, efpe-
cially when they fet themfelves to arraign the inftitu-
tions of Paganifm. There were indeed feveral an¬
cient authors, fuch as Melanthius, Menander, So-
tades, &c. who wrote purpofely on the fubjeft in
quell ion } but the ir works are long fince irrecoverably
loft. For this reafon, modern writers, who have pro-
feffedly handled it, have not always been fuceefsful in
their refearches. The two who have laboured moft
indefatigably, and perhaps moft fuccefsfully, in this
field, are Meurfius and Warburton. The former, in
his Liber Singularis, has colle&ed every thing that can
be gleaned from antiquity relating to the ceremonial
of thefe inftitutions, without, however, pointing out
their original, or elucidating the end and import of their
eftablifhment. The latter has drawn them into the
vortex of a fyftem which has in many inftances led him
to afcribe to them a higher degree of merit than we
think they deferve. Thefe inrtances we would willing¬
ly have noticed in our progrefs, had the limits prefcribed
us admitted fuch a difcuffion.
If we may believe Diodorus the Sicilian, thefe my¬
fteries, which were celebrated with fuch wonderful fe-
creey at Eleufis, were communicated to all mankind
among the Cretans. This, however, we think, is ra¬
ther problematical. We imagine that excellent hifto-
rian has confounded the myfteries of Cybele with thofe
of the Eleufinian Ceres. Thefe two deities were un¬
doubtedly one and the fame, that is, the moon or the
earth. Hence it is probable, that there was a linking
refemblance between the facred myfteries of the Cre¬
tans and Eleufinians.
This inftitution continued in high reputation to
the age of St Jerome, as appears from the following
paffage : “ Hierophantse quoque xAthenienfium legant
ufque hodie cicutm forbitione caftrari.” The em¬
peror Valentinianus intended to have fuppreffed them ;
but Zozimus *, informs us, that he was diverted from * Adverjl
his defign by the proconful of Greece. At length Jovin.
Theodofius the elder, by an imperial edidl, prohibited ^
the celebration of thefe as well as of all the other fa- ^ ^ 1Jm_
era of Paganifm. Thefe myfteries, inftituted in the p;ror xheo-
reign of Erechtheus, maintained their ground to thedofius.
period juft mentioned, that is, near 2000 years j dur¬
ing which fpace, the celebration of them never had
been interrupted but once. When Alexander the
Great maffacred the Thebans and razed their city,
the Athenians were fo much affe&ed with this melan¬
choly eivent, that they negletted the celebration of that
feftival. . y 84
There were almoft numberlefs other myfterious in- Other my-
ftitutions among the ancient Pagans, of which thefe fteries a-
fketched above were the moft celebrated. The Sa- p
mothracian myfteries, inftituted in honour of the Ca- ieff ceicbri.
biri, w’ere likewife of confiderable celebrity, and were ty.
fuppofed to confer much the fame bleffings with the
Eleufinian, but were not of equal celebrity. The
Cabiri tvere Phoenician and likewife Egyptian* dei- * Sanchoni-
ties. The learned Bochart has explained their ori-arto* and
gin, number, names, and fome part of their Avorlhip. Herodotus,
The Orphic myfteries were likeAvife famous among
the Thracians. Orpheus learned them in Egypt, and
they tvere nearly the fame svith the facra Bacchanalia
of the Greeks. There Avere likeAvife the myfteries
V - of
532
MYSTERIES.
of Jupiter Idccus in greal requeft among the Cretans,
thofe of the Magna Mater or Cybele, celebrated in
Phrygia. To enumerate and detail all thefe would
require a complete volume. We hope: our readers
will be fully fati^fied with the fpecimen exhibited above.
We are convinced many things have been omitted which
might have been inferted, but we have eolle&ed the moll-
curious and the moft important.— Every one of the po¬
rtions might have been authenticated by quotations
from authors of the moft undoubted credibility, but that
procels would have Iwelled the article beyond all pro¬
portion.
M Y S
Myftical, MYSTICAL, fomething myfterious or allegorical.
Myftics. Some of the commentators on the facred writings, be-
=—v ' lides a literal find alfo a myftical meaning. The fenfe
of Scripture, fay they, is either that immediately fig-
nified by the words and expreflions in the common ul’e
of language ; or it is mediate, fublime, typical, and
myftical. The literal fenfe they again divide into pro¬
per literal, which is contained in the words taken
limply and properly j and metaphorical literal, where
the words are to be taken in a figurative and meta¬
phorical fenfe. The myftical fenle of feripture they
divide into three kinds : the firft correfponding to
faith, and called allegorical $ the fecond to hope,
called anagogical; and the third to charity, called the
tropologicalfenfe. And fometimes they take the fame
word in Scripture in all the four fenfes; thus the word
Jerufalem literally fignifies the capital of Judea : al¬
legorically, the church militant : tropologically, a be¬
liever : and anagogically, heaven. So, that paflage in
Genefis, let there he light, and there was light, literally
fignifies corporeal light by an allegory, the Meffiah ;
in the tropologieal fenfe, grace j and anagogically,
beatitude, or the light of glory.
MYSTICS, mijjlici, a kind of religious fe£f, diftin-
guilhed by their profefling pure, fublime, and perfect
devotion, with an entire difinterefted love of God, free
from all felfifh confiderations.
The myftics, to excufe their fanatic eeftafies and
amorous extravagancies, allege that paflage of St
Paul, The Spirit prays in us by fghs and groans that are
unutterable. Now, if the fpirit, fay they, pray in us,
we muft refign ourfelves to its motions, and be fvvayed
and guided by its impulfe, by remaining in a ftate of
mere inaftion.
Paflive contemplation is that ftate of perfection to
which the my flics all afpire.
The authors of this myftic fcience, which fprung
up towards the clofe of the third century, are not
known •, but the principles from which it was formed
are manifeft. Its firft promoters proceeded from the
known doftrine of the Platonic fchool, which was al¬
fo adopted by Origen and his difciples, that the di¬
vine nature was infufed through all human fouls, or
that the faculty of reafon, from which proceed the
health and vigour of the mind, was an emanation from
God into the human foul, and comprehended in it the
principles and elements of all truth, human and divine.
Thev denied that men could by labour or ftudy excite
this celeftial flame in their breads 5 and therefore they
difapnroved highly of the attempts of thofe, who by
definitions, abftraCl theorems, and profound fpecula-
tions, endeavoured to form diftinct notions of truth,
and to difeover its hidden nature. On the contrary,
thev maintained that filenee, tranquillity, rtpofe, and
folitude, accompanied with fuch aCts as might tend to
M Y T
extenuate and exhauft the body, were the means by Myftics
which the hidden and internal word was excited to j)
produce its latent virtues, and to inftruCt men in the Mytelene.
knowledge of divine things. For thus they reafoned j V"—
thofe who behold with a noble contempt all human af¬
fairs, who turn away their eyes from terreftrial vani¬
ties, and (hut all the avenues of the outward fenfes
againft the contagious influences of a material world,
muft neceffarily return to God, when the fpirit is thus
difengaged from the impediments that prevented that
happy union. And in this bleifed frame they not on¬
ly enjoy inexpreftible raptures from their communion
with the Supreme Being, but alfo are invefted with
the ineftimable privilege of contemplating truth undif-
guifed and uncorrupted in its native purity, while others
behold it in a vitiated and delufive form.
The number of the myftics increafed in the fourth
century, under the influence of the Grecian fanatic,
who gave himfelf out for Dionyfius the Areopagite,
difciple of St Paul, and probably lived about this pe¬
riod j and by pretending to higher degrees of perfec¬
tion than other Chriftians, and praclifing greater au-
fterity, their caufe gained ground, efpecially in the
eaftern provinces, in the fifth century. A copy of the
pretended works of Dionyfius was fent by Balbus to
Lewis the Meek, in the year 824, which kindled the
holy flame of myfticifm in the weftern provinces, and
filled the Latins with the moft; enthufiaftic admiration
of this new religion.
In the twelfth century, thefe myftics took the lead
in their method of expounding Scripture ; and by
fearching for myfteries and hidden meaning in the
plaineft expreflions, forced the word of God into a
conformity with their vifionary do&rines, their enthu¬
fiaftic feelings, and the fyftem of difeipline which they
had drawn from the excurfions of their irregular fan¬
cies. In the thirteenth century, they were the moft;
formidable antagonifts of the fcnoolmen j and towards
the dole of the fourteenth, many of them refided and
propagated their tenets almoft in every part of Europe.
They had, in the fifteenth century, many perfons of
diilinguilhed merit in their number : and in the fix-
teenth century, previous to the Reformation, if any
{parks of real piety fubfifted under the defpotic em¬
pire of fuperflition, they were only to be found amon£
the myftics.
The principles of this fed were adopted by thofe
called ^uietifts in the feventeenth century, and, under
different modifications, by the Quakers and Methodifts.
MYSTRUM, a liquid meafure among the ancients,
Containing the fourth part of the cyathus, and weigh¬
ing two drachms and a half of oil, or two drachms
two fcruples of water or wine. It nearly anfwers to
our fpo' .nful.
MYTELENE. See Metylene.
MYTHOLOGY
[ 583 ]
■
MYTHOLOGY
definition. TS a term compounded of two Greek words, and in its
original import it fignifies any kind of fabulous doc¬
trine : In its more appropriated fenfe, it means thofe
fabulous details concerning the objedts of w or (hip which
were invented and propagated by men who lived in the
early ages of the world, and by them tranfmitted to fuc-
ceeding generations, either by written records or by oral
tradition.
As the theology and mythology of the ancients are
Ialmofl infeparably connedied, it will be impoflible for
us to develope the latter, without often introducing
fome obfervations relating to the former. We muft
therefore entreat the indulgence of our readers, if up¬
on many occafions we would hazard a few ifridtures on
the names, chara&ers, adventures, and fundtions of fuch
Pagan divinities as may have furnithed materials for
thofe fabulous narrations which the nature of the fub-
2 jedl may lead us to difcufs.
•riginof With refpedt to fab/e, it maybe obferved in gene-
ible. that Jt is a creature of the human imagination,
and derives its birth from that love of the marvellous
which is in a manner congenial to the foul of man.—
The appearances of nature which every day occur, ob-
jedls, adlions, and events, which fucceed each other,
by a kind of routine, are too familiar, too obvious, and
uninterefling, either to gratify curiofity or to excite
admiration. On the other hand, when the mod com¬
mon phenomena in nature or life are new modelled by
the plaftic power of a warm imagination ; when they
are diverhded, compounded, embcllifhed ; or even ar¬
ranged and moulded into forms which feldom or per¬
haps never occur in the ordinary courfe of things 5—
novelty generates admiration, a pallion always attended
with delightful fenfations. Here then vve imagine we
have difcovered tbe very fource oi fiBion and fable.—
They originated from that powerful propenfity in our
nature towards the new and furpri/ing, animated by the
delight with which the contemplation of them is ge¬
nerally attended.
Many circumftances contributed to extend and efta-
bli(h the empire of fable. The legiflator laid hold on
this bias of human nature, and of courfe employed
fable and f Ellon as the moil effe&ual means to civilize
a rude, unpolifhed world. The philofopher, the theo-
logift, the poet, the mufician, each in his turn, made
ufe of this vehicle to convey his maxims and inftruc-
tions to the favage tribes. They knew that truth, Am¬
ple and unadorned, is not poffeffed of charms power¬
ful enough to captivate the heart of man in his prefent
corrupt and degenerate (late. This conlideration, which
did indeed refult from the chara&er of their audience,
naturally led them to employ fi61ion and allegory. From
this was derived the allegorical tafie of the ancients,
and efpeciallv of the primary fages of the eaft.
Though almoft every nation on the face of the globe,
however remote from the centre of population, how-
lldnefs of ever favaKe an^ averfe from cultivation, has fabricated
ale oriental al1d adopted its own fyftem of mythology; the O-
srihoiogy. rientals, however, have diftingui&ed thcrufelves in a
peculiar manner, by the boldnefs, the inconfiftency,
and the extravagance of their mythology. The genial
warmth of thofe happy climes, the fertility of the foil,
which afforded every neceifary, every conveniency,
and often every luxury of life, without deprefling their
fpirits by laborious exertions ; the face of nature per¬
petually blooming around them, the {kies fmiling with
uninterrupted ferenity ; ail contributed to infpire the
Orientals with a glow of fancy and a vigour of ima¬
gination rarely to be met with in lefs happy regions.
Hence every objetft was fwelled beyond its natural di-
menfions. Nothing was great or little in moderation^
but every fentiment was heightened with incredible hy¬
perbole. The magnificent, the fublime, the vaft, the
enormous, the marvellous, firft fprung up, and were
brought to maturity, in thofe native regions of fable
and fairy land. As nature, in the ordinary courfe of
her operations, exhibited neither objects nor efttdls ade¬
quate to the extent of their romantic imaginations, they
naturally deviated into the fields of fiftion and fable.
Of eoniequence, the cufiom of detailing fabulous ad¬
ventures originated in the eaft, and was from thence
tranfplanted into the wetfern countries.
As the allegorical tafte of the eaftern nations had
fprung from their propenfity to fable, and as that pro¬
penfity had in its turn originated from the love of the
marvellous ; fo did allegory in procefs of time contribute
its influence towards multiplying fables and fitlion al-
molt In infinitum. The latent import of the allegorical'
doctrines being in a few ages loft and obliterated, what
was originally a moral or theological tenet, aifumed the-
air and habit of a perfonal adventure. ^
The propenfity towards perfonification, almoft uni-Propenfity
verfal among the orientals, was another fruitful fource1' perfoni-
of fable and allegorv. That the people of the eaft |iCHtlon &
were ftrongly inclined to perlbnify inanimate objects ea^ern
and abftradt ideas, we imagine will be readily gi anted, thology.
when it is confidered, that in the formation of language
they have- generally annexed the affection of lex to
thofe objects. Hence the diftinttion of grammatical
genders, which is known to have originated in the
eafiern parts of the world. The practice of perfonify-
ing virtues, vices, religious and moral affedtions, was
neceffary to fupport that allegorical Ityle which univer-
fally prevailed in thofe countries. This mode of writ¬
ing was in high reputation even in Europe fome cen¬
turies ago; and to it we are indebted for fome of the.
moft noble poetical compofitions now extant in our own
language. Thofe productions, however, are but faint
imitations of the original mode of writing itill current
among the- eaftern nations. The Europeans derived
this fpecies of compofition from the Moorifh inhabitants
of Spain, who imported it from Arabia, their original
country. ^
The general ufe of hieroglyphics in the eafi, muft The effects
have contributed largely towards extending the em- hierogiy.
pire of mythology. As the import of the figures W!‘"
employed in this method of delineating the figns of
ideas was in a great mcafure arbitrary, miftakes muit
have
584
MYTHOLOG Y.
have been frequently committed in afcertaining the
notions which they were at the firft intended to re-
prefent. When the developement of thefe arbitrary
figns happened to be attended with uncommon diffi¬
culty, the expounders wTere obliged to have recourfe
to conjefture. Thofe conjeftural expofitions were for
the molt part tinftured with that bias towards the
marvellous which univerfally prevailed among the pri¬
mitive men. This we find is the cafe even at this
day, when moderns attempt to develope the purport
of emblematical figures, preferved on ancient medals,
entaglions, &c.
The wife men of the eafl delighted in obfeure enig¬
matical fentcnces. They feem to have difdained every
fentiment obvious to vulgar apprehenfion. The words
of the wife, and their dark fayings, often occur in the
moft ancient records both lacred and profane. The
fages of antiquity ufed to vie with each other for the
prize of fuperior wifdom, by propounding riddles,
and dark and myflerious queftions, as fubjefts of in-
veftigation. The conteft between Solomon and Hi¬
ram, and that between Amafis king of Egypt and
Polycrates tyrant of Samos, are univerfally known.—
As the import of thofe enigmatical propofitions was
often abfolutely lod, in ages when the art of writing
was little known, and Hill lefs prafHfed, nothing re¬
mained but fancy and conje&ure, which always verged
towards the regions of fable. This then, we think,
6 'was another fource of mythology.
Mythology The Pagan priefts, efpecially in Egypt, were pro-
akindof0 hably the firft who reduced mythology to a kind of
fyftem in fyftem. The facerdotal tribe, among that people,
■Egypt. were the grand depofitories of learning as well as of
religion. That order of men monopolized all the
arts and fciences. T hey feem to have formed a con*
fpiracy among themfelves, to preclude the laity from
all the avenues of intellectual improvement. 1 his
plan wras adopted with a view to keep the laity in fub-
jeCtion, and to enhance their own importance. To
accomplifh this end, they contrived to perform all the
miniftrations of their religion in an unknown tongue,
and to cover them with a thick veil of fable and alle¬
gory. The language of Ethiopia became their facred
dialed, and hieroglyphics their facred charader.—
Egypt, of courfe, became a kind of fairy land, where
all was jugglery, maffic, and enchantment. The ini¬
tiated alone were admitted to the knowledge of the
occult mvflical exhibitions, which, in their hands, con-
flituted the effence of their religion. From thefe the
vulgar and profane were prohibited by the moft rigo¬
rous penalties (fee Mysteries). The Egyptians, and
indeed all the ancients without exception, deemed the
myfterie? of religion too facred and folemn to be com¬
municated to the herd of mankind, naked and unreferv-
ed *, a mode by which they imagined thofe facred and
fublime oracles would have been defiled and degrad¬
ed. “ Procul, 6 procul efte profani—Odi profanum
vulgus et arceo.” Egypt was the land of graven
images ; allegory and mythology were the veil which
concealed religion from the eyes of the vulgar 5 table
In the ear- ''vas groundwork of that impenetrable covering,
lieft ages of In the earlieft and moft unpoliftied ftage of fociety
the world we cannot fuprofe fable to have exifted among men.
Sno^? FaHeS are always ta/es of ether times, but at this period
iit^ncc.6 other times did not reach far enough backward to af¬
ford thofe fruits of the imagination fuffieient time to
arrive at maturity. Fable requires a confiderable fpace
of time to acquire credibility, and to rile into repu¬
tation. Accordingly, we find that both the Chinefe
and Egyptians, the' two moft ancient nations whofe
annals have reached our times, were altogether unac¬
quainted with fabulous details in the molt early and
leaft improved periods of their refpeflive monarchies.
It has been fliown almoft to a demonitration, by a va¬
riety of learned men, that both, the one and the other
people, during fome centuries alter the general de¬
luge, retained and pradtifed the primitive Noachic re¬
ligion, in which fable and fancy could find no place j
all was genuine unfophifticated truth.
As foon as'the authentic tradition concerning the
origin of the univerfe was either in a good meafure
loft, or at leaft adulterated by the invention of men,
fable and fidtion began to prevail The Egyptian g
Thoth or Thyoth, or Mercury Trifmegiftus, and Mof- Fabulous
chus the Phoenician, undertook to account for the for-cofmogo-
mation and arrangement of the univerfe, upon prin-
ciples purely mechanical. Here fable began to ulurp
the place of genuine hiftorical truth. Accordingly, taps>
we find that all the hiftorians of antiquity, who have
undertaken to give a general detail of the affairs of
the world, have ulhcred in their narration with a fabu¬
lous cofmogony. Here imagination ranged unconfined
over the boundlefs extent of the primary chaos. To be
convinced of the truth of this afiertion, we need only
look into Sanchoniathon’s Cofmogony, Eufeb. Praep.
Evan? 1. t. fub init. and Diodorus Sic. 1. 1. From
this we fuppofe it will follow, that the firft race of
fables owed their birth to the erroneous opinions of
the formation 01 the univerfe.
Having now endeavoured to point out the origin of
mythology, or fabulous traditions, we ftiall proceed to
lay before our readers a brief detail of the mythology
of the moft refpedfable nations of antiquity, following
the natural order of their fituation.
The Chinefe, if any credit be due to their own an- ch;nefe
nals, or to the miffionaries of the church of Rome, who mythology
pretend to have copied from them, were theJirJl of the
nations. Their fabulous records reach upwards many
myriads of years before the Mofaic era of the creation.
The events during that period of time, if any had
been recorded, muft have been fabulous as the period
itfelf. Thefe, however, are buried in eternal oblivion.
The miffionaries, who are the only fources of our infor¬
mation with relation to the earlieft periods of the Chinefe
hiftory, reprefent thofe people as having retained the
religion of Noah many centuries after the foundation
of their empire. Upon this fuppofition, their cofmo¬
gony muft have been found and genuine, without the
leaft timfture of thofe fabulous ingredients which have
both difguifed and difgraced the cofmogonies of moft;
other nations. 10
According to the moft authentic accounts, Birth and
or Fohi laid the foundation of that empire about inventions
4000 years ago. This emperor, according to the Chi-0^
nefe, was conceived in a miraculous manner. His mo¬
ther, fay they, one day as fhe was walking in a deiert
place, was furrounded by a rainbow j and, being im¬
pregnated by this meteor, was in due time delivered
of that celebrated legiflator. This perfonage, like the
Athenian Cecrops, was half a man and half a ferpent.
His
d
ii
A
n
k
i-
ti
Ih
tr
111
ei
t
M Y T II O L O G Y.
His intellectual powers were truly hyperbolical. In
one day he difcovered 50 different fpceies of poifonous
herbs. He taught his countrymen the whole art of
agriculture in the fpace of a very few year's. He in-
ftructed them how to fow live different forts of grain.
He invented boats, and nets for filhing, the art of fabri¬
cating porcelain, the management of filk worms, the
manufacturing of filk, &c. In a word, that wonder¬
ful perfonage was infpired by Heaven with knowledge,
which qualified him for compofing that incomparable
body of laws which are even at this day the wonder of
the world. Our readers will admit, that this whole
detail is fabulous and chimerical. The molt learned
part of them will readily obferve, that the Chinefe, in
aferibing the invention of all the ufeful arts to their
IFohi, are perfectly agreed with almolt all the other na¬
tions of antiquity. The Indians aferibe every inven¬
tion to Budha, or Vijbnou, or Foe ; the Perlians to Zer-
dujlot, or Zoroajler ; the Chaldeans to their man of the
fea, whom they call Oannss; the Egyptians to Thoth
or Thyoth; the Phoenicians to Melicerta; the Greeks
to the family of the Titans : and the Scandinavians to
11 Odin, &c.
Miraculous About 551 years before the Chriftian era, appeared
l^nf c us fa£nous Chinefe pbilofopher Con-fu-tfe or Confucius.
Concerning the birth of this prince of philofophers, the
Chinefe have propagated the following legendary tale.
His mother, walking in a folitary place, was impregnated
by the vivifying influence of the heavens. The babe,
thus produced, fpake and reafoned as foon as it was
born. Confucius, however, wrought no miracles, per¬
formed no romantic exploits, but lived an auftere afcetic
life, taught and inculcated the doftrines of pure mora¬
lity, and died, remarkable only for fuperior wifdom, re-
12 ligious, moral, and political.
.ao-kiun About the year of Chrift 601, flourifhed the fec-
oCtrines tat7 Lao-kiun. His mother carried him 30 years in
her womb, and was at laft delivered of him under a
plum-tree. This philofopher was the Epicurus of
the Chinefe. His difciples, who were denominated
Fao-JJe, i. e. heavenly doCtors, -were the firll who cor¬
rupted the religion of the Chinefe. They were ad¬
dicted to magic, and introduced the worlhip of good
and bad demons. Their doctrine was embraced by a
long fucceflion of emperors. One of thefe princes,
called You-ti, had been deprived by death of a fa¬
vourite miftrefs, Avhom he loved with the moft extra¬
vagant paflion. The emperor, by the magical Ikill of
one of thefe doftors, obtained an interview with his
deceafed miftrefs, a circumftance which rivetted the
whole order in the affetffion and efteem of the deluded
prince. Here our readers will obferve the exa£t coun¬
terpart of the fable of Eurydice, fo famous in the my¬
thology of the Greeks and Romans. That fuch a fy-
ftem of religious principles muft have abounded with
mythological adventures is highly probable j but as the
miflionaries, to whom we are chiefly indebted for our
*3 information relating to the religion of the Chinefe,
lon^fthe have not taken the pains to record them, we find it
i/orfhip of impoffible to gratify the curiofity of our readers on
7o, and of that head.
ihe doc- The worfhip of the idol Fo, or Foe, was tranf-
! trine of the p]antej fr<jm India into China about the 56th year of
bofi "into the Chriftian era, upon the following occafion. One
[Tina, of the doftors of the Fao-ffe had promifed a prince of
Vol. XIV. Part II.
the family of Tchou, and brother of the emperor
Ming-ti, to make him enter into communion with the
fpirits. At his felicitation an ambaffador was defpatdi¬
ed into India, in order to inquire where the true reli¬
gion was to be found. There had been a tradition,
fay the miffionaries, ever fince the age of Confucius,
that the true religion was to be found in the weft.—
The ambaffador ftopt thort in India; and finding that
the god Foe was in high reputation in that country,
he collefled feveral images of that deity painted on
chintz, and with it 42 chapters of the canonical books
of the Hindoos, which, together with the images, he
laid on a white elephant, and tranfported into his na¬
tive country. At the fame time he imported from the
fame quarter the doftrine of the tranfmigration of
fouls, which is firmly believed in China to this day.
The dodlrine and rvorlhip of Foe, thus introduced,
made a moft rapid progrefs all over China, Japan,
Siam, &c. The priefts of Foe are called among the
Siamefe Talapoins; by the Tartars, Lamas; by the
Chinefe, lla-chang; and by the people Japan, Bon¬
nes. By this laft; appellation they are generally known
in Europe.
An infinitude of fables Avas invented and propagated The wor-
by the difciples of Foe, concerning the life and adven-ftftppers of
tures of their mafter. If the earlier ages of the Chi- ^tholo1"
nefe hiftory are barren of mythological incidents, the
later periods, after the introduflion of the Avorfhip of
Foe, furnifh an inexhauftible ftore of miracles, mon-
fters, fables, intrigue, exploits, and adventures, of the
moft: villanous complexion. Indeed, moft of them are
fo abfurd, fo ridiculous, and at the fame time fo impious
and profane, that Ave are convinced our readers will eafi-
ly difpenfe Avith a detail from Avhich they could reap
neither entertainment nor inftrudlion. Such a^ may find
themfelves dipofed to rake into this abominable puddle,
Ave muft refer to the reverend fathers Du Halde, Cou¬
plet, Amiot, Kircher, and other members of the propa¬
ganda, in whofe Avritings they Avill find wherewithal to
fatisfy, and even to furfeit, their appetite.
The Hindoos, like the other nations of the eaft, for Hindoo mr*
along time retained the Avorlhip of the true God. At^^ST-
length, hoAvever, idolatry broke in, and, like an im¬
petuous torrent, overwhelmed the country. Firft of
all, the genuine hiftory of the origin of the univerfe
was either utterly loft, or difguifed under a Arariety of
fictions and allegories. We are told that Brim ha, the
fupreme divinity of the Hindoos, after three feveral
efforts, at laft fucceeded in creating four perfons, whom
he appointed to rule over all the inferior creatures.—
Aftenvards Brimha joined his efficient power Avith Bi¬
llion and Rulder •, and by their united exertions they
produced ten men, Avliofe general appellation is Ma¬
ntes, that is, the infpired. The fame being, accord¬
ing to another mythology, produced four other per¬
fons, as imaginary as the former 5 one from his breaft,
one from his back, one from his lip, and one from his
heart. Thefe children Avere denominated Bang:; the
import of Avhieh Avord Ave cannot pretend to deter¬
mine. According to another tradition, Brimha pro¬
duced the Bramins from his mouth, to pray, to read,
to inftruft ; the Chiltern from his arms, to draiv the
bow, to fight, to govern ■, the Bice from his belly or
thighs, to nourifli, to provide the neceffaries of life by
agriculture and commerce 5 the Soder from his feet, for
4 E fubje&ionj
S86
MYTHOLOGY.
fubjeftion, to ferve, to labour, to travel. The reader
-will fee at once, in thefe allegorical perfons, the four
calls or fepts into which the Hindoo nations have, time
immemorial, been divided. Thefe are fome of their
moll celebrated mythological traditions with relation to
the origin of the univerfe.
Hindoo Tim Hindoos have likewife fome mythological opi-
traditions nions w hich feem to relate to the general deluge. They
relating to (HI us, that defiring the prefervation of herds and of
rte deluge, brahmanS, of genii and of virtuous men, of vedas of
law, and of precious things, the Lord of the univerfe
aflumes many bodily fhapes *, but though he pervades,
like the air, a variety of beings, yet he is himfelf
unvaried, fince he has no quality in him fubjeil to
change. At the clofc of the lalt cn//>a, there was a
general deltruftion, occafioned by the lleep of Brah-
me, whence his creatures in different worlds were
drowned in a vail ocean. Brahme being inclined to
Humber after a lapfe of fo many ages, the Itrong de¬
mon Hyagri-va, came near him, and Hole the vedas
which had flowed from his lips. When Hen, the pre-
ferver of the univerfe, difeovered this deed of the
prince of Dainavas, he took the lhape of a minute filh
called Sap-hart. After various transformations, and an
enormous increafe of fize in each of them, the Lord of
the univerfe loving the righteous man (a), W'ho had
Hill adhered to him under all thefe various fliapes, and
intending to preferve him from the fea of deftruftion
caufed by the depravity of the age, thus told him how
he -was to a61 : “ In feven days from the prefent time,
O thou tamer of enemies ! the three -worlds will be
plunged in an ocean of death ; but in the midfl of the
deftroying waves a large veflel fent by me for thy ufe
{hall Hand before thee.” The remaining part of the
mythology fo nearly refembles the Mofaic hiftory of
Noah and the general deluge, that the former may be
a ftrong confirmation of the truth of the latter. To
dry up the waters of the deluge, the powder of the
Deity defeends in the form of a boar, the fymbol of
{Length, to draw up and fupport on his tulks the
w'hole earth, which had been funk beneath the ocean.
Again, The fame pou7er is reprefented as a tortoife fuf-
taining the globe, which had been convulfed by the
violent aflaults of demons, while the gods charmed the
fea with the mountain Matidar, and forced it to dif-
gorge the facred things and animals, together with the
water of life which it had fwallowed. All thefe {lories,
we think, relate to the fame event, ftiadowed by a mo¬
ral, a metaphyfical, and an aftronomical allegory ; and
all three feem connected with the hieroglyphical fculp-
tures of the old Egyptians.
The Hindoos divide the duration of the world into
four i/ugs or jugs, or jogues, each confilling of a prodi¬
gious number of years. In each of thofe periods, the
age and Hature of the human race have been gradually
diminifhed ; and in each of them mankind has gradual¬
ly declined in virtue and piety, as well as in age and
ilature. Th* prefent period they call the Collce, i. e.
the corrupt jogue, which they fay is to lail 400,000
years, of which near 5000 years are already paft. In the
laft part of the preceding jogue, which they call the dwa
paar, the age of man was contrafted into 1000 years, as
in the prefent it is confined to 100. From this propor¬
tional diminution of the length of the human life, our
readers will probably infer, that the two ball jogues bear
a pretty near refemblance to the Mofaic hiftory of the
age of the antediluvian and poltdiluvian patriarchs } and
that the two firfl: are imaginary periods prior to the crea¬
tion of the rvorld, like thofe of the Chinefe, Chaldeans,
and Egyptians.
According to the mythology of the Hindoos, the The world
fyftem of the world is fubjeft to various diflolutions fubjedt to
and refufeitations. At the conclufion of the Collae ^'ous
jogue, fay they, a grand revolution will take place, an(j re^cj_
when the folar fyftem will be confumed by fire, and rations,
all the elements reduced to their original conftituent
atoms. Upon the back of thefe revolutions, Brimha,
the fupreme deity of the Hindoos, is fometimes repre¬
fented as a new born infant, with his toe in his mouth,
floating on a camala or water flower, fometimes only
on a leaf of that plant, on the furface of the vaft abyfs.
At other times he is figured as coming forth of a
Avinding {hell : and again as blowing up the mundane
foam with a pipe at his mouth. Some of thefe emble¬
matical figures and attitudes, our learned readers -will
probably obferve, nearly referable thofe of the ancient
Egyptians.
But the vulgar religion of the ancient Hindoos was
of a very different complexion, and opens a large field
of mythological adventures. We have obferved above,
that the Fo or Foe of the Chinefe was imported from
India 5 and now we fliall give a brief detail of the my¬
thological origin of that divinity. We have no certain ]3;rt^
account of the birth-place of this imaginary deity.— 0f the god
His followers relate, that he was born in one of the Fo.
kingdoms of India near the line, and that his father
was one of that country. His mother brought him
into the world by the left fide, and expired foon after
her delivery. At the time of her conception, lire
dreamed that Hie had fwallowed a white elephant; a
circumftance which is fuppofed to have given birth to
the veneration which the kings of India have always
flioAvn for a white animal of that fpecies. As foon as
he was born, he had ftrength enough to ftand ere£l with¬
out afliftance. He walked abroad at feven, and, point¬
ing with one hand to the heavens, and with the other
to the earth, he cried out, “ In the heavens, and on
the earth, there is no one but me who deferves to be
honoured.” At the age of 30, he felt himfelf all on
a Hidden filled with the divinity j and now he was me-
tamorphofed into Fo or Pagod, according to the ex-
preflion of the Hindoos. He had no fooner declared
himfelf a divinity, than he thought of propagating his
doflrine, and proving his divine million by miracles.
The number of his difciples was imm%nfe ; and they foon
fpread his dogmas over all India, and even to the higher
extremities of Afia,
One of the principal do£lrines which Fo and his Dodlrines
difciples propagated, Avas the metempfyehofis or tranf-of Fo cleriv-
migration of fouls. This dodlrine, fome imagine, hasfrom
given
(a) He Avas SoA-ereign of the Avorld. His name Avas Marta, or Statgavrata ; his patronymic name Avas Vai/vataf
or Child of the Sun.
587
to
The incar¬
nations of
Vifhnou.
MYTHOLOGY.
given rife to the multitude of idols reverenced in every
country where the worthip of Fo is eftablilhed. Qua¬
drupeds, birds, reptiles, and the vileft animals, had
temples erefted for them ; becaufe, fay they, the foul
of the god, in his numerous tranfmigrations, may have
at one time or other inhabited their bodies.
Both the doctrine of tranfmigration and of the
worthip of animals feems, however, to have been im¬
ported from Egypt into India. If the intercourfe be¬
tween thefe two countries was begun at fo early a pe¬
riod as fome very late writers have endeavoured to
prove, fuch a fuppofition is by no means improbable.
The doctrine of the tranfmigration of fouls was ear¬
ly eftablithed among the Egyptians. It was, indeed,
the only idea they formed of the foul’s immortality.
The worthip of animals among them feems to have
been tlill more ancient. If fuch an intercourfe did ac¬
tually exit!, we may naturally fuppofe that colonies of
Egyptian prietls found their way into India, as they
did afterwards into Afia Minor, Italy, and Greece.
That colonies of Egyptians did a&ually penetrate in¬
to that country, and fettle there, many centuries be¬
fore the Nativity, is a faft that cannot be called in
queftion, for reafons which the bounds preferibed us
in this article wTill not allow us to enumerate. We
(hall only obferve, that from the hieroglyphicatl repre-
fentations of the Egyptian deities feem to have origi¬
nated thofe monftrous idols which from time immemo¬
rial have been worfhipped in India, China, Japan,
Siam, and even in the remoteft parts of Afiatic I ar¬
tary.
Foe is often called Budha, or Budda, and fometimes
Vijhnou ; perhaps, indeed, he may be diftinguilhed by
many other names, according to the variety of diale&s
of the different nations among which his worflhp was
eftablilhed. An infinitude of fables Avas propagated
by his difciples concerning him after his death. 1'hey
pretended that their mafter was ftill alive-, that he had
been already born 8000 times, and that he had fuccef-
fively appeared under the figure of an ape, a lion, a
dragon, an elephant, a boar, &c. Thefe Avere called
the incarnations of Viftmou. At length he Avas con¬
founded with the fupreme God -, and all the titles, at¬
tributes, operations, perfeftions, and enfigns of the
Moft High Avere aferibed to him. Sometimes he is
called Amida, and reprefented Avith the head of a dog,
and Avorfhipped as the guardian of mankind. He fome¬
times appears as a princely perfonage, ilfuing from the
mouth of a fifli. At other times, he Avears a lunette on
his head, in Avhich are feen cities, mountains, toAvers,
trees, in (hort, all that the Avorld contains. Thefe
transformations are evidently the children of allego¬
rical or hieroglyphical emblems, and form an exacf
counterpart to the fymbolical AVorftiip of the Egyp¬
tians.
The enormous mafs of mythological traditions Avhich
have in a manner deluged the Araft continent of India,
Avould fill many volumes ; We have feleeied the pre¬
ceding articles as a fpecimen only, by Avhich our read¬
ers may be qualified to judge of the reft. If they find
themfelves difpofed to indulge their curiofity at greater
length, Ave muft remit th«m to Thevenot’s and Hamil¬
ton’s Travels, to Monf. Anquetil in his Zond Avefta,
Halhed’s Introdu&ion to his Tranftation of the Code
€‘f Gentoo Laws, Col. Doav’s Hiftory of Hindoftan,
Grofe’s Voyage to the Eaft Indies, Afiatic Refearches,
vol. i. and ii. at
The mythology of the Perfians is, if poffible, ftill Perfu-n
more extravagant than that of the Hindoos. It fup-m^l0l0£J*
pofes the Avorld to have been repeatedly deftroyed, and
repeopled by creatures of different formation, avIio
AA'ere fucceflively annihilated or banilhed for their dif-
obedience to the fupreme Being. The monftrous
griffin Sinergh tells the hero Cahennan that (he had
already lived to fee the earth feven times filled with
creatures, and feven times a perfedl void : that be¬
fore the creation of Adam, this globe Avas inhabited t4
by a race of beings called Feri and Dives, Avhofe cha- Peri and
radlers formed a perfect contraft. The Peri are de- Hives.
feribed as beautiful and benevolent j the DIa-cs as de¬
formed, malevolent, and mifehievous, differing from
infernal demons only in this, that they are not as yet
confined to the pit of hell. They are for ever ranging
over the Avorld, to fcatter difeord and mifery among
the fons of men. The Peri nearly refemble the fairies
of Europe : and perhaps the Dives gave birth to the
giants and magicians of the middle ages. T. he Peri
and Dives Avage inceflant wars ; and Avhen the Dives
make any of the Peri prifoners, they (hut them up in
iron cages, and hang them on the higheft trees, to
expofe them to public view, and to the fury of every
chilling blaft.
When the Peri are in danger of being overpoAvered
by their foes, they folicit the affiftance of fome mor¬
tal hero ; which produces a feries of mythological ad¬
ventures, highly ornamental to the drains of the Per-
fian bards, and which, at the fame time, furnifties an
inexhauftible fund of the moft diverfified machinery.
One of the moft celebrated adventurers in the my¬
thology of Perfia is l ahmuras, one of their moft an¬
cient monarchs. This prince performs a variety of ex¬
ploits, Avhile he endeavours to recover the fairy Mer-
jan. He attacks the Dive Demrufti in his oavo cave;
Avhere having vanquiftied the giant or demon, he finds
vaft piles of hoarded Avealth : thefe he carries off Avith
the fair captive. The battles, labours, and adventures
of Roftan, another Perfian worthy, Avho lived many
ages after the former, are celebrated by the Perfian
bards with the fame extravagance of hyperbole Avith
Avhich the labours of Hercules have been fung by the
poets of Greece and Rome. 23
The adventures of the Perfian heroes breathe all Perfia the
the Avildnefs of achievement recorded of the knights
of Gothic romance. The dodftrine of enchantments, Wj r0_
transformations, &c. exhibited in both, is a chara<fte-mance.
riftic fymptum of one common original. Perfia is the
genuine claflic ground of eaftern mythology, and the
fource of the ideas of chivalry and romance; from which
they were propagated to the regions of Scandinavia,
and indeed to the remoteft corners of Europe towards
the Aveft.
Perhaps our readers may be of our opinion, when we
offer it as a conjeifture, that the tales of the Avar of the
Peri and Dives originated from a vague tradition con¬
cerning good and bad angels : nor is it, in our opinion,
improbable, that the fable of the Avars between the gods
and giants, fo famous in the mythology of Greece and
Italy, Avas imported into the former of thefe countries
from the fame quarter. For a more particular account
of the Perfian mythology, our readers may confult Dr
4 E 2 Hyde
588
MYTHOLOGY.
Hyde neh’g. vet. Perl. Medor. &c. H’Herbelot’s Bibl.
Orient, and Mr Richardfon’s introduftion to his Perfian
14 and Arabic Didtionary.
(haldean J he mythology ot the Chaldeans, like that of the
nm ology. other nations of the ealt, commences at a period my¬
riads of years prior to the era of the Molaic creation.
Their cofmogony, exhibited by Berofus, who was a
prielt of Lelus, and deeply verfed in the amiquities of
his country, is a piece of mythology of the molt extra¬
vagant nature, it has been copied by Eufebius (Chron.
lib. i. p. 5.) ; it is likewife to be found in Synoellus, co¬
pied from Alexander Polyhiftor. According to this
hiftorian, there were at Babylon written records pre-
ferved with the greateli care, comprehending a period
of fifteen myriads of years. i hofe writings likewife
contained a hidory of the heavens and the lea, of the
earth, and of the origin of mankind. “ In the begin¬
ning (fays Berofus, copying from Oannes, of whom we
lliall give a brief aeeount below) there was nothing but
darknefs and an abyfs of water, wherein refided molt
hideous beings produced from a twofold principle. Men
appeared with two wings ; fome with two and fume
with four faces. They had one body, but two heads ;
the one of a man, the other of a woman. Other hu¬
man figures were to be feen, furnilhed with the legs
and horns of goats. Some had the feet of ’horfes be¬
hind, but before were falhioned like men, refembling
hippocentaurs.” The remaining part of this mythology
is much of the lame complexion j indeed fo extravagant,
that we imagine our readers will readily enough dif-
penfe with our tranflating the fequel. “ Of all thefe
(fays the author) were preferved delineations in the
temple of Belus at Babylon. The perfon who was fup-
pofed to prelide over them was called Omorea. This
word, in the Chaldean language, is Tha/ath, which
the Greeks call G>ttXct<r<r*. but it more properly imports
the moon. Matters being in this fituation, their god
(fays Eufebius), the god (fays Syncellus) came and cut
the woman afunder j and out of one half of her he form¬
ed the earth, and out of the other he made the heavens 3
and, at the fame time, he deltroyed the monfters of the
abyfs.” l his whole mythology is an allegorical hill or y
copied from hieroglyphical reprefentations, the real pur¬
port of which could not be decyphered by the author.
Such, in general, were the confequenees of the hiero-
35 glyphical ftyle of writing.
Oannes the Oannes, the great civilizer and legifiator of the Chal-
1 eg 1 (liter of deans, according to Apollodorus, who copied from Be-
«Canshal" ro^us’ was an amphit>ious animal of a heterogeneous ap¬
pearance. He was endowed with reafon and a very
uncommon acutenefs of parts. His whole body re-
fembled a fiih. Under the head of a filli he had alfo
another head, and feet below fimilar to thofe of .a man,
which were fubjoined to the tail of the filh. His voice
and language were articulate and perfe&ly intelligible,
and there was a figure of him Hill extant in the days of
Berofus. He made his appearance in the Erythrean
or Red fea, where it borders upon Babylonia. This
monftrous being converfed with men by day ; but at
night he plunged into the fea, and remained concealed
in the water till next morning. He taught the Baby¬
lonians the ufe of letters, and the knowledge of all the
arts and feiences. He inflructed them in the method
of building houfes, conftructing temples, and all other
edifices. He taught them to compile laws and religious
ceremonies, and explained to them the principles of ma¬
thematics, geometry, and aftronomy. In a word he
communicated to them every thing neceffary, ufeful,
and ornamental : and fo univerfal were his inftruftions,
that not one fingle article had ever been added to them
fince the time they were firit communicated. Hella-
dius is of opinion that this Itrange perfonage, whoever
he was, came to be reprefented under the figure of a
fiih, not becaufe he was actually believed to be fueh,
but becaufe he was clothed with the Ikin of a leal.
By this account our readers will fee that the Babylonian
Oannes is the exact counterpart of the Fohi of the Chi-
nele, and the I hyoth or the Mercury of Trifmegiltus
of the Egyptians. It is likewife apparent that the idea
of the monlter compounded of the man and the filh has
originated from fome hieroglyphic of that form grafted
upon the appearance of man. Some modern mytho¬
logies have been of opinion, that Oannes was actually
Noah the great preacher of righteoufnefs j who, as
fome think, fettled in Shinar or Chaldea after the de¬
luge, and who, in confequence of his connexion with
that event, might be properly reprefented under the
emblem of the Man of the Sea, 3g
The nativity of Venus, the goddefs of beauty andThenati-
love, is another piece of mythology famous among the Vlty oi the
Babylonians and Affyrians. An egg, fay they, of agod(!efsof
prodigious fize, dropt from heaven into the river Eu-and
phrates. Some doves fettled upon this egg, after that
the filhcs had rolled it to the bank. In a Ihort time
this egg produced Venus, who was afterwards called
Dea Syria, the Syrian goddefs. In confequence of
this tradition (fays Hyginus), pigeons and filhes became
facred to this goddefs among the Syrians, who always
abltained from eating the one or the other. Of this
imaginary being we have a very exaft and entertaining
hiftory in the treatife De Dea Syria, generally aferibed
to Lucian.
In this mythological tradition our readers will proba¬
bly difeover an allulion to the celebrated Mundane e%g ;
and at the fame time the flory of the filhes will lead them
to anticipate the connexion between the fea and the
moon. This fame deity was the Atargatis of Afcalon,
deferibed by Diodorus the Sicilian 3 the one half of her
body a woman and the other a filh. This was no doubt
a hieroglyphic figure of the moon, importing the influ¬
ence of that planet upon the fea and the fex. The ori¬
ental name of this deity evidently points to the moon 3
for it is compounded of two Hebrew words (b), which
import “ the queen of the holt of heaven.”
The fable of Semiramis is nearly conne&ed with The fable
the preceding one. Diodorus Siculus has preferved of.Seminu
the mythological hiftory of this deity, which he andmis*
all the writers of antiquity have confounded with the
Babylonian princefs of the fame name. That hifto-
rian informs us, that the word Semiramis, in the Sy¬
rian dialed, fignifies “ a wild pigeon 3” but we ap¬
prehend that this term was a name or epithet of the
moon.
(b) Adar or lladar, “ magnif cus f and Gad, “ exercitus turmidy
128
L|le
klwn of
Aj.bian
nmliology.
2(»
JB ptian
nl ;hology.
MYTHOLOGY. 589
moon, as it is compounded ol two words (c) of an
import naturally applicable to the lunar planet. It
was a general practice among the Orientals to denomi¬
nate their facred animals from that deity to which they
were confecrated, Hence the moon being called Semi-
ramis, and the pigeon being facred to her divinity, the
latter was called by the name of the former.
As the bounds prefcribed this article render it im-
poflible for us to do juftice to this interefting piece of
mythology, we muft beg leave to refer our readers for
farther information to Diod. Sic. lib. ii. Hyginus Poet.
Atlron. Fab. 197. Pharnutus de Nat. Deor. Ovid. Me-
tam. lib. iv. Athen. in Apol. Izetzes, Chil. ix. cap. 275.
Seld. de Diis Syr. Syrit. ii. p. 183.
We fhould nowr proceed to the mythology of the
Arabians, the far greateft part of which is, however,
buried in the abyfs of agesj though, when, werefledl on
the genius and charafter of that people, we muft be con¬
vinced that they too, as well as the other nations of the
eaft, abotmded in fabulous relations and romantic com-
pofttions. The natives of that country have always been
enthufiaftically addi&ed to poetry, of which fable is the
effence. Wherever the Mufes have erected their throne,
fables and miracles have always appeared in their train.
In the Koran we meet with frequent allufions to well-
known traditionary fables. Thefe had been tranfmit-
ted from generation to generation by the bards and
rhapfodifts for the entertainment of the vulgar. In
Arabia, from the earlieft ages, it has always been one
of the favourite entertainments of the common people,
to afifemble in the ferene evenings around their tents,
or on the platforms with which their houfes are gene¬
rally covered, or in large halls erected for the purpofe,
in order to amufe themfelves with traditional narrations
of the moft diftinguifhed actions of their moft remote
anceftors. Oriental imagery always embelliihed their
romantic details. The glow of fancy, the love of the
marvellous, the propenfity towards the hyperbolical and
the vaft, which conftitute the efience of oriental de-
feription, muft ever have drawn the relation afide into
the devious regions of fiction and fairy land. The re¬
ligion of Mahomet beat down the original fabric of
idolatry and mythology together. The Arabian fables
current in modern times are borrowed or imitated from
Perfian competitions; Perlia being ftill the grand nurfe-
ry of romance in the eaft.
In Egypt we find idolatry, theology, and mytho¬
logy, almoft infeparably blended together. The inha¬
bitants of this region, too, as well as of others in the
vicinity of the centre of population, adhered for feve-
ral centuries to the worthip of the true God. At
laft, however, confcious of their own ignorance, im¬
purity, imperfection, and total unfitnefs to approach
an infinitely perfect Being, diftant, as they imagined,
and invifible, they began to caft about for feme beings
more exalted, and more perfect than themfelves, by
whofe mediation they might prefer their prayers to
the fupreme Majefty of heaven. The luminaries of
heaven, which they imagined were animated bodies,
naturally prefented themfelves. Thefe were fplendid
and glorious beings. They were thought to partake
of the divine nature : they were revered as the fatraps,
prefeCls, and reprefentatives of the fupreme Lord of the
univerfe. They were vifible, they were beneficent;
they dwelt nearer to the gods, they were near at hand
and always acceftible. Thefe were, of courfe, em¬
ployed as mediators and interceffors between the fu¬
preme Divinity and his humble fubjects of this lower
world. Thus employed, they might claim a fubordi-
nate {hare of worthip, which was accordingly afligned
them. In procefs of time, however, that worftiip,
which was originally addreffed to the fupreme Creator
by the mediation of the heavenly bodies, was in a
great meafure forgotten, and the adoration of man¬
kind ultimately terminated on thofe illuftrious crea¬
tures. To this circumftance, we think, we may aferibe 30
the origin of that fpecies of idolatry called Zabiijm, Origin of
or the worftiip of the hoft of heaven, which overfprcad^,a^1^m'
the world early and almoft univerfally. In Egypt
this mode of worftiip was adopted in all its moft ab-
furd and moft enthufiaftie forms ; and at the fame
time the moft heterogeneous mythology appeared in
its train. The mythology of the ancient Egyptians
was fo various and multiform, fo complicated and fo
myfterious, that it would require many volumes even
to give a fuperfieial account of its origin and progrefs,
not only in its mother country, but even in many
other parts of the eaftern and weftern world. Befides,
the idolatry and mythology of that wonderful country
are fo clofely conne&ed and fo infeparably blended to¬
gether, that it is impoflible to deferibe the latter with¬
out at the fame time developing the former. We hope,
therefore, our readers will not be difappointed, if, in a
work of this nature, we touch only upon fome of the
leading or moft interefting articles of this complicated
fubjeCL 31
The Egyptians confounded the revolutions of the Rei»n of
heavenly bodies with the reigns of their moft early <j0CKan'^
monarchs. Hence the incredible number of years in- &c ^
eluded in the reign of their eight fuperior gods, who, gypt.
according to them, filled the Egyptian throne fuccef-
fively in the moft early periods of time- To thefe,
according to their fyftem, fucceeded tw’elve demigods,
who likevvife reigned an amazing number of years.
Thefe imaginary reigns were no other than the perio¬
dical revolutions of the heavenly bodies preferved in
their almanacks, which might be carried back, and
actually were carried back, at pleafure. Hence the
fabulous antiquity of that kingdom. The imaginary
exploits and adventures of thefe gods and demigods
furniftted an inexhauftible fund of mythological ro¬
mances. To the demigods fucceeded the kings of
the cynic cycle, perfonages equally chimerical with
the former. The import of this epithet has greatly
perplexed critics and etymologifts. We apprehend it
is an oriental word importing royal dignity, elevation
of rank. This app< llation intimated, that the mo¬
narchs of that cycle, admitting that they actually ex-
ifted, were more powerful and more highly revered
than their fuecefibrs. After the princes of the cynic
cycle comes another race, denominated \7e£yes, a title
likewife implying royal, fplendid, glorious. Thefe
cycles
(c) S/iem or Sem, “ a fign,” and ramahy “ high*.”
2
59°
MYTHOLOGY.
cycles figure higli in the mythological annals of the
Birth 2ex and have furnilhed materials for a variety
ploits’ and learnecl ar>d ingenious difquifitions. The wars and
transforma-adventures Ofiris, Oris, Typhon, and other alle-
tion of the gorical perfonages who figure in the Egyptian rubric ;
gods. the wanderings of Ifis, the filter and wife of Ofiris ;
/ the transformation of the gods into divers kinds of
animals 5 their birth, education, peregrinations, and
exploits}—compofe a body of mythological fi&ions fo
various, fo complicated, fo ridiculous, and often fo
apparently abfurd, that all attempts to develope and
explain them have hitherto proved unfuccefsful. All,
or the greateft part, of thofe extravagant fables, are
the offspring of hieroglyphical or allegorical emblems
deviled by the priefts and fages of that nation, with a
view to conceal the myfteries of their religion from that
clafs of men whom they ftigmatized with the name of
33 the uninitiated rabble.
brute anl°^ ^ ^ie wordup of brute animals and of certain vege-
mals ta^es, univerfal among the Egyptians, was another ex¬
uberant fource of mythological adventures. The E-
gyptian priefts, many of whom were likewife profound
philofophers, obferved, or pretended to obferve, a kind
of analogy between the qualities of certain animals and
vegetables, and thofe of fome of their fubordinate di¬
vinities. Such animals and vegetables they adopted,
and confecrated to the deities to whom they were fup-
pofed to bear this analogical refemblance ; and in pro-
cefs of time they confidered them as the vifible emblems
of thofe divinities to which they were confecrated. By
thefe the vulgar addrefled their archetypes : in the fame
manner, as in other countries, pictures and ftatues w’ere
employed for the very fame purpofe. The mob, in
procefs of time, forgetting the emblematical character
of thofe brutes and vegetables, addrefied their devotion
immediately to them ; and of courfe thefe became the
ultimate objects of vulgar adoration.
Alter that thefe obje£ts, animate or inanimate, were
confecrated as the vifible fymbols of the deities, it foon
became faftiionable to make ufe of their figures to re-
prefent thofe deities to which they were confecrated.
This praftice was the natural confequence of the hie-
roglyphical ftyle which univerfally prevailed among the
ancient Egyptians. Hence Jupiter Ammon was re-
prefented under the figure of a ram, Apis, under that
of a cow, Ofiris of a bull, Pan of a goat, Thoth or
Mercury of an ibis, Bubaftis or Diana of a cat, &c.
It was likewife a common practice among thofe deluded
people to dignify thefe obje&s, by giving them the .
names of thofe deities which they reprefented. By this
mode of dignifying thefe facred emblems, the venera¬
tion of the rabble was confiderably enhanced, and the
ardour of their devotion inflamed in proportion. From
thefe two fources, we think, are derived the fabulous
transformation of the gods, fo generally celebrated in
the Egyptian mythology, and from it imported into
Greece and Italy. In confequence of this praftice, their
mythological fyftem was rendered at once enormous and
34 unintelligible.
Trifmegif- Their Thoth, or Mercury Trifmegiftus, was, in our
tustheau- opinion, the inventor of this unhappy fyftem. This
thor ot the perfonage, according to the Egyptians, was the origi-
Egjptjan naj author of letters, geometry, aftronomy, mufic, ar-
3nyt ° °^‘ chiteflure ; in a word, of all the elegant and ufeful
arts, and of all the branches of fcience and philofophy.
He it was who firft difcovered the analogy between
the divine affe6Hons, influences, appearances, opera¬
tions, and the correfponding properties, qualities, and
inftindts of certain animals, and the propriety of dedi¬
cating particular kinds of vegetables to the lervice of
particular deities.
The priefts, whofe province it was to expound the
my denes of that allegorical hieroglyphical religion,
(fee Mysteries), gradually loft all knowledge of the
primary import of the fymbolical char afters. To fupply
this deleft, and at the fame time to veil their own igno¬
rance, the lacerdotal inftruftors had recourfe to fable
and fiftion. They heaped fable upon fable, till their
religion became an accumulated chaos of mythological
abfurdities.
Two of the moft learned and moft acute of the an¬
cient philofophers have attempted a rational explica¬
tion of the latent import of the Egyptian mythology j
but both have failed in the attempt j nor have the
moderns, who have laboured in the fame department,
performed their part with much better fuccefs. In-
ftead, therefore, of profecuting this inexplicable fub-
jeft, which would fwell this article beyond all propor¬
tion, we muft beg leave to refer thofe who are defirous
of further information to the following authors, where
they will find enough to gratify their curiofity, if not
to inform their judgment: Herodotus, lib. ii. Diodo¬
rus Siculus, lib. i. Plut. Ifis et Ofiris ; Jamblichus de
My ft. Egypt. Horapollo Hieroglyp. Egypt. Macrob.
Sat. cap. 23. among the ancients j and among the mo¬
derns, Kircher’s Oedip. Voff. de Orig. et Prog. Idol.
Mr Bryant’s Analyfis of Anc. Mythol. Monf. Gebelin
Monde Prim. ; and above all, to the learned Jablonfld’s
Panth. Egyptiorum.
The elements of Phoenician mythology have been Phoenician
preferved by Eufebius, Praep. Evang. fub. init. In mythology,
the large extraft which that learned father hath copied
from Philo Biblius’s tranflation of Sanchoniathon’s
Hiftory of Phoenicia, we are furniftied with feveral ar¬
ticles of mythology. Some of thefe throw confiderable
light on feveral paflages of the facred hiftory ; and all
of them are ftriftly connefted with the mythology of
the Greeks and Romans. There ive have preferved
a brief but entertaining detail of the fabulous adven¬
tures of Uranus, Cronus, Dagon, Thyoth or Mercury,
probably the fame with the Egyptian hero of that
name. Here we find Muth or Pluto, iEphceftus or
Vulcan, ALfculapius, Nereus, Pofcedon or Neptune, &c.
Aftarte, or Venus Urania, makes a confpicuous figure
in the catalogue of Phoenician Avorthies ; Pallas or Mi¬
nerva is planted on the territory of Attica; in a Avord,
all the branches of the family of the Titans, Avho in
after ages figured in the rubric of the Greeks, are
brought upon the ftage, and their exploits and ad\ren-
tures briefly detailed. ^
By comparing this fragment with the mythology of Grecian
the Atlantidae and that of the Cretans preferved by mythology
Diodorus the Sicilian, lib. v. avc think there is goodclenve<1
reafon to conclude, that the family of the Titans, the l^nd pha-*
feveral branches of Avhich feem to have been both the R;cia;
authors and objefts of a great part of the Grecian ido¬
latry, originally emigrated from Phoenicia. This con-
jefture Avill receive additional ftrength, Avhen it is con¬
fidered, that almoft all their names recorded in the fa¬
bulous records of Greece, may be eafily traced up to a
Phoenician
Phoenician original.
M Y T H O
We agree with Herodotus, that
a confiderable part of the idolatry of Greece may have
been borrowed from the Egyptians ; at the fame time,
ave imagine it highly probable, that the idolatry of the
Egyptians'and Phoenicians was, in its original contli-
tution, nearly the fame. Both fyltems were Sabiifm,
or the worfhip of the hoft of heaven. The Pelafgi, ac¬
cording to Herodotus, learned the names of the gods
from the Egyptians but in this conjecture he is cer¬
tainly warped by his partiality for that people. Had
thofe names been imported from Egypt, they would
no doubt have bewrayed their Egyptian original j
Avhereas, every etymologift will be convinced that every
one is of Phoenician extraction.
The adventures of Jupiter, Juno, Mercury, Apollo,
Diana, Mars, Minerva or Pallas, Venus, Bacchus, Ce¬
res, Proferpine, Pluto, Neptune, and the other defcen-
dants and coadjutors of the ambitious family of the
Titans, furnifh by far the greatefl part of the mytho¬
logy of Greece. They left Phoenicia, we think, about
the age of Mofes ; they fettled in Crete, a large and
fertile ifland ; from this region they made their way
into Greece, which, according to the molt authentic ac¬
counts, was at that time inhabited by a race of fava-
ges. The arts and inventions which they communi¬
cated to the natives ; the myfteries of religion which
they inculcated ; the laws, cuftoms, polity, and good
order, which they eflablifhed ; in fhort, the bleflings of
humanity and civilization, which they everywhere dif-
feminated, in procefs of time infpired the unpolilhed
inhabitants with a kind of divine admiration. Thofe
ambitious mortals improved this admiration into divine
homage and adoration. The greater part of that wor-
fliip, which had been formerly addreffed to the lumina¬
ries of heaven, was now transferred to thofe illuftrious
perionages. They claimed and obtained divine honours
from the deluded rabble of enthufiaftic Greeks. Hence
fprung an inexhauftible fund of the moll; inconfillent
and irreconcilable fictions.
I he foibles and frailties of the deified mortals were
in nfiftent tranfmitted to pofterity, incorporated as it were with
the pompous attributes of fupreme divinity. Hence
the heterogenous mixture of the mighty and the
mean which checquers the charafters of the heroes of
the Iliad and Odyfley. The Greeks adopted the ori¬
ental fables; the import of which they did not under-
ftand. Thefe they accommodated to heroes and illu-
flrious perfonages, who had figured in their own coun¬
try in the earlieft periods. The labours of Hercules
originated in Egypt, and evidently relate to the annual
progrefs of the fun in the zodiac, though the vain-glo¬
rious Greeks accommodated them to a hero of their
own, the reputed fon of Jupiter and Alcmena. The
expedition of Ofiris they borrowed from the Egyptians,
and transferred to their Bacchus, the fon of Jupiter
and Semele the daughter of Cadmus. The transfor¬
mation and wanderings of lo are evidently tranfcribed
from the Egyptian romance of the travels of Ifis in
quell of the body of Ofiris, or of the Phoenician
Altarte, drawn from Sanchoniathon. lo or loh is in
reality the Egyptian name of the moon, and Aftarte
was the name of the fame planet among the Phoeni¬
cians. Both thefe fables are allegorical reprefentations
of the anomalies of the lunar planet, or perhaps of the
progrels of the vorlhip of that planet in different parts
LOGY.
59i
«t37
H ce the
>ns of
tl Greek
p® 1.
of the world. The fable of the conflagration occa-
fioned by Phaeton is clearly of oriental extradlion,
and alludes to an exceflive drought which in the early
periods of time fcorched Ethiopia and the adjacent
countries. The fabulous adventures of Perfeus are faid
to have happened in the fame regions, and are allego¬
rical reprefentations of the influence of the folar lumi¬
nary ; for the original Perfeus was the fun. The rape
of Proferpine and the wanderings of Ceres j the Eleu-
finian my It cries 5 the orgia or facred rites of Bacchus j
the rites and worlhip of the Cabiri—v'ere imported
from Egypt and Phoenicia; but llrangely garbled and
disfigured by the hierophants of Greece. The gigan-
tomachia, or war between the gods and the giants,
and all the fabulous events and varieties of that war,
form an exaft counterpart to the battles of the Peri
and Dives, celebrated in the romantic annals of Per-
fia. 8
A confiderable part of the mythology of the Greeks The Greeks
fprung from their ignorance of the oriental languages, ignorant of
They difdained to apply themfelves to the ftudy oforiental
languages fpoken by people whom, in the pride 0f'an^ua^es'
their heart, they ftigmatized with the epithet of bar¬
barians. This averfion to every foreign dialeft was
highly detrimental to their progrefs in the fciences.
The fame negledt or averfion has, we imagine, proved
an irreparable injury to the republic of letters in all
fucceeding ages. The aoids, or drolling bards, laid
hold on thofe oriental legends, which they fophifli-
cated with their own additions and improvements,
in order to accommodate them to the popular tafte.
Thefe wonderful tales figured in their rhapfodical
compofitions, and were greedily fwallowed down by
the credulous vulgar. Thofe fictions, as they rolled
down, were conftantly augmented with frefli materials,
till in procefs of time their original import was either
forgotten or buried in impenetrable darknefs. A mul¬
titude of thefe Hefiod has collected in his Theogonia,
or Generation of the Gods, which unhappily became
the religious creed of the illiterate part of the Greeks.
Indeed fable was fo clofely interwoven with the reli¬
gion of that airy volatile people, that it feems to have
contaminated not only their religious and moral, but
even their political tenets. ^
The far-famed oracle of Dodona was copied from Oracle of
that of Ammon at Thebes in Egypt : The oracle of Dodona.
Apollo at Delphos was an emanation from the fame
fource: The celebrated Apollo Pythius of the Greeks
was no other than Ob or Aub of the Egyptians, who
denominated the bafililk or royal fnake Ov Cai, becaufe
it was held facred to the fun. Ob or Aub is ftill re¬
tained in the Coptic dialeft, and is one of the many
names or epithets of that luminary. In ftiort, the
ground-work of the Grecian mythology is to be tra¬
ced in the eaft. Only a fmall part of it was fabricated
in the country ; and what was imported pure and ge¬
nuine was miferably fophitlicated by the hands through
which it paffed, in order to give it a Grecian air, and
to accommodate its flyle to the Grecian tafte. To
enlarge upon this topic would be altogether luperflu-
ous, as our learned readers muft be well acquainted with
it already, and the unlearned may without much trouble
or expence furnifh themfelves with books upon tbatj^ythg^y
fubjeft. borrowed
The Roman mythology was borrowed from the from
Greeks.Greoc^
59*
MYTHOLOGY.
Greeks. That people had addicted themfelves for
many centuries to the arts of war and civil polity.
Science and philofophy were either neglected or un¬
known. At laft they conquered Greece, the native
land of feience, and then “ Graecia capta ferum vi£l:o-
rem cepit arte et intulit agrefti Latio.” This being
the cafe, their mythology was, upon the whole, a tran-
feript from that of Greece. They had indeed gleaned
a few fables from the Pelafgi and Hetrufcans, which,
however, are of lo little confequence, that they are
fcarce worth the trouble of tranferibimo
The mythology of the Celtic nations is in a good
meafure loft. There may poftibly ftill remain fome
veftiges of the Druidical fuperftition in the remoteft
parts of the Highlands and iflands of Scotland ; and
perhaps in the uncivilized places of Ireland. Thefe,
we prefume, would afford our readers but little enter¬
tainment, and ftill lels inftrudlion. Inftead therefore
of giving a detail of tliofe uninterefting articles, we
ftiall beg leave to refer our readers to Oftian’s Poems,
and Col. Valency’s Colle&ions of Irifli Antiquities, for
4* fatisfaftion on that fubjeft.
Mythobgy The mythology of the northern nations, i. e. of the
northern Norwegians, Danes, Swedes, Icelanders, See. is uri¬
nations. commonly curious and entertaining. The Edda and
Volufpa contain a complete colle&ion of fables which
have not the fmalleft affinity with thofe of the Greeks
and Romans. They are wholly of an oriental com¬
plexion, and feem almoft congenial with the tales of
the Perfians above deferibed. The Edda was com¬
piled in Iceland in the 13th century. It is a kind of
fyftem of the Scandinavian mythology : and has been
reckoned, and we believe juftly, a commentary on the
Volufpa, which was the Bible of the northern nations.
Odin or Othin, or Woden or Waden, was the fupreme
Odin or divinity of thofe people. His exploits and adventures
Woden. furnifli the far greateft part of their mythological creed.
That hero is fuppofed to have emigrated from the eaft j
but from what country or at what period is not cer¬
tainly known. His achievements are- magnified be¬
yond all credibility. He is reprefented as the god of
battles, and as flaughtering thoufands at a blow'. Plis
palace is called Valhal: it is lituated in the city of
Midgard, where, according to the fable, the fouls of
heroes who had bravely fallen in battle enjoy fupreme
felicity. They fpend the day in mimic hunting
matches, or imaginary combats. At night they af-
femble in the palace of Valhalla, where they feaft on
the moft delicious viands, dreffed and ferved up by the
Valkyrice, virgins adorned with celeftial charms, and
flulhed with the bloom of everlafting youth. They
folace themfelves with drinking mead out of the Ikulls
of enemies whom they killed in their days of nature.
Mead, it feems, was the nedlar of the Scandinavian
43 heroes.
The hell Sleepner, the horfe of Odin, is celebrated alonp-
'^cvi* with his mailer. Hela, the hell of the Scandinavi-
Sci-ndma- ans’ a variety of fables equally ihocking and
mus. heterogeneous. Loke, the evil genius or devil of the
northern people, nearly refembles the Typhon of the
Egyptians. Signa or Sinna is the confort of Loke j
from this name the Engliih word Jin is derived. The
giants Weymur, Ferbanter, Belupher, and Hellunda,
perform a variety of exploits, and are exhibited in the
molt frightful attitudes. One would be tempted to
imagine, that they perform the exact counterpart of
the giants of the Greek and Roman mythologifts. In¬
ftead of glancing at thefe ridiculous and uninterefting
fables, which is all that the limits preferibed us would
permit, we ftiall take the liberty to lay before our read¬
ers a brief account of the contents of the Volufpa,
which is indeed the text of the Scandinavian mytho-
1()gy- _ 44
Idre word Vtlufpn imports, “ the prophecy of Vola The Vein
or Fola.” T his was, perhaps, a general name for the Pa"
prophetic ladies of the north, as Sibyl was appropriated
to women endowed with the like faculty in the foutb.
Certain it is, .that the ancients generally connected mad-
nefs with the prophetic faculty. Of this we have two
celebrated examples : the one in Lycophron’s Alex¬
andra, and the other in the Sibyl of the Roman poet.
The word vo/a fignifies “ mad or foolilh whence the
Englifti words/W, foohj}}, folly. Spa, the latter part
of the compofition, fignifies “ to prophecy,” and is ftill
current among the common people in Scotland, in the
word Spae, which has nearly the fame fignification.
The Volufpa confifts of between 200 and 300 lines.
The prophetefs having impofed filence on all intelli¬
gent beings, declares that the is about to reveal the
works of the Father of nature, the aftions and opera¬
tions of the gods, which no mortal ever knew before
herfelf. She then begins with a defeription of the
chaos *, and then proceeds to the formation of the
world, the creation of the different fpecies of its inha¬
bitants, giants, men, and dwarfs. She then explains
the employments of the fairies or deftinies, whom the
northern people call nornies ; the functions of the dei¬
ties, their moft memorable adventures, their difputes
with Loke, and the vengeance that enfued. She at
laft concludes with a long and indeed animated deferip¬
tion of the final ftate of the univerfe, and its diffolution
by a general conflagration.
In this cataftrophe, Odin and all the rabble of the
Pagan divinities, are to be confounded in the general
ruin, no more to appear on the ftage of the univtrfe.
Out of the ruins of the former world, according to the
Volufpa, a new one thall fpring up, arrayed in all the
bloom of celeftial beauty.
Such is the doctrine exhibited in the fabulous Vo¬
lufpa. So congenial are fome of the details therein
delivered, efpecially thofe relating to the final diffolu¬
tion of the prefent fyftem, and the fucceftion of a new
heaven and a new earth, that wTe find ourfelves ftrongly
inclined to fufpeft, that the original fabricator of the
work was a femipagan writer, much of the fame com¬
plexion with the authors of the Sibylline oracles, and of
fome other apocryphal pieces which appeared in the
world during the firft ages of Chriftianity. 45
In America, the only mythological countries muff
be Mexico and Peru. The other parts of that large °[uyp^ni!
continent were originally inhabited bv favages, moft.
of them as remote from religion as from civilization.
The two vaft empires of Mexico and Peru had exifted
about 400 years only before the Spanifh invafion. In
neither of them was the ufe of letters underftood •, and
of courfe the ancient opinions of the natives relating
to the origin of the univerfe, the changes which fuc-
ceeded, and every other ('monument of antiquity, were
obliterated and loft. Clavigero has indeed enumerated
a vaft canaille of fanguiaary gods worftiipped by the
Mexicans j
593
MYTHOLOG Y.
Mexicans ; but produces nothing either entertaining
or interefting with refpett to their mythology. The
information to be derived from any other quarter is
little to be depended upon. It paffes through the
hands of bigotted miflionaries or other ecclefiaftics,
who were fo deeply tin&ured with fanaticifm, that
they viewed every a£Hon, every fentiment, every cuf-
tom, every religious opinion and ceremony of thofe
half-civilized people, through a falfe medium. They
often imagined they difcovered refemblances and ana¬
logies between the rites of thofe favages and the dogmas
of 'Chriftianity, which nowhere exifted but in their own
heated imagination. ^
The only remarkable piece of mythology in the an¬
nals of the Peruvians, is the pretended extraftion of
Manco Capec the firft Inca of Peru, and of Mama
Ocolla his confort. Thefe two illuftrious perfonages
appeared firft on the banks of the lake Titiaca. They
were perfons of a majeftic ftature, and clothed in de¬
cent garments. They declared themfelves to be the
children of the Sun, fent by their beneficent parent,
who beheld with pity the miferies of the human race,
to inftrufl and to reclaim them. Thus we find thefe
two legiflators availed themfelves of a pretence which
had often been employed in more civilized regions to
the very fame purpofes. The idolatry of Peru was
gentle and beneficent, that of Mexico gloomy and fan-
guinary. Hence we may fee, that every mode of fu-
perftition, where a divine revelation is not concerned,
borrows its complexion from the characters of it* pro-
feffors.
In the courfe of this article, our readers will ob-
ferve, that we have not much enlarged upon the my¬
thology of the Greeks and Romans ; that fubjeCt we
imagine to be fo univerfally known by the learned,
and fo little valued by the vulgar, that a minute dif-
cuflion of it would be altogether fuperfluous. Be-
fides, We hope it will be i-emembered, that the nar-
rownefs of the limits prefcribed us would fcarce admit
of a more copious detail. We would flatter ourfelves,
that in the courfe of our difquifition, we have thrown
out a few reflections and obfervations, which may per¬
haps prove more acceptable to both defcriptions of
readers.
M Y U
MYTILUS, the Mussel, a genus of animals, be¬
longing to the order of vermes teftacea. See Concho-
LOGY Index.
MYTTOTON, a coarfe kind of food, ufed by the
labouring people among the Greeks, and fometimes
among the Romans. It Was made of garlic, Onions,
eggs, cheefe, oil, and vinegar, and reckoned very whole-
fome.
MYUS,in Ancient Geography, one of the twelve towns
of Ionia *, feated on the Meander, at the diftance of 30
ftadia from the fea. In Strabo’s time it was incorpo-
M Y X
rated with the Milefians, on account of the paucity of
inhabitants, from its being formerly overwhelmed with
water : for which reafon the lonians configned its fuf-
frage and religious ceremonies to thr people of Mile¬
tus. Artaxerxes allotted this town to Themiftocles, in
order to furnifh his table with meat: Magnefia was
to fupport him in bread, and Lampfacus in wine. The
town now lies in ruins.
MYXINE, the Hag ; a genus of animals belong¬
ing to the order of vermes inteftina. See Helmintho¬
logy Index.
Myus
"XT A liquid confonant, and the 13th letter of the
5 Greek, Latin, Englifti, &c. alphabets.
The « is a nafal confonant : its found is that of a </,
paffed through the nofe ; fo that when the nofe is flop¬
ped by a cold, or the like, it is ufual to pronounce d
for n. M. Abbe de Dangeau obferves, that in the
French, the n is frequently a mere nafal vowel, with¬
out any thing of the confonant in it. He calls it the
Sclavonic vowel. The Hebrews call their n nun,
which fignifies child, as being fuppofed the offspring
of m; partly on account of the refemblance of found,
and partly on that of the figure. Thus from the m,
by omitting the laft column, is formed « ; and thus
from the capital N, by omitting the firft column, is
Vol. XIV. Part II.
formed the Greek minufcle r. Hence for biennies. See.
the Latins frequently ufe bimus, &c. and the fame peo¬
ple convert the Greek y, at the end of a word, into an
m, as <pxQ[tcix.ov, pharmacum, &c. See M.
N before p, b, and m, the Latins change into m, and
frequently into / and r ; as in in-ludo, illudo ; int'igo,
irrigo, &c.: in which they agree with the Hebrews,
who, in lieu of nun, frequently double the following
confonants : and the Greeks do the fame j as when for
Manlius, they write MaAA<es, &c. The Greeks alfo,
before x, y, y,, v, changed the y into y : in which they
were followed by the ancient Romans : who, for Angu~
lus, wrote Aggulus ; for anceps, ageeps, &c.
The Latins retrench the n from Greek nouns end-
4 F ing
(
NAB
mg in ui; as Leo ; Draco ; on the con-
trary, the Greeks add it to the Latin ones ending in
o ; as Kxtmv, Ne^ar, Cato, Nero.
N, among the ancients, was a numeral letter, figni-
fying poo j according to the verfe in Baronins,
N, quoque nongentos nujnero chjignat habendos.
And when a line was ftruck over it, n, nine thoufand.
Among the ancient lawyers, N. L. Hood for non li¬
quet, i. e. the cauie is not clear enough to pals len¬
ience upon. . N, or N°, in commerce, &c. is ufed as
an abbreviation of nutnero, number.
NAARDA, Nearda, Neerda, or Nehardea, in
Ancient Geography, a town lituated on the confines of
Mefopotamia and Babylonia \ populous, and with a
rich and extenfive territory, not eafily to be attacked by
an enemy, being lurrounded on all fides by the Euphra¬
tes and ftrong walls (Jofephus). In the lower age the
Jews had a celebrated fchool there.
NAAS, a borough town of Ireland, in the county
of Kildare and province of Leinfter. It is the Ihire
town of that county, and alternately with Atliy the
alfizes town. It is diltant above. ly miles fouth-weft
from Dublin, in N. Lat. 53. 10. W. Long. 6. 50. It
gives title of vilcount to the family of Burke. This
place was anciently the refidence of the kings of
Leinller : the name fignifies “ the place of elders,
for here the Hates of that province alfembled during
the 6th, and 8th centuries, after the Naalleighan
of Carmen had been anathematized by the Chriftian
clergy. On the arrival of the Englilh it was fortified j
many caftles were erefted, the ruins of which are part¬
ly vifible ; and parliaments were held there. At the
foot of the mount or rath are the ruins of a houfe
founded in 1484, for eremites of the order of St Au-
gullin. In the 12th century the baron of Naas found¬
ed a priory dedicated to St John the Baptift, for Au-
guftinian regular canons. In the centre of this town
the family of Euftace erefted a monaftery for Domi¬
nican friars, dedicated to St Eullachius ; and it appears
that their pofleffions in Naas were granted them in the
year 13 55* This place was a ftrong hold during the
civil wars.
NABATENE, or Regio Nabat/eorum, accord-
ing to Jerome, comprifed all the country lying be¬
tween the Euphrates and the Red fea, and thus con¬
tained Arabia Deferta, with a part of the Petrsea :
fo called from Nabaioth, the firft born of Ifmael. Ac¬
cording to Diodorus, it was fituated between Syria
and Egypt. The people Nabataei (1 Maccabees, Dio¬
dorus Siculus) : inhabiting a defert and barren coun¬
try : they lived by plundering their neighbours, accord¬
ing to Diodorus. Nabathaeus the epithet.
NAB IS, tyrant of Sparta, reigned about 204 B. C. j
and is reported to have exceeded all other tyrants fo
far, that, upon comparifon, he left the epithets of
gracious and merciful to Dionyfius and Phalaris. He
is faid to have contrived an inftrument of torture in
the form of a ftatue of a beautiful woman, whofe rich
drels concealed a number of iron fpikes in her bolom
and arms. When any one therefore oppofed his de¬
mands, he would fay, “ If I have not talents enough
to prevail with you, perhaps my woman Apega may
perfuade you.” The ftatue then appeared ; which
Nabis taking by the hand, led up to the perfon, who,
[ 594 1
NAB
Nabis
nezzar.
being embraced by it, was thus tortured into com¬
pliance. To render his tyranny lefs unpopular, Nabis „ ..
made an alliance with Flaminius the Roman general, ^a^mc^"
and purfued with the moil inveterate enmity the war
which he had undertaken againft the Achaeans. He
befieged Gythium, and defeated Philopoemen in a naval
battle. His triumph rvas ihort, the general of the
Achaeans foon repaired his Ioffes, and Nabis was de¬
feated in an engagement, and killed as he attempted
to fave his life by flight, about 194 years before the
Chriftian era.
NABLOUS, a province of Syria, anciently cele¬
brated under the name of the kingdom of Samaria. Its
capital, likewife called Nablous, is fituated near to
Sichem on the ruins of the Niepolis of the Greeks
and is the refidence of a iheik, who is fubordinate to
the pacha of Damafcus, from whom he farms the tri¬
bute of the province.
NABLUM, in Hebrew, Nebel, was an inftrument
of mufic among the Jews. It had firings like the harp,
and was played upon by both hands. Its form was
that of a Greek A. In the Septuagint and Vulgate, it
is called noblum, pfalterion, lyra ; and fometimes cithara.
NABO, or Nebo, in Mythology, a deity of the
Babylonians, who poffeffed the next rank to Bel. It
is mentioned by Ifaiah, chap, xlviii. Voffms appre¬
hends that Nabo was the moon, and Bel the fun : but
Grotius fuppofes that Nabo was fome celebrated prophet
of the country 5 which opinion is confirmed by the ety¬
mology of the name, fignifying, according to Jerome,
“ one that prefides over prophecy.”
NABOB, properly Navab, the plural of Naib, a
deputy. As ufed in Bengal, it is the fame as Nazim.
It.is a title alfo given to the wives and daughters of
princes, as well as to the princes themfelves.
NABONASSAR, firft king of the Chaldeans or
Babylomans; memorable for the Jewifh era which
bears his name, which is generally fixed in 3257, be¬
ginning on Wednefday, February 26th, in the 3967th
of the Julian period, 747 years before Chrift. The
Babylonians revolting from the Medes, who had over¬
thrown the Affyrian monarchy, did, under Nabonaffar,
found a dominion, which was much increafed under
Nebuchadnezzar. It is probable, that this Nabonaffar
is that Baladan in the fecond of Kings, xx. 12. father
of Merodach, who fent ambaffadors to Hezekiah. See
2 Chron. xxxii.
NABOPOLASSAR, king of Babylon : he joined
with Aftyages the Mede, to deftroy the empire of Af-
fyria ; which having accompliftied, they founded the
two empires of the Medes under Aftyages, and the
Chaldeans under Nabopolaffar, 627 B. C.
NABUCHADNEZZAR, or Nabuchodonosor
II. king of Affyria, fon of Nabopolaffar, and ftyled
the Great, was affociated by his father in the empire,
607 B. C. and the following year he took Jehoiakim
king of Judah prifoner, and propoled to carry him
and his fubjefts in captivity into Babylon ; but upon
his fubmiflion, and promifing to hold his kingdom un¬
der Nabuchodonofor, he was permitted to remain at
Jerufalem. In 603 B. C. Jehoiakim attempted to
fhake off the Affyrian yoke, but without fuccefs ; and
this revolt brought on the general captivity. Nabu-
chadnezzar having fubdued the Ethiopians, Arabians,.
Idumseans, Philiftines, Syrians, Perfians, Medes, Af-
buchad-
nezzar
Int11
|Na;vus.
r
N A E [ 595 ] N A I
fyrians, and almoft all Afiaj being puffed up with
pride, cauied a golden ftatue to be let up, and com¬
manded all to worlhip it ; which Daniel’s companions
refilling to do, they were call into the fiery furnace.
But as he was admiring his own magnificence, by di¬
vine fentence he was driven from men, and in the Scrip¬
ture Ityle is laid to have eaten grafs as oxen : i. e. he was
feized with the difeafe called by the Greeks hjcon-
thropy, which is a kind of madnefs that caufes perfons
to run into the fields and ftreets in the night, and
fometimes to fuppofe themfelves to have the heads of
oxen, or to be made of glafs. At the end of feven
years his reafon returned to him, and he was reftored
to his throne and glory. He died 562 B. C. in the
43d year of his reign j in the 5th of which happened
that eclipfe of the fun mentioned by Ptolemy, which
is the fureft foundation of the chronology of his reign.
NADIR, in AJlronomy, that point of the heavens
which is diametrically oppolite to the zenith or point
directly over our heads.
NALNIA, the goddefs of funerals at Rome. Her
temple was without the gates of the city. The fongs
which were fung at funerals were alio called ncenia.
They were generally filled with the praifes of the de-
ceafed ; but fometimes they were fo unmeaning and
improper, that the word became proverbial to fignify
nonfenfe.
NAERDEN, a Itrong town of Holland, feated at
the head of the canals of the province. The foun¬
dations of it were laid by William of Bavaria, in
1350. It was taken by the Spaniards in 1572, and
by the French in 1672 j but it was retaken by the
prince of Orange the next year. It Hands at the fouth
end of the Zuyder Zee, in E. Long. 5. 3. N. Lat.
51* 22.
N/EVIUS, Cneius, a famous poet of Campania,
was bred a foldier but quitted the profeflion of arms,
in order to apply himfelf to poetry, which he profe-
cuted with great diligence. He compofed a hiifory in
verfe, and a great number of comedies: but it is faid
that his firft performance of this laft kind fo difpleaf-
ed Metellus on account of the fatirical ftrokes it con¬
tained, that he procured his being banilhed from the
city: on which he retired to Utica in Africa, where
he at length died, 202 B. C. We have only fome
fragments left of his works.
There was another Njevius, a famous augur in the
reign of Tarquin, who, to convince the king and the
Romans of his preternatural power, cut a Hint with a
razor, and turned the ridicule of the populace to ad¬
miration. Tarquin rewarded his merit by creeling
him a fiatue in the comitium, which was Hill in be¬
ing in the age of Auguftus. The razor and flint were
buried near it under an altar, and it was ufual among
tire Romans to make witneffes in civil caufes fwear
near it. This miraculous event of cutting a flint with
a razor, though believed by fome writers, is treated
as fabulous and improbable by Cicero, who himfelf
had been augur,
NZEVUS, a mole on the /kin, generally called a
mother's murk; alfo the tumour known by the name
of a wen.
AH preternatural tumours on the /kin, in the form
of a wart or tubercle, are called excrefcences ; by the
Greeks they are.called acrothymia ,* and when they are
born with a per/on, they are called navi materni, or
marks from the mother. See Tumours, Surgery
Index.
NAGERA, or Nagara, a town of Spain, in Old
Caftile, and the territory of Rioja, with the title of a
duchy and fortrefs j famous for a battle fought in its
neighbourhood in 1369. It is fituated in a fertile
country, on a brook called Naferilla. W. Long. 2. 20.
N. Lat. 42. 45.
NAGRACUT, a town of India, the capital of a
kingdom of the fame name in the dominions of the
Great Mogul, with a rich temple to which the Indians
go in pilgrimage. It is feated on the river Ravi. E
Long. 78. io. N. Lat. 33. 12.
NAHUM, or the Prophecy of NAHUM, a canonical
book of the Old Teftament.
Nahum, the feventh of the 12 leffer prophets, was
a native of Elkoflui, a little village of Galilee. The
fubjedl of his prophecy is the deflruftion of Nineveh,
which he defcribes in the molt lively and pathetic man¬
ner } his ftyle is bold and figurative, and cannot be ex¬
ceeded by the moft perfedt mailers of oratory. This
prophecy was verified at the liege of that city by Ally-
ages, in the year of the world 3378, 622 years before
Chrift.
NAIADES, in fabulous hiflory, certain inferior
deities who prefided over rivers, fprings, wells, and
fountains. The Naiades generally inhabited the coun¬
try, and reforted to the woods or meadows near the
ftream over which they prefided. They are reprefent-
ed as young and beautiful virgins, often leaning upon
an urn, from which flows a ftream of wrater. Algle
was the faireft of the Naiades, according to Virgil.
Their name feems to be derived from “ to flow.”
They were held in great veneration among the an¬
cients j and often lacrifices of goats and lambs were of¬
fered to them, with libations of wine, honey, and oil.
Sometimes they received only offerings of milk, fruit,
and flowers.
NAIANT, in Heraldry, a term ufed in blazoning
fifties, when borne in a horizontal poilure, as if fwim-
ming.
NAIAS, a genus of plants belonging to the dioecia
clafs; and in the natural method ranking with thofe of
which the order is doubtful. See Botany Index.
NAID, the interior of the great defert of Arabia,
inhabited by a few fcattered tribes of feeble and
wretched Arabs. See Arabia.
NAIL, Unguis, in Anatomy, which lee.
Nails, in building, &c. fmall fpikes of iron, brals,
8te. which being driven into wood, ferve to bind fe-
veral pieces together, or to faften fomething upon
them.
Nails were made ufe of by the ancient Hebrews for
cancelling bonds; and the ceremony was performed by
Itriking them through the writing. This feems to be
alluded to in Scripture, where God is faid by our cru¬
cified Saviour to have “ blotted out the hand-writing
of ordinances that was againft us, and to have taken it
out of the way, nailing it to his crofs,” Col. ii. 14.
For the eaule and ceremony of driving the annual nail,
or clavus annalis, among the Romans, fee AjNNALIS
Clavns.
Nail, is alfo a meafure of length, containing the
16th part of a yard.
4, F 2
Nievus
II
Nail.
Nailing
Nailing of
Cannon
„ Ij
Nairn.
N A I [ 595 ]
NAILING of Cannon. When clrcumftances make it rage.
N A I
neceffary to abandon cannon, or when the enemy’s ar
tillery are feized, and it is not however poflible to take
them away, it is proper to nail them up, in order to
render them ufelefs ; which is done by driving a large
nail or iron fpike into the vent of a piece of artillery,
to render it unferviceable. There are various contri¬
vances to force the nail out, as alfo fundry machines
invented for that purpofe, but they have never been
found of general ufe; fo that the belt method is to
drill a new vent.
One Gafper Vimercalus was the firft who invented
the nailing of cannon. He was a native of Bremen,
and made ufe of his invention firtl in nailing up the ar¬
tillery of Sigifmund Malatella.
_ NAIN; Lewis Sebastian de, a French critic and
hiflorian, was the fon of a mafter of the requefts, and
was born at Paris in 1637. At ten years old he w'ent
to fchool at Port Royal, and became one of the beft
writers of that inftitution. Sacy, his intimate friend
and counfellor, prevailed with him in 1676 to receive
the prielthood j which it feems, his great humility
would not before fuffer him to afpire to. This virtue
he feems to have poffefled in the extreme ; fo that
Boffuet, feeing one of his letters to Father Dami, with
whom he had feme little difpute, befought him mer¬
rily “ not to be always upon his knees before his ad-
verfary, but raife himfelf up now and then.” He
was folicited to pulh himfelf forward in the church,
and Buzanval, bilhop of Beauvois, wifhed to have him
for his fucceflbr ; but Nain, regardlefs of dignities,
wifhed for nothing but retirement, fo that he might in¬
dulge in the mortifications of a religious life and the in¬
defatigable cultivation of letters. He died in 1698, aged
61. His principal works are, 1. Memoirs on the ec-
clefiaftical hiftory of the fix firfl ages of the church,
l6vols. qto. 2. The hiltory of the emperors, 6 vols.
4to. 1 hefe works are deduced from original fources,
and compofed with the utmofl fidelity and accuracy.
Nain, or Naim, fituated at the bottom of Mount
Hermon on the north fide, was anciently a city of the
tribe of Iflachar, in the province of Galilee. It was
near the gates of this city that our Saviour reftored
to life the only fon of a widow, and where he infpired
Mary Magdalen to come and mourn for her fins at
his feet. Thefe circumftances alone make this place
wrorthy of notice j for at prefent Nain is only a hamlet
inhabited by Chriflians, Mahometans, and Hebrew’s,
where there is not a fingle monument to attract the cu-
riofity of the traveller.
NAIRES, Nahers, or Nayers, in modern hiftory,
a name which is given by the Malabarians to the mili¬
tary of their country, who form a very numerous clafs
or tribe, out of which the fovereigns of Malabar choofe
their body guard.
NAIRN, a county of Scotland, comprehending the
wefiern part of the province of Murray. It is bounded
on the north by the Murray frith, on the weft and
fouth by Invernefs, and on the eaft by Elgin. The
length is about 18 miles, and the breadth about 14.
The air is temperate and falubrious, and the winter
are remarkably mild. The face of the country is rough
and mountainous ; yet there are fome fruitful valleys
which produce good crops of oats and barley ; but in
general the country is much better adapted for paftu-
Here are alfo large woods of fir, and other
trees, that afford ftielter to the game, of which there is
great plenty. The moft remarkable flraths or valleys,
in this county, are Strathnairn, on the river of that
name, in the fouth-weft part of the (hire ; and on the
fouth-eaft fide, Strathrin, on both fides of Findhorn
river. ^ Nairn is well watered with ftreams, rivulets,
and lakes abounding with filh. In the fouthern part
there is a fmall lake, called Moy. T he greater part
of the {hire is peopled by the Frafers, a warlike High¬
land clan, whofe chief, the lord Lovat, loft his life
on the fcaffold for having been concerned in the rebel¬
lion of 1745. Here are a great number of villages j
but no towns of note except Nairn, fuppofed to be the
Tucefis of Ptolemy, fituated at the mouth of the river
which bears the lame name ; a royal borough, which
gave the title of lord to an ancient family, forfeited in
the rebellion of I7I5* The harbour, which opened in
the Murray frith, is now choked up with fand} and
the commerce of the town is too inconfiderable to de-
lerve notice. About four miles from Nairn Hands the
caftle of Calder on the river of that name, belonging
to a branch of the family of Campbell; and fix miles
to the north-weft of Nairn, Hands Fort George, built
by order of the government, at a place called Arderfer,
a fmall ifthmus upon the Murray frith.
1 he following is the population of the parilhes of
this county, according to the Statiftical Hiftory of Scot¬
land.
Parijbes*
Ardclach
Auldearn
Calder
Nairn
Population in
*255-
'1163
I951
882
1698
J694
Population in
1750—I7$S.
Il86
1406
1062
2400
Increafe
Population in 1801, including part of fome other
Parifhes.
Ardclach
Auldearn
Calder
Croy (Nairn divifion)
Moy do.
Nairn
Urquhart (do.)
NAISSANT, in Heraldry, is applied to any animal
iffuing out of the midft of fome ordinary, and fhowing
only his head, (boulders, fore feet, and legs, with the
tip of his tail ; the reft of his body being hid in the
Afield, or fome charge upon it : in which it differs from
ijfuant, which denotes a living creature arifing out of
the bottom of any ordinary or charge.
NAISSUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Dar-
dania, a diftrift of Moefia Superior, faid to be the
birthplace of Confiantine the Great, which feems pro¬
bable from his often redding at that place. Naifitam,
the
Nairn-.
II
N aifius.
NAM
aiflus the people (Coin). Now called Niffct, a city of Ser-
11 via. E. Long. 23. N. Lat. 43.
( NAKED SEEDS, in Botany, thofe that are not en-
clofcd in any pod or cafe.
NAKIB, in the oriental dignities, the name of an
officer who is a deputy to the cadilifkier, or, as he may
be called, the lord high chancellor of Egypt, appoint¬
ed by the grand fignior. His office is to carry the
Itandard of Mahomet.
NAKOUS, an Egyptian mufical inftrument, made
like two plates of brafs, and of all fizes, from two inches
to a foot in diameter j they hold them by firings fatt¬
ened to their middles, and itrike them together fo as to
beat time. They are ufed in the Coptic churches and
in the Mahometan proceffions.
NAM A, a genus of plants belonging to the pent-
andria clafs, and order digynia ; and, in the natural
method, ranking under the 13th order, Succulents.
See Botany Index.
NAME, denotes a word whereby men have agreed
to exprefs fome idea; or which ferves to denote or fig-
nify a thing or fubje£t fpoken of. See Word.
This the grammarians ufually call a noun, nomen,
though their noun is not of quite fo much extent as our
name. See Noun.
Seneca, lib. ii. de Bencficiis, obferves, that there are
a great number of things which have no name ; and
which, therefore, rve are forced to call by other bor¬
rowed names. Ingens ejl (fays he) rerum copiaJine no¬
mine, quas cum propriis appellationibus Jignare non pof-
fumus, alienis accommodatis utimur: which may ffiow
why, in the courfe of this didlionary, we frequently give
divers fenfes to the fame word.
Names are diftinguiffied into proper and appellative.
Proper NAMES, are thofe which reprefent fome indi¬
vidual thing or perfon, fo as to diilinguiffi it from all
other things of the fame fpecies ) as, Socrates, which
reprefents a certain philofopher.
Appellative or General NAMES, are thofe which fig-
nify common ideas ; or which are common to feveral
individuals of the fame fpecies j as, horfe, animal, man,
oak, &c.
Proper names are either called Chrijlian, as being
given at baptifm ; or furnames : The firfl impofed for
diftinftion of perfons, anfwering to the Roman prsno-
men ; the fecond, for the diftin6tion of families, an¬
fwering to the nomen of the Romans, and the patrony-
micum of the Greeks.
Originally every perfon had but one name ; as among
the Jews, Adam, &.e. among the Egyptians, Bujiris ;
among the Chaldees, Ninus; the Medes, AJlyages;
the Greeks, Diomedes; the Romans, Romulus; the
Gauls, Divitiacus ; the Germans, Ariovijlus ; the Bri¬
tons, Cajfibelan ; the Engliffi, Hengift, &c. And thus
of other nations, except the favages of Mount Atlas,
whom Pliny and Marcellinus reprefent as anonymi,
“ namelefs.”
The Jews gave the name at the circumcilion, viz.
eight days after the birth : the Romans, to females the
fame day, to males the ninth ; at which time they held
a feaft, called nominalia.
Since Chriilianity has obtained, molt nations have
followed the Jews, baptizing and giving the name on
the eighth day after the birth ) except our Engliffi an-
N A M
ceftors, who, till of late, baptized and gave the name
on the birth day.
The fir ft impofition of names was founded on differ¬
ent views, among different people j the moft common
was to mark the good withes of the parents, or to en¬
title the children to the good fortune a happy name
feemed to promife. Hence, Viftor, Cajlor, Faujlus,
Statorius, Probus, &c.
Accordingly, we find fuch names, by Cicero called
bona nomina, and by Tacitus faujla nomma, were
firft enrolled and ranged in the Roman mufters 5 firft
called to ferve at the facrifices, in the foundation of
colonies, &c.—And, on the contrary, Livy calls Atrius
Umber, abominandi omnis nomen : and Plautus, on oc-
cafion of a perfon named Lyco, i. e. “ greedy wolf,”
fays j
Vofmet nunc facile cotijeBuram cceterum
Quid id fit hominis, cui Lyco nomen fet.
Hence, Plato recommends it to men to be careful in
giving happy names ; and the Pythagoreans taught ex-
prefsly, that the minds, actions, and fucceffes of men,
were according to their names, genius, and fate. Thus
Panormitan, ex bono nomine oritur bona preefumptio ;
and the common proverb, Bonum nomen bonum omen ;
and hence the foundation of the onomomantia. See
Onomomantia.
It is an obfervation deferving attention, fays the
abbe Barthelemi, that the greater part of names found
in Homer are marks of diftineftion. They were given
in honour of the qualities moft efteemed in the heroic
ages. From the rvord polemos, which fignifies Avar,
have been formed Tlepolcmus and Archepolemus, the
names of two heroes mentioned in the Iliad. The for¬
mer name fignifies able to fupport, and the latter, able
to direB, the labours of war. By adding to the word
mache, or battle, certain prepofitions and different parts
of fpeech, which modify the fenfe in a manner always
honourable, are compofed the names Amphimachus,
Aniimachus, Promachus, Telemachus. Proceeding in
the fame way, with the word honorea, “ ftrength or
intrepidity,” they formed the names Agapenor, “ he
who efteems valour*,” Agenor, “ he who directs it.”
From thoes, “ fvvift,” are derived, Alcathoes, Panthoes,
Perithoes, &c. From nous, “ mind or intelligence,”
come Afynoes, Arfnoes, Autenoes, &c. From medes,
“ counfel,” Agamedes, Eumedes, Lycomedes, Thrafy-
medes; and from clios, “ glory,” Amphic/es, Agacles,
Iphicles, Patroclus, Cleobulus, with many others.
Hence Camden takes it for granted, that the names,
in all nations and languages, are fignificative, and not
fimple founds for mere diftindlion’s fake. This holds
not only among the Jcavs, Greeks, Latins, &c. but even
the Turks } among whom, Abdala fignifies God's fer-
vant, Soliman, peaceable; Mahomet, glorified, See.
And the favages of Hifpaniola, and throughout Ame¬
rica, who, in their languages, name their children,
Glfiering Light, Sun, Bright, Fine Gold, &c. 5 and
they of Congo, by the names of precious ftones, fiow-
ers, &c.
To fuppofe names given without any meaning,
however by the alteration of language their fignifica-
tion may be loft, that learned author thinks is to re¬
proach our anceftors j and that contrary to the fenfe
of
1 597 ]
Names.
 u
N ames.
NAM [ 5
of all ancient writers. Porphyry notes, that the bar¬
barous names, as he calls them, were very emphatieal,
and very concife: and accordingly it was eileemed a
duty to be <pi£atvfioi} or fui nominis homines: as Seve-
rus, Probus, and Aurelius, are called Jul notnmis i?npe-
ratores.
It was the ufual way of giving names, to with the
children might difcharge their names. Thus when
Gunthram king of France named Clotharius at the
font, he faid, Crefcat puert et hujus Jit nominis execu¬
tor.
The ancient Britons, Camden fays, generally took
their names from colours, becaufe they painted them-
felves j which names are now loft, or remain hid among
the Welth. When they were fubdued by the Romans,
they took Roman names, fome of which ftill remain
corrupted j though the greateft part became extinct
upon the admiflion of the Englitli Saxons, who intro¬
duced the German names, as Cridda, Penda, Ofwald,
Edward, &.c.— l he Danes, too, brought with them
their names j as Suaync, Harold, Kjiute, &c. The
Normans, at the Conqueft, brought in other German
names, as originally ufing the German tongue; fuch
as Robert, William, Richard, Henry, Hugh, &c. after
the fame manner as the Greek names Afpafius, Boe¬
thius, Symmachus, &c. were introduced into Italy upon
the divifion of the empire. After the Conqueft, our
nation, which had ever been averfe to foreign names,
as deeming them unlucky, began to take Hebrew
names: as Matthew, David, Sampfon, See. The va¬
rious names anciently or at prefent obtaining among us,
from what language or people foever borrowed, are ex¬
plained by Camden in his Remains. As to the period
■when names began to be multiplied, and furnames in¬
troduced, &.c. fee Surname.
Of late years it has obtained among us to give fur-
names for Chriftian names ; which fome diflike, on
account of the confufton it may introduce. Camden
relates it as an opinion, that the practice firft began in
the reign of Edward \ I. by luch as would be godfathers,
when they were more than half fathers. Upon which
fome were perfuaded to change their names at confir¬
mation j which, it feems, is ufual in other countries.
—Thus, two fons of Henry II. of France, chriftened
Alexander and Hercules, changed them at confirmation
into Henry and Francis. In monafteries, the religious
aflume new names at their admittance, to (how they are
about to lead a new life, and have renounced the world,
their family, and even their name: v. g. filler Mary of
the Incarnation, brother Henry of the Holy Sacrament,
&c. The popes alio changed their names at their
exaltation to the pontificate ; a cuftom firft introduced
by Pope Sergius, whofe name till then, as Platina
informs us, was Swine's-fnout. But Onuphrius refers
it to John XII. or XIII. and at the fame time adds a
different reafon for it from that of Platina, viz. that it
was done in imitation of St Peter and St Paul, who
were firft called Simon and Saul.
Among the ancients, thofe deified by the Heathen
confecrations had new names given them; as Romulus
was called Quirinus; Melicertes, Portunus or Portum-
nus, &.c.
New names were alfo given in adoptions, and fome-
times by teftament ? thus L. iEmilius, adopted by
Scipio, took the name of Scipio Africanus; and thus
4
98 ] NAM
Auguftus, who was at firft called C. OBavius Thurinus
being adopted by the teftament of Julius Csefar into his
name and family, took the name of Cuius Julius Ccefar
Ociavianus. J
Names were alfo changed at enfranchifements into
new cities. Thus Lucumo, at his firft being made free
oi Rome, took the name Lucius Tarquinius Prifcus,
&c.; and Haves when made free, ufually affumed their
mailers names. I hole called to the equeftrian order,
if they had bale names, were always new named, nomine
mgenuorum veterumque Romanorum. And among the
primitive Chriftians, it was the praclice to change the
names of the catechumens : 1 bus the renegado Eucianus
till his baptifm, was called Lucius.
1 owards the middle of the 15th century, it was the
fancy of the wits and learned men of the age, particularly
in Italy, to change their baptifmal names for claffical
ones. As Sannazarius, for inftance, who altered his
own plain name Jacopo to Adi ins Syncerus. Numbers
did the fame, and among the reft Platina the hiftorian
at Rome, who, not without a lolemn ceremonial, took
the name of Callimachus inftead of Philip. Pope Paul
II. who reigned about that time, unluckily chanced to
be fufpicious, illiterate, and heavy of comprehenfion.
He had no idea that perfons could wilh to alter their
names unlefs they had fome bad defign, and a&ually
ferupled not to employ imprifonment and other violent
methods to difeover the fancied myftery. Platina was
moft cruelly tortured on this frivolous account : he had
nothing to confefs : fo the pope, after endeavouring in
vain to convi& him of herefy, fedition, &c. releafed him
after a long imprifonment.
NAMPTWICH, or Nantwich, a town of Cln?-
fhire in England, fituated on the river Weever, iq.
miles S. E. from Chefter, and 162 miles from London.
It lies in the Vale Royal, and is one of the largeft and
bell built towns in the county, the ftreets being very
regular, and adorned with many gentlemen’s houfes,
I he inhabitants amounting in 1801 to 3463, trade in
corn, cattle, cheefe, fine white fait, and flioes. It is
governed by a conftable, &c. who are guardians of the
fait fprings. It is divided into two equal parts by the
Weever, which is navigable to Winsford bridge. The
Chefter canal, terminates in a large bafon near this place.
In this town were feveral religious foundations, now no
more. The church is a handfome pile of building in
the form of a crofs, with an o<5tangular tower in the
middle.
NAMUR, a province of the Netherlands, lying be¬
tween the rivers Sambre and Maefe $ bounded on the
north by Brabant, on the eaft and fouth by the bilhopric
of Liege, and on the weft by Hainault. It is pretty
fertile ; has feveral forefts, marble quarries, and mines
of iron, lead, and pit coal; and is about 30 miles long
and 20 broad. Namur is the capital town.
Namur, a large, rich, and very ftrong town of the
Netherlands, capital of the county of Namur, with a
ftrong caftle, fevcral forts, and a bilhop’s fee. The
moft confiderable forts are, Fort William, Fort Maefe,
Fort Coquelet, and Fort Efpinor, The caftle is built
in the middle of the town, on a craggy rock. It was
befieged by King William in 1695, to°k it in the
fight of an army of 100,000 French, though there were
16,000 men in the garrifon. It was ceded to the houfe
of Auft'ria in 1713, but taken by the French in 1746 \
and
feimur
Is i-king
NAN
and reftored by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.
again taken by the French in 1792, who evacuated it
, the following year, and retook it in 1794. It is fi-
tuated between two mountains at the continence of the
rivers Maefe and Sambre, in E. Long. 4. 57. N. Lat.
5°’ 25-
NAN-TCHANG-FOU, the capital of Kiang-fi, a pro¬
vince of China. This city has no trade but that of
porcelain, which is made in the neighbourhood of Jao-
tcheou. It is the relidence of a viceroy, and compre¬
hends in its diilrift eight cities 5 feven of which are of
the third clafs, and only one of the fecond. So much
of the country is cultivated, that the paftures left are
fcarcely fufficiently for the flocks.
NANCI, a town of France, in the department of
Meurthe, fituated on the river Meufe, in the centre of
the province. It is divided into the Old and New
i owns. 1 he firft, though irregularly built, is very
populous, and contains the ducal palace : the ftreets of
the New 1 own are as ftraight as a line, adorned with
handlome buildings, and a very fine fquare. The pri-
matial church is a magnificent ilrufture, and in that of
the Cordeliers are the tombs of the ancient, dukes.
The two towns are feparated by a canal ; and the new
tuwn was very well fortified, but the king of France
demolifhed the fortifications. It has been taken and
retaken feveral times; particularly by the French, to
whom it was ceded in 1736, to enjoy it after the death
of Staniflaus. E. Long. 6. 17. N. Lat. 48. 41.
NANCOWRY, or Sowry, one of the Nicobar
iHands, lying at the entrance of the bay of Bengal. See
Nicobar.
NANI, John Baptist, was born in 1616. His
father was procurator of St Mark, and ambaflador from
Venice to Rome. He was educated with attention,
and made confiderable impnrvement. Urban VIII. a
t 599 ] NAN
It was of the moll beautiful and flourifhing cities in the Nan-king.
world. When the Chinefe fpeak of its extent, they ' '
fay, if two horfemen fhould go out by the fame gate,
and ride round it on full fpeed, taking different direc¬
tions, they would not meet before night. This account
is evidently exaggerated j but it is certain, that Nan¬
king furpaffes in extent all the other cities of China.
We are affured that its walls are five leagues and a half
in circumference.
1 his city is fituated at the diftance of a league from
the river ang-tfe-kiang : it is of an irregular figure j
the mountains which are within its circumference hav¬
ing prevented its being built on a regular plan. It was
formerly the imperial city ; for this reafon it was called
Nan-King, which fignifies, the Southern Courtbut
fince the fix grand tribunals have been transferred
from hence to Peking, it is called Kiang-ning in all the
public a<Rs.
Nan-king has loft much of its ancient fplendour: it
had formerly a magnificent palace, no veftige of which
is now to be feen •, an obfervatory at prefent negle&ed,
temples, tombs of the emperors, and other fuperb mo¬
numents, of which nothing remains but the remem¬
brance. A third of the city is deferted, but the reft is
’Well inhabited. Some quarters of it are extremely po¬
pulous and full of bufinefs 5 particularly the manufac-
ture of a fpecies of cotton cloth, of which great quan¬
tities are imported into Europe under the name of Nan-
kin. The ftreets are not fo broad as thofe of Peking j
they are, however, very beautiful, well paved, and
bordered with rich fhops.
In this city refides one of thole great mandarins
called Tfong-gtou, who takes cognizance of all import¬
ant affairs, not only of both the governments of the
province, but alfo of thofe of the province of Kiang-fi.
The Tartars have a numerous garrifon here, command-
juft valuer of merit, foon perceived that of y„„ng 'ihy z
Nam. He was admitted into the collet of * r .1 i. y occuPy
Nani. He was admitted into* the college of fenators in
1641, and was Ihortly after nominated ambaffador in
I ranee, where he fignalized himfelf by his compliant
manners. He procured confiderable fuccours for the
war of Candia agajnft the Turks •, and became, after
his return to Venice, fuperintendant of the war office
and of finances. He was afterwards ambaffador to the
empire : where he rendered thofe fervices to this coun¬
try which, as a zealous and intelligent citizen, he was
well qualified to difeharge. He was again fent into
a quarter of the city, feparated from the reft by a plain
wall. r
1 lie palaces of the mandarins, whether Chinefe or
Tartars, are in this city neither larger nor better built
than thofe in the capital cities of other provinces. Here
are no public edifices correfponding to the reputation
of fo celebrated a city, excepting its gates, which are
very beautiful, and fome temples, among which is the
famous porcelain tower. It is 200 feet high, and di¬
vided into nine ftories by plain boards within, and
Fraucv in ,660 ,0 folicf.fcfl. fuccour? f„r Ca„£; ^houtTy cZic^Z c'lveved wfth
and on his return was appointed procurator of St Msri. an . .. V J r covered with
and on his return was appointed procurator of St Mark*
He died November 5. 1768, at the age of 63, much
regretted by his countrymen. The fenate had appoint¬
ed him to write the Hiftory of the Republic; which he
executed to the fatisfaftion of the Venetians, although
the work was lefs admired by foreigners, who were not
proper judges of the accuracy with which he ftated the
fa<fts, of the purity of his diftion, nor of the fimplicity
of his ftyle ; although it muft be acknowledged that
his narrative is much interrupted by too frequent paren-
thefes; In writing his hiftory of Venice he has given
an univerfal hiftory of his times, efpecially with refpeft
to the affairs of the French in Italy. This hiftory
which is continued from 1613 to 1671, was printed at
Venice m 2 vols 4to, in the years 1662 and 1679.
N AN-IQNC, a city of China, and capital of the pro-
green varniflied tiles. There 'is "an afeent of 40 ftep^
to the firft ft cry ; between each of the others there
are 21.
The breadth and depth of the river Yang-tfe-kiang
formerly rendered the port of Nan-king very commo¬
dious ; but at prefent large barks, or rather Chinefe
junks, never enter it: whether it be that it is ftmt up
by fand banks, or that the entrance of it has been for^
bid, in order that navig-ators may infenfibly lofe all
knowledge of it.
In the months of April and May a great number of
excellent fifti are caught in this river near the city
which are fent to court; they are covered with ice
and tranfported in that manner by barks kept entirely
on purpofe. Although this city is more than 200
leagues from^ Peking, thefe boats make fuch expedition,
that thev arriw* in rv-V, f J  fTM • • .
Vince of Kiang-nan, is aid to have bee*n W* C *3^
though
NAP [ 600 ] NAP
Nan-king though the capital of the province, has under its par-
II. ticular jurifdifiion only eight cities of the third clafs.
> _ ■ The number of its inhabitants is faid to be 1,000,000.
without comprehending the garrifon of 40,000 men.
E. Long. 119. 25. N. Lat. 32. 46.
NANS 10, an ifland of the Archipelago, a little to
the north of the ifland of Santorino, 16 miles in cir¬
cumference j but has no harbour. The mountains are
nothing but bare rocks, and there are not fprings fuffi-
cient to water the fields. There is a vaft number of
partridges, whofe eggs they deftroy every year to pre-
ferve the corn, and yet vaft numbers of them are always
produced. The ruins of the temple of Apollo are yet
to be feen, and confift chiefly of marble columns.
E. Long. 26. 20. N. Lat. 36. 15.
NANTES, an ancient, rich, and very confiderable
town of France, in the department of Lower Loire,
with a bifhop’s fee, an univerfity, and a mint. It is
one of the moft confiderable places in the kingdom j
contains the richeft merchants $ and was formerly the
refidence of the dukes of Bretagne, where they built a
very ftrong caftle on the fide of the river, and which is
ftrongly fortified. There are feveral parifhes, and a
great many religious houfes $ and the cathedral con¬
tains the tombs of the ancient dukes. There are feve¬
ral fine bridges over the river Loire, which is naviga¬
ble. The fuburbs are fo large, on account of the num¬
ber of people that come from all parts to fettle here,
that they exceed the city. The Spaniards trade here
in wine, fine wool, iron, filk, oil, oranges, and le¬
mons ; and they carry back cloth, fluffs, corn, and
bard ware. The Dutch fend fait fifh, and all forts of
fpices ; and in return have wine and brandy. The
Swedes bring copper j and the Englifh, lead, tin,
&c. It was in this place that Henry IV. promul¬
gated the famous edift in 1598, called the EdiEi of
Nantes, and which was revoked in 1685. Nantes was
anciently, like almoft every confiderable city in Eu¬
rope, very ftrongly fortified. Peter de Dreux, one of
the dukes of Bretagne, furrounded it with walls, which
have only been demolifhed within thefe few years. The
bridge is an obje£l of curiofity. It is near a mile and a
half in length, being continued acrofs all the little
iflands in the Loire, from north to fouth. The terri¬
tory of Nantes lies on both fides the Loire, and feeds a
great number of cattle. Large veffels can come no
higher than Port Launai, which is 12 miles from
Nantes. W. Long. 1. 43. N. Lat. 47. 13.
NANTWICH. See Namptwich.
NAP^EA, a genus of plants belonging to the po-
lyadelphia clafs • and in the natural method ranking
under the 37th order, Colu/nniferce. See Botany
Index.
NAPHTHA, an inflammable fubftance of the bi¬
tuminous kind. See Chemistry and Mineralogy.
NAPHTHA LI, or Nephthali (Jofh. xix.-), one
of the tribes of Ifrael j having Zabulon on the fouth,
Afher on the weft, the Jordan on the eaft, and on the
north Antilibanus.
NAPIER, John, baron of Merchifton in Scot¬
land, inventor of the logarithms, was the eldeft fon of
Sir Archibald Napier of Merchifton, and bom in the
year I ijjo. Having given early difcoveries of great
natural parts, his father was careful to have them cul¬
tivated by a liberal education. After going through
the ordinary courfes of philofophy at the univerfity of Napier.
St Andrew’s, he made the tour of France, Italy, and -v—«
Germany. Upon his return to his native country,
his literature and other fine accomplifhments foon ren¬
dered him confpicuous, and might have raifed him to
the higheft offices of the ftate : but declining all civil
employments, and the buftle of the court, he retired
from the world to purfue literary refearches, in which
he made an uncommon progrefs, fo as to have favour¬
ed mankind ivith fundry ufeful difcoveries. He ap¬
plied himfelf chiefly to the ftudy of mathematics ; but
at the fame time did not negleft that of the Holy
Scriptures. In both thefe he hath difcovered the moft
extenfive knowledge and profound penetration. His
effay upon the book of the Apocalypfe, indicates the
moft acute inveftigation, and an uncommon ftrength
of judgment j though time hath difcovered, that his
calculations concerning particular events hath proceeded
upon fallacious data. This work has been printed
abroad in feveral languages j particularly in French at
Rochelle in the year 1593, 8vo, announced in the title,
as revifed by himfelf. Nothing, fays Lord Buchan,
could be more agreeable to the Roehellers or to the
Huguenots of France at this time, than the author’s
annunciation of the pope as antichrift, which in this
book he has endeavoured to fet forth with much zeal
and erudition. But what has principally rendered his
name famous, was his great and fortunate difcovery of
logarithms in trigonometry, by which the eafe and ex¬
pedition in calculation have fo wonderfully affifted the
fcience of aftronomy and the arts of pra&ical geometry
and navigation. That he had begun about the year
1593 the train of inquiry which led him to that great
achievement in arithmetic, appears from a letter to
Crugerus from Kepler in the year 1624 j wherein,
mentioning the Canon Miriftcus, he writes thus *, “ Nihil
autem fupra Neperianam rationem effe puto : etfi Sco-
tus quidem literis ad Tychonem, anno 1564, fcriptis
jam fpem fecit Canonis illius mirifici}” which allu-
fion agrees with the idle ftory mentioned by Wood in
his Athence Oxon. and explains it in a way perfectly
confonant to the rights of Napier as the inventor.
When Napier had communicated to Mr Henry
Briggs, mathematical profeffor in Greftiam college,
his wonderful canon for the logarithms, that learned
profeffor fet himfelf to apply the rules in Iris Imitatio
Nepeirea ; and in a letter to Archbiffiop Uffier in the
year 1615, he writes thus: “ Napier, baron of Mer-
ehifton, hath fet my head and hands at work wdth his
new and admirable logarithms. I hope to fee him
this fummer, if it pleafe God *, for I never faw a book
which pleafed me better, and made me more wonder.”
The following paffage from the life of Lilly the aftro-
loger is quoted by Lord Buchan, as giving a piffu-
refque view of the meeting betwixt Briggs and the in¬
ventor of the logarithms at Merchifton near Edinburgh.
“ I will acquant you (fays Lilly) with one memorable
ftory related unto me by John Marr, an excellent ma¬
thematician and geometrician, whom I conceive you
remember. He was fervant to King James I. and
Charles I. When Merchifton firft publifhed his lo¬
garithms, Mr Briggs, then reader of the aftronomy lec¬
tures at Greffiam college in London, was fo much fur-
prifed with admiration of them, that he could have no
quietnefs in himfelf until he had feen that noble perfon
whofe
NAP t 601 } NAP
rlcf
chan's
•iapier. wliofe only invention they were : he acquaints John
Mart therewith, who went into Scotland before Mr
Briggs, purpofely to be there when thefe two fo learned
perfons fhould meet. Mr Briggs appoints a certain day
when to meet at Edinburgh \ but railing thereof, Mer-
chifton was fearful he would not come. It happened
one day as John Marr and the baron Napier were
fpeaking of Mr Briggs } ‘ Ah, John (faid Merchifton),
Mr Briggs will not come.’ At the very inllant one
knocks at the gate : John Marr hailed doAvn, and it
proved to be Mr Briggs to his great contentment. He
brings Mr Briggs up to the baron’s chamber, where
almoif one quarter of an hour was fpent, each behold¬
ing tire other with admiration before one word was
fpoken. At lall Mr Briggs began ; ‘ Sir, I have un¬
dertaken this long journey purpolely to fee your perfon,
and to know by what engine of wit or ingenuity you
came firft to think of this moll excellent help into ailro-
nomy, viz. the logarithms; but. Sir, being by you
found out, I wonder nobody elfe found it out before,
when now' being known it appears fo eafy.’ He Avas
nobly entertained by Baron Napier ; and every fumrner
after that, during the laird’s being alive, this venerable
man, Mr Briggs, Avent purpofely to Scotland to viiit
him.”
There is a paffage in the life of Tycho Brahe by
f Gaflendi, Avhich may miilead an attentive reader to
JWrlJ fuppofe that Napier’s method had been explored by
and In- Her wart at Hoenburg : It is in Gaffendi’s Obferva-
'.tiom of tions on a Letter from Tycho to Henvart of the laft
ipter of 0f Auguft 1399. “ Hixit Hervartns nihil morari
tcyon.fe fHvendi cujufquam trianguli difficultatem ; folere
fe enim multiplicationum, ac divifionum vice additiones
folum, fubtracliones 93 ufurpare (quod ut fieri poffet,
doeuxt poifmodum fuo logarithmorum Canone Nepe-
rus).” But Herwart here alludes to this Avork afler-
AArards publilhed in the year 1610, which folves tri¬
angles by proftaphoerefis } a mode totally different from
that of the logarithms.
Kepler dedicated his EphetneriJes, to Napier, Avhich
were publifhed in the year 1617 j and it appears from
many paffages in his letter about this time, that he
held Napier to be the greateft man of his age in the
particular department to Avhich he applied his abili¬
ties. “ And indeed (fays our noble biographer), if
we confider that Napier’s difeovery Avas not like thofe
of Kepler or of Newton, conne&ed with any analogies
or coincidences Avhich might have led him to it, but
the fruit of unaflifted reafon and fcience, avc fhall be
vindicated in placing him in one of the highefl niches
in the temple of Fame. Kepler had made many un-
fuccefsful attempts to difeover his canon for the pe¬
riodic motions of the planets, and hit upon it at laft,
as he himfelf candidly oaauas, on the 15th of May 1618;
and NeAVton applied the palpable tendency of heavy
bodies to the earth to the fyftem of the univerfe in ge¬
neral ; but Napier fought out his admirable rules by a
Hoav fcientific progrefs, arifing from the gradual evolu¬
tion of truth.”
The laft literary exertion of this eminent perfon avrs
the publication of his Rabdalogy and Promptuary in the
year 1617, which he dedicated to the Chancellor Se-
ton j and foon after died at Merchifton on the 3d of
April O. S. of the fame year, in the 68th year of his
Vol. XIV. Part II.
age and 23d of his happy invention.—The particular Napet.
titles of his works publilhed are : 1. A plain difeovery
of the Revelation of St John 2. Mirifici ipfius canon is
conJbruEiio et logarithtnorum, ad naturales ipforum nu
?ncros habitudines. 3. Appendix de aha atqueprajlantiorc
logarithmorwn fpt cie confiituendu, vi qua feiheet wiitas
logarithmus cjl. 4. PJmb do lug ice ^ feu numerationis per
virgulas, libri dm. 5. Propojitiones queedam eminentif-
fwue, ad triangula fpheerica tnira facilitate refolvenda.
To which tnay be added, 6. His Letter to Anthony
Bacon (the original of which is in the archbifliop’s li¬
brary at Lambeth), entitled, “ Secret inventions, pro¬
fitable and neceffary in thefe days for the defence of this
ifland, and Avithflandtng ftrangers enemies to God’s
truth and religion which the earl of Buchan has
caufed to be printed in the Appendix to his Account
of Napier’s Writings. This letter is dated June 2. 1596,
about which time it appears the author had fet bimfelt
to explore his logarithmic canon.
This eminent perfon was twice married. By his
firfl wife, who Avas a daughter of Sir James Stirling of
Keir, he had only one fon named Archibald, Avho tuc-
ceeded to the eflate. By his fecond Avife, a daughter
of Sir James Chifholm of Cromlix, he had a numerous
blue.—Archibald Napiery the only fon of the firfl mar¬
riage, Avas a perfon of fine parts and learning. Having
more a turn to public bufinefs than his father had, he
A\ras raifed to be a privy counfellor by James VI. under
whofe reign he alfo held the offices of treafurer-depute,
juilice-clerk, and fenator of the college of juftice. By
Charles I. he Avas raifed to the peerage by the title of
Lord Napier.
Napier's Rods, or Bones, an inflmment iiwented
by Baron Napier, whereby the multiplication and di-
vifion of large numbers is much facilitated.
As to the Corfruclion of Napier's Rods : Suppofe the
common table of multiplication to be made upon a
plate of metal, ivory, or pafleboard, and then con¬
ceive the feveral columns (Handing doAvmvards from
the digits on the head) to be cut afunder j and thefe
are what avc call Napier's rods of multiplication. But
then there muft be a good number of each j for as
many times as any figure is in the multiplicand, fo
many rods of that fpecies (i. e. with that figure on the
top of it) mull we have 5 though fix rods of each fpe¬
cies will be fufficient for any example in common af¬
fairs : there muft be alfo as many rods of o’s.
But before Ave explain the way of ufing thefe rods,
there is another thing to be knoAvn, viz. that the fi¬
gures on every rod are written in an order different
from that in the table. Thus the little fquare fpace
or divifion in Avhich the fe\reral products of every co¬
lumn are written, is divided into two parts by a line
acrofs from the upper angle on the right to the loAver
on the left ; and if the produdf is a digit, it is fet. in
the loAver divifion ; if it has two places, the firfl is fet
in the lower, and the fecond in the upper divifion ; but
the fpaces on the top are not divided j alfo there is a
rod of digits, not divided, Avhich is called the index rod,
and of this we need but one fingle rod. See the figure
of all the different rods, and the index, feparate from
one another, in Plate CCCLX1X. fig. I.
Multiplication by Napier's Rods. Firft lay doAvn the
index rod j then on the right of it fet a rod, whofe
4 G top
Napier.
NAP [ 602
top is the figure in the higheft place of the multipli¬
cand 5 next to this again, let the rod whofe top is the
next figure of the multiplicand ; and fo on in order to
the firft figure. Then is your multiplicand tabulated
for all the nine digits; for in the fame line of fquares
Handing againft every figure of the index rod, you have
the product of that figure ; and therefore you have no
more to do but to transfer the produfts and fum them.
But in taking out thefe produ&s from the rods, the
order in which the figures Hand obliges you to a very
eafy and fmall addition ; thus, begin to take out the
figure in the lower part, or units place, of the fquare
of the firft rod on the right j add the figure on the up¬
per part of this rod to that in the lower part of the
next, and fo on } which may be done as faft as you
can look on them. To make this practice as clear as
pofiible, take the following example.
Example : To multiply 4768 by 585. Having fet
the rods together for the number 4768 (fig. 2.) againft
5 in the index, I find this number by adding accord¬
ing to the rule, . .
Againft 8, this number - - 38144
Againft 3, this number - . 14304
Total product - . . 1835680
To make the ufe of the rods yet more regular and eafy,
they are kept in a flat fquare box, whofe breadth is
that^ of ten rods, and the length that of one rod, as
thick as to hold fix (or as many as you pleafe), the ca¬
pacity of the box being divided into ten cells, for the
different fpecies of rods. When the rods are put up in
the box (each fpccies in its own cell diftinguilhed
by the firft figure of the rod fet before it on the face of
the box near the top), as much of every rod Hands
without the box as {hows the firft figure of that rod :
alio, upon one of the flat fides without and near the
edge, upon the left hand, the index rod is fixed ; and
along the. foot there is a fmall ledge j fo that the rods
v hen applied are laid upon this fide, and fupported by
the ledge, which makes the praftice very eafy ; but in
cafe the multiplicand fhould have more than nine places,
that upper face of the box may be made broader. Some
make the rods with four different faces, and figures on
each for different purpofes.
. pivijion by Napier's Rods. Firft tabulate your di-
vifor-, then you have it multiplied by all the digits, out
of which you may choofe fuch convenient divifors as
will be next lefs to the figures in the dividend, and
write the index anfwering in the quotient, and fo con¬
tinually till the work is done. Thus 21 79788, divided
by 61 23, gives in the quotient 3 56.
Having tabulated the divifor 6123, you fe& that
6123 cannot be had in 21795 therefore take five
places, and on the rods find a number that is equal or
next to 21797, which is 18369 j that is, 3 times
the divifor 5 wherefore fet 3 in the quotient, and fub-
traft 18369 from the figures above, and there will re¬
main 3428 5 to which add 8, the next figure of the di¬
vidend, and feek again on the rods for it, or the next
lefs, which you will find to be five times 5 therefore fet
5 in the quotient, and fubtraft 3061 ? from 34288, and
there will remain 3673 ; to which add 8, the laft figure
in the dividend, and finding it to be juft fix times the
divifor, fet fix in the quotient.
NAP
6123)2179788(356
18369..
34288
30615
Napier,
Naples.
36738
NAPLES,.a kingdom of Italy, comprehending the
ancient countries of Samnium, Campania, Apulia^ and
Magna Graecia. It is bounded on all fides by the Me¬
diterranean and Adriatic, except on the north eaft,
where it terminates on the Ecclefiaftical ft ate. Its
greateft length from fouth-eaft to north-weft is about
280 Englifh miles 5 and its breadth from north-eaft to
fouth-weft, from 96 to 120.
The ancient hiftory of this country falls under the
articles Rome and Italy 5 the prefent ftate of it, as
well as of the reft of Italy, is owing to the conquefts
of Charlemagne. When that monarch put an end
to the. kingdom of the Lombards, he obliged the dukes
of Friuli, Spoletto, and Benevento, to acknowledge
him as king of Italy 5 but allowed them to exercifethe
fame power and authority which they had enjoyed be¬
fore his conquft. Of thefe three dukedoms Benevento
was by far the moft powerful and extenfive, as it com- Extent of
prehended almoft all the prefent kingdom of Naples 5 the duchy
that part of Farther Calabria beyond the rivers Savuto of Beneven*
and Peto, a few maritime cities in Hither Calabria,t0'
with the city of Acripoli, and the promontory in its
neighbourhood called Capo di Licofa : and laftly, the
dukedoms of Gaeta, Naples, and Amalfi, which were
very inconfiderable, and extended along the fhore only
about 100 miles, and tvere interrupted by the Gaftal-
date or county of Capua.
This flourifhing and extenfive dukedom was at this Arechis
time governed by Arechis, who had married one of duke of Be-
the daughters of the laft king of the Lombards, and nevento re-
had fubmitted, and taken the oath of allegiance to the '
emperor Charles. However, a few years after, hemagne"
renounced his allegiance to the Franks, declared him-
felf an independent fovereign, and was acknowledged
as fuch by all the inhabitants of his duchy. To
ftrengthen himfelf againft Pepin king of Italy, who
refided at Ravenna, he enlarged and fortified the
city of Benevento, and likewife built Salerno on
the fea coaft, furrounding it with a very ftrong and
high wall. He engaged in feveral wars with the
Greeks, whom he fometimes obliged to give him
hoftages 5 but having invaded the territories of the
pope, whom Pepin could not afiift, Charlemagne was
prevailed on to return to Italy. Arechis, unable to
oppofe fuch a formidable enemy, fent his eldeft fon,
Romuald, to Rome, with an offer of fubmiffion: but,
at the inftigation of the pope, Charles refufed the
offer, and detained his fon prifoner 5 after which he ra¬
vaged the country, and made himfelf mafter of Capua.
Other deputies, however, proved more fuccefsful 5 and,
in the year 787, a peace was concluded on thefe con¬
ditions : That Arechis and the Beneventans fhould re¬
new their allegiance to the Franks 5 that he fhould pay a
yearly tribute to Pepin; deliver up all his treafurej and
give
NAP [ 603 ] NAP
Naples. gjve Id’s fon Grimoald and his daughter Adelgifa, with
' twelve others, as hoilages for his fidelity : however, after
c jnPts many entreaties, Adelgifa was reftoted to her father.
4 Charles had no fooner left Italy, than Arechis for-
] volts a got all his engagements, and began to negotiate with
i )nd Irene, emprefs of Conftantinople, and her fon Con-
flantine, for expelling the Franks out of Italy. For
himfelf, he defired the honour of patriciate, and the
dukedom of Naples with all its dependencies} and,
in return, promifed to acknowledge the Greek empe¬
ror as his fovereign, and to live after the manner of
the Greeks. He required, however, to be fupported
by a Greek army •, and that his brother-in-law Adal-
gifus, fon to Defiderius the laft king of the Lombards,
Ihouid be fent over into Italy, to raife a party among
his countrymen. Thefe conditions were readily ac¬
cepted, on condition that Piince Romuald fhould be
fent as an holt age; ambafladors were fent to Naples
with the enfigns of the Patrician order, namely the
mantle of cloth of gold, the fword, the comb, and the
fandals : but before the ceremony could be performed,
Prince Romuald died, and foon after him his father ;
whofe death was fuppofed to have been haftened by
that of his fon.
After the death of Arechis, the Beneventans fent
a moil fubmiffive embalfy to Charlemagne, entreating
him to fend them Grimoald, the late king’s fon, and
only lawful heir to his crown ; threatening at the fame
time to revolt if their prince wras denied them. Charles
readily granted their requeft, and allowed Grimoald
to depart, after he had agreed to the following con¬
ditions, viz; That he fhould oblige the Lombards to
fhave their beards ; that, in writings, and on money,
the name of the king fhould be put before that of the
prince; and that he fhould caufe the walls of Salerno,
5 Acerenza, and Confia, to be entirely demolifhed.—
C moald The new king was received by his fubjefls with the
c tinues utmoft joy : and for fome time continued faithful to
t efofth engagements> excepting only the laft article, which
f to the ke either negle&ed or eluded. So far, however, was
I nks. he from affifting the Greeks, that he gave notice of
their machinations to Pepin king of Italy ; raifed an
army to oppofe his uncle Adalgifus ; and being join¬
ed by Hildebrand duke of Spoletto, and Vinigife the
general of Pepin, he attacked the Greeks in Calabria
foon after they had landed, entirely defeated and took
his uncle prifoner, and, as is faid, put him to a cruel
death. Yet in a fhort time Grimoald con trailed an
alliance Avith the Greek emperor by marrying his
neice Wanzia; and in the fifth year of his reign a Avar
broke out betAveen him and Pepin, which continued
for twelve years ; at the end of which time a truce Avas
concluded. Grimoald furvived this pacification only
three years, and was fucceeded by his treafurer Gri-
moald II. Avho fubmitted to Charlemagne after the
death of Pepin ; and from this time the Beneventans
Were looked upon as tributaries of the weftern emperors.
As yet, however, the city of Naples did not oAvn alle¬
giance to the dukes of Benevento, but Avas held by the
eaftern emperors; and frequent wars took place be¬
tween the Beneventans and Neapolitans. This hap¬
pened to be the cafe when Grimoald II. afeended the
throne. He concluded a peace Avith them ; Avhich,
hoAvever, Avas of no long continuance ; for Theodore,
governor of Naples, having granted proteftions to
Dauferius a noble Beneventan, who had been concerned Naples.
in a confpiracy againtt his prince, Grimoald marched ^ v~“ ■'
againlt the city ot Naples, and inveited it by fea and
land. Theodore ftill refilled to deliver up the traitor,
and a general engagement both by land and lea was
the confequence; in Avhich the Neapolitans were
defeated with fo great flaughter, ihat the iea was ftamed
Avith their blood for more than leven days. i heodore
then confented to deliver up L/auterius, with 8000
crowns for the expence of the war; and Grimoald not
only pardoned Dauferius, but received him into favour:
The traitor, however, refledling on the heinoufnefs
ot his crime, Avas feized Avith remorle ; and went a
pilgrimage to the holy land, carrying a large ftone in
his mouth, by Avay of penance, which he never took out
but at his meals.
In the year 821, Grimoald Avas murdered by Ra-is murder,
delchis count of Confia, and Sico Galtald of Acerenza, ed, and fuc-
the latter of whom fucceeded to the dukedom oTee^eciby
Benevento. Radclchis being foon after feized with i,lC°'
remorfe, became a monk ; while Sico affociated his
fon Sicardo Avith him in the government ; and both,
being of an ambitious and reitlefs difpolition, fought 7
a pretence for attacking the Neapolitans. This Was ^aP'es
foon found, and the city Avas invefted by fea and land. by
The Avails were furioully battered ; and part of them ^ ’
being beat down, Sico prepared for a general aftault.
Stephen, at that time duke of Naples, pretended to
fubmit; but, that he might prevent the city from be¬
ing pillaged, entreated Sico to put off his entry till
the morning, and in the mean time fent out his mo¬
ther and his two children as hoftages. Sico confented
to his requeft ; but next morning found the breach
built up, and the Neapolitans prepared for their de¬
fence. Exafperated at their perfidy, he reneAved his
attacks Avith vigour, but without any fuccefs ; the be-
fieged defending themfelves with the utmoft obftinacy.
At laft, perceiving that they fhould not be able to
hold out much longer, they confented to a peace on
the following conditions, viz. That the Neapolitans
Ihouid pay an annual tribute to the princes of Bene¬
vento, and confent to the tranfporting of the body of
St Januarius from his church without the Avails of
Naples to Benevento. Thefe conditions being ratified,
Sico returned with great honour to Benevento; but
foon after reneAved the war, under pretence that the
Neapolitans had neglefted to pay the ftipulated fum ;
and hoftilities continued till his death, which happened
in 8.33’ . §
Sico Avas fucceeded in the government of Benevento and by his
by his fon Sicardo, Avho had married the daughter 0f flu'Ct‘ftor
Dauferius ; and being influenced by the evil counfelsSlcaido*
of Roffrid’s his wife’s brother, oppreffed his fubje&s to
fuch a degree that they confpired againft his life. He
befieged Naples with a powerful army, and took pof-
feflion of Acerra and Atella, boRi of which he forti¬
fied. But Bonus, the Neapolitan duke, defended
himfelf fo vigoroufly, that the Beneventans Avere obliged
to retire, and ev'en to abandon Acerra and Atella, the
fortifications of which Avere immediately dimoliflied.
At laft Sicardo agreed to a peace for five years, on
the interceflion of Lothaire, emperor and king of Italy ;
but his chief motive Avas thought to have been the fear
of the Saracens, whom the duke of Naples had ca'led
over from Africa to his aftiftance ; for no fooner were
4 ^ 2 . they
NAP [ 604 ] NAP
duke of
Naples,
' Naples, they fent back than Sicardo attempted to delay the
^ conclufion of the treaty) but the emperor interpofing
The Sara- authority, a peace was concluded in the year 836,
cens called after the war had continued, with very little intermif-
in by the lion, for 16 years.
Soon after the conclufion of this peace, the Saracens
landed at Brindili 5 and having made themfelves tnafters
ol the place, ravaged all the neighbouring country.
Stcardo marched againft them with a numerous armv $
but the Saracens having dug a great number of ditches
which they (lightly covered over, found means to draw
the Beneventans in among them, whereby they were
repulfed with great lofs. However, Sicardo, having
reinforced his army, marched again to attack them ;
but the Saracens, defpairing of fuccefs, pillaged and
burnt Brindili, and then retired with their booty, and
a great many captives to Sicily. Sicardo, then, with¬
out any apparent provocation, attacked the city of
Amalfi, levelled its Avails with the ground, carried off
all its wealth, and the body of its tutelar faint Tri-
phomen. A great many of the inhabitants were
traofported to Salerno ; and by promoting alliances
between the inhabitants of both places, he endeavoured
to unite Amalfi to his own principality as firmly as
potTible.
10
Sicardo
murdered
by Uadel-
chis, which
brings on
a civil war.
11
The prin¬
cipality di¬
vided.
During all thefe tranfaftions, Sicardo had tvran-
nized over his fubjefts in fuch a manner, that at laft he
became intolerable. Among other acts of injuftice,
he imprifoned his own brother Siconnlphus ; com¬
pelled him to turn pried ; and afterwards fent him
bound to Tarento, where he caufed him to be (hut up
in an old tower that had been built for a cittern. By
fuch arts of tyranny his nobles were provoked to con-
fpire againft him •, and in the year 839 he ivas mur¬
dered in his tent.
On the death of Sicardo, Radelchis, his fecretary
or treafurer, was unanimoufiy eltrted prince of Bene-
vento ; but Siconolphus, the laft king’s brother, hav-
ing regained his liberty, formed a great narty againft
the new prince. Radekhis did not fail to oppofe
him ivitli a formidable army ; and a mod ruinous civil
war enfued. Both parties by turns called in the Sara¬
cens ; and thefe treacherous allies arted fometimes
againd one, and fometimes againd the other ; or,
turned their arms againd both, as feemed mod fuit-
able to their oAvn intered. Thus the Avar continued
with the utmod animofity for 1 2 years, during Avhich
time the principality Avas almod entirely ruined ; till
at lad the emperor LeAvis interpofed, and obliged the
competitors to agree to a partition of the principality.
By this treaty, Radelchis promifed to acknoAvledge
Siconolphus and his fucceffors as laAvful princes of the
principality of Salerno, which A\as declared to contain
Tarento, Latiano, Caflano, Coffenzo, Laino, Luca-
dia, Confia, Montella, Rota, Salerno, Sarno, Cirate-
rium, Furculo, Capua, Feano, Sora, and the half of
the Gadaldate of Acerenza, Avhere it ioins Latiano
and Confia. The boundary betAvixt Benevento and
Capua was fixed at St Angelo ad Cerros ; Alii Pere-
rrini Avas made the boundary betAvixt Benevento and
Salerno, and Stadilo betwixt Benevento and Confia.
The monaderies of Monte Caflinfr and St Vincent
were declared to be immediately under the protertion
of the emperor : both princes dipulated that no hodi-
iities fhculd be eQmmittcd by either againd the fub-
jerts of each other ; and promifed to join their forces Naples,
in order to drive out the Saracens. Soon after this V-—
pacification, however, both Radelchis and Siconolphus
died , the former appointing his fon Radelgarius,
or Radelcar, to fucceed him j and the latter leaving
an imant fon, Sico, to the care of his godfather,
Peter.
12
The Avar with the Saracens proved very unfuccefs-Unfuccefs
ful : neither the united efforts of the princes, nor the kl Avar
aflidance of the emperor Lewis himfelf, being able to'VIthlhe
expel the infidels j and 111854, Adelgife the fecondSaiaCens‘
Ion of Radelchis, avHo had now fucceeded, on the
death of his brother Radelcar, to the principality of
Benevento, AAras obliged to pay them an annual fub-
fidy. Two years after, Lando, count of Capua, re¬
volted from the prince of Salerno, and could not be
reduced. In the mean time, Sico, the lawful prince
of Salerno, had been poifoned by Count Lando, and
the principality ufurped by Ademarius, the fun of
Peter above mentioned •, but in 861, Ademarius himfelf
Avas feized and imprifoned by Gauferius, the fon of
Dauferius formerly mentioned. This Avas oceafioned
by Iris cruelty and rapacioulnefs, which entirely alie¬
nated the hearts of his fuhjerts from him, and encour¬
aged Gauferius to become the head of the confpirators.
'i he Saracens in the mean time committed terrible
ravages throughout the Beneventan territories 5 Avhieh
at lait obliged Adelgife to enter into an alliance Avith
Gauferius, and both together fent a moft humble em-
baily to the emperor Lewis, requeffing him to take
them under his protertion. About the fame time an
embaffy arrived from Conftantinople, propofing a junc¬
tion of the forces of the eaftern and Aveftem empires
again if the infidels •, upon Avhich LeAvis gave orders for
affembling a formidable army. But in the mean time
Adelgife fell off from his alliance, and made peace
Avith the Saracens ; nay, according to fume, he en¬
couraged them in their incurfions, and it Avas at his
defire that they invaded the duchy of Capua, and after-
Avards that of Naples, which they ravaged in a moft
barbarous manner. The Neapolitans, in conjunrtion
Avith the duke of SpHetto and the count of Marli, en¬
deavoured to oppofe them ; but being defeated, the
Saracens continued their ravages with redoubled fury,
and retired to Bari, which Avas their capital city, Avith
an immenie booty.
In 866, Louis arrived at Sora Avith his army : and
having marched to Capua, was there joined by Lan-
dulph, the bifhop and count, with a body of Capiians :
but Landulph form after perfuading his countrymen to
defert, Leuvis marched againft that city, which he took
after a fiege of three months, and almoft totally de-
ftroved. In the end of the year he Avas joined by
Gauferius with bis quota of troops, having ordered the
eyes of Ardemarius to be put out in his abfetice. Lewis-
c«mfirmed him in the principality, and marched with
hL armv to Benevento, Avhere Adelgife received him
with great refpert. Having reduced fome ineonfider-
able places belonging to the Saracens, LeAvis foon after
inverted Bari ^ but as the Saracens received continual
fupplies from their countrymen fettled in Sicily, and’
befides were proterted by the Neapolitans, he could
not reduce the place till the year 871, though he bad
received confid'erable aflitlance from his brother Lotha-
riusj and the Greek emperor had fent Lira a fleet of
200
-
ip’es.
I! r are
pe d,
14
bn foon
in.
NAP
ft ex-
■ I5
li i pope
I jmes
r tribu
[ 60
200 fail. The expulfion of the Saracens was complet¬
ed the fame year by the taking of Tarento j after which
the emperor returned with great glory to Benevento,
refolving next to carry his arms into Sicily, and expel
the infidels from thence alfo. But his future fchemes
of conqueft were fruftrated by a quarrel between him
and Adelgife. The latter, pretending to have been in-
1'ulted by the emprefs, and oppreffed by the French,
feized the emperor himfelf, and kept him prifoner for
40 days. His imprifonment would probably have been
of much longer continuance, had not a body of Sara¬
cens arrived from Africa, who, being joined by fuch of
their countrymen as had concealed themfelves in Italy,
laid liege to Salerno with an army of 30,000 men, ra¬
vaging the neighbouring country at the fame time with
the utmoft barbarity. By this new invafion Adelgife
w as fo much alarmed, that he fet the emperor at liber¬
ty, but firft obliged him to fwear that he would not re¬
venge the infult that had been offered him, and that he
would never return to Benevento. Lewis having then
joined his forces to thofe of the prince of Salerno, foon
obliged the Saracens to raile the fiege of Salerno •,
but though they were prevented from taking that
city, they entirely dettroyed the inhabitants of Cala¬
bria, leaving it, according to the expreflion of one of
the hiftorians of that time, “ as defolate as it was at the
flood.”
In the year 873, Lewis being abfolved from his oath
by the pope, event to Benevento, and was reconciled
to Adelgife ; but foon after this reconciliation he died,
and the Saracens continued their ravages to fuch a de¬
gree that the inhabitants of Bari W'ere conllrained to
deliver up their city to the Greeks. At the fame time
the Salernitans, Neapolitans, Cajetans, and Amalfi-
tans, having made peace with the Saracens, Wnere com¬
pelled to agree to their propofal of invading the terri¬
tories of the Roman pontiff. His holinefs exerted
himfelf to the utmoff, both with fpiritual and tempo¬
ral weapons, in order to defend his right; bnt was at
laft reduced to the neceflity of becoming a tributary
- to the infidels, and promifing to pay them a large fum
annually.
In the mean time, all Italy Was thrown into the
greatcft confufion by the death of Charles the Bald,
who died of poifon at Pavia, as he was coming to the
pope’s afliilance. Sergius dilke of Naplfes continued
a firm friend to the infidels 5 nor could he be detached
from their interefts even by the thunder of a papal ex¬
communication : bat unluckily happening to fall into
the hands of his brother Athanafius bifhop of Naples,
the zeal of that prelate prompted him to put out fils
eyes, and fend him a clofe prifoner to Home; for which
the lligheft encomiums wore beftowed on him by the
holy father.
In 876, Adelgife wras murdered by two of his ne¬
phew’s 5 one of whom, by name Gaidtris, feized the
principality. About the fame time Landulph bifhop
of Capua dying, a civil war enfued among his children,
though their father’s dominions had been divided a-
mong them according to his w ill. The princes of Sa¬
lerno and Benevento, the duke of Spoletto, and Gre¬
gory the Greek governor of Bari and Otranto, took
different tides in the quarrel, Us they thought mofl:
proper 5 and to complete the confufion, the new bifhop
was expelled, and his brother, though, a layman, cho*
2
5 ] NAP
ien to that office, and even confecrated by the pope, -Sfaples.
who wrote to Gauferius, forbidding him to attack Ca-
pua under pain of excommunication. But though Gau¬
ferius was, in general, obedient to the pope’s commands,
he proved refraftory in this particular, and laid liege to
Capua for two years lucceffively.
Thus the Capuan territories were reduced to the
moll miferable fituation } being obliged to maintain at
the fame time the armies of the prince of Benevento
and the duke of Spoletto. The Saracens, in the mean
time, took the opportunity of Itrengthening themfelves
in Italy •, and Athanafius, notwithilanding the great
commendations he had received from the pope for put¬
ting out his brother’s eyes, confented to enter into an
alliance with them, in conjunction with whom he ra¬
vaged the territories of the pope, as well as thofe of Be¬
nevento and Spoletto, plundering all the churches, mo-
nafleries, towns, and villages, through which they puf¬
fed. At the fame time the prince of Salerno w'as obli¬
ged to grant them a fettlement in the neighbourhood
of his capital; the duke of Gaeta invited them to his
affiffance, being oppreffed by the count of Capita •, and
even the pope himfelf was obliged to make peace With
them, and to grant them a fettlement on the north fide
of the Carigliano, where they fortified themfelves, and
continued for more than 40 years.
To put a Hop to the confufion which reigned in
Italy, the pope now thought proper to refiore the bi¬
fhop of Capua, who had been expelled, but allowed his
brother to refide in the city, and govern one half of
the diocefe ; but notwithftanding this partition, the
civil diffenfions continued with the utmoft violence, the
neareft relations murdering or banifhing each other,
according as the fortune of the one or the other pre¬
vailed. Athanaftus, notwithftanding all the pope’s re-
nlonftranees, continued his alliance with the Saracens 5
in conjunfHon with whom he ravaged the territory of
Benevento, and fomented the divilions in Capua, in
hopes of being able to make a conqueft of it. At laft
his holinefs thought proper to iflue a fentence of ex¬
communication againft him : but this attached him to
the Saracens more than ever : infomuch that he fent
to Suchaim, king of the Saracens in Sicily, defiring
him to come over and command a great body of his
countrymen who had fettled at the foot of Mount Ve-
fuvius. Suchaim accepted the invitation, and immedi¬
ately turned his arms againft Athanafius ; allowing his
troops to live at difefetion in the territory of Naples*
where they raviftied the women, arid plundered the in¬
habitants. Thefe calamities were, by the fuperftitious
Neapolitans, imagined tb be a conlequence of the fen¬
tence of excommunication ; and therefore they ufed
their utmoft endeavours to perfiiade the prelate to con¬
clude a league with feme Chriftian prince, and renounce
all connexion with the infidels; In this they at laft
proved fuceefsful, and Atlianafius concluded an alliance
with Guaimarius prince of Salerno * in confequenee of
w hich the Saracens were obliged to quit the Neapoli¬
tan territories, and retire to Agropoli. Athanafius
then directed his force againft Captia, of which he made
himfelf mafter ill the year 882. The Saracens, how¬
ever, ftill continued their incurfions, and ravaged feveral
provinces in fuch a manner, that they became entirely
dc folate.
Thefe confufions continued for a long time 5 during
which
N
the Greeks
A
found an
17
The Nor-
mans firft
known in
Italy.
t ^a^e'' which the Greeks found an opportunity of making
A thernfelves matters of Benevento, and well nigh became
The Sara- niatters alfo ot Salerno j but in this they failed through
cens almoft the treachery of the bithop, and in the year 896 they
entirely cut were totally expelled by the bithop, four years after
they had become matters of it. In 915 the Saracens
received fuch an overthrow at Carigliano, that fcarce
one of them remained. However, a new body foon ar¬
rived from Africa, and infetted the fea coatts for fome
time longer. A war alfo enfued between Landulph
and the Greeks ; which concluded difadvantagcoufly
for the former, who was obliged to fubmit to the empe¬
ror of Conitantinople in 943.
In 961, Otho the Great, king of Germany, invaded
Italy with a powerful army againft Berengarius III.
and, marching to Rome, received the imperial crown
from the hands of the pope. In 964, he erected Ca¬
pua into a principality, received homage from the
other princes of Lombardy, and formed a defign of re¬
covering Puglia and Calabria from the Greeks. But
in this lail fcheme he failed ; and after various hoftili-
ties a treaty w'as concluded, and the young princefs
Theophania married to Otho’s fon, afterwards em¬
peror.
All this time the Saracens continued their incurfions j
and the Greeks had gained ground fo much, that they
were now in poffeflion of two-thirds of the prefent
kingdom of Naples; but in the year 1002 or 1003, the
Normans firft: began to be remarkable in Italy. They
had, about a century before, embraced Chriftianity, and
become very zealous in all the fuperftitions which were
then prattifed. They were particularly zealous in vifi-
ting facred places, efpecially Rome, and the holy fe-
pulchre at Jerufalem j and being naturally of a very
martial difpofition, they forced through great bodies of
Greeks and Saracens who oppofed their paffage. A-
bout this time 40, or, as others write, 100, of thefe
Normans, returning from Jerufalem by fea, landed at
Salerno in the habit of pilgrims, where they were ho¬
nourably received by Guaimarius. During their refi-
dence at Salerno, a great body of Saracens landed, and
inverted the city. Guaimarius, not being in a condi¬
tion to oppofe the invaders by force, was preparing to
pay them a large fum of money, which they demanded,
when the Normans propofed to attack them j and, ha-
ving got arms and horfes from the prince, they engaged
the infidels with fuch fury and bravery, that they en¬
tirely defeated them, and obliged them to fly to their
fhips. By this complete victory Guaimarius was filled
with fuch admiration of the valour of thefe ftrangers,
that he entreated them to remain in his country j offer¬
ing them lands, and the moft honourable employ¬
ments : but not being able to prevail with them to ftay
in Italy, or even accept of his prefents *, at their depar¬
ture he fent fome ambaffadors with them to Normandy,
in veffels loaded with exquifite fruits, rich furniture for
horfes, &c. in order to allure the valiant Normans to
leave their own country. This kind invitation encou¬
raged a Norman chief, named Ofmond Drengot, to fettle
in Italy about the year 1015 j having killed another
lord in a duel, which obliged him to leave his own
country, in order to avoid the refentment of his fove-
reign, Robert duke of Normandy. In the mean time,
the city of Bari had revolted from the Greeks, and
ehofen one Mello for their leader, whofe wife and
N aples.
 v J
[ 606 ] NAP
children happened foon after to fall into the hands of
their enemies, and were fent prifoners to Conftantinople.
No fooner, therefore, did Mello hear of the arrival of..,, 0
thefe adventurers, than he engaged them to aflift him j UllAJ,d
and having drawn together a confiderable army, defeat-defeat the
ed the Greeks with great daughter, and obliged them^iee^s»
to abandon their camp. In this engagement the Nor¬
mans diftinguiftied themfelves by their bravery } and
the news ot tluir fuceefs foon brought from Norman¬
dy an innumerable multitude of their countrymen,
w'ith their wives and children. By this reinforcement,
Mello gained two other vi&ories, took a great many
towns, and obliged the Greeks to abandon a large
territory ; but, in 1OJ9, they were utterly defeated, r„
and every thing recovered by the Greeks. The Greek but are at
general, Bajanus, continued to go on with fuch fur-c*efeat-
prifing fuccefs, that he almoft entirely re-eftablirtied ®d by them
the affairs of his countrymen in Italy, and made a dif-
thnft province of the weftern part of Puglia, which
he called Capatanata, and which to this day retains the
name of Capitanata. His great progrefs at laft alarm¬
ed the emperors of Germany j and, in 1027, Pandul-
phus prince of Capua made himfelf mafter of Naples j
but was obliged, three years afterwards, to leave it, by
the Normans, who built the city of Averfa, which
was now erected into a county. In confequence of this
piece of good fortune, great numbers of Norman ad¬
venturers migrated into Italy ; among whom were Wil¬
liam, Drogo, and Umbert, three of the fons of Tancred
duke of Hautville ; from whofe pofterity thofe princes
were defeended, who firft conquered the ifland of Sicily
from the Saracens, and formed the prefent kingdom of
Naples.
In 1040, the Greek emperor Michael Paleologus,
in order to fecure the affeftion of his fickle fubje&s,
undertook the conqueft of Italy from the Saracens,
and for that purpofe fent a general named Michael Ma~
niacus into Sicily. This commander, hearing of the
great reputation of the Normans, fent to Guaimarius,
prince of Salerno, entreating him to grant him fome
of thofe warriors. His requeft was moft willingly heark¬
ened to by the prince of Salerno, who, to encourage
the Normans to engage in the expedition, promifed
them fome additional rewards befides the emperor’s pay.
Drogo, and Umbert, accordingly marched The Nor-
William,
from Salerno with 300 of their countrymen j and, paf-mans pafs
ling over into Sicily, diftinguilhed themfelves moft re- ove.r into
markably in the conqueft of that ifland. Maniacus ac-
knowledged, that the recovery of Meflina was chiefly
owing to their valour ; and William with his Normans
gained a complete vidrtory over the Saracens before Sy-
racufe, wfhere he killed the governor of the city in
Angle combat. Maniacus made himfelf mafter of Sy-
racufe, and almoft entirely reduced the whole ifland }
but, being accufed of treafon, was next year carried
prifoner to Conftantinople. His fucceffor Doceanus,
being a man of no abilities, quickly loft the whole
ifland except Meflina, and treated his Norman auxi¬
liaries with the utmoft contempt. He would not al¬
low them any {hare of the booty ; and even caufed one
Ardoin, a noble Lombard, and affociate and interpre¬
ter of the Normans, to be whipped round the camp,
becaufe he refufed to part with the horfe of a Saracen
whom he had (lain in Angle combat. The confequences
of this tyrannical behaviour were very fatal to the
Greeks,
NAP
[ 607 ]
NAP
JvTap’es Greeks. Ardoin foon after obtained leave to return
f' v to Italy under a pretence of a vow, and all the Normans
embarked at night along wit h him 5 but inflead of go¬
ing to Rome, Ardoin went immediately to Averfa,
where he perfuaded Count Rainulphus, fovereign of
that province, to join with him in the defign he had
formed of attacking the Greek provinces in Italy,
which he fhowed him would be an eafy conqueft, as
the inhabitants fubmitted with great reluftance to the
Greeks, and the provinces were at that time almoft en¬
tirely defencelefs. Rainulphus approved of the fcheme,
and raifed 300 foldiers, whom he fent under 12 offi¬
cers to join the other Normans under the fons of Tan-
cred ; and made an agreement with Ardoin, that the
Their con- conqueils ffiould be equally divided among the chief
queft. leaders. Their firft enterprife was the redudlion of
Melphis, one of the ftrongeft cities in Puglia, which
prefently furrendered ; and they increafed its fortifica¬
tions fo much, that it thenceforth became impregnable.
Soon after this they made themfelves mafters of Veno-
fa, Afcoli, and Lavello, with very little oppofition.
Doceanus, alarmed with the rapidity of their con-
quefts, immediately left Sicily, and marched with his
army into Puglia, where he attacked the invaders near
the river Oliviento *, but after a fierce engagement, he
wfas obliged to retire with confiderable lofs. The
Greeks were foon after defeated a fecond time at Can¬
nae ; and in a third engagement, which happened near
the river Ofanto, the army of Doceanus was entirely
routed, and he himfelf obliged to fly to Bari. On
this bad fuccefs Doceanus was ordered to return to
his command in Sicily, and another general was fent
with an army into Puglia. This new commander,
however, had no better fuccefs than his predeceffor }
for his army was entirely defeated in an engagement
with the Normans, and he himfelf taken prifoner. A-
tenulphus, brother to one of the princes of Benevento
on whom the Normans had conferred the chief com¬
mand, fet at liberty the captive general without con-
fulting them, on receiving from him a confiderable
fum of money. With this the Normans were fo much
difpleafed that they deprived Atenulphus of his com¬
mand, and bellowed it on Argyrus fon to the late
Me-llo, who had efcaped from Conftantinople, and now
aflfumed the title of duke and prince of Italy. Before
this time alfo Maniacus, whom Ave have formerly men¬
tioned, had returned to Italy ; and to ftrike the great¬
er terror into the revolted cities, had executed a num¬
ber of people of all ages and fexes Avith great inhuma¬
nity. Soon after this Maniacus openly rebelled againlt
the Greek emperor Conftantinus, and prevailed upon
his oAvn army to proclaim him emperor, beginning
hoftilities immediately againlt the Greek cities. Ar-
gyrus at the fame time took Giovenazzo and befieged
Trani, and foon after befieged Maniacus himfelf in
Tarento ; but he, being afraid of falling into the
hands of the Normans, fled to Otranto, and from thence
to Bulgaria, Avhere, being entirely defeated by one of
the emperor’s generals, he Avas taken prifoner, and had
his head {truck off.
The Normans having uoav conquered the greateft
part of Puglia, proceeded to make a divifion of their
conqueft, in which, after each commander had got Ins
proper ffiare, the city of Melfis Avas left common to all,
and appropriated as a place for affemblxng to confult
about the molt important affairs of the nation. Argyrus Naples,
alone xvas negletted in this divifion j but he, having
gained the favour of the emperor b\ expelling the re¬
bel Maniacus from Italy, Avas by him created duke of
Bari, on purpofe to check the power of the Normans,
Avith the title of prince and duke of Puglia. The Nor¬
mans, however, Avere too powerful to be much awed
by Argyrus, and behaved with great infolence to the
neighbouring princes j but as they could not be expel¬
led by force, and were confirmed in their conquelts by
Henry II. emperor of Germany in 1047, the Greek
emperor attempted to get rid of them, by fending Ar¬
gyrus Avith large lums of money to bribe them to enter
into his fervice againli the Perfians. But they, per¬
ceiving the fnare, replied that they Avere refolved not
to leave Italy unlefs they were expelled by force : upon
which Argyrus made ufe of the fame money in bribing
the Puglians to affaffinate thefe invaders. This brought Great num-
on a maffacre, in which greater numbers of Normans bersofthem
periffied than'had fallen in all the late Avars. Argyrus n:ia^acre^*
attempted to take advantage of the confufion produced
by this maffacre, but Avas defeated ; after which he
had recourfe to Pope Leo, befeeching him to deliver
Italy from thefe cruel tyrants : but this fcheme proved
ftill more unfuccefsful than the others had been ; for the
pope himfelf xvas defeated and taken prifoner; and,, 23
in confequence of the refpedl fhoxved him by the Nor-
mans, granted them, as a fief of the holy fee, all the ky the p0pe
conquefls they had made or ffiould make in Calabria in ail their
and Sicily. % conquelts.
Soon after this, the Norman powrer became extreme¬
ly formidable ; the famous Robert Guifcard afeended
the throne in 1056. He made great progrefs in the
conquefl: of Calabria, and reduced molt of the cities
which held out for the Greeks in thefe parts. About
the fame time the counts of Capua were expelled from
their territory ; and the abbot Defiderius mentions his
having feen the children of Landulphus V. the lafl:
count, going about as vagabonds, and begging for
their fupport. The pope alarmed by thefe conquefts,
excommunicated the Normans in wholefale, pretending
that they had feized fome of the territories belonging
to the church ; but by the pretended fubmiffion of
Robert, he not only xxras perfuaded to take off the fen-
tence of excommunication, but to inveft him xvith the
provinces of Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily. After
this, he continued the war againft the Greeks xvith 24
great fuccefs. In 1071, in conjunftion xvith his bro-Sicily con-
ther Roger, he conquered the iiland of Sicily, and quered by
gave the inveftiture of the whole ifland to him with the
title of count, referving to himfelf only the half of Pa¬
lermo, Meffina, and the valley of Demqna. The like
fuccefs attended his arms againft Salerno in 1074 ; but
after this, having unadvifedly taken fome places from
the pope, he again fell under the fentence of excom¬
munication ; yet he xvas reconciled to him in 1080, and
received a’fecond time the inveftiture of all his domi¬
nions. The next year he undertook an expedition
againft the Greeks ; and though the emperor xvas af-
fifted by a Venetian fleet, Robert made himfelf mafter
of the ifland of Corfu, reduced Durazzo, and great
part of Romania ; infomuch that by the fuccefs of his
arms, and his near approach to Conftantinople, he
ftruck an univerfal terror among the Greeks. But
while Robert was thus extending his conquefts, he wax
alarmed-
Guifcard.
NAP [ Co 8 ] NAP
Naples, alarmed by the news of a formidable rebellion in Italy,
' and that the emperor Henry had taken the city of
Rome, and clofely flmt up the pope in the callle of St
Angelo. Robert, therefore, leaving the command of
• the army to his Ion Boeruund, returned to Italy, where
he immediately difperfed the rebels, and releafed the
pope, v. hile his Ion gained a confiderable vidtory over
the Greeks. After this Robert made great prepara¬
tions for another expedition into Greece, in order to
fecond his fon Boemund. Alexius Comnenus, who
was about this time declared emperor by the Greek ar¬
my, being a (Til ted by the Venetian fleet, endeavoured
to oppofe his paffage 5 but was entirely defeated, with
the lofs of a great many galleys. But a final flop was
now put to his enterprifes by his death, which hap¬
pened in the iiland of Corfu in 1085.
Though the power of the Normans was thus tho¬
roughly ettabliflied in Italy and Sicily, and though
the prince of Benevento was in 1130 inverted by the
pope with the title of king of Sicily, yet by reafon of
the civil diflenfions.which took place among themfelves,
and the general confufion which reigned in Italy in
2$ thofe ages, they were obliged, notwifhftanding all
And by the their valour, to fubmit to the emperor in 1195- By
emperor of him the Sicilians were treated with fo great cruelty,
Germany, j_j)e emprefs Conftantia was induced to confpire
againft him in 1197, took him prifoner, and releafed
him only on condition of his fending off his army im¬
mediately for the Holy Land. This was complied with ;
but the emperor did not long furvive the reconciliation,
being poifoned, as was fuppofed, by order of the em¬
prefs.
In 1254 the pope claimed the kingdom as a fief
devolved on the church in confequence of a fentence of
* depolition pronounced againft King ^Frederick at the
council of Lyons *, and, in I 263, the kingdom was, in
confequence of this right, conferred on Charles count
of Anjou. After much contention and bloodftied, the
French thus became mafters of Sicily and Naples.
The French Their government was infupportably tyrannical j and
become at the fame time the haughtinefs of their king fo pro-
mafters of yoked the pope, that he refolved to humble him.—
Sicily and Charles had refolved on an expedition againft Conftan-
" ' tinnple ; and for this purpofe had fitted out a fleet of
IOO galleys, 30 large Ihips, 200 tranfports, befides
many other fmaller veflels, on board of which he in¬
tended to embark 10,000 horfe, and a numerous ar¬
my of foot. This formidable armament greatly alarm¬
ed the emperor Michael Paleologus ; for which reafon
he entered into a negotiation with John di Procida, a
noble Salernitan, lord of the ifle of Procida in the bay
of Naples, who had formed a fcheme for a general re¬
volt in the ifland of Sicily. John, though a noble¬
man, wTas alfo a phyfician, and bad been counfellor to
two former princes, and even to King Charles himfelf \
but being ftripped of his eftate by the king under pre¬
tence of treafon, and his wife being debauched by the
French, he retired to Conftantia queen of Arragon,
where he was created a baron of the kingdom of Va¬
lencia, by her hufband King Peter, and lord of Luxen,
Benizzano, and Palma. As he was greatly exafperat-
ed againft: the French, he employed many Ipies both
in Puglia and Sicily *, and being informed that the Si¬
cilians were totally difaffefted to the French, he came
to the ifland in difguife, and concerted a plan with the
moft powerful of the malecontents for a revolution in Naples.
favour of Conftantia, though (he derived her right only v *'
as being the daughter oi a former ufurper named Man¬
fred. Procida then fet out for Conllantinople, where
in fome private conferences with the emperor, he per-
fuaded him, that the moft probable means of defeating
Charles’s fcheme was by aflxfting the Spaniards and
Sicilian malceontents. Paleologus accordingly grant¬
ed him a large fum of money, and on his departure
fent one of his fecretaries along with him, who, land¬
ing in Sicily, had a conference with the chief confpi-
rators. John, having received letters from them, diR
guifed himfelf in tire habit of a Francifcan, and went
to Suriano in the neighbourhood of Rome. As he well
knew the enmity which fubfifted between the pope and
King Charles, he difclofed his defign to his holinefs $
who readily entered into his meafures, wrote to Peter
to harten his a^nament, promifing him the inveftiture
of the iiland as foon as he had taken poffeflipn of it $
and, by refuflng the afliftance he had promifed to
Charles, obliged him for the prefent to delay his ex¬
pedition. In the beginning of the year 1280, Procida
returned to Arragon, and by ihowing the letters from
the pope and Sicilian barons, prevailed on Peter to
embark in his defign, by affuring him of the afliftance
of Paleologus. This king of Arragon accordingly pre¬
pared a iormidable fteet under pretence of invading
Africa, and is even faid to have received 20,000 du¬
cats from Charles, in order to aflilt him in his prepa¬
rations.
But while John went on thus fuccefsfully with his
fcheme, all his meafures were in danger of being broke
by the death of Pope Nicholas. The new pope, Mar¬
tin IV. was entirely in the intereft of Charles, on Avhomj
in 1281, he conferred the fenatorial dignity of Rome.
Procida, however, ftill refolved to profecute his fcheme j
and, leaving Italy, had another conference with the
confpirators in Sicily j after which, he again went to
Conftantinople, and obtained from Paleologus 30,000
ounces of gold, with which he immediately returned
to Arragon. The death of Nicholas had damped the
ardour of Peter •, but, being urged with great earneft-
nefs by John, he again renewed his preparations \
which alarmed the pope and the king of France. In
confequence of this they fent a meflage to him, defir¬
ing to know againft what Saracens he defigned to
employ his armament. In this particular Peter refu-
fed to fatisfy them j upon which they earneftly coun-
felled Charles to guard againft an invafion : but he
neglected their advice, being wholly intent on his
eaftern expedition, and encouraged by a revolt which
had happened in Greece and to facilitate his expedi¬
tion, he prevailed on the pope to excommunicate the
Greeks, on pretence that they had broken fome of the
articles of union concluded at the council of Lyons a
few years before. Peter in the mean time continued
his preparations with great diligence, intending to put
to fea the following fummer. Procida had returned to xhe\ are
Palermo, to wait for a favourable opportunity of put- mafl'aered.
ting Ins defign in execution, which was foon afforded
him by the French. On Eafter Monday, March 30;
1282, the chief confpirators had aflembled at Palermo j
and, after dinner, both the Palermitans and French
Avent in a grand proceffion to the church of Monreale,
about three miles Avithout the city. While they Avere
fporting
NAP [ 609 ] NAP
Naples, fporting in the fields, a bride happened to pafs by with
' jier train, who being obferved by one Drochettus, a
Frenchman, he ran to her, and began to ufe her in a
rude manner, under pretence of fearching. for conceal¬
ed arms. A young Sicilian, exafperated at this af¬
front, ftabbed him with his own fword; and a tumult
enfuing, 200 French were immediately murdered. The
enraged populace then ran to the city, crying out,
“ Let the French die, Let the French die and, with¬
out diitinflion of age or fex, flaughtered all of that na¬
tion they could find, even fuch as had fled to the churches.
The confpirators then left Palermo, and excited the in¬
habitants to murder the French all over the illand, ex¬
cepting in Meflina, which city at firit refufed to be con¬
cerned in the revolt. But, being invited by the Paler¬
mitans to throw off the French yoke, a few weeks after-,
the citizens in a tumultuous manner deftroyed fome of
the French} and pulling down the arms of King Charles,
and crediting thofe of the city, chofe one Baldwin for
their governor, who faved the remaining French from
the fury of the populace, and allorved them to tranfport
themfelves, with their wives and children to Italy.
Eight thoufand perfons are faid to have been murdered
on this oceafion.
Immediately after this maffacre, the Sicilians offered
their allegiance to the king of Arragon 5 who accepted
of the invitation, and landed with his forces at Trapani.
From thence he went to Palermo, where he was crown¬
ed king of Sicily with great folemnity, and Charles left
the iiland with precipitation. The day after he landed
his army in Italy, the Arragonian fleet arrived, took
29 of his galleys, and the next day burnt 80 tranfports
in prefence of his army. Soon after this Charles fent
an embafiy to Peter, accufing him of perfidy, in invading
his dominions in time of peace ; and, according to fome,
challenged him at the fame time to decide the matter
by fingle combat. Others fay that the challenge wras
given by Peter. Certain it is, however, that a chal¬
lenge was given, and to appearance accepted : but Pe¬
ter determined to employ much more effectual means in
fupport of his pretenfions than trufting to a duel; and
therefore pufhed on his operations moll vigoroufly,
while his adverfary trifled a’way his time: and thus he
at lafl became matter of the contefted kingdom ; which,
however, he did not long enjoy, dying about the end
of the year 1285.
By his will, Peter left the kingdom of Arragon to
his eldeft fon Alphonfus, and Sicily to Don James
his other fon, who wras alfo to fucceed to the kingdom
of Arragon in cafe Alphonfus fhould die without male
iifue. Accordingly, Don James wras folemnly crown¬
ed at Palermo the 2d of February 1286. In 1295,
however, he deferted them, and tamely refigned up his
right to Charles, fon to him above mentioned, in a
manner perhaps unparalleled. On his refignation the
Sicilians conferred the crown upon his brother Don
Frederic : after which the war continued with great
violence till the year 1303, when a peace was concluded,
and the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily formally dis-
jg joined Frederic being allowed to keep tire latter, under
Tli® king- the name of Trinao'ia; and Charles being confirmed
4sms of pofTeflion of the former, which he quietly enjoy-
death in 1309.
Winod' *" Naples continued to be governed by its own kings
^ ‘ ' VOL, XIV. Part II.
till the beginning of the 16th century, when the kings Naples-
of France and Spain contended for the fovereignty of 1'
this country. Frederic, at that time king of Naples,
refigned the fovereignty to Louis XII. on being created
duke of Anjou, and receiving an annual peniion of ^
30,000 ducats. But, in 1504, the French were entire- The Spa-
ly defeated by the Spaniards, and obliged to evacuate niar<ls be-
the kingdom ; and the following year Louis renoun-
ced all pretenfions to the crown, which from this time s4ap[es<
hath remained almoft conftantly in the hands of the
Spaniards.
The government of the Spaniards proved no lefs op-
preflive to the Neapolitans than that of others had been.
The kings of Spain fet no bounds to their exactions,
and of confequence the people were loaded with all
manner of taxes j even’ the moft indifpenfable necefla-
ries of life not being exempted. In 1647, a new tax
was laid on fruit; which the people looked upon as
the moft grievous oppreflion, the chief part of their
fubfirtence, during the hammer months, being fruit,
which in the kingdom of Naples is very plentiful and
delicious. The edifil for colledling the new duty was 30
no fooner published, than the people began to murmur A general
in a tumultuous manner j and when the viceroy camereTOlt*
abroad, they furrounded his coach, bawling out to
have their grievances redreffed. They were encoura¬
ged in their fedition, by the news that the citizens of
Palermo had aftually revolted on account. of the im-
pofition of new duties. The viceroy, therefore, appre-
henfive of greater diforders, began to think of taking
off the tax j but thofe who farmed the tax having brib¬
ed fome of his favourites, he was by their means per-
fuaded not to abolilh it. The indignation of the people,
who had fufpefled his intention, was now greatly in-
creafed, efpecially as they were privately excited by fe-
veral malecontents. The farmers of the revenue, and
all thofe concerned in railing the taxes, had incurred the
hatred and deteftation of the people, particularly of
Tommafo Aniello, commonly called Majfaniello o/'Account «f
Amalfi, a fitherman, whofe wife, having been difewered ^iaffamel*
in Imuggling a fmall quantity of meal, was imprifoned,
arid condemned to pay a fine of 100 ducats.
Maffaniello, a few years before, had come to Naples
from Amalfi, where his father had been a fifherman.
At this time he was about 24 years of age, and the
father of four children. Fie was of a middle ftature,
and an agreeable afpecl; was diftinguilhed for his bold-
nefs, aftivity, and integrity : and had a great influence
with his companions, by whom he was beloved and
etteemed. As he was obliged even to fell his furniture
to pay the heavy fine, he had conceived an implacable
hatred againft the farmers of .the taxes, and vas alio
moved with compaftion for the miferable ftate of the
city and kingdom. He therefore formed a defign,
with fome of his companions, to raife a tumult in the
market place on the feftival-day of the Carmelites,
ufually celebrated about the middle of July, when be¬
tween 500 and 600 youths entertain the people by a
mock fight; one half of them,, in- the char after of
Turks, defending a wooden cattle, which is attacked
and ftormed by the other half in the character of
Chri ians. Maffaniello being appointed captain of
one of tbefe parties, and one Pione, who was privy to
his defign, commanding the other, for ieveral weeks
4 H before
NAP [6
before the fcftival they were very diligent in reviewing
and training their followers, who were armed with
iticks and reeds ; but a fmall and unforefeen accident
tempted them to begin their enterprife without waiting-
for the feftival. 6
On the yth of July a difpute happening in the mar¬
ket-place betwixt the tax-gatherers and fome garden¬
ers of Pozzuolo who had brought fome figs into the
city, whether the buyer or feller thould pay the du¬
ty j after the tumult had continued feveral hours, Maf-
laniello, who was prefent with his company, excited
the mob to pillage the office built in the market for
receiving the duty, and to drive away the officers
with Itones. The eledt of the people, who, by decid¬
ing againft the gardeners, had increafed the tumult,
ran to the palace, and informed the viceroy, who moft
imprudently neglected all means of putting a flop to
the commotion. Maffaniello, in the mean time, being
joined by great numbers of people, ordered his young
troop to fet fire to all the offices for the taxes through
the city; which command being executed with de-
fpatch, he then conducted them direftly to the palace,
where the viceroy, inftead of ordering his Spaniih and
German guards to difperfe them, encouraged their in-
folence by timidly granting their demands. As they
ruflied into the palace in a furious manner, he efcaped
by a private door, and endeavoured to fave himfelf in
Cajiel del Ovo; but being overtaken by the rioters in
the ftreets, he was trampled upon by them, and pulled
by the hair and whifkers. However, by throwing fome
handfuls of gold among them, he again efeaped, and
took fanfluary in a convent of Minims, where, being
joined by the archbilhop of Naples, Cardinal Filoma-
rini, and feveral nobles, by their advice he ligned a bil¬
let, by which he abolilhed all taxes upon provifions.
As a means to quell the tumult, he likewife defired
the cardinal to offer Maffaniello a penfion of 2400
crowns, who generoufly rejected the bribe j and declar¬
ed, that if the viceroy would keep his word, he would
find them obedient fubjefls.
It was now expefled that the tumult would ceafe j
but Maffaniello, upon his return to the market-place,
joined by feveral malecontents, among whom
were Genuino and one Peronne, who had formerly
been a captain of the Sbirri, he was advifed by them
to order the houfes of thofe concerned in railing the
tax to be burned \ which were accordingly in a few days
reduced to affies, with all their rich furniture. Maffa¬
niello being now abfolute mafter of the whole city,
and being joined by great numbers of people of defpe-
rate fortunes, he required the viceroy, who had retir¬
ed to the Cajlel Nuovo, to abolifh all the taxes, and to
deliver up the writ of exemption granted by Charles V.
This new demand greatly embarraffed the viceroy;
but to appeafe the people, he drew up a falfe deed in
letters of gold, and fent it to them by their favourite
the duke of Matalone, who had before been in con¬
finement. The fraud, however, being difeovered, the
duke was pulled from his horfe and maltreated by the
mob, and at length committed as a prifoner to Peronne.
This accident, to the great joy of the viceroy, enraged
the people againft the nobility, feveral of whom they
killed, burnt the houfes of others, and threatened to
extirpate them all. Maffaniello, in the mean time, tat-
5
to !! NAP
tered and half naked, commanded his followers, who Naples,
were now well armed, and reckoned about 100,00c
men, with a moft abfolute fway. He ate and ilept
little, gave his orders with great precifion and judge¬
ment, appeared full of moderation, without ambition
and interefled views. But the duke of Matalone hav-
ing procured ins liberty by bribing Peronne, the viceroy
imitated his example, and fecretly corrupted Genuino
to betray his chief. A confpiracy was accordingly
formed againft Maffaniello by Matalone and Peronne •,
the duke, who was equally exafperated againft: the vice-
roy, propofing, that after his death his brother D.
Jofeph ffiould head the rebels.
_ Maflaniello in the mean time, by means of the car¬
dinal archbifliop, was negotiating a general peace and
accommodation j but while both parties were aflem-
bling in the convent of the Carmelites, the banditti
hired by Matalone made an unfuccefsful attempt upon.
Maffaniello’s life. His followers immediately killed
150 of them. Peronne and D. Jofeph being difeovered
to be concerned in the confpiracy, were likewife put
to death, and the duke with great difficulty efcaped.
Maflaniello by this confpiracy was rendered more fuf-
picious and fevere. He began to abufe his power by
putting feveral perfons to death upon flight pretences ;
and, to force the viceroy to an accommodation, he cut
off all communication with the cattles, which were un¬
provided with provifion and ammunition.—The vice¬
roy likewife being afraid left: the French flrould take
advantage of the commotion, earneftly defired to agree
to a treaty *, which was accordingly concluded on the a treaty
fifth day of the infurre&ion, by the mediation of the concluded
archbifliop. By the treaty it was ftipulated, that allbetwee.n
duties impofed fmee the time of Charles V. fliould be
aboli(lied *, that the writ of exemption granted by that viceroy,
emperor ftiould be delivered to the people j that for the
future no new taxes ffiould be impofed ; that the vote
of the cleft of the people ffiould be equal to the votes
of the nobility j that an aft of oblivion fliould be grant¬
ed for all that was part; and that the people ffiould
continue in arms under Maflfaniello till the ratification
of the treaty by the king.
By this treaty, no lefs than 10,coo perfons who
fattened upon the blood of the public were ruined. 
The people when it was folemnly publifhed, manifeft-
ed an extreme joy, believing they had now recovered
all their ancient rights and privileges. Maflaniello, at
the defire of the viceroy, went to the palace to vifit
him, accompanied by the archbifhop, who was obli¬
ged to threaten him with excommunication, before
he would confent to lay afide his rags and aflume a
magnificent drefs. He veas received by the duke with
the greatefi: demonftrations of refpeft and friendffiip,
while the duchefs entertained his wife, and prefented
her with a robe of cloth of filver, and fome jewels.—
The viceroy, to preferve fome ffiadow of authority, ^
appointed him captain-general •, and at his departure Maflaniello
made him a prefent of a golden chain of. great value, appointed
which with great difficulty he was prevailed upon tocaPtain-
accept ; but yielded at length to the entreaties of thesenera**
cardinal. Next day, in confequence of the commiflion
granted him by the viceroy, he began to exercife all
the funftions of fovereign authority j and having caufed
a fcaffold to be erefted in one of the ftreets, and fe¬
veral
Naples,
Is afl'Uli-
nated.
35
Tlie people
return to
their alle¬
giance.
36
Climate,
produce,
&.c. of
N aples.
NAP [6
veral gibbets, be judged all crimes, whether civil or
military, in the lalt refort; and ordered the guilty to
be immediately put to death, which was the punilhment
he afligned to all otfences. Though lie neglefted all
forms of law, and even frequently judged by phyfiog-
nomy, yet he is laid not to have overlooked any crimi¬
nal, or punilhed any innocent perfon.
His grandeur and profperity were of very fhort con¬
tinuance ; for his mind becoming diftra&ed and deliri¬
ous for two or three days, he committed a great many
mad and extravagant attions ; and on the 18th of July
he was aflaffinated with the confent of the viceroy.
The tumult did not end with the death of Mafia-
niello : on the contrary, the people now expelled the
Spaniards from moft of the cities throughout the king¬
dom ; and this general infurreftion being the fubjeift
of difeourie at Rome, the duke of Guife, who happen¬
ed then to be at the pope’s court, took the opportu¬
nity, at the mitigation of his holinefs, to offer his fer-
vice to the Neapolitans againlt the Spaniards. The
duke was prompted by his ambition to engage in this
enterprife, efpecially as he himfelf had tome diitant
preteniions to the crown. The Spaniards in the mean
time made a vigorous attack on the city ; but were re-
pulfed by the people, who now formally renounced
their allegiance to them. In a fhort time, however,
their city being furprifed by the new viceroy, the
count d’Oniate, and the duke of Guife himfelf taken
prifoner, the people returned to their allegiance j and
thus all the attempts of the French on Naples were
fruftrated. From that time the Spaniards continued in
peaceable poffefiion of the kingdom till the year 1707,
when it was taken from them by Prince Eugene. It
was formally ceded to the emperor by the treaty of
Raftadt in 1713 j but was recovered by the Spaniards
in 1734, and the king of Spain’s eldeft fon is now king
of Naples and Sicily. For a particular account of thefe
revolutions, fee the articles Spain and Sicily.
The climate of Naples is extremely hot, efpecially
in July, AuguR, and September. In winter there is
feldom any ice or fnow, except on the mountains.-—
On account of its fertility, it is juftly termed an
earthly paradife j for it abounds with all forts of grain,
the fineft fruit and garden productions of every kind,
with rice, tlax, oil, and wine, in the greateft plenty
and perfection. It affords alfo faffron, manna, alum,
vitriol, fulphur, rock cryifal, marble, and feveral forts
of minerals, together with fine wool, and fllk. The
horfes of this country are famous, and the flocks and
herds very numerous. Befides thefe products, of -which
a confiderable part is exported, there are manufactures
of fnuff, foap, and glafs ware. Waiftcoats, caps, dock¬
ings, and gloves, are alfo made of the hair or fila¬
ments of a fhell fifli, which are warmer than thofe of
wool, and of a beautiful gloiTy green. In this king¬
dom like wife is found that called the Phrygian Jlone,
or pictra fungfera, which, being laid in a damp thady
place, will yield mufhrooms, fometimes of a very large
ifize, efpecially if the done is fprinkled with hot water.
See Agaricus.
As to the mountains of this country, the principal
are the Apennines, which traverfe it from loath to
north ; and Mount Vefuvius, which, as is well known,
is a noted volcano, five Italian miles from Naples. I he
tide of this mountain next the fea yields wine, particu-
1 ] NAP
larly the two famed wines called Vino Greco and La- Naples.
chrymee ChriJH. One of the greated inconveniencies to
which this kingdom is expofed is earthquakes, which
the eruptions of Mount Vefuvius contribute, in fome
meafure, to prevent. Another inconveniency, which,
however, is common to it with other hot countries, is
the great number of reptiles and infeCfs, of which fome
are very poifonous. ^
Wiih refpeCt to religion, it is on a very bad foot- Religiotv
ing here. The number of convents and monaiteries *
is adonhhing. it is laid, the clergy and convents
poffefs two thirds of the whole kingdom : nay, fume
maintain, that were the kingdom divided into five
parts, four would be found in the hands of the church.
Notwithdanding this power and influence of the clergy,
they have not been able hitherto to get the inquifition
edablifhed here. In the year 1731, meafures were
taken for leflfening the number of convents ; and lately
the order of Jefuits hath been fiippreffed. The papal
bulls cannot be made public without the king’s per-
miiTton ; nor are Protedants compelled to kneel in the
churches, or at meeting the hod 5 and in Lent they
can very eafily procure flelh meat. In the year 1740,
the Jews were allowed to fettle in the kingdom during
the term of 50 years, and feveral privileges were grant¬
ed them during that period ; at the expiration of which,
the grant was fuppofed to be renewed, unlefs they were
exprefsly ordered to quit the country.
The revenue of the kingdom is generally computed 'Revenue,
at 3,000,000 of crowns: but, as Mr Addifon ob-^*
ferves, there is no country in Europe which pays
greater taxes, and where, at the fame time, the pub¬
lic is lefs the better for them, mod of them going to
the enriching of the private perfons to whom they are
mortgaged.
The military force of this kingdom is faid to con-
fid of about 30,000 men, of which the Svvifs regi¬
ments are the bed. As to the marine, it confids
only of a few galleys. The only order here is that of
St Januarius, which was inftituted by Don Carlos in
the year 1738.
The king of Naples, or of the two Sicilies, is an
hereditary monarch, ihe high colleges are, the coun¬
cil of date, the privy council, the treafury, the Sicily
council, the council of war, &c. This kingdom is a
papal fief; and the king, in acknowledgement of the
pope’s feudal right, fends him every year a white pal-
fry, and a purfo of 6ooo ducats. The title of the
king’s elded fon is prince of Calabria. The number
both of the high and low nobility in the kingdom of
Naples is very great. “ I am allured (fays Dr Moore *) * View of
that the king of Naples counts among his fubje&s-SV/Vfy.&c
100 perfons with the title of prince, and a dill greater1'" ltaiy-
with that of duke.- Six or feven of thefe have edates
which produce from 10 to 12 or 13,000!. a-year j a
confiderable number have fortunes of about half that
value ; and the annual revenue of many is not above
locol. or 2000I. The inferior orders of the nobility
are much poorer. Many counts and marquifics have
not above 300I. or 400I. a-year of paternal edate j
many have dill lefs 5 and not a few enjoy the title with¬
out any edate whatever. Thefe nobles, however, are
excefiively fond of fplendour and diow, which appears
in the brilliancy of their equipages, the number of
their attendants, the richnefs of their drefs, and the
4 H 2 grandeur
NAP [6
■N'aiile!. grandeur of their titles. The fineft carriages are
painted, gilt, varnifhed, and lined, in a richer and
rnore beautiful manner than has yet become falhionable
either in England or in France. They are often drawn
by fix and fometimes by eight horfes. Before the
carriage, it is the mode to have two running footmen,
and behind three or four fervants in the richelt liveries.
I he ladies and gentlemen within the coaches glitter in
all the brilliancy of lace, embroidery, and jewels.—
J his finery is not confined to the perfons within and
without the coaches ; it is extended to the horfes,
whofe heads, manes, and tails, are ornamented with the
rarefl: plumage, and fet off with ribbons and artificial
flowers.”
We {hall mention a circumftance from which an idea
may be formed of the grandeur of a Neapolitan palace,
and the number ot domeftics which fome of the nobili¬
ty retain. “ I dined (continues our author) at the
prince lacci’s, where we paffed through i 2 or 13 large
rooms before we arrived at the dining room. There
were 36 perfons at table ferved by the priuce’s domef¬
tics, and each gueft had a footman behind his chair,
while other domeltics belonging to the prince remained
in the adjacent rooms and in the hall. No eftate in
England could fupport fuch a number of fervants, paid
and fed as Englifh fervants are ; but in Naples the
wages are very moderate indeed, and the greater num¬
ber of men fervants, belonging to the firff families, give
their attendance through the day only, and find beds
and provifions for themfelves. It muff be remembered
alfo, that few of the nobles give any entertainments 5
and thofe who do not are laid to live very fparingly j
fo that the whole of their revenue, whatever it may be,
is expended on articles of {how.”
In the kingdom of Naples, the hereditary jurifdic-
tion of the nobles over their vaffais fubfilts in the full
rigour of the feudal government; The peafants there¬
fore are poor } and it depends entirely on the perfonal
charadter of the mafter, whether their poverty be not
the leaff of their grievances. As this power is too
often abufed, the importance of the nobility depends
in a great meafure on the favour of the king, who,
under pretence of any offence, can confine them to
their eftates, or imprifon them at pleafure. Unlefs
this prince were fo very impolitic as to difguft all the
nobility at once, and fo unite the whole body againft
him, he has little to fear from their refentment. Even
in cafe of fuch an union, as the nobles have loft the af-
feftion of their vaffais, what could they do in oppofi-
tion to a {landing army of 30,000 men, entirely devoted
to the crown ? The government of Naples, therefore,
is in fa£t a defpotie monarchy, though fomt tiling like
the form of a feudal conftitution in its ancient purity
is ftill kept up by the biennial fummons of the general
affembly. This convention, which confifts of the no¬
bility and commons, is called together every two years,
to deliberate on the cuftomary free gift to the crown.
The inhabitants of this country have at all times
borne but an indifferent character among other nations.
“ From the few hints dropped by the elaflic authors,
we colleft that the ancient Neapolitans were a race of
epicures, of a foft indolent turn, averfe from martial ex-
ercifes, paffionately fond of theatrical amufements and
mufic, expert in all the refined arts that adminiffer to
the caprices of luxury, extravagant in their expreflions
4
2 ] NAP
and geftures, and dupes to various forts of fuperftition. Naples.
If we make allowance for a quantity of northern blood vr~~
which has joined the original Grecian ftream, and im¬
parted a roughnefs not yet worn off by the mildnefs of
the climate, we {hall find the modern Neapolitans verv
like the ancient.—Provifions being here plentiful and
cheap, the lower clafs of people work but little. Their
delight is to balk in the fun, and do nothing. Perfons
of a middle rank frequent places of public refort ; and
very few of any rank attend to their proper bufinefs
with the zeal and activity we are wont to meet with in
the profeffional men of colder countries. Gluttony is
a predominant vice, while inflances of ebriety are com¬
paratively rare. In the female fex, the paffion for
finery is almoft fuperior to every other ; and, though
chaflity is not the charafteriftic virtue of the country, Mr
Swinburne doubts * whether a Neapolitan woman would * Travels
not nine times out of ten prefer a prefent to a lover.in.the ^0
1 hat furious jealoiify for which the nation was once fo Slcllies'
remarkable, is now greatly abated. The breach of the
conjugal vow fometimes occafions quarrels and affaffma-
tions among people of an inferior ftation ; and in the
metropolis, affaflinations are often perpetrated from
much lefs cogent motives. Of thefe vices, many are
doubtlefs owing to that flavery and oppreflion under
which they groan, and to a radical defeft in the admi-
niftration of juftice, though the kingdom is divided in¬
to 12 provinces or jurifdi&ions.
Such was the former ftate of Naples. But being
feized by the emperor of France, he affirmed, “ the
Neapolitan dynafty has ceafed to reign : its exiftence is
incompatible with the repofe of Europe, and the honour
of our crown.” By virtue of a decree which paffed in
the month of March 1806, the emperor Napoleon con¬
ferred the kingdom of Naples on his brother jofeph, now
king of Spain, and his legitimate heirs male, referving
to that prince the rights affured to him by the conffitu-
tions of the empire, in providing always that the crown
of France and that of Naples ffiall never be united up¬
on the fame head. Murat fucceeded Jofeph as king of
Naples.
Naples, anciently Parthenope, afterwards Neapo/is,
the capital of the kingdom of that name in Italy, lies
in the province calked Terra di Lavora, which is the
rieheft and beft inhabited of the whole kingdom, and
comprehends a part of the ancient Campania Felix
or the Happy. This city is fabled to owe its founda¬
tion to a Syren, and to have received its ancient name
from its fupernatural foundrefs. Whatever be its ori¬
gin, it is the firft for neatnefs, and the fecond for ex¬
tent, of all the cities in Italy. It wras formerly a place
of ftrength ; but its w alls at prefent being of no real
defence, its fafety depends of courfe upon the force
of its armies. It is moft advantageoufly fituated, hav¬
ing a delicious country on one fide, and a noble bay of
the Mediterranean on the other, with an excellent har¬
bour. The circumference, including the fuburbs, is
laid not to be lefs than 18 Italian miles, and the num¬
ber of the inhabitants therein little lefs than 400,000.
The houfes are of ftone, flat roofed, and generally lofty
and uniform ; but many of them have balconies, with
lattice windows. The ftreets are rvell paved ; but they
are not lighted at night, and in the day time are dif-
figured, in many places, by flails, on which provifions
are expoled to fale. Here are a great number of fins
churches.
NAP [
Naples, churches, convents, fountains, and palaces of the nobi
"’"'vlity, many of whom eonftantly reiide hex-e. It is ufual
to walk on the tops of the houfes in the evenings, to
breathe the fvyeet cool air, after a hot fultry day. The
climate here is fo mild and warm, even in the winter,
that plenty of green peafe, artichokes, afparagus, and
other vegetables, may be had fo early as the beginning
of the new year, and even all the winter. This city
fwarms with monks and nuns of all forts, to fuch a de¬
gree, that there are no lefs than 19 convents of the
Dominicans alone, 18 of the Francifcans, 8 of the
Auguftines, and an equal proportion of the reft. The
magnificence of many of the churches exceeds imagina¬
tion. In a cloifter of the Carthufian monaftery is a cru¬
cifix, faid to be done by Michael Angelo, of inimitable
workmanfhip.
To repel hoftile attempts by fea, which from its fi-
tuation, maritime powers might be tempted to make,
Naples has, to the weft, the Caftel del Ovo, a con-
fufed pile of ancient buildings, and feme modern bat¬
teries. The rock upon which this fortrefs Hands was
originally called Alegar a, then Lucullanum ; and was
confidered as a place of ftrength fo early as the
year 475. Along the line of the fhore towards the
eaft are fome batteries on the points of land, the ba-
ftions of the arfenal, and above it the lofty wall of the
Caftel Nuovo. This laft fortrefs lias been the ufual
refuge of the fovereigns and viceroys in all civil wars
and tumults } for which reafon they have long fixed
their refidence near its walls. A blockhoufe and
batteries defend the mouth of the harbour, and at the
eaftern extremity of the town is the Torrione de Car¬
mine, better known by the figure it made in Maftani-
ello’s rebellion than by its extent or military ftrength.
The caftle of St Elmo commands Naples in every
direction, and is in reality calculated rather to annoy
and awe the citizens than to defend them from fo¬
reign invaders. The city is indeed far from being fe-
eure again!! a bombardment 5 for the fea is fo deep,
that a large veffel may come up to the very mole in
defiance of the blockhoufe and batteries, &.c. Pic¬
tures, ftatues, and antiquities, are not fo common in
Naples as might be expected in fo great and ancient a
city, many of the moft valuable pieces having been
fent to Spain by the viceroys. The bay is one of the
fineft in the world, being almoft of a round figure,
about 30 miles in diameter, and three parts of it Ihel-
tered with a noble circuit of woods and mountains.
The city Hands in the bofom of this bay, in as pleafant
a lituation, perhaps, as is in the world. Mr Keyfter fays,
they reckon about 1 8,000 donne /Here, or courtezans,
in the city •, and Dr Moore computes the. number ol
laKKaroni or blackguards at above 30,000. The
greater part of thefe wretches have no dwelling houfes,
but ileep every night under porticos, piazzas, or any
kind of ftielter they can find. Thole of them who
have wives and children, live in the fuburbs of Naples
near Peufftippo, in huts, or in caverns or chambers dug
out of that mountain. They an generally reprefented
as a lazy, licentious, and turbulent ft t of people, as in¬
deed by far the greater part of the rabble are, who prefer
begging or robbing, or running errands, to anv fixed
and permanent employment. Yet there are in Naples
feme flouncing manufactures, particularly of filk 'lock¬
ings, foap, fnuff-boxes of tortoife ftiells and the lava of
613 ] N A* R
Mount Vefuvius, tables, and ornamental furniture of Naples
marble. The city is fupplied with a vaft quantity of js-ar^|)nre
water, by means of a very coftly aqueduct* from the f
foot of Mount Vefuvius. Mr Addifon lays, it. is in¬
credible how great a multitude of retainers to the law
there are in Naples, who find continual employment
from the fiery temper of the inhabitants. There are ,
five piazzas or fquares in the city, appropriated to the
nobility, viz. thofe called Capuana, Nido, Montagna,
Porto, and Porta Nova. Of all the palaces, that of the
king is not only the moft magnificent, but alfo in the
belt ftyle of architedture. The cathedral, though
Gothic, is a very grand fplendid edifice. It is here
that the head and blood of St Januarius, the tutelary
faint of Naples, arc kept, the latter in two glafs or
cryftal vials. The pretended liquefaction of the dried
blood, as foon as brought near the head of the laint,
is a thing well known *, Mr Addifon fays, it is one of
the moft bungling tricks he ever faw. The harbour
is fpacious, and kept in good repair. It is fortified
with a mole, which runs about a quarter of a mile in¬
to the fea, and at the extremity has a high lanthorn to .
diredt ftiips fafely into the harbour. Luxury here is
reftrained by fevere fumptuary laws, and the women
are more elofely confined than in any other city of
Italy. Here is an univerfity and two academies of
wits, the one called G/j Ardent/, and the other Gli
Otiqfi. The nunnery for ladies of quality is faid to be
the largeft in the whole world, containing no lei's than
350 nuns, befides fervants. The Mount of Piety, or
the office for advancing money to the poor, on pledges,
at a low intereft, or without any, has an income of up¬
wards of 50,000 ducats. The arfenal is laid to contain
arms for 50,000 men. The walls of the city conlift of
hard black quarry Hones, calledpiperno. Inftead of ice,
vaft quantities of fnow are ufed for cooling their
liquors, not fo much as water being drank without it j
fo that, it is faid, a fcareity of it would as foon occa-
fton a mutiny as a dearth of corn or provilions. Certain
perfons, who farm the monopoly of it from the govern¬
ment, fupply the city all the year round from a moun¬
tain about 18 miles off, at fo much the pound. In the
beginning of 1799, it was taken by a body of French
troops under General Championet The ftreets of this
city were lighted for the firft time on the 16th Decem¬
ber, 1806. Naples Hands 1 10 miles fouth-eait from
Rome, 164 north-eaft from Palermo in Sicily, 217
fouth-eaft from Florence, and 303 from Venice. E.
Long. 14. 20. N. Lat 40. 55.
NARBO, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Volfcce Tedtofages, called alfo Narbo Martins, from the
Legio Martia, the colony led thither 59 years before
the confulate of Csefar, (Velleius) 5 increafed with a
colony of the Dueamani or tenth legion by Caefar. An
ancient trading town on the Atax, which difebarges
itfelf into the fea through the Laeus Rubrefus, or Rub-
renfis. Capital of Gallia Narbonenfis ; furnamed Colo-
nia Julia Paterna, from Julius Caefar, the father of Au-
guftus by adoption. Now called Narbonne, a city of
Languedoc.
NARBONNE, is a city of France, in the: department
of Aude, with an archbi(hop’s fee, and is particularly
famous for its honey. It is feated on a canal cut from
the river Aude, which being but three nules from the
fca, veffets come up it laden‘with mcrcliandife, whiak
renders
perfume.
Scripture,
N A 11 [ 614 ]
Naraffu! remlers it a place of fome trade. But though it pre- nardimun,
Nardus. te.nc^s l? ^ie mo^ rem°te antiquity under the Celtic
kings, in ages anterior even to the Roman conquefts,
•which under thefe latter matters gave its name to all
Get I I in Narbonenjis, and was a colony of the firft confi-
deration, it is now dwindled to a wretched folitary
town, containing fcarce 8300 inhabitants, of whom
three-fourths are prietts and women. The ftreets and
buildings are mean and ruinous ; it has indeed a com¬
munication with the Mediterranean, from which Nar-
bonne is only about three leagues diftant, by means of
a fmall river which interfefts the place ; but their com¬
merce is very limited, and chiefly conlitts in grain which
they export to Cette and Marfeilles. No marks of Ro¬
man magnificence remain, except feveral inferiptions in
different parts of the city. It is divided into the city
and the town, which are joined together by a bridge,
with houfes on each fide, in which the richett merchants
live. 1 here are feveral churches and convents j the
metropolitan church has a handfome tteenle. E. Lono-.
3. 6. N. Lat. 43. 11.
NARCISSUS, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of the
river Cephiffus and Liriope the daughter of Oceanus,
was a youth of great beauty. Tirefias foretold that
he fliould live till he faw himfelf. He defpifed all the
nymphs of the country ; and made Echo languitti till
fire became a mere found, by refiifing to return her
paflion : but one day coining weary and fatigued from
the chafe, he flopped on the bank of a fountain to
quench his thirl! : when, feeing his own form in the
water, lie became fo in love with the fhadowy image,
that he languiihed till he died. On which the gods’
being moved at his death, changed him into the flower
which bears his name.
Narcissus, a genus of plants belonging to the hex-
andria clais 5 and in the natural method ranking under
the 9th order, Spathace<e. See Botany Index.
NARCO I ICS, in Medicine, foporiferous drugs,
which bring on a ftupefaclion. Among narcotics the
moft eminent are thofe ufually prepared for medicinal
ufes from the poppy, efpecially opium; as alfo all thofe
prepared from mandragoras,hyofcyamus, ftramonium and
datura. See Materia Medica Index.
NARDO, a pretty populous town in the kingdom
of Naples, and in the Terra d’Otranto, with the title
of a duchy and a bifliop’s fee. E. Lon<?. 18. 27. N.
Lat. 43. 28. * t
In this little city are 8000 inhabitants. The fteeple
of its cathedral is built in a very uncommon but fliowy
ttyle of Gothic archite&ure. Luco Giordano and So-
limeni have adorned the church with fome agreeable
paintings. This place was a part of the Balzo ettate.
The Aquavivas were the next poflefTors : they are
thought to have come from the Marca di Ancona." In
1401, in confideration of their relationfliip to Pope Bo¬
niface IX. Laudifiaus erefted their manor of Atri into
a dukedom, an honour till then feldom granted to any
but princes of the blood royal. Claudius Aquaviva, a
famous general of the Jefuits, who died in 1615, was of
this family.
NARD QS, a genus of plants belonging to the tri-
Sndna clais } and in the natural method ranking under
the 4th order, Gramina. See Botany Index.
This plant was highly valued by the ancients, both
as an article of luxury and medicine. The tinguentwn
N A R
was ufed at baths and feafts as a favourite
Its value is evident from that pafiage of
were our Saviour’s head was anointed with
a box of it, with which Judas found fault. From a
paflage in Horace, it appears that this ointment was fo
valuable among the Romans, that as much as could be
contained in a fmall box of precious ftone was confider-
ed as a fort of equivalent for a large veffel of wine, and
a proper quota for a guett to contribute at an entertain¬
ment, according to the ancient cuftom :
   Nardo vina merebere,
Nardi parvus onyx eliciet cadum.
NAREA, the moft foutherly province of the empire
of Abyflinia ; a kingdom ttill governed by its own
princes, who have the title of Beneros. Its territorv
was formerly more extenfive than at prefent, the Galla
having almoft quite furrounded it, efpecially on the
fouth-caft and north. The country to the weft is the
molt unknown part of Africa; the kingdom itfelf
Hands like a fortified place in the middle of a plain,
being a high and mountainous country. A great many
rivers, rifing in the fourth and fifth degrees of north
latitude, fpread themfelves over the level part of the
country, and fill it with marlhes all the way from fouth
by ealt to north or north-weft.—Thefe marlhes are
bounded by mountains, of which thofe neareft the mar-
fhes are overgrown with coftee trees, the large!!, if not
the only ones, which grow in this country. The king¬
dom of Narea Proper is interfperfed with fmall, un-
wholefome, but very fertile valleys. The mountainous
country of Caffa adjoins immediately to Narea, and is
faid to be governed by a feparate prince; but the Galla
having fettled themfelves in all the flat ground to the
very edge of the marlhes, have in a great meafure cut
off the communication with Abyffmia for a long time
paft. The Nareans who inhabit the mountainous coun¬
try have the lighted complexion of any people in Abyf-
finia ; but thofe who inhabit the borders of the marlhes
are perfeclly black, and have the features and woolly
heads of negroes ; but the mountaineers of Narea, and
much more thofe of Cafta, are lair complexioned, more
fo than even the Neapolitans or Sicilians. It is faid
that fnow has been feen to lie on fome of tiie mountains
of Caffa ; but Mr Bruce imagines this to be a mittake,
and thinks that it mutt have been hail.
Narea abounds with cattle, grain, and all kinds of
provifions, both in the high and low country. The
medium of commerce is gold, which they fell by
weight j but the principal articles of trade are coarfe
cotton cloths, antimony, beads, and incenfe, which are
carried from this country to the kingdom of Angola,
and the parts of the African continent towards the At¬
lantic. The people are exceedingly brave 5 and though
they have been driven out of the low country b} mul¬
titudes of Galla, they now bid them defiance, and drive
them from their frontiers whenever they come too near.
The Narean prifoners taken in thefe fkirmifties are fold
to the Mahometan merchants at Gondar ; and at Con-
ttantinople, Cairo, or in India, the women are more
efteemed than thofe of any other part of the world.
Both fexes have a cheerful kind difpofition, and attach
themfelves inviolably to their matters, if properly treat¬
ed. I he people of Narea and Caffa fpeak a language
peculiar to themfelves,
NARRATION,
Nardus,
Narr.i.
N arration.
N A R [ 6iS
NARRATION, in oratory, poetry, and hiftory, a
recital or rehearfal of a fa6t as it happened, or as it is
fuppofed to have happened. See Oratory, N° 26.
123.
Concerning Narration and Defeription we have
the following rules and obfervations in the Elements of
Criticifm.
1. The firit rule is, That in hiftory the refle&ions
ought to be chafte and folid ; for while the mind is in¬
tent upon truth, it is little difpofed to the operation
of the imagination. Strada’s Belgic hiftory is full of
poetical images, which being difeordant with the
fubjeft, are unpleafant 5 and they have a ftill worfe ef-
fe£t by giving an air of fiction to a genuine hiftory.
Such flowers ought to be feattered with a fparing hand,
even in epic poetry ; and at no rate are they proper till
the reader be warmed, and by an enlivened imagination
be prepared to reliih them : in that ft ate of mind, they
are agreeable } but while we are fedate and attentive to
an hiftorical chain of fafts, we reject with difdain every
fiction.
2. Vida, following Horace, recommends a modeft
commencement of an epic poem •, giving for a reafon
that the writer ought to hulband his fire. Befides bold
thoughts and figures are never relilhed till the mind be
heated and thoroughly engaged, which is not the rea¬
der’s cafe at the commencement. Homer introduces not
a Angle fimile in the firft book of the Iliad, nor in the
firfl: book of the Odyfley. On the other hand, Shake-
fpeare begins one of his plays with a fentiment too bold
for the moft heated imagination
O
Bedford. Hung be the heav’ns with black, yield day
to night !
Comets, importing change of times and ftates,
Brandifh your cryftal trefles in the Iky,
And with them fcourge the bad revolting ftars,
That have confented unto Henry’s death !
Henry the Fifth, too famous to live long !
England ne’er loft arking of fo much worth.
Firjl part Henry VI.
The paflage with which Strada begins his hiftory, is
tob poetical for a fubjeft of that kind ; and at any rate
too high for the beginning of a grave performance.
3. A third rule or obfervation is, That where the
fubjedt is intended for entertainment folely, not for in-
ftruftion, a thing ought to be deferibed as it appears,
not as it is in reality. In running, for example, the
impulfe upon the ground is proportioned in feme degree
to the celerity of motion ; though in appearance it is
otherwife, for a perfon in fwift motion feems to fldm
the ground, and fearcely to touch it. Virgil, with great
tafte, deferibes quick running according to appearance y
and raifes an image far more lively than by adhering
fcrupuloufly to truth :
Hos fuper advenit Volfca de gente Camilla,
Agmen agens equitum, et florentes oere catervas,
Bellatrix : non ilia colo calathifve Mincrvaj
Foemineas aflueta man us \ fed praelia virgo
Dura pati curfuque pedum preevertere ventos.
Ilia vel inta&ae fegetis per fumma volaret
Gramina, nec teneras curfu laefiflet ariftas :
Vel mare per medium fluftu fufpenfa tumenti,
Ferret iter,, celeres ncc tingeret sequore plantas.
J&neid) vii. 803..
] N A R
4. In narration as well as in defeription, objefts Narration,
ought to be painted fo accurately as to form in the
mind of the reader diftimSt and lively, images. Every
ufelefs circumftance ought indeed to be fuppreffed, be-
caufe every fucli circumftance loads the narration ; but
if a circumftance be neceffary, however flight, it can¬
not be deferibed too minutely. The force of language
conflfts in raifing complete images, which have the ef¬
fect to tranfport the reader as by magic into the very
place of the important action, and to convert him as
it were into a fpeftator, beholding every thing that
pafles. The narrative in an epic poem ought to rival
a picture in the livelinefs and accuracy of its reprefen-
tations : no circumftance muft be omitted that tends to
make a complete image •, becaufe an imperfect image as
well as any other imperfeft conception, is cold and un~
interefting. We ihall illuftrate this rule by feveral ex¬
amples, giving the firft place to a beautiful paffage from
Virgil :
Oualis popnlcd mcerens Philomela fub umbra
Amiffos queritur foetus, quos durus arator
Obfervans nido implumes detraxit.
Georg, lib. iv. 511.
The poplar, ploughman, and unfledged young, though
not ellential in the deicription, tend to make a com¬
plete image, and upon that account are an embellilh-
ment.
Again :
Hie viridem /Eneas frondenti ex ilice metam
Conftituit, fignum nautis. JEneid, v. 129,
Horace addrefling to Fortune :
Te pauper ambit follicita prece
Ruris colonus : te dominam aequoris,
Quicumque Bithyna laceflit
Carpathium pelagus carina.
Carm. lib. i. ode 35.
   Ilium ex moenibus hofticis:
Matrona bellantis tyranni
Profpiciens, et adulta virgo,.
Sufpiret : Eheu, ne rudis agminum
Sponfus laceflat regius afperum
Ta£tu leonem, quern cruenta
Per medias rapit ira ctedes.
Carm. lib. iii. ode 2.
Shakefpeare fays, “ You may as well go about to turn
the fun to ice by fanning in his face with a peacock"1 s
feather.” The peacock’s feather, not to mention the
beauty of the objeft, completes the image : an accu¬
rate image cannot be formed of that fanciful operation,
without conceiving a particular feather ; and one is at
a lofs when this is neglected in the defeription. Again,
u The rogues flighted me into the river w ith as little
remorfe, as they would have drown’d a bitch’s blind
puppies, fifteen i’ th’ litter.”
Old Lady. You would not be a queen ?
Anne. No, not for all the riches under heaven.
Old Lady. ’Tis Jtrange : a threepence bow’d would
hire me, old as I am, to queen it.
Henry VIII. aft ii. fc. 5.
In the following paflage, the aftion, with all its materi¬
al
Narration.
N A R [ 6
al circumftanqes, is reprefented fo much to the life, that
it would fcarce appear more diflimEt to a real fpeftator j
and it is the manner of defcription that contributes
greatly to the fublimity of the paffage—
He fpake j and, to confirm his words, out flew
Millions of flaming fwords, drawn from the thighs
Of mighty cherubim j the hidden blaze
Far round illumin’d hell: highly they rag’d
Againft the Higheft, and fierce with grafped arms,
Clafh’d on their founding thields the din of war,
Hurling defiance toward the vault of heav’n.
Milton, book i.
The following paflage from Shakefpeare falls not
much fhort of that now mentioned in particularity of
defcription :
O you hard hearts ! ye cruel men of Rome !
Knew you not Pompey ? Many a time and oft
Have you climb’d up to walls and battlements,
To towers and windows, yea, to chimney tops,
Your infants in your arms, and there have fat
The live-long day with patient expectation
To fee great Pompey pafs the ftreets of Rome j
And when you faw his chariot but appear,
Have you not made an univerfal fliout,
That Tyber trembled underneath his banks,
To hear the replication of your founds,
Made in his concave fhore ?
Julius Cccfur, a Cl i. fc. r.
The following pafiage is fcarcely inferior to either of
thofe mentioned :
“ Far before the reft, the fon of Oflian comes:
bright in the fmiles of youth, fair as the firfl beams of
the fun. His long hair waves on his back : his dark
brow is half beneath his helmet. The fword hangs
loofe on the hero’s fide j and his fpear glitters as he
moves. I fled from his terrible eye, king of high
Temora. Fingal.
The Henriade of Voltaire errs greatly againfl the
foregoing rule: every incident is touched in a fummary
way, without ever defeending to circumftances. This
manner is good in a general hiftory, the purpofe of
which is to record important tranfaClions: but in a fa¬
ble it is cold and uninterefting j becaufe it is impracti¬
cable to form diltinCt images of perfons or things repre¬
fented in a manner fo fuperficial.
It is obferved above, that every ufelefs circumftance
ought to be fuppreffed. The crowding fuch circum¬
ftances is, on the one hand, not lefs to be avoided
than the concifenefs for which Voltaire is blamed, on
the other. In the ABneid, Barce, the nurfe of Sichae-
us, whom we never hear of before nor after, is intro¬
duced for a purpofe not more important than to call
Anna to her After Dido : and that it might not be
thought unjuft in Dido, even in this trivial circum¬
ftance, to prefer her hufband’s nurfe before her owrn,
the poet takes care to inform his reader, that Dido’s
nurfe was dead. To this may be oppofed a beautiful
paflage in the fame book, rvhere, after Dido> laft
Ipeech, the poet, without detaining his readers by de-
feribing the manner of her death, haftens to the lamen¬
tation of her attendants;
6 ] N A R
Dixerat: atque illam media inter talia ferro Narmior.,
Collapfam alpiciunt comites, enfemque cruore ^ .
Spumantem, fparfafque manus. It clamor ad alta
Atria \ concuflam bacehatur fama per urbem j
Lamentis gemituque, et feemineo ululatu
TeCta fremunt, refonat magnis plangoribus aether.
Lib. iv. 663.
As an appendix to the foregoing rule, may be added
the following obfervation, That to make a fudden and
ftrong impreflion, feme Angle circumftance, happily
feleCled, has more power than the moft laboured de¬
fcription. Macbeth, mentioning to his lady feme
voices he heard while he was murdering the King,
fays,
There’s one did laugh in’s fleep, and one cry’d
Murder !
They wak’d each other j and I flood and heard
them :
But they did fay their prayers, and addrefs them
Again to fleep.
Lady. There are two lodg’d together.
Macbeth. One cry’d, God blels us ! and, Amen !
the other j
As they had feen me with thefe hangman’s hands,
Liftening their fear. I could not fay, Amen,
When they did fay, God blefs us.
Lady. Confider it not fo deeply.
Macbeth. But wherefore could not I pronounce
Amen !
I had moft need of blefling, and Amen
Stuck in my throat.
Lady. Tliefe deeds muft not be thought
After thefe ways j fe, it will make us mad.
Macbeth. Methought, I heard a voice cry,
Sleep no more !
Macbeth doth murder fleep, &c. A<51 ii. fc. 2.
Defcribing Prince Henry:
1 faw young Harry, with his beaver on,
His cuifles on his thighs, gallantly arm’d,
Rife from the ground like feather’d Mercury j
And vaulted with fuch eafe into his feat,
As if an angel dropt down from the clouds,
To turn and wind a fiery Pegafus,
And witch the world with noble horfemanfhip.
Firji Part Henry IV. a£l iii. fc. 3.
King Henry. Lord Cardinal, if thou think’ft on
Heaven’s blifs,
Hold up thy hand, make fignal of thy hope.
He dies, and makes no fign !
Second Part Henry VI. act iii. fc. 3.
The fame author, fpeaking ludicroufly of an army
debilitated with difeafes, fays,
“ Half of them dare not {hake the fnow from off
their caffocks, left; they (hake themftlves to pieces.”
“ I have feen the walls of Balclutha, but they were
defolate. The flames had refounded in the halls : and
the voice of the people is heard no more. The ft ream
of Clutha was removed from its place by the iall of the
walls. The thiftle (hook there its lonely head : the
mofs whittled to the wind. The fox looked out feom
the windows: and the rank grafs of the wall waved
round
N A R [6
Narration, round Ins head. Defolate is the dwelling of Morna :
v y—' fiience js in the houfe of her fathers.” Finga/.
To draw a chara&er is the mafter ftroke of defcrip-
tion. In this Tacitus excels j his portraits are natural
and lively, not a feature wanting or mifplaced. Shake-
fpeare, however, exceeds Tacitus in livelinefs ; fome
charafteriftical circumftance being generally invented
of laid hold of, which paints more to the life than
many words. The following inftances will explain our
meaning, and at the fame time prove our obfervation
to be juft.
Why Ihould a man, whofe blood is warm within,
Sit like his grandfire cut in alabafter ?
Sleep when he wakes, and creep into the jaundice,
By being peevilh ? I tell thee what, Anthonio,
(I love thee, and it is my love that fpeaks),
There are a fort of men, whofe vifages
Do cream and mantle like a Handing pond j
And do a wilful ftillnefs entertain,
With purpofe to be drefs’d in an opinion
Of wifdom, gravity, profound conceit j
As who fhould fay, I am Sir Oracle,
And when I ope my lips, let no dog bark !
O my Anthonio ! I do know of thofe,
That therefore only are reputed wife,
For faying nothing.
Merchant of Venice, act i. fc. I.
Again :
“ Gratiano fpeaks an infinite deal of nothing, more
than any man in all Venice : his reafons are two grains
of wheat hid in two bulhels of chaff; you fhall feek all
day ere you find them ■, and when you have them, they
are not worth the fearch.” Ibid.
In the following pafiage a character is completed by
a fingle ftroke:
Shallow. O the mad days that I have fpent; and to
fee how many of mine old acquaintance are dead.
Silence. We (hall all follow, coufin.
Shallow. Certain, ’tis certain, very fare, very fure *,
Death (as the Pfalmift faith) is certain to all: all {hall
die. How a good yoke of bullocks at Stamford fair ?
Slender. Truly coufin, I was not there.
Shallow. Death is certain. Is old Double of your
town living yet ?
Silence. Dead, Sir.
Shallow. Dead ! fee, fee : he drew a good bovr: and
dead. He fhot a fine (hot. How a fcore of ewres now?
Silence. Thereafter as they be. A fcore of good
ewes may be worth ten pounds.
Shallow. And is old Double dead ?
Second part Henry IV. aft iii, fc. 2.
Defcribing a jealous hulband :
“ Neither prefs, coffer, cheft, trunk, well, vault, but
he hath an abftraft for the remembrance of fuch places,
and goes to them by his note. There is no hiding you
in the houfe.” Merry Wives of Windfor, aftiv. fc. 3.
Congreve has an inimitable ftroke of this kind in his
comedy of Love for Love :
Ben Legend. Well, father, and how do all at home ?
liow does brother Dick, and brother Yah
Vol, XIV. Part IL
7 ] N A R
Sir Sampfon. Dick, body o’ me, Dick has been dead Narration1
thefe two years. I writ you wTord when you were at
Leghorn.
Ben. Mefs, that’s true ; marry I had forgot. Dick’s
dead, as you fay. Aft iii. fc. 6.
Falftaff fpeaking of Ancient Piftol :
“ He’s no fwaggerer, hoftefs ; a tame cheater i’faith:
you may ftroak him as gently as a puppy greyhound j
he will not fwagger with a Barbary hen, if her feathers
turn back in any (how of refiftance.”
Second part Henry IV. aft ii. fc. 4.
Offian, among his other excellencies, is eminently
fuccefsful in drawing charafters j and he never fails to
delight his reader with the beautiful attitudes of his he¬
roes. Take the following inftances :
“ O Ofcar ! bend the ftrong in arm ; but fpare the
feeble hand. Be thou a ftream of many tides againft:
the foes of thy people •, but like the gale that moves the
grafs to thofe who afk thine aid.—So Trenmor lived $
fuch Trathal was $ and fuch has Fingal been. My arm
was the fupport of the injured 5 and the weak refted be¬
hind the lightning of my fteel.”
“ We heard the voice of joy on the coaft, and we
thought that the mighty Cathmor came. Cathmor the
friend of ftrangers ! the brother of red-haired Cairbar !
But their fouls were not the fame 5 for the light of
heaven was on the bofom of Cathmor. Plis towers
rofe on the banks of Atha : feven paths led to his halls :
ftven chiefs flood on thefe paths, and called the ftranger
to the feaft. But Cathmor dwelt in the wood to avoid
the voice ofpraife.”
“ Dermid and Ofcar were one : they reaped the
battle together. Their friendffup was ftrong as their
fteel) and death walked between them to the field.
They rufh on the foe like two rocks falling from the
brow of Ardven. Their fwords are ftained with the
blood of the valiant: warriors faint at their name.
Who is equal to Ofcar but Dermid ? who to Dermid
but Ofcar ?
“ Son of Comhal, replied the chief, the ftrength of
IMorni’s arm has failed : I attempted to draw the fword
of my youth, but it remains in its place : I throw the
fpear, "but it falls ftiort of the mark : and I feel the
weight of my ftiield. We decay like the grafs of the
mountain, and our ftrength returns no more. I have
a fon, O Fingal"! his foul has delighted in the aftions
of Morni’s youth } but his fword has not been fitted
againft the foe, neither has his fame begun. I come
with him to battle, to direft his arm. His renown will
be a fun to my foul, in the dark hour of my departure.
O that the name of Morni were forgot among the
people ! that the heroes would only fay, Behold the fa-
ther of Gaul.”
Some writers, through heat of imagination, fall into
contradiftion j fome are guilty of downright abfurdi-
ties •, and fome even rave like madmen. Againft; fuch
capital errors one cannot be more effeftually warned
than by collefting inftances 5 and the firft {hall be of a
contradiftion, the moft venial of all. Virgil fpeaking
of Neptune,
4 I Interea
Narration.
N A R l 61
Interea magno mifceri murmure pontum,
EmiffanKiue hyemem fenlit Neptunus, et imis
Stagna refufa vadis j graviter commotus, et alto
Profpiciens, {umvciiiplacidum caput extulit unda.
JEneid, i. 128.
Again:
When firft young Maro, in his boundlefs mind,
A work t’outlaft immortal Horne defign’d.
F.jff'ay on Criticifm, 30.
The following examples are of abfurdities.
“ Alii puliis e tormento catenls difcerpti fedllque,
dimidiate corpore pugnabant fibi fuperllites, ac per-
emptae partis ultores.” Strada, Dec. ii. 2.
8 J N A R
Jupiter in wrath puffing up both cheeks, is a low and Narration,
even ludicrous expreffion, far from fuitable to the gra- u—""V——
vily and importance of the iubjeft : every one muft
feel the difcordance. The following couplet, finking
far below the fubjedl, is no lefs ludicrous :
Not one looks backward, onward Hill he goes.
Yet ne’er looks forward fai-ther than his nofe.
FJJoij on Man, ep. iv. 223.
On the other hand, to raife the expreffion above the
tone of the fubjedf, is a fault than which none is more
common. Take the following inftances :
Orcan le plus fi.dele a fervir fes deffeins,
Ne fous le ciel brulant des plus noirs Africains.
Buja'z.et, act iii. fc. 8.
II pover huomo, che non fen* era accorto,
Andava combattendo, ed era morto. Berni.
He tied, but flying, left his life behind.
Iliad, xi. 443.
Full through his neck the weighty falchion fped :
Along the pavement roll’d the nmtt’ring head.
Ody/J'ey, xxii. 365.
The laft article is of raving like one mad. Cleopatra
Ipeaking to the alpic,
*   —Welcome, thou kind deceiver,
Thou befl: of thieves \ who, with an eafy key,
Doll open Kfe, and unperceiv’d by us
Ev’n Ileal us from ourfelves; difeharging to
Death’s dreadful office, better than hixnfelf $
Touching our limbs fo gently into flumber.
That Death tlands by, deceiv’d by his own image,
And thinks himfelf but fleep.
Dr yd in, Allfor Love, adt v.
Having difeufled what obfervations occurred upon
the thoughts or things expreffed, we proceed to what
more peculiarly concerns the language or verbal drefs.
As words are intimately conne£fed with the ideas they
reprefent, the emotions raifed by the found and by the
fenfe ought to be concordant. An elevated fubjedl re¬
quires an elevated (lyle ; what is familiar, ought to be
familiarly expreffed : a fubjedt that is ferious and im¬
portant, ought to be clothed in plain nervous language :
a defeription, on the other hand, addreffed to the ima¬
gination, is fufccptible of the bigheft ornaments that
founding words and figurative expreffion can bellow
upon it.
We ffiall give a few examples of the foregoing rules.
A poet of any genius is not apt to drefs a high fub-
je«5l in low words; and yet blemiffies of that kind are
found even in claffical works. Horace, obferving that
men are fatisfied with themfelves, but feldom with
their condition, introduces Jupiter indulging to each
bis own choice :
Jam faciam quod vultis j eris tu, qui mode miles,
Mercator j tu, confultus modo, rufticus : hinc vos,
Vos hinc, mutatis difeedite partibus. eia,
Quid ? llatis ? nolint, atqui licet effe beatis.
Quid caufse eft, merito quin illis Jupiter umbift
Iratus buccas inflet, neque fe fore pofthac
Tam facilem dicat, votis ut prsebeat aurem ?
Sat. i. 16.
Les ombres par trois fois ont obfeurei les cieux
Depuis que le lommtil n’eft entre dans vos yeux j
Et le our a trois fois chaffe la nuit obfeure
Depuis que votre corps languit fans nourriture.
. Phcedra, aft i. fc. 3.
Ajjueris. Ce mortel, qui montra tant de zele pour
moi, Vit-il encore ?
Afaph.m , H voit I’altre qui vous eclaire.
Efher, aft ii. fc. 3.
Oui, e’eft Agamemnon, e’eft ton roi qui t’eveille j
Viens, reconnois la voix qui frappe ton oreille.
Iphigenie.
No jocund health that Denmark drinks to-day,
But the great cannon to the clouds lhall tell •,
And the king’s rowle the heav’n lhall bruit again,
Refpeaking earthly thunder.
Hamlet, aft i. fc. 2.
     In the inner room
1 ipy a winking lamp, that weakly ftrikes
The ambient air, farce kindling into light.
SouTHLRNE, Fate oj Capua, aft iii.
In the Funeral Orations of the billiop of Meaux, the
following paffages are railed far above the tone of the
fubjtft j
“ L’Ocean etonne de fe voir traverfe tant de fois, en
des appareils fi divers, et pour des caufes fi difterentes,
&e.” Pag. 6.
“ Grande reine, je fatisfais a vos plus tendres defirs,
quand je eelebre ce monarque j et fon coeur qui n’a ja¬
mais vecu que pour lui, s’eveille, tout poudre qu’il eft,
et devient fenfible, meme fous ce drap mortuaire, au
nom d’un epoux fi cher.” Pag< 3
The following paffage, intended, one would imagine,
as a receipt to boil water, is altogether buriefque by
the laboured elevation of the diftion :
A maffy cauldron of ftupendous frame
They brought, and plac’d it o’er the riling flame :
Then heap the lighted wood ; the flame divides
Beneath the vafe, and climbs around the lides :
In its wide womb they pour the rufhing ftream :
The boiling Avater bubbles to the brim.
Iliad, xviii. 405.
In a paffage at the beginning of the 4th book of
Telemachm, one feels a fudden bound upAvard without
preparation, Avhich accords not with the fubjeft :
64 Calypfo,
Karration-
>
N A li [ 619
“ Calypfo, qui avoit ete jufq’ a ce iriomerxt immo¬
bile et tranfportee de plailir en ecoutant les aventures
de Telemaque, I’interrompit pour lui faire prendre
quelque repos. II eft terns, lui dit-elle, que vous alliez
goftter la douceur du fommeil apres taut de travaux.
Vous n’avez rien a craindre ici j tout vous eft favora¬
ble. Abandonnez vous done a la joie. Goutez la
paix, et tous les autres dons des dieux dont vous allez
vtre comble. Demain, quand /’ Aurore avec fesj doigts
de rofes entr'ouvrira les portes dorees de /'Orient, et que
les chevaux du foleil, fortant de Vonde ame're, repandront
les flames du jour, pour chajfer devant eux toutes les
ctoiles du del, nous reprendrons, mon cher Telemaque,
1’hiftoire de vos malheurs.'”
This obvioufly is copied from a fimilar paftage in
the /Eneid, which ought not to have been copied, be-
caufe he lies open to the fame cenfure but the force
of authority is great:
At regina gravi jamdudum faucia cura,
Vulnus alit venis, et cceco carpitur igni.
Multa viri virtus animo, multufque recurfat
Gentis honos : haerent infixi pe&ore vultus,
Verbaque : nec placidam membris dat cura quietem.
Pq/lera Phcebea lujirabat lampade terras,
Humentemque Aurora polo dlmoverat umbram ;
Cum lie unanimem alloquitur malefana fororem.
Lib. iv. I.
The language of Homer is fuited to his fubje£t, not
lefs accurately than the actions and fentiments of his
Keroes are to their chara&ers. Virgil, in that particu¬
lar, falls ftiort of perfection : his language is ftately
throughout j and though he defeends at times to the
limpleft branches of cookery, roafting and boiling for
example, yet he never relaxes a moment from the high
tone.—In adjufting his language to his fubjeCt, no wri¬
ter equals Swift. We can recoiled but one exception,
which at the fame time-is far from being grofs : The
Journal of a modern Lady is compofed in a ftyle blend¬
ing fprightlinefs with familiarity, perfe&ly fuited^ to
the fubjed : in one paffage, however, the poet, deviat¬
ing from that ftyle, takes a tone above his fubjed.
The paffage we have in view begins 1. 116. But let
me now a while furvey, &c. and ends at 1. 135*
It is proper to be obferved upon this head, that wri¬
ters of inferior rank are continually upon the ftretch
to enliven and enforce their fubjed by exaggeration
and fuperlatives. This unluckily has an effed contrary
to what is intended ; the reader, difgufted with lan¬
guage that fwells above the fubjed, is led by contrail
to think more meanly of the fubjed than it may pof-
fibly deferve. A man of prudence, befide, will be no
lefs careful to hulhand his ftrength in writing than in
walking 5 a writer, too liberal of fuperlatives, exhaufts
his whole ftock upon ordinary incidents, and referves
no (hare to exprefs, with greater energy, matters of im¬
portance.
Many writers of that kind abound fo in epithets, as
if poetry confided entirely in high founding words.
Take the following inftance :
When black broAv’d night her dulky mantle fpread,
And Avrapt in folemn gloom the fable Iky j
When Toothing deep her opiate dews had Ihed,
And feal’d in filken Humbers every eye :
] N A R
My Avaking thought admits no balmy reft, Nafratie*.
Nor the fweet blifs of foft oblivion ftiare ;
But watchful woe diftrads my aching breaft,
My heart the fubjed of corroding care :
From haunts of men with wandering fteps and IloW
I folitary ileal, and foothe my penfive woe.
Here every fubftantive is faithfully attended by fome
tumid epithet.
We proceed to a fecond remark, not lefs important
than the former. No perfon of refledion but muft be
fenfible, that an incident makes a ftronger impreffion oft
an eye Avitncfs, than when heard at fecond hand. Wri¬
ters of genius, fenfible that the eye is the bell avenue to
the heart, reprefent every thing as palling in our fight $
and, from readers or hearers, transform us as it Avere in¬
to fpedators : a Ikilful writer conceals himfelf, and pre-
fents his perfonages : in a Avord, every thing becomes
dramatic as much as poftible. Plutarch, de gloria A-
thenienjium, obferves, that Thucydides makes his reader
a fpedator, and infpires him with the fame pafliofts as if
he Avere an eye Avitnefs.
In the fine arts, it is a rule to put the capital objeds
in the ftrongeft point of view j and even to prefent them
oftener than once, where it can be done. In hiftory
painting, the principal figure is placed in the front, and
in the bell light; an equeftrian ftatue is placed in a cen¬
tre of ftreets, that it may be feen from many places at
once. In no compofition is there greater opportunity
for this rule than in AA'riting :
—— Sequitur pulcherrimus Aftur,
Aftur equo fidens et verficoloribus armis.
JEneid, x. 180
  ——Full many a lady
I’ve ey’d Avith bell regard, and many a time
Th’ harmony of their tongues hath into bondage
Brought my too diligent ear : for feveral virtues
Have I lik’d feveral Avomen : never any
With fo full foul, but fome defed in her
Did quarrel Avith the nobleft grace Ihe ow’d,
And put it to the foil. But you, O you,
So perfed, and fo peerlefs, are created
Of every creature’s bell. Tempejl, ad iii. fc. l.
Orlando. AVhate’er you are
That, in the defert inacceflible,
Under the lhade of melancholy boughs,
Lofe and negled the creeping hours of time j
If ever you have look’d on better days j
If ever been Avhere bells have knoll’d to church i
If ever fat at any good man’s feaft ;
If ever from your eyelids wip’d a tear,
And known Avhat ’tis to pity, and be pity’d ;
Let gentlenefs my ftrong enforcement be,
In the Avhich hope I blulh, and hide my fvvord.
Duke fen. True is it that we have feen better dayst
And have Avith holy bell been knoll’d to church j
And fat at good men’s feafts $ and wip’d our eyes
Of drops that facred pity had engender’d j
And therefore lit you down in gentlenefs,
And take upon command Avhat help avc have,
That to your Avanting may be minift’red.
As you like it.
With thee converfing I forget all time j
All feafons and their change, all pleafe alike.
4 I 2 Sweet
N A R [ 620 ] N A R
Narration. Sweet is tlie breath of morn, her rifing fweet,
* 1 With charm of earlieft birds j pleafant the fun
When firfl: on this delightful land he fpreads
His orient beams on herbs, tree, fruit, and flow’r
Glift’ring with dew ; fragrant the fertile earth
After foft fhow’rs j and fweet the coming on
Of grateful ev’ning mild, the filent night
With this her folemn bird, and this fair moon,
And thefe the gems of heav’n, her ftarry train :
But neither breath of morn, when (he afcends
With charm of earliefl birds, nor rifing fun
On this delightful land, nor herb, fruit, flow’r,
Glifl’ring with dew, nor fragrance after fhow’rs,
Nor grateful ev’ning mild, nor filent night,
With this her folemn bird, nor walk by moon,
Or glittering ftar light, without thee is fweet.
Puradife Lq/I, book iv. 1. 634.
“ What mean ye, that ye ufe this proverb, The fa¬
thers have eaten four grapes, and the children’s teeth
are fet on edge ? As I live, faith the Lord God, ye
lhall not have occafion to ufe this proverb in Ifrael. If
a man keep my judgments to deal truly, he is juft, he
lhall furely live. But if he be a robber, a fliedder of
blood : if he have eaten upon the mountains, and de¬
filed his neighbour’s wife: if he have oppreffed the
poor and needy, have fpoiled by violence, have not re-
ftored the pledge, have lift up his eyes to idols, have
given forth upon ufury, and have taken increafe: Ihall
he live ? lie (hall not live : he Ihall furely die j and his
blood fhall be upon him. Now, lo, if he beget a fon,
that feeth all his father’s fins, and confidereth, and doth
not fuch like; that hath not eaten upon the moun¬
tains, hath not lift up his eyes to idols, nor defiled his
neighbour’s wife, hath not opprefled any, nor with¬
held the pledge, neither hath fpoiled by violence, but
hath given his bread to the hungry, and covered the
naked with a garment: that hath not received ufury
nor increafe, that hath executed my judgments, and
walked in my ftatutes : he fhall not die for the iniquity
of his father \ he Audi furely live. The foul that fin-
neth, it fhall die j the fon fhall not bear the iniquity
of the father, neither (hall the father bear the iniquity
of the fon; the righteoufnefs of the righteous fhall be
upon him, and the wickednefs of the wicked fhall be
upon him. Have I any pleafure that the wicked fhould
die, faith the Lord God j and not that he fhould return
from his ways, and live ?” E-zekiel xvii.
A concife comprehenfive ftyle is a great ornament in
narration } and a fuperfluity of unnecefiary words, not
lefs than of circumftances, a great nuifance. A judi¬
cious felecfion of the ftriking circumftances, clothed in
a nervous ftyle, is delightful. In this ftyle, Tacitus
excels all writers, ancient and modern. Inftances are
numberlefstake the following fpecimen :
“ Crebra hinc praelia, et faepius in modum latrocinii:
per faltus, per paludes ; ut cuique fors aut virtus: te-
mere, provifo, ob iram, ob praedam, juffu, et aliquando
ignaris ducibus.” Annul, lib. xii. ^ 39.
After Tacitus, Oflian in that refpeft juftly merits
the place of diftimftion. One cannot go wrong for ex¬
amples in any part of the book.
If a concife or nervous ftyle by a beauty, tautology
muft be a blemifh j and yet writers, fettered by verfe,
3
are not fufficiently careful to avoid this flovenly prac- Narration,
tice : they may be pitied, but they cannot be juftified.y—
Take for a fpecimen the following inftances, from the
belt poet, for verfification at leaft, that England has to
boaft of:
High on his helm celeftial lightnings play.
His beamy fliield emits a living ray;
Th’ unweary’d blaze inceffant ftreams fupplies,
Like the red ftar that fires the autumnal Ikies.
Iliad.
Strength and omnipotence inveft thy throne.
Ibid. 576.
So filent fountains, from a rock’s tall head,
In fable ftreams foft trickling waters filed.
Ibid. ix. 19.
His clanging armour rung. Ibid. xii. 94.
Fear on their cheek, and horror in their eye.
Ibid. xv. 4.
The blaze of armour flafti’d againft the day.
Ibid. xvii. 736.
As when the piercing blafts of Boreas blow.
Ibid. xix. 380.
And like the moon, the broad refulgent fliield
Blaz’d with long rays, and gleam’d athwart the field.
Ibid. xix. 402.
No—could our fwiftnefs o’er the winds prevail,
Or beat the pinions of the weftern gale,
All were in vain  Ibid. xix. 604.
The humid fweat from every pore defeends.
Ibid, xxiii. 829.
We clofe this article •with a curious inquiry. An
objeft, however ugly to the fight, is far from being ft>
when reprefented by colours or by words. What is
the caufe of this difference ? With refpeft to painting,
the caufe is obvious: a good pifture, whatever the
fubjeft be, is agreeable by the pleafure we take in
imitation; and this pleafure overbalancing the dif-
agreeablenefs of the fubjeft, makes the picture upon
the whole agreeable. With refpeft to the deferiptiont
of an ugly object, the caufe follows. To conneft in¬
dividuals in the focial ftate, no particular contributes
more than language, by the pov’er it poffeffes of an
expeditious communication of thought, and a lively
reprefentation of tranfaftions. But nature hath not
been fatisfied to recommend language by its utility
merely : independent of utility, it is made fufceptible
of many beauties, which are direftly felt, without any
intervening refleftion. And this unfolds the myftery 7
for the plealure of language is fo great, as in a lively
defeription to overbalance the difagreeablenefs of the
image raifed by it. This, however, is no encourage¬
ment to choofe a difagreeable fubjeft ; for the pleafure
is incomparably greater where the fubject and the de¬
feription are both of them agreeable.
The following defeription is upon the whole a-
greeable, though the fubje<ft deferibed is in itfelf
difmal:
Nine times the fpace that meafures day and night
To mortal men,, he with his horrid crew
Lay
Narra^on.
U'-'-y——J
N A H [ 621 ] N A K
Lay vanquiftied, rolling in the fiery gulf,
Confounded though immortal ! but his doom
Referv’d him to more wrath ; for now the thought
Both of loft happinefs and lafting pain
Torments him : round he throws his baleful eyes
That witnefs’d huge affli&ion and difmay,
Mix’d with obdurate pride and ftedfaft hate.
At once as far as angels ken he views
The difmal fituation wafte and wild :
A dungeon horrible, on all fides round
As one great furnace flamed 5 yet from thofe flames
No light, but rather darknefs vifible
Serv’d only to difcover fights of wo,
Regions of forrow, doleful {hades, where peace
And reft can never dwell, hope never comes
That comes to all ; but torture without end
Still urges, and a fiery deluge, fed
With ever-burning fulphur unconfum’d !
Such place eternal juftice had prepar’d
For thofe rebellious. Paradife Lojl, book i. 50.
An unmanly depreflion of fpirits in time of danger is
not an agreeable fight j and yet a fine defcription or re-
prefentation of it will be relhhed :
K. Richard. What muft the king do now ? muft
Of fiery darts in flaming volleys flew,
And flying vaulted either hoft with fire.
So under fiery cope together rufti’d
Both battles main, with ruinous affault
And unextinguilhable rage : all heaven
Refounded, and had earth been then, all earth
Had to her centre (hook. Ibid, book vi, 207,
Ghojl. — . But that I am forbid
To tell the fecrets of my prifon-houfe,
I could a tale unfold, whofe lighteft word
Would harrow up thy foul, freeze thy young blood,
Make thy two eyes, like ftars ftart from their fpheres,
Thy knotty and combined locks to part,
And each particular hair to ftand on end,
Like quills upon the fretful porcupine :
But this eternal blazon muft not be
To ears of flefti and blood. Hamlet, aft i. fc. 8.
Gratiano. Poor Defdemona ! I’m glad thy father’s
dead :
Thy match was mortal to him ; and pure grief
Shore his old thread in twain. Did he live now,
This fight would make him do a defp’rate turn :
Yea, curfe his better angel from his fide,
And fall to reprobation. Othello, aft v. fc. 8.
Narration,
Narfes.
he fubmit ?
The king fliall do it : muft he be depos’d ?
The king fliall be contented : muft he lofe
The name of king ? o’ God’s name let it go :
I’ll give my jewels for a fet of beads j
My gorgeous palace, for a hermitage j
My gay apparel, for an almfman’s gown ;
My figur’d goblets, for a difli of wood 5
My fceptre, for a palmer’s walking-ftaff;
My fubjefts, for a pair of carved faints 5
And my large kingdom, for a little grave j
A little, little, grave, an obfcure grave.
Or I’ll be buried in the king’s highway ;
Some way of common tread, where fubjefts feet
May hourly trample on their fovereign’s head \
For on my heart they tread now, whilft I live }
And, bury’d once, why not upon my head ?
Richard II. aft iii. fc. 6.
Objefts that ftrike terror in a fpeftator, have in poe¬
try and painting a fine effeft. The pifture, by railing
a flight emotion of terror, agitates the mind ; and in
that condition every beauty makes a deep impreflion.
May not contraft heighten the pleafure, by oppofing our
prefent fecurity to the danger of encountering the ob-
jeft reprefented.
      —The other fliape,
If fhape it might be call’d that ftiape had none
Diftinguiftiable in member, joint, or limb ;
Or fubftance might be call’d that fhadow feem’d,
For each feem’d either ; black it flood as night,
Fierce as ten furies, terrible as hell,
And (hook a dreadful dart. Par. Lojl, book ii. 666.
• Now {forming fury rofe,
And clamour fuch as heard in heaven till now
Was never : arms on armour clafhing bray’d
Horrible difcord, and the madding wheels
Of brazen chariots rage *, dire was the noile
Of conflift ; overhead the difmal hifs
Objefts of horror muft be excepted from the forego¬
ing theory j for no defcription, however lively, is futfi-
cient to overbalance the difguft raifed even by the idea
of fuch objefts. Every thing horrible ought therefore
to be avoided in a defcription.
N ARSES, the eunuch who rivalled Belifarius in he-
roifm under the reign of the emperor Juftinian, emerged
from obfcurity A. D. 538. From the domeftic fervice
of the palace, and the adminiftration of the private re¬
venue, he was fuddenly exalted to the head of an army.
He is ranked among the few eunuchs who have refcued
that unhappy name from the contempt and hatred of
mankind. A feeble diminutive body concealed the foul
of a ftatefman and a warrior. His youth had been em¬
ployed in the management of the loom and diftaff, in
the cares of the houfehold, and the fervice of female
luxury j but, while his hands were bufy, he fecretly ex-
ercifed the faculties of a vigorous and difcerning mind.
A ftranger to the fchools and the camp, he ftudied in
the palace to diflemble, to flatter, and to perfuade j and
as foon as he approached the perfon of the emperor,
Juftinian liftened with furprife and pleafure to the man¬
ly counfels of his chamberlain and private treafurer.
The talents of Narfes were tried and improved in fre¬
quent embaflies ; he led an army into Italy, acquired a
praftical knowledge of the war and the country, and
prefumed to ftrive with the genius of Belifarius.
Twelve years after his return, the eunuch was chofen
to achieve the conqueft which had been left imperfeft
by the firft of the Roman generals. Inftead of being-
dazzled by vanity or emulation, he ferioufly declared,
that unlefs he were armed with an adequate force, he
would never confent to rilk his own glory and that of
his fovereign. Juftinian granted to the favourite what
he might have denied to the hero : the Gothic war
was rekindled from its afhes, and the preparations
were not unworthy of the ancient majefty of the em¬
pire.
Narfes defeated the Goths, the Franks, and the
Alamanni;
N A S
Kanes Atamanni ; the Italian cities opened their gates to the
Nalfau. conqueror> entered the capital in triumph j and
having eftabliihed the feat of his government at Ra¬
venna, continued 15 years to govern Italy under the
title of Exarch.
His virtues, we are told, were Rained with avarice ;
and in this provincial reign he accumulated a treaiure
of gold and filver which furpaflcd the modefty of a
private fortune. ' His government was oppreflive or
unpopular 5 and the general difcontent was exprefled
with freedom by the deputies of Rome. Before the
throne of Juftinian they boldly declared, that their
Gothic fervitude had been more tolerable than the def-
potifm of a Greek eunuch ; and that unlefs their ty¬
rant were in Ran tly removed, they would confult their
own happinefs in the choice of a mailer. Thus rvas
his difgrace the effea: of the people’s difaffe&ion ; and
his death, though in the extreme period of old age,
was unleafonable and premature, fince his genius alone
could have repaired the lall and fatal error of his life.
He died about the year 567, and, as fome fay, at the
advanced age of 95 ; but this does not appear very pro¬
bable. See Gibbon’s Rom. Hilt. vol. iv. 410 edit. p. 194,
298, &c.
.NARVA, a Itrong town of the Ruffian empire, in
Livonia, with a caltle and a harbour. It was taken by
the Mufcovites from the Danes in 1558, by the Swedes
in 1581, and they defeated the Mufcovites near it in
1700 ; but it was retaken by the Ruffians in 1704 by
ftorm, and the inhabitants fent to Aftracan. It is feat-
ed on the river Narva, 95 miles fouth-well of Wiburg,
and 172 north-call of Riga. E. Long. 29. o. N. Lat.
59. 8.
NARWAL, a genus of whales. See Monodon,
CetoloGY Index.
NASS AU-siegen, a fmall principality of Germany
in the Wefterwalde, is in general a mountainous woody
country, with fome arable and palture ground, and a
good breed of cattle. Its manufactures are chiefly
thofe of iron and Reel, having an iron mine in the
neighbourhood of Siegen. Count John the Younger,
in 1626, embraced the Roman Catholic religion, and
endeavoured to introduce it into the country ; but the
principality, upon the extinction of the line of Naffau-
Siegen in 1743, falling to the line of Naflau-Dietz,
and therein to the prince of Orange, hereditary Radt-
holder df the United Provinces, the Proteflants -were
delivered from their apprehenflons of Popilh tyranny
and bigotry. The prince, on account of thefe territo¬
ries, has a feat and voice at the diets of the empire and
circle in the college of princes. His afleffment in the
matricula for Naflau-Siegen is 773 florins monthly j
and towards the maintenance of the chamber judicato¬
ry, 50 rixdollars, fix kruitzers and a half, each term.
The revenue of this principality is ellimated at 100,000
rixdollars.
NASSAU-Dillcnbourg, a principality of Germany, fi-
tuated near the former. It has not much arable land,
but plenty of wood, good quarries of Rone, fome fil-
ver and vitriol, copper and lead, with Rore of iron,
for the working and fmelting of which there are many
forges and founderies in the country ; and by thefe,
and the fale of their iron, the inhabitants chiefly fub-
fift. Calvinifm is the religion of the principality,
"which contains five towns and two boroughs, and be-
2
[ 622 ]
NAT
N affair
II
N ational
D«bt.
longs. entirely to William V. prince of Orange, and
hereditary itadlhoidcr of the United Provinces, whofe
father fucceeded to a part of it in 1739 on the death
of Prince Chrifiian, and to the rett in 1743 on the
death of Prince William Hyacymh of Siegen. The
prince, on account of this principality alio and Dietz,
has a feat and voice in the college of princes, at the
diets, of the empire and circle. His affeffment in the
matricula, for Naffau-Dillenbourg, is 102 florins
monthly j and to the chamber judicatory, 59 rixdol¬
lars fix and half kruitzers, each term. His revenue
from this piincipality is computed at above 130,000
florins.
NASSAU-Hadamor, a country of Germany, which,
till the year 1711, had princes of its own ; but now be¬
longs wholly to William V. prince of Orange.
Nassau,, prince of Orange. See Maurice.
NATES, in Anatomy, a term expreffing thofe two
flefliy exterior parts of the body, vulgarly called the
buttocks. See Anatomy.
NATES Cerebri, are two circular protuberances of the
brain, fituated on the back fide of the medulla oblonga¬
ta, near the cerebellum.
NATION, a colle&ive term, ufed for a confider-
able number of people inhabiting a certain extent of
land, confined within fixed limits, and under the fame
government.
NA1IONAL debt : the money owing by govern¬
ment.
Our limits permit us to give but a very general fketch
of this fubjeft : However, as it is of confiderable im¬
portance to every inhabitant of thefe kingdoms, we
fhall endeavour to give as clear and comprehenfive a
view of it as the bounds neceflarily preferibed us will
admit. In order to this, it may not be improper to re¬
fer back to the times that have gone before us, that we
may the better difeover the nature of public revenues,
the manner of their expenditure, and the caufes of pub¬
lic debt. ^
In that rude Rate of fociety which precedes the ex-
tenfion of commerce and the improvements of manu-
faftures, when thofe expenfive luxuries which com¬
merce and manufactures can alone introduce, are alto¬
gether unknown j the perfon who poflefles a large reve¬
nue can fpend or enjoy that revenue in no other way
than by maintaining nearly as many people as it can
maintain. Among our feudal anceflors, the long time Smith's
during which eflates ufed to continue in the fame fami- Wealth of
ly, fufficiently demonflrates the general difpofition of Nations.
people to live within their income. Though the ruflic
hofpitality conflantly exercifed by the great landholders
may not to us in the prefent times feem confiflent with
that order which we are apt to confider as infeparably
connected with good economy, yet we mufl certainly
allow them to have been at leafi lo far frugal as not
commonly to have fpent their whole income. Some
part of this mohey, perhaps, they fpent in purchafing
the few objeCIs of vanity and luxury with which the
circlimflances of the times could furnifli them : but
fome part of it they feem commonly to have hoarded.
They could not well indeed do any thing elfe but
hoard whatever money they faved. To trade was dif-
graceful to a gentleman ; and to lend money at intereR,
which at that time was confideret} as ufury and prohi¬
bited by l.aw, would have been Rill more fo.
The
NAT [ 623 J N A T
National The fame difpofitlon to fave and to hoard prevailed
Debt in the fovereign as well as in the fubje&s. Among na-
' " tions to whom commerce and manufactures are little
known, the fovereign is in a fituation which naturally
difpofes him to the parlimony requifite for accumula¬
tion. In that lituation the expence even of a fove¬
reign cannot be direCted by that vanity which delights
in the gaudy finery of a court. The ignorance of the
times affords but few of the trinkets in which that
finery confids. Standing armies are not then neceffa-
ry ; fo that the expence even of a fovereign, like that
of any other great lord, can be employed in fcarce any
thing but bountv to his tenants and hofpitality to his
retainers. But bounty and hofpitality very feldom lead
to extravagance : though vanity almoft always does.
All the ancient fovereigns of Europe accordingly had
treafures. Every Tartar chief in the prefent times is
faid to have one.
In a commercial country abounding with every fort
of expenfive luxury, the fovereign, in the fame manner
as almoft all the great proprietors in his dominions, na¬
turally fpends a great part of his revenue in purehafing
thofe luxuries. His own and the neighbouring coun¬
tries fupply him abundantly with all the eoftly trinkets
which compofe the fplendid but infignificant pageantry
of a court. His ordinary expence becomes equal to
his ordinary revenue, and it is well if it does not
frequently exceed it. The amaffing of treafure can
no longer be expedled : and when extraordinary exi¬
gencies require extraordinary expences, he muft ne-
ceflarily call upon his fubje&s for an extraordinary aid.
The late king of Pruftia and his father are the only
great princes of Europe who, fince the death of Hen¬
ry IV. of France in 1610, are fuppofed to have amaf-
fed any confiderabie treafure. The parfimony which
leads to accumulation has become almoft as rare in re¬
publican as in monarchical governments. The Italian
republics, the United Provinces of the Netherlands,
are all in debt. The canton of Berne is the fingle re¬
public in Europe which has amafled any confiderabie
treafure. The other Swifs republics have not. The
tafte for fome fort of pageantry, for fplendid buildings
at leaft and other public ornaments, frequently prevails
as much in the apparently fober fenate houfe of a little
republic as in the diflipated court of the greateft king.
The want of parfimony in time of peace impofes the
neceftity of contracting debt in time of war. When
war comes, there is no money in the treafury but what
is neceflary for carrying on the ordinary expence of
the peace eftabliftiment. In war an eftablilhment of
three or four times that expence becomes neceflary for
the defence of the ftate, and confequently a revenue
three or four tunes greater than the peace revenue.
Suppofing that the fovereign ftiould have what he
fcarce ever has, the immediate means of augmenting
his revenue in proportion to the augmentation of his
expence ; vet ftill the produce of the taxes, from which
this increafe of revenue muft be drawn, will not begin
to come into the treafury till perhaps ten or twelve
months after they are impofed. But the moment in
which war begins, or rather the moment in which it
appears likely to begin, the army muft be augmented,
the fleets muft be fitted out, the garrifoned towns muft
he put into a pofture of defence : that army, that fleet,
thofe garrifoned towns, muft be furnifhed with arms, National
ammunition, and provifions. An immediate and great Debt-
expence muft be incurred in that moment of imme-
diatc danger, which will not wait for the gradual and
flow.returns of the new taxes. In this exigency go¬
vernment can have no other refources but in berrow-
ing-
The fame commercial ftate of fociety which, by the
operation of moral caufes, brings government in this
manner into the neceflity of borrowing, produces in
the fubjects both an ability and an inclination to lend.
If it commonly brings along with it the neceflity of
borrowing, it likewife brings along with it the facility
of doing fo.
A country abounding with merchants and manufac¬
turers, necefl’arily abounds with a fet of people through
whofe hands not only their own capitals, but the capi¬
tals of all thofe who either lend them money or truft
them with goods, pafs as frequently or more frequent¬
ly than the revenue of a private man, who without
trade or bufinefs lives upon his income, paffes through
his hands. The revenue of fuch a man can regularly
pafs through his hands only once in a year. But the
whole amount of the capital and credit of a merchant
who deals in a trade of which the returns are very
quick may fometimes pafs through his hands two,
three, or four times in a year. A country abounding
with merchants and manufaftures, therefore, necefla-
rily abounds with a fet of people, who have it at all
times in their power to advance, if they choofe to do
fo, a very large fum of money to government. Hence
the ability in the fubje£ts of a commercial ftate to
lend.
The progrefs of the enormous debts which at pre- siack/i.
fent opprefs, and will in the long-run probably ruin, Commen.
all the great nations of Europe, has been pretty uni¬
form. In England, after the Revolution, when new
connexions with Europe introduced a new fyftem of
foreign politics, the expences of the nation not only
in fettling the new eftabliftiment, but in maintaining
long wars, as principals, on the continent, for the fe-
curity of the Dutch barrier, reducing the French mo¬
narchy, fettling the Spanilh fucceflion, fupporting the
houfe of Auftria, maintaining the liberties of the Ger¬
manic body, and other purpnfes, increafed to an un-
ufual degree : infomuch that it was not thought advife-
able to raife all the expences of any one year by taxes
to be levied within that year, left the unaccuftomed
weight of them ftiould create murmurs among the peo¬
ple. It was therefore the policy of the times to antici¬
pate the revenues of their pofterity, by borrowing inti-
menfe fums for the current fervice of the ftate, and to
lay no more taxes upon the fubjecl than would luffice
to pay the annual intereft of the fums fo borrowed j by
this means converting the principal debt into a new
fpecies of property, transferable from one man to an¬
other at any time and in any quantity. This fyftem in¬
deed feems to have had its original in the ftate of Flo¬
rence, A. D. 1344 which government then owed a-
bout 6o,oool. fterling •, and being unable to pay it,
formed the principal into an aggregate fum, called me¬
taphorically a mount or bunk, the lhares whereof were
transferable like our flocks, with intereft at 5. per cent,
the prices varying according to the exigencies of the
* ftate.
National
Debt.
NAT [
ftate. I his laid the foundation of what is called
national debt; for a few long annuities created in the
reign of Charles II. will hardly deferve that name.
Nations, like private men, have generally begun to
borrow upon what may be called perjonal credit, with¬
out aligning or mortgaging any particular fund for
the payment of the debt; and when this refource has
tailed them, they have gone on to borrow upon aflign-
ments or mortgages of particular funds.
What is called the unfunded debt of Great Britain.
is contracted in the former of thofe two ways. It
eonfilts partly in a debt which bears, or is fuppofed to
bear, no interelt} and which refembles the debts that a
private man contracts upon account ; and partly in a
debt which bears intereft, and which refembles what a
private man contracts upon his bill or promiflory note.
1 he debts which are due either for extraordinary fer-
vices, or for fervices either not provided for or not
paid at the time when they are performed j part of
the extraordinaries of the army, navy, and ordnance,
the arrears of fubfidies to foreign princes, thofe of
feamen’s wages, &c. ufually conftitute a debt of the
firft kind. Navy and exchequer bills, which are if-
fued fometimes in payment of a part of fuch debts
and fometimes for other purpofes, conftitute a debt of
the fecond kind ; exchequer bills bearing intereft from
the day on which they are iflued, and navy bills fix
months after they are iftued. I he bank of England,
•either by voluntarily difeounting thofe bills at their
current value, or by agreeing with government for cer¬
tain confiderations to circulate exchequer bills, that is,
to receive them at par, paying the intereft which hap¬
pens to be due upon them, keeps up their value, and
facilitates their circulation, and thereby frequently
enables government to contraCf a very large debt of
this kind. During the great recoinage in King Wil¬
liam’s time, when the bank of England thought pro¬
per to put a flop to its ufual tranfaCtions, exchequer
bills and tallies are faid to have fold from 29 to 60
per cent, difeount owing partly, no doubt, to the fup¬
pofed inftability of the new government eftabliflied by
the Revolution, but partly too to the want of the fup-
port of the bank of England.
When tins refource is exhaufted, and it becomes ne-
cellary, in order to raife money, to aflign or mortgage
feme particular branch of the public revenue for the
payment of the debt, government has upon different
occafions done this in two different ways. Sometimes
it has made this aftignment or mortgage for a fhort pe¬
riod of time only, a year or a few years, for example j
and fometimes for perpetuity. In the one cafe, the
fund was fuppofed fufftcient to pay within the limited
time both principal and intereft of the money bor-
rowed : In the other, it was fuppofed fufticient to pay
the intereft only, or a perpetual annuity equivalent to
the intereft •, government being at liberty to redeem
at any time this annuity upon paying back the prin¬
cipal fum borrowed. When money was raifed in the
one wray, it w'as faid to be raifed by anticipation ; when
in the other, by perpetual funding, or, more fliortly, by
funding.
In the reign of King William, when the debt began
to be amaffed, and during a great part of that of
Queen Anne, before rve had become fo familiar as we
are now with the pra£tice of perpetual funding, the
624 ] NAT
the greater part of the new taxes were impofed but for a Nations)
ftiort period of time (for four, five, fix, or feven vears Debt,
only), and a great part of the grants of every year ' 'rmmm
confifted in loans upon anticipation of the produce of
thofe taxes. The produce being frequently infufticient
for paying within the limited term the principal and
intereft of the money borrowed, deficiencies arofe to
make good which it became neceffary to prolong the
term.
On the 31ft of December 1697, funded and un¬
funded debts amounted to 21,515,742!. 13s. S-^d. ;
at the fame time, in 1714, they were 53,681,0761. 5s.
6TT5d. In I755> before the breaking out of the war,
they amounted to 72,289,673!. 9 and on the 5th of
January 1763, at the conclufion of the peace, they had
accumulated to 122,603,336!. 8s. 2^d. of funded debt,
and of unfunded 13,027,589!. 2s. 2d. more. In 1775,
they were very nearly 130 millions ; and the laft Ame¬
rican wrar added upwards of 120 millions more to that
enormous fum : to pay the intereft of which, and the
charges of management, amounting annually to nearly
eight millions and a half, the extraordinary revenues
elfewhere enumerated * (excepting only the land-tax * See
and annual malt tax) are in the firft place mortgaged
and made perpetual by parliament. Perpetual w'e fay 9
but ftill redeemable by the fame authority that impofed
them : which, if it at any time can pay off the capital,
will abolilh thofe taxes which are raifed to difeharge
the intereft.
By this means, then, the quantity of property in the
kingdom is greatly increafed in idea compared with
former times j yet, if we coolly confider it, not at all
increafed in reality. We may boaft of large fortunes,
and quantities of money in the funds. But where does
this money exift ? It exifts only in name, in paper, in
public faith, in parliamentary fecurity : and that is
undoubtedly fufficient for the creditors of the public
to rely on. But then what is the pledge which the
public faith has pawned for the fecurity of thefe debts ?
The land, the trade, and the perfonal induftry of the
fubjefl 9 from which the money muft arife that fup-
plies the feveral taxes. In thefe, therefore, and thefe
only, the property of the public creditors does really
and intrinfically exift ; and of courfe the land, the
trade, and the perfonal induftry of individuals, are di-
miniflied in their true value juft fo much as they are
pledged to anfw;er. If A’s income amounts to "100I.
per annum 5 and he is fo far indebted to B, that he
pays him 50I. per annum for his intereft ; one half of
the value of A’s property is transferred to B the credi¬
tor. The creditor’s property exifts in the demand
which he has upon the debtor, and nowhere elfe j and
the debtor is only a truftee to his creditor for one half
of the value of his income. In fhort, the property of
a creditor of the public confifts in a certain portion of
the national taxes; by how much therefore he is the
richer, by fo much the nation, which pays thefe taxes,
is the poorer.
The only advantage that can refult to a nation from
public debts, is the increafe of circulation, by multi¬
plying the cafh of the kingdom, and creating a new
fpecies of currency, aflignable at any time and in any
quantity ; always therefore ready to be employed in
any beneficial undertaking, by means of this its tranf-
ferable quality ; and yet producing fome profit even
when
N 'A T [ 625 ] NAT
National when it lies idle and unemployed. A certain propor-
•Dtfht. tji0T1 0f debt feems to be highly ufeful to a trading peo-
v pie but what that proportion is, it is not for us to
determine. This much is indifputably certain, that
the prefent magnitude of our national encumbrances
very far exceeds all calculations of commercial bene¬
fit, and is produftive ot the greateft inconveniences.
For, firil, The enormous taxes that are raifed upon
the necelfaries of life for the payment of the intereft
of this debt, are a hurt both to trade and manufac¬
tures, by railing the price as ivell of the artificer’s
fubliftence as of the raw materia), and of courfe, in a
much greater proportion, the price of the commodity
itfelf. Nay, the very increafe of paper circulation it-
felf, when extended beyond what is requifite for com¬
merce or foreign exchange, has a natural tendency to
increafe. the price of provifions as well as of ail other
merchandife. For as its effedt is to multiply the cadi
of the kingdom, and this to fuch an extent that much
mull remain unemployed, that calh (which is the uni-
verfal meafure of the refpedlive values of all other com¬
modities) mull neceffarily fink in its own value, and
every thing grow comparatively dearer. Secondly, If
part of this debt be owing to foreigners, either they
draw out of the kingdom annually a confiderable quan¬
tity of fpecie for the interell ; or elfe it is made an ar¬
gument to grant them unreafonable privileges in order
to induce them to refide here. Thirdly, If the whole
be owdng to fubjedls only, it is then charging the aclive
and induitrious fubjedl, who pays his (hare of the taxes
to maintain the indolent and idle creditor who receives
them. Laftly, and principally. It weakens the inter¬
nal ftrength of a (late, by anticipating thofe refources
which firould be referved to defend it in cafe of necef-
fity. The intereft we now pay for our debts would un¬
doubtedly be fufficient to maintain the moil vigorous
war that any national motives could pofiibly require.
If indeed our anceftors in King William’s time had an¬
nually paid, fo long as their exigencies lalled, a far
lefs fum than we now annually raife upon their accounts,
they ivould not in time of war have borne fo great bur¬
dens as they have bequeathed to and fettled upon their
pofterity in time of peace '7 and might have been eafed
the inllant the exigence was over.
On the whole, then, the national debt is undoubt¬
edly a fubjedl of vail importance, and as fuch it has
been always confidered ; for much has been faid and
written upon it, and many fchemes have been propofed
at various times and by various perfons for gradually re¬
moving it, it being confidered by the moll judicious as
a moll pernicious encumbrance to a commercial coun¬
try. Some, we are aware, think it of vail utility ; but
this opinion is too exeentric, and in our ellimation too
feebly fupported, to be convincing. The public debt
is indifputably a great grievance •, and every lover of
his country mull furely wilh to fee it removed : the pe¬
riod, however, when this blefling lhall take place, if
indeed it ever arrive, mull at leall be very dillant.
We refer fuch as wifn for farther information on this
interelling topic to thofe who have treated of it at full
length, as Smith in his Wealth of Nations, and Sir
John Sinclair in his Hillory of the Revenue. The
writings of Dr Price likewife deferve confiderable at¬
tention, efpecially as one of his plans for the redu6lion
Vol. XIV. Part II.
of the debt has in facl been adopted, and in confe-
quence eltablilhed, by the legillature : His three plans
may be found in a pamphlet by William Morgan, en¬
titled, A Review of Dr Price’s Writings on the Sub¬
ject of the Finances ot tins Kingdom.
NATIVITY, or Natal Day, the day of a per-
fon’s birth. The word nativity is chiefly ufed in fpeak-
ing of the faints; as, the nativity of St John the Bap-
tia, &c. But when we fay the Nativity, it is un-
derltood of that of jefus Chriit, or the leall of Chi ill-
mas.
NATIVITY, nativitas, in ancient laiv books, fignifies
bondage < r fervitude.
Nativity, in .‘ijirology, the theme or figure of the
heavens, and particularly of the twelve houles, at the
moment when a perfon ivas born ; called alio the ho~
r of cope.
Calling the nativity, or by calculation feeking to
know how long the queen Ihould live, &c. was made
felony, an. 23 Eliz. c. 2.
N ATI VO HABENDO, in Law, a writ diredled to
the iheriff, for a lord who claimed inheritance in any
villain, when a villain was run away from him, for the
apprehending and relloring him to the lord.
NATIX, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by fume
old writers to the nerita.
NATO LI A, the modern name of the Leffer Alia,
being the moll wellerly part of Turkey in Alia, and
conliiling of a large peninfula, which extends from the
river Euphrates as far as the Archipelago, the lea of
Marmora, the llraits of Gallipoli and of Conllantinople,
which feparate it from Europe on the well. It is
bounded on the north by the Black fea, and on the
fouth by the Mediterranean.
NATRIX, in Zoology, the name of the common or
water-fnake, called alio torquata, from the ring about
its neck. See Ophiology Index.
NATRUM, or Natron, the nitre of the ancients,
one of the fixed alkalies. See Soda, Chemistry Index.
It is found in great abundance in many parts of Alia,
where the natives fweep it up from the furface of the
ground, and call it foap earth. The earliell account
we have of it is in the Scriptures, where we find that
the fait called nitre in thofe times would ferment with
vinegar, and poflefled a deterfive quality, fo that it ivas
ufed in baths and in walking. Solomon compares the
finging of fongs with a heavy heart, to the contrariety
of vinegar and nitre: and Jeremiah fays, that if the fin-
ner walk himfelf with nitre, his fin is not cleanfed off.
Thefe are properties that perfectly agree with this fait,
but not at all with our faltpetre, which is the nitre of
the moderns.
NATTER-jack, a fpecies of Rana, which fee,
ErpETOLOGY Index.
NATURAL, in general, fomething that relates to
nature. See Nature.
NATURAL Children, are thofe born out of lawful wed¬
lock See Bastard.
NATURAL FunBions, are thofe a61 ions whereby the
aliments are changed and affunilaled fo as to become a
part of the body.
Natural, in Heraldry, is ufed where animals, fruits,
flowers, 8cc. are blazoned with the colours they natu¬
rally have, though different from the common colours
4 K of
National
Debt
N atural.
Ivfatural
II
Natural
Beauty.
NAT [ 626 ]
and this is to prevent their armories being tion of nature.
f Dr Perci-
val’s Mo~
■ral and Li¬
terary Lif-
fertations.
of heraldry
accufed of falfity, when blazoned with the names of
colours unknown in heraldry.
Natural Note, in Mu fie, is ufed in oppofition to
flat and fharp notes, which are called artificial notes.
See Note, Scale, &c.
Natural is alfo ufed for fomething coming imme¬
diately out of the hands of nature : in rvhich fenfe it
Hands oppofed to faBitious or artificial, which fignifies
fomething wrought by art. See Artificial.
Bifhop Wilkins obferves, that there appears a world
of difference between natural and artificial things, when
viewed with microfcopes. The firll ever appear adorn¬
ed Avith all imaginable elegance and beauty ; the latter,
though the moll curious in their kind, infinitely rude
and unhewn : the fineft needle appears a rough bar of
iron ; and the moft accurate engraving or emboffment,
as if done with a mattock or a troAvel.
Natural Beauty, or the beauty of natural objedb,
is that quality or thofe qualities in the Avorks of nature,
or more properly of God, which are calculated to ex¬
cite pleafing fenfations in the minds of all fuch perfons
of true tafte as attentNely obfen^e them. It Avill not,
avc truft, be deemed improper or impertinent, there¬
fore, to introduce a few obfervations on this fubjeff,
previous to our treating of natural hiftory.—To many,
it is hoped, it Avill appear to be a A’ery proper introduc¬
tion to that important article. “ That fenfibility to
beauty, Avhich, ay hen cultn'ated and improved, Ave
term tafte, is univerfally diffufed through the human
fpeciesf; and it is moft uniform Avith refpedt to thofe
objects, Avhich being out of our power, are not liable to
variation from accident, caprice, or fafhion. The ver¬
dant laAvn, the fhady grove, the variegated landfcape,
the boundlefs ocean, and the Harry firmament, are con¬
templated Avith pleafure by every attentive beholder.
But the emotions of different fpe6tators, though fimilar
in kind, differ Avidely in degree } and to relifh Avith full
delight the enchanting feenes of nature, the mind muff
be uncorrupted by aA^arice, fenfuality, or ambition;
quick in her fenfibilities ; elevated in her fentiments •,
and devout in her affeftions. He Avho pofTeffes fuch
exalted powers of perception and enjoyment, may al-
moit fay, Avith the poet,
I care not, Fortune ! Avhat you me deny ;
You cannot rob me of free Nature’s grace j
You cannot fhut the AvindoAVS of the fky,
Through which x\urora Hioavs her bright’ning face \
You cannot bar my conflant feet to trace
The woods and lawns, by living Hream, at eve :
Let health my nerves and finer fibres brace,
And I their toys to the great children leave :
Of fancy, reafon, virtue, nought can me bereave.
“ Perhaps fuch ardent enthufiafm may not be. com¬
patible Avith the neceffary toils and aftive offices Avhicli
Providence has affigned to the generality of men. But
there are none to whom fame portion of it may not
prove advantageous : and if it Avere cheriffied by each
individual, in that degree which is confident Avith the
indifpenfable duties of his Hation, the felicity of human
life Avould be confiderably augmented. From this
fource, the refined and vivid pleafures of the imagina¬
tion are almoft entirely derived : and the elegant arts
cuve their choiceft beauties to a tade for the contempla-
NAT
Painting and fculpture are exprefs imi¬
tations of vifible _objects 5 and Avhere Avould be the
charms of poetry, if diveded of the imagery and embel-
lifhments Avhich ihe borrows from rural feenes ? Paint¬
ers, datuaries, and poets, therefore, are always ambi¬
tious to acknoAyledge themfelves the pupils of" nature ;
and as their dull increafes, they groAv more and more
delighted Avith every vievv of the animal and vegetable
Avorld. But the pleafure refulting from admiration is
tranfient j and to cultivate tade, Avithout regard to its
influence on the paffions and affe6Hons, ‘ is to rear a
tree for its blofloms, which is capable of yielding the
riched and mod valuable fruit.’ Phyficai and moral
beauty bear fo intimate a relation to each other, that
they may be confidered as different gradations in the
fcale of excellence •, and the knoAvledge and reliffi of
the former fliould be deemed only a dep to the nobler
and more permanent enjoyments of the latter.
“ Whoever has vifited the Leafowes, in Wanvick-
ffiire, mud haAre felt the force and propriety of an in-
feription Avhich meets the eye at the entrance into thofe
delightful grounds.
Would you then tade the tranquil feene ?
Be fure your bofoms be ferene :
Devoid of hate, devoid of drife,
Devoid of all that poifons life :
And much it ’vails you, in their place,
To graft the love of human race.
“ Now fuch feenes contribute powerfully to infpire
that ferenity which is neceflary to enjoy and to height¬
en their beauties. By a fecret contagion, the foul
catches the harmony Avhich die contemplates j and
the frame within affimilates itfelf to that Avhich is Avith¬
out. For,
Who can forbear to fmile Avith Nature ? Can
The dormy paffions in the bofom roll.
While every gale is peace, and every grove
Is melody ?
“ In this date of fwreet compofure, avc become fuf-
ceptible of virtuous impreffions, from aimed every fur¬
rounding objedl. I he patient ox is viewed with gene¬
rous complacency ; the guilelefs flieep with pity ; and
the playful lamb raifes emotions of tendernefs and love.
We rejoice Avith the horfe, in his liberty and exemption
from toil, Avhile he ranges at large through enamelled
padures ; and the frolics of the colt Avould afford un¬
mixed delight, did avc not recollect the bondage Avhich
he is foon to undergo. We are charmed Avith the fong
of birds, foothed Avith the buzz of infefts, and pleafed
Avith the fportive motions of fiflies, becaufe thefe are
expreffions of enjoyment ; and avc exult in the felicity
of the Avhole animated creation. Thus an equal and
extenfive benevolence is called forth into exertion ; and
having felt a common intered in the gratifications of
inferior beings, Ave fliall be no longer indifferent to
their fufterings, or become Avantcnly indrumental in
producing them.
“ It feems to be the intention of ProA’idcnce, that
the lower order of animals fliould be fubfervient to the
comfort, convenience, and fuftenance of man. But
his right of dominion extends no farther ; and if this
right be exercifed Avith mildnefs, humanity, and juf-
tice, the fubjedts of his power Avill be no lefs benefit¬
ed
Natural
Beauty.
—AT—
MAT
Natural
Beauty.
ed than himfelf. For various fpccies of living crea¬
tures are annually multiplied by human art, improved
in their perceptive powers by human culture, and plen¬
tifully fed by human induftry. The relation, there¬
fore, is reciprocal between fuch animals and man ; and
he may fupply his own wants by the ufe of their la¬
bour, the produce of their bodies, and even the facri-
fice of their lives, whilft he co-operates with all-gra¬
cious Heaven in promoting happinefs, the great end of
exiftence.
“ But though it be true, that partial evil, with re-
fpeft to different orders of fenfitive beings, may be uni-
verfal good ; and that it is a wife and benevolent infti-
tution of nature, to make deftrudiion itfclf, within cer¬
tain limitations, the caufe of an increafe of life and en¬
joyment yet a generous perfon will extend his com-
paflionate regards to every individual that fuffers for his
fake : and whilil lie fighs
Even for the kid or lamb that parts its life
Beneath the bloody knife,
he will naturally be felicitous to mitigate pain, both in
duration and degree, by the gcntleil modes of indit¬
ing it.
“ We are inclined to believe, however, that this fenfe
of humanity would foon be obliterated, and that the
heart would grow callous to every foft impreflion, were
it not for the benignant influence of the fmiliftg face of
nature. The count de Lauzun, when imprifoned by
Louis XIV. in the cattle of Pignerol, amufed himfelf
during a long period of time with catching flies, and
delivering them to be devoured by a rapacious fpider.
Sucli an entertainment was equally lingular and cruel :
and inconfiflent, we believe* with his former chara&er,
and his fubfequent turn of mind. But his cell had no
window, and received only a glimmering light from an
aperture in the roof. In lefs unfavourable circumltan-
ces, may we not prefume, that inttead of fporting with
mifery, he would have releafed the agonizing flies, and
bid them enjoy that freedom of which he himfelf was
bereaved ?
“But the tafte for natural beauty is fubfervient to
higher purpofes than thofe which have been enumerat¬
ed ; and the cultivation of it not only refines and hu¬
manizes, but dignifies and exalts the affe&ions. It
elevates them to the admiration and love of that Be¬
ing who is the author of all that is fair, fublime, and
good in the creation. Scepticifm and irreligion are
hardly compatible with the fenfibility of heart which
arifes from a juft and lively reliih of the wifdom, har¬
mony, and order fubfifting in the world around us :
and emotions of piety muft fpring up fpontaneoufly in
the bofom that is in unifon with all animated nature.
Actuated by this divine infpiration, man finds a fane in
every grove •, and, glowing with devout fervour, he
joins his fong to the univerfal chorus, or mufes the
praife of the Almighty, in more expreftive filence.
Thus they
“ Whom Nature’s works can charm, with God himfelf
Hold converfe : grow familiar, day by day,
With his conceptions 5 a<ft upon his plan ;
And form to his the relilh of their fouls.”
On the whole, then, it certainly appears, that the
[ 627 ]
NAT
Natural
Beauty.
advantages refulting from a tafte for natural beauties
are great and important: it is equally certain, that as
it is ufeful, fo it is a continual fource of real enjoy- 1
ment for a more rational pleafure cannot poflibly oc¬
cupy the attention or captivate the affe&ions of man¬
kind, than that which arifes from a due confideration
of the works of nature. Pleafure, we know, is a ne-
celfary ingredient in human life, in order in fome mea-
fure to counterbalance the pains, the evils, and liftlefs-
neffes, which are at times perhaps unavoidable, and in
order to render life tolerable. It is the part then of
the moralift, and it has been frequently his bufinefs,
to point out and recommend fuch pleafures as are high¬
ly gratifying, and are yet perfe&ly innocent. The
Spectator, whofe works will be admired as long as the
language in which they are written is underftood, re¬
commends ftrongly and elegantly the pleafure of a gar¬
den 5 and a later writer f, of no common degree of me-1 Br Knox,
rit, and of very confiderable fame, has an eflay on
the fame fubjeft, from which we fliall feledl a few ob-
fervations, and fo conclude the article. “ Not he a-
lone (fays this elegant writer) is to be efteemed a be-
nefaftor to mankind, who makes an ufeful difeovery ;
but he alfj who can point out and recommend an inno¬
cent pleafure. Of this kind are the pleafures arifing
from the obfervation of nature ; and they are highly
agreeable to every tafte uncorrupted by vicious indul¬
gence. Rural feenes of almoft every kind are delight¬
ful to the mind of man. But the misfortune is, that
the greater part are hurried on in the career of life with
too great rapidity to be able to give attention to that
which folicits no paflion. The darkeft habitation in
the dirtieft ftreet of the metropolis, where money can
be earned, has greater charms with many than the
groves of Hagley.
“ The patron of refined pleafure, the elegant Epicu¬
rus, fixed the feat of his enjoyment in a garden. He
w7as of opinion, that a tranquil fpot, furnilhed with
the united fweets of art and nature, wras the beft
adapted to delicate repofe. And even the feverer phi-
lofophers of antiquity were wont to difeourfe in the
{hade of a fpreading tree, in fome cultivated planta¬
tion. It is obvious, on intuition, that nature often
intended folely to pleafe the eye in her vegetable pro-
du&ions. She decorates the floweret that fprings be¬
neath our feet in all the perfeftions of external beauty.
She has clothed the garden with a conftant fucceflion
of various hues. Even the leaves of the tree undergo
a pleafing viciflitude. The frefh verdure which they
exhibit in the fpring, the various {hades which they
aflume in fummer, the yellow and ruffet tinge of au¬
tumn, and the nakednefs of winter, afford a conftant
pleafure to a lively imagination. From the fnowdrop
to the mofs rofe the flower garden difplays an infinite
variety of fhape and colour. The tafte of the florift
has been ridiculed as trifling; yet furely without rea-
{bn. Did nature bring fortli the tulip and the lily,
the rofe and the honeyfuckle, to be ncglefted by the
haughty pretender to fuperior reafon ? To omit a
Angle focial duly for the cultivation of a polyanthus
were ridiculous as well as criminal ; but to pafs by the
beauties laviftied before us, without obferving them, is
no lefs ingratitude than ftupidity. A bad heart finds
little amufement but in a communication with the ac¬
tive world, where fcope is given for the indulgence of
4 K 2 malignant
NAT r 628 ] NAT
malignant paflions ; but an amiable difpofition is com- alike difplayed before all men, and fince they are un- Natural
monly known by a talte for the beauties of the animal queftionably an inexhauftible fund of innocent amufe- Beauty,
and the vegetable creation.” In ihort, finee the world ment j that fubjed mull be of vaft importance which
was made for our ule, fince the beauties of nature are enables us to relifh them properly.
NATURAL BIISTORY.
^PHE objeds of nature may be confidered under two
points of view ; lit, With refped to their form,
ftrudture, habits, and individual properties when viewed
in a llate of inactivity •, 2dly, With refpedt to the mu¬
tual changes which they produce when made to adt on
each other. Hence the ftudy of nature may be divid¬
ed into two parts, Natural History and Natural
Science •, the former confidering bodies in compara¬
tively an inadtive date, the latter in a date of mutual
adtion.
Natural History, then, is that part of natural
knowledge which teaches us to didinguidi and deferibe
the objedts of nature, to examine their appearance, druc-
ture, properties and ufes, and to colledt, preferve, and
arrange them (a).
I. When wre take a general furvey of the objedts
w'ith which we are furrounded, wre are bewildered
amidd the number and variety that are every where
prefen ted to our viewr. The air, the W'oods, the fields,
the waters, teem with myriads of animals 5 a large pro¬
portion of the earth’s furface is covered Avith a green
mantle of luxuriant herbage, interfperfed with plants
and flowers of a thoufand varied tints } and when we
fearch below this, when we explore the cloud-capt
mountain, the gloomy mine, the fequedered cavern, or
the rocky cliff, we difeover a great variety of mineral
fubdances, either piled into irregular maffes, or lying
in uniform beds or layers, difpofed in veins or feams,
or fcattered at random through the other dony mat¬
ters.
To the cafual obferver, the number and variety of
thefe objedls would appear almod infinite. He wmuld
confider it equally impoflible to enumerate them as to
number the dars, or count the fands on the fea fhore.
This idea, however, arifes from his feeing them in con-
fufion and diforder. The naturalid, by feparating them
into thofe groups or claffes, in which they often natural¬
ly prefent themfelves, has fucceeded not only in di-
dinguifhing the feveral kinds from each other, but even
in guefTmg pretty accurately at the number of fpecies
that have hitherto been difeovered.
There are twro objedls which diould principally oc¬
cupy the attention of the naturalid : id, To clafiify
natural fubdances 5 2dly, To examine their drudture.
J he number of natural productions being con-uhtlifica
fclTedly very great, it is necellary to find out fometion.1
means of didinguifhing them from each other, and of
recognizing them on feeing them anew'. Thefe means
are the peculiarities, or the affemblages of peculiarities-,
that exclufively belong to each body. Now there is
fcareely any fubdance that has a fimple character, that
is, which can be didinguifhed from every other fub¬
dance by any one of its properties fingly. It is only
by the combination of feveral of thefe properties that
we can didinguifh an object from others which re-
femble it in poffcfling fume one or more of thofe verv
properties ; and the more numerous the fpecies w'e com¬
pare, the more neceffary it becomes to bring their pro¬
perties together, in order' to aflign to each a character
that may didinguifh it from the red. Hence to didin¬
guifh a fpecies, confidered independently from all others
that cxilt in nature, it is neceffary to exprefs in its cha-
rafter almod the whole of its properties, and the more
of thefe ive take into the character, the more complete
Avill be our defeription of the objeft. But no man can
acquire a diffidently accurate knoAvledge of all natural
obje&s to enable him to give a complete defeription of
them : human life is too ffiort to admit of the com¬
pletion of fuch a talk. All that can be expe&ed from
our limited faculties is to acquire a general knowledge
of natural obje6Is, confining our principal attention to
fueh as poflefs fome driking qualities, or appear conver¬
tible to the ufeful purpofes of life.
To gain this end, Iavo modes of procedure have been ^etf;ods
adopted by naturalids. According to the fird mode, anci fyjiems,
Ave employ chara&ers that proceed by degrees from
particulars to generals. We begin by comparing
together a certain number of fpecies that bear the
ueared relation to each other. In draAving the cha-
raders of thefe fpecies, it is requifite to exprefs only
thofe differences, Avhieh, on a fuppofition that they are
the mod nearly related, form but a fmall part of their
properties j a number of fpecies thus brought together
conditutes Avhat is called a genus or tribe.
The
(a) Some Avriters divide natural hidory into general and particular, Avhieh are thus defined by Cuvier. General
natural hijiory confiders under a fingle point of vIcav, all natural bodies, and the common refult of all their actions
in the great Avhole of nature. It determines the laAvs of coexidence of their properties \ it edablifhes the degrees
of refemblanee that exid between different bodies, and claffes them according to thefe degrees. The Particular
natural hijiory of any body, to be perfect, fhould comprehend, id, The defeription of all the fenfible properties of
that body, and of all its parts •, 2d, The mutual relations of thefe parts, the motions which they produce, and the
changes Avhich they undergo while they remain united j 3d, The adlive and paffive relations of this body Avith
every other body in the univerfe j and 4th, The explanation of all thefe phenomena. See Tableau Elementaire
THJloire Naturelle.
NATURAL
The remainder of thefe properties which are common
to all the fpecies of the genus combine to form the
character, or rather the defcription, of the genus, diftin-
guifning it from all thofe which might be formed by
bringing together other fpecies ; but the number of
thefe common properties being Hill very confiderable,
wre repeat the fame means in order to reduce the cha¬
racters of the genera to fmaller terms. We compare
together only thofe genera which molt nearly refemble
each other, and the generic characters now employed
muft only exprefs thofe differences which form but a
imall part of their common properties. Thofe proper¬
ties, which are common to all the genera, compofe a
charaCler that diftinguithes this aflemblage or group
from all other groups or genera. Such an alfemblage
of genera is called an order.
Repeating the fame operation, and bringing to¬
gether fuch orders as are moft nearly allied, we form
a more general alfemblage, called a clafs; and again
uniting a certain number of clalfes, we form a higher
divition, to which naturaliils have given the name of
kingdom: this chain of divifions in which the higher
links comprehend the lower, forms what is called a jne-
thod. The other mode of procedure is to rife gra¬
dually from generals to particulars, beginning with the
{lighted: and moft obvious differences, thus forming the
firft divifton or kingdom j dividing each kingdom into
claffes, each clafs into orders, each order into genera,
each genus into fpecies, and each fpecies into varieties.
This defcending feries conftitutes what is called a
fystem, and is that which has been generally adopted
by naturalifts.
To illuftrate this fyftematical claftification of natural
objefls, let us feleft a familiar example. Among the
various creatures that pafs under our obfervation, a
great number are poffeffed of life, of fenfation, and vo¬
luntary motion •, thefe wTe call animals, and of thefe
wTe form the animal kingdom. On examining various
groups of animals, wre find that many have four extre¬
mities, and fuckle their young by means of teats; thefe
we call quadrupeds or mammalia. We have thus
formed a clafs of animals. Again we find that of the
mammalia feme have hoofed feet and blunt fore-teeth,
and feed almoft entirely on vegetables. Thefe will
conftitute an order of the clafs of mammalia, to which
Linnaeus has given the name of belluce. Of this order
a certain number of animals agree in having fix fore¬
teeth in both jaws, and form a genus or tribe diftinguifti-
ed by this particular from the other animals of the fame
order, and commonly called the horfe tribe. Laftly,
In this tribe we find one fpecies that has folid hoofs, a
tail briftly at the end, an upright mane, and a black
crofs on tlie ftioulder of the male. Tins fpecies is the
common afs.
In framing an artificial fyftem of natural hiftory,
nature into moft waiters have agreed on the divifion of natural
kingdoms bodies into kingdoms, proceeding on the fuppofition
that thofe marks w'hich are to diitinguifti the obje&s
of one kingdom from thofe of another are fufficiently
fixed and certain.
Let us examine for a little how far this fuppofition
agrees with nature’s works as we find them.
The divifion of natural objects commonly adopted is
into three kingdoms j the animal, vegetable, and miner¬
al kingdoms, This divifion has been almoft univerfally
5
Illuftvation.
Divifion of
examined.
HISTORY. 629’
received as perfectly confiftent with nature j and is by Clafiifica-
moft perfons thought to be fo clear and diftinft, that, tion-
they fuppofe it impoflible to miftake in referring u“—\r—
any particular objedt to its proper kingdom. This'
arifcs from their having noticed only fuch objedts as
bear evident marks of the divifion to which they be¬
long •, but if we draw their attention to a variety of other
individuals, they will acknowledge themfelves to be*
incompetent to the decifion, or will erroneoufiy refer
to one divifion, what has, after accurate examination,
been determined to belong to another.
1 here is one whole clafs of produdlions, called ’zoo-
plnjtes by naturalifts, which feem to form the conned!-
ing links between the different kingdoms. They are
animals of the polypus kind, moftly covered with a cal¬
careous cruft, differing little in compofition from the
{hells of lobfters, Ihrimps, and other fhell-fifh, and
formed like them from an exudation or fecretion on the
furface of their bodies- Thefe polypi are connedled>
together by thoufands, or even millions, and aflume a
great variety of appearances according to their arrange¬
ment : the fame fpecies, however, always afluming the
fame, or very nearly the fame appearance. Some are
connecled together in form of ftem and branches, as the
flujlrce, fertularice, corallines and others 5 many of which
have their offspring in the egg ftate attached to them,
and fo fituated as to bear exadl refemblance to the feed-
veffels of plants. Thefe are altogether fo like to many
of the fea-plants, as to be generally confounded with
them, under the title of fea-weeds ; but the attentive
naturalift may, by examining them in their natural ftate,
perceive the tentacula or feelers of each polypus ex¬
tended in its fearch for food, and haftily retracing
within its (hell upon the leaft alarm. Many of this de¬
fcription are found attached to oyfters or other ihell-
fifti j and often to Hones and pebbles which are covered
or occasionally wetted by the fea.
Other zoophytes affume lefs regular figures, and are
much more firm and folid, refembling the produflions
of the mineral kingdom. Madrepores and millepores,
called often brainfones, are of this kind. At firft fight
they look very like ftones and pebbles, or like pieces
of chalk or marble, but on an accurate infpedtion, any
one may perceive marks of an organic ftruflure 5 and
when they are in a recent ftate, may detebl the inhabi¬
tants of their numerous cells.
The above examples would fuffice to prove, how in-
fufficient is either a liafty examination or the judging.
by fimilarity of appearance, for determining to what
kingdom of nature any particular object belongs. But
there are many other produdlions to which few perfons
could without hefitation affign their places: For in-
fiance, where would we arrange the green powdery
fubftance fo common on paling ; the {’potted and ftreak-
ed appearance on ftones \ the mould on cheefe, or the
green jelly-like matter that floats on the furface of the
ftagnant waters ? Naturalifts in general have affigned
thefe productions to the vegetable kingdom \ but Sen-
nebier and a few others have maintained that fome of
them are animals.
According to fome writers, the moft philofophical
notion which we can form on this fubjedt is, that the
divifion of natural objedls into kingdoms is artificial^
and that Nature, acknowledging no fuch bonds, paffes
imperceptibly from the animal to the vegetable, and from
the
6.5° NATURAL
UaffifK-a- the vegetable to the mineral world, without defining
  _■ where one ceafes or where the next begins.
As the appearances of natural productions nre infuf-
ficient, fo are their properties and powers, for determin¬
ing which are animals or which vegetables, according
to the received acceptation of the terms. If loco¬
motion is allowed to be the charaflerillic of an animal,
where (hall we place the oyfler, or the zoophytes of
which we have juft been fpeaking, or where fome
fpecies of ulva and conferva, plants that fwim about de¬
tached in water ? If feeling or fenfation be the teft,
who (hall decide, that the fenfitive plant Qmimofa pu-
dicaf pofteffes it not ? and who determine that the
leaves of the Hy-trapy (Dioncea mufcipulaf when they
contrail, and catch the fly as foon as it alights, do not
'^kr,lsmff t^e defpoiler that comes to rob it of its honey > *
''fays on Na- ^ hough thefe and fimilar objections may certainly
tural Hif- he made to the artificial divifion of nature’s works into
tory, vol. i. kingdoms, yet it is convenient to have fuch a divifion ;
and even the very difficulty of eftabliffiing to which
kingdom any objcCt belongs, is an additional fpur to
7 the genius and induftry of the naturalift.
Divifion of 1 he moft natural divifion of the works of nature is
dies'into'0' " hich diftinguifhes them into organized and inor-
organi^ed San^c bodies ; and on the whole, we have feen no at-
and f/zaryfl-tunipt to eftablifh the differences between tliefe fo fuc-
suc. cefsful as that adopted by M. Dumeril in his late fcien-
tific work, Traite Klementaire d'HiJloire Nature/ie.
“ Some objeCls, fays he, as animals and plants, have for¬
merly conftituted a part of other individuals, fimilar to
themfelves, from which they have been feparated at a
certain period, under the form of eggs, of germs, or of
little living creatures ; and their exiftence is evidently
owing to this generation 5 they are born. Others, on
the contrary, as ftones, falts, water, may be formed by
certain circumftances, and even by ourfelves at pleafure.
They have not neceffarily made a part of other fimilar
bodies *, their exiftence feems to depend on certain for¬
tuitous circumftances, that have produced the approxi¬
mation of their conftituent principles, and their origin
might be referred to attraction. Thefe bodies are
formed. \ egetables and animals, in increafing their fize,
only develope themfelves. Whatever may be their
minutenefs, we (hall, on a careful examination, find them
already formed, with their parts requiring only to be
evolved. Their increafe proceeds from within out¬
wards by intus-fufeeption. Stones, and a great many
other bodies, are augmented only by the fame matter
from which they are produced ; their growth takes
place always from without, by a fort of aggregation.
“ As the increafe of the bodies which compofe thefe
two great fubdivifions is not alike in both, a duration
very different ought to be the refult of this diffimilarity.
In faCI, minerals are fufceptible of indefinite increafe,
and their end is always indeterminate; it is vague, and
depends on the circumftances under which they -are
placed. Plants and animals ought, from the fame cir¬
cumftances which favoured their developement, to flop
when their extenfion has been carried to the higheft de¬
gree, fo that the end or death of thefe bodies is fixed and
neceffary.
“ The maffes in which ftones and other fimilar bodies
generally prefent themfelves, are angular, infulated, and
very variable in their fize. The individuals which we
call plants and anxmalsj have always, and neceffarily, a
HISTORY.
form that is conftant, for the moft part rounded and Claffifica.
fymmetrical, and their extenfion is limited within cer- tion-
tain bounds.
“ The’re is this great difference between thefe bodies 5
that thofe which increafe by aggregation may be divid¬
ed into molecules, or parts infinitely Imall, bearing a
very near refeinblance to the mafs from which they
were taken ^ while m thofe which develope themfelves,
no portion can be taken away and exift by itfelf at
leaf! unlefs it develope new parts, which replace thofe
that are wanting.
“ The bodies which do not develope themfelves, are
in general formed of fluids or folids which remain con-
ftantly in the fame points ; they are compofed of very
few elements, which may be feparated and again reunit¬
ed. The bodies which develope themfelves, on the
contrary, are effentially compofed of folids and fluids,
which are always changing, and in a ftate of renova- .
tion ; they have always, and from neceflity, more or JDnmer{l
lefs confiftence, they are penetrated and augmented by ElTnUom.
fluids, and after being deeompofed they can never be i. p. 5.
formed again fuch as they were before j.
For the more convenient ftudy of natural hiftory, the Divifion of
wdiole fubjeft may be divided into five great branches natural hif-
viz. Meteorology, Hydrography, Mineralogy, Botany’tory-
and Zoology.
1. Meteorology includes the defeription of all thofe
phenomena which take place in the atmofphere that
furrounds our globe. In the prefent work it is confider-
ed under the articles Meteorology, Meteorolite, Meteorolo.
Atmofpheric Electricity, Cloud, Moon, Influenced-
of &c.
2. Hydrography comprehends the natural hiftory of Hydro^ra-
the fea, of rivers, lakes, and other colle&ions of water phy.
that make up fo large a part of the earth. Much of
this fubjeeft will be found treated of under the article
River, and various parts of it have been difeufied
under Chemistry and Mineralogy.
3. Mineralogy is that part of the fubjeft which treats Mineralo-
of the folid inorganic bodies that are found on the fur- gy.
face or in the bowels of the earth. It has been con-
fidered under the articles Geology and Mineralogy.
4. Botany comprehends the natural hiftory of vege-E t Y
tables. See Botany.
5. Zoology includes the natural hiftory of all ani-Zool*g
mated beings, and is fubdivided into many fubordinate
claffes.
Thefe claffes are different in number and denomina¬
tion, according to the different fyftems of naturalifts.
Linne, whom we have principally followed in this
work, has arranged animals under fix claffes : viz. 1.
Mammalia, or thofe animals which fuckle their young
at mammee or paps j fee Man, Mammalia and Ceto-
logy. 2. Aves, or birds j fee Ornithology. 3. Am¬
phibia, or thofe animals which can live either on land
or in water ; fee Erpetology and Ophiology. 4.
Pifces, or fillies; fee Ichthyology. 5. InfeBa, or infers;
fee Entomology. And 6. Vermes, or worms; fee Hel¬
minthology and Conchology.
Later naturalifts have divided animals into a greater Cuvier’s ar,
number of claffes, and have fubdivided thefe differently, rangement.
Of thefe arrangements, that of M. Cuvier feems the moft
deferving of notice. After confidering man, whom he
very properly diftinguifhes from the other mammalia
by allotting to him a feparate book, he divides the reft
of
NATURAL
Claffifica- of the animal kingdom into nine clalTes, viz. Mammife-
, n'>n . Rous animals, Birds, Reptiles, Fishes, Mollusca,
Worms, Crustaceous animals, Insects and Zoo¬
phytes.
We have already given an outline of four of thefe
claffes, viz. of the Mammifkrous animals, under
Mammalia, and of Mollusca, Worms and Zoo¬
phytes, under Helminthology. To complete our
view of Cuvier’s arrangement, ave (hall here add an out-
I(. line of the remaining five clafles.
Of birds. Cuvier divides birds into five orders, viz. Ra¬
pacious birds or Accipitres, Passerine birds, Clim¬
bers or Scansores, Gallinaceous birds, Waders
or Grall;e, and Anserine birds.
1. The Rapacious birds have fhort feet, toes fur-
nifhed with ftrong claws, and a hooked bill. They are
fubdivided into three fe&ions ; viz. Nudicolles, having
the head and part of the neck without feathers ; contain¬
ing the vulture tribe. P/umicol/es, having the head
covered with feathers and a cere at the bafe of the
bill, containing the falcon tribe •, including Griffons,
Eagles, Sparrow-hawks, Bux-zards, Kites and Falcons.
Ny&erides, having the head flattened backward from
the front and the eyes direfted forward } containing the
owl tribe.
2. The Passerine birds are diftinguifhed by having
four toes, three before and one behind, with the exter¬
nal toes wholly or partially united. They are fubdivid¬
ed into feven fedtions : viz. Crenirojlres, having the bill
grooved towards the end of the mandible; containing
the Shrikes, Flycatchers, Thrufhes, Chatterers and
Tanagers. Dentirojlres, having a bill with notched
edges ; containing the Plant-clippers, Motmots, and
Hornbills. Flenirojlres, having the bill ftraight, ftrong,
comprefled and without a groove; containing the Grakles,
Crows, Rollers, and Birds of Paradife. Conirojlres, having
the bill conical; contafning the Orioles, Stares, Grof-
beaks, Sparrows, and Buntings. Sahulirojlres, having the
bill flender like an awl; containing the Titmice,Manakins,
Larks, and Wagtails. Planirojlres, having the bill Ihort,
flattened horizontally, and opening very wide; containing
the Swallows and Goat-fuckers. Temtirojlres, having
the bill flender, elongated and folid ; containing the
Nuthatches, Creepers, Humming birds, Hoopoes," Bee-
eaters, King’s-fiftiers and Todys.
3. The Climbers have two toes before and two
behind. They are fubdivided into two fedtions ; viz.
Ctineirojlres, having a flender bill; containing Jacamars,
Wood-peckers, Wry-necks, and Cuckoos. Levirojlres,
having the bill thick and light ; containing the Anis,
Touracoes, Mufophages, Curucuis, Barbets, Toucans,
and Parrots.
4. The Gallinaceous birds have the front toes
united at their bafe by a fliort membrane. They are
fubdivided into two feftions, viz. AleBrides, having
common wings fitted for flying ; containing the Pigeons,
Groufe, Peacocks, Pheafants, Pintados, Turkeys, Curaf-
fows, Guans, Buftards. Brevipennes, having wings too
(hort for flight ; containing the Oftrich, Caflbwary and
Dodo tribes.
5. The Waders have elevated and naked tarfi and
the two outer toes united. They are fubdivided into
five feftions, viz. Brevirojlres, having the bill fhort and
thick; containingtheTrumpeters, Screamers,Secretaries,
Boat-bills, and Flamingos. Cultrirojlres, having the bill
1
HISTORY.
631
long, ftrong, and like a knife ; containing the Herons, Claflifica-
Jabirus and Ibifles. Latirojlres ; having the bill long,, tion
weak, and flattened horizontally; containing the Spoon-
bills. Longirojires, having the bill flender, long and
weak ; containing the Avofets, Plovers, Lapwings,.
Phalaropes, and Woodcocks. PreJJiroJlres, having the
bill middle fized and compreffed, containing the Oyfter-
Catchers, Rails, Coots and Jacanas.
6. The Anserine birds have the toes united
broad membranes.
by
They are fubdivided into four fec-
tions, viz. Pennipedes, having all the four toes united ;
containing the Pelicans, Tropic birds and Darters. Ma-
cropteres, having the thumb free, the bill not indented,
and very long wings; containing the Terns, Gulls, Skim¬
mers, Petrels and Albatrofles. Serrirojlres, having the
thumb free, the bill broad and ferrated, and wings of a
moderate fize ; containing the Ducks and Merganfers.
Brachypteres, having the thumb either free or wanting,
the bill not ferrated, and the wings very fhort, contain¬
ing the Grebes, Auks and Manchots.
The Amphibia or Reptiles are divided into two nr
orders, as follows. Ofreptiler.
1. Thofe that have a heart with two auricles. This
order is fubdivided into two fe&ions, viz. Chelonia,
having a back fhell and the jawrs in veiled with horn,
containing the Tortoife tribe, including Turtles and
Tortoifes. Sanria, having a fcaly body and teeth ; con ¬
taining the Lizard tribe, including the Crocodiles,
Guanas, Dragons, Lizards, Skinks, and feme others.
2. Thofe that have a heart with one auricle. This
order is alfo fubdivided into two fedlions, viz. Ophidia,
having a fcaly body, no feet, and always without bran¬
chiae ; containing the tribes of Anguis, Amphifhaena,
Caecilia, Acrocordon, Angaba, Coluber or Snake,
Boa, and Crotalus or Rattle-Snake. Batrachia, having
a naked fkin, feet and branchiae in the young animals ;
containing the Frogs, Salamanders, and (according to
Cuvier’s original tables) the Siren. jy
The fifties are divided into two orders, CARTILAGI-Of fifhes.
nous and Bony fifhes.
1. Thofe which have a Cartilaginous fkeleton are
divided into two fedtions, viz. Chondropteri/gii, with
fixed branchiae ; containing the Lampreys, Hags, Rays,
Dog-fifh and Sea-moniters. Branchiojlegi, with free
branchiae ; containing the tribes Batrachus or American
Toad-jijh, Polyodon, Accipenfer or Sturgeons, Pega-
fus, Syngnathus or Pipe-JiJh, Centrifcus or Bellows-
fjb, Baliftes or Horned-Jifh, Oftracion or Trunk-
JiJh, Tetraodon or Sun-Jiff, Ovfides, Mola or Moles.
Diodon or Porcupine-jiff, Lophius or Frog-Jiff, and
Cyclopterus or Lump-Jiff.
2. The fifhes with a bony Ikeleton ai'e fubdivided
into four fedlions, viz. Apodes, having no ventral fins ;
containing the tribes of Murama or Eels, Gymno-
thorax, Synbranchus, Sphagebranchus, Gymnotus or
Fle&ric-eels, Trichiurus, Gymneterus, Ophidium, Am-
modytes, or Sand-eels; Anarrhichas, or Sea-wolves ; and
Xiphias or Swordfff. Jugulares, having the ventral
fins fituated before the pe6foral ; containing the Had¬
docks, Elennys, Hunch-back, Dragonets, Sea-dragons,
and Star-gazers, Thoracici, with the ventral fins fitu¬
ated below7 the peftoral ; containing the Bull-heads,
Scorpions, Gurnards, Gobys, Surmullets, Mackerel,
Stickle-backs, Long-tails, Lonchiurus, Johnes, Sciames,
Dorees, Stromateus, Theuthis, Chaetodon, Dorados,
"r' Bodkins,
63.2 NATURAL
Chillifica- Bodians, Holocentrus, Lutiens, Perches, Anthias, Epin-
r _ elephus, Wraffes, Breams, Scares, Flounders, Sea-fer-
pents, Lepidopus, aud Remoras. Abdominales, ■with
the ventral fins fituated beliind the pectoral j containing
the Mormyrus, Carps, Mullets, Flying-filh, Polynemus,
Fierrings, Atherines, Argentines, Salmons, Pikes,
Loches, Anablapes, Silurus, Platyfomatus, Armed-fifh,
Cuirafs-fifh, Amia, Acanthonotus, and Filtularia, or
t8 Tobacco-pipe-JiJh.
Of crufta- J-he Crustacea are divided into two orders, as fol-
cea. " lows :
1. ^lonocuh^ containing the tribes of Limulus, Ca-
lygus, Apus, Cyclops, and Polyphemus.
2. Ecrevifles, or Crabs, containing the tribes of Can¬
cer, Inachus, Pagurus, Aftacus, Palinurus, Scyllarus,
I9 and Squilla.
OfinfcAs. The Insects are diflributed by Cuvier under t'wo
general orders, viz. Thofe with jaws, and thofe without
jaws.
1. InfeEls with jaws are arranged under five feflions,
viz. Gnathaptera, Neuroptera, Hymenoptera,
Coi,EOPTERA,and Orthoptera. The Gnathaptera,
have no wings, and are fubdivided into Polrjgnathes, hav¬
ing feveral pairsof jaws, containing the tribes of Phyfodes,
Onifeus, and Cymothoa ; Millepedes, with two jaws and
feet at each ring of the body, containing the tribes of Ju-
lus and Scolopendra 5 Araneides, having the head joined
to the corfelets, eight feet, and abdomen without feet j
Seticaudes, having the head diflinft, fix feet, and abdomen
terminated by filken threads ; Ricinus, with the head
diftinfl, fix feet, and the abdomen naked. The Neu-
ROPTERA have four reticulated wings, and are fubdivid¬
ed into Odonates, having the mouth covered with the
lip, and the wings extended during repofe ) TeBipennes,
with the mouth falient, and wings hidden below the
body during repofe ; Agnathes, with a very fmall
mouth, and no mandibles. The Hymenoptera have
four veined wings, and of thefe fome have the abdomen
joined to the thorax by a pedicle ; as the Mel/ites, ha¬
ving the lip prolonged into a trunk j the Duplipennes,
having the upper wings folded lengthwife •, the C/mj-
fides, having the antennae bent, and the abdomen hol¬
low belowr •, the AnthopJiiles, with the antenna; filiform,
wings not folded, abdomen round, and lips fhort ; the
Trouiffeurs, with fetaceous antennae, of 1 2 or 13 joints,
rolling up fpirally •, the Myrmeges, with fetaceous bent
antennae, and a rounded abdomen •, the Infeclirodes,
with bent antennae of 30 joints, and a prominent fling j
Cynipes, with filiform antennae and a fpiral fling.
Others of this fedlion have the abdomen fefiile as the
Uroceri, with palpae fcarcely apparent, and a very pro¬
minent iling, and the Tenthredos with very prominent
palpse and a ferrated fling. The Coleoptera have
four wings, the uppermoft of which are hard, and the
lower fold tranfverfely : they have either fix palpae, as
the Carnaffters, with filiform or fetaceous antennae ; or
four palpae ; and of thefe latter fome have the tarfius five-
jointed, as the Lamellicornes, with clavated antennae,
having the dub lamellated ; the Clavicornes, with the an¬
tennae either perfoliated or folid *, the Brachelyteres, with
moniliform antennae and fhort elytra ; the Woodniercers,
with filiform antennae and hard elytra •, and iheApa/ytrcs,
with filiform antennae and foft elytra. Others have the
tarfi four or five-jointed ; as the Lucifugcs, with variable
antennae and hard elytra 3 and the BUJlering-Jlies, with
HISTORY.
variable antennae and foft elytra. Others again have the Chflitka-
tarfi four-jointed \ as the Rojlricor?ies, with antenna; on tion
the beak ; the Wood-eaters, with fetiform antennae j the
Teretforms, with clavated antennae, and a body often
cylindricail, and the club folid 5 the Plan forms, with
granulated antennae and a flattened body •, and. the Her-
bivon, with filiform or moniliform antennae and a fwol-
len body. A few have the tarfi three-jointed, as the
Coccmellce. The Orthoptera have four wings, the up¬
per hard and the lower folded longitudinally. They in¬
clude the Eorficulce, having the anus terminated by a for¬
ceps ; the Blatter, with a flattened body and the head re¬
tiring below the corfelet 5 the Mantis and Spetfres, with
a very long corfelet j and the Reapers, with cylindrical
body and long hinder legs formed for jumping.
2. The Insects without jawrs are fubdivided into He-
miptera, Lepidotera, Diptera, and Aptera. The
Hemiptera have tour wings frequently crofied, and a
jointed beak ; and include the Fro/z/fro/Zrcr, having the
beak rifing from the fore part of the head •, the Colli-
r fires, with the beak appearing to grow from the neck ;
and the Planipennes, with the wings not croflcd and
fpreading. The Lepidoptera have four wings covered
with feales and a fpiral trunk ; they include the Butter¬
flies, with the antennae terminated by a folid mafs ; the
Hefperiee, with the antennae curved at their extremity ;
the Fuficornes, -with the antennae fwelling towards the
middle, and the Scticornes, with fetaceous antennae. The
Diptera have only two wings 5 and include the Hydro-
?nies, with filiform or plumofe antennae and a trunk 5
the Sarcofomes, with a ilefhy retraftile trunk, terminat¬
ed by two lips 5 the Sclerofiomes, with very fhort anten¬
nae, a horned projedling fucker, but no trunk ; and the
Gad flies, with fhort antennae, and neither fucker nor
trunk. The Aptera have no wings : they include the
Paraftical infedls, or Fleas, Lice, and Mites. 20
It is not furprifing that naturalifls of tafle and genius, The notion
from the gradation that feems to take place among the of a chain
works of nature, fhould have been led to form the no-°|
tion that there exifts in nature a regular feries or chain c''’‘ 1 ^ ’
of beings, the links of which, if we could difeover them
all, would be found to refemble each other fo nearly,
as only to exhibit to the fuperficial obferver a few fhades
of difference. Nuturn non per faltum movet, has be¬
come a fort of axiom in natural hiilory.
The notion of a chain of being is alluring, and does
not want arguments in its favour. The Efquimaux
Indian, or the inhabitant of Terra del Fuego, feems
fcarcely fuperior in form, and very little in intellect, to
the Oran Otan ; the Platypus, the flying Lemur, flying
Squirrels, and, fiill more, the Bats, appear to form the
connefring links between quadrupeds and birds ; while
the Seals, the Walruffes, and the whole order of
Cete, conned! the former with the fillies. In this latter
clafs, the Flying Fifh, in its capability of fupporting it-
felf in the air, feems to approach the feathered tribes,
while fome of thefe, as the Penguins, in their habits
and manner of life, bear foroe diftant refemblance to
fillies. Again, the Siren and the Eels fo nearly re¬
femble each other, that it has been difputed whether
the former fhould be reckoned among the Amphibia or
the Fifhes; while one fpecies of Lizard, {Lacerta
lumbricoides'), is fo like an earth-worm, as apparently
to conned! the Amphibia and the Vermes. Farther, the
diminutive Humming-bird {Trochilus exilis'), and ’he
Humble.
NATURAL
ClaiTifica- Humble Bee, (Apis t err c/I ns), are fo nearly alike,
non. botli in iize and manner of life, as to form no very ex¬
ceptionable links of union between the birds and in¬
fects.
If we compare the vegetable tribes with feme of the
inferior claffes of animals, rve (hall perceive many points
of refemblance, which may feem to indicate a continu¬
ance of the fame chain. Belides the Mimofa pudica and
Dion tea tnufcipula, already mentioned, the Hedy far urn
gyrans, or moving plant, is a remarkable inltance of
the mobility of vegetables ) the carrion flower (Stape-
lia hirfuta), and feme fpecie* of morel, bear the odour
of putrid animal fubftances ; while on the other hand,
the Mantis ficcifolia might be miftaken for a dried
leaf; feveral fpecies of Pennatula (fea pens) and Sertu-
laria, for ferns ; the Madrepora fungites (mufhroom
madrepore), for a petrified mufliroom and the Tubu-
iaria magnified, and ABinice, when expanded, for the
moft beautiful full-blown flowers.
Laftly, on comparing the mineral kingdom with the
elaffes of organized beings, we find feveral fo nearly re-
fembling Hones, as fcarcely to be diltinguilhed from
them.
Though the view which wre have given above, of the
eircumftances that have led naturalifts to form the idea
of a regular chain of beings, is fpecious 3 it will not
bear the ferutiny of a ftrift examination. The refem-
blances which we have pointed out, are more apparent
than real 3 and anatomy and chemiftry, added to a more
accurate acquaintance with the works of nature, have
proved, that thofe links which, to fuperficial obfervers,
appear mofl: allied, are yet feparated by confiderabie
chafms. In fact, if we were to admit thefe refemblan-
ces as ever fo accurate, they would lead us to form, not
one chain, but many.
It muft be confidered as a very difficult, though a
very curious problem, to afeertain the number of fpe¬
cies at prefent known throughout the feveral fubdivi-
fions of nature. From the different modes in which
different naturalifts have diftributed the objects of their
refearch, and from the additions that are perpetually
made to our knowledge, it may be impoffible to fix the
precife number of known fpecies at any given time 3
but we may make a tolerably near approximation to
the truth 3 and this we fliall now attempt, going
through the feveral kingdoms, clajfes, and orders, as
they have been treated of in the former parts of this
work.
ii
^Number of
fpecies in
nature.
Animals.
^ See Mam~
nalia-
I. IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
A. Man,
B. Mammalia.
1. Primates,
2. Bruta,
3. Ferse,
4. Glires,
5. Pecora,
VOL. XIV. Part II.
fpe
100*
3°*
184*
124*
82*
HI S T O R Y.
6. Belluse,
7. Cete,
C. Birds.
1. Accipitrfes,
2. Piece,
3. An feres,
4. Grallse,
5. Gallinse,
6. Pafferes,
D. Amphibia.
1. Reptiles,
2. Serpents,
E. Fishes.
1. Apodes,
2. Jugulares,
3. Thoracici,
4. Abdominales,
5. Brancheoftegi,
6. Chondropterigii,
F. Insects.
1. Coleoptera,
2. Hemiptera,
3. Lepidoptera,
4. Neuroptera,
5. Hymenoptera,
6. Diptera,
7. Aptera,
*3*
251
633
Claflifica*
tion.
558 fpecies.
malia.
f See Ceto-
logy.
2806 %
401 $
$ Turton.
§ See Er*
petology.
S87
Turton.
G. Worms.
1. Inteftina,
2. Mollufca,
3. Teftacea,
4. Zoophyta,
5. Infuforia,
r4,038ff \\ Turton,
406ft
433 tt
2672*
489 «
229 tt
  4229
So that the number of fpecies in this kingdom may
be eftimated at about 22,924, or in round numbers about
23,000 (b).
II. IN THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
|| See He!,
minthology.
* See Con.
chalogy.
23 ,
Vegetables*
A. Monandria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
B. Diandria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Trigynia,
C. Triandria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Trigynia,
13
10
83 fpecie'A.
431
  1055
D. Tetrandria
(b) The numbers here given differ in feveral inftances from thofe which we have feen in fome late works on
this fubjeft. Thus, M. La Cepede, in a note to the difeourfe delivered by him at the clofe of his courfe of Na¬
tural Hiftory, ftates the numbers of fome claffes as follows ; Mammalia, 416 fpecies 3 Birds, 2534 3 Reptiles, %2y^
Serpents, 180 3 Fijhes, 9923 in all 4247.
D. Tetrandria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Trigynia,
4. Tetragynia,
E. Pentandria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Trigynia,
4. Tetragynia,
5. Pentagynia,
6. Decagynia,
7. Polygynia,
F. Hexandria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Trigynia,
4. Hexagynia,
5. Polygynia,
G. Heptandria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Tetragynia,
4. Heptagynia,
H. Octakdria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Trigynia,
4. Tetragynia,
I. Enveandria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Trigynia,
3. Hexagynia,
K. Decandria,
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Trigynia,_
4. Pentagynia,
5. Decagynia,
L. Dodecandria.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Trigynia,_
4. Tetrafgynia,
3. Pentagynia,
6. Dodecagynia,
M. ICOSANDRIA.
1. Monogynia,
2. Digynia,
3. Trigynia,.
4. Pentagynia,
5. Polygynia,
jNf. POLYANDRIA.
j. Monogynia,
2 Digynia,
NATURAL HISTORY.
3. Trigynia,^
4. Tetragynia,
5. Pentagynia,
6. Polygynia,
527
521
51
25
3
2
377
11
95
10
40
8
452
I3I
142
205
7
100
6
138
7
6
M
133
16
4
102
91
259
ii
593 ¥
I537
652
121
8
J73
1
2
699
5
69
2
10
2494
785
31
493
49
937
271 fpe
346
O. Didynamia.
1. Gymnofpermia,
2. Angiofpermia,
P. TETRADYNAMIA.
I. Siliculofae,
2 Siliquof ae,
Monadelphia.
1. Triandria,
2. Pentandria,
3. Heptandria,
4. Oftandria,
5. Decandria,
6. Endecandria,
7. Dodecandria,
8. Polyandria,
R. Diadelphia.
1. Pentandria,
2. Hexandria,
3. Odlandria,
4. Decandria,
S. POLYADELPHIA.
1. Pentandria,
2. Dodecandria,
3. Icofandria,
4. Polyandria,
T. Syngenesia.
1. Polygamia TEqualis,
2. Pol. Superflua,
3. Pol. Fruftranea,
4. Pol. Neceffaria,
5. Pol. Segregata,
6. Monogamia,
V. Gynandria.
1. Diandria,
2. Triandria,
3. Tetrandria,
4. Pentandria,
5. Hexandria,
6. Oftandria,
7. Decandria,
8. Dodecandria,
9. Polyandria,
U. Monoecia.
1. Monandria,
2. Diandria,
3. Triandria,
4. Tetrandria,
5. Pentandria,
6. Hexandria,
7. Heptandria,
8. Polyandria,
9. Monadelphia,
31
20
12
231
441
640
168
258
J7
I34
120
2
51
4
33
331
I5
42
652
3
3
4
55
439
441
116
97
22
88
I55
6
1
42
23
1
7
1
50
16
8
99
49
41
4
1
564 fpecics.
1081
426
692
710
6S
1 r94
286
52
78
10. Syngcnefia,
Clarifica¬
tion-
TO, Syagenefia,
li, Gynandria,
W. Dioecia.
1. Monandrsa,
2. Diandria,
3. Triandria,
4. Tetrandria,
5. Pentandria,
6. Hexandria,
7. Odlandria,
8. Enneandria,
9. Decandria,
10. Dodecandria,
11. Polyawdria,
12. Monadelphia,
13. Syngeneiia,
14. Gynandria,
X. PoLYGAMIA.
1. Moncecia,
2. Direcia,
3. Trioecia,
Y. Cryptogamia.
1. Filices,
2. Mufci,
3. Algae,
4. Fungi,
Z. Paemae,
natural
46
I
36
21
33
7
4
7
J4
19
26
5
9
181
26
16
267
268
467
465
398 fpecies.
219
223 fpj
1467
I4
24
Minerals.
Total, 14,807 (c).
III. IN THE MINERAL KINGDOM.
HISTORY.
C. Combustibles.
1. Sulphur,
2. Bituminous,
3. Graphite,
D. Metallic Ores
are divided into 24 genera,
each metal forming a genus,
Os
Objects and
utility of
Natural
Hiftory.
106
Total,
267 fpecies *. * See Mi¬
neralogy,
Hence, taking the -whole number of known animals
at. 23,000, that of vegetables at 50,000 and that of
minerals 267, the whole number of known fpecies of
natural objedls will be 73,267.
II. 1 hough the claflihcation of natural bodies is of j^jnls5for
-the higheft importance towards making us acquainted lludying.
with unknown Ipecies, and diitinguilhing them from
thofe which wTe already know ; this alone is not luffi-
cient to form a naturalift. His principal objedt thould
be to learn the habits, manners, and ufes of the objedls
which he is itudying •, and he may perhaps be allifted
in this objedt by the following oblervations. ^
!. In Zoology, or the natural hiftory of the animalz00i0gy.
kingdom, it is neceffary to afcertain both the diftindtive
charadlers of each individual animal, and its peculiar
habits, properties and ufes.
I he naturalift firft learns that the flieep, for inftance,
is in the clafs mammalia, being one of thofe animals
that luckle their young ; in the order pecora, becaufe it
is hoofed, and has no cutting teeth in the upper jaw $
and that it is diftinguiftied from other animals of the
fame order, by its having feveral blunt wedge-like inci-
five fore-teeth in the lower jaw only, hollow reclined
horns, and no tulks.
Minerals are divided into four great claffes, viz.
Earths and Stones, Salts, Combustibles, and
Metallic Ores.
A. Earths and Stones.
I. Diamond srenus. - 1
2. Zircon,
3. Siliceous,
4. Argillaceous
5. Magnefian,
6. Calcareous,
7. Barytie,
8. Strontian,
B. Salts.
1. Sulphates,
2. Nitrates,
3. Muriates,
4. Carbonates,
5. Borates,
6. Fluates,
2
62
29
J7
22
2
o
137 fpecies.
6
1
3
2
2
1
This information would fatisfy many, who call them-
felves naturalifts ; but it is far from being all that is re¬
quired ; the philofophical inveftigator of Nature inquires
into its habits 5 as its food, its period of geftation, its
feafon of lambing, the weather and climate molt fuited
to its health and vigour. He endeavours to learn what
produces the difference in its fleece, whether climate,
food, or fome peculiarity in the breed ; and is anxious
to afcertain what variety is molt difpofed to fatten, and
what food effects this fpeedily j with many other very
ufeful particulars.
The information of the firft: kind is of confequence,
and even neceffary in many cafes j but that of the latter
is moft ufeful.
If a traveller difeovers an animal poffefling any ufeful
property, or producing any ufeful drug, if he have not
the firft kind of information, he gives fo confufed and
inaccurate a defcription of it, that others, miftaking the
animal, diferedit the author’s account, and the world
lofes the benefit of his difeovery.
2. Botany, or the natural hiftory of the vegetable .
kingdom, in the ufual acceptation of the term, implies and
4 L 2 only
(c) This number, drawn from the article Botany, compared with the three firft: volumes of Wildenow’s edition
of the Species Plantarim, and with Perfoon’s edition of the Sijstema Vegetabilium, of Linne, is certainly very far
below the truth. Many years ago, the number of known fpecies was reckoned at above twenty thoufand, and
there is reafon to believe that it exceeds fifty thoufand.
636 NATURAL
Objefb and only the knowledge ot the difHnftive charadlers of
Naturaf P^an^s ? and he who knows the greateft number, and is
Hiftory. nioft accurate in determining the different fpecics, is
accounted the beft botanift.
This however conftitutes but a fmall part of the
fcience $ there is another diftinft department, which
may properly be termed the philofophy of botany,
which is both more interefting and more ufeful. This
includes the knowledge of the itrudture, or the anatomy
of plants $ and the knowledge of the ufes, or fundtions
of their various parts, as of the leaves, the bark, the
pith, the roots, the juices, &c. ; which is called the
phyfiology of plants. It includes alfo an acquaintance
with the foil and climate adapted to different vegetables,
their mode of propagation, and the various ufes to
which their feveral parts or productions may be ap¬
plied.
Botany, in the firft fenfe, which may be called prac¬
tical botany, is fubfervient, and abfolutely neceffary to
the ftudy of the philofophy of botany j for no one that
is unacquainted with the claffification of plants can
either convey to others his own information, or himfelf
receive the benefit of that of others, refpedting either
the flrudture and economy or the habits and the ufes
of fuch plants, as may have been inveftigated.
If medical virtues are difcovered in any vegetable
produdtion 5 without the accuracy of the practical bo¬
tanift, to afcertain and defcribe the particular plant
which affords it, the difcovery is often loft 5 or perhaps,
what is worfe, the virtues are attributed to a different
plant, and it is only by repeated failures, and in feme
cafes after much mifehief, that the error is deteCted.
It is evident that the fame may happen to the agri-
culturift, the dyer, or any other artizan, who has dif¬
covered in the vegetable kingdom the means of improv¬
ing his art, but has not botanical knowledge fufficient
to give an accurate charader of the plant, to which he
is indebted for his difcovery.
Mineral- 3. In Mineralogy, or the natural hiftory of the
*£y- mineral kingdom, almoft: half the ftudents are of that
clafs, who content themfelves with collecting, and
being able to arrange fyftematically the minerals they
meet 'with. But in this department of natural birtory,
as well as the other two, which we have confidered,
fomething more than arrangement is required.
It is the man who can analyze, and feparate the
component parts of mineral productions ; who knows
the art of affaying, and who knowTs a priori the pro¬
bable file of a quarry, or a mine, and can tell the direc¬
tion of a ftratum of coal, or of marble, that we may call
a mineralogift.
The natural hiftory of the mineral kingdom includes
geology, or the data upon which are founded the dif¬
ferent theories of the formation of the earth. It in¬
cludes the knowledge of thofe faCts, upon which the
art of mining, and the art of feparating and purifying
metals, is founded j and its objeCI is to teach likewife
the properties of thofe metals, as well as of the earths,
and other mineral productions, when feparated and in
2p their Ample ft ate.
Utility of With refpeCt to the utility of the Jludy of natural
the ftudy. hi/lory, we have unavoidably given many inftances of it,
in confidering the objeCt of the fcience. . We need there¬
fore add but few others.
H1 s T o R Y.
The grazier knows the advantage of attending to the Objects and
habits and diftinCtive marks of our domeftic animals. ulility of
It is natural hiftory, though not often ftudied feientifi- ^.a*ura*
cally, that teaches him what variety of ftieep to prefer; < . ‘ J'1'' .
by what means to obtain a variety of cowrs, remarkable 30
for their quantity of milk ; how to choofe the flockTo
that is beft adapted to his land, and what is the beft Srazier*
food for them during winter.
Much benefit is likely to accrue from the attention
lately paid to the cultivation of -what are termed the
artificial grafles. Inftead of fowing his hay feeds in-
difcriminately, the grazier may feleCt only fuch graffes
as are, by obfervation, found to be moft fuited to his
foil and cattle.
The farmer’s knowledge of the proper fucceflion of t0 ^
crops, the beft times for fowing them, when to weed, farmer,
and with what to manure, as well as how to deftroy both
weeds and infefts, is the knowledge of a naturalift ;
and furely he who is fcientifically acquainted with
the growth oi plants, knowing what part the foil
aCIs in vegetation, and what is the aliment moft re¬
quired by them, will have great advantage over the
mere empirical farmer, who has no better reafon
for what he does, than that his father did the fame
before him.
By ftudying the natural hiftory of infeCls, we learn
the habits of fuch as are noxious and injurious, and
thence derive the means of deftroying them.
The mineralogift has often enriched individual pro-^ ^
prietors of land, and benefited his country, by the dif-landed pro-
covery of mines; he is enabled to diredt the plannersprietor.
of canals by warning them of obftacles ; and his know¬
ledge has aided the phyfician in afeertaining the virtues
of minerals, and of mineral waters.
In the arts, a knowledge of natural hiftory prevents jn t}ie artSa
that confufion, and thofe innumerable errors that mull
be committed, when the natural produdtions which are
employed cannot be accurately diferiminated from
others.
It is to the naturalift that wre are many times indebt¬
ed for the introduction of foreign animals and foreign
plants into our own country. Wheat, oats, barley,
and other vegetables, which are now become neceffary
to our exiftence, w'ere not originally of Britiih growth.
The potato, now' fo general and fo ufeful, was firft in¬
troduced into this country by Gerard, a noted botanift,
and was for fome time cultivated in his garden as a ra¬
rity. The lugar-cane, the bread-fruit tree, the farina¬
ceous palms, the flax and hemp, have all been tranf-
ported by naturalifts of the prefent day, to regions
where they never grew before.
Befides the above, and many fimilar inftances of ad¬
vantage to be derived from ftudying the different
branches of natural hiftory, thefe two incalculable be¬
nefits neceflarily arife to the ftudent himfelf, from at¬
tending to the whole, or any part of the fcience;
namely, a power of abftracting the mind, and reafon-
ing methodically ; and a habit of contemplating the
Creator in his works*. * Skrirn-
Our limits do not permit us to enter further into the/z'irf’x
fertile topic of the utility and advantages of natural hi- EjTayu
ftory. Its utility, in a moral and religious point of
view, has been ably illuftrated by Mr Ray, in his
“ Wifdom of God ;” by Mr Bingley, in the introduc-
tioa
3
NATURAL
MoiTecf tion to his u Animal Biography j” and, in particular,
preferving j)r paley, in his “ Natural Theology 5” and to
t[)epe ^yoj-ts yVe mull refer our readers.
III. We have Hated it to be one of the principal
Art of pre- objects of natural hirtory, to teach the mode of pfe-
ferving fpe-ferving fpecimens. .This art, called by the French
ciinens. Taxtdermie, is exceedingly curious, and would well de-
ferve a much fuller conlideration than we can here al¬
lot to it. We {hall confine our attention on this fubje£l
entirely to the animal kingdom, and even here we muft
be very brief.
The art of preparing and mounting the Ikins of ani¬
mals appears to be pretty old j but it made no great
progrefs before the 17th century, w'hen Reaumur made
ibme attempts to preferve the fpecimens from the at¬
tacks of infe(its. In the Journal de 'Physique for 1773,
there is a memoir addreffed to the Royal Society of
London, by M. Kuckhan, on the methods of preparing
birds, which is very curious, but is liable to many ob-
ieftions. In the fame volume is a memoir by Mauduit,
principally refpeiting the means of preferving animal
fpecimens* from the attacks of infefts. His prefervatives
are of a poifonous nature *, and, of courfe, their ufe is
dangerous, while they do not appear to have been at¬
tended with the expefted fuccefs. . The arfenical foap
of Becceur, much celebrated about the fame time, is lia¬
ble to fimilar objections.
The lateft, and probably the bell work on this fub-
je&, is that publifired a few years ago by M. Nicolas ;
3<- and from this the following obfervations are derived.
Inftruments The inftruments employed in the preparation of fpe-
eraployed. cimens are much the fame as thofe ufed by anatomifis
in their ordinary difieCtions, confifting of fmall knives
or fcalpels, forceps or pincers of various forms, probes,
needles, and pins or wires.
Preferva- The prefervatives employed by M. Nicolas to pro-
tives againft tecl the fpecimens from infeCts, are principally of two
infers. kinds : I. Sulphur, which he applies to the {kins by
means of fumigation, thus impregnating them vjth ful-
phurous acid ; 2. A liquor for macerating the {kins, an¬
other liquor for rubbing over the hair, and a pomatum
for anointing the infide of the {kin. The JrJ liquor is
prepared by lleeping a pound and a half of powdered oak
bark, and four ounces of powdered alum, in twenty Eng-
lifii pints of cold water, for two days, taking care to
{hake the mixture from time to time. The pomatum is
prepared of a pound of white foap, half a pound of cauf-
tic potafli, four ounces of powrdered alum, two Englilh
pints of water, four ounces of oil of petroleum, and the
fame of camphire. The foap, cut into fmall pieces, is
put into an earthen pipkin, over a moderate fire ; the
water poured over it j and when the whole is formed
into a fort of foft pafte, the alum and then the oil are
added ; the whole well ftirred together, removed from
the fire, and when it is nearly cold the camphire is
added ; being before hand rubbed down in a mortar
with a little fpirit of wine. The pomatum, thus pre¬
pared, muft be kept in glafs veffels, well ftopt 5 and,
when ufed, is to be lowered with water to the confift-
ence of thin cream, and laid on the Ikins by means of a
pencil brufti.
The liquor employed for preferving the fur is pre¬
pared by infuling an ounce of white foap hired very
fniall, two ounces of camphire broken into very fmall
HISTORY. 637
pieces, the fame of colocynth or bitter-apple grofsly Mode of
powdered, in two Englilh pints of fpirit of wine, for four Pre^crving
or five days, ftiaking the veffel from time to time, after , penmens..
which the liquor is to be filtered through blotting-paper.
M. Nicolas has given dire&ions for preparing and
preferving fpecimens of all the various claffes of ani¬
mals. We fhall, as far as our limits permit, briefly fol¬
low him through each. ^
In Ikinning quadrupeds, he propofes to make an in- Directions
cifion along the middle of the back, from the haunches Ruffing
to the Ihoulders, except in thofe animals whofe {kin is quadrupeds,
very thick and hard, or is fet with fpines, in which the
opening muft be made at the belly in the ufual man¬
ner. In detaching the {kin from the flefii, rve muft
occafionally employ the knife, and as avc proceed, muft
infert toAV between the {kin and flelh, to prevent foiling
the fur. When the Avhole body is detached, and the
(kin drarvn doAvn as far as the ankles, the nofe, and the
tip of the tail, the Avhole body is to be cut away except
the head and extremities,, Avhich are left to give a bet¬
ter form and fupport to the fpecimen. All the fieflry
and fatty parts, the brain, and the eyes, however,
muft be cut arvay, and nothing left but the bones, the
fpaces between Avhich and the {kin muft be ftufted Avith
toAV cut fine, and a little foft clay muft be put Avithin
the orbits, in order to fix the artificial eyes.
Before ftuffing, the {kin is to be fteeped for feveral
days, from five to fifteen, according to the lize of the
animal, in the liquor firft deferibed, and after fteeping,
the infide is to be Avell anointed with the pomatum.
When the legs and head are fluffed, the cavity of
the ikull filled Avith very dry mofs, and the eyes fixed,
Avires are to be paffed through the infide of the body,
the extremities, and the head and tail, in the following*
manner. Three iron Avires of a moderate fize, Avell an¬
nealed, at leaft tAvice as long as the animal, are to be
twilled together for nearly half the length, and Avhile
one Avire is left ftraight, the other tAVO are to be bent
at each end, fo as to form a crofs. When the Ikin is
turned, ready for ftuffing, thefe Avires are to be placed
Avithin it in fuch a manner as that the ftraight Avire
fliall pafs through the head and tail, and the crofling
Avires through the extremities, coming out at the ball
of each foot; and in this tvay after the cavity is filled
up Avith toAV, and the open part neatly ftitched, the
fpecimen may be fixed on a board in its natural pofi-
tion. Nothing remains noAV but to impregnate the fur
with the bitter liquor laft deferibed, which is done by
means of a fponge, Avith Avhich the Avhole outfide is to
be Avell Avaflied, then covered Avith folds of linen, and
dried in the {hade. # $$
The art of preferving birds is perhaps the moft curi-Directions
ous part of the prefent fubjeft, and is that to Avhich the for ftuffing
moft attention has been given. M. Nicolas has ex- c**
plained at fome length the mode recommended by M.
Kuckhan in the Journal de Physique ; that by Dr Lett-
fom, in the NaturaliJPs and Traveller's Companion ;
that of Mauduit, inferted in the fifth number of the En¬
cyclopedic Methodique ,* and that of Dufrefne, adopted
by M. Daudin, and inferted in his Traite d'Ornitholo¬
gic ; after which he details his oAvn.
He deferibes three methods of preparing birds, ac¬
cording as Ave can procure freflr-killed fpecimens, Avhole
dried {kins brought from abroad, or detached parts of
feveral
638 NATURAL
Mode of feveral individuals of the fame fpecies. We fhall here
fpecimens con^ne eurfelves to the firft of tliefe, as being bell
1 1 adapted to the generality of our readers.
Vv hen a frefh-killed bird is procured, it is to be
placed upon a table, upon its back, with the tail turn¬
ed towards the operator, who, after having feparated
'vith his fingers the feathers which cover the belly to¬
wards the right and left, is to make with a fealpel, a
longitudinal inciiion through the fkin, from the point
ot the breafl-bone to about the middle of the belly.
J. he edges of the /kin are now to be raifed with a pair
of flat pincers, on each fide, carefully feparating the
llefh as occafion may require, by the knife, and infect¬
ing a little cotton from time to time, to prevent foiling
the feathers. In this way the tkin is to be detached
trom the fhoulders and neck, and as much as poflible of
the body laid bare, after which a pretty flrong thread is
to be palTed through the noftrils, and tied under the
lower mandible, leaving the ends of the thread when
tied together, at lealt twice as long as the neck. Now,
holding the bird by the thread, with the back turned
towards him, the operator is to hold together the
feathers on the twro edges of the incifion as well as
thofe that cover the bread, and pulhing the head of the
bird inwards with his thumb lo as to form the neck in¬
to an arch, is to cut this off near the body, detach
from it the gullet and wind pipe, and ail the flefliy
parts, both of the neck and head, by drawing the fkin
as far back as poflible towards the beak, and cutting
oft the neck-bones clofe to the head ; he is to empty the
fkull with a little iron inftrument in the form of an ear-
picker, and clean it properly with cotton. He is now
to wrap cotton or tow about the head and neck, and to
feparate the reft of the fkin, leaving the pinions and
bones of the wings, and legs, and the tail, as directed
for quadrupeds After this has been done, the fkin is
to be turned out like a glove, with all its feathers turn¬
ed inwards, all the natural openings of the bird, as well
as any fhot-holes, &c. made in killing the bird, are to
be ftitched up w7ith a needle and fine thread ; then the
whole fkin as well as the bones, are to be waflied with
a llrong infufion of tan with a little alum, by means of
a pencil brufh, and the fkin inclofed in a covered vcffel
that it may not dry too hattily.
In ten or twelve hours time wre may wafh the fkin
and bones again with the aftringent liquor. Twice
walking in this manner will be fufficient for very fmall
birds, but thofe of a middling fize will require macera¬
tion in the firft liquor employed for quadrupeds during
two days, and four or five days for thofe of larger fize.
The fkins being well impregnated with the aftringent
liquor, are to be fmeared with the foapy pomatum,
have artificial eyes fixed in the orbits by means of wax,
and fluffed and mounted much in the fame manner as
quadrupeds, except that the wires employed for this
purpofe are rather differently bended.
Great nicety is required in fixing the different parts
of a bird in its natural pofition, and in arranging the
featliers fmoothly and evenlv. M. Nicolas direffs thin
plates of lead, to be placed fo as to fecure the wings in
the proper pofition' till the whole is completely arran-
ge?;
To preferve the feet and legs of birds, he anoints
them with linfeed oil mixed with camphire, and applied
a little warm.
HISTORY.
The latt operation confifts in enveloping the bird Mode of
with bandages of muffin or fine linen, pinned round the preferring
neck, hreaft, body, and rump, as w7ell as to fecure the 1fpecinienii\
feathers in their places during drying, as to allow of ‘
their being drenched with the bitter liquor to preferve
them from the attacks of infeffs.
The different orders of infefts require different modes Infers,
of preparation. The following is a fummary of our au¬
thor’s mode of preferving each kind.
For the colcoptera and hemiptera.—One of thefe in¬
fers, as foon as caught, is to be carefully wrapt in very
fine paper, with the ends of the paper curled round to
prevent the animal from moving j and this roll of paper
including the infeff, is to be put into a little box of
pafteboard till the infeft-hunter returns home. Each
infeff is then to be held between the thumb and fore¬
finger of the left hand, the wings to be raifed by means
of a pin, and held open with the middle finger, while
the abdomen of the animal is flit open from the back,
and the entrails abftraffed by means of an iron wire,
and the cavity as well as the edges of the wound are to
be,.waflied with the bitter Ipirituous liquor deferibed in
N0 36. by means of a very fine pencil. Then a fmall
cotton plug impregnated with oil of petroleum is to be
fluffed into the cavity, with the point of a wire, till the
cavity is fuffieiently full, when.the wings are to be fuf-
fered to return to their natural fituation, and the infeft
is ready for mounting. For mounting thefe infers,
M. Nicolas employs little fquares of card, through the
middle and acrofs which he paffes a fmall iron wire
well annealed, and about the fize of a harpficord firing,
A very fine needle is now to be pafled through the anE
mal, as near as poflible to the corfelet; and after ha¬
ving covered the upright iron wire with a light coating
of gum-water, he paffes it through the hole made by the
needle, and fixes the animal in fuch a manner that its
feet may reft upon the card.
For the lepidoptera.—He recommends them to be put,
when caught, into a triangular piece of paper, and after-
wards into a pafteboard box of the fame form, opening
with a hinge. For mounting tliefe infeffs it is fufficient
to perforate their bodies with a fine needle, armed with
a double thread impregnated with the bitter fpirituous
liquor, making the needle enter by the head and comb
out at the end of the belly, and then cutting the thread
with feiffars. The infeft thus prepared is mounted by
means of a card, as directed for the coleoptera, and a
piece of wood about an inch long, feven or eight lines
broad, and a proper thicknefs, is placed below the wings
on each fide very near the body, and the wings are
kept down by means of plates of lead.
In the preparation of fpecimen of f jhes, M. Nicolas Fifiies.
prefers the method of Mauduit to that given by Dr
Lettfom in the Natura/iJPs and Traveller's Companion $
but as Mauduit’s method requires much fkill and ad-
drefs, he recommends the following, efpecially for the
flat kinds of fifh.
He makes a longitudinal incifion with feiffars aloag
the belly of the fifli from the anus to the lower mandi¬
ble, and then gradually and carefully feparates the fkin
from the flefh with the affiftance of the blade and flat
handle of a fealpel, till he has laid bare one fide of the.
animal. He then paffes to the other fide, proceeding
in the fame manner to detach, the fkin from that part,
after which he feparates the head from the body \vith a
pair
4
NATURAL
Mode of pair of fciflars, and clears away tlie flefhy parts attached
preferring to |]ie lieacl. He now detaches the ikin from the back
fyeilinens. as ^ j-]ie anus? an(J then laying the fifh on the table,
he paffes the Hat handle of the fcalpel below the fldn
that covers the tail and neighbouring parts, in order to
feparate it completely. This done, he pufhes the tail
inwards, and with the affifiance of the fcalpel and
drawing the Ikin very gently, he detaches this as near
as poflible to the end of the tail, which he then fepa-
rates with fciiTars, thus leaving the fkin with nothing
attached to it but the head and extremity of the tail.
In only remains now to clear away the ears and eyes,
and properly clean the head.
The ikin is now deeped for fome days in the tanning
liquor, then laid on a table, and when the head is pro¬
perly arranged, a model of the body of the fifh made
of foft clay, mixed with fine fand, is placed within the
fkin, which is made to fit neatly over it, is then bound
with little bandages of linen, and fuffered to dry. When
the clay is quite dry and hard, and the Ikin has acquir¬
ed fo much firmnefs as to retain it proper form, it is to
be gently beaten all over to break the clay, fo that it
may be withdrawn through the opening. When this
is done, the whole infide of the fkin and head is to be
fmeared by means of a pencil brufh with the foap po¬
matum. After which it is to be entirely filled with
cut tow, and the opening flitched up as neatly as pof-
fible. Then artificial eyes are to be placed in the or¬
bits by means of foft wax, and the whole body is to be
covered with a coat of white varnifh prepared by di-
gefting four ounces of clear turpentine, three ounces of
fandarac, and one ounce of maftich in tears, with eight
ounces of oil of turpentine, and four ounces of fpirit of
wine, in a bottle placed in a water bath.
In preparing fpecitnens of reptiles,—after what has
been faid above, little dire&ion will be required. The
fkin is to be flript backwards as far as the head, which
is to be cut off and cleaned as jn other fpecimens j after
which the fkin is to be macerated, anointed within with
pomatum, fluffed and varnifhed as before. ■»
The cruftacea, including crabs, lobfters, flar-fifh, and
fea-urchins, require but little preparation. In crabs
the fhell, and in lobfters the tail, is to be feparated
from the reft of the body \ as much as pofhble of the
meat is to be picked out from the body and large
claws •, the whole interior is to be fmeared with the
foap pomatum, and after having united the parts, the
whole is to be fuffered to dry.
The ftar-fifh and urchins, if taken alive, fhould be
killed by plunging them in fpirit of wine, and after¬
wards drying them in the fun or in an oven moderately
heated.
As to worms the only mode of preferving the molhtf-
cct, or thofe with naked bodies, is to keep them in fpirits;
and of the tejiacea or fhell-fifh, the only part thought
worth preferving is the fhell j for the preparation of
which, fee Conchology.
The above is but an imperfedf abftraft of M. Nico¬
las’s “ Methode de preparer et conferver les Animaux
de toutes les claftfesf which is illuftrated by plates, and
is well deferving the attention of colle£lors of fpeci¬
mens.
There is alfo an excellent effay on this fubjccl by
Dufrefne, under Taxidermie, in the Nouveau Billionaire
cPHiftoire Naturelle,
41
Reptiles.
42
Cruftacea.
43
Worms.
HISTORY. 639
It will be expected that in this introdu£lory article Hiftcry.
on natural hiftory, wTe fhould fay fomething of its rife 1
and progrefs. Much of our obfervations on this fubjecl 0f
have been anticipated in preceding articles on the par-natural
ticular branches of natural hiftory, fo that little remains hiltoiy.
for us to do in this place than to give a general fketcli
of the early hiftory of this branch of phyfics. ^ ^
We have rgafon to believe that the works of nature Jewifh
have formed the favourite ftudy among the ingenious and writers,
inquifitive from the earlieft ages of the world. From
the continual allufions to the Creator’s works, and the
beautiful metaphors drawn from them, which abound in
the infpired writings of the Jewifli prophets and poets,
efpecially thofe of Job, Ifaiah, Daniel and David, we
know that thefe fages were well acquainted with natu¬
ral hiftory, as far at leaf! as obfervation extended. Solo¬
mon, as we are told, was acquainted with all vegetables,
“ from the cedar of Lebanon to the hyffop that fpring-
eth out of the wall 5” and probably fo wife a man was
well acquainted with the other kingdoms of nature.
Some writers have gone fo far as to alfert that Ariftotle
and Theophraftus learned natural hiftory from the
writings of Solomon, though on w'hat data they ground
this afiertion, we are at a Jeffs to determine.
The principal writers on natural hiftory among the
ancients, whofe writings have come down to us, are 46
Ariftotle, Theophraftus, and Pliny the elder. Of the firft Ariltotle.
we may remark with Haller, that his writings on this
fubjedl exhibit a continued chain of phyfical and ana¬
tomical fadts, which for the moft part appear to have
been the refult of accurate obfervation. He relied lefs
than any of the ancient naturalifts on uncertain and
fabulous report *, he induftrioufiy colledled and exam¬
ined natural bodies, and appears to have himfelf diflec-
ted many animals, efpecially fillies, or at leaft to have
been prefent at their diffedtion. There are even to be
found in his writings, references by letters to figures
which he employed to illuftrate his obfervations. ^
Theophraftus wrote chiefly on the natural hiftory of Theophra-
plants and foftils, on winds, and on fire. His worksftus*
have been edited by Heinfius, but, except in plants, they
do not contain much that is worthy of our obfervation
more than wdiat is to be found in the writings of Ari¬
ftotle. 48
The natural hiftory of Pliny is*a valuable repofitory Pliny,
of ancient knowledge, which, notwithftanding all its er¬
rors and extravagances, we may venture to call after the
panegyric of his nephew, a comprehenfive and learned
work, little lefs various than nature herfelf. The author,
in the dedication of his work to Vefpafian, fenfible of
the defedls with which it abounds, apolcgifes for them,
from the confideration that the path which he took had
been in a great meafure untrodden, and held forth tb
the traveller few enticements 5 while fome parts of his
fubjedt had been fo often handled, that readers were
become cloyed with them : that it wras an arduous talk
to give what is old an appearance of novelty ; to add
weight and authority to what is new 5 to caft a luftre
upon fubjedts’ that have been obfeured by time ; to
render acceptable what is become trite and difgufting ;
to obtain credit to doubtful relations 5 and, in a word, to
reprefent every tiring according to nature, and with ail
its natural properties. His defign muft be acknowled¬
ged to be grand and noble, and when we confider that
the work was compofed in the midft of important
engagements,,
49
Ancients
N A T U R A L
engagements, and chiefly at broken periods ftolen from
ileep, we ftiall not wonder that it was imperfectly exe¬
cuted.
The ancients had no idea of methodical or fyfte-
method'1 ^ 1Tlal:'c ^iftinftions. As they Avere acquainted Atith but
fetv bodies in comparifon with the moderns, and attend¬
ed only to thofe Avhich Avere ufeful to man j they di-
Itinguilhed them only by their ufual properties, their
native country, their habitations, and the dfeful pur-
pofes to which they might be applied. From the feAV
productions which they defcribed, they were not led to
perceive the neceflity of fearching among them for di-
ItinCtive marks or relations, Avhich may prevent their
being confounded Avith each other. They doubtlefs
-believed that their deferiptions were fufficient, and that
-the names Avhxch they impofed would defeend Avith
their cuftoms to pofterity, Avithout being affeCted by the
diforders and alterations that have changed the face of
•countries and the feat of empires. But the revolutions
that have defolated the faireft regions of the globe, by
infulating or difplacing their inhabitants, or by con¬
founding them Avith one another, and altering their
•language, have frequently almoft extinguifhed the lamp
of fcience. After many ages of ignorance and bar¬
barity, Ave find in the feAV Avorks of the ancient na-
turalifts, Avhich have efcaped the ravages of Avar and
the deA'aftations of civil difeord, little more than un¬
certainty and obfeurity, with refpeft to thofe fpecies
Avhich they have defcribed. NotAvithflanding the labours
of numerous commentators, Ave do not certainly knoAV
Avhat fpecies of plant is the cicuta employed by the
Greeks for the execution of criminals, and Avhich ter¬
minated the life of Socrates. We cannot be fure that
the animals^ Avhich AA'e find beft characterized in the
ancient Avritings, bore the names which Ave attribute to
them ; nor are Ave more certain with refpcCt to the an-
50 cient nomenclature of minerals.
~hTls0t me" ^ as ^u^'ous men cultivated the fciences only
through the medium of the Avritings of the ancients,
and attempted nothing beyond the interpretation of
fihefe, natural hiflonj, like every other branch of phyfics,
remained obfeure and confufed, and fidtion or imagina¬
tion took the place of fafts ; but Avhen they perceived
the advantage of ftudying nature herfelf, and interro¬
gating her by obfervation, methods Avere eredfed, and
diftindtive charadters for the fpecies introduced. This
fortunate revolution took place in the i6tli ’century.
Caefalpinus firft attempted to reduce vegetables to claf-
fes, and diftinguifli them into tribes according to their
form.—Gefner, befides the fine hints that he firft gave
of the conftant relation betAveen the ftrudture of the
feed and that of the other parts of plants, Avas the firft
Avho attempted any fyftematic and methodical arrange¬
ment of animals. In the 17th century, Morifon, Ray,
and Rivinus, improved on the hints of Caefalpinus re-
fpedting the claflification of vegetables } and Aldrovan-
dus, Rhedi, and SAvammerdam upon thofe of Gefner
HISTORY.
refpedling animals^ and in a fliort time this firft impulfe Hi ft on
given to the art of arranging and diftinguifhing natural ——v-—
bodies by conftant charadlers, Avas communicated to all
thofe who Avere employed in the ftudy of nature.
Tournefort, profiting by all the attempts towards method
and fyftem in the claflification of vegetables that had
been made before him, advanced a confiderable ftep in
botany, by his beautiful method of diftinguifliing plants
according to the form of their flowers and fruits, Avhich
he publiihed towards the end of the 17th century.
The fame year of the 18th century (1707) gave
birth to tAvo men Who have advanced the icience ofBuffon.
natural hiftory far beyond any of their predeceflbrs.
We need fcareely mention the names of Linne and
Buffon. The Swedifti naturalift extended his enlarged
views through every branch of natural hiftory •, he ar¬
ranged in his Sijstema Nature and Sijstenm Vegetabi-
lium all the productions of nature, and diftinguiftied
them by characters that Avere precife and Ample j he
created a new language for exprefling Avith brevity all
thefe characters, and thus prefented to the view, as in
a compendious picture, all the properties of bodies.
BufFon, proceeding in a different road, treated more co-
pioufly the moft important parts of natural hiftory, and
of the animals that are moft nearly allied to man, in a
Avork Avhich the fire of his genius and the brilliancy of
his ftyle have rendered a univerfal favourite. The rival
of Ariftotle and Pliny, whofe genius he feems to have
combined in the greatnefs of his views and extent of
his plan, and altogether one of the firft writers of his
age, he infpired a paflion for the ftudy of nature in
numbers, Avho Avithout his Avorks Avould never have en¬
gaged in fuch a ftudy, and communicated to his country¬
men that tafte which has ever fince furvived him.
After Avhat has been given in the particular treatifes
on natural hiftory .in this Encyclopaedia, both as to the
progrefs of the fcience, and the principal works on each
department of it, fince the time of Linne and Buffon j
it is unneceffary for us to trace its progrefs beyond that
period. The advances made within thefe feAV years are
immenfe, our ftock of information is prodigioufly in-
creafed, and the modes of ftudy greatly improved and
facilitated. The labours of Cuvier, Geoffroy, Lacepede,
Dumont, Dumeril, Lamarck, Duvernois, Sonnini,
Bloch, Spallanzani, Elper, Juflieu, WildenoAV, Werner,
Patrin, St Fond, Brochant, Brongniart, Klaproth,
Fourcroy, Vauquelin, ShaAV, Latham, Bancroft, Catef-
by, Ellis, Smith, Withering, Woodville, Kirwan, Play¬
fair, Thomfon, Jamefon, &c. Avith the affiftance to be
derived from the Annales de Mufeum National, the Na-
turaliJPs Mifcellamj, the Linn a an Tranfaclions, and the
fplendid plates of Merian, Schreber, Curtis, SoAverby,
Sotheby, &c. afford ample proofs of the induftry and
fuccefs Avith Avhich this delightful field has been culti¬
vated, and of the rich harveft that has been derived
from the united efforts of fo many men of genius and
talents.
Natural
NAT [ 641 ] NAT
Natural NATURAL Vhilofophy, is commonly defined to be that
Plnlofophy. branch of knowledge which confiders the powers and
v properties of natural bodies, and their mutual aftions
on one another. The province of moral philofophy is
the mind of man j its inquiries and refearches are into
the intelleftual world. Natural philofophy, on the other
hand, is only concerned with the material part of the
creation. The Moralift’s bufinefs is to inquire into the
nature of virtue, the caufes and effe£ts of vice j to
propofe remedies for it, and to point out the mode of
attaining happinefs, which only can be the refult of
virtuous condudt. The Naturalift, on the contrary, has
nothing to do with fpirit •, his bufinefs is folely about
body or matter j and he ought to have a folid and accu¬
rate knowledge of all material fubftances, together with
their affe&ions and properties 5 and if poffible, he is to
inveftigate the reafons of fuch and fuch appearances.—
Indeed, the firfl and principal part of this fcience is,
to colleft all the manifeft and fenfible appearances of
things, and reduce them into a body of natural hiftory.
Philofophy has often been faid, and is even now very
generally thought, to mean an inquiry into all the caufes
of things ; but experience informs us, that though we
are acquainted with a good number of effects, we can
trace but few of their caufes j fo that philofophy itfelf
will really be found to be in general but a collection
of fads. Still, however, it differs from natural hi¬
ftory in its appropriated fenfe j the bufinefs of which
is only to obferve the appearances of natural bodies
feparately, and from thefe appearances to clafs them
with other bodies: natural philofophy goes farther,
and recites the aCtion of two or more bodies of the
fame or different kinds upon one another $ and though
it can neither inveftigate nor point out the caufes of
thofe effeCls, whatever they are, yet, from mathema¬
tical reafoning combined with experience, it can be de-
monftrated, that in fuch circumftances fuch effeCls muft
always take place. There are evidently two ways of
making obfervations on the material world : the firft is,
when we view things nearly as they happen to occur,
without any defign or intervention of our own $ in
which way, indeed, no great improvements can be
expeCled in the art, becaufe chance having the direc¬
tion, only exhibits occafional or extemporary proper¬
ties. The other method is, when, after a thorough
acquaintance with bodies, we apply them to other bo¬
dies equally known, diligently attending to the refult,
and obferving whether any thing new arifes. Such
feems to be in general the nature of our article ; nor
is it our intention to be much more particular at pre-
fent. We muft therefore refer our readers refpeftive-
ly to thofe parts of the fubjedft, refpedfing which they
wifh for more fatisfaftion and minuter details. The
ancient and modern definitions of the word philofo-
ph/, together with its origin, as well as the manner of
philofophizing in former times as well as at prefent,
with the gradual improvement of fcience, particularly
natural, we lhall introduce, we think, more properly,
under the words Philosophy and Physics. We need
only add, under the prefent article, what however is
well known, that natural philofophy was till lately di¬
vided only into four parts, commonly called the four
branches, viz. 1. Mechanics; 2. Hydroftatics ; 3. Op¬
tics ; and, 4. Aftronomy; and thefe again are fubdivid-
■^d into various parts. Modern difeoveries have added,
Vox. XIV. Part II.
however, two more parts to the number, viz. Magnet- Natural
ifm and Ele&ricity. It is remarkable, that in the En- phiIofoPhy
glilh univerfities thefe two latter branches are never e
taken notice of in le&uring on natural philofophy, the ■ ' ' v'
old divifion being ftill retained, without any mention
of thefe two important articles. The reafon may be,
that they are only fubjeft to experiment, and not yet
reduced to mathematical reafoning ; which is the me¬
thod of teaching philofophy in one of thole celebrated
feminaries. Of thefe branches of this exteniive fcience,
it is not our intention to take even a general view in
this place. We muft therefore refer our readers to
each particular article, where they will find them
treated at confiderable length.
NA L URAL I SAIT ON, in La’ll', the adl of na¬
turalizing an alien, or putting him into the condition
of a natural-born fubjeft, and entitling him to the
rights and privileges thereof. But none can be natu¬
ralized unlefs they have received the facrament within
one month before the bringing in of the bill, and taken
the oaths of allegiance and fupremacy in the prefence
of the parliament. A perfon who is naturalized may
have lands by defeent, as heir at law, as well as obtain
them by purchafe ; but he is difabled from being a
member of the privy council or parliament ; or from
holding offices, 7 Jac. I. cap. 2. 12 Will. III. cap. 2.
All children born out of the king’s dominions, whofe
fathers were or are fubjefts of this kingdom at the time
of their birth, are adjudged to be natural born fubjefts
of this realm, except children of parents attainted of
treafon, or that are in the aftual fervice of a foreign
prince at enmity with us, 4 Geo. II. cap. 21. Every
foreign feaman, who in time of war ferves two years on
board an Engliffi (hip, is t/fo fabio naturalized, 13
Geo. II. cap. 3. And all foreign Proteftants and Jews,
upon their refiding feven years in any of the Britifh co¬
lonies, without being abfent above two months at a.
time, or ferving two years in a military capacity
there, are upon taking the oaths naturalized to all
intents and purpofes, as if they had been born in this
kingdom; and therefore are admiffible to all fuch pri¬
vileges, and no other, as Proteftants or Jews born in
this kingdom are entitled to. See Alien and De¬
nizen.
In France before the Revolution, naturalization was
the king’s prerogative; in England it is only done by
aft of parliament. In the former of thofe places, before
their government was overturned, Swifs, Savoyards,
and Scots, did not require naturalization, being reputed
regnicoles, or natives.
NATURALS, among phyficians, whatever natu¬
rally belongs to an animal, in oppofition to non-natu¬
rals. See Non-naturals.
NATURE, according to Mr Boyle, has eight dif¬
ferent fignifications ; it being ufed, 1. For the author
of nature, whom the fchoolmen call Natura Ihiturans,
being the fame with God. 2. By the nature of a thing,
we fometimes mean its effenee; that is, the attributes
which make it what it is, whether the thing be corpo¬
real or not; as when we attempt to define the nature
of a fluid, of a triangle, &c. 3. Sometimes we con¬
found that which a man has by nature with what ac¬
crues to him by birth; as when we fay, that fuch a man
is noble by nature. 4. Sometimes we take nature for
an internal principle of motion ; as when we fay, that
N A / V [ 642 ] NAY
Nature a fton^ by nature falls to the earth. 5. Sometimes we
underhand by nature, the eltablifhed courfe of tilings.
— 6. Sometimes we take nature for an aggregate of
powers belonging to a body, efpecially a living one 5 in
which fenfe phyficians fay, that nature is ftrong, weak,
or fpent ; or that, in fuch or fuch difeafes, nature left
to herfelf -will perform the cure. 7. Sometimes we ufe
the term nature for the univerfe, or whole fyftem of the
corporeal works of God as when it is faid of a phoe¬
nix, or chimera, that there is no fuch thing in nature.
8. Sometimes too, and that moft commonly, w'e ex-
prefs by the word nature, a kind of femi-deity, or
other ftrange kind of being.
If, fays the fame philofopber, I were to propofe a
notion of nature, lefs ambiguous than thele already
mentioned, and with regard to which many axioms
relating to that word may be conveniently underftood,
1 fhould firft dillinguillt between the univerfal and the
particular nature of things. Univerfal nature I would
define to be the aggregate of the bodies that make up
the world in its prefent date, confidered as a principle,
by virtue whereof they aft and fuffer, according to the
laws of motion preferibed by the Author of all things.
And this makes way for the other fubordinate notion ;
lince the particular nature of an individual confiits in
the general nature applied to a diftinfl portion of the
univerfe •, or, which is the fame thing, it is a particu¬
lar affemblage of the mechanical properties of matter,
as figure, motion, &c.
Kingdoms of NATURE. See Kingdoms.
Con duel or Operations of NATURE. See NATURAL
Hjlory.
NAVA, in Ancient Geography, (Tacitus); a river
of Belgica, which runs north-eaft into the left or weft
fide of the Rhine. Now the Nuhe, rifing at the vil¬
lage Naheweiler, on the borders of the bifhoprie of
Triers, running through the Lower Palatinate, the
duchy of Simmeren, by the fmall town of Bing, into
the Rhine.
NAVAL, fomething relating to a fhip ; whence,
NAVAL Architecture. See SHIP Building.
NAVAL Camp, in antiquity, a fortification, confid¬
ing of a ditch and parapet on the land fide, or a wall
built in the form of a femicircle, and extended from
one point of the fea to another. This was fometimes
defended with towers, and beautified with gatesrthrough
which they iffued forth to attack their enemies. Ho¬
mer hath left us a remarkable defeription of the Gre¬
cian fortifications of this fort, in the Trojan war, begin¬
ning at ver. 436. Iliad r,.
Then, to fecure the naval camp and powers,
They rais’d embattled walls with lofty towers :
From fpace to fpace were ample gates around,
For palling chariots ; and a trench profound,
Of Luge extent ; and deep in earth below
Strong piles infix’d flood adverfe to the foe.
Pope’s Tranfl.
Towards the lea, or within it, they fixed great
pales of wood, like thofe in their artificial harbours :
before thefe the veffels of burden were placed in fuch
order as that they might be inftead of a wall, and
give protection to thofe within ; in which manner Ni-
cias is reported by Thucydides to have encamped
himfelf: but this feems only to have been praftifed
when the enemy was thought fuperior in ftrength, and
raifed great apprehenfions of danger in them. When
their fortifications were thought ftrong enough to de¬
fend them from the affaults of enemies, it was frequent
to diag their ftiips to ftiore, which the Greeks call¬
ed sHyAKEo, the Romans fuhducere. Around the ftiips
the foldiers difpofed their tents, as appears every¬
where in Homer : but this feems only to have been
practifed in winter, ivhen their enemy’s fleet was laid
up and could not afiault them ; or in long fieges, and
when they lay in no danger from their enemies by fea ;
as in the Trojan war, where the defenders of Troy ne¬
ver once attempted to encounter the Grecians in a iea-
fight.
The adjacent places were ufually filled with inns
and ftews, well flocked with females, that proftituted
themfelves to the mariners, merchants, and artificers
of all forts, who flocked thither in great numbers ; this,
hmvever, appears to have happened only in times of
peace.
NAVAL Crown, among the ancient Romans, a crown
adorned with figures of prows of ftiips, conferred on
perfpns who in fea engagements firft boarded the ene¬
my’s veffel. See Crown.
NAVAL Engagement. See Tactics, Naval.
NAVAL Stores, comprehend all thofe particulars
made ufe of, not only in the royal navy, but in every
other kind of navigation ; as timber and iron for ftiip-
ping, pitch, tar, hemp, cordage, fail cloth, gunpowder,
ordnance, and fire arms of every fort, ftiip chandlery
wares, &e.
NJVAL Tadics, the military operations of fleets.
See Tactics, Naval.
N AV AN, a borough town of Ireland, in the county
of Meath and province of Leinfter ; fituated about 23
miles north-weft of Dublin, on the river Boyne. It
confifts of two chief ftreets, which interfett each other
at right angles.—The tholfel, or town houfe, is a
handfome ftone building. This place was formerly in
great repute, and walled in by Hugh de Lacy. An
abbey for regular canons, dedicated to the Virgin Mary,
■was ereded here ; but whether antecedent to the end
of the 12th century is not certain : about that period,
however, it was either founded or re-edified by .1 Dec¬
line de Angulo or Nangle. In the buriai ground are
the remains of many ancient tombs. A barrack for
horfe is now built on the fite of the abbey.
NAV ARRE, a province of Spain, part of the an¬
cient kingdom of Navarre, erected foon after the in-
vafion of the Moors ; and is otherwiie called Upper
Navarre, to diftinguifti it from Lower Navarre be¬
longing to the French. It is bounded on the fouth
and eaft by Arragon, on the north by the Pyrenees,
and on the rveft by Old Caftile and Biicay ; extending
from fouth to north about 80 miks, and from eaft to
weft about 75. It abounds in ftieep and cattle ; game
of all kinds, as boars. Hags, and roebucks ; and in
wftld fowl, borfes, and honey ; yielding alfo feme
grain, wine, oil, and a variety of minerals, medicinal
waters, and hot baths. Some of the ancient chiefs
of this country were called Sohrarbores, from the
cuftom, as it is fuppofed, which prevailed among
feme of thofe free nations, of choofing and fwearing
2,
N A V
r 64 j i
N A V
'N’avarre.
tlicir princes under feme particular tree. The name
^ of the province is fuppofed to be a contraction of
Nava Errea, fignifying, in the language of the Vaf-
cones, its ancient inhabitants, “ a land of valleys.”
-—For the particulars of its hiitory, fee the article
Spain.
Navarre, Peler, an officer of eminence in the 16th
century, and particularly celebrated for his dexterity in
the directing and fpringing of mines. He was a na¬
tive of Bifcay, and of low extraction. According to
Paul Jove, who affirms that he had an account of the
matter from his own mouth, he was firft a failor ; but
being difgufled with that employment, he fought his
fortune in Italy, when poverty compelled him to be¬
come footman to the cardinal of Arragon. Fie after¬
wards inlifted himfelf a foldier in the Houftine army j
and having ferved there for fome time, went to fea a-
gain, and diftinguiffied himfelf by his courage. The
reputation of his valour having reached the ears of Gon-
falvo de Cordova, this general employed him in the
war againft Naples, and raifed him to the rank of a
captain. Having contributed greatly to the taking of
that city by very opportunely fpringing a mine, the
emperor rewarded him for this fignal fervice with the
earldom of Alveto, fituated in that kingdom, and gave
him the title of Count of Navarre. Having the com¬
mand of a naval expedition againft the Moors in Afri¬
ca, he was at firft very fuccefsful, and took poffeilion of
Oran, Tripoli, and fome other places ; but being after¬
wards ftripwrecked on the ifland of Gerbes, the great
heats and the Moorifti cavalry deftroyed a part of his
army. Our hero was equally unfortunate in Italy :
He was made prifouer at the famous battle of Raven¬
na in 1512, and languilhed in France for the fpace of
two years. When finding that the king of Spain, who
had been prejudiced againft him by his courtiers, would
do nothing towards his ranfom, he went into the fervice
of Francis I. who gave him the command of 20 com¬
panies of infantry, confifting of Gafcons, Bifcayans,
'and the inhabitants of the Pyrenean mountains. He di¬
ftinguiffied himfelf in feveral fuccefsful expeditions, un¬
til the year 1522, when having been fent to the relief
of the Genoefe, he was taken by the Imperialifts. They
conduCIed him to Naples, where he remained a pri-
foner for three years in the Cartel del Ovo. From this
confinement he was releafed by the treaty of Madrid,
and afterwards fought at the fiege of Naples under
Laulric in 1528: but being again made priforter at
the unfortunate retreat from Averfa, he was conduct¬
ed a fecond time to the Caftel del Ovo. Here the
prince of Orange, having by order of the emperor,
caufed feveral perfons of the Angevine faCtion to be
beheaded, our hero would undoubtedly have fuffered
the fame fate, if the governor, feeing his diftreffed fitu-
ation, and feeling for the misfortunes of fo great a
man, had not faved him the fhame of this laft puniffi-
xnent by allowing him to die a natural death. Others
pretend that he was ftrangled in his bed, having ar¬
rived at a very advanced age. Paul Jove and Philip
Thomafini have written his life. This laft informs us,
that he was of a tall fize, had a fwarthy countenance,
black eyes, beard, and hair. A duke of Sefla, in the
laft century, being' defirous to honour his memory
Saint-Marie-le-Nt uve at Naples, where they had been
interred without any funeral honours.
Navarre, Martin, furnamed Jizpiicucla, becaufe he
was born in the kingdom which bears that name, Juc-
ceffively profeffor of jurilprudence at Touloiife, Sala¬
manca, and Coimbra, was confulted from all quarters
as the oracle of law. For a part of his knowledge he
was indebted to the fchools of Cahors and Toulouie, in
which he had ftudied. His friend Barthelemi Ca-
rewza, a Dominican, and archbilhop of Toledo, hav¬
ing been charged with herefy by the court of inqui-
fition at Rome, Navarre fet out at the age of 80 years
to defend him. Pius V. appointed him affefl’or to
Cardinal Francis Alciat, vice-penitentiary. Gregory
XIII. never parted his gate without fending for him,
and fometimes would converfe with him for an hour
together on the ftreet.: he even deigned to vifit him,
accompanied by feveral cardinals. Thefe honours did
not render him more haughty. His character became
fo eminent, that even in his own time the greateft
encomium that could be paid to a man of learning
was to lay that he was a Navarre : this name thus
included the idea of erudition, as that of Rofcius for¬
merly marked an accompliffied comedian. AzpilcuCia
was the oracle of the city of Rome, and of the whole
Chriftian world. For the influence which he had ac¬
quired, he was indebted not only to his knowledge,
but alfo to his probity and virtue. Faithful to the
duties which the church prefcribed, his temperance
and frugality preferved to him a vigorous conftitution •,
and at a very advanced age his genius was equal to the
fevereft ftudy. His favings enabled him to give libe¬
ral affiftance to the poor. His charities, indeed, were
fo great, that his mule, it is faid, would flop as foon
as ffie perceived a beggar. He died at Rome in 1586,
at the age of 92. His works were colledled and
printed in 6 vols. folio at Lyons in 1597, and at Ve¬
nice in 1602. They difplayed more learning than judge¬
ment, and are now very feldom confulted. Navarre
was uncle by the mother’s fide to St Francis of Sales.
See Sales.
NAUCRARI, among the Athenians, was the name
given to the chief magiftrates of the Aypot, “ boroughs
or townffiips,” called TdxwQO'gu&i J becaule each ivas ob¬
liged, befides tAvo horfemen, to furnifh out one ffiip for
the public fervice.
NAUCRATES, a Greek poet, Avho was employed
by Artemifia to write a panegyric upon Maufolus.—An
orator Avho endeavoured to alienate the cities of Lycia
from the intereft of Brutus.
NAUCRATIS, a city of Egypt on the left fide
of the Canopic mouth of the Nile. It was celebrated
for its commerce, and no ftiip Avas permitted to land
at any other place, but Avas obliged to fail dire&ly to
the city, there to depofite its cargo. It gave birth to
AthenSeus.
NAUCRATITES Nomos, in Ancient Geography,
(Pliny) \ a divifion of the Delta, fo called from that
toAvn Naucratis ; though Ptolemy comprifes it under the
Nomos Saites.
NAUCYDES, a ftatuary who lived about four cen¬
turies before the Chriftian era.
NAVE, in ArchiteBure, the body of a church.
and that of the marffial de Lautree,'caufed a monu- where the people are difpofed, reaching from the bal-
*nent to be ereded to each of them in the church of lufter, or rail of the door^to the chief choir.
N A V [ 644 ] N A V
^ave» derive the word from the Greek “ a temple j”
, ]s,ravel- and others from “ a fhip,” by reafon the vault or
roof of a church bears fome refemblance to a fliip.
NAVEL, in Anatomy, the centre of the lower part
of the abdomen j being that part where the umbilical
N A V I G
S the art of condu&xng or carrying a fliip from one
port to another.
HISTORY.
The poets refer the invention of the art of naviga¬
tion to Neptune, fome to Bacchus, others to Her¬
cules, others to .lafon, and others to Janus, who is faid
to have made the firll fliip. Hirtorians afcribe it to
the TEginetes, the Phoenicians, Tyrians, and the an¬
cient inhabitants of Britain. Some funpofe, that the
lirft hint was taken from the flight of the kite ; others,
as Oppian (De Pifcibus, lib. i.), from the fifh called
nautilus: others afcribe it to accident.—Scripture re¬
fers the origin of fo ufeful an invention to God himfelf,
who gave the firfl: fpecimen thereof in the ark built by
Noah under his dirc&ion. For the raillery which the
<>ood man underwent on account of his enterprife fliows
evidently enough that the world was then ignorant of
any tiling like navigation, and that they even thought
it impoflible.
However, profane hiftory reprefents the Phoenicians,
cfpecially thofe of their capital Tyre, as the firft navi¬
gators ; being urged to feek a foreign commerce by the
narrownefs and poverty of a flip of ground they pof-
fl fled along the coafts 5 as well as by the conveniency
of two or three good ports, and by their natural ge¬
nius for traffic. Accordingly, Lebanon, and the other
neighbouring mountains, furnifliing them with excel¬
lent wood for fliip-building, in a ftiort time they
were mafters of a numerous fleet; and conftantly
hazarding new navigations, and fettling new trades,
they foon arrived at an incredible pitch of opulence
and populoufnefs : infomuch as to be in a condition
to fend out colonies, the principal of which was that
of Carthage ; which, keeping up their Phoenician fpi-
rit of commerce, in time not only equalled Tyre itfelf,
but vaftly furpafled it ; fending its merchant fleets
through Hercules’s Pillars, now the flraits of Gibral¬
tar, along the weftern coafls of Africa and Europe j
and even, if we believe fome authors, to America it¬
felf.
Tv re, whofe immenfe riches and power are repre-
fented in fuch lofty terms both by faered and profane
authors, being deftroyed by Alexander the Great, its
navigation and commerce were transferred by the con¬
queror to Alexandria, a new city, admirably fituated
for thofe purpofes } propofed for the capital of the em¬
pire of Afia, which Alexander then meditated. And
thus arofe the navigation of the Egyptians ; which was
afterwards fo much cultivated by the Ptolemies, that
Tyre and Carthage were quite forgotten.
Egypt being reduced into a Roman province after
the battle of A&ium, its trade and navigation fell into
the hands of Auguflus ; in whofe time Alexandria was
only inferior to Rome j and the magazines of the ca-
I
veflels pafled out of the placenta of the mother. See Navel,
Anatomy Index. Navew.
NAVEL-Wort. See Cotyledon, Botany Index. y—-
NAVEW. See Brassica, Botany Index.
A T I O N
pital of the world were wholly fupplied with merchan-
difes from the capital of Egypt.
At length, Alexandria itfelf underwent the fate of
Tyre and Carthage 5 being furprifed by the Saracens,
who, in fpite of the emperor Heraclius, overfpread
the northern coafts of Africa, &c. whence the mer¬
chants being driven, Alexandria has ever lince been in
a languiffiing ftate, though it ftill has a confiderable
part of the commerce of the Chriftian merchants trad¬
ing to the Levant.
The fall of Rome and its empire drewr along with it
not only that of learning and the polite arts, but that of
navigation •, the barbarians, into whofe hands it fell,
contenting themfelves with the fpoils of the induftry of
their predeceflbrs.
But no fooner were the more brave among thofe na¬
tions well fettled in their new provinces, fome in Gaul,
as the Franks j others in Spain, as the Goths ; and
others in Italy, as the Lombards •, but they began to
learn the advantages of navigation and commerce, and
the methods of managing them, from the people they
fubdued ; and this with fo much fuccefs, that in a lit¬
tle time fome of them became able to give new leflbns,
and fet on foot new inftitutions for its advantage. Thus
it is to the Lombards we ufually afcribe the invention
and ufe of banks, book-keeping, exchanges, rechanges,
&c.
It does not appear which of the European people,
after the fettlement of their new mafters, firft betook
themfelves to navigation and commerce. Some think
it began with the French ; though the Italians feem
to have the jufteft title to it j and are accordingly re¬
garded as the reftorers thereof, as wTell as of the polite
arts which had been baniffied together from the time
the empire was torn afunder. It is the people of Italy
then, and particularly thofe of Venice and Genoa, who
have the glory of this reftoration } and it is to their ad¬
vantageous fituation for navigation they in great mea-
fure ow^e their glory. In the bottom of the Adriatic
w^ere a great number of marftiy iflands, only feparated
by narrow channels, but thofe well fereened, and almoft
inacceflible, the refidence of fome fifliermen, who here
fupported themfelves by a little trade in fiffi and fait,
which they found in fome of thefe iflands. Thither
the Veneti, a people inhabiting that part of Italy along
the coafts of the gulf, retired, when Alaric king of the
Goths, and afterwards Attila king of the Huns, rava¬
ged Italy.
Thefe new iflanders, little imagining that this w'as
to be their fixed refidence, did not think of compofing
any body politic ; but each of the 72 iflands of this
little archipelago continued a long time under its fe-
veral mafters, and each made a diftin£t commonwealth.
When their commerce was become confiderable enough
to give jealoufy to their neighbours, they began to
think
Hiftory. N A V I G
think of uniting into a body. And it was this union,
firft begun in the fixth century, but not completed till
the eighth, that laid the fure foundation of the future
grandeur of the ftate of Venice. From the time of this
union, their fleets of merchantmen were font to all the
ports of the Mediterranean ; and at laft to thofe of E-
o-ypt, particularly Cairo, a new city built by the Sara¬
cen princes on the eaftern banks of the Nile, where
they traded for the fpices and other produces of the
Indies. Thus they flouriflied, increafed their commerce,
their navigation, and their conquefts on the terra Anna,
till the league of Cambray in 1508, when a number of
jealous princes eonfpired to their ruin j which was the
more eafily effedted by the diminution of their Eaft In¬
dia commerce, of which the Portuguefe had got one
part and the French another. Genoa, which had ap¬
plied itfelf to navigation at the lame time with Venice,
and that with equal fuccefs, was a long time its danger¬
ous rival, difputed with it the empire of the fea, and
{bared with it the trade of Egypt and other parts both
of the eaft and weft.
Jealoufy foon began to break out *, and the two re¬
publics coming to blows, there was almoft continual
war for three centuries before the fuperiority was afcer-
tained •, when, towards the end of the 14th century,
the battle of Chioza ended the ftrife ; the Genoefe,
who till then had ufually the advantage, having now
loft all ; and the Venetians, almoft become defperate,
at one happy blow, beyond all expectation, fecured
to themfelves the empire of the fea, and fuperiority in
commerce.
About the fame time that navigation was retrieved
in the fouthern parts of Europe, a new fociety of mer¬
chants was formed in the north, which not only car¬
ried commerce to the greateft perfection it was capable
of till the difcovery of the Eaft and Weft Indies, but
alfo formed a new fcheme of laws for the regulation
therefore, which (till obtain under the names of XJfes
and Cujloms of the Sea. This fociety is that famous
league of the Hanfe towns, commonly fuppofed to have
begun about the year 1164. ^ee hlANSE Towns.
For the modern ftate of navigation in England, Hol¬
land, France, Spain, Portugal, &.c. fee Commerce,
Company, &c.
We lhall only add, that in examining the caufes
of commerce pafling fucceflively from the Venetians,
Genoefe, and Hanfe towns, to the Portuguefe and
Spaniards, and from thefe again to the Englilh and
Dutch, it may be eftabliftied as a maxim, that the re¬
lation between commerce and navigation, or if we may
be allowed to fay it, their union, is fo intimate, that
the fall of the one inevitably draws after it that of the
/ other ; and that they will always either flourilh or
dwindle together. Hence fo many laws, ordinances,
ftatutes, &c. for its regulation j and hence paiticulaily
that celebrated aft of navigation, which an eminent
foreign author calls the palladium or tutelar. deity of the
commerce of England; which is the Handing rule, not
only of the Britifti among themfelves, but alfo of other
nations with whom they traffic.
The art of navigation has been exceedingly im¬
proved in modern times, both Avith regard to the
form of the veffels themfelves, and with regard to the
methods of working them. The ufe of rowers is now
entirely fuperfeded by the improvements made in the
A T I O N. 645
formation of the fails, rigging, &c. by Avhich means
{hips can not only fail much fafter than formerly,
but can tack in any direftion with the greateft facility.
It is alfo very probable that the ancients were neither
fo Avell {killed in finding the latitudes, nor in fleering
their veffels in places of difficult navigation, as the
moderns. But the greateft; advantage which the mo¬
derns have over the ancients is from the mariner’s
compafs, by which they are enabled to find their Avay
with as great facility in the midft of an immeafurable
ocean, as the ancients could ha\^e done by creeping
along the coaft, and never going out of fight of land.
Some people indeed contend, that this is no new in-
vention, but that the ancients Avere acquainted Avith it.
They fay, that it Avas impoflible for Solomon to have
fent ihips to Ophir, Tarlhilh, and Parvaim, Avhich laft
they Avill have to be Peru, without this ufeful inftru-
ment. They infill, that it Avas impoflible for the an¬
cients to be acquainted Avith the attradlive virtue of the
magnet, and to be ignorant of its polarity. Nay, they
affirm, that this property of the magnet is plainly men¬
tioned in the book of Job, where the loaditone is men¬
tioned by the name of topa%, or the fone that turns itfelf
But it is certain, that the Romans, Avho conquered Ju¬
dea, were ignorant of this inftrument} and it is xrery
improbable, that fuch an ufeful invention, if once it
had been commonly knoAvn to any nation, Avould haA^e
been forgot, or perfedfly concealed from fuch a prudent
people as the Romans, Avho Avere fo much interefted in
the difcovcry of it.
Among thofe who admit that the mariner’s com¬
pafs is a modern invention, it has been much difput¬
ed Avho Avas the inventor. Some gEe the honour of
it to Flavio Gioia of Amalfi in Campania *, Ayho lived * See Mci‘
about the beginning of the 14th century } Avhile others riner's
fay that it came from the eaft, and was earlier knoAvn Comptfs.
in Europe. But, at Avhatever time it Avas invented, it
is certain, that the mariner’s compafs A\ras not com¬
monly ufed in navigation before the year 1420. In
that year the fcience Avas confiderably improved under
the aufpices of Henry duke of \'ifco, brother to the
king of Portugal. In the year 1485, Roderick and
Jofeph, phyficians to John II. king of Portugal, toge¬
ther Avith one Martin de Bohemia, a Portuguefe, na¬
tive of the ifland of Fayal, and fcholar to Regiomon¬
tanus, calculated tables of the fun’s declination for the
ufe of failors, and recommended the aftrolabe for taking
obfervations at fea. Of the inftru&ions of Martin, the
celebrated Chnftopher Columbus is laid to ha\re availed
himfelf, and to have improved the Spaniards in the
knoAvledge of the art $ for the farther progrefs of which
a lefture Avas afterwards founded at Seville by the em¬
peror Charles V. _
The difcovery of the variation is claimed by Colum¬
bus, and by Sebaftian Cabot. The former certainly
did’obferve this variation Avithout having heard of it
from any other perfon, on the 14th of September
1492, and it is very probable that Cabot might do
the lame. At that time it was found that there Avas
no variation at the Azores, where fome geographers
have thought proper to place the firft meridian;
thouo-h it hath fince been obferved that the variation
alters in time The ufe of the crofs ftaff now began
to be introduced among failors. This ancient inftiu-
ment is deferibed by John Werner of Nuremberg, m
M N A V I G
his annotations on the firft book of Ptolemy’s Geogra¬
phy, printed in 1514. He recommends it for obferving
the diftance between the moon and feme (tar, in order
thence to determine the longitude.
At this time the art of navigation was very imper¬
fect, on account of the inaccuracies of the plane chart,
which was the only one then known, and which, by
its grofs errors, mu ft have greatly milled the mariner,
efpeeially in voyages far diftant from the equator.
Its precepts were probably at firft only fet down on
the fea charts, as is the cuftom at this day': but at
length there were two Spanifh treatifes publifbed in
1 545 i one by Pedro de Medina ; the other by Martin
Cortes, which contained a complete fyftem of the art,
as far as it was then known. I hefe feem to have
been the oldeft writers who fully handled the art ;
for Medina, in his dedication to Philip prince of
Spain, laments that multitudes of fliips daily periftied
at fea, becaufe there were neither teachers of the art,
nor books by which it might be learned j and Cortes,
in his dedication, boafts to the emperor that lie was
the firft who had reduced navigation into a compen¬
dium, valuing bimfelf much on what'he had perform¬
ed. Medina defended the plane chart j but he was
oppofed by Cortes, who fhowed its errors, and en¬
deavoured to account for the variation of the com-
pafs, by fuppofing the needle to be influenced by a
magnetic pole {which he called the point'attraElive'),
- different from that of the world •, which notion hath
been farther profecuted by others. Medina’s book
was foon tranflated into Italian, French, and Flemifih,
and ferved for a long time as a guide to foreign na¬
vigators. However, Cortes was the favourite author
of the Englifh nation, and was tranflated in 1561 ;
while Medina’s work was entirely negle&ed, though
tranflated alfo within a fhort time of the other. At
that time the fyftem of navigation confifted of the
following particulars, and others fimilar : An account
of the Ptolemaic hypothefis, and the circles of the
fphere ; of the roundnefs of the earth, the longitudes,
latitudes, climates, &c. and eclipfes of the luminaries j
a kalendar } the method of finding the prime, epaft,
moon’s age, and tides 5 a defeription of the compafs,
an account of its variation, for the difeovering of
which Cortes faid an inftrument might eafily be con¬
trived 5 tables of the fun’s declination for four years,
in order to find the latitude from his meridian altitude ;
directions to find the fame by certain ftars ; of the
courfe of the fun and moon ; the length of the davs j
of time and its divifions *, the method of finding the
hour of the day and night; and laftly, a defeription of
the fca chart, on which to difeover where the ftiip is,
they made ufe of a fmall table, that (bowed, upon an al¬
teration of one degree of the latitude, how many leagues
were run in each rhumb, together with the departure
from the meridian. Befides, fome inftruments were
deferibed, efpecially by Cortes; fuch as one to find
the place and declination of the fun, with the days,
and place of the moon ; certain dials, the aftrolabe, and
crofis ftaff; with a complex machine to difeover the
hour and latitude at once.
About the fame time were made propofals for
finding the longitude by obfervations of the moon.—
In T530, Gemma Frifius advifed the keeping of the
■time by means of fmall clocks or watches, then, as lie
A T I o N. Hiftory.
(ays, newly invented. He alio contrived a new fort
of crofs ftaff, and an inftrument called the nautical
quadrant; which laft was much piaffed by William
Cunningham, in his Ajlronomicalli/ajs^ printed in the
year 1559.
'537 Pedro Nunez, or Nonius, publiftied a book
in the Portuguefe language, to explain a difficulty in
navigation propofed to him by the commander Don
Martin Alphonfo de Sufa. In this he expofes the er¬
rors of the plane chart, and likewife gives the foluticn
of feveral curious aftronomical problems; amongft
which is that of determining the latitude from two
obfervations of the fun’s altitude and intermediate
azimuth being given. He obferved, that though the
rhumbs are fpiral lines, yet the direft courfe of a fhip
will always be in the arch of a great circle, whereby
the angle with the meridians will continually change :
all that the ftcerfman can here do for the prelerving
of the original rhumb, is to corrett thefe deviations as
foon as they appear fenfible. But thus the (hip will
in reality deferibe a courfe without the rhumb line in¬
tended ; and therefore his calculations for afligning the
latitude, where any rhumb line croffes the feveral me¬
ridians, will be in fome meafure erroneous. He in¬
vented a method of dividing a quadrant by means of
concentric circles, which, after being much improved
by Dr Halley, is ufed at prefent, and is called a no-
nius.
In 1577, Mr William Bourne publiftied a treatife,
in which, by confidering the irregularities in the moon’s
motion, he (hows the errors of the failors in finding
her age by the epafi, and alfo in determining the hour
from obferving on what point of the compafs the fun
and moon appeared. He advifes, in failing towards
the high latitudes, to keep the reckoning by the globe,
as there the plane chart is moft erroneous. He defpairs
of our ever being able to find the longitude, unlefs the
variation of the compafs (hould be occafioned by fome
fuch attraftive point as Cortes had imagined ; of
which, however, he doubts : but as he had ftiown how
to find the variation at all times, he advifes to keep
an account of the obfervations, as ufeful for finding
the place of the (hip ; which advice was profecuted at
large by Simon Stevin, in a treatife publiftied at Ley¬
den in 1599; the fubftanee of which was the fame
year printed at London in Englifli by Mr Edward
Wright, entitled the Haven-finding Art. In this an¬
cient tra<ft alfo is deferibed the way by which our fail¬
ors eft imate the rate of a (hip in her courfe, by an in¬
ftrument called the log. This was fo named from the
piece of wood or log that floats in the water while the
lime is reckoned during which the line that is faftened
to it is veering out. The author of this contrivance
is not known ; neither was it taken notice of till 1607,
in an Eaft India voyage publithed by Purchas : but
from this time it became famous, and was much taken
notice of by almoft all writers on navigation in every
country ; and it ftill continues to be ufed as at firft,
though many attempts have been made to improve it,
and contrivances propofed to fupply its place ; many of
which have fuccetded in quiet water, but proved ufelefs
in a ftormy fea.
In 1581 Michael Coignet, a native of Antwerp,
publiftied a treatife, in which he animadverted on Me¬
dina. In this he (liowed, that as the rhumbs are fpi-
ral?,
Hiftory. N A V I G
rals, making endlefs revolutions about the poles, nu¬
merous errors muft arife from their being reprefented
by ifraight lines on the fea charts; but though he
hoped to find a remedy for thefe errors, he was of opi¬
nion that the propofals of Nonius were feareely prac¬
ticable, and therefore in a great meafure ufelefs. In
treating of the fun’s declination, he took notice of the
gradual decreafe in the obliquity of the ecliptic 5 he
alio deferibed the crofs Haft' with three tranfverfe pieces,
as it is at prefent made, and which he owned to have
been then in common ufe among the failors. He like-
wife gave feme inltruments of his own invention 5 but
all of them are now laid afide, excepting perhaps his
noifturnal. He conftrutled a fea table to be ufed by
fuch as failed beyond the 60th degree of latitude j and
at the end of the book is delivered a method of failing
on a parallel of latitude by means of a ring dial and
a 24 hour glafs. The lame year the difeovery of the
* See dipping needle rvas made by Mr Robert Norman * In
Dipping hi$ publication on that art he maintains, in oppofition
Needle. Cortes, that the variation of the compafs was caufed
by fome point on the furface of the earth, and not in
the heavens: he alfo made confiderable improvements
in the conftru£Hon of compaffes themfelves ; (bowing
efpecially the danger of not fixing, on account of the
variation, the wire directly under the fleur de luce; as
compaffes made in different countries have it placed
differently. To this performance of Norman’s is al¬
ways prefixed a difeourfe on the variation of the mag-
netical needle, by Mr William Burrough, in which he
fhows how to determine the variation in many different
wavs. He alfo points out many errors in the practice
of navigation at that time, and fpeaks in very fevere
terms concerning thofe who had publifhed upon it.
All this time the Spaniards continued to publilh trea-
tifes on the art. In 1585 an excellent compendium
was publilhed by Roderico Zamoranp 5 which contri¬
buted greatly towards the improvement of the art, par¬
ticularly in the fea charts. Globes of an improved kind,
and of a much larger fize than thofe formerly ufed,
were now conftrufled, and many improvements were
made in other inftruments j however*, the plane chart
continued Hill to be followed, though its errors rvere
frequently complained of. Methods of removing thefe
errors had indeed been fought after } and Gerard Mer¬
cator feems to have been the firft who found the true
method of doing this, fo as to anfwer the purpofes of
feamen. His method was to reprefent the parallels both
of latitude and longitude by parallel ftraight lines, but
gradually to augment the former as they approached
the pole. Thus the rhumbs, which otherwife ought
to have been curves, were now alfo extended into
ftraight lines j and thus a ftraight line drawn between
anv two places marked upon the chart would make
an^ angle with the meridians, exprefling the rhumb
leading from the one to the other. But though, in
I 569, Mercator publilhed an univerfal map conftnnfted
in this manner, it doth not appear that he was acquaint¬
ed with the principles on which this proceeded j and
it is now generally believed, that the true principles
on which the conftruftion of what is called Mercator's
chart depends, were firft difeovered by an Englifhman,
Mr Edward Wright.
Mr Wright fuppofes, but, according to the general
ooluion, without fufficient grounds-, that this enlarge-
A T I O N.
ment of the degrees of latitude was known and men¬
tioned by Ptolemy, and that the fame thing had alfo
been fpoken of by Cortes. 1 he expreffions of Pto¬
lemy alluded to, relate indeed to the proportion be¬
tween the diilances of the parallels and meridians ; but
inltead of propofing any gradual enlargement of the
parallels of latitude in a general chart, he fpeaks only
of particular maps j and advifes not to confine a fyftem
oi luch maps to one and the fame feale, but to plan
them out by a different meafure, as occafion might re¬
quire : only with this precaution, that the degrees of
longitude in each Ihould bear fome proportion to thofe
of latitude 5 and this proportion is to be deduced from
that which the magnitude of the relpedlive parallels
bears to a great circle of the fphere. He adds, that
in particular maps, if this proportion be obferved with
regard to the middle parallel, the inconvenience will
not be great though the meridians Ihould be ilraight
lines parallel to each other. Plere he is faid only to
mean, that the maps Ihould in fome meafure reprefent
the figures of the countries for which they are drawn.
In this fenfe Mercator, who drew maps for Ptolemy’s
tables, underilood him } thinking it, however, an im¬
provement not to regulate the meridians by one paral¬
lel, but by two; one diftant from the northern, the
other from the fouthern extremity of the map by a
fourth part of the whole depth j by which means, in
his maps, though the meridians are ftraight lines, yet
they are generally drawn inclining to each other to¬
wards the poles. With regard to Cortes, he fpeaks
only of the number of degrees of latitude, and not of
the extent of them ; nay, he gives exprefs directions
that they ihould all be laid down by equal meafurement
on a fcale of leagues adapted to the map.
For fome time after the appearance of Mercator’s
map, it' was not rightly underltood, and it was even
thought to be entirely ufelefs, if not detrimental.—
However, about the year 1592, its utility began to
be perceived \ and feven years after, Mr Wright print¬
ed bis famous treatife entitled, The CorreCHon of cer¬
tain Errors in Navigation, where he fully explained the
reafon of extending the length of the parallels of lati¬
tude, and the ufes of it to navigators. In 1610, a fe-
cond edition of Mr Wright’s book was publilhed with
improvements. An excellent method was propofed of
determining the magnitude of the earth \ at the fame
time it was judicioully propofed to make our common
meafures in fome proportion to a degree on its furface,
that they might not depend on the uncertain length of
a barley corn. Some of his other improvements were,
“ The table of latitudes for dividing the meridian com¬
puted to minutes 5” whereas it had been only divided
to every tenth minute. He alfo publilhed a deferip-
tion of an inftrument which he calls the fea rings ; and
by which the variation of the compafs, altitude of the
fun, and time of the day, may be determined readily
at once in any place, provided the latitude is known.
He fhowed alfo how to correft the errors arifing from
the eccentricity of the eye in obferving by the crofs-
ftaff. He made a total amendment in the tables of the
declinations and places of the fun and liars from his
own obfervations made with a fix foot quadrant in the
years 1594, 95> 96, and 97. A fea quadrant to take
altitudes by a forward or backward obfervation j and
likewife with a contrivance for the ready finding the
latitude
648 N A V I G
latitude by tbe height of the pole flar, when not up¬
on the meridian. To this edition was lubjoined a tranf-
latioH of Zamorano’s Compendium above mentioned,
in which he corrected fome miftakes in the original j
adding a large table of the variation of the compafs ob-
ferved in very different parts of the world, to ihow that
it was not occafioned by any magnetical pole.
Thefe improvements foon became known abroad.—
In 1608, a treatife entitled, Hi/pomnemata Mathema¬
tical was publithed by Simon Stevin, for the ufe of
Prince Maurice. In that part relating to navigation,
the author having treated of tailing on a great circle,
and fhown how to draw the rhumbs on a globe mecha¬
nically, fets down Wright’s two tables of latitudes and
of rhumbs, in order to deferibe thefe lines more accu¬
rately, pretending even to have difeovered an error in
Wright’s table. But all Stevin’s objections were fully
anfwered by the author himfelf, who {bowed that they
arofe from the grofs way of calculating made ufe of by
the former.
In 1624, the learned Wellebrordus Snellius, pro-
feffor of mathematics at Leyden, publifhed a treatife
of navigation on Wright’s plan, but fome what obfeure-
ly : and as he did not particularly mention all the dif-
coveries of Wright, the latter was thought by fome to
have taken the hint of all his difeoveries from Snellius.
But this fuppofition is long ago refuted : and Wright
enjoys the honour of thofe difeoveries which is juftly his
due.
Mr Wright having fhown how to find the place of
the fhip on his chart, obferved that the fame might be
performed more accurately by calculation : but con-
fidcring, as he fays, that the latitudes, and efpecially
the courfes at fea, could not be determined fo precife-
ly, he forbore fetting down particular examples j as
the mariner may be allowed to fave himfelf this trou¬
ble, and only mark out upon his chart the fhip’s way,
after the manner then ufually praClifed. However, in
1614, Mr Raphe Handfon, among his nautical que-
llions fubjoined to a tranfiation of Pitifcus’s trigono¬
metry, folved very diifinCtly every cafe of navigation,
by applying arithmetical calculations to Wright’s table
of latitudes, or of meridional parts, as it hath fince
been called. Though the method difeovered by
Wright for finding the change of longitude by a {hip
failing on a rhumb is the proper way of performing it,
Handfon alfo propofes two ways of approximation to
it without the affiftance of Wright’s divifion of the
meridian line. The firft was computed by the arith¬
metical mean between the cofines of both latitudes ;
the other by the fame mean between the fecants as an
alternative, when Wright’s book was not at hand ;
though this latter is wider from the truth than the firlL
By the fame calculations alfo he fhowed how much
each of thefe compendiums deviates from the truth, and
alfo how widely the computations on the erroneous
principles of the plane chart differ from them all. The
method, however, commonly ufed by our failors is com¬
monly called the middle latitude; which, though it
errs more than that by the arithmetical mean between
the two cofines, is preferred on account of its being
lefs operofe: yet in high latitudes it is more eligible
to ufe that of the arithmetical mean between the lo¬
garithmic cofines, equivalent to the geometrical mean
between the cofines themfelves j a method fince pro-
A T I O N. Hiftory.
pofed by Mr John Balfat. The computation by the
middle latitude will always fall Abort of the true change
of longitude j that by the geometrical mean will al¬
ways exceed 5 but that by the arithmetical mean falls
fhort in latitudes above 45 degrees, and exceeds in leffer
latitudes. However, none of thefe methods will differ
much from the truth when the change of latitude is
fufficiently fmalb
About this time logarithms were invented by John
Napier, baron of Merchifton in Scotland, and proved
of the utmoit fervice to the art of navigation. From
which Mr Edmund Gunter conflrucled a table of lo¬
garithmic fines and tangents to every minute of the
quadrant, which he publifhed in 1620. In this work
lie applied to navigation, and other branches of ma¬
thematics, his admirable ruler known by the name of
Gunter’s fcale * 5 on which are deferibed lines of loga- % see
rithms, of logarithmic fines and tangents, of meridio- teds Scale
nal parts, &c* He greatly improved the feftor for the
fame purpofes. He fhowed alfo how to take a back
obfervation by the crofs ftaff, whereby the error arifing
from the eccentricity of the eye is avoided. He de¬
feribed likewife another inflrument, of his own inven¬
tion, called the crofs bow, for taking altitudes of the
fun or liars, with fome contrivances for the more ready
coliefling the latitude from the obfervation. The dif¬
eoveries concerning logarithms were carried to France
in 1624 by Mr Edmund Wingate, who .publifhed two
fmall trafls in that year at Paris. In one of thefe he
taught the ufe of Gunter’s fcale •, and in the other, of
the tables of artificial fines and tangents, as modelled
according to Napier’s lafl form, erroneoufly attributed
by Wingate to Briggs.
Gunter’s rule was projefled into a circular arch by
the Reverend Mr William Oughtred in 1633, and its
ufes fully fhown in a pamphlet entitled, The Circles of
Proportion, where, in an appendix, are well treated fe-
veral important points in navigation. It has alfo been
made in the form of a Aiding ruler.
The logarithmic tables were firft applied to the
different cafes of failing by Mr Thomas Addifon, in
his treatife entitled, Arithmetical Navigation, printed in
1625. He alfo gives two traverfe tables, with their
ufes j the one to quarter points of the compafs, the
other to degrees. Mr Henry Gellibrand publifhed his
difeovery of the changes of the variation of the com¬
pafs, in a fmall quarto pamphlet, entitled, A difeourfe
mathematical on the variation of the magnetical needle,
printed in 1635. This extraordinary phenomenon he
found out by comparing the obfervations made at dif¬
ferent times near the fame place by Mr Burrough, Mr
Gunter, and himfelf, all perfons of great fkill and ex¬
perience in thefe matters. This difeovery w-as likewife
foon known abroad ; for Father Athanafius Kircher,
in his treatife entitled, Magnes, firft printed at Rome
in 1641, informs us, that he had been told it by Mr
John Greaves ; and then gives a letter of the famous
Marinus Merfennus, containing a very diftindl account
of the fame.
As altitudes of the fun are taken on ftiipboard by
obferving his elevation above the vifible horizon; to
obtain from thence the fun’s true altitude with corre£t-
nefs, Wright obferves it to be neceffary that the dip of
the vifible horizon below the horizontal plane patfing
through the obferver’s eye fhould be brought into the
account,
Hiftory. N A V I G
account, which cannot be calculated without knowing
the magnitude of the earth. Hence he was induced to
propofe different methods for finding this ; but com¬
plains that the moft effedtual was out of his power to
execute j and therefore contented himfelf with a rude
attempt, in fotne meafure fufficient for his purpofe : and
the dimenfions of the earth deduced by him correfpond-
ed very well with the ufual divifions of the log line $
however, as he wrote not an exprefs treatife on naviga¬
tion, but only for the correcting fuch errors as prevailed
in general praCtice, the log line did not fall under his
notice. Mr Richard Norwood, however, put in exe¬
cution the method recommended by Mr Wright as the
moft perfeCt for meafuring the dimenfions of the earth,
with the true length of the degrees of a great circle
upon it ; and, in 1635, he aCtually meafured the di-
ftance between London and York j from whence, and
the fummer folftitial altitudes of the fun obferved on the
meridian at both places, he found a degree on a great
circle of the earth to contain 367,196 Englifti feet,
equal to 57,300 French fathoms or toifes : which is
very exaCt, as appears from many meafures that have
been made fince that time. Of all this Mr Norwood
gave a full account in his treatife called The Seaman's
PraBice^ publifhed in 1637. He there fhows the rea-
fon why Snellius had failed in his attempt : he points
out alfo various ufes of his difeovery, particularly for
correCHng the grofs errors hitherto committed in the
divifions of the log line. But neceffary amendments
have been little attended to by failors, whofe obftinacy
in adhering to eftablifhed errors has been complained of
by the belt writers on navigation. This improvement
has at length, however, made its w^ay into praCtice, and
few navigators of reputation now make ufe of the old
mcafure of 42 feet to a knot. In that treatife alfo Mr
Norwood deferibes his own excellent method of fetting
dowrn and perfeCling a fea reckoning, by ufing a traverfe
table 5 which method he had followed and taught for
many years. He fhows alfo how to reCtify the courfe
by the variation of the compafs being confidered j as
alfo how to difeover currents, and to make proper al¬
lowance on their account. This treatife, and another
on trigonometry, wrere continually reprinted, as the
principal books for learning fcientifically the art of
navigation. What he had delivered, efpecially in the
latter of then}, concerning this fubjeCl, vras contra&ed
as a manual for failors, in a very fmall piece called his
Epitome; which ufeful performance has gone through
a great number of editions! No alterations were ever
made in the Seaman’s PraCHce till the 12th edition in
1676, when the following paragraph was inferted in a
fmaller character: “ About the year 1672, Monfieur
Picart has publifhed an account in French, concerning
the meafure of the earth, a breviate whereof may be
feen in the Philofophical TranfaCtions, N° 112, where¬
in he concludes one degree to contain 365,184 Englifti
feet, nearly agreeing with Mr Norwood’s experiment
and this advertifement is continued through the fubfe-
' quent editions as late as the year 173 2.
About the year 164 5, Mr Bond publiftied in Norwood’s
Epitome a very great improvement in Wright’s method,
by a property in his meridian line, whereby its divifions
are more fcientifically afligned than the author himfelf
was able to effect j which was from this theorem, that
thefe divifions are analogous to the exceffes of the lo-
VOL. XIV. Part II. -
A r I O N. $49
garithmic tangents of half the refpe£Ure latitudes aug¬
mented by 45 degrees above the logarithm of the ra¬
dius. This he afterwards explained more fully in the
third edition of Gunter’s works, printed in 1653 j
ivhere, after obferving that the logarithmic tangents
from 450 upwards increafe in the fame manner that
the fecants added together do, if every half degree
be accounted as a whole degree of Mercator’s meri¬
dional line. His rule for computing the meridional
parts belonging to any two latitudes, fuppofed on the
fame fide of the equator, is to the following effedt :
“ Fake the logarithmic tangent, rejefting the radius,
of half each latitude, augmented by 45 degrees •, di¬
vide the difference of thofe numbers by the logarith¬
mic tangent of 450 30', the radius being likewife re¬
jected j and the quotient will be the meridional parts
required, expreffed in degrees.” This rule is the imme¬
diate confequence from the general theorem, That the
degrees of latitude bear to one degree (or 60 minutes,
which in Wright’s table ftands for the meridional parts
of one degree), the fame proportion as the logarithmic
tangent of half any latitude augmented by 45 degrees,
and the radius negleCled, to the like tangent of half a
degree augmented by 45 degrees, with the radius like¬
wife rejected. But here was farther wanting the de~
monftration of this general theorem, -which vras at
length fupplied by Mr James Gregory of Aberdeen in
his Exercitationes Geometric^, printed at London in
1668 5 and afterwards more concifely demonftrated,
together with a fcientific determination of the divifor,
by Dr Halley in the Philofophical TranfaCtions for
1695, N° 219. from the confideration of the fpirals into
which the rhumbs are transformed in the ftereographic
projection of the fphere upon the plane of the equi-
noCtial ; and which is rendered ftill more fimple by
Mr Roger Cotes, in his Logometria, firft publiftied in
the Philofophical TranfaCtions for 1714, N° 388. It
is moreover added in Gunter’s book, that if ^th of
this divifion, which does not fenfibly differ from the
logarithmic tangent of 450 P (with the radius fub-
traCted from it), be ufed, the quotient will exhibit the
meridional parts expreffed in leagues, and this is the
divifor fet down in Norwood’s Epitome. After thb
fame manner the meridional parts will be found in mi¬
nutes, if the like logarithmic tangent of 450 l' 30",
diminifhed by the radius, be taken 5 that is, the num¬
ber ufed by others being 12633, when the logarithmic
tables confift of eight places of figures befides the in¬
dex.
In an edition of the Seaman’s Kalender, Mr Bond
declared, that he had difeovered the longitude by hav¬
ing found out the true theory of the magnetic varia¬
tion j and to gain credit to his affertion, he foretold,
that at London in 1657 there would be no variation
of the compafs, and from that time it would gradually
increafe the other way ; which happened accordingly.
Again, In the Philofophical TranfaClion.s for 1668,
N° 40. he publifhed a table of the variation, for 49
years to come. Thus he acquired fuch reputation, that
his treatife, entitled, The Longitude Found, was in 1676
publilhed by the fpecial command of Charles II. and
approved by many celebrated mathematicians. It was
not long, however, before it met with oppofition j and
in 1678 another treatife, entitled, The Longitude not
Foundt made its appearance ; and as Mr Bond’s hy-
4 N potliefb
650
NAVIGATION.
potliefis did not in any manner anfwer its author’s fan-
guine expectations, the affair was undertaken by Dr
Halley. The refult of his {peculation was, that the
magnetic needle is influenced by four poles} but this
wonderful phenomenon feems hitherto to have eluded
all our refearches. In 1700, however, Dr Halley pub-
lifhed a general map, with curve lines exprefling the
paths where; the magnetic needle had the fame varia¬
tion j which was received with univerfal applaufe. But
as the pofitions of thefe curves vary from time to time,
they fhould frequently be corre&ed by fkilful perfons 5
as was done in 1644 and 1756, by Mr Wiliam Moun-
taine, and Mr James Dodfon, F. R. S. In the Phi-
lofophical Tranfa&ions for 169c, Dr Halley alfo gave
a diflertation on the monfoons j containing many very
ufeful obfervations for fuch as fail to places fubjeft to
thefe winds.
After the true principles of the art were fettled by
Wright, Bond, and Norwood, the authors on naviga¬
tion became fo numerous, that it would be impofiible
to enumerate them. New improvements were daily
made, and every thing relative to it was fettled with
an accuracy not only unknown to former ages, but
which would have been reckoned utterly impoflible.
The earth being found to be a fpheroid, and not a per¬
fect fphere, with the fhorteft diameter pafling through
the poles, a trad was publiflied in 1741, by the Rev.
Doftor Patrick Murdoch, wherein he accommodated
Hiftory.
Wright’s failing to fuch a figure ; and Mr Colin Mac-
laurin, the fame year, in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, N° 461. gave a rule for determining the meri¬
dional parts of a fpheroid ; which fpeculation is farther
treated of in his book of Fluxions, printed at Bdin-
burgh in 174?.
Among the latter difcoveries in navigation, that of
finding the longitude both by lunar obfervations and
by time-keepers is the principal. It is owing chiefly
to the rewards offered by the Britifh parliament that this
has attained the prefent degree of perfedion. We are
indebted to Dr Mafkelyne for putting the firfl: of thefe
methods in pradice, and for other important improve¬
ments in navigation. The time-keepers, eonflruded
by Harrifon for this exprefs purpofe, were found to
anfwer fo well, that he obtained the parliamentary re¬
ward.
i lie only works that have appeared of late in navi¬
gation are thofe on the longitude and navigation by Dr
Mackay, of which the following account is tranfcribed
from the Anti-Jacobin Review for September 1804.
# “ This publication, (Dr Mackay’s Treatife on Na-
vigation) and that on the longitude by the fame author,
form the mofl corred and pradical fyftem of navigation
and nautical fcience hitherto publifhed in this country ;
they may be confidered not only of individual utility,
but of national importance.”
THEORY OF NAVIGATION.
THE motion of a fliip in the water is well known to
depend on the adion of the wind upon its fails, regula¬
ted by the diredion of the helm. As the water is a
refilling medium and the bulk of the fhip very con-
fiderable, it thence follows that there is always a great
refiilance on her fore-part; and when this refillance
becomes fuflicient to balance the moving force of the
wind upon the fails, the fliip attains her utmoll degree
of velocity, and her motion is no longer accelerated.
This velocity is different according to the different
flrength of the wind j but the ilronger the wind, the
greater refiffance is made to the (hip’s paffage A ough
the water: and hence, though the wind fhould blow
ever fo ftrong, there is alfo a limit to the velocity of the
fhip : for the fails and ropes can bear but a certain force
of air j and when the refiftance on the fore-part becomes
more than equivalent to their ffrength, the velocity can
be no longer increafed, and the rigging gives way.
The diredion of a fliip’s motion depends on the po-
fition of her fails with regard to the wind, combined
with the adion of the rudder. The mofl natural di¬
redion of the fliip is, when fhe runs diredly before the
wind, the fails are then difpofed, fo as to be at right
angles thereto. But this is not always the cafe, both
on account of the variable nature of the winds, and the
fituation of the intended port, or of intermediate head¬
lands or i(lands. When the wind therefore happens
not to be favourable, the fails are placed fo as to make
an oblique angle both with the diredion of the fliip and
with the wind j and the fails, together with the rudder,
muff be managed in fuch a manner, that the diredion
of the (hip may make an acute angle with that of the
wind j and the fliip, making boards on different tacks*
will by this means arrive at the intended port.
The reafon of the fliip’s motion in this cafe is, that
the water refills the fide more than the fore-part, and
that in the fame proportion as her length exceeds
her breadth. This proportion is fo confiderable, that
the fliip continually flies off where the refiftance is leafl,
and that fometimes with great fwiftnefs. In this way
of failing, however, there is a great limitation : for if
the angle made by the keel with the diredion of the
wind be too acute, the fliip cannot be kept in that
pofition 5 neither is it poflible for a large (hip to make
a more acute angle with the wind than about 6
points; though fmall (loops, it is laid, may make an
angle of about 5 points with it. In all thefe cafes,
however, the velocity of the fliip is greatly retarded j.
and that not only on account of the obliquity of her mo¬
tion, but by reafon of what is called her /ee-way. This
is occafioned by the yielding of the water on the lee-
fide of the (hip, by which means the veffel acquires a
compound motion, partly in the diredion of the wind,
and partly in that which is neceffary for attaining the
defired port.
It is perhaps impoflible to lay down any mathema¬
tical principles on which the lee-way of a (hip could
be properly calculated j only wre may fee in general
that it depends on the ftrength of the wind, the
roughnefs of the fea, and the velocity of the (hip.
When the wind is not very ftrong, the refiftance of
the water on the lee-fide bears a very great proportion
to that of the current of air j and therefore it will
yield but very little: however, fuppofing the (hip to
remain
Theory. N A V I G
remain in tlie fame place, it is evident, that the water
having once begun to yield, will continue to do fo for
fome time, even though no additional force was ap¬
plied to it j but as the wind continually applies the
fame force as at firft, the lee-way'of the (hip muft go
on conftantly increafmg till the refillance of the water
on the lee-fide balances the force applied on the other,
when it will become uniform, as doth the motion of a
fhip failing before the wind. If the fliip changes her
place with any degree of velocity, then every time fhe
fnoveS her own length, a new quantity of water is to
be put in motion, which hath not yet received any
momentum, and which of confequence will make a
greater relidance than it can do when the fliip remains
in the fame place. In proportion to the fwiftnefs of
the fliip, then, the lee-way will be the lefs : but if the
wind is very flrong, the velocity of the fliip bears but
a fmall proportion to that of the current of air 5 and
the fame effects muft follow as though the fliip moved
flowly, and the wind was gentle ; that is, the fliip
muft make a great deal of lee-way.—The fame thing
happens when the fea rifes high, whether the wind is
ftrong or not j for then the whole-water of the ocean,
as far as the fwell reaches, has acquired a motion in
a certain direction, and that to a very confiderable
depth. The mountainous waves will not fail to carry
the fliip very much out of her courfe 5 and this devia¬
tion will certainly be according to their velocity and
magnitude. In all cafes of a rough fea, therefore, a
great deal of lee-way is made.—Another circumftance
alfo makes a variation in the quantity of the lee way ;
namely, the lightnefs or heavinefs of the Ihip j it being
evident, that when the fliip links deep in the water, a
much greater quantity of that element is to be put in
motion before Ihe can make any lee-way, than when
flie fwims on the furfaee. As therefore it is impoflible
to calculate all thefe things with mathematical exaft-
uefs, it is plain that the real courfe of a fliip is exceed¬
ingly difficult to be found, and frequent errors muft
be made, which can only be correct'd by cclcflial ob-
fervations.
In many places of the ocean there are currents, or
places where the water, inftead of remaining at reft,
runs with a very confiderable velocity for a great way
in fome particular direflion, and which will certainly
carry the fliip greatly out of her courfe. This occa-
fions an error of the fame nature with the lee-way :
and therefore, whenever a current is perceived, its
direction and velocity ought to be determined, and the
proper allowances made.
Another fource of error in reckoning the courfe of a
fliip proceeds from the variation of the corr.pafs.
There are few parts of the world where the needle
points exactly north ; and in thofe where the variation
is known, it is fubjeft to very confiderable alterations.
By thefe means the courfe of the fliip is miflaken ; for
as the failors have no other ftandard to direct: them
than the compafs, if the needle, inftead of pointing
due north, ftiould point north-eaft, a prodigious error
would be occafioned during the courfe of the voyage,
and the fliip would not come near the port to which
flie was bound. To avoid errors of this kind, the only
method is, to obferve the fun’s amplitude and azimuth
as frequently as poflible, by which the variation of the
compafs will be perceived, and the proper allowances
A T I O N. 651
can then be made for errors in the courfe which Tins
may have occafloned.
Errors will arife in the reckoning of a fliip, efpe-
cially w hen flie fails in high latitudes, from the fphe-
roidal figure of the earth j for as the polar diameter
of our globe is found to be confiderably ftiorter than
the equatorial one, it thence follows, that the farther
we remove from the equator, the longer are the degrees
of latitude. Of confequence, if a navigator affigns
any certain number of miles for the length of a degree
of latitude near the equator, he mull vary that mea-
fure as he approaches towards the poles, otherwife
he will imagine that he hath not failed fo far as he
actually hath done. It would therefore be neceffary
to have a table containing the length of a degree of
latitude in every different parallel from the equator to
either pole ; as without this a troublefome calcula¬
tion muft be made at every time the navigator makes
a reckoning of his courfe. Such a table, however,
hath not yet appeared 5 neither indeed does it feem to
be an eafy matter to make it, on account of the diffi¬
culty of meafuring the length even of one or two de¬
grees of latitude in different parts of the vrorld. Sir
Ifaac Newton firft: difeovered this fpheroidal figure of
the earth ; and fhowed, from experiments on pendulums,
that the polar diameter was to the equatorial one as 229
to 230. This proportion, however, hath not been
admitted by fuceeeding calculators. The French ma¬
thematicians, who meafured a degree on the meridian
in Lapland, made the proportion between the equa¬
torial and polar diameters to be as 1 to 0.9891. Thofe
who meafured a degree at Quito in Peru, made the
proportion 1 to 0.99624, or 266 to 265. M. Bouguer
makes the proportion to be as 179 to 178 ; and M-
Buffon, in one part of his theory of the earth, makes
the equatorial diameter exceed the polar one by of
the whole. According to M. du Sejour, this propor¬
tion is as 321 to 320 j and M. de la Place, in his Me¬
moir upon the Figure of Spheroids, has deduced the
fame proportion. From thefe variations it appears that
the point is not exactly determined, and confequently
that any corre£tions which can be made with regard to
the fpheroidal figure of the earth mult be very uncertain.
It is of confequence to navigators in a long voyage
to take the ncarelt wray to their port; but this is fcarce-
ly - . Jible to be done. The Ihorteft diftance between
any two points on the furface of a fphere is meafured
by an arch ot a great circle intercepted between them j
and therefore it is advifeable to dire£t the ftfip along a
great circle of the earth’s furface. But this is a matter
of confiderable difficulty, becaufe there are no fixed
marks by which it can be readily known whether the
fliip fails in the direftion of a great circle or not. For
this reafon the failors commonly ehoofe to diredft their
courfe by the rhumbs, or the bearing of the place by
the compafs. Thefe bearings do not point out the
fhorteft diftance between places ; becaufe, on a globe,
the rhumbs are fpirals, and not arches of great circles.
However, when the, places lie dire&ly under the equa¬
tor, or exactly under the fame meridian, the rhumb then
coincides with the arch of a great circle, and of confe¬
quence fhows the neareft way. The failing on the arch
of a great circle is called great circle failing ; and the
cafes of it depend all on the folution of problems in
fpherical trigonometry.
1 6 4 N a PRACTICE
652
NAVIGATION.
Practice.
PRACTICE OF NAVIGATION.
BOOK 1.
Containing the various Methods of Sailing.
INTRODUCTION.
The art of navigation depends upon aftronomical
and mathematical principles. The places of the fun
and fixed ftars are deduced from obfervation and cal¬
culation, and arranged in tables, the ufe of which is
abfolutely necefl'ary in reducing obfervations taken at
fea, for the purpofe of afcertaining the latitude and
longitude of the fhip, and the variation of the com-
pafs. 1 he problems in the various failings are refolved
either by trigonometrical calculation, or by tables or
rules formed by the afliflance of trigonometry. By
mathematics, the neceffary tables are conftru&ed, and
rules inveftigated for performing the more difficult
parts of navigation. For thefe feveral branches of
fcience, and lor logarithmic tables, the reader is re¬
ferred to the refpe&ive articles in this work. A few
tables are given at the end of this article j but as the
other tables neceffary for the pradtice of navigation
are to be found in almoft every treatife on that fubjedt,
it therefore feems unneceffary to infert them in this
place.
Chap. I. Preliminary Principles.
Sect. I. Of the Latitude and Longitude of a Place.
The fituation of a place on the furface of the earth
is eftimated by its diftance from two imaginary lines
interfedling each other at right angles : The one of
thefe is called the equator, and the other the frf me¬
ridian. The fituation of the equator is fixed, but that
of the firft meridian is arbitrary, and therefore different
nations affume different firlt meridians. In Britain, we
efteem that to be the firft meridian which paffes through
the royal obfervatory at Greenwich.
The equator divides the earth into two equal parts,
called the northern and fouthern hetnifpheres ; and the
latitude of a place is its diftance from the equator, rec¬
koned on a meridian in degrees and parts of a degree ;
and is either north nor fouth, according as it is in the
northern or fouthern hemifphere.
The firft meridian being continued round the globe,
divides it into two equal parts, called the eajlern and
voefern hemifpheres ; and the longitude of a place is
that portion of the equator contained between the firft
meridian and the meridian of the given place, and is
either eaft or weft $ according as it is in the eaftern or
weftern hemifphere, refpedtively to the firft meridian.
Pros. I. The latitudes of two places being given,
to find the difference of latitude.
Rule. Subtract the lefs latititude from the greater,
if the latitudes be of the fame name, but add them if
of contrary $ and the remainder or fum will be the dif¬
ference of latitude.
Example 1. Required the difference of latitude be¬
tween the Lizard, in latitude 490 57' N. and Cape St
Vincent, in latitude 370 2' N ?
Latitude of the Lizard 49° 57'N.
Latitude of Cape St Vincent 37 2 N.
Difference of latitude 12 55 = 775 miles.
Ex. 2. What is the difference of latitude between
Funchal, in latitude 3 2° 38' N, and the Cape of Good
Hope, in latitude 340 29' S ?
Latitude of Funchal 320 38'N.
Lat. of Cape of Good Hope 34 29 S.
Difference of latitude 67 7 = 40 27 miles.
Prob. II. Given the latitude of one place, and the
difference of latitude between it and another place, to
find the latitude of that place.
Rule. If the given latitude and the difference of
latitude be of the fame name, add them 5 but if of dif¬
ferent names, fubtra£l them, and the fum or remainder
will be the latitude required of the fame name with the
greater.
Ex. 1. A ffiip from latitude 390 22' N. failed due
north 560 miles—Required the latitude come to ?
Latitude failed from - . . 39° 22'N.
Difference of latitude 560' - - = 9 20 N.
Latitude come to - - - - 48 42 N.
Ex. 2. A {hip from latitude 70 19' N. failed 854
miles fouth—Required the latitude come to ?
Latitude failed from - - - 70 19'N.
Difference of latitude 854' - = 14 14 S.
Latitude come to - - - 6558.
Prob. III. The longitudes of two places being gi¬
ven, to find their difference of longitude.
Rule. If the longitudes of the given places are ^of
the fame name, fubtraft the lefs from the greater, and
the remainder is the difference of longitude : but if
the longitudes are of contrary names, their fum is the
difference of longitude. If this exceeds 18o°, fub-
traft it from 360°, and the remainder is the difference
of longitude.
Ex. I. Required the difference of longitude between
Edinburgh and New York, their longitudes being 30
14' W. and 740 10' W. refpedlively ?
Longitude of New York - - 74° io'W.
Longitude of Edinburgh - - 3 !4 W.
Difference of longitude - - 70 56
Ex. 2. What is the difference of longitude between
Maikelyne’s Hies in longitude 167° 59' E. and Olinde,
in longitude 350 5' W >
Longitude
Pra&ice.
Latitude Longitude of Ufafkel^e’s Tiles
and Longitude of Olinde
Longitude. 0
NAVIGATION.
167° 59' E. Time of new moon per Naut. Aim.
35 5 W’ Longitude of Salonique in time
9d I5h
o 1
653
Tides.
Sum .... 203 4
Subtract from - * . 360 o
Difference of longitude - - 156 56
Prob. IV. Given the longitude of a place, and the
difference of longitude between it and another place, to
find the longitude of that place.
Rule. If the given longitude and the difference of
longitude be of a contrary name, fubtraiR the lefs from
the greater, and the remainder is the longitude requi¬
red of the fame name with the greater quantity. ; but
if they are of the fame name, add them, and the fum
is the longitude fought, of the fame name with that
given. If this fum exceed* 180®, fubtraft it from 360°,
the remainder is the required longitude of a contrary
name to that given.
Ex. 1. A fiiip from longitude 90 54' E. failed wefter-
ly till the difference of longitude was 230 18'—Re¬
quired the longitude come to ?
Longitude failed from - - 90 54' E.
Difference of longitude - - 23 18 W.
Longitude come to - - - 13 24 W.
Ex. 2. The longitude failed from is 250 9' W. and
difference of longitude l83 46' W.—Required the lon¬
gitude come to ?
Longitude left - - - 25° q'W.
Difference of longitude - - 18 46 W.
Longitude in - - - 43 55 W-
Sect. II. Of the Tides.
The theory of the tides has been explained under
the article Astronomy, and will again be farther il-
luftrated under that of Tides. In this place, therefore,
it remains only to explain the method of calculating the
time of high water at a given place.
As the tides depend upon the joint actions of the fun
and moon, and therefore upon the diltance of thefe ob-
je£ts from the earth and from each other ; and as, in
the method generally employed to find the time of high
water, whether by the mean time of new moon, or by
the epa&s, or tables deduced therefrom, the moon is
fuppofed to be the foie agent, and to have an uniform
motion in the periphery of a circle, whofe centre is that
of the earth } it is hence obvious that method cannot be
accurate, and by obfervation the error is fometimes
found to exceed two hours. That method is therefore
reje&ed, and another given, in which the error will
feldom exceed a few minutes, unlefs the tides are great¬
ly influenced by the winds.
Pros. I. To reduce the times of the moon’s phafes
as given in the Nautical Almanac to the meridian of a
known place.
Rule. To the time of the propofed phafe, as given
in the Nautical Almanac, apply the longitude of the
place in time, by addition or fubtraflion, according as
it is eafl or weft, and it will give the time of the phafe
at the given place.
Ex. 1. Required the time of new moon at Salonique
in May 1793 ?
Time of new moon required, in May 917 4
Ex. 2. What is the time of the laft quarter of the
moon at Refolution bay in O6tober 1793 ?
Time of laft quarter per Naut. Aim. 26d 5h 47'
Longitude in time - - 0 9 17W.
Time at Refolution bay of laft quar-    —  
ter, O&ober - - . 25 20 30, or
26th day at 8h 30' A. M.
Prob. II. To find the time of high water at a known
place.
Rule. In the Nautical Almanac feek in the given
month, or in that immediately preceding or following
it, for the time of that phafe which happens neareft
to the given day : reduce the time of this phafe to the
meridian of the given place by Prob. I. and take the
difference between the reduced time and the noon of
the given day.
Find the equation anfwering to this difference in
Table VII. which applied to the time of high rvater
on the day of new or full moon at the given place, ac¬
cording as the table direfts, will give the approximate
time of high water in the afternoon.
Now, take the interval between the reduced time of
the phafe and the approximate time of high water j
find the correfponding equation, which applied as be¬
fore to the fyzigy time of high water, will give the
time of the afternoon high water.
If the time of the morning high water is required,
increafe the laft interval by 12 hours, if the given day
falls before the phafe, or diminifh it by 12 hours
when after that phafe ; and the equation to this time,
applied to the fyzigy time, gives the morning time of
high water.
Ex. 1. Required the morning, and afternoon times of
high water at Leith, nth December 1793 ?
Neareft phafe to nth Dec. is ift quart. 9d 2Dh 29'
Longitude of Leith in time - — o o 13
Time at Leith of ift quarter
Given day -
Difference -
Time of PI. W. at Leith-pier on fyz.
Equat. from Tab. to id 3h 44'
Approximate time of high water
Reduced time of ift quarter
Interval
Time of high water at Leith on fyz.
Equat. from the Tab. to id I2h 36'
9 20 16
no o
+0
Fime of high water at Leith
rime of H.W. at Leith at full & change
Equat. to id I2h 36'—I2hmd oh 36'
3 44
2 20
6 32
n 8
9 20
52
16
12 36
2 20
7 0
20 P.M.
20
22
High water at Leith, Dec. nth, at 8 42A.M.
The time of high water found by the common me¬
thod is about an hour and a half fooner.
Ex. 2. Required the time of high water at Funchal,.
15th November 1793 ?
The
4.
N A V I G
Ihe neareft pnafe to ijtli November is that of full
moon, - - - i7d 8h 46'
Longitude of Funchal in time, - 018 W.
Time of full moon at Funchal,
Given day, November
I7
15
7 38
o o
Difference, - - - 2 7 38
Time of high water at Funchal at full
and change, - - ->0124
Equation from the Table to 2d 7I1 38'
before full moon, - - —0135
Approx, time of l)igh water, Nov. 15 10 29
Reduced time of full moon, - 17 7 38
Interval, - - - - 1 11 9
Time of high water at full and change, 12 4
Equation to id nh before full moon, o 56
Time of high water, - - - 1 j 8P.M.
Equation to id llh + I2h=id 23I1 is ih 15', and
12I1 4'—ih i5'=:ioh 49'= time of high water in the
forenoon.
Ex. 3. Required the time of high water at Dulkey
Bay, 24th October 1793 ?
The neared phafe to the 24th O&ober is the laft quar¬
ter - - 26d 5I1 47'
Longitude of Dufkey Bay in time, -j-o 11 5 E.
Reduced time of firft quarter of moon 26 16 52
Given day - - . _ 24 o o
Difference, - - - - 21652
Time of high water at full and change, 10 157
Equation to 2d l6h 5 2'before lalt quar¬
ter, - - - _ + 2 52
1 49
3
1 52
20
32
Approximate time of high water,
Change of equation to app. time ih 49'
Time of high water in the afternoon,
Change of equation to 12 hours,
Time of high water in the morning,
Sect. III. Of meafuring a Ship's Run in a given Time.
The method commonly ufed at fea to find the di-
ftance failed in a given time, is by means of a log-line
and half-minute-glafs. A defeription of thefe is given
under the articles Log and Log-lixe ; which fee.
It has been already obferved, that the interval be¬
tween each knot on the line ought to be 50 feet, in or¬
der to adapt it to a glafs that runs 30 feconds. But
although the line and glafs be at any time perfectly ad-
jufted to each other, yet as the line {brinks after being
wet, and as the weather has a confiderable effefl upon
the glafs, it will therefore be neceffary to examine them
from time to time ; and the diftance given by them
muff be corrected accordingly. The diftance failed
may, therefore, be affe&ed by an error in the glafs, or
in the line, or in both. The true diftance may, how-
ever, be found as follows.
Pros. I, The diftance failed by the log, and the fe-
A T I O N. Pra&ice,
conds run by the glafs, being given, to find the true di- Ship’s Run.
ftance, the line being fuppofed right. c-1-y—
Rule.—-Multiply the diftance given by the log by
30, and divide the produtt by the feconds run by the
glafs, the quotient will be the true diftance.
Ex. I. The hourly rate of failing by the log is nine
knots, and the glais is found to run out in 3 5 feconds.
Required the true rate of failing ?
9
3°
35)270(7.7=:true rate of failing.
E.x. 2. T nc diftance lulled by the log is 73 miles,
and the glafs runs out in 26 feconds. Sought the true
diftance ?
73
3°
26)2190(84.2 the true diftance.
Prob. II. Given the diftance failed by the log, and
the mealured interval between two adjacent knots on
the line } to find the true diftance, the glafs running
exactly 30 feconds.
Rule. Multiply twice the diftance, failed by the
meafured length of a knot, point off two figures to the
right, and the remainder will be the true diftance.
Ex. r. The hourly rate of failing by the log is five
knots, and the interval between knot and knot mta-
fures 53 feet. Required the true rate of failing ?
Meafured interval — 53
Twice hourly rate ~ 10
True rate of failing ~ 5.30
Ex. 2. The diftance failed is 64 miles, by a log-line
which meaiures 42 feet to a knot. Required the true
diftance ?
I wice given diftance, rr 128
Meafured interval, 42
True diftanee,
256
5*2
53-?6
Prob. III. Given the length of a knot, the number
of feconds run by the glafs in half a minute, and the
diftance failed by the log ; to find the true diftance.
Rule. Multiply the diftance failed by the log by
fix times the meafured length of a knot, and divide the
produft by the feconds run by the glafs ; the quotient,
pointing oft' one figure to the right, will be the true di¬
ftance.
Example. The diftance failed by the log is 159 miles,
the meafured length of a knot is 42 feet, and the glafs
runs 33 feconds in halt a minute. Required the true
diftance ?
Diftance by the log, 1 ^
Six times length of a knot—42 X 6=252
795
3*8
Seconds run by the glafs
true diftance.
33)40068(121.4=
Chap.
Pradice. N A V I G
Plane
, 5iulJng‘ . CHAP. \l. Planp Sailing,
PLANE Jailing is the art of navigating a fliip upon
principles deduced from the notion of the earth’s being
an extended plane. On this fuppofition the meridians
are efteemed as parallel right lines. The parallels of
latitude are at right angles to the meridians; the lengths
of the degrees on the meridians, equator, and parallels
of latitude, are everywhere equal ; and the degrees of
longitude are reckoned on the parallels of latitude as
well as on the equator.—In this failing four tilings are
principally concerned, namely, the courfcy dijlance, dif¬
ference of latitude, and departure.
The courfe is the angle contained between the meri¬
dian and the line defcribed by the fliip, and is ufually
exprefled in points of the compafs.
The diftance is the number of miles a fhip has failed
on a direff courfe in a given time.
The difference of latitude is the portion of a meri¬
dian contained between the parallels of latitude failed
from and come to 5 and is reckoned either north or
fouth, according as the courfe is in the northern or
fbuthern hemifphere.
The departure is the diftance of the fhip from the
meridian of the place fhe left, reckoned on a parallel
of latitude. In this failing, the departure and difference
Plate l°ng?tude are efteemed equal.
CCCLXIII. order to illuftrate the above, let A (fig. 1.) re-
prefent the pofition of any given place, and AB the
meridian paffing through that place ; alfo let AC re-
prefent the line delcribed by a Ihip, and C the point
arrived at. From C draw CB perpendicular to AB.
Now in the triangle ABC, the angle BAG reprefents
the courfe, the fide AC the diftance, AB tlie difference
of latitude, and EC the departure.
In conftrufling a figure relating to a (hip’s courfe,
let the upper part of what the figure is to be drawn on
reprefent the north, then the lower part will be fouth,
the right-hand fide eajl, and the left-hand fide wejl.
A north and fouth line is to be drawn to reprefent
the meridian of the place from which the fhip failed ;
and the upper or lower part of this line, according as
the courfe is foutherly or northerly, is to be marked as
the pofition of that place. From this point as a
centre, with the chord of 6o°, an arch is to be defcrib¬
ed from the meridian towards the right or left, ac¬
cording as the courfe is eafterly or wefterly ; and the
courfe, taken from the line of chords if given in de¬
grees, but from the line of rhumbs if expreffed in
points of the compafs, is to be laid upon this arch, be¬
ginning at the meridian. A line drawn through this
point and that failed from, will reprefent the diftance,
which if given muft be laid thereon, beginning at the
point failed from. A line is to be drawn from the ex¬
tremity of the diftance perpendicular to the meridian j
and hence the difference of latitude and departure will
be obtained.
If the difference of latitude is given, it is to be laid
upon the meridian, beginning at the point reprefenting
A T 1 o N.
6SS
the place the Hup left; and a line drawn from the ex- Plane
icrnity of the difference of latitude perpendicular to the Sailing,
meridian, till it meets the diftance produced, will limit
the figure.
If the departure is given, it is to be laid off on a pa¬
rallel, and a line drawn through its extremity will li¬
mit the diftance. When either the diftance and differ¬
ence of latitude, diftance and departure, or difference
ut latitude and departure, are given, the meafure of
each is to be taken from a fcale of equal parts, and laid
oft on its respective line, and the extremities connedted.
Hence the figure will be formed.
PR°B. I. Given the courfe and diftance, to find the
difterence of latitude and departure.
Example. A fliip from St Helena, in latitude 1 c°
5/ S. failed S. W. by S. 158 miles. Required the la¬
titude come to, and departure.
By Conftruclion.
Draw the meridian AB (fig. 2.), and with the
chord of 6o° deferibe the arch m n, and make it equal
to the rhumb of 3 points, and through « draw AC
equal to 158 miles 5 from C, draw CB perpendicular
to AB $ then AB applied to the fcale from which AC
wTas taken, will be found to meafure 131.4 and BC
By Calculation.
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius - _ _
is to the cofine of the courfe 3 points
fo is the diftance - 138
10.00000
9-9i985
2.19866
to the difference of latitude 131.4
To find the departure.
As radius - . .
is to the fine of the courfe 3 points
fo is the diftance - 138
2.11831
10.00000
9*74474
2.19866
to the departure - 87.8 - 1 *94340
By InfpeElion.
In the traverfe table, the difference of latitude an-
fwering to the courfe 3 points, and diftance 138 miles,
in a diftance column is 131.4, and departure 87.8.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 8 points to 3 points, the comple¬
ment of the courfe on the line of fine rhumbs (marked
SR.) will reach from the diftance 138 to 131.4, the
difference of latitude on the line of numbers ; and
the extent from 8 points to 3 points on fine rhumbs,
will reach from 138 to 87.8, the departure on num¬
bers (a).
Latitude St Helena ~ ,5° 55/S.
Difference of latitude - 2 II S.
Latitude come to
18 6 S.
Prob. II. Given the courfe and difference of lati¬
tude,^ to find the diftance and departure.
Example.
(a) For the method of refolving the various problems in navigation, by the Aiding gunter, the reader is refer¬
red to Dr Mackay’s Treatife on the Defcription and Ufe of that Inftrument.
656 N A V I G
Plano Example. A (hip frotn St George’s, in latitude 38°
Sailing. ^ north, failed SEiS ; and the latitude by obferva-
:,J"¥'1" tion was 350 7' N. Required the diitance run, and de*
parture ?
Latitude St George’s - 38° 45; ^
Latitude come to - 35 7 N
Difference of latitude - 3 3®“21^ rll^es*
Bij ConJlruBion,
Draw the portion of the meridian AB (fig. 3.)
equal to 218 m. : from the centre A with the chord of
6o° deferibe the arch mn, which make equal to the
rhumb of 3^ points : through A« draw the line AC,
and from B draw BC perpendicular to AB, and let
it be produced till it meets AC in C. J hen the di-
ftance AC being applied to the fcale, will meafure
282 m. and the departure BC 179 miles.
By Calculation.
To find the diftance.
As radius -
is to the fecant of the courfe 3^- points
fo is the difference of latitude - 218 m.
to the diftance - - 282
To find the departure.
As radius - - - -
is to the tangent of the courfe 3^ points
fo is the difference of latitude 218
10.00000
10.11181
2.33846
2.45027
10.00000
9.91417
2.33846
A T I O N.
Pra&icc.
By Calculation.
To find the diftance.
As the fine of the courfe 5 points
is to radius - . - - .
fo is the departure - 192
Plan#
Sailing,
9.91985
10.00000
2.28330
to the diftance - >* 230.9
To find the difference of latitude.
As the tangent of the courfe 5 points
is to radius - - - -
fo is the departure - t 192
2-36345
JO-17511
10.00000
2.28330
to the difference of latitude 128.3 2.10819
By InfpeBion,
Find the departure 192 m. in its proper column
above the given courfe 5 points; and oppofite thereto is
the diftance 231 miles, and difference of latitude 138.3,
in their refpeflive columns. .
By Gunter1 s Scale.
The extent from 5 points to 8 points on the line of
fine rhumbs, being laid from the departure 192 on
numbers, will reach to the diftance 231 on the fame
line •, and the extent from 5 points to 4 points on
the line of tangent rhumbs, will reach from the de¬
parture 192, to the difference of latitude 128.3 on
numbers.
Latitude of Palma - - - 28° 37'N
Difference of latitude - - - 2 8 N
to the departure - - J7^-9 “ 2.25253
By Infpeflton.
Find the given difference of latitude 218 m. in a la¬
titude column, under the courfe of 3^ points 5 oppofite
to which, in a diftance column, is 282 miles j a de¬
parture column is I78.9HU diftance and departure
required.
By Gunter's Scale.
Extend the compafs from 44- points, the complement
of the courfe, to 8 points on fine rhumbs, that extent
will reach from the difference of latitude 218 miles, to
the diftance 282 miles in numbers ; and the extent from
4 points to the courfe 34 points on the line of tangent
rhumbs (marked T. R.) will reach from 218 miles to
178.9, the departure on numbers.
Pros. III. Given courfe and departure, to find the
diftance and difference of latitude ?
Example. A (hip from Palma, in latitude 28° 37' N.
failed NW. by W. and made 192 miles of departure :
Required the diftance run, and latitude come to ?
By ConJlruBion.
Make the departure BC (fig. 4.) equal to 192 miles,
draw BA perpendicular to BC, and from the centre C,
with the chord of 6o°, deferibe the arch m n, which
make equal to the rhumb of 3 points, the complement
of the courfe draw a line through C n, which produce
till it meets BA in A: then the diftance AC being
meafured, will be equal to 231 m. and the difference of
latitude AB will be 128.3 miles.
Latitude come to - - - 30 45 N
Prob. IV. Given the diftance and difference of la¬
titude, to find the courfe apd departure.
Example. A (hip from a place in latitude 430 13'N,
fails between the north and eaft 285 miles $ and is then
by obfervation found to be in latitude 46° 3P N: Re¬
quired the courfe and departure ?
Latitude failed from - - 430 13'N
Latitude by obfervation - - 46 31 N
Difference of latitude - 3 18=198 miles.
By ConJlruBion.
Draw the portion of the meridian AB (fig. 5.) equal
to 198 miles; from B draw BC perpendicular to AB :
then take the diftance 285 miles from the fcale, and
with one foot of the compafs in A deferibe an arch in¬
terfering BC in C, and join AC. With the chord of
6o° deferibe the arch mn, the portion of which, con¬
tained between the diftance and difference of latitude,
applied to the line of chords, will meafure 46°, the
courfe ; and the departure BC being meafured on the
line of equal parts, will be found equal to 205 miles.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the diftance - - 285 - 2.45484
is to the difference of latitude 198 - 2.29660
fo is the radius - - - - 10.00000
to the cofine of the courfe - 46° o' - 9.84176
To
Pra&ice.
N
Plane
Sailing.
To find the departure.
As radius -
is to the fine of the courfe 46° o'
fo is the diltance - 285
A V I G
T 0.00000
9.8*693
2.45484
to the departure - 205 - 2.31177
By Inf peel ion.
Find the given diltance in the table in its proper co¬
lumn ; and if the difference of latitude anfwering there¬
to is the fame as that given, namelv, 198, then the de¬
parture will be found in its proper column, and the
courfe at the top or bottom of the page, according as
the difference of latitude is found in a column marked
lat. at top or bottom. If the difference of latitude thus
found does not agree with that given, turn over till the
neareif thereto is found to anfwer to the given diftance.
This is in the page marked 46 degrees at the bottom,
which is the courfe, and the correfponding departure is
205 miles.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the diftance 285 to the difference of
latitude 198 on numbers, will reach from 90° to 44*,
the complement of the courfe on fines *, and the extent
from 90° to the courfe 46° on the line of fines being
laid from the diftance 285, will reach to the departure
205 on the line of numbers.
Prob. V. Given the diftance and departure, to find
the courfe and difference of latitude.
Fig. 6.
Example. A ftrip from Fort-Royal in the ifland of
Grenada, in latitude 120 9' N, failed 260 miles be¬
tween the fouth and weft, and made 190 miles of de¬
parture : Required the courfe and latitude come to ?
By ConflruBion. N
Draw EC (fig. 6.) perpendicular to AB, and*equal
to the given departure 190 miles ; then from the centre
C, with the diftance 260 miles, fweep an arch inter¬
fering AB in A, and join AC. Now deferibe an
arch from the centre A with the chord of 6o°, and the
portion mn of this arch, contained between the dif¬
tance and difference of latitude, meafured on the line
of chords, will be 47* the courfe and the difference
of latitude AB applied to the fcale of equal parts, mea-
fures !77t miles.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the diftaUce
is to the departure
fo is radius
260
190
2.41497
2.27875
IO.OOOC6
to the fine of the courfe 46° 57' 9.86378
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius _ 10.00000
is to the cofine of the courfe 46° 9.83419
fo is the diftance - 260 - 2.41497
to the difference of latitude 177.5
2.24916
By Infpe&ion.
Seek in the traverfe table until the neareft to the gi¬
ven departure is found in the fame line with the given
diftance 260. This is found to be in the page marked
470 at the bottom, which is the courfe \ and the corre¬
fponding difference of latitude is 177.3.
" Vol. XIV. Part II.
A T I O N.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent of the compafs, from the diftance 260 to
the departure 190 on the line of numbers, will reach
from 90° to 470, the courfe on the line of fines : and
the extent from 90° to 430, the complement of the
courfe on fines, will reach from the diftance 260 to the
difterence of latitude 177I- on the line of numbers.
Latitude Fort Royal - - 12° 9'N
Difference of latitude - 177 - =2 57 S
Latitude in
9 12N
Prob. VI. Given difference of latitude and depar¬
ture, fought courfe and diftance.
Example. A fiiip from a port in latitude 7* 56' S,
failed between the fouth and eaft, till her departure is
132 miles ; and is then by obfervation found to be in
latitude 12* 3' S. Required the courfe and diftance ?
Latitude failed from - 70 56' S.
Latitude in by obfervation 12 3 S.
Difference of latitude - 4 7=247.
By Con/1 ruclion.
Draw the portion of the meridian AB (fig. 7.) equal Fig. 7.
to the difference of latitude 247 miles 5 from B draw
BC perpendicular to AB, and equal to the given de¬
parture 132 miles, and join AC : then with the chord
of 6o° deferibe an arch from the centre A *, and the
portion m n oi this arch being applied to the line of
chords, will meafure about 28° 5 and the diftance AC,
meafured on the line of equal parts, will be 280 miles.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the difference of latitude - 247
is to the departure - - J32
fo is radius - -
to the tangent of the courfe 28°
To find the diftance.
As radius -
is to the fecant of the courfe 28° /
fo is the difference of latitude 247
to the diftance - 280
By InfpeClion.
Seek in the table till the given difference of latitude
and departure, or the neareft thereto, are found toge¬
ther in their refpedlive columns, which will be under
28°, the required courfe ; and the diftance anfwering
thereto is 280 miles.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the given difference of latitude 247
to the departure 132 on the line of numbers, will reach
from 45® to 28°, the courfe on the line of tangents ;
and the extent from 62*, the complement of the courfe,
to 90° on fines, will reach from the difference of lati¬
tude 247, to thediftance 280 on numbers.
2.39270
2.1 2057
IO.CCOOO
7' 9-727s7
IO.OOOCO
10.05454
2.39270
2.44724
Chap. III. Of Traverfe Sailing.
If a fldp fail upon two or more courfes in a given
time, the irregular track Ihe deferibes is called a tra¬
verfe ; and to refolve a traverfe, is the method of redu¬
cing thefe feveral courfes, and the diftances run, in-
4 O to
erfe to a Tingle eourfe and didance. The method chiefly ufed
■ g' . for this purpofe at Tea is by infpetfion, which fliall
therefore be principally adhered to ; and is as follows.
Make a table of a breadth and depth fufficient to
contain the feveral courfes, &e. This table is to be
divided into fix columns : the courfes are to be put in
the firft, and the correfponding diftances in the fecund
column 5 the third and fourth columns are to contain
the differences of latitude, and the two laft the depar¬
tures.
Now, the feveral courfes and their correfponding
diflances being properly arranged in the table, find
tlie difference of latitude and departure anfwering to
each in the traverfe table ; remembering that the dif¬
ference of latitude is to be put in a north or fouth co¬
lumn, according as the courfe is in the northern or
fouthern hemifphere ; and that the departure is to be
put in an eaft column if the courfe is eafterly, but in a
well column if the courfe is wefterly : Obferving alfo,
that the departure is lefs than the difference of latitude
when the courfe is lefs than 4 points or 43°; otherwife
greater.
' Add up the columns of northing, fouthing, calling,
and welling, and fet down the fum of each at its bot¬
tom ; then the difference between the fums of the north
and fouth columns will be the difference of latitude
made good, of the fame name with the greater ; and
the difference between the fums of the eaft and Avelt co¬
lumns, is the departure made good, of the fame name
with the greater fum.
Now, feek in the traverfe table, till a difference of
latitude and departure are found to agree as nearly as
poflible with thofe above j then the diftance will be
found on the fame line, and the courfe at the top or
bottom of the page, according as the difference of lati¬
tude is greater or lefs than the departure.
In order to refolve a traverfe by confirinffion, de-
feribe a circle with the chord of 6o°, in which draw
two diameters at right angles to each other, at whofe
extremities are to be marked the initials of the cardinal
points, north being uppermoft.
Lay off each courfe on the circumference, reckoned
from its proper meridian ; and from the centre to each
point draw lines, which are to be marked with the pro¬
per number of the courfe.
On the firft radius lay off the firfl: diffance from the
centre j and through its extremity, and parallel to the
fecond radius, draw the fecond diftance of its proper
length ) through the extremity of the fecond diftance,
and parallel to the third radius, draw the third diftance
of its proper length 5 and thus proceed until all the di¬
ftances are drawn.
A line drawn from the extremity of the laft: diftance
to the centre of the circle will reprefent the diftance
made good : and a line drawn from the fame point per¬
pendicular to the meridian, produced, if neceffary, will
reprefent the departure ; and the portion of the meri¬
dian intercepted between the centre and departure, will
be the difference of latitude made good.
Examples.
I. A (hip from Fyal, in lat. 38° 32-N, failed as fol¬
lows : ESE 163 miles SW i W no miles, SE S
180 miles, and N by E 68 miles. Required the lati¬
tude come to, the eourfe, and diftance made good ?
NAVIGATION.
Pra&ice.
By InfpeSilon.
Courfe.
ESE
SW4W
SE|S
NZ-E
Dift.
163
110
180
68
Diff. of Latitude.
N
S
66.7
66.7
62.4
69.8
l44-5
2?6'7
66.7
S414E 281
Latitude left
Difference of latitude
Latitude come to
210.0
Departure.
E
150.6
107.2
I3*3
271.1
85.0
W
85.0
85.0
186.1
1
38° 32'N.
3 21 s.
35 11 N.
Traverfe
Sailing.
By Conjlrucliott.
With the chord of 6o° deferibe the circle NE, SW
(fig. 8.), the centre of which reprefents the place the Fig. s>
fhip failed from : draw two diameters NS, EW at right
angles to each other; the one reprefenting the meri¬
dian, and the other the parallel of latitude of the place
failed from. Take each courfe from the line of rhumbs,
lay it off on the circumference from its proper meri¬
dian, and number it in order 1, 2, 3, 4. Upon the
firft rhumb C1, lay off the firft diftance 163 miles from
C to A 5 through it draw the fecond diftance AB pa¬
rallel to C2, and equal to no miles ; through B draw
BD equal to 180 miles, and parallel to C3 j and draw
DE parallel to C4, and equal to 68 miles. Now CE
being joined, will reprefent the diftance made good j
which applied to the fcale will meafure 281 miles.
'I he arch S «, which reprefents the courfe, being mea-
fured on the line of chords, will be found equal to 41-J0.
From E dra,w EE perpendicular to CS produced ;
then CF will be the difference of latitude, and FE the
departure made good ; which applied to the fcale will be
found to meafure 210 and 186 miles refpedively.
As the method by conftruftion is fearcely ever prac-
tifed at fea, it, therefore, feerfls unneceffary to apply it
to the folution of the following examples.
II. A ftiip from latitude i° 38' S. failed as under.
Required her prefent latitude, courfe, and diftance made
good ?
Courfe.
Dift.
NWZ»N
WNW
SEZ>E
WSWaW
N4E
43
78
56
62
85
Dift. of Latitude.
N
35-8
29.9
84.1
149.8
49.1
Departure,
E W
3i-i
18.0
49.1
N 440 W 139 ioo.7zzi°4i/
Latitude lelt - 1 38 S.
46.6
12.5
59.1
23-9
72.1
59-3
155-3
59-1
96.2
Latitude come to
3 N.
Ill,
Practice. N A V I G
Traverfe III. Yeflcrday at noon we were in'latitude 130 12'
t S;u ing- , N, and finee then have run as follows : SSE 36 miles,
S 12 miles, NW 4- W 28 miles, W 30 miles, SW 42
miles, W£N 39 milesv and N 2G miles. Required our
prefect latitude, departure, and dirett courfe and di-
il ance ?
Courfes.
SSE
S
NW4-W
W
SW
WbN
N
S 740 W
Dill.
36
12
28
3°
42
39
20
no
Diff. of Latitude.
N
17.8
7.6
20.0
45-4
33-3
12.0
29.7
75-o
45-4
Departure.
3-8
13.8
Yefterday’s latitude
Prefent latitude.
2g.6=z0^o'
W
21.6
3°.o
29.7
38.2
[9-5
13 X2N
12 42N
I°5-7
IV. The courfe per eompafs from Greigfnefs (b) to
the May is SW ^ S, diftance 58 miles; from the May
to the Staples SZ>E L E, 44 miles ; and from the Sta¬
ples to Flamborough Head S£E, no miles. Required
the courfe per compafs, and didance from Greigfnefs to
Flamborough Head ?
Courfes.
SW^S
S£E|E
SbE
Dift.
58
44
no
DifF. of Latitude.
N
43-o
41.4
107.9
Departure.
14.8
21.5
I92.3
3^3 38-9
36-3
w
38.9
Hence the courfe per compafs is nearly
S i° W, and diftance 192^- miles.
2.6
Chap. IV. 'Qf-Har.allel Sailings
The figure of the earth is fpherical, and the meri¬
dians gradually approach each other, and meet at the
poles. The difference of longitude between any two
places is the angle at the pole contained between the
meridians of thofe places; or it is the arch of the
A T I O N. 659
equator intercepted between the meridians of the given Parallel
places y and the meridian diftance between two places Sailing,
in the fame parallel, is the arch thereof contained'
between their meridians. It hence follows, that the
meridian diftance, anfwering to the fame difference of
longitude, will be variable with the latitude of the'
parallel upon which it is reckoned; and the fame
difference of longitude will not anfwer to a given
meridian diftance when reckoned upon different pa¬
rallels.
Parallel failing is, therefore, the method of finding
the diftance between two places lying in the fame pa¬
rallel whofe longitudes are known ; or, to find the dif¬
ference of longitude anfwering to a given diftance, run
in an eaft or weft direftion. Phis failing is particular¬
ly ufeful in making low or fmall iflands.
In order to illuftrate the principles of parallel fail-
Ing, let CARP (fig. 9.) reprefent a feftion of one Pig- 9.
fourth part of the earth, the arch ABP being part
of a meridian; CA the equatorial, and CP the polar
femi-axis. Alfo let B be the fituation of any given
place on the earth ; and join BC, which will be equal
to CA or CP (c). The arch AB, or angle ACB,
is the meafure of the latitude of the place B ; and the
arch BP, or angle BCP, is that of its complement.
If BD be drawn from B perpendicular to CP, it will
reprefent the cofine of latitude to the radius BC or
CA.
Now finee circles and fimilar portions of circles are
in the diredl ratio of their radii; therefore,
As radius
Is to the cofine of latitude ;
So is any given portion of the equator
To a fimilar portion of the given parallel.
But the difference of longitude is an arch of the
equator ; and the diftance between any two places un¬
der the fame parallel, is a fimilar portion of that pa¬
rallel.
Hence R : cofine latitude L Diff. longitude : Diftance.
And by inverfion,
Cofine latitude : R :: Diftance : Diff. of longitude.
Alfo,
Diff. of longitude : Diftance :: R : cof. latitude.
ProB. I. Given the latitude of a parallel, and the
number of miles contained in a portion of the equator,
to find the miles contained in a fimilar portion of that
parallel.
Ex. I. Required the number of miles contained in a
degree of longitude in latitude 550 58' ?
By ConJIruBion.
Draw the indefinite right line AB (fig. 10.) ; makeHg- I®»
the angle BAG equal to the given latitude 550 58',
and AC equal to the number of miles contained in a
degree of longitude at the equator, namely 60 : from
C draw CB perpendicular to AB ; and AB being
meafured on the line of equal parts, will be found equal
to 33.5, the miles required.
4 O 2 By
(b) Greigfnefs is about 2~ miles diftant from Aberdeen, in nearly a SEZ»E-^E dire&ion.
(c) This is not ftri&ly true, as the figure of the earth is that of an oblate fpheroid ; and therefore the radius
of curvature is variable with the latitude. The difference between CA and CP, according to Sir Ifaac Newton’s -
hypothefis, is about 17 miles.
66o
Parallel
Sailing.
Fig. ii.
NAVIGATION.
Practice.
Bij Calculation.
As radius - . » 10.00000
is to the cofine of latitude, - 55° 'i8' 9.74794
fo is miles in a deg. of long, at eq. 60 1.77815
to the miles in a deg. in the given par. 33.58 1.52609
Bj Infpeclion.
tJie neareft degree to the given latitude,
and diftance 60 miles, the correfponding difference of
latitude is 33*^> which is the miles required.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 9c0 to 340, the complement of the
given latitude on the line of fines, will reach from 60
to 3 3.6 on the line of numbers.
1 here are two lines on the other fide of the fcale,
with refpeft to Gunter’s line, adapted to this parti¬
cular purpofe ; one of which is entitled chords, and
contains the feveral degrees of latitude : The other,
marked HI. L. fignifying miles of longitude, is the line
of longitudes, and Ihows tlie number of miles in a degree
of longitude in each parallel. The ufe of thefe lines is
therefore obvious.
Ex. 2. Required the diftance between Treguier in
France, in longitude 30 14' W, and Gafpey Bay, in
longitude 64° 27' W, the common latitude being 48°
47'N?
Longitude Treguier - 3® W
Longitude Gafpey Bay 64 27 W
Difference of longitude 61
As radius - - .
is to the cofine of latitude, 48* 47'
fo is the difference of longitude 3673
IO.OOCOO
9.81882
3*56502
between the given latitude and that ufed, be applied to Parallel
the above, the fame refult with that found by calcula-, Saiiing.
tion will be obtained.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 47° 8', the complement of latitude
to 90° on the line of fines, being laid the fame way from
the diftance 342, will reach to the difference of lon¬
gitude 466^ on the line of numbers.
Londgitude Cape Finifterre - 90 17'W
Difference of longitude - 7 47 W
Longitude come to - - 17 4 W
Prob. III. G iven the number of miles contained in
any portion of the equator, and the miles in a limilar
portion of a parallel; to find the latitude of that pa¬
rallel.
Example. A ftiip failed due eaft 358 miles, and was
found by obfervalion to have differed her longitude 8°
42'. Required the latitude of the parallel ?
By Confruclion.
Make the line AB (fig. 12.) equal to the given di-Fig. n.
ftancej to which let BC be drawn perpendicular, with
an extent equal to 522', then difference of longitude j
deferibe an arch from the centre A, cutting BC in C j
then the angle BAC being meafured by means of the
line of chords, will be found equal to 46°^, the re¬
quired latitude.
By Calculation.
As the diftance - 358 2.55388
is to the difference of longitude, 522 2.71767
fo is radius . - - 10.00000
to the diftance - 2420 - 3-38384
Prob. II. Given the number of miles contained in a
portion of a knowm parallel, to find the number of
miles in a fimilar portion of the equator.
Example. A ftiip from Cape Finifterre, in latitude
420 52'N, and longitude 90 17'W, failed due weft
342 miles. Required the longitude come to ?
By ConflruElion.
Draw the ftraight line AB (fig. 11.) equal to the
given diftance 342 miles, and make the angle BAC
equal to 420 52', the given latitude: from B draw BC
perpendicular to AB, meeting AC in C ; then AC
applied to the fcale will meafure 466?, the difference
of longitude required.
to the fecant of the latitude, 46° 42' 10.16370
By InfpeElion.
As the difference ot longitude and diftance exceed
the limits of the table, let therefore the half of each
be taken; thefe are 261 and 179 refpedtively. Now,
by entering the table with thele quantities, the lati¬
tude will be found to be between 46 and 47 degrees.
Therefore, to latitude 46°, and diftance 261 miles, the
correfponding difference of latitude is j8i'.3, which
exceeds the half of the given diftance by 2;.3. Again,
to latitude 470, and diftance 261, the difference of lati¬
tude is 170.0, being i'.o lefs than the half of that
given : therefore the change of diftance anfwering to a
change of i° of latitude is
Now-, as 3'.3 : 2'-3 :: i° : 42'.
Hence the latitude required is 46° 42'.
By Calculation.
As radius _ . .
is to the fecant of latitude, 4 2° 52'
fo is the diftance - 342
10.00000
io.,3493
2-534°3
to the difference of longitude
466.6 2.66896
By InfpeElion.
The neareft degree to the given latitude is 430;
under which, and oppofite to 171, half the given di¬
ftance in a latitude column, is 234, in a diftance co¬
lumn, which doubled gives 468, the difference of lon¬
gitude.
If the proportional part anfwering to the difference
2
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 522 to 358 on the line of num¬
bers, will reach from 90° to about 43°y, the comple¬
ment of which 46y is the latitude required.
Prob. IV. Given the number of miles contained in
the portion of a known parallel, to find the length of a
fimilar portion of another known parallel.
Example. From two ports in latitude 330 58'N,
diftance 348 miles, two (hips fail diredlly north till they
are in latitude 48° 23' N. Required their diflance?
By ConfruStion.
Draw the line CB, CE (fig. 13.), making angles Fig. 1^
with
Praaice. N A V I G
Parallel with CP equal to the complements of the given lati-
Sailine;. tudes> namely, 56° 2' and 410 37' refpe£tively : make
v BD equal to the given diftance 348 miles, and perpen¬
dicular to CP •, now from the centre C, with the radius
CB, defcribe an arch interfedling CE in E 5 then EF
drawn from the point E, perpendicular to CP, will re-
prefent the diftance required •, which being applied to
the fcale, will meafure 278^ miles.
' By Calculation.
As the cofine of the latitude left 330 58' 9.91874
is to the cofine of the lat. come to 48 23 9.82226
fo is the given diftance • 348 2.54158
to the diftance required - 278.6 2.44510
By InfpeBion.
Under 340, and oppofite to 174, half the given dif¬
tance in a latitude column is 2x0 in a diftance column ;
being half the difference of longitude anfwering thereto.
Now, find the difference of latitude to diltance 210
miles over 48° of latitude, which is i40/.5 •, from which
l'.i (the proportional part anfwering to 23 minutes of
latitude) being fubtrafted, gives I39'.4 which doubled
is 27 8'.8, the diftance required.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 56° 2', the complement of the la¬
titude left, to 41*37', the complement of that come
to, on the line of fines, being laid the fame way from
348, will reach to 2784-, the diftance fought on the line
of numbers.
Pros. V. Given a certain portion of a known pa¬
rallel, together with a fimilar portion of an unknown
parallel; to find the latitude of that parallel.
Example. Two fhips, in latitude 56° o' N, diftant
180 miles, fail due fouth 5 and having come to the fame
parallel, are now 232 miles diftant. The latitude of
that parallel is required ?
By ConJlruBion.
Fig. 14. Make DB (fig. 14.) equal to the firft diftance 180
miles, DM equal to the fecond 232, and the angle
DBC equal to the given latitude 56°; from the centre
C, with the radius CB, defcribe the arch BE; and
through M draw ME parallel to CD, interfeding the
arch BE in E; join EC and draw EF perpendicular
to CD : then the angle FEC will be the latitude re¬
quired ; which being meafured, will be found equal to
43° 53'-
By Calculation,
As the diftance on the known parallel 180 2.25527
is to the diftance on that required 232 2.36549
fo is the cofine of the latitude left 56° o' 9*7475^
to the cofine of the latitude come to 43 53 9.85778
By InfpeBion.
To latitude 56°, and half the firft diftance po in a
latitude column, the correfponding^ diftance is 161,
which is half the difference of longitude. Now 161,
and 116, half the fecond diftance, are found to agree
between 43 and 44 degrees ; therefore, to latitude
43° and diftance 161, the correfponding difference of
latitude is II7'.7', the excefs of which above 116' is
I'.y : and to latitude 44°, and diftance 161, the differ-
A T I O N. . 661
ence of latitude is H5/.8 : hence 117.7—115.8= x'.g, Middle
the change anfwering to a difference of i° of latitude. Latitude
Therefore, i'.p : i'.j :: x° : 53' , Sialing- .
Hence, the latitude is 430 53'.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 180 to 232 on the line of num¬
bers, being laid in the fame direction on the line of
fines, from 340, the complement of the latitude failed
from, will reach to 46° 7', the complement of the lati¬
tude come to.
Chap. V. Of Middle Latitude Sailing.
The earth is a fphere, and the meridians meet at the
poles; and fince a rhumb-line makes equal angles with
every meridian, the line a ftiip deferibes is, therefore,
that kind of a curve called a fpiral.
Let AB (fig. 15.) be any given diftance failed upon Fig. *5.
an oblique rhumb, PEN, PAM the extreme meri¬
dians, MN a portion of the equator, and PCK, PEL
two meridians interfedting the diftance AB in the
points CE infinitely near each other. If the arches
BS, CD, and AR, be deferibed parallel to the equator,
it is hence evident, that AS is the difference of lati¬
tude, and the arch MN of the equator, the difference
of longitude, anfwering to the given diftance AB and
courfe PAB.
Now, fince CE reprefents a very fmall portion of
the diftance AB, DE wrill be the correfpondent por¬
tion of a meridian : hence the triangle EDC may be
confidered as redlilineal. If the diftance be fuppofed
to be divided into an infinite number of parts, each
equal to CE, and upon thefe, triangles be conftrudted
whofe fides are portions of a meridian and parallel, it is
evident thefe triangles will be equal and fimilar ; for,
befides the right angle, and hypothenufe which is the
fame in each, the courfe or angle CED is alfo the
fame. Plence, by the X2th of V. Euc. the fum of all
the hypothenufes CE, or the diftance AB, is to the
fum of all the fides DE, or the difference of latitude
AS, as one of the hypothenufes CE is to the corre¬
fponding fide DE. Now, let the triangle GIH (fig. 16.) fig. 15.
be conftrudled fimilar to the triangle CDE, having the
angle G equal to the courfe : then as GH : GI:: CE :
DC :: AB : AS.
Hence, if GH be made equal to the given diftance
AB, then GI will be the correfponding difference of
latitude.
In like manner, the fum of all the hypothenufes CE,
or the diftance AB, is to the fum of all the fides CD,
as CE is to CD, or as GH to HI, becaufe of the fimi¬
lar triangles.
The feveral parts of the fame rectilineal triangle will,
therefore, reprefent the courfe, diftance, difference of
latitude, and departure.
Although the parts HG, GI, and angle G of the
reClilineal triangle GIH, are equal to the correfpond¬
ing parts AB, AS, and angle A, of the triangle ASB
upon the furface of the fphere ; yet HI is not equal to
BS, for HI is the fum of all the arcs CD *, but CD is
greater than OQq and lels than EX : therefore PII is
greater than BS, and lefs than AR. Hence the dif¬
ference of longitude MN cannot be inferred^ from the
departure reckoned either upon the parallel failed from,
or on that come to, but on fome intermediate parallel
IV,
662 N A V I G
iTtkilde ^,a*: ^ie arc^ ^ ^ is exa&ly equal to the de-
Sailino-6 Parture ; an^ in this cafe, the difference of longitude
would be eafily obtained. For TV is to MN as the
fine PT to the fine PM ; that is, as the cofine of lati¬
tude is to the radius.
1 he latitude of the parallel TV is not, however,
eafily determined with accuracy j various methods have,
therefore, been taken in order to obtain it nearly, with
as little trouble as poffible : firft, by taking the arith¬
metical mean of the two latitudes for that of the
mean parallel: fecondly, by ufing the arithmetical
mean of the cofines of the latitudes : thirdly, by ufing
the geometrical mean of the cofines of the latitudes:
and laftly, by employing the parallel deduced from
the mean of the meridional parts of the two latitudes.
The firft of thefe methods is that which is generally
ufed.
In order to illuftrate the computations in middle
. Fig. 17. latitude failing, let the triangle ABC (fig. 17.) re-
prefent a figure in plane failing, wherein AB is the
difference of latitude, AC the diftance, BC the de¬
parture, and the angle BAC the courie. Alfo, let
the triangle DBC be a figure in parallel failing, in
which DC is the difference of longitude, BC the me¬
ridian diftance, and the angle DCB the middle lati¬
tude. In thefe triangles there is, therefore, one fide
BC common to both j and that triangle is to be firft:
refolved in which two parts are given, and then the
unknown parts of the other triangle will be cafily ob¬
tained.
Pros. I. Given the latitudes and longitudes of tvTo
places, to find the courfe and diftance betwreen them.
Example. Required the courfe and diftance from
the illand of May, in latitude 56° 12'N, and longi¬
tude 2° 37' W, to the Naze of Norway, in latitude
57° 5°' and longitude 70 27' E ?
Latitude ifle of May - 56° 12'N - 56° 12'
Latitude Naze of Norway 57 50 N - 57 50
Fig. IS.
Difference of latitude - 1
Middle latitude
Longitude ifie of May
Longitude Naze of Norway
38=98' - 114
57
2 37W
7 27E
2
1
Difference of longitude
10 4=604'
By ConJlruBion.
Draw the right line AD (fig. 18.) to reprefent the
meridian of the May j with the chord of 6o° defcribe
the arch mn, upon which lay off the chord of 3 2° 59,
the complement of the middle latitude from m to n :
from D through n draw the line DC equal to 604', the
difference of longitude, and from C draw CB perpen¬
dicular to AD : make BA equal to 98', the difference
of latitude, and join AC; which applied to tTie fcale
will meafure 343 miles, the diftance fought : and the
angle A being meafured by means of the line of
A T I O N. Pra&lce.
chords, will be found equal to 730 24', the required Middle'
courfe. ' Latitude
By Calculation.
To find the courfe (d).
As the difference of latitude - 98'
is to the difference of longitude 604
fo is the cofine of middle latitude 570 1'
to the tangent of the cofine - 73 24 - 10.52572
To find the diftance.
As radius - - - - 10.00000
is to the fecant of the courfe 730 24' - 10.54411
fo is the difference of latitude 98' - 1.99123
to the diftance - - 343 - 2.53534
By InfpeBion.
_ To middle latitude 57°, and 151 one-fourth of the
difference of longitude in a diftance column, the cor-
refponding difference of latitude is 82.2.
Now 24.5, one-fourth of the difference of latitude,
and 82.2, taken in a departure column, are found to
agree neareft in table marked 6{ points at the bottom,
which is the courfe; and the correfponding diftance
85! multiplied by 4 gives 343 miles, the diftance re¬
quired.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 98 the difference of latitude, to
604 the difference of longitude on numbers, being laid
the fame way from 330, the complement of the middle
latitude on fines, will reach to a certain point beyond
the termination of the line on the fcale. Now the
extent between this point and 90° on fines, will reach
from 45° to 730 24', the courfe on the line of tangents.
And the extent from 730 24' the courfe, to 33° the
complement of the middle latitude on the line of fines,
being laid the fame way from 604 the difference of
longitude, will reach to 343 the diftance on the line of
numbers.
The true courfe, therefore, from the ifland of May
to the Naze of Norway is N 730 24' E, ENE^E
nearly ; but as the variation at the May is 24 points
weft, therefore, the courfe per compafs from the May is
E£S.
Prob. II. Given one latitude, courfe, and diftance
failed, to find the other latitude and difference of lon¬
gitude.
Example. A fidp from Breft, in latitude 48° 23' N,
and longitude 40 30'W, failed SW^W 238 miles. Re¬
quired the latitude and longitude come to ?
Bif ConJlruEiion.
With the courfe and diftance conftrufl the triangle
ABC (fig. 17.), and the difference of latitude ABy;,^ Ir
being meafured, will be found equal to 142 miles:
hence the latitude come to is 46° 1' N, and the middle
latitude 470 12'. Now make the angle DCB equal
to
Sailing.
1.991 23
2.78104
(d) For R. : cofine mid. lat. :: Diff. of long. : Departure ;
And diff. of lat. : Dep. :: R. : Tangent courfe.
Hence diff. of lat. : cofine mid. lat. :: diff. of long. : tang, courfe ;
Or diff. of lat. : diff. of long. :: cofine mid. lat. : tang, courfe.
3
Practice. N A V I G
Middle to 47* 12'; and DC being meafured, will.be 281, the
Sa^lin 6 ^^erence oi' longitude : hence the longitude come to is
v 9011' W.
By Calculation.
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius . _ .
is to the cofme of the courfe, 4^
fo is the diftance, - 238
10.00000
9-77503
2.37658
to the difference of latitude 141.8 - 2.15161
Latitude of Breft, 48° 23' N - 48° 23' N
Difference of lat. 2 22 S half 1 11 S
Lat. come to 46° i'N. Mid. lat. 47 12
To find the difference of longitude (e).
As the cofine of Mid. Lat. 470 12' 9.83215
is to the fine of the courfe 4^ points 9.90483
fo is the diftance - 238 2.37658
- to the difference of longitude 281.3 2.44926
Longitude of Breft - - 40 30AV
Difference of longitude - - 4 41W
Longitude come to - - 9 11W.
By Infpection.
To the courfe 4^ points, and diftance 238 miles,
the difference of latitude is 141.8, and the departure
191.1. Hence the latitude come to is 46° x'N, and
middle latitude 470 12'. Then to middle latitude
470 12', and departure 191.1 in a latitude column, the
correfponding diftance is 281', which is the difference
of longitude.
By Gunters Scale.
The extent from 8 points to 3-g- points, the com¬
plement of the courfe on fine rhumbs, being laid the
fame way from the dift&nce 238, will reach to the dif¬
ference of latitude 142 on the line of numbers ; and
the extent from 420 48' the complement of the middle
latitude, to 530 26', the courfe on the line of fines, will
reach from the diftance 238 to the difference of longi¬
tude 281 on numbers.
Pros. III. Given both latitudes and courfe, requir¬
ed the diftance and difference of longitude ?
Example. A Ihip from St Antonio, in latitude
170 o' N, and longitude 240 25'W, failed NW, -I N,
till by obfervation her latitude is found to be 28° 34,N-
Required the diftance failed, and longitude come to ?
Latitude St Antonio i7°oN - I7°oN
Latitude by obfervation 28 34 N - 28 34 N
Difference of lat. 1134=694111. 45 34
Middle lat. 22 47
By ConJlruBion.
ConftrucI the triangle ABC (fig. 19.), with the
given courfe and difference of latitude, and make the
angle BCD equal to the middle latitude. Now the
diftance AC and difference of longitude DC being
A T I O N.
meafured, will be found equal to 864 and 558 refpec-
tively.
By Calculation.
To find the diftance.
As radius, ... 10.00000
is to the fecant of the courfe 3points 10.09517
fo is the difference of lat. 694 - 2.84136
663
Middle
Latitude
Sailing.
To the diftance - 864 - 2-93^S3
To find the difference of longitude.
As the cofine of middle latitude 22° 47' 9.96472
is to the tangent of the courfe 3^ points 9.87020
fo is the difference of latitude 694 2.84136
To the difference of longitude 558*3 2.74684
Longitude of St Antonio - - 240 25'W
Difference of longitude - - 9 18 W
Longitude come to - - 33 43 W
By Infpetiion.
To courfe 34 points, and difference of latitude 231.3
one third of that given, the departure is 171.6 and di¬
ftance 288, which multiplied by 3 is 864 miles.
Again to the middle latitude 22° 47', or 230, and
departure 171.6 in a latitude column, the diftance is
186, which multiplied by 3 is 558, the difference of
longitude.
By Gunter"1 s Scale.
The extent from 4L points, the complement of the
courfe, to 8 points on the line of fine rhumbs, will
reach from the difference of latitude 694 to the diftancq
864 on numbers ; and the extent from the courfe 36° 34'
to 67° 13', the complement of middle latitude on fines,
will reach from the diftance 864 to the difference of
longitude 558 on numbers.
Pros. IV. Given one latitude, courfe, and departure,
to find the other latitude, diftance, and difference of
longitude.
Example. A Hup from latitude 26° 30' N, and lon¬
gitude 450 30' W, failed NE-JN till her departure is
216 miles. Required the diftance run, and latitude and
longitude come to ?
By ConJlruBion.
With the courfe and departure conftrudl the triangle
ABC (fig. 20.), and the diftance and difference of la-Fig. 20,
titude being meafured, will be found equal to 340 and
263 refpedtively. Hence the latitude come to is 30° 53',
and middle latitude 28° 42'. Now make the angle
BCD equal to the middle latitude, and the difference
of longitude DC applied to the fcale will meafure 246'.
By Calculation.
To find the diftance.
As the fine of the courfe 3-J points
is to radius - - -
fo is the departure - 216
To the diftance
34°-5
9.80236
10.00000
2*33445
2.53209
To
(E) This proportion is obvious, by confidering the whole figure as an oblique-angled plane triangle.
664
N A V I G
Middle
Latitude
Sailing.
To find the difference of latitude.
As the tangent of the courfe 34-points 9.91417
is to radius _ _ - 10.00000
fo is the departure - 216 - 2.33445
to the difference of lat. 263.2 - 2.42028
Latitude failed from 26° 30'N 26° 30^
^Difference of latitude 4 23 N half 2 12 N
Latitude come to 30 53 N. Mid. lat. 28 42
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius -
is'to the fecant of the mid. lat. 28° 42'
fo is the departure 216
to the difference of longitude 246.2
Longitude left - . -
Difference of longitude
I0.00000
J 0.05693
2.33445
2.39138
45° 30'W
4 6 E
Longitude come to - - 41 24 W
By Inf peel ion.
Under the courfe 34- points, and oppofite to ic8,
half the departure, the diftance is 170* and difference
ef latitude 1314 j which doubled, give 340 and 263
for the diftance and difference of latitude refpe&ively.
Again, to middle latitude 28° 42', and departure
108, the diftance is 123 ; which doubled is 246 the
difference of longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the courfe 34 points, on fine
rhumbs, to the departure 216 on numbers, will reach
from 8 points on fine rhumbs to about 340, the diftance
on numbers •, and the fame extent will reach from 44
points, the complement of the courfe, to 263, the dif¬
ference of latitude on numbers 5 and the extent from
6i° 18' the complement of the middle latitude, to 900
on fines, will reach from the departure 216 to the dif¬
ference of longitude 246 on numbers.
A T I O N.
Practice.
To find the difference of longitude.
As the cofine of middle latitude 42® 6' 9.87039
is to the fine of the courfe 50 39 9.88834
fo is the diftance - - 246 2.39093
to the difference of longitude 256.4 2.40888
Longitude Cape Sable, - - - 65° 39'W
Difference of longitude - - - 4 16'E
Longitude come to - - - 61 23W
iVl k'dle
Latitud®
Sailing.
By Infpe&ion.
The diftance 246, and difference of latitude 156, are
found to correfpond above 44 points, and the departure
is 190.1. Now, to the middle latitude 42°, and de¬
parture 190.1 in a latitude column, the correfponding
diftance is 256, which is the difference of longitude re¬
quired.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 246 miles, the diftance, to 156, the
difference of latitude on numbers, will reach from 90°
to about 39°-f> the complement of the courfe on the
line of fines : and the extent from 48*, the complement
of the middle latitude, to 50°4, the courfe on fines,
will reach from the diftance 246m. to the difference of
longitude 256m. on numbers.
Prob. VI. Given both latitudes and departure ;
fought the courfe, diftance, and difference of longL
tude.
Example. A Chip from Cape St Vincent, in latitude
37® 2'N, longitude 90 2'W, fails between the fouth and
weft •, the latitude come to is 18° l6'N, and departure
838 miles. Required the courfe and diftance run, and
longitude come to ?
Latitude Cape St Vincent, 370 2'N 370 2'
Latitude come to - 1816N 1816
Fig. ir.
Prob. V. Given both latitudes and diftance; to find
the courfe and difference of longitude.
Example. From Cape Sable, in latitude 430 24' N,
and longitude 65° 39' W, a fhip failed 246 miles on a
diredt courfe between the fouth and eaft, and is then
by obfervation in latitude 400 48' N. Required the
courfe and longitude in ?
Latitude Cape Sable, 43° 24'N 430 24'N
Latitude by obfervation, 40 48'N 40 48'N
Difference of latitude,
2 36=156', fum 24 12
Middle latitude 42 6
By ConJlruEiion.
Make AB (fig. 21.) equal to 156 miles*, draw BC
perpendicular to AB, and make AC equal to 246
miles. Draw CD, making with CB an angle of 420
6' the middle latitude. Now DC will be found to
meafure 256, and the courfe or angle A will meafure
50° ^ „ „ , , .
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the diftance - 246 - 2.39C93
is to the difference of latitude 156 - 2.19312
fo is radius, - - - lo.oocoo
to the cofme of the courfe, 5^° 39' 9.80219
Difference of latitude 18 46= 2126 fum 55 18
Middle latitude 17 39
By Conjlruffian.
Make AB (fig. 22.) equal to the difference of lati-Fig. as.
tude 1126 miles, and BC equal to the departure 838,
and join AC > draw CD fo as to make an angle with
CB equal to the middle latitude 27° 39'. Then the
courfe being meafured on chords is about 36°-}, and
the diftance and difference of longitude, meafured on
the line of equal parts, will be found to be 1403 and
946 refpettively.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the difference of latitude 1126 3.05154
is to the departure - - 838 2.92324
fo is radius - - - io.ocooo
to the tangent of the courfe 36° 39*
'To find the diftance.
As radius _ _ -
is to the fecant of the courfe 36° 39'
fo is the difference of latitude 1126
9.87170
1
1
o.oocoo
C.C9566
3*°5154
to the diftance
1403 S-MT2^
To
N A V I G A T
Practice.
To find tlie difference of longitude.
As radius - - - 10.00000
Middle
Latitude
Sailinf
is to the fecant of mid. lat. 270 39'
fo is the departure - 838
10.05266
2.923 24
to the difference of longitude
Longitude Cape St Vincent
Difference of longitude
946 2.97590
90 2'W
15 46W
to the fine of the courfe 340 10'
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius -
is to the cofine of the courfe 340 io'
fo is the diftance - - 374
to the difference of latitude 309.4
Latitude of Bourdeaux 440 5o'N
Difference of latitude 5 9 N half
2.57287
2.3 2222
10.00000
9-74935
10.00000
9.91772
2.57287
2.49059
*° 50'
44
2
33
I O N.
To find the difference of lonmtude.
As radius
is to the fecant of mid. lat. 470 25'
fo is the departure - - 210
to the difference of longitude 310-3
Longitude of Bourdeaux
Difference of long itude
10.00000
10.16963
2.3 2;: 22
2.4918 ?
o° 35'W
5 10 W
665
Middle
Latitude
Sailing.
Longitude come to - - - 24 48W
By Infpcclion.
One tenth of the difference of latitude 11 2.6 and
of the departure 83.8, are found to agree under 31-
points, and the correfponding diftance is 140, which
multiplied by 10 gives 1400 miles. And to middle
latitude 27°-^, and 209.5 one fourth of the departure
in a latitude column, the diftance is 236.5 5 which mul¬
tiplied by 4 is 946, the difference of longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the difference of latitude 1136 to
the departure 838 on numbers, will reach from 450
to 36°y the courfe on tangents; and the extent from
53°4 the complement of the courfe to 90° on fines,
will reach from 1126 to 1403 the diftance on numbers.
Laftly, the extent from 62°^ the complement of the
middle latitude, to 90° on fines, will reach from the
departure 838 to the difference of longitude 946 on
numbers.
Prob. VII. Given one latitude, diftance, and depar¬
ture, to find the other latitude, courfe, and difference
of longitude.
Example. A fhip from Bourdeaux, in latitude 440
50' N, and longitude o° 35' W, failed between the
north and w-eft 374 miles, and made 210 miles of Aveft-
ing. Required the courfe, and the latitude and longi¬
tude come to ?
By Conjlru&ion.
With the given diftance and departure make the
.ijg. 23. triangle ABC (fig. 23.). Noav the courfe being mea-
fured on the line of chords is about 34°-5, and the dif¬
ference of latitude on the line of numbers is 309 miles :
hence the latitude come to, is 490 59' N, and middle
latitude 470 25'. Then make the angle BCD equal
to 470 25', and DC being meafured will be 310 miles,
the difference of longitude.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the diftance - 374
is to the departure - 210
fo is radius -
Longitude in - - - 5 45 W
By Infpeclion.
The half of the diftance 187, and of the departure
105, are found to agree neareft under 34°, and the
difference of latitude anfwering thereto is 155; Avhich
doubled is 310 miles.
Again, to middle latitude 470 25', and departure
105 in a latitude column, the correlponding diftance
is I55 ra^esi which doubled is 310 miles, the differ¬
ence of longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the diftance 374 miles to the depar¬
ture 210 miles on the line of numbers, Avill reach from
90° to 340 10', the courfe on the line of fines; and
the extent from 90° to 550 50', the complement of the
courfe on fines, will reach from the diftance 3 74 to the
difference of latitude 309 miles on numbers.
Again, the extent from 42° 35', the complement of
the middle latitude, to 90° on fines, will reach from
the departure 210 to the difference of longitude 310 on
numbers.
Pros. VIII. Given one latitude, departure, and dif¬
ference of longitude, to find the other latitude, courfe,
and diftance.
Example. A flu’p from latitude 540 56' N, longitude
l° 1 o' W, failed between the north and eaft, till by
obfervation the is found to be in longitude 50 26' E,
and has made 2 20 miles of eafting. Required the lati¬
tude come to, courfe, and diftance run }
Longitude left - - - l° io'W
Longitude come to - - 5 26 E
Difference of longitude - 6 36=396
By Conjlru&ion.
Make EC (fig. 24.) equal to the departure 220, and Fig.zq.
CD equal to the difference of longitude 396 :—then
the middle latitude BCD being meafured, will be found
equal to 590 15': hence the latitude come to is 570 34',
and difference of latitude 158°. Noav make AB equal
to 158, and join AC, which applied to the fcale, will
meafure 271 miles. Alfo the courfe BAC being mea¬
fured on chords Avill be found equal 54°-f.
As the departure
is to the diff. of longitude
fo is radius
To the fecant of mid. lat.
Double, mid. lat.
Latitude left
Latitude come to
By Calculation.
To find the middle latitude.
220
396
56° ly
112
54_
57
2.34242
2.59769
10.00000
10.25527
3°
56
34
Latitude come to 49 59 N Mid. lat. 47 25 Diff. of latitude
Vol. XIV. Part II.
2 38m58 miles
To
4P
666
NAVIGATION.
Pra&ice.
Sailing.
MkMle To find the courfe.
latitude As the difference of latitude 158
, is to the departure - 220
fo is radius _ - . . .
to the tangent of the courfe 540 19'
To find the diltance.
As radius _ . . . .
is to the fecant of the courfe 540 19'
fo is the difference of latitude 138
Fig- 25.
to the diffance
270.9
2.19866
2.34242
10 00000
10.14376
10.00000
10.23410
2.19866
2.43276
to the difference of latitude 324.5
To find the middle latitude.
As the difference, of longitude
is to the diftance
fo is the fine of the courfe
to the cofine of mid. latitude
half difference of latitude
Latitude failed from
Latitude come to
438
3i Pts*
48° 58'
2 42
5i 4°
46 16
10.00000
9.86979
2.64147
2.51126
2.65128
2.64147
9.82708
9.81727
By InfpeElion.
By IrfpeElion.
As the difference of longitude and departure exceed
the limits of the tables, let, therefore, their halves be
taken ; thefe are 198 and no refpeflively. Now
thefe are found to agree exaftly in the page marked 5
points at the bottom. Whence the middle latitude is
56° 15', and difference of latitude 158 miles.
Again, the difference of latitude 158 and depar¬
ture 220 will be found to agree nearly above 540
the courfe, and the diftance on the fame line is 271
miles.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the difference of longitude 396 to
the departure 220 on numbers, will reach from 90° to
33° 45', the complement of the middle latitude on fines j
and hence the difference of latitude is 158 miles. Now
the extent from 158 to 220 on numbers, will reach
from 450 to 54°| on tangents j and the extent from the
complement of the courfe 35°-y to 90° on fines, will
reach from the difference of latitude 158 to the diftance
271 on numbers.
Prob. IX. Given the courfe and diftance failed, and
difference of longitude ; to find both latitudes.
Example. A Ihip from a port in north latitude, failed
SE|S 438 miles, and differed her longitude 70 28'.
Required the latitude failed from, and that come to ?
By ConJlruEUon.
With the courfe and diftance conftru£t the triangle
ABC (fig. 25.), and make DC equal to 448 the gi¬
ven difference of longitude. Nowr the middle latitude
BCD will meafure 48° 58', and the difference of lati¬
tude AB 3 24 miles : hence the latitude left is 510 40',
and that come to 46° 16'.
By Calculation.
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius -
is to the cofine of the courfe 3^ pts.
fo is the diftance - - 438
To the courfe 3I points, and half the diftance 219
miles, the departure is 147.0, and difference of lati¬
tude 162.2 ; which doubled is 323.4. Again, to half
the difference of longitude 224 in a diftance column,
the difference of latitude is 149.9 above 48°, and
146.9 over 490.
Now, as 30 : 29 :: 6o' : 58'.
Hence the middle latitude is 48° 58': the latitude fail¬
ed from is therefore 51° 40', and latitude come to 46° 16',
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from 8 points to 4^ points, the comple¬
ment of the courfe on fine rhumbs, will reach from the
diftance 438 miles to the difference of latitude 3245 on
numbers. And the extent from the difference of longi¬
tude 448, to the diftance 438 on numbers, will reach
from the courfe 42° 11' to the complement of the mid¬
dle latitude 410 2' on fines. Hence the latitude left is
510 40', and that come to 46° l6'.
Prob. X. To determine the difference of longitude
made good upon compound courfes, by middle latitude
failing.
Rule I. With the feveral courfes and diftances find
the difference of latitude and departure made good, and
the fhip’s prefent latitude, as in traverfe failing.
Now enter the traverfe table with the given middle
latitude, and the departure in a latitude column, the
correfponding diftance will be the difference of longi¬
tude, of the fame name with the departure.
Example. A ftiip from Cape Clear, in latitude 510
18' N, longitude 90 46''W, failed as follow's :—SW6S
34 miles, W£N 63 miles, NNW 48 miles, and NE4E
85 miles. Required the latitude and longitude come to ?
Courfes.
SW6S
W&N
NNW
NEi-E
Dift
54
63
48
85
Diff of Latitude.
N
12.3
44.4
53-9
no.6
44.9
44.9
44.9
N34°W 79 65.7 =
Latitude of Cape Clear 51
6N
18N
Departure.
6 7
65.7
W
30.0
61.8
18.4
110.2
65-7
44 A
Latitude come to
Sum
Middle latitude
52 24N
103 42
51 51
Now, to middle latitude 51° 51' or 520, and de
parture 44.5 in a latitude column, the differ¬
ence of longitude is 72 in a diftance column.
Longitude of Cape Clear 9 46 W
Difference of longitude 1 12 W
Longitude come to
io1
58W
The above method is that always praftifed to find
the difference of longitude made good in the courfe
Middle
Latitude
Sailing
Practice. • N A V T G
Mercator’s 0f a.Jay^s run ; and will, no doubt, give the difference
, Sai|*ng- 0f longitude tolerably exaft in any probable run a fhip
y may make in that time, efpecially near the equator.
But in a high latitude, when the diffances are confi-
derable, this method is not to be depended on.—To il-
luftrate this, let a thip be fuppofed to fail from latitude
570 N, as follows : E 240 miles, N 240 miles, W 240
miles, and S 240 miles : then, by the above method,
the (hip will be come to the fame place {he left. It
will, however, appear evident from the following
confideration, that this is by no means the cafe 5 for
let two {hips, from latitude 6i° N, and diftant 240
miles, fail dire&Iy fouth till they are in latitude 570 N ;
now their diffance being computed by Problem IV.
of Parallel Sailing, will be 269.6 miles •, and, there¬
fore, if the {hip failed as above, Are will be 29.6 miles
weft of the place failed from •, and the error in longi-
tude will be equal to 240 X fecant 6i°—iecant 570
=1:29.6 X Ibcant 57°zr54.4.
A T T O N. 667
Theorems might be inveftigated for computing the Mercator’s
errors to which the above method is liable. Thefe cor-
redtions may, however, be avoided, by using the follow- 'r«—
ing method.
Rule II. Complete the traverfe table as before, to
which annex five, columns : the firft column is to con¬
tain the feveral latitudes the {hip is in at the end of
each courfe and diftance ; the fecond, the {ums of each
following pair of latitude j the third, half the fums, or
middle latitudes 5 and the fourth and fifth columns are
to contain the differences of longitude.
Now find the difference of longitude anfwering to
each middle latitude and its correfponding departure,
and put them in the eaft or weft difference of longi¬
tude columns, according to the name of the departure.
Then the difference of the fums of the eaft and weft
columns will be the difference of longitude made good,
of the fame name with the greater.
Exctfnple. A {hip from Halliford in Iceland, in lat. 64° 30' N, long. 270 15' W, failed as follows: SSW 46
miles, SW 61 miles, S£W 59 miles, SE£E 86 miles, S/^E^E 76 miles. Required the lat. and long, come to ?
Traverse Table.
Courfes.
SSW
SW
SAV
SE6E
S6E4E
Dift.
46
6l
<9
86
76
Dift' of Lat.
Departure.
N
42-5
43*1
57-9
47.8
72.7
E
7J-5
22.0
W
17.6
43-i
n-J
264.0
93*5
72.2
72.2
By Rule I.
Latitude Halliford
Difference of latitude
21.3
64° 30'N
4 24 S
Latitude in - - 60 6 N
Sum - - - 124 36
Middle latitude -• - 62 18
Now, to middle lat. 62 18, and departure
21.3, the difference of long, is 46 E.
Long. Halliford - - 27 15 W
Longitude in - - - 16 29
The error of comm, method, in this Ex. is 12'.
Longitude Table.
Succeflive
Latitudes.
64° 30'
63 48
63 .5
62 7
61 19
60 6
Sums.
128°
I 26
J25
I23
121
18'
53
12
26
25
Middle
Latitudes.
Diff. of Longitude
64°
63
62
6l
60
9
27
36
43
43
150.9
4 vo
W
40.4
96.4
25.0
l9S-9
161.8
161.8
Difference of longitude
Longitude Halliford
Longitude in
34-1
27.15 W
26.41 W
Chap. VI. Of Mercator’s Sailing.
It was obferved in Middle Latitude Sailing, that the
-difference of longitude made upon an oblique rhumb
could not be exaftly determined by ufing the middle
latitude. In Mercator’s failing, the difference of lon¬
gitude is very eafily found, and the feveral problems of
failing refolved with the utmoft accuracy, by the aflift-
«mce of Mercator’s chart or equivalent tables.
In Mercator’s chart, the meridians are ftraight lines
parallel to each other ; and the degrees of latitude^
which at the equator are equal to thofe of longitude,
increafe with the diftance of the parallel from the equa¬
tor. The parts of the meridian thus increafed are call¬
ed meridional parts. A table of thefe parts was firft
conftru&ed by Mr Edward Wright, by the continual
addition of the fecants of each minute of latitude.
For by parallel failing,
R : cof. of lat. :: part of equal. : fimilar part of parallel.
4 P 2 And
668
Mercator’s
Sailing.
NAVIGATION.
And becaufe the equator and meridian on the globe
arc equal; therefore,
R : col. lat. :: part of meridian : fimilar part of parallel.
Or fee. lat. : R :: part of merid. : fimilar part of parallel.
feeant latitude   R '
’ part of meridian ’ part of parallel ’
But in Mercator’s chart the parallels of latitude are
equal, and radius is a conftant quantity. If therefore,
the latitude be afiumed fucceflively equal to ‘ i', 2,' 3',’
&c. and the correfponding parts of the enlarged meri¬
dian be reprefented by a, b, c, &c.j then,
fecant i' fecant i' fecant 3'
— &c.
part of met. c’
:: fecant 2' : part of
&c.
Practice*
proper difference of latitude \ that is, if the given la- Mercator’s
titudes be of the fame name, the difference of the cor- Sailing,
refponding meridional parts will be the meridional dif-
ference of latitude j but if the latitudes are of a con¬
trary denomination, the fum of thefe parts will be the
meridional difference of latitude.
Prob. I. Given the latitudes and longitudes of two
places, to find the courfe and diltance between them.
Ex. Required the courfe and diftance between Cape
Finillerre, in latitude 420 52' N, longitude 90 17' W,
and Port Praya in the ifland of St Jago, in latitude
140 54' N, and longitude 230 29' W ?
Lat. Cape Finifterre 420 52' Mer. parts 28112
Latitude Port Praya 14 54 Mer. parts 904
part of mer. a part of mer. b
Hence fecant 1' : part of naer. a
mer. b :: fecant 3' : part of mer. c.
Therefore by 12th V. Euclid,
Secant i' : part of mer. a :: fecant 1' -f-fecant 2' + fe- Difference of lat. =27 58 Mer. diff. lat. 1948
cant 3', &.c.: parts oi a -\-b mer. c, &c.  
That is, the meridional parts of any given latitude are
equal to the fum of the fecants of the minutes in that
latitude (e).
Since CD : LK :: R : fecant LD, fig. 15.
And in the triangle CED,
ED : CD :: R : tangent CED j
Therefore, ED : LK :: R*: fecant LD xt«mgent CED
ED X fee. X LD X tang. CED
1678
Longitude Cape Finifterre
Longitude Port Praya -
Diff. longitude
9°
23
17'W
29 w
14 12—852.
Lienee LK zr -
ED x fee. LD
R*
R
X
tanrr. CED
R
But
ED X fee. LD
R
is the enlarged portion of the
meridian anfwering to ED. Now the fum of all the
ED X fecant LD r
quantities  correiponding to the lum
of all the ED’s contained in AS, will be the meridional
parts anfwering to the difference of latitude AS ; and
MN is the fum of all the correfponding portions of the
equator LK.
CED
Whence MN — mer. diff. of lat. X tangent —L— .
By ConJlmBlon.
Draw the ftraight line AD (fig. 26.) to reprefent the Fig. 26,
meridian of Cape Finifterre, upon which lay oft" AB,
AD equal to 1678, and 1948, the proper and meridi¬
onal differences of latitude j from D draw DE perpen¬
dicular to AD, and equal to the difterence of longitude
852, join AE, and draw BC parallel to DE j then the
difference AC will meafure 1831 miles, and the courfe
BAC 23° 37'.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the meridian difference of lat. 1948 - 3.28959
is to the difference of longitude - 852 - 2.93044
fo is radius - - - - - 10.00000
to the tangent of the courfe 230 37' - 9.64085
To find the diftance.
Plate
CCCLXIV
fig. 26.
That is, the difference of longitude is equal to the me¬
ridional difference of latitude multiplied by the tangent
of the courfe, and divided by the radius.
This equation anfwers to a right-angled reftilineal
triangle, having an angle equal to the courfe ; the ad¬
jacent fide equal to the meridional difference of latitude,
and the oppofite fide the difference of longitude. This
triangle is, therefore, fimilar to a triangle conftrudled,
with the courfe and difference of latitude, according to
the principles of plane failing, and the homologous fides
will be proportional. Hence, if, in fig. 26. the angle
' A reprefents the courfe, AB the difference of latitude,
and if AD be made equal to the meridional difference
of latitude j then DE, drawn perpendicular to AD,
meeting the diftance produced to E, will be the differ¬
ence of longitude.
It is fcarcely neceffary to obferve, that the meridional
difference of latitude is found by the fame rules as the
As radius - - - - - 10.00000
is to the fecant of the courfe, 230 37' - 10.03798
fo is the difference of latitude 1678 - - 3.22479
to the diftance - - 1831 - - 3.26277
By InfpeElion.
As the meridian difference of latitude and difference
of longitude are too large to be found in the tables, let
the tenth of each be taken 5 thefe are 194.8 and 85.2
refpe&ively. Now thefe are found to agree neareft un¬
der 240 } and to 167.8, one-tenth of the proper differ¬
ence of latitude, the diftance is about 183 miles, which
multiplied by 10 is 1830 miles.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent 1948, the meridional difference of lati¬
tude, to 852, the difference of longitude on the line
of numbers, will reach from 450 to 230 37', the courfe
on
(e) This is not ftri&ly true •, for inftead of taking the fum of the fecants of every minute in the diftance of
the given parallel from the equator, the fum of the fecants of every point of latitude Ihould be taken.
Practice,
Mercator’s on the line of tangents. And the extent from 66® 23',
, Sailing. j.}ie complement of the courfe to 90° on fines, will reach
v~ " from 1678, the proper difference of latitude, to 1831,
the diftance on the line of numbers.
Prob. II. Given the courfe and diftance, failed from
a place whofe fituation is known, to find the latitude
and longitude of the place come to.
Example. A ftiip from Cape Hinlopen in Virginia, in
latitude 38° 47' N, longitude 750 4'W, failed 267 miles
NE£N. Required the fhip’s prefent place ?
Bij ConjlruElion.
With the courfe and .diftance failed, conftruft the
Fig. 27. triangle ABC (fig. 27.) j and the difference of latitude
AB being meafured, is 222 miles : hence the latitude
come to is 42° 29' N, and the meridional difference of
latitude 293. Make AD equal to 293 *, and draw
DE perpendicular to AD, and meeting AC produced
in E : then, the difference of longitude DE being ap¬
plied to the fcale of equal parts will meafure 196 j the
longitude come to is therefore 71° 48' W.
Bij Calculation.
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius - - - 10.00000
is to the cofine of the courfe, - 3 points - 9.91985
fo is the diftance - 267 - - 2.42651
to the difference of latitude - 222 - - 2.34636
Lat. Cape Hinlopen = 38° 47' N. Mer. parts 2528
Difference of lat. - 3 42 N.
Latitude come to - 42 29 N. Mer. parts 2821
Meridional difference of latitude 293,
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius - 10.00000
is to tangent of the courfe, - 3 points - 9.82489
fo is the mer. diff. of latitude - 293 - - 2.46687
to the difference of longitude - I951^ ' ’ 2.29176
Longitude Cape Hinlopen - 75® 4'W
Difference of longitude - - 3 16 E
Longitude come to - - 71 4^ W
By InfpeElion.
To the courfe 3 points, and diftance 267 miles, the
difference of latitude is 222 miles : hence the latitude in
is 42® 29', and the meridional difference of latitude
293. Again, to courfe 3 points, and 146.5 half the
mer. difference of latitude, the departure is 97.9, which
doubled is 195.8, the difference of longitude.
By Gunter''s Scale.
The extent from 8 points to the complement of the
courfe 5 points, on fine rhumbs, will reach from the
diftance 267 to the difference of latitude 222 on num¬
bers 5 and the extent from 4 points to three points on
tangent rhumbs, will reach from the meridional differ¬
ence of latitude 293 to the difference of longitude 196
on numbers.
Prob. III. Given the latitudes and bearing of two
places j to find their diftance and difference of longi¬
tude.
669
Example. A ftiip from Port Canfo in Nova. Scotia, Mercator’s
in latitude 45° 20' N, longitude 6op 55' W, failed SE Sailing. ^
d: S, and by obfervation is found to be in latitude 41° v
14' N. Required the diftance failed, and longitude
come to ?
Lat. Port Canfo - 45°2o'N * Mer. parts - 3058
Lat. in by obfervation 41 14 N - Mer. parts - 2720
Difference of lat. - 4 6rr 246 Mer. diff. lat. 338
By ConJlruElion.
Make iVB (fig. 28.) equal to 246, and AD equal Fig. 28,
to 338 •, draw AE, making an angle with AD equal
to 3d points, and draw BC, DE perpendieuiar to AD.
Now AC being applied to the fcale, will meafure 332,
and DE 306.
By Calculation.
To find the diftance;
As radius ----- jo.ooooo
is to the fecant of the courfe, - 3d points - 10.1302s
fo is the difference of latitude - 246 - - 2.39093
to the diftance - - 332 - - 2.52114
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius ----- 10.00000
is to the tangent of the courfe, - 3d points - 9.95729
fo is the mer. diff. of latitude - 338 - - 2.52892
to the difference of longitude - 306.3 - - 2.48621
Longitude Port Canfo - - 6o° 5 57 ^
Difference of longitude - - 5 6 E
Longitude in - - 53 49 W
By InfpeElion.
Under the courfe 3d points, and oppofite to half
the difference of latitude 123 in a latitude column is
166 in a diftance column, which doubled is 332 the
diftance ; and oppofite to 1695 half the meridional difr
fei^ence of latitude in a latitude column, is 153 in a de¬
parture column, which doubled is 306, the difference
of longitude.
B:/ Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the complement of the courfe 4^
points to 8 points on fine rhumbs, will reach from the
difference of latitude 246 m. to the diftance 332 on
numbers 5 and the extent from 4 points, to the courfe
3d points on tangent rhumbs, will reach from the me¬
ridional difference of latitude 338 to the difference of
longitude 306 on numbers.
Prob. IV. Given the latitude and longitude of the
place failed from, the courfe and departure j to find
the diftance, and the latitude and longitude of the
place come to.
Example. A fliip failed from Sallee in latitude
33° 58' N, longitude 6° 2o' W, the corrected courfe
was NWZW-iW, and departure 420 miles. Required
the diftance run, and the latitude and longitude come
to ?
By ConJlruElicn.
Witli the courfe and departure conftru6t the triangle
ABC (fig. 29.) 5 now AC and AB being meafured, Figi ^
will be found to be equal to 476 and 224 refpe&ively :
lienee
NAVIGATIO N*
5
6?° NAVIGATION.
Ms5wr,S J^nCC tIie latltude come to 37° 42' N, and meridional Lat. of St Mary’s,
r~ ■ difference of latitude 276. Make AD equal to 276 ; Lat. come to
and draiv DE perpendicular thereto, meeting the di-
ftance produced in E ; then DE applied to the fcale Difference of lat.
will be found to meafure 516'. The longitude in is,
therefore, 140 56'W.
Practice.
36° 57'N Mer. parts 3470 M f . a tor’s
49 57 N Mer. parts 2389 Sailing.
13 o Mer. diff. lat.1081
780
By Calculation.
To find the diftance.
As radius -
is to the cofecant of the courfe 54 pts
fo is the departure - 420
10.00000
IO-°5457
2.62325
to the diftance - 476.2
To find the difference of latitude.
2.67782
By Conjiruciion.
Make AB (fig. 30.) equal to 780, and AD equal Fig. 3-,
to rc8i ; draw BC, DE perpendicular to AD ; make
AC equal to 1162', and through AC draw ACE.
1 hen the courfe or angle A being meafured, will be
found equal to 47° 5® > and the difference of longitude
DE will be 1194.
As radius - - - “ 10.00000
is to the co-tangent of the courfe, 54 pts - 9.72796
fo is the departure - 420 - 2.62325
to the difference of latitude - 224.5 2*35I2I
Lat. of Sallee 330 c8'N Mer. parts 2160
Diff. of lat. 3 44 N
Lat. in 37 42 N Mer. parts 2445
Mer. difference of latitude - 276
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius - - - 10.00000
is to the tangent of the courfe 54 pts - 10.27204
fo is the mer. diff. of latitude 276 - 2.44091
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the diftance
is to the difference of latitude,
fo is radius
1162
780
3.06521
2.89209
10.00000
to the cofine of the courfe
To find the difference
As radius
is to the tangent of the courfe,
fo is the mer. diff. of latitude
47° 5°' - 9-82688
of longitude.
10.00000
47* 50' 10.04302
io8i - 3.03383
to the difference of longitude
Longitude of St Mary’s
Difference of longitude
IX94 - 3-°7685
250 9'W
19 54 E
to the difference of longitude 516.3 - 2.71295
Longitude of Sallee - 6° 20'W
Difference of longitude 8 36 W
Longitude in - - 14 56 W
By InfpeBion.
Above 54 points the courfe, and oppofite to 210
half the departure, are 238 and 112 j which doubled,
vre have 476 and 224, the diftance and difference of
latitude refpedtively. And to the fame courfe, and
oppofite to 138, half the meridional difference of lati¬
tude, in a latitude column, is 258 in a departure co¬
lumn j which being doubled is 516, the difference of
longitude.
By Gunter'1 s Scale.
The extent from 54 points, the courfe on fine
rhumbs, to the departure 420 on numbers, will reach
from 8 points on fine rhumbs to the diftance 476 on
numbers •, and from the complement of the courfe 24
points on fine rhumbs, to the difference of latitude 224
on numbers.
Again, the extent from difference of latitude 224 to
the meridional difference of latitude 276 on numbers,
will reach from the departure 420 to the difference of
longitude 516 on the fame line.
Prob. V. Given the latitudes of two places, and
their diftance, to find the courfe and difference of lon¬
gitude.
Example. A fhip from St Mary’s, in latitude 36°
57' N, longitude 250 9' W, failed on a direft courfe be¬
tween the north and eaft 1162 miles, and is then by
obfervation in latitude 490 57' N. Required the courfe
fleered, and longitude come to ?
Longitude in - - 5 J5W
By InfpeBion.
Becaufe the diftance and difference of latitude ex¬
ceed the limits of the table, take the tenth of each
thefe are 116.2 and 78.0: Now thefe are found to
agree neareft above 44 points, which is therefore the
courfe ; and to this courfe, and oppofite to 108.1, one
tenth of the meridional difference of latitude, in a la¬
titude column, is 119*3 a departure column, which
multiplied by 10 is 1193, the difference of longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the diftance 1162 m. to the differ¬
ence of latitude 780 m. on numbers, will reach from
90° to 4 20 10' in the line of fines. And the extent 450,
to the courfe 470 50' on the line of tangents, will reach
from the meridional difference of latitude 1081 to the
difference of longitude 1194 on numbers.
Prob. VI. Given the latitudes of two places, and
the departure, to find the courfe, diftance, and difference
of longitude.
Example. From Aberdeen, in latitude 570 9' N,
longitude 2° 8' W, a fhip failed between the fouth and
eaft till her departure is 146 miles, and latitude come
to 530 32' N. Required the courfe and diftance run,
and longitude come to ?
Latitude Aberdeen 570 9'N Mer. parts 4199
Latitude come to 53 32 N Mer. parts 3817
Difference of latitude 3 37—217'Mer. diff. lat. 382
By ConflruBion.
With the difference of latitude 217 m. and departure Fig. 31,
146 m. conftruft the triangle ABC (fig. 31.), make
AD
Practice. ' N A V I G
Mercator’s AD equal to 382, draw DE parallel to BC, and pro-
Sailing. . juce AC to E : Then the courfe BAG will meafure
330 56', the diftance AC 261, and the difference of
longitude DE 257.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the difference of latitude 217 - 2.33646
is to the departure - - 146 - 2.16435
fo is radius - 10.00000
fig. 32.
to the tangent of the courfe - 330 56'
To find the diftance.
As radius -
is to the fecant of the courfe - 3 3° 56'
fo is the dift’erence of latitude 217
to the diftance - - 261.5
To find the difference of longitude.
As the difference of latitude 217
is to the mer. diff. of latitude 382
fo is the departure - - 146
to the differenee of longitude 257
Longitude of Aberdeen
Difference of longitude
9.82789
10.00000
10.08109
2.33646
2-4l755
2.33646
2.58206
2.16435
2.40995
20 8' W
4 17 E
2 0 E
Longitude come to - - - 2
By InfpeSlion.
The difference of latitude 217, and departure 146,
are found to agree neareft under 340, and the corre-
fponding diftance is 262 miles. To the fame courfe,
and oppofite to 190.7, the neareft to 191, half the me¬
ridional difference of latitude, is 128.6 in a depar¬
ture column, which doubled is 257, the difference of
longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the difference of latitude 217, to
the departure 146 on numbers, will reach from 450 to
about 340, the courfe on the line of tangents ; and the
fame extent will reach from the meridional difference
of latitude 382 to 257, the difference of longitude on
numbers.—Again, the extent from the courfe 340 to
90 on fines, will reach from the departure 146 to the
diftance 261 on numbers.
Pros. VII. Given one latitude, diftance, and depar¬
ture ; to find the other latitude, courfe, and difference
of longitude.
Example. A fhip from Naples, in latitude 40° 51' N,
longitude 140 14' E, failed 252 miles on a direct courfe
between the fouth and weft, and made 173 miles of
wefting. Required the courfe made good, and the lati¬
tude and longitude come to ?
By ConJlruEtion.
With the diftance and departure make the triangle
ABC (fig. 32.) as formerly.—Now the courfe BAC
being meafured by means of a line of chords will be
found equal to 430 2C, and the difference of latitude
applied to the fcale of equal parts will meafure 183' :
hence the latitude come to is 370 48' N, and meri¬
dional difference of latitude 237*—Make AD equal
to 237, and complete the figure, and the difference of
A T I O N. 671
longitude DE will meafure 224': hence the longitude Mercator’5
in is 10° 30' E. Sailing.
By Calculation.
To find the courfe.
As the diftance
is to the departure
fo is radius
252
2.40140
2.23805
10.00000
to the fine of the courfe - 430 21'
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius - - . . -
is to the cofine of the courfe 430 21'
fo is the diftance - - 252
9.83665
10.00000
9.86164
2.40140
to the difference of latitude 183.2 - 2.26304
Latitude of Naples 40° 51' N. Mer. parts 2690
Difference of latitude 3 3 S.
Latitude come to
37 48 N. Mer. parts 2453
Meridional difference of latitude
To find the difference of longitude.
As radius
is to the tangent of the courfe 430 21'
fo is the mer. diff. of latitude - 237
to the difference of longitude 22^.J
Longitude of Naples _ _ -
Difference of longitude
237
10.00000
9.97497
1-3741S
2.34972
140 14' E
3 44W
Longitude in - - - - 1030E
By Infpe&ion.
Under 430 and oppofite to the diftance 252 m. the
departure is 171. 8, and under 440, and oppofite to the
fame diftance, the departure is 175.0.
Then as 3.2 : 1.2 :: 60' : 22'.
Hence the courfe is 430 22'.
Again, under 430 and oppofite to 118.5, half the'
meridional difference of latitude in a latitude column,
is 110.5 in a departure column j allb under 440 and
oppofite to 118.5 is 114.4.
Then as 3.2 : 1.2 :: 3^ : 1.5.
And 110.54-1.5 = 112, which doubled is 224, the
difference of longitude.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the diftance 252 on numbers, to
90° on fines, will reach from the departure 173 on
numbers, to the courfe 43! on fines; and the fame ex¬
tent that will reach from the complement of the courfe
46°-f on fines will reach to the difference of latitude
183 on numbers.—Again, the extent from 450 to 43°-j-
on tangents will reach from the meridional difference
of latitude 237, to the difference of longitude 224, on
numbers.
Prob. VIII. Given one latitude, courfe, and differ¬
ence of longitude ; to find the other latitude and dif¬
tance.
Example. A ftiip from Tercera, in latitude 38® 45'N,
longitude 270 6' W, failed on a direct courfe, which,'
when corrected, was N 320 E, and is found by obferva-
tion to be in longitude 180 2^ VC Required tne lati¬
tude come tOj and diftance failed ?
Longitude-
6-2
Mercator’s I^oneatude of Terceta
Sailina:. T •. j •
»  6 .Longitude m
N A V I G
270 6'W
FiS- 33-
A T I O N. Practice,
Example. A fliip from port St Julian, in latitude Mercator’s
18 24 W 49° 10'S, longitude 68° 44'W, failed as follows: Sailing.
T C 17 AC T7 1 __ XT r. T-/ T-T T-
Difference of longitude
8 42=522
Bp Conjlruclion.
Make the right-angled triangle ADE (fig. 33.) ha-
■\nng the angle A equal to the courfe 3 2°, and the fide
DE equal to the difference of longitude 522: then
AD will meafure 835, which added to the meridional
parts of the latitude left, will give thefe of the latitude
come to 48° 46' \ hence, the difference of latitude is
601 : make AB equal thereto, to which let BC be
drawn perpendicular j then AC applied to the fcale
will meafure 708 miles.
By Calculation.
To find the meridional difference of latitude.
As radius - - - - 10.00000
is to the co-tangent of the courfe 3 2° o' 10.204 21
fo is the difference of longitude 5 22 2.71767
to the mer. difference of latitude
Latitude of Tercera 30° 45' N
8352 2.92188
Mer. parts 2526
Mer. diff. of lat. 835
Latitude come to - 48 46N Mer. parts 3361
Difference of latitude 10 1=601 miles.
To find the diftance.
As radius . _ _ 10.00000
1a to the fecant of the courfe - 3 2° o' - 10.071 if8
fo is the difference of latitude - 601 - 2.77887
to the diflance
707.7
2-85045
ESE 53 miles, SE£S 74 miles, E by N 68 m. SE£EaE
47 miles, and E 84 miles. Required the fhip’s pre-
fent place ?
Oourfes.
ESE
SE£yS
EfyN
SEfyEfE
E
Dift.
53
74
68
47
84
Diff. of Lst.
N
l3-3
3*3
S 72°E 197
Latitude left,
Latitude come to
20.3
61.5
22.1
I03-9
i3-3
Departure.
49-o
41.1
66.7
4I*5
84.0
282.3
90.6=1° 31'
W
49 10 S m.pt. 3397
50 41 Sm.pt. 3 539
Mer. difference of latitude - - 142
Now to courfe 72°, and oppofite to 71, half the
mer. difference of latitude in a latitude column, is
218.7 in a departure column, which doubled is
437, the difference of longitude.
Longitude of Port St Julian - 68° 44'W
7 17 E
Difference of longitude
Longitude come to
61 27 W
By InfpeRion.
To courfe 32°, and oppofite to 130.5, one fourth of
the given difference of longitude in a departure column,
the difference of latitude is 208.8, which multiplied
by 4 is 835, the meridional difference of latitude j
hence the latitude in is 48° 46' N, and difference of la¬
titude 601.
Again, to the Came courfe, and oppofite to 200, one
third of the difference of latitude, the diftance is 236,
which multiplied by 3 gives 708 miles.
By Gunter's Scale.
The extent from the courfe 32°, to 45° on tangents,
will reach from the difference of longitude 522 to tire
meridional difference of latitude 835 on numbers.—
And the extent from the complement of the courfe 58°
to 90° on fines, will reach from the difference of lati¬
tude 601, to the diftance 708 miles on numbers.
Pros. IX. To find the difference of longitude made
good upon compound courfes.
Rule. With the feveral courfes and diftances, com¬
plete the Traverfe Table, and find the difference of lati¬
tude, departure, and courfe made good, and the lati¬
tude come to as in Traverfe Sailing- Find alfo the
meridional difference of latitude.
^ Now to the courfe and meridional difference of la¬
titude, in a latitude column, the correfponding depar¬
ture will be the difference of longitude, which applied
to the longitude left will give the fhip’s prefent lon¬
gitude.
Although the above method is that ufually employ¬
ed at fea to find the difference of longitude, yet as it
has been already obferved, it is not to be depended on,
efpecially in high latitudes, long diftances, and a con-
fiderable variation in the courfes, in which cafe the fol¬
lowing method becomes neceffary.
Rule II. Complete the Traverfe Table as before,
to which annex five columns. Now with the latitude
left, and the feveral differences of latitude, find tire
fucceflive latitudes, which are to be placed in the firfl:
of the annexed columns ; in the fecond, the meridional
parts correfponding to each latitude is to be put; and
in the third, the meridional differences of latitude.
Then to each courfe, and correfponding meridional
difference of latitude, find the difference of longitude,
by Pros. IV. which place in the fourtli or fifth co¬
lumns, according as the coaft is eafterly or wcfterly 3
and the difference between the firms of thefe columns
will be the difference of longitude made good upon the
whole, of the fame name with tire greater.
Remarks.
1. When the courfe is north or fouth, there is no
difference of longitude.
2. When the courfe is eall or weft, the difference
of longitude cannot be found by Mercator’s Sailing 3
in this cafe the following rule is to be ufed.
To the neareft degree to the given latitude taken,
as a courfe, find the diftance anfwering to the depar¬
ture in a latitude column : this diftance will be the dif¬
ference of longitude.
Ex.
NAVIGATION.
673
"“v—' anci 49 miles.—Required our prelent latitude and longitude .
Traverse Table.
Courfcs.
NW
W
WNW
WbS
SW
W|S
W10 S
Dili.
32
69
93
77
58
49
Diff. of Lat.
N
22.6
35-6
343
58.2
15’°
41.0
7.2
Departure.
Longitude Table.
62.2
58.2
5-o
w
22.6
69.0
85-9
75-5
41.0
48-5
342-5
Succeffive
Latitudes.
Merid.
Parts.
Merid.
Diff. Lat.
58° 40'
59 3
59 3
59 S8
59 23
58 42
58 35
437°
4415
44r5
4484
4454
4374
4361
45
o
69
3°
80
!3
Longitude of Faro head
Difference of longitude
Diff. of Longitude.
W
45-°
134.0
166.5
1 a.o
80.0
88.0
I 664.5
40 co'W.
II 4 W.
Longitude in
15 54 W'
A n • r i Ur -Q0 t c' N lon<ritude 28° 14' E, failed the following courfes and diftances. The
V both nVodt: the beating and diftance of Haclntt, head-
land? in latitude 55' N. longitude . t» Jj' E, is alto requ.red ? 
Traverse Table.
Longitude Table.
Courfes.
WNW
SW
NW-JW
N&E
N W iN
S^E|E
Dift
154
96
89
no
56
78
Diff. of Latitude.
N
58-9
56-4
107.9
45*°
268.2
141-3
67.9
734
Mi-3
Latitude, left
Dili, of latitude
126.9
By Rule I.
78° 15'N.
2 7 N.
Departure.
21.5
26.3
47.8
W
M2-3
67.9
68.8
334
312.4
47.8
264.6
Mer. pts. 7817
Succeffive
Latitudes.
Merid.
Parts.
78° 15'
79 I4
78 6
79 2
80 CO
81 35
80 22
7817
8120
7774
8056
8676
8970
8504
Merkl.
Diff. Lat.
3°3
346
282
620
294
466
Diff. of L01 gitude.
123.6
166.7
29O.3
W
73T-7
346.0
343-6
218.0.
639-3
290.3
1349.0
Lat. come to - 80 22 N. Mer. pts. 8504
Meridional diff. of latitude
As difference of lat.
is to mer. diff. of lat.
fo is the departure
1 26.9
687
264.6
687
2.10346
2.83696
2.42256
to diff. of longit.
M32
3.15606
Longitude left
230 52' W.
28 14 E.
Longitude in
,   - 4 22 E.
The error of this method, in the prefent example,
is therefore l° 23'.
Longitude left
Differenee of longitude
28* 14' E.
22 29 W.
Longitude in
5 45
To fmd the bearing and diftance of Hacluit’s
head-land.
Lat. H. H.=79° 55'N. M. P. 8347 Lon. 11° 55'E.
Lat. fliip. =080 22 N. M. P. 8504 Lon. 5 45 E.
Diff. lat. o 27 M.D. L. 157P. L. 6 10
37°
Now to 78.5 half the meridional difference, of la*
titude, and 185.0 half the difference of longitude,
the courfe 67°, and oppofite to the difference of lat-
tude 27, the diftance is 69 miles.—Hence Hacluit’s
head-land bears S 67° E, diftant 69 miles.
a O
Vol. XIV. Part II.
Chap,
674
Method of
Chap. VII. Containing the Method of refolving the
blemsof feveral Problems of Mercator’s Sailing, by the Af-
Mercator’s fflance of a Table of Logarithmic Tangents.
Sailing.
>   Pros. I. Given one latitude, diftance, and differ¬
ence of longitude ; to find the courfe, and other lati¬
tude.
Rule. To the arithmetical complement of the loga¬
rithm of the diftance, add the logarithm of the differ¬
ence of longitude in minutes, and the log. cofine of
the given latitude ; the fum reje6ting radius will be the
log. fine of the approximate courfe.
To the given latitude taken as a courfe in the tra-
verfe table, add half the difference of longitude in a
diftance column ; the correfponding departure will be
Pradice.
the firft correction of the courfe, which is fublra&ive Method cf
if the given latitude is the leaft of the two $ otherwife refolving
additive. ’ the Pro-
In Table A, under the complement of the courfe, MemW
and oppofite to the firft correction in the fide co- Sailing. *
lumn, is the fecond correction. In the fame table find -y--—'
the number anfwering to the courfe at the top, and dif¬
ference of longitude in the fide column; and fuch part
of this number being taken as is found in table B op¬
pofite to the given latitude, will be the third correc¬
tion. Now thefe two corrections, fubtraCted from the
courfe corrected by the firft correction, will give the
true courfe.
Now the courfe and diftance being known, the dif¬
ference cf latitude is found as formerly.
NAVIGATION.
Example. From latitude 50° N, a {hip failed 290
miles between the fouth and Aveft, and differed her lon¬
gitude 50. Required the courfe, and latitude come to ?
7-5376°
2.47712
9.80807
Diftance
Diff. of longitude
Latitude
290. ar. co. log.
300 log.
50° o' co.
Approximate courfe - 41 4* 6ne « 9.82279
To lat. 50°, and half diff. long. 150 in a dift.
col. the firft corr. in a dep. col. 18115 * +1 55
Approximate courfe - 4141
Cor. - . - 1 55
In table A to co. courfe 48° and iff corr. 1
l° 55/ ^e fecond direction is J ^
To courfe 410 and diff. long. 50, the num-')
ber is 15, of which l (Tab. B) being l —o 3
taken, gives V _____
True courfe - - - - S. 43 31 W
To find the difference of latitude.
As radius - - . - _ 10.00000
is to the cofine of the courfe 430 33' - 9.86020
fb is the diftance - - 290 - 2.46240
to the difference of latitude
Latitude left
Difference of latitude
210.2
2.32260
5c0 o' N
3 3° S
Latitude come to - - . . 4630N
This problem was propofed, and refolved, by Mr
Robert Hues in his Treatife on the Globes, printed at
London in the year 1639, p. 181.
It was afterwards propofed by Dr Halley, in the fe¬
cond volume of the Mifcellanea Curiofa, p. 35. in the
folio iving words :
A Jhip fails from a given latitude, and, having run a
certain number of leagues, has altered her longitude by a
given angle; it is required to fnd the courfe feered.
And he then adds—The folution hereof would be very
acceptable, if not to the public, at leaf to the author of
this trahl, being likely to open fame further light into the
mysteries of geometry.
Since that time, this problem has been folved in an
mdireCI manner, by feveral writers on navigation, and
others :—As Monfieur Bouguer, in his Nouveau Traite
de Navigation ; Mr Robertfon, in the fecond volume ©f
his Elements of Navigation ; Mr Emerfon, in his Theo¬
ry °f Navigation, Avhich accompanies his Mathematical
Principles of Geography •, Mr Ifrael Lyons, in the Nau¬
tical Almanack for 1772 5 and Monfieur Bezout, in his
Traite de Navigation ; and lately, Baron Maferes, with
the afiiftance of Mr AttAVood, has given the firft direCt
folution of this problem. For a comparifon of the va¬
rious folutions which have hitherto been made of this
problem, the reader is referred to that by Dr Mackay,
in the fourth and fixth volumes of Baron Maferes’s
Scriptores Logarithmici.
It Avas intended in this place to have given rules, to
make alloAvance for the fpheroidal figure of the earth :
but as the ratio of the polar to the equatorial femi-axis
is not as yet determined Avith fufficient accuracy,
neither is it knoAvn if both bemffpheres be fimilar
figures ; therefore thefe rules would be grounded on af-
fumption only, and might probably err more from the
truth
4
flaaice. NAVIGATION.
clique truth than thofe adapted to the fpherical hypothefis.
uling. Xhis therefore is fuppofed to be a futhcient apology for
not inferting them.
*;• 34-
g- 35*
Chap. VIII. Of Oblique Sailing,
Oblique failing is the application of oblique-angled
plane triangles to the folution of problems at fea. 1 his
failing will be found particularly ufeful in going along
Ihore, and in furveying coafts and harbours, &c.
Ex. i. At i ih A. M. the Girdle Nefs bore WNW,
and at 2I1 P. M. it bore NW£N : the courfe during
the interval S£\V five knots an hour. Required the
difiance of the ftiip from the Nefs at each ftation ?
By ConJlruRion.
Deferibe the circle NE, SW (fig. 34.), and draw
the diameters NS, EW, at right angles to each other:
from the centre C, which reprefents the firft ftation,
draw the WNW line CF *, and from the fame point
draw CH, S&W, and equal to 15 miles the diftance
failed.—From H draw HF in a NWT£N dire&ion, and
the point F will reprefent the Girdle Nefs. Now the
diftances CF, HF will meafure 19.1 and 26.5 miles
refpeflively.
By Calculation.
In the triangle FCH are given the diftance CH 15
miles, the angle FCH equal to 9 points, the interval
between the SZ>W and WNW points, and the angle
CHF equal to 4 points, being the fupplement of
the angle contained between the SZW and NW£N
points ; hence CFH is 3 points: to find the diftances
CF, HF.
To find the diftance CF.
As the fine of CFH
is to the fine of CHF -
fo is the diftance CH 15 miles
3 points - 9.74474
4 points - 9.84948
1.17609
to the diftance CF - I9,07
To find the diftance FH.
As the fine of CFH - 3 points
is to the fine of FCH - points
fo is the diftance CH - 15 miles
to the diftance FH
By Calculation.
In the triangle BIF are given BI and BF equal to
39 miles, and 26 miles refpe<ftively j and the angle
BFI equal to 7 points ; To find the fide FI, and angle
FBI.
To find the angle BIF.
As the diftance BI - 39
is to the diftanee BF - 26 -
fo is the fine of BFI - 7^° 45*
67s
Oblique
Sailing.
I.59106
I-4I497
9-99lSl
1.28083
9-74474
9-99I57
1.17609
to the fine of BIF
Sum
Angle FBI
 EBF
Difference, or EBI
40 50
ll9 35
60 25
33 45
26 40
9.81548
Bearing of Jerfey from Brehaut N 63 20 E.
To find the diftance FI.
As the fine of BFI - 78° 45' - 9.99157
is to the fine of FBI - 60 25 - 9.93934
fo is the diftance BI - 39 miles 1.59106
26.48 1.42292
Ex. 2. The diftance between the SE point of the
iftand of Jerfey and the ifland of Brehaut is 13 leagues :
and the correal bearing and diftance of Cape Frehel
from the ifiand of Brehaut is SE£E 26 miles. It is al-
fo known that the SE point of Jerfey bears NNE from
Cape Frehel: from whence the diftance of thefe two is
required, together with the bearing of the fame point
from the iftand of Brehaut ?•
By Conjlrudion.
Deferibe a circle, (fig. 35.) and draw tw-o diameters
at right angles, the extremities of which will reprefent
the cardinal points, north being uppermoft.—-Let the
centre B reprefent Brehaut, from which draw the SEZ'E
line BF equal to 26 miles, and the point F will repre¬
fent Cape Frehel, from which draw the NNE line FI 5
make BI equal to 39 miles ; Then FI applied to the
icale will meafure 34-^ miles, and the inclination of BI
to the meridian will be found equal to 63°j.
to the diftance FI - - 34-58 - I-53^^3
Ex. 3. At noon Dungenefs bore per compafs NZ>W,
diftance 5 leagues and having run NW£W 7 knots
an hour, at 5 P. M. -we were up with Beachyhead.
Required the bearing and diftance of Beachyhead from
Dungenefs ?
By Conflruclion.
Deferibe a circle (fig. 36.) to reprefent the horizon jFig. 3$,
from the centre C draw the N£W line CD equal to
15 miles ; and the NW£W line CB equal to 35 miles ;
join DB, which applied to the fcale will meafure about
26^ miles ; and the inclination of DB to the meridian
will be found equal to N yp^W.
By Calculation.
In the triangle DCB are given the diftances CD,
CB equal to 15 and 35 miles refpe&ively j and the an¬
gle BCD equal to 4 points j to find the angles B and
I), and the diftance BD.
To find the angles,
Diftance CB = 35, fum of the ang. 16 points
CD= 15, angle C - 4
Sum - 50, angles B and D 12
Difference 20, half fum - 6 pts. = 67° 30'
As the fum of the diftances - 50 - 1.69897
is to their difference - 20 - 1.30103
fois thetangentofhalf fumangles67 30 - 10.38378
to the tangent of half their diff. 44 o
Angle CDB *•
9.98484
Supplement
Angle, NCD
- in 30
- 68 30
11 15
Magnetic bearing - N 79 45 W, Or by al¬
lowing 2 J points of wefterly variation, the true bearing
of Beachyhead from Dungenefs will be W|S nearly,
4 Q 2 . To
676 N A
Oblique To find the diftance.
, S'ulkng- As the fine of CDB - iii°3o'
is to the line of BCD - 45*°
fo is the diltance BC - q c
V I G
9.96868
9.84948
I*544°7
to the diftance BD
26.6 1.42487
Ex. 4. Running up Channel E£S per compafs at the
rate of 5 knots an hour. At nh A. M. the Eddirtone
lighthoule bore N&E^E, and the Start point NEZ>E^E j
and at 4 P. M. the Eddiftone bore NW£N, and the
Start N^E. Required the diftance and bearing of the
Start from the Eddiftone, the variation being 2^ points
By ConfiruSiion.
%• 37* Let the point C (fig. 37.) reprefent the firft ftation,
from which draw the NZcE^E line CA, the NE^E^E
line CB, and the EZ>S line CD, which make equal to 25
miles the diftance run in the elapled time j then from
D draw the NE^N line DA interfering CA in A,
which reprefents the Eddiftone 5 and from the fame
point draw the N^E line DB cutting CB in B, which
therefore reprefents the Start. Now the diftance AB
applied to the fcale will meafure 22.9, and the bearing
per compafs BAF will meal’ure 73°-f.
By Calculation.
In the triangle CAD are given CD equal to 25
miles, the angle CAD equal to 4^ points, the diftance
between N^E^E and NW£N ; and the angle ADC
equal to 4 points, the diftance between the NW£N and
WZ*N points ; to find
As the fine of CAD
is to the fine of CDA
fo is the diftance CD
the diftance CA.
4! points - 9.86979
4 points - 9.84948
25 miles - 1.39794
to the diftance CA 23.86 - I-37763
In the triangle BCD, are given the diftance CD 25
miles, the angle CBD 4I-points the interval between
NEZ'E^ and N|E, and CDB 7! points, the diftance
between WZ>N and N|-E j to find the diftance CD.
.As the fine of CBD - 4* points 9.88819
is to the fine CDB - points 9-99947
fo is the diftance CD - 25 miles 1-39794
to the diftance CB - 32.3 - 1.50922
In the triangle CAB, the diftances CA, CB, are
given, together with the included angle ACB, equal to
4 points, the diftance between NZoE^E and NEZ>E^E ;
to find the angle CAB and diftance AB.
Diftance CB 32.3 Angle ACB - —45® o'
Diftance CA 23.86 Sum of CAB and ABC 135 o
Sum 56.16 Half - - 67 30
Difference 8.44
As the fum of the diftances 56.16 - 1-74943
is to their difference - 8.44 - 0.92634
fo is the tangent of half 1 , „
fum angles - j 67 3° - 10.38278
to the tangent of half 1 , ~
dift’. angles - I9 5° “ 9‘559^9
Angle CAB
Angle CAF
87 26
14 4
Bearing per compafs S 73 22 E or ESE-JEj and
ATI O N. Praflice.
the variation 2f points being allowed to the left of Oblique
ESEfE, gives E^N, the true bearing of the Start from Sailing,
the Eddiftone.
To find the diftance.
As the fine of CAB 87° 26' - 9-99956
is to the fine of ACB 45 o' - 9.84948
fo is the diftance CB - 32.3 1.50922
to the diftance AB - 22.86 I-359I4
Ex. 5. A (hip from a port in latitude 570 9' N, lon¬
gitude 20 9' W, failed 82 miles on a diredt courfe, and
fpoke a ftiip that had run 100 miles from a port in la¬
titude 56° 21' N, longitude 2° 50' W.—Required the
courfe of each ftiip, and the latitude and longitude come
to ?
-^at- 57® 9' N Mer. parts 4199 Lon. 2° 9'W
- - 56 21 N 4112 — 2 50 W
Diff. of lat. 48 Mer. diff. lat. 87 Diff. Ion. 41
By ConJlruBion.
With the meridional difference of latitude, the dif¬
ference of longitude, and difference of latitude, con-
ftruft the triangles ADE, ABC (fig. 38.) as in Mer-Fig. 3*.
cator’s Sailing ; then A will reprefent the northernmoft,
and C the fouthernmoft port. The diftance AC ap¬
plied to the fcale will meafure 53 miles, and the bear¬
ing BC A will be 2 5°^. From the points A and C,
with diftances equal to 82 and 100 miles refpedlively,
deferibe arches interfering each other in M, which
will therefore be the place of meeting.—Now the angle
ABM, the (hip’s courfe from the fouthernmoft port,
will meafure N 8o°^-E ; and the other (hip’s courfe,
or angle BAM, will be 67°y, or ESE. From M
draw the parallel MNP, and AN will be the differ¬
ence of latitude made by the one (hip, and CP that by
the other (hip : hence either of thefe being meafured
and applied to its correfpondent latitude, will give 56°
38', the latitude in. Make AF equal to 57, the me¬
ridional difference of latitude between the northernmoft;
port and latitude in : from F draw FG perpendicular
to AF, and produce AM to G, then FG will be the
difference of longitude, which applied to the fcale will
meafure 139 : hence the longitude in, is o0 io' E.
By Calculation.
In the triangle ADE, ABC, are given AD equal
to 87, DE equal to 41, and AB equal to 48 3 to find
the angle BAC and diftance AC.
To find the bearing of the ports.
As the meridional diff. of lat. 87 - 1.93952
is to the diff. of long, - 41 - 1.61278
fo is radius _ » . 10.0000c
to the tangent of the bearing 25° 14'
To find the diftance of the peris.
As radius _ _ .
is to the fecant of the "7
bearing - ^
fo is the diff. of latitude 48
250 14'
9.67326
10.00000
10*04355
1.68124
to the diftance - 53-o6
In the triangle AMC^ the three
find the angles.
1.72479
(ides are given to
To
3
Practice,
Oblique
Sailing.
AM
MC
AC
Sum
Half
Difference
Angle ACM
Angle BAC
Southern moll
(hip’s courfe ^
N A V I G
To find the angle ACM.
82
100 ar.co.log. - 8.00000
ar. co. log. - 8.27523
53-°6
235.06
117-53
53-53
log.
log.
27 29
54 58
25
N. 80 12 E
2.07015
1-55°59
19.89597
cofine 9-94798
To find the angle MAC.
82
100
54 58
93 3
25 14
1.91381
2.00000
9.9x319
9.99938
A T I O N. 677
within fix point! of the wind. Required the courfe
and diflance on each tack ? c—
By Conjlruchon.
Draw the SSW line CB (fig. 39.) equal to 48 miles.Fig- 39-
Make the angles ACB, ABC, each equal to 6 points.
Hence the firit courle will be \V, and the fecond SE .
alfo the diftance CA, or AB, applied to the fcale, Avill.
meafure 62^ miles, the dillance to be failed on each
board.
By Calculation.
From A draw AD perpendicular to BC -, then m
the triangle ADC are given CD equal to 24 nuies j
and the angle ACD, equal to 6 points, to find the di¬
ftance AC.
As radius ----- 10.00000
is to the fecant of C - 6 points - 10.41710
fo is CD - - 24 miles - 1.38021
As AM
is to MC
fo is the fine of ACM
to the fine of MAC
Angle BAC
Northernmoft (hip’s 1
courfe 3
In the right-angled triangle AMN, given AM, and
the angle MAN, to find the differences of latitude
AN.
S 67 49 E, or ESE.
As radius
is to the cofine of
the courfe
fo is the diftance
)
to the diff. of lat.
Latitude of nor- 1
thernmoft port 3
Latitude in
67° 49'
82
30.96
57 9
- 10.00000
9-57700
1.91381
1.49081
Mer. parts 4199
56 38 Mer. parts 4142
Meridional difference of latitude
To find the difference of longitude FG
As radius -
is to the tangent of 7 5-0 .gi
the courfe - 3
fo is the mer. diff. of lat. 57
57
10.00000
10.38960
1.75587
139.8
9'W
20 E
2.14547
o 11
to CA
62.7
1-79737
JEx. 2. The wind at NW, a (hip bound to a port 64
miles to the windward, propofes to reach it on three
boards 5 txvo on the (larboard, and one on the larboard
tack, and each within 5 points of the wind. Required
the courfe and diftance on each tack ?
By ConJlruBion.
Draw the NW line CA (fig. 40-) eclual to 64 miles;Fig. 40.
from C draw CB W6S, and from A draw AD paral¬
lel thereto, and in an oppofite direction ; bife61: AC in
E, and draw BED parallel to the N£E rhumb, meet¬
ing CB, AD in the points B and D : then CB=:AD
applied to the fcale will meafure 36^ miles, and BD=
2CB=r72x miles.
By Calculation.
From B draw BF perpendicular to AC ; then, in
the triangle BFC are given the angle BCI equal to
5 points, and CF equal to one-fourth of CA= 16 m. to
find CB.
As radius - - - - - 10.00000
is to the fecant of BCF - 5 points - 10.25526
fo is CF - - 16 m. - 1.20412
to CB
36-25
1-55938
to the diff. of long.
Longitude left
Difference of longitude
•Longitude in
Chap. IX. Of Windward Sailing.
WINDWARD failing is, when a drip by reafon of a
contrary wind is obliged to fail on different tacks in or¬
der to gain her intended port; and the object of this
failing is to find the proper courfe and diftance to be
run on each tack.
Ex. 1. A (hip is bound to a port 48 miles direftly to
the windward, the wind being SSW, which it is in¬
tended to reach on two boards; and the (hip can lie
Ex. 3. A (hip which can lie within 5^ points of the
wind, is bound to a port 36 miles to the windward, the
wind being NEi’N, which it is intended to reach on
four boards, the firft being on the larboard tack. Re¬
quired the courfe and diftance on each ?
By Conf ruction.
Draw the NE&N line CA (fig. 41.) equal to 36Fig-
miles, and bifea it in B ; from C and B draw lines pa¬
rallel to the EiS rhumb ; and from A and B draw
lines parallel to the SSEiE point, meeting the former
in the points D and E. Now the diftances AD, Bp,
BE, and CE, are equal; and any one of them applied
to the fcale will meafure 19.1 miles.
By Calculation.
From E draw EF perpendicular to AC ; and in the
triangle CFE are given CF=9 m. and the angle FCE
—5-*- points, to find CE. ^
6^8
Windward As radius - *
Salling' , is to the iecant of FCE
fo is CF
N A V I G
- 10.00000
5t points 10.32661
9 miks O.95424
to the diftance CE
19.1 miles x.28085
Fig. 4*.
Ex. 4. A (hip bound to a port bearing NZ>W diftant
40 miles, with the wind at NZ'E^E, intends to reach
it on two boards. Required the courfe and diftance
on each tack, the ftiip lying within 51 points of the
wind ?
By Conjjruffion.
Draw the NZ>W line CA (fig. 42.) equal to 40
miles ; and becaufe the wind is N^EfE, and the ftup
can lie within 5^ points of the wind, the courfe on the
larboard tack will be E£N, and on the ftarboard NW.
Therefore, from the centre C draw the E£N line CB,
and from it draw the NW line AB, meeting CB in
B 5 then CB and AB applied to the fcale will meafure
26.7 and 48.1 m. refpeftively.
By Calculation.
In the triangle ACB, given AC^o miles, and the
angles A, B, and C, equal to 3, 5, and 8 points refpec-
tively, to find AB and BC.
To find the diftance CB.
As the fine of B - - y points 9.91985
is to the fine of A * - 3 points 9.74474
fo is the diftance CA - 40 miles 1.60206
to the diftance CB
To find
As the fine of B
is to the fine of C
fo is the diftance CA
- - 26.73
the diftance AB.
M2695
5 points 9.91985
8 points 10.00000
40 miles 1.60206
to the diftance AB
48.11 1.68221
Fig. 43.
‘Ex. 5, A fhip clofe hauled within 5 points of the
wind, and making one point of leeway, is bound to a
port bearing S3W, diftant 54 miles, the wind being
b^E : It is intended to make the port at three boards,
tne firft of which muft be on the larboard tack In order
to avoid a reef of rocks. Required the cburfe and di¬
ftance on each tack ?
By ConJlruBion.
pra%v the^ SSW line C A (fig. 43.) equal to 54 m.
ami as the. wind is S&E, and the ftiip makes her courfe
good within 6 points of the wind, therefore the courfe
on the larboard tack will be SW£W, and on the ftar¬
board EZ>S : hence from C draw' the SW£W line CB
-and from A draw AD parallel thereto ; bifeft CA in
E and draw BED parallel to the E£S line ; then will
CB and AD be the distances on the larboard tack
which applied to the .fcale, each will be found to mea-
fure 37.4 *, and the diftance on the ftarboard tack BD
will meafure 42.4 miles.
By Calculation.
The jangles CBE EAD are equal and fimilar :
hence in the firft of thefe are given CE, equal to 27
mftes, half the diftance between the {hip and port 1 the
angles C, B, and E .equal to3, 4, and 9 points re-
fpeftively, to find CB and BE,
A T I O N. Pra&ice.
To find CB, the diftance on the larboard tack. Current
As the fine of B
is to the fine of E
fo is the diftance CE
to the diftanee BC
To find BE half the diftance
As the fine of B
is to the fine of C
fo is the diftance CE
to the diftance BE
Whole diftance AC
Ex. 6. A (hip plying to the windward, with the
wind at NNE, after failing 51 miles on each of two
tacks, is found by obfervation to have made 36 miles
of difference of latitude. How near the wind did ftie
make her way good ?
By ConJlruBion.
Make. CA (fig. 44.) equal to 36 miles 3 draw AB Fig. 44.
perpendicular to CA, and draw the NNE line CB
meeting AB in B ;. make CD, BD each equal to 51
miles, and thefe being meafured, will be found equal
to 6 points.
By Calculation.
In the triangles CAB, BCD, are given AB equal to
36 m. CDrrBD—51, and the angle ACB equal to 2
points 5 to find the angle BCD.
As the diftance CD
is to the diff. of latitude CA
fo is the fecant of ACB
to the cofine of BCD
Chap. X. Of Current Sailing.
The computations in the preceding chapters have
been performed upon the affumption that the water has
no motion. This may no doubt anfwer tolerably well
in thofe places where the ebbings and flowings are re¬
gular, as then the effeft of the tide will be nearly coun¬
terbalanced. But in places w here there is a conftant
current or fetting of the fea towards the fame point, an
allowance for the change of the Ihip’s place arifing
therefrom muft be made : And the method of reviv¬
ing thefe problems, in which the effe<ft of a current, or
heave of the fea, is taken into confideration, is called
current failing.
In a calm, it is evident a {hip will be carried in the
dire&ion and with the velocity of the current. Hence,
if a fhip fails in the direftion of the current, her rate
will be augmented by the rate of the current; but if
failing direftly againrt it, the diftance made good will
be equal to the difference between the fliip’s rate as giv¬
en by the log and that of the current. And the abfo-
lute motion of the fhip will be a-head, if her rate ex¬
ceeds that of the current *, but if lefs, the (hip will
make fternway. If the ftiip’s courfe be oblique to the
current, the diftance made good in a given time will
be reprefented by the third fide of a triangle, whereof
the diftance given by the log, and the drift of the cur¬
rent in the fame time, are the other fides j and the true
courfe will be the angle contained between the meridiaft
and the line actually defcribed by the fhip.
51 1-70757
18 1.25527
2 points 10.03438
67° 32' 9-58203
4 points 9.84948 Sailing-
9 points 9.99157 '—"■v-—<
27 miles 1.43136
37-45 1-57345
on the ftarboard tack.
4 points 9.84948
3 points 9.74474
27 miles 1.43136
21.21 1.32662
42.42
Praaice N A V I G
Current Ex. 1. A ftiip failed NNE at the rate of 8 knots an
, Sa^in^- i hour, during 18 hours, in a current fetting NW^Waf-
miles an hour. Required the courfe and diftance made
good ?
, By Conjlruciion.
CCCLXV. Draw the NNE line CA (fig. 45.) equal to 18x8
Fig. 45 ==I44 miles; and from A draw AB parallel to the
NW£W rhumb, and equal to 18 X 45 miles : now
BC being joined will be the diftance, and NCB the
courfe. The firft of thefe will meafure 159 miles, and
the fecond 6° 23'.
By Calculation.
In the triangle ACB, are given AC=I44 miles,
AB=45 miles, and the angle CABarp points, to find
BAG and BC.
To find the courfe made good.
Dift. AC - 144 Ang. BACrrp pts=r 101° 15'
Dift. AB - 45 — 
  B + C 78 45
Sum - 189 B-j-C
Diff. - 99 —   - 39 22f
2
As the fum of the fides - 189 - 2.27646
is to the difference of the fides 99 - 1.99563
fo is the tan. of half fum angles 39 22-|- 9.91417
to the tan. of half diff. angles - 23 15 J 9-63334
Angle ACB
Angle ACN
16 7
22 30
Courfe made good N 6 23
To find the diftance.
As the fine of ACB - 160 7/
is to the fine of CAB - 101 15
fo is the diftance AB - 45
to the diftance CB
5 59
9.44341
9*99I57
1.65321
2,20137
lig. 4<T.
Ex. 1. A (hip from a port in latitude 4 2° 52' N,
failed S£W--W 17 miles in 7 hours, in a current fet¬
ting between the north and weft; and then the fame
port bore ENE, and the fhip’s latitude by obfervation
was 42* 42' N. Required the fetting and drift of the
current ?
By ConjlruFUon.
Draw the SMWfW line CA (fig. 46.) equal to 17
miles, and make CB equal to 10 miles, the difference
of latitude : through B draw the parallel of latitude
BD, and draw the WSW line CD, interfering BD
in D : AD being joined, will reprefent the drift of the
current, which applied to the fcale will meafure 20.2,
and the angle DAE will be its fetting, and will be
found equal to 7 2°.
By Calculation.
In the triangle CBD, given CB = io miles, and the
angle BCD=r6 points ; to find the diftance CD.
As radius - . - 10.00000
is to the fecant of BCD - 6 points 10.41710
fo is the diff. of lat. CB - io miles i.coooo
to the diftance CD - 26.13 1.41710
Again, In the triangle ACD are given the diftance
AC=I7 miles, CD—26.13, and the angle ACD 4*-
jpoints; to find the remaining parts.
A T I O N.
To find the fetting of the current.
Diftance DC—26.13 Angle ACD=:4-*- points,
Diftance ACm7. o CAD-{-CD A 11-J
679
Current
Sailing.
Sum - dS*1^ CAD-f-CDA - ,
  =51=64 4i
Difference - 9>I3
As the fum of the fides
is to the differ, of the fides
fo is tang, half fum angles
43^3 - j-63418
9.13 - c.96047
64V' - 10.32509
to tang, half diff. angles - 24 6 - 9.65078
Angle CAD - - 88 47
Angle CAE= ACB= if-pt. = 16 52
Setting of the current EAD =71 55
To find the drift of the current.
As the fine of CAD - 88° 47' - 9.99990
is to the fine of ACD - 4f points 9.88819
fo is the diftance CD - 26.13 - 1.41710
to the drift of current AD 20.2 - 1-3°S39
20.2
Hence the hourly rate of the current is   = 2.9*
, 7
knots.
Ex. 3. A fliip, from latitude 38° 2o' N, failed 24
hours in a current fetting NW^N, and by account is in
latitude 38° 42' N, having made 44 miles of eafting;
but the latitude by obfervation is 38° 58' N. Required
the courfe and diftance made good, and the drift of the.
current.
By Conjiru&ion.
Make CE (fig. 47.) equal to 22 miles, the difference Fig. 47,
of latitude by D, R, and EA=54 miles, the depar¬
ture, and join CA ; make CD^S miles, the differ¬
ence of latitude by obfervation; draw the parallel of
latitude DB, and from A draw the NW£N line AB,
interfering DB in B, and AB will be the drift of
the current in 24 hours : CB being joined, will be the
diftance made good, and the angle DCB the true
courfe. Now, AB and CB applied to the fcale, will
meafure 19.2 and 50. c refpedively : and the anefie
DCB will be 4i°i, ^
By Calculation.
From B draw BE perpendicular to AE, then in the
triangle A FB are given BF= 16 miles, and the angle
ABF=:3 points ; to find AB and AF.
To find the drift of the current AB.
As radius ... 10.00000
is to the fecant of ABF - 3 points - 10.08015
fo is BF - -- « 16 miles - 1.20412
to the drift of the current AB 19.24 - a.28427
Hence the hourly raterr-^-^zzo.S.v
24
To find AF.
As radius 10.00000
is to the tangent of ABF - 3 points - 9.82489
fo is BF - - . 16 miles - 1.20412
to AF - 10.69
Departure by account EA - 44.
True departure EFsDBr^.ji
1.02903.
N0W5
68 o
Current
Sailing.
N A V I G
Notv, in the triangle CDE are given the difference
of latitude and departure; to find the courfe and di-
ftance.
To find the courfe.
As the difference of latitude CD 38. - 1.57978
is to the departure DB - 33-31 " I*52257
fo is radius ------ 10.00000
to the tangent of the courfe - 410 14' - 9.94279
To find the diftance.
As radius - - io.coooo
is to the fecant of the courfe - 410 14' 10.12376
fo is the difference of latitude - 38 - 1.57978
to the diftance - - - 50.53 - 1.70354
Ex. 4. In the Straits of Sunda, at 2 P. M. fleering
SE£S at the rate of 5 knots an hour, I paffed clofe by
the fmall iflands off Hog point. At 6, not having
changed our courfe, came to anchor on the Java fhore.
Upon fetting the faid ifland from this anchoring place,
I find it bears due north, its diftance by the chart being
22 miles. It follows from hence, that our courfe has
been affe&ed by a current. Required its velocity and
direftion ?
By ConflruEUon.
i-ig. 4S. From A (fig. 48.) draw the SEZ>S line AB=r:20,
which will reprefent the fhip’s apparent track through
the water; draw AC equal to 22 miles fouth, and
C will be the (hip’s real place $ and BC being joined
will be the current’s drift in four hours 5 which ap¬
plied to -the fcale will meafure 12.3 ; from A draw
AD parallel to BC, and the angle CAD will be the
direftion of the current, and will be found to mea¬
fure 64°f.
By Calculation.
In the triangle ABC, given AB=2om. AC=22m.
and the included angle A=3 points \ to find the re¬
maining parts.
To find the fetting of the current.
Diftance AC=r2 2m. Included angle =13 points.
■- AB= 20
B + C=i3
Sum - 42 B-fC
Difference - 2 2
As the fum of the fides - 42
is to the diff. of the fides - 2
fo is the tang, of half fum angles 730
—64P= 73.74
1.62325
0,30I03
- 10.51806
to tang, of half diff. angles 9.19584
Setting of the current S 64 12W, or SWZ*W-j-W.
To find the drift of the current.
As the fine of ACB 64° 12' - 9.95440
is to the fine of BAG 33 45 - 9.74474
fo is the diftance AB - 20 - 1.30103
to the velocity of cur. BC 12 34 - 1.09137
, I2-34 • 1
and  ——=3.1, its hourly rate.
Example 5. A {hip bound from Dover to Calais,
lying 21 miles to the SE£E-i-E, and the flood tide fet¬
ting NE-|E miles an hour. Required the courfe
A T I O N.
Pradice.
flic muft fleer, and the diftance run by the log at 6 Inftruments
knots an hour to reach her port ? *° |tilve
A rroblems
By CorJlruBion. in Sailing
In the pofition of the SE£E7'-E rhumb, draw DC (,t*
rr2i miles (fig. 49.) ; draw DE NE^E=:24 miles } " 1
from E with 6 miles cut DC in F; draw DB parallel Fig. 49.
to EF, meeting CB drawn parallel to DE : then the
diftance DB applied to the fcale will meafure 19.4, and
the courfe SDB will be SE|B.
By Calculation.
In the triangle DBF, given DE=2j miles, EF
—6 miles and the angle ED Fro 6 points j to find the
angle DFErrCBD.
As the hourly rate of failing - 6m. 0.77815
is to the hourly rate of current 2£m. 0.39794
fo is the fine of EDFrr6 points 67* 30' 9.96562
to the fine of DFE - - 22 38 9.58541
Angle - SDC=54- points = 61 52
Courfe SDB - - - 39 i4 = SE4S.
In the triangle DEC, given DCrr2i miles, the
angle BDCrrDFErr 22° 38', and the angle DCBrr
DEFrr6 points j to find the diftance DB.
As the fine of DEC - 89° 52' - 9-99999
is to the fine of DCB - 67 30 - 9.96562
fo is the true diftance DC 21 m. 1.32222
to the diftance by the log DB. 21 m. 1.28785
Chap XT. hrjlruments propofed to folve the various
Problems in Sailings independent oj Calculation.
Various methods, befides thofe already given, have
been propofed to fave the trouble of calculation.—
One of thefe methods is by means of an inftrument
compofed of rulers, fo difpofed as to form a right-
angled triangle, having numbers in a regular progref-
fion marked on their fides. Thefe inftruments are
made of different materials, fuch as paper, wood, brafs,
&c. and are differently conftrufted, according to the
fancy of the inventor. Among inftruments of this
kind, that by John Cooke, Efq. feems to be the bed.
A number of other inftruments, very differently con-
ftru£led, have been propofed for the fame purpofe ;
of thefe, however, we fhall only take notice of the reft-
angular inftrument, by A. Mackay, LL.D. F.R.S.E.
&c.
I. Of Cooke’s Triangular Inf rime nt.
Defcription. The flock abed (fig. 50.) is a pa-Fig. 50.
rallelopiped : The length from a to b is two feet, the
breadth from a \.o d tvro inches, and the depth is one
inch and a half. The flock is perforated longitudi¬
nally, fo as to be capable of containing within it ef
a cylindrical piece of wood one inch diameter 5 g h is
an aperture on the furface of the flock about a quar¬
ter of an inch wide, which difclofes one-twelfth part
of the furface of the cylinder contained •, the edge d c
is divided into twelve parts, each of thefe is fubdivided
into fix parts, and each of thefe again into ten parts.
The furface of the cylinder is divided longitudinally
into twelve parts, and on each of them is engraved a
portion
Practice.
Inftrume-its portion of a line of meridional parts 22 feet long,
to folve -which contains the meridional parts for every minute
Problems - - <* - 1 ■1 ’  :—
oblems £rom tjie eqUator as far towards the pole as navigation
; without'* is practicable j and the fmalleft divifion on it is not lefs
Calculation, than ^-th of an inch. By rolling and Hiding this cy-
linder, any part of any line on it may be brought into
any pofition which may be required j the box i. is en-
grooved into the edge of the flock a fo that it may
move freely from a to £ ; a limb from this box extends
to k, which ferves to mark that degree of the perpen¬
dicular i l which is parallel to the centre of the femi-
circle in i 11 is two feet long, and graduated on both
edges as the flock ; it is perpendicular to the flock,
and is fixed in the box f, by which it may be moved
from a b; o p n h a. femicircle of fix inches radius,
engraved, as appears in the plate, which Hides freely
from c to d in a groove in the edge of the flock c d;
m q is the index moving on the centre m, the edge of
which marks the courfe on the femicircle ; it is two
feet long, and divided into *7 2 parts } and thefe are
fubdivided in the fame manner as thofe on the flock
and perpendicular, to which they are equal 5 r is a ver¬
nier attached to the index to fhow minutes ; S is a ver¬
nier compofed of concentric femicircles, which Hides
along the edge q m, to the interfeclion of the perpen¬
dicular and index, where it ferves as a vernier to both 5
below a? is a fmall piece of ivory, with a mark on it to
point out the degree of the line d c, which is perpendi¬
ng. 51. cularly under the centre of the femicircle. Fig. 51.
is a view of the back part of the inflrument.
U/e. The method of working every cafe which
occurs in navigation, is to make the inflrument fimilar
to that ideal triangle which is compofed of the differ¬
ence of latitude, departure, and diftance ; or, to that
compofed of the meridional difference of latitude, dif¬
ference of longitude, and enlarged diftance } or, to tnat
compofed of the difference of longitude, departure,
and fine of the middle latitude } which is done. by
means of the data procured from the compafs, log-line,
and quadrant: whence it follows, from the nature of
fimilar triangles, or from the relation which exifls be¬
tween the fides of triangles and the fines of their op-
pofite angles, that the parts of the inflrument become
proportional to thofe which they reprefent; and will
afeertain the length of the lines, or the extent of the
angles fought, by its graduations.
In the practice of this inftrument, a fmall fquare is
neceffary in order to bring the centre of the femicircle
perpendicularly over the meridional degree correfpond-
ing to the latitude.
Plane Sailing.
Prob. I. The courfe and diftance failed being given,
to find the difference of latitude and departure.
Example. A fhip from latitude 240 18' N, failed
NW£N 168 miles. Required the latitude come to,
and departure ?
Set the centre of the femicircle perpendicularly over
the given latitude 24* 18', and the index to the courfe
3 points } move the perpendicular until it cut the in-
'dex at the given diftance 168 j then at the point of in¬
ter feftion on the perpendicular is 93.3 miles, the de¬
parture, and on the bafe, by the edge of the box, is
jj,6° 38', the latitude come to.
VOL. XIV. Part II.
NAVIGATION. 681
Pros. II. Both latitudes and courfe given, to findInffrumenn
the diftance and departure. Problems
Example. Let the latitude failed from be 430 50' N, in Sailing,
that come to 470 8' N, and the courfe NNE. Required
the diftance and departure ? ^.a cu^a x> n
Move the centre of the femicircle to the latitude left
43
50/, and the edge of the box to the latitude come
to 470 8' 5 fix the index at the given courfe 2 points :
then at the point of interfedlion of the index and per¬
pendicular is the diftance 214 miles on the index, and
the departure 82 miles on the perpendicular.
Prob. III. Given the courfe and departure, to find
the diftance and difference of latitude.
Example. Let the latitude failed from be 3 2° 38'N,
the courfe SW£S, and the departure 200 miles. Re¬
quired the diftance and latitude come to ?
Move the centre of the femicircle to the latitude
left 3 2° 3 8', fet the index to the given courfe 3 points,
and move the perpendicular till the given departure
200 cuts the index ; at this point on the index is 360
miles, and the edge of the box will cut the latitude
come to 270 39' N.
Prob. IV. Given the difference of latitude and di¬
ftance, to find the courfe and departure.
Example. Let the latitude left be 170 10' N, the
latitude come to 21° 40' N, and the diftance failed on
a direct courfe between the north and weft 300 miles.
Required the courfe and departure ?
Move the femicircle and box to the given latitudes,
and the index until the diftance found thereon meets
the perpendicular •, then at the point of contadl on the
perpendicular is 130.8, the departure, and on the femi¬
circle by the index is 250 50', the courfe.
Prob. V. The diftance and departure given, to find
the courfe and difference of latitude.
Example. The diftance failed is 246 miles between
the fouth and eaft, the departure is 138 miles, and the
latitude left 510 io' N. Required the courfe and lati¬
tude come to ?
Set the centre of the femicircle to 510 ic', the lati¬
tude failed from *, find the diftance 246 on the index,
and the departure 138 on the perpendicular*, then
move both till thefe points meet, and the courfe 340 10'
will be found on the femicircle by the index, and the
la.itude in 470 47' N, by the edge of the box.
Prob. VI. Both latitudes and departure given, to
find the courfe and diftance.
Example. A fhip from latitude 430 10'N, failed
between the north and weft till fhe was in latitude 47°
14' N, and has made 170 miles of departure. Required
the courfe and diftance ?
Move the centre of the femicircle over 430 1 o', and
the edge of the box to 470 14'; find the departure on
the perpendicular, and bring the edge of the index there¬
to 5 now at the point of interfedlion is the diftance
297.4 miles on the index, and the courfe 340 52' on
the femicircle.
Traverfe Sailing.
Example. A fhip from latitude 46° 48' N, fail¬
ed SSW-^W 24 miles, S£W 36 miles, and SiE 40
4 R miles.
682
N A V I G A T 1 O N.
Inftrumentsmile*. Required the latitude in, together with the di-
il-ji',e reft courfe and didance ?
ii/saifitw Set the femicircle to the latitude failed from 46° 48',
without? and the index to the courfe SSWfW ; mark the di-
Calculation. ftance 24 on the index, and bring the perpendicular to
' meet it j then the index will cut the dejiarlure 11.3
on the perpendicular, and the perpendicular will cut
the latitude 46° 27' N on the bafe. For the next courfe
and ditlanee, bring the femicircle to the latitude mark¬
ed by the perpendicular, and lay down the courfe SZ>W :
if it be towards the firft meridian, move the laft marked
departure until it meets the index, and the limb of the
box will mark the prefent departure } but if the courfe
be from the firft meridian, bring the laft departure 11.3
to the limb of the box, the index will mark the depar¬
ture made good 18.3 on the perpendicular, and the la¬
titude arrived at 40° 52' will be marked on the bafe by
the perpendicular : proceed in the fame manner with
all the courfes of which the traverfe confifts, then the
difference of latitude i° 36' will be intercepted between
the latitude foiled from 46° 48', and the latitude come
to 4 50 1 2 laft marked by the perpendicular ; and alio
the departure made good will be intercepted between
that point on the perpendicular where the firft depar¬
ture commenced, and that where the laft terminated.
Now, with the difference of latitude i° 36' and the de¬
parture, the courfe will be S 8° 30' W, and diftance 97
miles, by laft problem in Plane Sailing.
Practice.
both until thefe numbers meet, and the complement oflnftruments
the latitude 40 30' will be ftiown by the index on the ta ('olve
femicircle.
Mercator1 s and Middle Latitude Sailing.
Prob. I. The latitudes and longitudes of two places
given, to find the direft courfe and diftance between
them.
Example. Required the courfe and diftance be¬
tween two places whofe latitudes and longitudes are
50° 30' N, 19° o' W, and 54° 30' N, 1 j° 30' W, re-
fpeftively ?
Bif Mercator’’s Sailing.
To find the courfe.
Move the centre of the femicircle perpendicularly
over the meridional degree anfwering to latitude 30°
50' N, then move the box until the edge of the per¬
pendicular cuts the meridional parts of the other lati¬
tude 54° 30' N, and move the index until it cuts the
difference of longitude 30 30' on the perpendicular, and
the index will mark the courfe 309 ic', or NNE|-E
nearly on the femicircle.
To find the diftance.
Screw the index to this courfe, and move the centre
of the femicircle to the latitude 50° N, and the
edge of the perpendicular to the latitude 54° 30' N,
then the perpendicular will cut the diftance 254.7 on
the index.
Problems
in Sailing,
without
CaleulatioH.
Parallel Sailing.
Prob. I. The difference of longitude between two
places in one parallel of latitude given, to find the dif¬
tance between them.
Example. Let the common latitude be 49° 30' N,
and the difference of longitude 30 30'. Required the
diftance ?
Set the index to 40° 30', the complement of the la¬
titude on the femicircle ; mark the difference-of longi¬
tude in miles on the index 5 then move the Perpen¬
dicular until it meets the termination of the difference
of longitude on the index, and the part of the perpen¬
dicular intercepted between the limb of the box and the
point of interfeftion Avill be the diftance 136.4 miles.
Prob. IE The diftance between two places in one
parallel of latitude given, to find the difference of lon¬
gitude between them.
Example. Let the latitude of the given parallel be
490 30' N, the diftance failed 136.4 E. Required the
difference of longitude ?
Set the index to the complement of the latitude
40° 30', and mark the diftance failed on the perpendi¬
cular then move it until it meets the index, and the
point of interfe&ion will fhow the difference of longi¬
tude 21 o' or 30 30' on the index.
Prob. III. Given the diftance failed on a parallel,
and the difference of longitude, to find the latitude of
that parallel.
Example. The diftance failed due eaft is 136.4, and
the difference of longitude 30 30'. Required the lati¬
tude of the parallel ?
. Find the difference of longitude 210 on the index,
and the diftance 136.4 on the perpendicular, and move
Pij Middle Latitude Sailing.
To find the departure.
Move the centre of the ftmicircle to the latitude
50° 50', and the edge of the index to the complement
of the middle latitude 37° 20' on the femicircle 5 then
move the box until the edge of the perpendicular inter-
fe£ts the termination of the difference of longitude 2*0
miles on the index, which point of interfedtion will mark
the departure 1 28 on the perpendicular.
To find the courfe and diftance.
Move the edge of the perpendicular to the other la¬
titude C40 30', and the index until it cuts the depar¬
ture 1 28 on the perpendicular ; then will the perpendi¬
cular mark the diftance on the index 254.7 roileS, and
the index will mark the courfe on the femicircle 30^ ic',
or NNEiE nearly.
Prob. II. Both latitudes and courfe given, to find
the diftanee and difference of longitude.
Example. A ftfip from latitude 50° 50' N, longi¬
tude 196 o' W, failed N 30° 10' E, until (he is in lati¬
tude 54° 30' N. Required the diftance and difference
of longitude ?
Bij Mercator’s Sailing.
To find the difference of longitude.
Move the box and femieircle as in the former pro¬
blem to the meridional parts of the given latitudes, then
fet the index to the courfe, and it will mark the differ¬
ence of longitude 30 30' on the perpendicular: Hence
the longitude in is 1 50 30' W.
To find the diftance.
Move the perpendicular and femicircle to the given
latitudes, and put the index to the given courfe ; then
the perpendicular will cut the diftance 254.7 m^es on
the index.
Practice.
N A V I G
Inftruments B ij Middle Latitude Stilling.
to folv© 'J'q gn(l t}ie diftance and departure.
Problems Move the femic;rc]e and perpendicular to the given
"withouf’ latitudes, and the index to the courfe 5 then the per-
Calculation, pendicular will lliow the departure 1 2o tmws, t >e
1—^   index the diftance 254.7 miles at the point of mteriee-
tion.
To find the difference of longitude..
Set the index to the complement of the middle lati¬
tude on the femicircle, and move the box until the ter¬
mination of the departure on the perpendicular meets
the index, which will mark the difference of longitude
thereon 210 m. or 30 30'.
Prob. III. Both latitudes and diftance given, to
find the courie and difference of longitude.
Example. From latitude 50° 50' N, longitude i9° o'
W, a ftiip failed 254.7 miles between the north and eaft,
and by obfervation is in latitude 540 30' N. Required
the courfe and differenee of longitude r
Bij Mercator's Sailing.
To find the courfe.
Move the perpendicular and femjcircle to the given
latitudes, and the index until the diftance failed mat te¬
ed on it meets the perpendicular } then the index will
mark the courfe N 30° to' E on the femicircle.
To find the difference of longitude.
Screw the index to the courfe, move the perpendi¬
cular and femieircle to the meridional parts of the given
latitudes, and the {pace intercepted between the limb
of the box and the index will be the difference of lon¬
gitude 30 30'.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
To find the departure and courfe.
Move the femicircle and perpendicular to the given
latitudes, and the index until the diftance failed on it
cuts the perpendicular-, then the perpendicular will
fliow the departure 1 28 miles, and the iemicircle the
courfe N 3 c0 10' E.
To find the difference of longitude.
Set the index to 370 20', the complement of the
middle latitude on the lemicircle, and move the perpen¬
dicular until the termination of the departure on it cuts
the index : then the point of interfection will mark the
difference of longitude 210 miles on the index.
A T I O N. 683
diftance will be marked on the index 329, and thelnftmments
courfe S 310 35' E, or SSE|E nearly, on the femi-
circle. in Sailing,
To find the difference of longitude. without
Move the perpendicular and femicircle to the meri- Calculation.
dional parts of the given latitudes, and the index will
cut the difference of longitude on the perpendicular
3 5^*
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
The courfe and diftance are found as before.
To find the difference of longitude.
Set the index to 310, the complement of the middle
latitude on the femicircle, and move the perpendicular
until the departure marked on it cuts the index, and
this point of iuterfedtion will mark the difference of
longitude on the index 335 m. or 50 35'.
Prob. V. One latitude, courfe, and diftance given,
to find the difference of latitude and difference of lon¬
gitude.
Example. Let the latitude left be 56° 40' S, lon¬
gitude 28° 55' E, the courfe S 310 35' E, and diftance
3 29 m. Required the latitude and longitude come to ’?
By Mercator's Sailing.
To find the latitude come to.
Set the femicircle to the latitude failed from, and
the index to the courfe, and bring the perpendicular
to the diftance, which at the fame time will mark tire
latitude some to 6i° 20' S.
To find the difference of longitude.
Screw the index to the courfe, and move the femi-
cirele and perpendicular to the meridional parts of
both latitudesthen the index will cut the difference
of longitude on the perpendicular 50 3 5'.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
The latitude arrived at is found as above.
To find the departure.
The femicircle and perpendicular being fet to both
latitudes, and the index to the courfe, it will (how
the departure 172.7 on the perpendicular.
To find the difference of longitude.
Set the index to 310, the complement of the middle,
latitude on the femicircle, and move the perpendicular
until the departure marked on it cuts the index, and
the divifion on the index at the point of interfebtion
will be the difference of longitude 335.
Prob. IV. Both latitudes and departure given, to
fthd the courfe, diftance, and difference of longitude.
Example. Let the latitude and longitude failed from
be 56° 40' S and 28° 55' E refpeftively, the latitude
come to 6l° 20' S, and departure 172 miles. Required
the courfe, diftance, and difference of longitude ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
To find the eourfe and diftance.
Move the perpendicular and femicircle .to the given
latitude (h) j then move the index till it meets the
extremity of the departure on the perpendicular; the
Prob. VI. One latitude, courfe, and departure given,
to find the diftance, difference of latitude, and differ¬
ence of longitude.
Example. Let the latitude failed from be 56° 40'
N, longitude 28° 35' W, the courfe. N 310 35' W,
and departure 172.7. Required the diftance, and the
latitude and longitude come to ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
To find the diftance and latitude come to.
Move the femicircle to the latitude left, and the in¬
dex to the courfe ) mark the departure on the perpen-
4 R 2 dicular,
(h) In fouthern latitudes, the end of the cylinder where the numbers begin muft be turned towards the north
pointed out by the femicircle j and in northern latitudes, it muft be reverfed.
684
InfornentS ^^Cl^ar» anc^ Move it until the termination thereof
Problems mee^s *;^e index, then the point of interfeftion will
in Sailing', diow the diltance 329 miles on the index, and the per-
without pendicular will {how the latitude arrived at 6i° 2o'N
Calculation. 0n the bafe.
* ^ To find the difference of longitude.
Screw the index, and move the perpendicular and
femicircle to the meridional parts of both latitudes,
then the index will cut the difference of longitude 50 35'
on the perpendicular.
Bij Middle Latitude Sailing.
Find the diffance failed and latitude in as above,
and the difference of longitude as in Problem IV. by
middle latitude failing.
Pros. VII. One latitude, the difiance failed, and
departure given, to find the courfe, difference of lati¬
tude, and difference of longitude.
Example. The latitude failed from is 48° 30' N,
and longitude 140 40'W j the diftance run is 345 miles
between the fouth and eaft, and the departure 200
miles. Required the courfe, and the latitude and lon¬
gitude come to ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
To find the courfe and latitude come to.
Move the femicircle to the latitude left, mark the
diftance on the index, and the departure on the perpen¬
dicular, move both until thefe points meet j then will
the index (how the courfe S 350 26' E on the femicircle,
and the latitude come to 43® 49' on the bafe.
The difference of longitude is found as in the preced¬
ing problem.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
The courfe and latitude come to are found as above,
and the difference of longitude as in Problem IV. by
middle latitude failing.
II. Q/’Dr Mackay’s Re&angular Injlrument.
Plate Defcription. Fig. 52. is a reprefentation of this in-
CCCLXVI. flrament, 0p about. one-third of the original fize.—
51 2- length CA is divided into 100 equal parts, and
the breadth CB into 70; but in this plate every fe-
cond divifion only is marked, in order to avoid con-
fufion ; through thefe divifions parallels are drawn, ter¬
minating at the oppofite fides of the inftrument. Upon
the upper and right hand fides are two fcales j the firft
contains the degrees of the quadrant, and the other
the points and quarters of the compafs. M is an in¬
dex moveable about the centre C, and divided in the
fame manner as the fides (1). Fig. 53. is a portion
of the enlarged meridian, fo conftrufted that the firft
degree is equal to three divifions on the inftrument j
and therefore, in the ufe of this line, each divifion on
the inftrument is to be accounted 20 minutes. The
fize of the plate would not admit of the continuation of
the line.
life. From a bare infpe&ion of this inftrument, it
Practice.
is evident that any triangle whatever may be formed Inftruments
on it. In applying it to nautical problems, the courfe t0 folve
is to be found at top, or right-hand fide, in the column .Pl'°ble™s
of degrees or points, according as it is expreffed; the 'withouf’
oiftance is to be found on the index, the difference of Cat ulation.
latitude at either fide column, and the departure at the '' ’""V
head or foot of the inftrument. The numbers in thefe
columns may reprefent miles, leagues, &c. j but when
ufed in conjun&ion with the enlarged meridional line,
then 10 is to be accounted 100 miles, 20 is to be
efteemed 200 miles, and fo on, each number being in-
creafed in a tenfold ratio-5 and the intermediate num¬
bers are to be reckoned accordingly.
Plane Sailing.
Prob. I. The courfe and diftance failed given, to
find the difference of latitude and departure.
Example. . Let the courfe be NE-' N, diftance 44
miles. Required the difference of latitude and depar¬
ture ?
Move the index until the graduated edge be over 3 *
points, and find the given diftance 44 miles on the in¬
dex : this diftance will be found to cut the parallel of
34 miles, the difference of latitude in the fide column,
and that of 28 miles, the departure at the top.
Prob. II. Given the courfe and difference of lati¬
tude, to find the diftance and departure.
Example. Required the diftance and departure an-
fwering to the courfe 28°, and difference of latitude 60
miles ?
Lay the index over the given courfe 28°: find the
difference of latitude 60 miles in the fide column ; its
parallel will cut the index at 68 miles, the diftance and
the correfponding departure at the top is 3 2 miles.
Prob. III. The courfe and departure given, to find
the diftance and difference of latitude.
Example. Let the courfe be SSW and the depar¬
ture 36 miles. Required the diftance and difference of
latitude ?
Lay the index over two points j find the departure
at the top, and its parallel will cut the index at 94
miles the diftance, and the difference of latitude on the
fide column is 87 miles.
Prob. IV. Given the diftance and difference of la¬
titude, to find the courfe and departure.
Example. The diftance is 35 leagues, and the dif¬
ference of latitude 30 leagues. Required the courfe
and departure ?
35 leagues on the index to the parallel of 30
leagues in the fide; then the departure at the top is 18
leagues, and the courfe by the edge of the index on the
line of rhumbs is 2-| points.
Prob. V. Given the diftance and departure, td find
the courfe and difference of latitude.
Example. Let the diftance be 58 miles, and the de¬
parture
NAVIGATION.
(1) In the original mftrument are two flips, divided like the fide and end of the inftrument. One of thefe fiiys
is moveable in a direction parallel to the fide of the inftrument, and the other parallel to the end.
Pra&ice.
N A V I G
Required the courfe and difference
Inftmments parture miles.
Problems of latitude ?
in Sailing Move the index until 58 found thereon cuts the pa-
without' rallel of 15 from the top : this will be found to inter-
Calculation. fedt the parallel of 56 miles, the difference of latitude }
1 V 1 and tlm courfe by the edge of the ruler is 150.
Prob. VI. The difference of latitude and departure
being given, to find the courfe and dilfance.
Example. Let the difference of latitude be 30
miles, the departure 28 miles. Required the courfe
and diftance ?
Bring the index to the interfe&ion of the parallels of
30 and 28 5 then the diftance on the index is 41 miles,
and the courfe by its edge is 430.
Traverfe Sailing.
Find the difference of latitude and departure anfwer-
ing to each courfe and diftance by Problem I. of Plane
Sailing, and from thence find the difference of latitude
and departure made good j with which find the courfe
and diftance by the laft problem.
An example is unneceffary.
Parallel Sailing.
Pros. I. Given the difference of longitude between
two places on the fame parallel, to find the diftance
between them.
Example. Let the latitude of a parallel be 48°, and
the difference of longitude between two places on it 30
40'. Required their diftance ?
Put the index to 48°, the given latitude, and find
the difference of longitude 220 on the index, and the
correfponding parallel from the fide will be 147, the
diftance required.
Prob. II. The latitude of a parallel, and the diftance
between two places on that parallel, being given, to
find the difference of longitude between them.
Example. The latitude of a parallel is 56°, and the
diftance between two places on it 200 miles. Required
their difference of longitude ?
Put the index to the given latitude, and find the
diftance in the fide column, and the interfeftion of its
parallel with the index will give 358, the difference of
longitude fought.
Prob. III. Given the diftance and difference of lon¬
gitude between two places on the fame parallel, to find
the latitude of that parallel.
Example. The number of miles in a degree of lon¬
gitude is 46.5. Required the latitude of the parallel ?'
Bring 60 on the index to cut the parallel of 46.5
from the fide, then the edge of the index will give 390
Jl'f the latitude required.
Middle Latitude and Mercator's Sailing.
.Prob. I. The latitudes and longitudes of two places
being given, to find the courfe and diftance between
them.
Example. Required the courfe and diftance between
Genoa, in latitude 440 25' N, longitude 8° 36' E, and
Palermo, in latitude 38° 10' N, longitude E ?
Eij Mercator's Sailing.
Take the interval between 38° 10' and 440 25' on
A T I O N. 685
the enlarged meridian, which laid off from C upwards Inftruments
will reach to 500 5 now find the difference of longitude
302 at the top, and bring the divided edge of the in- -n Sailing-,
dex to the interfeftion of the correfponding parallels, without
and the index will fhow the courfe 310 8' on the line of Calculation,
degrees 5 then find the difference of the latitude 375 on
the fide column, and its parallel will interfed the index
at 438, the diftance.
Bij Middle Latitude Sailing.
Put the index to 410 18', the complement of the
middle latitude on degrees, and the difference of lon¬
gitude 302 on the index will interfeft the parallel of
227, the departure, in the fide column. Now move
the index to the interfeftion of the parallels of 375
and 227, the firft being found in the fide column, and
the other at top or bottom 5 then the diftance anfwer-
ing thereto on the index will be 438, and the courfe on
the fcale of degrees is 410 io'.
Prob. II. Given one latitude, courfe, and diftance,
to find the other latitude and difference of longitude.
Example. Let the latitude and longitude failed from
be 390 22'N, and 1 2° 8'W refpeftively, the courfe
NNWfW, and diftance 500 miles. Required the la¬
titude and longitude come to ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
Put the index to the courfe 2} points, and find the
diftance 500 miles thereon j then the correfponding
difference of latitude will be 441 miles, and the depar¬
ture 23 5F miles, hence the latitude in is 46° 43' N.
Now take the interval between the latitudes of 390 22',
and 46° 43' on the enlarged meridian, which laid off from
C will reach to about 60 5, the parallel of which will in-
terfeft the vertical parallel of the difference of longitude
323 at the edge of the index : hence the longitude in
is 170 31' W.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
Find the difference of latitude and departure as be¬
fore, and hence the latitude in is 46° 43' N, and the-
middle latitude 430 3'. Now put the index to 430 3',
and the horizontal parallel of the departure 23 5F will
interfedl the index at 322, the difference of longitude.
Prob. III. Both latitudes and courfe given, to find
the diftance and difference of loncdtude,
O
Example. The latitude failed from is 22° 54' S, and
longitude 420 40' W, the courfe is SE by E, and lati¬
tude come to 26° 8' S. Required the diftance failed,
and longitude in ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
Bring the index to 5 points, the given courfe, and
the parallel of 194, the difference of latitude found in
the fide column will interfe<R the index at 349, the
diftance ; and it will cut the vertical parallel of 290,
the departure.
Take the interval between the given latitudes 220
54' and 26° 8' on the enlarged meridian ; lay off that
extent from the centre on the fide column, and it will
reach to 213 : the parallel of this number will interfefr
the vertical parallel of 319, the difference of longitude.
Hence the longitude in is 370 21'W,
By.
686
N A V I G
ntQU(o\vl.S By Middle Latitude Sailing.
Problems With the given courfe and difference of latitude find
in Sailing, the diltance and departure as before; then bring the
withour index to the middle latitude 24°3i'; find the departure
a^atl‘ n; 290 in the fide column, and its parallel will interfedl
the index at 319, the difference of longitude.
ProB. IV. One latitude, courfe, and departure,
given, to find the other latitude, dillancc, and differ¬
ence of longitude.
Example. The latitude and longitude left are 20°
30' N, and 490 1 y' W, refpeftively ; the courfe is
NE|N, and departure 212 miles. Required tire lati¬
tude and longitude come to, and diftance failed ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
Put the index to the given courfe 3-J points, and
the vertical parallel of 2x2 will cut the index at 356,
the diilance, and the horizontal parallel of 286, the
difference of latitude ; the latitude come to is therefore
2S° 1 & N.
Now take the interval between the latitudes 20° 30',
and 250 16' on the enlarged meridian, which laid off
from the centre C will reach to 311 ; and this parallel
will interfeft the vertical parallel of the difference of
longitude 230, at the edge of the index. Hence the
longitude in is 450 27' W.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
Find the diftance and difference of latitude as direct¬
ed above; then bring the index to 22° 53', the middle
latitude, and the horizontal parallel of 212, the de¬
parture, will interfect the index at 230, the difference
of longitude.
Pros. V. Both latitudes and diftance given, to find
the courfe and difference of longitude.
Example. The diftance failed is 500 miles between
the north and weft ; the latitude and longitude left are
40® 10' N, and 90 20' W refpeCtively, and the latitude
in is 46° 40' N. Required the courfe and longitude in?
By Mercator's Sailing.
Bring the diftance 500 on the index to interfecl the
horizontal parallel of the difference of latitude 390 ;
then the courfe 38° 44' is found on the line of degrees
by the edge of the index, and the vertical parallel of
the above point of interfeCIion is that anfwering to 313,
the departure.
Take the interval between the latitudes 40° 10', and
46® 40', which lay off from the centre C, and its ho¬
rizontal parallel will interfeft the vertical parallel of
431, the difference of longitude, by the edge of the
index, it being in the fame polition as before. Hence
the longitude in is 16° 31' W.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
The courfe and departure are found as formerly,
and the middle latitude is 43° 25', to which bring the
edge of the index, and the horizontal parallel of 313,
the departure, will interfedf the index at 431, the dif¬
ference of longitude.
Prob. VI. Both latitudes and departure given, to
find the courfe, diftance, and difference of longitude.
Example. Let the latitude failed from be 42° $2' N,
2
A T I O N. Practice.
long. 90 17' W, the departure 230 miles W, and the Sea-Charts,
latitude come to 36° 18' N. Required the courfe and l""' "v”''"-1'
diftance lailed, and the longitude come to ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
Find the point of interfeftion of the horizontal paral¬
lel of 394, the difference of latitude, and the vertical
parallel of 250, the departure; to this point bring the
index, and the correfponding divifion thereon will be
467 miles, and the courfe on the fcale of degrees by
the edge of the index will be 32° 24'.
Take the interval between the latitudes on the en¬
larged meridian ; which being laid off from the centre
will reach to 512 : now the horizontal parallel of 312
will cut the vertical parallel of 323, the difference of
longitude, at the edge of the index. The longitude
come to is therefore 140 42' W.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
The courfe and diftance are to be found in the fame
manner as above. Then bring the index to 39° 33',
the middle latitude, and the horizontal parallel of 230
will interfedl the edge of the index at 324^, the differ-
rence of longitude.
Prob. VII. Given one latitude, diftance, and de¬
parture, to find the other latitude, courfe, and differ¬
ence of longitude.
Example. A fhip from latitude 32° 38'N, longi¬
tude 170 6'W, failed 386 miles between the fouth and
weft, and made 336 miles of departure :—Required the
courfe, and the latitude and longitude come to ?
By Mercator's Sailing.
Move the index till the diftance 386 interfedls the
vertical parallel of the departure 336 ; then the corre¬
fponding horizontal parallel will be 480, the difference
of latitude, and the courfe 35°. Hence the latitude
in is 240 38' N.
Now take the interval between the latitudes on the
enlarged meridian, which laid off from the centre will
reach to 347, the horizontal parallel of which will cut
the vertical parallel of 383, the difference of longitude.
The longitude in is therefore 23° 29' W.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.
Find the courfe and difference of latitude as before,
and hence the middle latitude is 28° 38', to which
bring the index, and the horizontal parallel of 336,
the departure, will interfedl the index at 383, the
difference of longitude.
It feems unneceffary to enlarge any further on the
ufe of this inftrument, as the above will make it fuf-
fieiently underftood.
Chap. XII. Of Sea-Charts.
The charts ufually employed in the pradtice of na¬
vigation, are of two kinds, namely, Plane and Mer¬
cator's Charts. The firft of thefe is adapted to repre-
fent a portion of the earth’s furface near the equator;
and the laft for all portions of the earth’s furface. For
a particular defeription of thefe, reference lias already
been made from the article Chart, to tliofe of Plane
and Mercator : and as thefe charts are particularly
deferibed under the above articles, it is therefore fuf-
fieient in this place to deferibe their ufe.
Vfi
Practice. N A V I G
Sea-Cl^-tS; ^ Qjthe plane charL
Prob. I. To find the latitude of a place on the chart.
Rule. Take the lead diftance between the given
place and the neareft parallel of latitude j now' this
diftance applied the fame way on the graduated me¬
ridian, from the extremity of the parallel, will give the
latitude of the propofed place.
Thus the diftance between Bonavifta and the pa¬
rallel of i 5 degrees, being laid from that parallel upon
the graduated meridian, will reach to i6° 5', the lati¬
tude required.
Prob. II. To find the courfe and diftance between
two given places on the chart.
Rule. Lay a ruler over the given places, and take
the neareit diftance between the centre of any of the
compalfes on the chart and the edge of the ruler ; move
this extent along, fo as one point of the compafs may
touch the edge of the rule, and the ftraight line joining
their points may be perpendicular thereto ; then will
the other point fhow the courfe : The interval between
the places, being applied to the fcale, will give the re¬
quired diftance.
Thus the courfe from Palma to St Vincent will be
found to be about SSW L W, and the diftance 13°^- or
795 m-
Prob. III. The courfe and diftance failed from a
known place being given, to find the ftiip’s place on the
chart.
Rule. Lav a ruler over the place failed from, pa¬
rallel to the rhumb, exprefling the given courfe ; take
the diftance from the fcale, and lay it off from the
given place by the edge of the ruler •, and it will give
the point reprefenting the (hip’s prefent place.
Thus, fuppofe a (hip had failed SW/6W 160 miles
from Cape Palmas 5 then by proceeding as above, it
will be found that (he is in latitude 2° 57' N.
The various other problems that may be refolved
by means of this chart require no further explanation,
being only the conftrudtion of the remaining problems
in Plane Sailing on the chart.
Ufe of Mercator's Chart.
The method of finding the latitude and longitude of
a place, and the courfe or bearing between two given
places bv this chart, is performed exactly in the man¬
ner as in the Plane Chart, which fee.
Prob. I. To find the diftance between two given
places on the chart.
Case I. When the given places are under the fame
meridian.
Rule. The difference or fum of their latitudes, ac¬
cording as they are on the fame or on oppofite Tides of
the equator, will be the diftance required.
Case II. When the given places are under the fame
parallel.
Rule. If that parallel be the equator, the difference
or fum of their longitudes is the diftance otherwife,
take half the interval between the places, lay it off" up¬
wards and downwards on the meridian from the given
parallel, and the intercepted degrees will be the diftance
between the places.
A T I O N. 687
Or, take an equal extent of a few degrees from the Metliod
meridian on each fide of the parallel, and the number of
extents, and parts of an extent, contained between the tude an(j
places, being multiplied by the length of an extent, will Longitude
give the required diftance. at Sea.
Case III. When the given places differ both inlati-
tude and longitude.
Rule. Find the difference of latitude between the
given places, and take it from the equator or gradu¬
ated parallel; then lay a ruler over the two places, and
move one point of the compafs along the edge of the
ruler until the other point juft touches a parallel j
then the diftance between the place where the point
of the compafs refted by the edge of the ruler, and
the point of interfeblion of the ruler and parallel, be¬
ing applied to the equator, will give the diftance be¬
tween the places in degrees and parts of a degree,
which multiplied by 6c will reduce it to miles.
Prob. II. Given the latitude and longitude in, to
find the (hip’s place on the chart.
Rule. Lay a ruler over the given latitude, and
lay off the given longitude from the firft meridian by
the edge of the ruler, and the fhip’s prefent place will
be obtained.
Prob. III. Given the courfe failed from a known
place, and the latitude in, to find the fhip’s prefent
place on the chart.
Rule. Lay a ruler over the place failed from, in
the direftion of the given courfe, and its interfe&ion
with the parallel of latitude arrived at will be the (hip’s
prefent place.
Prob. IV. Given the latitude of the place left and
the courfe and diftance failed, to find the (hip’s prefent
place on the chart.
Rule. The ruler being laid over the place failed
from, and in the diredlion of the given courfe, take the
diftance failed from the equator, put one point of the
compafs at the interfe£lion of any parallel with the ru¬
ler, and the other point of the compafs will reach to a
certain place by the edge of the ruler. Now this point
remaining in the fame pofition, draw in the other point
of the compafs until it juft touch the above parallel
when fweeped round : apply this extent to the equator,
and it will give the difference of latitude. Hence the
latitude in will be known, and the interfeftion of the
correfponding parallel with the edge of the ruler will be
the (hip’s prefent place.
The other problems of Mercator’s Sailing may be
very eafily refolved by this chart ; but as they are of
lefs ufe than thofe given, they are, therefore, omitted,
and may ferve as an exercife to the (Indent.
BOOK II.
Containing the method of finding the Latitude and
Longitude of a Ship at Sea, and the Variation of
the Compafs.
Chap. I. Of Hadley's Quadrant.
Hadley’s quadrant is the chief inftrument in ufe at
prefent for obferving altitudes at fea. The form of
this inftrument, according to the prefent mode of
conftrubtion,
688 NAVIGATION. Pradice.
Method conflruftion, is an o&agonal feftoi* of a circle, and
^'hetherefore contains 45 degrees; but becaufe of the
tude and double refleftion, the limb is divided into 90 degrees.
Longitude See Astronomy and Quadrant. Fig. 54. reprefents
at Sea. a quadrant of the common conftrudtion, of which the
" PIaT~ following are the principal parts.
CGCLXVII A.B C, the frame of the quadrant.
Yig. 54. 2. JBC, the arch or limb.
3. D, the index ; ab, the fubdividing fcale.
4. E, the index-glafs.
5. F, the fore horizon-glafs.
6. G, the back horizon-glafs.
7. K, the coloured or dark glaffes.
8. HI, the vanes or fights.
Of the Frame of the Quadrant.
The frame of the quadrant conlifts of an arch BC,
firmly attached to the two radii AB, AC, which are
bound together by the braces LM, in order to ftrengthen
it, and prevent it from warping.
Of the Index D.
The index is a flat bar of brafs, and turns on the
centre of the octant: at the lower end of the index
there is an oblong opening ; to one fide of this open¬
ing the vernier fcale is fixed, to fubdivide the divi-
fions of the arch ; at the end of the index there is a
piece of brafs, which bends under the arch, carrying
a fpring to make the fubdividing fcale lie clofe to the
divifions. It is alfo furniflied with a ferew to fix the
index in any defired pofition. The bell inltruments
have an adjufting ferew fitted to the index, that it may¬
be moved more flowly, and with greater regularity
and accuracy, than by the hand. It is proper, how¬
ever, to obferve, that the index mufi: be previoufly
fixed near its right pofition by the above-mentioned
ferew.
Of the Index Glafs E.
Upon the index, and near its axis of motion, is fixed
a plane fpeculum, or mirror of glafs quickfilvered. It
is fet in a brafs frame, and is placed fo that its face is
perpendicular to the plane of the inftrument. This
mirror being fixed to the index moves along with it,
and has its direction changed by the motion thereof;
and the intention of this glafs is to receive the image
of the fun, or any other objeft, and refleft it upon
either of the two horizon-glaffes, according to the na¬
ture of the obfervation.
The brafs frame with the glafs is fixed to the index
by the ferew c ; the other ferew ferves to re-place it in
a perpendicular pofition, if by any accident it has been
deranged.
Of the Hori'zon Glaffes F, G.
On the radius AB of the odlant are two fmall fpe-
culums : the furface of the upper one is parallel to the
index glafs, and that of the lower one perpendicular
thereto, when 0 on the index coincides with 0 on the
limb. Thefe mirrors receive the jeflefted rays, and
tranfmit them to the obferver.
The horizon-glaffes are not entirely quickfilvered;
the upper one F is only filvered on its lower half, or
that next the plane of the quadrant, the other half be¬
ing left tranfparent, and the back part of the frame
cut a-way, that nothing may impede the fight through Method
the unfilvered part of the glafs. The edge of the foil of findinS
of this glafs is nearly parallel to the plane of the in- tude^and
ftrument, and ought to be very fharp, and without a Longitude
flaw. The other horizon glafs is filvered at both ends, at Sea.
In the middle there is a tranfparent flit through which v—-v—
the horizon may be feen.
Each of thefe glaffes is fet in a brafs frame, to which
there is ai) axis pafling through the wood work, and is
fitted to a lever on the under fide of the quadrant, by
which the glafs may be turned a few degrees on its axis,
in order to fet it parallel to the index-glafs. The lever
has a contrivance to turn it flowly, and a button to fix
it. To fet the glaffes perpendicular to the plane of the
infirument, there are two funk ferews, one before and
one behind each glafs : thefe ferews pafs through the
plate on which the frame is fixed into another plate;
fo that by loofening one and tightening the other of
thefe ferews, the direftion of the frame with its mir¬
ror may be altered, and fet perpendicular to the plane
of the inftrument.
Of the Coloured Glajfes K.
There are ufually three coloured glaffes, two of
which are tinged red and the other green. They are
ufed to prevent the falar rays from hurting the eye at
the time of obfervation. Thefe glaffes are fet in a
frame, which turns on a centre, fo that they may be
ufed feparately or together as the brightnefs of the
fun may require. The green glafs is particularly ufe-
ful in obfervations of the moon; it may be alfo ufed
in obfervations of the fun, if that objedt be very faint.
In the fore-obfervation, thefe glaffes are fixed as in fig.
54.; but when the back obfervation is ufed, they are
removed to N.
Of the two Sight Vanes, H, I.
Each of thefe vanes is a perforated piece of brafs,
defigned to direct the fight parallel to the plane of the
quadrant. That which is fixed at I is ufed for the fore,
and the other for the back, obfervation. The vane I
has two holes, one exactly at the height of the filvered
part of the horizon-glafs, the other a little higher, to
direct the fight to the middle of the tranfparent part
of the mirrror.
Of the divifions on the Limb of the Quadrant.
The limb.’of the quadrant is divided from right to left
into 90 primary divifions, which are to be confidered as
degrees, and each degree is fubdivided into three equal
parts, which are therefore of 20 minutes each : the in¬
termediate minutes are obtained by means of the fcale
of divifions at the end of the index.
Of the Vernier, or Subdividing Scale.
The dividing fcale contains a fpace equal to 21 di¬
vifions of the limb, and is divided into 20 equal parts.
Hence the difference between a divifion on the dividing
fcale and a divifion on the limb is one-twentieth of a
divifion on the limb, or one minute. The degree and
minute pointed out by the dividing fcale may be eafily
found thus.
Obferve what minute on the dividing fcale coincides
with a divifion on the limb ; this divifion being added
to the degree and part of a degree on the limb, imme-
Pra&ice.
NAVIGATION
68 a
Method diately preceding tlie hrft divifion on the dividing fcale,
of finding degree and minute required,
the Lat!- q'jjUS foppofe the fourteenth minute on the dividing
Longitude fcale coincided with a divifion on the limb, and that tne
at Sea. preceding divifion on the limb to o on the vernier was
V   j6° 40' \ hence the divifion fhovvn by the vernier is
56° 54'. A magnifying glafs tvill aflift the obferver to
read off the coinciding divifions with more accuracy.
Adjuflments of Hadley's Quadrant.
The adjuflments of the quadrant confift in placing
the mirrors perpendicular to the plane of the iniiru-
ment. The fore horizon-glafs mull be fet parallel to
the fpeculum, and the planes of the fpeculum and back
horizon .glafs produced mull be perpendicular to each
other when the index is at 0.
Adjustment I. To fet the index-glafs perpendicu¬
lar to the plane of the quadrant.
Fig. 55. and Method 1. Set the index towards the middle of the
3$. * limb, and hold the quadrant fo that its plane may be
nearly parallel to the horizon : then look into the in¬
dex-glafs •, and if the portion of the limb feen by re¬
flexion appears in the fame plane with that feen direct¬
ly, the fpeculum is perpendicular to the plane of the in-
ftrument. If they do not appear in the fame plane, the
error is to be rectified by altering the pofition of the
fcrews behind the frame of the glafs.
Method 2. This is performed by means of the two
adjufling tools, fig. 55, 56, which are two Wooden
frames, having two lines oil each, exactly at the fame
diflance from the bottom.
Place the quadrant in a horizontal pofition on a
table \ put the index about the middle of the arch j turn
back the dark glaffes; place one of the above-mention¬
ed tools near one end of the arch, and the other at the
oppofite end, the fide with the lines being towards the
index-glafs j then look into the index-glafs, direXing
the fight parallel to the plane of the inflrument, and
one of the tools will be feen by direX vifion, and the
other by refleXion. By moving the index a little, they
may be brought exaXly together. If the lines coin¬
cide, the pofition of the mirror is right; if not, they
irtufl be made to coincide by altering the fcrews behind
the frame, as before.
Adjustment II. To fet the fore horizon-glafs per¬
pendicular to the plane of the inftrument.
Set the index to 0 ; hold the plane of the quadrant
parallel to the horizon ; direX the fight to the hori¬
zon, and if the horizons feen direXly and by reflec¬
tion are apparently in the fame llraight line, the fore
horizon-glafs is perpendicular to the plane of the in-
ftrument; if not, one of the horizons will appear
higher than the other. Now if the horizon feen by
refleXion is higher than that feen direXly, releafe the
neareft fcrew in the pedeftal of the glafs, and fcrew up
that on the farther fide, till the direX and refleXed
horizons appear to make one continued ftraight line.
But if the refleXed horizon is lower than that feen di¬
reXly, unfcrew the fartheft, and fcrew up the neareft
fcrew till the coincidence of the horizons is perfeX, ob-
ferving to leave both fcrews equally tight, and the fore
horizon-glafs will be perpendicular to the plane of the
quadrant.
Adjustment III. To fet the fore horizon-glafs
parallel to the index-glafs, the index being at 0.
Vol. XIV. Part II.
Set 0 on the index exaXly to 0 on the limb, and fix Method
it in that pofition by the fcrew at the under fide } hold qj1
the plane of the quadrant in a vertical pofition, and tut]e nq
direX the fight to a well-defined part of the horizon} L ngitude
then if the horizon feen in the filvered part coincides at Sea.
with that feen through the traniparent part, the horizon-
glafs is adjufted; but if the horizons do not coincide,
unferew the milled fcrew in the middle of the lever on
the other fide of the quadrant, and turn the nut at
the end of the lever until both horizons coincide, and
fix the lever in this pofition by tightening the milled
fcrew.
As the pofition of the glafs is liable to be altered by
fixing the lever, it will therefore be neceffary to re-ex¬
amine it, and if the horizons do not coincide, it will
be neceffary either to repeat the adjuilment, or rather
to find the error of adjuftment, or, as it is ufually cal¬
led, the index-error; which may be done thus :
DireX the fight to the horizon, and move the index
until the refleXed horizon coincides with that feen di¬
reXly 5 then the difference between 0 on the limb and
0 on the vernier is the index error j which is additive
when the beginning of the vernier is to the right of 0
on the limb, other wife fubtraXive.
Adjustment IV. To fet the back horizon-glafs per¬
pendicular to the plane of the inftrument.
Put the index to 0; hold the plane of the quadrant
parallel to the horizon, and direX the fight to the ho¬
rizon through the back fight vane. Now if the re¬
fleXed horizon is in the fame ftraight line with that feen
through the tranfparent part, the glafs is perpendicular
to the plane of the inftrument. If the horizons do not
unite, turn the funk fcrews in the pedeftal of the glafs
until they are apparently in the fame ftraight line.
Adjustment V. To fet the back horizon-glafs per¬
pendicular to the plane of the index-glafs produced, the
index being at 0.
Let the index be put as much to the right of 0 as
twice the dip of the horizon amounts to *, hold the
quadrant in a vertical pofition, and apply the eye to the
back vane •, then if the refleXed horizon coincides with
that feen direXly, the glafs is adjufted } if they do not
coincide, the fcrew in the middle of the lever on the
other fide of the quadrant muft be releafed, and the
nut at its extremity turned till both horizons coincide.
It may be obferved, that the refleXed horizon will be
inverted ; that is, the fea will be apparently uppermoft
and the Iky lowermoft.
As this method of adjuftment is efteemed trouble-
fome, and is often found to be very difficult to perform
at fea, various contrivances have therefore been propo-
fed to render this adjuftment more Ample. Some of
thefe are the following.
I. Mr Dollond’s method of adjufting the back hori¬
zon-glafs.
In this method an index is applied to the back hori¬
zon-glafs, by which it may be moved fo as to be paral¬
lel to the index-glafs, when 0 on the vernier coincides
with 0 on the limb. When this is effeXed, the index
of the back horizon-glafs is to be moved exaXly 90°
from its former pofition, which is known by means of a
divided arch for that purpofe } and then the plane of
the back horizon-glafs will be perpendicular to the plane
of the index-glafs produced.
* 4 S 2. Mr
6go
NAVIGATION.
Practice.
* Method
the Latf 2' of adjufting the back hori-
tude aand zon-glafs.
Longitude
at Sea. All that is required in this method is to polifh the
‘T--v lower edge of the index-glafs, and expofe it to view.
The back horizon-glafs is adjufted by means of a re-
fleclion from this pollflied edge, in the very fame me¬
thod as the fore horizon-glafs is adjufted by the com¬
mon method.
Fig. 57. Jn order to illuftrate this, let RIHE (fig. re-
prefent a pencil of rays emitted from the objeft R, in¬
cident on the index-glafs I, from which it is refledfed to
the fore horizon-glafs H, and thence to the eye at E.
.By this double reftedtion, an image of the objedt is
formed at r. RHE reprefents another pencil from the
fame objedt R, coming diredtlv through the fore ho¬
rizon-glafs to the eye at E ; fo that the doubly retledted
image r appears coincident with the objedt R itfelf, fcen
diredtly.
When this coincidence is perfedt, and the objedt R
fo very diftant as to make the angle IRH infenlxble, the
pofition of the fpecuiums I and H will differ infenfibly
from parallelifm } that is, the quadrant will be adjufted
for the fore obfervation. Now it is from the eafe and
accuracy with which this adjuftment can at any time
be made, that the fore-obfervation derives its fuperiori-
ty over the back obfervation. But by grinding the
edge of the index-glafs perpendicular to its refledling
furface, and polilhing it, the obfervation is rendered ca¬
pable of an adjuftment equally eafy and accurate as
the fore horizon-glafs : for by a pencil of rays emitted
from the objedf S, incident on the refledling edge of the
index-glafs D, thence refledted to the back horizon-
glafs B, and from that to the eye at e, an image will
be formed at r ; which image being made to coincide
with the objecf S itfelf, feen diredtly, afcertains the po¬
fition of the back horizon-glafs relative to the index-
glafs, with the fame precifion, and in a manner equally
diredt, as the former operation does that of the fore
horizon-glafs.
Directions for <u]nfling the Bach Horixon-G/af,
The method of adjufting the quadrant for the back-
obfervation is this. If it is to be done without making
ufe of the telefcope, place the index at 0, and, ap¬
plying the eye to the hole in the fight vane (k), or
tube for diredting the fight, diredl it through the
back horizon-glafs to the horizon, if that is the ob¬
jedt to be ufed for adjufting. The two horizons are
then to be made to coincide, holding the quadrant firft
in- a vertical and then in a horizontal pofition *, by
which means both adjuftments will be effedted as in the
fore-obfervation.
There will be no difficulty in finding the refledted
horizon, if the obferver firft diredts his eye to that part
of the horizon-glafs where he obferves the image of
the polifhed edge of the index-glafs, which will ap¬
pear double. When the dxredt horizon is made to ap- Method
pear in this cafe, the refledted one will be feen elofe by finding
it, unlefs the inftrument wants a great adjuftment. In
this cafe, a little motion of the back horizon-glafs back- Longitude
wards and forwards will prefently bring it in view. at Sea.
When the horizon, or any obfeure terreftrial ob->»
jedt, is to be made ufe of for adjufting by means of
the refledting edge, there is a precaution to be taken,
without which the obferver will fometimes meet with
what will appear an unaccountable difficulty •, for if the
Iky, or other objedf behind him, fhould happen to be
pretty bright, he will not be able to difeern the horizon
at all. This arifes from the image of the objedt be¬
hind him, which is refledted from the filvered furface
of the index glafs, appearing to coincide with the ho¬
rizon ; in which cafe, the bright pidture of the for¬
mer, which is formed in the bottom of the eye, pre¬
vents the fainter impreffion of the latter from being
perceived. This will be avoided, either by apply¬
ing a black fereen over the filvered furface of the
index-glafs, or, without being at this trouble, oy
Handing at a door or window, fo that only the dark
objects within can be refiecled from the index-glafs :
but if the obfervation is to be made in the open air,
a hat, or any fuch dark obftacle, held before the filver¬
ed furface of the index-glafs, will very effedlually re¬
move this inconvenience.
It may be remarked, that fome obfervers, inftead
of making the principal adjuftment, place the fpecuiums
parallel, by moving the index without altering the
pofition of the horizon-glafs : and the difference be¬
tween 0 on the vernier and 0 on the limb is the index
error, which muff be fubtradled from all angles mea-
fured by the back-obfervation, when 0 on the index,
is to the right of 0 on the limb } and added when to the
left.
3. Mr Wright’s method of adjufting the back hori¬
zon-glafs of his improved patent quadrant.
Fig. 58. Is a reprefentation of the quadrant com-Fi"'. 5S.
plete in all its parts for ufe. A, is the refiedling fur¬
face of the index-glafs, which is made of the ufual
length, and of an inch broad. The bottom part
is covered in front by the brafs frame, and the reflec¬
ting furface is on the back. B, the fore horizon-
glafs, placed as ufual: O, the back horizon-glafs, now
placed under the fore fight-vane on the firft radius of
the quadrant I: C, the fight-vane of the fore horizon-
glafs : D, the fight-vane of the back horizon-glafs :
E, the coloured glaffes in a brafs frame, in the proper
place for the fore obfervation : F, a hole in the frame
to receive the coloured glaffes when an obfervation is
to be taken wfith the back horizon-glafs in the common
way, by turning the back to the fun : G, a hole in the
frame of the fartheft radius K, to receive the coloured
glaffes when an obfervation is to be taken by the new
method ; which is by looking through the lowrer hole
in the fight-vane of the back horizon-glafs, diretlly
at
(k) Befides the hole in the fight-vane, commonly made, there muff be another nearer to the horizon-glafs, and
fo placed that an eye diredled through it to the centre of the horizon glafs fhall there perceive the image of the
polifhed edge of the index-glafs. T his hole muft not be made fmall like the other, but equal to the ordinary fize
of the pupil of the eye, there being on fome occafions no light to fpare.
5
Pra&ice.
NAVIGATION.
69
Method at the fun in the line of light DN > the horizon ftom
of finding behind will then be reflefted from the back of the in-
th« Lati- de kl-s to t}ie horizon-glafs, and from thence to tlie
Un'itTde eye. (See fig. 62.). H, a brafs clamp on the upper
at*Sea. end of the index, having a milled ferew underneath,
’ « 1 which fallens the round plate to the index when re¬
quired. (See fig. 59.). IK, the graduated arch of the
quadrant divided into 90 degrees : L, the brafs index
which moves over the graduat ed arch : M, the vernier
to fubdivide the divifions on the arch into fingle minutes
of a degree.
Fig. 59. Fig. 59. (hows the upper part of the index L on a
larger fcale, with part of the brais frame that fallens
the index-glafs, and the three adjufting ferews D to
adjuft its axis vertical to the plane of the quadrant:
B, the centre on which the milled plate O moves over
the index: The dotted line BF is the dillance it is
required to move : K, the adjulling ferew to Hop it in
its proper place for adjulling the back obfeivation-
glafs : G, a piece of brafs fattened to the index op-
polite to the clamp H, to keep the plate O always clofe
to the index L.
Fi°'. 60. Fig. 60. reprefents the parallel pofition of the in¬
dex and horizon glaffes after adjuilment by the tun.
BC, a ray from the fun incident on the index-glafs
C, and from thence refledted to the fore horizon-glafs
D, and again to the eye at E, in the line D£, where
the eye fees the fun at A by diredl viljon, and the
image by retledlion, in one •, the parallel lines AE and
BC being fo near to each other, that no apparent
angle can be obferved in the planes of the index and
horizon-glafs, when adjulted by a uiilant objedl.
Tig. 61. In fig. 61. the index glafs is removed 45 degrees
from the plane of the fore horizon-glafs, and fixed in its
proper place for adjulling the back horizon-glafs pa¬
rallel to its plane, in the fame manner as the fore ho¬
rizon-glafs is adjulled.
Fig. 62. In 'fig. 62. the index-glafs (after the adjuilment of
the fore and back horizon-glaffes) is carried forward
by the index on the arch,90 degrees, and makes an
angle of 450 with the plane of the fore horizon- glafs,
and is at right angles to the plane of the back hori¬
zon-glafs. The eye at E now fees the fun in the ho¬
rizon at H, refledted by the index and horizon glaffes
from the zenith at Z, the image and object being 90
degrees diftant. The back horizon K is now refledted
from the back furface of the index-glafs C to the ho¬
rizon-glafs M, and from thence to the eye at D, in
a right line with the fore horizon F. In order to make
an exadt contadl of the fore and back horizons at F,
the index mull be advanced beyond the 90th degree-
on the arch, by a quantity equal to twice the dip of
the horizon.
The quadrant is adjulled for the fore-obfervation as
ufual, having previoufly fixed the. index-glafs in its pro¬
per place by the milled ferevv at H, as reprefented in
%• 59-
To adjujl the Quadrant for the Bach-obfervation.
Fallen the index to 90° on the limb j loofen the ferew
H (fig. 59.), and turn the plate O by the milled edge
until the end of the adjulling ferew K touch the edge
of the clamp M ; and by means of a dillant objedl
obferve if the glaffes are then parallel, as at fig. 60.: if
they are, fallen the ferew H j if not, with a ferew-dri-
ver turn the ferew K gently to the right or left to make
them perfedl, and then fallen the ferew. Now remove
the index back to O on the limb, and the index-glafs
will be parallel to the back horizon glafs E, fig. 61. ;
If not, make them fo by turning the adjuiting ferew
of the glafs E, the eye being at the upper hole in the
fight-vane D, and the fight direfted to the horizon,
or any dillant objedl in the direction DN (fig-. 5^*)*
Now the index remaining in this politioil, the index-
glafs is to be returned, to Hop at the pin E, and it will
be parallel to the fore horizon-glafs as at fil'd : then
the quadrant will be adjuded for both methods of cb-
fervation.
To obferve the Sun's Altitude by the Back-objervation.
Remove the coloured glaffes to G (fig- an(^
look through the lower hole in the fight-vane D, in
the line of diredlion DN, diredlly to the lun, and move
tne index forward on the arch exadlly in the lame man¬
ner as in the fore-obfervation : make the contadl of
the fun’s limb and the back horizon exadt, and the
degrees and minutes fliown by the index on the limb
is the fun’s zenith diHance. It may be obferved, that
the horizon will be inverted. If the lun’s lower limb
be obferved, the femidiameter is to be fubtradkd from
the zenith diftance j but if the upper limb is obferved,
the femidiameter is to be added.
The obfervation may be made in the ufual manner,
by turning the back to the lun. In this cale the co¬
loured glaffes are to be Ihifted to I, and proceed ac¬
cording to the diredlions formerly given.
life of Hadley's Quadrant.
The altitude of any objedl is determined by the po¬
fition of the index on the limb, when by refiedlion that
objedl appears to be in contadl with the horizon.
If the object whole altitude is to be obferved be the
fun, and if io bright that its image may be feen in the
Iranfparent part of the fore horizon-glafs, the eye is
to be applied to the upper hole in the light vane ;
otherwife, to the lower hole : and in this cafe, the qua¬
drant is to be held fo that the fun may be bifedled by
the line of feparation of the filvered and tranfparent
parts of the glafs. The moon is to be kept as nearly
as poflible in the fame pofition ; and the image of the
Har is to be obferved in the filvered part of the glafs
adjacent to the line of feparation of the two parts.
There are two different methods of taking obferva-
tions with the quadrant. In the firit of thefe the face
of the obferver is diredled towards that part of the ho¬
rizon immediately under the fun, and is therefore call¬
ed the/w<? obfervation. In the other method, the ob-
ferver’s back is to the fun, audit is hence called the
bach-obfervation. This laff method of obfervation is to
be ufed only when the horizon under the fun is ob-
feured, or rendered indiffindl by fog or any other im¬
pediment.
In taking the fun’s altitude, whether by the fore or
back obfervation, the obferver muff turn the quadrant
about upon the axis of vifion, and at the fame time turn
himfelf about upon his heel, fo as to keep the fun al¬
ways in that part of the horizon glafs which is at the
fame diffance as the eye from the plane of the quadrant.
In this way the relieved fun will deferibe an arch of
a parallel circle round the true fun, whofe convex fide
4 S 2 * tvill
Method
of finding
the Lati¬
tude and
Longitude
at Sea.
692
Method will be downward? in the fore-obfervation and up-
th warc^s t^ie back 'y and confequently, when by moving
tude and index, the loweft point of the arch in the fore-ob-
Longitude fervation, or higheft in the back, is made to touch the
at Sea. horizon, the quadrant will Hand in a vertical plane,
and the altitude above the vifible horizon will be pro¬
perly obferved. The reafon of thefe operations may
be thus explained : The image of the fun being always
kept in the axis of vilion, the index will always {how
on the quadrant the diftance between the fun and any
objefl feen direftly which its image appears to touch j
therefore, as long as the index remains unmoved, the
image of the fun will defcribe an arch everywhere equi-
diiiant from the fun in the heavens, and confequently
a parallel circle about the fun, as a pole. Such a
tranflation of the fun’s image can only be produced by
the quadrant’s being turned about upon a line drawn
from the eye to the fun, as an axis. A motion of rota¬
tion upon this line may be refolved into two, one up¬
on the axis of vifion, and the other upon a line on the
quadrant perpendicular to the axis of vifion ) and con-
lequently a proper combination of thefe two motions
will keep the image of the fun conftantly in the axis
of vifion, and caufe both jointly to run over a parallel
circle about the fun in the heavens : but when the qua¬
drant is vertical, a line thereon perpendicular to the
v.xis of vifion, becomes a vertical axis j and as a fmall
motion of the quadrant is all that is wanted, it will
never differ much in pradlice from a vertical axis. The
obferver is directed to perform two motions rather
than the Jingle one equivalent to them on a line drawn
from the eye to the fun : becaufe we are not capable,
■while looking towards the horizon, of judging how
to turn the quadrant about upon the elevated line go¬
ing to the fun as an axis, by any other means than by
combining the tcvo motions above mentioned, fo as to
keep the fun’s image always in the proper part of the
horizon glafs. When the fun is near the horizon, the
line going from the eye to the fun will not be far re¬
moved from the axis of vifion *, and confequently the
principal motion of the quadrant will be performed
on the axis of vifion, and the part of motion made on
the vertical axis will be but fmall. On the contrary,
when the fun is near the zenith, the line going to the
fun is not far removed from a vertical line, and confe¬
quently the principal motion of the quadrant will be
performed on a vertical axis, by the obferver’s turning
himfelf about, and the part of the motion made on the
axis of vifion will be but final]. In intermediate alti¬
tudes of the fun, the motions of the quadrant on the
axis of vifion, and on the vertical axis, will be more
equally divided.
Obfervations taken with the quadrant are liable to
errors, arifing from the bending and elafticity of the
index, and the refifiance it meets with in turning-
round its centre : whence the extremity of the index,
on being pufhed along the arch, will fenfibly advance
before the index-glafs begins to move, and may be
feen to recoil when the force afting on it is removed.
Mr Hadley feems to have been apprehenfive that his
inftrument would be liable to errors from this caufe }
and in order to avoid them, gives particular directions
that the index be made broad at the end next the cen¬
tre, and that the c«ntre, or axis itfelf, have as eafy a
motion as is confiftent with fteadinefs} that is, an ea~
Practice.
tire freedom from loofenefs, or Jhake, as the workmen Method
term it. By ftrictly complying with thefe diredlions ^n^1T1S
the error in queilion may indeed be greatly diminifhed; tud/and
fo far, perhaps, as to render it nearly infeniible, where Longitude
the index is made firong, and the proper medium be- at Sea.
tween the two extremes of a {hake at the centre on one -■ —
hand, and too much fiiffnefs there on the other, is nice¬
ly hit but it cannot be entirely corredled. For to
more or lefs of bending the index will always be fub-
je£t , and fome degree of refiftance will remain at the
centre, unlefs the fridlion there could be totally remov¬
ed, which is impoffible.
Of the reality of the error to which he is liable
from this caufe, the obferver, if he is provided with a
quadrant furniihed with a fcrew for moving the index
gradually, may thus fatisfy himfelf. After finifhing
the obfervation, lay the quadrant on a table, and note
the angle , then cautioufiy loofen the fcrew which fa-
ftens the index, and it will immediately, if the qua¬
drant is not remarkably well conitrudted, be feen to
Hart from its former fituation, more or lefs according
to the perfection of the joint and the ftrength of the
index. This ftarting, which is owing to the index
recoiling after being releafed from the confined ftate
it was in during the obfervation, will iometimes amount
to ftveral minutes 5 and its direftion will be oppofite
to that in w'hieh the index was moved by the fcrew
at the time of finifhing the obfervation. But how far
is affedts the truth of the obfervation, depends on the
manner in which the index was moved in fetting it to
0, for adjufting the inftrument j or in finifhing the ob¬
fervations neceffary for finding the index error.
The eafieft and beft rule to avoid thefe errors feems
to be this : In all obfervations made by Hadley’s qua¬
drant, let the obferver take notice conftantly to finifti
his obfervations, by moving the index in the fame di-
redlion which was ufed in fetting it to 0 for adjufting 5
or in the obfervations neceffary for finding the index
error. If this rule is obferved, the error arifing from
the fpring of the index will be obviated. For as the
index was bent the fame way, and in the fame degree
in adjufting as in obferving, the truth ol the obferva¬
tions will not be affedfed by this bending.
To take Altitudes by the Fore-obfervation.
I. Of the Sun.
Turn down either of the coloured glaiTes before
the horizon glafs, according to the brightnefs of the
fun *, diredl the fight to that part of the horizon which
is under the fun, and move the index until the colour¬
ed image ef the fun appear in the horizon-glafs ) then
give the quadrant a flow vibratory motion about the
axis of vifion ; move the index until the lower or up¬
per limb of the fun is in contaft with the horizon,
at the loweft part of the arch deferibed by this mo¬
tion •, and the degrees and minutes ftiown by the index
on the limb will be the altitude of the fun.
II. Of the Moon.
Put the index to 0, turn down the green glais,
place the eye at the lower hole in the fight vane, and.
obferve the moon in the filvered part of the horizon-
glafs v move the index gradually, and follow the moon’s
refle&ed image until the enlightened limb is in contact
with
NAVIGATION.
Pniflice.
NAVIGATION.
693
Method with the horizon, at the lower part of the arch defcrib-
of timling tp,e vibratory motion as before, and the index
tudelmd ^low t^ie a^tUl^e l^e °hferved limb of the moon.
Longitude If the obfervation is made in the day -time, the coloured
at Sea glafs is unneceflary.
III. Of a Star or Vianet.
The index being put to 0, diredl: the fight to the
ftar through the lower hole in the fight-vane and tranf-
parent part of the horizon-glafs j move the plane of
the quadrant a very little to the left, and the image of
the liar will be feen in the filvered part of the glafs.
Now move the index, and the image of the liar will
appear to defcend : continue moving the index gradual¬
ly until the ftar is in contadft with the horizon at the
loweft part of the arch defcribed ; and the degrees and
minutes ftiown by the index on the limb will be the al¬
titude of the ftar.
To take Altitudes by the Eack-obfervation.
I. Of the Sun.
Put the Item of the coloured glafles into the perfo¬
ration between tire horizon-glafles, turn down either
according to the brightnefs of the fun, and hold the
quadrant vertically } then direft the fight through
the hole in the back fight-vane, and the tranfparent
flit in the horizon-glafs to that part of the horizon
which is oppofite to the fun j now move the index
till the fun is in the filvered part of the glafs, and by
giving the quadrant a vibratory motion, the axis of
which is that of vifion, the image of the fun will de-
fcribe an arch v-hofe convex fide is upwards ; bring
the limb of the fun, when in the upper part of this
arch, in contact with the horizon 5 and the index will
(how the altitude of the other limb of the fun.
II. Of the Moon.
The altitude of the moon is obferved in the fame
manner as that of the fun, with this difference only, that
the ufe of the coloured glafs is unneceflary unlefs the
moon is very bright ; and that the enlightened limb,
whether it be the upper or lower, is to be brought in
contadl with the horizon.
III. Of a Star or Vianet.
Look dire&ly to the ftar through the vane and tranf¬
parent flit in the horizon-glafs} move the index until
the oppofite horizon, with refpeft to the ftar, is feen in
the filvered part of the glafs •, and make the contact
perfedl as formerly. If the altitude of the ftar is known
nearly, the index may be fet to that altitude, the fight
diredted to the oppofite horizon, and the obfervation
made as before.
SECT. II. Of fading the Latitude of a Vlace.
The obfervation neceflary for afeertaining the lati¬
tude of a place, is that of the meridional altitude of a
known celeftial objeft *, or two altitudes when the ob-
jedl is out of the meridian. The latitude is deduced
with more certainty and with lefs trouble from the firft
of thefe methods, than from the fecond } and the fun,
for various reafons, is the objeft moft proper for this
purpofe at fea. It, however, frequently happens, that
by the interpofition of clouds, the fun is obfcured at Method
noon j and by this means the meridian altitude is loft.
In this cafe, therefore, the method by double altitudes tU(je and'
becomes neceflary. The latitude may be deduced from Longitude
three altitudes of an unknown objedt, or from double at Sea.
altitudes, the apparent times of obfervation being given. v
The altitude of the limb of an objedl obferved at fea,
requires four feparate corredlions in order to obtain the
true altitude of its centre : thefe are for femidiametery
dip, refraBion, and parallax. (See Astronomy, and
the refpedlive articles). The firft and laft of thefe
corredtions vaniih when the obferved obiedt is a fixed
ftar.
When the altitude of the lower limb of any objedt is
obferved, its femidiameter is to be added thereto in or¬
der to obtain the central altitude ) but if the upper
limb be obferved, the femidiameter is to be fubtradied.
If the altitude be taken by the back-obfervation, the
contrary rule is to be applied. The dip is to be fub¬
tradied from, or added to, the obferved altitude, ac¬
cording as the fore or back-obfervation is ufed. The
refradlion is always to be fubtradied from, and the pa¬
rallax added to, the obferved altitude.
Prob. I. To reduce the fun’s declination to any-
given meridian.
Rule. Find the number in Table IX. anfwering to
the longitude in the table neareft to that given, and to
the neareft day of the month. Noav, if the longitude
is weft, and the declination increafing, that is, from
the 20th of March to the 22d of June, and from the
22d of September to the 22d of December, the above
number is to be added to the declination : during the
other part of the year, or while the declination is de-
creafing, this number is to be fubtratfted. In eaft lon¬
gitude, the contrary rule is to be applied.
Ex. 1. Required the fun’s declination at noon 16th
April 1810, in longitude 84° W ?
Sun’s declination at noon at Greenwich 90 59.2' N*
Number from Table IX. + 5-°
Reduced declination - - -
Ex. 2. Required the fun’s declination
March 1793, in longitude 1510 E ?
Sun’s declination at noon at Greenwich
Equation from Table X. - -
10 4.2
at noon 22d
0° 53'N
— 10
Reduced declination - - o 43 N
Prob. II. Given the fun’s meridian altitude, to find
the latitude of the place of obfervation.
Rule. The fun’s femidiameter is to be added to, ^or
fubtradied from, the obferved altitude, according as the
lower or upper limb is obferved 5 the dip anfwering to
the height from Table V. is to be fubtradied if the
fore-obfervation is ufed ; otherwife, it is to be added ;
and the refradlion anfwering to the altitude from
Table IV. is to be fubtradied : hence the true altitude
of the fun’s centre will be obtained. Call the altitude
fouth or north, according as the fun is fouth or north
at the time of obfervation ; which fubtradied from 90°,
will give the zenith diftance of a contrary denomina¬
tion.
Reduce the fun’s declination to the meridian of the
place of obfervation, by Prob. 1.3 then the fum or dif¬
ference
694
Method
of finding
the Lati-
'tude and
Longitude
at Sea.
N A V I G
Ference oF tKc zenith diftance and declination, accord¬
ing as they are of the fame or of a contrary denomina¬
tion, will be the latitude of the place of obfervation, of
the fame name with the greater quantity.
Ex. I. Oflober 19. 1810, in longitude 3a0 E, the
meridian altitude of the fun’s lower limb was 48° 53' S,
height of the eye 18 feet. Required the latitude f*
Obs.alt fun’s lower limb 48°53'S Sun’sdec. to-06l.noon.9°5i'S
Semidiameter -f-o 16 Equation Table IX.— 2
Dip and refraction
5 Reduced declin. 9 49 S
True alt. fun’s centre 49 4 S Zenith diftance - 40 56 N
Latitude 31 7N
Ex. 2. November 16. 1812, in longitude 158° W,
the meridian altitude of the fun’s lower limb was 87°
,37'N, height of the eye 10 feet. Required the lati¬
tude ?
Obs.alt.fun’slow.limb87°37,N. Sun’sdec.noon.i
Semidiameter -j-o 16 Equation tab.-f-o 8
A T I G N. Practice.
the flap with fuificient exaflnefs for this purpofe, efpe- Method
cially when that diftance is not greater than lix miles ; ^ t!,^hng
which is the greateft diftance of the viftbie horizon tu^e
from an obftrver on the deck of any fliip. Longitude
at Sea.
Prob. III. Given the meridian altitude of a fixed■v—
ftar, to find the latitude of the place of obfervation.
Rule. Gorredl the altitude of the ftar by dip and
refraction, and find the zenith diftance of the ftar as
formerly *, take the declination of the ftar from Ta¬
ble XI. and reduce it to the time of obfervation. Now,
the fum or difference of the zenith diftance and decli¬
nation of the ftar, according as they are of the fame or
of a contrary name, will be the latitude of the place of
obfervation.
Ex. I. December 1. 1810, the meridian altitude of
Sirius v'as 590 50' S, height of the eye 14 feet. Re¬
quired the latitude ?
Obferved altitude of Sirius
Dip and refraction
59° 5o'S
—o 4
Dip and refraCt. —o 3 Reduced dec. 19 5S
True alt. fun’s centre 87 50 N. Zenith diftance 2 10 S
Latitude 21 6 S
Ex. 3. December 19. 1811, being nearly under the
meridian of Greenwich, the altitude of the fun’s upper
limb at noon was 40 30' S, height of the eye 20 feet.
Required the latitude ?
Obferved altitude of the fun’s upper limb 40 30' S
Sun’s femidiameter - - o 16
Dip and refraftion - - 0 I5
True altitude of the fun’s centre - 3 59 S
Zenith diftance - - - 86 1 N
Declination - - - 23 25 S
‘Latitude - - - 62 36 N
Ex. 4. Auguft 23. 1812, in longitude 107° E, the
meridian altitude of the fan’s lowTer limb by the back
obfervation was 6i° 8' N, and the height of the eye 14
feet. Required the latitude ?
Obferved altitude fun’s upper limb - 6i° 8'N
Sun’s femidiameter - - —o 16
Dip - - +0 3i
RefraCHon - - - —o
True altitude of fun’s centre
Zenith diftance
Reduced declination
60 cc N
29 “5S
11 26 N
Latitude - - - J7 39 S
The dip in Table V. anfwers to an entirely open and
unobftruCled horizon. It, however, frequently hap¬
pens, that the fun is over the land at the time of obfer¬
vation, and the {hip nearer to the land than the vifible
horizon would be if unconfined. In this cafe, the dip
will be different from what it would otherwife have
been, and is to be taken from Table VI. in which the
height is expreffed at the top, and the diftance from the
land in the fide column in nautical miles.—-Seamen, in
general, can eftimate the diftance of any objeCI from
True, altitude
Zenith diftance
Declination
Latitude
59 46 S
30 14 N
16 28 S
13 46 N
Ex. 2. February 17. 1797, the meridian altitude of
Procyon was 710 15' N, the height of the eye 10 feet.
Required the latitude ?
Obferved altitude of Procyon - 719 I j' N
Dip and refraftion - - o 3
True altitude
Zenith diftanee
Declination
71 12 N
18 48 S
5 43 N
Latitude
^ 5 s
PROB. IV. Given the meridian altitude of a planet,
to find the latitude of the place of obfervation.
Rule. Compute the true altitude of the planet as
direfted in laft problem (which is fufficiently accurate
for altitudes taken at fea) 5 take its declination from
the Nautical Almanac, p. iv. of the month, and re¬
duce it to the time and meridian of the place of obfer¬
vation } then the fum or difference of the zenith dif¬
tance and declination of the planet will be the latitude
as before. .
Ex. I. Auguft 7. 1812, the meridian altitude of Sa¬
turn was 68° 42' N, and height of the eye 15 feet.
Required the latitude ?
Obferved altitude of Saturn - 68° 42' N
Dip and refradlion - - —0 4
True altitude - - 68 38 N
Zenith diftance - “■ ^ 21 22 S
Declination - - 22 42 S
Latitude - » 44 6 S
Ex. 2. October T5. 1812, the meridian altitude of
Jupiter was 8i° 5' S, height of the tye 18 feet. Re¬
quired the latitude ?
Obferved
Practice.
Method Obferved altitude of Jupiter
of finding Dip
the Lati- r
Longitude True altitude
at Sea.
v—-•v Zenith diilance
Declination
Latitude - - -
N A V I G
8i° s'S
—° 3
- 81 2 S
8 58N
19 4 S
10 6 S
Prob. V. Given the meridian altitude of the moon,
to find the latitude of the place of obfervaticn.
+ Dr Mac- Rule. Take the number f anfwering to the (hip’s
kny\t TVea-longitude, and daily variation of the moon’s palling the
tife 072 the mej-Jdian 5 which being applied to the time of paflage
Tabf XX^’ given in the Nautical Almanac, will give the time of
the moon’s paflage over the meridian of the (flip.
Reduce this time to the meridian of Greenwich ; and
bv means of the Nautical Almanac find the moon’s de¬
clination, horizontal parallax, and femidiameter at the
reduced time.
Apply the femidiameter and dip to the obferved alti¬
tude of the limb, and the apparent altitude of the moon’s
centre wiil be obtained ; to which add the correftion
anfwering to the apparent altitude and horizontal paral¬
lax L and the fum will be the true altitude of the
moon’s centre ; which fubtra&ed from 90°, the remain¬
der is the zenith diftanee, and the fum or difference of
the zenith diftance and declination, according as they
are of the fame or of a contrary name, will be the lati¬
tude of the place of obfervation.
Ex. I. December 24. 1792, in longitude 30° W,
the meridian altitude of the moon’s lower limb was
8i° 1 5' N, height of the eye 1 2 feet. Required the
latitude ?
Time of paff. over the mer. of Greenwich r= 9b 19'
Equation Table XX. _ - - 4-0 4
| Ditto,
Tab. XX.
Time of paff. over mer. (hip
Longitude in time - - -
Reduced time -
Moon’s dec. at midnight. Table IX.
Eq. to time from midnight
Reduced declination
Moon’s hor. par. - - -
Moon’s femidiameter
Augmentation
Aug. femidiameter
9 23
2 o
11 23
= i4°53,N
— ° 4
14 49 N
5J' 25,/
15 6
+ o T4
15 20
A T I O N.
Obferved altitude of the moon’s lower limb 8i° I5'N
Semidiameter - - - 4. o 15
Dip - . - -*—03
Apparent altitude of the moon’s centre
Correction -
81
•»j- o
27 N
8
695
Method
of finding
the Lati¬
tude and
Longitude
at Sea.
True altitude of moon’s centre
Zenith dittance
Declination
81 35 N
8 25 S
14 49 N
Latitude - - - 6 42 N
Remark. If the objedt be on the meridian below the
pole at the time of obfervation, then the fum of the true
altitude and the complement of the declination is the
latitude, of the fame name as the declination or altitude.
Ex. 1. July 2* 1812, in longitude 150 W, the alti¬
tude of the fun’s lower limb at midnight was 8° 58'
height of the eye 18 feet. Required the latitude ?
Obferved altitude fun’s lower limb - 8° 58'
Semidiameter - - - -f-o 16
Dip and refradlion - - . —o 10
True altitude of fun’s centre - - 9 4 N
Compl. declin. reduced to time and place 66 57 N
Latitude - - - - 76 iN
Prob. VI. Given the latitude by account, the de¬
clination and two obferved altitudes of the fun, and the
interval of time between them, to find the true latitude.
Rule. To the log. fecant of the latitude by account,
add the log. fecant of the fun’s declination j the fum,
rejecting 20 from the index, is the logarithm ratio. To
this add the log. of difference of the natural fines of
the two altitudes, and the log. of the half elapfed time
from its proper column.
Find this fum in column of middle time, and take
out the time anfwering thereto 5 the difference, between
which and the half elapfed time will be the time from
noon when the greater altitude was obferved.
Take the log. anfwering to this time from column of
rifing, from which fubtraft the log. ratio, the remainder
is the logarithm of a natural number; which being
added to the natural fine of the greater altitude, the
fum is the natural cofine of the meridian zenith diftance j
from which and the fun’s declination the latitude is ob¬
tained as formerly.
If the latitude thus found differs confiderably from
that by account, the operation is to be repeated, ufing
the computed latitude in place of that by account (l).
Example 1.
(l) This method is only an approximation, and ought to be ufed under certain reftridtions; namely,
The obfervatibns mud be taken between nine, o’clock in the forenoon and three in the afternoon. If both ob-
fervations be in the forenoon, or both in the afternoon, the interval muft not be lefs than the diftance of the time
of obfervation of the greateft altitude from noon. If one obfervation be in the forenoon and the other in the af¬
ternoon, the interval muft not exceed four hours and a half j and in all cafes, the nearer the greater altitude is to
noon the better.
If the fun’s meridian zenith diftance be lefs than the latitude, the limitations are ftill more contradled. If the
latitude be double the meridian zenith diftance, the obfervations muft be taken between half part nine in the
morning and half part two in the afternoon, and the interval muft not exceed three hours and a half. The obfer¬
vations muft be taken ftill nearer to noon, if the latitude exceed the zenith diftance in a greater proportion. See
Mafkelyne’s Britifh Mariner’s Guide, Dr Mackay’s Treatifes on the Longitude and Navigation, &c, and RequL
file Tables, 2d edit.
6g6
Method
of finding
the Lati¬
tude and
Longitude
at Sea.
Example 1. July 9. t8ii, in latitude by account
270 N, at I oh 29' A. M. per watch, the correfted al¬
titude of the fun was 65° 24', and at 1 2I1 31', the alti¬
tude was 740 8'. Required the true latitude ?
Times per wat Alt. N Sines. Lat. by acc. 37°o' Secant 0.09765
loh 29' 65° 24' 90924 Declination 22 28 Secant 0.03428
NAVIGATION. PracHce.
As the latitude by computation differs i° 27' from Method
that by account, the operation muff be repeated.
12 31
74 8 96190 Logarithm ratio
Differ. 5266 Logarithm
Half elapfed time
0.13193
3 7^48
o-57999
Computed latitude
Declination
510 15'
9 37
Secant
Secant
of finding
the Lati-
Logarithm ratio
Difference of nat. fines
Half elapfed time
Middle time
ine nati-
‘ °34 tude and
O.O0613 Longitude
  " at Sea.
I453°
ih 4' 30"
Dog.
Log.
0.20963
4.16227
0-55637
40 20 Log. 4.92827
31 10" Middle time
29 50 Rifing - - -
Log. ratio
Natural number - - 624
Greateft altitude 74° 8' N fine 96x90
Mer. zenith dift. 14 30 N cofine 96814
Declination 22 28
4-4334°
2.92740
o-i3i93
2-79547
Rifing - ° 35 5° L°g- 3.08630
Natural number - - 753 2.87667
Gr. altitude 28° 43' N. fine 48048
Mer. zen. dift. 60 47 N. coftne 48801
Declination 9 37
Latitude - 36 58 N.
Ex. 2. O&ober 17. 1812, in latitude 430 24'N.
by account, at Oh 38' P. M. the correfl altitude of
the fun’s centre was 36° 5', and at 2h 46' P. M. the
altitude was 240 49'. Required the latitude ?
Timns per wat. Alt. N Sines Lat by acc 43° 14'Secant o. 1387 2
oh 38' 36° 5' 58896 Declination 9 r8 Secant 0.00575
2 46 24 49 41972 Logarithm ratio - 0.14447
* 8 Differ. 16924 Log. - - 4 2285b
14 - Half elapfed time - * 0.55966
1 41 20" - Middle time - - - 4.93263
37 .20
Riling
3 12184^
Log. ratio 0.14447 *
Natural Number
Greateft altitude
649
36° 5' N. fine 58896
2-97737
Mer. «en. diftance 53 15 N cofine 59S45
Declination - 9 IS
Latitude - - 43 57 N.
Ex. 3. In latitude 490 48' N. by account, the fun’s
declination being 90 37' S. at oh 32' P. M. per watch,
the altitude of the fun’s lower limb was 28° 32', and
at 2h 41' it was 190 25', the height of the eye 12 feet.
Required the true latitude ?
Firft obferved altit. 28° 3 2' Second altitude 190 25'
Semidiameter -j-o 16 Semidiameter -fo 16
Dip and refra&ion —o 5 Dip and refr. —o 6
True altitude 28 43 True altitude 19 35
Time per wat. Alt. N. Sines. Lat. by acc. 49° 48' Secant. 0.19013
oh 32' 28° 43'4804S Declination 9 37 Secant. 0.00615
2 41 19 35 33518 Log. ratio
0.09628
2 9 Difference
1 4 30"
1 37 0
32 3°
Natural number
14530 Log.
Half elapfed time
Middle time
Rifing
639
48687
Mer zen. dift. 6o° 52' N. cofine
Declination 0 37 S.
4-16227
°-5S617
4.91492
3.00164
2.80536
Latitude 51 10 N.
As this latitude differs only 5' from that ufed in the
computation, it may therefore be depended on as the
true latitude.
Pros. VII. Given the latitude by account, the fun’s
declination, two obferved altitudes, the elapfed time,
and the courfe and diffance run between the obferva-
tions 5 to find the (hip’s latitude at the time of obferva-
tion of the greater altitude.
Rule. Find the angle contained between the (hip’s
courfe and the fun’s bearing at the time of obfervation
of the leaft altitude, with which enter the Traverfe
Table as a courfe, and the difference of latitude an-
fwering to the diftance made good will be the reduftion
of altitude.
Now, if the lead altitude be obferved in the fore¬
noon, the redu&ion of altitude is to be applied there¬
to by addition or fubtra&ion, according as the angle
between the (hip’s courfe and the fun’s bearing is lefs
or more than eight points. If the lead altitude be
obferved in the afternoon, the contrary rule is to be
ufed.
The difference of longitude in time between the
obfervations is to be applied to the elapfed time by
addition or fubtradlion, according as it is ead or wed.
This is, however, in many cafes fo inconfiderable as to
be neglefted.
With the correfted altitudes and interval, the lati¬
tude by account and fun’s declination at the time of ob¬
fervation of the greated altitude, the computation is to
be performed by the lad problem.
Ex. 1. July 6. 1793, in latitude 58° 14' N by ac¬
count, and longitude 160 E, at ich 54' A. M. per
Watch, the altitude of the fun’s lower limb was 530 17',
and at ih 17' P. M. the altitude was 520 51', and bear¬
ing per compafs SW£W 5 the (hip’s courfe during the
elapfed time was SZ>W-§W, and the hourly rate of fail¬
ing 8 knots, the height of the eye 16 feet. Required
the true latitude at the time of obfervation of the great¬
er altitude ?
Sun’s bear, at 2d. ob. SWAV. Interval bet. obferv. 2b 23'
Ship’s courfe SAViWDid.run—2I1 23 x 8^:19111/
Latitude
5T 15 N.
Contained angle
31 points.
Now
Pra&ice.
Method Now to courfe 3! points, and dlftance 19 miles, the
of finding difference of latitude is 14.7 or 15 miles,
tude^and" °bferved alt. 530 17' Second obferved alt. 5 2° 51'
Longitude Semidiameter -fo 16 Semidiameter . -f-o 16
at Sea. Dip and refraft. —o 4 Dip and refraflion —o 4
True altitude 53 29 Reduction
NAVIGATION. 697
of an arch j which added to the greateft altitude will Method
give the fun’s meridian altitude. th<f Latl-
Ex. 2. December 2ift 1793, in latitude 22° 40' S, tude and
by account at nh 57' the corredt altitude of the fun’s L°rgSga#e
centre was 89° 10', and at llh 4' 40", the altitude was
88° joh Required the true latitude ?
—o 15
Reduced altitude 52 48
Timeofob.of gr.alt. roh 54' A.M. Sun’s dec. 22°39'N.
Longitude in time 1 4 Eq. to r. t. >f- I
Reduced time 9 5° A.M. Red. decl. 22 40 N.
Time per wat. Alt. N. Sines. Lat. by acc. 5S0 14' Secant 0.27863
loh 54' 53° 29' S0368 Declination 22 40 Secant 0.03491
1 17 52 48 79653 Logarithm ratio
11
Differ.
do'1
30
715 Logarithm
- Half elapfed time
Natural number
Greateft altitude
Mer. zenith dift.
Declination
Middle time
Rilim
Log. ratio
- - zooi
53° 29* ^ne 80368
o-3i3S4
2.83431
0.51294
3.68079
3.61469
o-3i354
3-30II5
34 33 N- cof- 82369
22 40 N.
Latitude - 57 13 N.
Since the computed latitude differs fo much from
that by account, it will be neceffary to repeat the
operation.
Computed latitude 570 13' Secant 0.26643
Declination 22 40 Secant 0.03491
Logarithm ratio
Difference of natural fines
Half elapfed time ih li'
Middle time 5
7J5
3°"
20
10
Log.
Log.
Log.
Log.
Rifing - I
Logarithm ratio - * ~
Natural number - - 2068
Greateft altitude 530 29'N. fine 80368
Mer. zen. dift. 34 29 N. cof. 82436
Declination 22 40 N.
Times per wat. Alt. N. Sines. Lat. by acc. 220 4®' Secant 0.03491
11I1 57' o" S90 10' 99989 Declination 23 aS Secant0.03749
12 4 40 88 50 99979 Logarithm ratio
Latitude 57 9 N.
As this latitude differs only 4 miles from that ufed
in the computation, it may therefore be depended on as
the true latitude.
Remark. If the fan come very near the zenith, the
fines of the altitude will vary fo little as to make it un¬
certain which ought to be taken as that belonging to
the natural fine of the meridian altitude. In this cafe,
the following method will be found preferable.
To the log. rifing of the time from noon found as
before, add the log. fecant of half the fum of the efti-
mate meridian altitude, and greateft obferved altitude $
from which fubtra£l the log. ratio, its index being in-
creafed by 10, and the remainder will be the log. fine
Vol. XIV. Part II.
.7 10 Differ. 10 Log.
3 50 Half elapfed time
o 50
Middle time
030 Rifing
Comp, of lat. by acc. 67° 2o'
Declination - 23 28
0.07240
1.0000O
1.77663
2.84903
9.93284
Sum
90 48
Eftimatfi mer. altitude 89 12 ?89<> u-fec. ,1.84609
Greateft altitude 89 103 ^ y
Logarithm ratio -P5
Arch
Greateft altitude
Meridian altitude
o 17
89 10
12.77893
5.07240
fine 7*7o653
89 27 zen. dift. o° 33' N
declinat. 23 28 S
latitude 22 55 S
This differing from the affumed latitude, the work
muft be repeated.
0.30134
2.85431
O.51294
3.66859
3.61686
°-3OI34
3-3 *55 *
Latitude
Declination
22° 55r
23 28
fecant 0.03571
fecant 0.03749
Logarithm ratio
Difference of natural fines
Half elapfed time
Middle time
Rifing
Comp, of lat.
Declination
Sum
Mer. alt.
Greateft alt.
Log. ratio 4-5
Arch
Greateft altitude
3' 5°"
o 50
0.07320
log. r.00000
1.77663
67° 5'
23 28
9° 33
2.84983
0.93284
89 io}89°l8^ fec*
o 21
89 10
Merid. altitude §9 31
12.85111
5.07320
7.77791
zen. dift. o° 29'
Declination 23 28
Latitude 22 59 S
If the work be repeated with this laft latitude^ the
latter part only may be altered.
4 T Latitude.
698
Method Latitude
cf finding Deciination
the Lati¬
tude and
Longitude Eft. mer. alt,
at Sea
* *   Greateft altitude
Sum
Half
Riling
Arch
Greateft altitude
Meridian altitude
Zenith diftance
Declination
Latitude
22° 59'
23 28
N A V I G
fecant 0.03592
fccant 0.03749
A T I O N.
Practice.
89 31 log. ratio 0.07341
89 10 ar. com.—5 4.92659
178 41
89 204
oh 3' o"
o 22
89 10
fecant 1.93972
0.93284
fine 7-799I5
89 32
o 28
23 28
23
o S.
la was 69° 23', and at the fame inftant the true altitude
of Sirius was 160 19', Required the latitude ?
Right afcenfion of Capella
Right afcenfion of Sirius
Interval
Interval
Capella’s declin.
Sirius’s declin.
Sum
ih 34' 36"
450 46' N
16 27 S
6 36
\ 34
rifing
cofine
cofine
62
13 N cofine 46613
5599
25"
1
36
3.92270
9.84360
9.98185
3-748i5
Method
of finding
the Lati¬
tude and
Longitude
at Sea.
Arch firft 24 13 N fine 4ioi4Cof. 9.96000
Capella’s declin. 45 46 feeant 0.15640
Interval - ih 34' 36" H. E. time 0.39670
Pros. VIII. Given the altitudes of two known ftars,
obferved at the fame or at different times j and if at dif¬
ferent times, the interval between the obfervations j to
find the latitude.
Rule. If both altitudes be obferved at the fame
time, call the difference between their right afcenfions
the reduced interval.
But if the altitudes be taken at different times, re¬
duce the interval between the obfervations to fidereal
time, by adding thereto the proportional part anfwer-
ing to the interval, and 3' 56", the daily acceleration
of the fixed ftars. Now to the right afcenfion of the firft
obferved ftar, add the interval in fidereal time, and the
difference between this fum and the right afcenfion of
the other ftar will be the reduced interval.
To the logarithm rifing of the reduced interval, add
the logarithmic cofines of the ftars declinations ; fubtradl
the natural number anfwering to the fum of thefe loga¬
rithms from the natural cofine of the difference or fum of
the ftars declinations, according as they are of the fame
or of a contrary name, and the remainder will be the
natural fine of arch firft.
To the logarithmic cofine of arch firft add the loga¬
rithmic fecant of declination of the ftar having the leaft
polar diftance, and the logarithm half elapfed time of
the reduced interval, the fum will be the logarithm
half elapfed time of arch fecond.
From the natural cofine of tic difference between arch
firft and the altitude of the ftar having the greateft polar
diftance, fubtraft the natural fine of the altitude of the
other ftar, and find the logarithm of the remainder *, to
which add the logarithm fecant of arch firft, and the lo¬
garithmic fecant of the altitude of the ftar having the
greateft polar diftance, the fum will be the logarithm
vifing of arch third. The difference between arches
fecond and third is arch fourth.
To the logarithm rifing of arch fourth add the loga¬
rithmic cofines of the declination and altitude of the ftar
having the greateft polar diftance ; fubtradl the corre-
fponding natural number from the natural cofine of the
difference between the altitude and declination, the po-
l&r diftance being lefs than 90° $ otherwife, from their
fum, and the remainder will be the natural fine of the
atitude.
Ex. January ift 1793, the true altitude of Capel-
Arch fecond
Arch firft
Sirius’s altitude
Difference
Capella’s altitude
Arch third
Arch fecond
Arch fourth
Sirius’s declin.
altitude
Sum
1 11 28 H. E. time 0.51310
24
16
13
J9
fecant
fecant
7 54N. cofine 99051
69 23N. fine 93596
ih 2l' 20"
I 11 28
9 52
16 27
16 19
5455
rifing
rifing
cofine
cofine
0.04000
0.01785
3-73679
3-79364
1.96708
9.98185
9.98215
32 46 N cof. 84088
85 1.93008
Latitude - 57 9 N fine 84003
Chap. II. Containing the Method of finding the
Longitude at Sea by Lunar Obfervations.
Sect. I. Introduction.
The obfervations neceffary to determine the longi¬
tude by this method are, the diftance between the fun
and moon, or the moon and a fixed ftar near the eclip¬
tic, together with the altitude of each. The ftars
ufed in the Nautical Almanack for this purpofe are the
following : namely, cc Arietis, Aldebaran, Pollux, Re¬
gal us, Spica Virginis, Antares, cc Aquila:, Fomalhaut,
and ec Pegafi; and the diftances of the moon’s centre
from the fun, and from one or more of thefe ftars,
are contained in the viii. ix. x. and xi. pages of the
month, at the beginning of every third hour appa¬
rent time, by the meridian of Greenwich. The di¬
ftance between the moon and the fun, or one of thefe
ftars, is obferved with a fextant } and the altitudes of
the objedts are taken as ufual with a Hadley’s qua¬
drant.
In the praftice of this method, it will be found
convenient to be provided with three afhftants ; two
of thefe are to take the altitudes of the fun and moon,
or moon and ftar, at the fame time the principal obfer-
ver is taking the diftance between the objects; and
the third affiftant is to obferve the time, and write
down
Pra&ice. N A V I G
of finding down the obfervations. In order to obtain accuracy,
the hongi- jt wjii neceffary to obferve feveral diftances, and
Lunara tlie correfponding altitudes j the intervals of time be-
Obferva- tween, them being as fhort as poflible ; and the fum of
ttons. each divided by the number will give the mean di-
ftance and mean altitudes ; from which the time of ob-
fervation at Greenwich is to be computed by the rules
to be explained.
If the fun or ftar from which the moon’s diftance
is obferved be at a proper diftance from the meridian,
the time at the ftnp may be inferred from the altitude
obferved at the fame time with the diftance : in this
cafe, the watch is not neceffary ; but if that objeft be
near the meridian, the wratch is abfolutely neceffary,
in order to conned the obfervations for afcertaining
the apparent time at the ftiip and at Greenwich with
each other.
An obferver without any afliftants may very eaftly
take all the obfervations, by firft taking the altitudes
of the obje&s, then the diftance, and again their alti¬
tudes, and reduce the altitudes to the time of obferva-
tion of the diftance; or, by a Angle obfervation of the
diftance, the apparent time being known, the longitude
may be determined.
A fet of obfervations of the diftance between the
moon and a ftar, and their altitudes, may be taken
with accuracy during the time of the evening or
morning twilight *, and the obferver, though not much
acquainted with the ftars, will not find it difficult to
diftinguiffi the ftar from which the moon’s diftance is
to be obferved. For the time of obfervation nearly, and
the fhip’s longitude by account being known, the efti-
mate time at Greenwich may be found *, and by enter¬
ing the Nautical Almanac with the reduced time, the
diftance between the moon and given ftar will be
found nearly. Now fet the index of the fextant to
this diftance, and hold the plane of the inftrument fo
as to be nearly at right angles to the line joining the
moon’s cufps, direct the fight to the moon, and by
giving the fextant a flow vibratory motion, the axis
of which being that of vifion, the ftar, which is ufual-
ly one of the brighteft in that part of the heavens,
will be feen in the tranfparent part of the horizon
glafs.
Sfxt. II. Of the Sextant.
This inftrument is conftrufted for the exprefs pur-
pofe of meafuring with accuracy the angular diftanefc
between the fun and moon, or between the moon and
a fixed ftar, in order to afeertain the longitude of a
place by lunar obfervations. It is, therefore, made
with more care than the quadrant, and has feme ad¬
ditional appendages that are wanting in that inftru¬
ment,
I’Ve Fig. 63, reprefents the fextant, fo framed as not to be
ccctxvnn liable to bend. The arch A A is divided into 120 de¬
grees ; each degree is divided into three parts) each of
thefe parts, therefore, contains 20 minutes, which are
again fubdivided by the vernier into every half minute
or 30 feconds. The vernier is numbered at every fifth
of the longer divifions, from the right towards the left,
with 5, ko, 15, and 20 j the firft divifion to the right
being the beginning of the fcale.
In order to obferve with accuracy, and make the
images come precifely in contaft, an adjuftmg ferew
a t 1 o N.
699
B is added to the index, "which may thereby be mov- Of findi g
ed with greater accuracy than it can be by hand ;
but this ferew does not ad until the index is fixed by by Lunar
the finger ferew C. Care ffiould be taken not to force
the adjufting ferew rvhen it arrives at either extremity
of its adjuftment. When the index is to be moved
any confiderable quantity, the ferew C at the back of
the fextant muft be loofened j but when the index is
brought nearly to the divifion required, this back ferew
ffiould be tightened, and then the index may be mov¬
ed gradually by the adjufting ferew.
There are four tinged glaffes D, each of which is fet
in a feparate frame that turns on a centre. They are ufed
to defend the eye from the brightnefs of the folar image
and the glare of the moon, and may be ufed feparately
or together as occafion requires.
There are three more fuch glaffes placed behind the
horizon glafs at E, to weaken the rays of the fun or
moon when they are viewed diredtly through the ho¬
rizon glafs. The paler glafs is fometimes ufed in ob-
ferving altitudes at fea, to take off the ftrong glare of
the horizon.
The frame of the index glafs I is firmly fixed by a
ftrong cock to the centre plate of the index. The
horizon glafs F is fixed in a frame that turns on the
axes or pivots, which move in an exterior frame •, the
holes in which the pivots move may be tightened by
four ferews in the exterior frame. G is a ferew by
which the horizon glafs may be fet perpendicular to
the plane of the inftrument : ffiould this ferew become
loofe, or move too eafy, it may be eafily tightened by
turning the capftan headed ferew H, which is on one
fide of the focket through which the ftern of the fin¬
ger ferew pa ties.
The fextant is furniffied with a plain tube (fig. 64.) ^4’
without any glaffes j and to render the objefts ftill
more diftinft, it has two telefcopes, one (fig. 65.) re-Gg-
prefenting the objedls ereft, or in their natural pofi-
tion : the longer one (fig. 66.) fhows them inverted ; fig- 66.
it has a large field of view, and other advantages, and
a little ufe will foon accuftom the obferver to the in¬
verted pofition, and the inftrument will be as readily
managed by it as by the plain tube alone. By a te-
lefcope the contact of the images is more perfectly
diftinguifhed 5 and by the place of the images in the
field of the telefcope, it is eafy to perceive whether
the fextant is held in the proper place for obfervation.
By Hiding the tube that contains the eye-glaffes in the
infide of the other tube, the object is fuited to different
eyes, and made to appear perfectly diftimft and well
defined.
The telefcopes are to be ferewed into a circular
ring at K *, this ring refts on two points againft an
exterior ring, and is held thereto by two ferews : by
turning one or other of thefe ferews, and tightening
the other, the axis of the telefcope may be fet parallel
to the plane of the fextant. The exterior ring is fixed
on a triangular brafs ftem that Hides in a focket, and
by means of a ferew at the back of the quadrant may
be raifed or lowered fo as to move the centre of the
telefcope to point to that part of the horizon glafs
which Hull be judged the rnoft fit for obfervation.
Fig. 67, is a circular head, with tinged glaffes to ferew,
on the eye end of either of the telefcopes or the plain ‘
tube. The glaffes are contained in a circular plate
4 T 2 ' which
7oo N A V I G
Of finding -wliich has four holes; three of thefe are fitted with
tude^"lea giahhs, the fourth is open. By preffing the iin-
by Lunar Ser again^ the projecting edge of this plate, and turn-
Obferva- ing it round, the open hole, or any of the tinged glafles,
tions. may be brought between the eye-glafs of the telefcope
v and the eye.
Fig. 68. Fig. 68. is a magnifying glafs, to aflill the obferver
to read off the angle with more accuracy: and fig. 69.
a fcrew-driver.
Mr Hoppe of Church-ftreet, Minories, London, has
lately contrived a fextant, with two arches, which is,
therefore, preferable to the common fextant.
Acjujiments of the Sextant.
The adjuflments of a fextant are, to fet the mirrors
perpendicular to its plane and parallel to each other
when the index is at zero, and to fet the axis of the te¬
lefcope parallel to the plane of the inftrument. The
three firft of thefe adjuftments are performed nearly in
the fame manner as diredled in the fed ion on the qua¬
drant : as however the fextant is provided with a fet of
coloured glades placed behind the horizon glafs, the index
error may be more accurately determined by meafuring
the fun’s diameter twice, with the index placed alter¬
nately before and behind the beginning of the divi-
fions : half the difference of thefe two meafures will be
the index error, which muft be added to, or fubtraCled
from, all obfervations, according as the diameter mea-
fured with the index to the left of 0 is lefs or greater
than the diameter meafured with the index to the right
of the beginning of the divifions.
Adjujlment IV. To fet the Axis of the Telefcope parallel
to the Plane of the Irflrument.
Turn the eye end of the telefcope until the two wires
are parallel to the plane of the inftfument 5 and let twro
diftant cbjefts be feleCled, as two liars of the firlt mag¬
nitude, whofe dilfance is not lefs than 90° or loo0;
make the contaft of thefe objeCls as perfedl as poffible
at the wdre neareft the plane of the inftrument ; fix the
index in this pofition ; move the fextant till the objefts
are feen at the other wire, and if the fame points are in
contaCt, the axis of the telefcope is parallel to the plane
of the fextant; but if the objeCts are apparently fepa-
rated, or do partly cover each other, correCt half the
error by the ferews in the circular part of the fupporter,
one of which is above and the other between the tele¬
fcope and fextant: turn the adjufting ferew at the end
of the index till the limbs are in contaCl j then bring
the objeds to the wire next the inftrument 5 and if the
limbs are in contaCl, the axis of the telefcope is adjuft-
ed 5 if not, proceed as at the other wire, and continue
till no error remains.
It is fometimes neceffary to know the angular dif-
tance between the wires of the telefcope ; to find
which, place the wures perpendicular to the plane of
the fextant, hold the inftrument vertical, direCt the
fight to the horizon, and move the fextant in its own
plane till the horizon and upper wire coincide •, keep
the fextant in this pofition, and move the index till the
reflected horizon is covered by the lower wire : and the
divifion fhown by the index of the limb, corrected by
the index error, will be the angular diftance between
Vhe wires. Other and better methods will readily oc¬
cur to the obferver at land.
A T I O N.
PrafUce.
Vfe of the Sextant.
When the diftance between the moon and the fun
or a ftar is to be obferved, the fextant muft be held fo
that its plane may pafs through the eye of the obferver
and both objeCts j and the reflected image of the molt
luminous of the two is to be brought in contaCl with
the other feen direCtly. To effeCt this, therefore, it is
evident, that when the brighteft objeCt is to the right
of the other, the face of the fextant muft be held up¬
wards •, but if to the left, downwards. When the face of
the fextant is held upwards, the inftrument fhould be
fupported with the right hand, and the index moved
with the left hand. But when the face of the fextant
is from the obferver, it fhould be held with the left
hand, and the motion of the index regulated by the
right hand.
Sometimes a fitting pofture will be found very con¬
venient for the obferver, particularly w’hen the reflected
objeCt is to the right of the direCt one ; in this cafe, the
inftrument is fupported by the right hand, the elbow
may reft on the right knee, the right leg at the fame
time refting on the left knee.
If the fextant is provided with a ball and focket, and
a ftaff, one of whofe ends is attached thereto, and the
other refts in a belt faftened round the body of the ob¬
ferver, the greater part of the -weight of the inftrument
will by this means be fupported by his body.
Of findin|f
the Longi¬
tude at Sea
by Lunar
Obferva¬
tions.
To obferve the Di/lance between the Moon and any Celef
tial ObjeB.
1. Between the Sun and Moon.
Put the telefcope in its place, and the w'ires parallel
to the plane of the inftrument ; and if the fun is
very bright, raife the plate before the filvered part of
the fpeeulum ; direCt the telefcope to the tranfparent
part of the horizon glafs, or to the line of feparation
of the filvered and tranfparent parts according to the
brightnefs of the fun, and turn down one of the co¬
loured glafles ; then hold the fextant fo that its plane
produced may pafi through the fun and moon, having
its face either upwards or downwrards according as the
fun is to the right or left of the moon 5 direCt the fight
through the telefcope to the moon, and move the in¬
dex till the limb of the fun is nearly in contaCl with
the enlightened limb of the moon j now fallen the in¬
dex, and by a gentle motion of the inftrument make
the image of the fun move alternately pall the moon ;
and, when in that pofition where the limbs are neareft
each other, make the coincidence of the limbs perfeCt
by means of the adjufting ferew : this being effeCted,
read off the degrees and parts of a degree fhown by the
index on the limb, ufing the magnifying glafs 5 and thus
the angular diftance betrveen the neareft limbs of the
fun and moon is obtained.
2. Between the Moon and a Star.
DireCt the middle of the field of the telefcope to the
line of feparation of the filvered and tranfparent parts of
the horizon glafs 5 if the moon is very bright, turn
down the lighteft coloured glafs ; and hold the fextant
fo that its plane may be parallel to that pafling through
the eye of the obferver and both objeCts; its face being
upwards if the moon is to the right of the liar, but if to
the left, the face is to be held from the obferver ; now
direCt the fight through the telefcope to the ftar, and
naova
r . , N A V I G
Of finding move tLe Index till tlie moon appears by the reflection
the Lorgi- j.0 nearly in contaft with the liar j fallen the index,
tude atSea anj turn t]ic adjutting fcrew till the coincidence of the
Obfcrva- liar and enlightened limb of the moon is per feci : and
tions. the degrees and parts of a degree Ihown by the index
—*•“*' will be the obferved diftance betwreen the moon’s en¬
lightened limb and the liar.
The contaft of the limbs mull always be obferved in
the middle between the parallel wires.
It is fometimes difficult for thofe not much accuf-
tomed to obfervations of this kind, to find the refledl-.
ed image in the horizon glafs ; it will perhaps in this
cafe be found more convenient to look direftly to the
objeft, and, by moving the index, to make its image
coincide with that feen diredlly.
Sect. III. Of the Circular Injlrument of Refeclion.
This inftrument was propofed with a view to cor-
re£l the errors to which the fextant is liable ; particu¬
larly the error arifing from the inaccuracy of the divi-
fions on the limb, "it confilts of the following parts •,
a circular ring or limb, two moveable indices, two mir¬
rors, a telefcope, coloured glaffes, &c.
The limb of this inftrument is a complete circle of
metal, and is conne£led with a perforated cential
plate by fix radii : it is divided into 7 20 degrees ; each
degree is divided into three equal parts; and the divi-
fion is carried to minutes by means of the index fcale
as ufual.
The two indices are moveable about the fame axis,
which paflfes exadly through the centre of the inftru¬
ment :—the firft index carries the central mirror, and
the other the telefcope and horizon glafs ; each index
being provided with an adjlifting fcrew for regulating
its motion, and a fcale for {bowing the divifions on the
limb.
The central mirror is placed on the firft index im¬
mediately above the centre of the inftrument, and its
plane makes an angle of about 30° wkh the middle
line of the index. The four ferews in its pedeftal for
making its plane perpendicular to that of the inftru¬
ment have fquare heads, and are therefore eafily turn¬
ed either way by a key for that purpofe.
The horizon glafs is placed on the fecond^index near
the limb, fo that as few as poffible may be intercepted
of the rays proceeding from the refle&ed objeft when
to the left. The perpendicular pofition of this glafs
is reflified in the fame manner as that of the horizon
glafs of a fextant, to which it is fimilar. It has another
motion, whereby its plane may be difpofed fo as to
make a proper angle with the axis of the telefcope, and
a line joining its centre, and that of the central mirror.
The telefcope is attached to the other end of the
index. It is an achromatic altronomical one, and there¬
fore inverts objects *, it has two parallel wires in the
common focus of the glafles, whofe angular diftance is
between two and three degrees } and which, at the time
of obfervation, muft be placed parallel to the plane of
the inftrument. This is eafily done, by making the
mark on the eye-piece coincide with that on the tube.
The telefcope is moveable by two ferews in a vertical
direftion with regard to the plane of the inftrument,
but is not capable of receiving a lateral motion.
There are two fets of coloured glafles, each fet con-
3
A T I O N.
701
taining four, and differing in (hade from each other. finding
The glaffes of the larger fet, which belongs to the cen- JuJeLa°r^
tral mirror, ftiould have each about half the degree of by LuI)ar
{hade with which the correfpondent glafs of the fet Obf«rva-
belonging to the horizon mirror is tinged. Thefe tions.
glaffes are kept tight in their places by fmall preffing
{’crews, and make an angle of about 85° with the plane
of the inftrument; by which means the image from the
coloured glafs is not reflefled to the telefcope. When
the angle to be meafured is between 50 and 340, one
of the glaffes of the largeft fet is to be placed before
the horizon glafs.
The handle is of wood, and is ferewed to the back
of the inftrument, immediately under the centre, with
which it is to be held at the time of obfervation.
Fig. 70. is a plan of the inftrument, wherein the limb Fig. 7c.
is reprefented by the divided circular plate ; A is the
central mirror ; a a, the places which receive the ftems
« « of the glafs, fig. 73.EF, the firft or central index
with its fcale and adjufting fcrew } MN, the fecond
or horizon index } GH, the telefcope 5 IK, the ferews
for moving it towards or from the plane of the inftru¬
ment; C, the plane of the coloured glafs, fig. 72. j
and D, its place in certain obfervations.
Fig. 71. is a fedtion of the inftrument, wherein the Fig. 71*
feveral parts are referred to by the fame letters as in
fig. 70. : Fig. 72. reprefents one of the horizon colour¬
ed glaffes ; and fig. 73. one of the central coloured
glaffes : Fig. 74. is the key for turning the adjufting
ferews of the mirrors : Fig. 75. is the handle : Fig. 76*
a feftion of one of the radii towards its middle : Fig.
77. is ufed in fome terreftrial obfervations for diminiffi-
ing the light of the diredl objedl, whofe place at the
time of obfervation is D : Fig. 78. is the tool for ad¬
jufting the central mirror ; and for redlifying the po-
fition of the telefcope with regard to the plane of the
inftrument, there is another tool exadlly of the fame
fize. The height of thefe is nearly equal to that of
the middle of the central mirror.
Adjuf merits of the Circular Injlrument.
I. To fet the horizon g/afs fo that none of the rays from
the central mirror Jhall be rejleBed to the telefcope from
the horizon mirror, without pajjing through the coloured
glafs belonging to this lajl mirror.—Place the coloured
glafs before the horizon mirror j diredl the telefcope to
the filvered part of that mirror, and make it nearly pa¬
rallel to the plane of the inftrument; move the firft in¬
dex 5 and if the rays from the central mirror to the
horizon glafs, and from thence to the telefcope, have
all the fame degree of {hade with that of the coloured
glafs ufed, the horizon glafs is in its proper pofition j
otherwife the pedeftal of the glafs muft be turned until
the uncoloured images difappear.
II. Place the two adjufting tools on the limb, about
350° of the inftrument diftant, one on each fide of the
divifion on the left, anfwering to the plan?, of the cen¬
tral mirror produced : then the eye being placed at
the upper edge of the neareft tool, move the central
index till one half only of the reflefted image of this
tool is feen in the central mirror towards the left, and
move the other tool till its half to the right is hid by
the fame edge of the mirror *, then, if the upper edges
of both tools are apparently in the fame ftraight line,.
701 . N A V I G
Ot finding tlifc eeiilral mirror js perpendicular to the plane of the
rude at!1f^a*n^ruinent * ^ nut’ bring them into this politjon by the
by Lunar fcrews in the pedeltal of the mirror.
Obferva- III. To fet the horizon mirror 'perpendicular to the
t‘ons- plane of the inftrument.—TYhe central mirror being pre-
v vioully adjufted, direft the light through the telefcope
to any well-defined diftant objedl ; then if, by moving
the central index, the reflected image pafles exactly over
the direft objed;, the mirror is perpendicular ; if not, its
pofition muft be reftified by means of the fcrews in the
pedeltal of the glafs.
A planet, or liar of the firft magnitude, will be found
H very proper objeft for this purpofe.
IV. To make the line of colhmation parallel to the
plane of the inflrument.—Lay the inflrument horizon¬
tally on a table ; place the two adjufting tools on the
limb, towards the extremities of one of the diameters of
the inftrument; and at about 15 or 20 feet dillant let
a well defined mark be placed, fo as to be in the lame
ftraight line with the tops of the tools ; then raife or
lower the telefcope till the plane, palling through its
axis and the tops of the tools, is parallel to the plane
of the inftrument, and diredt it to the fixed objeft ;
turn either or both of the fcrews of the telefcope till
the mark is apparently in the middle between the wires ;
then is the telefcope adjufted ; and the difference, if
any, between the divifions pointed out by the indices
of the fcrews will be the error of the indices. Hence
this adjuftment may in future be eafily made.
In this procefs the eye tube muft be fo placed as to
obtain diftindt vifion.
V. To find that divi/ion to which the frond index being
placed the mirrors will be parallel, the central index be¬
ing at %ero.—Having placed the firft index exadlly to
0, diredt the telefcope to the horizon mirror, fo that
its field may be bifedted by the line of feparation of
the filvered and tranfparent parts of that mirror ; hold
the inftrument vertically, and move the fecond index
until the diredt and refiedted horizons agree ; and the
divifion Ihown by the index will be that required.
This adjuftment may be performed by meafuring the
fun’s diameter in contrary diredtions, or by making
the refledted and diredt images of a itar or planet to
coincide.
Vfe of the Circular Inf rumen t.
To obfei've the Difance between the Sun and Moon.
I. The fun being to the right of the moon.
Set a proper coloured glafs before the central mir¬
ror, if the diftance between the objedts is lefs than 350;
but if above that quantity, place a coloured glafs be¬
fore the horizon mirror : make the mirrors parallel, the
firft index being at 0, and hold the inftrument fo that
its plane may be direfted to the objects, with its face
downwards, or from the obferver : diredt the fight
through the telefcope to the moon ; move the fecond
index, according to the order of the divifions on the
limb, till the neareft limbs of the fun and moon are
almoft in contadt: faften that index, and make the
coincidence of the limbs perfedt by the adjufting ferew
belonging thereto; then invert the inftrument, and
move the central index towards the fecond by a quan¬
tity equal to twice the arch paffed over by that index ;
diredl the plane of the inftrument to the obje&s; look
A r I O N, Pra&ice,
diredtly to the moon, and the fun will be feen in the Of finding
field of the. telefcope ; faften the central index, and t5ie bongi-
make the contadt of the fame two limbs exadt by means t^deIat S?a
of the adjufting ferew ; Then half the angle fliown by
the central index will be the diftance between the near- tions. *
eft limbs of the fun and moon.
II. The fun being to the left of the moon.
Hold the inftrument with its face upwards, fo that
its plane may pafs through both obje&s 5 diredt the to-
lefcope to the moon, and make its limb coincide wdth
the neareft limb of the lun’s refle&ed image, by mo¬
ving the fecond index : now put the inftrument in au
oppofite pofition ; dire& its plane to the obje&s, and
the fight to the moon, the central index being previ-
oufly moved towards the fecond by a quantity equal to
twice the meafured diftance ; and make the fame two
limbs that were before obferved coincide exa&ly, by
turning the adjufting ferevv of the firft index : then half
the angle Ihown by the firft index will be the angular
diftance between the obferved limbs of the fun and moon.
This inftrument has of late been greatly improved by
Captain Mendoza.
10 obferve the Angular Difance between the Moon and
a Fixed Star or Planet.
I. The ftar being to the right of the moon.
In this cafe the ftar is to be confidered as the diredt
objedt ; and the enlightened limb of the moon’s re¬
fle&ed image is to be brought in contaft with the ftar
or planet, both by a dire& and inverted pofition of the
inftrument, exadtly in the fame manner as deferibed in
the laft article. If the moon’s image is very bright,
the lighteft tinged glafs is to be ufed.
II. The ftar being to the left of the moon.
Proceed in the fame manner as dire&ed for obferv-
ing the diftance between the fun and moon, the fun
being to the right of the moon, ufing the lighteft
tinged glafs, if neceffary.
Sect. IV. Of the Method of determining the Lon ft tide
from Obfervation.
Pros. I. To convert degrees or parts of the equator
into time.
Rule. Multiply the degrees and parts of a degree
by 4, beginning at the loweft denomination, and the
produ& will be the correfponding time. Obferving that
minutes multiplied by 4 produce feconds of time, and
degrees multiplied by 4 give minutes.
Ex. 1. Let 26° 4?' be reduced to time,
26° 45'
4
jh 47' o'krtime required.
Ex. 2. Reduce 83° 37' to time.
83° 37'
4
Correfponding timesr 5 34 28
Pros. II. To convert time into degrees,
Rule. Multiply the given time by 10, to which
add the half of the produ&. The fum will be the cor¬
refponding degrees.
D'lfr.of L !it.
N A\ KVAT IGN
PLlTKariXUL
yfr'fJ/r&cr&Z Jc***fy* *
:\
NAVIGATION
PLATE CCCfXV.
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NAVIGATION
PLATE CCCLWm.
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Practice.
Of finding
the Longi¬
tude at Sea
by Lunar
Obferva-
tions.
I—-J
Ex. i. Let 3I1 4'
28" be reduced to degrees
3h 4' 28"
10
Ha!.'
3°
> ?
44
22
40
20
Correfponding deg.“ 46 7 o
Ex. 2. Reduce 8h 42' 36" to degreesi
8h 42' 36"
10
8760
43 33 0
NAVIGATION. 7°3
the proportional logarithm of one-fourth of the interval Of finding
expreiied in time, and the proportional logarithm of the^® a°n|^
daily variation of declination j the fum will be the pro- Lunar
portional logarithm of the equation of equal altitudes in obferva-
minutes and feconds, which are to be efteemed feconds tions.
and thirds.
Example. Let the latitude of the place of obfer-
vation be 570 9' N, the interval of time between the
obfervations of the equal altitudes 5I1 17', the fun’s de¬
clination 170 48' S, and the daily change of declina¬
tion 16' : Required the equation of equal alti-
tudcs ^
Half the intervalmh 38'4=39°
39° 37' c°ft- °-I9542 cotang. 0.08209
37 9 tan. 0.18997 dec. 170 48' ta. 9.50659
4 int.:
Lat.
Anfwer. 130 39 o
Pros. III. Given the time under any known meri¬
dian, to find the correfponding time at Greenwich.
Rule. Let the given time be reckoned from the pre¬
ceding noon, to which the longitude of the place in
time is to be applied by addition or fubt raft ion, accord¬
ing as it is eaft or weft •, and the fum or difference will
be the correfponding time at Greenwich.
Ex. 1. What time at Greenwich anfvvers to 6h 15'
at a ftiip in longitude 76° 45'W ?
Time at fhip - - 6h 15'
"  * ■ 5 ?W.
Longitude in time
Ex.
°-38539 2-4288
3879
9,58868
Time at Greenwich II 22
 2. Required the. time at Greenwich anfwering
to 5I1 46' 39" of May ift, at Canton, whole longitude
is 113° 2' 15" E ?
Time at Canton, May iff, yh 46' 39"
Longitude in time - , 7 32 9
Time at Greenwich, April 30. 22 14 30
Pros. IV. To reduce the time at Greenwich to that
under any given meridian.
Rule. Reckon the given time from the preceding
noon, to which add the longitude in time if eaft, but
fubtraft it if weft ; and the fum or remainder will be
the eorrefponding time under the given meridian.
Ex. I. What is the expected time of the beginning
of the lunar eclipfe of February 25. 1793, at a Ihip in
longitude 109° 48' E ?
Beg. of eclipfe at Greenwich per Naut. Aim. ph 23' 45'
Ship’s longitude in time - - 7 19 12
Time of beginning of eclipfe at Ihip, 16 42 57
Ex. 2. At what time may the immerfion of the firft
fatellite of Jupiter be obferved at Port St Julian, in lon¬
gitude 68° 44' W, which, by the Nautical Almanack,
happens at Greenwich 24th March 1792, at 17b 53' 1" ?
App. time of immerfion at Greenwich 17I1 53' 1"
Longitude of Port St Julian in time 4 34 56 W.
App. time of immer. at Port St Julian 13 18 5
Pros. V. To find the equation of equal altitudes.
Rule. To the cofecant of half the interval of time
in degrees add the tangent of the latitude, and to the
cotangent of half the interval add the tangent of the
declination. Now if the latitude and declination be
of a contrary name, add the correfponding natural
numbers 5 but if of the fame name, fubtraft them.—
Then to the ar. co, log. of this fum or difference add
Sum - - - 2.8167 ar .00.10.9.5503
One fourth interval - ih 19'15" P.L.0.3563
Daily variation of declination 16' ip'^P-L.1.0424
Equation of equal altitudes 20'* i4,/,P.L.o.94po
Prob. VI. To find the error of a watch by equal aL
titudes of the fun.
Rule. In the morning, when the fun is more than
two hours diftant from the meridian, let a fet of obfer¬
vations be taken, confifting, for the fake of greater ac¬
curacy, of at leaft three altitudes, which, together with
the correfponding times per watch, are to be wrote re¬
gularly, the time of each obfervation being increafed
by 12 hours. In the afternoon, obferve the inftants
when the fun comes to the fame altitudes, and write
down each oppofite to its refpeftive altitude. Now half
the fum of any two times anfwering to the fame altitude
Avill be the time of noon per watch uncorrefted. Find
the mean of all the times of noon thus deduced from
each correfponding pair of obfervations, to which the
equation of equal altitudes is to be applied by addition
or fubtraftion according as the fun is receding from or
approaching to the elevated pole, and the fum or differ¬
ence will be the time per watch of apparent noon, the
difference between which and noon will be the error of
the watch for apparent time } and the watch will be
fail or flow according as the time of noon thereby is
more or lefs than 12 hours.
Example. January 29. 1786, in lat. 57° 9'N, the fol¬
lowing equal altitudes of the fun were obferved : Re-
quired the error of the watch ?
Alt.=r8° 5'Time 2ih 35' 8"A.M. 2I1 55' 43'T.M,
8
8 20
8 25
36 8
38 9
39 12-5
21 37
37-5
9-37
2
21
54 42
52-41.2
51 38
4.2.
53 4I*°5
37 9-37
Sum - _ - 24 30 50.42
Time of noon per watch uncorrefted 12 15 25.2
Equation of equal altitudes - =0 o 20.2
Time per watch of apparent noon
Watch faff
12 15
Ji
704. NAVIGATION.
Of finding The mean time of noon per watch is found by ap-
the Longi- plying the equation of time with a contrary fine.
^hy6Lunar'1 Pra<^*ce ^ will be found convenient to put the
Obferva- index of the quadrant to a certain divilion, and to wait
tions. till either limb of the fun attains that altitude.
Pradface.
Rule. If the latitude and declination are of differ- Of finding
ent names, let their fum be taken j otherwife, their ^
Pros. VII. Given the latitude of a place, the alti¬
tude and declination of the fun, to find the apparent
time, and the error of the watch.
difference. From the natural cofine of this fum or
difference fubtradt the natural fine of the corredled al¬
titude, and find the logarithm of the remainder j to
which add the log. fecants of the latitude and declina¬
tion : the fum will be the log. riling of the horary di-
Ilance of the objedt from the meridian, and hence the
apparent time will be known.
tude at Sea
by Lunar
Obferva-
tions.
Ex. i. September 15. 1792, in latitude 330 56' S, and longitude 180 22' E, the mean of the times per watch
was 8h 12' 10" A. M. and that of the altitudes of the fun’s lower limb 240 48' j height of the eye 24 feet. Re¬
quired the error of the watch ?
Obf. alt. Sun’s lower limb
Semidiameter
Dip
Cor red! ion
True altitude Sun’s centre
Latitude
Declination
Sum
Sun’s altitude
Sun’s meridian diflance
Apparent time
Time per watch
Watch fall
Ex. 2. May 6. 1793, in
tude of the fun’s lower limb
parent time ?
Altitude fun’s lower limb
Semidiameter
Dip
Corredlion
True alt. fun’s centre
Latitude
Declination
Dilference
Sun’s altitude
240 48'
-j- 16.0
— 4.7
— 1.9
24 57-4
33
2 45*4
36 41.4
24 57-4
Sun’s declin. at noon per Nautical Almanack
Equation to 3I1 48 A. M.
to 18° 22' Eaft . - -
Reduced declination
fecant
fecant
nat. cofine 80188
nat. fine 42193
Difference 37995
3I148' 51" - riling
8 11 9
8 12 10
log.
2° 40'. 5 S
+ 3*7
+ 1.2
2 45-4 s
0.08109
0.00050
4-57973
4.66132
latitude 56° 4' N, and longitude 38° 30'W, at 4b 37' 4" P. M. per watch the alti-
was 250 6'. 1, and height of the eye 18 feet. Required the error of the watch for ap-
250 6'. I
+ 15-9
— 4.1
— I-9
25 16.0
56 4.0 N.
16 49.5 N.
39 14-5
25 16.0
Difference
Apparent time
Time per watch
Watch flow
4h 38' 12"
4 37 4
1 8
Sun’s declin. per Nautical Almanack
Equation to 4I1 37' P. M.
to 38° 30'W.
Reduced declination
fecant
fecant
77448
42683
34765
rifinjr
nat. cofine
nat. fine
16 49.5
0.25319
0.01900
4.541 !4
4-8I333
Pros. VIII. Given the latitude of a place, the al¬
titude of a known fixed liar, and the fun’s right afcen-
fion, to find the apparent time of obfervation and error
of the watch.
Rule Correct the obferved altitude of the flar, and
reduce its right afcenfion and declination to the time
of obfervation.
With the latitude of the place, the true altitude and
declination of the ftar, compute its horary diflance from
the meridian by laft problem j which being added to,
or fubtrafted from, its right afcenfion, according as it
was obferved in the weflern or eaftern hemifphere, the
fum or remainder will be the right afcenfion of the me¬
ridian.
From the right afcenfion of the meridian fubtrafl the
fun’s right afcenfion, as given in the Nautical Alma¬
nack
Practice. N A V I G
Of finding Uack for the noon of the given day } and the remainder
the Longi-wiii be tbe approximate time of obfervation j from
tude at Sea , - , r -,1 r>f tVip rlailv va-
lUhYhllT which fubtraa the proportional part of the daily va-
Qbferva- riation of right afcenfion antivering thereto, and let
uons. the proportional part anfwering to the longitude be
v-"v ’ added or fubtrafted, according as the longitude .is eaft
or weft, and the refult will be the apparent time of
obfervation j and hence the error of the watch will be
known.
Ex. I. December 12. IVP2? in iat* 37 4^ N, and
longitude 2i° 15' E, the altitude of Araurus eaft of
the meridian was 340 6'.4, the height of the eye 10
feet. Required the apparent time of obfervation ?
Obferved alt. of Araurus 34°6'.4
Dip and refraaion - — 4-4
A T I O N.
Obf. alt. of Procyon
Dip and refraaion
19° 58'
7
True altitude
Latitude
Declination
19 51
53 24
5 45
fecant
fecant
7°5
Of finding
the Longi¬
tude at Sea
by Lunar
Obferva-
O.22459
0.00219
tions.
Difference - 47 39 nat‘ cof* 6736(5
Altitude of Procyon 19 51 na^ ^ne 3395^
Difference 33410 4.52388
Procyon’s merid. dill. 4b 16' 24"
right af. - 7 28 24
riftng 4.75066
True altitude
Latitude
Declination
34 2.0
37 46.0 N - fee. 0.10209
20 14.4 N - fee. 0.02778
Right af. of merid.
Sun’s right af.
11 44 48
20 47 22
Difference
Altitude of Araurus
17 31.6 N. co. 95358
34 2.0 N.fine 55968
Approximate time 14 57 26
Eq. to ap. time —o 2 36
Eq. to long. - — 017
Difference 393904.59539
Apparent time
Time per watch
14 54 33
14 58 38
Araurus’s merid. dift. 4^ ^
right af. - 14 6 13
rifing 4.72526
Watch fail
4 5
Right af. of merid.
Sun’s right af.
9 58 3
17 21 59
Approximate time
Eq. to approx, time
Eq. to longitude
16 36 4
— 33
—16
Ap. time of obf. 33 I7
Ex. 2. January 29. 1792, in latitude 530 24'N,
and longitude 250 18' W, by account, at 14I1 58' 38",
the altitude of Procyon weft on the meridian was 190
58' 5 height of the eye 20 feet. Required the error of
the watch ?
Pros. IX. Given the altitude of the moon, the lati¬
tude of a place, and the apparent time at Greenwich j
to find the apparent time at the place of obfervation.
Rule. Correct the altitude of the moon s limb by
Problem V. p. 731, and reduce its right afcenfion and
declination, and the fun’s right afcenfion, to tlm Green¬
wich time of obfervation. Now with the latitude of
the place, the declination and altitude of the moon,
compute its meridian diftance as before : Which being
applied to its right alcenfion by addition 01 fubtraftion,
according as it is in the weftern or eaftern hemifphere,
will give the right afcenfion of the meridian. Xhen
the fun’s right afcenfion fubtrafted from the right af¬
cenfion of the meridian, will give the apparent time oi
obfervation.
iovtple, March 1792, in latitude 51° 38' N, at i,h 29' f P- M- f>“ tvateh, Ute altitude of the moon’s
• limb was 370 31', the height of the eye being io feet, and the tune at Greenwich 13b 43 • Required the
Ex
lower
error of the watch ?
Altitude of the moon’s lower limb
Semidiameter
Dip
Correction
Corrected alt. of moon’s centre
Latitude
Declination
Difference
Moon’s altitude
-31
+
03i'
15
+
3
4?
Moon’s right afcenfion at Green, time
declination
Sun’s right afcenfion
22
17
23b
54"
o N
2' ofl
38 25
51 38 N
17 o N
34 38
38 25
Moon’s meridian diftance
right afcenlion
Right afeenfion of meridian
Sun’s right afcenfion
.Apparent time at {hip
Time per watch
Watch flow
Vol, XIV. Part II.
I4/ 36''
22 54
fecant
fecant
Nat. cofine
Nat. fine
Difference
rifing
0.20712
O.O194O
82281
62138
20143
4.30412
4.53064
10
23
37
2
30
o
11
11
35
29
30
7
23
U
Pros.
706
•he LorTf PR05, X. Given the apparent diftance between the
tud« aTleamoon au^ t^e ^un or a fixed ftar> to find the true di-
by Lunar ftance.
Obferva- Rule. To the logarithmic difference anfwering to
, tlQns' the moon’s apparent altitude and horizontal parallax,
™ /~ l~' add the logarithmic fines of half the fum, and half the
NAVIGATION. Pradice.
difference of tne apparent diflance and difference of Of finding
the apparent altitudes 5 half the fum will be the loga- the Longi,
rithmic cofine of an arch: now add the logarithm fines
of the fum and difference of this arch, and half the dif- Sbfcrval
ference of the true altitudes, and half the fum will be tions.
the logarithmic cofine of half the true diftance.   y—
Example. Let the apparent altitude of the moon’s centre be 48° 22', that of the fun’s 270 43' the
central diflance 8i° 23' 40", and the moon’s horizontal parallax 58' 45". Required the true difiance ?
Apparent altitude fun’s centre - * “ ' " * ’ • '
Correction
27° 43'
1 40
Apparent altitude moon’s centre
Correction -
48°
+
apparent
22' o"
38 26
Sun’s true altitude
Sun’s apparent altitude
Moon’s apparent altitude
Difference
Apparent diftance
Sum
Difference
Half difference true altitudes
Arch
Sum
Difference
27 41
27 43
20
48 22
20 39
81 23 40
102 2 40
60 44 40
10 39 33
51 27 29
62 7 2
40 47 56
40 32 16
2
Moon’s true altitude
Sun’s true altitude
Difference
Half
Logarithmic difference
49
27
o 26
41 20
Half
Half
51 l' 20'
30 22 20
Sine
Sine
21
10
9
9
9
19 6
39 33
,994638
.890639
,703820'
cofine
fine
fine
cofine
J9
9
9
9<
.589097
•794548
.946417
,815183
19.761600
9.880800
True diftance
81
4 32
Prob. XL To find the time at Greenwich an¬
fwering to a given diitance between the moon and
the fun, or one of the ftars, ufed in the Nautical Al¬
manack.
Rule. If the given diftance is found in the Nauti¬
cal Almanack oppofite to the given day of the month,
or to that which immediately precedes or follows it
the time_ is found at the top of the page. But if this
diftanee is not found exaCtly in the ephemeris, fub-
traCl the prop. log. of the difference between the di-
Itances which immediately precede and follow the giv¬
en diftance from the prop. log. of the difference be¬
tween the given and preceding diftances j the remain¬
der will be the prop. log. of the excefs of the time cor-
refponding to the given diftance, above that anfwering
to the preceding diftance : And hence the apparent
time at Greenwich is known.
Example. September 21. 1792, the true diftance be¬
tween the centres of the fun and moon was 68° 13' 8".
Required the apparent time at Greenwich ?
Pros. XII. The latitude of a place and its longitude
by account being given, together with the diftance be¬
tween, and the altitude of the moon and the fun, or one
of the ftars in the Nautical Almanack j to find the true
longitude of the place of obfervation.
Rule. Reduce the eftimate time of obfervation to
the meridian of Greenwich by Problem III. and to this
time, take from the Nautical Almanack, page 7. of the
month, the moon’s horizontal parallax and femidiame-
ter. Increafe the femidiameter by the augmentation
anfwering to the moon’s altitude.
Find the apparent and true altitudes of each obje&’s
centre, and the apparent central diftance; with which
compute the true diftance by Problem X. and find the
apparent time at Greenwich anfwering thereto by the
laft problem.
If the fun or ftar be at a proper diftance from the
meridian at the time of obfervation of the diftance,
compute the apparent time at the fhip. If not, the er¬
ror of the watch may be found from obfervations taken
either before or after that of the diftance j or the appa¬
rent time may be inferred from the moon’s altitude
taken with the diftance, by Problem IX.
The difference between the apparent times of obfer¬
vation at the fliip and Greenwich, will be the longitude
of the fhip in time j which is eaft or weft according as
App. time at Greenwich o ?6 to ^ t*me at t^ie ^ater or earlier than the Gxeen-
F*. T l . , . WICh time.
that
Given diftance 6S° 13' S'#
Dift. at ix. hours 67 53 27
Dift. at xii. hours 65 30 6
Excefs
Preceding time
DifF.—o° jp'
Diff.~i 30
36
4?'
39
39
o
P log. 9613
P. log. 270J
P. log. 69x1
Practice. NAVIGATIO N, 7°7
Of finding that of tlie moon’s upper limb 310 3' j and the height of the eye 12 feet. Required the true longitude of the J^ongf
. ph o' A. M Dift. fun and moon’s neareft limbs - 68° 3' 15" by Lunar
- i 48 Sun’s femidiameter - - -j- 16 6 Obferva-
the Longi- >
tude at Sea ,.>.r t .
by Lunar Time at ftup _ -
Obferva- Longitude in time
tiuns.
Reduced time
Altitude moon’s upper limb
Aug. femidiameter
Dip
Apparent altitude
Corre&ion
Moon’s true altitude
Sun’s apparent altitude
Moon’s apparent altitude
Difference -
Apparent diftance
Sum
Difference
10 48 A. M
31 3 0
— 16 10
— 3 18
3° 43 23
+ 49 26
3i 32 49
330 30' 48"
3° 43 23
2 47 25
68 35 40
71 23 5
65 48 15
Moon’s femidiameter
Augmentation
Apparent central diflance
Altitude fun’s lower limb
Sun’s femidiameter
Dip
Sun’s apparent altitude
Correction
Sun’s true altitude
Moon’s true altitude
Difference
Half
Logarithmic difference
Half
Half
35° 41'32"i
32 54 74
tions.
Sine
Sine
68 35 40
33 18
•d- 16 6
- 3 *8
33 3° 48
-o 1 19
33 29 29
31 32 49
1 56 40
o 58 20
9.996336
9.765991:
9'734964
Half difference true altitudes
Arch - -
Sum -
Difference
Half true diflance
True diftance
Diftance at XXI hours
Diftance at noon
Proportional part
Preceding time
Apparent time at Greenwich
Latitude - 340 53' .0 N
Declination
Sum
Sun’s altitude -
Difference
Time from noon
Apparent time
App. time at Green.
Longitude in time
o 57 .9 S
35 50 -9
33 29 -5
o 58 20
55 54 12
56 52 32
54 55 52
34 6 53
2
68 13 46
69 11 20
67 32 38
Nat. cofine
Nat. fine
3h 7' 13"
20 52 47
22 45 o
1 52 *3=28° 3'£W.
Difference
Difference
Secant
Secant
81057
55l81
25876
57' 34
1 38 42
2 45 o
21 o o
22 45 O
Rifing
Cofine
Sine
Sine
Cofine
P. log.
P. log.
Per log.
19.497291
9.748645
9.922977
9.912998
I9-835975
9.917987
495i
2610
4U2
234*
0.08602
0.00006
4.41291
4.49899
Ex. 2,
7°3 NAVIGATION. Prance,
Of finding Example 2. September 2. 1792, in latitude 130 57' N, and longitude by account 56° E, fevcral obfervations of Of finding
tudelt'seii l^e moon an^ Altair were taken ; the mean of the times per watch was ih 18' 59" A. M. that of the diltance be- theLongi-
by Lunar twee'1 Altair and the moon’s near eft limb 58°’43' 26" ; the mean of the altitude of the moon’s lower limb 70° 33'- t:jKle at Sea
;°27'.4; height of the eye 13 feet. Required the true longitude ? " ?
Ubferva- and that of Altair 25
tions.
Time per watch
Longitude in time
ih 18' 59" A. M
3 44 0
Reduced time - 9 34 59
Altitude moon - 70° 33'
Semidiameter and dip—o 13
Apparent alt. moon 70 20
Correction + 0 l9 4°
True altitude moon 70 39 40
Moon’s apparent alt. 70 20
Altair’s apparent alt. 25 24
.Difference
Apparent diftance
Sum
Difference
Half diff. true alt.
Arch
Sum
Difference
44 S6
59 1 54
I03 57 54
H 5 54
22 38 50
72 1 57
94 4° 47
49 23 7
Diftance moon and Altair
Augmented femidiameter
Apparent central diftance
Altitude of Altair
Dip
Apparent altitude Altair
RefraCtion
True altitude Altair
Moon’s true altitude
Difference
Half
Logarithmic difference
Half
Half
Ji»j8'57"
1 2 SI
Half true diftance 29 33 48I
Sine
Sine
Cofine
Sine
Sine
Cofine
5 45' 26"
-j~o 16 28
59 1 54
25 27 .4
—o 3 .4
25 24 o
 O 2 O
25 22 O
70 39 40
45 i? 40
22 38 50
9-993101
9.896428
9.088919
18.978448
9.489224
9.998548
9.880301
19.878849
9939424
tioiis.
True diftance
59 7 37
Diftance at IX hours 58 51 17
- — at XII hours 60 24 34
Proportional part
Preceding time
Apparent time at Greenwich
Latitude
Declination
Difference
Altitude Altair
Difference
!3 57 N
8 19.8 N
5 37*2
25 22.
Difference
Difference
Nat. cofine
Nat. fine
Altair’s meridian diftance
  right afcenfion
Right afcenfion meridian
Sun’s right afcenfion
4h 23'
19 40 40
0 3 54
10 46 17
Rifing
o° 16' 20"
1 33
o 31 31
900
9 31 31
Secant
Secant
99519
42841
56678
P. log.
P. log.
P. log.
1.0422
0-2855
0.7567
0.01300
0.00461
4-75341
4.77102
Apparent time at fhip I3 17 37
Apparent time at Greenwich 931 31
Longitude in time - 446 6 = 56° 31!'Eaft.
For various other methods of determining the longitude of a place, the reader is referred to Dr Mackay’s
Treatife on the Theory and Practice of finding the Longitude at Sea or Land.
Chap.
Practice.
NAVIGATION
Variation
of the
Compaf*.
Chap. III. Of the Variation of the Compafs.
yog
N 6y 13 E Cofine 9.58803 Variation
N 78 45 E
of the
Compafs.
The variation of the compafs is the deviation of the
points of the mariner’s compafs from the correfpond-
insr points of the horizon } and is denominated eqf or
iv f variation, according as the north point of the com¬
pafs is to the eaft or tveil of the true north point of the
horizon. . . r v
A particular account of the variation, and 01 the
feveral inftruments ufed for determining it from ob-
fervation, may be feen under the aiticles Azimuth,
Compass, and Variation : and for the method of
communicating magnetiim to compafs needles, fee
Magnetism.
True amplitude
Obferved amplitude
■ '“I "■ v™”'
Variation - - n 32 j which is w^?,be-
caufe the obferved amplitude is more diftant from the
north than the true amplitude ; the obfervation being
made in the eaftern hemifphere.
Jhx. 2. December 20. 1793’ Etitude 310
longitude 83° W, the fun was obferved to fet SW. Re¬
quired the variation ?
Latitude - 310 38' Secant 0.06985
Declination 23 28 Sine 9.60012
True amplitude S 62 jW Coline 9”^^997
/-vur. i i , r o W
Prob. I. Given the latitude of a place, and the
fun’s magnetic amplitude, to find the variation of the
compafs.
Rule. To the log. fecant of the latitude, add the
log. fine of the fun’s declination, the fum will be the
log. cofine of the true amplitude , to be reckoned from
the north or fouth according as the decimation is north
or fouth.
The difference between the true and obferved am¬
plitudes, reckoned from the fame point, and if ol the
fame name, is the variation } but if of a different name,
their fum is the variation.
If the obfervation be made in the eaftern hemi¬
fphere, the variation will be eaft or weft according
as the obferved amplitude is nearer to or more remote
from the north than the true amplitude. I he contrary
rule holds good in obfervations taken in the wellern
hemifphere.
Ex, 1. May 15. 1794, in latitude 330 10' N, longi¬
tude 18' W, about 5I) A. M. the fun was obferved to
rife E£N. Required the variation ?
Sun’s dec. May 15. at noon 180 58' N.
Equation to 7I1 from noon —O 4
 toi8°W +0 1
Reduced declination *8 55 Sine 9.51080
Latitude - - 33 10 Secant 0.07723
True amplitude
N 67 13 E Cofine 9.58803
Variation - 17 7 ? which is eaft, as the obferv¬
ed amplitude is farther from the north than the true am¬
plitude, the obfervation being made at funfetting.
It may be remarked, that the fun’s amplitude ought
to be obferved at the inftant the altitude of its lower
limb is equal to the fum of 15 minutes and the dip of
the horizon. Thus, if an obferver be elevated 18 feet
above the furface of the fea, the amplitude (houM be
taken at the inftant the altitude of the fun’s lower limb-
is 19 minutes.
Pros. II. Given the magnetic azimuth, the altitude
and declination of the fun, together with the latitude
of the place of obfervation ; to find the variation of the
compafs.
Rule. Reduce the fun’s declination to the time and
place of obfervation, and compute the true altitude of
the fun’s centre.
Find the fum of the fun’s polar diftance and altitude
and the latitude of the place, take the difference be¬
tween the half of this fum and the polar diftance.
To the log. fecant of the altitude add the log. fecant
of the latitude, the log. cofine of the half fum, and the
log. cofine of the difference 5 half the fum of thefe
will be the log. fine of half the fun’s true azimuth, to be
reckoned from the fouth in north latitude, but from the
north in fouth latitude.
The difference between the true and obferved azi¬
muths will be the variation as formerly.
Ex. 1. November 18. 1793, in latitude 50° 22'N, longitude 24°30'W, about Aree quarters paft eight A.M..
the altitude of the fun’s lower limb was 8° 10', and bearing per compafs S, 230 18 E j height of the eye 20 feet
Required the variation of the compafs ?
Sun’s declin. 18th Nov. at noon
Equation to 3^-h from noon
    to 240 30' W
Reduced declination
Polar diftance
Altitude
Latitude - - -
Sum
Half
Difference
Half true azimuth
190 25' S
— 2
+ 1
19 24
109 24
8 16
50 22
168 2
84 1
^5 23
22 43
Obferved alt. fun’s lower limb
Semidiameter
Dip and refraction
True altitude
Secant
Secant.
Cofine
Cofme
Sine
: u i»’
"h- 16
— 10
I, MMIIIK*.
8 id
0.00454..
0.19527
9.OI803 r
9-95591
I9-I7375
9.58687
Half
7io
Variation
of the
Compafs,
Half true azimuth
True azimuth
Obferved azimuth
NAVIGATION.
22° 43'
2
Sine
Pra&ice,
9.58687
s45
S 23
26 E.
18 E.
Variation
22
8 W.
Sun’s declination at noon
Equation to time from noon
 to longitude
Reduced declination
Polar diftance
Altitude
Latitude
Sum -
Half
Difference
True azimuth
Obferved azimuth.
Variation
2T
24'S.
2
2
21 24 S.
Ill 24
41 28
33 52
186 44
93 22
18 2
*7 23
2
S-34
S. 50
46 w.
25 w.
15 39 W.
Obferved alt. fun’s lower limb
Sun’s femidiameter
Dip and refraftion
True altitude
Secant
Secant
Cofine
Cofine
Sine
=41
+
0 18'
16
6
41 28
0.12532
0.08075
8.76883
9-9755»
18.0C048
SM7524
Ship’s
Journal.
Ex. 2. January 3. 1794, in latitude 330 52' N, 530 15' E longitude, about half paft three the altitude of
the fun’s lower limb 410 18', and azimuth S 50° 25' W, the height of the eye being 20 feet. Required the
variation ? ^
Chap. IV, Of a Ship's Journal.
A journal is a regular and exaft regifier of all the
various tranfaftions that happen aboard a fiiip whether
at fea or land, and more particularly that which concerns
a (hip’s way, from whence her place at noon or any
other time may be juftly afeertained.
That part of the account which is kept at fea is cal¬
ledand the remarks taken down while the
fliip is in port are called harbour work.
At fea, the day begins at noon, and ends at the noon
of the following day : the firft 12 hours, or thofe con¬
tained between noon and midnight, are denoted by
P. M. fignifying after mid day; and the other 12 hours,
or thofe from midnight to noon, are denoted by A. M.
fignifying before mid day. A day’s work marked
Wednefday March 6. began on Tuefday at noon, and
ended on \\ ednefelay at noon. The days of the week
are ufually reprefented by aftronomical chara&ers.
Thus © reprefent Sunday 5 J> Monday ; Tuefday •
5? Wednefday j If Thurfday; ? Friday ; and b Sa¬
turday.
When a fhip is bound to a port fo fituated that (he
will be out of fight of land, the bearing and diftance
of the port muft be found. This may be done by Mer¬
cator’s or Middle-latitude Sailing; but the moft expe¬
ditious method is by a chart. If iftands, capes, or head¬
lands intervene, it will be neceftary to find the feveral
courfes and diftances between each fucceftively. The
true courfe between the places muft be reduced to the
courfe per compafs, by allowing the variation to the
right or left of the true courfe, according as it is weft
or eaft.
At the time of leaving the land, the bearing of fome
known place is to be obferved, and its diftance is ufually
found by eftimation.' As perhaps the diftance thus
found will be liable to fome error, particularly in hazy
or foggy weather, or when that diftance is confiderable,
it will therefore be proper to ufe the following method
for this purpofe.
Let the bearing be obferved of the place from which
the departure is to be taken } and the ihip having run
a certain diftance on a direft courfe, the bearing of the
fame place is to be again obferved. Now having one
fide of a plain triangle, namely the diftance failed, and
all the angles, the other diftances may be found by
Prob. I. of Oblique Sailing.
The method of finding the courfe and diftance failed
in a given time is by the compafs, the log-line, and half-
minute-glafs. Thefe have been already deferibed. In
the royal navy, and in (hips in the fervice of the Eaft
India Company, the log is hove once every hour ; but
in moft other trading veflels only every two hours.
J he feveral eourfes and diftances failed in the courfe
of 24 hours, or between noon and noon, and whatever
remarks are thought worthy of notice, are fet down with
chalk on a board painted black, called the log-boardy
which is ufually divided into fix columns : the firft co¬
lumn on the left hand contains the hours from noon to
noon 5 the fecond and third the knots and parts of a
knot failed every hour, or every two hours, according
as the log is marked ; the fourth column contains the
courfes fteered; the fifth the winds; and in the fixth the
various
Pra&ice.
NAVIGATION.
Ship’s
Journal.
various remarks and phenomena are written. The
log-board is tranfcribed every day at noon into the
log-book, 'which is ruled and divided after the fame
manner.
The eourfes fleered muft be corre&ed by the varia¬
tion of the compafs and leeway. If the variation is
■weft, it muft be allowed to the left hand of the courfe
fleered 5 but if eaft, to the right hand, in order to ob¬
tain the true courfe. The leeway is to be allowed to
the right or left of the courfe fleered, according as the
Ihip is on the larboard or ftarboard tack. The method
of finding the variation, which fliould be determined
daily if poflxble, is given in the preceding chapter j and
the leeway may be underftood from what follows.
When a (hip is clofe hauled, that part of the wind
which afts upon the hull and rigging, together with a
confiderable part of the force which is exerted on the
fails, tends to drive her to the leeward. But fince the
bow of a fhip expofes lefs furface to the water than her
fide, the refiftance will be lefs in the firft cafe than in
the fecond j the velocity in the direction of her head
will therefore in moft cafes be greater than the velocity
in the direflion of her fide } and the fhip’s real courfe
will be between the two directions. The angle formed
between the line of her apparent courfe and the line fhe
really defcribes through the wrater is called the angle of
leeway, or Amply the leeway.
There axe many circumftances which prevent the lay¬
ing down rules for the allowance of leeway. The con-
ftruCtion of different veffels, their trim with regard to
the nature and quantity of their cargo, the pofition and
magnitude of the fail fet, and the velocity of the ftiip,
together with the fwell of the fea, are all fufceptible of
great variation, and very much affeft the leeway. The
following rules, are, however, ufually given for this
purpofe.
1. When a fhip is clofe hauled, has all her fails fet,
the water fmooth, with a light breeze of wind, fhe is
then fuppofed to make little or no leeway.
2. Allow one point when the top-gallant fails are
handed.
3. Allow two points when under clofe reefed top-
fails.
4. Allow two points and a half when one top-fail i*
handed.
5. Allow three points and a half when both top-fails
are handed.
6. Allow four points when the fore courfe is handed.
7. Allow five points when under the main-fail only.
8. Allow fix points when under balanced mizen.
9. Allow feven points when under bare poles.
Thefe allowances may be of fome ufe to work up the
day’s work of a journal which has been negleCled j but
a prudent navigator will never be guilty of this negleCt.
A very good method of eftimating the leeway is to ob-
ferve the bearing of the fhip’s wake as frequently as
may be judged neceffary 5 which may be conveniently
enough done by drawing a fmall femieircle on the taffe-
rel, with its diameter at right angles to the fhip’s length,
and dividing its circumference into points and quarters.
The angle contained between the femidiameter which
points right aft, and that which points in the direflion
of the wake, is the leeway. But the beft and moft ra¬
tional way of bringing the leeway into the day’s log is
to have a compafs or femicirele on the taffcrel, as before
defcribed, with a low crutch or fwivel in its centre j af¬
ter heaving the log, the line may be flipped into the
crutch juft before it is drawn in, and the angle it makes
on the limb with the line drawn right aft will fhow the
leeway very accurately ; which as a neceffary article,
ought to be entered into a feparate column againft the
hourly diftance on the log-board.
In hard blowing, weather, with a contrary wind and
a high fea, it is impoffible to gain any advantage by
failing. In fuch cafes, therefore, the objeft is to avoid
as much as pofnble being driven back. With this in¬
tention it is ufual to lie to under no more fail than is
fufticient to prevent the violent rolling which the veffel
would otherwife acquire, to the endangering her malls’,
and ftraining her timbers, &c. When a fhip is brought
to, the tiller is pul clofe over to the leeward, which
brings her head round to the wind. The wind having
then very little power on the fails, the fhip iofes her
way through the water j which ceafing to aft on the
rudder, her head falls off from the wind, the fail which
fhe has fet fills, and gives her frefh way through the wa¬
ter ; Avhich afting on the rudder brings her head again
to the wind. Thus the fhip has a kind of vibratory
motion, coming up to the wind and falling off from it
again alternately. Now the middle point between thofe
upon which fhe comes up and falls off is taken for her
apparent courfe , and the leeway and variation is to be
allowed from thence, to find the true courfe.
The fetting and drift of currents, and the heave of
the fea are to be marked down. Thefe are to be cor-
refted by variation only.
The computation made from the feveral courfes
correfted as above, and their correfponding diftances,
is called a day's work ; and the fhip’s place as deduced
therefrom, is called her place by account, or dead rec-
koning.
It is alrnoft conftantly found that the latitude by ac¬
count does not agree with that by obfervation. From
an attentive confideration of the nature and form of the
common log, that its place is alterable by the weight of
the line, by currents, and other caufes, and alfo the er¬
rors to which the courfe is liable, from the very often
wrong pofition of the compafs in the binnacle, the vari¬
ation not being well afcertained, an exaft agreement of
the latitudes cannot be expefted.
When the difference of longitude is to be found by
dead reckoning, if then the latitudes by account and
obfervation difagree, feveral writers on navigation have
propofed to apply a conjeftural corredfion to the depar¬
ture or difference of longitude. Thus, if the courfe be
near the meridian, the error is wholly attributed to the
diftance, and the departure is t© be inereafed or diminifh-
ed accordingly : if near the parallel, the courfe only is
fuppofed to be erroneous j and if the courfe is towards
the middle of the quadrant, the courfe and diftance are
both affumed wrong. This laft correftion will, accord¬
ing to different authors, place the fhip upon oppofite
fides of her meridian by account. As thefe correftions
are, therefore, no better than guefTmg, they fhould be
abfolutely rejefted.
If the latitudes are not found to agree, the navigator
ought to examine his log-line and half-minute-glafs, and
correft the diftance accordingly. He is then to confi-
der if the variation and leeway have been properly af¬
certained } if not, the courfcs are to be again correfted,
and
711
Ship’*
Journal.
712 N A V I G
Ship’s jjq other alteration whatever is to be made on them.
,Jour1^ | fje is next to obferve if the (hip’s place has been affect¬
ed by a current or heave of the fea, and to allow for
them according to the beft of his judgment. By ap¬
plying thefe corrections, the latitudes will generally be
found to agree tolerably well; and the longitude is not
to receive any farther alteration.
It will be proper, hovrever, for the navigator to de¬
termine the longitude of the fliip from obfervation as
often as poffible j and the reckoning is to be carried for¬
ward in the ufual manner from the laft good obferva¬
tion ; yet it will perhaps be very fatjsfa&ory to keep a
feparate account of the longitude by dead reckoning.
General Rules for working a Dafs Work.
Correct the feveral courfes for variation and leeway j
place them, and the correfponding diftances, in a table
prepared for that purpofe. From whence, by Traverfe
Sailing, find the difference of latitude and departure
made good : hence the correfponding courfe and dif-
tance, and the fhip’s prefent latitude, will be known.
Find the middle latitude at the top or bottom of the
Traverfe Table, and the diftance, anfwering to the de¬
parture found in a latitude column, will be the differ¬
ence of longitude : Or, the departure anfwering to the
courfe made good, and the meridional difference of la~
A T I O N. * Pradice.
titude in a latitude column, is the difference of longi- Ship’s
tude. The fum, or difference of which, and the longi- Journal,
tude left, according as they are of the fame or of a con- ' v "" J
trary name, will be the (hip’s prefent longitude of the
fame name with the greater.
Compute the difference of latitude between the (hip
and the intended port, or any other place whofe bearing
and diftance may be required : find alfo the meridional
difference of latitude and the difference of longitude.
Now the courfe anfwering the meridional difference of
latitude found in a latitude column, and the difference
of longitude in a departure column, will be the bearing
of the place, and the diftance anfwering to the differ¬
ence of latitude will be the diftance of the (hip from
the propofed place. If thefe numbers exceed the limits
of the Table, it will be neceffary to take aliquot parts
of them ; and the diftance is to be multiplied by the
number by which the difference of latitude is divided.
It will fometimes be necelfary to keep an account of
the meridian diftance, efpecially in the Baltic or Medi¬
terranean trade, where charts are ufed in which the lon¬
gitude is not marked. The meridian diftance on the
firft day is that day’s departure ', and any other day it
is equal to the fum or difference of the preceding day’s
meridian diftance and the day’s departure, according as
they are of the fame or of a contrary denomination.
A Journal
l ■
Practice.
NAVIGATION.
Ship's
Journal.
A Journal of a Voyage from London to Funchal in Madeira, in his Majefly’s Ship the
Refolution, A  M  Commander, anno 1793. 
Days of month
Jj Sept. 28.
© Sept. 29. SW
Winds.
SW
J> Sept. 30.
$ O&ob. 1.
SW
Variable,
ssw
SW
Remarks on board his Majefty’s {hip Refolution, 1793’
Strong gales and heavy rain. At 3 P. M. fent down topgallant yards } at 11
A. M. the pilot came on board.
Moderate and cloudy, with rain. At 10 A. M. caft loofe from the (beer hulk at
Deptford ; got up topgallant yards, and madfe fail down the river. At noon running
through Blackwall reach.
The firft part moderate, the latter fqually, with rain. At half paid one an¬
chored at the Galleons, and moored (hip with near a whole cable each way in
c fathoms, a quarter of a mile oft’ ftiore. At 3 A. M. ftrong gales : got down
topgallant yards. A. M. the people employed working up junk. Bent the ftieet
cable.
Frefli gales and fqually. P. M. received the remainder of the boatfvvain’s and
carpenter’s {lores on board. The clerk of the cheque muftered the {hip’s com¬
pany.
£ Oftob. 2.
% Oclob. 3.
5 O&ob. 4.
Variable.
N£E
N£E
N
N
NNE
Variable weather with rain. At noon weighed and made fail 5 at 3 anchored in
Long-reach in 8 fathoms. Received the powder on board. At 6 A. M. weighed
and got down the river. At 10 A. M. pail the Nore brought too and hoiiled in
the boats : double reefed the topfails, and made fail for the Downs. At noon run¬
ning for the flats of Margate.
Firft part ftormy weather*, latter moderate and clear. At 4 P. M. got through
Margate Roads. At 5 run through the Dorvns; and at 6 anchored in Dover Road,
in 10 fathoms muddy ground. Dover Caftle bore north, and tne South foreland
NE&Ei-E off fliore l| miles. Difcharged the pilot. Employed making points, &c.
for the fails. Scaled the guns.
Moderate and fair. Employed working up junk. Received from Deal a cutter
of 17 feet, with materials. A. M. ftrong gales and fqually, with rain 5 got down
topgallant yards.       
Hours. Rn. Fa.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Courfes.
WSW
W/iN
Winds.
NNE
NE
Remarks, b O&ob. 5. 1793*
Frefli gales with rain.
Hove ihort.
Weighed and made faik
Shortened fail,—Dungenefs light NE/;E,
Frefh breezes and cloudy.
Ditto weather.
Got up topgallant yards.
Set ftudding fails.
Ditto weather.
St Alban’s Head N|E.
TolTxiv:
713
Ship's
Journal.
TartTlT
X
A Journal
7H
Ship’s
Journal.
Hours. Kn
x
2
3
4
5
6
7
.8
9
10
x i
X2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
xo
11
12
NAVIGATION.
-4 Journal from England towards Madeira.
Practice.
Cowries.
Winds.
W/;N
WZ'S
NE
Remarks, 0 October 6. 1793.
Ship’s
JournaL
A frefli Ready gale.
Do. weather.
Spoke the Ranger of London, from Carolina.
Took in Itudding fails.
Do. weather.
Eddiilone light N/'W.
Do. weather.
Eddiftone light NE.
Do. weather.
Set lower ftudding fails.
Frefli breeze and clear weather.
Do. weather.
Courfe.
S. 520 f W.
Dirt
93
D.L.Dep.
57 I 74
N. Latitude by
Ace.
Obf.
49 ii'
49° 9'
D. Long.
114'W
W. Lon. by
Acc.
6° 18'
Obf.
W. Var.
2i Pts
, there is no land in fight this day at noon, and from the courfe and diftance run fince the laft bearing of the
Eddiftone light was taken, it is not to be fuppofed that any part of England will be feen, the departure is there¬
fore taken from the Eddiftone ; and the diftance of the (hip from that place is found by refolving an oblique-angled
..plane triangle, in which all the angles are given, and one fide, namely, the diftance run (16 miles) between the
obfervations. Hence the diftance of the Eddiftone at the time the laft bearing of the light was taken will be
found equal to 18 miles 5 and as the bearing of the Eddiftone from the (hip at that time was NE, the (hip’s bear¬
ing from the Eddiftone was SE. Now the variation 2-£ points W, being allowed to the left of SW, gives
S£W|W, the true courfe. The other courfes are in like manner to be correfted, and inferted in the following
table, together with their refpeaive diftances, beginning at 10 o’clock A. M. the time when the laft bearing of
the Eddiftone was taken. The difference of latitude, departure, courfe, and diftance made good, are to be found
by Traverfe Sailing.
Courfes.
S£W|W
W/,S’S
SW|W
Dift.
18
22
58
S 52VW 93
Latitude of Eddiftone
Diff. of Lat.
N.
S.
17.0
5-3
34-6
Departure.
E.
W.
6.1
21.3
46.6
56.9=5701. 74.0
58 8N.
Latitude by account - 49 11N.
Sum - - . - 99 19
Middle latitude - - 49 40
Now to middle latitude as a courfe, and the depar¬
ture 74m. in a latitude column, the difference of long,
in a diftance column is 1x4 = l° 54'W.
Longitude of Eddiftone - 4 24 W.
Longitude in by account
6 18 W
A Journal
Pra&ice.
Ship’s
Journal.
Hours.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Kn.
Courfe.
S. 38° W
Fa7
Couries.
NAVIGATION.
A Journalfrom England towards Madeira.
wsw
SWAV
SW
Winds.
NE
N
NW
Var.
Remarks, J) Odober 7. 1793.
Freih breezes.
Sounded 62 j finefand.
Moderate and cloudy.
Unbent the cables, and coiled them.
Took in ftudding fails. ^
Do. weather.
Do. weather.
Light breeze.
A fail S£E.
Hazy weather.
Do. weather.
7*5
Ship’s
Journal.
Din.
99
D.L.
73
Dep.
92
N. Latitude by
Acc.
47° 51'
Obf.
D. Long.
93 W.
W. Long, by
Acc.
-ft
7 .U
Obf.
Porto Sando’s
W. Var.
by acc. Bearing. Diftanee,
2|- pts. lS 230j-W.! 974 m.
The courfes being correded for variation, and the diftances fummed up, the work will be as under.
Courfes.
SW|-S
SSW^W
SAV|W
S 38° w
Dift.
77
12
11
99
Diif. of Lat.
N.
S.
57-°
10.3
10.4
_77*7
i° 8'
Departure.
E.
W.
Sl-1
6.2
3-7
61.6
Yefterday’s lat. by obfer. —49 9N
Latitude by account =47 51 ^
Sum - - - 97 0
Middle latitude - 48 30
To middle latitude 481°, and departure 61.6 in a
latitude column, the correfponding difference of longi¬
tude in a diftance column is 93' = i°
Yefterday’s longitude - 9 18 W.
Longitude in by account 7 51 W- _
It is now neceiTary to find the bearing .and didance of the intended port, namely, Funchal; but as that place
is on the oppofite fide of the illand with refpefr to the fhip, it is therefore more proper to find the bearing of the eaft
or well end of Madeira ; the eaft end is, however, preferable. But as the fmall ifland of Porto Sanfto lies a little to
the NE of the eaft end of Madeira, it therefore feems more eligible to find the bearing and diitance of that ifland.
To find the bearing and diftance of Porto Saneto.
Latitude of {hip 470 51'N. Mer. parts 3278 Longitude of ftiip 70 51'W.
Lat. of Porto Sanclo 32 58 N. Mer. parts 2097 Lon. of Porto Samflo 16 25W.
Dilference of latitude 14 53=1893. M. D. Lat. 1181 Difterence of long. 8 34—514.
The courfe anfwering to the meridional differesce of latitude and difterence of longitude is about 23°^, and the
diftance correfponding to the difference of latitude is 974 tiiiles. Now as Porto Santfto lies to the fouthward and
weft ward of the ihip, the courfe is therefore S 23°^ W : and the variation, becaufe W, being allowed to the right
hand, gives SW£W nearly, the bearing per compafs} and which is the courfe that ought to be fleered.
4X2 A Journaf
7*6
Ship’s
Journal.
NAVIGATION.
A Journal from England towards Madeira.
Hours.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8-
9
10
11
12
Kn.
Fa.
Courfes.
}
SW
Ship’s head to
the SW
Ship’s head
from SW to SSE
wsw
w
W|N
Winds.
NW
Variable.
S£W
SSW
PradHce.
Ship’s
Journal.
Remarks, $ October 8. 1793.
Little wind and cloudy.
Tried the current, and found none.
Calm.
Calm ; a long fwell from the SW.
Light airs and hazy.
Moderate wind and cloudy.
Set top-gallant fails.
By double altitudes of the fun, the latitude
was found to be 470 28' N.
Courfe.
Did.
D.L
Dep.
N. Latitude by
Acc.
Obf.
D. Long.
W. Long, by
Acc. Obf.
W. Var.
Porto Santto’s
Bearing. Diftance
S 6i° W 51 25 45 47° 28' 470 28' 67' W. 8° 38'  2 points. S 21° W 932
The feveral courfes corredted will be as under.
Courfes.
SSW
SW
WSW
W£S|S
Did.
3
23
22
Diff. of Latit.
N.
S.
2.8
9.2
8.4
4.4
Departure.
E.
S6i°W 51 24.8 = 25
Yederday’s latitude 47 51
W.
1.1
9.2
20.3
14.4
45-o
Latitude by account 47 26
Sum - - 77
Middle latitude - 47 39
To middle latitude 374°, and departure 45' in a
latitude column, the difference of longitude in a di¬
dance column is 67' = 1° 7'W.
Yederday’s longitude 7 51 W.
Longitude in by account 8 58 W.
To find the bearing and didance of Porto Sandto.
Latitude of drip 470 28 N. Mer. parts 3 244 Longitude 8° 58' W.
Lat. of Porto San&o 32 58 N. Mer. parts 2097 Longitude 16 25 W.
Difference of latitude 14 30=870 M. D. lat. 1147 D. longitude 7 27=447'.
Hence the bearing of Porto Sandio is S 210 W, and didance 932 miles. The courfe per compafs is therefore
SW dearly.
4
A Journal
Practice.
Shill’s
Journal.
Hours.
Kn. | Fa.
Courfes.
navigation.
A Journal from England towards Madeira. 
      Remarks, $ October 9. 1793.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
Courfe.
W£NfN
W£N
SE.6S
Winds.
SW^S
up SE^S off ESE
up WSW off WNWT
WAV
WNW
WVN
w
sw
sw^s
ssw
Squally with rain.
Handed top-gallant fails.
In firft reef topfails.
Hark gloomy weather. T-acked fliip.
In 2d reef topfails, and down top gallant yards.
Stormy weather j in fore and mizen top-fails and 3d
reef main top-fail. Handed the main top-fail, bent
the main ftay-fail, and brought to with it and the
mizen ; reefed the mainfail j at 10, wore and lay to
under the mainfail, got down top gallant maids j at
12 fet the forefail, and balanced the mizen.
The fea ftove in feveral half ports.
The fwell abates a little.
The fwell abates faft.
Up top-gallant malls.
Set the top-fails.
Clear weather *, good obfervation.
71?
Ship’s
Journal.
Dill.
D.L.
43
12
Dep.
41
N. Latitude by
Acc.
47° 4°'
Obf.
47° 39'
D. Long.
W. Long by
Acc.
6i(
9° 59'
Obf.
W. Var.
2 points
Porto Sandlo’s
Bearing. Dillance
There is no leeway allowed until two o’clock P. M. when the top gallant fails are taken in ; from 2 to 3 one
point is allowed j from 3 to 6, one and a half points are allowed j from 6 to 8, one and three-fourth points are al¬
lowed ; from 8 to 9, three points; from 9 to 10, four and a half points ; from 10 to 12, five points, from 12 to
10 A. M. three and a half points ; and from thence to noon two points leeway are allowed. Now the feveral
courfes being correaed by variation and leeway will be as under ; but as the corrected courfes from 2 to 3 P. M*
and from lO^o 12 A. M. are the fame, namely, weft ; this, therefore, is mferted in t
fum of the diilances, as a fingle courfe and diftance. In like manner the courfes from 12 to 2, and from 5 to 8
being the fame, are inferted as a fingle courfe and diftance.
Courfes.
WbS
w
WfN
EbSiS
Ei'S^S
E
NE£E
NWbW
NWbW^W
NW^W
Wi'N-lN
W6N4N
Dill.
10
15-5
5-4
jo.6
8
3
1
2
17.2
11
7-4
43
Diff. of Lat.
N.
o-5
0.6
1.1
8.1
7.0
2.1
19.4
7.0
Yeft. latitude 47
12.4
28 N.
2.0
3-1
1.9
7.0
Departure.
E.
W.
10.1
7.8
3*n
0.8
21.7
9.8
15’5
5*4
J-7
15.2
8.5
7-1
63.2
21.7
4I,5
Lat. by account 47 40 N.
To middle latitude 370 34', and departure 41.5 the
difference of longitude is 61 =1 1 W.
Yefterday’s longitude 8 58 W.
Longitude in by account Q 59^*
A Journal
7*8
Ship’s
Journal,
Hours.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
I 2
Kn.
Fa
NAVIGATION.
A Journal from England towards Madeira,
Practice.
Courfes.
W
Winds.
WSW
SWAV
SSW
S
SSE
SE£S
Remarks, % O&ober io. 1793.
Courfe.
S 740 W.
Dift.
108
D.L,
36
Dep.
N. Latitude by
Acc.
104 47° c)'
Obf.
D. Long,
153/ VvT-
Freth gales with rain.
Do. weather.
Out 3d reef topfails.
Loll a log and line.
Do. weather.
Do. weather.
Moderate and cloudy, out all reefs.
Sprung fore topgallant yard, got up Another.
Do. weather.
A fail NE.
Employed working up junk.
A fwell from, the NW, which by eftimation has
fet (hip 7 miles in the oppofite direftion.
W. Long, by
Acc.
12° 31'
Obf.
W. Var.
2 Points.
Porto Sanito’s
Bearing. Diftance.
S 12° W.j 870 m.
Two points leeway are allowed on the firft courfe, one on the fecond j and as the ihip is 7 points from the
wind on the third courfe, there is no leeway allowed on it. The oppofite point to NW, that from which the
iwell fet, with the variation allowed upon it, is the laft courfe in the Traverfe Table.
Courfes.
W
SWAV
SW£S
ESE
S 74 w
Dill.
86.2
12.3
24.7
7
108
Diff. of Lat.
N.
Yelterday’s latitude
Latitude by account
Sum
Middle latitude
S.
6.8
20.5
I-7
30.0
47 39
Departure.
E.
6.5
W
86.2
10.2
*3-7
6*5
110.1
6-5
103.6
47 9
48
  ;    47 24
/I"0 m^dle latitude 47 24, and departure 103.6, tlie
difference of longitude is 153' rr 2° 33'W.
V ellerday’s longitude - 9 59 W.
Longitude in
12 32W.
Latitude of (hip
Lat. Fort Sandlo
To find the bearing and diftance of Porto San&o.
47° 9' ■^er' Par^s ■ 3216 Longitude
32; 58 Mer. parts
2097 Longitude
120 32'W
16 23W
Difference of latitude 14 11=851'M. D. iat. 1110 D. longitude
abo^STOW ‘ng 0 “ s l2° W- d:ftance 870 miles> the courfe per compaft U therefore
Ship’s
Journal.
si Journal
Pra&ice.
Ship’s
Journal
NAVIGATION.
A Journal from England to Madeira.
Hours. Kn.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
22
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
I 2
Courfe.
S i 2° 45' W.
Fa.
Courfes.
s\m
Winds.
Remarks, $> O&ober n. 1793.
ESE
ENE
Moderate wind and fair weather.
Shortened fail and fet up the topmaft rigging,
Do. weather.
Variation per amplitude 21° W.
A fine heady breeze.
By an obfervation of the moon’s diflance from
a Pegafi, the Ihip’s longitude at half pah 8
was 120 28' W.
Clear weather.
Do. weather.
Set hudding fails, &c,
One fail in fight.
Do. weather, good obfervation.
Dih.
D.L
128 125
Dep
28
N. Latitude by
Acc.
45° 4'
Obf.
44° 59'
D. Long.
410 W.
W. Long, by
Acc. Obf.
W. Var.
Obferved.
I3G 13' 12° 59
21
Porto Samho’s
Bearing. Dihance
S 1 2C W. 1737 miles,
Latitude fhip
Lat. Porto Samho
Difference of latitude
To find the bearing and dihance of Porto Sansho..
440 59' N. Mer. parts - 3028 Longitude
32 58 N. Mer. parts - 2097 Longitude
J2 1 = 721 M. D. lat. 931 D. Longitude
719
Ship’s
Journal.
The obferved variation 21° being allowed to the left of SWT’S gives S 12° 45' W, the corre&ed courfe, and
the dihance fummed up is 127.9, or I2^ m^es- Hence the difference of latitude is 124.8, and the departure 28.2.'
The latitude by account is therefore 45® 4'N, and the middle latitude 46° 6', to which, and the departure 28.2
in a latitude column, the difference of longitude in a dihance column is 41' W j which being added to 12° 32'W,
the yeherday’s longitude gives 1 30 13'W, the longitude in by account. But the longitude by obfervation was
12° 28' W at half pah 8 P. M. ■, fince that time the {hip has run 96 miles; hence the departure in that interval
is 2l.2m. Now half the difference of latitude 47 m. added to 440 59', the latitude by obfervation at noon, the
fum 450 46' is the middle latitude j with which and the departure 21.2, the difference of longitude is found to
be 31'W j which, therefore, added to 1 2° 28', the longitude obferved, the fum is 12° 59' W, the longitude by
obfervation reduced to noon.
12° 59'W
16 25 W
3 26-=z'io6f
Hence the bearing of Porto Sanclo is S 12° W, and dihance 737 miles. The courfe to be heered is there¬
fore S 330 W, or SWZ'S nearly.
A 'journal
/
720
Ship's
Journal.
Hours.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Kn.
Courfe.
Fa.
Dirt,
S i30 3I'W. 183
NAVIGATION.
A Journalfrom England to Madeira-.
Courfe.
SW£S
Winds.
E£N
ENE
Remarks, Fj October 12. 1793.
Practice.
Frefli gales, and cloudy.
Do. weather.
Hauled down fludding fails.
Do. weather.
, A Heady gale and fine weather.
Do. weather.
Out ftudding fails alow and aloft.
Variation per azimuth 20° 14' W.
A fail in the SW quarter.
Sailmaker altering a lower fludding fail.
Fine weather, and cloudy.
D.L.jDep,
N. Latitude by
Acc.
Obf.
x78 43 | 420 1'
D. Long.
59'W.
W. Long, by |Wi Var_
Obf.
Acc.
Obf.
J40 I2'jI3e, 58'! 20° 14'
Ship’s
Journal,.
Porto Sanyo’s
Bearing.
S I 2° W
Diftance.
555
The courfe corre£led by variation is S 230 3i;W, and the diftance run is 183 miles j hence the difference of
latitude is I77-9* an^ the departure 42.8,
Yefterday’s latitude by obfervation 44* 59'N. Mer. parts - * 3028
Difference of latitude - - 2 58 S.
Latitude in by account - - 42 1 N, Mer. parts = - 2783
Meridional difference of latitude 245
Now to courfe 13-!0, and meridional difference of latitude 245 in a latitude column, the difference of longitude
in a departure column is 59'W : hence the longitudes of yefterday by account and obfervation, reduced to the
noon of this day, will be 140 iz'W and 130 58' refpedlively,
To find the bearing and diftance of Porto Samfto.
Latitude (hip . 420 i'N. Mer. parts - 2783 Longitude - 130 58'W
Lat. Port Sandlo 32 58 N, Mer. parts - 2097 Longitude - 16 25 W
Difference of latitude 9 3=543 M. D. latitude 686 D. Longitude 2 27=147.
The meridional difference of latitude and difference of longitude will be found to agree neareft under 1 2, the
corre6t bearing of Porto San<fto ; and the variation being allowed to the right hand of S I2°W, gives S 32I0
W, the bearing per compafs j and the diftance anfwering to the difference of latitude 543, under 12 degrees, is
555 miles.
A Journal
Pra£Uce.
Ship’s
Journal.
NAVIGATION.
Journal front England towards Madeira.
Hours.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Kn.
8
8 '
8
8
8
8
8
7
7
7
7
7
7
8
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
7
Fa.
Courles.
'Winds.
Remarks, © Odober 13. 1793.
SW£S
ENE
ESE
A Ready gale, and fine weather.
At 34 minutes paft three, the diflance between the
neareR limbs of the fun and moon, together with
the altitude of each, were obferved; from whence
the fliip’s longitude at that time is 140 1' W.
Hauled in the lower Rudding-fails.
At 9b 22r, by an obfervation of the moon’s diRance
from ec Pegafi, the longitude was 140 20' W.
Frefh gales, and clear.
Do. weather.
Variation per amplitude 190 51'W.
Do. per azimuth 190 28'W. Set fludding-fails.
Carried away a fore-top-mafl-Rudding-fail boom, got
up another.
Frefh gales. Took in fludding-fails.
Courfe.
SMV4W
Dili.
D.L.
Dep.
184 178 45 39° 3'
N. Latitude by
Acc.
Obf.
D.Long.
59'W.
W. Long, by
Acc. Obf.
15° 11' 14° $2'
W. Var.
by Obf.
pts.
Bearing. Diflance
The mean of the variation is about li points W: hence the courfe correfted .s SAWaW, w.fhwhrch
diftance run 184 miles, the difference of latitude is 178.5, and the departure 44.7.
Yefterday’s latitude - 4*° -'N. Mer. parU 7 o
Difference of latitude - - - 2 58 S.
Latitude in by account
39
^ N. Mer. parts
2549
_ _ _ 234
" 00^1 P°|nt and meridional^ difference of latitude 234, by“c-
which, added to the yefterday’s longitude by account 14 12 W, the lum i5 g
“L the comfe points, the differ-
ence of latitude is - -
Yefterday’s latitude at noon
Latitude at time of obfervation
Latitude at noon
42"
41 33N*
39 3n*
Mer. parts
Mer. parts
2746
2549
. _ 197
Meridional difference of latitude - - , 1 Tn^ *n a latitude column, the difference of
t'W, the longitude by obfervation, the fun,
14Again^TThe'diftanc^ru^betlv^n^he'preceding noon and 9h 24' P. M. is 75 COrrefp°ndinS
aifftfnce of latitude is 72.8, or ,3 miles ; the (hip’s latitude at that t,me , therefore 4o 48 N. _
Latitude at time of obfervation - 40° 4 £ Mer. parts _ _ . ,543
Latitude at noon - - ’ 3? o A  —
I37
Meridional difference of latitude - ’i j*rr ” ^ the difference of loneitude is 24'W ;
xeduced longitude is 14* s2' W»the correa longltude' Y J Journal
VOL. XIV. Part II. 4
722
Ship’s
Journal.
NAVIGATION.
A ’journalfrom England towards Madeira.
Hours.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
I 2
Kn.
Fa.
Courfes.
SW£S
SSW
SW6S
SW
wsw
Winds.
Practice.
Ship’s
Journal.
Remarks, ]) O&ober 14. 1793.
E£S
Variable
SE£S
SSE
Frelh gales and hazy, fingle reefed topfails.
Got down topgallant yards.
Do. weather, and a confufed fwell running.
More moderate.
Do. with lightning all round the compafs.
Courfe,
S 16° W
Dili.
116
D.L.iDep.
32
Squally, with rain.
Moderate weather j out reefs, and up top¬
gallant yards.
At 1 ih ic/ A. M. the latitude from double alti¬
tudes of the fun was 370 10'. Clear weather.
N. Latitude by
Acc.
37° I2'
Obf.
37° 8'
D. Long.
41'W.
W. Long, by
Acc.
I5° 52'
Obf.
15° 3 3'
W. Var.
i^pts.
Porto Sanyo’s
Bearing.
S io° W.
Diilanee.
254 m.
As the Ihip is clofe hauled from 2 o’clock A. M. 1^ points leeway are allowed upon that courfe and a point on
the two following courfes.
Courfes.
S/AVJW
SJW
SSWfW
SW|S
SWAV^W
S 16° W
Yefterday’s
Dill.
S°
54
J9
8.5
9-5
116
latitude
Diff. of Lat.
N.
29 1
53-9
16.8
6.8
4.9
Departure.
E.
III.5=I05I,
W.
7-3
2.7
9.0
5-i
8.1
32.2
|m. lat. 38° 7'
37 12J
Latitude in by account 37
To middle latitude 38°, and departure 32.2 in a la¬
titude column, the difference of longitude in a diitance
column is qi'.
Yefterday’s Ion. by account 15011' W. by ob. 14°5 2'W.
Difference of longitude 41 W. 41 W.
Longitude in - I5 22 *5 33 W.
The latitude by obfervatxon at 11 h 10' A. M. is 370 io', and from that time till noon the fhip has run about
4 miles. Hence the correfponding difference of latitude is 2 miles, which fubtra&ed from the latitude obferved,-
gives 370 8', the latitude reduced to noon.
To find the bearing and diftance of Porto San&o.
Latitude of fhip - 370 8' N. - Mer. parts. 2403 - Longitude
Latitude Porto Sanfto 32 j8 N. - Mer. parts. 2097 - Longitude
Diff. longitude
I5°33'w*
16 25 W.
52
Difference of latitude 410=250 M. D. lat. 306 xuugnuue y*
Hence the bearing of Porto Sando is S io° W, or. SSW|W nearly, per compafs, and the diitance is 254 miles.
A Journal
Practice,
Ship’s
Journal.
Hours. Kn. , Fa.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Courfes.
NAVIGATION,
A Journalfrom England towards Madeira.
Winds.
Remarks, $ Otftober 15. 1793.
W£S
W6N
w
WNW
NW£W
S£E
SAV
SWbS
Variable.
SWbW
123
Ship’s
Journal,
Moderate and clear weather.
Employed working points and rope-bands.
Ditto weather.
Fine clear weather.
Ditto weather.
Variation per mean of feveral azimuths 189 o' W.
Ditto weather. Tacked fhip.
Sail-makers making wind-fails.
A fine fteady breeze. Cloudy.
Courfe.
Dill.
S 68°W
D.L.
56
21
Dep.
52
N. Lat. by
Acc. Obf.
36047'i
D. Long.
65'W
W. Long, by
Account. Obferv
16° 57'
W.Var.
by Obf.
16° 38'
18°
Porto Sart&oV
Bearing.
SiE
Diitance.
229
Half a point of leeway is allowed on each courfe j but as the variation is expreffed in degrees, it will be more
convenient and accurate to reduce the feveral courfes into one, leeway only being allowed upon them. 1 he cour e
thus found is then to be corredted for variation, with which and the diftance made good the difference of latitu.-c
and departure are to be found.
Courfes.
Dift.
W^S
\\TbmN
WfN
NWMVfW
NWfW
S^EvE
Vs
S 860 w.
, 18 w.
18
27
7
2
12
20
56
Diff. of Latitude.
N
7.8
o-7
0.9
7.6
17.0
1.8
19.1
20.9
17.0
3-9
Departure.
E
5.8
5.8
w
17.9
25.8
7.0
1.8
9-3
61.8
5.8
56.0
Tr.cour. S68 W. to which and the diftance 36 m. the difference
of latitude is 21 m. and the departure 51.9 m. Hence the la¬
titude in at noon is 36° 47’ W, and middle latitude 36° 58', to
which and the departure 51.9 in a latitude column, the differ¬
ence of longitude in diftance column is 65° W.
Yefterday’s long, by aec. 15® 52'W. By obf. 15'0 33'
Difference of longitude 1 5 W» 1 5 W*
Longitude in
16 57
16 58 w.
Latitude fhip
Lat. of Porto San&o
Dili of latitude
To find the bearing and diftance of Porto SamRo.
36°47/N. * Mer. pts 2376
32 58 N. Mer. pts 2097
M.
   3 49=229 M. D. Lat. 279
Hence the courfe is S~E, diftance 229 miles $ and the courfe per compafs is SAV-JW nearly.
Longitude 16° 3 8' W „
Longitude 16 25 W.
D. Longitude
o 13
A Taurnni
724
Ship’s
Journal.
navigation.
A Journalfrom England towards Madeira.
Pradice.
Ship’s
Journal.
Hours.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Kn.
Courfe.
S 8®E
Fa.
Dill.
186
Courfes.
SZ'E
S
S6W
SZ-WiW
Winds.
SW6W
w
NW
N
NE/-E
Remarks, g 0£lober 16. 1793.
Frefti gales.
Do. and cloudy.
A Heady frefh gale.
Do. weather.
Do. weather.
Variation per amplitude if points W.
People employed occafionally.
Do. weather. Obferved fun’s meridian altitude.
D.L
185
Dep.
26
N. Latit. by
Acc. Obf.
D.Long,
33° 42'i33° A®
31' E.
W. Long, by
Acc.
16° 26'
Obf.
1
W. Var.
Obf.
if pts.
Porto Sanfto’s
Bearing.
S 170 W. 50 miles.
Diflance.
Half a point of leeway is allowed on the firH courfe j which, and the others, are corre£ted for variation as ufual.
Courfes.
SE&S
S^EfE.
SfE
S.
S8°E.
Dill.
12.4
43-
65-
68.5
18.6
DilF. of latit.
N.
S.
10.3
41.2
64.7
68.5
Departure.
E.
6.9
12.5
6.4
25.8
W.
184.7 _
3° S'
36 47N.
33 42N-
70 29
35 15
To the middle latitude and the departure, the differ¬
ence of longitude in a diftance column is 31' E.
Yefterday’slong. by acc. 160 57; W. by obf. 160 38,W,
Diffidence of long. o 31 E. - o 31 E.
Yefterday’s latitude
Latitude by account
Sum
Middle latitude
Longitude in
16 26 W.
16 7W
Latitude (hip
Lat. Porto San£lo
To find the bearing and diftance of Porto San£to.
330 46'N, Mer. parts - 2155 Longitude
32 58 N. Mer. parts - 2097 Longitude
160 7'W.
16 25 W.
Difference of latitude 48 . Mer. diff. lat. ^ 58 Diff. long.
Hence the bearing of Porto Sanfto is S 170 W. diftance 30 miles.
18
A Journal
Practice.
Ship’s
Journal.
Hours.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Kn.
NAVIGATION.
A Journal from London towards Madeira.
725
Ship’s
Journal.
Fa.
Courfes.
ssw
s
SWbW
SWbW
ssw
Various.
NNW
NW£N
Winds.
NE^E.
Remarks, % O&ober 17. 1793.
Moderate wind and clear.
Saw the ifland of Porto San&o, SWZ’S.
Hauled up to round the eaft end of Porto San£!o.
Bent the cables.
Squally weather.
Porto San&o SW£S.
Ditto with rain. Porto San<Ro NE.
The Deferters SW£S.
The Deferters WSW. 3 or 4 leagues.
Hauled up round the eaft; end of the Deferters.
Violent fqualls j clewed up all at times.
Running into Funchal Roads.
Anchored in Funchal Roads, with the beft bower in 30
fathoms black fand and mud. Brazen head E^SfS,
Loo Rock NW, the Great Church NNE, and the
fouthermoft Deferter SE£S ; off fliore two-thirds of a
mile. Saluted the fort with 13 guns 5 returned by dit¬
to. Found here his majefty’s Ihip Venus, and 7 Englilh
merchant (hips.   
This journal is performed by infpeftion agreeable to
the precepts given. Other methods might have been
ufed for the fame purpofe ; for ivhich the two inftru-
raents already defcribed and explained feem well adap¬
ted. We cannot, however, omit recommending the
Aiding gunter, which will be found very expeditious,
not only in performing a day’s work, but alfo in re-
folving moft other nautical problems. See SLIDJJS/G-
Gunter.
It will be found very fatisfa&ory to lay down the
(hip’s place on a chart at the noon of each day, and
her fituation with refpedt to the place bound to, and
the neareft land, will be obvious. The bearing and di-
ftance ©f the intended or any other port, and other re-
quilites, may be eafily found by the chart as already
explained; and indeed, every day’s work may be per¬
formed on the chart; and thus the ufe of tables fuper-
feded.
EXPLANATION of the TABLES.
Table I. To reduce points of the compafs to degrees,
and converfely.
The two firft and two laft columns of this table con¬
tain the feveral points and quarter-points of the com¬
pafs ; the third column contains the correfponding num¬
ber of points and quarters *, and the fourth, the degrees
&c. anfwering thereto. The manner of ufing this table
is obvious,
2
TABLE II. The miles and parts of a mile in a degree of
longitude at every degree of latitude.
The firft column contains degrees of latitude, and
the fecond the correfponding miles in a degree of lon¬
gitude ; the other columns are a continuation of the
firft and fecond. If the given latitude confifts of de¬
grees and minutes, a proportional part of the differ¬
ence between the miles anfwering to the given and
following degrees of latitude is to be fubtracted from
the miles anfwering to the given degree.
Example. Required the number of miles in a degree
of longitude, in latitude 57° 9' ?
The difference between the miles anfwering to the
latitudes of 570 and 58° is 0.89.
Then as 60' : 9' :: 0.89 : 0.13
Mile* anfwering to 57° 32.68
Miles anfwering to 570 9'32.55 /
This table may be ufed in Parallel and Middle Lati¬
tude Sailing.
Table III. Of the Sun's Semidiameter.
This table contains the angle fubtended by the fun’s
femidiameter at the earth, for every forth .day of the
year. The months and days are contained in the firft
column, and the femidiameter expreffed in minutes and
feconds in the fecond column. It is ufeful in correft-
ing altitudes of the fun’s limb, and diftances between
the fun’s limb and the moon.
Table
725 N A V I G
tion*of the Table IV. Of the Rejraftion in Altitude.
, lal>les» f The refraftion is neceflary for correftxng altitudes
and diftances obferved at fea ; it is always to be fub-
trafled from the obferved altitude, or added to the ze¬
nith diftance. This table is adapted to a mean date of
the atmofphere in Britain, namely, to 29.6 inches of
the barometer, and 50°of the thermometer. If the height
of the mercury in thefe inftruments be different from
the mean, a corredtion is neceffary to reduce the tabular
to the true refraction. See Refraction.
Tables V. VI. Of the Dip of the Horixon.
The firft of thefe tables contains the dip anfwering to
a free or unobftruCted horizon j and the numbers there¬
in, as well as in the other table, are to be fubtrafted
from the obferved altitude when the fore-obfervation is
ufed ; but added, in the back-obfervation.
When the fun is over the land, and the Ihip nearer it
than the vifible horizon when unconfined : in this cafe,
the fun’s limb is to be brought in contaCI with the line
of feparation of the fea and land j the diftance of that
place from the fliip is to be found by eftimation or other-
wife ; and the dip anfwering thereto, and the height of
eye, is to be taken from Table VI.
Table VII. Of the Cor re El ion to he applied to the time
of high water at full and change of the moon, to find
the time of high water on any other day of the moon.
The ufe of this table is fully explained at Section II.
Lhap. I. Book I. of this article.
A T I O N. Pra&ice.
Ex. II. Required tlie fun’s declination Auguft 20. Explana*
1805? tion of die
Tables.
The given year is 12 years after 1793* and the time v——>
is after the end of February 1800.
Now, Sun’s dec. Auguft 19. 1793 - 120 34'.6
Equation from Table X. to 12 years -~o 1 .9
Sun’s declination Auguft 20. 1805 - 12 32.7
# The declination in Table VIII. is adapted to the me¬
ridian of Greenwich, and Table IX. is intended to re¬
duce it to any other meridian, and to any given time
of the day under that meridian. The titles at the top
and bottom of this table direCl when the redudion is to
be added or fubtraded.
1 able XI. Of the Right Afcenfiotis and Declinations of
Fixed Stars.
This table contains the right afcenfions and declina"
tions of 60 principal fixed ftars, adapted to the beginning
of the year 1793. Columns fourth and fixth contain the
annual variation arifing from the preceflion of the equi¬
noxes, and the proper motion of the ftars ; which ferves
to reduce the place of a ftar to a period a few years af¬
ter the epoch of the table with fufficient accuracy. When
the place of a ftar is wanted, after the beginning of
I793» variation in right afcenfion is additive ; and
that in declination is to be applied according to its
fign. . The contrary rule is to be ufed when the given
time is before 1793.
Tables VIII. IX. X. Of the Sun's Declination, &c.
The firft of thefe tables contains the fun’s declination,
expreffed in degrees, minutes, and tenths of a minute,
for four fucceflive years, namely, 1793, 1794, 1795,
and 1796: and by means of Table X. may eafily be
reduced to a future period ; obferving that, after the
28th of February 1800, the declination anfwering to
the day preceding that given is to be taken.
Example. Required the right afcenfion and declina¬
tion of Bellatrix, May 1. 1798 ?
Right afcenfion January 1. 1793 rr ih 14' f
Variation =r 3".2i Xif y* = +0 o 17
Right Afcenfion, May 1. 1798
Declination
Variation rr 4" Xjyy*
5 14 20
6° 8' 53"N
-j-O O 21
Ex. I. Required the fun’s declination May r. 1816 ?
May 1. 1812 is four years after the fame day in 1812.
Sun’s declination May 1.1812 - 150 6'-7 N
Equation from Table X. - 0.6
Sun’s declination May 1. 1799 ” A 7.3 N
3
Declination May 1. 1798 —: 6 9 14 N
The various other tables neceffary in the pradlice of
navigation are to be found in moft treatifes on that
fubjetff. Thofe ufed in this article are in Mackay’s
Treatifes on the Longitude and Navigation.
Table
Practice.
NAVIGATION.
Table I. To reduce Points of the Compafs to Degrees, and converfely.
Table III. Sun'sSemidia,
North-eaft
Quadrant.
South-eaft
Quadrant.
Points.
D. M. S.
South-weft
Quadrant.
North-weft
Quadrant.
g Q
Sun’s
Semidiarn.
North.
NiE
N-f-E
N^E
South.
SfE
SfE
S^E
o o
O 5
O i
o i
o o o
2 48 45
5 37 3°
8 26 15
South.
SiW
SfW
SiW
North.
N|W
NiW
N4-W
N^E
N^EfE
N^EfE
NZ>E4-E
SZ-E
S^EfE
S^EiE
S/^EiE
11 15 o
J4 3 45
16 52 30
*9 41 15
SbW
SbWiW
SbWjrW
SbWIW
NbW
NbW-lW
NbWiW
NZ-W^W
NNE
NNE-fE
NNEfE
NNE4-E
SSE
SSEfE
SSEfE
SSE4E
22 30 o
25 18 45
28 7 30
3° 56 15
SSW
SSW^W
SSWiW
SSW|W
NNW
NNWfW
NNW4-W
NNW|W
NE^N
NE|N
NEiN
NEiN
SE^S
SEiS
SEiS
SE‘S
33 45 °
36 33 45
39 22 3°
42 11 15
NE
NEfE
NEfE
NE4E
SE
SE^E
SE^E
SE4-E
45 0 0
47 48 45
50 37 3°
53 26 15
NE£E
NEZ-E^E
NEZ-EtE
NEZ-E4E
SE/^E
SE^E^E
SE^EiE
SEZ-EiE
ENE
E^N|N
E£NiN
EZ>NiN
ESE
E^S^S
E^S^S
E£S4S
E^N
E|N
EiN
E^N.
Eaft.
E^S
E|S
EiS
EiS
Eaft.
56 15 o
59 3 45
6l C2 50
64 41 15
67 30 o
70 18 4c
73 7 3°
75 56 15
SWbS
SWiS
SWi-S
SWIS
NW^N
NW|N
NWfN
NW^N
sw
SWJ-W
SWfW
SW4W
NW
NW-jW
NWfW
NW4-W
SWbW
SWbWfW
SWbWiW
swz-w^w
NWbW
NW^W^W
NW^WiW
NW^W|W
WSW
WZ-SiS
w^s^s
W/^Si-S
WNW
W^N^N
W^NiN
W^N^N
78 45 o
8i 33 45
84 22 30
87 11 15
90 o o
WbS
WiS
WfS
WJS
Weft.
WbN
W|N
WiN
W^N
Weft.
Table II. The Miles and Parts of a Mile in a Degree of Longitude at every
Degree of Latitude.
D.L.I Miles. D.L. Miles. D.L. Miles. D.L.! Miles. D.L.' Miles. D.L.! Miles
59-99
59-97
59-92
59.86
59-77
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
r5
59-67
59-56
59-44
59.26
59-°8
58.89
58.68
58.46
f 8.22
57-95
16
17
18
*9
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
57-6?
57-36
57.06
56.73
56.38
56.01
55-63
55-23
54.81
54-38
53-93
53-46
52-97
52-47
51.96
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
5I-43
50.88
50-3 2
49-74
49-15
46
47
48
49
5°
48-54
47.92
47.28
46.62
45-95
45.28
44-95
43.88
43-i6
42-43
51
52
53
54
55
56
57,
58
59
60
41.68
40.92
40.15
39-36
38-57
37-76
36-94
36.11
35-26
34-41
33-55
32.68
3I-79
30.90
30.00
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
29.09
28.17
27.24
26.30
25-36
24.41
23-45
22.48
21.50
20.52
I9-54
i8-54
I7-54
16-53
I5-52
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
8q
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
I4-5I
13-50
12.48
ii-45
10.42
9-38
8-35
7-32
6.28
5-23
4.18
3-T4
2.09
1.05
0.00
0-1
<1
Co
o
s
_D
s
7
13
19
25
7
13
19
25
7
r3
19
25
I
7
13
19
25
7
13
19
2 5
7
13
19
25
7
13
19
25
Ct3
3
W3
I
7
13
19
25
<u
CO
7
J3
19
25
7
13
19
25
7
13
19
25
7
13
19
25
16' 19
16 19
16 19
16 18
16 17
16 16
16 I c
16 14
16 12
l6 12
l6 IO
l6 9
l6
l6
l6
l6 2
l6 I
15 59
15 57
15 56
15 54
15 53
15 52
15 5i
i5- 50
15 49
15 48
15 47
15 47
15 47
15 47
15 47
15 47
15 48
15 48
15 49
15 5°
15 5i
15 52
15 53
15 55
15 56
15 58
15 59
16 1
16
16
16
16
16
16 11
16 13
16 14
16 1 ?
16 16
16 17
16 18
16 18
16 19
16 19
Table
727
N A V I GAT I G N,
Pi.a<fUce
Practice.
NAVIGATION.
72-9
Table Viil. Sun's Declination for beinsr tficfrft afte' leap year.
December.
^ 57-9
22 6.6
22 I4.9
22 22.8
22 3O.3
22 37.3
22 43.9
2 2 5O.O
22 55.7
Table vril. The Sun's Declination for 1810, being the fecond after leap year,
"VOL. XIV. Part II.
73°
NAVIGATION.
Day. | January.
February. I March.
Table Vi II. Sun's Declination for 1811, being the third after leap year
Pra&ice.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
io
11
12
13
15
16
J7
18
!9
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
230 3'9S
22 58.9
22 53-5
22 47.7
22 41.3
22 34.6
22 27.4
22 19.7
22 11.6
22 3.1
21 54.2
21 44.8
21 35-°
21 24.8
21 14.1
21 3.1
20 51.7
20 39.9
20 27.6
20 15.0
I7°15 7^
16 58.6
16 41.3
16 23.6
l5 5-7
*5 47-5
15 29.0
‘5 *0.3
J4 SI-3
T4 32.0
14 I2*5
13 52-8
J3 32-9
13 12.7
12 52.3
12 31.7
12 10.9
11 49.9
11 28.8
11 7-4
20 0.0
19 48.6
J9 34-9
19 20.8
19 6.3
18 51.5
*8 36.3
18 20.9
18 5.0
17 48.9
31 l7 32*5
10 45.9
10 24.2
10 2.3
9 4°-3
9 18.1
8 55-8
8 33-4
8 10.9
348'2S
25-4
2.6
39-6
16.5
53-4
30.1
6.8
43*5
20.4
April.
56.5
33- o
9-5
45-9
22.2
58.6
34- 9
11.2
47-5
23.8
’ i8'4N
41-5
4.6
27-5
50-4
13-1
35-8
58.3
20.7
43-o
May.
8 5-2
8 27.3
8 49.2
9 10.9
9 32-5
9 54-°
10 I5>3
10 36.4
Jo 57-3
11 18.1
0.0
23.6N
47.2
10.9
34-5
58.0
21.6
45-J
3 8.5
3 3l-9
3 55-2
11 38.7
11 59.0
12 19.3
12 39-3
12 ?9.o
13 18.6
13 38.0
*3 57-1
14 16.0
I4 34-7
i4053'iN
XJ 1J-3
15 29.2
15 46.9
16 4.3
16 21.4
J6 38.3
16 54.9
17 11.2
iy 27.3
June.
2i°58/5N
22 6.7
22 14.6
22 22.0
22 29.1
22 35.8
22 42.0
22 47.9
22 53-4
22 58.5
17 43-o
17 58.4
18 13.6
18 28.5
18 43.0
J8 57.2
19 11.1
19 24.7
l9 37-9
19 50.9
20 3-5
20 15.7
20 27.6
20 39.2
20 50.4
21 1.2
21 11.7
21 21.8
21 3I-5
21 40.9
21 49-9
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
3-2
7-4
14.8
17.9
20.5
22.7
23 24.5
23 25.9
23 26.9
23 27.5
23 27.7
23 27.4
23 26.8
23 25.7
23 24.2
23 22.2
23 20.0
23 I7*3
23 14.2
July.
230 IO'6N
23 6.7
23 2.3
22 57.6
22 52.4
22 46.9
22 4I.O
22 34.6
22 27.9
22 20.8
22 I3.3
22 5.4
21 57.2
21 48.5
21 39-5
21 30.I
21 20.4
21 IO.3
20 59.8
20 48.9
20 37.8
20 26.2
20 I4.4
20 2.2
19 49.6
l9 36.7
l9 23.5
19 10.0
18 56.2
18 42.0
18 27.6
18° 12'8N
l7 57-8
17 42.4
17 26.8
17 10.9
16 54.7
16 38.2
16 21.c
16 4.5
J5 47-2
Auguft. [September
l5 29.7
iS 11.9
r4 53-9
*4 35-6
14 17.2
J3 58.5
J3 39*5
!3 20.3
13 1.0
12 41.4
12 21.6
12 1.6
11 41.5
11 21.1
11 0.6
10 39.9
10 19.0
9 58.0
9 36-8
9
8 54.0
8° 3 2/3
8 10.6
7 48.7
7 26.6
7 4-5
42.2
I9-9
57-4
34-8
12.1
49-3
26.5
3-5
40.6
I7-5
54-3
31-2
7-9
44.6
21.3
October.
’ 56'I S,
I9.4
42.7
5-9
29.2
52.3
15-4
38-4
J-3
24.2
57-9
34- 5
11.1
12.3S.
35- 7
59-i
22. c
45-9
9-3
32.7
Days, j January. | February.
Table VIII. Sun's Declination for 1812, being leap year.
6 47.0
7 9-7
7 32-3
7 34-9
8 *7-3
8 39-5
9 J-7
9 23.7
9 45-6
10 7.4
November.
140 14 88
H 34-1
J4 53-1
13 11.9
J5 30.5
15 48 8
16 6.9
16 24.6
16 42.1
J6 59-3
10 29.0
10 50.4
11 11.7
11 32.8
11 53-8
12 14.5
12 35.0
12 55*4
r3 ^
13 55-5
l3 55-3 <
x7 16.3
17 32.9
17 49-3
18 5.3
18 21.0
18 36.4
18 51.4
19 6.1
19 20. c
J9 34-5
19 48.2
20 1.5
20 14.4
20 27.1
20 39.2
20 51.0
21 2.4
21 13.4
21 24.0
21 34.2
December.
2I°44,0S.
21 53-4
22 2.3
22 10.9
22 18.9
22 26.6
22 33.9
22 40.7
22 47.0
22 52.9
22 58.3
23 3-3
23 7-9
23 11.9
23 15*5
23 18.7
23 21.3
23 23.5
23 25.3
23 26.5
23 27.4
23 27.7
23 27.5
23 26.9
23 2?.8
23 24.2
23 22.2
23 i9-7
23 16.7
23 i3-3
23 9-4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
J3
J4
15
16
17
18
J9
'20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
z9
3°
31
23 4'9S
23 0.0
22 54.8
22 49.0
22 42.9
22 36.2
22 29.1
22 21.6
22 13.6
22 5.2
2J 56-3
21 47.0
2J 37-3
21 27.2
21 16.7
21 5-7
20 54.4
20 42.6
20 30.5
20 18.0
20 5.0
19 51.8
J9 38.2
19 24.1
r9 9-8
J8 55-0
18 40.0
18 24.6
18 8.9
17 <2.9
17 36.5
i9'8S,
2.8
*7
17
J6 45-5
16 27.9
16 10.1
r5 5J-9
15 33-5
15 14.8
x4 55-9
J4 36-5
J4 I7*3
J3 57-6
J3 37-7
l3 17‘5
12 57.2
12 36.7
12 '15.9
11 55-o
11 33-8
11 12.5
10 51.0
10 29.4
10 7.6
9 45-6
9 23-5
9 J-3
8 389
8 16.4
7 53-8
VI arch.
70 3V°S
7 8.2
6 45-3
6 22.2
5 59-1
5 35-9
5 126
4 49-2
4 23.8
4 2.3
38.8
15.2
5!.6
27.9
4-3
1 40.6
1 16.9
0 53-2
o 29.5
o 5.8
o 17.9N
0 4I-5
1 5.2
1 28.8
1
2
2
3
3
52.3
158
39-3
2.7
26.1
3 49.4
4 12.6
Aprlh
May.
'35'7N
38.8
21.8
44-7
7-5
30.2
52.8
15.2
37-6
59-8
8 21.9
8 43-8
9 5-6
9 27.3
9 48.8
10 10.1
Jo 3J-3
10 52.2
u J3-°
11 33.6
54-o
J4-3
34-3
54-2
13.8
33-2
52.3
JJ-3
30.0
48.5
150 6'7N
i5 24.7
15 42.4
J5 59-9
16 17.1
16 34.0
16 50.8
17 7.2
J7 23.3
17 39-J
June.
17 54.6
18 9.9
18 24.8
18 39.4
J8 53*7
19 7.7
!9 21.3
l9 34-7
19 47.7
20 0.3
12.7
24.6
20 36.3
20 47.5
20 58.4
9.0
19.2
29.0
38.5
47.6
220 4'6N
22 12.5
22 20.1
22 27.3
22 34.0
22 40.4
22 46.4
22 52.0
22 57.2
23 2.0
6‘3
10.3
J3-9
17.0
J9-7
22.1
24.0
26. c
26.6
27-3
July.
230 7'6N
23 3-3
22 58.7
22 53.6
22 48.2
22 42.3
22 36.1
22 29.5
22 22.4
22 15.0
22 7.3
21 59.0
21 5°‘5
21 41.6
21 32.3
21 22.7
12.6
2-3
20 5J-5
20 40.4
23 27.6
23 27.4
23 26.9
23 25.9
23 24.5
23 22.7
23 20.5
23 17-9
23 14.8
2.3 11-4
20 29,0
20 17.2
20 5.1
J9 52-7
J9 39-9
19 26.8
J9 I3-3
18 59.6
,8 45-5
j8 3 i.i
Auguft:.
September.
18° V5N
17 46.2
17 30.6
17 14.7
16 58.6
16 42.2
J6 25.5
16 8.6
IS Si-4
r5 33-9
15 16.2
14 58.2
14 40.0
14 21.6
14 2.9
13 44.0
J3 25.0
J3 5-7
12 46.2
12 26.4
8°i5'9N
7 54-o
32.0
9.9
47-7
25-3
2.8
5 40-3
5 J7-6
4 54-8
32.0
9.1
46.1
23.0
59*9
36.8
!3.6
s'°-3
27.0
3-7
October
30J3'7S
3 ■37-°
4 °-3
23-5
46.7
9.8
32.9
55.8
18.7
4J-5
7 4-3
7 26.9
7 49-4
8 11.8
8 34-i
8 56.3
9 J84
9 40-3
io 2.0
J° 23.7
[2156.3 S
118 16.4
12 6.5
11 46.4
11 26.1
11 5.7
JO 45-0
10 24.2
10 3-2
9 42.0
9 20.7
8 59-3
8 57.7
4°-3
16.9
6 5
29.9
53-3
16.7
40.1
3-5
26 9
50.3
10 45.1
11 6.4
11 27.6
11 48.6
12 9.4
12 30.0
12 50.4
13 10.6
J3 3°-6
J3 50.4
November.
140 29'3t>
J4 48-3
J5 7-4
15 26.0
J5 44-4
16 2.5
16 20.3
16 37.9
16 55.2
17 12.2
December.
28.9
45*3
J-4
17.2
32.6
47-7
2-5
17.0
3J-o
17
x7
18
18
18
18
r9
J9
J9
\9 
19 58.2
20 11.2
20 23.9
20 36.1
20 48.0
20 59-5
21 10.6
21 21.4
21 31.7
21 41.6
ix4 10.0
O
JJ'oS
0.1
8.7
17.0
24.7
32.0
22 39.0
22 45.4
22 fI-4
22 57.O
23 2.0
23 6.7
23 IO.9
23 14.6
23 17-8
23 20.6
23 23.0
23 24.8
23 26.2
23 27.1
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
27*5
27‘5
27.0
26.0
24-5
22.6
20.3
J7-4
14.0
Jo.3
23 6.0
Table
Pradice. NAVIGATION.
73 2
NAVIGATION.
Practice,
Fable X. Change of Sun's Dec,
% «
Complete Years.
12
16
i
7
x3
25
!3
J9
_25
I
7
*3
x9
25
1
70
C-,
C
T3
l9
fS 0
1
70
130
190
_25°
1
73
130
190
2<i
.1
.0
O  I
r£?
3
I
<3
1
70
*3
I9
25
1
7
J3
19
25
x9
25
£
13
J9
2
o
70
130
190
25
I o'-
o
O'
O .2
0 -3
o .4
o .40
o .
o .
o .6
o .6
o .
3 °'-
o
7
7
o .7
o .7
0+ 7
7,
7
•7
.6
.61
"6
•5
•5°
o
o
•3°
.2
.1
.2
° *3
o .4
o .
•51
.6
1 o
7°
o .
o .
0 +
I .0
I .1
I .2
I .2
I
I
I
I .4
I 4 2
I-f 4
I
I
I
I
.1
.0 I
I
I
•9
.8
•5°
.40
•3
0 — 2
•30
•4
.6
•7
•9
o
1
r. 2
!• 3
!• 3
■4
•4
•4
7I1 -4
7!I+ 4
1 o
70
•7
•7
•7
.6[t
.61
o
70
*3
190
250
o
o
o
o .1
J— 1
-4 o'-
.70
l
i .6
1 -7
1 .9
2 .
.1
2 —1
.1
2 .1
2 .0
1
1
• /
.6 2
■4
.2
.0
T
•5
.70
•9
.1
•3
2 .
2 .
2 .
2 .
2 +
42
S2
1
r
5°
40
30
o
j-
Table XI. The Right /Hfcenfions and Declinations of the Principal fxed Stars,
adapted to the beginning of the Year 1810.
Names of Stars.
t
1 '41
1 -7
2 .o|
2 .21
2 *3
2 *4
2 .6
7
/3 Cetl
Alrucabab, pole flar
Mirach
Achernar
Almaach
Menkar
Algol
Algenib
Aldebaran
2
2
2
2
2 -J- 8j
2 .8
3
1
1 .9
1 .6
1 *3
o
7
4
Capella
Rigel
Tauri
Bellatrix
^ Orionis
£ Orionis
£ Orionis
« Columbae
Betelguefe
B Canis Majoris
Canopus
Sirius
ci Canis Majoris
Caftor
Procyon
Pollux
£ Navis
y Navis
Acubens
/3 Navis
2 .0
2 .2
2 .4
2 . i;
2
.6
2
2
2
2-4-8
2 .
2 .
2 .6
■5
92
82
52
i
Alphard
Regulus
« Navis
/3 Ur fee Majoris
Dubhe
/3 Leonis
y Urfae Majoris
« Crucis
y Crucis
/3 Crucis
Abath
Spica Virginis
^ Urfse Majoris
Benetnacli
/3 Centauri
Arfturus
a Centauri
Alpbacca
/3 Scorpii
Antares
1 •°1
•50 -7
•3 0 .4
o . |
Ras. Algetbi
Ras. Alhague
Vega
Altair
Deneb
Gruis
Fomalhaut
Scheat
arkab
a Andromedge
be
2
2
2-3
2
1
2
2
Var.
1
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
I
2*3
I
1
2
1.2
1.2
2*3
2
2
3
I
2
1
2
2
1.2
1
1
2
2
I
2
2
1
1.2
2
2
1
2
Right Afcen.
in Time.
h 3'
34
54
59
3°
52
52
56
10
2?
57'
2
15
7
38
16
20
o
49
1
2
5
14
H
22
26
31
S2
44
14
40
J9
x7
57
20
35
11
45
53
22
]9
36
©
22
29
32
56
3
48
43
46
40
27
20
48
44
41
4
6
9 18
9 58
10 37
10 50
10 ci
11 39
11 47
12 16
12 20
12 36
!2 45
l3 *5
13 16
J3 4°
*3 5°
14 6
14 27
15 26
15 54
16 17
*7 5"
17 26
18 30
19 41
20 34
21 56
22 47
22 54
22 ; 5
23 58
H
43
17
54
21
45
9
42
_44
36
11
23
4
32
59
16
38
26
45
59
7
3°
3°
56
11
6
34
17
34
Ann.
Var.
3".06
3 -0I
12 .42
3 -31
2 .25
3 -62
3 -11
3 -85
4 .21
3 -42
.41
.87
.78
.21
.07
.04
•°3
24
2 -65
1 -33
2 .6 c
2 *44
3 -85
3 •I4
3 -69
2 .11
1 .85
3 *3°
° -75
2 *93
3 *20
2 .30
3 -71
3 -85
3 -o6
2 .22
3 -24
3 -24
3j41
2 .67
3
•43
.40
.11
.72
•45
•53
•47
.64
•73
•77
.02
.92
•°3
3 -85
3 -33
2 .87
2 .96
3 -07
Declination.
140 7'
J9 3
88 17
34 36
58 11
41 24
3 20
40 12
49 9
16 7
35"N
36 S
41 N
45 N
19 S
47 N
27 N
53 N
31 N
6 N
45 47
8 25
28 26
6 10
o 26
1 19
2 3
34 ^
7 21
J7 52
41 N
48 S
10 N
1 N
53
57
8
54
40 N
16 S
51 35
J5 27
26 6
32 17
5 42
28 27
39 28
46 46
12 35
68 56
44 S
48 S
o S
33 N
56. N
28 N
20 S
39 S
19 N
*3 s
7 5°
12 53
58 41
57 23
62 46
T5 37
54 44
62 2
52 2
58 38
25 s
29 N
20 S
53 N
43 N
9 N
7 N
46 S
42 S
55 S
Ann.
Var.
-j-20".0
— I9
-j-19 .6
+ 19 .4
—18 *5
+ !7 -7
4-14 .7
+ M -5
+ J3 -6
-f 8 .2
-F 5 -1
— 4 -8
+ 4 *3
4* 4 *0
— 3 *4
— 3 .0
— 2 .6
~ 2 .4
4- 1 .4
4- 1 .2
+ 1 -7
+ 4-3
4-5.2
— 6 .9
— 7 -5
— 7 .9
4- 9 .7
4-10 .3
13 -4
4-14 .8
+ 15 -2
—17 .2
4-l8 .7
■—19 .1
.19 .1
—I9 .9
— 20 .O
4-20
4-20 .O
4-19 .8
57
10 9
55 54
50 35
59 26
20 10
60 3
27 21
10 16
25 59
48 N
54 S
8 N
58 N
51 s
34 N
17 S
44 N
29 S
49 S
H 36
12 42
38 36
8 22
44 3<5
48 1
30 48
27 3
27 3
28 2
57 N
37 N
19 .7
4-19 .0
19 .0
—18 .2
+ *7 •
19 .1
4-16 .1
—12
4-10
4- 8 .7
4 .8
41 IV   4 .O
35 N 4- 2 .6
13 N 4- 8 .c
13 N -f-
13 N -f-12
58 S
14 S
7 N
■5
5
17 .1
■19 .0
TO
NAY
Navigation, NAVIGATION of the Ancients.
Inland Na- TRADE.
vigation. ^ Inland NAVIGATION, the method of conveying com-
modities from one part of a country to another by
means of rivers, lakes, canals, or arms of the fea. See
Canal.
We have already, under Canal, taken notice of a
method propofed by Dr Anderfon of raifing and lower¬
ing veffels by means of mechanical powers, inftead of
dams and locks. We (hall deferibe another mechani-
oal contrivance propofed by IVlr Leach for the fame
purpofe. This machinery is compounded of an inclined
plane and wheel in axis. The inclined plane is a pa¬
rallelogram whofe length reaches from the end of one
canal to the beginning of another, or to the fea or na¬
vigable river, to which the velfel is next to be convey¬
ed •, the breadth ought to be 224- feet. . It may be
made of good oak or deal plank, and fufficiently ftrong
to bear the weight to be laid upon it; and it muft be
very ftrongly fupported by beams of oak or other
wood. It ought to be divided in the middle by a
ledge or rib of 12 inches fquare, the fide ribs being
nine by 12 inches. The elevation muft depend upon
Plate particular circumftances. Fig. x. ihows the inclined
CCCLXIX. part 0f the machine } AB being the wooden part juft
I* defcribed, placed between the fide of the hill W and
the navigable river F. According to the dimenfions
already given, the two paths A and B on which the
veffels move are exa&ly ten feet wide. G reprefents
the canal, brought perhaps from the diftance of feveral
miles to the top of the precipice WW. At the end
of the canal, and quite acrofs from R to R, muft be
built a very ftrong wall} in which are two fluices
with flood gates at K and L, to let out the water
occafionally. Between the head of the plane AB,
and the end of the canal G, is a horizontal platform
divided into two parts, as" is reprefented in the figure
by the letters HI. At the end of the canal are fix
rollers M and N, of ufe in carrying the boats and
lighters in and out of the canal. Near the end of the
canal, at S, and T, are two other fluices, with their
flood-gates, for letting out a quantity of fluid to drive
the other part of the machine. O and P reprefent
the two ends of the towing paths, one on each fide of
the canal.
Fig. 2. fhows the vehicle by which the lighters are
conveyed up and down the inclined plane, by the two
paths A and B, fig. I. AA (fig. 2.) reprefents part
of the inclined plane, B the vehicle in the pofition in
which it rolls up and down the two paths. C is the
body of the vehicle, which is made hollow, to con¬
tain a quantity of water occafionally ufed as a coun¬
terbalance for its correfponding vehicle. DDD are
three rollers between the bottom of the vehicle and
the plane, for the purpofe of rolling the boats up and
'down. HHH are fix rollers ; four by the horizontal
part of the vehicle on which the boat E is to reft in
its paffage up and down the plane •, the other two rol¬
lers are in a moveable part, which is faftened to the
body of the vehicle with a pair of very ftrong hinges :
and in the paffage of the vehicle up and down the
plane, it turns up between the head of the boat and
the plane, preventing the former Vom rubbing againft
the plane. When the vehicle gees up to the top, this
f 733 1 N A V
See PHOENICIA and moveable part falls down on the platform marked HI,Inland Nr
becoming parallel with the horizontal part of the ve- , vlSa^ori-
hide } after which it ferves for a launch and paffage
to place the boat upon the rollers MN (fig. i.) at the
end of the canal. This paffage part of the vehicle,,
together with the three rollers at the end of the canal,
is likewife of great ufe in towing a boat out of the
canal, in order to place it on the horizontal part. At
the bottom of the cavity of the vehicle is a large hole
F, with a valve opening inwardly. Through this hole
the water enters when the vehicle finks into the naviga¬
ble river F, for the purpofe of receiving a boat on the.
top or horizontal part of the vehicle till it is quite
full and then will fink entirely under water, while the
boat is towed in on the horizontal part. A fmall rope
K is faftened to the valve, on purpofe to lift it up and
to keep it fo, while the vehicle and boat are afeending
up the plane out of the canal j that fo the water may
difeharge itfelf till as much as is neceffary be got out,
or till it becomes an equal balance for the correfpond¬
ing vehicle and its contents, which are defeending by
the other path. Hence xve fee, that every machine
muft have two of thefe vehicles furnilhed with rollers
as already defcribed, and fo conftruded that one may
be as nearly as poflible a counterbalance to the other.
As it is neceffary that the vehicles ftiould be water tight,
the infides of them muft be caulked very tight ; and
they fhould be capacious enough to hold as much
water as will balance the largeft boat with its contents.
Here it may be obferved, that every veffel will be ba¬
lanced by as many cubic feet of water as it difplaces
by being put into the water when loaded. The quan-r
tity may eafily be known, by oblerving how far the
boat finks in the water, and calculating the bulk of
the part immerfed.
The machine which puts the vehicles in motion, may
either be conftrufled with an under-ftiot or breaft-water
wheel: or by an over-lhot water-wheel: or by two
walking-wheels, for men to walk in as in cranes, &c.
Fig. 2. Ihows a front view of the under-ftiot water-Fig. 3,
wheel movement; where A is the end of the axis or
cylinder of the cog or fpur wheel; the diameter of
which axis is four feet, and its length not lefs than
22 feet, as it muft be extended quite acrofs the canal
from one fide to the other, and placed on the top of
very ftrong fupporters on each fide of the canal, about
feven feet above the furface of the water, as the load¬
ed boat is to pafs. backwards and forwards under the
cylinder, and at a convenient diftance from the wall
RR (fig. 1.); and placed between the two fluices S
and T ; on the end of which cylinder is the' cog¬
wheel B (fig. 3.). The wheel B is fuppofed to be
20 feet of diameter, having on its edge 120 cogs ; and
underneath the cog-wheel is the breaft-water one C,
24 feet in diameter, from the tip of one aller-board
to the tip of its oppofite. On the end of the axis of
the water-wheel D is a trundle two feet and a half
in diameter, with 15 rounds and ftaves contained there¬
in. This muft be placed between the two fluices S
and T, to let the water out of the canal ; which, fall¬
ing on the float-boards, will turn the wheel round
from the right hand towards the left, when the fiuice
on the left hand of the wheel is opened; but the con¬
trary way when that of the right is opened.—-The water
falling
1
N A V [ 734 1 N A U
Jitland Na-faHJng upon the boards paffes along with the wheel in
. Vig:^Uon- the circular cavity EGF, and is difcharged at G, what¬
ever way the wheel may turn.
To the axis or cylinder of this machine, which muft
always be horizontal, are fixed a pair of ftrong ropes ;
the ends of each pair fattened to the upper part of
the cylinder j it being neceflary that they ftiould aft
in contrary direftions. Each muft extend the whole
length of the plane, and their ftrength muft be pro¬
portioned to the weight neceflary to be fuftained. The
two vehicles already mentioned are fattened to the other
ends of the ropes j fo that one pair of the ropes are
wound up by the cylinder turning one way, and the
other by its turning the contrary way. Thus when
fig- ». one of the vehicles is at the upper part of the path A,
ready to difcharge its boat and cargo into the upper
canal, the other boat will be at the foot of the path B,
all under water in the lower canal, and ready for the
reception of a boat to be towed in on the horizontal
part of it 5 fo that as one vehicle rolls up on one fide of
the plane, the other will roll down on the other fide,
and vice verfa.
Fig. 4. Fig. 4. (hows the movement by means of an over-
fhot water-wheel. It confifts of a water-wheel C,
and two fpur or cog-wheels A and B. The water¬
wheel is 18 feet in diameter, and has two rows of
buckets placed contrariwife to one another, that it
may turn round in contrary direflions, according as
the one or the other fluice, S, or T, is opened. On its
axis F is a trundle of three feet diameter, having 18
rounds or ftaves which fall into the cogs of the fe-
cond fpur-wheel B, caufing it to turn round in a di¬
rection contrary to that of the water-wheel. This
fecond wheel is likewife 18 feet in diameter, with a
trundle of three feet having 18 rounds or ftaves.—
The diameter of the upper fpur-wheel A is alfo 18
feet, but the diameter of its axis is fix feet. On the
edge of the wheel are 108 cogs. Thefe fall in between
the ftaves of the axis of the other fpur-wheel j and
thus the third wheel turns round the fame way with
the water wheel C. The cylinder of this upper fpur-
wheel muft be placed acrofs the canal betwixt the two
■fluices, on very ftrong fupporters, as explained in the
former movement, and the two pair of ropes in the
•fame manner.
Th<? movement of the walking wheel is ftiown (fig.
Fig. 5-)* -A-1 and A2 are two wheels for men to walk in,
each of them 24 feet in diameter. Bi and B2 are
the axes or cylinders of the two wheels, of equal
lengths j viz. 11 feet each, and four in diameter.-—
At one end of each of the two cylinders Cl and C2, is
a wheel of the fame diameter with the cylinder. On
the edges of thefe wheels are teeth of an equal num¬
ber in each wheel j and as the teeth of the wheels mu¬
tually fall into each other, the revolutions of both
muft be performed in the fame time. By this con¬
trivance alfo the cylinders will turn different ways ; and
the ropes on the two different cylinders will conftantly
one pair be wound up, and the other wound down, by
the natural moving of the machine. DDD is the frame
that fupports the whole, which muft be made very firm
and fecure.
Let us now fuppofe, that there is a boat in the up-
• per canal to be brought down, but none to go up for
a balance. In this cafe, as one of the vehicles muft be
at the top to receive the boat, the other will be at the Inland Na-
bottom to take in water. Let then any of the move- vigation
ments juft defcribed be fet to work, and it is plain, H
that as the upper vehicle with its boat defcends, the
under vehicle will afcend with the.water; the valve be- 1!<l'
ing in the mean time lifted up till a fufficient quantity
of water has flowed out, to make the’ one nearly a
counterbalance to the other ; fo that the veflel may Aide
down gently and without any violence.
If it happens that a boat is to go up while none is
to come doAvn, one of the vehicles being at the foot
of the plane under water, and in readinefs to have the
boat towed upon its horizontal part, one of the fluices
at K or L is to be opened, and a quantity of water
let into the ciftern of the upper vehicle fufficient to
counterbalance the boat with its contents which is to
afcend. This being done, the machine is fet to work,
the valve of the under vehicle kept open till the water
is all difcharged; and then the boat will roll up to the
top of the plane.
From this defcription of the canal and machinery
for raifing and lowering the veffels, the reader can be
at no lofs to underftand the principles on which it
depends. It would be fuperfluous to adduce examples,
or follow our author through his calculations relative
to particular cafes. We fhall only obferve, that the
difference of time in which veffels may be raifed or
lorvered by the machinery juft defcribed, in comparifon
with what can be done in the common way by dams
and locks, muft give a very favourable idea of the new
method. According to Mr Leach’s computations, a
boat with its cargo weighing 10 tons might be raifed
by the walking machine in 12 or 14 minutes, by the
under-ftiot wheel in 15 minutes, and by the over-fhot
w heel in 30 minutes ; and that through a fpace of no
lefs than 30 fathoms meafured on the inclined plane, or
114 feet perpendicular.
NAVIGATORS islands. See Opoun.
NAULUM, in Roman antiquity, a piece of money
put into the mouth of a perfon deceafed to enable him
to pay Charon the ferryman for his paffage. It was to
be of the current coin of the reigning emperor ; fo that
from this money the time of the perfon’s death may be
known. The fum for poor men was a farthing, but
the rich in general were very liberal to Charon, as
appears from the number of coins often found in the
neighbourhood of Rome on opening the graves of great
men. Charon was looked upon as a very morofe and
obftinate old fellow, who would not carry over any man
without his fare : and hence the proverbial ufe of that
verfe in Juvenal,
Furor ejl pojl omnia perdere naulttm.
A fimilar cuftom took place among the Greeks : The
money put into the mouth of the deceafed was by them
called A«v«wc»).
NAUMACHIA, in antiquity, a fhow or fpe&acle
among the ancient Romans, reprefenting a fea fight.
Thefe mock fea fights are fuppofed to have originated
at the time of the firft Punic war, when the Romans
firft inftrudted their men in the knowledge of naval
affairs. Afterwards they were intended to entertain
the populace, as well as to improve the feamen. They
were often, like other {hows, exhibited at the expence
of individuals, to increafe their popularity.
BAY YET.
%
■7 aumachia
H.
Nauplius.
N A U ^ [735
In thefe fpe&acles they fometimes ft rove to excel
each other in fwiftnefs *, and fometimes engaged in a
warlike manner. The naumachice of Claudius indeed
was a moft favage diverfion. The combatants ufed
to deftroy each other to amufe a tyrant and a cruel
mob. As they paflfed before him, they ufed this me¬
lancholy greeting, “ Ave Imperator, morituri te falu-
tant?'' The emperor replied, “ Avete vos.'1'1 Ihis
they underftood as an anfwer of kindnefs, and a grant
of their lives j but they foon difcovered that it pro¬
ceeded from wanton cruelty, and barbarous infenfibi-
lity. In the time of the emperor Domitian, fuch a
vaft number of veffels engaged as would have nearly
formed two regular fleets for a real fight, and the
channel of water was equal in magnitude to a natural
river. The emperor Heliogabalus is reported to have
filled the channel where the veffels were to ride with
wine inftead of water. Tritons and fea monfters were
frequently exhibited during the engagement. Suetonius
and Dio Caflius informs us, that atone of thefe fea fights
of Domitian a violent fhower fell; the emperor, how¬
ever, continued till the end of the engagement, often
changing his clothes, nor would he fuffer any one to de¬
part j and as the rain continued for feveral hours, many
were feized with diftempers, and fome even died, Suet,
cap. 4. Dio. lib. Ixvii. Naumachise were alfo places
fitted up for thefe fhows, a fort of circi or amphitheatres,
with feats and porticoes, &c. There were feveral of
them at Rome ; three built by Auguftus, one by Clau¬
dius, another by Domitian, and another by Nero:
which ferved for the reverfe of his medals. Claudius
ufed the lake Fucinus as a naumachia.
NAUMBURG, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Upper Saxony, capital of the county of Saxe-Naum-
burg, fituated on the river Sala, in E. Long. 11. 20.
N. Lat. 51. 12.
NAUPACTUS, or Naupactum, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a city of iEtolia, at the mouth of the Evenus.
The word is derived from and mrpvfM, becaufe it
was there that the Heraclidse built the firft {hip which
carried them to Peloponnefus. It firft belonged to
the Locri Ozolse, and afterwards fell into the hands
of the Athenians, who gave it to the Meffenians, who
had been driven from Peloponnefus by the Lacedae¬
monians. It became the property of the Lacedaemo¬
nians after the battle of ALgofpotamos, and it was re-
ftored to the Locri. Philip of Macedon afterwards
took it, and gave it to the ./Etolians ; from which cir-
cumftance it has generally been called one of the chief
cities of their country. E. Long. 22. 20. N. Lat.
38. o.
There was on the fhore a temple of Neptune, and
near it a cave filled with offerings, and dedicated to
Venus, where widows reforted to requeft new hufbands
of the goddefs. Paufan. lib. x. p. 898.
NAUPLIA, in Ancient Geography, a maritime city
of Peloponnefus. It was the rfaval ftation of the Ar-
gives. The fountain Canathos was in its neighbourhood.
NAUPLIUS, in fabulous hiftory, a fon of Neptune
and Amymone, king of Euboea. He was the father of
the famous Palamedes, who was fo unjuftly facrificed
to the artifice and refentment of Ulyffes by the Greeks
at the Trojan war. The death of Palamedes highly
enraged Nauplius •, and to revenge the injuftice of the
Grecian princes, he endeavoured to debauch their
] N A U
wives, and ruin their chara&ers. When the Greeks
returned from the Trojan war, Nauplius was pleafed
to fee them diftreffed in a ftorm on the coafts of Eu¬
boea ; and to make their difalter ftill more univerfal,
he lighted fires on fuch places as were furrrounded with
the moft dangerous rocks, that the fleet might be (hip-
wrecked upon the coaft. This had the defired ef-
fedl; but Nauplius was fo difappointed when he faw
Ulyffes and Diomedes efcape from the general diftrefs,
that he threw himfelf into the fea. According to
fome mythologifts there were twoperfons of this name :
one a native of Argos, who went to Colchis with Ja-
fon. He was fon of Neptune and Amymone.—The
other was king of Euboea, and lived about the time of
the Trojan war. He was, as fome obferve, fon «f Cly-
tonas, one of the defcendants of Nauplius the Argonaut.
The Argonaut was remarkable for his knowledge of
fea affairs and of aftronomy. He built the town of
Nauplia, and fold Auge daughter of Aleus to King
Teuthras, to fcreen her from her father’s refentment.
NAUPORTUS, or Nauportum, m. Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a town on a cognominal river, towards its
fource, in Pannonia Superior. The reafon of the name,
according to Pliny, is that the (hip Argo, after coming
up the Danube, the Save, and the Laubach, was thence
carried on men’s ftioulders over the Alps into the A-
driatic. The river Nauportus rifes in the Alps, near
Longaticum, at the diftance of fix miles from the town
Nauportum ; which was a colony of the Taurifci, a
people on the confines of Noricum. Now Upper Lau-
bach in Carinthia, on the river Laubach. E. Long.
14. 40. N. Lat. 46. 28.
NAUSCOPY, the art of difcovering the approach
of (hips or the neighbourhood of land at a confiderable
diftance. This pretended art was difcovered by M.
Bottineau, employed in the king and company’s fervice
in the ifland of France, from the year 1782 to 1784 $
the account of it is as follows :
“ This knowledge is not derived either from the un¬
dulation of the waves, or from the fubtility of fight, or
from any particular fenfation } but merely from obferva-
tion of the horhon, which difcovers figns indicating the
proximity of (hips or of land.
“ On the approximation of a fhip toward the land,
or towards another (hip, there appears in the atmo-
fphere a meteor of a particular nature, vifible to every
one without any painful attention. It is not by any
kind of accident that this meteor appears under thefe
circumftances j on the contrary, it is the neceffary re-
fult of the approximation of one veffel towards another,
or towards the land. The exiftence of the meteor, and
the knowledge of its different modifications, are what
n • . . .1 «-In /-\f imxT i i-rfct*
Nauplius
II
N auicopy.
conftitute the certainty and the precifion of my infor¬
mations.
“ If I am alked, how it is poflible that the approach
of a fliip towards land fliould give birth to any meteor
whatfoever in the atmofphere, and what connexion there
can be between two objetts at fuch a diftance from each
other? I reply, that I am not obliged to give an ac¬
count of the hows and the wherefores: that it is fuffi-
cient for me to have difcovered the faft, without being
obliged to account for its principle.’’
The writer concludes, by defiring to be called on for
experimental proofs, and by promifing in future a com¬
plete treatife of Naufcopy, vTith maps, plates, &c.
This
N A W [ 736 ] K A X
Naufcopy This complete treatife, as far as we know, has not
*»-r , yet been publiflied 1 nor do we expect ever to fee fuch
JMaworth : 1 . ir .
Cattle a treatile on the iubjtct as will latisty tlie mmds or
^ 1 thofe who are perfuaded that every effect mult have an
adequate caufe. The whole feems to be the work of
fancy.
NAUSEA, or Sickness •, a retching or propenfity
-and endeavour to vomit, ariling from fomething which
irritates the Itomach.
NAUTILUS, a genus of animals belonging to the
order of vermes teftacea. See Conchology Index.
NAVY, the fleet or Hupping of a prince or Hate.
See Marine.
The management of the Rritifli royal navy, under the
lord high admiral of Great Britain, is intrufted to prin¬
cipal officers and commiffioners of the navy, who hold
their place by patent. The principal officers of the navy
are four, viz. the treasurer, whole bulinefs it is to re¬
ceive money out of the exchequer, and to pay all the
charges of the navy, by warrant from the principal
officers : comptroller, who attends and controuls all
payment of wages, is to know the rates of Itores, to
examine and audit all accounts, &c. : furveyor, who
is to know the Hates of all ftores, and fee wants fup-
.plied \ to effimate repairs, charge boatfwains, See. wdth
what ftores they receive, and at the end of each voyage
to ftate and audit accounts : clerk of the a6ts, whofe
bufinefs it is to record all orders, contracts, bills, war¬
rants, &c.
The commiffioners of the navy are five : The firft
executes that part of the comptroller’s duty which re¬
lates to the comptrolling the vidlualler’s accounts j the
fecond, another part of the faid comptroller’s duty re¬
lating to the account of the ftorekeepers of the yard .;
the third has the direftion of the navy at the port of
Portfmouth ; the fourth has the fame at Chatham ; and
the fifth at Plymouth. There are alfo other commiffion-
ers at large, the number more or lefs according to
the exigencies of public affairs ; and fince the increafe
of the royal navy, thefe have feveral clerks under them,
with falaries allowed by the king.
The victualling of the royal navy hath formerly
been undertaken by contraft ; but is now managed by
commiffioners, who hold their office on Tower-hill, Lon¬
don. The navy office is where the whole bufinefs con¬
cerning the navy is managed by the principal officers
and commiffioners.
The royal navy of Great Britain is now in a very
flourilhing ftate, having been diligently kept up in late
reigns, as the natural ftrength of the kingdom. When
it is complete, it is divided into three fquadrons, di-
ftinguilhed by the colours of the flags carried by the
refpeCtive admirals belonging to the fame, viz. red,
white, and blue; the principal commander of which
bears the title of admiral; and each has under him a
vice admiral and a rear admiral, who are likewife flag-
officers.
Navt Exercife. See Exercise.
Nav.T Difcipline, or Regulations. See MARITIME
State.
NAWORTH castle, in Cumberland, 10 miles
from Carlifle, near the Gelt. This caftle is ftill entire
and inhabited. It is a large pile, fquare, and built
.round a court. On the north it Hands over the ri¬
ver Ithing, at a great height, the banks Iha6gcd with
wood. The whole houfe is a very irregular building ; N a worth
the rooms numerous, acceffible by 16 ftaircafes, with
moft frequent and hidden afeents and delcents, &c.—
The great hall has a gallery at one end, adorned with .. A" ." j
four vaft crefts carved in wood, viz. a griffin and dol¬
phin, with the fcollops ; an unicorn, and an ox with
a coronet round his neck. In front is a figure in wood
of an armed man ; two others, perhaps vaffals, in Ihort
jackets and caps. The top and upper end of the room
is painted in fquares, reprefenting the Saxon kings and
heroes. This caftle was built by one of the Dacres
about the reign of Henry III. In the garden walls
Were Hones wdth Roman inferiptions, which the late
earl of Carlifle gave to Sir Thomas Robinfon, and were
by him removed to his mufeum at Rookfby : On one of
thefe ftones is this infeription, peditum centum quinqua-
ginta Britannorum; whence it appears that the Romans,
when in poffeffion of Britain, fometimes indulged the
national troops with the favour of garrifoning their own
territories.
NAXIA, or Naxos, a confiderable iiland of the
Archipelago, 25 miles in length, and 88 in circum¬
ference. The whole ifland is covered with orange,
olive, lemon, cedar, citron, pomegranate, fig, and
mulberry trees ; and there are a great many fprings
and brooks. This ifland has no harbour ; and yet
they carry on a confiderable trade in barley, wine, figs,
cotton, filk, flax, cheefe, fait, oxen, ftieep, mules,
and oil. They burn only oil of maftich, though olive
oil is exceedingly cheap. It is inhabited both by Greeks
and Latins, who live in great dread of the Turks ;
for when the meaneft of their (hips appear here, they
always wear red caps like galley-flaves, and tremble
before the loweft officer ; but as foon as they are
gone, they put on their caps of velvet. The ladies
are fo vain, that when they return out of the country,
they have 40 w-omen in their train, half on foot and
half on affes, one of whom carries a napkin or two,
another a petticoat, another a pair of ftockings, and
fo on ; which is a very ridiculous fight to ftrangers.
There are four archbifhops fees in this ifland, and a
great many villages ; but fo thin of people, that the
■whole ifland does not contain above 8cco inhabitants.
The higheft mountain is Zia, which fignifies “ the
mountain of Jupiter.” There are but few antiquities,
except feme final! remains of the temple of Bacchus.
Some fay they have mines of gold and filver ; howT-
evet, there is one of emery, which is fo common here
and fo cheap, that the Englifli often ballaft their fliips
therewith.
NAXOS, or Naxea, a confiderable town, and capi¬
tal of the ifle of Naxos, over againft the ifle of Paros,
with a caftle and two archbifliops fees, the one Greek
and the other Latin. The greateft part of the in¬
habitants are Greeks. E. Long. 25. 51. N. Lat.
37. 8.
NAXUS, now Naxia, formerly Strongyle, Dia,
Dionysius, Cal/ipo/is, and Little Sicily. It was called
Strongyle, from a Greek word, fignifying “ round,”
though in reality it is rather fquare than round. The
names of Dia or Divine, and Dionysius, were given
it as being confecrated in a peculiar manner to the fa¬
bulous god Dionyfus or Bacchus. The appellation
of Callipolis, Pliny and Solinus derive from the metro¬
polis of the ifland, formerly a moft beautiful city,
which
[
Nasus.
N A X
wliicli Is tlie import of the word Callipolis. The
' great fertility of the country gave rife to the name
of Lift/e Sici/y, Naxus being the moil fruitful of all
the Cyclades, as Agathamerus informs us, and no
lefs fertile than Sicily itfelf. As for the name of
Naxus, feme affert that it was borrowed from one
Naxus, under whofe condutl the Carians poffeiied them-
felves of the illand •, others pretend it received its name
from Naxus, the fon of Endymion. Stephanus, Suidas,
and Phavorinus, derive the name of Naxos, from the
Greek word tiaxai, fignifying, “ to facrifice,” and will
have it to have been fo called from the many facrihces
offered here to Bacchus. With thefe Bochart agrees,
as to its being called Naxos from the facrifices per¬
formed here in honour of Bacchus, but will have the
word naxos to be a corruption of the Phoenician nafca,
or nicfa, ffgnifying “ a facrifice, offering.” Naxos
is, according to Pliny, 7 5,_ but reckoned by the pre-
fent inhabitants 100 miles, in compafs. It has Parcs
to the weft, Myconos and Delos to the north, and
los to the fouth. This ifland is the moft fruitful of
the Archipelago, and was formerly famed for the ex¬
cellent wines it produced. Archilochus, as quoted
by Athenseus, compares them to the neftar of the
gods *, and Afclepiades, cited by Stephanus, affures
us, that Bacchus took more delight in Naxos than
in any other place whatfoever, having himfelf taught
the inhabitants to cultivate their vines. The wine
of Naxos maintains to this day its ancient reputation,
being by fome deemed the belt of the Levant, Be*-
fides wine, this ifland abounds with all forts of deli¬
cious fruits, the plains being covered with orange,
olive, lemon, cedar, citron, pomegranate, mulberry,
and fig trees. It was formerly famous for quarries of
that fort of marble which the Greeks, called, ophites,
from its being green, and fpeckled with white fpots
like the flcin of a ferpent. The belt emerald is found
here on the mountains near the weftern coaft, whence
the neighbouring cape is called by the Italians, capo
fmeriglio, or the emerald cape. As to the inhabitants
of Naxos, Diodorus relates that the ifland was firft
peopled by the Thracians, Thefo .were in a little
time fubdued by a body of Theffalians, who, having
poffeffed the ifland for the fpace of. 200 years and
upwards, were compelled to abandon it by a drought
and famine. . , , , ,
After the Trojan war, the Canans fettled here, and
called the ifland Naxos, from their king, who was the
fon of Polemon. He was fucceeded by his fon Leu¬
cippus, and Leucippus by his fon Smardius, in whofe
reign Thefeus, coming out of Crete, landed here with
Ariadne, whom he was, in his fleep, commanded by
Bacchus to leave in this ifland. In procefs of time a
colony of Cnidians and Rhodians fettled here under
the conduft of Hippothous and Xuthus : and laft of all
the lonians, who, in time, poffeffed the whole ifla.nd ;
whence the Naxians are, by Herodotus,, called lonians,
and ranged among the Athenian colonies. E. Lon.g.
26. 5. N. Lat. 36. 30. It is about 105 miles in cir¬
cumference, and about 30 broad.
Naxus, in Ancient Geography, a town of Crete, fa¬
mous for its hones, called lapis Naxius. Another of
Sicily, built by the Chalcidians; fituated on the fouth
fide of Mount Taurus, deftroyed by Dionyfius the
' Vol. XIV, Part IL
N A Z
737 1 . . t
tyrant: from its ruins Tauromenium, built by Tmio-
Icon, either arofe or was increafed, (Plutarch).
NAYRES, the nobility of tire Malabar coaft. We
may with truth affirm that they are the oldeft nobility
Naxus
Nazareth.
m the world j for the moft ancient writers mention
them, and quote the law that permits the. Nayre la¬
dies to have many hufbands} every one being allowed
four. Their houfes, which ftand fingle, have as many
doors as the lady has hulbands. When one of them
vifits her, he walks round the houfe, ftriking with
his fabre on his buckler j he then opens his. door,
and leaves a domeftic with his arms in a kind of
porch, who ferves to inform others that the lady is
engaged. It is faid, that one day in the week th6
four doors are all opened, and all her hulbands vifit
her, and dine together with her. Each hufband gives
a fum of money, or portion, at the time of marriage ",
and the wife only has the charge of the children.. I he
Nay res, even the Samorin, and the other princes,
have no other heirs than the children of their lifters.
This law was eftablilhed, that the Nayres, haying no
family, might be always ready to march againft the
enemy. W hen the nephews are of age to bear aims,
they follow their uncles. The name of father is un¬
known to a Nay re child. Pie fpeaks of the hulbands
of his mother and of his uncles, but never of his
father,
NAZARETH, a little city in the tribe of Zebu-
lun, in Lower Galilee, to the weft of Tabor, and. to
the eaft of Ptolemais. Eufebius fays, it is 15 miles
from Legion towards the eaft. Ihis city is much ce¬
lebrated in the Scriptures, for having been the ufual
place of the refidence of Jefus Chrift for the firft 33
years of his life, Luke ii. 51 • H v,ras therf! our Sa¬
viour became incarnate, where he lived in obedience
to Jofeph and Mary, and from whence he took the
name of a Nazarean. After he had begun to execute
his miffion, he preached there fometknes in the fyna-
gogue, Id, iv. 16. But beeaufe his countrymen had
no faith in him, and were offended at the meannefs.of
his original, he did not many miracles there, IVIatth. xni,
54, 58. nor would he dwell therein j fo he fixed his ha¬
bitation at Capernaum for the latter part of his life, Id.
iv. 13. The city of Nazareth was fituated upon an
eminence *, and on one fide there was a precipice, from
whence the Nazareans one day had a delign of throw¬
ing down our Saviour, becaufe he upbraided them with
their incredulity, Luke iv. 29*
St Epiphanius fays, that in his time Nazareth Was
only a village, and that to the reign of Conftantine it
was inhabited by Jews alone, exclufive of all Chriftians.
Adamnanus, a writer of the feventh age, fays, that in
his time there were two great churches to be feen at
Nazareth, one hi the midft of the city, built upon two
arches, in the place where our Saviour’s houte had
flood. ’ Under the two arches now mentioned, was a
very fine fountain, which furnilhed water to the whole
city, and from whence water was drawn alfo by. the
help* of a pulley for the ufe of the church above. The
fecond church of Nazareth was built in a place where
the houfe flood wherein the angel Gabriel , revealed to
the virgin Mary the myftery of our Lord’s incarnation 5
and wre are affured that the church of Incarnation,
which is fupported by two arches, is ftill in being to
1 5 A this
N A Z
[
Nazar^e’ Maundrell tells us, tliat there is a con-
, vent built over what is faid to be the place of annunci-
ation 5 for the chamber where ihe received the angel’s
faiuiation was about jjoo years ago removed from Na¬
zareth, and, according to the Roman legends, tranf-
ported by angels to Loretto, then a fmall village in
the pope’s dominions, now become a bifliop’s lee.—
However, Calmet’s opinion (which is certainly the
true one) upon the different tranllarions of this famous
houfe of Loretto, is, that they wrere no other than fo
many different buildings made upon the model of the
church of Nazareth, juft as in feveral places fepulchres
have oeen built upon the model of that at Jerulalem.
l\Xariti tells us, that in the eaftern part of the city
{lands the church dedicated to the Blefled Virgin : the
zeaj. of the Coenobites raifed it from the ruins of that
which had been dfftroyed by the Saracens. It is a
very handfome building, and conlifts of three naves ;
in the middle of which is the principal altar ; to which
there is an afeent by two magnificent flairs, much ad¬
mired for their iron balluftrades, the work of an inge¬
nious monk of the convent. The defeent to the grot¬
to or annunciation chapel below is by fleps of beauti¬
ful marble, cut with great tafte. Two beautiful co¬
lumns of oriental granite flrike the eye of the obferver
in tne entrance, i hey appear to have been conftrudl-
ed both to fupport and ornament the grotto. The al¬
tar of this fubterranean chapel is extremely elegant j
and the different kinds of marble with which it is or¬
namented, receive an additional luftre from the com¬
bined light of feveral filver lamps prefented by Chri-
Ilian princes. On folemn feftivals, the walls and the
pilaflers are ornamented with various pieces of tapef-
try, reprefenting the myfteries of the virgin ; a fu-
perb prefent from the Houfe of Auftria. In the
weftern part of the city Hands a Chriftian church,
built, as it is faid, on the fite of the ancient fynagogue
where Jefus ftiowed the Jews the accomplifhment of
the prophecies in his perfon. T his place ferved a long
time, as a fhelter for flocks, but at prefent it is in good
repair. In the neighbourhood may be feen a fountain
of excellent water, which is, however, efteemed by the
people on another account. I hey conjecture that it
was contiguous to the habitation of the virgin, and
that it was ufed by her. At fome diflance is a large
ftone of a round form, called CZiriJPs Table. It is
pretended that he came hither more than once with his
difciples to eat. X he inhabitants of Nazareth pay it a
kind of worftiip, burning perfumes and incenfe around
it. It is fituated in 350 E. Long, and in 320 N. Lat. $
and formerly held the third rank under the patriarch of
Jerufalem. At prefent it is part of the domains of the
chief of Acre. The ancient city, after the ravages of
fanaticifm, was reduced to a miferable hamlet, con¬
taining only a few Arab huts.—Under the proteftion
of Daher Omar, however, it recovered very confider-
ably, and is now of far more importance.
NAZARI! E, or Nazarean, or Naz-annes, a
term which may fignify, 1. One that is of Nazareth,
or any native of this city. 2. It was given to Jefus
Chrift and. his difciples, and is commonly taken in a
fen.fe of derifion and contempt in fuch authors as have
written againft Chriftianity. 3. It has been taken fora
fed of heretics called Nazareans. 4. For a Nazarite, a
man tliat has laid hinilelf under the obligation of a vow
738 ] n a z
to obferve the rules of Nazaritefhip, whether it be for Nazarite.
his whole liie, as Samfon and John the Baptift, or only J
for a time, as thofe mentioned in Numbers vi. 18, ly,
20. Amos ii. 11, 12. Lailly, ihe name Nazarite, in
fome paflages of Scripture, denotes a man of particular
diltinction and great dignity in the court of fome prince.
But we muft {peak of thefe feveral forts of Nazarites
fomething more diftinCfly.
The name of Nazarene belongs to Jefus Chrifl, not
only becaufe of his having lived the greateft part of his
life at Nazareth, and becaufe tins city has always been
confidered as his country, but alfo becaufe the pro¬
phets had foretold that he ftiould be called a Nazarene,
Mattb. ii. 23. “ And he came and dwelt in a city
called Nazareth, that it might be fulfilled which was
“ fpoken by the prophets, He ftiall be called a Naza-
“ rene.” We find no particular place in the prophets
in which it is faid that the Mefliah fhould be called a
Nazarene j and St Matthew only quotes the prophets
in general. Perhaps he would infinuate, that the con-
fecration of the Nazarites, and the great purity of
which they made profeflion, was a type and a fort of
prophecy of thofe of our Saviour, or elfe that the
name *vp Nav-ir or Nazarite given to the patriarch
Jofeph, Gen. xlix. 26. Deut. xxxiii. 16. was a pro¬
phecy which was to be fulfilled in the perfon of Jefus
Chrift, of whom Jofeph was a figure. Laftly, St
Jerome was of opinion, that St Matthew here alludes
to that paffage of Ifaiah xi. 1. and lx. 21. “ And
“ there {hall come forth a rod out of the ftem of Jefle,
“ and a branch (in Hebrew Nezer) fliall grow out of
“ his roots.” This branch or Nezer, and this rod, are
certainly intended to denote Jefus Chrift, by the general
confent of all the fathers and interpreters.
When the word Nazarean is put for the heretics
known by this name, it denotes Chriftians converted
from Judaifm, whofe chief error confifted in defend¬
ing the .neceffity or expediency of the works of the
law, and who obftinately adhered to the pradlice of
the Jewifh ceremonies. The name of Nazarenes at
firft had nothing odious in it, and it was often given
to the firft Chriftians. The fathers frequently men¬
tion the gofpel of the Nazarenes, which differs no¬
thing from that of St Matthew, which was either in
Hebrew or Syriac, for the ufe of the firft converts, but
was afterwards corrupted by the Ebionites. Thefe
Nazareans preferved this firft gofpel in its primitive
purity. Some of them were ftill in being in the time
of St Jerome, who does not reproach them with any
error. They were very zealous obfervers of the law
of Mofes, but held the traditions of the Pharifees in
very great contempt.
Nazarite, when put to fignify thofe under the an¬
cient law who made a vow of obferving a more than
ordinary degree of purity (Numb. ubi. cit.), denotes a
man or woman who engage themfelves by a vorv to
abftain from wine and all intoxicating liquors, to let
their hair grow without cutting or (having, not to enter
into any houfe that was polluted by having a dead
corpfe in it, nor to be prefent at any funeral. And if
by chance any one ftiould have died in their prefence,
they, began again the whole ceremony of their confe-
cration and Nazariteftiip. This ceremony generally
lafted eight days, fometimes a month, and fometimes
their whole lives. When the time of their Nazarite¬
ftiip
N A Z [73
barite, ^as accomplifhed, the prieft brought the perfon
to the door of the tempk, who there offered to the
Lord a he lamb for a burnt-offering, a die lamb for an
expiatory facrifice, and a ram for a peace-offering.
They offered likewife loaves and cakes, with wine ne-
ceffary for the libations. After all this was facrificed
and offered to the Lord, the prieft or fome other
thaved the head of the Nazarite at the door of the ta¬
bernacle, and burnt his hair, throwing it upon the fire
of the altar. Then the prieft put into the hand of the
Nazarite the fhoulder of the ram roafted, with a loaf
and a cake, which the Nazarite returning into the
hands of the prieft, he offered them to the Lord, lilt¬
ing them up in the prefence of the Nazarite. And
from this time he might again drink wine, his Naza¬
rite fhip being now accomplithed.
As to thofe that were perpetual Nazarites, as were
Samfon and John the Baptift, it appears that they were
confecrated to their Nazaritefhip by their parents, and
continued all their lives in this ftate without drinking
wine or cutting their hair.
Thofe that made a vow of Nazariteftiip out of Pa-
leftine, and could not come to the temple when their
vow was expired, contented themfelves with obferving
the abftinence required by the law, and after that cut¬
ting their hair in the place where they were : as to the
offerings and facrinces prefcribed by Mofes, which were
to be offered at the temple by themfelves, or by others
for them, they deferred this till they could have a con¬
venient opportunity. Hence it wras, that St Paul be¬
ing at Corinth, and having made the vow of a Naza¬
rite, he had his hair cut off at Cenchrea, and put off
fulfilling the reft of his vow till he fhould arrive at Je-
rufalem, A&S xviii. 18. When a perfon found that he
was not in a condition to make a vow of Nazaritefhip,
or had not leifure to perform the ceremonies belonging
to it, he contented himfelf by contributing to the ex¬
pence of the facrifice and offerings ot thofe that had
made and fulfilled this vow -, and by this means he be¬
came a partaker in the merit of fuch Nazaritefhip.
When St Paul came to Jerufalem, in the year of Chrift
58, the apoftle St James the Lefs, with the other bre¬
thren, faid to him, Acfts xxi. 23, 24. that to quiet the
minds of the converted Jews, who had been informed
that he everywhere preached up the entire abolition of
the law of Mnfes, he ought to join himfelf to four of
the faithful who had a vow of Nazaritefhip upon them,
smd contribute to the charge of the ceremony at the
(having of their heads ; by which the new converts
would perceive that he continued to keep the law, and
that what they had heard of him was not true.
The Hebrew word Na^ir, or Nazarite, which is made
ufe of to exprefs a man exalted to great dignity, as it is
♦aid of the patriarch Jofepb, Gen. xlix, 26. and Deut.
scxxiii. 16, that he was feparated from his brethren,”
as it is in our tranflation $ or as the Vulgate and others
underftand the Hebrew, that he was a Nazarite
ftmong his brethren,” is varioufly underftood. Some
think that the Hebrew word “vp, Naxir, in thefe pla¬
ces, figmfies one who is crowned, chofen, feparated, or
diftinguifhed : the word mp, Nazir, figmfies a crown.
The Septuagint tranfiate this word a chief, or him that
Js honoured. Calmet thinks that this was a term of
dignity in the courts of eaftern princes, and that at this
day in the court of Perfia the word Nazir figmfies the
9 ] N E A
fuperintendant general of the king’s houfehold, the
chief officer of the crown, the high fteward of his fa¬
mily, treafures, and revenues ; and that in this fente
Jofeph was the Nazir of the court of Pharaoh. Le
Clerc tranflates the Nazir, a prince, and calls Jofeph
“ the pjince of his brethren,” in the twro places already
quoted. Mr Pool declares in favour of this laft tranfla¬
tion. See Jofeph. Chardin. Chryfof. St Jerome, is'c.
NAZIANZEN See GregoRT Naxianssen.
NAZIM, the lord lieutenant, viceroy, or governor
of a province in Hindoftan } the fame as Subahdar, or
Nabob.
NEALED, among feamen, is ufed when the
founding is deep water clofe to the fliore 5 as alfo when
the fhore is fandy, clayey, oozy, or foul and rocky
ground.
NEALING, or rather Annealing, a term ufed
for the preparing of feveral matters, by heating or
baking them in the oven, or the like.
NEALING of giafs, is the baking of glafs, to dry,
harden, and give it the due confiftence, after it has been
blown, and fafhioned into the proper works.—This is
ufually performed in a kind of a tower called the leer,
built over the melting furnace. See Glass.
Nealing of glafs is alfo ufed for the art of ftaining
glafs with metalline colours. “ One fine ufe of fiiver
(fays Mr Boyle) was only difcovered fince the art of
annealing upon glafs came to be praftifed. For pre¬
pared fiiver, or even the crude metal, being burnt on
a glafs plate, will tinge it of a fine yellow or golden
colour. And there are feveral mineral earths, and
other coarfe matters, of ufe in this art, which by means
of fire impart tranfparent colours to glafs, and iome-
times very different ones from thofe of the bodies them¬
felves.
Nealing of fleel, is the heating it in the fire to a
blood-red heat, and then taking it out, and letting it
cool gently of itfelf. This is done to make it fofter,
in order to engrave and punch upon it. See TEMPER¬
ING and Engraving.
Nealing is alfo ufed for the art or a cl of burning
The
Na?arif.«
II
Nea polls.
or baking earthen or other
ware m an oven.
miners at Mendip, when they meet with a rock they
cannot cut through, anneal it by laying on wood and
coal, and contriving the fire fo that they quit the mine
before the operation begins, it being dangerous to en¬
ter it again before it be quite cleared of the fmoke.
NEALING of tile is ufed in ancient ftatutes for the
burning of tile. The word is formed of tne Saxon
oncelan, accendere, to light, burn.
NEAP or Neep TIDES, are thofe tides which hap¬
pen when the moon is in the middle of the fecond and
fourth quarters. The neap tides are low tides, in re-
fpeft of their oppofites the fpring tides. As the
higheft of the fpring tides is three days after the full
or change, fo the loweft of the neap is four days befor®
the full or change. On which occafion the feamen fay
that it is deep neap.
NEAPED. When a ffiip wants -water, fo that ftie
cannot get out of the harbour, off the ground, or out of
the dock, the feamen fay ftie is neaped, or benmped.
NEA.POLIS, in Ancient Geography, a city of the
Higher Egypt, in the Nomos panopolitanus, between
Thebee to the fouth, and Panopolis to the north, on
the eaft fide of the Nile $ otherwife called Cturne. A
5 A a fecond
NEC
Neapolis
II
Neceflity.
[ 74° ]
NEC
fecond Neapolis of Babylonia, fituated near the Eu¬
phrates on the fouth fide.—A third of Campania, an
ancient town and a colony from Cumae. (See Velleius,
Pliny, Strabo) ; accounted a Greek city, and a great
ftickler for Greek ufages, (See Livy, Tacitus). Its
hot baths ■were in nothing inferior to thofe of Baiae, ac¬
cording to Strabo *, at two miles diftance from it fiands
the monument of Virgil, held in religious veneration
by learned pofterity. The Younger Pliny relates, that
Virgil’s birth day was more religioufly obferved by Si-
lius Italicus than his own, efpecially at Naples, where
he reforted to his tomb as to a temple. The city is
wafhed by the river Sebethus. Virgil feigns the nymph
Sebethis to prefide over the fiream. Now Naples, ca¬
pital of the kingdom of that name. See Naples.—
A fourth, Neapolis of Caria, near the Meander,
(Ptolemy).—A fifth, an inland town of Cyrenaica,
fituated between Ptolemais and Arfinoe, (Ptolemy) j
and to be difiinguiihed from the Caenopolis, or Nea¬
polis, on the eaft border of the fame province, (id.)
A fixth of Ionia, (Strabo) ; which belonged firft to
the Ephefians, but afterwards to the Samians, who
exchanged Marathefium, a more difiant city, for a
nearer.—A feventh, Neapolis of Macedonia Adje&a,
fituated at the diftanee of 12 miles to the eaft of Phi¬
lippi, (Antonine).— An eighth, Neapolis of Pifidia,
on the borders of Galatia, fituated between Amblada
and Pappa, (Ptolemy).—A ninth of Samaria, the
ancient Sichem, which fee ; fo called upon its reftora-
tion- by the Romans, (Coin, Pliny, Jofephus) A
tenth of Sardinia, fituated on the fouth-weft fide of
the ifiand, 30 miles to the north of Metalla 5 now
called Neapoli.—An eleventh, of the Regio Syrtica,
called alfo Leptis.—A twelfth, of Zeugitana on the
Mediterranean, to the eaft of Clypea, and fouth of the
Promontorium Mercurii.
NEAT, or NET Weight, the weight of a commo¬
dity alone, clear of the calk, bag, cafe, or even filth.
See Net.
NEBEL, or Nablum, a mufical inftrument among
the Jews. See Nablum.
NEBIO, or Nebbio, a ruined city of Italy, on the
north fide of the ifiand of Corfica, with a bifhop’s fee,
whofe biftiop refides at San Fiorenzo, from which it is
a mile diftant.
NEBO, in Ancient Geography, a very high moun¬
tain, a part of the mountains of Abarim, and their
higheft top, whither Mofes Avas ordered to afcend to
take a view of the land of Canaan, and there die. Si¬
tuated in the land of Moab over againft Jericho : Avith
a cognominal toAvn at its foot (Ifaiah) belonging to the
Reubenites, Avhich afterwards returned to the Moabites ;
in Jerome’s time defolate j eight miles to the fouth of
Helhbon.
Nebo, or Nabo. See NaBO.
NEBUCHADNEZZAR. See Nabuchadnez-
zar.
NEBULY, or Nebulee, in Heraldry, is Avhen a
coat is charged with feveral little figures, in form of
words running Avithin one another, or when the outline
of a bordure, ordinary, &c. is indented or Avaved.
NECESSITY, Avhatever is done by a caufe or
poAver that is irrefiftible ; in which fenfe it is oppofed
to freedom. Man is a necelfary agent, if all his actions
be fo determined by the caufes preceding each a&ion,
that not one paft adlion could poftibly not have come Neceflity.
to pafs, or have been othenvife than it hath been 5 nor * — v
one future aftion can poffibly not come to pafs, or be
other wife than it (hall be. But he is a free agent,
if he be able, at any time, under the circumftances and
caufes he then is, to do different things; or, in other
words, if he be not unavoidably determined in every
point of time, by the circumftances he is in, and the
caufes he is under, to do that one thing he does, and
not poftibly to do any other thing. Whether man is
a neceffary or a free agent, is a queftion which has
been debated Avith much ingenuity by Avriters of the
firft eminence, from Hobbes and Clarke, to Prieftley
and Gregory. See Metaphysics, Part III. chap, v^
and Predestination.
Necessity, in Mythology, a power fuperior to all
other poAA'ers, and equally irrefiftible by gods and by
men. Herodotus, as he is quoted by CudAvorth, men¬
tions an oracle which declared that “ God himfelf could
not Ihun his deftined fate.” And among the fragments
of Philemon colledted by Le Clerc, is the folloAving
fentence :
AeuAa< (icta-tXiuv irpiv, ol ficurlxiis Siuv, 0 «vcey*»;.
“ We are fubjeft to kings, kings to the gods, and God
to Neceflity.” Hence it is, that, in the Iliad, tve find
Jove himfelf, the fire of gods and men, regretting that
he Avas reftrained by NeceJJity from refeuing his favourite
fon from the fword of Patroclus. Nay to fuch a height
Avas this impiety carried in the earlieft ages of Greece,
that avc find Hefiod and Homer teaching that the gods
themfelves Avere generated by NeceJJity, of Night and
Chaos.
This poAver, though always reprefented as blind and
unintelligent, Avas however worfhipped as a goddefs,
bearing in her hand large iron nails, Avedges, anchors,
and melted lead *, as emblems of the inflexible feverity * Horace
of her nature. “ In the city of Corinth fhe had a temple, lib. i. ode
in Avhich the goddefs Piij/ewce likeAvife refided, and into 35*
Avhich no perfon Avas eA'er permitted to enter but the
prieft who officiated in facris f.” j panjania:
Learned men have exercifed their ingenuity in in Corinth*
vain attempts to trace this portentous notion to itscaP iv>
origin. Some, A\rho Aviffied to interpret it in a pious
fenfe, have fuppofed that the gods Avho are fubjedl
to NeceJJity Avere only thofe Avho Avere the minifters of
the fupreme numen ; and that by necejjty kfelf AA’as meant
nothing more than divine providence. But this is not
confiftent Avith Hefiod and Homer’s Generation of the
Gods, or Avith the epithets Java neccjjtas, dura neceJJ-
tas, by Avbich this poAver Avas perpetually diftinguiftied.
Others, and among them Mofheim, haA’e fuppofed that
this monftrous fable Avas invented by the Pagan priefts,
and diligently inculcated upon the minds of the people,
in order to excufe the villanies of the objects of their
Avorfhip. For, fays he, Avho could be indignant at Ju¬
piter’s numberlefs adulteries, after it AATas knoAvn that
in all his actions he Avas the fervant of blind Neceflity :
In the thefts of Mercury, the Avhoredoms of Venus, and
the frequent fquabbles of the other gods, there could be
no moral turpitude, if they Avere under the influence
a fuperior poAver. lib.lx. N.
Numina cum videos duris obnoxia fatis, Imifel*
Invidia pojfis exonerare deos I7CIs
This
NEC
[ 74i ]
NEC
Neceftity. This account of the matter is at leait as plaufible as
1 v > any other which is ufually given j but the. real caie
undoubtedly was, that when men “ did not like to re¬
tain God in their knowledge, God gave them over to
a reprobate mind to do thofe things which are not con¬
venient ; when their fooliih heart was darkened, and
profeffing themfelves to be wife, they became fools.”
See PaRC^E. .... j r n. r *11
Necessity, in Law, as it implies a detect ol will,
excufes from the guilt of crimes. See Crime. .
Compuljion and inevitable necejfuy are a conftraint up¬
on the will, whereby a man is urged to do that which
his judgment difapproves j and which, it is to be pre¬
fumed, his will (if left to itfelf) would reject. As
punifhments are therefore only inili&ed for the abule
of that free will which God has given to man, it is
highly juft and equitable that a man ftiould be exculed
for thofe afts which are done through unavoidable
force and compulfton.
1. Of this nature, in the firft place, is the obliga¬
tion of civil fubjeSlion, whereby the inferior is con-
ftrained by the fuperior to aft contrary to what his
own reafon and inclination would fuggeft : as when
a legiflator eftablilhes iniquity by a law, and com¬
mands the fubjeft to do an aft contrary to religion or
found morality. How far this excufe will be admitted
inforo confeientice, or whether the inferior in this cafe
is not bound to obey the divine rather than the hu¬
man law, it is not our bufineis to decide \ though,
among the cafuifts, it is believed the queltion will
hardly bear a doubt. But, however that may be,
obedience to the laws in being is undoubtedly a fuffi-
cient extenuation of civil guilt before the municipal
tribunal. The fheriff who burnt Latimer and Ridley,
in the bigotted days of Queen Mary, was not liable to
puniftiment from Elizabeth for executing fo horrid an
office j being juftified by the commands of that ma-
niftracy which endeavoured to reftore Superftition, un¬
der the holy aufpices of its mercilefs filler, Perfecu-
tion. # . ...
As to perfons in private relations, the principal
cafe where conftraint of a fuperior is allowed as an
excufe for criminal mifeonduft, is with regard to the
matrimonial fubjeftion of the wife to her hufband :
for neither a fon nor a fervant are excufed from, the com-
miffion of any crime, whether capital or otherwife, by
the command or coercion of the parent or mailer •,
though in fome cafes the command or authority of
the huffiand, either exprefs or implied, will privilege
the wife from puniftiment, even from capital offences.
And therefore, if a woman commit theft, burglary, or
other civil offences againft the law of lociety, by the
coercion of her hufband, or even m his company,
which the law eonftrues a coercion, ftie is not guilty
of any crime j being confidered as acting by compul-
fion, and not of her own wilL This doftrine is at
leaft 1000 years old in this kingdom, being to be
found among the laws of King Ina the Weft Saxon.
And it appears, that among the northern nations on
the continent, this privilege extended to any woman
tranfgreffing in concert with a man, and to any fervant
that committed a joint offence with a freeman - the
male or freeman only was punifhed, the female or flave
difmiffed *, procul dubw quod alterum hbertas, alterum
r.eccjjitas impelleret* But (befides that, in our lawq
which is a ftranger to flavery, no impunity is given to ^Neceffity.
fervants, who are as much free agents as their matters) ” v
even with regard to wives, this rule admits of an ex-
ception in crimes that are mala in fe, and prohibited
by the law of nature; as murder, and the like : not
only becaufe thefe are of a deeper dye, but alfo, fince
in a ttate of nature no one is in fubjeftion to another,
it would be unreafonable to fereen an offender from
the puniftiment due to natural crimes, by the refine¬
ments and fubordinations of civil fociety. In treafon
alfo (the higheft crime which a member of fociety
can, as fuch, be guilty of), no plea in coverture ftiall
excufe the wife j no prefumption of the hufband’s
coercion lhall extenuate her guilt: as well becaufe of
the odioufnefs and dangerous confequenee of the crime
itfelf, as becaufe the huffiand, having broken through
the moft facred tie of focial community by rebellion a-
gainft the ilate, has no right to that obedience from a
wife, which he himfelf as a fubjeft has forgotten to pay.
In inferior mildemeanours alfo, we may remark another
exception, that a wife may be indifted and fet in the
pillory with her huffiand, for keeping a brothel: for
this is an offence touching the domeftic economy or go¬
vernment of the houfe, in which the wife has a princi¬
pal ffiare 5 and is alfo fuch an offence as the law pre¬
fumes to be generally condufted by the intrigues of the
female fex. And in all cafes where the wife offends
alone, without the company or coercion of her huffiand,
ffie is’refponfible for her offence as much as any femme-
foie. . ,
2. Another fpecies of compulfion or neceflity is what
our law calls durefs per minus ; or threats and menaces,
which induce a fear of death or other bodily harm, and
which take away for that reafon the guilt of many
crimes and mifdemeanors, at leaft before the human
tribunal. But then that fear which compels a man to
do an unwarrantable aftion ought to be juft and well
grounded 5 fuch, “ qui cadere pojfit in virum conjlan-
tem, non timidum et meticulofumj"' as Brafton expreffes
it in the words of the civil law. Therefore in time
of war or rebellion, a man may be juftified in doing
many treafonable afts by compulfion of the enemy or
rebels, which would admit of no excufe in the time of
peace. This, however, feems only, or at leaft principal¬
ly, to hold as to pofitive crimes, fo created by the laws
of fociety, and which therefore fociety may excufe ; but
not as to natural offences, fo declared by the law of
God, wherein human magiftrates are only the execu¬
tioners of divine puniftiment. And therefore though a
man be violently affaulted, and hath no other poflible
means of efcaping death but by killing an innocent per-
fon, this fear and force (hall not acquit him of murder j
for’he ought rather to die himfelf than efcape by the
murder of an innocent. But in fuch a cafe he is per¬
mitted to kill the affailant 5 for there the law of nature,
and felbdefencc its primary canon, have made him his
own proteftor.
3. There is a third fpecies of neceffity, which may
be diftinguiffied from the aftual compulfion of exter¬
nal force dr fear j being the refult of reafon and reflec¬
tion, which aft upon and conftrain a man’s will, and
oblige him to do an aftion which without fuch obli¬
gation would be criminal. And that is, when a man
has his choice of two evils fet before him, and being,
under a neceffity of choofing one, he choofes the. leaft
pernicious
NEC
,Nec';iTlty;. pernicious of the two. _ Here the will cannot be faid
ireely to exert ilfelf, being ratlier paffive than a&ivej
or, it aftive, it is rather in rejecting the greater evil
than in drooling the lefs. Ot this tort is that necef-
fity, where a man by the commandment of the law is
bound to arrelt another for any capital offence, or to
difperfe a riot, and refiftance is made to his authority :
it is here juftifxable, and even neceffary, to beat, to
wound, or perhaps to kill the offenders, ratlier than
permit the murderer to efcape, or the riot to conti¬
nue. For the prefervation of the peace of the king¬
dom, and the apprehending of notorious malefa&ors,
are of the utnroff confecjuencce to the public 5 and
therefore excufe the felony, which the killing would
otherwife amount to.
4. There is yet another cafe of neceffity, which has
occalioncd great fpeculation among the writers upon'
general law ; viz. whether a man in extreme want of
food or clothing may juffify Healing either, to relieve
his prefent neceffities. And this both Grotius and
Puffendorff, together with many other of the foreign
junits, hold in the affirmative j maintaining by many
ingenious, humane, and plaufible reafons, that in fuch
cafes the community of goods, by a kind of tacit con-
celfion Oi iociety, is revived. And fome even of our
lawyers have held the fame 5 though it feems to be an
unwarranted dodtrine, borrowed from the notions of
•iome civilians j at lealt it is now antiquated, the law of
England admitting no fuch excufe at prefent. And
this its doftrine is agreeable not only to the fentiments
of many of the wifeft ancients, particularly Cicero,
■who holds, That fuum cuique incommodum ferendum ejiy
potius quam de alterius commodis detrahendum; but alfo
to the Jewiffi law, as certified by King Solomon him-
felf. If a thief Heal to fatisfy his foul 1x11611 he is
hungry, he fliall reftore fevenfold, and ffiall give all
the lubftance of his houfe:” which was the ordinary
punifhment for theft in that kingdom. And this is
founded upon the higheft reafon : for men’s properties
would be under a ftrangc infecurity, if liable to be in¬
vaded according to the wants of others j of which
wants no man can poffibly be an adequate judge but
the party himfelf who pleads them. In England
efpecially, there would be a peculiar impropriety in
admitting fo dubious an abufe : for by the laws fuch
mitieient provifion is made for the poor by the power of
the civil magiftrate, that it is impoffjble that the muff
needy ftranger fnould ever be reduced to the neceffity
of tnieving to fupport nature. I he cafe of a ftranger
is, by the way, the ftrongeft inftance put to Baron
Puffendorff, and whereon he builds his principal ar¬
guments : which, however they may hold upon the
continent, where the parfimonious induftry of the
natives orders every one to work or ftarve, yet muft
lofe all their weight and efficacy in England, where
charity is reduced to a fyftem, and interwoven in our
very conftitution. Therefore our laws ought by no
means to be taxed with being unmerciful, for denying
this privilege to the neceffitous; efpecially when we
confider, that the king, on the reprefentation of his
minifters of juflice, hath a power to foften the law,
and to extend mercy in cafes of peculiar hardlhip, An
advantage which is wanting in many ftates, parti¬
cularly thofe which are democratical: and thefe have
in its Head introduced and adopted, in the body of
4
1 743 ]
NEC
the law itfelf, a multitude of circumftances tending to
alleviate its rigour. But the founders of our conftitu¬
tion thought it better to veft in the crown the power of
pardoning particular objefts of compaffion, 'than to
countenance and eftablilh theft by one general undiftin-
guiftung law.
NECHO, king of Egypt, began his reign 690 B. C.
and was killed eight years after by Sabacon king of
Ethiopia. Pfammiticus his fon fucceeded him, and
was the father, as Herodotus informs us, of Necho II.
who reigned in the 616 B. C. This Necho II. is ce¬
lebrated in hiftory for attempting, though in vain, to
cut a canal from the Nile to the Arabian gulf. Ho
canied his arms as far as the Euphrates, and con-
queied the city of Carchemiffi, X his prince is not only
known in Scripture under the name of Necho, but alfo
in profane hiftory. He no fooner fucceeded to the
crown than he raifed great land armies, and fitted out
vart fleets, as well upon the Mediterranean as upon the
Red fea : he gave battle to the Syrians near the city
of Migdol; routed, them, and made himfelf mafter
of the city of Cadytis. X he learned, however, are not
agreed about this city Cadytis. Some will have it to
be Cades in Arabia Petraea, others Jerufalem; and
others fay it is the city of Cedes, or Kedefti, in Galilee,
in the tribe of Naphtali.
I he Scriptures acquaint us with the whole expedi¬
tion oj. Necho in all its particulars, 2 Kings xxiii. 29.
&c. and 2 Chr. xxxv. 20, 21, &c. In the year of the
world 3394, this prince having drawn out his army
into the field to make war with the Affyrians or Ba¬
bylonians, and to take the city of Carchemifh, other-
wife called Circufium, upon the Euphrates, Jofiah king
of Judah, who was a tributary to the king of Babylon’
marched to oppofe his paffage. Necho, who had no
defigns againft him, fent to tell him, “ What have I to
do with you, king of Judah ? It is not againft you that
I am come forth, but againft another people, againft
whom the Lord has commanded me to make -war.
Leave off therefore to fet yourfelf againft me, for fear
the Lord fhould puniffi you for, your refirtance.” But
Jofiah would not hearken to the remonftrances of Ne¬
cho, but gave him battle at Megiddo, where he receiv¬
ed the wound of which he died, i he people of Je-
rufalem fet up Jehoahaz for king of Judah, and Nccho
foon paffed forwards, without making any longer ftay
in Judea.
But at his return from his expedition, which was
very fuccefsful, he halted at Riblah in Syria 5 and
fending for Jehoahaz king of the Jews, he depofed
him, loaded him with chains, and fent him into
Egypt. Then coming to Jerufalem, he fet up Elia-
kim, or Jehoiakim, in his place, and exacted the pay¬
ment of 100 talents of jilver and one talent of gold
from the country. Jeremiah (xlvi. 2.) acquaints-us
that the city of Carchemifh was taken from Necho by
Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, in the fourth year
of Jehoiakim king of Judah j fo that Necho did not
enjoy his conqueft above four years. Jofephus adds,
that the. king of Babylon purfuing his victory, brought
under his dominion all the country which is between
the Euphrates, and Egypt, excepting Judea. Thus
Necho was again reduced within the limits of his own
country.
NECK, in Anatomy, is the (lender part fituated be¬
tween
NEC [ 743 ] NEC
Neck tween tlie head and trunk of the body. See Ana-
11 TOMY.
Necreraan- JsIECROLIUM, a word ufed by fome of the alche-
. Y nncal writers to exprefs a remedy aim oft always capable
of averting death, and continuing life to its utmoft
period.
NECROLOGY, necrologium, formed of
“ dead,” and Aoya? “ difcourfe or enumeration,” a
book anciently kept in churches and monafteries,
wherein were regiftered the benefactors of the fame,
the time of their deaths, and the days of their comme¬
moration } as alfo the deaths of the priors, abbots,
religious, canons, &c. This was otherwife called ca-
lender and obituary.
NECROMANCY, the art of revealing future events
by a pretended communication with the dead.
This fuperftitious and impious impofture appears
to have had its origin at a very early period in Egypt,
and to have been thence propagated in every nation
with the manners of which hiftory has made us ac¬
quainted. The conquefts of Sefoftris might introduce
it into India 5 the Israelites would naturally borrow
it from the people among whom they fojourned 400
years \ and it would eafily find its way into Phoenicia,
from the vicinity of that country to the land of its
nativity. From the Egyptians and Phoenicians it
was adopted, with the other rites of paganifm, by the
Greeks •, and it was imported into Rome with Grecian
literature and Grecian manners. It was not however
confined to the pagan nations of antiquity : it fpread
itfelf through all the modern nations of Europe, and
took fuch deep root as to be long retained even after
thofe nations were converted to the Chriftian faith.
Of its early antiquity we have complete evidence in
the writings of Mofes, where it is feverely condemned
* Deut. as an abomination to the Lord * •, and though it appears
xviii. 1 c, 11, t0 have been even then fpread into Phoenicia, we might
I*' yet conclude its birth-place to have been Egypt, becaufe,
at their exodi/, the Ifraelites were corrupted only by
Egyptian fuperftitions, and becaufe necromancy feems to
be one of thofe whoredoms which the prophet Ezekiel
reprefents his countrymen as having brought with them
from Egypt, and continued to praftife till they Avere
carried captives into Babylon.
If from facred we proceed to confult profane authors,
we (hall find them not only affirming Egypt to have
been the birthplace of necromancy, but in fome degree
accounting for the origin of fo impious a delufion.
f Lib x. § 2. From Diodorus the Sicilian -f- we learn, that the Gre¬
cian fable of Charon the ferryman of hell, of Styx, Co-
cijtus, the Elys tan Fields, Tartarus, the judgment of
Minos and Rhadamanthus, See. with the Avliole feenery
of the infernal regions, were imported from Egypt into
Greece. The ancient Egyptians, and indeed all the
people of the eaft, made ufe of caves for burying places,
which were well fuited to the folemn fadnefs of the fur-
viving friends, and proper receptacles for thofe who
were never more to behold the light. In Egypt, many
of thofe fubterraneous cavities being dug out of the na- Necroman-
tural rock, ftill remain, and command the admiration
of travellers; and near to the pyramids in particular
there are fome apartments of a wonderful fabric, which
though they extend in length 4400 feet, and are about
30 feet in depth, appear to have been, if not entirely
dug, at leaft reduced to form by the chifel or pickaxe of
the artift.
From the practice of burying in fuch caverns fprung
the opinion that the infernal manfions were fituated
fomewhere near the centre of the earth, which by the
Egyptians was believed to be not very diftant from its
furfaee J. In thefe dreary manfions, it was very ealy } Bryant's
for fuch adepts as the priefts of Egypt to fabricate Ere- Analyfu of
bus, Tartarus, the Elyfian Fields, and all thofe feenes
which were difplayed before the initiated (fee Myste¬
ries), and by them deferibed to the million of the peo¬
ple. As it was in thofe dark abodes that necromancy
was pra&ifed, it would be no difficult matter for fuch
magicians as withftood Mofes to impofe fo far upon the
credulous vulgar, as to make them believe, that in con-
fequence of their invocations they actually faw the
ghofts of their friends afeend out of the earth. It ap¬
pears from the book of Exodus, that the Ifraelitiffi wo¬
men were, even in the wildernefs, -well acquainted with
the ufe of the mirror, which was therefore undoubted¬
ly known to the Egyptians. But a mirror of a parti¬
cular form and properly illuminated at the inftant re¬
quired, might eafily be made to refleft, in a cavern
from which all other light was carefully excluded, the
image of the deceafed, who was called upon by the ne¬
cromancer •, and we can readily conceive, that with re-
fpe£t to the queftion to be propofed, a perfon might
be concealed, prepared to give fuch ambiguous anfwers
as would fatisfy the inquirer, and at the fame time fave
the credit of the oracle. The terrified imaginations
of the fpeflators would aid the delufion, and make a
very flight refemblance pafs for the ghoft or of
their departed friend ; or the necromancer might affign
plaufible reafons why a fpeftre, after having dwelt for
fome time in the infernal regions, ffiould lofe fomething
of its refemblance to the body which it animated. Such
juggling tricks, though performed by artifts lefs accom-
plilhed than Jannes and Jambres, have gained credit
among people much more enlightened than the Egyp¬
tians can poffibly have been when the fcience of necro¬
mancy rvas invented by their priefts.
That the Ifraelites, notwithftanding the prohibition
of their legiflator, continued to pra&ife the rites of ne¬
cromancy, is apparent from Saul’s tranfaftion with the
witch of Endor (fee Magic). From the fame tranf-
aflion, it is likeAvife apparent that the Avitches of Ifrael,
and therefore in all probability the necromancers of E-
gypt, pretended to evocate the ghofts of the dead by a
demon or familiar fpirit, which they had at their com¬
mand to employ upon every emergency. This demon
Avas called OB •, and therefore Saul defires his fervants
to find him a Avoman Avho Avas miftrefs of an OB (a).
It
(a) The original, or radical, fignification of this word occurs in Job xxxih ver. 19. j where Ehhu compares
his belly to new bottles, which he calls oboth, the plural of ob. But as bottles were then made of leather, new
bottles filled with wine and really to burft, as Elihu deferibes them, would of courfe be of a form nearly globu-
NEC [ 744 ] NEC
Necronun- It is probable that thofe wretched impoflors had in
cy- their pay fome perfons who occafionally afred the
part 0p ^jie (Jemon> when the execution of the
plot required their agency, emitted, by means of a
cavity dug for that purpofe, a low hollow voice from
below the ground. Hence we find Ifaiah, in his de-
* Chap. nunciations againll: Ariel *, faying, “ Thou fhalt be
xxix. 4. brought down, and {halt fpeak out of the ground ; and
thy fpeech (hall be low out of the dull;, and thy voice
lhall be as of one that hath a familiar fpirit (an ob) out
of the ground, and thy fpeech lhall whifper out of the
duft.”
But though the Egyptian priefts were undoubtedly
the inventors of the whole myllery of necromancy, and
though it was from them imported into Greece by the
Selli or prielfs of Dodona, it does not appear that tire
Grecian necromancers pretended to be mailers of DBS
or familiar fpirits. Mopfus, Orpheus, Linus, Eumol-
pus, &c. who either travelled into Egypt in quell of
knowledge, or were actually natives of that country, in-
flrudled the early Greeks in this occult fcience : but
whatever might be the praftice of thefe apollles them-
felves, their difciples profeffed to do all the feats of ma¬
gic by performing certain rites, by offering certain fa-
crifices, by muttering a certain form of words, by
charms, fpells, and exorcifms. By thefe they pretend¬
ed to evocate the dead as certainly as the Egyptians
and Jews did by their familiar fpirits. By a fmall dif-
play of critical learning this might be eafily proved
from the popular {lory of Orpheus and Eurydice, which
certainly was founded on one of thefe necromantic de¬
ceptions exhibited in a cave near Dodona, where the
prielfs had a hades or infernal manfion, in humble imi¬
tation of thofe with which the firft of them were well
acquainted in Egypt. It is indeed evident, Avithout
the aid of criticifm : no man of any letters is ignorant,
that Avhatever fuperllitions of this kind prevailed among
the Romans Avere borroAved from the Greeks. But Ave
all knoAV that Virgil makes one of his fhepherds, by
means of certain herbs, poifons, and fenfelefs charms,
raife up gholls from the bottoms of their graves; and
Lucan has fabricated a ftory of this kind, which may
be confidered as an exa£l parallel to the Avitch of En-
I dor. Juft before the battle of Pharfalia lie makes f
ver. 570. et young Pompey travel by night to a Thcffalian forcerefs,
IT and anxioufiy inquire of her the iffue of the Avar. This
female necromancer, by a tedious procefs of charms and
incantations, conjures up the ghoft of a foldier who had
been lately {lain. The phantom, after a long preamble,
denounces a prediffion much of the fame kind Avith that
Avhich the king of Ifrael received from Samuel at En-
dor •, and though Ave have elfewhere ftiown, that no¬
thing but the fpirit of God could have forefeen the in¬
evitable deftruftion of Saul, his fons, and his army (fee
Magic), it was very eafy for any man of tolerable fa-Vecroman-
gacity to forefee the defeat of Pompey’s raw and undif- CJ'-
ciplined troops by the hardy veterans of the vidtorious
Csefar.
It Avould be endlefs to enumerate all the fallacious
evocations of ghorts, and the ambiguous refponfes re¬
turned by thole pretended fpirits, of Avhich we have
accounts from the poets and hiftorians of the celebrated
nations of antiquity. We ftiall therefore proceed to
mention a fevv which occur in the fabulous hiftory of
more modern nations, and then leave the fubjedl to the
meditation of our readers. In Mallet’s Northern An¬
tiquities, Avre ha\re the following account of a necroman¬
tic exploit, between which, and the defeent of the an¬
cient heroes into hell, it is impoffible not to remark a
ftriking fimilitude.
“ Odin the fovereign of man arifes. He faddles his
horfe Sleipner 5 he mounts, and is conveyed to the fub-
terraneous abode of He/a. The dog which guards the
gates of death meets him. His breaft and his jaws are
ftained with blood. He opens his voracious mouth to
bite, and barks a long time at the father of magic.
Odin purfues his Avay j and the infernal cavern refounds
and trembles under his horfe’s hoofs. At length he
reaches the deep abode of death, and ftops near the
-eaftern gate, Avhere ftands the tomb of the prophetefs.
He fings Avith a voice adapted to call up the dead ; he
looks toAvards the world 5 he engraves Runic characters
on her tomb ; he utters myfterious Avordsj and he de¬
mands an anfvver, until the prophetefs is conftrained to
arife and thus utter the ivords of the dead.—“ Who is
this unknoAvn that dares to difturb my repofe, and
drag me from the grave, in Avhich I have been dead fo
long, all covered Avith fnow, and moiftened Avith the
rains ?” &c.
The Gaelic druids pretended to be mafters of the
fame fecret. This is evident from the name of a fpecies
of divination, not uncommon among the Scotch High¬
landers fo lately as in the beginning of the 18th cen¬
tury. By a gentleman excellently verfed in the anti¬
quities of that people, and a fteady friend to the Avritcr
of this article, Ave have, been informed, that not many
years ago fome of the Highlanders relied implicitly up¬
on certain oracular refponfes, called in their language
tag/iairm. This word feems to be compounded of tay
which in fome parts of the Highlands is ftill ufed to
denote a fpirit or ghoft, and ghairm, Avhich fignifies
calling upon or invoking. Taghairm, therefore, in its
original import, is necromancy in the moft proper fenfe
of that Avord.
There Avere different kinds of taghairm, of Avhich one
Avas very lately practifed in Skye. The diviner covered
himfelf with a coav’s hide, and repaired at night to
fome deep-founding cave, whither the perfon Avho con-
. fulted
lar. Hence it may be inferred that the original import oi ob Avas round or globular: but b and p being labials,
are often changed into each other j and therefore, from the Hebrew ob is derived the Greek oculus, »7r\op.ui,
video, and the Latin ops, a name under which the earth was Avorftiipped. Upis Avas a name of Diana or the
moon : the father of one of the Dianas Avas likeAvife Upis ; but this Upis Avas undoubtedly the fun. Noav the dif¬
ference betAveen upis and opis is nothing j hence Ave are led to believe, that as they are all derived from ob, tills
Avrord Avas employed by the early idolaters of Egypt to denote the firft and greateft of Pagan gods, the fun. If fo,
thofe Avretches Avho pretended to be miftreffes of obs, Avere exactly the fame kind of impoftors with the Pythonet-
fes of the Greeks.
3
NEC
[ 7+5 ]
NEC
J'JeCioman- fulted him followed foon after without any attendants,
cy- At the mouth of the cave he propofed aloud the quef-
v tions of which he wanted folutions 5 and the man with¬
in pronounced the refponfes in a tone of voice fimilar to
that with which the obs, or pretended demons of anti¬
quity, gave from beneath the ground their oracular an¬
swers! That.in the latter days of taghainn, the Gaelic
diviners pretended to evocate ghofts, and from them to
extort folutions of difficulties propofed, we have no po-
fitive evidence *, but that fuch was the original pretence
there can be little doubt, when we refleft either upon
the place where this fpecies of divination was praffiled,
er upon the import of the word by which it was deno¬
minated. . ^
As we have been led to mention tag hairm, we mall
ben leave to make a few obfervations on another fpe-
cies of it, called taghainn an uifge, or “ taghairm by
water.” This too was laft praffifed in the Me of Skye,
by a man of the name of M‘Cuidhean, whofe anceftors
had long been famous for the art. He lived near a
beautiful cafcade on a fmall river ; and when confulted
on any matter of confequence, he covered his whole
body with a cow’s hide, that neceffary implement of
Highland divination, and placed himfelf between the
water of the cafcade and the rock over which it flowed.
Then another man with a heavy pole gave repeated
ftrokes to the water, and the diviner behind it crying
out now and then in Gaelic, “ Is this a flock of am ?
This operation was continued till IVTCuidhean was per¬
ceived to be frantic or furious, when he was confidered
as in a condition to anfwer the moft important quef-
tions. He was frequently confulted about futurity ;
and though he could not, in the proper fenfe of the
word, be called a necromancer, his refponfes were lift-
ened to as proceeding from fomething more than hu¬
man. A degree of phrenzy, either real or affeaed,
feems to have accompanied the prediaions of certain
kinds of diviners in all ages ; and we cannot help re¬
marking the fimilarity between the madnefs of IVTCuid¬
hean and that of the Sibyl in the fixth book of the yffi,-
neid} though we cannot fuppofe the one to have been
borrowed from the other.
At, Phcehi nondum patiens, immanis in antro
Bacchatur vates, magnum Ji peBore pojfit
Excujijfe Deum : tan to magis ille fatigat
Os rahidum, fera cor da domans, Jingitque premendo.
Struggling in vain, impatient of her load,
And iab’ring underneath the pond’rous god }
The more fhe flrove to ffiake him from her breaft,
With more and far fuperior force he prefs’d.
Dryden.
That all thefe pretences, whether ancient or modern,
to the power of divination by means of familiar fpirits,
or by the art of necromancy, were groundlefs as well
as impious, it would be affronting the underflandings
of our readers to offer any proof. Under the article
Magic we have faid enough on the fubjeft, and per¬
haps more than enough, to thofe who know that de¬
mons, if they have any exiftence, and the departed
fpirits of good and bad men, are all under the controul
of Him who governs the intelledlual as well as material
world by fixed and equal laws.— Thefe details of fuper-
Hition, however, will not be ufelefs? if, by Ihowing
Vol XIV. Part II.
how poor and wretched a creature mar becomes -when Necromaiw
left to his own inventions, they (hull make any one c7
grateful for the benefits of good government, and the Ne;uar;.ini.
bleffings of revealed religion. —y—
NECROPOLIS, a fuburb of Alexandria in Egypt.
It iignifies “ the City of the Dead 5” wherein there
were temples, gardens, and fupero mauioleums. Here
Cleopatra is faid to have applied the aipic to her breaft,
to prevent being led in triumph by Auguftus, who en¬
deavoured to lave her.
NECROSIS, viveorts, in Medicine, a complete mor¬
tification of any part} called alfo Jideratio and fpha-
ceius.
NECTANEBIJS, or Nectanabis, a king of E-
gypt, who defended his country againft the Perfians.
His grandfon of the fame name made an alliance with
Agefilaus king of Sparta, and with his affiftance he
quelled a rebellion of his fubjefls. Some time after he
was joined by the Sidonians, Phoenicians, and inhabi¬
tants of Cyprus, who had revolted from the king of
Perfia. This powerful confederacy was foon attacked
by Darius the king of Perfia, who marched at the head
of his troops. Netlanebus, to defend his frontiers
againft fo dangerous an enemy, levied v3,000 mercena¬
ry foldiers in Greece, the fame number in Libya, and
60,000 were furniffied in Egypt. This numerous body
was not equal to the Perfian forces, and Neclanebus,
defeated in a battle, gave up all hopes of reiiftance,
and fled into Ethiopia, where he found a fafe afylum.
His kingdom of Egypt became from that time tributary
to the king of Perfia.
NECTAR, among ancient poets, the drink of the
fabulous deities of the heathens ; in contradiftindlion
from their folid food, which was called ambrojia.
NECTARINE, a fruit differing in nothing from
the common peach, of which it is a fpecies, but in
having a fmoother rind and a firmer pulp. See Per-
SIC A.
NECTARIUM, from neBar, the fabled “ drink
of the gods 5” defined by Linnaeus to be a part of the
corolla, or appendage to the petals, appropriated for
containing the honey, a fpecies of vegetable fait under
a fluid form, that oozes from the plant, and is the prin¬
cipal food of bees and other infefts.
Notwithftanding this definition, which feems to con-
fider the nedlarium as neceffary a part of the corolla as
the petals, it is certain that all flowers are not provi¬
ded with this appendage, neither indeed is it effential to
fruftification.
There is, befides, a manifeft impropriety in terming
the ne6tarium a part of the corolla. Linnaeus might, Milne’s
with equal propriety, have termed it a part or appen- hot. DicL
dage of the ftamina, calyx, or pointal, as the appear¬
ance in queftion is confined to no particular part of
the flower, but is as various in point of fituation as of
form. The truth is, the term neBariurn is exceedingly
vague and, if any determinate meaning can be affixed
to it, is expreffive of all the Angularities which are ob-
ferved in the different parts of flowers.
The tube, or lower part of flowers with one petal,
Linnaeus confiders as a true ne£tarium, becaufe it is
generally found to contain the fweet liquor formerly
mentioned. This liquor Pontedera compares to that
called amnios in pregnant animals, which enters the
fertile or impregnated feeds : but that this is not -at
; B kaft
N T£ C [ 746
Neiflanum. ]t;aft jls f0je ufe> js ey^ent froni this ciicupillance, that
,~~v_ the honey or liquor in queilion is to be found in dowers
where there are either no feeds, or thofe which, from
the want of male organs, cannot be impregnated.
1 hus the male dowers of nettle and willow, the female
flowers of fea-fide laurel and black, bryony, the male
and female flowers of clutia, kiggelaria, and butcher’s
broom, ail abound with the honey or nedlar alluded
to.
Vaillant was of opinion, that the ne&arium 'was an
elfential part of the corolla \ for which reafon he diflin-
guiflied the lingular appearances in fennel flower and
columbine by the name of petals : the coloured leaves
which are now termed the petals he denominates the
flower cup.
That the ne&arium, however, is frequently diflintt
from the petals, is evident both from the well known
examples juft mentioned, as likewife from the flowers
of monkfhood, hellebore, ifopyrum, fennel flower of
Crete, barrenwort, grafs of Parnaflus, chocolate nut,
cherleria, and fauvagefia.
Thefe general obfervations being premifed, we pro¬
ceed to take a nearer and more particular view of the
principal diverfitjes, both in form and fituation, of this
ftriking appendage to the flower. 1. In many flowers
the nedarium is draped like a fpur or horn ; and that
either in flowers of one petal, as valerian, water mil¬
foil (utncularia), butterwort, and calves-fnout ; or in
fuch as have more than one, as larkfpur, violet, fumi¬
tory, balfam, and orchis. 2. In the following plants,
the nedarium is properly a part of the corolla, as ly¬
ing within the fubftance of the petals : ranunculus,
lily, iris, crown imperial, water leaf, moufe tail, ana¬
nas or pine apple, dog’s-tooth violet, piperidge bulb,
vallifneria, hermannia, uvularia, and fwertia. 3. The
nedarium is frequently placed in a feries or row with¬
in the petals, though entirely uneonneded with their
fubftance. In this lituation it often refembles a cup,
as in narciffus. A nedarium of this kind is faid by
Linnaeus to crown the corolla. The following are ex¬
amples : daffodil, fea daffodil, campion, vifcous cam¬
pion, fwallow-wort, ftapelia, cynanchum, nepenthes,
cherleria, balfam-tree, African fpiraea, witch-hazel, olax,
and paflion-flower. 4. In Indian-crefs, buckler, muf-
tard, Barbadoes cherry, and monotropa, the nedarium
is fituated upon or makes part of the calyx. 5. The
nedarium in baftard flower-fence is feated upon the an¬
ther® or tops of the ftamina ; whence the name adenan-
thera, or glandular anthera, which has been given to
this genus of plants. In the following lift it is placed
upon the filaments j bean-caper, bay, fraxinella, marvel
of Peru, bell-flower, lead-wort, roella, and commelina.
6. In hyacinth, flowering-rufh, ftock July flower, and
rocket, the nedarium is placed upon the feed-bud.
7. In honey-flower, orpine, buckwheat, collinfonia, la-
thrsea, navelwort, mercury, clutia, kiggelaria, fea-fide
laurel, and African fpirtea, it is attached to the com¬
mon receptacle. Laftly, In ginger, nettle, dyer’s weed,
heart-feed, coftus, turmeric, grewia, baftard-orpine,. va-
nelloe, ftirew-tree, and willow, the nedarium is of a
very Angular conftrudion, and cannot properly fall under
any of the foregoing heads.
In difcriminating the genera, the nedarium often
furnilhes an effential charader.
Plants which have the nedarium diftind from the
J
NEE
petals, that is, not lodged within their fubftance, are Nedarium
atErmed by Linnams to be generally poifonous. The II
following are adduced as examples : monkihood, helle- ,Nt'edhani-
bore, columbine, fennel-flower, grafs of Parnaffus bar- ’
ren-wort, oleander, marvel of Peru, bean-caper, fuccu-
lent i wallow-wort, fraxinella, and honey-flower.
NEC LI A, in Botany, a name given by the ancient
ejreeks to a Ipeeies of mullein.
1 he Greeks and Romans both ufed the flalks of a
peculiar kind of mullein, called thryallis by Nicander
for the making of wicks of lamps. We have a kind of
muilem called lychnites, and candle-wick mullein, from
the A^vms of Diofeorides j but it is not certain that
ours is the lame plant.
T he ancients ufed the ftalks of many different plants
for the wicks of their candles and lamps. The rufh
Clipped of its bark, was as commonly in ufe with them
as with us for that purpofe; and they alfo ufed the net¬
tle, this mullein, and many other plants, whofe ftalks
were compofed of tough filaments, for the fame pur-
poie j beating them out like hemp, and when dry dip¬
ping them in melted refin, and other fuch inflammable
jubilances. When thus prepared, they are readily in¬
flammable, like our flambeau j and this mullein, having
italks more long and large, and more firm than all the
others, was ufed to make thofe lights with which they
f .fir® t0Jt^e. fu”eral Pile> ^ confuming the afhes of
their dead friends.
NEC YD AL IS, a genus of infeds belonging to the
order Oi coleoptera. See Entomology Index.
NEEDHAM, John Iuberville, was born at
-London the 10th of September in the year 1713. His
parents were defcended from ancient and noble fami¬
lies.^ His father, who had once poffeffed a confiderable
patrimony at Hilfton, in the county of Monmouth,
was of the younger and Catholic branch of the Need¬
ham family : tl® head of the elder and Proteftant
branch was Lord Kilmory, created vijcount in the year
1625. 1 he father of Mr Needham died young, and
left but a fmall fortune to his four children. His
eldeft fon, who is the fubjed of this article, profecu-
ted his ftudies under the feeular clergy of the Englifli
college of Douay, where he took orders, taught Rhe¬
toric for feveral years, gave eminent proofs of fagaeitv
and genius, and furpafled all the other profefiors of
that feminary in the knowledge of experimental phi-
lofophy In 1740, he was engaged by his ftiperiors
in the ftivice of the Englifh miffion, and was intruft-
ed with the diredion of the fchool ereded at Twy-
ford, near Winchefter, for the education of the Ro-
man Catholic youth. In 1744, he was appointed
profeflor of philofophy in the Englifh college at Lif-
bon, where, on account of his bad health, he remain¬
ed only 15 months. After his return, he paffed feve¬
ral years at London and Paris, which were principally
employed in microfcopieal obfervations, and in other
branches of experimental philofophy. The refults of
thefe obfervations and expe riments were publifhed in
the Philofophical Tranfadions of the Royal Society
of London in 1749, and in a volume in 12mo at Pa¬
ris in 1750 j and an account of them was alfo given
by M. de Buffon, in the firft volumes of his Natural
Hiftory. There was an intimate connexion between
this illuftrious French naturalift and Mr Needham :
they made their experiments and obfervations to¬
gether ;
Keedham, nether j though the refults and fyftems which they de-
]V«edle. ^UCed from the fame objefts and operations were to-
 > tally different. Mr Needham was admitted to a place
in the Royal Society of London in the year iy47>
and in the Antiquarian Society fome time after. From
the year 1751 to 1767 he was chiefly employed in
N E E
t 747 J
N E E
fmilhing the education of feveral Englifh and Irifli
noblemen, by attending them as tutor in their travels
through France, Italy, and other countries. He then
retired from this wandering life to the Engliih femi*
nary at Paris, and in 1768 was chofen by the Royal
Academy of Sciences in that city a correfponding
member. . .
When the regency of the Auftnan Netherlands, in
order to the revival of philofophy and literature in that
country, formed the projeft of an Imperial academy,
which was preceded by the ereftion of a fmall literary
fociety to prepare the way for its execution, Mr Need¬
ham was invited to Bruffels by Count Cobent2el and
the prefident Neny, and was appointed fucceflively
chief dire£lor of both thefe foundations. He held
this place, together with fome eccleflaftical preferfnents
in the Low Countries, until his death, which happened
the 30th of December 1781. “ His piety, temper¬
ance, and purity of manners (we follow the expref-
fions of the abbe Mann) were eminent : his attach¬
ment to the do&rines and duties of Chriftianity was in¬
violable. His zealous oppofition to modern infidds
was indefatigable, and even paflionate. His probity
"was untainted. He was incapable of every Ipccies of
duplicity •, his beneficence was univerfal, and his un-
fufpicious candour rendered him often a dupe to per¬
fidy.'” Thefe and other good qualities the panegyrift
attributes to his deceafed friend ) and the learned au¬
thors of the Monthly Review, to whom Mr Needham
was known, admit the juftnefs of the panegyric. He
was undoubtedly (fay they), both an honeft man and a
worthy citizen •, but though his death be a real lofs to
the literary world, yet he died feafonably for himfelf j
for had he lived to fee Jofeph II. and the Great mak¬
ing fo free with the paint, patches, and trinkets of the
mother church, confifcating her lands, abolilhing her
convents, fupprefling her holidays, introducing common
fenfe into her worlhip, ereding political conductors to
difperfe the thunder of the Vatican, and achieving many
other things in this ftyle of improvement, it would have
vexed full fore his feeling heart. For this honeft man
was narrow even to fuperftition and bigotry in his reli¬
gious fyftem j and we never knew a man in whom there
■was fuch an unaccountable mixture of implicit faith
and philofophical curiofity as in Mr Needham. He
was a keen and judicious obferver of nature, had a pe¬
culiar dexterity in confirming his obfervations by expe¬
riments, and he was always occupied (fometimes indeed
with too much fancy and precipitation) in generalizing
fafts, and reducing them to his fyftem. “ His pen
(fays Abbe Mann) was neither remarkable for fecun¬
dity nor method : his writings are rather the great
lines of a fubjeft e'Xpreffed with energy, and thrown
upon paper in a hurry, than finilhed treatifes.” His
works are well known both in Britain and in France.
Needham, a town in Suffolk, 73 miles from London,
Hands on the Orwell, 9 miles from Ipfwich, in the road
to Huntingdonshire.
NEEDLE, a very common little inftrument or uten-
lil made of fteel, pointed at one end, and pierced at the
other, ufed in fewing, Imbroidery, tapeftry, &c.
Needles make a very confiderable article in com¬
merce, though there is fcarce any commodity cheaper,
the confumption of them being almoft incredible.—
The fixes are from N° 1. the largeft, to N0 25, the
fmalleft. In the manufacture of needles, German and
Hungarian fteel is of moft repute.
In the making of them, the firft thing is to pafs the
fteel through a coal fire, and under a hammer, to bring
it out of its Square figure into a cylindrical one. I his
done, it is drawn through a large hole of a wire-draw¬
ing iron, and returned into the fire, and drawn through
a fecond hole of the iron fmaller than the firft ; and
thus fucceffively from hole to hole, till it has acquired
the degree of finenefs required for that fpecies of
needles 5 obferving every time it is to be drawn, that
it be greafed over with lard, to render it more manage¬
able. The fteel thus reduced to a fine wire, is cut in
pieces of the length of the needles intended. Thefe
pieces are flattened at one end on the anvil, in order
to form the head and eye : they are then put into the
fire to foften them farther 5 and thence taken out and
pierced at each extreme of the flat part on the anvil,
by force of a puncheon of well-tempered fteel, and laid
on a leaden block to bring out, with another puncheon,
the little piece of fteel remaining in the eye. The
corners are then filed off the fquare of the heads, and
a little cavity filed on each fide of the flat of the head ;
this done, the point is formed with a file, and the whole
filed over : they are then laid to heat red hot on a long
narrow iron, crooked at one end, in a charcoal fire ;
and when taken out thence, are thrown into a bafon of
cold water to harden. On this operation a good deal
depends •, too much heat burns them, and too little
leaves them foft; the medium is learned by experience.
When they are thus hardened, they are laid in an iron
{hovel, on a fire more or lefs brifk in proportion to the
thicknefs of the needles •, taking care to move them
from time to time. This ferves to temper them, and
take off their brittlenefs; great care here too muft be
taken of the degree of heat. They are then ftraighten-
ed one after another with the hammer, the coldnefs of
the water ufed in hardening them, having twilled the
greateft part of them.
The next procefs is the polifhir.g them. To do this,
they take 12,000 or 15,000 needles, and range them
in little heaps againft each other on a piece of new
buckram fprinkled with emery dull. The needles thus
difpofed, emery-duft is thrown over them, which is
again fprinkled with oil of olives 5 at laft the whole is
made up into a roll, well bound at both ends. This
roll is then laid on a polifhing table, and over it a thick
plank loaded with (tones, which two men work back¬
wards and forwards a day and a half, or two days,
fucCe(lively } by which means the roll thus continually
agitated by the weight and motion of the plank over
it, the needles withinfide being rubbed againft each
other with oil and emery, are infenfibly polifhed. Af¬
ter poliftiing they are taken out, and the fifth waftied
off them with hot water and foap : they are then wi¬
ped in hot bran, a little moiftened, placed with the
needles in a round box, fufpended in the air by a cord,
which is kept ftirring till the bran and needles be dry.
The needles thus wiped in two or three different brans,
5 B 2 are
Needle.
NEE
Needle.
Plate
CCCLXIX.
fa. i.
are taken out and put in wooden veflels, to have the
good feparated from thofe whofe points or eyes have
been broken either in poliiliing or wiping ; the points
are then all turned the fame way, and fmoothed with
an emery done turned with a wheel. This operation
finilhes them, and there remains nothing but to make
them into packets of 250 each. Needles were firft
made in England by a native of India, in 1545, but the
art was loft at his death ; it was, however, recovered by
Chriftopher Greening in 1560, who was fettled with
his three children, Elizabeth, John, and Thomas, by
Mr Damar, anceftor of the prefent Lord Milton, at
Long Crendon in Bucks, where the manufa&ory has
been carried on from that time to this prefent day.
Dipping-NeEDLE, or Inchnatory Need/e, a magnetical
needle, fo hung, as that, inftead of playing horizontally,
and pointing out north and fouth, one end dips, or in¬
clines to the horizon, and the other points to a certain
degree of elevation above it.
The dipping-needle was invented in the year 1576,
by one Robert Norman, a compafs-maker at Wapping.
The occafton of the difcovery, according to his own ac¬
count, was, that it being his cuftom to finifti and hang
the needles of his compaffes before he touched them, he
always found, that immediately after the touch, the
north-point would bend or incline downward, under the
horizon •, infomuch that, to balance the .needle again,
he w as always forced to put a piece of wax on the fouth
end as a counterpoife. The conftancy of this effedh
led him at length to obferve the precife quantity of the
dip, or to meafure the greateft angle which the needle
would make with the horizon 5 and this at London he
found to be 710 50'. In 1723 Mr Graham made a
great many obfervations on the dipping-needle, and
tound the angle to be between 74 and 75 degrees.
Mr Nairne, in 1772 found it to be fomewhat above
7 2°. It is not certain whether the dip varies, as well
as the horizontal dire&ion, in the fame place. The
trifling difference between Mr Norman and Mr Nairne
would lead us to imagine that the dip was unalterable ;
but Mr Graham, who was a very accurate obferver,
makes the difference more confiderable. It is certain,
however, from a great number of experiments and ob¬
fervations, that the dip is variable in different latitudes,
and that it increafes in going northwards. It appears
from a table of obfervations made with the marine dip¬
ping-needle in a voyage towards the north pole in 1733,
that in lat. 60. 18. the dip was 750; and in lat. 70. 45.
it was 770 52'; in lat. 80. 12. it was 8i° 52'; and in
lat. 80. 27. it was 82° 2i'.
Several authors have endeavoured to apply this dif¬
covery of the dip to the finding of the latitude ; and
Mr Bond attempted to apply it to the finding of the
longitude alfo 5 but for wmnt of obfervations and ex¬
periments he could not make any progrefs. The af¬
fair w'as farther profecutcd by Mr Whifton, who pub-
lithed a treatife on the longitude, and for fome time
imagined it was poflible to find it exadtly by means of
the dip of the needle ; yet he at laft defpaired of it, for
the following reafons ^ 1. The weaknefs of the magne¬
tic power. 2. The concuflion of the (hip, which he
found it exceedingly difficult to avoid fo much as was
neceffary for the accuracy of the experiments. 3. The
principal obje&ion was an irregularity in the motions
of all magnetic needles, both horizontal and dipping,
[ 748 ]
NEE
by which they, within the compafs of about a degree Needle,
vary uncertainly backward and forward j even fome- v—•*
times in a few hours time, without any evident caufe.
hor a particular account of thefe variations, both of
the horizontal and dipping needle, fee the article Va¬
riation.
Mr Nairne made a dipping needle in 1772 for the
Board of Longitude, which was ufed in the voyage
towards the north pole. This is reprefented at fig. 2. fig. 2.
1 he needle A A is 12 inches long, and its axis, the
ends BB of which are made of gold, alloyed with cop¬
per, refts on fridion wheels CCCC, of four inches
diameter, each end on two friftion wheels} which
wheels are balanced with great care. The ends of the
axis of the fridion wheels are likewife of gold alloyed
with copper, and moved in fmall holes made in bell
metal; and opposite to the ends of the axes of the
needle and the fridion wheels, are flat agates, fet in
at DDD, finely poliffied. The magnetic needle vi¬
brates within a circle of bell metal, EEE, divided in¬
to degrees and half degrees j and a line, paffing through
the middle of the needle to the ends, points to the divi-
fions. The needle of this inftrument was balanced be¬
fore it was made magnetical ; but by means of a crofs,
the ends of which are FFFF, (contrived by the re¬
verend Mr Mitchell) fixed on the axis of the needle,
on the arms of which are cut very fine fcrews to receive
Imall buttons, that may be fcrewed nearer or farther
fiom the axis, the needles may be adjufted both wrays to
a great nicety, after being made magnetical, by rever.
fing the poles, and changing the fides of the needle.
GG are two levels, by which the line of o degrees of
the inftrument is fet horizontal, by means of the four
adjufting fcrews LLLL ; H is the perpendicular axis,
by which the inftrument may be turned, that the di¬
vided face of the circle may front the eaft or weft ;
to this axis may be fixed an index I, which points to an
oppofite line on the horizontal plate K when the in¬
ftrument is turned half round 5 MMMM are fcrews
which hold the glafs cover to keep the needle from
being difturbed by the wind. When this needle is
confti lidded for lea, it is fufpended by an univerfal
joint on a triangular Hand, and adjufted vertically by
a plumb line and button above the divided circle and
the dovetail work at the upper 90 ; and the divifions
on the circle are adjufted fo as to be perpendicular to
the horizon by the fame plumb line, and an adjoining
fcrew $ and when it is adjufted, a pointer annexed to a
fcrew, which ferves to move the divided circle, is fixed
at the low eft 90. Whenever the inftrument is ufcd to
find the dip, it muft be fo placed that the needle may
vibrate exadlly in the magnetic meridian.
Magnetical NEEDLE, in Navigation, a needle touched
with a loadftone, and fuftained on a pivot or centre j
on. which playing at liberty, it direfts itfelf to certain
points in or under the horizon 5 whence the magneti¬
cal needle is of two kinds, viz. horizontal or inclinatory.
See the article Magnet.
Horizontal needles are thofe equally balanced on each
fide of the pivot that fuftains them, and which, playing
horizontally with their two extremes, point out the nort h
and fouth points of the horizon. For their application
and ufe, fee the article Compass.
In the conftruftion of the horizontal needle, a pieco
of pure ft eel is provided j of a length not exceeding fix
inches.
NEE [ 749
Needle, inclies, left its weight Ihould impede its volubility : fea.
—v—^ very thin, to take its verticity the better j and_ not
pierced with any holes, or the like, for ornament take,
which prevent the equable diitufion of the magnetic
virtue. A perforation is then made, in the middle of
its length, and a brafs cap or head foldered on, whofe
inner cavity is conical, fo as to play freely on a ityle
or pivot headed with a fine Heel point. Ihe north
point of the needle in our hemifphere is made a little
lighter than the fouthern 5 the touch always deftroying
the balance, if well adjufted before, and rendering the
north end heavier than the fouth, and thus occafioning
the needle to dip.
The method of giving the needle its verticity or di-
re&ive faculty has been ftiown already under the ar¬
ticle Magnet •, but if, after touching, the needle be
out of its equilibrium, fomething muft be filed off from
the heavier fide, till it balance evenly.
Needles in fea compaffes are ufually made of a rhom-
boidal or oblong form •, we have given their llruCture
already under the article Compass.
The needle is not found to point pre<?ifely to the
north, except in very few places j but deviates fiom it
more or lefs in different places, and that too at differ¬
ent times ^ which deviation is called its decimation or
-variation from the meridian. See the article Varia-
TtON. , ,
Surgeons NEEDLES are generally made crooked, and
their points triangular ; however, they are of different
forms and fizes, and bear different names, according to
the purpofes they are ufed for.
The largeft are needles for amputation ; the next,
needles for wounds ; the fineft, needles for futures.
They have others, very ftiort and flat,, for tendons ;
others, itill fliorter, and the eye placed in the middle,
for tying together of veffels, &.c. Needles for couch¬
ing catarafts are of various kinds j all of which have
a Snail, broad, and ftiarp point or tongue, and fome
with a fulcus at the point. Surgeons have fometimes
ufed two needles in this operation 5 one with a inarp
point for perforating the coats of the eye, and another
with a more obtufe point for deprefling or couching
the opaque cryftalline lens } but care ffiould be taken
in the ufe of any of thefe, that they be firft well po-
liflied with cloth or leather, before they are applied to
the eye.
Mr Warner obferves, that the blade of the couching
needle ffiould be at leaft a third part larger than thofe
generally ufed upon this occafion, as great advantages
will be found in the deprefling of the catarafl, by the
increafed breadth of the blade of that inffrument.
The handle, alfo, if made fomewhat fliorter than
ufual, will* enable the operator to perform with greater
fteadinefs than he can do with a larger handled inftru-
ment.
It is to be obferved, that needles of filver pierce
more eafily in Hitching arteries after an amputation,
than thofe made of Heel.
Needle Fijh. See Syngnathus, Ichthyology
Index.
Needles, fliarp pointed rocks north of the Hie of
Wight. They are fituated at the weftern extremity of
the ifland, 'which is an acute point of high land, from
which they have been disjoined by the waffling of the
] NEC
There were of thefe lofty white rocks formerly
three, but about 14 years ago the talleH of them, call¬
ed Lot's Wife, which rofe 120 feet above low water
mark, and in its ffiape refembling a needle, being un¬
dermined by the conflant efforts of the waves, was
thrown down, and totally difappeared.
NEEDS, or St Neots, fix miles from Huntingdon,.
58 miles from London, fo called from the monument of
a faint of that name in it, who was burnt by the Danes,
is a large well built town, having a handfome ffrong
church, with a very fine Heeple, and a Hone bridge over
the Oufe.
NEEDWOOD forest, in Staffordftiire, between
the Trent, Dove, and Blythe, and near Utoxeter, is
faid to exceed all the foreffs in England in the excel¬
lence of its foil and the finenefs of its turf.
NE EXEAT REGNO, in Law, is a writ to re-
Hrain a perfan from going out of the kingdom with¬
out the king’s licenfe. F. N. B. 85. It may be di-
redled to the flieriff, to make the party find furety that
he will not depart the realm, and on refufal to com¬
mit him to prifon : or it may be diredled to the party
himfelf *, and if he then goes, he may be fined. And
this writ is granted on a fuit being commenced againff
a man in the chancery, when the plaintiff fears the de¬
fendant will fly to fome other country j and. thereby
avoid the juHice and equity of the court j which hath
been fometimes praftifed : and when thus granted, the
party mufl give bonds to the mafler of the rolls, in the
penalty of 1000I. or fome other large fum, for yielding
obedience to it j or fatisfy the court, by anfwrer,. affida¬
vit, or otherwife, that he hath no defign of leaving the
kingdom, and give fecurity.
NEFASTI dies, in Roman antiquity, an appella¬
tion given to thofe days wherein it was not allowed to
adminifter juHice, or hold courts. They were fo called
becaufe, non fan hcebat, the praetor was not allowed to
pronounce the three folemn words or formulas of the
law, do, dico, addico, I give, I appoint, I adjudge. Thefe
davs were diffinguiihed in the calendar by the letter N.
for nefafus ; or N. P. Nefafus Primo, when the day
was only nefafus in the forenoon, or firff part. Fhe
days of a mixed kind were called intercifi.
NEGAPATAN, a town of Afia, in the peninfula
on this fide the Ganges, and on the coaff of Coroman¬
del. It was firff a colony of the Portuguefe, but was
taken from them by the Dutch, and now forms part of
the Britifti territory. It is fituated in E. Long. 79. 10.,
N. Lat. 11. 1 5.
NEGATION, in Logic, an aft of the mind affirm¬
ing one thing to be different from another 5 as that the
foul is not matter. See Logic.
NEGATIVE, in general, fomething that implies a
negation : thus we fay, negative quantities, negative
powers, negative figns, &c. .
NEGATIVE Sign. The ufe of the negative fign, in
alo-ebra, is attended with feveral confequences that at
fiidt fight are admitted with difficulty, and has fome¬
times given occafion to notions that feem to have no
real foundation. This fign implies, that the real va¬
lue of the quantity reprefented by the letter to which
it is prefixed is to be fubtra&ed •, and it ferves, with
the pofitive fign, to keep in view what, elements or
parts enter into the compofition of quantities, and in
1 what
Needle
11
Negative.
N E G [ 750 ] N E
As|ns1VC •manTr,1 wh.etl)er as. increments or decrements, ftrated without it by the inverfe
(that is, whether by addition or fubtiaflion), which is
G
of the greatert ufe in this art.
In confequence of this, it ferves to exprefs a quan¬
tity of an oppofite quality to the pofitive, as a line in
a contrary pofition j a motion with an opposite direc¬
tion •, or a centrifugal force in oppofition to gravity j
and thus often laves the trouble of diftinguifhing and
demonftrating feparately, the various cafes of propor¬
tions, and preferves their analogy in view. But as
the proportions of lines depend on their magnitude
only, without regard to their polition, and motions
and forces are faid to be equal, or unequal, in any gi¬
ven ratio, without regard to their direflions ; and, in
general, the proportion of quantity relates to their
magnitude only, without determining whether they are
to be confidered as increments or decrements j fo there
is no ground to imagine any other proportion of —b
and -f o (or of —1 and 1) than that of the real mag¬
nitudes ot the quantities reprefented by b and a, w'hether
thefe quantities are, in any particular cafe, to be added
or fubtradled. It is the fame thing to fubtradl the de¬
crement, as to add an equal increment, or to fubtradf
•——b from a—b, as to add to it : and becaufe mul¬
tiplying a quantity by a negative number implies only
a repeated fubtra&ion of it, the multiplying b by
——is fubtrafting —b as often as there are units in
7? / and is therefore equivalent to adding ~\~b fo many
times, or the fame as adding -f« b. But if we infer
-uom this, that 1 is to —n as —b to fib, according to
the rule, that unit is to one of the faftors as the other
faftor is to the produft, there is no ground to imagine,
that there is any myftery in this, or any other meaning
than that the real magnitudes reprefented by \ n b
is .*> ^ •» the ^r'« o"
Negro.
operation, or fome Negative
other way ; and though fuch fymbols are of fome ufe
in the computations by the method of fluxions, its evi¬
dence cannot be faid to depend upon arts of this kind i
oee Algebra and Fluxions.
Negative EleBricity. See the article Electri-
CITY, P°$m- See alio Positive Eietfricitv
NEGINOTH. This,term is read bef^ fome of
the Plalms, as Pfalm Ixvn. It fignifies JMntr inflru-
ments of muftc, to be played on by the finger,, 01r wo¬
men muficians j and the titles of thefe Pfalms where
this word is found, may be thus tranflated, A pfalm of
David to the mafer of mafic, who preftdes over the firirr
injlruments. • s
NEGOMBO, a fea port town of Afia, on the weft
craft of Ceylon. It has a fort built by the Portimuefe
which was taken from them by the Dutch in 1640
E. Eong. 80. 25. N. Lat. 17. o.
the^ndH*Oa™£ ^ m°ft "'eflelly
NEGRO, Homo pelli nigra, a name given to a
variety of the human fpecies, who are entirely black
and are found in the torrid zone, efpecially in that
part of Africa which lies within the tropics. In the
complexion of Negroes we meet with many various
ihades ; but they likewife differ far from other men in
all the features of their face. Round cheeks, hi£h
cheek-bones, a forehead fomewhat elevated, a fliort
broad, flat nofe, thick lips, fmall ears, uglinefs, and
irregularity of ftiape, charafterize their external ap¬
pearance. The negro women have the loins greatly de-
prefled, and very large buttocks, which gives the back
the fliape of a faddle. Vices the moft notorious feem
to be the portion of this unhappy race ; idlenefs, trea¬
chery, revenge, cruelty, impudence, dealing, lying,
added or fubtrafted. 'But this likewife muft be deter¬
mined in algebraic computations ; and this is the pro¬
per ufe of the rules concerning the figns, without which
the operation could not proceed. Becaufe a quantity
to be fubtrafted is never produced in compofition by
any repeated addition of a pofitive, or repeated fub-
traftion of a negative, a negative fquare number is
never produced by compofition from the root. Hence
or the fquare root of a negative, implies an ima
a/ —1
gmary quantity ; and in refolution, is a mark or cha-
rafter of the impoffible cafes of a problem, unlefs it is
compenfated by another imaginary fymbol or fuppofi-
tion, when the whole expreftion may have a real fig-
nification. Thus and 1—taken
ieparately, are imaginary, but their fum is 2 j as the
conditions that feparately would render the folution of
a problem impoffible, in fome cafes deftroy each others
effeft when conjoined. In the purfuit of general con-
clufions, and of fimple forms reprefenting them, ex-
preftions of this kind muft fometimes arife where the
imaginary fymbol is compenfated in a manner that is
not always fo obvious.
By proper fubftitutions, however, the expreflion may
be transformed into another^ wherein each particular
term may have a real fignification as well as the whole
expreflion. The theorems that are fometimes briefly
difcovered by the ufe of this fymbol, may be demon¬
and to have filenced the reproofs of confidence. They
are firangers to every fentiment of compaflion, and are
a? example of the corruption of man when left to
himielf.
The origin of the negroes, and the caufe of their
remarkable difference from the reft of the human fpe¬
cies, has much perplexed the naturalifts. Mr Boyle
has obferved, that it cannot be produced by the hea*
ofthe climate: for though the heat of the fun may
darken the colour of the fkin, yet experience does not-
ihow that it is fufficient to produce a new blacknefs like
that ot the negroes.
In Africa itfelf, many nations of Ethiopia are not
wn ’T T WT there ^ blacks originally in the
W eft Indies In many parts of Afia under the fame
parallel with the African region inhabited by the
blacks, the people are but tawney. He adds, that there
are negroes m Africa beyend the fouthern tropic ; and
that a rivet fometimes parts nations, one of which is
black, and the other only tawney. Dr Barriere alleges
that the gall of negroes is black, and being mixed
with them blood is depofited between the fkin and
PK-f?11' 1H:;Wevrer’.Dr Mitchell of Virginia, in the
Philofopnical Franfaftions, N° 476. has endeavoured
by many learned, arguments to prove, that the influ-
f"ce ',th.e fu,n f hot countries, and the manner of
life of their inhabitants, are the remote caufes of the
colour of the negroes, Indians, &c. Lord Karnes,
on
Negro.
—■’■V—
N E G [75
on the other hand, and fuch philofophers as he, whole
genius and imagination are too lively to lu'omit to a
dry and painful inveiligation of fafts, have contended
that no phyfical caufe is fufficient to change the
colour, and what we call the regular features of white
men, to the dark hue and deformity of the woolly¬
headed negro. Their arguments have been examined
with much acutenefs and ingenuity by Dr Stanhope
Smith of New Jerfey, Dr Hunter, and Proieifor
Zimmerman, who have made it in a high degree pro¬
bable, that the aftion ot the fun is the original and
chief caufe of the black colour, as well as diilorted
features of the negro. See America, N° 48—51. and
Complexion.
True negroes are found in no quarter of the globe
where the heat of the climate is not very great.^ .they
exilf noAvhere but in the torrid zone, and only in three
regions lituated in that zone, viz. in Senegal, jn Guinea,
and on the wellern {bores of Africa, in Nubia, and the
Papous land, or what is called New Guinea. In all
thefe regions the atmofphere is feorching, and the heat
exceffive. J. he inhabitants of the north are whiteft ,
and as we advance fouthwards towards the line, and
thofe countries on which the fun’s rays fall more per¬
pendicularly, the complexion gradually aflumes a dark¬
er (hade. And the fame men, whofe colour has been
rendered black by the powerful aflion of the fun, if
they remove to the north, gradually become whiter (at
lead their poderity), and lofe their burnt colour.
Whites when tranfported into the burning regions of
the torrid zone, are the fird fubject to fever j the fkin
of the face, hands, and feet, becomes burnt, hardens
and falls off in feales. Hitherto the colour of negroes
appears to be only local, extrinfic, and accidental, and
their diort frizzled and fparfe hair is to be accounted
for in the very fame manner.
Climate pofleffes great and evident influences on the
hair, not only of men, but of all other animals. If in
one cafe thefe tranfmutations are acknowledged^ to be
confident with identity of kind, they ought not in the
other to be edeemed criterions ofdiflerent fpecies. Na¬
ture has adapted the pliancy of her work to the fitua-
tions in which die may require it to be placed. The
beaver and flieep removed to the warm latitudes ex¬
change, the one its fur, and the other its wool, for a
coarfe hair that preferves the animal in a more moderate
temperature. The coarfe and black ihag of the bear is
converted, in the arctic regions, into the fined and
whited fur. The colour of the hair is likewife changed
by climate. The bear is white under the ar£tic circle j
and, in high northern latitudes, foxes, hares, and rabbits,
are found white. Similar effects of climate are difeern-
ible on mankind. The hair of the Danes is generally
red j of the Englidi, fair or brown j and of the French,
commonly black. I he hair of all people of colour is
black, and that of the African negroes is likewife fparfe
and curled in a manner peculiar to themfelves j but this
peculiarity is analogous to the effe£! which a warm cli¬
mate has on almod every other animal. Cold, by ob-
drufting the perfpiration, tends to throw out the per-
fpirable matter accumulated at the fkin in an additional
coat, of hair. A warm climate, by opening the pores,
evaporates this matter before it can be concreted into
the fubdance of hair ; and the laxnefs and aperture of
the pores render the hair liable to be eafily eradica-
1 ] NEC
ted by innumerable incidents. Its curl may refult
in part from the nature of the fecretion by which it is ^
nouriihed, and in part from external heat. That it
depends in fome degree on the quality of the fecretion
is rendered highly probable from its appearance on the
chin and other parts of the human body. Climate is as
much didinguidred by the nature and proportion of the
fecretions as by the degree of heat. (See Physiolo¬
gy, fe£t. 6.). Whatever be the nutriment of the hair,
it is evidently combined in the torrid zone of Africa
with fome fluid of a highly volatile or ardent quality,
which produces the rank fmell of many African nations.
Saline fecretions tend to curl and to burn the hair. The
evaporation of any volatile fpirit would render its fur-
face dry and difpofed to contrail 5 whilft the centre con¬
tinuing diitended by the vital motion, thefe oppofite
dilatations and contractions would neceffarily produce a
curve, and make the hair grow involved. External and
violent heat parching the extremities of the hair, tends
likewife to involve it. A hair held near the fire in-
ilantly coils itfelf up. Africa is the hotted country on
the globe ^ and the influence of its heat, either external
or internal, or both, in giving the peculiar form to the
hair of the natives, appears, not only from its fparfenefs
and its curl, but from its colour. It is not of a ihining,
but of an aduft black j and its extremities tend to
brown, as if it had been fcorched by the fire.
The peculiarities of the negro features and form may
likewife be accounted for from the exceflive heat of the
climate and the date of African fociety. Being fava-
ges, they have no arts to protect them from the rays of
a burning fun. The heat and ferenity of the fley pre-
ferving the lives of the children without much care of
the parents, they feem of courfe to be, in the interior
parts of the country, negligent of their offspring. Able
themfelves to endure the extremes of that ardent climate,
they inure their children to it from their mod tender
age. They differ them to roll in the dud and land be¬
neath the direct rays of a vertical fun. The mother,
if (he be engaged, lays down the infant on the fird fpot
die finds, and is feldom at the pains to feek the mifer-
able {belter of a barren ihrub, which is all that the in¬
terior country affords. When we reflect on the influ¬
ence of a glare of light upot) the eye, and on the con¬
tortions of countenance produced by our efforts to re¬
pel or prevent it, we need not wonder, that the pliant
features of a negro infant fhould, by condant expofure,
acquire that permanent irregularity which we term their
charadleriltic ugiinels. But befides the climate, food
and clothing and modes of life have prodigious effects
on the human form and features. This is apparent evert
in poliflied focieties, where the poor and labouring part
of the community are much more coarfe in their features,
and ill formed in their limbs, than perfons of better for¬
tune and more liberal means of fubfidence. What an
immenfe difference exids in Scotland, for indance, be¬
tween the chiefs and the commonalty of the Highland
clans ? If they had been feparately found in different
countries, they would have been ranged by fame philo¬
fophers under different fpecies. A fimilar didinclion
takes place between the nobility and peafantry of
France, of Spain, of Italy, and of Germany.
That food and clothing, and the different modes of
life, have as great an influence upon the ftiapes and fea¬
tures of the Africans as upon the natives of Europe, is
evident.
Negro.
Negro.
N EG t 75
^ evident from the different appearances of the negroes in
the fouthern republics of America according to the fla-
tions in which they are employed. “ The field Haves
(fays JDr Smith) are badly fed, clothed, and lodged.
Ihey live in fmall huts on the plantations, where they
labour, remote from the fociety and example of their
fuperiors. Living by themfelves, they retain many of
the cuftoms and manners of their African anceftors.
The domeflic fervants, on the other hand, who are kept
near the perfons, or employed in the families of their
mailers, are treated with great lenity j their ferviee is
light ; they are fed and clothed like their fuperiors ;
they fee their manners, adopt their habits, and infenfibly
receive the fame ideas of elegance and beauty. The
field Haves are, in confequence, How in changing the
afpedt and figure of Africa. The domeilic fervants
have advanced far before them in acquiring the agree¬
able and regular features, and the expreflive countenance
of civil fociety. The former are frequently ill-fhaped.
Ihey preferve, in a great degree, the African lips,
nofe, and hair. Their genius is dull, and their coun¬
tenance Heepy and ilupid. The latter are flraight and
well proportioned ; their hair extended to three, four,
and fometimes even to fix or eight inches; the fize and
fliape of the mouth handfome* their features regular,
•their capacity good, and their look animated.”
Upon the whole, we hope that the reader, who fhall
candidly weigh in his own mind what we have faid at
prefent and under the article Complexion, will agree
with us, that the black, colour in the torrid zone, the
fparfe crifp hair of the negroes, and the peculiarities of
their features and form, proceed from caufes altogether
extrinfic 5 that they depend on local temperature and the
ilate of fociety ; and that they are as accidental as the
various fhades of colour which charaflerize the different
nations of Europe. If the w hites be confidered as the
flock whence all others have fprung, it is eafy to con¬
ceive how they have degenerated into negroes. Some
have conjectured that the complete change may have
taken place at the end of three centuries, whilfl others
have thought that it could not be effefted in lefs than
double that period. Such conjectures can be formed
from no certain data ; and a much greater length of
time is undoubtedly neceflary before negroes, w'hen
tranfplanted into our temperate countries, can entirely
lofe their black colour. By crofling the breed with
whites, every taint of the negro colour may be expelled
we believe, from the fifth generation (a).
But the moll ferious charge brought againfl the
poor negroes is, that of the vices faid to be natural
2 1 N E G
to them. If they be, indeed, fuch as their enemies Negro.
reprefent them, treacherous, cruel, revengeful, and 
intemperate, by a neceflity of nature, they muft be a
different race from the whites ; for though all thefe
vices abound in Europe, it is evident that they proceed
not from nature, bui from wrong education, which
gives to the youthful mind fuch deep impreffions as no
future exertions can completely eradicate. Let us in¬
quire coolly if the vices of the negroes may not have a
fimilar origin.
In every part of Africa with which the nations of
Europe have any commerce, Havery prevails of the
woril kind. Three fourths of the people are Haves to
the reft, and the children are born to no other inherit-
Moft parts of the coaft differ in their go-Edwards't
ance.
vernments 5 fome are abfolnte monarchies, whilft others H‘flory of
draw near to an ariftocracy. In both the authority oithe Wefi
the chief or chiefs is unlimited, extending to life, and it in
is exercifed as often as criminal cafes require, unlefs
death is commuted into Havery ; in which cafe the of¬
fender is fold, and if the Hupping will not buy the cri¬
minal, he is immediately put to death. Fathers of free
condition have power to fell their children, but this
pow'er is very feldom enforced. In Congo, however,
a father f will fell a fon or daughter, or perhaps both, f Mod.
for a piece of cloth, a collar or girdle of coral or beads, Univer.
and often for a bottle of wine or brandy. A hufband
may have as many wives as he pleafes, and repudiate orp”^111’
even fell them, though with child, at his pleafure. The * ’
wives and concubines, though it be a capital crime for
the former to break the conjugal faith, have a way to
rid themfelves of their hufhands, if they have fet their
affections upon a new gallant, by accufing them of
fome crime for which the punifhment is death. In a
word, the bulk of the people in every ftate of Africa
are born Haves to great men, reared as fuch, held as
property, and as property fold (fee Slavery). There Edwards'3
are indeed many circumftances by which a free man Ht.fiory °f
may become a Have : fuch as being ih debt, and not
able to pay $ and in fome of fuch cafes, if the debt be
large, not only the debtor, but his family likewufe, be¬
come the Haves of his creditor, and may be fold. A-
dultery is commonly puniflied in the fame manner, both
the offending parties being fold, and the purchafe-mo-
ney paid to the injured hulband. Obi, or pretended
witchcraft (in which all the negroes firmly believe, fee
Witchcraft), is another, and a very common offence,
for which Havery is adjudged the lawful punilhment j
and it extends to all the family of the offender. There
are various other crimes which fubjeft the offender and
his
(a) 1. A white man with a negro woman, or a negro man with a white woman, produce a mulatto, half white
and half black, or of a yellow-blackilh colour, with black, fhort, frizzled hair. 2. A white man with a mulatto
woman, or a negro with a mulatto woman, produce a quadroon, three fourths white and one fourth black, or
three fourths black and one fourth white, or of a lighter yellow than the former. In America, they give the
name of cabres to thofe who are defeended from a black man and a mulatto woman, or a mulatto man and a black
woman, who are three fourths black and one fourth white, and who are not fo black as a negro, but blacker
than a mulatto. 3. A white man with a quadroon woman, or a negro with a quadroon woman, produce a mejli-
’Zo, feven eighths white and one eighth black, or feven eighths black and one eighth white. 4. A white man with
a meftizo woman, or a negro with a meftizo woman, produce, the one almoft a perfe6l white, the other almoft
a perfeft black, called a quinteroon. This is the laft gradation, there being no vifible difference between the fair
quinteroons and the whites: and the children of a white and quinteroon confider themfelves as free from all taint
-of the negro race.
N E G [7
his children to be fold ; and it is more than probable,
that if there were no buyers, the poor wretches would
be murdered without mercy.
In fuch a date of fociety, what difpofitions can be
looked for in the people, but cruelty, treachery, and
revenge ? Even in the civilized nations of Europe,
bleffed with the lights of law, fcience, and religion,
fome of the lower orders of the community confider it
as a very trivial crime to defraud their fuperiors j whilft
aim oil all look up to them with llupid malevolence or
rancorous envy. That a depreffed people, when they
get power into their hands, are revengeful and cruel,
the prefent age affords a dreadful proof in the conduct
of the demagogues of a neighbouring nation ; and is it
wonderful that the negroes of Africa, unacquainted
with moral principles, blinded by the cruelleil and molt
abfurd fuperftitions, and whofe cuftoms tend to eradi¬
cate from the mind all natural affection, fhould fome-
times difplay to their lordly mailers of European ex¬
tradition the fame fpirit that has been fo generally dif-
played by the lower orders of Frenchmen to their ec-
clefiaftics, their nobles, and the family of their murder¬
ed fovereign ! When rve confider that the majority of
the negroes groan under the cruelleil ilavery, both in
their own country, and in every other where they are
to be found in confiderable numbers, it can excite no
furprife that they are in general treacherous, cruel, and
vindidlive. Such are the caprices of their tyrants at
home, that they could not preferve their own lives or
the lives of their families for any length of time, but by
a perpetual vigilance, which mull neceffarily degene¬
rate, fir it into cunning, and afterwards into treachery $
and it is not conceivable that habits formed in Africa
fftould be inilantly thrown off in the Weil Indies, where
they are the property of men whom fome of them muil
confider as a different race of beings.
But the truth is, that the ill qualities of the negroes
have been greatly exaggerated. Mr Edwards, in his
valuable Hillory of the Weft Indies, affures us that the
Mandingo negroes difplay fuch gentlenefs of difpoft-
tion and demeanour, as would feem the refult of early
education and difcipline, w’ere it not that, generally
fpeaking, they are more prone to theft than any of the
African tribes. It has been fuppofed that this propen-
fity, among other vices, is natural to a ftate of flavery,
which degrades and corrupts the human mind in a de¬
plorable manner •, but why the Mandxngoes ftiould have
become more vicious in this refpeft than the reft of the
natives of Africa in the fame condition of life, is a que-
flion he cannot anfwer.
The circumftances which (according to the fame
author) diftinguifti the Koromantyn or Gold Coaft ne-
groew from all others, are firmnefs both of body and
mind e, a ferocioufnefs of difpofition j but withal, ac¬
tivity, courage, and a ftubbornnefs, or what an ancient
Roman would have deemed an elevation of foul, which
prompts them to enterprifes of difficulty and danger,
and enables them to meet death, in its moft horrid
ftjape, with fortitude or indifference. They fometimes
take to labour with great promptitude and alacrity, and
have conftitutions well adapted for itj for many of them
have undoubtedly been Haves in Africa, But as the
Gold Coaft is inhabited by various tribes, which are
engaged in perpetual warfare and hoftility with each
*ther, there cannot be a doubt that many of the captives
Vol. XIV. Part II,
J ] N E G
taken in battle, and fold in the European fettlements,
were of free condition in their native country, and per¬
haps the owners of Haves themfelves. it is not wonder¬
ful that fuch men ftiould endeavour, even by means the
moft defperate, to regain the freedom of which ihey
have been deprived j nor do I conceive that any further
circumftances are neceffary to prompt them to adtion,
than that of being fold into captivity in a diilant coun¬
try. One cannot furely but lament (fays our author)
that a people thus naturally intrepid, thouid be lunk
into fo deplorable a ftate of barbarity and luperftition ;
and that their fpirits ftiould ever be broken down by
the yoke of flavery. Whatever may be alleged con¬
cerning their ferocioufnefs and implacability in their
prefent notions of right and wrong, I am perluaded that
they poffefs qualities which are capable of, and well de-
ferve, cultivation and improvement.
“ Very different from the Koromantyns are the ne¬
groes imported from the Bight of Benin, and known
in the Weft Indies by the name of Eboes. So great
is their conftitutional timidity and defpondency of mind,
as to oecafion them very frequently to leek, in a vo¬
luntary death, a refuge from their own melancholy re¬
flexions. They require therefore the gentleft and
mildeft treatment to reconcile them to their fituation ;
but if their confidence be once obtained, they manifeft
as great fidelity, affeXion, and gratitude, as can rea-
fonably be expeXed from men in a ftate of Havery.
The females of this nation are better labourers than the
men, probably from having been more hardly treated
in Africa.
“ The natives of Whidah, who, in the Weft Indies,
are generally called Papaws, are unqueftionably the molt
docile and belt difpofed Haves that are imported from
any part of Africa. Without the fierce and favage
manners of the Koromantyn negroes, they are alfo
happily exempt from the timid and defponding temper
of the Eboes. The cheerful aequiefcence with which
thefe people apply to the labours of the field, and their
conftitutional aptitude for fuch employment, arife, with¬
out doubt, from the great attention paid to agriculture
in their native country. Bofman Ipeaks with rapture
of the improved ftate of the foil, the number of villages,
and the induftry, riches, and obliging manners of the
natives. He obferves, however, that they are much
greater thieves than thofe of the Gold Coaft, and very
unlike them in another refpeX, namely, in the dread
of pain, and the apprehenfion of death. They are,
fays he, fo very apprehenfive of death, that they are
unwilling to hear it mentioned, for fear that alone
fhould haften their end ; and no man dares to fpeak of
death in the prefence of the king, or any great man,
under the penalty of fuffering it himfelf, as a punifhment
for his prefumption. He relates further, that they are
addiXed to gaming beyond any people of Africa. All
thefe propenfities are obferva’ole in the charaXer of the
Papaws in a ftate of Havery in the Weft Indies. That
puniftiment which excites the Koromantyn to rebel,
and drives the Ebo negro to fuicide, is received by the
Papaws as the chaftifement of legal authority, to which
it is their duty to fubmit patiently. The cafe feems to
be, that the generality of thefe people are in a ftate of
abfolute flavery in Africa, and, having been habituated
to a life of labour, they fubmit to a change of fituation
with little reluXance.”
$ C Having
Negro.
Ne^ro.
N E G
^ Having' recited filch obfervatitas as occurred to him
on contemplating the various tribes of negroes from each
other, Mr Edwards thus eflimates their general charac¬
ter, influenced as they are by circumflances which loon
efface the native and original impreflions which diitin-
guifh one nation from another when newly imported
into the Weft Indies.
Notwithftanding what has been related of the firm-
nefs and courage of the natives of the Gold Coaft, it is
certain that the negroes in general in our iflands (fuch
of them at leaft as have been any length of time in a
ftate of fervitude) are of a diftruftful and cowardly dif-
pofition. So degrading is the nature of flavery, that
fortitude of mind is loft as free agency is reftrained.
3. o the fame caufe probably muft be imputed their pro-
penfity to conceal or violate the truth 5 which is fo
general, that the vice of falfehood is one of the moft
prominent features in their chara&er. If a negro is
aiked even an indifferent queftion by his mafter, he fel-
dom gives an immediate reply ; but, affecting not to
underftand what is faid, compels a repetition of the
queftion, that he may have time to confider, not what
is the true anfwer, but what is the moft politic one for
him to give. Ehe pronenefs obfervable in many of them
to the vice of theft has already been noticed ; and I am
afraid (fays our author), that evil communication makes
it almoft general. It is eafy matter, I confefs, to
difcriminate thofe circumftances which are the refult of
proximate caufes, from thofe whicli are the effe&s of
national cuftoms and early habits in favage life j but I am
afraid that cowardice and diftimulation have been the
properties of flavery in all ages, and will continue to be
fo to the end of the world. It is a fituation that necef-
farily fuppreffes many of the belt affe&ions of the human
Heart.—If it calls forth any latent virtues, they are
thofe of Sympathy and compaflion towards perfons in
the fame condition of life j and accordingly we find
that the negroes in general are ftrongly attached to
their countrymen, but above all, to fuch of their com¬
panions as came in the fame, fhip with them from Afri¬
ca. This is a ftriking circumftance : the term Jhipmate
is underftood among them as fignifying a relationfhip
of the moft endearing nature 5 perhaps as recalling the
time when the fufferers were cut off together from their
Common country and kindred, and awakening recipro¬
cal fympathy from the remembrance of mutual afflic¬
tion. But their benevolence, with a very few excep¬
tions, extends no further. The fofter virtues are fel-
dom found in the bofom of the enflaved African. Give
him fufficient authority, and he becomes the moft re-
morfelefs of tyrants. Of all the degrees of wretched- •
nefs endured by the fons of men, the greateft, affured-
ly, is the mifery which is felt by thofe who are unhap¬
pily doomed to be the flaves of flaves ; a moft unnatural
relation, which fometimes takes place in the fugar
plantations. T he fame obfervation may be made con¬
cerning their condufr towards the animal creation.
Their treatment of cattle under their direftion is brutal
beyond belief. Even the ufeful and focial qualities of
the dog fecure to him no kind ufage from an African
mafter. One of the moft pleafing traits in their charac¬
ter is the refpeft and attention which they pay to their
aged countrymen. The whole body of negroes on a
plantation muft be reduced to a deplorable ftate of
wretchednefs, if at any time, they fuffer their aged
5
C 754 ]
N E G
companions to want the common neceffaries of life, or Negro,
even many of its comforts, as far as they can procure Negreknd,
them. They feem to be actuated on thefe occafions by
a kind of involuntary impulfe, operating as a primitive
law of nature, which fcorns to wait the cold dictates of
reafon : among them, it is the exercife of a common
duty, which courts no obfervation, and looks for no
applaufe.”
As the colour and features, and moral qualities of
the negroes, may be thus eafily accounted for by the in¬
fluence of climate and the modes of favage life, fo there
is good reafon to believe that their intelleitual endow¬
ments are equal to thofe of the whites who have been
found in the fame circumftances. Of thofe imitative
arts in which perfeftion can be attained only in an im¬
proved ftate of fociety, it is natural to fuppofe that they
have but little knowledge j but the fabric and colours
of the Guinea cloths are a proof of their native inge¬
nuity. In the Weft Indies many of them are expert
carpenters, fome watchmakers, and one or two have
fuceefsfully prattifed phylic } while others have figured
both in Latin and Englilh poetry, fo that we cannot
doubt but that “ God, who made the world, hath made
of one blood all nations of men,” and animated them
with minds equally rational.
NEGROLAND, or Nigritia, a country of Afri-
ca, lying next to Guinea towards the north, and ex¬
tending from 18° of weft to 230 of eaft longitude,
and from 90 to 20° of north latitude. On the north
it is bounded by Zaara or the Delert; on the eaft, by
countries unknown *, on the fouth, by Guinea ; and on
the rveft, by the Atlantic ocean ; and is watered by
the great river Niger or Senegal, which runs through
it from eaft to weft. The Europeans have fettlements
on the coafts of this country, efptcially near the
mouths of the Niger and Gambia, which laft is fup.
pofed to be a branch of the former. A great many
nations inhabit the banks of the rivers ; fome Pagans,
fome Mohammedans, of different languages, and inde¬
pendent of one another. The country is fruitful, efpe-
cially along the rivers; abounding in rice, Guinea
grain, and Indian corn, where it is cultivated ; and
with cocoa nuts, plantains, pulfe, palm trees, and tro¬
pical fruits ; nor is it deftitute of cattle, and a variety
of other animals, particularly fuch as abound in Gui¬
nea. See Guinea.
Negroland is fertilized by the overflowing of its
rivers the Senegal and Gambia, as Egypt is by the
Nile. It hath not yet been afcertained whether the
Gambia is a branch of the Senegal or not. As far
as the Europeans have penetrated up the country, they
appear to be diftinft; and the Mandingo negroes
report that the Gambia has a different origin. The
entrance into the Niger, or Senegal river, is narrow
and fomewhat difficult, by reafon of its immoveable
bar, and Tandy flioals, as well as the feveral iflands at
the mouth of it, and the feveral canals and marflies that
clog it: but after failing up eight or ten leagues, it is
found broad and deep, and fit to carry large veffels; and,
excepting about five or fix leagues on each fide above
the mouth, which is Tandy and barren ground, the
banks are covered with ftately trees and villages, and
the country in general is fertile and well watered j
for, like the Nile, this river overflows its banks for
many leagues, and enriches the land to a great de-
gree,
N E G
[ 755 1
N E H
Kegrolam! gree, tliougli, for want of {kill, the inhabitants do
!1 not reap the advantages which they might obtain from
Nr.gropont. fertiiity. The people on both tides of the river
live as near to it as they can, and feed great herds of
cattle, fowing large and fmall millet, the former of
which is called by us Turkey wheat, in great quantities,
and with great increafe. If the river fails of over¬
flowing at its ufual feafon, a great fcarcity enfues in
the adjacent country •, and, even when it overflows
regularly, it breeds fuch vafl: flights of gr a (hoppers
and infects, as quite darken the air, and frequently
devour the whole produce of the foil: in which cale
the people kill thofe infects and eat them ; which they
do either by pounding in leather bags, and then boil¬
ing them in milk, or which is reckoned the more de¬
licious method, by frying or broiling them over a light
blaze in a fryingpan full of holes. Thus the legs
and wings of the infefts are burnt off, and the reft of
the body is fufficiently roafted to be eaten as a dainty,
which they look upon to be very wholefome and nou-
rifning.
To the eaft, north-eaft, and fouth eaft of the ifland
of Senegal, the country, as far as it is known, is
overrun with woods and marfhes : the Senegal, Gam¬
bia, and Sherbro, which are looked upon by feme as
branches of one immenfe river, palling through it in
their wav to the Atlantic ocean. During the rainy
months, which begin in July, and continue to Oiflo-
ber, they lay the whole country under water •, and in¬
deed the fudden rife of thefe rivers is incredible to fuch
as are not acquainted with the violent rains that fall
between the tropics. At Galam, 900 miles from the
mouth of the Senegal, the waters rife 150 feet per¬
pendicular from the bed of the river. At the iiland of
Senegal, the river rifes gradually, during the rainy
feafon, above 20 feet perpendicular over part of that
flat coaft ; which of itfelf fo freftiens the water, that
fliips lying at anchor, at the diftance of three leagues
from its mouth, generally make ufe of it, and fill their
water there for their voyage home. When the rains are
at an end, which foon happens in 06tober, the intenfe
heat of the fun ufually dries up thofe ftagnating waters
which lie on the higher parts, and the remainder from
lakes and marfhes, in which are found all forts of dead
animals. At laft, thofe too are quite dried up •, and
then the effluvia that arife are almoft quite infupport-
able. At this feafon the winds blow fo hot from the
land, that they may be compared to the heat proceed¬
ing from the mouth of an oven, and they bring with
them an intolerable fmell. The wolves, tigers, lions,
and other wild beafts, then refort to the river, fteep-
ing their body under water, and only their fnout above
it for the fake of breathing. The birds foar to an im¬
menfe height in the air, and fly a vaft way over the
fea, where they continue till the wind changes, and
comes from the weft.
Negroes, White. See Heliophobi and Albino.
NEGROMANCY. See Necromancy.
NEGROPONT, anciently Euboea, an iftand of the
Archipelago, ftretching along the eaftern coaft of
Achaia or Livadia, from which it is feparated by a
narrow channel called the Euripus. This ftrait is fo
narrow, that the ifland is joined to the continent by a
bridge thrown over it; and here, it is thought, there
was formerly an ifthmus. The irregularity of the tides
in the Euripus hath from the remoteft antiquity been Negropont.
very remarkable, and this irregularity is found to be, 'A'^'VA
connected with the age of the moon. From the three
laft days of the old moon to the eighth day of the new
moon, and from the 14th to the 20th day inclufiye,
they are regular ; but on the other days they are ir¬
regular, flowing 12, 13, or 14 times in the fpace of
24 hours, and ebbing as often. I he ifland is 90 miles
long and 25 broad in the wideft part ; and produces
corn, oil, fruit, and cattle, in great abundance. The on¬
ly place in the ifland worth notice is the capital, which
is alfo called Negropont; and which is walled, and con¬
tains about 15,000 inhabitants*, but the Chriftians are
faid to be much more numerous than the Turks. The
captain baflraw, or admiral of Turkey, who is alfo go¬
vernor of the city, the ifland, and the adjacent con¬
tinent of Greece, refides here : and the harbour, which
is very fife and fpacious, is feldom without a fleet of
galleys, ready to be put to fea againft the pirates and
the Maltefe. A part of the bridge between the city and
the coaft of Greece, confifts of a draw bridge no long¬
er than juft to let a galley pafs through.
NEHEMI AH, or Neemias, fon of Hachaliah, was
born at Babylon during the captivity, (Neh. i. 1, 2,
&c.). He was, according to fome, of the race of the
priefts, but according to others, of the tribe of Judah
and the royal family. Thofe who maintain the firft
opinion, fupport it by a paffage in Ezra, (x. 10.) where
he is called a prxeft ; but thofe who believe that he was
of the race of the kings of Judah, fay, ift, That Ne-
hemiah having governed the republic of the Jews for a
eonfiderable time, there is great probability he was of
that tribe of which the kings always were. 2dly, Ne-
hemiah mentions his brethren Hanani, and fome other
Jews, who coming to Babylon during the captivity, ac¬
quainted him with the fad condition of their country.
3dly, The office of cupbearer to the king of Perfia,
to which Nehemiah was promoted, is a further proof
that lie was of an illuftrious family, qthly, He excufes
himfelf from entering into the inner part of the temple,
probably becaufe he was only a laic, (Neh. vi. 11.)
“ Should fuch a man as I flee ? And who is there-
that, being as I am, would go into the temple to lave
his life ?”
The Scripture (Ezra ii. 63. Nehem. vii. 65.) calls
him xnmn tirjhathu, that is to fay, “ cup-bearer for
be had this employment at the court of Artaxerxes
Longimanus. He had an exceeding great tendernefs
for the country of his fathers, though he had never feen
it ; and one day, as fome Jews newly come from Jeru-
falem acquainted him with the miferable eftate of that
city, that its walls were beat down, its gates burnt, and
the Jews -were become a reproach among all nations ;
he was fenfibly affe&ed with this relation ; he fafted,
prayed, and humbled himfelf before the Lord, that he
w'ould be favourable to the deflgn he had then conceiv¬
ed of afkirg the king’s permiffion to rebuild Jerufalem.
The courfe of his attendance at court being come, he
prefented the cup to the king according to cuftom ; but
with a countenance fad and dejected ; which the
king obferving, entertained fome fufpicion, as if he
might have had fome bad defign ; but Nehemiah (ii.)
dilcovering the occafion of his difquiet, Artaxerxes
gave him leave to go to Jerufalem, and repair its walls
and gates j but, however, upon this condition, that he
5 C 2 Ihottld
/
N E H
Nehemiali. fhould return to court at a time appointed.
were made out, directed to the governors beyond the
Euphrates, with orders to furnith Nehemiah with tim¬
bers neceflary for covering the towers and gates of the
city, and the houfe defigned for Nehemiah himfelf, who
was now appointed governor of Judea, in the year of
the world 3350.
Nehemiah being arrived at Jerufalem with the king’s
com million, went round the city } and having viewed
the condition of the walls, affembled the chief of the
people, produced his commiflion, and exhorted them to
undertake the reparation of the gates and walls of the
city. He found every perfon ready to obey him;
whereupon he immediately began the work. The
enemies of the Jew’s oblerving thefe works in fuch for-
wardnefs, made ufe of all the means in their power to
deter Nehemiah from this undertaking, and made feve-
ral attempts to furprife him ; but finding that their de-
figns wrere difcovered, and that the Jews kept upon their
guard, they had recourfe to craft and ftratagem, endea¬
vouring to draAV him into an ambufcade in the fields,
where they pretended they would finifh the difpute at an
amicable conference : but Nehemiah gave them to un-
derftand, that the vmrk he had begun required his per-
fonal attendance ; and therefore he could not come to
them. He fent the lame anfwer to four feveral mef-
fages that they fent one after another on the fame fub-
jeft, (Zf/. iv. and vi.).
Sanballat, the chief of the enemies of the Jew’s, to¬
gether w ith his affociates, wrote word, that a report w’as
fpread that the Jews were building the walls of Jerufa¬
lem only with a defign to make it a place of ftrength,
to fupport them in an intended revolt ; that it was laid
alfo that Nehemiah had fuborned falfe prophets to fa¬
vour his defigns, and to encourage the people to choofe
him king ; and to flop the courfe of thefe rumours, he
advifed him to come to him, that they might confer to¬
gether, and take fuch refolutions as Ihould be found
convenient. Nehemiah gave himfelf no trouble on this
account, but returned for anfwer, that all thofe accufa-
tions were falfe and made at random. About the fame
time he difcovered, that a falfe prophet, called She-
tnaiah, had been corrupted by his enemies, and that
fome of the chief of the city were fecretly in confede¬
racy wdth them. Yet all this did not difcourage him ;
he went on u'ith his work, and happily completed it in
two and fifty days after it had been begun.
Then he made a dedication of the walls, of the
tow’ers, and of the gates of Jerufalem, with the folem-
nity and magnificence that fuch a work required. He
feparated the priefts, the Levites, and the princes of the
people, into two companies, one of which walked to
the fouth and the other to the north, on the top of the
walls. Thefe twro companies were to meet at the tem¬
ple. The proceflion was accompanied with mufic both
vocal and inlfrumental : and wdien they w’ere all come
to the temple, they there read the law, offered facrifices,
and made great rejoicings. And as the feaft of taber¬
nacles happened at the fame time, it w’as celebrated
with great folemnity, {Id. viii.). Nehemiah obferving
that the compafs of the city was too large for its inha¬
bitants, he ordered that the chief of the nation ihould
fix their dwelling in the city ; andcaufed them to draw
lots, by which a tenth part of the whole people of Ju¬
dah were to dwell at Jerufalem, {Id. xi.). Then he ap-
1 756 ] N E H
Letters plied himfelf to the reformation of fuch abufes as had Nehemiah.
crept into the ad mini ft ration of the public affairs. Lie ' N 
curbed the inhumanity of the great ones, who held in
a ftate of ilavery the ions and daughters of thofe who
were poor or unfortunate, keeping their lands in pof-
feifion, w’hich thefe poor people had been obliged either
to mortgage or to fell to the rich. Another abufe there
was, which Ezra had in vain attempted to redreis, that
they had contradled marriages with ftrange and idola¬
trous women. Nehemiah undertook to diffolve thefe
marriages, fucceeded in it, and fent away all fuch wo*,
men a<* had been taken againft the exprefs command of
the law, {Id. ix.). Having likewife obferved, that the
priefts and Levites were obliged to take refuge where-
ever they could, and fo the miniftry of the temple was
not attended or performed with that decency it ought,
becaufe they did not receive the revenues that the law
had appointed for their fubiiftence ; he obliged the peo¬
ple pun&ually to pay the minifters of the Lord what
was due to them, and enjoined the priefts and Levites
duly to attend on their refpe&ive duties, and to dif-
charge their fundlions, {Id. xiii. 10, 11, &c.). He en¬
forced the obfervation of the fabbath, which had been
much negledled at Jerufalem, and w’ould not permit
ft rangers to come in to buy and fell, but kept the gates
of the city {hut all that day. And, to perpetuate as
much as was poflible thefe good regulations which he
had newly eftablifhed, he engaged the chief men of the
nation folemnly to renew the covenant -with the Lord.
This ceremony was performed in the temple, and an in-
ftrument was drawn up, which ivas figned by the prin¬
cipal men, both prielts and people {Id. ix. x.), in the
year of the world 3551.
We read in the books of Maccabees (2 Macc. i.
19, 20, 21. &.c.), that Nehemiah fent to fearch for the
holy fire, which before the captivity of Babylon the
priefts had hid in a dry and deep pit ; but not finding
any fire there, but infti ad thereof a thick and muddy
water, he fprinkled this upon the altar ; whereupon the
v’ood which had been fprinkled with this water took
fire prefently as foon as the fun began to appear.
Which miracle coming to the knowledge of the king
of Perfia, he caufed the place to be cncompaffed vftth
walls where the fire had been hid, and granted great fa¬
vours and privileges to the priefts. It is recorded in
the fame books, (2 Macc. ii. 13, 14.), that Nehemiah
eredled a library, wherein he placed whatever he could
find, either of the books of the prophets, of David, or
of fuch princes as had made preients to the temple.
Laftly, He returned to Baylon {Id.v. 14. and xiii. 6.)
according to the promife he had made to King Arta-
xerxes, about the thirty-fecond year of this prince, in
the year 3563. From thence he returned again to Je¬
rufalem, where he died in peace, about the year 3580,
having governed the people of Judah for about thirty
years.
T he book which in the Englifti Bible, as alfo in the
Hebrew, has the name of Nehemiah, in the Latin Bible
is called the book of Efdras ; and it muft be confeffed,
that though this author fpeaks in the firft perfon, and
though at firft reading one would think that he had
writ it day by day as the tranfadlions occurred, yet
there are fome things in this book which could not
have been written by Nehemiah himfelf; for example,
memorials are quoted wherein were regiftered the names
of
N E L
t 757 ]
N E L
Nehemlah of tile priefts in tlie time of Jonatlian tlie fon of Elia-
li fliib, and even to the times of the high pnett Jaddus,
Neiron- , who met Alexander the Great. Thefe therefore muft
' have been added afterwards. # , . .
It may well be queftioned, whether this Nehemiah
be the fame that is mentioned in Ezra, (ii. 2. and
Neh. vii. 7.) as one that returned from the Babylo-
nifh captivity under Zerubbabel } fmce from the firit
year of Cyrus to the twentieth of Artaxerxes Longi-
xnanus, there are no lefs than ninety-two years inter¬
vening • fo that Nehemiah muft at this time have been
a very old man, upon the loweft computation an hun¬
dred, eonfequently utterly incapable of being the king s
cup-bearer, of taking a journey from Shuftian to Jeru-
falem and of behaving there with all the courage and
activity that is recorded of him. Upon this preiump-
tion, therefore, we may conclude that this was a differ¬
ent perfon, though of the fame name, and that Tir-
ftiatha (the other name by which lie is called, Ezra 11.
6^. and Neh. vii. 65.) denotes the title of his office,
and both in the Perfian and Chaldean tongues was the
general name given to the king’s deputies and gover-
n°NEHOW, one of the Sandwich iilands, difcovered
by Captain Cook in his laft voyage to the Pacific
ocean : thefe iflands are eleven in number, and are fitu-
ated from 1S0 44' to 22° 15' N. Lat. and from 1540 36'
to 1600 24' W. Long. . r .
NEIGHBOUR, r. One who dwells or is ieated
near to another (2 Kings iv. 3.). 2. Every man to
whom we have an opportunity of doing good (Matt,
xxii. 39.). 3. A fellow labourer of one and the fame
people (Aas vii. 27.). 4- A frIen? (Job* xvi- 2I;)*
At the time of our Saviour, the Pharifees had reft rain¬
ed the word neighbour to fignify thofe of their own na¬
tion only, or their own friends *, being of opinion that
to hate their enemy was not forbidden by their law.
But our Saviour informed them, that the whole world
were their neighbours; that they ought not to do to
another what they would not have done to themfelve? j
and that this charity ought to be extended even to their
enemies, (Matt. v. 43* Luke x. 29? &c.).
NEISSE, a town' of Silefia in Germany, and the
refidence of the bifhop of Breflaw, who has a magnifi¬
cent palace here. The air is very wholefome, and
provifions are cheap •, the inhabitants carry on a great
trade in wine and linen, ibis place fuffered greatly by
an inundation and fire in ^ was taben by tbe
Pruffians in 174E who augmented the fortifications af¬
ter the peace in 1742, and built a citadel to which they
gave the name of Prujfut. It is feated on a river of the
fame name, in E. Long. 17. 35. N. Lat. 50. 32.
NEXUS MONS, in Ancient Geography, at the foot of
which (food Ithaca, a town of the ifland of that name,
(Homer).
NELSON,The Right Honourable Viscount, one of
the moft celebrated naval commanders, was the fon of
the reverend Edmund Nelfon, and was born at Burnham
Thorpe, in Norfolk, where his father was re&or, in the
year 17 58. He received his education at the fchool of
North Walffiam ; but we are unacquainted with the
particulars relative to his childhood, and whether the
progrefs he made in his ftudies was in any refpeft ex-
traordinarv. It is certain, however, that he difcovered
a flrong predikflipn for the naval profeflion at a very
early period, and having quitted fchool at the age of
twelve years, went on board the Raiionable of 64 guns,
comm anded by his mother’s brother, Captain Maurice
Suckling.
In the month of April 1773, a voyage of difeovery
to the north pole was undertaken by the honourable
Conftantine John Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave, •
in confequence of an application by the Royal Society
to Lord Sandwich j and although the inftru&ions which -
were iffued, prohibited all boys from being received on
board, yet the enterprifing Ipirit of Horatio Nelfon
earneftly folicited to be appointed cockfwain to Captain
Lutwidge, rather than fubmit to be left behind ; and
his unfubdued fpirit fo forcibly ftruck the captain, that
his wifh was complied with.
When the {hip returned to England in the month of
Offober 1773, Mr Nelfon having received information
that a fquadron was fitting out for the Eaft Indies, em¬
ployed all his intereft to be appointed to one of the
fhips. It was not long before he was placed in the Sea-
horfe of 20 guns, commanded by the celebrated Captain
Farmer, and Rationed in the fore-top to keep watch,.
but foon after removed to the quarter-deck.
He obtained the profeffional order of lieutenant on 1
the 8th of April, 1777, and received his commiffion.
the next day, as fecond of the Loweftoffe of 32 guns,
Captain William Locker, in which fhip he arrived at
Jamaica 5 but feeling that his glowing mind was cir-
cumfcribed in fo fmall a frigate, he requefted the com¬
mand of a fchooner, which afted as tender to the
Loweftoffe, thus availing himfelf of the opportunity of
becoming an experienced pilot for every intricate paf-
fage through the iflands, fituated on the northern fide
of Hifpaniola.
When Sir Peter Parker arrived at Jamaica in the
year 1778, Lieutenant Nclfon w’as nominated by that
gallant admiral to be the third of his own flag fhip,
the Briftol, and by rotation he foon became the firft.
In this fhip his fervices terminated in the rank of a
lieutenant.
On the 1 ith of June, 1779, he obtained the rank of -
poft-eaptain 5 and during the nine years he had been
in the fervice he not only became an able officer by his
conftant attention to every part of his duty, and his
keen obfervation, but he alfo laid the foundation of be¬
ing a pilot of diftinguifhed eminence. The firft fliip to
which he was appointed after being made a poll cap¬
tain, was the Hinchinbroke. On the arrival of Count
d’Eftaign at Hifpaniola, as an attack upon Jamaica was
immediately apprehended, Captain Nelfon was intrufted •
with the command of the batteries of Port Royal, with
the concurring approbation of the Britifh admiral and
general. In the month of January 1780, it was re-
folved on to reduce Fort Juan, on the river St John,
in the gulf of Mexico, Avhen Captain Nelfon wTas made
choice of to command the naval department, and that
of the military was committed to Major Polfon. In
accomplifhing the objedl of this arduous and interefting
undertaking, Nelfon’s ufual intrepidity was again ex¬
hibited. Having quitted the fhip under his command,
he fuperintended the tranfporting of the troops in boats,
300 miles up a river, which none but Spaniards hadl
ever navigated fince the time of the buccaneers.
His great and vigorous exertions wrere reprefented by-
Major Polfon to General Bailing in their true colours,-
nor
Nelfon.
effon.
. N E L E 758
nor was Ins gallantry palled over by that officer in
filence. After florming an out-work belonging- to the
enemy, he conllru£led batteries, and fought the Spa¬
niards 5 and it is to his conduct in the reduction of Fort
Juan that the fuccefs of Britain has been juitly and
chiefly afcribed. He was next appointed to the Janus,
at that time flationed at Jamaica j on Ins arrival at
which place every medical affidanee was given him
which his fituation required 5 but as his health Hill con¬
tinued on the decline, he deemed it expedient to return
to England in his majefty’s fhip Lion, the honourable
W illiam Cornwallis commander, to whofe unremitting
care and attention he owed the prefervation of his life.
He obtained the command of the Albemarle in the
month of Augult 1781, which put his delicate con-
ilitution to the levereft trial, as he was ftationed during
the whole of the enfuing winter in the north Teas.
He failed from Quebec in the month of O&ober,
1782, with a convoy to New York, where he had an
•opportunity of joining the fleet under Sir Samuel
Hood } and in the month following he failed with him
to the Weft Indies, where he was honourably employed
until the termination of hoftilities. He foon after re¬
ceived orders to repair to England, being directed to
attend in his way, his royal highnefs Prince William
Henry on his vifit to the Havannah. When he reach¬
ed England, the Albemarle was paid off at Portf-
mouth on the 3*ft July* l7^3* During the autumn of
that year lie paid a viftt to France, where he continued
till the fpring of the enfuing year, vrhen he received
the command of the Boreas frigate of 28 guns, and his
deftination was the Leeward Illands, where he con-
cinued until June 1787, and was then ordered to repair
to Lngland. In the month of March the fame year
he was married to the amiable and accompliftied widow
of Di Nelbit, of the illand of Nevus. When the Boreas
frigate was paid oft at Sheernefs on the 30th Novem-
ber, 1787, he retired to the parfonage-houfe of Burn¬
ham I horpe, which had been conferred upon him by
his father tor a place 01 refidence, there to enjoy the
confolations which refult from domeftic felicity.
He again came, forward on the 30th of January
1 79.L to ftftne forth more confpicuous as a naval officer
than he had ever done before, at which time he re¬
ceived the command of the Agamemnon of 64 guns,
being foon placed under the orders of that truly great
and illuftrious character, Lord Hood, who at that pe¬
riod was deftined to command in the Mediterranean.
The unlimited confidence repofed in him by this noble
and gallant admiral, is an inconteffable evidence of the
nigh eftimation in which his courage and naval abilities
were held. If his fuperior defigned to attack batteries,
or cut ftiips out of the harbours in which they were
mooied •, if troops were to be landed in perilous fitua-
tions, or paflages of extreme difficulty to be explored,
the great Nelion took the lead on every fueh oecafion,
feconded by the brave officers and crew belonging to
the Agamemnon. Toulon, Baftia, and Calvi,°witnef-
fed his gallant and intrepid deportment, of which Lord
Hood did not fail to make honourable mention. At
the fiege of Calvi Captain Nelfon loft the fight of his
right eye, a ihot from the battery of the enemy having
ft ruck that of which he had the command, and driven
fome particles of fand againft his face with irrdiftible
impetuofity.
] N E L
When Lord Hood left his ftation in the Mediter¬
ranean m the month of October, 1794, the command
devolved on Admiral Hotham, who honoured our hero
witn an equal ftiare of his confidence and efteem. On.
the 13th and 14th of March, and 13th of July 179 r
he again rendered himfelf confpicuous in the aftions
which then took place with the French fleet; and
foon after he was chofen by Admiral Hotham to co¬
operate with General De Vins, on the coaft of Genoa,
in which fervice he continued fo long as Hotham re¬
tained the command, who was fuperfeded by Sir John
Jervis. This officer fo much applauded the conduct of
Captain Nelfon, that he received the honour of wearing
a pendant of diftinction ; and in the month of May he
was removed from the Agamemnon to the Captain of
74 guns. On the nth of Auguft lie had a captain ap¬
pointed under him. 1
from April to Oaober 1795, Commodore Nelfon
was continually employed in the moil active and ar¬
duous fervice, the blockade of Leghorn, the taking of
Porto f errajo, with the ifland of Caprea, and finally in
the evacuation of Baftia. In December 1796 he hoift-
ed his broad pendant on board La Minerve frigate
arid was difpatched with that ffiip, and La Blanche, to
Porto Ferrajo, to bring the naval itores left there to
Gibialtar, which the fleet was in much want of. While
on tins fervice in the night of the 17th December, he
fell in with two Spanifli frigates, one of which he im¬
mediately attacked, and ordered the Blanche to bear
down to engage the other. About half paft ten the
commodore brought his ffiip to clofe aft ion, which con¬
tinued without interruption till half paft one, when the
Spanifti frigate of 40 guns, 28' of which were 18
pounders, ftruck to La Minerve.
-ATc1 various other aClive and important fervices dur¬
ing the three preceding months, Sir Horatio Nelfon,
in April 1797, hoifted his flag on board the Captain of
74 guns as rear-admiral of the blue, and in the end of
May he fliifted his flag from the Captain to the The-
feus, when he was appointed to the command of the
inner fquadron at the blockade of Cadiz. While on
this fervice he exhibited another remarkable proof of
his undaunted perfonal courage. In the attack on the
Spanifli gun-boats in July, he was boarded in his barge,
which had only the ufual complement of 10 men, and
the cocklwain. I he commander of the Spanifli rum-
boats, in a barge with 30 men and officers, made a
defperate attack, on the admiral and his brave compa¬
nions. J he conflift remained long doubtful, but after
18 of the Spaniards were killed, and almoft the whole
of the remainder wounded, the rear-admiral and his
brave crewr fucceeded in carrying this fuperior force.
On the 15th of July the fame year, Admiral Nelfon
was detached with a fmall fquadron to attack the town
of Santa Cruz in the iflar.d of Teneriffe. A thoufand
men, including marines, were landed in the courfe of a
dark night, made tbemfelves mafters of the town, and
retained poffeffion of it for feven hours ; but finding it
impoffible to ftorm the citadel, they prepared for their
retreat, which the Spaniards allowed them to make un-
molefted,. agreeable to the ftipulations which had been
entered into. In this unfortunate attack the brave
Nelfon loft his arm by a cannon fliot.
But a more fplendid fcene Q the life of our hero is
now opening. On the 13th of April 1798 he was de¬
tached
NelAm.
NET,
[ 759 ]
N E L
Nelfon. taelied from Earl St Vincent’s fleet, in purfuit of the
French to the coaft of Egypt, with 12 fail of the line
and one 50 gun fliip, while the enemy’s fleet confifted
of 13 fail of the line and four frigates, protected by the
batteries on the fhore, and feveral gun-boats. This me¬
morable a£tion commenced at funfet, and terminated
'dorioufly for the honour of our hero and that of the
Britilh navy. Nine fail of the line fell into the hands
of the conqueror, two were burnt, and two effected
their efcape. The brave Nelfon was wounded in the
aftion, believing himfelf to have been fhot through the
head ; but after his wound was examined by the fur-
geon, it was happily found not to be mortal, a cir-
cumftance which diffufed the moft lively fatisfaftion
through the whole fleet. To the honour of this great
man it ought to be mentioned, that even under the
convi&ion of approaching diflblution, he prepared for
the interefling change with calmnefs and fortitude, de-
fired his chaplain to recommend him to Lady Nelfon,
appointed the brave Hardy to the rank of poft-captain
and to the command of a flup, and took an affectionate
leave of Captain Louis.
The French admiral’s {hip, L’Orient, was blown up
during the aCtion. From the mainmaft of this fliip
Captain Hallowell ordered a coffin to be conflruCted,
which was prefented to Admiral Nelfon, and gratefully
accepted by the hero, as a token of affedionate regard.
For fome months he had it placed upright in his
cabin *, but in confequence of the entreaties of an old
fervant, the admiral was at length prevailed on to al¬
low it to be removed. Our readers will not be fur-
prifed that Lord Nelfon fhould now be regarded as the
great defence of the empire, and the fupport of her na¬
tional glory. It is to his gallantry and naval {kill that
we are indebted for the vidory of Copenhagen, and
the annihilation of that formidable northern confede¬
racy which menaced the profperity, the commerce, the
very exiftence of the reft of Europe.
One of the moft important fervices which Lord Nel¬
fon performed, was the purfuit of the combined fleets
of France and Spain to the Weft Indies, ihis fleet
had failed from Cadiz on the 10th of April, and it was
at fir ft conjeCtured that Egypt was the place of their
deftination. In confequence of this conjecture, Lord
Nelfon failed in purfuit of the enemy for the coaft of
Egypt ; and, having miffed his objeCt, after reconnoi¬
tring that coaft, he paffed the ftraits of Gibraltar, and
anchored in Lagos bay on the icth of May ; foon after
which he failed for the Weft Indies with ten {hips of
the line j arrived off Barbadoes on the 4th of June ; and
having touched at Tobago, Trinidad, and Grenada, at
the latter of which places he was informed that the
combined fleet had been feen on the 6th off Dominica j
he reached Antigua on the 12th, where he received in¬
formation that the enemy had been feen on the 8th {land¬
ing to the northward. Lord Nelfon, without the lofs
of a moment, continued the purfnit of the enemy on
their return to Europe, where they arrived about the
end of July ; and after taking in provifions and
water at Gibraltar, and reconnoitring the harbour of
Cadiz •, he returned to England, where he arrived in
the Viftory, on the iRth of Auguft, after having been
engaged for nearly four months in one of the moft ar-i
duous, and, at the fame time, one of the moft important
and beneficial, although, in its immediate objeCt, unfuc-
cefsful enterprifes, for which his life was diftinguiftied.
His lordftiip had now been abfent from England more
than two years, on the Mediterranean ftation.
The concluding fcene of this extraordinary man’s
naval career, kindles emotions of admiration and re¬
gret 5 and at once excites both tranfport and extreme
of forrow. Perhaps no aCtion, in point of fplendour
and magnanimity, can equal that which deprived his
country of one of the greateft heroes it ever produced,
Britons appear to be fenfible of its vaft importance ; yet
it is not improbable that pofterity will confider it as ftill
more fplendid, their love and admiration not being
damped by the poignant recollection that they perfonal-
ly faw the man by whofe lofs it was accompliffied.
When Lord Nelfon perceived that, in confequence of
his manoeuvres, he had reduced the enemy to the abfo-
lute neceffity of engaging him, he exclaimed in the
prefence of Captain Hardy and the other officers who
furrounded him on the quarter deck $ “ Now they can¬
not efcape us ; I think we {hall at leaft make fure of
twenty of them.—I ftiall probably lofe a leg, but that
will be purchafing a victory cheaply.” But alas !
amidft the inexpreitible fatisfaction and delight, which
a viftory fo fplendid could not fail to infpire, he has
left us to lament that it was purchaftd by the lofs of a
life fo incomparably valuable.
His lordfhip’s flag fliip fell on board the Redoubtable,,
by which means he was expofed to the fire of the muf-
ketry from the tops ; and the infignia of his grandeur and
dignity, it is fuppofed, fingled him out to the aims of the
enemy, which in the ifl'ue were too fatally fuccefsful.
His fecretary was cut in two by his fide with a chain
{hot, and foon after a ball grazed his lordfliip’s {boul¬
der, entered his left breaft, and paffed through his
lungs. He lived about three hours after this tragical
event, during which he remained perfeftly recollefted,
and he difplayed the fame heroic magnanimity in the
arms of death, which had fo eminently diftinguifh-
ed him through the whole of his career. His laft
words to Captain Hardy were, “ I know I am dying.
I could have wilhed to furvive to breathe my laft upon
Britifh ground, but the will of God be done !” In a
few moments he expired. His laft fignal ought not,
and will not be forgotten, which rvas by telegraph,—-
“ That England expelled every man would do his du¬
ty.” He fpoke in raptures concerning the event of the
day only a ffiort time before his diffolution, and fent
word to Admiral Collingwood, defiring that he would
make his affectionate farewell to all his brother feateen
throughout the fleet. In this manner died, in the 47th
year of his age, the greateft commander that perhaps
ever adorned the Britifti navy, leaving behind him a
name dear to Great Britain, and an example of heroifm
which will infpire his companions in arms to emulate
his virtues, that they too may live in the remembrance
of a grateful pofterity.
His lingular plan of attack on this memorable occa-
fion was communicated by his lordftiip to all his cap¬
tains, who unanimoufly gave it as their opinion that it
could not poftibly fail of fuccefs, being concerted with,
fuch confummate Avifdom 5 and they even pledged their
lives for the favourable refult of it. His titles were, ,
Vifcount Nelfon, and Duke of Bronte.—The united-
parliament voted him a pennon of 3000I. a year, to con¬
tinue during his own life and his two next heirs j the
Eaft t
Nelfon;
N E M
N elfon
Eaft India Company made him a prefent of io,ooo1. ; the
grand fignior gave him a diamond aigrette worth 4000]. j
the emperor of Ruffia gave him a diamond box worth
2500I. ; the king of Naples made him prefents to the
amount of 5000!. together with the dukedom of Bronte,
and an eftate of 3000I. per annum. Thus all Europe
confpired to teftify the eftimation in which they held
this dillinguiihed hero •, and the numerous monuments
which have been, and itill are erecting to his memory
throughout the Britilh empire, will continue lading
evidences of the efteem in which he was held by his
grateful country. Parliament alfo voted a him for the
purchafe of an eftate for his heirs, and his majefty con¬
ferred the title of earl on his immediate fucceffor.
Nor were his talents wholly confined to the know¬
ledge of naval tallies, for it is known that as a fenator
he was highly refpedlable, although he enjoyed few op¬
portunities of coming forward in that capacity. When
he did, his fpeeches were heard by their lordftiips with
refpeft, and the moft profound attention. The few
fpecimens we have of his abilities as a politician, afford
no mean proof that if he had devoted as much of his
time to thofe ftudies as he did to his peculiar profeflion,
he would have made a diftinguiftied figure in the houfe
of peers.
NEMAUSIS, or Nemausum, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, the capital of the Arecomici in Gallia Narbonen-
fis ; a colony, (Coin), with the furname of Augujla, (In-
feription). In it ftands a Roman amphitheatre, which
is ftill almoft entire. Now Nifmes in Languedoc.
NEMEA (Strabo, Livy) 5 a river of Achaia, run¬
ning between Sicyon and Corinth, the common boun¬
dary of both territories, and falling into the Corinthian
bay.
Nemea, in Ancient Geography, fituated between
Cleonae and Philus in Argolis; whether town, diftrict,
or other thing, uncertain ; there a grove flood in which
the Argives celebrated the Nemean games, and there
happened all the fabulous circumftances of the Nemean
lion. The diftrict Nemea is called Bembinadia, (Pli¬
ny 5 a village, ftanding near Nemea, (Strabo).
Stephanus places Nemea in Elis ; though not in Elis,
but on its borders j Pliny, erroneoufly, in Arcadia. In
the adjoining mountain is ftill ftiown the den of the li¬
on, diftant 15 ftadia from the place Nemea, (Paufanias) ;
in which ftands a confiderable temple of Jupiter Ne-
maeus and Cleonseus, from the vicinity of thefe two
places. This place gave name to the Nemaean games,
celebrated every third year.
NEMEAN GAMES, fo called from Nemea, a vil¬
lage between the cities of Cleonae and Philus, where
they were celebrated every third year. The exercifes
were chariot-races, and all the parts of the Pentathlum.
Thefe games were inftituted in memory of Opheltes or
Archemorus the fon of Euphetes and Creufa, and who
was nurfed by Hypfipele j who leaving him in a mea¬
dow while fhe went to fhow the befiegers of Thebes a
fountain, at her return found him dead, and a ferpent
twined about his neck : whence the fountain, before
[ 16° 1
N E M
Nomean
Games
called Langia, was named Archemorus ; and the cap¬
tains, to comfort Hypfipele, inftituted thefe games.—
Others aferibe their inftitution to Hercules, after his v H
victory oyer the Nemean lion. Others allow, that they Aemdiu_^
were, inftituted firft in honour of Archemorus ; but in¬
termitted, and revived again by Hercules. The viftors
were crowned with parfley, an herb ufed at funerals, and
feigned to have fprung from Archemorus’s blood. The
Argives prefided at thefe games.
NEMESIANUS, Aurelius Olympius, a Latin
poet who was born at Carthage, and flourifiied about
the year 281, under the emperor Carus, and his fons
Cannus and Numerian : the laft of which emperors
was fo fond of poetry, that he contefted the glory with
Nemefianus, who had written a poem upon fiftung and
maritime affairs. We have ftill remaining a poem of
our author called Cynegeticon, and four eclogues : they
were publilhed by Paulus Manutius in 1538 5 by Bar-
thelet in 1613 •, at Leyden in 1653 > with the notes of
Janus Vlitias. Giraldi hath preferved a fragment of
Nemefianus, which was communicated to him by San-
nazarius, to whom wre are obliged for our poet’s works:
for having found them written in Gothic characters, he
procured them to be put into the Roman, and then fent
them to Paulus Manutius. Although this poem hath
acquired fome reputation, it is greatly inferior to thofe
of Oppian and Gratian upon the lame fubjeft j yet Ne-
mefianus’s ftyle is natural enough, and has fome degree
of elegance. The world was fo much poffeffed with an
opinion of his poem in the eighth century, that it was
read among the claffics in the public fchools, particular¬
ly in the time of Charlemagne, as appears from a letter
of the celebrated Hincmar biftiop of Rheims, to his
nephew' Hincmar of Laon.
. NEMESIS, in Pagan worfhip, the daughter of Ju¬
piter and Neceflity, or, according to others, of Oceanus
and Nox, bad the care of revenging the crimes which
human jutlice left unpuniflied. She was alfo called
Adrajlaa, becaufe Adraftus king of Argos firft failed
an altar to her \ and Rhamnujia, from her having a
magnificent temple at Rhamnus in Attica. She had
like wife a temple at Rome in the Capitol. She is re-
preferUed with a ftern countenance, holding a whip in
one hand and a pair of feales in the other.
NEMESIUS, a Greek philofopher who embraced
Chriftianity, and was made biftiop of Emefa in PhcenL
cia, where he had his birth ; he flourilhed in the begin¬
ning of the fifth century. There is a wmrk of his extant,
entitled De Natura Hominis, in which he refutes the fa¬
tality of the Stoics and the errors of the Manichees, the
Apollianarifts, and the Eunomians $ but he efpoufes the
opinion of Origen concerning the pre-exiftence of fouls
(a). This treatife w'as tranflated by Valla, and print-
cd in 1535. Another verfion was afterwards made of
it by Ellebodius, and printed in 1665 •, it is alfo infert-
ed in the Bibliotheca Pat rum, in Greek and Latin.
Laftly, Another edition was publiftied at Oxford in
1671, folio, with a learned preface, wherein the editor
endeavours to prove, from a paffage in this book, that
the
(a) It is much more probable that he and Origen both brought their opinion with them from the fchools
philofophy, than that either of them borrowed it from the other. See Metaphysics, Part III, Chap, IV.
N E O [ 7*5
Nemefius tlie circulation of the blood was known to Nemelius j
ii which, however, was fince (hown to be a miftake by
yeonienIa; Dr Freind, in his Bijlory of P/iyfc.
NEMINE CONTRADICENTE, “ none contradifting
it a term chiefly ufed in parliament when any thing
is carried without oppofition.
NEMOURS, a town of the Ifle of France, in
the Gatinois, formerly with the title of a duchy. It
is fcated on the river Loing, in E. Long. 2. 45. N.
Lat. 48. 15.
NENAGH, a poll: and fair town of Ireland, in the
county of Tipperary, and province of Munfter, 5 miles
from Dublin. It is fituated on a branch of the river
Shannon which runs intp Lough-Derg. Here Hand
the ruins of an old cattle called Nenagh-round. Alfo
thofe of an hofpital founded in the year 1200, for ca¬
nons following the rule of St Auguftin. It was dedi¬
cated to St John the Baptift, and was ufually called
Teac/ion, or St John’s houfe. In the reign of Henry
III. a friary for conventual Francifcans was alfo found¬
ed here, and efteemed the richeft foundation of that or¬
der in the kingdom. Here is a barrack for two troops
of horfe. This town was burnt on St Stephen’s day,
1348, by the Irith. The fairs held here are four.
NENIA, or NjENIA, in the ancient poetry, a kind
of funeral fong fung to the mufic of flutes at the obfe-
quies of the dead. Authors reprefent them as forry
compofitions, fung by hired women mourners called
Prceficte. The firft rife of thefe Nenia is afcribed to
the phyficians. In the heathen antiquity, the goddefs
of tears and funerals was called ‘Nenia; whom fome
fuppofe to have given that name to the funeral fong,
and others to have taken her name from it.
NEOCESARI A, (Pliny), a town of Pontus on the
fouth or the left fide of the Lycus. About the year
342, when Leontius and Salluftius were confuls, it was
entirely ruined by a dreadful earthquake, no edifice
having with flood the violence of the flioek, except the
church and the bithop’s habitation, who was fared, with
the clergy and fome other pious perfons, while the reft
of the inhabitants were buried in its ruins.
NEOMAGUS, (Ptolemy); Noviomagus, (An-
tonine) ; a town of the Regni in Britain : now thought
to be Guildford in Surry, (Lhuyd) ; or Croydon, (Tal¬
bot). But Camden takes it to be Woodcote, two miles
to the fouth of Croydon, where traces of an ancient
town are ftill to be feen.
Neomagus, (Ptolemy) ; Noviomagus ( Antonine) ; a
town of the Treviri on the Mofelle. Now Numagen
14 miles eaft, below Triers.
Neomagus, (Ptolemy) ; Noviomagus Lexoviorum,
(Antonine) ; a town of Gallia Celtica. Now Lifeux,
in Normandy.
Neomagus, (Ptolemy) ; Noviomagus Nemetum., ( An¬
tonine). Now Spire, a city of the Palatinate, on the
left or weft fide of the Rhine.
Neomagus, (Ptolemy) ; a town of Gallia Narbo-
nenfis, on the confines of the Tricaftini. Now Nyons
in Dauphine.
NEOMENIA, or NoumENIA, a feftival of the an¬
cient Greeks, at the beginning of every lunar month,
which, as the name imports, was obferved upon the day
of the new moon, in honour of all the gods, but efpe-
■cially A poll-1, who was called Neomenios, becaufe the
fun is the fountain of light; and whatever diftinftion
Vcl. XIV. Part II.
1 ] NT E P
of times and feafons may be taken from other planets, Nedmema
yet they are all owing to him as the original oi thofe 1)^
borrowed rays by which they thine. LlLy-lJ
The games and public entertainments at thefe fefti-
vals were made by the rich, to whofe tables the poor
flocked in great numbers. The Athenians at thefe
times offered folemn prayers and facrifices for the pro-
fperity of their country during the enfuing month. See
Games.
The Jews had alfo their neomenia, or feaft of the new
moon, on which peculiar facrifices were appointed : and
on this day they had a fort of family entertainment and
rejoicing. The moft celebrated neomenia of all others
was that at the beginning of the civil year, or firft day
of the month Tifri, on which no fervile labour was per¬
formed : they then offered particular burnt facrifices,
and founded the trumpets of the temple. The modern
Jews keep the neomenia only as a feaft of devotion,
which any one may obferve or not as he pleafes.
NEOPHYTES, “ new plants a name given by
the ancient Chriftians to thofe heathens who had newly
embraced the faith ; fuch perfons being confidered as
regenerated, or born aneAV by baptifm. The term neo-
phytes has been alfo ufed for new priefts, or thofe juft
admitted into orders, and fometimes for the novices in
monafteries. It is ftill applied to the converts made by
the mifiionaries among the infidels.
NEP A, a genus of infefts belonging to the order of
hemiptera. See Entomology Index.
NEPAL, a kingdom of India, to the north-eaft of
the city of Patna, at the diftance of about 1 2 days jour¬
ney. The roads in the mountains are both narrow
and dangerous, but in the plains they are allowed to bo
good. Some parts of it are obnoxious to a putrid fe¬
ver, of which thofe who are feized with it die in a few
days ; but the people in the plains are not obnoxious
to it. The plain is about 200 miles in circumference,
and the only entrance to it is by the mountains. It
contains three principal cities; Cat'hmandu, having
about 18,000 houfes ; Lelit Pattan contains 24,000 ;
and B'/iatgan 12,000 families. Befides thefe there are
many large and populous towns, the chief of which are
Timi and Cipoli. The religion of the inhabitants, like
that of moft other countries in a ftate little removed
from barbarifm, abounds with a number of abfurd rites
and ceremonies, which it would be fuperfluous to enu¬
merate ; but many of them adopt that of the Brahmins,
the moral part of which, in many refpe&s, muff be al¬
lowed to be excellent.
The temple of Baghero in the city of Lelit Pattan,
is faid to be fuperior to the king’s palace, on account
of the immenfe quantities of gold, filver, and jewels
which it contains ; and the waters of a river about
three miles from Cat’hmandu are confidered as holy*
to which people of rank are conveyed in the profpeft
of death. This kingdom is believed to be of very
great antiquity, as its language and independence have
been preferved from time immemorial ; yet the diffen-
fions of its nobles completely ruined it not many years
ago, who could not agree about the choice of a proper
fucceffor on the death of their fovereign.
NEPENTHES, a genus of plants belonging to the
gynandna clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
among thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Bo¬
tany Index.
3 D NEPETA,
Xepeta
II
Neptune.
N E P [762
NEPETA, Catmint, or Nep, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the didynamia clafs, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 4 2d order, Verticillatce, See
Botany Index.
NEPHELIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the
monoscia elafs. Sue Botany Index.
NEPHEW, a term relative to uncle and aunt, fig-
nifying a brother’s or fitter’s fon j who, according to
the civil law, is in the third degree of confanguinity,
but according to the canon in the fecond.
NEPHRITIC, fomething that relates to the kid¬
neys. See Kidney.
NEPHRITIC Wood, {lignum nephriticum'), a wood of
a very denfe and compact texture, and of a fine grain,
brought to us from New Spain in fmall blocks, in its
natural Hate, and covered with its bark.
This wood is faid to be a good diuretic ; and we are
told it is ufed among the Indians in all difeafes of the
kidneys and bladder, and in fuppreflion of urine, from
whatever caufe. It is alfo recommended in fevers, and
in obftruftions of the vifcera. The way of taking it
among the Indians is only an infufion in cold water.
Thefe ufes are not however properly afcertained. See
Guilandina, Botany Index.
Nephritic Stone. See Nephrite or Jade, Mine¬
ralogy Index.
NEPHRITICS, in Pharmacy, medicines proper for
difeafes of the kidneys. See Materia Medica Index.
NEPHRITIS, or inflammation of the kidneys. See
Medicine Index.
NEPOS, Cornelius, a celebrated Latin biogra¬
pher, who flourifhed in the time of Julius Caefar, and
lived, according to St Jerome, to the fixth year of
Auguftus. He was an Italian, if we may credit Ca¬
tullus, and born at Hofb'lia, a fmall town in the ter¬
ritory of Verona, in Cifalpine Gaul. Aufonius, how¬
ever, will have it that he was born in the Gauls: and
in that they may both be in the right, provided that
under the name of Gaul is comprehended Gallia Cifal-
pina, which is in Italy. Leander Alberti thinks Ne-
pos’s country was Verona; and he is fure that he was
either born in that city or neighbourhood. For the
reft, Cicero and Atticus were friends of our author j
who wTrote the lives of the Greek hiftorians, as he him-
felf attefts in that of Dion, fpeaking of Philiftus. What
he fays, alfo, in the lives of Cato and Hannibal, proves
that he had alfo written the lives of the Latin captains
and hiftorians. He wrote fome other excellent works
which are loft.
All that we have left of his at prefent is, “ The
Lives of the illuftrious Greek and Roman Captains
which were a long time afcribed to Almilius Probus,
who publifhed them, as it is faid, under his own name,
to infinuate himfelf thereby into the favour of the em¬
peror Theodofius ; but, in the courfe of time, the
fraud has been difcovered, although feveral learned
perfons have confounded the two authors. This piece
has been tranflated into French by the Sieur de Cla-
veret, with a dedication to the duke of Longueville,
in 1663 i and again by M. le Gras, then of the con¬
gregation of the Oratory at Paris, 1729, l2mo. We
have an excellent tranflation of it into Englifh, by fe¬
veral hands at Oxford, which has gone through feveral
editions.
NEPTUNE, in Pagan worfhip, the god of the
3
] NEP
fea, was the fon of Saturn and Vefta or Ops, and the Neptune,
brother of Jupiter and Pluto. He aflifted Jupiter in -V-—
his expeditions ; on which that god, when he arrived
at the fupreme power, afligned him the fea and the
iflands for his empire. lie was, however, expelled
from heaven with Apollo for confpiring againft Ju¬
piter, when they were both employed by Laomedon
king of Phrygia in building the walls of Troy ; but
that prince difmifllng Neptune without a reward, he
fent a fea monfter to lay rvafte the country, on which
he was obliged to expofe his daughter Hefione. He
is faid to have been tire firft inventor of horfemanfhip
and chariot racing j on which account Mithridates
king of Pontus threw chariots drawm by four horfes
into the fea in honour of tfiis god \ and the Romans
inftituted horfe races in the circus at his feftival,
during which all other horfes left working, and the
mules were adorned with wreaths of flowers.
In a conteft with Minerva he produced a horfe by
ftriking the earth with his trident; and on another
occafion, in a trial of fldll with Minerva and Vulcan,
produced a bull, whence that animal ivas facrificed to
him. His favourite wife was Amphytrite, whom he
long courted in vain, till fending a dolphin to inter¬
cede for him, he met with fuccefs; on which he re-
-warded the dolphin by placing him among the liars.
He had alfo two other wives, one of whom was called
Salafta from the fait water ; the other Venilia from
the ebbing and flowing of the tides. He had like-
wife many concubines, by whom he had a great num¬
ber of children. He is reprefented with black hair,
with a garment of an azure or fea green : holding his
trident in his hand, and feated in a large Ihell drawn
by fea horfes; attended by the fea gods Palemon,
Glaucus, and Phorcys, and the fea goddefles Thetis,
Melita, and Panoptea, and a long train of tritons and
fea nymphs.
This deity was known in Egypt by the name of Ce-
nohus or Canopus, and was worlhipped as the numen a-
quorum or fpirit of the Nile. His emblem was the fi¬
gure of certain vafes or pitchers, with which the Egyp¬
tians filtrated the water of their facred river, in order
to purify and render it fit for ufe. From the mouth
of each of thefe vafes, which vTcre charged with hie-
roglyphics, arofe the head and fometimes the head and
hands, of a man or wroman. Such are the emblems
which ftill remain of the Egyptian Neptune or Cano¬
bus •, and it w^as by this emblem that the tutelar god
of Egypt vanquilhed the god of Chaldea in the ridicul¬
ous manner mentioned by Ruffinus in his Ecclefiaftical
Hiftory* * Lib. 2.
“ The Chaldeans (fays he) who adored the fire, cap. 26,
carried their god into various countries that he might
try his ftrength in contefts with other gods. He
vanquilhed, as we may eafily conceive, the images
made of gold, filver, brafs, and wood, &c. by reducing
them to allies ; and thus the worfhip of fire was every¬
where eftablifhed. The prieft of Canobus, unwilling,
as became him, to admit the fuperiority of ftrange
gods, contrived to make his god vanquilh the god
of Chaldasa in a pitched battle. The vafes which were
worfliipped as the emblems of Canobus being ufed for
filtering the waters of the Nile, were of courfe per¬
forated on all fides with very fmall holes. This
faithful prieft having ftopped all the holes in one of
thefe
y SKsStftfAA-'-SKti --rSSHfSHS
^ Zl applauded his ^fures
then placed in a (mall fire brought by the Chaldseans as then approoaUon. Many ot his courtiers inareu
the emblem of their god and thus the gods of Egypt
and Chaldsea were forced into battle. I he contcll,
however, was of fhort duration. The heat melt¬
ing the wax made way for the water to run out, w hich
quickly extinguilhed the fire } and thus Canobus r an-
quilhed the god of the Chaldeans.” Ridiculous as this
ftory is, it is perfcftly fuitable to the genius^of Paga-
nifm, and the mean artifices of the Pagan pr left hood ;
but we fufpecf that the Mftorian laboured under one
miftake, and fubftituted the Chaldeans inftead of the
Perfians. See POLYTHEISM.
NEREIDS, in the Pagan theology, fea nymphs,
daughters of Nereus and Doris.—The Nereids were
efteemed very handfome} infomuch that Calliope, the
wife of Cepheus king of Ethiopia, having triumphed
over all the beauties of the age, and daring to vie with
the Nereids, they were fo enraged that they fent a pro¬
digious fea monfter into the country, and, to appeafe
them, Ihe was commanded by the oracle to expofe her
daughter Andromeda, bound to a rock, to be devoured
by the monfter. In ancient monuments, tlie Nereids
are reprefented riding upon fea horfes} lometimes \\ ith
an entire human form, and at other times Avith the tail
of a filh.
NEREIS, a genus of animals belonging to the order
of vermes mollufca. See Helminthology Index.
NEREUS, in fabulous hiftory, a marine deity, was
fon of Oceanus and Thetis. He fettled in the Aegean
fea, was confidered as a prophet, and had the.power
of affuming ivhat form he pleafed. He married his
filler Doris, by whom he had 50 daughters called the
Nereids, tvho conftantly attended, on Neptune, and
when he went abroad furrounded his chariot.
NERI, ANTHONY, a learned rm-iter who publilhed
a curious book printed at Florence 1612, in 4X0, Avith
this title, Dell'1 Arte Verrana Libn VII.; or the Art of
Glafsmaking.
NERIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the pent-
andria clals } and in the natural method lanking under
the 30th order, Contorts. See Botany and Dyeing
Index.
NERO, Claudius Domitius Caesar, a celebrated
Roman emperor, fon of Caius Domitius. Ahenobarbus
and Agrippina the daughter of Germanicus. He Avas
adopted by the emperor Claudius, A. D. 50, and four
years after he fucceeded him on the throne. In the
beginning of his reign he IhoAved feveral marks of the
greateft kindnefs and condefcenfion, affability, com-
plaifance, and popularity. The objedl of his admini-
ftration feemed to be the good of his people j and Avhen
he Avas defired to fign his name to a lift of malefac¬
tors that were to be executed, he exclaimed, Would
to heaven 1 could not write ! He hated flattery j and
^hen the fenate had liberally commended the wifdom
of his government, he defired them to keep their
praifes till he deferved them. Thefe promifing virtues
foon, hoAvever, proved to be artificial: Nero foon. dif-
played the real propenfities of his nature. He deliver¬
ed himfelf from the fway of his mother, and at laft
ordered her to be murdered. This unnatural aft of bar-
unhappy fate j and Nero iacrificed to his fury or ca«
price all fuch as obftrufted his pleafure or diverted his
inclination. In the night he generally went from his
palace to vifit the meaneft taverns,, and all theicenes
of debauchery Avhieh Rome contained. In this noc¬
turnal riot he was fond of infulting the people in the
ftreets; and his attempts to offer, violence to the Avile
of a Roman fenator nearly coft him his life. He alio
turned after, and openly appeared on the Roman ftage
in the meaneft charafters. In his attempts to excel in.
mufic, and to conquer the difadvantages of a hoarfe
difagreeable voice, he moderated his meals, and often
palled the day without eating. The Olympian games
attrafted his notice : he went into Greece, and pre-
fented himfelf a candidate for the public honour. He
Avas defeated in Avreftling •, but the flattery of the
fpeftators adjudged him the viftory, and he returned
to Rome Avith all the fplendour and pomp of an eaftern
conqueror, draAvn in the chariot of Auguftus, and at¬
tended by a band of muficians, aftors, and ftage dan¬
cers from every part of the empire. Thefe private
and public amufements of the emperor Avere indeed
innocent j his charafter only Avas injured, and not the
lives of the people. His conduft,. however, foon be¬
came more abominable : he difguifed himfelf in the
habit of a woman, and was publicly married to one of
his eunuchs. This violence to nature and decency
Avas foon exchanged for another: Nero refumed his
fex, and celebrated his nuptials with one of his mean-
eft catamites : and it Avas on this occafion that one
of the Romans obferved that the Avorld Avould have
been happy if Nero’s father had had fuch a wife. But
his cruelty Avas noAV difplayed in a ftill higher degree,
for he facrificed to his wantonnefs his Avife Oftavia
PoppEea, and the celebrated Avriters Seneca, Lucan,
Petronius, &c. Nor did the Chriftians efcape his
barbarity. He had heard of the burning of Troy j
and as he wifhed to renerv that difmal feene, he caufed
Rome to be fet on fire in different places. The con¬
flagration became foon univerfal, and during nine fuc-
ceflive days the fire continued. All.Avas defolation:
nothing was heard but the lamentations of mothers
whofe ^children had perilhed in the flames, the groans
of the dying, and the continual fall of palaces and
buildings. Nero A-ras the only one who enjoyed the
general confternation. He placed himfelf on the top
of a high tower, and he fung on his lyre the deftiuc-
tion of Troy, a dreadful feene Avhich his barbarity had
realized before his eyes. He attempted to avert the
public odium from his head by a pretended commifera-
tion of the miferies of his fubjefts. .He began to repair
the ftreets and public buildings at his OAvn expeuce. He
built himfelf a celebrated palace, which he called his
golden houfe. It was liberally adorned with gold, Avith
precious ftones, and with every thing , rare and exqui-
fite. It contained fpacious fields, artificial lakes, Avoods,
gardens, orchards, and whatever exhibited a beautiful
feene. The entrance of this edifice could admit a large
coloffus of the emperor 120 feet high \ the galleries
were each a mile long, and the whole was covered Avith
5 D 2
Nero.
N E R
^ gOK^ The roofs of the dining halls reprefented the
firmament, in motion as well as in figure ; and conti-
nually turned round night and day, fhowering down
all forts of perfumes and fweet waters. When this
grand edifice, which, according to Pliny, extended
all round the city, was finifhed, Nero faid, that now
he eould lodge like a man. His profufion was not lefs
remarkable in all his other adtions. When he went
a fi fifing, Ifis nets were of gold and filk. He never ap¬
peared twice in the fame garment \ and when he took
a voyage, there were thouiands of fervants to take care
of his wardrobe. This continuation of debauchery
and extravagance at laft roufed the people. Many
confpiracies were formed againft him ; but they were
generally difcovered, and luch as were acetflory fuf-
fered the fevered punifhments. The molt dangerous
confpiracy againft Nero’s life was that of Pifo. from
which he was laved by the confefiion of a (lave. The
confpiracy ot Galba proved more fucce.fsful, who, when
he was informed that his plot wa^ known to Nero, de¬
clared himfelf emperor. The unpopularity of Nero fa¬
voured his caufe ; lie was acknowledged by all tbe
Roman empire, and the fenate condemned the tyrant
to be dragged naked through tbe rtreets of Rome’ and
whipped to death, and afterwards to be thrown down
from the I arpeian rock like the meaneft malt factor.
This, however, was not executed 5 for Nero pre¬
vented it by a voluntary death. He killed himf'df,
A. D. 68, in the 32d year of his age, after a reign
of 13 years and eight months. Rome was filled with
acclamations on the oceafion 5 and the citizens, more
ftrongly to indicate their joy, rvore caps, fuch as
were generally ufed by (laves who had received their
freedom. Their vengeance was not only exercifed
againft the ftatues of the deceafed monfter, but many
of his friends were the objeft of the public refentment;
and many were cruftied to pieces in fuch a violent
manner, that one of the (enators, amid the univerfal
joy, faid that he was afraid they jfhould foon have
caufe to with for Nero. The tyrant, as he expired,
requefted that his head might not be cut off from
Ins body, and expofed to the infolence of the popu¬
lace, but that the whole might be burned on the
funeral pile. His requeft was granted by one of Galba’s
freedmen, and his obfequies were performed with the
ufual ceremonies. Though his death feemed to be the
fource of general gladnefs, yet many of his favourites
lamented his fall, and were grieved to fee that their
pleafures and amufements were flopped by the death
of this patron of debauchery and extravagance. Even
the king of Parthia fent ambaffadors to Rome, to con¬
dole with the Romans, and to beg that they would
honour and revere the memory of Nero. His ftatues
were alfo crowned with garlands of flowers ; and
many imagined that he was not dead, but that he
would foon make his appearance and take vengeance
on his enemies. It will be fufficient to obferve, in
finiming the character of this tyrannical monfter, that
the name of Nero is even nowr ulcd emphatically to ex-
prefs a barbarous and unfeeling oppreffor. Pliny calls
him tne common enemv and fury of mankind \ and fo
indeed he has been called by all writers, who exhibit
Nero as a pattern of the moft execrable barbarity and
unpardonable vvantonnefs. J he fame Pliny furnifhes us
with this Angular anecdote of him ; “ Nero had or-
[ 764 1
N E S
dered himfelf to be painted under the figure of a co-
loffus, upon cloth or canvas, 120 feet in height.” He
adds, “ that this prepofterous picture, when it was fi-
niflied, met with its fate from lightning, which con-
fumed it, and involved like wile the moft beautiful part
of the gardens where it was placed in the conflagra¬
tion.”
NERVA, Cocceius, a Roman emperor after Do»
mitian, who was the lad of the 1 2 Cafiars. He was a
native of Narnia in Umbria; his family, however, was
originally of Crete. Dion Caflius fays he was born on
the 17th of March, in the 18th y ear of Tiberius’s reign,
and of the Chriltian era the 3 2d. Nero in the 12th year
of his reign made him praetor, and erefted a ftatue for
him in the palace on account of his poems (for he was
one of the beft poets of his age), fome of which were
infcribed to him. He was conful in 71 with Veipalian,
and in 90 with Domitian.
.Ancient authors uniformly celebrate him as a prince
of a moft mild and humane temper, of great moderation
and generofity, who looked on his office as emperor,
not as if it was for his own advantage, but for that of
his people ; and wfiilft lie reigned, which was however
but for a fliort time, he made the happinefs of his fub-
je£b his only end and purfuit. He narrowly efcaped
death under Domitian ; was naturally of a weak and
timorous difpolition ; and, as fome fay, addicted to ex-
ceffive drinking. The Romans unanimoufly chofe him
emperor ; and they had no caufe to repent of their
choice, for he was conftantly attentive to what could
make them happy ; he was generous, merciful, and dif-
interefted. An infiance of his great lenity appears in
his pardoning Calpurnius Craffus who confpirea agairdt
him. In fliort, he omitted nothing that might contri¬
bute to the reftoring of the empire to it- former luftre :
recalling thofe w'ho had been banifhed for religion, and
redrefling all grievances that came to his knowledge.
He however found bis ftrength failing, and that it
would be impoflible for him to finifh his defigns, in
confijquence of which he adopted Trajan. After his
death, which happened in the year 98, he was ranked
among the gods. He was the firft Roman emperor of
foreign ex trad! ion.
NERVES, in Anatomy, certain white gliflening
cords, proceeding from the brain and fpinal marrow,
and dividing into very fmall branches, which are fent
off throughout all parts of the body ; and which are
found to be the organs of fenfation and motion. See
Anatomy Index.
NERVOUS fluid. See Anatomy Index.
NESS US, in fabulous hiftory, a celebrated Centaur,
fon of Ixion and a Cloud. He offered violence to De~
janira, whom Hercules had intrufted to his care, with
orders to carry her acrofs'the river Evenus. Hercules
faw the diftrefs of his wife from the oppofite fhore of
the river, and immediately he let fly one of his poifon-
ed arrows, which (truck the Centaur to the heart. Nef-
fus, as he expired, gave the tunic he then wore to De-
janira, affuring her that from the poifoned blood vdiich
bad flowed from his wounds, it had received the power
of calling a hufhand away from unlawful loves. Deja-
nira received it with pleafure, and this mournful prefent
cauied the death of Hercules. A river which fepa-
rates Thrace from Macedonia. It is alfo called Nefus,
Nejlos, and Ntjlus,
Nera
II
Neffus.
NEST.
[
Neft,
Neftor.
N E S
NEST- See Nidus.
Eatable Birds NESTS. See BIRDS Nejls.
' NESTOR, in fabulous hiftory, a fon oi Neleus and
Chloris, nephew to Pelias and grandfon to Neptune.
He had eleven brothers, who were all killed with his
father by Hercules. His tender age detained him at
home, and was the caufe of his prefervation. 1 he con¬
queror fpared his life and placed him upon the throne
of Pylos. He married Eurydice the daughter ot Uly-
roenus •, or, according to others, Anaxibia the daugh¬
ter of Atreus. He foon diftinguiftied himfelf m the
field of battle •, and was prefent at the nuptials ot Pen-
thous, when a bloody engagement took place between
the Lapithae and Centaurs. As king of Pylos and
Meffenia he led his fubjcds to the Trojan war where
he diitinguithed himfelf among the reft of the Grecian
chiefs, by eloquence, addrefs, wifdom, juftice, and un¬
common prudence. Homer difplays his character as
the mod perfect of all his heroes j and Agamemnon ex¬
claims, that if he had 20 generals like Neftor, he
fhould foon fee. the walls of Troy reduced to allies. After
the Troian war Neftor retired to Greece, where he en¬
joyed in the bofom of his family the peace and tranquil¬
lity which were due to his wifdorn and to his age. 1 le
manner and the time of his death are unknown : the
ancients are all agreed that he lived three generations
of men 5 which length of time is fuppofed to be 300
years, though more probably only 90 years, allowing
30 years for each generation. From that circumftance,
therefore, it was ufual among the Greeks and the La¬
tins, when they wished a long and happy life to their
friends, to with them to fee the years of Neftor. He
had many children 5 two daughters, Piftdice and Po-
lycafte : and feven fons, Perfeus, Straticus, Aretus,
Echephron, Pififtratus, Antilochus, and Thrafymedes.
Neftor was one of the Argonauts, according to Vale¬
rius Flaccus, v. 380, &c.—A poet of Lycaoma in
the age of the emperor Severus. He was father to
Pifander, who under the emperor Alexander wrote
fome fabulous ftories One of the body guards of
Alexander.
Nestor, whofe fecular name is not known, was a
native of Rufiia, and the earlieft hiftorian of the north.
He was born in 1056 at Bielozero ; and in the 19th
year of his age he affumed the monaftic habit in the
convent of Petcherikf at Kiof, and took the name of
Neftor. He there made a confiderable profieiency in
the Greek language : but feems to have formed his
ityle and manner rather from the Byzantine hiftorians,
Cedrenus, Zonaras, and Syncellus, than from the an¬
cient claflics. F he time of Neftor,s death is not afeer-
tained ; but he is fuppofed to have lived to an advan¬
ced age, and to have died about the year 1115.
His great work is his Chronicle, to which he has
orefixed an mtroduftion, which after a fhort {ketch of
the early ftate of the world, taken from the Byzantine
writers, contains a geographical defcription of Ruffia
and the adjacent regions ; an account of the Sclavonian
nations, their manners, their emigrations from the
blanks of the Danube, their difperfion, and fettlement
in the feveral countries wherein their defcendants are
now eftabliftied. He then enters upon a chronological
feries of the Ruffian annals, from the year 858 to about
111 3. His ftyle is fimple and unadorned, inch as fuits
a mere recorder of fads} but his chronological e.xad>
76s 1 n e s
nefs, though it renders his narrative dry and and tedious, Ndtor,
contributes to afcertain the era and authenticity of the
events which he relates.
It is remarkable flays Mr Coxe, from whom we
have taken this narrative), that an author oi fuch im¬
portance, whofe name frequently occurs in the early
Ruffian books, Ihould have remained in obfeurity above
600 years •, and been fcarcely known to his modern
countrymen, the origin and adions of whole anceftors
he records with fuch circumftantial exadnefs. A copy
of his Chronicle was given in 1668 by Prince Radzivil
to the library of Konigfburg, where it lay unnoticed
till Peter the Great, in his paffage through that town,
ordered a tranfcript oi it to be font to Peterfburgh. But
it [till was not known as the performance oi Neftor :
for when Muller in 1732 publiftied the fir ft part of a
German tranllation, he mentioned it as the work oi the
abbot Theodofius of Kiof; an error which arofe from
the following circumftance : The mgenious editor not
being at that time fufficiently acquainted with the Scla¬
vonian tongue, employed an interpreter, who, b^ mil-
taking a letter in the title, fuppofed it to have been
written by a perfon whofe name was 1 heodolius. ^ Ihis
ridiculous blunder was loon circulated and copied by
many foreign writers, even long aiter it had been can¬
didly acknowledged and correded b} Muller. .
NESTOR IANS, a fed of ancient Chriftians, ftill
faid to be fubfifting in fome parts of the Levant;
whofe diltinguilhing tenet is, that Mary is not the
mother of God. 1 hey take their name from Nefto-
rius bilhop of Conftantinople, whofe dodrines were
fpread with much zeal through Syria, Egypt, and
Perils*
One of the chief promoters of the Neftorian caufe
was Barfumas, created bilhop of Nifibis, A. 1). 435*
Such was his zeal and fuccefs, that the Neilorians,
who ftill remain in Chaldea, Perfia, Aftyria, and the
adjacent countries, confider him alone as their parent
and founder. By him Pherozes the Perfian monarch
was perfuaded to expel thofe Chriftians who adopted
the opinions of the Greeks, and to admit the rsielionans
in their place, putting them in poffelfion of the princi¬
pal feat of eccleliaftical authority in Perfia, the lee of
Seleucia, which the patriarch of the Neftorians has al¬
ways filled even down to our time.—Barfumas alfo
ere'ded a fchool at Nifibis, from which proceeded thofe
Nefiorian dodors who in the fifth and fixth centuries
fpread abroad their tenets through Egypt, S^ria, Ara¬
bia, India, Tartary, and China.
He differed confiderably from Neftorius, holding
that there are twm perfons in Jems Chrilt, as well as
that the Virgin was not his mother, as God, but only
The abettors of this do&rine refufe the title Nefto¬
rians •, alleging that it had been handed down from the
earlieft times of the Chriftian church.
In the tenth century, the Neftorians in Chaldea,
whence they are fometimes called Chaldeans, extended
their fpiritual conqueits beyond IVIount Imaus, and in¬
troduced the Chriftian religion into Tartary properly
fo called, and efpecially into that country called Karit,
bordering on the northern part of China. The prince
of that country, whom the Neftorians converted to the
Chriftian faith, affumed, according to the vulgar tradi¬
tion, the name of John after his baptilm, to which he
added
N E S [766
Neflo'r'iu's’’aJ<le'1 tlie furnam' of Prejbyter, from a principle of
«-—y— . niodefty j whence it is faid his fuccefiors were each of
them called Pre/ler John until the time of Gengis
Khan.. But Mofheim obferves, that the famous Prefter
John did not begin to reign in that part of Alia before
the conclufion of the nth century. The Neftorians
formed fo confxderable a body of Chriftians, that the
miffionaries of Rome were induftrious in their endea¬
vours to reduce them under the papal yoke. Inno¬
cent IV. in 1246, and Nicolas IV. in 1278, ufed their
utmoft efforts for this purpofe, but without fuccefs. Till
the time of Pope Julius III. the Neftorians acknow¬
ledged but one patriarch, who refided firft at Bagdad,
and afterwards at Mouful; but a divifion arifing among
them, in 1551 the patriarchate became divided, at
fcaft for a time, and a new patriarch was confecrated
by that pope, whofe fucceffors fixed their refidence in
the city of Ormus in the mountainous part of Perfia,
where they ftill continue, diftinguilhed by the name of
Simeon; and fo far down as the laft century, thefe pa¬
triarchs perfevered in their communion with the church
of Rome, but feem at prefent to have withdrawn them-
felves from it. I he great Neftorian pontiffs, who form
the oppofite party, and look with a hoftile eye on this
little patriarch, have fince the year 15 ^9 been diftin-
guiftied by the general denomination of Elias, and re-
fide conftantly in the city of Mouful. Their fpiritual
dominion is very extenfive, takes in a great part of A-
fia, and comprehends alfo within its circuit the Arabian
Neftorians, and alfo the Chriftians of St Thomas, who
dwell along the coaft of Malabar. It is obferved, to
the lafting honour of the Neftorians, that of all the
Chriftian locietios eftablifhed in the Eaft, they have
been the moft careful and fuccefsful in avoiding a mul¬
titude of fuperftitious opinions and praftices that have
infe&ed the Greek and Latin churches. About the
middle of the 17th century, the Romifti miffionaries
gained over to their communion a fmall number of Ne¬
ftorians, whom they formed into a congregation or
church ; the patriarchs or biffiops of which refide in the
city of Amida, or Diarbekir, and all affume the deno¬
mination of Jofeph. Neverthelefs the Neftorians in ge¬
neral perfevere to our own times in their refufal to en¬
ter into the communion of the Romifti church, notwith-
ftanding the earneft entreaties and alluring offers that
have been made by the pope’s legate to conquer their
inflexible conftancy.
NEST OR I US, from whom the fe<ff of Neftorian
Chriftians derive their name, was born in Germanica a
city of Syria. He received his education at Antioch,
where he was likewife baptized •, and foon after his bap-
tifm he withdrew himfelf to a monaftery in the fuburbs
of^ that city. Upon his being admitted to the order of
priefthood, he quickly acquired fo great reputation by
the eloquence of his preaching, and the regularity of
his life, that by the emperor Theodofius he was deem¬
ed a fit perfon to fill the fecond fee in the Chriftian
church, and was accordingly confecrated bifhop of Con-
ftantinople in the year 429.
In one of hit firft fermons after his promotion, he
publicly declared his intention to make voar upon here¬
tics ; and with that intolerant fpirit which has fo often
difgraced the preachers of the mild religion of Jefus, he
called upon the emperor to free the earth from heretics,
promifing to give him heaven as a reward for his zeal.
1 N E S
To this fpiritual motive he added one, that, though Neltoriw.
carnal, he poffibly judged of equal force Join v*—
with me (faid he) in war againft them, and I will affift
} ou againft the Perfians.” Although the wifer and
better part of his audience were amazed to fee a man,
before he had tafted (as the hiftorian * expreffes him- * Serrate*
lelf) the water of his city, declare that he would per- ^
fecute all who were not of his opinion ; yet the majori¬
ty of the people approved of this difeourfe, and encou¬
raged him to execute his purpofe. Accordingly, five
days after his confecration, he attempted to demoliffi
the church in which the Arians fecretly held their af-
femblies ; and he fucceeded fo far in his defign, that
thefe people, growing defperate, fet it on fire them-
felves, and confumed with it fome of the neighbourino-
houfes. This fire excited great commotions in the
city, and Neftorius was ever afterwards called an ?’//-
cendiary.
From the Arians he turned his perfecution againft
the Novatians, but was flopped in his career by the in-
terpofition of the emperor. He then let loofe his fury
upon thole Chriftians of Afa, Lydia, and Curia, who
celebrated the feaft of Eafter upon the 14th day of the
moon 5 and for this unimportant deviation from the Ca¬
tholic praftice, many of thofe people were murdered
by his agents both at Miletum and Sardis.—One can¬
not be ferry that fuch a relentlefs perfecutor ffiould him¬
felf be afterwards condemned as a heretic, for holding
an opinion which no man who fpeaks or thinks with
philofophic accuracy will now venture to controvert.
I his obnoxious tenet which produced a fchifm in the
church, and was condemned by a general council, was
nothing more than that “ the Virgin Mary cannot with
propriety be called the mother of God.” The people
being accuftomed to hear this expreffion, were much
inflamed againft their bilhop, imagining that he had re¬
vived the error of Paulas Samofetenus and Photinus,
who taught that Jefus Chrift was a mere man. The
monks declared openly againft him, and, with fome of
the moft confiderable men of Conftantinople, feparated
themfelves from his communion. Several biffiops wrote
to him earneft perfuafives to acknowledge that Mary
was the mother of God ; and when he would not com¬
ply, they procured his condemnation in the council of
Ephefus, which deprived him of his fee. He then re¬
tired to his ancient monaftery at Antioch, whence he
was taken four years afterwards by the emperor’s order,
and baniffied in 435 to Tarfus. That city being taken
and deftroyed by the Barbarians, he was removed to
Panopolis, a city of Thebais; where he was not fuffer-
cd to remain long, but was compelled to go from place
to place, till, being in one of his journeys mortally
bruifed by a fall, death relieved him from the fury of
his perfecutors.
If we examine fuch of his writings as remain, wre
fliall find that he wras very unjuftly condemned. It ap¬
pears that he rtje&ed the errors of Ebion, Paulas Sa¬
mofetenus, and Photinus ; that he maintaned in exprefs
terms, that the divine Word vras united to the human
nature in Jefus Chrift in the moft ftrift and intimate
fenfe poffible ; that thefe twTo natures, in this ftate of
union, make but one Chrift and one perfon j that the
properties of the Divine and human natures may both
be attributed to this perfon; and that jefus Chrift may
be faid to have been born of a virgin, to have fuffered
and
Net.
NET [
Neftorius and died ; but he never would admit that God could
be faid to have been born, to have fuffered, or to have
tiled.—When we confider that every perfon partakes of
the fubftance of his mother, and that it is this which
conftitutes the parental and filial relation between them,
it is indeed furprifing that the expreffion “ Mother oi
God” Ihouldever have been admitted into the Chriftian
church, or that any man who underftands the meaning
of the words fiiould condemn Neltorius for not having
ufed them.
NESTUS, or Nessus, a river which feparates
Thrace from Macedonia. It falls into the iEgean fea
near the ifland Thafos. It is fometimes called Nej'us
and Neffus.
NET, a device for catching fiih and fowl. See the
article Fishery.
The taking fowls by nets is the readiell and moft
advantageous of all others, where numbers are to be
taken. The making the nets is very eafy, and what
every true fportfman ought to be able to do for himfelf.
All the neceffary tools are wooden needles, of which
there Ihould be feveral of different fizes, fome round
and others flat ; a pair of round pointed and flat fcif-
fars j and a wheel to wind off the thread. The pack¬
thread is to be of different ifrength and thicknefs, ac¬
cording to the fort of birds to be taken ; and the gene¬
ral fize of the mefhes, if not for very fmall birds, is
two inches from point to point. The nets fhould nei¬
ther be made too deep nor too long, for they are then
difficult to manage •, and they muff be verged on each
fide with twilled thread. The natural colour of the
thread is too bright and pale, and is therefore in many
cafes to be altered. The moll ufual colour is the ruf-
fet } which is to be obtained by plunging the net, after
it is made, into a tanners pit, and letting it lie there
till it be fufficiently tinged : this is of a double fervice
to the net, fince it preferves the thread as well as alters
the colour. The green colour is given by chopping
fome green wheat and boiling it in water, and then
foaking the net in this green tindlure. The yellow co¬
lour is given in the fame manner with the decodtion of
celandine ; which gives a pale ftraw-colour, which is
the colour of Hubble in the harveft-time. The brown
nets are to be ufed on ploughed lands, the green on
grafs grounds, and the yellow on Hubble lands.
Dcty-NET, among fowlers, a net generally ufed for
taking fuch fmall birds as play in the air, and -will
Hoop either to prey, gig, or the like ; as larks, linnets,
Sbortfman's buntings, &c. The time of the year for ufing this net
Dictionary- is from Augufl to November 5 and the beH time is
very early in the morning : and it is to be obierved,
that the milder the air, and the brighter the fun is, the
better will be the fport, and of longer continuance.
The place where this net ffiould be laid, ought to be
plain champaign, either on ffiort Hubbles, green leas,
or flat meadoivs, near corn fields, and fomewhat remote
from towns and villages : you mufi be fure to let your
net lie clofe to the ground, that the birds creep not
out and make their efcape.—The net is made of a fine
packthread with a fmall mefh, not exceeding half an
inch fquare ; it mufl be three fathoms long, and but
one broad : it muH be verged about with a fmall but
Hrong cord ; and the tAvo ends extended upon two
fmall long poles, fuitable to the breadth of the net,
767 ] NET
with four flakes, tail-flrings, and draAving-lines.—This
net is compofed of tivo, which mufl be exactly alike ; ^
and are to be laid oppofite to one another, fo even and
clofe, that Avhen they are draivn and pulled over, the
fides muft meet and touch each other. You muft flake
this net down with ftrong flakes, very ft iff on then-
lines, fo that you may Avith a nimble touch eaft them
to and fro at pleafure ; then fallen your drawing-cord
or hand-lines (of which there muft be a dozen at leaft,
and each two yards long) to the upper end of the fore-
moft Haves : and fo extend them of fueh a ftraitnefs,
that Avith a little ftrength they may rife up in the nets
and call them over.
Your nets being thus laid, place your gigs, or play.
ing-Avantons, about 20 or 30 paces beyond, and as
much on this fide your nets : the gigs muft be faflened
to the tops of long poles, and turned into the wind, io
as they may play to make a noife therein. Thefe gigs
are a fort of toys made of long goofe-feathers, like
ihuttle-cocks, and Avith little fmall tunnels of wood
running in broad and flat fwan-quills, made round like
a fmall hoop ; and fo, Avith longer ftrings faftened to a
pole, will, Avith any fmall Avind or air, move after fuch
a manner, that birds Avill come in great flocks to play
about them.
When you have placed your gigs, then place your
ftale j Avhich is a fmall flake of Avood, to prick doivn
into the earth, having in it a mortice-hole, in which
a fmall and flender piece of Avood, about tAvo feet
long, is faftened, fo as it may move up and doA\rn
at pleafure : and fallen to this longer flick a fmall line,
which, running through a hole in the flick above-
mentioned, and fo coming up to the place Avhere you
are to fit, you may, by draAving the line up and doivn
Avith your right hand, raife up the longer flick as you
fee occafion.
Faften a live lark, or fuch like bird, to this longer
flick, Avhich, Avith the line making it to ftir up and
doAvn by your pulling, Avill entice the birds to come to
your net.
There is another ftale, or enticement, to draAV on
thefe birds, called a lookmg-glafs; which is a round
flake of Avood, as big as man’s arm, made very fliarp at
the end, to thruft it into the ground : they make it
very holloAV in the upper part, above five fingers deep j
into Avhieh holloAV they place a three-fquare piece of
Avood about a foot long, and each Iavo inches broad,
lying upon the top of the flake, and going Avith a foot
into the holloAvnefe : Avhich foot muft have a great knob
at the top, and another at the bottom, Avith a deep
flendernefs between ; to Avhich flendernefs you are to
faften a fmall packthread, which, running through a
hole in the fide of the flake, muft come up to the place
where you fit. The three-fquare piece of Avood which
lies on the top of the flake, muft be of fuch a poife and
evennefs, and the foot of the focket fo fmooth and
round, that it may whirl and turn round upon the leaft
touch j Avinding the packthread fo many times about
it, which being fuddenly drawn, and as fuddenly let
go, will keep the engine in a conftant rotatory mo¬
tion : then faften Avith glue on the uppermoft flat
fquares of the three-fquare piece, about 20 fmall
pieces of looking-glafs, and paint all the fquare wood
betiveen them of a light and lively red $ which, in
the
Net.
NET r 7*8 ] NET
the continual motion, ■will give fucli a reflexion, that
play about to admiration until they are
t ‘ . taken.
Both this and the other ftale are to be placed in the
middle between the two nets, about two or three feet
diftance from each other ; fo that in the falling of the
nets, the cords may not touch or annoy them : neither
mult they Hand one before or after another •, the glais
being kept in a continual motion, and the bird very
often fluttering. Having placed your nets in this
manner, as alfo your gigs and ftales, go to the fur¬
ther end of your long drawing lines and ftale lines ;
and having placed yourfelf, lay the main drawing line
acrofs your thigh, and, with your left, pull the ftale
line to (how the birds •, and when you perceive them
to play near and about your nets and ftales, then pull
the net over with both hands, with a quick but not
too hafty motion ; for otherwife your fport will be
fpoiled.
Plate See Plate CCCLXIX. where A fhows the bodies of
sCCLXIX. ma|n ne^ ancj how they ought to be laid. B, the
tail lines, or the hinder lines, flaked to the ground.
C, the fore lines flaked alfo to the ground. D, the
bird ftale. E, the looking glafs ftale. G, the line
which draws the bird ftale. H, the line that draws
the glafs ftale. I, the drawing double lines of the
nets, which pulls them over. K, the flakes which
flake down the four nether points of the nets and the
two tail lines. L, the flakes that flake down the fore
lines. M, the Angle line, with the wooden button to
pull the net over with. N, the flake that flakes down
the tingle line, and where the man (hould fit ; and O,
the gig.
NET, Neat, in commerce, fomething pure, and un¬
adulterated with any foreign mixture.
Thus wines are faid to be net when not falfified or
balderdafhed •, and coffee, rice, pepper, &c. are net
when the filth and ordures are ieparated from them.
See Neat.
A diamond is faid to be net when it has no ftains or
flaws •, a crvftal, when tranfparent throughout.
Net is alfo ufed for what remains after the tare
has been taken out of the weight of any merchan-
dife, i. e. when it is weighed clear of all package. See
Tare.
Thus we fay, a barrel of cochineal Weighs 450
pounds ; the tare is 50 pounds, and there remain net
.400 pounds.
NET Produce, a term ufed to exprefs what any com¬
modity has yielded, all tare and charges deduced.
The merchants fometimes ufe the Italian words netto
proceduto, for net produce.
NETHERLANDS, anciently called Bclqia, but
fince denominated Low Countries or Netherlands, from
their low fituation, are fituated between 2° and 70 of
eaft longitude, and between ^0° and 30' of north
latitude : and are bounded by the German fea on the
north, Germany on the eaft, by Lorrain and France on
the fouth, and by another part of France and the Bri-
tifh feas on the weft ; extending near 200 miles in
length from north to fouth, and 200 miles in breadth
from eaft to we ft. They c nfiit of r 7 provinces ; ic of
which are called the Aujlritm and French Netherlands,
and the other feven the United Provinces.
The greateft part of the Netherlands was conquered
by the Romans; and that part which lies towards
Gaul continued in their fubjeddion till the decline of
that empire 5 after which the Franks became mailers
of it ; and under the French monarchy, it was part of
the kingdom of Metz or Auftrafia.
Towards the end of the 15th century Maximilian of
Auftria, fon of the emperor Ferdinand 111. acquired,
by marrying the only daughter of the duke of Burgun¬
dy, the duchies of Brabant, Limbuig, and Luxemburg j
the counties of Flanders, Burgundy, Hainauit, Hol¬
land, Zealand, and Namur •, and the lordlhip of Frief-
land. Philip of Auftria, fon to Maximilian and Mary,
married Jane the daughter of Ferdinand king of Arra-
gon and of Ifabella queen of Caftile ; by which means
their fon Charles inherited not only almoft all Spain
and the great countries then lately difeovered in Ame¬
rica, but alfo thofe noble provinces of the Netherlands,
and was.chofen emperor under the name of Charles V.
Towards the latter end of the 1527, he added to his
dominions the temporalities of the bifhoprick of Utrecht
on both fides of the Yffel ; and Henry of Bavaria, be-
in? diftreffed through war with the duke of Guelder-
land, and tired with the continued rebellion of his own
fubjefls, furrendered to the emperor the temporalities
of his diocefe, which was confirmed by the pope, and
the ftates of the country. In 1536, Charles V. bought
of Charles of Egmond the reverfion of the duchy of
Guelderland and of the county of Zutphen, in cafe that
prince fhould die without iffue. The fame year the ci¬
ty of Groningen took the oath of allegiance, and fub-
mitted to Charles V. and in 1543 he put a garrifon in¬
to the city of Cambray, and built a citadel there. Hav¬
ing thus united the 17 provinces, as it were in one bo¬
dy, he ordered that they {hould continue for ever under
the fame prince, without being ever feparated or dif-
membered ; for which purpofe he publiftied in Novem¬
ber 1 ^49, with the confent and at the requeft of the
ftates of all the provinces, a perpetual and irrevocable
edieft or law, by which it was enadled, that in order to
keep all thofe provinces together under one and the
fame prince, the right of reprefentation, with regard to
the fucceflion of a prince or princefs, ftiould take place
for ever both in a direfl and collateral line, notwith-
ftanding the common laws of fume provinces to the
contrary. Charles had even a mind to incorporate
thefe provinces with the Germanic body, and to make
of them a circle of the empire, under the title of the cir¬
cle of Burgundy, in order thereby to engage the princes
of the empire to concern themfelves for the preferVa-
tion of thofe provinces. But the Netherlands, always
jealous of their liberty, did not feem to like that incor¬
poration ; and when they were demanded to pay their
{hare towards the expences of the empire, they refufed
it : whereupon the princes of Germany refufed, in their
turn, to take any part in the wars in Flanders, and
looked upon thofe provinces as by no means belonging
to the Germanic body.
Philin of Auftria and his fen Charles, who were born
in the Netherlands, had for thefe provinces that natural
affeftion which men ufe fo have for their native coun¬
try ; and, knowing how iealous the inhabitants were of
their liberty, and of the p ivileges granted to them by
their former rrinees, the\ took great care to preferve
them and fuff red willingH Tat the ftates, wht> were
the guardians of the people’s liberty and privileges,
{hould
Nether.
lands.
NET [
NetW- fliould in a manner (hare the fopreme authority »ith
lands. Philip II. fon to the emperor Charles V. had
not the fame atTeftion for the Netherlands, nor thole
generous fentiments which his father had endeavoured
to infnire him with. Being born m Spam of a Poitu-
guefe woman, he had no regard but f°r lu^ natlve
country j and, when he removed out of the Nether¬
lands, he left them to the weak government ot a wo¬
man, to the proud and haughty fpxnt of Cardinal de
Grenville, and to the wild ambition of fome lords ot
thefe provinces, who availing themfelves of the impru¬
dent conduit and continual blunders of the council o
Spain, found their private intereft in the difturbances
they could not fail to produce. Philip I. aim, mitead
of the mild and moderate meafures which his predtcel-
fors had fuccefsfully employed on many occalions as
belt fuiting the genius and temper of the people, ha
recourfe to the moft violent and cruel proceedings j
which, far from curing the evil, ferved only to exafpe-
rate it the more and render it incurable. the Spa¬
niards, whom he fent thither, being born and educated
in an abfolute monarchy, jealous of the liberties and
envious of the riches of the people, broke through all
their privileges, and ufed thern almoft after the fame
manner as they had done the inhabitants ot their new
and ill-gotten dominions in America. Phis treatmen
occafioned a general infurreftion. The counts Hoorn,
Egmont, and the prince of Orange, appeared at the
head of it, and Luther’s reformation gaining ground
about the fame time in the Netherlands, his difciples
ioined the malecuntents : whereupon King Philip in¬
troduced a kind of inquifition in order to fuppre.s
them, and many thoufands were put to death by that
court, befides thofe that periled by the fword j for
thefe perfecutions and encroachments had occafioned a
civil war, in which feveral battles were fought. I he
counts Hoorn and Egmont were taken ami beheaded ,
but the prince of Orange, retiring into Holland, wi i
the afliftance of England and France, preferved Ho -
land and fome of the adjacent provinces, which entered
into a treaty for their mutual defence at Utrecht in 1579,
and they have ever fince been ftyled the Umteci Pro.
vinces; hat the other provinces were reduced to the
obedience of Spain by the duke of Alva and other bpa-
nifli generals. However, their ancient privileges were
In a great meafure reftored every province was allow¬
ed its great council or parliament, whofe concurrence
was required to the making of laws, and raifing money
for the government, though thefe affemblies were too
'" en obliged to follow the di&ates of the court.
The emperor Jofeph IL endeavoured to deprive them
r .1 1 r  ^rvn ft it nti on : and he
NET
769 3
gotry for once laved a free people from the iron rod of Nether,
defpotilm on the one hand, and the cruelties ot frantic ^
democrates on the other. The provinces under the go- yjetongs.
vernment of France were, till the late revolution un-• —»
der the fame fevere arbitrary dominion as the other iub-
jects of that crown, and they now experience the lame
miferies with the reft of the republic.
The Spaniards continued pofleffed of almoft eight
of thefe provinces, until the duke of Marlborough
general of the allies, gained the memorable victory ot
Ramillies. After which Bruffels the capital, and great
part of thefe provinces, acknowledged Charles Vl. (at-
terwards emperor) their fovereign •, and his daughter,
the late emprefs queen, remained poffeffed of them till
the war that followed the death of her father, when
the French made an entire conqueft of them, except
part of the province of Luxemburg } but they were ie-
ftored by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle m x74^» an“
the French retained only Artois, the Cambrefis, part
of Flanders, part of Hainault, and part of Luxemburg,
of which they have had the dominion now upwards ot
eighty years. . . r
The foil is generally fruitful, but differs m the fe¬
veral parts. The climate alfo differs in the feveral
provinces *, in thofe towards the fouth it does not dit-
fer much from that of England, though the feafons
are more regular. In the northern provinces the win¬
ter is generally very ftiarp, and the fummer fultry hot;
but the exreme cold and exceflive heat feldom con¬
tinue above five or fix weeks. The air is reckoned
very wholefome, but is fubjeft to thick fogs m win¬
ter, through the moiftnefs of the country, which
would be very noxious, were it not for the dry eafterly
winds, which, blowing off a long continent lor two
or three months in the year, clear the air, and occaljon
very {harp frofts in January and February ", during
which, the ports, rivers, and canals are commonly ihut
up. The face of the country is low and flat: for, except
fome fmall hills and a few rifing grounds in Utrecht
and Guelderland, and in the parts lying towards Ger¬
many, there is no hill to be feen in the whole 17 pro¬
vinces. This is the reafon why they have been called
the Low Countries. French Flanders abounds in grain,
vegetables, flax, and cattle, but is in want of wood, tor
the hiftory of the events which took place in the Ne¬
therlands during the French revolution, by which they
were united to France, fee France.
For the Dutch Netherlands, fee UNITED Provinces.
NETHINIMS, among the Jews, the poftenty of
the Gibeonites, who were condemned by Jolhua to be
hewers of wood and drawers of water for the houle oi
even of the form of their free conftitution } and he
might very probably have fucceeded, had he not at¬
tempted at the fame time a reformation of the church.
The Auftrian Netherlands are wholly Catholic, and io
biaotted to the Romifh fuperftition, that though they
had tamely fubmitted to many encroachments ot the
archducal houfe on their civil rights, no fooner did the
monarch encroach upon the property of the- holy mo¬
ther church than they refifted his authority, and claim¬
ed all their ancient privileges political and religious.
The fame attachment to their ancient faith and worlhip
xllaHe them very lately contribute to expel from their
territories the French whom they had invited to relieve
them from the Auftrian yoke. Thus her religious bi-
Vol. XIV. Part II.
God. , . .
NETOPION, a name given by the ancients to a
very fragrant and coftly ointment, confifting of a great
number of the fineft Ipicy ingredients. Hippocrates,
in his Treatife of the Difeafes of Women, frequently
prtferibes the netopion in difeafes of the uterus ; and in
other places he fpeaks of its being poured into the ear
as a remedy for deafnefs ; thefe compofitions, by their
attenuating qualities, dividing^ tlm vifeous and thick
humours. The word netopion is alio fometimes uled to
exprefs the unguentum Egijptiacum, and fometimes Am¬
ply for oil of almonds.
'NETTINGS, in a (hip, a fort of grates made ot
fmall ropes feized together with rope yarn or twine, and
1 5 E hxe(i
N E V
Nettings fixed on the quarters and in the tops ; they are fome-
Nela times ftretched upon the ledges from the tvafte trees to
the roof trees, from the top of the forecaftle to the poop,
and fometimes are laid in the watte of a fliip to ferve
inftead of gratings.
NETTLE. See Urtica, Botany Index.
Sea-NETTLE. See Medusa, Helminthology In¬
dex, and AN1MAL- Flower.
Nettle Tree. See Celtis, Botany Index.
NETTUNO, a handfome town of Italy, in the
Campagna di Roma. It is but thinly peopled, though
feated in a fertile foil. The inhabitants are almoft all
hunters. E. Long. 12. 57. N. Lat. 41. 30.
NEVA, a river at Peterlhurgh, in Ruflia. The
views upon the banks exhibit the grandeft and molt
lively fcenes. The river is in molt places broader than
the Thames at London. It is deep, rapid, and tranf-
parent as cryital, and its banks are lined on each fide
with a continued range of handfome buildings. On
the north fide the fortrefs, the academy of fciences
and that of art are the moft finking objefts ; on the
oppofite fide are the imperial palace, the admiralty,
the manfions of many Ruflian nobles, and the Englifh
line, fo called becaufe (a few houfes excepted) the
whole row is occupied by the Englifti merchants. In
front of thefe buildings, on the fouth fide, is the quay,
which ftretches for three miles, except where it is in¬
terrupted by the admiralty ; and the Neva, during the
whole of that fpace, has been lately embanked at the
expence of the emprefs, by a wall, parapet, and pave¬
ment of hewn granite ; a moft elegant and durable mo¬
nument of imperial magnificence. There is a commu¬
nication between the oppofite fides of the river by a
bridge of pontoons, which, when any thing is appre-
hended from the force of ice rufhing down the ftream,
can be, and is generally indeed, removed. The great
depth of the river, it appears, prevents the building of
a ftone bridge ; and, if it could be built, there is no rea-
fon to fuppofe it could poftibly refill the force of thofe
vaft Ihoals of ice which in the beginning of winter come
down this rapid river. An attempt, however, has been
made to remedy this inconvenience j and a Ruffian
peafant has a6tually projected the plan of throwing a
wooden bridge of one arch acrofs it, which, in its nar-
roweft part, is 980 feet in breadth. As we think this is
a matter of very confiderable importance, as well as of
curiofity, wTe fhall give the following copious account of
the plan and its author, in Mr Coxe’s own words; who
tells us that the artift had then executed a model 98
feet in length, which he faw and examined with confi¬
derable attention.
“ The bridge is upon the fame principle with that
of Shaffhaufen, excepting that the mechanifm is more
complicated, and that the road is not fo level. I fhall
attempt to defcribe it by fuppofing it finilhcd, as that
will convey the belt idea of the plan. The bridge is
roofed at the top, and covered at the fides •, it is formed
by four frames of timber, two on each fide, compofed of
various beams or truffes, which fupport the whole ma¬
chine. The road is not, as is ufual, carried over the top
of the arch, but is fufpended in the middle.
“ The following proportions I noted down with the
greateft exaflnefs at die time when they were explain¬
ed to me by the artift.
r 77° i
N E V
658 feet.
980
658
2296
168
126
42
84
56
Length of the abutment on the north end,
Span of the arch,
Length of the abutment on the fouth end,
Length of the whole ftrufture, including the
abutments, - - .
The plane of the road upon its firft afcent
makes,an angle of five degrees with the
ordinary furface of the river.
Mean level of the river to the top of the
bridge in the centre,
Ditto to the bottom of the bridge in the
centre, -
Height of the bridge from the bottom to the
top in the centre,
Height from the bottom of the bridge in
the centre to the road,
Height from the bottom of ditto to the
water, -
Height from the water to the fpring of the
arch, - • _
So that there is a difference of 35 feet between
road at the fpring of the arch and the road at
centre ; in other words, an afcent of 35 feet in
980, or in the fpace of 490 feet, which is little more
than eight tenths of an inch to a foot. The bridge is
broadeft towards the fides, and diminiflies towards the
centre.
In the broadeft part it is
In the centre or narroweft
The breadth of the road is
“ The artift informed me, that to
bridge would require 49,650 iron nails,
trees, 5500 beams to ftrengthen them
would coft 300,000 rubles or 6o,oooL ___   
of this bold project with the ufual warmth of genius ,
and is perfectly convinced that it would be practicable.
I muft own that I am of the fame opinion, though I
hazard it with great diffidence. What a noble effeft
would be produced by a bridge ftriking acrofs the
Neva, with an arch 98c feet wide, and towering 168
feet from the furface of the water ! The defcription
of fuch a bridge feems almoft chimerical 5 and yet up¬
on infpeCtion of the model we become reconciled to the
idea. But whether the execution of this ftupendous
work may be deemed poffible or not, the model itfelf
is worthy of attention, and reflects the higheft honour
on the inventive faculties of that unimproved genius.
It is fo compaClly conftrufted, and of fuch uniform foli-
dftv, that it has fupported 3540 pood, or 1 27,440 pounds,
without having in the leaft fwerved from its direction,
which I am told is far more, in proportion to its fize,
than the bridge if completed would have occafion tb
fuilain from the preffure of the carriages added to its
own weight.
“The perfon who projeCled this plan is a common
Ruffian peafant. This extraordinary genius was ap¬
prentice to a ffiopkeeper at Niffinei Novogorod : oppo¬
fite to his dwelling was a wooden clock, which ex¬
cited his curiofiry. By repeated examination he com¬
prehended the internal ftruClure, and without any af-
fiftance formed one exaftly fimilar in its proportion
and materials. His fuccefs in this firft effay urged
him to undertake the conftrudlion of metal clocks and
watches.
the
the
half
168 feet.
42
28
complete the
12,908 large
: and that it
He fpeaks
Neva
II
N euchat-
tei:
N E U f 77
watclies. The emprefs, hearing of thefe wonderful ex¬
ertions of his native genius, took him under her pro-
teftion, and fent him to England ; from whence, on
account of the difficulties attending his ignorance of
the language, he foon returned to Ruffia. 1 faw a
repeating watch of his workmanffiip at the Academy
of Sciences : it is about the bignefs of an egg *, in the
inhde is reprefented the tomb of our Saviour, with
the done at the entrance, and the centinels upon duty :
fuddenly the ftone is removed, the centinels fall down,
the angels appear, the women enter the fepulchre, and
the fame chant is heard which is performed on Eafter-
eve. Thefe are trilling, although curious performances;
but the Very planning of the bridge was a moll fublime
conception. This perfon, whofe name is K.uhbin^
bears the appearance of a Ruffian peafant: he has a
long beard, and wears the common drefs of the coun¬
try. He receives a penlion from the emprefs, and is
encouraged to follow the bent of his mechanical ge¬
nius (a). ...
NEVEL, or Nebel, in the Jewiffi antiquities, a
kind of mulical inftrument. See Nablum.
NEVERS, a town of France, in the department of
Nievre, and fituated in E. Long. 3. 14. N. Lat. 46. 59.
on the river Loire, which here receives the rivulet
Nievre, from which this city derives its name. It is a
place of great antiquity, fuppofed to be Csefar s Novio-
dunum in ^duis, where he ere&td magazines for his
armies. Francis I. made it a duchy and peerage in
X 521, in favour of Francis of Cleves, to whom it came
by marriage. It devolved afterwards to the houle of
Mantua, and then to the Palatine family, who in 1651
Ibid it to Cardinal Mazarine. The cardinal obtained
a title of duke and peer for his nephew Philip Mancini,
j'n whofe family it continued till the late revolution.
The town is fortified with walls, defended with many
high towers and deep ditches, and is the feat of a bi-
fhopric, fuffragan of Sens, as likewife of a bailiwic and
chamber of accounts. There is a ftone bridge on the
Loire, with 20 arches, a draw-bridge on each fide, and
-towers to defend them. This town is famous for its ma-
nufa&ure of glafs and earthen ware, and is faid to contain
about 8000 inhabitants. In the centre of Nevers, on the
fummit of a hill, is built the palace of the ancient
dukes. It appears to have been conftrufted in the fix-
teenth century, and exhibits a model of the beauty and
delicacv of Gothic architeaure. The apartments are
hung with tapeftry of 200 years old, which have an air
of grotefque and rude magnificence.
NEUCHATTEL, a town of Swifferland, capital
of a countv of the fame name. There are feveral an
cient ruins near it, which (how its former extent ; and
there are two large churches, befides a caftle where the
governor relides. The town contains about 3000 in-
, ] N E U
habitants. It is fituated partly on a fncall plain, be- Neuchat-
tween Mount Jura and the lake of Neuchattel, which —
is 1 “7 miles long and five broad ; the fide of the har¬
bour is the ufual walk of the inhabitants. Part of it
too is built upon the fide of the mountain ; whence
fome of its ftreets are very fteep. In this fmall place
feveral public works have lately been executed, which
Mr Coxe thinks are far beyond the revenues, or even
the wants, of fuch a little ftate. Among thefe he in-
ftances a fuperb caufeway and a town-houfe built
(fays he) of fuch folid materials, as if it was intended to
furvive to the moft diftant pofterity, and to rival the
duration of the much-famed Roman capitol.” At the
beginning of the 18th century, commerce was very
little followed in this town, owing to an abfurd opi¬
nion which prevailed among the inhabitants of. its be¬
ing difgraceful ; but this prejudice is now extingidffi-
ed, and the town in a much more flourifhing fituation
than before. The chief article of exportation is wine,
which is much efteemed; and manufa£lures of printed
linens and cottons have been eilabliffied with eonfider-
able fuccefs. The flourifhing ftate of Neuchattel is
'principally owing to the benefaftions of Mr David
Pury, late banker of the court at Lifbon. He was
born at Neuchattel in 1709 ; but having received his
education there, he quitted it in great poverty, and ic-
paired to Geneva, where he ferved his appren ictfhip,
but in what line is not mentioned. From Geneva he
went to London, where he afted as clerk to a. dt ler
in precious (tones, and acquired great reputation by
eftimating the value of diamonds at fight. After a-
long refidence in England he went to Lifbon, wlitre
he carried on a very extenfive commerce ; and ha\ mg
been appointed court-banker, his fortune rapidly in-
creafed. His generofity, however, kept pace with Ins
wealth ; and he not only remitted large fums to Neu¬
chattel while living, but left his country his heir when
he died. His contributions in all are eftimati d by Mr
Coxe at 200,0001. ; a con-derable part of which has
been employed in conftrudling the public works already
mentioned. Neuchattel has a grand and little council.
the firft is compofed of 40 perfons, with two mafters of
the keys ; the. little council confifts of 24 members, com¬
prehending the mayor, who is prefident. Thefe two
councils aflemble regularly every month. 1 he eccle-
fiaftics likewife aflemble every month, to confult on
affairs belonging to the church, and to fill up the plac es
of minifters that die. They choofe a dean every year,
who is prefident of the general affemblies, which are
called clajfes; and fometimes he is confirmed in this
dignity. E. Long. 7. 10. N. Lat. 47. 5.
Neuchattel, a fovereign county of Swifferland,
bounded on the weft by the Franche Compte, on the
north by the biftiopric of Bade, and on the eaft and
/ 5 E 2 fouth
(A) We We given this detail in Mr Coxe’s own words, as it appears to us to deferve attcnUon on ac¬
count of the greatnefs of the projea, which would have excited admrat.on had ,t been attempted by
lightened bv fcience and liberal arts, much more when it comes through the humble medium of a R*" P“ a •
It was never executed, as we are juft informed bv a gentleman who left St Peterltogh about the begmn.ng
of June 179a ; but the model remains, and is Hill (hown. The fame gentleman (we quote his own word,)
adds “ that'every mechanic thinks it prafticable ; and that the general belief is, that t lie en.pic ‘ ,
built It, had (he not found ufe for all her money in carrying on her warlike and diplomaUc tranfaa.ons with
lOtlier courts.”
N E V [ 77
Neuchattel fouth by the cantons of Berne and Friburg. This
Nevis, principality of Neuchattel and Vallengin extend from
—■ y—the lake of Neuchattel to the borders of Franche
Compte, being in length about 12 leagues, and fix in
breadth. The plain with the lower part of the moun¬
tains is occupied by the diftrid of Neuchattel, but
Vallengin is totally enclofed by Jura. Parallel chains
of thefe mountains run from eaft to weft, forming fe-
veral valleys in the moft elevated parts. The lower
grounds of this chain confift of arable lands and vine¬
yards ; the higher of large trafls of foreft, which in
many parts have been cleared and converted into paf-
ture grounds, intermixed with fields of barley and oats.
The inhabitants are numerous, and remarkable for
their genius, politenefs, and active induftry. It contains
three cities, one town, 90 villages, and about 300 houfes
difperfed in the mountains. The inhabitants are all
Proteftants, except two Roman catholic villages: and
in 1529 they entered into a ftri£l alliance with the can¬
tons of Berne, Friburg, Soleure, and Lucern. The air
is healthy and temperate, but the foil not everyrvhere
equally fertile : however, there are large vineyards,
which produce white and red wine, which laft is excel¬
lent. The paftures on the mountains feed a great num¬
ber of cattle *, there are plenty of deer in the forefts ;
the lakes and rivers abound with fifh. The mildnefs of
the government, and agreeable fituation of the inhabi¬
tants in general in thefe diftri&s, is evident from the
great increafe of population in the fpace of 32 years.
In 1752 they contained only 28,017 fubjefls and 4318
aliens: but in 1784 the number was augmented to
31,576 fubjects and 9704 aliens j being an increafe
of near a fourth part in that time. The facility with
which the burgherlhip of Neuchattel is acquired, may
alfo be accounted one of the means of augmenting its
population 5 for between the years 1760 and 1770,
the magiftrates admitted 41 perfons to this privilege 5
from 1770 to 1780, 46} from 1780 to 1785, 51 ; in
all 138 j many of whom had children before they pur-
chafed their burgherlhip, and 38 of them were foreigners,
either German, French, or Dutch. This country has
experienced fimilar changes with the reft of Switzer¬
land during the ufurpation of the French.
NEUFCHATTEAU,a commercial town of France,
in the department of the Vofges; formerly having an
abbey of the nuns of St Clair, a eommandery of Malta,
and feveral convents of monks and nuns. It is feated
in a fertile foil, which produces corn, wine, and all the
necelfaries of life, on the river Mouzon. E. Long. 5.
45. N. Lat. 48. 20.
NEVIS, one of the Caribbee illands, lying about
feven leagues north of Montferrat, and feparated from
St Chriftopher’s by a narrow channel. It makes a
beautiful appearance from the fea, being a large coni¬
cal mountain covered with fine trees, of an eafy afcent
on every fide, and entirely cultivated. The circumfe¬
rence is about 21 miles, with a confiderable traft of
level ground all around. The climate in the lower
part is reckoned to be warmer than Barbadoes, but it
is more temperate towards the fummit. The foil is
very fine in the lower part, but groivs coarfer as we
afcend. The produffions are nearly the fame with
tbofe of St Chriftopher’s. There are three pretty good
roads or bays, with fmall towns in their vicinity *,
Charles Town, Moreton bay, and Newcaftle. This
2 ] N E U
pleafant ifland was fettled under the aufpices of Sir
Thomas Warner from St Chriftopher’s. His fuccef-
for, Governor Lake, was confidered as the Solon of
this little country, in which he difpofed of every thing
with fuch prudence, wifdom, and juftice, as procured
him a high reputation with the French as well as
Englith. In the Dutch war they met with fome di-
fturbance from the French ; but by being covered by
an Englifh fquadron, the enemy were obliged to defilt
from their intended invafion, after a fmart engage¬
ment in fight of the ifland. Sir William Stapleton
fometimes refided here, and Sir Nathaniel Johnfon con-
ftantly, at which time the inhabitants of Nevis were
computed at 30,000. In the war immediately after
the revolution, they exerted themfelves gallantly, and
and had two regiments of 300 men each. In that of
Queen Anne they behaved equally well, though they
were lefs fortunate 5 for the French landing with a
fuperior force, and having inveigled moft of their
flaves, they were forced to capitulate. About 4000
of thefe flaves the French carried away and fold to
the Spaniards, to -work in their mines. The parlia¬
ment, after making due inquiry into the Ioffes they
had fuftained, voted them about a third part of the
fum in which they had fuftered. Thefe Ioffes by war,
an epidemic difeafe, and repeated hurricanes, exceed¬
ingly diminiflied the number of the people. They are
now thought not to exceed 2coo or 3000 whites* and
6000 blacks. There is here a lieutenant governor,
with a council, and an affembly, which is compofed
of three members from each of the five parifties into
which the ifland is divided. The commodities are
cotton and fugar ; and about 20 fail of ihips are an¬
nually employed in this trade.
N EUR AD A, in Botany, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the decandria clafs, and in the natural method
ranking under the 13th order, Succulents. See Bo¬
tany Index.
NEUROGRAPHY, fignifies a defeription of the
nerves. See Anatomy.
NEUROPTERA, the name of one of the orders
into which the clafs of infers is divided according to
the Linnaean claffification. See Entomology IndeXi
NEUTER, a perfon indifferent, who has efpoufed
neither party, and is neither friend nor foe.
A judge ought to be neuter in the caufes he judges *,
in queftions, where reafon appears neuter, a man fliould
ever incline to the fide of the unhappy.
Neuter, in Grammar, denotes a fort of gender of
nouns, which are neither mafouline nor feminine. See
Gender.
The Latins have three kinds of genders, mafculine,
feminine, and neuter. In Englifh, and other modem
tongues, there is no fuch thing as neuter nouns. See
Noun.
Verbs NEUTER, by fome grammarians called intranfi-
tive verbs, are thofe which govern nothing, and that are
neither a£live nor pofkive. See Verb.
When the aftion expreffed by the verb has no object
to fall upon, but the verb alone fupplies the whole idea
of the adtion $ the verb is faid to be neuter: as, I fleep,
thou yawneft, he fneezes, we walk, ye run, they ftand
ftill.
Some divide verbs neuter into, 1. Such as do not
fignify any a&ion, but a quality j as a/betf “ it is white
or
Nevis
if5
Neuter.
Neuter
w
Newark.
NEW [ 773 3
or a fituation, as fide,, “ he fits or have Tome relation of J 2,oool.
to place ; as ade/l, “ he is prefent or to time other
ftate or attribute, as regnal, “ he rules, &c. An ,
’ 2. Thofe that do fignify aftions, though thole luch as
do not pafs into any fubjeft different from the aftor j as
to dine, to fup, to play, &c. ^ \
But this latter kind fometimes ceafe to be neuler,
and commence a&ive j efpecially in Greek and Latin,
when a fubjeft is given them ; as, vivere vitam ambu-
lare viam, pugnare pugnam. Thus the old French poets
fey, Soupirer fan tourment; the Englilli, to Jigh Jus
But this is obferved only to obtain where fometbing
particular is to be expreffed, not contained in the verb :
as, vivere vitam beatam, to live a happy life j pugnare
bonam pugnam, to light a good figbt, &c.
According to the abbot de Dangeau, verbs neuter
may be divided into atlive and pajfwe ; the firft, thole
that form their tenfes in Englilh, by the auxiliary verb
to have; in French, by avoir. I he fecond, thole that
form them in Englilh with the verb to be; m Irench
£tre, Thus, to fleep, to yawn, dornur and eternuer,
are neuters aBive.—To come, and to arrive, are neuters
P ^Neutral Salts, in Chemijlry, compounded of an acid
with any other fubftance capable of uniting with it and
deftroying its acidity, as fulphuric acid and foda, or
Glauber’s fait, muriatic acid and foda, or common fait.
NEUTRALITY, the ftate of a perfon or thing
that is neuter, or that takes part with neither fide.
NEW-ABBEY, fituated near Kilcullen bridge m the
county of Kildare, and province of Leinfter, in Ireland.
It was founded by Rowland Euftace, of a great and an¬
cient family in this county ; the tower is ftill Handing,
and fome part of the abbey j the rums of the reft have
contributed to build feveral dwellings near it; In the
infide Rowland Euftace and his lady lie buried 5 their
figures, clothed in armour, are to be feen there. Near
this is a handfome feat of the Carter family, on the op-
pofite fide of the river Liffey. .
NEWARK upon Trent, in the county of Notting¬
ham, is a great thoroughfare in the York road, 124
miles from'London. It has bridges over the Trent,
which forms an ifiand here, by dividing itfelf into two
ftreams two miles above the town, which meet again
two miles below it. A magnificent caftle was built
here in the reign of King Stephen, which held out
ftoutly in the barons wars for King John, who died
here, October 19. 1216 *, and it alfo flood out for
King Charles I. to the laft •, but after he had put him-
felf mto the hands of the Scots army then before it,
the governor by his order furrendered it, after which
It was demolifhed.—It was fituated near the river ; the
walls of the towers are very thick, and of a very great
height *, and were there no hiftorical teftimony, thefe
remains are fufficient evidence that it was formerly of
great importance. In the court before thefe ruins is
a very fine bowling green, and near it a manufactory of
facking. The town being fubjeft to inundations from
the river Trent, and often from that circumftance made
impaffable* a turnpike road, at the inftigation of a pub¬
lican, was made about twenty years ago, fo high as to
be paffed with fafety in the greateft floods, by arches
of brick being made in feveral places tonarry off the
water, conftruaed by Mr Smeaton, . at the. expence
NEW
o. JZ.UUU.. Near the town there is a bridge Con- Newark
ftruCled for the fame purpofe, made moftly upon dry Newcaftle~
land, confifting of nine arches. Its church, which is on Tyne.
reckoned one of the fineft in the kingdom, was built by
Henry VI. and has a lofty fpire. . 1 •n r
NEWBOROUGH, or Newburgh, in the ille ot
Anglefey, North Wales, diftant from London 254
miles, though but a fmall town, fituated over againft
Caernarvon in North Wales, about 17 miles fouth-
weft from Beaumaris, is governed by a mayor, two
bailiffs, and a recorder. Its Welih name is Rhojjtr, or
Rhofvair. _ c n
NEWBURG, the name of feveral towns oi Ger¬
many, two of which are the chief towns of duchies or
the feme name} one in Bavaria, and the other m the
Palatinate. c r> 1
NEWBURY, a town in the county oi .Berks m
England, 16 miles from Reading, and 56 from Lon¬
don, arofe on the decay of Spinham-Land.^ Notwith-
ftanding its name fignihes New-Borough, it is as old
alrnoft as the Conqueft. It made fo much broad
cloth formerly, that in the reign of Henry VUL here
flourithed John Winfcomb, commonly called Jack oj
Newbury, one of the greateft clothiers that ever was
in England, who kept 100 looms in his houie *, and
in the expedition to Flowden Field againft the boots,
marched with 100 of his own men, all armed and
clothed at his own expence } and he built all the ivelt
of the church. Alfo Mr Kenric, the fon ot a
clothier here, though afterwards a merchant in Lon¬
don, left 4000I. to the town, as well as 7500I. to
Reading, to encourage the woollen manufactory, it
makes a great quantity of (balloons and druggets, but
not near fo much broad cloth now as formerly 5 yet it
is a flourifhing town, with fpacious ftreets, and a large
market place, in which is the guild-hall In the neig \-
bourhood, on the banks of the Rennet, there is a itra-
tum of petrified wood dug out for firing, where they fre¬
quently find trunks of large oaks yet undecayed, with
petrified hazel nuts, fir cones, &c. with the bones and
horns of flags, antelopes, &c. tufks of boars, and heaos
of beavers. The river Kennet, which abounds with
excellent trout, eels, and cray-fifti, runs through the
town and here is plenty of all other provifions. It
was made a corporation by Queen Elizabeth, and is
governed by a mayor, high fleward, aldermen, &c.
NEWCASTLE-zWer-Zf/?*’, a town in England^
in the county of Stafford, on a branch of the Irent, is
1 c miles north of Stafford, 33 feuth foutlr-eaft of War¬
rington, and 149 from London : had a caftle, now n*
ruins •, and is fo called from an older caftle, which for¬
merly flood two miles off, at Chefterton-under-Line.
It w^as incorporated by King Henry I. and again by
Queen Elizabeth and King Charles II. and is governed
by a mayor; two juftiees, two bailiffs, and 24 common
council.' The population in 1801 exceeded 4000. The
clothing trade fiourifties here ; but its chief manu-
fdftory is hats, here being an incorporated company of
felt-makers. A great quantity of ftone ware is made)
near this place. . .
Newcastle on Tyne, the capital of the county ot
Northumberland in England, 1 ? miles north of Dur¬
ham, 94 north of York, 63 fouth by eaft of Berwick,
60 eaft of Carlifle, and 271 from London, (lands at the
end of the Pifts wall, on. the north fide of the Tyne*
over
NEW r
7'2ry^0T!'v}lch !.' has.»ft?tely bridge into the bilhopric
^-—v—— J ur'iam» ln which its fuburb called Gatefide is iitu-
ated j for the liberties of Newcaftle extend no farthe r
than the great iron gate upon the bridge which lias the
arms of the bifliop of Durham carved on the ealt fide
and thofe of Newcaftle on the weft fide. W. Lono-.
I. 27. N. Lat. 55. 3. It is admitted to have been'a
Koman ftation, though no evidence at prefent appears,
except at Pandon-gate, whofe fuperftrucfture is of dif¬
ferent workmanfhip and model from any others of the
town, the arches being circular. The Carpenter’s
tower is alfo of Roman original. In the Saxons time
it was called MoncaJIer, from the monks here, who all
fled when it was depopulated by the Danes 5 and after¬
wards Newca/l/e, from a caftle built here by William
the Conqueror’s fon, Robert, in 1080, to defend the
country againft the Scots, whofe kings had this town be¬
fore the Norman conqueft, and fometimes refided here.
Several monafteries and houfes W’ere built here foon
after the caftle j and it rvas greatly enlarged and en¬
riched by a good trade to the coafts of Germany, and
by the file of its coal to other parts of England ; for
which, and for other merchandife, it is become the
great emporium of the north of England, it being the
neateft and largeft town in thofe parts, next to York.
In the reign of Edward I. it was burnt by the Scots j
)ut a very rich burgher who was taken prifoner, foon
ranfomed himfelf for a good fum of money, and be¬
gan the firft fortifications of the place, which he ex¬
tended from Sand-gate to Pampedon, and thence to
the Auftin friars gate 5 which the townfmen finifhed,
and encompafted with ftout walls, which extended two
miles, wherein are feven gates and many turrets, with
leveral cafements bomb-proof. To which two other
gates were added in more modern times, viz. Bridge-
gate and Sand-gate: the wall between them was af¬
terwards removed to open the quay. Edward III.
granted the corporation the duties and cuftoms of the
town for feven years, to enable them to complete the
fortification. It is a borough at leaft as ancient as
King Richard II. who granted that a fword fhould be
carried before the mayor ; and King Henry VI. made
it a town and county incorporate of itfelf, independen-
ent of Northumberland. Henry VII. built a mona-
ftery here for the Francifcans. Befides which, it had
feveral religious foundations, feveral of which ftruftures
nave been converted to companies halls and private
refidences In the reign of Henry VIII. this place
is laid to nave exceeded in the ftrength and magnifi-
cence of its works all the cities of England, and moft
places in Europe. The town is governed by a mayor,
12 aldermen, a recorder, fheriff, town clerk, a clerk of
the chambers, two coroners, eight chamberlains, a
^word-bearer, a water bailiff, and feven ferjeants at
mace. Its fituation, efpecially the moft bufy part of
it towards the river, is very uneven, it being built on
the declivity of a fteep hill, and the houfes very clofe.
The caftle overlooks the whole town. That part built
by Robert was of great ftrength, and fquare, and fur-
rounded by two walls 5 the fquare was 62 feet by c4
and the walls 13 feet thick, within which was a cha-’
peb The outward fortifications are now defaced, and
theii fite crowded with buildings. The tower remains
entire, and fituated on a lofty eminence, and its prin¬
cipal entrance is to the fouth. This caflle belongs to
774 1 new
the county, and makes no part of the liberties It isNetraitle
now the county prifon, and in the great hall the iudges on T>»e,
hold the aflizes. Here Baliol king of Scotland did ho- ' r"-“f
mage to King Edward I. in 1 292: as did Edward Baliol
111 '334 to King Edward III. Here is a magnificent
exchange and a cuftomhoufe j and a very fine quay.
1 here is a handfome manfion houfe for the mayor, who
is allowed 40001. a-year, for his table, befides a coach
and barge. I he old bridge was carried away in a
flood, and the prefent was en eltd about 177.-, 0f nine
noble elliptic arches. With the old bridge 22 houfes
were thrown down, and fix lives loft. It was original¬
ly built of wood i but having been deftroyed by fire in
1248, was rebuilt of ftone, and confifted of 12 arches
three of which on the north fide were clofed up, and
mrved for cellars : this was again rebuilt about 14150
ai1-j TS crowded with wooden buildings ; but near the
middle was a tower with an iron gate, ufed as a town
prifon A ftrong building croffed the bridge, which
was ufed as a magazine. On the fouth front was a
ftatue of Kmg Charles II. T he water which deftroy¬
ed this bridge, on November 11. 1771, was upwards
ot 12 feet above high water mark in fpring tides. On
removing the foundations of the piers of the old bridge
to ere& the prefent, by obfervations made, and medals
round, part of it is fuppofed to have exifted from the
time of the Romans. It is computed that above 6000
keelmen are employed here, who have formed thdm-
felves into a friendly fociety ; and, by their own con¬
tributions built a noble hofpital containing 50 cham¬
bers, for fuch of their fraternity as are poor, difabled,
or paft their labour; and it is fupported by the con¬
tribution of thofe that are in health. The town is
extremely populous 5 and, notwithftanding the multi¬
tude of thofe employed in and about the coal pits,
wuth which the town is in a manner furrounded, has
abundance of poor 5 but it has alfo many wealthy in¬
habitants, and it is faid they pay above 4000I. a-year
to their relief. It is obferved, that this town has the
greateft public revenue in its own right as a corpora¬
tion of any town in England, it being computed at no
ids than 8000I. a-year. In 1774, the receipts of the
corporation were 20,360k 9s. 8d.; and their diiburfe-
ments about 19,445!. The number of inhabitants is
about 36,891, exclufive of a number of feamen who
cannot be accurately eftimated. Here are four churches
or chapels. That of St Nicholas is the mother church,
a curious fabric, built cathedral-wife by David king of
Scots, 240 feet long, 75 broad, and proportionably
high, with a tower fteeple 194 feet in height, of Go¬
thic architefture j alfo St Andrew’s, St John’s, and
All Saints, lately rebuilt on the fite of the old ftruc-
ture, of a circular form. Here are alfo feveral meet¬
ing houfes, and four charity fchools for 300 children 5 ,
a fine hall for the furgeons, and a large prifon called
Newgate; alfo an hofpital for lunatics, another for the
lying in of married women, as well as a fund raifed
for the relief of thofe who are delivered at their own
houfes. Here is a well endowed and large infirmary,
and an affembly room that attraAs attention, contain¬
ing every ufeful apartment, and a ball room 93 feet
by 40 : The front is ornamented with fix Ionic pillars,
&c. In another part of the town is a new theatre!
Here is a very neat fet of baths. A free grammar
fchool was granted by James L from an old foundation
of
NEW [ 775 ] NEW
Newcaftle 0f St Mary’s hofpital, in the veftry room of whofe
on r>’«e chapel is the eleftion of the officers of the corporation.
There were formerly feveral palacesin this city, viz. Pam-
podon hall, Lumley place, Earl’s Place, Northumber¬
land houfe, Weftmoreland place, &c. The frge ma-
P)ns have lately erefted an elegant hall, richly orna¬
mented, to hold their lodge in, near High friar chair,
capable of holding above 4000 of that ancient frater¬
nity. Here is an hofpital for 39 decayed freemen
and their widows ; and another for three clergymen’s
widows and three merchants widows. I he Maidens
hofpital, built in 1753, is endowed with 2400I. for fix
maiden women and fix poor men. Dr Thomlin, a pre¬
bendary of St Paul’s, and re&or of Whicham in the
bilhopric of Durham, gave a library of above 6000
valuable books to the corporation, and fettled a rent
charge of 5I. a-year for ever for buying new ones 5
and Sir Walter Blacket, formerly one of its reprefenta-
lives in parliament, built a neat repofitory for them, and
fettled 25I. a-year for ever on a librarian. The upper
or north part of the town, inhabited by the politer fort
of people, is much pleafanter than that part next the
river, and has three level, well built, and fpacious
ftreets. The river all the way up from Shields to
Newcaftle is broad, the channel fafe, and the tide
flows with a firong current to the town, and far be¬
yond it. In the beginning of the civil wars, this town
was taken and plundered by the Scotch fanatics, who
here fold their king, Charles I. for 200,0001. in hand,
and fecurity for as much more. The glafs works are
very curious, and have more bufinefs of the fine fort
than moft other places: the duty on this article drawn
by government is faid to amount to 200,0001. annually.
Befides, it has a confiderable manufa&ure of broad and
narrow cloths, and feveral foap boileries •, and this
place is famous for grindftones, for which there is fuch
a demand, that fcarce a fhip ftirs without them ; from
whence came the proverb, “ That a Scotfman and a
Newcaftle grindftone travel all the world over.” Ships
fit for the coal trade are built here to perfe&ion, with
greSt ftrength. Here is a confiderable manufactory of
hardware and wrought iron, after the manner of that at
Sheffield Its markets are on Tuefdays and Saturdays.
Its fairs in Auguft, which laft nine days, and OCtober
29th, which laft nine days. By an aCt of Queen Mary,
the price of the carriage of goods hither from London
by waggons was fettled at 2d. per lib. London alone
is faid to confume at leaft 766,887 chaldrons of its
coal every year \ but as for the fifli vended in that
city by the name of Newcafle falmon, it is more pro¬
perly called Berwick falmon, the frefti falmon being
taken near 50 miles farther, as far as the Tweed, and
brought on the backs of horfes to Shields, where it
is cured, pickled, and fent on board for London. It
is worth remembering, that at the affizes here in 1743,
two old men were fubpoena’d hither as witneffes from
a neighbouring village, viz. one 13 ij years of age, and
his fon 95, both hearty, and having their fight and
hearing ; and that in 1744, one Adam Turnbull died
in this town aged 112, who had had four wives, the
laft of whom he had married when he was near 100
•years old.
The annual amount of the revenue of cuftoms at
this port, which Mr Brand in his Hiftory of New¬
caftle ftates at 41,000!. is now very confiderably up¬
wards of 70,000!.
The coals carried out of it annually (on an average
from 178 ij to 1791) were nearly 448,000 Newcaftle
chaldrons •, the weight of which is 1,187,200 tons.
The following are the exports of coals from the Tyne
for the years annexed.
Years.
1802
1803
1804
1805
Coaft ways.
494,488
505^37
579>929
552>827
Over fea.
4LL57
42,808
4^737
47>2I3
Plantations.
2844
1516
3852
2360
The number of perfons employed in the coal trade of
the rivers Tyne and Wear in 1792 exceeded 64,000.
The manufacture of earthen ware is greatly increaf-
ed, and carried on to great perfection in its neighbour¬
hood, in feven potteries j and their produce exported
hence to foreign parts, as well as to the different ports
of this kingdom ; fome of which potteries conftantly
employ upwards of 100 perfons, men, women, and
children.
New wrorks of confiderable extent for the manufac¬
ture of iron have been eftablifhed *, as alfo a very capi¬
tal manufactory for white lead, milled lead, &c. Inde¬
pendent of red and white lead, the quantity of lead ex¬
ported from the river Tyne during four years was as
follows.
Years.
1802
1803
1804
1805
Tons. Cwt.
8609 18
6364 6
10352 2
9l63 3
The trade with the Weft India iflands is increafing,
and may in time become very confiderable ; as the
port has great advantages, in being able to fupply
on the cheapeft terms many articles wanted in thofe
iflands ; fuch as coals, grindftones, lime, bricks, tiles,
iron wares, &c. ; and is moft advantageoufly fituated
for the re-exportation of the Weft India produce to
the ports on the Baltic, to Germany, the United Pro¬
vinces, Flanders, and part of France 5 and moreover,
the rifle of navigation, and the rate of infurance, not
being greater than between thofe iflands and Liver¬
pool, and fome other ports on the weftern coaft of this
kingdom.
The population of Newcaftle in i8or exceeded
28,000, and it is daily increafing in inhabitants and
opulence. It has long been noted for hofpitality and
good living. Great improvements have been made in-
the town, by opening new ftreets, and paving the prin¬
cipal ones, in the fame manner as in London. To the
lift of public edifices of modern ereClion, and mention¬
ed above, viz. the grand affembly rooms, and the ele¬
gant theatre, which were built by fubfeription, and the
fuperb parifti church of All Saints, built at a very great
expence by the parifhioners, may be added a commo¬
dious riding houfe, built alfo by fubfeription.
Newcastle, a borough town of Ireland, in the
county of Dublin, and province of Leinfter, which re¬
turns two members to parliament, and holds two fairs,
9th of May and 8th of October.
Newcastle is alfo the name of a handfome town
m
Newcaftle
on Tyne,
Newcaftle.
 v—
NEW [ 776
Newcafllo xn the county of Limerick and province of Munfter,
on the high road to Kerry, 114 miles from Dublin.
Here was a religious houfe poffeffed by the knights
templars. It is laid, they ufed feme barbarous cufloms
•which greatly difgufted the Iriih, who, watching a fa¬
vourable opportunity, attacked a number of the knights
riding out together and put them to death j the place
is dill remembered where their remains were interred.
This order was fuppreffed in the famous council of
Vienna, 22d of March 1312. Newcaftle confifts of a
large fquare where markets and fairs are held ; on the
northern fide Hands a market houfe, with an affembly
room ; on the fouth fide is the church, which is the
neateft in the county ; it was finilhed in 1777 at the
foie expence of Lord Courtenay. It Hands clofe to
the walls and fortifications of the knights templars, of
which one of the cafiles is fitted up for Lord Courte¬
nay’s agent.
Newcastle, a fmall town in America, 3 5 miles be¬
low Philadelphia, on the wefi bank of Delaware river.
It was firfi fettled by the Swedes about the year 1627,
and called Slock/10/m. It was afterwards taken by the
Dutch, and called New AmJ/erdam. When it fell in¬
to the hands of the Englifli, it was called by its pre-
fent name. It contains about 60 houfes, which have
the afpe£l of decay, and was formerly the feat of go-
vernment. This is the firll town that vras fettled on
Delaware river.
Newcastle, Duke of. See Cavendish.
Ne TV England. See ENGLAND, New.
New Eorejj of HampHiire in England, is a traft of
at leafi 4° miles in compafs, which had many populous
towni and villages, and 36 mother churches, till it
'was defiroyed and turned into a forefi by William the
Conqueror. There are nine walks in it \ and to every
-one a keeper, under a lord warden, befides two ran¬
gers, and a bow-bearer. As this large tratl: lay many
ages open and expofed to invafions from foreigners.
King Henry VIII. built fome cafiles in it ; and it has
now feveral pretty towns and villages. It is fituated
.in that part of HampHiire which is bounded on the
eafi by Southampton river, and on the fouth by the
Britifii channel. It poffeffes advantages of fituation,
with refpeft to the convenience of water carriage and
nearnefs to the dock yards, fuperior to every other
forefi, having in its neighbourhood feveral ports and
places of fiielter for {hipping timber, among which
Lymington is.at .the diftance of only two miles, Bew-
ley about half a mile, .and Redbridge three or four
miles from the foreft ; and the navigation to Portf-
mouth, the moft confiderable dock yard in this king¬
dom, is only about 30 miles from the neareft of thofe
places. This is the only foreft belonging to the
crown of which the origin is known- Doomfday-
book contains the moft difthuft account of its aflbre-
ilation by William the Conqueror : the contents of
every field, farm, or eftate afforefted, in hides, caru-
cates, or virgates, by which the extent of land was
then computed, together with the names of the hun¬
dreds and villages, and of the former proprietors
(which are for the moft part Saxon), the rent or yearly
value of eacli poffeffion, and the tax which had been
paid for it to the crown during the reign of Edward
the Confeffor, before the inhabitants were expelled,
and that part of the country laid wafte, are all to be
] N E W
found in that moft curious and venerable record.
Wifhing to difcovcr the original extent of the foreft,
we extradled, for our own information, all that relates
to it in that ancient furvey. The extract is far too
voluminous for infertion. The names of many of
the places having been changed fince that time, it is
difficult to afeertain with precifion what were then the
limits of the foreft. The oldeft perambulation we have
met with is among the Pleas of the Foreft, in the
eighth year of King Edward I. preferved in the
Chapter-houfe at Weftminfter. The boundaries there
deferibed include all the country from Southampton
river on the call to the Avon on the weft, following
the fea coaft as far as the fouthern boundary between
thofc rivers, and extending northwards as far as North
C hade ford, or North Charford, on the weft, and to
Wade and Orcbrugg, or Owerbridge, on the eaft ; and
the greateft part, if not the whole, of that extenfive
diftrief, is mentioned in Doomfday book to be the
foreff belonging to the crown. Another perambula¬
tion was however made in the 29th of the fame king,
which leaves out a great part of the country contain¬
ed within the former. This perambulation, which is
preferved in the Tower of London, confines the foreft
to limits which, as far as we can trace them, appear to
have been followed in the 22d year of Charles II.
when the for eft was again perambulated. By the
Charta de Forefa, all lands not belonging to the crown
which had been affordled by Henry II. Richard I.
or King John, were to be difafforefted •, but as no
provifion u'as made for the reduclion of the more an¬
cient afforeftations, it is eafy to account for the great
diminution of this foreft in the reign of Edward I.
who was not a prince likely to fubmit to any encroach¬
ment on his rights. The perambulation of the 22d
of Charles II. is the laft which we find on record : it
contains the prefent legal bounds of the foreft, and
was given to the furveyors as their guide, in taking the
plan which they have made lately by direction. From
that plan, with the approbation of the lords commif-
fioners of his majefty’s treafury, an engraving was made.
According to the laft-mentioned perambulation and the
plan, the foreft extends from Godffull on the north-
weft to the fea on the fouth caff, about 20 miles j and
from Hardley on the eaft to Ringwood on the weft,
about 15 miles ; and contains within thofe limits
about 92,365 acres ftatute meafure. The whole of
that quantity, however, is not foreft land, or now the
property of the crown : there are feveral manors and
other confiderable freehold eftates within the perambu¬
lation, belonging to individuals, to the amount of about
24,797 acres ; about 625 acres are copyhold or cufto-
mary lands belonging to his majefty’s manor of Lynd-
hurft ; about 1004 acres are leafe hold under the
crown, granted for certain terms of years, and forming
part of the demifed land revenue, under the manage¬
ment of the furveyor-general of crown lands ; about
901 acres are purpreftures or encroachments on the
foreft } about 1193 acres more are enclofed lands held
by the maffer-keepers and groom-keepers, with their
refpeftive lodges ; and the remainder, being about
63,845 acres, are woods and wafte lands of the foreft.
To perpetuate the fpot where William Rufus was
killed by the glance of an arrow {hot at a ftag, a tri¬
angular ftone was ereded in 174^. George III. vi-
fited
New F®.
reft.
NEW [ 7
KewFo- fited tins fpot in 17B9. In Auguft 1782, a curious
reft ancient golden crofs was found here by a labouring
_ T .!' , man digging turf. It weighed above an ounce of gold,
NeUn°dUnd’ and had on one fide an engraving of our Saviour and
i on the other, the ladder, fpear, nails, and other emblems
of his fufferings.
NE W Holland. See UOL LAND, New.
New York. See York, New.
NEW Zealand. See ZEALAND, New.
NEW Years Gifu, prefents made on the Hr ft day
of the new year. Nonius Marcellus refers the origin
of this cuftom among the Romans to Tatms king of
the Sabines, who reigned at Rome conjointly with
Romulus, and who having confidered as a good omen
aprefent of fome branches cut in a wood confecrated
to Strenia, the goddefs of ftrength, which lie received
on the firft day of the new year, authorized this cu¬
ftom afterwards, and gave to thefe prefents toe name
of Jlrenee. However this may be, the Romans on that
day celebrated a feftival in honour of Janus, and paid
their refpecb at the fame time to Juno *, but they did
not pafs it in idlenefs, left they ftiould become indo¬
lent during the reft of the year. 1 hey fent prefents
to one another of figs, dates, honey, &c. to Ihow their
friends that they-wiftied for a happy and agreeable
life. Clients, that is to fay, thofe who were under
the prote&ion of the great, carried prefents of this
kind to their patrons, adding to them a fmall piece of
filver. Under Auguftus, the fenate, the knights, and
the people, prefented fuch gifts to him, and in his ab-
fence depofited them in the capitol. Of the fucceed-
jiig princes fome adopted this cuftom and others abo-
lifhed itbut it always continued among the people.
The early Chriftians condemned it, becaufe it appeared
to be a relick of Paganifm and a fpecies of (uperfti-
tion } but when it began to have no other obje6l than
that of being a mark of veneration and efteem, the
church ceafed to difapprove it.
NEWEL, in architefture, is the upright poft
which a pair of winding flairs turn about \ this is
properly a cylinder of ftone, which bears on the
ground, and is formed by the end of the fteps of the
winding flairs.
NEWFIDLER-sea, a lake in Hungary, 17 miles
in length and 6 in breadth.
NEWFOUNDLAND, a large _ ifland of North
America, belonging to Great Britain, lying between
46. 50. and 51. 30. N. Lat. and between 53. 30. and
t^8. 20. W. Long, from London. The form is that of
an irregular triangle, the bafe or fouth fide being 80
leagues in extent 5 the eaft fide is the longeft •, and the
whole circumference about 150 leagues. It is bound¬
ed on the north by the ftraits of Belleifle, which fepa-
rate it from Labrador) on the eaft and fouth it hath
the Atlantic ocean, and on the weft the gulf of St
Lawrence. The climate is rather fevere ; and the foil,
at leaft on the lea coaft, which is all that we know of
it, is poor and barren. A few kitchen vegetables, with
ftrawberries and rafpberries, are all its produce. The
country rvithin land is mountainous, and abounds with
timber •, there are feveral rivers which are plentifully
ftored with various forts of fifli, abundance of deep bays,
and many good ports. St John’s and Placentia are the
two principal fettlements, and at each of thefe there is
-a fort; the number of people who remain here in the
Vgju XIV. Part II.
yf ] NEW
winter hath been computed at 4000. The French, by ^ ewhnuiJ..
the treaty of Utrecht, were permitted to fiftr from Cape ^
Bonavifta on the eaft fide round the north of the ifiand
to Point Rich on the weft and by the treaty of Palis,
they are allowed the iiles of St Pierre and Miquelon,
upon which they are to dry their fifli, but not to erect
fortifications of any kind. _ . .
The great importance of this place arifes from it?
fifliery, which is in part carried on by the inhabitants
at the feveral harbours, which are about 20 in number,
who take vaft quantities of cod near the coaft, which
they bring in and cure at their leifure, in order to have
it ready for the ftiips when they arrive. But the great
and extenfive fifhery is on the banks at fome diftance
from the ifland. I he great bank lies 20 leagues from,
the neareft point of land from the latitude 41° to 490,
ftretching 300 miles in length and 75 breadth.—
To the eaft of this lies the Falfe Bank j the next is
ftyled Vert, or the Green Bank, about 240 miles long,
and 120 over j then Banquero, about the fame fizej
the ftioals of Sand Ifland, Whale Bank, and the Bank
of St Peter’s, with feveral others of lefs note, all
abounding tvith fifli.
The cod are caught only by a hook j an expert
fiftier will take from-150 to 300 and upwards in a day*
for the filh never bite in the night: the labour is
very great. The feafon is from May to Odlober, in.
the height of which there are from §00 to 7^0 fail
upon the banks at a time. Hie fifli caught in tne
fpring months are beft } they are cured in very differ¬
ent ways. Some are ftyled white JiJh, others miid jifh,
which are flowed and falted in the hold, and will not
keep long; but the beft and moft valuable aie the diied
cod. The quantity taken is prodigious : yet in fome
feafons and in different places varies confiderably, as
the fifh frequently change their ftations. I he fifhing
fhips, as they are called, lie upon the banks, with the
help of their boats take and cure their own fifh, and as
foon as they are full fail for a market. 1 he lack {hips
proceed dire&ly to the ifland, where they . purchafe
fifli from the inhabitants either by barter or bills of ex¬
change. The principal markets for cod are Spain,
Portugal, Italy, and the Weft Indies. The value of
this fifhery is ^computed at fome hundred thoufand
pounds annually ; employing, befides feveral hundred
ftiips, fome thoufands of feamen, and affording a main¬
tenance to a number of tradefmen of different occupa-
* tions, by which many large towns on the weft fide of
England accumulate much wealth, and at the fame time
contribute in many refpefts to the benefit of the public.
The great utility of this fifliery was very early feen,
and very vigoroufly purfued; for in the beginning of
the reign of King James I. we had two hundred and
fifty fail employed therein. It is computed, that
three quintals of wret fifh make one quintal of dried cod.
Befides, the livers of every hundred quintals make a
hogfhead of oil *, and exclufive of thefe there are many
leffer adventages that go in diminution of the expence.
The fifhery, as we have faid above, produces different¬
ly in different feafons j but it is judged to be a very
good one when it produces 300,000 quintals of fifli and
3000 barrels of oil. both equally faleable and valuable
commodities. As ’ every fliip carries twelve, and each
of their boats eight men, and as thefe return home in
fixth months, there cannot be a more noble nurfery for
c F feamen.
i
T, N. E ^ r 778 ] NEW
.llil a“‘5°!rl“d ‘r^?S ei^I>J0ye^ in build- but as they catch fi(h, they fupply themfelves with a (hell Sewf.,,^
hih called clams, which is found in the belly of the cod.
I he next bait th**  .1 ..t i
Newfound- feamen
land. • -o. ... . 7"“ 111 uuuu-
, lng? victualling, and repairing thefe veffels, are very nu-
merous in the refpedtive ports from which they fail.
Ihele circumftances juftify the particular attention paid
by government to this branch of the public fervice ; in
refpedt to which that they may be well informed, an an¬
nual and very diftinft account, by which the whole is
leen at one view, is delivered by the proper officer to
the governor of Newfoundland, that is, to the commo¬
dore of his majefty’s fquadron. IVtr Pennant, in the
appendix to his Ardlic Zoology, gives us, from what
appears to be very good authority, the following account
of this illand.
“ Within the circuit of 60 miles of the fouthern
part,. the country is hilly, but not mountainous. The
hills increafe in height as they recede from the fea }
their courfe is irregular, not forming a chain of hills,
but rifing and falling abruptly. The coafts are high,
and the ffiores moft remarkably bold. The fame may
be faid of almoft every part of this vaft ifland. The
country is much wooded, and the hills (fuch as have
not flat tops to admit the rain to ftagnate on them) are
clothed with birch, with hazel, fpruce, fir, and pine, all
fmall j which is chiefly owing to the inhabitants taking
off the bark to cover the fiffi ftages. This peninfula is
fo indented by the fine and deep bays of Placentia, St
Mary, Conception, and Trinity, that it may be pene¬
trated in all parts, which is done for the fake of fowling,
or the procuring of fpars for marts, oars, &c. The
illand is on all fides pierced with deep bays, which pen-
infulate it in many places by ifthmufes moft remarkably
narrow—The mountains on the fouth-weft fide, near
the fea, are very high, and terminate in lofty headlands j
fuch are Chapeau Rouge, a moft remarkably high pro¬
montory, Cape St Mary’s, and Cape le Hune. Such in
general is the formation of the ifland ; on the north-
eaft, moft of the hills in the interior part of the coun¬
try terminate pyramidically, but form no chain. The
interior parts of the country confift chiefly of moraffes,
or dry barren hummocks, or level land, with frequent
lakes or ponds, and in fome places covered with ftunted
black fpruce. The rivers of Newfoundland are unfit
for navigation, but they are of ufe in floating down
the wood with the fummer floods. Still tire rivers and
the brooks are excellent guides for the hunters of
beavers and other animals, to penetrate up the country,
which as yet has never been done deeper than 30 miles.
Near the brooks it is that timber is commonly met
with, but feldom above three or four miles inland, and
in valleys *, the hills in the northern diftridt being na¬
ked and barren.
“ fome parts of Newfoundland there is timber fuf-
ficiently large for the building of merchant flfips : the
hulk is made of juniper, and the pine furnilhes marts
and yards y but as yet none has been found large
enough for a mart for a large cutter. The fiffiery is
divided into two feafons ; that on the ffiore, or the
ffiore feafon, commences about the 20th of April, and
ends about the 10th of Oftober; the boats fiffi in from
four to 20 fathoms of water. The moft important, the
bank fiffiing feafon, begins the 10th of May, and con¬
tinues till the laft of September, and is carried on in 30
to. 45- fathoms deep of water. Banking veffels have
failed from St John’s to the bank as early as the 12th
of April. At firft they ufe pork or birds for a bait j
1
I he next bait is the lobfter j after that the herring and
the launce, which laft till June, when the capelan comes
on the coaft, and is another bait. In Augult the fquid
comes into ufe, and finally the herring again. The
greateft number of cod fifti taken by a fingle fiffierman
in the feafon has been 12,000, but the average is 7000.
1 he largeft fiffi which has been taken was four feet
three inches long, and weighed 46 pounds. A bank-
rng veffel of 10,000 fiffi ought to be filled in three weeks,
and fo m proportion j and 80 quintals (li2lb. each) for
a boat m the fame time.
In 1785? 541 Engliffi veffels fiflied on the bank, a
number exceeding that of the French. A heap of
dried fiffi, 20 feet long and ten wide, and four deep,
contains 300 quintals. Such a heap- fettles, in the
eourfe of 48 hours after it is made, about T’T- An ex¬
traordinary fplitter will fplit five quintals of fiffi in an
hour. I he average in that time is two. There is no
fiffiing during winter, on account of the inclemency
of the feafon. It is fuppofed that the fiffi in a great
meafure quit the banks before that time, as in general
they are very fcarce when the fiffiing veffels go upon the
banks early in the fpring.
There are a few fmall towns on the coafts, which
have gardens fown with Engliffi pulfe ; but many of
the inhabitants quit the country in winter.
“ An admiral or fome lea officer is generally gover¬
nor of Newfoundland.”
NE\\ MARKE I, in Cambridgeffiire, 13 miles from
Cambridge, 13 from St Edmundffiury, and 60 from
London, is a town with one long ftreet, the north fide
in Suffolk, the fouth fide in Cambridgeffiire. It is a
healthy place, and a great thoroughfare in the road from
London to Norfolk ; but Hands moftly by the horfe
races every year in April and Oclober, here being the
fineft courfe in England ; on which there is a houle for
the king when he comes to the races, which was built
by Charles II. The king gives a plate or two every
year, befides thofe given by the nobility; and wagers
are laid upon the horles, which are feldom under <;ool.
and often above 1000I. Here are two coffeehoufes, at
which, every night and morning during the races, there
is gaming, as there is alfo at the houfes of the nobility
and gentry. Here are alfo cock matches. Here is a
little chapel, which is a chapel of eafe to the mother
church, at Litton ; and another in the Suffolk fide,
which is parochial. 1 he town was burnt in 1683, but
foon rebuilt-, and in 1801 contained 1792 inhabitants.
NEWROSS, a borough town in the county of
Wexford, and province of Leinfter in Ireland, 67 miles
from Dublin. Ihis town was formerly walled, and
fome of the gates ftill remain. It lies on the river
Barrow, which is here very deep, and (hips of burden
can come up to the quay even when the tide is out.
The church is large, but the cuftomhoufe and quay
are both fmall, and fometimes overflooded many feet.
It is one of the ftaple ports for exporting wool, yet
its. trade is but inconfiderable ; beef and butter are the
principal articles exported. Here is a barrack for a
troop of horfe, and a good ferry into the county of
Kilkenny. Near this town is a charter fchool. It
is alfo a port town, and gives title of earl to the fami¬
ly of Gore. It was formerly fortified, and adorned
with
land
Newrofs.
NEW
[ 779
NEW
IN ewton.
Newrofs 'with many religious houfes, among Avliich was a crouch¬
ed friary, built on the fummit of a hill in the town j
, but one of the friars having killed a principal inhabi¬
tant, the whole body of the people arote, put the friars
to death, and totally deftroyed the friary, on the lite
of which the monaftery of St Saviour, for conventual
Francifcans, was afterwards erected by Sir John Devo
reux ; and the call: end of this laft building is now the
parith church. A friary for Eremites, following the
rule of St Auguftine, was allb founded here in the reign
of Edward III. .
NEWSPAPERS-, periodical publications, daily,
weekly, &c..for the purpofe of communicating to the
World every thing of importance, whether political or
literary, &c. which is going on. They have tended
much to the diflemination of learning, and have ferved
many other valuable purpofes j and while they are car¬
ried on with candour, impartiality, and ability, they are
unqueftionably a great national benefit. When this,
however, is not the cafe, and it often happens, they dif-
grace their authors, and are highly injurious to the pub¬
lic. They were firft publifhed in England, Auguft 22.
1642. Journal de Sfavans, a French pap.er, was firft
publifhed in 1665, though one tvas printed in England,
under the title of the Public Intelligencer, by Sir Ro¬
ger L’Eftrange, 1663, which he dropped, on the pub¬
lication of the firft London Gazette. aNewfpapers and
pamphlets were prohibited by royal proclamation 1680.
Though at the Revolution prohibitions of this kind
were done away, and the prefs fet at liberty, yet news¬
papers were afterwards made objefts of taxation, and
for this purpofe were firft ftamped in 1713. I he number
of them, however, gradually increafed ; and there were
printed in the whole kingdom during the years 1775,
12,680,000-, 1776, 12,830,000-, 1777, 13,150,6425
1778, 13,240,059 5 i779> 14,106,842 5 1780,
14,217,3715 1781, i4,397>62°>
They are now ftill more numerous. The average num¬
ber of newfpapers printed in England at the clofe of
the reign of George II. was 9,464,79^* The number
in 1790, was 14,035,639 5 in 1792, it was 15,005,760.
Chalmers'1 Life of Ruddiman, p. 442.
NEW Style, firft ufed in England in 1753, was
introduced into the weftern world by Pope Gregory
XIII. See Chronology, N° 24.
NEWT, or Eft, the common lizard. See La-
certa, Erpetology Index*
NEWTON, Sir Isaac, one of the greateft philo-
fophers and mathematicians the world has ever produ¬
ced, was the only child of Mr John Newton of Colef-
worth, not far from Grantham in Lincolnfhire, who had
an eftate of about 120I. per annum, which he kept in
his own hands. He was born at that place on Chrift-
mas day 1642. His father dying when he was young,
his mother’s brother, a clergyman of the name of Ayf-
cough, or Ajkevo, who lived near her, and directed all
her affairs after the death of Mr Newton, put her fon
to fchool at Grantham. When he had finifhed his
fchool learning, his mother took him home, intend¬
ing, as flie had no other child, to have the pleafure of
his company 5 and that he, as his father had done,
fhould occupy his own eftate. But his uncle happen¬
ing to find him in a hay loft at Grantham working a
mathematical problem, and having otherwife obferved
the boy’s mind to be uncommonly bent upon learning,
he prevailed upon her to part with him 5 and flic fent
him to Trinity College in Cambridge, where her bro¬
ther, having himfelf been a member of it, had ftill many
friends. Itaac was loon taken notice of by Dr Ifaae
Barrow •, who, obferving his bright genius, contracted
a great friendflup for him. M. de Fontenelle tells us,
“ That in learning mathematics he did not ftudy Eu¬
clid, who feemed to him too plain and Ample, and un¬
worthy of taking up his time. He underftood him al-
moft before he read him 5 and a call of his eye upon the
Contents of his theorems was fufficient to make him ma-
fter of them. He advanced at once to the geometry of
Des Cartes, Kepler’s Optics, &c. It is certain that he
had made his great difeoveries in geometry, and laid-the
foundation of his two famous works, the Prmcipta and
Optics, by the time he was 24 years of age.”
In 1664, he took the degree of bachelor of arts ; and .
in 1668 that of matter, being eleaed the year before,
fellow of his college. He had before this time dilco-
vered the method of fluxions 5 and in 1669 he was
chofen profeffor of mathematics in the univerfity of
Cambridge, upon the refignation of ME Barrow. Ihe
fame year, and the two following, he read a courfe of
optical leftiires in Latin, in the public fchools of the
univerfity 5 an Englifh tranflation of which was print¬
ed at London in 1728, in 8vo, as was tlie Latin ori¬
ginal the next year in 4to. From the year 1671 to
1679, he held a correfpondence by letters with Mr
Henry Oldenburg fecretary of the Royal Society, and
Mr John Collins fellow of that fociety j which letters
contain a variety of curious obfervations.
Concerning the origin of his difeoveries, we are told,
that as he fat alone in a garden, the falling of feme
apples from a tree led him into a fpeculation on the
power of gravity 5 that as this power is not diminifhed
at the remoteft diftance from the centre of the earth to
which we can rife, it appeared to him reafonable to
conclude, that it muft extend much farther than was
ufually thought 5 and purfuing this fpeculation, by
comparing the periods of the feveral planets with their
diftances from the fun, he found, that R any power
like gravity held them in their courfes, its ftrength
muft decreafe in the duplicate proportion of the in-
creafe of diftance. This inquiry was dropped 5 but re¬
fumed again, and gave rife to his writing the treatife
which he publifhed in 1687, under the name ef Ma¬
thematical Principles of Natural Philofophy ; a work
looked upon as the production of a celeftial intelligence
rather than of a mam The very fame year in which
this great work was publifhed, the univerfity of Cam¬
bridge was attacked by King James II. when Mr New¬
ton was one of its moft zealous defenders, and was ac¬
cordingly nominated one of the delegates of that uni¬
verfity to the high-commiflion court 5 and the next
year he was chofen one of their members for the con¬
vention parliament, in which he fat till it was diffolved.
In 1696, Mr Montague, then chancellor of the exche¬
quer, and afterwards earl of Halifax, obtained for him
of the king the office of warden of the mint 5 in which
employment he was of fignal fervice, when the money
was called in to be recoined. Three years after, he
was appointed matter of the mint 5 a place of very con-
fiderable profit, which he held till his death. In 16991
he was eleCled one of the members of the Royal Aca¬
demy of Sciences at Paris. In 1701, he was a fecond
5 F a time
Newton.
NEW [ 7
Newton. _ time chofen member of parliament for the univerlity of
Cambridge. In 1704* publilhed his Optics; which
is a piece of philofophy fo new, that the fcience may be
confidered as entirely indebted to our author. In 1705,
he was knighted by Queen Anne. In 1707, he pub-
lithed his Ant time tic a Univerfa/is. In 1711, his A?ia-
lysis per Quantitatum Series, Fluxiones et Differentias,
&c. was published by William Jones, Efq. In 1712,
feveral letters of his were publilhed in the Commercium
Epifto/icum. In the reign of George I. he was bet¬
ter known at court than before. The princefs of
Wales, afterwards queen confort of England, ufed
frequently to propofe queflions to him, and to declare
that the thought herfelf happy to live at the fame time
with him, and have the pleafure and advantages of his
converfation. He had written a treatife of ancient
chronology, which he did not think of publiihing j but
the princefs defired an abftra£l, which Ihe would never
part with. However, a copy of it hole abroad, and
■was carried into France, where it Avas tranllated and
printed, Avith fome obfervations, Avhich were aftenvards
anfwered by Sir Ifaac. But, in 1728, the Chronology
itfelf was publilhed at London in quarto ; and Avas at¬
tacked by feveral perfons, and as zealoully defended by
Sir Ifaac’s friends. The main defigrt of it Avas to find
out, from fome trafts of the moll ancient Greek aftro-
nomy, Avhat Avas the pofition of the colures with refpeft
to the fixed liars, in the time of Chiron the centaur.
As it is noAV knoAvn that thefe liars have a motion in
longitude of one degree in 72 years, if it be once knoAvn
through Avhat fixed liars the colure paffed in Chiron’s
time, by taking the dillance of thefe liars from thofe
through Avhich it now palfes, Ave might determine Avliat
number of years has elapfed fince Chiron’s time. As
Chiron Avas one of the Argonauts, this would fix the
time of that famous expedition, and confequently that
of the Trojan war j the tAvo great events upon Avhich
all ancient chronology depends. Sir Ifaac places them
500 years nearer the birth of Chrill than other chro-
nologers have done.
This great man had all along enjoyed a fettled and
equal Hate of health to the age of 80, Avhen he began
to be affli&ed AA'ith an incontinence of urine. HoAvever,
for the five folloAving years, he had great intervals of
eafe, Avhich he procured by the obfervance of a ft rift
regimen. It Avas then believed that he certainly had
the Hone j and Avhen the paroxyfms Avere fo violent,
that large drops of fweat ran doAvn his face, he never
uttered the leaft complaint, or expreffed the fmalleft de¬
gree of impatience ; but, as foon as he had a moment’s
eafe, would fmile and talk Avith his ufual cheerfulnefs.
Till then he always read and wrote feveral hours in a
day. He had the perfeft ufe of all his fenfes and un-
derftanding till the day before he died, Avhich Avas on
the 20th of March 1726-7, in the 85th year of his age.
He lay in ftate in the Jerufalem chamber at Weftmin-
fter, and on the 28th of March his body Avas conveyed
into Weftminfter abbey ; the pall being fupported by
the lord chancellor, the dukes of Montrofe and Rox¬
burgh, and the earls of Pembroke, SulTex, and Mac¬
clesfield. The bilhop of Rochefter read the funeral
fervice, being attended by all the clergy of the church.
The corpfe Avas interred juft at the entrance into the
choir, Avhere a noble monument is erefted to his memory.
Sir Ifaac Avas of a middling ftature, and in the latter
80 ] NEW
part of his life fome what inclined to be fat. His coun- Newton,
tenance Avas pleafing, and at the fame time venerable.
He never made ufe of fpeftacles, and loft but one tooth
during his Avhole life.
His temper is faid to have been lo equal and mild
that no accident could difturb it. Of this the folloAV-
ing remarkable inilance is related. Sir Ifaac had a
favourite little dog, Avhich he called Diamond; and
being one day called out of his ftudy into the next
room, Diamond Avas left behind. When Sir Ifaac re¬
turned, having been abfent but a feAv minutes, he had
the mortification to find, that Diamond having throAvn
down a lighted candle among fome papers, the nearly
finifhed labour of many years Avas in flames, and almoft:
confumed to afhes. This lofs, as Sir Ifaac Avas then
very far adA'aneed in years, av*s irretrievable ; yet Avith-
out once ftriking the dog, he only rebuked him Avith
this exclamation, “ Oh ! Diamond ! Diamond ! thou
little knoAveft the mifehief thou haft done !”
He was a great lover of peace, and would rather
have chofen to remain in obfeurity than to have the
calm of life ruffled by thofe ftorms and difputes Avhicls
genius and learning always draAV upon thofe that are
peculiarly eminent for them. In contemplating his ge¬
nius it prefently becomes a doubt, which of thefe en-
doAvments had the greateft (hare, fagacity, penetration,
ftrength or diligence : and after all, the mark that
feems moft to dillinguiffl it is, that he himfeJf made
the jufteft ellimation of it, declaring, that, if he had
done the Avorld any fervice, it Avas due to nothing but
mduftry and patient thought; that he kept the fub-
jeft under confideration conftantly before him, and
Avaited till the firft dawning opened gradually, by-
little and little, into a full and clear light. It is faid,
that Avhen he had any mathematical problems or fo-
lutions in his mind, he Avould never quit the fubjeft
on any account. Dinner has been often three hours
ready for him before he could be brought to table : and
his man often faid, Avhen he has been getting up in a
morning, he has fometimes begun to drefs, and with
one leg in his breeches fat doAvn again on the bed,
Avhere he has remained for hours before he got his
clothes on. From his love of peace, no doubt, arofe
that unufual kind of horror Avhich he had for all dif¬
putes ; a fteady unbroken attention, free from thofe
frequent recoilings infeparably incident to others, Avas
his peculiar felicity ; he kneAv it, and he knew the va¬
lue of it. No Avonder then that controverfy Avas look¬
ed on as his bane. When fome objeftions, haftily made
to his difeoveries concerning light and colours, induced
him to lay afide the defign he had of publiihing
his optic leftures, Ave find him reflefting on that dif-
pute, into Avhich he Avas unavoidably drawn thereby, in
thefe terms : “ I blamed my own imprudence for part¬
ing with fo real a bleffing as my quiet, to run after a.
fhadoAV.” It is true this fhadoAV fas Mr Fontenelle
obferves) did not efcape him afterwards, nor did it coll
him that quiet Avhich he fo much valued, but proved
as much a real happinefs to him as his quiet itfelf; yet
this Avas a happinefs of his own making: he took a
refolution, from thefe difputes, not to publifh any more
about that theory till he had put it above the reach
of controverfy, by the exafteft experiments and the
ftrifteft demonftrations j and accordingly it has never
been called in queftion iince. In the fame temper, af¬
ter
NEW [
Newton, ter lie had fent the manufeript of bis Principal to the
' Royal Society, with his confent to the printing of it
by them, upon Mr Hook’s injurioufly infilling that
himfelf had demonilrated Kepler’s problem before our
author, he determined, rather than be involved again
in a controverfy, to fupprefs the third book, and was
very hardly prevailed upon to alter that refalution. It
is true, the public was thereby a gainer j that book,
which is indeed no more than a corollary of fome pro¬
portions in the firlt, being originally drawn up in the
popular way, with the delign to publilh it in that form j
-whereas he was now convinced that it would be bell
not to let it go abroad without a llridl demonllration..
After all, notwithftanding his anxious care to avoid
every occalion of breaking his intenfe application to
fludy, he was at a great diilance from being fleeped m
philofophy : on the contrary, he could lay afide his
thoughts, though engaged in the moll intricate refear-
ches, when his other affairs required his attendance j
and as foon as he had leifure, refume the fubjecl at the
point where he had left off. This he feems to have
done not fo much by any extraordinary ftrength of
memory, as by the force of his inventive faculty, to
which every thing opened itfelf again with eafe, if no¬
thing intervened to ruffle him. 1 he readinefs of his
invention made him not think of putting his memory
much to trial : but this was the offspring of a \ i-
gorous intenfenefs of thought, out of which he was but
a common man. He fpent therefore, the prime of his
age in thofe abltrufe refearches, when his lituation in
a college gave him leifure, and even w'hile lludy was his
proper profeflion. But as foon as he was removed to
the mint, he applied himfelf chiefly to the bulinefs of
that office j and fo far quitted mathematics and philo¬
fophy, as not to engage in any puriuits of either kind
afterwards.
The amiable quality of modelly is reprefented as-
Handing foremoll in the charafler of this great man’s
mind and manners. It was in reality greater than can
be ealily imagined, or will be readily believed } yet it
always continued fo without any alteration, though
the whole world, fays Fontenelle, confpired againlt it j
and let us add, though he was thereby robbed of his
inventions of fluxions. Nicholas Mercator publilhing
his Logarithmotechma in 1668, where he gave the qua¬
drature of the hyperbola by an infinite feries, which was
the firfl appearance in the learned world of a feries of
this fort drawn from the particular nature of the curve,
and that in a manner very new and abftraiEled; Dr Bar-
row, then at Cambridge, where Mr Newton, at that time
about 26 years of age, refided, recollefted that he had
met with the fame thing in the writings of that young
gentleman ; and there not confined to the hyperbola
only, but extended, by general forms, to all forts of
curves, even fuch as are mechanical •, to their quadra¬
tures, their re&ifications, and their centres of gravity j
to the folids formed by their rotations, and^ to the fu-
perficies of thofe folids j fo that, when their determi¬
nations were poflible, the feries flopped at a certain
point, or at leaft their fums were given by Hated rules:
and, if the abfolute determinations were impoflible,
they could yet be infinitely approximated ; which is
the happieft and moft refined method, fays Mr Fonte¬
nelle, of fupplying the defeats of human knowledge
that man’s imagination could poflibly invent. I o be
78i ] NEW ■
mafter of fo fruitful and general a theory was a mine of .Ne^ton-
gold to a geometrician ; but it was a greater glory to
have been the difeoverer of fo furprifing and ingenious
a fyftem. So that Mr Newton finding,. by Merca¬
tor’s book, that he was in the way to it, and that
others might follow in his track, (hould naturally have
been forward to open his treafures, and fecure the pro¬
perty, which confifted in making the difeovery j but
he contented himfelf with his treafure which he had
found, without regarding the glory. What an idea
does it give us of his unparalleled modelly, when we
fee him declaring, that he thought Mercator had en¬
tirely difeovered his fecret, or that others would, be¬
fore he was of a proper age for writing ? His MS. up¬
on infinite feries was communicated to none but Mr
John Collins and the lord Brounker ; and even that
had not been complied with, but for Dr Barrow, who
would not fuffer him to indulge his modelly fo much
as he defired.
It is further obferved, concerning this part of his
chara&er, that he never talked either of himfelf or
others, nor ev er behaved, in fuch a manner as to give
the moll malicious cenfurers the lealt occafion even to
fufpedl him of vanity. He was candid and affable, and
always put himfelf upon a level with his company. He
never thought either his merit or his reputation fuffi-
cient to excufe him from any of the common offices of
focial life $ no Angularities, either natural or affedled,
dillinguilhed him from other men. i hough he was
firmly attached to the church of England, he was
averfe to the perfecution of the non-conformifts. He
judged of men by their manners; and the true fchif-
matics, in his opinion, were the vicious and the wicked.
Not that he confined his principles to natural religion,
for he was thoroughly perfuaded of the truth of reve¬
lation j and amidfl the great variety of books which Jie
had conftantly before him, that which he ftudied with
the greatell application was the Bible : and he under-
flood the nature and force of moral certainty as well
as he did that of a ftridl demon ftration.
Sir Ifaac did not negledl the opportunities of doing
good, when the revenues of his patrimony, and a pro¬
fitable employment, improved by a prudent economy,
put it in his power. We have two remarkable inftances
of his bounty and generofity ; one to Mr M‘Laurin,
profeffor of mathematics at Edinburgh, to whom he
offered 20I. per annum, and the other to his niece Bar¬
ton, on whom he fettled an annuity of look W7hen
decency upon any occafion required expence and fliow,
he was magnificent without grudging it, and with a
very good grace j at all other times, that pomp which
feems great to low minds only, was utterly retrenched, *
and the expence referved for better ufes. He never
married, and perhaps he never had leifure to think of
it. Being immerfed in profound ftudies during the
prime of his age, and afterwards engaged in an employ¬
ment of great importance, and even quite taken up with
the company which his merit drew to him, he was not
fenfible of any vacancy in life, or of the want of a com¬
panion at home. He left 32,000!. at his death; but
made no will, which Mr Fontenelle tells us was becaufe
he thought a legacy was no gift. As to his works,
befides what were publilhed in his lifetime, there were
found after his death, among his papers, feveral difeour-
fes upon fubje&s of antiquity, hiffory, divinity, chemi-
" - w [ 78
Newtonian ma^iemat*cs> ^cVCral of which were publifhed
Philofophy. at ilfterent t»mes.
l^-nr v— ,j Ne iVTONlAN~Phi/ofophy, the doftrine of tlie univerfe,
and particularly of the heavenly bodies, tlieir laws, af-
j lections, &c. as delivered by Sir Ifaac Newton.
Different The term Newtonian Philofophy is applied very dif-
•pimons ferently j whence divers eonfufed notions relating
concemins- 1. c uuuuns relating
this philo- t“ere1to* Sorae authors under this philofophy include
fophy. atl the corpuicular philofophy, confidered as it now
ftands correaed and reformed by the difcoveries and
improvements made in feveral parts thereof by Sir
Ifaac Newton. In which fenfe it is that Gravefande
calls his elements of phyfics, IntroduBio ad Philofophiam
Newtonianatn. And in this fenie the Newtonian is the
fame with the new philofophy j and ftands contradiftin-
guifhed from the Cartefian, the Peripatetic, and the
ancient Corpufcular.
Others, by Newtonian philofophy, mean the method
or order which Sir Ifaac Newton obferves in philofo-
pluzing; viz. the reafoning and drawing of conclu-
hons direaiy from phenomena, exclufive of all previous
hypothefes ; the beginning from limple principles j de¬
ducing the firft powers and laws of nature from a few
idea phenomena, and then applying tliofe laws, &c.
to account for other things. And in this fenfe the
Newtonian philofophy is the fame with the experimental
philofophy, and Hands oppofed to the ancient corpufca-
. Others* by Newtonian philofoply, mean that where¬
in phyfical bodies are confidered mathematically, and
where geometry and mechanics are applied to the fo-
lution of the appearances of nature. In which fenfe the
Newtonian is the fame with the mechanical and mathe¬
matical philofophy.
Others again, by Newtonian philofophy, underftand
that part of phyfical knowledge which Sir Ifaac New-
ton has handled, improved, and demonflrated, in his
Prmcipia.
Otliers, laftly, by Newtonian philofophy, mean the
new principles which Sir Ifaac Newton has brought
into philofophy 5 the new fyftem founded thereon;
and the new folutions of phenomena thence deduced j
or that which chara<aerizes and diftinguilhes his philo-
iophy from all others—Which is the fenfe wherein we
Hull chiefly confider it.
As to the hiftory of this philofophy, we have no¬
thing to add to what has been given in the 'preceding
article. It was fird made public in the year 1687,
by the author, then a fellow of Trinity College, Cam¬
bridge, and in the year 1713, republilhed with confi-
derable improvements.—Several authors have fmce at¬
tempted to make it plainer ^ by fetting afide many of
the more fublime mathematical refearches, and fubHi-
tuting either more obvious reafoniogs or experiments
in lieu thereof; particularly Whiflon in his PrceleB.
Phyf Mathemat. Gravefande in Element, et Inf it. and
Dr Pemberton in his View.
1 lie whole of the Newtonian philofophy, as delivered
a by the author, is contained in his Principia or Mathe-
™ whirr Ttical Princ¥e' of Natural Philofophy. He founds his
the philo- on t^ie following definitions :
fophy is The quantity of matter is the meafure of the
founded. fame, arifing from its denfity and bulk conjunttly 
Thus air of a double Henfity, in a double fpacc, is
2 ] NEW
quadruple m quantity; in a triple fpace, fextuple in Newtonla,
quant,tv &c. . Pl.iWopW
2. Ihe quantity of motion is the meafure of the '““■v--
lame, arifing from the velocity and quantity of mat¬
ter conjundly. This is evident, becaulh the motion
ot the whole is the motion of all its parts j and there¬
fore in a body double in quantity, with equal velocity
the motion is double, &c. J ’
3. I he uis inf to, or innate force of matter is a v" ■
power of refifting, by which every body, as much as defiiw
m it lies,, endeavours to per fever e in its prefent Hate-; obje<ft*d to.
whether.it be of refi, or moving uniformly forward in
a right line.—This definition is proved to be jufl, only
by the difficulty we find in moving any thing out of
its place ; and this difficulty is by fome reckoned to
proceed only from gravity. They contend, that in
thole cafes where we can prevent the force of gravity
from ading upon bodies, this power of refiflance be¬
comes infenfible, and the greateft quantities of matter
may be put in motion by the very leaH force. Thus
there have been balances formed fo exaft, that when
loaded with 200 weight in each fcale, they would turn
by the addition of a fingle drachm. In this cafe
400lb. of matter Was put in motion by a fingle
drachm, i. e. by part of its own quantity : and
even this fmaH . weight, they fay, is only neceffary on
account of the inaccuracy of the machine: fo that we
have no reafon to fuppofe, that, if the fridion could
be entirely removed, it would take more force to move
a tun weight than a grain of fand. This obje&ion,
however, is not taken notice of by Sir Ifaac : and he
beflows on the refifling power above mentioned the
name of vis inertia ; a phrafe which is perhaps not well
chofen, and with which inferior writers have endeavour¬
ed to make.their readers merry at the expence of New¬
ton. A force of inaflivity, it has been faid, is a forcelefs
force j and analogous to a. black white, a cold heat, and
a tempefuous calm.
But objections of more importance have been made
to the whole of this dodtrine than thofe which merely
refpedt the term vis inei'tiee. “ An endeavour to re¬
main at refl (we are told *) is unnesceffary, whilH no- *
thing attempts to diflurb the refl. It is likewife im- r r°nn&'[
poflible to be conceived, as it implies a contradiction, tion of the
A man, by oppofing force to force, may endeavour third and
not to be moved 5 but this oppofition is an endeavour/0*"
to move, not with a defign to move, but by counter-
aCting another force to prevent being moved. An Book of the
endeavour not to move therefore cannot exifl in bo- Principia,
dies, becaufe it is abfurd 5 and if we appeal to faCt,&c*
we ffiall find every body in an adual and conflant en¬
deavour to move.” It has been like wife obferved,
and we think juflly, that “ if bodies could continue to
move by any innate force, they might alfo begin to
move by that force. For the fame caufe which can
move a body with a given velocity at one time, could
doit, if prefent,. at any other time j and therefore if
the force by which bodies continue in motion were
innate and effential to them, they Avould begin to
move of themfelves, which is not true.” Newton
indeed fays that this innate force is the caufe of
motion under certain circumflances only, or when the
body is aCled upon by a force impreffed ab extra.
But if this imprefled force do not continue as well
N E \V [ 783
Newtonian as begin tlie motion, if it ceafe the inftant that
Pbilofophy. ,-gg impreffion is over, and the body continue to
v ' move by its vis inertice, why is the body ever (topped ?
“ If in the beginning of the motion the body, by
its innate force, overcomes a certain refiftance of fric¬
tion and air, in any following times, the force being
undiminiihed, it will overcome the fame refiftance for
ever. Thefe refiftances, therefore, could never change
the (late of a moving body, becaufe they cannot
change the quantity of its motive force. But this is
contrary to univerfal experience.” For thefe reafons
■we are inclined to think that bodies are wholly paf-
(ive ; that they endeavour nothing ; and that they con¬
tinue in motion not by any innate force or vis. nifita,
but by that force, whatever it be, which begins the
motion, and which, whilft it remains with the moving
body, is gradually diminiflied, and at laft overcome by
oppofite forces, when the body of courfe ceafes to
move.
4. An impreffed force is an action exerted upon a
body, in order to change its (late, either of reft or of
moving uniformly forward in a right line.——This force
confifts in the action only ; and remains no longer
in the body when the action is over. For a body
maintains every new ftate it acquires by its vis inertia
only.
It is here implied, and indeed fully expreffed, that
motion is not continued by the fame power that pro¬
duced it. Now there are twro grounds on which the
truth of this doftrine may be fuppofed to reft.
“ F/r/?, On a direct proof that the impreffed force
does not remain in the body, either by (howing the
nature of the force to be tranfitory and incapable of
more than its firft action j or that it a6ts only on the
furface, and that the body efcapes from it; cr that the
force is fomewhere elfe, and not remaining in the body.
But none of thefe diredt proofs are offered.
“ Secondly, It may reft on an indirect proof, that
there is in the nature of body a fufHcient caufe for
the continuance of every new ftate acquired j and
that therefore any adventitious force to continue mo¬
tion, though neeeffary for its production, is fuper-
fluous and inadmiflible. As this is the very ground
on which the fuppofition (lands, it ought to have been
indubitably certain that the innate force of the body
is fufficient to perpetuate the motion it has once ac¬
quired, before the other agent, by which the motion
was communicated, had been difmiffed from the office.
But the innate force of body has been ihown not
to be that which continues its motion ; and there¬
fore the proof, that the impreffed force does not re¬
main in the body, fails. Nor indeed is it in this cafe
defirable to fupport the proof, becaufe we (hould then
be left without any reafon for the continuance of mo¬
tion When we mention an impreffed force, we
mean fuch a force as is communicated either at the
furface of the body or by being diffufed through the
mafs.
5. A centripetal force is that by which bodies are
drawn, impelled, or any way tend towards a point, as
to a centre.—The quantity of any centripetal force may
be conlidered as of three kinds, abfolute, accelerative,
and motive.
6. The abfolute quantity of a centrifugal force is the
meafure of the fame, proportional to the efficacy of the
* Young's
Examina¬
tion, Sec.
„ J NEW
caufe that propagates it from the centre, through the Newtonian
r j •, Phuoinphy.
(paces round it. ,
7. The accelerative quantity of a centripetal force is
the meafure of the fame, proportional to the velocity
which it generates in a given time.
8. The motive quantity of a centripetal force is a
meafure of the fame, pr portional to the motion
which it generates in a given time. This is always
known by the quantity of a force equal and contrary
to it, that is juft fufficient to hinder the defeent of the
body.
Scholia.
I. Abfolute, true, and mathematical time, of itfelf, Tim*.
and from its own nature, flows equably, without re¬
gard to any thing external, and, by another name, is
called duration. Relative, apparent, and common time,
is fome fenfible and external meafure of duration,
whether accurate or not, which is commonly ufed in-
(lead of true time $ fuch as an hour, a day, a month, a
year, &c. 5
II. Abfolute fpace, in its own nature, without re-Space,
gard to dny thing external, remains always (imilar and
immoveable. Relative fpace is fome moveable dimen-
(ion or meafure of the abfolute fpaces j and which is
vulgarly taken for immoveable fpace. Such is the di-
menfion of a fubterraneous, an aerial, or celeftial fpace,
determined by its pofition to bodies, and which is vul¬
garly taken for immoveable fpace j as the diftance of
a fubterraneous, an aerial, or celeftial fpace, deter¬
mined by its pofition in refpedt of the earth. Abfo¬
lute and relative fpace are the fame in figure and mag¬
nitude j but they do not remain always numerically
the fame. For if the earth, for inftance, moves, a fpace.
of our air which, relatively and in refpeft of the
earth, remains always the fame, will at one time be one
part of the abfolute fpace into which the earth paffes \
at another time it will be another part of the fame j
and fo, abfolutely underftood, it will be perpetually
mutable. £
III. Place is a part of fpace which a body takes Place de-
up j and is, according to the fpace, either abfolute or fined,
relative. Our author fays it is part of fpace ; not the
fituation, nor the external furface ©f the body. For
the places of equal folids are always equal; but their
fuperficies, by'reafon of their diffimilar figures, are of¬
ten unequal. Pofitions properly have no quantity, nor
are they fo much the places themfelves as the proper¬
ties of places. The motion of the whole is the fame
thing with the fum of the motions of the parts 5 that
is, the tranflation of the whole out of its place is the
fame thing with the fum of the tranflations of the parts
out of their places : and therefore the place of the
whole is the fame thing with the fum of the places of
the parts ; and for that reafon it is internal, and in the
whole body. 7
IV. Abfolute motion is the tranflation of a body Of Motion,
from one abfolute place into another, and relative mo¬
tion the tranflation from one relative place into ano¬
ther. Thus, in a (hip under fail, the relative place of
a body is that part of the (hip which the body pof-
feffes, or that part of its cavity which the body fills,
and which therefore moves together with the (hip \
and relative reft is the continuance of the body in the
fame part of the (hip, or of its cavity. But real
abfolute
m
NEW [ 784
Tv i-wtoman abfolute reft is the continuance of the body in the
Wnloiophy. fame par(_ of that immoveable fpace in which the fliip
itfelf, its cavity, and all that it contains, is moved.
Wherefore, if the eartli is really at reft, the body
which relatively refts in the (hip will really and abfo-
lutely move -with the fame velocity which the fliip has
on the earth. But if the earth alfo moves, the true
and abfolute motion of the body will arife, partly from
the true motion of the earth in immoveable fpace j
partly from the relative motion of the (hip on the
earth : and if the body moves alfo relatively in the
{hip, its true motion will arife partly from the true mo¬
tion of the earth in immoveable fpace, and partly from
the relative motions as wrell of the Ihip on the earth
as of the body in the ftrip j and from thefe relative mo¬
tions will arife the relative motion of the body on the
earth. As if that part of the earth where the {hip is,
was truly moved towards the eaft, with a velocity of
10010 parts 5 while the ftiip itfelf with a freflr gale is
carried towards the weft, with a velocity expreffed by
1
NEW
i o of thefe parts 5 but a failor walks in the ftrip to¬
wards the eaft with one part of the faid velocity : then
the failor will be moved truly and abfolutely in im¬
moveable fpace towards the eaft with a velocity of
1001 parts: and relatively on the earth towards the
weft, with a velocity of 9 of thofe parts.
Abfolute time, in aftronomy, is diftinguiftred from
relative, by the equation or correftion of the vulgar
time. For the natural days are truly unequal, though
they are commonly confidered as equal, and ufed for a
meafure of time : aftronomers corredt this inequality
for their more accurate deducing of the celeftial mo¬
tions. It may be that there is no fuch thing as an
equable motion whereby time may be accurately mea-
fured. All motions may be accelerated or retarded ;
but the true or equable progrefs of abfolute time is
liable to no change. The duration or perfeverance o^
the exiftence of things remains the fame, whether the
motions are fwift or flow, or none at all} and there¬
fore ought to be diftinguifhed from what are only
fenfible meafures thereof, and out of which we colled!
it by means of the aftronomical equation. The ne-
ceflity of which equation for determining the times of
a phenomenon is evinced, as well from the experiments
of the pendulum clock as by eclipfes of the fatellites of
g Jupiter.
Immutabi- As the order of the parts of time is immutable, fo
jity of time a]f0 Js the order of the parts of fpace. Suppofe thofe
parts to be moved out of their places, and they will be
moved (if we may be allowed the expreflion) out of
themfelves. For times and fpaces are, as it were,
the places of themfelves as of all other things. AH
things are placed in time as to order of fucceflion ; and
in fpace as to order of fituation. It is from their
effence or nature that they are places $ and that the
primary places of things ftiould be moveable, is abfurd.
Thefe are therefore the abfolute places; and tranfla-
tions out of thofe places are the only abfolute mo¬
tions.
But becaufe the parts of fpace cannot be feen, or
diftinguifhed from one another by the fenfes, therefore
in their ftead we ufe fenfible meafures of them. For,
from the pofitions and diftances of things from any
body, confidered as immoveable, we define all places ;
and then with refpeft to fuch places, we eftimate all
3
and fpace.
motions, confidering bodies as transferred from fome Newtonian
of thofe places into others. And fo, inftead of abfo-^010^
lute places and motions, we ufe relative ones ; and
that without any inconvenience in common affairs :
but in philofophical difqnifitions we ought to abftratt
from our fenfes, and confider things themfelves di-
ftinft from what are only fenfible meafures of them.
For it may be, that there is no body really at reft,
to which the places and motions of others may be re¬
ferred.
But rve may diftinguifh reft and motion, abfolute
and relative, one from the other, by their properties,
caufes, and effefts. It is a property of reft, that
bodies really at reft do reft in refpecl of each other.
And therefore, as it is poflible, that in the remote re¬
gions of the fixed ftars, or perhaps far beyond them,
there may be fome body abfolutely at reft, though it be
impoffible to know from the pofition of bodies to one
another in our regions, whether any of thefe do keep
the fame pofition to that remote body ; it follows, that
abfolute reft cannot be determined from the pofition of
bodies in our regions. ^
It is a property of motion, that the parts which Of the mo-
retain given pofitions to their wholes do partake of thetion of de¬
motion of their wholes. For all parts of revolving
bodies endeavour to recede from the axis of motion ; refpe(q ta
and the impetus of bodies moving forwards arifes from one ano-
the joint impetus of all the parts. Therefore if fur-ther.
rounding bodies are moved, thofe that are relatively
at reft within them will partake of their motion.
Upon which account the true and abfolute motion of
a body cannot be determined by the tranflation of it
from thofe only which feem to reft ; for the external
bodies ought not only to appear at reft, but to be
really at reft. For otherwife all included bodies, be-
fide their tranflation from near the furrounding ones,
partake likewife of their true motions ; and though
that tranflation was not made, they would not really
be at reft, but only feem to be fo. For the fur¬
rounding bodies Hand in the like relation to the fur-
rounded, as the exterior part of a whole does to the
interior, or as the ftiell does to the kernel 5 but if
the {hell moves, the kernel will alfo move, as being-
part of the whole, y'ithout any removal from near the
{hell.
A property near akin to the preceding is, that if
a place is moved, whatever is placed therein moves
along with it; and therefore a body which is moved
from a place in motion, partakes alfo of the motion of
its place. Upon which account all motions from
places in motion, are no other than parts of entire
and abfolute motions; and every entire motion is
compofed of the motion of the body out of its
firft place, and the motion of this place out of its
place } and fo on, until we come to fome immoveable
place, as in the above-mentioned example of the failor.
Wherefore entire and abfolute motions can be no other-
wife determined than by immoveable places. Now,
no other places are immoveable but thofe that from
infinity to infinity do all retain the fame given pofitions
one to another; and upon this account muft ever re¬
main unmoved, and do thereby conftitute what we call
immoveable fpace.
The caufes by which true and relative motions are
diftinguifhed one from the other, are the forces im-
preffed
NEW [ 78
Newtonian pj-efled upon bodies to generate motion. True mo-
Philofophy. 'jon -g neither generated nor altered, but by tome force
W~v™' impreffed upon the body moved: but relative motion
may be generated or altered without any force imprti-
fed upon the body. For it is fufficient only to imprels
fome force on other bodies with which the former is
compared, that by their giving way, that relation may
be changed, in which the relative reft or motion of the
other body did confift. Again, True motion fuffers al¬
ways fome change from any force impreffed upon the
moving body ; but relative motion does not neceilanly
undergo any changes by fuch force. For if the lame
forces are like wife impreffed on thofe other bodies with
which the comparifon is made, that the relative pontion
may be preferred; then that condition will be preierv-
ed, in which the relative motion confifts. And there¬
fore any relative motion may be changed when the true
motion remains unaltered, and the relative may be pre-
ferved when the true motion fuffers fome change. l)poi\
which account true motion does by no means conlift in
10 fuch relations. # .
Abfolute The effects which diftinguilh abfolute from relative
$ind relative motion are, the forces of receding from the axis of
*P.otio"ai- circular motion. For there are no ^fuch forces in a
n.gui le cjrcu}ar motion purely relative : but in a true ana ab¬
folute circular motion, they are^greater or left accord¬
ing to the quantity of the motion. If a veffel hung
by a long cord, is fo often turned about that the cord
is ftrongly twifted, then filled With WTater, and let go,
it will be" whirled about the contrary way ; and while
the cord is untwifting itfelf, the furface of the water
will at firft be plain, as before the Veffel began to move;
but the veffel, by gradually communicating its motion
to the water, will make it begin fenfibly to revolve,
and recede by little and little from the middle, and ai-
cend to the fides of the veffel, forming itfelf into a con¬
cave figure ; and the fwifter the motion becomes, the
higher °will the water rife, till Ait laft, performing its
revolutions in the fame times with the veffel, it be¬
comes relatively at reft in it. Ihis afcent of the wa¬
ter (hows its endeavour to recede from the axis .of its
motion ; and the true and abfolute circular motion of
the water, which is here directly contrary to the.rela¬
tive, difcovers itfelf, and may be mcafured by this en¬
deavour. At firft, wrhen the relative motion in the
water was greateft, it produced no endeavour to recede
from the axis; the W'ater (bowed no tendency to the
circumference, nor any afcent towrards the fides of the
veffel, but remained ef a plane furface *, and therefore
its true circular motion had not yet begun. But after¬
wards, when the relative motion of the water had de-
creafed, the afcent thereof towards the fides of the vef¬
fel proved its endeavour to recede from the axis ; and
this endeavour (bowed the real circular motion, of the
w'ater perpetually increafing, till it had acquired its
greateft quantity, Avhen the water refted relatively in
the veffel. And therefore this endeavour does not de¬
pend upon any tranflation of the water in refpeft of the
ambient bodies ; nor can true circular motion be. de¬
fined by fuch tranflations. There is only one real circu¬
lar motion of any one revolving body, correfponding to
only one power of endeavouring to recede from its axis
of motion, as its proper and adequate effeft : but rela¬
tive motions in one and the fame body are innume¬
rable, according to the various relations it bears to ex-
VoE. XIV. Part II.
1
N E W
Vernal bodies; and, like other relations, are altogether
deftitute of any real effeft, otherwife than they may 
perhaps participate of that only true motion. And
therefore, in the fyftem which fuppofes that our hea¬
vens, revolving below the fphere of the fixed Lars,
carry the planets along with them, the feveral parts of
thofe heavens and the planets, which are indeed rela¬
tively at reft in their heavens, do yet really move, fior
they change their pofition one to another, which never
happens to bodies truly at reft *, and being carried to-
aether with the heavens, participate of their motions,
and, as parts of revolving wholes, endeavour to recede
from the axis of their motion. . .
Wherefore relative quantities are not the quantities
themfelves whofe names they bear, but thofe feniible
meafures of them, either accurate or inaccurate, which
are commonly ufed inftead of the meafured quantities
themfclvcs. ' And then, if the meaning of words be
determined by their ufe, by the names time, /pace,
place, and motion, their meafures are properly to be
underftood ; and the expreflion will be unufual and
purely mathematical, if the meafured quantities them*
felves are meant. ..
It is indeed a matter of great difficulty.to di(cover,
and effe&ually to diftinguifti, the true motions of par¬
ticular bodies from thofe that are only apparent: be-
caufe the parts of that immoveable fpace in which thole
motions are performed, do by no means come unaer
the obfervation of our fenfes. Yet we have fome things
to direft us in this intricate affair; and thefe ante
partly from the apparent motions which are the dif¬
ference of the true motions, partly from the forces
which are the caufes and effects of the true motions.
For inftance, if two globes kept at a given diftance
one from the other by means of. a cord that connects
them, were revolved about their common centre or
gravity ; we might, from the tendon of the cord, dift
cover the endeavour of the globes to recede from the
axis of motion, and from thence we might compute
the quantity of their circular motions. And then, it
any equal forces ftiould be impreffed at once on the
alternate faces of the globes to augment or dimimffi
their circular motions, from the incre.afe or decreme
of the tenfion of the cord v.e might infer the incre¬
ment or decrement of their motions; and thence
would be found on what faces thofe forces ought to
be impreffed, that the motions of the globes might be
mod augmented; that is, we might difeover. then
hindermoft faces, or thofe which follow in tbe circular
motion/ But the faces which follow’ being known,
and confequently the oppofite ones that precede, we
(liould likewife know the determination of their mo¬
tions. And thus we might find both the quantity and
determination of this circular motion, even in an im-
menfe vacuum, where there was nothing external 01
fenfible with which the globes might be compared.
But now, if in that fpace fome remote bodies were pla¬
ced that kept always a given pofition one to another, as
the fixed ftars do in our regions; v’e could not indeed
determine from the relative tranflation of the globes a-
mong thofe bodies, whether the motion did belong to
the globes or to the bodies. But if we obferved the
cord, and found that its tenfion was that very tenfion
which the motions of the globes required, we might con¬
clude the motion to be in the globes, and the bodies to
<; G b e
w • NEW [ 786 ] NEW
ewr°T» an be at reft 5 and then, laftly, from the Ration of the force will generate a double quantity, whether that Newton
torce be nnprtffed all at once, or in fucceflive moments. Philofophy.
io this law. no obje&ion of confequence has ever been —'
made. It is founded on this felt-evident truth, that
eaufes, effefts, and apparent differences i^and viceverfa Youf./S, Tf! ^ ^0l,ortional its <?»& Mr
how, the ntoti:*,, either true or IZfo ^ Newton
conte the knowledge of their caufeZnd e.fea,. ll preffion, Zwth'^ faSjftt hetv't Z
Ph Otopi-t , u ’ ’ laltv’ trom tlie traniiation of the
i globes among the bodies, we fhouldfind the determina¬
tion of their motions.
Having thus explained himfelf, Sir Ifaac propofes to
ftrow how we are to coiled! the true motions from their
ri
Laws of
motion.
ta
Objections
to the tirit
law.
order to this, he lays down the following axioms or
laws of motion.
1. Evkry body perseveres in its state of
REST, OR OF UNIFORM MOTION IN A RIGHT LINE, UN*
LESS IT IS COMPELLED TO CHANGE THAT STATE BY
FORCES IMPRESSED UPON IT.—Sir Ifaac’s proof of this
axiom is as follows : “ ProjedHles perfevere in their
motions, fo far as they are not retarded by the refiftance
of the air, or impelled downwards by the force of gra-
vit%. A top, whole parts, by their cohelion, are perpe¬
tually. drawn aiide from redlilinear motion, does not
ceafe its rotation otherwife than as it is retarded by the
air. The greater bodies of the planets and comets,
meeting with lefs refinance in more free fpaces, preferve
their motions, both progreftive and circular, for a much
jonger time. —Notwithllanding this demonftration,
however, the axiom hath been violently difputed. It
hath been argued, that bodies continue in their ftate of
motion becaufe they are fubjedled to the continual im-
pulfe of an invifible and fubtile fluid, which always
pours in from behind, and of which all places are full.
It hath been affirmed, that motion is as natural to this
fluid as reft is to all other matter. It is faid, moreover,
that it is i.mpoftible we can know in what manner a body
would be influenced by moving forces if it was entirely
deftitute of gravity. According to what we can ob-
ferve, the momentum 01 a body, or its tendency to move,
depends very much on its gravity. A heavy cannon¬
ball will fly to a much greater diftance than a light one,
though both are aftuated by an equal force. It is by
no means clear, therefore, that a body totally deftitute
of gravity would have any proper momentum of its
own} and if it had no momentum, it could not con¬
tinue its motion for the fmalleft fpace of time after the
moving power was withdrawn. Some have imagined
that matter was capable of beginning motion of itfelf
and confequently that the axiom was falfe ; becaufe we>
fee plainly that matter in fome cafes hath a tendency
to change from a ftate of motion to a ftate of reft, and
from a ftate of reft to a ftate of motion. A paper ap¬
peared on this fubjeft in the firft volume of the Edin¬
burgh Phyfical and Literary Effays j but the hypo-
thefis never gained any ground.
2. The ALTERATION OF MOTION IS EVER PROPOR¬
TIONAL TO THE MOTIVE FORCE IMPRESSED ; AND IS
MADE IN THE DIRECTION OF THE RIGHT LINE IN
WHICH THAT FORCE IS IMPRESSED Thus, if any
force generates a certain quantity of motion, a double
ft thus exprelied, T/ie alteration of motion is proportional
to the aBwns or rejijlance which produces it, and is in
the direttion in which the aBions or ref fiances arc made
it would be unexceptionable. ’
3. To EVERY ACTION THERE ALWAYS IS OPPOSED Objections
AN EQUAL RE-ACTION : OR, THE MUTUAL ACTION OFto the third
TWO BODIES UPON EACH OTHER IS ALWAYS EQUAL law*
Ai?DJDrIRECTED T0 CONTRARY PARTS—This axiom is
alio diiputed by many. In the above-mentioned paper
in the Phyfical Efl'ays, the author endeavours to make
a diftm&ion between re-aaion and refiftance j and
the fame attempt has been made by Mr Young.
“ W|ien an a.ftion generates no motion (fays he) it is
certain that its effefts have been deftroyed by a con-
tiary and equal aiftion. When an action generates two
contrary and equal motions, it is alfo evident that mu¬
tual actions were exerted, equal and contrary to each
other. All cafes where one of thefe conditions is not
found, are exceptions to the truth of the law. If a fin¬
ger prefles againft a ftone, the ftone, if it does not yield
to the preilure, prefles as much upon the finger; but if
the ftone yields, it re-aaS lefs than the finger afts ; and
if it fhould yield with all the momentum that the force
of the prefifure ought to generate, which it would do if
it were not impeded by fri&ion, or a medium, it would
not re-aft at all. So if the ftone drawn by a horfe,
follows after the horfe, it does not re-aft fo much as the
horfe afts; but only fo much as the velocity of the
ftone is diminiflied by friction, and it is the re-aftion
of friftion only, not of the ftone. The ftone does not
re-aft, .becaufe it does not aft ; it refills, but refiftance is
not aft ion.
“ lofs of motion from a ftriking body, equal
to. the gain in the body ftruck, there is a plain folution
without requiring any re-aftion. The motion loji is
identically that which h found in the other body 5 this
fuppofition accounts for the whole phenomenon in the
moft.fimple manner. If it be not admitted, but the
folution by re-aftion is infilled upon, it will be incum¬
bent on the party to account for the whole eflfeft: of
communication of motion j otherwife he will lie under
the .imputation of rejefting a folution which is Ample,
obvious, and perfeft j for one complex, unnatural, and
incomplete. However .this may be determined, it will
be allowed, that the circumftances mentioned, afford
no ground for the inference, that aftion and re-aftion
are equal, fince appearances may be explained in ano¬
ther way” (a.)
Others
(a) If there be a perfeft reciprocity betwixt an impinging body and a body at reft fuftaininsj its impulfe
may we not at our plealure confider either body as the agenf, and the other as the refiftant ? Le[ a movffig
fn S’ pal!, fr°m n°rth I0 1°uth» an equal body B at reft, which receives the ftroke of A, aft upon A from
be called fix h,ThenABreaift ft 3 ^^both inelaftic: let the motion reciprocally communicated
be called fix. Then B at reft communicates to A fix degrees of motion towards the north, and receives fix
degrees towards the fouth.
-pi . O * xAv/iuiij a.u\A 1 YC5 11 A.
B having no other motion than the fix degrees it communicated, will, by its
equal
STewtonian
PHilofophy.
NEW [
Others grant that Sir Ifaac’s axiom is very true in
refpect to terreftrial fubftances ; but they affirm, that,
in thefe, both a£tion and re-a&ion are the effe&s of
gravity. Subftances void of gravity would have no
momentum and without this they could not aft ; they
ffiould be moved by the lead force, and therefore could
not refill or re-aft. If therefore there is any fluid which
is the caufe of gravity, though fuch fluid could aft up¬
on terreftrial fubftances, yet thefe could not re-aft up¬
on it} becaufe they have no force of their own, but
depend entirely upon it for their momentum. In this
manner, fay they, we may conceive that the planets
circulate, and all the operations of nature are carried
on by means of a fubtile fluid ^ which being perfectly
aftive, and the reft of matter altogether paffive, there
is neither refiftance nor lofs of motion. See Mo¬
tion.
From the preceding axiom Sir Ifaac draws the fol¬
lowing corollaries,
1. A body by two forces conjoined will defcribe the
diagonal of a parallelogram in the fame time that it
would defcribe the fides by thofe forces apart.
2. Hence we may explain the compofition of any
one direft force out of any two oblique ones, viz. by
making the two oblique forces the iides of a parallelo¬
gram, and the direft one the diagonal.
3. The quantity of motion, which is collefted by
taking the fum of the motions direfted towards the fame
parts, and the difference of thofe that are direfted to
contrary parts, fuffers no change from the aftion of bo¬
dies among themfelves : becaufe the motion which one
body lofes is communicated to another ; and if we fup-
pofe friftion and the refiftance of the air to be abfent,
the motion of a number of bodies which mutually im¬
pelled one another would be perpetual, and its quantity
always equal.
] NEW
4. The common centre of gravity of two or more Newtonian
bodies do not alter its ftate of motion or reft by the ;
aftions of the bodies among themfelves ; and therefore
the common centre of gravity of all bodies afting upon
each other (excluding outward aftions and impedi¬
ments) is either at reft, or moves uniformly in a right
line« . . • r
5. The motions of bodies included in a given Ipace
are the fame among themfelves, whether that ipace^ is
at reft, or moves uniformly forward in a right line
without any circular motion. The truth of this is evi¬
dently ffiown by the experiment of a ffiip where all
motions happen after the fame manner, whether the
ftiip is at reft, or proceeds uniformly forward in a ftraight
line.
6. If bodies, anyhow moved among themfelves, are
urged in the direftion of parallel lines by equal accele¬
rative forces, they will all continue to move among
themfelves, after the fame manner as if they had been
urged by no fuch forces.
The whole of the mathematical part of the Newto¬
nian philofophy depends on the following lemmas } of
which the firft is the principal.
Lem. I. Quantities, and the ratios of quantities,
which in any finite tinie converge continually to equa¬
lity, and before that time approach nearer the one to
the other than by any given difference, become ulti¬
mately equal. If you deny it •, fuppofe them to be ulti¬
mately unequal, and let 1) be their ultimate difference.
Therefore they cannot approach nearer to equality than
by that given difference L) j which is againft the fup-
pofition. # . I4
Concerning the meaning of this lemma philofophers Objections
are not agreed ; and unhappily it is the very fundamen-jo^farit
tal pofition on which the whole of the fyftem refts.
Many objeftions have been raifed to it by people who
5 G 2 fuppofed
equal and contrary lofs and gain, remain in equilibrio. Let the original motion of A have been twelve, then A
havina received a contrary aftion equal to fix, fix degrees of its motion will be deftroyed or in equilibrio ; con-
fequently, a motive force as fix will remain to A towards the fouth, and.B will be in equihbno, or at reft. A
will then endeavour to move with fix degrees, or half its original motion, and B will remain at reft as before.
A and B being equal maffes, by the laws of communication three degrees of motion will be communicated to B,
or A with its fix degrees will aft with three, and B will re-aft alfo with three. B then will aft on A from
fouth to north equal to three, while it is afted upon or refifted by A from north to fouth, equal alfo to three, and
B will remain at reft as before *, A will alfo have its fix degrees of motion reduced to one half by the contrary
aftion of B, and only three degrees of motion will remain to A, with which it will yet endeavour to move •, and
finding B ftill at reft, the fame procefs will be repeated till the whole motion of A is reduced to an infinitely
fmall quantity, B ail the while remaining at reft, and there will be no communication Ox motion from A to 5,
which is contrary to experience. . r * 1
Let a body, A, whofe mafs is twelve, at reft, be impinged upon firft by B, having a mafs as twelve, and
a velocity as four, making a momentum of 48; and fecondly by C, whofe mafs is hx, and velocity eight,
making a momentum of 48 equal to B, the three bodies being melaftic. In the firft cafe, A wnl ^come
poiTeffed of a momentum of 24, and 24 will remain to B j and,_ in the fecond cafe, A wih become poffeffed
of a momentum of 32, and 16 will remain to C, both bodies moving with equal velocities alter the fhock, m
both cafes by the laws of percuffion. It is required to know, if in both cafes A refills e-quacy, ana u B and C act
equally ? if "the aftions and refiftances are equal, how does A in one cafe deftroy 24 parts of B s motion, and m
the other cafe 32 parts of C’s motion, by an equal refiftance ? And how does B communicate in one cafe 24 de¬
grees of motion, and C 32, by equal aftions ? If the aftions and refiftances are unequal, it is allied how toe lame
mafs can refill differently to bodies impinging upon it with equal momenta, and how bodies pofteffed of equal mo¬
menta can exert different aftions, it being admitted that bodies refill proportional to t.ieir mniles, and tuat -heir
power of overcoming refiftance is proportional to their momenta ? <
It is incumbent on thofe who maintain the doftxine of univerfal re-aftion, to free it trom tnefe difficulties auft
apparent contradiftiens.
NEW [ 788
?h?bf°nian 1UpP°red ^emfelves capable of underflanding it. They
t C fa7» that it is impoflible we can come to an end of any
infinite feries, and therefore that the word ultimate can
in this cafe have no meaning. In fome cafes the lemma
is evidently falfe. 1. bus, fuppofe there are two quanti¬
ties of matter A and B, the one containing half a pound,
and the other a third part of one. Let both be conti¬
nually divided by 2 ; and though their ratio, or the
proportion of the one to the other, doth not vary, yet
the difference between them perpetually becomes lefs,
as well as the quantities themfelves, until both the dif¬
ference and quantities themfelves become lefs than any
aflignable quantity : yet the difference will never total-
b ''Snifh, nor the quantities become equal, as is evident
from the two following feries :
Jt £ X 1 1 T t t 1 r
1 Z s T? T5- ZZ T-rg- ZJS TZZ ToVTj
. T ^ TT ZTf VS T5Z TTJ TTT<r>
TiifF -4. 1 111 1 , 1 , t o
•SiZ‘2ZZS a? TVS zsz Self TTSS ToSZi oCc‘
Thus we fee, that though the difference is continual¬
ly diminifhing, and that in a very large proportion,
there is no hope of its vanilhing, or the quantities be¬
coming equal. In like manner, let us take the propor¬
tions or ratios of quantities, and we fiiall be equally un-
fuccefsful. Suppofe two quantities of matter, one con¬
taining 8 and the other 10 pounds $ thefe quantities al¬
ready have to each other the ratio of 8 to 10, or of 4
to 5 ; but let us add 2 continually to each of them,
and though the ratios continually come nearer to that
of equality, it is in vain to hope for a perfect coinci¬
dence. Thus,
20
22
22 24,
24 26,
1 1
&c.
&.C.
&.C.
8 10 12 14 16 18
10 12 14 16 18 20
Rntln 4 $ 0 7 8 9
^ naU0 S S T S V To
anfwered. For this and his other lemmas Sir Ifaac makes the
following apology : u Thefe lemmas are premifed, to
avoid the tedioulnefs of deducing perplexed demonllra-
tions ad abfurdum, according to the method of ancient
geometers. For demonftrations are. more contra&ed by
the method of indivifibles : but becaufe the hypothefis
of indivifibles feems fomewhat harfh, and therefore that
method is reckoned lefs geometrical, I chofe rather to
reduce the demonftrations of the following propofitions
to the firft and laft fums and ratios of nafcent and eva-
nefcent quantities, that is, to the limits of thofe fums
and ratios 5 and fo to premife, as fhort as I could, the
demonftrations of thofe limits. For hereby the fame
thing is performed as by the method of indivifibles ;
and now thofe principles being demonftrated, wTe may
ufe them with more fafety.—Therefore, if hereafter I
ftiould happen to eonfider quantities as made of parti¬
cles, or fhould ufe little curve lines for right ones ; I
would not be underftood to mean indivifibles, but eva-
nefcent divifible quantities ; not the fums and ratios of
determinate parts, but always the limits of fums and
ratios; and that the force of fuch demonftrations al¬
ways depends on the method laid down in the foregoing
lemmas.
“ Perhaps it may be objefted, that there is no ulti¬
mate proportion of evanefeent quantities, becaufe the
proportion, before the quantities have vanilhed, is not
the ultimate, and, when they are vaniftied, is none.—
But by the fame argument it may be alleged, that a
body arriving at a certain place, and there flopping,
3
] NEW
has no ultimate velocity ; becaufe the velocity before Newtonian
the body comes to the place is not its ultimate veloci- PMofophy,
ty ; when it is arrived, it has none. But the anfwer is' 'r~~J
eafy : for by the ultimate velocity is meant that with
which the body is moved, neither before it arrives at
its place and the motion ceafes, nor after ; but at the
very inftant it arrives, that is, that velocity with which
the body arrives at its laft place, and with which the
motion ceafes. A.nd m like manner, oy the ultimate
ratio of evanefeent quantities is to be underftood the ra¬
tio of the quantities, not before they vanifh, nor after-
wards, but with which they vanifh. In like manner,
the firft ratio of nafcent quantities is that with which
they begin to be. And the firft or laft fum is that
with which they begin and ceafe to be (or to be aug¬
mented and diminifhed). There is a limit which the
velocity at the end of the motion may attain, but not
exceed ; and this is the ultimate velocity. And there
is the like limit in all quantities and proportions that
begin and ceafe to be. And, fince fuch limits are cer¬
tain and definite, to determine the fame is a problem
ftridlly geometrical. But ^whatever is geometrical w'o
may be allowed to make ufe of in determining and
demonftrating any other thing that is likewife geome¬
trical.
“ It may alio be obje&ed, that if the ultimate ratios
of evanefeent quantities are given, their ultimate mag¬
nitudes will be alfo given ; and fo all quantities will
confift of indivifibles, which is contrary to what Eu¬
clid has demonftrated concerning incommenfurables, in
the loth book of his Elements. But this objedlion is
founded on a falfe fuppofition. For thofe ultimate
ratios with which quantities vanifh are not truly the
ratios of ultimate quantities, but limits towards which
the ratios of quantities decreafing continually ap¬
proach.”
Lem. IE If in any figure A a c E terminated pjate
by the right line A a, AE, and the curve a c E, CCCLXIX.
there be inferibed any number of parallelograms *•
A b, B c, C d, &c. comprehended under equal bafes
AB, BC, CD, &c. and the fides B b, C c, D d,
&e. parallel to one fide A a of the figure ; and the
parallelograms aEb l,bE cm, cM dn, &c. are com¬
pleted.—Then if the breadth of thofe parallelograms
be fuppofed to be diminifhed, and their number aug¬
mented in infinitum ; the ultimate ratios which the in¬
feribed figure AK bEcMdE), the circumfcribed fi¬
gure Aa IbmcndoE, and curvilineal figure AabcdE,
will have to one another, are ratios of equality. For
the difference of the inferibed and circumfcribed figures
is the fum of the parallelograms K /, L m, M n, D 0
that is (from the equality of all their bafes), the
rectangle under one of their bafes K b, and the fum
of their altitudes A a, that is, the redangle AB /a.
—But this redangle, becaufe its breadth AB is fup¬
pofed diminifhed in infinitum, becomes lefs than any
given fpace. And therefore by Lem. I. the figures
inferibed and circumfcribed become ultimately equal
the one to the other ; and much more will the interme¬
diate curvilineal figure be ultimately equal to either.
Lem. III. The fame ultimate ratios are alfo ratios
of equality, when the breadths AB, BC, CD, &c. of
the parallelograms are unequal, and are all diminifhed
in infinitum.—The demonftration of this differs but lit¬
tle from that of the former.
In
N E W
[
Newtonian In his fucceeding lemmas, Sir liaac goes on to piove,
Philofophy. jn a xnanner fimilar to the above, that the.ultimate ra-
{;ios of the fine, chord, and tangent of arcs infinitely di-
minifned, are ratios of equality, and therefore that in
all our reafonings about thefe we may lately ufe the
one for the other that the ultimate form of evanef-
cent triangles made by the arc, chord, and tangent, is
that of fimilitude, and their ultimate ratio is that of
equality j and hence, in reafonings about ultimate ra-
tios9 we may fafely ufe thefe triangles for each othert
whether made with the fine, the arc, or the tangent.—
He then fhows fome properties of the ordinates of cur¬
vilinear figures j and proves that the fpaces which a
body deferibes by any finite force urging it, whether
that force is determinate and immutable, or is conti¬
nually augmented or continually diminilhed, are, in the
very beginning of the motion, one to the other in the
duplicate ratio of the powers. And, laftly, Having
added fome demonftrations concerning the evanefcence
of angles of contaft, he proceeds to lay down the ma¬
thematical part of his fyitem, and which depends on
the following theorems :
Theor. I. The areas which revolving bodies de-
feribe by radii drawn to an immoveable centre of force,
lie in the fame immoveable planes, and are proportional
to the times in which they are deferibed. lor, lup-
pofe the time to be divided* into equal parts, and in the
firft part of that time, let the body by its innate force
F- 2< -deferibe the right line AB (fig. 2.) 5 in the fecond part
' of that time, the fame would, by Law 1. if not hinder¬
ed, proceed diredtly to c along the line B c—AB j fo
that by the radii AS, BS, c S, drawn to the centre, the
equal areas ASB, BS c, would be deferibed. .But,
when the body is arrived at B, fuppofe the centripetal
force adls at once with a great impulfe, and turning
afide the body from the right line B c, compels.it after¬
wards to continue its motion along the right line BC.
Draw cC parallel to BS, meeting BC in C j and at
the end of the fecond part of the time, the body, by
Cor. 1. of the Laws, will be found in C, in the fame
plane with the triangle ASB. Join SC j and becaufe
SB and c C are parallel, the triangle SBC will be
equal to the triangle SBC, and therefore alfo to the
triangle SAB. By the like argument, if the centripe¬
tal force adls fucceffively in C, D, E, &c. and makes
the body in each fingle particle of time to deferibe the
right lines CD, DE, EF, &c. they will all lie in the
fame plane; and the triangle SCD will be equal to the
triangle SBC, and SDE to SCD, and SEb to SDE.
And therefore, in equal times, equal areas are .deferib¬
ed in one immoveable plane j and, by compofition, any
fums SADS, SAFS, of thofe areas are, one to the
other, as the times in which they are deferibed. Now,
let the number of thofe triangles be augmented, and
their fize dim ini died in infinitum ; and then, by the
preceding lemmas, their ultimate perimeter ADF will
be a curve line : and therefore the centripetal force by
which the body is perpetually drawn back from the
tangent of this curve will aft continually j and any de-
feribed areas SADS, SAFS, which are always propor¬
tional to the times of defeription, will, in this cafe alfo,
be proportional to thofe times. £L E. D.
Cor. 1. The velocity of a body attra&ed towards an
immoveable centre, in fpaces void of refiftance, is re¬
ciprocally as the perpendicular let fall from that centre
For the ve- Newtonian
|-jie Philofophy.
Y-—1
789 ] N E W
on the right line which touches the orbit,
loci ties in thefe places, A, B, C, D, E, are as ^
bafes AB, BC, DE, EF, of equal triangles 5 and thefe
bafes are reciprocally as the perpendiculars let fall upon1
them.
Cor. 2. If the chords AB, BC, of two arcs, fuccef-
fively deferibed in equal times by the fame body, in
fpaces void of refiftance, are completed into a parallelo¬
gram ABCV, and the diagonal BY of this parallelo¬
gram, in the pofition which it ultimately acquires when
thofe arcs are diminiftied in infinitum, is produced both
ways, it will pafs through the centre of force.
Cor. 3. If the chords AB, BC, and DE, EF, of
arcs deferibed in equal times, in fpaces void of refift¬
ance, are completed into the parallelograms ABCV,
DEFZ, the forces in B and E are one to the other in
the ultimate ratio of the diagonals BY, EZ, when thofe
arcs are diminiftied in infinitum. For the motions BC
and EF of the body (by Cor. 1. of the Laws), are com¬
pounded of the motions B c, BY and E^ EZ \ but
BY and EZ, which are equal to C c=:and Fy, in the
demonftration of this propofition, were generated by
the impulfes of the centripetal force in B and E, and
are therefore proportional to thofe impulfes.
Cor. 4. The forces by which bodies, in fpaces void
of refiftance, are drawn back from reftilinear motions,
and turned into curvilinear orbits, are one to another as
the verfed fines of arcs deferibed in equal times; which
verfed fines tend to the centre of force, and bifetl the
chords when thefe arcs are diminiflied to infinity. For
fuch verfed fines are the halfs of the diagonals mention¬
ed in Cor. 3.
Cor. 5. And therefore thofe forces are to the force
of gravity, as the faid verfed fines to the verfed fines
perpendicular to the horizon of thofe parabolic arcs
which projedliles deferibe in the fame time.
Cor. 6. And the fame things do all hold good
(by Cor. 5. of the laws) when the planes in which the
bodies are moved, together with the centres of force,
which are placed in thofe planes, are not at reft, but
move uniformly forward In right lines.
Theor. II. Every body that moves in any curve
line deferibed in a plane, and, by a radius drawn to a
point either immoveable or moving forward with an
uniform redlilinear motion, deferibes about that point
areas proportional to the times, is urged by a centripetal
force diredfed to that point.
Case I. For every body that moves in a curve line
is (by Law 1.) turned afide from its redlilinear courfe
by the adlion of fome force that impels it ; and that
force by which the body is turned off from its redlili-
near courfe, and made to deferibe in equal times the
leaft equal triangles SAB, SBC, SCD, &c. about the
immoveable point S, (by Prop. 40. E. 1. and Law 2.)
ads in the place B according to the diredion of a line
parallel to C ; that is, in the diredion of the line BS ;
and in the place C according to the diredion of a line
parallel to </D, that is, in the diredion of the line CS,
&c. ; and therefore ads always in the diredion of lines
tending to the immoveable point S. E. D.
Case II. And (by Cor. 5. of the laws) it is indif¬
ferent whether the fuperficies in which a body deferibes
a curvilinear figure be quiefeent, or moves together
with the body, the figure deferibed, and its point S,
uniformly forward in right lines.
Cor,
NEW
Newtonian CoR. I. In non-refifting fpaces or mediums, if the
. 11 ° °p y' areas are not proportional to the times, the forces are
not directed to the point in which the radii meet j but
deviate therefrom in confequentia, or towards the parts
to which the motion is direfted, if the defcription of
the areas is accelerated j but in antecedentia if retard¬
ed.
Cor. 2. And even in relifting mediums, if the de¬
fcription of the areas is accelerated, the direftions of
the forces deviate from the point in which the radii
meet, towards the parts to which the motion tends.
Scholium.
A body may be urged by a centripetal force com¬
pounded of feveral forces. In which cafe the meaning
of the propofition is, that the force which refults out
of all tends to the point S. But if any force afts per¬
petually in the direction of lines perpendicular to the
defcribed furface, this force will make the body to de¬
viate from the plane of its motion, but will neither aug¬
ment nor diminifh the quantity of the defcribed furface ;
and is therefore not to be neglected in the compofition
of forces.
Theor. III. Every body that, by a radius drawn
to the centre of another body, howfoever moved, de-
fcribes areas about that centre proportional to the times,
is urged by a force compounded of the centripetal forces
tending to that other body, and of all the accelerative
force by which that other body is impelled.—The de-
monftration of this is a natural confequence of the theo¬
rem immediately preceding.
Hence, if the one body L, by a radius drawn to the
other body T, deferibes areas proportional to the times,
and from the whole force by which the firft body L is
urged, (whether that force is Ample, or, according to
Cor. 2. of the laws, compounded of feveral forces), we
fubducl that whole accelerative force by which the
other body is urged the whole remaining force by
which the firft body is urged will tend to the other
body T, as its centre.
And vice verfa, if the remaining force tends nearly
. to the other body T, thofe areas will be nearly propor¬
tional to the times.
If the body L, by a radius drawn to the other body
T, deferibes areas, which, compared with the times, are
very unequal, and that other body T be either at reft,
or moves uniformly forward in a right line, the adlion
of the centripetal force tending to that other body T
is either none at all, or it is mixed and combined with
very powerful adtions of other forces : and the whole
force compounded of them all, if they are many, is di-
refted to another (immoveable or moveable) centre.
The fame thing obtains when the other body is actu¬
ated by any other motion whatever ; provided that
centripetal force is taken which remains after fub-
duCling that whole force aCling upon that other body
Scholium.
Becaufe the equable defcription of areas indicates
that a centre is refpe&ed by that force with which the
body is moft affeCled, and by which it is drawn back
from its reClilinear motion, and retained in its orbit, we
may always be allowed to ufe the equable defcription of
C 79° 1
NEW
areas as an indication of a centre about which all circu- Newtonian
lar motion is performed in free fpaces, Phiiofophy.
Theor. IV. The centripetal forces of bodies which
by equable motions deferibe difterent circles, tend to the
centres of the fame circles 5 and are one to the other
as the fquares of the arcs defcribed in equal times ap¬
plied to the radii of circles—For thefe forces tend to
the centres of the circles, (by Theor. 2. and Cor. 2.
Theor. 1.) and are to one another as the verfed fines of
the leaft arcs dtTcribed in equal times, (by Cor. 4.
Iheor. I.) that is, as the Iquares of the lame arcs ap¬
plied to the diameters of the circles, by one of the lem¬
mas ; and therefore, fince thofe arcs are as arcs defcrib¬
ed in any equal times, and the diameters are as the ra¬
dii, the forces will be as the fquares of any arcs defcrib¬
ed in the fame time, applied to the radii of the circles
£. E. D.
Cor. 1. Therefore, fince thofe arcs are as the ve¬
locities of the bodies, the centripetal forces are in a
ratio compounded of the duplicate ratio of the velo¬
cities direftly, and of the Ample ratio of the radii in-
verfely.
CoR. 2. And fince the periodic times are in a ratio
compounded of the ratio of the radii diredly, and the
ratio of the velocities inverfely ; the centripetal forces
are in a ratio compounded of the ratio of the radii di-
redlly, and the duplicate ratio of the periodic times in»
verfely.
Cor. 3. Whence, if the periodic times are equal, and
the velocities therefore as the radii, the centripetal forces
will be equal among themfelves ; and the contrary.
Cor. 4. If the periodic times and the velocities are
both in the fubduplicate ratio of the radii, the centri¬
petal forces will be equal among themfelves ; and the
contrary.
Cor. 5. If the periodic times are as the radii, and
therefore the velocities equal, the centripetal forces will
be reciprocally as the radii; and the contrary.
Cor. 6. If the periodic times are in the fefquiplicate
ratio of the radii, and therefore the velocities recipro¬
cally in the fubduplicate ratio of the radii, the centri¬
petal forces will be in the duplicate ratio of the radii
inverfely j and the contrary.
Cor. 7. And univerfally, if the periodic time is as
any power RQ of the radius R, and therefore the velo¬
city reciprocally as the power R8-’ of the radius, the
centripetal force will be reciprocally as the power R’*-*
of the radius 5 and the contrary.
Cor. 8. I he fame things all hold concerning the
times, the velocities, and forces, by which bodies de¬
feribe the fimilar parts of any fimilar figures, that have
their centres in a fimilar pofition within thofe fio-ures
as appears by applying the demonftrations of the prece¬
ding cafes to thofe. And the application is eafy, by
only fubftituting the equable defcription of areas in the
place of equable motion, and ufing the diftances of the
bodies from the centres inflead of the radii.
Cor. 9. From the fame demonftration it likewife
follows, that the arc which a body uniformly revolving
in a circle by means of a given centripetal force de¬
feribes in any time, is a mean proportional between the
diameter of the circle, and the fpace which the fame
body, falling by the fame given force, would defeend
through in the fame given time.
“ Ey
NEW
[ 79
JiJewtouian “ By means of the preceding proppfition and its co-
Fhilofophy. rollaries (fays Sir Ifaac), we may difeover the propor-
' v tion of a centripetal force to any other known force,
fueh as that of gravity. For if a body by means ol its
gravity revolves in a circle concentric to the earth, tins
gravity is the centripetal force oi that oody. Butfioni
the defcent of heavy bodies, the time of one entire re¬
volution, as well as the arc defcribed in any given time,
is given (by Cor. 9* °f this theorem). And by fuch
propofitions Mr Huygens, in his excellent book Dc Ho-
ro/ogio Ofci/latorio, has compared the force, of gravity
with the centrifugal forces of revolving bodies.
The preceding propofition may alio be demonlfrated
in the following manner. In any circle fuppofe a poly¬
gon to be inferibed of any number of tides. And if a
body, moved with a given velocity along the Tides of
the polygon, is reflected from the circle at the feveral
angular points 5 the force with which, at every reflec¬
tion it Itrikes the circle, will be as its velocity and
therefore the fum of the forces, in a given time, will be
. as that velocity and the number of refleftions conjund-
ly •, that is, (if the fpecies of the polygon be given), as
the length defcribed in that given time, and increafed
or diminiihed in the ratio of the lame length to the ra¬
dius of the circle •, that is, as the fquare of that length
applied to the radius •, and therefore, if the polygon,
by having its {ides diminifhed in infinitum, coincides
with the circle, as the fquare of the arc defcribed in
a given time applied to the radius. This is the centri¬
fugal force, with which the body impels the circle •,
and to which the contrary force, wherewith the circle
continually repels the body towards the centre, is equal.
On thefe principles hangs the whole of Sir Ifaac
Newton’s mathematical philofophy. He now {hows
how to find the centre to which the forces impelling
any body are direded, having the velocity of the body
given : and finds the centrifugal force to be always as
the verfed fine of the nafeent arc diredly, and as the
fquare of the time inverfely ; or diredly as the fquare
of the velocity, and inverfely as the chord of the naf¬
eent arc. From thefe premifes he deduces the method
of finding the centripetal force direded to any given
point when the body revolves in a circle •, and this
whether the central point is near or at an immenfe
diftance ; fo that all the lines drawn from it may be
taken for parallels. The fame thing he {hows with re¬
gard to bodies revolving in fpirals, ellipfes, hyperbo¬
las, or parabolas.—Having the figures of the orbits
given, he fhows alfo how to find the velocities and
moving powers j and, in fliort, folves all the moft dif¬
ficult problems relating to the celeftial bodies with an
aftonithing degree of mathematical {kill. Thefe pro¬
blems and demonftrations are all contained in the firft
book of the Vrincipia: but to give an account of them
here would far exceed our limits •, neither would many
of them be intelligible, excepting to find-rate mathe¬
maticians.
In the fecond book, Sir Ifaac treats of the proper-
ties of fluids, and their powers of refiftance : and here
Rules for he layS down fuch principles as entirely overthrow the
cal* reafon- d°&rine °f F)es Cartes’s vortices, which was the fa-
injp fhionable fyftem in his time'. In the third book, he be¬
gins particularly to treat of the natural phenomena, and
apply them to the mathematical principles formerly de-
mon ft rated 5 and, as a neceflary preliminary to this part,
4:
r ] NEW
he lavs down the following rules for reafoning in natu~ Newtonian
, A, r , Philofopny.
ral philolopny. _ ■ ^r • .
1. We are to admit no more caufes of natural things
than fuch as are both true and fuftieient to explain their
natural appearances.
2. Therefore to the fame natural effe&s we mult al¬
ways aftign, as far as poflible, the fame caufes.
3. The qualities of bodies which admit neither in-
tenflon nor remiflion of degrees, and which are found
to belong to all bodies within the reach of our experi¬
ments, are to be efteemed the univerfal qualities of all
bodies whatloever.
4. In experimental philofophy, we are to look upon
propofitions colledled by general indudlion from pheno¬
mena as accurately or very nearly true, notwithftanding
any contrary hypothefes that may be imagined, till
fuch time as other phenomena occur, by which they
may either be made more accurate, or liable to exceptions.
The phenomena firft confidered are, 1. That the fa-
tellites of Jupiter by radii drawn to the centre of their
primary, deferibe areas proportional to the times of
their defeription *, and that their periodic times, the
fixed liars being at reft, are in the fefquiplicate ratio of
their diftances from its centre. 2. The fame thing is
likewife obfervedof the phenomena of Saturn. 3. The
five primary planets, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,
and Saturn, with their feveral orbits encompafs the fun.
4. The fixed ftars being fuppofed at reft, the periodic
times of the five primary planets, and of the earth,
about the fun, are in the fefquiplicate proportion of
their mean diftances from the fun. 5. Ihe primary
planets, by radii drawn to the earth, deferibe areas no
ways proportionable to the times ; but the areas which
they deferibe by radii drawn to the fun are propor¬
tional to the times of defeription. 6. The moon, by a
radius drawn to the centre of the earth, deferibes an
area proportional to the time of defeription. All thefe
phenomena are undeniable from aftronomical obferva-
tions, and are explained at large under the article A-
STRONOMY. The mathematical demonftrations are
next applied by Sir Ifaac Newton in the following
propofitions :
Prop. I. The forces by which the fatellites of Ju¬
piter are continually drawn off from re&ilinear motions,,
and retained in their proper orbits, tend to the centre
of that planet} and are reciprocally as the fquares of
the diftances of thofe fatellites from that centre. The
former part of this propofition appears from Theor. 2.
or 3. and the latter from Cor. 6. of Theor. 5. ; and
the fame thing we are to underftand of the fatellites of
Saturn.
Prop. II. The forces by which the primary planets
are continually drawn off from reftilinear motions, and
retained in their proper orbits, tend to the fun ; and
are reciprocally as the fquares of the diftances from the
fun’s centre. The former part of this propofition is
manifeft from Phenomenon 5. juft mentioned, and
from Theor. 2. j the latter from Phenomenon 4. and,
Cor. 6. of Theor. 4. But this part of the propofition
is with great accuracy deducible from the quiefcence of
the aphelion points. For a very fmall aberration from
the reciprocal duplicate proportion would produce a
motion of the apfides, fenfible in every Angle revolution,,
and in many of them enormoufly great.
Prop. HI. The force by which the moon is retained
NEW [ 792
gewtoinan in its orbft, tends towards the earth ; and is reciprocally
^ iuo op ,y. ag pqUare 0p |.jie diftance of its place from the centre
of the earth. The former part of this propofition is
evident from Phenom. 5. and Theor. 2 ; the latter from
Phenom. 6. and Theor. 2. or 3. It is alfo evident from
the very flow motion of the moon’s apogee j which, in
every fingle revolution, amounting but to 30 3' in con-
fequentia, may be neglected : and this more fully ap¬
pears from the next propofition.
Prop. IV. The moon gravitates towards the earth,
and by the force of gravity is continually drawn off
from a redlilincar motion, and retained in its orbit.—
The mean diftance of the moon from the earth in the
fyzigies in femidiameters of the latter, is about 60-p
Let us affume the mean dillance of 60 femidiameters in
the fyzigies 5 and fuppofe one revolution of the moon in
refpedt of the fixed (tars to be compltted in 27^ 7b 43',
as aftronomers have determined; and the circumference
of the earth to amount to 123,249,600 Paris feet.
Now, it we imagine the moon, deprived of all motion,
to be let go, fo as to defeend towards the earth with the
impulfe of all that force by which it is retained in its or¬
bit, it will, in the fpace of one minute of time, deferibe in
its fall 15-J Paris feet. For the verfed fine of that arc
which the moon, in the fpace of one minute of time,
defer!bes by its mean motion at the diftance of 60 fe¬
midiameters of the earth, is nearly 15-/3; Paris feet j
or more accurately, 15 feet one inch and one line •£.
Wherefore fince that force, in approaching to the earth,
increafes in the reciprocal duplicate proportion of the
diftance ; and, upon that account, at the furface of the
earth, is 60 X 60 times greater than that at the moon •, a
body in our regions, falling with that force, ought, in
the fpace of one minute of time, to deferibe 60 X 60 X
I5tV Paris feet ; and in the fpace of one fecond of time
to deferibe 15-rV thofe feet ; or, more accurately, I ^
feet 1 inch, x line And with this very force we ac¬
tually find that bodies here on earth do really defeend.
•—For a pendulum ofcillating feconds in the latitude of
Paris, will be three Paris feet and 8^ lines in length,
as Mr Huygens has obferved. And the fpace which
a heavy body deferibes by falling one fecond of time
is to half the length of the pendulum in the duplicate
Patio of the circumference of the circle to its diame¬
ter ; and is therefore 15 Paris feet, I inch 1 line
And therefore the force by which the moon is retained
in its orbit, becomes at the very furface of the earth,
equal to the force of gravity which we obferve in heavy
bodies there. And therefore (by Rule 1. and 2.) the
force by w'hich the moon is retained in its orbit is that
very fame force which we commonly call gravity. For
were gravity another force different from that, then bo¬
dies defeending to the earth with the joint impulfe of
both forces rvould fall with a double velocity, and, in
the fpace of one fecond of time, would deferibe 30-£
Paris feet 5 altogether againft experience.
The demonftration of this propofition may be more
diffufely explained after the following manner : Sup-
pofe feveral moons to revolve about the earth, as in
the fyftem of Jupiter or Saturn, the periodic times of
thofe moons would (by the argument of induftion)
obferve the fame law which Kepler found to obtain
among the planets *, and therefore their centripetal for¬
ces would be reciprocally as the fquares of the diftan-
]
NEW
ces from the centre of the earth, by Prop. I. Now, if Newtonian
tlie loweft of thefe were very fmall, and wrere fo near t’fiilofophy.
the earth as almoft to touch the tops of the higheft ‘ 
mountains, the centripetal force thereof, retaining it
in its orbit, would be very nearly equal to the weights
of any terreftrial bodies that ftiould be found upon
the tops of thefe mountains 5 as may be known from
the foregoing calculation. Therefore, if the fame little
moon ftiould be deferted by its centrifugal force that
carries it through its orbit, it would defeend to the
earth \ and that W'ith the fame velocity as heavy bo¬
dies do actually defeend with upon the tops of thofe
very mountains, becaufe of the equality of forces that
oblige them both to defeend. And if the force by
which that loweft moon would defeend were different
from that of gravity, and if that moon were to gravitate
towards the earth, as we find terreftrial bodies do on
the tops of mountains, it would then defeend with
twice the velocity, as being impelled by both thefe for¬
ces confpiring together. Therefore, fince both thefe
forces, that is, the gravity of heavy bodies, and the
centripetal forces of the moons, refpe£t the centre of
the earth, and are fimilar apd equal between themfelves,
they will (by Rule 1. and 2.) have the fame caufe.
And therefore the force which retains the moon in its
orbit, is that very force which we commonly call gra¬
vity ; becaufe otherwife, this little moon at the top of
a mountain muft either be without gravity, or fall twice
as fwiftly as heavy bodies ufe to do.
Having thus demonftrated that the moon is retained
in its orbit by its gravitation towards the earth, it is
eafy to apply the fame demonftration to the motions of
the other fecondary planets, and of the primary planets
round the fun, and thus to ftiorv that gravitation prevails
throughout the whole creation •, after which, Sir Ifaac
proceeds to ftiow from the fame principles that the
heavenly bodies gravitate towards each other, and con¬
tain different quantities of matter, or have different
denfities in proportion to their bulks.
Prob. V. All bodies gravitate towards every planet;
and the weights of bodies towards the fjane planet, at
equal diftances from its centre, are proportional to the
quantities of matter they contain.
It has been confirmed by many experiments, that
all forts of heavy bodies (allowance being made for
the inequality of retardation by fome fmall refiftance
of the air), defeend to the earth from equal heights in
equal times ; and that equality of times we may di-
ftinguilh to a great accuracy by the help of pendu¬
lums. Sir Ifaac Newton tried the thing in gold, fil-
ver, lead, glafs, fand, common fait, wood, water, and
wheat. He provided two wooden boxes, round and
equal, filled the one with wood, and fufpended an
equal weight of gold in the centre of ofcillation of the
other. The boxes hanging by equal threads of 11
feet, made a couple of pendulums, perfectly equal in
weight and figure, and equally receiving the refiftance
of the air. And placing the one by the other, he ob¬
ferved them to play together forwards and backward,
for a long time, xvith equal vibrations. And there¬
fore the quantity of matter in the gold was to the
quantity of matter in the wood, as the a61 ion of the
motive force (or vis matrix') upon all the gold, to the
aflion of the fame upon all the wood ; that is, as the
weight
NEW
Newtonian weight of the one to the weight of the other
Philofophy. t|ie happened in the other bodies. By theie expe-
  ' riments, in bodies of the fame weight, he could mam-
feftlv have difcovered a difference of matter lefs than
the thoufandth part of the whole, had any fuch been.
But without all doubt, the nature of gravity towards
the planets, is the fame as towards the earth, for
fliould we imagine our terreftrial bodies removed to the
orb of the moon, and there, together with the moon,
deprived of all motion, to be let go, fo as to fall to¬
gether towards the earth j it is certain from what we
have demonftrated before, that in equal times, they
would defcribe equal fpaces with the moon, and of
confequence are to the moon in quantity of matter,
as their weights to its weight. Moreover, ftnce. the
fatellites of Jupiter perform their revolutions in times
which obferve * the fefquiplicate proportion of their di-
llances from Jupiter’s centre, their accelerative gravi¬
ties towards Jupiter will be reciprocally as the fquares
of their diftances from Jupiter’s centre ; that is equal
at equal diltances. And therefore, thefe fatellites, if
fuppofed to fall towards Jupiter from equal heights,
would defcribe equal fpaces in equal times, in like man¬
ner as heavy bodies do on our earth. And by the fame
argument if the circumfolar planets were fuppofed to
btf let fall at equal diftanees from the fun, they would,
in their defcent towards the fun, defcribe equal fpaces
in equal times. But forces, which equally accelerate
unequal bodies, mult be as thofe bodies : that is to fay,
the weights of the planets towards the fun muft be as
their quantities of matter. Further, That the weights
of Jupiter and his fattellites towards the fun are pro¬
portional to the feveral quantities of their matter, ap¬
pears from the exceeding regular motions of the fatel¬
lites. For if fome of the bodies were more ftrongly
attracted to the fun in proportion to their quantity of
matter than others, the motions of the fatellites would
be diflurbed by that inequality of attra&ion. If, at
equal diftances from the fun, any fatellite, in_ propor¬
tion to the quantity of its matter, did gravitate to¬
wards the fun, with a force greater than Jupiter in pro¬
portion to his, according to any given proportion, fup*
pole d to e; then the diftance beween the centres of
the fun and of the fatellite’s orbit would be always
greater than the diftanee between the centres of the fun
and of Jupiter nearly in the fubduplicate of that pro¬
portion. And if the fatcllite gravitated towards the
fun with a force lefs in the proportion of e to d, the di¬
ftance of the centre of the fatellite’s orb from the fun
would be lefs than the diftance of the centre of Jupiter’s
from the fun in the fubduplicate of the lame proportion.
Therefore, if, at equal diftances from the fun, the acce¬
lerative cravity of any fatellite towards the fun were
greater or lefs than the accelerating gravity of Jupiter
i-rnvorris thr fun but bv part of the whole gravity;
towards the fun but by -rrsots Pai't the whole gravity j
the diftance of the centre of the fatellite’s orbit from
the fun would be greater or lefs than the diftanee of Ju¬
piter from the fun by ToW part of the whole diftance 5
that is, by a fifth part of the diftance of the utmoft fa¬
tellite from the centre of Jupiter*, an eccentricity of
the orbit which would be very fenfible. But the orbits
of the fatellites are concentric to Jupiter *, therefore the
accelerative gravities of Jupiter, and of all its latehites,
towards the fun, are equal among themfelves. And by
the fame argument, the weight of baturn and of his fa-
Vol. XIV. Part II.
[ 793 ] NEW
And tellites towards tlie fun, at equal diftances from the fun,
are as their feveral quantities of matter j and the . J _V‘
weights of the moon and of the earth towards the fun,
are either none, or accurately proportional to the malfes
of matter which they contain.
But further, the weights of all the parts of every
planet towards any other planet are one to another as
the matter in the feveral parts. For if fome parts gra¬
vitated more, others lefs, than in proportion to the quan¬
tity of their matter *, then the whole planet, according
to the fort of parts with which it molt abounds, would
gravitate more or lefs than in proportion to the quantity
of matter in the whole. Nor is it of any moment whe¬
ther thefe parts are external or internal. For if, as an
inftance, we fhould imagine the terreftrial bodies with
us to be raifed up to the orb of the moon, to be there
compared with its body *, if the weights of fuch bodies
were to the weights of the external parts of the moon
as the quantities of matter in the one and in the other
refpeftively, but to the weights of the internal parts
in Ja greater or lefs proportion ; then likewife the
weights of thofe bodies would be to the weight of the
whole moon in a greater or lefs proportion j againft
what we have ftiowed above.
Cor. I. Hence the weights of bodies do not de¬
pend upon their forms and textures, bor if the weights
could be altered with the forms, they would be great¬
er or lefs, according to the variety of forms in equal
matter •, altogether againft experience.
Cor. 2. Univerfally, all bodies about the earth gra¬
vitate towards the earth j and the weights of all, at
equal diftances from the earth’s centre, are as the quan¬
tities of matter which they feverally contain. This is
the quality of all bodies within the reach of our expe -
riments ; and therefore (by Rule 3.) to be affirmed of
all bodies whatfoever. If ether, or any other body,
V’ere either altogether void of gravity, or were to gra¬
vitate lefs in proportion to its quantity of matter \
then, beeaufe (according to Ariftolle, Des Cartes, and
others) there is no difference betwixt that and other
bodies, but in mere form of matter, by a fucceffive
change from form to form, it might be changed at laft
into a body of the lame condition with thofe which
gravitate moft in proportion to their quantity of mat¬
ter *, and, on the other hand, the heavieft bodies, ac¬
quiring the firft form of that body, might by degrees
quite lofe their gravity. And therefore the weights
would depend upon the forms of bodies, and with thofe
forms might be changed, contrary to what was piovcd
in the preceding corollary.
Cor. 3. All fpaces are not equally full. For if ail
fpaces were equally full, then the fpecifie gravity of the
fluid which fills the region of the air, on account of
the extreme denfity of the matter, would fall nothing
fhort of the fpecific gravity of quickfilver or gold,
or any other the moft denfe body } and therefore, nei¬
ther gold, nor any other body, could defeend in air.
For bodies do not defeend in fluids, unlefs they are
{pacifically heavier than the fluids. And if the quan¬
tity of matter in a given (pace can by any rarefa£lion
be diminhhed, what fhould hinder a diminution to in¬
finity ?
Cor. 4. If all the folld particles of all bodies are of
the fame denfity, nor can be rarefied without pores,
a void fpace or vacuum muft be granted. (By bodies
5 H of
. JN E W [ 794 ]
S°r°f the rame 'l, nn,y' our author means 'vhofe vires i6d. 16AI1
t ^ 1 •: incrtuE are in the proportion of their bulks.]
Prob. \ 1. L hat there is a power of gravity tend¬
ing to all bodies, proportional to the feveral quantities
oi matter which they contain.
That all the planets mutually gravitate one towards
another, we have proved before: as well as that the
force of gravity towards every one of them, confidered
apart, is reciprocally as the fquare of the diftance of
places from the centre of the planet. And thence it
follows, that the gravity tending towards all the pla¬
nets is proportional to the matter which they con¬
tain.
. Moreover, fince all the parts of any planet A gra¬
vitate towards any other planet B, and the gravity of
every part is to the gravity of the whole as the matter
of the part to the matter of the whole j and (by Law 3.)
to every aftion correfponds an equal re-a£lion : there¬
fore the planet B will, on the other hand, gravitate to¬
wards all the parts of the planet A ; and its gravity
towards any one part will be to the gravity towards
the whole, as the matter of the part to the matt# of
the whole, (h. E. D.
Cor. 1. .therefore the force of gravity towards any
whole planet, arifes from, and is compounded of, the
forces of gravity towards all its parts. IVIagnetic and
ele&ric attra&ions afford us examples of this. For all
attraction towards the whole arifes from the attractions
towards the feveral parts. The thing may be eafily un-
derltood in gravity, if we conlider a greater planet as
formed of a number of lefier planets, meeting together
in one globe. For hence it would appear that the
ioice of the whole mutt arife from the forces of the
component parts. If it be objefted, that, according
to this law, all bodies with us muff mutually gravitate
one towards another, whereas no fuch gravitation any¬
where appears 5 it is anfwered, that, fince the gravita¬
tion towards theft: bodies is to the gravitation towards
the whole earth, as thefe bodies are to the whole earth,
the gravitation towards them muff be far lefs than to
fall under the obfervation of our fenfes. [The expe¬
riments with regard to the attraCHon of mountains,
however, have now further elucidated this point.]
Cor. 2. The force of gravity towards the feveral
equal particles of any body, is reciprocally as the fquare
of the diftance of places from the particles.
Prop. VII. In two fpheres mutually gravitatino-
each towards the other, if the matter, in places on all
tides round about and equidiftant from the centres, is
iimilar ; the weight of either fphere towards the other
will be reciprocally as the fquare of the diftance be¬
tween their centres.
h or tne demonftration of this, lee the Principia^
Book I. Prop. Ixxv. and Ixxvi.
( Cor, i. Hence we may find and compare together
the weights of bodies towards different planets. For
tnt weights of bodies revolving in circles about pla¬
nets are as the diameters of the circles dire&ly, and
the fquares of their periodic times reciprocally; and
their weights at the furfaces of the planets, or at any
other diftances from their centres, are (by this prop.)
gieater or lels, in the reciprocal duplicate proportion
of the diftances. Lhus from the periodic times of Ve¬
nus, revolving about the fun, in 224d. i6|h.; of the
utmoft circumjovial fatellite revolving about Jupiter, in
NEW
- > 6f {1f Huygenian fatellite about SaturnNewtoni**
in I5d. 22Th.; and of the moon about the earth in Phiiofophy.
zyd. yh. 43'compared with the mean diftance of Ve- '"“"'V"—
nus from the fun, and with the greateft heliocentric
elongations of the outmoft circumjovial fatellite from
Jupiter’s centre, 8' 16"; ot the Huygenian fatellite
from the centre of Saturn, 3' 4"; and of the moon from
the earth, 10' 33" ; by computation our author found,
that the weight of equal bodies, at equal diftances from
the centres of the fun, of Jupiter, of Saturn, and of the
earth, towards the fun, Jupiter, Saturn, and the earth,
were one to another as __l anc| » '
r o- , ,r, , /03T’ dI!U re-
ipectively. Ihen, becaule as the diftances are increafed
or diminilhed, the weights are diminilhed or increafed
in a duplicate ratio ; the weights of equal bodies to¬
wards the fun, Jupiter, Saturn, and the earth, at the
diftances icooo, 997, 791, and 109, from their centres,
that is, at their very luperficies, will be as 10000, 943
529, and 435 refpedlively.
Cor. 2. Hence likewife we difeover the quantity of
matter in the feveral planets, hor their quantities of
matter are as the forces of gravity at equal diftances
from their centres, that is, in the lun, Jupiter, Saturn,
and the earth, as I, toVtj Tottj and T-s-g’r-rsr refpec-
trv ely. If the parallax of the lun be taken greater or
lefs than 10" 30'", the quantity of matter in the earth
muft be augmented or diminilhed in the triplicate of
that proportion.
Cor. 3. Hence alfo we find the denfities of the
planets. For (by Prop. Ixxii. Book I.) the weights of
equal and fimilar bodies towards fimilar Ipheres, are,
at the furfaces of thofe fpheres, as the diameters of the
fpheres. And therefore the denfities of diffimilar
fpheres are as thofe weights applied to the diameters
of the fpheres. But the true diameters of the fun, Ju¬
piter, Saturn, and the earth were one to another as
10000, 997, 791, and 109; and the weights towards
the fame, as iooco, 943, 529, and 435 refpe&ively;
and therefore their denfities are as 120, 94^-, 67, and
400. The denfity of the earth, which comes out by
this computation, does not depend upon the parallax
of the fun, but it is determined by the parallax of the
moon, and therefore is here truly defined. The fun
therefore is a little denfer than Jupiter, and Jupiter
than Saturn, and the earth four times denfer than the
fun ; for the fun, by its great heat, is kept in a fort of
a rarefied ftate. The moon alfo is denfer than the
earth.
Cor. 4. The fmaller the planets are, they are, cce-
teris paribus, of fo much the greater denfity. For fo
the powers of gravity on their feveral furfaces come
nearer to equality. Ihey are likewife, cecteris paribus,
of the greater denfity as they are nearer to the fun.
So Jupiter is more denfe than Saturn, and the earth
than Jupiter. For the planets were placed at differ¬
ent diftances from the fun, that, according to their
degrees of denfity, they might enjoy a greater or lefs
proportion of the fun’s heat. Our water, if it were
removed as far as the orb of Saturn, would be con¬
verted into ice, and in the orb of Mercury wmuld
quickly fly away in vapour. For the light of the fun,
to which its heat is proportional, is feven times denfer
in the orb of Mercury than with us : and by the ther-
mometer Sir Ifaac found, that a fevenfold heat of our
ftunmer fun will make water boil, Nor are we to doubt,
that
NEW
[ 795 3
NEW
Newtonian tliat the matter of Mercury is adapted to its heat, and
Philofophy, js therefore more denfe than the matter of our earth ;
Newton. £nce^ jn a Jenfer matter, the operations of nature re¬
quire a ftronger heat.
It is ihown in the fcholiumof Prop. xxii. Book II. of
the Principia, that, at the height of 200 miles above the
earth, the air is more rare than it is at the fuperficies of
the earth, in the ratio of 30 to 0,0000000000003998,
or as '75,000000000000 to 1 nearly. And hence the
planet Jupiter, revolving in a medium of the fame den-
fity with that fuperior air, would not lofe by the re¬
finance of the medium the 1 ooooooth part of its mo¬
tion in 1000000 years. In the fpaces near the earth,
the refiftance is produced only by the air, exhalations,
and vapours. When thefe are carefully exhauded by
the air pump from under the receiver, heavy bodies fall
within the receiver with perfeft freedom, and with¬
out the lead fenfible refinance *, gold itfelf, and the
lighted down, let fall together, will defcend with equal
velocity ; and though they fall through a fpace of four,
fix, and eight feet, they will come to the bottom at
the fame time *, as appears from experiments that have
often been made. And therefore the celefiial regions
being perfeddly void of air and exhalations, the planets
and comets meeting no fenfible refinance in thole
fpaces, will continue their motions through them for
an immenfe fpace of time.
Newton, Thomas, lord bilhop of Brifiol and
dean of St Paul’s London, wras born on the fird of
January 1704. His father, John Newton, was a
confiderable brandy and cyder merchant, who, by his
induttry and integrity, having acquired what he thought
a competent fortune, left off trade feveral years before
he died.
He received the fird part of his education in the free
fchool of Litchfield •, a fchool which, the bifirop ob-
ferves with fome kind of exultation, had at all times
fent forth feveral perfons of note and eminence ; from
Bilhop Smaldridge and Mr Wolladon, to Dr Johnfon
and Mr Garrick.
From Litchfield he was removed to Wefiminfier
fchool, in 1717, under the care of Dr Freind and Dr
Nicoll.
During the time he was at Wefiminfier, there were,
he obferves, more young men who made a difiinguifii-
ed figure afterwards in the world, than perhaps at any
other period, either before or fince. He particularly
mentions William Murray, the late earl of Mansfield,
with whom he lived on terms of the highefi friendlhip
to the lad.
• He continued fix years at Wedminder fchool, five
of which he palled in the college. He afterwards went
to Cambridge, and entered at Trinity college. Here
he condantly refided eight months at lead in every year,
till he had taken his Bachelor of Arts degree. Being
-chofen fellow of his college, he came afterwards to
fettle in London. As it had been his inclination from
a child, and as he was alfo defigned for holy orders,
he had fufficient time to prepare himfelf, and compofed
fome fermons, that he might have a dock in hand
when he- entered on the minidry. His title for orders
-was his fellowfhip", and he was ordained deacon in
December 1729, and pried in the February following,
by Bifhop Gibfon.
, At his fird fetting out in his office, he was curate at
St George’s, Hanover fquare j and continued for feve¬
ral years affifiant preacher to Dr Trebeck. His fird
preferment was that of reader and afternoon preacher
at Grofvenor Chapel, in South Audley dreet.
This introduced him to the family of Lord Tyrcon-
nel, to whofe fon he became tutor. He continued in
this fituation for many years, very much at his eafe,
and on terms of great intimacy and friendlhip with Lord
and Lady Tyrconnel, “ without fo much (fays he) as
an unkind word or a cool look intervening.”
In the fpring of 1744, he was, through the intereft
of the earl of Bath (who was his great friend and pa¬
tron, and whofe friendihip and patronage were return¬
ed by grateful acknowledgements and the warmed en
comiums), prefented to the reftory of St Mary Le Bow;
fo that he was 40 years old before he obtained any
living.
At the commencement of 1745, he took his doflor’s
degree. In the fpring of 1747 he was chofen lecturer
of St George’s, Hanover-fquare, by a mod refpeftable
vedry of noblemen and gentlemen of high dillinftion.
In Augud following he married his fird wife, the eld¬
ed daughter of Dr Trebeck ; an unaffe&ed, modefi,
decent young woman, with whom he lived very happy
in mutual love and harmony for near feven years.
In 1749 he publiffied his edition of Milton’s Para-
dife Lod, which, (fays he, very modedly) it is hoped
hath not been ill received by the public, having, in
1775, gone through eight editions. After the Para-
dife Lod, it was judged (fays he) proper that Dr
Newton ffiould alfo publiffi the Paradife Regained, and
other poems of Milton } but thefe things he thought
detained him from other more material dudies, though
he had the good fortune to gain by them more than
Milton did by all his works put together. But his
greated gain (he fays) was their fird introducing him
to the frienddiip and intimacy of two fuch men as Bi-
flmp Warburton and Dr Jortin, whofe works will fpeak
for them better than any private commendation.
In 1754 he lod his father at the age of 83; and
within a few days his wife, at the age of 38. T-his
was the fevered trial he ever underwent, and almoft
overwhelmed him. At that time he was engaged in
writing his Differtations on the Prophecies •, and hap¬
py it was for him : for in any affliction he never found
a better or more effectual remedy than plunging deep
into dudy, and fixing his thoughts as intenfely as he
poffibly could upon other fubjeCts. The fird volume
wa publifhed the following winter ; but the other did
not appear till three years afterwards ; and as a reward
for his pad and an incitement, to future labours, he
was appointed, in the mean time, to preach Bpyle’s
leCture. The bilhop informs us, that 1250 copies of
the Differtations were taken at the fird impreffion, and
1000 at every other edition: and “ though (fays he)
fome things have been fince publidied upon the fame
fubjeCts, yet, they dill hold up their head above water,
and having gone through five editions, are again pre¬
pared for another. Abroad, too, their reception hath
not been unfavourable, if accounts from thence may be
depended upon.” 'They were tranflated into the Ger¬
man and Danifh languages ; and received the warmed
encomiums from perfons of learning and rank.
In the fpring of 1757, he was made prebendary of
Wedminder, in the room of Dr Green, and promoted
5 H 2 t©
Newton.
Newton
11.
Nexi.
N E X [ 796 ] N
to the deanery of Saliftury. In O&ober following, he than the Haves ihemfelves.
tvas made fob-almoner to his majefly. This he owed
/ to Bifoop Gilbert. He mai-ried a fecond wife in Sep¬
tember 1761. She was the widow of the Rev. Mr
Hand, and daughter of John Lord Vifcount Lifourn.
In the fame month he kifftd his majefty’s hand for his
bifoopric.
In the winter of 17^4’ -^r Stone, the primate of
Ireland, died. Mr Grenville font for Bifoop Newton,
and in the moft obliging manner defired his acceptance
of the primacy. Having maturely weighed the matter
in his mind, he declined the offer.
In 1768 he was made dean of St Paul’s. His ambi¬
tion was now fully fatisfied; and he firmly refolved ne¬
ver to alk for any thing more.
I rom this time to his death, ill health was almoft
his conftant companion. It was wonderful that foeh a
poor, weak, and {lender thread as the bifoop’s life,
foould be fpun out to foch an amazing length as it real¬
ly w'as. In the autumn of 1781 (ufoally the moft fa¬
vourable part of the year to him) he laboured under re¬
peated illneffes : and on Saturday the 9th of February
1782, he began to find his breath much affe&ed by
the froft. His complaints grew worfe and worfo till
the Thurfday following. He got up at five o’clock,
and was placed in a chair by the fire ; complained to
bis wife how much he had foffered in bed, and repeat¬
ed to himfelf that portion of the Pfalms, “ O my God,
I cry unto thee in the day time,” &c. &c. About fix
o’clock he was left by his apothecary in a quiet fleep.
Between feven and eight he awoke, and appeared ra¬
ther more eafy, and took a little refrefoment. He con¬
tinued dozing till near nine, when he ordered his for-
vant to come and drefs him, and help him down flairs.
As foon as he was dreffed, he inquired the hour, and
bid his forvant open the foutter and look at the dial of
St Paul’s. The forvant anfwered, it was upon the
flroke of nine. The bifoop made an effort to take out
his watch ; with an intent to fot it; but funk down in
his chair, and expired without a figh or the ieaft vifible
emotion, his countenance ftill retaining the fame pla¬
cid appearance which was fo peculiar to him when
alive. Of his numerous works, his Differtations on
the Prophecies are by much the moft valuable. His
learning was undoubtedly very confiderable ; but he
feldom exhibits evidence of a very vigorous mind. On
one occafion, indeed, he appears to have thought with
freedom ; for we believe he was the firft dignitary of
the church of England who avowed his belief of the
final reftitution of all things to harmony and happi-
nefs.
NEWTYA, a port little known, on the eoaft be¬
tween Goa tbe capital of the Portuguefe fettlements in
India, and the Englifo fottleroent of Bombay. Mr
Rennel conjectures it to be the Nurias of Pliny • near
which the pirates cruized for the Roman foip. The
fame writer places it near to 150 J27 30" north lati¬
tude, and 730 i6; 30" eaft longitude.
NEXI, among the Romans, perfons free born, who
for debt were reduced to a ftate of ilavery. By the
laws of the twelve tables it was ordained, that infolvent
debtors foould be given up to their creditors to be
bound in fetters and cords, whence they were called
NfXz; and though they did not entirely lofe the rights
of freemen, yet they were often treated more harfoly
5
G O
If any one Was indebted
to feveral perfons, and could not within 60 days find
a cautioner, his body according to lome, but accord-
ing^to others his effects, might be cut in pieces, and
divided among his creditors. The latter opinion foems
by much the moft probable, as Livy mentions a law
by which creditors had a right to attach the goods
but not the perfons of their debtors.
NEYTRECHT, a town of Upper Hungary, capital
of a county of the fame name, with a bifhop’s foe ^
feated on the river Neitra, 40 miles north-eaft of Pref-
burg. E. Long. 17. 49. N. Lat. 48. 28.
NGAN-KING-FOU, a city of China, and capi¬
tal of the weftern part of the province of Kiang-nan..
It is governed by a particular viceroy, who keeps a
large garrifon in a fort built on the banks of the river
Yang-tfe-kiang. Its fituation is delightful •, its com¬
merce and riches render it very confiderable ; and every
thing that goes from the fouthern part of China to
Nan-king muft pafs through it. All the country be¬
longing to it is level, pleafant, and fertile. It has un¬
der its jurifdi&ion only fix cities of the third glafs.
NGO-KIA, a Chinefe drug, of which the compo-
fition will no doubt appear as lingular as the numerous
properties aferibed to it. In the province Chang tong,
near Ngo-hien, a city of the third clafs, is a well
formed by nature, which is reckoned to be foventy
feet in depth, and which has a communication, as the
Chinefo fay, with fome fobterranean lake, or other-
large refervoir. The water drawn from it is exceed¬
ingly clear, and much heavier than common •, and if it
be mixed with muddy water, it purifies it and ren¬
ders it limpid, by precipitating all its impurities to the
bottom of the veffel. This water is employed in ma¬
king the ngo-kia, which is nothing elfo but a kind of
glue procured from the Ikin of a black a&.
The animal is killed and flayed, and the fldn is fteep-
ed for five days in water drawn from this well. At
the end of that time, it is taken out to be feraped and
cleaned ; it is afterwards cut into fmall pieces, which
are boiled over a flow fire, in the fome kind of water,
until it is reduced to a jelly, which is drained, while
warm, through a cloth, to free it from all the grofs
matter which could not be melted. When this glue
is cool, and has acquired a confiftence, it is formed
into fquare cakes, upon which the Chinefo imprint cha¬
racters and coats of arms, or the figns of their fooprs.
This well is the only one of the kind in China ; it
is always fout, and foaled by the governor of the place
with his own foal, until the cuftomary day of ma¬
king the emperor’s glue. This operation generally
lafts from the autumnal harveft till the month of March.
During that time, the neighbouring people and mer¬
chants treat for the purchafe of the glue with thofe
who guard the well, and with the people who make
it. The latter manufafture as much of it as they
can, on their own account, with this difference,
that it is not fo pure, and that they are lefs fcrupulous
in examining whether the afs be fat, or of a very
black colour : however, all the glue made here is as
much efteemed at Peking as that which the mandarins
who are on the fpot tranfmit to court and to their
friends.
As this drug is in the greateft requeft, and as the
quantity of it made at Ngo-hien is not fiifficient to
fupply
II
tv go-kA
>Igo-kia,
Niagara.
N I A [ 797
fuppiy Ac •whole empire, there are not wanting people
■who counterfeit it elfewhere, and who manufacture
a fptirious kind from the fkins of mules, horfeS; and
camels, and fometimes even from old boots •, it is,
however, very eafy to diftinguifh that which is ge¬
nuine } it has neither a bad fmell nor a difagreeable
tafte when applied to the mouth j it is brittle and
friable, and always of a deep black colour, fometimes
inclining to red. 1 he qualities of the counterfeit
kind are entirely different j both its tafte and fmell
are difagreeable, and it is vifeous and ilabby even
when made of the fkin of a hog, which is that which
imitates the true kind the beft.
The Chinefe attribute a great number of virtues to
this drug. They affure us that it diffolves phlegm,
facilitates the play and elafticity of the lungs, gives a
free refpiration to, thofe who breathe with difficulty j
that it comforts the breaft, increafes the blood, flops
dyfenteries, provokes urine, and ftrengthf ns children in
the womb. Without warranting the truth of all thefe
properties, it appears, at leaft, certain, by the tefti-
mony of the vnifiionaries, that this drug is ferviceable
in all difeafes of the lungs. It is taken with a de-
qoclion of fimples, and fometimes in powder, but very
feldom. . .
NIAGARA, a fort of North America, which was
taken from the French in 1759. According to the
treaty of 1794, it was delivered up by Britain to the
United States in 1796. It is fttuated on a (mail penin-
fula formed by the river Niagara as it flow’s into the
lake Ontario. About fix leagues from the fort is the
greateft catarad in the world, known by the name of
the Waterfall of Niagara. The river at this fall runs
from SSE to NNW5 and the rock of the fall croffes it
not in a right line, but forms a kind of figure like a
hollow femicircle or horfe ffioe. Above the fall, in the
middle of the river, is an ifland about 800 or 1000
feet long ; the lower end of which is juft at the perpen¬
dicular edge of the fall. On both fides of this iiland
runs all the water that comes from the lakes of Canada-,
viz. Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, and
Lake Erie, which have fome large rivers that open
themfelves into them. Before the water comes to this
ifland, it runs but flowly compared with its motion
afterwards, when it grows the moft rapid in the world,
running with a furprifing Iwiftnefs before it comes to
the fall. It is perfe&ly white, and in many places is
thrown high up into the air. The water that runs
down on the weft fide is more rapid, in greater abun¬
dance, and whiter, than that on the eaft fide; and
feems almoft to outfly an arrow in Iwiftnefs. When
you are at the fall, and look up the river, you may fee
that the water is everywhere exceedingly fteep, almoft
lik'’ the fide of a hill j but when you come to look at
the fall itfelf, it is impoffible to exprefs the amazement
it occafions. The height of it, as meafured by mathe¬
matical inftruments, is found to be exaftly 137 feet *
and when the water is come to the bottom, it jumps
back to a very great height in the air. The noife may be
heard at the diftance of 45 miles, but feldom further *,
nor can it be heard even at Fort Niagara, which is only
flx leagues diftant, unlefs Lake Ontario is calm. At
that fort it is obferved, that when they hear the none
of the fall more loud than ordinary, they are fure that
* aorth-e&ft wind will follow $ which is the more uir-
] . N I A
prifing, as the fort lies fouth-weft from the fall. At .Niagara,
fome times the fall makes a much greater noife than at v "
others 5 and this is held for an infallible fign of ap¬
proaching rain or other bad weather.
From the place where the water falls there arifes
abundance of vapour like very thick fmoke, infomuch
that when viewed at a diftance you would think that
the Indians had fet the forefts on fire. Thefe vapours
rife high in the air when it is calm, but are difperfed
by the wind when it blows hard. If you go into this
vapour or fog, or it the wind blows it on you, it is 10
penetrating, that in a few moments you will be as wet
as if you had been under water. Some are of opinion
that when birds come Hying into this fog or fmoke of
the fall, they drop down and peri ill in the water 5 either
becaufe their wings are become wet, or that the noile
of the fall ailoniffies them, and they know not where
to go in the darknefs : but others think that leldom
or never any bird perifties there in that manner j be¬
caufe among the abundance of birds found dead be¬
low the fall, there are no other forts than fuch as
live and fwim frequently in the water j as fwans, geefe,
ducks, water hens, teal, and the like. And very
often great flocks of them are feen going to deftruc-
tion in this manner : they fwim in the river above the
fall, and fo are carried down kuver and lower by. the
water, and as water fowl commonly take great delight
in being carried with the ftream, they indulge them¬
felves in enjoying this pleafure fo long, till the fwift>
xvefs of the water becomes fo great, that it is no longer
■ poffible for them to rife, but they are driven down the
precipice and perifli. rl hey are obferved, when they
draw nigh the fall, to endeavour with all then might
to take wing and leave the water \ but they cannot-
In the months of September and October fuch abun¬
dant quantities of dead water fowl are found every
morning below the fall, on the fhore, that the gariifou
of the ‘fort for a long time live chiefly upon them.
Befides the fowl, they find alfo feveral forts of dead
fifli, alfo deer, bears, and other animals which have
tried to crofs the water above the fall the larger
animals are generally found broken to pieces. Juft;
below, a little wray from the fall, the water is not ra¬
pid, but goes all in circles, and whirls like a. boiling
put ; which however does not hinder the Indians g-o-
in°' upon it in fmall canoes a-fiffiiug but a little fur¬
ther, and lower, the other fmaller falls, begin. When
you are above the fall, and look down, your head be¬
gins to turn j even fuch as have been here numberleE
times, will feldom venture to look down, without at the
fame, time keeping fall hold of fome tree with one
hand. , ,
It was formerly thought impoffible for anybody
living to come at the Bland that is in the middle of
the fall: but an accident that happened about 5©
years ago made it appear otherwife. The hiftory
is this: Two Indians of the Six Nations went out
from Niagara fort to hunt upon an ifland that is in the
middle of the river, or ftrait, above the great fall, on
which there ufed to be abundance of deer. They took
fome French brandy with them from the fort, which
they tafted feveral times as they were going over the
carrying place j and when they were in their canoe,
they took now and then a dram, and To went along
up the ftrait towards the ifland where they propofed
r t©
N T A r
to hunt; but growing fleepy, they laid themfelve^
the canoe. Tvhir>h i j i i
i • ,, ° o 9 iaiu tnemieives
ca"oe> lvh!chJ 8«>ng loofe drove back
”;,'h a’ f3rt !er. and fartl'“ it came
nigh that ifland that is in the middle of the fall Here
one of them, awakened by the noife of the fall cries
out to the other that they were gone : Yet they tried
if poffible to fave life. This ifland was nigheit, and
with much working they got on (hore there. At
hrft they were glad ; but when they had confidered
every thing, they thought themfelves hardly in a beU
ter date than if they had gone down the fall, fmce
they had now no other choice, than either to throw
themfelves down the fame, or perilh with hunger.
xJut hard neceflity put them on invention. At the
ower end of the ifland the rock is perpendicular, and
no water is running there. The ifland has plenty of
wood ; they went to work then, and made a ladder
or flirouds of the bark of the lind tree (which is very
tough and ftrong) fo long till they could with it reach
the water below ; one end of this bark ladder they
tied faft to a great tree that grew at the fide of the
rock above the fall, and let the other end down to the
water. So they went down along their new invented
hairs and when they came to the bottom in the mid-
ole of the fall they refled a little; and as the water
next below the fall is not rapid, as before mentioned,
they threw themfelves out into it, thinking to fwim
on thore. behave laid before, that one part of the
fall is on one fide of the ifland, the other on the other
fide. Hence it is, that the waters of the two cata-
rafts running againft each other, turn back againfl the
rock that is juft under the ifland. Therefore, hardly
had the Indians begun to fwim, before the waves of
the eddy threw them back with violence againft the
rock from whence they came. They tried it feveral
times, but at la It grew weary ; and by being often
thrown againft the rock they were much bruifed, and
the {kin torn off their bodies in many places. So
they were obliged to climb up flairs again to the ifland
not knowing what to do. After feme time they per-
°"-the (h°re’ to whom they cried out.
Thefe faw and pitied them, but gave them little hope
or help : yet they made hafte down to the fort, and
told the commandant where two of their brothers were
He perfuaded them to try all poflible means of reliev-
•ing the two poor Indians; and it was done in the fol¬
iowing manner :
The water that runs on the eaft fide of this ifland is
{hallow, efpecially a little above the ifland towards the
eaftern fhore. 1 he commandant caufed poles to be
made and pointed with iron; two Indians took upon
them to walk to this ifland by the help of thefe poles,
to lave the other poor creatures, or perifli themfelves.
I hey took leave of all their friends, as if they were
going to death. Each had two fuch poles in his
hands, to fet to the bottom of the ftream, to keep
them fteady and in this manner reached the ifland •
and haying given poles to the two poor Indians therei
they all returned fafely to the main land. Thefe two
Indians (who m the above-mentioned manner were firft
-brought to this ifland) were nine days on the ifland, and
-almoft ready to ftarve to death. Now fince the road to
this ifland has been found, the Indians go there often to
kftl deer, which have tried to crofs the river above
the iai]» and are driven upon it by the ftream. On
8 J N I A
the weft fide of this ifland are fome fmall {{lands or
rocks of no confequence. The eaft fide of the river is
almoft perpendicular, the weft fide more Hoping In
former tjmes, a part of the rock at the fall which is on
the welt fide of the ifland, hung over in fuch a man-
T ft’ ’ aVhC Tter which feI1 perpendicularly from it
left a vacfency,,below, fo that people could go under
between the rock and the water ; but the prominent
part fome years fince broke off and fell down. The
breadth of the fall, as it runs in a femicircle, is rec!
t0r ^ rnOUt 3°0, feet/ The ifland is in the
middle of the fall, and from it the water on each fide
is almoft the fame breadth ; the breadth of the ifland
at its lower end is about loo feet. Below the fall
m the holes of the rocks, are great plenty of eels’
™h the Indians and French catch with their hands
without any other means. Every day when the fun
flunes, you fee here from ten o’clock in the mornin-
to two m the afternoon, below the fall, and under
you, where you Hand at the fide of the fall a olo-
nous rainbow, and fometimes two, one within the
other. The more vapours, the brighter and clearer
ts the rainbow. When the wind carries the vapours
from that place, the rainbow is gone, but appears
again as loon as new vapours come. From the fall
to the landing above it, where the canoes from Lake
Erie put alhore (or from the fall to the upper end of
the carrying place), is half a mile. Lower the ca¬
noes dare not come, left they ftiould be obliged to
try the fate of the two Indians, and perhaps with
lets fuccefs. They have often found below the fall
pieces of human bodies, perhaps drunken Indians
that have unhappily come down to the fall. The
French fay, that they have often thrown whole great
trees into the water above, to fee them tumble down
the fall • they went dowm with furprifing fwiftnefs
but could never be feen afterwards ; whence it was
thought there was a bottomlefs deep or abyfs juft under
the fall. 1 he rock of the fall confifts of a gray lime-
ftone. For an interefting account of this celebrated
fall, the reader is referred to Volney’s Travels in Ame¬
rica.
Having mentioned the Six Nations which live on the
banks of the Niagara, we fliall here add a few particu¬
lars relative to thofe nations which, as they feem not to
be well under flood even in America, are probably ftill
lels knowm in Europe. The information which we have
to give was communicated to the Royal Society of Lon¬
don by Mr Richard M‘Caufland furgeon to the 8th re¬
giment of foot, who, writing from the beft authority
informs us, that each nation is divided into three tribes’
of which the principal are called the turtle tribe, the
wolf tribe, and the bear tribe.
Each tribe has two, three, or more chiefs, called
Jachems ; and this diftimftion is always hereditary in
the family, but defcends along-the female line : for
mftance, if a chief dies, one of his fitW’c
Niagara.
inftance, if a chief dies, one of his fifter’s fons, or' one
of his own brothers, will be appointed to fucceed
him. Among thefe no preference is given to proxi-
mity or primogeniture ; but the fachem, during his
lifetime, pitches upon one whom he fuppofes to have
more-abilities than the reft; and in this choice he
fiequently, though not always, confults the princi¬
pal men of the tribe. If the fucceffor happens to be
a child, the offices of the poll are performed by fome
of
Niagara.
N 1 A [ 799 ] NIC
of his friends until he is of fufficient age to aft him-
felf.
Each of thefe polls of fachem has a name which is
peculiar to it, and which never changes, as it is al
ways adopted by the fucceffor: nor does the order of
precedency of each of thefe names or titles ever vary.
Neverthelefs, any fachem, by abilities ** and acuity,
may acquire greater power and influence in the nation
than thofe who rank before him in point of precedency j
but this is merely temporary, and dies with him.
Each tribe has one or two chief warriors ; which
dignity is alfo hereditary, and has a peculiar name at¬
tached to it.
Thefe are the only titles of diltindfion which are
fixed and permanent in the nation •, for although any
Indian may by fuperior talents, either as a counfellor
or as a warrior, acquire influence in the nation, yet it
is not in his power to tranfmit this to his family.
The Indians have alfo their great women as well as
their great men, to whofe opinions they pay great de¬
ference: and this diftindtion is alfo hereditary in families.
They do not fit in council with the fachems, but have
feparate ones of their own.—When war is declared, the
fachems and great women generally give up the manage¬
ment of public affairs into the hands of the wTarriors, It
may however fo happen, that a fachem may at the fame
time be alfo a chief warrior.
Friendlhips feem to have been inftituted with a view
towards flrengthening the union between the feveral
nations of the confederacy •, and hence friends are called
the /inews of the Six Nations. An Indian has there¬
fore generally one or more friends in each nation. Be-
fides the attachment which fubfifts during the lifetime
of the two friends, whenever one of them happens to be
killed, it is incumbent on the furvivor to replace him,
by prefenting to his family either a fcalp, a prifoner, or
a belt confifting of fome thoufands of wampum ; and
this ceremony is performed by every friend of the de-
ceafed.
The purpofe and foundation of war parties, therefore,
is in general to procure a prifoner or fcalp to replace
the friend or relation of the Indian who is the head Niagara,
of the party. An Indian who willies to replace a Nicaea.
friend or relation prefents a belt to his acquaintance ;'
and as many as choofe to follow him accept this belt,
and become his party. After this, it is of no con-
fequence whether he goes on the expedition or re¬
mains at home (as it often happens that he is a child;)
he is Hill confidered as the head of the party. The
belt he prefented to his party is returned fixed to the
fcalp or prifoner, and paifes along with them to the
friends of the perfon he replaces. Hence it happens,
that a war parry, returning with more fcalps or pri-
foners than the original intention of the party requi- v
red, will often give one of thefe fupernumerary fcalps or
prifoners to another w ar party whom they meet going
out; upon which this party, having fulfilled the purpofe
of their expedition, will iometimes return without go¬
ing to war.
NIC/bA, in Ancient Geography, the metropolis of
Bithynia ; fituated on the lake Afcanius, in a large
and fertile plain 5 in compafs 16 ftadia: firft built by
Antigonus, the fon of Philip, and thence called Anti-
gonea ; afterwards completed by Lyfimachus, who call¬
ed it Niccea, after his confort the daughter of Antipater.
According to Stephanus, it was originally a colony of
the Bottiaei, a people of Thrace, and called Ancore;
and afterwards called Niccea. Now Nice in Afia the
Lefs *. Famous for the firfi: general council.—A fe- * See Nice*
cond Niccea, (Diodorus Siculus), of Corfica.—A third,
. of the Hither India, (Arrian) ; fituated on the weft
fide of the Hydafpes, oppofite to Bucephale, on the eaft
fide.—A fourth Niccea, a town of Liguria, at the
Maritime Alps, on the eaft fide of the river Paulon,
near its mouth, which runs between the Varus and Ni»
ctea, (Mela). A colony of the Maftilians, (Stepha¬
nus) j the laft town of Italy to the weft. Now Nizxa
or Nice, capital of the county of that name, on the Me¬
diterranean.—A fifth, of Locris, (Strabo) ; a town near
Thermopylae ; one of the keys of that pafs. It flood
on the Sinus Maliacus.
END OF THE FOURTEENTH VOLUME.
-
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of Vol. XIV.
Part I.
Plate CXCXXXVIL—CCCXLV. to face
CCCXLVI.—CCCL.
CCCLI,—CCCLIII.
page 38
76
254
Part II,
CCCLIV.—CCCLXII.
CCCL XII I.—CCCLXVIII.
CCCLXIX.
552
702
"34
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W:,£.
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