CncpclopeUta Brttanntta:
«
OR, A
' t
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
LITERATURE;
ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.
THE FIFTH EDITION.
Jllujittatel) toitl) nearlg Stic DunOteU OEngratiingsi.
VOL. II.
INDOCTI discant; ament meminisse periti.
EDINBURGH:
Printed at the Encyclopedia Press,
FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, AND THOMSON BONAR, EDINBURGH
GALE, CURTIS, AND FENNER, LONDON ; AND THOMAS WILSON
AND SONS, YORK.
1815.
‘ $r ■ ,f *1 ; f n, vi ■"m- ■' ■■' 'v •
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
America.
Boundaries
North and
South con¬
tinent.
3
Remark¬
able pre¬
valence of
cold.
A M E
AMERICA (from Americus Vefputius, falfely faid
to be the firft difcoverer of the continent) ; one
of the four quarters of the world, probably the largeft
of the whole, and from its late difcovery frequently de¬
nominated the New World.
This vaft country extends from the 8oth degree of
north, to the 56th degree of fouth latitude; and,
where its breadth is known, from the 35th to the 136th
degree weft longitude from London; ftretching be¬
tween 8000 and 9000 miles in length, and in its great-
eft breadth 3690. It fees both hemifpheres, has two
fummers and a double winter, and enjoys all the variety
of climates which the earth affords. It is waftied by the
two great oceans. To the eaftward it has the Atlan¬
tic, which divides it from Europe and Africa ; to the
weft it has the Pacific or Great South fea, by which it
is feparated from Afia. By thefe feas it may, and does,
carry on a diredt commerce with the other three parts
of the world.
America is not of equal breadth throughout its whole
extent 5 but is divided into two great continents, called
North and South America, by an ifthmus 1500 miles
long, and which at Darien, about Lat. 90 N. is only
60 miles over. This ifthmus forms with the northern
and fouthern continents, a vaft gulf, in which lie a
great number of iflands, called the Wejl Indies, in con-
tradiftin&ion to the eaftern parts of Afia, which are
called the Najl Indies.
Between the New World and the Old, there are fe-
yeral very ftriking differences ; but the moft remarkable
is the general predominance of cold throughout the
whole extent of America. Though we cannot, in any
country, determine the precife degree of heat merely
by the diftance of the equator, becaufe the elevation
above the fea, the nature of the foil, &c. affeft the cli¬
mate j yet, in the ancient continent, the heat is much
more in proportion to the vicinity to the equator than
m any part of America. Here the rigour of the frigid
zone extends over half that which (hould be temperate
by its pofition. Even in thofe latitudes where the win¬
ter is fcarcely felt on the old continent, it reigns with
great feverity in America, though during a fhort pe-
«;od„ Nor does this cold, prevalent in the new world,
confine itfelf to the temperate zones; but extends its
influence to the torrid zone alfo, confiderably mitigat¬
ing the excefs of its heat. Along the eaftern coaft, the
Vol. II. Part. I.
A M E
climate, though more fimilar to that of the torrid zone America.
in other parts of the earth, is neverthelefs confiderably —y—J
milder than m thofe countries of Afia and Africa which
lie in the fame latitude. From the fouthern tropic to
the extremity of the American continent, the cold is faid
to be much greater than in parallel northern latitudes
even of America itfelf.
For this fo remarkable difference between the climate
of the new continent and the old, various caufes have
been afligned by different authors. The following is
the opinion of the learned Dr Robertfon on this fub-
jeft. “ Though the utmoft extent of America to-DrR^ber,
wards the north be not yet difcovered, we know thatf0n’s rea-T
it advances nearer to the pole than either Europe or tons for this
Afia. The latter have large feas to the north, which fuPerior de
are open during part of the year ; and, even when co-^?®ofco'do
yered with ice, the wind that blows over them is America,
intenfely cold than that which blows over land in the vol. i. p.’
fame latitude. But, in America, the land ftretches 2S3* .
from the river St Lawrence towards the pole, and
fpreads out immenfely to the weft. A chain of enor¬
mous mountains, covered with fnow and ice, runs
through all this dreary region. The wind palling over
fuch an extent of high and frozen land, becomes fo im¬
pregnated with cold, that it acquires a piercing keen-
nefs, which it retains in its progrefs through warmer
climates; and is not entirely mitigated until it reach
the gulf of Mexico. Over all the continent of North
America, a north-wefterly wind and exceflive cold are
fynonymous terms. Even in the moft fultry weather,
the moment that the wind veers to that quarter, its pe¬
netrating influence is felt in a tranfition from heat to
cold no lefs violent than fudden. To this powerful
caufe we may afcribe the extraordinary dominion of
cold, and its violent inroads into the fouthern provinces
in that part of the globe.
. “ Other caufes, no lefs remarkable, diminilh the ac¬
tive power of heat in thofe parts of the American con¬
tinent which lie between the tropics. In all that por¬
tion of the globe, the wind blows in an invariable di-
reftion from eaft to weft. As this wind holds its courfe
acrofs the ancient continent, it arrives at the countries
which ftretch along the vveftern fliore of Africa, inflam¬
ed with all the fiery particles which it hath colleaed
from the fultry plains of Afia, and the burning fands
in the African deferts. The coaft of Africa is accord-
A ingly
America.
Ibid, p.451
note xxxi.
A M E [2
inp-ly the region of the earth which feds the molt fer¬
vent heat, an»l is expofed to the unmitigated ardour ot
the torrid zone. But this fame wind, which bnngs luch
an acceffion of warmth to the countries lying between
the river of Senegal and Caffraria, travenes the Atlan¬
tic ocean before it reaches the American (bore. It is
cooled in its paffage over this vatt body of water ; and
is felt as a refrelhing gale along the coafts of Brafil and
Guiana, rendering thofe countries, though amonglt the
warmeft in America, temperate, when compared with
thofe which lie oppofite to them in Africa. As this
wind advances in its courfe acrofs America, it meets
With immenfe plains covered with impenetrable fore Its ;
or occupied by large rivers, marlhes, and ftagnatmg wa¬
iters where it can recover no confiderable degree ot heat.
At length it arrives at the Andes, which run from nort
to fouth through the whole continent. _ In palling over
their elevated and frozen fummits, it is fo thoroughly
cooled, that the greater part of the countries beyond
*lierR hardly feel the ardour to which they feem expoied
by their fituation. In the other provinces of America,
from Terra Firma weftward to the Mexican empire, the
heat of the climate is tempered in fome places by the
elevation of the land above the fea • in others, by their
extraordinary humidity > and in all, by the enormous
mountains fcattered over this tracl. ie 1 an s o
merica in the torrid zone are either fmall or mountain¬
ous, and are fanned alternately by refrelhing fea and
kna xhe caufes of the extraordinary cold towards the
fouthern limits of America, and in the ieas beyond it,
cannot be afcertained in a manner equally fatisfymg.
It was long fup.pofed, that a vaft continent, diftinguifh-
cd by the name of Terra Aujlrahs Incognita lay be¬
tween the fouthern extremity of America and the ant-
arftic pole. The fame principles which account for th
extraordinary degree of cold in the northern regions of
America, were employed in order to explain that which
is felt at Cape Horn and the adjacent countries. The
Immenfe extent of the fouthern continent, and the ri¬
vers which it poured into the ocean, werr mentioned
and admitted by philofophers as "aufeS f
*afion of
tlmgTobe. But the imaginary continent to which fuch
influence was afcribed having been fearched for in vain,
and the fpace which it was fuppofed to occupy having
been found to be an open fea, new conjeaures muft be
formed with refpea to the. caufes of a temperature ot
climate fo extremely different from that which we ex-
pelence in countries removed at the fame diftance from
the4C moft’obvious and probabk caufe of this fu-
oerior degree of cold towards the fouthern extremity
of America, feems to be the form of the continent
there. Its breadth gradually decreafes as it ftretches
from St Antonio fouthwards ; and from the lay o
Tulian to the {traits of Magellan its dimenfions are much
ontraaed. On the ealt and weft tides, it is waftied
by the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. From its fouth-
^ . ’b nrnbable that an open (ea ftretches to
the anlaraic pole. In whichever of thefe direaions
the wind blovvs, it is cooled before it approaches the
Magellanic regions, by paffiqg over a vaft body o wa
ter f nor is the land there of fuch extent, that it can
] A M E
recover any confiderable degree of heat in its progrefs
over it. Thefe circumftances concur in rendering the
s America.
over 11. x jicic circumftances concur in rendering the
temperature of the air in this diftria of America more
fimilar to that of an infular, than to that of a continen¬
tal climate ; and hinder it from acquiring the lame de¬
gree of fummer heat with places in Europe and Alia,
in a correfponding northern latitude. 1 he north wind
is the only one that reaches this part of America, after
blowing over a great continent. But, from an atten¬
tive furvey of its pofition, this will be found to have a
tendency rather to diminifh than augment the degree
of heat. The fouthern extremity of America is pro¬
perly the termination of the immenfe ridge of the An¬
des, which ftretches nearly in a direct line from north
to fouth, through the whole extent of the continent.
The moft fultry regions in South America, Guiana,
Brafil, Paraguay, and Tucuman, lie^ many degrees to
the eaft of the Magellanic regions. The level country
of Peru, which enjoys the tropicax heats, is fituated con-
fiderably to the weft of them. The north wind, then,
though it blows over land, does not bring to the fouth¬
ern extremity of America an increafe of heat collefted
in its paffage over torrid regions ; but, before it arrives
there, it muft Have fwept along the fummits of the An¬
des, and become impregnated with the cold of that
frozen region.” . .
Another particularity in the climate of Amenca,_ ts Ett.rn. ^
its exceflive moifture in general. In lome p aces, in ^ Ameri„
deed, on the weftern eoaft, rain is not known ^ but, in can cli,
all other parts, the moiftnefs of the climate is as re-mate.
markable as the cold. The forefts wherewith it is
everywhere covered, no doubt, partly occafion the
moifture of its climate *, but the moft prevalent caufe is
the vaft quantity of water in the Atlantic arid P^cl c
oceans, with which America is environed on all fades.
Hence thofe places where the continent is narroweft are
deluged with almoft perpetual rains, accompanied with
violent thunder and lightning, by which fome of them,
particularly Porto Bello, are rendered in a manner un-
‘'’Thbi1 extreme moifture of the American climate is Large ri-
produaive of much larger rivers there than in any exceffive
other part of the world. The Danube the Nile, the j iance
Indus or the Ganges, are not comparable to the Mif-0f vegeta-
fiffippi, the river St Lawrence, or that of the Amazons j non.
nor are fuch large lakes to be found anywhere as thofe
which North America affords. To the fame caufe
are alfo partly to aferibe the exceflive luxuriance, of all
kinds of vegetables in almoft all parts of tins coun ry.
In the fouthern provinces, where the moifture of the
climate is aided by the warmth of the Jun the woods
are almoft impervious, and the furface of^h6 ground is
hid from the eye, under a thick covering of Ihrub ,
herbs and feeds. In the northern provinces, the fo-
nSs are not encumbered with the fame luxuriance of
vegetation; neverthelefs, they afford trees much lar¬
ge? of their kind than what are to be found anywhere
^From the coldnefs and the moifture of America an Malignity
extreme malignity of climate to
fer-ed by M. de Paw, in his Recherches Rhilojoptiiques t
Hence, according to bis hypotbefis, the fmaUnefs and ka.
irregularity of the nobler animals, and the fize and
enoniious multiplication of reptiles and in^as.
But the fuppofed fmallnefs and lefs erocl^erlca3
to
America.
Hiftory of
Mexico,
vol. ii.
P- 255-
A M E [ 3 ] A M E
American animals, the abbe Clavigero obferves, in-
ftead of the malignity, demonftrate the mildnefs and
bounty .of the clime, if we give credit to Euffon, at
whole fountain M. de Paw has drank, and of whofe
teftirnony he has availed himfelf againll Don Pernetty :
Bulfon, who in many places of his Natural Hillory
produces the fmallnefs of the American animals as a
certain argument of the malignity of the climate of
America, in treating afterwards of favage animals, in
tom. ii. fpeaks thus : “ As all things, even the molt
free creatures, are fubjedl to natural laws, and animals
as well as men are fubjefted to the influence of climate
and foil, it appears that the fame caufes which have
civilized and polifhed the human fpecies in our climates,
may have likewife produced fimilar effedfs upon other
fpecies. The wolf, which is perhaps the fierceft of all
the quadrupeds of the temperate zone, is, however, in¬
comparably lefs terrible than the tiger, the lion, and
the panther, of the torrid zone, and the white bear and
hyena of the frigid zone. In America, where the air
and the earth are more mild than thofe of Africa, the
tiger, the lion, and the panther, are not terrible but in
the name. They have degenerated, if fiercenefs, join¬
ed to cruelty, made their nature ; or, to fpeak more
properly, they have only fuffered the influence of the
climate j under a milder fky, their nature alfo has be¬
come more mild. From climes which are immoderate
in their temperature, are obtained drugs, perfumes,
poifons, and all thofe plants whofe qualities are ftrong.
The temperate earth, on the contrary, produces only
things which are temperate ; the mildeft herbs, the moft
wholefome pulfe, the fweeteft fruits, the mofl: quiet
animals, and the mofl: humane men, are the natives of
this happy clime. As the earth makes the plants, the
earth and plants make animals ; the earth, the plants,
and the animals, make man. The phyfical qualities of
man, and the animals which feed on other animals, de¬
pend, though more remotely, on the fame caufes which
influence their difpofitions and cuftoms. This is the
greateft proof and demonftration, that in temperate
climes every thing becomes temperate, and that in in¬
temperate climes every thing is exceflive ; and that fize
and form, which appear fixed and determinate qualities,
depend, notwdthftanding, like the relative qualities, on
the influence of climate. The fize of our quadrupeds
cannot be compared with that of the elephant, the rhi¬
noceros, or fea-horfe. The largeft of our birds are but
fmall, if compared with the oftrich, the condore, and
cafoare?"1 So far M. Buffon, whofe text we have co¬
pied, becaufe it is contrary to what M. de Paw writes
againft the climate of America, and to Buffon himfelf
in many other places.
If the large and fierce animals are natives of intem¬
perate climes, and fmall and tranquil animals of tem¬
perate climes, as M. Buffon has here eftabliftied ; if
mildnefs of climate influences the difpofition and cuftoms
of animals, M. de Paw does not well deduce the malig¬
nity of the climate of America from the fmaller fize
and lefs fiercenefs of its animals ; he ought rather to
have deduced the gentlenefs and fweetnefs of its climate
from this antecedent. If, on the contrary, the fmaller
fize and lefs fiercenefs of the American animals, with
refpeft to thofe of the old continent, are a proof of
their degeneracy, arifing from the malignity of the
clime, as M. de Paw would have it, we ought in like
manner to argue the malignity of the climate of Eu¬
rope from the fmaller fize and lefs fiercenefs of its ani¬
mals, compared with thole of Africa. If a philofo-
pher of the country of Guinea Ihould undertake a work
in imitation of M. de Paw, with this title, Recherches
Philofsphiques fur les Europeens, he might avail him¬
felf of the fame argument which M. de Paw ufes, to
demonftrate the malignity of the climate of Europe,
and the advantages of that of Africa. The climate
of Europe, he would fay, is very unfavourable to the
produ&ion of quadrupeds, Avhich are found incompara¬
bly fmaller and more cowardly than ours. What are
the horfe and the ox, the largert of its animals, compa¬
red with our elephants, our rhinocerofes, our fea-hories,
and our camels ? What are its lizards, either in fize or
America.
¥
intrepidity, compared with our crocodiles ? its wolves,
its bears, the moft dreadtul of its wild beafts, when be-
fide our lions and tigers ? Its eagles, its vultures, and
cranes, if compared with our oftriches, appear only like
hens. g
As to the enormous fize and prodigious multiplica-Anieric;i
tion of the infers and other little noxious animals, not more
“ The furface of the earth (fays M. de Paw), infefted infefted
by putrefa&ion, rvas overrun with lizards, ferpcnts, rep. than othe
tiles, and infefts, monftrous for fize, and the aftivity °f ^?;th [n-*
their poifon, which they drew from the copious juices feds and
of this uncultivated foil, that tvas corrupted and aban-noxious
doned to itfelf, where the nutritive juice became fliarp, antmals*
like the milk in the breaft of animals which do not
exercife the virtue of propagation. Caterpillars, crabs,
butterflies, beetles, fpiders, frogs, and toads, were, for
the moft part, of an enormous corpulence in the fpe¬
cies, and multiplied beyond what can be imagined.
Panama is infefted with ferpents, Carthagena with
clouds of enormous bats, Porto Bello with toads, Suri¬
nam with hakcrlacas, or cucarnchas, Guadaloupe, and
the other colonies of the iflands, with beetles, Quito,
with niguas or chegoes, and Lima with lice and bugs.
The ancient kings of Mexico, and the emperors of
Peru, found no other means of ridding their fubje&s
of thofe infefts which fed upon them, than the impo-
fition of an annual tribute of a certain quantity of lice.
Ferdinand Cortes found bags full of them in the palace
of Montezuma.” But this argument, exaggerated as
it is, proves nothing againft the climate of America
in general, much lefs againft that of Mexico. There
being fome lands in America, in which, on account of
their heat, humidity, or want of inhabitants, large
infedls are found, and exceffively multiplied, will
prove at moft, that in fomc places the furface of the
earth is infe&ed, as he fays, with putrefa&ion j but
not that the foil of Mexico, or that of all America, is
{linking, uncultivated, vitiated, and abandoned to it¬
felf. If fuch a deduftion were juft, M. de Paw might
alfo fay, that the foil of the old continent is barren,
and ftinks j as in many countries of it there are prodi¬
gious multitudes of monftrous infects, noxious reptiles,
and vile animals, as in the Philippine ifles, in many of
thofe of the Indian archipelago, in feveral countries of
the fouth of Afia, in many of Africa, and even in fome
of Europe. The Philippine ifles are infefted with
enormous ants and monftrous butterflies, Japan with
fcorpions, the fouth of Afia and Africa with ferpents,'
Egypt with afps, Guinea and Ethiopia with armies
of ants, Holland with field rats, Ukrania with toads,
A 2 as
America.
A M E [
as M. de Paw himfelf affirms ; in Italy, the Cam-
r paqna di Roma (although peopled for fo many age&)
with vipers, Calabria with tarantulas, the (bores of
the Adriatic fea with clouds of gnats ; and even in
France, the population of which is fo great and fo an¬
cient, whofe lands are fo well cultivated, and whofe
climate is fo celebrated by the French, there appeared,
a few years ago, according to M. Buffon, a new (pe-
cies of field mice, larger thawthe common kind, called
by him funnolots, which have multiplied exceedingly,
to the great damage of the fields. M. Bazin, in his
Compendium of the Hiftory of Infefls, numbers 77
fpecies of bugs which are all found in Paris and its
neighbourhood. That large capital, as M. Bomare
fays fwarms with thofe difguftful infefts. It is true,
that’ there are places in America, where the multitudes
of infects and filthy vermine make life irkfome } but
we do not know that they have arrived to fuch excels
of multiplication as to depopulate any place •, at lealt
there cannot be fo many examples produced ol this
caufe of depopulation in the new as in the old conti¬
nent, which are attefted by Theophraftus, Varro Pli¬
ny, and other authors. The frogs depopulated one
place in Gaul, and the locufts another m Africa.
One of the Cyclades was depopulated by mice *, Ami-
clas, near to Taracina, by ferpents j another place
near to Ethiopia, by fcorpions and poifonous ants 5 and
another by fcolopendras: and not fo diftant from our
own times, the Mauritius was going to have been aban¬
doned on account of the extraordinary multiplication
of rats, as we can remember to have read in a French
aUWith refpea to the fize of the infeas, reptiles, and
fuch animals, M. de Paw makes ufe of the teftimony
of M. Dumont, who, in his Memoirs on Louiliana,
fays, that the frogs are fo large there that they weig 1
q*7 French pounds, and their horrid croaking imitates
the bellowing of cows. But M. de Paw h.mfelf fays
(in his anfwcr to Don Pernetty, cap. 17.), that all
thofe who have written about Louifiana, from hlene-
pin, Le Clerc, and Cav. Tonti, to Dumont have con-
tradi&ed each other, fometimes on one and fometimes
on another fubjeft. In faft, neither in the old or the
new continent are there frogs of 37 pounds in weight ,
but there are in Afia and Africa, ferpents, butterflies
ants, and other animals, of fuch monftrous fize, that
they exceed all thofe which have been difcovered m
the^new world. We know very well, that fome A-
merican hiftorians fay, that a certain gigantic fpecies
of ferpents is to be found m the woods, which attraft
men with their breath, and fwallow them up but we
know alfo, that feveral hiflonans both ancient and
modern, report the fame thing of the ferpents of Af ,
and eVen fomething more. iVIegafthene8, c^e J
Pliny, faid, that there were ferpents found m Afia’10
large, that they fwallowed entire (lags and bul s. Me-
trodorus cited by the fame author, affirms, that m Afia
ther J were ferpents which, by their breath attrafted
birds however high they were,, or quick their flight.
Among the moderns, Gemelli, in vol. v. of his l our
of the World, when he treats of the animals of the
Philippine ides, fpeaks thus: “There are ferpents in
thefe'iflands of immoderate fize ^ th?7 ‘S ,°ne./a
ibitin very long, which fufpending itfelf by the tail
from the frank of a tree, waits till flags, bears, and
4 ] A M E
alfo men pafs by, in order to attraft them with its America.
breath, and devour them at once entirely From L v—~
whence it is evident that this very ancient fable has
been common to both continents.
Further, it may be alked, In what country of Ame¬
rica could M. de Paw find ants to equal thofe of the
Philippine iflands, called fulum, refpedting which Her¬
nandez affirms, that they were fix fingers breadth in
length, and one in breadth ? Who has ever feen in
America butterflies fo large as thofe of Bourbon, Ter-
nate, the Philippine ifles, and all the Indian archipe-
lago ? The larged bat of America (native of hot fliady
countries), which is that called by Buffon vampiro, is,
according to him, of the fize of a pigeon. La rou-
gette, one of the fpecies of Afia, is as large as a raven j
and the roufette, another fpecies of Afia, is as big as a
large hen. Its wings, when extended, meafure from
tip to tip three Parifian feet, and according to Ge¬
melli, who meafured it in the Philippine ifles, fix
palms. M. Buffon acknowledges the excefs in fize of
the Afiatic bat over the American fpecies, but denies
it as to number. Gemelli fays, that thofe of the ifland
of Luzon were fo numerous that they darkened, the air,
and that the noife which they made with their teeth,
in eating the fruits of the woods, was heard at the dif-
tance of two miles. M. de Paw fays, in talking of
ferpents, “ It cannot be affirmed that the new world
has (hewn any ferpents larger than thofe which Mr
Adanfon faw in the deferts of Africa.” The greateft
ferpent found in Mexico, after a diligent fearch made
by Hernandez, was 18 feet long ; but this is not to be
compared with that of the Moluccas, which Bomare
fays is 33 feet in length : nor with the anacondaja ot
Ceylon, which the fame author fays is more than 33 feet
long ; nor with others of Afia and Africa mentioned by
the fame author. Lahly, The argument drawn from
the multitude and fize of the American infe&s is tully
as weighty as the argument drawn from the imallneis
and fcarcity of quadrupeds, and both deteft the ^me ig¬
norance, or rather the fame voluntary and ftudied for-
getfulnefs, of the things of the old continent.
With refpeft to what M. de Paw has faid ol the tri¬
bute of lice in Mexico, in that as well as in many other
things he difcovers his ridiculous credulity. . It is true
that Cortes found bags of lice in the magazines °f t“e
palace of King Axajacatil. It is alfo true that Mon¬
tezuma impofed fuch a tribute, not on all his fubjeas,
however, but only on thofe who were beggars j not on
account of the extraordinary multitude of thole in¬
feas as M. de Paw affirms, but becaufe Montezuma,
who’could not fuffer idlenefs in his fubjea*, refolved
that that miferable fet of people, who could not la¬
bour ffiould at lead be occupied in loufing themielves.
This’ was the true reafon of fuch an extravagant, tri¬
bute, as Torquemada, Betancourt and other hiftorians,
relate : and nobody ever before thought, of that which
M. de Paw affirms, merely becaufe it fluted his prepoi-
terous fyftem. Thofe difgufting infeas poflibly abound
as much in the hair and clothes of American beggars as
of any poor and uncleanly low people in the world ; but
there is not a doubt, that if any fovereign of Europe
was to exaa fuch a tribute from the poor in his domi¬
nions, not only bags but great veffels, might be filled
W1At the time America was difcovered, it was found
A M E [5
America, inhabited by a race of men no lefs different from thofe
in the other parts of the world, than the climate and
i /-»• c  for^ rlifrprpnt. irom
]
A M E
9 natural produaions of this continent are different from
Generalde-thofe o£ £ur0pe, Afia, or Africa. One great peculia-
fcnption of native Americans is their colour, and the
the natives, ruy m uic u ^ rnn-
nty --— 
identity of it throughout the whole extent of the con
tinent. In Europe and Afia, the people who_ inhabit
the northern countries are of a fairer complexion than
thofe who dwell more to the fouthward. In the tor¬
rid zone, both in Africa and Afia,. the natives are en¬
tirely black, or the next thing to.it.. This, however,
muft be underftood with fome limitation. The people
of Lapland, who inhabit the .moft northerly, part ot
Europe, are by no means fo fair as the inhabitants of
Britain j nor are the Tartars fo fair as the inhabitants
of Europe who lie under the fame parallels of latitude.
Neverthelefs, a Laplander is fair when compared with
an Abyffinian, and a Tartar, if compared with a native
of the Molucca iflands. In America, this diflinttion
of colour was not to be found. In the torrid zone there
were no negroes, and in the temperate and frigid zones
there were no white people. All of them were of a kind
of red copper colour, which Mr Forfter obferved, m the
Pefferays of Terra del Fuego, to have fomething of a
glofs refembling that metal. It doth, not appear, how¬
ever, that this matter hath ever been inquired into with
fufficient accuracy. The inhabitants of the inland parts
of South America, where the continent is wideft, and
confequently the influence of the fun the moft power¬
ful, have never been compared with thofe of Cana¬
da, or more northerly parts, at lead by any perfon of
credit. Yet this ought to have been done, and that
in many inftances too, before it could be aflerted fo
pofitively as moft authors do, that there is not the leaft
difference tc complexion among the natives of America.
Indeed, fo many fyftems have been formed concerning
them, that it is very difficult to obtain a true know¬
ledge of the moft Ample faas. If we may believe the
Abbe Raynal, the Californians are fwarthier than the
Mexicans j and fo pofitive is he in his opinion, that he
gives a reafon for it. “ This difference of colour,” fays
he, “ proves, that the civilized life of fociety fubverts,
or totally changes, the order and laws of nature, fince
we find, under the temperate zone, a favage people that
are blacker than the civilized nations of the torrid zone.”
—On the other hand, Dr Robertfon claffes all the in¬
habitants of Spanifli America together with regard to
colour, whether they are civilized or uncivilized j and
when he fpeaks of California, takes no notice of any
peculiarity in their colour more than others. T he ge¬
neral appearance of the indigenous Americans in vari¬
ous diftrifts is thus defcribed by the Chevalier Pinto :
« They are all of a copper colour, with fome diverfity
of (hade, not in proportion to their diftance from the
equator, but according to the degree of elevation of
the territory in which they refide. Thofe who live in
a high country are fairer than thofe in the marffiy low
lands on the coaft. Their face is round ; farther re¬
moved, perhaps, than that of any people from an oval
lhape. Their forehead is fmall •, the extremity of their
ears far from the face’, their lips thick; their nofe flat;
their eyes black, or of a chefnut colour, fmall, but ca¬
pable of difcerning objects at a great diftance. Their
Fair is always thick and fleek, and without any ten¬
dency to curl. At the firft afpe£t, a South American
appears to be mild and innocent: but, on a more atten- America,
live view, one difcovers in his countenance fomething v
wild, diftruftful, and fullen.” . x° ,
The following account of the native Americans aS
aiven by Don Antonio Ulloa, in a work entitled Mc-
moires Phi/ofophiqttes, Hijloriques, et Physiques, concern-
ant la decouverte de PAmerique, lately publiftied.
The American Indians are naturally of a colour bor¬
dering upon red. Their frequent expofure to the fun
and wind changes it to their ordinary dulky hue. The
temperature of the air appears to have little or no in¬
fluence in this refped. There is no perceptible differ¬
ence in complexion between the inhabitants of the high
and thofe of the low parts of Peru ; yet the climates
are of extreme difference. Nay, the Indians who live
as far as 40 degrees and upwards fouth or north of the
equator, are not to be diftinguiflied, in point of colour,
from thofe immediately under it.
There is alfo a general conformation of features and
perfon, which more or lefs characterizes them all.
Their chief diftinaions, in thefe refpeas, are a fmall
forehead, partly covered with hair to the eyebrows, lit¬
tle eyes ; the nofe thin, pointed, and bent towards the
upper lip; a broad face ; large ears; black, thick, and
lank hair; the legs well formed, the feet fmall, the bo¬
dy thick and mufcular; little or no beard on the face,
and that little never extending beyond a fmall part of
the chin and upper lip. It may eafily. be fuppofed that
this general defcription cannot apply, in all its parts, to
every individual; but all of them partake fo much of
it, that they may be eafily diftinguiffied even .from the
mulattoes, who come neareft to them in point of co-
lour.
The refemblance among all the American tribes is
not lefs remarkable in refpeft to their genius, charaCler,
manners, and particular .cuftoms. The moft diftant
tribes are, in thefe refpeCts, as fimilar as though they
formed but one nation.
All the Indian nations have a peculiar pleafure in
painting their bodies of a red colour, with a certain fpe-
cies of earth. The mine of Guangavelica was former¬
ly of no other ufe than to fupply them with this mate¬
rial for dyeing their bodies ; and the cinnabar ex-
traded from it was applied entirely to this purpofe.
The tribes in Louifiana and Canada have the fame paf-
fion; hence minium is the commodity moft in demand
there.
It may feem fingular that thefe nations, whofe na¬
tural colour is red, ffiould affect the fame colour as an
artificial ornament. But it may be obferved, that they
do nothing in this refped but what correfpo.nds to the
pradice of Europeans, who alfo ftudy to heighten and
difplay to advantage the natural red and white of their •
complexions. The Indians of Peru have now indeed
abandoned the cuftom of painting their bodies : but it
was common among them before they were conquered
by the Spaniards ; and it ftill remains the cuftom of all
thofe tribes who have preferved their liberty. The nor¬
thern nations of America, befides the red colour which
is predominant, employ alfo black, white, blue, and
green, in painting their bodies. ir
The adjuftment of thefe colours is a matter of as Peculiari-
great confideration with the Indians of Louifiana and^^’U®"
the vaft regions extending to the north, as the orna- jjament
ments of drefs among the moft poliffied nations. 1 he (jrefSi
rv»i r-\ o 1 c
A M E [6
bufinefs itfelf they call maBacher, and they do not fail
to apply all their talents and affiduity to accomplifh it
in the moft finilhed manner. No lady of the greateft
falhion ever confulted her mirror with more anxiety,
than the Indians do while painting their bodies. The
colours are applied with the utmoft accuracy and ad-
drefs. Upon the eyelids, precifely at the root of the
eyelalbes, they draw two lines as fine as the fmalleft
thread ; the fame upon the lips, the openings of the
noftrils, the eyebrows, and the ears; of which laft they
even follow all the inflexions and finuofities. As to
the reft of the face, they diftribute various figures, in
all which the red predominates, and the other colours
are affbrted fo as to throw it out to the beft advantage.
The neck alfo receives its proper ornament; a thick
coat of vermilion commonly diftinguilhes the cheeks.
Five or fix hours are requifite for accomplifhing all this
with the nicety which theyaffeft. As their firft attempts
do not always fucceed to their with, they efface them,
and begin anew upon a better plan. No coquette is
more faftidious in her choice of ornament, none more
vain when the important adjuftmentis finilhed. Their
delight and felf-fatisfa<ftion are then fo great, that the
mirror is hardly ever laid down. An Indian maBached
to his mind is the vaineft of all the human fpecies. The
other parts of the body are left in their natural ftate,
and, excepting w'hat is called a cachecul, they go entirely
naked.
Such of them as have made themfelves eminent for
bravery, or other qualifications, are diftinguilhed by
figures painted on their bodies. They introduce the
colours by making punctures on their Ikin, and the ex¬
tent of furface which this ornament covers is propor¬
tioned to the exploits they have performed. Some
paint only their arms, others both their arms and legs,
others again their thighs; while thofe who have attain¬
ed the fummit of warlike renown, have their bodies
painted from the waift upwards. This is the heraldry
of the Indians; the devices of which are probably more
exaftly adjufted to the merits of the perfons who bear
them than thofe of more civilized countries.
Befides thefe ornaments, the warriors alfo carry plumes
of feathers on their heads, their arms, and ancles. Thefe
likewife are tokens of valour, and none but fuch as have
been thus diftinguilhed may wear them.
The propenfity to indolence is equal among all the
tribes of Indians, civilized or favage. The only em¬
ployment of thofe who have preferved their independence
is hunting and filhing. In fome diftri&sthe women ex-
ercife a little agriculture in raifing Indian corn and
pompions, of which they form a fpecies of aliment by
bruifing them together : they alfo prepare the ordi¬
nary beverage in ufe among them, taking care, at the
fame time, of the children, of whom the fathers take no
charge.
The female Indians of all the conquered regions of
South America pra£life what is called the urcu (a word
which among them fignifies elevation'). It confifts in
throwing forward the hair from the crown of the head
upon the brow, and cutting it round from the ears to
above the eye; fo that the forehead and eyebrows are
entirely covered. The fame cuftom takes place in the
northern countries. The female inhabitants of both
regions tie the reft of their hair behind, fo exactly
in the fame falhion, that it might be fuppofed the ef-
] A M E
fe£l of mutual imitation. This, however, being im- America,
poflible, from the vaft diftance that feparates them, —y—^
is thought to countenance the fuppofition of the whole
of America being originally planted with one race of
people.
This cuftom does not take place among the males.
Thofe of the higher parts of Peru wear long and flowT-
ing hair, which they reckon a great ornament. In the
lower parts of the fame country they cut it Ihort, on
account of the heat of the climate; a circumftance in
which they imitate the Spaniards. The inhabitants of
Louifiana pluck out their hair by the roots from the
crown of the head forwards, in order to obtain a large
forehead, otherwife denied them by nature. The reft of
their hair they cut as Ihort as poflible, to prevent their
enemies from feizing them by it in battle, and alfo to
prevent them from eafily getting their fcalp, fliould
they fall into their hands as prifoners. xz
The whole race of American Indians is diftinguifliedflemark-
by thicknefs of Ikin and hardnefsof fibres: circumftances
which probably contribute to that infenfibility to bodily 0
pain for which they are remarkable. An inftance of ’
this infenfibility occurred in an Indian who was under
the neceflity of fubmitting to be cut for the ftone. This
operation, in ordinary cafes, feldom lafts above four or
five minutes. Unfavourable circumftances in his cafe
prolonged it to the uncommon period of 27 minutes.
Yet all this time the patient gave no tokens of the ex¬
treme pairtffcommonly attending this operation: he com¬
plained only as a perfon does who feels fome flight un-
eafinefs. At laft the ftone was extrafted. Two days
after, he expreffed a defire for food, and on the eighth
day from the operation, he quitted his bed, free from
pain, although the wound was not yet thoroughly
clofed. The fame want of fenfibility is obferved in
cafes of fraflures, wounds, and other accidents of a fimi-
lar nature. In all thefe cafes their cure is eafily effeft-
ed, and they feem to fuffer lefs prefent pain tharf any
other race of men. The fkulls that have been taken up
in their ancient burying-grounds are of a greater thick¬
nefs than that bone is commonly found, being from
fix to feven lines from the outer to the inner fuperficies..
The fame is remarked as to the thicknefs of their
fkins.
It is natural to infer from hence, that their compara¬
tive infenfibility to pain is owing to a coarfer and ftronger
organization than that of other nations.. The eafe with
which they endure the feverities of climate is another
proof of this. The inhabitants of the higher parts of
Peru live amidft perpetual froft and fnow.. Although arid
their clothing is very flight, they fupport this inclement inclemen-
temperature without the leaft inconvenience. Habit, iteies of
is to be confeffed, may contribute a good deal to this,weather*
but much alfo is to be aferibed to the com pad texture
of their {kin, which defends them from the impreflion of
cold through their pores.
The northern Indians referable them in this refpeft.
The utmoft rigours of the winter feafon do not prevent
them from following the chafe almoft naked. It is
true, they wear a kind of woollen cloak, or fometimes
the fkin of a wild beaft, upon their {boulders ; but be¬
fides that it covers only a fmall part of their body, it
would appear that they ufe it rather for ornament than
warmth. In faft, they wear it indiferiminately, in
the feverities of winter and in the moft fultry heats of
fummer,
14
Terrible
trials un-
A M E [ :
America fuimner, wlien neither Europeans nor negroes can fuf-
U—fer any but theflighteft clothing. They even frequently
throw afide this cloak when they go a hunting, that it
may not embarrafs them in traveling their forefts, where
they fay the thorns and undergrowth would take hold of
it; while, on the contrary, they Hide fmoothly over the
furface of their naked bodies. At all times they go
with their heads uncovered, without fuffering the teaft
inconvenience, either from the cold, or from thofe coups
defoleil, which in Louifiana are fo often fatal to the in¬
habitants of other climates.
The Indians of South America diftinguilh them-
felves by modern drefles, in which they affeft various
taftes. Thofe of the high country, and of the valleys
in Peru, drefs partly in the Spanilh fathion. Inftead
of hats they wear bonnets of courfe double cloth, the
weight of which neither feems to incommode them
when they go to warmer climates, nor does the acci¬
dental want of them feem to be felt in fxtuations where
the moft piercing cold reigns. 1 heir legs and feet are
always bare, if we except a fort of fandals made of the
{kins of oxen. f he inhabitants of South A.merica,
compared with thofe of North America, are defcribed
as generally more feeble in their frame, lefs vigorous
in the efforts of their mind, of gentler difpofitions,
more addicted to pleafure, and funk in indolence.—
This, however, is not univerfally the cafe. Many of
their nations are as intrepid and enterprifing as any
others on the whole continent. Among the tribes on
   the banks of the Oroonoko, if a warrior afpires to the
thefrchiefs Poft caPta‘n> ^is Probati°n begins with a long faff,
Cir 1 more rigid than any ever obferved by the moft abfte-
mious hermit. At the clofe of this the chiefs af-
femble ; and each gives him three ladies with a large
whip, applied fo vigoroudy, that his body is almoft
Jdayed. If he betrays the leaft fymptom of impatience,
or even of fenfibility, he is difgraced for ever, and re-
je£led as unworthy of the honour. After fome inter¬
val, his conftancy is proved by a more excruciating
trial. He is laid in his hammock with his hands bound
fall } and an innumerable multitude of venomou> ants,
whofe bite occafions a violent pain and indammation,
are thrown upon him. The judges of his merit ftand
around the hammock ; and whilft thefe cruel infe&s
fallen upon the moft fenfible parts of his body, a figh,
a groan, or an involuntary motion expreftive of what
he differs, would exclude him from the dignity of
which he is ambitious. Even after this evidence, his
fortitude is not deemed to be fuffieiently afcertained,
till he has flood another tell more fevere, if poflible,
than the former. He is again fufpended in his ham¬
mock, and covered with the leaves of the palmetto. A
fire of {linking herbs is kindled underneath, fo as he
may feel its heat, and be involved in fmoke. Though
fcorched and almoft fuffocated, he mull continue to
endure this with the fame patient infenfibility. Many
perilh in this effay of their firmnefs and courage •, but
fuch as go through it with applaufe, receive the enfigns
of their new dignity with much folemnitv, and are ever
after regarded as leaders of approved refolution, whofe
behaviour in the moft trying fituations, will do honour
to their country. In North America, the previous
trial of a warrior is neither fo formal nor fo fevere :
Though, even there, before a youth is permitted to
bear arms, his patience and fortitude are proved by
r ] A M E
blows, by lire, and by infults, more intolerable to a America,
haughty fpirit than either. _ ' ^
Of the manners and cuftoms of the North
cans more particularly, the following is the moft con- an(j
fiftent account that can be collefted from the belt in- tions of the
formed and moft impartial writers. North A-
When the Europeans firft arrived in America, they
found the Indians quite naked, except thofe Parts cuiariy.
which even the moft uncultivated people ufually con¬
ceal. Since that time, however, they generally ufe a
coarfe blanket, which they buy of the neighbouring
planters.
Their huts or cabins are made of Hakes of wood
driven into the ground, and covered with branches of
trees or reeds. They lie on the floor either on mats
or the Ikins of wild beafts. Their dilhes are of tim¬
ber $ but their fpoons are made of the Ikulls of wild
oxen, and their knives of flint. A kettle and a large
plate conftitute almoft the whole utenfils of the family.
Their diet confifts chiefly in what they procure by
hunting •, and fagamite, or pottage, is likewife one
of their moft common kinds of food. The moft ho¬
nourable furniture among them are the fcalps of their
enemies j with thefe they ornament their huts, which
are efteemed in proportion to the number of this fort of
fpoils.
The charadler of the Indians is altogether founded
upon their circumftances and way of life. A people
who are conftantly employed in procuring the means
of a precarious fubfiftence, who live by hunting the
wild animals, and who are generally engaged in war
with their neighbours, cannot be fuppofed to enjoy
much gaiety of temper, or a high flow of fpirits. 1 he
Indians therefore are in general grave even unto fadnefs:
they have nothing of that giddy vivacity peculiar to l5
fome nations of Europe, and they defpife it. Their Their re¬
behaviour to thofe about them is regular, modeft, and markable
refpe&ful. Ignorant of the arts of amufement, ofP®^®™*3
Avhlch that of faying trifles agreeably is one of the moft turnity<
confiderable, they never fpeak, but when they have
fomething important to obferve j and all their a£lions,
words, and even looks, are attended with fome mean¬
ing. This is extremely natural to men who are almoft
continually engaged in purfuits which to them are of
the higheft importance. Their fubfiftence depends en¬
tirely on what they procure with their hands j and
their lives, their honour, and every thing dear to them,
mav be loft by the fmalleft inattention to the defigns
of their enemies. As they have no particular objeft
to attach them to one place rather than another, they
fly wherever they expeft to find the neceffaries of life
in greateft abundance. Cities, which are the effefts of
agriculture and arts, they have none. The different
tribes or nations are for the fame reafon extremely
fmall, when compared with civilized focieties, in which
induftry, arts, agriculture, and commerce, have united
a vaft number of individuals whom a complicated lux¬
ury renders ufeful to one another. Thefe fmall tribes
live at an immenfe dillance ; they are feparated by a
defert frontier, and hid in the bofom of impenetrable
and almoft boundlefs forefts.
There is eftablilhed in each fociety a certain fpecies porm1Jf- c_
of government, which over the whole continent of A- vernment "
merica prevails with exceeding little variation j becaufe among
over the whole of this continent the manners and way them.
of,
A M E [
America, of life are nearly fimilar and uniferm. Without arts,
 /——'riches, or luxury, the great inftruments of fubjeftion
in poliihed focieties, an American has no method by
which he can render himfelf confiderable among his
companions, but by fuperiority in perfonal qualities of
body or mind. But as Nature has not been very lavilh
in her perfonal diftin£tions, where all enjoy the fame
education, all are pretty much equal, and will defire
to remain fo. Liberty, therefore, is the prevailing
paffion of the Americans 5 and their government, un¬
der the influence of this fentiment, is better fecured
than by the wifeft political regulations. They are very
far, however, from defpifing all fort of authority 5 they
are attentive to the voice of wifdom, which experience
has conferred on the aged, and they enlift under the
banners of the chief in whofe valour and military ad-
drefs they have learned to repofe their confidence. In
every fociety, therefore, there is to be confidered the
power of the chief and of the elders •, and, according as
the government inclines more to the one or to the
other, it may be regarded as monarchical, or as a fpe-
cies of ariftocracy. Among thofe tribes which are
mofl: engaged in war, the power of the chief is natu¬
rally predominant •, becaufe the idea of having a mili¬
tary leader was the firft fource of his fuperiority, and
the continual exigencies of the ftate requiring fuch a
leader, will continue to fupport, and even to enhance
it. His power, however, is rather perfuafive than co-
.ercive; he is reverenced as a father, rather than feared
as a monarch. He has no guards, no prifons, no offi¬
cers of juftice •, and one a£t of ill-judged violence would
pull him from the throne. The elders, in the other
form of government, which may be confidered as an
ariftocracy, have no more power. In fome tribes, in¬
deed, there are a kind of hereditary nobility, whofe in¬
fluence being conftantly augmented by time, is more
confiderable. (See the article Niagara). But this
fource of power which depends chiefly on the imagi¬
nation, by which we annex to the merit of our contem¬
poraries that of their forefathers, is too refined to be ve¬
ry common among the natives of America. In moft
countries, therefore, age alone is fufficient for acquiring
refpeft, influence, and authority. It is age which
teaches experience, and experience is the only fource of
.lS knowledge among a barbarous people. Among thofe
blic aifem- perfons, bufinefs is condufted with the utmoft fimplici-
blies. ty, and which may recal to thofe who are acquainted
with antiquity a pi&ure of the moft early ages. . The
heads of families meet together in a houfe or cabin ap¬
pointed for the purpofe. Here the bufinefs is difcuffed •,
and here thofe of the nation, diftinguifhed for their elo¬
quence or wifdom, have an opportunity of difplaying
thofe talents. Their orators, like thofe of Homer, ex-
prefs themfelves in a bold figurative ftyle, ftronger than
refined, or rather foftened, nations can well bear, and
with geftures equally violent, but often extremely natu¬
ral and expreffive. When the bufinefs is over, and
they happen to be well provided with food, they ap¬
point a feaft upon the occafion, of which almoft the
whole nation partakes. The feaft is accompanied with
a fong, in which the real or fabulous exploits of their
forefathers are celebrated. They have dances too,
though, like thofe of the Greeks and Romans, chiefly
of the military kind ; and their mufic and dancing ac¬
company every feaft.
8 ] A M E
To affift their memory, they have belts of fmall America,
{hells or beads, of different colours, each reprefenting y—^
a particular obje£t, which is marked by their colour
and arrangement. At the conclufion of every fubjeft waJpum
on which they difcourfe, when they treat with a foreign or belts,
ftate, they deliver one of thofe belts 5 for if this cere¬
mony ffiould be omitted, all that they have faid paffes
for nothing. Thefe belts are carefully depofited in
each town, as the public records of the nation ; and to
them they occafionally have recourfe, when any public
conteft happens with a neighbouring tribe. Of late, as
the materials of which thofe belts are made have be¬
come fcarce, they often give fome {kin in place of the
wampum (the name of the beads), and receive in return
prefents of a more valuable kind from our commiffion-
ers ; for they never confider a treaty as of any weight,
unlefs every article in it be ratified by fuch a gratifica¬
tion. r
It often happens, that thofe different tribes or nations,
fcattered as they are at an immenfe diftance from one
another, meet in their excurfions after prey. If there
fubfifts no animofity between them, which feldom is the
cafe, they behave in the moft friendly and courteous
manner j but if they happen to be in a ftate of war, or
if there has been no previous intercourfe between them,
all who are not friends are deemed enemies, and they
fight with the moft favage fury.. 3a
War, if we except hunting, is the only employment xheir wars,
of the men : as to every other concern, and even the
little agriculture they enjoy, it is left to the women.
Their moft common motive for entering into war,
when it does not arife from an accidental rencounter
or interference, is either to revenge themfelves for the
death of fome loft friends, or to acquire prifoners who
may affift them in their hunting, and whom they adopt
into their fociety. Thefe wars are either undertaken
by fome private adventurers, or at the inftanee of the
whole community. In the latter cafe, all the young
men who are difpofed to go out to battle (for no one
is compelled contrary to his inclination), give a bit of
wood to the chief, as a token of their defign to ac¬
company him •, for every thing among thofe people is
tranfa&ed with a great deal of ceremony and many 2I
forms. The chief who is to condudl them falls feve- Ceremonies
ral days, during which he converfes with no one, and1-
is particularly careful to obferve his dreams ; which 8
the prefumption natural to favages generally renders as
favourable as he could defire. A variety of other fu-
perftitions and ceremonies are obferved. One of the
moft hideous is fetting the war-kettle on the fire., as an
emblem that they are going out to devour their ene¬
mies ; which among fome nations mull formerly have
been the cafe, fince they ftill continue to exprefs it in
clear terms, and ufe an emblem fignificant of the an¬
cient ufage. Then they difpatch a porcelain, or large
{hell, to their allies, inviting them to come along, and
drink the blood of their enemies. For with the Ame¬
ricans, as with the Greeks of old,
« A generous friendftiip no cold medium knows ;
“ But with one love, with one refentment, glows.”
They think that thofe in their alliance muft not only
adopt their enmities, but have their refentment wound
up to the fame pitch with themfelves. And indeed
no people carry their friendftiip or their refentment fo
1 far
America.
aa
Enfigns.
. .23
Military
■habits.
A M E [ c
far as they do j and this is what fliould be expe&ed from
their peculiar circumftances ; that principle in human
nature which is the fpring of the focial affections, aCts
with fo much the greater force the more it is reftrained.
The Americans, who live in fmall focieties, who fee
few objefts and few perfons, become wonderfully at¬
tached to thefe objeCts and perfons, and cannot be de¬
prived of them without feeling themfelves miferable.
Their ideas are too confined to enable them to enter¬
tain juft fentiments of humanity, or univerfal benevo¬
lence. But this very circumftance, while it makes
them cruel and favage to an incredible degree towards
thofe with whom they are at war, adds a new force to
their particular friendfhips, and to the common tie
which unites the members of'the fame tribe, or of thofe
different tribes which are in alliance with one another.
Without attending to this reflection, fome faCts we are
going to relate would excite our wonder, without in¬
forming our reafon 5 and we (hould be bewildered in a
number of particulars, feemingly oppofite to one an¬
other, without being fenfible of the general caufe from
which they proceed.
Having finiftied all the ceremonies previous to the
war, and the day appointed for their fetting out on the
expedition being arrived, they take leave of their friends,
and exchange their clothes, or whatever moveables they
have, in token of mutual friendftiip; after which they
proceed from the town, their wives and female relations
walking before, and attending them to fome diftance.
The warriors march all dreffed in their fineft apparel
and moft ftiowy ornaments, without any order. The
chief walks flowly before them, finging the war-fong,
while the reft obferve the moft profound filence. When
they come up to their women, they deliver them all
their finery, and putting on their worft clothes, pro¬
ceed on their expedition.
Every nation has its peculiar enfign or flandard,
which is generally fome beaft, bird, or filh. Thofe
among the Five Nations are the bear, otter, wolf, tor-
toife, and eagle -, and by thefe names the tribes are
ufually diftinguiftied. They have the figures of thofe
animals pricked and painted on feveral parts of their
bodies; and when they march through the woods, they
commonly, at every encampment, cut the reprefenta-
tien of their enfign on trees, efpecially after a fuccefs-
ful campaign ; marking at the fame time the number of
fealps or prifoners they have taken. Their military
drefs is extremely Angular. They cut off or pull out
all their hair, except a fpot about the breadth of two
Englifti crown pieces, near the top of their heads, and
entirely deftroy their eyebrows. The lock left upon
their heads is divided into feveral parcels, each of
which is ftiffened and adorned with wampum, beads,
and feathers of various kinds, the whole being twifted
into a form much refembling the modern pompoon.
Their heads are painted red down to the eyebrows,
and fprinkled over with white down. The griftles of
their ears are fplit almoft quite round, and diftended
with wires or fplinters fo as to meet and tie together
on the nape of the neck. Thefe are alfo hung with
ornaments, and generally bear the reprefentation of
fome bird or beaft. Their nofes are likewife bored and
hung with trinkets of beads, and their faces painted
with various colours, fo as to make an awful appear¬
ance. Their breafts are adorned with a gorget or
VoL. II. Part I.
] A M E
medal, of brafs, copper, or fome other metal j and that America,
dreadful weapon the fealping knife hangs by a firing y——'
from their neck.
The gre,at qualities in an Indian war are vigilance
and attention, to give and to avoid a furprife j and in¬
deed in thefe they are fuperior to all nations in the 24
world. Accuftomed to continual wandering in theQuicknefs
forefts, having their perceptions fharpened by keen ne-o*
ceflity, and living in every refpeft according to nature,lcnl<'s’
their external fenfes have a degree of acutenefs which
at firft view appears incredible. They can trace out
their enemies at an immenfe diftance by the fmoke of
their fires, which they fmell, and by the tracks of
their feet on the ground, imperceptible to an Euro¬
pean eye, but which they can count and diftinguifti
with the utmoft facility. They can even diftinguifli
the different nations with whom they are acquainted,
and can determine the precife time when they paffed,
where an European could not, with all his glaffes, di¬
ftinguifti footfteps at all. Thefe circumftances, how¬
ever, are of.fmall importance, becaufe their enemies
are no lefs acquainted with them. When they go out,
therefore, they take care to avoid making ufe of any
thing by which they might run the danger of a- difeo-
very. They light no fire to warm themfelves or to
prepare their victuals : they lie clofe to the ground all
day, and travel only in the night ; and marching along
in files, he that clofes the rear diligently covers with
leaves the tracks of his own feet and of theirs who
preceded him. When they halt to refrefti themfelves, vigPance
fcouts are fent out to reconnoitre the country, and beat and cir-
up every place where they fufpeft an enemy to lie con-c.um*Pec-
cealed. In this manner they enter unawares the vil-tl0n*
lages of their foes ; and, while the flower of the nation
are engaged in hunting, maffacre all the children, wo¬
men, and helplefs old men, or make prifoners of as
many as they can manage, or have ftrength enough to
be ufeful to their nation. But when the enemy is ap-
prifed of their defign, and coming on in arms againft
them, they throw themfelves flat on the ground among
the withered herbs and leaves, which their faces are
painted to refemble. Then they allow a part to pafs
unmolefted, when all at once, with a tremendous fhout,
rifing up from their ambufti, they pour a ftorm of muf- a6
ket bullets on their foes. The party attacked returns Manner ot
the fame cry. Every one (belters himfelf with a tree, fighting,
and returns the fire of the adverfe party, as foon as
they raife themfelves from the ground to give a fe-
cond fire. Thus does the battle continue until the
one party is fo much weakened as to be incapable of
farther refiftance. But if the force on each fide con¬
tinues nearly equal, the fierce fpirits of the favages,
inflamed by the lofs of their friends, can no longer be
reftrained. They abandon their diftant w'ar, they ru(h
upon one another with clubs and hatchets in their
hands, magnifying their own courage, and infulting
their enemies with the bittereft reproaches. A cruel
combat enfues, death appears in a thoufand hideous
forms, which would congeal the blood of civilized na¬
tions to behold, but which roufe the fury of favages.
They trample, they infult over the dead bodies, tear¬
ing the fcalp from the head, wallowing in their blood
like wild beads, and fometimes devouring their flefti.
The flame rages on till it meets with no refiftance j
then the prifoners are fecured, thofe unhappy men,
B whofe
America.
A M E [i
whofe fate is a thoufand times more dreadful than theirs
who have died in the field. The conquerors fet up a
hideous howling to lament the friends they have loft.
They approach in a melancholy and fevere gloom to
their own village; a meffenger is fent to announce their
arrival, and the women, with frightful fhrieks, come
out to mourn their dead brothers or their hufbands.
When they are arrived, the chief relates in a low voice
to the elders a circumftantial account of every parti¬
cular of the expedition. The orator proclaims aloud
this account to the people j and as 1m mentions the
names of thofe who have fallen, the flirieks ot the wo¬
men are redoubled. The men too join in thefe dies,
according as each is moft conne&ed with the deceafed
by blood or friendthip. The laft ceremony is the pro¬
clamation of the victory : each individual then forgets
his private misfortunes, and joins in the triumph of his
nation •, ail tears are wiped from their eyes, and by an
unaccountable tranfition, they pafs in a moment from
the bitternefs of forrow to an extravagance of joy. But
the treatment of the prifoners, whofe fate all this time
remains undecided, is what chiefly charaaerizes the
favages. i r i • r
We have already mentioned the ftrength oi their at-
feftions or refentments. United as they are in imall
focieties, conne&ed within themfelves by the_ firmeft
ties, their friendly affeftions, which glow, with the
moft intenfe warmth within the walls of their own vil¬
lage, feldom extend beyond them. They feel nothing
for the enemies of their nation and their refentment
IOL Lilt wx wuv-.*.  7 ^ # #
is eafily extended from the individual who has injured
them to all others of the fame tribe. The prifoners,
who have themfelves the fame feelings, know the in¬
tentions of their conquerors, and are.prepared for them.
ItULlUiia ux wuv-**   i . 1 11"
The perfon ,v,,o has taken the -P- ^ £
ofthSpri-the cottage, where, according to the diftribution made
(oners. by the elders, he is to be delivered, to fupply the lois
of a citizen. If thofe who receive him have their fa¬
mily weakened by war or other accidents, they adopt
the captive into the family, of which he becomes a
member. But if they have no occafion for him, or
their refentment for the lofs of their friends be too
hi oh to endure the fight of any connefled with thofe
who were concerned in it, they fentence him to death.
AH thofe who have met with the fame fevere fentence
beino- collected, the whole nation is affembled at the
execution, as for fome great folemmty. A fcaffold
is erefted, and the prifoners are tied to the flake, where
they commence their death-fong, and prepare for the
enfuing fcene of cruelty with the moft undaunted cou¬
rage. Their enemies, on the other fide, are determin¬
ed to put it to the proof, by the moft refined and ex-
quifite tortures. They begin at the extremity of his
body, and gradually approach the more vital parts.
One plucks out his nails by the roots, one by «ne,
another takes a finger into his mouth and tears off he
fiefti with his teeth-, a third thrufts the finger, mangled
;s it is, into the bowl of a pipe made red hot, which
he fmokes like tobacco-, then they pound his toes and
fingers to pieces between two ftones-, they cut circles
about his joints, and gafties in the fleftiy parts of his
limbs, which they fear immediately with red-hot irons,
cutting burning, and pincing them alternately j they
puli off his flefti, thus mangled and roafted, bit by bit,
devouring it with greedinefs, and fmeanng their faces
aS
Shocking
tortures.
O ] A M E
with the blood in an enthufiafm of horror and. fury. America.
When they have thus torn oft the flefh, they twift the v
bare nerves and tendons about an iron, tearing and
fnapping them, whilft others are employed in pulling
and extending their limbs in every way that can in-
creafe the torment. This continues often five or fix
hours and fometimes, fuch is the ftrength of the.fa-
vages, days together. Then they frequently unbind
him, to give a breathing to their fury, to think what
new torments they fliall inflift, and to refreih the
ftrength of the fufferer, who, wearied out with luch a
variety of unheard-of torments, often falls into fo pro¬
found a fleep, that they are obliged to apply the fire to
awake him, and renew his fufferings. He is again
fattened to the flake, and again they renew their cruel¬
ty -, they flick him all over with fmall matches of
wood that eafily takes fire, but burns flowly j they con¬
tinually run (harp reeds into every part of his body.-,
they drag out his teeth with pincers, and thruft out his
eyes-, and laftly after having burned his flefti from the
bones with flow fires-, after having fo mangled the body
that it is all but one wound; after having mutilated his
face in fuch a manner as to carry nothing human m it;
after having peeled the fldn from the head, and poured
a heap of red-hot coals or boiling water on the naked
fkull they once more unbind the wretch ; who, blind,
and ftaggering with pain and weaknefs, affaulted and
pelted upon every fide with clubs and ftones, now up,
now down, falling into their fires at every ftep, runs,
hither and thither, until one of the chiefs, whether out
of compaflion, or weary of cruelty, puts an end to his life
with a club or dagger. The body is then put into a
kettle, and this barbarous employment is fucceeded by a
feaft as barbarous. .. .
The women, forgetting the human as well as the
female nature, and transformed into fomething worfe
than furies, even outdo the men m this fcene of hor¬
ror ; while the principal perfons of the country lit
round the flake, fmoking and looking on without the
leaft emotion. What is moft extraordinary, the iut-Conftancr
ferer himfelf, in the little intervals of his torments, of the fuf-
fmokes too, appears unconcerned, and converfes with erers.
his torturers about different matters. Indeed, during
the whole time of his execution, there feems a conte.ft
which thall exceed, they in infliaing the moft horrid
pains, or he in enduring them with a firmnefs and con-
ftancy almoft above human : not a groan,, not a ugh,
not a diftortion of countenance efcapes him ; he poi-
feffes his mind entirely in the midft of his torments;
he recounts his own exploits ; he informs them what
cruelties he has infliaed upon their countrymen, and
threatens them with the revenge that will attend his
death; and, though his reproaches exafperate them to
a perfoa madnefs of rage and fury, he continues his
infults even of their ignorance of the art of torment-
inm pointing out himfelf more exquifite methods, and
more fenfible parts of the body to be afthaed. 1 he
women have this part of courage as well as the men;
and it is as rare for an Indian to behave otherwife, as
it would be for any European to fuffer as an Indian.
Such is the wonderful powrer of an early inftitution,
and a ferocious thirft of glory. “ I am brave and in¬
trepid (exclaims the favage in the face, of his tormen¬
tors) ; I do not fear death, nor any kind of tortures ;
thofe who fear them are cowards; they are lels than
women ;
America.
3°
Surpnfing
contrail in
tire Ameri¬
can charac¬
ter.
3i
Treatment
of their
dead
friends.
A M E [n
women : life is nothing to thofe who have courage :
May my enemies be confounded with defpair and rage.
Oh ! that I could devour them, and drink their blood
to the laft drop.” .
But neither the intrepidity on one fide, nor the in¬
flexibility on the other, are among themfelves matter
of aftonifliment: for vengeance, and fortitude in the
midft of torment, are duties which they confider as
facred 5 they are the effeas of their earlieft education,
and depend upon principles inflilled into them from their
infancy. On all other occafions they are humane and
compaflionate. Nothing can exceed the warmth of their
affhaion towards their friends, who confift of all thole
who live in the fame village, or are in alliance with it.
Among thefe all things are common 5 and this, though
it may in part arife from their not poflefling very di-
ftina notions of feparate property, is chiefly to be at¬
tributed to the ftrength of their attachments ; becaufe
in every thing elfe, with their lives as well as their for¬
tunes, they are ready to ferve their friends. Their
houfes, their provifions, even their young women, are
not enough to oblige a gueft. Has.any one of thefe
fucceeded ill in his hunting j has his harveft iailed.j
or is his houfe burned—he feels no other effeft of his
misfortune, than that it gives him an opportunity of
experiencing the benevolence and regard of his fellow-
citizens. On the other hand, to the enemies of his
country, or to thofe who have privately offended, the
American is implacable. He conceals his fentiments,
he appears reconciled, until by fome treachery or fui-
prife he has an opportunity of executing a horrible re¬
venge. No length of time is fufRcient to allay his re-
fentment 5 no diftance of place great enough to proteft
the object : he croffes the fteepeft mountains, he pier¬
ces the moft imprafficable forefts, and traverfes the
moft hideous bogs and deferts for feveral hundieds of
miles $ bearing the inclemency of the feafons, the fatigue
of the expedition, the extremes of hunger and thirft, with
patience and cheerfulnefs, in hopes of furprifing his
enemy, on whom he exercifes the mnft (hocking bar¬
barities, even to the eating of his flefh. To fncli ex¬
tremes do the Indians pu(h their friendfhip or their en¬
mity j and fuch indeed, in general, is the character of
all ftrong and uncultivated minds.
But what we have faid refpetting the Indians would
be a faint pi&ure, did we omit obferving the force of
their friendfliip, which principally appears by the treat¬
ment of their dead. When any one of the fociety is
cut off, he is lamented by the whole. On this occafion
a thoufand ceremonies are praftifed, denoting the moft
lively forrow. No bufinefs is tranfafled, however pref-
fing, till all the pious ceremonies due to the dead are
performed. The body is waflied, anointed, and paint¬
ed. Then the women lament the lofs with hideous
bowlings, intermixed with fongs which celebrate the
great actions of the deceafed and his anceftors. I he
men mourn in a lefs extravagant manner. The whole
village is prefent at the interment, and the corpte is
habited in the moft fumptuous ornaments. Clofe to
the body of the defunft are placed his bows and ar¬
rows, with whatever he valued moft in his life, and a
quantity of provifions for his fubfiftence on the journey
which he is fuppofed to take. This folemnity, like every
other, is attended with feafting. The funeral being
ended, the relations of the deceafed confine themfelves
; ] A M E
to their hut for a confiderable time to indulge their America,
grief. After an interval of fome weeks they vifit the ——\
grave, repeat their forrow, new clothe the remains of
the body, and aft over again all the folemnitiea of the
funeral.
Among the various tokens of their regard for their
deceafed friends, the moft remarkable is what they call
the fenjl of the dead, or the feaji of fouls. The day for
this ceremony is appointed in the council of their chiefs,
who give orders for every thing which may enable them
to celebrate it with pomp and magnificence j and the
neighbouring nations are invited to partake of the en¬
tertainment. At this time all who have died fince the
preceding feaft of the kind are taken out of their graves.
Even thofe who have been interred at the greateft di¬
ftance from the villages are diligently fought for, and
conduced to this rendezvous of the dead, which exhibits
a feene of horror beyond the power of defeription.—
When the feaft is concluded, the bodies are drefled in
the fineft (kins which can be procured, and after being
expofed for fome time in this pomp, are again committed
to the earth with great folemnity, which is fucceeded
by funeral games. 32
Their tafte for war, which forms the chief ingre-Superfti-
dient in their charadler, gives a ftrong bias to their re-b0115*
ligion. Arelkoui, or the god of battle, is revered as
the great god of the Indians. Him they invoke be¬
fore they go into the field j and according as his dif-
pofition is more or lefs favourable to them, they con¬
clude they will be more or lefs fuccefsful. Some na¬
tions worftiip the fun and moon •, among others there
are a number of traditions, relative to the creation of
the world and the hiftory of the gods : traditions which
refemble the Grecian fables, but which are ft ill more
abfurd and inconfiftent. But religion is not the pre¬
vailing character of the Indians : and except when
they have fome immediate occafion for the afliftance of
their gods, they pay them no fort of worftiip. Like
all rude nations, however, they are ftrongly addisfted
to fuperftition. They believe in the exiftence of a
number of good and bad genii or fpirits, who inter¬
fere in the affairs of mortals, and produce all our hap-
pinefs or mifery. It is from the evil genii, in parti¬
cular, that our difeafes proceed ; and it is to the good
genii we are indebted for a cure. The minifters of
the genii are the jugglers, who are alfo the only phy-
ficians among the favages. Thefe jugglers are fuppof¬
ed to be infpired by the good genii, moft commonly
in their dreams, with the knowledge of future events j
they are called in to the afliftance of the fick, and are
fuppofed to be informed by the genii whether they
will get over the difeafe, and in what way they muft
be treated. But thefe fpirits are extremely Ample in
their fyftem of phyfic, and, in almoft every difeafe,
direft the juggler to the fame remedy. The patient
is enclofed in a narrow cabin, in the midft of which is
a (tone red hot : on this they throw water, until he is
well foaked with the warm vapour and his own fweat.
Then they hurry him from this bagnio, and plunge
him fuddenly into the next river. This coarfe method,
which cofts many their lives, often performs very ex¬
traordinary cures. The jugglers have likewife the ufe
of fome fpecifics of wonderful efficacy *, and all the
favages are dexterous in curing wounds by the applica¬
tion of herbs. But the power of thefe remedies is al-
B 2 ways
A M E [12
America, ways attributed to the magical ceremonies with which
. they are adminiftered.
33 Though the women generally bear the laborious part
Condition o£ economy, their condition is far from being
men611 "° as it appears. On the contrary, the greateft
refpe£l is paid by the men to the female fex. Ihe wo¬
men even hold their councils, and have their (hare in all
deliberations which concern the date. Polygamy, is
pradtifed by fame nations, but is not general. In molt,
they content themfelves with one wife •, but a divorce is
admitted in cafe of adultery. No nation of the Ameri¬
cans is without a regular marriage, in which there are
many ceremonies ; the principal of which is, the bride s
prefenting the bridegroom with a plate of their corn.
The women, though before incontinent, are remarkable
for chaftity after marriage.
The?r4ar- Liberty, in its full extent, being the darling paffion
dent love of of the Indians, their education is directed in fuch a
liberty.
• 35 ,
Crimes and
punifli-
ments.
manner as to cherilh this difpofition to the utmoft.
Hence children are never upon any account challifed
with blows, and they are feldom even reprimanded.
Reafon, they fay, will guide their children when they
come to the ufe of it, and before that time their faults
cannot be very great: but blows might damp their free
and martial fpirit, by the habit of a flavifh motive to
a61ion. When grown up, they experience nothing like
command, dependence, or fubordination $ even llrong
perfuafion is induftrioufly withheld by thofe who have
influence among them.—No man is held in great efteem,
unlefs he has increafed the ftrength of his country with
a captive, or adorned his hut with a fcalp of one of his
enemies.
Controverfies among the Indians are few, and quick¬
ly decided. When any criminal matter is fo flagrant
as to become a national concern, it is brought under
the jurifdidtion of the great council : but in ordinary
cafes, the crime is either revenged or compromifed by
the parties concerned. If a murder be committed, the
family which has loft a relation prepares to retaliate on
that of the offender. They often kill the murderer j
and when this happens, the kindred of the lafi: perfon
{lain look upon themfelves to be as much injured, and
to have the fame right to vengeance, as the other party.
In general, however, the offender abfents himfelf •, the
friends fend compliments of condolence to thofe of the
perfon that has been murdered. The head of the fa¬
mily at length appears with a number of prefents, the
delivery of which he accompanies with a formal fpeech.
The whole ends, as ufual, in mutual feaflings, fongs,
and dances. If the murder is committed by one of
the fame family or cabin, that cabin has the full right
of judgment within itfelf, either to punifh the guilty
with death, or to pardon him, or to oblige him to give
fome recompenfe to the wife or children of the flain.
Inftances of fuch a crime, however, very feldom hap¬
pen •, for their attachment to thofe of the fame family
is remarkably ftrong, and is faid to produce fuch friend-
fhips as may vie with the moft celebrated in fabulous
antiquity.
Such, in general, are the manners and cuftoms of the
Indian nations ; but every tribe has fomething pecu-
tfifferent of liar to itfelf. Among the Hurons and Natches, the
nations. dignity of the chief is hereditary, and the right of fuc
ceffion in the female line. When this happens to be
] A M E
extindl, the moft refpedtable matron of the tribe makes America,
choice of whom (he pleafes, to fucceed. t——"V ‘
The Cherokees are governed by feveral fachems or
chiefs, eledled by the different villages ; as are alfo the
Creeks and Chadtaws. The two latter punifti adultery
in a woman by cutting off her hair, which they will not
fuffer to grow till the corn is ripe the next ieafon ; but
the Illinois, for the fame crime, cut oft' the women’s
nofes and ears.
The Indians on the lakes are formed into a fort of
empire •, and the emperor is eledted from the eldelt tribe,
which is that of the Ottowawaws. He has the greateft
authority of any chief that has appeared on the conti¬
nent fince our acquaintance with it. A few years ago,
the perfon who held this rank formed a defign of unit¬
ing all the Indian nations under his fovereignty j but he
mifearried in the attempt. .7
In general, the American Indians live to a great age, LcVgevity
although it is not poffible to know from themfelves the of the ln-
exadt number of their years. It was alked of an In-dians.
dian, who appeared to be extremely old, what age he
was of ? I am above twenty, was his reply. Upon
putting the queftion in a different form, by reminding
him of certain circumftances in former times, My machu,
faid he, fpoke to me when 1 was young of the Incas $
and he had feen thefe princes. According to this re¬
ply, there muft have elapfed, from the date of his ma-
chu’s (his grandfather’s) remembrance to that time, a
period of at leaft 232 years. The man who made this
reply appeared to be 120 years of age : for, befides the
whitenefs of his hair and beard, his body was almoft
bent to the ground j without, however, Ihowing any
other marks of debility or fuffering. "Ihis happened
in 1764. This longevity, attended in general with un¬
interrupted health, is probably the confequence in part
of their vacancy from all ferious thought and employ¬
ment, joined alfo with the robuft texture and conforma¬
tion of their bodily organs. If the Indians did not de-
ftroy one another in their almoft perpetual wars, and if
their habits of intoxication were not fo univerfal and
incurable, they would be, of all the races of men who
inhabit the globe, the moft likely to prolong, not only
the bounds, but the enjoyments, of animal life to their
utmoft duration.
36
Feculiar
manners
38
Let us now attend to other pictures which have other pic-
been given of the aboriginal inhabitants of the new tures of the
world!5 The vices and defers of the American In-Americans,
dians have by feveral writers been moft unaccountably
aggravated, and every virtue and good quality denied
them. Their cruelties have been already deferibed
and accounted for. The following anecdote of an Al¬
gonquin woman we find adduced as a remarkable
proof of their innate thirft of blood. That nation
being at war with the Iroquois, (he happened to be
made prifoner, and was carried to one of the villages
belonging to them. Here (he was {tripped naked, and
her hands and feet bound with ropes in one of their
cabins. In this condition fhe remained ten days, the
favages fleeping round her every night. The eleventh Anecdotes
night, while they w*re afleep, {he found means to dif-of an Al-
engage one of her hands, with which ftie immediately Ron<lum
freed herfelf from the ropes, and went to the door.v
Though Ihe had now an opportunity of efcaping unper¬
ceived*
A M E [i
America, celved, her revengeful temper could not let flip fo^fa-
t v VOurabie an opportunity of killing one of her enemies.
The attempt was manifeftly at the hazard of her own
life } yet, fnatcbing up a hatchet, (he killed the favage
that’lay next her ; and, fpringing out of the cabin, con¬
cealed herfelf in a hollow tree which fhe had obferved
the day before. The groans of the dying perfon foon
alarmed the other favageS, and the young ones imme¬
diately fet out in purfuit of her.—Perceiving from her
tree, that they all diretted their courfe one way, and
that’no favage was near her, (lie left her fanauary, and,
flying in an oppofite diredion, ran into a foreft with¬
out being perceived. The fecond day after this hap¬
pened, her footfteps were difcovered, and they purfued
her with fuch expedition, that the third day (he difco¬
vered her enemies at her heels. Upon this fhe threw
herfelf into a pond of water ; and, diving among fome
weeds and bulrufhes, fhe could juft breath above wa¬
ter without being perceived. Herpurfuers, after mak¬
ing the moft diligent fearch, were forced to return.—
For 35 days this woman held on her courfe through
woods and deferts, without any other fuftenance than
roots and wild berries. When fhe came to tlm river
St Lawrence, fhe made with her own hands a kind of
a wicker raft, on which fhe croffed it. As fhe went by
the French fort Trois Rivieres, without well knowing
where fhe was, fhe perceived a canoe full of favages ;
and, fearing they might be Iroquois, run again into the
woods, where fhe remained till funfet.—Continuing
her courfe, foon after fhe faw the Trois Rivieres •, and
was then difcovered by a party whom fhe knew to be
Hurons, a nation in alliance with the Algonquins. She
then fquatted down behind a bufh, calling out to them
that fhe was not in a condition to be feen, becaufe fhe
was naked. They immediately threw her a blanket,
and then conduced her to the fort, where fhe recounted
her ftory.
4° Perfonal courage has been denied them. In proof
wkh^ufil t'ie‘r P'jhHanimity, the following incidents are quot-
ianimFty.1' from Charlevoix by Lord Karnes, in his Sketches of
the Hiftory of Man. “ The fort de Vercheres in Ca¬
nada, belonging to the French, was, in the year 1690,
attacked by fome Iroquois. They approached filently,
preparing to fcale the palifade, when fome mufket fhot
made them retire. Advancing a fecond time, they were
again repulfed, wondering that they fhould difcover none
but a woman who was feen everywhere. This was
Madame de Vercheres, who appeared as refolute as if
fupported by a numerous garrifon. The hopes of ftorm-
ing a place without men to defend it oceafioned reite¬
rated attacks. After two days fiege, they retired, fear¬
ing to be intercepted in their retreat. Two years after,
a party of the fame nation appeared before the fort fo
unexpeftedly, that a girl of fourteen, daughter of the
proprietor, had but time to fhut the gate. With the
young woman there was not a foul but one raw foldier.
She fhowed herfelf with her afliftant, fometimes in one
place and fometimes in another 5 changing her drefs fre¬
quently, in order to give fome appearance of a garrifon ;
and always fired opportunely. The faint-hearted Iroquois
decamped without fuccefs.”
There is no inftance, it is faid, either of a Angle In¬
dian facing an individual of any other nation in fair
and open combat, or of their jointly venturing to try
the fate of battle with an equal number of any foes.
3 ] A M E
Even with the greateft fuperiority of numbers, they America,
dare not meet an open attack. Yet, notwithftanding »
this want of courage, they are ftill formidable j nay,
it has been known, that a fmall party of them has
routed a much fuperior body of regular troops : but
this can only happen when they have furprifed them in
the faftneffes of their forefts, where the covert of the
wood may conceal them until they take their aim with
the utmoft certainty. After one fuch difcharge they
immediately retreat, without leaving the fmalleft trace ,
of their route. It may eafily be fuppofed, than an on-
fet of this kind muft produce confufion even among the
fteadieft troops, when they can neither know the number
of their enemies, nor perceive the place where they lie
in ambufh.
41
Perfidy combined with cruelty has been alfo made a Accufed of
part of their charadler. Don Ulloa relates, i hat the In-perfidy,
dians of the country called Notches, in Louifiana, laid
a plot for maffacring in one night every individual be¬
longing to the French colony eftablifhed there. Ihis
plot they a&ually executed, notwithftanding the feem-
ing good underftanding that fubfifted between them
and thefe European neighbours. Such was the fecre-
cy which they obferved, that no perfon had the leaft
fufpicion of their defign until the blow was ftruck.
One Frenchman alone efcaped, by favour of the dark-
nefs, to relate the difafter of his countrymen. The
compaflion of a female Indian contributed alfo in fome
meafure to his exemption from the general mailacre.
The tribe of Natches had invited the Indians of other
countries, even to a confiderable diftance, to join in
the fame confpiracy. R he day, or rather the night,
was fixed, on which they were to make an united at¬
tack on the French colonifts. It was intimated by
fending a parcel of rods, more or lefs numerous accord¬
ing to the local diftance of each tribe, with an injunc¬
tion to abftraft one rod daily ; the day on which the
laft fell to be taken away being that fixed for the exe¬
cution of their plan. The women were partners of the
bloody fecret. The parcels of rods being thus diftri-
buted, that belonging to the tribe of Natches happen¬
ed to remain in the cuftody of a female. I his woman,
either moved by her own feelings of compaflion, or by
the commiferation exprefled by her female acquaint¬
ances in the view of the propofed fcene of bloodfhed,
abftradled one day three or four of the rods, and thus
anticipated the term of her tribe’s proceeding to the
execution of the general confpiracy. The confequence
of this was, that the Natches w'ere the only a&ors in
this carnage *, their diftant aflbciates having ftill feveral
rods remaining at the time when the former made the
attack. Xn opportunity was thereby given to the co¬
lonifts in thofe quarters to take meafures for their de¬
fence, and for preventing a more extenfive execution of
the defign.
It was by confpiracies fimilar to this that the Indians
of the province of Macas, in the kingdom of Quito,
deftroyed the opulent city of Logrogno, the colony of
Guambaya, and its capital Sevilla del Oro •, and that fo
completely, that it is no longer known in what place
thefe fettlements exifted, or where that abundance of
gold was found from which the laft mentioned city took
the addition to its name. Like ravages have been com¬
mitted upon I’Imperiale in Chili, the colonies of the
Miflions of Chuncas, thofe of Darien in Terra Firma,
and;
America.
4*
Their un-
derftanding
reprefented
as weak.
43, -
Alleged in¬
dolence and
ftupidity.
A M E [ 14
and many other places which have afforded fcenes of
this barbarous ferocity. Thefe confpiracies are always
carried on in the fame manner. The fecret is invio¬
lably kept, the aftors affemble at the precife hour ap¬
pointed, and every individual is animated with the fame
fanguinary purpofes. The males that fall into their
hands are put to death with every (hocking circum-
ftance that can be fuggefted by a cool and determined
cruelty. The females are carried off, and preferved as
monuments of their vidfory, to be employed as their oc-
eaffons require.
Nor can this odious cruelty and treachery, it is faid,
be juftly afcribed to their fubje&ion to a foreign yoke,
feeing the fame chara&er belongs equally to all the
original inhabitants of this vaft continent, even thofe
who have preferved their independence moft complete¬
ly. Certain it is, continues he, that thefe people, with
the moft limited capacities for every thing elfe, difplay
an aftonifhing degree of penetration and fubtlety with
refpedl to every object that involves treachery, blood-
(hed, and rapine. As to thefe, they feem to have been
all educated at one fchool} and a feqret, referring to
any fuch plan, no confideration on earth can extort from
them.
Their underftandings alfo have been reprefented as
not lefs contemptible than their manners are grofs and
brutal. Many nations are neither capable of forming
an arrangement for futurity } nor does their folicitude
or forefight extend fo far. 1'hey fet no value upon
thofe things of which they are not in fome imme¬
diate want. In the evening, when a Carib is going to
reft, no confideration will tempt him to fell his ham¬
mock $ but in the morning he will part with it for
the flighted trifle. At the clofe of winter, a North
American, mindful of what he has fuffered from the
cold, fets himfelf with vigour to prepare, materials for
eredting a comfortable hut to protedt him againft the
inclemency of the fucceeding feafon : but as foon as
the "weather becomes mild, he abandons his work, and
never thinks of it more till the return of the cold
compels him to refume it.—In fhort, to be free from
labour feems to be the utmoft with of an American.
They will continue whole days ftretched in their ham¬
mocks, or feated on the earth, without changing their
pofture, raifing their eyes, or uttering a Angle word.
They cannot compute the fucceflion of days nor of
weeks. The different afpefts of the moon alone engage
their attention as a meafure of time. Of the year they
have no other conception than what is fuggefted . to
them by the alternate heat of fummer and cold of win¬
ter ; nor have they the lead idea of applying to this
period the obvious computation of the months which
it contains. When it is a(ked of any old man in Peru,
even the moft civilized, what age he is of; the only an-
fwer he can give is the number of caciques he has feen.
It often happens, too, that they only recollect the moft
diftant of thefe princes in whofe time certain circum-
ftances had happened peculiarly memorable, while of
thofe that lived in a more recent period they have loft
all remembrance.
The fame grofs ftupidity is alleged to be. obie.rvable
in thofe Indians who have retained their original liberty.
They are never known to fix the dates of any events in
their minds, or to trace the fucceflion of.circum.ftances
that have arifen from fuch events. 1 heir imagination
]
A M E
takes in only the prefent, and in that only what inti- America,
mately concerns themfelves. Nor can difcipiine or in--v——i
ftru&ion overcome this natural defedt of apprehenfion.
In faft, the fubjedled Indians in Peru, who have a con¬
tinual intercourfe with the Spaniards, who are furnifli-
ed with curates perpetually occupied in giving them
leffons of religion and morality, and who mix with all
ranks of the civilized fociety eftablilhed among them,
are almoft as ftupid and barbarous as their countrymen
who have had no fuch advantages. The Peruvians,
while they lived under the government of their Incas,
preferved the records of certain remarkable events.
They had allb a kind of regular government, defc.ribed
by the hiftorians of the conqueft of Peru.. This go¬
vernment originated entirely from the attention and abi¬
lities of their princes, and from the regulations enadled
by them for dire&ing the condudt of their fubje&s.
This ancient degree of civilization among them gives
ground to prefume, that their legiflators fprung from
fome race more enlightened than the other tribes of In¬
dians i a race of which no individual feems to remain in
the prefent times. _ . 44
Vanity and conceit are faid to be blended with their Their va-
ignorance and treachery. Notwithftanding all they
fuffer from Europeans, they dill, it is faid, c.onfider
themfelves as a race of men far fuperior to their con¬
querors. This proud belief, arifing from their perverted
ideas of excellence, is univerfal over the whole known
continent of America. They do not think it poflible
that any people can be fo intelligent as themfelves.
When they are dete&ed in any of their plots, it is their
common obfervation, that the Spaniards, or Viraco/icts,
want to be as knowing as they are. T hofe of Loui-
fiana, and the countries adjacent, are. equally vain of
their fuperior underftanding, confounding that quality
with the cunning which they themfelves conftantly
pra&ife. The whole objeft of their tranfaaions is to
overreach thofe with whom they deal. Yet, though
faithlefs themfelves, they never forgive the breach of
promife on the part of others. While the Europeans
feek their amity by prefents, they give themfelves no
concern to fecure a reciprocal friendftiip. Hence, pro¬
bably, arifes their idea, that they muft be a fuperior
race of men, in ability and intelligence, to thofe who
are at fuch pains to court their alliance and avert their
enmity. 45
Their natural eloquence has alfo been decried. 1 tie Their elo-
free tribes of favages who enter into conventions with quence dif-
the Europeans, it is obferved, are accuftomed to makel)a,aSe *
long, pompous, and, according to their own notions,
fublime harangues, but without any method or connec¬
tion. The whole is a colle£Hon of disjointed meta¬
phors and comparifons. The light, heat, , and courfe
of the fun, form the principal topic of their difcourfe;
and thefe unintelligible reafonings are always accompa¬
nied with violent and ridiculous geftures. . Numberlefs
repetitions prolong the oration, which, if not inter¬
rupted, would laft whole days : At the fame time,
they meditate very accurately beforehand, in order to
avoid mentioning any thing but what they are defirous
to obtain. This pompous faculty of making, fpeeches
is alfo one of the grounds on which they conceive them¬
felves to be fuperior to the nations of Europe : They
imagine that it is their eloquence that procures them
the favours they afk. The fubjefied Indians converfe
precifely
A M E [i
Amenca precifely in the fame ftyle. Prolix and tedious they
never know when to flop ; fo that, excepting by the
difference in language, it would be impoffible, in this
refpea, to diftinguifli a civilized Peruvian from an
inhabitant of the molt favage diftrifts to the north¬
ward.
All thefe But fuch partial and detached views as the above,
views par- were they even free from mifreprefentation, are not the
tial, and notun(j Up0n which to form an eftimate of their
flee from Jchara&aen Their qualities, good and bad (for they cer-
fentaTion. tainly poffefs both), their way of life, the ftate of So¬
ciety among them, with all the circumftances of their
condition, ought to be confidered in connexion, and
in regard to their mutual influence. Such a view has
been given in the preceding part of this article: from
which, it is hoped, their real character may be eafily
deduced. . .
Many of the difagreeable traits exhibited in the anec¬
dotes juft quoted, are indeed extracted from Don Ulloa,
an author of credit and reputation, but a Spaniard,
and evidently biaffed in fome degree by a defire to pal¬
liate the enormities of his countrymen in that quarter
of the globe. And with regard to the worft and leaft
equivocal parts of the American character, cruelty and
revenge, it may be fairly queftioned, whether the in-
ftances of thefe, either in refpea of their caiife or their
atrocity, be at all comparable to thofe exhibited in Eu¬
ropean hiftory, and ftaining the annals of Chriftendom :
 to thofe, for inftance, of the Spaniards themfelves, at
their firft difcovery of America •, to thofe indicated by
the engines found on board their mighty Armada j to
thofe which, in cold blood, were perpetrated by the
Dutch at Amboyna *, to the dragoonings of the French ;
to their religious maffacres ; or even to the tender mer-
cies of the Inquifition ?
The phyfi- Still hardier, however, are the defcriptions given by
cal defcrip- Buffon and de Paw of the natives of this whole conti-
■B°ff °f d nent’ in wh5ch the moft mortifyIng degeneracy of the
De Pavv^e-^111111311 race» as 'veH as °f a-^ ^he inferior animals, is
futed. afferted to be confpicuous. Againft thofe philofo-
Hi/l. of phers, or rather theorifts, the Americans have found
iWevzyo, an aye advocate in the abbe Clavigero •, an hiftorian
S°328. whofe fituation and long reiidence in America afford¬
ed him the beft means of information, and who, though
himfelf a fubjeft of Spain, appears fuperior to preju¬
dice, and difdains in his defcription the gloffes of po¬
licy.
Concerning the ftature of the Americans, M, de Paw
fays in general, that although it is not equal to the
ftature of the Caftilians, there is but little difference
between them. But the abbe Clavigero evinces that
the Indians who inhabit thofe countries lying between
9 and 40 degrees of north latitude, which are the li¬
mits of the difcoveries of the Spaniards, are more than
five Parifian feet in height, and that thofe who do not
reach that ftature are as few in number among the In¬
dians as they are amongft the Spaniards. It is befides
certain that many of thofe nations, as the Apaches,
the Hiaquefe, the Pimefe, and Cochimies, are at leaft as
tall as the talleft Europeans ’, and that, in all the vaft
extent of the new world, no race of people has been
found, except the Efquimaux, fo diminutive in ftature
as the Laplanders, the Samojeds, and Tartars, in the
north of the old continent. In this refpeft, therefore,
M E
A
of the two continents are upon an America.
5 1
the inhabitants
equality. w—y-—j
Of the fliape and charafter of the Mexican Indians ^ 4°,
the abbe gives a moft advantageous defcription 5 which piape^ ^LCt
he afferts no one who reads it in America will contra-
dift, unlefs he views them with the eye of a prejudi¬
ced mind. It is true, that Ulloa fays, in fpeaking of
the Indians of Quito, he had obferved, “ that imperfeft
people abounded among them } that they were either
irregularly* diminutive, or monftrous in fome other re-
fpeft j that they became either infenfible, dumb, or
blind, or wanted fome limb of their body.” Having
therefore made fome inquiry refpeaing this Angularity
of the Quitans, the abbe found that fuch defedts were
neither caufed by bad humours, nor by the climate,
but by the miftaken and blind humanity of their pa¬
rents, who, in order to free their children from the
hardftups and toils to which the healthy Indians are
fubje&ed by the Spaniards, fix fome deformity or weak-
nefs upon them, that they may become ufelefs^: a cir-
cumftance of mifery which does not happen in other
countries of America, nor in thofe places of the fame
kingdom of Quito, where the Indians are under no
fuch oppreflion. M. de Paw, and, in agreement with
him, Dr Robertfon, fays, that no deformed perfons are
to be found among the favages of America ; becaufe,
like the ancient Lacedemonians, they put to death
thofe children which are born hunch-backed, blind,
or defective in any limb 5 but that in thofe countries
where they are formed into focieties, and the vigilance
of their rulers prevents the murder of fuch infants,
the number of their deformed individuals is greater
than it is in any country of Europe. This w'ould
make an exceeding good folution of the difficulty
if it were true 5 but if, poflibly, there has been in A-
merica a tribe of favages who have imitated the bar¬
barous example of the celebrated Lacedemonians, it is
certain that thofe authors have- no grounds to impute
fuch inhumanity to the reft of the Americans *, for that
it has not been the practice, at leaft with the far
greater part of thofe nations, is to be demonftrated
from the atteftations of authors the beft acquainted with
their cuftoms. 49
No argument againft the new world can be drawn Errors coa-
fr'om the colour of the Americans ; for their colour is earning
lefs diftant from the white of the Europeans than it is^®I^a^ant'
from the black of the Africans, and a great part of the ‘ ’
Afiatics. The hair of the Mexicans, and of the greater
part of the Indians, is, as we have already faid, coarfe
and thick •, on their face they appear to have little, and
in general none on their arms and legs: but it is an
error to fay, as M. de Paw does, that they are entirely
deftitute of hair on all the other parts of their body.
This is one of the many paffages of the Philofophical
Refearches, at which the Mexicans, and all the other
nations, muft fmile to find an European philofopher fo
eager to diveft them of the drefs they had from nature.
Don Ulloa, indeed, in the defcription which he gives
of the Indians of Quito, fays, that hair neither grows
upon the men nor upon the women when they arrive
at puberty, as it does on the reft of mankind ; but,
whatever Angularity may attend the Quitans, or occa-
fion this circumftance, there is no doubt that among
the Americans in general, the period of puberty is ac¬
companied with the fame fymptoms as it is among
/ other
America.
5°
Their form
and afpeft
contrafted
with thofe
of fome
other na.
tions.
A M E [ 16
other nations of the world. In fa£l:, with the North
Americans, it is difgraceful to be hairy on the body.
They fay it likens them to hogs. They therefore pluck
out the hair as fall as it appears. But the traders who
marry their women, and prevail on tfyem to difcontinue
this practice, fay, that nature is the fame with them as
with the whites. As to the beards of the men, had
Buffon or De Paw known the pains and trouble it cofts
them to pluck out by the roots the hair that grows on
their faces, they would have feen that nature had
not been deficient in that refpeft. Every nation has
its cuftoms. “ I have feen an Indian beau, with a look-
ing-glafs in his hand (fays Mr Jefferfon), examining his
face for hours together, and plucking out by the roots
every hair he could difcover, with a kind of tweezer
made out of a piece of brafs wire, that had been twill¬
ed round a Hick, and which he ufed with great dex¬
terity.
The very afpe£l of an Angolan, Mandingan, or Cotl-
gan, would have (hocked M. de Paw, and made him
recall that cenfure which he paffes on the coloiir, the
make, and hair, of the Americans. What can be ima¬
gined more contrary to the idea we have of beauty, and
the perfedtion of the human frame, than a man whofe
body emits a rank fmell, whofe (kin is as black as ink,
whofe head and face are covered with black wool in-
Head of hair, whofe eyes are yellow and bloody, whofe
lips are thick and blackilh, and whofe nofe is flat ?
.Such are the inhabitants of a very large portion of A-
frica, and of many illands of Alia. What men can be
more imperfedl than thofe who meafure no more than
four feet in llature, whofe faces are long and flat, the
nofe comprefled, the irides yellow-black, the eyelids
turned back towards the temples, the cheeks extraor¬
dinarily elevated, their mouths monftroufly large, their
lips thick and prominent, and the lower part of their
vifages extremely narrow ? Such, according to Count
de Buffbn, are the Laplanders, the Zemblans, the Bo-
randines, the Samojeds, and Tartars in the call. What
objects more deformed than men whofe faces are too
long and wrinkled even in their youth, their nofes thick
and comprefled, their eyes fmall and funk, their cheeks
very much raifed, their upper jaw low, their teeth
long and difunited, eyebrows fo thick that they lhade
the eyes ; the 'eyelids thick, fome briftles on their
faces inftead of beard, large thighs and fmall legs ?
Such is the picture Count de Buffon gives of the Tar¬
tars *, that is, of thofe people who, as he fays, inhabit
a tra<5l of land in Afia 1200 leagues long and upwards,
and more than 750 broad. Among thefe the Cal-
mucks are the moll remarkable for their deformity ;
which is fo great, that, according to Tavernier, they
are the moll brutal men of all the univerfe. Their faces
are fo broad, that there is a fpace of five or fix inches
between their eyes, according as Count de Buffon
himfelf affirms. In Calicut, in Ceylon, and other
countries of India, there is, fay Pyrard and other wri¬
ters on thefe- regions, a race of men who have one or
both of their legs as thick as the body of a man *, and
that this deformity among them is almotl hereditary.
The Hottentots, befides other grofs imperfeflions,
have that monftrous irregularity attending them, of a
callous appendage extending from the os pubis down¬
wards, according the teflimony of the hiftorians of
the Cape of Good Hope. Struys, Gemelli, and other
] A M E
travellers affirm, that in the kingdom of Lambry, in America.
the ifiands of Formofa and of Mindoro, men have been v '
found with tails. Bomare fays, that a thing of this
kind in men is nothing elfe than an elongation of the
os coccygis j but what is a tail in quadrupeds but the
elongation of that bone, though divided into dillinft
articulations ? However it may be, it is certain, that
that elongation renders thofe Afiatics fully as irregular
as if it was a real tail.
If we were, in like manner, logo through the na¬
tions of Afia and Africa, we fliould hardly find any ex-
tenfive country where the colour of men is not darker,
where there are not ftronger irregularities obferved,
and groffer defefts to be found in them, than M. de
Paw finds fault with in the Americans. The colour of
the latter is a good deal clearer than that of almoft all
the Africans and the inhabitants of fouthern Afia.
Even their alleged fcantinefs of beard is common to the
inhabitants of the Philippine illands, and of all the In¬
dian archipelago, to the famous Chinefe, Japanefe,
Tartars, and many other nations of the cld continent.
The imperfe£lions of the Americans, however great
they may be reprefented to be, are certainly not com¬
parable with the defefts of that immenfe people, whofe
chara&er we have Iketched, and others whom we
omit. . .j
M. de Paw reprefents the Americans to be a feeble xhe£ con^
and difeafed fet of nations j and, in order to demon- ftAutjon
Urate the weaknefs and diforder of their phyfical con-and corpo-
ftitution, adduces feveral proofs equally ridiculous and ralabilities.
ill-founded, and which it will not be expeded we Ihould
enumerate. He alleges, among other particulars, that
they were overcome in wrellling by all the Europeans,
and that they funk under a moderate burden j that by
a computation made, 200,000 Americans were found
to have perilhed in one year from carrying of baggage.
With refped to the firlt point, the abbe Clavigero
obferves, it would be neceffary that the experiment of
wrellling was made between many individuals of each
continent, and that the vi&ory Ihould be attefted by the
Americans as well as the Europeans. It is not, how¬
ever, meant to infill, that the Americans are ftronger
than the Europeans. They may be lefs ftrong, with¬
out the human fpecies having degenerated, in them.
The Swifs are ftronger than the Italians ; and Hill we
do not believe the Italians are degenerated, nor do we
tax the climate of Italy. The inftance of 200,000
Americans having died in one year under the weight of
baggage, were it true, would not convince us fo much of
the weaknefs of the Americans, as of the inhumanity of
the Europeans. In the fame manner that thofe 200,000
Americans perilhed, 200,000 Pruffians would alfo have
perilhed, had they been obliged to make a journey of
between 300 and 400 miles, with too pounds of bur¬
den upon their backs 5 if they had collars of iron
about their necks, and were obliged to carry that load
over rocks and mountains 5 if thofe ’who became ex-
haufted with fatigue, or wounded their feet fo as to
impede their progrefs, had their heads cut off that they
niight not retard the pace of the reft; and if they were
not allowed but a fmall morfel of bread to enable them
to fupport fo fevere a toil. Las Cafas, from whom M.
de Paw got the account of the 200,000 Americans
who died under the fatigue of carrying baggage, re¬
lates alfo all the above-mentioned circumftances. If
tVici*
America.
52,
Their la¬
bour and
induftry.
S3
Thefe a
fufficient
proof of
their heal-
thinefs and
ftrength.
A M E [ i
that author therefore is to be credited in the lad, he is
alfo to be credited in the firft. But a philofopher who
vaunts the phyfical and moral qualities or Europeans
over thole of the Americans, would have done better,
we think, to have fuppreffed fafts fo opprobrious to the
Europeans themfelves.
Nothing in faft demonftrates fo clearly the robuftnels
of the Americans, as thofe various and lading fatigues in
which they are continually engaged. M. de i aw fays,
that when the new world was difcovered, nothing was
to be feen but thick woods ; that at prCfent there are
fome lands cultivated, not by the Americans, how¬
ever, but by the Africans and Europeans ; and that
the foil in cultivation is to the foil which is uncultivated
as 2000 to 2,000,000. Thefe three affertions the abbe
demondrates to be precifely as many errors. Since
the conqued, the Americans alone have been, the
people who have fupported all the fatigues of agricul¬
ture in all the vad countries of the continent of South
America, and in the greater part of thofe of North,
America fubjedt to the crown of Spain. No Euro¬
pean is ever to be feen employed in the labours of the
field. The Moors who, in comparifon of the Ameri¬
cans, are very few in number in the kingdom of New
Spain, are charged with the culture of the fugar.cane
and tobacco, and the making of fugar j but the foil de-
ftined for the cultivation of thofe plants is not, with re-
fpe£t to all the cultivated land of that country, in the
proportion of one to two thoufand. T. he Americans
are the people who labour on the foil. They are the
tillers, the fowers, the weeders, and the reapers of the
wheat, of the maize, of the rice, of the beans, and
other kinds of grain and pulfe j of the cacao, of the va¬
nilla, of the cotton, of the indigo, and all other plants
ufeful to the fudenance, the clothing, and commerce of
thofe provinces j and without them fo little can be
done, that in the year 1762, the harved of wheat
was abandoned in many places on account of a fick-
nefs which prevailed, and prevented the Indians from
reaping it. But this is not all j Americans are
they who cut and tranfport all the necedary timber
from the woods; who cut, tranfport, and work the
ftones; who make lime, plader, and tiles ; who con-
ftruft all the buildings of that kingdom, except a few
places where none of them inhabit: who open and re¬
pair all the roads; who make the canals and duices,
and clean the cities. They work in many mines of
gold, of filver, of copper, &c. ; they are the fhepherds,
herdfmen, weavers, potters, balket-makers, bakers, cur¬
riers, day-labourers, &c.; in a word, they are the per-
fons who bear all the burden of public labours. Thefe,
fays our judly indignant author, are the employments
of the weak, dadardly, and ufelefs Americans; while
the vigorous M. de Paw, and other indefatigable Eu¬
ropeans, are occupied in writing inveftives againd
them.
Thefe labours, in which the Indians are continually
employed, certainly atted their healthinefs and drength;
for if they are able to undergo fuch fatigues, they can¬
not be difeafed, nor have an exhauded dream of blood
in their veins, as M. de Paw indnuates. In order to
make it be believed that their conditutions are vitiated,
he copies whatever he finds written by hidorians of
America, whether true or falfe, refpe&ing the difeafes
V.OL. II. Part I,
7 ] A M E
which reign in fome particular countries of that great America,
continent. It is not to be denied, that in fome cofin- *• ' '
tries in the wide compafs of America, men are expofed
more than elfewhere to the didempers which are oc-
cadoned by the intemperature of the air, or. the'perni¬
cious quality of the aliments ; but it is certain, accord¬
ing to the affertion of many refpeftable authors ac¬
quainted with the new world, that the American coun¬
tries are for the mod part healthy ; and if the Ameri¬
cans were difpofed to retaliate on M. de Paw, and
other European authors who write as he does, they
would have abundant fubjeft of materials to throw dif-
credit on the clime of the old continent, and the condi-
tution of its inhabitants, in the endemic didempers v, hich
prevail there.
Ladly, The fuppofed feeblenefs and unfound bodily
habit of the Americans do not corrtfpond with the
length of their lives. Among thofe Americans whofe
great fatigues and excedive toils do not anticipate their
death, there are not a few who reach the age of 80,
90, and 100 or more years, as formerly mentioned;
and what is more, without there being obferved in them
that decay which time commonly produces in the hair,
in the teeth, in the Ikin, and in the mufcles of the hu¬
man body. This phenomenon, fo much admired by the
Spaniards who refide in Mexico, cannot be afcribed to
any other caufe than the vigour of their conditutions,
the temperance of their diet, and the falubrity of their
clime. Hidorians, and other perfons who have fojourn-
ed there for many years, report the lame thing of other
countries of the new world.
As to the mental qualities of the Americans, M. de jheir
Paw has not been able to difcover any other characters tal quali-
than a memory fo feeble, that to-day they do not re-ties*
member what they did yelterday ; a capacity fo blunt,
that they are incapable of thinking, or putting their
ideas in order; a difpofition fo cold, that they feel no
excitement of love ; a dadardly fpirit, and a genius that
is torpid and indolent. Many other Europeans, in¬
deed, and what is dill more wonderful, many of thofe
children or defcendants of Europeans who are born in
America, think as M. de Paw does; fome from igno¬
rance, fome from want of refle&ion, and others from
hereditary prejudice and prepodedion. But all this
and more would not be fufficient to invalidate the tedi-
monies of other Europeans, whofe authority has a
great deal more weight, both becaufe they were men
of great judgment, learning, and knowledge of thefe
countries, and becaufe they gave their tedimony in fa¬
vour of drangers againd their own countrymen. In
particular, Acoda, whofe natural and moral hidory
even M. de Paw commends as an excellent work, em¬
ploys the whole fixth book in demondrating the good
fenfe of the Americans, by an explanation of their an¬
cient government, their laws, their hidories in paint¬
ings and knots, kalendars, &c. M. de Paw thinks
the Americans are bedial; Acoda, on the other hand,
reputes thofe perfons weak and prefumptuous who think
them fo. M. de Paw fays, that the mod'acute Ameri¬
cans were inferior in indudry and fagacity to the rudeft
nations of the old continent; Acoda extols the civil
government of the Mexicans above many republics of
Europe. M. de Paw finds, in the moral and political
conduct of the Americans, nothing but barbarity, ex-
C travagance,
America.
American
cowardice.
56,
Refuted.
A M E [18
travagance, and brutality, and Acofta finds there, laws
that are admirable, and worthy of being preferved for
2^ ever.
M. de Paw’s M. de Paw denies them courage, and alleges the
proofs of conqueft of Mexico as a proof of their cowardice.
“ Cortes (he fays) conquered the empire of Mexico
with 450 vagabonds and 15 horfes, badly armed j his
miferable artillery confifled ot fix falconets, which would
not at the prefent day be capable of exciting the fears
of a fortrefs defended by invalids. During his abfence
the capital was held in awe by the half of his troops/
What men ! what events !—It is confirmed by the de-
pofitions of all hittorians, that the Spaniards entered the
firft time into Mexico without making one fingle dif-
charge of their artillery. If the title of hero is appli¬
cable to him who has the difgrace to occafion the death
of a great number of rational animals, Ferdinand Cor¬
tes might pretend to it 5 otherwife, I do not fee what
true glory he has acquired by the overthrow of a tot¬
tering monarchy, which might have been deftroyed in
the fame manner by any other affaffin of our continent.”
Thefe paflages indicate either M. de Paw’s ignorance
of the hiftory of the conqueft of Mexico, or a wilful
fuppreffion of what would openly contradidl his fyftem;
fince all who have read that hiftory know well, that the
conqueft of Mexico was not made with 450 men, but
with more than 200,000. Cortes himfelf, to whom it
was of more importance than to M. de Paw to make
his bravery confpicuous, and his conqueft appear glo¬
rious, confelles the exceffive number of the allies who
were, under his command at the fiege of the capital,
and combated with more fury againft the Mexicans
than the Spaniards themfelves. According to the ac¬
count which Cortes gave to the emperor Charles V.
the fiege of Mexico began with 87 horfes, 848 Spamlh
infantry, armed with guns, crofs-bows, fwords, and lan¬
ces and upwards of 75,000 allies, of Flafcala, Hue-
xotzinco, Cholula, and Chaleo, equipped with various
forts of arms j with three large pieces of iron cannon,
15 fmall of copper, and 13 brigantines. In the courfe
of the fiege were affembled the numerous nations of
the Otomies, the Cohuixcas, and Matlazincas, and the
troops of the populous cities of the lakes •, fo that the
army of the befiegers not only exceeded 200,coo, but
amounted to 4,000,000, according to the letter from
Cortes-, and befides thefe, 3000 boats and canoes came
to their afliftance. Did it betray cowardice to have fuf-
tained, for full 75 days, the fiege of an open city, en¬
gaging daily with an army fo large, and in part pro¬
vided with arms fo fuperior, and at the fame time hav-
ing to withftand the ravages of famine ? Can they me¬
rit5 the charge of cowardice, who, after having loft
feven of the eight parts of their city, and about 50,000
]
A M E
citizens, part cut off by the fword, part by famine and America,
ficknefs, continued to defend themfelves until they were -—-J
furioufly affaulted in the laft hold which was left them?
See the article Mexico. _ 57
According to M. de Paw, “ the Americans at firftRemark-
were not believed to be men, but rather fatyrs, or large ®ba1nec^‘of
apes, which might be murdered without remorfe or
proach. At laft, in order to add infult to the oppref-dePaw>
lion of thofe times, a pope made an original bull, in
which he declared, that being defirous of founding bi-
fhoprics in the richeft countries of America, it pleafed
him and the Holy Spirit to acknowledge the Americans
to be true men : in fo far, that without this decifion of
an Italian, the inhabitants of the new world would have
appeared, even at this day, to the eyes of the faithful, a
race of equivocal men. i here is no example of fuch a
decifion fince this globe has been inhabited by men and
apes.” Upon this paffage the abbe animadverts, as be¬
ing a Angular inftance of calumny and mifreprefenta-
tion; and gives the following hiftory of the decifion al¬
luded to. ...till 58
“ Some of the firft Europeans who eftablifhed them-0ccafion of.
felves in America, not lefs powerful than avaricious, the famous
defirous of enriching themfelves to the detriment of thebuU of
Americans, kept them continually employed, and made au
ufe of them as fiaves -, and in order to avoid the re¬
proaches which were made them by the bifhops. and
miflionaries who inculcated humanity, and the giving
liberty to thofe people to get themfelves inftru(fted in
religion, that they might do their duties towards the
church and their families, alleged, that the Indians
were by nature fiaves, and incapable of being inftruft-
ed -, and many other falfehoods of which the chronicler
Herrera makes mention againft them. Ihofe zealous
ecclefiaftics being unable, either by their authority or
preaching, to free thofe unhappy converts from the ty¬
ranny of fuch mifers, had recourfe to their Catholic ma-
iefties, and at laft obtained from their juttice and clemen¬
cy thofe laws, as favourable to the Americans as honour¬
able to the court of Spain, that compofe the Indian
code, which were chiefly due to the indefatigable zeal
of the biftiop de las Cafas. On another fide, Garces
biftiop of Tlafcala, knowing that thofe Spaniards bore,
notwithftanding their perverfity, a great refpeft to the
dexifions of the vicar of Jefus Chrift, made application
in the year 1586 to Pope Paul III. by that famous let¬
ter of which we have made mention ; reprefenting t©
him the evils which the Indians fuffered from the wic¬
ked Chriftians, and praying him to interpofe his autho-
rity in their behalf. The pope, moved by fuch heavy
remonftrances, defpatched the next year the original
bull, a faithful copy of which we have here fubjoin-
ed /a), which was not made, as is manifeft, to declare
v J the
(A) Paulus papa III. «m«r65 Chrifti Fidelibu, prefem
“f^ue .W deleau,. Cannes Pidei
Dccidentales et Mendionales ^Itidos, et al^as Gentes.^quae^ ^ ^ ^^ f ^ pafir
S pSl™: et eos in fervUm .digun, tantb affliSionibus illoa urgent, guanUs v« bruta an^ha
, A M E [i
America, tire Americans true men ; for fuch a piece of weak-
V—-V—' nefs was very ditiant from that or any other popebut
folely to fupport the natural rights of the Americans
againft the attempts of their oppreffors, and to con¬
demn the injuftice and inhumanity of thofe, who, un¬
der the pretence of fuppoling thefe people idolatrous,
or incapable of being inftru61ed, took from them their
property and their liberty, and treated them as Haves
tjp and beads,”
Reprefen- If at firtl the Americans were deemed fatyrs, nobody
ration of can better prove it than Chriftopher Columbus, their
Columbus. (jjfcovereri Let us hear, therefore, how that celebrated
admiral fpeaks, in his account to the Catholic fovereigns
Ferdinand and Ifabella, of the firft fatyrs he faw in the
ifland of Hayti or Hifpaniola. “ I fwear (he fays), to
your majefties, that there is not a better people in the
world than thefe, more affedtionate, affable, or mild.
They love their neighbours as themfelves : their lan¬
guage is the fweeteft, the fofteft, and the mod cheer¬
ful j for they always fpeak fmiling; and although they
go naked, let your majefties believe me, their cufloms
are very becoming j and their king, who is ferved with
great majefty, has fuch engaging manners, that it gives
great pleafure to fee him, and alfo to confider the reten¬
tive faculty of that people, and their defire of know¬
ledge, which incites them to alk the caufes and the ef-
g0 fedls of things.” -
Conelufions “ We have had intimate commerce with the Ameri-
concernmg cans (continues the abbe) j have lived for fome years
the capaci- jn a fem;nary deftined for their inftrudlion 5 faw the
Americans. ere£tion and progrefs of the royal .college of Guada-
loupe, founded in Mexico by a Mexican Jefuit, for the
education of Indian children ; had afterwards fome In¬
dians among our pupils ; had particular knowledge of
many American reftors, many nobles, and numerous
artifts •, attentively obferved their chara&er, their ge¬
nius, their difpofition, and manner of thinking; and ha¬
ving examined befides, with the utmoft diligence, their
ancient hiftory, their religion, their government, their
laAvs, and their cuftoms : After fuch long experience
and ftudy of them, from which we imagine ourfelves en¬
abled to decide without danger of erring, we declare to
M. de Paw, and to all Europe, that the mental quali¬
ties of the Americans are not in the leaft inferior to
thofe of the Europeans ; that they are capable of all,
even the moft abttraft fciences} and that, if equal care
was taken of their education, if they were brought up
from childhood in feminaries under good matters^ were
protefted and ftimulated by rewards, we fhould fee rife
among the Americans, philofophers, mathematicians,
and divines, who would rival the firft in Europe.”
> ] A M E
But although we fhould fuppofe, that, in the torrid America.
climates of the new world, as well as in thofe of the old, -v——-
efpecially under the additional depreffion of flavery, 6l.
, J . r • • r 1 1 xi 01 • Ineir mge-
there was an inferiority of the mental powers, the Ghi-nujt^
lefe and the North Americans have difeovered higher aflerted.
rudiments of human excellence and ingenuity than have
ever been known among tribes in a fimilar ftate of fo-
ciety in any part of the world.
M. de Paw affirms, that the Americans were unac¬
quainted with the ufe of money, and quotes the follow¬
ing well-known paffage from Montefquieu : “ Imagine
to yourfelf, that, by fome accident, you are placed in
an unknown country ; if you find money there, do not
doubt that you are arrived among a poliffied people.”
But if by money we are to underftand a piece of metal
rvith the ftamp of the prince or the public, the Avant of
it in a nation is no token of barbarity. The Athe¬
nians employed oxen for money, as the Romans did
flieep. The Romans had no coined money till the time
of Servius Tullius, nor the Perfians until the reign of
Darius Hyftafpes. But if by money is underftood a
fign, reprefenting the value of merchandife, the Mexi¬
cans, and other nations of Anahuac, employed money
in their commerce. The cacao, of Avhieh they made
conftant ufe in the market to purchafe Avhatever they
wanted, Avas employed for this purpofe, as fait is in A-
byffinia.
It has been affirmed thatftone bridges Avere unknoAvn
in America Avhen it Avas firft difeovered ; and that the
natives did not know how to form arches. But thefe
affertions are erroneous. The remains of the ancient
palaces of Tezcuco, and ftill more their vapour baths,
ffioAv the ancient ufe of arches and vaults among the
Mexicans. But the ignorance of this art Avould have
been no proof of barbarity. Neither the Egyptians nor
Babylonians underftood the conftruftion of arches.
M. de Parv affirms, that the palace of Montezuma
Avas nothing elfe than a hut. But it is certain, from
the affirmation of all the hiftorians of Mexico, that the
army under Cortes, confifting of 6400 men, Avas all
lodged in the palace j and there remained ftill fufficient
room for Montezuma and his attendants.
The advances Avhich the Mexicans had made in the Tokens of
ftudy of aftronomy is perhaps the moft furprifing proof feience,
of their attention and fagacity j for it appears from
Abbe Clavigero’s hiftory, that they not only counted
365 days to the year, but alfo kneAV of the excefs
of about fix hours in the folar over the civil year,
and remedied the difference by means of intercalary
days. *
Of American morality, the following exhortation of
C 2 a
illis fervientia urgeant. Nos igitur, qui ejufdem Domini noftri vices, licet indigni, gerimus in terris, et Oves gre-
gis fui nobis commiffas, quae extra ejus Ovile funt, ad ipfum Ovile toto nixu exquirimus, attendentes Indos ipfos,
utpote veros homines, non folum Chriftianae Fidei capaces exiftere, fed, ut nobis innotuit, ad Fidem ipfam promp-
tiffime currere, ac volentes fuper his congruis remediis providere, praediftos Indos etomnes alias gentes ad notitiam
Chriftianorum in pofterum deventuras, licet extra fidem Chrifti exiftant, fua libertate et dominio hujufmodi uti, et
potiri, et gaudere libere, et licite poffe, nec in fervitutem redigi debere, ac quicquid fecus fieri contigerit irritum
et inane, ipfofque Indos, et alias Gentes Verbi Dei praedicatione, et exemplo bonae vitas, ad di61am Fidem Chrifti
invitandos fore. Au&oritate Apoftolica per praefentes literas decernimus, et declaramus, non obftantibus premif-
fis, cseterifque contrariis quibufeunque.” Datum Romae anno 1537. IV. Non. lun. Pontificatus noftri anno III.
Queefta, c non altra e quella famofa bolla, per la quale s’ & fatto un fi grande fchiamazzo.
A M E
America, a Mexican to his fon may ferve as a fpecimen.
—v— ■■ fon, who art come into the light from the womb of thy
63 mother like a chicken from the egg, and like it art
Sftheirm PreParjng to through the world, we know not how
of their mo
rality.
long Heaven will grant to us the enjoyment of that
precious gem which we poflefs in thee ; but however
ihort the period, endeavour to live exactly, praying
God continually to affid thee. He created thee : thou
art his property. He is thy father, and loves thee ftill
more than I do : repofe in him thy thoughts, and day
and night direft thy fighs to him. Reverence and fa-
lute thy elders, and hold no one in contempt. To the
poor and diftreffed be not dumb, but rather ufe words
of comfort. Honour all perfons, particularly thy pa¬
rents, to whom thou owed obedience, refpeft, and fer-
vice. Guard againd imitating the example of thofe
wicked fons, who, like brutes that are deprived of rea-
fon, neither reverence their parents, liden to their in-
ftru&ion, nor fubmit to their correftion : becaufe who¬
ever follows their deps will have an unhappy end, will
die in a defperate or fudden manner, or will be killed
and devoured by wild beads.
“ Mock not, my fon, the aged or the imperfeft.
Scorn not him whom you fee fall into fome folly or
tranfgreflion, nor make him reproaches ; but redrain
thyfelf, and beware led thou fall into the fame error
which offends thee in another. Go not. where thou
are not called, nor interfere in that which does not
concern thee. Endeavour to manifed thy good, breed¬
ing in all thy words and affions. In converfation, do
not lay thy hands upon another, nor fpeak too much,
nor interrupt or didurb another’s difcourfe. When
any one difcourfes with thee, hear him attentively, and
hold thyfelf in an eafy attitude, neither playing with
thy feet, nor putting thy mantle to thy mouth, nor
fpitting too often, nor looking about you here and
there, nor riling up frequently, if thou art fitting ; for
filch actions are indications of levity and low breed¬
ing.” He proceeds to mention feveral particular vices
which are to be avoided, and concludes,—“ Steal not,
nor give thyfelf to gaming : otherwife thou wilt be a
difgrace to thy parents, whom thou oughted rather to
honour for the education they have given thee.. If
thou wilt be virtuous, thy example will put the Avicked
to fhame. No more, my fon ; enough has been find
in difcharge of the duties of a father. With thefe
counfels I wilh to fortify thy mind. Refufe them not,
nor aft in contradiftion to them j for on them thy life
and all thy happinefs depend.”
[ 20 ] A M E
My cies of living creatures. The caufe of this he afcribes America,
to the diminution of heat in America, and to the pre- '
valence of humidity from the extenfion of its lakes and
waters over a prodigious furface. In other words, he
affirms, that heat is friendly and moijlure adverfe to the
produftion and developement of the larger quadrupeds. ^
The hypothefis, that moidure is unfriendly to animal The. hypo-
growth, Mr Jefferfon ffiows to be contradifted by ob-thefis, that
fervation and experience. It is by the affidance °f^!^®]IS
heat and moidure that vegetables are elaborated from ^ a'nima/
the elements. Accordingly we find, that the more hu- growth,
mid climates produce plants in greater profufion than confidered.
the dry. Vegetables are immediately or remotely the
food of every animal; and, from the uniform opera¬
tion of Nature’s laws we difcern, that, in proportion
to the quantity of food, animals are not only multi¬
plied in their numbers, but improved in their fize. Of
this lad opinion is the count de Buffon himfelf, in
another part of his work : “ En general, il paroit que
les pays un peu froids conviennent mieux a nos bceufs
que les pays chauds, et qu’ils font d’autant plus gros
et plus grands que le climat ed plus hwmde et plus
abondans en paturages. Les bceufs de Danemarc,
de la Podolie, de P Ukraine, et de la Tartarie qui’ha-
bitent les Calmouques, font les plus grands de tous.” ^
Here, then, a race of animals, and one of the larged The con-
too, has been increafed in its dimenfions by cold and trary main-
moidure, in direft oppofition to the hypothefis, which
fuppofes that thefe two circumdances diminifh animal e eI“
bulk, and that it is their contraries, heat and drynefs,
which enlarge it. But to try the quedien on more
general ground, let us take two portions of the earth,
Europe and America for indance, fufficiently extenfive
to give operation to general caufes *, let us confider the
64
• c As ranging on the fame fide with the abbe Clavi-
X<TL° gero, the ingenious Mr Jefferfon deferves particular
fon con- attention. This gentleman, in his Notes on the State
cerningthe 0f Virginia, &c. has taken occafion to combat the
degeneracy 0f Buffon •, and feems to have fully refuted
of animal t£em ^ hy argument apd fafts. The French phi-
lofopher afferts, “ That living nature Is leis aftive, kfs
energetic, in the new world, than in tne old. He
affirms, 1. That the animals common to both conti¬
nents are fmaller in America. 2. That thofe peculiar
to the new are on an inferior fcale. 3* T-h3*- thofe
which have been domedieated in both have degenera¬
ted in America. And, 4. That it exhibits fewer fpe-
nature in
America.
circumdances peculiar to each, and obferve their effeft
on animal nature. America, running through the tor¬
rid as well as temperate zone, has more heat colleftive-
ly taken, than Europe. But Europe, according to
our hypothefis, is the dried. They are equally adapt¬
ed then to animal produftion ; each being endowed
with one of thofe caufes which befriend animal growth,
and with one which oppofes it. Let us, then take a
comparative view of the quadrupeds of Europe and
America, prefenting them to the eye in three different
tables; in one of which ffiall be enumerated thofe
found in both countries j in a fecond, thofe found in
one only 5 in a third, thofe which have been domedi-
cated in both. To facilitate the comparifon, let thofe
of each table be arranged in gradation, according to
their fizes, from the greated to the fmalled, fo far as
their fizes can be conjeftured. The weights of the
large animals diall be expreffed in the Engliffi avoirdu¬
pois pound and its decimals j thofe of the fmaller in-
the ounce and its decimals. Thofe which are mark¬
ed thus *, are aftual weights of particular fubjefts,
deemed among the larged of their fpecies. Thofe
marked thus f, are furniffied by judicious perfons, well
acquainted with the fpecies, and faying, from conjec¬
ture only, what the larged individual they had feen
would probably have weighed. The other weights
are taken from Meffrs Buffon and D’Aubenton, and
are of fuch fubjefts as came cafually to their hands for
diffeftion.
Cpmparative
A M E
America.
Comparative View of the Quadrupeds of Europe and
of America.
Table I. Aboriginals of both.
Mammoth
Buffalo. Bifon
White bear. Ours blanc
Caribou. Renne
Bear. Ours
Elk. Elan. Original, palmated
Red deer. Cerf
Fallow deer. Daim
Wolf. Loup
Roe. Chevreuil
Glutton. Glouton. Carcajou
Wild cat. Chat fauvage
Lynx. Loup cervier
Beaver. Caftor
Badger. Blaireau
Red fox. Renard
Grey fox. Ifatis
Otter. Loutre
Monax. Marmotte
Vifon. Fouine
Hedgehog. Heriffon
Martin. Marte
Water rat. Rat d’eau
Weafel. Belette
Flying fquirrel. Polatouche
Shrew moufe. Mufaraigne
Table II. Aboriginals of one only.
Europe.
lb.
Sanglier. Wild boar 280.
Mouflon. Wild fheep 56.
Bouquetin. Wild goat
Lievre. Hare
Lapin. Rabbit
Putois. Polecat
Gennete
Defman. Mufk rat
Ecureuil. Squirrel
Hermine. Ermine
Rat. Rat
Loirs
Lerot. Dormoufe
Toupe. Mole
Hamfter
Zifel
Leming
Souris. Moufe
[ 21 ] A M E
Table II. continued.
Europe. America.
America.
7-
3-
3'
3-
oz,
12,
8
i?
3
1
1
lb.
Tapir 534.
Elk, round-horned f450.
Puma
() Jaguar 218.
4Cabiai 109.
3Tamanoir 109.
Tamandua 65.4
Cougar of N. Amer. 75.
Cougar of S. Ame 59 4
Ocelot
Pecari
Jaguaret
Alco
.2 Lama
.9 Paco
Paca
Serval
Sloth. Unau
Saricoyienne
Kincajou
Tatou Kabaffou
Urfon, Urchin
lb.
Raccoon. Raton. 16.5
Coati
Coendou 16.3
Sloth. Ki 13.
Sapajou Ouarini
Sapajou Coaita 9.8
Tatou Encubert
Tatou Apar
Tatou Cachica 7.
Little Coendou 6.5
Opoffum. Sarigue
Tapeti
Margay
Crabier
Agouti 4.2
Sapajou Sa'i 3.5
Tatou Cirquin^on
Tatou Tatouate 3.3
Mouffette Squafh
Mouffette Chiche
Mouffette Conepate.
Scunk
Mouffette. Zorilla
Whabus. Hare. Rabbit
Aperea
Akouchi
Ondatra. Mufk rat
Pilori
Great gray fquirrel f 2.7
Fox fquirrel of Vir¬
ginia f 2.6 25
Surikate 2.
Mink f2.
Sapajou. Sajou 1.8
Indian pig. Cochon
d’Inde 1.6
Sapajou. Saimiri 1.5
Phalanger
Coquallin
Leffer grayfquirrel f 1.5
Black fquirrel -j-1.5
Red fquirrel IO. oz
Sagoin Saki
Sagoin Pinche
Sagoin Tamarin oz.
Sagoin Oufftiti 4.4
Sagoin Marikine
Sagoin Mico
Cayopollin
Fourmillier
Marmofe
Sarigue of Cayenne
Tucan
Red mole oz.
Ground fquirrel 4,
Table
A M E
America.
Table III. Domejlicated in both.
Cow
Horfe
Afs
Hog
Sheep
Goat
Dog
Cal
Europe
lb.
763-
67.6
7*
America.
lb.
*2300
*1366
*1200
I 2 C
*80
,
llefult of
the firft
table*
68
Explana¬
tion and
refult of
the fecond
table.
The refult of this view is, that of 26 quadrupeds com¬
mon to both countries, feven are faid to be larger in A-
merica, feven of equal fize, and 12 not fufficiently exa¬
mined. So that the firft table impeaches the firft men-
ber of the alfertion, that of the animals common to both
countries the American are fmalleft, “ Et cela fans au-
cune exception.” It ftvows it not juft in all the latitude
in which its author has advanced it, and probably not
to fuch a degree as to found a diftin£Hon between the
two countries.
Proceeding to the fecond table,, which arranges the
animals found in one of the two countries only, M. de
Buffon obferves, that the tapir, the elephant of Ameri¬
ca, is but of ftie fize of a fmall cow. To preferve our
comparifon, Mr Jefferfon ftates the wild boar, the ele¬
phant of Europe, as little more than half that fize. He
has made an elk with round or cylindrical horns an ani¬
mal of America, and peculiar to it j becaufe he has feen
many of them himfelf, and more of their horns •, and
becaufe, from the belt information, it is certain that in
Virginia this kind of elk has abounded much, and ftill
exifts in fmaller numbers. He makes the American
hare or rabbit peculiar, believing it to be diflferent from
both the European animals of thefe denominations, and
calling it therefore by its Algonquin name whabus, to
keep it diftina from thefe. Kalm is of the fame opinion.
The fquirrels are denominated from a knowledge deri¬
ved from daily fight of them, becaufe with that the Eu¬
ropean appellations and defcriptions feem irreconcilable.
Thefe are the only inftances in which Mr Jefferfon de¬
parts from the authority of M. de Buffon in the con-
ftruftion of this table 5 whom he takes for his ground¬
work, becaufe he thinks him the beft informed of any
naturalift who has ever written. The refult is, that
there are 18 quadrupeds peculiar to Europe ; more than
four times as many, to wit, 74 peculiar to America *,
that the firft of thefe 74, the tapir, the largeft of the
animals peculiar to America, weighs more than the
whole column of Europeans j and confequently this fe¬
cond table difproves the fecond member of the affertion,
that the animals peculiar to the new world are on a
fmaller fcale, fo far as that affertion relied on European
animals for fupport: and it is in full oppofition to the
theory which makes the animal volume to depend on
the circumftances of heat and moifture.
^9 The third table comprehends thofe quadrupeds only
Ofthethird are dorneftjc in both countries. That fome of
table. tjiepe jn pome parts of America, have become lefs than
their’original flock, is doubtlefs true ; and the reafon is
very obvious. In a thinly peopled country, the fpon-
22 ] A M E
taneous produ&ions of the forefts and wafte fields are America
fufficient to fupport indifferently the domeftic animals of —y—-
the farmer, with a very little aid from him in the fe-
vereft and fcarceft feafon. He therefore finds it more
convenient to receive them from the hand of Nature in
that indifferent ftate, than to keep up their fize by a
care and nourifhment which would coil him much la¬
bour. If, on this low fare, thefe animals dwindle, it is
no more than they do in thofe parts of Europe where
the poverty of the foil, or poverty of the owner, redu¬
ces them to the fame fubfiftence. It is the uniform ef-
fe£t of one and the fame caufe, whether ailing on this
or that fide of the globe. It would be erring, there¬
fore againft that rule of philofophy, which teaches" us
to afcribe like effeils to like caufes, fliould we impute
this diminution of fize in America to any imbecility or
■want of uniformity in the operations of nature. It may
be affirmed with truth, that in thofe countries, and with
thofe individuals of America, where neceffity or curio-
fity has produced equal attention as in Europe to the
nourifhment of animals, the horfes, cattle, fheep, and
hogs of the one continent, are as large as thofe of
the other. There are particular inftances, well at-
tefted, where individuals of America have imported
good breeders from England, and have improved their
fize by care in the courfe of fome years. And the
weights aftually known and ftated in the third table,
will fuffice to ftrow, that we may conclude, on probable
grounds, that, with equal food and care, the climate of
America will preferve the races of domeftic animals as
large as the European flock from which they are de¬
rived ; and confequently that the third member of M.
de Buffon’s affertion, that the domeftic animals are
fubjefl to degeneration from the climate of America,
is as probably wrong as the firft: and fecond were cer¬
tainly fo.
That the laft part of it is erroneous, which affirms,
that the fpecies of American quadrupeds are compara¬
tively few, is evident from the tables taken altogether;
to which may be added the proof adduced by the abbe
Clavigero. According to Buffon’s lateft calculation, in
his Epoques de la Nature, there are 300 fpecies of qua¬
drupeds ; and America, though it does not make more
than a third part of the globe, contains, according to
Clavigero, almoft one half of the different fpecies of its
animals.
Of the human inhabitants of America, to whom the Tjie },umaJ
fame hypothefis of degeneracy is extended, M. Buffon inhabitants
gives the following defcription : “ Though the Ame- compre-
rican favage be nearly of the fame ftature with men in
poliffied focieties; yet this is not a fufficient exception i,yp0thefis
to the general contraftion of animated nature through-0f degene-
out the whole continent. In the favage, the organs of racy,
generation are fmall and feeble. He has no hair, no
beard, no ardour for the female. Though nimbler than
the European, becaufe more accuftomed to running,
his ftrength is not fo great. His fenfations are lefs
acute ; and yet he is more timid and cowardly. He
has no vivacity, no aftivity of mind. The aflivity of
his body is not fo much an exercife or fpontaneous mo¬
tion, as a neceffary aftion produced by want. Deftroy
his appetite for victuals and drink, and you will at once
annihilate the aftive principle of all his movements :
He remains in ftupid repofe, on his limbs or couch, for
whole days. It is eafy to difcover the caufe of the
fcattered
*
A M E
[ 23 J
A M E
America.
71
Obferva
fcattered life of favages, and of their eftrangement
from fociety. They have been refufed the moft pre¬
cious fparks of Nature’s fire : They have no ardour for
•women, and, of courfe, no love to mankind. Unac¬
quainted with the moft lively and moft tender of all
attachments, their other fenfations of this nature are
cold and languid. Their love to parents and children
is extremely weak. The bonds of the moft intimate
of all focieties, that of the fame family, are feeble j
and one family has no attachment to another. Hence
no union, no republic, no focial ftate, can take place
among them. The phyfical caufe of love gives rife to
the morality of their manners. Their heart is frozen,
their fociety cold, and their empire cruel. They regard
their females as fervants deftined to labour, or as beafts
of burden, whom they load unmercifully with the pro¬
duce of their hunting, and oblige, without pity or gra¬
titude to perform labours which often exceed their
ftrength. They have few children, and pay little at¬
tention to them. Every thing muft be referred to the
firft caufe : They are indifferent, becaufe they are weak ;
and this indifference to the fex is the original ftain
which difgraces Nature, prevents her from expanding,
and, by deftroying the germs of life, cuts the root of
fociety. Hence man makes no exception to what has
been advanced. Nature, by denying him the faculty
of love, has abafed and contra&ed him more than any
other animal.”
A humiliating piflure indeed ! but than which, Mr
tions by Mr Jefferfon affures us, never one was more unlike the
Jefferfou. original. Mr Buffon grants, that their ftature is the
fame as that of the men of Europe ; and he might have
admitted, that the Iroquois were larger, and the Lenopi
or Delawares taller, than people in Europe generally
are : But he fays their organs of generation are fmaller
and weaker than thofe of Europeans •, which is not a
fa£t. And as to their want of beard, this error has
been already noticed (N° <\y.fupra.')
7? ti They have no ardour for their females.” It is
coldnefs of true, they do not indulge thofe exceffes, nor difcover
the Ameri- that fondnefs, which are cuftomary in Europe ; but
cans to the ^5 js not owing to a deleft in nature, but to manners.
^^crcount~ Their foul is wholly bent upon war. This is what
procures them glory among the men, and makes them
the admiration of the women. To this they are edu¬
cated from their earlieft youth. When tiiey purfue
game with ardour, when they bear the fatigues of the
chafe, when they fuftain and fuffer patiently hunger
and cold, it is not fo much for the fake of the game they
purfue, as to convince their parents and the council of
the nation, that they are fit to be enrolled in the number
of the warriors. The fongs of the women, the dance of
the warriors, the fage counfel of the chiefs, the tales
of the old, the triumphant entry of the warriors return¬
ing with fuccefs from battle, and the refpedt paid to
thofe who diftinguifh themfelves in battle, and in fub-
duing their enemies $ in ftiort, every thing, they fee or
hear tends to infpire them with an ardent defire for
military fame. If a young man were to difcover a
fondnefs for women before he has been to war, he
would become the contempt of the men, and the fcorn
and ridicule of the women : or were he to indulge
himfelf with a captive taken in war, and much more
Were he to offer violence in order to gratify his luft,
he would incur indelible difgrace. The fceming fri- America,
gidity of the men, therefore, is the effett of manners,t——y—
and not a defied of nature. They are neither more
defedive in ardour, nor more impotent with the fe¬
male, than are the whites reduced to the fame diet and
exercife. _ 73
“ They raife few children.”—They indeed raife few-Why they
er children than we do $ the chufes of which are to behave few
found, not in a difference of nature, but of circum-chllc‘ren,
ftance. The women very frequently attending the men
in their parties of war and of hunting, childbearing
becomes extremely inconvenient to them. It is faid,
therefore, that they have learned the pradice of pro¬
curing abortion by the ufe of fome vegetable j and that
it even extends to prevent conception fot a confider-
able time after. During thefe parties they are expofed
to numerous hazards, to exceflive exertions, to the
greateft extremities of hunger. Even at their homes,
the nation depends for food, through a certain part of
every year, on the gleanings of the foreft j that is, they
experience a famine once in every year. With all ani¬
mals, if the female be badly fed, or not fed at all, her
young perilh ; and if both male and female be reduced
to like want, generation becomes lefs adive, lefs pro-
dudive. To the obftacles, then, of want and hazard,
which Nature has oppofed to the multiplication of wild
animals, for the purpofe of reftraining their numbers
within certain bounds, thofe of labour and of voluntary
abortion are added with the Indians. No wonder, then,
if they multiply lefs than we do. Where food is regu¬
larly fupplied, a Angle farm will fhow more of cattle
than a whole country of forefts can of buffaloes. The
fame Indian women, when married to white traders,
who feed them and their children plentifully and regu¬
larly, who exempt them from exceflive drugery, who
keep them ftationary and unexpofed to accident, produce
and raife as many children as the white women. In-
ftances are known, under thefe circumftances, of their
rearing a dozen children. 74
Neither do they feem to be “ deficient in natural af-Of their
fedlion.” On the contrary their fenfibility is keen, even ienfibility,
the warriors weeping moft bitterly on the lofs of their ^'c'
children *, though, in general, they endeavour to appear
fuperior to human events.
Their friendftiips are ftrong and faithful to the ut-
termoft extremity. A remarkable inftance of this ap¬
peared in the cafe of the late Col. Byrd, who was fent
to the Cherokee nation to tranfa<ft fome bufinefs with
them. It happened that fome of our diforderly peo¬
ple had juft killed one or two of that nation. It was
therefore propofed in the council of the Cherokees,
that Col. Byrd ftiould be put to death, in revenge for
the lofs of their countrymen. Among them was a
chief, called Silouee, who, on fome former occafion, had
corvtrafted an acquaintance and friendfliip with Col.
Byrd. He came to him every night in his tent, and
told him not to be afraid, they ftiould not kill him.
After many days deliberation, however, the determi¬
nation was, contrary to Silouee’s expectation, that
Byrd fhould be put to death } and fome warriors were
defpatched as executioners. Silouee attended them j
and when they entered the tent, he threw himfelf be¬
tween them and Byrd, and faid to the warriors, “ This
man is my friend : before you get at him, you muff
kill
America.
75
Of their
courage.
(See alfo
Nos 54, 55
fupra.)
A M E [
kill me.” On which they returned $ and the council
refpe&ed the principle fo much as to recede from their
determination.
That “ they are timorous and cowardly,” is a cha-
rafter with which there is little reafon to charge them,
when we recolleft the manner in which the Iroquois
met Monf. , who marched into their country $
in which the old men, who fcorned to fly, or to furvive
the capture of their town, braved death like the old
Romans in the time of the Gauls, and in which they
foon after revenged themfelves by facking and deftroy-
ing Montreal. In fhort, the Indian is brave, when an
enterprife depends on bravery ; education with him ma¬
king the point of honour confift in the deftru&ion of
an enemy by ftratagem, and in the prefervation of his
own perfon free from injury : or perhaps this is nature,
while it is education that teaches us to honour force
more than fineffe. He will defend himfelf againft an
hoft of enemies, always choofing to be killed rather
than to furrender, though it be to the whites, who he
knows will treat him well. In fome fituations alfo, he
meets death with more deliberation, and endures tor¬
tures with a firmnefs unknown almoft to religious en-
thufiafm among us.
Much lefs are they to be charadlerized as a people of
no vivacity, and who are excited to a6tion or motion
only by the calls of hunger and thirft. Their dances,
in which they fo much delight, and which to a Euro¬
pean would be the moft fevere exercife, fully contradift
this j not to mention their fatiguing marches, and the
toil they voluntarily and cheerfully undergo in their
military expeditions. It is true, that when at home
they do not employ themfelves in labour or the culture
of the foil : but this again is the effeft of cuftoms and
manners, which have aftigned that to the province of the
women. But it is faid “ they are averfe to fociety and
a facial life.” Can any thing be more inapplicable than
this to people who always live in towns or in clans ? Or
can they be faid to have no repubhque, who condufl all
their affairs in national councils ; who pride themfelves
in their national charafler ; who confider an infult or
injury done to an individual by a ftranger as done to the
whole, and refent it accordingly ?
To form a juft eftimate of their genius and mental
powers, Mr Jefferfon obferves, more faffs are want¬
ing •, and great allowance is to be made for thofe cir-
cumftances of their fituation which call for a difplay
of particular talents only. This done, we fhall pro¬
bably find that the Americans are formed, in mind as
well as in body, on the fame model with the homo fa-
piens Europaws. The principles of their fociety for¬
bidding all compulfion, they are to be led to duty and
to enterprife by perfonal influence and perfuafion.
Hence eloquence in council, bravery and addrefs in
war, become the foundations of all confequence with
them. To thefe acquirements all their faculties are
direffed. Of their bravery and addrefs in war we have
multiplied proofs, becaufe we have been the fubjeffs
on which they were exercifed. Of their eminence in
oratory we have fewer examples, becaufe it is difplayed
chiefly in their own councils. Some, however, we
have of very fuperior luftre. We may challenge the
whole orations of Demoftbenes and Cicero, and of any
more eminent orator, if Europe has furniflied more
eminent, to produce a Angle paflage fuperior to the
24 ] A M E
fpeech of Logan, a Mingo chief, to Lord Dumore America,
when governor of this ftate. The ftory is as follows j »
of which, and of the fpeech, the authenticity is un-
queftionable. In the fpring of the year 1774, a rob- 74
bery and murder were committed on an inhabitant of Story of
the frontiers of Virginia by two Indians of the Shawa-^S^
nee tribe. The neighbouring whites, according to their
cuftom, undertook to puniftr this outrage in a fummary
way. Colonel Crefap, a man infamous for the many
murders he had committed on thofe much injured peo¬
ple, collefted a party, and proceeded down the Kanha¬
way in queft of vengeance. Unfortunately a canoe of
■women and children, with one man only, was feen com¬
ing from the oppofite Ihore, unarmed, and, unfufpe&ing
any hoftile attack from the whites. Crefap and his
party concealed themfelves on the bank of the river j
and the moment the canoe reached the Ihore, fingled
out their objefls, and at one fire killed every perfon in
it. This happened to be the family of Logan, who
had long been diftinguifhed as a friend of the whites.
This unworthy return provoked his vengeance. He ac¬
cordingly fignalized himfelf in the war which enfued.
In the autumn of the fame year, a decifive battle was
fought at the mouth of the Great Kanhaway, between
the collefted forces of the Shawanees, Mingoes, and
Delawares, and a detachment of the Virginian militia.
The Indians were defeated, and fued for peace ; Logan,
however, difdained to be feen among the fuppliants .
but, left the fincerity of a treaty (hould be diftrufted,
from which fo diftinguiftied a chief abfented himfelf,
he fent by a meffenger the following fpeech, to be de- 77
livered to Lord Dunmore I appeal to any white Specimen
man to fay if ever he entered Logan’s cabin hungry,®™^
and he gave him not meat : if ever he came cold and
naked, and he clothed him not. During the courfe
of the laft long and bloody war, Logan remained idle
in his cabin, an advocate for peace. Such was my
love for the whites, that my countrymen pointed as
they palled, and faid, Logan is the friend of white men.
I had even thought to have lived with you, but for the
injuries of one man. Colonel Crefap, the laft fpring, in
cold blood, and unprovoked, murdered all the relations
of Logan, not fparing even my women and children.
There runs not a drop of my blood in the veins of any
living creature. This called on me for revenge. I
have fought it j I have killed many ; I have fully glut¬
ted my vengeance. For my country, I rejoice at the
beams of peace } but do not harbour a thought that
mine is the joy of fear. Logan never felt fear. He
will not turn on his heel to fave his life ? Who is there
to mourn for Logan ? Not one.” _ 7s
To the preceding anecdotes, in favour of the Ameri-Other a-
can character, may be added the following by Dr Ben-necdote®.
jamin Franklin. The Indian men, when young, are
hunters and warriors : when old, counfellors 5 for all
their government is by the counfel or advice of the
fages. Hence they generally ftudy oratory ; the beft
fpeaker having the moft influence. The Indian wo¬
men till the ground, drefs the food, nurfe and bring
up the children, and preferve and hand down to pofte-
rity the memory of public tranfaflions. Thefe employ¬
ments of men and women are accounted natural and ho¬
nourable. Having few artificial wants, they have abun¬
dance of leifure for improvement by converfation. Our
laborious manner of life, compared with theirs, they
efteem
Atne* ica.
A M E t. 2S
efleem davidi and bafe ; and the learning on ivhich principal virtue
79 .
Folitenels
we value ourfelves, they regard as frivolous and ufe-
lei*'
Having frequent occafions to hold public councils,
they have acquired great order and decency in conduct-
ino them. The old men fit in the foremoft ranks, the
warriors in the next, and the women and children in
the hindmoft. The bufinefs of the women is to take
exaft notice of what paffes ; imprint it in their memo-
ivies, for they have no writing, and communicate it to
their children. They are the records of the council,
and they preferve tradition of the ftipulations in trea¬
ties a hundred years back; which, when we compare
with our writings, we always find exaft. He that
would fpeak rifes. The reft obferve a profound filence.
When he has finifhed, and fits down, they leave him
five or fix minutes to recolleft, that if he has ort1ll^d
any thing he intended to fay, or has any thing to add,
he may rife again and deliver_ it. To interrupt ano¬
ther, even in common converfation, is reckoned highly
indecent. . r . .
   The politenefs of thefe favages .m converfation is,
and civility jndeed carried to excefs j fince it does not permit
°f tl?e A; them to contradia or deny the truth of what is aiTerted
Sans in their prefence. By this means they indeed avoid
difputes ; but then it becomes difficult to know their
minds, or what impreffion you make upon them. I he
miffionaries who have attempted to convert them to
Chriftianity, all complain of' this as one of the great-
eft difficulties of their miffion. The Indians hear with
patience the truths of the gofpel explained to them,
and give their ufual tokens of aflent and approbation j
but this by no means implies conviaion 5 it is mere
civility.
When any of them come into onr towns, our people
are apt to crowd round them, gaze upon them, and in¬
commode them where they defire to be private j this
they efteem great rudenels, and the effea of the want
of inftruaion in the rules of civility and good manners.
“ We have (fay they) as much curiofity as you ; and
when you come into our towns, we wifti for opportuni¬
ties of looking at you 5 but for this purpofe we hide
ourfelves behind bullies where you are to pafs, and ne-
So ver intrude ourfelves into your company.”
Their hef- Their manner of entering one another’s villages has
pitality. Hkewife its rules. It is reckoned uncivil in travelling
ft rangers to enter a village abruptly, without giving
notice of their approach. Therefore, as foon as they
arrive within hearing, they flop and holla, remaining
there till invited to enter. Two old men ufually come
out to them, and lead them in. There is in every vil¬
lage a vacant dwelling, called the granger's houfe. Here
they are placed, while the old men go round from hut
to hut, acquainting the inhabitants that ftrangers are
arrived, who are probably hungry and weary 5 and eve¬
ry one fends him what he can (pare of vi&uals and Ikins
to repofe on. When the ftrangers are refreftied, pipes
and tobacco are brought *, and then, but not before,
converfation begins, with inquiries who they are, whi¬
ther bound, what news, &c. and it ufually ends with
offers of fervice, if the ftrangers have occafion for guides,
cr any neceffaries for continuing their journey ; and no¬
thing is exafled for the entertainment.
The fame hofpitality, efteemed among them
-Yol. II. Part I.
as a
A M E
injii^pax , is pra&ifed by private perfons *, of
which Conrad Weifer, the interpreter, gave Dr frank- -
I’m the following inftance: He had been naturalized
among the Six Nations, and fpoke well the Mohock
language. In going through the Indian country to
carry a meffage from our governor to the council at
Onondaga, he called at the habitation of Canaffetego,
an old acquaintance, who embraced him, fpread furs
for him to fit on, placed before him feme boiled beans
and venifon, and mixed fome rum and water for his
drink. When he was well refreffied, and had lit his
pipe, Canaffetego began to converfe with him ; afked
how he had fared the many years fince they had feen
each other, whence he then came, what had occafioned
the journey, &c. Conrad anfwered all his queftions j
and when the difcourfe began to flag, the Indian, to
continue it, faid, “ Conrad, you have lived long among
the white people, and know fomething of their cu-
ftoms; I have been fometimes at Albany, and have ob-
ferved, that once in feven days they (hut up their (hops,
and affemble all in the great houfe 5 tell me what it is
for ? What do they do there ?” “ They meet there
(fays Conrad) to hear and learn good things.” “ I do
not doubt (fays the Indian) that they tell you fo ; they
have told me the fame : but I doubt the truth of what
they fay, and I will tell you my reafons. I went lately
to Albany to fell my Ikins, and buy blankets, knives,
powder, rum, &c. You know I generally ufed to deal
Avith Hans Hanfon j but I was a little inclined this
time to try fome other merchants. However, I called
firft upon Hans, and afked him what he would give for
beaver. He faid he could not give more than 4s. a
pound; but (fays he) I cannot talk on bufinefs now 5
this is the day when we meet together to learn good
things, and I am going to the meeting. So I thought
to myfelf, fince I cannot do any bufinefs to day, I may
as Avell go to the meeting too ; and I went with him.
 There flood up a man in black, and began to talk
to the people very angrily. I did not underfland Avhat
he faid; but perceiving that he looked much at me
and at Hanfon,: I imagined he was angry at feeing me
there j fo I \\rent out, iat down near the houfe, fiiuck
fire, and lit my pipe, waiting till the meeting ffiould
break up. I thought too, that the men had mentioned
fomething of beaver, and I fufpedted that it might be
the fubjed of their meeting. So Avhen they came out
I accofted my merchant.—Well Hans (fays I), I
hope you have agreed to give more than 4s. a-pound ?”
“ No (fays he), I cannot give fo much, 1 cannot give
more than 3s. 6d.” “ I then fpoke to feveral other
dealers, but they all fung the fame fong, three and fix-
pence, three and fixpence. This made it clear to me
that my fufpicion was right; and that Avhatever they
pretended of meeting to learn good things, the real pur-
pofe Avas, to confult Iioat to cheat Indians in the price
of beaver. Confider but a little, Conrad, and you muft
be of my opinion. If they meet fo often to learn good
things, they certainly Avould have learned fome before
this time. But they are ftill ignorant. You know our
pra&ice. If a Avhite man, in travelling through our
country, enters one of our cabins, jve all treat him as
I treat you j Ave dry him if he is wet, we Avarm him
if he is cold, and give him meat and drink, that he
may allay his thirft and hunger > and we fpread foft
^ D furs
America.
A M E [26
America, furs for him to reft and ileep on : rye demand nothing
—Y-— in return. But if I go into a white man’s houfe at
Albany, and aik for victuals and drink, they fay, Where
is your money ? And if I have none, they fay, Get out
you Indian dog. You fee they have not yet learned
tbofe little good thing* that we need no meeting to be
iniiru&ed in ; becaufe our mothers taught them to us
when we were children ; and therefore it is impoffible
their meetings ftiould be, as they fay, for any fueh pur-
pnfe, or have any fuch tffeft j they are only to contrive
the cheating of Indians in the price of beaver”
]
A M E
Si
TLord
Karnes's
arguments
for different
ipecies.
The next queftion that occurs is, Whether the pecu¬
liarities of the Americans, or the difparity between them
and the inhabitants of Europe, afford fufficient grounds
for determining them, as fome have done, to be a race
of men radically different from all others ?
In this queftion, to avoid being tedious, we {hall con¬
fine ourfelves to what has been advanced by Lord
Karnes •, who is of opinion, that there are many differ¬
ent fpecies of men, as well as of other animals ) and
gives a hypothefis, whereby he pretends his opinion
may be maintained in a confiftency with revelation.
“ If (fays he) the only rule afforded by nature for elaf-
fing animals can be depended on, there are different
races of men as well as oi dogs \ a mafliff differs not
more from a fpaniel, than a white man from -a negro,
or a Laplander from a Dane. And if we have any
faith in Providence, it ought to be lb. Plants were
created of different kinds, to fit them for different cli¬
mates , and fo were brute animals. Pertain it .s, that
all men are not fitted equally for every climate. There
is fcarct- a climate but what is natural to fome men,
where they profper and flounfh •, and tnere is not a cli¬
mate. but where fome men degenerate. Doth not then
analogy lead us to conclude, that, as there are different
climates on the face of this globe, fo there are different
races of men fitted for thefe different climates ? ^
“ M. Buffon, from the rule, That animals which can
procreate together, and whofe progeny can alfo pro¬
create, are of one ipecies, concludes, that all men are
of one race or fpecies j and endeavours to fupport that
favourite opinion, by afenbing to the climate, to rood,
or to other accidental caufes, all the varieties that are
found among men. But he is ferioufly of opinion, that
any operation of climate, or of other accidental caufe,
can account for the copper colour and fmooth chin
univerfal among the Americans $ the prominence of the
pudenda univerfal among the Hottentot women ; or the
black nipple no lefs univerfal among the female Samoi-
edes ? —It is in vain to aferibe to the climate the low
ftature of the Efquimaux, the fmallnefs of their feet, or
the overgrown fize of their heads. It is equally in vain
to aferibe to climate the low ftature of the Laplanders,
or their ugly vifage. The black colour of negroes,
thick lipc, flat nofe, crifped woolly hair, and rank fmell,
diftinguiih them from every other race of men. T he
Abyffinians, on tbe contrary, are tall and well made,
their complexion a brown olive, features weft propor¬
tioned, eyes large and of a fparkling black, thin lips, a
nofe rather high than fiat. There is no fuch difference
of climate between Abyftinia and Negroland as to pro¬
duce thefe ftriking differences.
“ Nor (hall our author’s ingenious hypothefis con¬
cerning the extremities oi heat and cold, purchafe him
impunity with refpefl to the fallow complexion of tlie AmenA
Samoitdes, Laplanders, and, Greenlanders. 1 he lin- u-""v 1J
landers, and northern Norwegians, live in a climate
not lefs cold than that of the people mentioned •, and
yet are fair beyond other Europeans. 1 fay more,
there are many inftanees of races of people preferving
their original colour, in climates very different from
their own j but not a Angle inftanee ot the contrary, as
far as I can learn. There have been four complete ge¬
nerations of negroes in Pennfyivama, without any vifible
change of colour*, they continue jet black,.as origi¬
nally.’ Thofe who aferibe all to the fun, ought to con-
fider how little probable it is, that the colour it impref-
fes on the parents fliould be communicated to their
infant children, who never faw the fun : I (liould be as
foon induced to believe with a German naturalift, whofe
name has efcaped me, that the negro colour is owing to
an ancient euitom in Africa, of dyeing the (kin black.
Let a European, for years, expofe himftlf to the fun
in a hot climate, till he be quite brown *, his children
will neverthelefs have the fame complexion with thofe
in Europe. From the adtion of the fun, is it poflible
to explain, why a negro, like a European, is born with
a ruddy {kin, which turns jet black the eighth or ninth
day ?
Our author next proceeds to draw fome arguments
for the exiftence of different races of men, from the
Various tempers and difpofitions of different nations j
which he reckons to be ftecific differences, as weft as
thofe of colour, ftature, &c. and having fummed up his
evidence he concludes thus: “ Upon fumming up the
whole particulars mentioned above, would one hefitate
a moment to adopt the following opinion, were there
no counterbalancing evidence, viz. ‘ lhat God creat-
«■ ed many pairs of the human race, differing from
‘ each other, both externally and internally ; that he
‘ fitted thofe pairs for different climates, and placed
‘ each pair in its proper climate *, that the peculiari-
‘ ties of the original pairs were preferved entire in
‘ their defeendants ; who having no afliftance but their
4 natural talents, were left to gather knowledge from
4 experience, and, in particular, were left (each tribe)
4 to form a language for itfelf; that figns were fuffi-
4 cient for the original pairs, without any language
4 but what nature fuggefts ; and that a language was
4 formed gradually as a tribe increafer in numbers,
4 and in different occupations, to make fpeech necef-
4 fary ?’ But this opinion, however plaufible, we are
not permitted to adopt ; being taught a different leflon
by revelation, viz. Flint God created but a fingle
pair of the human fpecies. Though we cannot doubt
the authority of Mofes, yet his account of the crea¬
tion of man is not a little puzzling, as it feems to con¬
tradict every one of the faCts mentioned above. Ac¬
cording to that account, different races of men were
not formed, nor were men formed originally for difter-
ent climates. Aft men mull have fpoken the fame
language, viz. that of our firft parents. And what of
aft feems the moft contradictory to that account, is the
favage ftate : Adam, as Mofes informs us, was endued
by his Maker with an eminent degree of knowledge j
and he certainly was an excellent preceptor to his chil¬
dren and their progeny, among whom he lived many
generations. Whence then the degeneracy of aft men
into the favage ftate ? To account for that difmal ca-
taftronhe.
America,
His hypo-
the-fis con
83
intomplete.
A ME f 2
taftrortlic, mankind mud have fa'Fered force ternole con-
vulfion. That terribleconvulfion is revealed tons in the
hiftory of the tower of Babel contained in the nth
chapter of Genefis, which is, ‘ That, for many cen-
tnries after the deluge, the whole earth was of one
origin of ‘language, and of one fpeech 5 tiiat they united to
the dift’er- < build a city on a plain in the land of Shinar, with a
«nt fpecies, { toWfr wh0fe top might reach unto heaven •, that the
< Lord, beholding the people to be one, and to have
‘ all one language, and that nothing would be re-
‘ (drained from them which they imagined'to do, con-
‘ founded their language that they might not under-
< ftand one another, and fcattered them abroad upon
‘ the face of all the earth.’ Here light breaks forth
in the mid ft of darknefs- By confounding the language
of men, and {battering them abroad upon the face of all
the earth, they were rendered favages. And to harden
them for their new habitations, it was neceflary that
they (hould be divided into different kinds, fitted for
different climates. Without an immediate change of
conftitution, the builders of Babel could not poffibly
have fublifted in’the burning region of Guinea, nor in
the frozen region of Lapland ; houfes not being prepa¬
red, nor any other convenience to protect them againft
a deftruftive climate. ’
We may firft remark, on his lordftiip’s hypothefis,
that it is evidently incomplete1, for, allowing the human
race to have been divided into different fpecies at the
confufion of languages, and that each fpecies was ad¬
apted to a particular climate ; by what means were
they to get to the climates proper for them, or how
were they to know that filch climates exifted ? How
was an American, for inftance, when languiihing in an
improper climate at Babel, to get to the land o[ the
Amazons, or the banks of the Oroonoko, in his own
country ? or how was he to know that thefe places
were more proper for him than others ?—-If, indeed
we take the Scripture phrafe, “ The Lord fcattered
them abroad upon the face of all the earth,” in a cer¬
tain fenfe, we may account for it. If we fuppofe that
the different fpecies were immediately carried off by
a whirlwind, or other fupernatural means, to their pro¬
per countries, the difficulty will vaniffi : but if this is
his lordffiip’s interpretation, it is certainly a very fm-
gular one.
txenerai Before entering upon a confideration of the particu-
principles lar arguments ufed by our author for proving the di-
to be kept verfity of fpecies in the human race, it will be proper
$n View in to jay <jown tbe following general principles, which
may ferve as axioms. (1.) When we affert a multi¬
plicity of fpecies in the human race, we bring in a fu-
pernatural caufe to folve a natural phenomenon : for
thefe fpecies are fuppofed to be the immediate work
of the Deity. (2.) No perfim has a right to call any
thing the immediate effett of Omnipotence, unlefs by
exprefs revelation from the Deity, or from a certain¬
ty that no natural caufe is fufficient to produce the ef-
fe£h The reafon is plain. The Deity is invifible, and
fo are many natural caufes; when we fee an effeft, there¬
fore, of which the caufe does not manifeft itfelf, we
cannot know whether the immediate caufe is the Deity
or an invifible natural power. An example of this we
have in the phenomena of thunder and earthquakes,
which were often aferibed immediately to the Deity,
But are now difeovered to be the effe£Is of electricity.
7 ] AM E
(3.) No perfon can affert natural caufes to be infuffieient Amerrt.
to produce fuch and fiich effeCts, unlefs he perfectly '
knows all thefe caufes and the limits of their power in
all poffible cafes) and this no man has ever known or
can know.
By keeping in view thofe principles, which we hope
are felf-evident, we will eafily fee Lord Karnes’s ar¬
guments to confift entirely in a petitio pmncipn.—1 n
fubftance they are all reduced to this fingie ientence :
“ Natural philofophers have been hitherto unfuccefsful
in their endeavours to account for the differences ob-
ferved among mankind; therefore thefe differences can¬
not be accounted for from natural caufes.
*4
General
reafoning
on this
fubject.
wv.         I . 85
His Lordfhip, however, tells us in the paffages al- Inroniift*
ready quoted, that “ a maftiff differs not more from
fpaniel, than a Laplander from a Dane;” that “ it is{^RIine;5*s
vain to aferibe to climate the low ftature of the Lap- argument,
landers, or their ugly vifage.”—Yet, in a note on the
word Laplanders^ he fubjoins, that, “ by late accounts
it appears, that the Laplanders are only degenerated
Tartars; and that they and the Hungarians originally
fprung from the fame breed of men, and from the fame
country.”—The Hungarians are generally bandfome
and well-made, like Danes, or like other people. 1 lie
Laplanders, he tells us, differ as much from them as a
maftiff from a fpaniel. Natural caufes, therefore, ac¬
cording to Lord Karnes himfelf, may caufe two indivi¬
duals of the fame fpecies of mankind differ from each
other as much as a maftiff does from a fpaniel.
While we are treating-this fubjedl of colour, it may Eernark-
not be amifs to obferve, that a very remarkable differ- able differ¬
ence of colour may accidentally happen to individuals
of the fame fpecies. In the ifthmus of Darien, a fin* ascidentat
gular race of men has been difeovered.— 1 hey are ofcaufas.
low ftature, of a feeble make, and incapable of endu¬
ring fatigue. Their colour is a dead milk-white ; not
refembling that of fair people among Europeans, .but
without any bluffi or (anguine complexion. Their fkin
is covered with a fine hairy down of a chalky white;
the hair of their heads, their eyebrows, and eyelafties,
are of the fame hue. Their eyes are of a fingular
form, and fo weak, that they can hardly bear the light
of the fun ; but they fee clearly by moonlight, and are
moft active and gay in the night. Among the negroes
of Africa, as well as the natives of the Indian illands,
a fmall number of thefe people are produced. They
are called Albinos by the Portuguefe, and Kackerlakes
by the Dutch.
This race of men is not indeed permanent ; but it is Colour no
fufficient to ffiow, that mere colour is by no means the charafter-
charafteriftic of a certain fpecies of mankind, ffhe dif- |^‘c a
ference of colour in thefe individuals is undoubtedly
owing to a natural caufe. To conftitute, then, a race 1
of men of this colour, it would only be neceffary that
this caufe, which at prefent is merely accidental, ftiould.
become permanent, and we cannot know but it may be
fo in fome parts of the world. gj
If a difference in colour is no chara'fteriftic of a dif-nor ftature,
ferent fpecies of mankind, much lefs can a difference
in ftature be thought fo. In the fouthern parts of A-
merica, there is faid to be a race of men exceeding
the common fize in height and ftrer.gth *. This ac-* See Fata*
count, however, is doubted of by fome ; but be that#®"^'
as it will, it is certain that the Esquimaux are as much
under the common fize, as the Patagonians are faid to
America.
.S9
Different
caules con¬
tribute to¬
wards an
alteration
in colour.
50
Habit ca¬
pable ol al
tering the
inftindl of
animals.
Voyage
round the
Worlds
vul. i.
¥, 234-
A M E [
be above it. Neverthelefs tve are not to imagine, that
either of thefe are fpecific difterences j feeing the Lap¬
landers and Hungarians are both of the fame fpecies,
and yet the former are generally almolt a foot fhorter
than the latter ; and if a difference of climate, or other
accidental caufes, can make the people of one country
a foot Ihorter than the common lize of mankind, un¬
doubtedly accidental caufes of a contrary nature may
make thofe of another country a foot taller than other
men.
Though the fun has undoubtedly a {hare in the pro-
duftion of the fwarthy colour of thofe nations which
are moft expofed to his influence ; yet the manner of
living to which people are accuftomed, their victuals,
their employment, &c. muft contribute very much to
a difference of complexion. There are fome kinds of
colouring roots, which if mixed with the food of cer¬
tain animals, will tinge even their bones of a yellow
colour. It cannot be thought any great degree of cre¬
dulity to infer from this, that if thefe roots were mixed
with the food of a white man, they might without a
miracle, tinge his fkin of a yellow colour. If a man
and woman were both to ufe food of this kind for a
length of time, till they became, as it were, radically
dyed, it is impoflible, without the intervention of divine
power, or of fome extraordinary natural caufe, but their
children muft be of the fame colour ; and was the fame
kind of food to be continued for feveral generations, it
is more than probable that this colour might refift the
continued ufe of any kind of food whatever. See further
the article Complexion.
Of this indeed we have no examples, but we have
an example of changes much more wonderful. It is
' allowed on all hands, that it is more eafy to work a
change upon the body of a man, or any other animal,
than upon his mind. A man that is naturally cho¬
leric may indeed learn to prevent the bad effedts of his
paffion by reafon, but the paftion itfelf will remain as
immutable as kis colour. But to reafon in a manner
fimilar to Lord Karnes ; though a man ihould be na¬
turally choleric, or fubjedt to any other paftion why
iliould his children be fo ?—This way of reafonmg,
however plaufible, is by no means conclufive ; as will
appear from the following paffage in Mr border’s
June 9th. “ The officers who could not yet reliflr
their fait provifions after the refrefhments of New Zea¬
land, had ordered their black dog, mentioned p. 135.
to be killed : this day, therefore, we dined for the firft
time on a leg of it roafted ; which tailed fo exaftly
like mutton, that it was abfolutely undiftinguiftrable.
In our cold countries, where animal food is fo much
ufed, and where to be carnivorous perhaps lies in
the nature of men, or is indifpenfably neceffary to
the prefervation of their health and ftrength, it is
Branae that there ffiould exift a Jewifti averfion to dogs
flefti when hogs, the moft uncleanly of all animals,
are eaten without fcruple. Nature feems exprefsly to
have intended them for this ufe, by making their off-
fnring fo very numerous, and their mcreafe fo quick
and frequent. It may be objefted, that the exalted
de-w'ee of inftinft which we obferve .in our dogs, in-
fpires us with great unwillingnefs to kill and eat them.
But it is owing to the time we fpend on the education
of dogs, that they acquire thofe eminent qualities
28 ] A M E
which attach them fo much to us. The natural quali- America,
ties of our dogs may receive a wonderful improvement •, » “
but education muft give its affiftar.ee, without which_
the human mind itfelf, though capable of an immenfe
expanfion, remains in a very contraflcd ftale. . In New
Zealand, and (according to former accounts of voyages)
in the tropical iftes of the South fea, the dogs are the
moft ftupid dull animals imaginable, and do not feem to
have the leaft advantage in point of fagacity over our
(beep, which are commonly made the emblems of filli-
nefs. In the former country they are fed upon fifti, in
the latter on vegetables, and both thefe diets may have
ferved to alter their difpofition. Education may per¬
haps likewife graft new inftin&s j the New Zealand
dogs are fed on the remains of their mailer’s meals j
they eat the bones of other dogs \ and the puppies be¬
come true cannibals from their birth. We had a young
New Zealand puppy on board, which had certainly had
no opportunity of tailing anything but.the mother’s
milk before we purchafed it : however, it eagerly de¬
voured a portion of the flelh and bones of toe dog on
which we dined to-day j while feveral others of the Eu¬
ropean breed, taken on board at the Cape, turned from
it without touching it.
“ On the 4th of Auguft, a young bitch, of the ter- lb. p. 243.
tier breed, taken on board at the Cape of Good Hope,
and covered by a fpaniel, brought ten young ones, one
of which was dead. The New Zealand dog mention¬
ed above, which devoured the bones of the roafted
dog, now fell upon the dead puppy, and ate of it with
a ravenous appetite. This is a proof how far education
may go in producing and propagating new inftindls in
animals. European dogs are never fed on the meat^ of
their own fpecies, but rather feem to abhor it. The
New Zealand dogs, in all likelihood, are trained up
from their earlieft age to eat the remains of their ma¬
iler’s meals : they are therefore ufed to feed upon fifti,
their own fpecies, and perhaps human ftelh } and what
was only owing to a habit at firft, may have become
inftinfl byTength of time. This was remarkable in our
cannibal dog ; for he came on board fo young, that he
could not have been weaned , long enough to have ac¬
quired a habit of devouring bis own fpecies, and much
lefs of eating human flefh } however, one of our fea-
men having cut his finger, held it out to the dog,
who fell to greedily, licked it, and then began to
bite it.” • n- n
From this account it appears, that even the initincts
of animals are not unchangeable by natural caufes j and
if thefe caufes are powerful enough to change the dif-
pofitions of fucceeding generations, much more may we
fuppofe them capable of making any poflible alteration
in the external appearance.
We are not here neceffitated to confine ourfelves to Confirmed
obfervations made on brute animals. The Franks are by anobfer-
an example of the produflion of one general charaaer»;h^10i"r^k3o
formed by fome natural caufe from a mixture of many
different nations.— They were a motley multitude,
confifting of various German nations dwelling beyond
the Rhine : who, uniting in defence of their common
liberty, took thence the name of Franks; the word
frank fignifying in their language, as it ftill does in
ouvei, free. Among them the following nations.were
mentioned, viz. the A£luarii, Chamavi, Biufteri, Sa-
lii Frifii, Chaufi, Amfwarii, and Catti. We cannot
7 fiinnoi©
A M E
[ 29 ]
A M E
America.
9Z
Of the peo¬
pling of
America.
fupnofe one charafter to belong to fo many different
' nations j yet it is certain that the Franks were nation¬
ally characterized as treacherous ^ and fo deeply feems
this quality to have been rooted in their nature, that
their defendants have not got quite free of it in 15°^
years. It is in vain, then, to talk of different races o£
men,* either from their colour, fize, or prevailing dif-
pofitions, feeing we have undeniable proofs that all thefe
may be changed in the molt remarkable manner, oy
natural caufes, without any miraculous interpofition of
the Deity.
The next queftion, then, which prefents itfelf is, From
what part of the old world America has moil probably
been peopled ?
Difcoveries long ago made inform us, that an intei-
93
two ways
courfe between the old continent and America might
be carried on with facility from the north-well extre¬
mities of Europe and the north-eaft boundaries of A-
fia. In the ninth century the Norwegians difcovered
Greenland, and planted a colony there. The com¬
munication with that country was renewed in the laft
century by Moravian miffionaries, in order to propa¬
gate their doftrines in that bleak and uncultivated re¬
gion. By them we are informed that the north-weft
coaft of Greenland is feparated from America .by a very
narrow ftrait; that at the bottom of the bay it is highly
probable that they are united 5. that the EfquimauX of
yj America perfectly referable the Greenlanders in their
A comma- afpeft, ,jrefs> and mode of living ; and that a Moravian
be" ween miffionary, well acquainted with the language of Green-
the old and land, having vifited the country of the Efquimaux,
new conti- found, to his aftonilhment, that they fpoke the fame lan-
nents by guage with the Greenlanders, and were in every refpeft
the fame people. The fame fpecies of animals, too, are
found in the contiguous regions. The bear, the wolf,
the fox, the hare, the deer, the roebuck, the elk, fre¬
quent the forefts of North America, as well as thofe in
the north of Europe.
Other difcoveries have proved, that if the two con¬
tinents of Alia and America be feparated at all, it is
only by a narrow ftrait. From this part ol the old con¬
tinent, alfo, inhabitants may have paffed into the new ;
and the refemblance between the Indians of America
and the eaftern inhabitants of Alia, would induce us to
conje&ure that they have a common origin. This is
the opinion adopted by Dr Robertfon in his Hiftory of
ff^oryo/America*, where we find it accompanied with the fol-
m ovt /vr « • •
lowing narrative.
“ While thofe immenfe regions which ftretch eaft-
ward from the river Oby to the fta of Kamtfchatka
were unknoivn, or imperfeftly explored, the north-eaft
extremities of our hemifphere were fuppofed to be fo
far diftant from any part of the new world, that it
was not eafy to conceive how any communication Ihould
have been carried on between them. But the Ruffians,
having fubjefted the weftern parts of Siberia to their
empire, gradually extended their knowledge of that vaft
country, by advancing towards the eaft into unknown
provinces. Thefe were difcovered by hunters in their
excurfions after game, or by foldiers employed in levy¬
ing the taxes •, and the court of Mofcow eftimated the
importance of thofe countries only by the fmall addi¬
tion which they made to its revenue. At length, Pe¬
ter the Great afcended the Ruffian throne : His en-
2
America,
vol. i.
P- 253*
lightened comprehenfive mind, intent upon every cir- America
cumftance that could aggrandife his empire, or render ' 
his reign illuftrious, difcerned confequences of thefe dif¬
coveries, which had efcaped the obfervation of his igno¬
rant predeceffors. He perceived that, in proportion as
the regions of Alia extended towards the eaft, they muft
approach nearer to America } that the communication
between the continents, which had long been fearched
for in vain, would probably be found in this quarter y
and that, by opening this intercourfe, fome part of the
wealth and commerce of the weftern world might bo
made to flow into his dominions by a new channel.
Such an objeft fuited a genius that delighted in grand
fehemes. Peter drew up inftruttions with his own
harfds for profecuting this defign, and gave orders for
carrying it into execution.
“ His fucceffor» adopted his ideas, and purfued his
plan. The officers whom the Ruffian court employed
in this fervice, had to ftruggle with fo many difficulties,
that their progrefs was extremely flow. Encouraged
by fome faint traditions among the people of Siberia
concerning a fuccefsful voyage in the year 1648 round
the north-eaft promontory ot Alia, they attempted to
follow the fame courfe. Veffels were fitted out, with
this view, at different times, from the rivers Lena and
Colyma •, but in a frozen ocean,'which nature feems
not to have deftined for navigation, they were expofed
to many difafters, without being able to accomplilh
their purpofe. No veffel fitted out by the Ruffian court
ever doubled this formidable cape j we are indebted for
what is known of thofe extreme regions of Alia, to the
difcoveries made in excurfions by land. In all thofe
provinces, an opinion prevails, that countries of great
extent and fertility lie at no confiderable diftance from
their own coafts. Thefe the Ruffians imagined to be
part of America 5 and feveral circumftances concurred
not only in confirming them in this belief, but in per-
fuading them that fome portion of' that continent could
not be very remote. Trees of various kinds, unknown
in thofe naked regions of Alia, are driven upon the
coaft by an eafterly wind. By the fame wind floating
ice is brought thither in a few days ; flights of birds
arrive annually from the fame quarter ; and a tradition
obtains among the inhabitants, of an intercourfe for¬
merly carried on with lome countries fituated to the
eaft.
“ After weighing all thefe particulars, and compar¬
ing the pofition of the countries in Alia which they
had difcovered, with fucb parts in the north-weft of A-
merica as were already known ; the Ruffian court form¬
ed a plan, which would have hardly occurred to any
nation lefs accuftomed to engage in arduous underta¬
kings and to contend with great difficulties. Orders
were iffued to build two veffels at Ochotz, in the
fea of Kamtfchatka, to fail on a voyage of difcovery.
Though that dreary uncultivated region furnilhed no¬
thing that could be of ufe in conftrufting them but
fome larch trees j though not only the iron, the cord¬
age, the fails, and all the numerous articles requifite
for their equipment, but the provifions for vi&ualling
them, were to be carried through the immenfe deferts
of Siberia, along rivers of difficult navigation, and roads
almoft impaffable, the mandate of the fovereign, and
the perfeverance of the people, at laft furmounted every
obftacle. Two veffels were finiihed j and, under the
command-
A M E
[
]
A M E
the two
continents
to have
been once
joined.
America, command of the captains Behring and Tfchirikow, fail-
1—“y~—' ed from Kamtfchalka in quell of the new world, in a
quarter where it had never been approached. They
fliaped their courfe towards the eaft ; and though a ftorm
foon feparated tiie vtlTels, which never rejoined, and
many difafters befel them, the expectations from the
voyage were not altogether fruftrated. Each oi the
commanders difcovered land, which to them appeared
to be part of the American continent 5 and, according
to their obfervations, it feems to be fituated within a
few degrees of the north-weft coaft of California. Each
fet fume of his people aftiore : but in one place the in¬
habitants fled as the Ruffians approached.; in another,
they carried off thofe who landed, and deftroyed their
boats. The violence of the weather, and the diflrefs of
their crews, obliged both to quit this inhofpitable coall.
In their return they touched at feverai iflands, which
ftretch in a chain from eaft to weft between the country
which they had difcovered and the c,oaft of Afia. 1 hey
had fume intercourfe with the natives, who feemed to
them to referable the North Americans. They pre-
fented to the Ruffians the calumet, or pipe of peace,
which is a fymbol of friendthip univerfal among the peo¬
ple of North America, and a ufage of arbitrary inftitu-
^ tion peculiar to. therm'”
TUa'ons for The more recent and accurate difcoveries of the il-
fuppoting luftrious navigator Cook, and his fucceffor Clerke,
have brought the matter ftill nearer to certainty. The
fea, from the fouth of Behring’s ftraits to the crefeent
of illss between Afia and America, is very (hallow. It
deepens from thefe ftraits fas the Britiffi feas do from
thofe of Dover) till foundings are loft in the Pacific
ocean ; but that does not take place but to the fouth
of the ifles. Between them and the ftraits is an increafe
from twelve to fifty-four fathoms, except only off St
Thaddeus Nofs, where there is a channel of greater
depth. From the volcanic difpofition, it has been judg¬
ed probable, not only that there was a feparation of the
continents at the ftraits of Behring, but that the whole
fpace from the ifies to that fmall opening had once been
occupied by land ; and that the fury of the watery ele¬
ment, actuated by that of fire, had, in moft remote
times, fubverted and overwhelmed the tradl, and left
the iHands monumental fragments.
Without adopting all the fancies of Buffon, there
can be do doubt, as the abbe Clavigero obferves, that
our planet has been fubjett to great viciffitudes, fince
quentfepa- tiie cteiUg.e. Ancient and modern hiftories confirm the
!dt!0!'’ truth which Ovid has fung in the name of Pythagoras :
JfiJco cqo quod fuerat quondam fohdijjima tclius,
EJfefreturn ; vidi facias cx a:quote terras.
At prefent they plough thofe lands over which ftiips
formerly failed, and now they fail over lands which
were formerly cultivated ; earthquakes have fwallowed
fume lands, and fubterraneous fires have thrown up
others ; the rivers have formed new foil with their
mud : the fea retreating from the Ihores has lengthen¬
ed the land in fume places, and advancing in others
has diminiffied it ; it has feparated fome territories
which were formerly united, and formed new ftraits
and gulfs. We have examples of all thefe revolutions
the paft century. Sicily was united to the
95
Probable
caufe of
tbeir fubfe
in
con¬
tinent of Naples, and the ifland Euboea to Bceotia.
Diodorus, Strabo, and other ancient authors, fay the
fame, thing of Spain and Africa, and affirm, that by a \rserica,
violent irruption of the ocean upon the land between ——y——
the mountains Abyla and Calpe, that communication
was broken, and the Mediterranean fea was formed.
Among the people of Ceylon there is a tradition that
a firailar irruption of the fea feparated their ifland. from
the peninfula of India. The fame thing is believed by
thole of Malabar with relpeft to the iiles of Maldivia,
and with the Malayans with refpeil to Sumatra. 1c
is certain, fays the count de Buffon, that in Ceylon the
earth has loft thirty or forty leagues, which the fea has
taken from it ; on the contrary, Tongres, a place of
the Low Countries, has gained 30 leagues of land from
tile fea. The northern part of Egypt owes its exift-
ence to inundations of the Nile. The earth which
this river has brought from the inland countries of A-
fica, and depofited in its inundations, has formed a
foil of more than 25 cubits in depth. In like manner,
adds the above author, the province of the Yellow
River in China, and that of Louifiana, have only been
formed of the mud of rivers. Pliny, Seneca, Diodorus,
and Strabo, report innumerable examples of limilar re¬
volutions, which we omit, that our differtation may not
become too prolix ; as alfo many modern revolutions,
which are related in the theory of the earth of the
eoupt de Buffon and other author*. In South Ameri¬
ca, all thofe who have obferved with philofophic eyes
the peninfula of Yucatan, do not doubt that that coun¬
try has once been the bed of the fia ; and, on the con¬
trary, in the channel of Bahama many indications {how
the ifland of Cuba to have been once united to the
continent of Florida. In the ftrait which feparates
America from Afia many iflands are found, which
probably were the mountains belonging to the traft of
land which we fuppofe to have been fwallowed up by
earthquakes; which is made more probable by the
multitude of volcanoes which we know of in the penin¬
fula of Kamtfchatka. It is imagined, however, that the
finking of that land, and the feparation of the two
continents, has been occafioned by thofe great and ex¬
traordinary earthquakes mentioned in the hiftories of
the Americans, which formed an era almoft as memo¬
rable as that of the deluge. The hiftories of the Tolte-
cas fix fuch earthquakes in the firft year of lecpatl; but
as we know not to what century that belonged, we can
form no conjefture of the time that great calamity
happened. If a great earthquake Ihould overwhelm
the ifthmus of Suez, and there Ihould be at the fame
time as great a fcarcity of hiftorians as there was in
the firft ages after the deluge, it would be doubted,
in 300 or 40a years after, whether Afia had ever been
united by that part to Africa; and many would firmly
deny it. r . . , 96
Whether that great event, the feparation of tbe>separate<i
continents, took place before or after the population of only by a
America, is as impoffible as it is of little moment for usr':irrow
to know ; but we are indebted to the above-mentioned
navigators for fettling the long difpute about the point
from which it was effedled. Their obfervations prove,
that in one place the diftance between continent and
continent is only 39 miles, (not as the author of the
Recherches Fhilofophiques fur les Amcncains would have
it) 800 leagues. This narrow ftrait has alfo in the Eafiaefs of
middle two illands, which would greatly facilitate the the pafi-ag*
migration of the Afiatics into the new world, fuppo-
fing
A ME [3
America, fmg that it touk place in canoes after the convnlfion
t. t - - nuer which rent the two continents afunder. Bcndes, it may
be added, that thefe ftraits are, even in the fummer,
often filled with ice *, in winter, often frozen. In ci¬
ther cafe mankind might find an eafy palTage j in the
lad, the way was extremely ready for quadrupeds to
crofs and flock the continent of America. But where,
from the vad expanfe of the north-eaftern world, to fix
on the fir ft tribes who contributed to people the new
continent, now inhabited almoft from end to end, is a
matter that baffles human reafon. Ihe learned may
make bold and ingenious conjeaures, but plain good
fsnfe cannot always accede to them.
As mankind increafed in numbers, they naturally
protruded one another forward. Wars might be an-
ccraina the J)ther of migrations. There appears no reafon
firft m>R<a- ^ the Afldt;c north might not be an oficina vi'rorum,
as well as the European. The overtiming country,
to the eaft of the Riphsean mountains, muft find it ne-
ceffary to difeharge its inhabitants: the firft great wave
of people was forced forward by the next to it, more
tumid and more powerful than itfelf', fucceflive and
new impulfes continually arriving, ftiort reft was given
to that which fpread over a more eatiern tract dif-
turbed again and again, it covered frefti regions 5 at
length, reaching the fartheft limits of the old world,
found a new one, with ample fpace to occupy unrao-
lefted for ages: till Columbus curfed them by a difeo-
very, which brought again new fins and new deaths to
both worlds.
mr ren- “ The inhabitants of the new world (Mr Pennant
rumt’s opi- obferves) do not eonfift of the offspring of a_ tingle na-
nion- tion : different peoples, at feveral periods, arrived there;
and it is impoffible to fay, that any one is now to be
The balk f°und on the original fpot of its colonization. It is
of its inha- impoflible, with the lights which we have fo recently
bitants pro-received, to admit that America could receive its in
bably firlt
from the P’ace t^an ea^ern ■^i'ia-
America.
98
Conjec¬
tures con
tions into
the new
continent.
99
Mr Fen-
: , habitants (at leaf! the bulk of them) from any other
received */« r ^ iii
trom the -     A few proofs may be added,
«aftern part taken from cuftoms or dreffes common to the inhabi-
of Afia. tants of both worlds •, feme have been long extinft in
IO£ the old, others remain in both in full force.
Proofs “ The cuftom of fealping was a barbarifm in ufe
from a fi- with the Scythians, who carried about them at all times
cuftomf °f ^avage mar^ triumph : they cut a circle round
&C. ’ the neck, and dripped off the fkin, as they would that
of an ox. A little image found among the Calmucks,
of a Tartarian deity, mounted on a horfe, and fitting
on a human Ikin, with fealps pendent from the breaft,
fully illuftrates the cuftom of their Scythian progeni¬
tors, as deferibed by the Greek hiftorian. This ufage,
as the Europeans know by horrid experience, is conti¬
nued to this day in America. The ferocity of the
Scythians to their prifoners extended to the remoteft
part of Afia. The Eamtfchatkans, even at the time
of their difeovery by the Ruffians, put their prifoners
to death by the moft lingering and excruciating inven¬
tions •, a pradlice in full force to this very day among
the aboriginal Americans. A race of the Scythians
were ftyled Anthropophagi, from their feeding on hu¬
man flefh. The people of Nootka Sound ft ill make
a repaft on their fellow-creatures \ but what is more
wonderful, the favage allies of the Britilh army have
been known to throw the mangled limbs of the French
i ] A M E
prifoners into the horrible caldron, and devour them
with the fame relifh as thofe of a quadruped.
“ The Scythians were faid, for a certain time, an¬
nually to transform thcmfelves into wolves, and again
to refum^ the human fhape. 'J he new-difeovered A-
mericans about Nootka Sound at this time diiguife
themfelves in dreffes made of the Ikins of wolves and
other wild beads, and wear even the heads fitted to
their own. Ihefe habits they ufe in the chafe, to
circumvent the animals of the field. But would not
ignorance or fuperftition aferibe to a fupernatuial me-
tamorphofis thefe temporary expedients to deceive the
brute creation ?
“ In their marches, the Kamtfehatkans never went
abreaft, but followed one another in the fame track.
The fame cuftom is exactly obferved by the Ameri¬
cans.
“ The Tungufi, the moft numerous nation refident
in Siberia, prick their faces with fmall puncluies, with
a needle, in various ftiapes ; then rub into them char¬
coal, fo that the marks become indelible. 'J his cuftom
is ft ill obferved in feveral parts of America. The In¬
dians on the back of Fludfon’s bay, to this day, pei-
form the operation. exa£lly in the fame manner, and
pun&ure the Ikin into various figures; as the natives
of New Zealand do at prefent, and as the ancient Bri¬
tons did with the herb glaftum, or woad ; and the
Virginians, on the firft difeovery of that country by the
Englifh.
“ The Tungufi ufe canoes made of birch bark,
diftended over ribs' of wood, and nicely fewed toge¬
ther. The Canadians, and many other American na¬
tions, ufe no other fort of boats. I he paddles of the
Tungufi are broad at each end ; thofe of the people
near Cook’s river, and of Oonalafeha, are of the fame
form.
“ In burying of the dead, many of the American
nations place the corpfe at full length, after preparing
it according to their cuftoms ; others place it in a fit¬
ting pofture, and lay by it the moft valuable clothing,
wampum, and other matters. T. he 1 artars did the
fame ; and both people agree in covering the whole
with earth, fo as to form a tumulus, barrow, or car-
nedd.
“ Some of the American nations hang their dead
in trees. Certain of the Tungufi obferve a fimilar cu¬
ftom.
“ We can draw fome analogy from drefs : conveni-
ency in that article mitft have been confulted on both
continents, and originally the materials muft have been
the fame, the {kins of birds and hearts.. It is fingular,
that the conic bonnet of the Chincfe ftiould be found
among the people of Nootka. I cannot give into the
notion, that the Chinefe contributed to the population
of the new world ; but we can readily admit, that a
ftiipwreek might furnifti thofe Americans with a pat¬
tern for that part of the drefs. X03
“ In refpeft to the features and form of the human Other re-
body, almoft every tribe found along the weftern coal! femblance.
has fome fimilitude to the Tartar nations, and ftill
retains the little eyes, fmall nofes, high checks, and
broad faces. They vary in fize, from the lufty Cal¬
mucks to the little Nogaians. The internal Ameri¬
cans,, fuch as the Five Indian nations, who are tall of
bodv.
A M E [ 32
America, body, robuft. of make, and of oblong faces, are derived
—ini from a variety among the Tartars themfelveS. The fine
race of Tfchutlki feems to be the flock from which thofe
Americans are derived. The Tfchutfki, again, from
that fine race of Tartars the Kabardinfki, or inhabitants
of Kabarda.
“ But about Prince William’s found begins a race
chiefly diftinguithed by their drefs, their canoes, and
their inflruments of the chafe, from the tribes to the
fouth of them. Here commences the Efquimaux peo¬
ple, or the race known by that name in the high la¬
titudes of the eaftern fide of the continent. T hey may
be divided into two varieties. At this place they are
of the largeft fize. As they advance northward, they
decreafe in height, till they dwindle into the dwarfifli
tribes which occupy fome of the coafts of the Icy fea,
and the maritime parts of Hudfon’s bay, of Greenland,
and Terra de Labrador. The famous Japanefe map
places fome iflands feemingly within the flraits of Beh¬
ring, on which is beftowed the title of 27? iae, or the
Kingdom of the Dwarfs. Does not this in fome man¬
ner authenticate the chart, and give us reafon to fup-
pofe that America was not unknown to the Japanefe ;
and that they had (as is mentioned by Kaempfer and
Charlevoix) made voyages of difcovery, and, accord¬
ing to the laft, aftually wintered on the continent ?
That they might have met with the Efquimaux is very
probable : whom, in comparifon of themfelves, they
might juftly diftinguifli by the name of dwarfs. I he
reafon of their low ftature is very obvious : thefe
dwell in a moll Revere climate, amidlt penury of food *,
the former in onQ^much more favourable, abundant m
provifions—circumftances that tend to prevent the de¬
generacy of the human frame. At the ifland of Oona-
lafcha, a dialefl of the Efquimaux is in ufe, which was
continued along the whole coaft from thence north¬
ward.” . .111
The continent which flocked America with the hu¬
man race poured in the brute creation through the
migrate d pame paflW. Very few quadrupeds continued in the
by thefam6 infuia of Karatfchatkaj Mr Pennant enumerates
only 25 which are inhabitants of land : all the reft
perfifted in their migration, and fixed their refidence
in the new world. Seventeen of the Kamtfchatkan
quadrupeds are found in America: others are common
only to Siberia or Tartary, having, for unknown
caufes, entirely evacuated Kamtfchatka, and divided
themfelves between America and the part of
above cited. Multitudes again have deferted the old
world even to an individual, and fixed their feats at
diftances moft remote from the fpot from which they
took their departure •, from Mount Ararat, the refting-
place of the ark, in a central part of the old world,
and excellently adapted for the difperfion of the ani¬
mal creation to all its parts. We need not be liar tied
(fays Mr Pennant) at the vaft Journeys many of the
quadrupeds took to arrive at their prefent feats. Might
not numbers of fpecies have found a convenient abode
in the vaft Alps of Afia, inftead of wandering to the
Cordilleras of Chili? or might not others have been
contented with the boundlefs plains of 1 artary, in¬
ftead of travelling thoufands of miles to. the extenfive
flats of Pampas ?—To endeavour to elucidate common
difficulties is certainly a trouble worthy of the philo-
]
A M E
104
The brute
creation
migrate d
fopher and of the divine j not to attempt it tvould be a Ameries
criminal indolence, a negledl to —y—
Vindicate the ways of God to man.
But there are multitudes of points beyond the human
ability to explain, and yet are truths undeniable : the
fa<fts are indifputable, notwithftanding the caufes are
concealed. In fuch cafes, faith muft be called in to
our relief. It would certainly be the height of folly
to deny to that Being who broke open, the fountains
of the great deep to effeift the deluge—and after¬
wards, to compel the dilperfion of mankind to peo¬
ple the globe, direfted the confufion of languages—
powers inferior in their nature to thefe. After thefe
wondrous powers of Omnipotencej it will be abfurd to
deny the poffibility of infufing inftinft into the brute
creation. Tdeus cjl anwici brutorutn $ God himfelf is
the foul of brutes His pleafure muft have determined
their will, and direded feveral fpecies, and even whole
genera, by impulfe irrefiftible, to move by flow pro-
greffion to their deftmed regions. But for that, the
lama and the pacos might ftill have inhabited the heights
of Armenia and fome more neighbouring Alps, in¬
ftead of labouring to gain the diftant Peruvian Andes ,
the whole genus of armadillos, flow of foot, would
never have quitted the torrid zone of the old world
for that of the new •, and the whole tribe of monkeys
would have gamboled together in the forefts of India,
inftead of dividing their refidence between the (hades
of Indoftan and the deep forefts of the Brafils. Lions
and tigers might have infefted the hot parts, of the
new world, as the firft do the deferts of Africa, and
the laft the provinces of Afia *, or the pantherine ani¬
mals of South America might have remained additional
fcourges with the favage beads of thofe ancient con¬
tinents. The old world would have been overrtocked
with animals; the new remained an inanimated wafte!
or both have contained an equal portion of every beaft
of the earth. Let it not be objedled, that animals
bred in a fouthern climate, after the defeent of their
parents from the ark, would be unable to bear the
froft and fnow of the rigorous north, before they reach¬
ed South America, the place of their final deftination.
It muft be confidered, that the. migration muft have
been the work of ages: that in the courfe of.their
progrefs each generation grew hardened to the climate
it had reached ; and that after their arrival in America,
they would again be gradually accuftomed to warmer
and warmer climates, in their removal from north to
fouth, as they had been in the reverfe, or from fouth to
north. Part of the tigers ftill inhabit the eternal fnows
of Ararat ; and multitudes of the very fame fpecies live,
but with exalted rage, beneath the line, in the burning
foil of Borneo or Sumatra; but neither lions nor tigers
ever migrated into the new w'orld. A few of the firft
are found in India and Perfia, but they are found in
numbers only in Africa. 71 he tiger extends as far north
as Weftern Tartary, in lat. 40. 50. but never has reached
Africa.”
In fine, the conjeflures of the learned refpecring
the vicinity of the old and new worlds, are now, by. the
difeoveries of our great navigators; loft in conviction ;
and in the place of imaginary hypothefes, the real
place of migration is incontrovertibly pointed out.
r Some
A M E [ 33 ]
A M E
America. Some (from a paffage in Plato) have extended over the
——y——' Atlantic, from the ftraits of Gibraltar to the. coaft
of North and South America, an illand equal in fize
to the continents of Afia and Africa j over which had
paffed, as over a bridge, from the latter, men and ani¬
mals, woolly-headed negroes, and lions and tigers, none
of which ever exifted in the new world. A mighty
fea arofe, and in one day and night engulfed this
ftupendous traft, and with it every being which had
not completed its migration into America : The whole
negro race, and almoft very quadruped, now inhabi¬
tants of Africa, perithed in this critical day. Five
only are to be found at prefent in America} and of
thefe only one, the bear, in South America : Not a
fingle cuftom, common to the natives of Africa and
America, evinces a common origin. Of the qua¬
drupeds, the bear, flag, wolf, fox, and weafel, are
the only animals which we can pronounce with cer¬
tainty to be found on each continent. '1 he flag, fox,
and weafel, have made alfo no farther progrefs in
Africa than the north but on the fame continent the
wolf is fpread over every part, yet is unknown in
South America, as are the fox and weafel. In Africa
and < South America the bear is very local, being met
with only in the north of the firft, and on the Andes
in the laid. Some caufe unknown arrefted its progrefs
in Africa, and impelled the migration of a few into
the Chilian Alps, and induced them to leave unoccu¬
pied the vaft tra£l from North America to the lofty
Cordilleras.
Remains of Allufions have often been made to fome remains, on
antiquity the continent of America, of a more polilhed and cul-
tn America, tivated people, when compared with the tribes which
pofleffed it on its firft difcovery by Europeans. Mr
Barton, in his Qbfervations on fome parts of Natural
Hflory, Part I. has collefted the fcattered hints of
Kalm, Carver, and fome others, and has added a plan
of a regular work which has been difcovered on the banks
of the Mulkingum, near its jumftion with the Ohio.
Thefe remains are principally ftone walls, large mounds
of earth, and a combination of thefe mounds with the
walls, fufpefted to have been fortifications. In fome
places the ditches and the fortrefs are faid to have been
plainly feen : in others, furrows, as if the land had been
ploughed.
The mounds of earth are of two kinds : they are arti-
fical tumuli, defigned as repofitories for the dead ; or
.they are of a greater fize, for the purpofe of defending
the adjacent country ; and with this view they are arti¬
ficially conftrudted, or advantage is taken of the natural
eminences, to raife them into a fortification.
The remains near the banks of the Mulkingum, are
fituated about one mile above the jun&ion of that river
With the Ohio, and 160 miles below Fort Pitt. They
confift of a number of walls and other elevations, of
ditches, &c. altogether occupying a fpace of ground
about 300 perches in length, and from about 150 to
25 or 20 in breadth. The town, as it has been called,
is a large level, encompafted by walls, nearly in the
form of a fquare, the fides of which are from 96 to 86
perches in length. Thefe walls are, in general, about
10 feet in height above the level on which they ftand,
and about 20 feet in diameter at the bafe, but at
the top they are much narrower ; they are at prefent
overgrown with vegetables of different kinds, and,
Vol. II. Part I.
among others, with trees of feveral feet diameter. America.
The chafms, or openings in the W'alls, were probably v~ '
intended for gateways j they are three in number at
each fide, befides the fmaller openings in the angles.
Within the walls there are three elevations, each about
fix feet in height, with regular afcents to them : thefe
elevations confiderably refemble fome of the eminences
already mentioned, Avhich haVe been difcovered near
the river Miftiftippi. This author’s opinion is, That the
Toltecas, or fome other Mexican nation, were the peo¬
ple to whom the mounts and fortifications, which he
has defcribed, owe their exiftence \ and that thofe
people were probably the defcendants of the Danes.
The former part of this conjefture is thought proba¬
ble, from the fimilarity of the Mexican mounts and
fortifications defcribed by the abbe Clavigero, and
other authors, to thofe defcribed by our author j and
from the tradition of the Mexicans, that they came
from the north-weft ; for, if we can rely on the tefti-
mony of late travellers, fortifications firailar to thofe
mentioned by Mr Barton, have been difcovered as far
to the north as Lake Pepin ; and we find them, as \Ve
approach to the fouth, even as low as the coafts of
Florida. The fecond part of our author’s conjecture
appears not fo well fupported. 106
It is believed by many, that the ancients had fome The an-
imperfeCt notions of a new world •, and feveral ancient c*e^s ^UP“
authors are quoted in confirmation of this. In a book
afcribed to the philofopher Ariftotle, we are told thatfcme;m.
the Carthaginians difcovered an ifland far beyond the perfect no¬
pillars of Hercules, large, fertile, and finely watered “on°I a
with navigable rivers, but uninhabited. This iflandnt:w wor*
was diftant a few days failing from the continent ; its
beauty induced the difcoverers to fettle there \ but the
policy of Carthage diflodged the colony, and laid ftrifb
prohibition on all the fubjeCts of the ftate not to at¬
tempt any future eftabliftiment. This account is alfo
confirmed by a hiftorian of no mean credit, who re¬
lates, that the Tyrians would have fettled a colony on
the new difcovered ifland, but were oppofed by the
Carthaginians for ftate reafons. The following paffage
has alfo been quoted from Seneca’s Medea, in confirma¬
tion of this notion.
 Venient annis
Scecula feris, quibus oceanus
Vincula rerum laxet, et ingens
Patent tel/us, Typhifque novos
Delegat orbes ; nec fit terris
Ultima Thule*-    
ACf iii. ver. 375.
Other authors are alfo quoted in fupport of this be¬
lief. But however this may be, nobody ever believed
the exiftence of this continent fo firmly as to go in queft
of it ; at leaft, there are no accounts well fupported
that America received any part of its firft inhabitants IOy
century. The Welfh Pretenfions
contributed, in iiyo,0*^*1®
to people the new world, by the adventure of Madoc,
fon of Owen Gwynedd, who, on the death of his fa-very o/a"-
ther, failed there, and colonized part of the country, merica in
All that is advanced in proof is, a quotation from one the 12th
of our poets, which proves no more than that he hadcentury*
diftinguifhed himfelf by fea and land. It is pretended
that he made twro voyages : that failing weft, he left
E Ireland
from Europe prior to the 1 ^th
fondly imagine that our country
America.
10S
Thofe of
the Nor¬
wegians
better
founded.
A M E [
Ireland fo far to the north, that he came to a land un¬
known, where he faw many ftrange things j that he re¬
turned home, and making a report of the fruitfulnefs
of the newT-difcovered country, prevailed on numbers of
the Welfh of each fex to accompany him on a fecond
voyage, from which he never returned. The favourers
of this opinion afifert, that feveral Wellh words, fuch as
gwrando, “ to harken or liften the ifle of Crcefo,
or “ welcome $” Cape Breton, from the name of our
own ifland •, gwynndwr, or “ the white water $” and
pengwyn, or “ the bird with a white head are to be
found in the American language. But likenefs of
found in a few words will not be deemed fufficient to
eftablifh the fa£t; efpecially if the meaning has been
evidently perverted : for example, the whole penguin
tribe have unfortunately not only black heads, but are
not inhabitants of the northern hemifphere ; the name
was alfo bellowed on them by the Dutch, a pinguedine,
from their exceflive fatnefs j but the inventor of this,
thinking to do honour to our country, inconfiderately
caught at a word of European origin, and unheard-of
in the new world. It may be added, that the Wellh
were never a naval people 5 that the age in which Ma-
doc lived was peculiarly ignorant in navigation \ and
the molt which they could have attempted mull have
been a mere coalting voyage.
The Norwegians put in for a lhare of the glory, on
grounds rather better than the Welfh. By their fettle-
ments in Iceland and in Greenland, they had arrived
within fo fmall a diltance of the new world, that there
is at lealt a poflibility of its having been touched at by
a people fo verfed in maritime affairs, and fo adventur¬
ous, as the ancient Nortmans were. The proofs are
much more numerous than thofe produced by the Bti-
trlh hillorians ; for the difcovery is mentioned in feve¬
ral of the Icelandic manufcripts. The period was
about the year 1002, when it was vilited by one Biorn :
and the difcovery purfued to greater effedl by Lief, the
fon of Eric, the difcoverer of Greenland. It does not
appear that they reached farther than Labrador ; on
which coall they met with Efquimaux, on whom they
bellowed the name of Skrce/ingues, or dwarfilh people,
from their fmall llature. They were armed with bows
and arrows, and had leathern canoes, fuch as they have
at prefent. All this is probable j nor Ihould the tale
of the German, called Turkil, one of the crew, invali¬
date the account. He rvas one day milling 5 but foon
returned, leaping and fmging with all the extravagant
marks of joy a bon vivant could fhow, on difcovering
the inebriating fruit of his country, the grape : Tor-
Leus even fays, that he returned in a Hate of intoxica¬
tion. To convince his commander, he brought feveral
bunches, who from that circumilance named the coun¬
try Vinland. It is not to be denied that North Ame¬
rica produces the true vine *, but it is found in far lower
latitudes than our adventurers could reach in the time
employed in their voyage, which was comprehended in
a very fmall fpace. There appears no reafon to doubt
of the difcovery ; but as the land was never colonized,
nor any advantage made of it, it may be fairly con-
jeclured, that they reached no farther than the barren
country of Labrador. In Ihort, it is from a much later
period that we mult date the real difcovery of Ame¬
rica.
Towards the clofe of the 15th century, Venice and
34 1 . . A M E .
Genoa being rivals in commerce, in which the former America.
had greatly the fuperiority, Chrillopher Columbus, a 1 v—
native of Genoa, whofe knowledge of the true figure of.j,™^
the earth, however attained, was much fuperior to.the^Pf0'
general notions of the age in which he lived, conceived chriftophet
a projedl of failing to the Ealt Indies by direfling his Columbus,
courfe well ward. The defign was founded upon a
miltake of the geographers of thofe days, who place
the eallern parts of Afia immenfely too far to the eait-
ward j fo that, had they been in the right, the Ihortell
way would have been to fail direaiy well ward. He
applied firlt to his own countrymen •, but being reje&ed
by them, he applied to France, where he was laugh¬
ed at and ridiculed. He next applied to Henry VII.
of England 5 but meeting with a difappointment there,
he made an application to Portugal, where he met with
the fame mortifying reception. Spain was his next re-
fource ; where, after eight years attendance, he obtain¬
ed, in 1492, a fleet of three Ihips. The largeit, a Ihip
of no conliderable burden, was commanded by Colum¬
bus as admiral, who gave it the name of Santa Maria,
out of refpedl for the bleffed Virgin, whom he honour¬
ed with lingular devotion. Of the fecond, called the
Pinte^ Martin Pinzon was captain, and his brother
Francis pilot. The third, named the Nigna, was un¬
der the command of Vincent Yanez Pinzon. Thefe
two were light veffels, hardly fuperior in burden or
force to large boats. I his fquadron, if it merits that
name, was vi&ualled for 12 months, and had on. board
90 men, mofily failors, together with a few adventurers
who followed the fortune of Columbus, and mme gen¬
tlemen of Ifabella’s court, whom Ihe appointed to ac¬
company him. I hough the expence of the undertak¬
ing was one of the circumftances which chiefly a-
larmed the court of Spain, and retarded fo long the
negotiation with Columbus, the fum employed in fit¬
ting out this fquadron did not exceed 40C0I. As Co¬
lumbus was deeply impreffed with fentiments of religion,
he would not fet out upon an expedition fo arduous, and
of which one great objeft was to extend the knowledge
of the Chriftian faith, without imploring publicly the
guidance and protection of Heaven. V/ith this view,
lie, together with all the perfons under his command,
marched in folemn proceflion to the monaftery of Rabi-
da. After confefling their fins, and obtaining abfolu-
tion, they received the holy lacrament from the hands
of the guardian, who joined his prayers to theirs lor tne
fuccefs of an enterprife which he had fo zealoufly patro-
nifed. _ no
Next morning being Friday the third day of Au-His voyage
guff, in the year 1492, Columbus fet fail a little be¬
fore funrife, in prefence of a vafi: crowd of fpeClators,
who font up their fupplications to Heaven for the prof-
perous iffue of the vox age, which they wifhed rather
than expeCted. Columbus fleered direCtly for the Ca¬
nary iflands, and arrived there without any occurrence
that would have dcferved notice on any other occafion :
but in a voyage of fuch expectation and importance,
every circumftance was the objeCl of attention. Ihe
rudder of the Pinta broke loofe the day after (he left
the harbour, and that accident alarmed the crew, no
lefs fuperflitious than unfkilful, as a certain omen of
the unfortunate deftiny of the expedition. Even in
the Ihort run to the Canaries, the flaps were found to
be fo crazy and ill appointed, as to be very improper
for
A M E
[ 35 ]
A M E
America.
for a navigation which was expefted to be both long and
dangerous. Columbus refitted them, however, to the
be(l°of his power ; and having fupplied himfelf with frefh
provifions, he took his departure from Gomera, one of
the molt weilerly of the Canary iflands, on the fixth
day of September.
Here the voyage of difcovery may properly be laid
to begin ; for Columbus, holding his courfe due weft,
left immediately the ufual track of navigation, and
ftretched into unfrequented and unknown feas. The
firft day, as it was very calm, he made but'little wayj
but on the fecond, he loft fight of the Canaries } and
many of the failors, dejefted already and difmayed,
when they contemplated the boldnefs of the undertak-
jng, began to beat their breafts, and to fhed tears, as
if they were never more to behold land. Columbus
comforted them with afiurances of fuccefs, and the
profpea of vaft wealth, in thofe opulent regions whi¬
ther he was conducing them. He regulated every
thing by his foie authority ; he fuperintended the exe¬
cution of every order } and allowing himfelf only a few
hours for ileep, he was at all other times upon deck.
As his courfe lay through feas which had not former¬
ly been vifited, the founding line or inftruments for
obfervation were continually in his hands. After the
example of the Portuguefe difcoverers, he attended to
the motion of tides and currents : watched the flight of
birds, the appearance of fifties, of fea-weeds, and of eve¬
ry thing that floated on the waves •, and entered every
occurrence, wflth a minute exa6tnefs, in the journal
which he kept. As the length of the voyage could
not fail of alarming failors habituated only to fhort ex-
curfions, Columbus endeavoured to conceal from them
the real progrefs which they made. With this view,
though they ran 18 leagues on the fecond day after
they left Gomera, he gave out that they had advanced
only 15 : and he uniformly employed the fame artifice
of reckoning Ihort during the whole voyage. By the
14th of September, the fleet was above 200 leagues to
the weft of the Canary ifies, at a greater diftance from
land than any Spaniard had been before that time.
There they were {truck with an appearance no lefs
aftonifliing than new. They obferved that the magnetic
needle, in their compafles, did not point exactly to the
polar ftar, but varied towards the weft ; and as they
the vam- proceeded this variation increafed. This appearance,
* yyhich js now familiar, though it ftill remains one of the
myfteries of nature, into the caufe of which the faga-
city of man hath not been able to penetrate, filled the
companions of Columbus with terror. They were now
in a boundlefs unknown ocean, far from the ufual courfe
of navigation *, nature itfelf feemed to be altered, and
the only guide which they had left was about to fail
them. Columbus, with no lefs quicknefs than inge¬
nuity, invented a reafon for this appearance, which,
though it did not fatisfy himfelf, feemed fo plaufible
to them, that it difpelled their fears, or filenced their
murmurs.
He ftill continued to fteer due weft, nearly in the
fame latitude with the Canary iflands. In this courfe
he came within the fphere of the trade wind, which
blows invariably from eaft to weft between the tropics,
and a few degrees beyond them. He advanced before
this fteady gale with fiich uniform rapidity, that it was
in
Alton i (la
ment occa'
fioned by
obferving
tion of the
compafs.
feldom neceflary to fhift a fail. When about 400 leagues America.
to the weft of the Canaries, he found the fea fo cover- —v 
ed with weeds, that it refembled a meadow of vaft ex¬
tent ; and in fome places they were fo thick as to re¬
tard the motion of the veffds. This ftrange appear¬
ance occafioned new alarm and difquiet. The failors
imagined that they were now arrived at the utmoft
boundary of the navigable ocean j that thefe floating
weeds would obftruft their further progrefs, and con¬
cealed dangerous rocks, or fome large trad of land,
which had funk, they knew not how, in that place.
Columbus endeavoured to perfuade them, that what had
alarmed, ought rather to have encouraged them, and
was to be confidered as a fign of approaching land. At
the fame time, a brifk gale arofe, and carried them tor-
ward. Several birds were feen hovering about the fiiip,
and directing their flight towards the weft. The de-
fponding crew refumed fome degree of fpirit, and began
to entertain frelh hopes.
Upon the firft of Odlober, they were, according to
the admiral’s reckoning, 770 leagues to the iveft of the
Canaries *, but left his men fhould be intimidated by
the prodigious length of the navigation, he gave out
that they had proceeded only 584 leagues j and, for¬
tunately for Columbus, neither his own pilot, nor thofe
of the other ftiips, had {kill fufticient to corrett this
error, and -dlifcover the deceit. They had now been
about three weeks at fea ; they had proceeded far be¬
yond what former navigators had attempted or deemed
poflible : all their prognoftics of difcovery, drawn from
the flight of birds and other circumftances, had proved
fallacious •, the appearances of land, with which their
own credulity or the artifice of their commander had
from time to time flattered and amufed them, had been
altogether illufive, and their profpeft of fuccefs feemed
now to be as diftant as ever. Thefe reflexions occur¬
red often to men, who had no other objeX or occupa¬
tion, than to reafon and difcourfe concerning the in¬
tention and circumftances of their expedition. They
made impreflion at firft upon the ignorant and timid,
and by extending by degrees to luch as were better in¬
formed or more refolute, the contagion fpread at length
from {hip to ftiip. From fecret whifpers or mur-
murings they proceeded to open cabals and public com¬
plaints. They taxed their fovereign with inconfiderate
credulity, in paying fuch regard to the vain promifes
and ralh conjeftures of an indigent foreigner, as to ha¬
zard the lives of fo many of her own fubjeXs, in pro-
fecuting a chimerical fcheme. They affirmed that they
had fully performed their duty, by venturing fo far in
an unknown and hopelefs courfe, and could incur no
blame, for refufing to follow, any longer, a defperate
adventurer to certain deftruXion. They contended,
that it was neceffary to think of returning to Spain,
while their crazy velfels were ftill in a condition to keep
the fea, butexpreffed their fears that the attempt would
prove vain, as the wind which had hitherto been fo
favourable to their courfe, muft render it impoffible to
fail in the oppofite direXion. All agreed that Colum¬
bus fhould be compelled by force to adopt a meafure
on which their common fafety depended. Some of the
more audacious propofed, as the moft expeditious and
certain method for getting rid at once of his remon-
ftrances, to throw him into the fea j being perfuaded
E 2 that,
A M E
America, that, upon their return to Spain, the death of an unfuc-
5 v 1 cefsful projector would excite little concern, and be in-
II2 quired into with no curiofity.
Perilous fi- Columbus was fully fenfible of his perilous fituation.
tuation of He had obfervcd, with great uneafinefs, the fatal ope-
t/olumbus. ratjon 0f ignorance and of fear in producing difaffec-
tiop among his crew ^ and faw that it was now ready
to bur ft out into open mutiny. He retained, however,
perfect prefence of mind. He afte&ed to feem igno¬
rant of the machinations. Notwithftanding the agi¬
tation and folicitude of his own mind, he appeared
with a cheerful countenance •, like a man fatisfied with
the progrefs which he had made, and confident of fuc
cefs. Sometimes he employed all the arts of infinuation
to foothe his men. Sometimes he endeavoured to work
upon their ambition or avarice, by magnificent defcnp-
tions of the fame and wealth which they were about to
acquire. On other occafions, he affumed a tone of au¬
thority, and threatened them with vengeance from their
fovereign, if, by their daftardly behaviour, they fhould
defeat this noble effort to promote the glory of God,
and to exalt the Spanifti name above that of every ether
nation. Even with feditious failors, the words of a man
whom they had been accuftomed to reverence were
weighty and perfuafive *, and not only reftrained them
from thole violent exceffes which they meditated, but
prevailed with them to accompany their admiral for
fome time longer.
As they proceeded, the indications of approaching
land feemed to be more certain, and excited hope in
proportion. The birds began to appear in flocks, mak¬
ing towards the fouth-weft. Columbus, in imitation of
the Portuguefe navigators, who had been guided in fe-
veral of their difcoveries by the motion of birds, altered
his courfe from due weft towards that quarter whither
113 they pointed their flight. But after holding on for fe-
The crews yeral days in this new dire£tion without any better fuc-
ready to ceps than formerly, having feen no objeft during 30
mutiny. days the fea an(j the hopes of his companions
fubfided fafter than they had rifen : their fears revived
with additional force-, impatience, rage, and defpair,
appeared in every countenance. All fenfe of fubordi-
dation was loft. The officers, who had hitherto_ con¬
curred with Columbus in opinion, and fupported his au¬
thority, now took part with the private men : they _af-
fembled tumultuoufly on the deck, expoftulated with
their commander, mingled threats with their expoftula-
tions, and required him inftantly to tack about and to
return to Europe. Columbus perceived that it would
be of no avail to have recourfe to any of his former arts,
which having been tried fo often had loft their efte£l j
and that it was impoffible to rekindle any zeal for the
fuccefs of the expedition among men in whofe breafts
fear had extinguiffied every generous fentiment. Pie
faw that it was' no lefs vain to think of employing either
o-entle or fevere meafures, to quell a mutiny fo general
and fo violent. It was neceffary, on all thefe accounts,
to foothe paffions which he could no longer command,
and give way to a torrent too impetuous to be check¬
ed ^Ple promifed folemnly to his men that he would
comply with their requeft, provided they would accom¬
pany him, and obey his commands for three days longer
and if, during that time, land were not difcovered, he
would’then abandon the enterprife, and direa his courfe
towards Spain.
A M E
Enraged as the failors were, and impatient to turn America.
their faces again towards their native country, this pro- ' v 
pofltion did not appear to them unreafonable. Nor did
Columbus hazard much in confining himfelf to a term
fo ffiort. The prefages of difcovcring land were now
fo numerous and promifing, that he deemed them in¬
fallible. For fome days the founding line reached the
bottom, and the foil which it brought up indicated
land to be at no great diftance. The flocks of birds
increafed ; and were compofed not only of fea fowl,
but of fuch land birds as could not be fuppofed to fly
far from the fliore. The crew of the Pinta obferved a
cane floating which feemed to be newly cut, and like-
wife a piece of timber artificially carved. The failors
aboard the Nigna took up the branch of a tree with
red berries perfedly freffi. The clouds around the
fetting fun affumed a new appearance ; the air was more
mild and warm ; and, during night, the wind became
unequal and variable. From all thefe fymptoms, Co¬
lumbus was fo confident of being near land, that on the
evening of the nth of October, after public prayers for
fuccefs, he ordered the fails to be furled, and the ihips
to lie by, keeping ftrift watch, left they ffiould be dri¬
ven a (bore in the night. During this interval of fuf-
penfe and expeftation, no man fnut his eyes, all kept
upon deck, gazing intently towards that quarter, where
they expefted to difcover the land which had been fo
long the obje£t of their willies. 1I4
About two hours before midnight, Columbus ftand-Their joy
ing on the forecaftle, obferved a light at a diftance, on defcry-
and privately pointed it out to Pedro Guttierez^a Page'^h*
of the queen’s wardrobe. Guttierez perceived it-, andcoa “
calling to Salcedo, comptroller of the fleet, all three
faw it in motion, as if it were carried from place to
place. A little after midnight the joyful found of
Land! Lund! was heard from the Pinta, which kept
always ahead of the other fliips. But having been f»
often deceived by fallacious appearances, every man
was now become flow of belief j and waited, in all the
anguilh of uncertainty and impatience, for the return
of day. As foon as morning dawned,.all doubts and
fears were difpelled. From every fliip an ifland was
feen about two leagues to the north, whofe flat and
verdant fields, well itored with wood, and watered with
many rivulets, prefented the afpedft of a delightful
country. The crew of the Pinta inftantly began the
Te Deum, as a hymn of thankfgiving to God and
were joined by thofe of the other fliips, with tears of
joy and tranfports of congratulation. I his office of
gratitude to heaven was followed by an a£t of juftice
to their commander. They threw themfelves at the
feet of Columbus, with feelings of felf-condemnation
mingled with reverence. They implored him to par¬
don their ignorance, incredulity, and infolence, which
had created him fo much unneceflary difquiet, and had
fo often obftru£ted the profecution of his well-concerted
plan j and paffing, in the warmth of their admiration,
from one extreme to another, they now pronounced the
man whom they had fo lately reviled and threatened,
to be a perfon infpired by Heaven with fagacity and
fortitude more than human, in order to accompliffi a
defign fo far beyond the ideas and conception of all for¬
mer ages.
As foon as the fun arofe, all the boats -were man¬
ned and armed. They rowed towards the ifland with
their
[ 36 1
America.
US ic coveicu wiLii a — r-'!:- '
They land velt 0f t^e fpeftacle had drawn together, whole atti-
r,„(. of j.U(ies ancj geftures expreffed wonder and aftonidiment at
A M E [ 37 1
tlielr colours difplayed, mill warlike mulic, and other become
martial pomp. As they approached the coaft, they law
it covered with a multitude of people, whom the no¬
in one of
the ill an els
of the new the tlrange objeas which prefented themfelves to their
world.
view. Columbus was the firft European who fet foot in
the new world which he had difeovered. He landed in
a rich drefs, and with a naked Iword in his hand. Elis
men followed 5 and, kneeling down, they all kiffed the
ground which they had fo long defired to fee. They
next erefled a crucifix j and, proflrating themfelves be¬
fore it, returned thanks to God for conducing their
voyage to fuch a happy iffue. . 1 • 1
The above was one of the Bahama iflands; to Avhich
he gave the name of San Salvador, and took poffeflion
of it in the name of their Catholic majefties. In this
firft voyage he difeovered feveral other of the Lucayo
or Bahama iflands, with thofe of Cuba and Hifpaniola.
The natives confldered the Spaniards as divinities, ^nd
the difeharge of the artillery as their thunder : they fell
proftrate at the found. The women, however, offered
their favours, and courted the embraces of their new
guefts as men. I heir hufbands were not jealous of
them y and in the arms of thefe wantons the compa¬
nions of Columbus are faid to have caught that malady
which direfts its poifon to the fprings of life. In a
fecond voyage many new iflands were difeovered.. . In
a third, he attained the great objeft of his ambition,
by difeovering the continent of America, near the
mouth of the river Oroonoko, on the firft day of Au-
guft 1498. His fuccefs produced a crowd of adventu¬
rers from all nations •, but the year before this, the
northern continent had been difeovered by Sebaftian
Cabot in the fervice of Henry VII. of England.
Notwithftanding the many fettlements of the Euro¬
peans in this continent, great part of America remains
Divifionof ftiU unknown. The northern continent contains the
America. Britifti colonies of Hudfon’s Bay, Canada, Nova Scotia,
New England, New York, New Jerfey, Pennfylvania,
Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina, Geor¬
gia, Eaft and Weft Florida. It contains alfo the Spa-
nifti territories of Louifiana, New Mexico, California,
and Mexico. Befides thefe, there are immenfe regions
to the weft and north, the boundaries of which have
never yet been difeovered. In fuch as are in any de¬
gree known, dwell the Efquimaux, the Algonquins, the
Hurons, the Iroquois, the Cherokees, the Chickafaws,
and many other tribes of Indians. In the fouthern con¬
tinent lie the Spanifli provinces of Terra Firma, Guiana,
Peru, Paraguay, and Chili ; together with that of Bra-
fil, belonging to the Portuguefe ; and the country of
Surinam, belonging to the Dutch. Vaft trafts, how¬
ever, in the inland parts, are unknown, being compre¬
hended under the general name of Ama%onia. A large
diftrift alfo, faid to be the refidence of a gigantic race
of men, lies on the eaft fide of the continent, between
the ftraits of Magellan and the province of Paraguay.
See Patagonia.
This vaft country produces moft of the metals, mi¬
nerals, plants, fruits, trees, and woods, to be met with
in the other parts of the world, and many of them in
greater quantities and high perfedlion. The gold and
filver of America have fupplied Europe with fuch im-
saenfe quantities of thofe valuable metals, that they are
116
The conti¬
nent after¬
wards dif¬
eovered.
[I7
A M E
vaftly more common •, fo that the gold and America,
filver of Europe now bear little proportion to the v ~ '
high price fet upon them before the difeovery of Ame-
rica.
It alfo produces diamonds, pearls, emeralds, ame-
thyfts, and other valuable (tones, which, by being
brought into Europe, have contributed likewife to
lower their value. To thefe, which are chiefly the
produdtion of Spanifli America, may be added a great
number of other commodities, which, though of lefs
price, are of much greater ufe •, and many of them
make the ornament and wealth of the Britifti empire
in this part of the world. Of thefe are the plentiful
fupplies of cochineal, indigo, anatto, logwood, brazil,
fuftic, pimento, lignum vitae, rice, ginger, cacao or the
chocolate nut, fugar, cotton, tobacco, banillas, red-wood,
the balfams of Tolu, Peru, and Chili, that valuable ar¬
ticle in medicine the Jefuits bark, mechoacan, faflafras,
farfaparilla, caflia, tamarinds, hides, furs, ambergris, and
a great variety of woods, roots, and plants j to which,
before the difeovery of America, we were either entire
ftrangers, or forced to buy at an extravagant rate from
Afia and Africa, through the hands of the Venetians
and Genoefe, who then engroffed the trade of the eaft-
ern world.
On this continent there grows alfo a variety of ex¬
cellent fruits j as pine-apples, pomegranates, citrons, le¬
mons, oranges, malicatons, cherries, pears, apples, figs,
grapes j great numbers of culinary, medicinal, and other
herbs, roots, and plants ; with many exotic produ&ions,
which are nouriftied in as great perfe&ion as in their
native foil. up
Although the Indians ftill live in the quiet pofleflTmn The differ-
of many large trails, America, fo far as known, isentpofief-
118
Its produc-
iions.
chiefly claimed, and divided into colonies, by three mer;ca>
European nations, the Spaniards, Englifli, and Por¬
tuguefe. The Spaniards, as they firft difeovered it,
have the largeft and richeft portion, extending from
New Mexico and Louifiana in North America, to the
ftraits of Magellan in the South fea, excepting the
large province of Brafil, which belongs to Portugal j
for though the French and Dutch have fome forts in
Surinam and Guiana, they fcarcely deferve to be con¬
fldered as proprietors of any part of the fouthern conti¬
nent.
Next to Spain, the moft confiderable proprietor of
America was Great Britain, who derived her claim to
North America from the firft difeovery of that continent
by Sebaftian Cabot in the name of Henry VII. anno
1497, about fix years after the difeovery of South Ame¬
rica by Columbus in the name of the king of Spain.
This country was in general called Newfoundland; a
name which is now appropriated folely to an ifland upon
its coaft. It was a long time before we made an at¬
tempt to fettle in this country. Sir Walter Raleigh,
an uncommon genius and a brave commander, firft
fliowed the way, by planting a colony in the fouthern
part, which he called Virginia, in honour of his mif-
trefs Queen Elizabeth.
The French indeed, from this period until the con-
clufion of the war before laft, laid claim to, and ac¬
tually poffeffed, Canada and Louifiana ; comprehending
all that eKtenfive inland country reaching from Hud¬
fon’s Bay on the north, to Mexico and the gulf of
the fame name on the fowth. But in that war,, to
which, s
A M E r 33 ] A M E
America, which their perfidy and ambition gave rife, they were
not only driven from Canada and its dependencies, but
obliged to relinquifh all that part of Louifiana lying on
the eaft fide of the Mifliflippi, as related under the Hi-
Vait ex- Mory of BRITAIN. And thus our colonies were pre-
tent of the ferved, fecured, and extended fo far, as to render it dif-
Britifh pof- fieult to afcertain the precife bounds of our empire in
feflions be- North America. To the northward we might have
fate revo extended our claims quite to the pole itfelf, nor did any
lution. nationfeem inclined to difpute the property of this north-
ernmoft country with us. From that extremity we had
a territory extending fouthward to Cape Florida in the
gulf of Mexico, N. Lat. 250, and confequently nbar
4000 miles long in a diredtline. And to the weftward
our boundaries reached to nations unknown even to the
Indians of Canada.
Of the revolution that has fince taken place, by
‘which a great part of thofe territories has been fepa-
rated from the Britilh empire, the hiftory follows in the
next article.
feft equality of advantages and privileges in matters -America,
of commerce, yet in thofe of government they thought
themfelves fully competent to the talk of conducing
their domeltic concerns with little or no interference
from abroad. Though willing to admit the fupremacy
of Great Britain, they viewed it with a fufpicious eye,
and with a marked defire and intent fpeedily to give it
limitations.
Their improvements in all the neceffary and ufeful
arts did honour to their induftry and ingenuity. Though
they did not live in the luxury of Europe, they had all
the folid and fubftantial enjoyments of life, and were
not unacquainted with many of its elegancies and re¬
finements.
A circumltance much to their praife is, that not-
withftanding their peculiar addiction to thofe occupa¬
tions of which lucre is the foie objeft, they were duly
attentive to cultivate the field of learning; and they
have ever fince their firft foundation been particularly
careful to provide for the education of their riling pro-
Rife of the America, United States of. Of the rife and ella-
American blilhment of this republic, which has given a new face
republic, to the weltern world, a fuccinft and impartial narrative
lhall in this article be attempted; in which, however,
we cannot hope entirely to avoid errors, as they are
perhaps unavoidable. The accounts from which the
hillorian mull derive his information are not yet clear¬
ed from the miltakes of prejudice and the fabrications
of party ; when they differ, their comparative authenti¬
city is with difficulty afcertained: and they want above
all that foftening which they can receive from time
alone.
The beginning of every political ellablilhment is con¬
temptible. Some few banditti taking refuge among
the marlhes on the banks of the Tiber, laid the foun¬
dation of the Roman empire. The turbulence of fome
North Americans, and the blunders of fome Britilh
llatefmen, gave birth to this new republic, which at a
future period, it has been fancied, may perhaps furpafs
even the fplendour of Rome.
State and The Hate of the Britilh colonies at the conclufion of
charadter the war in 1763; was fuch as attradled the attention of
of the Bri- au {-he politicians in Europe. Their flourilhing condi-
^les atfthe t*on at Per^0^ wafi remarkable and linking : their
end of the trade had profpered in the midll of all the difficulties
war 1763. and dillreffes of a war in which they were fo nearly
and fo immediately concerned. Their population con¬
tinued on the increafe, notwithllanding the ravages and
depredations that had been fo fiercely carried on by the
French, and the native Indians in-their alliance. They
abounded with fpirited and adlive individuals of all de¬
nominations. They were fluffied with the uncommon
profperity that had attended them in their commercial
affairs and military tranfadlions. Hence they were rea¬
dy for all kind of undertakings, and faw no limits to
thfcir hopes and expedlations.
As they entertained the higheft opinion of their value
and importance, and the immenfe benefit that Britain
derived from its connexion with them, their notions
were adequately high in their own favour. They deem¬
ed 'themfelves, not without reafon, entitled to every
kindnefs and indulgence which the mother-country could
bellow.
Although their pretenfions did not amount to a per-
geny* . , T ,
Their vaft augmentation of internal trade and exter¬
nal commerce, was not merely owing to their pofition
and facility of communication with other parts; it
arofe alfo from their natural turn and temper, full of
fchemes and projects, ever aiming at new difcoveries,
and continually employed in the fearch of means of im¬
proving their condition.
Their condition carried them into every quarter
from whence profit could be derived. There was
fcarcely any port of the American hemifphere to
which they had not extended their navigation. They
were continually exploring new fources of trade, and
w'ere found in every fpot where bufinefs could be tranf-
afted.
To this extenfive and inceffant application to com¬
merce, they added an equal vigilance in the adminiftra-
tion of their affairs at home. Whatever could conduce
to the amelioration of the foil they poffeffed, to the pro-
grefs of agriculture, or to the improvement of their do-
meftic circumftances, was attended to with fo much la¬
bour and care, that it may be ftri&ly faid, that Nature
had given them nothing of which they did not make the
moft.
In the midll of this folicitude and toil in matters of
bufinefs, the affairs of government were conduced with
a lleadinefs, prudence, and lenity, feldom experienced,
and never exceeded, in the bell regulated countries of
Europe.
Such was the fituation of the Britilh colonies in ge¬
neral throughout North America, and of the New
England provinces in particular, when the pacifica¬
tion above mentioned opened one of the moll remark¬
able fcenes that ever commanded the attention of the
world. I23
The French, who have for many ages been the pro-intrigues of
feffed and natural enemies of Britain, had long viewed, the French,
with equal envy and apprehenfion, the flourilhing Hate
of thofe colonies Ihe had founded in North America.
No doubt at prefent fubfills, that they began immedi¬
ately after the peace of Paris to carry into execution
the fcheme they had formed for the feparation of the
Britilh colonies from the mother country.
Confcious that, whillt a good underllanding lalled
between them, the fuperiority mull henceforth remain
for
America.
A M E [39
for ever on the fide of Britain, it was only by their dif-
union that France could hope to regain the ftation and
confequence the had formerly poffeiled in Europe.
The firft fteps fhe took were to employ her fecret
emiffaries in fpreading diflatisfaftion among the Britilh
colonifts *, and the effefts produced by her machina¬
tions were precifely fuch as they had intended and ex-
pefted. The difpofition of the inhabitants of North
America began gradually to alter from that warmth
of attachment to" the mother-country which had fo pe¬
culiarly characterized them. They began to view her
rather in the light of a fovereign than that of a pa¬
rent ; and to examine, with a fcrupulous nicety, the
nature of thofe ties that rendered.them parts of her em¬
pire
]
A M E
Taxes laid In March 1764, a bill was palled, by which heavy
on goods duties were laid on goods imported by the colonifts
imported from Weft India illands as did not belong to Great
jnt? ^h®nc^'Britain ; at the fame time that thefe duties were to be
otherob" paid into the exchequer in fpecie : and in the fame fef-
noxious adts fion, another bill was framed to reftrain the currency
framed ; 0f paper money in the colonies themfelves. Thefe a£ts
115 coming fo clofe upon each other, threw the whole con-
whkhex- tinent into the utmoft ferment. Vehement remonftran-
afperate the ces were made to the miniftry, and every argument
Americans. ufe Gf that reafon or ingenuity could fuggeft •, but
to no purpofe. Their reafoning, however, convinced
a great number of people at home ; and thus the Ame¬
rican caufe came to be confidered as the caufe of li¬
berty.
The Americans, finding all argumentation vain, at
laft united in an agreement to import no more of the
manufaftures of Great Britain, but to encourage to
the utmoft of their power every thing of that kind
among themfelves. Thus the Britilh manufaflurers alfo
became a party againft miniftry, and did not fail to ex-
prefs their refentment in the ftrongeft terms •, but the
miniftry were not to be fo eafily daunted, and there-
12(j fore proceeded to the laft ftep of their intended plan,
The ftamp which was to lay on ftamp duties throughout the con-
a<ft framed, tinent. Previous to this, indeed, feveral regulations
were paffed in favour of the commerce of the colonies j
but they had now imbibed fuch unfavourable fentiments
of the Britifti miniftry, that they paid very little regard
to any thing pretended to be done in their favour ; or
if thefe a&s made any favourable impreflion, it was
quickly obliterated by the news of the ftamp adl. The
reafon given for this aft fo exceedingly obnoxious was,
that a fum might be raifed fufficient for the defence of
the colonies againft a foreign enemy ; but this pretence
was fo far from giving any fatisfaftion to the Ameri¬
cans, that it excited their indignation to the utmoft de¬
gree. They not only aflerted that they were abundant¬
ly able to defend themfelves againft any foreign enemy,
but denied that the Britifti parliament had any right to
tax them at all.
It would be fuperfluous to enter into any arguments
ufed by the contending parties on this important occa-
fion. It was evident that the matter was not to be
decided by argument but by force of arms ; and the
Britifti miniftry, too confident of the authority and
power of this country, determined to carry on matters
with a high hand, to terrify the colonifts into an im¬
plicit fubjeftion, or, if that would not do, to compel
them to it by force. The ftamp aft, after a violent
oppofition in parliament, was paffed, and its reception America,
in America was fuch as might have been expefted. —v -J
The news, and the aft itfelf, firft arrived at Bofton, Rec^2v7ed
where the bells were muffled and rung a funeral peal. with unj_
The aft was firft hawked about the ftreets, with a verfal in-
Death’s head affixed to it, and ftyled the “ Folly ofclignationin
England, and the Ruin of America and afterwards Amenca>
publicly burnt by the enraged populace : The ftamps
themfelves were feized and deftroyed, unlefs brought
by men of war, or kept in fortified places 5 thofe who
were to receive the ftamp duties were compelled to re-
fign their offices •, and fuch of the Americans as fided
with government on this occafion had their houfes
plundered and burnt.
Though thefe outrages were committed by the loweft
of the multitude, they were firft connived at by thofe of
fuperior rank, and the principles on which they were
founded afterwards openly patronifed by them 5 and the
doftrine became general, and openly avowed, that Bri¬
tain had no right whatever to tax the colonies without
their own confent.
It was now found abfolutely neceffary either to yield
to the Americans, by repealing the obnoxious ftatutes,
or to enforce them by arms. The ferment had diffufed
itfelf univerfally throughout the colonies. Virginia firft,
and after that all the reft of the provinces, declared
againft the right of Britain to lay on taxes in America ;
and that every attempt to veft others with this power
befides the king, or the governor of the province and
his general affembly, was illegal, unconftitutional, and
unjuft; Non-importation agreements were everywhere
entered into ; and it was even refolved to prevent the
fale of any more Britifti goods after the prefent year.
American manufaftures, though dearer, as well as in¬
ferior in quality to the Britifti, were univerfally prefer¬
red. An affociation was entered into againft eating of
lamb, in order to promote the growth of wool : and the
ladies with cheerfulnefs agreed to renounce the ufe of
every fpecies of ornament manufaftured in Britain. Such
a general and alarming confederacy determined the mi¬
niftry to repeal fome of the moft obnoxious ftatutes j and
to this they were the more inclined by a petition from
the firft; American congrefs, held at New York in the
beginning of Oftobcr 1765- I,s
The ftamp afl; was therefore repealed, to the univer- Repealed*
fal joy of the Americans, and indeed to the general fa¬
tisfaftion of the Englilh, whofe manufaftures had be¬
gun to fuffer very feverely in confequence of the Ame¬
rican affociation againft them. The difpui.es on the
fubjeft without doors, however, were by no means fi-
lenced, but each party continued to argue the cafe as
violently as ever. The celebrated Dr Benjamin Frank¬
lin was on this occafion examined before the houfe of
commons ; and his opinion was in fubftance as fol¬
lows : . I29
“That the tax in queftion was imprafticable and °
ruinous. The very attempt had fo far alienated the lln on ^
affeftion of the colonies, that they behaved in a lefs fubjedt.
friendly manner towards the natives of England than
before ; confidering the whole nation as confpiring
againft their liberty, and the parliament as willing ra¬
ther to opprefs than to fupport and aftift them. Ame¬
rica, in faft, did not ftand in any need of Britifti ma¬
nufaftures, having already begun to conftruft fuch as
might be deemed abfolutely neceffary, and that with.
• -Tnr» K
America.
13°
Declara¬
tory bill
gives of¬
fence in
America.
131
AiTembly
of New
York difco-
beys an a<£l
of parlia¬
ment.
A M E [4°
fiach fuccefs, as left no doubt of their arriving in a fliort
1 time at perfedtion. The elegancies of drefs had already-
been renounced for manufadlures of the American kind,
though much inferior 5 and the bulk of the people, con-
fifting of farmers, were fuch as could in no way be af-
fedled by the want of Britillr commodities, as having
every neceffary within themfelves. Materials of all
kinds were to be had in plenty : the wood was fine; flax
grew in great abundance, and iron was everywhere to
be met with.”
The Doftor alfo infifted, “ That the Americans had
:been greatly mifreprefented ; that they had been tra¬
duced as void of gratitude and affedfion to the parent
ftate ; than which nothing could be more contrary to
truth. In the war of 1755 they had at their own ex¬
pence, railed an army of 25,000 men ; and in that of
1739 they aflifted the Britiflr expeditions againft South
America with feveral thoufand men, and had made
many brave exertions againfl: the French in North
America. It was faid, that the war of 1755 had been
undertaken in defence of the colonies; but the truth
was, that it originated from a conteft about the limits
between Canada and Nova Scotia, and in defence of
the Engliflr rights to trade on the Ohio. The Ame¬
ricans, however, would ftill continue to adt with their
ufual fidelity; and, were any war to break out in which
they had no concern, would (how themfelves as ready
as ever to aflift the parent ftate to the utmoft of their
power, and would never fail to manifeft their readi-
nefs in contributing to the emergencies of government,
when called to do fo in a regular and conftitutional
manner.”
The miniftry were confcious, that in repealing this
obnoxious adl, they yielded to the Americans; and
therefore, to fupport, as they thought, the dignity of
Great Britain, it was judged proper to publifli a decla¬
ratory bill, fetting forth the authority of the mother-
country over her colonies, and her power to bind them
by laws and ftatutes in all cafes whatever. I his much
diminithed the joy with which the repeal of the ftamp
adl was received in America. It was confidered as. a
proper reafon to enforce any claims equally prejudicial
with the ftamp aft, which might hereafter.be fet up ;
a fpirit of jealoufy pervaded the whole continent, and a
flrong party was formed, watchful on every occafion.to
guard againft the fuppofed encroachments of the Britifti
power.
It was not long before an occafion offered, in which
the Americans manifefted a fpirit of abfolute indepen¬
dency ; and that, inftead of being bound by the Bri¬
tifti legiflature in all cafes, they would not be control¬
led by it in the moft trivial affairs. The Rockingham
miniftry had paffed an aft, providing the troops fta-
tioned in different parts of the colonies with fuch ac¬
commodations as were neceffary for them. The affem-
bly of New York, however, took upon them to alter
the mode of execution prefcribed by the aft of . parlia¬
ment, and to fubftitute one of their own. This gave
very great offence to the new miniftry, and rendered
them^ though compofed of thofe who had been adlive
againft the ftamp bill, lefs favourable to the colonies
than in all probability they would have otherwife been.
An unlucky circumftance at the fame time occurred,
which threw every thing once more into confufion.
One of the new miniftry, Mr Charles Townftiend, ha-
] AMI?
ving declared that he could find a way of taxing the America.
Americans without giving them offence., was called up-
on to propofe his plan. This was by impofin.g a duty xown_
upon tea, paper, painters colours, and glafs imported flienci’s
into America. The undutiful behaviour of the New plan to tax
York affembly, and that of Bofton, which had pro-America,
ceeded in a fimilar manner, caufed this bill to meet with
lefs oppofition than otherwife it might have done. As
a puniftiment to the refraftory affemblies, the legilla-
tive power was taken from that of New \ ork, until it
ftiould fully comply with the terms of the aft. That
of Bofton at laft fubmitted with reluftance. The bill
for the new taxes was quickly paffed, and fent to Ame¬
rica in 1768. . ^ ?
A ferment much greater than that occafioned by the’^'^J
ftamp aft now took place throughout the continent. greate]
The populace renewed their outrages, and thofe of hi- indigna-
perior ftation entered into regular combinations againft; tion than
it. Circular letters were fent from Maffachufets co-even the^
lony to all the reft, fetting forth the injuftiee and im¬
propriety of the behaviour of the Britifh legillature.
Meetings were held in all the principal towns, in which
it was propofed to leffen the confumption of foreign
manufaftures, by giving proper encouragement to their ^
own. Continual difputes enfued betwixt the gover-Quarrel be
nors and general affemblies of their provinces, which tween the
were much heightened by a letter from Lord Shelburne P^plej^
to Governor Bamand of Maffachufets Bay, containing pets
complaints of the people he governed. The affembly, and their
exafperated to the higheft degree, charged their gover- governor,
nor with having mifreprefented them to the court of
Britain, required him to produce copies of the letters
he had fent ; and, on his refufal, wrote letters, to the
Englifti miniftry, accufing him of mifreprefentation and
partiality, complaining at the fame time moft; grievouf-
ly of the proceedings of parliament, as utterly fubver-
five of the liberties of America, and the rights of Bri-
tifli fubjefts.
The governor, at a lofs how to defend himfelf, pro-
rogued the affembly ; and, in his fpeech on the occa¬
fion, gave a loofe to his refentment, accufing the mem¬
bers of ambitious defigns, incompatible with thofe of
dutiful and loyal fubjefts. To counteraft the circular
letter of the province of Maffachufets Bay, Lord Hillf-
borough, fecretary for the American department, fent
another to the governors of the different colonies, repro¬
bating the other as full of mifreprefentation, and tend¬
ing to excite a rebellion againfl; the authority of the pa¬
rent ftate.
Matters now haftened to a crifis. The governor hau
been ordered to proceed with vigour, and by no means
to fliow any difpofition to yield to the people as for- 135 .
merly. In particular, they were required to refcind He require
that refolution by which they had written the circular ^ ^
letter above mentioned; and, in cafe of a refufal, it fcin^ ,^6^
was told them that they would be diffolved. As this circular
letter had been framed by the refolutions of a former letter;
houfe, they defired, after a week’s confultation, that
a recefs might be granted to confult with their confti-
tuents ; but this being refufed, they came to a deter- 13£
mination, 92 againft 17, to adhere to the refolution which thej
which produced the circular letter. At the fame timerefufe.
a letter was fent to Lord Hillfborough, and a meffage
to the governor, in juftification of their proceedings.
In both they expreffed themfelves with fuch freedom
America.
'137
Aecufe
their go¬
vernor,
and peti¬
tion for his
removal.
133
A tumult
at Bofton.
13?
The aflem-
A M E [ 41
as was by no means calculated to accord with the fen-
timents of thofe in power. They infifted that they had
a ri^ht to communicate their fentiments to their fellow-
fubjeiSts upon matters of fuch importance •, complained
of the requifition to i'efcind the circular letter as uncon-
ftitutional and unjuft j and particularly infifted, that
they were reprefented as harbouring fedkious defigns,
when they were doing nothing but what was lawful and
right. At the fame time, they condemned the late a£ts
of parliament as highly oppreffive, and fubverfive of li¬
berty. The whole was concluded by a lift of accufa-
tions againft their governor, reprefenting him as unfit to
continue in his ftation, and petitioning the king for his
removal from it. .
Thefe proceedings Were followed by a violent tumult
at Bofton. A veffel belonging to a capital trader had
been feized in confequence of his having neglefted fome
of the new regulations ; and being taken under the pro-
tedftion of a man of war at that time lying in the har¬
bour, the populace attacked the houfes of the commif-
fioners of excife, broke their windows, deftroyed the col-
le&or’s boats, and obliged the cuftomhoufe ofticers to
take refuge in Caftle William, fituated at the entrance
of the harbour.
  The governor now took the laft ftep in his power to
fely diffolv- pUt a flop to the violent proceedings of this afiembly,
*d* by diffolving it entirely ; but this was of little moment.
Their behaviour had been highly approved by the other
colonies, who had written letters to them expreflive of
their approbation. After the diflblution of the aflem-
bly, frequent meetings of the people were held in Bof¬
ton, which ended in a remonftrance to the governor)
to the fame purpofe as fome of the former ; but con¬
cluding with an extraordinary requeft, that he would
take upon him to order the king’s (hips out of the har-
I40 hour.
The diftur- While the difpofition of the Boftonians was thus go-
bances ftill ing on from bad to worfe, news arrived that the agent
increafe. for tpe colony had not been allowed to deliver their
petition to the king; it having been obje£led, that the
affembly without the governor was not fufficient autho¬
rity. This did not contribute to allay the ferment; and
it was further augmented by the news that a number of
troops had been ordered to repair to Bofton, to keep the
inhabitants in awe.
A dreadful alarm now took place. The people call¬
ed on the governor to convene a general affembly, in
order to remove the fears of the military ; who they
faid were to be affembled to overthrow their liberties,
and force obedience to laws to which they were entire¬
ly averfe. The governor replied that it Avas no longer
in his poAver to call an aflfembly *, having, in his laft
inftru6Hons from England, been required to wait the
king’s orders, the matter being then under confidera-
tion at home. Being thus refnfed, the people took
upon themfelves the formation of an afiembly, Avhich
The peopleca}ie(J a Convention. The proceedings and refo-
fembf'cal" ^ut‘ons were conformable to their former be-
ied a Co71- haviour •, but noAV they Avent a ftep farther, and, un-
■vention; der pretence of an approaching rupture with France,
ordered the inhabitants to put themfelves in a pofture
of defence againft any fudden attack of an enemy ; and
circular letters Avere diredled to all the towns in the
province, acquainting them with the refolution that
had been taken in the capital, and exhorting them to
Vol. II, Part I,
141
Some
troops or¬
dered to
Bofton.
142
] A M E
proceed in the fame manner. The town of Hatfield America,
alone refufed its concurrence ; but this ferved only to ""a
expofe them to the cenfure and contempt of the reft.
The convention, however, thought proper to afiare
the governor of their pacific intentions, and reneAved
their requeft that an affembly might be called 5 but
being refufed any audience, and threatened Avith be-
ing treated as rebels, they at laft thought proper to which dif-
diffolve of themfelves, and fent over to Britain a cir- Solves, and
cumftantial account of their proceedings, with the rea-
fon of their having affembled in the manner already itsown con_
mentioned. dud.
The expefled troops arrived on the very day on
Avhich the convention broke up, and had fome houfes
in the town fitted up for their reception. Their ar¬
rival had a confiderable influence on the people, and
for fome time feemed to put a flop to the difturbances ;
but the feeds of difeord had now taken fuch deep root, 144
that it Avas impoffible to quench the fiame. The late Eoth houfes
outrageous behaviour in Bofton had given the greateft
offence in England j and, notwithftanding all the ef-drefsthe
forts of oppofition, an addrefs from both houfes of par-king againtt
liament was prefented to the king ; in Avhich the au-America,
dacious behaviour of the colony of Maffachufets Bay
Was fet forth in the moft ample manner, and the moft
vigorous meafures recommended for reducing them to
obedience. The Americans, hoAvever, continued fted-
faft in the ideas they had adopted. Though the troops
had for fome time quieted the difturbances, yet the
calm continued no longer than they appeared refpeft-
able on account of their number \ but as foon as this
Avas diminiftied by the departure of a large detachment,
the remainder Avere treated with contempt, and it Avas
e\’en refolved to expel them altogether. The country
people took up arms for this purpofe, and were to have
aflifted their friends in Bofton ; but before the plot
could be put in execution, an event happened Avhich put
an end to every idea of reconciliation betwixt the con¬
tending parties. 145
On the 5th of March 1770, a fcufHe happened bc-Somepeo-
tween fome foldiers and a party of the town’s people.
The inhabitants poured in from all quarters to the af- ®n°a'
fiftance of their fellow-citizens j a violent tumult en-mobat
fued, during Avhich the military fired among the mob, Bofton.
killing and wounding feveral of them. The whole
province now rofe in arms, and the foldiers Averc obli¬
ged to retire to Caftle William to prevent their being
cut in pieces. In other refpe&s, the determinations of
the Americans continued, if poflible, more firm than
ever, until at laft government, determined to aft Avith
vigour, and at the fame time to behave Avith as much
condefcenfion as pofiible, repealed all the duties late- I46
ly laid on, that of tea alone excepted. This Avas ^ exce It"
on purpofe to maintain the dignity of the croAvn ofthaTon
Britain ; and it was thought that it could not be pro-tea taken
dudlive of any difeontent in America, as being an af- olf;
fair of very little moment, the produce of which Avas
not expedted to exceed l6,o<5ol. The oppofition,
however, Avere ftrenuous in their endeavours to get this
tax likewife abrogated; infilling, that the Americans
would confider it only as an inlet to others 5 and that
the repeal of all the reft, Avithout this, Avould anfwer , .I47
no great purpofe. The event Ihowed that their °pi- v'iolent]3 ^
j-j Americans, oppofed the0pp0fccj
nion was Avell founded,
tea tax with the lame violence as they had done all the ail the reft.
F reft
formally
denies the
Eritifli
right of
taxation.
149
Gov. Hut-
chifon’s let-
ftry difco
vered.
A M E
America, reft : and at laft, on the news that falaries had been fet-
tied on the juftices of the fuperior court of Bofton, the
governor was addreffed on the fubjeft j the meafure was
condemned in the ftrongeft terms ; and a committee, fe-
lefted out of the feveral diurifts of the colony, appoint¬
ed to inquire into it.
Afiembly of I’he new affembly proceeded in the moft formal man-
Maffachu- ner to difavow the fupremacy of the Britilh legillature j
fets Bay accufed the parliament of Britain of having violated
the natural rights of the Americans in a number of
inflances. Copies of the tranfadlions of this affembly
were tranfmitted to every town in Maffachufets, ex¬
horting the inhabitants to rouie themfelves, and exert
every nerve in oppofition to the iron hand of oppref-
lion, which was daily tearing the choiceft fruits from
the fair tree of liberty. The difturbances were alfo
chifon s let-greatly heightened by an accidental difeovery that Mr
tifli mini-1 Hutchifon, governor of Mafiachufets Bay, had writ¬
ten feveral confidential letters to people in power in
England, complaining of the behaviour of the pro¬
vince, recommending vigorous meafures againft them,
and, among other things, afferting, that “ there mull
be an abridgement of what is called Britifh liberty.”
Letters of this kind had fomehow or other fallen in¬
to the hands of the agent for the colony at London.
They were immediately tranfmitted to Bofton, where
the aiTembly was fitting, by whom they were laid be¬
fore the governor, who was thus reduced to a very
mortifying fituation. Lofing every idea of refpedt or
friendthip for him as their governor, they mftantly de-
fpatched a petition to the king, requefting him to re¬
move the governor and deputy governor from their
The peti- places ; but to this they not only received no favourable
lion againft anfwer, but the petition itfelf was declared groundlefs
him refuted. and fcandalous.
S5J ' Matters were now ripe fur the utmoft extremities
Itroyed'at 011 the l>al t of the Americans > and they were brought
on in the following manner : Though the colonifts
had entered into a non-importation agreement againft
tea as well as all other commodities from Britain, it
had neverthelefs found its way into America, though
in fmaller quantities than before. This was fenfibly
felt by the Eaft India Company, who had now agreed
to pay a large fum annually to government ; in re-
compenfe for which compliance, and to make up their
Ioffes in other refpedls, they were empowered to export
their tea free from any duty payable in Britain ; and in
confequence of this permiftion, feveral (hips freighted
with the commodity were fent to North America, and
proper agents appointed for difpofing of it. The A-
mericatrs now perceiving that the tax was thus likely
to be enforced whether they would or not, determined
to take every poflible method to prevent the tea from
being landed, as well knowing that it would be im-
poflible to hinder the fale, ftiould the commodity once
be brought on fliore. For this purpofe the people af-
fembled in great numbers, forcing thofe to whom the
tea was configned to refign their offices, and to promife
folemnly never to refume them j and committees were
appointed to examine the accounts of merchants, and
make public lefts, declaring fuch as would not take
them enemies to their country. Nor was this beha¬
viour confined to the colony of Maflachufets Bay ^
the reft of the provinces entered into the conteft with
*53
Bolton,
[ 42 J A M E
the fame warmth, and manifefted the fame refolution America*
to oppofe the mother-country. 1 -y
In the midft of this confufion three fhips laden with
tea arrived at Bofton j but fo much were the captains
alarmed at the difpofition which feemed to prevail
among the people, that they offered, providing they
could-obtain the proper difeharges from the tea con-
fignees, cuftomhoufe, and governor, to return to Bri¬
tain without landing their cargoes. The parties con¬
cerned, however, though they durft not order the tea
to be landed, refufed to grant the difeharges required.
The fhips, therefore, would have been obliged to re¬
main in the harbour; but the people, apprehenfive that
if they remained there the tea would be landed in fmall
quantities, and difpofed of in fpite of every endeavour to
prevent it, refolved to deftroy it. at once. This refolu¬
tion was executed with equal fpeed and fecrecy. The
very evening after the above-mentioned difeharges had
been refufed, a number of people, dreffed like Mohawk
Indians, boarded the fhips, and threw into the fea their
whole cargoes, confifting of 342 chefts of tea ; after
which they retired without making any further di-
fturbance, or doing any more damage. No tea was
deftroyed in other places, though the fame fpirit was ^
everywhere manifefted. At Philadelphia the pilots werean(j refufe&
enjoined not to condudl the veffels up the river ; and at admittance
New York, though the governor caufed fome tea to be in oft1®1
landed under the protedlion of a man of war, he wasPlaceSj
obliged to deliver it up to the cuftody of the people, to
prevent its being fold.
The deftrudlion of the tea at Bofton, which happen¬
ed in November 1773, was the immediate prelude to
the difafters attending civil difeord. Government find¬
ing themfelves everywhere infulted and defpifed, refol¬
ved to enforce their authority by all poffible means j
and as Bofton had been the principal feene of the
riots and outrages, it was determined to punifh that
city in an exemplary manner. Parliament was ac¬
quainted by a meffage from his majefty with the undu-
tiful behaviour of the city of Bofton, as well as of all
the colonies, recommending at the fame time the moft
vigorous and fpirited exertions to reduce them to obe¬
dience. The parliament in its addrefs promifed a ready
compliance •, and indeed the Americans, by their out¬
rageous behaviour, had now loft many of their parti-
fans. It was propofed to lay a fine on the town of Bo- pun;ihment
fton equal to the price of the tea which had been de-0f Bofton
ftroyed, and to ftmt up its port by armed veffels until refolved on.
the refractory fpirit of the inhabitants fhould be fub-
dued ; which it was thought muft quickly yield, as a ^
total ftop would thus be put to their trade. The bill Arguments
was ftrongly oppofed on the fame grounds that the and peti-
other had been 5 and it was predicted, that inftead 0f dons againft
having any tendency to reconcile or fubdue the Ame- *
ricans, it would infallibly exafperate them beyond any
poffibiiity of reconciliation. The petitions againft it,
prefented by the colony’s agent, pointed out the fame
confequence in the ftrongeft terms, and in the moft po-
fitive manner declared that the Americans never would
fubmit to it; but fuch was the infatuation attending
every rank and degree of men, that it never was ima¬
gined, the Americans would dare to refill the parent
ftate openly, but would in the end fubmit implicitly to
her commands. In this confidence a third bill was
propofed
A M E
r
ftke.
15*
Quebec
bill.
157
Thefe adls
exafperate
America, propofed for the impartial adminiftration of juftic.e on
»— —v ‘ fuch perfons as might be employed in the fuppreflion of
155 riots and tumults in the province of Maffachufets Bay.
?nd hT.the By this a£t it. was provided, that fiiould any perfons
adSftra- afting in that capacity be indifted for murder, and
tkmofju- not able to obtain a fair trial in the province, they
might be fent by the governor to England, or to fome
other colony, if neceffary, to be tried for the fuppofed
crime. . .
Thefe three bills having paffed fo eafily, the minx-
ftry propofed a fourth, relative to the government of
Canada ; which, it was faid, had not yet been fettled
on any proper plan. By this bill the extent of that
province was greatly enlarged ; its affairs were put un¬
der the direction of a council into which Roman Catho¬
lics were to be admitted •, the Roman Catholic clergy
were fecured in their poffeflions and the ulual perqui-
fites from thofe of their own profeflion. The coun¬
cil above mentioned were to be appointed by the
crown, to be removable at its pleafure ; and to be
invefted with every legiflative power excepting that of
taxation.
No fooner were thefe laws made known in America,
than they cemented the union of the colonies almoft
the Ameri- ijeyoncl anv poffibility of diffolving it. The affembly
C2I1S' of Maffachufets Bay had paffed a vote againft the
judges accepting falaries from the crown, and put the
queftion, Whether they would accept them as ufual
from the general affembly ? Four anfwered in the affir¬
mative ; but Peter Oliver the chief juftice refufed.
A petition againft him, and an accufation, were brought
before the governor 5 but the latter refufed the accu¬
fation, and declined to interfere in the matter: but as
they ftill infilled for what they called juftice againft
Mr Oliver, the governor thought proper to put an end
to the matter by diffolving the affembly.
• In this fituation of affairs a new alarm was occa-
fioned by the news of the port bill. This had been
totally unexpedled, and was received with the moft
extravagant expreffiqns of difpleafure among the popu¬
lace j and while thefe continued, the new governor,
General Gage, arrived from England. He had been
chofen to this office on account of his being well ac¬
quainted in America, and generally agreeable to the
people ; but human wifdom could not now point out
a method by which the llame could be allayed. The
firft aft of his office as governor was to remove the af¬
fembly to Salem, a town 17 miles diftant, in confe-
quence of the late aft. When this was intimated to
the affembly, they replied, by requefting him to ap¬
point a day of public humiliation for deprecating the
wrath of heaven, but met with a refufal. When met
ingsofthe at Salem, they paffed a refolution, declaring the necef-
general af- fity of a general congrefs compofed of delegates from
~etaH the provinces, in order to take the affairs of the
colonies at large into confiderartion •, and five gentle¬
men, remarkable for their oppofition to the Britiffi
meafures, were chofen to reprefent that of Maffachu¬
fets Bay. They then proceeded with all expedition
to draw up a declaration, containing a detail of the
grievances they laboured under, and the neceffity of
exerting themfelves againft lawlefs power: they fet
forth the difregard ffiown to their petitions, and the
attempts of Great Britain to deftroy their ancient con-
ftitution j and concluded with exhorting the inhabitants
158
llefent-
ment occa.
fioned by
the port
bill.
* 59
Proceed-
Arr.effca.
160
the Generofity
of the peo-
43 1 A M E
of the colony to obftruft, by every method in their
power, fuch evil defigns, recommending at the fame
time a total renunciation of every thing imported from
Great Britain till a redrefs of grievances could be pro¬
cured.
Intelligence of this declaration tvas carried to
governor on the very day that it was completed; on,,^t|^^'
which he diffolved the affembly. Ihis was followed jem t0
by an addrefs from the inhabitants of Salem in favour thofe of
of thofe of Bofton, and concluding with thefe remark- Boftotu
able words: “ By {hutting up the port of Bofton,
fome imagine that the courfe of trade might be turned
hither, and to our benefit; but nature, in the forma¬
tion of our harbour, forbids our becoming rivals in com¬
merce with that convenient mart ; and were it other-
wife, we muft be dead to every idea of juftice, loft to
all feelings of humanity, could we indulge one thought
to feize on wealth, and raife our fortunes on the ruin
of our fuffering neighbours.”
It had been fondly hoped by the minifterial parly
at home, that the advantages which other towns of
the colony might derive from the annihilation of the
trade of Bofton would make them readily acquiefce in
the meafure of {hutting up that port, and rather re¬
joice in it than otherwife; but the words of the addrefs
above mentioned feemed to preclude all hope of this
kind; and fubfequent tranfaftions foon manifefted it rgl
to be totally vain. No fooner did intelligence arrive The caufe
of the remaining bills paffed in the feffion of 1774,01 Bofton
than the caufe of Bofton became the caufe of all the^^J' ^
colonies. The port bill had already occafioned th«
commotions throughout them all. It had been repro-coionies.
bated in provincial meetings, and refiftance even to the
laft had been recommended againft fuch oppreffion.
In Virginia, the firft of June, the day on which the
port of Bofton was to be ffiut up, was held as a day
of humiliation, and a public interceffion in favour of
America was enjoined. The ftyle of the prayer en¬
joined at this time was, that “ God would give the
people one heart and one mind, firmly to oppofe every
invafion of the American rights.” The Virginians,
however, did not content themfelves with afts of reli¬
gion. They recommended in the ftrongeft manner a
general congrefs of all the colonies, as fully perfuad-
ed that an attempt to tax any colony in an arbitrary
manner Avas in reality an attack upon them all, and
muft ultimately end in the ruin of them all. ifo
The provinces of New York and Pennfylvania, how-The Aire-
ever, were lefs fanguine than the reft, being fo clofe- *'Icans fi™
ly connefted in the way of trade with Great Britain, T
that the giving it up entirely appeared a matter of the 0pp0fltj0T1
moft ferious magnitude, and not to be thought of butto Britain,
after every other method had failed. The intelligence
of the remaining bills refpefling I^ofton, however,
fpread a frefti alarm throughout the continent, and fix¬
ed thofe who had feemed to be the moft wavering.
The propofal of giving up all commercial intercourfe
Avith Britain was again propofed ; contributions for the
inhabitants of Bofton Avere raifed in every quarter :
and they every day received addreffes commending them
for the heroic courage Avith Avhieh they fuftained their
calamity.
The Boftonians on their part Avere not Avanting in
the;ir endeavours to promote the general caufe. An
agreement was framed, Avhich, in imitation of former
F 2 times,
A M E
[ 44 ]
A M E
America.
163
Solemn
league and
covenant at
Bofton.
164
The gover¬
nor at¬
tempts in
vain to
counteradl
it by pro¬
clamation.
l6S
Congrefs
meets at
Philadel¬
phia.
166
Account of
its tranfac-
tions.
times, they called a Solemn League and Covenant. By
this the fubfcribers molt religioufly bound themfelves to
break off all communication with Britain after the expi¬
ration of the month of Auguft enfuing, until the ob¬
noxious a£ls were repealed j at the fame time they en¬
gaged neither to purchafe nor ufe any goods imported
after that time, and to renounce all connexion with
thofe who did, or who refufed to fubfcribe to this cove¬
nant 5 threatening to publHh the names of the refrac¬
tory, which at this time was a punKhment by no means
to be defpifed. Agreements of a fimilar kind were al-
moft inftantaneoufly entered into throughout all Ame¬
rica. General Gage indeed attempted to counteraft
the covenant by a proclamation, wherein it was decla¬
red an illegal and traitorous combination, threatening
with the pains of law fuch as fubfcribed or countenanced
it. But matters were too far gone for his proclama¬
tions to have any effe£h The Americans retorted the
charge of illegality on his own proclamation, and infill¬
ed that the law allowed fubjefts to meet in order to
confider of their grievances, and affociate for relief from
oppreffion.
Preparations were now made for holding the general
congrefs fo often propofed. Philadelphia, as being the
molt central and confiderable town, was pitched upon
for the place of its meeting. The delegates of whom it
was to be compoled were chofen by the reprefentatives
of each province, and were in number from two to feven
for each colony, though no province had more than
one vote. The firlt congrefs which met at Philadel¬
phia, in the beginning of September 1774, confided of
51 delegates. The novelty and importance^ of the
meeting excited univerfal attention j and their tranf-
aftions were fuch as could not but tend to render them
refpeflable.
The firll aft of congrefs was an approbation of the
condufl of Maffachufets Bay, and an exhortation to
continue in the fame fpirit with which they had begun.
Supplies for the fuffering inhabitants (whom indeed the
operation of the port bill had reduced to great diiirefs)
were llrongly recommended j and it w7as declared, that
in cafe of attempts to enforce the obnoxious afls by arms,
all America Ihould join to affilt the town of Bolxon j
and Ihould the inhabitants be obliged, during the courfe
of hotlilities, to remove farther up the country, the Iof¬
fes they might fuftain Ihould be repaired at the public
expence.
They next addreffed General Gage by letter ; in
which having flated the grievances of the people of
Maffachufets colony, they informed him of the fixed
and unalterable determination of all the other provinces
to fupport their brethren, and to oppofe the Britifh a£ls
of parliament 5 that they themfelves were appointed to
watch over the liberties of America ; and entreated him
to defift from military operations, left fuch hoftilities
might be brought on as would fruftrate all hope of a re¬
conciliation with the parent ftate.
The next flep was to publith a declaration of their
rights. Thefe they fummed up in the rights belonging
to Englilhmen ; and particularly infifted, that as their
diftance rendered it impoffible for them to.be reprefent-
ed in the Britifli parliament, their provincial affernblies,
with the governor appointed by the king, conftituted
the only legiflative power within each province. They
would, however, confent to fuch atis of pa.iiamcnL as
were evidently calculated merely for the regulation of America,
commerce, and fecuring to the parent ftate the benefits r*"*”
of the American trade *, but would never allow that
they could impofe any tax on the colonies, for the
purpofe of raifing a revenue, without their confent.
They proceeded to reprobate the intention of each of
the new adls of parliament j and infifted on all the
rights they had enumerated as being unalienable, and
what none could deprive them of. Ihe Canada a<ft
they particularly pointed out as being extremely inimi¬
cal to the colonies, by whofe aftiftance it had been con¬
quered ; and they termed it,. “ An ad for eftabliihing
the Roman Catholic religion in Canada, abolifhing the
equitable fyftem of Englifh laws, and eftablifhing a ty¬
ranny there.” They further declared in favour of a
non-importation and non-confumption of Eritifii goods
until the a£l W'as repealed by which duties were im-
pofed upon tea, coffee, wine, fugar, and molaffes, im¬
ported into America, as well as the Bofton port-act,
and the three others paffed in the preceding feflion of
parliament. The new regulations againft the impoxta-
tion and confumption of Britifli commodities were
then drawn up with great folemnity; and they con¬
cluded with returning the warmeft thanks to thofe mem¬
bers of parliament who had with fo much zeal, though
without any fuccefs, oppofed the obnoxious a£ls of par¬
liament.
Their next proceedings were to frame a petition to
the king, an addrefs to the Britifli nation, and another
to the colonies •, all of which were fo much in the ufual
ftrain of American language for feme time paft, that it
is needlefs to enter into any particular account of them.
It is fufficient to fay, that they were all drawn up in a
mafterly manner, and ought to have impreffed the peo¬
ple of this country with a more favourable idea of the
Americans than they could at that time be induced to
entertain.
All this time the difpofttion of the people had cor-
refponded with the warmeft wiflies of congrefs. The
firft of June had been kept as a fail, not only through¬
out Virginia where it was firft propofed, but through
the whole continent. Contributions for the diftreffes
of Bofton had been raifed throughout America, and
people of all ranks feemed to be particularly touched
with them. Even thofe who feemed to be moft likely
to derive advantages from them took no opportunity,
as has been already inflanced in the cafe of Salem.
The inhabitants of Marblehead alfo (bowed a noble Generofity
example of magnanimity in the prefent cafe. Though of the mha-
fituated in the neighbourhood of Bofton, and moft
likely to derive benefit from their diftreffts, they did to"
not attempt to take any advantage, but generoufly of- Bofton.
fered the ufe of their harbour to the Boftonians, as
well as their wharfs and warehoufes, free of all ex¬
pence. In the mean time, the Britifli forces at Boflon
were continually increafing in number, which greatly
augmented the general jealoufy and difaffe&ion •, the
country was ready to rife at a moment’s warning : i6g
and the experiment was made by giving a falfe alarm Extrerr:e
that the communication between the town and country attachment
was to be cut off, in order to reduce the former by of the coun-
famine to a compliance with the afts of parliament,
On this intelligence the country people afferobled ftonians^
in great numbers, and could not be fatisfied till they
had fent meffengers into the city to inquire into the
truth
America.
169
Gen. Gage
fortifies i
Bofton
Neck;
A M E [ 45 ]
truth of the report. Thefe mefihngers were enjoined by proclamation,
to inform the town’s people, that if they (hould be
fo pufillanimous as to make a furrender of their li¬
berties, the province would not think itfelf bound by
fuch examples j. and that Britain, by breaking their
original charter, had annulled the contraft fubfifting
between them, and left them to aft as they thought
proper.
The people in every other refpeft manifefted their in¬
flexible determination to adhere to the plan they had fo
long followed. The new counfellors and judges were
obliged to refign their offices, in order to preferve their
lives and properties from the fury of the multitude. In
fome places they (hut up the avenues to the court houfesj
and when required to make way for the judges, replied,
that they knew of none but fuch as were appointed by
the ancient ufage and cuftom of the province. Every¬
where they manifefted the moft ardent defire of learning
the art of war 5 and every individual who could bear
arms, was moft aftiduous in procuring them, and learn¬
ing their exercife.
Matters at laft proceeded to fuch a height, that
General Gage thought proper to fortify the neck of
land which joins the town of Bofton to the continent.
This, though undoubtedly a prudent meafure in his
fituation, was exclaimed againft by the Americans in
the moft vehement manner ; but the general, inftead
of giving ear to their remonftrances, deprived them of
ancUeizes P0'ver aflung againft himfelf, by feizing the pro-
the milita- vincial powder, ammunition, and military ftores, at
ry ftores Cambridge and,Charleftown. This excited fuch indig¬
belonging nation, that it was with the utmoft difficulty the people
ymce*5 Pr°" cou^ reftrained from marching to Bofton and at¬
tacking the troops. Even in the town itfelf, the com¬
pany of cadets that ufed to attend him difbanded them-
felves, and returned the ftandard he had as ufual pre-
fented them with on his acccflion to the government.
Th is was occafioned by his having deprived the cele¬
brated John Hancock, afterwards prefident of the con-
grefs, of his commiffion as colonel of the cadets. A
fimilar inftance happened of a provincial colonel having
accepted a feat in the new council; upon which 24 of¬
ficers of his regiment refigned their commiflions in one
day.
In the mean time a meeting was held of the principal
inhabitants of the towns adjacent to Bofton. The pur¬
port of this was publicly to renounce all obedience to
the late aft of parliament, and to form an engagement
to indemnify fuch as fhould be profecuted on that ac¬
count ; the members of the new council were declared
violators of the rights of their country ; all ranks and
degrees were exhorted to learn the ufe of arms y and the
receivers of the public revenue were ordered not to de¬
liver it into the treafury, but retain it in their own hands
till the conftitution fhould be reftored, or a provincial
congrefs difpofe of it otherwife.
A remonftrance againft: the fortifications on Bofton
Neck was next prepared ; in which, however, they ftill
pretended their unwillingnefs to-proceed to. any hoftile
meafures ; aflerting only as ufual their firm determina¬
tion not to fubmit to the afts of parliament they had
already fo much complained of. The governor, to
reftore tranquillity, if poflible, called a general aflem-
but fo many of the council had refigned their
A M E
This raeafure, however, was deemed America,
illegal; the affembly met at Salem y and after waiting —y—J
a day for the governor, voted themfelves into a provin¬
cial congrefs, of which Mr Hancock was chofen prefi¬
dent. A committee was inftantly appointed, who wait¬
ed on the governor with a remonftrance concerning the
fortifications on Bofton Neck y but nothing of confe-
quence took place, both parties mutually criminating
each other. The winter was now coming on, and the
governor, to avoid quartering the foldiers upon the in- ^3
habitants, propofed to ereft barracks for them ; but the Gen. Gage
feleft men of Bofton compelled the workmen to defift. mee^s
Carpenters were fent for to New York, but they were ^ ’
refufed; and it was with the utmoft difficulty that he accomrno.
could procure winter lodgings for his troops. Nor was dating his
the difficulty lefs in procuring clothes j as the merchants troops,
of New York told him, that “ they would never fupply
any article for the benefit of men fent as enemies to their
country.”
This difpofition,knov,Tn to be almoft univerfal through- The Ame-
out tire continent, was in the higheft degree fatisfaftory ricans
to congrefs. Every one faw that the enfuing fpring was ma^®.Pre*
to be the feafon of commencing hoftilities, and the moft.for war>
indefatigable diligence was ufed by the colonies to be •
well provided againft fuch a formidable enemy. A lift
of all the fencible men in each colony was made out,
and efpecially^ of thofe who had ferved in the former
war; of whom they had the fatisfaftion to find that
I7I
Oppofition
to the Bri-
tifti parlia-
me»t ftill
inereafes.
17Z
A general
aftembly
called and
difielved by, ,
ptoclama- oiy ’
tion. feats, that he was induced to countermand its fitting
2
two-thirds were ftill alive and fit to bear arms. Ma¬
gazines of arms were collefted, and money was provi¬
ded for the payment of troops. The governors in vain
attempted to put a flop to thefe proceedings by procla-r
mations; the fatal period was now arrived 5 and the
more the fervants of government attempted to reprefs
the fpirit of the Americans, the more violent it ap¬
peared.
In the mean time the inhabitants of Bofton were re- 0f
duced to great diftrefs. The Britifh troops, now di-the inhabi-
ftinguifhed by the name of the enemy, were abfolutely tants of
in pofl'efliorv of it y the inhabitants were kept as prifon-•^0^on‘
ers, and might be made accountable for the conduft of
the whole colonies; and various meafures were con¬
trived to relieve the latter from fuch a difagreeable
fituation. Sometimes it was thought expedient to
remove the inhabitants altogether; but this was im¬
practicable without the governor’s confent. It was
then propofed to fet fire to the town at once, after va¬
luing, the houfes and indemnifying the proprietors j
but this being found equally impracticable, it was re-
folved to wait fome other opportunity, as the garrifon.
was not very numerous, and, not being fupplied with
neceflaries by the inhabitants, might foon be obliged
to leave the place. . The friends of Britiftr government
indei i attempted to do fomething in oppofition to the
general voice of the people y but after a few ineffectual *
meetings and refolutions they were utterly filenced, and
obliged to yield to the fuperior number of their adver-
faries. I?6
Matters had now proceeded fo far that every idea of Military
reconciliation or friendfhip with Britain was loft. The ft°res feiz-
Americans, therefore, without ceremony, began to feize
on the military ftores and ammunition belonging to
government. This firft commenced at Newport in
Rhode Ifland, where the inhabitants parried off 40
pieces of cannon appointed for the proteftion of the
placey
America, place
A M E [46] A MJ ^ ,
a„d on being aiked the reafon of tins proceed- remained for feme time at the br.dge. retumed mthout > Amenca.
 v ing, they replied, that the people had feized them left
they ftiould be made ufe of againft themfelves. After
this the affembly met, and refolved that ammunition
and warlike ftores ftiould be purchafed with the public
money. . ,
New Hampftiire followed the example ot hnode
Ifland, and feized a fmall fort for the fake of the pow¬
der and military ftores it contained. In Pennfylvama,
however, a convention was held, which exprefted an
earned defire of reconciliation with the mother coun¬
try •, though at the fame time, in the ftrongeft manner
declaring, that they were refolved to take up arms in
defence of their juft rights, and defend to the daft their
oppofition to the late ads of parliament *, and the peo¬
ple were exhorted to apply themfelves with the greateft
affiduity to the profecution of fuch manufa&ures as were
neceffary for their defence and fubfiftence, fuch as felt,
feltpetre, gunpowder, fteel, &c. I his was the univer-
fel voice of the colonies, New York only excepted.
The affembly of that province, as yet ignorant of the
fate of their laft remonftrance, refufed to concur with
the other colonies in their determination to throw oft
the Britifh yoke : their attachment, however, was very
faint, and by the event it appeared that a perfeverance
in the meafures which the miniftry had adopted was
fufficient to unite them to the reft.
As the difiurbances had originated in the province
of Maffachufets Bay, and there continued all along
with the greateft violence, fo this was the province where
Mafi'achu- the firft hoftilities were formally commenced. In the
fetsaffem- beoinning of February the provincial congrels met at
bly recom- cambridge ; and as no friends to Britain could now find
ZltZs' admittance to that afferably, the only conf,deration was
for war. how to make proper preparations for war. Expertneft
in military difcipline was recommended in the itrongett
manner, and feveral military inftitutions enaaed; among
which that of the minute-men was one of the moft re¬
markable. Thefe were chofen from the moft adive and
expert among the militia 5 and their bufinefs was to keep
themfelves in conftant readinefs at the call of their offi¬
cers; from which perpetual vigilance they derived their
 It was now eafily feen that a flight occafion
would bring on hoftilities, which could not but be at¬
tended with the moft violent and certain deftruaion to
the vanquitfied party : for both were fo much exafpe-
rated by a long courfe of reproaches and literary war¬
fare, that they feemed to be filled with the utmoft in¬
veteracy againft each other. . ,
On the 26th of February, General Gage having been
informed that a number of field-pieces bad been brought
to Salem, difpatched a party to feize them. Their
road was obftruAed by a river, over which was a oraw-
bridge. This the people had pulled up, and n mfed
to let -down : upon which the foldiers feized a boat
to ferry them over ; but the people cut out her bottom.
Hoftilities would immediately have commenced., had it
not been for the interpofition of a clergyman who re-
prefented to the military, on the one hand, the folly ot
Lpofing fuch numbers; and to the people, on the other,
that as the day was far fpent the military could not exe¬
cute their defign, fo that they might without any fear
leave them the quiet poffeffion ot the drawbridge.
This was complied with ; and the foldiers, after having
executing their orders.
17S
mi ill
The next attempt, however, was attended with more ^
ferinus confequences. General fcage, having been in- at LeK ng_
formed that a large quantity of ammunition and milita-ton.
ry ftores had been collefted at Concord, about 20 miles
from Bofton, and where the provincial congrefs v\as fit¬
ting, fent a detachment, under the command of Colonel.
Smith and Major Pitcairn, to deftroy the ftores, and,
as was reported, to feize Meftrs Hancock and Adams,
the leading men of the congrefs. i hey fet out bexore
daybreak, on the 19th of April, marching with the
utmoft filence, and fecuring every one they met on Hie
road, that they might not be difcovered. But not wit h-
ftanding all their care, the continual ringing of bells
and firing of guns as they went along, foon gave them
notice that the country was alarmed. About tBe in the
morning they had reached Lexington, 15 miles from
Bofton/where the militia of the .place were exercifing-
An officer called out to them to difperfe; but feme
flrots, it is feid, being at that moment fired from a houfe
in the neighbourhood, the military made a difcharge,
which killed and wounded feveral of the militia. The
detachment then proceeded to Concord, where, having
deftroyed the ftores, they were encountered by the A-
raericans ; and a feuffle enfued, in which feveial fell on
both fides. The purpofe of their expedition being thus
accomplifhed, it was neceffary for the king’s troops to
retreat, which they did through a continual fire kept
upon them from Concord to Lexington. Here their
ammunition was totally expended; and they would have
been unavoidably cut off, had not a confiderable rein¬
forcement commanded by Lord Percy luckily met them.
The Americans, however, continued their attack with
o-reat fury; and the Britiffi would ftill have been in
the utmoft danger, had it not been for two field-pieces
which Lord Percy bad brought with him. By thefe
the impetuofity of the Americans was checked, and the
Britifti made good their retreat to Bofton with the lots
of 250 killed and wounded : that of the Americans was
about 60. . •. *79
By this engagement the fpints of the Americans a great
were fo raifed, that they meditated nothing lefs than armyaf-
the total expulfion of the Britifti troops from Bofton. ^ E0ft0IU
An army of 20,000 men was affembled, 'who formed
a line of encampment from Roxbury to Myftic, through
a fpace of about 30 miles; and here they were foon after
joined by a large body of Conne£licut troops, under
General Putnam, an old officer of great bravery and
experience. By this formidable force was the town of
Bofton now kept blocked up. General Gage, how¬
ever, had fo ftrongly fortified it, that the enemy,
powerful as they Avere, durft not make an attack;
while, on the other hand, his force was by far too in-
fignificant to meet fuch an enemy in the field. But
towards the end of May, a confiderable reinforcement
having arrived, with Generals Howe, Burgoyne, and
Clinton, be was foon enabled to attempt femething of
confequence; and this the boafts of the provincials,
that they were befieging thofe who had been fent to
fubdue them, feemed to render neceffary. _ Some Ikir-
nrilhes in the mean time happened in the iflands lying
off Bofton harbour, in which the Americans had the
advantage, and burnt an armed fehooner, which her
people
America.
A M E
people had been obliged to abandon after
left aground by the tide. Nothing decifive, however,
-took place till the 17th of June. In the neighbour¬
hood of Charleftown, a place on the northern ihore of
the peninfula on which Bofton Hands, is a high ground
called Bunker's Hi//, which overlooks and commands
the whole town of Bofton. In the night of the 16th
the provincials took poffeflion of this place : and work¬
ed with fuch indefatigable diligence, that, to the afto-
niftiment of their enemies, they had before daylight
almoft completed a redoubt, with a ftrong intrench-
ment reaching half a mile eaftward, as far as the river
Myftic. After this they were obliged to fuftain a
heavy and inceffant fire from the ftrips and floating bat¬
teries with which Charleftown Neck ‘was furrounded,
as weH as the cannon that could reach the place from
Bofton 5 in fpite of which, however, they continued
their work and finiftied it before mid-day. A confi-
derable body of foot was then landed at the foot of
Bunker’s Hill, under the command of Generals Howe
and Pigot 5 the former being appointed to attack the
lines, and the latter the redoubt. The Americans,
however, having the advantage of the ground, as well
as of their intrenchments, poured down fuch inceffant
volleys as threatened the whole body with deftruiftion ;
and General Howe wras for a little time left almoft
alone, all his officers being killed or wounded. The
provincials in the mean time had taken poffeflion of
Charleftown, fo that General Pigot was obliged to
contend with them in that place as well as in the re¬
doubt. The confequence was, that he was overmatched;
his troops were thrown into diforder *, and he would in
all probability have been defeated, had not General
Clinton advanced to his relief: upon which the attack
was renewed with fuch fury, that the provincials were
driven beyond the neck that leads to Charleftowm. In
the heat of the engagement the Britifti troops were obli¬
ged to fet fire to the town of Charleftown, which quick¬
ly obliged the provincials to yield after they were de¬
prived of that (belter. The lofs of the Britiffi fide
amounted to about 1000, among whom were 19 officers
killed and 70 wounded j that of the Americans did not
exceed 500.
The Britiffi troops claimed the viflory in this en¬
gagement with juftice, though it muft be allowed that
it was dearly bought; and the Americans boafted that
the real advantages ■were on their fide, as they had fo
much weakened the enemy, that they durft not after¬
wards venture out of their intrenchments. From the
many advantages, however, which the Americans pof-
feffed, it is evident that the greateft difplay of valour
was on the fide of their enemies. The former were
ftrongly intrenched, and moft of their fortifications
cannon proof*, their foldiers were all chofen, and ex¬
cellent markfmen, to whom mulkets ready loaded were
handed as faft as they were difeharged *, and when one
party -was wearied, another came to their afliftance, as
was perceived by the fpeftators on the tops of the
houfes at Bofton. Confidering, however, that this
was the firft time the provincials had been in aftual
fervice, it muft be owned that they behaved with
great fpirit, and by no means merited the appellation
of cowards, with which they were fo often branded in
Britain.
In other places the fame determined fpirit of refift-
from the fea, it^^'
1S2
t 47 1 A M E
(lie was ance appeared on the part of the American.?, Lord Anwrira*
North’s conciliatory fcheme was utterly rejected by ^ '
the affemblies of Pennfylvania and New Jerfey, and af- -phe A me.
terwards in every other colony. The commencement rjcans be_
of hoftilities at Lexington determined the colony ofCOmeniore
New York, which had hitherto continued to waver, to and more
unite with the reft ; and as the fituation of New York
renders it unable to refill an attack
was refolved, before the arrival of a Britiffi fleet, to fe-
cure the military (lores, fend c(F the women and chil¬
dren, and to fet fire to the city if it was dill found in¬
capable of defence. The exportation of provifions was
everywhere prohibited, particularly to the Britifh fifli-
ery on the banks of Newfoundland, or to fuch colonies
of America as (hould adhere to the Britifti intereft.
Congrefs refolved on the eftabliftiment of an army,
and of a large paper currency in order to fupport it.
In the inland northern colonies, Colonels Fallon and
Ethan Allen, without receiving any orders from con¬
grefs, or communicating their defign to anybody, with Crown
a party of only 250 men, furprifed the forts of Crown Point and
Point, Ticonderago, and the reft that form a commu- Ticonde-
nication betwixt the colonies and Canada. On this oc-
cafion 200 pieces of cannon fell into their hands, be-merjcans>
fides mortars and a large quantity of military ■ (lores,
together with two armed veffels, and materials for the
conftru£lion of others.
After the battle of Bunker’s Hill, the provincials
erefted fortifications on the heights which commanded
Charleftown, and (Lengthened the reft in fuch a man¬
ner that there was no hope of driving them from
thence ; at the fame time that their adlivity and bold-
nefs aftoniffied the Britiffi officers, who had been ac-
cuftomed to entertain too mean an opinion of their
courage. iS
The troops, thus (hut up in Bofton, were re-Troop;rin
duced to dill refs. Their neceflities obliged them to Bofton di-
attempt the carrying off the American cattle on theftrefied.
iflands before Bofton, which produced frequent (kir-
miffies ; but the provincials, better acquainted with the
navigation of thefe (bores, landed on the iflands, de-
ftroyed or carried off whatever ivas of any ufe, burned
the lighthoufe at the entrance of the harbour, and
took prifoners the workmen fent to repair it, as well
as a party of marines who guarded them. Thus the
garrifon were reduced to the neceffity of fending out
armed veffels to make prizes indiferiminately of all that
came in their way, and of landing in different places
to plunder for fubfiftence as well as they could.
The congrefs in the mean time continued to aft with Artides of
all the vigour which its conftituents had expefted. union be-
Articles of confederation and perpetual union were twixt the
drawn up and folemnly agreed upon ; by which they cc’anles*
bound themfelves and their pofterity for ever. Thefe
were in fubilance as follow :
1. Each colony was to be independent within itfelf,
and to retain an abfolute Lvereignty in all domeltic
affairs.
2. Delegates to be annually defied to meet in con¬
grefs, at fuch time and place as ffiould be enafted in
the preceding congrefs.
3. This affembly (hould have the power of deter¬
mining war or peace, making alliances; and in ffiort
all that power which fovereigns of dates ufually claim
as their own.
4. The
A M E
[ 48 ]
A M £
Americib Tht expences ot war to be paid out of the com-
  ’“V" mon treafury, and raifed by a poll tax on males between
16 and 60 *, the proportions to be determined by the
laws of the colony.
5. An executive council to be appointed to aft in
place of the congrefs during its recefs.
6. No colony to make war with the Indians without
confent of congrefs.
7. The boundaries of all the Indian lands to be fe-
cured and afcertained to them ; and no purchafes of
lands were to be made by individuals, or even by a co¬
lony, without confent of congrefs.
8. Agents appointed by congrefs fhould refide among
the Indians, to prevent frauds in trading with them, and
to relieve, at the public expence, their wants and dif-
treffes.
9. This confederation to laft until their (hould be a
reconciliation with Britain 5 or, if that event fhould not
take place, it was to be perpetual.
After the aftion of Bunker’s Hill, however, when
the power of Great Britain appeared lefs formidable in
the eyes of America than before, congrefs proceeded
formally to juftify their proceedings in a declaration
drawn up in terms more expreflive, and well calculated
to excite attention.
“ Were it poflible (faid they) for men who exer-
cife their reafon, to believe that the divine Author of
our exiflence intended a part of the human race to hold
an abfolute property in and unbounded power over
others, marked out by His infinite goodnefs and wif-
dom as the objefts of a regal domination, never right¬
fully refiftible, however fevere and oppreffive; the in¬
habitants of thefe colonies might at leaf! require from
the parliament of Great Britain fome evidence that this
dreadful authority over them had been granted to that
body : but a reverence for our great Creator, princi¬
ples of humanity, and the diftates of common fenfe,
muft convince all thofe who refleft upon the fubjeft,
that government was inftituted to promote the welfare
of mankind, and ought to be adminiftered for the attain¬
ment of that end.
“ The legiflature of Great Britain, however ftimu-
lated by an inordinate paffion for power, not only un-
juftifiable, but which they know to be peculiarly repro¬
bated by the very conftitution of that kingdom ; and
defpairing of fuccefs in any mode of conteft where re¬
gard {hould be had to law, truth, or right ; have at
length, deferting thofe, attempted to effeft their cruel
and impolitic purpofe, of enflaving thefe colonies by
violence, and have thereby rendered it neceflary for us
to clofe with their laft appeal from reafon to arms. Yet,
however blinded that affembly may be, by their intem¬
perate rage for unlimited domination, fo to flight juftice
in the opinion of mankind, we efteem eurfelves bound
by obligations to the reft of the world to make known
the juftice of our caufe.”
After taking notice of the manner in which their an-
ceftors left Britain, the happinefs attending the mutual
friendly commerce betwixt that country and her colo¬
nies, and the remarkable fuccefs ot the late war, they
proceed as follows: “The new rainiftry finding the
brave foes of Britain, though frequently defeated, yet
ftill contending, took up the unfortunate idea of grant¬
ing them a hafty peace, and then of fubduing her faith¬
ful fubjefts.
“ Thefe devoted colonies were judged to be in fuch Amer
a ftate as to prefent viftories without bloodthed, and all' 1,1
the eafy emoluments of ftatutable plunder. The unin¬
terrupted tenour of their peaceable and refpeftful be¬
haviour from the beginning of their colonization 5 then
dutiful, zealous, and ufeful ferviees during the war,
though fo recently and amply acknowledged in the
moft honourable manner by his majefty, by the late
king, and by parliament, could not fave them from the
intended innovations. Parliament was influenced to
adopt the pernicious projeft 5 and affuming a new power
over them, has in the courfe of eleven years given fuch
decifive fpecimens of the fpirit and confequences attend¬
ing this power, as to leave no doubt of the effefts of ac*
quiefcence under it.
“ They have undertaken to give and grant our mo¬
ney without our confent, though we have ever exer-
cifed an exclufive right to difpofe of our own proper¬
ty. Statutes have been paffed for extending the jurifi-
diftion of the courts of admiralty, and vice-admiralty,
beyond their ancient limits; for depriving us of the
accufiotned and ineftimable rights of trial by jury,, in
cafes affefting both life and property; for.fufpending
the Ifcgiflature of one of our colonies; for interdifting
all commerce to the capital of another ; and for alter¬
ing fundamentally the form of government eftablifhed
by charter, and fecured by afts of its own legiflature;
and folemnly confirmed by the crown ; for exempting
the murderers of colonifts from legal trial, and in ef¬
feft from punifhment ; for erefting in a neighbouring
province, acquired by the joint arms of Great Britain
and America, a defpotifm dangerous to our very exift-
ence ; and for quartering foldiers upon the colonifts in
time of a profound peace. It has alfo been refolyed
in parliament, that colonifts charged with committing
certain offences, fhall be tranfported to England to be
tried. ... . ,
“ But why {hould wre enumerate our injuries m de¬
tail ? By one ftatute it was declared, that parliament
can of right make laws to bind us in all cafes whatever.
What is to defend us againft fo enormous, fo unlimited
18S
Declara¬
tion on ta¬
king up
arms.
a power ? Not a fingle perfon who affumes it is chofen
by us, or is fubjeft to our controul or influence ; but,
on the contrary, they are all of them exempt from the
operation of fuch laws ; and an American revenue, if
not diverted from the oftenfible purpofes from which it
is raifed, would aftually lighten their own burdens in
proportion as it increafes ours.
“ We faw the mifery to which fuch defpotifm would
reduce us. We for ten years inceffantiy and ineffeftu-
ally befieged the throne as fupplicants; we reafoned,
we remonftrated with parliament in the moft mild and
decent language : but adminiftration, fenfible that we
{hould regard thefe principles as free men ought to do,
fent over fleets and armies to enforce them.
“ We have purfued every temperate, every refpeft¬
ful meafure ; we have even proceeded to break off all
commercial intercourfe with our fellow-fubjefts as our
laft peaceable admonition, that our attachment to no
nation on earth would fupplant our attachment to li¬
berty : this we flattered ourfelves was the ultimate ftep
of the controverfy ; but fubfequent events have ftiown
how vain was this hope of finding moderation in our
enemies!
“ The Lords and Commons, m their addreis in the
A M E
[ 49 ]
A M E
America.
month of February faid, that a rebellion at that time ac-
1 tually exifted in the province of Maflachufets Bay, and
that thofe concerned in it had been countenanced and
encouraged by unlawful combinations and engage¬
ments entered into by his majefty’s fubjc&s in jeveralof
the colonies 3 and therefore they befought his majefty
that he would take the moft effectual meafures to enforce
due obedience to the laws and authority of the fupreme
legiflature. Soon after, the commercial intercourfe of
whole colonies with foreign countries was cut off by an
aft: of parliament*, by another, feveral of them were en¬
tirely prohibited from the fifheries in the Teas near their
coafts, on which they always depended for their fubfift-
ence 3 and large reinforcements of fhips and troops were
immediately fent over to General Gage.
“ Fruitlefs were all the entreaties, arguments, and elo¬
quence of an illuftrious band of the moft diftinguillied
peers and commoners, who nobly and ftrenuoufly afiert-
ed the juftice of our caufe, to ftay, or even to mitigate,
the heedlefs fury with which thefe accumulated outrages
elfe"indeed they found themfelves miftaken. The Ca- America,
tiadians having been lubjefl to Britain for a period of v ~
15 years, and being thus rendered feniible of the fupe-
rior advantages of Britifti government, received the bill
itfelf with evident marks of difapprobation ; nay, re¬
probated it as tyrannical and oppreilive. A leheme
had been formed for General Carleton, governor of the
province, to raife an army of Canadians wherewith to
a£t againft the Americans 3 and fo fanguine were the
hopes of adminiftration in this refpedl, that they had
fent 20,000 Hand of arms, and a great quantity of mi¬
litary ft ores, to Quebec for the purpofe. But the peo¬
ple, though they did not join the Americans, yet were
found immoveable in their purpofe to ftand neuter. Ap¬
plication was made to the bifhop 3 but he declined
to interpofe his influence, as contrary to the rules ot
the Popifli clergy : fo that the utmoft efforts of govern¬
ment in this province were found to anfwer little or no
purpofe.
The Britilh adminiftration next tried to engage the
were hurried on. Equally fruitlefs was the interference , Indians in their caufe.^ But though agents were dif-
of the city of London, of Briftol, and many other re-
fpe&able towns, in our favour.”
After having reproached parliament, General Gage,
and the Britifti government in general, they proceed
thus : “ We are reduced to the alternative of choofing
an unconditional fubmiffion to tyranny, or refiftance by
force. The latter is our choice. We have counted
the coft of this conteft, and find nothing fo dreadful
as voluntary flavery. Honour, juftice, and humanity,
forbid us tamely to furrender that freedom which we
received from our gallant anceftors, and which our in¬
nocent pofterity have a right to receive from us. Our
caufe is juft 3 our union is perfeft 3 our internal re-
fources are great 3 and, if neceffary, foreign afliftance is
undoubtedly attainable. We fight not for glory or
conqueft 3 we exhibit to mankind the remarkable fpec-
tacle of a people attacked by unprovoked enemies,
They boaft of their privileges and civilization, and yet
proffer no milder conditions than fervitude or death.
In our own native land, in defence of the freedom that
is our birthright, for the protedlion of our proper¬
ty acquired by the honeft induftry of our forefathers
and our own, againft violence a£lually offered, we have
taken up arms 3 we (hall lay them down when hoftili-
ties fhall ceafe on the part of our aggreffors, and all
danger of their being renewed fhall be removed,—and
not before.”
Thefe are fome of the moft ftriking paffages in the
declaration of congrefs on taking up arms againft
Great Britain, and dated July 6th 1775. Without in¬
quiring whether the principles on which it is founded
are right or wrong, the determined fpirit which it
Ihows ought to have convinced us, that the conqueft of
America was an event fcarcely ever to be expelled. In
every other refpeft an equal fpirit was fhown 3 and the
rulers of the Britifti nation had the mortification to
fee thofe whom they ftyled rebels and traitors, fucceed
in negotiations in which they themfelves were utterly
Quebec bill foiled. In the pafling of the Quebec bill, miniftry had
<hf4gree- flattered themfelves that the Canadians would be fo
thofe'whom 1Tluc^ attac'hed to them on account of reftoring the
it was in- French laws, that they would very readily join in any
tended to attempt againft the colonifts, who had reprobated that
bill in fuch ftrong terms j but in this, as in every thing
Vol. II. Part I.
186
yleafe.
perfed among them with large prefents to the chiefs,
they univerfally replied, that they did not underftand
the nature of the quarrel, nor could they diftinguifti
whether thofe who divelt in America or on the other
fide of the ocean were in fault : but they were furprifed
to fee Engliftimen alk their afliftance againft one ano¬
ther 5 and advifed them to be reconciled, and not
think of ftiedding the blood of their brethren.—To
the reprefentations of congrefs they paid more re-
fpedl. Thefe fet forth, that the EnglKh on the other
fide of the ocean had taken up arms to enflave not on¬
ly their countrymen in America, but the Indians alfo 3
and if the latter ftiould enable them to overcome the
colonifts, they themfelves would foon be reduced to a
ftate of flavery alfo. By arguments of this kind thefe
favages were engaged to remain neuter 3 and thus the
colonifts were freed from a moft dangerous enemy. On
this occafion the congrefs thought proper to hold a
folemn conference with the different tribes of Indians.
The fpee.ch made by them on the occafion is curious,
but too long to be fully inferted. The following is a
fpecimen of the European mode of addrefling thefe
people.
“ Brothers, Sachems, and Warriors !
“ We, the delegates from the Twelve United Pro¬
vinces, now fitting in general congrefs at Philadelphia,
fend their talk to you our brothers.
“ Brothers and Friends now attend !
“ When our fathers croffed the great water, and
came over to this land, the king of England gave them
a talk, alluring them that they and their children ftiould
be his children 3 and that if they would leave their
native country, and make fettlements, and live here,
and buy and fell, and trade with their brethren beyond
the water, they ftiould ftill keep hold of the fame co¬
venant chain, and enjoy peace 3 and it was covenan¬
ted, that the fields, houfes, goods, and poffeflions which
our fathers ftiould acquire, fliould remain to them as
their own, and be their children’s for ever, and at their
foie difpofal.
“ Brothers and Friends, open a kind ear !
“ We will now tell you of the quarrel betwixt the
G counfellors
. lS7
Miniftry
attempt in
vain to arm
the Indians-
iSS
Speech of
the com-
miflioners
from con¬
grefs to the
Indians.
A M E
[ 5° 1
A M E
America.
iSjji
General
Wafliing-
ton appoint
ed com¬
mander in
chief.
190
Georgia
accedes to
the confe¬
deracy.
councilors of King George and the inhabitants and co
lonies of America.
“ Many of his counfellors have perfuaded him to
break the covenant chain, and not to fend us any more
good talks. They have prevailed upon him to enter
into a covenant againft us ; and have torn afunder,
and call behind their backs, the good old covenant
which their anceftors and ours entered into, and took
ftrong hold of. They now tell us, they will put their
hands into our pocket without afking, as though it
were their own $ and at their pleafure they will take
from us our charters or written civil conttitution, which
we love as our lives ; alfo our plantations, our houfes,
and goods, whenever they pleafe, without alking our
leave. They tell us, that our veffels may go to that
or this ifland in the fea, but to this or that particular
idand we (hall not trade any more •, and, in cafe of our
non-compliance with thefe new orders, they lhut up our
harbours. . ’
“ Brothers, we live on the fame ground with you
the fame ifland is our common birthplace. We defire to
fit down under the fame tree of peace with you; let us
water its roots, and cherilh the growth, till the large
leaves and flourilhing branches (hall extend to the fetting
fun, and reach the Ikies. If any thing difagreeable
fhould ever fall out between us, the Twelve United Co¬
lonies, and you, the Six Nations, to wound our peace,
let us immediately feek meafures for healing the breach.
From the prefent fituation of our affairs, we judge it
expedient to kindle up a fmall fire at Albany, where
we may hear each other’s voice, and difclofe our minds
fully to one another.”
The other remarkable tranfadions of this congrels
were the ultimate refufal of the conciliatory propofal
made by Lord North, of which fuch fanguine expec¬
tations had been formed by the Englifh miniury } and
appointing a generaliffimo to command their armies,
which were now very numerous. I he penon chofen
for this purpofe was George Wafhington : a man fo
univerfally beloved, that he was raifed to fuch a high
ftation by the unanimous voice of congrefs ; and his
fubfequent conduft fhowed him every way worthy ot
it. Horace Gates and Charles Lee, two Engbfh offi¬
cers of confiderable reputation, were alfo chofen ; the
former an adjutant-general, the fecond a major-general.
Artemus Ward, Philip Schuyler, and Ifrael Putnam,
were likewife nominated major-generals, beth Pome¬
roy, Richard Montgomery, David Woofler, William
pfeath, Jofeph Spencer, John Thomas, John Sullivan,
and Nathaniel Green, were chofen brigadier-generals at
the fame time. „ . „ . ,
Congrefs had now alfo the fatisfaftion to receive de¬
puties from the colony of Georgia, expreffing a defire
[o join the confederacy. The reafons they gave for re¬
nouncing their allegiance to Britain were, that the con-
duft of parliament towards the other colonies had been
.1 > l 1 .,.-L + L0 acts had not
ricans in all their meafures, now emboldened them to America,
think not only of defending themfelves, but likewife of <r~—
afting offenfively againil Great Britain. Ihe conqueft ^
itcimg unGUMvwjr aga.....    —- * jThe Ame-
of Canada appeared an objed! within their reach, and ricans at-
. . » 1 . . 1 1 ‘ . V    ...... fo .vac . onn
OUCt OI pdiUcuntiiL   . o C J f
oppreffive *, that though the obnoxious afts had not
Ei iix .1  fUo,r view this onlv as
been extended to them, they could view this only as
an omiffion, becaufe of the Teeming little confequence
of their colony, and therefore looked upon it rather
to be a flight than a favour. At the fame time they
framed a petition to the king, fimilar-to that fent by
the other colonies, and which met with a fimilar re-
The fuccefs which had hitherto attended the Ame
one that would be attended with many advantages •, and tempt the __
as an invafion of that province was already facilitated by conqueft or |
the taking of Crown Point and 1 iconderago, it was re-
folved if poffible to penetrate that way into Canada, and
reduce Quebec during the winter, before the fleets and
armies, vvhich they were well aflured would fail thither
from Britain, fhould arrive. By order of congrefs,
therefore, 3000 men were put under the command or
Generals Montgomery and Schuyler, with orders to pro¬
ceed to Lake Champlain, from whence they were to be
conveyed in flat-bottomed boats to the mouth of the
river Sorel, a branch of the great river St Lawrence,
and on which is fituated a fort of the fame name with
the river. On the other hand, they were oppofed by
General Carleton governor of Canada, a man of great
adtivity and experience in war j who, with a very few
troops, had hitherto been able to keep in awe the difaf-
fedled people of Canada, notwithtlanding all the repre-
fentations of the colonifts. He had now augmented his
armv by a confiderable number of Indians, and promifed
even in his prefent fituation to make a very formidable
refiftance. .
As foon as General Montgomery arrived at Crown
Point, he received information that feveral armed vef¬
fels were flationed at St John’s, a ftrong fort on the
Sorel, with a view to prevent his croffing the lake;
on which he took poffeffion of an ifland which com¬
mands the mouth of the Sorel, and by which he could
prevent them from entering the lake. In conjunthon
with General Schuyler, he next proceeded to St John's :
but finding that place too ftrong, he landed on a part
of the country confiderably diflant, and full of woods
and fwamps. From thence, however, they were driven
by a party of Indians whom General Carleton had em-
* The provincial army was now obliged to retreat to
the ifland of which they had at firft taken poffeffion ;
where General Schuyler being taken ill, Montgomery
was left to command alone. His firfl: ftep was to gam
over the Indians whom General Carleton had employed,
and this he in a great meafure accomplifhed 5 after
which, on receiving the full number of troops appoint¬
ed for his expedition, he determined to lay fiege to St ^
John’s. In this he was facilitated by the redudion ot chambiee
Chamblee, a fmall fort in the neighbourhood, where betaken,
found a large fupply of powder. An attempt was made
by General Carleton to relieve the place for which pur¬
pofe he with great, pains colle&ed about 1000 Canadians,
while Colonel Maclean propofed to raife a regiment of
the Highlanders who had emigrated from their own
country to America. • t r- I93i
But while General Carleton was on his march with Genera^
thefe new levies, he was attacked by a fuperior force clefeated>
of provincials, and utterly defeated 5 which being
made known to another body of Canadians who bad
joined Colonel Maclean, they abandoned him with¬
out ftriking a blow, and he was obliged to retreat to
^Ttadefeat of General Carleton was a fufficient re-
compenfe to the Americans for that of Colonel Ethan
Allen, which had happened fome time before. The
fuccefs
America.
T94
T96
da.
A M E t 5
fuccefs which had attended this gentleman againft
Crown Point and Ticonderago had emboldened him
to make a {imilar attempt on Montreal; but being at¬
tacked by the militia of the place, fupported by a de¬
tachment of regulars, he was entirely defeated and ta¬
ken prifoner.
As the defeat of General Carleton and the defertion
of Maclean’s forces left no room for the garrifon of St
St John’s John’s to hope for any relief, they now confented to
fort taken, fUrrender themfelves prifoners of war 5 but were in other
refpeds treated with great humanity. They were in
number 500 regulars and 200 Canadians, among whom
were many of the French nobility, who had been very
active in "promoting the caufe of Britain among their
countrymen.
General Montgomery next took meafures to prevent
the Britilh dripping from palling down the river from
19S Montreal to Quebec. This he accomplilhed fo effec-
and like- tually, that the whole were taken. The town itfelf
wife Mont- was 0p,i|gecj to furrender at difcretion ; and it was with
real* the utmoft difficulty that General Carleton efcaped in
an open boat by the favour of a dark night.
No further obftacles now remained in the way of the
Americans to the capital, except what arofe from the
nature of the country •, and tbefe indeed were very con-
fiderable. Nothing, however, could damp the ardour
of the provincials. Not with Handing it was now the
middle of November, and the depth of winter was at
Col. Arnold hand, Colonel Arnold formed a defign of penetrating
penetrates through woods, moraffes, and the moll frightful foli-
into Cana- tucjes from New England to Canada, by a nearer way
than that which Montgomery had chofen ; and this he
accomplilhed in fpite of every difficulty, to the aftonifh-
ment of all who faw or heard of the attempt. This
defperate march, however, cannot be looked upon as
conducive to any good purpofe. A third part of his
men under another colonel had abandoned him by the
way, under pretence of want of provifions ; the total
want of artillery rendered his prefence inlignificant
before a place Itrongly fortified *, and the fmallnefs of
his army rendered it even doubtful whether he could
have taken the town by furprife. The Canadians in¬
deed were amazed at the exploit, and their inclination
to revolt from Britain was fomewhat augmented ; but
none of them as yet took up arms in behalf of America.
The conllernation into which the town of Quebec was
thrown proved detrimental rather than otherwife to the
expedition ; as it doubled the vigilance and a&ivity of
the inhabitants to prevent any furprife ; and the ap¬
pearance of common danger united all parties, who, be¬
fore the arrival of Arnold, were contending moll vio¬
lently with one another. He was therefore obliged to
content himfelf with blocking up the avenues to the
town, in order to dillrefs the garrifon for want of pro¬
vifions ; and even this he was unable to do effeftually,
by reafon of the fmall number of his men.
The matter was not much mended by the arrival of
General Montgomery. The force he had with him,
even when united to that of Arnold, was too infignifi-
cant to attempt the reduclion of a place fo ftrongly
fortified, efpecially with the affillance only of a few
mortars and field-pieces. After the liege had conti¬
nued through the month of December, General Mont-
gomery, confcious that he could accomplilh his end no
-other way than by furprife, refolved to make an at-
1 ] A M E
tempt on the lall day of the year 1775* metht>d America,
he took at this time was perhaps the bell that human - v -
wifdom could devife. He advanced by break of day, ^*^7
in the midld of a heavy fall of Ihow, which covered his'o furp^fe
men from the fight of the enemy. I wo real attacks ^ut;bec.
were made by himfelf and Colonel Arnold, at the fame
time that two feigned attacks were made on two other
places, thus to diitratt the garrifon, and make them di¬
vide their forces. One of the real attac ks was made
by the people of New York, and the other by thofe of
New England under Arnold. Their hopes of furpri-
fing the place, however, were defeated by the fignal
for the attack being through fome millake given too
foon. General Montgomery himfelf had the molt dan¬
gerous place, being obliged to pafs between the river
and fome high rocks on which the Upper Town Hands’,
fo that he was forced to make what halte he could to l9g
clofe with the enemy. His fate, however, was now General
decided. Having forced the firlt barrier, a violent Morirgo-^
difcharge of mulketry and grape ffiot from the fccond ^er^nj1 t^e
killed liim, his principal officers, and the molt of the Al^er;cans
party he commanded j on which thofe who remained defeated,
immediately retreated. Colonel Arnold in the mean
time made a defperate attack on the Lower Town, and
carried one of the barriers after an obtlinate refiltane-e
for an hour •, but in the adtion he himfclf received a
wound, which obliged him to withdraw. The at¬
tack, however, was continued by the officers whom
he had left, and another barrier forced : but the gar-
rifon, now perceiving that nothing was to be feared
except from that quarter, collefled their whole force
againll it; and, after a defperate engagement of three
hours, overpowered the provincials, and obliged them
to furrender.
In this aftion, it mud be confefied that the valour
of the provincial troops could not be exceeded. They
had fought under as great difadvantages as thofe.
which attended the Britilh at Bunker’s Hill, and had
behaved equally well. Such a terrible difaller left no
hope remaining of the accomplilhment of their purpofe,
as General Arnold could now fcarce number 800 ef¬
fective men under his command. He did not, how¬
ever, abandon the province, or even remove to a great¬
er diltance than three miles from Quebec j and here he
Hill found means to annoy the garrifon very confider-
ably by intercepting their provifions. The Canadians,
notwithftanding the bad fuccefs of the American arms,
Hill continued friendly ; and thus he was enabled to
fuftain the hardlhips of a winter encampment in that
moll fevere climate. The congrefs, far from paffing Arnold
any cenfure on him for his misfortune, created him a cr!ratel? a
brigadier-general. eneraf1'"'
While hoftilities were thus carried on with vigour in^
the north, the flame of contention was gradually ex- 200
tending itfelf in the fouth. Lord Dunmore, the go-Difputes of
vernor of Virginia, was involved in difputes fimilar to^or<i Dlin*
thofe which had taken place in other colonies. Thefe
had proceeded fo far that the aflembly was dilfolved Evince of
which in this province was attended with a confequence Virginia,
unknown to the reft. As Virginia contained a great
number of Haves, it was neceffary that a militia fhould
be kept conllantly on foot to keep them in awe. Du¬
ring the difiblution of the affembly the militia laws ex¬
pired 5 and the people, after complaining of the danger
they were in from the negroes, formed a convention,
G 2 which
America.
A M E [ 5
which enafled that each county (houltl raife a quota
]
A M E
201
He fends
his family
aboard a
for the defence of the province, Dunmore, on this,
removed the powder from Williamfburg •, which crea¬
ted fuch difeontents, that an immediate quarrel would
probably have enfued, had not the merchants of the
town undertaken to obtain fatisfaflion for the injury
fuppofed to be done to the community. This tranquil¬
lity, however, was foon interrupted } the people, alarm¬
ed by a report that an armed party were on their way
from the man of war where the powder had been de-
pofited, affembled in arms, and determined to oppofe
by force any farther removals. In fome of the confe¬
rences which paffed at this time, the governor let fall
fome unguarded expreffions, fuch as threatening them
with felting up the royal ftandard, proclaiming liberty
to the negroes, deftroying the town of Williamlburg,
&c. which were afterwards made public, and exagge¬
rated in fuch a manner as greatly to increafe the public
ferment. ^ c c
The people now held frequent alTembhes. Some oi
them took up arms with a defign to force the governor
to reftore the powder, and to take the public money into
their own poffeffion ; but on their way to Williamfburg
for this purpofe they were met by the receiver-general,
who became fecurity for the payment of the gunpowder,
and the inhabitants promifed to take care of the maga
zine and public revenue. . .
By this infurredlion the governor was 10 much inti¬
midated, that he fent his family on board a man ot
He himfelf, however, iffued a proclamation, m
+ i i i •   C H ^ rv c tv n.rY
Ma'of W.U whkh brdicted th. behaviour of the perfons u ho pro¬
moted the tumult treafonable, accufed the peop.e oi
difaffetlion, &c. On their part they were by no means
deficient in recriminating *, and fome letters of his o
Britain being about the fame tune difeovered, conie-
quences enfued extremely fimilar to thofe which had
been occafioned by thofe of Mr Hulchifon at Bofion.
In this ft ate of confufion the governor thought it
neceffary to fortify his palace with artillery, an pro
cure a party of marines to guard it. Lord ;<mrt i s
conciliatory propofal arriving alio about the lame tune,
he ufed his utmoft endeavours to came the people com¬
ply with it. The arguments he ufed were fuch as mult
do him honour; and had not matters already gone to
fuch a pitch of diftraftion, it is highly probable that
fome attention would have been paid to them. 1 he
view (he faid) in which the colonies ought to behold
violent uproar, that as foon as the preliminary bufinefs America^
of the feflion was over, the governor retired on board a ‘ J”v
man of war, informing the affembly that he durft no 20^
longer truft himfelf on ftiore. This produced a longlhego-
courfe of deputation, which ended in a pofitive refufal vernor re¬
ef the governor to truft himfelf again in Williamfburg,
even to give his affent to the bills, which could not k1-man of war.
paffed without it, and though the affembly offered to
bind themfelves for his perfonal fafety. In his turn
he requefted them to meet him on board the man of
war, where he then was; but this propofal was rejeft-
ed, and all further correfpondence containing the leaf!
appearance of fnendfhip was difeontinued. 205
Lord Dunmore, thus deprived of his government, Attempts
attempted to reduce by force thofe whom he could
longer govern. Some of the moft ftrenuous ad he- ^ force,
rents to the Britifti caufe, whom their zeal had render¬
ed obnoxious at home, now repaired to him. . He was
alfo joined by numbers of black flaves. With thefe
and the afliftance of the Britifti (hipping, he*was for
fome time enabled to carry on a kind of predatory war,
fufficient to hurt and exafperate, but not to fubdue.
After fome inconfiderable attempts on land, proclaim¬
ing liberty to the flaves, and fetting up the royal ftan¬
dard, betook up hisrefidence at Norfolk, a maritime
town of fome confequence, where the people were bet¬
ter affe&ed to Britain than in moft other places. _ A 2o6
confiderable force, however, was collected againft him ; but i& en-
and the natural impetuofity of his temper promptingtirely de-
him to aft againft them with more courage than_ cau-ttiated-
tion, he was entirely defeated, and obliged to retire to
his (hipping, which was now crowded by the number
of thofe who had incurred the refentment of the pro¬
vincials.
207
nciais. • i W ,
In the meantime a fcheme of the utmoft magnitude Mr Conol
. r j 1  n/r-r1 n.T 0 ly s plan
m me uieuiiiitut a ---  — o , , ,
and importance was formed by one Mr Conolly, a Penn-
. • r n.irl ^rmrincr rlifonfition. and - v. .
202
Fortifies
his palace,
203
His argu¬
ments for
mema iwi view l lie idiu j ju   _
L. North’s this concJiiatory propofal, was no more than an earnett
conciliatory . . f Creat Britain to relieve her-wants :
plan.
admonition from Great Britain to relieve her wants
that the utmoft condefcendence had been ufed in the
mode of application ; no determinate fum having been
fixed, as it was thought moft worthy of Britiih gene-
rofity to take what they thought could be convenient¬
ly fpared, and likewife to leave the mode ofraifing it
to themfelves,” &c. But the clamour and diffatisfac-
tion were now fo univerfal, that nothing elfe could be
attended to. The governor had called an affembly for
the purpofe of laying this conciliatory propofal before
them ; but it had been little attended to. I he .ffun-
bly began their feflion by inquiries into the (late m the
magazine. It had been broken into by fome of the
townfmen ; for which reafon fpring-guns had been
placed there by the governor, which difcharged them¬
felves upon the offenders at their entrance : ^thefe cir-
cumftances, with others of a fimilar kind, raifed fuch
fylvanian of an intrepid and afpinng dilpoiition,_ andc-irig Vjr>
attached to the caufe of Britain. _ The firft ftep of thisginia.
plan was to enter into a league with the Ohio Indians.
This he communicated to Lord Dunmore, and it re¬
ceived his approbation : Upon which Conolly fat out,
and adually fucceeded in his defign. On his return
he was difpatched to General Gage, from whom he
received a colonel’s commiflion, and fet out in order to
accomprifh the remainder of his fcheme. The plan in
general was, that he (liould return to the Ohio, where,
by the afliftance of the Britifti and Indians in thefe
parts, he was to penetrate through the back fettle-
ments into Virginia, and join Lord Dunmore at Alex- 2Qg
andria But by an accident very naturally to be ex-He is dif-
pefted, he ivas difeovered, taken prifoner, and thrown covered^
into a dungeon. _ , _ . prifoner.
After the retreat of Lord Dunmore from JNoriolK,
that place was taken poffeflion of by the provincials,
who treated the loyalifts that had remained there with
great cruelty ; at the fame time that they greatly di-
ftreffed thofe on board Lord Dunmore’s fleet, by refu- 2Q9
finp to fupply them with any neceffaries. Nor was Cruelty of
this all; the vicinity of the (hipping was fo great as the Ame-
to afford the riflemen an opportunity of aiming at the_cans-
people on board, and exercifing the cruel occupation of
killing them, in which they did not fail every day to
empky themfelves. Thefe proceedings at laft drew a
remonftrance from his lordPnip ; in wliich he infifted
that the fleet (hould be furniftied with necefianes, and
E America.
210
The town
of Norfolk
deftroyed.
A M E t S3
that the foldiers fliould defift from the cruel diverfion
above mentioned; but both thefe requefts being denied,
a refolution was taken to fet fire to the town. After
giving the inhabitants proper warning, a party landed,
under cover of a man of war, and fet fire to that part
which lay neareft the (hore ; but the flames were ob-
ferve'd at the fame time to break forth in every other
quarter, and the whole town was reduced to allies.
This univerfal deftru&ion, by which a lofs of more than
qoo oool. was incurred, is faidjto have been occafioned
by order of the congrefs itfelf, that the loyalifts might
find no refuge there for the future.
In the fouthern colonies of Carolina the governors
vernors*of were expelled, and obliged to take refuge on board of
South and men of war, as Lord Dunmore had been ; Mr Martin,
governor of North Carolina, on a charge of attempting
to raife the back fettlers, confifling chiefly of Scots
Highlanders, againft the colony. Having fecured them-
felves againft any attempts from thefe enemies, however,
they proceeded to regulate their internal concerns in the
fame manner as the reft of the colonies ; and by the end
of the year 1775, Britain beheld the whole of America
united againft her in the moft determined oppofition.
Her vaft poffeflions of that traft of land (fince known by
the name of the Thirteen United States') were now redu¬
ced to the Angle town of Bofton ; in which her forces
Avere befieged by an enemy with whom they were ap¬
parently not able to cope, and by whom they muft of
courfe expert in a very fliort time to be expelled. 1 he
fituation of the inhabitants of Bofton, mdeed, was pe¬
culiarly unhappy. After having failed in their attempts
211
The go
vernors
South a
North Ca
rolina ex¬
pelled.
2X2
Miferable v   rtv -   o 1 . ‘ i
fituation of to leave the town, General Gage had contented to al
theinhabi- jQW them tc) retire with their effects ; but afterwards,
tants of Bo¬
lton.
for what reafon does not well appear, he refufed to ful¬
fil his promife. When he refigned his place to General
Howe in October 1775, the latter, apprehenfive that
they might give intelligence of the fituation of the Bri-
tilh troops, ilriaiy prohibited any perfon from leaving
the place under pain of military execution. Thus mat¬
ters continued till the month of JMarch 1776, when the
ai, town was evacuated.
Bofton fe- On the 2d of that month, General Wafliington
verely can- opened a battery on the weft fide of the town, from
nonaded by wjience jt was bombarded, with a heavy fire of cannon
at the fame time; and three days after, it was attacked
by another battery from the eaftern fliore.. This, terri¬
ble attack continned for 14 days without intermiflion ;
when General Howe, finding the place no longer te-
nible, determined if pofiible to drive the enemy from
their works. Preparations were therefore made for a
moft vigorous attack on a hill called Dorchefter Neck,
which the Americans had fortified in fuch a manner
as would in all probability have rendered the enter-
prife next to defperate. No difficulties, however, were
fufficient to daunt the fpirit of the general ; and
every thing was in readinefs, when a fudden ftorm pre¬
vented this intended exertion of Britifh valour. Next
day, upon a more clofe infpeffion of the works they
were to attack, it was thought advifable to defift from
the enterprife altogether. The fortifications were very
ftrong, and extremely well provided with artillery ; and
befides other implements of deftruftion, upwards of
ico hog (heads of ftones were provided to roll doxvn
upon the enemy as they came up; which, as the afeent
] A M E
was extremely fteep, muft have done prodigious execu-. America. ^
tion. 1*1 -T 214.
Nothing therefore now remained but to think ot ^The place
retreat; and even this was attended with the utmo t
difficulty and danger. The Americans, however, know¬
ing that it was in the power of the Britifh general to re- f
duce the town to afhes, which could not have been re¬
paired in many years, did not think proper to give the
leaft moleftation ; and for the fpace of a fortnight the
troops were employed in the evacuation of the place,
from whence they carried along with them 2000 of the
inhabitants, who durft not ftay on account of their at¬
tachment to the Britifh caufe. From Bofton they failed
to Halifax ; but all their vigilance could not prevent a
number of valuable ihips from falling into the hands of
the enemy. A confiderable quantity of cannon and am¬
munition had alfo been left at Bunker s Hill and Bofton
Neck ; and in the town an immenfe variety of goods,
principally woollen and linen, of which the provincials
flood very much in need. J he eftates of thole who
fled to Halifax were confifcated; as alfo thofe who were
attached to government, and had remained in the town.
As an attack was expedled as foon as the Britifh forces
fhould arrive, every method was employed to render the ^
fortifications, already very ftrong, impregnable. Tor Its fortifica-
this purpofe fome foreign engineers were employed, who tjons
had before arrived at Bofton ; and fo eager were people ftrengthen-
of all ranks to accomplifh this bufinefs, that every able-ed.
bodied man in the place, without diftimftion of .rank,
fet apart two days in the week, to complete it the
fooner. 216
The Americans, exafperated to the utmoft by the Congi-efs
proceedings of parliament, now formally renounced all declares the
connexion with Britain, and declared ihemfelves inde-States of ^
pendent. This celebrated declaration was publifhed on
the 4th of July 1776. Previous to this a circular letter
had been fent through each colony, ftating the reafons
for it; and fuch was the animofity now everywhere pre¬
vailing againft Great Britain, that it met with univerfal
approbation, except in the province of Maryland alone.
It was not long, however, before the people of that.co¬
lony, finding themfelves left in a very dangerous mino¬
rity, thought proper to accede to the meafures of the
reft. The manifefto itfelf was much in the ufual ftyle,
ftating a long lift of grievances, for which redrefs had
been often applied for in vain ; and for thefe reafons
they determined on a final feparation ; to hold the peo¬
ple of Britain as the reft of mankind, “ enemies in war,
in peace friends.”
After thus publicly throwing off all allegiance and
hope of reconciliation, the colonifts foon found that an
exertion of all their ftrength was required in order to
fupport their pretenfions. Their arms, indeed, had
not, during this feafon, been attended with fuccefs, in
Canada. Reinforcements had been promifed to Colonel
Arnold, who ftill continued the blockade of Quebec;
but they did not arrive in time to fecond his opera- 217
tions. Being fenfible, hoxvever, that he muft either Thefiege of
defift from the enterprife, or finifh it fuccefsfully, he
recommenced in form ; attempting, to burn the (hip¬
ping, and even to ftorm the town itfelf. f hey were
unfuccefsful, however, by reafon of the fmallnefs of
their number, though they fucceeded fo far as to burn
a number of houfes in the fuburbs; and the garrifon
A M E [ 54 ] AM
America, were obliged to pull down the remainder, in order to fon, engaged in this enterprife
E
ai8
Canadians
defeated
by the pro¬
vincials ;
219
who are in
their turn
defeated
by General
Garleton.
220
Humanity
of the Bri-
tifli gene¬
ral.
221
He purfues
the provin¬
cials.
prevent the fire from fpreading.
As the provincials, though unable to reduce the
town, kept the garrifon in continual alarms, and in a
very difagreeable fituation, fome of the nobility col¬
lected themfelves into a body under the command of
one Mr Beaujeu, in order to relieve their capital ; but
they were met on their march by the provincials, and
fo entirely defeated, that they were never afterwards
able to attempt any thing. The Americans, however,
had but little reafon to plume themfelves on this fuc-
cefs. Their want of artillery at laft convinced them,
that it w'as impracticable in their fituation to reduce a
place fo ftrongly fortified : the fmallpox at the fame
time made its appearance in their camp, and carried
off great numbers; intimidating the reft to fuch a de¬
cree, that they deferted in crowds. To add to their
misfortunes, the Britilh reinforcements unexpected¬
ly appeared, and the fhips made their way through
the ice with fuch celerity, that the one part of^their
army was feparated from the other } and General Carle-
ton fallying out as foon as the reinforcement was land¬
ed, obliged them to fly with the utmoft precipita¬
tion, leaving behind them all their cannon and mili¬
tary ftores; at the fame time their {hipping was en¬
tirely captured by veffels fent up the river for that
purpofe. On this occafion the provincials fled with
fuch precipitation that they could not be overtaken ;
fo that none fell into the bands of the Britifh except¬
ing the fick and wounded. General Carlelon now gave
a fignal inftance of his humanity : Being well apprifed
that many of the provincials had not been able to ac¬
company the reft in their retreat, and that they were
concealed in woods, &c. in a very deplorable fituation,
he generoufly iffued a proclamation, ordering proper
perfons to feek them out, and give them relief at the
public expence j at the fame time, left, through fear of
being made prifoners, they fliould refufe thefe offers of
humanity, he promifed, that as foon as their fituation
enabled 'them, they fhould be at liberty to depart to
their refpeCHve homes.
The Britiili general, now freed from any danger of
an attack, was foon enabled to aft offenfively againft
the provineials, by the arrival of the forces deftined for
that purpofe from Britain. By thefe he was put at
the head of 12,000 regular troops, among whom were
thofe of Brunfwick. With this force he inftantly fet
out to the Three Rivers, where he expe&ed that Ar¬
nold would have made a ftand; but he had fled to So-
rel, a place 150 miles diftant from Quebec, where he
was at laft met by the reinforcements ordered by con-
grefs. Here, though the preceding events were by no
means calculated to infpire much military ardour, a
very daring enterprife was undertaken; and this was
to furprife the Britifli troops ported here under Gene¬
rals Frafer and Nefbit; of whom the former command¬
ed thofe on land, the latter fuch as were on board of
tranfports and were but a little way diftant. The en¬
terprife was undoubtedly very hazardous, both on ac¬
count of the ftrength of the parties, againft whom they
were to aft, and as the main body of the Britifli forces
was advanced within 50 miles of the place 5 befides
that a number of armed veffels and tranfports with
troops lay between them and the Three Rivers. Two
thoufand chofen men, however, under General Thom-
Their fuccefs was
by no means anfwerable to their fpirit and valour.
Though they parted the (hipping without being obfer-
AmericS.
■v*
222
ved, General Frafer had notice of their landing j an^xhomfon
thus being prepared to receive them, they were foon
thrown into diforder, at the fame time that General and taken
Nelbit, having landed his forces, prepared to attack prifoner by
them in the rear. On this occafion fome field pieces
did prodigious execution, and a retreat was found to be
unavoidable. General Nelbit, however, had got be-
tween them and their boats *, fo that they were obliged
to take a circuit through a deep fvvamp, while they
were hotly purfued by both parties at the fame time,
who marched for fome miles on each fide of the fwamp,
till at laft the miferable provincials were fheltered from
further danger by a wood at the end of the fwamp.
Their general, however was taken, with 200 of his
223
By this difafter the provincials loft all hopes of ac-The pro-
complifhing any thing in Canada. They demoliflied™^1*
their works, and carried off their artillery with the ut-Gei)eral *
moft expedition. They were purfued, however, by Burgoyne
General Burgoyne •, againft whom it was expedled that
they would have collefted all their force, and made a
refolute ftand. But they were now too much difpirit-
ed by misfortune, to make any further exertions of va¬
lour. On the 18th of June the Britifh general arrived
at Fort St John’s, which he found abandoned and
burnt. Chamblee had {hared the fame, fate, as well as
all the veflels that were not capable of being dragged
up againft the current of the river. It was thought that
they would have made fome refiftance at Nut Ifland, 22^
the entrance to Lake Champlain j but this alfo they but efcape
had abandoned, and retreated acrofs the lake to Crown to Crown
Point, whither they could not be immediately follow-Point*
ed. Thus was the province of Canada entirely evacua¬
ted by the Americans ; whofe lofs in their retreat from
Quebec was calculated at not lefs than 1000 men, of
whom 400 fell at once into the hands of the enemy at a
place called the Cedars, about 50 miles above Montreal.
General Sullivan, however, who conduced this retreat
after the affair of General Thomfon, was acknowledged
to have had great merit in what he did, and received
the thanks of congrefs accordingly. 225
This bad fuccefs in the north, however, was fome-
what compenfated by what happened in the fouthern North Cjl.
colonies.—We have formerly taken notice that MrroHnain
Martin, governor of North Carolina, had been obliged favour of
to leave his province and take refuge on board a man Britain,
of war. Notwithftanding this, he did not defpair of
reducing it again to obedience. For this purpofe he
applied to the Regulators, a daring fet of banditti, who
lived in a kind of independent ftate •, and though con-
fidered by government as rebels, yet had never been
molefted, on account of their numbers and known fkill
in the ufe of fire-arms. To the chiefs of thefe people
commiflioners were fent, in order to raife fome regi¬
ments ; and Colonel Macdonald, a brave and enterprif-
jng officer, was appointed to command them. In the
month of February he erefled the king’s ftandard, if¬
fued proclamations, &c. and colle&ed fome forces, ex-
petting to be foon joined by a body of regular troops,
who were known to be (hipped from Britain to aft
againft the fouthern colonies. The Americans, fenfible
of their danger, defpatched immediately what forces
they
America.
A M E [5
they had to a&t againft the royalifts, at the fame time
that they diligently exerted themfelves to fupport thefe
with fuitable reinforcements. Their prefent force, was
commanded by a General Moore, whofe numbers were
inferior to Macdonald’s ; for which reafon the latter
fummoned him to join the king’s ftandard under pain
of being treated as a rebel. But Moore, being well
provided with cannon, and conlcious that nothing
could be attempted againft him, returned the compli¬
ment, by acquainting Colonel Macdonald, that if he
and his party would lay down their arms and fubferibe
an oath of fidelity to congrefs, they ftiould be treated
as friends ; but if they perfifted in an undertaking for
Avhich it was evident they had not fufficient ftrength,
they could not but expert the fevereft treatment. In
a few days General IVIoore found himfelf at the head
of 8000 men, by reafon of the continual fupplies which
daily arrived from all parts. The royal party amount¬
ed only to 2000, and they were deftitute of artillery,
which prevented them from attacking the enemy while
they had the advantage of numbers. They were now
therefore obliged to have recourfe to a defperate exer¬
tion of perfonal valour-, by dint of which they efferted
a retreat for 80 miles to Moor’s Creek, within 16
miles of Wilmington. Could they have gained this
place, they exported to have been joined by Governor
Martin and General Clinton, who had lately arrived
with a confiderable detachment. But Moore with his
army purfued them fo clofe, that they were obliged
to attempt the paffage of the creek itfelf, though a
confiderable body of the enemy, under the command
of Colonel Cofwell, with fortifications well planted
with cannon, was polled on the other fide. On at¬
tempting the creek, however, it was found not to be
fordable. They were obliged therefore to crofs over
a wooden bridge which the provincials had not time
to deftroy entirely. They had, however, by pulling
up part of the planks, and greafing the remainder in
order to render them flippery, made the pafiage fo dif¬
ficult, that the royalifts could not attempt it. In this
fituation they were, on the 27th of February, attacked
by Moore, with his fuperior army, and totally defeated,
with the lofs of their general and moft of their leaders,
as well as the belt and braveft of their men.
Lord Dun- Thus was the power of the provincials eftablilhed in
more final- North Carolina. Nor were they lefs fuccefsful in the
outfofW'r Prov^nce Virginia; where Lord Dunraore, having
r" long continued an ufelefs predatory war, was at laft
driven from every creek and road in the province. The
people he had on board were diftrefled to the higheft
degree by confinement in fmall veffels. The heat of
the feafon, and the numbers crowded together, pro¬
duced a peftilential fever, which made great havock,
efpecially among the blacks. At laft, finding them¬
felves in the utmoft hazard of perilhing by famine as
well as by difeafe, they fet fire to the leaft valuable of
their veffels, referving only about 50 for themfelves, in
which they bade a final adieu to Virginia, fome failing
to Florida, fome to Bermuda, and the reft to the Weft
Indies.
In South Carolina the provincials had a more for¬
midable enemy to deal with. A fquadron, whofe ob-
216
The roy¬
alifts en¬
tirely de¬
feated.
2^
gima
aa8
Britifh ar¬
mament
fent againftvvas redurtion of Charleftown, had been fitted
Charlef- J ’
town.
out in December 1775 } but by reafon of unfavourable
weather did not reach Cape Fear in North Carolina
3
5 ] A M E
till the month of May 1776: and here it met with America,
further obftacles till the end of the month. 1 bus the ’ " ' v "
Americans, always noted for their alertnefs in raifing
fortifications, had time to ftrengthen thofe of Charlef¬
town in fuch a manner as rendered it extremely diffi¬
cult to be attacked. The Britiffi fquadron confifted
of two 50 gun (hips, four of 30 guns, two of 20, an
armed fchooner and bomb-ketch-, all under the com¬
mand of Sir Peter Parker. The land forces were
commanded by Lord Cornwallis, with Generals Clin¬
ton and Vaughan. As they had yet no intelligence of
the evacuation of Bofton, General Howe defpatched a
veffel to Cape Fear with fome inftrurtions j but it was
too late ; and in the beginning of June the fquadron
anchored off Charleftown bar. Here they met with
fome difficulty in crofting, being obliged to take out
the guns from the two large ftiips, which were, not-
withftanding, feveral times in danger of flicking faft.
The next obftacle was a ftrongfort on Sullivan’s iftand,
fix miles eaft from Charleftown j which, though not
completely finifhed, was very ftrong. However, the
Britiffi generals refolved without hefitation to attack
it -, but though an attack was eafy from the fea, it was
very difficult to obtain a co-operation of the land
forces. This was attempted by landing them on
Long Ifland, adjacent to Sullivan’s Ifland on the eaft,
from which it is feparated by a very narrow creek, faid
not to be above two feet deep at low water. Oppofite
to this ford the provincials had ported a ftrong body of
troops, with cannon and intrenchments; while Gene¬
ral Lee was polled on the main land, with a bridge of
boats betwixt that and Sullivan’s Ifland, fo that he
could at pleafure fend reinforcements to the troops in
the fort on Sullivan’s Ifland.
On the part of the Britifh, fo many delays occurred,
that it was the 28th of June before matters were in
readinefs for an attack j and by this time the provin¬
cials had abundantly provided for their reception. On
the morning of that day the bomb-ketch began to
throw ffiells into Fort Sullivan, and about mid-day the
two 50 gun fhips and 30 gun frigates came up and
began a fevere fire. Three other frigates were ordered
to take their ftation between Cbarleftown and the fort,
in order to enfilade the batteries, and cut off the com¬
munication with the main land ; but through the igno¬
rance of the pilots they all lluck faft -, and though two
of them were difentangled, they were found to be totally
unfit for fervice: the third was burnt, that fhe might not
fall into the hands of the enemy. 22^
The attack was therefore confined to the five armed The fleet
ffiips and bomb-ketch, between whom and the fort a make a fu-
dreadful fire enfued. The Briftol fuffered exceffively. r*ous at“
The fprings on her cable being {hot away, fhe was fortack'
fome time entirely expofed to the enemy’s fire. As
the enemy poured in great quantities of red hot balls, 2^o
{he was twice in flames. The captain (Mr Morris), Bravery of
after receiving five wounds, was obliged to go below Captain
deck in order to have his arm amputated. After un-^0UIS*
dergoing this operation he returned to his place, where
he received another wound, but Hill refufed to quit
his ftation : at laft he received a red-hot ball in his
belly, which inftantly put an end to his life. Of all
the officers and feamen who flood on the quarter-deck
of this veffel, not one efcaped without a wound, ex¬
cepting Sir Peter Parker alone; whofe intrepidity and
prefence
A M E
[ 56 ]
A M E
America.
231
The Bri.
tilli repul.
fed.
prefence of mind on this occafion were very remarkable.
The engagement lafted till darknefs put an end to it.
Little damage was done by the Britifh, as the works
of the enemy lay fo low that many of the (hot flew
over 5 and the fortifications, being compofed of palm-
trees mixed with earth, were extremely well calculated
to refill the impreflion of cannon. During the height
of the attack, the provincial batteries remained for
fome time filent, fo that it was concluded that they
had been abandoned : but this was found to proceed
only from want of powder j for as foon as.a fupply of
this neceffary article rvas obtained, the firing was re¬
fumed as brilk as before. During the whole of this
defperate engagement it was found impoflible for the
land forces to give the leaft afliilance to the fleet. The
232
Americans
form a
navy.
enemy’s works were found to be much ilronger than
they had been imagined, and the depth of water ef-
feflually prevented them from making any attempt.
In this unfuccefsful attack the killed and wounded on
the part of the Britifti amounted to about 200. The
Briftol and Experiment were fo much damaged, that
it was thought they could not have been got over the
bar; however, this was at laft accompliihed by a very
great exertion of naval Ikill, to the furprife of the pro¬
vincials, who had expe£led to make them both prizes.
On the American fide the lofs was judged to have been
very confiderable, as moft of their guns were difmount-
ed, and reinforcements had poured into the fort during
the whole time of the a&ion.
This year alfo, the Americans, having fo frequently
made trial *)f their valour by land, became defirous of
trying it by fea alfo, and of forming a navy that might
in fome meafure be able to proteft their trade, and do
effential hurt to the enemy. In the beginning of
March, Commodore Hopkins was difpatched with five
frigates to the Bahama iflands, where he made.himfelf
mailer of the ordnance and military llores ; but the
gunpowder, which had been the principal objea, was
removed. On his return he captured feveral veffels 5
but was foiled in his attempt on the Glafgow frigate,
which found means to efcape notwithflanding the efforts
of his whole fquadron. .
The time, however, was now come when the forti¬
tude and patience ef the Americans were to undergo a
fevere trial. Hitherto they had been on the whole fuc-
cefsful in their operations : but now they were doomed
to experience misfortune, mifery, and difgrace; the
enemy overrunning their country, and their own. ar¬
mies not able to face them in the field. The province
235 of New York, as being the moll central colony, and
agatnft molt acceflible by fea was pitched upon for.the objeft
New York, of the main attack. I he force fent againll it confilted
of 6 (hips of the line, 30 frigates, befides other armed
veffels, and a vail number of tranfports. I he fleet
was commanded by Lord Howe, and the land forces
by his brother General Howe, who was now at Hali¬
fax. The latter, however, a confiderable time before
his brother arrived, had fet fail from Halifax, and
lay before New York, but without attempting to
commence holtilities until he fliould be joined by his
brother The Americans had, according to cultom,
GcoStl fortified New York, arid the adjacent itlands, in an
Howe lands extraorclinary manner. However, General Howe was
-on Staten (dffored to land his troops on Staten Illand, where he
was foon joined by a number of the inhabitants. A-
bout the middle of July, Lord Howe arrived with the America,
grand armament} and being one of the commiflioners v—-y—J
appointed to receive the fubmiflion of the colonills, he
publilhed a circular letter to this purpofe to the feveral
governors who had lately been expelled from their pro¬
vinces, defiring them to make the extent of bis com-
miflion, and the powers he was invefled with by par¬
liament, as public as poflible. Here, however, con-
grefs faved him trouble, by ordering bis letter and
declaration to be publiftied in all the newfpapers, that
every one, as they faid, might fee the infidioufnefs of
the Britifti miniftry, and that they had nothing to truft
to befides the exertion of their own valour. .
Lord Howe next fent a letter to General Wafbing-General
ton •, but as it was directed “ To George Waftiington, ^ aflung-
Efq.” the general refufed to accept of it, as not be- es
Ifland.
ing directed in the ftyle fuitable to his ftation. TofromLorj$
obviate this objedlion, Adjutant-general Paterfon was Howe,
fent with another letter, direaed “ To George Wafti-
ington, &c. &c. &c.” But though a very.polite re¬
ception was given the bearer, General Waftiington ut¬
terly refufed the letter •, nor could any explanation of
the adjutant induce him to accept of it. The. only
interefting part of the converfation was that relating to
the powers of the commiflioners, of which Lord Howe
was one. The adjutant told him, that thefe powers
were very extenfive j that the commiflioners were de¬
termined to exert themfelves to the utmoft, in order to
bring about a reconciliation •, and that he hoped the
general would confider this vifit as a ftep towards it.
General Wafliington replied, lhat it did not appear
that thefe powers confifted in any thing elfe. than grant¬
ing pardons; and as America had committed no of¬
fence, fne a Iked no forgivenefs, and was only defending
her unquestionable rights. . 235
The decifion of every thing being now, by confent Hoftilities
of both parties, left to the fword, no time was loft, commence,
but hoftilities commenced as foon as the Britifti troops
could be colledled. This, however, was not done be¬
fore the month of Atoguft ; when they landed without
any oppofition on Long Ifland, oppofite to the (bore
of Staten Ifland. General Putnam, with a large body situation
of troops, lay encamped and ftrongly fortified on aoftheBri-
peninfula on the oppofite fliore, with a range of hftls
between the armies, the principal pafs of which was amies>
near a place called Flat-bujh. Here the centre of the
Britifti army, confiding of Heflians, took poll •, the
left wing, under General Grant, lying near the fhorej
and the right, confifting of the greater part of the
Britifli forces, lay under Lords Percy, Cornwallis., and
General Clinton. Putnam had ordered the paffes to
be fecured by large detachments, which was executed
as to thofe at hand ; but one of the utmoft importance,
that lay at a diftance, was entirely neglefted. This
gave an opportunity to a large body of troops under
Lord Percy and Clinton to pafs the mountains and
attack the Americans in the rear, while they vvere.en-
gaged with the Heflians in front. Through this piece
of negligence their defeat became inevitable. Thofe
who were engaged with the Heffians firft perceived
their miftake, and began a retreat towards their
camp 5 but the paffage was intercepted by the Britifti
troops, who drove them back into the woods. Here
they were met by the Heflians j and thus were they for
many hours flaughtered between the two parties, no
way
America.
A M E [ 57 1 A M
way of efcape remaining but by breaking through the reducing the city of New York.
238
eated with
;reat
laughter.
239
They aban
don their
Bntiih troops, and thus "regaining their camp. In this
attempt many perithed ; and the right wing, engaged
rhe Ame- Vvith General Grant, lhared the fame fate. The \u6tory
leans de- was complete •, and the Americans loft on this fatal
day (Auguft 27th) between 3000 and 4000 men, of
whom 2000 were killed in the battle or purfuit. A-
mong thefe a regiment, confiding of young gentlemen
of fortune and family in Maryland, was almoft entirely
cut in pieces, and of the furvivors not one efcaped
without a wound.
The ardour of the Britilh troops was now fo great,
that they could fcarcely be reftrained from attacking
the lines of the provincials 5 but for this there was now
no occafion, as it was certain they could not be de¬
fended. Of the Britilh only 61 were killed in this en¬
gagement, and 257 wounded. Eleven hundred of the
enemy, among whom were three generals, were taken
prifonefs.
- As none of the American commanders thought it
proper to rilk another attack, it was refolved to aban-
camp in the don t]iejr camp as foon as poffible. Accordingly, on
nisht' the night of the 29th of Auguft, the whole of the con¬
tinental troops were ferried over with the utmoft fecre-
cy and filence •, fo that in the morning the Britilh had
nothing to do but take poffeflion of the camp and artil-
lery which had been abandoned.
Lord How* This victory, though complete, was very far from
lends a being fo decifive as the conquerors imagined. Lord
meffage to Howe, fuppofing that it would be fufficient to intimi-
congrefs, t£e congrefs jnto fome terms, fent General Sulli¬
van, who had been taken prifoner in the late aftion, to
congrefs, with a meffage, importing, that though he
could not confiftently treat with them as a legal affem-
bly, yet he ivould be very glad to confer with any of
the members in their private capacity •, fetting forth
at the fame time the nature and extent of his powers
as commiflioner. But the cohgrefs were not as yet
fufficiently humbled to derogate in the leaft from the
dignity of chara&er they had affumed. They replied,
That the congrefs of the free and independent ftates of
America could not confiftently fend any of its mem-
241 bers in another capacity than that which they had pub-
and is wait-licly affumed j but as they were extremely defirous of
ed on by a reftoring peace to their country upon equitable condi¬
tions, they would appoint a committee of their body
to wait upon him, and learn what propofals he had to
make.
This produced a new conference. The committee
appointed by congrefs was compofed of Dr Franklin,
Mr Adams, and Mr Rutledge. They were very po¬
litely received by his lordlhip •, but the conference
proved as fruitlefs as before independency had been de¬
clared, and the final anfwer of the deputies was, That
they were extremely willing to enter into any treaty
with Great Britain that might conduce to the good of
Tlie confer-both nations, but that they would not treat in any
ence termi-0t}jer character than that of independent ftates. This
pofitive declaration inftantly put an end to all hopes or
reconciliation 5 and it was refolved to profecute the war
with the utmoft vigour. Lord Howe, after publifhing
a manifefto, in which he declared the refufal of con¬
grefs, and that he himfelf was willing to confer with all
well-difpofed perfons about the means of reftoring pu¬
blic tranquillity, fet about the moft proper methods for
Vol. II. Part L
E
Here the provincial America,
number of bat- —y—~
commit¬
tee.
242
nates inef-
fefftually.
troops were polled, and from a great
teries kept continually annoying the Britifli (hipping.
The Eaft River lay between them, of about 1200 yards
in breadth, which the Britifti troops were extremely
defirous of pafling. At laft the (hips having, after an
inceffant cannonade of feveral days, filenced the moft
troublefome batteries, a body of troops rvas fent up
the river to a bay, about three miles diftant, where the
fortifications were lefs ftrong than in other places.
Here having driven off the provincials by the cannon
of the fleet, they marched diredlly towards the city j
but the enemy, finding that they fhould now be attack- 243
ed on all fides, abandoned the city, and retired to the New York
north of the ifland, where their principal force Wasabaildonecl
collefled. In their paffage thither they Ikirmiftied
with the Britifli, but carefully avoided a general en¬
gagement ; and it was obferved that they did not be¬
have with that ardour and impetuous valour which had
hitherto marked their charadler. 244
The Britifti and provincial armies were not now Situation
above two miles diftant from each other. The former ofthe bn-
lay encamped from fhore to ftiore for an extent of two^1erican.
miles, being the breadth of the ifland, which, though armies.
15 miles long, exceeds not two in any part in breadth.
The provincials, w'ho lay diredlly oppofite, had ftrength-
ened their camp with many fortifications *, at the fame
time, being mafters of all the paffes and defiles be¬
twixt the two camps, they were enabled to defend
themfelves againft an army much more numerous than
their own : and they had alfo ftrongly fortified a pafs
called King's Bridge, whence they could fecure a paf¬
fage to the continent in cafe of any misfortune. Here
General Waftiington, in order to inure the provincials
to adlual fervice, and at the fame time to annoy the
enemy as much as poflible, employed his troops in con¬
tinual (kirmiflieS 5 by which it was obferved that they
foon recovered their fpirits, and behaved with their
ufual boldnefs.
As the fituation of the two armies was now highly
inconvenient for the Britifti generals, it was refolved
to make fuch movements as might oblige General
Waftiington to relinquifti his ftrong fituation. The
poffeflion of New York had been lefs beneficial than
was expected. It had been concerted among the pro¬
vincials, that the city ftiould be burnt at the time of
evacuation •, but as they were forced to depart with
precipitation, they were prevented from putting the ^
fcheme in execution. In a few days, however, it was New York
attempted by fome who had been left behind for that fet on fire
purpofe. Taking advantage of a high wind and dry
weather, the town was fet on fire in feveral places at “l >-
once, by means of combuftibles properly placed for
that purpofe > and notwithftanding the moft adlive ex¬
ertions of the foldiery and failors, a fourth part of the
city was confumcd.
On this occafion the Britifti were irritated to the
higheft degree *, and many perfons, faid to be incen¬
diaries, were without mercy thrown into the flatties.
It was determined to force the provincial army to a
greater diftance, that they might have it lefs in their
power, by any emiffaries, to engage others in a fimilar
attempt. For this purpofe, General Howe having left
Lord Percy with fufficient force to garrifon New York,'
he embarked his army in flat-bottomed boats, by which
H thesf
A M E
[ 58 ]
A M E
America.
246
General
Waftiing
farther
from New
York.
they were conveyed through the dangerous paflage
called Hell Gate, and landed near the town of Weft
Chefter, lying on the continent towards Connecticut.
Here, having received a fupply of men and provifions,
ton obliged they moved to New Rochelle, lituated on the found
to remove which feparates Long Ifland from the continent. Af¬
ter this, receiving ftill frelh reinforcements, they made
fuch movements as threatened to diftrefs the provin¬
cials very much, by cutting off their convoys of provi¬
fions from Connecticut, and thus force them to an en¬
gagement. This, however, General Wafhington de¬
termined at all events to avoid. He therefore extend¬
ed his forces into a long line oppofite to the way in
which the enemy marched, keeping the Bruna, a river
of confiderable magnitude, between the two armies,
with the North River on his rear. Here again the
provincials continued for fome time to annoy and fkir-
niifti with the royal army, until at laft, by fome other
247 manoeuvres, the Bntifh general found means to attack
Is defeated them advantageoufly at a place called the White Plains,
at White and drove them from fome of their polls. The viClory
Plains. on thJg occafion was much lefs complete than the for¬
mer ; however, it obliged the provincials once more to
' fhift their ground, and to retreat farther up the country.
General Howe purfued for fome time 5 but at laft find¬
ing all his endeavours vain to bring the Americans to
a pitched battle, he determined to give over fuch an
ufelefs chafe, and employ himfelf in reducing the forts
which the provincials ftill retained in the neighbour¬
hood of New York. In this he met with the moft
complete fuccefs. The Americans, on the approach
of the king’s force, retreated from King’s Bridge into
Tort Wafhington ; and this, as well as Fort Lee, which
24!! lay in the neighbourhood, was quickly reduced, though
The Jerfeysthe garrifon made their efcape. Thus the Jerfeys were
entirely o- jajd entirely open to the incurlions of the Britifli troops j
verrun by ^ were t]iefe provinces taken poffeffion of by
the Bntim , /     frnm
troops
249
Rhode
Ifland ta
ken.
the royal army, that its winter quarters extended from
New Brunfwick to the river Delaware. Had any num¬
ber of boats been at hand, it is probable that Philadel¬
phia would now have fallen into their hands. All
thefe, however, had been carefully removed by the A-
mencans. In lieu of this enterprife, Sir Henry Glinton
undertook an expedition to Rhode Ifland, and became
matter of it without lofing a man. His expedition was
alfo attended with this further advantage, that the Ame¬
rican fleet under Commodore Hopkins was obliged to
fai as far as poflible up the river Providence, and thus
remained entirely ufelefs.
The fame ill fuccefs continued to attend the Ame¬
ricans in other parts. After their expulfion from Ca¬
nada, they had croffed the lake Champlain, and taken
up their quarters at Crown Point, as we have already
mentioned. Here they remained for fome time in
fafety, as the Britifh had no veffels on the lake, and
confequently General Burgoyne could not purfue them.
The Britifli To remedy this deficiency, there was no poflible me-
convey thod, but either to conftruft veffels on the fpot, or
veffels up tajie tQ pieces fome veffels already conftru£led, and
Ch Sain, drag them up the river into the lake. This, however,
a was effefted in no longer a fpace than three months •,
and the Britifh general, after incredible toil and diffi¬
culty, faw himfelf in poffeffion of a great number of
veffels, by which means he was enabled to purfue his
enemies, and invade them in his turn. T he labour
undergone at this time by the fea and land forces muft America,
indeed have been prodigious j fince there were con-' ""'v 1
veyed over land, and dragged up the rapids of St Law¬
rence, no fewer than 30 large long boats, 400 bat-
teaux, befides a vaft number of flat-bottomed boats,
and a gondola of 30 tons. The intent of the expedition
w’as to pufli forward before winter to Albany, where
the army would take up its winter quarters, and next
fpring effeft a jmuftion with that under General Howe,
when it was not doubted that the united forces and Ikill
of thefe two commanders would fpeedily put a termina¬
tion to the w'ar.
By reafon of the difficulties with which the equip¬
ment of this fleet had been attended, it was the begin¬
ning of October before the expedition could be under¬
taken. It was now, however, by every judge allowed
to be completely able to anfwer the purpofe for which
it was intended. It confifted of one large veffel with
three mafts, carrying 18 twelve pounders ; two fchoon-
ers, the one carrying I4> the other 12 fix pounders 5
a large flat-bottomed radeau with 6 twenty-four and 6
twelve pounders and a gondola with 8 nine pounders.
Befides thefe were 20 veffels of a fmaller fize, called
gun boats, carrying each a piece of brafs ordnance from
9 to 24 pounders, or howitzers. Several long-boats
were fitted out in the fame manner •, and befides all
thefe, there was a vaft number of boats and tenders,
of various fizes, to be ufed as tranfports for the troops
and baggage. It was manned by a number of feleft
feamen, and the guns were to be ferved by a detach¬
ment from the corps of artillery $ the officers and fol-
diers appointed for this expedition were alfo chofen out
of the whole army. # 2^r
To oppofe this formidable armament the Americans £)eftroy ^
had only a very inconfiderable force, commanded by naval force
General Arnold *, who, after engaging part of the Bri- of the pro
tilh fleet for a whole day, took advantage of the dark-vlncia s‘
nefs of the night to fet fail without being perceived,
and next morning was out of fight : but he was fo hot¬
ly purfued by the Britifti, that on the fecond day af¬
ter he was overtaken, and forced to a fecond engage¬
ment. In this he behaved with great gallantry ; but
his force being very inferior to that of the enemy, he
was obliged to run his fhips alhore and fet them on fire.
A few only efcaped to Lake George} and the garrifon
of Crown Point having deftroyed or carried off every
thing of value, retired to Ticonderago. Thither Ge¬
neral Carleton intended to have purfued them •, but
the difficulties he had to encounter appeared fo many
and fo great, that it was thought proper to march back
into Canada, and defift from any further operations till
next fpring. 2ra
Thus the affairs of the Americans feemed everywhere ^me,
going to wreck : even thofe who had been moft fan-Hcans al-
guine in their caufe began to waver. The time, alfo, moft entm
for which the foldiers had enlifted themfelves was now ^ 1 Pel e
expired ; and the bad fuccefs of the preceding cam¬
paign had been fo very difcouraging, that no perfon
was willing to engage himfelf during the continuance
of a war, of which the event feemed to be fo doubtful.
In confequence of this, therefore, General Waftrington
found his army daily decreafing in ftrength ; fo that
from 30,000, of which it confifted when General Howe
landed on Staten Ifland, fcarce a tenth part could now
be. muftered. To affift the chief commander as much
America.
253
General
A M E - [
as poflible, General Lee had colleaed a body of forces
in the north 5 but on his way fouthward havmg im¬
prudently taken up his lodging at fome diftance from
his troops, information was given to Colonel Harcourt,
who h;.' pened at that time to be in the neighbourhood,
oenerai and Lee was made prifoner. The lofs of this general
Lee taken was much regretted, the more efpecially as he was ot
prifoner. f ior quaiity to any prifoner in the poffeflion ot the
tolonifts, and could not therefore be exchanged. Six
field officers were offered in exchange tor him, and re-
fufed ; and the congrefs was highly irritated, at its be¬
ing reported that he was to be treated as a deferter,
having been a half-pay officer in the Bntiffi fervice at
the commencement of the war. In confequence of this
they iffued a proclamation, threatening to retaliate on
the prifoners in their poffeffion whatever pun.ffiment
(hould be infliaed on any of thofe taken by the Bntiffi,
and efpecially that their conduct ffiould be regulated by
,(•1 the treatment of General Lee. , a.
Continental In the mean time they proceeded with the moft in-
army for defatigable diligence to recruit their army, and bound
I777> their foldiers to ferve for a term of three years or du-
ring the continuance of the war. 1 ^ army defigned
for the enfuing campaign was to confift of 88 batta¬
lions ; of which each province was to contribute its
quota •, and 20 dollars were offered as a bounty to
each foldier, befides an allotment of lands at the end
of the war. In this allotment it was ftipulated, that
each foldier ffiould have too acres 5 an enfign 150*, a
lieutenant 200 ; a captain 300; a major 400^ a lieu-
tenant-colonel 4J0; and a colonel 500. No lands
were promifed to thofe whomlifted only for three years.
All officers or foldiers difabled through wounds, receiv¬
ed in the fervice were to enjoy half-pay during lire.
To defray the expence, congrefs borrowed five mil¬
lions of dollars at five per cent.; for payment of which
the United States became furety. At the fame time,
in order to animate the people to vigorous exertions a
declaration was publiffied, in which they fet forth the
neceffity there was for taking proper methods to enfure
fuccefs in their caufe: they endeavoured to palliate as
much as poffible the misfortunes which had already
happened; and reprefented the true .caufe of the pre-
fent diftrefs to be the ffiort term of inliftment..
This declaration, together with the imminent dan¬
ger of Philadelphia, determined the Americans to exert
themfelves to the utmoft in order to reinforce General
Waffiington’s army. They foon received farther en¬
couragement however, by an exploit of that general
againft the Heffians. As the royal army extended m
different cantonments for a great way, General Wafh-
ington, perceiving the imminent danger to which Phi¬
ladelphia was expofed, refolved to make fome attempt
on thofe divifions of the enemy which lay neareft that
city. Thefe happened to be the Heffians, who lay in
three divifions, the laft only 20 miles diftant from Phi¬
ladelphia. On the 25th of December, having colleft-
ed as confiderable a force as he could, he fet out with
an intent to furprife that body of the enemy who. lay
at Trenton. His army was divided into three bodies •,
one of which he ordered to crofs the Delaware at Tren¬
ton Ferry, a little below the town; the fecond at a
£ood diftance below, at a place called Bor dent own,
where the fecond divifion of Heffians was placed ; while
ffie himfelf with the third, dire&ing his courfe to a fer-
America.
25S
59 J A M E
ry fome miles above Trenton, intended to have paffed
it at midnight, and attacked the Heffians at break of
day. But by reafon of various impediments, it was
eight in the morning before he could reach the place, of
his deftination. The enemy, however, did not perceive
his approach till they were fuddenly attacked. Colo¬
nel Ralle, who commanded them, did all that could
be expelled from a brave and experienced officer •, but
every thing was in fuch confufion, that no efforts of
valour or (kill could now retrieve matters. The colo¬
nel himfelf was mortally wounded, his troops were en¬
tirely broken, their artillery feized, and about iccc
taken prifoners^
This a6tion, though feemingly of no very decihve
nature, was fufficient at that time to turn the fortune
of war in favour of America. It tended greatly to lel-
fen the fear which the provincials had of the Heffians,
at the fame time that it equally abated the confidence
which the Britifti had till now put in them. Rein¬
forcements’ came in to General Waffiington’s army from
all quarters; fo that he was foon in a condition to
leave Philadelphia, and take up his quarters at Tren¬
ton. Emboldened by his fuccefs, he determined to Another at-
make an attempt on a divifion of the Britiffi forces ^a'
tioned at Maidenhead, a town fituated half '"^y ^e‘ti(h regi-
tween Trenton and Princetown. 1 his confifted of inree ments.
regiments under the command of Colonel IMawhood, 255
an officer of great merit. The troops were furprifed but they
on their march ; but though they were feparately fur- ^e-r
rounded and attacked by a force fo vaftly fuperior, trea^
they charged the enemy fo refolutely with their bayo¬
nets, that they effe&ed a retreat. Thefe attempts, of
the Americans, however, with the hoftile difpofition
of the people, {bowed the impoflibility of maintaining
polls fo far advanced in the enemy’s country ;. fo that
it was refolved to retreat towards Brunfwick., in order
to prevent it, with the troops and magazines it contain¬
ed, from falling into the hands of the provincials.
General Waffiington loft no opportunity of recovering
what had been loft ; and, by dividing his army into
fmall parties, which could be reunited on a few hours
warning, he in a manner entirely covered the country
with it, and repoffeffed himfelf of all the important
places.
Thus ended the campaigmof 1776, with fcarce any
real advantage, other than the acquifition of the city
of New York, and of a few fortreffes.in its neighbour¬
hood ; where the troops were conftrained to aft with
as much circumfpeftion as if they had been befieged
by a victorious army, inftead of being themfelves the
conquerors. _
The army at New York began in 1777 exercue Excurfions
a kind of predatory war, by fending out parties to de- of the Bri-
ftroy magazines, make incurfions, and take or deftro.y
fuch forts as lay on the banks of rivers, to which their i
great command of (hipping gave them accefs.. In this
they wrere generally fuccefsful : the provincial maga¬
zines at Peek’s Hill, a place about 50 miles diftant
from New York, were deftroyed, the town of Dun¬
bury in Connefticut burnt, and that of Ridgefield in
the fame province was taken poffeffion of. In returning
from the laft expedition, however, the Britiffi were
greatly haraffed by the enemy under Generals Arnold,
Woofter, and Sullivan ; but they made good their re¬
treat in fuite of all oppofition, with the lofs of only 170
r H 2 killed
ken pri
foner.
A M E [ 60
America, killed and wounded. On the American fide the lofs
—y--■■■■' was much greater j General Woofter was killed, and
Arnold in the moft imminent danger. On the other
hand, the Americans deftroyed the (tores at Sagg har¬
bour, in Long Ifland, and made prifoners of all who
defended the place.
As this method of making war, however, could an-
fwer but little purpofe, and favoured more of the bar¬
barous incurfions of favages than of a tvar carried on by
a civilized people, it was refolved to make an attempt
on Philadelphia. At firft it was thought that this
could be done through the Jerfeysj but General Wa(h-
ington had received fuch large reinforcements, and
polled himfelf fo ftrongly, that it was found to be im-
pradlicable. Many llratagems were ufed to draw him
from this ftrong fituation, but without fuccefs } fo that
3 it was found neceflary to make the attempt on Phila-
Ge.ierai delphia by fea. While the preparations neceffary for
Prefect ta- this expedition were going forward, the Americans
i found means to make amends for the capture of Gene¬
ral Lee by that of General Prefcot, who was feized in
his quarters with his aid-de-camp, in much the fame
manner as General Lee had been. This was exceed¬
ingly mortifying to the general himfelf, as he had not
long ago fet a price upon General Arnold himfelf, by
offering a fum of money to any one that apprehended
him •, which the latter anfwered by fetting a lower
price upon General Prefcot.
The month of July was far advanced before the pre¬
parations for the expedition againft Philadelphia were
completed \ and it was the 23d before the fleet was
able to fail from Sandy Hook. The force employed
in this expedition confided of 36 battalions of Britifti
and Medians, a regiment of light horfe, and a body of
loyalids raifed at New York. The remainder of thefe,
with 17 battalions, and another body of light horfe,
was ftationed at New York under Sir Henry Clinton.
Seven battalions were flationed at Rhode Ifland. Af¬
ter a week’s failing they arrived at the mouth of the
Delaware ; but there received certain intelligence, that
the navigation of the river was fo effe£lually obflrudl-
ed, that no poflibility of forcing a paffage remained.
Upon this it was refolved to proceed farther fouthward
to Chefapeak bay in Maryland, from whence the di-
ftance to’Philadelphia was not very great, and where
the provincial army would find lefs advantage from the
nature of the country than in the Jerfeys.
The navigation from Delaware to Chefapeak took
up the beft part of the month of Augufl, and that up
the bay itfelf was extremely difficult and tedious. At
lands atthelaft, having failed up the river Elk as far as was prac-
head of the t;cablej the troops were landed without oppofition, and
fet forward on their intended expedition. On the
news of their arrival in Chefapeak, General Wafhing-
ton left the Jerfeys, and haftened to the relief of Phi¬
ladelphia •, and in the beginning of September met the
royal army at Brandy-wine Creek, about mid-way be¬
tween the head of the Elk and Philadelphia. Here
he adhered to his former method of fldrmiihing and
haraffing the royal army on its march; but as this
proved infufficient to flop its progrefs, he retired .to
that fide of the creek next to Philadelphia, with an in¬
tent to difpute the paffage. This brought, on a general
engagement on the nth of September, in which the
Americans were worfted through the fuperior difeipline
]
A M E
2 59
The fleet
f;ui> for
Philadel¬
phia.
%6q
The army
of the Britifli troops; and it was only through the ap- America
proach of night that they were faved from being en-' v—
tirely deftroyed. On this occafion the provincials loft
about 1000 in killed and wounded, befides 400 taken
prifoners.
The lofs of this battle proved alfo the lofs of Phi¬
ladelphia. General Waftiington retired toward Lan-
cafter, an inland town at a confiderable diftance from
Philadelphia. Here, however, the Britiffi general took
fuch meafares as muft have forced the provincials to a
fecond engagement; but a violent rain which lafted
a day and a night, prevented his defign. General
Waftiington, though he could not prevent the lofs of
Philadelphia, (till adhered to his original plan of dif-
ftreffing the royal party, by laying ambufties and cut- ,
ting off detached parties : but in this he was lefs fuc-^” detachl
cefsful than formerly ; and one of his own detachments, ment fur_
which lay in ambufti in a wood, were themfelves fur-prifed and
prifed and entirely defeated, with the lofs of 300 killed defeated
and wounded, befides a great number taken, and all^^J^*
their arms and baggage. . . . 263
General Howe now perceiving that the Americans General
would not venture another battle even for the fake of Howe takes
their capital, took peaceable poffeflion of it on ^ePodjeffion oj
26th of September. His firft care was then to cut^
off, by means of ftrong batteries, the communication^
between the upper and lower parts of the river: which
was executed notwithftanding the oppofition of fome
American armed veffels; one of which, carrying 36
guns, was taken. His next talk was to open a com¬
munication with it by fea ; and this was a. work of no
fmall difficulty. A vaft number of batteries and forts
had been ere£ted, and immenfe machines formed like
chevaux de fri%e, from whence they took, their name,
funk in the river to prevent its navigation. As the
fleet was fent round to the mouth of the river in
order to co-operate with the army, this work, how¬
ever difficult, was accompliftied ; nor did the provin¬
cials give much oppofition, as well knowing that all
places of this kind were now untenable. General
264
Waftiington, however, took the advantage of the royal Royal ar-
army being divided, to attack the camp of the princi-^^g^
261
The A me¬
ric ans de¬
feated.
pal divifion of it that lay at German-town in the neigh-man_town<
bourhood of Philadelphia. In this he met with very
little fuccefs ; for though he reached the place of defti-
nation by three o’clock in the morning, the patrols
had time to call the troops to arms. The Americans,
notwithftanding, made a very refolute attack; but they
were received with fuch bravery, that they were com- J(j5
pelled to abandon the attempt, and retreat in great The Ame-
diforder ; with the advantage, however, of carrying ricans dc-
off their cannon, though purfued for a confiderable way,feated*
after having 300 killed, 600 wounded, and upwards
of 400 taken prifoners, among whom were 54 officers.
On the Britiffi fide, the lofs amounted to 430 wounded
and prifoners, and 70 killed ; but among the laft were
General Agnew and Colonel Bird, with fome other
excellent officers.
There (till remained two ftrong forts on the Dela¬
ware to be reduced. Thefe were Mud Ifland and Red
Bank. The various obftrudlions which the Ameri¬
cans had thrown in the way rendered it neceffary to
bring up the Augufta, a (hip of the line, and the
Merlin frigate, to the attack of Mud Ifland; but du¬
ring the heat of aftion both were grounded* Upon
America.
266
Two Britifh
burnt.
267
All the
forts near
Philadel¬
phia redu¬
ced.
268
Expedition
projected
againft
A M E [61
tins the Americans fent down four fire-fhips, and
dire&ed the whole fire from their galleys againft them.
The former were rendered ineffeftual by the courage
„ „ and fldll of the Britifti feamen j but during the en-
flidns of war gagement both the Augufta and Merlin took fire and
.- i- were burnt to alhes, and the other Ihips obliged to
withdraw. The enemy, encouraged by this unfuccefs-
ful attempt, proceeded to throw new obftru&ions in
the way •, but the Britilh general having found means
to convey a number of cannon, and-to ereft batteries
within gunlhot of the fort by land, and bringing up
three fhips of the line which mounted heavy cannon,
the garrifon, after making a vigorous defence for one
day, perceiving that preparations were making for a
general affault on the next, abandoned the place in the
night. Thofe who defended Red Bank followed their
example, and abandoned it on the approach of Lord
Cornwallis. A great number of the American {hipping
now finding themfelves entirely deftitute of any pro-
tedlion, failed up the river in the night time. Seven¬
teen however remained, whofe retreat was intercepted
by a frigate and fome armed veffels j on which the
Americans ran them aftiore and burnt them, to prevent
their falling into the enemy’s hands.
Thus the campaign of 1777 in Pennfylvania conclu¬
ded fuccefsfully on the part of the Britifti. In the
north, however, matters wore a different afpe£l. The
New Eng- expedition in that quarter had been prejefted by the
land. Britiih miniftry as the moft effeftual method that could
be taken to crufti the colonies at once. The four pro¬
vinces of New England had originally begun the con¬
federacy againft Britain, and were ftill confidered as
the moft aftive in the continuation of it j and it was
thought that any impreflion made upon them would
contribute in an effe&ual manner to the redudlion of
all the reft. For this purpofe, an army of 4000 cho-
fen Britifti troops and 3000 Germans was put under
the command of General Burgoyne •, General Carleton
was direfted to ufe his intereft with the Indians to per-
fuade them to join in this expedition j and the province
of Quebec was to furnifti large parties to join in the
fame. The officers who commanded under General
Burgoyne were General Philips of the artillery, Gene¬
rals Frafer, Powel, and Hamilton, with the German
officers, Generals Reidefel and Sprecht. The foldiers,
as has already been obferved, were all excellently dif-
ciplined, and had been kept in their winter-quarters
with all imaginable care, in order to prepare them for
the expedition on which they were going. To aid the
principal expedition, another was projected on the Mo¬
hawk river under Colonel St Leger, who was to be
afljfted by Sir John Johnfon, fon to the famous Sir
William Johnfon, who had fo greatly diftinguifhed
himfelf in the war of 1755.
On the 21 ft of June 1777, the army encamped on
the weftern fide of the lake Champlain j where being
joined by a confiderable body of Indians, General Bur¬
goyne made a fpeech, in which he exhorted thofe new
allies to lay afide their ferocious and barbarous manner
of making war j to kill only fuch as oppofed them
in arms j and to fpare prifoners, with fuch women and
children as ffiould fall into their hands. After iffuing
a proclamation, in which the force of Britain and that
which he commanded was fet forth in very oftentatious
terms, the campaign opened with the fiege of Ticon*
269
General
Burgoyne
joined by
the Indians,
] A M E
derago. The place was very ftrong, and garrifoned America,
by 6000 men under General Sinclair ; neverthelefs the ‘1 " v '
works were fo extenfive, that even this number was xicondera-
fcarce fufficient to defend them properly. They had gQ befiege“i
therefore omitted to fortify a rugged eminence called and taken.
Sugar Hill, the top of which overlooked and effe£lual-
ly commanded the whole works j vainly imagining that
the difficulty of the afcent would be fufficient to pre¬
vent the enemy from taking poffeffion of it. On the
approach of the firft divifion of the army, the provin¬
cials abandoned and fet fire to their outworks 5 and fo
expeditious were the Britiffi troops, that by the 5th
of July every poft was fecured which was judged ne-
ceffary for invefting it completely. A road was icon
after made to the very fummit of that eminence which
the Americans had with fuch confidence fuppofed could
not be afcended j and fo much were they now diffieart-
ened, that they inftantly abandoned the fort entirely,
taking the road to Skenefborough, a place to the fouth
of Lake George j while their baggage, with what ar¬
tillery and military ftores they could carry off, were
fent to the fame place by water. But the Britifti ge¬
nerals were determined not to let them pafs fo eafily.
Both were purfued, and both overtaken. rJ heir armed Americans
veffels confifted only of five galleys •, two of which were defeated by
taken, and three blown up j on which they fet fire to^Jnd
their boats and fortifications at Skeneffiorough. Onwa e '
this occafion the provincials loft 200 boats, 130 pieces
of cannon, with all their provifions and baggage.
Their land forces under Colonel Francis made a brave
defence againft General Frafer; and being greatly fu-
perior in "number, had almoft overpowered him, when
General Reidefel with a large body of Germans came
to his afliftance. The enemy were now overpowered
in their turn •, and their commander being killed, they
fled on all fides with great precipitation. In this ac¬
tion 260 Americans were killed, as many taken prifo¬
ners, and above 600 wounded, many of whom periffied
in the woods for want of affiftance.
During the engagement General Sinclair was at
Caftleton, about fix miles from the place j but inftead
of going forward to Fort Anne, the next place of
ftrength, he repaired to the woods which lie between
that fortrefs and New England. General Burgoyne,
however, detached Colonel Hill with the ninth regi¬
ment, in order to intercept fuch as ffiould attempt to
retreat towards Fort Anne. On his way he met with 'j'hey^are
a body of the enemy, faid to be fix times as numerous again de_
as his own 5 but after an engagement of three hours, feated, and
they were obliged to retire with great lofs. After fo abandon
many difafters, defpairing of being able to make any^ort ^nnc'
Hand at Fort Anne, they fet fire to it, and retired to
Fort Edward. In all thefe engagements the lofs in kill-
led and wounded in the royal army did not exceed 200
men. _ _ 273
General Burgoyne was now obliged to fufpend his General
operations for fome time, and wait at Skeneffiorough
for the arrival of his tents, provifions, &c. but employ- way to Fort
ed this interval in making roads through the country Edward
about St Anne, and in clearing a paffage for his troops with great
to proceed againft the enemy. This was attended 1 cu
with incredible toil j but all obftacles were furmounted
with equal patience and refolution by the army. In
ffiort, after undergoing the utmoft difficulty that could
be undergone, and making every exertion that man
could
274
Americans
retire to
Saratoga.
A M E [
America, could make,, he arrived with his army before Fort Ed-
'“--v--—' ward about the end of July. Here General Schuyler
had been for fome time endeavouring to recruit the
lhattered American forces, and had been joined by
General Sinclair with the remains of his army *, the
garrifon of Fort George alfo, lituated on the lake of
that name, had evacuated the place and retired to Fort
Edward.
But on the approach of the royal army$ they re¬
tired from thence alfo, and formed their head-quar¬
ters at Saratoga. Notwithftanding the great fucceffes
of the Britifh general, they {bowed not the leaft dif-
polition to fubmit, but feemed only to confider how
they might make the moft effe£!ual refiftance. For
this purpofe, the militia was everywhere raifed and
draughted to join the army at Saratoga •, and fuch
numbers of volunteers were daily added, that they foon
began to recover from the terror into which they had
been thrown. That they might have a commander
whofe abilities could be relied on, General Arnold was
appointed, who repaired to Saratoga with a confider-
able train of artillery ; but receiving intelligence that
Colonel St Leger was proceeding with great rapidity
in his expedition on the Mohawk river, he removed to
Still-water, a place about half way between Saratoga
and the jun£tion of the Mohawk and Hudfon’s river.
The colonel, in the mean time, had advanced as far as
Fort Stanvvix •, the liege of which he preffed with great
vigour. On the 6th of Auguft, underftanding that a
fupply of provifions, efcorted by 800 or 900 men, was
on the way to the fort, he defpatched Sir John Johnfon
ment of A- 'with a ftrong detachment to intercept it. This he did
fo effeftually, that, befides intercepting the provifions,
400 of its guard were fiain, 200 taken, and the reft
efcaped with great difficulty. The garrifon, however,
were not to be intimidated by this difafter, nor by the
threats or reprefentations of the colonel $ on the con¬
trary, they made feveral fuccefsful fallies under Colo¬
nel Willet, the fecond in command 5 and this gentle¬
man," in company with another, even ventured out of
the fort, and, eluding the vigilance of the enemy, paf-
fed through them in order to haften the march of Ge¬
neral Arnold to their afliftance.
Thus the affairs of Colonel St Leger feemed to be
in no very favourable fituation, notwithftanding his late
fuccefs, and they were foon totally ruined by the defer-
tion of the Indians. They had been alarmed by the re¬
port of General Arnold’s advancing with 2000 men
to the relief of the fort j and while the colonel was at¬
tempting to give them encouragement, another report
was fpread, that General Burgoyne had been defeated
with great {laughter, and was now flying before the
provincials. On this he was obliged to do as they
thought proper j and the retreat could not be effe&ed
without the lofs of the tents and fome of the artillery
and military {lores.
General Burgoyne, in the mean time, notwithftand¬
ing all the difficulties he had already fuftained, found
that he muft Hill encounter more. The roads he had
275
Fort Stan-
wix be-
lieged.
276
A detach-
mencans
cut in
pieces.
277
The In¬
dians de-
fert, and
force the
colonel to
raife the
liege.
278
General
Burgoyne
diftreffed
provifions°f made with fo much labour and pains were deftroyed
either by the wetnefs of the feafon or by the enemy ;
fo that the provifions he brought from Fort George
could not arrive at his camp without the moft prodi¬
gious toil. On hearing of the fiege of Fort Stanwix
by Colonel St Leger, he determined to move forward
3
62 ] A M E
in hopes of enclofing the enemy betwixt his owft army America,
and that of St Leger, or of obtaining the command of 'v
all the country between Fort Stanwix and Albany *, or
at any rate, a jun&ion with Colonel St Leger would be
eft’e&ed, which could not but be attended with the
moft happy confequences. The only difficulty was the
want of provifions j and this it was propofed to reme¬
dy by reducing the provincial magazines at Benning- ^
ton. For this purpole, Colonel Baum, a German of-Makes an
ficer of great bravery, was chofen, with a body of 500 attempt oh
men. The place was about twenty miles from Hud-^^0^
fon’s river ; and to fupport Colonel Baum’s party, thezjnes at
whole army marched up the river’s bank, and encamp- Benning-
ed almoft oppofite to Saratoga, with the river betwixt ton.
it and that place. An advanced party was polled at
Batten Kill, between the cam^p and Bennington, in or¬
der to fupport Colonel Baum. In their way the Bri-
tilh feized a large fupply of cattle and provifions, which
were immediately fent to the camp j but the badnefs
of the roads retarded their march io much, that intel¬
ligence of their defign was fent to Bennington. Un¬
derftanding now that the American force was greatly
fuperior to his own, the colonel acquainted the general,
who immediately defpatched Colonel Breyman with
a party to his affiftance; but through the fame caufes
that had retarded the march of Colonel Baum, this af¬
fiftance could not arrive in time. General Starke, in
the mean time, who commanded at Bennington, de¬
termined to attack the two parties feparately •, and for 28®
this purpofe advanced againft Colonel Baum, whom Co'.onel
he furrounded on all fides, and attacked with the ut-®^™^"
meft violence. The troops defended themfelves with fgated and
great valour, but were to a man either killed or taken, taken pri-
Colonel Breyman, after a defperate engagement, hadf°ner'
the good luck to effeft a retreat through the darknefs
of the night, which otherwife he could not have done, Breyman
as his men had expended all their ammunition, being defeated.
40 rounds to each.
General Burgoyne, thus difappointed in his attempt
on Bennington, applied himfelf with indefatigable dili¬
gence to procure provifions from Fort George; and
having at length amaffed a fufficient quantity to laft
for a month, he threw a bridge of boats over the river
Hudfon, which he croffed about the middle of Septem¬
ber, encamping on the hills and plains near Saratoga.
As foon as he approached the provincial army, at this
time encamped at Still-water under General Gates, he
determined to make an attack ; for which purpofe he
put himfelf at the head of the central divifion of his
army, having General Frafer and Colonel Breyman on
the right, with Generals Reidefel and Phillips on the
left. In this pofition he advanced towards the enemy
on the 19th of September. But the Americans did 2ga
not now wait to be attacked : on the contrary, they The Ame-
attacked the central divifion with the utmoft violence jricans at-
and it was not until General Phillips with the artillery
came up that they could be repulfed. On this occa- my .
fion, though the Britiffi troops loft only 330 in killed 283
and wounded, and the enemy no fewer than 1500, the and are
former were very much alarmed at the obftinate refo- Sreal
lution ffiown by the Americans. This did not, how- Crt,pUp-e^
ever, prevent them from advancing towards the enemy,
and porting themfelves the next day within cannon- 284
{hot of their lines. But their allies the Indians began The Indi-
to defert in great numbers j and at the fame time the ans defert
general
g°'
287
A M E [63
America, general was in the higheft degree mortified by having
v——v——^ no intelligence of any aflitiance from Sir Henry Clinton,
28S as had been llipulated. He now received a letter from
fronTsir ^m’ ^ which he was informed, that Sir Henry intend-
Heury Clin-ed to make a diverfion on the North River in his fa-
ton, with vour. This afforded but little comfort: however, he
General returned an anfwer by feveral trufty perfons whom he
f ver116 ^ de^Patc^e^ different ways, ftating his prefent diftreffed
fituation, and mentioning that the provifions and other
neceffaries he had would only enable him to hold out
^ till the 12th of October.
Expedition the mean time the Americans, in order to cut
of the pro- off the retreat of the Britilh army in the moft effeflual
vincials manner, undertook an expedition againft Ticonderago j
againft {3^ were obliged to abandon the enterprife after hav-
iccm ing furprifed all the outpofts, and taken a great num¬
ber of boats with fome armed veffels, and a number of
prifoners. The army under General Burgoyne, how¬
ever, continued to labour under the greateft diffreffes ;
fo that in the beginning of Oftober he had been obli¬
ged to diminifti the foldiers allowance. On the 7th of
that month he determined to move towards the enemy.
For this purpofe he fent a body of 1500 men to re¬
connoitre their left wing 5 intending, if poffible, to
They make break through it in order to effedl a retreat. The de-
a defperate tachment, however, had not proceeded far when a
^Pon dreadful attack was made upon the left wing of the
army; Britilh army, which was with great difficulty preferved
288 from being entirely broken by a reinforcement brought
kill Gene- Up by General Frafer, who was killed in the attack.
^ ■^L^ter t^ie trooPs had with the molt defperate efforts
and defeat regained their camp, it was moft furioufly afiaulted by
the Ger- General Arnold j who, notwithftanding all oppofition,
mans with would have forced the intrenchments, had he not re-
great ceived a dangerous wound, which obliged him to re-
^re* Thus the attack failed on the left, but on the
right the camp of the German referve was forced.
Colonel Breyman killed, and his countrymen defeated
with great flaughter, and the lofs of all their artillery
and baggage.
This was by far the heavieft lofs the Britiffi army
had fuftained fince the aftion at Bunker’s Hill. The
lift of killed and wounded amounted to near 1200, ex-
clufive of the Germans ; but the greateft misfortune
was, that the enemy had now an opening on the right
and rear of the Britlffi forces, fo that the army was
threatened with entire deftrudlion. This obliged Ge¬
neral Burgoyne once more to ftiift his pofition, that
the enemy might alfo be obliged to alter theirs. This
was accompliffied on the night of the 7th, without any
lofs, and all the next day he continued to offer the
enemy battle j but they were now too well affured of
obtaining a complete vidlory, by cutting off all fupplies
from the Britiffi, to rilk a pitched battle. Wherefore
they advanced on the right fide, in order to enclofe him
entirely; which obliged the general to direft a retreat
towards Saratoga. But the enemy had now ftationed
a great force on the ford at Hudfon’s river, fo that
the only poffibility of retreat was by fecuring a paffage
to Lake George *, and to effect this, a body of work¬
men was detached, with a ftrong guard, to repair the
roads and bridges that led to Fort Edward. As foon
as they were gone, however, the enemy feemed to
prepare for an attack j which rendered it neceffary to
The royal
army in
danger of
being fur-
rounded.
291
Attempt
a retreat
•without
fuccefs.
] A ’ M E
recall the guard, and the workmen being of courfe left America,
expofed could not proceed. *, ..r v-—J
In the mean time, the boats which conveyed provi¬
fions down Hudfon’s river were expofed to the conti¬
nual fire of the American maikfmen, who took many
of them; fo that it became neceifary to convey the pro¬
vifions over land. In this extreme danger it was re-
folved to march by night to Fort Edward, forcing the
paffages at the fords either above or below the place j
and in order to effefr this the more eafily, it was re-
folved that the foldiers ftiould carry their provifions
on their backs, leaving behind their baggage and every
other incumbrance. But before this could be execu¬
ted, intelligence was received that the enemy had raifed
ftrong intrenchments oppofite to thefe fords, well pro¬
vided with cannon, and they had likewife taken pof-
feffion of the rifing ground between Fort George and
Fort Edward, which in like manner was provided with
cannon. - ' 2j,2
All this time the American army was increafing by Diftreffed
the continual arrival of militia and volunteers from all fituation of
parts. Their parties extended all along the oppofite ^ r°yal
bank of Hudfon’s river, and fome had even palled itarmy‘
in order to obferve the leaft movement of the Britiffi
army. The whole force under General Gates was
computed at 16,000 men, while the army under Gene¬
ral Burgoyne fcarcely amounted to 6000; and every
part of the camp was reached by the grape and rifle
ffiot of the enemy, befides a difeharge from their artil¬
lery, Avhich was almoft inceffant. In this ftate of ex¬
treme diftrefs and danger, the army continued with the
greateft conftancy and perfeverance till the evening of
the 13th of October, when an inventory of provifions
being taken, it was found that no more remained than
what was fufficient to ferve for three days; and a coun-jt isobli-
cil of Avar being called, it Avas unanirhoufly determined ged to ca-
that there Avas no method now remaining but to treat pkulate'
Avith the enemy. In confequence of this, a negotia¬
tion Avas opened next day, which fpeedily terminated
in the capitulation of the whole Britiffi army 5 the
principal article of Avhich was, that the troops vvere to
have a free paffage to Britain, on condition of not
ferving againft America during the war. On this 00
cafion, General Gates ordered his army to keep within
their camp, Avhile the Britiffi foldiers went to a place
appointed for them to lay doAvn their arms, that the
latter might not have the additional mortification of
being made fpeflacles in fo melancholy an event. The
number of thofe who furrendered at Saratoga amount¬
ed to 5750, according to the American accounts $ the
lift of the fick and wounded left in the camp Avhen the
army retreated to Saratoga, to 528 5 and the number of
thofe loft by other accidents fince the taking of Ticon¬
derago, to near 3000. Thirty-five brafs field-pieces,
7000 ftand of arms, clothing for an equal number of
foldiers, with the tents, military cheft, &c. conftituted
the booty on this occafion.
Sir Henry Clinton, in the mean time, had failed upsuccefsfu]
the North river, and deftroyed the two forts called expedition
Montgomery and Clinton, Avith Fort Conftitution, and«f SirHen-
another place called Continental Village, Avhere Were ry ^nt0IU
barracks for 2000 men. Several large cannon were
carried avvay, befides a number of fmaller artillery, and
a great quantity of ftores and ammunition $ a large
boom
A M E
[ 64 ]
A M E
America.
295
Great de-
jedlion on
account of
capture.
296
Treaty be¬
tween
France and
America.
boom and chain reaching acrofs the river from Fort
Montgomery to a point of land called St Anthony’s
Nofe, and which colt not le.fs than 'jo,oool. fterling,
were partly deftroyed and partly carried awby,^ as was
alfo another boom of lit-le lefs value at Fort Conititu
tion. The lofs of the Britidi army was but fmall in
number, though fome officers of great merit were killed
in the different attacks.
Another attack was made by Sir James Wallace with
fome frigates, and a body of land forces under General
Vaughan. The place which now fuffered was named
Efopus : the fortifications were deftroyed, and the town
itfelf was reduced to allies, as that called Continental
Village- had been before.
But thefe fucceffes,of whatever importance they might
j  be, Avere now difregarded by both parties. They ferved
account of onjv to jrritate the Americans, flulhed with their fuc-
Burgoyne s ^ ^ they were utteriy infufficient to raiie the fpi-
rits of the Britilh, who were now thrown into the utmoft
dl Orfthe 16th March 1778, Lord North intimated
to the houfe of commons, that a paper had been laid be-
fore the king by the French ambaffador, intimating the
conclufion of an alliance between the court of France
and the United States of America. The preliminaries
of this treaty had been concluded in the end of the year
177^, and a copy of them fent to congrefs,.in order to
counterad any propofals that might be made in the mean
time by the Britilh miniftry. On the 6th of February
1778, the articles were formally figned, to the great fa-
tisfadion of the French nation.
They were in fubftance as follows :
1. If Great Britain Ihould, in confequence of this
treatv, proceed to hoftilities againft France, the two na¬
tions” ffiould mutually aflift one another. _
2. The main end of the treaty was in an effedual
* manner to maintain the independency of America.
q. Should thofe places of North America ftill fub-
ied to Britain be reduced by the colonies, they Ihould
be confederated with them, or fubjeded to their jurif-
" 4. Should any of the Weft India iflands be reduced
by France, they Ihould be deemed its property.
c. No formal treaty with Great Britain ffiould be
concluded either by France or America without the
confent of each other •, and it was_ mutually engaged
that they Ihould not lay down their arms till the in¬
dependence of the States had been formally acknow¬
ledged. . .
6. The contrading parties mutually agreed to invite
thofe powers that had received injuries from Great Bri¬
tain to join the common caufe.
7. The United States guaranteed to France all the
pnffeffions in the Weft Indies which fhe ihould conquer j
and France in her turn guaranteed the abfolute indepen¬
dency of the States, and their fupreme authority oyer
every country they poffeffed, or might acquire during
the war.
The notification of fuch a treaty as this could not
Debates but be looked upon as a declaration of war. On its
occafioned being announced to the houfe, every one agreed in an
1”' ‘T'“ addrefs to his Majefty, promifing to ftand by him to
the utmoft in the prefent emergency *, but it was warm¬
ly contended by the members in oppofition, that the
prefent miniftry ought t® be removed on account of
their numberlefs blunders and mifearriages in every in- America._
ftance. Many were of opinion, that the only way to ^ ",f
extricate the nation from its trouble was to acknow¬
ledge the independency of America at once •, and thus
we’might ftill do with a good grace what muff inevita¬
bly be done at laft, after expending much more blood
and trealure than had yet been lavilhed in this unhappy
conteft. The minifterial party, however, entertained
different ideas. Inftigated by zeal for the national no-
nour, it was determined at once to refenttne arrogance
of France, and profecute hoftilities againft America with
more vigour than ever, thould the terms now offered
them be reje£ted.
298
29*
The Americans, in the mean time, affiduoufiy em- American*
ployed their agents at the courts of Spain, Vienna, fend agent
Pruffia, and Tufcany, in order, if poffible, to conclude
alliances with them, or at leaft to procure an acknow¬
ledgment of their independency. As it had been re¬
ported that Britain intended to apply for affiftance to
Ruffia, the American commiffioners were enjoined to
ufe their utmoft influence with the German princes to
prevent fuch auxiliaries from mafehing through their
territories, and to endeavour to procure the recall of the
German troops already fent to America. . To France
they offered a ceffion of fuch Weft India iflands as
Ihould be taken by the united ftrength of France and
America •, and ffiould Britain by their joint endeavours
be difpoffeffed of Newfaundland, Cape Breton, and
Nova Scotia, thefe territories ffiould be divided betwixt
the two nations, and Great Britain be totally excluded
from the fiftrery. The propofals to the Spaniffi court
were, that in cafe they ffiould think proper to efpoufe
their quarrel, the American ftates ffiould affift in redu¬
cing Penfacola under the dominion of Spain, provided
their fubjefts were allowed the free navigation of the ri¬
ver Miffiffippi, and the ufe of the harbour of Penfacola j
and they further offered, that if agreeable to Spain, they
would declare war againft Portugal, ffiould that power
expel the American ffiips from its ports. ^
In the mean time, the troops under General Burgoyne General
were preparing to embark for Britain according to the Burgoyne
convention at Saratoga j but to their utter furprife, con- ^
grefs pofitively refufed to allow them to embaik, under Ameru:a<
pretence that fome finifter defigns were harboured on the
part of Britain, and that they only wanted an opportu¬
nity to join the -other troops at Philadelphia or New
York. 300
The feafon for a&ion was now approaching •, and con- predatory
grefs was indefatigable in its preparations for a new cam- war carrS
paign, which it was confidently faid would be the *
Among other methods taken for this purpofe, it was re- troops#
commended to all the young gentlemen of the colonies
to form themfelves into bodies of cavalry to ferve at their
own expence during the war. General Waffiington at
the fame time, in order to remove all encumbrances
from his army, lightened the baggage as much as pof¬
fible, by fubftituting facks and portmanteaus in place
of chefts and boxes, and ufing paekhorfes inftead of
waggons. On the other hand, the Britifti army, ex-
by tlie
jfcreaty.
pefting to be fpeedily reinforced by 20,000 men,thought ry bill re
of nothing but concluding the war according to their ceived wih
wiffies before the end of the campaign. It was witbindignam
the utmoft concern as well as indignation, therefore, by thc a
that they received the news of Lord North’s concilia- ^
torv bill. It was universally looked upon as a national
difgrace j
tie cola
ills.
A M E [
America dlfgrace : and feme even tore the cockades from their
 hats, and trampled them under their feet as a token
302 of -their indignation. By the colonifls it was re-
!efpifeclbyceived with indifference. The Britifh commiflioners
endeavoured to make it as public as poffible and
the congrefs, as formerly, ordered it to be printed
in all the newfpapers. On this occafron Governor
Tryon enclofed feveral copies of the bill to General
Wafhington in a letter, entreating that he would allow
them to be circulated j to which that general returned
for anfvver a copy of a newfpaper in which the bill
was printed, with the refolutions of congrefs upon it.
Thefe were, That whoever prefumed to make a fe-
parate agreement with Britain fhould be deemed a
public enemy that the United States could not with
any propriety keep correfpondence with the commif-
fioners until their independence was acknowledged, and
the Britifh fleets and armies removed from America.
At the fame time, the colonies were warned not to fuf-
fer themfelves-to be deceived into fecurity by any offers
that might be made ; but to ufe their utmoft. endea¬
vours to fend their quotas with all diligence into the
field. The individuals with whom the cemmiflioners
converfed on the fubjeft of the conciliatory bill, gene¬
rally returned for anfvver, that the day of icconcilia-
tion was paft ; and thatj.be haughtinefs of Britain had
extinguithed all filial regard in the breads of the Ame-
3°3
3°4
Philadel¬
phia eva-
:uated.
About this time alfo Mr Silas Deane arrived from
France with two copies of the treaty of commerce
and alliance to be figned by congrefs. Advices of the
moft agreeable nature were alfo received from various
parts, reprefenting in the moft favourable light the dif-
Jad fuccefs pofitions of the European powers ; all of whom, it was
f the com-foi^ wi(lied to fee the independence of America fettled
aiffioners; upon ^ mcjft firm and permanent bafis. Confidering
the fituation of matters with the colonifts at this time,
therefore, it is no wonder that the commiflioners found
themfelves unable to accomplifb the buflnefs on which
they came. Their propofals were utterly rejedted,
themfelves treated as fpies, and all intercourfe with them
interdidled. !
But before any final anfwer could be obtained from
congrefs, Sir Henry Clinton had taken the refolution
of evacuating Philadelphia. Accordingly, on the 10th
of June, after having made all neceflary preparations,
the army marched out of the city, and croffed the De¬
laware before noon with all its baggage and other en¬
cumbrances. General Wafliington, apprifed of this
defign, had defpatched expreffes into the Jerfeys with
orders to colled! all the force that could be aflembled
in order to obflrudl the march of the enemy. Af¬
ter various movements on both fides, Sir Henry
Clinton, with the royal army, arrived on the 27th
of June at a place called Freehold ■, where, judging
that the enemy would attack him, he encamped in a
very ftrong fituation. Here General Wafliington de¬
termined to make an attack as foon as the army had
again begun its march. The night was fpent in ma¬
king the neceflary preparations, and General Lee with
his divifion was ordered to be ready by daybreak.
But Sir Henry Clinton, juftly apprehending that the
chief objedt of the enemy was. the baggage, commit¬
ted it to the care of General Knyphaufen, whom he
ordered to fet out early in the morning, while he
Vol. II. Part I.
65 ] A M E
followed with the reft of the army. The attack was America,
accordingly made : but. the Britifti general had ta- ~v
ken fuch care to arrange his troops properly, and io
effedtuaily fupported his forces when engaged with the
Americans, that the latter not only made no im-
preflion, but were with difficulty preferved from a
total defeat by the advance of General Wafhington
with the whole army. The Britifh troops effedied
their retreat with the lofs of 300 men, of whom
many died through mere fatigue, without any wound.
In this adtion General Lee was charged by General
Wafliington with difobedience and mifeondud! in re¬
treating before the Britifh army. He was tried by '
a court martial, and fentenced to a temporary ftifpen-
fion from his command. After they had arrived at
Sandy Hook, a bridge of boats was by Lord Howe’s
diredtions thrown from thence over the channel which
feparated the ifland from the main land, and the troops
were conveyed aboard the fleet } after which they
failed to New York. After fending feme light de¬
tachments to watch the enemy’s motions, General
Wafhington marched towards the North River, where
a great force had been colie died to join him, and where
it was now expedfed that fome very capital operations
would take place.
In the mean time, France had fet about her prepa¬
rations for the afliftance of the Americans. On the
14th of April Count d’Eflaing had failed from Tou¬
lon with a flrong fquadron of fhips of the line and
frigates, and arrived on the coafl: of Virginia in the 30-
beginning of July, while the Britifli fleet was employed French
in conveyinff the forces from Sandy Hook to Newar_
York. It confifted of one ftnp of 90 guns, one otAmerica<
80, fix of 74, and four of 64, befides feveral large fri¬
gate* •, and, exclufive of its complement of failors, had
6000 marines and foldiers on board. To oppofe this
the Britifli had only fix fhips of 64 guns, three of
50, • and two of 40, with fome frigates and fliips.
Notwithftanding this inferiority, however, the Britiih
admiral polled himfelf fo advantageoufly, and fliowed
fuch fuperior fkill, that D’Eflaing did not think pro¬
per to attack him. He therefore remained at anchor
four miles off Sandy Hook till the 22d of July, without
effe&ing any thing more than the capture of fome vef-
fels, which, through ignorance of his arrival, fell into
his hands.
The next attempt of the French admiral was, in Attempts
conjunction with the Americans, on Rhode Ifland. It Rhode
was propofed that D’Eftaing, with the 6000 troops helflan‘lwitj?"
had with him, fhould make a defeent on the fouthernout uC"e 5‘
part of the ifland, while a body of the Americans
fhould take pofleflion of the north ; at the fame time
the French fquadron was to enter the harbour of New¬
port, and take and deftroy all the Britifli (hipping.
On the 8th of Auguft the French admiral entered
the harbour as was propofed, but found himfelf unable
to do any material damage. Lord Howe, however,
inftantly fet fail for Rhode Ifland ; and D’Eftaing, con¬
fiding in his fuperiority, immediately came out of the
harbour to attack him. A violent florin parted the
two fleets, and did fo much damage that they were
rendered totally unfit for aCHon. The French, how¬
ever, fuffered molt ; and feveral of the fliips being
afterwards attacked fingly by the Brilifli, very nar¬
rowly efcaped being taken. On the 20th of Auguft
I in
America.
307
The coafts
of America
invaded by
the Britifli
fleet.
308
Expedition
againft
Georgia.
A M K [66
he returned to Newport in a very fhattered condition;
and, not thinking himfelf fafe there, failed two days af¬
ter for Bolton. General Sullivan had landed in the
mean time on the northern part of Rhode Ifland with
10,000 men. On the 17th of Auguft they began
their operations by erecting batteries, and making their
approaches to the Britifh lines. But General Pigot,
who commanded in Newport, had taken fuch effedtual
care to fecure himfelf on the land fide, that without the
afliftance of a marine force it was altogether impoflible
to attack him with any probability of fuccefs. The
condudt of D’Eftaing, therefore, who had abandoned
them when mader of the harbour, gave the greateft dif-
guft to the people of New England, and Sullivan began
to think of a retreat. On perceiving his intentions, the
garrifon fallied out upon him with fo much vigour, that
it was not without difficulty that he effedted his retreat.
He had not been long gone Avhen Sir Henry Clinton
arrived with a body of 4000 men 5 which, had it ar¬
rived fooner, would have enabled the Britiffi comman¬
der to have gained a decifive advantage over him, as
well as to have deftroyed the town of Providence, which,
by its vicinity to Rhode Ifiand, and the enterprifes which
were continually projedled and carried on in that place,
kept the inhabitants of Rhode Illand in continual a-
larms.
The firft Britiffi expedition was to Buzzard’s Bay,
on the eoaft of New England and neighbourhood of
Rhode Ifiand. Hdre they deftroyed a great num¬
ber of privateers and merchantmen, magazines, with
ftorehoufes, &c. j whence proceeding to a fertile and
populous ifland called Martha’s Vineyard, they car¬
ried off 10,000 Iheep and 300 black cattle. Ano¬
ther expedition took place up the North River, under
Lord Cornwallis and General Knyphaufen j the prin¬
cipal event of which was the deftruiftion of a regiment
of American cavalry, known by the name of Waffi-
ington’s Light Horfe. A third expedition was direct¬
ed to Little Egg Harbour in New Jerfey, a place noted
for privateers, the deftru&ion of which was its princi¬
pal intention. It was conduced by Captains Fergu-
fon and Collins, and ended in the deftruCtion of the
enemy’s veffels, as well as of the place itfelf. At the
fame time part of another body of American troops,
called Pulalki’s Legion, was furprifed, and a great
number of them put to the fword.
The Americans had in the beginning of the year
projected the conqueft of Weft Florida; and one Cap¬
tain Willing, with a party of refolute men, had made
a fuccefstul incurfion into the country. This awaken¬
ed the attention of the Britiffi to the fouthern colo¬
nies, and an expedition againft them was refolved on.
Georgia was the place of deftination; and the more
effectually to enfure fuccefs, Colonel Campbell, with
a fufficient force, under convoy of fome ffiips of war,
commanded by Commodore Hyde Parker, embarked
at New York, while General Prevoft, who commanded
in Eaft Florida, was directed to fet out with all the
force he could fpare. The armament from New York
arrived off the eoaft of Georgia in the month of De¬
cember j and though the enemy were very ftrongly
potted in an advantageous fituation on the flrore, the
Britiffi troops made good their landing, and advanced
towards Savannah, the capital of the province. . That
very day they defeated the forces of the ptovincials
] A M E
which oppofed them j and took poffeftion of the town America.
•with fuch celerity, that the Americans had not time v—  
to execute a refolution they had taken of fetting it on Tak3e°9or
fire. In ten days the whole province of Georgia wasf^Jnp”f" .
reduced, Sunbury alone excepted j and this was alfo Gtorgia. 3
brought under fubjeCtion by General Prevoft in his
march northward. Every proper method was taken to
fecure the tranquillity of the country j and rewards
were offered for apprehending committee and affembly
men, or fuch as they judged moft inimical to the Bri¬
tiffi interefts. On the arrival of General Prevoft, the
command of the troops naturally devolved on him as
the fenior officer j and the conqueft of Carolina was
next projedled. 3x0
In this attempt there was no fmall probability of Carolina in
fuccefs. The country contained a great number ofvaded.
friends to government, who now eageriy embraced the
opportunity of declaring themfelves $ many of the in¬
habitants of Georgia had joined the royal ftandard j
and there was not in the province any confiderable body
of provincial forces capable of oppofing the efforts of re¬
gular and well difciplined troops. On the firft news
of General Prevoft’s approach, the loyalifts affembled
in a body, imagining themfelves able to fiand their
ground until their allies fhould arrive 5 but in this they
were difappointed. The Americans attacked and de¬
feated them with the lofs of half their number. The
remainder retreated into Georgia 5 and after undergoing
many difficulties, at laft effe&ed a jun&ion with the
Britiffi forces.
In the mean time, General Lincoln, -with a con¬
fiderable body of American troops, had encamped
within 20 miles of the town of Savannah j and another
ftrong party had polled themfelves at a place called
Briar's Creek, farther up the river of the fame name.
Thus the extent of the Britiib government was likely
to be circumfcribed within very narrow bounds. Ge¬
neral Prevoft therefore determined to diflodge the
party at Briar’s Creek : and the latter, trufting to their
ftrong fituation, and being remifs in their guard, fuf-
fered themfelves to be furprifed on the 30th of March 3I1
*779 i 'vhen they were utterly routed with the lofs of Ameriran:
400 killed and taken, befides a great number drowned defeated,
in the river or the fwamps. The whole artillery, ftores,
baggage, and almoft all the arms, of this unfortunate
party were taken, fo that they could no more make any
ftand ; and thus the province of Georgia was once more
freed from the enemy, and a communication opened
with thofe places in Carolina where the royalifts chiefly
refided.
The viflory at Briar’s Creek proved of confiderable
fervice to the Britiffi caufe. Great numbers of the loy¬
alifts joined his army, and confiderably increafed its
force. Hence he was enabled to ftretch his ports fur¬
ther up the river, and to guard all the principal paffes :
fo that General Lincoln was reduced to a flate of in-
acftion ; and at laft moved off towards Augufta, in or¬
der to proteft the provincial affembly, which was obli¬
ged to fit in that place, the capital being now in the
hands of the Britiffi.
Lincoln had no fooner quitted his port, than it was
judged a proper time by the Britiffi general to put in
execution the grand fcherne which had been meditated
againft Carolina. Many difficulties indeed lay in his
way. The river Savannah was fc fwelled by the excef-
fiv«
A M £
[ 67
anee to
harlef-
)\vn.
tenerll
;s relief.
America five rains of the feafon, that it feemed impaffable j the
—v / oppofite fhore, for a great way, was fo full of fwamps
and marfttes, that no army could march over it without
the greatell difficulty j and, to render the pallage ftill
more difficult, General Moultrie was left with a confi-
derable body of troops in order to oppofe the enemy’s
'he3Ikitifhattempts. But in fpite of every oppofition, the con-
roops ad- {fancy and perfeverance of the Britiffi forces at laft
prevailed. General Moultrie was defeated, and obli¬
ged to retire towards Charleftown ; and the viftorious
army, after having waded through the marffies for
fome time, at laft arrived in an open country, through
which they purfued their march with great rapidity to¬
wards the capital •, while General Lincoln remained
in a ftate of fecurity at Augufta, vainly imagining that
the obftacles he had left in the way could not be fur-
mounted. .
,enerai Certain intelligence of the danger to which Charlei-
'incoln ad- town was expofed at laft aroufed the American general
ances to froin his lethargy. A chofen body of infantry, mount¬
ed on horfeback for the greater expedition, was de-
fpatched before him ; while Lincoln himfelf followed
with all the forces he could colled!:. General Moultrie
too, with the troops he had brought from Savannah,
and fome others he had colledted fince his retreat from
thence, had taken poffeflion of all the avenues leading
to Charleftown, and prepared for a vigorous defence.
But all oppofition proved ineffeftual. The Americans
were defeated in every encounter j and, retreating con¬
tinually, allowed the Britilh army to come within can-
non-ftiot of Charleftown on the 12th of May.
The town was now fummoned to furrender, and the
inhabitants would gladly have agreed to obferve a neu¬
trality during the reft of the war, and would have en¬
gaged alfo for the reft of the terms. But thefe terms
not being accepted, they made preparations for a vi¬
gorous defence. It was not, however, in the power
of the Britifli commander at this time to make an at¬
tack with any profpedf of fuccefs. His artillery was
em t uii it not of fufficient weight; there were no {hips to fup-
bandoned. port his attack by land $ and General Lincoln advan¬
cing rapidly with a fuperior army, threatened to en-
clofe him between his own force and the town *, fo that
ihould he fail in his firft attempt, certain deftruftion
would be the confequence. For thefe reafons he with¬
drew his forces from before the town, and took poflef-
fion of two illands called St James's and St John's, ly¬
ing to the fouthward •, where having waited fome time,
his force was augmented by the arrival of two frigates.
With thefe he determined to make himfelf mafter of
Port Royal, another ifiand pofleffed of an excellent
harbour, and many other natural advantages, from its
fituation alfo commanding all thefea coaft from Charlef¬
town to Savannah river. The American general,
however, did not allow this to be aecomplifhed with¬
out oppofition. Perceiving that his opponent had occu¬
pied an advantageous port on St John’s ifiand, prepara¬
tory to his enterprife againft Port Royal, he at!» opted,
on the 20th of June, to diflodge him from it ; but af-
The^Ame *er an 0bftinate attack, the provincials were, as ufual,
ncar-s de- obliged to retire with confiderable lofs. On this occafion
the fuccefs of the Britiffi arms was in a great meafure
owing to an armed float •, which galled the right flank
of the enemy fo effeftually, that they could direft their
^efforts only againft the ftrongeft part of the lines, which
I'he at¬
tempt on
Seated,
A M E
proved impregnable to their attacks. This difappomt- America,
ment was inftantly followed by the lofs of Port Royal, 1 v—
which General Prevoft took poffeffion of, and put his
troops into proper Rations, waiting for the arrival of
fuch reinforcements as were neceffary for the intended
attack on Charleftown. 3,(»
In the mean time Count d’Eftaing, who, as we D’Eftaing’s
have already obferved, had put into Bofton harbour to proclama-
refit, had ufed his utmoft efforts to ingratiate himfelfUol!"
with the inhabitants of that city. Zealous alfo in the.
caufe of his mafter, he had publiffied a proclamation
to be difperfed through Canada, inviting the people to
return to their original friendftfip with France, and
declaring that all who renounced their allegiance to
Great Britain ffiould certainly find a protedtor in the
king of France. All his endeavours, however, proved,
infufticient at this time to produce any revolution, or
even to form a party of any confequence among the
Canadians. .
As foon as the French admiral had refitted his fleet, D’Eftairg ,
he took the opportunity, while that of Admiral Byron
had been {battered by a ftorm, of failing to the
Indies. During his operations there, the Americans
having reprefented his condudt as totally unferviceabie
to them, he received orders from Europe to affift the
colonies with all poffible fpeed. # ,
In compliance with thefe orders, he direfted hisDE^pS5
courfe towards Georgia, with a defign to recover that
province out of the hands of the enemy, and to put it, Georgia,
as well as South Carolina, in fuch a pofture of defence
as would effedlually fecure them from any future at¬
tack. This feemed to be an eafy matter, from the
little force by which he knew he ftiould be oppofed }
and the next objett in contemplation was no lefs than
the deftruftion of the Britifli fleet and army at New
York, and their total expulfion from the continent
of America. Full of thefe hopes, the French com¬
mander arrived off the coaft of Georgia with a fleet of
22 fail of the line and 10 large frigates. His arrival
was fo little expe&ed, that feveral veffels laden with
provifions and military ftores fell into his hands j the
Experiment alfo, a veffel of 5° guns> commanded by
Sir James Wallace, was taken after a ftout refiftance.
On the continent, the Britiffi troops were divided. Ge¬
neral Prevoft, with an inconfiderable part, remained at
Savannah *, but the main force was under Colonel Mait¬
land at Port Royal. On the firft appearance of the
French fleet, an exprefs was defpatched to Colonel
Maitland : but it Was intercepted by the enemy ; fo
that before he could fet out in order to join the com¬
mander in chief, the Americans had fecured moft of
the paffes by land, while the French fleet effeftually
blocked up the paffage by Tea. But, by taking advan¬
tage of creeks and rivulets, and marching over land, he
arrived juft in time to relieve Savannah. 3I9
D’Eftaing, after making a gafconade of what hadAbfurd
happened at St Vincents and Grenada, had allowedconduft 01
General Prevoft 24 hours to deliberate whether he^J^J1
fliould capitulate or not. This time the general em-en
ployed in making the beft preparations he could for a
defence j arid during this time it was that Colonel
Maitland arrived. D’Eftaing’s fummons was now re¬
jected } and as on this occafion the fuperiority of the
enemy was by no means fo much out of proportion as
it had been at Grenada, there was every probability of
J 2 fuccefs
America.
320
Cruelty of
the French
and Ameri
can gene¬
rals.
321
They are
utterly de¬
feated.
3.22
Succefsful
expeditions
againft the
northern
American
provinces.
A M E . [
fuccefs on the part of the BritiOi. The garrifon now
confifted of 300G men, all of approved valour and ex¬
perience, while the united force of the French and A-
mericans did not amount to 10,000. The event was
anfwerable to the expectations of the Britilh general.
Having the advantage of a ftrong fortification and ex¬
cellent engineers, the fire of the allies made fo little
impreffion, that D’Eftaing refolved to bombard the
town, and a battery of nine mortars was ereCted for the
purpofe. This produced a requeft from General Pre-
voft, that the women and children might be allowed
to retire to a place of fafety. But the allied command¬
ers had the inhumanity to refufe compliance j and they
refolved to give a general aflault. This was accord¬
ingly attempted on the 9th of OClober: but the af-
failants were everywhere repulfed with fuch daughter,
that 1200 were killed and wounded 5 among the for¬
mer was Count Pulalki, and among the latter was
D’Ellaing himfelf.
This difafter entirely overthrew the fanguine hopes
of the Americans and French* mutual reproaches and
animofities took place in the moft violent degree * and
after waiting eight days longer, both parties prepared
for a retreat j the French to their (hipping, and the
Americans into Carolina.
While the allies were thus unfuccefsfully employ¬
ed in the fouthern colonies, their antagonifts were
no lefs affiduous in diftreffing them in the northern
parts. Sir George Collier was fent with a fleet, car¬
rying on board General Matthews, with a body of
land forces, into the province of Virginia. Their firfl;
attempt was on the town of Portfmouth* where, though
the enemy had deftroyed fome (hips of great value,
the Britifli troops arrived in time to fave a great num¬
ber of others. On this occafion about 120 veffels of
different fizes were burnt, and 20 carried off * and an
immenfe quantity of provifions defigned for the ufe of
General Wafliington’s army was either deftroyed or
carried off, together with a great variety of naval and
military (lores. The fleet and army returned with lit¬
tle or no lofs to New York.
The fuccefs with which tills expedition was attend¬
ed, foon gave encouragement to attempt another. The
Americans had for fome time been employed in the
ereftion of two ftrongjfbrts on the river * the one at
Verplanks Neck on the eaft, and the other at Stoney
Point on the weft fide. Thefe when completed would
have been of the utmoft fervice to the Americans, as
commanding the principal pafs, called the King's Ferry,
between the northern and fouthern colonies. At pre¬
fect, however, they were not in a condition to make
any effe£lual defence; and it was therefore determined
to attack them before the works (hould be completed.
The force employed on this occafion was divided into
two bodies ; one of which direfted its courfe againft
Verplanks, and the other againft Stoney Point. The
former was commanded by General Vaughan, the latter
by General Pattifon, while the (hipping was under the
direftien of Sir George Collier. General Vaughan
met with no refiftance, the enemy abandoning their
works, and fetting fire to every thing combuftible that
thev could not carry off. At Stoney Point, however,
a vigorous defence was made, though the garrifon was
at laft obliged to capitulate upon honourable^ condi-
To fecure the poffeflion of this laft, which was
' 3
3* America.
tions.
68 ] AM .E
the more important of the two, General Clinton remo¬
ved from his former fituation, and encamped in fuch a k-
manner that Walhington could not give any afliftance.
The Americans, however, revenged themfelves by di-
ftreflxng, with their numerous privateers, the trade to
New York.
This occafioned a third expedition to Conne£licut,
where thefe privateers were chiefly built and harbour¬
ed. The command was given to Governor Tryon, and
to General Garth, an officer of known valour and expe¬
rience. Under convoy of a confiderable number of
armed veffels they landed at Newhaven, where they de-
moliffied the batteries that had been eredled to oppofe
them, and deftroyed the (hipping and naval (lores ; but
they fpared the town itfelf, as the inhabitants had ab-
ftained from firing out of their houfes upon the troops.
From Newhaven they marched to Fairfield, where they
proceeded as before, reducing the towm alfo to affies.
Norwalk was next attacked, which in like manner was
reduced to affies; as was alfo Greenfield, a fmall fea-
port in the neighbourhood.
Their fucceffes proved very alarming as well as de¬
trimental to the Americans ; fo that General Waffiing-
ton determined at all events to drive the enemy from
Stoney Point. For this purpofe he fent General Wayne
with a detachment of chofen men, direfling them to
attempt the recovery of it by furprife. On this occa¬
fion the Americans (bowed a fpirit and refolution ex¬
ceeding any thing they had performed during the courfe
of the war. Though after the capture of it by the
Britiffi the fortifications of this place had been complet¬
ed, and were very ftrong, they attacked the enemy
with bayonets, after paffing through a heavy fire of
mulketry and grape (hot; and in fpite of all oppofi-
tion, obliged the furviving part of the garrifon, amount¬
ing to 300 men, to furrender themfelves prifoners of
war.
Though the Americans did not at prefent attempt
to retain poffeffion of Stoney Point, the fuccefs they,
had met with in the enterprife emboldened them to
make a fimilar attempt on Paulus Hook, a fortified poft
on the Jerfey fide oppofite to New York ; but in this
they were not attended with equal fuccefs, being obli¬
ged to retire with precipitation after they had made
themfelves mailers of one or two pods.
Another expedition of greater importance was notv Unfuccefs-
projefled on the part of the Americans. This was ful expedi-
againft a poft on the river Penobfeot, on the borders oft1™ the
Nova Scotia, of which the Britifli had lately taken P°f-
feffion, and where they had begun to ereft a fort which nobfcoti
threatened to be a very great inconvenience to the colo-
nifts. The armament deftined againft it was fo foon got
in readinefs, that Colonel Maclean, the commanding offi¬
cer at Penobfeot, found himfelf obliged to drop the exe¬
cution of part of his fcheme; and inftead of a regular
fort, to content himfelf with putting the works already
conftrufled in as good a pofture of defence as poffible.
The Americans could not effe£l a landing without a
great deal of difficulty, and bringing the guns of their
larged veffels to bear upon the (hore. As foon as this
was done, however, they eredfted feveral batteries, and
kept up a brilk fire for the fpace of a fortnight; after
which they propofed to give a general affault: but be¬
fore this could be effefred, they perceived Sir George
Collier with a Britiffi fleet failing up the river to at*
tack
America.
A M E [ 69 ] A M E
On this they inftantly embarked their ar- ufe of the opportunity to difpatch General Sullivan America.
deracy a-
gainlt Bri¬
tain.
tack them.
tillery and military ftores, failing up the river as far as
poflible in order to avoid him. They were fo clofely
purfued, however, that not a fingle veffel could efcape 5
fo that the whole fleet, confiding of 19 armed veffels
and 24 tranfports, was deftroyed ; molt of them indeed
being blown up by themfelves. The foldiers and Tail¬
ors were obliged to wander through immenfe deferts,
where they differed much for want of provifions j and
to add to their calamities, a quarrel broke out between
the foldiers and feamen concerning the caufe of their
difafter, which ended in a violent fray, wherein a great
number were killed.
Thus the arms of America and France being almoft
everywhere unfuccefsful, the independency of the for¬
mer feemed yet to be in danger notwithftanding the
affiflance of fo powerful an ally, when further encou-
ragement was given by the acceflion of Spain to the
Spam joins confederacy againft Britain in the month of June 1779.
the confe- The firfl: effeft of this appeared in an invafion of Welt
Florida by the Spaniards in September 1779. As the
country was in no ftate of defence, the enemy eafily
made themfelves mailers of the whole almoft without
oppofition. Their next enterprife was againft the
Bay of Honduras, where the Britilh logwood-cutters
were fettled. Thefe finding themfelves too weak to
refill, applied to the governor of Jamaica for relief;
who fent them a fupply of men, ammunition, and mi¬
litary llores,. under Captain Dalrymple. Before the
arrival of this detachment, the principal fettlement in
thofe parts, called St George's Key, had been taken by
the Spaniards and retaken by the Britilh. In his way
Captain Dalrymple fell in with a fquadron from Ad¬
miral Parker in fearch of fome regiller Ihips richly la¬
den *, but which retreating into the harbour of Omoa,
were too lirongly protected by the fort to be attacked
Fort Omoa with fafety. A proje£l was then formed in conjunc-
taken by tjon t]ie people of Honduras, to reduce this fort,
the Britifti; was to furprife it •, but the Spaniards having
difcovered them, they were obliged to fight. Victory
quickly declared for the Britilh ; but the fortifications
were fo Urong, that the artillery they had brought a-
long with them were found too light to make any im-
preflion. It was then determined to try the fuccefs of
an efcalade ; and this was executed with fo much fpirit,
that the Spaniards Hood aflonilhed without making
any refiftance, and, in fpite of all the efforts of their
officers, threw down their arms and furrendered. The
fpoil was immenfe, being valued at three millions of
dollars. The Spaniards chiefly lamented the lofs of
250 quintals of quickfilver ; a commodity indifpenfably
neceffary in the working of their gold and filver mines,
fo that they offered to ranfom it at any price j .but this
was refufed, as well as the ranfom of the fort, though
the governor offered 300,000 dollars for it. A fmall
326 garrifon was left for the defence of the place : but it was
but they quickly attacked by a fuperior force, and obliged to
are obliged evacuate it, though not without deilroying every thing
to evacuate tjiat couy be 0f ufe to the enemy 4 fpiking the guns,
and even locking the gates of the fort and carrying
off the keys. All this was done in the light of the be-
fiegers j after which the garrifon embarked without the
lofs of a man.
As no operation of any confequence took place this
year in the province of New York, the congrefs made
325
with a confiderable force, in order to take vengeance
on the Indians for their ravages and depredations : Am^ans
and the objedl of the expedition was, not merely the tajie ven_
redu6lion of them, but if poflible their utter extirpation. geance on
Of this the Indians were apprifed ; and collefling all the Indians,
their llrength, refolved to come to a decifive engage¬
ment. Accordingly they took a llrong poll in the
mod woody and mountainous part of the country $
erefling a breallwork in the front, of large logs of
wood, extending half a mile in length, while their right
flank was covered by a river, and the left by a hill of
difficult accefs. This advantageous pofition they had
taken by the advice of the refugees who were among
them, and of whom 200 or 300 were prefent in the
battle.
Thus polled, the Indians waited the approach of
the American army; but the latter having brought
fome artillery along with them, played it againlt the
breallwork of the enemy with fuch fuccefs, that in
two hours it was almofl. deftroyed ; and at the fame
time a party having reached the top of the hill, they
became apprehenfive of being furrounded, on which
they inllantly fled with precipitation, leaving a great
number of killed and wounded behind them. The A-
mericans after this battle met with no further refiltance
of any confequence. They were fuffered to proceed
without interruption, and to execute in the moll
ample manner the vengeance they had projedled. On
entering the country of the Indians, it appeared that
they had been acquainted with agriculture and the arts
of peace far beyond what had been fuppofed. From
General Sullivan’s account it was learned, that the In¬
dian houfes were large, convenient, and even elegant ;
their grounds were excellently cultivated, and their gar¬
dens abounded in fruit trees and vegetables of all kinds
fit for food. The whole of this fine country was now
by the American general converted into a defert.
Forty towns and fettlemerits, befides fcattered habita¬
tions, were demolilhed ; the fields of corn, the orchards,
the plantations, were utterly laid wafte ; all the fruit
trees were cut down ; and fo great had been the in-
dullry of the Indians, that in one orchard i5COof thefe
were dellroyed. The quantity of corn walled on this
occafion was fuppofed to amount to 160,000 bulhels.
In ffiort fuch was the defolation, that on the Ame¬
rican army’s leaving the country, not a houfe, not a
field of corn, not a fruit tree, was left upon the ground,
nor was an Indian to be feen throughout the whole
trafl.
We mull now take a view of the tranfaiflions in the
fouthern colonies; to which the war was, in the year
1780, fo effeftually transferred, that the operations
there became at laft decifive. The fuccefs of General
Prevolt in advancing to the very capital of South Ca¬
rolina has been already related, together with the ob-
Itacles which prevented him from becoming mailer of it
at that time. Towards the end of the year 1779, how-Expedition
ever, Sir Henry Clinton let fail from New York with of Sir Hen-
a confiderable body of troops, intended for the attackVlintori
of Charlellown, South Carolina, in a fleet of ffiips of ^arkf.
war and tranfports under the command of Vice Ad-town,
miral Arbuthnot. They had a very tedious voyage;
the weather was uncommonly bad ; feveral of the tranf¬
ports were loll, as was alfo the greater part of the
horfes
A M E t 7°
America, liorfes wliich they carried with them, intended for ca-
11,»■ ■ y -in 1 valry or other public ufes j and an ordnance fhip like-
wife foundered \t fea. Having arrived at Savannah,
where they endeavoured to repair the damages fu-
ftained on their voyage, they proceeded from thence
on the loth of February 1780 to North Edifto,
the place of debarkation which had been previoully
appointed. They had a favourable and fpeedy paffage
thither : and though it required time to have the bar
explored and the channel marked, the tranfports all
entered the harbour the next day 5 and the army took
poffeflion of John’s Ifland Avithout oppofition. Prepa¬
rations were then made for paffing the fquadron over
Charleftown bar, where the high water ipring tides
were only 19 feet deep: but no opportunity offered
of going into the harbour till the 20th of March,
when it was effe&ed without any accident, though
the American galleys continually attempted to prevent
the Englilh boats from founding the channel. The
Britilh troops had previoufly removed from John’s to
James’s ifland*, and on the 29th of the. fame month
they effe&ed their landing at Charleftown Neck. On
the 1 ft of April they broke ground within 8co yards
of the American works j and by the 8th the befiegers
guns were mounted in battery.
As foon as the army began to ere£t their batteries
againft the town, Admiral Arbuthnot embraced the
firft favourable opportunity of pafling Sullivan’s ifland,
upon which there was a ftrong fort of batteries, the
chief defence of the harbour. He weighed on* the
9th, with the Roebuck, Richmond, and Romulus,
Blonde, Virginia, Raleigh, and Sandwich armed (hip*
the Renown bringing up the rear*, and, pafling through
a fevere fire, anchored in about two hours under James’s
ifland, with the lofs of 27 feamen killed and wounded.
The Richmond’s fore-top-maft was (hot away, and the
ftfips in general fuftained damage in their mails and
rigging, though not materially in their hulls. But
the Acetus tranfport, having on board feme naval
ilores, grounded within gunfhot of Sullivan’s ifland,
]
A M E
and received fo much damage that flie
was obliged to
S29
The town
defended
by Lincoln..
be abandoned and burnt.
On the 10th, Sir Henry Clinton and Admiral Ar¬
buthnot fummoned the town to furrender to his ma-
*iefty’s arms: but Major-general Lincoln, who com¬
manded in Charleftown, returned them an anfwer,^ de¬
claring it to be his intention to defend the place. The
batteries were now opened againft the town; and from
their efieft the fire of the American advanced works
eonfiderably abated. It appears that the number of
troops under the command of Lincoln was by far too
few for defending works of fuch extent as thofe of
'Charleftown ; and that many of thefe were men little
accuftomed to military fervice, and very ill provided
with clothes and other necefiaries. Lincoln had been
for fome time expecting reinforcements and fupplies
from Virginia and other places; but they came in very
flowly. Earl Cornwallis, and Lieutenant-colonel Tarle-
ton under him, were alfo extremely aftive in inter-
cepting fuch reinforcements and fupplies as were fent
Several re- to the American general. They totally defeated a
inforce- confiderable body of cavalry and militia which was
me"ts in- proceeding to the relief of the town; and alfo made
his*relief themfelves matters of fome pofts which gave them in
intercepted,a great degree the command of the country, by
£
which means great fupplies of provifions fell into their America.
Such was the ftate of things, and Fort Sullivan had
alfo been taken by the king’s troops, when on the
18th General Clinton again fummoned the town to
furrender ; an offer being made, as had been done
before, that if they furrendered, the lives and pro¬
perty of the inhabitants ftiould be preferved to them.
Articles of capitulation were then propofed by Gene¬
ral Lincoln ; but the terms were not agreed to by Ge¬
neral Clinton. At length, however, the town being
clofely invefted on-all Aides, and the preparations to
ftorm it in every part being in great forwardnefs, and
the fhips ready to move to the affault, General Lin¬
coln, who had been applied to for that purpofe by the
inhabitants, furrendered it on fuch d. deles of capitula- 331
tion as General Clinton had before agreed to. This
was on the 12th of May, which was one month and
two days after the town had been firft fummoned to
furrender.
A large quantity of ordnance, arms, and ammuni¬
tion, was found in Charleftown ; and, according to
Sir Henry Clinton’s account, the number of prifoners
taken in Charleftown amounted to 5618 men, exclu-
five of near a thoufand failors in arms; but accord¬
ing to General Lincoln’s account, tranfmitted to the
congrefs, the whole number of continental troops ta¬
ken prifoners amounted to no more than 2487. The
remainder, therefore, included in General Clinton’s ac¬
count, muft have confifted of militia and inhabitants
of the town. Several American frigates were alfo
taken or deftroyed in theharbour of Charleftown.
The lofs of Charleftown evidently excited a confi¬
derable alarm in America: and their popular writers,
particularly the author of the celebrated performance
entitled Common Senfe, in fome other pieces made ufe
of it as a powerful argument to lead them to more vi¬
gorous exertions againft Great Britain, that they might
the more effe<ftually and certainly fecure their inde¬
pendence. _ . 332
While Sir Henry Clinton was employed in his voy- Apprehen-
age to Charleftown, and in the fiege of that place,
the garrifon at New York feem not to have been wbol-" ov
ly free from apprehenfions for their own fafety. An
intenfe froft, accompanied with great falls of fnow,
began about the middle of Decembei I77p> ^^d ftiut
up the navigation of the port of New York from the
fea, within a few days after the departure of Admiral
Arbuthnot and General Clinton. I he feverity of the
weather increafed to io great a degree, that, towards
the middle of January all communications with New
York by water were entirely cut off, and as many new
ones opened by the ice. 1 he inhabitants could icarce-
ly be faid to be in an infular ftate. Horfes with heavy
carriages could go over the ice into the Jerfeys from,
one ifland to another. The paffage in the North Ri¬
ver, even in the wideft part from New \ ork to Paulus
Hook, which was 2000 yards, was about the 19th of
January pradticable for the heavieft cannon : an event
which had been unknown in the memory of man.
Provifions were foon after tranfported upon fledges, and
a detachment of cavalry marched upon the ice from
New York to Staten Ifland, which was a diftance of
II miles.
The city of New York being thus circumftanced.
was
America.
333
Torward-
nefs of the
inhabitants
to be enrol¬
led for its
defence.
334
The pro¬
vincials at¬
tack Staten
Ifland;
335 .
but are in¬
duced to
make a
precipitate
retreat.
335
Proclama¬
tions by
General
Clinton.
A M E [71
was conndered as much expofed to the attacks from
the continental troops : and it was ftrongly report¬
ed that General Walhington was meditating a great
ftroke upon New York with his whole force, by dif¬
ferent attacks. Some time before this, Major-gene¬
ral Pattifon, commandant at New York, having re¬
ceived an addrefs from many of the inhabitants, offer¬
ing to put themfelves in military array, he thought
the prefent a favourable opportunity of proving the lin-
cerity of their profeffions. Accordingly he iffued a
proclamation, calling upon all the male inhabitants
from 16 to 60 to take up arms. The requifition was
fo readily complied with, that in a few days 40
companies from the fix wards of the city were enrol¬
led, officered, and under arms, to the number of 2600,
many fubftantial citizens ferving in the ranks of each
company. Other volunteer companies were formed j
and the city was put into a very flrong pofture of de¬
fence.
No attack, however, was made upon New York,
whatever defign might originally have been meditated;
but an attempt was made upon Staten Ifland, where
there were about 1800 men, under the command of
Brigadier-general Sterling, who were well intrenched.
General Wafhington, vvhofe army was hutted at Mor-
riftown, lent a detachment of 2700 men, with fix
pieces of cannon, two mortars, and fome horfes, com¬
manded by Lord Sterling, who arrived at Staten
Ifland early in the morning or the 15th January. The
advanced polls of the Britifh troops retired upon the
approach of the Americans, who formed the line,
and made fome movements in the courfe of the day j
but they withdrew in the night, after having burnt
one houfe, pillaged fome others, and carried off with
them about 200 head of cattle. Immediately on the
arrival of the Americans on Staten illand, Lieutenant-
general Knyphaufen had embarked 600 men to at¬
tempt a paffage, and to fupport General Sterling:
but the floating ice compelled them to return. It is,
however, imagined, that the appearance of thefe tranf-
ports, with the Britifh troops on board, which the Ame¬
ricans could fee towards the clofe of the day,, induced
the latter to make fo precipitate a retreat.
After Charleftown had furrendered to the king’s
troops, General Clinton ifllied two proclamations, and <
alfo circulated a hand bill amongfl. the inhabitants of
South Carolina, in order to induce them to return to
their allegiance, and to be ready to join the king’s
troops. It was faid, that the helping hand of every
man was wanted to re-eftablifli peace and good go¬
vernment : and that as the commander in chief wifhed
not to draw the king’s friends into danger, while any
doubt could remain of their fuecefs ; fo now that this
was certain, he trufted that one and all would heartily
join, and by a general concurrence give effeft to fuch
neceffary meafures for that purpofe as from time to
time might be pointed out. Thofe who had families
were to form a militia to remain at home, and occa-
fionally to ailemble in their own diflritls, when: re¬
quired, under officers of their own drooling, for the
maintenance of peace and good order. Thofe who
had no families, and who could conveniently be fpared
for a time, it was prefumed, would cheerfully aflift his
majefty’s troops in driving their oppreflors, adling un¬
der the authority of congrefs, and all the miferies of
] A M E
war, far from that colony. For this purpofc it was America,
faid to be neceffary that the young men Ihould be ready s——y——J
to affemble when required, and to ferve with the king’s
troops for any fix months of the enfuing twelve that
might be found requifite, under proper regulations.
They might choofe officers to each company to com¬
mand them ; and were to be allowed, when on fervice,
pay, ammunition, and provifions, in the fame manner
as the king’s troops. When they joined the army,
each man was to be furnifhed with a certificate, decla¬
ring that he was only engaged to ferve as a militiaman
for the time fpecified ; that he was not to be marched
beyond North Carolina and Georgia j and that, when
the time was out, he was freed from all claims what¬
ever of military fervice, excepting the common and
ufual militia duty where he lived. He would then,
it was faid, have paid his debt to his country, and be
entitled to enjoy undifturbed that peace, liberty, and
property, at home, Avhich he had contributed to fe-
cure. The proclamations and publications of General
Clinton appeared to have produced fome eftedf in South
Carolina 5 though they probably operated chiefly upon
thofe who were before not much inclined to the caufe
of American independence. Two hundred and ten of s
the inhabitants of Charleftown figned an addrefs to
General Clinton and Admiral Arbuthnot, foliciting to
be readmitted to the characfer and condition of Bri-
tiih fubjedts, the inhabitants of that city having been
hitherto confidered as prifoners on parole j declaring
their difapprobation of the dodlrine of American in¬
dependence ; and exprefting their regret, that after the
repeal of thofe ftatui.es which gave rife to the troubles
in America, the overtures made by his majefty’s com-
miffioners had not been regarded by the congrefs. Sir"
Henry Clinton, in one of the proclamations ifiued at
this time, declared, that if any perfons fliouid thence¬
forward appear in arms in order to prevent the efta-
blifhment of his majefty’s government in that country,
or fhould, under any pretence or authority whatfoever,
attempt to compel any other perfon or perfons to do
fo, or ftiould hinder or intimidate the king’s faithful
and loyal fubjedfs from joining his forces or otherwife
performing thofe duties their allegiance required, fuch
perfons Ihould be treated with the utmoft feverity, and
their eftates be immediately feized in order to be con-
fifeated.
Mean time the ravages of war did not prevent the
Americans from paying fome attention to the arts of <
peace. On the 4th of May an adf paffed by the coun¬
cil and houfe of reprefentatives of Maffachufets Bay for
incorporating and eftablilhing a fociety for the cultiva¬
tion and promotion of the arts and fciences. ^
Some doubts having arifen in the congrefs, towards Proceed-
the clofe of the preceding year, about the propriety ,n?s.ot con~'
of their aflembling in the city of Philadelphia, it was^rels‘
now refolved that they fliouid continue to meet there :
and a committee of three members was appointed, to
report a proper place where buildings might be pro¬
vided for the reception of the congrefs, together with
an eftimate of the cxpence of providing fuch build¬
ings and the neceffary offices for the feveral boards.
It was alfo refolved by the congrefs, that a monument
fhould be ere£fed to the memory of their late general
Richard Montgomery, who fell at Quebec, in tefti-
mony of his fignal and important fervices to the United
States
A M E
[ 72
Ajrierica. States of America, ■with an infcription expreflive of
, jj’s 'amiable character and heroic achievements ; and
that the continental treafurers (hould be direfted to
advance a fum not exceeding 300I. to Dr Franklin
to defray the expence; that gentleman being defired
to caufe the monument to be executed at Paris, or in
feme other part of France. It was likewife refolved
.by the congrefs, that a court (hould be eftablifhed
for the trial of all appeals from the court of admiralty
" ' Gf the United States of America, in cafes of capture j
to con fill of three judges, appointed and commiOioned
by congrefs, and who were to take an oath of office :
and that the trials in this court (hould be determined
by the ufage of nations.
. 33s . The difficulties of the congrefs and of the peopm^ol
arH^p^from America had been greatly increafed by the deprecia-
the depre- lion of ihcir paper currency. At the tm,e when the
elation of colonies engaged in a war with Great Imtain, l aey
their paper ]ia{j no regular civil governments eftabliffied among
currency. them of fufficient energy to enforce the col left ion of
taxes, or to provide funds for the redemption ot fuch
bills of credit as tjieir neceffities obliged them to illue.
In confenuence of this (late of things, their bills in¬
creafed in quantity far beyond the fum neccffary for the
purpofe of a circulating medium : and as they wanted
at the fame time fpecific funds to reft on for their re¬
demption, they faw their paper currency daily fink m
value. The depreciation continued, by a kind ot gra¬
dual progreffion, from the year 1777 to 1780 j fo that,
at the latter period, the continental dollars were palled,
by common confent, in moft parts of America, at the
rate of at lead |#ths below their nominal value. 1 he
Tclie Ui aw .1
impoffibility of keeping up the credit ol the currency
to any fixed ftandard, occafioned great and almoft m-
furmountable embarraffments in afeertammg the value
of property, or carrying on trade with any fufficient
certainty. ' Thofe who fold, and thofe who bought,
were left without a rule whereon to form a judgment
of their profit or their lofs ; and every fpecies of com¬
merce or exchange, whether foreign or domeftic, was
expofed to numberlefs and increafing difficulties. I he
confequences of the depreciation of the paper currency
were alfo felt with peculiar feverity by iuch of the A-
mericans as were engaged in their military fervices, and
greatly augmented their other hardftnps. 1 he requifi-
Tions made by the congrefs to the feveral colonies for
fupplies, were alfo far from being always regularly
complied with : and their troops were not unfrequent-
ly in want of the moft common neceffaries j which na¬
turally occafioned complaints and difeontent among
them Some of thefe difficulties, refulting from their
circumftances and fituation, perhaps no wifdom could
have prevented: but they.feem to have arifen m part
from the congrefs not being fufficiently acquainted with
the principles of finance, and from a deffia of fyftem in
the departments of their government. The caufe of the
Americans appears alfo to have (offered fomewhat by
their depending too much on temporary inliftments.
But the congrefs endeavoured, towards the clofe of the
year 1780, to put their army on a more permanent
footing, and to give all the fatisfaflion to their offi¬
cers and foldiers which their circumftances would per¬
mit They appointed a committee for arranging their
finances, and made fome new regulations refpeaing
] A M E
their war-office and treafury-board, and other public America,
departments. - '
Notwithftanding the difadvantages under_ which they ^3.39^ J
laboured, the Americans feemed to entertain no doubtsfary of A_
but that they (hould be able to maintain their indepen- merican in.
dency. The 4th of July was celebrated this year at dependence
Philadelphia with fome pomp, as the anniverfary of A-^bratei
merican independence. A commencement for confer-phia>
ring degrees in the arts was held the fame day, in the
half of the univerfity there ; at which the prefident and
members of the congrefs attended, and other perfons
in public offices. The chevalier de la Lucerne, mi-
nifter plenipotentiary from the French king to the
United States, was alfo prefect on the occafion. A
charge was publicly addreffed by the proyoft of the
univerfity to the Undents j in which he faid, that he
could not but congratulate them “ on that aufpicious
day, which, amidft the eonfufions and defolations of
war, beheld learning beginning to revive 5 and ani¬
mated them with the pleafing profpeft of feeing the
facred lamp of fcience burning with a (till brighter
flame, and fcattering its invigorating rays over the un¬
explored deferts of that extenfive continent 5 until the
whole world (hould be involved in the united blaze of
knowledge, liberty, and religion. When he ftretched
his views forward (he faid), and fmveyed the rifing
glories of America, the enriching confequences of then
determined ftruggle for liberty, the extenfive fields of
intelledlual improvement andufeful invention, in fcience
and arts, in agriculture and commerce, in religion and
government, through which the unfettered mind would
range, with increafing delight, in queft of the undif-
covered treafure which yet lay concealed in the animal,
veoetable, and mineral kingdoms of that new world,
or In the other fertile fource* of knowledge with which
it abounded ; his heart fwelled with the pleafing pro-
fpetf that the fons of that inftitution would diftinguiffi
themfelves, in the different walks of life, by their li-
terary contributions to the embelliftunent and increafe
of human happinefs.” 340
On the 10th of July, M. Ternay, with a fleet con-A large
fifting of feven (hips of the line, befides frigates, and body of
a large body of French troops, commanded by the tre™
count de Rochambeau, arrived at Rhode Uland j and at Rhode
the following day 6000 men were landed there. A ifland.
committee from the general affembly of Rhode Ifland
was appointed to congratulate the French general upon
his arrival : whereupon he returned an anfwer, in which
he informed them, that the king his mafter had fent
him to the afliftance of his good and faithful allies
the United States of America. At prefent, he faid,
he only brought over the vanguard of a much greater
force deftined for their aid j and the king had ordered
him to affure tliem, that his whole power {hould be ex¬
erted for their fupport. He added, that the brench
troops were under the flrifleft difeipline j and, adting
under the orders of General Waffiington, would live
with the Americans as their brethren.
A fcheme was foon after formed, of making a com¬
bined attack with Engliffi (hips and troops, under the
command of Sir Henry Clinton and Admiral Arbuth-
not, againft the French fleet and troops at Rhode
Uland. Accordingly a confiderable part of the troops
at New York was embarked for that purpofe. Ge¬
neral
Amenta.
34i r
Unfuccefs-
ful expedi¬
tion in the
Jerfejs.
342
Viaoryob-to the
tamed by
Lord Corn¬
wallis over
General
'Gates.
A M E [
neral Wafhington having received information of this,
paffed the North River, by a very rapid movement,
and with an army increafed to 1 2,000 men, proceed¬
ed with celerity towards King’s Bridge, in order to at¬
tack New York ; but learning .that the Britith ge¬
neral had changed his intentions, and difembarked
his troops on the 31ft of the month, General Waftiing-
ton recroifed the river, and returned to his former Ration.
Sir Henry Clinton and the admiral had agreed to re-
linquilh their deiign of attacking the French and
Americans at Rhode Ifland as impracticable for the
prefent.
An unfuccefsful attempt was alfo made about this
time in the Jerfeys by General Knyphaufen, with
7000 Britilh troops under his command, to furprife
the advanced ports of General Walhington’s army.
They proceeded very rapidly towards Springfield,
meeting little oppofition till they came to the bridge
there, which was very gallantly defended by 170 of
the continental troops for 15 minutes, againrt the Bri¬
tilh army : but they were at length obliged to give up
fo unequal a contort, with the lofs of 37 men. After
fecuring this pafs, the Britilh troops marched into the
place, and fet fire to moft of the houfes. They alfo
committed fome other depredations in the Jerfeys-, but
gained no laurels there, being obliged to return about
the beginning of July without ef&dling any thing ma¬
terial.
But in South Carolina the royal arms were attended
with more fuccefs. Earl Cornwallis, who commanded
the Britilh troops there, obtained a very fignal victory
over General Gates, on the 16th of Auguft. The ac¬
tion began at break of day, in a fituation very advan¬
tageous for the Britiih troops, but very unfavourable
to the Americans. The latter were much more nu¬
merous but the ground on which both armies flood
was narrowed by fwamps on the right and left, fo that
the Americans could not properly avail themfelves of
their fuperior numbers. There feems to have been
fome want of generallhip in Gates, in fuffering himfelf
to be furprifed in fo difadvantageous a pofition: but
this circumftance was partly the effe<R of accident j for
both armies fet out with a defign of attacking each
other precifely at the fame time, at ten the preceding
evening, and met together before daylight at the
place where the aflion happened. The attack was
made by the Britifh troops with great vigour, and in a
few minutes the aftion was general along the whole
line. It was at this time a dead calm, with a little
hazinefs in the air, which preventing the fmoke from
rifing, occafioned fo thick a darknefs, that it was dif¬
ficult to fee the effedt of a very heavy and well-fupport-
ed fire on both fides. The Britilh troops either kept
up a conftant fire, or made ufe of bayonets, as oppor¬
tunities offered 5 and, after an obftinate refiftance dur¬
ing three quarters of an hour, threw the Americans
into total confufion, and forced them to give way in all
quarters. The continental troops appear to have be¬
haved well 5 but the militia were foon broken, and left
the former to oppofe the whole force of the Britilh
troops. General Gates did all in his power to rally
the militia, but without effe£f : the continentals re¬
treated in fome order-, but the rout of the militia was
fo great, that the Britifh cavalry are faid to have con¬
tinued the purfuit of them to the diftance of 22 miles
VOL. II. Part I.
73 ] A M E
, from the place where the a61 ion happened. 1 he lofs America,
of the Americans was very confiderable : about 1000 ——y—*
prifoners were taken, and more are faid to have been
killed and wounded, but the number is not very accu¬
rately afeertained. Seven pieces of brafs cannon, a
number of colours, and all the ammunition waggons of
the Americans rvere alfo taken. Of the Britiih troops,
the killed and wounded amounted to 213. Among
the prifoners taken was Major-general Baron de Kalb,
a Pruflian officer in the American fervice, who was
mortally wounded, having exhibited great gallantry in
the courfe of the adlion, and received 11 wounds. . I he
Britiffi troops by whom this great vi6fory was achieved
did not much exceed 2000, while the American army
is faid to have amounted to 6000, of which, however,
the greateil part was militia. . 343
Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, who had greatly di-
ftinguiffied himfelf in this adtion, was detached the•j-arieton>
following day, with fome cavalry and light infantry,
amounting to about 35^ ft1611* f° attack a corps of
Americans under General Sumpter. He executed this
fervice with great adtivity and military addrefs. He
procured good information of Sumpter’s movements ;
and by forced and concealed marches came up with and
furprifed him on the middle of the day on the 18th,
near the Catawba fords. He totally deftroyed or dif-
perfed his detachment, which confifted of 700 men,
killing 150 on the fpot, and taking two pieces of brafs
cannon, 300 prifoners, and 44 waggons.
Not long after thefe events, means -were found to General
detach Major-general Arnold, who had engaged fo ar-Arnold de-
dently in the caufe of America, and who had exhibited ^
fo much bravery in the fupport of it, from the interertscongiefs>
of the congrefs. Major Andre, adjutant-general to
the Britiffi army, was a principal agent in this tranf-
a&ion ; or, if the overture of joining the king’s troops
came firft from Arnold, this gentleman was the perfun
employed to concert the affair with him. More mult
have been originally comprehended in the feheme than
the mere defertion of the American caufe by Arnold :
but whatever defigns had been formed for promoting
the views of the Britiffi government, they were fru-
ftrated by the apprehending of Major Andre. He
was taken in difguife, after having affumed a falfe
name, on the 23d of September, by three American
foldiers j to whom he offered confiderable rewards, if
they would have fuffered him to efcape, but without
effe6L Several papers written by Arnold were found
upon him -, and when Arnold had learned that Major
Andre was feized, he found means to get on board 45
a barge, and to efcape to one of the king’s fhips. Unhappy-
General Wafhington referred the cafe of Major Andre
to the examination and decifion of a board of general^01 ' ’
officers, confiding of Major-general Greene, Major-
general Lord Sterling, Major-general the Marquis de
la Fayette, Major-general the Baron de Stenben, two
other major-generals, and eight brigadier-generals. Ma¬
jor Andre was examined before them, and the par¬
ticulars of his cafe inquired to ; and they reported to
the American commander in chief, that Mr Andre
came on rtiore from the Vulture floop of -war in the
night, on an interview with General Arnold, in a pri¬
vate and fecret manner j that he changed his drefs
within the American lines; and, under a feigned name
and in a difguifed habit, paffed the American works at
K Stoney
A M E [ 74 ] A M E
America. Stoney and Verplank’s Points, on the evening of the
'l—■—Y'—22d of September ; that he was taken on the morning
of the 23d at Tarry-town, he being then on the way for
New York ; and that, when taken, he had in his pof-
feffion feveral papers which contained intelligence for
the enemy. They therefore determined, that he ought
to be confidered as a fpy from the enemy j and that,
agreeable to the law and ufage of nations, he ought
to fuller death. Sir Henry Clinton, Lieutenant-ge¬
neral Robertfon, and the late American general Ar¬
nold, all wrote prefling letters to General Walhington
on the occafion, in order to prevent the decifion of the
board of general officers from being put in force : But
their applications were ineffedlual. Major Andre was
g hanged at Tappan, in the province of New York, on
His amiable the 2d of O&ober. He met his fate with great firm-
Jiaradter. nefs ; but appeared fomewhat hurt that he was not al¬
lowed a more military death, for which he had foli-
cited. He was a gentleman of very amiable quali¬
ties, had a tafte for literature and the fine arts, and
poflefled many accompliffiments. His death, there¬
fore, was regretted even by his enemies j and the fe-
verity of the determination concerning him was much
exclaimed againfi: in Great Britain. It was, however,
generally acknowledged by impartial perfons, that there
was nothing in the execution of this unfortunate gen¬
tleman but what was perfedlly confonant to the rules
of war.
Arnold was made a brigadier-general in the king’s
fervice, and publilhed an addrefs to the inhabitants of
America, dated from New York, Odlober 7. in which
he endeavoured tojuftify his defertion of their caufe.
Motives -af- He faid, that when he firft engaged in it, he con-
figned by Ceived the rights of his country to be in danger, and
Arnold for an(l honour called him to her defence. A
iscon IU^• re{jrefs 0f grievances was his only aim and obje£l j and
therefore he acquiefced unwillingly in the declaration
of independence, becaufe he thought it precipitate.
But what now induced him to defert their caufe was
the difgufl: he had conceived at the French alliance,
and at the refufal of congrefs to comply with the laft
terms offered by Great Britain, which he thought equal
to all their expe<5lations and to all their wiffies.
The Americans, however, accounted for the con-
du& of Arnold in a different manner. They alleged,
that he had fo involved himfelf in debts and difficulties
by his extravagant manner of living in America, that
he had rendered it very inconvenient for him to con¬
tinue there : that after the evacuation of Philadelphia
by the Britilh troops, Arnold, being invefted with the
command in that city, had made the houfe of Mr
Penn, which was the belt in the city, his head quar¬
ters. This he had furniffied in an elegant and expen-
348 five manner, and lived in a flyle far beyond his income.
Different It was manifeft, they faid, that he could at firfi: have
reafons al- great averfion to the French alliance, becaufe that
legedbythe wjien Gerard, minifter plenipotentiary from the
Americans. ^ ;prancej arriVed at Philadelphia in July 1778,
General Arnold early and earneftly folicited that mi¬
nifter, with his whole fuite, to take apartments and
bed and board at his houfe, until a proper houfe. could
be provided by the order of the congrefs. This offer
M. Gerard accepted, and he continued with him fome
weeks. The French minifter refided upwards of 14
months in Philadelphia j during which time General
Arnold kept up the moft friendly and intimate ac- America. |
quaintance with him, and there was a continued inter- ». .-v—.J
change of dinners, balls, routes, and concerts: fo that
M. Gerard muft have believed, that in General Arnold
he had found and left one of the warmeft friends the
court of France had in America. He was alfo one of
the firft in congratulating the Chevalier la Luzerne,
the fecond French minifter. About this time com¬
plaints and accufations were exhibited againft him by
the government of Philadelphia for divers mal-pracli-
ces } among which charges were, the appropriation of
goods and merchandife to his own ufe, which he had
feized as Britiffi property in Philadelphia in July 1778..
It was determined by a court-martial, that his con-
dudl was highly reprehenfible *, but he was indulgently
treated, and was therefore only reprimanded by the
commander in chief General Waffiington. It was in
thefe circumftances, the Americans faid, bankrupted
in reputation and fortune, loaded with debts, and hav¬
ing a growing and expenfive family, that General Ar¬
nold firft turned his thoughts towards joining the royal
arms.
After the defeat of General Gates by Earl Corn-Aa.^s
wallis, that nobleman exerted himfelf to the utmoft in South Ca-
extending the progrefs of the Britilh arms, and with rolina.
confiderable effeft. But one enterprif*, which was
conducted by Major Fergufon, proved unfuccefsful.
That officer had taken abundant pains to difcipline fome
of the Tory militia, as they were termed 5 and with
a party of thefe and fome Britiffi troops, amounting
in the whole to about 1400 men, made incurfions in¬
to the country. But on the 7th of Odlober he was
attacked by a fuperior body of Americans at a place
called King’s Mountain, and totally defeated. One
hundred and fifty were killed in the action, and 810
made prifoners, of whom 150 were wounded. Fifteen
hundred Hand of arms alfo fell into the hands of the
Americans, whole lofs was inconfiderable. But the
following month Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, who con¬
tinued to exert his ufual aftivity and bravery, with a
party of 170, chiefly cavalry, attacked and defeated
General Sumpter, who is faid to have had 1000 men,
at a place called B/ac& Stocks. Sumpter was wound¬
ed, and about 120 of the Americans killed, wounded,
or taken. Of the Britiffi troops about 50 were killed
and wounded. ^
On the 3d of September, the Mercury, a congrefs Capture ol
packet, was taken by the Veftal, Captain Keppel, near Mr Lau-
Newfoundland. On board this packet was Mr Laurens,tens,
late prefident of the congrefs, who was bound on an em-
baffy to Holland. He had thrown his papers overboard,
but great part of them were recovered without having
received much damage. He was brought to London,
and examined before the privy council ; in confequence
of which he was committed clofe prifoner to the Tower
©n the 6th of O&ober, on a charge of high treafon-
His papers were delivered to the miniftry, and contri¬
buted to facilitate a rupture with Holland, as among
them was found the {ketch of a treaty of amity and com¬
merce between the republic of Holland and the United
States of America.
At the beginning of the year 1781, an affair hap¬
pened in America, from which expeftations were form¬
ed by Sir Henry Clinton, that fome confiderable ad¬
vantage might be derived to the royal caufe. The
long
A M E [ 75 ] A M E
351
)ifcontents
imong the
Vmeriean
roops.
352 ,
Revolt of
America. ^<)r‘g continuance of the war, and the difficulties un-
—^v—der which the congrefs laboured, had prevented their
troops from being properly fupplied with neceffaries
and conveniencies. In confequence of this, on the ift
of January, the American troops that were hutted at
Morris Town, and who formed what was called the
Pennfyhania live, turned out, being in number about
1300, and declared, that they ■would ferve no longer,
hePetmfyl-uniefs their grievances were redreffed, as they had not
/ania line* rece;veg tliejr pay? 0r been furnithed with the neceffary
clothing or provifions. It is faid that they were
fomewhat inflamed with liquor in confequence of rum
having been diftributed to them more liberally than
ufual, New-year’s-day being confidered as a kind of
feftival. A riot enfued, in which an officer was killed,
and four wounded j five or fix of the infurgents were
alfo wounded. They then colle&ed the artillery, (lores,
provifions, and waggons, and marched out of the camp.
They paffed by the quarters of General Wayne, who
fent a meflage to them, requefting them to defift, or
the confequences would prove fatal. They refufed, and
proceeded on their march till the evening, when they
look poll on an advantageous piece of ground, and
elefted officers from among themfelves. On the fe-
cond, they marched to Middlebrook, and on the third
to Princetown, where they fixed their quarters. On
that day a flag of truce was fent to them from the offi¬
cers of the American camp, with a meflfage, defiring
to know what were their intentions. Some of them
anfwered, that they had already ferved longer than the
time for which they wfere inlifted, and would ferve no
longer •, and others, that they would not return, unlefs
their grievances were redrefled. But at the fame time
they repeatedly, and in the (Irongeft terms, denied
being influenced by the lead difaffeftion to the Ame¬
rican caufe, or having any intentions of deferting to the
enemy.
Intelligence of this tranfadlion was foon conveyed to
New York. A large body of Britiffi troops were im¬
mediately ordered to hold themfelves in readinefs to
move on the (horteft notice, it being hoped that the
353 American revolters might be induced to join the royal
Ineffedtual army. Meffengers were alfo fent to them from Gene-
b)duce>tS t0 ra^ Clinton, acquainting them that they ffiould direftly
them to b® taken under the protedlion of the Britifli govern-
join the ment ; that they (hould have a free pardon for all for-
royal army, mer offences *, and that the pay due to them from the
congrefs ffiould be faithfully paid them, without any
expectation of military fervice, unlefs it ffiould be vo¬
luntary, upon condition of their laying down their
arms and returning to their allegiance. It was alfo
recommended to them to move beyond the South ri¬
ver *, and they were affured, that a body of Britiffi
troops ffiould be ready to proteft them whenever they
defired it. Thefe propofitions were rejefted with dif-
dain *, and they even delivered up two of Sir Henry
Clinton’s meffengers to the congrefs. Jofeph Reed,
Efq. prefident of the (late of Pennfylvania, afterwards
repaired to them at Princetown, and an accommoda¬
tion took place : fuch of them as had ferved out their
354 full terms were permitted to return to their own homes,
-rT3 and others again joined the American army, upon re-
Cormvallis ce‘v‘nS fatisfaftory affurances that their grievances ffiould
in North be redreffed.
Carolina. Lord Cornwallis now began to make very vigorous
exertions, in order to penetrate into North Carolina. America.
On the nth of January his lordfhip’s army was in ^
motion, and advancing towards that province; but
was fomewhat delayed by an attempt made by the A-
mericans, under General Morgan, to make themfelves
mafters of *the valuable diftritl of Ninety-fix. In or¬
der to prevent this, Lord Cornwallis detached Lieute¬
nant-colonel Tarleton, with 300 cavalry, 300 light in¬
fantry, the 7th regiment, the firft battalion of the 71ft
regiment, and two three-pounders, to oppofe the pro-
grefs of Morgan, not doubting but that he would be
able to perform this fervice efteftually. The Britifli
troops came up with the Americans under General
Morgan on the 17th of January. The Americans
were drawn up in an open wood, and, having been
lately joined by fome militia, were more numerous
than the Britiffi troops under Lieutenant-colonel Tarle¬
ton j but the latter were fo much better difciplined,
that they had the utmoft: confidence of obtaining a
fpeedy vitffory. The attack was begun by the firft line
of infantry, confiding of the 7th regiment and a corps
of light infantry, with a troop of cavalry placed on
each flank. The fird battalion of the 7id and the re¬
mainder of the cavalry formed the referve. The A- ,
merican line foon gave way, and their militia quitted
the field ; upon which the royal troops, fuppofing the
vi&ory already gained, engaged with ardour in the
purfuit, and were thereby thrown into fome diforder.
General Morgan’s corps, who were fuppofed to have
been routed, then immediately faced about, and threw
in a heavy fire on the king’s troops, which occalion-
ed the utmod confufion amongd them ; and they were ^
at length totally defeated by the Americans. Four Defeat of
hundred of the Britiffi infantry were either killed, t'olonel
wounded, or taken prifoners: the lofs of the cavalry radet01**
•was much lefTconliderable •, but the two three-pounders
fell into the hands of the Americans, together with the
colours of the 7th regiment; and all the detachment of
royal artillery were either killed or wounded in defence
of their colours. Lieutenant-colonel Tarleton, however,
made another effort: having affembled about 50 of his 356
cavalry, with which he charged and repulfed Colonel 9Perat'0BS
Wafliineton’s horfe, retook his baggage, and killed the”1 c0'‘fe-c.
Americans who were appointed to guard it. He then tiiat event.
retreated to Hamilton’s ford, near the mouth of Bul¬
lock’s creek, carrying with him part of his baggage, and
deftroying the remainder.
This defeat of the troops under Tarleton -was a fe-
vere ftroke to Lord Cornwallis, as the lofs of his light
infantry was a great difadvantage to him. The day
after that event, he employed in collecting the remains
of Tarleton’s corps, and in endeavouring to form a
junction with General Leflie, who had been ordered to
march towards him with a body of Britiffi troops from
Wyneffiorough. Confiderable exertions were then
made by part of the army, without baggage, to retake
the prifoners in the hands of the Americans, and to
intercept General Morgan’s corps, on its retreat to the
Catawba. But that American officer, after his defeat
of Tarleton, had made forced marches up into the
country, and croffed the Catawba the evening before a
great rain, which fwelled the river to fuch a degree,
as to prevent the royal army from croffing for feveral
days} during which time the Britiffi prifoners were
got over the Yadkin 5 whence they proceeded to Dan
K 2 River,
America.
3SS
Large
quantities
of Ameri¬
can ftores
deftroyed
by Arnold
A M E [?6
River, which they alfo paffed, and on the 14th of Fe¬
bruary had reached Court-houfe in the province of Vir-
ginia.
Lord Cornwallis employed a halt of two days in col¬
lecting fume flour, and in deftroying fuperfluous bag¬
gage and all his waggons, excepting thofe laden with
hofpital ftores, fait, and ammunition, and four referved
empty in readinefs for fick or wounded. Being thus
freed from all unneceffary encumbrances, he marched
through North Carolina with great rapidity, and pene¬
trated to the remote!! extremities of that province on
the banks of the Dan. His progrefs was fometimes
impeded by parties of the militia, and fome ikirmithes
enfued, but he met with no very confiderable oppofi-
tion. On the firft of February, the king’s troops crof-
fed the Catawba at M‘Cowan’s Ford, where General
Davidfon, with a party of American militia, was pott¬
ed in order to oppofe their paffage but he falling by
the firft difcharge, the royal troops made good their
landing, and the militia retreated. When Lord Corn¬
wallis'arrived at Hilllborough, he ereCted the king’s
ftandard, and invited, by proclamation, all loyal fub-
jeCts to repair to it, and to ftand forth and take an ac¬
tive part in aflifting his lordfhip to reftore order and
government. He had been taught to believe that the
king’s friends were numerous in that part of the comw
try : but the event did not confirm the truth of the re-
prefentations that had been given. J he royalifts were
but few in number, and lome of them too timid to
join the king’s ftandard. There were, indeed, about
200 who were proceeding to Hillfborough, under Co¬
lonel Pyle, in order to avow their attachment to the
royal caufe ; but they were met accidentally, and fur-
rounded by a detachment from the American army, by
whom a number of them-are faid to have been killed
when they were begging for quarter, without making
the leaf! refiftance. Meanwhile General Greene was
marching with great expedition with the troops under
his command, in order to form a jundtion with other
corps of American troops, that he might thereby be
enabled to put fome effectual flop to the progrefs of
Lord Cornwallis.
In other places fome confiderable advantages were
obtained by the royal arms. On the 4th of January,
fome fliips of war, with a number of tranfports, on
board which was a large body of troops under the com¬
mand of Brigadier-general Arnold, arrived at Weftover,
about 140 miles from the capes of Virginia, where the
troops immediately landed and marched to Richmond 'f
which they reached without oppofition, the militia that
was collected having retreated on their approach.
Lieutenant-colonel Simcoe marched from hence with
a detachment of the Britifti troops to Weftham, where
they deftroyed one of the fineft founderies for cannon
in America, and a large quantity of ftores and cannon.
General Arnold, on his arrival at Richmond, found
there large quantities of fait, rum, fail-cloth, tobacco,
and other merchandife j and that part of thefe commo¬
dities which was public property he deftroyed. I he
Britifti troops afterwards attacked and difperfed fome
fmall parties of the Americans, took fome ftores and
a few pieces of cannon, and on the 20th of the fame
month marched into Portfmouth. On the 25th Cap¬
tain Barclay, with feveral ftiips of war, and a body (if
troops under the command of Major Craig, arrived in
]
A M E
Cape Fear river. The troops landed about nine miles America,
from Wilmington, and on the 28th entered that town. 1 ■""v 1
It was under ft ood that their having pofleffion of that
town, and being mafters of Cape Fear river, would be
productive of very beneficial effeCts to Lord Cornwal¬
lis’s army.
General Greene having efteCted a junftion about the
loth of. March with a continental regiment of what 3S9
were called eighteen months men, and two large bodies Different
of militia belonging to Virginia and North Carolina,fkumillies'
formed a refolution to attack the Britilh troops under
the command of Lord Cornwallis. I he American ar¬
my marched from the High Rock Ford on the 121I1 of
the month, and on the 14th arrived at Guildford.
Lord Cornwallis, from the information he had received
of the motions of the American general, concluded
what were his defigns. As they approached more
nearly to each other, a few Ikirmilbes enfued between
fome advanced parties, in which the king’s troops had
the advantage. On the morning of the 15th, Lord
Cornwallis marched with his troops at daybreak in or¬
der to meet the Americans, or to attack them in their
encampment. About four miles from Guildford, the
advanced guard of the Britilh army, commanded by
Lieotenant-colonel Tarleton, fell in with a corps of
the Americans, confifting of Lieutenant-colonel Leejs
legion, fome Black Mountain men and Virginian mi¬
litia, with whom he had a fevere fkirmifti, but whom
he at length obliged to retreat.
The greater part of the country in which the a£tion
happened is a wildernefs, with a few cleared fields in-
• terfperfed. The American army, which was fuperior
to the royal in point of numbers, was pofted on a ri-
fing ground about a mile and a half from Guildford ^
court houfe. It was drawn up in three lines : the front Battle at
line was compofed of the North Carolinian militia, un- Guildford
der the command of the generals Butler and Eaton j
the fecond line, of Virginian militia, commanded by
the generals Stephens and Lawfon, forming two bri¬
gades ; the third line, confifting of two. brigades, one
of Virginia and one of Maryland eontinental troops,
commanded by General Huger and Colonel W illiams.
Lieutenant-colonel Waftiington, with the dragoons.of
the firft and third regiments, a detachment of light in¬
fantry compofed of continental troops, and a regiment
of riflemen under Colonel Lynch, formed a corps of
obfervation for the fecurity of their right flank. Lieu¬
tenant-colonel Lee, with his legion, a detachment of
light infantry, and a corps of riflemen under Colonel
Campbell, formed a corps of obfervation for the fecu¬
rity of their left flank. The attack of the American
army was direfted to be made by Lord Cornwallis in
the following order: On the right, the regiment of
Bofe and the 71ft regiment, led by Major-general Lef-
lie, and fupported by the firft battalion of guards j on
the left the 23d and 33d regiments, led by Lieutenant-
colonel Webfter, and fupported by the grenadiers and
fecond battalion of guards commanded by Brigadier-
general O’Hara; the Yagers and light infantry of the-
guards remained in a wood on the left of the guns, and
the cavalry in the road, ready to aft as circumftances -
might require.
About half an hour after one in the afternoon, the
aftion commenced by a cannonade, which lafted about
twenty minutes j when the Britifir troops advanced in
three
America.
361
Che Ame
icans de-
eated.
36 a
lardfhips
mdured by
he Britifl)
roops.
AME [
three columns and attacked the North Carolinian bri¬
gades with great vigour, and joon obliged Pa>;t
thefe troops, who behaved very ill, to quit the field ;
but the Virginian militia gave them a warm reception,
and kept up a heavy fire for a long time, till being
beaten back, the a&ion became general almoft every¬
where. The American corps under the lieutenant-
colonels Walking ton and Lee were allb warmly en¬
gaged, and did confiderable execution. Lieutenant-
colonel Tarleton had directions to keep his cavalry
compact, and not to charge without pofitive orders,
excepting to protect any of the corps from the molt
evident danger ot being defeated. The exceffive thick-
nefs of the woods rendered the Britilh bayonets of little
de, and enabled the broken corps of Americans to
make frequent Hands with an irregular fire. The fe-
cond battalion of the guards firlt gained the clear
ground near Guildford court-houfe, and found a corps
of continental infantry, fuperior in number, formed in
an open field on the left of the road. Defirous of fig-
nalizing therafelves, they immediately attacked and
foon defeated them, taking two fix-pounders: but as
they purfued the Americans into the wood with too
much ardour, they were thrown into confufion by a
heavy fire, and inllantly charged and driven back into
the field by Lieutenant colonel Walhington’s dragoons,
with the lofs of the fix-pounders they had taken. But
the American cavalry were afterwards repulfed, and
the two fix-pounders again fell into the hands of the
Britilh troops. The fpirited exertions of Brigadier-
general O’Hara and of Lieutenant-eolonel Tarleton,
greatly contributed to bring the aftion to a termina¬
tion. The Britiih troops having at length broken the
fecond Maryland regiment, and turned the left flank
of the Americans, got into the rear of the Virginian
brigade, and appeared to be gaining their right, which
would have encircled the whole of the continental
troops, when General Greene thought it prudent to or¬
der a retreat. Many of the American militia difper-
fed in the woods ; but the continental troops retreated
in good order to the Reedy Fork river, and crofled at
the ford about three miles from the field of aftion, and
there halted. When they had colle&ed their ftrag-
glers, they retreated to the iron works, 10 miles di-
ftant from Guildford, where they encamped. They
loft their artillery and two waggons laden with ammu¬
nition. It was a hard-fought aftion, and lafted an
hour and a half. Of the Britilh troops, the lofs, as
Rated by Lord Cornwallis, was 532 killed, wounded,
and miffing. General Greene, in his account of the
a£tion tranfmitted to the congrefs, Hated the lofs of
the continental troops to amount to 329 killed, wound¬
ed, and miffing j but he made no eftimate of the loft
of the militia. Lieutenant-colonel Stuart was killed
in the action ; and Lieutenant-colonel Webfter, and
the captains Schutz, Maynard, and Goodriche, died of
the wounds that they received in it. Brigadier-gene¬
ral O’Hara, Brigadier-general Howard, and Lieute-
hant-colonel Tarleton, were alfo wounded. Of the
Americans, the principal officer killed was Major An-
derfon of the Maryland line j and the generals Stephens
and Huger were wounded.
The Britiftr troops underwent great hardfhips in the
courfe of this campaign j and in a letter of Lord Corn¬
wallis’s to Lord George Germain, dated March 17th,
77 ] AME
he obferved, that “ the foldiers had been two days America.^
without bread.” His lordfliip quitted Guildford three ' r *
days after the battle which was fought in that place ;
and on the 7th of April arrived in the neighbourhood
of Wilmington. Soon after, General Greene, not-
withHanding his late defeat, endeavoured to make fome
vigorous attempts againft the king’s forces in South
Carolina. Lord Rawdon had been appointed to de¬
fend the poll of Camden, with about 8~o Britiffi and
provincials•, and on the 19th of April General Greene
appeared before that place with a large body.of conti¬
nentals and militia. He found it, however, impoffible
to attempt to ftorm the town with any prolpeft of
fuccefs; and therefore endeavoured to take luch a po-
fition as ffiould induce the Britiffi troops to Hilly from
their works. He polled the Americans about a mile
from the town, on an eminence which was covered
with woods, and flanked on the left by an impaflable ^63
fwamp. But on the morning of the 25th, Lord Raw- General
don marched out of Camden,- and with great gallan-Greene at-
try attacked General Greene in his camp. The Ame-^.^^1^
ricans made a vigorous refiftance, but were at laft com- LordTiw-7
polled to give way \ and the purfuit is laid to have donj an(i
been continued three miles. For fome time after the defeated,
adlion commenced, General Greene entertained great
hopes of defeating the Britifli troops-, in which, as
the Americans were fuperior in point of numbers, he
would probably have fucceeded, had not fome capital
military errors been committed by one or two of the
officers who ferved under him. On the American fide
Colonel Waffiington had behaved extremely well in
this a£tion, having made upwards of 200 of the Eng-
lilh prifoners, with ten or- twelve officers, before he
perceived that the Americans were abandoning the
field of battle. The lofs of the Engliffi was about. IOO
killed and wounded. Upwards of loo of the Americans
were taken prifoners-, and, according to the account
publiflied by General Greene, they had 126 killed and
wounded. After this adftion, Greene retreated to Ruge-
ley’s mills, 12 miles from Camden, in order to colled:
his troops and wait for reinforcements.
Notvvithftanding the advantage which Lord Rawdon
had obtained over General Greene at Camden, that
nobleman foon after found it neceffaryto quit that poft ;
and the Americans made themfelves mailers of feveral
other ports that were occupied by the king’s troops, and
the garrifons of which were obliged to furrender them*
felves prifoners of war. Thefe troops were afterwards
exchanged under a cartel which took place between
Lord Cornwallis and General Greene for the releafe of
all prifoners of war, in the fouthern diftrid. After thefe
events, General Greene laid clofe fiege to Ninety-fix, Af(.frT^arjs
which was confidered as the moft commanding and im-lays fiege to
portant of all the ports in the back-country j and on the Ninety-fix;
19th of .Tune he attempted to florin tire garrifon, butj?“tl5re u1’'
was repulfed by the gallantry of the Britifli troops, with
the lofs, as it is faid, of 75 killed and 120 wounded.
General Greene then raifed the fiege, and retired with
his army behind the Saluda, to a flrong fituation within
16 miles of Ninety-fix.
On the 18th of April a large body of Britifli troops,
under the command of Major-general Phillips and Bri¬
gadier-general Arnold, embarked at Portfmouth in
Virginia, in order to proceed on an expedition for the
purpofe of deftroying fome of the American ftores. A
party
A M E
[ 73 ]
A M E
can ftores.
Aiherica. party of light infantry were fent ten or twelve miles up
-v—the Chickahomany ; where they deftroyed feveral arm-
^5^ ed (hips, fundry warehoufes, and the American date
Deltrudtion fliip-yards. /it Peterfburgh, the Englilh deftroyed
of Ameri- 4000 hogflieads of tobacco, one fliip, and a number of
fmall veffels on the flocks and in the river. At Chef-
terfieid court-houfe, they burnt a range of barracks for
2000 men and 300 barrels of flour. At a place called
OJkorn's, they made themfelves mafters of feveral vef¬
fels loaded with cordage and flour, and deftroyed about
2000 hogflieads of tobacco, and fundry veffels were
funk and burnt. At Warwick, they burnt a maga¬
zine of 500 barrels of flour, fome fine mills belonging
to Colonel Carey, a large range of public rope-walks
and florehoufes, tan and bark houfes full of hides and
bark, and great quantities of tobacco. A like deflruc-
tion of ftores and goods was made in other parts of Vir-
ginia.
From the account already given of fome of the prin¬
cipal military operations of the prefent year in Ame¬
rica, it appears, that though confiderable advantages
had been gained by the royal troops, yet no event
had taken place from which it could rationally be ex-
pefted that the final termination of the war would be
favourable to Great Britain. It was alfo a difadvan-
tageous circumftance, that there was a mifunderftanding
between Admiral Arbuthnot and Sir Henry Clinton,
and a mutual difapprobation of each other’s conduft.
Th is was manifeft from their difpatches to government,
and efpecially from thofe of General Clinton, whofe
expreflions refpedting the conduct of the admiral were
by no means equivocal.
On the 16th of March 1781, a partial a&ion hap¬
pened off the capes of Virginia, between the fleet un-
Britifli and der Admiral Arbuthnot, confifting of feven {hips of
French ]jns an(j one fifty-gun (hip, and a French fquadron,
thecVies 0f conhfting of the fame number of (hips of the line and
366
Unlucky
mifunder¬
ftanding be
tween the
Britilh ad¬
miral and
general.
3<>7
Atflion be
tween the
Virginia.
363
Proclama
lion by
369
one forty-gun (hip. Some of the {hips in both fleets
received confiderable damage in the action, and the
lofs of the Englilh was 30 killed and 73 wounded •,
but no fliip was taken on either fide. The Britifti fleet
had, however, confiderably the advantage 5 as the French
were obliged to retire, and were fuppofed to be prevent-
ed by this action from carrying troops up the Chefapeak,
in order to attack General Arnold and impede the pro-
grefs of Lord Cornwallis. But it was an unfortunate
circumftance, that fome time before this engagement, the
Romulus, a flfip of 44 guns, was captured by the French
off the capes of Virginia.
Lord Cornwallis, after his victory over General
Green at Guildford, proceeded, as we have feen, to
Wilmington, where he arrived on the 7th of April.
But before he reached that place, he publifhed a pro¬
clamation, calling upon all loyal fubjedls to ftand forth
Xonl Corn-1 and take an active part in reftoring good order and
wall1'. government; and declaring to all perfons who had en¬
gaged in the prefent rebellion againft his Majefty’s au¬
thority, but who were now convinced of their error,
and defirous of returning to their duty and allegiance,
that if they would furrender themfelves with their arms
and ammunition at head-quarters, or to the officer
commanding in the diftrift contiguous to their refpec-
tivc places of refidence, on or before the 20th of that
month, they w'ould be permitted to return to their
.homes upon giving a military parole j they would be
protefted in their perfons and properties from all forts 'Americ
of violence from the Britifti troops 5 and vrould be re-
ftored as foon as poffible to all the privileges of legal
and conftitutional government. But it does not ap¬
pear that any confiderable number of the A.mericans
were allured by thefe promifes to give any evidences of
their attachment to the royal caufe.
On the 20th of May, his lordftiip arrived at Peterf¬
burgh in Virginia, where he joined a body of Britifti
troops that had been under the command of Major-
general Phillips; but the command of which, in con-
fequence of the death of that officer, had devolved up¬
on Brigadier-general Arnold. Before this jundion he
had encountered confiderable inconveniences from the
difficulty of procuring provifions and forage; fo that
in a letter to Sir Henry Clinton, he informed him, that
his cavalry wanted every thing, and his infantry every
thing but ftioes. He added, that he had experienced
the diftreffes of marching hundreds of miles in a country
chiefly hoftile, without one adive or ufeful friend, with¬
out intelligence, and without communication with any
part of the country.
On the 26th of June, about fix miles from Williamf-Different
burgh, Lieutenant-colonel Simcoe, and 350 of theadtions.
queen’s rangers, with 80 mounted yagers, were attack¬
ed by a much fuperior body of the Americans ; but
whom they repulfed with great gallantry and with equal
fuccefs, making four officers and twenty private men
prifoners. The lofs of the Americans in this adion is
faid to have been upwards of 120, and that of the Bri-
tifti troops not more than 40.
On the 6th of July an adion happened near the Green
Springs in Virginia, between a reconnoitring party of the
Americans under General Wayne, amounting to about
800, and a large party of the Britifti army under Lord
Cornwallis: in which the Americans had 127 killed
and wounded, and the lofs of the royal troops is fuppo¬
fed to have been confiderably greater. It was an ac¬
tion in which no fmall degree of military {kill and cou¬
rage was exhibited by the Americans. In a variety of
{kirmifhes.the marquis La Fayette very muchdiftinguifti-
ed himfelf, and difplayed the utmoft ardour in the A-
merican caufe.
■3 *7©
In South Carolina, an adion happened on the 9th General
of September near the Eata Springs, between a large Greene d«
body of Britifti troops under the command of Lieute-^11^
nant-colonel Stuart and a much fuperior body of Ame- ^tual
ricans, faid to amount to more than 4000, under the
•command of General Greene. It was an obftinate en¬
gagement, and lafted near two hours ; but the Ameri¬
cans were defeated, and two of their fix-pounders fell
into the hands of the Englifti. The lofs, however, of
the royal troops was very confiderable; amounting to
more than 400 killed and wounded, and upwards of
200 miffing.
In the courfe of the fame month, General Arnold Expeditie
was fent on an expedition againft New London, inaTa'nft
Connecticut, where he deftroyed a great part of the ^on
{hipping, and an immenfe quantity of naval ftores, Eu¬
ropean manufactures, and Eaft and Weft India com¬
modities. The town itfelf was alfo burnt, which is
faid to have been unavoidable, on account of the explo-
fions of great quantities of gunpowder which happened
to be in the ftorehoufes that were fet on fire. A fort,
of which it was thought neceffary to gain poffeffion in
this
America.
.37*
Critical
A M E [
this expedition, was not taken without confiderable lofs.
This was Fort Grifwoldj which was defended by the
Americans with great gallantry, and the aflault was
made by the Englilh with equal bravery. The Britilh
troops entered the works with fixed bayonets, and were
oppofed with great vigour by the garrifon with long
fpears. After a moft obftinate defence of near forty
minutes, the affailants gained poffeffion of the fort, in
which 85 Americans were found dead, and 60 wounded,
moft of them mortally. Of the Britilh troops Major
Montgomery was killed by a fpear in entering the A-
merican works ; and 192 men were alfo killed and
wounded in this expedition.
Notwithftanding the fignal advantages that Lord
'ituation of Cornwallis had obtained over the Americans, his fitua-
tvalfis^0111* ^on *n Virginia began by degrees to be very critical;
^ 1S* and the rather becaufe he did not receive thofe rein¬
forcements and fupplies from Sir Henry Clinton, of
which he had formed expe&ations, and which he con¬
ceived to be neceffary to the fuccefs of his operations.
Indeed, the commander in chief was prevented from
fending thofe reinforcements to Lord Cornwallis which
he otherwife might have done, by his fears refpe&ing
New York, againft which he entertained great appre-
henfions that General Wafhington intended to make a
very formidable attack. In faft, that able American
general appears to have taken much pains, and to have
employed great fineffe, in order to lead Sir, Henry
Clinton to entertain this imagination. Letters, ex-
preffive of this intention, fell into the hands of Sir
Henry, which were manifeftly written with a defign
that they (hould be intercepted, and only with a view
to amufe and deceive the Britith general. The project
was fuccefsful j and by a variety of judicious military
manoeuvres, in which he completely out-generalled the
Britith commander, he increafed his- apprehenfions
about New York, and prevented him from fending
proper afliftance to Lord Cornwallis. Having for a
confiderable time kept Sir Henry Clinton in perpetual
alarm in New York, though with an army much in¬
ferior to the garrifon of that city, General Wathington
fuddenly quitted his camp at White Plains, crofted the
Delaware, and marched towards Virginia, apparently
with a defign to attack Lord Cornwallis. Sir Henry
Clinton then received information, that the count de
Grafle, with a large French fleet, was expelled every
moment in the Chefapeak, in order to co-operate with
General Wafhington. He immediately endeavoured,
both by land and water, to communicate this informa¬
tion to Lord Cornwallis ; and alfo fent him aflurances
that he would either reinforce him by every poflible
means in his power, or make the beft diverfion he could
in his favour. In the mean time, Lord Cornwallis had
taken pofteflion of the polls of York town and Glou-
cefter in Virginia, where he fortified himfelf in the beft
manner he was able.
On the 28th of Auguft, Sir Samuel Hood, with a
fquadron from the Weft Indies, joined the fquadron
under the command of Admiral Graves before New
York. It was then neceftary, on account of the fitua-
tion of Lord Cornwallis, that they {hould immediately
proceed to the Chefapeak •, but fome time appears
have been needlefsly loft, though Admiral Hood was
extremely anxious that no delay might be made. They
arrived,, however, ia the Chefapeak, on the 5th of Sep-
373
Ineffectual
attem|Us to
afford him
affiftance.
America.
374
79 ] A M E
tember, with 19 flrips of the line ; where they found
the count de Grafle, who had anchored in that bay on 1
the 30th of Auguft, with 24 Ihips of the line. The
French admiral had previoufly landed a large body of
troops, which had been brought from Rhode illand, and
who immediately marched to join the American army
under General Walhington. The Britilh and French ACtion be-
fleets came ta an a£tion on the fame day in which the tween the
former arrived in the Chefapeak. On board the Britilh ami
fleet 90 were killed and 246 wounded 5 fome of thefl^sinthe
fliips were greatly damaged in the engagement, and the chefapeak.
Terrible, a 74 gun Ihip, was fo much lhattered, that it
was afterwards found neceflary to fet fire to it. That
this action had not been favourable to the Engiilb, was
manifeft from the event: the fleets continued in fight
of each other for five days fucceffively, and fometimes
were very near •, but at length the French fleet all an¬
chored within the Cape, fo as to block up the paffage.
Admiral Graves, who was the commander in chief, then
called a council of war, in which it was refolved that the
fleet lliould proceed to New York, that the Ihips might
be there put into the beft ftate for the fervice : and thus
were the French left mailers of the navigation of the
Chefapeak.
Before the news of this aftion had reached New
York, a council of war was held there, in which it was
refolved, that 5000 men fhould be embarked on board
the king’s Ihips, in order to proceed to the afliftance
of Lord Cornwallis. But when it was known that the
French were abfolute mailers of the navigation of the
Chefapeak, it was thought inexpedient to fend off that
reinforcement immediately. In another council of war,
it was refolved, that as Lord Cornwallis had provilions
to laft him till the end of Odlober, it was advifable to
wait for more favourable accounts from Admiral
Graves, or for the arrival of Admiral Digby, who was
expelled with three Ihips of the line. It was not then
known at New York, that Admiral Graves had deter¬
mined to return with the whole fleet to that port.
In the mean time, the moll effedlual meafures were Daricrer of
adopted by General Wafhington for furrounding the Lord Com-
Britilh army under Lord Cornwallis. A large body wa'fis *n~
of French troops, under the command of Lieutenant-crea^c^*
general the count de Rochambeau, with a very confider¬
able train of artillery, aflifted in the enterprife. The
Americans amounted to near 8000 continentals and
5000 militia. General Walhington was invefted with
the authority of commander in chief of thefe combined
forces of America and France. On the 29th of Sep¬
tember, the inveftment of York Town was complete,
and the Britifh army quite blocked up. The day fol-
loAving, Sir Henry Clinton wrote a letter to Lord Corn¬
wallis, containing affuranees that he Avould do every
thing in his power to relieve him, and fome information
concerning the Heps that would be taken for that pur-
pofe. A duplicate of this letter was fent to his lord-
Ihip by Major Cochran on the 3d of Odlober. That
gentleman, who was a very gallant officer, went in a
veffel to the capes, and made his way to Lord Cornwal¬
lis, through the whole French fleet, in an open boat.
He got to York Town on the 10th of the month j and
foon after his arrival had his head carried off by a can¬
non ball.
After the return of Admiral Graves to New York,
a council of Avar was held, confifting of flag and gene¬
ral'
A M E
[ 80 ]
A M E
Amt: i‘-
Clinton.
377
Lord Corn-
iler.
ral officers •, in which it was refolved, that a large body
v of troops ffiould be embarked on board the king’s {hips
as foon as they were refitted, and that the exer¬
tions of both fleet and army fhould be made in order
Late arrival to form a junction with Lord Cornwallis. Sir Henry
of General Clinton himfelf embarked on board the fleet, with up¬
wards of 7000 troops, on the 18th ; they arrived off
Cape Charles, at the entrance of the Chefapeak, on
tire 24th, where they received intelligence that Lord
Cornwallis had been obliged to capitulate five days
before.
It was on the 19th of Oftober that Lord Cornwal-
wallis’s ar- p!S furrendered himfelf and his whole army, by capitu-
!7furbrenecl ^at‘on’ Pr^oners to tlie combined armies of America
and France, under the command of General Wafhing-
ton. He made a defence fuitable to the charafter he
had before acquired for courage and military {kill }
but was compelled to fubmit to untoward circumflan-
ces and fuperior numbers. It was agreed by the arti¬
cles of capitulation, that the Britiffi troops were to
be prifoners to the United States of America, and
the feamen to the French king, to whofe officers alfo
the Britifh veffels found at York Town and Gloucefter
were to be delivered up. The Britiffi prifonets amount¬
ed to more than 6000 ; but many of them, at the time
of furrender, were incapable of duty. A confiderable
number of cannon, and a large quantity of military
ffores, fell into the. hands of the Americans on this oc-
cafion.
As no rational expe£lation now remained of a fubju-
gation of the colonies, the military operations that fuc-
ceeded in America were of little confequence. Some
jnconfiderahle actions and {krrmifhes did indeed take
place after that event j in which the refugees chiefly
diflinguithed themfelves, and difeovered an inveterate
animofity againft the Americans. On the 5th of May
1782, Sir Guy Carleton arrived at New York, being
378
Sir Guy
Carleton
.arrives at
arrives at app0jnted to the command of the Britiflr troops in
?Jew York, . . , nf Sir TTpnrtr Gllinton- Two r
with
powers to
treat of
peace.
A-
’ meric a in the room of Sir Henry Clinton. Two. days
after his arrival, he wrote a letter to General Waftiing-
ton, acquainting him, that Admiral Digby was joined
with himfelf in a commiffion to treat of peace with
the people of America; tranfmitting to him, at the
fame time, fome papers tending to manifeft the pacific
jdifpofition of the government and people of Britain
towards thofe of America. He alfo defired a, paffport
for Mr Morgan, who was appointed to tranfmit a
fimilar letter of compliment to the congrefs. General
Waffiington declined figning any paffport till he had
taken the opinion of congrefs upon that meafure *, and
by them he was directed to refufe any paffport for fuch
a purpofe. However, another letter was fent to Gene¬
ral Wafhington, dated the 2d of Auguft, and figned by
Sir Guy Carleton and Rear-Admiral Digby, in which
they informed him, that they were acquainted by au¬
thority that negotiations for a general peace had alrea¬
dy commenced at Paris 5 that Mr Grenville was inveft-
jed with full powers to treat with all the parties at war ;
and was then at Paris in the execution of his commif¬
fion. They farther informed him, that his majeily,
in order to remove all obftacles to that peace which be
fo ardently wiflied to reftore, had commanded his mi-
nifters to direft Mr Grenville, that the independency
of the thirteen provinces fliould be propofed by him, in
rite firft inftance, inftead of making it the condition of
a general treaty. But fome jealoufies were entertain- America
ed by the Americans, that it was the defign of the  v—
Britilh court either to difunite them, or to bring them Ref^iop
to treat of a peace feparately from their ally the king of congrej|
of France : They therefore refolved, that any man, or in conie-
body of men, who fhouid prefume to make any fepa-quence
rate or partial convention or agreement with the king^liei:t0^
of Great Britain, or with any commiflioner or com-
miffioners under the crown of Great Britain, ought to
be confidered and treated as open and avowed enemies
of the United States of America ; and alfo that thofe
{fates could not with propriety hold any conference or
treaty with any commiflioners on the part of Great
Britain, unlefs they Humid, as a preliminary thereto,
either withdraw their fleets and armies, or elfe, in po-
fitive or exprefs terms, acknowledge the independence
of the faid ftates. They likewife refolved, that any
propofitions which might be made by the court of
Great Britain, in any manner tending to violate the
treaty fubfifting between them and the king of France,
ought to be treated with every mark of indignity and
contempt. 380
In the month of June, the toivn of Savannah, and Different
the whole province of Georgia, were evacuated by the JaCt®Sdeby
king’s troops j as was alfo Charleftown, South Ca* (-he king’s
rolina, about the clofe of the year. In the mean time,tr00pS.
the negotiations for peace being continued, provifional
articles of peace were figned at Paris on the 30th of
November by the commiffioner of his Britannic Ma-
jefty and the American com*niffioners, in which his
majefty acknowledged the united colonies of New
Hampfhire, Maffachufets Bay, Rhode Ifland and Pro- ,Sv
vidence Plantations, Conne£licut, New York, Newlndepen-
Jerfey, Pennfylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia,
North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, to beacknow_
“ free, fovereign, and independent ftates.” They badp^ged.
conffituted themfelves fuch on the 4th of July 1776}
they had been acknowledged fuch by the French king
on the 30th of January 1778, when he concluded with
them a treaty of amity and commerce 5 Holland had
acknowledged them as fuch April 19th 1782 } Sweden
acknowledged them as fuch February 5th 1783 •, Den¬
mark the 25th February, Spain in March, and Ruffia in
July, the fame year. _ # 3S2
According to the report of the committee appoint-Lots of
ed for that purpofe, the Foreign Debt of the United™^*
States incurred by the war, amounted to 7,885,085 the war
dollars, and the DotneJHc Debt to 34’1I5>290’ total
at 4s. 6d. each, equal to 9,450,084!. fterling, the inte-
reft of which at 6 percent, is 567,005!. But the coft to
Great Britain is moderately computed at 115,654,914!.
and the additional annual burden by it 4?557>575^
fince January 1775* -^-s *-° ^ie 11:1611 c|ur’ng
this unhappy war, the States of America, according to
authentic eftimates, loft by the fword and in priffin near
80,000 men ; and by the Britifti returns at New \ ork,
the number of foldiers killed in the fervice amounted to
43,633. • n 383
Such was the end of the conteft between Great Bri- Genera^
tain and America : A conteft in which the latter at_CfcS_ ^
tained to an independent rank among the nations, that
may be produftive of more important confequences
than can yet be forefeen ; and in which the former,
happily for herfelf, was forced to relinquifh a fove-
reignty that ferved only to reprefs her own internal
induftry,-
America.
384
Conftitu-
tion of the
American
Rates.
38S.
Immediate
coni’equen-
ces of the
revolution
to America.
A M £ L «
Induftry, and retard her profperity. She has, in the
' event, only fuffered a diminution of unwieldy empire
which has been more than compenfated by an increafe of
population, commerce, revenues, and wealth.
As to the general conflitution of the American
States: By the ads of confederation and perpetual
Union, each of the colonies contraded a reciprocal
treaty of alliance and friendlhip for their common de¬
fence, for the maintenance of their liberties, and for
their general and mutual advantage 5 obliging them?
•felves to aiTift each other againft all violence that might
threaten all, or any one ot them, and to repel in com¬
mon all the attacks that might be levelled againft all,
or any one of them, on account of religion, fovereign-
ty, commerce, or under any other pretext whatfoever.
Each of the colonies referved to itfelf alone the ex-
clufive right of regulating its internal government, and
of framing laws in all matters not included in the ar¬
ticles of confederation.—But for the more conveni¬
ent management of the general inteieft of the United
States, it°was determined that delegates (hould be an¬
nually appointed in fuch a manner as the legiflature of
each date (hould dired, to meet in congrefs on the
firft Monday of November of every year, with a power
referved to each (late to recall its delegates, or any of
them, at any time within the year, and to fend others
in their dead for the remainder of the year. No date
is to be reprefented in congrefs by lefs than two, nor
more than feven members 5 and no perfon is capable of
being a delegate for more than three years, in any
term of fix years $ nor is any perfon, being a delegate,
capable of holding any office under the United States,
for which he, or any other for his benefit, (hall receive
any falary, fees, or emoluments of any kind. In deter¬
mining quedions in the United States, in congrefs aflem-
bled, each date is to have one vote. Every date is to
abide bv the determinations of the United States in con¬
grefs affembled, on all quedions which are fubmitted
to them by the confederation. The articles of confe¬
deration are to be inviolably obferved by every date, and
the union is to be perpetual-, nor is any alteration, at
any time hereafter, to be made in any of them, unlefs
fuch alteration be agreed to in a congrefs of the United
States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legiflature of
every date.
In the mean time, the return of peace was very far
from immediately producing in the United States, all
that tranquillity and profperity, which the eager fup-
porters of the revolution had promifed to themfelves
and their country. The public finances were in fuch
a date of entire derangement, as rendered it utterly
impoflible to make payment of the arrears due to the
army. Accordingly the whole officers and foldiers that
compofed this body, which at the end of along war,
is always fo formidable and dangerous to a free date,
were extremely difeontented. Attempts were made, by
anonymous publications, to inflame their minds, which
were already fufliciently agitated, and to induce them
to unite in redrefling their own grievances, while they
had dill arms in their hands. During the time that
matters were in this date, had the commander in chief
of the army been a lefs virtuous man, it is not impofli¬
ble, that the freedom of America might have been
overturned, and thefe colonies might have exchanged
the mild government of Britain, for a military ufurpa.
Vol» II. Part. I.
, ] AM E
tion. It immediately appeared, however, that General America.
Wafliington was greatly fuperior to the temptations of ‘ » "*
vulgar ambition. He fummoned a meeting of the ge¬
neral and field officers, with a deputation of an officer
from each company, and a proper reprefentation from
the flad' of the army. Previous to the meeting, he
fent for each officer, and enlarged in private on the fa¬
tal confequences to their country, and on the lofs of
reputation to the whole army, which would refult from
intemperate refolutions. When the day arrived on
which they had been fummoned to aflemble, the 15th
of March 1783, he addreffed them in a fpeech, well
calculated to produce calmnefs and moderation. He
promifed to exert in their favour his whole influence,
requeding them to rely on the public faith which had
been pledged to them } and he conjured them “ as they
valued their honour, as they refpeaed the rights oHiu-
manity, and as they regarded the military and nation¬
al charafter of America, to exprefs their'utmod de-
tedation of the men, who were attempting to open the
flood-gates of civil difeord, and to deluge their rifing
empire with blood.” Having fpoken thus, he retired.
No reply was made to his fpeech 5 and while the aflem-
bly hefitated, the friends of tranquillity feized the hap¬
py moment, and propofed a refolution, which was car¬
ried without oppofition, that no circumdances of didrefs
or danger ffiould induce the American army to fully
their reputation by fedition, or to didrud the judice of
their country. . -35
After all, however, the government was only ableDifmifli0n
to give to the army four months pay, in place of the of the army»
arrears of feveral years. Notwithdanding this great
deficiency, the foldiers fuffered themfelves, with tolera¬
ble quietnefs, to be diflianded towards the fall of the
year, care having been previoufly taken to get quit
of great numbers of the men individually, by granting
leave of abfence to all that applied for it; in confe-
quence of which, this dangerous body of veteran troops
was foon fcattered and lod in the immenfe extent of the
American territory. The commander in chief proceed¬
ed to Annapolis, then the feat of congrefs, and on the
23d of December, refigned his commiffion to the prefi-
dent at a public audience. He immediately retired as a
private perfon, to his farm of Mount Vernon, on the
banks of the Potowmack in Virginia.
But here the troubles of the country feemed only to KmKaraff'-
commence. During the early periods of the revolu-mentsof the
tion, amidd the dangers of the war, and while the pub- Americans,
lie zeal for independence remained ardent, the defefls
of the form of government were not felt. Firom the
mere drength which the public opinion conferred, the
congrefs was able to levy armies, to raife extenfive
loans, and to condutt the war with vigour -, but when
immediate danger was removed, and the feififfi paffions
had leifure to operate, its powers -were foon found alto¬
gether inadequate to provide for the public welfare. Ar¬
ticles of confederation had indeed been entered into
with a view to confer more extenfive powers upon con¬
grefs, but dill its authority was extremely defe&ive. By
thefe articles, it tvas entitled to requirte from the differ¬
ent dates, the dims neceffary for the war, and the pub¬
lic expences of the union : But as it had no power to
legiflate over individuals, but only over the dates as
political bodies, and poffeffed no means of coercion
over fuch dates as ffiould negleft to make good the
L payments
A M E [
payments with which they were affeffed, the revenue of
the union was ill paid, and all its exertions were enfee¬
bled. The congrefs had no power of making general
commercial regulations to bind the whole ftates, nor
could iteven interfere to prevent their waging war againft
each other if they thought fit. Hence, from the mutual
jealoufies of thirteen feparate legiflatures, the moil dif-
cordant regulations aroie. _ ,
As foon as the war tvas at an end, Great Britain
naturally treated the American ftates as a foreign na¬
tion, and prohibited, under pain of confifcation, any of
their commodities to be conveyed to the Britiih Weft
India iflands, unlefs in Britiih built veffels, navigated
by Britiih mariners. Thus the Americans were
excluded from that branch of commerce in which
they had formerly obtained moft of the ready money
or fpecie that came into their country. .With a view
to induce Great Britain to relax the feverity of this and
other regulations, injurious to their commerce, fome
of the American ftates impofed heavy taxes upon goods
of Britiih manufadlure. Other ftates took advantage of
this circumftance to invite the Britiih merchants to fre¬
quent their ports exclufively, and not only received all
Britiih commodities free from any duty, but they dif¬
fered their people to engage in a fmuggling traffic, for
the tranfportation of thefe commodities into the ftates
in which they had been heavily taxed. Thus the
fame commodities which were feyerely taxed in Phila¬
delphia, were imported without difficulty or expence in¬
to the Jerfeys, on the oppofite fide of the Delaware,
and were daily conveyed by illicit traders acrols the ri¬
ver. Hence arofe a fpirit of commercial jealoufy, and
a warfare between the different legiflatures, which filled
the whole country with a degree of diffenfion, little Ihort
of hoftility.
The Americans were at the fame time in a great mea-
fure excluded from the trade to the Mediterranean.
They could no longer navigate that fea with fafety, a
privilege which as Britiih fubje&s they had always en-
pyed. As the congrefs pofleffed no funds, wherewith
to enter into a compromife with the piratical ftates of
Barbary, to whom all Europe pays tribute, the Ame¬
rican veltels were conftantly expofed to danger. Being
unable to defend themfelves from the corfairs, they were
obliged either to relinquilh the beneficial trade which
they had formerly poffeffed in that quarter, or to enfure
it at a ruinous premium.
Independent of thefe partial evils, the general ba¬
lance of trade fpeedily became extremely unfavourable
to the United States. The debts due from the mer¬
chants to Great Britain, the payment of which had
been prohibited by congrefs during the war, were now
impatiently demanded. The American merchants were
almoft univerfally fued, and the remnant of their eftedts
feized by the agents of Britiffi houfes. To relieve
their own diftrefs, they proceeded againft the retailers,
Who had been unable to pay them during the war, and
to* whom peace had not yet reftored profperity.. In this
way the old traders were almoft univerfally ruined, and
compelled to abandon all commercial concerns. At
the fame time, however, as the ravages of armies and
the want of a free communication between Europe and
America during the war, had multiplied the wants of
the latter, an inundation of European manufactures,
was one of the firft effefts that followed the eftabliffi-
82 ]
A M E
V3SS
ment of peace. Thefe were purchaftd by the An.eri- America
cans far beyond their means of payment, and thus almoft —y—
every perfon conneCled with commerce was brought to
ruin^ and a great part of the people were involved in
their diftrefs.
All thefe evils were aggravated by the want of an
efficient government. Congrefs had incurred debts, and
iffued paper money for payment of the intereft of thefe
debts, or of the current public expences •, but as it pof¬
feffed no efficient revenue, its paper was foon depreciat¬
ed, and became an objeCt of fpeculation. Dilhoneft
men paid their debts with it, and thus defrauded their
creditors, and the morality of the people was feverely
wounded. The feveral ftates had themfelves alfo con¬
tracted debts for the war. Some ftates willing to fund
their debts, impofed taxes for the purpofe, which were
fo far beyond the means of the inhabitants, that they
could not be levied without extreme rigour. The extre¬
mities to which government proceeded in thefe cafes,
occafioned general difcontents, and even produced an in-
furreCtion in the ftate of Maffachufets—From all thefe
caufes, an embarraffed commerce, a depreciated paper
money, which inundated all America, the inability of
the laws to enforce payment ot the taxes, a Ipirit of jea¬
loufy between the different ftates, and the inadequacy of
congrefs to apply a remedy to thefe complicated, evils,
fomething little ffiort of anarchy was produced in the
United States. _ . _
In the midft of thefe calamities, a propofition was Propofal <|
made in 1785, in the houfe of delegates in Virginia, toa new coj
appoint commiffioners to meet fuch commiffioners as[tltutlon*
other ftates might appoint, to form a fyftem of com¬
mercial regulations for the United States. According¬
ly, feveral ftates appointed commiffioners, who, in 1786,
aflembled at Annapolis. But, as the ftates were not
all reprefented, and the commiffioners thought their
own powers too limited to authorize them to propofe a
proper remedy for the evils that preffed upon their coun¬
try, they agreed to recommend a general convention, ^
to be held at Philadelphia the following year, with Conventw
power to frame a general plan of government for the of Philadi-
United States. In confequence of this recommenda-Plua*
tion, in May 1787 delegates from all the ftates, except
Rhode Illand, affembled at Philadelphia, and chofe
General Waftiington for their prefident.. They fat
four months, and deliberated in private. I heir debates
have never been publifhed ■, but they are known to
have been extremely animated. The public opinion
was, at that period, by no means fixed with regard to
the kind of government that ought to be adopted. At
the commencement of the war, a confiderable party dif-
liked the violent meafures of their countrymen. At
different periods about men had been in the
fervice of Great Britain. Ihis implied that a large
body of royalifts exifted in America. Even of thofe
who dilliked the fupremacy of Britain, and wifhed to
eftablilh American independence, many wTere by no
means prepared to reliffi the whole principles of a re¬
publican government. When the queftion, therefofe,
came to be agitated concerning the beft political con-
ftitution for the United States, a variety of opinions
were broached. Thefe, however, in a great meafure
refolved themfelves into two fyitems : one party, at
that time called federalifls, wiffied to eftablilh a con-
ftitution as purely republican as poffible j and the other
party,
A M E
[ 83 ]
A M E
America.
39°
Speech of
Franklin.
party, then called antifederalijls, wilhed to give the new
•rovernment a monarchical character and tendency. It
is even laid that fume were not wanting who eagerly
defn-ed to copy elofely the model of the Britilh confti-
tution. This was not wonderful. Under the principles
of that conftitution Britain had become a great nation,
and America had profpered. It was the moll free form
of government at that time known. The vices which
had crept into it were evidently independent of its ra¬
dical ftrufture, and might eafily be avoided in a new
country. By adopting this tried and well known form
of government, it was faid that the hazard of new ex¬
periments would be avoided, and the dates might at
once place themfelves in a fecure train of prpfperity.
But the feelings of the people at the time were, upon
the whole, hoftile to thefe reafonings. Their fufferings,
in confequence of Britilh hoftiiity, were too recent to
permit them to regard with complacency, in fpecula-
tion, a fyftem which in practice they had taught them¬
felves to dillike. Their pride would not fuffer them to
become the fervile imitators of another nation ; and the
public fentiments were fo generally republican, as to
lead them to dillike all kinds of permanent or hereditary
ranks and privileges. Hence, when in the early fittings
of the convention of Philadelphia a plan was prefented,
which propofed the eftablilhment of a prefident for life,
and fenators for life, and expreffed a defire to render
thefe offices hereditary, and to fubjeft the laws of the
refpecfive dates to the review of the general govern¬
ment, it met with no adequate fupport •, and a commit¬
tee was appointed to prepare a plan of a new conditu-
tion for the United States.
In addition to the divifions that exided among the
members of this convention, from their tendency to re¬
publican or to monarchical principles, they were alfo di¬
vided in confequence of the different intereds of their
condituents. The votes were given by dates, and when
the delegates of a date differed in opinion, the majority
was reckoned the vote of the date. The greater dates,
after a confiderable conted, carried the point, that in the
new houfe of reprefentatives, the reprefentation drould
dand upon the balls of the population of each date,
though they were under the neceffity of conceding to
the leffer dates, that each date diould be equally repre-
fented in the new fenate. Virginia and the fouthern
dates, with the aid of the antifederalifls, in oppofition to
the federalid or republican party, obtained the drange
privilege, in a nation of freemen, of numbering three-
fifths of their Haves as a part of their population in all
quedions about the number of their reprefentatives. In
other quedions, however, the delegates of the great
dates frequently voted with the federalid party, though,
upon the whole, the more zealous republicans were
greatly difguded by many articles of the new conditu-
tion. Of thefe the celebrated Dr Franklin was one.
He had the integrity, and the moderation, however, on
this occafion, to prefer the peace of his country to his
private political opinions j and w’hen the plan was com¬
pleted, he propofed that it diould be figned by all the
members of the convention, that from their apparent
unanimity, it might have the better chance of being
accepted by the different dates. “ In the long career
I have already run” (faid that eminent datefman and
philofopher), “ I have more than once been compelled
to abandon opinions I had openly maintained, and
which I thought well founded from the deep confidera- America,
tion I had given them. As I grow older I am more 11
and more difpofed to quedion my own judgment, and
to pay refpect to that of others. 1 here are fome men,
as well as fome religious fe61s, who imagine that reafon
is entirely on their fide ; and that their opponents plunge
deeper into error in proportion as they depart from
their opinions. Struck with thefe examples, which are
but too common, I accept of this conditution with all
its faults, even fuppofing I am not midaken in my
opinion of its faults; for I am perfuaded that a general
government is neceffary to our iafety, and that no form
of government that is well adminidered is incapable of
producing the happinefs of the people } and I think
there is reafon to believe that this conditution will be
well adminidered for a number of years, and that it
will not end, as too many other governments have done,
in defpotifm, unlefs the American people diall reach
that degree of corruption, in which, at once incapable
of being direfled by a free conditution, and unworthy
of its blefiings, defpotifm becomes neceffary to their ex-
idence. I therefore give my vote for this conditution,
both becaufe, in the prefent circumdances of this na¬
tion, I cannot hope to fee one more perfeft, and becaufe
I am not fure this is not as perfeft as any it can have.
I make a facrifice of the opinion I have expreffed of its
defeats to the public happinefs. I have never uttered my
objections out of this houfe j here they had their birth,
and here I wilh them to be for ever buried. If every
one of us who have oppofed the conditution, when rve
return to our condituents, were to unfold the motives
of our oppofition, and endeavour to gain partifans to
our fide, perhaps we might prevent the unanimous
adoption of the conditution j but, by this, wTe diould
only lofe the advantage which the appearance of una*
nimity will give us with foreign nations, and indeed
with our own people. The general good opinion of a
nation refpeding its government is as necedary as the
wifdom and integrity of its adminidration, to the hap¬
pinefs of its people. I trud, therefore, both for our
own fafety as members of the community, and for the
fake of our poderity, that we diall be of one mind, in
recommending this conditution wherever our induence
reaches ; and that afterwards our whole thoughts will be
bent to its happy adminidration. I cannot forbear to
form the widi that fuch of us as dill entertain objections
to this conditution will follow my example, and doubt
a little of their infallibility, and fign this conditutional
aft, that no quedion may be left of our unanimity.”
The authority and example of Franklin prevailed, and
the following conditution was unanimoudy tranfmitted
by the convention to the different dates for their accep-
tance. . ^ 3jjr
“ We, the people of the United States, in order to Conftitu-
form a more perfeft union, edablidi judice, infure do-1'011*
medic tranquillity, provide for the common defence,
promote the general welfare, and fecure the bleffing of
liberty to ourfelves and our poderity, do ordain and
edablidi this conditution for the United States of A-
merica.
Article I.
“ Setfion 1. All legidative powers herein granted ffiall
be veded in a congrefs of the United States, which diall
confid of a fenate and houfe of reprefenlatives.
* L 2 Sea.
I
America.
A M E [ 84
“ Se8. 2. The houfe of reprefentatives (hall be cora-
pofed of members chofen evety fecond year by the peo¬
ple of the feveral dates j and the electors in each date
lhall have the qualifications requilite for electors of the
mod numerous branch of the date legiflature.
“ No perfon {hall be a reprefentative who diall not
have attained to the age of 25 years, and been feven
years a citizen of the United States j and who (hail not,
when defied, be an inhabitant of the date in which he
diall be chofen.
“ Reprefentatives, and direfl taxes, diall be appor¬
tioned among the feveral dates which may be included
within the union, according to their refpeflive num¬
bers, Avhich diall be determined by adding to the whole
number of free perfons, including thofe bound to fervice
for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed,
three-fifths of all other perfons. The aftual enumera¬
tion (hall be made within three years after the fird
meeting of the congrefs of the United States, and within
every fubfequent term of ten years, in fuch manner as
they diall by law direft. The number of reprefenta¬
tives diall not exceed one for every 30,000 : but each
date diall have at lead one reprefentative ; and until
fuch enumeration diall be made, the date of New Hamp-
diire diall be entitled to choofe three, Maffachufets eight,
Rhode Idand and Providence Plantations one, Con-
nefticut five, New York fix, New Jerfey four, Pemi-
fylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland fix, Virginia
ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Geor¬
gia three. # r • r
“ When vacancies happen in the reprefentation from
any date, the executive authority thereof diall iffue writs
of elettion to fill fuch vacancies.
“ The houfe of reprefentatives diall choofe their
fpeaker and other odicers j and diall have the foie power
of impeachment.
« SeB. 3. The fenate of the United States (hall be
compofed of two fenators from each date, chofen by the
legidature thereof, for fix years j and each fenator diall
have one vote.
“ Immediately after they diall be affembled, in con-
fequence of the fird eleftion, they diall be divided, as
equally as may be, into three claffes. The feats of the
fenators of the fird clafs diall be vacated at the expira¬
tion of the fecond year > of the fecond clafs, at the ex¬
piration of the fourth year j and the third clafs, at the
expiration of the fixth year j fo that one-third may be
chofen every fecond year : and if vacancies happen, by
refignation or otherwife, during therecefs of the legifla¬
ture of any date, the executive thereof may make tem¬
porary appointments until the next meeting of the le¬
giflature, which diall then fill fuch vacancies.
“ No perfon diall be a fenator who fliall not have at¬
tained to the age of 30 years, and been nine years a ci¬
tizen of the United States, and who diall not, when
eleaed, be an inhabitant of that date for which he fliall
be chofen.
“ The vice-prefident of the United States ihall be
prefident of the fenate, but fliall have no vote, unlefs
they be equally divided.
“ The fenate (hall choofe their other officers, and al-
fo a prefident pro tempore in the abfence of the vice-pre¬
fident, or when he (hall exercife the office of prefident
of the United States.
“ The fenate fliall have the foie power to try all
2
] ' A M E
impeachments : When fitting for that purpofe they fliall
be on oath or affirmation. When the prefident of the
United States is tried, the chief judice fliall prefide : and
no perfons fliall be convidted without the concurrence of
two-thirds of the members prefent.
“ Judgment in cafes of impeachment fliall not ex¬
tend further than to removal from oflice, and difqua-
lification to hold and enjoy any office of honour, trufl,
or profit under the United States ; but the party con-
vided fliall neverthelefs be liable and fubjed to in-
didment, trial, judgment, and punifliment, according
to law.
“ SeB. 4. The times, places, and manners of hold¬
ing eledions for fenators and reprefentatives fliall be
prefcribed in each date by the legiflature thereof; but
the congrefs may at any time, by law, make or alter
fuch regulations, except as to the placing or choofing
fenators.
“ The congrefs ftiall affemble at lead once in every
year ; and fuch meeting fhall be on the firfl Monday
in December, unlefs they ftiall by law appoint a differ-
end day.
“ SeB. 5. Each houfe fliall be the judge of the elec¬
tions, returns, and qualifications of its own members j
and a majority of each fliall conditute a quorum to do
bufinefs ; but a fmall number may adjourn from day to
day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of
abfent members, in fuch manner, and under fuch pe¬
nalties, as each houfe may provide.
“ Each houfe may determine the rules of its pro¬
ceedings,. punifli its members for diforderly behaviour,
and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a mem-
ber.
“ Each houfe fliall keep a journal of its proceedings,
and from time to time publifli the fame, excepting fuch
parts as may in their judgments require fecrecy j and the
yeas and nays of the members of either houfe on any
queflion ftiall, at the defire of one-fifth of thofe prefent,
be entered on the journal.
“ Neither houfe during the feffion of congrefs fliall,
without the confent of the other, adjourn for more than
three days, nor to any other place than that in which
the two houfes diall be fitting.
“ SeB. 6. The fenators and reprefentatives ftiall re¬
ceive a compenfation for their fervices, to be afcertained
by law, and paid out of the treafury of the United States.
They fliall in all cafes, except treafon, felony, and breach
of peace, be privileged from arred during their attend¬
ance at the feffion of their refpe&ive houfes, and in go¬
ing to and returning from the fame j for any fpeech or
debate in either houfe, they ftiall not be queflioned in
any other place.
“ No fenator or reprefentative ftiall, during the time
for which he was elefted, be appointed to any civil
office under the authority of the United States, which
ftiall have been created, or the emoluments whereof
ftiall have been increafed during fuch time : and no
perfon holding any office under the United States fhall
be a member of either houfe during his continuance in
office.
“ SeB. 7. All bills for railing revenue ftiall originate
in the houfe of reprefentatives j but the fenate may pro-
pofe or concur with amendments as on other bills.
“ Every bill which fhall have paffed the houfe of re¬
prefentatives and the fenate, ftiall, before it becomes
A M E [ 8
a law, be prefented to the prefident of the United
States 5 if he approve, he (hall fign it, but if_ not, he
{hall return it with his objedtions to that houie in which
it lhall have originated, who (hall enter the objeftions
at large on their journal, and proceed, to re-confider it.
If after fuch re-confideration two-thirds of that office
(hall agree to pafs the bill, it (hall be fent, together
with the objedtions, to the other houfe, by which it
lhall likewife be re-confidered j and if approved by
two-thirds of that houfe, it (hall become a law. But
in all fuch cafes the votes of both houfes (hall be de¬
termined by yeas and nays j and the names of the
perfons voting for and againft the bill (hall be entered
on the journal of each houfe refoeftively. . If any bill
(hall not be returned by the prefident within ten days
(Sundays excepted) after it (hall have been prefented
to him, the fame (hall be a law, in like manner as if he
had figned it,; unlefs the congrefs, by their adjourn¬
ment, prevent its return $ in which cafe it (hall not be
a law.
“ Every order, refolution, or vote, to which the
concurrence of the fenate and houfe of reprefentatives
may be neceffary, (except on a queftion of adjourn¬
ment), (hall be prefented to the prefident of the United
States j and before the fame (hall take effedt, (hall be ap¬
proved by him, or, being difapproved by him, (hall be
re-paffed by two-thirds of the fenate and houfe of repre¬
fentatives j according to the rules and limitations pie-
fcribed in the cafe of a bill.
SeB. 8. The congrefs (hall have power
« To lay and colledt taxes, duties, impofts, and ex-
cifes, to pay the debts and provide for the common, de¬
fence and general w'elfare of the United Slates j but all
duties, impofts, and excifes (hall be uniform throughout
the United States :
“ To borrow money on the credit of the United
States.
“ To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and
among the feveral dates, and with the Indian tribes :
“ To eftablifti an uniform rule of naturalization, and
uniform laws on the fubjeft of bankruptcies throughout
the United States :
“ To coin money, regulate the value thereof and
of foreign coin, and fix the ftandard of weights and
meafures :
“ To provide for the puniftiment of counterfeiting the
fecurities and current coin of the United States :
To eftablifti poft-offices and poft-roads :
“ To promote the progrefs of fcience and ufeful
arts, by fecuring, for limited times, to authors and in¬
ventors, the exclufive right to their refpe&ive writings
and difcoveries :
“ To conftitute tribunals inferior to the fupreme
courts:
“ To define and punifti piracies and felonies com¬
mitted on the high Teas, and offences againft the law of
nations :
“ To declare war, grant letters of marque and re-
prifal, and make rules concerning captures on land and
water :
“ To raife and fupport armies ; but no appropriation
of money to that ufe (hall be for a longer term than two
years :
“ To provide and maintain a navy :
5 ] A M E
“ To make rules for the government and regulation
of the land and naval forces :
“ To provide for the calling forth the militia to exe¬
cute the laws of the union, fupprefs infurre&ions, and
repel invafions : __ ...
“ To provide for organizing, arming, and difciplin-
ing the militia ) and for governing fuch part of them
as may be employed in the (trvice of the United
States } referving to the Hates, refpeftively, the ap¬
pointment of the officers, and the authority of training
the militia according to the difcipline prefcribed by
congrefs :
“ To exercife exclufive legiflation in all cafes what-
foever over fuch diftridl (not exceeding ten miles fquare)
as may, by ceffion of particular dates and the accept¬
ance of congrefs, become the feat of government of the
United States, and to exercife like authority over all
places purchafed by the confent of the legifiature of the
(late in which the fame (hall be, for the ereftion of forts,
magazines, arfenals, dockyards, and other needful build¬
ings :—and
“ To make all laws which (hall be neceffary and pro¬
per for carrying into execution the foregoing powers,
and all other powers veiled by this conftitution in the
government of the United States, or in any department
or office thereof.
“ SeB. 9. The migration or importation of fuch per¬
fons as any- of the dates now exifting (hall think proper
to admit, (hall not be prohibited by the congrefs prior
to the year 1808 ; but a tax or duty may be impofed
on fuch importation not exceeding ten dollars for each
per (on.
“ The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus (hall not
be fufpended, unlefs when in cafes of rebellion or invafion
the public fafety may require it.
“ No bill of attainder, or ex pojl faBo law, (hall be
paffed.
“ No capitation, or other direft tax, (hall be laid,
unlefs in proportion to the cenfus or enumeration herein
before directed to be taken.
“ No tax or duty (hall be laid on articles exported,
from any (late :—No preference (hall be given by any
regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one
(late over thofe of another j nor (hall veffels bound to
or from one (late be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties
in another.
“ No money (hall be drawn from the treafury but
in confequence of appropriations made by law 5 and a
regular ftatement and account of the receipts and ex¬
penditures of all public money (hall be publiftied from
time to time.
“ No title of nobility (hall be granted by the United
States j and no perfon holding any office of profit or
truft under them, (hall, without the confent of the con¬
grefs, accept of any prefent, emolument, office or title
of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign
date. • 1
“ SeB. 10. No date (hall enter into any treaty, al¬
liance, or confederation $ grant letters of marque and
reprifal j coin money 5 emit bills of credit j make any
thing but gold and filver coin a tender in payment of
debts j pafs any bill of attainder, ex pojl faBo law, or
law impairing the obligation of contrails, or grant any
title of nobility.
} “ No
A M E [ 86 ] A M E
America. No ftate (hall, without the confent of the congrefs,
—Y-—lay any impofts or duties on imports or exports, except
what may be abfolutely neceffary for executing its in-
fpeftion laws j and the net produce of all duties and
impofts laid by any ftate on imports or exports fliall be
for the ufe of the treafury of the United States j and
all fnch laws {hall be fubjed to the revifion and con-
troul of the congrefs. No ftate {hall, without the con¬
fent of congrefs, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops
or fhips of war in time of peace, enter into any agree¬
ment or compaft with another ftate or with a foreign
power, or engage in war unlefs actually invaded, or in
fuch imminent danger as will not admit of delay.
Article II.
“ SeB. I. The executive power {hall be vefted in
a prefident of the United States of America. He ftiall
hold his office during the term of four years, and toge¬
ther with the vice-prefident, chofen for the fame term,
be elefted as follows :
“ Each ftate {hall appoint, in fuch manner as the le-
giftature thereof may dirett, a number of eleftors equal
to the whole number of fenators and reprefentatives to
which the ftates may be entitled in the congrefs ; but
no fenator, or reprefentative, or perfon holding an office
of truft or profit under the United States {hall be ap¬
pointed an eleftor.
“ The ele&ors ffiall meet in their refpe&ive ftates,
and vote by ballot, for two perfons, of whom one at
leaft ffiall not be an inhabitant of the fame ftate with
themfelves. And they ffiall make a lift of all the per¬
fons voted for, and of the number of votes for each ;
which lift they {hall fign, and certify, and tranfmit,
fealed, to the feat of the government of the United
States, dire&ed to the prefident of the fenate. The
prefident of the fenate ffiall, in the prefence of the fe¬
nate and houfe of reprefentatives, open all the certifi¬
cates 5 and all the votes ffiall then be counted. The
perfon having the greateft number of votes, ffiall be the
prefident, if fuch number be a majority of the whole
number of ele&ors appointed ; and if there be more
than one who have fuch majority, and have an equal
number of votes, then the houfe of reprefentatives ffiall
immediately choofe by ballot one of them for prefident;
and if no perfon have a majority, then, from the five
higheft on the lift, the faid houfe ftiall, in like manner,
choofe the prefident. But in choofing the prefident,
the votes ffiall be taken by ftates, the reprefentations
from each ftate having one vote ; a quorum for this pur-
pofe fliall confift of a member or members from tw'o-
thirds of the ftates, and a majority of all the ftates ffiall
be neceftary to a choice. In every cafe after the choice
of the prefident, the perfon having the greateft number
of votes of the ele&ors ftiall be the vice-prefident. But
if there ffiould remain two or more who have equal
votes, the fenate ffiall choofe from them by ballot the
vice-prefident.
« The congrefs may determine the time of choofing
the electors, and the day on which they {hall give
their votes; which day ffiall be the fame throughout
the United States.
“ No perfon except a natural-born citizen, or a
citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption
of this conftitution, ffiall be eligible to the office of pre¬
fident ; neither ffiall any perfon be eligible to that America,
office who fliall not have attained to the age of 35 -y—
years, and been 14 years a refident within the United
States.
“ In cafe of the removal of the prefident from office,
or of his death, refignation, or inability to difeharge
the powers and duties of the faid office, the fame ffiall
devolve on the vice-prefident, and the congrefs may
by law provide for the cafe of removal, death, refigna¬
tion, or inability both of the prefident and vice-prefi¬
dent, declaring what officer ffiall then aft as prefident;
and fuch officer ffiall aft accordingly until the difability
be removed or a prefident ffiall be defied.
“ The prefident ffiall, at ftated times, receive for his
fervices a compenfation which ftiall neither be increafed
nor diminiffied during the period for which he ffiall
have been defied, and he ffiall not receive within that
period any other emolument from the United States, or
any of them.
“ Before he enter on the execution of his office he
ffiall take the following oath or affirmation.
“ I do folemnly fwear (or affirm) that I will faith¬
fully execute the office of prefident of the United
States, and will, to the beft of my ability, preferve,
protefl, and defend the conftitution of the United
States.
“ Seel. 2. The prefident ffiall be commander in
chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of
the militia of the feveral ftates when called into the
aflual fervice of the United States : he may require
the opinion in writing of the principal officer in each
of the executive departments, upon any fubjeft relating
to the duties of their refpeflive offices ; and he {hall
have pow'er to grant reprieves and pardons for offences
againft the United States, except in cafes of impeach¬
ment.
“ He ffiall have power, by and with the advice and
confent of the fenate, to make treaties, provided two-
thirds of the fenators prefent concur ; and he ffiall no¬
minate, and by and with the advice and confent of
the fenate, {hall appoint ambaffadors, other public mi-
nifters, and confuls, judges of the fupreme court, and
all other officers of the United States, whofe appoint¬
ments are not herein otherwife provided for, and which
ffiall be eftabliffied by law. But the congrefs may by
law veil the appointment of fuch inferior officers as they
think proper, in the prefident alone, in the courts oi
law, or in the heads of departments.
“ The prefident ffiall have power to fill up all va¬
cancies that may happen during the recefs of the fenate,
by granting commiffions, which ffiall expire at the end
of their next feffion.
“ Se5l. 3. He ffiall from time to time give to the con¬
grefs information of the ftate of the union, and recom¬
mend to their confideration fuch meafures as he ffiall
judge neceffary and expedient; he may, on extraordi¬
nary occafions, convene both houfes, or either of them ;
and in cafe of difagreement between them with refpefl
to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to
fuch time as he ffiall think proper : he ffiall receive am¬
baffadors, and other public minifters ; he ffiall take care
that the laws be faithfully executed, and ffiall commif-
fion all the officers of the United States.
“ Sefl. 4. The prefident, vice-prefident, and all ci¬
vil
’ m '
A M E [ 87 ] A M E
America, vil officers of the United States (hall be removed, from
-—v   office on impeachment fora convi&ionof treafon, bribery,
or other high crimes and mifdemeanours.
Article III.
Sect. I. The judicial power of the United States
fhall be veiled in one fu^preme court, and in fuch in¬
ferior courts as the congrefs may from time to time or¬
dain and eftabliffi. The judges both of the fupreme and
inferior courts (hall hold their offices during good beha¬
viour, and (hall at dated times receive for their fervices,
a compenfation which (hall not be diminiffied during their
continuance in office.
“ Sett. 2. The judicial power (hall extend to all
cafes in law and equity arifing under this conditution,
the laws of the United States, and treaties made or
which (hall be made under their authority } to all cafes
affe&ing ambaffadors, other public miniders.and con-
fuls; to all cafes of admiralty and maritime jurifdiftion ;
to controverfies to which the United States (hall be
party ; to controverdes between two or more dates,
between a date and citizens of another date, be¬
tween citizens of different dates, between citizens of
the fame date claiming lands under grants of different
dates, and between a date, or the citizens thereof, and
foreign dates, citizens, or fubje&s.
“ In all cafes affecting ambaffadors, other public
miniders and confuls, and thofe in which a date (hall
be party, the fupreme court (hall have original jurif-
diftion. In all the other cafes before mentioned the fu¬
preme court diall have appellate jurifdi&ion both as to
law and fa&, with fuch exceptions and under fuch regu¬
lations as the congrefs (hall make.
“ The trial of all crimes, except in cafes of impeach¬
ment, fhall be by jury; and fuch trial diall be held in
the date Avhere the faid crime (hall have been commit¬
ted } but when not committed within any date, the
trial (hall be at fuch place or places as the congrefs may
by law have dire£ted.
“ Sett. 3. Treafon againd the United States (hall
condd only in levying war againd them, or in adhering
to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No
perfon (hall be convi&ed of treafon, unlefs on the tedi-
mony of two witneffes to the fame overt aft, or on con-
feflion in open court.
“ The congrefs fhall have power to declare the pu-
nifhment of treafon, but no attainder of treafon (hall work
corruption of blood or forfeiture, except during the life
of the perfon attainted.
I »
Article IV.
“ Sett. 1. Full faith and credit (hall be given in each
date to the public afts, records, and judicial proceed¬
ings of every other date, and the congrefs may by ge¬
neral laws prefcribe the manner in which fuch afts, re¬
cords, and proceedings fhall be proved, and the effeft
thereof.
“ Sett. 2. The citizens of each date diall be entitled
to all the privileges and immunities of citizens in the
feveral dates.
“ A perfon charged in any date with treafon, felony,
or other crime, who (hall dee from judice, and be
found in another date, fhall, on demand of the execu¬
tive authority of the date from which he ded? be deli¬
vered up, to be removed to the date having jurifdiftion America,
of the crime. v—--y-—
“ No perfon held to fervice or labour in one date,
under the laws thereof, efcaping into another, (hall, in
confequence of any law or regulation therein, be dif-
charged from fuch fervice or labour, but (hall be deliver¬
ed up on claim of the party to whom fuch fervice or la¬
bour may be due.
“ Sett. 3. New dates may be admitted by the con¬
grefs into this union: but no new date (hall be formed
or erefted within the jurifdiftion of any other date}
nor any date be formed by the junftion of two or
more dates or parts of dates, without the confent of the
legiflatures of the dates concerned as well as of the con¬
grefs.
“ The congrefs fhall have power to difpofe of and
make all needful rules and regulations refpefting the
territory or other property belonging to the United
States ; and nothing in this conditution diall be con-
drued as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or
of any particular date.
“ Sett. 4. The United States (hall guarantee to every
date in this union a republican form of government,
and (hall proteft each of them againd invadon, and on
application of the legidature or of the executive, (when
the legiflature cannot be convened) againd domedic
violence.
Article V.
“ The congrefs, whenever two-thirds of both houfes
fhall deem it neceffary, fhall propofe amendments to
this conditution, or, on the application of the legida-
tures of two-thirds of the feveral dates, diall call a
convention for propodng amendments, which, in ei¬
ther cafe, diall be valid to all intents and purpofes as
part of this conditution, when ratified by the legidatures
of three-fourths of the feveral dates, or by conventions
in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of
ratification may be propofed by the congrefs ; provided
that no amendment which may be made prior to the year
1808, diall in any manner affeft the fird and fourth
claufes in the ninth feftion of the fird article } and that
no date, without its confent, diall be deprived of its equal
fuffrage in the fenate.
Article VI.
“ All debts contrafted and engagements entered into,
before the adoption of this conditution, diall be as valid
againd the United States under this conditution asunder
the confederation.
“ This conditution and the laws of the United States
diall be made in purfuance thereof} and all treaties made,
or which diall be made, under the authority of the
United States, diall be the fupreme laiv of the land}
and the judges in every date diall be bound thereby, any
thing in the conditution or laws of any date to the con¬
trary notwithdanding.
“ The fenators and reprefentatives before mentioned,
and the members of the feveral date legidatures, and all
executive and judicial officers, both of the United States
and of the feveral dates, fhall be bound by oath or affir¬
mation to fupport this conditution; but no religious ted
diall ever be required as a qualification to any office or
public trud under the United States.
Article
A.merica.
A M E
Article VII.
“ The ratification of the convention of nine ftates
(hall be fufficient for the eftabliftiment of this contlitu-
tion between the ftates fo ratifying the fame.
“ Done in convention, by the unanimous confent of
the ftates prefent, the 17th day of September, in the
year of our Lord 1787, and of the independence of the
United States of America the I2th. In witnefc where¬
of, we have hereunto fubfcribed our names:
George Wafiiington, prefident and deputy of Virginia.
Dep. of New Hampfhire, John Langdon
Nicholas Gilman
MaJJachufets, Nathaniel Gorham
Rufus King
ConneBicut, William Samuel Johnfon
Roger Sherman
New York, Alexander Hamilton
New Jerfey, William Livingfton
David Brearly
William Pateffon
Jonathan Dayton
Pennfylvania, Benjamin 'Franklin
Thomas Miflin
Robert Morris
George Clymer
Thomas Fitz-fimons
Jared Ingerfoll
James Wilfon
Gouverneur Morris
Delaware, George Read
Gunning Bedford, junior
Richard Baffett
Jacob Broom
Maryland, James Mac Henry
Daniel St Thomas Jenifer
Daniel Carroll
Virginia, John Blair
James Maddifon, junior
North Carolina, William Blount
Richard Dobbfpaight
Hugh Williamfon
South Carolina, John Rutledge
Charles Cotefworth Pinckney
Charles Pinckney
Pierce Butler
Georgia, William Few
Abraham Baldwin.
Attefled, William Jackson,Terntfary.
To the conftitution the following refolutions were
added; _ . . -
4‘ That the preceding conftitution be laid betore
the United States in congrefs aflembled, and that it is
the opinion of this convention, that it ftiould afterwards
be fubmitted to a convention of delegates, chofen in
each ftate by the people thereof, under the recommen¬
dation of its legiflature for their aflent and ratification j
and that each convention affenting to, and ratifying the
fame, fhould give notice thereof to the United States in
congrefs alfembled.
“ Refolved, that it is the opinion of this convention,
that as foon as the conventions of nine ftates (ball have
ratified this conftitution, the United States in congrefs
88 ] A M E
affembled, fliould fix a day on which the ele&ors (hculd America,
be appointed by the ftates which ftiall have ratified the v~~
fame, and a day on which the electors ftiould affemble
to vote for the prefident, and the time and place for
commencing proceedings under this conftitution. ihat
after fuch publication the electors ftiould be appointed
and the fenators and reprefentatives eledled. That the
electors ftiould meet on the day fixed for the ele&ion
of the prefident, and ftiould tranfmit their votes certi¬
fied, figned, fealed, and directed, as the conftitution re¬
quires, to the fecretary of the United States in congrefs
affembled ; that the fenators and reprefentatives fliould
convene at the time and place afligned 5 that the fena¬
tors ftiould appoint a prefident of the fenate for the foie
purpofe of receiving, opening, and counting the votes
for prefident j and that after he ftiall be chofen, the
congrefs, together with the prefident, (hall proceed
without delay to execute this conftitution. . .392
The ten following articles were afterwards, in 1789, Additions
propofed by congrefs to be added to the conftitution j
and having received the ratification required by article
fifth of the above conftitution, they are to be regarded
•as forming a part of it.
Article I.
“ Congrefs ftiall make no law refpe&ing an efta¬
bliftiment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercife
thereof} or abridging the freedom of fpeech, or of the
prefs, or the right of people peaceably to affemble,
and to petition the government for a redrefs of grievan¬
ces.
Article II.
“ A well-regulated militia being neceffary to the fe-
curity of a free ftate, the right of the people to keep
and bear arms ftiall not be infringed.
Article III.
“ No foldier ftiall in time of peace be quartered in
any houfe, without the confent of the owner, nor in
time of war, but in a manner to be preferibed by law.
Article IV.
“ The right of the people to be fecure in their per-
fons, houfes, papers, and effe&s, againft unreafonable
fearches and feizures, (hall not be violated : and no
warrants ftiall iffue but upon probable caufe, fupport-
ed by oath or affirmations \ and particularly deferib-
ing the place to be fearched, and the perfon or things
to be feized.
Article V.
« No perfon ftiall be held to anfwer for a capital, or
otherwife infamous crime, unlefs on a prefentment.
or indi&ment of a grand jury, excepting in cafes arif-
ing in the land or naval forces, or in the militia when
in actual fervice in time of war or public danger ; nor
fliall be tried twice for the fame offence j nor ftiall be
compelled in any criminal cafe to be a witnefs againft;
himfelf j nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property,
without due procefs of law : nor ftiall private property
be taken for public ufe, without juft compenfation.
Article VI.
“ In all criminal profecutions, the accufed party
ftiall
A M E
[
America frail enjoy tlie right to fpeedy and public trial by an
^ -<  impartial jury of the ftate and ditlria; wherein the
crime lhall have been committed, which diflrift (hall
have been previoufly afcertained by law j and. to be
informed of the nature and caufe of the accufalion, to
be confronted with the witneffes againft him.; to.have
compulfory procefs for obtaining witnefles in his fa¬
vour } and to have the affiftance of counfel for his de¬
fence.
Article VII.
“ In fuits at common law, where the value in con-
troverfy {hall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial
by jury {hall be preferved ; and no fa£t tried by a jury
{hall be otherwife re-examined in any court of the U-
nited States, than according to the rules of the common
law.
Article VIII.
“ Exceflive bail {hall not be required, nor exceffive
fines impofed, nor cruel and unufual puniftiments in-
flidled.
Article IX.
“ The enumeration in the conftitution of certain rights,
{hall not be conftrued to deny or difparage others retain¬
ed by the people.
Article X.
“ The porvers not delegated to the United States
by the conftitution, nor prohibited by it to the ftates,
are referved to the ftates refpedtively or to the peo¬
ple.”
393
Oppofition The reference of the conftitution to the feveral ftates
to the oon- to be adopted or rejected by them, in conventions
ftitution. aflembled for that fpecial purpofe, occafioned the moft
violent debates. Pamphlets poured from the prefs,
and the newfpapers were daily filled with difcuf-
fions of the merits and defefls of the propofed plan
of government. Three ftates, Delaware, New Jerfey,
and Georgia, accepted the conftitution unanimoufly j
but in the other ftates the parties were more nearly ba¬
lanced. The conventions convoked by the ftate legifla-
tures, went into an analyfis of the conftitution in de¬
tail. This took place more efpecially in Pennfylva-
nia, New York, Maffachufets, and Virginia •, and every
part of it was made the fubjeft of feparate votes.
The obje&ions ftated againft the conftitution were
chiefly the following: That the convention was only
entitled to revife the articles of the original confede¬
ration, and had exceeded its powers in framing a new
conftitution, more efpecially, as it had declared the
acceptance of this conftitution by nine ftates fufficient
to make it law : That the conftitution ought to have
been preceded by a declaration of rights to fecure to
the feveral ftates their particular conftitution. It was
alleged, that the propofed fenate would poffefs excef¬
live p'owers and privileges, by being authorized to
) j -A. M E
make amendments in money bills, by its concurring Amcricn
with the prefident in the nomination to places, while v ' "
its members were eligible to evety appointment, and
by its having the foie trial of impeachments entrufted
to it. The prerogative given to the prefident to pardon
criminals convifted of high trealon, was reprefented as
dangerous to public liberty, and his power of confer¬
ring appointments upon the members of both houfes of
legillature was accounted a fource of corruption. It
was faid, that the jurifdidtion given to the federal courts
would prove vexatious, by drawing individuals from di-
ftant ftates to attend to fuits inftituted before them. The
powers given to congrefs to impofe all kinds of taxes,
to regulate the election of its members, to maintain a
Handing army in time of peace, were alleged to be
exorbitant. It was faid, that the moft important of
all privileges, the trial by jury, and the liberty of the
prefs, were not fecured : And laltly, It was afierted
that the fun&ion of prefident being made capable, of
indefinite continuance in the fame hands, might give
an ambitious and artful man an influence dangerous to
the congrefs, to individuals, and to the conftirution it-
felf.
Some of thefe obje&ions do not appear very forci¬
ble, and others of them have been obviated by the ar¬
ticles afterwards added to the conftitution, which have
been already noticed ; but it is faid, that at the period
in queftion they pofleffed confiderable influence, and
that a very great majority of the people of the United
States was averfe to the conftitution. So fenfible,
however, were all parties, of the extreme defedlivenefs
of the exifting government, and of the abfolute necef-
fity of putting an end to the anarchy in which the
country was plunged, that a majority in the different
ftates was prevailed upon to give their votes for its ac¬
ceptance. In Connedlicut, Maryland, and Pennfyl-
vania, a minority voted againft it, but it palled with¬
out any amendment. In Pennfylvania, where the op¬
pofition was ftrong, the minority withdrew and pro-
tefted againft the conftitution. South Carolina, Vir¬
ginia, New York, and Maffachufets, accepted the con¬
ftitution by a very fmall majority, but propofed feve¬
ral amendments. New York was on the eve of rejedl-
ing the conftitution, when intelligence arrived, that
it was already accepted by nine of the ftates j and this
circumftance produced an acceptance there alfo. The
convention of New Hamplhire feparated without com¬
ing to a refolution 5 and, having afterwards affembled,
gave its affent, with fome propofals for amendment.
North Carolina not only propofed amendments, but
made them the condition of its acceptance. Some time
afterwards, however, it accepted the conftitution with¬
out referve. Rhode Ifland, inftead of calling a con¬
vention, referred the conftitution to the affemblies of
the towns, by a majority of which it was rejected j
but a convention for the purpofe ‘being afterwards call¬
ed, it accepted the conftitution. The following table
indicates the periods and the manner in which the con¬
ftitution was accepted.
r ' i;
Vol. II. Part I,
M
States.
America.
A M E
[ 9° 3
A M E
America.
Period of accepting
the Conftitution.
Manner of paffing it.
Delaware
Pennfylvania
New Jerfey
Georgia
Connefticut
Maffachufets
Maryland
South Carolina
New Hamplhire
Virginia
New York
North Carolina
Rhode Ifland
Dec. 31. 1787.
Jan. 2. 1788.
Feb. 6.  
April 28.  
May 23.  
June 2r. ——
July 26.  
Nov. 27. 1789.
May 29. 1790.
Unanimoufly
For 47 Againft
Unanimoully
Ditto
For 128 Againft
 187  
 63  
 I49   
 57  
  89  
 30  
 193  
23 Maj. 24
40 Mai. 88
168   19
12   51
73   76
46   11
19   10
25   5
75 118
Executive Of the public officers appointed under the conftitu-
officers in tion of the United States, thofe of prefident and vice-
the Ameri- pref1(jent are the moft confpicuous and important. In
maenfVern'March I79I> f°^ow‘ng law was ena&ed by con-
men ' __ grefs for regulating the mode of their eleftion.
Prefident “ Sefiion I. The cafe of the eleftion of prefident or
and vice- vice-prefident of the United States before the ufual pe-
prefident rj0(j 0f eleftion, which cafe is herein after provided
how eledl- £or^ accepted, the eleftors for choofing the pre¬
fident and vice-prefident ffiall be nailed within 34
days immediately preceding the firft Weonefday. of
December 1792, and thenceforth within 34 days im¬
mediately preceding the firft Wednefday of December,
in the fourth year after the laft elettion. The faid
ele&ors ftiall be equal in number to that of the fena-
tors and reprefentatives in congrefs, of which the feye-
ral ftates ftiall have a right to compofe their deputation
at the time when the prefident and vice-prefident to be
chofen {hall enter into office : provided that, if the
new apportioning of reprefentatives in virtue of the
new enumeration of the inhabitants, {hall not take
place before the period for choofing the elesftors, then
the number of eleftors ffiall be proportioned to the
jmYnber of fenators and rcpreffintatives ot the prelent
congrefs.
“ Seff. 2. The ele&ors ftiall affemble and vote on
the firft Wednefday of December in each ftate, at fuch
place as ffiall be named by the legiflature of the ftate ;
and ffiall draw up and fign three certificates of their
refpe&ive votes, and ffiall fold up and feal the fame
feparately, and ffiall indorfe upon the cover of each
packet a declaration, that it contains a lift of the votes
of the ftate for the prefident and vice-prefident; and
every elector, or majority of eledftors, ftiall appoint by
ballot the perfon to whom they will entruft one of the
laid certificates, to be by him conveyed to the prefi¬
dent of the fenate, at the place of refidence of the
government, before the firft Wednefday of the January
following •, and ffiall addrefs another of the faid certifi¬
cates, by the poft, to the prefident of the fenatc at the
place* of refidence of the government j and ffiall tranf-
mit the third of the faid certificates to the judge of
the diftrift in which their affembly ffiall be held.
£t Sett. 3. The executive power, in each ftate, {hall
caufe td be drawn up, and properly certified, three lifts
of the names of the eledtors of the ftate, and ffiall tranf-
mit the fame to the electors before the firft Wednef¬
day of December ; and the eleftor^ ffiall add one of
the faid lifts to each of the before-mentioned lifts of
their votes.
“ Sett. 4. In the cafe of a lift of the votes of a ftate
not arriving at the place of refidence of the govern¬
ment in January, the fecretary of ftate {hall defpatch
an exprefs to the judge of the diftrift of fuch ftate in
whofe hands the third certificate ffiall have been depo-
filed, who (hall tranfmit it by the fame meffenger to
the place of refidence of the government.
“ Sett. 5. The congrefs ffiall commence its fittings
on the fecond Wednefday of February 1793 J and
thenceforth on the fecond Wednefday of the February-
following each afiembly of ele£tors j and the certifi¬
cates, or as many of them as {hall have arrived, ffiall
be opened, the votes counted, and names of the perfons
ele&ed to fill the offices of prefident and vice-prefident
declared and proclaimed, according to the forms of
the confiitution.
« Sett. 6. In the cafe of the prefident of the fenate
not being prefent at the place of refidence of the go¬
vernment on the arrival of perfons charged with the
lifts of the votes of the ele&ors, fuch perfon ffiall de¬
liver the lifts to the fecretary of ftate, who {hall care¬
fully preferve them, and remit them as foon as pof-
fible to the prefident of the fenate.
“ Sett. 7. The perfons appointed by the ele&ors to
convey the lifts to the prefident of the fenate, {hall re¬
ceive, at the time of delivering the faid lifts, I5d. per
mile, for the diftance, by the high road, from the place
of eleftion to the refiden'ce of the government.
“ Sett. 8. If any perfon being appointed to convey
the votes of the eleftors to the prefident of the fenate,
and having accepted that truft, ffiall negleft to dif-
charge the fame, he {hall incur a penalty of 1000 dol¬
lars.
“ Sett. 9. In the cafe of the removal, death, refig-
nation, or incapacity to fill his office of the prefident
or vice-prefident, the provifional prefident of the fe¬
nate, or, where no fuch officer has been appointed, the
fpeaker of the houfe of reprefentatives, {hall fulfil the
duties
America.
A M E [91
duties of prefident of the United States, or vice-prefi-
dent, until the prefident or vice-prefident ftiall relume
his functions, or a new eleftion (hall take place.
“ Sett. 10. When the offices of prefident- and vice-
prefident fhall become vacant at the fame time, the fe-
cretary of Hate (hall give notice of the fame to the exe¬
cutive power of each Hate ; and lhall publilh the faid
notice, in one gazette at leal! of each Hate, in which it
lhall be declared, that the elettors for the prefident of
the United States lhall be appointed or chofen in the fe¬
deral Hates within the 34 days immediately preceding
the firft Wednefday of the month of December follow¬
ing, provided a fpace of two months lhall intervene be¬
tween the date of fuch notice, and the firft Wednefday
of the December following j but when the faid fpace of
time lhall not fo intervene, or if the term for which
the late prefident and vice-prefident were defied does
not expire on the third day of March following, then
the fecretary of ftate lhall declare in fuch notice that the
eleflors are to be appointed, or chofen, within the 34
days immediately preceding the firft Wednefday of De¬
cember in the following year j and the electors fhall be
appointed accordingly, and lhall proceed as is provided
in this aft.
“ SeB. 11. The only evidence that lhall be required
of the refufal to accept the office of prefident or vice-
prefident, or refignation of either of faid offices, lhall be
a declaration in writing to that effeft, figned by the
perfon refufing to accept or refigning fuch office, which
lhall be tranfmitted to, and depofited in the office of the
fecretary of ftate.
SeB. 12. The term for which the prefident and vice-
prefident (hall be chofen lhall be four years ; commen¬
cing, in all cafes, on the 4th of March following the
day of the eleftion.
By this law, as well as by the conftitution, the powrer
of declaring the manner of nominating the eleftors who
are to chufe the prefident and vice-prefident, was left
to the legiflatures of the feveral Hates j the refult of which
was that a uniform mode was not adopted. In fome
of the ftates the people were left to nominate the elec¬
tors in the fame manner as they voted for other repre-
fentatives. In other ftates, that power was confined to
the legillatures themfelves. The following is a ftate-
rnent of the different modes which have been eftablilh-
ed in all the ftates, including the three new ftates of
Vermont, Kentucky, and Teneffee.
States in which the eieBors
for theprejident and vice-
prejident of the United
States at'e named by the
people.
Maffachufets
Pennfylvania
Virginia
Teneffee
Kentucky
South Carolina
Georgia
States in which the eieBors
for the prejident and vice-
prejident of the United
States are named by the
legijlature.
Vermont
New Hamplhire
Connecticut
Rhode Illand
New York
Delaware
New Jerfey
Maryland
North Carolina
In the executive government of the United States
there are three departments, the department of ftate,
] A M E
the department of finances, and that of war: a fecretary America,
is at the head of each of thefe, who a£ts under the autho-
rity of the prefident. The fecretary of ftate is keeper Secl3e9tary
of the feals of the union. It belongs to his office to coun- 0f ftaie.
terfign the laws, and to promulgate them. He has the
cuftody of all public papers,but his principal employment
is to tranfaft affairs with foreign powers, ^
At the head of the finances is a fecretary of the Treai'ury.
treafury. This part of the public bufinefs was attend¬
ed with many difficulties at the period when the confti¬
tution wras formed, and for fome years thereafter. The
new congrefs, at the clofe of its firft feffion, in Septem¬
ber 1789, ordered the fecretary of the treafury of the
union, Mr Hamilton, to prepare a plan for the refto-
ration of public credit. This duty was performed in
January 1790, and after long debates, the congrefs, on
the 4th of Auguft of that year, paffed the plan into a
law. By this law, the debt due to foreign nations, as
well as to the creditors at home, was funded, together
with a long arrear of intereft, and even intereft upon
intereft. The debt due to foreign nations amounted
to 11,908,188 dollars, and the domeftic debt to
40,903,485 dollars, making together 52,813,673 dol¬
lars. The prefident of the United States v?as au¬
thorized to borrow 12,000,000 of dollars to pay
the foreign debt. Another loan was made to extin-
guilh the domeftic debt, and in payment of this
loan certificates of intereft due (one of the kinds of
public paper then current) were received and funded
at three per cent. The capital of the debt, including
the reft of the paper money then in circulation, was
funded at 6 per cent, intereft, with a provifion that for
a third of the debt thus funded no intereft fliould be
paid till the year 1800. This part of the debt there¬
fore received the name of deferred Jlock. The defer¬
red ftock was appointed to be redeemed in the propor¬
tion of eight per cent, per annum. For the reft of the
debt two other funds were created, one of three per
cent, and one of fix per cent.—By this law the wffiole
debts due by the feveral ftates to the union, and for
which the credit of congrefs flood pledged to the pub¬
lic creditors, were adopted as the debt of the union,
But as the debts due by the feveral ftates were very
unequal, this part of the plan met with much oppofi-
tion. It is underftood, however, to have been at laft
carried, in confequence of a kind of compromife be¬
tween the northern and fouthern ftates. The northern
ftates, including New York, were the principal debtors,
Maffachufets alone owed 6,000,000 of dollars. The
northern ftates therefore were deeply interefted, that
the public debt fhould be adopted by the whole union.
The fouthern ftates, on the contrary, were all, with the
exception of South Carolina, creditors of the union.
But it was their favourite projeft to draw the feat
of the federal government nearer to them. Virgi¬
nia was more eager in the profecution of this obje£t
than the reft, and Virginia was the principal public
creditor. Accordingly, the deputies of the northern
ftates made a compromife with the fouthern ftates,
agreeing to vote that the feat of the federal govern¬
ment Ihould be placed on the river Potowmack, on
condition of the others voting for the confolidation of
the debts. The ftate of Pennfylvania, though among
the debtors, oppofed this plan ; but its oppofition was
got over by an agreement that the feat of the federal
M 2 government
America.
39s
National
bank.
399
Army.
A M E
government (liould continue at Philadelphia for ten
years. Thus the plan for confolidating the debts paf-
fed, and at the fame time a law wasenadted, authorizing
the general government to accept, from the date or
dates to which it might belong, of a territory for the
permanent feat of its refidence, not exceeding ten miles
fquare, at the confluence of the Potowmack and the
Eadern Branch authorizing, at the fame time, the pre-
fident of the United States to appoint commiflioners to
furvey the territory, and to prepare, againd the fird
Monday of December 1800, the buildings neceffary for
transferring the eongrefs and vtfhole offices of the fede¬
ral government thither. In honour of the prefident of
the union, who had fo long been the commander in chief
of the armies of the dates, the new city was ordained to
be called Wafhington.
The congrefs afterwards eredled an office for the re¬
duction of national debt ; but a regular fydem of taxa¬
tion being now edablilhed in the United States, it is pro¬
bable that the government, finding itfelf rather drength-
ened than weakened by the exidence of a public debt,
or what is called the funding fydem, has not been
very anxious to accompliflr the payment of that debt,
and accordingly it has rather increafed than diminifhed.
The debt of the United States, which in 1790 amount¬
ed to 72,613,254 dollars, amounted in 1796 to
78,697,410 dollars.
A part of the general fydem of finance, propofed
by Mr Hamilton, confided of the edablifliment of a
national bank, in imitation of the bank of England,
which was accordingly incorporated in 1791, with a
capital of 10,000,000 of dollars. Of thefe 2,000,000
were fubfcribed by the United States, but are not to be
made good at the period impofed on other fubfcri-
bers. The remaining 8,000,000 were furnifhed by in¬
dividuals 5 one-fourth in fpecie, and the red in certifi¬
cates of public debt: fo that in this way, paper curren¬
cy to the amount of 6,000,000 of dollars at once difap-
peared. This bank is authorifed, by its charter, to
edablifh afiidant or branch banks, in fuch parts of the
United States as it may deem expedient *, and accord¬
ingly, befides the principal bank at Philadelphia, it foon
edablifhed four branches, at New York, Bodon, Balti¬
more, and Charledown. Its dividends are eight per cent,
and its fliares have rifen from a fourth to a fifth above
the original value.
Befides the ordinary militia, the United States have
a fmall permanent military edablifliment regulated by
law. It is compofed of a body of artillery and engi¬
neers, two companies of light dragoons, and four re¬
giments of infantry. The corps of artillery and en¬
gineers, confifls of 764 men divided into four batta¬
lions, and each battalion into four companies : a cap¬
tain, two lieutenants, and two cadets, are allowed to each
company. Each battalion has a major; and the whole
corps is commanded by an adjutant-general, who has a
lieutenant-colonel under him. Each company of dra¬
goons confifls of a captain, two lieutenants, and a cor¬
net ; 52 privates, and 11 ferjeants, corporals, fadlers,
farriers, and trumpeters. The flaff of each regiment
of infantry confifls of a lieutenant-colonel, two ma¬
jors, an adjutant, a paymafler, quartermafler, furgeon,
and two afiidant furgeons. Each company confifls of
a captain, lieutenant, and an enfign ; with 62 ferjeants,
corporals, foldiers, and rouficians. X his Ifltle army,
A M E
therefore, confids of 2774 foldiers, ferjeants, muficians, America. ,«
dragoons, and artillery men. The flaff of the whole con- -y—. <-
fids of a brigadier-general, a major of brigade, and an
infpe&or, a judge advocate, a quartermafler, and a pay¬
mafler general. Their pay would in Europe be accoun¬
ted exorbitant. The privates receive four dollars a-day.
In addition to this, each individual of every rank receives
what is called a rato//, confiding of a pound of beef, and
a pound of bread, with a fmall quantity of diddled fpr-
rits, and fait, vinegar, foap and candles. A captain of
infantry receives 40 dollars a-day, and three rations; and
the other officers in proportion.
The navy is alfo a branch of the war department; but
as yet it confifls only of a few veflels, though there is no
doubt that, in cafe of neceffity, the United States would
foon render themfelves formidabie as a maritime power.
They poflefs in profufion all the materials neceffary for
fliip-building. They have abundance of naval archite&s,
and great numbers of experienced feamen, in proportion
to their population. ^QO
For the adminidration of judice, an attorney gene-Law
ral of the United States, is by law attached to the ex-cers.
ecutive government. His fundions are, to profecute,
in the fupreme court of the dates, all fuits in which the
government of the union is interefled, and to aflifl the
prefident with his opinion on queflions of law. He is
permitted, as in Great Britain, to purfue his profeffion
in the affairs of individuals. In the United States, ju-
ftice is admlnidered by diflrid courts, circuit courts, and
a fupreme court. Thefe poffefs exclufive jurifdidion,
in all fuits that affed the interefls of the union. The
courts of didrid are held four times a year in each date,
by a judge appointed by the federal government, and re¬
dding in the date. They have jurifdidions in crimes
within the diflrid and the adjoining fea, where the pe¬
nalty does not exceed 100 dollars, or a flight corporal
punilhment. They judge alfo in civil queflions, in which
the union or foreigners are interefled to the amount of
100 dollars, and unlefs in admiralty cafes, the queflion
is tried by a jury.
The circuit courts are held by a judge of the fupreme
court, twice a-year in each date, along with the judges
of the diflrid. They have an exclufive cognizance of
all crimes againd the union, and they are courts of ap¬
peal from the diflrid courts. They have cognizance,
along with the courts of the different dates, of all civil
caufes, not exceeding 300 dollars in value, or where a
foreigner is party, or the difpute is between citizens of
different dates.
The fupreme court of the union confifls of a chief.ju-
dice, and five judges. It fits tAvice a year at the feat of
government. It is a court of appeal from the circuit
courts, and the tribunals of the feveral dates. It has ex¬
clufive jurifdidion in all civil caufes, where one of the
dates is a party, unlefs the adv'erfe party be a citizen of
the fame date, and over all fuits againd foreign ambaffa-
dors or envoys, and their domedics, according to the law
of nations. It may alfo try, but not exclufively, caufes
in which an ambaffador, conful, or other foreign mini-
der, is interefled as profecutor.
On account of the diflance of the dates of Kentuc¬
ky and Teneffee, and the province of Maine, their
courts of diflrift exercife the jurifdiftion of courts of
circuit, except in cafes of appeal, which are carried
before the fupreme federal court. Juries ferving in the
federal
[ 92 1
America.
401
The mint
A M E [93
federal court?, are chofen according to the forms ob-
ferved in the dates where thefe courts happen to be
^Crimes or offences of which the federal tribunals
take cognizance, are treafons, rebellions, refufals to pay
imports enjoined by the union, fmuggling, frauds by
officers of’the revenue in matters of revenue, and in
ihort, every offence committed againft laws parted by the
congrefs. In addition to thefe, the federal courts take
cognizance of all offences committed within what is
accounted not the territory of any particular ftate,
but of the union at large, fuch as, the open feas, or
forts or arfenals belonging to the union, and alfo the
precinfts of the federal city of Wafhington, which is
coniidered as the common property of the American
nation. .
In civil matters, both in the courts of the union, and
of the particular ftates, the common law of England is
confidered as the law of America, where no Ipecial en-
aftments exift to the contrary. The adminiftration of
juftice, however, is underttood to be no lefs embarraffed
by intricacies and delays in North America, than it is
under tome of the oldeft governments of Europe. A re¬
form in this refpecl will not readily be expe£led, when it
is confidered, that more than one half of the legiflature
of the union, as well as of the legillatures of the different
ftates, is always compofed of lawyers.
In April 1792, the congrefs ordered the eftablifti-
' ment for the United States, of a public mint, by a law
which regulates the divifion, the value, and the ftandard
of their money. The divifion and value of thefe mo¬
nies, are as follows.
] A M E
A quarter-dollar ought to contain 92^ grains of America^
pure filver, or 104 grains of ftandard filver. _ ^ -y——*
The tenth of a dollar ought to contain 37^ grains of
pure filver, or 52 grains of ftandard filver.
The half-tenth ought to contain i8Tr7 grains of pure
filver, or 26 grains of ftandard filver.
The cent ought.to contain 11 pennyweights of cop¬
per
The half-cent ought to contain five and a half.
The gold and filver coins ought, according to law, to
bear on one fide an emblematical figure of liberty, and
upon the other, the eagle of the United States, with the
words “ United States.”
The copper coins, inftead of the American eagle, bear
an infcription denominating their value.
The proportional, value between gold and filver, when
coined, to the coin of the United States, .is determined
by comparing one pound of the one to fifteen of the
other; that is to fay, one pound of coined gold is equal
to fifteen pounds of coined filver.
All the countries of the United States are required to
make ufe of thefe coins.
The Spaniffi dollar is the only piece of foreign coin
which is current in the United States as money : all
others, which had received a valuation by the law, are
only received by weight fince 1765* It does not ap¬
pear, however, that, the United States have hitherto
made much ufe of their mint, at leaf! for the coinage of
the more valuable metals.
40a
Gold Coin.
The Eagle, value ten dollars.
The Half-Eagle, value five dollars.
The Quarter-Eagle, value two dollars and a half.
Silver Coin.
The Hollar, value a hundred cents.
The Half-Hollar, value fifty cents.
The Quarter-Hollar, value twenty-five cents.
The Tenth of a Hollar, value twelve cents and a half.
The Half-Tenth, value fix cents and a quarter.
Copper Coin.
The Cent, value the hundredth part of a dollar.
The Half Cent, value the two hundredth part of a
dollar.
The weight of thefe is as follows : The eagle ought
to contain grains of pure gold, or 270 grains of
ftandard gold, which is thus regulated; 11 parts of pure
gold in i2T,-5- of alloy, of which one half ought to be of
filver.
The half-eagle ought to contain 123-| grains of pure
gold, or 135 grains of alloy gold.
The quarter-eagle ought to contain 61 grains of pure
gold, or 674- grains of alloy gold.
The dollar ought to contain 371-5: grains of pure fil¬
ver, or 416 grains of alloy filver.
The ftandard of filver is 1485 parts of pure filver, and
179 parts of alloy which is of pure copper.
The half-dollar ought to contain i82-|- grains of pure
Slyer, or 280 grains of ftandard filver.
The convulfions of nations and the calamities and Hiftory
the crimes of mankind, always form the moft intereft- continued,
ing fubjed of hiftory ; and happy is that people con¬
cerning whom the hiftorian finds little to relate. From
the period of the acceptance of their conftitution, the
American ttates have, in a great degree, enjoyed that
fortunate fituation. On the 13th of September 1788,
the old congrefs having received the ratification of the
conftitution from eleven ftates, declared it to be in
force, and appointed the firft Wednefday of the fol¬
lowing January for choofing the eleftors, who were to
affemble on the firft Wednefday in February following
to eleft the prefident and vice-prefident. The new
congrefs was alfo appointed to meet on the firft Wed- ^
nefday of March following at New York. According- Wathington ?
ly on the firft Wednefday of February 1789* George prefident.
Walhington, who had been the commander in chief of
the armies of the United States, and prefident of the
convention of Philadelphia that framed the confti¬
tution, was eledled prefident, and John Adams, who
had feconded Mr Jefferfon in propofing the original de¬
claration of American independence, was at the fame
time ele£ted vice-prefident. The popularity of the
prefident was defervedly very great; and, as all parties
concurred in fupporting the new conftitution, much 404
unanimity prevailed in the public councils. By de- Political
grees, however, it appeared, that two parties continu- fa&ions.
ed to exift, poffeffing the fame radical principles as
formerly. The party moft attached to the princi¬
ples that leaned towards monarchy, or rather towards
ariftocracy, concurred fteadily in giving fupport to the
new authorities in all their exertions as foon as they
were conftituted, adopting for themfelves the appella¬
tion of federalijls, which had by that time become
popular. On the other hand, the more ftri6t and zeal¬
ous
A M E
[ 94 ]
A M E
America, otis republicans, who had originally been called fede-
*—■"v—raljls, and who had only oppofed the conftitution, be-
caufe, in their opinion, it did not fuffieiently incorpo¬
rate the whole ftates into one nation, now began to
receive the appellation of antifedera/ijls ; becaufe,
from their temper and charadter, they frequently op¬
pofed the meafures of the new federal government.
In this way the names of the parties were changed,
while their principles remained the fame. It is not
believed, however, that in the United States there ex-
ifts any party that willies to diffolve the confederation j
the word antifederalift being only ufed to exprefs the
democratic or moll zealous republican party, whereas
the appellation of federalift is applied to thofe of a
more ariftocratical charadler and tendency, who array
themfelves moft fteadily on the fide of eftablilhed au¬
thority, in oppofition to every kind of innovation. In
the earlieft period of the conftitution, the only extraor-
dinary effort that we find to have been made by either
Titles pro- of thefe parties, confifted of a propofal made in the fe-
pofed.
406
Character
of the par¬
ties.
nate of congrefs, in which the ariftocratical party, now
called federalijls, were very numerous, to give the ti¬
tles of illujlrious highnefs to the prefident of the United
States, of right honourable to the members of the fenate,
and honourable to the members of the houfe of repre-
fentatives ; but this project was abandoned by the fe¬
nate itfelf, as the public opinion was found to be averfe
to it, and as the houfe of reprefentatives was difpofed
to impofe a negative upon it. When the fyftem of
finance, of which we have already taken notice, ana
which ftill exifts, was propofed, it was vehemently
combated by the oppofition or the antifederalift party,
on account of the tendency, which, in their opinion,
it mull have to introduce a funding fyftem, and by
means of it an extravagant and expenfive government,
in confequence of the facility with which that fyftem
enables minifters to negociate loans, and thereby ra¬
ther to increafe than diminilh their own power by the
dependence upon government which thefe loans pro¬
duce. The fame reafons which induced the antifede¬
ralift party to oppofe the new fyftem of finance, or the
introduction of a funding fyftem, recommended it to
the fupport of the federalifts, who, by means of it, ex¬
pended to increafe the ftrength and influence of govern¬
ment. This laft motive probably derived greater weight
from the perfonal interefts and prejudices of the indivi¬
duals who ufually joined the federalift or ariftocratical
party.
It is to be obferved, that, in North America as in
Europe, the political opinions of men are, in a great
meafure, formed by their fituations. At the fame time,
local fituation produces in America an effeCt precifely
the reverfe of what it does among the Europeans. In
Europe the proprietors of land conftitute the ariftocra-
cy of the country in which they live, and are the pil¬
lars of the government j whereas the inhabitants of
towns, from being crowded into a narrow fpace, and
from their want of perfonal diftinftion, have a tenden¬
cy to affume a more levelling and turbulent charaCler.
But, in America, unlefs when land is bought in large
quantities to be fpeedily difpofed of as an objeft of
commercial fpeculation, it is ufually held in property
by the cultivators of it, who labour upon their own
farms, and conftitute a body of yeomanry in eafy cir-
cumftances, but not poffeffed of great wealth. Hence,
in all political queftions they are led to adopt equaliz- Americ.
ing notions, and a jealoufy of the conduft of thofe en-
trufted with power. In the towns, on the contrary, a
great diverfity of rank exifts. By means of an ex-
tenfive commerce large fortunes are made, the owners
of which live in a ftile of great fplendour, and along
with the members of the learned profeflions conftitute
the ariftocracy of America. The commercial men be¬
ing alfo intimately conne&ed with Great Britain, are
naturally led to approve of the inftitutions that exift in
it, and to favour her caufe in every quarrel with Eu¬
ropean nations.
It was not till the fecond period of the French revo¬
lution, or the fall of monarchy in that country, that
the American parties became in any great degree ex-
afperated againft each other. That extraordinary
event, by which Europe was convulfed from its centre
to its extremities, and by which all its nations were
roufed to arms, carried agitation and difcord even be¬
yond the ftiores of the Atlantic. The people of the A-
merican ftates belonging to the race of Europe, and
having fo recently been an obje6t of lively intereft and
of hoftility between different ftates, could not fail to
have their minds occupied by the new events and fpe-
culations which at that time engaged the attention of
all ranks of men. The French had been the allies of
America. Their troops had fought for the independence
of that country, and Fayette and other names that were
diftinguiftied in the early periods of the French revo¬
lution, were well known, and enjoyed much perfonal 407
popularity among the Americans. It is not wonder-Antffec1e-
ful, therefore, that the antifederalift party in America fon
regarded with favour the early progrefs of the French French p,
revolution, efpecially as they confidered the French litical opi.
foldiers as now engaged on the fide of principles which ni°ns*
they had learned in the fchool of America. They con¬
templated with exultation the progrefs of republicanifm
in France, and fancied they beheld in it a confirma¬
tion of their own fentiments, and the means of prevent¬
ing their own government from acquiring an ariftocra¬
tical or a monarchical tendency. When the govern¬
ing party in France diftionoured themfelves and human
nature by the excefs of their barbarity and of their
crimes under Robefpierre, the antifederalifts in A-
merica being men of a better charafter, could not fail
to regard the conduft of the European revolutionifts
with much horror. Still, however, they flattered them¬
felves that the diforders of France were only tempo¬
rary ; and they vainly hoped that the fpirit of freedom
would in that country foon be rendered confiftent with
the exiftence of public order. ^0g
On the other hand, the federalift party-in America,The fede-
whofe objects were to ftrengthen the government ofrafifts at’
the union, to increafe the influence of the executiveto
power, and to carry the conftitution as far as poflible
towards ariftocracy and monarchy, naturally confider¬
ed the example and influence of the Englith govern¬
ment as a barrier againft the fyftem of French repub¬
licanifm. As many of the members of this party were
ftrongly bound to Great Britain by the ties of com¬
mercial intereft, they foon became extremely eager to
detach the United States from France, and to conneft
them with Britain. This party derived a great accef-
fion of ftrength from the crimes, which nobody pre¬
tended to juftity, of the rulers of the French republic.
They
A M E [ 95 ] A M E
America. They derived ftill greater ftrength from_ the diforganx-
—v   zing fyftem with regard to foreign nations which the
French adopted, and which they extended even to the
republican dates of America. Their ambaflador, M.
Genet, and their confuls at different ports, inftituted
political clubs in the towns and villages, and attempted
to introduce everywhere the Jacobin practice of affi¬
liation or fraternization. The ambaffador alfo attempt¬
ing to force the United States into a war Avith Great
Britain, quarrelled openly with the prefident, and at¬
tempted, by the publication of official notes addreffed
to him, to excite difcontents, and to introduce a di-
ftin&ion between the government and the people of the
country. He was recalled by the French govern¬
ment, but not till his conduct had excited the difap-
probation of all parties in America. It would appear,
however, that for a time the American government
was difpofed to regard the French republic with fa¬
vour. Payment was readily made to the republic of
the debt incurred by the United States to the late
French monarch ; and as France fuffered great diftrefs
from a fcarcity of provifions, the money was laid out
in the purchafe of grain and flour, which was conveyed
from America to France in a fleet of 160 fhips. It
was in defence of this fleet that the French fought the
naval engagement with Lord Howe on the iff of June
1794, in which their fhips of war were defeated ; but
they were fuccefsful in conveying the tranfports loaded
with grain into Brefl harbour. But the American go¬
vernment foon found itfelf much embarraffed with re¬
gard to the part which it ought to adl towards the
contending powers of Europe. George Wafhington
was ftill at the head of affairs, having been re-ele6led
prefident in December 1792, though not altogether
Condud of unanimou^y5 as in ^ f°rraei' inftance. This prudent
the prefi- ftatefman faw that the interefl of his riling country re¬
dent, quired that fhe fhould remain difengaged from the de-
ftruftive quarrels of the European nations. The reft-
lefs fpirit of the French, however, on the one hand,
and the eagernefs of Great Britain to force an univer-
fal combination againft them on the other, rendered
the prefervation of neutrality no eafy talk. He faw a
confederacy of all Europe formed againft France; and
he could fcarcely avoid fuppofing that it muft be fuc¬
cefsful againft an anarchy ftained with crimes and
blood, affailed by choice troops, and having nothing to
oppofe this force but new foldiers and inexperienced
generals, fupported by a treafury furnifhed only with a
paper currency, which muft fpeedily be difcredited.
At the fame time, the American commerce was great¬
ly haraffed by Great Britain, whofe fhips, with a view
to diftrefs France, feized all veffels going thither with
provifions, which formed the chief article of American
export. The debates which occurred in the houfe of
reprefentatives in congrefs in confequence of this ftate
of affairs were extremely violent j and the people with¬
out doors were greatly agitated throughout the whole
extent of the United States. The general wifh was,
to preferve peace and neutrality j but the complaints
againft Britain were very loud, efpecially as the ex-
tenfive traders who were moft attached to the Britifh
interefts were the chief fufferers by the interruption of
commerce. The antifederalifts on this occafion be¬
came ftill more attached to France, the contagion of
whofe anarchy among a virtuous people they declared
3
they did not fear. If fatisfaftion could not be obtain- America,
ed from Britain, they propofed a fequeftration of Bri-—y——J
tifh property in America, an interruption of all com¬
merce wkh Britain ; and they imagined, that by arm¬
ing American privateers, prohibiting the conveyance
of provifions to the Britifh iflands, and feizing on Ca¬
nada, they poffeffed more certain means of injuring
Britain, if fhe was refolved upon war, than any fhe had
with which to make reprifals upon the ftates. The fe-
deraiifts, on the other hand, were eager to avoid all
connexion with France, and propofed the mildeft mea-
fures of remonftrance and negociation with regard to
England, deprecating the idea of entering into a con-
teft with her ; and the prefident appears at length to
have adopted the refolution of going fully into the
meafures of this laft party. He difmiffed Thomas Jef-
ferfon from the office of fecretary of ftate, he being of
that party that had always avowed an attachment to
pure republicanifm, and that was at prefent moft ho-
ftile to Great Britain. He at the fame time refolved
to- fend Mr Jay to England for the purpofe of nego-
ciating with the Britifh government. This laft gentle¬
man being known to be decidedly attached to the fe-
deralift party, indicated to the public in very clear
terms the meafures which the government had refolved
to adopt. 4Io
About this time fome internal diforders broke out in Rebellion
one part of America, and, as political factions render at PltfDur£‘
every event fubfervient to their mutual hatred, the fe-
deralifts accufed their adverfaries, though evidently
without reafon, of being the contrivers and authors of
the difturbance, the hiftory of which was this :—A-
mong the different objects of taxation -which prefented
themfelves to congrefs during the feffion of 1790, nene
had appeared more proper than the diftilleries through¬
out the United States. As a revenue from this fource
could only be collected by an excife, this form was
adopted : The duty was light, and the objedl unex¬
ceptionable. But at all times this form of colledfing a
revenue has been unacceptable to the people in gene¬
ral. By fixing the duty not on the raw material, but
on the manufa&ured commodity, the capital of the
trader is lefs deeply involved, and the price is common¬
ly rendered lefs burdenfome to the confumer j but
from the right which, under this form of taxation, it is
neceffary to confer upon the revenue officers, of enter¬
ing into private buildings, and of interfering with the
operations there going on, it has always been fubmitted
to with reluctance at its firft introduction. This tax,
however, was peaceably fubmitted to throughout the
whole American continent, excepting in one quarter,
that is to fay, in the four weftern counties of Pennfyl-
vania beyond the Alleghany mountains, near the junc¬
tion of the three great rivers Alleghany, Yohogany,
and Monongahela, whofe confluence at Fort Pitt forms
the river Ohio. This diftrict had been fettled for a
confiderable time, and is tolerably populous. The in¬
habitants at firft refufed to pay the tax, but they were
not altogether unanimous in this refpeft j and govern¬
ment for fome time avoided to prefs the matter by pro-
fecutions, in the hopes that by degrees the authority of
law would be eftablifhed without trouble or alarm.
Petitions in the mean time were tranfmitted to con¬
grefs againft the tax, and fome modifications of it had
taken place j fo that the government at laft endeavour¬
ed.
A M E
[ 96 ]
A M E
Afflerica. ed generally to put it in force. The marfhal was or-
v—-Y—/dered to proceed by legal procefs againft all rioters
and delinquent diftillers Avho (liould be found to refift
or evade the tax 5 but no fooner was he underftood
to be engaged in this duty than the vengeance of arm¬
ed men was aimed at his perfon, and the perfon and
property of the infpe&or of the revenue. They fired
on the marfhal, arrefted him, and detained him fome
time as a prifoner. The houfe and papers of the in-
fpector of the revenue were burnt; and both thefe offi¬
cers were obliged to fly to Philadelphia. In a few
days thereafter, in the month of Auguft I794> a gene¬
ral meeting was held at Pitlburg, confifting of fix or
feven thoufand men in arms. A ftrong remonftrance
was drawn up, to be prefented to congrefs. Commit¬
tees were appointed to correfpond with the counties of
Walhington, Fayette, and Alleghany ; and a refolution
was entered into, againft having any intercourfe or
dealings with any man who ffiould accept of any office
for the colle&ion of the duty.
The American government on this emergency acted
with much prudence. Commiffioncrs were difpatched
to confer with the leaders of the oppofition in the dif-
affedted counties, but the conference was unfortunately
without effeft. A committee of 60 perfons was eledt-
ed to confer with the commiflioners, but of thefe only
a fmall number voted in favour of the conciliatory pro-
pofition. The others threatened, that if the tax was not
repealed, the people of the weftern counties would fe-
parate from the American union, and place themfelves
under the proteftion of Great Britain. The condudt
of the populace was ftill more outrageous. They fur-
rounded the houfe where the pommiffioners refided,
broke the windows, and grofsly infulted them j fo that
they were under the neceflity of departing without ef-
fefling an accommodation.
Nothing now remained but to repeal the tax, or to
reduce the refractory counties by force. The former
was neither judged prudent nor fafe j and as a trifling
force might have been ineffectual, and therefore ex¬
tremely pernicious, by encouraging and extending the
infurreCtion, the militia of all the adjacent ftates were
embodied, and different detachments, amounting in. all
to 15,000 men, were ordered to rendezvous at Carlille,
the principal town of Cumberland county. . Governor
Mifflin, formerly general, marched thither in the mid¬
dle of September, at the head of 6000 volunteers, who,
for the honour of their country, engaged on this occa-
fion to fupport the laws of the federal government. In
the beginning of OCtober, the prefident joined the .ar¬
my at Carlifle, of which Governor Lee of Virginia
was commander in chief*, and Governor Mifflin was
fecond in command. From Carlifle the army pro¬
ceeded immediately, amounting in all to 15,000 men
in two divifions ; and the refult was,' that the infur-
gents, after a variety of confultations by reprefentative
committees, came to a refolution to diffiand, and fub-
mit to the law *, and their leaders difappeared. On
the 25th of OCtober, a confiderable meeting was held
at Pitlburg, of the inhabitants of the weftern counties,
in which they entered into a folemn engagement to
fupport order and obedience to the laws of the repub¬
lic by every means in their power. A fmall force
was, however, ftationed in the counties in which the
dirturbance had taken place. A confiderable number
of the infurgents who had been made prifoners were
tried, and conviCted of high'treafon j but they were all
afterwards pardoned. Thus did this rebellion, which
at one time exhibited a formidable afpeCt, terminate
without bloodftied, and almolt without violence or da¬
mage to the public.
America.
During the fame fummer, a part of the weftern ter-^a/ with
ritory of the United States was ravaged by a defperate the Indi-
incurfion of the Indians. To repel this attack, Major ans.
General Wayne was defpatched with a moderate lorce
early in the fummer, and about the middle of Auguft
he penetrated to the Miami river, where the Bri.tilh
had lately re-occupied a fort within the territory which,
according to the treaty of 1783, undoubtedly belong¬
ed to the xMnerican ftates. Along with the Indians
General Way ne found a number of Canadian fettlers
encamped without the fort *, and he afferled in his cor¬
respondence, that Colonel M‘Hee, the Britilh Indian
agent, was the principal inftigator of the Avar between
the favages and the United States. The lavages, with
a few white auxiliaries, amounted to 2000 men, while
General Wayne had only 900 j but he refolved not to
retreat, and, after a laft overture for peace, which was
rejected, he advanced to the attack on the 20th ot Au¬
guft. Kb advanced guard was at firft thrown into dif-
order by a fevere fire from the Indians, but the fecond
line was immediately brought forward, while the firft
line was dire&ed to roufe the Indians from their co¬
verts by the bayonet *, and the cavalry were direfted
to turn their flank. The effc6f of the charge of the
infantry, however, was, that the favages were routed
and immediately difperfed, the battle terminating un¬
der the guns of the Britilh garrifon, commanded by
Major Campbell. This laft gentleman and General
Wayne now reciprocally acculed each other as guilty
of hoftility in time of peace. The one complained
that a fort was occupied within the American territo¬
ry ; and the other, that fo near an approach was made
to a garrifon poffeffed by the troops of his Britannic
majefty. It Avas agreed, however, that the point ffiould
be left to be difcuffed by the ambaffadors of their dif¬
ferent nations j and General Wayne retired. Thefe
occurrences excited ftrong apprehenfions in the Ame¬
rican government that theBritilh miniftry ferioufly me¬
ditated hoftilities againft the United States. 4i2
Thefe apprehenfions, however, were foon done away Jay’s trea-
by the treaty which Mr Jay concluded with Great ly*
Britain in the end of the year 1794. By this treaty
the Britifti government agreed to indemnify the Ame¬
rican merchants for the illegal feizure of their fliips and
property that had taken place during the war $ the
forts within the American territory which had been
occupied by the Britiffi, and which had never been eva¬
cuated, were agreed to be given up, and the boundary
line to be clearly afcertained. On the other hand, the
American government confented, that French proper¬
ty on board American veffels might be lawfully feized,
and that no privateers belonging to a nation at Avar
with either party ffiould be allowed to bring their
prizes into the ports of the other, unlefs forced by ftrefs
of Aveather ; and at all events, that they ffiould not be
allowed to fell their prizes there. Various articles fa¬
vourable to the American commerce Avere at the fame
time ftipulated in the treaty.
When this treaty Avas laid before the legiflature of
the
. 4*3
Difputes
with
France.
A M E [97
America, the United States, it occafioned the moft violent cie-
bates. The fenate, however, approved of it, which
was all that was neceffary, according to the conilitu-
tion, to render it binding. The houfe of reprefenta*
tives at firft refufed to concur in the arrangements ne-
ceiTary for carrying it into effe£t, though they at laft
agreed to depart from their oppofition, from the
dread of involving their country in a wrar with
England, and from the great refpeft which the coun¬
try at large entertained for the judgment of the prefi-
denU
In the mean time, this treaty, along with other
events, had nearly involved the United States in what
was undoubtedly at that time lefs formidable ; a war
with France. The French had repeatedly made re-
monftrances to the American government againft the
conduft of the Britilh, in feizing American veffels,
even in their own rivers and bays, when they found
either French perfons or French property, without any
refiftance being made on the part of the American
Hates. When the above treaty, authorizing fuch fei-
zures, in a manner fo hoftile to the interefts of France,
and even to the fpirit of neutrality which it was the
intereft of the American government to obferve, came
to be publicly known, the French at firll: entertained
hopes that it would not be fandtionecf by the American
legiflature. Their indignation was greatly roufed
when they underltood that a legalized preference was
ftiown to the Englifh intereft, by allowing them to
feize French property in American veffels j while
France Hood engaged by treaty, not to feize Ameri¬
can property in Englifti veflels, or in the veflels of any
•other nation with which France might happen to be
at war. Still, however, the French government re¬
garded lefs the treaty itfelf, than the fpirit from which
It rofe, of a greater attachment to Great Britain than
to France. Their indignation in this refpeft was in-
creafed, by an intercepted letter from the prefident of
the United States addreffed to Mr Morris, who had
lately been the American ambaffador in France, and
who was then the private agent of the American go¬
vernment in London. This letter, dated at Philadel¬
phia, December 2. 1795, was a detailed anfwer to
various letters of Mr Morris. The prefident com¬
plained highly of the haughty condudl of the Eng-
lilh adminiftration, and of the arbitrary meafures
which they were continuing to purfue with refnedt to
American navigation. He requefted Mr Morris to
reprefent to the minifter not only the injuftice, but the
impolicy of this conduct ; particularly at a moment
when it was fo much the interefl: of England to conci¬
liate the minds of the inhabitants of the United States
to the acceptance of the treaty. He detailed the ef¬
forts he had made, and the difficulties he had encoun¬
tered to overcome the wayward difpofition of his coun¬
trymen towards French politics, the abettors of which
were the chief opponents of the treaty in queftion $
which, however, he faid, had the approbation and
fanftion of the greater and more refpedtable part of the
community. His only objeft, he obferved, was peace,
which he was molt anxious to preferve ; and if Ame¬
rica was happy enough to keep herfelf out of European
quarrels, ffie might, from the incre&fe of her trade,
vie in 20 years with the moft formidable powers of
Europe. ’
Vol. II. Part I.
] A M E
This letter, faved from the wreck of the Bofton America,
packet, which had foundered on the ccaft of France, ' 1 ”v
was confidered as decifive evidence of the dupofitions
of the American government towards the French re¬
public. Their ambaffador, M. Adet, was therefore
diredled to make ftrong reprefentations againft the pri¬
vileges granted to Great Britain, of feizing French
property in American vefiels. The anfwer given by
the American government ftated, in juftification of
their conduct, that a fpecial treaty made with France
in 1778, formally exprefled, that neutral veffels ftiould
neutralize the cargo; whereas the treaty lately con¬
cluded between the United States and England, con¬
tained no fimilar regulation. The American govern¬
ment therefore afferted, that it afted in perfeft con¬
formity to both treaties, and though it was lawful for
the Englilh to feize French property on board Ameri¬
can veffels, the French, without a breach of their
treaty with America, could not be permitted to make
reprifals in fimilar circumftances on the Englilh. I his
mode of reafoning, which was undoubtedly confiftent
with the letter of the treaties, if not with political ho-
nefty, did not fatisfy the French dire&ory, and, ac¬
cordingly, they enteredUnto a formal refolution to fu-
fpend the execution of their treaty with America, and
declared, that they would treat ail neutral veffels in
the fame manner, as they ffiould fuffer the Englifh to
treat them. The only effedt of this threatening, was
to augment the maritime power of Great Britain j
merchants belonging to neutral ftates being thereby
induced on all occafions to entruft their goods to the
Britilh flag, as the only power capable of affording
them full protedtion. Still, however, by the manage¬
ment of the American ambaflador Mr Monroe, who
was known to belong to the antifederaiift party, the
French diredtory was preferved in tolerable temper
with the Americans; but upon his being recalled, and
Mr Pinckney, a man of the oppofite fadtion, appoint¬
ed his fucceffor, they manifefted their indignation, by
refufing to receive him, or e\t;n to fuffer him to refide
as a private citizen at Paris. They proceeded to no
further hoftility, however, in expedlation that a change
favourable to their interefts might occur in the Ameri¬
can government. For now in the month of Odlober
1796, George Waffiington, the prefident, publicly an¬
nounced his refolution of retiring from political affairs
on account of the infirmities of age, and requefted his
friends not to nominate him in the next eledtion of pre¬
fident. 414
The eledtion of a new prefident to fucceed a man ofNewpre-
fuch diftindtion as George Waftiington, afforded abun- fident.
dant aliment for the animofity of the political parties
in America. The federalifts wiffied to advance to the
office of prefident Mr Pinckney of South Carolina, a
man whofe perfonal charadter was much refpedted,
and who had lately been ambaffador in England. He
had alfo been engaged in fome negotiations with Spain,
in which his conduct gave general fatisfadtion. His
name was afibciated by the federalifts, in their votes,
along with that of John Adams, the vice-prefident.
They confidered it as probable, that he would have
the fecond greateft number of votes in the north,
where it was expedted that John Adams would have
the majority ; and it was hoped, that he would at leaft:
have the fecond number of votes in the fouthern ftates,
N if
A M E [
America, if Mr Jefferfun fhould have the majority. Upon the
v——J whole, however, the federalifts generally profeffed a
wilh that Mr Adams fliould be prefident, although it
is faid, that the views of their leaders were privately
directed to procure the elevation of Mr Pinckney.
The antifederalifts, on the contrary, openly and una-
nimoufly fupported Mr Jefferfon. He was well known
to the public as a man of letters. He had been fecre-
tary of Hate and ambaffador in France, and was active
in procuring the original declaration of independence.
The two parties drained every nerve to fupport their
refpe&ive candidates. They mutually accufed each
other of tricks to invalidate votes, of frauds in the re¬
turns, and of all the other unfair proceedings fo well
underftood in the parent date of which they are colo-
nids. The leaders of the federalids W'ere deceived in
their expeftation of gaining a majority for Mr Pinck¬
ney. John Adams had only one vote beyond an ab-
folute majority of the whole which is required by the
conditution, and was declared pre.fident 5 and Mr Jef¬
ferfon having the fecond greated number of votes, or
three votes fewer than Mr Adams, was declared vice-
prefident.
When the news arrived in America of the French
dire&ory’s refufal to receive Mr Pinckney as minider
from the United States, their conduft was reprefented
by Mr Adams the prefident, in a fpeech to congrefs,
as a high and aggravated infult to the dignity of the
American people. The federalid party, by whom he
■was fupported, had a majority in congrefs, and fome
preparations for war were voted 5 but as the parties
were nearly balanced, the opinions of the oppofition
very frequently prevailed, and the midion of three
ambafladors to demand an explanation from the French
government was fcarcely followed by any preparations
for hodility. But by this time the perfons who re¬
tained the poffefiion of the fupreme power in France,
under the appellation of an executive dire&ory, had
difplayed a character which deeply wounded the in-
tereds of their country Vith all foreign nations, and
ultimately overturned the republican conditution which
had been attempted to be edablijhed. Their conduft
was infolent and corrupted, while at the fame time
they were unable to compenfate thefe defe£ls by the
ability of their management. Their negotiation with
the American ambaffadors terminated in an obfcure and
unprincipled intrigue, in which it appeared that the di-
re&ory wilhed to levy a fum of money upon America,
as the price of their forbearance •, a part of which fum
was to go into the public treafury, and a part was to
be received privately by the individual members of the
directory. They alfo, from a fhort-fighted policy, au¬
thorized their privateers and cruizers to feize all neu¬
tral veffels in which any article of Britilh produce or
manufadure Ihould be found, to whomfoever it belong¬
ed. As the Britidi manufaflures were in great demand
in every country, this was equivalent to a declaration
of hodility againd all nations, while, at the fame time,
the abfolute dominion which the Britidi navy had at
this period acquired over the ocean, converted it into
an impotent menace.
In confequence of thefe events, the American con-
orefs towards the end of their fefiion in 1798, by a
fmad majority, enabled a law, to break off all com¬
mercial relation tvith France or its dependencies, and
2.
98 ] A. M E
to forbid the entrance of French veffels into the Ame- America,
rican ports till the end of the fittings of next congrefs.1
A premium was alfo offered for the capture of French
armed {hips by American veffels. Still, however,
though the prefident, Mr Adams, fupported by the
leaders of the federalid party, continued to urge the
necedity of a war with France, yet, as the majority of
the people appeared decidedly averfe to this meafure,
he had the good fenfe to depart from his own fentiments,
and to attempt a new negotiation. As the French di-
redtory, by their mifconducl, fpeedily brought their
country to the greated embarraffments, by once more
arming all Europe againd France, that nation found it
neceffary, for the fake of its fafety, to relinquidr thofe
hopes of freedom for which it had made fo many facri-
fices, and to fubmit the whole power of the date to Bo¬
naparte, who had been the mod fuccefsful commander
of its armies. He repaired the errors in the diredlory
by more moderate and better management, and fettled
all differences with the American dates. 4I^
During thefe political tranfadlions, the two greated YelW
cities of thefe dates, Philadelphia and New York, hadfever-
fuffered very feverely by a pedilential diforder called
the yellow fever. It is underdood to have been
brought originally by veffels employed in the dave-
trade on the wedern coad of Africa to the Wed India
i{lands. After producing the mod dreadful mortality
in that quarter, it was conveyed to the two great cities
in America already mentioned, in confequence of their
frequent intercourfe with the ifiands. From them it
at times extended itfelf to the other maritime towns.
Having once begun, it returned during different feafons
towards the end of dimmer, and many thoufand per¬
fons peridied by it, befides thofe whofe health was per¬
manently injured. More than half the inhabitants fied
from the cities ; but thofe infefted fortunately either
did not infedl the inhabitants of the country to whofe
houfes they went, or the infe&ion produced a lefs dan¬
gerous form of difeafe. The rents of houfes funk about
one half in Philadelphia and New York, and their ra¬
pid increafe was confiderably retarded. In confequence,
however, of the adoption of thofe meafures of precau¬
tion which have been fo long praftifed in Europe, but
which have been neglefted in America, the danger of
a return of the fame calamity feems to be fomewhat di-
minilhed, though from the Hteft accounts it is by no
Itieans,done away. _
It has been already mentioned, that a refolutionWaflnng-
was very early adopted in America of endeavouring or th®
eftablifh a federal city, as it is called, as the capital of^era u
the United States, which fhould be the feat of govern¬
ment independent of every particular ftate, and having
its fovereignty veiled in the whole union ; and we have
ftated the circumftances which led to its eftabhfhment
on the banks of'the Potowmack. Congrefs according¬
ly commenced its fittings at Wafhington at the end of
the year 1800. For feveral years preceding that pe¬
riod the commiffioners of congrefs had been employed
in making out a plan of the city, and in erefting pu¬
blic buildings for the accommodation of the govern¬
ment. As the defire of wealth is a prevailing paffion
in America, and as the people there readily engage in
extenfive fpeculations upon every fubjeft, the federal
city of Wafhington "was for fome time made the object
of an endlefs variety of purchafes and fales of lots of
building;
416
A M E [ 99 ] A M E
America, building ground. The public papers both In Europe
—..y—,' and America were filled with exaggerated praife of
the new city, and with fi&itious accounts of the rapi¬
dity of its progrefs towards completion. After various
perfons had fuffered confiderably by unfuccefsful fpecu-
lations, it was difcovered that it was an eafier matter
to exhibit upon paper a magnificent and beautiful city,
fitted from its extent to be the capital of the world,
than to rear its buildings and to fill them with inhabi¬
tants. The perfons who had obtained property in the
intended capital of the United States, became at laft
convinced, therefore, that the immenfe extent of ground
marked out in the plan would not be fo fpeedily cover¬
ed with houfes as the fanguine fpirit of the Americans
had originally led them to expeft. The proprietors of
different lots therefore became rivals. Inftead of boaft-
ing of the excellencies of the federal city in general,
every fpeculator began to boaft of the advantages of
that fide of the city where his own property lay, and
to depreciate every other quarter. Hence the buildings
have been begun in fituations very remote from each
other, fo as rather to form a fet of fcattered hamlets
than a fingle town.
The federal city is fituated in a kind of triangular
peninfula, formed by the junction of the rivers called
Potowmack and Eajl Branch. The plan includes
4124 acres', of thefe 712 are allotted to 16 ftreets,
feverally bearing the names of the 16 ftates, and to
other ftreets of lefs magnitude, with fquares and public
gardens. The 3412 acres which remain, being the
property of the union, and of the original proprietors
of the foil, contain 23,000 lots of houfes, exclufive of
3000 feet of lots fet afide for quays. The capitol,
where congrefs affembles, is at the diftance of a
mile and a half from the prefident’s houfe, and three
quarters of a mile at leaft from thofe parts of the
rivers that are moft convenient for commerce. It is
alfo to be obferved that, in the neighbourhood of the
fpot chofen for the federal city, there previoufly exift-
ed a village called Georgetown upon the Potowmack.
From thefe circumftances, various quarters of the new
city were regarded as more or lefs likely to become
fpeedily populous; and, according to the different no¬
tions entertained by individuals, have become more or
lels favourite points for building upon. The inhabitants
of Georgetown, who had purchafed many lots of the
intended city in the quarter neareft themfelves, repre-
fented their own port, and the commerce already be¬
longing to it, as a favourable opening to the commerce
of the city of Wafhington, which Avould therefore
naturally fix itfelf in that quarter. The proprietors of
lots near the point of the peninfula contended, that
their fituation on the banks of both rivers, being at an
equal diftance between the capitol and the prefident’s
houfe, and being moft airy, healthy, and beautiful,
would foon be preferred to all others. The proprietors
on the Eaft Branch decried the port of Georgetown,
and the whole banks of the Potowmack, as not fecure
In winter from (hoals of ice. They reprefented the
point placed between two rivers as incapable of enjoy¬
ing completely the advantages of either •, at the fame
time they boafted of the great depth and fafety of their
own port, and of their vicinity to the capitol, where
all the members of congrefs muft affemble once every
day, and from which their diftance is not more than
three quarters of a mile. Amidft thefe contending fpe- Americs.
culations, however, though the federal city of Waftiing- 1 1 ~
ton is underftood to be advancing with confiderable ra¬
pidity, it is neverthelefs ftill in its infancy, and for ma¬
ny years the greateft part of it muft remain fubjeft to
the plough or the hoe. Its profperity muft; depend in
a great degree upon the liability of the federal govern¬
ment, and the perfeverance which {hall be manifefted by
congrefs in continuing its fittings there amidft the incon¬
veniences arifing from defe£live accommodation. Thefe
laft will no doubt fpeedily diminilh, and the government
has great inducements to perfevere in fettling itfelf upon
a fpot Avithout the limits of every particular Hate ) and
the police of Avhich is entirely in the hands of congrefs,
a circumftance Avhich greatly tends to fecure the tran¬
quillity of the deliberations of that body. Neither does
there feem to exift any reafon for doubting the perma¬
nency of the federal government. The feveral ftates
are fo clofely conne&ed Avith each other by fituation,
and commercial and focial intercourfe, that it is impof-
fible for them to enjoy any tolerable degree of tranquil¬
lity or order Avithout fubmitting to a common head. If
they lhall become incapable of governing themfelves as
a republic, the evils of anarchy will no doubt fpeedilv
compel them to fubmit to a mafter, but their natural
connexion Avill preferve them as a fingle nation •, and
Avhen a capital is once eftablifhed, Avith public buildings
for the accommodation of all the branches of national
government, it is never eafily altered. ^
In the mean time it appears that the moft ftri&ly re- Frefent
publican or democratic intereft in America is gradual-ftate
ly acquiring an afcendancy. At the eledlion of pre- Parties
fident of the United States in 1800, the antifederalifts,
or, as they are fometimes called by their antagonifts,
the jacobin party, were fuccefsful, though after an
eager ftruggle, in raifing their favourite candidate, Mr
Jefferfon, to that fupreme office. The tAvo factions
are underftood to be greatly irritated againft each
other ; but this circumftance does not appear at all to
difturb the tranquillity of the flate, or the power of
the laws. Indeed it is probable that the fuccefs of the
moft violent party may be the firft ftep toAvards its ac¬
quiring a moderate character, as the experience of man¬
kind in other countries fufficiently demonftrates, that
one of the fureft means of infpiring popular leaders with
a refpedt for conftituted authorities often confifts in ad¬
mitting them to a participation of power.
As the United States of America, though they have
received emigrants from all countries, Avere originally
a Britiffi colony, and upon the whole peopled from the
Britiffi illands, every circumftance in their fituation and
hiftory muft always be highly interefting to the inhabi¬
tants of this country. We are conne£ted Avith them
by the ties of confanguinity, as well as by the poffeffion
of a common language, laws, and religion. It is
only in Great Britain, of all the countries on earth,
that a native of the United States can find himfelf as
it Avere at home, or among a kindred people, poffeffing
the fame manners, inftrufted by the fame books, and
confequently poffeffing the fame general features of
character and thought. On the other hand, it muft al¬
ways be to the Britiffi nation a fubjedt of fair and juf-
tifiable pride, to refledl, that whatever may hereafter be
the deftinyof Europe, amidft its wars, debts, taxes, and
ufurpations, Britain has eftabliffied in a fecure and un-
N 2 affailable
U
A M E [ 100 ] A M E
America, available pofkion, a body of people ofits own race and
—"•"v—" ■1 charadler, who may hereafter be the guardians and
prefervers of civilization and of letters to mankind.—
Temporary hoftilities did indeed exilt between the two
countries ; and our neighbours the French were abun¬
dantly indudrious in endeavouring to ripen the feeds of
difcord, and to convert them into a fource of perma¬
nent animofity $ but their attempts have been ultimate¬
ly unfuccefsful, being founded upon cafual and paf-
ling circumftances, which could not long prevail againft;
fo many bonds of union that are founded upon the moll
lading fentiments and qualities of the human mind.
It had been better, no doubt, both for Britain and for
the colonies, that the war had been avoided. In the
natural courfe of things, American independence mud;
have taken place. Had the colonies waited another
century, till they diould poffefs five times the popula¬
tion of the parent date, one of two things mud have
occurred ; either the Britilh monarch would have de-
ferted his little idands, to refide amidd the great mafs
of his people beyond the Atlantic, as his ancedor
James VI. deferted Edinburgh to go to live at London j
or the feparation would' have cod America only a tri-
ding effort, and would have faved her all the calamities
of the wrar of the revolution, and the difficulties which
followed it. But young nations, like young men, are
frequently in too great a hade to aft a part upon the
great theatre of the world, and for a while, as happen¬
ed to the United States, they fometimes fuffer by their
raffinefs. This raffinefs, or, as it may perhaps be called,
. this generous ardour, on the part of America, at the re-
luftance on the part of Britain to relinquilh fo douridi-
ing a branch of her empire, will be regarded by future
generations of Britons, and of Americans, as fenti¬
ments which naturally refulted from the fituation or
the parties, and as no caufe of continued dillike.
Though two nations, they mud for ever be one peo¬
ple j and, as the hufbandmen of America mud for ages
be the employers of the manufafturers of Britain, it is
probable that the intercourfe and amity of the coun¬
tries, founded upon ties both of intered and inclination,
will long continue to exid and to increafe. We think
it here neeeffary, therefore, as far as our information ex¬
tends, to give a general account of the prefent fituation
of the United States.
In the treaty of peace concluded in 1783* ^ie ^m’ts
of the United States are thus defined : “ And that all
difputes which might arife in future on the fubjeft of
the boundaries of the faid United States may be pre¬
vented, it is hereby agreed and declared, that the fol¬
lowing are and ffiall be their boundaries, viz. from the
north-wed angle of Nova Scotia, viz. that angle which
is formed by a line drawn due north from the fource of
St Croix river to the Highlands, along the faid High¬
lands, which divide thofe rivers that empty themfelves
into the river St Lawrence, from thofe which fall
418 into the Atlantic ocean, to the north-wedernmod head
Defcription Gf Connefticut river j thence down along the middle
the . of that river to the 45th degree of north latitude *,
boundaries thence by a line due-wed on faid latitude until
United it drikes the river Iroquois or Cataraquy ; thence along
States. the middle of faid river into Lake Ontario, through the
middle of faid lake, until it drikes the communication
by water between that lake and Lake Erie ; thence
along the middle of faid communication into Lake Erie,
through the middle of faid lake, until it arrives at the
water communication between that lake and Lake Hu- America,
ron; thence through the middle of faid lake to the wa- y—-
ter communication between that lake and Lake Supe¬
rior ; thence through Lake Superior, northward of the
ifles Royal and Philipeaux to the Long Lake j thence
through the middle of the faid Long Lake, and the wa-
tercommunication between itandthe Lakeof the Woods,
to the faid Lake of the Woods ; thence through the faid
lake to the mod north-wedern point thereof, and from
thence on a due wed courfe to the river Miffiffippi j
thence by a line to be drawn along the middle of laid
river Miffiffippi, until it lhall interfeft the northernmod
part of the 3id degree of north latitude. South, by
a line to be drawn due ead from the determination of
the line lad mentioned, in the latitude of 31 degrees
north of the equator, to the middle of the river A-
palachicola or Catahouche j thence along the middle
thereof till its junftion with the Flint river j thence
draight to the head of St Mary’s river, and thence
down along the middle of St Mary’s river to the At¬
lantic ocean. Ead, by a line to be drawn along the
middle of the river St Croix, from its mouth in the bay
of Fundy to its fource ; and from its fource direftly
north t@ the aforefaid Highlands, which divide the ri¬
vers that fall into the Atlantic ocean from thofe which
fall into the river St Lawrence, comprehending all
idands within twenty leagues of any part of the diores
of the United States, and lying between lines to be
drawn due ead from the points where the aforefaid
boundaries between Nova Scotia on the one part and
Ead Florida on the other, ffiall refpeftively touch the
bay of Fundy and the Atlantic ocean, excepting fuch
illands as now are, or heretofore have been, within the
limits of the faid province of Nova Scotia.” 419
In this defcription there are fome trilling inaccura-Errors in
eiesj in particular it now appears, that a line drawn
due wed would not touch the river Miffiffippi, but
would pafs to the northward of its fource. Neither was
it well underdood, by the negotiators, what river was
meant under the name of St Croix. Thefe points, how¬
ever, were adjuded in the treaty between Great Bri¬
tain and the United States, which was entered into in
1795, and commiffioners were appointed to point out
the river which ffiould be confidered as the boundary^
and to fix upon a line of junftion between the Lake of
the Woods and the river Miffiffippi. The refult of the
whole is, that the territory of the United States of
America may be confidered as a vad triangle, of which
the Atlantic ocean on the ead forms, the bafe. 'Ihe
fouthern fide is formed by the river Miffiffippi, and the
northern by a very irregular line wholly formed by a
long chain of lakes and rivers, excepting at its eadern
part, which confids of a piece of territory called Newr
Brunfwick, referved by Great Britain near the fea
coad. In this way, excepting on the corners touching
New Brunfwick belonging to Britain on the north-ead,
and Florida belonging to Spain on the fouth ead, the
United States are almod entirely furrounded by water.
Parallel to the Atlantic ocean, from Georgia on the
fouth to the mod northern dates, runs a traft of moun¬
tainous country, which receives the general appellation
of the Alleghany mountains. The principal chain of
thefe mountains is croffed by no river. On the ead¬
ern fide of it a vad variety of dreams of the greated
magnitude are formed, which defcend into the Atlantia
ocean. Beyond this chain of mountains, and parallel
to
America.
420
The coun¬
try well
watered.
A M E [
to it, at a confiderable diftance, is the great river Ohio.
All the rivers that take their origin among the Al¬
leghany mountains, beyond the principal ridge, flow
weftward into the Ohio. This laft river, after palling
along the weflern fide of the Alleghany mountains, falls
into the Mifliflippi, which paffes round the fouthern ex¬
tremity of thefe mountains into the Atlantic ocean at
the gulf of Mexico. The territory of the United
States weft of the Ohio may alfo be confidered as form¬
ing a triangle, of which the river Ohio, on the eaft,
forms the bafe j while the two fides are formed by the
chain of lakes already mentioned, and by the river
Mifliflippi. This weftern country, which is of immenfe
extent, is ftill in a great meafure pofleffed by the In¬
dians. The whole territory of the United States con¬
tains, by computation, a million of fquare miles, in
which are - - 640,000,000 of acres,
Dedu£t for water, - 51,000,000
589,000,000
Acres of land in the United 1
States, 3
The territory to the weftward of the river Ohio
amounts to about 220,000,000 of acres, after deducting
upwards of 40,000,000 for water. The whole of this
immenfe extent of unappropriated territory belongs to
congrefs, as the head of the union, and is fet apart for
the payment of the public debts of the confederation.
It is meant, when peopled, to be divided into new ftates
to form a part of the union.
No part of the world has fo many navigable waters
adjoining to its territory, or palling through it, as the
United States of America. The Atlantic ocean, which
forms their eaftern boundary, is indented with numerous
bays, fome of which are of very confiderable extent,
and advance to a confiderable diftance into the coun¬
try. On the northern or north-eafterly part of the
ftates is the bay of Fundy, between Nova Scotia and
New England, chiefly remarkable for its tides, which rife
to the height of 50 or 60 feet, and flow fo rapidly as to
overtake animals that feed upon the ftiore. Next to it,
on the fouthward, are the bays called Fenobfcot and
Cafco, extending along the coaft of the province of
Maine, which is the moft northern territory of the
United States. Maflachufets bay follows thefe, which
W'alhes the town of Bofton, and is comprehended be¬
tween Cape Ann on the north, and Cape Cod on the
fouth. Various fmall bays fucceed to thefe, to the fouth¬
ward, after which is Long Ifiand found. This is a
kind of inland fea, from three to 25 miles broad, and
about 140 miles long, extending the whole length of
the ifland, and dividing it from Conne&icut. It com¬
municates with the ocean at both ends of Long Ifland,
and affords a very fafe inland navigation. Near the
weft end of this found, about eight miles eaftward of
the city of New York, is the ftrait called Hell Gate.
It is remarkable for its whirlpools, which make a tre¬
mendous roaring at certain times of the tide. They
are occafioned by the narrownefs and crookednefs of
the pafs, and by a bed of rocks that extends quite acrofs
it; but a Ikilful pilot can with fafety condudl a (hip
of any burden through this ftrait, with the tide, or at
ftill water, with a fair wind. Still proceeding to the
fouth, is Delaware bay, 60 miles in length, which is
fo wide in fome of its parts, that a ftup in the middle
cannot be feen from the land. But of a 11 the AmerL
101 ] A M E
can bays, the Chefapeak is the largeft. Its entrance
is between Cape Charles, and Cape Henry in Virginia,'
12 miles wide, and it extends 270 miles to the north¬
ward, dividing Virginia from Maryland. It is from
feven to 18 miles broad, and generally as much as nine
fathoms deep,. affording many commodious harbours
and a fafe and eafy navigation. It receives the waters
of the Sufquehannah, Potowmack, Rappahannock, York,
and James’s Rivers, which are all large and navigable.
To the fouth of the Chefapeak, on the coaft of North
Carolina, are the three bays or founds called Albemarle,
Pamlico, and Core. Of thefe Pamlico found, which
lies between the other two, is the greateft. It is a kind
of lake, or inland fea, from 10 to 20 miles broad, and
nearly 100 miles in length. It is feparated from the
fea in its whole length by a beach of fand, hardly a
mile wide, and generally covered with fmall trees and
hufties. Through this bank are feveral fmall inlets
by which boats may pafs. But Ocrecok inlet is the
only one that will admit veffels of burden into the
moft important diftrifts of Edenton and Newbern. This
inlet is in lat. 350 10', and opens into Pamlieo found,
between Ocrecok ifland, and Core bank j the land on
the north is called Ocrecok, and on the fouth Portf-
moutl. A bar of fand having 14 feet water at low
tide croffes this inlet; and fix miles within this bar the
channel is croffed by a Ihoal called the Swajh, having
only eight or nine feet water at full tide. Few ma¬
riners, though acquainted with the inlets, choofe to
bring in their own veffels, 2s the bar often fhifts du-
America.
ring their abfence on a Vo To the north of
Pamlico found, and communicfu^ng with it, Albemarle
found extends 60 miles in length, and is from eight to
12 in breadth. Core found, which lies to the fouth of
Pamlico, likewife communicates with it. Thefe founds
are fo large, when compared with their inlets from the
fea, that no tide can be perceived in any of the rivers
which empty into them, nor is the water fait even in
the mouths of thefe rivers. A tradt of low marlhy terri¬
tory between Pamlico and Albemarle founds is called
Difmal Swamp. The fame name, however, is alfo given
to another tradt at fome diftance to the northward of Al¬
bemarle found. A part of this laft tradt is in North Ca¬
rolina, and the reft within the boundaries of Virginia.
As already ftated, the northern or north-weftern
boundary of the United States, confifts almoft entirely
of a chain of lakes dividing the country from Canada.
Thefe lakes confift of by far the largeft colledfions of
frefti water that are to be found in the world. The
uppermoft or moft wefterly is called the Lake of the
Woods, from the great forefts upon its banks. Its
length from eaft to weft is about 73 miles, and in fome
places it is 40 miles wide. To the eaftward of it is
Rainy or Long Lake, which is nearly ico miles long,
but never more than 20 miles wide.. To the eaftward
of this is Lake Superior, juftly termed the Cafpian of
America. It is undoubtedly the largeft bafon ©f frefti
water in the world, being 1500 miles in circumfe¬
rence. The water is pure and tranfparent, and ap¬
pears generally to reft upon a bed of huge rocks. A
great part of its coaft is likewife rocky and irregular.
It contains many iflands, two of which are very confi¬
derable. The one, called I/le Royal, is about 100 miles
long, and in many places 40 miles broad. The lake
abounds with fifli, particularly trout and fturgeoru It
b-
A M E [ i
America, is affe£ted by florms in the fame manner as tbe ocean.
W—ly waves run as high, and the navigation is equally
dangerous. It difcharges its waters from the fouth-
eaft corner, by a ilrait called St Mane, of about 40
miles long, into Lake Huron j but this llrait is not na¬
vigable, on account of its having at one part what the
Americans call a rapid, that is, a quick defcent of the
waters among rugged rocks. It does not appear, how¬
ever, that above one-tenth of the waters which are
conveyed by about 40 rivers into Lake Superior, pafs
out of it by the ftrait of St Marie, which neverthelefs
is its only vifible outlet. Confiderable quantities of
copper ore are found in beds upon many fmall iflands
in Lake Superior, but it has not hitherto become an
objedl of commerce.
Lake Huron is next in magnitude to Lake Superior,
being about 1000 miles in circumference. On the
north fide of it is an iiland 100 miles in length, and
no more than eight miles broad. Ihis illand is confi-
dered as faered by the Indians. On its fouth-weft fide
Lake Huron fends out a bay, called Saganum bay,
into the country, of about 80 miles in length, and
about 18 in breadth. At its north-well corner, this
lake communicates with Lake Michigan by the ilraits
of Michillimakinac.
Lake St Claire receives the waters of the three great
lakes, Superior, Michigan, and Huron, and difcharges
them, through a river or llrait called Detroit, into
Lake Erie. It is about 90 miles in circumference.
Its navigation is obllrucled by a bar of fand near the
middle, which prev^ th\paded velfels from palling.
Lake Erie is ne^r' 300 miles long from call to
well, and about 4^ broadeft part. Its iflands
and banks are much infelled with rattle-fnakes. Near
the illands the water is covered for many acres to¬
gether with the large pond lily, on the leaves of
which, in the fummer feafon, lie myriads of water
fnakes balking in the fun. The American geogra¬
phers tell us of a remarkable fnake found in this lake,
called the hijjing fnake. It is about 18 inches long,
and fmall and fpeckled. When approached, it flattens
itfelf, and the fpots upon its fkin become vifibly bright¬
er. At the fame time it blows from its mouth with
great force a fubtile wind, faici to oe of a naufeous fmell,
which, if drawn in by the breath of the traveller, infal¬
libly brings on a decline, that in a few months proves
fatal. This lake is of more dangerous navigation than
any of the others, on account of the many perpendicular
fharp rocks which it contains. It communicates with
Lake Ontario by the river Niagara, which is about
30 miles in length •, and which being croffed by a
branch of the Alleghany mountains, confifting of lime-
flone rock, forms the celebrated falls of Niagara, one
of the mod wonderful natural, obje&s in the world,
on account of the immenfe weight of water that is at
once precipitated from a height which different travel¬
lers have eilimated varioufly, from 137 to 160 feet. It
has been often defcribed •, but as every traveller feems
to view it with greater aftonifhment. than his predecef-
fors, we fhall ftate the terms in which it is mentioned
by the duke de la Rochefoucault Liancourt, who vi-
Defc^tio, filed it in i79J. “ At Chippaway the grand fpeaa-
-of Niagara. cle begins. The river, which has been conflantly ex¬
panding from Fort Erie to this place, is here upwards
of three miles wide 5 but on a fudden it is narrowed,
02 j A M E
and the rapidity of the ftream redoubled by the decli- America,
vity of the ground on which it flows, as well as the u—y-
fudden contradlion of its bed. The channel is rocky ;
and the interfperfed fragments of rocks increafe the
violence of the ftream. The country is flat and even
to this point; but here a range of white rocks arifes
on each fide of the river, which is contradted to half a
mile’s breadth. This range is a branch of the Alle¬
ghany mountains, which proceeding from Florida, pre-
vioufly to their reaching this point, interfedl the whole
continent of America. The river, more clofely hem¬
med in by the rocks on the right encroaching upon its
channel, ^branches into two arms, one of which flows
along the bank formed by the rocks on the right 5 and
the other, far more confiderable, being feparated by a
fmall ifland, makes flraight on to the left, and fweeps
through a bafon of flone which it fills with much
foam and noife. At length, being again obflruaed by
other rocks which it meets on its right, it alters its
courfe with redoubled violence } and, along wdth the
right arm, rufhes down a perpendicular ledge of rocks
160 feet high, nearly half concave, and probably-
worn out by the inceffant impetuofity of the waters.
Its width is nearly equal to that of its bed, the unifor¬
mity of which is only interrupted by an illand w hich
feparates the two arms, rells unfhaken on its rocky ba¬
lls, and feems, as it were, to fwim between the two
llreams which rulli down at once into this flupendous
chafm. The waters of the lakes Erie, Michigan, St
Claire, Huron, and Lake Superior, and of the nume¬
rous rivers emptying themfelves into thefe lakes, incef-
fantly replace the water that thus dalhes down. The
water of the falls tumbles perpendicularly on the rocks.
Its colour is at times a dark green *, at others a foam¬
ing white, brilliant throughout, and difplaying a thou-
fand variegations as it is llruck by the rays of the fun,
or, according to the time of the day, the Hate of the
atmofphere, the force of the wind, &c. The water
which rulhes down the rocks rifes in part.in a thick
column of mill, often towering above the height of the
falls and mixing with the clouds. The remainder,
broken in its perpendicular defcent by fragments of
rocks, is in continued agitation, fpouts and foams, and
calls on Ihore logs of wood, whole trees, boats, and
wrecks, which the llream has fwept along in its courfe.
The bed of the river formed by the two ridges of rocks,
which extend a great way farther, is Hill more nar¬
rowed, as if part of this mighty llream had vanilhed
during the fall, or were fwallowed up by the earth.
The noife, agitation, irregularity, and rapid defcent
of the llream, continue feven or eight miles farther on j
and the river does not become fufficiently placid for a
fafe paffage, till it reaches Oueenllown nine miles from
the falls. It is fuperfluous to mention, that notwith-
llanding the feverity of the Avinter in this country, the
cataratt as well as the river above it are never frozen.
But this is not the cafe with the lakes and fmaller ri¬
vers that fupply it with water. Enormous flakes of
ice rulh conllantly doAvn this catara£l when the thaw
fets in, without being entirely dallied to pieces on the
rocks •, and thus are frequently piled in huge maffes
up to half its height. With the noife occafioned by the
falls, we were lefs llruck than we expedled 5 and Mr
Guillemard, as well as myfelf, who had both feen the
Rhine fall near Schafhaufen, could not but acknow-
lednc
A M E [ i
America, ledge that the noife it produces is far more ftriking.
—y——' Yet I muft repeat it again and again, that nothing can
{land the left of comparifon with the falls of Niagara.
Let no one expe& to find here fomething pleafing, wild¬
ly beautiful, or romantic ; all is wonderfully grand,
awful, fublime: every power of the foul is arrefted j the
impreffion ftrikes deeper the longer you contemplate,
and you, feel more ftrongly the impoffibility of doing
juftice to your perceptions and feelings.”
Lake Ontario, which is the loweft of the great lakes
that form the northern frontier of the United States,
is of an oval form, and abounds with filh of an excel¬
lent flavour. It difcharges itfelf on the north-eafi: into
the river Iroquois, which, at the town of Montreal,
takes the name of the river St Lawrence; and palling
by Quebec, falls into the Atlantic ocean at the gulf of
St Lawrence.
The river Mifliflippi, which forms the third or fouth-
weftern boundary of the United States, divides their
territory from the country of Louifiana, which belonged
to Spain, but has recently been ceded to France. This
river is fuppofed, when its windings are included, to
be upwards of 3000 miles in length, and to extend
nearly 2000 in a direft line. It is navigable to the
falls of St Anthony in about lat. 44° 30'. About
lat. 290, a large river called the Illinois, belonging to
the United States, falls into it; and it is foon after¬
wards joined by a larger river than itfelf from the
fouth, called the Mijpmri, which has a greater length
of navigation. At the diftance of 230 miles below its
junftion with the Miflouri, the river Ohio, which is a
mile in breadth, falls into the Mifliflippi. From the
mouth of the Ohio it continues to defcend 1005 miles
to the town of New Orleans, after palling which it
falls into the gulf of Mexico. In fpring floods the
Mifliflippi rifes to a great height, and overflows its
banks, depofiting upon them immenfe quantities of
fertilizing mud or flime. After its jundtion with the
Miffouri, its waters become fo loaded with the earthy
particles, that in a half-pint tumbler they have been
found to depofite afediment of two inches of flime. Its
banks, to a great diftance from its mouth, appear to
have been gradually formed by the depofition of trees
and mud, which its floods bring down from the higher
country. The foil is accordingly extremely foft, rich,
and moift. It is apt to be broken up by the periodical
floods of the river, which fometimes appears to alter its
channel.
When in flood, the current of the Mifliflippi is fo
ftrong that with difficulty it can be afcended. The
current defcends at the rate of five miles an hour; but
it is obferved, that at this period there is a counter
current which runs at the rate of about two miles an
hour, clofe to the banks of the river, which greatly af-
fifts the afcending boats. In autumn, when the wa¬
ters are low, it does not defcend falter than two miles
an hour, unlefs where the ftream is narrowed by
clufters of iflands, Ihoals, and fand banks. The cir¬
cumference of many of thefe Ihoals being feveral miles,
the voyage is rendered more tedious and dangerous in
autumn than in fpring, when the water covers them
to a great depth. The upper parts of the Mifliflippi
are ufually navigated in veffels carrying about 40 tons,
and rowed by 18 or 20 men ; and what is remarkable,
the depth of the river increafes as it is afcended, The
03 ] A M E
voyage from New Orleans, near the mouth of the Mif- America*
fiflippi, upwards to the river Illinois, is ufually perform- v™"1 ^
ed in eight or ten weeks. The river Miflouri is faid to
be navigable about 1200 or 1300 miles beyond its junc¬
tion with the Mifliflippi, but no part of it is within the
territory of the United States. By a treaty concluded
with Spain in 1795, it was agreed that the navigation
of the Mifliflippi Ibould be enjoyed in common by the
fubjefts of Spain and the citizens of America.
The waters in the interior of the United States are
no lefs convenient for navigation than thofe upon the
extremities of the country. 422
The lakes in the interior, however, are by no means Lakes in
equal in extent to thofe upon the frontier. They are th® interior,
chiefly fituated in the ftate of New York or in its vi¬
cinity. Lake Champlain is the largeft. It lies nearly
to the eaft of Lake Ontario, and is about 80 miles in
length from north to fouth, and 14 miles over at its
broadeft part. It is well ftored with filh, and the land
around it is good. Crown Point and Ticonderago are
fituated on the fouthern bank of this lake. Lake
George lies in a mountainous country fouth-weft of
Lake Champlain, and is about 55 miles long from
north-eaft to fouth-weft, but narrow. The lakes Se¬
neca and Cayoga are each about 30 or 40 miles in
length. Lake Oneida extends to 25 miles. Befides
thefe there are feveral others of lefs magnitude, though
ufeful for inland navigation, called Otfego, Chatoque,
Camaderago, and Utjlayantho. There is alfo in Orange
county an amphibious traft called the Drowned landsy
confifting of about 40,000 or 50,000 acres. The wa¬
ters which defcend from the furrounding hills, being
but flowly difcharged by the river Wallkill, cover thefe
vaft meadows every winter, fo that the furface of them
can be navigated.' They are thus rendered extreme¬
ly fertile, but the inhabitants in the neighbourhood are
expofed to intermittent fevers.
It has been already mentioned, that, to the eaftward Eaftern rt-
of the Alleghany mountains, all the rivers flow into vers,
the Atlantic ocean. Of thefe, beginning with the
north, and going fouthward, the following are the moft
remarkable. In the ftates to the eaftward of New
York, which were formerly called the New England
colonies, and which are now divided info the five ftates
of New Hampihire, Maflachufets, Rhode Ifland, Con-
nedfticut, and Vermont, there is only one river of any
importance, called ConneRicut river. It rifes in lat.
450 ic/, long. 710 weft from London. Its length in a
ftraight line is nearly 300 miles. At its mouth is a
bar of fand which obftrufls the navigation. Ten feet
water at full tides is found upon this bar. The river
is navigable to Hartford, which is upwards of 50 miles
from its mouth, and the produce of the country for 2CO
miles above is brought thither in boats. The boats
which are ufed in this bufinefs are flat-bottomed, long,
and narrow, for the convenience of going up the ftream,
and of fo light a make as to be portable in carts. They
are taken out of the river for feveral miles at different
carrying-places.
To the fouth of Conne£ticut river is Hudfon’s river,
one of the largeft and fineft in the United States. It
rifes in the mountains between the lakes Ontario and
Champlain, and is 250 miles in length, falling into the
ocean near New York, which ftands upon it. About
60 miles above New York the water becomes frelh
but
A M E [ 104 ] A M E
America, but tbe tide flows a few miles beyond tlie flourifliing
  /■-—' town called Albany, 160 miles above New York, and
to this diftance the river is navigable by Hoops of 80
tons burden. From Albany to the neighbourhood of
Lake George is 65 miles, and to this diftance the river
is navigable by light boats j but there are two port¬
ages, or carrying-places, in the way, of half a mile
each* By this river the produce of the remoteft farms
is eafily and fpeedily conveyed to a certain and profit¬
able market at the great trading city of New York.
Its banks are populous to a confiderable diftance, and
a flouriftiing inland trade is carried on upon it between
Albany and New York in nearly 100 veffels of about
70 tons burden, the greater part of which belong to
the inhabitants of Albany. They make ten voyages in
a year, are navigated by a matter, a mate, and two men,
who receive of wages, the mafter 20, the mate 15, and
the feamen 9 dollars a-month each.
The next great river to the fouthward is the Dela¬
ware. It riles in the ftate of New York in Lake Ut-
ftayantho, and takes its courfe fouth-weft, till it crofles
into Pennfylvania, in latitude 420. Thence it flill
.proceeds fouthward, dividing the ftates of New York
and New Jerfey, palling into the ocean through De¬
laware bay, having New Jerfey on the north-eaftern
fide, and Pennfylvania and Delaware on the weft.
From the mouth of Delaware bay, between Cape Hen-
lopen and Cape May, to the city of Philadelphia, is
about 118 miles. So far there is a fufficient depth of
water for a 74 gun Ihip. At Philadelphia the river
is extremely beautiful, palling through a rich and po¬
pulous country. It is three miles broad, and the water
is perfe&ly frelh. From Philadelphia upwards to Tren¬
ton Falls, where the Hoop-navigation ends, is 35 miles.
The river is navigable 40 miles farther for boats that
carry eight or nine tons j and, with fome carrying-
places, it is navigable for Indian canoes, or fuch boats
as we have already mentioned to be in ufe upon Con-
nefticut river, for 150 miles. The tide reaches Tren¬
ton Falls, and rifes fix feet at Philadelphia. Three
miles below this city, the Delaware receives the river
Schuylkill, which is navigable about 85 or 90 miles.
The Sufquehannah river alfo rifes in the ftate of
New York, crofles the ftate of Pennfyivania, and flows
into the great bay of Chefapeak, after receiving many
large ftreams, feveral of which are navigable for 50
miles $ this river itfelf being navigable to an immenfe
extent, though fometimes interrupted by rocks, which
Torm troublefome rapids.
Next to thefe follow the Virginian rivers, the great¬
er part of which flow into the bay of Chefapeak. The
value of thefe ftreams can only be underftood by an
jnfpe£Hon of the map of the country. Almoft every
farm houfe, to the eaftward of the Alleghany mountains,
has a navigable river at its door j the refult of which
has been, that few towns of any confequence exift there,
the inhabitants having been induced to extend them-
fielves everywhere along the banks of the rivers, by
means of which they enjoy at once all the advantages
of agriculture and of commerce $ every planter being
in fome meafure a merchant as well as a cultivator of
the foil. The moft northerly of the Virginian rivers
is the Potowmack, upon which the federal city of
Walhington is placed. It is feven miles and a half broad
at the mouth. The diftance from the capes of Virgi¬
nia to the termination of the tide-water in this river America,
is above 300 miles, and it is navigable for fhips of the —y—
greateft burden nearly to that extent. Thereafter, it
is obftru&ed by four confiderable falls, or rather ra¬
pid defcents of the ftream among rocks, which for
a few miles interrupt the navigation. At thefe falls,
however, navigation is continued, by means of canals
fupplied with locks j fo that this river affords a water
communication for many hundred miles above the
termination of the tide. It alfo receives a great va¬
riety of navigable ftreams ; one of which is the Shenan¬
doah, which is faid to be navigable for Imall veffels
for upwards of 100 miles. The Rappahannock, York
river, and James’s river, with their various tributary
ftreams, follow in fucceflion. In a multitude of direc¬
tions, they afford a communication acrofs the firft
ridges of mountains, called the Blue mountains, to the
foot of the great middle ridge, or the proper Alleghany
mountains. In their courfe they not only facilitate
the intercourfe of the inhabitants, but, in feveral fitua-
tions, exhibit inftances of fplendid and beautiful
fcenery. The junction of two of thefe rivers is thus
defcribed by an American writer: “ The paffage of
the Potowmack through the Blue Ridge is perhaps one
of the moft ftupendous fcenes in nature. You ftand
on a very high point of land. On your right comes
up the Shenandoah, having ranged along the foot of
the mountains too miles to feek a vent. On your left
approaches the Potowmack, in queft of a paffage alfo.
In the moment of their junftion, they rulh together
againft the mountain, rend it afunder, and pafs off to
the fea. The firft glance of this fcene hurries our
fenfes into the opinion, that this earth has been created,
in time : that the mountains were formed firft : that the
rivers began to flow afterwards : that in this place par¬
ticularly they have been dammed up by the Blue
Ridge of mountains, and have formed an ocean which
filled the whole valley : that, continuing to rife, they
have at length broken over at this fpot, and have torn
the mountain down from its fummit to its bafe. The
piles of rock on each hand, but particularly on the
Shenandoah, the evident marks ©f their difruption
and avulfion from their beds by the moft powerful
agents of nature, corroborate the impreflion. But the
diftant finiftiing which nature has given to the picture
is of a very different chara&er. It is a true contraft
to the foreground. It is as placid and delightful as
that is wild and tremendous. For the mountain being
cloven afunder, Hie prefents to your eye, through the
cleft, a fmall catch of fmooth blue horizon, at an in¬
finite diftance in the plain country, inviting you, as it
wrere, from the riot and tumult roaring around, to pafs
through the breach, and participate of the calm below.
Here the eye ultimately compofes itfelf; and that way
too the road happens aftually to lead. You crofs the
Potowmack above the junftion, pafs along its fide
through the bafe of the mountain for three miles, its
terrible precipices hanging in fragments over you, and
within about twenty miles reach Fredericktown, and
the fine country around it.”
To the fouthward of Virginia, that is, in the ftates
of North Carolina and Georgia, a great variety of ri¬
vers flow into the ocean. As the face of the country,
however, is very level, the fand which they bring down
in fpring floods, or which is caft up by the ocean upon
the
A M E • [ 105 ] A M E
America, tlie coaft, is apt to obAruft the entrance into them 5 fo
V—~ that they are deeper within the cour\try than at the
thore. One general rale obtains with regard to
them : They are navigable by any veflel that can pafs
the bar at their mouths; and while a river continues
broad enough for a veffel to turn round, there is gene¬
rally a fufficient depth of water for it to proceed. In
North Carolina, the principal rivers are, the Roanoke,
which is navigable for fmall veffels about fixty or fe-
venty miles j the Pamlico, which is navigable for 90
miles •, Neus river, which carries fmall boats to the di-
ftance of 250 miles j and Trent river, which is navi¬
gable for 40 miles. In South Carolina are the Sante,
the Savannah, and the Pedee, which rife from various
fources in that ridge of mountains which divides the
Avaters which flow into the Atlantic ocean from thofe
which fall into the Miffiflippi. They are navigable to
a great diftance, as Avell as a variety of others of lefs
note. In Georgia there are alfo feveral rivers, rvhich
are navigable to the diftance of eighty or ninety miles;
but the entrance into them from the ocean is very diffi¬
cult, as the extreme flatnefs of the country prevents the
ftream from having fufficient force to keep their cur¬
rent clear of obflruflions at their confluence -with the
fea-tides.
Weftern' The weftern Avaters of the United States, or thofe
waters. beyond the Alleghany range, are not lefs abundant, or
lefs convenient for navigation, than thofe on the eaftern
fide of the mountains. We have already remarked,
that at Fort Pitt the great river Ohio commences ;
being there formed by the confluence of two, or rather
three rivers, the Alleghany, the Monongahela, and the
Yohogany ; which laft runs into the Monongahela,
about fifty miles above Fort Pitt. Thefe three rivers,
previous to their junftion, afford an inland navigation
of many hundred miles. The Monongahela is no lefs
than 400 yards wide at its mouth. At the diftance of
100 miles above this, it is ftill 300 yards in breadth,
and affords good navigation for boats. For 50 miles
higher it is ftill navigable ; though the navigation is
apt to be interrupted during dry feafons. The Alle¬
ghany alfo affords a very diftant navigation, extending
at times, in very fmall veffels, to Avithin 15 miles of
Lake Erie, on the northern boundary of the United
States. The Ohio, being formed by the jumflion of
thefe rivers, proceeds along the back, or weftern fide,
of the Alleghany, to the diftance of 1188 miles before
it falls into the Miffiffippi, receiving in its courfe a
great variety of tributary ftreams, both from its eaftern
and weftern fides. It is faid to be one of the moft
beautiful rivers on earth ; its current is gentle ; its Ava¬
ters are clear ; and its bofom fmooth and unbroken by
rocks and rapids: a fingle inftance excepted. It is
one quarter of a mile Avide at Fort Pitt, and increafes
gradually to one mile in width at its mouth ; though
at various places it is occafionally broader and narroAV-
er. At the rapids, or rocky part of its channel, Avhich
for about a mile difturb the navigation, it is only a
quarter of a mile in breadth. Thefe rapids are in la¬
titude 38° 8'. It affords at all times a fufficiency of
Avater for light boats to Fort Pitt. The inundations
of the river begin about the laft of March, and fubfide
in July. During thefe, Avere it not for the rapidity of
the current, and the hidden turns of the river, a firft
rate man of Avar might afcend from the ocean to the
Vol. II. Part I.
rapids. But at this place the rife of the water does not America,
exceed ten or twelve feet. The Avater there defcends "v""
about thirty feet in a mile and a half. The bed of the
river is a folid rock, and is divided by an ifland into
two branches. But it is faid that the fouthern branch
is at moft feafons navigable in fmall boats, when con¬
duced by fkilful pilots.
The following are the chief rivers which flow into
the Ohio from the eaft : The Great Kanhaivay, and
the Little Kanhaway ; the navigation of which laft is
much interrupted by rocks. The former, however, af¬
fords a tolerable navigation of about 90 miles, and is
280 yards wide at its mouth. The Little Kanhaway
is 150 yards broad; but it is navigable only for 10
miles.—After thefe are the rivers called Sandy, Lick¬
ing, and Kentucky. The former conftitutes the eaftern
boundary of Kentucky, and reaches the Alleghany moun¬
tains. It is of no great fize. Licking river is 100
miles in length, and 100 yards broad at its mouth.
The Kentucky is a very crooked ftream, of 200 miles
in length. It falls into the Ohio by a mouth of 100
yards broad.
Below the rapids of the Ohio, in the rich country of
Kentucky, is Salt river, 90 miles in length, and 80
yards Avide. Green river falls into the Ohio 120 miles
below the rapids. Its courfe is upivards of 150 miles.
Cumberland river falls into the Ohio 413 miles below
the rapids. Its length is upivards of 550 miles.
Thefe rivers are navigable for boats almoft to their
fources, without rapids or interruptions, for the greateft
part of the year. Their banks are generally high, and
compofed of limeftone. Below thefe is the Teneffee,
which runs into the Ohio a ffiort Avay below the mouth
ot the Cumberland. The Teneffee is 6co yards wide
at its mouth, and upon afcending it, to the diftance of
260 miles, it widens to betiveen two and three miles ;
which ividth it continues for nearly thirty miles. Thus
far it is navigable by veffels of great burden. Here,
however, it is interrupted by certain ffioals, called the
Mujfel Shoals, from the great quantity of (hell fifti with
which they are covered. Thefe ftioals can only be paf-
fed in fmall boats ; above which, hoAvever, the river
again becomes navigable for boats of forty or fifty tons
burden for fome hundred miles ; and it is eafily navi¬
gated at leaft 600 miles above the Muffed Shoals.
Of the rivers that Aoav into the Ohio from the Aveft
the folloAving are the chief: The Mulkingum, which
is a gentle ftream, confined by high banks. With a
portage or carrying-place of about one mile, it affords
a communication Avith a fmall navigable ftream called
the Cuyahoga, which Aoavs into Lake Erie. There¬
after is the river Hockhocking, inferior to the Muf-
kingum, but navigable for large boats about feventy
miles, and for fmall ones much farther, through a
country abounding with coal, iron, ftone, and other
minerals. Next is the Sioto, Avhich can be navigated
Avith large barges for 200 miles. Then follows the
Great Miami, which is navigable to an immenfe di¬
ftance, even to the neighbourhood of Lake Erie. The
Wabaffi falls into the Ohio by a mouth 270 yards
wide, 1020 miles bek»Av Fort Pitt. The Wabafli is a
beautiful river, Avith high and fertile banks. It can
be navigated with boats draAving three feet Avater, 412
miles, and by large canoes 167 miles farther. Befides
thefe ftxeams Avhich fall into the Ohio, a variety of
O ' rivers
A M E [
America, rivers of great fize and importance are to be found ftill
■*~~'y —* "~l farther to the weft ward within the territories of the U-
nited States. They either fall into the Mifliflippi on
the fouth-weft, or into the great northern lakes j but
they are not yet fufficiently known to admit of accurate
defcription. One of the chief of them is the Illinois,
which falls into the Mifliflippi, 176 miles above or to
the weftward of the Ohio, by a mouth about 400 yards
wide. It is navigable to a great diftance, and inter¬
locks with the rivers that fall into the northern lakes,
in fuch a way as to furnith a communication with Lake.
Michigan, with the aid of two portages, the longeft of
which does npt exceed four miles. It receives a num¬
ber of rivers, which are navigable for boats from 15 to
180 miles.
One general remark muft be made with regard to
all the American rivers; that, in confequence of the
immenfe torrents of rain which fall at certain feafons of
the year, they are liable to fwell, and to overflow their
banks in a moft violent manner •, arifing, in a Ihort
time, 10, or even 2Q or 25 feet in height. This ren¬
ders their navigation not a little difficult, on account
of the great force that is neceffary to convey a veflel up¬
wards againft the rapidity of the ftream. Thefe great
floods alfo render it difficult to eftabliffi canals at thole
parts of any river where falls, or, as the Americans
ftile them, rapids, occur-, becaufe the locks, which, in
fuch fttuations, are neceffary upon the canals to raife
and let down the veffels, are in great danger of being
fwept away by the fudden fwelling and overflowing ot
the river. Notwithftanding this inconvenience, how¬
ever, it is abundantly evident, that no country on earth
poffjffes the fame advantages, in point of internal com¬
munication, with the United States of America. Even
the great Alleghany ridge, which feems to form a bar¬
rier between the eaft and the weft, is fo clofely ap¬
proached on both Tides by navigable ftreams, that the
land carriage neceffiry in croffing it extends, in tome
fttuations, to little more than 40 miles ; and, when the
increafing population of the country (hall have rendered
fuch a meafuve ufeful or neceffary, it will probably be
found not difficult to complete the communication by
42-, water by the aid of artificial canals.
Face of the regard to the general face of the country
country. w;thin the territory of the United States, it is very va¬
rious We have already ftated, that a great chain of
mountains runs from the ftate of Georgia northward,
parallel to the Atlantic ocean, all the way to the great
northern lakes. Thefe mountains are not folitary, or
fcattered in a confufed manner ; but are formed into
different ridges, receiving various appellations m dif¬
ferent ftates. In Pennfylvania, Virginia, and Norffi
Carolina, the principal ridges, beginning on the ea, ,
are called, fir ft, the Kittatinnyor Blue mountain, at the
diftance from 120 to 130 miles from toe lea. It is
about 4000 feet high, and the country nfes from the
fea fo {lowly and gradually towards it, as to appear al¬
together level. Back from the firft ridge, and nearly
parallel to it, are the ridges called Peters Tufcorara
and Nefcopek ; but thefe names are not in all places ad¬
hered to. Then follows the ridges called in Pennfytvama
Sharcman's hills. Sidelong hills, Ragged,Great-warriors,
Erits and Wills mountains ; then the great Alleghany
ridge which gives its name to the whole. Beyond it are
the Laurel and Chefnut ridges, and various others, i heie
106 ] ' A M E
ridges being parallel to each other are themfelves in- America.
capable of cultivation ; but they are divided by rich ' 
plains of various breadth and of immenfe length, con¬
taining rivers of difterent degrees of magnitude. On
the eaft of the mountains, from the loweft ridge to the
ocean, the country, as already mentioned, defeends very
gradually j and in the fouthern ftates, for 150 miles
from the ocean, is almoft entirely level, confifting of a
low flat country, apparently formed by land thrown
up by the tides, and by particles of mud depofited by
the rivers in their fpring floods. In the fouthern ftates,
that is, thofe to the fouth of New York, the foil near
the rivers is coarfe or fine, according to its diftance
from the mountains. Near them it contains a large
mixture of coarfe fand 5 but on the banks of the rivers
towards the fea, it confolidates into a fine clay 5 which,
when expofed to the weather, falls down into a rich.,
mould. In the ftates of South Carolina and .Georgia,
for many miles from the ocean, when a pit is dug to
the depth of 20 feet, every appearance of a fait marffi
is ufually found, fuch as marffi grafs, marftr mud, and
brackiffi water.
Beyond the Alleghany mountains the country to.the
weftward is irregular, broken, and variegated, but with¬
out great mountains. Various fmall ridges, however,
defeend to the weftward, between which flow the rivers
that run into the Ohio. In fome fituations, particu¬
larly in the neighbourhood of Pitffiurg, the variety of
its furface is faid to render the country extremely beau¬
tiful.
Towards the north part of the ftate of New York
and in the New England ftates, the country, different
from the reft of America, is rough and hilly, or even
mountainous, though, upon the whole, their mountains
are trifling when compared to thofe in other parts of
the world. Nor does it appear, that in almoft any
part of the United States, any fuch thing is to be met
with as mountains entirely rugged and barren, rearing
their naked fummits to the clouds. Even to the top
of the Alleghany ridge the whole country is one wav¬
ing foreft, though the trees are of different fize and
fpecies, according to the variety of foil upon which
they ftand. Notwithftanding this general regularity of
the furface of the country, to the eaftward of the
mountains, it is not deftitute of objefts which mark it
to have undergone convulfions or changes. Of thefe
we may mention one inftance, being a curiofity wor-
thy of attention, in the ftate of Virginia, called Natural Natural
Bridge or Rockbridge. It is on the afeent of a hill bridge.
which feems to have been cloven through its length
by fome great convulfion. The fiffure juft at the
bridge is, by fome admeafurements, 270 feet deep, by
others only 205. It is about 45 feet wide at the bot¬
tom, and 60 feet at the top. The breadth of the
bridge in the middle is about 60 feet, but more at the
ends, and the. thicknefs of the mafs at the fummit of
the arch is about 40 feet. A part of this thicknefs
confifts of a coat of earth which gives growth to many
large trees. The refidue, with the hill on both fides,
is one folid rock of limeftone. Though the fides of
this bridge are provided in fome places with a parapet
of fixed rocks, yet few men have refolution to advance,
without creeping upon their hands and feet, to look
over into the abyfs. To a fpeflator from the low
ground, the arch appears beautiful and light, as if
fpringing
Aiflerica.
427
Caverns.
'tochefou-
av.lt's Tra¬
cis, vol. ii
A M E [
fpilnglng towards heaven \ affording through It a plea¬
ting view of the mountains at five miles difiance. The
water palling under the bridge is called Cedar Creek,
and the bridge itfelf is a part of a public road, as it
affords a commodious paflage acrofs a valley. The
county, in which it is fituated, is called from it the
County of Rockbridge.
In the fame ftate of Virginia, there are fome caverns
mentioned by the American geographer, Dr Morfe,
which are not unworthy of notice as natural curiofities.
The molt noted is that called Maddifon's Cave, on the
north fide of the mountains denominated the Blue Ridge,
near the river Shenandoah. It is in a hill of about 200
feet perpendicular height, the afcent of which on one
fide is fo fteep, that you may pitch a bifcuit from its
fummit into the water which wafties its bafe. The en¬
trance of the cave is in this fide, about two-thirds of
the way up. It extends into the earth about 30G feet,
branching into fubordinate caverns, fometimes afcend-
ing a little, but more generally defcending, and at
length terminates in two different places, at bafons of
water of unknown extent, nearly on a level with the
water of the river, of which, however, they do not feem
to be refluent water, as they are never turbid, and do
not rife and fall in correfpondence with it, in feafons of
rain or drought. The vault of the cave is of folid lime-
ftone, from 20 to 40 and 50 feet high, through v'hich
water is continually percolating. This V'ater has de-
pofited a cruft, forming the appearance of an elegant
drapery on the fides of the cave, and, in dropping from
the roof of the vault, generates, on that and on the
bafe, ftala&ites of a conical form, fome of which have
met and formed maffy columns.
There is another cave, in the North Ridge or North
Mountain, which enters from the fummit of the ridge.
The defcent is at firft 30 or 40 feet perpendicular, as
into a well, from whence the cave extends nearly ho¬
rizontally 400 feet, preferving a breadth of from 20 to
50 feet, and a height of from five to 12 feet. The heat
of the cave is permanently at about 470 of Fahrenheit’s
thermometer.
In another ridge is a blowing cave in the fide of a
hill. It is about 100 feet diameter, and conftantly emits
a current of air, of fuch force, as to keep the weeds pro-
ftrate to the diftance of 20 yards before it. The cur¬
rent is ftrongeft in froft, and weakeft after long rains.
It probably communicates with a waterfall in the bowels
of the earth, the daftiing of which generates the current
of air, as we know that at the mines, called Lend Hills,
in Scotland, for more than a century paft, a fmall wa¬
terfall at the bottom of a mine, has been ufed for the
purpofes of ventilation, the air generated from the wa¬
ter being conveyed in large tubes to any place where it
is wanted. The blowing engine, called the trompc,
which is ufed at fome founderies, is alfo conftrufled on
the fame principle.
On the firft of June 1796, a pretty remarkable phe-
■nomenon occurred in the vicinity of the town of Katf-
kill, in the ftate of New York. The country in the
neighbourhood is a fucceffion of little hills, or rather
fmall elevations, detached from each other, and only
connected a little at the bafis. One of thefe hills, the
neareft to Katfkill Creek, and elevated about 100 feet
above the level of the creek, iuddenly fuffered a fink¬
ing of more than half its declivity. It might have
xof ] , A M E
ifieafured about 150 feet, from its fummit to the exlre- America,
mity of its bafe, following the line of inclination. A v
breadth of about 80 fathoms fell in, beginning at about
3 or 4 fatshoms from the top. The fuhken part gave
way al^pf a hidden, and fell fo perpendicularly that a
flock of (beep feeding on the fpot, went down with it
without being overturned. The trunks of trees that
remained on it in a half rotten ftate, were neither un¬
rooted, nor even inclined from their former direftion,
and now (land at the bottom of this chafm, of above
four acres in extent; in the fame perpendicular pofi-
tion, and on the fame foil. However, as there was
not fufficient fpace for all this body of earth, which
before had lain in a hope, to place itfelf horizontally
betw'een the two parts of the hill that have not quitted
their ftation, fome parts are cracked, and as it were
furrowed. But. a more ftriking circumftance is, that
the lower part of the hill, which has preferved its for¬
mer thape, has been pulhed and thrown forward by the
finking part making itfelf room ; that its bafe has ad¬
vanced five or fix fathoms beyond a fmall rivulet, which
before flowed at the diftance of above 10 fathoms from
it ; and that it has even entirely Hopped the courfe of
its ftream. The greateft: elevation of the chafm is about
50 or 60 feet: in its fides it has difeoyered a blue earth,
exhibiting all the charafleriftics of marl. In fome of
the ftrata of the marl is found fulphat of lime in minute
cryftals. The finking of the hill made fo little noife,
as not to be heard at the proprietor’s houfe, at the di¬
ftance of 300 fathoms, nor at the town, which is fe-
parated from the hill only by the narrow ftream of the
creek. 42 s
The foil of the United States is not lefs various than Soft,
in other countries. In the New England ftates, in
confequence of the irregularity of the furface, rich
and poor territory are interfperfed ; but in the fouthern
ftates, the limits of the fertile and of the more unpro-
duftive parts of the country are more diftinftly marked.
In general the foil is lefs deep and rich as the land
approaches towards the mountains. The neighbour¬
hood of the fea confifts of great fwamps, which being
overflowed by the adjoining rivers, render the land un¬
healthy, though fit for the cultivation of rice and other
valuable productions. Hence, as the firft or loweft
ridges of mountains poffefs a confiderable degree of fer¬
tility, they are better inhabited, becaufe more healthful
than the low country. The long valleys between the
ridges of the Alleghany mountains are everywhere fer¬
tile ; but they are fometimes very narrow. Beyond
the mountains from Fort Pitt to the northern lakes in
the back parts of the ftate of New York, the country
is fertile but moift, and lies low'. Around Fort Pitt
itfelf, as already mentioned, to a confiderable diftance,
the country has a beautiful variegated afpect. On the
eaftern fide of the Ohio, however, below- Fort Pitt,
the country fpeedily becomes rugged ; and, for fome
hundred miles, is little inhabited, to the borders of the
fertile country of Kentucky, which in a few years has
been fettled, rendered populous, and affumed into the
number of the United States. To the weftward of the
Ohio little is known, excepting that the country is co¬
vered with forefts and abounds in game, which laft
circumftance is always a futficient proof of the exift-
cnce of abundance of vegetable food, and confcquent-
ly of a fertile foil. In general, however, concerning
O 2 the
A M E [ 10S ] A M E
the whole American territory, it may be obferved,
that wherever the land is tolerably level, it mud have
been originally fertile. Being covered with forefts, it
received every year a bed of leaves fpread over its fur-
face ; which, by continually rotting in fucceltion, have
formed a vegetable mould of great fertility.
The mineral productions of the territory of the Unit¬
ed States are various, as in other parts of the world. The
form of mountains, rocks, and beds of different minerals,
is the fame here as elfewhere. There are found different
fpecies of granite, combined and varied as in the moun¬
tains of Europe ; innumerable kinds of fchifts, of lime-
ftones, more or lefs perfeCt, and minerals of almoft eve¬
ry fpecies. In general, however, it may be remark¬
ed, that American mineralogy offers few varieties for
obfervation, as the fame fubftances ufually pervade a
confiderable tra£t of country. 'The great mountains,
“that is to fay, the mod elevated, particularly the cen¬
tral ridge of the Alleghany, and the highed mountains
of New England, are generally formed of granite.
Thofe of inferior altitude fuccedively exhibit fchidus
more or lefs perfeft, date, feldtfpath, calcareous done,
and fome fand dones of extreme hardnefs, and in a
date of great perfeftion. The whole territory to the
eadward of the Alleghany mountains, appears to em-
bofom vad quantities of iron ore. The iron ore is of
two kinds: one is capable of being manufactured into
malleable iron, and is found in the mountains, and al-
fo in low barren foils. T he other kind of iron is call¬
ed bog-ore. It is produced in rich valleys. It is laid
to confid of iron united with the phofphoric acid. In
the furnace it yields iron of a hard brittle quality. In
confequence of the abundance of timber dill to be found
in the country, a confiderable number of iron mines are
wrought to the eadward of the mountains ; the fuel
uled in which confids of charcoal. I heir produce,
however, is very trifling j none of them make more
than to the amount of 1600 tons of pig iron annually,
and about 150 of bar iron. The toughnefs of the cad
iron manufactured in fome of the Virginian furnaces,
is faid to be very remarkable. Pots and other utenfils,
caff thinner than ufual, of this iron, may be fafely
thrown into or out of the waggons in which they are
tranfported. Salt pans made of it, and- no monger
wanted for that purpofe, cannot be broken up to be
melted again, unlefs previoufiy drilled in many parts.
Coal mines are wrought in the eadern part of Vir¬
ginia ; but, upon the whole, little coal is found in the
United States to the eadward of the mountains, where
iron ores are extremely abundant. On the contrary, to
the wedward of thefe mountains, iron has fcarcely been
perceived •, whereas coal is in the greated plenty. In
the fine country round Pitfburg, at the head of the
Ohio, 320 miles wed from Philadelphia, coal is not
only extremely plentiful, but of a very fuperior qua¬
lity. A bed of it in that neighbourhood was on fire
for about twenty years, but little damage appears to
have been produced. Coal has been difcovered in fo ma¬
ny places to the eadward of the Ohio, as to produce an
opinion, that the whole traa of country beyond the
mountains, from Pitfburg to the Midiflippi, abounds
with it. Immenfe beds of limedone rock are to be
found in the mod eadern traft of mountains. Below
thefe mountains it feldom appears j but in \ irginia,
from the Blue Ridge wedward, the whole country
feems to be founded on a rock of limedone, befides America, j
great quantities on the furface both loofe and fixed. It1 - y ~ -1
is formed into beds which range as the mountains and
fea coad do, from fouth-wed to north-eadj the lami¬
nae of each bed declining from the horizon towards a
parallelifm with the axis of the earth. In fome in¬
dances, however, but rarely, they are found perpen¬
dicular and even reclining the other way. But fuch cafes
are always attended with figns of convulfion, or other
circumdances of dngularity. Limedone is alfo found
on the Mididippi and Ohio. Indeed that mineral ap¬
pears to pervade the whole length of the ridges of the
Alleghany mountains ; and towards the lakes Erie and
Ontario, the whole country reds upon limedone. It
is not found on^the high ridges themfelves of the Al¬
leghany mountains j but it occupies the fertile valleys
between them, and is feen at the banks of the rivers
which pafs along thefe valleys. It fometimes appears
to the eadward, in the form of very fine marble, chief¬
ly coloured, quarries of which are wrought to adorn the
houfes of the wealthier citizens in the great towns.
Copper has been found in a variety of fituations to
the eadward of the mountains. At the didance of
eight or ten miles from New York is a pretty rich
copper mine. The ore is irregularly fcattered through
a kind of f'and-done, often refembling grit, and fome¬
times the pudding-done. It yields from 60 to *70
pounds of fine copper per cwt. Previous to the revo¬
lution it ufed to be carried to England, where it bore
a higher price than any other ore of the fame metal.
The mine has been feveral times wrought, abandoned,
and refumed. Some workmen, modly Germans, were
brought over from Europe for the purpofe within thefe
few years, and paid from 15 to 20 dollars per month.
But the high price of labour and the difficulty of ob¬
taining well executed machinery, impofe in the United
States great difficulties upon all mineralogical enter-
prifes. At New Brunfwick in New Jerfey, a copper
mine was at one time wrought, in which large quanti¬
ties of virgin copper were difcovered. In particular,
in the year 1754, two lumps of virgin copper are faid
to have been found, which together weighed 1900
pounds. In the courfe of a few years preceding,
within a quarter of a mile of New Brunfwick, feveral
pieces of virgin copper, from five to thirty pounds
weight, in whole upwards of 200 pounds, were even
turned up in a field by the plough 5 but the mine has
ceafed to be wrought, and the fearch for the metal
difcontinued.
Confiderable quantities of black lead are found, and
occafionally taken for ufe from a place called Winter-
ham, in the county of Amelia in Virginia. No work
is eftablilhed there ; but thofe who want the mineral
go and procure it for themfelves.
To the weftward of the mountains fome lead mines
have been found, which will probably hereafter be¬
come valuable. In the weftern part of the Rate of Vir¬
ginia, one mine has been for fome time wrought by
the public. The metal is mixed fometimes with earth,
and fometimes with rock, which requires the force of
gunpowder to open it. The proportions yielded are
from 50 to 80 pounds of pure metal, from 100 pounds of
worked ore. The moft common proportion is that of 60
to 100 pounds. The lead contains a portion of filver, to
fmall to be worth reparation under any procefs known
to
A M E [ i°9 ] A M E
America. to American workmen. The veins are at times
‘ ^ 1 very flattering, and afterwards difappear fuddenly and
totally. They enter the fide of the hill and proceed
horizontally. Only about 30 labourers have been em¬
ployed, and they cultivate their own corn. They have
produced 60 tons of lead in a year, but.the general
quantity is from 20 to 25 tons. Lead mines are alfo
faid to have been difcovered on the upper parts of the
Miffiflippi, extending over a great length of country j
but they are not wrought. Silver mines are alfo faid to
have been found in the territory of New York, and in
the weftern country, particularly on the Wabafli ri¬
ver ; but they are too poor to be worth working. In
the territory of New York zinc has been found, and
likewife manganefe, with various kinds of pyrites, and
petrified wood, plafter of Paris, talc, cryltals of va¬
rious kinds and colours, albeftos, and feveral other
foflils; alfo a fmall black ttone, which vitrifies with
little heat, and makes good glafs.—A kind of mica,
called by the Americans ijinglafs, has alfo been found,
which is tranfparent, and capable of being divided in¬
to thin laminae or ftieets, which may be ufed as a con¬
venient fubftitute for window glafs. Amethyfts have
been frequently found in Virginia ; and even the eme¬
rald is not unknown. In the north mountains are
immenfe bodies of fchift, containing impreflions of
Ihells of various kinds. Petrified (hells are alfo found
in very elevated fituations at the firft fources of the
Kentucky river. On the banks of Savannah river in
South Carolina, about 90 miles from the fea in a direft
line, and 150 or 200 as the river runs, there is a re¬
markable colleflion of oyfter (hells of an uncommon
fize. They run in a north-eaft and fouth-wefl direc¬
tion, nearly parallel with the fea-coaft, in three diftinft
ridges, which together occupy a fpace of feven miles in
breadth. Such a phenomenon cannot eafily be ac¬
counted for in any other way than by fuppofing the
whole of this flat country to have been at one period an
I4*,o appendage of the ocean.
Sulphur Sulphur is faid to be found in feveral places of the
and nitre weftern territory ; and nitre is obtained, as in Spain,
weftern ter6 ^ l*x‘viating the fat earth that is found upon the
ritory. banks of the rivers. But the moft valuable mineral
that has hitherto been found in Kentucky and other
parts of the weftern territory, confifts of the fait that
43I is obtained by the evaporation of the water of certain
1 Salt fprings, fprings. Such fprings appear to be unknown to the
I ar licks, in eaftward of the mountains j but they abound upon the
Kentucky. Ohio, where they are more neceffary on account of the
great diftance from the fea. They were difcovered in
the following curious manner :—The firft inhabitants
found, that the wild beads of the foreft, efpecially the
buffaloes and deer, were accuftomed to come in great
crowds to certain fpots, and there to employ them-
felves, apparently with much pleafure, in licking the
ground. On examining the foil at thefe places, it was
found to poffefs a confiderable impregnation of fea fait,
of which almoft all animals that feed upon vegetables
are known to be fond. The want of this commodity
was a fource of much diftrefs to the firft emigrants to
Kentucky, and was one of the chief obftacles to the
fettlement of the country ; but the example of the in¬
ferior animals, indicated a mode of relieving their
wants. T he fpots frequented by the buffaloes were
called licks, and at every lick it was found that an area
of from five to ten acres is impregnated with common America.
fait 5 fo that by digging wells lalt water might be ob-  v
tained, from which fait can be extradted by evapora¬
tion. At lead 12 of thefe licks, or fait fprings, have
been found in the new (fate of Kentucky *, the princi- 432
pal of which are, Bullet’s Lick, or Salt River, 20 miles Names of
from the rapids of the Ohio *, Drinnon’s Lick, about al*16 ^t
mile and a half from the mouth of the Kentucky. On11’”0®5'
what is called Licking Creek there are two fprings, call¬
ed the Upper and Lower Blue Licks ; and there is one
called Great Bone Lick, from the bones of animals of a
monftrous fize, of a fpecies that no longer exifts, that
have been found fcattered in its neighbourhood. The
water obtained from thefe fprings is by no means fo
ftrong as fea water. It requires nearly 400 gallons
to make one buftiel of fait, which is more by one half
than would be Avanted of fea Avater in the fame latitude
to produce that quantity. In confequence, however,
of the abundance of fuel that exifts in a country Avhere
the fineft timber is ftill confidered as a nuifance, fait is
here manufactured in plenty, and is fold tolerably
cheap.
Various fprings of Avater impregnated with other Mineral
mineral ingredients haATe been found in the territory fprings.
of the United States, fome of which are much frequent¬
ed by valetudinarians. In 1794, a fulphureous fpring
Avas difcovered at a few yards diftance from the banks
of the river Chippaway, which falls into the Niagara,
a little above the falls. On the approach of a fire¬
brand, the vapour or (team kindles, affuroes the form
of burning fpirit of Avine, and burns down to the bot¬
tom. In the (late of New York, the fprings of Sara¬
toga are much noted. They are eight or nine in num¬
ber, fituated on the margin of a morafs, about tAvelve
miles weft from the confluence of a dream called Fijh
Creek Avith Hudfon’s river. They are furrounded by
a limeftone rock, apparently formed of petrifadtions de-
pofited by the Avater. One of the fprings particularly
attradls attention : It fometimes rifes above the earth
in the form of a pyramid. The aperture in the top
which difcovers the water is perfectly cylindrical, about
nine inches diameter. In this the Avater is about twelve
inches below the top, except at its annual difcharge,
which is commonly at the beginning of fummer. At
all times it appears to be in as great agitation as if
boiling in a pot, although it is extremely cold. The
fame appearances obtain in the other fprings, except
that the furrounding rocks are of different figures, and
the Avater Aoavs regularly from them. The air which
rifes in the fprings, and caufes the ebullition, appears to
confift in part at lead of carbonic acid gas, Avith Avhich
the Avater is ftrongly impregnated, as Avell as Avith lime,
diflolved by the acid. It alfo contains a chalybeate im¬
pregnation. In the chain of the Alleghany mountains
called Laurel Ridge, about latitude 36°, there is a
fpring of water 30 feet deep, very cold, and as blue as
indigo ; but the nature of the impregnation has not
been afeertained.
There is in Pennfylvania, beyond the mountains, a
ftream called Oil Creek, which Aoavs into the Alleghany
river. It iffues from a fpring, on the top of which
floats an oil fimilar to that called Barbadoes tar, and
from Avhich one man may gather feveral gallons in a
day. The troops fent to guard the Aveftern poft halted
at this fpring, collected fome of the oil, and bathed
their.
' A M E [n
America, their joints with It. This gave them great relief from
e—-■ v-—the rheumatic complaints with which they were alledf-
ed. The waters, of which the troops drank freely,
operated as a gentle purge.
In the county of Augufta in Virginia, near the fourCes
of James’s river, are two fprings, ditfinguiOied by the
appellation of Warm and Hot. They are eight miles
diftant from each other, and are ftrongly impregnated
with fulphur. They are faid to be ufeful for rheuma¬
tic, and fome other complaints. The wann fprtng if-
faes with a very bold if ream, fufficient to work a grift
mill, and to keep the waters of its bafon, which is 30
feet in diameter, at blood heat, or C)6° of Fahrenheit.
The hot fpring js much fmaller, and has been fo hot as
to boil an egg. Some believe its degree of heat to be
leffened. It raifes the mercury in Fahrenheit’s ther¬
mometer to 1120. It fometimes relieves where the
warm fpring fails. A fountain of common water iftu-
ing near its margin gives it a Angular appearance.
What are called the fweet fprings are in the county of
Botetourt in the fame ftate, at the eaftern foot of the
Alleghany, 42 miles from the warm fpnngs. I hey are
quite cold, like common water, and their nature is lit¬
tle known j but all the three .forts of fpnngs are much
frequented. On the Potowmack, and on York river,
are alfo fome fprings, fuppofed to be medicinal j but in
favour of whofe virtues little is known.
In the low grounds of the river called Great Kanha-
way, 67 miles above the mouth, is a hole in the earth,
of the capacity of thirty or forty gallons, from which
iffues conftantly a bituminous vapour, m io Itrong a
current as to give to the fand about its orifice the mo¬
tion which it has in a boiling fpring. On prefen ting
a lighted candle or torch within 18 inches of the hole,
it flames up in a column of 18 inches diameter, and
four or five feet in height, which fometimes burns out
within 20 minutes, and at other times has been known
to continue three days, and then has been left ftill
burning. The flame is unfteady, of the denflty of that
of burning fpirits, and fmells like burning pit-coal.
Water fometimes colle&s in the bafon, which is remark¬
ably cold, and is kept in ebullition by the vapour iflu-
ing through it. If the vapour be fired m that ftate,
the water foon becomes fo warm that the hand cannot
bear it, and evaporates wholly in a fhort time. On
Sandy River there is a fimilar hole that fends forth a
bituminous vapour, the flame of which is a column of
about twelve inches diameter and three feet
In the ftate of Georgia, in the county of Wilkes,
about a mile and a half from the town of V afhington,
a fpring rifes from a hollow tree^four or five feet m
length. The infide of the tree is incrufted with a coat
of nitre an inch thick, and the leaves round the fpring
are incrufted with a fubftance as white as fnow, which
has not been analyzed. It is recommended for fcurvy
and fcrophulous diforders. . T— . , q , f A
The vegetable kingdom in the United States of A-
merica is fo extremely rich, that even an enumeration
its remarkable objeds would greatly exceed the
bounds which we have here prefcr.bed to ourfelves.
Indeed, it does not appear that, except,ng the fogar
la: ;nv valuable vegetable produa.on « known
which cannot be reared within fome part of the ter¬
ritory of the Hates. With regard to the natural growth
434
Vege¬
tables.
o ] A M E
of thefe countries, it confifts of an endleis variety of America.
trees and fiirubs, and leffer plants. Each traft of dif- 1  
ferent foil is ufually diftinguilhed by its peculiar vege¬
tation, and is pronounced good, middling, or bad, from
the fpecies of trees which it produces ; and pne fpecies
generally predominating in each foil, has produced the
defcriptive name of Oak. Lund, Birch, Beech, and
Chefnut Lands, Pine Barren Land, Maple, AJh and
Cedar Swamps. Intermingled with tbefe, which in
the New England ftates are the predominating fpecies,
we find in that northern territory others, as walnut,
firs, elm, hemlock, moofe wood, faflafras, and many
others. Walnut and chefnut trees indicate the beft
lands 5 beech and oak grow upon the fecond ; the fir
and pitch pine upon the third 5 barberry and other
bullies upon lands of the next quality 5 and marfiiy
Ihrubs upon the worft. Along with thefe are found a
variety of flowering trees and ftirubs, including all thofe
known in Europe. Among the fruits which grow
wild in all the ftates are feveral kinds of grapes, which
are fmall, four, and thick Ikinned. The vines on
which they grow are very luxuriant, and often over-
fpread the higheft trees of the foreft. They are ex¬
tremely tough, and poflefs almoft the ftrength of cor¬
dage. On the more fertile foils, the largeft trees fel-
dom pufti their roots into the earth beyond the depth
of one foot, being no doubt fed by the rich mould
which is formed on the furface by the perpetual Ihed-
ding of the leaves and the rotting of the grafs. In the
northern ftates, the fragrance of the woods from flower¬
ing Ihrubs and trees is not fo remarkable as in the
fouth •, nor is the timber fo valuable. In South Caro¬
lina, indeed, the luxuriance of the woods Hands unri¬
valled. There are 18 different fpecies of oak, parti-
cularly the live oak, palmetto or cabbage tree, cucum¬
ber tree, deciduous cyprefs, liquid amber, hiccory,
&c. *, in Ihort, all the fpecies of trees which are fo ex-
ce(lively dear in Europe, ten of which are planted to
fave one, for which both fituation and foil are careful¬
ly fele&ed, and which yet never attain any confiderable
height, are here the natural produce of the country,
and1 vegetate with the utmoft rapidity. . Equally ftrik-
ing to Europeans is the pleafing luxuriance of ftirubs,
plants, and various kinds of grafs j moft of which dif-
fufe an exquifite fragrance.
Of the fmaller vegetables, maize, or Indian corn, is
a native of America. It agrees with all climates, from
the equator to latitude 450, but flourifhes beft between
latitudes 30° and40°. The wild rice is a grain which
grows in great plenty in fome of the interior parts of
the ftates, and feems the moft valuable of the fponta-
neous productions of the country. It grows in the wa¬
ter, where it is about two feet deep, with a rich muddy
bottom. In its ftalk, ears, and manner of growing, it
very much refembles oats. It is gathered by the In¬
dians in the following manner : About the time that
it begins to turn from its milky date, and to ripen,
they run their canoes into the midft of it, and, tying
bunches of it together, juft below the ears,, they leave
it in this fituation for three or four weeks, till it is .per¬
fectly ripe. At the end of this time., commonly about
the laft of September, they return to the river, and,
placing their canoes clofe to the bunches of rice, in
fu/kh a pofition as to receive the grain when it £dls,
they
A M E [ n
America, they beat it out with pieces of wood. Thereafter they
' dry it with fmoke, and, laftly, tread or rub off the out-
fide hulk 5 after which it is fit for ufe.
American have already enumerated the American quadra-
Virds. peds, and have feen, that of thefe a confiderable num¬
ber is peculiar to America. Upwards of 130 Ameri¬
can birds have been enumerated, and many of them de-
feribed by Catefby, Jefferfon, and Carver. The fol¬
lowing catalogue will Ihow the altonifhing variety that
exifts in the American ftates, of this beautiful part of
the creation :
Blackbird.
Razor-billed do.
Baltimore bird.
Baftard Baltimore.
Blue bird.
Buzzard.
Blue jay.
Blue grofbeak.
Brown bittern.
Crefted do.
Small do.
Booby.
Great booby.
Blue Peter.
Bullfinch.
Bald coot.
Cutwater.
White curlew.
Cat bird.
Cuckow.
Crow.
Cowpen bird.
Chattering plover or kil-
dee.
Crane or blue heron.
Yellow-breafted chat.
Cormorant.
Hooping crane.
Pine creeper.
Yellow-throated creeper.
Dove.
Ground dove.
Duck.
Ilathera duck.
Round-crefted do.
Sheldrake or canvafs do.
Buffels-head do.
Spoonbill do.
Summer do.
Blackhead do.
Blue-winged flioveller.
Little brown duck.
Sprigtail.
White-faced teal.
Blue winged teal.
Pied-bill dobchick.
Eagle.
Bald eagle.
Flamingo.
Fieldfare of Carolina, or
robin.
Purple finch.
Bahama finch.
American goldfinch.
Painted finch.
Crefled fly-catcher.
Black-cap do.
Little brown do.
Red-eyed do.
Finch creeper.
Storm finch.
Goatfucker of Carolina.
Gull.
Laughing gull.
Goofe.
Canada goofe.
Hawk.
Fifhing hawk.
Pigeon do.
Night do.
Swallow-tailed do.
Hangbird.
Heron.
Little white heron.
Heath cock.
Humming bird.
Purple jackdaw or crow
blackbird.
King bird.
Kingfilher.
Loon.
Lark.
Large lark.
Blue linnet.
Mock bird.
Mow bird.
Purple martin.
Nightingale.
Noddy.
Nuthatch.
Oyffer-catcher.
Owl.
Screech owl.
American partridge or
quail.
Pheafant or mountain par¬
tridge.
Water pheafant.
Pelican.
Water pelican.
Pigeon of paffage.
White-crowned pigeon.
Parrot of paradife.
Paroquet of Carolina*
Raven.
Rice bird.
1 l A
Red bird.
Summer red bird.
Swan.
Soree.
Snipe.
Redftart.
Red-winged ftarling.
Swallow.
Chimney do.
Snow bird.
Little fparrow.
Bahama do.
Stork.
Turkey.
Wild turkey.
Tyrant.
Crefted titmoufe.
Yellow do.
Bahama do.
Hooded do.
Yellow rump.
M E
Towhe bird.
Red thrufti.
Fox-coloured thrufli.
Little thrufli.
Tropic bird.
Turtle of Carolina.
Water wagtail.
Water hen.
Water witch.
Wakon bird.
Whetfaw.
Large white-billed wood
pecker.
Large red-crefted do.
Gold-winged do.
Red-bellied do.
Hairy do.
Red-headed do.
Yellow-bellied do.
Smalleft fpotted do.
Wren.
Ain erica.
Of all thefe, it has been remarked, that the birds of
America generally exceed thofe of Europe in the beau¬
ty of their plumage j but are much inferior to them in
the melody of their notes. The buzzard, commonly The Tur-
called the turkey buzzard, from its refemblance to akeybuz-
turkey in plumage and fliape, is very common all over 8ar^*
South Carolina. It appears that the police of Charlef-
town is extremely deficient in thofe meafures which
ftiould not be neglefted in a populous town, in fo hot
a climate. Hence the bodies of dead animals are fre¬
quently left expofed in the neighbourhood, together
with the refufe of flaughter-houfes. But the voracity
of the turkey buzzard alleviates the effefts of this ne¬
gligence. It fpeedily devours every thing, and leaves
only the bones of any carcafe tfyit it finds. Hence it is
accounted a kind of facred bird : no law has been en¬
abled prohibiting it to be killed ; but among thd whole
inhabitants of the town, the public opinion fufficiently
protefts its fafety.
In all parts of the United States, confiderable num-Amencara
bers of fnakes are found. But they are neither fofnakes.
numerous nor fo venomous in the northern as in the
fouthern ftates. The foollwing is given as a lift of
them.
Rattfefnake.
Small rattlesnake.
Yellow rattlefnake..
Water vipeav
Black do.
Brown do.
Copper-bellied fnake.
Bluifti-green do.
Black do.
Ribbon do.
Spotted ribbon do.
Chain do.
Joint do.
Green-fpotted do.
Coachwhip do.
Corn fnake.
Hognofe do.
Houfe do.
Green do.
Wampum do.
Glafs do.
Bead do.
Wall or houfe adder;
Striped or garter fnake.
Water do.
Hiding do.
Thorn-tailed do.
Speckled do.
Ring do.
Two-headed do.
The joint fnake is a curiofity. Its fkin is as hard as The4^
parchment, and as fmooth as glafs. It is beautifully
ftriped
439
Rat t le-
fn ake.
A M E [it
> merica. ftrlpeJ 'vith Mack and white. Its joints are fo few
  v > and ft iff, that it can hardly bend itfelf into the form
of a hoop. When ftruck, it breaks like a pipe’s ftem,
and with a whip it may be broken from the tail to the
bowels into pieces not an inch long, without produ¬
cing the lead tin&ure of blood. It is not venomous.
It is not known whether the two-headed fnake be a
diftimft fpecies, or only a monftrous produftion, very
few of them having ever been feen. But of all the
American fnakes, the rattlefnake is the chief, as be¬
ing the mod frequent and the moft dangerous. It is a
peaceful animal, however, and never bites but on being
irritated. In the northern ftates it is little regarded,
and its bite feems not to be fatal. “ We found (fays
the duke de la Rochefoucault Liancourt), a young
man, who, about fix weeks before, had been bitten on
the knee by a rattlefnake, while he was fiftnng on
the banks of Lake Cauandaqua. At firft he did not
feel much pain in the part affefted •, but an hour after¬
wards a fwelling appeared, which gradually extended
all along the leg to the foot, and both became fo ftift
that he was unable to move them. A cure was efleet¬
ed within the fpace of only fix days by the juice ot
fnake-root laid on the wound and fwelling, as a poul¬
tice, mixed with milk, together with a lew drops ol
that juice, pure and unmixed, taken internally. In-
ftances of fuch bites occur but very feldom, and only,
it feems, when the animal has been touched ; other-
wife it conftantly retires, and may be killed by a blow
with the flendereft flick.” But in the fouthern ftates,
particularly in South Carolina, the inhabitants are more
afraid of thefe animals than in New York or Pemnlyl-
vania; as inftances are known in that fouthern climate
of people having died a quarter of an hour after they
were bitten by the rattlefnake. The juice oip/antago
Vimiana, Linn, or the root and branches of mahuba
bruifed, are the remedies moft commonly applied, flu-
ther of thefe plants is fufficient«, but they are deemed
more efficacious when they are applied jointly. A to¬
bacco leaf, fteeped in turn, or a Angle leaf of one ot
the above plants, takes off the pam and fwelling. Cm-
far a negro, difeovered this cure in South Carolina ;
he proved its efficacy to the affembly of the ftates, in
i-780, by caufing a rattlefnake to bite him; and ob¬
tained for this arcanum his liberty, and a penfion ot
100 guineas a-year. „ „ . r 1 • ,1 tt :
An aftoniffiing variety of irffiefts is found m the Uni¬
ted States. Of thefe, during the fummer, the mutketo
is the moft troublefome. In the back parts of the ftate
of New York, the lands are frequently vifited by a
fnecies of locufts which fix chiefly on the trees and
confume the leaves. They are fo extremely numerous,
that every attempt to deftroy or remove them is appa¬
rently fruitlefs. Flies, likewife, in moift fituatiomq are
troublefome, being found in fuch prodigious
440
Infeits.
441
Bees.
fwarms, efpeeially about noon, that the farmers are
obliged to keep large fires burning near their houfes,
where the cattle find (belter from thefe tormenting m-
feas till the cool of the evening, when the latter dil-
anpear, and retire into the woods.
Bees are found in the woods in fwarms, which pro¬
duce large quantities of honey, of different qualities,
according to the kinds of flowering flirubs and plants
tW nrevail in the neighbourhood. It is faid, how-
ever/that this valuable infed is moft ufually found m
2 ] A M E
the vicinity of cultivated places, where a part at leait America^
of the timber has been cut down, and that hence, v—y—^
when the favages perceive a fwarm of bees, they lay,
that it is time for them to remove, as the approaches
of cultivation not only bring white men, who are al¬
ways in fome meafure their enemies, but alio tend to
narrow their hunting grounds. T he planters not only
rear enough of bees to fupply themfelves with honey ot
an excellent quality, but coiffiderable quantities are
brought to the coaft for exportation. . 44*
An account has been given by an American phy- 0113
fician, Dr Benjamin Smith Barton, of a poifonous or phi(Jjn^
injurious kind of honey colledled by bees in the tern-
tory of the United States, which is, perhaps, worthy March
of attention both for philofophical and for commercial 1802.
reafons. “ The honey which I call deleterious (fays he)
or poifonous honey, produces, as far as I have learned,
the following fymptoms, viz. In the beginning a dim-
nefs of fight, or vertigo fucceeded by a delirium, which
is fometimes mild and pleafant, and fometimes ferocious,
ebriety, pain in the ftomach and inteftines, profufe per-
fpiration, foaming at the mouth, vomiting and pur¬
ging, and, in a few inftances, death. In fome perfons
a vomiting is the firft effeft of the poifon. When this
is the cafe, it is probable that the perfons fuffer much
lefs from the honey than when no vomiting is induced.
Sometimes the honey has been obferved to produce a
temporary palfy of the limbs : an effea which I have
remarked in animals that have eaten of one of thole
very vegetables, the kalmia latifolia, from whole
flowers the bees obtain a pernicious honey. . Death is
very feldom the confequence of eating this kind of
honey. The violent impreffion which it makes upon
the ftomach and inteftines often induces an early vomit¬
ing or purging, which are both favourable to the fpeedy
recovery of the patient. The fever which it excites
is frequently relieved, in a fliort time, by the profufe
perfpiration, and perhaps by the foaming at the mouth.
I may add, that, as the human conftitution refifts to an
aftoniffiing degree the effeas of the narcotic or other
poifonous vegetables that are heft known to us, fo we
need not wonder, that it abb refifts the effeas of the
deleterious honey that is produced from fuch vege-
tables.
“ It deferves to be mentioned, that the honey which
is formed by two different hives of bees in the fame
tree, or at a little diftance from each other, often pof-
feffes the moft oppofite properties. Nay, the honey
from the fame individual combs is fometimes not lefs
different in tafte, in colour, and in its effeas. Thus
one ftratum or portion of it may be eaten without the
lead inconvenience, whilft that which is immediately
adjacent to it (hall occafion the feveral effeas which I
have juft enumerated. I have taken fome pains to
learn what are the figns by which the deleterious ho¬
ney may at firft view be diftinguiffied from innocent
honey. I am informed that there is no difficulty in
the matter.
“ The poifonous honey is faid by fome to be of a
crimfon colour ; by others, it is faid to be of a reddilh
brown colour, and of a thicker confidence than com¬
mon innocent honey. Thefe are the figns by which
I am told the moft experienced hunters in the fouthern
parts of North America are enabled to diftinguifti per¬
nicious from innocent honey.”
Dr
A M E [i
America. -^r Barton, however, juftly doubts the infallibility
——Y——of thefe ligns, fo far as they depend upon the colour
of the honey, as Mr Bruce found honey red like blood
at Dixan in Abyffinia, which he does not fay was poi-
ibnous; and the honey collected in Scotland from the
flowers of the erica, or blooming heather, is ufually of
a dirty brown colour, though it was never known to
poffefs any noxious property. He proceeds to ftate,
that a friend of his, Mr William Bartram, who has
written upon the natural productions of North Ame¬
rica, informed him, that “ in the Carolinas and Flori-
das the poifonous honey is often fo limilar in colour,
tafte, and odour, to the common or innocent honey,
that the former cannot be diftinguilhed from the lat¬
ter. It is owing, he fays, to this circumftance, that fo
many accidents daily happen from the ufe of the wild
honey. He was informed, that it is experience alone
which enables the hunters nnd others to determine
whether the honey which they find in the woods be
poifonous or innocent. They have obferved that the
injurious effeCts manifefl themfelves in a (hort time
after the honey is taken into the ftomach. They are
accuftomed, therefore, to eat a fmall quantity before
they venture to fatisfy their appetite. Should this
produce any difagreeable effeCts, they do not think it
.prudent to continue the ufe of it: but, if in a Ihort
time it ftiould occafion no inconvenience, they think
Xhey may, with perfeCl fafety, indulge their appetite to
the full.
<c I have been informed, that the poifonous honey,
by boiling and draining, may be rendered as innocent
as any honey whatever. It is likewife faid, that, by
Jong keeping, it becomes harmlefs. It is poifonous to
dogs as well as to men. Hitherto I have not been
able to obtain any certain information concerning the
means to be purfued in the treatment of perfons la¬
bouring under the effeCls of the poifonous honey. It
is faid, that the Indians and fome of the whites ufe
cold bathing with advantage. As the effe&s produ¬
ced by this honey are fimilar to thofe produced by fe-
veral narcotic vegetables that are well known to us,
fuch as opium, hyofciamus niger or henbane, datura
Jlramonium or thorn-apple, &c. it is probable that
the fame means of treatment will apply to both cafes.
In South Carolina, Georgia, and the two Floridas, but
more efpeciajly in Eaft Florida, the inftances of injury
From the eating of w-ild honey are more numerous than
in any other parts of North America that are known
to us. I here is a tra61 of country, included between
the rivers St Ilia and St Mary’s in Eaft Florida, that
is remarkable for immenfe numbers of bees. Thefe in-
lefts, which were originally introduced into Florida by
the Spaniards, have increafed into innumerable fwarms,
from the facility with which they procure their food,
m, perhaps, the richeft flowered country of North A-
merica. . In this traft of country the alarming effefts
of the wild, honey are often experienced by the fettlers,
by wandering hunters, and by favages.
It is highly probable that this poifonous honey is
procured from a confiderable number of the flowers of
the countries which I have mentioned. A complete
lift of thefe flowers would be acceptable j but fuch a
M it will be difficult to procure at prefent. Meanwhile
am happy to have it in my power to mention fome of
the vegetables from whofe flowers the bees extraft a de-
Vol. II. Part I.
13 ] AM E
leterious honey, not only in the country between the America.
St Ilia and St Mary’s, but alfo in fome other parts of v —w—
North America. Thefe vegetables are the kalmia
angujlifolia and latifoha of Linnreus, the ka/mia hirfuta F/ara Ca¬
di Walter, the andromeda mariana, and fome other fpe- roliniar.a,
cies of this genus. p- i38-
“ Every American has heard of the poifonous pro¬
perties of the kalmia angujlifolia and latifolia. The
former of thefe plants is known in the United States
by the names of dwarf laurel, ivy, lambkill, &c. It
has long been known that its leaves, when eaten by
flieep, prove fatal to them. The following faft like¬
wife will fliew, that the flowers alfo are endued
with a poifonous property. About 20 years fince, a
party of young men, folicited by the profpeft of gain,
moved with a few hives of bees from Pennfylvania in¬
to the Jerfeys. They were induced to believe, that the
favannahs of this latter country w’ere very favourable
to the increafe of their bees, and confequently to the
making of honey. They accordingly placed their
hives in the midft of thefe favannahs, which were finely
painted with the flowers of the kalmia angujlifolia.
The bees increafed prodigioufly j and it was evident,
that the principal part of the honey which they made
was obtained from the flowers of the plant which I have
juft mentioned. I cannot learn that there was any
thing uncommon in the appearance of the honey ; but
all the adventurers, who ate of it, became intoxicated
to a great degree. From this experiment they were
fenfible that it wmuld not be prudent to fell their ho¬
ney ; but, unwilling to lofe all their labour, they made
the honey into the drink well known by the name of
rnetheglin, fuppofing that the intoxicating quality, which
had refided in the honey, would be loft in the metheg-
lin. In this refpeft, however, they were miftaken:
the drink alfo intoxicated them, after which they re¬
moved their hives. In North Carolina, this fpecies of
kalmia, and the andromeda mariana, are fuppofed to be
the principal vegetables from which the bees prepare
the poifonous honey that is common in that part of the
United States.
“ The kalmia latifolia, known in the United States
by the names of laurel, great laurel, winter green, fpoon
haunch, fpoon wood, &.c. is alfo a poifon. Its leaves
indeed are eaten with impunity by the deer, and by
the round-horned elk; but they are poifonous to ftieep,
to horned cattle, and to horfes. In the former of thefe
animals they produce convulfions, foaming at the
mouths, and death. Many of General Braddock’s
horfes were deftroyed by eating the leaves and the
twigs of this flirub in the month of June 1755, a few
days before this unfortunate general’s defeat and death.
In the fevere winter of the years 1790 and 1791,
there appeared to be fuch unequivocal reafons for be¬
lieving that feveral perfons in Philadelphia had died
in confequence of their having eaten our pheafant, in
whofe crops the leaves and buds of the kalmia latifolia
were found, that the mayor of the city thought it pru¬
dent, and his duty, to warn the people againft the ule
of this bird by a public proclamation. I know, that
by many perfons, efpecially by fome lovers of pheafant
flefli, the circumftance juft mentioned was fuppofed to be
deftitute of foundation : but the foundation was a folid
one. This might be Ihown by feveral well authenti¬
cated fafts. It is fufficient for my prefent purpofe to
P obferve,
A M E
[
America, obferve, that the colleftion of a deleterious honey from
i v—,j the flowers of this fpecies of kalmia gives feme counte¬
nance to the opinion, that the flefli of pheafants that
had eaten the leaves and the buds of this plant may
have been impregnated with a pernicious quality..
“ In Georgia and Florida the kalmia hirfuta is fup-
pofed to be the principal vegetable from which the
deleterious honey in thofe parts of our continent is
procured. The andromeda mariana or broad-leaved
moorvvort, is a very common plant in many parts of
North America. The leaves are poifonous to (beep.
The petioli or footftalks of the leaves, and the feeds
within the feed-veffel, are covered with a brown powder
fimilar to that of the kalmia. This powder, applied to
the noftrils, occafions violent fneezing. From the
flowers of this plant the bees extradt confiderable
quantities of honey ; and it deferves to be mentioned,
that this honey, as well as that obtained from fome
other American fpecies of andromeda, has frequently
the very fmell of the flowers from which it is obtain¬
ed.”
In addition to the above plants, from whofe flowers
the bees are known to obtain poifonous honey, the fame
writer mentions lome others which are lufpedted to be
dangerous, as the rhododendron maximum or Pennfyl-
vania mountain laurel. 1 he feeds of this plant and
the footftalks of the leaves are covered, like fome. of
the andromeda; and kalmia;, with a brown powder which
excites fneezing •, and, it is Angular, that Diofcorides
mentions fneezing as one of the fymptoms produced
by honey made about Heraclea Pontica. The azalea
nudiflora, called in the United States the wild honey-
fuckle, is allb fufpeded of producing poifonous honey.
A fpecies of this genus, the azalea pontica of Linnaeus,
is fuppofed to be the ogolethron of Pliny,, who men¬
tions it as the plant from which the poifonous honey
about Heraclea Pontica is prepared. The datura
ftramonium, called in America James-town weed, gym-
fin, Jl ink-weed,"or French chefnut, produces in the tube
of its flower a confiderable quantity ot honey, which
is fufpedfted to be of a bad quality ; becaufe the plant
itfelf is known to poffefs poifonous properties. . Upon
the whole, from what is known upon the fubjeft in
America, Dr Barton is led to fufpeft, that every flower
that is poifonous to man may produce a honey injurious
to man, fince the properties of the fluid are fo dependent
upon the properties of the plant from which it it is pro¬
duced. Hence he thinks, that there is more of poetry
than philofophy in the following lines of Pope.
In the nice bee, what fenfe fo fubtly true,
From poifonous herbs extracts the healing dew
EJfay on Man.
The kaiman, a fpecies of the alligator, or crocodile,
is alfo found in the fouthern rivers of the United States.
Some of the kaimans are of fo monftrous a fize as to ex¬
ceed five yards in length'. They devour all living ani¬
mals that they can catch. They are fond of the flelh
of ho^-s and dogs. When balking on the Ihore, they
keep their huge mouths wide open, till they are filled
with mufquetoes, flies, and other infeUs j when they
fuddenly Ihut their jaws, and fwallow their prey. Ihey
are great deftroyers of filh in the rivers and creeks,
whiedi they catch with the fame addrefs. Eight or ten
of them lie at the mouth of the river or creek, whilft
443
The kal¬
is
^ ] A M E
others go to a diftance up the river, and chafe the filh Americd
downwards ; by which means, none of any bignefs ef- u—y—I
cape them. They are faid, however, to remain torpid
during the winter in dens which they find in the banks
of the"rivers, having previoufly fwallowed a large num¬
ber of pine knots, which forms their only fuftenance
till the period of their revival or wakening. . The kai¬
man feldom touches a man, however near it may lie
to him. It conftantly flees when at land } but in the
water it is fiercer, and has been known to bite off the
leg of a perfon bathing. It more frequently attacks
dogs. Sometimes when hounds, in purluit of a flag,
fwim through the water, the kaimans feize both hounds-
and deer, and pull them down to the bottom, without
their ever appearing again. I he feales with which they
are coated render them invulnerable, unlefs the wbund
be inflidled in the interftices of the feales, or at the ex¬
tremities. ■ . 444
The climate of the great territory belonging to the
United States, mult nectffarily be various, in ednfe-
quence of the difference of latitude and foil that takes
place in it. The fnow covers Vermont and the pro¬
vince of Maine, during five or fix months of the year.j
and the winter there lafts feven months, while there .is
hardly any winter in South Carolina, and ftill lefs in
Georgia. Should any fnow fall in the latter of thefe
ftates, it does not remain two days upon the ground.
The fudden variation of temperature which frequently
occurs, is the moft remarkable charafteriftic of the cli¬
mate of the whole ftates. It is ufual to fee the ther¬
mometer rife or fall 250 of Fahrenheit’s fcale in 24
hours. In April 1796,' it fell in 12 hours from the
77th degree of Fahrenheit to qq-J0, and this obfervation
was made at Wilmington ^in Delaware, and in Balti¬
more. The river Delaware at Philadelphia, three miles
in breadth, is fometimes frozen over in one night, and
the fame thing occurs in all the rivers of Virginia
and to the northward. The feafons, in the United
States, are only three : fummer, winter, and autumn,
or what the Americans more expreflively call the fall,
from the falling of the leaves in the forefts. The tran-
fition, from the locking up of all vegetation in winter
to the fudden burft of it again to life at the beginning
of fummer, is fo rapid as utterly to exclude that progref-
five and delightful feafon, which, in the more moderate
climate of Europe, receives the appellation of fpring.
Within a week or ten days after the melting of the
fnow, the woods and orchards are in full bloom.
Both the heat and cold are more intenfe in Ame¬
rica than in Europe. The froft is ftronger and more
durable. The funlhine is more ardent and perma¬
nent, and the heat is far more oppreflive and infup-
portable. It may be remarked, that in the different
latitudes of the United States, the heat differs more in
its duration than in its power. In 1795 at Newark,,
on the frontiers of Upper Canada, the duke de la
Rochefoucault Liancourt faw the thermometer of Fah¬
renheit rife in July to 920. In the month of Au-
guft the fame year he faw it at 96° at Albany in the
ftate of New York. At Savannah in Georgia, it fel¬
dom rifes above that heightthough from Newark
or Albany, to Savannah, there is a difference of 14^
of latitude. But the thermometer remains during a
month or twro at Savannah at this height, and very fel-
dorn two days together in the northern ftates. Th©
following
A M E [i
olio wing remarks and fafts, relative to the climate and
feafons in America and Europe, are given by Dr Holy-
oke of Salem in the date of Maffachufets •, and com¬
pletely demonftrate the intenfenefs both of the heat and
the cold that are experienced in the mod northerly
dates of the American union.
“ The following table exhibits the mean or medium
degree of greated heat and cold by Fahrenheit’s ther-
Mean of
gr. cold.
IO.19&
2.98a
0.62a
I.l8a
12.77^
4.6
l.2a
2.42^
4.26a
10.2a
19.93a
16.93a
27.5a
33.46a
2.426
“ Thefe European cities, except Rome, are all north
of the latitude of Salem. But in the whole middle region
of Europe, which is from 7 to 10 degrees north of Sa¬
lem, the heat in fummer and cold in winter are, on an
average, lefs than at Salem by a difference of 5, 8, and
10 degrees. Comparing the temperature of the Eu¬
ropean atmofphere under nearly the fame parallel of
latitude with Salem, viz. at Rome, Padua, and Mar-
feilles, it is found that the mean of greated heat in
Europe falls drort of ours by 8 degrees, and the mean
of greated cold by more than 30 degrees. It is alfo
found, by obfervations made at different times and
places, that in America there falls a greater quantity
of rain annually than in Europe ; we have notwith-
danding more fair weather, and fewer cloudy, foggy,
and rainy days. The medium quantity of rain that
falls yearly in Europe does not exceed 30 inches of wa¬
ter, whereas in America the medium quantity is at lead
50 inches.
“ The mean number of fair days, according to ob¬
fervations made in 20 cities of Europe, amounts only
to 64. Several obfervations in America make the
mean number of fair days to be about 130. The mean
number of cloudy days in the fame cities of Europe
(all which are upon the continent) was, in 1785, 113 $
in America there are about 80 or 90. The number
of rainy days in the fame cities was, on a mean, 1225
the number in America is 85 or 90. Thefe faffs feem
to prove that the atmofphere of Europe is more humid
than that in America ; and this may be one caufe why
the European climate is more temperate under the fame
parallels of latitude, and lefs fubjeft to extremes of heat
and cold.
“ The following facts concerning the temperature
of our own climate are extremely curious. From ob¬
fervations made at four different hours in the day for
mometer :
Stockholm
Copenhagen
Berlin
Mons
Prague
Wurtzburg
Manheim
Ratifbon
Buda
Geneva
Rochelle
Padua
Marfeilles
Rome
Salem in Maffa¬
chufets
1
Lat.
north.
59° 20'
55 4°
52 32
5° 25
5° 4
49 46
49 27
48 56
47 4°
46 12
46 o
45 22
43 z7
41 53
42 31
Mean of
gr. heat.
83.98
8t.77
89-37
89.15
92.7
93-87
89.6
79-7
9°-7
88.9
9°-5
9i-4
89.6
8543
97.2
15] A M E
feven years, it is found that the mercury in Fahrenheit America,
rofe to 8o° and upwards. —y—.
In 1786.
Days.
June 13
July 11
Aug. 8
Sept. 2
oa. 1
In 1787.
Days.
June 10
July 13
Aug. 13
Sept. 2
35
38
In 1789.
Days.
May 1
June 12
July 13
Aug. 11
Sept. 1
In 1790.
Days.
May 1
June 5
July 14
Aug. 7
Sept. 2
29
In 1791.
Days.
May 7
June 15
July 16
Aug. 15
Sept. 1
oa. 1
55
In 1788.
Days.
June 5
July 13
Aug. 8
Sept. 1
27
In 1792.
Days.
May 7
June 10
July 15
Aug. 10
Sept. 2
44
38
The thermometer was at and above 90°,
In 1786, 4 days I79°> 2 days.
1787, 2 do, I79I> 12 ^°-
1788, 1 do. z792» 8 do.
1789, 4 do.
During the fame years in winter, the thermometer
Was at and below 3 2°, the freezing point j
In 1786, 108 days, and below o, 4 days.
1787, in do. do. 4 do.
1788, 108 do. do. 6 do.
1789, 105 do. do. 3 do.
1790, 119 do. do. 5 do.
1791, Hi do. do. I do.
1792, 102 do. do. 3 do.
The mean of the mean temperature of each month
during the feven years is as follows :
Jan. 24.8 tenths
Feb. 25.
Mar. 36.
April 45.
May 56.8
June 67.
July 71.
Aug. 69.7
Sept. 61.
Oft. 49.5
Nov. 40.
Dec. 27.
Mean temperature of each feafon.
Spring.
45°9
1786,
1787,
1788,
1789,
I79°,
I79r»
1792,
Winter.
25°7
25.8
25‘5
24.9
29.2
23-3
25-5
45-7
45-2
43-9
43-6
48.6
49.4
Summer.
70°6
68.1
68.9
70.2
67.9
71.0
68.7
Autumn.
50°9
5°-3
52.1
49-5
49-5
49.0
5I-3
Total mean temperature of each year :
1786, 48°53 1790,
1787, 47.88 1791,
1788, 47.67 1792,
1789, 47.68
Total mean temperature of the feven years, 47-94-
P 2 A?
46°43
48.96
48.44
A M E [ 116 ] A M E
America. As the obfervatvons in the morning were not made at
'“'•"V 1 funrife, but at eight o’clock, Dr Holyoke fuppofes a
fmall abatement muft be made j and the mean tempe¬
rature of the feven years fixed at 47.5.
Mean temperature at the time of each obfervation :
At eight o’clock A. M. 46.55.
At noon, ’ - 54*I5*
Sunfet, - - 47.60,
At ten o’clock P, M. - 43 •7*
445
Effedl of
the climate
on the in¬
habitants.
“ Whence it appears, that the mean temperature of
the day is at funfet, and that the temperature of the
month of April is very little below the mean tempera¬
ture of the year.”
The very great variations of climate here indicated
are faid not to extend themfelves in an equal degree
beyond the tra£l of the Alleghany mountains ; fo that
in the fame latitude the climate is much more mild up¬
on the banks of the Ohio than on the fhores of the At¬
lantic ocean. As that part of the country, however, is
yet lefs inhabited, or has only been fo for a fhort period,
very few authentic documents have reached us concern¬
ing it.
The extremes of heat and cold which fo rapidly fuc-
ceed each other in America at different feafons, and
which perfevere fo ffeadily when they are once be¬
gun, do not fail to afFeft very fenfibly the health of
the inhabitants of the United States. In general,
people become old in America fooner than in Europe.
In the more northern parts of the country, that is, in
the New England ftates, and alfo near the mountains,
this is lefs fenfibly the cafe ; but excepting in thefe
fituations, it is more rare to fee men of a great age
there than in Europe. The influence of the climate
upon females is ftill more fenfible. When young, they
are generally beautiful, and more particularly fo at
Philadelphia, and in the other middle ftates.. But
after 20 years of age they foon begin to lofe their frefti
colour. At 25, many of them might be taken for
Europeans of 40 ; as their bloom is faded, and their
form has already fuffered a change. If they have pre-
vioufly been mothers, which in this rifing country is
ufually the cafe, their alteration is ftill more premature.
Yet, it is admitted, that neither nightly revels, the
abufe of fpirituous liquors, the want of exercife,. nor an
excefs of it, can be brought to account for this early
change. In the northern ftates, the period of their
beauty is indeed lengthened, but only for a few years.
Whereas, in the fouthern ftates it is ftiortened. In
South Carolina, at the age of 30, a women appears old ;
and both men and women foon lofe the bloom of
youth, and feel the infirmities of age. .At the age of
50, in that exhaufting climate, the . hair becomes en¬
tirely white. The number of children that die in
their infancy is faid to be proportionally much greater
than in Europe 5 though this does not prevent , the po¬
pulation from advancing with nearly twenty times the
rapidity that it does with us. Colds, hooping-coughs,
and diforders of the throat, carry off great numbers of
children. The moft common mortal difeafes in all the
ftates are dropfies of the cheft, confumptions, and bili¬
ous and putrid fevers. Of difeafes that are not mor¬
tal, the moft frequent of all is the ague or intermitting
fever, which, however, fometimes degeneiates into a Amerid
bilious fever. Thefe intermitting fevers are undoubted- u—
ly the refult of a climate abounding in moifture, arifing
from immenfe rivers, fwamps, and forefls, a£ted upon
by the intenfe heat of a burning fun. In fuch a fitua-
tion the human ftrength is exhaufted, fo as to be at
all times liable to fall into this fimpleft and leaft danger¬
ous form of fever. Though it is experienced by al-
moft every ftranger, and at times by moft of the na¬
tives, it is feldom hazardous; but at the fame time it
undoubtedly enfeebles the conftitution, and prepares it
for finking under other difeates. It is always towards
the end of fummer, when the heat is moft intenfe, and
the health of the people moft weakened by the hot
and moift climate of America, that the dreadful dif-
eafe, the yellow fever, makes its appearance. It thus
comes at a period when intermittent levers at all times
abound ; and the extreme mortality which it produces
is probably to be accounted for, not lefs from the ftate
of debility and relaxation with regard to general
health, than from any peculiar malignity of the dif-
temper, which never fails to yield to the reftorative
and ftrengthening power of a few frofty days, or even
of rainy. It is a Angular circumftance, that of the
great number of French who were in Philadelphia
during the different periods at which it was defolated
by this fatal .fcourge, fometimes none, and never more
than four or five in a feafon, fuffered by the yellow
fever, though none of them deferted the city on that
occafion. The only plaufible, though probably inade¬
quate, account which has ever been given of the caule
of their efcaping that calamity, is their habitual ab-
ftinence from fpirituous liquors; in the ufe of which
the Americans of all ranks, that is the men, not the
women, indulge very freely, and thereby no doubt in-
creafe the degree of debility which the climate has a
tendency to produce, and confequently expofe them¬
felves in a greater degree to the influence of any, con¬
tagious diftemper. Under all its difadvantages, however,
the climate of America allows the full exertion and
enjoyment of all the human faculties. Men of found
conftitutions in every part of it attain to old age. Even
in South Carolina in 1787, of the 9600 white inhabi¬
tants of Charleftown 200 were above 60 years ; and.in
the New England ftates inftances of great longevity
abound. > 446'
The manufactures that are carried on in the United America
States are extremely few. A year feldom paffes away,™^ac'
without attempts being made by individuals to eftablilh
cotton-works, glafs-houfes, and other extenfive manu-
faClories, but without fuccefs. Sometimes, particular
ftates afiift in the moft liberal manner, with the public
money, the undertakers of thefe plans; but the money
is foon fpent, and the work obliged to be dropped.
The reafon is obvious. In the European nations, men
and women abound, and the lower claffes are, therefore,
under the neceflity of giving their induftry, and the
refult of their {kill, for little more than what is barely
fufficient to afford them fubfiftence. In America the
cafe is different. Men are few, the foil is fertile and un¬
occupied, and fubfiftence is eafily procured. Every man
afpires, therefore, to the poffeflion of fomething beyond
the gratification of his prefent wants, or the mere necef-
faries of life\ He endeavours to become independent,
by obtaining and cultivating a portion of the foil for
A M E [ i
I .-ttnerica. liis own ufe. To withdraw him from an enterprife of
' this kind, which is fo flattering to the paflions of all
men, a large reward is neeeflary, or, in other words,
if an ordinary tradefman in America do not receive
high wages, he will go to theVoods, and fettle as a
farmer, or fmall proprietor, which in that country he
can do upon eafy terms. Hence it happens, that the
manufasflurers of Europe find it eafy to underfell all
thofe who attempt to rival them in America. Even,
when a Ikiiful European manufacturer conveys his ca¬
pital and his tools acrofs the Atlantic, the cafe is not
altered. His fervants and labourers muft be carried
along with him. Suppofing this difficulty to be fur-
mounted, he muft; immediately give them three times
the wages that they received in Europe, or they will
not remain in his fervice, as they can eafily obtain fueh
a price for their induftry there. In confequence of high
wages, they are enabled, in a year or two, to accumu¬
late enough of money to enable them to purchafe or
obtain credit for a fmall farm, in a fertile though re¬
mote part of the country. They never fail, therefore,
fpeedily to defert the bufinefs to which they were ori¬
ginally educated, and to betake themfelves to agricul¬
ture, which, from the independence it affords, is of all
occupations the moft grateful to the human mind. Thus,
any great manufacture carried on in America, could
only be fupported by a fucceffion of emigrant work¬
men, receiving exorbitant wages, and having the pro-
fpeCl of immediately deferting it j a fituation, in which
it evidently could not profper. Hence, to a very re¬
mote period, that is, till land fliall become fcarce and
precious, in confequence of an overflowing population,
the United States of America muft depend upon Eu¬
rope for their moft valuable manufactures. Neithe'r
is this a misfortune to America. Men there, as elfe-
where, in following out their own private intents, con¬
tribute moft effectually to advance the profperity of
their country. Agriculture is there purfued becaufe it
is the moft profitable of all employments to thofe who
engage in it, and leads them moft rapidly to the pof-
feflion of property and independence ; at the fame time,
by providing in abundance the means of fubfiftence, it
facilitates to the community the acquifition of what
chiefly it wants, a numerous population, which, by the
natural progrefs of things, will ultimately bring in its
train the cultivation of all the arts.
The Americans, however, are not deftitute of a con-
fiderable variety of fuch manufactures, as their peculiar
fituation has naturally led them to eftablilh. We have
already mentioned, the manufacture of iron from the
ore, which they praCtife in feveral fituations to the
eaftward of the mountains, though not to fuch extent
as to fupply the wants of their country. They alfo
tan leather, which they are induced to do from the
abundance of oak-bark that they pofftfs ; and they
manufacture hats in confiderable quantities. They have
diftilleries for the preparation of fpirituous liquors, both
from molaffes imported from the Weft India iflands,
and from grain. Tradefmen in the towns, and private
families in remote fituations, prepare foap, candles, and
malt liquors. In the remoter diftriCts, the women alfh
prepare a confiderable part of the clothing of their
families. Upon the rivers, great numbers of faw mills
are ereCied, for the purpofe of converting to profit the
17 ] A M E
timber, which they are under the neceflity of cutting .America,
down, before the lands can be brought into cultiva- —y—~
tion. ConneCled with this operation, of clearing the
land of timber, is the preparation of pot and pearl allies.
As this forms a confiderable branch of the trade of
many American towns, the back country of which
has been recently fettled, we fhall here ftate the mode
of preparing this fait, which has been generally adopted.
Large tubs with a double bottom are filled with thepotafi/
alhes of wood : the uppermoft bottom, which contains works,
feveral holes, is covered with alhes, about 10 or 11
inches deep, while the under part of the tub is filled
with ftraw or hay. Water being poured over the alhes
extraCIs the particles of fait, and difcharges all the hete¬
rogeneous matter which it may yet contain on the lay¬
er of hay or ftraw. The ley is drawn off by means
of a cock, and if it ftiould not yet have attained a fuf-
ficient degree of ftrength, poured again over the fame
or over frefti allies. The ley is deemed fufficiently
ftrong when an egg fwims on it. This ley is after-
rvards boiled in large iron caldrons, which are con-
ftantly' filled out of other caldrons, in which ley is
likewife boiling. If the ley begins to thicken in the
caldron, no frelh ley is added, but the fire is well
fed with fuel until all the aqueous particles are fe-
parated, and the whole is completely infpiffated and
indurated. T. his fait is of a black colour, and called
b/ack potafh. Some manufacturers leave the potafti in
this itate in the caldron, and increafe the fire, by
means of which the oil is difengaged from the fait in a
thick fmoke, and the black potafti affumes a gray colour,
in which ftate it is packed up in the barrels for fale.
The procefs of preparing the potafti requires more
or kfs time according to the quality of the allies and
the ley, and to the degree of ftrength of the latter :
the medium time is 24 hours. The allies of green
wood, and efpecially of oak, are preferred. No potalli
can be prepared from the allies of refinous trees, and
alhes which are five or fix months old are better than
thofe that are new.
Some manufacturers ufe only one caldron for boil¬
ing, which they fill with cold ley as it comes from the
tubs, and others puts the fait, as foon as it begins to
coagulate, into fmaller caldrons to complete the pro¬
cefs,.
In many parts of the ftate of New York, efpecially
in the north, and the vicinity of Albany, the inhabi¬
tants w7ho fell the wood prepare the potafh. But
there are alfo large manufactories, where from 30 to
40 tubs are ufed for preparing the ley, and from 10 to
1 2 caldrons for its evaporation. The manufacturers
buy the allies from private families. The tubs and
caldrons are of different fixes, in proportion to the
greater or lefs extent of the manufactory. By a gene¬
ral eftimate, from five to fix hundred buftiels of allies
yield a ton of potafti.
The barrels in which the potafti is packed up, muft
be made of white oak, or, if this cannot be had, of
wood which is but little porous. The ftaves ought to
be far more durable than for calks in which other
dry goods are packed, the hoops alfo muft be more
numerous ^ for the leaft fiffure would expofe the pot¬
afti to humidity, to the air, and confequently to delL
quefcence and diffolution. Inftances have occurred,
when
A M E [ii
America. 'U’lien barrels badly made and hooped, and which had
* v 1 been filled with potalh, were foon after found to be half
443 empty. '
Pearl-athes. Pearl-a(li is well known to be potadi purified by cal¬
cination. To this end the potadi is put into a kiln,
contlrutted in an oval form, of plader of Paris *, the
in fide of which being made otherwife perfedlly clofe,
is horizontally interfered by an iron grate, on which
the potadi is 'placed. Under this grate a fire is made •,
and the heat reverberated by the arched upper part of
the kiln, completes the calcination, and converts die
potadi into pearl-adi, which is taken out of the kiln,
and, when completely cooled, packed in barrels. I ha
procefs of calcination lads about an hour. Pearl-adi is
proportionally more heavy than potadi, on account of
its greater compaftnefs, and the lofs of iveight experi¬
enced by the latter, though the calcination is very
triding. Although pearl-afh is lefs liable to deliquefee
bv the air than potadi, yet the barrels in which it is
packed are of the fame fort and ftrudure with thole m
which the latter fait is barrelled. They are of differ¬
ent fizes, and contain from 200 to 300 pounds. Pot¬
adi as well as pearl-adi is fold by tons in the courle
of trade ; and it is not lawful to export either before
it is duly infpefted by the public fearehers, who are ap¬
pointed for this purpofe in all the dates where pearl or
Ail0 potadi is manufaftured.
Maple The manufaclure of fugar from the maple tree,
-fugar. acer faccharinum Linn, called by the Indians oxeketa,
is peculiar to the United States of America. Ihe
whole country to the northward of Pennfylvania a-
bounds with thefe trees, and alfo to the fouthward up¬
on approaching the. mountains. In the wedern terri¬
tory they everywhere abound. Very eon fider able
quantities of fugar are made from them ; fo as to af¬
ford to the inhabitants an abundant fupply of that va¬
luable commodity. The medium produce of a tree
dandino- in the midd of a wood, is three pounds 01 iu-
par the average produce of trees danding on ground
which has been cleared of all other woods, is from dx
to feven pounds per tree. A barrel of the Hrd juice
which comes from the maple tree will yield feven
pounds of fugar, and four if it dand in the midd of
other wood. The ordinary price of this fugar is _ is.
per pound. A barrel of the fecond juice will yield
three gallons and a half of treacle. Four or five bar¬
rels of the third juice will yield one barrel of a good
and pleafant vinegar. The vinegar is found to ke bet¬
ter in proportion, as the juice is more concentrated by
hnilin^ Hence fome perfons brew but one barrel 01
vinegar' from 10 barrels of the third juice To clari¬
fy this vinegar it mud be boiled with leaves. The
third juice, when not ufed for vinegar, yields, it mix¬
ed with an equal quantity of water, a fermented li-
OUOr of an excellent flavour. The longer the fird
juice is boiled, the better and finer the fugar becomes.
In order that the trees mav continue productive, they
require to be tapped with extraordinary care that is,
the fiffures or wounds made in them for extrafting the
■mice mud neither be too deep nor too wide ; fo that
•n0 water may fettle in them, and that the wood may
clofe again in the fpace of a twelvemonth. During
the time the juice is dowing out, which lads about fix
weeks and generally begins about the commencement
of the month of February, all the days on which it
3 ] A M E
freezes cr rains are lod 5 fo that the number of days on Atnencs.
which the bufinefs can be purfued to advantage, is fre- ’ 
quently from thefe circumdances much diminifhed.
Yet during the above time, two perfons can often
make from 500 to 600 pounds of good fugar, and this
quantity is increafed in proportion to the number of
workmen employed. As the maple tree, nhereyer
it is encouraged upon a moid foil, multiplies with
adonidiing rapidity, there is no other limit to the ma-
nufa&ure than the want of people to engage in it, or
the limited demand for the commodity in a thinly
peopled country. (For other particulars refpeaing this
intereding fubjecl, fee Sugar). . 45° I
Ship-building is an art much pra&ifed in the north-Ship-buU
ern da'tes upon'Uie fea coad. The Americans are un- ing
derftood to poffefs confiderable fkill in this branch of
bufinefs, and to perform their work both in a fubdan-
tial and frugal manner. In building veffels in New
England, they make the beams which fu.pport the deck
from the trunk of the fpruce fir*, taking care that
thefe, and fome other parts which are framed of this
timber, have a fufficient thicknefs of wood, and be
drongly rivetted together. The red of the veffel is
made of oak planks. It is only of late that the fpruce
fir has been ufed in building dups in this quarter. Ihe
{hip-builders affirm, that it is an improvement to the
veffels 5 though, in all probability, the fcarcity of oak
which now begins to be felt on the fea coad of New
England, has been the chief caufe of the innovation.
It is faid, however, that the fpruce dr refids, better
than almod any other kind of wood, the a&ion of the
fun and the weather, which in the American climate
put all kinds of timber to a fevere trial. 'Ihe planks
of the bodv of their drips, to the water’s edge, are often
made, not of oak but of beech wood, or of the wood
of the black birch, which is reckoned equally hard and
durable. The keel is of the wood of the beech, of the
fugar maple, or of what is called the rock maple. By
udno- thefe kinds of wood for fo many purpofes, there is
often not above a fifth-part of the fldp made of oak.
The diip-builders maintain, that the beech, the black
birch, and the maple, are very ferviceable for the pre-
fervation of iron, which the faline particles of the oak
are apt to confume. Indead of ufing tallow for thofe
purpofes in (hip-building, to which it has been ufually
applied, all the diip-carpenters in America make, ufe
of train oil very plentifully laid on. By thefe devices,
they have reduced the expence of drip-building to half
of what it formerly was, to the great emolument of the
perfons engaged in it. 451
The fidreries are a branch of indudry in which Fiflumes
the Americans engage to a confiderable extent. "X he °f co
whole coad of Maffachufets, and efpecially of the di-
drift of Maine, is inhabited by filbermen engaged in
the fidring of cod upon the great bank of Newfound¬
land, or in the fea in their own neighbourhood. They
bring all the fidr on drore, where they receive the lad
dreding. The fidr are wafhed and laid in heaps, that
the water may run off. Thereafter they are expofed
for two or three days to the air: after which they are
placed on hurdles that are. about four or five feet in
breadth, three or four feet above the ground, and as
long as the field on which they are erefted. The fid)
are laid feparately, and frequently turned, that they
jnay get thoroughly dry j which happens under a
bricht
A M E
America, bright American fun in about fix days. At lafi: they
w—y—u-1 are packed in cafes, prefled down, and exported either
to the Weft Indies or to Europe. The beft fifti, that
is, thofe caught in the firft fiftiing months, are fuperior
to the reft, from being dried more {lowly. They are
fent to Spain, excepting a few that are ufually befpoke
by the better fort of people in the neighbourhood, and
are fold at double the price of thofe which are caught
later in the year, when the heat is more intenfe. The
fifti caught on the coafts of Maflachufets and of Maine
are neither fo large nor fo plentiful as thofe taken at
the Great Bank near Newfoundland ; yet this fiftiery
employs a confiderable number of veffels, which pro¬
ceed only five or fix miles from the coaft, and return
452 home every week.
Whale Befides tins, and the falmon and herring fiftieries,
ifhery. which are confiderable, the Americans alfo engage ex-
tenfively in the whale fiftiing, on the coaft of Brazil,
and in the Pacific ocean in the fame latitude, and in
the Weft Indian feas, as far eaftward as to the Cape of
Good Hope, from the 18th to the 25th degree of lati¬
tude. The bufinefs is fometimes alfo profecuted in
Hudfon’s bay, and the feas adjacent to the coaft of
Greenland and Labrador, which abound more than the
fouthern feas in whales, and thofe of a larger fize, and
fuch as aflford oil of a better quality. But as the vaft
mafles of ice which infeft the feas in thefe northern la¬
titudes render the fiftiing dangerous, the Americans in
general abandon the fiftiery in the north to the Euro¬
pean fiftiermen. Of late years, the whales have alto¬
gether abandoned the coafts of the United States,
though they were formerly found in confiderable num¬
bers in that quarter. The fpermaceti whales are chief¬
ly found in the Indian ocean, on the cbafts of Africa
and Madagafcar, in the Pacific ocean, and on the
coafts of Peru and Chili. A voyage to this fiftiing oc¬
cupies from ten to eighteen months. The crew receive
no wages, but have a certain ftiare of the blubber ; the
captain has a fifth ; the pilot a five-and-fortieth or a
iixtieth part of what is taken. The owners never
make lefs than 20 per cent, upon the adventure 5 and
the captain, from a fuccefsful voyage, in common years,
and at ordinary prices, ufually receives about eight or
nine hundred dollars. A ftiip of 160 tons has a crew
of 15 perfons and two boats. At their return, the
blubber which has been barrelled at fea is put into
frefti barrels, and cleared from its fediment before it is
carried to market; for though the fediment be as fit as
the reft for ufe in the foap-works, yet the oil in which
it appears is regarded as of inferior quality in the Eu¬
ropean market. This fediment, and a fort of white
flefti which is found in the head and belly of the whale,
453 are t^en fqueezed in a prefs. A new quantity of oil
^permaceti of the beft quality is thus obtained. The refidue which
remains after the firft prefling is put again into the
prefi, and more forcibly fqueezed than before. It af¬
fords a certain quantity of oil; and it is the produce of
this laft fi]ueezing which, after undergoing a boiling,
is poured into moulds, and forms fpermaceti candles :
Thefe are fold for half a dollar a pound. Thofe which
are called fpermaceti fifties yield this matter in great
quantity. In their heads alone there are often five or
fix tons of this matter ; though the other whales have
the head differently compofed, and do not afford above
a quarter of a ton out of each head. Thus all whales
A M E
yield more or lefs of this matter, which is fo much va- America,
lued as a material for candles. y——.
Though the Americans have few manufactures, they ^
engage extenfively in every kind of trade. In the in- tr^jgriCaii
terior of the country, almoft every perfon who can com¬
mand the requifite capital is an innkeeper, or keeps a
ftore. The employment of innkeeper is there perfedtly
refpedtable, and is carried on by perfons of diftinguifti-
ed character. What is called a itore in America is a
{hop or place where all kinds of commodities intended
for confumption are to be found and fold by retail.
Nothing is excluded from it. Train oil and candles,
ftationary wares, hardwares, and cloth, together with
diftilled fpirits, fugar, wines, and coffee, are all kept in
it in the fame manner as in the {hops of fume of the re¬
mote villages in Scotland. In fome fituations in Ame¬
rica, thefe ftores produce confiderable profit, and are
made fubfervient fto other fpeculations. When a man
engages in the clearing of land, and can at the fame
time afford to lay in the goods neceffary for keeping a
ftore, he is enabled to get back from the w’orkmen
W'hom he employs the greateft part of the wages he has
paid them, in the form of profit upon the goods which
they purchafe at his ftore. In this way, he contrives
to have his work performed at a price which ultimately
does not amount to more than a half of what is paid by
others for the fame labour.
With regard to foreign trade, the United States Foreign
have of late years poffefled a very great proportion oftra^e’
that wb’ch has been carried on among civilized na¬
tions. The vaft extent of fea coaft, amounting to near¬
ly 2000 miles, which fpreads before the United States,
the number of excellent harbours, the numerous
creeks and immenfe bays which indent the coaft,
and the rivers and lakes which peninfulate the wdrole
country, fo habituate all young perfons in America to
the idea of a maritime life, and to a fondnefs for navi¬
gation, that great numbers of them are at all times
found ready to engage in it. The enterprifing fpirit
of the people favours this tendency 5 and accordingly,
every kind of commercial fpeculation eafily finds men
ready to embark in it. For fome time after the treaty
of peace with Britain, by which their independence
was acknowledged in 1783, while each date continued
to have its particular laws, prohibitions, and regula¬
tions 5 while the euftomhoufe rates changed every year,
according to momentary confiderations •, and while an
active jealoufy and rivallhip fubfifted between the dif¬
ferent ftates, the commerce of the whole remained on
a very precarious footing. It was only from the pe¬
riod of the eftablifliment of their new conftitution that
a confident fyftem of national commerce could be
adopted. It fo happened, that this period proved ex¬
tremely favourable to their engaging extenfively in fo¬
reign trade. The violent {hock, or rather the utter
ruin, which the revolution brought along with it to
the manufaftures and commerce of France, forced her
to open the ports of her colonies to the veffels of neu¬
tral powers. From that moment, the Americans en-
grofled all the commerce of the French colonies, which
they were fo well fituated to carry on to advantage.
The other powers of Europe, which had alfo colonies
in the Weft Indies, being all fucceffively engaged in
the war, opened the ports of their colonies in like man¬
ner to the Americans, or at leaft confiderably diminiih-
ed
t up 1
A M E [i
America, ed their prohibitive regulations. Thus the commerce
of the United States had the vi&ualling of the Well
, India iflands, as well, as an exelulive trade with the
French and Dutch colonies, not only in provifions,
but alfo in commodities of every kind. Their Ihips
were freighted to carry Weft India produce to Eu¬
rope, and to bring back in return the articles neceffary
for the confumption both of the United States and of
thofe fame colonies. Add to this, that, in confequence
of the great fcarcity of provifions that during various
years prevailed either in France or in Great Britain,
the Americans found in thefe countries a ready and
profitable market for all the produftions of their coun¬
try. By thefe means, aided by the eftablifhment of
banks, and by an unexpenfive, though efficient,, go¬
vernment, the commerce of the United States foon be¬
came extremely extenfive. It reached the Eaft In¬
dies, China, and every part of the known world. It
is true, that by the raffinefs of.their fpeculations, many
American merchants fuffered ; but the tide of commer¬
cial profperity was very great upon the whole, and al-
moft unexampled ; fo that great fortunes have been ra¬
pidly acquired in all the maritime towns of the United
States. (
Whether this commercial profperity will be perma¬
nent, now that the European nations have returned to
the enjoyment of peace, and confequently have reco¬
vered the power of carrying on their own commerce
without danger or interruption, with all the advanta¬
ges of an abundant population, and of inferior wages
pf labour, is a queftion about which many, doubts have
been entertained. Jt remains, however, with men of
found refleftion in America, a queftion of fome diffi¬
culty, whether, in the prefent ftate of their affairs, the
attempt that has been made to conduct an extenfive fo¬
reign commerce, is, upon the whole, favourable to the
prolperity of their empire. Diftant navigations are un¬
doubtedly unfavourable to the progrefs of population,
by the great number of men which they confume, and
by preventing the increafe of families. This kind of
commerce, alfo, by keeping up a tafte for foreign luxu¬
ries, induces a people that have no manufadlures to
laviffi away the neceffaries of life on the purchafe of
fuperfluities, and thus to introduce a coftly ftyle.of li¬
ving, which is faid already to prevail too much in the
United States, and which in every country has been
found to be the greateft enemy to the increafe of the
people. • i a
One circumftance in the mode of managing the A-
merican commerce ought not to pafs unnoticed. In
Europe, we are accuftomed to imagine that a man can¬
not be qualified to aft as captain of a (hip till he has
made a number of voyages, and paffed through a regu¬
lar courfe of ftudy j whereas, in New England, the
merchants do not hefitate to entruft their (hips to young
perfons, who have frequently been only one year a£
fea. As they have grown up in the bufinefs of the
counting-houfe, they are perfeftly acquainted with the
price, the quality, and the fide of each different com¬
modity. The firft year they are affociated with a
Ikilful fteerfmate, and aft at once in the capacity of
captain and fupercargo. Their veffels do not fuffer
ffiipwreck more frequently than other ffiips which are
more cautioufly navigated. In the courfe of a few
/ears, thefe young people become merchants them-
o ] A M E
felves, the captain’s profits being always confiderablc. Araensa.
As they are generally appointed from the families of v--' f
merchants, they receive ailiftance from their employ¬
ers. _ # > 456
There is one kind of commerce which, in fpeakingTraffic of
of the trade of the United States, ought not to beland-
omitted, as it is altogether peculiar to North Ameri¬
ca, that is, the traffic of land. This trade is founded
upon the confiderable mafs of land in the territory of
the United States, in comparifon with their prefent po¬
pulation, and upon the probability of the rapid aug¬
mentation of that population, either by the natural and
ordinary means of reproduftion, or by foreign emigra¬
tions. This, like all other branches of trade, and more
than any other, is a traffic of fpeculation. At the end
of the revolution, the wafte lands, which amounted to
more than four-fifths of the American empire, were
found to belong to different ftates, which, as fove-
reigns, now inherited this property from the fovereign-
ty of the crown of Great Britain. The lands granted
by the kings of Great Britain have, with fome excep¬
tions, remained in the poffeffion of the grantees •, but
the amount of thefe was infinitely fmall in proportion
to the mafs of the uncultivated land. The fmall ftates
near the fea having been longer inhabited, poffeffed but
a fmall portion *, and fome had none at all j while the
great ftates, whofe territory extended far into the inte¬
rior, fuch as Georgia, the Carolines, Virginia, Penn-
fylvania, and New York, were in poffeffion of immenfe
quantities of foreft lands. It was neceffary for thefe
ftates to fell the wafte lands, to afford encouragement
to their growing population, to prefent a bait to fo¬
reign emigration, and to liquidate the debts refulting
from the war without burdening the people with new
taxes, which at that time they were little able to bean
Among the lands to be fold were the confifcated eftates
of the royalifts, who had given affiftance to the Britifti
during the war. To bring thefe lands to fale, the
ftates opened land offices, where perfons who meant to
purchafe received warrants to have the lands they
pointed out furveyed by the furveyor of the ftate, pof¬
feffion being delayed till payment of the price, or ful¬
filment pf fome part of the conditions of the transfe¬
rence. Great fpeculations immediately began, land
being purchafeable of all the ftates at a very low price.
The ftates were then inundated with paper money, pe¬
culiar to each, and all in a ftate of depreciation. By
buying up this paper at a trifling price throughout the
country, and delivering it to the ftates as the price of
territory, many fpeculators acquired land with a real
value of two or three cents or hundredth parts of a dol¬
lar per acre, payable in fix qr eight years, with a dif-
count from the treafury of the ftate For prompt pay¬
ment, according to the value at which the land was
rated by the law. Other fpeculators, without adopt-
• ing fuch a mode of payment, made purchafes merely
upon the hope entertained by every American pf an
immediate increafe pf population, by emigration and
otherwife, which would neceffarily foon raife the price
of lands. Confiderable quantities of land lyere alfo
beflowed by the ftates upon the officers and foldiers
who had been employed in their armies during the war,
as a remuneration for their fervices. By thefe grants,
and by purchafes made by individuals from the land
offices cf the feveral ftates, or from commiffioners ap¬
pointed
America.
457
Sales of
land in
large por-
45*
Sales of
and in
'mall par¬
rels.
A M E [ i
pointed to put up large portions to public fale, a great
/ extent of territory in all the dates foon came to be held,
and continues to this day to be fpeculated upon, by pri¬
vate perfons. The fpeculators in land who hold great
quantities of that commodity, endeavour to turn it to
account chiefly in three ways : ift, By felling the land
in large parcels to men of fortune in Europe or Ame¬
rica ; 2dly, By felling it in fmall parcels to families
who mean to fettle upon it ; and, laftly, By preferving
it till time and a diminution of the quantity of this fort
of merchandife have raifed the value of it to a price an-
fwerable to their expeftation.
The firft of thefe modes, is that which is moft ge¬
nerally defired. To accomplilh it, agents have at dif¬
ferent times been fent to Europe. Several great fales
were by their means effedled in England upon advan¬
tageous terms, which raifed the price of the remain¬
ing lands, increafed the confidence of the fpeculators,
added to their numbers, and extended their fchemes.
The opinion of an immenfe emigration, to which the
French revolution and the fituation of Europe gave
rife, confpired for fome time to give confidence to thefe
fpeculators. The great fales to Europeans were faci-
cilitated by the periods of the payments to be made to
the ftates, which were always diftant, and by the delays
of thefe payments, which could not be obtained with¬
out much difficulty. In the Hates of Pennfylvania and
Maryland, every foreigner could buy and poflefs land
as well as a citizen. In fome others, although this
privilege was not given by law to foreigners in gene¬
ral, yet it was readily permitted by the legiflature when
applied for. In all the Hates, a foreigner may hold
land in the name of an inhabitant; and the great in-
terefl the Hates had in felling, and in buying foreign
capitals into their territory, has always given entire fe-
curity to this borrowed right of poffeffion. In making
bargains of this kind, the conditions are various accord¬
ing to the views of the parties. The periods of pay¬
ments are generally ffiort: at leafl a large part of the
purchafe money is paid down when the bargain is con¬
cluded. The conditions impofed by the Hates in the
contracts of fale, are binding bylaw upon the new pur-
chafers ; but very often the old purchafer remains re-
fponfible, in cafe of their not being fulfilled by the
new one. The new purchafers become fpeculators
themfelves, and in order to turn their new property to
account, have recourfe to the fame means that were
employed by thofe of whom they bought it.
Land is fold in fmall parcels in feveral ways : either
out and out for ready money, a mode of fale which
though not unfrequent, is not the moH common ; or
out and out, but to be paid for by infialments ; in
which cafe the title deeds are not delivered till after
the purchafe money is entirely paid j and the feller re¬
tains a right of ejecting the new fettler from his land,
if the conditions of payment be not fulfilled. Some¬
times the feller only requires a fmall part of the price
of the land in ready money ; and the land remains
fubjeft to a perpetual rent, payable in money or in
produce, which the purchafer is not always left at li¬
berty to redeem. Sometimes the feller endeavours to
let his lands, for a certain number of years, for an an¬
nual rent, or under condition of clearing annually a
certain number of acres, the whole improvements be¬
ing to return to himfelf at the termination of the leafe ;
Vol. II. Part I.
21 ] A M E
But fuch bargains are unufual ; fettlers being unwilling America,
to accept of a temporary right. AlmoH all the great -—-"v—1
landed proprietors, therefore, endeavour to get fome
perfons to accept, upon moderate terms, of fmall lots,
and to fettle upon their efiates ; becaufe by clearing
fome portions of it, they enhance the value of the
refl. 459
The third mode of deriving advantage from pur-Aand with-
chafes of land, by waiting till time has raifed its price,
is the relource or great proprietors who have not been^opgofa
able to employ the two others. Some perfons, how-rife of its
ever, with little capital, endeavour to wait upon the price,
mere calculation of the rife that w'ill probably take
place in a given time. In thefe calculations, men of
a fanguine temper are frequently deceived ; and there
are many examples of proprietors, who in the followr-
ing year, would be extremely glad to fell at the price
that they had refufed the year before. Thefe {pecula¬
tions in land, however, have been the means of making
great fortunes in America; but they have alfo, when en¬
gaged in without fufficient capital, occafioned more di-
Hrefs and greater and more difaflrous bankruptcies than
any other kind of commercial adventures. The lands
in America are alfo the branch of trade which has
given occafion to the greatefl number of law fuits, as
well on account of the titles as of the boundaries of
efiates, and of the fulfilment of the conditions of fale.
The moH certain, as well as the moft advantageous
means of deriving profit from a great extent of new
lands in America, is faid to be for the purchafer to be¬
gin clearing it himfelfj to attract inhabitants as
fpeedily as poffible, by giving them, at a low rate, and
even for nothing, if neceffary, a number of acres fuffi¬
cient for the maintenance of their families •, to ere6t
mills, make bridges and roads, even to build a few
houfes, and to encourage in every way the efforts of
the new fettlers. There is no example of thefe firft
facrifices, when made with intelligence and to a fuit-
able extent, having failed rapidly, to increafe the value
of the land referved by the proprietor, and fpeedily to
enrich him by attracting great numbers of. emigrants
from other countries. As the fubduing of a vaft wil-
dernefs, and filling it with men of a civilized race and
charafter, is an event of much importance in the hi-
ftory of mankind, we ftiall here take notice of one of ,
the inftances of great fuccefs in an undertaking of this
kind, that occurred to an European {peculator.
The diftriCt called Geneffee on the fouthern ffiore ofiiemark-
Lake Ontario, or rather that part of the diftriCt which able fpecu-
was not then fold, was in 1791 purchafed, in London, !^tlon in
from Mr Morris for is. per acre. He had bought it^fe^f
from Mr Phelps for jd. per acre. The contraCt was land,
concluded on the fuppofition that this trad of land
contained 1,000,000 of acres : and a condition was ad¬
ded that the price or fum of 50,000!. fterling, which
was to be paid immediately, ffiould be returned by Mr
Morris, provided that Captain Williamfon, the oftenfi-
ble purchafer, who was to view the lands, fliould not
find them anfwerable to the defcription given of them.
The purchafer was fatisfied with the lands, and on fur-
veying them a furplus was difcovered of no lefs than
120,000 acres. But Mr Morris made no difficulty on
transferring them, together with the reft, to Captain
Williamfon, without the leaft remuneration, becaufe,
as he obferved, he had intended to fell the whole with-
Q, out.
A M E [i
America, out any refervation. Captain Williamfon is fufpeaed
——v to have been only the agent of a very wealthy Britifli
baronet. But in every refpeft he has afted as pro¬
prietor. The diftrift bought by him, bounded on one
tide by Lake Ontario, and on the other by the river
Geneffee, extends 20 miles in length by 30 or 40 in
breadth. To preferve the continuity of his lands, he
made feveral additional purchafes, fo that 'his eftate
foon amounted to 1,500,000 acres. After ferveying
the whole, he fixed on fpots for building towns, as
central points to a fyftem of fettlements. Thefe towns,
were, Bath on the creek of Conhoftoon, Williamf-
burgh on the river Geneffee, and Great Sodus on
Lake Ontario. He immediately eftablilhed a mode of
communication between Philadelphia and this new
trail, by forming roads in a direil line, fo as to
fhorten the journey at lead 300. miles. Thefe new
roads were made merely by felling the trees to the
breadth of an ordinary road, in as ftraight a line as
poffible through the foreft, and by removing them to
one fide of the path ; their Humps to the height 01
feveral feet being ftill left (landing. He alfo erefted
feven faw mills, and three corn mills. He built a great
number of fuch houfes as the firft fettlers upon lands
ufually require j and he began in feveral places to clear
the woodlands. His firft labourers were Germans,
brought from Hamburgh j but they fpent their time in
idlenefs and drunkennefs, and foon left him. They
were replaced by Irilhmen, by whofe affiltance his
roads were foon put into what the Americans account
(rood condition in fuch a fituation} that is, he made
fanes through the woods in the way already mentioned.
The refult was, that his lands, which at firft fold at
one dollar per acre, in two years time, fold for three
dollars. The produce of about 800,000 acres difpoled
of in this way, not only refunded the purchafe money,
and the whole amount of the other expences incurred,
but is alfo underftood to have yielded a nett profit of
co,OOol. fterling. To obtain this fuccefs, however,
Captain Williamfon found it neceifary to refide in the
woods in the midft of his poffeflions. When he fold
fmall (hares of 500 or 1000 acres, he always (lipulated
that one family (hould come to fettle upon each (hare
within 18 months, under the penalty of a forfeiture of
the bargain. When larger portions were fold, he fti-
pulatedfthat a proportional number of acres (hould be
cleared of wood. His terms of payment were, to dif-
charge half the purchafe money in three years, and the
remainder at the expiration of fix years 5 the payment
of intereft to commence within 18 months after the bar¬
gain Thus, a purchafer who inftantly fet about clear¬
ing the ground, could eafily obtain its produce before
the intereft became due *, and his crops frequently af-
fifted him towards the payment of the fir(t inftalment.
He alfo eftablilhed (lores of provifions in different
places 5 but thefe he never opened for fale unlefs the
fettlers could not otherwife fupply themfelves, that the
fale of the produce of their lands might not be injur¬
ed. He likewife built a fchool at Bath, and endowed
it with fome hundred acres of land. He gradually
built inns, and even a feffions houfe and a prifon, for
the public ufe. By all thefe efforts, added to great
care in preventing litigation among the fettlers; by
■fixing in a precife manner the boundaries of the feve¬
ral pieces of property fold, thefe extenfive forefts were
22 ] A M E
in a few years reduced under the dominion of man, America. j|
and put into a train of fpeedily becoming populous and v *
valuable. . , ct„tl60f
From what has been already faid concerning the j
(late of manufactures in America, and the general (itu- J
ation of the country, it will eafily be conceived, that
the greater number of the people muft be ftill engaged
in agriculture. Indeed, it is underftood, that nine-
tenths of the inhabitants of the United States follow
this employment. Concerning the (late of it, when
confidered as an art, it is difficult to fpeak with preci-
fion, on account of the variety of forms in which it is
praclifed in different diftrifts of that great country. - It
may juftly be faid, that the art of agriculture exifts m
America in all its known degrees and varieties, both of
perfection and of imperfeCtion. Fhe ancient (late of
Maffachufets is as much cultivated as France 01 Eng¬
land. The houfes (land near to each other, in the
midft of the fields and farms to which they belong ;
fome of the roads feem to be one continued village ;
and to fupport this population much induftry is exerted
upon the foil. Mod of the fences are made of (lone.
The harveft is always completely fecured in houfes,
and a great part of the ground is always periodically
laid down in grafs. Numbers of horfes employed in
country labour are feen in the fields; but they are not
remarkable for beauty. The cattle are of a fine
breed, and all the pafture grounds are covered with
them. But the agriculture of Maffachufets, and of
fome other parts of the New England dates, affords no
proper criterion by which to judge of the (late of this
important art in the greater part of America. Ihe
general rule with regard to hulbandry in that country
is that it is extremely defeaive and (lovenly. This
does not arife fo much from the want of (kiU on the
part of the Americans, as from the nature of their fitua¬
tion. In that country, land is plentiful and cheap ;
but men are few, and labour is consequently dear.
An American huffiandman, therefore, is more ftudious
to make the moft of the labour that he can command,
than to raife great crops from a fmall portion of foil.
Having abundance of fertile land to wafte, he finds it
more profitable to turn over negligently, with as little
toil as poffible, a large portion of it, than to labour
any part of it perfectly. In this way he derives the
greateft benefit from his own perfonal induftry, or
from the labour of thofe perfons whom it is in his
power to engage for hire. Ihis negligent mode of
cultivation, however, is laid afide in the neighbourhood
of the great towns, where land is valuable and dear ;
and it prevails in proportion to the retnotenefs of the
fituation, and the facility with which land is obtained. 453
In fome places, in confequence of the multitude ofThey^o.
ftreams that are to be found in America, the valuable
pr aft ice of flooding land is adopted; and the American
huffiandmen are faid to praftife this branch of the art
of agriculture with confiderable ingenuity and induftry.
Inftead of attempting to level their ground, however,
they manage to convey confiderable dreams of water
through the valleys to the fummits of the eminences,
or high grounds, by means of tubes or pipes, formed
of the trunks of trees bored or hollowed out. In
other refpefts, however, the praftice of American huf-
bandry is undoubtedly very imperfeft. Even in thofe
parts of the country in which timber has become dear,
1 the
A M E [ 123 ] A M E
Ajneriea. the Americans ftill continue from habit to ufe wooden
'   fences. No fuch thing as a hedge is to be feen in any
463 of the ftates. The farmers fay, that the thorn does not
No hedges, in their climate. This point has not perhaps
been well afcertained by experiments; but there can
be no doubt, that out of the endlefs variety of native
plants and fhrubs, feme might eafily have been found
that are capable of being ufed as a living fence. All
the cultivated fields, at the firlt clearing of the ground,
are inclofed with fences, which confift of poles of wood
once fplit and laid zig-zag upon one another without any
flakes. Thefe fences are afterwards exchanged for re¬
gular palings of different kinds of wood, which are ne-
ceffarily attended with all the defeats of that mode of
attempting to fecure either corn or flock; running ra-
pidly into decay, and requiring conftant repairs.
No ftacks The Americans have an expenfive mode of fecuring
of grain. their grain. Inftead of building it up in flacks, they
are at the trouble of bringing it all into houfes or barns.
They fay, that it would not be fecure in flacks againft
the fudden and violent torrents of rain that occur in
their climate: an error into which they have un¬
doubtedly been led by building and covering their
flacks in an unfkilful and improper manner. They do
not reap their grain with the fickle, but cut it down
with the feythe, which muff undoubtedly produce con-
fiderable wafte. But this is perhaps done from necef-
fity, in confequence of the high price of labour, or ra¬
ther the difficulty of obtaining a fufficient number of la¬
bourers to perform the work in another manner. In¬
ftead of thrafhing, they ufe in many places, and parti¬
cularly in Virginia, the ancient cuftom of treading out
the corn by means of cattle, by whofe feet it muft, no
465 doubt, be confiderably bruifed and damaged.
| fettle- The fimpleft and leaft artful kind of American huf-
howbandry is that praftifed in the formation of new fettle-
urine ' ments. When a family have come to a refolution to
fettle in a particular diftrift, they ufually proceed in
the following manner: The hufhand, in the latter end
of fummer, repairs to the fpot where the fettlement is to
be made. The firft thing he does is to cut down the
fmall trees on one or two acres. He next barks the
larger trees. This laft operation confifts of cutting off
a circle of bark from the tree all round with a hatchet,
penetrating at the fame time a fliort way into the
wood ; the effeft of which operation is, that on the fol¬
lowing year, the tree produces few or no leaves to pre¬
vent the fun from reaching the foil. In that climate,
trees thus barked or girdled, fpeedily decay, and in a
few years are overturned by any ftorm; after which
they can be burnt with little trouble on the ground.
Among the trees thus barked, and upon the ground
that has been cleared, tlie new fettler breaks up the
foil, by dragging along it a common harrow with iron
teeth. Without farther preparation, and without the
ufe of a plough, he fows wheat or rye. Wheat thus
fown produces from 20 to 25 buffiels an acre, of an ex¬
cellent quality j and, in confequence of the great ferti¬
lity of the foil, and its natural foftnefs, being wholly
formed of rotten leaves and grafs, good crops of wheat
are obtained with no greater degree of induftry during
feveral years in fucceffion. Having fown his grain in
this way, the fettler, with the wood which he has fell¬
ed, conftrufts a fmall log-houfe, and makes fuitable
fences around it 5 a labour which may be performed in
about a month’s timej after which the new plantation America,
is left to itfelf for the winter. It is to be obferved that v—-
a log-houfe is built by laying trees upon each other at
right-angles in fuch a way as to enclofe a fquare fpace ;
the interftices being filled up with ftone and clay, or
only with loam, and the roof covered with trees and
turf. A chimney is ufually built, in one corner, of
ftones and clay. In the beginning of fpring, this ad¬
venturer brings his family and the beft of his cattle to
his new fettlement. His cows are turned into the
woods to graze. He plants potatoes, and fows Indian
corn, and thus is enabled to provide for the firft year’s
maintenance. While thus employed, he is at the
fame time clearing more ground, burning the trees he
has already felled, and, as far as may be, even thofe
which he has barked. The allies afford a very ufeful
manure 5 and in the opinion of the beft judges, are
employed in this way to much greater advantage than
when converted into potalh, the making of which is
with the new fettlers merely the refult of neceffity.
For if a faw-mill be at hand, the large trees are con¬
veyed thither by oxen. Thus, within the fpace of
twelve months, a man may clear 1 5 acres 5 and few
families cultivate more than 30. The barked trees
are left Handing for a longer or ffiorter time, according
to cireumftances, viz. the fpecies of the tree, the na¬
ture of the foil, and the degree of the wetnefs of the.
feafon. The hemlock fir will Hand eight or nine
years, the oak four or five, the maple three or four y
and trees, all the branches of which have been burnt
off, feldom fall before this time. The flumps of the
felled trees, generally two or three feet high above the
ground, hardly rot fooner than the barked trees which
have been left Handing on the lands. Salt pork and
beef are the ufual food of the new fettlers. Their
drink is water and whifky ; but there are few families
unprovided with coffee and chocolate. The axe which
the Americans ufe in felling trees has a fliorter handle
and a fmaller head than that of European wood-cut¬
ters j and they affert, that they can do more work
with this ffiort-handled light axe than with the Euro¬
pean one.
The Americans appear to entertain fewer local at¬
tachments than the peafants of Europe ; and, accord¬
ingly, emigration with them is extremely common.
Some families make a bufinefs of forming new fettle-
ments in the way now mentioned. After building a
houfe, forming enclofures, cutting down a part of the
wood, and putting every thing into a decent train of
cultivation, they fell the fettlement which they have
formed with fo much labour, and proceed farther into
the woods, to commence anew the fame career of
hardftiip and of induftry. By thefe operations, they
never fail to earn a very confiderable profit, on ac¬
count of the additional value which the land acquires
by their efforts in the eyes of perfons of greater pro¬
perty. The fame kind of undertakings, however, are
alfo engaged in by men of a vagrant and reftlefs cha-
rafler, who delight in an idle life, the greateft part of
which is fpent in hunting. Thefe men keep upon the
frontiers of every new colony j and as foon as their
amufements begin to be reftrained by fettlers occupy¬
ing^ the country round them, they immediately fell
their plantations, and proceed to more remote litua-
tions: thus becoming a kind of voluntary outcafts
Q. 2 from
A rticrica.
466
Cliildren
apt to be
loft in the
woods.
467
Cattle ufed
in agricul¬
ture.
Sheep.
469
Swine.
470
©rain.
A M E [ 1
from civilized fociety. In thefe undertakings, tnere is
ufually little perfonal hazard, as the wild animals are
lefs fierce in America than in other parts of the globe.
Wolves, bears, nay even panthers,_ ufually fly before
man •, and the inftances of their doing mifchief io
rare, that the very reality of it might be doubted, ihe
fevered misfortune to which the inhabitants of the A-
merican forefts are liable, is the lofs of their children
in the woods. Thefe unfortunate infants, over whom
it is almoft impoffible to keep conftantly a watchful eye
are apt to run out of the houfe, which is feldom fenced
the firft year, and, ftraying from their houfes, are un¬
able to find them again. In fuch cafes, however, all
the neighbours join in the fearch, and fometimes the
children are found. But there are alfo inftances of
their being totally loft, or difcovered only when dead
of hunger or fear. . . .
Both horfes and oxen are ufed m agriculture in A-
merica. In fome places, however, they have at times
found it neceffary to confine themfelves exclufively to
the ufe of the latter, becaufe they are fubjecft to no dii-
-eafe in that country. Whereas in Peunfylvama, New
York, and elfewhere, almoft the whole horfes are fome¬
times carried off by a weaknefs which deftroys them in
the courfe of two months. The liver is blown up by a
fwellina, which extends into the legs and the whole
mafsof blood, and is called the yellow water. It is
faid, that in the fta£ of Virginia the Arabian horfe,
with a very moderate degree of attention, thrives as in
his native climate, and without degenerating. _ bouth-
wardly, the heat of the fun occafions a deficiency of
pafture 5 and northwardly the winters are too cold for
the fhort and fine hair, and the particular fenfibility of
conftitution of that race. Their patience of heat fits
them, in that and the fouthern climates even for the
drudgeries of the plough and numbers of them are ex¬
ported from thence to the Weft India iflands, as arti¬
cles of luxury to the wealthy planters. #
Very few fheep are reared by the American faimera.
The wool is of a good enough quality *, but there is
little or no demand for it, unlefs for the fupply of fome
manufa&ories of hats The mutton is in general
good ; the carcafes being very large, and the ft
foarfe from being fed on the high rank grafs of the A-
merican paftures? Accordingly, few farmers keep more
than 18 or 20 to fupply wool to be manufaftuied in
h ir own families. Great numbers of fwine are kept
by the Americans. This is faid to have foon become
ayvery favourite kind of ftock among the earlieft fet-
tlers in the country j from the delight which they
found the fwine took in hunting out and devouring all
kinds of ferpents, with which the country abounded,
and which were objeas of great terror to perfons newly
arrived from the cultivated countries of Europe, in
which thefe reptiles are more rare. ,
The kinds of grain cultivated in America are nearly
the fame with thofe reared in Europe with feme ad¬
ditions A regular fucceflion of crops is defcr.bed by
an American writer, as ufed in recruiting worn-out
lands In Maryland and Virginia, they have long
been in the praf&e of fotving a pint of the beans of
thT«/if« cUmacriJia with every buihel of oats on
lands. The oats ripen, and are cut in July,
when the beans are young, and efcape the injury of
'theibythe. They flower iu Auguft and September.
A M E
America.
471
24- ] ,
In Oftober the leaves fall off j the feeds ripen, and
the pod opens with fuch elafticity as to leatter the
beans to fome diftance around. The year following
the field is cultivated with Indian corn, which is lown
in drills. The beans which fprout early are all de-
ftroyed by the plough and the hoe •, but the more nu¬
merous part not making their appearance above ground,
till the culture of the corn is ended, fpring up unhurt
by the inftruments of agriculture, and furmi.i ieed tor
the enfuing year, when the field is again town with
oats By this alternate cultivation ot Indian corn
and’oats with beans, the land is fo far improved by
the rotting of leaves and ftalks of the beans, that the
product is 15 buthels to the acre, on fuch as prior to
this management would not have produced more than
five. The American huthandmen are alfo of opinion,
that the common field pea is preferable to every thing
elfe for improving land, if the vines or tlraw be left
to rot on the ground, inftead of being given to cattle
for fodder. „ - . T
Indian corn or maize everywhere forms a confider-Indian corn,
able article of the produce of American huibandry.
The mode of rearing it is fimple. Holes are made in
the field, four feet afunder every way, and io as to torm
ftraight lines, for the conveniency of hoeing, or
ploughing. In every hole are put five or fix grains
previoufly fteeped in water, to make them fpnng up
the quicker. By day people are placed for a ftiort
time to guard them againft birds, and by night, fires
are kept up till t,he corn has fprung, to frighten away
the fox, who would otherwife turn up the ground, and
cat the corn of all the rows one after another As
foon as the corn has (hot out of the earth, when it
mounts up, the earth is drawn towards its root, to
ftrengthen it againft the wind. Five or fix ears are
commonly found on each ftalk. The grams are near¬
ly the fize of a pea, and 700 grains are commonly
found upon one ear. A light black foil agrees .better
with it than a ftrong and rich one. 1 he gram is ufed
in various ways, but chiefly in the form of a kind o
porridge or grueh Bread is alfo made from it, and it
is fometimes ufed in diftillation. . , ,. 47s
As in Europe, wheat is regarded as the moft valuable wheat.
kind of grain. In Virginia, however, near the fea coaft,
the cultivation of it is not a little difcouraged by an in-
fea called the voeavel. This is a worm whofe eggs are
almoft conftantly depofited in the ear of the grain. A
flight degree of heat greater than that of the common
atmofphere in fummer kills it, and is endeavoured to
be obtained in the following way : The grain is thrafti-
ed as foon as it is cut, and laid up in its chaff in large
heaps. The heat which is fpeedily produced dettroys
the vital principle of the egg, and protefts the corn
from the inconveniences of its being hatched, Y”1!6 a
the fame time the chaff fufficiently reftrains the heat
from rifing into putrefaftion. If the grain continued in
the ears without being fpeedily thrafhed, it would be
deftroyed by the worm which would be excluded from
the eggs. This fcourge, however, fpreads no farther
northwards than the Potowmack, and is bounded to the
weft by the ridge called the Blue Mountains. A few
weeks after the wheat has been beaten or trodden out
by horfes, it is free from all danger, is winnowed, and
fent to market. . 473
Tobacco continues to be cultivated to a coniideraDie j0^ac£6>,
extent
A M E [i
extent in Virginia, and the ftates to the fouthward. It
is yearly, however, giving place to wheat, which is of
infinitely more value to the country, as having a lefs
tendency to impoverifh the foil, and contributing in a
more direft manner to the encouragement of popula¬
tion. The culture of tobacco, on account of the con-
ftant attention and labour which it requires under a
burning fun, is chiefly performed by negroes. It is
difficult, troublefome, and uncertain. It is fown in the
month of March, in a fat and rather moift foil. Be¬
fore the time of fowing, the land is covered with fmall
branches of trees, which are burnt for the purpofe of
deflroying the herbs and roots that might injure the
growth of the plant, and alfo in order to increafe the
fertility of the foil by their affies. The tobacco is
thickly fown on a bed in the mod ffieltered corner of
the field. This bed is covered with branches, left the
froft fhould hinder the unfolding of the feed, and pre¬
vent the fprouting of the plants. When they are three
or four inches high, they are tranfplanted into a field,
which has been well manured and prepared for their
reception. A negro heaps earth around the plants,
which are fet four feet diftant from each other on all
fides. The ground is conftantly kept clear of weeds,
and all the leaves are taken from the plant, which it is
thought might injure its perfect growth, beginning al¬
ways with thofe that are next the ground, and which
might be affedled by the wet. More earth is heaped
around the ftalk, and its head bruifed with the nail to
prevent its running up too high. All the fprouts which
fhoot forth below the leaves are cut away, and all the
leaves fucceffively torn off, except eight or nine, which
alone are left on the ftalk. At laft, when the plant
is fuppofed to be ripe, which happens in the month of
Auguft, it is cut, left feveral days in the field to dry in
the fun, and then carried into the barns, where every
plant is fufpended by its undermoft part. In this pofi-
tion the leaves attain by deficcation the laft degree of
maturity, but not all of them at the fame time •, for
this deficcation, which, in regard to fome, is completed
within two days, takes, with refpeft to others, feveral
weeks. When the leaves are perfectly dry, they are
taken from the ftalk, and laid one upon another in
fmall parcels. The mo ft perfect leaves muft be put
together, and thofe of an inferior quality feparated in¬
to different claffes : this is at leaft the method follow¬
ed by fuch planters as pay molt attention to the fabri¬
cation of their tobacco. Thefe fmall parcels of leaves,
tied together by their tails, are then brought under
the prefs, and afterwards preffed down into hogffieads.
This procefs varies more or lefs in the different plan¬
tations, but the variations are not by any means con-
fiderable. The feed for the next year is obtained
from 40 or 50 ftalks per acre, which are fuffered to
run up as high as they will grow without their heads
being bruifed.
The forts of tobacco cultivated in Virginia, are the
fweet-fcented, the moft efteemed of all ; the big and
little, which follow next j then the Frederick; and,
laftly, the one-and-all, the largeft of all, and which
yields moft in point of quantity. A negro can culti¬
vate two acres and a half; and, as each acrd yields, upon
an average, 1000 pounds of tobacco, each negro can
fonfequently produce 2500 pounds. But the culture
of this plant is, as has already been ftated, extremely
25 ] A M E
troublefome. It is expofed to a great variety of acci- America,
dents, which cannot always be avoided, and which v—-v—'
deftroy many ftalks, or fpoil at leaft many leaves. Af¬
ter the plant has been tranfplanted, the root is fre¬
quently attacked by a fmall worm, which caufes the
leaf to turn yellow, and which muft be taken out of
the ground with the fingers, to fave the plant. Humi¬
dity communicates the rot to the plant, that is, covers
it with red fpots, which caufe it to moulder away, and
the ftalk is loft. Violent winds are apt to break the
ftalk. When the leaves are at the point of attaining
their maturity, horn worms neftle in them, attack
them, and completely deftroy the plant, unlefs they
can be torn off. Laftly, When the tobacco is cut and
fpread on the ground to dry, the wet impairs its qua¬
lity. _ # 474
Indigo and cotton are alfo cultivated in fome of the Indigo and
fouthern ftates. Cotton in particular is exported from cotton*
Charleftown in confiderable quantities; and of late it
has been brought down the river Miffiffippi, from Ken¬
tucky and other fettlements to New Orleans, in fuch
abundance as to form an important article of commerce.
In South Carolina, rice is cultivated to a great extent. Rice/‘
That country is divided by nature into Upper and
Lower. The latter, which is the eaftern part, ad¬
joining to the Atlantic ocean, extends inward almoft
100 miles. The land in this low diftrift confifts of
marfties and fwamps, interfperfed with a little high
land. The marffies are a fecond-rate land, which pro¬
duces a coarfe kind of grafs in very great abundance.
Little attention is paid to them, though they could in
general be drained and cultivated. The high land is
alfo negle&ed for the fake of the fwamps, which are
the moft valuable kind of foil, confifting of a rich blue
clay, or fine black earth, to the greateft depth. The
rice which is cultivated upon them is fown in April
and May. The ground is turned up eight or nine
inches deep in furrows, into which the rice is thrown
by a woman ; and the negroes, who alone are em¬
ployed in this cultivation, fill up the furrows. The
feed ftroots up in 10 or 12 days, according as the
ground is more or lefs wet. When the blade is from
fix to fevcn inches high, and after the negroes have
cleared away the weeds, the water is made to flow over
the field, fo that no more than the tops of the blades
can be feen. In three or four weeks the water is let
off, and the negroes take away the remaining weeds.
The field is covered again with water, which is drawn
off when the yellow colour of the ear and the hardnefs
of the ftalk denote the ripenefs of the rice. It is then
cut and kept in flacks till winter. It is afterwards
thraffied, and put into a fmall wooden houfe, which is
fome feet high, and refts upon four pillars; and in the
ceiling of which is faftened a large fieve, which fepa-
rates it from the other parts, and the wind clears it
perfectly before it falls to the ground. The rice, after
being thus cleared, muft be freed from the firft fhell
that furrounds it. For this purpofe, it is carried to a
mill, the grinders of which are made of fir, and are
about four inches thick, and two and a half in diame¬
ter. One is moveable, the other fixed. They are both
fcooped out in an oblique but concentric form. A-
gainft the edges thus formed, the rice is preffed ; and
by that means feparated from the hulks. Thefe mills
are turned by a negro. On account of the rapid mo¬
tion
A M E
[ 126 ]
A M E
America.
476
The coun¬
try irregu-
iarly fet¬
tled.
tion and the foft wood of which they are made, they
do not laft longer than one year. The rice is win¬
nowed as foon as it comes from the mill, but ftill it
has a fecond {hell which muft be taken off, and this is
done by the negroes pounding it with clubs. Thefe
clubs, however, are fometimes put in motion by ma¬
chinery turned by oxen. After the rice is pounded, it
is winnowed again to cleanfe it from the fecond (hell j
and it is put into another iieve for the purpofe, of fepa-
rating the fmall from the larger grains. The laft
only are faleable. Whether the feparation is careful¬
ly made or not, muft depend on the honefty of the
olanter j and, during the late dearth of proyifions in
Europe, when the rice bore a high price, it is faid
that they were not very fcrupulous in this refpeft. The
rice deftined for fale is packed up in barrels, offered
for the infpe&ion of the officer appointed for that pur-
pofe, and then exported. During its growth, the rice
is expofed to feveral dangers, which render the crop
uncertain. Before the blade grows up, it is attacked
by fmall worms, which gnaw the rook It is alfo fre¬
quently injured by little fifties that live in the water
which covers the fwamps. Againft them the rice is only
defended by the heron (ardea alba minor) which feeds
on thefe little fifties and worms j and on this account
• is {pared by the planters, as the turkey-buzzard is by
the town’s people. When the rice is ripe, it is. affail-
td by innumerable quantities of fmall birds, which are
known in Carolina by the name of rice birds. The
young negroes are continually kept befide ^he fields to
frighten them away ; but thefe voracious birds cannot
be entirely kept off. The rice fwamps yield between
70 and 80 buffiels of rice an acre, according to the
quality of the foil. Sometimes 120 buftiels have been
produced from an acre : but inftances of this kind have
been rare. Twenty buffiels of rice, with the {hells,
weigh about 500 pounds. Without the {hells, thefe 20
make but eight buffiels } without, however, lofing
much in weight. The ftraw is given to oxen and
^It^will eafily be believed, that the cultivation, of
rice has a tendency to render a hot climate in which
alone it can be praftifed, extremely unhealthful. i he
inhabitants accordingly, in the warm and damp cli¬
mate of South Carolina, fuffer feverely every autumn
from malignant bilious fevers, which cut them oil in
great numbers. When originally.introduced, this con-
fequence was not forefeen ; but it now mal"tain.s llj
around, from the difficulty of altering an eftabliftied
fyftem of induftry. It will probably, however, be
fuppreffed in the courfe of time, as white men. will not
enoage in the operative part of the cultivation ; and
the unlkilful labour of negroes is always , expenhve,
which prevents the cultivation of it from being attend¬
ed with any great degree of profit. The American
rivers alfo being fubjea to violent inundations, which
they czW frefhes, often fweep away the whole harveft,
together with the woods and fences which furround the
The lands that have been brought under cultivation
in America do by no means extend in a regular progrets
at equal diftances from the fea coaft or from the older
fettlements. In confequence of the fupenor goodnels
who have held out unufual encouragements to new fet- America,
tiers •, very remote diftri&s are in many places inhabited,nr-
while others at a lefs diftance from the feat of the origi¬
nal colonies, ftill remain in a ftate of nature. In.general,
however, the progrefs of emigration. neceffarily muft
be towards the weft, and from choice it uiually is
from the north to the fouth. The ffiortnefs of the
winter in the fouthern territories of tne union, affords
a great temptation to this courfe of tilings, on account
of the heavy tax which is impofed upon human indu-
ftry5 by the neceftity of ftoring up great quantities of
fuel for man, and food for cattle, in the more northern
regions. In general, the great traa of the Alleghany
mountains is left unfettled, and emigrants from the
eaftern parts of the union ufually proceed altogether
beyond them before they think of fettling. It has
been computed that, in fome years lately,, no .lefs than
20,000 perfons have croffed thefe mountains in fearch
of new habitations. The ftate of Kentucky, adjoining
to the Ohio, has been the chief point towards which
thefe emigrants have diredted their courfe. 3. hey
ufually proceed by land, acrofs the mountains, to Tort
Pitt, which is 320 miles from Philadelphia. Families
are ©onveyed thither in waggons, by perfons who en¬
gage in this employment, and take whole families of
men, women, and children, and their goods, at fi>
much per cwt. Near Fort Pitt, where many of the
emigrants remain, boats are obtained at a trifling price,
in which travel1 ers commit themfelves to the ftream of
the Ohio, which conveys them doivnwards to thefe re¬
mote regions. Other emigrants travel towards the
fame place by land, through the high country of Vir¬
ginia, fome of whom advance into the new ftate of
Teneffee, that has been formed in the back parts of Ca¬
rolina. Of the immenfe territory beyond, the Ohio,
very little is yet occupied, though the fuperior mildnefs
of the climate and the fertility of the foil begin to draw
emigrants thither from the weftern ftates. . 477
Of the principal cities and towns of the AmericanHoufes.
union, we fliall take notice in feparate articles. In the
mean time, it may be obferved, that the kinds of houfes
ufed in America are no lefs various than the. fituations
of men in that country, from remote and folitary fami¬
lies in the woods, to wealthy citizens who inhabit ele¬
gant dwellings in the ftreets and fquares of populous
towns. In general, however, houfes of all kinds
throughout the country of America are formed of tim¬
ber. We have mentioned the log-houfes which the
firft fettlers ereft. Thefe are fubftantial habitations,
though ufually very clumfy. They are generally re¬
placed by handfome houfes, finilhed by carpenters,
with chimneys and ovens formed of brick. I he towns
in the fouthern ftates, being built in this way, have re¬
peatedly fuffered great calamities by fire. T he fear of
this evil, together with the increafing price of timber,
has introduced in the northern ftates very extenfively the
ufe of brick for building. Accordingly the city of Phi¬
ladelphia, containing nearly 80,000 inhabitants, and
which is faid to be one of the moft regular and beauti¬
ful in the world, has now a very great proportion of
its houfes built with brick. They are ftill, however,
not a little expofed to accidental fires, as their roofs
are formed of ffiingles or boards, fo placed as that the
the funpofed falubrity of particular parts of lower edge of each overlaps the upper part of the board
1 country; or ofTpeculations by purchafers of land, immediately below it, in the way that dates or tries
art-
A M E [i
America are lard upon each other to cover the roofs of houfes
■ t ' in Europe. Thefe roofs, and alfo the whole outfide
of the wooden houfes, are ufually very neatly painted.
One convenience that attends the ufe of wooden houfes
is, that as they are not lofty, and their ftruaure is
very flight, if a man w'ho has only a fmall houfe dif-
likes the place of the town in which he lives, he can
remove his dwelling to a more agreeable neighbour¬
hood. The furniture is taken out, the brick chimneys
are taken down, and the houfe is mounted upon very
low but very tfrong carriages, formed for the purpofe,
and is wheeled away to its new fituation in any other
flreet, where ground for the purpofe has been procu¬
red. When the chimneys are erefted, the transference
s is complete.
Religion. In the United States, religion does not form, as elfe-
where, a part of the political eftablifhment of the coun¬
try, but is rather to be regarded as connefted with the
ftate of manners, fcience, and chara£ter of the people.
In confequence of the entire freedom of religious opi¬
nion and worfhip which has for many years been en¬
joyed in America, all the varieties of fefts have efla-
blifhed themfelves there, though nobody has departed
from the public profeflion of Chriflianity. In general,
however, religion is confidered as an object of more
importance in the northern than in the fouthern Hates.
Accordingly, the emigrants from the New England
colonies, who are the mofl numerous of all, never fail
very fpeedily to eftablifb religious meetings or church¬
es in their new fettlements. Throughout the Hates,
the prevailing forms of religious worfhip are thofe of
the Church of England, and of the Prefbyterians. The
Independents are alfo numerous. In Pennfylvania,
the greateH variety of religious denominations prevails j
but the Quakers are the moH numerous. They were
the firH fettlers in that Hate in 1682, under William
Penn •, and maintain in that country the reputation
which they have acquired in England of fobernefs, in-
duHry, humanity, pun&uality in their dealings, and
flrhHnefs in the obfervance of all the peculiarities of
drefs, fpeech, and manners, that their religious opi¬
nions enjoin.
Moravians Moravians (fee UNITAS Fralrum), hare made
feveral eHablifhments in Pennfylvania and elfewhere.
That at Bethlehem, 53 miles north of Philadelphia, is
the oldefl and the mofl confiderable. In I74°> Count
Zinzendorff purchafed the diflriifl, and foon brought
to it 140 Moravian brethren and filters from Germa¬
ny. They had every thing in common: but fuch was
their zeal, that the men foon cleared the woods, made
roads, and reduced the lands into cultivation, while
the women prepared their clothes and viftuals. The
fyflem of common property was afterwards done away,
excepting as to certain objects, fuch as corn mills, a
tannery, a tavern and buildings, which belong to the
whole community. The town of Bethlehem is inhabited
by 500 or 600 perfons, all of the brother or fiflerhood.
They are divided into five departments, each under the
direction of an infpe&or or infpeftrefs \ and the tempo¬
ral adminiflration of the fociety is in fome degree mix¬
ed with its difeipline. The unmarried brethren live
together in a feparate houfe; that is, they eat and fleep
there, but they do not work there if they can work
elfewhere. The money they earn is their own, but
they mufl pay for their board and the proportion of
27 ] A M E
the public taxes. The infpe&ors fupply them with Americt,
work if they cannot find it elfewhere. I hus thefe ' -11
brethren cofl nothing to the fociety at large. The
fame is the cafe with regard to the unmarried fiflers,
fome of whom are employed as fervants and cookmaids
in the houfes of the town, where they receive board and
lodgings. They pay a certain fum to the fociety,
which preferves their right of entering into the unmar¬
ried fiflers houfe when they pleafe. In this houfe mofl
of the fifters are employed in fewing and embroidery,
and are paid for their work by the infpe£lrefs, who
fells it for the benefit of the houle. The widows houfe
is fupported by the brethren, and the widows them¬
felves contribute their whole labour, which is not fuf-
ficient for its fupport. They have a fchool or academy
which enjoys fome reputation. The married people
live in their own houfes. No communication is allow¬
ed between the young men and the young women.
When a young man wifties to marry, he mentions to
the infpeftor the girl of whom he has made choice,
but to whom he has never fpoken. The infpe&or ap¬
plies to the infpeftrefs of the girls, and if (lie judge the
young woman’s character not incompatible with that
given of the young man by the infpeftor, the girl is ap¬
plied to, who may refufe, but is not allowed to fay whom
ihe would prefer. If an unmarried brother and fiftel
are detected in a correfpondence without marriage, the
matter is kept fecret by the rulers of the fociety, but
the parties are never allowed to marry each other.
They are all of German extra&ion, and fpeak that
language; but their numbers are not increafing, not-
withflanding the fecundity of the ikm^ican women,
of which the Moravian married fifters have their lhare.
They have other fettlements in the fame ftate, parti¬
cularly one at Nazareth, 10 miles north from Beth¬
lehem, and another at Litiz, in Lancafter county.
They are alfo fettled in New Jerfey and North Caro¬
lina. There is a general dire&ory of the whole fo¬
ciety for America, which correfponds with the gene¬
ral college of the fociety in Europe, that meets at Hern-
hutt in Upper Lufatia.
At Lebanon, in the ftate of New York, a religious Shakers,
fociety is eftablifhed, of a Angular nature, called the
Shakers. This fociety is a republic governed in a def-
potic manner. All the members work for the benefit of
the fociety, which fupplies them with clothes and victuals,
under the diredlion of the chief elder, whom they eleft,
and whofe power is unlimited. Subordinate to him are in-
fpe&ors of all claffes, invefted with -different degrees of
authority. The accounts reach him in a certain regular
gradation, and his commands are conveyed in the
fame manner. It would be an unpardonable breach
of order to addrefs the chief elder himfelf, unlefs the
addreffer belongs to a clafs which enjoys this privilege.
Marriage is prohibited in this fociety, which has been
recruited merely by profelytes for 80 years. Married
men and women are admitted into the fociety, on con¬
dition that they renounce each other ; and they fre*
quently bring their children with them, who in this,
cafe are confidered as belonging to the fociety. They
make cloth, gauze, (hoes, faddles, nails, cabinet work,
and in ftiort every article that finds a ready market.
They fell their commodities in the neighbouring towns,
and the women perform fuch bufinefs as is generally
allotted to their fex. The fociety poffeffes confiderable
property,
4*1
Tinkers
A M E [12
America, property, the amount of which, however, is known to
y—j none but the chief elder. They are an honeft, good-
natured people, are faithful workmen, and very mode¬
rate in their prices. Of any peculiar do&rines enter¬
tained by them little is known, excepting, that the
feft was founded by a woman, called Anna Leefe,
whom they ftyled the Elect Lady. They affert, that
fire was the woman fpoken of in the 12th chapter of
the Revelations, that (he fpoke 72 tongues, and could
converfe with the dead. Iheir worfhip confifts of lit¬
tle more than a fet of whirofical gefticulations perlorm-
ed upon a fignal given by the chief elder, along with
the chanting of fome hymns known only to them-
felves. This fociety has nothing in common with the
Quakers. .
At Ephrata, 60 miles weftward of Philadelphia, is
the fettlerpent of what are called the 1 linkers, or Dunk-
ers, (fee Tunkers, or Dumplers). They are a kind
of Baptifts, but profefs a ftrange medley of tenets.
They were inftituted in this place by one Conrad Pey-
fel, a German. He colle&ed them into a fociety, and
conduced them to Pitlburg, which at that time was a
wild uninhabited place. 1 he chief of the community
Avho fucceeded Peyfel, having made fome alterations
in their difcipline, diffenfions took place j they difper-
fed, but afterwards united again in the fame place
where they were firft eftabliihed. A community of
property is obferved among them, and they make a
vow of poverty and challity. I his vow is not always
kept } as fome of them cjuit the fociety and marry,
which it cannot prevent their doing,^ as the law re¬
gards fuch vows as not obligatory. /They lament the
fall of our firft parent, who would rather have for Ins
wife, a carnal being, Eve, than let the celeftial So¬
phia, a being thoroughly divine, bear a child. She
would have communicated only with the fpirkual na¬
ture of Adam, and thus a race would have been en¬
gendered all pure and without the leaft corporeal in¬
gredient. They lament the indulgence which God
{howed in regard to this defire of Adam ; however,
God, according to their doftrine, has merely deferred
the period of this date of perfection. It is certainly to
arrive, and the Tunkers forefee the time, when, after
the general refurreCtion, the divine Sophia will defcend
into every one of us. _ .
Three diftinCl races of men continue to inhabit the
territory of the United States. Thefe are the Indians;
the Negroes, who were introduced as (laves from the
coaft of Africa; and the Whites, of European extrac¬
tion. The Indians, who were the original inhabitants
of the country, have now been expelled from a^ very
large portion of it, and their numbers aye rapidly de¬
clining. “ It is a melancholy reflection, (fays the
American fecretary at war, in a memorial addreffed to
the prefident in 1794), that our modes of population
have been more deftrutfive to the Indian natives than
the conduct of the conquerors of Mexico and Peru.
The evidence of this is the utter extirpation of nearly
all the Indians in the moft populous parts of the union.
A future hiftorian may mark the caufes of this de-
ftruCtion of the human race in fable colours.” The
covernment of the United States has made fome hu¬
mane attempts to regulate the jntercourfe of their
people with the unfortunate original inhabitants ot the
country. In 1796, a law was paffed, with this view,
48a
Indians.
8 ] A M E
which contains many falutary provifions. It ordains, America,
that the boundaries of the Indian territory (hall be af-
certained and marked as clearly as poflible. .All per-
fons are prohibited to hunt upon the territory ac¬
knowledged by treaty to belong to the Indians, or to
carry off cattle from it, on pain of a fine of 100 dollars,
and fix months imprifonment. None are allowed to
enter the Indian territory without a paffport.. Any
fraud, robbery, or other crime, committed againft an
Indian, is to be puniftied by a fine and reftitution, and
the United States bind themfelves to fee the reftitution
made, providing the Indian do not himfelf take ven¬
geance for the injury, in which cafe he lofcs his
claim. To kill an Indian of any tribe in. amity with
the United States, is declared a capital crime. None
are allowed to trade with the Indians without a h-
cenfe, and thofe to whom the privilege is granted, are
prohibited to purchafe any implements of hunting, agri¬
culture, or houfehold economy ; and the troops of the
United States are authorifed to apprehend white men,
tv ho trefpafs againft thefe laws, even upon the Indian
territory ; and they may alfo be apprehended in any
part of the United States where they are found. An
Indian guilty of any crime may be apprehended with¬
in the territory of the United States.. If he efcape,
the perfon injured by him may (late his complaint to
the agent of the United States on the frontier of the
Indian territory, who is to demand reparation from the
tribe to which the offending Indian belongs, and to
acquaint the prefident with the refult of his demand.
If reparation be not made, the injured party is in¬
demnified from the treafury of the United States ; and
the fum thus applied is deduced from the fubfidies
granted by the United States to that tribe. Ihe
courts of the United States, and alfo, when the caufe
is not capital, the courts of the individual ftates, take
cognizance of offences againft this law, even when they
have been committed within the territories belonging tu
the Indians.
Another law enafted in the.fame year, 1796, with a
view to fecure to the Indians fair treatment in their com¬
mercial dealings with the white people, eftabliftiesa trade
with them to be carried on under the authority of the pre¬
fident. One hundred and fifty thoufand dollars are ap¬
propriated to the trade, of which the objefls are, to lur-
nifti the Indians with fuch fupplies and implements as
their wants require, and to purchafe from them (kins and
furs. The law direfts, that the prices of the articles fold
to the Indians be fo regulated as barely to prevent the
United States from lofing any part of their capital. Ife
reftrains the agents employed in their trade from traffic¬
king direftly or indiredlly on their own account. It
forbids them to cheat the Indians, and fubjetts them
to fines of different magnitudes, in proportion to the na¬
ture of the offences by which they tranfgrefs thefe re¬
gulations. The diftrift courts of the (late, where the
ftorehoufes are eftablifhed for the commerce with the
Indians, take cognizance of thefe offences.
It is underftood, that the juft and liberal provifions
of thefe laws have never been punctually reduced to ^33
praCtice. The extremity of the United States, bor- The {ren¬
dering on the territory of the Indians, is inhabited by
a fet of men who are in conftant hoflility with them. t0
This clafs of inhabitants is univerfally admitted to in(ji8Ds
eonfift of the very worft men in all America. The
kind
A M E [ i
kind of perfons who in Europe become robbers, thieves,
poachers and fmug'glers ^ in (hurt, the reftleis fpirits,
of whom fome exift in every community, who can ne¬
ver be confined to regular habits of induftry, emigrate
an America to the frontiers, and become voluntary ex¬
iles from fociety and civilization. They live, like the
favages, by hunting and fhhing, or by other triding
exertions of induftry ; but more frequently, when they
find it practicable, they engage in plundering the neigh¬
bouring Indians. Accordingly, where thefe are con¬
cerned, the fentiments, and even the idea of honefty
and humanity, are unknown to thofe remote fettlers.
With very flight {hades of difcrimination between
them, they are uniformly a plundering and ferocious
banditti, who confider an Indian as a being not be¬
longing to the human fpecies, and whom they may juft-
ly plunder or deftroy. Hence it moft commonly hap¬
pens, in thofe quarters, that neither accufers, witnefles,
nor juries, can be found to conviCt a white man guilty
of a trefpafs or crime againft an Indian. The oppref-
fions, the ufurpations, and the crimes committed by the
whites againft the Indians are therefore never puniftied,
or at leaft the inftances of puniflunent are fo rare, that
it would be difficult to find an example of its having
occurred.
The Indian, on the other hand, harafled and plun¬
dered by a fet of men, the meaneft of whom poffefles
more art and more powerful means of doing mifchief
than himfelf, contra&s the habit of robbery and pil¬
lage, of which he fees the example, and is the conftant
viClim. As he extends, according to the pradice of
favages, his vengeance to every individual of the fame
colour with the perfon who has injured him, the whites,
even of the beft character, are compelled, as a meafure
of fafety, to hold themfelves in a ftate of hoftility
againft the Indians, and thus acquire a fpirit of enmity
towards them. This hoftility uniformly ends to the
difadvantage of the original inhabitants of this great
country, not only becaufe they are lefs {killed in war,
but becaufe the Ioffes of men which they fuftain are not
rapidly repaired by reproduction, as happens to a civi¬
lized people, who know how to rear upon a fertile foil
all the means of fubfiftence in abundance. It is not a
little remarkable, that the Indians fay, it is the worft
clafs of their whole tribes that habitually continue near
the frontiers, engaged in a conftant ftate of fraud and
violence.
The government of the United States does not pof-
fefs upon its remote frontier fufficient ftrength to re-
prefs the irregularities now mentioned. The govern¬
ments of the individual ftates do not attend to them.
Every perfon admits, that the evil arifes principally and
originally from the lawlefs aggreflions of the whites •,
but as the evil is become habitual, and fo inveterate
that it is not eafy to difcover a remedy, it is ufually
fpoken of by the white Americans without horror. In
the mean time, the Indians as a people are the only
fufferers by it. They are the weaker party. Every
conteft ends in their difcomfiture, and every tranfac-
tion tends to their difadvantage ; whereas the wander¬
ing and reftlefs clafs of white men that conftantly keep
upon the frontier of the fettled country are of effential
fervice to their country. They aCt as a kind of pio¬
neers in preparing the way for the eftablilhment of per¬
sons of better character, who gradually fucceed them.
Vox. II. Part I.
29 ] A M E
It is an eftablifhed opinion in America, among the
moft exempt from prejudices, that the Indians never
can be civilized ; that the ftriCteft education, the moft
afliduous and perfevering cares, cannot deftroy their
favage habits, to which they recur with the moft ar¬
dent paflion, from the tranquillity and from the man¬
ners of the white people ; and an infinite number of
examples are cited, of Indians brought up at Philadel¬
phia and New York, and even in Europe, who never
ceafed to figh after their tribe. The opinion that has
been reared upon thefe faCts has, no doubt, had-a con-
fiderable cffeCl in diminiftiing the exertions of benevo¬
lent perfons towards their civilization. It has been
juftly remarked, however, that we have no reafon to
be furprifed by the conduft of thofe educated Indians
who refumed their original habits. “ The Indians,,r
fays the duke de la Rochefoucault Liancourt, “ whole
education has been attempted, or faid to be, had al¬
ready paffed fome years of their life in the tribe to
which they belonged. Tranfported alone from their
fpecies into the midft of white people, different iii lan¬
guage, habits, and in colour, and often even in cloth¬
ing, they became as it were infulated ’, they were re¬
garded by the whites as a different fpecies of men $
they did not even attempt to make them forget that
they were from a nation ftill exifting, whofe manners
and habits had rivetted their firft attention, and made
the deepeft impreflion upon them. If, when arrived
at the age of manhood, they fhould have imbibed for
a white woman that affe&ion which naturally created
the defire of an union with her, the difference of co¬
lour became an almoft infurmountable obftacle. Is it
to be wondered at, then, that thefe Indians fhould with
to return to their tribe, of which they had ftill the moft
lively memory, and where alone they were able to find
companions of fimilar manners to their own, and thofe
pleafures which caufe in man an attachment to life ?”
There are, however, in Connefticut, and in the ftate of
New York, a confiderable number of Indians, both
men and women, who ferve asdomefticsin white Ame¬
rican families, and who perform their duty as well and
as faithfully as thofe of any other race. One tribe on¬
ly of Indians, the Oneidas, in the back parts of the ftate
of New York, on the fliore of Lake Ontario, appears
to have acquired what can be faid to refemble civiliza¬
tion. They cultivate the ground with fuccefs, and
have a confiderable number of villages. They are mild
and peaceful, and kindly officious in performing little
fervices to the whites. On the whole, they are account¬
ed excellent neighbours.
In the mean time it is evident, from the ordinary
progrefs of things, that unlefs the other tribes of In¬
dians {hall refolve, which feems extremely unlikely, to
fubfift by agriculture, they muft fpeedily yield to the
encroachments of American population and induftry.
In the territory of the United States, beyond the Ohio,
which, with fome trifling exceptions, is ftill occupied
by the Indians, it is believed there exifts a population
of about 50,000 fouls. Between the head of the Ohio
at Fort Pitt and the northern lakes, a few thoufands
more are to be found. In the ftates of Carolina and
of Georgia, and Florida belonging to Spain, about ten
or twelve thoufand are ftill to be found j fo that, in the
territory of the United States there is probably, in all,
between fixty and feventy thoufand Indians. The ter-
R ritories
I
A M E
[ *3° ■]
A M E
America.
ritories occupied by the Indians are acknowledged to
be their own, and that they cannot be taken away by
force. But this affords no protection to thefe people.
A little whifky will bribe their chieftains to give their
confent to the largeft transferences. It is perfectly
commpn for great traCts of the fineft territory in the
world to be bartered away, with the confent of all par¬
ties, for a few rings, a few handkerchiefs, fome barrels
of rum, and perhaps fome money, which the unfortu¬
nate natives know not how to convert to any valuable
ufe. The European nations and their defcendants have
long been accuftomed to regard all the world as their
property, and the reft of mankind as a kind of intru¬
ders, or an inferior race, whom they have a right to
difpoffefs when it fuits their convenieney. We are apt
to treat as abfurd the right which the pope, as high
prieft of the European ftates, once claimed, to give
away at his pleafure whole empires and immenfe traCls
of unknown territory which never belonged to him j
but the conduCl of the parties to the treaty of Paris in
1783 was probably neither lefs unjuft nor lefs abfurd,
when the king of Great Britain gave up, and the Ame¬
rican ftates were underftood to acquire, a right of un-
difputed fovereignty over an immenfe territory inha¬
bited by independent nations. 1 he ftates of America,
accordingly, confider themfelves as poffeffing the fu-
preme right to the property of the territory belonging
to the Indians y and though they do not feize that ter¬
ritory by force, or transfer it by fale, they readily do
what is nearly equivalent *, they fell to private perfons
the right to purchafe certain portions of it from the
Indians. Thus the ftate of Maffachufets fold to Meffrs
Phelps and Gorham the exclufive privilege of purcha-
fing from the Indians a large territory upon the river
Geneffee, whenever they ftxould confent to part with
it. Meffrs Phelps and Gorham fold this privilege of
purchafe to Mr Morris, who again fold it to the Dutch
Company ; binding himfelf at the fame time to prevail
with the Indians to relinquilh their right to a certain
part at leaft of the lands. Thus four different fets of
purchafers fucceeded each other in regard to an objed
concerning the fale of which the confent of the true
original owners had not yet been obtained , and four
different contraCls were entered into, founded on the
fuppofition, that it would be an eafy matter to remove
the Indians from thofe diflant corners to which they
had retired ; a point about which their more polilhed
neighbours ivere well affured.
The fm all pox has at different periods proved ex-
ancTintern- tremely fatal to the Indians, and has greatly diminifh-
perance fa- ed their numbers. But the moft dangerous enemy
tal to the which they have to encounter is their attachment to
Indians. fpwituous liquors, which the whites cannot be prevent¬
ed from felling to them, and which they cannot reftrain
themfelves from purchafing. Thefe liquours are pecu¬
liarly fatal to their ftrength and health, and daily ren¬
der their marriages lefs prolific.—So that, from a com¬
plication of evils, the hoftility and oppreflion of the
neighbouring white people, the imprudent fales which
they make of their territory, and the difeafes to which
they are expofed, the Indian tribes are gradually expa¬
triated and decreafing in number. Every nation is
now divided into different branches; the families are
difperfed abroad; and whifky is rapidly diminifhing
the number of thofe which yet remain. A few years
2
4sS
Smallpox
more, and thefe nations will difappear from the furface
of the earth, as civilized people approach. f Af .
Negroes originally imported from the coaft of Afri¬
ca, and held in flavery or emancipated, form another
part of the population of the United States. . I he
Britifh nation, which refufed to pollute its population at
home by the exiftence of domeftic flavery, had never-
thelefs tolerated the pra&ice in its diftant colonies,
where the charafter of the people was accounted of
lefs importance to the empire, and where the interefts
of commerce were regarded as the primary object of
attention. In the convention which formed the con-
ftitution of the American union, the fouthern ftates
were fuccefsful in obtaining an enaftment in favour ot
the Have trade, which Avas couched in the following
ambiguous terms: “ The migration or importation of
fuch perfons as any of the ftates now exifting fhall
think proper to admit, fhall not be prohibited by the
congrefs prior to the year 1808; but a tax or duty
may be impofed on fuch importation, not exceeding
10 dollars for each perfon.” There are no (laves m
the commonwealth of Maffachufets ; and this is the
only ftate in the union that is entirely exempt from the
difgrace of perfonal flavery. _ It was abolifhed in the
following manner : No law in New England had po-
fitively authorized flavery ; but it prevailed under the
fanftion of cuftom and of public opinion. Several laws
indeed prefuppofed it; as they authorized the reclaim¬
ing of negroes who quitted their inafters, enjoined the
neceflity of reftoring them, and prohibited the intermar¬
riage of blacks with free people. The new conftitu-
tion of Maffachufets, like thofe of the other ftates,
declared an equality of rights for all men. In 1781,
fome negroes, prompted by private fuggeftion, maintain¬
ed that they were not flaves, and they found advocates
who brought their caufe before the fupreme court.
Their counfel pleaded, ift, lhat no law eftablifhed fla¬
very, and that the Days fuppofing it Avere the refult of
error in the legiflators Avho had an authority to ena&
them ; 2dly, They contended, that all fuch Days were
annulled by the new conftitution. They gained the
caufe upon both thefe principles ; aod, as there were
only few flaves in Maftachufets, all further idea of fla¬
very was banithed. But in the other New England
ftates, under fimilar laAvs, and in fimilar circumftances,
a contrary deciflon Avas given.
It is to be obferved, that in I77^> geReral cfn-
fus or enumeration of the population of Maffachufets,,
included 18,000 flaves; Avhereas, the fubfequent cen-
fus of 1790, exhibits only 6000 blacks. It appears
that a great proportion of the emancipated negroes
went to the toAvns, where making an indifcreet ufe of
their newly acquired freedom, many of ihem addi&ed
themfelves to the intemperate ufe of. fpirituous liquors,
and died in confequence ; others engaged as failors
even' on board foreign fhips. The generality of thofe
who did not difappear became fervants; fome are
tradefmen, or even farmers ; and a tolerable number,
confidering their education and the habits Avhich flavery
produces, have attained to independence. They have
not fallen under the lafh of public juftice more fre¬
quently than the Avhites, in proportion to the numbers
of each clafs.
In the eaftern part of Virginia, one-fifth of the po¬
pulation is ftill (aid to confift of Negro (laves, and
farther
America*
A M E
r i
486
Whites.
AmtHca. farther fouth where rice is cultivated, the proportion
“•“"•v ' of negroes is ftiil greater. In Pennfylvania, and the
other middle or northern ftates, meafures have been
adopted for their gradual emancipation. Such meafures
have become popular, not only from the general tem¬
per of the age, but from the conviction now generally
diffufed of the tendency of domedic flavery to degrade
the character of the free white men.
With regard to the whites, who form the third and
lad clafs of the people of this great country, it may
be obferved, that when the American conftitution or¬
dained the enumeration of the inhabitants of the Uni¬
ted States, within three years after its acceptance, it
enabled alfo, that the fame enumeration (hould be re¬
newed every 10 years, and left it to the congrefs to
make a law for regulating the manner of performing
•it. A law was necelTarily palled for this purpofe in
1790. The marlhal of every diftrift, who is a kind
of Iheriff, is ordered to fuperintend the enumeration.
In this work he may call in what aid he thinks proper.
He mud make a return to the prelident of the United
States, didinguilhing in the table of population, the
number of free males under and over the age of 16
years j and alfo the free women and girls j and the
llaves. The Indians are not included in the lid of po¬
pulation. The lids are exhibited upon public places,
for the correction of the inhabitants, and the heads of
families are required, under a pecuniary penalty, to date
correCtly the number of their families. The whole enu¬
meration is required to be performed in nine months.
The total expence of it is edimated at 40,000 dollars
every time it is made.
The enumeration of the people taken in ^7
virtue of this law, announced a population of 3,929,326
inhabitants, of whom 3,231,629 were free. Among
the free perfons were 57,707 negroes, or mulattoes.
The daves amounted to 697,691. By the lated enu¬
meration, the population of the United States amounted
to about 5,000,000.
The charafter of the inhabitants of the United States
of America, is necedarily various, according to the
climate which they inhabit, and the laws and hidory
of the different dates. The ufe of flaves, in particular,
has of itfelf produced a confiderable effeCl upon the
charafter and habits of the free men of thofe parts of
the empire in which they abound. Certain features of
character, however, are in feme meafure common to
the whole inhabitants of the dates •, and it may be ob-
ferved in general, that the Britifh nation, which was
the founder and the parent of thefe people, has no rea-
fon to be afhamed of them. Indeed, in a country
which belonged to Great Britain for along time, which
was peopled from it, of which the mod numerous and
neared connections are yet with Great Britain, and which
carries on with us almod all its commerce, the man¬
ners of the people mud neCeffarily in a great degree re¬
ferable our own. Accordingly, the American man¬
ners, particularly thofe relative to living, are the fame
as in England, or the fouth of Scotland 5 and New
York and Philadelphia are faithful copies, in this re-
fpeCt, of Liverpool and of Glafgow. As to the drefs,
the Englifh fafhions are as faithfully copied, as the
tranfmiffions of merchandife from England, and the
correfpondence of tailors and mantua-makers, will ad¬
mit of. The didribution of the apartments in their
(T 487 ,
W ational
hara&er,
31 ] A M E
houfes is like that of Great Britain. The furniture is Amevlea.
Britidi; the town carriages are either Britidi or in the ——v——^
Britidr tade, and it is no fmall merit in the faduonable
world, to have a coach newly arrived from London,
of the newed faftiion there; The cookery is Britidi j
and as in Britain, after dinner, the ladies withdraw^
and give place to drinking wine, a cudom which the
Americans carry at lead to as great a length as the
natives of the parent date. Indeed, frequent and
fumptuous dinners are faid to be held in as high con-
fideration in the new, as in the old world.
In the United States, the Britifh charafter is modi¬
fied by the fituation in which the inhabitants of this
new empire find themfelves. "I he mod general quali¬
ties common to all A.mericans, are underdood to be,
intrepidity, an ardour for enterprife, a high opinion of
themfelves, humanity, and a boundlefs love of gain.
Thefe qualities, fome of which are fo apparently dif-
cordant, are neverthelefs found to unite in the Ameri¬
can charader. They who confider candidly the hi¬
dory of the war of the*revolution, the indances of in¬
dividual courage which they exhibited in it, and the.
perfeverance which the whole people difplayed under
repeated difeorafiture, will be fully fatisfied concern¬
ing their firmnefs and courage. Habituated to fatigue
from their infancy, having for the mod part made their
fortunes by their labour and their indudry, fatigue and
labour are not yet become repugnant, even to thofe in
eafy circumdances. While they wifh to enjoy the luxu¬
ries of life, they do not regard them as abfolute wants.
They know how to difpenfe with them, and to quit
them and to travel in the woods whenever their inte-
red requires it. They can forget them whenever a re-
verfe in the current of their affairs takes them away.
They are not depreffed by difappointment, but in-
dantly refume the purfuit of fortune when die has mod.
cruelly deceived them. ' »
Great pride of fpirit, and a high notion of their own
Worth, are alfo driking parts of the American charac¬
ter. A committee of the houfe of reprefentatives of
the United States, appointed to prepare an anfwer to
the addrefs of the prefident, in December 1796, gave
a notable indance of this. Thefe gentlemen very mo-
dedly thought fit to call their countrymen t/ie tnojl en¬
lightened nation of the whole world; and very great la¬
bour and long difeufiions were neceffary before the
majority of the houfe could be prevailed upon to facri-
fice this fuperlative, which it is faid would not havte
embarraffed the modedy of their condituents. No white
American will fo far degrade himfelf, as to confent to
accept of the fituation of a domedic menial fervant or
footman. Hence it is faid, that throughout the whole
extent of the United States, 20 native Americans are
not to be found in the date of domedic fervants. This
clafs of domedics in America is compofed of emi¬
grant prieds, Germans, and negroes or mulattoes.
As foon as the former of thefe have acquired a little
money, they quit a datiori which they find to be re¬
garded with fuch contempt, and edablidi themfelves in.
a fmall trade, or upon land which they clear and cul¬
tivate. Hence it may eafily be inferred, that a good
domedic man-fervant is not eafily to be found in Ame¬
rica.
The prejudice which caufes the men in America to
have fo great a repugnance to the date of domedic
R 2 fervitude.
it*.
A M E [i-
Amcriea. fervitude, does not influence the women in the fame
—"'v——' degree. And accordingly, nothing is more common
than to fee young women of good families in the
fituation of fervants during the firfl: years of their
youth.
At the fame time, it muft not be imagined, that
pure republican manners prevail in America. 1 hough
there are no diftinftions of rank, formally acknow¬
ledged by law in the United States, yet fortune and
the nature of profeflions form different claffes. The firfl:
clafs is occupied by the great merchants, the lawyers,
the phyficians, the clergy, and the land-owners who
do not cultivate their land themfelves; the number
of whom is fmall from the ftate of Delaware to the
north, but is great in the ftates of the fouth, where
flavery prevails. The fecond clafs confifts of the in¬
ferior merchants, the farmers, and the artifans. And
the third clafs is compofed of workmen, who let
themfelves to labour by the day, the month, &c. In
balls, concerts, and public amufements, thefe clalfes do
not mix 5 though, except ordinary labourers and com¬
mon failors, every one calls himfelf, and is called by
others, a gentleman. A fmall income is fufficient for
the affumption of this title, as it eafily carries men
from one clafs to another. It is faid, indeed, that
the ftruggle for rank between different claffes produ¬
ces, in the great towns, a very ruinous degree of
oftentation. In New York and Philadelphia, luxury
is very high, and makes a dangerous progrefs every
year, by increafing the expence of living, and altering
the public opinion with regard to what conftitutes eafy
circumftances and a competent fortune. Still, how¬
ever, the inferior clafs of workmen entertain a high¬
er opinion of themfelves than elfewhere. I hey find
the road to independence more pra&icable, and as the
price of their labour is high, their circumftances are
eafy, and they endeavour to throw afide, as far as pof-
fiblV, every appearance of rufticity. They fee all ranks
of men engaged in bufinefs; they do not therefore ac¬
count themfelves degraded by being compelled to la¬
bour, efpecially as they find their {kill and mduftry
fought after by others, while it is produdive of afflu¬
ence to themfelves ; for in the United States there is
not a family, even in the moft miferable hut, who. do
not eat butchers meat twice a day at leaft, and drink
tea and coffee ; nor is there a man who drinks pure
water. Having heard much of the modes of living
ufual among perfons of their rank in other nations, they
are led to entertain an unbounded value for themfelves
and their country. .
Did not the practice of flavery ftill ftand in the
way, the Americans would not be furpaffed in the re¬
putation of generofity and humanity. When a brother
or a After dies, leaving orphan children, they are
readily adopted into the families of their uncles and
other kindred, who treat them entirely as their own.
This condu£t is fo common in America, that it meets
with no praife, and is confidered merely as the per¬
formance of the moft ordinary duty, and as requiring
no effort. Hofpitality to ftrangers is alfo exerted to a
great extent, and in a way that even perplexes for
fome time the modefty of an European. In cafes of
unufual calamity alfo, great liberality is difplayed by
them. The unfortunate fufterers by the fares ot
Charleftown and Savannah, and by the dreadful dif-
I
2 ] A M £
cafe which raged at Philadelphia, New York, and Am
other cities, were relieved by the abundant fubicrip-
tions of the citizens of all the American towns where
thefe difafters did not occur. The inhabitants of the
French Weft India iflands who fled to the ihores oi
America, in confequence of the events of the late ter¬
rible revolution, were relieved by voluntary contri¬
butions, to the amount of more than 200,000 dollars.
Whole families of them were fupported for one or
two years, according to their neceffities, by individual
Americans, in their houfes, merely becaufe they were
unfortunate. There alfo exifts a very confiderable
number of charitable focieties for various purpoles. m
the United States. Some of thefe are marine iocietiesj
whofe purpofe is in fome towns to provide a fubfiftence
for the wives and children of thofe who die at fea, or
to provide afliftance to all veffels wrecked upon their
coafts There are alfo focieties for the affiftance ot
emigrants, that is to fay, for affifting with advice and
fuccours thofe ftrangers who arrive from Europe-, with
an intention of eftabliffling themfelves in America.
Others fubfcribe for the fupport of hofpitals and Iffl10013
and for the diftribution of proper medicines. There
are focieties for the civilization of the Indians, and
others for the purpofes of ameliorating the fituation of
prifoners. Indeed, it is with regard to this laft lub-
ie£t that the Americans are entitled to boaft that the
triumph of humanity has been more complete in font©
parts at leaft of their country than any where elfe m
the world. At Philadelphia, the adminiftration of the
prifons has been eftabliffled upon the moft enlightened
and benevolent principles, and is conduced with a dej
gree of advantage to the public, and to impnfoned
criminals, that has hitherto been unknown m the hi-
ftory of mankind. The jailors receive ample falaries ;
a conftant bifpeftion is exerted over them, by the moft
refpeftable characters in the ftate', the convicts are
treated with the utmoft mildnefs } yet licentioufnefs is
baniftied, they are enabled to fupport themfelves, and
fometimes to carry out with them a fum of money, or
to fupport their families during their confinement j and
in almoft all cafes, the much wiftied for, but hitherto
unattainable end, is faid to be gained, of rendering
punifliment the means of accompliftfing the reforma¬
tion of the criminal. Such is faid to be the admirable
effeft of the humane and fkilful management which has
been here adopted, chiefly, it is underftood, by means
of the members of the fed of Quakers} that, inftead of
the prifons containing what are called old offenders, it
ufually happens, that of 100 conviCts difcharged, either
in confequence of pardons, or at the expiration of the
term of their fentence, there are never above two com¬
mitted for new crimes, although imprifonment for a
longer or ftiorter period is the only punilhment adopted
for all great crimes } no crime being capital excepting
only wilful murder.
But the moft remarkable feature in the American
eharafter, and indeed their ruling paffion, is a bound-
lefs third: after gain. This paffion, however, is in
them altogether different from that timid and hoarding
appetite which with us is fometimes feen to quench all
the energies of the human mind, and to extinguifti
every generous and liberal fentiment. In truth, the
avarice of an American is nothing more than the paf¬
fion of ambition directed to the acquifition of wealth
A M E
[ *33 3
A M E
America.
as the only means of attaining diftimftion in the ftate of
1 fociety in which he is placed. Accordingly he endea¬
vours to gratify his love of riches, not fo much by the
flow and fare mode of faving what he already pofleffes,
and of fuffering it to accumulate, as by entering into
bold and hazardous fpeculations, with a view to the
fiidden acejuifition of fortune. If his fpeculation is un-
fuccefsful, he thinks not the worfe of himfelf on that
account, nor is difcouraged from repeatedly encountei-
ing fimilar hazards. If he is at lalt fuccefsful, his
wealth is ufed in fuch a manner as evidently demon-
ftrates that the love of riches has not fully engroffed his
mind. He is luxurious, oftentatious, generous to the
unfortunate, and ready to contribute to every fcheme
of public beneficence or utility. Still, this ardent paf-
lion for the acquifition of money, which occupies fo much
of the thoughts of every American, never fails to ap¬
pear difgufting to men of letters, or to men of rank who
have at any time gone from Europe to America. They
are aftonilhed to find phyficians, lawyers, and priefts,
deeply engaged in ftock-jobbing and commercial fpe¬
culations, and that every part of fociety is compofed of
men whofe ruling paflion and great fubjeft of meditation
is, the fudden acquifition in fome way or other of great
pecuniary gain.
The Americans marry very young, efp<?cially in the
country. Young men, who generally eflablifh themfelves
very early either in fome new lands or in fome trade,
have occafion for a wife to affift them in their labours ^
and this conduces to their early marriages, as much
as the general purity of manners. If a wife die, (he is,
for the fame reafon, very fpeedily replaced by another.
Both in town and country, Ihe is an indifpenfible re-
fource for domeftic affairs, when her hulhand is enga¬
ged in his own affairs, as every one is in America. She
is alfo neceffary as a companion, in a country where the
children foon quit their parents, and where the men,
conftantly engaged in fome kind of bufinefs, find it in¬
convenient to leave their own families in fearch of fo¬
ciety. The manners of the Americans in their con-
du6t towards the other fex are reprefented as very pure.
Young women of uncommon beauty travel alone from
15 to 25 miles to Philadelphia to market with eggs,
fowls, butter, and other commodities, beginning their
journeys at the commencement of the night, without
finding that their youth and beauty expofe them to any
hazard or inconvenience.
All travellers agree in reprefenting the American
women as highly virtuous and refpe&able ; as faithful
and induftrious wives, and affedlionate mothers. The
young women enjoy entire freedom, and the commerce
of the fexes is* free from gallantry and from jealoufy.
The crime of adultery, which attacks fociety in its
firft elements, is faid to be unknown. One quality
afcribed in a remarkable degree to the American wo¬
men ought not to pafs unnoticed, which is, a remark¬
able attention to cleannefs, both in their perfons and
their houfes. The French who took refuge in the
United States during the revolution, though attentive
enough in this refpeft to the appearance of their per¬
fons, were regarded as fo flovenly* and dirty in the
management of their houfes and furniture, that they
foon rendered themfelves altogether odious to the A-
aaericans.
The ftate of education and of literature is ftill defec¬
tive in moft parts of America. The phyfical or natural America,
part of the education of the Americans is faid to be v- -
excellent. Left to themfelves from their tendereft age,
they are expofed without precaution to the rigour of
heat and cold, with their feet and legs bare, and with
few clothes. The children of the rich are not brought
up much more tenderly than thofe in lefs eafy circum-
ftances. In the country they often go alone twice a-
day to fchools, two or three miles diftant from home.
There are few American children who cannot fwim
boldly, and at ten years of age, manage a gun and hunt
without danger : and not one who does not ride with
great courage, or who fears fatigue. This liberty
given to children teaches them to take care of them¬
felves, and bold as they are, they avoid dangers better
than children brought up with much greater care.
They become ftrong and enterprifing men, whom no
difficulties dilhearten j and produce a grovying genera¬
tion, which will be as invincible in its territory, as that
which preceded it was found to be.
The inftnnffive part of education has not attained
the fame perfedtion. Maffachufets is the only ftate in
which a fyftem of education has hitherto been eftabliffi-
ed by law. It was enadled in 1789, that each town
or townfhip containing 50 families or houfes ffiall have
a fchoolmafter of good charadler, to inftrudl the children
in the Engliffi language, reading, writing, and arith¬
metic. The fchool to be open fix months in the year.
The towns or townlhips of 100 families, are to have
fchools of the fame kind, which are to be open during
the whole year. Thofe of 150 families are bound to
have two fchools, one for 12 months and one for fix.
Thofe of 200 families, or more, are bound to have two
fchools, one for 12 and one for fix mouths, and in ad¬
dition to thefe, a grammar fchool, in which the Greek,
Latin, and Engliffi languages are to be taught gram¬
matically. The expence of fupporting the fchool-
mafters, together with the fchool-houfes, the fuel, and
ink that may be neceffary, are defrayed by a general
tax or affeffment upon the whole people. The parents
pay their ffiare of this affeffment, in proportion only to
their wealth, and not to the number of their children.
They fupply their children w'ith the neceffary books,
and with pens and paper. Colleges are alfo eftabliffied j
but in thefe the profeffors receive fees from the ftudents.
The books read at the fchools are regulated by law $
and we are informed, that the Latin grammar which
the ftate of Maffachufets has preferred is that of Dr
Alexander Adam, reftor of the High School of Edin¬
burgh, author alfo of the celebrated treatife upon Ro¬
man antiquities, and other works illuftrative of claffical
literature.
Though the ftate of MaiTachufets is the only one
that has eftabliffied a fyftem of education by law, the
manners of the people in the whole New England Hates
have produced fuch a degree of attention to literature,
that there are few or no white perfons there who can¬
not read the Engliffi language, and the people at large
poffefs a confiderable degree of literature. In propor¬
tion, however, to the diftance. from New England
fouthward, education becomes gradually defeftive, and
in the Carolinas and Georgia, a fchool is fcarcely to be ■
found. In different ftates, however, there are colleges
and univerfities, in which the fciences are taught, and-
degrees conferred.
' Thee
A M E
[ 13+ ]
A M E
Amerioa.
The education of youth in America is conduced as
in Scotland, with a view rather to introduce young per-
fons quickly into life, than to render them men of pro¬
found learning. A young man in America hardly ar¬
rives at the age of 16 years before his parents are defi-
rous of planting him in the counting-houfe of a mer¬
chant, or in the office of a lawyer : Hence he is never
likely to refign himfelf to the fciences and to letters.
He foon lofes all other ideas than thofe which can hur¬
ry him on to the acquifition of a fortune. He fees no
other views in thofe around him, or in fociety j ami
that his whole confideration is attached to this kind of
fuccefs. Hence it will not appear furprifing, that there
ffiould be few learned men in the United States. In¬
deed, the number of learned, ingenious, and well-in¬
formed individuals, which is very confiderable, that
have appeared there, muft be afcribed rather to their
own native energy of character than to their edu¬
cation, or the Hate of fociety in which they were
placed. # . T . .
In the American fchools, the inftrucfion in Latin is
feldom extended farther than the firft claffic authors,
including Cornelius Nepos, Ovid, and fome orations of
Cicero. A little of Virgil and Horace are read in the
colleges. The New Teftament in Greek, and a little
of Homer in fome colleges, is the limit of claffical in-
ftruftion in that language. Mathematical inftruaioti
is ufually confined to the Elements of Euclid, and tile
firft principles of conic fe&ions. Pra&ical geometry,
however, for the purpofes of land-ftirveying and navi¬
gation, is much valued, on account of its connexion
with thofe branches of bufmefs which lead to riches.
Mechanics, hydroftatics, and hydraulics, are taught
after the works of Nicolfon, Eergufon, or Enfield.
Medicine, however, and the branches of fcience con-
nefted with it, are faid to be well taught in fome Ame¬
rican univerfities j and that profeffion has produced
many refpeftable and well-informed men. Still it is
probable, that however enlightened the Americans may
account themfelves, the nature of their purfuits is fuch,
that a confiderable time will elapfe before they can ex¬
hibit any great number of men of profound and exten-
five learning. Such accompliffiments, however, as theiir
fituation requires they poffefs in much perfeaion. In
the debates of congrefs, fpeeches full of correft reafon-
ing, drawn from a knowledge of mankind and of hi-
ftory, and expreffed with purity and eloquence, are of¬
ten heard ; and almoft all perfons engaged in bufinefs
afpire in their correfpondence to difplay much elegance
of expreffion, though their ftyle is apt to fwell out Into Amcric^
^Themoft common vices of the American people are,
an oftentatious luxury, on the part of the rich in great
towns-, and of the inferior clafs, a too free ufe 01 ipin-
tuous liquors. This they are led to by their eaiy cir-
cumftances, and by a great fondnefs for fociety. 1 heie
vices are greater and more remarkable in the lout hern
ftates than in the northern. In the fouth, alfo, men
are more fond of gaming than in the north, and the
energetic qualities of the American charafter are lels
confpicuous a circumftance which is fuppofed to anie
from the exiftence of fiavery, which in thefe ftates ren¬
ders labour and perfonal induftry lefs relpeftable. But
in general, the charafter of the Americans is rendered
pure by the train of conftant induftry in which all per-
fons are engaged. One of the moft troublefome of
their faults, however, ought not to pafs unnoticed:
They are, upon the whole, a very litigious people,
and lawyers abound and flourifh among them to a great
decree. But, in common with all the countries that
have derived any part of their conftitution or their laws
from England, they poffefs a very pure admimftration
of iuftice. This has always been the Angular privilege
and the glory of the Engliffi nation. No people that
attains to it can fail to poffefs found morals, or confe-
quently to enjoy all the profperity of which a nation is
capable. To the habits of integrity, and a refpeft lor
the laws and the magiftrates, which it produces, we
muft afcribe the internal tranquillity of America. Po¬
litics form the only fcience which all men ftudy there j
and political zeal hurries the different parties into the
moft uncharitable mifreprefentations of each others
views and conduft. But no man has preferred his own
perfonal aggrandifement to the authority of the law or
the welfare of his country -, no ufurpation has defaced
the fair page of the American hiftory ; and if rebellion
has occurred, it has been bloodlefs, and has only af¬
forded to all ranks of men an opportunity of difplaying
their attachment to public order.
Upon the whole, though men exclufively attached
to the purfuits of literature, and to the enjoyment of
idle but polifhed fociety, would find themfelves ill
fituated in America, yet we muft undoubtedly regard
the United States, as forming at this moment the moft
profperous empire upon the globe. It contains an ac¬
tive people, eafy in their circumftances and happy ; and^
every day gives an acceflion of population and 02
ftrength to this new country.
INDEX.
M
127
128
MT, ftamp, framed, . N° 126
received with univerial
indignation,
repealed,
Dr Franklin’s opinion of, 129
ASls, feveral, exafperate the Ameri-
I
cans, jU
Agriculture, ftate of, 461
Agriculture, cattle ufed in,
America, peopling of.
N° 467
92
117
118
119
divifions of,
produflions of,
different poffeffors of,
coaft of, invaded by the Bri-
tiffi fleet,
North, provinces of, fuccefs-
ful expedition againft the, 322
3°7
America, independence of, acknow-
ledged, N
immediate confequences of
the revolution to,
hiftory of, continued,
American army, fituation of the, at the
commencement of war,
army for I777>
troops, difcontent of the,
385
402
237
261
35*
\jnerican ftores, large quantity of,
deftroyed by Arnold, N° 35^
ftores, deftru£tion of, 365
ftates, confutation of, 384
army, difmiffion of the, 386
government, executive, of¬
ficers in the, 394
hufbandmen flood the land, 462
{mericans, cruelty of the, 209
defeated with great flaugh-
ter at Long Ifland, 238
abandon their camps in the
night, _ 239
greatly difperfed, 252
defeated, „ 261
detachment of the, furpri-
fed and defeated with
great daughter, 262
defeated at Germantown, 265
defeated by land and water, 271
defeated again, and aban¬
don Fort Anne, 272
retreat to Saratoga, 274
detachment of the, cut in
pieces, 276
attack the royal army, 282
with difficulty repulfed, 283
fend agents to different
countries, 298
defeated at Briar Creek, 311
defeated at Port Royal, 315
unfuccefsful expedition of
the, againft Penobfcot, 323
take vengeance on the In¬
dians, 327
reafons alleged by the, for
General Arnold’s con-
dua, _ 348
defeated at Guildford, 361
embarraffments of the, 387
Ancients fuppofed to have had fome im-
perfea notions of the new
world, 106
Andre, Major, unhappy fate of, 345
amiable charader of, 346
Animals, degeneracy of, afferted by
Buffon, 6
growth of, prevented by
moifture, confidered, 65
growth of, encouraged by
moifture, afferted by Mr
Jefferfon, 66
inftina of, altered by habit, 90
inftina of, altered by habit,
confirmed by an obferva-
tion on the Franks, 91
Antiquity, remains of, 105
AJJemblies, public, 18
Ajfembly of New York difobeys an aft
of Parliament, 131
of Maffachufets required to
refeind their circular let¬
ter by their governor, 135
refufed to refeind their circu¬
lar letter, 136
[ 135 1
Sljfembly of Maffachufets accufes the
governor, and petitions for
his removal, N° 137
general proceedings of this,
at Salem, 159
general, called, and diffolved
by proclamation, 172
of Maffachufets recommends
preparations for war, 177
B
Bank, national, 398
Bees, of, 44I
Belts, or wampum, of, 19
Bill, declaratory, gives offence, 130
for the impartial adminiftration of
juftice, 155
Port, refentment occafioned by
the, r 138
Quebec, difagreeable to thofe
whom it was intended to
pleafe, 186
conciliatory, received with indig¬
nation by the Britifli troops in
America, 301
conciliatory, defpifed by the co-
lonifts, 302,
Birds, American, 135
Bojlon, tumult at, 348
affembly at, diffolved, 130
difturbances at, increafe, 140
troops ordered to, 14I
convention of, formed, 142
convention of, diffolves, and
labours to vindicate its con-
duft, _ 143
mob, fome people killed by
the foldiers at, 145
tea deftroyed at, 151
puniffiment of, refolved upon, 153
petitions againft puniffiment
of, 154
people of, generoufly treated
by the people of Salem, 160
caufe of, efpoufed by all the
reft of the colonies, 161
folemn league and covenant
formed at, 163
governor at, attempts in vain
to counteraft the folemn
league and covenant, 164
people of, generoufly treated
by the inhabitants of Mar¬
blehead, 167
people of, ftrongly beloved by
the country people, 168
neck of, fortified by General
Gage, 169
military ftores, province of,
feized by General Gage, 170
inhabitants, diftrefs of,. 175
a great army affembles at, 179
troops in, diftreffed, 183
inhabitants, miferable fituation
of the, 212
Bojlon cannonaded by the provin¬
cials, N° 213
evacuated by the Britiffi, 214
fortifications of, ftrengthened, 215
Boundaries of America, I
Breyman, Colonel, defeated, 281
Bridge, natural, a great curiofity, 426
Britain, confederacy againft, joined by
Spain, 324
Britijl} poffeflions, vaft extent of the,
before the late revolution, 120
colonies, ftate and charafter
of, at the end of the war
i763» , r r 122
parliament, both houfes of,
addrefs the king againft A-
merica, 144
taxation, right of, denied by
Maffachufets Bay affembly, 148
miniftry attempt in vain to arm
the Indians, 187
general, humanity of the, 220
forces repulfed, 231
army, fituation of the, at the
commencement of the war, 237
troops entirely overrun the Jer-
• feys, 248
regipients, three, attempt on, 255
three, make good
their retreat, 256
fleet fails for Philadelphia, 259
army lands at the head of the
Elk, 260
army attacked at German¬
town, 264
ffiips of war burnt, 266
army in danger of being fur-
rounded, 290
army attempts a retreat, 291
army, diftreffed fituation of
the, . 292
army in the north obliged to
capitulate, 293
troops, predatory war carried
on by the, 300
commiffioners, bad fuccefs of
the, 303
troops advance to Charlef-
town, 3ia
troops* hardffiips endured by
the, 362
admiral and general, mifun-
derftanding betwixt, 366
and French fleets, aftion be¬
twixt the, off the capes of
Virginia, 3^7
and Americans, feveral aftions
betwixt the, 366
and French fleets, aftion be¬
tween the, off the Chefa-
peak, 374
troops, different places evacu¬
ated by the, 380
Bull, famous, of Paul III. 38
Bunker's Hill, battle at, 180
Burgoyne,
v
Jlurgoyiic,. General, joined by the In¬
dians, N° 269
proceeds to Fort Edward
with great difficulty, 273
diftreffed for want of pro-
vilions, 24^
attacks the provincial ma¬
gazines at Benning¬
ton, 279
capture of, occafions great
deje&ion, ^ 295
troops of, detained in A-
merica, 299
Buzzard, turkey, 436
C
Calumny, remarkable inflance of, in
De Paw, 57
Canada, conqueft of, attempted by
the Americans, 191
penetrated into by Colonel
Arnold, 196
inhabitants of, defeated by
the provincials, 21S
Candles, fpermaceti, 453
Carleton, General, defeated, 193
Sir Guy arrives at New York
with powers to tr^at of
peace, 37 ^
Carolina, South and }Sforth, governors
of, expelled, 211
North, inhabitants of, de¬
clare in favour of Bri¬
tain, 225
^oyalifts of, defeated, 226
invaded, 310
South, a£Uons in, 349
Chamblee, fort of, taken, ^ 192
Champlain, Lake, Britiffi fend veffels
up, 250
Chara&er, remarkable penfivenefs and
taciturnity of, 116
national, 47°
Charlejlown, Britiffi armament fent
againft, 228
attacked by the fleet, 229
General Lincoln advan¬
ces to the relief of, 3x3
attempt on, abandoned, 314
expedition againft, by
Sir Henry Clinton, 328
defended by Lincoln, ib.
furrenders to Sir Henry
Clinton, 331
Chiefs, terrible .trials of, 14
Climate, moifture of, 5
account of, mifreprefented, 7
proofs of its mildnefs, ib.
further deferibed, _ 444
effects of, on the inhabitants, 445
Clinton, Sir Henry, letter of, to Ge¬
neral Burgoyne, with Bur-
goyne’s anfwer, 285
Sir Henry, fuccefsful expedi¬
tion of, 294
[ 156 ]
Clinton, Sir Henry, late arrival of, to
the fuccourof Lord Corn¬
wallis, Nc 376
Cod, fiftieries of, 45I
Cold, remarkable, S
reafons for, 4
Colour of the natives, _ 10
remarkable difference of, arifing
from accidental,caufes, 86
no charafteriftic of a different
fpecies, 87
altered by different caufes, 89
Cclumbus, reprefentation of, 59
projefts of, to difeover a new
continent, 109
voyage of, ixo
aftoniffiment of, on obferv-
ing the variation of the
compafs, in
perilous fituation of, H2
crews ready to mutiny, 113
crews, joy of, upon difeo-
vering land, 114
condutt of, upon landing
upon one of the iflands of
the new world, 115
difeovers the new vconti-
nent, 116
Counnunication between the old and
new continent, two
ways of, 92
Congrefs meets at Philadelphia, 165
tranfaflions of, account of, 166
commiffioners, fpeech of, to
the Indians, 188
announces the independence
of America, • 216
proceedings of the, 337
difficulties of the, by the de¬
preciation of their paper
currency, 33^
refolutions of, in confequence
of Carleton’s power to treat
of peace, 379
Conolly, Mr, difeovered and taken pri-
foner, 20 8
Conjlitution, new, propofal of, 388
Continents once joined, 94
reafons for, _ 1b-
probable caufe of feparation, 95
feparated by a narrow ftrait, 96
eafinefsof paffage between the, 97
Convention of Philadelphia, 389
Cor«, Indian, 471
Cornwallis, Lord, victory of, over Ge¬
neral Gates, 342
exertions of, in North Ca¬
rolina, 354
marches through North
Carolina, 357
proclamation by, 3^
critical fituation of, 3 7 2
attempts to affift, ineffec¬
tual, 373
Cornwallis, danger of, increafed, N° 333
furrender of, 377
Country well watered, 420
face of the, 425
irregularly fettled, 476
Crimes and puniffiments, 35
Crown Point and Ticonderago taken
by the Americans, 182
Cuftoms of the North Americans, 1-5
D
Declaration on taking up arm=, 185
Diviftons into North and South, 2
Drefs, peculiarities of, 11
Dreffes and cuftoms common to the
pattern Afiaticsand Ameri¬
cans, w 102
E
Eloquence, Indian, fpecimen of, 77
England, Newr, expedition againft, 268
EJlaing, D’, proclamation of, 316
fails to the Weft Indies, 317
expedition of, againft Geor¬
gia, 318
abfurd conduft of, 2>l9
Extent of America, I
F
Eedernlifts attached to Britain, 4^^
Fever, yellow, _ 4I5
Figures painted on their bodies, 11
France and America, treaty betwixt, 296
occafions great debates, 267
difputes with, 413
Fratiklin, fpeech of, 39°
Frazer, General, killed, 288
French, intrigues of the, 123
fleet arrives in America, 305
fleet, attempt of the, againft
Rhode Ifland, 306
and American generals, cruel¬
ty of the, 320
and Americans defeated, 3 21
troops, large body of, lands at
Rhode Ifland, 34O
G
Gage, General, difficulties of, in ac¬
commodating his troops, 173
Georgia, inhabitants of, accede to the
confederacy, 190
expedition againft, 308
poffeffion taken of, 3 09
Germans defeated with great {laugh¬
ter, 289
Government, form of, 17
Grain, nature of, 470
Greene, General, attacked in his
camp, and defeated by
Lord Rawdon, 363
defeated by Colonel Stuart, 370
Guildford, battle at, 360
H
Hedges, America deftitute of, 463
Honey, poifonous, 442
Hoflilities commence betwixt Britain
and America, 236
Houfes
Houfes of the, N° 477
Howe, General, lands on Staten
Ifland, and publifties a cir¬
cular letter calling the co-
lonitts to fubjeftion, 234
Lord, fends a meflage to con-
grefs, 240
■waited on by a committee of
the congrefs, 241
Lord, and committee of con¬
grefs, unfuccefsful confe¬
rence betwixt, 242
Huic7iijbn} Governor, letters of, to
the Britith miniftry dif-
covered, v 149
I
Jut/, treaty of, 412
Indians defert, and force Colonel Le-
ger to raife the fiege of
Stanwix, 277
defert from General Bur-
goyne, 284
war with the, 411
of the, 482
Indigo and cotton, of, 474
InfeBs, of, 8
lize of, ib.
farther defcribed, 440
Infenjibi/ity, remarkable, to pain, 12
Interior, lakes in the, 422
John, St, fort of, taken, 194
K
Kaiman, of the, 443
Knyphaufen, General, unfuccefsful ex¬
pedition of, in the Jer-
feys, 341
Xi
Land, traffic of, 436
fales of, in large portions, 437
fales of, in fmall portions, 458
withheld from fale in the hopes
of a rife in its price, 439
remarkable fpeculations in the
purchafe of, 460
Laurens, Mr, capture of, 330
Lee, General, taken prifoner, 4 ^
Lexington, fkirmifh at, 178
Liberty, love of, 34
Lice, of, " 8
Lincoln, General, reinforcements fent
to the relief of, intercept-
ed 330
Logan, ftory of, 76
London, New, expedition againft, 371
M
Manners, peculiar, of different nations, 36
Manufaftures, American, 446
Mexican Indians, ftature, fhape, &c. 48
not deflitute of beard, 49
form and afpeft of,
contrafted with
other nations, co
Vol. II. Part I.
[ 137 1
Mexican Indians, conftitution and
corporeal abilities
of, _ N° 31
labour and induflry
of, _ 32
healthinefs and
flrength of, pro¬
ved, _ _ 53
mental qualities of, 34
De Paw’s proofs of
the cowaidice of, 33
De Paw’s account
of, refuted, 36
Migrations into the new continent, 98
Mr Pennant’s opinion of, 99
probably firft from the
eaftern parts of Alia, iqo
from Afia, proved by a fi-
milarity of cuftoms, 101
of the brute creation from
the old continent to the
new by the fame route
as men, 104
of brutes, remarks con¬
cerning, ib.
Minerals, of, 429
Montgomery, General, killed, and the
Americans defeated, 198
Montreal taken, 193
Moravians, of the, 479
Morris, Captain, bravery of, 230
N
Natives, defcription of the, 9
their indolence, 11
quicknefs of fenfe, 24
vigilance, 23
manner of fighting, 26
charafter and contraft, 30
treatment of dead friends, 31
fuperftitions, 32
longevity, 37
vices and defe&s aggravated, 38
reproached with pufillanimity, 40
accufed of perfidy, 41
underftandings reprefented as
weak, 42
flupidity, _ 43
vanity and conceit, 44
eloquence difparaged, 43
partly mifreprefented, 46
Buffon and De Paw’s phyfi-
cal defcription of the, re¬
futed, 47
conclufions concerning their
capacities, 60
ingenuity afferted, 61
fcience, tokens of, among, 62
morality, fpecimen of, 63
degeneracy of the, alleged, 70
obfervations by Mr Jefferfon
on their degeneracy, 71
coldnefs to the fex accounted
for, 72
Natives, why few children, N° 73
their fenfibility, 74
courage, 73
anecdotes, 78
polilenefs and civility, 79
hofpitality, 80
Lord Kaimes’s argument for
different fpecies of, 81
Lord Kaimes’s hypothefis
concerning the different
fpecies of, 82
Kaimes’s argument incom¬
plete, _ _ 83
general principles to be kept
in view in reafoning on the
different fpecies of, 84
Lord Kaimes’s argument in-
confiftent, 83
Negroes, of the, 483
Niagara, defcription of, 421
Ninety-Jix, poft of, laid fiege to by
General Greene, but,
without fuccefs, 364
Norfolk, town of, deftroyed, 210
Norwegian pretenfions to the difco-
very of America con-
fidered, 108
O
Omoa Fort, taken by the Britifh, 323
evacuated by the Britilh, 326
Oppojition againft Britain confirmed, 162
to Britiftr parliament ftill
increafes, 171
more and more confirmed
againft Britain, 181
P
Parties, character of, 406
prefent ftate of, 417
Pearl-ajhes, of, 448
Petition againft Governor Hutchifon
refufed, 130
Pennfylvania line, revolt of the, 332
ineffeftual attempts to
induce the,to join the
royal army, 333
Philadelphia taken poffeflion of by
General Howe, 263
forts near, reduced, 267
evacuated, 304
American independence
celebrated at, 339
Pitjburg, rebellion at, 410
Political factions, 404
Potajh works, 447
P ref cot. General, taken prifoner, 238
Prejident and vice-prefident.how eledt-
ed> 395
condudl of, 409
new, 414
Prifoners, treatment of, 27
{hocking treatment of, 28
conftancy of, 29
Proclamation by General Clinton, 336
S Provincials
Provincials defeated by General Carle-
ton, N° 219
purfued by General Carle-
ton, 2.21
purfued by General Bur-
goyne, 223
efcape to Crown Point, 224
naval force of the, deftroy-
ed, 251
expedition of the, againft
Ticonderago, 286
defperate attack of the, on
the royal army, 287
. £
Quadrupedsy aboriginals of Europe
and America, com¬
parative view of, 66
aboriginals of one only,
Table II.
domefticated in Europe
and America,Table III.
refult view of, in Table I. 67
defcribed, Table II. 68
defcribed, Table III. 69
Quarrels between the people of Maf-
fachufets Bay and their
governor, I34
QuebeCy attempt to furprife, by the
Americans, J97
fiege of, continued, 217
R
Religiotiy of, 47^
Republicy American, rife of the, 121
Refemblance between the Afiatics and
North Americans, J 3
Revenge, remarkable inftance of, 39
Rhode IJland taken, 249
Rice, of, 475
RiverSy eaftern, 423
S
Secretary of Rate, 396
Settlements, new, how formed, 465
children refiding in the, apt
to be loft in the woods, 466
Settlers, frontier, always hoftile to the
Indians, 4^3
Sheep, nature of, 4^
Ship-building, of, 45°
Shakers, of the, -r, - ^
Skirmifhes, different, between the Bri-
ti(h and Americans, 359
■ Snakes, American, 437
the joint, 43«
rattle, 439
Springs, fait, in Kentucky, 4I3
names of ^he, 43 2
mineral, 433
[ 138 ]
Stacks of grain not made ufe of in A-
merica, N° 464
Stanwix, fort, befieged, 275
Staten IJland attacked by the provin¬
cials^ . 334
provincials make a preci¬
pitate retreat from, 335
Stature, no proof of a different fpecies, 88
Sugar-maple, 449
Sulphur and nitre found in the weftern
territory, 43°
Swine, nature of the, 469
T
Tarleton, Lieutenant-colonel, activity
of, 343
defeat of, 355
operations in confequence of
the defeat of, 35^
Tax, plan of, by Mr Townftiend, 132
plan raifes greater indignation
than even the ftamp aft, 133
tea, violently oppofed, ' 147
Taxes, heavy, impofed, and other ob¬
noxious afts framed, 124
exafperate the Americans, 125
all removed except on tea, 146
Tea refufed admittance in feveral
places, 152
Thomfon, General, defeated and taken
by General Frafer, 222
Ticonderago befieged and taken, 270
Titles propofed, 4°5
Tobacco, of, 474
Trade, American, 454
foreign, 455
Treafury, of the, 397
TunkerSyot the, 4^1
U
Union, articles of, betwixt the colo¬
nies, j84
United States, conftitution of, ^ 39 s
conftitution of, additions
to the, 392
conftitution of the, op-
pofition againft, 393
army of the, 399
law offices of the, 400
the mint of the, 401
defcription of the bound¬
aries of, 4X^
errors in the defcription
of the boundaries of, 419
V
Vegetables, of, 434
Vegetation, luxuriant, _ 6
Virginia, province of, difputes with
their governor, 2©o
Virginia, Dunmore, governor of, fends
his family on board a man
of war, N° 201
governor of, fortifies his pa¬
lace, 202
governor of, argues in fa¬
vour of Lord North’s
conciliatory plan, 203
governor of, retires on board
a man of war, ' 204
governor of, attempts to
reduce the province by
force, 205
governor of, entirely defeat¬
ed, _ 206
plan of reducing, by Mr
Conolly, 207
Lord Dunmore finally driven
out of, 227
caverns in, 427
w
Warriors, drefs of, 23
War, preparations for, 174
lofs of men and treafure by the, 382
confequences of the, 383
Wars, of, 20
ceremonies before, 21
enfigns of, 22
Weljh, pretenfions of the, to the dif- *
covery of America in the
12th century, 107
Wejlern waters, 424
Women, condition of the, 33
Whale jifiery, 45 a
Wheat regarded in America as the
moft valuable kind of grain, 472
Whites, of the, 489
Wajhwgton, George appointed com¬
mander in chief, 189
refufes a letter from Lord
Howe, _ 235
is defeated at the White
Plains, 247
prefident, 403
name of, given to the fe¬
deral city, 416
Y
York, New, armament fent againft, 233
abandoned by the provincials, 243
fet on fire, 245
General Waftiington removes
farther from, 246
Britilh excurfions from, 257
apprehenfions at, 332
forwardnefs of the inhabitants
of, to be enrolled for its de-
fence, 333
AMERICAN
American
II
Amethyft.
A M E [ 139 ]
AMERICAN night-shade. See Phytolacca,
Botany Index.
American Ground-nut. See Arachis, Botany
Index.
AMERICUS Vespucius. See Vespucci.
AMERSFORT, a city in the Netherlands, in the
province of Utrecht, feated on the river Ems. E. Long.
5. 20. N. Lat. 52. 14. The moft remarkable obje&s
are, the townhoufe j the grand palace, which is trian¬
gular 5 the public walk, planted with trees j and the
great church, dedicated to St George. The land to
the eaft and fouth of this city is very fruitful ; on the
north there is nothing but pafture ground, and on the
weft it is woody. Not far from hence is a mountain
called Amersfort-berg, on which is planted a vifta of
trees, which reaches to Utrecht.
AMERSHAM, or Agmondesham, a market town
in Buckinghamfliire, confifting of about 200 houfes,
with a free-fchool, and four alms-houfes. It fends two
members to parliament, and has a market on Tuefday.
It is a re&ory rated at 48I. 16s. 8d. in the king’s books.
The market-houfe is a very handfome ftru&ure. W.
Long. o. 35. N. Lat. 51. 47.
AMES, William, D. D. a learned independent
divine, celebrated for his controverfial writings, nas
born in 1576, and educated at Chrift’s college, in
Cambridge. In the reign of King James I. he left the
univerfity, and loon after the kingdom, on account of
his being»unwilling to conform to the rules of the
church j and retired to the Hague, v-here he had not
been long before he was invited to accept of the divi¬
nity chair in the univerfity of Franeker, in Friefland,
'which he filled with admirable abilities for above
twelve years ; during which his fame was fo great,
that many came from remote nations to be educated
under him. He from thence removed to Rotterdam
for a change of air which his health required 5 and
here he continued during the remainder of his life. His
controverfial writings, which compofe the greateft part
of his works, are chiefly againft Bellarmine and the
Arminians. He alfo wrote, 1. A frefti Suit againft the
Ceremonies. 2. LeBiones in Pfaltnos Davidis. 3. Me-
dulla Theologice ; and feveral pieces relative to the fci-
ences. He died of an afthma at Rotterdam, in Novem¬
ber 1633.
AMESTRATUS, a town of Sicily (Cicero) ; A-
mejlratos (Stephanus) ; AmaJIra (Silius Italicus) j
Multijlratos (Polybius) : Now Mijlretta, in the Val
di Demona, on the river Halefus. It was a. very
ftrong fort of the Carthaginians, befieged in vain by
the Romans for feven months with confiderable lofs j
at length, after another fiege, taken and razed (Dio¬
dorus Siculus).
AMETHYST, a tranfparent gem of a purple co¬
lour, which feems compofed of a firong blue and a
deep red •, and, according as either of thefe prevails,
affording different tinges of purple, fometimes ap¬
proaching to violet, and fometimes even fading to a
pale rofe colour. Though the amethyft is generally
of a purple colour, it is neverthelefs fometimes found
naturally colourlefs, and may at any time be eafily
made fo by putting it into the fire ; in which pellucid
or colourlefs ftate, it fo refembles the diamond, that
Its want of hardnefs feems the only way of diftinguifh-
ing it. Some derive the name umethjji from its co-
A M H
lour, which refembles wine mixed with water j w Ini ft Amethyft
others, with more probability, think it got its name l<
from its fuppofed virtue of preventing drunkennefs ; an , Ai;1 ;Ar-
opinion which, however imaginary, prevailed to that
degree among the ancients, that it was ufual for great
drinkers to wear it about their necks. Be this as it
will, the amethyft is fcarcely inferior to any of the
gems in the beauty of its colour, and in its pureft
ftate is of the fame 'hardnefs, and at leaf! of equal va¬
lue, with the ruby and fapphire. It is found of vari¬
ous fizes, from the bignefs of a fraall vetch to an inch
and a half in diameter, and often to much more than
that in length. Its ftiape is extremely various, fome¬
times roundifh, fometimes oblong, and at others Hat¬
ted, at leaft on one fide \ but its moft common appear¬
ance is in a cryftalliform figure, confifting of a thick
column, compofed of four planes, and terminated by a
flat and ftiort pyramid of the fame number of fides j
or elfe, of a thinner and longer hexangular column \
and fometimes of a long pyramid, without any column.
It makes the gayeft figure in the laft of thefe ftates,
but is hardeft and moft valuable in the roundifti and
pebble-like form. The amethyft is found in the Eaft
and Weft Indies, and in feveral parts of Europe ; the
oriental ones, at leaft fome of the finer fpecimens, be¬
ing fo hard and bright as to equal any of the coloured
gems in value. However, by far the greater number
of amethyfts fall infinitely ftiort of thefe-, as all the
European ones, and not a few of thole brought from
the Eaft and Weft Indies, are very little harder than
common cryftal.
Counterfeit or FaBitious AmETHTST. Spars and cry-
ftals tinged red and yellow, &c. are fold for amethyfts.
The falfe ones come from Germany, are tinged by va¬
pours in the mines, and contain lead.
Amethyfts may be counterfeited by glafs, to whih
the proper colour or ftain is given. There were fine
ones made in France about the year 1690, which may
even impofe on connoiffeurs, unlefs the ftone be taken
out of the collet.—The method of giving this colour
to glafs is directed as follows: Take cryftal frit, made
with the moft perftft and fine tarfo : Then prepare a
mixture of manganefe in powder, one pound ; and zaf-
fre prepared, one ounce and a half : Mix thefe powders
well together and add to every pound of the frit an
ounce of this powder. Let it be put into the pots
with the frit, not into the prepared metal. When the
whole has flood long enough in fufion to be perfectly
pure, work it into veffels, and they will referable the
colour of the amethyft.
Amethyst, in Heraldry, a term for the purple co¬
lour in the coat of a nobleman, in ufe with thofe who
blazon with precious ftones, inftead of metals and co¬
lours. This, in a gentleman’s efcutcheon, is called Pur-
pure ; and in thofe of fovereign princes, Mercury.
AMETHYSTEA, Amethyst. SeeBoTAN y Index.
AMETHYSTINE is applied, in antiquity, to a
kind of purple garment dyed of the hue of amethyft.
In this fenfe amethyftine differed from Tyrian as well
as from hyacinthine purple, being a kind of medium
between. ^
AMHAR, or AmhAra, a province of Abyflinia,
faid to extend 40 leagues from eaft to weft. It is
confidered as the moft noble in the whole empire, both
on account of its being the ufual refidence of the A-
S 2 byflinian
Amhurft
AMI [i
by (Tinian monarchs, and having a particular dialeft dif-
„ ferent from all the reft, which, by reafon of the empe-
Armcable. rors being brought up in the province, is become the
language of the court and of the politer people. Here
is the famed rock Amba-geftien, where the young mo¬
narchs were formerly confined. See AmBa and Abys¬
sinia.
AMHURST, Nicholas, an Englifli poet and
political writer of the 18th century, was born at Mar-
den in Kent, and entered of St John’s college, Oxford ;
from whence he was expelled for irregularity of con-
du£t and libertine principles. Retaining great refent-
ment againft the univerfity on this account, he abufed
its learning and difcipline, and fome of the moft re-
fpeftable chara&ers in it, in a poem publilhed in 1724
called Oculus Britannice, and in a book entitled Terrce
Films. He publilhed, A Mifcellany of Poems, facred
and profane; and, The Convocation, a poem in five
cantos, which was a fatire on the biftiop of Bangor’s
antagonifts. But he is beft known for the (hare he
had in the political paper called The Craftsman:
though, after having been the drudge of his party
for near 20 years, he' was fo much forgotten in the
famous compromife of 1742 as if he had never been
born ; and, when he died in that year of a broken
heart, was indebted to the charity of his bookfellers
for a grave.
AMIANTHUS, or Earth-flax, in Mineralogy,
a fibrous, flexible, elaftic, mineral fubftance, confifting
of fliort, abrupt, and interwoven filaments. It is
found in Germany, in the ftrata of iron ore, fometimes
forming veins of an inch in diameter. Its fibres are (o
flexible that cloth has been made of them, and the
fhorter filaments that feparate in the waftiing of the
ftone may be made into paper in the common manner.
For the method of its preparation for manufa&ure into
cloth, fee Asbestos.
Amianthus is clafled by Mr Kirwan in the muriatic
genus of earths, becaufe it contains about a fifth part
of magnefia. Its other conftituents are, flint, mild
calcareous earth, barytes, clay, and a very final! pro¬
portion of iron. It is fufible per fe in a ftrong heat,
and alfo with the common fluxes. See Mineralogy
Index.
AMICABLE, in a-general fenfe, denotes any thing
done in a friendly manner, or to promote peace.
Amicable Benches, in Roman antiquity, were, ac¬
cording to Pitifcus, lower and lefs honourable feats al¬
lotted for the judices pedanei, or inferior judges, who
upon being admitted of the emperor’s council, were
dignified by him with the title amici.
AMICABLE Numbers, denote pairs of numbers, of
which each of them is mutually equal to the fum
of all the aliquot parts of the other. So the firft or
leaft pair of amicable numbers are 220 and 284; all
the aliquot parts of which, with their fums, are as fol¬
lows, viz.
of 220, they are I, 2, 4, 5, 10, IT, 20, 22, 45, 55»
110, their fum - - - - ’ 284;
of 284, they are I, 2, 4, 71, 142, and their fum is 220.
The 2d pair of amicable numbers are 17296 and
18416, which have alfo the fame property as above.
And the third pair of amicable numbers are 9363584
Theft? three pairs amicable numbers were found
40 ] AMI
out by F. Schooten, fe£t. 9. of his Exercitaliones Ma- Amicable
thematicce, who, it is faid, firft gave the name of amica¬
ble to fuch numbers, though fuch properties of num¬
bers, it feems, had before been treated of by Rudol-
phus, Defcartes, and others.
To find the firft pair, Schooten puts 4* and 4^55, or
a*x and for the two numbers where 0=2 ; then
making each of thefe equal to the fum of the aliquot
parts of the other, gives two equations, from which are
found the values of ar and $5, and confequently affuming
a proper value for y, the two amicable numbers them-
felves 4.V and 47/z.
In like manner for the other pairs of fuch numbers ;
in which he finds it necelfary to affume i6x and 16312!
or aAx and rPys; for the 2d pair, and 128.V and l2Sy^s
or a?x and a1yz for the third pair.
Schooten then gives this pra&ical rule, from Def¬
cartes, for finding amicable numbers, viz. aflume the
number 2, or fome power of the number 2, fuch that
if unity or 1 be fubtra&ed from each of thefe three foL
lowing quantities, viz.
from three times the afliimed number,
alfo from 6 times the aflumed number,
and from 18 times the fquare of the aflumed number,
the three remainders may be all prime numbers ; then
the laft prime number being multiplied by double the
affumed number, the product will be one of the ami¬
cable numbers fought, and the fum of its aliquot parts
will be the other.
That is, if a be put = the number 2, and n fome
integer number, fuch that 3#”—1, and 6an—1, and
18a1®
I, be all three prime numbers; then is 18a1®—I
X 2a® one of the amicable numbers; and the fum of
its aliquot parts is the other.
AM ICTUS, in Roman antiquity, was any upper
garment worn over the tunica.
Amictus, among ecclefiaftical writers, the upper-
moft garment anciently worn by the clergy ; the other
five being the alba, fingulum, ftola, manipulus, and pla-
neta. The amittus was a linen garment, of a fquare
figure, covering the head, neck, and (houlders, and
buckled, or clafped before the bread. It is (till worn
by the religious abroad.
AMICULUM, in Roman antiquity, a woman’s
upper garment, which differed from the pala. It was
worn both by matrons and courtezans.
AMICUS curia:, a law term, to denote a by-ftander
who informs the court of a matter in law that is doubt¬
ful or miftaken.
AMID-AMID, in Geography, a lofty ridge of
mountains in Abyfifinia. See Abyssinia.
AMIDA, a god worftnpped by the Japanefe, who
has many temples erefted to him in the ifland of Japan,
of which the principal is at Jeddo. The Japanefe
have fuch a confidence in their idol Amida, that they
hope to attain eternal felicity by the frequent invoca¬
tion of his name. One of the figures of this idol ia
reprefented at Rome.
Amida, in Ancient Geography, a principal city of
Mefopotamia, otherwife called Ammcea; fituated on
a high mountain, on the borders of Affyria, on the
Tigris, where it receives the Nymphius. It was ta¬
ken from the Romans, in the time of the emperor
Conftans, by Sapores king of Perfia. The fiege ia
faid to have coft him 30,000 men; however, he redu¬
ced
AMI [14
Amiens, ced it to fuch ruin, that the emperor afterwards wept
over it. According to Ammianus Marcellinus, the city
was razed *, the chief officers were crucified ; and the
reft, with the foldiers and inhabitants, either put to the
fword or carried into captivity, except our hiftorian
hirafeif, and two or three more, who, in the dead of
the night, efcaped through a poftern unperceived by
the enemy. The inhabitants of Nifibis, however,
being obliged to leave their own city by Jovian’s trea¬
ty with the Perfians, foon reftored Amida to its for¬
mer ftrength ; but it was again taken by Cavades in
co 1, but was reftored to the_ Romans in 503. On the
declenfion of the Roman power, it fell again into the
hands of the Perfians 5 but was taken from them by
the Saracens in 899* It Is now *n thg poffeflion of the
Turks. Here are above 20,000 Chriftians, who are
better treated by the 1 urks than in other places. A
great trade is carried on in this city of red l urkey lea¬
ther, and cotton cloth of the fame colour. Phe Ara¬
bian name of Amida is Diarbekir, and the f urkifh one
Kara-Amed. E. Long. 39. o. N. Lat. 36. 58-
AMI ENS, a large handfome city of France, the
capital of Picardy. It is agreeably fituated on the ri¬
ver Somme, and faid to have received its Latin name
Ambiamm from being everywhere encompaffed with
water. It is a place of great antiquity •, being men¬
tioned by Csefar as a town that had made a vigorous
refiftance againft the Romans, and where he convened
a general affembly of the Gauls after having made him-
felf matter of it. The emperors Antoninus and Mar¬
cus Aurelius enlarged it j and Conftantine, Conftans,
Julian, and feveral others, refided here a confiderable
time. The town is encompaffed with a wall and other
fortifications j and the ramparts are planted with trees,
which form a delightful walk. The river Somme en¬
ters Amiens by three different channels, under as many
bridges j and thefe channels, after wafliing the town in
feveral places, where they are of ufe in its different
manufa&ures, unite at the other end by the bridge of
St Michael. Here is a quay for the boats that come
from Abbeville with goods brought by fea. At the
gate of Noyon there is a fuburb remarkable for the
abbey of St Achen. Next to this gate you come to
that of Paris, where they have a long mall between
two rows of trees. The houfes are well built; the
ftreets fpacious, embellilhed with handfome fquares
and good buildings-, and the number of inhabitants
is between 40,000 and 50,000. The cathedral, dedi¬
cated to our Lady, is one of the largeft and moft mag¬
nificent churches in France adorned with handfome
paintings, fine pillars, chapels, and tombs particu¬
larly the nave is greatly admired. The other places
worth feeing are the palace of the bailiwick, the town-
houfe, the fquare des Fleurs, and the great marketplace.
Amiens was taken by the Spaniards, in 1597’
. the following ftratagem : Soldiers, difguifed like pea-
fants, conduced a cart laden with nuts, and let a bag
of them fall juft as the gate was opened. While the
guard was bufy in gathering up the nuts, the Spaniards
entered and became matters of the town. It was re¬
taken by Henry IV. who built a citadel here. The
definitive treaty of peace, entered into by the different
European powers in 1802, was negociated here.
The town is the feat of a biftiop, fuffragan of Rheims,
as alfo of a prefidial, bailiwick, vidaro, a chamber of
3
1 ]
accounts, and
Amman.
A M M
a generality. The bilhop’s revenue is Amilcar
30 OOO livres. They have fome linen and woollen ma-
nufadures, and they alfo make a great quantity of^
black and green foap. It lies in E. Long. 2. 18.
N. Lat. 49. 53. ^ .
AMILCAR, the name of feveral Carthaginian cap¬
tains. The moft celebrated of them is Amilcar Barcas,
the father of Hannibal, who, during five years, _m-
fefted the coaft of Italy ; when the Romans fending
out their whole naval ftrength, defeated him near I ra-
pani, 242 years before Chrift } and this put an end to
the firft Punic war. Amilcar began the fecond, and
landed in Spain, where he fubdued the moft warlike
nations ; but as he was preparing for an expedition
againft Italy, he was killed in battle, 218 years before
the Chriilian era. He left three fons, whom he had
educated, as he faid, like three lions, to tear Rome m
pieces j and made Hannibal, his eldeft fon, fwear an
eternal enmity againft the Romans.
AMILICTI, in the Chaldaic theology, denote a
kind of intelleftual powers, or perfons in the divine
hierarchy. The amili&i are reprefented as three in
number ^ and conftitute one of the triads, in the third
order of the hierarchy.
AMiRANTE, in the Spaniih polity, a great offi¬
cer of ftate, anfwering to our lord high admiral.
AMISUS, in Ancient Geography, the chief city of
the ancient kingdom of Pontus. It was built by the
Milefians, and peopled partly by them and partly by
a colony from Athens. It was at firft a free city, like
the other Greek cities in Afia ; but afterwards fub¬
dued by Pharnaces king of Pontus,, who made it his
metropolis. It was taken by Lucullus in the Mithri-
datic war, who reftored it to its ancient liberty. Clofe
by Amifus flood another city called Eupatoria, from
Mithridates Eupator its founder. This city was like-
wife taken by Lucullus, who levelled it with the
ground j but it was afterwards rebuilt by Pompey,
who united it with Amifus, giving them the name
of Pompeiopolis. It was taken during the war be¬
tween Ceefar and Pompey, by Pharnaces king of Pon¬
tus, who put moft of its inhabitants to the Iword \
but Csefar, having conquered Pharnaces, made it again
a free city.
AMITERNUM, a town of the Sabines, in Italy
(Livy, Pliny) -, now extindt. The ruins are to be feen
on the level ridge of a mountain, near St Vittorino,
and the fprings of the Aternus 5 not far from Aquila,
which rofe out of the ruins of Amiternum.
AMITTERE legem terr^e, among lawyers, a
phrafe importing the lofs of liberty of fwearing in any
court : The puniftiment of a champion overcome or
yielding in battle, of jurors found guilty in a writ of
attaint, and of a perfon outlawed.
AM-KAS,in Hiftory, a name given to a fpacious fa-
loon in the palace of the Great Mogul, where he gives
audience to his fubjedls, and where he appears on fo-
lemn feftivals with extraordinary magnificence. His
throne is fupported by fix large fteps of maffy gold, fet
with rubies, emeralds, and diamonds, eftimated at
6o,ooo,oool.
AMMA, among ecclefiaftical writers, a term ufed
to denote an abbefs or fpiritual mother.
AMMAN or Ammant, in the German and Belgjc
polity, a judge who has the cognizance of civil caufe^u
A M M [ 14
Ammsnla —It is alfo ufed among the French for a public notary,
II or officer, who draws up inftruments and deeds.
Ammianns. AM MANIA. See Botany Index.
AMMI, Bishop’s weed. See Botany Index.
AMMIANUS Maroellinus, a Roman hiftorian
of the fourth century, was a native of Greece, born in
the city of Antioch. Having ferved feveral years in the
early part of his life in the army, he was afterwards
promoted to the honourable Ration of protector domefti-
cus. In the year 350 he entered the fervice of Con-
ftantius, the emperor of the call, and, under the com¬
mand of Urficinus, a general of the horfe, he ferved
during feveral expeditions. According to his own mo-
deft relation,'it appears that he acquired confiderable
military fame, and that he deferved well of his fove-
reign. He attended the emperor Julian in his expedi¬
tion into Perfia, but hiftory is filent whether or not he
rofe to any higher military rank than that which has
already been mentioned. He was either in the city or
the vicinity of Antioch when the confpiracy of Theo-
dorus was difcovered, under the reign of Valens, and
was an eye-witnefs of the fevere torments to which ma¬
ny perfons were expofed by the emperor on that account.
But his lading reputation was not to be acquired
from military exertions. He left the army, and reti¬
red to Rome, where he employed his time and talents
in writing the hiftory of that empire during the period
of three centuries. Though a native of Greece, he
wrote in the Latin language 5 but, according to the re¬
mark of Voffius, his Latin (hows that he was a Greek,
and alfo a fbldier. His hiftory begins with the reign
of Nerva, and continues to the death of Valens ; and
the work was originally divided into 31 books. Of
thefe the firft 13 have periffied, and the 18 which re¬
main commence with the 17th year of the reign of
Conftantius, and terminate at the year 375. But there
are feveral fads mentioned in the hiftory which prove
that the author was alive in the year 390. Of this
number are the acceffion of Theodofius to the eaftern
empire, the chamBer of Gratian, and the confulate of
Neothorius. Similar to the manner in which Herodo¬
tus, the father of Grecian hiftory, read his hiftory,
Marcellinus read his books in public with general ap¬
probation. Some have reckoned the ftyle barffi and
redundant, but this may eafily be excufed, from his
education and military life ; and the valuable informa¬
tion communicated abundantly compenfates for that de-
fe£L Candour and impartiality are leading features
in his hiftory. The charader given him by Mr Gib¬
bon appears to be accurate, when he fays that he is
“ an accurate and faithful guide, who compofed the
liiftory of his own times without indulging the preju¬
dices and paffions which ufuilly affed the mind of a
contemporary.” .
A difference of opinion has obtained, whether or
not our hiftorian was a Chriftian or a Pagan. But the
refpedful manner in which he fpeaks of Pagan deities,
and of the advantage of heathen auguries to foretel fu¬
ture events, render it abundantly evident that he was
a heathen. The favourable account which he gives of
the religion, manners, and fortitude of Chriftians, are
the refult of his candour and impartiality as an hifto¬
rian. The work of Marcellinus has paffed through
feveral editions j but that printed at Leyden in 1693,
j ] A M M
with explanatory notes, is efteemed the beft. Ammlrats
Biag.) t . A 1
AMMIRATO, Scipio, an eminent Italian hifto- Amm0R-
rian, born at Lecca in Naples in I531* After travel¬
ling over great part of Italy, without fettling to his
fatisfadion, he was engaged by the great duke, of
Tufcany to write The H’Jlory of Florence ; for which
he was prefented to a canonry in the cathedral there.
He wrote other works while in this Ration : and died
in 1600.
AMMOCHRYSOS, from Cty.p,t$ fand, and
gold, a name given by authors to a ftone very common
in Germany, and feeming to be compofed ot a golden
fand. It is of a yellow gold-like colour, and its par¬
ticles are very gloffy, being all fragments of a coloured
talc. It is ufually fo foft as to be ealily rubbed to a
powder in the hand ; fometimes it requires grinding to
powder in a mortar, or otherwife. It is ufed only as
fand to ftrew over writing. T. he Germans call it kat-
%engold. There is another kind of it lefs common, but
much more beautiful, conftfting of the fame fort of
gloffy fpangles 5 not however of a gold colour, but of
a bright red like vermilion.
AMMODYTES, or Sand-eel. See Ichthyo¬
logy Index.
AMMON, anciently a city of Marmarica (Ptole¬
my). Arian calls it a place, not a city, in which
flood the temple of Jupiter Ammon, round which there
was nothing but fandy waftes. Pliny fays, that the
oracle of Ammon was 12 days journey from Memphis,
and among the Nomi of Egypt he reckons the Homos
Ammoniacus: Diodorus Siculus, That the diftnet where
the temple flood, though furrounded with deferts, was
watered by dews which fell norvhere elfe in all that
country. It was agreeably adorned with fruitful trees
and fprings, and full of villages. In the middle flood
the Acropolis or citadel, encompaffed with a triple
wall; the firft and inmoft of which contained the pa¬
lace *, the others the apartments of the women, the re¬
lations and children, as alfo the temple of the god, and
the facred fountains for luftrations. Without the Acro¬
polis flood, at no great diflance, another temple of
Ammon, {haded by a number of tall trees: near which
there was a fountain, called that of the fun, or Solis
Fons, becaufe fubjed to extraordinary changes accord¬
ing to the time of the day ; morning and evening
warm, at noon cold, at midnight extremely hot. A
kind of foffil fait was faid to be naturally produced
here. It was dug out of the earth in large oblong
pieces, tranfparent as cryftal. It was thought to be a
prefent worthy of kings, and ufed by the Egyptians
in their facrifices.—From this our fal ammoniac has
taken its name. See Siwah.
Ammon, or Hammon, in heathen mythology, the
name of the Egyptian Jupiter, worffiipped under the
figure of a ram.
Bacchus having fubdued Afia, and paffing with his
army through the deferts of Africa, was in great want
of water : but Jupiter, his father, afluming the ffiape
of a ram, led him to a fountain, where he refrefhed
himfelf and his army *, in gratitude for which favour,
Bacchus built there a temple to Jupiter, under the title
of Ammon, from the Greek ctppts, which fignifies fand,
alluding to the fandy defert where it was built. In
A M M [ 143 j A M M
Ammon tills temple was an oracle of great note, which Alex-
|| ander the Great confulted, and which lafted till the
mmoniac. time of Theodofius.
“"’"v Hammon the god of the Egyptians, was the fame
with the Jupiter of the Greeks *, for which reafon thefe
latter denominate the city which the Egyptians call
No-Hammon, or the habitation of Ammon, Diofpolis
or the city of Jupiter. He is thought to be the fame
with Ham, who peopled Africa, and was the father
of Mizraim, the founder of the Egyptians.
Ammon, or Ben-Ammi, the fon of Lot, was the fa¬
ther of the Ammonites, and dwelt to the eaft of the
Dead fea, in the mountains of Gilead. See Ammoni-
tis and Ammonites.
Ammon, or Ammonius, Andreas, an excellent La¬
tin poet, born at Lucca in Italy, was fent by Pope Leo
X. to England, in the characters of prothonotary of
the apoftolic fee, and colleCtor-general of that king¬
dom. He was a man of fingular genius and learning,
and foon became acquainted with the principal literati
of thofe times ; particularly with Erafmus, Colet, Gro-
cin, and others, for the fake of whofe company he re-
fided fome time at Oxford. The advice which Eraf¬
mus gives him, in regard to pulhing his fortune, has a
good deal of humour in it, and was certainly intended
as a fatire on the artful methods generally praftifed by
the felfilh and ambitious part of mankind : “ In the
firft place (fays he), throw off all fenfe of ffiame ; thruft
yourfelf into every one’s bufinefs, and elbow out whom-
foever you can, neither love nor hate any one ; mea-
fure every thing by you~ own advantage ; let this be
the fcope and drift of all your aClions. Give nothing
but what is to be returned with ufury, and be complai-
fant to every body. Have always two firings to your
bow. Feign that you are folicited by many from
abroad, and get every thing ready for your departure.
Show letters inviting you elfewhere, with great promi-
fes.” Ammon was Latin fecretary to Henry VIII.
but at what time he was appointed does not appear.
In 1512 he was made canon and prebendary of the
collegiate chapel of St Stephen, in the palace of Wefl-
minfter. He was likewife prebendary of Wells j and
in 1514 was prefented to the reftory of Dychial in that
diocefe. About the fame time, by the king’s fpecial
recommendation, he was alfo made prebendary of Sa-
lifbury. He died in the year 1517, and was buried in
St Stephen’s chapel in the palace of Weftminfler. He
was efteemed an elegant Latin writer, and an admi¬
rable poet. The epiftles of Erafmus to Ammon abound
with encomiums on his genius and learning. His works
are, 1. EpiJIolce ad Erafmum, lib. i. 2. Scotici conjlic-
tus hijloria, lib. i. 3. Bucolicce vel eclugce, lib. i. Bafil
1546, 8vo. 4. Ee rebus nihil, lib. i. 5. Panegyricus
quidam, lib. i. 6. Varii generis epigrammata, lib. i.
7. Poemata diverfa, lib. i.
AMMONIA, or Volatile Alkali. See Che¬
mistry Index.
AMMONIAC, a concrete gummy refinous juice,
brought from the Eaft Indies, ufually in large maffes,
compofed of little lumps or tears, of a milky colour,
but foon changing, upon being expofed to the air, to a
yellow'ifti hue. We have no certain account of the
plant which affords this juice : the feeds ufually found
among the tears refemble thofe of the umbelliferous
clafs. It has been, however, alleged, and not without
2
fome degree of probability, that it is an exudation
from a fpecies of the ferula, another fpecies of which
produces the afafoetida. The plant producing it is faid
to grow in Nubia, Abyflinia, and the interior parts
of Egypt. It is brought to the weftern parts of Eu¬
rope from Egypt, and to England from the Red fea,
by fome of the fhips belonging to the Eaft India Com¬
pany trading to thofe parts. Such tears as are large,
dry, free from little ftones, feeds, or other impurities,
fhould be picked out, and preferred for internal ufe :
the coarfer kind is purified by folution and colature,
and then carefully infpiffating it j unlefs this be art¬
fully managed, the gum will lofe a confiderable deal
of its more volatile parts. There is often vended in
the (hops, under the name of ftrained gum ammonia-
cum, a compofition of ingredients much inferior in
virtue.
Ammoniac has a naufeous fweet tafte, followed by a
bitter one: and a peculiar fmell, fomewhat like that of
galbanum, but more grateful \ it foftens in the mouth,
and grows of a whiter colour upon being chew-ed.
Thrown upon live coals, it burns away in flame : it is
in fome meafure foluble in water and in vinegar, with
which it affumes the appearance of milk ; but the re¬
finous part, amounting to about one half, fubfides on
Handing.
Ammonium is a ufeful deobftruent, and frequentlv
preferibed for opening obftru£lions of the abdominal
vifeera, and in hyfterical diforders occafioned by a de¬
ficiency of the menftrual evacuations. It is likewife
fuppofed to deterge the pulmonary veffels -, and proves
of confiderable fervice in fome kinds of afthmas, where
the lungs are oppreffed by vifeid phlegm ; in this inten¬
tion, a folution of gum ammoniac in vinegar of fquills
proves a medicine of great efficacy, though not a little
unpleafant. In long and obftinate colics proceeding
from vifeid matter lodged in the inteftines, this gummy
refin has produced happy effects, after the purges and
the common earminatives had been ufed in vain. Am¬
moniac is moft commodioufly taken in the form of pills j
about a fcruple may be given every night, or oftener.
Externally, it foftens and ripens hard tumours: a folu¬
tion of it in vinegar ftands recommended by fome for
refolving even feirrhous fwellings. A plafter made of
it and fquill-vinegar is recommended by fome in white
fwellings. A dilute mixture of the fame is likewife
rubbed on the parts, which are alfo fumigated with the
fmoke of juniper berries. In the {hops is prepared a
folution of it in pennyroyal water, called from its mil¬
ky colour /dc ammoniaci. It is an ingredient alfo in
the fquill pills.
Sal AMMONIAC, the old name of muriate of ammo¬
nia, a native fait, compofed of ammonia, or volatile al¬
kali, and muriatic acid, which was generated in thofe
large inns or caravanferas where the crowd of pilgrims
coming from the temple of Jupiter Ammon ufed to
lodge j who, in thofe parts, travelling upon carpels,
and thofe creatures wh^n in Gyrene, a province of
Egypt, where that celebrated temple flood, urining
in the ftables, or (fay fome) in the parched fands,
out of this urine, which is remarkably ftrong, arofe
a kind of fait, denominated fometimes (from the
temple) Ammoniac, and fometimes (from the country)
Cyrenaic. Since the ceffation of thefe pilgrimages, no
more of this fait is produced there j and, from this de¬
ficiency, ,
A M M
t 14+ 3
A M M
Ammonian ficiency, fome fufpea tlicre never was any fuch thing :
11 But tins fufpicion is removed, by the large quantities
of a fait, nearly of the fame nature, thrown out by
Mount ./Etna.
The modern fal ammoniac is entirely factitious. See
Chemistry Index.
AMMONIAN philosophy. See Ammonius.
AMMONITiE, in Natural Hiflory. See CORNU
Jlmmonis.
AMMONITES, a people defcended from Ammon
the fon of Lot. The Ammonites deftroyed thofe
giants which they called Zamzummims (Deut. ii. 19
 2i.), and feized upon their country. God forbade
Mofes, and by him the children of Ifrael 19.),
to attack the Ammonites j becaufe he did not intend
to give their lands unto the Hebrews. Before the li-
raelites entered the land of Canaan, the Amontes had
by conqueft got great part of the countries belonging
to the Ammonites and Moabites. 1 his Mofes retook
from the Amorites, and divided between the tribes of
Gad and Reuben. In the time of Jephtha, the Am¬
monites declared war againft the Ifraehtes (Judg. xi.9,
under pretence that they detained a great part of the
country which had formerly been theirs before the
Amorites poffeffed it. Jephtha declared, that as this
was an acquifition which the Ifraelites had made in a
iuft ivar, and what they had taken from the Amorites,
who had long enjoyed it by right of conqueft, he was
under no obligation to reftore it. I he Ammonites
were not fatisfied with this reafon j wherefore Jephtha
gave them battle and defeated them. The Ammonites
and Moabites generally united whenever there was any
defign fet afoot of attacking the Ifraelites.. After
the death of Othniel (Id. iii.), the Ammonites and
Amalekites joined with Eglon king of Moab to op-
prefs the Hebrews-, whom they fubdued, and governed
for the fpaceof 18 years, till they were delivered by
Ehud the fon of Gera, who flew Eglon king of Moab.
Some time after this, the Ammonites made war againtt
the Ifraelites, and greatly diftreffed them. But thefe
Avere at laft delivered by the hands of Jephtha ; who
having attacked the Ammonites, made a very, great
fiaughter among them (i .Sam. xi.). In the beginning
of Saul’s reign (1 Sam. xi.), Nahafh king of tlie Am‘
monites having fat down before Jabefli-gilead, reduced
the inhabitants to the extremity of demanding a capi¬
tulation. Nahafh anfwered, that he would capitulate
with them upon no other conditions than their iub-
mitting to have every one his right eye plucked out
that fo they might be made a reproach to Ifrael but
Saul coming feafonably to the relief of Jabefh, deli¬
vered the city and people from the barbarity of the
king of the Ammonites. David had been the king of
Ammon’s friend ; and after the death of this prince,
he fent ambaffadors to make his compliments of con¬
dolence to Hamm his fon and fucceffor-, who, ima¬
gining that David’s ambaffadors were.come as fpies to
obferve his ftrength, and the condition of his king¬
dom treated them in a very injurious manner (2 bam.
x A.’). David revenged this indignity thrown upon
his ambaffadors, by fubduing the .Ammonites, the
Moabites, and the Syrians their allies. Ammon and
Moab continued under the obedience of the kings
David and Solomon; and, after the feparation of the
ten tribes, were fubjeft to the kings of Ifratl till the
death of Ahab in the year of the world 3107. Two Ammonitis
years after the death of Ahab, Jehoramhis fon, and J!
fucceffor of Ahaziah, defeated the Moabites (2 kings ^ ,
iii.); but it does not appear that this vnftory was lo
complete as to reduce them to his obedience. At the
fame time, the Ammonites, Moabites, and other peo¬
ple, made an irruption into the lands belonging to
Judah ; but were forced back and routed by Jehoflia-
phat (2 Ch. xx. 1, 2.). After the tribes of Reuben,
Gad, and the half tribe of Manaffeh, were carried in¬
to captivity by Tiglath-pilnefer in the year 3264, the
Ammonites and Moabites took poffeflion of the cities
belonging to thefe tribes. Jeremiah (xbx. 1.) re¬
proaches them for it. The ambaffadors of the Ammo¬
nites were fome of thofe to whom this prophet (chap.
xxvii. 2 4.) prefented the cup of the Lord’s fury, and
dire&ed to make bonds and yokes for themfelvcs ; ex¬
horting them to fubmit themfelves to Nebuchadnezzar,
and threatening them, if they did not, with captivity
and flavery. Ezekiel (xxv. 4-10.) denounces their
entire deftruaion; and tells them that God Avould
give them up to the people of the eaft, who fhould let
their palaces in their country, fo that there Ihould be
no more mention of the Ammonites among the na-
D lUCULlUil \j x.   
tions. It is believed that thefe misfortunes happened
to the Ammonites in the fifth year after the taking of
Jerufalem, when Nebuchadnezzar made war againft all
the people that dwelt upon the confines of Judea, in
the year of the world 3420' _
It is alfo thought probable, that Cyrus gave the
Ammonites and Moabites the liberty of returning into
ther own country, from whence they had been remov¬
ed by Nebuchadnezzar ; for we fee them in the place
of their former fettlement, expofed to thofe revolu- •
tions which Avere common to the people of Syria and
Paleftine ; fubjeft fometimes to the kings of Egypt,
and at other times to the kings of Syria. We are
told by Polybius, that Antiochus the Great took Rab-
both, or Philadelphia, their capital, demolilhed the
walls, and put a garrifon in it in 3806. tlie
perfecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes, Jofephus informs,
that the Ammonites {bowed their hatred to the Jews,
and exercifed great cruelties againft fuch of them as
lived about their country. Juitin Martyr.fays, lhat
in his time there Avere ftill many Ammonites remain¬
ing ; but Origen affures us, that when he Avas living
they were known only under the general name oi
Arabians. Thus Avas the prediftion of Ezekiel (x.xv.
10.) accompliftied ; who faid that the Ammonites
fhould be deftroyed in fuch a manner as not to be re¬
membered among the nations.
AMMONITIS, in Ancient Geography, a country ot
Arabia Petnea, occupied by the children of Ammon,
avhence the appellation. Its limits partly to the welt
and partly to the north Avere the river Jabbok, whole
courfe is nowhere determined ; though Jofephus lays,
that it runs betAveen Rabboth-Ammon or Philadel¬
phia, and Gerafe, and falls into the Jordan.
AMMONIUS, furnamed Saccas, was born in
Alexandria, and flouriflied about the beginning of the
third century. He was one of the moft celebrated
philofophers of his age ; and, adopting with, alterations
the Eccleftic philofophy, laid the foundation of that
fe£t Avhich Avas diftinguiftied by the name of the New
Platonics. See Ecclectics and Platonism. ^
\rvHnonfus.
A M M [i
Tins learned man was born of Chndlan parents and
educated in their religion j the outward profeflion of
which, it is faid, he never entirely deferted. As his
genius was vaft and comprehenfive, fo were his projedls
bold and fingular : For he attempted a general coali¬
tion of all feds, whether phiiofophical or religious, by
framing a fyftem of doarines which he imagined cal¬
culated to unite them all, the Chriftians not excepted,
in the moft perfea harmony. In purfuance of this
defign, he maintained, that the great principles of all
phiiofophical and religious truth were to be found
equally in all feds j that they differed from each other
only in their method of exprefling them, and in fome
opinions of little or no importance j and that, by a
proper interpretation of their refpeaive fentiments,
they might eafily be united into one body. Accord¬
ingly, all the Gentile religions, and even the Chriftian,
were to be illudrated and explained by the principles
of this univerfal philofophy 5 and the fables of the
priefts were to be removed from Pagamlm, and the
comments and interpretations of the difciples of Jefus
from Chriftianity. In conformity to this plan, he in¬
filled, that all the religious fyllems of all nations Ihould
be reftored to their original purity, and reduced to
their primitive flandard, viz. the ancient philofophy
of the eaft, preferved uncorrupted by Plato : and he
affirmed, that this proje£t was agreeable to the inten¬
tions of Jefus Chrift ; whofe foie view in defcending
upon earth was to fet bounds to the reigning fuper-
ftition, to remove the errors that had blended them-
felves with the religions of all nations, but not to abo-
lilh the ancient theology from which they were deri¬
ved. Pie therefore adopted the do6lrines which were
received in Egypt concerning the univerfe and the
Deity, confidered as conilituting one great whole ;
concerning the eternity of the world, the nature of
fouls, the empire of Providence, and the government
of the world by demons. He alio eftablhhed a fyllem
of moral difeipline; which allowed the people in ge¬
neral to live according to the laws of their country and
the diftates of nature ; but required the wife to exalt
their minds by contemplation, and to mortify the body,
fo that they might be capable of enjoying the prefence
and affiftance of the demons, and of afcending after
death to the prefence of the Supreme Parent. In or¬
der to reconcile the popular religion, and particularly
the Chrillian, with this new fyftem, he made the whole
hiftory of the Heathen gods an allegory ; maintaining
that they were only celeftial minifters, entitled to an
inferior kind of worftiip. And he acknowledged that
Jefus Chrift was an excellent man, and the'friend of
God ; but alleged that it was not his defign entirely
to abolilh the worftiip of demons, and that his only
* intention was to purify the ancient religion. This fy¬
ftem, fo plaufible in its firft rife, but fo comprehenfive
and complying in its progrefs, has been the fource of
innumerable errors and corruptions in the Chriftian
church. At its firft eftablifliment it is faid to have
bad the approbation of Athenagoras Pantsenus, and
Clemens the Alexandrian, and all who had the care
of the public fchool belonging to the Chriftians at
Alexandria. It was afterwards adopted by Longinus
the celebrated author of the treatife on the Sublime,
Plotinus, Herennius, Origen, Porphyry, Jamblichus
the difciple of Porphyry, Sopater, Edifius, Euftatbius,
Vol. II. Part L
Ammuni¬
tion
45 ] A ^ f)
Maximus of Ephefus, Prifcus, Chryfanthius the maficr
of Julian, Julian the Apoftate, Hierocles, Proclus, and
many others both Pagans and Chriftians. ^ Amohtons.
The above opinions of Ammonius are colle£led from
the writings and difputations of his difciples the mo¬
dern Platonics : for he himfelf left nothing in writing
behind him ; nay, he impofed a law upon his difciples
not to divulge his do£trines among the multitude •,
which injunction, however, they made no fcruple to
negleft and violate.
AMMUNITION, a general name for all warlike
provifions j but more particularly powder, ball,
Ammunition, arms, utenfils of war, gunpowder, im¬
ported without licenfe from his majefty, are, by the
laws of England, forfeited, and triple the value.. And
again, fuch licenfe obtained, except for furnifliing his
majefty’s public ftores, is to be void, and the offender
to incur a premunire, and to be difabled to hold any
office of the crown.
AMMUNITION Bread, Shoes, &c. fuch as are ferved
out to the foldiers of an army or garrifon.
AMNESTY, in matters of policy, denotes a par¬
don granted by a prince to his rebellious fubjeCls, ufu-
ally with fome exceptions; fuch was that granted by
Charles II. at his reftoration.—The Avoid is formed
from the Greek a/AviFTix, the name of an ediCl of this
kind publiffied by Thrafybulus, on his expulfion of the
tyrants out of Athens.
AMNIOS, in Anatomy, a thin pellucid membrane
which furrounds the foetus in the womb. See Foe¬
tus.
AMOEBaEUM, in ancient poetry, a kind of poem
reprefenting a difpute between two perfons, who are
made to anfwer each other alternately \ fuch are the
third and feventh of Virgil’s eclogues.
AMOL, a town of Afia, in the country of the Ufi
becks, feated on the river Gihon. E. Long. 64. 30.
N. Lat. 39. 20.
AMO MUM, Ginger. See Botany Index.
Amomum Vulgare. See Sium, Botany Index.
AMONTONS, William, an ingenious experimen¬
tal philofopher, the fon of a lawyer of Normandy, was
born at Paris in the year 1663. From his childhood he *
laboured under the infirmity of extreme dulnefs, which
led him to amufe himfelf in the want of fociety, by flu-
dying geometry and mechanics. Fie learned defigning
and furveying, and was employed in many public works.
He prefented to the Academy of Sciences, in the year
1687, an hygrometer upon a new conftruflion, which
was highly approved. In 1695, he publifhed, in French,
a treatife, entitled, “ Obfervations on a new Hour-Glafs,
and Barometers, Thermometers, and Hygrometers.”
This work was dedicated to the Academy of Sciences,
of which he became a member in the year 1699.
Upon his admiftion, he read a paper on fridlion, in
which a new theory upon that fubje£l is propofed : the
paper will be found in the memoirs of the academy.
He difcovered a method of conveying intelligence
fpeedily to a great diftance by means of fignals, from one
perfon to another, placed at as great a diftance as they
could be feen by means of telefcopes: he may therefore
be efteemed the inventor of the telegraph. This in¬
genious man, who was diftinguilhed for his ingenuity
in inventing, and his accuracy in executing experiments,
died in the year 1705. His pieces which are numerous,
T and
AMO
[ US ]
AMO
Xmorseans and on various fubjeds, as air, fire, barometers, pumps,
U &c. may be found in the volumes of the Memoirs of
Amortiza- Academy of Sciences. {Gen. Biog.')
. t‘°n' . AMORiEANS, a fe£t or order of Gemaric doctors,
or commentators on the Jerufalem Talmud. The A-
moraeans fucceeded the Mifchnic dodtors. They fub-
fifted 250 years j and were fucceeded by the Sebu-
rseans.
AMORGOS, or Amurgus, in Ancient Geography,
now Morgo, not far from Naxus to the eaft, one of the
European Sporades ; the country of Simonides the
iambic poet. To this ifland criminals were banilhed.
It was famous for a fine flax called Emorgis.
AMORITES, a people defcended from Amor-
rhaeus, according to the Septuagint and Vulgate*, E-
moraeus, according to other expofitors; Htemori, ac¬
cording to the Hebrew ; or Emorites, according to our
verfion of the Bible, who W'as the fourth fon of Ca¬
naan, Gen. x. 16.
The Amorites firfl: of all peopled the mountains ly¬
ing to the welt of the Dead fea. They had likewife
eftablilhments to the ealt of the fame fea, between the
brooks of Jabbok and Arnon, from whence they for¬
ced the Ammonites and Moabites, Numb. xiii. 30. xvi.
29. Jolh. v. 1. and Judges xi. 19. 20. Mofes made a
conqueft of this country from their kings Sihon and
Og, in the year of the world 2553.
The prophet Amos (ii. 9.) fpeaking of the gigan¬
tic ftature and valour of the Amorites, compares their
height with that of cedars, and their ftrength with
that of an oak. The name Amorite is often taken in
Scripture for all Canaanites in general. The lands
which the Amoriles poffeffed on this fide Jordan were
given to the tribe of Judah, and thofe which they had
enjoyed beyond this river were diftributed between the
tribes of Reuben and Gad.
AMORIUM, a town of Phrygia Major, near the
river Sangarius, on the borders of Galatia.—It was
taken from the Romans by the Saracens in 668 ; but
fbon after retaken by the Romans. A war break¬
ing out again between thefe two nations in 837, the
Roman emperor Theophilus deftroyed Sozopetra the
birthplace of the caliph AP Motafem, notwithftand-
ing his earneft entreaties to him to fpare it. This fo
enraged the caliph, that he ordered every one to en¬
grave upon his Ihield the word Amorium, the birth¬
place of Theophilus, which he refolved at all events
to deftroy. Accordingly he laid fiege to the place, but
met with a vigorous refiftance. At length, after a fiege
of 55 days, it was betrayed by one of the inhabitants
who had abjured the Chriftian religion. The caliph,
exafperated at the lofs he had fuflained during the
fiege, put moll of the men to the fword, carried the
women and children into captivity, and levelled the ci¬
ty with the ground. His forces being diftrefled for
want of water on their return home, the Chriftian pri-
foners rofe upon fome of them and murdered them j
upon which the caliph put 6000 of the prifoners to
death. According to the eaftern hiftorians, 30,000 of
the inhabitants of Amorium were flain, and as many
carried into captivity.
AMORPHA, False Indigo. See Botany In¬
dex.
AMORTIZATION, in low, the alienation of
lands or tenements to a corporation or fraternity and Amos,
their fucceffors. See Mortmain. . w—y—
AMOS, the fourth of the fmaller prophets, who in
his youth had been a herdfman at Tekoa, a fmall town
about four leagues fouthward of Jerufalem, was fent
to the king of Baftian, that is, to the people of Sa¬
maria, or the kingdom of Ifrael, to bring them back to
repentance and an amendment of their lives; whence
it is thought probable that he was born within the ter¬
ritories of Ifrael, and only retired to Tekoa on his be¬
ing driven from Bethel, by Amaziah the prieft of the
golden calves at Bethel.
The prophet being thus returned to Tekoa, in the
kingdom of Judah, continued to prophefy. He com¬
plains in many places of the violence offered him, by
endeavouring to oblige him to filence. He boldly re-
monftrates againft the crying fins that prevailed among
the Ifraelites, as idolatry, oppreflion, wantonnefs, and
obftinacy. He likewife reproves thofe of Judah, fuch
as their carnal fecurity, fenfuality, and injuftice. He
terrifies them both with frequent threatenings, and
pronounces that their fins will at laft end in the ruin of
Judah and Ifrael, which he illuftrates by the vifions of
a plumb-lime and a balket of fummer-fruit. It is ob-
fervable in this prophecy, that as it begins with de¬
nunciation of judgment and deftru&ion againft the Sy¬
rians, Philiftines, Tyrians, and other enemies of the
Jews, fo it concludes with comfortable promifes of re-
ftoring the tabernacle of David, and erecting the king¬
dom of Chrift. Amos was chofen to the prophetic of¬
fice in the time of Uzziah king of Judah, and Jero¬
boam the fon of Joafti king of Ifrael, two years be¬
fore the earthquake (Amos i. 1.), which happened in
the 24th or 25th year of Uzziah, according to the
rabbins and moft of the modern commentators j or the
year of the world 3219, when this prince ufurped the
prieft’s office, and attempted to offer incenfe to the
Lord : but it is obferved, that this cannot be the cafe,
becaufe Jotham the fon of Uzziah, who was born in
3221, was of age to govern, and confequently was be¬
tween 15 and 20 years of age, when his father under¬
took to offer incenfe, and was ftruck with a leprofy.
The firft of the prophecies of Amos, in order of
time, are thofe of the 7th chapter : the reft he pronoun¬
ced in the town of Tekoa, whither he retired. He
foretold the misfortunes which the kingdom of Ifrael
(hould fall into after the death of Rehoboam II. who
was then living *, he foretold the death of Zecha-
riah, the invafion of the lands belonging to Ifrael-
by Pul and Tiglath-pilnefer kings of Afl'yria : and
he fpeaks of the captivity of the ten tribes, and their
return.
The time and manner of this prophet’s death are
not known. Some old authors relate that Amaziah,
prieft of Bethel, provoked by the difcourfes of the
prophet, had his teeth broke, in order to filence him.-
Others fay, that Hofea or Uzziah, the fon of Ama¬
ziah, ftruck him with a flake upon the temples,
knocked him down, and wounded him much 5 in
which condition he was carried to Tekoa, where he
died, and was buried with his fathers j but it is gene¬
rally thought that he prophefied a long time at Tekoa,
after the adventure which he had with Amaziah j and
the prophet himfelf taking no notice of the ill treat*.
AMP
[ 1
amp
Amoy
II .
Amphia-
raus.
ment which he is faid to have received, is an argument
that he did not fuffer in the manner they relate.
St Jerome obferves, that there is nothing great or
fublime in the ftyle of Amos. He applies the words
of St Paul (2 Cor. vi. 6.) to him, * rude in fpeech
though not in knowledge.’ And he farther obferves,
that he borrows his comparifons from the ftate and pro-
feffion to which he belonged.
AMOY, an ifland in the province of Fokien, in
China, where the Englilh had a faftory: but they have
abandoned it on account of the impofitions of the inha¬
bitants. E. Long. 118. o. N. Lat. 24. 30. It has a
fine port, that will contain many thoufand veflels. The
emperor has a garrifon here of 7000 men.
AMPELIS, the Vine. See Vitis, Botany Index.
Ampelis, the Chatterer. See Ornithology In¬
dex.
AMPELITES, Cannel-coal, or Candle-coal,
a hard, opaque, foffil, inflammable fubftance, of a black
colour. It does not effervefce with acids. The am-
pelites, though much inferior to jet in many refpe&Sj
is yet a very beautiful foffil ; and, for a body of fo
compaft a ftrufture, remarkably light. Examined
by the microfcope, it appears compofed of innumerable
very thin and fmall plates, laid clofely and firmly on
one another •, and full of very fmall fpecks of a blacker
and more ffiining matter than the reft, w’hich is evi¬
dently a purer bitumen than the general inafs. Thefe
fpecks are equally diffufed over the different parts of
the maffes. There is a large quarry of it near Alen-
^on in France. It is dug in many parts of England,
but the fineft is in Lancaffiire and Cheffiire *, it lies
\ifually at confiderable depths. It makes a very brilk
fire, flaming violently for a ffiort time, and after that
continuing red and glowing hot a long while 5 and
finally is reduced into a fmall proportion of gray affiesj
the greater part of its fubftante having flown off in the
burning. It is capable of a very high and elegant po-
lifh and in the countries where it is produced, is turn¬
ed into a Vaft number of toys, as fnuff-boxes and the
like, which bear all the nicety of turning, and are made
to pafs for jet. Hufbandmen fmear their vines with it,
as it kills the vermin which irifefts thenl. It is like,
wife ufed for the dyeing of hair black. In medicine,
it is reputed good in colics, againft worms, and as be¬
ing in general an emollient and difcutient; but the pre-
fent practice takes no notice of it.
AMPELUSIA, in Ancient Geography, a promon¬
tory of Mauritania Tingitana, called Cottes by the na¬
tives, which is of the fame fignification with a town of
the fame name not far from the river Lixus, near the
ftraits of Gibraltar, now Cape Spartel. W. Long. 6. 30.
N. Lat. 36. O.
AMPHERES, in antiquity, a kind of veffels where¬
in the rowers plied two oars at the fame time, one with
the right hand and another with the left.
AMPHIARAUS, in Pagan Mythology, a celebra¬
ted prophet, who poffeffed part of the kingdom of
Arg os. He was believed to excel in divining by
dreams, and is faid to be the firft who divined by fire.
Amphiaraus knowing, by the fpirit of prophecy, that
he ftiould lofe his life in the war againft Thebes, hid
himfelf in order to avoid engaging in that expedition :
but his wife Eriphyle, being prevailed upon by a pre-
fent, difcovered the place in which he bad concealed
himfelf j & that he was obliged to accompany the other Amphiar-
princes who marched againft Thebes. I his proved diroii!.,
fatal to him ; for the earth being fplit afunder by a ,AlI11) Ja'.
thunderbolt, both he and his chariot were fwallowed
up in the opening. Amphiaraus, after his death, was
ranked among the gods ; temples were dedicated to
him } and his oracle, as well as the fports inftituted to
his‘honour, were very famous.
AMPHIARTHROSIS, in Anatomy, a term for
fuch junftures of bones as have an evident motion,
but different from the diarthrofis, &c. See Diarthro-
sis.
AMPHIBIA, in Zoology, the name of Linnaeus’s
third dafs of animals; including all thofe which live
partly in water and partly on land. This clafs he fub-
divides into four orders, viz. the amphibia reptiles ; the
amphibia ferpentes j the amphibia nantes 5 and the am¬
phibia meantes.
It has been a queftion whether the animals common¬
ly called amphibious, live moft in the water or on land.
If we confider the words ctptpt {utrinque, both ways)
and /3«>j {vita, life), from which the term amphibious
is derived; we fliould underftand, that animals, having
this title, ftiould be capable of living as well, by land,
.or in the air, as by water j or of dwelling in either con-
ftantly at will: but it will be difficult to find any ani¬
mal that can fulfil this definition, as being equally qua¬
lified for either. An ingenious naturalift *, therefore, * Dr Par-
from confideririg their economy refpe&ively, divides/ow, in a
them into two orders, viz. 1. Such as enjoy their chief
functions by land, but occafionally go into the water. Re^ Sd®
2. Such as chiefly inhabit the water, but occafionally Qiety;
go afhore. What he advances on this fubjeft is curious,
and well illuftrates the nature of this clafs.
1. Of the firft order, he particularly confiders the
phocae •, and endeavours to ffiow, that none of them can
live chiefly in the water, but that their chief enjoyment
of the funftionS of life is on fliore.
Thefe animals (he obferves) are really quadrupeds v
but, as their chief food is fiffi, they are under a ne-
ceffity of going out to fea to hunt their prey, and to
great diftances from ftiore ; taking care that, however
great the diftance, rocks or fmall iflands are at hand,
as refting places when they are tired, or when their
bodies become too much macerated in the water j and
they return to the places of their ufual refort to fleep,
copulate, and bring forth their young, for the follow¬
ing reafons, viz. It is well known, that the only effen-
tial difference (as to the general ftru£lure of the heart)
between amphibious and mere land animals, or fuch as
never go into the water, is, that in the former the oval
hole remains always open. Now, in fuch as are with¬
out this hole, if they were to be immerfed in water fof
but a little time, refpiration would eeafe, and the ani¬
mal muft die *, becaufe a great part of the mafs of blood
paffes from the heart by the pulmonary artery through
the lungs, ahd by the pulmonary veins returns to the
heart, while the aorta is carrying the greater part of
the mafs to the head and extremities, &.c.
Now, the blood pafi’es through the lungs in a con¬
tinual uninterrupted ftream, while refpiration is gentle
and moderate •, but when it is violent, then the circu¬
lation is interrupted, for infpiration and exfpiration are
now carried to their extent j and in this ftate the blood
cannot pafs through the lungs either during the total
T 2 infpifation
V
A M P [ i
Amphibia. Infpiration or total exfpiratxon of the air in breathing :
»"■■■■ v for, in the former cafe, the inflation compreffes the re¬
turning veins •, and in the latter, by the collapfion of
the lungs, thefe veins are interrupted alfo; fo that it is
only between thefe two violent adlions that the blood
can pafs : and hence it is, that the lives of animals are
{hortened, and their health impaired, when they, are
fubje&ed to frequent violent infpiration •, and thus it is,
that when animals have thus breathed, they muft con¬
tinue to refpire ever after, for lile is at an end when
that ceafes.
There are three neceflary and principal ufes of refpi-
ration in all land animals, and in thofe kinds that are
counted amphibious. The firft is that of promoting
the circulation of the blood through the whole body
and extremities. In real fifhes, the force of the heart
is alone capable offending the blood to every part, as
they are not furnilhed with limbs or extremities j but
in the others mentioned, being all lurnilhed with ex¬
tremities, refpiration is an afliftant force to the arte¬
ries in fending blood to the extremities ; which, being
fo remote from the heart, have need of fuch afliftance,
otherwife the circulation would be very languid in thefe
parts: thus we fee, that in perfons fubjeft to afthmatic
complaints, the circulation grows languid, the legs
crow cold and oedematous, and other parts fuffer .by
The defeat in refpiration.—A fecond ufe of breathing
is, that in refpiration, the variety of. particles, of dif¬
ferent qualities, which float always in the air, might
be drawn into the lungs, to be infinuated into the mafs
of blood, being highly neceflary to contemperate and
cool the agitated mafs, and to contribute refined pa¬
bulum to the finer parts of it, which, meeting with
the daily fupply of chyle, ferves to aflimilate and more
intimately mix the mafs, and render its confti.tution the
fitter for fupporting the life of the animal. Therefore
it is, that valetudinarians, by changing foul or un-
wholefome air for a free, good, open air, often recover
from lingering difeafes.—A third principal, ufe. of xe-
fpiration is, to promote the exhibition of voice in ani-
inals: which all thofe that live on the land do accord¬
ing to their fpecific natures.
From thefe confiderations it appears, that the phocse
of every kind are under an abfolute neceflity of ma¬
king the land their principal refidence. But there is
another very convincing argument why they refide on
fliore the greateft part of their time ; namely, that the
* flefh of thefe creatures is analogous to that of other land
animals •, and therefore, by over long maceration, ad¬
ded to the fatigue of their chafing their prey, they
would fuffer fuch a relaxation as would deftroy them.
It is well known, that animals which have lain long
under water are reduced to a very lax and even putrid
Hate j and the phoca muft balk in the air on fliore: for
while the folids are at reft, they acquire their former
degree of tenfion, and the vigour of the animal is re-
ftored : and while he has an uninterrupted placid refpi¬
ration, his blood is refrelhed by the new fupply. of air,
as explained above, and he is rendered fit for his next
cruife : for adlion waftes the moft exalted fluids of the
body, more or lefs, according to its duration and vio¬
lence5 : and the reftorative reft muft continue a longer
or ftidrter time, according to the quantity of the pre¬
vious fatigue. .
Let us now examine by what power thefe animals
48 ] AMP
are capable of remaining longer under water than land Amphibia.
animals. . - v
All thefe have the oval hole open between the right
and left auricles of the heart j and, in many, the cana-
lis arteriofus alfo : and while the phoca remains under
water, which he may continue an hour or two more or
lefs, his refpiration is flopped } and the blood, not find¬
ing' the paffage through the pulmonary artery free,
rufties through the hole from the. right to the left au¬
ricle, and partly through the arterial canal, being a
{hurt paffage to the aorta, and thence to every part of
the body, maintaining the circulation : but, upon riling
to come a fliore, the blood finds its paffage again
through the lungs the moment he refpires.
Thus the foetus in utero, during its confinement,
having the lungs compreffed, and confequently the pul¬
monary arteries and veins impervious, has the circula¬
tion of the blood carried on through the oval hole and
the arterial canal. Now, fo far the phoca in the water,
and the foetus in utero, are analogous.-, but they differ
in other material circumftances. One is, that the foetus
having never refpired, remains fufficiently nourifhed
by the maternal blood circulating through him, and
continues to grow till the time of his birth, without
any want of refpiration during nine months confine¬
ment : the phoca, having refpired the moment of his
birth, cannot live very long without it, for the reafons
given before ; and this hole and canal would be.doled
in them, as it is in land animals, if the dam did not,
foon after the birth'of the cub, carry him fo very fre¬
quently into the water to teach him } by which piac-
tice thefe paffages are kept open during life, otherwife
they would not be capable of attaining the food de-
figned for them by Providence.
Another difference is, that the phoca, as we laid be¬
fore, would be relaxed by maceration in remaining too
long in the water -, whereas the foetus in utero fuffers
no injury from continuing its full number of months
in the fluid it fwims in : the reafon is, that water is a
powerful folvent, and penetrates the pores of the Ikins
of land animals, and in time can diffolve them 5 where¬
as the liquor amnii is an infipid left fluid, impregnated
with particles more or lefs mucilaginous, and utterly in¬
capable of making the leaft alteration in the cutis of the
foetus.
Otters, beavers, and fome kind of rats, go oceafion-
ally into the water for their prey, but cannot remain-
very long under water.. “ I have often gone to (hoot
otters (fays our author), and watched all their mo¬
tionsI have feen one of them go foftly from a bank
into the river, and dive down : and in about two mi¬
nutes rife at 1.0 or 15 yards from the place he went in,
with a middling falmon in his mouth, which he brought
on fliore : I fliot him, andfaved thefifn whole.” Now,
as all foetufes have thefe paffages open, if a whelp of a
true water fpaniel was, immediately after its birth,
ferved as the phoca does her cubs, and immsrfed in
water, to flop refpiration for a little time every day, it
is probable that the hole and canal would be kept open,
and the dog be made capable of remaining as long un¬
der water as the phoca.
Frogs, how capable foever of remaining in the water,
yet cannot avoid living on land, for they refpire 5 and’
if a frog be thrown into a river, he makes to the fliore
as faft as he can..
- The
Amphibia,
AMP [ i
The lizard kind, fuch as may be called water liz¬
ards (fee Lacerta), are all obliged to come to land,
in order to depofite their eggs, to reft, and to fleep.
Even the crocodiles, who dwell much in rivers, fleep
and lay their eggs on ftiore 5 and, while in the water
are compelled to rife to the furface to breathe ; yet,
from the texture of their fcaly covering, they are capable
of remaining in the water longer by far than any Ipecies
of the phoca, whofe ikin is analogous to that of a horfe
or cow.
The hippopotamus, who wades into the lakes or
rivers, is a quadruped, and remains under the water a
confid’erable time 5 yet his chief refidence is upon land,
and he muft come on (bore for refpiration.
The teftudo, or fea-tortoife, though he goes out to
fea, and is often found far from land } yet being a re-
fpiring animal, cannot remain long under water. He
has indeed a power of rendering himfeif fpecifically
heavier or lighter than the water, and therefore can
let himftlf down to avoid an enemy or a ftorm ; yet
he is under a neceflity of rifing frequently to breathe,
for reafons given before j and his moft ulual fituation,
while at fea, is upon the furface of the water, feeding
upon the various fubftances that float in great abun¬
dance everywhere about him : thefe animals fleep fe-
curely upon the furface, but not under water j and
can remain longer at fea than any other of this clafs,
except the crocodile, becaufe, as it is with the latter,
his covering is not in danger of being too much mace¬
rated 5 yet they muft go on Ihore to copulate and lay
their eggs.
2. The conflderation of thefe is fufficient to inform
us of the nature of the firft order of the clafs of amphi¬
bious animals 5 let us now fee what is to be faid oi. the
fecond in our diviflon of them, which are fuch asehiehy
inhabit the waters, but occafionally go on ftiore j
Thefe are but of two kinds: the eels, and water fer-
pents or fnakes of every kind. It is their form that
qualifies them for loco-motion on land, and they know
their way back to the water at will: for by their ftruc-
ture they have a ftrong periftaltic motion, by which
they can go forward at a pretty good rate: whereas ail
other kinds of fifti, whether vertical or horizontal, are
incapable of a voluntary loco-motion on (bore; and
therefore, as foon as fuch filh are‘brought out of the
water, after having flounced a while, they lie motion-
lefs and foon die.
Let us now examine into the reafon why thefe ver¬
micular filh, the eel and ferpent kinds, can live a conn-
derable time on land, and the vertical and horizontal
kinds die almoft immediately when taken out of the
water : and, in this refearch, we fliall come to know
what analogy there is between land animals and ihofe
of the waters. AH land animals have lungs, and can
live no longer than while thefe are inflated by the am¬
bient air, and alternately comprefled for its expulfion J
that is, while refpiration is duly carried on, by a regu¬
lar infpiration and exfpiration of air.
In like manner, the filh in general have, inftead of
lungs, gills or branchiae : and as in land animals the
lungs have a large portion of the mafs of blood circu¬
lating through them, which muft be flopped if the air
has not a free ingrefs and egrefs into and from them j
fo, in filh, there is a great number of blood veffels that
pafs through the branchi*; and a great portion of their
49 ] amp
blood circulates through them, which muft in like man- Amphibia:,
ner be totally Hopped, if the branchiae are not perpe-*
tually wet with water. So that, as the air is to the lungs
in land animals a conftant affiftant to the circulation 5
fo is the water to the branchiae of thofe of the rivers
and feas: for when thefe are out of the water, the bran-
chi* very foon grow crifp and dry, the blood veffels are
ftirunk, and the blood is obftruaed in its paflage ; fo,
when the former are immerfed in water, or otherwife
prevented from having refpiration, the circulation ceaies,
and the animal dies.
Again, as land animals would be deftroyed by too
much maceration in water} fo fifties would, on the other
hand, be ruined by too much exficcation: the latter
being, from their general ftrufture and conftitution,
made fit to bear, and live in, the water; the former,
by their conftitution and form, to breathe and dwell in
the air.
But it may bealked, Why eels and water fnakes are
capable of being longer in the air than the other kinds
of fifti ? This is anfwered, by confidering the providen¬
tial care of the great Creator for thefe and every one
of his creatures: for fince they were capable of loco¬
motion by their form, which they need not be if they
were never to go on ftiore, it fqpmed neceffary that they
fliould be rendered capable of living a eonfiderable time
on ftiore, otherwife their loco-motion would be in vain.
How is this provided for ? Why, in a moft convenient
manner ; for this order of fillies have their branchiae
well covered from the external drying air; they are alfo
furniftied with a llimy mucus, which hinders their be¬
coming crifp and dry for many hours; and their very
fkins always emit a mucous liquor which keeps them
fupple and moift for a long time: whereas the branchiae
of other kinds of filh are much expofed to the air, and
want the lliray matter to keep them moift. Now, i£
any of thefe, when brought out of the water, were laid
in a veffel without water, they might be preferved alive
a confiderable time, by only keeping the gills and fur¬
face of the fliin conftantly wet, even without any water
to fwim in.
It has been advanced, that man may, by art, be ren¬
dered amphibious, and able to live under water as well
as frogs. As the foetus lives m utero without air, and
the circulation is there continued by means of the fora¬
men ovale; by preferving the palfage open, and the
other parts in Jlatu quo, after the birth, the fame facul¬
ty would ftill continue. Now, the foramen, it is al¬
leged, would be preferved in its open ftate, were peo¬
ple accuftomed, from their infancy, to hold their breath
a confiderable time once a-day, that the blood might
be forced to refume its prifline paffage, and prevent its
drying up as it ufually does. I'll is conjedfure feems,
in fome meafure, fupported by the practice of divers,
who are taught from their childhood to hold their
breath, and keep long under water, by which means the
ancient channel is kept open.—A Calabrian monk at
Madrid laid claim to this amphibious capacity, making
an offer to the king of Spain, to continue twice twen¬
ty-four hours under water, without ever coming up to
take breath. Kircher gives an account of a Sicilian,
named the JiJh Colas, who by a long habitude from his
youth, had fo accuftomed himfeif to live in water, that
his nature feemed to be quite altered; fo that he lived
rather after the raamer of a fifh than a man.
AMPHIBOLE..
AMP t 15{
Ampliibolc AMPHIBOLE. See Mineralogy Index.
II AMPHIBOLOGY, in Grammar -Rhetoric, a
Amphitfhy- jerm ufed to denote a phrafe fufceptible of two difter-
. 0"s‘ . ent interpretations. Amphibology arifes from the or¬
der of the phrafe, rather than from the ambiguous
meaning of a word.
Of this kind was that anfwer which Pyrrhus received
from the oracle : j4iq te, JEncida, Romanos vincere pof-
fe; where the amphibology confifts in this, that the
words te and Romanos, may either of them precede, or
either of them follow, the words poj/e vincere, indiffer¬
ently. See Oracle.
The Englifh language ufually fpeaks in a more na¬
tural manner, and is not capable of any amphibologies
of this kind : nor is it fo liable to amphibologies in
the articles as the French and moft other modern
tongues.
AMPHIBRACHYS, in Greek and Latin poetry,
the name of a foot confifting of three fyllables, where¬
of that in the middle is long, and the other two fhort j
fuch are the words [ablre, am5r£].
AMPHICOME, in Natural Hi/lory, a kind of fi¬
gured ftone, of a round fhape, but rugged, and befet
with eminences, celebrated on account of its ufe in di¬
vination. The word is originally Greek,
q. d. utrinqtte comata, or, “ hairy on all fides.” 1 his
ftone is alfo called Erotylus, Amatona, pro¬
bably on account of its fuppofed power of creating
love. The amphicome is mentioned by Democritus
and Pliny. Mercatus takes it for the fame with the
lapis lumbricatus, of which he gives a figure.
AMPHICTYONS, in Grecian antiquity, an affem-
bly compofed of deputies from the different ftates of
Greece 5 and refembling, in fome meafure, the diet of
the German empire. . Some fuppofe the word ApQixliens
to be formed of upfu, “ about,” and dhto or *]<£«», in
tegard the inhabitants of the country round about met
here in council : others, with more probability, from
Amphi&yon, fon of Deucalion, whom they fuppofe to
have been the founder of this affembly ; though others
will have Acrifius, king of the Argives, to have been
the firft who gave a form and laws to it.
Authors give different accounts of the number of the
Amphiftyons, as well as of the ftates who were en¬
titled to have their reprefentatives in this council. Ac¬
cording to Strabo, Harpocration, and Suidas, they
were twelve from their firft inftitution, fent by the fol¬
lowing cities and ftates } the lonians, Dorians, Per-
rhsebians, Bceotians, Magnefians, Achseans, Phthians,
Melians, Dolopians, iEnianians, Delphians, and Pho-
cians. AEfchines reckons no more than eleven : inftead
of the Achseans, iEnianians, Delphians, and Dolo¬
pians, he only gives the Theffalians, Oetians, and
Locrians. Laftly, Paufanias’s lift contains only ten,
viz. the lonians, Dolopians, Theffalians, Ainianians,
Magnefians, Melians, Phthians, Dorians, Phocians, and
Locrians.
In the time of Philip of Macedon, the Phocians
were excluded the alliance, for having plundered the
Delphian temple, and the Lacedaemonians were ad¬
mitted in their place 5 but the Phocians, 60 years af¬
ter, having behaved gallantly againft Brennus and his
Gauls, were reftored to their feat in the Amphi&yonic
council. Under Auguftus, the city Nicopolis was ad¬
mitted into the body; and to make room for it, the
I
5 ] AMP
Magnefians, Melians, Phthians, and VEnianians, who Amplrdy
till then had diftin£t voices, were ordered to be num- ons
bered with the Theffalians, and to have only one com- 1!
mon reprefentative. Strabo fpeaks as if this council A^l!o*
were extimft in the times of Auguftus and Tiberius: a
but Paufanias, who lived many years after, under An¬
toninus Pius, affures us it remained entire in his time,
and that the number of Amphidlyons was then 30.
The members were of two kinds. Each city fent
two deputies, under different denominations; one called
lig'Op.vnpov, whofe bufinefs feems to have been more im¬
mediately to infpedl what related to facrifices and cere¬
monies of religion } the other, Ili/A«yogce?, charged with
hearing and deciding of caufes and differences between
private perfons. Both had an equal right to delibe¬
rate and vote, in all that related to the common inte*
refts of Greece, The hieromnemon was elected by lot,
the py/agoras by plurality of voices.
Though the Amphiftyons were firft inftituted at
Thermopylae, M. de Valois maintains, that their firft
place of refidence was at Delphi •, where, for fome ages,
the tranquillity of the times found them no other em¬
ployment than that of being, if we may fo call it,
church-wardens of the temple of Apollo. In after
times, the approach of armies frequently drove them to
Thermopylae, where they took their ftation, to be near¬
er at hand to oppofe the enemies progrefs, and order
timely fuccour to the cities in danger. Their ordinary
refidence, however, was at Delphi.
Here they decided all public differences and difputes
between any of the cities of Greece *, but before they
entered on bufinefs, they jointly facrificed an ox cut in¬
to fmall pieces, as a fymbol of their union. I heir de¬
terminations were received with the greateft veneration,
and even held facred and inviolable.
The Amphiflyons, at their admiflion, took a foie mil
oath never to diveft any city of its right of deputa¬
tion •, never to avert its running waters: and if any at¬
tempts of this kind were made by others, to make mor¬
tal war againft them : more particularly, in cafe of any
attempt to rob the temple of any of its ornaments, that
they would employ hands, feet, tongue, their whole
power to revenge it.—This oath was backed with ter¬
rible imprecations againft fuch as ftiould violate it ; e.g.
May they meet all the vengeance of Apollo, Diana,
Minerva, &c. their foil produce no fruit, their wives
bring forth nothing but monfters, &c.
The ftated terms of their meeting were in fpring and
autumn : the fpring meeting was called E«§«v»i TIvXxm,
that in autumn Mslevragwut. On extraordinary occafions,
however, they met at any time of the year, or even con¬
tinued fitting all the year round.
Philip of Macedon ufurped the right of prefiding in
the affembly of the Amphidlyons, and of firft confulting
the oracle, which was called
AMPHIDROMIA, a feaft celebrated by the an¬
cients on the firft day after the birth of a child.
AMPHIDRYON, in ecclefiaftical writers, denotes
the veil or curtain which was drawn before the door of
the bema in ancient churches.
AMPHILOCHIA, in Ancient Geography, the ter¬
ritory of the city of Argos in Acarnania : Amphilo-
chium, (Thucydides) j called Amphilochi (from the
people), in the lower age, (Stephanus.) A town alfo
of Spain, in Galicia, built by Teucer, and denomi¬
nated
A M P
[ 15
natedfrom Amphilochus one of his companions, (Stra¬
bo) : now Orenfe. W. Long. 8. 20. Lat. 42. 36.
AMPHILOCHIUS, biihop of Iconimn, in the
fourth century, was the friend of St Gregory Nazian-
zen and St Bafil. He afTifted at the firft general coun¬
cil of Conftantinople in 381; prefided at the council of
Sid* ; and was a Itrenuous oppofer of the Arians. He
died in 394; and his works were publilhed in Greek
and Latin at Paris, 1644, by Francis Combefis.
AMPHILOCHUS, fon of Amphiaraus and Eri-
phyle, was a celebrated diviner. He had an altar ereft-
ed to him at Athens, and an oracle at Mallus in Ci¬
licia, which city was founded by him and Mopfus.
The anfwers of this oracle were given by dreams $ the
party inquiring ufed to pafs a night in the temple, and
that night’s dream was the anfwer. Dion Caffius men¬
tions a pi&ure done by order of Sextus Condianus, re-
prefenting the anfwer he received of the oracle, in the
reign of the emperor Commodus.
AMPHIMACER, in ancient poetry, a foot con¬
fiding of three fyllables j whereof the firlt and laft are
long, and that in the middle Ihort j fuch is the word
[caftitas.]
AMPHION, fon of Jupiter and Antiope ; who, ac¬
cording to the poets, made the rocks follow his mufic j
and at his harp the Hones of Thebes danced into walls
and a regular city.
AMPHIPOLES, in antiquity, the principal ma-
giftrates of Syracufe. They were eftablilhed by Ti-
moleon in the 109th Olympiad, after the expulfion of
the tyrant Dionyfius. They governed Syracufe for the
fpace of 300 years: and Diodorus Siculus affures us,
that they fubfifted in his time.
AMPHIPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a city of
Macedonia, an Athenian colony, on the Strymon, but
on which fide is not certain: Pliny places it in
Macedonia, on this fide but Scylax, in Thrace, on
the other. The name of the town, Amphipolis, how¬
ever, fee ms to reconcile their difference ; becaufe, as
Thucydides obferves, it was walked on two fides by
the Strymon, which dividing itfelf into two channels,
the city flood in the middle, and on the fide towards
the fea there was a wall built from channel to channel.
Its ancient name was Evnx the Nine wnyr (Thu¬
cydides, Herodotus.) The citizens were called Am-
phipolitani, (Livy). It was afterwards called Chrijlo-
polis; now Chrijlopoli, or Chifopoh, (Holftenius).
AmpHIPOLIS. in Ancient Geography, a town of Sy¬
ria, on the Euphrates, built by Seleucus, called by the
Syrians Turmeda, (Stephanus) : the fame with Thap-
facus, (Pliny) ; and fuppofed to have been only re¬
newed and adorned by Seleucus, becaufe long famous
before his time, (Xenophon.)
AMPHIPPII, in Grecian antiquity, foldiers who,
in war, ufed two horfes without faddles, and were dex¬
terous enough to leap from one to the other.
AMPHIPRORAL, in the naval affairs of the an¬
cients, veffels with a prow at each end. They were
ufed chiefly in rapid rivers and narrow channels, where
it was not eafy to tack about.
AMPHIPROSTYLES, in the archite&ure of the
ancients, a temple which had four columns in the front,
and as many in the afpeft behind.
AMPHISBiENA. See Ophiology Index.
i ] AMP
AmPHISB JENA Ayuatica. SeeGoRDIUS, HELMIN¬
THOLOGY Index.
AMPHISCII, among geographers, a name applied
to the people who inhabit the torrid zone. The Am-
phifcii, as the word imports, have their lhadows one
part of the year towards the north, and the other to¬
wards the fouth, according to the fun’s place in the
ecliptic. They are alfo called Afcii. See Ascii.
AMPHISSA, in Ancient Geography, the capital of
the Locri Ozolse, 120 ftadia (or 15 miles) to the weft
of Delphi, (Paufanias). So called, becaufe furround-
ed on all fides by mountains, (Stephanus). Hence
Amphiffiei, the inhabitants 5 who plundered the tem¬
ple at Delphi (Demofthenes.)—Alfo a town of Mag¬
na Grsecia at the mouth of the Sagra, on the coaft
of the Farther Calabria, fituated between Locri and
Caulona *, now called Roce/ia. AmphiJJius the epithet,
(Ovid.)
AMPHITHEATRE, in ancient archite&ure, a
building of an elliptic form, of two or more ftories of
open arcades, with a number of interior galleries and
arched paffages, which ferved both as a communication
and fupport to feveral rows of feats which rofe above each
other, and were arranged round a large fpace called the
arena. The derivation of the word amphitheatre, indi¬
cates that it is a place where the fpeftators, circuitoufly
arranged, faw the performance equally well on all fides.
The hiftory of amphitheatres is of confiderable im¬
portance, in confequence of its connexion with ancient
manners. Thefe ftru&ures owed their origin to the
barbarity of the ancients, and their ruin to the huma¬
nity of the moderns. They are the produftion of
Roman invention in the laft ages of the republic. The
ferocious difpofition of the Romans was immoderately
fond of every fpecies of amufement; but efpecially
that which was of a bloody and horrible nature. The
political rulers improved this general feature in the
Roman charaHer, to roufe and fofter that martial fpi-
rit which rendered them mafters of the world. Af¬
ter the Samnite war had extended the Roman fceptre
over Etruria and the whole peninfula of Italy, the
firft gladiatory confli&s were exhibited in'Rome in the
year of the city 490. Lucius Metellus brought into
the circus the elephants which were part of the fpoil of
the Carthaginians, in the year 502, and this proved
the introduftion of wild beads into the fpe&acles of
Rome. This addition was equally agreeable to the
Roman tafte •, and thofe who courted the popular fa¬
vour, vied with each other in entertaining the people
in this barbarous manner. This foon gave birth to a
profeffion of men denominated gladiators, who were
trained to the combat, and for reward flaughtered one
another in the forum, whilft every devouring animal
which the wilds of Afia or Africa produced, added to
the horrid fcene.
In the days of Pompey and Csefar thefe barbarous
amufements were given with an aftoniftiing profufion.
In thefe games given by Pompey, the elephants at¬
tempted to break down the barrier between them and
the people, and the fituation of the circus prevented
the people from feeing equally well: this induced Cae-
far to alter the original form, and conftruft edifices
where the people might be entertained without
danger or interruption. Amphitheatres were fuited
to
Amphif-
baena
I! .
Amphi¬
theatre.
AMP
AmpW-
t heatre.
t IS
to tills Jiurpofe 5 therefore they were adopted, and be¬
came the common place for the exhibitions both of gla-
* diators and wild beafts.
It is fuppofed that the firft amphitheatre was com-
pofed of thofe Angular machines, formed by Caius
Curio, for the games which Caefar prefented among
the funeral honours of his father. In a femicircular
form Caius made two large theatres, and oppofed their
backs to each other : and, having amufed the people
in thefe the one half of the day, then they wheeled
round, forming one fpacious theatre where the gladi¬
ators contended during the remainder of the day.
Pliny is the only one who makes mention of this amphi¬
theatre 5 and from his account it is difficult to afcer-
tain whether this was the firft idea of an amphitheatre,
or whether the previous fight of one had fuggefted this
huge and wonderful ftruaure. It is reported, that
Julius Ccefar, a few years after, formed a hunting thea-
tre of wood } and, in confeqUence of the circular po-
fition of the feats, it obtained the name of an amphi¬
theatre. This appears to have been of very fupenor
kind and in great eftimation.
In the reign of Auguftus, Statilius Taurus erefted
one of ftone, but it feems to have been feldom ufed 5
and, from its being confumed by fire in the time oi
Nero, it is evident that it was not wholly of ftone.
Thefe wooden buildings appear to have been tempo¬
rary and a few of them permanent from the eftablith-
ment conferred upon them. The politic fpirit of
Auguftus induced him to ereft feveral of thele, and
Caligula began one, which he left unfinifhed. Nero
formed a large and fpacious one, which is faid to have
been a year in building. Herod of Judea ere&ed am¬
phitheatres both in Jerufalem' and in Csefarea. -Du¬
ring the reign of Tiberius, one was built at Fidenee,
which Tacitus informs us fell while the games were
performing, and flew or hurt about 50,000 perfons.
There was another at Placentia, reported to have been
the moft fpacious in Italy 5 but it was deftroyed by fire
•in the conteft between Vitellius and Otho.
The unfortunate accidents, which happened to thele
wooden buildings, led the public to conftruft others ot
■ a more durable and ftronger nature, where the crowd
might be entertained without danger. Phis honour
was referved to Vefpafian and Titus. _ In his eighth
confulate, the former began the amphitheatre, which
the latter finiffied during his reign. It is laid, that
the expence of this building would have erefted a ca¬
pital. city, and it is defervedly efteerned one of the
moft celebrated edifices of ancient times. Dio lays,
that 0000 wild beafts were deftroyed at the dedication
of this huge building, but Eutropius reftnas their
number to 5000. After the hunting of thefe fero¬
cious animals was ended, inftantly the arena was filled
with water, and fea-animals were made to contend, and
a fea-fight exhibited. This immenfe building obtain¬
ed the appellation of the Colifewn. See Plate X .
^This amphitheatre became the model of other am¬
phitheatres throughout the empire. Compared with
the original model, thefe were natural val eys, with
feats formed in the furrounding heights fimilar to the
amphitheatre at Corinth. On the declivity of two
hills feats of ftones were fometimes placed, and the ex¬
tremes formed by regular works of ftone. Of this kind
2 ] AM P
was that of Gortyna in Candia. One in the vicinity
of Sandwich in Kent had its benches formed of turf;
and fimilar muft have been thofe amphitheatres, which
were formed along with the camps and military ftations
of the Roman foldiers.
When Chriftianity became the religion of the em¬
pire, it meliorated the difpofitions of the Remans, and
induced them to lay afide this barbarous cuftom. Con-
ftantine the Great terminated the gladiatory com¬
bats in the eaft during his reign ; but they were not
finally aboliffied at Rome until the beginning of the
fifth century, in the reign of Plonorius. The combats
of wild beafts continued, however, fome time longer 5 '
but during the progrefs of the fifth century thefe gra¬
dually declined, until they were finally aboliftied, and
the amphitheatres were abandoned tQ the ravages of
time and accident. During the middle ages they were
fometimes employed for judicial condifts, tilts, and
tournaments} but thefe pra£tices having been diicon-
tinued, the amphitheatres experienced univerfal negleft
and ruin. _
It is very difficult to give an accurate defcription of
an amphitheatre. It is fcarcely poffible to give a clear
idea of the manner in which fuch immenfe crowds of
people were feated and arranged, and how they had a
convenient entrance and a returning. It has already
been mentioned, that thefe buildings were circuitous,
and that the exterior circuit was compofed of two or
more ftories of arcades 5 and it may now be added, that
the number of thefe ftories varied according to the na¬
ture of the building. A correfponding number of arch¬
ed paffages and ftaircafes opened upon the ground floor
towards thefe ftories in the direftion of radii towards
the arena. Thefe communications were again interlefted
by arched pafiages which encircled the whole ftruc-
ture, and afforded an uninterrupted entrance to every
part of the amphitheatre. Sometime ; an intermediate
Gallery furrounded the whole in the centre of the fa¬
bric, and ferved as a common place of refort to all the
flairs which led to the higher galleries. This was the
form of one at Nifmes. Sometimes each ftaircafe
had its difiinft communication by itfelf. Such was the
cafe with one at Verona. See Plate XX. fig. 2.
The four radiating entries on the diameter were
ufually more capacious j and by the two principal of
thefe the emperor, the fenate, and other perfons of
diftindlion, were conduced to their feats on a place
which was called the podium. The other two led to
the arena, and by thefe the gladiators and beafts made
their entrance. The various ranks of the people paf-
fed by the ftaircafes, which led to their refpe&ive
feats. The doors which opened from the ftaircafes
were called vomitories, and varied in magnitude, ac¬
cording to the extent of the amphitheatre, and the
number of exterior arches. The number of feats be¬
tween the feveral vomitories was unequal, and feems
to have been fubjedl to no pofitive regulation. Thefe
benches were about one foot and eight inches in height,
and about two feet four inches in breadth. A plat¬
form four feet eight inches broad was formed of one
of thefe benches, which ferved as a circular communi¬
cation to the whole building. Thefe obtained the
name of precinBions, and the boundaries on the fide
were called belts. The latter were furrounded by
balluftrades, to protect the perfons from falling who
occupied
Arnphii
theatre.
AMP [ 153 ] AMP
Atnphi- occupied the benches in the vicinity. I he podium
theatre, was more fpacious than the preemptions, and was a
 platform encircling the arena. From one precin&ion
to the belt of another, a flight of flairs two feet fix
inches in breadth defeended oppofite to every vomi¬
tory. Small canals were cut in the tops of the benches,
by which the rain and urine were conduced from
bench to bench, until they reached the inftruments
prepared to convey them to the drains below. Thefe
flairs radiated from the higheft bench to the podium ;
fo that,^ with the preemptions, they feparated the whole
cavity into wedge-like divifions, which the people oc¬
cupied according to their rank.
The amphitheatre called the Colifeum, was of an
elliptical form, whofe longeft diameter was about 615
Englifh feet fix inches, and the fhorteft 510. The
length of the diameter of the arena was about 281
feet, and the breadth 176, referving a fpace for the
feats and galleries of about 157 feet in breadth. The
external circumference covered a fuperficies of about
five acres and a half, and could fcarcely be included
in a parallelogram of feven acres. I hree ftories of
arcades, adorned with columns of the Doric, Ionic, and
Corinthian orders, and enclofed with a pilaftrade of
the Corinthian order, compofed the external elevation.
The firft ftory rofe about four feet from the ground,
and the pavement fupported the bafis of the columns.
The columns which fupported the upper ftories were
placed upon pedeftals. A flylobata fupported the pi¬
laftrade, in which were the windows of an interme¬
diate gallery, and in every fecond interpilafter was a
window to illuminate the higheft gallery. A cantali-
ver cornice, perforated with fquare holes, through
which the erePt pieces of wood pafied that fupported
the awning to a range of corbels, about the centre of
the pilaftrade, crowned the building. Thefe various co¬
lumns, pilafters, and ftories, appear to h^ve been con¬
tinued without interruption around the whole edifice.
The height of the firft ftory is about 33 feet fix inches,
the fecond about 39, and the third about 38 5 the pila¬
ftrade about 46 and the whole, including the blocking
courfe and the fteps, was about 164 feet in height.
An ellipfis of 80 open arches formed the exterior
circuit of the ground plan j the piers, rvith three-
quarter columns in front, of about two feet 10 inches
diameter. The four which correfponded to the four
femi-diameters formerly mentioned, were about 14
feet two inches, and 76 of the arches were about 13
feet eight inches. Thefe arches led to a large double
corridor, that encircled the whole j this corridor is a
magnificent and diftinguifhing feature in the Colifeum
theatre. Square openings in the preemption above, illu¬
minated the interior corridor •, and the corridor which
was united with the wall of the podium appears to
have been illuminated in a fimilar manner. A double
corridor was feen on the floor of the fecond ftory di-
rePlly above the corridor of the lower floor, and an in¬
terior corridor which fent forth flairs leading to a
range of vomitories on the one hand, and on the other
hand an intermediate corridor which formed a mezza¬
nine floor above the double corridor of the interior
circuit. Here the flairs began to afeend to the next
ftory, and fquare holes in the upper floor enlightened
this gallery. A double corridor formed the third fto¬
ry, and it appears that here the flairs commenced that
Vol. II, Part I.
led to the gallieries above. There were alfo fome win- Amphi-
dows in the interior wall, and vomitories which opened theatre,
to the uppermoft cunei of benches. In a fimilar man- v
ner were other three ftories conftruPled and filled above,
the whole compofing a moft magnificent and fpacious
ftruPture.
Juftus Lipfius fuppofes that this amphitheatre was
capable of containing 87,000 fpePlators on the bench¬
es ; and Fontana adds 22,000 for the galleries and
other palfages. Upon a fair calculation it appears
that if all was crowded, it might contain about 80,000.
This magnificent ftruPture certainly excelled the mo¬
numents both of Grecian and Egyptian genius which
have reached our times. When this amphitheatre was
in its glory, and crowded with Romans, the fight muft
have been magnificent and linking. If the report is
accurate, that this was completed in two years and nine
months, it affords an aftonifhing inftance of Roman
vigour and perfevering induftry. Befides former de¬
predations, Michael Angelo removed near the one
half of the external wall to build the Palazzo Farnefe.
To prevent thefe depredations, Pope BenediPt XIV.
confecrated thefe ruins, and erePted feveral altars,
which were much frequented on the Sundays and Fri¬
days, before the revolution in France. To guard thefe
relicks, a hermit was flationed in a fmall dwelling near
the centre.
The different kinds of amufement have already been Amufe-
mentioned during the progrefs of the hiftory. Gla-ments*
diators contended together, or entered the lifts with
wild beafts. Thefe wild animals were hunted or en¬
countered, or left to devour each other, according to
the humour of the times or the tafte of him who gave
the entertainment. It appears alfo, that criminals were
fometimes forced to fight with theie ferocious creatures
for the entertainment of the people of Rome j and, in
the dawn of Chriftianity, many of the Chriftians fuf-
fered death in this brutal manner. It is alfo reported,
that artificial mountains were fometimes conftruPled with
caves below, from whence thefe devouring animals rufli-
ed forth to attack their prey.
Information concerning the laws that regulated the
amphitheatre is rather fcanty j but the following are
among the number. In the centre of one fide of the
podium was the emperor’s feat, called the fuggeftum,
and highly adorned. The remainder of the podium
was occupied by fenators; and when this fpace was
not fufheient, feveral of the adjacent wedges were ap¬
propriated to the other fenators and to perfons of
diftinPtion. The equeftrians, and the civil and military
tribunes, had their places next afllgned them. From
this order both the liberti and the legati were exclud¬
ed. The married men fat by themfelves. The young
men were alfo arranged by themfelves, and their tutors
fat near them to obferve their conduPt. The attendants
and fervants occupied the higheft gallery. The veftals
were feated, and frequently the princeffes and the la¬
dies of diftinguiftied rank fat along with them. The
front of the gallery was afligned to the women, who
%vere placed on chairs, and the loweft order of ple¬
beians flood behind them. It appears alfo, that for the
better accommodation of the people, the different
tribes had particular wedges allotted to them. It
is alfo proper to remark, that the arrangement in the
different provinces was different from that of Rome
U as
Amphi¬
theatre
II
Amphora-
rium.
Bern ai ns.
AMP [I
as circumftances varied. The general direftion of the
amphitheatre was under the care of an officer, name
milieus amphitheatri; and different officers who were
called locariiy had the direftion of the cunei. By care-
j fully preventing any perfon from occupying a place to
which he was not entitled, all confufion was prevented,
and drift order maintained.
The means ufed by Pope Benedift to preferve the
Colifeum at Rome, have already been mentioned. Ut
one which was erefted at Verona, only four arenes of
the external circuit remained at the commencement s
the eighteenth century. Thefe confid of three dories
of about 90 Engliih feet. The whole buikhng^ was
erefted without cement, and joined and fecured >
iron cramps, overlaid with lead. The whole fuperfi-
cies is about four acres and nearly one third. One
has been erefted at Nifmes, which has differed much
dilapidation; but the remains are yet worthy of
the attention of the traveller. In year
Francis I. gave orders to have the rubbiffi removed ,
but his misfortunes prevented this order from being
carried into execgtioL Louis XVI iffued a dmi ar
order, but the work is not yet fimffied. 1 his am phi
theatre is faid, by Governor Porrnall, to be occup.ed
with houfes arranged m the form of dreets, and re
fembles a fmall walled town. The galleries are con¬
vened into wretched dwellings, but the exterior gal¬
lery of the fecond dory, and that of the attic, were in
thl^"ria, .bore are the remains of an a„-
phitheatre built on the declivity of a hil .
of the exterior circuit was dandmg, except a few yards
of the parapet, when Maffei vihted thefe remains I
was erefted of done, with cramps of iron ; and all
the benches and other parts condrufted of wood, have
^Amphitheatre, in gardening, certain difpoiitions
of trees and ffirubs on the fides of hilly places, which,
tue nin or rifing be naturally of a circular figure, al
ways have the bed effea. They are to be formed of
evergreens fuch as hollies* phillereys, laurudines, bay ,
?? It nlants obferving to plant the ffiorted grow-
?nngd tths K front^'and thof! which wiU be the mU-
edSbehind, fuch as pines, firs, cedars of Lebanon, &c.
Amphitheatres are alfo fometimes formed of dope
on thePfides of hills, covered only with turf; and, when
well kept, they are a great ornament to large gar tn .
AMPHITRITE, (from x^tr^in, circumferend ),
In the heathen mythology, the wife of Neptune, an
goddefs of the fea, fometimes taken for thefta
S AMPHITRYON, dm of Alcaeus, and the tat her
of Hercules, lefs known by his own e*ploto than from
bis wife Alcmena’s adventure. See AlcmENA.
AMPHORA, in antiquity, a liquid mea.ure amo g
the Greeks and Romans. The Roman amphora con-
!• ^ ,8 Varies equal to about feven gallons one
r En^U u^rAteaLet and the Grecian or Att.c
amphora contained one-third more. r , , .1 „ Rn
Amphora was alfo a dry meafnre ufed by the Ro-
mans and contained about three buffiels.
“ amphora, among the Venefans, ^
dire ufed for liquids, containing about 16 quarts.
AMPHORARIUM vinum, in antiquity, denotes
♦Wwhich is drawn or poured into amphora or pitch¬
ers? by way of didinftion from vinum dohare, or calk
54- ] AMP
,vine.—The Romans had a method of keeping wine 111 AmphotL-
amphora for many years to ripen, by fademng the lids c es
tight down with pitch or gypbim, and placing them Am”raga_
either in a fituation within reach of fmoke, or under   y 
Sr0AMPHOTIDES, in antiquity, a kind of armour
or covering for the ears, worn by the ancient pugiles
to prevent their adverfaries from laying hold oi that
PaAMPHRYSUS, or Amphryssus in
Geography, a river of Phthiotis, a dillrift ot Theffa y,
running by the foot of Mount Othrys from louth to
north, into the Enipeus at J'hebtS of 1 heffaly ; where
Apollo fed the herds of King Admetus (\ irgil, Lu-
carO. Another Amphryfus in Phrygia, rendering
women barren, according to Pliny. Hence the epr-
thet Amphry(incus (Statius). Alfo a town of Phocis
at the foot of Mount Parnaffus, encompaffed with a
double wall by the Thebans in the war with Philip
(Paufanias) : Amphryjia Vales, in Virgil, denotes the
SllAMPHTHILL, a town of Redfordffiire in Eng¬
land, fituated pleafantly between two hills, near the
centre of the county, but in a barren foil. W. -Long.
O* 2Q. 2» 2. _ |
AMPLIATION, in a general ienie, denotes the
aft of enlarging or extending the compafs of a thing.
On a medal of the emperor Antoninus Pius, we find
the title Slmpliator civium given him, on account ot
his having extended the jus civil alts, or right oi citi-
zenffiip, to many Hates and people before excluded
from that privilege. In effeft, it is generally iuppo-
fed to have been this prince that made the famous con-
ftitution, whereby all the fubjefts of the empire were
made citizens of Rome. . , ■, r _
Ampliation, in Roman antiquity, was the defer-
rina to pafs fentence in certain caufes. 1 his the judge
did? by pronouncing the word amphus; or by writing
the letters N. L. for non liquet; thereby figmtying,
that, as the caufe was not clear, it would be necellary
to bring farther evidence. .. ,
AMPLIFICATION, in Rhetoric, part ot a dil-
courfe or fpeech, wherein a crime is aggravated, a
praife or commendation heightened, or a narration en¬
larged, by an enumeration of circumftances : to as to
excite the proper emotions in the fouls, ot the auditors.
Such is the paffage in Virgil, where, inftead ot faying
merely that Turnus died, he amplifies the circumftan¬
ces of his death
 AJl illifolvun tur frig ore membra,
Vitaque cum gemitu fugit indignat a Jub umbras.
The mafters of eloquence make an amplification to be
the foul of difeourfe. See ORATORY.
AMPLITUDE, in Afironomy, an arch ot the ho¬
rizon intercepted between the eaft or weft point and
the centre of the fun or a planet, at its rifing or let¬
ting ; and fo is either north and fouth, or ortive and
0CCMagnetical Amplitude, the different rifing or fet-
ting of the fun from the eaft or weft points of the com¬
pafs. It is found by obferving the fun, at his riling
and fetting, by an amplitude compafe.
AMPS AG A, a river of ancient Numidia. bee iiL
GIERS' AMPSANCTI
AMI’ HIT HE ATU KS
PLATE XX
VESPASIAN'S^WPHITHEATJiE WHICH CONTAIN'D ElOHTYSPVEN THOUSAND SPECTATOKS.
W.Arc/ubahi Sculp.’
.
AMR [ 155 3 A M R
Wandti AMPSANCTI vallis, or Ampsancti lacus, a
il cave or lake in the heart of the Hirpini, or Pnncipato
Vmraphel. Ultra near tiie city Tricento (Cicero, Virgil, Pliny) *,
 it is now called Moffeta, from Mephitis, the goddefs
of ftench, who had a temple there. The ancient poets
imagined that this gulf led to hell. The Moffeta is
thmTdefcribed by Mr Swinburne : “ We were led into
a narrow valley, extending a confiderable way to the
fouth-weft, and preffed in on both fides by high ridges
thickly covered with copfes of oak. 1 he bottom of
the dell is bare and arid : in the lowed: part, and clofe
under one of the hills, is an oval pond, of muddy alh-
coloured water, not above fifty feet in diameter : it boils
up in feveral places with great force in irregular fits,
which are always preceded by a hifling found. The
water was feveral times fpouted up as high as our heads
in a diagonal direction *, a whirlpool being formed
round the tube, like a bafon, to receive it as it fell.
A large body of vapour is continually thrown out with
a loud rumbling noife. The ftones on the rifing
ground that hangs over the pool are quite yellow,
being ftained with the fumes of fulphur and fal ammo¬
niac. A moll: naufeous fmell rifing with the deam
obliged us to‘watch the wind, and keep clear of it, to
avoid fuffocation. The water is quite infipid both as
to tade ahd fmell; the clay at the edge is white, and
carried into Puglia to rub upon fcabby dieep, on which
account the lake'is farmed out at 100 ducats a-year.
On a hill above this lake dood formerly a temple dedi¬
cated to the goddefs Mephitis : but 1 perceived no re-
m AMPULLA, in antiquity, a round big-bellied vef-
fel which the ancients ufed in their baths, to contain oil
for anointing their bodies ^ alfo the name of a cup for
drinking out of at table.
Ampulla, among ecclefiadical writers, denotes one
of the facred veffels ufed at the altars. Ampullae were
alfo ufed for holding the oil ufed in chrifmation, confe-
cration, coronation, &c. Among the ornaments of
churches we find frequent mention made of ampuls or
vials. In the inventory of the cathedral of Lincoln we
meet with ampuls of crydal, varioufiy enriched with
diver feet and covers) one containing a tooth of St
Chridopher, another a tooth of St Cecily, another a
bone of the head of St John Baptid.
Knights of St AMPULLA, belong to an order ipdituted
by Clovis I. king of France; at the coronation they
bear up the canopy under which the ampulla is carried
in procedi on.
AM PUR A, a province of the kingdom o^ Peru,
before its conqued by the Spaniards. _ Here the inhabi¬
tants wordiipped two lofty mountains from a prin¬
ciple of gratitude, becaufe of the defcent of the water
from them by which their lands were fertilized. It is
faid to have been conquered by Viracocha the eighth
Inca.
AMPURIAS, the capital of the territory of Am-
purdan, in Catalonia, feated at the mouth of the river
Fluvia, in E. Long. 1. 56. N. Lat. 42. $. -the land
about it is barren, full of briars and bulrufhes, except in
fome places which produce fiax.
AMPUTATION, in Surgery, the cutting off a
limb, or any part, from the body. See Surgery
Index.
AMRAPHEL, the king of Shinar, or Babylonia,
confederated with Chedorlaomer, king of the Elamites, Amra*
and two other kings, to make war againd the kings of 11
Pentapolis 5 that is to fay, of Sodom, Gomorrah, mid Amar“^bl!
the three neighbouring cities. The kings who were in <
league with Amraphel worded thofe of Pentapolis,
plundered their city, and carried off abundance of cap¬
tives, among whom was Lot, Abraham’s nephew : but
Abraham purfued them, retook Lot, and recovered all
the fpoil. See Abraham.
AMRAS, a drong cadle of Germany, feated in Ti¬
rol ; by fome German writers called Arx Ambrojiana,
which was a houfe of pleafure for the archdukes to re¬
tire to in the heat of the dimmer. By others this fort
is called Ombrnfs ; a name derived from the defign of
it, which was to be a ftiady fummer-houfe. It is mod
delightfully fituated at the foot of a mountain, but has
no great external beauty. All the furniture of ordi¬
nary ufe has been carried away \ yet it is dill remark¬
able for its galleries, which contain a very large col-
le&ion of antiquities, and both natural and artificial
curiofities. It excels all others in its curious collec¬
tion of armour and coats of mail, many of which be¬
longed to very great men. There is alfo a great col¬
lection of gold medals, which weigh, as they affirm,
about 16 pounds j there are alfo 3000 cameos and in¬
taglios, but few of them very fine. A great part of
thefe antiquities were fent to this place by Charles V.
On the walls and ceiling there are fome itery good
paintings; and, among the red, they have an admi¬
rable pifture of Noah’s ark, done by Baffano, for
which the grand duke of Tufcany is faid to have of¬
fered 100,000 crowns. They have a library, which
is not in very good order \ and a gallery full of buds
and other pieces of antiquity, befides many other apart¬
ments adorned with pidlures of great value. E. Long.
11. 40. N. Lat. 47. o.
AMRU-EBN-AL-AS, one of the mod famous of
the fird race of Saracen leaders, was defcended of Aafi,
of the tribe of Koreidi, by a notorious proditute. In
his youth he indulged in poetry, and wrote fatirical
verfes againd the perfon and do&rine of Mahomet.
His zeal in oppofing the new religion prompted him to
undertake an embaffy to the king of Ethiopia, to di-
mulate him againd the converts whom he had taken
under his prote&ion. It is uncertain by what argu¬
ments he was induced to change his religious fenti-
mentsj but he returned a convert to the Mahometan
faith, and, along with Caled, joined the fugitive pro¬
phet at Medina. The military talents of Amru had
begun to attraft general attention, when Abubeker re-
folved to make a new attack upon Syria, in which
he obtained the chief command. After feveral dis¬
plays of his military valour and addrefs in fome fuc-
cefsful enterprifes, he rofe to the elevated dation of
chief in Irak, when Caled requeded the attendance of
all the Arabian generals before Damafcus. During
the caliphate of Omar, he alfo ferved in Paledine, un¬
der Abu Obeidah. While befieging Caefarea, he held
a memorable conference with Condantine, the fon of
the emperor Heraclius. Hidorians mention that their
time was chiefly occupied in producing genealogical
arguments to prove the affinity of the Greeks and Ara¬
bians, and the confequent rights of the latter as their
defcendants. Amru concluded with the candid de¬
claration, “ That the Arabians were tired of living
U 2 in
1
AMR t 156
Amra ebn- in their fcorching deferts, end were refolved to re-enter ney
” U» into the poffeffion of the delightful country wh.ch was
1 v > ,he inheritance of their forefathers.” He withdrew
from the conference, after denouncing perpetual enmi¬
ty ao-ainft the Greeks, unlefs they ftiould either be¬
come converts to the Mahometan faith or tributaries
to that government. In the year of the Hegira 17,
A. D. 63B, Amru took Csefarea, and reduced to iub-
ieftion all the maritime towns of Syria.
After the death of Obeidah, / .nru affumed the cbiel
command in Syria, in which he was confirmed by the
caliph, notwithftanding the oppofitton of Othman. An
expedition againft Egypt being formerly refolved upon,
Amru wrote to the caliph, informing him that he
would inftantly march into Egypt. During J-he pro-
orefs of his march, attended only by 4000 Arabs, a
meffenger from Omar arrived with a letter, containing
direftions to return, if he Ihould receive this letter in
the territories of Syria-, but if he (hould receive it in
thofe of Egypt, he might advance, and all neediul al-
fiftance would be inftantly fent him. Anticipating the
contents, he haftened on to the frontiers of Egypt, and
read the inftruaions of the caliph. Them requefting
fome of the inhabitants to be brought before them and
inquiring at them in what country they were, and be¬
ing informed that they were in Egypt, Amru replied,
“ Let us, then, continue our march. Having a ten
Pharma, lie advanced to Mifrah, the ancient Memphis,
and befieged it during the fpace of feven months. Al¬
though numerous reinforcements arrived, he would
have found it very difficult to ftorm the place previous
to the inundation of the Nile, if Mokawkas had not
treacheroufly leffened the forces of the citadel wh.ch
was accordingly taken by ftorm and the Greeks who
remained there were either made pnfoners or put to the
fword. On the fame fpot Amru erefted a city named
Eoftat, the ruins of which are now known by the name
of Old Cairo. The Coptic Chriftians, who compofed
the great majority of the Egyptian natives and who
were^enemies to the Catholic Greeks, after this victory
fubmitted to Amru, and engaged to provide quarters
and fupport for the Muffulman army. .
Amm purfued the Greeks to Alexandria, and, after
a„ obftinate and bloody liege of 14 ^°nths; the
was taken, A. D. 640. During the liege, the gene¬
ral along with one of his officers and a Have, was
ken mifoner, and brought before the governor who
was at that time ignorant of the value of hls Prlfo"^
The manner, however, in which the genera
conduced himfelf induced the governor to fuppofe that
he was a perfoa of rank, therefore he ordered him to be
beheaded.^ This order would have immediately been
carried into effea, had not the Have, who underftood
the Greek tongue, in which the command was given
fortunately chaftifed the imprudent language of Amru
by giving him a box on the ear. This circumftance
changed the mind of the governor, and obtained a re¬
peal of his order. By an engagement to propofe an
accommodation, the captive officer obtained the relea
of all the three *, and the acclamations of the army on
?he return of their general firft informed the governor
of his egregious miftake. Amru prevailed upon his
fliers fo refrain from the pillage of Alexandria, and
t0 content themfelves with the prefervation of the mo-
]
al-as.
AMU
ieweb and other valuable articles, to defray the Amru-ebn
expence of’the war. Amru was difpofed to preferve^
the famous library, and to have given it in a pre-
fent to John the grammarian, but, by the command
of the caliph, he was obliged to commit it to the
flames. If the relation is not exaggerated, ueh was
the number of books in that famous library, that they
afforded fuel to 5000 baths during the Ipace ot iix
months.
The capital being taken, all Egypt
- 1 r . 1  „ — A rvs tit
foon fell into
the" hands'of the conqueror. Amru' obfcrvtd a wife
and equitable policy, although his pecuniary demands
were great. Egypt became the ftorehoufe to familn-
ing Arabia, and camels carrying provifions covered the
whole road from Memphis to Medina. Amru alfo
employed his army in opening the canal from the Nile
to the Red fea. The adjacent parts of Africa next
felt the conquering power of Amru, but, upon the ele¬
vation of Othman, he was fucceeded in the govern¬
ment of Egypt by Abdallah-^bn-Said. The inhabi¬
tants were fo difpleafed with this change, that they
formed a confederacy, and delivered up the city to a
Grecian fleet. Amru was difpatched in hafte to re¬
take Alexandria, which, after an obftinate defence
was taken with great (laughter. I he general at
length interpofmg his authority, the flaughter was
flopped, and upon the fpot where the maffacre ceafed
the Msfque of Mercy was crofted, lo prevent^ future
rebellion, he difmanlled the town and was again fuc¬
ceeded by Abdallah ; and he himfelf retired to Medina.
When Ali afeended the throne, he became an ad-
verfary, and united himfelf to the intereft of Moatv.yah,
tv horn he acknowledged caliph, and fwore allegiance
to him Ali propofed to decide the quarrel by fingls
combat, and the valour of Amru inclined him to urge
his matter to accept of the propofal $ but Moawiyah
pofitively declined the challenge. Amru, however,
continued firm to the intereft of Moawiyah and took
poffeffion of Egypt in his name, having defeated the
governor of Ali. About this time he fortunately
efcaped affaffination by the hands of the frantic Cha-
regites, who had marked him out as one of the three
who, by their death, were to reftore peace to the con¬
tending parties. The affaffin waited his arrival at the
mofque, but being prevented by a fit of the colic, his
friend who was fent to officiate for him was flam in his
In the year 663, of the Hegira 43, he died in his
government of Egypt, highly efteemed and much re¬
gretted by his countrymen. In a pathetic oration .
his children on his deathbed, he bitterly lamented his
youthful offence infatirizing the prophet, although Mp-
homet had forgiven the offence and had frequently af¬
firmed “ that there was no Muffulman more fincere and
ftedfaft in the faith than Amru.” It is reported that
one day the caliph defired to fee the fword of Amru,
which had cut in pieces fo many Chriftians. Amru
drew his fword, which was a ftiort and common feymi-
tar: and when Omar manifefted %ns of unufual fur-
nrife he exclaimed, “ Alas ! the fword itfelf, without
the arm of its matter, is neither (harper nor more
weighty than the fword of Pharezdak the poet. 1 he
greatnefs of the man, the firmnefs of the friend, the va¬
lour of the general, the policy of the ftatefman, and
Aim anil i
AMS [
the fanaity of the Mahometan moralift, were united
In the character of Amru. {Mod. Univ. Hijl. Gen.
Bio$r.)
AMSANCTI. See Amfsancti.
AMS BURY, or Ambersbury. See Ambres-
AMSDORFIANS, in church hiftory, ,a fedt ot
Proteftants in the 16th century, who took their name
from Amfdorf their leader. They maintained, that
good works were not only unprofitable, but were oblta-
cles to falvation.
AMSTERDAM, the capital city of the province
of Holland and of the United Netherlands, is feated
on the river Amftel and an arm of the fea called the
Wye. The air is but indifferent, on account of the
marlhes that furround it, and render the city almoft in-
acceffible : but this inconvenience is abundantly recom-
penfed by the utility of its commerce, which the port
ferves greatly to promote ; for it will contain above
IOOO large {hips.
In 1204, it was nothing but a fmall cattle, called
Amjlel from the name of the river, which its lords
made a retreat lor fiihermen, who at firft: lived in huts
covered with thatch ; but it foon became confiderable,
and had a bridge and towers built upon it, infomuch
that it rofe to a fmall city •, though, till the year 1490,
it was furrounded with nothing but a weak pallifado.
The walls were then built with brick, to defend it
from the incurfions of the inhabitants of Utrecht, with
whom the Hollanders were often quarrelling 5 but fome
months afterwards it was almoft reduced to afties. In
I$12, it was befieged by the people of Guelderland y
who not being able to take it, fet fire to the {hips in
the harbour. In 1525, an Anabaptift leader, with 600
of his followers, got into the city in the night-time, at¬
tacked the townhoufe, and defeated thofe that made
any refiftance. At length they barricaded, with wool
and hop facks, the avenues to the market place, where
thefe enthufiafts were polled j and lo put a flop to their
fury till day appeared, at which time the citizens fell
upon them on all fides, and forced them to retire^ into
the townhoufe, where moft of them were cut to pieces.
About ten years after, there was another tumult raffed
by a parcel of fanatics, confifting of men and women,
who ran about the ftreets ftark naked, and had a de-
fign of making themfelves mafters of the townhoufe.
Their ftirieks and cries, which were dreadful enough,
foon alarmed the inhabitants, who feized the greateft
part of them, and gave them the chaftifement they de¬
fer ved.
Atnfterdam was one of the laft cities that embraced
the reformed religion. It was befieged by the Holland¬
ers in 1578, and fubmitted after a fiege of ten months.
One article of the capitulation was, a free exercife of
the Roman Catholic religion : but this was not ob-
ferved by the Proteftants 5 for they foon drove the ec-
clefiafties, monks, and nuns, out of the city, broke the
images, and demolifhed the altars. From this time it
became the general rendezvous of all nations and of
every fe£t, which raifed it to that degree of grandeur
and opulence it now enjoys. The inhabitants were of¬
ten obliged to enlarge the bounds of their city, and in
1675 it was increafed to its prefent extent. It was fur-
rounded with a brick wall, and a large ditch 80 feet
broad full of running water. The walls were fortified
57 ] AMS
with 26 baftions, on each of which there is now a wind¬
mill. There are eight gates towards the land, and one
towards the water.
Amfterdam being feated on a marftiy foil, is built on
piles of wood 5 for which reafon no coaches are allowed,
except to great men and phyficians, who pay a tax for
that privilege j and all kinds of goods are drawn on
fledges. It ftands fo low, that they would be expofed
to inundations, if they did not fecure themfelves by
dykes and fluices. The fineft ftreets are, the Keyfar’s
Graft, or Emperor’s Canal ; the Heer Graft, or Lords
Canal ; the Cingel j and the ftreet of Haerlem. The
principal canal is remarkable for its houfes, which are
magnificent ftruftures of an.equal height. Here are
three prodigious ftuices, and a great number of canals
which crofs the city in many parts, and render the
ftreets clean and pleafant. I he canals are deep, their
fides are lined with hewn ftone, they have generally
rows of trees planted on each fide, and many ftone
bridges over different parts of them.
The fineft is that called the Amarrack, which is
formed by the waters of the Amftel, into which the
tide comes up, and on the fides of which are two large
quays. This canal has feveral bridges. The principal
is that next the fea, called Pont Neuf, or the New
Bridge: it is 600 feet long, and 70 broad, with iron
balluilrades on each fide •, it has 36 arches, of which 11
are very high, and eight are ttmt up to enclofe the
yachts. From this bridge there is a moft charming
profpedl of the city, port, and fea. The port is a
mile and a half in length, and above 1000 paces in
breadth. It is always filled with a multitude of vef-
fels, which look like a foreft, or rather a floating city.
The ftreets in general are well paved, and the houfes
built of brick or ftone. Towards the fides of the ha¬
ven, the city is enclofed with great poles driven into
the ground, which are joined by large beams placed
horizontally. There are openings to let the {hips in
and out, which are ftmt every night at the ringing of
a bell.
Amrterdam is computed to be half as big as Lon¬
don, including the fortifications, and almoft as popu¬
lous in proportion. There are people here of almoft
every nation and religion in Europe, who are all tole¬
rated in their refpedtive perfuafions 5 but none admitted
to any {hare in the government except the Calvinifts.
There are 11 churches for the Dutch of the efta-
blifhed or Calviniftical religion, with two French and
one High Dutch. The Englifti have alfo three church¬
es in this city : one for the Prelhyterians, whofe mini-
fters are paid by the magiftrates ; a fecond for thofe of
the church of England, whofe minifter is paid by his
Britannic majefty ; and a third for the Brownifts, who
maintain their own minifters. None but the Calvinifts
are allowed to have bells, and their minifters are main¬
tained by the magiftrates. All thefe churches or con¬
gregations make up only a third part of the inhabi¬
tants of the city. The Roman Catholics, who have
27 houfes or chapels for their worlhip, form another
third part. Here they have a long fquare of houfes
for their beguines (a kind of nuns) to live in j who are
not {hut up in cloifters as other nuns in Roman Catho¬
lic countries, but have liberty to walk abroad, and may
even marry when they are tired of this kind of life.
Thefe chapels of the Roman Catholics have no bells al¬
lowed
A mite r-
tlam.
\
A IM S I 1
Antfter- lowed them, being looked upon as conventicles, and
am. may be (hut up and opened according as the goyern-
—v ' ment pleafes. The other third part of the city is
made up of Jews, Lutherans, Anmnians Anabaptiits,
&c. none of whom, as was faid of the Roman Catho¬
lics are allowed to have bells in their churches. _ I hole
who marry, and are not of the eftablilhed religion, are
obliged to be joined firft by the magiftrates, and then
thev may perform the ceremony m their own affem-
blies. The Jews, Avho are very confiderable in this
place, have two fynagogues; one of
the Portuguefe, is the largeft in Europe Within the
court yard, where their fynagogue Hands, they have
i’everal rooms or fchools, where their children are
taught Hebrew, and very carefully mftruaed m the
Jevvilh religion. # # .
The moft remarkable of the religious buildings is
the New Church, dedicated to St Catharine. It was
begun in the year 1408, others fay MM > ai*d ^as
10I years in building. It had the misfortune of being
burnt in the year 1645, but was in a ^ort time af¬
ter built in a more magnificent manner, i he lou -
dation of a fteeple is laid before this church which
was defigned to be very high. The piles on ^hicl
was to be erefted are not above 100 feet fquare and
yet they are 6334 in number, and thofe very large.
Neverthelefs it was thought that thefe vaft piles or
rather the ground, were not able to fupport the prod
o-ious weight they intended to lay upon it; for which
reafon the8 fteeple remains unfimftied. The pulpit is a
mafterpiece of the kind, where the four evangelifts and
many other curious pieces of feulpture are reprefent .
The glafs windows are adorned with paintings, among
which the emperor Maximilian is defcnbed, prefenti
■ an imperial crown to the burgomafters of Amfterdam
for the creft of the arms of this city. The organ is
very large, and reckoned one of the beft in the world.
It has a fet of pipes that counterfeit a chorus of voices,
and has 52 whole Hops befides half Hops with two
rows of keys for the feet, and three rows of keys for
the hands. Thofe who hear it play for the firft time
imagine they hear a human voice. The grate dividing
the chancel from the body of the church is all of Co¬
rinthian brafs. The branches of candlefticks are the
richeft in the Seven Provinces. There is a very fine
marble monument crofted to Admiral Ruyter, who was
killed at Medina.
The public buildings of a civil nature are very mag.
nificent. The ftadthoufe was founded in 1648.. it ^
built upon 14,000 wooden piles*, and its front is 282
fee long, itsfides 255 feet, and its height to the roof
jxg There is a marble pediment in the front, whereon
a woman is carved in relievo, holding the arms of the
city ; fhe is feated in a chair, fupported by two lions,
wfth an olive branch in her right hand *, on each fide
are four Naiads who prefent her with a crown of palm
and laurel, and two other marine goddeffes prelent her
wkh different forts of fruit *, befides there is Neptune
with his trident, accompanied with Tritons a fea-um-
corn and a fea-horfe. On the top Hand three ftatues
in bronze, reprefenting Juftice, Strength, and Plen y
On the top of the ftrufture is a round tower, 50 _
above thereof, adorned with ftatues, and an harmom-
ousTchitne of bells, the biggeft of winch we,g^
7000 pounds, and the next 6000. They are made
r
58 ] AMS
play different tunes every month. It has not one
handfome gate, but only feven doors to anfwer to the
number of the United Provinces. On the floor of the
great hall are two globes, the celeftial and terreftrial,
which are 22 feet in diameter and 69 in circumference.
They are made of black and white marble, and are in¬
laid with jafper and copper. In general, all the cham¬
bers are enriched with paintings, carvings and gild-
ino-s While this ftadthoufe was building, the old one
was fet on fire, and confumed with all the archives and
8Under the ftadthoufe is a prodigious vault, wherein
is kept the bank of Amfterdam, where there is a vaft
quantity of ingots both of gold and filver, as alfo bags
which are fuppofed to be full of money. The doors
are proof againft petards, and are never opened but in
the prefence of one of the burgomafters. The prifons
for debtors and criminals are likewife under the ftadt¬
houfe ; as alfo the guard-room for the citizens, wherein
the keys of the city are locked every night. At the
end of the great hall is the fchepens or aldermen s cham¬
ber, where civil caufes are tried. Befides thefe, there
are the chambers of the fenate and council, the burgo¬
mafters chamber, the chamber of accounts, 6cc. In
the fecond ftory is a large magazine of arms j and on
the top of the building are fix large mfterns of water,
which may be conveyed to any room in the houte in
cafe of fire j to prevent which the chimneys are lined
1 The°bourfe, or exchange, where the merchants af- ,
femble, is all of free-ftone, and built upon 2000 wooden
piles. Its length is about 250 feet, and its breadth
140. The galleries are fupported by 26 marble co¬
lumns, upon each of which are the names of the people
that are to meet there. They are all numbered j and
there is a place fixed for every merchandile under fome
one of thefe numbers. On the right hand of the gate
is a fuperb ftaircafe which leads to the galleries *, on
one fide of which there are feveral (hops, and on the
other a place to fell clothes. It is not unlike the royal
exchange in London. , . , , , ,
The admiralty office is a houfe which belonged
formerly to the princes of Orange. The arfenal for
their men of war is in the harbour. This is a wery
handfome building, 200 feet long and 22 broad. The
ground floor is filled with bullets *, the fecond floor
contains the arms and cordage*, the third their fails,
pulleys, flags, &c. This arfenal contains a great many
iluriofities*, among the reft an Indian canoe brought
^from the ftraits of Davis, and a confervatory of water
“on the top of the houfe that holds 1600 tuns of water,
which may be diftributed in cafe of fire into 16 differ¬
ent parts by leaden pipes. Hard by this edifice you
fee the dock or yard where they build their men of war.
The dock is 508 feet long, and contiguous to it are
houfes for lodging the ffiip carpenters. The dock is
plentifully fupplied with every thing neceffary for the
conftruftion of ffiips.
The Eaft India Company occupy a large building
divided into feveral offices or apartments. In fome ot
thofe they have great ftores of packed goods, and
likewife a room with all forts of drugs, tea, wax,
ambergris, and muik. Here they have a magazine
full of medicaments for furgeons chefts, to furmfti the
Company’s ffiips and garrilons m the Indies} as alfo
Amfter-
dam.
AMS
t i
A M S
Amfter-
dam.
lartre magazines of nutmegs, cloves, mace, and cinna¬
mon. In the court yard there is a guard chamber,
1 where every* night the houfekeeper has a watch ; and
on the other fide of the gate there is a chemift, who
with his men prepares medicines for the Indies j and
adjoining to this court-yard is their warehoufe and
packhoufe for oepper and grofs goods. In the new
hart of this city ^.hey have a magazine or palace, which
mav properly be called an arfenal. The ground on
which this building Hands is 2000 feet, and fquare
every way, reckoning the moats or burgwall about it.
The two rope-alleys are 1800 feet long, on the baek-
fide of which is a ftore of 500 large anchors befides
fmall ones. In this arfenal they build the (hips be¬
longing to the Indian chamber of Amfterdam ; for
which reafon they have all forts of workhoufes here for
the artificers that ferve the Company.
The academy called the I/luJinous School, is likewite
a very fine building. It was formerly a convent be¬
longing to the nuns of St Agnes. Here they teach
Latin, the oriental languages, theology, philofophy,
hiitory, &c. The lawyers and phyficians have likewile
their fchools. , , r . . , r
Befides thefe, there are feveral holpitals, or houies
for orphans, for poor widows, for fick perfons, and for
mad people 3 all which are regulated with much pru¬
dence. The Rafp-houfe, which was formerly a nun¬
nery, is now a fort of workhoufe for men that be¬
have’ill. They are commonly fet to faw or rafp Brafil
wood 3 and if they will not perform their talk, they are
put into a cellar which the water runs into, where if
they do not almoft conftantly ply the pump, they run
the rifle of being drowned. There is likewife a fpm-
houfe for debauched women, where they are obliged to
fpin wool, flax, and hemp, and do other work. All
the hofpitals are extremely neat, and richly adorned
with piftures. They are maintained partly by volun¬
tary contributions, which are raifed by putting money
Into the poor’s boxes fixed up all over the city 3 and
partly by taxing all public diverfions, as well at fairs
as elfewhere. Likewife every perfon that pafles through
any of the gates at candle-light pays a penny for the
fame ufe. The charities are taken care of by cer¬
tain officers called deacons. The governors are nomi¬
nated by the magiflrates out of the mod confiderable
men in the city.
The common fort have places of diversion called
Spiel houfes, where there are mufie and dancing. They
are much of the fame kind as the hops which were fo
frequent about London. If ftrangers go there, they
muft take care not to make their addreffes to a woman
that is engaged to any other man.
There are two fuburbs to this city 3 one at the gate
of the regulars 3 and the other goes as far as Overtoon,
a village a little way from Amfterdam, where boats
which come from Leyden are rolled over land upon
wooden rollers. There is likewife in this city an hof-
pital for thofe that are infedled with the plague 3 which
was built in the year 1630, and has 360 windows. .
This city is governed by a fenate and council, which
confifts of 36 perfons, called a Vroedfhap, who enjoy
their places for life 3 and when any of them dies, the
remainder choofe another in his (lead. T his fenate
clefts deputies to be fent to the States of Holland, and
appoints the chief magxftrates of the city, called Bur go-
59 1
majlers or Echevins, who are like our aldermen. I he
number is twelve 3 out of which fome are chofen every
year to execute the office, and are called Burgomaf.ers-
regent. Three of thefe are difeharged every year, to
make room for three others. One of the four is kept
in to inform the new ones of the ftate of affairs, and
alfo prefides the three firft months in the year, and the
others three months each ; fo that when they are in
this office, they may be compared to the lord mayor
of the city of London. Thefe alterations and appoint¬
ments are made by their oavo body. They difpofe of all
inferior offices which become vacant during their regen¬
cy. They have likevvife the. direftion of all public
works, which regard the fafety, tranquillity, and em-
belliftiment of this city. The keys of the famous bank
of this city are in the hands of thefe magittrates.
The college confifts of nine burgomaliers or echevins,
who are judges in all criminal aflairs, without appeal 3
but in civil eaufes they may appeal to the council of the
province. There are two treafurers, a oaihff, and a
penfionary. The bailiff continues in his office three
years 3 and fearches after criminals, takes care to pro-
fecute them, and fees their fentence executed. The
penfionary is the minifter of the magiftracy, is well
verfed in the laws, makes public harangues, and is
the defender of the interefts of the city. The city of
Amfterdam contributes to the public income above
50,000 livres per day, befides the excife of beer, flefti,
and corn 3 which in all amounts to above i,6oo,OOOl.
a-year. This is more than is paid by all the reft of the
provinces put together 3 and yet Amfterdam bears but
the fifth rank in the affembly of the ftates of Holland,
with this diftinftion, that, whereas other cities fend two
members, this feuds tour.
The militia of Amfterdam is very confiderable. They
have 60 companies, each of which has from 200 to
300 men. Jews and Anabaptifts are excluded from this
fervice, not being admitted to bear arms : But they are
obliged to contribute to the maintenance of the city-
guard, which confifts of 1400 foldiers 3 as alfo to the
night-watch, who patrol about the ftreets and pro¬
claim the hour. Befides thefe, there are trumpeters
on every church fteeple who found every half hour j
and if there happens a fire, they ring the fire-bell, and
(how where it is. The inhabitants have excellent con¬
trivances to extinguiffi it fpeedily.
The trade of Amfterdam is prodigious : for almoft
the whole trade of the Eaft India Company centres in
this city, which befides carries on a commerce with all
the reft of the world, infomuch that it may be called
the magazine or ftorehoufe of Europe. T hey import
a vaft deal of corn from the Baltic, not fo much for
prefent confumption, as to lay up againft times of fcar-
city. The richeft fpices are entirely in the hands of
the Eaft India Company, who furnifti all Europe there¬
with. They have vaft quantities of military ftores,
with which they fupply feveral nations 3 which is ow¬
ing to their engroffing moft of the iron-works on the
Rhine and other great rivers that run into Holland.
Such was the ftate of Amfterdam before the late revo¬
lution. Since that period, it has probably undergone
confiderable changes, as well in its internal government,
as in its foreign connexions. The longitude of Am¬
fterdam is 4. 30. E. 3 the latitude, 52. 25. N.
Amsterdam, or Tongataboo, is alfo the name of an
ifland
Amfter-
dam.
AMS
[ 160 ]
AMU
Amller-
dam.
illand in the South fea, faid to have been difcovered by
Tafman a Duch navigator. It was alfo vifited by Cap-
' tain Cook. Its greateft extent from eaft to weft is
about 21 miles, and from nortli to (outh about 13.
It is broad at the eaft end, and runs taper towards the
weft, where it turns, and runs to a point due north. It
is about fix leagues to the weft of Middleburgh. The
(bore is furrounded by a coral rock, and its moft ele¬
vated parts are not above fix or eight yards above-the
level of the fea. S. Lat. 21. 11. W. Long. I75v It
is wholly laid out in plantations, in which are cultivat¬
ed fome of the richeft productions of nature.
Here are bread-fruit, cocoa-nut trees, plantains,
bananas, {haddocks, yams, and fome other roots, fii-
gar-canes, and a fruit like a nedarine, called by the
natives figliega‘ There did not appear an inch of
wafte ground : the roads occupied no more fpace than
was abfolutely neceffary : the fences did not take up
above- four inches each j and even thefe weie not
wholly loft, for in many grew fome ufeiul trees or
plants ; it was everywhere the fame, change of place
altered not the fcene : nature, aflifted by a little art,
nowhere appeared with more fplendour than on this
ifland. Water is not fo plentiful here as at the Socie¬
ty ifiands; but the chief pointed out a pool of frelh
water unafked, to fupply the ihips with that neceffary
article. Cafuarinas, pandangs,. and wild fago palms,
appear here with their various tints of green, and bar-
ringtoniae as big as the loftieft oaks. I he bread-fruit
does not, however, thrive here with the fame luxuri¬
ance as at the Society illands 5 the coral rock, which
compofes the bafis of this fpot, being much more thinly
covered with mould.
Both men and women are of the common fize of
Europeans, and their colour is that of lightiftr cop¬
per 5 they are well-lhaped, have regular features, are
active, brilk, and lively. They have fine eyes, and
in general good teeth, even to an advanced age. The
women are the merrieft creatures imaginable, and m-
ceffant talkers. In general they appear to be modeft ;
although there was no want of thole of a different
{lamp. Among the natives, who fwam about the {hip
very vociferoufiy, were a confiderable number of wo¬
men, who w'antoned in the water like amphibious
creatures, and were eafily perfuaded to come on board
perfectly naked; but none of them ventured to ft ay
there after funfet, but returned to the ftiore to pafs the
night, like the greater part of the inhabitants, under
the (hade of the wild wood which lined the coatt.
There they lighted great fires, and were heard con-
verfing almoft the whole night. The hair of both fexes
in general is black, but Specially that of the women ;
both fexes wear it ftiort, except a fingle lock on the top
of the head, and a fmall quantity on each fide. The
men cut or {have their beards quite clofe; which ope¬
ration they perform with two {hells. The hair of many
was obferved to be burnt at the ends, and ftrewed with
a white powder, which was found, on examining it, to
be lime made of (hells or coral, which had corroded or
burnt the hair ; fome made ufe of a blue powder, and
others, both men and women, of an orange-coloured
powder made of turmeric. „ . , .
The drefs of both fexes confifts of a piece of cloth
or matting wrapped round the waift, and hanging
4own below the knees. From the waifts upwards they
are generally naked ; and it feems to be a cuftom to
anoint thefe parts every morning. The pra&ice of
tattowing, or pun&uring the Ikin, like wile prevails. ^
The men are tattowed from the middle of. the thigh to
above the hips ; the women have it only on their arms
and fingers, and on thofe parts but very {lightly.
Their ornaments were amulets, necklaces, and bracelets,
the bones, {hells, and beads of mother-of-pearl, tortoife-
ftiell, &c. which are worn by men as well as women.
The women alfo wear on their fingers neat rings made
of tortoife-lhell, and pieces in their ears about the fize
of a fmall quill : but here ornaments are not common¬
ly worn, though all have their ears pierced. They
have alfo a curious apron, made of the cocoa-nut {hell;
and compofed of a number of fmall pieces fewed to¬
gether in fuch a manner as to form ftars, half-moons,
little fquares, &c.; it is ftudded with beads and {hells,
and covered with red feathers, fo as to have a pleafing
effeft. They make the fame kind of cloth, and of
the fame materials, as at Otaheite, though they have
not fuch a variety, nor do they make any fo fine ;
but as they have a method of glazing it, it is more
durable, and will refill rain for lome tinie, which the
other cloth would not. Their colours are black,
brown, yellow, purple, and red; all made from vege¬
tables. They make various fort of matting, fome of
a very fine texture, which is generally ufed for cloth¬
ing-/and the thick and ftronger fort ferves to deep
upon, and to make fails for their canoes, &c. Among
other ufeful utenfils, they have various forts of balkets,
fome made of the fame materials as their mats, and
others of the twifted fibres of cocoa-nuts. Thefe are
not only durable, but beautiful, being generally com¬
pofed of different colours, and ftudded with beads
made of {hells or bones. They have many little nick-
nacks among them, which {how that they neither
want tafie to defign, nor {kill to execute, whatever
they take in hand. Their filhing implements are much
the fame as in the other illands : here was purchafed a
filh-net made'like our calling nets, knit of very firm
though (lender threads.
Nolwithftanding their friendly difpofition, thefe peo¬
ple have very formidable weapons ; fome of their fpears
have many barbs, and mull be very dangerous weapons
when they take effedl. A large flat {hell or breaft-
plate was purchafed, made of a roundilh bone, white
and poll Hied like ivory, about 18 inches in diameter,
which appeared to have belonged to an animal of the
whale tribe.
AMULET, a charm, or prefervative againft mif-
chief, witchcraft, or difeafes.
Amulets were made of ftone, metal, fimples, ani¬
mals, and in a word of every thing that imagination
fuggefted.
Sometimes they confifted of words, characters, and
fentences, ranged in a particular order, and engraved
upon wood, &c. and worn about the neck, or fome
other part of the body. See Abracadabra.
At other times they were neither written nor engrav¬
ed ; but prepared with many fuperftitious ceremonies,
wreat regard being ufually paid to the influence of the
ftars. The Arabians have given to this fpecies of a-
mulet the name of talisman.
All nations have been fond of amulets : the Jews
were extremely fuperftitious in the ufe of them, to
Amfter-
dam,
Amulet.
AMU [if
•Amulet drive away difeafes: and the Miflma forbids them, un-
Amurath. lefs received from an approved man who had cured at
i.—y——> three perfons before by the fame means.
Among the Cliriftians of the early times, amulets
were made of the wood of the crofs, or ribbands with
a text of Scripture written in them, as prefervatives
againft difeafes. Notwithftanding the progrefs of learn¬
ing and refinement, there is not any country in Eu¬
rope, even at this day, where they do not believe in fome
charm or other. 1 he pope is fuppofed to have the vir¬
tue of making amulets, which he exercifes in the con-
fecrating of Agnus Dei's, &c. The fponge which has
wiped his table, was formerly in great veneration as a
prefervative from wounds, and from death itfelf: on
this account it was lent with great lolemnity by Gre¬
gory II. to the duke of Aquitain.
Amulets are now much fallen from the repute they
were anciently in } yet the great Mr Boyle alleges them
as an inftance of the ingrels of external effluvia into
the habit, in order to IhoW the great porofity of the
human body. He adds, that he is perfuaded fome of
thefe external medicines do anfwer ; for that he him-
felf, having been once fubject to bleed at the nofe, and
reduced to ufe feveral remedies to check it, found the
mofs of a dead man’s Ikull, though only applied fo as
to touch the Ikin till the mofs was warm thereby, the
moft effeftual of any. The fame Mr Boyle (hows how
the effluvia, even of cold amulets, may, in courfe of
time, pervade the pores of a living animal ; by fiippo-
fing an agreement between the pores of the Ikin and
the figure of the corpufcles. Bellini has attempted to
demonllrate the poffibility of the thing in his laft pro-
pofitions De Febribus; and the like is done by Dr
Wainwright, Dr Keill, &c.
AMURATH or Amurat I. the fourth emperor
of the Turks, and one of the greateft princes of the
Ottoman empire, fucceeded Solyman in 1390. _ He
* took from the Greeks Gallipoli in Thrace, and Adriano-
ple, which laft he chofe for the place of his-refidence.
He defeated the prince of Bulgaria, conquered Mifnia,
chaftifed his rebellious baftiaws, and is faid to have gain¬
ed 36 battles. This prince, in order to form a body
of devoted troops that might ferve as the immediate
guards of his perfon and dignity, appointed his offi¬
cers to feize annually, as the imperial property, the
fifth part of the Chriftian youth taken in war.. Thefe,
after being inftru&ed in the Mahometan religion, inu¬
red to obedience by fevere difcipline, and trained to
warlike exercifes, were formed into a body diftinguiffi-
' cd by the name of Janizaries, or New Soldiers. E-
very fentiment which enthufiafm can infpire, every
mark of diftinftion that the favour of the prince could
confer, were employed in order to animate this body
with martial ardour, and with a confcioufnefs of its own
pre-eminence. The Janizaries foon became the chief
ftrength and pride of the Ottoman armies, and were
diftinguiffied above all the troops whofe duty it was to
attend on the perfon of the fultan.— At length the
death of Lazarus, defpot of Servia, who had endea¬
voured in vain to ftop the progrefs of Amurath’s arms,
touched Milo, one of his fervants, in fo fenfible a man¬
ner, that, in revenge, he ftabbed the fultan in the
midft of his troops, and killed him upon the fpot,
A. D. 1389, after he had reigned 23 years.
Amurath II. the 10th emperor of the Turks, was
Vol. II. Part I.
t ] AMU
the eldeft fon of Mahomet I. and lucceeded his fa-Artiurath
ther in 1421. He befieged Conftantinople and Bel v—’
grade without fuccels } but he took 1 heffalonica from
the Venetians, and compelled the prince ot Bofnia
and John Gaftriot prince of Albania to pay him tri¬
bute. He obliged the latter to fend his three fons as
hoftages j among whom was George, celebrated in hi-
ftory by the name of Scanderbeg. John Hunniades de¬
feated Amurath’s troops, and obliged him to make peace
with the Chriftian princes in 1442. Thefe princes
afterwards breaking the peace, Amurath defeated them
in. the famous battle of Varna, November 10. 1444*
which proved fo fatal to the Chriftians, and in which
Ladiflaus king of Hungary was killed. He after¬
wards defeated Hunniades, and killed above 20,coo
of his men ; but George Callriot, better known by
the name of Scanderbeg, being re-eftabliffled in the
eftates of his father, defeated the Turks feveral times,
and obliged Amurath to raife the fiege of Croia, the
capital of Albania. Amurath died, chagrined with
his ill fuccefs, and infirm with age, February 11. 1451,
at Adrianople. It is obferved to this prince’s honour,
that he always kept his treaties with the greateft fide-
lity.
Amurath IV. furnamed the Faliant, w'as the
fon of Achmet I. and in the year 1622, at the age of
13, fucceeded his uncle Muftapha. Bagdad fell into
the hands of the Perfians, and feveral other difaftrous
events clouded the commencement of his reign. The
pacha of Erzerum had raifed the ftandard of rebellion
in the former reign ; and, continuing his oppofition, he
overran many of the provinces of Lefler Afia. But
the military talents of the fultan were foon roufed to
exertion j and, making peace Avith Germany, he haften-
ed with a formidable army to regain Bagdad. But new
rebellions in his Afiatic dominions, and feveral other
caufes, prevented him from recovering the city. The
Spahis alfo rebelled at home, and feveral viziers Avere
flain during the tumults of the Porte.
The natural difpofitions of the young monarch Avere
ill adapted to his fituation, and extremely deftruttive
to his people. It is reported, that a flaffl of lightning
ruffling into his chamber during the darknefs of the
night, ftrongly impaired his reafon, and produced *
violence and intemperance of chara&er Avhich remain¬
ed to the end of his days. It Avas therefore nothing
more than reafonable to expefl that his policy fflould
be variable and inconftant; it appears, hoAvever, that
he a&ively refilled the foes who prefled upon his do¬
minions from different quarters. The recovery of
Bagdad being ftill his favourite objeft, in the year
1637, he again marched againft it 5 and after 30
days of unremitting affault. with the expence of much
blood, he took poffeffion of the city. By puffling hi*
men forward to the attack by the point of the fcimi-
tar, and by llaughtering 30,000 Perfians in cold
blood after their furrender, he difplayed the brutal fe¬
rocity of his difpofition. One perfon alone is report^
ed to have moved his obdurate heart on the prefent
occafion. A famous player upon the harp entreated
thofe who Avere fent to maffacre him, to allow him to
fpeak to the fultan previous to his death. Informed
Avho he was, the fultan requefted him to give a fpeci-
men of his Ikill in his profeffion : Avith this he readily
complied, and touched his harp fo melodioufly, and
X ^ fang
AMY
[ 162 ]
AMY
Amurath, fung in fucli pathetic {trains the lamentations on the tra-
Amyclse. gedy of Bagdad, intermixed with the praifes of Amu-
' v ' rath, that the hard heart of the cruel monarch being at
length foftened, he melted into tears, and faved both
the mufician and the remaining inhabitants. The lofs
fuftained by the Perfians at this time, fo reduced their
military ftrength, that they were unable for a long pe¬
riod to attack the Ottoman empire.
The violence of Amurath foon enfeebled his con-
ilitution ; and the fruits of his debaucheries and ex-
ceffes were obvious even in the prime oi life. At
the age of 31, be fell a vr&im to an excefs of revel¬
ling in the feaft of Bairam, in the year 1640. Be¬
holding his end approaching, he is reported to have
given orders to affaflinate his brother, in order to fecure
the throne for his favourite Muftapha j but the affec¬
tion of his mother prevented the cruel mandate from be¬
ing carried into effeft. The manners and amorous
adventures of this monarch have afforded materials
for numerous Turkiffi defcriptions full of extrava¬
gance, fingularity, and cruelty. He furpaffed all his
predeceffors in the abominable vice of intoxication,
and even violated the eftabliihed laws of the country,
by iffuing an edift permitting the fale and ufe of wine..
But as if it was not fufficient to violate the common
law,’ he alfo oppofed himfelf to the common ufage of
the country, by (hutting up the coffeehoufes, and pro¬
hibiting opium and tobacco upon the pain of death.
The wanton cruelty of this prince was almoft unex¬
ampled. During his hours of diflipation, he would
Fu(h forth into the ftreets with a drawn fword in his
hand, and cut in pieces all the unhappy peyfons who
chanced to be in his way. Nay, even in his. calmeft
moments, he often difcharged arrows from his upper
windows at the innocent paflengers as they went
along. In fhort, to fuch extravagance did his eruelty
extend, that the very name of Amurath carried ter¬
ror along with it, and the opium-ehewers fell into
fits upon the Ample mention thereof. The number of
perfons- that fell vi&ims to his cruelty during a reign
of 17 years, amounted to no lefs than 14,000 ; among
whom were many officers of high power and diftinc-
tion in the ftate. The meannefs of his difpofitions,
however, manifefted themfelves in Iris defeending to-
familiarities with his favourites, and even joining in
the meaneft fervices. He alfo difplayed a fingular hu¬
mour in making marriages between old men and girls,
and young men and women of fourfcore. It may,
however, on the whole, be afferted, that if he had not
been intoxicated with wine and power, the qualities
of his mind and body might have rendered him a more
refpe&able member of foeiety. He was very remark¬
able for fwiftnefs of foot and dexterity in drawing the
bow. The reverfes of fortune made hnall impreflxon
en his mind, and he purfued with refolute firmnefs
any objea in which he feriouffy engaged. Diffem-
bling, avaricious, and blafphemous, he gave full proof,
that his moral qualities were greatly depraved. (Mod.
Un. Hift. Gen. Biog.) .
AMYCLiE, a city of Lacoma, diftant about 18
miles from the metropolis, founded by Amyclas the
fon of Lacedsemon, and famed afterwards for the birth
of Caftor and Pollux the fons of Tyndarus, eighth
king of Sparta. It was afterwards famed for fending a
conlderable colony of its own inhabitants into Upper
Calabria, who built there a city which they called by
the fame name. Phis laft city was fituated between
Cajeta and Terracina, and gave its name to the neigh¬
bouring fea. According to Pliny and Solinus, the
territory of Amyclae was fo infefted with vipers and
other ferpents, that the inhabitants were obliged to
abandon their dwellings and fettle elfewhere. Among
the ancient poets, the Amycli, or inhabitants of this
city, obtained the epithet of filent. Iherea-
fon of this was, either becaufe it W’as built by the La¬
cedaemonians, who, as they followed the do£lrine of
Pythagoras, were always inculcating the precept c£
filence, and thence called tuciti: or becaufe of a laiv
which obtained in this place, forbidding any one, un¬
der fevere penalties, to mention the approach of an
enemy. Before this law was made, the city was daily
alarmed by falfe reports, as if the enemy had been already
at the gates-. From terrors of this kind the above-men¬
tioned law indeed delivered them 5 but, in the end, it
proved the ruin of the city : for the Dorians appear¬
ing unexpectedly under the walls, no one ventured to
tranfgrefs the law y fo that the city was eafily taken.
They reduced it to an inconfiderable hamlet j in w'hich,
however, were feen fome of the remains of its ancient
grandeur. One of the fined buildings that efcaped the
common ruin, was the temple and ftatue of Alexandra,
whom the inhabitants pretended to be the fame with
Caffandra the daughter of Priam.
AMYGDALUS, the Almond and Peach. See
Botany Index.
AMYLACEOUS, from amylum, “ ftarclij” a term
applied to the fine flour of farinaceous feeds, in which
confifts their nutritive part. See Bread.
AMYNTA, in literary hiftory, a beautiful paftoral
comedy, compofed by Taffo ; the model of all drama¬
tic pieces wherein fhepherds are aftors* The Pajior
Fido, and Fi//i di Sciro, are only copies of this excel¬
lent piece.
AMYNTOPt, ctiiwru^, formed of the verb upon), I
defend or avenge, properly denotes a perfon who de¬
fends or vindicates a caufe. In this fenfe, MrToland
entitles his defence of Milton’s life, Amyntor, as being
a vindication of that work againff Mr Blackball and'
others, who had charged him with queffioning the au¬
thority of fome of the books of the New Teftament,
and declaring his doubt that feveral pieces under the
name of Chrift and his Apoftles, received now by the
whole Chriftian church, were fuppofititious.
AMYOT, James, biftiop of Auxerre and great al¬
moner of France, was born of an obfeure family at Me-
lun, the 30th of Oftober 1514, and ftudied philofophy
at Paris, in the college of Cardinal Le Moine. He
was naturally dull and heavy -r but diligence and appli¬
cation made amends for thefe natural defers. He left
Paris at the age of 23 ; and went to Bourges with
the Sieur Colin, who had the abbey of St Ambrofe
in that city. At the recommendation of this abbot,
a fecretary of ftate took Amyot into his houfe to be
tutor to his children. The great improvements they
made under his dire&ion induced the fecretary to re¬
commend him to the Princefs Margaret duchefs of
Berry, only fifter of Francis I. and by means of this
recommendation Amyot was made public profeffor of
Greek and Latin in the univerfity of Bourges. It
was during this time he tranflated into French the
“ Amours
Atnyral
difm
II
Ana.
ANA [ i
- “ Amours of Theagines and Chariclea,” which Fran¬
cis I. was fo pleafed vvilh, that he conferred upon him
the abbey of Bellofane. He alfo tranflated Plutarch’s
_ Lives, which he dedicated to the king*, and after¬
wards undertook that of Plutarch’s Morals, which he
ended in the reign of Charles IX. and dedicated to
that prince. Charles conferred upon him the abbey of
St Cornelius de Compiegne, and made him the great
almoner of France and bilhop of Auxerre. He died in
*593iaged 79-
AMYRALDISM, a name given by fome writers
to the dodlrine of univerfal grace, as explained and af-
ferted by Amyraldus, or Mofes Amyrault, and others
his followers, among the reformed in France, towards
the middle of the 17th century.
This doflrine principally confifted of the following
particulars, viz. that God dejires the happinefs of all
men, and none are excluded by a divine decree; that
none can obtain falvation without faith in Chrift j that
God refufes to none the o/Ye/fewyg, though he
does not grant to all his aflillance, that they may im¬
prove this power to faving purpofes; and that many
perilh through their own fault. Thofe who embraced
this dodlrine were called Univerfalijls; though it is
evident they rendered grace univerfal in words, but
partial in reality, and are chargeable with greater in-
confiftencies than the Supralapfarians.
AMYRAULT, Moses, an eminent French Pro-
teftant divine, born at Bourgueil in Touraine in 1566.
He ftudied at Saumur, where he was chofen profeffor
of theology j and his learned works gained him the
efteem of Catholics as well as Proteflants, particularly
of Cardinal Richelieu, who confulted him on a plan of
reuniting their churches, which, however, as may well
be fuppofed, came to nothing. He publidied a piece in
which he attempted to explain the myftery of predef-
tination and grace, which occafioned a controverfy be¬
tween him and fome other divines. He alfo wrote, An
Apology for the Proteflants j a Paraphrafe on the New
Teftament; and feveral other books. This eminent
divine died in 1664.
AMYRIS. See Botany Index.
ANA, among phyficians, denotes a quantity equal
to that of the preceding ingredient. It is abbreviated
thus, aa or a.
Ana, in matters of literature, a Latin termination,
adopted into the titles of feveral books in other lan¬
guages.—Anas, or books in ana, are colle&ioris of the
memorable fayings of perfons of learning and wit; much
the fame with what we otherwife called table-talk.
Wolfius has given the hiflory of books in ana, in
the preface to the Cafauboniana. He there oblerves,
that though fuch titles be new, the thing itfelf is very
old 5 that Xenophon’s books of the deeds and fayings
of Socrates, as well as the dialogues of Plato, are So-
cratiana; that the apophthegms of the philofophers
colle£led by Diogenes Laertius, the fentences of Py¬
thagoras and thofe of Epiaetus, the works of Athe-
naeus, Stobeus, and divers others, are fo many anas.
Even the Gemara of the Jews, with feveral other ori¬
ental writings, according to Wolfius, properly belong
to the fame clafs. io. this head of ana may likewife
e referred the Orphica, the Pythagorasa, vEfopica,
Pyrrhonea, &c. ' o > r >
Scaligerana was the firft piece that appeared with a
lifts.
63 ] ANA
title in Ana. It was compofed by Ifan de Vaffan, a Anabq.
young Champanois, recommended to Jof. Scaliger by tifton,
Cafaubon. Being much with Scaliger, who was daily Anabap-
vifited by the men of learning at Leyden, De Valfan
wrote down whatever things of any moment he heard
Scaliger fay. And thus arofe the Scaligerana, which
was not printed till many years after, at Geneva in
1666. Patin. Let. 431.—Soon after came the Perro-
niana, Thuana, Naud^eana, Patineana, Sorberiana, Me-
nagiana, Anti-Menagiana, Furetiana, Chevraeana, Leib-
nitziana, Arlequiniana, Poggiana, &c.
ANABAPTISTON, the fame with Abaptifton.
ANABAPTISTS, a name which has been indif-
criminately applied to Chtillians of very different prin¬
ciples and practices; though many of them objedit to
the denomination, and hold nothing in common, be-
fides the opinion that baptifm ought always to be per¬
formed by immerfion, and not adminillered before the
age of difcretion.
The word Anabaptift is compounded of «»«, “ new,”
and famirK, “ a baptift}” and in this fenfe the Nova-
tians, the Cataphrygians, and the Donatids, may be
confidered as a kind of Anabaptifts in the earlier ages,
though not then denoted by this name ; for they con¬
tended, that thofe Chrillians of the Catholic church
who joined themfelves to their refpe£Hve parties fhould
be rebaptized. But we mult not clafs under the fame
denomination thofe bilhops of Afia and Africa, who,
in the third century, maintained, that baptifm jfdmi-
niltered by thofe whom they called heretics was not
valid, and therefore that fuch of them as returned in¬
to their churches ought to be rebaptized. Nor do the
Bnglilh and Dutch Baptids confider the denomination
as at all applicable to their fed : by whom the baptifm
appointed by Chrid is held to be “ nothing Ihort of im¬
merfion upon a perfonal prof efion offaith;” of which pro-
feffron infants being incapable, and fprinkling bein^ no
adequate fymbol of the thing included, the baptizing
of profelytes to their communion, who in their infancy
had undergone the ceremony of fprinkling, cannot, it is
urged, be interpreted a repetition of the baptifmal ordi¬
nance,
Anabaptids, in a drift and proper fenfe, appear to
be thofe who not only rebaptize, when they arrive at
an adult age, perfons that were baptized in their in¬
fancy, but alfo, as often as any perfon comes from
one of their fefts to another, or as often as any one is
excluded from their communion and again received
into the bofom of the church, they baptize him. And
fuch were many of the German Baptids. But the
Angle opinion common to all the fefts to which the
name of Anabaptijls has been indifcriminately applied,
is that of the invalidity of infant baptifm, in whatever
way adminidered: And hence the general denomina¬
tion of Antipeedobapti/ls-; which included Anabaptids,
Baptids, Mennonites,Waterlandians, &c. as didinguidi-
ed by their refpeftive peculiarities ; though Anabaptijls
feems to have been adopted by mod writers as the gene¬
ral term. 6
To the above peculiar notion concerning the bap¬
tifmal facrament, the Anabaptids added principles of a
different nature, depending upon certain ideas which
they entertained concerning a perfeft church edablilh-
rnent, pure in its members, and free from the inditutions
of human policy.
X2
The
ANA
[ i6+ ]
ANA
Anabap-
tiftst
The Anabaptifts appear to have made little noife,
or to have been little noticed, before the time of the
reformation in Germany. The moft prudent and ra¬
tional part of them confidered it poflible, by human
wifdom, induftry, and vigilance, to purify the church
from the contagion of the wicked, provided the man¬
ners and fpirit of the primitive Chriftians could but
recover their loft dignity and luftre j and feeing the at¬
tempts of Luther, feconded by feveral perfons of emi¬
nent piety, prove fo fuccefsful, they hoped that the
happy period was arrived in which the reftoration of
the church to purity was to be accomplifhed, under
the divine prote&ion, by the labours and counfels of
pious and eminent men. Others, far from being fatis-
fied with the plan of reformation propofed by Luther,
looked upon it as much beneath the fublimity of their
views ; and confequently undertook a more perfect re¬
formation, or, to exprefs more properly their vifionary
enterprife, they propofed to found a new church, en¬
tirely fpiritual, and truly divine.
This feft was foon joined by great numbers, and
(as ufually happens in fudden revolutions of this na¬
ture) by many perfons, whofe charafters and capacities
were very different, though their views feemed to turn
upon the fame objeft. Their progrefs was rapid ; for,
in a very fhort fpace of time, their difcourfes, vifions,
and prediftions, excited commotions in a great part of
Europe, and drew into their communion a prodigious
multitude, whofe ignorance rendered them eafy vi6tims
to the illufions of enthufiafm. The moft pernicious
faff ion of all thofe which compofed this motley mul¬
titude, was that which pretended that the founders of
the new and perfect church, already mentioned, were
under the direction of a divine impulfe, and were arm¬
ed againft all oppofition by the power of w'orking mi¬
racles. It was this faftion that, in the year 1521, be¬
gan their fanatical work, under the guidance of Munzer,
Stubner, Storck, Sec.
Thefe perfons were difciples of Luther •, but well
knowing that their opinions were fuch as would receive
no fanftion from him, they availed themfelves of his
abfence to diffeminate them in Wittenburg, and had
the addrefs to overreach the piety of Melanfthon.
Their principal purpofe was to gain over the populace,
and to form a confiderable party. To effeft this, fays
Bayle, they were induftrious and adtive, each in his
own way. Storck wanting knowledge, boafted of in-
fpiration ; and Stubner, who had both genius and eru¬
dition, laboured at commodious explications of Scrip¬
ture. Not content with diferediting the court of
Home, and decrying the authority of confiftories, they
taught, That among Chriftians, who had the precepts
of the gofpel to diredl, and the Spirit of God to guide
them, the office of magiftracy was not only unnecef-
fary, but an unlawful encroachment on their fpiritual
liberty : that the diftindtions occafioned by birth, or
rank, or wealth, being contrary to the fpirit of the
gofpel, which confiders all men as equal, (hould be en¬
tirely aboliffied; that all Chriftians, throwing their
poffeffions into one common ftock, ffiould live together
in that ftate of equality which becomes members of
the fame family ; that as neither the laws of nature
nor the precepts of the New Teftament had placed any
reftraint upon men with regard to the number of wives
which they might marry, they ffiould ufe that liberty
Avhich God himfelf had granted to the patriarchs. Ut
They employed at firft the various arts of perfuafion
in order to propagate their dodtrine. 1 hey preached,
exhorted, admonithed, and reafoned, in a manner that
feemed proper to imprefs the multitude ; and related a
great number of vifions and revelations with which
they pretended to have been favoured from above. But
when they faw that thefe methods of making profelytes
were not attended with fuch rapid fuccefs as they
fondly expedted, and that the miniftry of Luther and
other eminent reformers was detrimental to their caufe,
they then had recourfe to more expeditious meafures,
and madly attempted to propagate their fanatical doc¬
trine by force of arms. Munzer and his affociates, in
the year 1525, put themfelves at the head of a numer¬
ous army, compofed for the moft part of the peafants
of Suabia, Thuringia, Franconia, and Saxony; and
declared war againft all laws, government, and magi-
ftrates of every kind, under the chimerical pretext that
Chrift was now to take the reins of civil and ecclefiafti-
cal government into his own hands, and to rule alone
over the nations. But this feditious crowd was routed
and difperfed, without much difficulty, by the ele&or
of Saxony and other princes*, and Munzer their ring¬
leader ignominioufiy put to death, and his factious coun-
fellors fcattered abroad in different places.
Many of his followers, however, furvived and pro¬
pagated their opinions through Germany, Switzerland,
and Holland. In the year 1533, a party of them fet¬
tled at Munfter under the direction of two Anabaptift
prophets, John Matthias a baker of Haerlem, and
John Bockholdt a journeyman taylor of Leyden. Ha¬
ving made themfelves mafters of the city, they depofed
the magiftrates, eoufifeated the eftates of fuch as had
efcaped, and depofited the wealth they amaffed toge¬
ther in a public treafury for common ufe. They made
preparations of every kind for the defence of the city :
and fent out emiffaries to the Anabaptifts in the Low
Countries, inviting them to affemble at Munfter, which
was now dignified with the name of Mount Sion, that
from hence they might be deputed to reduce all the
nations of the earth under their dominion. Matthias,
who was the firft in command, was foon cut off in an aft
of frenzy by the biftiop of Munfter’s army j and was-
fucceeded by Bockholdt, who was proclaimed by a
fpecial defignation of Heaven, as he pretended, king
of Sion, and invefted with legiflative powers like thofe
of Mofes. The extravagancies of Bockholdt were too
numerous to be recited : it will be fufficient to add,
that the city of Munfter was taken after a long fiege
and an obftinate refiftance 5 and Bockholdt, the mock
monarch, was puniffied with a moft painful and igno¬
minious death.
It muft, however, be acknowledged, that the true
rife of the numerous infurreftions of this period ought
not to be attributed to religious opinions. The firft
infurgents groaned under the rooft grievous oppref-
fions $ they took up arms principally in defence of
their civil liberties j and of the commotions that took
place, the Anabaptift leaders above mentioned feem
rather to have availed themfelves, than to have been
the prime movers. See the article REFORMATION.—
That a great part of the main body, indeed, confifted
of
Anabsp.
lifts.-
X
ANA
Av.abap- of Anahaptiils, feems indifputable ; and whatever fana-
dft* ticifm exifted among them would naturally be called
N forth or be inflamed by the fltuations that occurred,
;*um° atid run riot in its wildeft (hapes. At the fame time
—v——' it appears from hiftory, that a great part alfo con¬
fided of Roman Catholics, and a ftill greater of per-
fons who had fcarcely any religious principles at all.
Indeed, when we read of the vaft numbers that were
concerned in thofe infurrettions, of whom it is report¬
ed that 100,000 fell by the fword, it appears reafon-
able to conclude that a great majority of them were
not Anabaptifls.
Before concluding this article, it muft be remarked,
that the Baptitls or Mennonites in England and Hol¬
land are to be confidered in a very different light from
the enthufiafts we have been defcribing : And it ap¬
pears equally uncandid and invidious, to trace up their
diitinguifliing fentiment, as fome of their adverfaries
have done, to thofe obnoxious chara&ers, and there to
flop, in order as it were to affociate with it the ideas
of turbulence and fanaticifm, with which it certainly
has no natural eonneflion. Their coincidence with
fome of thofe oppreffed and infatuated people in deny¬
ing baptifm to infants, is acknowledged by the Bap-
tiffs 5 but they difavow the praftice which the appella¬
tion of Anabaptijls implies ; and their doctrines feem
referable to a more ancient and refpe&able origin.
They appear fupported by hiftory in confidering them-
felves as the defeendants of the Waldenfes, who were
fo grievoufly oppreffed and perfecuted by the defpotic
heads of the Roman hierarchy ; and they profefs an
equal averfionto all principles of rebellion on one hand,
and to all fuggeftions of fanaticifm on the other. See
Baptists. The denomination of Mennonites, by which
they are diftinguiffied in Holland, they derive from
Menno, the famous man who latterly gave confiftence
and (lability to their fe6f. See Mexnonites.
ANABASII, in antiquity, were couriers who were
fent on horfeback or in chariots, with defpatches of im¬
portance.
ANABASIS. See Botany Index.
ANABATHRA, in ancient writers, denotes a
kind of fteps or ladder whereby to afeend to fome emi¬
nence. In this fenfe we read of the anabathra of thea¬
tres, pulpits, &c. Anabathra appears to have been
fometimes alfo applied to ranges of feats rifing gradually
over each other.
Anabathra is more particularly applied to a kind
of (lone blocks raifed by the highway fides, to affift
travellers in mounting or alighting, before the ufe of
ftirrups was invented. The firft author of this contri¬
vance among the Romans was C. Gracchus brother of
Tiberius.
ANABLEPS, in Ichthyology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of cobitis. See Cobitis.
ANABOA, a fmall ifland fituated near the coaft of
Loango in Africa, in E. Long. 90. N. Lat. 1°. Here
are feveral fertile valleys, which produce plenty of ba¬
nanas, oranges, pine apples, lemons, citrons, tama¬
rinds, cocoa nuts, &c. together with vaft quantities of
cotton. In this ifland are two high mountains, which,
being continually covered with clouds, occafion fre¬
quent rains.
ANABOLi2EUM, or AnabolE, in antiquity, a
kind of great or upper ceat, worn over the tunica.
ANA
ANABOLEUS, in antiquity, an appellation given Anaholeus
to grooms of the liable, or equerries, who aflifted their
mailers in mounting their horfes. As the ancients had i
no ftirrups, or inliruments that are now in ufe for
mounting a horfe, they either jumped upon his back,
or were aided in mounting by anabolei.
ANACALYPTERI A, according to Suidas, were
prefents made to the bride by her hulband’s relations
and friends, when Ihelirft uncovered her face and (bow¬
ed herfelf to men. Thefe prefents were alfo called
: for, among the Greeks, virgins before mar¬
riage were under ftritff confinement, being rarely per¬
mitted to appear in public, or converfe with the other
fex ; and when allowed that liberty, wore a veil over
their faces, termed KxXvttI^ct, or KabvTrlgtc, which was
not left off in the prefence of men till the third day af¬
ter marriage j whence, according to Hefychius, this day
was alfe called unaca/ypterion.
ANACAMPSEROS, in Botany, a fynonyme of
the portulaca and feveral other plants.
ANACAMPTERI A, in ecclefiaftical antiquity, a
kind of little edifices adjacent to the churches, defigned
for the entertainment of llrangers and poor perfons.
ANACAMPTIC, a name applied by the ancients
to that part of optics which treats of refleftion, being
the fame with what is now called Catoptrics.
ANACARDIUM, or Cashew-nut tree. See
Botany Index.
ANACEPHALALOSIS, in Rhetoric, the fame
with Recapitulation. See Recapitulation.
ANACHARSIS, a Scythian philofopher, who liv¬
ed about 600 years before Chrift. His father was one
of the chiefs of his nation, and married a woman of
Greece. Inftru6led in the Greek language by his
mother, he caught the flame for Grecian literature,
and prevailed upon the king to intruft him with an
embaffy to Athens. Arrived in that renowned ci¬
ty, he was introduced to Solon by one of his own
countrymen, named Foxaris; and it is reported, that
when he came to the door of Solon, he requefted a
fervant to inform his mailer, that Anacharlis a Scy¬
thian was at the door, and was defirous of being re¬
ceived as his friend and guell. Solon is faid to have
returned for anfwer, that “ friendlhips are bell formed
at home.” To this the Scythian philofopher replied,
“ then let Solon, who is at home, make me his friend
and receive me into his houfe.” Solon was fo afto-
nifhed at the propriety of this reply, that he gave
him admittance ; and, finding him upon farther ac¬
quaintance worthy of his confidence, he honoured him
with his friendlhip. From fuch a well qualified mailer,
Anacha.dis rapidly acquired a knowledge of the wif-
dom of Greece, and the literature then in circulation.
By the influence of Solon he was introduced to the
principal charaflers of Athens, and was the firff llran-
ger who was honoured with the title of citizen by the
Athenians.
After he had refided feveral years at Athens, he
travelled through different countries in quell of know-
lede, and then returned to his native country in¬
flamed with the defire of inllrudling them in the laws
and the religion of the Greeks. But his countrymen
were not prepared to profit by his inftruflions ; and
while he was performing facrifice to the goddefs Cy-
bele, correfpondent to a vow which he had made cn
his -
[ 165 ]
ANA [ 166 ] ANA
Aflaciioret tits'way tiome, he Tvas ilain by an arrow, faid to have
II proceeded from the king’s own hand. Thus fell the
Anaclaftic sCyt.l;dan philofopher a viflim to the folly and igno-
• ' ranee of his countrymen, who wantonly rejetted the
wifdom and learning of Greece.
The energetic manner in which he was accuftomed
to exprefs himfelf, gave birth to the proverbial faying,
“ Scythian eloquence.” Although the potter’s wheel
Avas invented in the days of Homer, fome have inac¬
curately aferibed its invention to Anacharfis. The
following ingenious fayings may be mentioned as a fpe-
cimen of his genius. “ The belt way of teaching a
youth fobriety, is to fet before his eyes a drunken man.
The vine bears three forts of fruit *, the firfl pleafure,
the fecond intoxication, the third remorfe. An ape is
by nature ridiculous-, man by art and fludy. An Athe¬
nian of bad morals reproached him with being a Scy¬
thian: to him he replied, “ My country may be a dif-
grace to me, but you are a difgrace to your country.”
Some fuppofe, that the epiftles which bear his name are
fpurious. (Gen. Biog.)
ANACHORET, in church hiilory, denotes a her¬
mit, or folitary monk, who retires from the fociety of
mankind into fome defert, with a view to avoid the
temptations of the world, and to be more at leifure for
meditation and prayer. Such were Paul, Anthony,
and Hilarion, the firft founders of monaftic life in E-
gypt and Paleftine,
Anachorets, among the Greeks,* confifl: principally
of monks, who retire to caves or cells, with the leave of
the abbot, and an allowance from the monaftery ; or
who, weary of the fatigues of the monaftery, purchafe a
fpot of ground, to which they retreat, never appearing
in the monaftery unlefs on folemn occafions.
ANACHRONISM, in matters of literature, an er¬
ror with refpett to chronology, whereby an event is
placed earlier than it really happened. The word is
compounded of «v«, “ higher,” and “ time.”
Such is that of Virgil, who placed Dido in Africa at
the time of iEneas, though in reality (he did not come
there till 300 years after the taking of Troy.—An er¬
ror on the other fide, whereby a fatt is placed later and
lower than it ftiould be, is called a parachronifm.
ANACLASTIC glasses, a kind of fonorous
phials or glaffes, chiefly made in Germany, which have
the property of being flexible, and emitting a vehe¬
ment noife by the human breath.—They are alfo called
vexing glajfes by the Germans {yexier glafer), on ac¬
count of the fright and difturbance they occafion by
their refilition. The anaclaftic glafles are a low kind
of phials with flat bellies, refembling inverted funnels,
whofe bottoms are very thin, fcarce furpaffing the
thicknefs of an onion peel: this bottom is not quite
flat, but a little convex. But upon applying the mouth
to the orifice, and gently infpiring, or as it were
fucking out the air, the bottom gives way with a pro¬
digious crack, and the convex becomes concave. On
the contrary, upon expiring or breathing gently into
the orifice of the fame glafs, the bottom with no lefs
noife bends back to its former place, and becomes
gibbous as before.—The anaclaftic glafles firft; taken
notice of were in the caftle of Goldbach -, where one
of the academifts Nature Curioforum, having feen and
made experiments on them, publiftied a piece exprefs
-on their hiftory and phenomena. They are all made of
2
a fine white glafs. It is to-be obferved, I. That if Anadaftia
the bottom be concave at the time of infpiration, it II
will bur ft j and the like will happen if it be convex at iAnaclco^
the time of exfpiration. 2. A ftrong breath will have
the fame effett even under the contrary circumftances.
AN ACL A ST ICS, that part of optics which con-
fiders the refrattion of light, and is commonly called
Dioptrics. See DIOPTRICS.
ANACLETERIA, in antiquity, a folemn feflival
celebrated by the ancients when their kings or princes
came of age, and affumed the reins of government. It
is fo called, becaufe proclamation being made of this
event to the people, they went to falute their prince
during the anaeleteria, and to congratulate him upon
his new dignity.
ANACLETICUM, in the ancient art of war, a
particular blaft of the trumpet, whereby the fearful
and flying foldiers were rallied, and recalled to com¬
bat.
ANACLINOPALE, Avas*:A<v«waAj), in antiquity, a
kind of wreftling, wherein the champions threw them-
felves voluntarily on the ground, and continued the com¬
bat by pinching, biting, fcratching, and other methods
of offence. The Anaclinopale was contradiftinguifhed
from the Qrthapale, wherein the champions flood ereft.
In the Anaclinopale, the weaker combatants fometimes
gained the vittory.
ANACLlNTERIA, in antiquity, a kind of pil¬
lows on the dining bed, whereon the guefts ufed to
lean. The ancient tricliniary beds had four pillows,
one at the head, another at the feet, a third at the
back, and a fourth at the breaft. That on which the
head lay, was properly called by the Greeks
or xiieatAtilgovj by the Romans fulcrum, fometimes plu-
icus.
ANACOLLEMA, a compofition ofaftringent pow¬
ders, applied by the ancients to the head, to prevent
defluxions on the eyes.
ANACONDO, in Natural Hi/iory,\s a name given
in the ifle of Ceyhm to a very large and terrible fnake,
which often devours the unfortunate traveller alive, and
is itfelf accounted excellent and delicious fare. It is
probably the Boa Confricior.
ANACREON, a Greek poet, born at Teos, a city
of Ionia, flouriftied about 532 years before the Chri-
ftian era. Polycrates, tyrant of Samos, invited him
to his court, and made him (hare with him in his bufi-
nefs and his pleafure. He had a delicate wit, as may
be judged from the inexpreflible beauties and graces
that {bine in his works : but he was fond of pleafure,
was of an amorous difpofition, and additted to drunk-
ennefs: yet, notwithftanding his debaucheries, he lived
to the age of 855 when, we are told, he was choked by
a grapeftone which ftuck in his throat as he was rega¬
ling on fome new wine.
There is but a fmall part of Anacreon’s works that
remain: for, befides his odes and epigrams, he compo-
fed elegies, hymns, and iambics. His poems which
are extant were refeued from oblivion by Henry Ste¬
phens, and are univerfally admired. The verfes of A*
nacreon are fweeter, fays Scaliger, than Indian fugar.
His beauty and chief excellence, fays Madame Dacier,
lay in imitating nature, and in following reafon j fo
that he prefented to the mind no images but what were
noble and natural. The odes of Anacreon, fays Ra-
ANA [ 167 ] A N A
Anacreon- pin, are flowers, beauties, and perpetual graces; it is
tie familiar to him to write what is natural, and to the life,
II he having an air fo delicate, fo eafy and graceful, that
^nr-ue0” arnon& t^e ancients there is nothing comparable to
■_  1 the method he took, nor to that kind of writing he fol¬
lowed. He flows foft and eafy, every where diffufing
the joy and indolence of his mind through his verfe,
and tuning his harp to the fmooth and pleafant temper
of his foul. But none has givenajufter charadler of
his writings than the God of Love, as taught to fpeak
by Mr Cowley :
All thy verfe is fofter far
Than the downy feathers are
Of my wings, or of my arrows,
Of my mother’s doves and fparrows :
Graceful, cleanly, fmooth, or round,
All with Venus’ girdle bound...
ANACREONTIC VERSE, in ancient poetry, a kind
of verfe, fo called from its being much ufed by the poet
Anacreon. It confifts of three feet and a half, ufually
fpondees and iambufes, and fometimes anapefts : Such
is that of Horace,
Lydia, die per omnes.,
ANACRISIS, among the ancient Greeks, was ufed
for a kind of trial or examination, which the archons,
or chief magiftrates of Athens, were to undergo before
their admiflion into that office. The anacrijis Hands
diftinguiffied from the docimajia, which was a feeond
examination irv the forum. The anacrifis was per¬
formed in the fenate-houfe. The queftions here pro-
pofed to them were concerning their family, kindred,
behaviour, eftate, &c. Some will have it that all ma¬
giftrates underwent the anacrifis.
Anacrisis. among civilians, an inveftigation of truth,
interrogation of witneffes, and inquiry made into any
faft, efpecially by torture.
ANACROSIS, in antiquity, denotes a part of the
Pythian fong, wherein the combat of Apollo and Py¬
thon is deferibed.—The anacrofis was the firft part,
and contained the preparation to the fight.
ANACYCLUS. See Botany Index.
ANADAVADiEA, in Ornithology, a barbarous
name of a fpecies of alauda. See Alauda., Ornitho-
EOGY Index.
ANADEMA, among the ancients, denotes an or¬
nament of the head, wherewith viftors at the facred
games had their temples bound.
ANADIPLOSIS, in Rhetoric and Poetry, a repe¬
tition of the laft word of a line, or claufe of a ferrtence,
ia the beginning of the next: thus,
P ter ides, vos hcec facietis maxima Gallo :
Galla, cujus amor. Sec.
Et matutinis accredu/a vocibus injlat,
Vocibus injlat, et ajjiduas jacit ore querelas.
ANA DROM US, among ichthyologifts, anamegiven
to fuck fillies as go from the fea to the freffi ivater at
Rated feafons, and return back again ; fuch as the fal-
mon, &c. See Salmo.
ANADUOMENE Venus, in the Grecian Mytho¬
logy, anfwered to the Sea Venus in the Roman, and
was' the appellation given to one of the chief deities of
the fea. The moft celebrated picture in all antiquity
was that of this goddefs by Apelles 5 and the famous’ Ar.jedela
Venus of Medicis is a Sea Venus. U
ANiEDEIA, in antiquity, a denomination given .Anagram.
to a filver ftool placed in the Areopagus, on which the v '
defendant, or perfon accufed, was feated for exami¬
nation. Ehe word is Greek, Aictdux, which imports
imprudence j but according to Junius’s correflion, it
ftiould rather be AvctlUx, q. d. innocence. The plaintiff
or accufer was placed on an oppofite ftool called hybris,
or injury; here he propofed three queftions to the party
accufed, to which pofitive anfwers were to be given.
The firft. Are you guilty of this fa£t ? The fecond, How
did you commit the faft ? The third, Who were your
accomplices ?
ANAESTHESIA, fignifies a privation of the fen-
fes.
ANAGALLIS, Pimpernel. See Botany Index,
ANAGNIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of La-
tium, capital of the Hernici; which, after a faint re-
fiftance, fubmitting to the Romans, was admitted to
the freedom of the city, yet without the right of fuf-
frage, (Livy). It was afterwards a colony of Drufus-
Ceefar, and walled round, and its territory afligned to
the veterans, (Frontinus). Here Antony married
Cleopatra, and divorced O&avia. Now Anagni, 36
miles to the eaft of Rome. Long. 13. 45. N. Lat.
42. 48.
ANAGNOSTA, or Anagnostes, in antiquity,
a kind of literary fervant, retained in the families of
perfons of diftin&ion, whofe chief bufinefs was to read
to them during meals, or at any other time when they
were at leifure. Cornelius Nepos relates of Atticus,
that he had always an agnoftes at his meals. He never
fupped without reading ; fo that the minds of his
guefts were no lefs agreeably entertained than their
appetites. The fame cuftom, Eginhard obferves, was
kept up by Charlemagne, who at table had the hifto-.
ries and a<Rs of ancient kings read to him. This cuf¬
tom feems to have been a relick of that of the ancient
Greeks, who had the praifes of great men and heroes -
fung to them while at table. The ancient monks and
clergy kept up the like ufage, as we are informed byv
St Auguftin.
ANAGOGIC AL,fignifies myfterious,tranfporling;
and is ufed to exprefs whatever elevates the mind, nos'
only to the knowledge of divine things, but of divine
things in the next life. This word is feldom ufed, but
with regard to the different fenfes of the Scripture. The
anagogical fenfe is, when the facred text is explained
with regard to eternal life, the point which Chriftians
ffiould have in view : for example, the reft of the Sab¬
bath, in the anagogical fenfe, fignifies therepofe ofever-
lafting happinefs.
ANAGOGY, or Anagoge, among ecclefiaftical
writers, the elevation of the mind to things celeftial and
eternal. It is particularly ufed, where words, in their
natural or primary meanings, denote fomething fenfi-
ble, but have a further view to fomething fpiritual or
invifible.
Anagogy, in a more particular fenfe, denotes the
application of the types and allegories of the Old Te-
ftament to fubjedts of the New ; thus called, becaufe
the veil being here drawn, what before was hidden is
expofed to open fight.
ANAGRAM (from the Greek backwards, and
ANA
[
Anagram
II
Anak.
yPHpfix, letter), in matters of iiterature, a tranfpofition
ot the letters of fome n';me, whereby a new word is
formed, either to the advantage or difadvantage of the
perfon or thing to which the name belongs. Thus the
anagram of Galenus in angelus ; that ot Logica, cah-
go ; that of Alftedius, feduhtas; that of Loraine is
alerion, on .which ^account it was that the family of Lo¬
raine took alerions for their armoury.—Calvin, in the
title of his Injlitutions, printed at Strafburgh in 1539*
calls himfelf Aleuinus, which is the anagram of-Calvi-
and the name of an eminently learned perfon in
An;
the time of Charlemagne, who contributed greatly to
the reftoration of learning in that age.
Thofe who adhere ftriaiy to the definition of an
anagram, take no other liberty than that of omitting
or retaining the letter H at pleafure } whereas others
make no fcruple to ufe E for jE, V for W, S for z, and
C for K : and vice verfa.
Befides anagrams formed as above, we meet with
another kind in ancient writers, made by dividing a
{ingle word into feveral ; thus, fus tinea tnus, are form¬
ed out of the word fujiineamus.
Anagrams are fometimes alfo made out of feveral
words :&fuch as that on the queftion put by Pilate to
our Saviour, ^uid eji veritas? _ whereof we have this
admirable anagram, viz. EJl vir qm adeji.
The Cabbalifts among the Jews are profiled ana-
grammatifts j the third part of their art, which they
call themuru, i. e. “ changing,” being nothing but the
art of making anagrams, or finding hidden and my-
ftical meanings in names j which they do by changing,
tranfpofing, and differently combining, the letters of
thofe names. Thus, of m the letters of Noah’s name,
they make grace; of nnrn the MeJJiah, they make
nn®* he [hall rejoice.
ANAGRAMMATIST, a maker or compofer of
anagrams. Thomas Billon, a Provencal, W'as a
brated anagrammatift, and retained by Louis XIIL
with a penfion of 1200 livres, in quality of anagram¬
matift to the king. r <• • r j
ANAGROS, in Commerce, a meafure for gram uied
in fome cities in Spain, particularly at Seville j 46 ana-
gros make about 10-J quarters of London.
ANAGYRIS, Stinking Bean-trefoil. See Bo¬
tany Index. . ,
AnagYRIS, or Anagyrus, in Ancient Geography,
the name of ta place in Attica, of the tribe Erechtheis,
where a fetid plant, called Anagyris, probably the
fame with the foregoing, grew in great plenty, (Diof-
corides, Pliny, Stephanus>*, and the more it was hand¬
led, the ftronger it fmelled •, hence cotnmovere anagynn
or (anagyrurn), is to bring a misfortune on one’s felf,
•( Ariftophanes).
ANAK, the father of the Anakims, was the Ion ot
Arba, who gave his name to Kirjath-arba, or Hebron,
(Jofh. xiv. 15.) Anak had three fons, Sheftiai, Ahi-
man, and Talmai, (chap. xv. 14- ai‘'J Numb. xiii. 22.),
who, as well as their father, were giants, and who,
•with their pofterity, all terrible for their fiercenefs and
extraordinary ftature, were called the jdnakims; in
comparifon of whom the Hebrews, who were fent to
view the land of Canaan, reported that they were but
as o-rafhoppers, Numb. xiii. ult. Caleb, aflifted by
the tribe of Judah, took Kirjath-arba, and deftroyed
168 ] ANA
the Anakims (Judges i. 20. and Jofh. xv. 14.) in the Ana
year of the world 2559.
ANALECTA, or Analectes, in antiquity, a fer- 
vant whofe employment it was to gather up the offals
at tables.
Analecta, Analetts, in a literary fenfe, is ufed to
denote a collection of fmall pieces $ as, efiays, remarks,
&c. 7
ANALEMMA, \xi Geometry, a projeaion of the
fphere, on the plane of the meridian, or'thographically
made by a ftraight line and ellipfes, the eye being fup-
pofed at an infinite diftance, and in the eaft or weft
point of the horizon.
AnaLEMMA, denotes likewife an inftrument of brafs
or wood, upon which this kind of projection is drawn,
with a horizon or curfor fitted to it, wherein the
folftitial colure, and all circles parallel to it, will be
concentric circles *, all circles oblique to the eye will
be ellipfes ; and all circles whofe planes pafs through
the eye, will be right lines. The ufe of this inftru¬
ment is to (how the common aftronomical problems :
which it will do, though not very exactly, unlefs it be
very large.
AN ALEPSIS, the augmentation or nutrition of an
emaciated body.
ANALEPTICS, reftorative or nourifhing medi¬
cines.
ANALOGY, in Fhilofophy, a certain relation and
agreement between two or more things, which in other
refpefts are entirely different.
There is likewife an analogy between things that
have fome conformity or refemblance to one another j
for example, between animals and plants \ but the ana¬
logy is ftill ftronger between two different fpecies of
certain animals.
Analogy enters much into all our reafoning, and
ferves to explain and illuftrate.. A great part of our
philofophy, indeed, has no other foundation than ana-
logy.
It is natural to mankind to judge of things lefs
known, by fome fimilitude, real or imaginary, between
them and things more familiar or better known. And
where the things compared have really a great fimili¬
tude in their nature, when there is reafon to think that
they are fubjeft to the fame laws, there may be a con-
fiderable degree of probability in conclufions drawn
from analogy. Thus we may obferve a very great
fimilitude between this earth which we inhabit, and the
other planets, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, and Mer-
They all revolve round the fun, as the eaitl*
does, although at different diftances, and in different
periods. They borrow all their light from the fun, as
the earth does. Several of them are known to revolve
round their axis like the earth, and, by that means,
muft have a like fucceflion of day and nighE Some of
them have moons, that ferve to give them light in the
abfence of the fun, as our moon does to us. They are
all, in their motions, fubjeft to the fame law of gravi¬
tation as the earth is. From all this fimilitude, it is
not unreafonable to think, that thofe planets may, like
our earth, be the habitation of various orders of living
creatures. There is fome probability in this conclufiotl
from analogy.
But it ought to be obferved, that, as this kind, ot
ANA
Analogy, reafoning can afford only probable evidence at belt ; fo,
'-i"» ° ■ unlefs great caution be ufed, we are apt to be led into
error by it. To give an inftance of this : Anatomifts,
in ancient ages, feldom d’.ffefted human bodies j but
very often the bodies of thofe quadrupeds whofe inter-
[teid on the na[ ftru$;ure was thought to approach neareft to that
*PoTjuersUaL ^ie human b°dy. Modern anatomifts have difcover-
Effay I.* ed many miftakes the ancients w^ere led into, by their
ch.iv.p. 52.conceiving a greater fimilitude between the ftrmfture of
men and of fome beafts than there is in reality.
Perhaps no author has made a more juft and a more
happy ufe of this mode of reafoning, than Biftiop But¬
ler in his Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed,
to the Conftitution and Courfe of Nature. In that ex¬
cellent work, the author does not ground any of the
truths of religion upon analogy, as their proper evi¬
dence. He only makes ufe of analogy to anfwer ob¬
jections againfl: them. When objections are made
againft the truths of religion, which may be made with
equal ftrength againft what we know to be true in the
courfe of nature, fuch objections can have no weight.
Analogical reafoning, therefore, may be of excellent
ufe in anfwering objections againft truths which have
other evidence. It may likewife give a greater or a
lefs degree of probability in cafes where we can find no
other evidence. But all arguments drawn from analogy
are ftill the weaker, the greater difparity there is be¬
tween the things compared ; and therefore mult be
weakeft of all when we compare body with mind, be-
caufe there are no two things in nature more unlike.
There is no fubjeCt in which men have always been
fo prone to form their notions by analogies of this kind,
as in what relates to the mind. We form an early ac¬
quaintance with material things by means of our fenfes,
and are bred up in a eonftant familiarity with them.
Hence we are apt to meafure all things by them j and
to afcribe to things moft remote from matter the qua¬
lities that belong to material things. It is for this rea-
fon that mankind have, in all ages, been fo prone to
conceive the mind itfelf to be fome fubtle kind of mat¬
ter j that they have been difpofed to afcribe human
figure and human organs not only to angels, but even to
the Deity.
To illuftrate more fully that analogical reafoning
from a fuppofed fimilitude of mind to body, which ap¬
pears to be the moft fruitful fource of error with regard
to the operations of our minds, the following inftance
may be given. When a man is urged by contrary mo¬
tives, thofe on one hand inciting him to do fome aftion,
thofe on the other to forbear it j he deliberates about
it, and at laft refolves to do it, or not to do it. The
contrary motives are here compared to the weights in
the oppofite fcales of a balance ; and there is not per¬
haps any inftance that can be named of a more ftriking
analogy between body and mind. Hence the phrafes
of weighing motives, of deliberating upon aCHons, are
common to all languages.
From this analogy, fome philofophers draw very im¬
portant conclufions. They fay, that as the balance
cannot incline to one fide more than the other when
the oppofite weights are equal, fo a man cannot pof-
fibly determine himfelf if the motives on both hands
are equal j and as the balance muft neceffarily turn to
that fide which has moft weight, fo the man muft ne¬
ceffarily be determined to that hand where the motive
Voi„ II. Part I.
A' N A
is ftrongeft. And on this foundation fome of the fchool- Analogy,
men maintained, that if a hungry afs were placed be- * v
tween two bundles of hay equally inviting, the bead;
muft (land ftill and ftarve to death, being unable to turn
to either, becaufe there are equal motives to both. This
is an inftance of that analogical reafoning, which, it is
conceived, ought never to be trufted j for the analogy
between a balance and a man deliberating, though one
of the ftrongeft that can be found between matter and I
mind, is too weak to fupport any argument. A piece
of dead ina&ive matter, and an a61ive intelligent being,
are things very unlike •, and becaufe the one would re¬
main at reft in a certain cafe, ir does not f< llow that the
other would be ina<ftive in a cafe fome what fimilar. The
argument is no better than this, that becaufe a dead
animal moves only as it is puftied, and if pufhed with
equal force in contrary direflions, muft remain at reft ;
therefore the fame thing muft happen to a living ani¬
mal : for furely the fimilitude between a dead animal and
a living is as great as that between a balance and a man.
The derivation of the word Analogy indicates, as
Profeffor Caftillon of Berlin * obferves, a refemblance * Haerlent
difeernible by reafon. This is confirmed by the fenfe demons
in which the term is ufed in geometry, where it figni-^j1^8-1*' 0r
fies an equality of ratios. In explaining this fubjeft,
it is obferved, there may be a refemblance between fen-
fations and a refemblance between perceptions : the
former \s caWedphyjical refetnb/ance, becaufe it aifts upon
the phyfical or fenfitive faculty j the latter moral re¬
femblance, becaufe itaffe£ls the moral or rational faculty
of man.
Every refemblance may be reduced to an equality in
fenfations or perceptions ; but this fuppofes fome equa¬
lity in their caufes : we fay fome equality, becaufe the
difpofition of the organs, or of the foul, muft neceffa¬
rily affeft the fenfations or perceptions ; but this can in¬
fluence only their degree, and not their nature.
The chara&er of one perfon rtfembles that of ano¬
ther only when they both fpeak and aft fo as to excite
equal perceptions, or, to fpeak more ftriftly, the fame
perception ; when they both difplay vivacity or indif¬
ference, anger or meeknefs, on the fame occafions, and
both excite in the foul of the obferver identical percep¬
tions, or rather the fame perception of vivacity or in¬
difference, of anger or meeknefs. Thefe identical per¬
ceptions, the degree of which will depend much on the
difpofition of the obferver’s mind, muft have identical
caufes, or, in other words, the fame caufe; which is
the vivacity or indifference, the anger or meeknefs, dif-
played by each of thefe ebarafters.
Every phyfical refemblance may therefore be reduced
to one or more equalities, and every moral refemblance
to one or more identities. Wherever there is moral re¬
femblance there is analogy. Analogy may therefore be
reduced to identity, and always fuppofes comparifon.
Two objefts are faid to have an analogy to each
other, or are called analogous, when fome identity is
difeovered upon compring them. An analogical con-
clufon is a conclufion deduced from fume identity.
The principles of analogy are a comparifon of two
objefts; and one or more identities refulting from theii*
being thus compared. The charafters of analogy are
—that two objefts be compared—that there be one or
more identities between thefe objefts—and that this is
difcernible only by reafon or intelleft,
Y Physical
[ I^9 1
Analogy,
Anaiyfis.
ANA • [ i
Thyfical rejemblance is to the fenfes what analogy is
to the underftanding. The former, when perfeft, be-
' comes equality j the latter, identity.
Refemblance and analogy are the foundations both
of probability and of certainty. When we are not fa-
tisfied that the refemblance or the analogy is complete,
we Hop at probability; which becomes certainty when
■we are, or think we are, affured that the refemblance or
the analogy is perfeft.
In reafoning by analogy, we Ihould be careful not
to confound it with refemblance j and alfo not to de¬
duce from the identity or identities, on which the ana¬
logy is founded, a conclulion which has either no rela¬
tion, or only a partial relation, to thefe identities.^
The principal ufes of analogy in the inveftigation of
phyfical and moral truth, according to our author,
may be reduced to the four following: I. By means
of our fenfes to improve, firft our own judgment, and
afterwards that of others, with refpea to intellectual
fubjc&s. 2. To deduce a general from a particular
truth. Having difcovered and proved the truth of a
propofition with refpeft to any particular objeCt, exa¬
mine whether this truth flows from a quality peculiar
to this Angle objeft, or common to feveral objeas.
In the latter cafe all thefe objeas may be compre¬
hended under one general idea, founded on their com¬
mon quality. Subftitute this general_ idea mltead of
the particular objea, and the propofition will become
general, without ceafing to be true j becaufe whatever
evidently and folely refults from the identity on which
an analogy is founded, muft neceflarily be true with
refpea to all thofe objeas in which the analogy is the
fame. 3. To prove the truth or falfehood of propofi-
tions which cannot be otherwife demonftrated. 4.^ To
difcover new truths in both natural and moral pnilo-
^Analogy, among grammarians, is the correfpond-
ence which a word or phrafe bears to the genius and
received forms of any language. ... r
ANALYSIS, in a general fenfe, implies the reio-
lution of fomething compounded into its original and
conftituent parts. The word is Greek, and derived
from xtxXvM) “ to refolve.” . ,
Analysis, in Mathematics, is properly the method
of refolving problems by means of algebraical equa¬
tions ; whence we often find that thefe two words, ana-
Infis and algebra, are ufed as fynonymous.
Analyfis, under its prefent improvements^ mult, be
allowed the apex or height of all human learning : it is
this method which furniflies us with the moft perteit
examples of the art of reafoning *, gives the mind an
uncommon readinefs at deducing and difcovenng, from
a few data, things unknown ; and, by ufing figns for
ideas, prefent things to the imagination, which other-
-wife feemed out of its fphere : by this, geometrical
demonftrations may be greatly abridged, and a long
feries of argumentations, wherein the mind cannot with¬
out the utmoft effort and attention difcover the connec¬
tion of ideas, are hereby converted into fenfible figns,.
and the feveral operations required therein effeaed by
the combination of thefe figns. But, what is more
extraordinary, by means of this art, a number of truths-
are frequently expreffed by a Angle line, which in the
common way of explaining and demonftratmg things
would fill whole volumes. Thus, by mere contempla¬
te ] ANA
tion of one Angle line, whole fciences may be fometimes
learned in a few minutes time, which otherwife could
fcarcely be attained in many years. _ .
Analysis is divided, with regard to its objecr, into
that offimtes and infinites. ... , -r
ANALYSIS of Finite Quantities, is what weotherwiie
call fpecious arithmetic or algebra. See Algebra.
ANALYSIS of Infinites, called alfo the New Amuyjis,
is particularly ufed for the method of fluxions, or the
differential calculus. See Fluxions.
Analysis, in Logic, fignifies the method oi tracing
things backward to their fource, and of refolving know¬
ledge into its original principles. This is alio called
the method of refolution; and flands oppofed to the
fynthetic method, or that of compofihon. Ihe art of
logical analyfis confifts principally in combining our
perceptions, claffing them together with addrefs, and
contriving proper expreflions for conveying our thoughts,
and reprefenting their feveral divifions, claffes, and re¬
lations. ... ,. t - .c
Analysis, in Rhetoricy is that “which examines the
connexions, tropes, figures, and the like, inquiring into
the propofition, divifion, paffions, arguments, and other
apparatus of rhetoric.
Several authors, as Freigius and others, have given
analyfes of Cicero’s Orations, wherein they reduce
them to their grammatical and logical principles 5 ftrip
them of all the ornaments and additions of rhetoric
which otherwife difguife their true form, and conceal
the connexion between one part and another. I he
defign ef thefe authors is to have thofe admired ha¬
rangues iuft fuch as the judgment difpofed them, with¬
out the help of imagination : fo that here we may cool¬
ly view the force of each proof, and admire the uie Ci¬
cero made of rhetorical figures to conceal the weak part
of a caufe. „ , .re j
A colleftion lias been made of the analyfes formed
by the moft celebrated authors of the i6tb century, m
a vols. folio. . . ,
Analysis is alfo ufed, in Chemifiry, for the decom-
pofition of a mixed body, or the feparation of the
principles and conftituent parts of a compounded lub-
To analvze bodies, or refolve them into their com¬
ponent parts, is indeed the chief objeft of the art of
chemiftry. Chemiftry furnifhes feveral means for the
decompofition of bodies, which are founded on the
difference of the properties belonging to the different
principles of which the body to be analyzed is compo-
fed. If, for example, a body be compofed of feveral
principles, fome of which have a great and others a,
moderate degree of volatility, and, laftly, others are
fixed, its moft volatile parts may be firft feparated by
a gradual heat in diftilling veffels j and then the part*
which are next in volatility will pafs over in diftilla-
tion *, and, laftly, thofe parts which are fixed, and ca¬
pable of refifting the adlion of fire, will remain at the.
bottom of the veffel. „ r ,
Analysis is alfo ufed for a kind of fyllabus, or
table of the principal heads or articles of a continued
difeourfe, difpofed in their natural order and depen¬
dency. Analyfes are more fcientifical than alphabetical
indexes-, but they are lefsufed, as being more intricate-
Analysis is likewife ufed for a brief, but methodi¬
cal. illuftration of the principles of a fcience j in which
Anjrlvfit.
ANA [ i
Analytic f€nfe ^ is nearly fynonymous with what we otherwife
|| call a fynopjis.
Anamaboa. ANALYTIC, or Analytical, fomething that
belongs to, or partakes of, the nature of analyfis.—
Thus we fay, an analytical demonftration, analytical
procefs, analytical table or fcheme, analytical method
of invefligation, &c.
The analytic method Hands oppofed to the fynthe-
tic. In natural philofophy, as in mathematics, the in-
veftigation of difficult things by the analytic method
ought to precede the method of compofition. This
analylis confifts in making experiments and obferva-
tions, and in drawing general conclufions therefrom by
indudion *, and admitting of no objedions againfl: the
conclufions, but fuch as are drawn from experiments,
and other certain truths: and though the reafoning
from experiments and obfervations by indudion be no
demonftration of general conclufions, yet it is the heft
method of reafoning which the nature of things admits
of 5 and may be efteemed fo much the ftronger, as the
indudion is more general; and, if no exception occur
from phenomena, the conclufion may be pronounced
general. By this way of analyfis, we may proceed
from compounds to their ingredients 5 from motions to
the forces producing them ; and in general from effeds
to their caufes, and from particular caufes to more ge¬
neral ones, until we arrive at thofe which are the moft
general. This is the analytic method, according to
the illuftrious Newton.
The fynthetic method confifts in affuming the caufes
difcovered and received as principles : and by them ex¬
plaining the phenomena proceeding from them, and
proving the explanation. See Synthesis.
ANAL\ TICS, (Analytical the fcience and ufe of
analyfis. The great advantage of the modern mathe¬
matics above the ancient is in point of analytics.
Pappus, in the preface to his feventh book of Mathe¬
matical Colledions, enumerates the authors on the an¬
cient analytics j being Euclid, in his Data and Porif-
mata ; Apollonius, de Se SI tone Rationis, and in his £o-
nics; Ariftaeus, de Locis Solidis; and Eratofthenes, de
Mediis Proportionalibus. But the ancient analytics
were very different from the modern.
To the modern analytics principally belongs algebra j
an hiftorical account of which, with the feveral authors
thereon, fee under the article Algebra.
ANAMABOA, a populous town in the kingdom
of Fantin, in Guinea. The natives are generally great
cheats, and muft be carefully looked after in dealing
with them, and their gold well examined, for it is
commonly adulterated. It lies under the cannon of
the Engliffi caftle. The landing is pretty difficult on
account of the rocks : and therefore thofe that come
here to trade are forced to go afhore in canoes. The
earth here is very proper to make bricks: the oyfters,
when burnt, afford good lime j and there is timber in
great abundance; fo that here are all the materials for
budding. The country at Anamaboa is full of hills,
beginning at a good diftance from the town, and af-
ording. a very pleafant profpe6h Indian corn and
pa m-wine are in great plenty. They have a green
ruit called papas, as big as a fmall melon, and which
as a tafte like cauliflower. Anamaboa is much fre¬
quented by the Engliffi ffiips and others for corn and
aves, which laft are fometimes to be had in great
71 ] ANA
numbers. The Engliffi fort is built on the foundation Anameleeb
of a large old houfe, which fubfifted entire in 1679. N
It is a large edifice, flanked by two towers, and furti- ^napreftic.^
fled towards the fea with two baftions : the whole of v 1 ^
brick and ftone cemented with lime. It Hands upon a
rock at the diftance of 30 paces from the fea. It is
mounted with 12 pieces of cannon and 12 patereroesj
and defended by a garrifon of 12 whites and 18 blacks,
under the command of the chief faftor.
The natives treat the garrifon of this fort with great
infolence, infomuch as often to block them up, and fre¬
quently, if they diflike the governor, fend him < :7 in
a canoe to Cape Coaft with marks of the utmoft con¬
tempt. Far from being able to oppofe them, the Eng¬
liffi are glad to obtain their favour with prefents. In
1701, they declared war againft the Englifh ; and ha¬
ving affembled in a tumultuous manner before the fort,
they fet fire to the exterior buildings, and went on
with their outrages, till they were difperfed by a dif-
charge of the cannon from the batteries. The night
following the Engliffi took their revenge, by fetting
fire to the town of Anamaboa : and thus hoftilities
continued for 20 days, till at laft the natives were ob¬
liged to fue for peace. This fort was abandoned in
1733 ; but has been refumed by the Engliffi, who have
continued in it ever fince.
ANAMELECH, an idol of the Sepharvaites, who
are faid in Scripture to have burned their children in
honour of Adrammelech and Anamelech.—Thefe idols
probably fignified the fun and moon. Some of the
rabbins reprefent Anamelech under the figure of a
mule, others under that of a quail or pheafant.
ANAMIM, the fecond fon of Mizraim (Gen. x.
13.) Anamim, if we may credit the paraphraft Jona¬
than the fon of Uzziel, peopled the Mareotis; or the
Pentapolis of Cyrene, according to the paraphraft of
Jerufalem. Bocchart is of opinion, that thefe Ana-
mims were the people that dwelt in the parts adjacent
to the temple of Jupiter Ammon, and in the Nafamo-
nitis. Calmet thinks the Amanians and Garamantes
to be defcended from Anamim.
ANAMORPHOSIS, in perfpeflive drawings, is
a deformed or diftorted portrait or figure, generallv
confufed and unintelligible to the common unaffifted
view j but when feen at a certain diftance and height,
or as reflefled from a plain or curved mirror, will ap¬
pear regular and in right proportion. See Optics
(the Index), and Perspective.
ANANAS, in Botany, the trivial name of a fpecies
of bromelia. See Bromelia, Botany Index.
AN ANGITIS, in antiquity, a kind of figured ftone,
otherwife called fynochitis, celebrated for its magical
virtue of raifing the ffiadow’s of the infernal gods.
ANANIAS, a Saducee, high-prieft of the Jews,
w'ho put to death St James the brother of our Lord,
and was depofed by Agrippa.
ANANISABTA, or Ananisapta, a magical
word frequently found infcribed on coins and other
amulets, fuppofed to have a virtue of preferving the
wearer from the plague.
ANAP/EST, in ancient poetry, a foot confifting of
two Ihort fyllables and one long : Such is the word
fcopiilos. It is juft the reverfe of the daclyl.
ANAPAiSI IC verses, thofe confifting wholly or
chiefly of anapaefts.
Y 2 ANAPHE,
ANA r 172 ] ANA
he ANAPHE, in Ancient. Geography, an ifland fpon-
^ taneoufly emerging out of the Cretan fea, near I hera
Anas. (Pliny, Strabo) •, now called Nanfio. Its name is from
“““V—the fudden appearance of the new moon to the Argo¬
nauts in a ftorm (Apollonius). Anaphaus, an epithet
of Apollo, who was worlhipped there. Anapheei, the
people.
ANAPHORA, in Rhetoric, the repetition of the
fame word or words in the beginning of a lenience or
( verfe : Thus Virgil,
Pan etiam Arcadia mecum fejudice certet.
Pan etiam Arcadia dicat fe judice viEiutn.
Anaphora, among phylicians, the throwing off pu¬
rulent matter by the mouth.
ANAPHRODISIA, fignifies impotence, or want
of power to procreate. See IMPOTENCE.
ANAPLASIS, fignifies the replacing or fetting a
fradtured bone.
ANAPLORETICS, medicines that promote the
growth or granulation of the flelh in wounds, ulcers,
ANARCHI, (Am60iJ«), in antiquity, a name given
£>y the Athenians to four fupernumerary days in their
year, during which they had no magiftrates. Phe At¬
tic year was divided into 10 parts, according to the
number of tribes, to whom the prefidency of the fe-
nate fell by turns. Each divifion confided of 35 days}
what remained after the expiration of thefe, to make
the lunar year complete, which according to their com¬
putation confifted of 354 days, were employed in the
creation of magiftrates, and called vut^xi, and
ANARCHY, the want of government in a nation,
where no fupreme authority is lodged either in the
prince or other rulers} but the people live, at large,
and all things are in confufion. The word is derived
from the Greek privative a, and command, prin¬
cipality. Anarchy is fuppofed to have reigned after the
deluge, before the foundation of monarchies. We
Hill find it to obtain in feveral parts, particularly of A-
frica and America.
Anarchy is alfo applied to certain troublefome and
diforderly periods, even in governments otherwife re¬
gular. In England, the period between the death of
Cromwell and King Charles’s reftoration is commonly
reprefented as an anarchy. Every month produced a
new fcheme or form of government. Enthufiafts talk¬
ed of nothing but annulling all the laws, abolifliing all
writings, records, and regifters, and bringing all men
to the primitive level. No modern nation was more
fubjea to anarchies than Poland } where every interval
bet ween the death of one king and the eleflion of ano¬
ther was a fcene of great diforder, fo that it wTas a
proverb among that people, Poland is governed^ by con¬
fufion. The Jewifti hiftory prefects numerous inftances
of anarchies in that ftate, ufually denoted by this phrafe,
that in thofe days there was no king in Ifrael, but every
man did that which was right in his own eyes ; which is
a juft pifture of an anarchy.
ANARRHICAS. See Ichthyology Index.
ANARROPIA, among phyficians, a tendency of
the humours to the head or fuperior parts..
ANAS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Spain
rifing in the territory of Laminium in the Hither
Spain, and now fpreading into lakes, again reitraimng Anas
its waters, or, burrowing itfelf entirely in the earth, is ||
pleafed often to reappear. It pours into the Atlantic Anaitafius
(Pliny). Now Guadiana, rifing in the fouth-eaft of
New Caftile, in a diftrift commonly called Campo de
Montiel, not far from the mountain Confuegra, from
the lakes called las Lagunas de Guadiana, and then it
is called Rio Roydera; and, after a courfe of fix leagues,
burying itfelf in the earth for a league, it then rifes
up again from three lakes, called los Ojos de Guadiana,
near the. village Villa Harta, five leagues to the north
of Calatrava, and direds its courfe weftward through
New Caftile, by Medelin, Merida, and BadajoZ, where
it begins to bend its courfe fouthwards, between Por¬
tugal and Andalufia, falling into the bay of Cadiz
near Ayamonte.
Anas. See Ornithology Index.
ANASARCA, a fpecies of dropfy. See Medi¬
cine Index.
ANASSER. See Botany Index.
ANASSUS, or Anaxus, in Ancient Geography, a
river in the territory of Venice, (Pliny)} now the
Piave, which rifing from the mountains of Tyrol, not
far from the borders of Carinthia, runs from north to
fouth, through the territories of Cadorina, Belluno, -
Feltre, and, after running from weft to eaft, through
Trevigi, falls into the Adriatic, 13 miles to the fouth-
eaft of Venice.
ANASTATICA. See Botany Index.
ANASTASIS, a term among ancient phyficians,
for a rifing up to go to ftool. It alfo fignifies the paf-
fage of any humour, when expelled from one part, and
obliged to remove to another.
ANASTASIUS I. emperor of the eaft, fucceed-
ed Zeno in the year 491, and was inaugurated that
fame year on April the 11th. The Manicheans and
Arians were greatly in hopes of being fupported by
the new emperor } the former becaufe his mother was
their friend, and favoured their feft } the latter becaufe
the emperor’s uncle was of their opinion: but if Ana-
ftafius did not perfecute them (as we do not find he
ever did), yet it does not appear that he fupported ei¬
ther of thefe fe&s. But in order to maintain the peace
of the church, upon which the tranquillity of the ftate
very much depends, he declared, that fuch biftiops or
other clergymen who (hould difturb the public tran¬
quillity, by maintaining with too much heat either fide
of the queftion for or againft the council of Chalcedon,
fliould be deprived of their benefices. Accordingly
the difputes concerning Eutychianifm running to a
very great height, and Euphemius being deeply, con¬
cerned in them, the emperor expelled him from his fee,
and chofe Macedonius in his ftead. The hatred which
the different parties entertained agaihft one another oc-
cafioned often fuch tumults and feditions at Conftanti-
nople as threatened the life of the emperor himfelf}
who, to keep the people in awe, ordered that the go¬
vernor of the city fiiould be prefent at all church af-
femblies and public proceflions. This was fo much the
more neceffary, becaufe thefe tumults were chiefly oc-
cafioned by a kind of doxology or ftiort hymn which
ufed to be fung at divine fervice. This doxology con¬
fifted only of the following words, uyios 0 uyies
lyv^s, ctyitxi uStiyxTOf, that is, “ Holy. God, holy the
powerful, holy the immortal}” for which reafon it was
ANA [ i
called xyroiyio?, Trifagms, “ three times holy be-
caufe the word ho/y was therein three times repeated.
The orthodox ufed to fing that hymn without any ad¬
dition, or by adding only to it, ay** sAsjjj-sv
i. e. “ Holy Trinity, have mercy upon us Hut Pe¬
ter the Fuller, bitbop of Antioch, pretended to add
thefe words to it, viz. <5 o-xv^ubus (li i. e. “ who
haft been crucified for usj” and as it was fuppofed
that the firft holy related to the Father, the fecond to
the Son, the third to the Holy Ghoft, the adding
thefe words, w/io haft been crucified for us, feemed to
infinuate that the whole confubftantial Trinity had buf¬
fered j for which reafon the orthodox were refolved
n«t to admit this addition. Anaftafius defiring to
have thefe fatal words added to that hymn whenever it
ftiould be fung at Conftantinople, this occafioned a
terrible fedition in the city, as though the very funda¬
mentals of Chriftianity had* been overthrown. Mace-
donius and his clergy are faid to have raifed that fedi¬
tion, which came to fuch a height, that the emperor
himielf was obliged to come, without his crown on his
head, and in a very humble manner, to the circus,
•where he declared to the people that he was very will¬
ing to quit the imperial throne j but he told them at
the fame time, that they could not all enjoy the fo-
vereign power, which does not admit of a partnerfliip:
and that one perfon ftill muft govern them if he re-
figned the crown. This difcourfe had fuch a power
over the raging multitude, that, as if they had been
divinely infpired, they immediately requefted the em¬
peror to take up his crown, promifing that they would
be quiet and obedient for the future. Anaftafius is by
the Popifh writers reprefented as a great perfecutor of
the orthodox, becaufe he baniftied and deprived Euphe-
mius and Macedonius $ but they ftiould prove that thefe
two prelates had been unjuftly banilhed, which is a
very hard talk. As to his civil government, it is con-
fefled that at the beginning of his reign he {bowed him-
felf a very good prince : he eafed the people of a very
heavy tax called Chryfargyrum, under which they had
groaned for a long time •, he prohibited the fighting
with wild beafts; he raifed feveral buildings •, and avoid¬
ed being involved in dangerous wars as much as lay in
his power. Anaftafius reigned 27 years three months
and three days, or, according to F. Pagi, wanting
three days ; and died July the 10th, A. C. 5x8, in the
88th year of his age.
Anastasius II. whofe proper name was Artemius,
was in the year 713 elevated to the throne of Conftan¬
tinople, from the low ftation of a fecretary, by the free
voice of the fenate and Roman people. His natural
talents, improved by education and daily exertion, ena¬
bled him to manage with great prudence the affairs of the
empire during the time that he was fecretary to his pre-
deceffor Philippicus. The Saracens had made inroads
upon Afia Minor, in the beginning of his reign ; but
he fent a ftrong army to the frontiers of Syria for its
prote&ion, under the command of Leo the Ifaurian, a
man of great military experience. Thefe enemies of
the empire alfo meditated the defign of taking Conftan¬
tinople ; but the vigilance of Anaftafius defeated their
purpofe, by providing a formidable naval force, repair¬
ing and ftrengthening the walls of the city, and by
forcing all the inhabitants either to provide themfelves
with provifions for three years, or inftantly to depart
73 1 . A N. A.
from the city. Difappointed in their defign, the Anaftafius
enemy’s fleet failed to Phoenicia, and the imperial fleet !]
affembled at Rhodes to watch the motions of the ene- Anathema.
my. But the meafures of the emperor received a fe-
vere check from the conduct of the failors, who raifed
a mutiny, and flew their admiral for no other caufe but
his honourable endeavours to maintain proper difeipline
in the fleet. Juftly dreading fevere pumfliment, the
feamen raifed the ftandard of rebellion, declared Anaf¬
tafius unworthy to reign, and conferred the purple upon
one Theodofius, a perfon of mean birth.
Informed of this fedition, Anaftafius fled from his
tottering throne to Nice. The new emperor haftened
to befiege Conftantinople, which, after a feeble defence
of fix months, he reduced to his fubje£tion. 1 he late
emperor being affured of his life, abandoned his claim
to the crown, affumed the chara&er of a monk, and
was baniftied to Thcflblonica, having worn the purple
only during the fpace of two years. Having, however,
prevailed upon the Bulgarians to efpoufe his caufe, he
laid afide the habit ef the monk for that of the warrior,
and, in the year 719, in the time of the emperor Leo,
he refumed his claim to the throne. A numerous
army of thefe barbarians haftened to the capital; but,
being unable to reduce it, they delivered up the un¬
happy Anaftafius to the emperor, who put him to death
along with his principal affociates. (Anc. Un. Hift.)
Anastasius, furnamed Bibliothecanus, a Roman
abbot, library-keeper of the Vatican, and one of
the moft learned men of the ninth century, aflifted
in 869 at the fourth general council, the a£ls and
canons of which he tranflated from the Greek into
Latin. He alfo compofed the lives of feveral popes,
and other works; the belt edition of which is that of
the Vatican.
ANASTATICA, the rose of Jericho. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ANASTOMOSIS, in Anatotny, the opening of the
mouths of veffels, in order to difeharge their contained
fluids. It is likewife ufed for the communication of
two veffels at their extremities ; as the inofculation of
a vein with a vein, of an artery with an artery, or of an
artery with a vein.
ANASTOMATICS, medicines fuppofed to have
the power of opening the mouths of the veffels, and
promoting the circulation; fuch as deobftruent, ca¬
thartic, and fudorific medicines.
ANASTROPHE, in Rhetoric and Grammar, de¬
notes the inverfion of the natural order of the words:
fuch is, fax a per et fcopulos, for per fax a et fcopulos.
AN ASUS, or Anisus, in Ancient Geography, now
the TAns, a river of Germany ; which rifes on the bor¬
ders of the territory of Saltzburg; then feparating
Upper Stiria from Upper Auftria, and waffling the
town of Ens, falls, at the diftance of a mile below
it, into the Danube, in a courfe from fouth to north.
ANATHEMA, among ecclefiaftical writers, im¬
ports whatever is fet apart, feparated, or divided ; but
is moft ufually meant to exprefs the cutting off a perfon
from the privileges of fociety and communion with the
faithful.
The anathema differs from excommunication in the
circumftances of being attended with curfes and exe¬
crations. It was pra&ifed in the primitive church
againft notorious offenders; and the form of that pro-
• nounced
A N A [
Anathema, nounced by Synecius againft one Andronicus is as
v follows : “ Let no church of God be open to Andro¬
nicus, but let every fanftuary be (hut againft him. I
admonifti both private men and magiftrates to receive
him neither under their roof nor to their table $ and
priefts more efpecially, that they neither converfe with
him living, nor attend his funeral when dead.”
Several councils alfo have pronounced anathemas
againft fuch as they thought corrupted the purity of the
faith *, and their decifions have been conceived in the
following form : Si quis dixerit, £>’c. anathemaJit.
There are two kinds of anathemas, the one judici¬
ary and the other abjuratory. The former can only be
denounced by a council, a pope, or a bifhop; the latter
makes a part of the ceremony of abjuration, the convert
being obliged to anathematize the herefy he abjures.
Anathema, in heathen antiquity, was an offering
or prefent made to fome deity, and hung up in the
temple. Whenever a perfon left off his employment,
it was ufual to dedicate the tools to the patron deity of
the trade. Perfons too who had efcaped from immi¬
nent danger, as ftiipwreck and the like, or had met
with any other remarkable inftance qf good fortune,
Anatolin
174 ] ANA
feldom failed to teflify their gratitude by fome prefent Anathoth
of this kind.
ANATHOTH, a hamlet of Paleftine, very near
Jerufalem (Jofephus), about three miles and a half to
the north j the ruins of which are ftill to be feen. It
was the birthplace of the prophet Jeremiah, and one of
the Levitical towns in the tribe of Benjamin.
ANATIFERA concha, the trivial name of a fpe-
cies of lepas. See Lepas, Concholcgy Index.
ANATOCISM, Anatocismus, an ufurious con¬
tract, wherein the interefts arifing from the principal
fum are added to the principal itfelf, and intereft ex¬
acted upon the whole. The word is originally Greek,
but uled by Cicero in Latin j whence it has defeended
into moft other languages. It comes from the pre-
pofition «»«», which in compofition ftgnifies repetition
or duplication, and roxej, ufwy. Anatocifm is what
we properly call interejl upon intereji, or compound
interejl. This is the worft kind of ufury, and has
been feverely condemned by the Roman law,, as well
as by the common laws of moft other countries. See
Interest.
ANATOLIA. See Natolia.
ANATOMY,
Hiftory.
TN its moft general fenfe, is the art of diffeCting, or
artificially feparating and taking to pieces the dif¬
ferent parts of organized bodies, in order to an exaCf
difeovery of their fituation, ftruCture, and economy; but
here we limit its fignification to animal bodies. The
word is Greek, ayurepr); derived from xvartfiyw, to dif-
feCt, orfeparate by cutting.
INTRODUCTION.
§ I. Hi/lory qf Anatomy.
This art feems to have been very ancient; though,
for a long time, known only in an imperfeCt manner.
-—The firft men who lived muft have foon acquired
fome notion of the ftruCture of their own bodies, parti¬
cularly of the external parts, and of fome even of the in¬
ternal, fuch as bones, joints, and finews, which are ex-
pofed to the examination of the fenfes in living bodies.
This rude knowledge muft have been gradually im¬
proved, by the accidents to which the body is expofed,
by the neceflities of life, and by the various cuftoms,
ceremonies, and fuperftitiohs, of different nations. Thus,
the obfervance of bodies killed by violence, attention
to wounded men, and to many difeafes, the various
ways of putting criminals to death, the funeral cere¬
monies, and a variety of fuch things, muft have Ihown
men every day more and more of themfelves ; efpecial¬
ly as curiofity and felf-love would here urge them
powerfully to obfervation and reflection.
The brute creation having fuch an affinity to man
in outward form, motion, fenfes, and ways of life ;
Hie generation of the fpecies, and the effeCt of death
.tjpon the body, being obferved to be fo nearly the
fame in both ; the conclufion ivas not only obvious, but Hiftory.
unavoidable, that their bodies were formed nearly upon ■—y—
the fame model. And the opportunities of examining
the bodies of brutes were fo eafily procured, indeed io
neceflarily occurred in the common bufinefs of life, that
the huntfman in making ufe of his prey, the prieft in fa-
crificing, the augur in divination, and above all, the
butcher, or thofe who might out of curiofity attend up¬
on his operations, muft have been daily adding to the
little flock of anatomical knowledge. Accordingly wTe
find, in fad, that the South fea iflanders, who have
been left to their owrn obfervation and reafoning, with¬
out the affiftance of letters, have yet a confiderable
ffiare of rude or wild anatomical and phyfiological
knowledge. Dr Hunter informs us, that when Omai
was in his mufeum with Mr Banks, though he could
not explain himfelf intelligibly, they plainly faw that
he knew the principal parts of the body, and fome-
thing likewife of their ufes; and manifefted a great
curiofity or defire of having the funClions of the in¬
ternal parts of the body explained to him ; particular¬
ly the relative fundions of the two fexes, which with
him feemed to be the moft interefting objeCt of the hu¬
man mind.
We may further imagine, that the philofophers of
the moft early ages, that is, the men of curiofity, ob¬
fervation, experience, and reflection, could not over¬
look an inftance of natural organization, which was fo
interefting, and at the fame time fo wonderful, more
efpecially fuch of them as applied to the ftudy and
cure of difeafes. We know that phyfic was a branch of
philofophy till the age of Hippocrates.
Thus the art muft have been circumftanced in its
beginning. We ftiall next fee from the teftimony of
hiftorians
A N A T
hiftorians and other writers, how It a&ually appeared as
an art, from the time that writing was introduced among
men $ how it was improved, and conveyed down to us
through a long feries of ages.
Civilization, and improvements of every kind, would
naturally begin in fertile countries and healthful cli¬
mates, where there would be leifure for reflexion, and
an appetite for amufement. Accordingly, writing, and
many other ufeful and ornamental inventions and arts,
appear to have been cultivated in the eaftern parts of
Alia long before the earlieft times that are treated
of by the Greek or other European writers j and that
the arts and learning of thofe eaftern people were in
fubfequent times gradually communicated to adjacent
countries, efpecially by the medium of traffic. The
cuftoms, fuperftitions, and climate of eaftern countries,
however, appear to have been as unfavourable to prac¬
tical anatomy as they were inviting to the ftudy of
aftronomy, geometry, poetry, and all the fofter arts of
peace.
Animal bodies there run fo quickly into naufeous
putrefaflion, that the earlieft inhabitants muft have
avoided fuch offenfive employments as anatomical in¬
quiries, like their pofterity at this day. And in fa£t
it does not appear, by the writings of the Grecians,
or .Tews, or Phoenicians, or of other eaftern countries,
that anatomy was particularly cultivated by any of
thofe eaftern nations. In tracing it backwards to its
infancy, we cannot go farther into antiquity than the
times of the Grecian philofophers. As an art in the
ftate of fome cultivation, it may be faid to have been
brought forth and bred up among them as a branch of
fiatural knowledge.
The era of philofophy, as it was called, began with
Thales the Milefian being declared, by a very general
confent of the people, the moft wife of all the Gre¬
cians, 480 years before Chrift. The philofbphers of
his fchool, which was called the Ionian, cultivated
principally natural knowledge. Socrates, the feventh
in fucceffion of their great teachers, introduced the
ftudy of morals, and was thence faid to bring down
philofophy from heaven, to make men truly wife and
happy.
In the writings of his fcholar and fucceffor Plato, we
fee that the philofophers had carefully confidered the
human body, both in its organization and funftions j
and though they had not arrived at the knowledge of
the more minute and intricate parts, which required the
fucceffive labour and attention of many ages, they had
made up very noble and comprehenfive ideas of the
fubjeft in general. The anatomical defcriptions of Xe¬
nophon and Plato have had the honour of being quoted
by Longinus (§ xxxii.) as fpecimens of fublime wri¬
ting ; and the extract from Plato is ftill more remark¬
able for its containing the rudiments of the circulation
of the blood. “ The heart (fays Plato) is the centre
or knot of the blood-veflels, the fpring or fountain of
the blood, which is carried impetuoully round ; the
blood is the pabulum or food of the fleffi; and for the
purpofe of nourifliment, the body is laid out into canals,
like thofe which are drawn through gardens, that the
blood may be conveyed, as from a fountain, to every
part of the pervious body.”
Hippocrates was nearly contemporary with the great
philofophers of whom we have been fpeaking, about
x
O M Y.
400 years before the Chriftian era. He is faid to have
feparated the profeffion of philofophy and phyiic, and
to have been the firft who applied to phyfic alone as the
bufinefs of his life. He is likewife generally fuppofed
to be the firft who Avrote upon anatomy. We know
of nothing that rvas Avritten exprefsly upon the fubjedl
before $ and the firft anatomical diffedlion Avhich has
been recorded Avas made by his friend Democritus of
Abdera.
If, hoAvever, Ave read the works of Hippocrates Avith
impartiality, and apply his accounts of the parts to
Avhat Ave kmnv of the human body, we muft allorv his
defcriptions to be imperfefl, incorredT, fometimes extra¬
vagant, and often unintelligible, that of the bones only
excepted. He feems to have ftudied thefe with more
fuccefs than the other parts, and tells us that he had an
opportunity of feeing a human fkeleton.
From Hippocrates to Galen, who flourifhed towards
the end of the fecond century, in the decline of the
Roman empire, that is, in the fpace of 600 years, ana¬
tomy was greatly improved j the philofophers ftill con-
fidering it as a moft curious and interefting branch of
natural knorvledge, and the phyficians as a principal
foundation of their art. Both of them, in that interval
of time, contributed daily to the common ftock, by
more accurate and extended obfervations, and by the
lights of improving philofophy.
As thefe tAvo great men had applied very particularly
to the ftudy of animal bodies, they not only made great
improvements, efpecially in phyfiology, but raifed the
credit of natural knowledge, and fpread it as wide as
Alexander’s empire.
Fcav of Ariftotle’s writings were made public in his
lifetime. He affefted to fay that they would be unin¬
telligible to thofe wha had not heard them explained at
hislefturesj and, except the ufe Avhich Theophraftus
made of them, they Avere loft to the public for above
130 years after the death of Theophraftus*, and at laft
came out defective from bad prefervation, and corrupted
by men, Avho, without proper qualifications, prefumed
to correft and to fupply Avhat was loft.
From the time of Theophraftus, the ftudy of natural
knowledge at Athens was for ever on the decline j and
the reputation of the Lyca;um and Academy Avas almoft
confined to the ftudies which are fubfervient to oratory
and public fpeaking.
The other great inftitution for Grecian education
Avas at Alexandria in Egypt. The firft Ptolemies,
both from their love of literature, and to give true and
permanent dignity to their empire, and to Alexander’s
favourite city, fet up a grand fchool in the palace it-
felf, with a mufeum and a library, which, we may
fay, has been the moft famed in the Avorld. Anatomy
among other fciences, Avas publicly taught j and the
two diftinguiftied anatomifts Avere Erafiftratus the pu¬
pil and friend of Theophraftus, and Herophilus. Their
voluminous Avorks are all loft ; but they are quoted by
Galen alraoft in every page. Thefe profeffors were pro¬
bably the firft Avho Avere authorized to diffed! human
bodies; a peculiarity Avhieh marks ftrongly the philo-
fophical magnanimity of the firft Ptolemy, and fixes a
great era in the hiftory of anatomy. And it was, no
doubt, from this particular advantage Avhich the Alex¬
andrians had above all others, that their fchool not only
gained, but for many centuries preferved, the firft repu¬
tation* *
76
Hiftory tatldn for medical education. Ammianus Marcellmus,
—V—' who lived about 650 years after tfiefchools were fet up,
fays, they were fo famous in his time, that it was enough
to fe’cure credit to any phyfician if he could fay he had
ftudied at Alexandria.
Herophilus has been faid to have anatomized ydo
bodies. We muft allow for exaggeration. Nay, it
was faid,. that both he and Erafiftratus made it a com-
mon pra£Uce to open living bodies, that they might dif-
cover the more fecret fprings of life. But this, no doubt,
was only a vulgar opinion, arifing from the prejudices
of mankind •, and accordingly, without any good reafon,
fuch tales have been told of modern amtomifts, and
have been believed by the vulgar.
Among the Romans, though it is probable they had
phyficians and furgeonsfrom the foundation of the city,
yet we have no account of any of thefe applying them-
felves to anatomy for a very long time. . Archagathus
was the firft Greek phyfician eftablilhed in Rome, and
he was banilhed the city on account of the feverity of
his operations.—Afclepiades, who flounlhed in Rome
101 years after Archagathus, in the time of Pompey,
attained fuch a high reputation as to be ranked in the
fame clafs with Hippocrates. He feemed to have fome
notion of the air in refpiration afting by its weight j
and in accounting for digeftion, he fuppofed the food
to be no farther changed than by a comminution into
extremely fmall parts, which being diftributed to the
feveral parts of the body, is aflimilated to the nature of
each. One Caflius, commonly thought to be a dif-
ciple of Afclepiades, accounted for the right fide of the
body becoming paralytic on hurting the left fide of the
brain in the fame manner as has been done by the mo¬
derns, viz. from the crofling of the nerves from the
right to the left fide of the brain.
From the time of Afclepiades to the fecond century,
phyficians feem to have been greatly encouraged at
Rome-, and in the writings of Celfus, Rufus, Pliny,
Ccelius Aurelianus, and Arseteus, we find feveral ana¬
tomical obfervations, but moftly very fuperficial and in¬
accurate. Towards the end of the fecond century lived
Claudius Galenus Pergamus, whofe name is fo well
known in the medical world. He applied himfelf par¬
ticularly to the ftudy of anatomy, and did more in that
way than all that went before him. He feems, how¬
ever to have been at a great lofs for human fubjefts to
operate upon and therefore his defcriptions of the
parts are moflly taken from brute animals. His works
contain the fulled hi (lory of anatomifls, and thz molt
complete fvftem of the fcience, to be met with any
where before him, or for feveral centuries after ; fothat
a number of paffages in them were reckoned abfolutely
unintelligible for many ages, until explained by the dii-
coveries of fucceeding anatomifb.
About the end of the fourth century, Nimefius bifhop
of Emiffa wrote a treatife on the nature of man, in
which it is faid were contained two celebrated modern
difcoveries ; the one, the ufes of the bile, boafted of by
Sylvius de la Boe and the other, the circulation of the
blood. This lad, however, h proved by Dr Freind, m
his Hidory of Phyfic, p. 229. to be falfely afcnbtd to
this author. . . , ,
The Roman empire beginning now to be oppreih d
by the barbarians, and funk in grofs fuperdition, learn¬
ing of all kinds decreafed; and when the empire was
Introd
totally overwhelmed by thofe barbarous nations, every Hiftnty.
appearance of fcience was almoil extinguifhed in Eu-—y—■■
rope. The only remains of it were among the Ara¬
bians in Spain and in Afia.—The Saracens, who came
into Spain, dedroyed at fird all the Greek books which
the Vandals had fpared : but though the government
was in a condant druggie and ductuation during 800
years before they were driven out, they received a tade
for learning from their countrymen of the ead feveral
of their princes encouraged liberal Rudies public
fchools were fet up at Cordova, Toledo, and other
towns, and tranflations of the Greeks into the Arabic
were univerfally in the hands of their teachers.
Thus was the learning of the Grecians transferred to
the Arabians. ' But though they had fo good a founda¬
tion to build upon, this art was never improved while
they were maders of the world : for they were iatnfied
with commenting upon Galen, and feem to have made
no diffeftion of human bodies.
Abdollatiph, who was himfelf a teacher of anatomy,
a man eminent in his time fat and about 1202) for
his learning and curiofity j a great traveller, who had
been bred at Bagdad, and had feen many of the great
cities and principal places for dudy in the Saracen em¬
pire $ who had a favourable opinion of original obferva-
tion, in oppofition to book learning 5 who boldly cor¬
related fome of Galen’s errors, and was perfuaded that
many more might be detected : this man, we fay, never
made or faw, or feemed to think of a human difle£tion.
He difcovered Galen’s errors in the odeology, by going
to burying grounds, with his dudentsand others, where
he examined and demondrated the bones j he earnedly
recommended that method of dudy, in preference even
to the reading of Galen, and thought that many farther
improvements might be made; yet he feemed not to
have an idea that a frelh fubje£l might be diffe&ed with
that view.
Perhaps the Jewifh tenets which the Mahometans
adopted about uncleannefs and pollution, might pre¬
vent their handling dead bodies j or their opinion of
what was fuppofed to pafs between an angel and the
dead perfon, might make them think didurbing the
dead highly facrilegious. Such, however, as Arabian
learning was, for many ages together there was hardly
any other in all the wedern countries of Europe. It
was introduced by the edablidiment of the Saracens in
Spain in 711, and kept its ground till the redoration
of learning in the end of the 15th century. The date
of anatomy in Europe, in the times of Arabian influ¬
ence, may be feen by reading a very (hurt fyftem of
anatomy drawn up by Mundinus, in the year I315- ^
was principally extracted from what the Arabians had
preferved of Galen’s do£lrine ; and, rude as it is, in
that age it was judged to be fo maflerly a performance,
that it was ordered by a public decree, that it diould
be read in all the fchools of Italy ; and it aflually con¬
tinued to be almofl the only book which was read up¬
on the fubjeft for above 200 years. Cortefius gives
him the credit of being the great redorer of anatomy,
and the fird who difle&ed human bodies among the mo¬
derns.
A general prepidire againd diffeftion, however, pre¬
vailed till the 16th century. The emperor Charles V.
ordered a confultation to be held by the divines of Sa¬
lamanca, in order to determine whether or not it was
lawful
ANATOMY.
Introd.
Hiftory. lawful in point of confcience to difle£t a dead body,
u—-y”—**' In Mufcovy, till very lately, both anatomy and the ufe
of Ikeletons were forbidden; the firft as inhuman, and
the latter as fubfervient to witchcraft.
In the beginning of the 15th century, learning re¬
vived confiderably in Europe, and particularly phylic,
by means of copies of the Greek authors brought from
the fack of Conftantinople •, after which the number of
anatomifts and anatomical books increafed to a prodi¬
gious degree. The Europeans becoming thus pofief-
fed of the ancient Greek fathers of medicine, were for
a long time fo much occupied in correcting the copies
they could obtain, ftudying the meaning, and com¬
menting upon them, that they attempted nothing of
their own, efpecially in anatomy.
And here the late Dr Hunter introduces into the
annals of this art, a genius of the firft rate, Leonardo
da Vinci, who had been formerly overlooked, becaufe
he was of another profeffion, and becaufe he publifhed
nothing upon the fubjeCt. He is confidered by the
doCtor as by far the belt anatomift and phyfiologift of
his time : and was certainly the firft man we know of
who introduced the pradtice of making anatomical
drawings.
Vaffare, in his Lives of the Painters, fpeaks of Leo¬
nardo thus, after telling us that he had compofed a
book of the anatomy of a horfe, for his own ftudy :
“ He afterwards applied himfelf with more diligence
to the human anatomy j in which ftudy he reciprocally
received and communicated affiftance to Marc. Anto¬
nio della Torre, an excellent philofopher, who then
read leCtures in Pavia, and wrote upon this fubjeft ; and
who was the firft, as I have heard, who began to illu-
ftrate medicine from the doCtrine of Galen, and to give
true light to anatomy, which till that time had been
involved in clouds of darknefs and ignorance. In this
he availed himfelf exceedingly of the genius and labour
of Leonardo, who made a book of ftudies, drawn with
red chalk, and touched with a pen, with great diligence,
of fuch obje£ts as he had himfelf diffeded; where he
made all the bones, and to thofe he joined, in their or¬
der, all the nerves, and covered them with the mufcles.
And concerning thofe, from part to part, he wrote re¬
marks in letters of an ugly form, which are written by
the left hand, backwards, and not to be underftood but
by thofe who know the method of reading them j for
they are not to be read without a looking-glafs. Of
thefe papers of the human anatomy, there is a great
part in the pofieflion of M. Francefco da Melzo, a Mi-
lanefe gentleman, who, in the time of Leonardo, was a
moft beautiful boy, and much beloved by him, as he is
now a beautiful and genteel old man, who reads thofe
writings, and carefully preferves them, as precious re¬
lics, together with the portrait of Leonardo of happy
memory. It appears impoffible that that divine fpirit
(hould reafon fo well upon the arteries, and mufcles,
and nerves, and veins ; and wdth fuch diligence of every
thing,” &c. &c.
I hofe very drawings and the writings are happily
found to be preferved in his majefty’s great eolle£lion
of original drawings, where the doftor was permitted
to examine them j and hisLentiments upon the occafion
he thus expreffes : “ I expe&ed to fee little more than
fuch defigns in anatomy as might be ufeful to a pain¬
ter in his own profeflion j but I faw, and indeed with
Vol. II. Part I.
177
aflonilhment, that Leonardo had been a general and a Hiftory.
deep ftudent. When I confider what pains he has ta-' 
ken upon every part of the body, the fuperiority of his
univerfal genius, his particular excellence in mechanics
and hydraulics, and the attention with which fuch a
man would examine and fee objects which he W'as to
draw, I am fully perfuaded that Leonardo was the beft
anatomifi: at that time in the world. We mull give the
15th century the credit of Leonardo’s anatomical ftu¬
dies, as he was 55 years of age at the clofe of that cen-
tury.”
In the beginning of the 16th century, Achillinus and
Benedi&us, but particularly Berengarius and Malfa, fol¬
lowed out the improvement of anatomy in Italy, where
they'taught it, and publilhed upon the fubjed. Thefe
firft, improvers made fome difcoveries from their own
difiedions: but it is not furprifing that they fliould
have been diffident of themfelves, and have followed
Galen almoft blindly, when his authority had been fo
long eftabliffied, and when the enthufiafm for Greek
authors was rifing to fuch a pitch.
Soon after this, we may fay about the year 1540,
the great Vefalius appeared. He was ftudious, labo¬
rious, and ambitious. From Bruffels, the place of his
birth, he went to Louvain, and thence to Paris, where
anatomy was not yet making a confiderable figure ; and
then to Louvain to teach ; from which place, very for¬
tunately for his reputation, he was called to Italy,
where he met with every opportunity that fuch a ge¬
nius for anatomy could defire, that is, books, fubjeds,
and excellent draughtfmen. He was equally laborious
in reading the ancients, and in diffeding bodies. And
in making the comparifon, he could not but fee, that
there was great room for improvement, and that many
of Galen’s defcriptions wert^erroneous. When he was
but a young man, he publiffied a noble fyftem of ana¬
tomy, illuftrated with a great number of elegant fi¬
gures.—In this work he found fo many occafions of
correding Galen, that his contemporaries, partial to
antiquity, and jealous of his reputation, complained that
he carried his turn for improvement and criticifms to
licentioufnefs. The fpirit of oppofttion and emulation
was prefently roufed 5 and Sylvius in France, Colum¬
bus, Fallopius, and Euftachius in Italy, who were all
in high anatomical reputation about the middle of this
16th century, endeavoured to defend Galen at the ex¬
pence of Vefalius. In their difputes they made their
appeals to the human body: and thus in a few years
the art was greatly improved. And Vefalius being de-
teded in the very fault which he condemns in Galen,
to wit, defcribing from the diffedions of brutes, and
not of the human body, it expofed fo fully that blun¬
der of the older anatomifts, that in fucceeding times
there has been little reafon for fuch complaint. Be-
fides the above, he publilhed feveral other anatomical
treatifes. He has been particularly ferviceable by im-
pofing names on the mufcles, moft of which are retain¬
ed to this day. Formerly they were diftinguiffied by
number, which were differently applied by almoft every
author.
In 1561, Gabriel Fallopius, profeffor of anatomy at
Padua, publiffied a treatife of anatomy under the title
of Obfervationes Anatomies. This was defigned as a
fupplement to Vefalius j many of whofe defcriptions
he correds, though he always makes mention of him
Z in
ANATOMY.
A N A T
in an honourable manner. Fallopius made many great
difcoveries, and his book is well worth the perufal of
every anatomift.
In 1563, Bartholomaeus Euftachius publilhed his
Opufcu/a An atomic a at Venice, which have ever fince
been juftly admired for the exaftnefs of the defcrip-
tions, and the difcoveries contained in them. He
publithed afterwards fume other pieces, in which there
is little of anatomy j but never publiihed the great
work he had promifed, which was to be adorned with
copperplates repreienting all the parts of the human
body. Thefe plates, after lying buried in an old ca¬
binet for upwards of 150 years, were at laft difcover-
ed and publilhed in the year 1714, by Lancifi the
pope’s phyfician who added a Ihort explicatory text,
becaufe Eullachius’s own writing could not be found.
From this time the lludy of anatomy gradually dif-
fufed itfelf over Europe: infomuch that for the laft
hundred years it has been daily improving by the k-
bour of a number of profeffed anatomifts almoft in
every country of Europe.
We may7 form a judgment about the ftate of anatomy
even in Italy, in the beginning of the 17th century,
from the information ot Cortelius. He had been pro-
feffor of anatomy at Bologna, and was then profeffor of
medicine at Maffana ; where, though he had a great
defire to improve himfelf in the art, and to finifti a
treatife which he had begun on praftical anatomy, in
24 years he could twice only procure an opportunity of
differing a human body, and then it was with diffi¬
culties and in hurry ; whereas he had expe&ed to have
done fo, he fays, once every year, according to the cu-
Jiom in the famous academies of Italy.
In the very end of the 16th century, our great Har¬
vey, as was the cuftom of the times, went to Italy to
ftudy medicine; for Italy was ftill the favourite feat of
‘ the arts: And in the very beginning of the 17th cen¬
tury, foon after Harvey’s return to England, his mafter
in anatomy, Fabricius ab Aquapendente, publiffied an
account of the valves in the veins, which he had difco-
vered many years before, and no doubt taught in his
lettures when Harvey attended them.
This difcovery evidently affe&ed the eftabliffied doc¬
trine of all ages, that the veins carried the blood from
the liver to all parts of the body for nourifhment. It
fet Harvey to work upon the ufe of the heart and vaf-
cular fyftems in animals; and in the courfe of fome
years he was fo happy as to difcover, and to prove be¬
yond all poffibility of doubt, the circulation of the blood.
He taught his new doftrine in his leftures about the
year 1616, and printed it in 1628.
It was by far the moft important ftep that has been
made in the knowledge of animal bodies in any age.
It not only refle&ed ufeful lights upon what had been
already found out in anatomy, but alfo pointed out the
means of further inveftigation. And accordingly we
fee, that from Harvey to the prefent time, anatomy
has been fo much improved, that we may reafonably
queftion if the ancients have been further outdone by
the moderns in any other branch of knowledge. From
one day to another there has been a conftant fucceffion
of difcoveries, relating either to the ftrmfture or func¬
tions of our bodies; and new anatomical proceffes, both
of inveftigation and demonftration, have been daily in¬
vented. Many parts of the body which were not
O M Y.
Introd
known in Harvey’s time have fince then been brought Hiftory.
to light : and of thofe which were known, the inter- ‘ ■■ ,
nal compofition and functions remained unexplained;
and indeed muft have remained inexplicable without
the knowledge of the circulation.
Harvey’s doftrine at firft met with confiderable op-
pofition ; but in the fpace of about 20 years it was fo
generally and fo warmly embraced, that it was ima¬
gined every thing in phyfic would be explained. But
time and experience have taught us, that we. ftill are,
and probably muft long continue to be, very ignorant;
and that in the ftudy of the human body, and of its
difeafes, there will always be an extenfive field for the
exercife of fagacity.
After the difcovery and knowledge of the circula¬
tion of the blood, the next queftion would natu-ially
have been about the paffage and route of the nutritious
part of the food or chyle from the bowels to the blood
veffels : And, by good fortune, in a few years after
Harvey had made his difcovery, Aielhus, an Italian
phyfician, found out the lafteals, or vefiels which carry
the chyle from the inteftines; and printed his account
of them, with coloured prints, in the year i627> the
very year before Harvey’s book came out.
For a number of years after thefe two publications,
the anatomifts in all parts of Europe were daily open¬
ing living dogs, either to fee the ladleals or to oblerve
the phenomena of the circulation. In making an ex¬
periment of this kind, Pecquet in France was fortunate
enough to difcover the thoracic dud, or common trunk
of all the ladeals, which conveys the chyle into the
fubclavian vein. He printed his difcovery in the year
1651. And now the ladeals having been traced from
the inteftines to the thoracic dud, and that dud having
been traced to its termination in a blood veffel, the paf¬
fage of the chyle was completely made out.
The fame pradice of opening living animals furnifti-
ed occafions of difeovering the lymphatic veffels. This
good fortune fell to the lot of Rudbec firft, a young
Swedifh anatomift ; and then to Thomas Bartholine, a
Daniffi anatomift, who was the firft who appeared in
print upon the lymphatics. His book came out in the
year 1653, t^at two yFars a^ter ^iat Peccluet‘
And then it vvas very evident that they had been feen
before by Dr Highmore and others, who had miftaken
them for ladeals. But none of the anatomifts.of thofe
times could make out the origin of the lymphatics, and
none of the phyfiologifts could give a fatisfadory ac¬
count. of their ufe.
The circulation of the blood and the paflage of the
chyle having been fatisfadorily traced out in full grown
animals, the anatomifts were naturally led next to con-
fider how thefe animal procefles were carried on in the
child while in the womb of the mother. Accordingly
the male and female organs, the appearances and con¬
tents of the pregnant uterus, the incubated egg, and
every phenomenon which could illuftrate generation,
became the favourite fubjc d for about 30 years with
the principal anatomifts of Europe.
Thus it would appear to have been in theory; but
Dr Hunter believes, that in fad, as Harvey’s mafter
Fabricius laid the foundation fur the difcovery of the
circulation of the blood by teaching him the valves of
the veins, and thereby inviting him to confider that
fubjed; fo Fabricius, by his ledures, and by his ele-
Introd. A N A T
Hiftory. gant work De Formato Ftttu, et cle Formatione Ovi et
-V— Pulli, probably made that likewife a favourite fubjeft
with Dr Harvey. But whether he took up the fubjedl
of generation in confequence of his difcovery of the
circulation, or was led to it by his honoured mafter Fa-
briciu';, he fpent a great deal of his time in the in¬
quiry ; and publilhed his obfervations in a book De
Generatione Animalium, in the year 1651, that is, fix
years before his death.
In a few years after this, Swammerdam, Van Horn,
Steno, and D. Graaf, excited great attention to the
fubjedil of generation, by their fuppofed difcovery that
the females of viviparous animals have ovaria, that is,
clufters of eggs in their loins, like oviparous animals 5
which, when impregnated by the male, are conveyed
into the uterus : fo that a child is produced from an
egg as well as a chick $ with this difference, that one
is hatched within, and the other without, the body of
the mother.
Malpighi, a great Italian genius, fome time after,
made confiderable advances upon the fubjeft of gene¬
ration. He had the good fortune to be the firft who
ufed magnifying glaffes with addrefs in tracing the firft
appearances in the formation of animals. He likewife
made'many other obfervations and improvements in
the minutice of anatomy by his microfcopical labours,
and by cultivating comparative anatomy.
This diftinguiftied anatomift gave the firft public
fpecimen of his abilities by printing a differtation on
the lungs, anno i66r, a period fo remarkable for the
ftudy of nature, that it would be injuftice to pafs it
without particular notice.
At the fame time flourifhed Laurentius Bellinus at
Florence, and was the firft who introduced mathema¬
tical reafoning in phyfic. In 1662, Simon Pauli pub-
lifhed a treatife De A/bandis OJJibus. He had long been
admired for the white fkeletons he prepared ; and at
laft difcovered his method, which was by expofing the
bones all winter to the weather.
Johannes Swammerdam of Amfterdam alfo publifh-
ed fome anatomical treatifes ; but was moft remarkable
for his knowledge of preferving the parts of bodies en¬
tire for many years, by injedling their veffels. He
alfo publifhed a treatife on refpiration ; wherein he
mentioned his having figures of all the parts of the bo¬
dy, as big as the life, cut in copper, which he defign-
ed to publilh, with a complete fyftem of anatomy.
Thefe, however, were never made public by Swam¬
merdam } but, in 1683, Gothofridus Bidloo, profeflbr
of anatomy at Leyden, publifhed a work entitled Ana-
iomia Corporis Humani, where all the parts were deli¬
neated in very large plates almoft as big as the life.
Mr Cowper, an Englifb furgeon, bought 300 copies
of thefe figures; and in 1698, publifhed them, with
an Englifh text, quite different from Bidloo’s Latin
one ; to which were added letters in Bidloo’s figures,
and fome few figures of Mr Cowper’s own. To this
work Cowper’s name wTas prefixed, without the leaft
mention of Bidloo, except on purpofe to confute him.
Bidloo immediately publifhed a very ill-natured pam¬
phlet, called Guhelmus Cowperus citatus coram tribu¬
nal' ; appealing to the Royal Society, how far Cowper
ought to be punifhed as a plagiary of the worft kind,
and endeavouring to prove him an ignorant deceitful
fellow. Cowper anfwered him in his own ftyle, in a
o ivr y. I7,
pamphlet called his Vindicice ; endeavouring to pirove, Hiftory.
either that Bidloo did not underftand his own tables, or -
that they were none of his. It was even alleged that
thofe were the tables promifed by Swammerdam, and
which Bidloo had got from his widow. This, however,
appears to have been only an invidious furmife, there
being unqueftionable evidence that they were really
the performance of Bidloo.
Soon after, Ifbrandus Diembroeck, profeffor of ana¬
tomy at Utrecht, began to appear as an author. His
work contained very little original ; but he was at
great pains to colledft from others whatever was valuable
in their writings, and his fyftem was the common ftan-
dard among anatomical ftudents for many years.
About the fame time,^Antonius Leeuwenhoek of
Delft improved confiderably on Malpighi’s ufe of mi-
crofcopes. Thefe two authors took up anatomy where
others had dropt it; and, by this new art, they brought
a number of amazing things to light. They difcover¬
ed the red globules of the blood ; they were enabled
to fee the actual circulation of the blood in the tranfpa-
rent parts of living animals, and could meafure the ve¬
locity of its motion ; they difcovered that the arteries
and veins had no intermediate cells or fpongy fubftance,
as Harvey and all the preceding anatomifts had fuppo¬
fed, but communicated one with the other by a conti¬
nuation of the fame tube.
Leeuwenhoek was in great fame likewife for his dif¬
covery of the animalcula in the femen. Indeed there
was fcarcely a part of the body, folid or fluid, which
efcaped his examination ; and he almoft everywhere
found, that what appeared to the naked eye to be
rude indigefted matter, was in reality a beautiful and
regular compound.
After this period, Nuck added to our knowledge of
the abforbent fyftem already mentioned, by his injec¬
tions of the lymphatic glands; Ruyfch, by his defcrip-
tion of the valves of the lymphatic veffels ; and Dr
Meckel, by his accurate account of the whole fyftem ;
and by tracing thofe veffels in many parts where they
had not before been defcribed.
Befides thefe authors, Drs Hunter and Monro have
called the attention of the public to this part of anato¬
my, in their controverfy concerning the difcovery of
the office of the lymphatics.
When the lymphatic veffels were firft feen and tra¬
ced into the thoracic duft, it was natural for anato¬
mifts to fufpeft, that as the lafteals abforbed from the
cavity of the inteftines, the lymphatics, which are fi-
milar in figure and ftrufture, might poffibly do the
fame office with refpeift to other parts of the body :
and accordingly, Dr Gliffon, wrho wrote in 1654, fup-
pofes thefe veffels arofe from cavities, and that their
ufe was to abforb ; and Frederic Hoffman has very ex¬
plicitly laid down the doftrine of the lymphatic veffels
being a fyftem of abforbents. But anatomifls in gene¬
ral have been of a contrary opinion : for from experi¬
ments, particularly fuch as were made by injeftions,
they have been perfuaded that the lymphatic veffels did
not arife from cavities, and did not abforb, but were
merely continuations from fmall arteries. The doc¬
trine, therefore, that the lymphatics, like the la&eals,
were abforbents, as had been fuggefted by Gliffon and
by fioffman, has been revived by Dr Hunter and Dr
Monro, who have controverted the experiments of
Z 2 their
x8o
anatomy.
Introd
Hiftory. their predeceffors in anatomy, and have endeavoured
   to prove that the lymphatic veffels are not continued
‘ from arteries, but are abforbents.
To this doftrine, however, feveral objeftions have
been darted, particularly by Haller, (E/em. EhyfA. 24.
§ 2, 3.) 5 and it has been found, that before the doc¬
trine of the lymphatics being a fyftem of abforbents
can be eftablifhed, it muft firft be determined whether
this fyftem is to be found in other animals befides man
and quadrupeds. IVIr Hewfon claims the merit of ha¬
ving proved the affirmative of this queftion, by difco-
vering the lymphatic fyftem in birds, fifli, and amphi¬
bious animals. See Phil. Tranf. vol. Iviii. and Ixix.—
And latterly, Mr Cruikftiank has traced the ramifica¬
tions of that fyftem in almoft every part of the body *,
and from his diffe&ions, figures have been made and
lately publifhed to the world. To Mr Sheldon alfo
we are much indebted for his illuftration of this fyftem,
■which promifes to give great fatisfa&ion, but of which
only a part has been yet publifhed.
The gravid uterus is a fubjeft likewife which has
received confiderable improvements, particularly rekt-
ing to one very important difcovery; viz. that the in¬
ternal membrane of the uterus, which Dr Hunter has
named decidua, conftitutes the exterior part of the fe¬
cundities or after-birth, and feparates from the reft of the
uterus every time that a woman either bears a child or
fuffers a mifcarriage. This difcovery includes another,
to wit, that the placenta is partly made up of an ex-
crefcence or efflorefcence from the uterus itfelf.
Thefe difcoveries are of the utmoft confequence,
both in the phyfiological queftion about the connexion
between the mother and child, and likewife in explain¬
ing the phenomena of births and abortions, as well as
in regulating obftetrical praffice.
The anatomifts of this century have improved ana¬
tomy, and have made the ftudy of it much more eafy,
by giving us more correft as well as more numerous
figures. It is amazing to think of what has-been done
in that time. We have had four large folio books of
figures of the bones, viz. Chefelden’s, Albinus’s,. Sue’s
and Trew’s. Of the mufcles, we have had two large
folios; one from Cowper, which is elegant; and one
from Albinus, which, from the accuracy and labour of
the work, we may fuppofe will never be outdone. Of
the blood veffels we have a large folio from Dr Hal¬
ler. We have had one upon the nerves from Dr
Meckel, and another by Dr Monro junior. We have
had Albinus’s, Roederer’s, Jenty’s, and Hunter’s works
upon the pregnant uterus j Weitbrecht and Leber.on
the joints and freftr bones j Soemerring on the brain ;
Zinn on the eye ; Cotunnius, Meckel junior, &c. on
the ear ; Walter on the nerves of the thorax and ab¬
domen ; Dr Monro on the burfse mucofse, &c.
It would be endlefs to mention the anatomical fi-
o-ures that haye been publiftied in this century of par¬
ticular and fmaller parts of the body, by Morgagni,
Ruyfch, Valfalva, Sanaorini, Heifter, Vater, Cant,
Zimmerman, Walterus, and others.
Thofe elegant plates of the brain, however, juft pub¬
liftied by M. Vicq. d’Azyr, muft not pafs without no¬
tice, efpecially as they form part of an univerfal fyftem
of anatomy and phyfiology, both human and compara¬
tive, propofed to be executed in the fame fplendid ftyle.
Upon the brain alone 19 folio plates are employed;
of which feveral are coloured. I he figures are deli- Hiftory
neated with accuracy and clearnefs ; but the colouring -y—.
is rather beautiful than correft. Such parts of this
work as may be publiftied, cannot fail to be equally
acceptable to the anatomift and the philofopher ; but
the entire defign is apparently too extenfive to be ac-
compliftied within the period of a fingle life. In our
own country, alfo, a very great anatomical work is
carrying on by Andrew Bell, F. S. A. S. engraver to
his Royal Highnefs the Prince of Wales, with the ap-
probation of Dr IVIonro, and under the infpeflion of
his very ingenious afliftant Mr Fyfe. It is to.compofe
a complete illuftration, both general and particular, of
the human body, by a feledion from the belt plates of
all the greateft anatomifts, as well foreign as of this
country, exhibiting the lateft difcoveries in the fcience,
and accompanied with copious explanations. The
whole number of plates mentioned in the Profpedfus.is
240, of which 152 are already done; all in royal folio.
To the foreign treatifes already mentioned may be
added thofe recently publiftied by Sabbatier and Plenck
on anatomy in general. Among ourfelves, the writ¬
ings of Keil, Douglas, Chefelden, the firft Monro,
Window, &C. are too well known to need defcription.
The laft of thefe ufed to be recommended as a ftandard
for the ftudents of anatomy ; but it has of late given
place to a more accurate and comprehenfive fyftem, in
three volumes, publithed by Mr Elliot of Edinburgh,
upon a plan approved of by Dr Monro, and executed by
Mr Fyfe. Dr Simmons of London has alfo obliged the
world with an excellent fyftem of anatomy ; and ano¬
ther work under the title of “ Elements of Anatomy-
and the Animal Economy in which the.fubje&s are
treated with uncommon elegance and perfpicuity.
In the latter part of the laft century, anatomy made-
two great fteps, by the invention of injeftions, and the
method of making what we commonly call preparations.
Thefe two modern arts have really been of infinite ufe
to anatomy *, and befides have introduced an elegance
into our adminiftrations, which in former, times could
not have been fuppofed to be poflible. They arofe in
Holland under Swammerdam and Ruyfch, and after¬
wards in England under Cowper, St Andre, and others,
where they have been greatly improved.
The anatomifts of former ages had no other know¬
ledge of the blood veffels than what they were able, to
collect from laborious diffeaions, and from examining
the fmaller branches of them, upon fome lucky occa-
fion, when they were found more than commonly loaded
with red blood. But filling the vafcular fyftem with a
bright coloured wax, enables us to trace the large veffels
with great eafe, renders the fmaller much more confpi-
cuous, and makes thoufands of the very minute ones
vifible, which from their delicacy, and the tranfparency
of their natural contents, are otherwife imperceptible.
The modern art of corroding the fleftiy parts with a
menftruum, and of leaving the moulded wax entire, is fo
exceedingly ufeful, and at the fame time fo ornamental,
that it does great honour to the ingenious inventor Dr
Nicholls.
The wax-work arts of the moderns might deferve no¬
tice in any hiftory of anatomy, if the mafters in that
way had not been fo carelefs in their imitation. Many
of the wax figures are fo tawdry, with a (how of unna¬
tural colours, and fo very incorred in the circumfiances
of
Introd. A N.A T O M Y. 181
General of figure, fituation, and the like, that though they
view of ftrike a vulgar eye with admiration, they muft appear
the fubjed. r;jjcuious to an anatomift. But thofe figures which
are call in wax, plafter, or lead, from the real fubjeft,
and which of late years have been frequently made
here, are, of courfe, very corredl in all the principal
parts, and may be confidered as no infignificant acqui-
fition to modern anatomy. The proper, or principal,
ufe of this art is, to preferve a very perfeft likenefs of
fuch fubje&s as w^e but feldom can meet with, or can¬
not well preferve in a natural ftate j a fubjeft in preg¬
nancy, for example.
The modern improved methods of preferving animal
bodies, or parts of them, has been of the greateft fer-
vice to anatomy ; efpecially in faving the time and la¬
bour of the anatomift in the nicer diffeftions of the
fmall parts of the body. For now, whatever he has
prepared with care, he can preferve •, and the object is
ready to be feen at any time. And in the fame man¬
ner he can preferve anatomical curiofities, or rarities of
every kind ; fuch as, parts that are uncommonly form¬
ed } parts that are difeafed j the parts of the pregnant
uterus and its contents. Large colle6Hons of fuch cu¬
riofities, which modern anatomifts are ftriving almoft
everywhere to procure, are of infinite fervice to the
art, efpecially in the hands of teachers. They give ftu-
dents clear ideas about many things which it is very
effential to know, and yet which it is impoflible that a
teacher fliould be able to fliow otherwife, were he ever
fo well fupplied with frefh fubje£ts.
§ 2. View of the SubjeEl in general, and Plan of the
following Treatife.
The etymology of the word anatomy, as above gi¬
ven, implies Amply difleSlion ; but by this term fome-
thing more is ufually underftood.
It is every day made ufe of to exprefs a knowledge
of the human body ; and a perfon who is faid to un-
derftand anatomy, is fuppofed to be converfant with the
ftru&ure and arrangement of the different folid parts
of the body.
It is commonly divided into Anatomy, properly fo
called ; and Comparative Anatomy : the firft of thefe
is confined folely to the human body •, the latter in¬
cludes all animals, fo far as a knowledge of their ftruc-
ture may tend to perfect our ideas of the human body.
The term anatomy may alfo have another and more
extenfive fignification : it may be employed to exprefs
not only a knowledge of the firu&ure and difpofition of
the parts, but likewife of their economy and ufe. Con¬
fidered in this light, it will feldom fail to excite the
curiofity of people of tafte, as a branch of philofophy 5
fince, if it is pleafing to be acquainted with the ftruc-
ture of body, it is certainly more fo to difcover all the
fprings which give life and motion to the machine, ^pnd
to obferve the admirable mechanifm by which fo many
different fundtions are executed.
Aftronomy and anatomy, as Dr Hunter, after Fon-
tenelle, obferves, are the ftudies which prefent us with
the moft ftriking view of the two greatefl attributes of
the Supreme Being. The firft of thefe fills the mind
with the idea of his immenfity, in the largenefs, di-
ftances, and number of the heavenly bodies; the laft
^ftonifhes with his intelligence and art in the variety
and delicacy of animal mechanifm.
The human body has been commonly enough known General
by the name Microcofmus, or the little world j as if it view of
did not differ fo much from the univerfal fyftem of na- die fubjedt.
ture in the fymmetry and number of its parts as in Y
their fize.
Galen’s excellent treatife De Ufu Partium, was com-
pofed as a profe hymn to the Creator; and abounds
with as irrefiftible proofs of a fupreme Caufe and go¬
verning Providence, as we find in modern phyfico-
theology. And Cicero dwells more on the ftrudture and
economy of animals than on all the produftions of na¬
ture befides, when he wants to prove the exiftence of the
gods from the order and beauty of the univerfe. He
there takes a furvey of the body of man in a moft
elegant fynopfis of anatomy j and concludes thus :
“ Quibus rebus expofitis, fatis docuiffe videor, hominis
natura, quanto omnes anteiret animantes. Ex quo de¬
bet intelligi, nec figuram fitumque membrorum, nec in¬
genii mentifque vim talem effici potuiffe fortuna.”
The fatisfaftion of mind which arifes from the ftudy
of anatomy, and the influence which it muft naturally
have upon our minds as philofophers, cannot be better
conveyed than by the following paffage from the fame
author: “ Quae contuens animus, accepit ab his cog-
nitionem deorum, ex qua oritur pietas : cui conjun&a
juftitia eft, reliquaeque virtutes : ex quibus vita beata
exfiftit, par et fimilis deorum, nulla alia re nifi immor-
talitate, quae nihil ad bene vivendum pertinet, cedens
caeleftibus.”
It would be endlefs to quote the animated paffages
of this fort which are to be found in the phyficians,
philofophers, and theologifts, who have confidered the
ftrufture and fundlions of animals with a view towards
the Creator. It is a view which muft ftrike one with a
moft awful convi&ion. Who can know and confider
the thoufand evident proofs of the aftonifhing art of the
Creator, in forming and fuftaining an animal body fuch
as ours, without feeling the moft pleafant enthufiafm ?
Can we ferioufly refleft upon this awful fubjeft, with¬
out being almoft loft in adoration ? without longing
for another life after this, in which w?e may be gratified
with the higheft enjoyment which our faculties and na¬
ture feem capable of, the feeing and comprehending
the whole plan of the Creator, in forming the univerfe
and in direfling all its operations ?
But the more immediate purpofes of anatomy con¬
cern thofe who are to be the guardians of health, as
this ftudy is neceffary to lay a foundation for all the
branches of medicine. The more we know of our fa¬
bric, the more reafon we have to believe, that if our
fenfes were more acute, and our judgment more enlar¬
ged, we ftiould be able to trace many fprings of life
which are now hidden from us : by the fame fagacity
we fliould difcover the true caufes and nature of dif-
eafes j and thereby be enabled to reftore the health of
many, who are now, from our more confined know¬
ledge, faid to labour under incurable diforders. By
fuch an intimate acquaintance with the economy of
our bodies, we ftiould difcover even the feeds of difeafes,
and deftroy them before they had taken root in the
conftitution.
That anatomy is the very bafis of furgery every body
allows. It is diffe£lion alone that can teach us, where
we may cut the living body with freedom and difpatch j
and where we may venture with great circumfpedion
and
.182 ANATOMY. _ Introd.
General and delicacy; and wliefe we muft not upon any ac- wbich ftiall have all the requifites for the union of fplrlt General
view of count attempt it. This informs the head, gives dex- and body ; accordingly Ihe is provided rvith the brain, view of
the fubjedt. j.er^y an(l familiarizes the heart with a where fire dwells as governor and fuperintendant of thet e Je
fort of neceflary inhumanity, the ufe of cutting inftru- whole fabric.
nients upon our fellow-creatures. In the next place, As (he is to hold a correfpondence
Befides the knowledge of our body, through all the with all the material beings around her, (he mult be
variety of its JlruBure and operations in a found date, fupplied with organs fitted to receive the different kinds
it is by anatomy only that we can arrive at the know- of impreiffons which they will make. In fad, there-
ledge of the true nature of moft of the difeafes which fore, we fee that die is provided with the organs of
afHid humanity. The fymptoms of many diforders fenfe, as we call them ; the eye is adapted to light;
are often equivocal; and difeafes themfelves are thence the ear to found ; the nofe to fmell; the mouth to
frequently midaken, even by fendble, experienced, and tade ; and the (kin to touch. .
attentive phyficians. But by anatomical examination Further : She mud be furnifned with organs of com-
after death, we can with certainty find out the mif- munication between herfelf in the brain and thofe or-
take, and learn to avoid it in any fimilar cafe. gans of fenfe, to give her information of all the im-
This ufe of anatomy has been fo generally adopted prefiions that are made upon them : and die mud have
by the moderns, that the cafes already publidied are organs between herfelf in the brain and every other
aimed innumerable : Mangetus, Morgagni, indeed ma- part of the body, fitted to convey her commands and
ny of the bed modern writings in phyfic, are full of infiuence over the whole. For thefe purpofes the nerves
them. And if we look among the phyficians of the are aaually given. They are chords, which rife from
bed charafter, and obferve thofe who have the art it- the brain, the immediate refidence of the mind, and
felf, rather than the craft of the profeffion at heart; difperfe themfelves in branches through all parts of the
we ftiall find them condantly taking pains to procure body. They convey all the different kinds of fenfa-
leave to examine the bodies of their patients after death, tions to the mind, in the brain ; and likewife carry out
After having confidered the rife and progrefs of ana- from thence all her commands or infiuence to the other
tomy * the vafious difcoveries that have been made in parts of the body. They are intended to be occafional
it from time to time ; the great number of diligent monitors againd all fuch impreflions as might endanger
obfervers who have applied themfelves to this art; and the wellbeing of the whole, or of any particular part;
the importance of the dudy, not only for the prevent- which vindicates the Creator of all things, in having
tion and cure of difeafes, but in furnifiiing the livelied adually fubjeded us to thofe many difagreeable and
proofs of divine wifdom ; the following quedions feem painful fenfations which we are expofed to from a thou-
naturally to arife : For what purpofes is there fuch a fand accidents in life.
* variety of parts m the human body ? Why fuch a com- Moreover, the mind, in this corporeal fydem, mud
plication of nice and tender machinery ? Why was be endued with the power of moving from place to
there not rather a more fimple, lefs delicate, and lefs place, that die may have intercourfe with a variety of
expenfive frame (a) ? objeds ; that die may fly from fuch as are difagreeable.
In order to acquire a fatisfa&ory general idea of this dangerous, or hurtful, and purfue fuch as are pleafant
fubieft, and find a folution of all fuch queflions, let or ufeful to her. And accordingly die is furnidied
us, in our imagination, make a man : in other words, with limbs, and with mufcles and tendons, the indru-
let us fuppofe that the mind, or immaterial part, is to be ments of motion, which are found in every part of the
placed in a corporeal fabric, in order to hold a corre- fabric where motion is neceffary.
fpondence with other material beings by the interven- But to fupport, to give firmnefs and fliape to the
tion of the body ; and then confider, dpriori, what will fabric ; to keep the fofter parts in their proper places ;
be wanted for her accommodation. In this inquiry, we to give fixed points for, and the proper direftion to
Ihall plainly fee the neceflity or advantage, and there- its motions, as well as to proteft fome of the more
fore the final caufe, of mod of the parts which we ac- important and tender organs frotn external injuries ;
tually find in the human body. And if we confider there mud be fome firm prop-work interwoven through
that in order to anfwer fome of the requifites, human the whole. And in faff, for fuch purpofes the bones
wit and invention would be very infufficient ; we need are given.
not be furprifed if we meet with fome parts of the bo- The prop-work mud not be made into one rigid fa-
dy whofe ufe we cannot yet perceive, and with fome brie, for that would prevent motion. Therefore there
operations or fundtions which we cannot explain. We are a number of bones.
can fee that the whole bears the mod driking charac- Thefe pieces mud all be firmly bound together, to
ters of excelling wifdom and ingenuity: but the im- prevent their diflocation. And this end is perfe&ly
perfedl fenfes and capacity of man cannot pretend to well anfwered by the ligaments.
reach every part of a machine, which nothing lefs than The extremities of thefe bony pieces, where they
the intelligence and power of the Supreme Being could move and rub upon one another, mud have fmooth
contrive and execute. and flippery furfaces for eafy motion. This is mod
Fird, then, The mind, the thinking immaterial agent, happily provided for by the cartilages and mucus of
T*md be provided with a place of immediate refidence, the joints.
The
(a) The follo’wing beautiful reprefentation is taken from the late Dr Hunter’s IntroduBory Lefture on Ana*
4omy*
* - 6
Introd. - A N A 1
General The interftices of all thefe parts muft be filled up
view of with fome foft and ductile matter, which lhall keep
thefubject. t}iem |n their places, unite them, and at the fame time
V~" v allow them to move a little upon one another. And
thefe purpofes are anfwered by the cellular membrane
or adipofe fubftance.
There muft be an outward covering over the whole
apparatus, both to give it compaftnefs and to defend it
from a thoufand injuries; which, in fa£t, are the very
purpofes of the Ikin and other integuments.
Laftly, The mind being formed for fociety and in-
tercourfe with beings of her own kind, fhe muft be en¬
dued with powers of expreffing and communicating her
thoughts by fome fenfible marks or figns; which fliall
be both eafy to herfelf, and admit of great variety : and
accordingly (he is provided with the organs and faculty
of fpeech, by which Ihe can throw out figns with ama¬
zing facility, and vary them without end.
Thus we have built up an animal body which would
feem to be pretty complete : but as it is the nature of
matter to be altered and worked upon by matter j fo
in a very little time fuch a living creature muft be de-
ftroyed, if there is no provifion for repairing the inju¬
ries which ftie muft commit upon herfelf, and thofe
which Ihe muft be expofed to from without. There¬
fore a treafure of blood is actually provided in the heart
and vafcular fyftem, full of nutritious and healing par¬
ticles, fluid enough to penetrate into the minuteft parts
of the animal; impelled by the heart, and conveyed by
the arteries, it wafhes every part, builds up what was
broken down, and fweeps away the old and ufelefs ma¬
terials. Hence we fee the neceflity or advantage of the
heart and arterial fyftem.
What more there was of this blood than enough to
repair the prefent damages of the machine, muft not be
loft, but ftiould be returned again to the heart ; and for
this purpofe the venous fyftem is aftually provided.
Thefe requifites in the animal explain, a priori^ the
circulation of the blood.
The old materials which were become ufelefs, and are
fwept off by the current of blood, muft be feparated and
thrown out of the fyftem. Therefore glands, the or¬
gans of fecretion, are given for ftraining whatever is
redundant, vapid, or noxious, from the mafs of blood j
and when drained, they are thrown out by emunctories,
called organs of excretion.
But now, as the machine muft be conftantly wear¬
ing, the reparation muft be carried on without inter-
miflion, and the drainers muft always be employed.
Therefore there is actually a perpetual circulation of the
blood, and the fecretions are always going on.
Even all this provifion, however, would not be fuffi-
cient; for that ftore of blood would foon be confumed,
and the fabric would break down, if there were not a
provifion made for frelh fupplies. Thefe we obferve,
in fadt, are profufely fcattered round her in the ani¬
mal and vegetable kingdoms 5 and flie is furniftied with
hands, the fitteft inftruments that could have been con¬
trived, for gathering them, and for preparing them in
a variety of ways for the mouth.
But thefe fupplies, which we call food, muft be con-
fiderably changed*, they muft be converted into blood.
Therefore (he is provided with teeth for cutting and
bruifing the food, and with a ftomach for melting it
down; In ihort, with all the organs fubfervient to di*
' O M Y. 183
geftion. The finer parts of the aliments only can be General
ufeful in the conftitution : thefe muft be taken up and view of
conveyed into the blood, and the dregs muft be thrown the fubjedt.
off. With this view the inteftinal canal is adtually gi- r
ven. It feparates the nutritious part, which we call
chyle, to be conveyed into the blood by the fyftem of
ablorbent veffels j and the faeces pafs downwards, to be
conduced out of the body.
Now we have got our animal not only furnifhed with
what is wanted for its immediate exiflence, but alfo
with the powers of protra&ing that exiftence to an in¬
definite length of time. But its duration, we may pre-
lume, muft neceffarily be limited : for as it is nourifti-
ed, grows, and is raifed up to its full ftrength and ut-
raoft perfection 5 fo it muft in time, in common with
all material beings, begin to decay, and then hurry on
to final ruin. Hence we fee the neceflity of a feheme
for renovation. Accordingly wife Providence, to per¬
petuate as well as to preferve his work, befides giving a
ftrong appetite for life and felf-prefervation, has made
animals male and female, and given them fuch organs
and paflions as will fecure the propagation of the fpecies
to the end of time.
Thus we fee, that by the very imperfeft furvey
which human reafon is able to take of this fubjeft, the-
animal man muft neceffarily be complex in his corporeal
fyftem, and in its operations.
He muft have one great and general fyftem, the vaf¬
cular, branching through the whole for circulation :
Another, the nervous, with its appendages the organs
of fenfe, for every kind of feeling : And a third, for
the union and connexion of all thofe parts.
Befides thefe primary and general fyftems, he re¬
quires others which may be more local or confined:
One for ftrength, fupport, and protection j the bony
compages : Another for the requifite motions of the
parts among themfelves, as well as for moving from
place to place $ the mufcular part of the body : An¬
other to prepare nourilhment for the daily recruit of the
body 5 the digeftive organs: And one for propagating
the fpecies *, the organs of generation.
And in taking this general furvey of what would ap¬
pear, a priori, to be neceffary for adapting an animal to
the fituations of life, we obferve, with great fatisfaftion,
that man is accordingly made of fuch fyftems, and for
fuch purpofes. He has them all ; and he has nothing
more except the organs of refpiration. Breathing it
feemed difficult to account for a priori: we only knew
it to be in faCt effential and neceffary to life. Notwith-
ftanding this, when we faw all the other parts of the
body, and their funClions, fo well accounted for, and
fo wifely adapted to their feveral purpofes, there could
be no doubt that refpiration was fo likewife : And ac¬
cordingly, the difcoveries of Dr Prieftley have lately
thrown light upon this funClion alfo, as will be ffiown in
its proper place. »
Of all the different fyftems in the human body, the
ufe and neceflity are not more apparent, than the wif-
dom and contrivance which has been exerted in putting
them all into the moft compaft and convenient form :
in dilpofing them fo, that they {hall mutually receive
and give helps to one another ■, and that all, or many
of the parts, {hall not only anfwer their principal end
or purpofe, but operate fuccefsfully and ufefully in a
variety of fecondary ways,
If
184 A N A T
General If we confider the whole animal machine in this
view of light, and compare it with any machine in which hu-
the fubjedt. man art has exerted its utmoft, fuppofe the beft con-
v ftru&ed diip that ever was built, we lhall be convinced
beyond the poffibility of doubt, that there are intel¬
ligence and power far furpafling what humanity can
boaft of. . .. .
One fuperiority in the natural machine is peculiarly
linking. In machines of human contrivance or art,
there is no internal power, no principle in the machine
itfelf, by which it can alter and accommodate itielf to
any injury which it may fuffer, or make up any injury
which admits of repair. But in the natural machine,
the animal body, this is moft wonderfully provided lor,
by internal powers in the machine itfelf j many of
which are not more certain and obvious m their ef-
fe£ts, than they are above all human comprehenfion as
to the manner and means of their operation. 1 bus, a
wound heals up of itfelf; a broken bone is made firm
again by a callus j a dead part is feparated and thrown
off: noxious juices are driven out by fome of the
emunaories*, a redundancy is removed by fomefpon-
tanfeous bleeding ; a bleeding naturally flops of itlelt;
and a great lofs of blood, from any caufe, is in iome
meafure compenfated by a contrafting power in the
vafcular fyflem, ivhich accommodates the capacity of
the veffels to the quantity contained. The llomach
gives information when the fupplies have been expend¬
ed ; reprefents, with great exaftnefs, the quantity and
the quality of what is wanted in the prefent date of the
O M Y.
Part I.
machine j and in proportion as fhe meets with negle£l, General
rifes in her demand, urges her petition in a louder tone, view of
and with more forcible arguments. For its proteftion,^6 lubJe^
an animal body refills heat and cold in a very wonderful ^
manner, and preferves an equal temperature in a burn¬
ing and in a freezing atmofphere.
A further excellence and luperiority in the natural
machine, if poflible, Hill more aftonifhing, more beyond
all human comprehenfion, than what we have been
fpeaking of, is the following: Befides thofe internal
powers of felf-prefervation in each individual, when twTo
of them co-operate, or a£l in concert, they are endued
with powers of making other animals, or machines, like
themfelves, which again are poffeffed of the fame powers
of producing others, and fo of multiplying the fpecies
without end.
Thefe are powers w’hich mock all human invention
or imitation. They are charadleriltics of the divine
Architect.
Having premifed this general account of the fubjedt,
we lhall next confider the method to be obferved in
treating it. .
Anatomy, it has been already obferved, is divided
into two parts ; Anatomy, properly fo called, or the
anatomy of the human body, and Comparative Ana¬
tomy. In the following treatife we lhall adopt the
fame arrangement. In the firll part we lhall treat of
the Anatomy of the Human Body, and in the fecondof
Comparative Anatomy.
PART I.
ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY,
THE lludy of the human body, as already noticed,
Is commonly divided into two parts. The firll, which
is called Anatomy, relates to the matter and ftrudlure
of its parts ; the fecond, called 'Physiology and animal
economy, relates to the principles and laws of its inter¬
nal operations and fundlions. i a -a 4
As the body is a compound of folids and nuids, Ana¬
tomy is divided into,
1. The Anatomy of the folids, and
2. The Anatomy of the fluids.
I. The solids, by which we mean all parts of our
body which are not fluid, are generally divided into
two claffes, viz. .
i The hard folids or bones. This part of anatomy
is called OJleology; which fignifiei the doftrine of the
2. The fofter folids •, which part is called Sarcology,
viz. the dodtriee o£ flefti.
This divifion of the folids, we may obferve, has pro¬
bably taken its origin from the vulgar obfervation, that
the body is made of bone and flelh. And as there are
many different kinds of what, are called foft or flelhy
parts Sarcology is fubdivided into,
1 (i’) Angeiology, or the dodlrine of veffels ; by which
is commonly underilood blood vejfels :
(2.) Adenology, of glands;
(3.) Neurology, of nerves :
(4.) Myology, of mufcles: and,
(5.) Splanchnology, of the vifeera or bowels. There
is, befides, that part which treats of the organs of fenfe
and of the integuments.
This divifion of the folids has been here mentioned,
rather for the fake of explaining fo many words, which
are conttantly ufed by anatomifts, than for its import¬
ance or accuracy. For befides many other objections
that might be urged, there are in the body three fpe¬
cies of folids, viz. griftle or cartilage, hair, and nails ;
which are of an intermediate nature between bone and
flefti ; and therefore cannot fo properly be brought into
the ofteology or the farcology. The cartilages were
claffed with the bones : becaufe the greatefl number of
them are appendages to bones : and for the like reafon
the hair and the nails were claffed with the integu¬
ments.
II. The FLUIDS of the human body may be divided
into three kinds, which Dr Hunter calls the crude, the
general or perfect, and the local or fecretedfluid.
1. By the crude fluid is meant the chyle, and what¬
ever is abforbed at the furfaces of the body ; in other
words, what is recently taken into the body, and is not
yet mixed with or converted into blood.
2. The general or perfeB fluid is the blood itfelf; viz.
what is contained in the heart, arteries, and veins, and
is going on in the round of the circulation.
3. The
Chap. I. ANA’
Ofteology. 3. The local or fecretedy are thofe fluids peculiar to
^ v ' particular parts of the body, which are {trained off from
the blood, and yet are very different in their properties
from the blood. They are commonly called fecretions;
and fome are ufeful, others excrementitious.
In treating of the Phy fiology, it is very difficult to fay
what plan (hould be followed: for every method which
has been yet propofed is attended with manifeft in¬
convenience. The powers and operations of the ma¬
chine have fuch a dependence upon one another, fuch
connexions and reciprocal influence, that they cannot
well be underftood or explained feparately. In this
fenfe our body may be compared to a circular chain
of powers, in which nothing is firft or laft, nothing fo-
O M Y. 185
litary or independent j fo that wherever we begin, we Oltcology.
find that there is fomething preceding which we ought 'v— •*
to have known. II we begin with the brain and the
nerves, for example, we {hall find that thefe cannot ex-
ift, even in idea, without the heart ; if we fet out with
the heart and vafcular fyftem,we {hall prefently be fen-
fible that the brain and the nerves muff befuppofed; or,
{hould we take up the mouth, and follow the courfe of
the aliment, we {hould fee that the very ffrft orgab
which prefented itfelf, fuppofed the exiftence both of
the heart and brain; wherefore we fhall incorporate
the Phyfiology with the Anatomy, by attempting to
explain the functions after we have demonftrated the
organs.
CHAP. I. OSTEOLOGY.
WE begin with the bones, which may be confider-
ed as the great fupport of the body, tending to give it
ihape and firmnefs.—-But before we enter into the de¬
tail of each particular bone, it will be neceffary to de-
, fcribe their compofition and connexions, and to explain
the nature of the different parts which have an imme¬
diate relation to them ; as the cartilages, ligaments,
periofteum, marrow, and fynovial glands.
Sect. I. Of the Bones in general) with their Ap-
! pendageS) &c.
pofition of* ^HE bones are of a firm and hard (b) fubftance,
the bones. ^ a whlte colour, and perfeftly infenfible. They are
the molt compaft and folid parts of the body, and
ferve for the attachment or fupport of all the other
parts.
. ^hree different fubftances are ufually diftinguilhed
m them ; their exterior or bony part, properly fo call-
ra ?eljS J and their reticular fubftance.
1 he hrft of thefe is formed of many lamin* or plates,
compofing a firm hard fubftance.—The fpongy or cel¬
lular part is fo called on account of its refemblance to
a Iponge, from the little cells which compofe it. This
iubftance forms almoft the whole of the extremities of
cylindrical bones. The reticular part is compofed of
fibres, which crofs each other in different direaions.
1 his net-work forms the internal furface of thofe bones
which have cavities.
The flat bones, as thofe of the head, are compofed
only of the Jarmnae and the cellular fubftance. This
laft is ufually found in the middle of the bone, dividing
it into two plates, and is there called diploe.
Gagliardi, who pretended to have difcovered an in-
nmte number of claviculi (c) or bony proceffes, which
he defcribes as traverfing the lamina to unite them to¬
gether has endeavoured to fupport this pretended dif-
covery by the analogy of bones to the bark of trees, in
which certain woody nails have been remarked: but
this opinion feems to be altogether fanciful.
Vol. II. Part I.
Some writers have fuppofed, that the bones are
formed by layers of the periofleum, which gradually
oflify, in the fame manner as the timber is formed in
trees by the hardening of the white fubftance that is
found between the inner bark and the wood. M. Du-
hamel, who has adopted this opinion, fed different
animals with madder and their ordinary food alternate¬
ly during a certain time; and he afferts, that in dif¬
fering their bones, he conftantly obferved diftindl lay¬
ers of red and white, which correfponded with the
length of time they had lived on madder or their ufual
aliment. But it has fince been proved by Detleft',
that M. Duhamel’s experiments were inaccurate, and
that neither the periofteum nor the cartilages are tin¬
ged by the ufe of madder, which is known to affe£l the
bones only.
We ufually confider in a bone, its body and its ex¬
tremities. The ancients gave the name of diaphyfis
to the body or middle part, and divided the extremi¬
ties into apophyfis and epiphyfis. An apophyfis, or
procefs, as it is more commonly called, is an eminence
continued from the body of the bone ; whereas an epi¬
phyfis is at firft a fort of an appendage to the bone by
means of an intermediate cartilage. Many epiphyles,
which appear as diftin£t bones in the foetus, afterwards
become apophyfes ; for they are at length fo complete¬
ly united to the body of the bone as not to be diftin-
guiftiable from it in the adult ftate. It is not unufual,
however, at the age of 18 and even 20 years, to find
the extremities of bones ftill in the ftate of epiphyfes.
The names given to the proceffes of bones are ex-
preffive of their ftiape, fize, or ufe; thus if a procefs is
large and of a fpherical form, it is called caput, or head$
if the head is flatted, it is termed condyle. Some pro¬
ceffes, from their refemblance to a ftiletto, a breaft, or
the beak of a crow, are called Jlyloid, tnafoid, or cora¬
coid; others are fly led ridges or /pines. The two pro¬
ceffes of the os femoris derive their name of trochanters
from their ufe.
A bone has its cavities as well as proceffes. Thefe
A a cavities
(b) Mr Scheele difcovered that bones contain
this combination they owe their firmneff.
(c) In his Anat. qflium nov. invent, illujlrat, he
pendtcular, oblique, headed, and crooked*
the phofphoric acid united with calcareous earth ; and that to
defcribes four kinds of thefe claviculi or nails, viz. the per**
186 ' A N A T
Ofteology, cavities either extend quite through its fubftance, or ap-
* v ’pear only as depreflions. The former are called
mina or holes, and thefe foramina are fometimes termed
canals or conduits, according to their form and ex¬
tent. Of the depreffions, fome are ufeful in articula¬
tion. Thefe are called cotyloid when they are deep,
as is the cafe with the os innominatum, where it re¬
ceives the head of the os femorisj or glenoid when they
are fuperficial, as in the fcapula, where it receives the
os humeri. Of the depreffions that are not defigned
for articulation, thofe which have fmall apertures are
called finufes; others that are large, and not equally
N furrounded by high brims, are ft.y\e& foJJcc ; fuch as are
long and narrow, furrowsor if broad and fuperficial
without brims, finuofities. Some are called digital im-
preflions, from their refemblance to the traces of a finger
on foft bodies.
Connexion We (hall abridge this article, which is exceedingly
of the diiTufe in the generality of anatomical books, and will
bones. endeavour to deferibe it with all the clearnefs it will
allow.
The bones compofing the fkeleton are fo conftrucied,
that the end of every bone is perfcftly adapted to the
extremity of that with which it is conne&ed, and this
connexion forms what is called their articulation.
Articulation is divided into diarthrofis, fynarthrofs,
and amphiarthrojis, or moveable, immoveable, and niix-
ed articulation. Each of the two firft has its fubdivi-
fions. Thus the diarthrojis, or moveable articulation,
includes, I. The enarthrofis, as it is called, when a large
head is admitted into a deep cavity, as in the articula¬
tion of the os femoris with the os innominatum. 2. Ar¬
throdia, when a round head is articulated with a fuper¬
ficial cavity, as is the cafe of the os humeri and fcapula.
3. Ginglimus, or hinge-like articulation, as in the con¬
nexion of the thigh-bone with the tibia. I. he enaithro-
fis and arthrodia allow of motion to all fides j the gin¬
glimus only of flexion and extenfion.
The fynarthrofis, or immoveable articulation, in¬
cludes, 1. The future, when the two bones are indent¬
ed into each other, as is the cafe with the parietal
bones. 2. Gomphofis, when one bone is fixed into
another, in the manner the teeth are fixed in their
fockets.
The term ampluarthrojis is applied to thofe articula¬
tions which partake both of the fynarthrofis and diar¬
throfis, as is the cafe with the bones of the vertebrae,
which are capable of motion in a certain degree, al¬
though they are firmly connedted together by interme¬
diate cartilages.
What is called fymphyjis is the union of two bones
into one ; as in the lower jaw, for inftance, which in the
foetus confifts of two diftindl bones, but becomes one in
a more advanced age, by the offification of the uniting
cartilage.
When bones are thus joined by the means of cartila¬
ges, the union is ftyled fynchondrojis; when by liga-
3 mer\ls,fyneur6jis.
Of the car- Cartilages are white, folid, fmooth, and elaftic fub-
tilages. fiances, between the hardnefs of bones and ligaments,
and feemingly of a fibrous texture. We are not able
to trace any veflelsinto their fubftance by injedlion, nor
are they ever found tinged in animals that have been
fed with madder.
They may be diftinguilhed into, ill, Thofe which
O M Y. Plirt I|
are conneaed with the bones j and 2dly, Thofe which Ofteologj
belong to other parts of the body. The firft ferve either ^   
to cover the ends and cavities of bones intended for mo¬
tion, as in the articulations, where by their fmoothnefs
they facilitate motions, which the bones alone could
not execute with fo much freedom j or, they ferve to
unite bones together, as in the fymphyfis pubis., or to
lengthen them as in the ribs.
Many of them oflifying as we advance in life, then-
number is lefs in the adult than m the foetus, and of
courfe there are fewer bones in the old than in the
young fnbjeft.
Of the fecond clafs of cartilages, or thofe belong¬
ing to the foft parts, we have inflances in the larynx,
where we find them ufeful in the formation of the voice,
and for the attachment of mufcles. 4
The periofteum is a fine membrane of a compaft cel-Of the pe
lular texture, reflebled from one joint to another, andnofteum-
ferving as a common covering to the bones. It has
fanguiferoCts and lymphatic veffels, and is fupplied with
nerves from the neighbouring parts. It adheres very
firmly to their furface, and by its fmoothnefs facilitates
the motion of mufcles. It likewife fupports the veflels
that go to be diftributed through the fubftance of the
bones', and may ferve to ftrengthen the articulations.
At the extremities of bones, where it is found covering
a cartilage, it has by fome been improperly confidered
as a diflinft membrane, and named perichondrium.
This, in its ufe and ftru&ure, refembles the periofteum.
Where it covers the bones of the Ikull, it has gotten the
name of pericranium.
The periofteum is not a produ&ion of the dura mater,
as the ancients, and after them Havers, imagined ; nor
are the bones formed by the oflification of this mem¬
brane, at leaft when it is in a found ftate, as fome late
writers have fuppofed.
The periofteum is deficient in the teeth above the
fockets, and in thofe parts of bones to which ligaments
or tendons are attached. . 5
The marrow is a fat oily fubftance, filling the cavi-Qfthe
ties of bones. In the great cavities of long bones it marrow,
is of a much firmer confiftence than in the cells of
their fpongy part. In the former it inclines fomewhat
to a yellow’ifh tinge, and is of the confiftence of fat;
in the latter, it is more fluid, and of a.red colour.
This difference in colour and confiftence is owing to
accidental caufes} both kinds are of the fame nature,
and may both be deferibed under the common name of
marrow, though fome writers give this name only to
the fat-like fubftance, and call the other the medullary
ju^ce*
The marrow is contained in a very fine and tranlpa-
rent membrane, which is fupplied with a great number
of blood veffels, chiefly from the periofteum. This mem-
brana medullaris adheres to the inner furface of the
bones, and furnifties an infinite number of minute bags;
or veficles for enclofing the marrow, which is likewife
fupported in the cavities of the bones by the long fila¬
ments of their reticular fubftance.
Befides the veffels from the periofteum, the membra-
na medullaris is furniflred with others, which in the long
bones may be feen palling in near the extremities of the
bone, and fending off numerous branches that ramify
through all the veficles of this membrane.
The bones, and the cells containing the marrow,
are
Cl®]), i.
Ofteology. are like wife furnirtied with lymphatics. By their means,
the marrow, like the fat, may be taken up in a greater
quantity than it is fecreted : and hence it is that fo lit¬
tle is found in the bones of thofe who die of lingering
difeafes.
It is {till a matter of controverfy, Whether the mar¬
row is fenfible or not ? We are certainly not able to
trace any nerves to it ; and from this circumftance, and
its analogy to fat, Haller has ventured to confider it as
infenfible. On the other hand, Duverney afferts, that
an injury done to this fubftance in a living animal was
attended with great pain. In this difpute phyfiologifts
do not feem to have fufficiently difcriminated between
the marrow itfelf and the membranous cells in which it
is contained. The former, like the fat, being nothing
more than a fecreted, and of courfe an inorganized mat¬
ter, may, with propriety, be ranked among the infen¬
fible parts, as much as infpiffated mucus or any other
feqreted matter in the body $ whereas the membrana
medullaris being vafcular, though it poflelfes but an ob-
fcure degree of feeling in a found ftate, is not perfectly
infenfible.
The marrow was formerly fuppofed to be intended
for the nouriftiment and renewal of the bones 5 but
this doctrine is now pretty generally and defervedly
exploded. It feems probable that the marrow is to
the bones what fat is to the foft parts. They both
ferve for fome important purpofes in the animal eco¬
nomy 5 but their particular ufe has never yet been
clearly afcertained. The marrow, from the tranfuda-
tion of the oil through the bones of a Ikeleton, is fup¬
pofed to diminifh their brittlenefs ; and Havers, who
has written profeffedly on the bones, defcribes the ca¬
nals by which the marrow is conveyed through every
part of their fubftance, and divides them into longi¬
tudinal and Iranfverfe ones, He fpeaks of the firft
as extending through the whole length of the bone j
and of the latter, as the paflages by which the longi¬
tudinal ones communicate with each other. The fimi-
larity of thefe to the large cancelli in burnt bones, and
the tranfudation of the oil through the bones of the
{keleton, feems to prove that fome fuch paflages do ac-
5 tually exift.
Synovial The fynovial glands are fmall bodies (d), fuppofed
glands. to be of a glandular ftrufture, and exceedingly vafcu¬
lar, fecreting a fluid of a clear mucilaginous nature,
which ferves to lubricate the joints. They are placed
in fmall cavities in the articulations, fo as to be capa¬
ble of being gently comprefled by the motion of the
joint, which exprefles their juice in proportion to the
degree of friftion. When the fynovia is wanting, or is
of too thick a confiftence, the joint becomes ftiflf and in¬
capable of flexion or extenfion. This is what is termed
7 anchylojis.
Of the liga- Ligaments are white, gliftening, inelaftic bands,
‘ttents. 0£ a compaft fubftance, more or lefs broad or thick,
and ferving to conneft the bones together. They are
diftinguiftied by different names adapted to their differ¬
ent forms and ufes. Thofe of the joints are called
I87
either round or burial. The round ligaments are white, Ofteology.
tendinous, and inelaftic. They are ftrong and flexible, v  
and are found only in the joint of the knee, and in the
articulation of the os femoris with the os innominatum.
The burial or capfular ligaments furround the whole
joint like a purfe, and are to be found in the articula¬
tions which allow motion every way, as in the articula¬
tion of the arm with the fcapula. g
Of thofe facs called Burfce Mucofee, a few were Of the bur-
known to former anatomifts, but by much the greaternrucofos,
number have been fince difeovered by Dr Monro (e),
who obferves, that they are to be met with in the ex¬
tremities of the body only; that many of them are placed
entirely on the inner fides of the tendons, between thefe
and the bones. Many others cover not only the inner,
but the outer fides of the tendons, or are interpofed be¬
tween the tendons and external parts, as well as between
thofe and the bones.
Some are fituated between the tendons and external
parts only or chiefly, fome between contiguous tendons,
or between the tendons or the ligaments and the joints.
A few fuch facs are obferved where the proceffes of bones
play upon the ligaments, or where one bone plays upon
another. Where two or more tendons are contiguous,
and afterwards feparate from each other, we generally
find a common burfa divided into branches with which
it communicates ; and a few burke of contiguous ten-
, dons communicate with each other.—Some, in healthy
children, communicate with the cavities of the joints;
and in many old people he has feen fuch communication
formed by ufe or worn by fri&ion, independent of dif- .
eafe,
Their proper membrane is thin and tranfparent, but
very denfe, and capable of confining air or any other
fluid. It is joined to the neighbouring parts by the
common cellular fubftance. Between the burfa and
the hard fubftance of bone a thin layer of cartilage or
of tough membrane is very generally interpofed. To
the cellular iubftance on the outfide of the burfa, the
adipofe fubftance is connedled : except where the burfa
covers a tendon, cartilage, or bone, much expofed to
preffure or fridtion,
In feveral places a mafs of fat, covered with the con¬
tinuation of the membrane of the burfa, projects into its
cavity. The edges of this are divided into fringes.
The inner fide of the membrane is fmooth, and is
extremely ilippery from the liquor fecreted in it. 9
J he ftrudture of the burfoe bears a ftrong refemblanceTheirdrur-
to the capfular ligaments of the joints. 1. The innerture con?-
layer of the ligament, like that of the burfae, is thin fhlt of^he'
and denfe. 2. It is connedted to the external ligamentscapf,aar jf.
by the common cellular fubftance. 3. Between it andgaments of
the bones, layers of cartilage, or the articular carti-thejoints-
lages, are interpofed. 4. At the fides of the joints,
where it is not fubjedl to violent preffure and fridtion,
the adipofe fubftance is connedled with the cellular
membrane. 5. Within the cavities of the joints we
obferve maffes of fat projedting, covered with fimilar
blood veffels, and with fimilar fimbriae hanging from
A a 2 their
A N A T O M Y.
(d) It is now much doubted, however, whether the appearances in the joints, which are ufually called glands.
are any thing more than affemblages of fat.
(e) See Defeription of the Burfce Mucofee, &c.
i88 A N A T
Ofteology. theif edges. 6. In the knee the upper part of fuch a
v——v——' mafs of fat forms what has been called the mucilaginous
gland of the joint, and the under part projefts into the
burfa behind the ligament which ties the patella to the
tibia. 7. The liquor which lubricates the buribe has the
fame colour, conliftence, and properties, as that of the
joints, and both are affebted in the fame manner by heat,
mineral acids, and ardent fpirits. 8. In fome places the
burfae conftantly communicate with the cavities of the
joints, in others they generally do fo •, from which we
may infer a famenefs of itru&ure.
When we examine the fimbriae common to the fatty
bodies of the joints and burfae, and which have been
fuppofed to be the dufts of glands lodged within the
maffes of fat, we are not able to difcover any glandular
appearance within them. And although we obferve
many veffels difperfed upon the membranes of the fatty
bodies and fimbriae ; and that we cannot doubt that
thefe fimbriae confiit of duds which contain a lubricating
liquor, and can even prefs fuch a liquor from them ; yet
their cavities and orifices are fo minute, that they are
not difcoverable even by the affiftance of magnifying
glaffes. Thefe fimbriae, appear, therefore, to be duds
like thofe of the urethra, which prepare a mucilaginous
liquor without the afliftance of any knotty or glandular
organ.
Upon the whole, the fynovia feems to be furnifhed
by invifible exhalent arteries, by the duds of the fim¬
briae, and by oil exuding from the adipofe follicles by
10 paflages not yet difcovered.
Of the Ike- The word fkeleton, which by its etymology implies
leton. fimply a dry preparation, is ufually applied to an affem-
blage" of all the bones of an animal united together in
their natural order. It is faid to be a natural fkeleton,
when the bones are conneded together by their own
proper ligaments $ and an artificial one, when they are
joined by any other fubflance, as wire, &.c.
The fkeleton is generally divided into the head,
trunk, and extremities. The firft divifion includes the
bones of the cranium and face. The bones of the trunk
are the fpine, ribs, fternum, and bones of the pelvis.
The upper extremity on each fide confifts of the two
bones of the fhoulder, viz. the fcapula and clavicle $ the
bone of the arm or os humeri $ the bones of the fore¬
arm, and thofe of the hand.
The lower extremity on each fide of the trunk eon-
fifts of the thigh-bone and the bones of the leg and
foot.
Sect. II. Of the Bones of the Head.
The head is of a roundifb figure, and fomewhat
oval (f). Its greateft diameter is from the forehead
x to the occiput ; its upper part is called vertex, or
crown of the head j its anterior or fore-part the face y
and the upper part of l\)\s,fnciput, or forehead j its fides
O M Y. Part L
the temples ; its poflerior, or hind part, the occiput; Ofteology
and its inferior part the bnfis. ' 11""
The bones of the head may be divided into thofe of
the cranium and face.
§ 1. Bones of the Cranium and Face.
There are eight bones of the cranium, viz. the coro¬
nal boue or os frontis; the two parietal bones or ofi'a
bregmatis •, the os occipitis j the two temporal bones ;
the fphenoid bone j and the os ethmoides or cribriforme.
Ol thefe, only the os occipitis and offa bregmatis are 11
confidered as proper to the cranium ; the reft being com¬
mon both to the cranium and face.
Thefe bones are all harder at their furface than in
their middle : and on this account they are divided
into two tables, and a middle fpongy fubftance called
deplde. _ 12
In this, as in all the other bones, we (hall Confider its of the os
figure, ftrudture, proceffes, depreflions, and cavities; fronus-
and the manner in which it is articulated with the other
bones.
The os frontis has fome refemblance in thape to the
{hell of the cockle. Externally it is convex, its con¬
cave fide being turned towards the brain. This bone,
in the places where it is united te the temporal bones,
is very thin, and has there no diploe. It is likewife
exceedingly thin in that part of the orbit of the eye
which is neareft to the nofe. Hence it is, that a
wound in the eye, by a fword, or any other pointed in-
ftrument, is fometimes produ&ive of immediate death.
In thefe cafes, the fword pafting through the weak part
of the bone, penetrates the brain, and divides the
nerves at their origin j or perhaps opens fome blood-
veffel, the confequences of which are foon fatal.
We obferve on the exterior furface of this bone five
apophyfes or proceffes, which are eafily to be diftin-
guiftied. One of thefe is placed at the bottom and
narroweft part of the bone, and is called the nafal
procefs, from its fupporting the upper end of the
bones of the nofe. The four others are called angu¬
lar or orbitar proceffes. They aflift to form the orbits,
which are the cavities in which the eyes are placed.
In each of thefe orbits there are two proceffes, one at
the interior or great angle, and the other at the exte¬
rior or little angle of the orbit. They are called the
angular proceffes. Between thefe a ridge is extended
in form of an arch, and on this the eyebrows are
placed. It is called the orbitar or fuperciliary ridge,,
and in fome meafure covers and defends the globe of
the eye. There is a hole in this for the paffage of the
frontal veffels and nerves. This arch is interrupted
near the nofe by a fmall pit, in which the tendon of
the mufculus obliquus major of the eye is fixed. From
the under part of each fuperciliary ridge a thin plate
runs a confidernble way backwards, and has the name
of orbitar; the external and fore part of this plate
forms
(f) The bones of the foetus being perfe&ly diftintt, and the mufcles in young perfons not a6ting much, the
fhape of the head has been fuppofed to depend much on the management of children when very young. Vefalius,
who has remarked the difference in people of different nations, obferves, for inftance, that the head of a Turk is
conical, from the early ufe of the turban ; whilft that of an Engliftiman is flattened by the chin-ftay. Some of the
lateft phyfiologifts fuppofe, with good reafon, that this difference is chiefly owing to certain natural caufes witk
which we are as yet unacquainted.
2
Chap. I. ANATOMY. 189
Ofteoloi’y forms a finuofity for lodging the lachrymal gland. Be-
'y——' tween the orbitar plates there is a large difcontinuation
of the bone, which is filled up by the cribriform part
of the os ethmoides.
On examining the inner furface of this bone at its
under and middle part, we obferve an elevation in form
of a ridge, which has been called \\vtfpinousprocefs;
it afcends for fome way, dividing the bones into two
confiderable foffae, in which the anterior lobes of the
brain are placed. To a narrow furrow in this ridge
is attached the extremity of the falx, as the membrane
is called, which divides the brain into two hemifpheres.
The furrow becoming gradually wider, is continued to
the upper and back part of the bone. It has the falx
fixed to it, and part of the longitudinal finus lodged
in it. Befides the two foffae, there are many depref-
fions, which appear like digital impreflions, and owe
their formation to the prominent circumvolutions of the
brain.
In the foetus, the forehead is compofed of two di-
ftinft bones j fo that in them the fagittal future reaches
from the os occipitis to the nofe. This bone is al-
xnoft everywhere compofed of two tables and a diplbe.
Thefe two tables, feparating from each other under
the eyes, form two cavities, one on each fide of the
face, called the frontal finufes. Thefe finufes are lined
with a foft membrane, called membrana pituitaria. In
thefe finufes a mucus is fecreted, which is conftantly
palling through twofmall holes into the noftrils, which
it ferves to moiften.
The os frontis is joined by futures to many of the
bones of the head, viz. to the parietal, maxillary, and
temporal bones j to the os ethmoides j os fphenoides ;
os unguis; and offa nafi. The future which connedts
^ it with the parietal bones is called the coronalfuture.
Of the pa- The parietal bones are two in number; they are
rietalbones, very thin, and even tranfparen,t in fome places. The
particular figure of each of thefe bones is that of an
irregular fquare, bordered with indentations through
its whole circumference, except at its lower part. It
will be eafily conceived, that thefe bones which com-
pofe the fuperior and lateral parts of the cranium, and
cover the greateft part of the brain, form a kind of
vault. On their inner furface we obferve the marks
of the veffels of the dura mater ; and at their upper
edge the groove for the fuperior longitudinal finus.
The offa parietalia are joined to each other by the
fagittal future ; to the os fphenoides and offa temporum
by the fquamous future; to the os occipitis by the
lambdoidal future (g), fo called from its refemblance
to the Greek letter lambda; and to the os frontis by
the coronal future.
In the foetus, the parietal bones are feparated from
the middle of the divided os frontis by a portion of the
14 cranium then unoffified.
pitafb°CC'' ^'^ie 0CC*P*ta^ hone forms the pofterior and inferior
une- parts of the Ikull; it approaches nearly to the lhape of
■ a lozenge, and is indented throughout three parts of its
circumference.
There is a confiderable hole in the inferior portion
of this bone, called the foramen magnum^ through which Ofteology.
the medulla oblongata paffes into the ipine.—The ner- -——v
vi accefforii, and vertebral arteries, likewife pafs through
it. Behind the condyles are two holes for the paifage
of cervical veins into the lateral finufes ; and above
them are two others for the paffage of the eignth pair
and acceffory nerves out of the head. At the fides,
and a little on the anterior part of the foramen mag¬
num, are two proceffes, called the condyles, one on
each fide; they are of an oval figure, and are covered
with cartilage.
The external furface of this bone has a large tranf-
verfe arched ridge, under which the bone is very irre¬
gular, where it affords attachment to feveral mufcles.
On examining its inner furface, we may obferve two
ridges in form of a crofs ; one afcending from near the
foramen magnum to the top of the bone ; the upper
end of this, in which the falx is fixed, is hollow, for
lodging the fuperior longitudinal finus ; and the under
end has the third procefs of the dura mater fixed to it.
The other ridge, which runs horizontally, is likewife
hollow for containing the lateral finufes. Four foffae
are formed by the crofs, two above and two below. In
the former are placed the pofterior lobes of the brain,
and in the latter the lobes of the cerebellum.
At the bafis of the cranium, we obferve the cunei¬
form procefs, (which is the name given to the great
apophyfis at the fore part of this bone) ; it ferves for
the reception of the medulla oblongata.
The os occipitis is of greater ftrength and thicknefs
than either of the other bones of the head, though ir¬
regularly fo ; at its inferior part, where it is thinneftr
it is covered by a great number of mufcles.
This bone, from its fituation, being more liable to be
injured by falls than any other bone of the head, nature
has wifely given it the. greatefl ftrength at its upper
part, where it is moft expofed to danger.
It is joined to the parietal bones by the lambdoidal
future, and to the offa temporum by the additamen-
tum of the temporal future. It is likewife conneffed
to the os fphenoides by the cuneiform procefs. It is
by means of the os occipitis that the head is united to
the trunk, the. two condyles of this bone being con-
nefled to the fuperior oblique prodeffes of the firft ver¬
tebra of the neck. 15
There are two temporal bones, one on each fide.— Of the tern.-
We may Hiftinguilh in them two parts ; one of which Pora^',oncs*
is called the fquamous or fcaly part, and the other pars
petrofa from its hardnefs. This laft is fhaped like a
pyramid.
Each of thefe divifions affords proceffes and cavities :
externally there are three proceffes ; one anterior, call¬
ed the 'sijgomatic procefs; one pofterior, called the
mafoid mamillary procefs, from its refemblance to a
nipple ; and one inferior, called the fyloid procefs, be-
caufe it is fhaped like a ftiletto, or dagger.
The cavities are, 1. The meatus auditorius exter-
nus. 2. A large foffa which ferves for the articulation
of the lower jaw ; it is before the meatus auditorius,
and immediately under the zygomatic procefs. 3. The
ftylo-maftoid;
fo
(g) The lambdoidal future is fometimes very irregular, being compofed of many fmall futures, which furround
many little bones called ojfa triquetra, though perhaps improperly, as they are not always triangulaiv
igo A N A T
Ofteology. ftylo-maftoid hole, fo called from it? fituation between
‘ 1 v" the ftyloid and maftoid proceffes; it is likewife ftyled
the aquedud of Fallopius, and affords a paffage to the
portio dura of the auditory or feventh pair of nerves.
4. Below, and on the fore part of the laft foramen, we
obferve part of the jugular foffa, in which the begin¬
ning of the internal jugular vein is lodged. Anterior
and fuperior to this foffa i$ the orifice of a foramen,
through which paffes the carotid artery. This foramen
runs firft upwards and then forwards, forming a kind of
elbow, and terminates at the end of the os petrofum.—
At this part of each temporal bone, we may obferve the
opening of the Euftachian tube, a canal which paffes
from the ear to the back part of the nofe.
In examining the internal furface of thefe bones, we
may remark the triangular figure of their petrous part
which feparates two foffae •, one fuperior and anterior :
the other inferior and pofterior : the latter of thefe
compofes part of the foffa, in which the cerebellum is
placed-, and the former, a portion of the leaft foffa for
the bafis of the brain. On the pofterior fide of the pars
petrofa, we obferve the meatus auditorius internus, into
which enters the double nerve of the feventh pair. On
the under fide of this procefs, part of a hole appears,
which is common to the temporal and occipital bones ;
through it the lateral finus, the eighth pair, and accef-
fory nerves, pafs out of the head.
The pars petrofa contains feveral little bones called
the bones of the ear; which, as they do not enter into
the formation of the cranium, {hall be defcribed when
we are treating of the organs of hearing.
The offa temporum are joined to the offa malarum,
by the zygomatic futures; to the parietal bones, by the
fquamous futures; to the os occipitis, by the lambdoi-
dal future; and to the fphenoid bone, by the future of
that name.
This bone, from its fituation amidft the other bones
of the head, has been fometimes called cuneiforme. It
is of a very irregular figure, and has been compared to
a bat with its wings extended.
It is commonly divided into its middle part or body,
and its fides or wings.
The fore part of the body has a fpine or ridge, which
makes part of the feptum narium. The upper part of
each wing forms a (hare of the temple. The fore part
of this belongs to the orbit; while the under and back
part, termed fpinous procefs, is lodged in the bafe of
the Ikull at the point of the pars petrofa. But two of
the moft: remarkable proceffes are the pterygoid or ali¬
form, one on each fide of the body of the bone, and
at no great diftance from it. Each of thefe proceffes
is divided into two wings, and of thefe the exterior
one is the wideft. The other terminates in a hook-like
procefs.
The internal furface of this bone affords three foffae.
Two of thefe are formed by the wings of the bone,
and make part of *the leffer foffae of the bafis of the
cranium. The third, which is fmaller, is on the top
of the body of the bone; and is called fella turcica,
from its refemblance to a Turkith faddle. This foffa,
in which the pituitary gland is placed, has pofteriorly
and anteriorly proceffes called the clinoidprocejfes.
There are twelve holes in this bone, viz. fix on each
fide. The firft is the paffage of the optic nerve and
ocular artery; the fecond, or large flit, tranfmits the
O M Y.
Tart I.
16
•Of the os
fphenoides.
third, fourth, fixth, and firft part of the fifth pair < f ofteolrgy.
nerves with the ocular vein ; the third hole, gives , -1
paffage to the fecond branch of the fifth pair, and
the fourth hole to the third branch of the fifth pair
of nerves. The fifth hole is the paffage of the artery
of the dura mater. The fixth hole is fituated above
the pterygoid procefs of the fphenoid bone : through
it a reflected branch of the fecond part of the fifth pair
paffes.
Within the fubftance of the os fphenoides there are
two finufes feparated by a bony plate. They are lined
with the pituitary membrane; and, like the frontal fi¬
nufes, feparate a mucus which paffes into the noftrils.
The os fphenoides is joined to all the bones of the
cranium ; and likewife to the offa maxillaria, offa ma-
lorum, offa palati, and vomer.
This bone makes part of the bafis of the ikull, affifts
in forming the orbits, and affords attachment to feveral
mufcles.
The os ethmoides is fituated at the fore part of the
bafis of the cranium, and is of a very irregular figure.
From the great number of holes with which it is
pierced, it is fometimes called os cribriforme, or fieve-
like bone. jy
It confifts of a middle part and two fides. The of the os
middle part is formed of a thin bony plate, in which ethmoide*
are an infinite number of holes that afford a paffage to^^11’
filaments of the olfadlory nerve. From the middle of 0
this plate, both on the outfide, and from within, there
rifes up a procefs, which may be eafily diftinguilhed.
The inner one is called crifta galli, from its fuppofed
refemblance to a cock’s comb. To this procefs the
falx of the dura mater is attached. The exterior pro¬
cefs, which has the fame common bafis as the crifta
galli, is a fine lamella which is united to the vomer ;
and divides the cavity of the noftrils, though unequally,
it being generally a little inclined to one fide.
The lateral parts of this bone are compofed of a
cellular fubftance; and thefe cells are fo very intri¬
cate, that their figure or number cannot be defcribed.
Many writers have on this account called this part of
the bone the labyrinth. Thefe cells are externally
covered with a very thin bony lamella. This part of
the bone is called the os planum, and forms part of the
orbit.
The different cells of this bone, which are numerous,
and which are everywhere lined with the pituitary mem¬
brane, evidently ferve to enlarge the cavity of the nofe,
in which the organ of fmelling refides.
This bone is joined to the os fphenoides, os frontis,
offa maxillaria, offa palati, offa nafi, offa unguis, and
vomer.
The ancients, who confidered the brain as the feat
of all the humours, imagined that this vifcus difchar-
ged its redundant moifture through the holes of the
ethmoid bone. And the vulgar ftill think, that ab-
fceffes of the brain difcharge themfelves through the
mouth and ears, and that fnuff is liable to get into the
head ; but neither fnuff nor the matter of an abfcefs
are more capable of pafling through the cribriform
bone, than the ferofity which they fuppofed was dif-
charged through it in a common cold. All the holes
of the ethmoid bone are filled up with the branches of
the olfadftory nerve. Its inner part is likewife covered
with the dura mater, and its cells are everywhere lined
with
Chap. I. A N A T
Gfteolooy. with the pitui.tary membrane ; fo that neither matter
V-*-'' nor any other fluid can poflibly pafs through this bone
either externally or internally. Matter is indeed fome-
times difcharged through the noftrils ; but the feat of
the difeafe is in the finufes of the nofe, and not in the
brain ; and impofthumations are obferved to take place
in the ear, which fuppurate and difcharge themfelves
externally.
Before we leave the bones of the head, we with to
make fome general obfervations on its ftru&ure and fi¬
gure. As the cranium might have been compofed of
a' Angle bone, the articulation of its feveral bones
being abfolutely without motion, it may be alked per¬
haps, Why fuch a multiplicity of bones and fo great
a number of futures ? Many advantages may poflibly
arife from this plurality of bones and futures, which
may not yet have been obferved. We are able, how¬
ever, to point out many ufeful ends, which could only
be accomplifhed by this peculiarity of ftrufture. In
this, as in all the other works of nature, the great wif-
dom of the Creator is evinced, and cannot fail to excite
our admiration and gratitude.
The cranium, by being divided into feveral bones,
grows much fatter and with greater facility, than if it
was compofed of one piece only. In the foetus, the
bones, as we have before obferved, are perfectly ditlin6t
from each other. The oflification begins in the middle
of each bone, and proceeds gradually to the circumfe*
rence. Hence the oflification, and of courfe the in-
creafe of the head, is carried on from an infinite num¬
ber of points at the fame time, and the bones confe-
quently approach each other in the fame proportion.
To illuftrate this dodlrine more clearly, if it can want
further illuftration, fuppofe it neceffary for the parietal
bones which compofe the upper part of the head, to
extend their oflification, and form the fore part of the
head likewife.—Is it not evident, that this procefs
would be much more tedious than it is now, when the
os frontis and the parietal bones are both growing at
the fame time ? Hence it happens, that the heads of
young people, in which the bones begin to touch each
other, increafe flowly j and that the proportionate in-
creafe of the volume of the head is greater in three
months in the foetus, than it is perhaps in twenty-four
months at the age of fourteen or fifteen years.
The futures, exclufive of their advantages in fuf-
pending the proceffes of the dura mater, are evidently
of great utility in preventing the too great extent of
fractures of the Ikull.—Suppofe, for inftance, that by
a fall or blow, one of the bones of the cranium be¬
comes fraftured. The fiflure, which in a head com¬
pofed of only one bone, would be liable to extend it-
felf through the whole of it, is checked and fometimes
perhaps flopped by the firft future it meets, and the ef-
fedfs of the injury are confined to the bone on which
the blow was received. Ruyfeh indeed, and fome others,
will not allow the futures to be of any fuch ufe ; but
cafes have been met with where they feemed to have had
this effedf, and in young fubjedls their utility in this re-
fpett muft be ftill more obvious.
I he fpherical fliape of the head feems likewife to
render it more capable of refitting external violence than
any other ftiape would do. In a vault, thfe parts mutu¬
ally fupport and ftrengthen each other, and this happens
in the cranium.
O M Y.
§ 2. Propet' Bones of the Face.
I9I
Ofteology.
The face, which eonfifts of a great number of bones,
is commonly divided into the upper and lower jaws, bones of
The upper jaw confifts of thirteen bones, exclufive of the face,
the teeth. Of thefe, fix are placed on each fide of the
maxilla fuperior, and one in the middle.
The bones, which are in pairs, are the ofla mala-
rum, ofla maxillaria, ofla nafi, ofla unguis, ofla palati,
and ofla fpongiofa inferiora. The Angle bone is the
vomer. tp
Thefe are the prominent fquare bones which are pla- Of the offa.
ced under the eyes, forming parts of the orbits and the rn‘^aruni*
upper part of the cheeks. Each of them affords three
furfaces : one exterior and a little convex ; a fecond fu¬
perior and concave, forming the inferior part and fides
of the orbit j and a third pofterior, irregular, and hol¬
lowed for the lodgment of the lower part of the tempo¬
ral mufcle.
The angles of each bone form four procefles, two
of which may be called orbitar procej/es ; of thefe the
upper one is joined by future to the os frontis, and
that below to the maxillary bone. The third is con-
neded with the os fphenoides by means of the tranf*
verfe future j and the fourth is joined to the zygomatic
procefs of the temporal bone, with which it forms the
zygoma. 20'
Thefe bones, which are of a very irregular figure, are Of th® °fla
fo called becaufe they form the moft confiderable por- ‘nax‘*jaria
tion of the upper jaw. They are two in number, and ipe
generally remain diftind through life.
Of the many procefles which are to be feen on thefe
bones, and which are conneded with the bones of the
face and fkull, we ftrall defcribe only the moft remark- -
able.
One of thefe procefles is at the upper and fore part
of the bone, making part of the fide of the nofe, and
called the nafalprocefs. Another forms a kind of cir¬
cular fweep at the inferior part of the bone, in which
are the aveoli or fockets for the teeth : this is called
the alveolar procefs. A third procefs is united to the
os malae on each tide. Between this and the nafal pro¬
cefs there is a thin plate, which forms a {hare of the
orbit, and lies over a paflage for the fuperior maxillary
vefiels and nerves—The alveolar procefs has pofteriorly
a confiderable tuberofity on its internal furface, called
the maxillary tuberofity.
Behind the alveolar procefs we obferve two horizon¬
tal lamellae, which uniting together, form part of the
roof of the mouth, and divide it from the nofe. The
hollownefs of the roof of the mouth is owing to this par¬
tition’s being feated fomewhat higher than the alveolar
procefs.—At the fore part of the horizontal lamellae
there is a hole called foramen inci/ivum, through which
fmall blood veflels and nerves go between the moutli
and nofe.
In viewing thefe bones internally, we obferve a fofla
in the inferior portion of the nafal procefs, which, with
the os unguis and os fpongiofum inferius, forms a paf-
fage for the lachrymal duft.
Where thefe two bones are united to each other, they
projeft ‘fomewhat upwards and forwards, leaving be¬
tween them a furrow, into which the lower portion of
the feptum nafi is admitted.
Each of thefe bones being hollow, a confiderable fi-
nus;'
, 2t
Of the offa
nafi.
Of the offa
unguis.
192 A N A T
Ofteology. nus is formed under its orbitarpart. This cavity, which
* v1 is ufually named after Highmore, though it was defcri-
bed by Fallopius and others before his time, is lined
with the pituitary membrane. It is intended for the
fame purpofes as the other finufes of the nofe, and opens
into the noftrils.
The offa maxillaria are connected with the greater
part of the bones of the face and cranium, and affilt in
forming not only the cheeks, but likewife the palate,
nofe, and orbits.
The offa nail form two irregular fquares. They are
thicker and narrower above than below. Externally
they are fomewhat convex, and internally flightly con¬
cave. Thefe bones conftitute the upper part of the
nofe. At their fore part they are united to each other,
above to the os frontis, by their {ides to the offa maxil¬
laria fuperiora, pofteriorly and interiorly to the feptum
narium, and below to the cartilages that compofe the
reft of the noftrils.
Thefe little tranfparent bones owe their name to
their fuppofed refemblance to a finger nail. Sometimes
they are called ojfa lachrytnalia, from their concurring
with the nafal procefs of each maxillary bone in form¬
ing a lodgment for the lachrymal fac and du<ft.
The offa unguis are of an irregular figure.. Their ex¬
ternal furface confifts of two fmooth parts, divided by a
middle ridge. One of thefe parts, which is concave
and neareft to the nofe, ferves to fupport the lachrymal
fac and part of the lachrymal duft. The other, which
is flat, forms a fmall part of the orbit.
Each of thefe bones is connected with the os frontis,
os ethmoides, and os maxillare fuperius.
Thefe bones, which are fituated at the back part of
the roof of the mouth, between the os fphenoides and
the offa maxillaria fuperiora, are of a very irregular
{hape, and ferve to form the nafal and maxillary foffa,
and a fmall portion of the orbit. Where they are uni¬
ted to each other, they rife up into a fpine on their in¬
ternal furface. This fpine appears to be a continuation
of that of the fuperior maxillary bones, and helps to
form the feptum narium.
Thefe bones are joined to the offa maxillaria fuperi¬
ora, os ethmoides, os fphenoides, and vomer.
This bone derives its name from its refemblance to
a ploughfhare. It is a long and flat bone, fomewhat
thicker at its back than at its fore part. At.its upper
part we obferve a furrow extending through its whole
length. The pofterior and largeft part of this furrow
receives a procefs of the fphenoid bone. From this the
furrow advances forwards, and becoming narrower and
(hallower, receives fome part of the nafal lamella eth-
moidea : the reft ferves to fupport the middle cartilage
of the nofe.
The inferior portion of this bone is placed on the na¬
fal fpine of the maxillary and palate bones, which we
mentioned in our defcription of the offa palati.
The vomer is united to the os fphenoides, os ethmoi¬
des, offa maxillaria fuperiora, and offa palati. It forms
part of the feptum narium, by dividing the back part
the nofe into two noftrils.
The parts which are ufually defcribed by this name,
do not feem to deferve to be diftinguiftied as diftintt
bones, except in young fubjefts. They confift of a
fpongy lamella in each noftril, which is united to the
O M Y.
Part I.
23
Of the offa
palati.
24
Of the vo¬
mer.
fpongy lamina of the ethmoid bonfj of which they are Ofteoiogy
by fome confidered as a part. v——y—«■
' Each of thefe lamellae is longeft from behind for¬
wards j with its convex furface turned totvards the fep¬
tum narium, and its concave part towards the maxillary
bone, covering the opening of the lachrymal du£t into
the nofe.
Thefe bones are covered with the pituitary mem¬
brane ; and befides their conne&ion with the ethmoid
bone, are joined to the offa maxillaria fuperiora, offa
palati, and offa unguis. ... 26
The maxilla inferior, or lower jaw, which in its Ihape ofthema*.
refembles a horfe fhoe, confifts of two diftinft bones nia inferi.
in the foetus j but thefe unite together foon after birth, or.
fo as to form only one bone. The upper edge of this
bone, like the os maxillare fuperius, has an alveolar pro¬
cefs, furniftied with fockets for the teeth.
On each fide the pofterior part of the bone rifes al-
moft perpendicularly into two proceffes.. The higheft
of thefe, called the coronoid procefs, is pointed and
thin, and ferves for the infertion of the temporal mufcle.
The other, or condyloid procefs, as it is called, is ftiort-
er and thicker, and ends in an oblong rounded head,
which is received into a foffa of the temporal bone,, and
is formed for a moveable articulation with the cranium.
This joint is furniftied with a moveable cartilage. At
the bottom of each coronoid procefs, on its inner part,
we obferve a foramen extending under the roots of all
the teeth, and terminating at the outer furface of
the bone near the chin. Each of thefe canals tranfmits
an artery, vein, and nerve, from which branches are
fent off to the teeth.
The lower jaw is capable of a great variety of motion.
By Aiding the condyles from the cavity towards the emi¬
nences on each fide, we bring it horizontally forwards,
as in biting; or we may bring the condyles only for¬
ward, and tilt the reft of the jaw backward, as in open¬
ing the mouth. We are likevvife able to Aide the con¬
dyles alternately backwards and forwards from the ca¬
vity to the eminence, and vice verfa, as in grinding the
teeth. The cartilages, by adapting themfelves to. the
different inequalities in thefe feveral motions of the ja w,
ferve to fecure the articulation, and to prevent any in¬
juries from friiftion.
The alveolar proceffes are coropofed of an outer , and
inner bony plate, united together by thin partitions,
which at the fore part of the jaw divide the proceffes
into as many fockets as there are teeth. But at the back
part of the jaw, where the teeth have more than one
root, we find a diftinft cell for each root. In both jaws
thefe proceffes begin to be formed with the teeth $ they
likewife accompany them in their growth, and gradu¬
ally difappear when the teeth are removed.
§ 3* Of ^ie Teeth.
27
15 n-
Of the offa
fpongiofa
inferiora.
The teeth are bones of a particular ftru£lure, formed Of the
for the purpofes of maftication and the articulation oft661*1,
the voice. It will be neceffary to confider their com-
pofition and figure, their number and arrangement, and
the time and order in which they appear.
In each tooth we may diftinguifti a body, a neck, and
a root or fangs.
The body of the tooth is that part which appears
above
Chap. I.
Ofteology. above tbe gams. The root is fixed into the focket,
w-v—' and the neck is the middle part between the two.
The teeth are compofed of two fubftances, viz. ena¬
mel and bone. Jhe enamel, or the vitreous or corti¬
cal part of the toothj is a white and very hard and
compadt fubftance peculiar to the teeth, and appears
fibrous or ftriated when broken. , This fubftance is
thickeft on the grinding furface, and becoming gradu¬
ally thinner, terminates infeniibly at the neck of the
* Thefaur. tooth- * affirmed, that he could trace the ar-
io^No. zy.teries into the hardeft part of the teeth j Leeuwen-
f Arcan. hoek f fufpe&ed the fibres of the enamel to be fo
Natur. many veffels ; and Monro % fays, he has frequently in-
— jedted the veffels of the teeth in children, fo as to make
$ Amt. of the infide of the cortex appear perfedtly red. . But it
the Human js certain, that it is not tinged by a madder diet, and
Bones. no injeaion will ever reach it, fo that it has no ap-
lfrSrZpe^ance 'of being vafcular ||.
The bony part, which compotes the inner lubltance
of the body, neck, and root of the tooth, refembles
other bones in its ftru&ure, but it is much harder than
the moft compadt part of bones in general. As a
tooth when once formed receives no tinge from a mad¬
der diet, and as the minuteft injedtions do not pene¬
trate into its fubftance, this part of a tooth has, like
the enamel, been fuppofed not to be vafcular. But
when we confider that the fangs of a tooth are inverted
by a periofteum, and that the fwellings of thefe fangs
are analogous to the fwellings of other bones, we may
reafonablv conclude, that there is a fimilarity of ftruc-
ture ; and that this bony part has a circulation through
its fubftance, although from its hardnefs we are unable
to demonftrate its veffels.
In each tooth we find an inner cavity, into which
enter an artery, vein, and nerve. This cavity begins
by a fmall opening, and becoming larger, terminates
in the body of the tooth. In advanced life this hole
fometimes clofes, and the tooth is of courfe rendered
infenfible.
The periofteum furrounds the teeth from their fangs
to a little beyond their bony fockets, where we find it
adhering to the gums. This membrane, while it en-
clofes the teeth, ferves at the fame time to line the
fockets 5 fo that it may be confidered as common to
both.
The teeth are likewife fecured in their fockets by
means of the gums *, a red, vafcular, firm, and elaftic
fubftance, that poffeffes but little infenfibility. In the
gums of infants we find a hard ridge extending through
their whole length, but no fuch ridge is to be feen in
old people who have loft their teeth.
The number of the teeth in both jaws, at full matu¬
rity, ufually varies from twenty-eight to thirty-two.
They are commonly divided into three claffes, viz. in-
cifores, canini, and grinders or molares (h). The in-
VOl. II. Part I.
193
cifores are the four teeth in the fore part of each jaw. Ofteology.
They have each of them two furfacesj one anterior and ‘““"V
convex, the other pofterior and {lightly concave, both
of which terminate in a ffiarp edge. They are called
incifores from their ufe in dividing the food. They
are ufually broader and thicker in the upper than in the
under jaw*, and, by being placed fomewhat obliquely,
generally fall over the latter.
The canini derive their name from their refemblance
to a dog’s tulks, being the longeft of all the teeth.
We find one on each fide of the incifores, fo that there
are two canini in each jaw. Their fang refembles that •
of the incifores, but is much larger •, and in their lhape
they appear like an incifor with its edge worn off, fo
as to terminate in a narrow point.
Thefe teeth not being calculated for cutting and di¬
viding the food like the incifores, or for grinding it
like the molares, feem to be intended for laying hold
of fubftances (1).
The molares or grinders, of which there are ten in
each jaw, are fo called, becaufe from their ffiape and
fize they are fitted for grinding the food. Each of
the incifores and canini is furniffied only with one
fang ; but in the molares of the under jaw we conftant-
ly find two fangs, and in thofe of the upper jaw three
fangs. Thefe fangs are fometimes feparated into two
points, and each of thefe points has fometimes been de-
fcribed as a diftinft fang.
The two firft of the molares, or thofe neareft to the
canine teeth on each fide, differ from the other three,
and are with great propriety named bicufpides by Mr
Hunter. They have fometimes only one root, and
feem to be of a middle nature between the incifores
and the larger molares. The two next are much larger.
The fifth or laft grinder on each fide is fmaller and
ffiorter than the reft ; and from its not cutting the gum
till after the age of twenty, and fometimes not till much
later in life, it is called dens fapientice.
There is in the ftrufture and arrangement of all
thefe teeth an art which cannot be fufficiently admired.
To underftand it properly, it will be neceffary to con¬
fider the under jaw as a kind of lever, with its fixed
points at its articulations with the temporal bones : it
will be right to obferve, too, that its powers arife from
its different mufcles, but in elevations chiefly from the
temporalis and maffeter 5 and that the aliment confti-
tutes the objeft of refiftance. It will appear, then,
that the molares, by being placed neareft the centre of
motion, are calculated to prefs with a much greater
force than the other teeth, independent of the grinding
powers which they poffefs by means of the pterygoid
mufcles ; and that it is for this reafon we put betweea
them any hard body we wiffi to break. s
The canini and incifores are placed farther from this
point, and of courfe cannot exert fo much force ; but
B b they
ANATOMY.
(h) Mr Hunter has thought proper to vary this divifion. He retains.the old name of incifores to the four
fore teeth, but be diftinguiflies the canine teeth by the name of the cufpidati. The two teeth which are next
to thefe, and which have been ufually ranked with the molares, he calls the bicafpides; and he gives the name of
grinders only to the three laft teeth on each fide.
(1) Mr Hunter remarks of thefe teeth, that we may trace in them a fimilarity in ftiape, fituation, and ufe,
from the moft imperfe&ly carnivorous animal, which we believe to be the human fpecies, to the lion, which is
*he moft perfe£lly carnivorous.
194
Ofteology.
A N A T
they are made for cutting and tearing the food, and
this form feems to make amends for their deficiency in
itrength.
There are examples of children who have come into
the world with two, three, and even four teeth : but
thefe examples are very rare; and it is feldom before
the feventh, eighth, or ninth month after birth, that
the incifores, which are the firft formed, begin to pafs
through the gum. The fymptoms of dentition, how¬
ever, in confequence of irritation from the teeth, fre¬
quently take place in the fourth or fifth month. A-
bout the twentieth or twenty-fourth month, the canini
and two molares make their appearance.
The dangerous fymptoms that fometimes accompany
dentition, are owing to the preffure of the teeth on the
gum, which they irritate fo as to excite pain and in¬
flammation. This irritation feems to occafion a gra¬
dual wailing of the gum at the part, till at length the
tooth makes its appearance.
The fymptoms are more or lefs alarming, in propor¬
tion to the refiftance which the gum affords to the
teeth, and according to the number of teeth which
may chance to feek a paffage at the fame time. Were
they all to appear at once, children would fall vi£tims
to the pain and exceflive irritation j but nature has lo
very wifely difpofed them, that they ufually appear
one after the other, with fome diftance of time be¬
tween each. The firft incifor that appears is generally
in the lower jaw, and is followed by one in the up¬
per jaw. Sometimes the canini, but more commonly
one of the molares, begins to pafs through the gum
firft. . .
Thefe 20 teeth, viz. eight incifores, four camni, and
eight molares, are called temporary or milk teeth, be-
caufe they are all ftied between the age of feven and
14, and are fucceeded by what are called the permanent
or \idult teeth. The latter are of a firmer texture, and
have larger fangs.
Thefe adult teeth being placed in a diftina let of
alveoli, the upper fockets gradually difappear, as the
under ones increafe in fize, till at length the tempoia-
ry or upper teeth, having no longer any fupport, con-
fequently fall out.
To thefe 20 teeth which fucceed the temporary
ones, i 2 others are afterwards added, viz. three mo¬
lares on each fide in both jaws: and in order to make
room for this addition, we find that the jaws gradually
lengthen in proportion to the growth of the teeth j fo
that with 20 teeth, they feeftt to be as completely fill¬
ed as they are afterwards with 32. This, is the reafon
whv the face is rounder and flatter in children than in
adults.
With regard to the formation of the teeth, we may
obferve, that in a foetus of four months, the alveolar
procefs appears only as a lhallow longitudinal groove,
divided by minute ridges into a number of intermediate
depreflions j in each of which we find a fmall pulpy
fubftance, furrounded by a vafcular membrane. I his
O M Y.
Part I«
pulp gradually oflifies, and its lower part is lengthened Ofteology.
out to form the fang. When the bony part of the v '
tooth is formed, its furface begins to be incrufted with
the enamel. How the latter is formed and depofited,
we are not yet able to determine.
The rudiments of fome of the adult teeth begin to
be formed at a very early period, for the pulp of one of
the incifores may generally be perceived m a fcetus of
eight months, and the oflification begins in it foon af¬
ter birth. The firft bicufpis begins to oflify about the
fifth or fixth, and the fecond about the feventh year.
The firft adult grinder cuts the gum about the 12th,
the fecond about the 18th, and the third, or dtns fa-
pientice, ufually between the 20th and year*
The teeth, like other bones, are liable to be affedled
by difeafe. Their removal is like wife the natural con¬
fequence of old age for as we advance in life, the al¬
veoli fill up, and the teeth, efpecially the incifores, fall
out. When this happens, the chin projedts forward,
anrl tVip fafft is much fhortened.
§ 4. Of the Os Hyotdes (k).
The os hyoides, which is placed at the root of the
tongue, was fo ealled by the ancients on account of its
fuppofed refemblance to the Greek letter v.
It will be neceffary to diftinguilh in it, its body,
horns, and appendices.
The body, which is the middle and broadeft part of
the bone, is fo placed that it may be eafily felt at the
fore part of the throat. Anteriorly it is irregularly
convex, and its inner furface is unequally concave. Its
cornua, or horns, which are flat and a little bent, be¬
ing much longer than the body part, may be defcribed
as forming the Tides of the v. The appendices, or little
horns, as they are called by M. Window and fome
other writers, are two proceffes which rife up from the
articulations of the cornua with the body, and are ufu¬
ally connected wflth the ftyloid procefs on each fide by
means of a ligament.
The ufes of this bone are to fupport the tongue and
afford attachment to a great number of mufcles ; fome
of which perform the motions of the tongue, while
others a£t on the larynx and fauces.
Sect. III. Of the Bones of the Trunk.
The trunk of the fkeleton confifts of the fpine, the
thorax, and the pelvis.
§ 1. Of the Spine.
The fpine is compofed of a great number of bones 3°
called vertebrce, forming a long bony column, in figure
not much unlike the letter/. This column, which ex¬
tends from the head to the lower part of the body, may
be faid to confift of two irregular and unequal pyramids,
united to each other in that part of the loins where
the laft lumbar vertebra joins the os facrum.
The vertebrae of the upper and longeft pyramid are
called
r n Th;s bone is very feldom preferved with the Ikeleton, and cannot be included amongft the bones of the
head or in any other divifion of the Ikeleton. Thomas Bartholin has perhaps very properly defcribed it among
the parts contained in the mouth; but the generality of anatomical writers have placed it, as it is here, after the
bones of the face.
Chap. I. A N A x
Ofteolo~v. called true vertebrce, in contradiflinftion to thofe of
the lowermoft pyramid, which, from their bein^ im¬
moveable in the adult, are ftyled fa/fe vertebrce. It is
upon the bones of the fpine that the body turns ; and
it is to this circumftance they owe their name, which is
derived from the Latin verb vertere, “ to turn.”
The true vertebrae are divided into three clafles, of
cervical, dorfal, and lumbar vertebrae.—The falfe ver¬
tebrae confift of the os facrum and os coccygis.
In each vertebra, as in other bones, it will be necef-
fary to remark the body of the bone, its proceffes, and
cavities.
The bidy, which is convex before, and concave be¬
hind, where it afiifts in forming the cavity of the fpine,
may be compared to part of a cylinder cut off tranf-
verfely.
Each vertebra affords feven proceffes. The firft is
at the back of the vertebra, and from its ihape and
direction is named the fpinous procefs. On each fide of
this are two others, which, from their fituation with
refpetff to the fpine, are called tranfverfe proceffes. The
four others are ftyled oblique or articularprocejjes. They
are much fmaller than the fpinous or tranfverfe ones.
Two of them are placed on the upper, and two on the
lower part of each vertebra, rifing from near the bafis
of each tranfverfe procefs. They have gotten the name
of oblique proceffes, from their fituation with refpeft to
the proceffes with which they are articulated ; and they
are fometimes ftyled articular proceffes, from the man¬
ner in which they are articulated with each other; the
two fuperior proceffes of one vertebra being articulated
with the two inferior proceffes of the vertebra above it.
Each of thefe proceffes is covered with cartilage at its
articulation, and their articulations with each other are
by a fpecies of ginglimus.
In each vertebra, between its body and its proceffes,
we find a hole large enough to admit a finger. Thefe
holes are foramina, correfpond with each other through
all the vertebrae, and form the long bony channel in
which the fpinal marrow is placed. We may likewife
obferve four notches in each vertebra. Two of thefe
notches are at the upper, and two at the lower part of
the bone, between the oblique proceffes and the body
of the vertebra. Each of thefe notches meeting with
a fimilar opening in the vertebra above or below it,
forms a foramen for the paffage of blood veffels, and of
the nerves out of the fpine.
The bones of the fpine are united together by means
of a fubftance, which in young fubjeifts appears to be
of a ligamentous, but in adults more of a cartilaginous
nature. This intervertebral fubftance, which forms a
kind of partition between the feveral vertebrae, is thicker
and more flexible between the lumbar vertebras than in
the other parts of the fpine, the moft confiderable mo¬
tions of the trunk being performed on thofe vertebrae.
Th is fubftance being very elaftic, the extenfion and
flexion of the body, and its motion backwards and for¬
wards, or to either fide, are performed with great fa¬
cility. Thiselafticity feems to be the reafon why people
who have been long Handing, or have carried a confi¬
derable weight, are found to be Ihorter than when they
have been long in bed. In the two firft inftances the
intervertebral cartilages (as they are ufually called) are
evidently more expofed to compreflion than when we
are in bed in a horizontal pofture.
0 M Y: I?s
In advanced life thefe caililages become (hrivelled, Ofteology.
and of courfe lofe much of their elafticity. This may —v*"—»^
ferve to account for the decreafe in llature and the
Hooping forward which are ufually to be obferved in
old people.
Befides the connexion of the feveral vertebrae by
means of this intervertebral fubftance, there are like¬
wife many ftrong ligaments, both external and internal,
which unite the bones of the fpine to each other. Their
union is alfo (Lengthened by a variety of ftrong mufcles
that cover and furround the fpine.
The bones of the fpine are found to diminifli in den-
fity, and to be lefs firm in their texture, in proportion
as they increafe in bulk ; fo that the lowermoft verte¬
brae, though the largeft, are not fo heavy in proportion
as the upper ones. By this means the fize of thefe
bones is increafed without adding to their weight ; a
circumftance of no little importance in a part like the
fpine, which, befides flexibility and fupplenefs, feems to
require lighlnefs as one of its effential properties.
In very young children, each vertebra confifts of
three bony pieces united by cartilages which afterwards
31
There are feven vertebrae of the neck—they are of Vei ebra?
firmer texture than the other bones of the fpine. Their of the neck,
tranfverfe procefles are forked for the lodgment of
mufcles, and at the bottom of each we obferve a fora¬
men, through which pafs the cervical artery and vein.
The firft and fecond of thefe vertebrae muft be deferib-
ed more particularly. The firft approaches almoft to
an oval fhape.—On its fuperior furface it has two cavi¬
ties which admit the condyles of the occipital bone
with which it is articulated. This vertebra, which is
called atlas from its fupporting the head, cannot well
be deferibed as having either body or fpinous procefs,
being a kind of bony ring. Anteriorly, where it is ar¬
ticulated to the odontoid procefs of the fecond verte¬
bra, it is very thin. On its upper furface it has two
cavities which admit the condyles of the occipital bone.
By this connexion the head is allowed to move for¬
wards and backwards, but has very little motion in any
other direftion.
I he fecond vertebra has gotten the name of dentata,
from its having, at its upper and anterior part, a pro¬
cefs called the odontoid or tooth-like procefs, which is ar¬
ticulated with the atlas, to which this fecond vertebra
may be faid to ferve as an axis. This odontoid procefs
is of a cylindrical fhape, fomewhat flattened, however,
anteriorly and pofteriorly. At its fore part, where it
is received by the atlas, we may obferve a fmooth, con¬
vex, articulating furface. It is by means of this arti¬
culation that the head performs its rotatory motion,
the atlas in that cafe moving upon this odontoid pro¬
cefs as upon a pivot. But when this motion is in any
confiderable degree, or, in other words, when the head
moves much either to the right or left, all the cervical
vertebrae feem to aflift, otherwife the fpinal marrow
would be in danger of being divided tranfverfely by the
firft vertebra.
The fpinous procefs of each of the cervical vertebrae Vertebrae
is fhorter, and their articular proceffes more oblique,d16 back,
than in the other bones of the fpine.
1 hefe 12 vertebrae are of a middle fize between thofe
of the neck and loins. At their fides we may obferve
two depreflions, one at the upper and the other at the
B b 2 lower
196
Ofteulogy.
33
Lumbar
vertebrae.
34
Os facrum.
A N A T
lower part of the body of each vertebra ; which uniting
with •fimilar depreffions in the vertebrae above and be¬
low, form articulating furfaces, covered with cartilages,
for receiving the heads of the ribs j and at the fore part
of their tranfyerfe procefs (excepting the two lafl) we
find an articulating furface for receiving the tuberofity
of the ribs. .
Thefe five vertebrae differ only from thofe ot the back
in their being larger, and in having their fpinous pro-
ceffes at a greater^diftance from each other. The molt
confiderable motions of the trunk are made on thefe
vertebrae ; and thefe motions could not be performed
with fo much eafe, were the proceffes placed nearer to
each other. r , <■ r r
The os facrum, which is compofed of five or hx pieces
in young fubjefts, becomes one bone in more advanced
& It is nearly of a triangular figure, its inferior portion
being bent a little forwards. Its fuperior part has two
oblique proceffes, which are articulated with the laft
of the lumbar vertebras •, and it has likewife commonly
three fmall fpinous proceffes, which gradually become
fhorter, fo that the lowermoft is not fo lon<* as the fe-
cond, nor the fecond as the upperrnoft. Its tranlyerfe
proceffes are formed into one oblong proctfs, which be¬
comes gradually fmaller as it defcends. Its concave or
anterior fide is ufually fmooth, but its poftenor convex
fide has many prominences (the moft remarkable of
which are the fpinous proceffes juft now mentioned),
which are filled up and covered with the mufcular and
tendinous parts behind. j r
This bone has five pair of holes, which afford a pal-
fao-e to blood veffels, and likewife to the nerves that are
derived from the fpinal marrow, which is continued
even here, being lodged in a triangular cavity, that be¬
comes fmaller as it defcends, and at length terminates
obliquely at the lower part of this bone. Below the
third divifion of the os facrum, this canal is not com¬
pletely bony as the reft of the fpine, being fecured
at its back part only by a very ftrong membrane, lo
that a wound at this part muft be extremely dange-
O M Y. Part I.
the fame time fupports the head, and gives a general Oltoology,
firmnefs to the whole trunk. . . ' ^
We have before compared it to the lettery, and its
different turns will be found to render it not very unlike
the figure of that letter.—In the neck we fee it projeft-
ing fomewhat forward to fupport the head, which, with¬
out this aftiftance, would require a greater number of
mufcles. Lower down, in the thorax, we find it tak¬
ing a curved dire£lion backwards, and of courle .in-
creafing the cavity of the cheft. After this, in the loins,
it again projects forwards in a diredlion wdth the cen¬
tre of gravity, by which means we are eafily enabled
to keep the body in an eredt pofture, for otherwife we
ftiould be liable to fall forwards. Towards its inferior
extremity, however, it again recedes backward, and
thus aflifts in forming the pelvis, the name given to the
cavity in which the urinary bladder, inteftinum redtum,
and other vifcera are placed.
If this bony column had been formed only of one
piece, it would have been much more eafily fradtured
than it is now : and by confining the trunk to a ttift fi-
tuation, a variety of motions would have been al together
prevented, which are now performed with eafe by the
great number of bones of which it is compofed.
It is firm, and yet to this firmnefs there is added a
perfedt flexibility. If it be required to carry a load
upon the head, the neck becomes ftiff with the afliftance
of its mufcles, and accommodates itfelf to the load, as
if it was compofed only of one bone.—In ffooping like¬
wife, or in turning to either fide, the fpine turns itfelf
in every diredlion, as if all its bones were feparated from
each other.
In a part of the body like the fpine, that is made up
of fo great a number of bones, and intended for fuch a
variety of motion, there muft be a greater danger of
diftocation than fradture ; but we ftiall find that this is
very wilely guarded againft in every diredlion by the
proceffes belonging to each vertebra, and by the liga¬
ments, cartilages, &c. by which thefe bones are con-
nedted with each other.
§ 2. Of the Bones of the Thorax.
rous.. , „ .
The os facrum is united laterally to the offa mnomi-
nata or hip-bones, and below to the coccyx. ^
/■x 35 The coccyx, which, like the os facrum, is in young •
Os coccyx. ^eople madeyup of three or four diftinft parts, ufually
becomes one bone in the adult ft ate.
It ferves to fupport the inteftinum redum ; and, by
its being capable of fome degree of motion at its arti¬
culation with the facrum, and being like that bone bent
forwards, we are enabled to fit with eafe. _
This bone is nearly of a triangular ftiape, being
broadeft at its upper part, and from thence growing
narrower to its apex, where it is not bigger than the
It has^got its name front its fuppofed refemblance to
a cuckow’s beak. It differs greatly from the vertebrae,
being commonly without any proceffes, and having no
cavity for the fpinal marrow, or foramina for the trani-
miffion of nerves. . .
The fpine, of which we have now fmilhed the ana¬
tomical defcription, is deftined for many great and im¬
portant ufes. The medulla fpinalis is lodged in its
bony canal fecure from external injury. It ferves as a
defence to the abdominal and thoracic vucera, and at
The thorax, or cheft, is compofed of many bones, viz.
the fternum which is placed at its anterior part, twelve
ribs on each fide which make up its lateral parts, and
the dorfal vertebrae which conftitute its pofterior part.
Thefe laft have been already defcribed. _ 37
The fternum is the long bone which extends itfelf Of the tier
from the upper to the lower part of the breaft anterior-num-
ly, and to which the ribs and the clavicles aie articu¬
lated.
In children it is compofed of feveral bones united by
cartilages j but as we advance in life, moft of thefe
cartilages offify, and the fternum in the adult ftate is
found to confift only of three pieces, and fometimes
becomes one bone. It is however generally defcribed
as being compofed of three parts—one fuperior, which
is broad, thick, and ftiort; and one in the middle,
which is thinner, narrower, and longer than the
other.
It terminates at its lower part by a third piece, which
is called the xyphoid or /word-like cartilage, from its
fuppofed refemblance to the blade of a fword, and be-
caufe in youngfubje&s it is commonly in a cartilaginous
ftate.
Chap. I.
Ofteology. We have already obferved, that this bone is artieula-
e—y—tecJ vvith the clavicle on each fide. It is likewife joined
to the fourteen true ribs, viz. feven on its right, and
38 feven on its left fide.
Of the ribs. The ribs are bones fhaped like a bow, forming the
fides of the cheft. There are twelve on each fide.
They are diftinguithed into true and falfe ribs : The
feven upper ribs which are articulated to the fternum
are called true ribs, and the five lower ones that are
not immediately attached to that bone are called
ribs.
On the inferior and interior furface of eath rib, we
obferve a finuofity for the lodgment of an artery, vein,
and nerve.
The ribs are not bony through their whole length,
their anterior part being cartilaginous. They are ar¬
ticulated with the vertebrae and fternum. Every rib
(or at leaft the greater number of them) has at its pofte-
rior part two proceffes ; one at its extremity, called the
head of the rib, by means of which it is articulated
with the body of two vertebrae ■, and another, called its
tuberofity, by which it is articulated with the tranfverle
procefs of the loweft of thefe two vertebrae. The fir ft
rib is not articulated by its extremity to two vertebrae,
being Amply attached to the upper part of the firft ver¬
tebra of the back. The feven fuperior or true ribs are
articulated anteriorly with the fternum by their carti¬
lages j but the falfe ribs are fupported in a different
manner—the eighth, which is the firft of thefe ribs,
being attached by its cartilages to the feventh j the
ninth to the eighth, &c.
The two lowermoft ribs differ likewife from all the
reft in the following particulars : They are articulated
only with the body of a vertebra, and not with a tranf-
verfe procefs ; and anteriorly, their cartilage is loofe,
not being attached to the cartilages of the other ribs ;
and this feems to be, becaufe the moft confiderable mo¬
tions of the trunk are not performed on the lumbar ver¬
tebrae alone, but likewife on the two laft vertebrae of
the back : fo that if thefe two ribs had been confined
at the fore part like the other ribs, and had been like¬
wife articulated with the bodies of two Vertebrae, and
with the tranfverfe proceffes, the motion of the two laft
vertebrae, and confequently of the whole trunk, would
have been impeded.
The ribs help to form the cavity of the thorax; they
afford attachment to different mufcles ; they are ufeful
in refpiration ; and they ferve as a fecurity to the heart
and lungs.
§ 3. Of the Bones of the Pe/vis.
39 The pelvis is compofed of the os facrum, os coccygis,
and tro offa innominata. The two firft of thefe bones
were included in the account of the fpine, to which
they more properly belong.
In children, each as innominatum is compofed of
three diftindt bones ; but as we advance in life the in¬
termediate cartilages gradually oftify, and the marks
' of the original feparation difappear, fo that they be¬
come one irregular bone ; ftill, however, continuing to
retain the names of ilium, ifehium, and pubis, by which
their divifions were originally diftinguiftied, and to be
deferibed as three different bones by the generality of
anatomifts. The os ilium forms the upper and moft
197
confiderable part of the bone, the os ifehium its lower Ofteology.
and pofterior portion, and the os pubis its fore part. 1 111 v
The os ilium, or haunch-bone, is articulated pofte-^^ft^
riorly to the os facrum by a firm cartilaginous fubftance, ^
and is united to the os pubis before and to the os if¬
ehium below. Its fuperior portion is thin, and ter¬
minates in a ridge called the crifta or fpine of the ili¬
um, and more commonly known by the name of the
haunch. This crifta rifes up like an arch, being turned
fomewhat outwards, fo as to refemble the wings of a
phaeton.
Externally the bone is unequally prominent and hol¬
lowed for the lodgment of mufcles : internally we find
it fmooth and concave. At its lower part there is a
confiderable ridge on its inner furface. This ridge
extends from the os facrum, and correfponds with a
fimilar prominence both on that bone and the ifehium ;
forms with the inner part of the offa pubis what in
midwifery is termed the brim of the pelvis.
The crifta, or fpine, which at firft is an epiphyfis,
has two confiderable tuberofities ; one anteriorly, and
the other pofteriorly, which is the largeft of the two :
Thefe, from their projecting more than the parts of
the bone below them, have gotten the name of fpinal
proceffes. From the anterior fpinous procefs, the far-
torius and tenfor vaginae feraoris mufcles have their
origin ; and below the pofterior procefs we obferve a
confiderable niche in the bone, which, in the recent
fubjeCt, is formed into a large foramen, by means of a
ftrong ligament that is ftretched over its lower part
from the os facrum to the (harp-pointed procefs of the
ifehium. This hole affords a paffage to the great fei*
atic nerve, and to the pofterior crural veffels under
the pyriform mufcle, part of which liktwife paffes out
here.
The os ifehium, or hip-bone, which is of a very ir-QS ifehium,
regular figure, conflitutes the lower lateral pans of the
pelvis, and is commonly divided into its body, tubero-
lity, and ramus. The body forms the lower and moft
confiderable portion of the acetabulum, and fends a
ftiarp-pointed procefs backwards, called the fpine of
the ifehium. To this procefs the ligament adheres,
which w7as juft now fpoken of, as forming a foramen for
the paffage of the fciatic nerve. The tuberofity, which
is the loweft part of the-trunk, and fupports us when
we fit, is large and irregular, affording origin to feve-
ral mufcles. From this tuberofity we find the bone
become thinner and narrower. This part, which has
the name of ramus or branch, paffes forwards and up¬
wards, and concurs with the ramus of the os pubis, to
form a large hole called the foramen magnum ifehii, or
thyroideum, as it is fometiraes named from its refem-
blance to a door or ftiield. This hole, which in the
recent fubje£t is clofed by a ftrong membrane called
the obturator ligament, affords through its whole cir¬
cumference attachment to mufcles. At its upper part
where we obferve a niche in the bone, it gives paffage
to the obturator veffels and nerves, which go to the in¬
ner part of the thigh. Nature feems everywhere to
avoid an unneceffary weigjit of bone, and this foramen,
no doubt, ferves to lighten the bones of the pelvis. 41
The os pubis, or (hare-bone, which with its fellow Os pubk.
forms the fore part of the pelvis, is the fmalleft di-
vifion of the os innominatum. It is united to its fellow
by
ANATOMY.
.J
ig8 A N A T
OfteoJogy. by means of a ftror.g cartilage, which forms Wnat is
l«—-v——' called the fymphyfis pubis.
In each os pubis we may diftinguidi the body of the
bone, its angle, and ramus. The body or outer part is
united to the os ilium. The angle comes forward to
form the fymphyfis, and the ramus is a thin proceis
which unites with the ramus of the ifchium, to form the
foramen thyroideum.
The three bones we have defcribed as compofing
each os innominatum, all aiTift in forming the^ ace¬
tabulum, in which the head of the os icmoris is re¬
ceived.
This cavity is everywhere lined with a fmooth carti¬
lage, excepting at its inner part, where we may obferve
a little fofla, in which are lodged the mucilaginous
glands of the joint. We may likewife notice the pit or
depreffion made by the round ligament, as it is impro¬
perly called, which, by adhering to this cavity and to
the head of the thigh-bone, helps to fecure the latter in
the focket.
Thefe bones, which are united to each other and to
the fpine, by many very ftrong ligaments, ferve to fup-
port the trunk, and to conneft it with the lower extre¬
mities •, and at the fame time to form the pelvis or ba-
fon, in which are lodged the inteflines and urinary'
bladder, and in women the uterus; fo that the ftudy of
this part of olteology is of the utmoft importance in
midwifery. _
It is worthy of obfervation, that in women the os la-
crum is ufually fhorter, broader, and more hollowed,
the offa ilia more expanded, and the inferior opening of
the pelvis larger, than in men.
Sect. IV. Of the Extremities.
The parts of the fkeleton confift of the upper extre¬
mity and the lower.
^ i. Of the Upper Extremity.
44 This confifts of the (boulder, the arm, and the
hand.
l. Of the Shoulder.
The (boulder confifts of two bones, the clavicula and
6 the fcapula.
Of the cla- The former, which is fo named from its refemblance
vicula. to the key in ufe among the ancients, is a little cur¬
ved at both its extremities like an Italic/. It is like¬
wife called jiigulum, or collar bone, from its fituation.
It is about the fize of the little finger, but longer, and
being of a very fpongy fubftance, is very liable to be
fraftured. In this, as in other long bones, we may
diftinguidi a body and two extremities. The body is
rather flattened than rounded. The anterior extremi¬
ty is formed into a (lightly convex head, which is
nearly of a triangular (hape. The inferior^ furface of
the head is articulated with the fternum. The pofte-
rior extremity, which is flatter and broader than the
other, is conne&ed to a procefs of the fcapula, called
acromion. Both thefe articulations are fecured by li¬
gaments, and in that with the fternum we meet with
a moveable cartilage, to prevent any injury from fric¬
tion. . r i r
The clavicle ferves to regulate the motions ot the ica-
pula, by preventing it from being brought too much
O M Y. Part T
forwards, or carried too far backwards. It affords on- Ofleolog—
gin to feveral mufcles, and helps to cover and protect —~v
the fubclavian vefifels, which derive their name from
their fituation under this bone. 47 |
The fcapula or (boulder blade, which is nearly of0//5 ‘/I
a triangular (hape, is fixed to the pofterior part of the1’1' a-
true ribs, fomewhat in the manner of a buckler. It
is of a very unequal thicknefs, and like all other , broad
flat bones,' is fomewhat cellular. Exteriorly it is con¬
vex, and interiorly concave, to accommodate itfelf to
the convexity of the ribs. We obferve in this bone
three unequal fides, which are thicker and ftronger than
the body of the bone, and are therefore termed its
coflee. The largeft of the three, called alfo the bafis,
is turned towards the vertebrae. Another, which is
lefs than the former, is below this; and the third,
which is the leaft of the three, is at the upper part of
the bone. Externally the bone is elevated into a con-
fiderable fpine, which rifing fmall at the bafis of the
fcapula, becomes gradually higher and broader, and
divides the outer furface of the bone into two foffae.
The fuperior of thefe, which is the fmalleft, ferves to
lodge the fupra fpinatus mufcle •, and the inferior fof-
fa, which is much larger than the other, gives origin
to the infra fpinatus. This fpine terminates in a broad
and flat procefs at the top of the (houlder, called the
procejjiis acromion, to which the clavicle is articulated
This procefs is hollowed at its lower part to allow a
paffage to the fupra and infra fpinati mufcles. The
fcapula has likewife another confiderable procefs at its
upper part, which, from its refemblance to the beak
of a bird, is called the coracoid procefs. From the out¬
er fide of this coracoid procefs, a ftrong ligament paf-
fes to the proceffus acromion, which prevents a luxa¬
tion of the os humeri upwards.' A third proceis be¬
gins by a narrow neck, and ends in a cavity called
glenoid, for the connexion of the os humeri.
The fcapula is articulated with the clavicle and os
humeri, to which laft it ferves as a fulcrum ; and by
varying its pofition it affords a greater fcope to the
bones of the arm in their different motions. It like¬
wife gives origin to feveral mufcles, and pofteriorly
ferves as a defence to the trunk,
2. Bones of the Arm.
The arm is commonly divided into two parts, which
are articulated to each other at the elbow. Fhe upper
part retains the name of arm, properly fo called, and
the lower part is ufually called the fore-arm.
The arm is compofed of a fingle bone, called the os 4J
humeri. This bone, which is almoft of a cylindrical
(hape, may be divided into its body and its extremi¬
ties.
The upper extremity begins by a large, round, fmooth
head, which is admitted into the glenoid cavity of the
fcapula. On the upper and fore part of the bone there
is a groove for lodging the long head of the biceps
mufcle of the arm *, and on each fide of the groove, at
the upper end of the bone, there is a tubercle to which
the fpinati mufcles are fixed.
The lower extremity has feveral proceffes and cavi¬
ties. The principal proceffes are its two condyles, one
exterior and the other interior, and of thefe the laft is
the largeft. Between thefe two we obferve two late¬
ral protuberances, which, together with a middle ca¬
vity,
v
Chap. I.
50
Of the fore-
5i
Of the ul-
Ofteolbsy. vity, form as it were a kind of pulley upon which the
—”Y motions of the fore-arm are chiefly performed. At
each fide of the condyles, as well exteriorly as interior¬
ly, there is another eminence which gives origin to fe-
veral mufcles of the hand and fingers. Pofteriorly and
fuperiorly, fpeaking with refpedt to the condyles, we
obferve a deep folia which receives a confiderable pro-
cefs of the ulna; and anteriorly and oppofite to this
folia, we obferve another, which is much iefs, and re¬
ceives another procefs of the fame bone.
The body of the bone has at its upper and anterior
part a furrow which begins from behind the head of
the bone, and ferves to lodge the tendon of a mufcle.
The body of the os humeri is hollow through its whole
length, and like all other long bones has its marrow.
This bone is articulated at its upper part to the fca-
pula. This articulation, which allows motion every
way, is furrounded by a capfular ligament that is fotne-
times torn in luxation, and becomes an obllacle to the
eafy redudlion of the bone. Its lower extremity is ar¬
ticulated with the bones of the fore-arm.
The fore-arm is compofed of two bones, the ulna
and radius.
The ulna or elbow bone is much lefs than the os
humeri, and becomes gradually fmaller as it defcends
to the wrift. At its upper part it has two procefles
and two cavities. Of the two procefles, the large!!,
which is fituated polteriorly, and called the olecranon,
is admitted into the pofterior foflfa of the os humeri.
The other procefs is placed anteriorly, and is called the
coronoid procefs. In bending the arm it enters into the
anterior fofla of the os humeri. This procefs being
much fmaller than the other, permits the fore-arm to
bend inwards j whereas the olecranon, which is fliaped
like a hook, reaches the bottom of its fufla in the os
humeri as foon as the arm becomes ftraight, and will
not permit the fore-arm to be bent backwards. The
ligaments likewife oppofe this motion.
Between the two precefles we have defcribed, there
is a confiderable cavity called the figmoid cavity, divid¬
ed into two fofiae by a fmall eminence, which paffes from
one procefs to the other j it is by means of this cavity
and the two procelfes, that the ulna is articulated with
the os humeri by ginglimus.
At the bottom of the coronoid procefs interiorly,
there is a fmall figmoid cavity, which ferves for the ar¬
ticulation of the ulna with the radius.
The body of the ulna is of a triangular (hape : Its
lower extremity terminates by a fmall head and a little
ftyloid procefs. The ulna is articulated above to the
os humeri—both above and below to the radius, and to
the wfift at its lower extremity. All thefe articula¬
tions are fecured by means of ligaments. The chief
ufe of this bone feems to be to fupport and regulate the
motions of the radius.
1 he radius, which is fo named from its fuppofed re-
femblance to the fpoke of a wheel, is placed at the in-
fide of the fore-arm. It is fomewhat larger than the
ulna, but not quite fo long as that bone. Its upper
ANATOMY. 199
part is cylindrical, hollowed fuperiorly to receive the Otteology.
52
Pf the ra
■lius.
outer condyle of the os humeri. Laterally it is ad¬
mitted into the little figmoid cavity of the ulna, and
the cylindrical part of the bone turns in this cavity in
the motions of pronation and fupination (l). This
bone follows the ulna in flexion andextenfion, and may
likewife be moved round its axis in any diredtion. The
lower extremity of the radius is much larger and
fironger than its upper part ; the ulna, on the con¬
trary, is fmaller and weaker below than above j fo that
they ferve to fupply each other’s deficiencies in both
thofe parts.
On the external fide of this bone, we obferve a fmall
cavity which is deftined to receive the lower end of the
ulna; and its lower extremity is formed into a large
cavity, by means of which it is articulated with the
bones of the wrift, and on this account it is fometimes
called manubrium manus. It fupports the two firft
bones of the wrift on the fide of the thumb, whereas
the ulna is articulated with that bone of the wrift which
correlponds with the little finger.
Through the whole length both of this bone and the
ulna, a ridge is obferved which affords attachment to
an interoffeous ligament. This ligament fills up the
fpace between the two bones.
53
54
3. Bones of the Hand.
The carpus or wrift confifts of eight fmall bones ofofthe car*
an irregular (hape, and difpofed in two unequal rows.P'-'s.
Thofe of the upper row are articulated with the bones
of the fore-arm, and thofe of the lower one with the me¬
tacarpus.
The ancient anatomifts defcribed thefe bones nume¬
rically ; Lyferus feems to have been the firft who gave
to each of them a particular name. The names he adopt¬
ed are founded on the figure of the bones, and are now
pretty generally received, except the firft, which in-
ftead of (the name given to it by Lyferus, on
account of its finus, that admits a part of the os mag¬
num), has by later writers been named Scaphoides or
Navicular e. This, which is the outer mod of the up¬
per row (confidering the thumb as the outer fide of the
hand), is articulated with the radius ; on its inner fide
it is connected-with the os lunare, and below to the
trapezium and trapezoides. Next to this is a fmaller
bone, called the os lunare ; beeaufe its outer fide, which
is connected with the fcaphoides, is draped like a cref-
cent. This is likewife articulated with the radius. On
its inner fide it joins the oseuneiforme 5 and anteriorly,
the os magnum and os unci forme.
The os cuneiforrae, which is the third bone in the
upper row, is compared to a wedge, from its being
broader above, at the back of the hand, than it is be¬
low. Pofteriorly it is articulated with the ulna, and
anteriorly with the os unciforme.
Thefe three bones form an oblong articulating fur-
face, covered by cartilage, by which the hand is con-
nedled with the fore-arm.
The os pififorme, or pea-like bone, which is fmaller
than
(L) The motions of pronation and fupination may be eafily defcribed. If the palm of the hand, for inftance,
is placed on the furface of a table, the hand may be faid to be in a (late of pronation j but if the back part of the
hand is turned torvards the table, the hand will be then in a (late of fupination.
200
Ofteology
ANATOM Y.
Part ’
55
Of the me
than the three juft now defcribed, though generally
claflfed with the bones of the upper row, does not pro¬
perly belong to either feries, being placed on the un¬
der furface of the os cuneiforme, fo as to projed into
the palm of the hand. The four bones of the fecond
row correfpond with the bones of the thumb and fing¬
ers } the firft, fecond, and fourth, are from their lhapes
named trapezium, trape-zoides, and unciforme ; the third,
from its being the largeft bone of the carpus, is ftyled
os magnum.
All thefe bones are convex towards the back, and
flightly concave towards the palm of the hand ; their
articulating furfaces are covered with cartilages, and
fecured by many ftrong ligaments, particularly by two
ligamentous expanfions, called the external and inter¬
nal annular ligaments of the wrift. The former ex¬
tends in an oblique diredion from the os pififorme to
the ftyloid procefs of the radius, and is an inch and a
half in breadth } the latter or internal annular ligament
is ftretehed from the os pififorme and os unciforme, to
the os fcaphoides and trapezium. Thefe annular liga¬
ments likewife ferve to bend down the tendons of the
wrift and fingers.
The irtetacarpus confifts of four bones, which fup-
tacarpus. port the fingers •, externally they are a little convex,
and internally fomewhat concave, where they form the
palm of the hand. They are hollow, and <?f a cylin¬
drical fliape.
At each extremity they are a little hollowed tor
their articulation j fuperiorly with the bones of the car¬
pus, and inferiorly with the firft phalanx of the fingers,
in the fame manner as the feveral phalanges of the fingers
are articulated with each other.
The five fingers of each hand are. compofed of fifteen
bones, difpofed in three ranks called phalanges : The
bones of the firft phalanx, which are articulated with
the metacarpus, are the largeft, and thofe of the laft
phalanx the fmalleft. All thefe bones are larger at
their extremities than in their middle part.
We obferve at the extremities of the bones of the
carpus, metacarpus, and fingers, feveral inequalities that
ferve for their articulation with each other •, and thefe
articulations are ftrengthened by means of the ligaments
which furround them. ...
It will be eafily underftood that this multiplicity of
bones in the hand (for there are 27 in each hand) is
effential to the different motions we wifti to perform.
If each finger was compofed only of one bone inftead
ef three, it would be impoflible for us to grafp any
thing.
56
Of the
fingers.
57
58
Of the os
femoris.
^ 2. Of the Lower 'Extremity.
Each lower extremity is divided into four parts, viz.
the os femoris, or thigh-bone} the rotula, or knee-pan j
the leg •, and the foot.
I. Of the Thigh.
' The thigh is compofed only of this bone, which is
the largeft: and ftrongeft we have.. . It will be neceffary
to diftinguilh its body and extremities: Its body, which
is of a cylindrical ftiape, is convex before and concave
behind, where it ferves to lodge feveral mufcles.
Throughout two-thirds of its length we obferve a ridge
t ailed //«<?« afpera, which originates from the trochan¬
ters and after running for fojne way downwards,
divides into two branches, that terminate in the tubero- Ofteolog-1
fities at the lower extremity of the bone. . ^ ' *
At its upper extremity we muft defcribe the neck
and fmooth head of the bone, and likewife two confi-
derable proceffes : The head, which forms the greater
portion of a fphere unequally divided, is turned inwards,
and received into the great cotyloid cavity of the os in-
nominatum. At this part of the bone theie is a little
foffa to be obferved, to which the round ligament is
attached, and which we have already defcribed as tend¬
ing to fecure the head of this bone in the great aceta¬
bulum. The neck is almoft horizontal, confidered with
refpedt to its fituation with the body of the bone. Of
the twTo proceffes, the external one, which is the largeft,
is called trochanter major 5 and the other, which is
placed on the infide of the bone, trochanter minor.
They both afford attachment to mufcles. The articu¬
lation of the os femoris with the trunk is ftrengthened
by means of a capfular ligament, which adheres every¬
where round the edge of the great cotyloid cavity of
the os innominatum, and furrounds the head of the
bone. ‘
The os femoris moves upon the trunk in every di-
reflion.
At the lower extremity of the bene are two procelles
called the condyles, and an intermediate fmooth cavi¬
ty, by means of which it is-articulated with the leg by
ginglimus.
All round the under end of the bone there is an ir¬
regular furface where the capfular ligament of the joint
has its origin, and where blood-veffels go into the fub-
ftance of the bone.
Between the condyles there is a cavity pofteriorly,
in which the blood-veffels and nerves are placed, fecure
from the compreflion to which they would other wife be
expofed in the adlion of bending the leg, and which
would not fail to be hurtful.
At the fide of each condyle externally, there is a
tuberofity, from whence the lateral ligaments originate,
which are extended down to the tibia.
A ligament likewife arifes from each condyle pofte¬
riorly. One of thefe ligaments paffes from the right
to the left, and the other from the left to the right, fo
that they interfedt each other, and for that reafon are
called the crofs ligaments.
The lateral ligaments prevent the motion of the leg
upon the thigh to the right or left, and the crofs liga¬
ments, which are alfo attached to the tibia, prevent the
latter from being brought forwards.
In new born children all the proceffes of this bone
are cartilaginous.
2. The Rotula, or Knee-pan. sg
The rotula, patella, or knee-pan, as it is differently Of the
called, is a flat bone about four or five inches in cir-tua*
cumference, and is placed at the fore part of the joint
of the knee. In its (hape it is fomewhat like the com¬
mon figure of the heart, with its point downwards.
It is thinner at its edge than in its middle part} at
its fore part it is fmooth and fomewhat convex j its
pofterior furface, which is more unequal, affords an ele¬
vation in the middle which is admitted between the
two condyles of the os femoris.
This bone is retained in its proper fituation by a
ftrong ligament which everywhere furrounds it, and
adheres
Chap. I. ANA
Ofteoiogy. adheres both to the tibia and os femoris $ it is likewife
i—firmly connected with the tibia by means of a Itrong
tendinous ligament of an inch in breadth, and upwards
of two inches in length, which adheres to the lower
part of the patella, and to the tuberofity at the upper
end of the tibia. On account of this connexion, it is
very properly confidered as an appendage to the tibia,
which it follows in all its motions, fo as to be to it
what the olecranon is to the ulna. There is this dif¬
ference, however, that the olecranon is a fixed pro-
cefs •, whereas the patella is moveable, being capable
of Hiding from above downwards and from below up¬
wards. This mobility is effential to the rotatory mo¬
tion of the leg.
In very young children this bone is entirely cartila¬
ginous.
The principal ufe of the patella feems to be to de¬
fend the articulation of the knee from external in¬
jury it likewife tends to increafe. the power of the
extenfor mufcles of the leg, by removing their direc¬
tion farther from the centre of motion in the manner
of a pulley.
60
61
Of the ti¬
bia.
62
Of the fi¬
bula.
3. Of the Leg.
The leg is c.ompofed of two bones : Of thefe the in¬
ner one, which is the largeft, is called tibia ^ the other
is much fmaller, and named fibula.
The tibia, which is fo called from its refemblance to
the mufical pipe of the ancients, has three furfaces, and
is not very unlike a triangular prifm. Its pofterior
furface is the broadelt •, anteriorly it has a confiderable
ridge called the thin, between'which and the fkin there
are no mufcles. At the upper extremity of this bone
are two furfaces, a little concave, and feparated from
each o her by an intermediate elevation. The two lit¬
tle cavities receive the condyles ot the os femnris, and
the eminence between them is admitted into the cavity
which we fpoke of as being between the two condyles ;
fo that this articulation affords a fpt cimen of the com¬
plete ginglimus. Under the external fcdge of the up¬
per end of this bone is a circular flat furface, which re¬
ceives the head of the fibula.
At the lower and inner portion of the tibia, we ob-
ferve a confiderable procefs called malleolus interims.
The bafis of the bone terminates in a large tranfverfe
cavity, by which it is articulated with the uppermoft
bone of the foot. It has likewife another cavity at its
lower end and upper fide, which is fomewhat oblong,
and receives the lower end of the fibula.
The tibia is hollow through its whole length.
The fibula is a fmall long bone fituated on the out-
fide of the tibia. Its fuperior extremity does not reach
quite fo high as the upper part of the tibia, but its
lower end dtfeends fomewhat lower. Both above and
below, it is articulated with the tibia by means of the
lateral cavities we noticed in our defeription of that
bone.
Its lower extremity is ftretched out^into a coronoid
procefs, which is flattened at its infide, and is convex
externally, forming what is called the malleolus exter-
nus, or outer ankle. This is rather lower than the
malleolus internus of the tibia.
Vol. II. Part I.
T O M Y. 2or
The body of this bone, which is irregularly triangu- Ofteoiogy.
lar, is a little hollow at its internal furface, which is 1 
turned towards the tibia ; and it affords like that bone,
through its whole length, attachment to a ligament,
which from its fituation is called the intejoffeuus liga¬
ment.
4. Of the Foot.
03
The foot confifis of the tarfus, metatarfus, and toes.. 64
The tarlus is compofed of feven bones, viz. theafha-Of the tar-
gaius, os calcis, os naviculare, os cuboides, and threelus-
others called cuneiform bones. s„
The aflragalus is a large bone with which both the of the a-
tibia and fibula are articulated. It is the uppermoftftragalus;
bone of the foot j it has feveral furfaces to be confider¬
ed ; its upper, and fomewhat pofttrior part, which is
fmooth and convex, is admitted into the cavity of the
tibia. Its lateral parts are conne£!ed with the malleoli
of the two bones of the legs •, below, it is articulated
with the os calcis, and its anterior furface is received by
the os naviculare. All thefe articulations are fecured
by means of ligaments. ^
The os calcis, or calcaneum, which is of a very irre-of tjje ^
gular figure, is the largeft bone of the foot. Behind,calcis.
it is formed into a connderable tuberofity, called the
heel ; without this tuberofity, which fupports us in an
erect pofture, and when we walk, we fhould be liable
to fall backwards.
On the internal furface of this bone, sve ohferve a
confiderable finuofity, which affords a paffage to the
tendon of a mufcle j and to the pofterior part of the
os calcis, a ftrong tendinous cord, called tendo achillis
(m), is attached, which is formed by the tendons of
feveral mufcles united together. The articulation of
this with the other bones is fecured by means of liga¬
ments. ^
The os naviculare, or fcaphoides (for thefe two terms of the os
have, the fame fignification), is fo called on account of naviculare.
its refemblance to a little bark. At its pofterior part,
which is concave, it receives the aftragalus; anteriorly
it is articulated with the cuneiform bones, and laterally
it is connefled with the os cuboides. 6S
The os cuboides forms an irregular cube. F^fteri-of the os
orly it is articulated with the os calcis; anteriorly itcuboides.
fupports the two laft bones of the metatarfus, and la¬
terally it joins the third cuneiform bone and the os
naviculare. \
Each of theoffa cuneiformia, which are three in ntim-Qf th<f0fta
ber, refembles a wedge, and from this fimilitude theirtUneifor-
name is derived. They are placed next to the meta-ima.
tai fus by the fides of each other, and are ufually diftin-
guifhed into os cuneiforme externum, medium or mini¬
mum, and internum or maximum. The fuperior furface
of thefe bones, from their wedge-like fhape, is broader
than that which is below, where they help to form the
foie of the foot ; pofteriorly they are united to the os
naviculare, and anteriorly they fupport the three firft:
metatarfal bones.
When thefe feven bones compofing the tarfus are
viewed together in the Ikeleton, they appear convex
above, where they help to form the upper part of the
foot j and concave underneath, where they form the
C c hollow
(m) This tendon is fometimes ruptured by jumping, dancing, or other violent efforts.
202
A N A T
Ofteology. hollow of the foot, in which the veffels, tendons, and
l“—nerves of the foot, are placed fecure from preffure.
They are united to each other by very ftrong liga¬
ments, and their articulation with the foot is fecured
by a capfular and two lateral ligaments •, each of the
latter is covered by an annular ligament of confiderable
breadth and thicknefs, which ferves to bind down the
tendons of the foot, and at the fame time to ftrengthen
the articulation.
The os cuneiforme externum is joined laterally the
os cuboides.
Thefe bones complete our account of the tarfus.
Though what we have faid of this part of the ofteology
has been very fimple and concife, yet many readers
may not clearly underftand it: but if they will be plea-
fed to view thefe bones in their proper fituation in the
Ikeleton, all that we have faid of them will be eafily
«-0 underftood.
Of the me- The metatarfus is made up of five bones, whereas
taUrfus. the metacarpus confifts only of four. I he caufe of
this difference is, that in the hand the laft bone of the
thumb is not included among the metacarpal bones;
whereas in the foot the great toe has only two bones.
The firft of thefe bones fupports the great toe, and is
much larger than the reft, which nearly referable each
other in fize.
Thefe bones are articulated by one extremity with
the cuneiform bones and the os cuboides, and by their
other end with the toes.
7* Each of the toes, like the fingers, confifts of three
the toes. except the great t0C) wHich is formed of two
bones. Thofe of the other four are diftinguifhed into
three phalanges. Although the toes are more con¬
fined in their motion than the fingers, yet they appear
to be perfectly fitted for the purpofes they are defigned
O M Y. Part I.
for. In walking, the toes bring the centre of gravity Ofteology.
perpendicular to the advanced foot ; and as the foies of y—
the feet are naturally concave, we can at pleafure m-
creafe the concavity, and form a kind of vault, which
adjufts itfelf to the different inequalities that occur to us
in walking; and which, without this mode of arrange¬
ment, would incommode us exceedingly, efpecially
vvVipn Karp.footed.
§ 4. Of the OJfa, Sesamoidea. 72
Befides the bones we have already defcribed, there
are feveral fmall ones that are met with only in the
adult fkeleton, and in perfons who are advanced in
life ; which, from their fuppofed general refemblance
to the feeds of the fefamum, are called offa fefamoidea.
They are commonly to be ieen at the firft joint of the
great toe, and fometimes at the joints of the thumb j
they are likewife now and then to be found at the
lower extremity of the fibula, upon the condyles of
the thigh-bone, under the os cuboides of the tarfus,
and in other parts of the body. Their fize and num¬
ber feem conftantly to be increafed by age and hard
labour; and as they are generally found in fituations
where tendons and ligaments are moft expofed to the
aftion of mufcles, they are now generally confidered as
oftified portions of ligaments or tendons.
The upper furface of thefe bones is ufually convex,
and adherent to the tendon that covers if, the fide
which is next to the joint is fmooth and flat. Though
their formation is accidental, yet they feem to be of
fome ufe, by raifing the tendons farther from the centre
of motion, and confequently increafing the power of the
mufcles. In the great toe and thumb they are like¬
wife ufeful, by forming a groove for the flexor ten¬
dons.
EXPLANATION of the PLATES of OSTEOLOGY.
Plate XXL
Tig. i. A Front View of the Male Skeleton.
A, The os frontis. B, The os parietale. C, The
coronal future. D, The fquamous part of the tempo¬
ral bones. E, The fquamous future. F, The zygoma.
G, The maftoid procefs. H, The temporal procefs of
the fphenoid bone. I, The orbit. K, The os malae. L,
The os maxillare fuperius. M, Its nafal procefs. N,
The offa nafi. O, The os unguis. P, The maxilla in¬
ferior. £), The teeth, which are fixteen in number in
each jaw. R, The feven cervical vertebrae, with their
intermediate cartilages. S, Their tranfverfe proceffes.
T, The twelve dorfal vertebrae, with their interme¬
diate cartilages. U, The five lumbar vertebrae. V,
Their tranfverfe proceffes. W, Fhe upper part of the
os facrum. X, Its lateral parts. The holes feen. on
its fore part are the paffages of the undermoft fpinal
nerves and fmall veffels. Oppofite to the holes, the
marks of the original divifions of the bone are fcen.
Y, The os ilium. Z, Its creft or fpine. a, The an¬
terior fpinous proceffes. b, The brim of the pelvis,
e, The ifchiatic niche, d, The os ifcbium. Its
tuberofity. f, Its fpinous procefs. g, Its crus, h, The
foramen thyroideum. i, The os pubis.^ k, The fym-
phyfis pubis. 1, The crus pubis, m, l he acetabulum.
n, The feventh or laft true rib. o, The twelfth or laft
falfe rib. p, The upper end of the fternurn. q, The
middle piece, r, The upper end, or cartilago enfi-
formis. s, The clavicle, t, The internal furface of
the fcapula. u, Its acromion, v, Its coracoid pro¬
cefs. w, Its cervix, x, The glenoid cavity, y, The
os humeri, z, Its head, which is connedled to the
glenoid cavity. 1, Its external tubercle. 2, Its in¬
ternal tubercle. 3, The groove for lodging the. long
head of the biceps mufcle of the arm. 4, The inter¬
nal condyle. 5, The external condyle. Between 4
and 5, the trochlea. 6, The radius. 7, Its head.
8, Its tubercle. 9, The ulna. 10, Its coronoid pro¬
cefs. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, The carpus j
compofed of os naviculare, os lunare, os cuneiforme,
os pififorme, os trapezium, os trapezoides, os magnum,
os unciforme. 19, The five bones of the metacarpus.
20, The two bones of the thumb. 21, The three
bones of each of the fingers. 22, The os femoris.
23, Its head. 24, Its cervix. 25, The trochanter
major. 26, The trochanter minor. 27, The inter¬
nal condyle. 28, The external condyle. 29, The
rotula. 30, The tibia. 31, Its head. 32, Its tu¬
bercle. 33, Its fpine. 34, The malleolus internus.
3$, The fibula. 36, Its head. 37, The malleolus
externus. The tarfu^is compofed of, 38, The aftraga-
lus j
Cliap. I.
Ofteology. lus j 39, the os calcis; 40, the os naviculare j 41, three
-y—' offa cuneiformia, and the os cuboides, which is not fcen
in this figure. 42, The five bones of the metatarfus.
43, The two bones of the great toe. 44, The three
bones of each of the fmall toes.
Fig. 2. A Front View of the Skull.
A, The os frontis. B, The lateral part of the os
frontis, which gives origin to part of the temporal
mufcle. C, The fuperciliary ridge. D, the fuper-
ciliary hole through which the frontal veflels and nerves
pafs. EE, The orbitar procefles. F, The middle of
the tranfverfe future. G, The upper part of the or¬
bit. IT, The foramen cpticum. I, The foramen
lacerum. K, The inferior orbitar fifiure. L, The os
unguis. M, The offa nafi. N, The os maxillare fu-
perius. O, Its nafal procefs. P, The external orbi¬
tar hole through which the fuperior maxillary veflels
and nerves pafs. (}, The os malas. R, A pafiage for
fmall veffels into, or out of, the orbit. S, The under
part of the left noftril. T, The feptum narium. U,
The os fpongiofum fuperius. V, The os fpongiofum
inferius. W, The edge of the alveoli, or fpongy fock-
ets, for the teeth. X, The maxilla inferior. Y, The
pallage for the inferior maxillary veffels and nerves.
Fig. 3. A Side View of the Skull.
A, The os frontis. B, The coronal future. C, The
os parietale. D, An arched ridge which gives origin
to the temporal mufcle. E, The fquamous future.
F, The fquamous part of the temporal bone ; and,
farther forwards, the temporal procefs of the fphenoid
bone. G, The zygomatic procefs of the temporal
bone. H, The zygomatic future. I, The maftoid
procefs of the temporal bone. K, The meatus audi-
torius externus. L, The orbitar plate of the frontal
bone, under which is feen the tranfverfe future.
M, The pars plana of the ethmoid bone. N, The os
unguis. O, The right os nafi. P, The fuperior max¬
illary bone. Q, Its nafal procefs. R, The two den¬
tes incifores. S, The dens caninus. T, The two
fmall molares. U, The three large molares. V, The
os malse. W, The lower jaw. X, Its angle. Y, The
coronoid procefs. Z, The condyloid procefs, by which
the jaw is articulated ivith the temporal bone.
Fig. 4. The Pofterior and Right fide of the Skull.
A, The os frontis. BB, The ofla parietalia.
C, The fagittal future. D, The parietal hole, through
Avhich a fmall vein runs to the fuperior longitudinal
finus. E, The lambdoid future. FF, Offa triquetra.
G, The os occipitis. H, The fquamous part of the
temporal bone. I. The maftoid procefs. K, The
zygoma. L, The os malae. M, The temporal part
of the fphenoid bone. N, The fuperior maxillary
bone and teeth.
Fig. 5. The External Surface of the Os Frontis.
A, The convex part. B, Part of the temporal
foifa. C, The external angular procefs. D, The in¬
ternal angular procefs. E, The nafal procefs. F, The
fuperciliary arch. G, The fuperciliary hole. H, The
orbitar plate.
Fig. 5. The Internal Surface of the Os Frontis.
A A, I he ferrated edge Avhich affifts to form the co¬
ronal future. B, The external angular procefs. C,
The internal angular procefs. D, The nafal procefs.
203
E, The orbitar plate. F, The cells which correfpond Ofteology.
Avith thofe of the ethmoid bone. G, The paflage from —y——
the frontal finus. H, The opening which receives the
cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. I, The cavity
Avhich lodges the fore part of the brain. K, The fpine
to Avhich the falx is fixed. L, The groove Avhich
lodges the fuperior longitudinal finus.
Plate XXII.
Fig. 1. A Back View of the Skeleton.
A A, The ofla parietalia. B, The fagittal future.
C, The lambdoid future. D, The occipital bone.
E, The fquamous future. F, The maftoid procefs of
the temporal bone. G, The os malse. H, The pa¬
late plates of the fuperior maxillary bones. I, The
maxilla inferior. K, The teeth of both jaws. L, The
feven cervical vertebrae. M, Their fpinous procefles.
N, Their tranfverfe and oblique procefles. O, The
laft of the twelve dorfal vertebrae. P, The fifth or laft
lumbar vertebra. (,), The tranfverfe procefles. R, The
oblique procefles. S, The fpinous procefles. T, The
upper part of the os facrum. U, The pofterior holes
Avhich tranfmit fmall blood-veflels and nerves. V, The
under part of the os facrum which is covered by a
membrane. W, The os coccygis. X, The os ilium.
Y, Its fpine or creft. Z, The ifchiatic niche, a, The
cs ifchium. b, Its tuberofity. c, Its fpine. d, The
os pubis. e, The foramen thyroideum. f, The fe-
venth or laft true rib. g, The twelfth or laft falfe rib.
b, The clavicle, i, The fcapula. k, Its fpine. 1, Its
acromion, m, Its cervix, n, Its fuperior cofta. o, Its
pofterior cofta. p, Its inferior cofta. q, The os hu¬
meri. r, The radius, s, The ulna. t, Its olecranon,
u, All the bones of the carpus, excepting the os pifi-
forme, which is feen in Plate XXI. fig. 1. v, The
five bones of the metacarpus. av, The two bones of
the thumb, x, The three bones of each of the fingers,
y, The two fefamoid bones at the root of the left
thumb, z, The os femoris. 1, The trochanter ma¬
jor. 2, The trochanter minor. 3, The linea afpera.
4, The internal condyle. 5, The external condyle.
6 6, The femilunar cartilages. 7, The tibia. 8, The
malleolus internus. 9. The fibula. 10, The malleo¬
lus externus. II, The tarfus. 12, The metatarfus.
13, The toes.
Fig. 2. The External Surface of the Left Os Parie¬
tale.
A, The convex fmooth furface. B, The parietal
hole. C, An arch made by the beginning of the tem¬
poral mufcle.
Fig. 3. The Internal Surface of the fame Bone.
A, Its fuperior edge, which, joined Avith the other,
forms the fagittal future. B, The anterior edge, which
affifts in the formation of the coronal future. C, The
inferior edge for the fquamous future. D, The pofte¬
rior edge for the lambdoid future. E, A depreflion
made by the lateral finus. FF, The prints of the arte¬
ries of the dura mater.
Fig. 4. The External Surface of the Left Os Tem-
porum.
A, The fquamous part. B, The maftoid procefs,
C, The zygomatic procefs. D, The ftyloid procefs.
E, The petrofal procefs. F, The meatus auditorius
C c 2 extefnus.
ANATOMY.
204
N A T
Ofteolo^y. fexterhas. 6, The Slcno‘.i cavity for the articulation
  w 11,£ the lower‘jAW. H, The foramen ftylo-maftoideum
•for the portio dura of the feventh pair of nerves.
1 PaRages for hxood veffels into the bone. K, The
^foramen maftoideum through which a vein goes to the
lateral finus.
Fig. 5. The Internal Surface of the Left Os Tem-
O M Y.
Part I
of the fohenoidal finufes. G, The foramen lacerum. Ofteoiogy.
H, The foramen rotundum. I, The foramen ovaie. V 
K, The foramen pterygoideum.
Fig 17. The External View of the Os Ethmoides.
A, The nafal lamella. BB, The grooves between
the nafal lamella and offa fpongiofa fupenora. C_C, a he
offa fpongiofa fuperiora. DD, I he fphenoid cor¬
nua. See Fig;. 16. E.
A, The fquamous part •, the upper edge of which
a{hits in forming the fquamous future. B, The ma-
itoid procefs. C, The ftyloid procefs. D, The pars
petrofa. E, The entry of the feventh pair, or audi¬
tory nerve. F, The foffa, which lodges a part of the
lateral finus. G, The foramen maftoideum.
Fig. 6. The External Surface of the Osseous Circle,
which terminates the meatus auditorius externus.
A, The anterior part. B, A fmall pait of the
oroove in which the membrana tympani is fixed.
xj. B. This, with the fubfequent bones of the ear,
are here delineated as large as the life.
Fig. 7. The Internal Surface of the Osseous Circle.
A, The anterior part. B, The groove in which
the membrana tympani is fixed.
Fig. 8. The fituation and connexion of the Small
Bones of the Ear.
A, The malleus. B, The incus. C, The os or-
biculare. D, The Rapes.
Fig. 9. The Malleus, with its Head, Handle, and
Small Procefles.
Fig. 10. The Incus, with its Body, Superior and In¬
ferior Branches.
Fig. 11. The Os Orbiculare.
Fig. 12. The Stapes, with its Head, Bafe, and two
Crura.
Fig. 13. An Internal View of the LABYRINTH of
the Ear.
A, The hollow part of the cochlea, which forms a
{hare of the meatus auditorius internus. B, The vefti-
bulum. CCC, The femicircular canals.
Fig. 14. An External View of the Labyrinth.
A, The femicircular canals. B, The feneftra ovalis
which leads into the veftibulum. C, 1 he fenefha ro¬
tunda which opens into the cochlea. D, The different
turns of the cochlea.
ElG. 15. The Internal Surface of the Os SPHENOlDES.
A A, The temporal proceffes. BB, The ptery¬
goid proceffes. CC, The fpinous proceffes. DD, The
anterior clinoid proceffes. E, The pofterior clinoid
procefs. F, The anterior procefs which joins the
ethmoid bone. G, ihe fella turcica for lodging
the glandula pituitaria. H, The foramen opticum.
K, The foramen lacerum. L, The foramen rutun-
dum. M, The foramen ovale.'' N, The foramen fpi-
nale.
Fig. 16. The External Surface of the Os Sphenoides.
AA, The temporal proceffes. BB, The pterygoid
nroceffes. CC, The fpinous proceffes. D, The pro-
ceffus azygos. E, The fmall triangular proceffes which
„row from the body of the bone. FF, The orifices
Fig. 18. The Internal View of the Os Ethmoides.
A The criffa galli. B, The cribriform plate, with
the different paffages of the olfaflory nerves. CC,
Some of the ethmoidal cells. D, 1 he right os planum.
EE, The fphenoidal cornua.
Fig. 19. The Right Sphenoidal Cornu.
Fig. 20. The Left Sphenoidal Cornu.
Fig. 21. The External Surface of the Os Occipitis,
A, The upper part of the bone. B, Tlie fuperior
arched ridge. C, The inferior arched ridge. Under
the arches are prints made by mufcles of the neck.
DD, The two condyloid proceffes which articulate
the head with the fpine. E, The cuneiform procefs.
F, The foramen magnum through which the fpmal
marrow paffes. GG, The pofterior condyloid fora¬
mina which tranfmit veins into the lateral finufes.
HH, The foramina lingualia for the paffage of the
ninth pair of nerves.
Fig. 22. The Internal Surface of the Os Occipitis.
AA, The two fides which aflift to form the lamb-
doid future. B, The point of the cuneiform procefs
where it joins the fphenoid bone. CC, J he piints
made by I he pofterior lobes of the brain. DD, Prints
made by the lobes of the cerebellum. E, The cruci¬
form ridge for the attachment of the proceffes of the
dura mater. E, The courfe of the fuperior longitudi¬
nal finufes. GG, Ihe courfe of the two lateral fi-
nufes. H, The foramen magnum. II, The pofterior
condyloid foramina.
Plate XXIII.
Fig. 1. A Side View of the Skeleton.
AA, The offa parietalia. B, The fagittal future.
C, The os occipitis. DD, The lambdoid future.
E, The fquamous part of the temporal bone. F, The
maftoid procefs. G, The meatus auditorius externus.
H, The os frontis. I, The os malse. K, The os max-
illare fuperius. L, The maxilla inferior. M, Ihe
teeth of both jaws. N, The feventh or laft cervical
vertebra. O, The fpinous proceffes. P, Their tranf-
verfe and oblique proceffes. £), The twelfth or laft;
dorfal vertebra. R, The fifth or laft lumbar vertebra.
S, The fpinous proceffes. T, Openings between the
vertebrae for the paffage of the fpinal nerves. U, The
under end of the os facrum. V, The os coccygis.
W. The os ilium. X, The anterior fpinous proceffes.
Y, The pofterior fpinous proce'ffes. Z, The ifchiatic
niche, a, The right os ilium, b, The offa pubis,
c, The tuberofity of the left os ifehium. d, The fca-
pula. e, Its fpine. f, The os humeri, jj, The ra¬
dius. h, The ulna, i, The carpus, k, The meta¬
carpal bone of the thumb. 1, The metacarpal bones
of the fingers, m, The two bones of the thumb,
n, The three bones of each of the fingers, o, The ps
femoris*
4
Chap. I.
Ofteology. femoris. p, Its liead. q, The trochanter major. r,The
external condyle, s, The rotula. t, The tibia, u, 1 he
fibula, v, The malleolus externus. w, The athaga-
lus. x, The os ealcis. y, The os naviculare. z, The
three ofi’a cuneiformia. I, The os cuboides. 2, I he
five metatarfal bones. 3, The two bones of the great
toe. 4, The three bones of each of the fmall toes.
Tig. 2. A View of the Internal Surface of the Bafe of
the Skull.
AAA, The two tables of the Ikull with the diploe.
BB, The orbitar plates of the frontal bone. C, The
critia galli, with the cribriform plate of the ethmoidal
bone on each fide of it, through which the firft pair
of nerves pals. D, The cuneiform procefs of the oc¬
cipital bone. E, The cruciform ridge. F, The fo¬
ramen magnum for the pafiage of the fpinal marrow.
G, The zygoma, made by the joining of the zygo¬
matic procetfes of the os temporum and 03 malm.
H, The pars fquamofa of the os temporum. I, The
pars mammillaris. K, The pars petrola. L, l he
temporal procefs of the fphenoid bone. MM, 1 he
anterior clinoid procefles. N, I he pofterior clinoid
procefs. O, The fella turcica. P, The foramen op-
ticum, for the paffage of the optic nerve and ocular
artery of the left fide. O, The foramen lacerum, for
the third, fourth, fixth.'and firlt of the fifth pair of
nerves and ocular vein. R, The foramen rotundum
for* the fecond of the fifth pair. S, The foramen
ovale, for the third of the fifth pair. T, The foramen
fpinale, for the principal artery of the dura mater.
U, The entry of the auditory nerve. V, The paflage
for the lateral finus. W, The paffage of the eighth
pair of nerves. X, The paffage of the ninth pair.
Fig. 3. A View of the External Surface of the Bafe
of the Skull.
A, The two dentes incifores of the right fide. B,
The dens caninus. C, The two (mall molares. D, The
three large molares. E, The foramen incifivum, which
gives paffage to fmall blood-veffels and nerves. F, The
palate plates of the offa maxillaria and palati, joined
by the longitudinal and tranfverfe palate futures. G,
The foramen palatinum pofterius, for the palatine vef-
fels and nerves. H, The os maxillare fuperius of the right
fide. I, The os malm. K, The zygomatic procefs of the
temporal bone. L, The pofterior extremity of the offa
fpongiofa. M, The pofterior extremity of the vomer,
which forms the back part of the feptum nafi. N, The
pterygoid procefs of the right fide of the fphenoid bone.
GO, The foramina ovalia. PP, The foramina fpi-
nalia. The paffages of the internal carotid ar¬
teries. R, A hole between the point of each pars pe-
trofa and cuneiform procefs of the occipital bone, which
is filled up with a ligamentous fubftance in the recent
fubjeft. S, The paffage of the left lateral finu^. T,
The pofterior condvluid foramen of the left fide. U,
The foramen maftoideum. V, The foramen magnum.
W, The inferior orbitar fiffure. X, The glenoid ca¬
vity, for the articulation of the lower jaw. Y, 1 he
fquamous part of the temporal bone. Z, The maftoid
procefs, at the inner fide of which is a fofla for the
pofterior belly of the digaftric mufcle. a. The ftyloid
procefs. b, The meatus auditorius externus. c, The
205
left condyle of the occipital bone, d, The perpendi- Ofteology.
cular occipital fpine. ee, The inferior horizontal ridge  v~-—'
of the occipital bone. ff, The fuperior horizontal
ridge, which is oppofite to the crucial ridge where the
longitudinal finus divides to form the lateral finufes,
ggg, The lambdoid future. b, The left fquamous
future, i, The parietal bone.
Fig. 4. The Anterior Surface of the Ossa Nasi..
A, The upper part which joins the os frontis. B,
The under end, which joins the cartilage of the nofe.
C, Their inner edge where they join each other.
Fig. 5. The Pofterior Surface of the Ossa Nasi.
AA, Their cavity, which forms part of the arch of
the nofe. BB, Their ridge or fpine, which projects
a little to be fixed to the fore part of the feptum na-
rium.
Fig. 6. The External Surface of the Os Maxillare
Superius of the left fide.
A, The nafal procefs. B, The orbitar plate. C,
The unequal furface which joins the os malce. D, The
external orbitar hole. E, The opening into the noftril.
F, The palate plate. G, The maxillary tuberofity.
H, Part of the os palati. I, The two dentes incifores..
K, The dens caninus. L, The two fmall dentes mo¬
lares. M, The three large dentes molares.
Fig. 7. The Internal Surface of the Os Maxillare.
Superius and Os Palati.
x'3!, The nafal procefs. BB, Eminences for the con¬
nexion of the fpongiofum inferius. D, The under
end of the lachrymal groove. E, The antrum maxillare.
F, The nafal fpine, between which and B is the cavity
of the noftril. G, The palate plate. H, The orbitar,
part of the os palati. I, The nafal plate. K, The
future which unites the maxillary and palate bones.
L, The pterygoid procefs of the palate bone.
Fig. 8. The External Surface of the right Os Uxguis.
A, The orbitar part. B, The lachrymal part. C,
The ridge between them.
Fig. 9. The Internal Surface of the right Os Unguis.
This fide of the bones has a furrow oppofite to the
external ridge 5 all behind this is irregular, where it
covers part of the ethmoidal cells.
Fig. 10. The External Surface of the left Os Mala:.
A, The fuperior orbitar procefs, B, The inferior
orbitar procefs. C, The malar procefs. D, The zy¬
gomatic procefs. E, The orbitar plate. F, A paf¬
fage for fmall veffels into or out ofithe orbit.
Fig. 11. The Internal Surface of the left Os Mala.
A, The fuperior orbitar procefs. B, The inferior
orbitar procefs. C, The malar proeefs. D, The zy¬
gomatic procefs. E, The internal orbitar plate or
procefs.
Fig. 12. The External Surface of the right Os Spon¬
giosum Inferius.
A, The anterior part. B, The hook-like procefs
for covering part of the antrum maxillare. C, A
fmall procefs which covers part of the under end of
the lachrymal groove. D, The inferior edge turned a
little outwards.
ANATOMY.
Fig.
2o6 A N A T
Ofteology. Fid. 13. The Internal Surface of the Os Spongiosum
1 Inferius.
A, The anterior extremity. B, The upper edge
which joins the fuperior maxillary and palate bones.
Fig. 14. The Pofterior and External Surface of the
right Os Palati.
A, The orbitar procefs. B, The nafal lamella. C,
The pterygoid procefs. D, The palate procefs.
Fig. 15. The Anterior and External Surface of the
right Os Pal ati.
A, The orbitar procefs. B, An opening through
■which the lateral nafal veffels and nerves pafs. C, The
nafal lamella. D, The pterygoid procefs. E, The
pofterior edge of the palate procefs for the connexion
of the velum palati. F, The inner edge by which the
two offa palati are connected.
Fig. 16. The right fide of the Vomer.
A, The upper edge which joins the nafal lamella of
the ethmoid bone and the middle cartilage of the nofe.
B, The inferior edge which is connefted to the fupe¬
rior maxillary and palate bones. C, I he fuperior and
pofterior part which receives the procefius azygos of
the fphenoid bone.
Fig. 17. The Maxilla Inferior.
A, The chin. B, The bafe and left fide. C, The
angle. D, The coronoid procefs. E, The condyloid
procefs. F, The beginning of the inferior maxillary
canal of the right fide, for the entry of the nerve and
blood veffels. G, The termination of the left canal.
H, The two dentes incifores. 1, The dens caninue.
K, The two fmall molares. L, The three large mo-
lares.
Fig. 18. The different claffes of the Teeth.
1, 2, A fore and back view of the two anterior
dentes incifores of the lower jaw. 3, 4, Similar teeth
of the upper jaw. 5, 6, A fore and back view of the
dentes canini. 7, 8, The anterior dentes molares.
9, 10, 11, The pofterior dentes molares. 12, 13, 14,
15, 16, Unufual appearances in the ftiape and fize of
the teeth.
Fig. 19. The External Surface of the Os Hyoides.
A, The body. BB, The cornua. CC, The ap¬
pendices.
Plate XXIV.
Fig. 1. A Pofterior View of the Sternum and Cla¬
vicles, with the Ligament conne&ing the Clavicles
to each other.
a, The pofterior furface of the fternum. bb, The
broken ends of the clavicles, cccc, The tubercles near
the extremity of each clavicle, d, I he ligament con-
nedting the clavicles.
Fig. 2. A Fore View of the Left Scapula, and of
a half of the Clavicle, with their Ligaments.,
a, The fpine of the fcapula. b, The acromion,
c, The inferior angle, d, Inferior cofta. e, Cervix,
f, Glenoid cavity, covered with cartilage for the arm
bone, gg, The capfular ligament of the joint, h, Co¬
racoid procefs. i, The broken end of the clavicle,
k, Its extremity joined to the acromion. 1, A liga-
3
O M Y. Part I
ment coming out fingle from the acromion to the co- Ofteology.
racoid procefs. m, A ligament coming out fingle from 1-—
the acromion, and dividing into two, which are fixed
to the coracoid procefs.
Fig. 3. The Joint of the Elbow of the Left Arm,
with the Ligaments.
a, The os humeri, b, Its internal condyle, cc, The
two prominent parts of its trochlea appearing through
the capfular ligament, d, The ulna, e, 1 he radius,
f, The part of the ligament including the head of the
radius.
Fig. 4. The Bones of the Right Hand, with the
Palm in view.
a, The radius, b, The ulna, c, The fcaphoid bone
of the carpus, d, The os lunare. e, The os cunei-
forme. f, The os pififorme. g, Trapezium, h, Fra-
pezoides. i, Capitatum. k, Unciforme. 1, The four
metacarpal bones of the fingers, m, The firft phalanx,
n, The fecond phalanx, o, The third phalanx, p, The
metacarpal bone of the thumb, q, ihe firft joint,
r, The fecond joint.
Fig. 5. The Pofterior View of the Bones of the Left
Hand.
The explication of Fig. 4. ferves for this figure ; the
fame letters pointing out the fame bones, though in a
different view.
Fig. 6. The Upper Extremity of the Tibia, with the
Semilunar Cartilages of the Joint of the Knee, and
fome Ligaments.
a, The ftrong ligament which conne&s the rotula to
the tubercle of the tibia, bb, The parts of the extre¬
mity of the tibia, covered with cartilage, which appear
within the femilunar cartilages. cc, The femilunar
cartilages. d, The two parts of what is called the
crofs ligament.
Fig. 7. The Pofterior View of the Joint of the RlCHT
Knee.
a, The os femoris cut. b, Its internal condyle.
c, Its external condyle, d, The back part of the tibia,
e, The fuperior extremity of the fibula, f, The edge
of the internal femilunar cartilage, g, An oblique li¬
gament. h, A larger perpendicular ligament. 1, A
ligament connefting the femur and fibula.
Fig. 8. The Anterior View of the Joint of the Right
Knee.
b, The internal condyle, c, Its external condyle.
d, The part of the os femoris, on which the patella
moves, e, A perpendicular ligament, ff, The two
parts of the crucial ligaments, gg, The edges of the
two moveable femilunar cartilages. h. The tibia,
i, The ftrong ligament of the patella, k, The back part
of it where the fat has been diffedled away. 1, The
external depreflion. m, The internal one. n, The cut
tibia.
Fig. 9. A View of the Inferior Part of the Bones of
the Right Foot.
a, The great knob of the os caleis. b, A promi¬
nence on its outfide. c, The hollow for the tendons,
nerves, and blood veffels. d, The anterior extremity
of the os calcis. e, Part of the aftragalus. f, Its
head covered with cartilage, g, The internal promi¬
nence
Chap. T. ANA'
Ofteology nence of the os naviculare. bf The os cuboides.
—v—-• i. The os cuneiforme internum j k,—Medium; 1,—
Externum, m, The metatarfal bones of the four lef-
fer toes, n, The firit—o, The fecond—p, The third
phalanx of the four leffer toes, q, The metatarfal
bones of the great toe. r, Its firft—s, Its fecond
joint.
O M Y.
bones of the tarfus. i, The ligaments of the joints of
the five metatarfal bones.
Fto. 13. a, The head of the thigh-bone of a child,
b, The ligamentum rotundum connefling it to the
acetabulum, c, The capfular ligament of the joint
with its arteries injedted. d, The numerous veffels
of the mucilaginous gland injedled.
207
Ofteology.
Fig. 10. The Inferior Surface of the two large SESA¬
MOID Bones at the firrt joint of the Great Toe.
Fig. II. The Superior View of the Bones of the
Right Foot.
a, b, as in fig. 9. c, The fuperior head of the aflra-
galus. d, &c. as in fig. 9.
Fig. 12. The View of the Sole of the Foot, with its
Ligaments.
a, The great knob of the os calcis. b, The hollow
for the tendons, nerves, and blood-veffels. c, The
Iheaths of the fiexores pollicis and digitorum longi
opened, d, The ftrong cartilaginous ligament fupport-
ing the head of the aftragalus. e, h, Two ligaments
which unite into one, and are fixed to the metatarfal
bone of the great toe. f, A ligament from the knob
of the os calcis to the metatarfal bone of the little toe.
g, A ftrong triangular ligament, which fupports the
Fig. 14. I he Back View of the Cartilages of the
Larynx, with the Os Hyoides.
a, The polterior part of the bafe of the os hyoides.
bb, Its cornua, c, The appendix of the right fide.
d, A ligament fent out from fhe appendix of the left
fide, to the ftyloid proeefs of the temporal bone.
e, 1. he union of the bafe with the left cornua, ff, The
pofterior lides of (g) the thyroid cartilage, hh, Its
fuperior cornua, ii, Its inferior cornua, k, The cricoid
cartilage. 11, I he arytenoid cartilages, m, The entry
into the lungs, named glottis. n, The epiglottis.
00, The fuperior cartilages of the trachea, p, Its li¬
gamentous back part.
Fig. 15. Ihe Superior Concave Surface of the Sesa¬
moid Bones at the firft joint of the Great Toe,
with their Ligaments.
a, I hree fefamoid bones, b, The ligamentous fub-
ftance in which they are formed.
CHAP. II. OF THE SOFT PARTS IN GENERAL.
OF THE COMMON INTEGUMENTS WITH THEIR APPEND 4GES-
AND OF THE MUSCLES. ?
ANATOMICAL writers ufually proceed to a de-
fcription of the mufcles after having finilhed the ofteo¬
logy; but we ftiall deviate a little from the common
method, with a view to defcribe every thing clearly
and diftimftly, and to avoid a tautology which would
otherwife be unavoidable. All the parts of the body
are fo intimately connefted with each other, that it
feems impoffible to convey a juft idea of any one of
them, without being in fome meafure obliged to fay
fomething of others ; and on this account we wilh to
mention in this place the names and fituation of the
principal vifcera of the body, that when mention is
hereafter made of any one of them in the courfe of the
work, the reader may at leaft know where they are
placed.
After this little djgreflion, the common integuments,
and after them the mufcles, will be defcribed ; we then
propofe to enter into an examination of the feveral vif¬
cera, and their d’fferent fun&ions. In defcribing the
brain, occafion will be taken to fpeak of the nerves and
animal fpirits. The' circulation of the blood will fol¬
low the anatomy of the heart, and the fecretions and
other matters will be introduced in their proper places..
The body is divided into three great cavities. Of
thefe the uppermoft is formed by the bones of the cra-
hium, and enclofes the brain and cerebellum.
1 he fecond is compofed of the vertebrae of the back,
the fternum, and true ribs, with the additional aftift-
ance of mufeles, membranes, and common integuments,
and is called the thorax.—~\X contains the heart and
lungs.
The third, and inferior cavity, is the abdomen. It
is feparated from the thorax by means of the diaphragm,
and is formed by the lumbar vertebrae, the os facrum^
the offa innominata, and the falfe ribs, to which we may
add the peritonaeum, and a variety of mufcles. This
cavity enclofes the ftomach, inteftmes, omentum or
cawl, liver, pancreas, fpleen, kidneys, urinary bladder,
and parts of generation.
Under the divifion of common integuments are ufu¬
ally included the epidermis, or fcarf-lkin, the reticulum
mucofum of Malpighi, the cutis, or true Ikin, and the
membrana adipofa. 1 he hair and nails, as w'ell as the
febaceous glands, may be confidered as appendages to
the fldn.
Sect. I. Of the Skin.
§ I. Of the Scarf-Skin.
The epidermis, cuticula, or fcarf-lkin, is a fine, tranf-c
parent, and infenfible pellicle, deftitute of nerves and '
blood veffels, which invefts the body, and everywhere
covers the true Ikin. This fcarf-lkin, which feems to be
very fimple, appears, when examined with a microfcope^
to be compofed of feveral laminae or feales which are m-
creafed by preffure, as we may obferve in the hands and
feet, where it is frequently much thickened, and be¬
comes perfeftly callous. It feems to adhere to the cu¬
tis by a number of very minute filaments, but may ea-
fily be feparated from it by heat, or by maceration in
"water. Some anatomical writers have fuppofed that it
is
20$
Of the
Integu¬
ments, 8tc
Animad
<ver. 2
A N A T
is formed by a moifture exhaled from the whole furface
of the body, which gradually hardens when it comes
into contaft with the air. They were perhaps induced
—v  to adopt this opinion, by obferVing the fpeedy regene¬
ration of this part of the body when it has been by any
means deftroyed, it appearing to be renewed on all parts
of the furface at the fame time *, whereas other parts
which have been injured, are found to dire£t their
growth from their circumference only towards their
centre. But a demonftrative proof that the epidermis
is not a fluid hardened by means of the external air, is,
that the foetus in utero is found to have this covering.
Leeuwenhoek fuppofed its formation to be owing to the
expanfion of the extremities of the excretory veffels,
which are found every where upon the furface of the
true fkin. Ruyfch attributed its origin to the nervous
papillae of the'fkin-, and Heifler thinks it probable,
that it may be owing both to the papillae and the ex¬
cretory veffels. The celebrated Morgagni, on the o-
* Adverfar ther hand, contends *, that it is nothing more than the
Anat. n. furface of the cutis, hardened and rendered inleniible
by the liquor amnii in utero and by the prellure the
sir. This is a fubjeft, however, on which we can ad¬
vance nothing with certainty. ^ _
The cuticle is pierced with an infinite number of
pores, or little holes, which afford a paflage to the hairs,
fweat, and infenfible perfpiration, and likewife to warm
water, mercury, and whatever elfe is capable of be-
in« taken in by the abforbents of the (kin. The lines
which we obferve on the epidermis belong to the true
fkin. The cuticle adjufts itfelf to them, but does not
form them.
§ 2. Of the Rete Mucofutn.
Between the epidermis and cutis we meet with an
appearance to which Malpighi, who firft defcribed it,
gave the name of rete mucofiim, fuppofing it to be of a
membranous ftruaure, and pierced with an infinite num¬
ber of pores 5 but the faft is, that it feems to be nothing
more than a mucous fubftance which may be diffolved
by macerating it in water, while the cuticle and cutis
preferve their texture.
The colour of the body is found to depend on the co¬
lour of this rete mucofum 5 for in negroes it is obferved
to be perfe&ly black, whilft the true fkin is of the or¬
dinary colour. „ . , , r 1 1
The blitters which raife the fkin when burnt or icald-
ed, have been fuppofed by fotne to be owing to a rare-
fa&ion of this mucus but they are more probably oc-
cafioned by an increafed aftion of the veffels of the part,
together with an afflux and effufion of the thinner parts
of the blood.
^ 3. Of the Cutis, or True Shin.
The cutis is compofed of fibres clofely compared to¬
gether. as we may obferve in leather which is the pre¬
pared fkin of animals. Thefe fibres form a thick net¬
work, which everywhere admits the filaments of nerves,
and an infinite number of blood-veffels and lympha-
tics#
The cutis, when the epidermis is taken off,, is found
to have, throughout its whole furface, innumerable pa-
pillse, which appear like very minute granulations, and
ieem'to be calculated to receive the impreflions of the
77
75
Rete mu¬
cofum.
76
Cutis.
O M Y. ' Part t
touch, being the mod eafily obfemd where the fenfe ofth.
of feeling is the mod delicate, as in the palms of the Joteg..
hands and on the fingers. . ——y'’—"*
Thefe papillae are fuppofed by many anatomical
writers to be continuations of the pulpy fubfiance 01
nerves, whofe coats have terminated m the cellular tex¬
ture of the fkin. The great fenfibility of thefe papillae
evidently proves them to be exceedingly nervous ; but
furely the nervous fibrillae of the ffiln are of themfelves
fcarcelv equal to the formation of the papillae, and it
feems to be more probable that they are formed like the
reft of the cutis. . r , .,
Thefe papillae being deferibed, the ufesof the epider¬
mis and the reticulum mucofum will be more eanly un-
derftood the latter ferving to keep them conflantly
moift -, while the former proteas them from the exter¬
nal air, and modifies their too great fenfibility.
§ 4. Of the Glakds of the Shin.
In different parts of the body we meet, within, the The feba-|
fubftance of the fkin, with certain glands or follicles
which difcharge a fat and oily humour that ferves to'
lubricate and foften the fkin. When the fluid they fe-
crete has acquired a certain degree of thicknefs, it ap¬
proaches to the colour and confiftence of luet ; and from
this appearance they have derived their name oi febace*
ous glands. They are found in the greateft number in,
the nofe, ear, nipple, axilla, groin, icrotum, vagina, and
prepuce.
Beiides thefe febaceous glands, we read, in anatomi¬
cal books, of others that are defcribed as fmall fpherical
bodies placed in all parts of the fkin, in much greater
abundance than'thofc juft now mentioned, and named
miliary, from their fuppofed refemblance to millet feed.
Steno', who firft defcribed thefe glands, and Malpighi,
Ruyfch, Verheyen, Winflow, and others, who have
adopted his opinions on this fubjtfr, ipeak of them as
having excretory du&s, that open on the furface of the
cuticle, and diftil the fweat and matter of infenfible per-
foiration : and yet, notwithftanding the pofitive manner
in which thefe'pretended glands have been fpoken of,
we are now fufficiently convinced that their exiftence is
altogether imaginary.
§ 5- Q/"^ie Insensible Perfpiration and Sweat. ^
The matter of infenfible perfpiration, or in otherInfenfibl
words, the fubtile vapour that is continually exhaling
from the furface of the body, is not. fecreted by any
particular glands, but feems to be derived wholly fiom
the extremities of the minute arteries that are every¬
where difperfed through the fkin. 1 heft exhaling vtf
fels are eafily demonftrated in the dead fubjeft, by
throwing water into the arteries } for then fmall drops
exude from all parts of the fkin, and raife up the cuti¬
cle, the pores of which are clofed by death:.and in
the’ living fubjeft, a looking-glafr placed agaiift the
fkin, is foon obfcured by the vapour. Bidloo fancied
he had difcovered duels leading from the cutis to the
cuticle, and tranfmitting this fluid 5 but in this he was
xniftaken. . ,
When the perfpiration is by any means increaled,
and feveral drops that were infenfible when feparate,
are united together and condenfed by the external air,
they form upon the fkin fmall but vifible drops called
J fweat
Chap. II. ANA1
Of the fweat (n). This particularly happens after much ex-
Integu- ercife, or whatever occafions an increafed determina-
ment?, &c.^ fion of fluids to the furface of the body ; a greater
v quantity of perfpirable matter being in fuch cafes car¬
ried through the paffages that are deftined to convey it
79 off* . .
Whether It has been diiputed, indeed, whether the infenfible
theie ate^ pei.{pjratjon and Iweat are to be confidered as one and
fame or dif. t^e ^ame excretion, differing only in degree j or whe-
ferent ex- ther they are two diftindt excretions derived from dif-
cretions. ferent fources. In fupport of the latter opinion, it has
been alleged, that the infenfible perfpiration is agree¬
able to nature, and effential to health, whereas Iweat
may be confidered as a fpecies of difeafe. But this ar¬
gument proves nothing 5 and it feems probable, that
both the infenfible vapour and the fweat are exhaled in
a fimilar manner, though they differ in quantity, and
probably in their qualities ; the former being more lim¬
pid, and feemingly lefs impregnated with falls than
the latter; at any rate we may confider the fkin as an
emunftory through which the redundant water, and
8a fometimes the other more faline parts of the blood, are
Tfceir ufes. carried off. But the infenfible perfpiration is not con¬
fined to the fldn only—a great part of what we are
conftantly throwing off in this way is from the lungs.
The quantity of fluid exhaled from the human body by
this infenfible perfpiration is very confiderable. Sanc-
torius (0), an Italian phyfician, who indefatigably paf-
fed a great many years in a feries of ftatical experi¬
ments, demonftrated long ago, what has been confirmed
by later obfervations, that the quantity of vapour ex¬
haled from the fldn and from the furface of the lungs,
amounts nearly to j-Sths of the aliment we take in.
So that if in the warm climate of Italy a perfon eats
and drinks the quantity of eight pounds in the courfe
of a day, five pounds of it will pafs off by infenfible
perfpiration, while three pounds only will be evacuated
by ftool, urine, faliva, &c. But in countries where the
degree of cold is greater than in Italy, the quantity of
perfpired matter is lefs : in fome of the more northern
climates, it being found not to equal the difcharge by
urine. It is likewife obferved to vary according to the
feafon of the year, and according to the conftitution,
age, fex, difeafes, diet, exercife, paflions, See. of dif¬
ferent people.
Vol. II. Part I.
P O M Y. 205
From what has been faid on this fubje£f, it w ill be Of the
eafily conceived, that this evacuation cannot be either Integu-
much increafed or diminilhed in quantity without af- mei ts,
fe&ing the health. y—w
'I he perfpirable matter and the fweat are in fome
meafure analogous to the urine, as appears from their
tafte and faline nature (p). And it is w'orthy of ob-
fervation, that when either of thefe fecretions is increa¬
fed in quantity, the other is diminilhed ; fo that they
who perfpire the leaft, ufually pafs the greateft quantity
of urine, and vice verfa.
\ 6. Of the Nails. g
The nails are of a compaft texture, hard and tranf-The nails,
parent like horn. Their origin is ftill a fubjeft of dif-
pute. Malpighi fuppofed them to be formed by a con¬
tinuation of the papillae of the fldn : Ludwig, on the
other hand, maintained, that they were con poled of
the extremities of blood-veffels and nerves. Both thefe
opinions are now defervedly rejefted.
They feem to poffefs many properties in common
with the cuticle j like it they are neither vafeular nor
fenfible, and when the cuticle is feparated from the
true Ikin by maceration or other means, the nails come
away with it.
1 hey appear to be compofed of different layers, of
unequal fize, applied one over the other. Each layer
feems to be formed of longitudinal fibres.
In each nail we may diftinguifti three parts, viz. the
root, the body or middle, and the extremity. The
root is a foft, thin, and white fubftance, terminating in
the form of a crefcent j the epidermis adheres very
ftrongly to this part $ the body of the nail is broader,
redder, and thicker, and the extremity is of ftill great¬
er firmnefs.
The nails increafe from their roots, and not from
their upper extremity.
Their principal ufe is to cover and defend the ends
of the fingers and toes from external injury.
\ Of the Hair. g
The hairs, which from their being generally known, The hair,
do not feem to require any definition, arife from di-
ftinft capfules or bulbs feated in the cellular membrane
under the Ikin (qJ. Some of thefe bulbs enclofe fe-
D d veral
(n) Leeuwenhoek afferts, that one drop of fweat is formed by the conflux of 15 drops of perfpirable va¬
pour. 1
(o) The infenfible perfpiration is fometimes diftinguiftied by the name of this phyfician, who w'as born in the
territories of Venice, and was afterwards a profqffor in the univerfity of Padua. After eftimating the aliment he
took in, and the fenfible fecretions and difeharges, he was enabled to afeertain with great accuracy the weight or
quantity of infenfible perfpiration by means of a ftatical chair which he contrived for this purpofe j and from his
experiments, which were conduced with great induftry and patience, he was led to determine what kind of folid
or liquid aliment increafed or diminiftied it. From thefe experiments he formed a fyftem, which he publiflied at
Venice in 1614, in the form of aphorifms, under the title of Ars de Medicina Statica.
(p) Minute cryftals have been obferved to ftioot upon the clothes of men who work in #lafs-houfes. Hatter
E/em. Phys. ' 0
(Qj Malpighi, and after him the celebrated Ruyfch, fuppofed the hairs to be continuations of nerves, beino-
of opinion that they originated from the papillae of the flein, which they confidered as nervous ; and as a corro*
borating proof of what they advanced, they argued the pain we feel in plucking them out : but later anatomifts
leem to have rejedted this ctoarine, and confider the hairs as particular bodies, not arifing from the papillm (for
m the parts where the papillae abound moft there are no hairs), l)ut from bulbs or capfules, which are peculiar to
210
Of the
Integu¬
ments, .see
anatomy.
Part L
veral hairs. They may be obferved at the roots of the
hairs which form the beard or whifkers of a cat.
The hairs, like the nails, grow only from below by
» a regular propulfion from their root, where they re¬
ceive their nourifliment. Their bulbs, when viewed
with a microfcope are found to be of various fhapes.
In the head and ferotum they are roundilh 5 in the
eyebrows they are oval} in the other parts of the body
they are nearly of a cylindrical (hape. Each bulb feems
to conlxft of two membranes, between which there is a
certain quantity of moifture. Within the bulb the hair
feparates into three or four fibrillae -j the bodies of the
hairs, which are the parts without the Ikin, vary in
foftnefs and colour according to the difference of cli-
jnate, age, or temperament of body (r).
Their general ufe in the body does not feem to be
abfolutely determined ; but hairs in particular parts, as
on the eyebrows and eyelids, are deftined for particular
ufes, which will be mentioned when thofe parts are de-
feribed.
§ 8. 0/' the Cellular Membrane and Fat.
Cellular The cellular membrane is found to invetf the moft
membrane, jninute fibres we are able to trace ; fo that, by modern
phyfiologifts, it is very properly confidered as the
univerfal connefting medium of every part of the
bodv.
It is compofed of an infinite number of minute cells
united together, and communicating with each other.
The two difeafes peculiar to this membrane are proofs
of fuch a communication ; for in the emphyfema all its
cells are filled with air, and in the anafarca they are
univerfally diftended with water. Befides thefe proofs
of communication from difeafe, a familiar inftance of it
may be obferved amongft butchers, who ufually punc¬
ture this membrane, and by inflating it with air add to
the good appearance of their meat.
Yu 84 The cells of this membrane ferve as refervoirs to the
oily part of the blood, or Fat, which feems to be depo-
fited in them, either by tranfudation through the coats
of the arteries that ramify through thefe cells, or by
particular veffels, continued from the ends of arteries.
Thefe cells are not of a glandular ftruaure, as Mal-
piahi and others after him have fuppofed. The fat is
abforbed and carried back into the fyftem by the lym¬
phatics. The great wafte of it in many difeafes, parti¬
cularly in the confumption, is a fufficient proof that
fuch an abforption takes place.
The fulnefs and fize of the body are in a great mea-
fure proportioned to the quantity of fat contained in the
cells of this membrane. # _
In the living body it feems to be a fluid oil, which
concretes after death. In graminivorous animals, it is
found to be of a firmer confidence than in man.'
The fat is not confined to the fkin alone, being met
with everywhere in the interftices of mufcles, in the
omentum, about the kidneys, at the bafis of the heart,
in the orbits, &c.
Of the
Mufcles.
The chief ufes of the fat feem to be to afford moi¬
fture to all the parts with which it is connefted; to
facilitate the aflion of the mufcles ; and to add to the v—r*
beauty of the body, by making it everywhere fmooth
and equal.
Sect. II. Of the Mufcles.
The mufcles are the organs of motion. The parts
that are ufually included under this name confift of di-
ftind portions of fleth, fufceptible of contraaion and re¬
laxation } the motions of which, in a natural and healthy
ftate, are fubjea to the will, and for this reafon they
are called voluntary mufcles. But befides thefe, there
are other parts of the body that owe their power of
contraaion to their mufcular fibres 5 thus the heart is
of a mufcular texture, forming what is called a hollow
mufcle j and the urinary bladder, ftomach, inteftines^
&c. are enabled to aa upon their contents, merely be-
caufe they are provided with mufcular fibres. 1 oefe
are called involuntary mufcles, becaufe their motions
are not dependent on the will. The mufcles of refpira-
tion being in fome meafure influenced by the will, are
faid to have a mixed motion.
The names by which the voluntary mufcles are.dt-
ftinguiflied, are founded on their fize, figure, fituatiop,
ufe, or the arrangement of their fibres, or their origin
and infertion. But befides thefe particular diftinaions,
there are certain general ones that require to be noti¬
ced. Thus, if the fibres of a mufcle are placed paral¬
lel to each other in a ftraight direaion, they form what
is ftyled a reBilinear mufcle ; if the fibres crofs and in-
terfea each other, they conftitute a compound mufcle j
a radiated one, if the fibres are difpofed in the manner
of rays j or a penniform mufcle, ir, like the plume of
a pen, they are placed obliquely with refpea to the
tendon.
Mufcles that aa in oppofition to each other, are
called antagoniflce; thus every extenfor mufcle has
a flexor for its antagonift, and vice verfa. Muf¬
cles that concur in the fame aaion are ftyled con-
generes.
The mufcles being attached to the bones, the latter
may be confidered as levers that are moved in different
direaions by the contraaion of thofe organs.
That end of a mufcle which adheres to the moft
fixed part is ufually called the origin, and that which
adheres to the more moveable part, the infertion of the
mufcle.
In every mufcle we may diftinguilh two kinds of
fibres •, the one foft, of a red colour, fenfible, and irri¬
table, called flethy fibres: the other of a firmer tex¬
ture, of a white gliftening colour, infenfible, without
irritability or the power of contraaing, and named ten¬
dinous fibres. They are occafionally intermixed, but
the flefliy fibres generally prevail in the belly or middle
part of a mufcle, and the tendinous ones in the extre¬
mities. If thefe tendinous fibres are formed into
round
fR'l The hairs likewife differ from each other, and may not be improperly divided into two claffes j one of
which may include the hair of the head, chin, pubes, and axilla j and the other, the fofter. hairs, which are to
be obferved almoft everywhere on the furface of the body.
2i r
Chap. II. ANA
Of the round {lender cord, they form what is called the tendon
Mufcles. of the mufcle; on the other hand, if they are fpread
into a broad flat furface, the extremity of the mufcle is
ityled aponeurojis.
The tendons of many mufcles, efpecially when they
are long and expofed to preflure or fri&ion in the
grooves formed for them in the bones, are furrounded
by a tendinous (heath or fafcia, in which we fometimes
find a fmall mucous fac or burfa mucofa, which obviates
any inconvenience from fri&ion. Sometimes we find
whole mufcles, and even feveral mufeles, covered by a
fafcia of the fame kind, that affords origin to many of
their fibres, dipping down between them, adhering to
the ridges of bones, and thus preventing them from
fwelling too much when in a£tion. The mod remark¬
able inftance of fuch a covering is the fafcia lata of
the thigh.
Each mufcle is enclofed by a thin covering of cellu¬
lar membrane, which has been fometimes improperly
confidered as peculiar to the mufcles, and defcribed un¬
der the name of propria membrana mufculofa. This
cellular covering dips down into the fubftance of the
mufcle, connefting and furrounding the mod minute
fibres we are able to demondrate, and affording a fup-
port to their veffels and nerves.
Leeuwenhoek fancied he had difcovered, by means
of his microfcope, the ultimate divifion of a mufcle,
and that he could point out the fimple fibre, which ap¬
peared to him to be a hundred times lefs than a hair $
but he was afterwards convinced how much he was
midaken on this fubjedd, and candidly acknowledged,
that what he had taken for a fimple fibre was in fa£l a
bundle of fibres.
It is eafy to obferve feveral of thefe fafcicula or bun¬
dles in a piece of beef, in which, from the coarfenefs of
its texture, they are very evident.
The red colour which particularly didinguKhes the
mufcular or flefhy parts of animals, is owing to an
infinite number of blood-veffels, that are difperfed
through their fubdance. When we macerate the fibres
of a mufcle in water, it becomes of a white colour like
all other parts of the body diveded of their blood. The
blood-veffels are accompanied by herves, and they are
both didributed in fuch abundance to thefe parts, that
in endeavouring to trace the courfe of the blood-veffels
m a mufcle, it would appear to be formed altogether
by their ramifications ; and in an attempt to follow the
branches of its nerves, they -would be found to be equal
in proportion.
If a mufcle is pricked or irritated, it immediately
contrails. This is called its irritable principle j and
this irritability is to be confidered as the chara£leridic
of mufcular fibres; and may ferve to prove their exid-
ence in parts that are too minute to be examined by
the eye. This power, which difpofes the mufcles to
contraft when dimulated, independent of the will, is
Of h** • to inherent in them ; and is therefore na-
^j|aevis med vis injita. This property is not to be confound¬
ed with eladicity, which the membranes and other
parts of the body poffefs in a greater or lefs degree
in common with the mufcles; nor with fenfibility,
for the heart, though the mod irritable, feems to
be the lead fenfible of any of the mufcular parts of the
T O M Y.
After a mufcular fibre has contra&ed, it foon returns Of the
to a date of relaxation, till it is excited afrefh, and Mufcles.
then it contradls and relaxes again. We may likewife '~_v—~
produce fuch a contratffion, by irritating the nerve
leading to a mufcle, although the mufcle itfelf is not
affedted.
This principle is found to be greater in fmall than
in large, and in young than in old, animals.
In the voluntary mufcles thefe effefts of eontra£Hon
and relaxation of the flefhy fibres are produced in obe¬
dience to the will, by what may be called the vis tier-
vofa, a property that is not to be confounded with the
vis infta. As theexidence of a vis infta different from
z vis nervea, was the dodhine taught by Dr Haller in
his Elem. Phys. but is at prefent called in queflion by
feveral, particularly Dr Monro, we think it neceffary
to give a few objedtions, as dated in his Obfervations
on the Nervous Syffem.
“ The chief experiment (fays the Dodlor) which The vis
feems to have led Dr Haller to this opinion, is the wellnervea.
known one, that the heart and other mufcles, after
being detached from the brain, continue to aft fpon-
taneoufly, or by dimuli may be roufed into adtion,
for a confiderable length of time ; and when it can¬
not be alleged, fays Dr Haller, that the nervous
fluid is by the mind, or otherwife, impelled into the
mufcle.
“ That in this indance, we cannot comprehend bv
what power the nervous fluid or energy can be put in
motion, mud perhaps be granted : But has Dr Haller
given a better explanation of the manner in which his
fuppofed vis infita becomes aftive ?
“ If it be as difficult to point out the caufe of the
aftion of the vis infita as that of the aftion of the vis
nervea, the admiffion of that new power, indead of re¬
lieving, would add to our perplexity.
“ We fhould then have admitted, that two caufes of
a different nature Were capable of producing exaftly the
fame effeft ; which is not in general agreeable to the
laws of nature.
“ We fhould find other confequences arife from fuch
a hypothefis, which tend to weaken the credibility of
it. For indance, if in a found animal the vis nervea
alone produces the contraftion of the mufcles, we will
afk what purpofe the vis infita ferves ? If both operate,
are we to fuppofe that the vis nervea, impelled by the
mind or living principle, gives the order, which the
vis infita executes, and that the nerves are the inter-
nuntii ; and fo admit two wife agents employed in every
the mod fimple aftion ? But indead of {peculating far¬
ther, let us learn the effeft of experiments, and endea¬
vour from thefe to draw plain conclufions.
“ i. When I poured a folution of opium in water
under the fkin of the leg of a frog, the mufcles, to the
furface of which it was applied, were very foon depri¬
ved of the power of contraftion. In like manner, when
I poured this folution into the cavity of the heart, by
opening the vena cava, the heart was almod indantly
deprived of its power of motion, whether the experi¬
ment was performed on it fixed in its place, or cut out
of the body.
“ 2. I opened the thorax of a living frog ; and then
tied or cut its aorta, fo as to put a dop to the circula¬
tion of its blood.
“ l
D d 2
212
Of tLe
Mufcles,
ANATOMY.
Part I.
“ I then opened the vena cava, and poured the {elu¬
tion of opium into the heart; and found, not only that
this organ was inftantly deprived of its powers of attion,
but that in a few minutes the moft diilant mufcles of
the limbs were extremely weakened. Yet this weak-
nefs was not owing to the wTant of circulation, for the
frog could jump about for more than an hour after the
heart was cut out.
“ In the firft of thefe two experiments, we obferve
the fuppofed vis infita deftroyed by the opium •, in the
latter, the vis nervea: for it is evident that the limbs
were affedled by the fympathy of the brain, and of the
nervous fyftem in general, with the nerves of the heart.
“ 3. When the nerve of any mufcle is firft divided
by a tranfverfe fe&ion, and then burnt with a hot iron,
or punctured with a needle, the mufcle in which it ter¬
minates contracts violently, exactly in the fame manner
as when the irritation is applied to the fibres of the
mufcle. But when the hot iron or needle is confined
to the nerve, Dr Haller himfelf muft have admitted,
that the vis nervea, and not the vis infita, was excited.
But here I would alk two queftions.
“ Firft, Whether we do not as well underftand how
the vis nervea is excited when irritation is applied to the
mufcle as when it is applied to the trunk of the nerve,
the impelling power of the mind feeming to be equally
wanting in both cafes ?
“ Secondly, If it appears that irritation applied to
the trunk of a ’nerve excites the vis nervea, why Ihould
we doubt that it can equally well excite it when applied
to the fmall and very fenfible branches and terminations
of the nerve in the mufcle ?
“ As therefore, it appears that the fuppofed vis in¬
fita is deftroyed or excited by the fame means as the
vis nervea j nay, that when, by the application of
opium to the heart of a frog, after the aorta is cut and
the circulation interrupted, we have deftroyed the vis
infita, the vis nervea is fo much extinguiftied, that the
animal cannot aft with the diftant mufcles of the
. limb •, and that thefe afterwards grow very torpid, or
lofe much of their fuppofed vis infita it feems clearly
to follow, that there is no juft ground for fuppofing
that any other principle produces the contraction of a
mufcle.”
The vis nervofa, or operation of the mind, if we
may fo call it, by which a mufcle is brought into con¬
traction, is not inherent in the mufcle like the vis in¬
fita, neither is it perpetual, like this latter property.
After long continued or violent exercife, for example,
the voluntary mufcles become painful, and at length
incapable of further aCtion \ whereas the heart and
other involuntary mufcles, the motions of which de¬
pend folely on the vis injita, continue through life in a
3
conftant ftate of aCtion, without any Inconvenience or
wafte of this inherent principle. w
The aftion of the vis nervofa on the voluntary
mufcles conftitutes what is called mufcular motion j
a fubjeft that has given rife to a variety of hypo-
thefes, many of them ingenious, but none of them fatis-
faCtory.
Borelli and fome others have undertaken to explain
the caufe of contra&ion, by fuppofing that every muf¬
cular fibre forms as it were a chain of very minute blad¬
ders, while the nerves which are diftributed through
the mufcle, bring with them a fupply of animal fpirits,
which at our will fill thefe bladders, and by increafing
their diameter in width, fhorten them, and of courfe the
whole fibre.
Borelli fuppofes the bladders to be of a rhomboidal
ftiape j Bernouilli, on the other hand, contends that
they are oval. Our countryman, Cowper, fancied he
had filled them with mercury •, the caufe of this miftake
was probably owing to the mercury’s infinuating itfelf
into fome of the lymphatic veffels. The late ingenious
Mr Elliot undertook to account for the phenomena of
mufcular motion on principles very different from thofe
juft now mentioned. He fuppofed that a dephlogiftica-
ted ftate of the blood is requifite for mufcular adtion,
and that a communication of phlogiftom to the blood is
a neceffary effedl of fuch adlion.
We know that the mufcular fibre is ftiortened, and
that the mufcle itfelf fwells when in adtion 5 but how
thefe phenomena are produced, we are unable to de¬
termine. We likewife know that the nerves are effen-
tial to mufcular motion 5 for upon dividing or making
a ligature round the nerve leading to a mufcle, the lat¬
ter becomes incapable of motion. A ligature made
on the artery of a mufcle produces a fimilar effedl: a
proof this, that a regular fupply of blood is alfo equal¬
ly neceffary to mufcular motion. The caufe of palfy is
ufually not to be fought for in the mufcle affedled, but
in the nerve leading to that mufcle, or that part of the
brain or fpinal marrow from which the nerve derives
its origin.
Of the particular Mufcles.
As the enumeration and defeription of the particular
mufcles muft be dry and unentertaining to the genera¬
lity of readers, yet cannot be altogether omitted in a
work of this nature, it appeared eligible to throw this
part of the fubjedl into the form of a table 5 in which
the name, origin, infertion, and principal ufe of each
mufcle will be found deferibed in few words, and oc-
cafionally its etymology, when it is of Greek derivation
or difficult to be underftood.
Of the
Mufcles.
A TA§L£
1
Chap. II. ANATOMY.
Of the
Mufcies.
Muscles
under the
ments of the
mum,
fituated
integu-
cra-
Name.
Origin.
Infertion.
I. Occipito frontalis. From the tranfverfe Into the fkin of the
ridge of the os oc- eyebrows,
cipitis.
:2. Corrugator fuper- From above the join- Into the inner part of
cilii. ing of the os fron- the occipito-fronta-
tis, os nafi, and os lis.
maxillare.
eyelids,
of the
l. Orbicularis palpe- From around the edge Into the nafal procefs To flmt the eye.
brarum. of the orbit. of the os maxillare.
of the
2. Levator palpebrae From the bottom of
fuperioris, the orbit, near the
optic foramen.
external ear,
I. Attollens auricU'
lam.
From the tendon of
the occipito fron¬
talis near the os
temporis.
2. Anterior auriculae. From near the back
part of the zygoma.
Into the cartilage of To open the eye,
the upper eyelid.
Into the upper part To raife the ear,.
of the ear.
Into an eminence be- To raife this emi-
hind the helix. nence, and to pull
it forwards.
3. Retrahentes (s) au- From the outer and Into the convex part To ftretch the con-
riculae. back part of the of the concha. cha, and pull the
ear backwards.
cartilages
ear.
of
of
the
the
back part of the
root of the maftoid
procefs.
I. Tragicus.
From the outer and
middle part of the
concha, near the
tragus.
From the root of the
inn#r part of the
helix.
3. Tranfverfus auricu- From the upper part
2. Anti-tragicus.
of the tragus.
Into the upper part
of the anti-tragus.
cha, and pull the
point of the tragus
a little outwards.
To dilate the mouth
of the concha.
lae.
4. Helicis major.
5. Helicis minor.
of the concha.
From the upper, an¬
terior, and acute
part of the helix.
From the lower and
fore part of the he¬
lix.
Into the inner part of To ftretch the concha
the helix. and fcapha, and
like wife to pull the
parts it is conneft-
ed with towards
• each other.
Into the cartilage of To deprefs the upper
the helix, a little part of the helix,
above the tragus.
Into the helix, near To contract the fif-
the fiffurein itscar- fure.
tilage.
Muscles
213
A TABLE of the MUSCLES, arranged according to their Situation.
[IV. 5, This table does not include all the mufcies of the body ; thofe belonging to the eyes, internal ear, inteftinum reiitum, and
the male and female organs of generation, being defcribed in other parts of the work. The reader will be pleafed to obferve like-
wife, that although the mufeles (a few only excepted) are in pairs, mention is here made only of the mufcies of one fide.]
Of the
Mufcies.
Vfe.
To pull the Ikin of
the head back¬
wards, and to raife
the eyebrows and
Ikin of the fore¬
head.
To draw the eye¬
brows towards each
other, and to wrin¬
kle the forehead.
Into the upper part To deprefs the con-
(s) Thefe are three fmall flender mufcles. The inferior one is fometimes wanting.
214
Of th«
Mufdes.
Muscles of the nofe, i.
A
Name.
Compreffor
N A T O M Y.
nans.
Part ]]
Origin. Infertion. Nfe. Of tbe
(t) From the outer part Into the nafal pro- To ftraighten the nof-1 Mufcte,
of the root of the cefs of the os matf- trils, andlikewifeto
al* nafi. illare, and anterior corrugate the fkin
extremity of the os of the nofe.
nafi.
 — ■ of the mouth
and lips, I. Levator labii fupe-
rioris, alaeque nafi.
2. Levator anguli oris.
3. Zygomaticus ma¬
jor.
From the outer part
of the orbitar pro-
cefs of the os max-
illare, and from the
nafal procefs of that
bone, where it joins
the os frontls.
From the os maxil-
lare fuperius, be¬
tween the orbitar
foramen and the
firft dens molaris.
From the os malse,
near the zygomatic
future.
Into the upper lip and To draw the upper lip
alse of the nofe. and fkin of the nofe
upwards and out¬
wards.
Into the orbicularis To raife the corner
oris at the angle of the mouth,
the mouth.
Into the angle of the To raife the angle of
mouth. the mouth, and
make the cheek
4. Zygomaticus mi¬
nor.
5. Buccinator.
6. Depreffor labii fu-
perioris, alaeque
nafi.
7. Depreffor anguli
oris.
8. Depreflbr labii in-
ferioris.
9. Levator labii infe-
rioris.
Immediatelyabovethe
origin of the zyg.
major.
From the alveoli of
the dentes molares
in the upper and
lower jaws.
From the os maxill.
fuper. immediately
above the gums of
the dentes incifores.
At the fide of the
chin from the low¬
er edge of the max¬
illa inferior.
From the lower and
anterior part of the
maxilla inferior.
From near the gums
of the incifores and
caninus of the max¬
illa inferior.
prominent as in
laughing.
Into the angle of the To raife the angle of
mouth. • the mouth oblique¬
ly outwards.
Into the angle of the To contradl the mouth
mouth. and draw the angle
of it outwards and
backwards.
Into the root of the To draw the alae nafi
alae nafi and upper and upper lip down-
lip. wards.
Into the angle of the To draw the corner
mouth. of the mouth down¬
wards.
Into the under lip.
To draw the under
lip downwards and
fomewhat outwards.
Into the under lip and To raife the under
fkin of the chin. lip and fkin of the
chin.
10. Orbicularis oris
(u).
To fhutthe mouth by
conftringingthelips.
,1 of the low¬
er jaw, - - 1. Temporalis.
From part of the os Into the coronoid pro
bregmatis and
frontis; fquamous
part of the os tem-
poris j back part of
the os malae, and
the temporal pro-
cefs of the os fphe-
noides (v).
cefs of the
jaw.
lower
To move the lower
jaw upwards.
2. Maffeter
(t) The nofe is affefted by fibres of the occipito-frontalis, and by feveral mufcles of the face; but this pair,
the compreffores, is the only one that is proper to it. , , , , • j /r A
(u) This mufcle is in a great meafure, if not wholly, formed by the buccinator, zygomatici, depreffores, and
•other mufcles that move the lips. Its fibres furround the mouth like a ring.
(v) Some of its fibres likewife have their origin from a ftrong fafcia that covers the mufcle and adheres iotne
iChap. II.
Of the
Mufcles.
A N
Name.
2. Maffeter (w).
A T O M Y.
3. Pterygoideus inter-
nus.
4. Pterygoideus exter-
nus^
Muscles fituated at
the fore part of the
neck, - - 1. Latiffimuscolli(Y).
Origin.
From the malar pro-
cefs of the os maxil-
lare, and the lower
edges of the os ma-
lae, and of the zy go-
maticprocefs of the
os temporis.
From the inner fur face
of the outer wing of
the pterygoid pro-
cefs of the os fphe-
noides, and from
the procefs of the
os palati that helps
to form the ptery¬
goid foffa.
From the external ala
of the pterygoid
procefs, a fm all part
of the adjacent os
maxillare, and a
ridge in the tempo¬
ral procefs of the os
fphenoides.
Infertion.
Into the balls of the
coronoid procefs,
and that part of the
jaw which fupports
that and the con¬
dyloid procefs.
Into the lower jaw on
its inner fide and
near its angle.
215
Ufe. Of the
To raife and likewife ^u^c*es‘ t
to move the jaw a
little forwards and
backwards.
Toraife the lower jaw,
and draw it a little
to one fide.
Into the fore part of
the condyloid pro¬
cefs of the lower
jaw, and likewife of
the capfular liga¬
ment.
2. Maftoideus (z).
From the cellular Into the fide of the
membranecovering chin and integu-
the peftoral, del- ments of the cheek,
toid, and trapezius
mufcles..
From the upper part Into the maftoid pro¬
of the fternum, and cefs, and as far back
from the upper and as the lambdoidal
fore part of the future,
clavicle.
To move the jaw for¬
wards and to the
oppofite fide (x) j
and at the fame time
to prevent the liga¬
ment of the joint
from being pinched
To draw the cheeks
and Ikin of the face
downwards ; and
when the mouth is
Ihut, to draw all
that part of the Ikin
to which it is con-
nedled below the
lower jaw upwards.
To move the head to
one fide, or when
both mufcles aft, to
bend it forwards.
fituated
between the trunk
and the os hyoides, I. Omo-hyoideus(A).
From the upper colla Into the balls of the To draw the os hyoi-
of the fcapula near os hyoides. des in an oblique di-
its niche; from part reftiondownwards,
of a ligament that
extends acrofs this
niche, and fome-
times by a few fi¬
bres, from the co¬
racoid procefs.
2. Sterno-
bone round the whoje circumference of its origin. When we remove this covering, we find the mufcle of a femi-
circular lhape with its radiated fibres, converging and forming a Itrong middle tendon.
(w) So-called from its ufe in chewing, its derivation being from {tzs-e-aefAxi, manduco, “ to eat.”
(x) ^aPPens when the mufcle afts fingly. Wlien both aft, the jaw is brought horizontally forwards.
L rrr <1 S kroac^ and thin mufcular expanfion, which is fituated immediately under the common integuments, is
y in o\\ mufculus cutaneus. Galen gave it the name of •xXxTvrpct (tvoitiis, (Platyfma myoides') i the
etymology °f whjch is from ^A^v^oj, di/atatio, and ywvj, mufculus, and forma
\A) ^ls.’,on account °t its two origins, is by Albinus defcribed as two diftinft mufcles, which he names
Jterno-majloideus and cleido-majloideus.
(a) As this mufcle does not always arife from the coracoid procefs, it feems to have been improperly named
coraco-
2l6
Of the
MufcleS.
A N
Name.
2i SEerno-hyoideus.
3. Hyo-thyroideus.
4. Sterno-thyroxdeus.
5. Crico-thyroideus.
Muscles fituated be¬
tween the os hy-
oides and lower
^aw> 1. Digaftricus (b).
atomy.
Origin. Infertion.
From the cartilage of Into the bafis of he
the firft rib, the in- os hyoides.
ner and upper part
of the fternum, and
a fmall part of the
clavicle.
From part of the bafis Into a rough oblique
and horn of the os line at the fide of
hyoides. the thyroid carti-
lage.
From between the Immediately under
cartilages of the 1 ft the hyo-thyroideus.
and 2d ribs, at the
upper and inner
part of the fternum.
From the anterior part Into the loiver part
and fide of the cri- and inferior horn of
coid cartilage. the thyroid carti-
lage.
Part I,
Vfe. ' Of the
To draw the os hyoi* Mufcles.
des downwards. » —
To raife the thyroid
cartilage, or deprefs
the os hyoides.
To pull the
cartilage
wards.
thyroid
down-
To pull the cricoid
cartilage upwards
and backwards, or
the thyroid for¬
wards and down¬
wards.
2. Stylo-hyoideus(c)
3. Mylo-hyoideus
(D).
4. (e) Genio-hyoide-
us.
3. Genio-gloffus.
6. Hyo-gloflus (f).
7. Lingualis.
From a foffa at the
root of the maftoid
procefs, and like-
wife from the os
hyoides.
From the bafis of the
ftyloid procefs.
From the infide of
the lower jaw, be¬
tween the laft dens
molaris and the
chin.
From the infide of the
chin.
From the infide of the
chin.
From the horn, bafis,
and appendix of the
os hyoides.
Laterally from the
root of the tongue.
Into the lower and To draw the lower
anterior part of the jaw downwards,
chin.
Into the fide and To draw the os hyoi-
fore part of the des obliquely up-
os hyoides near its wards,
bafe.
Into the bafis of the To move the os hy-
os hyoides. oides forwards or
upwards.
Into the bafe of the
os hyoides.
Into the tongue and
bafis of the os hy¬
oides.
Into the tongue late¬
rally.
Into the extremity of
the tongue.
To move the os hy¬
oides forwards or
upwards.
To move the tongue
in various direc¬
tions.
To draw the tongue
downwards and in¬
wards.
To (horten the tongue
and draw it back¬
wards.
8. Stvlo-elolTus.
coraco-Jiyoides by Douglas and Albinus. Window calls it omo-hyaides, on account of its general origin from the
^(B^From and (biventer), becaufe it has two fleftiy bellies with a middle tendon. This tendon paffes
In fomefubjlfc we meet with another fflufole, which, from its having nearly the fame origin, infertion,
“"(nf^famedlLmTtsmlg^t&tfmolares and its being inferted into the os hyoides.
Frem ytynev, mentutn, “ the chin.
(f) From cornu, and yhuwcc, lingua, the tongue.
Chap*
Of the
Mufcles.
Muscles fituated a-
bout the fauces,
at the
back part of the
pharynx,
Vol. II. Part I.
ANATOMY.
217
Name. Origin.
8. Stylo-gloflus. From the ftyloid pro-
cefs, and fometimes
aifo from a liga¬
ment that extends
from thence to the
angle of the lower
jaw.
9. Stylo-pharyngaeus. From the bafis of the
ftyloid procefs.
10. Circumflexus pa- From near the bony
lati. part of the Eufta-
ehian tube, and
from the fpinous
procefs of the os
fphenoides.
11. Levator palati. From the membranous
part of the Eufta-
chian tube, and the
extremity of the os
petrofum.
Infertion. Nfe.
Into the lide of the To move the tongue
tongue from the backwards and to
root to near its tip. one fide.
Into the fide of the To raife tire thyroid
pharynx and pofte- cartilage and pha-
rior part of the thy- rynx, and likewife
roid cartilage. to dilate the latter.
Into the femilunar To dilate and draw
edge of the os pa- the velum oblique-
lati and the ve- ly downwards,
lum pendulum pa¬
lati (g).
Into the velum pendu- To pull the velum
lum palati. backwards.
Of the
Mufcles.
1. Palato-pharyngse- From the lower and
us. anterior part of the
cartilaginous extre¬
mity of the Eufta-
chiantube (h) $ the
tendinous expan-
fion of the circum¬
flexus palati; and
the velum pendu¬
lum palati near the
bafis and back part
of the uvula.
2. Cenftri&or ifthmi From near the bafis of
faucium. the tongue lateral¬
ly-
Into the upper and
pollerior part of the
thyroid cartilage.
To raife the pharynx
and thyroid carti¬
lage, or to pull the
velum and uvula
backwards and
downwards.
3, Azygos uvulae.
From the end of the
future that unites
the offa palati.
Into the velum pen¬
dulum palati, near
the bafis and fore
part of the uvula.
Into the extremity of
the uvula.
To raife the tongue
and draw the velum
towards it (1).
To Ihorten the uvula,
and bring it for¬
wards and upwards.
I. Conftri&or pha- From the cuneiform Into the middle of the To move the pharynx
ryngis fuperior. procefs of the occi- pharynx. upwards and for-
pital bone $ the pte- wards, and to com-
rygoid procefs of • prefs its upper part,
the os fphenoides j
and from each jaw
near the laft dens
molaris (k^.
£ e 2. Conftri&or
(G) This mufcle in its courfe forms a round tendon, which, after pafling over a kind of hook formed by the
inner plate of the pterygoid procefs of the fphenoid bone, expands into a tendinous membrane.
(h) The few fibres that arife from the Euftachian tube are defcribed as a diftinft mufcle by Albinus, under the
name of falpingo-pharyngceus. They ferve to dilate the mouth of the tube.
(1) This mufcle, and the palato-pharyngaeus, likewife ferve to clofe the pafiage into the fauces, and to carry
the food into the pharynx.
(k) The three orders of fibres here mentioned, with a few others derived from the tongue, have given occa-
lion to Douglas to defcribe them as four diftinft mufcles, under the names of cephalo-pharyngaus, mylo-pharyn’
ptery-pharyngceus, and glqjfo-pharyngceus.
218
Of the
Mufcles.
A N
Name.
2. Conftri&orpharyn-
gis medius (l).
atomy
Origin.
From the horn and
appendix of the os
hyoides, and from
the ligament that
unites it with the
thyroid cartilage.
Part l
Infei'tion. We'
Into the middle of To draw the os hyoi-
the proceffus cunei- des and pharynx up
Of the
Mufcles.
wards, and to com-
prefs the latter..
Muscles about the
glottis,
3. Cbnftri&orpharyn-
gis inferior (m).
1. Grico-arytEenoideus
lateralis.
2. Crico-ary tsenoideus
pofticus.
3. Arytaenoideus ob-
liquus.
4. Aryt£enoideustranf-
verfus.
5. Thyreo-arytsenoi-
deus.
6. Arytaeno-epiglotti-
deus.
7. Thyreo-epiglotti
deus.
From the cricoid and
thyroid cartilages.
From the fide of the
cricoid cartilage.
rf f\ j£ji '•*>
From the cricoid car¬
tilage pofteriorly.
From the bafis of one
of the arytaenoid
cartilages.
From one of the ary¬
taenoid cartilages
laterally.
From the pofterior
and under part of
the thyroid carti-
lage.
From the upper part
of the arytaenoid
cartilage laterally.
■ From the thyroid car¬
tilage.
formis of the occi¬
pital bone, about
its middle, and be¬
fore the great fora¬
men. * •
Into the middle of To comprefs part of
the pharynx. the pharynx.
Into the bafis of the To open the glottis,
arytaenoid cartilage
laterally.
Into the bafis of the To open the glottis,
arytaenoid cartilage
pofteriorly.
Near the extremity of
the other arytaenoid
cartilage.
Into the other arytae¬
noid cartilage late¬
rally.
Into the arytaenoid
cartilage.
To draw the parts it
is eonnefted with
towards each other.
To (hut the glottis.
To draw the arytae-
noid cartilage for¬
wards.
Into the fide of the
epiglottis.
Into the fide of the
epiglottis.
To move the epiglot¬
tis outwards.
To pull the epiglot¬
tis obliquely down¬
wards (n).
part
clofe
brae,
— at the fore
of the neck
to the verte-
I. Re&us capitis in- From the anterior ex-
ternus major.
tremities of the
tranfverfe proceffes
of the five lower-
moft cervical ver¬
tebrae.
2. Reftus capitis in- From the anterior and
ternus mmor.
•. s. (i < 1
upper part of the
firft cervical verte¬
bra.
2. Re£lus capitis late- From the anterior and
^ L    „ 4-l-i o
rails.
4. Longus colli.
upper part of the
tranfverfe procefs of
the firft cervical
vertebra.
Within the thorax,
laterally from the
bodies of the three
uppermoft dorfal
vertebra ; from the
bafis and fore part
Into the fore part of To bend the head
the cuneiform pro- forwards,
cefs of the os occi-
pitis.
Near the bafis of the To affift the laft de-
con dyloid procefs of fcribed mufcle.
the os occipitis.
Into the os occipitis, To move the head to
oppofite to the fty- one fide,
lo-maftoid foramen.
Into the fecond cer¬
vical vertebra ante¬
riorly.
To pull the neck to
one fide (o).
fiA Douglas makes two mufcles of this, the hyo-pharyngxus ^fyndefmo-pharyngceus.
$ wtadthLhruTAe^^gPmTinaS0with0hf fellow, the epiglottis is drawn direffly downwards
upon jh^g en mufcles aft, the neck is drawn direftly forwards.
Chap. II.
Of the
Mufcles.
Name.
N
ATOM
M r: | 'jt
Origin.
of the tranfverfe
procefles of the firft;
and fecond dorfal
vertebrae, and of
the laft cervical
vertebra; and laft-
ly, from the ante¬
rior extremities of
the tranfverfe pro-
ceffes of the 6th,
5th, 4th, and 3d
cervical vertebrae.
Y.
Infer t ion.
life.
219
Of the
Mufcles.
Muscles at the fore
part of the abdo¬
men.
1. Obliquus externus.
From the lower edges
of the eight infe¬
rior ribs near their
cartilages.
2. Obliquus internus. From the fpinous pro-
cefs of the three
lowermoft lumbar
vertebrae, the back
part of the os fa-
crum, the fpine of
the ilium, and back
part of Fallopius’s
ligament (t).
3. Tranfverfalis. From the cartilages
of the feven infe¬
rior ribs $ the tranf¬
verfe proceffes of
the laft dorfal, and
four upper lumbar
vertebrae 5 the in¬
ner part of Fallo¬
pius’s ligament and
the fpine of the i-
lium.
Into thelineaalba(p),
offa pubis (q_), and
fpine of the ilium
(R).
Into the cartilages of
all the falfe ribs,
linea alba (s), and
fore part of the pu¬
bis.
To comprefs and fup-
port the vifcera, af-
fift in evacuating
the faeces and urine,
draw down the
ribs, and bend the
trunk forwards or
obliquely to one
fide.
To aflift the obliquus
externus.
Into the linea alba To comprefs the ab-
and cartilago enfi- dominal vifcera.
for mis.
E e 2
4. Re&us
(p) The linea alba is that tendinous expanfion which reaches from the cartilago enfiformis to the os pubis. It
is formed by the interlacement of the tendinous fibres of the oblique and tranfverfe mufcles, and on this account
feme anatomifts have confidered thefe as three digaftric mufcles.
(£>J A little above the pubis the tendinous fibres of this mufcle feparate from each other, fo as to form an
opening called the ring of the obliquus externus, and commonly, though improperly, the ring of the abdominal
mufcles, there being no fuch aperture either in the tranfverfalis or obliquus internus. This ring in the male fubjedl
affords a paffage to the fpermatic veffels, and in the female to the round ligament of the uterus.
(r) From the anterior and upper fpinous procefs of the ilium, this mufcle is ftretched tendinous to the os pubis,
and thus forms what is called by fome Fallopius's, and by others PoupurPs ligament. The blood-veffels pafs under
it to the thigh.
(s) The tendon formed by the upper part of the mufcle in its way to the linea alba is divided into two layers.
The pofterior laye/runs under, and the anterior one over, the redlus mufcle.
(t) From this part it detaches fome fibres Avhich extend downwards upon the fpermatic chord, and form what
is defcribed as the cremafter mufcle.
220
Of the
Mufeles.
ANATOMY.
Name.
Redtus abdominis.
5. Pyramidalis (v).
Muscles at the fore
part of the thorax, I. Pe&oralis major.
2. Subclavius.
Origin. Infertion.
From the upper edge Into the cartilages of
of the pubis and
the fymphyfis pu¬
bis.
From the anterior and
upper part of the
pubis.
the 5th, 6th, and
7th ribs, and the
edge of the cartila¬
ge enliformis (u).
Into the linea alba
and inner edge of
the redtus, com¬
monly about two
inches above the
pubis.
Vfe.
To comprefs the fore
part of the abdo¬
men, and to bend
the trunk forwards.
To aflift the lower
portion of the rec¬
tus.
Part I,
Of the
Mufcles.
Into
the upper and
inner part of the
os humeri (w).
From the cartilagi¬
nous ends of the
5th and 6th ribs j
the fternum, and
anterior part of the
clavicle.
From the cartilage of Into the under furface
the firft rib. of the clavicle.
3. Pedtoralis minor From the upper edges Into the coracoid pro-
0 of the 3d, 4th, and cefs of the fcapula.
5th ribs.
4. Serratus magnus. From the eight fupe- Into the bails of the
rior ribs. fcapula.
To draw the arm for¬
wards, or obliquely
forwards.
To move the clavicle
forwards anddown-
■wards, and to aflift
in raifing the firft
rib.
To move the fcapula
forwards and down¬
wards, or to elevate
the ribs.
To bring the fcapula
forwards.
    that concur
in forming the tho¬
rax.
1. Diaphragma (y). ^ .1 *u
2 Levatores cofta- From the tranfverfe Into the upper fide of To move the ribs up-
' rum> proceffes of the laft each rib, near its wards and outwards,
cervical, and the tuberofity.
eleven upper dor-
fal vertebrae.
3. Intercoftales exter- From the lower edge Into the fuperior edge To elevate the ribs,
njt of each upper rib. of each lower rib.
4. Intercoftales inter-
ni (a).
Sterno-coftales
fu') The fibres of the reaus are generally divided by three tendinous interfeaions. The two upper thirds of
this mufcle, pafling between the tendinous layers of the obliquus internus, are enclofed as.it were in a iheath : but
at its lower part we find it immediately contiguous to the peritonaeum, the inferior portion oi the tendon ot the
tranfverfalis pafling over the reaus, and adhering to the interior layer of the obhquus internus.
fvj This mufcle is fometimes panting. .
(w) The fibres of this mufcle pafs towards the axilla in a folding manner, and with thole of the latitiimus dorli
(x) This and fome other mufcles derive their name offerratus, from their arifing by a number of tendinous or
flelhy digitations, refembling the teeth of a faw (ferra).
(y) For a defcription of the diaphragm, fee Chap. IV. Sea. IV. . ,
(a) The origin, infertion, and ufe of the internal intercoftals, are fimilar to thofe of the external. The reader,
however will be. pleafed to obferve, that the intercoftales externi occupy the fpaces between the ribs only from the
fpine to their cartilages; from thence to the fternum, there being only a thin membrane, which is fpread over the
intercoftales interni ; and that the latter, on the contrary, extend only from the fternum to the angles of each rib.
The fibres of the external mufcles run obliquely forwards ; thofe of the internal obliquely backwards. I ms
difference in the dire&ion of their fibres induced Galen to fuppofe that they were intended for different ufes;
that the external intercoftals, for inftance, ferve to elevate, and the internal ones to deprefs the ribs. Fallopius
feems to have been the firft who ventured to difpute the truth of this doftrine, which has fince been revived by
(Chap. II*
Of the
Mufcles.
ANATOMY. 221
Name. Origin. Infertion. Vfe. . Of the
5. Sterno-coftales (B). From the cardlagoen- Into the cartilages of To deprefs the cart> t Mufcles.
fiformis, and lower
and middle part of
the fternum.
the 2d, 3d, 4th,
5th, and 6th ribs.
lages of the ribs.
Muscles at the back
part of the neck
and trunk,
1, Trapezius (c), or From the middle of Into the pofterior half To move the fcapula
cucullaris.
of the clavicle, part
of the acromion,
and the fpine of
the fcapula.
the os occipitis, and
the fpinous procef-
fes of the two in¬
ferior cervical, and
of all the dorfal
vertebrae.
2. Rhomboideus (e). From the fpinous pro- Into the bafis of the
ceffes of the three fcapula.
lowermoft cervical,
and of all the dor¬
fal vertebrae.
From part of the fpine Into the os humeri,
3. Latiflimus dorfi.
at the inner edge of
the groove for lodg¬
ing the long head
of the biceps muf-
cle.
, Serratus
pofticus.
of the os ilium, the
fpinous proceffes of
the os facrum and
lumbar vertebrae,
and of fix or eight
of the dorfal ver¬
tebrae j alfo from
the four inferior
falfe ribs near their
cartilages.
inferior From the fpinous pro- Into the lower edges
To move the fcapula
upwards and back¬
wards.
To draw the os hu¬
meri downwards
and backwards, and
to roll it upon its
axis.
of the three or four
lowermoft ribs near
their cartilages.
5. Levator fcapulae
6.
Serratus
pofticus.
ceffes of the two
lowermoft dorfal,
and of three of
the lumbar verte¬
brae.
From the tranfverfe Into the upper angle
proceffes of the four of the fcapula.
uppermoft vertebrae
colli.
fuperior From the lower part Into the 2d, 3d, and
of the ligamentum 4th ribs,
colli, the fpinous
procefs of the low¬
ermoft cervical ver¬
tebra, and of the
two faperior dorfal
vertebrae.
To draw the ribs out*
wards, downwards,
and backwards.
To move the fcapula
forwards and up¬
wards.
To expand the tho¬
rax.
7. Splenius
Boyle, and more lately ftill by Hamberger, whofe theoretical arguments on this fubjeft have been clearly refuted
by the experiments of Haller.
(b) Thefe confift of four, and fometimes five diftinft mufcles on each fide. Vefalius, and after him Douglas
and Albinus, oonfider them as forming a fingle mufcle, which, on account of its Ihape, they name triangularis.
Verheyen, Window, and Haller, more properly defcribe them asTo many feparate mufcles, which, on account of
their origin and infertion, they name Jlerno-coJiales.
(c) So named by Riolanus, from on account of its quadrilateral ftiape. Columbus and others give it
the name of cucullaris, from its refemblance to a monk’s hood.
(d) The tendinous fibres of this mufcle, united with thofe of its fellow in the nape of the neck, form what is
called the ligamentum colli.
(e) This mufcle confifts of two diftinft portions, which are defcribed as feparate mufcles by Albinus, under the
names of rhomboideus minor and rhomboideus major.
3
222
Of the
Mufcles.
ANATOMY.
Name.
7. Splenius (f).
From the ipinous pro-
ceffes o£ the four
or fiye uppermoft
vertebrae of the
back, and of the
lowermoft cervical
vertebra.
8. Complexus (g).
9. Trachelo-maftoide-
us (h).
to. Regius capitis po-
flicus major.
11. Rettus capitis po-
fticus minor.
12. Obliquus fuperior
capitis.
13. Obliquus inferior
capitis.
From the tranfverfe
proceffes of the
four or five upper¬
moft dorfal, and
of the fix lower¬
moft cervical ver¬
tebrae.
From the tranfverfe
proceffes of the
firft dorfal vertebra,
and four or five of
the lowermoft cer¬
vical vertebrae.
From the fpinous pro-
cefs of the fecond
cervical vertebra,
From the firft verte¬
bra of the neck.
From the tranfverfe
procefs of the firft
cervical vertebra.
From the fpinous pro¬
cefs of the fecond
cervical vertebra.
Infertion.
Into the tranfverfe
proceffes of the
two firft cervical
vertebrae, the upper
and back part of
the maftoid procefs,
and a ridge on the
os occipitis.
Into the os occipitis.
Vfe.
To move the
backwards.
head
Part I,
Of the
Mufcles.
Into the maftoid pro¬
cefs.
To draw the head
backwards.
To draw the head
backwards.
Into the os occipitis.
Into the os occipitis.
Into the os occipitis.
Into the tranfverfe
procefs of the firft
cervical vertebra.
14. Sacro-lumbalis From the back part Into the lower edge
of the os facrum, of each rib.
fpine of the ilium,
fpinous proceffes,
and roots of the
tranfverfe proceffes
of the vertebrae of
the loins.
1 c. Longiffimus dorfi The fi^me as that of Into the tranfverfe
/•K \ _ the facro-lumbalis. proceffes or the dor-
fal vertebrae.
To extend the head
and draw it back¬
wards.
To affift the reflus
major.
To draw the head
backwards.
To draw the face to¬
wards the ftioulder,
and to move the
firft vertebra upon
the fecond.
To draw the ribs
downwards, move
the body upon its
axis, affift in erect¬
ing the trunk, and
turn the neck back¬
wards, or to one
fide.
To ftretch the verte¬
brae of the back,
and keep the trunk
ereCt.
16. Spinalis
(f) According to fome writers, this mufcle has gotten its name from its refemblance o le p > 7
rive it from fplen ium, fplint.
(o') So named on account of its complicated ftruCture. . . . • 1 „rrir<»rc
(h) So named from its origin from the neck (rgat^Xo?) and its infertion in o \e ma o P * ^
(.) Several thin fafciculi of flefhy fibres arife from the lower r.bs, terminate n the m"er Me
mufcle. Steno names them mufculi ad facro-lumbalem accejforn. The facro- um a is Jer the name 0f
flip from its upper part, which by Douglas and Albinus is defcnbed as a diftinCl m ,
cervicalis defcendens. Morgagni has very properly confidered it as part of the facro-iumba . . . , d.
00 At the upper part of this mufele a broad thin layer of fleftiy fibres is found crofting ^d intimately aa
herimr to it. This portion, which is defcribed by Albinus under the name of tranfverfahs may very
properly be confidered as an appendage to the longiffimus dorfi. It arifes from 1'e ^ Ver-
five or fix fuperior dorfal vertebra, and is mferted into the tranfverfe proceffes of the fix inferior cervi
tebne. By means of this appendage the longiflimus .dorfi may ferve to move the neck to one fid-, -ft ?
backwards.
Chap. II.
Of the
JMufcles,
A N
Name.
16. Spinalis Horfi.
ATOMY.
17. Semi-fpihalis dor-
fn
18, Multifidus fpi-
n^e (l).
19. Semi-fpinalis col¬
li.
20. Scalenus (m).
21. Inter-fpinales (n).
22. Inter-tranfverfa-
les (o). ,
Muscles within the
cavity of the abdo-
^ ! 5 1
men, on the ante¬
rior and lateral parts
of the fpine, I. Pfoas parvus (p).
Origin.
Froth the fpinous pro-
cefles of the lipper-
moft luthbar and
lowermdft dorfal
vertebrae.
Froth the tranfverfe
procefles of the 7th,
8th, 9th, and 10th
vertebrae of the
back.
From the os facrum,
ilium, oblique and
tranfverfe procefles
of the lumbar ver¬
tebrae, tranfverfe
procefles of the dor-
fal, and four of the
cervical vertebrae.
From the tranfyerfe
procefles of the five
or fix uppermoft
dorfal vertebrae.
From the tranfverfe
procefles of the five
inferior cervical
vertebrae.
From the upper part
of each of the fpi¬
nous procefles of
the fix inferior cer¬
vical vertebrae*
From the upper part
of each of the tranf¬
verfe procefles of
the vertebrae.
Infertion. Ufe.
Into the fpinous pro- To extend the verte-
cefles of the nine brae,
fuperior dorfal ver¬
tebrae.
Into the fpinous pro- To extend the fpine
cefles of the four
uppermoft dorfal,
and lowermoft of
the cervical verte-
brae.
Into the fpinous pro-
cefles of the lum¬
bar, dorfal, and fix
of the cervical ver¬
tebrae.
obliquely
wards.
back-
To extend the back,
and draw it back¬
wards or to one
fide.
Into the fpinous pro- To ftretch the neck
cefles of the 2d, obliquely back-
3d, 4th, 5th, and wards.
6th cervical verte¬
brae.
Into the upper and To move the neck
outer part of the
firft and fecond ribs.
forwards, or to one
fide.
Into the under part of To draw the fpinous
each of the fpinous procefles towards
procefles of the ver- each 'other,
tebrae above.
Into the under part of To draw the tranf-
each of the tranf- verfe procefles to-
verfe procefles of wards each other,
the vertebrae above.
From the fides and Into the brim of the Tobend the loins for-
tranfverfe procefles pelvis, at the June- wards.
tion of the os pubis
with the ilium.
of the uppermoft
lumbar vertebra,
and fometimes of
the lowermoft dor¬
fal vertebra.
2. Pfoas.
(l) Anatomifts in general have unnecefiarily multiplied the mufcles of the fpine. Albinus has the merit of
having introduced greater fimplicity into this part of myology. Under the name of multijidus fpince, he has
very properly included thofe portions of mufcular flelh intermixed with tendinous fibres, fituated clofe to the
back part of the fpine, and which are deferibed by Douglas under the names of tranfverfales collie dorji, et lum-
horum.
(m) The ancients gave it this name from its refemblance to an irregular triangle It confifts of
three flelhy portions. The anterior one affords a paflage to the axillary artery, and between this and the middle
portion we find the nerves going to the upper extremities. The middle is in part covered by the pofterior por¬
tion, which is the longeft and thinneft of the three.
(n) In the generality of anatomical books we find thefe mufcles divided into inter-fpinales cervicis, dorji, and
lumborum.; but we do not find any fuch mufcles either in the loins or back.
(o) Thefe mufcles are to be found only in the neck and loins $ what have been deferibed as the inter-tranfver¬
fales dorfi being rather fmall tendons than mufcles.
(p) This and the following pair of mufcles derive their name o{pfoas from lumbusy on account of their fi-
tuation at the anterior part of the loins.
223
Of the
Mufcies.
224
Of the
Mufcles.
A
Name.
2. Pfoas magnus.
N
Iliacus internus.
4. Quadratus lumbo'
rum (qJ.
Coccygseus.
atomy.
Origin. Infertion. .
From the bodies and Into the os femoris, a To bend the
tranfverfe proceffes little below the tro- forwards,
of the laft dorfal, chanter minor,
and all the lumbar
From^ the* inner lip, In common with the To affift the
hollow part, and pfoas magnu*. magnus*
edge of the os ili-
From the pofterior Into the tranfverfe To fupport the fpine,
part of the fpine of proceffes of the four or to draw it to one
the ilium. uppermoft lumbar fide.
vertebrae, the infe¬
rior edge of the laft
rib, and the fide of
the lowermoft dor¬
fal vertebra.
From the pofterior Into the lorver part Todraw the oscoccy-
Part I.
thigh
pfoas
Of the
Mufcles,
and inner edge of
the fpine of the if-
chiura.
of the os facrum,
and almoft the
whole length of the
os coccygis lateral¬
ly-
gis forwards and in«
wards (r).
Muscles on the
fcapula and upper
part of the os hu¬
meri,
1. Deltoides (s).
2. Supra-fpinatus.
3. Infra-fpinatus.
4. Teres minor (t).
3. Teres major.
6. Subfcapularis.
From the clavicle,
proceffus acromion,
and fpine of the
fcapula.
From the bafis, fpine,
and upper cofta of
the fcapula.
From the bafis and
fpine of the fcapula.
From the inferior co¬
fta of the fcapula.
From the inferior
angle, and inferior
cofta of the fcapu¬
la.
From the bafis, fupe-
rior and inferior co-
ftse of the fcapula.
Into the anterior and To raife the arm.
middle part of the
os humeri.
7. Coraco-brachialis From the coracoid
' procefs of the fca¬
pula.
Into a large tuberofi-
ty at the head of
the os humeri.
Into the upper and
middle part of the
tuberofity.
Into the lower part of
the tuberofity.
Into the ridge at the
inner fide of the
groove formed for
the long head of
the biceps.
Into the upper part
of a fmall tubero¬
fity at the head of
the os humeri.
Into the middle and
inner fide of the os
humeri.
To raife the arm.
To roll the os humeri
outwards.
To affift the infra-fpi¬
natus.
To aflift in the rota¬
tory motion of the
arm.
To roll the arm in¬
wards.
To roll the arm for¬
wards and up¬
wards.
Muscles
$ levator am, fo that it afliftr in cioftng .>*
img ^ r°und ^
At) This mufcle affords a paffage to the mufcule-cutaneous nerve.
Chap. It A N
of the Muscles on the os Name,
Mufcles. humeri, - - - I. Biceps flexor cubi-
ti.
i
2. Brachialis intern us.
3. T ricepsextenfor cu-
biti.
ATOMY. 22s
Origin. Infertim. Vfe. ofthe
isy two heads, one Into the tuberofity at To bend the fore-arm. Mufcles.
from the coracoid the upper end of
procefs, and the o- the radius,
ther, or long head,
from the upper and
outer edge of the
glenoid cavity of
the fcapula.
From the os humeri, Into a fmall tuberofity To aflifl: in bending
■ ■■■" on the fore¬
arm, 1. Supinator longus.
2. Extenfor carpi ra-
dialis longus.
3. Extenfor carpi ra-
dialis brevis.
4. Extenfordigitorum
communis.
5. Extenfor minimi
digiti.
6. Extenfor carpi ul-
naris.
7. Anconaeus (v).
8. Flexor carpi ulna-
ris.
9* Palmaris longus.
below, and at each
fide of the tendon
of the deltoides.
By three heads: the
firft, from the infe¬
rior cofta of the
fcapula ; the fe-
cond, from the up¬
per and outer part
of the os humeri;
and the third, from
the back part of
that bone.
From the outer ridge
and anterior furface
of the os humeri, a
little above its out¬
er condyle.
Immediately below
the origin of the
fupinator longus.
From the outer and
lower part of the
outer condyle of
the os humeri, and
the upper part of
the radius.
From the outer con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri.
From the outer con¬
dyle of the 03 hu¬
meri.
From the outer con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri.
From the outer con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri.
From the inner con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri, and anterior
edge of the olecra¬
non (w).
From the inner con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri.
at the fore part of the fore-arm.
the coronoid procefs
of the ulna.
Into the upper and To extend the fore-
outer part of the arm.
olecranon.
Into the radius near To affift in turning
its ftyloid procefs. the palm of the
hand upwards.
Into the upper part of To extend the wrift.
the metacarpal bone
of the fore-finger.
Into the upper part To affift the extenfor
of the metacarpal
bone of the middle
finger.
longus.
Into the baek part of To extend the fingers,
all the bones of the
four fingers.
Into the bones of the To extend the little
little finger. finger.
Into the metacarpal To aflift in extending
bone of the little the wrift.
finger.
Into the outer edge of To extend the fore-
the ulna. arm.
Into the os pififorme. To aflifl; in bending
the hand.
Vol. II. Part I.
Into the internal an- To bend the arm.
nular ligament, and
aponeurofis palma¬
ris (x).
F f 10. Flexor
(v) So called from ecfK6iiit cubitus,
W ^uetween the two origins of this mufcle we find the ulnar nerve going to the fore-arm.
VXJ a he aponeurofis palmaris is a tendinous membrane that extends over the palm of the hand.
Some ana-
tomifls
226
ANATOMY.
Of the
Mufcles.
Name.
10. Flexor carpi ra-
dialis.
11. Pronator radii te¬
res.
12. Flexor fublirais
perforatus (y).
13. Supinator radii
brevis.
14. Abdu&or pollicis
longus.
15. Extenfor minor
pollicis.
16. Extenfor major
pollicis.
17. Indicator.
Origin.
From the inner con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri.
From the outer con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri, and coronoid
procefs of the ulna.
From the inner con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri, inner edge of
the coronoid pro¬
cefs of the ulna,
and upper and an¬
terior part of the
radius.
From the outer con¬
dyle of the os hu¬
meri, and pofterior
fur face and outer
edge of the ulna.
From the middle and
back part of the
ulna, interoffeous
ligament, and ra¬
dius.
From the back part
of the ulna, and in-
teroffeous ligament
and radius.
From the back of the
ulna and interolfe-
ous ligament.
From the middle of
the ulna.
Infertion. We>
Into the metacarpal To bend the hand. (
bone of the fore¬
finger.
Into the anterior and To roll the hand in*
convex edge of the wards,
radius, near its mid¬
dle.
Into the fecond bone To bend the fecond
of each finger. joint of the fingers.
Part I*
Of the
Mufcles.
Into the anterior, in- To roll the
ner, and upper part outwards,
of the radius.
radius
18. Flexor profundus
perforans.
19. Flexor longus pol¬
licis.
20. Pronator radii
quadratus.
From the upper and
fore part of the
ulna, and interoffe¬
ous ligament.
From the upper and
fore part of the ra¬
dius.
From the inner and
lower part of the
ulna.
By two tendons into To ftretch the firft
the os trapezium, bone of the thumb
and firft bone of outwards,
the thumb.
Into the convex part To extend the fecond
of the fecond bone bone of the thumb
of the thumb. obliquely outwards.
Into the third and To ftretch the thumb
laft bone of the obliquely back-
thumb. wards.
Into the metacarpal To extend the fore¬
bone of the fore- finger,
finger.
Into the fore part of To bend the laft joint
the laft bone of each of the fingers,
of the fingers.
Into the laft joint of To bend the laft joint
the thumb. of the thumb.
Into the radius, oppo-
lite to its origin.
To roll the radius in¬
wards, and of courfe
to aflift in the pro¬
nation of the hand.
Muscles on the hand,
Lumbricales (z). From the tendons of Into the tendons of To bend the firft, and
the perforans. the extenfor digito- to extend the two
rum communis. laft joints of the
fingers (a).
2. Abduftor
tomifts have fuppofed it to be a produftion of the tendon of this mufcle, but without fufficient grounds j for in
feme fubie&s w^find the palmaris longus inferted wholly into the annular ligament, fo as to be pe.feftly diftin
from this aponeurofis j and it now and then happens, that no palmaris longus is to be found, whereas this expan-
fion^s ne ^ js name(j perforates, on account of the four tendons, in which it terminates, being perforated
bv thofe of another mufcle, the perforans. ,
(z\ So named from their being (haped fomewhat like the lumbncus or earth-worm. #
(a) Fallopius was the firft who remarked the two oppofite ufes of this mufcle. Their extending power
owing to their connexion with the extenfor communis.
Chap. II.
Of the
Mufcles.
Muscles at the back
part of the pelvis,
and upper part of
the thigh,
A N A T O
Name.
2. Abduftor brevis
pollicis.
Origin.
From the fore part
of the internal an¬
nular ligament, os
fcaphoides, and one
of the tendons of
the abduftor longus
pollicis.
3. Opponens pollicis. From the inner and
anterior part of the
internal annular li¬
gament, and from
the os fcaphoides.
From the os trapezoi-
des, internal annu¬
lar ligament, os
magnum, and os
unciforme.
From the metacarpal
bone of the middle
finger.
From the inner fide
of the firft bone of
the thumb, and
from the os trape¬
zium.
4. Flexor brevis pol¬
licis.
5. Addu&or pollicis.
6. Abduftor indicis.
7. Palmaris brevis.
8. Abdu&or minimi
digiti.
9. Flexor parvus mi¬
nimi digiti.
10. Adductor meta¬
carpi minimi digiti.
11. Interoffei interni.
12. InteroiTeiexterni.
From the internal An¬
nular ligament, and
aponeurofis palma¬
ris.
From the internal an*
nular ligament, and
os pififorme.
From the os uncifor¬
me and internal an¬
nular ligament.
From the os unoifor-
me and internal an¬
nular ligament.
Situated between the
metacarpal bones.
Situated between the
metacarpal bones
on the back of the
hand.
M Y.
Infer lion. Vfe.
Into the outer fide of To move the thumb
the 2d bone of the from the fingers,
thumb, near its
root.
Into the firft bone of To move the thumb
the thumb. inwards, and to turn
it upon its axis.
Into the ofla fefamoi- To bend the fecond
dea and fecond joint of the thumb*
bone of the thumb.
Into the bafis of the To move the thumb
fecond bone of the towards the fingers*
thumb.
Into the firft bone of To move the fore fin*
the fore-finger po- ger towards the
fteriorly. thumb.
Into the os pififorme, To contraft the palm
and the Ikin cover* of the hand,
ing the abdu£tor
minimi digiti.
Into the fide of the To draw the little fin*
firft bone of the ger from the reft,
little finger.
Into the firft bone of To bend the little
the little finger. finger.
Into the metacarpal To move that bone
bone of the little towards the reft,
finger.
Into the roots of the To extend the fingers,
fingers. and move them to¬
wards the thumb
(B).
Into the roots of the Toextend the fingers j
fingers. but the firft draws
the middle finger
inwards, the fe¬
cond draws it out¬
wards, and the third
draws the ring fin¬
ger inwards.
1. Glutseus (c) maxi- From the fpine of the Into the upper part To extend the thigh
mus. ilium, pofterior fa- of the linea afpera and draw it out-
of the os femoris. wards.
cro-ifchiatic liga¬
ment, os facrum,
and os coccygis.
Ff 2
2. Glutseus
(b) The third interoffeus internus (for there are four of the externi and three of the interni) differs from the
reft in drawing the middle finger from the thumb.
(c) From yPurrej, nates.
228
ANATOM
Of the
Mufcles.
Name.
2. Glutseus medius.
Origin.
From the fpine and
fuperior furface of
the ilium.
Of the
Mufcles.
3. Glutaeus minimus.
4. Pyriformis (d).
5. Gemini (e).
From the outer fur-
face of the ilium
and the border of
its great niche.
From the anterior
part of the os fa-
crum.
Y. Part I
Infertion. Ufa.
Into the outer and To draw the thigh
back part of the outwards and a lit-
great trochanter of tie backwards, and
the os femoris. when it is bended,
to roll it.
Into the upper and To aflifl; the former-
anterior part of the
great trochanter.
Into a cavity at the To roll the thigh out-
root of the trochan- wards.
Obturator internus.
■7. Quadratus (r) fe¬
moris.
By two portions, one
from the outer fur-
face of the fpine
of the ifchium j
the other from the
tuberofity of the
ifchium and pofte-
rior facro-ifchiatic
ligament.
From the fuperior half
of the inner border
of the foramen thy-
roideum.
From the tuberofity
of the ifchium.
ter major.
Into the fame cavity To roll the thigh out-
as the pyriformis. wards, and likewife-
to confine the ten¬
don of the obtura¬
tor internus, when
the latter is in ac¬
tion.
Into the fame cavity To roll the thigh out-
with the former. wards.
Into a ridge between To move the thigh
the trochanter ma- outwards,
jor and trochanter
minor. .
Muscles <
thigh (g),
the
I. Biceps flexor cm- By two heads j one
rxs.
2. Semi-tendinofus.
from the tuberofity
of the ifchium,
the other from the
linea afpera near
the infertion of
the glutseus max-
imus.
From the tuberofity
of the ifchium.
Into the upper and To bend the leg,
back part of the fi¬
bula (h).
3. Semi-membranofus From the tuberofity
of the ifchium.
4. Tenfor vaginae fe- From the fuperior
moris. and anterior fpi-
nous procefs of the
ilium.
Into the upper and To bend and draw
inner part of the the leg inwards,
tibia.
Into the upper and To bend the leg.
back part of the
head of the tibia.
Into the inner fide To flretch the fafcia.
of the fafcia lata,
which covers the
outfide' of the
thigh.
5. Sartorius.
(dVSo named from its pear-like fliape. . _ r. , r .
(e) The two portions of this mufcle having been defcribed as two diftinct mufcles by fome anatoimits,
have occafioned it to be named gemini. The tendon of the obturator internus runs between thefe two por-
1°(F') The mufcle is not of the fquare fhape its name would feem to indicate.
fG) The mufcles of the leg and thigh are covered by a broad tendinous membrane called fafcia fata, that
furrounds them in the manner of a (heath. It is fent off from the tendons of the glutasi and other mufcles, and
dipping down between the mufcles it covers, adheres to the linea afpera, and fpreadmg over the joint of the knee,
gradually difappears on the leg. It is thickeft on the infide of the thigh.
^ (h) The tendon of this mufcle forms the outer ham-fring.
f 1) So named on account of its origin, which is by a broad flat tendon three inches long.
I
Cliap. II.
Of the
Mufcles.
ANATOMY.
Name.
5. Sartorius.
6. Re&us.
7. Gracilis.
8. Vaftus esternus (l).
9. Vaftus internus.
10. Crurseus (m).
11. Peiftinalis.
12. Addu&or longus
femoris (n).
j3. Adduftor brevis
femoris.
14. Adduftor magnus
femoris.
15, Obturator exter-
nus.
Origin.
From the fuperior
and anterior fpi-
nous procefs of the
ilium.
By two tendons; one
from the anterior
and inferior fpi-
nous procefs of the
ilium} the other
from the pofterior
edge of the coty¬
loid cavity.
From the fore part of
the ifchium and
pubis.
From the anterior
and lower part of
the great trochan¬
ter, and the outer
edge of the linea
afpera.
From the inner edge
of the linea afpera,
beginning between
the fore part ®f the
os femoris and the
root of the leffer
trochanter.
From the outer and
arterior part of
the leffer trochan¬
ter.
From the anterior
edge of the os pu¬
bis, or pettinis, as it
is fometimes called.
From the upper and
fore part of the os
pubis.
From the fore part of
the ramus of the os
pubis.
From the lower and
fore part of the ra¬
mus of the os pubis.
From part of the ob¬
turator ligament,
and the inner half
of the circumfe¬
rence of the fora¬
men thyroideum.
Infertion.
Into the upper and
inner part of the
tibia.
Into the upper and
fore part of the pa¬
tella.
Into the upper and
inner part of the
tibia.
To the upper and
outer part- of the
patella.
Into the upper and
inner part of the
patella.
Into the upper part
of the patella.
Into the upper and
fore part of the li¬
nea afpera.
Nearthemiddleand'
back part of the
linea afpera.
Into the inner and
upper part of the
linea afpera.
Into the whole
length of the li¬
nea afpera.
Into the os femoris,
near the root of
the great trochan¬
ter.
Vfe.
To bend the leg in¬
wards (k).
229
Of the
Mufcleg,
To extend the leg.
To bend the leg.
To extend the leg.
To extend the leg.
V
To extend the leg.
To draw the thigh
inwards, upwards,
and to roll it a little
outwards.
To draw the thigh
inwards, upwards,
and to roll it a little
outwards.
To move the thigh
outwards in an ob¬
lique direction, and
likewife to bend
and draw it in¬
wards.
Muscles
(k) Spigelius was the firft who gave this the name offartorius, or the taylor’s mufcle, from its ufe in crofting
the legs.
(l) The vaftus externus, vaftus internus, and crurseus, are fo intimately connected with each other, that fome
anatomifts have been induced to confider them as a triceps, or Angle mufcle with three heads.
(m) Under the cruraeus we fometimes meet with two fmall mufcles, to which Albinus has given the name of
fub crurai. I hey terminate on each fide of the patella, and prevent the capfular ligament from being pinched.
When they are wanting, which is very often the cafe, fome of the fibres of the cruraeus are found adhering to the
capfula.
(n) This and the two following mufcles have been ufually, but improperly, confidered as forming a fingle
mufcle with three heads, and on that account named triceps femoris,
4
230
A N
Of the Name.
Mufcles. Muscles on the leg. I. Gaftrocnemius (o)
externus.
2. Gaftrocnemius (p)
internus.
ATOMY.
3. Plantarxs
4. Popliteus (r).
5. Flexor longus digi-
torum pedis (s).
Origin.
By two heads j one
from the inner con¬
dyle, the other from
the outer condyle,
of the os femoris.
By two heads 5 one
from the back part
of the head of the
fibula, the other
from the upper and
back part of the
tibia.
From the upper and
pofterior part of the
outer condyle of the
os femoris.
From the outer con¬
dyle of the thigh.
From the upper and
inner part of the
tibia.
6. Flexor longus pol-
licis pedis.
7. Tibialis pofticus.
8. Peroneus longus.
9. Peroneus brevis.
From the back part,
and a little below
the head of the fi¬
bula.
From the back part,
and outer edge of
the tibia, and like-
wife from the in-
teroffeous ligament
and adjacent part
of the fibula.
From the outer fide
of the head of the
tibia, and alfo from
the upper, anterior,
and outer part of
the perone or fibu¬
la, to which it ad¬
heres for a confide-
rable way down.
From the outer and
fore part of the fi¬
bula.
Infertion.
By a great round ten¬
don, common to
this and the follow¬
ing mufcle.
By a large tendon
(the tendo achilhs')
common to this and
the former mufcle,
into the lower and
back part of the os
calcis.
Into the infide of the
back part of the os
calcis.
Into the upper and
inner part of the
tibia.
By four tendons,
which, after pafling
through the perfo¬
rations in thofe of
the flexor digito-
rum brevis, are in-
ferted into the laft
bone of all the toes,
except the great
toe.
Into the laft bone of
the great toe.
Ufe.
To extend the foot.
Part I.
Of the
Mulcles.
To extend the foot.
To aflift in extending
the foot.
To aflift in bending
the leg and rolling
it inwards.
To bend the laft joint
of the toe.
Into the inner and
upper part of the
os naviculare and
fide of the os cunei-
forme medium.
Into the metatarfal
bone of the great
toe.
To bend the great
toe.
To move the foot in¬
wards.
To move the foot out¬
wards.
Into the metatarfal
bone of the little
toe.
To aflift the laft de-
fcribed mufcle.
v TT vt-*»nfrtr
(o) YtttpHnpMjura, “ the calf of the leg.” r • u • n. j ru .1, r 1 cn,
(p') This mufcle is by fome anatomifts named foleus, on account of its being thaped like the lole-faln.
(0 1 This mufcle has gotten the name of plantar is, from its being fuppofed to furnifti the aponeurofis that
covers the foie of the foot j but it does not in the leaft contribute to the formation of that tendinous expan-
go called on account of its fituation at the ham (poples).
(s) This mufcle, about the middle of the foot, unites with a flefliy mafs, which from its having fi ft been
defcribed by Sylvius, is ufually called majfa cornea Jacobi Sylvii.
A N
Name.
10. Extenfor longus
digitorura pedis.
II. Peroneus tertius.
12. Tibialis anticus.
13. Extenfor proprius
pollicis pedis.
I. Extenfor brevis di-
gitorum pedis.
2. Flexor brevis digi-
torum pedis.
3. Abdu&or pollicis
pedis.
4. Abdu&or minimi
digiti.
5. Lumbricales pedis.
6. Flexor brevis pol¬
licis pedis.
7. Adductor pollicis
pedis.
8. Tranfverfales pe¬
dis.
M Y.
Infertion. Ufe.
By four tendons into To extend the toes,
the firft joint of the
fmaller toes.
A T O
Origin.
From the upper, out¬
er, and fore part of
the tibia, interoffe-
ous ligament, and
inner edge of the
fibula.
From the fore part Into the metatarfal To bend the foot,
of the lower half bone of the little
of the fibula, and toe.
from the interolfe-
eus ligament.
From the upper and Into the os cunei- To bend the foot,
fore part of the ti- forme internum,
bia.
From the upper and Into the convex fur- To extend the great
fore part of the ti- face of the bones of toe.
bia. the great toe.
231
Of the
Mufcles.
From the upper and
anterior part of the
os calcis.
From the lower part
of the os calcis.
From the inner and
lower part of the
os calcis.
From the outer tu¬
bercle of the os cal¬
cis, the root of the
metatarfal bone of
the little toe, and
alfo from the apo-
neurofis plantaris.
From the tendons of
the flexor longus
digitorum pedis.
From the inferior and
anterior part of the
os calcis, and alfo
from the inferior
part of the os cu-
neiforme externum.
From the near roots
of the metatarfal
bones of the 2d,
3d, and 4th toes.
From the outer and
under part of the
anterior end of the
metatarfal bone of
the little toe.
By four tendons j one To extend the toes,
of which joins the
tendon of the ex-
ternus longus polli¬
cis, and the other
three the tendons
of the extenfor di¬
gitorum longus.
By four tendons, To bend the fecond
which, after af- joint of the toes,
fording a paffage
to thofe of the flex¬
or longus, are in-
ferted into the fe¬
cond phalanx of
each of the fmall
toes.
Into the firft joint of To move the great
the great toe. toe from the other
toes.
Into the outer fide of To draw the little toe
the firft joint of the outwards,
little toe.
Into the tendinous To draw the toes in-
expanfion at the wards,
upper part of the
toes.
By two tendons into To bend the firft joint
the firft joint of the of the great toe.
great toe.
Into the outer os fe- To draw the great toe
famoideum, or firft nearer to the reft,
joint of the great and alfo to bend
toe. it.
Into the inner os fe- To contraft the foot,
famoideum, and an¬
terior end of the
metatarfal bone
the great toe.
of
9. Flexor
23 2
Of the
Mutcle*.
ANATOMY.
'KJatnen Origin, Injcftiott* #
9. Flexor brevis mi- From the bafis of the Into the firft joint of To bend the little toe.
nimi digit! pedis, metatarfal bone of the little toe.
the little toe.
10. Interoflei pedis in- Situated between the
terni (t). metatarfal bones,
11. Interolfei externi
(u).
Part I.
Of the
EXPLANATION of PLATES XXV. and XXVI.
Plate XXV.
Fig. I. The Muscles immediately under the com¬
mon teguments on the anterior part of the body are
reprefented on the right fide knd on. the left fide
the Muscles are feen which come in view when the
exterior ones are taken away.
A, The frontal mufcle. B, The tendinous aponeu-
rofis which joins it to the occipital } hence both named
occipito-fronta/is. C, Attollens aurem. D, ihe ear.
E, Anterior auris. FF, Orbicularis palpebrarum. G,
Levator labii fuperioris alseque nafi. H, Levator an-
guli oris. I, Zygomaticus minor. K, Zygomaticus
major. L, Maffeter. M, Orbicularis oris. N, De-
preffor labii inferioris. O, Deprefibr anguli oris. P,
Buccinator. QQ, Platyfma myoides. .HR, Sterno-
cleido-maftoidaeus. S, Part of the trapezius. T, Part
of the fcaleni. . tt -n «
Superior Extremity.—U, Deltoides. V, Petto-
ralis major, Part of the latiffimus dorfi. XX, Bi¬
ceps flexor cubiti. YY, Part of the brachialis exter-
nus. ZZ, The beginning of the tendinous aponeu-
rofis (from the biceps), which is fpread over the muf-
cles of the fore-arm. aa, Its ftrong tendon inferted
into the tubercle of the radius, bb, Part of the bra¬
chialis internus. c, Pronator radii teres, d, Flexor
carpi radialis. e, Part of the flexor carpi, ulnaris. f,
Palmaris longus. g, Aponeurofis paltnaris. 3, Pal-
maris brevis, r, Ligamentum carpi annulare. 22, Ab-
du&or minimi digiti. h, Supinator radii longus.. .1,
The tendons of the thumb. k, Abduflor pollicis.
1, Flexor pollicis longus. mm, The tendons of the
flexor fublimis perforatus, profundus perforans, and lum-
bricales.—The (heaths are entire in the right hand,—
in the left cut open, to (how the. tendons of the flexor
profundus perforating the fublimis.
Muscles not referred to——in the left fuperior extre¬
mity. n, Pe£toralis minor, feu ferratus anticus minor.
o, The two heads of (xx) the biceps, p, Coraco-
brachialis. qq, The long head of the triceps extenfor
cubiti. rr, Teres major, ff, Subfcapularis. . tt, Ex-
tenfores radiales. u, Supinator brevis, v, The cut
extremity of the pronator teres, w, Flexor fubli-
mis perforatus. x, Part of the flexor profundus.
„ jrjgxor pollicis longus. z, Part of the flexor pollicis
brevis. 4, Abduftor minimi digiti. 5, The four lum-
bricales.
Trunk.—6, Serrated extremities of the ferratus
anticus major. yy, Obliquus externus abdominis,
88, The linea alba. 9, The umbilicus. 10, Pyra-
midalis. 11 II, The fpermatic cord. On the left
fide it is covered by the cremafter. 12 12, Reftus
abdominis. 13, Obliquus internus. 14 14, &c. In-
tercoftal mufcles.
Inferior Extremities.—««,. The gracilis, b b^
Part of the triceps, c c, Pedtinalis. d d, Pfoas mag-
nus. ee, Iliaciis internus. f. Part of the glutaeus
medius. g, Part of the glutaeus minimus. //, Cut
extremity of the re£tus cruris. i i, Vaftus externus.
k, Tendon of the reaus cruris. //, Vaftus externus.
* Sartorius mufcle. ** hlelhy origin of the tenfor
vaginae femoris or membranofus. Its tendinous aponeu¬
rofis covers (2) the vaftus externus in the right fide.
tn m, Patella, n n. Ligament or tendon from it to the
tibia. 0, Reaus cruris, p, Cruraeus. yy, Ihe tibia.
rr. Part of the gemellus or gaftrocnemius externus.
rrr Part of the foleus or gaftrocnemius internus.
t, Tibialis anticus. «, Tibialis pofticus. v Paeronaei
mufcles. w w, Extenfor longus digitorum pedis. xxt
Extenfor longus pollicis pedis, y, Abduaor pollieis
pedis.
Fig. 2. The Muscles, Glands, &c. of the left Side
of the Face and Neck, after the common Teguments
and Platyfma myoides have been taken off.
a, The frontal mufcle. b, Temporalis and tempo¬
ral artery, c, Orbicularis palpebrarum, d, Levamr
labii fuperioris alaeque nafi. e. Levator anguli oris,
f, Zygomaticus. g, Depreffor labii inferioris. h, De-
preffor anguli oris. i, Buccinator. k, Maffeter.
11, Parotid gland. m, Its dua. n, Sterno-cleido-
maftoidaeus. o, Part of the trapezius. p, Sterno-
hyoidEeus. q, Sterno-thyroidteus. r, Omo-hyoidaeus.
f, Levator fcapulae. tt, Scaleni. u, Part of the fple-
nius.
Fig. 3. The Muscles of the Face and Neck in view
after the exterior ones are taken away,
a a, Corrugator fupercilii. b, Temporalis, c, Ten¬
don of the levator palpebrae fuperioris. d, Tendon of
the orbicularis palpebrarum, e, Maffeter. f,
nator. g, Levator anguli oris, h, Depreffor labii fu¬
perioris alaeque nafi. i. Orbicularis oris, k, Depref¬
for anguli oris. 1, Mufcles of the os hyoides. m, Ster-
no-cleido maftoidaeus.
Fig.
fT'l The interoffei interni are three in number •, their ufe is to draw the fmaller toes towards the great toe,
(u) The interoffei externi are four in number 5 the firft ferves to move the fore toe towards the great toe j
reft move the toes outwards. All the interoffei aflift in extending the toes.
the
)Chap» HI* ANA
of the Fig. 4. Some of the Muscles of the Os Hyoides
Abdomen. and Submaxillary Gland.
a> part of the mafleter mufcle. b, Pofterior head
ef the digaftric. c, Its anterior head, dd, Sterno-
hyoidteus. e, Omo-hyoidaeus. f, Stylo-hyoidaeus. gt
Submaxillary gland in fitu.
Fig. 5. The Submaxillary Gland and Du£I.
a, Mufculus mylo-hyoidaeus. b, Hyo-gloffus. c,
Submaxillary gland extra fitum. d, Its duft.
Plate XXVI.
Fig. 1. The Muscles immediately under the common
teguments on the pofterior part of the body are re-
prefented in the right fide j and on the left fide the
Muscles are feen which come in view when the
exterior ones are taken away.
Head.— A.A, Occipito-frontalis. B, Attollens au-
rem. C, Part of the orbicularis palpebrarum. D,
Maffeter. E, Pterygoidseus internus.
Trunk.—Right fide. FFF, Trapezius feu cUcul-
laris. GGGG, Latiflimus dorfi. H, part of the
obliquus externus abdominis.
Trunk.—Left fide. I, Splenius. K, Part of the
complexus. L, Levator fcapulee. M, Rhomboides.
NN, Serratus pofticus inferior. O, Part of the lon-
giflimus dorfi. P, Part of the facro-lumbalis. £), Part
of the femi-fpinalis dorfi. R, Part of the ferratus an-
ticus major. S, Part of the obliquus internus abdo¬
minis.
Superior Extremity.—Right fide. T, Deltoides.
U, Triceps extenfor cubiti. V, Supinator longus.
WW, Extenfores carpi radialis longior and brevior.
XX, Extenfor carpi ulnaris. YY, Extenfor digito-
rum communis. Z, Abduftor indicis. 123, Ex¬
tenfores pollicis.
Superior Extremity.—Left fide, a, Supra-fpi-
natus. b, Infra-fpinatus. c, Teres minor, d, Te¬
res major, e, Triceps extenfor cubiti. ff, Exten¬
fores carpi radiales. g, Supinator brevis, h, Indica¬
tor. 123, Extenfores pollicis. i, Abduflor minimi
digiti. k, Interolfei.
Inferior Extremity.—Right fide. 1, Glutaeus
maximus. m, Part of the glutaeus roedius. n, Ten-
for vaginae femoris. o, Gracilis, pp, Addu&or fe-
moris magnus. q, Part of the vaftus internus. r, Se-
TOM Y.
mimembranofus. s, Semitendinofus. t, Long head
of the biceps flexor cruris. * uu, Gaftrocnemius ex¬
ternus feu gemellus, v, Tendo Achillis. w, Solaeus
feu gaftrocnemius internus. xx, Peronseus longus and
brevis. y, Tendons of the flexor longus digitorum
pedis ;—and under them * flexor brevis digitorum
pedis, z, Abdu&or minimi digiti pedis.
Inferior Extremity.—Left fide, m, n, o,p p, q,
f, s, t, v, w w, x x, y, Point the fame parts as in
the right fide. «, Pyriformis. bb, Gemini, cc, Obtu¬
rator internus. d, Quadratus femoris. e, Coccygteus.
f, The fhort head of the biceps flexor cruris, gg, Plan-
taris. //, Poplitteus. z, Flexor longus pollicis pedis.
Fig. 2. The Palm of the Left Hand after the com¬
mon Teguments are removed, to ftiow the Muscles
of the Fingers.
a, Tendon of the flexor carpi radialis. b, Tendon
of the flexor carpi ulnaris. c, Tendons of the flexor
fublimis perforatus, profundus perforans, and lumbri-
cales. d, Abdu£tor pollicis. ee, Flexor pollicis
longus. f, Flexor pollicis brevis, g, Palmaris bre¬
vis. h, Abduftor minimi digiti. i, Ligamentum car¬
pi annulare, k, A probe put under the tendons of the
flexor digitorum fublimis $ which are perforated by 1,
the flexor digitorum profundus, mmmm, Lumbricales.
n, Adduflor pollicis.
Fig. 3. A Fore view of the Foot and tendons of the
Flexores Digitorum.
a, Cut extremity of the tendo Achillis. b, Upper
part of the aftragalus. c, Os calcis. d, Tendon of
the tibialis anticus. e, Tendon of the extenfor pollicis
longus. f, Tendon of the peronseus brevis, g, Ten¬
dons of the flexor digitorum longus, with the nonus
Vefalii. hh, The whole of the flexor digitorum
brevis.
Fig. 4. Muscles of the Anus,
aa, An outline of the buttocks, and upper part of
the thighs, b, The teftes contained in the fcrotum.
cc, Sphin£ler ani, d, Anus, e, Levator ani. ff, E-
reftor penis, gg, Accelerator urinae. h, Corpus ca-
vernofum urethrae.
Fig. 5. Muscles of the Penis,
aa, b, d, ee, ff, h, Point the fame as in fig. 4.
c, Sphinfter ani. gg, Tranfverfalis penis.
233
Of the
Abdomen.
CHAP. HI. OF THE ABDOMEN, OR LOWER BELLY*
$S THE abdomen, or lower belly, extends from the
lower extremity of the fternum, or the hollow ufually
called the pit of the ftomach, and more properly fcrobi-
culus cordis, to the lower part of the trunk.
It is diftinguiftied into three divifions called regions;
of thefe, the upjier one, which is called the epigajlric
region, begins immediately under the fternum, and ex¬
tends to within two fingers breadth of the navel, where
the middle or umbilical region begins, and reaches to
the fame diftance below the navel. The third, which
is called the hypogajlnc, includes the reft of the abdo¬
men, as far as the os pubis.
Each of thefe regions is fubdivided into three others;
two of which compofe the fides, and the other the
middle part of each region.
Vol. II. Part I.
The middle part of the upper region is called epi-
gajlrium, and its two fides hypochondria. The middle
part of the next region is the umbilical region, proper¬
ly fo called, and its two fides are the flanks, or iliac
regions. Laftly, The middle part of the lower region
retains the name of hypogaftrium, and its fides are
called inguina or groins. The back part of the abdo¬
men bears the name of lumbar region.
Thefe are the divifions of the lower belly, which
are neceffary to be held in remembrance, as they fre¬
quently occur in furgical and anatomical writing. We
will now proceed to examine the contents of the abdo¬
men $ and after having pointed out the names and ar¬
rangement of the feveral vifcera contained in it, de«
fcribe each of them feparately.
After
234
Of the
Abdomen.
Sc,
pe
ANA
After having removed the {kin, adipofe membrane,
and abdominal mufcles, we difcover the peritonaeum or
' membrane that envelopes all the vifcera of the lower
belly. This being opened, the firth part that prefents
itfelf is the omentum or cawl, floating on the turface
of the inteftines, which are like wife feen everywhere
loofe and moift, and making a great number of cir¬
cumvolutions through the whole cavity of the abdo¬
men. The ftomach is placed in the epigaftrium, and
under the ftomach is the pancreas. The liver fills the
right hypochondrium, and the fpleen is fituated m the
left. The kidneys are feen about the middle of the
lumbar region, and the urinary bladder and parts of
generation are feated in the lower divifion of the
belly.
Sect. I. 0/ the Peritoneum.
The peritonaeum is a ftrong Ample membrane, by
which all the vifcera of the abdomen are iurrounded,
and in fome meafure fupported. Many anatomical
writers, particularly Window, have defcribed it as be¬
ing compofed of two diftina membranous laminae j
but their defcription feems to be erroneous : what
perhaps appeared to be a fecond lamina, being found
to be Amply a cellular coat, which fends off produc¬
tions to the blood veffels pafling out of the abdominal
cavity. The aorta and vena cava likewife derive a
covering from the fame membrane, which feems to be
a part of the cellular membrane we have already de¬
fcribed. ,
The peritonaeum, by its productions and reduplica¬
tions, envelopes the greateft part of the abdominal
vifcera. It is foft, and capable of conAderable exten-
Aon } and is kept fmooth and moift by a vapour,
which is conftantly exhaling from its inner furface,
and is returned again into the circulation by the ab-
forbents. i r r r
This moifture not only contributes to the iottnels
of the peritonaeum, but prevents the attrition, and
other ill effeas, which would otherwife probably be
occafioned by the motion of the vifcera upon each
other.
When this fluid is fupplied in too great a quantity,
or the abforbents become incapable of carrying it oft,
it accumulates, and conftitutes an afcites or dropfy of
the belly, and when by any means the exhalation is
difcontinued, the peritonaeum thickens, becomes dif-
eafed, and the vifcera are fometimes found adhering to
each other.
The peritonaeum is not a very vafcular membrane.
In a found ftate it feems to be endued with little or no
feeling, and the nerves that pafs through it appear to
belong to the abdominal mufcles.
Sect. II. Of the Omentum.
The omentum, epiploon, or cawl, is a double mem¬
brane, produced from the peritonaeum. It is inter¬
larded with fat, and adheres to the ftomach, fpleen,
T O M Y. Partl.
duodenum, and colon; from thence hanging down loofe of the
and floating on the furface of the inteftines. Its Aze is Abdomen.
different in different fubjeas. In fome it dekends as r-**
low as the pelvis, and it is commonly longer at the left
Ade than the right.
This part, the Atuation of which we have juft now
defcribed, was the only one known to the ancients un¬
der the name of epiploon ; but at prefent we diftinguifh
three omenta, viz. omentum magnum coheo-guJlricumt
omentum parvum hepatico-gqflricum, and omentum co¬
ll cum. They all agree in being formed of two very
delicate lamina?, feparated by a thin layer of cellular
membrane. _
The omentum magnum colico-gaftricum,. ot which
we have already fpoken, derives its arteries from the
fplenic and hepatic. Its veins terminate in the vena
porta?. Its nerves, which are very few, come from the
fplenic and hepatic plexus.
The omentum parvum hepatied-gaftricum. abounds
lefs with fat than the great epiploon. It begins at the
upper part of the duodenum, extends along the leffer
curvature of the ftomach as far as the cefophagus, and
terminates about the neck of the gad-oladder, and be¬
hind the left ligament of the liver, fo that it covers
the leffer lobe ; near the beginning of which we may
obferve a fmall opening, ftrft deleribed by Window,
through which the whole pouch may eaAly be diftend—
ed with air (x). The veffels of the omentum parvum
are derived chiefly from the coronary ftomachic arteries
and veins-
The omentum colicum begins at the fore part of tho
cseeum and right Ade of the colon. It appears as a
hollow conical appendage to thefe inteftines, and ufu-
ally terminates at the back of the omentum magnum.
It'feems to be nothing more than a membranous coat
of the caecum and colon, affuming a conical ftiape when
diftended with air.
The ufes of the omentum are not yet fatisfadtorily
determined. Perhaps by its foftnefs and loofenefs it may
ferve to prevent thofe adheflons of the abdominal vifce¬
ra, which have been found to take place when the fat
of the omentum has been much wafted. Some authors
have fuppofed, that it aflifts in the preparation of bile j
but this is founded merely on conje&ure.
Sect. III. Of the Stomach.
The ftomach is a membranous and mufcular bag, in
ftiape not unlike a bagpipe, lying acrofs the upper part
of the abdomen, and inclining rather more to the left
than the right Ade.
It has two oriAces, one of which receives the end of
the oefophagus, and is called the cardia, and fometimes
the left and upper orifice of the ftomach ; though its
Atuation is not much higher than the other, which is
ftyled the right and inferior oriAce, and more common¬
ly the pij/oi'us ; both thefe openings are more elevated
than the body of the ftomach.
The aliment paffes down the oefophagus into the
ftomach through the cardia, and after having under-
(x) This membranous bag, though exceedingly thin and tranfparent, is found capable of fupporting mercury,
thrown into it by the fame channel.
Chap. Ill, ANA"
Of the gone the neeeffary digeftlon, pafles out at the pylorus
Abdoraen. where the inteftinal canal commences.
  The ftomach is compofed of four tunics or coats,
which are fo intimately conne&ed together that it re¬
quires no little dexterity in the anatomift to demon-
lirate them. The exterior one is membranous, being
derived from the peritonaeum. The fecond is a muf-
cular tunic, compofed of fleihy fibres, which are in the
grcateft number about the two orifices. The third is
called the nervous coat, and within this is the villous
or velvet-like coat which compofes the infide of the
ftomach.
The two laft coats being more extenfive than the
two firft, form the folds, which are obferved every¬
where in the cavity of this vifcus, and more particu¬
larly about the pylorus ; where they feem to impede
the too hafty exclufion of the aliment, making a con-
. fiderable plait, called valvula pylori.
The inner coat is conftantly moiftened by a mucus,
which approaches to the nature of the faliva, and is
called the gaftric juice : this liquor has been fuppofed
to be fecreted by certain minute glands (y) feated in
the nervous tunic, whole excretory du£b open on the
furface of the villous coat.
The arteries of the ftomach called the gaftric arte¬
ries are principally derived from the caeliac ; fome of
its veins pafs to the fplenic, and others to the vena
portae j and its nerves are chiefly from the eighth pair
or par vagum.
The account given of the tunics of the ftomach
may be applied to the whole alimentary canal : for
both the oefophagus and inteftines are, like this vifcus,
compofed of four coats.
Before wfe defcribe the courfe of the aliment, and the
ufes of the ftomach, it will be neceffary to fpeak of
other parts which aflift in the procefs of digeftion.
Sect. IV. Of the Oefophagus.
The oefophagus or gullet is a membranous and muf-
cular canal, extending from the bottom of the mouth
to the upper orifice of the ftomach. Its upper part,
where the aliment is received, is ftiaped fomewhat like
a funnel, and is called the pharynx.
From hence it runs down clofe to the bodies of the
vertebrae as far as the diaphragm, in winch there is an
opening through which it paffes, and then terminates
in the rtomach about the eleventh or twelfth vertebra
of the back.
The oefophagus is plentifully fupplied wdth arteries
from the external carotid, bronchial, and fuperior in-
tercoftal arteries j its veins empty themfelves into the
vena azygos, internal jugular, and mammary veins, &c.
Its nerves are derived chiefly from the eighth pair.
We likewife meet with a mucus in the oefophagus,
O M Y> §35
which everywhere lubricates its inner furface, and Of the
tends to aflift in deglutition. This mucus feems to be Abdomen*
fecreted by very minute glands, like the mucus in other '" *
parts of the alimentary canal.
Sect. V. Of the Intefines.
The inteftines form a canal, which is ufually fix . 93
times longer than the body to which it belongs. This
canal extends from the pylorus, or inferior orifice of
the ftomach, to the anus.
It will be eafily underftood, that a part of fuch great
length muft neceflarily make many circumvolutions, to
be confined with fo many other vifcera within the ca¬
vity of the lower belly.
Although the inteftines are in faft, as we have ob¬
ferved, only one long and extenfive canal, yet different
parts have been diftinguiftied by different names.
The inteftines are firft diftinguiftied into two parts*
one of which begins at the ftomach, and is called the
thin or fmall intefines, from the fmall fize of the canal,
when compared with the other part, which is called the
large intefines, and includes the lower portion of the
canal down to the anus.
Each of thefe parts has its fubdivifions. The fmall
inteftines being diftinguiftied into duodenum, jejunum,
and ileum, and the larger portion into caecum, colon,
and redlum.
The fmall inteftines fill the middle and fore parts of
the belly, while the large inteftines fill the fides and
both the upper and lower parts of the cavity.
The duodenum, which is the firft of the fmall in¬
teftines, is fo called, becaufe it is about 12 inches long.
It begins at the pylorus, and terminates in the jejunum,
which is a part of the canal obferved to be ufually more
empty than the other inteftines. This appearance
gives it its name, and likeivife ferves to point out where
it begins.
The next divifion is the ileum, which of itfelf ex¬
ceeds the united length of the duodenum and jejunum,
and has received its name from its numerous circumvo¬
lutions. The large circumvolution of the ileum co¬
vers the firft of the large inteftines called the ccecttm
(fc), which feems properly to belong to the colon,
being a kind of pouch of about four fingers in width,
and nearly of the fame length, having exteriorly a lit¬
tle appendix, called appendix cceci.
The caecum is placed in the cavity of the os ilium
on the right fide, and terminates in the colon, which
is the largeft of all the inteftines.
This inteftine afcends by the right kidney to which
it is attached, paffes under the hollow part of the liver,
and the bottom of the ftomach, to the fpleen, to which
it is likewife fecured, as it is alfo to the left kidney;
and from thence paffes down towards the os facrum,
G g 2 where,
(y) Heifter, fpeaking of thefe glands, very properly fays, in “ in porcis facile, in homine raro obfervantur f for
although many anatomical writers have defcribed their appearance and figure, yet they do not feem to have been
hitherto fatisfaftorily demonftrated in the human ftomach j and the gaftric juice is now more generally believed
to be derived from the exhalant arteries of the ftomach.
(z) Anatomifts have differed with refpefl to this divifion of the inteftines.—The method here followed is now
generally adopted ; but there are authors who allow the name of ccecum only to the little appendix, which har
likewife been called the vermiform appendix, from its refemblance to a worm in fize and lengths
236 ANA
Of the where, from Its ftraight courfe, the canal begins to take
Abdomen, the name of reffum.
' There are three ligamentous bands extending
through the whole length of the colon, which by being
{horter than its two inner coats, ferve to increafe the
plaits on the inner furface of this gut.
The anus, which terminates the inteftinum rectum,
is furnithed with three mufcles ; one of thefe is com-
pofed of circular fibres, and from its ufe in (hutting the
paflage of the anus is czWtA fphinBer am.
The other two are the levatores am, fo called, be-
caufe they elevate the anus after dejeaion. When thefe
by palfy, or any other difeafe, lofe the power of con-
tradting, the anus prolapfes j and when the fphmaer is
affeaed by fimilar caufes, the faeces are voided mvolun-
l/has been already obferved that the inteftinal canal
is compofed of four tunics ; but it remains to be re¬
marked, that here, as in the ftomacb, the two inner tu¬
nics being more extenfive than the other two, form the
plaits which are to be feen in the inner furface ot the
inteftines, and are called valvu!& conmventes.
Some authors have eonfidered thefe plaits as tending
to retard the motion of the faeces, in order to afford
more time for the feparation of the chyle ; but there
are others who attribute to them a different ufe j they
contend, that thefe valves, by being naturally inclined
downwards, cannot impede the defcent of the fasces,
but that they are intended to prevent their return up-
They are probably deftined for both fhefe ufes for
although thefe folds‘incline to their lower fide yet the
inequalities they occafion in the canal are fufbcient to
retard in fome meafure the progreffive motion of the
feces, and to afford a greater furface for the abforp-
tion of chyle \ and their natural pofition feems to op-
pofe itfelf to the return of the aliment.
Befides thefe valvular conniventes, there is one more
eonfiderable than the reft, called the valve of the colon ;
which is found at that part of the canal where the in¬
teftinum ileum is joined to the colon. This valve per¬
mits the alimentary pulp to pafs downwards, but ierves
to prevent its return upwards j and it « by this valve
that clyfters are prevented from paffing into the fmail
inteftines (y).
T O M Y.
Of the little vermiform appendix of the ccecum, it of the
will be fufficient to fay, that its ufes have never yet been Abdomen.
afeertained. In birds we meet with two of thefe ap-
PC The inteftines are lubricated by a conftant fupply of
mucus, which is probably fecreted by very minute fol¬
licles (z). This mucus promotes the defcent of the
alimentary pulp, and in fome meafure defends the inner
furface of the inteftines from the irritation to which it
would, perhaps, otherwife be continually expofed from
the aliment •, and which, rvhen in a certain degree, ex¬
cites a painful diforder called colic, a name given to the
difeafe, becaufe its moft ufual feat is in the inteftinum
COlThe inteftines are likewife frequently diftended with
air, and this diftenfion fometimes occafions pain, and
conftitutes the flatulent colic.
The arteries of the inteftines are continuations of the
mefenteric arteries which are derived in two confider-
able branches from the aorta.—The redundant blood
is carried back into the vena portarum.
In the redum the veins are called hcemorrhoidal, and
are there diftinguifhed into internal and external . the
firft are branches of the inferior mefenteric vein, but
the latter pafs into other veins. Sometimes thefe veins
are diftended with blood from obftru£tions, from weak-
nefs of their coats, or from other caufes, and what we
call the haemorrhoids takes place. In this difeafe they
are fometimes ruptured \ and the difeharge of blood
which confequently follows has probably oceahoned
them to be called hcemorrhoidal veins.
The nerves of the inteftines are derived from the
eighth pair.
Sect. VI. Of the Mefentery.
The name of the mefentery implies its fituation
amidft the inteftines. It is in fa£t a part of the peri-
tongeum, being a reduplication (a) of that membrane
from each fide of the lumbar vertebree, to which it is
firmly attached, fo that it is formed of two laminse con-
ne&ed to each other by cellular membrane..
The inteftines, in their different circumvolutions,
form a great number of arches, and the mefentery ac¬
companies them through all thefe turns $ but by
ciwvSicnvCi
94
m This is not invariably the cafe ; for the contents of a cl,iter have been found not only to reach the fmail
inteftines, but to be voided at the mouth Such Brunet and Peyer were the
(Z) Some writers have diftinguiihed thefe giands^into ^h'^faipfenT^re chiefly taken from animals,
firft anatomifts who defenbed the g a bi’therto fatisfaaorily pointed out in the human fubjeft.
pof-Hn the thorax ^at the other does m abdo^ L'l^naid'd
indebted to modern anatomifts, conftitutes a cunous^pa^ ^ it us £ fay on the occafl?rif ^ould
by experience, and aflifte on y y matter . ana it will perfe&ly anfwer the prefent purpofe, if he con.-
liders die 'mefentery ^^membrane attached by one of its fides to the lumbar vertebne, and by the other to the
inteftines.
ANATOMY.
Chap. III.
Of the attache! only to the hollow part of each arch, it is found
Abdomen, to have only a third of the extent of the inteftines.
w—y—— Xhat part of the membrane which accompanies the
fmall inteitines is the mefentery, properly io called ; but
thofe parts of it which are attached to the colon and
return are diftinguilhed by the names of ?nefo-co/onar\&
tnefo-recium.
There are many conglobate glands difperfed through
this double membrane, through which the la&eals and
lymphatics pafs in their way to the thoracic dudt. The
blood-veffels of the mefentery were deferibed in fpeak-
ing of the inteftines.
This membrane, by its attachment to the vertebrae,
ferves to keep the inteftines in their natural fituation.
The idea ufually formed of the colic called miferere, is
perfeftly erroneous } it being impoflible that the in¬
teftines can be twifted 5 as many fuppofe they are, in
that difeafe, their attachment to the mefentery effec¬
tually preventing fuch an accident—but a difarrange-
ment fometimes takes place in the inteftinal canal itfelf,
which is produ&ive of difagreeable and fometimes fatal
confequences. This is by an introfufeeption of the in-
teftine, an idea of rvhich may be eafily formed, by ta¬
king the finger of a glove, and involving one part of it
within the other.
If inflammation takes place, the ftr'nfture in this cafe
is increafed, and the periftaltic motion of the inteftines
(by which is meant the progreflive motion of the fajees
downwards) is inverted, and what is called the iliac paf-
Jion takes place. The fame effects may be occafioned
by a defeent of the inteftine, or of the omentum either
with it or by itfelf, and thus conftituting what is called a
hernia or rupture ; a term by which in general is meant
the falling down or protrufion of any part of the intef¬
tine or omentum, which ought naturally to be contain¬
ed within the cavity of the belly.
To convey an idea of the manner in which fuch a
defeent takes place, it will be neceffary to obferve, that
the lower edge of the tendon of the mufculus obliquus
externus, is ftretched from the fore part of the os ilium
or haunch bone to the os pubis, and conftitutes what is
called PouparPs or Fallopius'1 s ligament, forming an
opening, through which pafs the great crural artery
and vein. Near the os pqbis the fame tendinous fibres
are feparated from each other, and form an opening on
each fide, called the abdominal ring, through which the
fpermatic veffels pafs in men, and the ligamenta uteri
in women. In confequence of violent efforts, or per¬
haps of natural caufes, the inteftines are found fome¬
times to pafs through thefe openings ; but the perito¬
naeum which inclofes them, when in their natural cavity,
ftill continues to furround them even in their defeent.
This membrane does not become torn or lacerated by
the violence, as might be eafily imagined ; but its dila-
tability enables it to pafs out with the vifeus, which it
enclofes as it were in a bag, and thus forms what is
called the hernialfac.
If the hernia be under Poupart’s ligament, it is cali-
femoral; if in the groin inguinal (b) j and fcrotal,
if in the ferotum. Different names are likewife given to
the hernia as the contents of the fac differ, whether of
omentum only, or inteftine, or both j—but thefe defini¬
tions more properly belong to the province of furgery.
Sect. VII. Of the Pancreas.
The pancreas is a conglomerate gland, placed be¬
hind the bottom of the ftomach, towards the firft ver¬
tebra of the loins 5 fhaped like a dog^s tongue, with it3
point ftretched out towards the fpleen, and its other end
extending towards the duodenum. It is about eight
fingers breadth in length, two or three in width, and
one in thicknefs.
This vifeus, which is of a yellowifli colour, fotne-
what inclining to red, is covered with a membrane which
it derives from the peritonaeum. Its arteries, which
are rather numerous than large, are derived chiefly
from the fplenic and hepatic, and its veins pafs into the
veins of the fame name.*—Its nerves are derived from
the intercoftal.
The many little glands of which it has been obferved
the pancreas is compofed, all ferve to fecrete a liquor
called the panci'eatic juice, which in its colour, conflu¬
ence, and other properties, does not feem to differ from
the faliva. Each of thefe glands fends out a little ex¬
cretory duft, which, uniting with others, help to form
larger du£ts ; and all thefe at laft terminate in one
common excretory du£l (firft difeovered by Virtfungus
in 1642), which runs through the middle of the gland,
and is now ufually called duElus pancreaticus Virtfungi.
This canal opens into the inteftinum duodenum, fome¬
times by the fame orifice with the biliary duff, and fome¬
times by a diftindt opening. The liquor it difeharges
being of a mild and infipid nature, ferves to dilute the
alimentary pulp, and to incorporate it more eafily with
the bile.
Sgcr. VIII. Of the Liver.
The liver is a vifeus of confiderable iiz€, and of a
reddilh colour •, convex fuperiorly and anteriorly where
it is placed under the ribs and diaphragm, and of an
unequal force pofteriorly. It is chiefly fituated in
the right hypoehondrium, and under the falfe ribs 5
but it likewife extends into the epigaftric region, where
it borders upon the ftomach. It is covered by a pro¬
duction of the peritonaeum, which fervea to attach it
by three of its reduplications to the falfe ribs. Thefe
reduplications are called ligaments, though very differ¬
ent in their texture from what are called by the fame
name in other parts of the body. The umbilical cord,
too, which in the feetus is pervious, gradually becomes
a Ample ligament after birth $ and by palling to the
liver, ferves likewife to fecure it in its fituation.
At the pofterior part of this organ, where the un?^
bilical veffels enter, ft is found ’ divided into two
lobes. Of thefe, the large ft is placed in the right hy-
poehondrium -T the other, which covers- part of the fto¬
mach, is called-the little lobei All the veffels which
go to the liver pafs in at the fiffure we have mention¬
ed ; and the produdtion of the peritonaeum, which iil-
vefts the liver, was deferibed by Gliffon, an Englilh
anatomift, as accompanying them in their paffage, and
furrounding
237
Of tlie
Abdomera,
95
Q*
^ ^ern*a congenita will be confidered with the male
connected.
organs of generation, with which it is intimately
23S
Of thb
Abdomen.
ANATOM Y.
Part I.
97
furrounding them like a glove j hence this produPnon
has been commonly known by the name ol capful a of
Glijfon : but it appears to be chiefly a continuation of
the cellular membrane which covers the vena porUe
ventralis.
The liver was confldered by the ancients as an organ
deftined to prepare and perfeft the blood 5 but later
difcoveries have proved, that this opinion was wrong,
and that the liver is a glandular fubftance formed for
the fecretion of the bile.
The blood is conveyed to the liver by the hepatic
artery and the vena portae. This is contrary to the
mode of circulation in other parts, where veins only
ferve to carry off the redundant blood : but in this vif-
cus the hepatic artery, which is derived from the coe-
liac, is principally deftined for its nourifhment •, and the
vena portrn, which is formed by the union of the veins
from moft of the abdominal vifcera, furnifties the blood
from which the bile is chiefly to be feparated : fo that
thefe two feries of veffels ferve very diftinft purpofes.
The vena portae, as it is ramified through the liver,
performs the office both of a vein and an artery •, for
like the former it returns the blood from the extremi¬
ties of arteries, while as the latter it prepares it for fe¬
cretion. . r
The nerves of the liver are branches of the inteico-
tal and par vagum. The bile, after being feparated
from the raafs of blood, in a manner of which mention
will be made in another place, is conveyed out of this
organ by very minute excretory du£fo, called port bi-
liarii; thefe uniting together like the excretory dufts
in the pancreas, gradually form larger ones, which at
ftength terminate in a confiderable channel called ductus
hepaticus.
Sect. IX. Of the Gall-Bladder.
THE gall-bladder is a little membranous bag, fliaped
like a pear, and attached to the pofterior and almoft in¬
ferior part of the great lobe of the liver.
It has two tunics-, of which the exterior one is a
production of the peritonaeum. The interior, or villous
coat is fupplied with a mucus that defends it froin the
acrimony of the bile. Thefe two coverings are inti¬
mately conneaed by means of cellular membrane, which
from its firm giiftening appearance has generally been
fpoken of as a mufcular tunic.
The gall-bladder is fupplied with blood-veflels from
the hepatic arteries. Thefe branches are called the
cyjlic arteries, and the cyftic veins carry back the
blood. . . . r
Its nerves are derived from the fame origin as thole
of the liver. . . . ,
The neck of the gall-bladder is continued in the
form of a canal called duBus cyficus, which foon unites
with the duftus hepaticus we defcribed as the excre¬
tory dua of the liver ; and forming one common ca¬
nal takes the name of duElus choledochus communis,
through which both the cyftic and hepatic bile are dif-
charged into the duodenum. This canal opens into the Of the
inteftine in an oblique dire&ion, firft paffing through Abdomen,
the exterior tunic, and then piercing the other coats '
after running between each of them a very little way.
This economy ferves two ufeful purpofes ;—to promote
the difeharge of bile, and to prevent its return. 9S
The bile may be defined to be a natural liquid foap, Of the bile,
fomewhat unftuous and bitter, and of a yellowith co¬
lour, which eafily mixes with water, oil, and vinous
fpirits, and is capable of diftolving refinous fubftance?.
From fome late experiments made by M. Cadet *, it * Mem.it
appears to be formed of an animal oil, combined with FAiad. its
the alkaline bafe of fea fait, a fait of the nature of Sciences,
milk, and a calcareous earth which is {lightly ferrugi- 1767-
nous.
Its definition feems fufficiently to point out the ufes
for which it is intended (c). It blends the alimentary
mafs, by dividing and attenuating it corrects the too
great difpofition to acefcency, which the aliment ac¬
quires in the ftomach 5 and, finally, by its acrimony,
tends to excite the periftaltic motion of the intef-
tines.
After what has been faid, it will be conceived that
there are two forts of bile j one of which is derived
immediately from the liver through the hepatic duft,
and the other from the gall-bladder. Thefe two biles,
however, do not effentially differ from each other.
The hepatic bile indeed is milder, and more liquid than
the cyftic, which is conftantly thicker and yellower;
and by being bitterer, feems to poffefs greater a&ivity
than the other.
Every body knows the fource of the hepatic bile,
that it is fecreted from the mafs of blood by the liver ;
but the origin of the cyftic bile has occafioned no little
controverfy amongft anatomical writers. There are
fome who contend, that it is feparated in the fubftance
of the liver, from whence it paffes into the gall-bladdei
through particular veffels. In deer, and in fome other
quadrupeds, as well as in feveral birds and fifties, there
is an evident communication, by means of particular
veffels, between the liver and the gall-bladder. Bian-
chi, Winftow, and others, have afferted the exiftence
of fuch veffels in the human fubjeft, and named them
hepaticiflic duBs; but it is certain that no fuch duds
exift.—In obftrudtions of the cyftic dud, the gall¬
bladder has been found ftirivelled and empty : fo that
we may confider the gall-bladder as a refervoir of he¬
patic bile ; and that it is an eftabliflied fad, that the
whole of the bile contained in the gall-bladder is de¬
rived from the liver; that it paffes from the hepatic or
the cyftic duct, and from that to the gall-bladder.
The difference in the colour, confiftence, and tafte of
the bile, is merely the confequence of ftagnation and
abforption. When the ftomach is diftended with ali¬
ment, this refervoir undergoes a certain degree of com-
preffion, and the bile paffes out into the inteftinal ca¬
nal -, and in the efforts to vomit, the gall-bladder feems
to be conftantly affeded, and at fuch times difeharges
itfelf of its contents.
Sometimes
(c) The ancients, who were not acquainted with the real ufe of the liver, confidered the bile as an excremen-
tltious and ufelefs fluid.
Chap. III. ANA
Of the Sometimes the bile concretes in the gall-bladder, fo
Abdomen, as to form what are called gallJlones (d). When thcfe
concretions pafs into the cyflic dud, they fometimes oc-
cafion exquilite pain, by diftending the canal in their
way to the duodenum •, and by lodging in the duclus
choledochus communis, and obftruding the courle of
the bile, this fluid will be abforbed, and by being car¬
ried back into the circulation occalion a temporary jaun¬
dice.
Sect. X. Of the Spleen.
The Ipleen is a foft and fpongy vifcus, of a bluifh co¬
lour, and about five or fix fingers breadth in length, and
three in width, fituated in the left hypochondrium, be¬
tween the flomach and the falfe ribs. That fide of it
which is placed on the fide of the ribs is convex j and
the other, which is turned towards the ftomach, is con¬
cave.
The fplenic artery, which is a branch from the ce¬
liac, fupplies this vifcus with blood, and a vein of the
fame name carries it back into the vena portae.
Its nerves are derived from a particular plexus called
t\\zfptenic, which is formed by branches of the interco-
ftal nerve, and by the eighth pair, or par vagum.
The ancients, who fuppofed two forts of bile, confi-
dered the fpleen as the receptacle of what they called
atra bills. Havers, who wrote profefledly on the bones,
determined its ufe to be that of fecreting the fynovia ;
and the late Mr Hewfon imagined, that it concurred
with the thymus and lymphatic glands of the body in
forming the red globules of the blood. All thefe opi¬
nions feem to be equally fanciful. The want of an ex¬
cretory du£l has occafioned the real ufe of this vifcus to
be ftill doubtful. Perhaps the blood undergoes fome
change in it, which may aflifl in the preparation of the
bile. This is the opinion of the generality of modern
phyfiologifls ; and the great quantity of blood with
which it is fupplied, together with the courfe of its
veins into the vena portae, feem to render this notion
probable.
Sect. XI. Of the Glandule Renales, Kidneyst and
Ureters.
i6o The glandulae renales, which were by the ancients
fuppofed to fecrete the atra bilis, and by them named
capfulce atrabiliarcSy are two flat bodies of an irregular
figure, one on each fide between the kidney and the
aorta.
In the foetus they are as large as the kidneys: but
they do not increafe afterwards in proportion to thofe
parts j and in adults and old people they are generally
found flmvelled, and much wafted. They have their
arteries and veins. Their arteries ufually arife from
the fplenic or the emulgent, and fometimes from the
T O M Y.
239
aorta $ and their veins go to the neighbouring veins, or of the
to the vena cava. Their nerves are branches of the in- Abdomen,
tercoftal. u—
The ufe of thefe parts is not yet perfeftly known.
In the foetus the fecretion of urine muft be in a very
fmall quantity, and a part of the blood may perhaps then
pafs through thefe channels, which in the adult is car¬
ried to the kidneys to fupply the matter of urine. 101
The kidneys are two in number, fituated one on theK-idnejSi
right and the other on the left fide in the lumbar re¬
gion, between the laft falfe rib and the os ilium, by
the fides of the vertebrae. Each kidney in its figure
refembles a fort of bean, which from its thape is called
kidney bean. The concave part of each kidney is
turned towards the aorta and vena cava afeendens.
They are furroundtd by a good deal of fat, and re¬
ceive a coat from the peritonaeum ; and when this is
removed, a very fine membrane is found invefting
their lubftance and the vefiels which ramify through
them.
Each kidney has a confiderable artery and vein, which
are called the emulgent. The artery is a branch from
the aorta, and the vein paffes into the vena cava. Their
nerves, which every where accompany the blood veflels,
arife from a confiderable plexus, which is derived from
the intercoftal.
In each kidney, which in the adult is of a pretty
firm texture, there are three fubftances to be diftinguifti-
ed (e). The outer part is glandular or cortical, be¬
yond this is the vafcular or tubular fubftance, and the
inner part is papillary or membranous.
It is in the cortical part of the kidney that the fecre¬
tion is carried on; the urine being there received from
the minute extremities of the capillary arteries, is con¬
veyed out of this cortical fubftance by an infinite num¬
ber of very fmall cylindrical canals or excretory veffels,
which conftitute the tubular part. Thefe tubes, as they
approach the inner fubftance of the kidney, gradually
unite together; and thus forming larger canals, at
length terminate in ten or twelve little protuberances
called papillce, the orifices of which may be feen with¬
out the afliftance of glafles. Thefe papilla; open into a
fmall cavity or refervoir called the pelvis of the kidneyt
and formed by a diftindf membranous bag which em¬
braces the papilla;. From this pelvis the urine is con¬
veyed through a membranous canal which pafles out
from the hollow fide of the kidney, a little below the
blood-veflels, and is called ureter. IeJ,
Hie ureters are each about as large as a common Ureters,
writing pen. They are fbmewhat curved in their
courie from the kidneys, like the lottery; and at length
terminate in the pofterior and almoft inferior part of
the bladder, at fome diftance from each other. They
pafs into the bladder in the fame manner as the du&us
choledochus communis paffes into the inteftinum duo¬
denum, not by a direft paffage, but by an oblique
courfe
Pf "Cr„etlons Sometimes remain in the gall-bladder without caufing any uneafinefs. Dr Heberden
lates, that a gall-ftone, weighing two drachms, was found in the gall-bladder of Lord Bath, though he had
vol ii C°mp amed °f the Jaundlce> of any diforder which he could attribute to that caufe. Med. Tranf
and^regular kldneyS in the foetUS are diftInaiy lobulated j but in the adult they become perfeflly firm, fmootb,
103
34° A N A T
OF the courfe between the two coats } fo that the difcharge of
Abdomen, urine into the bladder is promoted, whilft its return is
prevented. Nor does this mode of ftrudture prevent
the paffage of fluids only from the bladder into the
ureters, but likewife air :—for air thrown into the blad¬
der inflates it, and it continues to be diftended if a liga¬
ture is paffed round its neck ; which fee ms to prove fuf-
ficiently that it cannot pafs into the ureters.
Sect. XII. Of the Urinary Bladder.
The urinary bladder is a membranous and mufcular
bag of an oblong roundilh ftiape, fltuated in the pelvis,
between the os pubis and inteftinum reftum in men, and
between the os pubis and uterus in women. Its upper
and widetl part is ufually called the bottom^ its narrower
part the neck of the bladder } the former is only cover¬
ed by the peritonaeum.
The bladder is formed of three coats, connefted to¬
gether by means of cellular membrane. Ihe external
or peritonoeal, is only a partial one, covering the up¬
per and back part of the bladder. T he middle, or
mufcular coat, is compofed of irritable, and of courfe
mufcular fibres, which are moft colleaed around the
neck of the bladder, but not fo as to form a diftina
mufcle or fphinaer, as the generality of anatomifts
have hitherto fuppofed.
The inner coat, though much fmoother, has been
faid to referable the villous tunic of the inteftines, and
like that is provided with a mucus, which defends it
againft the acrimony of the urine.
It will eafily be conceived, from what has been faid,
that the kidneys are two glandular ^ bodies, through
which a faline and excrementitious fluid called urine is
conftantly filtering from the mafs of blood.
While only a fmall quantity of urine is colleaed in
the bladder, it excites no kind of uneafinefs : but when
a greater quantity is accumulated, fo that the bladder
is diftended in a certain degree, it excites in us a cer¬
tain fenfation, which brings on as it were a voluntary
contraaion of the bladder to promote its difcharge.—
But this contraaion is not efteaed by the mufcular
fibres of the bladder alone i for all the abdominal mul-
cles contraa in obedience to our will, and ptefs down¬
wards all the vifcera of the lower belly •, and thefe
powers being united, at length overcome the refiftance
of the fibres furrounding the neck of the bladder,
which dilates and affords a paffage to the urine through
the urethra.
The frequency of this evacuation depends on the
quantity of urine fecreted ; on the degree of acrimony
it poffeffes ; on the fize of the bladder, and on its de¬
gree of fenfibility.
The urine varies much in its colour and contents.
Thefe varieties depend on age, fex, climate, diet, and
other circumftances. In infants it is generally a clear
watery fluid, without fmell or tafte. As we advance in
life, it acquires more colour and fmell, and becomes
more impregnated with falls. In old people it be¬
comes ftill more acrid and fetid.
In a healthy ftate it is nearly of a ftraw colour.—
After being kept for fome time, it depoiils a.tartar-
ous matter,°which is found to be compofed chiefly of
earth and fait, and foon incrufts the fides of the jveffel
in which it is contained. While this feparation is
i
■104
Of the
urine.
O M Y. _ Part I.
taking place, appearances like minute fibres or threads of the
of a whitifti colour, may be feen in the middle of the
urine, and an oily fcum obferved floating on its furface. V
So that the moft common appearances of the urine
are fufficient to afcertain that it is a watery fub-
ftance, impregnated with earthy, faline, and oily par-
The urine is not always voided of the fame colour
and confiftence *, for thefe are found to depend on the
proportion of its watery part to that of its other confti-
tuent principles.—Its colour and degree of fluidity
feem to depend on the quantity of faline and inflam¬
mable particles contained in it : fo that an increafed
proportion of thofe parts will conftantly. give the
urine a higher colour, and add to the quantity of fedi-
ment. .
The variety in the appearances of the urine depends
on the nature and quantity of folid and fluid aliment we
take in \ and it is likewife occafioned by the different
ftate of the urinary veffels, by which we mean the chan¬
nels through which it is feparated from the blood, and
conveyed through the pelvis into the ureters, I he cau-
fes of calculous concretion in the urinary paffages, are
to be looked for in the natural conftitution of the body,
mode of life, &c.
It having been obferved, that after drinking any
light wine or Spa water, it very foon paffed off by
urine, it has been fuppofed by fome, that the urine is
not altogether conveyed to the bladder by the.ordinary
courfe of circulation, but that there muft certainly exift
fome other ftiorter means of communication, perhaps
by certain veffels between the ftomach and the bladder,
or by a retrograde motion in the lymphatics. But it is
certain, that if we open the belly of a dog, prefs out
the urine from the bladder, pafs a ligatiue lound the
emulgent arteries, and then few up the abdomen, and
give him even the moft diuretic liquor to drink, the
ftomach and other channels, will be diftended with .it,
but not a drop of urine will be found to have paffed in¬
to the bladder •, or the fame thing happens when a li¬
gature is thrown round the two ureters. This experi¬
ment then feems to be a fufficient proof, that all the
urine we evacuate is conveyed to the kidneys through
the emulgent arteries, in the manner we have defcri-
bed. It is true, that wine and other liquors promote a
fpeedy evacuation of urine: but the difcharge feems
to be merely the effe& of the ftimulus they occafion ;
by which the bladder and urinary parts are. folicited to
a more copious difcharge of the urine, which was be¬
fore in the body, and not immediately of that which
was laft drank ; and this increafed difcharge, if the
fupply is kept up, will continue : nor will this appear
wonderful, if we confider the great capacity of the
veffels that go to the kidneys; the conftant fupply of
frefh blood that is effential to health ; and the rapidity
with which it is inceffantly circulated through the heart
to all parts of the body.
Sect. XIII. Of Digejlion.
We are now proceeding to fpeak of digejlion^ which
feems to be introduced in this place with propriety,
after a defcription of the abdominal vifcera, the greater
part of which contribute to this function. By dige¬
jlion is to be underftood, the changes the aliment un¬
dergoes
IOj
Chap.
Of the
AW omen.
III. ANA
dergoes for the formation of chyle;—thefe changes
are effected in the mouth, ftomach, and fmall in-
1 teftines.
The mouth, of which every body has a general
knowledge, is the cavity between the two jaws, formed
anteriorly and laterally by the lips, teeth, and cheeks,
and terminating pofteriorly in the throat.
The lips and cheeks are made up of fat and mufcles,
covered by the cuticle, which is continued over the
whole inner furface of the mouth, like a fine and deli¬
cate membrane.—Befides this membrane, the infide of
the mouth is furnifhed with a fpongy and very vafcu-
lar fubftance called the gums, by means of which the
teeth are fecured in their fockets. A fimilar fubflance
covers the roof of the mouth, and forms what is called
the 'velum pendulum palati, which is fixed to the ex¬
tremity of the arch formed by the ofla maxillaria and
offa palati, and terminates in a foft, fmall, and coni¬
cal body, named uvula; which appears, as it were,
fufpended from the middle of the arch over the bafis of
the tongue.
The velum pendulum palati performs the office of a
valve between the cavity of the mouth and the pha¬
rynx, being moved by feveral mufcles (f).
The tongue is compofed of feveral mufcles (g) which
enable it to perform a variety of motions for the arti¬
culation of the voice ; for the purpofes of maftication j
and for conveying the aliment into the pharynx. Its
upper part is covered with papillae, which conftitute
the organ of tafte, and are eafily to be diftinguiffied j
it is covered by the fame membrane that lines the in¬
fide of the mouth, and which makes at its inferior
part towards its bafis a reduplication called fra’num.
Pofteriorly, under the velum palati, and at the bafis
of the tongue, is the pharynx; which is the beginning
of the cefophagus, ftretched out every way, fo as to re-
femble the top of a funnel, through which the aliment
paffes into the ftomach.
The mouth has a communication with the noftrils at
its pofterior and upper part; with the ears, by the Eu-
ftachian tubes; with the lungs, by means of the la¬
rynx ; and with the ftomach, by means of the cefo-
phagus.
The pharynx is conftantly moiftened by a fluid, fe-
creted by two confiderable glands called the tonjtls,
one on each fide of the velum palati. Thefe glands,
Irom their fuppofed refemblance to almonds, have like-
wife been called amygdalus.
The mouth is moiftened by a confiderable quantity
of faliva. This fluid is derived from the parotid glands;
a name which by its etymology points out their fitua-
tion to be near the ears. They are two in number, one
on each fide under the os malae; and they are of the con¬
glomerate kind ; being formed of many fmaller glands,
each of which fends out a very fmall excretory duft,
which unites with the reft, to form one common chan¬
nel, that runs over the cheek, and piercing the bucci¬
nator mufcle, opens into the mouth on each fide, by
an orifice into which a brittle may be eafily introduced.
Vol. II. Part I.
T 0 M Y.
241
Of the
Abdomen.
to6
—Befides thefe, the maxillary glands, which are placed
near the inner furface of the angle of the lower jaw on
each fide ; the fublingual glands, which are fituated
at the root of the tongue; the glands of the pa¬
late, which are feated in the velum palati; and thole
of the cheeks, lips, &c. together with many other lefs
confiderable ones,—pour the faliva into the mouth
through their feveral excretory dufts.
The faliva, like all the other humours of the body,
is found to be different in different people ; but in ge¬
neral, it is a limpid and infipid fluid, without fmell in
healthy fubjefts; and thefe properties would feem to
prove, that it contains very few faline or inflammable
particles.
The ufes of the faliva feem to be to moiften and
lubricate the mouth, and to affift in reducing the ali¬
ment into a foft pulp before it is conveyed into the fto¬
mach.
The variety of funftions which are conftantly per-Of hunger
formed by the living body, muft neceffarily occafion a and third,
continual wafte and diffipation of its feveral parts. A
great quantity is every day thrown off by the infen-
fible perfpiration and other difcharges; and were not
thefe Ioffes conftantly recruited by a freih fupply of
chyle, the body would foon effeft its own diffolution.
But nature has very wifely favoured us with organs fit¬
ted to produce fuch a fupply; and has at the fame time
endued us with the fenfations of hunger and thirft, that
our attention may not be diverted from the neceffary
bufinefs of nutrition. The fenfation of hunger is uni-
verfally known ; but it would perhaps be difficult to
defcribe it perfectly in words. It may, however, be
defined to be a certain uneafy fenfation in the ftcmacb,
which induces us to with for folid food ; and which
likewife ferves to point out the proper quantity, and
time for taking it. In defcribing the ftomach, men¬
tion was made of the gaftric juice, as everywhere lu¬
bricating its inner coat. This humour mixes itfelf
with the aliment in the ftomach, and helps to prepare
it for its paffage into the inteftines; but when the fto¬
mach is perfectly empty, this fame fluid irritates the
coats of the ftomach itfelf, and produces the fenfation
of hunger.
A certain proportion of liquid aliment is required
to affift; in the prqcefs of digeftion, and to afford that
moifture to the body, of which there is fuch a conftant
diffipation. Thirft induces us to take this neceffary
fupply of drink ; and the feat of this fenfation is in the
tongue, fauces, and cefophagus, which from their
great fenfibility are required to be kept moift : for
though the fauces are naturally moiftened by the mu¬
cus and falival juices; yet the blood, when deprived of
its watery part, or rendered acrimonious by any natural
caufes, never fails particularly to affeft thefe parts, and
the whole alimentary canal, and to occafion thirft.—.
This is the common effect of fevers and of hard labour,
by both which too much of the watery part of the blood
is diffipated.
It has been obferved, that the aliment undergoes
H h fome
(f) Thefe are the circumflexus palati, levator palati mollis, nalato-pharyngaeus, conftriftor ifthmi faucium.
and azygos uvulse. 1 r ^ 6 > 5
XG) Thefe are, the genio-gloffus, hyo-gloffus, lingualis, and ftylo-gloffus.
242
ANA
Of the feme preparation in the mouth before it pafifes into the
Abdomen, ftomach , and this preparation is the effect of mailica-
* v f tion. In treating of the upper and lower jaws, men-
I07 tion was made of the number and arrangement of the
tiotTandde-teeth. The upper jaw was deferibed as being immove-
glutition. able j but the lower jaw was fpoken of as being ca¬
pable of elevation and depreffion, and of a grinding
motion. The aliment, when firft carried into, the
mouth, is preffed between the teeth of the two jaws,
by a very ftrong and frequent motion of the lower jaw j
and the tongue and the cheeks affifting in this procefs,
continue to replace the food between the teeth till it
is perfe&ly divided, and reduced, to the confidence of
pulp. The incifores and canini divide it firft into
I’m after pieces, but it is between the furfaces of the
dentes molares by the grinding motion of the jaw that
the maftication is completed. /
During this procefs, the falival glands being gently
compreffed by the contradion of the mufcles that
move the lower jaw, pour out their faliva : this helps to
divide and break down the food, which at length be¬
comes a kind of pulp, and is then carried over the bafis
of the tongue into the fauces. But to effed this pa -
fage into the cefophagus, it is neceffary that the other
openings which were mentioned, as having a comma-
TOM Y. Part l.
pha^us, which continue to contrad from above down- of the
wards, until the aliment has reached the ftomach. That Abdomen ^
thefe fibres have no inconfiderable (hare in deglutition,
any perfon may experience, by fwallowing with his
head downwards, when the delcent of the aliment can¬
not poftibly be effeded by its weight.
It is neceffary that the noftrils and the lungs fhould
communicate with the mouth, for the purpofes of fpeech
and refpiration j but if the moft minute part of our
food happens to be introduced into the trachea, it ne¬
ver fails to produce a violent cough, and fometimes the
moft. alarming fymptoms. Tnis is liable to happen
when we laugh or fpeak in the ad of deglutition j
the food is then faid to have paffed the wrong way.
And indeed this is not improperly expreffed.: for
death would foon follow, if the quantity of aliment
introduced into the trachea fhould be fufheient to ob-
ftrud the refpiration only during a very fhort time ; or
if the irritating particles of food fhould not foon be
thrown up again by means of the cough, which in thefe
cafes very feafonably increafes in proportion to the de¬
gree of irritation.
If the velum palati did not clofe the paffage to the
noftrils, deglutition would be performed with difficulty,
and perhaps not at aft; for the aliment would, return
openings which through the nc^e, as is fometimes the cafe in drinking,
mcation with the mouth a “‘he pharynx, 4nu g deficiency in this velum palati, have
be clofed ; that none of the aliment, whether fohd or
liquid, may pafs into them, whilft the pharynx alone
is dilated, to receive it :—And fuch.a difpofition aC‘_u"
ally takes place in a manner we will endeavour to de-
feribe. . i t* 1
The trachea arteria, or windpipe, through which
the air is conveyed to the lungs, is placed befoie the
cefophagus : in the ad of fwallowing, therefore, it
the lanjnx (for fo the upper part of the trachea is. call¬
ed) is not clofed, the aliment will pafs into it m its
way to the cefophagus. But this is prevented by a
fmall and very elaftic cartilage, called epiglottis, which
is attached only to the fore part of the larynx fo that
the food in its paffage to the oefophagus preffes down
this cartilage, which then covers the glottis or opening
of the larynx; and at the fame time the velum palati
being capable of fome degree of motion, is. drawn
backwards by its mufcles, and clofes the openings in¬
to the nofe and the Euftachian tubes.—This, however,
is not aft. The larynx, which being compofed ol car¬
tilaginous rings cannot fail in its ordinary ftate to
comprefs the membranous canal of the oefophagus, is
in the aft of deglutition carried forwards and upwards
by mufcles deftined for that purpofe •, and confequent-
ly drawing the fore part of the pharynx with it, that
opening is fully dilated. When the aliment has reach¬
ed the pharynx, its defeent is promoted by its own
proper weight, and by the mufeular fibres of the oeio-
Children, from a deficiency in this velum palati, have
been feen to die a few hours after birth ^ and they who
from difeafe or any other caufes have not this part per-
feft, fwallow with difficulty. _ .
The aliment, after having been fufficiently divided
by the aaiun of the teeth, and attenuated by the fall-
va, is received into the ftomach, where it is deftine^
to undergo a more confiderable change..
The properties of the aliment not being much alter¬
ed at its firft entrance into the ftomach., and before it is
thoroughly blended with the gaftric juice, it is capable
of irritating the inner coat of the ftomach to a. certain
deoree, and occafions a contraction of its two orifices. -
In^this membranous bag, furrounded by the abdominal
vifeera, and with a certain degree of natural heat, the
aliment undergoes a conftant agitation by means of the
abdominal mufcles and of the diaphragm, and likewife
by a certain contradion or expanfion of the mufcular
fibres of the ftomach itfelf. By this motion, every part
of the food is expofed to the a£tion of the gaftric juice,
which gradually divides and attenuates it, and prepares
it for its paffage into the inteftines.
Some obfervations lately publifhe^ by Mr Hunter,
in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, tend to. throw con¬
fiderable light on the principles of digeftion.. There
are few dead bodies in which the ftomach, at its great
end, is not found to be in fome degree digefted.(tl).
Animals, or parts of animals, poffeffed of the hying
principle,
fHl The Abbe Spallanzani, who has written upon digeflion found, from a variety of £P<«‘S
\ 7 ii snrl fifties that diseftion goes on for feme time after death, though far lets con-
z antoalsT butta’t is neXy in I,any animals, or at leaft promotes it in a much great-
1 ^ pp ' He found alfo that when the ftomach was cut out of the body, it had fomewhat of the power o
^ d^ene- ^iThb was trifling when compared with that which took place when the ftomach was left in the
ffigeftion, o ^ the animalf was the great curvature of the ftomach diffolved, or much eroded after death.
Vi!7' was often a little erofion, efpecially in different fifties; in which, when he had cleared the ftomach.of
Js counts,UteinuS coat was iLtini! lu other animals there was only a flight excorratton : and them-
Chap. III.
Of the principle, \vlien taken into the ftomach, are not in the
Abdomen. ]eaft affedted by the adtion of that vifcus j but the mo-
tnent they lofe the living principle, they become fub-
jedt to its digeftive powers. This feems to be the cafe
with the ftomach, which is enabled to relift the adtion
of its juices in the living body : but when deprived of
the living principle, it is then no longer able to refill the
powers of that menftruum, which it had itfelf formed
for the digeftion of its contents; the procefs of dige-
ftion appearing to be continued after death. This is
Confirmed by what happens in the ftomachs of fifties :
They frequently fwallow, without maftication, filh
which are larger than the digefting parts of their fto-
■ mach can contain ; and in fuch cafes, that part which
is taken into the ftomach, is more or lefs dilfolved, while
that part which remains in the oefophagus is perfedlly
found ; and here, as w'ell as in the human body, the
digefting part of the ftomach is often reduced to the
fame ftate as the digefted part of the food. Thefe ap¬
pearances tend to prove, that digeftion is not effedled
by a mechanical power, by contradlions of the fto¬
mach, or by heat j but by a fluid fecreted in the coats
of the ftomach, which is poured into its cavity, and
there animalizes the food, or affimilates it to the nature
of blood.
* Hij1.de From fome late experiments by M. Sage*, it ap-
tAendemie pears, that inflammable air has the property of deftroy-
^Jen6 deS atl^ dillblving the animal texture : And as we fwal-
ifc-pour ^ow the fubftances which ferve us for food a great
1784. quantity of atmofpherical air, M. Sage thinks it pof-
IS- fible, that dephlogifticated, which is its principle, may
be converted in the ftomach into inflammable air, or
may modify into inflammable air a portion of the oily
fubftance which is the principle of aliments. In
this cafe, would not the inflammable air (he alks),
by diffolving our food, facilitate its converfion into
chyle ?
Be this as it may, the food, after having remained one,
two, or three hours in the ftomach, is converted into a
grayifh pulp, which is ufually called chjmus, a word of
Greek etymology, fignifyingyWce, and fome few milky
or chylous particles begin to appear.—But the term of
its refidence in this bag is proportioned to the nature of
the aliment, and to the ftate of the ftomach and its
juices. The thinner and more perfedlly digefted parts
of the food pafs by a little at a time into the duodenum,
through the pylorus, the fibres of which relax to af¬
ford it a paflage j and the groffer and lefs digefted par¬
ticles remain in the ftomach, till they acquire a fuffi-
cient fluidity to pafs into the inteftines, where the na¬
ture of the chymus is perfedlly changed. The bile and
pancreatic juice which flow into the duodenum, and the .
mucus, which is everywhere diftilled from the furface
of the inteftines, mix themfelves with the alimentary
pulp, which they ftill farther attenuate and diflblve, and
into which they feem to infufe new properties.
Two matters very different from each other in their
nature and deftination, are the refult of this combina-
243
tion.—One of thefe, which is compofed of the liquid Of the
parts of the aliment, and of fome of its more folid par- Abdomen,
tides, extremely divided and mixed with the juices we v"-—'
have defcribed, conftitutes a very mild, fweet, and
wbitifh fluid refembling milk, and diftinguifhed by the
name of chjle. This fluid is abforbed by the ladleal
veins, which convey it into the circulation, where, by
being aflimilated into the nature of blood, it affords the
fupply of nutrition, which the continual wafte of that
body is found to require.-—The other is the remains of
the alimentary mafs deprived of all its nutritious parti¬
cles, and containing only fuch parts as were reje£ted by
the abforbing mouths of theladleals. This groffer part,
called the fceces, paffes on through the courfe of the
inteftines, to be voided at the anus, as will be explain¬
ed hereafter ; for this procefs in the economy cannot be
well underftood till the motion of refpiration has been
explained. But the ftrudure of the inteftines is a fub-
je«St which may be properly defcribed in this place, and
deferves to be attended to.
It has been already obferved, that the inteftinal ca¬
nal is five or fix times as long as the body, and that it
forms many circumvolutions in the cavity of the abdo¬
men, which it traverfes from the right to the left, and
again from the left to the right; in one place defend¬
ing, and in another extending itfelf upwards. It was
noticed likewife, that the inner coat of the inteftines,
by being more capacious than their exterior tunics,
formed a multitude of plaits placed at a certain di-
ftance from each other, and called vafaulce conniventes.
Now this difpofition will be found to afford a farther
proof of that divine wifdom, which the anatomift and
phyfiologift cannot fail to difcover in,all their purfuits.
—For if the inteftinal canal was much Ihorter than it
naturally is \ if inftead of the prefent circumvolution,
it paffed in a direft courfe from the ftomach ; and if
its inner furface was fmooth and deftitute of valves j
the aliment w’ould confequently pafs with great rapidity
to the anus, and fufficient time would be wanting to
affimilate the chyle, and for the neceffary abforption of 4
of it into the ladleals ; fo that the body would be de¬
prived of the fupply of nutrition, which is fo effential
to life and health $ but the length and circumvolutions
of the inteftines, the inequality of their internal fur¬
face, and the courfe of the aliment through them, all
concur to perfedl the feparation of the chyle from the
faeces, and to afford the neceffary nouriftiment to the
body.
Sect. XIV. Of the Courfe of the Chyle^ and of the
Lymphatic Syflem.
An infinite number of very minute veffels, called the 10S
laBeal veins, arife like net-work from the inner furface
of the inteftines (but principally from \\\e. jejunum and
i/eutn), which are deftined to imbibe the nutritious
fluid or chyle. Thefe veffels, which were difcovered by
Afellius in 1622 (1), pafs obliquely through the coats
Hh 2 of
ANATOMY.
jury in all of them was at the inferior part, or great curvature. The coats of the ftomach fuffer lefs after death
t an flefh, or part of the ftomach of fimilar animals put into it : The author affigns as a reafon for this, that thefe
00 res are invefted on all fides by the gaftric fluid, whereas it only a£ls on the internal furface of the ftomach.
(1) We are informed by Galen, that the ladleals had been feen in kids by Eraliftratus, who confidered them
as
u
244- A N A T
Of the of the intefline, and running along the mefentery,
Abdomen, unite as they advance, and form larger branches, all
t““'\ of which pafs through the mefentenc or conglobate
glands, which are very numerous in the human fubjech
As they run between the inteflines and thefe glands,
they are ftyled vena laBece primigeneris: but after leav¬
ing thefe glands they are found to be lefs numerous,
and being increafed in fize, are then called vena laclece
jecundi generis, which go to depofite their contents in
the thoracic duff, through which the chyle is conveyed
into the blood.
The thoracic duff begins about the lower part of the
fid! vertebra lumborum, from whence it paffes up by
the fide of the aorta, between that and the vena azy¬
gos, clofe to the vertebrae, being covered by the pleura.
Sometimes it is found divided into two branches, but
they ufually unite again into one canal, which opens
into the left fubclavian vein, after having run a little
way in an oblique courfe between its coats. The fub¬
clavian vein communicates with the vena cava, which
paffes to the right auricle of the heart.
The lower part of this du£l being ufually larger than
any other part of it, has been named reccptaculum chy-
li, or Pecquet's receptacle, in honour of the anatomift
who firfl; difcovered it in i65i* In fome quadrupeds,
* He'iufQn's in turtle and in fi(h, this enlargement * is more confi-
Exp. Inq. durable, in proportion to the fize of the duff, than it
J'art II. ufuaiiy is in the human fubjeft, where it is not com¬
monly found large enough to merit the name of 1 ecep-
taculum.
Opportunities of obferving the ladfeals in the human
fubjeft do not often occur ; but they may be eafily de-
monftrated in a dog or any other quadruped that is
killed two or three hours after feeding upon milk, for
then they appear filled with white chyle.
But thefe laffeals, which wc have defcribed as puf¬
fing from the inteffines through the mefenteiy to the
thoracic dudf, compofe only a part of a {yftem of vef-
fels which perform the office of ahforption, and which
conftitute, with their common trunk, the thoracic
O M Y. Part L
du£f, and the conglobate glands that are difperfed of the
through the body, what may be ftyled the lymphatic Abdomen.
fyjiem. So that what is faid of the ftruaure of one of v—-
thefe feries of veffels may very properly be applied to
that of the other. _ _ I0.9 .
The lymphatic veins (k) are minute pellucid tubes,
which, like the la&eals, direft their courfe towards thevJ
centre of the body, where they pour a colourlefs fluid
into the thoracic duft. The lymphatics from all the
lower parts of the body gradually unite as they ap¬
proach this dua, into which they enter by three or
four very large trunks, that feem to form the lower
extremity of "this canal, or receptaculum chiyli, which
may be confidered as the great trunk of the lymphatic
fyftem. The laaeals open into it near the fame place y
and the lymphatics, from a large ffiare of the upper
parts of the body, pour their lymph into different parts
of this dua as it runs upwards, to terminate in the left
fubclavian vein. Ihe lymphatics from the right fide
of the neck, thorax, and right arm, &c. terminate in
the right fubclavian vein.
As the lymphatics commonly lie clofe to the large
blood-veffels, a ligature palled round the crural artery
in a living animal, by enclofing the lymphatics, will oe-
cafion a diftenfion of thefe veffels below the ligature,
fo as to demonftrate them with eafe ; and a ligature,
paffed round the thoracic duft, inftantly after killing
an animal, will, by flopping the courfe of its contents
into the fubclavian vein, diftend not only the lafteals,
but alfo the lymphatics in the abdomen and lower ex¬
tremities, with their natural fluids (l).
The coats of thefe veffels are too thin to be fepa-
rated from each other •, but the mercury they are ca¬
pable of fuftaining, proves them to be very ftrong ; and
their great power of contradlion, after undergoing con-
fiderable diftenfion, together with the irritability with * ^ ^
which Baron Haller found them to be enduedj*, feems m,jWemnX
ixi'-'w      - -j, ' . muu'ucn"'
to render it probable, that, like the blood-veiiels, they fa fang,
have a mufcular coat. Ex. 295.
The lymphatics are nourifhed after the fame manner 29s-
as arteries carrying a milky fluid : but from the remote time in whmh he hved, they do not feem to have been
noticed till they were difcovered in a living dog by Afellius, who denominated
them as ferving to convey the chyle from the inteftmes to the liver ; for before the ffifeovery of the thoracic
dudt, the ufe of the liver was univerfally fuppofed to be that of converting the cnyle into b 00 .
covery of the thoracic dofl by Pecquet, not long after, correfted this error. PecqtKt very cand.dly co„M s,
that his difeovery accidentally arofe from his obferving a white fluid, mixed with the blood, flowing out of the
vena cava, after he had cut off the heart of a living dog j which he fufpeaed to be chyle and afterwards trace
to its fource from the thoracic dud : This dUa had been feen near a hundred years before ,n a horle by iLu-
ilachius, who fpeaks of it as a vein of a particular ftruaure, but without knowing any thing of its termination
ufc
°r 0O The arteries in their courfe through the body becoming gradually too minute to admit the red globules
of the blood, have then been ftyled capillary or lymphatic arteries. The veffels which are here deicribed as con-
ftitutinw the lymphatic fyftem, were at firft fuppofed to be continued from thofe arteries, and to convey back the
lymph,^either into the red veins or the thoracic dua j the office of abforption having been attributed to the red
veins. But we know that the lymphatic veins are not continuations of the lymphatic arteries, but that they con¬
ftitute the abforbent fyjiem. There are ftill, however, fome very refpeaable names among the anatomuts ot the
prefent age, who contend, that the red veins aa likewife as abforbents : but it feems to have been clearly pro¬
ved, that the red veins do abforb nowhere but in the cavernous cells of the penis, the ereaion o^ which is occa-
fioned by a diftenfion of thofe cells with arterial blood. .f
In the dead body they may be eafily demonftrated by opening the artery ramifying through any viicus, a.
in the fpleen, for inftance, and then throwing in air •, by which the lymphatics will be dlftended. One of them
saay then be pundured, and mercury introduced into it through a blowpipe.
Chap. III.
Of the as ^ie ot^er Parts t^ie ^or even moft
Abdomen, minute of thefe vefifels are probably fupplied tvith ftill
more minute arteries and veins. This feems to be pro¬
ved by the inflammation of which they are fufceptible j
and the painful fwellings which fometimes take place
in lymphatic velfels prove that they have nerves as well
as blood-veffels.
Both the la&eals, lymphatics, and thoracic dud, are
furnilhed with valves, which are much more common
in thefe veffels than in the red veins. Thefe valves are
ufually in pairs, and ferve to promote the courfe of the
chyle and lymph towards the thoracic du£t, and to pre¬
vent its return. Mention has been made of the glands,
through which the latteals pafs in their courfe through
the mefentery $ and it is to be obferved, that the lym¬
phatics pafs through fimilar glands in their way to the
thoracic du£t. Thefe glands are all of the conglobate
kind, but the changes which the chyle and lymph un¬
dergo in their paffage through them, have not yet been
afcertained.
The lymphatic veffels begin from furfaces and cavities
in all parts of the body as abforbents. This is a fa£t
now univerfally allowed ; but how the fluids as they ab-
forb are poured into thofe cavities, is a fubjeft of con-
troverfy. The contents of the abdomen, for inftance,
were defcribed as being conftantly moiftened by a very
thin watery fluid. The fame thing takes place in the
pericardium, pleura, and all the other cavities of the
body, and this watery fluid is the lymph. But whe¬
ther it is exhaled into thofe cavities through the minute
ends of arteries, or tranfuded through their coats, are
the points in difpute. We cannot here be permitted
to relate the many ingenious arguments that have been
advanced in favour of each of thefe opinions 5 nor is it
perhaps of confequence to our prefent purpofe to enter
into the difpute. It will be fufficient if the reader can
form an idea of what the lymph is, and. of the manner
in which it is abforbed.
The lymph, from its tranfparency and want of co¬
lour, would, feem to be nothing but water; and hence
the firfl difcoverers of thefe veffels ftyled them duclus
aquofi: but experiments prove, that the lymph of a
healthy animal coagulates by being expofed to the air
or a certain degree of heat, and likewife by being fuf-
fered to reft : Teeming to agree in this property with
that part of the blood called the caagulable lymph.—
Th is property of the lymph leads to determine its ufe,
in moiftening and lubricating the feveral cavities of the
body in which it is found •, and for which, by its gela¬
tinous principle, it. feems to be much better calculated
than a pure and watery fluid would be, for fuch it has
been fuppofed to be by fome anatomifts.
245
The mouths of the lymphatics and lacieals, by a£tmg Gf the
as capillary tubes, feem to abforb the lymph and chyle Abdomen,
fomewhat in the fame manner as a capillary tube of '"""‘A f
glafl, when put into a bafon of water, is enabled to
attradl the water into it to a certain Height : but it is
probable that they likewife poffefa a living p -wer,
which aflifts in performing this office. In the human
body the lymph, or the chyle, is probably conveyed up¬
on this principle as far as the firft pair of valves, which
feem to be placed not far from the orifice of the abforb-
ing veffel, whether lymphatic or la&eal; and the fluid will
then be propelled forwards, by a continuation of the ab-
forption at the orifice. But this does not feem to be
the only inducement to its progrefs towards the thora¬
cic du£l j thefe veffels have probably a mufcular coat,
which may ferve to prefs the fluid forwards from one
pair of valves to another j and as the large lymphatic
veffels and the thoracic du& are placed clofe to the
large arteries, which have a confiderable pulfation, it
is reafonable to fuppofe, that they derive fome advan¬
tages from this fituation.
Sect. XV. Of the Generative Organs ; of Con¬
ception, &c.
§ I. The Male Organs.
The male organs of generation have been ufually n®--
divided into the parts which ferve to prepare the femen
from the blood, and thofe which are deftined to con¬
vey it into the womb. But it feems to be more pro¬
per to diftinguifti them into the preparing, the contain¬
ing, and the expelling parts, which are the different of¬
fices of the tejles, the vefculce feminales, and the penis p
and this is the order in which we propofe to defcribe
them.
The teftes are two glandular bodies, ferving to fe-
crete the femen from the blood. They are originally
formed and lodged within the cavity of the abdomen y
and it is not till after the child is born, or very near
that time, that they begin to pafs into the groin, and
from thence into the fcrotum (m). By this difpofition
they are very wifely protedled from the injuries to which
they would be liable to be expofed, from the different
pofitions of the child at the time of parturition.
The tefticles in this ftate are loofely attached to the
pfoae mufeles, by means of the peritonaeum by which
they are covered ; and they are at this time of life con-
ne£led in a very particular manner to the parietes of
the abdomen, and likewife to the fcrotum, by means of
a fubftance which Mr Hunter calls the ligament or gu-
bernaculum tefis, becaufe it conne6ts the teftis with the
fcrotum,
ANATOMY.
(m) It fometimes happens in diffefting ruptures, that the inteftine is found in the fame fac, and in contaft
with the teftis. This appearance was at firft attributed to a fuppofed laceration of the peritonaeum ; but later
obfervations, by pointing out the fttuation of the tefticles in the foetus, have led to prove, that the teftis, as it
defcends into the ferotum, carries with it a portion or elongation of the peritonaeum, which becomes its tunica
vaginalis, or a kind of fac, in which the tefticle is lodged, as will be explained in the courfe of this fetftion.
The communication between this fac and the cavity of the abdomen is ufually foon cut off j but in fome fub-
jefts it continues open during life ; and when a hernia or defcent of the inteftine takes place in fuch a fubjedt,
it does not puffi down a portion of the peritonaeum before it, as it muft otherwife neceffarily do, but paffes at once
through this opening, and comes in contadl with the naked tefticle, conftituting that particular fpecies of rup¬
ture called hernia congenita.
24.6 A N A 1
Of the fcrotum, raid dire£ls its cdtirfe in its defcent. This gu-
Abdomen. bernaculum is of a pyramidal form, with its bulbous
~ head fixed to the lower end of the teftis and epididy¬
mis, and lofes its lower and {lender extremity in the
cellular membrane of the fcrotum. It is difficult to
afcertain what the ftru&ure and compolition of this gu-
bernaculum is, but it is certainly vafcular and fibrous ;
and from certain circumftances, it would feem to be in
>part compofed of the cremafler mufcle, running up-
wards to join the lower end of the teftis.
We are not to fuppofe that the tefticle, when de-
fcended into the fcrotum, is to be feen loofe as a piece
of gut or omentum would be in a common hernial fac.
We have already obferved, that during its refidence in
the cavity of the abdomen it is attached to the peri¬
tonaeum, which defcends with it 5 fo that when the fac
is completed in the fcrotum, the tefticle is at firft at¬
tached only to the pofterior part of it, while the fore
part of it lies loofe, and for fome time affords a com¬
munication with the abdomen. The fpermatic chord,
which is made up of the fpermatic artery and vein,
and of the vas deferens or excretory du£! of the teftis,
is clofely attached behind to the pofterior part of this
elongation of the peritonaeum. But the fore part of the
peritoneal fac, which is at firft loofe and not attached
to the tefticle, clofes after a certain time, and becomes
united to the pofterior part, and thus perfectly furrounds
the tefticle as it were in a purfe.
The tefticles of the fetus differ only in their fize
and fituation from thofe of the adult. In their paffage
from the abdomen they defcend through the abdominal
rings into the fcrotum, where they are fupported and
defended by various integuments.
What the immediate caufe of this defcent is, has not
yet been fatisfaftorily determined. It has been afcri-
bed to the effe&s of refpiration, but the tefticles have
fometimes been found in the fcrotum before the child
has breathed ; and it does not feem to be occafioned by
the a&ion of the cremafter mufcle, becaufe the fame ef-
fe£ would be liable to happen in the hedgehog and
fome other quadrupeds, whofe tefticles remain in the
abdomen during life.
The fcrotum, which is the external or common co¬
vering of both tefticles, is a kind of fac formed by the
common integuments, and externally divided into two
equal parts by a prominent line called raphe.
In the inner part of the fcrotum we meet with a cel¬
lular coat called dartos (n), which by its duplicature
divides the fcrotum into two equal parts, and forms
what is called feptuvi fcroti, which correfponds with the
raphe. The collapfion which is fo often obferved to
take place in the fcrotum of the healthy fubjeft, when
excited by cold or by the ftimulus of venery, feems to
be very properly attributed to the contraftile motion of
O M Y. Part I.
the lkin, and not to any mufcular fibres, as is the cafe of the
in dogs and fome other quadrupeds. Abdomen.
The fcrotum, then, by means of its feptum, is'v-—J
found to make two diftindl bags, in which the tefti¬
cles, invefted by their proper tunics, are fecurely
lodged and feparated from each other. Thefe coats
are the cremafter, the tunica vaginalis, and the tunica
albuginea. The firft of thefe is compofed of mufcular
fibres, and is to be confidered only as a partial cover¬
ing of the teftis 5 for it furrounds only the fpermatic
chord, and terminates upon the upper and external
parts of the tunica vaginalis teftis, ferving to draw up
and fufpend the tefticle (o). The tunica vaginalis tef¬
tis has already been defcribed as being a thin pro-
duftion of the peritonaeum loofely adhering every¬
where to the tefticle, which it includes as it were in
a bag. The tunica albuginea is » firm, white, and
very compaft membrane of a gliftening appearance,
which immediately invefts the body of the teftis and
the epididymis; ferving in fome meafure to conneft
them to each other, but without extending itfelf at
all to the fpermatic chord. This tuqica albuginea
ferves to confine the growth of the .teftis and epidi¬
dymis within certain limits, and by giving them a
due degree of firmnefs, enables them to perform their
proper functions.
Having removed this laft tunic, we difcover the fub-
ftance of the tefticle itfelf, which appears to be made
up of an infinite number of very elaftic filaments, which
may be beft diftinguiffied after macerating the tefticle
in water. Each tefticle is made up of the fpermatic
artery and vein, and the excretory veffels or tubuli fe-
miniferi. There are likewife a great number of abforb-
ent veffels, and fome branches of nerves to be met with
in the tefticles.
The fpermatic arteries arife one on each fide from
the aorta, generally about an inch below the emul-
gents. The right fpermatic vein commonly paffes into
the vena cava : but the left fpermatic vein ufually emp¬
ties itfelf into the emulgent on that fide *, and it is fup-
pofed to take this courfe into the emulgent, that it
may avoid paffing over the aorta, which it would be
obliged to do in its way to the vena cava.
The blood is circulated very {lowly through the
fpermatic artery, which makes an infinite number of
circumvolutions in the fubftance of the tefticle, where
it depofites the femen, which paffes through the tu¬
buli feminiferi. Thefe tubuli feminiferi are feen running
in ftrort waves from the tunica albuginea to the axis
of the tefticle ; and are divided into diftinft portions by
certain thin membranous produflions, which originate
from the tunica albuginea. They at length unite, and
by an infinite number of convolutions form a fort of
appendix to the teftis called epididymis (p), which is
(n) The dartos has ufually been confidered as a mufcle, and is defcribed as fuch both by Douglas and Win-
flow. But there being no part of the fcrotum of the human fubjedl which can be faid to confift of omifcular
fibres, Albinus and Haller have very properly omitted to defcribe the dartos as a mufcle, and confider it merely
as a cellular coat.
(o) The cremafter mufcle is compofed of a few fibres from the obliquus internus abdominis, which uniting
with a few from the tranfverfalis, defcend upon the fpermatic chord, and are infenfibly loft upon the tunica va¬
ginalis of the tefticle. * It ferves to fufpend and draw up the tefticle.
^ (p) The tefticles were named didymi by the ancients 3 and the name of this part was given to it on account of
its fituation upon the tefticle.
Chap. HI.
Of the a vafcular body of an oblong fiiape, fituated upon the
Abdumen. fuperior part of each tefticle. Thefe tubuli of the
**•' epididymis at length form an excretory du6t called vas
deferens, which afcends towards the abdominal rings,
with the other parts that make up the fpermatic chord,
and then a feparation takes place ; the nerves and
blood-veflels palling on to their feveral terminations,
and the vas deferens going to depofite its femen in the
veficulse feminales, which are two foft bodies of a white
and convoluted appearance externally, fituated ob¬
liquely between the redtum and the lower part of the
bladder, and uniting together at the lower extremity.
From thefe refervoirs (qJ, which are plentifully lup-
plied with blood-veffels and nerves, the femen is occa-
fionally difcharged through two Ihort paffages, which
open into the urethra clofe to a little eminence called
verumontanum.
Near this eminence we meet with the proftate,
which is fituated at the neck of the bladder, and is
defcribed as being of a glandular ftrufture. It is
fliaped fomewbat like a heart with its fmall end fore-
moft, and invefts the origin of the urethra. Internally
it appears to be of a firm fubftance, and compofed of
247
feveral follicles, fecreting a whitilh vifcid fluid, that is of the
difcharged by ten or twelve excretory dufls into the Abdomen,
urethra, on each fide of the openings of the veficulae' »
feminales, at the fame time, and from the fame caufes,
that the femen is expelled. As this latter fluid is found
to be exceedingly limpid in the veficulae feminales of
the dead fubjeft, it probably owes its whitenefs and
vifcidity to this liquor of the proftate.
The penis, which is to be confidered as the vehicle
or adive organ of procreation, is compofed of two co¬
lumns, the corpora cavernofa and corpus fpongiofum.
The corpora cavernofa, which conftitute the greatefl:
part of the penis, may be defcribed as two cylindrical
ligamentous tubes, each of which is compofed of an
infinite number of minute cells of a fpongy texture,
which communicate with each other. Thefe two bo¬
dies are of a very pliant texture, and capable of con-
fiderable diftenfion •, and being united laterally to each
other, occafion by this union a fpace above and ano¬
ther below. The uppermoft of thefe fpaces is filled
by the blood-veflels, and the lower one, rvhich is larger
than the other, by the urethra and its corpus fpongio¬
fum. Thefe two cavernous bodies are at firft only fe-
parated
ANATOMY.
(qJ That the bags called veficulce feminales are refervoirs of femen, is a circumftance which has been by ana-
tomifts univerfally believed. Mr J. Hunter, however, from feveral circumftances, has been induced to think
this opinion erroneous.
He has examined thefe veficulae in people who have died fuddenly, and he found their contents to be diffe¬
rent in their properties from the femen. In thofe who had loft one of the tefticles, or the ufe of one of them, by
difeafe, both the veficulae were full, and their contents fimilar. And in a lufus naturcv, where there was no
communication between the vafa deferentia and veficulae, nor between the veficulae and penis, the fame thing
took place. ,
From thefe obfervations, he thinks we have a prefumptive proof, That the femen can be abforbed in the body
of the tefticle and the epididymis, and that the veficulae fecrete a mucus which they are capable of abforbing.
when it cannot be made ufe of: that the femen is not retained in refervoirs after it is fecreted, and kept there
till it is ufed; but that it is fecreted at the time in confequence of certain affedtions of the mind ftimulating the
tefticles to this adtion.
He corroborates his obfervations by the appearance on diffedtion in other animals \ and here he finds, That
the ftiape and contents of the veficulae vary much in different animals, while the femen in moft of them he has
examined is nearly the fame : That the vafa deferentia in many animals do not communicate with the veficulce :
That the contents of the veficulse of caftrated and perfedt animals are fimilar, and nearly equal in quantity, in
no way refembling the femen as emitted from the animal in coitu, or what is found in the vas deferens after
death. He obferves likewife, that the bulb of the urethra of perfedt males is confiderably larger than in caftrated
animals.
From the whole, he thinks the following inferences may be fairly drawn : That the bags called vefculce fe¬
minales are not feminal refervoirs, but glands fecreting a peculiar mucus : and that the bulb of the urethra is
properly fpeaking the receptacle of the femen, in which it is accumulated previous to ejedtion.
But although he has endeavoured to prove that the veficulae do not contain the femen, he has not been able
to afcertain their particular ufe. He thinks, however, we may be allowed upon the whole to conclude, that
they are, together with other parts, fubfervient to the purpofes of generation.
Although the author has treated this fubjedt very ably, and made many ingenious obfervations, feme things
may be objedted to what he has advanced j of which the following are a few : That thofe animals who have
bags called veficulce feminales perform copulation quickly ; whereas others that want them, as the dog kind,
are tedious in copulation : That in the human body, at leaft, there is a free communication between the vafa
deferentia and veficulae; and in animals where the author has obferved no communication between the vafa de¬
ferentia and veficulae, there may be a communication by veflels not yet difeovered, and which may be compar¬
ed to the hepato-cyftic dudts in fowls and fifties : That the fluid in the end of the vafa deferentia and the vefi¬
culae feminales are fimilar, according to the author’s own obfervation : That the veficulae in fome animals in-*
creafe and decreafe -with the tefticle at particular feafons: That in birds and certain fifties, there is a dilatation of
the ends of the vafa deferentia, which the author himfelf allows to be a refervoir for the femen.
With refpeft to the circumftance of the bulb of the urethra anfwering the purpofe of a refervoir, the author
has mentioned no fadls which tend to eftablilh this opinion. See Obfervations on certain Parts of the Animal
Economy,
1
248
ANATOMY.
Of the parated by a partition of tendinous fibres, which allow
Abdomen, them to communicate with each other j but they after-
wards divaricate from each other like the branches of
the letter Y, and diminifhing gradually in fizre, are at¬
tached, one on each fide, by means of the ligamentum
fufpenforium penis, to the ramus ifehii, and to the in¬
ferior portion of the os pubis.
The corpus fpongiofum penis, or corpus fpongiofum
urethrae, as it is ftyled by fome authors, begins as foon
as the urethra has paffed the proftate, with a thick
origin almoft like a heart, firft under the urethra, and
afterwards above it, becoming gradually thinner, and
furrounding the whole canal oi the urethra, till it ter¬
minates in a confiderable ^xpanfion, and conftitutes
•what is called the g/ans penis, which is exceedingly
vafcular, and covered with papillae like the tongue.
The cuticle which lines the inner furface of the ure¬
thra, is continued over the glans in the fame manner
as it is fpread over the lips.
The penis is invefted by the common integuments,
but the cutis is reflected back everywhere from the
glans as it is in the eyelids 5 fo that it covers this part,
when the penis is in a relaxed ftate, as it were with a
hood, and from this ufe is called prepuce.
The prepuce is tied down to the under part of the
glans by a fmall ligament called franwn, which is in
fa£l only a continuation of the cuticle and cutis. There
are many fimple febaceous follicles called glandules odo-
riferce, placed round the bafis of the glans; and the
fluid they fecrete ferves to preferve the exquifite fenfi-
bility of this part of the penis, and to prevent the ill
efte&s of attrition from the prepuce.
The urethra may be defined to be a membranous
canal, pafling from the bladder through the whole ex¬
tent of the penis. Several very fmall openings, called
lacuna, communicate with this canal, through which
a mucus is difeharged into it; and befides thefe, there
are two glands, firft deferibed by Cowper, as fecreting
a fluid for lubricating the urethra, and called Cowper's
*Memoiressiands . and Littre * fpeaks of a gland fituated
dR l'AiCCld' near th® proftate, as being deftined for the fame ufe.
Sciences^ The urethra being continued from the neck of the
1700. bladder, is to be confidered as making part of the uri¬
nary paflage } and it likevvife affords a conveyance to
the femen, which we have obferved is occafionally dif¬
eharged into it from the veficulae feminales. The di-
re&ion of this canal being firft under and then before
the pubis, occafions a winding in its courfe from the
bladder to the penis, not unlike the turns of the let¬
ter S.
The penis has three pair of mufcles, the ere&ores,
acceleratores, and tranfverfales. They pufh the blood
from the crura to the fore part of the corpora caver-
nefa. The firft originate from the tuberofity of the
ifehium, and terminate in the corpora cavernofa.
The acceleratores arife from the fphinfter, and by
their infertion ferve to comprefs the bulbous part of
the urethra; and the tranfverfales are deftined to af¬
ford a paffage to the femen, by dilating the canal of
the urethra.
Part I,
The arteries of the penis are chiefly derived from of the
the internal iliacs. Some of them are fuppofed to ter- Abdomen,
minate by pabulous orifices within the corpora caver- '~V —f
nofa and corpus fpongiofum j and others terminate in
veins, which at laft make up the vena magna dorfi pe¬
nis, and other fmaller veins, which are in general diftri-
buted in like order with the arteries.
Its nerves are large and numerous. They arife from
the great fciatic nerve, and accompany the arteries in
their courfe through the penis.
We have now deferibed the anatomy of this organ j
and there only remains to be explained, how it is ena¬
bled to attain that degree of firmnefs and diftenfion
which is efiential to the great work of generation.
The greateft part of the penis has been fpoken of
as being of a fpongy and cellular texture, plentifully
fupplied with blood veflels and nerves, and as having
mufcles to move it in different direftions. Now, the
blood is conftantly pafling into its cells through the
fmall branches of the arteries which open into them,
and is from thence as conftantly returned by the veins,
fo long as the corpora cavernofa and corpus fpongio¬
fum continue to be in a relaxed and pliant ftate. But
when, from any nervous influence, or other means
which it is not neceflary here to define or explain, the
ereftores penis, ejaculatores feminis, levatores ani, &c.
are induced to contradl, the veins undergo a certain
degree of compreffion, and the paffage of the blood
through them is fo moch impeded, that it collefts in
them in a greater proportion than they are enabled to
carry off, fo that the penis gradually enlarges, and
being more and more forcibly drawn up againft the os
pubis, the vena magna itft lf is at length compreffed,
and the penis becomes fully diftended. But as the
caufes which firft occafioned this diftenfion fubfide, the
penis gradually returns to its ftate of relaxation.
§ 2. Female Organs of Generation,
Anatomical writers ufually divide the female or- 111
gans of generation into external and internal. In the
firft divifion they include the mans veneris, labia pu-
dendi, perinceum, clitoris, mjtnpha, and carunculce myr-
tiformes : and in the latter, the vagina, with the uterus
and its appendages.
The mons veneris, which is placed on the upper part
of the fymphyfis pubis, is internally compofed of adi-
pofe membranes, which makes it foft and prominent:
it divides into two parts called labiapudendi, which de-
feending towards the reftum, from which they are di¬
vided by the perinaeum, form what is called the four-
chette. The perinaeum is that flefhy fpace which ex¬
tends about an inch and a half from the fourchette to
the anus, and from thence about two inches to the
coccyx.
The labia pudendi being feparated, we obferve a ful-
cus called fojfa magna ; in the upper part of which is
placed the clitoris, a fmall round fpongy body, in fome
meafure refembling the male penis, but impervious,
compofed of two corpora cavernofa, arifing from the
tuberofities of the offa ifehii: furnifhed with two pair
of
(r) Both Heifter and Morgagni obferve, that they have fometim'es not been able to find thefe glands j fo that
they do not feem to exift in all fubje&s.
2
Chap. HI. ANA
Of the of mufcles, the eretlores clitoridis, and the fphindler or
Abdomen, conftriclor oftii vaginae 5 and terminating in the glans,
which is covered with its prepuce. From the lower
part, on each fide of the fofia, pafs the nymphte, two
membranous and fpongy folds, which feem deftined for
ufeful purpofes in parturition, by tending to enlarge
the volume of the vagina as the child’s head palfes
through it. Between thefe, about the middle of the
foffa magna, we perceive the orifice cf the vagina or os
externum, clofed by folds and wrinkles •, and about
half an inch above this, and about an inch below the
clitoris, appears the meatus urinarius or orifice of the
urethra, much fhorter, though fomewhat larger, than
in men, with a little prominence at its lower edge,
which facilitates the introduftion of the catheter.
The os externum is furrounded internally by feveral
membranous folds called caruncu/ce myrtifurmes, w'hich
are partly the remains of a thin membrane called hymen,
that covers the vagina in children. In general the hy¬
men is fufficiently open to admit the paffage of the
menfes, if it exifts at the time of their appearance ;
fometimes, however, it has beep found perfcdlly
clofed.
The vagina, fituated between the urethra and the
re&um, is a membranous cavity, furrounded, efpecially
at its external extremity, with a fpongy and vafcular
fubftance, which is covered by the fphinfter oftii va¬
ginas. It terminates in the uterus, about half an inch
above the os tincae, and is wider and ftiorter in women
who have had children than in virgins.
All thefe parts are plentifully fupplied with blood
veflels and nerves. Around the nymphae there are fe-
baceous follicles, which pour out a fluid to lubricate
the inner furface of the vagina ; and the meatus urina¬
rius, like the urethra in the male fubjeft, is conftantly
moiftened by a mucus, which defends it againft the
acrimony of the urine.
The uterus is a hollow vifcus, fituated in the hypo-
gaftric region, between the redlum and bladder. It is
deftined to receive the firft rudiments of the foetus, and
to aflift in the developement of all its parts, till it ar¬
rives at a ftate of perfedlion, and is fitted to enter into
the world, at the time appointed by the wife Author
of nature.
The uterus, in its unimpregnated ftate, refembles a
pear in lhape, fomewhat flattened, with its fundus or
bottom part turned towards the abdomen, and its cer¬
vix or neck furrounded by the vagina. The entrance
into its cavity forms a little protuberance, which has
been compared to the mouth of a tench, and is there¬
fore called os tincee.
The fubftance of the uterus, which is of a confider-
able thicknefs, appears to be compofed of mufcular
and fmall ligamentous fibres, fmall branches of nerves,
fome lymphatics, and with arteries and veins innume¬
rable. Its nerves are chiefly derived from the interco-
ftal, and its arteries and veins from the hypogaftric
and fpermatic. The membrane which lines its cervix
is a continuation of the inner membrane of the vagina;
but the outer furface of the body of the uterus is co¬
vered with tne peritonaeum, which is refledled over
it, and defeends from thence to the inteftinum redflum.
This duplicature of the peritonaeum, by pafling off
from the fides of the uterus to the fides of the pelvis,
is there firmly conne&ed, and forms what are called
Vol. II. Part I.
TOM Y. 2
ligamenta uteri lata; which not only ftrve to fupport Of the
tlm uterus, but to convey nerves and blood veffels Abdomen.
The ligamenta uteri rotunda arife from the fides of
the fundus uteri, and palling along within the fore part
of the ligamenta lata, defcend through the abdominal
rings, and terminate in the fubftance of the mons ve¬
neris. The fubftance of thefe ligaments is vafcular ;
and although both they and the ligamenta lata admit
the uterus, in the virgin ftate, to move only about an
inch up and down, yet in the courfe of pregnancy
they admit of confiderable diftenfion, and after partu¬
rition return nearly to their original ftate with furpri-
fing quicknefs.
On each fide of the inner furface of the uterus, in
the angle near the fundus, a fmall orifice is to be dif-
covered, which is the beginning of one of the tubse
Fallopianse. Each of thefe tubes, which are two in
number, palling through the fubftance of the uterus, is
extended along the broad ligaments, till it reaches
the edge of the pelvis, from whence it refledls back ;
and turning over behind the ligaments, about an inch
of its extremity is feen hanging loofe in the pelvis,
near the ovarium. Thefe extremities, having a jag¬
ged appearance, are called fimbrice, or morfus diaboli.
Each tuba Fallopiana is ufually about three or four
inches long. Their cavities are at firft very fmall, but
become gradually larger, like a trumpet, as they ap¬
proach the fimbriae.
Near the fimbriae ef each tuba Fallopiana, about an
inch from the uterus, is fituated an oval body called
ovarium, of about half the fize of the male tefticle.
Each of thefe ovaria is covered by a produ&ion of the
peritonaeum, and hangs loofe in the pelvis. They are
of a flat and angular form, and appear to be compofed
of a white and cellular fubftance, in which w’e are able
to difeover feveral minute veficles filled with a coagu-
lable lymph, of an uncertain number, commonly ex¬
ceeding 12 in each ovary. In the female of riper
years, thefe veficles become exceedingly turgid, and a
kind of yellow coagulum is gradually formed within
one of them, which increafes for a certain time. In
conception, one of thefe mature ova is fuppofed to be
impregnated with the male femen, and to be fqueezed
out of its nidus into the Fallopian tube} after which
the ruptured part forms a fubftance which in fome ani¬
mals is of a yellow colour, and is therefore called cor¬
pus luteum; and it is obfervable, that the number of
thefe fears or fiffures in the ovarium, conftantly cerre-
fponds with the number of foetufes excluded by the
mother.
§ 3. Of Conception.
Man, being ever curious and inquifitive, has natu* 112
rally been led to inquire after the origin of his exifl-
ence } and the fubjeft of generation has employed the
philofophical world in all ages : but in following na¬
ture up to her minute receffes, the philofopher foon
finds himfelf bewildered; and his imagination often
fupplies that which he fo eagerly wiflies to difeover,
but which is deftined perhaps never to be revealed to
him. Of the many theories w’hich have been formed on
this fubjeft, that of the ancient philofophers feems
to have been the mofl: fimple: they confidered the
male femen as alone capable of forming the foetus, and
I i believed
0 ANATOMY. Parti.
or ,h, believed that the female eely afforded it a lodging in feh an impregnation into AbW
Abdomen, the womb, and fupplied it with nourilhment after it the means by which the^ovum^ai^ ^ ^ ^8 „t<sr„s -
t—j form. d. This opinion, however, loon
was perfe'aiy formtd. This opinion, however, foon
gave place to another, in which the female was allow¬
ed a more confiderable ihare in conception.
This fecond fyftem coniidered the fetus as being
formed by the mixture of the feminal liquor of both
fexes by a certain arrangement of its feveral particles
in the uterus. But in the 16th century, veiicles or
eo-gs were difeovered in the ovaria or female tefticles j
the fetus had been found fometimes in the abdomen,
and fometimes in the Fallopian tubes j and the two
former opinions were exploded in favour of a new doc¬
trine. The ovaria were compared to a bunch of gyaPes*
being fuppoied to confill of veficles, each of which had
a ftalk ; ib that it might be difengaged without hurt¬
ing the reft, or fpilling the liquor it contained. Bach-
veficle was faid to include a little animal, almoft com¬
plete in all its parts 5 and the vapour of the male ie-
men being conveyed to the ovarium, was luppoled to
produce a fermentation in the veficle which approach¬
ed the neareft to maturity 5 and thus inducing it to dii-
engage itfelf from the ovarium, it paffed into the tuba
Fallopiana, through which it was conveyed to the ute¬
rus. Here it was fuppofed to take root like a. vegeta¬
ble’feed, and to form with the veffels originating from
the uterus, what is called ^placenta', by means of
which the circulation is carried on between the mother
and the fetus. , . . . , .
This opinion, with all its abfurdities, continued to
be almoft univerfally adopted till the clofe of the farne
century, when Leeuwenhoek, by means of his glaffes,
difeovered certain opaque particles, which he defcribed
as fo many animalcula, floating m the feminal fluid o
th This^difcovery introduced a new fchifm among the
philofophers of that time, and gave rife to a fyftem
which is not yet entirely exploded. According to
this theory, the male femen pafling into the tubae Fal-
lopianae, one of the animalcula penetrates into die iub-
flance of the ovarium, and enters into one of its vefi-
cles or ova. This impregnated ovum is then Squeezed
from its l*ifk, through, the coats of tfeovanum, and
being feized by the fimbria, is condufted through the
tube to the uterus, where it is nounfhed till it arrives
at a ftate of perfeaion. In this fyftem there is much
ingenuity ; but there are certain circumftances luppoled
touke place, which have been hitherto inexphcable.
A celebrated modern writer, M. Bufton, endeavours
to reftore, in fome meafure, the moft ancient opinion,
bv allowing the female femen a fhare in this office •,
afferting. that the animalcula or organic particles are to
be difeovered in the feminal liquor of both fexes : he de¬
rives the female femen from the ovaria, and he con¬
tends that no ovum exifts in thofe parts. But in this
idea he is evidently miftaken •, and the opinion now
mod generally adopted is, that an impregnation of the
ovum, bv the influence of the male femen, is effential
to conception. That the ovum is to be impregnated,
there can be no doubt j but as the manner in which
the Fallopian tube, and from thence into the uterus,
are ftill founded chiefly on hypothefis, yve will at¬
tempt to. extend farther the inveftigation of a fubjeft
concerning which fo little can be advanced with cer¬
tainty.
§ 4. Q/’ the Talus in Utero.
Opportunities of diffeaing the human gravid uterus
occurring but feldom, the ftate of the embryo (s)
immediately after conception cannot be perfectly
known. . , • r
When the ovum defeends into the uterus, it is fup-
pofed to be very minute •, and it is not till a confider¬
able time after conception that the rudiments of the
embryo begin to be afeertained.
About the third or fourth week the eye may difco-
ver the firft lineaments of the fetus j. but thefe linea¬
ments are as yet very imperfeft, it being only about
thefize ofa houfe fly. Two little veficles appear in
an almoft tranfparent jelly 5 the largeft of which is del-
tined to become the head of the fetus, and the other
fmaller one is referved for the trunk. But at this pe¬
riod no extremities are to be feen ; the umbilical cord
appears only as a very, minute thread, and the placenta
does not as yet abforb the red particles of the blood.
At fix weeks, not only the head, but the features of the
face, begin to be developed. The nofe appears like a
fmall prominent line, and we are able to difeover ano¬
ther line under it, which is deftined for the feparation
of the lips. Two black points appear in the place of
eyes and two minute holes mark the ears. At the
fides of the trunk, both above and below, we fee four
minute protuberances, which are the rudiments of the
arms and legs. At the end of eight weeks the body
of the fetus is upwards of an inch in lengtn, amd both
the hands and feet are to be diftinguiffied. The up¬
per extremities are found to mcreafe fafter than the
lower ones, and the feparation of the fingers is accom-
nliffied fooner than that of the toes. ... -
" At this period the human form may be decilively
afeertained : all the parts of the face may be diftin¬
guiffied, the fhape of the body is cleany marked out,
the haunches and the abdomen are elevated, the fin¬
gers and toes are feparated from each other, and the
inteftines appear like minute threads.
At the end of the third month, the fetus meafures
about three inches j at the end of the fourth month,
five inches 5 in the fifth month, fix or feven inches ; m
the fixth month, eight or nine inches ; m the feventh
month, eleven or twelve inches; m the eighth month,
fourteen or fifteen inches ; and at the end of the ninth
month, or full time, from eighteen to twenty-two
inches. But as we have not an opportunity or examin¬
ing the fame fetus at different periods of pregnancy,
and as their fize and length may be influenced by the
conftitution and mode of life of the mother, calcula¬
tions of this kind mult be very uncertain.
The fetus during all this time affumes an oval fi¬
gure.
113
fsl The rudiments of the child are ufuaBy diffinguilhed b, this name till the human figure can be dUlinflly
afeertained, and then it has the appellation ofjW
Chap. TIT. ANA1
Of the gure, which correfponcls with the (hape of the uterus.
Abdomen. jtg cj1jn js found reclining on its breaft, with its knees
^ drawn up towards its chin, and its arms folded over
them. But it feems likely, that the pofture of fome
of thefe parts is varied in the latter months of preg¬
nancy, fo as to caufe thofe painful twitches which its
mother ufually feels from time to time. In natural
cafes, its head is probably placed towards the os tincae
from the time of conception to that of its birth ;
though formerly it was confidered as being placed to¬
wards the fundus uteri till about the eighth or ninth
month, when the head, by becoming fpecifically hea¬
vier than the other parts of the body, was fuppofed to
be turned downwards.
The capacity of the uterus increafes in proportion
to the growth of the foetus, but without becoming
thinner in its fubftance, as might naturally be expelled.
The nourilhment of the foetus, during all this time,
feems to be derived from the placenta, which appears
to be originally formed by that part of the ovum which
is next the fundus uteri. The remaining part of the
ovum is covered by a membrane called fpongij cho¬
rion (t) ; within which is another called true chorion^
which includes a third termed amnios (u) : this con¬
tains a watery fluid, which is the liquor amnii (v), in
which the foetus floats till the time of its birth. On
the fide next the foetus, the placenta is covered by the
amnios and true chorion j on the fide next the mother
it has a production continued from the fpongy cho¬
rion. The amnios and chorion are remarkably thin
and tranfparent, having no blood veflels entering into
their compofition. The fpongy chorion is opaque and
vafcular.
In the firft months of pregnancy, the involucra bear
a large proportion to their contents $ but this pro¬
portion is afterwards reverfed, as the foetus increafes
in bulk.
The placenta, which is the medium through which
the blood is conveyed from the mother to the foetus,
and the manner in which this conveyance takes place,
deferve next to be confidered.
The placenta is a broad, fat, and fpongy fubftance,
^ - ■■ -- -
' O M Y. 251
like a cake, clofely adhering to the inner furface of of the
the womb, ufually near the fundus, and appearing to Abdomen,
be chiefly made up of the ramifications of the umbili-
cal arteries and vein, and partly of the extremities of
the uterine vefiels. The arteries of the uterus difcharge
their contents into the fubftance of this cake ; and the
veins of the placenta, receiving the blood either by a
dirett communication of veflels, or by abforption, at
length form the umbilical vein, which pafles on to the
finus of the vena portae, and from thence to the vena
cava, by means of the canalis venofus, a communica¬
tion that is clofed in the adult. But the circulation of
the blood through the heart is not conduced in the.
foetus as in the adult j in the latter, the blood is carried
from the right auricle of the heart through the pulmo¬
nary artery, and is returned to the left auricle by the
pulmonary vein 3 but a dilatation of the lungs is eflen-
tial to the paflage of the blood through the pulmonary
veflels, and this dilatation cannot take place till after
the child is born and has refpired. This deficiency,
however, is fupplied in the foetus by an immediate
communication between the right and left auricle,
through an oval opening, in the feptum which divides
the two auricles, called foramen ovale. The blood is
likewife tranfmitted from the pulmonary artery to the
aorta, by means of a duft called canalis artefiofui,
which, like the canalis venofus, and foramen ovale,
gradually clofes after birth.
The blood is returned again from the foetus through
two arteries, called the umbilical arteries, which arife
from the iliacs. Thofe two veflels taking a winding
courfe with the vein, form with that, and the mem¬
branes by which they are furrounded, what is called
the umbilical chord. Thefe arteries, after ramifying
through the fubftance of the placenta, difcharge their
blood into the veins of the uterus; in the fame manner
as the uterine arteries difcharged their blood into the
branches of the umbilical vein. So that the blood
is conftantly palling in at one fide of the placenta
and out at the other $ but in what particular manner
it gets through the placenta is a point not yet deter¬
mined.
I i 2 EXPLANATION
(t) Dr Hunter has defcribed this as a lamella from the inner furface of the uterus. In the latter months of
pregnancy it becomes gradually thinner and more connefted with the chorion : he has named it membrana caduca,
or decidua, as it is call off with the placenta. Signior Scarpa, with more probability, confiders it as being com-
pofed of an infpiflated coagulable lymph.
(u) In fome quadrupeds, the urine appears to be conveyed from the bladder through a canal called urachus
to the allantois, which is a refervoir, refembling a long and blind gut, fituated between the chorion and amnios.
The human foetus feems to have no fuch refervoir, though fome writers have fuppofed that it does exift. Front
the top of the bladder a few longitudinal fibres are extefnded to the umbilical chord j and thefe fibres have been
confidered as the urachus, though without having been ever found pervious.
(v) The liquor amnii coagulates like the lymph. It has been fuppofed to pafs into the oefophagus, and to
afford nourifliment to the foetus ; but this does not feem probable. Children have come into the world without
an oefophagus, or any communication between the ftomach and the mouth ; but there has been no well attefted
inftance of a child’s having been born without a placenta ; and it does not feem likely, that any of the fluid can
be abforbed through the pores of the fkin, the fkin in the foetus being everywhere covered with a great quantity
of mucus.
252
Of the
Abdomen.
ANATOMY.
EXPLANATION of PLATES XXVII. XXVIII. and XXIX.
Part I.
Of the
Abdomen.
Plate XXVII.
Fig. I. Shows the Contents of the Thorax and Ab¬
domen in fitu.
i, Top of the trachea or windpipe. 2 2, The in¬
ternal jugular veins. 3 3, The fubclavian veins. 4, The
vena cava defeendens. 5, The right auricle of the
heart. 6, The right ventricle. 7, Part of the left
ventricle. 8, The aorta defeendens. 9, The pulmo¬
nary artery. 10, The right lung, part of which is
cut oft' to {how the great blood-veffels. 11, 1 he left
lung entire. 12 12, The anterior edge of the dia¬
phragm. 1313, The two great lobes of the liver.
14, The ligamentum rotundum. 15, I he gall-bladder.
ib’ The ftomach. 17 17, The jejunum and ilium.
18, The fpleen.
Fig. 2. Shows the Organs fubfervient to the Chy-
lopojetic Vifcera,—with thofe of Urine and Genera-
I 1, The under fide of the two great lobes of the
liver. ’ a, Lobulus Spigelln. 2, The ligamentum ro¬
tundum. 3, The gall-bladder. 4, The pancreas,
r The fpleen. 6 6, The kidneys. 7, The aorta
defeendens. 8, Vena cava afeendens. 9 9, The renal
veins covering the arteries. 10, A probe under the
fpermatic veffels and a bit of the inferior mefente-
ric artery, and over the ureters.. 11 11, The ureters.
12 12, The iliac arteries and veins. 13, The rectum
inteftinum. 14, The bladder of urine.
Fig. 3. Shows the Chylopoietic Vifcera, and Organs
fubfervient to them, taken out of the Body entire.
AA, The under fide of the two great lobes of the
liver. B, Ligamentum rotundum. C, The gall¬
bladder. D, Duftus cyfticus. E, Duftus^ hepaticus.
F, Duftus communis choledochus. G, Vena porta-
rum. H, Arteria hepatica. II, The ftomach. KK,
Venee et arterite gaftro-epiploicae, dextrae et fimftrtE.
LL, Venae et arterise coronariae ventriculi. M, 1 he
fpleen NN, Mefocolon, with its veffels. OOO, In¬
teftinum colon. P, One of the ligaments of the co¬
lon, which is a bundle of longitudinal mufcular fibres.
OQQQ, Jejunum and ilium. HR, Sigmoid flexure
of the colon with the ligament continued, and over S,
the re&um inteftinum. - TT, Levatpres anni. U,
Sphinfter ani. V, The place to which the proftate
gland is connedled. W, The anus.
Fig. 4. Shows the heart of a Foetus at the full time,
with the Right Auricle cut open to ftiovv the Fora¬
men Ovale, or paffage between both Auricles,
a The right -ventricle. b, The left ventricle,
cc The outer fide of the right auricle ftretched out.
dd* The pofterior fide, which forms the. anterior fide
of'the feptum. e, The foramen ovale, with the mem¬
brane or valve which covers the left fide, f, Vena
cava inferior palling through g, a portion of the dia¬
phragm.
Fig. 5. Shows the Pleart and Large \eflels of a 1 cetus
at the full time.
a, The left ventricle, b, The right ventricle, c, A
part of the right auricle, d, Left auricle, ee, The
right branch" of the pulmonary artery, f, Arteria
pulmonalis. gg, The left branch of the pulmonary
artery, with a number of its largeft branches dilietted
from’ the lungs. h, The canalis arteriofus. i, The
arch of the aorta, kk, The aorta defeendens.. 1, The
left fubclavian artery. m, I he left carotid artery,
n, The right carotid artery, o, The right fubclayian
artery, p, The origin of the right carotid and right
fubclavian arteries in one common trunk. . q, The
vena cava fuperior or defeendens. r, The right com¬
mon fubclavian vein, s, The left common fubclavian
vein.
N. B. All the parts deferibed-in this.figure are to be
found in the adult, except the canalis arteriofus.
Plate XXVIII.
Fig. I. Exhibits the more fuperficial Lymphatic Vef¬
fels of the Lower. Extremity.
A, The fpine of the os ilium. B, The os pubis.
C The iliac artery. D, The knee. EEF, Branches
of the crural artery. G, The mufculus gaftrocnemius.
H The tibia. I, The tendon of the mufculus tibia¬
lis’ anticus. On the outlines, a, A lymphatic veffd
belonging to the top of the foot, b, Its firft divifion
into branches. c, c, c, Other divifions of the fame
lymphatic veffel. d, A fmall lymphatic gland, e, The
lymphatic veffels which lie between the {kin and the
mufcles of the thigh, ff, Two lymphatic glands at
the upper part of the thigh below the groin, gg, ’
ther glands, h, A lymphatic veffel which paffes by
the fide of thofe glands without communicating with
them ; and, bending towards the infide of the groin at
(i), opens into the lymphatic gland (k). 11, Lympha¬
tic glands in the groin, which are common to tne lym¬
phatic veffels of the genitals and thofe of the lower ex¬
tremity. m, n, A plexus of lymphatic veffels palling
on the infide of the iliac artery.
Fig. 2. Exhibits a Back View of the Lower Extremi¬
ty, differed- fo as to {how the deeper-feated Lympha¬
tic Veffels which aceompany the Arteries.
A, The os pubis. B, The tuberofity of the if-
chium. C, That part of the os ilium which was ar¬
ticulated with the os facrum. D, The. extremity of
the iliac artery appearing above the groin. E, .The
knee. F, F, The two cut furfaces of the triceps
muffle, which was divided to {how the lymphatic vef-
ffls that pafs through its perforation along with the
crural artery. G, The edge of the mufculus gracilis.
H, The gaftrocnemius and foleus, much ftirunk by
being dried, and by the foleus being feparated from
the tibia to expofe the veffels. I, Fhe heel. .K, The
foie of the foot. L, The fuperficial lymphatic veffels
pafling over the knee, to get to the thigh. On the
outlines y
Chap. III. A N A T
Of the. outlines j M, The pofterior tibial artery, a, A lym-
Abdomen. phatic veffel accompanying the potterior tibial artery.
1 v   b, The fame veffel croffing the artery, c, A fmall
lymphatic gland, through which this deep-feated lym¬
phatic veffel paffes. d, The lymphatic veffel palling
under a fmall part of the foleus, which is left attached
to the bone, the reft being removed, e, The lymphatic
veffel crofting the popliteal artery, f, g, h, Lymphatic
glands in the ham, through which the lymphatic vef¬
fel paffes. i, The lymphatic veflel palling with the
crural artery, through the perforation of the triceps
mufcle. k, The lymphatic veffel, after it has paffed
the perforation of the triceps, dividing into branches
which embrace the artery (1). m, A lymphatic gland
belonging to the deep-feated lymphatic veffel. At this
place thofe veffels pafs to the fore part of the groin,
where they communicate with the fuperficial lympha¬
tic veffels. n, A part of the fuperficial lymphatic vef¬
fel appearing on the brim of the pelvis.
Fig. 3. Exhibits the Trunk of the Human fubjedt,
prepared to (how the Lymphatic Veffels and the
Dmftus Thoracicus.
O M Y. 253
cic duff penetrating the thorax; jo, Some lymphatic Of the
veffels joining that du£l in the thorax, q, The tho- Abdomen,
racic duel palling under the curvature of the aorta to
get to the left fubclavian vein j the aorta being drawn
afide to ftiow the du6l. r, A plexus of lymphatic vef¬
fels palling upon the trachea from the thyroid gland
to the thoracic dudt.
Plate XXIX.
Fig. 1. Reprefents the Under and Pofterior Side of
the Bladder of Urine, &c.
a, The bladder, bb, The infertion of the ureters,
cc, The vafa deferentia, which convey the femen from
the tefticles to dd, The veficulae feminales—and pafs
through e, The proftate gland, to difeharge themfelves
into f, The beginning of the urethra.
Fig. 2. A tranfverfe Sedlion of the Penis,
gg, Corpora cavernofa penis, h, Corpus caverno-
fum urethrae, i, Urethra, k, Septum penis. 11, The
feptum between the corpus cavernofum urethne and
that of the penis.
A, The neck. BB, The two jugular veins. C, The
vena cava fuperior. DDDD, The fubclavian veins.
E, The beginning of the aorta, pulled to the left
fide by means of a ligature, in order to fhow the
thoracic duft behind it. F, The branches arifing
from the curvature of the aorta. GG, The two ca¬
rotid arteries. HH, The firft ribs. II, The tra¬
chea. KK, The fpine. LL, The vena azygos.
MM, The defeending aorta. N, The cceliac artery,
dividing into three branches. O, The fuperior mefen-
teric artery. P, The right crus diaphragmatis.
QQ, The two kidneys. R, The right emulgent ar¬
tery. SS, The external iliac arteries, gd, The muf-
culi pfoie. T, The internal iliac artery. U, The ca¬
vity of the pelvis. XX, The fpine of the os ilium.
YY, The groins. 0, A lymphatic gland in the groin,
into which lymphatic veffels from the lower extremi¬
ty are feen to enter, bb. The lymphatic veffels of
the lower extremities palling under Poupart’s liga¬
ment. cc, A plexus of the lymphatic veffels lying on
each fide of the pelvis. d, The pfoas mufcle with
lymphatic veffels lying upon its infide. e, A plexus
of lymphatics, which having paffed over the brim of
the pelvis at (c), having entered the cavity of the pel¬
vis, and received the lymphatic veffels belonging to the
. vifeera contained in that cavity, next afeends, and paf¬
fes behind the iliac artery to (§•). f, Some lymphatic
. veffels of the left fide palling over the upper fide of
the os facrum, to meet thofe of the right fide, g, The
right pfoas, with a large plexus of lymphatics lying on
its infide. hh, The plexus lying on each fide of the
fpine. in, Spaces occupied by the lymphatic glands.
k, The trunk of the lafleals, lying on the under fide of
the fuperior mefenteric artery. /, The fame dividing
into two branches, one of which paffes on each fide of
the aorta ; that of the right fide being feen to enter
the thoracic du£l at (m). tn. The thoracic du£l be¬
ginning from the large lymphatics, n. The dufl paf-
fing under the lower part of the crus diaphragmatis,
and under the right emulgent artery. 0, The thora-
FiG. 3. A longitudinal Section of the Penis,
mm, The corpora cavernofa penis divided by 0,
The feptum penis, n, The corpus cavernofum glan-
dis, which is the continuation of that of the urethra.
Fig. 4. Reprefents the Female Organs of Generation.
a, That fide of the uterus which is next the os fa¬
crum. 1, Its fundus. 2, Its cervix, bb, The Fal¬
lopian or uterine tubes, which open into the cavity of
the uterus j—but the other end is open within the pel¬
vis, and furrounded by cc, The fimbriae. dd, The
ovaria. e, The os internum uteri, or mouth of the
womb. ff, The ligamenta rotunda, which paffes
without the belly, and is fixed to the labia pudendi.
gg, The cut edges of the ligamenta lata, which con¬
nects the uterus to the pelvis, h, The infide of the
vagina, i, The orifice of the urethra, k, The clito¬
ris furrounded by (1), The preeputium. mm, The la¬
bia pudendi. nn, The nymphae.
Fig. 5. Shows the Spermatic duCts of the Tefticle'
filled with Mercury.
A, The vas deferens. B, Its beginning, which
forms the pofterior part of the epididymis. C, The
middle of the epididymis, compofed of ferpentine
duCts. D, The head, or anterior part of the epididy¬
mis unravelled, eeee, The whole duCts which com-
pofe the head of the epididymis unravelled, ff, The
vafa deferentia. gg, Rete teftis. hh, Some reCtilineal
duCls which fend off the vafa deferentia. ii, The fub-
ftance of the tefticle.
Fig. 6. The Right Tefticle entire, and the Epidi¬
dymis filled with Mercury.
A, The beginning of the vas deferens. B, The vas
deferens afeending towards the abdomen. C, The po¬
fterior part of the epididymis, named globus minor.
D, The fpermatic veffels inclofed in cellular fubftance.
E, The body of the epididymis. F, It^s head, named
globus major. G, Its beginning from the tefticle.
H, The body of the tefticle enclofed in the tunica al¬
buginea.
CHAB, .
anatom y.
254
Of the
Thoiajt.
CHAP. IV. OF THE THORAX.
Part I.
Of the
Thorax.
trfthe v THE thorax, or cheft, k that cavity of the trunk
cheit. which extends from the clavicles, or the lower part
,of the neck, to the diaphragm ; and includes the vital
organs, which are the heart and lungs, and likewife
the trachea and oefophagus.—This cavity is formed by
the ribs and vertebrae of the back, covered by a great
number of mufcles, and by the common integuments,
and anteriorly by two glandular bodies called the
■breajis. The fpaces between the ribs are filled up by
mufcular fibres, which from their fituation are called
intercojlal mufcles.
Sect. I. Of the Breajls.
The breafs may be defined to be two large conglo-
merate glands, mixed with a good deal of adipofe
membrane. The glandular part is compofed of an
infinite number of minute arteries, veins, and nerves.
The arteries are derived from two different trunks;
one of which is called the internal, and the other the
external, mammary artery. The fir ft of theTe arifes
from the fubclavian, and the latter from the axillary.
The veins everywhere accompany the arteries, and
are diftinguifhed by the fame name. The nerves are
chiefly from the vertebral pairs. Like all other con¬
glomerate glands, the breafts are made of a great
many fmall diftina glands, in which the milk is fe-
oreted from the ultimate branches of arteries. The
excretory duas of thefe federal glands, gradually unit¬
ing as they approach the nipple, form the tubuli laai-
feri, which are ufually more than a dozen in number,
and*open at its apex, but have little or no communica¬
tion, as has been fuppofed, at the root of the nipple.
Thefe duas, in their courfe from the glands, are fur-
rounded by a ligamentary elaftic fubft'ance,_ which ter¬
minates with them in the nipple. Both this fubftance,
and the duas which it contains, are capable of confi-
derable extenfion and contraaion ; but in their natural
ftate are moderately corrugated, fo as to prevent an
involuntary flow of milk, unlefs the diftending force be
very great from the accumulation of too great a quan-
tity.
The whole fubftance of the nipple is very fpongy
and elaftic; its external furface is uneven, and full of
fmall tubercles. The nipple is furrounded with a dilk
or circle of a different colour, called the areola ; and on
the infide of the fkin, under the areola, are many feba-
ceous glands, which pour out a mucus to defend the
areola and nipple ; for the Ikin upon thefe parts is very
thin *, and the nervous papillae lying very bare, are
much expofed to irritation. .
The breafts are formed for the fecretion of milk,
which is deftined for the nourilhment of the child for
fome time after its birth. This fecretion begins to
take place foon after delivery, and continues to flow for
many months in very large quantities, if the woman
fuckles her child. . .
The operation of fuftion depends on the principles
of the air-pump, and the flow of milk through the
kaiferous tubes is facilitated by their being ftretched
out.
The milk, examined chemically, appears to be com¬
pofed of oil, mucilage, and water, and of a confides
able quantity of fugar. The generality of phyfiologifts
have fuppofed that, like the chyle, it frequently retains
the properties of the aliment and medicines taken into
theftomach; but it has been proved by experiment*, * yowr.
that this fuppofition is ill founded. Med. 1781.
Sect. II. Of the Pleura.
The cavity of the thorax is everywhere lined by a 116
membrane of a firm texture called pleura. It is com¬
pofed of two diftinft portions or bags, which, by be-
ing applied to each other laterally, form a feptum call¬
ed medwjhnum; which divides the cavity into two
parts, and is attached pofteriorly to the vertebrae of
the back, and anteriorly to the fternum. But the two
laminae of wrhich this feptum is formed, do not every¬
where adhere to each other; for at the lower part o£
the thorax they are feparated to afford a lodgment to
the heart; and at the upper part of the cavity, they
receive between them the thymus.
The pleura is plentifully fupplied with arteries and
veins from the internal mammary and the intercoftals.
Its nerves, which are very inconfiderable, are derived
chiefly from the dorfal and intercoftal nerves.
The furface of the pleura, like that of the perito-
nasum and other membranes lining cavities, Is conftant-
‘ly bedewed with a ferous moifture (w), which prevents
adhefions of the vifcera.
The mediaftinum, by dividing the breaft into two
cavities, obviates many inconveniences, to which we
ftiould otherwife be liable. It prevents the two lobes
of the lungs from comprefling each other when we lie
on one fide; and confequently contributes to the free¬
dom of refpxration, which is difturbed by the leaft
preffure on the lungs. If the point of a fword pe¬
netrates between the ribs into the cavity of the tho¬
rax, the lungs on that fide ceafe to perform their of¬
fice ; becaufe the air being admitted through the
wound, prevents the dilatation of that lobe; while the
other lobe, which is feparated from it by the medi¬
aftinum, remains unhurt, and continues to perform its
function as ufual.
Sect. III. Of the Thymus.
The thymus is a glandular fubftance, the ufe of nj
which is not perfeftly afeertained, its excretory duft
not
(w) When this fluid is exhaled in too great a quantity, or is not properly carried off, it accumulates and con-
ftitutes the hydrops pe&oris.
Chap. IV- ANA'!
Of the not having yet been difcovered. It Is of an oblong
Thorax figure, and is larger in the foetus and in young chil-
y 1 ' dren than in adults, being fometimes nearly effaced in
very old fubje&s. It Is placed in the upper part of the
thorax, between the two laminae of the tnediaftinum j
but at firft is not altogether contained within the cavity
of the cheft, being found to border upon the upper
extremity of the fternum.
Sect. IV. Of the Diaphragm.
jjg The cavity of the thorax is feparated from that of
the abdomen by a flefhy and membranous feptum call¬
ed the diaphragm or midriff. The greateft part of it
is compofed of mufcular fibres j and on this account
fyftematic writers-ufually place it very properly among
the mufcles. Its middle part is tendinous, and it is
covered by the pleura above, and by the peritonaeum
below. It feems to have been improperly named fep.
turn tranfverfum, as it does not make a plane tranf-
verfe divifion of the two- cavities, but forms a kind of
vault, the fore part of which is attached to the fter¬
num. Laterally it is fixed to the laft of the true ribs,
and to all the falfe ribs: and its lower and pofterior
part is attached to the vertebrae lumborum, where it
may be faid to be divided into two portions or crura
(x).
The principal arteries of the diaphragm are derived
from the aorta, and its veins pafs into the vena cava.
Its nerves are chiefly derived from the cervical pairs..
It affords a paffage to the vena cava through its ten¬
dinous part, and to the cefophagus through its flefhy
portion. The aorta paffes down behind it between its
crura.
The diaphragm not only ferves to divide the thorax
from the abdomen, but by its mufcular ftru&ure is
rendered one of the chief agents in refpiration. When
its fibres contraft, its convex fide, which is turned to-
wards the thorax, becomes gradually flat, and by in-
creafing the cavity of the breaft, affords room for a
complete dilatation of the lungs, by means of the air
which is then drawn into them by the aft of infpira-
tion. The fibres of the diaphragm then relax ; and as
it refumes its former ftate, the cavity of the thorax be¬
comes gradually diminifhed, and the air is driven out
again from the lungs by a motion contrary to the for¬
mer one, called expiration.
It is, in. fome meafure, by means of the diaphragm,
that we void the fasces at the anus, and empty the uri¬
nary bladder. Befides thefe offices, the. afts of cough¬
ing, fneezing, fpeaking, laughing, gaping, and fighing,
could not take place without its affiftance ; and the
gentle preffure which all the abdominal vifcera-receive
from its conftant and regular motion, cannot fail to af-
’ O M Y. 255
lift in the performance of the feveral funftions which Of the
were afcribed to thofe vifcera. Thorax.
Sect. V. Of the Trachea.
The trachea, or windpipe, is a cartilaginous and ll9
membranous canal, through which the air paffes into
the lungs. Its upper part, which is called the larynx^
is compofed of five cartilages. The uppermoft of thefe
cartilages is- placed over the glottis or mouth of the
larynx, and is called epiglottis, which hds been before
fpoken of, as doling the paffage to the lungs in the aft
of fwallowing. At the fide of the glottis are placed
the two arytenoid cartilages, which are of a very com¬
plex figure, not eafy to be defcribed. The anterior
and larger part of the larynx is made up of two carti¬
lages ; one of which is called thyraides or fcutiformis^
from its being lhaped like a buckler j and the other
cricoides or annularis, from its refembling a ring. Both
thefe cartilages may be felt immediately under the Ikin j
at the fore part of the throat, and the thyroides, by its-
convexity, forms an eminence called pomum ad ami,
which is ufually more confiderable in the male than in
the female fubjeft.
All thefe cartilages are united to each other by,
means of very elaftic ligamentous fibres $ and are ena¬
bled, by the alfiftance of their feveral mufcles, to dilate
or contraft the paffage of the larynx, and to perform
that variety of motion which feems to point out the
larynx as the principal organ of the voice j for when
the air paffes out through a wound in the trachea, it
produces no found.
Thefe cartilages are moiftened by a mucus, which -
feems to be feparated by minute glands fituated near
them. The upper part of the trachea is covered ante¬
riorly and laterally by a confiderable body, which is
fuppofed to be of a glandular ftrufture, and from its
fituation near the thyroid cartilage is called the thyroid
gland; though its excretory duft has not yet been dif-
covered, or its real ufe afcertained.
The glottis is interiorly covered by a very fine mem¬
brane, which is moiftened by a conftant fupply of a
watery fluid. From the larynx, the canal begins to
take the name of trachea or afperia arteria, and extends
from thence as far down as the third or fourth verte¬
bra of the back, where it divides into two branches,
which are the right and left bronchial tube. Each of
thefe bronchi (y) ramifies through the fubftance of
that lobe of the lungs, to which it is diftributed by
an infinite number of branches, which' are formed of
cartilages, feparated from each other like thofe of the
trachea, by an intervening membranous and ligamen¬
tary fubftance. Each of thefe cartilages is of an angu¬
lar figure} and as they become gradually lefs and lefs
in.
•W Anatomical writers have ufually defcribed the diaphragm as being made up of two mufcles united by a
fife andlre part of‘the vertebr"10"' " ^ ',hat they ^ °f ^ ^ arif,nS f""" ,fce
JYV ',e bronehjal tube is ufually found to be fomewhat fhorter and thicker than the left ; and M. Por-
bronr'hSl rnlP- n 3 memo‘r ™ th® aaion of the lungs on the aorta in refpiralion, obferves, that the left ‘
the firft r * e)1*S C ° uy c?n*raaed by the aorta ; and from fome experiments he is induced to conclude, that in
Sniaces, !^ 0™’ ^ ^ ^ 7 enterS int0 the rIght lobe °f the lunSs* Memoires de I' Academic Royule dec
4
256
Of the
Thorax.
A N A T
in fneir diameter, the lower ones are in fome meafure
received into thofe above them, when the lungs, after
being inflated, gradually collapfe by the air being pulh-
ed out from them in expiration. As the branches of
the bronchi become more minute, their cartilages be¬
come more and more angular and membranous, till at
length they are found to be perfectly membranous, and
at laft become invifible.
The trachea is furnilhed with flelhy or mufcular
fibres j fome of which pafs through its whole extent
longitudinal!*, while the others are carried round it in
a circular direflion; fo that by the contraaion or re¬
laxation of thefe fibres, it is enabled to Ihorten or
lengthen itfelf, and likewife to dilate or contrad the
diameter of its paffage. .c
The trachea and its branches, in all their ramifi¬
cations, are furnilhed with a great number of fmall
glands which are lodged in their cellular fubllanee,
and difeharge a mucous fluid on the inner furface ox
thefe tubes.
The cartilages of the trachea, by keeping it con-
Jlantly open, afford a free paffage to the air, which we
are obliged to be inceffantly refpmng and its mem¬
branous part, by being capable of contraaion and di¬
latation, enables us to receive and expel the air in a
greater or kfs quantity, and with more or lets velocity,
as may be required in finging or in declamation. us
membranous figure of the trachea pofleriorly feems
likewife to aflift in the defeent of the food, by prevent¬
ing that impediment to its paffage down the cefopha-
gus, which might be expedted if the cartilages were
complete rings. . „ . j
The trachea receives its arteries from the carotid and
fubclavian arteries, and its veins pafs into the jugulars.
Its nerves arife from the recurrent branch of the eighth
pair, and from the cervical plexus.
Sect. VI. Of the Lungs.
The lungs fill the greater part of the cavity of the
breaft. They are of a foft and fpongy texture, and
are divided into two lobes, which are feparated from
each other by the mediaftinum, and are externally co¬
vered by a produaion of the pleura Each of thefe is
divided into two or three leffer lobes •, and we com¬
monly find three in the right fide of the cavity, and
^To'dtfcover the ftruaure of the lungs,_ it is required
to follow the ramifications of the bronchi, which were
deferibed in the laft feaionT. Thefe becoming gradu¬
ally more and more minute, at length terminate in the
cellular fpaces or veficles, which make up the greateft
part of the fubftance of the lungs, and readily commu-
The lungs feem to poffefs but little fenfibility.
Their nerves, which are fmall, and few in number, are
derived from ihe intercoflal and eighth pair. This laft
naii having reached the thorax, lends off a branch on
lach fide of the trachea, called the recurrent which
reafeendsat the back of the trachea, to which it fur-
liifhes branches in its afeent, as well as to the oefopha-
^ but it is chiefly diftributed to the larynx and its
Seles. By dividing the recurrent and Jupenor la-
“ngeal nerves at their origin, an animal ts deprived of
its voice.
O M Y. ' . ' p!irt T-
There are two ftries of arteries which cany blood Of ti e.
to the lungs: thefe are the arteriaJ bronchiaks, and the _
pulmonary artery. . „ , . ,
The arterisebronchialesbeginufually by two branches }
one of which commonly arifes from the right interco-
ftal and the other from the trunk of the aortabut
fometimes there are three of thefe arteries, and in lame
fubiefts only one. The ufe of thefe arteries is to ierve
for the nourilhment of the lungs; and their ramifica¬
tions are feen creeping everywhere on the branches oi
the bronchi. The blood is brought back horn them
by the bronchial veins into the vena azygos.
The pulmonary artery and vein are not intended tor
the nouriftiment of the lungs; but the blood in its
paffage through them is deftined to undergo tome
changes, or to acquire certain effential properties ^rom
the aftion of the air), which it has loft in its circula¬
tion through the other parts of the body. _ 1 he pulmo¬
nary artery receives the blood from the right ventnme
of the heart; and dividing into tw-o branches, accom¬
panies the bronchi everywhere, by its ramifications
through the lungs ; and the blood is afterwards con¬
veyed back by the pulmonary vein, which gradually
forming a confiderable trunk, goes to empty itfelf into
the left ventricle of the heart ; fo that the quantity of
blond which enters into the lungs, is perhaps greater
than that which is fent in the fame proportion of time
through all the other parts of the body.
Sect. VII. Of Refpiration.
Respiration conftitutes one of thofe functions which lit
are properly termed vital, as being effential to life; for
to live and to breathe are in fad fynonymous terms.
It confifts in an alternate contradion and dilatation of
the thorax, by firft infpiring air into the lungs, and
then expelling it from them in expiration.
It will perhaps be eafy to diftinguilh and point out
the feveral phenomena of refpiration ; but to explain
their phyfical caufe will be attended with difficulty :
for it will naturally be inquired, how the lungs, when
emptied of the air, and contraded by expiration be¬
come again inflated, they themfelves being perfedly
paffive ? How the ribs are elevated in oppoiition to
their own natural fituation ? and why the diaphragm is
contraded downwards towards the abdomen ? VVere we
to affert that the air, by forcing its way into the cavity
of the lungs, dilated them, and confequently elevated
the ribs and preffed down the diaphragm, we. iou
fpeak erroneoufly. What induces the firft infpiration,
it is not eafy to afeertain ; but after an animal has once
refpired, it would feem likely that the blood, after ex¬
piration, finding its paffage through the lungs obftrud-
ed becomes a ftimulus, which induces the intercottal
‘ muffles and the diaphragm to contrad, and enlarge the
cavity of the thorax, in conffquence perhaps of a cer¬
tain nervous influence, which we will not here attempt
to explain. The air then rufhes into the lungs ; every
branch of the bronchial tubes, and all the cellular (pa¬
ces into which they open, become fully dilated ; and
the pulmonary vefffls being equally diftended, the blood
flows through them with eafe. But as the ftimulus
which firft oceafioned this dilatation ceaffs to operate,
the muffles gradually contrad; the.diaphragm riffs up¬
wards again, and diminifhes the cavity of the cheft; the
I
ANATOMY.
Chap. IV.
Of the ribs return to their former ftate ; and as the air paffes
Thoras. out jn expiration, the lungs gradually collapfe, and a
~ » ' refiftance of the paflage to the blood again takes place.
But the heart continuing to receive and expel the
blood, the pulmonary artery begins again to be diftend-
ed, the ftimulus is renewed, and the fame procefs is
repeated, and continues to be repeated, in a regular
fucceffion, during life : for though the mufcles of refpi-
ration, having a mixed motion, are (unlike the heart)
in fome meafure dependent on the will, yet no human
being, after having once refpired, can live many mo¬
ments without it. In an attempt to hold one’s breath,
the blood foon begins to diftend the veins, which are
unable to empty their contents into the heart ; and we
are able only, during a very little time, to refill the fti¬
mulus to infpiration. In drow’ning, the circulation
feems to be flopped upon this principle ; and in hang¬
ing, the preffure made on the jugular veins, may co¬
operate with the ftoppage of refpiration in bringing on
death.
Till within thefe few years phyliologifts were entire¬
ly ignorant of the ufe of refpiration. It was at length
difcovered in part by the illuftrious Dr Prieftley. He
found that the air expired by animals was phlogifticat-
ed j and that the air was fitter for refpiration, or for
fupporting animal life, in proportion as it was freer
from the phlogiftic principle. It had long been obferv-
ed that the blood in pafl'mg through the lungs ac¬
quired a more florid colour. He therefore fufpefted,
that it was owing to its having imparted phlogifton to
the air : and he fatisfied himfelf of the truth of this
idea by experiments, which {bowed, that the craflamen-
tum of extravafated blood phlogifticated air in pro¬
portion as it loft its dark colour. He farther found,
that blood thus reddened had a ftrong attraction for
phlogifton ; infomuch that it was capable of taking it
from phlogifticated air, thereby becoming of a darker
colour. From hence it appeared that the blood, in its
circulation through the arterial fyftem, imbibes a con-
fiderable quantity of phlogifton, which is difcharged
from it to the air in the lungs.
This difcovery has fince been profecuted by two very
ingenious phyfiologifts, Dr Crawford and Mr Elliot.
It had been fhown by Profefibrs Black and Irvine, that
different bodies have different capacities for containing
fire. For example, that oil and water, when equally
hot to the fenfe and the thermometer, contain differ¬
ent proportions of that principle ; and that unequal
quantities of it are required, in order to raife thofe
fubftances to like temperatures. The inquiries of Dr
Crawford and Mr Elliot tend to prove, that the ca¬
pacities of bodies for containing fire are diminilhed by
the addition of phlogifton, and increafed by its fepara-
tion : the capacity of calx of antimony, for example,
being greater than that of the antimony itfelf. Com¬
mon air contains a great quantity of fire ; combuftible
bodies very little. In combuftion, a double eleClive
attraction takes place j the phlogifton of the body be¬
ing transferred to the air, the fire contained in the air
to the combuftible body. But as the capacity of the
latter is not increafed fo much as that of the former is
Vol. II. Part I.
diminilhed, only part of the extricated fire will be ab-
forbed by the body. The remainder therefore will raife
the temperature of the compound ; and hence we may
account for the heat attending combuftion. As the
ufe of refpiration is to dephlogifticate the blood, it feems
probable, that a like double eleCtive attraction takes
place in this procefs: the phlogifton of the blood be¬
ing transferred to the air, and the fire contained in the
air to the blood ; but with this difference, that the ca¬
pacities being equal, the whole of the extricated fire is
abforbed by the latter. The blood in this ftate circu¬
lating through the body, imbibes phlogifton, and of
courfe gives out its fire j part only of which is abforb¬
ed by the parts furnilhing the phlogifton, the remain¬
der, as in combuftion, becoming fenfible ; and is there¬
fore the caufe of the heat of the body, or what is call¬
ed animal heat.
In confirmation of this doCtrine it may be obferved,
that the venous blood contains lefs fire than the ar¬
terial ; combuftible bodies lefs than incombuftible ones ;
and that air contains lefs of this principle, according as
it is rendered, by combination with phlogifton, lefs fit
for refpiration (z).
In afeending very high mountains, refpiration is
found to become Ihort and frequent, and fometimes to
be attended with a fpitting of blood. Thefe fymptoms
feem to be occafioned by the air being too rare and
thin to dilate the lungs fufficienily j and the blood
gradually accumulating in the pulmonary veffels, fome¬
times burfts through their coats and is brought up by
coughing. This has likewife been accounted for in a
different way, by fuppofing that the air contained in
the blood, not receiving an equal preffure from that of
the atmofphere, expands, and at length ruptures the
very minute branches of the pulmonary veffels j upon
the fame principle that fruits and animals put under
the receiver of an air-pump, are feen to fwell as the
outer air becomes exhaufted. But the late Dr Dar¬
win publilhed fome experiments, in which he attempt¬
ed to prove, that no air or elaftic vapour does exift
in the blood-veffels, as has been generally fuppofed j
and he is induced to impute the fpitting of blood which
has fometimes taken place in afeending high moun¬
tains, to accident, or to violent exertions ; as it never
happens to animals that are put into the exhaufted re¬
ceiver of an air-pump, where the diminution of preffure
is many times greater than on the fummit of the high-
eft mountains.
Sect. VIII. Of the Voice.
Respiration has already been deferibed as affording
us many advantages ; and next to that of life, its molt
important ufe feems to be that of forming the voice
and fpeech. The ancients, and almoft all the moderns,
have confidered the organ of fpeech as a kind of mufi-
cal inftrument, which may be compared to a flute, to
an hautboy, to an organ, &c. and they argue after the
following manner :
The trachea, which begins at the root of the tongue,
and goes to terminate in the lungs, may be compared
K k to
257
Of the
Thorax.
m
{z') See Crawford’s Experiments and Obfervations on Animal Heat, and Elliot’s Philofophical Ohfervations.
258
ANATOMY.
Part I
Of the
Thorax.
to the pipe of an organ •, the lungs dilating like bellows
during the time of infpiration; and as the air is driven
out from them in infpiration, it finds its paffage ftrait-
ened by the cartilages of the larynx, againft which it
{trikes." As thefe cartilages are more or lefs elaltic,
they occafion in their turn more or lefs vibration in the
air, and thus produce the found of the voice 5 the va¬
riation in the found and tone of which depends on the
ftate of the glottis, which, when ftraitened, produces an
acute tone, and a grave one when dilated.
M. Ferein communicated to the French Academy
of Sciences a very ingenious theory on the forma¬
tion of the voice. He confidered the organ of the
voice as a firing as well as a wind inftrument •, fo
that what art has hitherto been unable to conftruft,
and what both the fathers Merfenne and Kircher fo
much wilhed to fee, M. Ferein imagined^ he had at
length difcovered in the human body. He obferves,
that there are at the edges of the glottis certain tendi¬
nous chords, placed horizontally acrofs it, which are
capable of confiderable vibration, fo as to produce
found, in the fame manner as it is produced by the
firings of a violin or a harpfichord : and he luppofes
that the air, as it paffes out from the lungs, afts as a
bow on thefe firings, while the efforts of the breaft
and lungs regulate its motion, and produce the variety
of tones. So that, according to this fyftem, the varia¬
tion in the voice is not occafioned by the dilatation or
contraaion of the glottis, but by the diftenfion or re¬
laxation of thefe firings, the found being more or lefs
acute in proportion as they are more or lefs ftretched
out. Another writer on this fubjed fuppofes, that the
organ of voice is a double infirument, which produces
in unifon two founds of a different nature 5 one by
means of the air, and the other by means of the chords
of the glottis. Neither of thefe fyftems, however, is
univerfally adopted. They are both liable to infupe-
rable difficulties ; fo that the manner in which the
voice is formed has never yet been fatisfaftorily afcer-
tained : we may obferve, horvever, that the found pro¬
duced by the glottis is not articulated. To eflfedl this,
it is required to pafs through the mouth, where it is
differently modified by the a£tion of the tongue,
which is either pulhed againft the teeth, or upwards
towards the palate ; detaining it in its paffage, or per¬
mitting it to flow freely, by contraaing or dilating the
mouth.
time contraaed in obedience to the will: and the in- of the
teftines being compreffed on all fides, the refiftance of Thorax,
the fiphinElcr is overcome, and the faeces pafs out at the ''
which is afterwards drawn up by its longitudinal
Sect. IX. Of Deje&ion.
fibres, which are called Jevatores ani, and then by
means of its fphinBer is again contraaed : but it fome-
times happens, as in dyfenteries for inftance, that, the
feces are very liquid, and have confiderable acrimo¬
ny ; and then the irritation they occafion is more fre¬
quent, fo as to promote their difcharge without any
preffure from the diaphragm or abdominal mufcles ;
and fometimes involuntarily, as is the cafe when the
fphinaer becomes paralytic.
Sect. X. Of the Pericardium, and of the Heart and
its Auricles.
123 By dejeaion we mean the aa of voiding the feces
- at the anus $ and an account of the manner in which
this is conduaed was referved for this part of the.woirk,
becaufe it feemed to require a knowledge of refpiration
to be perfeaiy underftood. . _ , .
The inteftines were defcribed as having a penhaltic
motion, by which the feces were gradually advancing
towards the anus. Now, whenever the feces are ac¬
cumulated in the inteftinum reaum in a fufficient quan¬
tity to become troublefome, either by their weights
acrimony, they excite a certain uneafinefs which in¬
duces US to go to fiool.—To effea this, we begin by
making a confiderable infpiration ; in confequence of
which the diaphragm is carried downwards towards
the lower belly •> the abdominal mufcles are at the lame
2
124
The twTo membranous bags of the pleura, which per;car_
were defcribed as forming the mediaftinum, recede onecUum.
from the other, fo as to afford a lodgment to a firm
membranous fac, in which the heart is lecurely lodg¬
ed j this fac, which is the pericardium, appears lo be
compofed of two tunics, united to each other by cel¬
lular membrane.—The outer coat, which is thick, and
in feme places of a tendinous complexion, is a pro-
duflion of the mediaftinum j the inner coat, which is
extremely thin, is refledled over the auricles and ven¬
tricles of the heart, in the fame manner as the tunica
conjunctiva, after lining the eyelids, is reflefted over
the eye.
This bag adheres to the tendinous part of the dia¬
phragm, and contains a coagulable lymph, the liquor
pericardii, which ferves to lubricate the heart and fa¬
cilitate its motions ; and feems to be fecreted and ab-
forbed in the fame manner as it is in the other cavities
of the body.
The arteries of the percardium are derived from the
phrenic, and its veins pafs into veins of the fame name j
its nerves are like wife branches of the phrenic.
The fize of the pericardium is adapted to that of the
heart, being ufually large enough to contain it loofe-
ly. As its cavity does not extend to the fternum, the
lungs cover it in infpiration •, and as it everywhere in-
vefts the heart, it effe&ually fecures it from being in¬
jured by lymph, pus, or any other fluid, extravafated
into the cavities of the thorax. nj
The heart is a hollow mafcle of a conical ftiape, fi- Heart,
tuated tranfverfely between the two laminae of the me- ds aarA--
diaftinum, at the fever part of the thorax ; having its
bafis turned towards the right fide, and its point or
apex towards the left.—Its lower furface is fomewhat
flattened towards the diaphragm. Its bafis, from which
the great veffels originate, is covered with fat; and it
has two hollow and flefhy appendages, called auricles.
—Round thefe feveral openings, the heart feems to be
of a firm ligamentous texture, from which all its fibres
feem to originate ; and as they advance from thence
towards the apex, the fubftance of the heart feems to be¬
come thinner.
The heart includes two cavities or ventricles, which
are feparated from each other by a fleffiy feptum ; one
of thefe is called the right, and the other the left, ven¬
tricle ; though perhaps, with refpeft to their fituation,
it would be more proper to diftinguifh them into the
anterior and tofierior ventricles.
Tbs
i Chap. IV.
Of the The heart is exteriorly covered by a very fine mem-
Thorax. brane ) and its ftrufture is perfectly mufcular or flefliy,
being compofed of fibres which are deferibed as paf-
fing in different diredfions fome as being extended
longitudinally from the bafis to the apex j others, as
taking an oblique or fpiral courfe ; and a third fort as
being placed in a tranfverfe diredlion (a).—Within
the two ventricles we obferve feveral furrows; and
there are likewife tendinous firings, which arife from
flefhy columns in the two cavities, and are attached to
the valves of the auricles: That the ufe of thefe and
the other valves of the heart may be underftood, it
muff be obferved, that four large veffels pafs out from
the bafis of the heart, viz. two arteries and two veins;
and that each of thefe veffels is furnifhed with a thin
membranous produciion, which is attached all round
to the borders of their feveral orifices, from whence
hanging loofely down they appear to be divided into
two or three diftindl portions. But as their ufes in the
arteries and veins are different, fo are they differently
difpofed. Thofe of the arteries are intended to give
way to the paffage of the blood into them from the
ventricles, but to oppofe its return : and, on the con¬
trary, the valves of the veins are conftrufted fo as to
allow the blood only to pafs into the heart. In confe-
quence of thefe different ufes, we find the valves of
the pulmonary artery and of the aorta attached to the
orifices of thofe veffels, fo as to have their concave
furfaces turned towards the artery ; and their convex
furfaces, whieh mutually meet together, being placed
towards the ventricle, only permit the blood to pafs
one way, which is into the arteries. There are ufually
three of thefe valves belonging to the pulmonary ar¬
tery, and as many to the aorta; and from their figure
they are called valvulce femiluriares. The communica¬
tion between tire two great veins and the ventricles is
by mean’s of the two appendages or auricles into which
the blood is difeharged ; fo that the other valves which
may be faid to belong to the veins, are placed in each
ventricle, where the auricle opens into it. The valves
in the right ventricle are ufually three in number, and
are named valvulce tricufpides; but in the left ventricle
we commonly obferve only two, and thefe are the
valvulce mitrales. The membranes which form thefe
valves in each cavity are attached fo as to project fome-
what forward; and both the tncufpides and the mitra-
les are connefted with the tendinous firings, which
were deferibed as arifing from the flefhy colutntice. By
the contra&ion of either ventricle the blood is driven
into the artery which communicates with that ventri¬
cle ; and thefe tendinous firings being gradually re¬
laxed as the fides of the cavity are brought nearer to
each other, the valves naturally clofe the opening into
the auricle, and the blood neceflarily dire&s its courfe
into the then only open paffage, which is into the ar-
tery ; but after this contradlion the heart becomes re¬
laxed, the tendinous firings are again ftretched out,
259
and, drawing the valves of the auricle downwards, the Of the
blood is poured by the veins into the ventricle, from Thorax,
whence, by another contraction, it is again thrown in- v—^
to the artery, as will be deferibed hereafter. The
right ventricle is not quite fo long, though fomewhat
larger than the left; but the latter has more fubftance
than the other; and this feems to be, becaufe it is in¬
tended to tranfmit the blood to the moft diftant parts
of the body, whereas the right ventricle diflributes it
only to the lungs.
The heart receives its nerves from the par vagum
and the intercoftals. The arteries which ferve for its
nourifhment are two in number, and arife from the
aorta. They furround in fome meafure the bafis of
the heart, and from this courfe are called the coronary
arteries. From thefe arteries the blood is returned by
veins of the fame name into the auricles, and even in¬
to the ventricles.
The mufcular bags called the auricles are fituated at
the bafis of the heart, at the fides of each other ; and,
correfponding with the two ventricles, are like thofe
two cavities diftinguifhed into right and left. Thefe
facs, which are anteriorly unequal, have externally a
jagged appendix ; which, from its having been com¬
pared to the extremity of an ear, has given them their
name of auricles.
Sect. XL Angiology, or a Defcription of the Blood
Veffels.
The heart has been deferibed as contracting itfelf, 135
and throwing the blood from its two ventricles into
the pulmonary artery and the aorta, and then as re¬
laxing itfelf and receiving a frefii fupply from two large
veins, which are the pulmonary vein and the vena ca¬
va. We will now point out the principal diftributions
of thefe veffels.
The pulmonary artery arifes from the right ventri¬
cle by a large trunk, which foon divides into two con-
fiderable branches, which pafs to the right and left
lobes of the lungs: each of thefe branches is after¬
wards divided and fubdivided into an infinite number
of branches and ramifications, which extend through
the whole fubftance of the lungs; and from thefe
branches the blood is returned by the veins, which,
contrary to the courfe of the arteries, begin by very
minute canals, and gradually become larger, forming
at length four large trunks called pulmonary veins,
xvhich terminate in the left auricle by one common
opening, from whence the blood paffes into the left
ventricle. From this fame ventricle arifes the aorta or
great artery, which at its beginning is nearly an inch
in diameter : it foon fends off two branches, the coro¬
naries, which go to be diftributed to the heart and its
auricles. After this, at or about the third or fourth
vertebra of the back, it makes a confiderable curva¬
ture ; from this curvature (b) arife three arteries ; one
Kk 2 0f
ANATOMY.
af,°Ut the C°Urfe and d,ft,natons thefe fibres ; and it feems right to obferve, that the -
are of the heart being more compaft than that of other mufcles, its fibres are not eafily feparated.
to U-v3 7 CaU ^ ?Pp6r °f thlS curvature aorta afeendens ; and the other part of the artery
duced • ZTl f ^ r'• ^7° defcenrdens> but the7 differ about the place where this diftinaion is to be intro-
? 1 eems u cienUy to anfwer every purpofe, to fpeak only of the aorta and its curvature.
26o
Of the
Thorax.
A N A T
of which foon divides into two branches. The firfl:
two are the left fubclavian and the left carotid, and the
third is a common trunk to the right fubclavian and
right carotid j though fometimes both the carotids ante
diftinaiy from the aorta. _ „ , , . ,
The two carotids afcend with the fubclavians, along
the fides of the trachea ; and when they have reached
the larynx, divide into two principal branches, the in¬
ternal anti external carotid. The firft of thefe runs a
little way backwards in a bending direftion *, and hav¬
ing reached the under part of the ear, pafles through
the canal in the os petrofum, and entering into the ca-
vity of the cranium, is ditlributed to the brain and
the membranes which envelope it, and like wife to the
eye The external carotid divides into feveral branch¬
es which are diftributed to the larynx, pharynx, and
other parts of the neck ; and to the jaws, lips,
tongue, eyes, temples, and all the external parts of
the head.
Each fubclavian is likewife divided into a gre^at num¬
ber of branches. It fends off the vertebral artery,
which paffes through the openings we fee at the bot¬
tom of the tranfverfe proceffes of the vertebrae of the
neck and in its courfe fends off many ramifications
to the neighbouring parts. Some of its branches are
diftribu'ed to the fpinal marrow, and after a conlider-
able infleftion it enters into the cranium, and is diltri-
buted to the brain. The fubclavian likewife fends off
branches to the mufcles of the neck and fcapula *, and
the mediaftinum, thymus, pericardium, diaphragm, the
bread and the mufcles of the thorax and even or the
abdomen, derive branches trom the fubclavian, which
are diftinguifhed by different names, alluding to the
parts to which they are diflributed ; as ^ mammary,
the phrenic, the intercojial. &c. But notwithftandmg
the great number of branches which have been defen-
bed as arifing from the fubclavian, it is ft.ll a confider-
able artery when it reaches the axilla, where it drops
its former name, which alludes to its paffage under the
clavicle, and is called the axillary artery ; from which
a varietv of branches are diftributed to the mufcles of
the bread, fcapula, and arm.—But its mam trun.k ta‘
kin<r the name of brachialis, runs along on the made
of the arm near the os humeri, till it reaches the joint
of the fore arm, and then it divides into two branches.
This divifion, however, is different in different fubjedts ,
for in fome it takes place higher up, and m others low-
er down. When it happens to divide above the joint,
it may be ccnfidered as a happy difpofition in cale of
an accident by bleeding-, for fjppofmg the artery to
be unfortunately pundlured by the lancet, and that the
haemorrhage could only be flopped by making a liga¬
ture on the veffel, one branch would remain unhurt,
through which the blood would pafs uninterrupted to
the fore arm and hand. One of the two branches of
the brachialis plunges down under the flexor mufcles,
and runs along the edge of the ulna • while the other
is carried along the outer furface of the radius, and is
eafilv felt at the wrift, where it is only covered by the
common Integuments. Both thefe branches common¬
ly unite in the palm of the hand, and form an arterial
arch, from whence branches are detached to the fin-
Ofthe
Thorax.
&eThe aorta, after having given off at its curvature the
carotids and fubclavians which convey blood to all the
O M Y. Part I,
upper parts of the body, defeends upon the bodies of
the vertebrae a little to the left, as far as the os facrum,
where it drops the name of aorta,^ and divides into
two conliderable branches. In this courfe, from its
curvature to its bifurcation, it fends off feveral arteries
in the following order : I. One or two little arteries,
firft demonftrated by Ruyfch as going to the bronchi,
and called arterue bronchioles Ruyfchu. 2. Bhe arte-
riae oefophageae. I hefe are commonly three or four in
number. They arife from the fore part of the aorta,
and are diftributed chiefly to the cefophagus. 3. The
inferior intercoftal arteries, which are diftributed be¬
tween the ribs in the fame manner as the arteries of the
three or four fuperior ribs are, which are derived from
the fubclavian. Thefe arteries fend off branches to
the medulla fpinalis. 4- ^he diaphragmatic or infe¬
rior phrenic arteries, which go to the diaphragm, fto-
mach, omentum, duodenum, pancreas, fpleen, liver, and
gall-bladder, j. The coeliac, which fends off the co¬
ronary ftomachic, the fplenic, and the hepatic arter\.
6. The fuperior mefenteric artery, which is diftributed
to the mefentery and fmall inteftines. 7. Theemul-
gents, which go to the kidneys. 8. The arteries
which are diftributed to the glandulae renales. 9. The
fpermatic. 10. The inferior mefenteric artery, which
ramifies through the lower portion of the mefentery
and the large inteftines. A branch of this artery which
goes to the reftum is called the internal luemorrhoidal.
11. The lumbar arteries, and a very fmall branch caked
the facra, which are diftributed to the mufcles of the
loins and abdomen, and to the os facrum and medulla
fpinahs. t^nk of the aorta, when ;t has reached the
laft vertebra lumborum, or the os facrum, drops the
name of aorta, and feparates into two forked branches
called the iliacs. Each of thefe foon divides into two
branches; one of which is called the internal iliac, or
hypogajlric artery, and is diftributed upon the contents
of the pelvis and upon the mufcles on its outer fide.
One branch, called pudenda communis, fends fmall rami¬
fications to the end of the reftum under the name of
frcemorrhoidales externce, and is afterwards diftributed
upon the penis. The other branch, the external iliac,
after having given off the circumflex artery of the os
ilium and the epigaftric, which is diftributed to the
refti mufcles, paffes out of the abdomen under Pou-
part’s ligament, and takes the name of crural artery.
It defeends on the inner part of the thigh clofe to the
os femoris, fending off branches to the mufcles, and
then finking deeper in the hind part of the thigh, reach¬
es the ham, where it takes the name ol popliteal: after
this it feparates into two confiderable branches ; one 01
which is called the anterior tibial artery, the other di¬
vides into two branches, and thefe arteries all go to be
diftributed to the leg and foot.
The blood, which is thus diftributed by the aorta
to all parts of the body, is brought back by the veins,
which are fuppofed to be continued from the ulUmate
branches of arteries; and uniting together as they ap¬
proach the heart, at length form the large trunks, the
vena cava afeendens, and vena cava defeendens.
All the veins which bring back the blood from the
upper extremities, and from the head and bread, pafs
into the vena cava defeendens ; and thofe which return
it from the lower parts of the body terminate in the
vena
a
Chap.
IV. ANA'
vena cava afcendens ; and thefe two cavas uniting to¬
gether, as they approach the heart, open by one com-
1 mon orifice into the left auricle.
It does not here feem to be neceffary to follow the
different divifiohs of the veins as we did thofe of the
arteries ; and it will be fufficient to remark, that in
general every artery is accompanied by its vein, and
that both are diftinguifhed by the fame name. But,
like many other general rules, this too has its excep¬
tions (c). The veins, for inftance, which accompany
the external and internal carotid, are not called the
carotid veins, but the external and internal jugular.—
In the thorax there is a vein diftinguilhed by a pro¬
per name, and this is the az-ygos, or vena fine pari.
This vein, which is a pretty confiderable one, runs
along by the right fide of the vertebrae of the back,
and is chiefly deftined to receive the blood from the
intercoftals on that fide, and from the lower half of
thofe on the left fide, and to convey it into the vena
cava defcendens. In the abdomen we meet with a
vein, which is a ftill more remarkable one, and this is
the vena portce, which performs the office both of an
artery and a vein. It is formed by a reunion of all
the veins which come from the ftomach, inteftines,
omentum, pancreas, and fpleen, fo as to compofe one
great trunk, which goes to ramify through the liver •,
and after having depofited the bile, its ramifications
unite, and bring back into the vena cava, not only the
blood which the vena portae had carried into the liver,
but likewife the blood from the hepatic artery. Every
artery has a vein which correfponds with it; but the
trunks and branches of the veins are more numerous
than thofe of the arteries. The reafons for this dif-
pofition are perhaps not difficult to be explained ; the
blood in its courfe through the veins is much farther
removed from the fource and caufe of its motion, which
are in the heart, than it was when in the arteries j fo
that its courfe is confequently lefs rapid, and enough
of it could not poffibly be brought back to the heart
in the moment of its dilatation, to equal the quantity
which is driven into the arteries from the two ven¬
tricles at the time they contra#; and the equilibri¬
um, which is fo effential to the continuance of life and
health, would confequently be deftroyed, if the capa¬
city of the veins did not exceed that of the arteries,
in the fame proportion that the rapidity of the blood’s
motion through the arteries exceeds that of its return
through the veins.
A large artery ramifying through the body, and
continued to the minute branches of veins, which gra¬
dually unite together to form a large trunk, may be
compared to two trees united to each other at their
tops *, or rather as having their ramifications fo dif-
pofed that the two trunks terminate in one common
point ; and if we farther fuppofe, that both thefe trunks
and their branches are hollow, and that a fluid is incef-
fantly circulated through them, by entering into one of
the trunks and returning through the other, we fhall be
enabled to conceive how the blood is circulated through
the veffels of the human body.
r O M Y. 261
Every trunk of an artery, before it divides, is nearly Of the
cylindrical, or of equal diameter through its whole Thorax,
length, and fo are all its branches when examined fe- ’ 1
parately. But every trunk feems to contain lefs blood
than the many branches do into which that trunk fe-
parates j and each of thefe branches probably contains
lefs blood than the ramifications do into which it is
fubdivided : and it is the fame with the veins j the vo¬
lume of their feveral ramifications, when confidered to¬
gether, being found to exceed that of the great trunk
which they form by their union.
The return of the blood through the veins to the
heart, is promoted by the a6tion of the mufcles, and
the pulfation of the arteries. And this return is like¬
wife greatly affifted by the valves which are to be met
with in the veins, and which conftitute one of the great
diftindtions between them and the arteries. Thefe
valves, which are fuppofed to be formed by the inner
coat of the veins, permit the blood to flow from the
extremities towards the heart, but oppofe its return.
They are moft frequent in the fmaller veins. As the
column of blood increafes, they feem to become lefs
neceffary; and therefore in the vena cava afcendens, -we
meet with only one valve, which is near its origin.
1 he arteries are compofed of feveral tunics. Seme
writers enumerate five of thefe tunics j but perhaps we
may more properly reckon only three, viz. the nervous,
mufcular, and cuticu/ar coats. The veins are by feme
anatomifts deferibed as having the fame number of
coats as the arteries j and as they do not feem to be
irritable, wre cannot with propriety fuppofe them to
have a mufcular tunic. We are aware of Dr Verf- Be Arte-
chuir’s experiments to prove that the jugular and {ovaer^arum et
other veins poffefs a certain degree of irritability •, but
it is certain, that his experiments, repeated by others, ^t0 ’
have produced a different refult *, and even he himfelf
allows, that fometimes he was unable to diftinguith any
fuch property in the veins. Both thefe feries of vefr
fels are nourilhed by ftill more minute arteries and veins,
which are feen creeping over their coats and ramifying
through their whole fubftance, and are called vafa va-
forum; they have likewife many minute branches of
nerves.
The arteries are much ftronger than the veins ; and
they feem to require this force, to be enabled to refill
the impetus with which the blood circulates through
them, and to impel it on towards the veins.
When the heart contracts, it impels the blood into
the arteries, and fenfibly diftends them 5 and thefe vef¬
fels again contra#, as the heart becomes relaxed to re¬
ceive more blood from the auricles •, fo that the caufe
of the contra#ion and dilatation of the arteries feems
to be eafy to be underftood, being owing in part to
their own contra#ile power, and in part to the a#ion
of the heart ; but in the veins, the effe#s of this im-
pulfe not being fo fenfibly felt, and the veffels them-
felves having little or no contra#ile power, the blood
feems to flow in a conftant and equal ftream : and this,
together with its palling gradually from a fmall chan¬
nel into a larger one, feems to be the reafon why the
(c) In the extremities, feme of the deep-feated veins, and all the fuperficial ones, take a courfe different from
that of the arteries.
262 A N A T
Oftlie veins have no pulfatory motion, except the large ones
Thorax, near the heart j and in thefe it Teems to be occafioned
'“—'V—*'• by the motion of the diaphragm, and by the regurgita¬
tion of the blood in the cavas.
Sect. XII. Of the Acilon of the Heart, Auricles,
and Arteries.
127 The heart, at the time it contracts, drives the blood
from the ventricles into the arteries } and the arteries
being thus filled and difiended, are naturally inclined
to contract the moment the heart begins to dilate, and
ceafes to fupply them with blood. Thefe alternate mo¬
tions of contra&ion and dilatation of the heart and ar¬
teries, are diftinguhhed by the name offyjlole and dia-
fole. When the heart is in a ftate of contraftion or
fyftole, the arteries are at that inftant diftended with
blood, and in their diaftole •, and it is in this ftate we
feel their pulfatory motion, which we call the pulfe.
When the heart dilates, and the arteries contrafl, the
blood is impelled onw'ards into the veins, through which
it is returned back to the heart. While the heart,
however, is in its fyftole, the blood cannot pafs from
the veins into the ventricles, but is detained in the au¬
ricles, which are two refervoirs formed for this ufe,
till the diaftole, or dilatation of the heart, takes place ;
and then the diftended auricles eontraft, and drive the
blood into the ventricles *, fo that the auricles have an
alternate fyftole and diaftole as well as the heart.
Although both the ventricles of the heart contra£l
at the fame time, yet the blood paffes from one to the
other. In the fame moment, for inftance, that the
left ventricle drives the blood into the aorta, the right
ventricle impels it into the pulmonary artery, which
is diftributed through all the fubftance of the lungs.
The blood is afterwards brought back into the left ven¬
tricle by the pulmonary vein at the fame time that
the blood is returned by the cavas, into the right ven¬
tricle, from all the other parts of the body.
This feems to be the mode of aflion of the heart
and its veffels : but the caufe of this a&ion has, like
all other intricate and interefting fubje&s, been differ¬
ently explained. It feems to depend on the ftimulus
made on the different parts of the heart by the blood
itfelf, which, by its quantity and heat, or other proper¬
ties (d), is perhaps capable of firft exciting that_ mo¬
tion, which is afterwards continued through life, inde¬
pendent of the will, by a regular return of blood, to
the auricles, in a quantity proportioned to that which
is thrown into the arteries.
The heart poffeffes the vis infita, or principle of ir¬
ritability, in a much greater degree than any other
mufcle of the body. The pulfe is quicker in young
than in old fubjefts, becaufe the former are can. par.
more irritable than the latter. Upon the fame prin¬
ciple yic. may explain, why the pulfe is conftantly
quicker in weak than in rebuff perfons.
O M Y. Part I.
Sect. XIII. Of the Circulation. Thorax
After what has been obferved of tne ftru£lure and v_ J
a£Hon of the heart and its auricles, and likewife of the IlS
arteries and veins, there feem to be but very few argu¬
ments required to demonftrate the circulation of the
blood, which has lung iince been eftabliftied as a medi¬
cal truth. This circulation may be defined to be a per¬
petual motion of the blood, in confequence of the ac¬
tion of the heart and arteries, which impel it through
all the parts of the body, from whence it is brought
back by the vein's to the heart.
A very fatisfaflory proof of this circulation, and a
proof eafy to be underftood, may be deduced from the
different effefts of preffure on an artery and a vein. If
a ligature, for inftance, is paffed round an artery, the
veffel fwells confiderably between the ligature and the
heart 5 whereas if we tie up a vein, it only becomes
filled between the extremity and the ligature, and this
is what we every day obferve in bleeding. I he liga¬
ture w'e pafs round the arm on thefe occafions, com-
preffes the fuperficial veins 5 and the return of the blood
through them being impeded, they become diftended.
When the ligature is too loofe, the veins are not fuffi-
ciently compreffed, and the blood continues its progrefs
towards the heart; and, on the contrary, when it is
made too tight, the arteries themfelves become com¬
preffed *, and the flow of the blood through them being
impeded, the veins cannot be diftended.
Another phenomenon, which effectually proves the
circulation, is the lofs of blood that every living ani¬
mal fuftains by opening only a fingle artery of a mode¬
rate fize j for it continues to flow from the wounded
veffel till the equilibrium is deftroyed which is eflential
to life. This truth was not unknown to the ancients;
and it feems ftrange that it did not lead them to a
knowledge of the circulation, as it fufficiently proves,
that all the other veffels rouft communicate with that
which is opened. Galen who lived more than 1500
years ago, drew this conclufion from it j and it we far¬
ther obferve, that he defcribes (after Erafiftratus, who
flouriftied about 450 years before him) the feveral valves
of the heart, and determines their difpofition and ufes,
it will appear wonderful, that a period of near 200Q
years ftiould afterwards elapfe before the true courfe
of the blood was afcertained. This difcovery, for
which we are indebted to the immortal Harvey, has
thrown new lights on phyfiology and the doCtrine of
difeafes* and conftitutes one of the moft important pe¬
riods of anatomical hiftory.
Sect. XIV. Of the Nature of the Blood*
Blood, recently drawn from a vein into a bafon, 119
would feem to be an homogeneous fluid of a red co¬
lour (e) ; but when fuffered to reft, it foon coagulates,
and divides into two parts, which are diftinguiftied by
the
Cnl Dr Harvey long ago fnggefted, that the blood is poffeffed of a living principle ; and the late Mr J. Hun-
ter has endeavoured to revive this doflrine ; in fupport of which he has adduced many ingenious arguments.
The fubjeft is a curious one, and deferves to be profecuted as an inquiry which cannot but be intereft g
^a(E) The blood, as it flows through the arteries, is obferved to be more florid than it is in the veins j and this
rednefs is acquired in its paffage through the lungs. Vid. Seft. VII.
Chap. IV. ANA'
Of the the names of crajfatnentum and ferum* The craflTamen-
Thorax. turn is the red coagulum, and the ferum is the water
\ in which it floats. Each of thefe may be again fepa-
rated into two others •, for the craflamentum, by being
repeatedly waftied in warm water, gives out all its red
globules, and what remains appears to be compofed of
the coagulable lymph (f), which is a gelatinous fub-
ftance, capable of being hardened by fire till it becomes
perfeftly horny : and if we expofe the ferum to a cer¬
tain degree of heat, part of it will be found to coagu¬
late like the white of an egg, and there will remain a
clear and limpid water, refembling urine both in its ap¬
pearance and fmell.
The ferum and craflamentum differ in their propor¬
tion in different conftitutions •, in a ftrong perfon, the
craffamentum is in a greater proportion to the ferum
* Hcwfon's than in a weak one * ; and the fame difference is found
Expert":- piace in difeafes (g). *
Inq. Part I. 1 K J «
Sect. XV. Of Nutrition.
The variety of functions ■which we have defcribed
as being inceffantly performed by the living body, and
the continual circulation of the blood through it, mult
tneceffarily occafion a conftant diflipation of the feveral
parts which enter into its compofition. In fpeaking
of the infenfible perfpiration, we obferved how much
was inceffantly paffing off from the lungs and the fur-
face of the lkin. The difcharge by urine is likewife
every day confiderable •, and great part of the bile, fa-
liva, &c. are excluded by ftool. But the folid, as well
as the fluid parts of the body, require a conftant re¬
newal of nutritious particles. They are expofed to the
attrition of the fluids which are circulated through
them ; and the contraflion and relaxation they repeat
fo many thoufand times in every day, would neceffarily
occafion a diffolution of the machir^i, if the renewal
was not proportioned to the wafte.
It is eafy to conceive how the chyle formed from
the aliment is aflimilated into the nature of blood, and
repairs the lofs of the fluid parts of our body j but
how the folids are renewed, has never yet been fatis-
fadlorily explained. The nutritious parts of the blood
are probably depofited by the arteries by exudation
E o M Y.
through their pores into the tela cellulola; and as the
folid parts of the body are in the embryo only a kind
of jelly, which gradually acquires the degree of con¬
fidence they are found to have when the body arrives
at a more advanced age j and thefe fame parts which
confift of bones, cartilages, ligaments, mufcles, &c. are
fometimes reduced again by difeafe to a gelatinous ftatej
we may, with fome degree of probability, confider the
coagulable lymph as the fource of nutrition.
If the fupply of nourifhment exceeds the degree of
wafte, the body increafes ; and this happens in infancy
and in youth : for at thofe periods, but more particu¬
larly the former one, the fluids bear a large proportion
to the folids j and the fibres being foft and yielding,
are proportionably more capable of extenfion and in-
creafe. But when the fupply of nutrition only equals
the wafte, we neither increafe nor decreafe ; and we
find this to be the cafe when the body has attained its
full growth or acme: for the folids having then ac¬
quired a certain degree of firmnefs and rigidity, do not
permit a farther increafe of the body. But as we ap¬
proach to old age, rigidity begins to be in excefs, and
the fluids (h) bear a much lefs proportion to the felids
than before. The diflipation of the body is greater
than the fupply of nourilhment : many of the imaller
veffels become gradually impervious (i) •, and the fibres
lofing their moifture and their elafticity, appear flaccid
and wrinkled. The lilies and the rofes difappear, be-
caufe the fluids by which they were produced can no
longer reach the extremities of the capillary veffels of
the Ikin. As thefe changes take place, the nervous
power being proportionably weakened, the irritability
and fenfibility of the body, which were formerly fo re¬
markable, are greatly diminilhed \ and in advanced life,
the hearing, the eye-fight, and all the other fenfes, be¬
come gradually impaired.
Sect. XVI. Of the Glands and Secretions.
The glands are commonly underftood to be fmall,
roundifli, or oval bodies, formed by the convolution of
a great number of veffels, and deftined to feparate par¬
ticular humours from the mafs of blood.
They are ufually divided into two claffes 3 but it feems
more
263
Of the
Thorax.
IS*
(f) It may not be improper to obferve, that till of late the coagulable lymph has been confounded with the
ferum of the blood, which contains a fubftance that is likewife coagulable, though only when expofed to heat,
or combined with certain chemical fubftances; whereas the other coagulates fpontaneoufly when expofed to the
air or to reft.
(g) When the blood feparates into ferum and crajfumentum, if the latter be covered with a cruft of a whitifli
or buff colour, it has been ufually confidered as a certain proof of the blood’s being in a ftate of too great vif-
cidity. ft his appearance commonly taking place in inflammatory difeafes, has long ferved to confirm the theory
which afcribes the caufe of inflammation to lentor and obftrudlions. But from the late Mr Hewfon’s experi¬
ments it appears, that when the a£!ion of the arteries is increafed, the blood, inftead of being more vifcid, is,
on the contrary, more fluid than in the ordinary ftate previous to inflammation 3 and that in confequence of
this, the coagulable lymph fuffers the red globules, which are the heavieft part of the blood, to fall down to
the bottom before it coagulates : fo that the craffamentum is divided into two parts 3 one of which is found to
confift of the coagulable lymph alone (in this cafe termed the buff) ; and the other, partly of this and partly
of the red globules.
(h) As the fluids become lefs in proportion to the folids, their acrimony is found to increafe 3 and this may
perhaps compenfate fur the u^ant of fluidity in the blood, by diminiftiing its cohefion.
(1) In infancy, the arteries are numerous and large in refpeft to the veins, and the lymphatic glands are
arger than at any other time of life j whereas, in old age, the capacity of the venous fyftem exceeds that of,
the arteries, and the lymphatic fyftem almoft difappears.
26+ A N A T
Of the more proper to diftinguifh three kinds of glands, viz.
Thorax, the mucous, conglobate, and conglomerate.
‘ y ' The mucous glands, or follicles as they are moft
commonly called, are fmall cylindrical tubes continued
from the ends of arteries. In fome parts of the body,
as in the tonfils, for example, feveral of thefe follicles
may be feen folded together in one common covering,
and opening into one common finus. Thefe follicles
are the veffels that fecrete and pour out mucus in the
mouth, oefophagus, ftomach, intellines, and other parts
of the body.
The conglobate glands are peculiar to the lymphatic
fyftem. Every lymphatic vein paffes through a gland
of this kind in its way to the thoracic du&. 'Hiey are
met with in different parts of the body, particularly in
the axilla, groin, and mefentery, and are either folitary
or in diftinft clufters.
The conglomerate glands are of much greater bulk
than the conglobate, and feem to be an affemblage of
many fmaller glands. Of this kind are the liver, kid¬
neys, &c. Some of them, as the pancreas, parotids,
&c. have a granulated appearance. All thefe conglome¬
rate glands are plentifully fupplied with blood veffels: but
their nerves are in general very minute, and few in
number. Each little granulated portion furnifhes a
fmall tube, which unites with other fimilar du£fs, to
form the common excretory du£l of the gland.
The principal glands, and the humours they fecrete,
have been already defcribed in different parts of this
work j and there only remains for us to examine the
general ftru&ure of the glands, and to explain the me-
chanifm of fecretion. On the firft of thefe fubje&s
two different fyftems have been formed ; each of which
has had, and ftill continues to have, its adherents.
One of thefe fyftems was advanced by Malpighi, who
fuppofed that an artery entering into a gland ramifies
very minutely through its whole fubftanee $ and that
its branches ultimately terminate in a veficular cavity
or follicle, from whence the fecreted fluid paffes out
through the excretory dudt. This doftrine at firft
met with few opponents j but the celebrated Ruyfch,
who firft attempted minute injections with wax, after¬
wards difputed the exiftence of thefe follicles, and af-
ferted, that every gland appears to be a continued fe-
ries of veffels, which, after being repeatedly convoluted
in their courfe through its fubftance, at length termi¬
nate in the excretory duCt. Anatomifts are ftill di¬
vided between thefe two fyftems : that of Malpighi,
however, feems to be the beft founded.
The mode of fecretion has been explained in a va¬
riety of ways, and they are all perfe&ly hypothetical.
In fuch an inquiry, it is natural to afk, how one gland
conftantly feparates a particular humour, while another
gland fecretes one of a very different nature from the
blood ? The bile, for inftance, is feparated by the liver,
and the urine by the kidneys. Are thefe fecretions to
be imputed to any particular difpofitions in the fluids ?
or is their caufe to be looked for in the folids ?
It has been fuppofed, that every gland contains
within itfelf a fermenting principle, by which it is
enabled to change the nature of the blood it receives,
and to endue it with a particular property. Thus,
according to this fyftem, the blood, as it circulates
through ^he kidneys, becomes mixed with the ferment-
* jng principle of thofe glands, and a part of it is con-
O M Y.
Part I,
verted into urine j and again in the livel, in the fa-
lival and other glands, the bile, the faliva, and other
juices, are generated from a fimilar caufe. But it feems w
to be impoflible for any liquor to be confined in a
place expofed to the circulation, without being car¬
ried away by the torrent of blood, every part of which
would be equally affedled ; and this fyftem of fermen¬
tation has long been rejected as vague and chimerical.
But as the caufe of fecretion continued to be looked
for in the fluids, the former fyftem was fucceeded by
another, in which recourfe was had to the analogy of
the humours. It was obferved, that if paper be moift-
ened with water, and oil and water be afterwards
poured upon it, the water only will be permitted to
pafs through it, but that, on the other hand, if the
paper has been previoufly foaked in oil inftead of water,
the oil only, and not the water, will be filtered through
it. Thefe obfervations led to a fuppofition, that every
fecretory organ is originally furnifhed with a humour
analogous to that which it is afterwards deftined to
fe par ate from the blood ; and that in confequence of
this difpofition, the fecretory veffels of the liver, for
inftance, will only admit the bilious particles of the
blood, while all the other humours will be excluded.
This fyftem is an ingenious one, but the difficulties
with which it abounds are unanfwerable : for oil and
water are immifcible *, whereas the blood, as it is cir¬
culated through the body, appears to be a homoge¬
neous fluid. Every oil will pafs through a paper
moiftened only with one kind of oil; and wine, or
fpirits mixed with water, will eafily be filtered through
a paper previoufly foaked in water. Upon the fame
principle, all our humours, though differing in their
other properties, yet agreeing in that of being perfect¬
ly mifcible with each other, will all eafily pafs through
the fame filtre.—But thefe are not all the objections
to this fyftem. The humours which are fuppofed to
be placed in the fecretory veffels for the determination
of fimilar particles from the blood, muft be originally
feparated without any analogous fluid ; and that which
happens once, may as eafily happen always. . Again,
It fometimes happens, from a vitious difpofition, that
humours are filtered through glands which are natu¬
rally not intended to afford them a paffage : and when
this once has happened, it ought, according to this
fyftem, to be expefted always to do fo : whereas this
is not the cafe; and we are, after all, naturally led to
feek for the caufe of fecretion in the folids. It does
not feem right to afcribe it to any particular figure of
the fecretory veffels \ becaufe the foft texture of thofe
parts does not permit them to preferve any conftant
ftiape, and our fluids feem to be capable of accommo¬
dating themfelves to every kind of figure. Some have
imputed it to the difference of diameter in the orifices
of the different fecretory veffels. To this doCtrine
objections have likewife been raifed j and it has been
argued, that the veffels of the liver, for inftance, would,
upon this principle, afford a paffage not only to the
bile, but to all the other humours of lefs confiftence
with it. In reply to this objection, it has been fuppof¬
ed, that fecondary veffels exift, which originate from
the firft, and permit all the humours thinner than the
bile to pafs through them.
Each of thefe hypothefes is probably very remote
from the truth.
EXPLANATION
Of the
Thorax.
ANATOMY.
Chap. V.
Of the
Brain and
Nerves.
EXPLANATION of PLATE XXX.
265
Of the
Brain and
Nerves.
This Plate reprefents the Heart in fitu, all the
large Arteries and Veins, with feme of the Mufcles,
&c.
Muscles, &;c.—Superior Extremity.—a, Maf-
feter. b, Complexus. c, Digaftricus. d, Os hyoides.
e, Thyroid gland, f, Levator fcapulse. g, Cuculla-
ris. h, The clavicles cut. i, The deltoid mufcle.
k, Biceps flexor cubiti cut. 1, Coraco-brachialis.
in, Triceps extenfor cubiti. n, The heads of the pro¬
nator teres, flexor carpi radialis, and flexor digitorum
filblimis, cut. o, The flexor carpi ulnaris cut at its
extremity, p, Flexor digitorum profundus, q, Supi¬
nator radii longus, cut at its extremity, r, Ligamen-
tum carpi tranfverfale. s, Extenfores carpi radiales.
t, Latiflimus dorfi. u, Anterior edge of the ferratus
anticus major, vv, The inferior part of the diaphragm.
w\v, Its interior edge cut. xx, The kidneys, y, Tranf-
verfus abdominis, z, Os ilium.
Inferior Extremity.—a, Pfoas magnus. b, I-
liacus internus. c. The flefhy origin of the tenfor va¬
ginae femoris. clti, The ofla pubis cut from each other.
e, Mufculus pe£tineus cut from its origin, f, Short
head of the triceps adductor femoris cut. g, The great
head of the triceps, b, The long head cut. i, Vaftus
internus. k, Vaftus externus. /, Crureus. rn, Gemel¬
lus. «, Soleus. 0, Tibia. />, Peronasus longus. y, Pe-
ronaeus brevis, r, Fibula.
Heart and Blood Vessels.—A, The heart, with
the coronary arteries and veins. B, The right auricle
of the heart. C, The aorta afeendens. D, The left
fubclavian artery. E, The left carotid artery. F, The
common trunk which fends off the right fubclavian and
right carotid arteries. G, The carotis externa. H, Ar-
teria facialis, which fends off the coronary arteries o£
the lips. I, Arteria temporalis profunda. K, Aor¬
ta defeendens. LL, The iliac arteries,—which fend
off MM, The femoral or crural arteries. iV. B. The
other arteries in this figure have the fame diftributiou
as the veins of thei fame name :—And generally, in
the anatomical plates, the defeription to be found on
the one fide points out the fame parts in the other.
1, The frontal vein. 2, The facial vein. 3, Vena
temporalis profunda. 4, Vena occipitalis. 5, Vena
jugularis externa. 6, Vena jugularis interna, covering
the arteria earotis communis. 7, The vafcular arch on
the palm of the hand, which is formed by 8, the radial
artery and vein, and, 9, the ulnar artery and vein.
10 10, Cephalic vein, ti, Bafilic vein, that on the
right fide, cut.. 12, Median vein. 13, The humeral
vein, which, with the median, covers the humeral ar¬
tery. 14 14, The external thoracic or mammary ar¬
teries and veins, 15, The axillary vein, covering the
artery. 16 16, The fubclavian veins, which, with
(66) the jugulars, form, 17, The vena cava fupe-
rior. 18, The cutaneous arch of veins on the fore part
of the foot. 19, The vena tibialis antica, covering
the artery. 20, The vena profunda femoris, covering
the artery. 21, The upper part of the vena faphena
major. 22, The femoral vein. 23 23, The iliac
veins. 24 24, Vena cava inferior. 2? 25, The renal
veins covering the arteries. 26 26, The diaphragma¬
tic veins.
CHAP. V. OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES.
Sect. I. Of the Brain and its Integuments.
132 THE bones of the cranium were deferibed in the
ofteological part of this work, as enclofing the brain
and defending it from external injury : but they are not
133 its only protection; for when we make a horizontal
fe<^on through thefe bones, we find this mafs every-
ihe brain. w^ere furrounded by two membranes (k), the dura and
Vol. II. Part I.
(k) The Greeks called thefe membranes meninges ; but the Arabians, fuppofing them to be the fource of all
the other membranes of the body, afterwards gave them the name of dura and pia mater; by which they are
now ufually diftinguifhed.
(l) In young fubjeCts this adhefion is greater than in adults j but even then, in the healthy fubjeft, it is no¬
where eafily feparable, without breaking through fome of the minute veffels by means of which it is attached to
the bone.
(^0 This membrane is commonly deferibed as confifting of two laminae j of which the external one is fuppofed
to perform the office of periofteum internum to the cranium, while the internal one forms the folds and proceffes of
. ® ura mater. In the natural ftate, however, no fuch feparation is apparent j like other membranes, we may
in ee divide it, not into two only, but many laminae j but this divifion is artificial, and depends on the dexterity
of the anatomift. 1 1
pia mater.—The firft of thefe lines the interior furface
of the cranium, to which it everywhere adheres ftrong-
ly (l), but more particularly at the futures, and at the
many foramina through which veffels pafs between it
and the pericranium. The dura mater (m) is perfect¬
ly fmooth and inelaftic, and its inner furface is conftantly
bedewed with a fine pellucid fluid, which everywhere
feparates It from the pia mater. The dura mater fends
266
ANA T O M Y.
Of the off ftveral confiderabl'e proceffes, Avbich divide the brain
Brain and into fbveral portions, and prevent them from compre
Nerves. pino. each other. Of tliefe proceffes there is one iupe-
’ rior and longitudinal, called the falx or falciform pro-
cefs, from its refemblance to a fcythe. It arifes from
theVpine of the os frontis, near the crifta galli, and ex¬
tending along in the dire61ion of the fagittal future, to
beyond’ the lambdoidal future, divides the brain into two
hemifpheres. A little below the lambdoidal future, it
divides into two broad wings or expanfions called the
tranfoerfe or lateral proceffes, which prevent the lobes
of the cerebrum from preffing on the cerebellum. £>e-
fides thefe there is a fourth, which is fituated under
the tranfverfe proceffes, and being continued to the
fpine of the occiput, divides the cerebellum into two
lobes.
The blood, after being diftributed through the ca¬
vity of the cranium by means of the arteries, is return¬
ed, as in the other parts of the body, by veins which all
pafs on to certain channels fituated between thefe feve-
ral proceffes,. _
Thefe canals or finufes communicate with each other,
and empty themfelvee into the internal jugular veins,
which convey the blood into the vena cava. They, are
in fadt triangular veins, running through the fubftance
of the dura mater, and, like all the proceffes, are dium-
cmifhed into longitudinal and lateral; and where theie
three meet, and where the fourth procefs paffeth off, we
obferve a fourth finus, which is called torcular ; Hero-
philus, who fir ft defcribed it, having fuppofed that the
blood at the union of thefe two veins, is, as it were, in
^Befides thefe four canals, which were known to the
ancients, modern anatomifts enumerate many others, by
sdvinp- the appellation of fnufes to other veins ot the
dura mater, which for the moft part empty themfelves
into fame of thofe we have juft now defcribed. 1 here
are the inferior longitudinal finus, the fuperior and in¬
ferior petrous finufes, the cavernous finufes, the cir¬
cular finus, and the anterior and poftenor occipital
1 ^Thefe finufes or veins,, by being conveyed through a
thick denfe membrane, firmly fulpended, as the dura
mater is, within the cranium, are lefs liable to rupture j
at the fame time they are well fupported, and by run¬
ning everywhere along the inner furface of the bones,
they are prevented from preffing on the fubftance of the
brain. To prevent too great a dilatation of them, we
find filaments (called chorda: Willifii, from their having
been firft noticed by’Willis) ftretched acrofs their ca¬
vities : and the oblique manner in which the veins from
the brain run through the fubftance of the brain into
thefe channels, ferves the purpofe of a valve, which
prevents the blood from turning back into the imaller
and weaker veffels of the brain.
The pia mater h a much fofter and finer membrane
than the dura mater : being exceedingly delicate, tranf-
parent, and vafcular. It invefts every part of the brain,
and fends off an infinite number of elongations, which
infinuate themfelves between the convolutions, and even
into the fubftance of the brain. This membrane is
compofed of two laminae ; of which the exterior one is
named tunica arachnoids a, from its thinnefs, which is
equal to that of a fpider’s web. Thefe two laminae are
intimately adherent to each other, at the upper part of
Part I.
the brain, but are eafily feparable at the bafis of the of the
brain, and through the whole length of the medulla Brain and
fpinalis. The external layer,, or tunica arachnoidea, ,
appears to be fpread uniformly over the furface of. the
brain, but without entering into the furrows as the m-
ner layer does •, the latter being found to. infinuate it-
felf between the convolutions, and even into the inte¬
rior cavities of the brain. The blood-veffels of the
brain are diftributed through it in their way to that
or^an, and are therefore divided into very minute ra¬
mifications, before they penetrate the fubftance of the
brain. x34 .
There are feveral parts included under the general The brain,
denomination of brain. One of thefe, which is of the
fofteft confidence, and fills the greateft part of the ca¬
vity of the cranium, is the cerebrum or brain, properly
fo called. Another portion, which is feated in the in¬
ferior and polWior part of the head, is the cerebellum.;
and a third, which derives its origin from both thefe, is
the medulla oblongata. *35
The cerebrum is a medullary mafs of a moderate Cerebrum,
confiftence, filling up exa&ly all the upper part of the
cavity of the cranium, and divided into two hemi¬
fpheres by the falx of the dura mater. Each of .thefe
hemifpheres is ufually diftinguiffied into an interior, a
middle, and a poferior lobe. The firft of thefe is
lodged on the orbital proceffes of the os frontis ; the
middle lobes lie in the middle foffe of the bafis of the
cranium, and the pofterior lobes are placed on the
tranfverfe feptum of the os occipitis, immediately over
the cerebellum, from which they are feparated by the
lateral proeeffes of the dura mater. Thefe two por¬
tions afford no diftinguifhing mark of reparation } and
on this account Haller, and many other modern ana¬
tomifts, omit the diftin&ion of the middle lobe, and
fpeak only of the anterior and pofterior lobes of the
brain. r c
The cerebrum appears to be compofed of two diltmct
fubftances. Of thefe the exterior one, which is of
a grayilh or alh colour, is called the cortex, and is
fomewhat fofter than the other, which is very white,
and is called medulla, or fubfantia alba.
After having removed the falx, and feparated the
two hemifpheres from each other, we perceive a white
convex body, the corpus callofum, which is a portion
of the medullary fubftance, uniting the two hemi¬
fpheres to each other, and not inverted by the. cortex.
By making a horizontal incifion into the brain, on a
level with this corpus callofum, we difeover two oblong
cavities, named the anterior or lateral ventricles, one
in each hemifphere. Thefe two ventricles, which
communicate with each other by a hole immediately
under the plexus choroides, are feparated laterally by
a very fine medullary partition, called feptum lucidum,
from its thinnefs and tranfparency. The lower .edge
of this feptum is fixed to the fornix, which is a kind
of medullary arch (as its name implies).fituated under
the corpus callofum, and nearly of a triangular ftiape.
Anteriorly the fornix fends off two medullary chords,
called its anterior crura; which ffero to be united to
each other by a portion of medullary fubftance, named
commiffura anterior cerebri. Thefe crura diverging
from one another, are loft at the outer fide of the low-
and fore part of the third ventricle. Pofteriorly
the fornix is formed into two other crura, which unite
•nrlt
Chap. V, A N A T
Of the with two medullary protuberances, called pedes hippo-
Brain and campi, and fometimes cornua ammonis, that extend
Nerves. along the back part of the lateral ventricles. The con-
1 cave edge of the pedes hippocampi is covered by a me¬
dullary lamina, called corpus jimbriatum.
Neither the edges of the fornix, nor its poflerior
crura, can be well diftinguilhed, till we have-removed
the plexus choroides. This is a production of the pia
mater, which is fpread over the lateral ventricles. Its
loofe edges are collected, fo as to appear like a vafcular
band on each fide.
When we have removed this plexus, we difeover le-
veral other protuberances included in the lateral ventri¬
cles. Thefe are the corpora ftriata, the thalami nervo¬
rum opticorum, the tubercula quadrugemina, and the
pineal gland.
The corpora jlriata are two curved oblong eminences,
that extend along the anterior part of the lateral ventri¬
cles. They derive their name from their ftriated ap¬
pearance, which is owing to an intermixture of the cor¬
tical and medullary fubftances of the brain. The tha¬
lami nervorum opticorum, are fo called, becaufe the op¬
tic nerves arife chiefly from them, and they are likewife
compofed both of the cortex and medulla. They are
feparated from the corpora ftriata only by a kind of
medullary chord, the geminum centrum femicirculare.
The thalami are nearly of an oval (hape, and are fitu-
ated at the bottom of the upper cavity of the lateral
ventricles. They are clofely united, and at their con¬
vex part feem to become one body.
Anteriorly, in the fpace between the thalami, -we
obferve an orifice by which the lateral ventricles com¬
municate, and another leads down from this, under the
different appellations of foramen commune anterius, vul¬
va, iter ad infundibulum, but more properly iter ad ter-
tium ventriculum; and the feparation of the thalami
from each other pofteriorly, forms another opening or
interftice called anus. This has been fuppofed to com¬
municate with the third ventricle •, but it does not, the
bottom of it being (hut up by the pia mater. The back
part of the anus is formed by a kind of medullary band,
which conne&s the thalami to each other, and is called
commiffura pojlerior cerebri.
Behind the thalami and commiffura pofterior, we ob¬
ferve a fmall, foft, grayifh, and oval body, about the
fize of a pea. This is the glandula pinealis j it is de-
feribed by Galen under the name of conarion, and has
been rendered famous by Defcartes, who fuppofed it to
be the feat of the foul. Galen feems formerly to have
entertained the fame opinion. Some modern writers
have, with as little reafon, imagined that the foul is
placed in the corpus callofum.
The pineal gland refts upon four remarkable emi¬
nences, difpofed in pairs, and feated immediately be¬
low it. Thefe tubercles, which by the ancients were
called tefes and nates, have, fince the time of Win¬
dow, been more commonly named tubercula quadruge¬
mina.
Under the thalami we obferve another cavity, the
third ventricle, which terminates anteriorly in a fmall
medullary canal, the infundibulum, that leads to the
* Dijp. de
! O M Y.
glandula pituitaria. It has been doubted, whether the
infundibulum is really hollow ; but- feme late experi¬
ments on this part of the brain * by Profeffor Murray
of Upfal, clearly prove it to be a medullary canal, fur-
rounded by both laminae of the pia mater. After lizzi-Infundibulo
ing the brain, this channel w-as found filled with ice ;Cerebri.
and De Haen tells f us, he found it dilated, and filled 1
with a calcareous matter (n). ton/'vi.
The foft fpongy body in which the infundibulum ter- p. 2 j
mi nates, was by the ancients fuppofed to be of a glan¬
dular ftructure, and deftined to filter the ferofity of the
brain. Spigelius pretended to have difeovered its ex¬
cretory duft, but it feems certain that no fuch duff ex-
ifts. It is of an oblong fhape, compofed, as it were,
of two lobes. In ruminant animals it is much larger
than in man.
From the pofterior part of the third ventricle, we fee
a fmall groove or channel, defeending obliquely back¬
wards. This channel, which is called the aquedutl of
Sylvius, though it was known to the ancients, opens in¬
to another cavity of the brain, placed between the ce¬
rebellum and medulla oblongata, and called the fourth
ventricle.
The cerebellum, which is divided into two lobes, is Cerebel-
commonly fuppofed to be of a firmer texture than thelum.
cerebrum ; but the truth is, that in the greater number
of fubjefb, there appears to be no fenftble difference in
the confiftence of thefe two parts. It has more of the
cortical than of the medullary fubftance in its compofi-
tion.
The furrow that divides the two lobes of the cerebel¬
lum leads anteriorly to a procefs, compofed of medulla¬
ry and cortical fubftances, covered by the pia mater .j
and which, from its being divided into numerous fur¬
rows, refembling the rings of the earth-worm, is named
proceffus vermiformis. This procefs forms a kind of
ring in its courfe between the lobes.
The furface of the cerebellum does not afford thofe
circumvolutions which appear in the cerebrum ; but
inftead of thefe, we obferve a great number of minute
furrosys, running parallel to each other, and nearly in
a tranfverfe direction. The pia mater infinuates itfelf
into thefe furrows.
When we cut into the fubftance of the cerebellum,
from above downwards, we find the medullary part
running in a kind of ramifying courfe, and exhibiting
an appearance that has gotten the name of arbor vitce. *
Thefe ramifications unite to form a medullary trunk ;
the middle, anterior, and moft confiderable part of
which forms two proceffes, the crura cerebelli, which
unite with the crura cerebri, to form the medulla ob¬
longata. The reft furnifhes two other proceffes, which
lofe themfelves, under the nates, and thus unite the
lobes of the cerebellum to the pofterior part of the ce¬
rebrum. Under the nates we obferve a tranfverfe me¬
dullary line, or linea alba, running from one of thefe
proceffes to the other; and between them we find a
very thin medullary lamina, covered with the pia ma¬
ter, which the generality of anatomifts have (though
feemingly without reafon) confidered as a valve formed
for doling the communication between the fourth ven-
L 1 2 tricle
(n) The under part of it, however, appears to be impervious; at leaft no inje&ion that can be depended ots
has been made to pafs from it into the glandula pituitaria without laceration of parts*
268
Of the
Brain and
Nerves.
137
Medulla
oblongata.
ANATOMY.
Part I.
*3*
Medulla
fpinalis.
trick and the aqucedu&us Sylvii. Vieuffens named it
valvula major cerebri.
The medulla oblongata is fituated in the middle,
lower, and polterior part of the cranium, and may be
confidered as a produftion or continuation of the
whole medullary fubftance of the cerebrum and cere¬
bellum, being formed by the union of two confiderable
medullary proceffes of the cerebrum, called crura cere¬
bri, with two other fmaller ones from the cerebellum,
tvhich were juft now fpoken of under the name of crura
cerebelh.
The crura cerebri arife from the middle and lower
part of each hemifphere. They are feparated from each
other at their origin, but are united below, where they
terminate in a middle protuberance, the pons Varolu,
fo called becaufe Varolius compared it to a bridge.
This pame, however, can convey no idea of its real
appearance. It is, in faff, nothing more than a me¬
dullary protuberance, nearly of a hemifpherical Ihape,
which unites the crura cerebri to thofe of the cerebel¬
lum.
Between the crura cerebri, and near the anterior
edge of the pons Varolii, are two tubercles, compofed
externally of medullary, and internally of cineritious
fubftance, to which Euftachius firft gave the name of
emlnentue mamillares.
Along the middle of the pofterior furface of the me¬
dulla oblongata, where it forms the anterior part of the
fourth ventricle, we obferve a kind of furrow which
run downwards and terminates in a point. About an
ihch above the lower extremity of this fiflure, feveral
medullary filaments are to be feen running towards it
on each fide in an oblique direftion, fii.as to give it the
appearance of a writing pen} hence it is called calamus
fcriptorius.
From the pofterior part of the pons Varoln, the me¬
dulla oblongata defcends obliquely backwards *, at its
fore part, immediately behind the pons Varolii, we ob¬
ferve two pair of eminences, which were defcribed by
Euftachius, but received no particular appellation till
the time of Vieuffens, who gave them the names of
corpora olivaria and corpora pyramida/ia. The former
are the outermoft, being placed one on each fide.
They are nearly of an oval (hape, and are compofed
ef medulla, with ftreaks of cortical fubftance. Be¬
tween thefe are the corpora pyramidaKa, each of
which terminates in a point. In the human fubject
thefe four eminences are fometimes not eafily diftin-
g The medulla fpinalis, or fpinal narrow, which is
the name given to the medullary chord that is extend¬
ed down the vertebral canal, from the great foramen
of the occipital bone to the bottom of the laft lumbar
vertebra, is a continuation of the medulla oblongata.
Like the other parts of the brain, it is invefted by the
dura and pia mater. The firft of thefe, in its paffage
out of the cranium, adheres to the foramen of the os
occipitis. Its connection with the ligamentary fub¬
ftance that lines the cavity of the fpine, is only by
means of cellular membrane j but between the leveral
vertebrae, where the nerves pafs out of the fpine, it of the
fends off prolongations, which adhere ftrongly to the Brain and
vertebral ligaments. Here, as in the cranium, the Werves-
dura mater has its finufes or large veins. Thefe are
two in number, and are feen running on each fide of
the medullary column, from the foramen magnum of
the os occipitis to the lower part of the os facrum.
They communicate together by ramifying branches at
each vertebra, and terminate in the vertebral, interco-
ftal,'and facral veins.
The pia mater is connefted with the dura mater by
means of a thin tranfparent fubftance, which from its
indentations between the fpinal nerves has obtained
the name of ligamentum denticulatum. It is fomeivhat
firmer than the tunica arachnoidea, but in other re-
fpeCfs refembles that membrane. Its ufe is to fupport
the fpinal marrow, that it may not affeCt the medulla
oblongata by its weight.
The fpinal marrow itfelf is externally of a white co¬
lour ; but, upon cutting into it, we find its middle part
compofed of a darker coloured mafs, refembling the
cortex of the brain. When the marrow has reached
the firft lumbar vertebra, it becomes extremely narrow,
and at length terminates in an oblong protuberance ;
from the extremity of which the pia mater fends oft
a prolongation or ligament, refembling a nerve, that
perforate* the dura mater, and is fixed to the os coccy-
gis.
The medulla fpinalis gives rife to 30 or 31 pair of
nerves, but they are not all of the fame fize, nor do
they all run in the fame direction. The upper ones
are thinner than the reft, and are placed almoft tranf-
verfely : as we defcend, we find them running more
and more obliquely downwards, till at length their
courfe is almoft perpendicular, fo that the lowermoft
nerves exhibit an appearance that is called cauda equina,
from its refemblance to a horfe’s tail.
The arteries that ramify through the different parts
of the brain are derived from the internal carotid and
from the vertebral arteries. The medulla fpinalis is
fupplied by the anterior and pofterior fpinal arteries,
and likewife receives branches from the cervical, the
inferior and fuperior intercoftal, the lumbar, and the
facral arteries.
Sect. II. Of the Nerves.
The nerves are medullary chords, differing from
each other in fize, colour, and confiftence, and deri¬
ving their origin from the medulla oblongata and me¬
dulla fpinalis. There are 39, and fometimes 40, pair
of the nerves ; nine (o) of which originate from the
medulla oblongata, and 30 or 31 from the medulla fpi¬
nalis. They appear to be perfectly inelaftic, and like¬
wife to poffefs no irritability. If we irritate mufcular
fibres, they immediately contraCl •, but nothing of this
fort happens if we irritate a nerve. They carry with
them a covering from the pia mater j but derive no tu¬
nic from the dura mater, as hath been generally,
though erroneoufly, fuppofed, ever fince the time of
139
Ti has been ufual to defcribe ten pair of nerves as arifing from the medulla oblongata; but as the tenth
pair arife in the fame manner as the other fpinal nerves, Santorini, Heifter, Haller, and others, feem very pro-
perly to have claffed them among the nerves of the fpine.
Chap. V.
ANA
Of the Galen (p), the outer covering of the nerves being in fa&
Brain and nothing more than cellular membrane. This covering
Nerves. jg very thick where the nerve is expofed to the aftion of
jnufcles $ but where it runs through a bony canal, or is
fecure from preffure, the cellular tunic is extremely thin,
or altogether wanting. We have inftances of this in
the portio mollis of the auditory nerve, and in the nerves
of the heart.
By elevating, carefully and gently, the brain from
the balls of the cranium, we find the firft nine pair
arifing in the following order : i. The nervi olfadtorii,
diftributed through the pituitary membrane, which
eonftitutes the organ of fmell. 2. The optici, which
go to the eyes, where they receive the impreffions of
vifible objedls. 3. The oculorum motores, fo called
becaufe they are diftributed to the mufcles of the eye.
4. The pathetici, diftributed to the fuperior oblique
mufcles of the eyes, the motion of which is expreffive
of certain paffions of the foul. 5. The nerves of this
pair foon divide into three principal branches, and each
of thefe has a different name. Its upper divifion is
the ophthalmicus, which is diftributed to various parts
of the eyes, eyelids, forehead, nofe, and integuments
of the face. The fecond is called the maxi/laris fupe¬
rior, and the third maxi/laris inferior; both which
names allude to their diftribution. 6. The abdudlores ;
each of thefe nerves is diftributed to the abdudlor muf-
cle of the eye, fo called, becaufe it helps to draw the
globe of the eye from the nofe. 7. The auditorii
(Q_), which are diftributed through the organs of hear¬
ing. 8. The par vagum, which derives its name from
the great number of parts to which it gives branches,
both in the thorax and abdomen. 9. The linguales,
or hypoglofli, which are diftributed to the tongue, and
appear to contribute both te the organ of tafte and to
the motions of the tongue (r).
It has already been obferved, that the fpinal mar¬
row, fends off 30 or 31 pair of nerves j thefe are chiefly
diftributed to the exterior parts of the trunk and to
the extremities. They are commonly diftinguilhed in¬
to the cervical, dorfal, lumbar, and facral nerves. The
cervical, which pafs out from between the feveral ver-
T O M Y. 2<%
tebrae of the neck, are eight (s) in number ; the dor- Of the
fal, twelve $ the lumbar, five ; and the facral, five or fix j Brain and
the number of the latter depending on the number of, -^c^ve^ #
holes in the os facrum. Each fpinal nerve at its ori¬
gin is compofed of two fafciculi of medullary fibres.
One of thefe fafciculi arifes from the anterior, and the
other from the pofterior, furface of the medulla.
Thefe fafciculi are feparated by the ligamentum denti-
culatum ; after which we find them contiguous to one
another. They then perforate the dura mater, and
unite to form a confiderable knot or ganglion. Each
of thefe ganglions fends oft' two branches j one anteri¬
or, and the other poflerior. The anterior branches
communicate with each other at their coming out of
the fpine, and likewife fend off one, and fometimes
more branches, to aflift in the formation of the inter-
coftal nerve.
The knots or ganglions of the nerves juft now fpo-
ken of, are not only to be met with at their exit from
the fpine, but likewife in various parts of the body.
They occur in the nerves of the medulla oblongata, as
well as in thofe of the fpine. They are not the effects
of difeafe, but are to be met with in the fame parts of
the fame nerves, both in the foetus and adult. They
are commonly of an oblong ftiape, and of a grayifti co¬
lour fomewhat inclined to red, which is perhaps owing
to their being extremely vafcular. Internally we are
able to diftinguifti fomething like an intermixture of the
nervous filaments.
Some writers have confidered them as fo many little
brains 5 Lancifi fancied he had difcovered mufcular
fibres in them, but they are certainly not of an irri¬
table nature. A late writer, Dr Johnftone*, imagines * FJ/ay on
they are intended to deprive us of the porver of the^’c uJe of _
will over certain parts, as the heart, for inftance : but ^
if this hypothefis were well founded, we fhould meet j^er^ef/
with them only in nerves leading to involuntary muf¬
cles j whereas it is certain, that the voluntary mufcles
receive their nerves through ganglions. Dr Monro,
from obferving the accurate intermixture of the minute
nerves which compofe them, confiders them as new
fources of nervous energy f. f Obferva-
The tions on the
Nervous
— ~ Syjlem.
(p) Baron Haller and Profeffor Zinn feem to have been the firft who demonftrated, that the dura mater is
reflefted upon and adheres to the periofteum at the edges of the foramina that afford a paffage to the nerves out of
the cranium and vertebral canal, or is foon loft in the cellular fubftance.
(Q_) This pair, foon after its entrance into the meatus auditorius internus, feparates into two branches. One
of thefe is of a very foft and pulpy confiftence, is called the portio mollis of the feventh pair, and is fpread over
the inner part of the ear. The other paffes out through the aqueduct of Fallopius in a firm chord, which is dif-
tinguiftied as the portio dura, and is diftributed to the external ear and other parts of the neck and face.
(r) Heifter has fummed up the ufes of thefe nine pair of nerves in the two following Latin verfes:
“ Olfaciens, cernens, oculofque movens, patienfque,
“ Gufans, abducens, audienfque, vaganfque, loquenfque.'"
(s_) Befides thefe, there is another pair called accefforii, which arifes from the medulla fpinalis at its beginning j
and afcending through the great foramen of the os occipitis into the cranium, paffes out again clofe to the eighth
pair, with which, however, it does not unite 5 and it is afterwards diftributed chiefly to the mufcles of the neck,
back, and fcapula. In this courfe it fends off filaments to different parts, and likewife communicates with feveral
other nerves. Phyfiologifts are at a lofs how to account for the Angular origin and courfe of thefe nervi accefforii.
The ancients confidered them as branches of the eighth pair, diftributed to mufcles of the fcapula : Willis like¬
wife confidered them as appendages to that pair, and on that account named them accefforii. They are fometimes
called the fpinal pair •, but as this latter name is applicable to all the nerves of the fpine indifcriminately, it feems-.
better to adopt that given by Willis.
3
A N A T
The nerves, lilce the blood veffels, in their courfe
‘d through the body, commumcote with cuch other , snd
each of thefe communications conftitutes what is call-
' ed a plexus, from whence branches are again detached
to different parts of the body. Some of thefe are con-
ftant and confiderable enough to be diftinguiffied by
particular names, as the femtfunur plexus, the pulmonary
plexus, the hepatic, the cardiac, &c.
It would be foreign to the purpofe of this work to
follow the nerves through all their diffributions; but it
may be remembered, that in deferibing the different
vifeera, mention was made of the nerves dittributed to
them. There is one pair, however, called the inter-
cojlal, or great fymphathetic nerve, which feems to require
particular notice, becaufe it lias an almotl univerfal
connexion and correfpondence with all the other nerves
of the body. Authors are not perfeftly agreed about
the origin of the intercoftal •, but it may perhaps not
improperly be deferibed, as beginning from filaments
of the fifth and fixth pair •, it then paffes out of the
cranium, through the bony canal of the carotid, from
whence it defeends laterally clofe to the bodies of the
vertebrae, and receives branches from almoft all the
vertebral nerves-, forming almoft as many ganglions in
its courfe through the thorax and abdomen. It fends
off an infinite number of branches to the vifeera in thole
cavities, and forms feveral plexus with the branches of
the eighth pair or par vagum. # ,
That the nerves are deftined to convey the principles
of motion and fenfibility to the brain from all parts of
the fyftem, there can be no doubt ; but how thefe ef-
fefts are.produced, no one has ever yet been able to
determine. The inquiry has been a conftant fource of
bypothefts in all ages, and has produced feme inge-
O M Y. _ Partll
nious ideas, and many erroneous pofitions, but with- Of the
out having hitherto afforded much fatisfa&ory infer-
mation. yy..,.
Some phyfiologifts have confidered a trunk of nerves
as a folkl chord, capable of being divided into an infi¬
nite number of filaments, by means of which the im-
preffions of feeling are conveyed to the fenforium com¬
mune. Others have fuppofed it to be a canal, which af¬
terwards feparates into more minute channels , or, per¬
haps, as being an affemblage of many very fmall and
diftinft tubes,°connected to each other, and thus form¬
ing a cylindrical chord. They who contend for their
being folid bodies are of opinion, that feeling b occa-
fioned by vibration ; fo that, for inftance, according to
this fyftem, by pricking the finger, a vibration would
be occafioned in the nefve diftributed through its fub-
ftance ; and the effedls of this vibration, when extended
to the fenforium, would be an excital of pain. But
the inelafticity, the foi'tnefs, the connexion, and the
fituation of the nerves, are fo many proofs that vibra¬
tion has no fliare in the caufe of feeling.
Others have fuppofed, that in the brain and fpinal
marrow a very fubtle fluid is fecreted, and from
thence conveyed through the imperceptible tubes,
which they confider as exifting in the nerves. They
have further fuppofed, that this very fubtle fluid, to
which they have given the name of animal/pints, is fe¬
creted in the cortical fubftance of the brain and fpinai
marrow, from whence it paffes through the medullary
fubftance. This, like the other fyftem, is founded
altogether on, hypothefis but it feems to be a hypo-
thefis derived from much more probable principles, and
there are many ingenious arguments to be brought in
its fupport.
EXPLANATION of PLATE XXXI.
FlC. I. Reprefents the Inferior part of the Brain;
 the Anterior part of the whole fpine, including
the Medulla Spinalis with the origin and large
portions of all the Nerves.
AA, The anterior lobes of the creberum. BB, The
lateral lobes of the cerebrum. CC, The two lobes of
the cerebellum. D, Tuber annulare. E, The paf-
fage from the third ventricle to the infundibulum.
irj Xhe medulla oblongata, which fends oft the me¬
dulla fpinalis through the fpine. GG, That part of
the os occipitis which is placed above (HHj the
tranfverfe proceffes of the firft cervical vertebra.
II, &c. The feven cervical vertebrse, with their in¬
termediate cartilages. KK, &c. The twelve dorfal
vertebrae, with their intermediate cartilages. LL, &c.
The five lumbar vertebree, with their intermediate car¬
tilages. M, The os facrum. N, The os coccygis.
Nerves. — I I, The firft pair of nerves, named ol-
fa&onj, which goes to the nofe. 2 2, The fecond pair,
named optic, which goes to form the tunica retina of
the eye. 3 3, The third pair, named motor ocu/i; it
fupplies moft of the mufcles of the eyeballs. 4 4, The
fourth pair, named pathetic,^—which is wholly fpent
upon the mufculus trochlearis of the eye. 5 5, I he
fifth pair divides into three branches.—The firft, na¬
med ophthalmic^ goes to the orbit, fupplies the lachry¬
mal gland, and fends branches out to the forehead and
nnfe.—The fecond, named fuperior maxillary, fupplies
the teeth of the upper jaw, and fome of the mufcles ot
the lips.—-The third, named inferior maxillary, is fpent
upon the mufcles and teeth of the lower jaw, tongue,
and mufcles of the lips. 6 6, The fixth pair, which,
after fending off the beginning of the intercoftal or
great fympathetic, is fpent upon the abdu£tor oculi,
>7 n The feventh pair, named auditory, divides into
two branches.—The largeft, named portio mollis, is
fpent upon the internal ear.— 1 he fmalleft, portio dura,
joins to the fifth pair within the internal ear by a re¬
flected branch from the fecond of the fifth ; and with¬
in the tympanum, by a branch from the third of the
fifth, named chorda tympani.—Vid. fig. 3. near B.
8 8, See. The eighth pair, named par vagum,—which
accompanies the intercoftal, and is fpent upon the
tongue, larynx, pharynx, lungs, and abdominal vifeera.
9 9, The ninth pair, which are fpent upon the tongue.
10 10,"Sec. The intercoftal, or great fympathetic,
which is feen from the fixth pair to the bottom of the
pelvis on each fide of the fpine, and joining with all
the nerves of the fpine ; in its progrefs fupplying the
heart, and, with the par vagum, the contents of the
abdomen and pelvis. 11 11, The accefforius, which
is fpent upon the fternocleido-maftoidaeus and trapezius
r mufcles.
1
(Chap. VI.
Of the mufcles. 12 12, The firft cervical nerves j 13 13, The
Senfes. fecund cervical nerves; both fpent upon the mufcles
1—-v   that lie on the neck, and teguments of the neck and
head. 14 14, The third cervical.nerves, which, after
fending off (15 15, &c.) the phrenic nerves to the
diaphragm, fupply the mufcles and teguments that lie
on the iide of the neck, and top of the (boulder.
16 16, The brachial plexus, formed by tlie fourth, fifth,
fixth, feventh cervicals, and firft dorfal nerves,—which
fupply the mufcles, and teguments of the fuperior ex¬
tremity. 17 17, The twelve dorfal, or proper inter-
coftal nerves, which are fpent upon the intercoftal muf¬
cles and fome of the large mufcles which lie upon the
thorax. 18 18, The five lumbar pairs of nerves
which fupply the lumbar and abdominal mufcles, and
fome of the teguments and mufcles of the inferior ex¬
tremity. 19 19, The facro-fciatic, or pofterior crural
nerve, formed by the two inferior lumbar, and three
fuperior of the os facrum. This large nerve fupplies
the greateft part of the mufcles and teguments of the
inferior extremity. 20, The ftomachic plexus, form¬
ed by the eighth pair. 21 21, Branches of the folar
or caeliac plexus, formed by the eighth pair and inter-
27I
coftals, which fupply the ftomach and chylopoietic of the
vifcera. 22 22, Branches of the fuperior and inferior Senfes.
mefenteric plexufes, formed by the eighth pair and in- ^
tercoftals, which fupply the chylopoietic vifcera, with
part of the organs of urine and generation. 23 23,
Nerves which accompany the fpermatic chord. 24 24,
The hypogaftric plexus, which fupplies the organs of
urine and generation within the pelvis.
Fig. 2, 3, 4, 5, Show different views of the Inferior
part of the Brain, cut perpendicularly through the
Middle—with the Origin and large portions of all
the Nerves which pafs out through the Bones of tire
Cranium,—and the three firft Cervicals.
A, The anterior lobe. B, The lateral lobe of the
cerebrum. C, One of the lobes of the cerebellum.
D, Tuber annulare. E, Corpus pyramidale, in the
middle of the medulla oblongata. F, The corpus oli-
vare, in the fide of the medulla oblongata. G, The
medulla oblongata. H, The medulla fpinalis.
Nerves.—1 2345678 and 9, Pairs of nerves.
10 10, Nervus acceflbrius, which comes from—11, l2y
and 13, the three cervical nerves.
ANA T O M Y.
CHAP. VI. OF THE SENSES, AND THEIPx ORG ANS.
IN treating of the fenfes, we mean to confine our-
felves to the external ones of touc/i, tajle, fmailing,
hearing, and vijion. The word fenfe, when applied to
thefe five, feems to imply not only the fenfation ex¬
cited in the mind by certain impreftions made on the
body, but likewife the organs deftined to receive and
tranfmit thefe impreftions to the fenforium. Each of
thefe organs being of a peculiar firufture, is fufcep-
tible only of particular impreftions, which will be
pointed out as we proceed to defcribe each of them fe-
parately.
Sect. I. Of Touch.
*41 The fenfe of touch may be defined to be the faculty
of diftinguiftiing certain properties of bodies by the
feel. In a general acceptation, this definition might
perhaps not improperly be extended to every part of
the body poffefied of fenfibility (t) 5 but it is commonly
confined to the nervous papillae of the cutis, or true
ikin, which, with its appendages, and their feveral
ufes, have been already defcribed.
The exterior properties of bodies, fuch as their fo-
lidity, moifture, inequality, fmoothnefs, drypefs, or
fluidity, and likewife their degree of heat, feem all to,
be capable of making different impreflions on the pa-
pillm, and confequently of exciting different ideas in
the fenforium commune. But the organs of touch, like
all the other fenfes, is not equally delicate in every part
of the body, or in every fubjeft ; being in fome much
more exquifite than it is in others.
Sect. II. Of Tajle.
The fenfe of tafte is feated chiefly in the tongue; the M*
fituation and figure of which are fufficiently known.
On the upper furface of this organ we may obferve
a great number of papillse, which, on account of their
difference in fize and (hape, are commonly divided into
th ree claffes. The largeft are fituated towards the
bafis of the tongue. Their number commonly varies
from feven to nine, and they feem to be mucous fol¬
licles. Ibofe of the fecond clafs are fomewhat (mailer,
and of a cylindrical (hape. T hey are molt numerous
about the middle of the tongue. Thofe of the third
clafs are very minute, and of a conical (hape. They
are
f .Courfe t^ls art'c^e» mention has often been made of the fenfibility or infenfibihty of different parts
oi the body : it will therefore, perhaps, not be amifs to obferve in this place, that many parts which were former-
y luppoled to poffefs the moft exquifite fenfe, are now known to have but little or no feeling, at lead in a found
ta.tef; ,n ,an mflamed ftate, even the bones, the mod infenfible parts of any, become fufceptible of the moft
paintul (eolations. This curious difeovery is due to the late Baron Haller. His experiments prove, that the
ones, cartilages, ligaments, tendons, epidermis, and membranes (as the pleura, pericardium, dura and pia ma-
er, penofteum, &e.) may in a healthy ftate be confidered as infenfible. As fenfibility depends-on the brain and
nerves, o courfe different parts will poffefs a greater or lefs degree of feeling, in proportion as they are fupplied
1 1 a Skater or (mailer number of nerves. Upon this principle it is, that the (kin, mufcles, ftomach, inteftmes,
3 e^’ uretf‘r^ uterus, vagina, penis, tongue, and retina, are extremely fenfible, while the lungs and
glands have only an obfeure degree of feeling.
2 j 2
Of tbe
Setifes.
A N x\ T
are very nutnerous on the apex and edges of the tongue,
and have been fuppoied to be formed by the extremities
of its nerves.
We obferve a line, the line a linguae mediana, run¬
ning along the middle of the tongue, and dividing it as
it were into two portions. Towards the bafis of the
tongue, we meet with a little cavity, named by Mor¬
gagni foramen caecum, which feems to be nothing more
than a common termination of fome of the excretory
dudis of mucous glands fituated within the fubdance of
the tongue.
We have already obferyed, that this organ is every¬
where covered by the cuticle, which, by forming a re¬
duplication, called the freenum, at its under part, ferves
to prevent the too great motion of the tongue, and to
fix it in its fituation. But, befides this attachment,
the tongue is eonnefled, by means of its mufcles and
membranous ligaments, to the lower jaw, the os hyoi-
des, and the llyloid proceffes.
The principal arteries of the tongue are the Hnguales,
which arife from the external carotid. Its veins empty
themfelves into the external jugulars. Its nerves arife
from the fifth, eighth, and ninth pair.
The variety of taftes feems to be occafioned by the
different impreffions made on the papillae by the food.
The different ftate of the papillae with refpeft to their
moifture, their figure, or their covering, feems to pro¬
duce a confiderable difference in the tafie, not only in
different people, but in the fame fubjeft, in ficknefs
and in health. The great ufe of the tafte feems to be
to enable us to diftinguifh wholefome and falutary food
from that which is unhealthy j and we. obferve that
many quadrupeds, by having their papillae (u) very
large and long, have the faculty of diftinguifhing fla¬
vours with infinite accuracy.
"M3
Sect. III. Of Smelling.
The fenfe of fmelling, like the fenfe.of tafle, feems
intended to dire& us to a proper choice of aliment,
and is chiefly feated in the nofe, which is diftinguiflied
into its external and internal parts. T he lituation and
figure of the former of thefe do not feem to require a
definition. It is compofed of bones and cartilages, co¬
vered by mufeuiar fibres and by the common integu¬
ments. The bones make up the upper portion, and the
cartilages the lower one. The feptum narium, like the
nofe, is likewife in part bony, and in part cartilaginous.
Thefe bones and their connexions were deferibed in the
fteology.
The internal part of the nofe, befides the offa fpon-
;iofa, has fix cavities or finufes, the maxillary, the fron-
al, and the fphenoid, which were all deferibed with the
3ones of the head. They all open into the noftrils j
md the nofe likewife communicates with the mouth,
arynx, and pharynx, pofteriorly behind the velum pa-
ati. - .
All thefe feveral parts, which are included m the in¬
ternal divifion of the nofe, viz. the inner furfaee of the
noftrils, the lamellae of the offa fpongiofa and the finu-
O M Y, Part]
fes, are lined by a thick and very vafcular membrane, of the j
which, though not unknown to the ancients, was firft Senfes.
well deferibed by Schneider *, and is therefore now
commonly named membrana piluitariu Schneideri. This^^ ^
membrane is truly the organ of fmelling 5 but its real j^. iiij
ftru&ure does not yet feem to be perfectly underftood.
It appears to be a continuation of the cuticle, which
lines the inner furface of the mouth. In fome parts of
the nofe it is fmooth and firm, and in others it is loofe
and fpongy. It is conftantly moiftened by a mucous fe-
cretion ; the finer parts of which are carried off by the
air we breathe, and the remainder, by being retained
in the finufes, acquires confiderable confiftence. I he
manner in which this mucus is fecreted has not yet been
fatisfa&orily afeertained ; but it feems to be by means
of mucous follicles.
Its arteries are branches of the internal maxillary and
internal carotid. Its veins empty themfelves into the
internal jugulars. The firft pair of nerves, the olfac¬
tory, are fpread over every part of it, and it likewife
receives branches from the fifth pair.
After what has been faid of the pituitary membrane,
it will not be difficult to conceive how the air we draw
in at the noftrils, being impregnated with the effluvia
of bodies, excites in us that kind of fenfation we call
fmelling. As thefe effluvia, from their being exceed¬
ingly light and volatile, cannot be capable in a Imall
quantity of making any great impreffion on the extre¬
mities of the olfadtory nerves, it was neceffary to give
confiderable extent to the pituitary membrane, that by
this means a greater number of odoriferous particles
might be admitted at the fame time. When we wifh
to take in much of the effluvia of any thing, we natu¬
rally clofe the mouth, that all the air we infpire may
pafs through the noftrils ; and at the fame time, by
means of the mufcles of the nofe, the noftrils are dilat¬
ed, and a greater quantity of air is drawn into them.
In many quadrupeds, the fenfe of fmelling is much
more extenfive and delicate than it is in the human
fubjedl j and in the human fubjedt it feems to be more
perfedt the lefs it is vitiated by a variety of fmells. It
is not always in the fame ftate of perfedlion, being na¬
turally affedled by every change of the pituitary mem¬
brane, and of the lymph with which that membrane is
moiftened.
SECT. IV. Of Hearing.
Before we undertake to explain the manner in M4
which we are enabled to receive the impreffions. of
found, it will be neceffary to deferibe the ear, which
is the organ of hearing. It is commonly diftinguiffled
into external and internal. The former of thefe di-
vifions includes all that we are able to difeover with¬
out difledtion, and the meatus auditorius, as far as the
tympanum j and the latter, all the other parts of the x
ear.
The external ear is a cartilaginous funnel, covered
by the common integuments, and attached, by means
of its ligaments and mufcles, to the temporal bone.
Although
(u) Malpighi’s defeription of the papillae, which has been copied by many anatomical writers, feems to have
been taken chiefly from the tongues of (heep.
Li
Dhap.Vf. A N A T
of the Although capable only of a very obfcure motion, it is
Senfes. found to have feveral mufcles. Different parts of it
’—r—J are diftinguiihed by different names ^ all its cartilagi¬
nous part is called ala or wing, to diftinguifh it from
the foft and pendant part below, called the lobe. Its
outer circle or border is called hei'ix, and the femicircle
within tiffs, antihelix. The moveable cartilage placed
immediately before the meatus auditorius, which it
may be made to clofe exa&ly, is named tragus; and
an eminence oppofite to this, at the extremity of the
antihelix, is called antitragus. The concha is a confi-
derable cavity formed by the extremities of the helix
and antihelix. The meatus auditorius, which at its
opening is cartilaginous, is lined with a very thin mem¬
brane, which is a continuation of the cuticle from the
furface of the ear.
In this canal we find a yellow wax, which is fecreted
by a number of minute glands or follicles, each of
which has an excretory duff. The fecretion, which
is at firft of an oily confidence, defends the membrane
-of the tympanum from the injuries of the air j and, by
its bitternefs, prevents minute infefts from entering in¬
to the ear. But when from negle£l or difeafe it accu¬
mulates in too great a quantity, it fometimes occafions
deafnefs. The inner extremity of the meatus is clofed
by a very thin tranfparent membrane, the membrana
tympani, which is fet in a bony circle like the head of
a drum. In the laft century Rivinus, profeffor at Leip-
fic, fancied he had difcovered a hole in this membrane,
furrounded by a fphintter, and affording a paffage to
the air, between the external and internal ear. Cow-
per, Heifter, and fome other anatomiffs, have admitted
this fuppofed foramen, which certainly does not exifl.
Whenever there is any opening in the membrana tym¬
pani, it may be confidered as accidental. Under the
membrana tympani runs a branch of the fifth pair of
nerves, called chorda tympani; and beyond this mem¬
brane is the cavity of the tympanum, which is about
feven or eight lines wide, and half fo many in depth ;
it is femifpherical, and everywhere lined by a very fine
membrane. There are four openings to be obferved
in this cavity. It communicates with the mouth by
means of the Euftachian tube. This canal, which is
in part bony and in part cartilaginous, begins by a very
narrow opening at the anterior and almoft fuperior part
of the tympanum, increafing in fize as it advances to¬
wards the palate of the mouth, where it terminates by
an oval opening. This tube is everywhere lined by
the fame membrane that covers the infide of the mouth.
The real ufe of this canal does not feem to have been
hitherto fatisfa&orily afcertained; but found would
feem to be conveyed through it to the membrana tym¬
pani, deaf perfons being often obferved to liffen atten¬
tively with their mouths open. Oppofite to this is a
minute paffage, which leads to the . finuofities of the
maftoid procefs •, and the other two openings, which
are in the internal procefs of the os petrofum, are the
feneftra ovalis, and feneftra rotunda, both of which are
covered by a very fine membrane.
Vol. II. Part I.
O M Y. 273
There are threa diftin£l bones in the cavity of the of the
tympanum 5 and thefe are the malleus, incus, and Rapes. Sentes. ^
Befides thefe there is a fourth, which is the os orbicu-
lare, confidered by fome anatomiffs as a procefs of the
ftapes, which is neceffarily broken off by the violence
Ave are obliged to ufe in getting at thefe bones j but
Avhen accurately confidered, it feems to be a diftinfl
bone.
The malleus is fuppofed to refemble a hammer, be¬
ing larger at one extremity, which is its head, than it
is at the other, which is its handle. The latter is at¬
tached to the membrana tympani, and the head of the
bone is articulated with the incus.
The incus, as it is called from its Ihape, though it
feems to have lefs refemblance to an anvil than to one
of the dentes molares with its roots widely feparated
from each other, is diftinguifhed into its body and its
legs. One of its legs is placed at the entry of the ca¬
nal which leads to the maftoid procefs j and the other,
which is fomeAvhat longer, is articulated with the ftapes,
or rather Avith the os orbiculare, which is placed be-
tAveen them.
The third bone is very properly named^aper, being
perfectly Ihaped like a ftirrup. Its bafis is fixed into
the feneftra ovalis, and its upper part is articulated
Avith the os orbiculare. What is called the. fenejlra ro¬
tunda, though perhaps improperly, as it is more oval
than round, is obferved a little above the other, in an
eminence formed by the os petrofum, and is clofed by
a continuation of the membrane that lines the inner
furface of the tympanum. The ftapes and malleus are
each of them furnifhed with a little mufcle, the ftape-
deus and tenfor tympani. The firft of thefe, Avhich is
the fmalleft in the body, arifes from a little cavern in
the pofterior and upper part of the cavity of the tym¬
panum ; and its tendon, after palling through a hole
in the fame cavern, is inferted at the back part of the
head of the ftapes. This mufcle, by drawing the fta¬
pes obliquely upAvards, aflifts in ftretching the mem¬
brana tympani.
The tenfor tympani (x), or internus mallei as it is ,
called by fome Avriters, arifes from the cartilaginous
extremity of the Euftachian tube, and is inferted into
the back' part of the handle of the malleus, which it
ferves to pull upAvards, and of courfe helps to ftretch
the membrana tympani.
The labyrinth is the only part of the ear which re¬
mains to be defcribed. It is fituated in the os petro¬
fum, and is feparated from the tympanum by a parti¬
tion which is e\rery Avhere bony, except at the tAvo fe-
neftfae. It is compofed of three parts j and thefe are
the veftibulum, the femicircular canals, and the coch¬
lea.
The vejlibulum is an irregular cavity, much fmaller
than the tympanum, fituated nearly in the centre of the
os petrofum, betAreen the tympanum, the cochlea, and
the femicircular canals. It is open on the fide of the
tympanum by means of the feneftra ovalis, and com¬
municates Avith the upper portion of the cochlea by an
M m oblong
(x) Some anatomifts defcribe three mufcles of the malleus j but only this one feems to deferve the name of
tnufcle j Avhat are called the externus and obliquus mallei feeming to be ligaments rather than mufcks.
*Di? Aqux
dulrtibu (
Auris Hli¬
ma nx In¬
ternee, 8 vo,
1760.
A N A T
oblong foramen, which is under the feneftra ovalis,
from which it is feparated only by a very thin parti¬
tion.
Each of the three femicircular canals forms about
half a circle of nearly a line in diameter, and running
each in a different direftion, they are diftinguifhed into
vertical, oblique, and horizontal. Thefe three canals
open by both their extremities into the veftibulum •, but
the vertical and the oblique being united together at
one of their extremities, there are only five orifices to
be feen in the veftibulum.
The cochlea is a canal which takes a fpiral courfe,
not unlike the fhell of a fnail. From its bafis to its
apex it makes two turns and a half 5 and is divided in¬
to two canals by a very thin lamina or feplum, which
is in part bony and in part membranous, in fuch a
manner that thefe two canals only communicate with
each other at the point. One of them opens into the
veftibulum, and the other is covered by the membrane
that clofes the feneftra rotunda. The bony lamella
•which feparates the two canals is exceedingly thin, and
fills about two-thirds of the diameter of the canal.
The reft of the feptum is compofed of a moft delicate
membrane, which lines the whole inner furface of the
cochlea, and feems to form this divifion in the fame
manner as the two membranous bags of the pleura, by
being applied to each other, form the mediaftinum.
Every part of the labyrinth is furnifhed with a very
delicate periofteum, and filled with a watery fluid, fe-
creted as in other cavities. This fluid tranfmits to the
nerves the vibrations it receives from the membrane
clofing the feneftra rotunda, and from the bafis of^ the
ftapes, where it refts on the feneftrum ovale. When
this fluid is colletted in too great a quantity, or is com-
prelfed by the ftapes, it is fuppofed to efcape through
two minute canals or aquedufts, lately deferibed by
' Dr Cotunni *, an ingenious phyfician at Naples. One
of thefe aquedufts opens into the bottom of the veftibu¬
lum, and the other into the cochlea, near the feneftra
rotunda. They both pafs through the os petrofum,
and communicate with the cavity of the cranium where
the fluid that pafles through them is abforbed ; and they
are lined by a membrane which is fuppofed to be a pro-
du&ion of the dura mater.
The arteries of the external ear come from the tem¬
poral and other branches of the external carotid, and
its veins pafs into the jugular. The internal ear re¬
ceives branches of arteries from the bafilary and caro¬
tids, and its veins empty themfelves into the finufes of
the dura mater, and into the internal jugular. .
The portio mollis of the feventh pair is diftributed
through the cochlea, the veftibulum, and the femicir¬
cular canals ; and the portio dura fends off a branch to
the tympanum, and other branches to the external ear
and parts near it.
The fenfe of hearing, in producing which all the
parts we have defenbed afltft, is occafioned by a cer-
O M Y. Part
tain modulation of the air colle&ed by the funnel-like ofthr
fhape of the external ear, and conveyed through the Senfes
meatus auditorius to the membrana tympani. That
found is propagated by means of the air, is very eafily
proved by ringing a bell under the receiver of an air-
pump •, the found it affords being found to diminifti
gradually as the air becomes exhaufted, till at length it
ceafes to be heard at all. Sound moves through the
air with infinite velocity ; but the degree of its motion
feems to depend on the ftate of the air, as it conftantly
moves fafter in a denfe and dry, than it does in a moift
and rarefied air.
That the air vibrating on the membrana tympani
communicates its vibration to the different parts of the
labyrinth, and by means of the fluid contained in this
cavity affefts the auditory nerve fo as to produce found,
feems to be very probable j but the fituation, the mi-
nutenefs, and the variety of the parts which compofe
the ear, do not permit much tn be advanced with cer¬
tainty concerning their mode of aflion.
Some of thefe parts feem to conftitute the immediate
organ of hearing, and thefe are all the parts of the vef¬
tibulum : but there are others which feem intended for
the perfection of this fenfe, without being abfolutely
effential to it. It has happened, for inftance, that the
membrana tympani, and the little bones of the ear,
have been deftroyed by difeafe, without depriving the
patient of the fenfe of hearing (y).
Sound is more or lefe loud in proportion to the
ftrength of the vibration ; and the variety of founds
feems to depend on the difference of this vibration ; for
the more quick and frequent it is, the more acute will
be the found, and vice verfa.
Before we conclude this article, it will be right to
explain certain phenomena, which will be found to have
a relation to the organ of hearing.
Every body has, in conlequence of particular founds,
occafionally felt that difagreeable fenfation which is
ufually called felting the teeth on edge: and the caufe
of this fenfation may be traced to the communication
which the portio dura of the auditory nerve has with
the branches of the fifth pair that are diftributed to the
teeth, being probably occafioned by the violent tremor
produced in the membrana tympani by thefe very acute
founds. Upon the fame principle we may explain the
prong idea of found which a perfon has who holds a
vibrating firing between his teeth.
The humming which is fometimes perceived in the
ear, without any exterior caufe, may be occafioned
either by an increafed a6lion of the arteries in the ears,
or by convulftve contraftions of the mufcles of the
malleus and ftapes, affe&ing the auditory nerve in.fuch
a manner as to produce the idea of lound. An inge- ^
nious philofophical writer * has lately difeovered, that * Elliot *
there are founds liable to be excited in the ear by irnta-^gjl
tion, and without any affiftance from the vibrations of^-^J
the air. i^e SevIc
Sect. ofVifion
and Heat
. Svo. I
Cy") This obfervation has led to a fuppofition, that a perforation of this membrane may in fome ca.es of dea ne s
be ufeful; and Mr Chefelden relates, that fome years ago, a malefa&or was pardoned, op condition 11a. ie
fhould fubmit to this operation 5 but the public clamour railed againft it was fo great, that it was thoug it rig
not to perform it*
mg,'
' ll
jimp. VI. A N A 1
Of the
I Senfes. Sect. V. Of Vlfon.
ee °Ptict' The eyes, which conftitute the organ of vifion, are
147 fituated in two bony cavities named orbits, where they
are furrounded by feveral parts, which are either in¬
tended to proteft them from external injury, or to affift
in their motion.
The globe of the eye is immediately covered by two
eyelids or palpebrae, which are compofed of mufcular
fibres, covered by the common integuments, and lined
by a very fine and fmooth membrane, which is from
thence extended over part of the globe of the eye,
and is called tunica conjunSiiva. Each eyelid is carti¬
laginous at its edge •, and this border, which is called
tarfus, is furnifhed with a row of hairs named cilia or
eyelafhes.
The cilia ferve to protea the eye from infeas and
minute bodies floating in the air, and likewife to mo¬
derate the aaion of the rays of light in their paffage
to the retina. At the roots of thefe hairs there are
febaceous follicles, firft noticed by Meibomius, which
difcharge a glutinous liniment. Sometimes the fluid
they fecrete has too much vifcidity, and the eyelids be¬
come glued to each other.
The upper border of the orbit is covered by the eye¬
brows or fupercilia, which by means of their two muf-
cles are capable of being brought towards each other,
or of being carried upwards. They have been confider-
ed as ferving to protea the eyes, but they are probably
intended more for ornament than utility (z).
The orbits, in which the eyes are placed, are furnifti-
ed with a good deal of fat, which affords a foft bed on
which the eye performs its feveral motions. The inner
angle of each orbit, or that part of it which is near the
nol'e, is called can thus major, or the great angle; and
the outer angle, which is on the oppofite fide of the eye,
is the canthus minor, or little angle.
The little reddifh body which we obferve in the
great angle of the eyelids, and which is called carun-
cula lachrymalis, is foppofed to be of a glandular ftruc-
ture, and, like the follicles of the eyelids, to fecrete an
oily humour. But its flrufture and ufe do not feem to
have been hitherto accurately determined. The fur-
face of the eye is conftantly moiflened by a very fine
limpid fluid called the tears, which is chiefly, and per¬
haps wholly, derived from a large gland of the conglo¬
merate kind, fituated in a fmall depreflion of the os
frontis near the outer angle of the eye. Its excretory
dufts pierce the tunica conjun£liva juft above the car¬
tilaginous borders of the upper eyelids. When the
tears were fuppofed to be fecreted by the caruncle, this
gland was called glandula innominata; but now that
its ftrufture and ufes are afeertained, it very properly
has the name of glandula lachryrnalis. The tears pour-
O M Y. 275
ed out by the du£ts of this gland are, in a natural and of the
healthy ftate, inceffantly fpread over the furface of the ( Senfes. ^
eye, to keep it clear and tranfparent by means of the
eyelids, and as conftantly pafs out at the oppofite cor¬
ner of the eye or inner angle, through two minute ori¬
fices, the pun£la lachrymalia (a) j being determined
into thefe little openings by a reduplication of the tu¬
nica conjunftiva, ftiaped like a crefcent, the two points
of which anfwer to the punita. T his reduplication is
named mernbrana or valvula femilunans. Each of thefe
punfta is the beginning of a fmall excretory tube,
through which the tears pafs into a little pouch or re-
fervoir, the facculus lachrymalis, which lies in an exca¬
vation formed partly by the nafal procefs of the os max-
illare fuperius, and partly by the os unguis. The lower
part of this fac forms a duft called the duBus ad nares,
which is continued through a bony channel, and opens
into the nofe, through which the tears are occafionally
difeharged (b).
The motions of the eye are performed .by fix muf-
cles 5 four of which are ftraight and twTo oblique. The
ftraight mufcles are diftinguiftied by the names of ele¬
vator, depreffor, adduBor, and abduBor, from their fe¬
veral ufes in elevating and deprefling the eye, drawing
it towards the nofe, or carrying it from the nofe to¬
wards the temple. All thefe four mufcles arife from
the bottom of the orbit, and are inferted by flat ten¬
dons into the globe of the eye. The oblique mufcles
are intended for the more compound motions of the
eye. The firft of thefe mufcles, the obliquus fuperior,
does not, like the other four mufcles we have deferibed,
arife from the bottom of the orbit, but from the edge
of the foramen that tranfmits the optic nerve, which
feparates the origin of this mufcle from that of the
others. From this beginning it paffes in a ftraight line
towards a very fmall cartilaginous ring, the fituation of
which is marked in the Ikeleton by a little hollow in the
internal orbitar proceffes of the os frontis. The tendon
of the mufcle, after palling through this ring, is infert¬
ed into the upper part of the globe of the eye, which it
ferves to draw forwards, at the fame time turning the
pupil downwards.
The obliquus inferior arifes from the edge of the or¬
bit, under the opening of the duflus lachrymalis; and
is inferted fomewhat pofteriorly into the outer fide of
the globe, ferving to draw the eye forwards and turn
the pupil upwards. When either of thefe two mufcles
ait feparately, the eye is moved on its axis *, but when
they a£l together, it is compreffed both above and be¬
low. The eye itfelf, which is now to be deferibed,
with its tunics, humours, and component parts, is
nearly of a fpherical figure. Of its tunics, the con-
jun&iva has been already deferibed as a partial cover¬
ing, reflefled from the inner furface of the eyelids
over the anterior portion of the eye. What has been
Mm2 named
(z) It is obfervable, that the eyebrows are peculiar to the human fpecies.
(a) It fometimes happens, that this very pellucid fluid, which moiftens the eye, being poured, out through the
excretory du£ls of the lachrymal gland fafter than it can be carried off through the pundla, trickles dowrn the
cheek, and is then ftri£tly and properly called tears.
(b) When the duftus ad nares becomes obftrudled in confequence of difeafe, the tears are no longer able to pafs
into the noftrils *, the facculus lachrymalis becomes diftended } and inflammation, and fometimes ulceration, taking
place, conftitute the difeafe called fflula lachrymalis.
276 A N A T
Of the named albuginea cannot properly be confidered as a coat
Senfes. of the eye, being in faft nothing more than the tendons
of the ftraight mufcles fpread over fome parts of the
fclerotica.
The immediate tunics of the eye, which are to be de-
monftrated, when its partial coverings, and all the other
parts with which it is furrounded, are removed, are tho
fclerotica, cornea, choroides, and retina.
The fclerotica, which is the exterior coat, is every¬
where white and opaque, and is joined at its anterior
edge to another, which has more convexity than any
other part of the globe, and being exceedingly tranl-
parent is called cornea (c). Thefe two parts are per-
feftly different in their ffru&ure ; fo that fome anato-
mii'ts fuppofe them to be as diftinif from each other as
the glafs of a watch is from the cafe into which it is
fixed. The fclerotica is of a compaft fibrous ftruclure ;
the cornea, on the other hand, is compofed of a great
number of laminae united by cellular membrane. By
macerating them in boiling water, they do not feparate
from each other, as fome writers have afferted ; but
the cornea foon foftens, and becomes of a glutinous
confiftence.
The ancients fuppofed the fclerotica to be a continu¬
ation of the dura mater. Morgagni and fome other
modern writers are of the fame opinion •, but this point
is difputed by Window, Haller, Zinn, and others.
The truth feems to be, that the fclerotica, though not
a production of the dura mater, adheres intimately to
that membrane.
The choroides is fo called becaufe it is furnifhed with
a great number of veffels. It has likewife been named
uvea, on account 'of its refemblance to a grape. Many
modern anatomical writers have confidered it as a pro-
duftion of the pia mater. This was likewife the opi¬
nion of the ancients •, but the ftrength and thicknefs of
the choroides, when compared with the delicate ftruc-
ture of the pia mater, are fufficient proofs of their be¬
ing two di(lin£l membranes.
The choroides has of late generally been deferibed
as confifting of two laminae ; the innermoft of which
lias been named after Ruyfch, who firft deferibed it.
It is certain, however, that Ruyfch’s diftintlion is ill
founded, at leaft with refpeft to the human eye, in
which we are unable to demonftrate any fuch ftruc-
ture, although the tunica choroides of iheep and fome
other quadrupeds may eafily be feparated into two
layers.
The choroides adheres intimately to the fclerotica
round the edge of the cornea •, and at the place of this
union W'e may obferve a little whitifh areola, named
Ugamentum cihare, though it is not of a ligamentous
nature.
They who fuppofe the choroides to be compofed of
two lamina:, deferibe the external one as terminating
in the liga men turn ciliare, and the external one as ex¬
tending farther to form the iris, which is the circle we
are able to diftinguilh through the cornea j but this
O M Y. . • Parti.
part is of a very different flru&ure from the choroidcs; of the
fo that fome late writers have perhaps not improperly Sen Its.
confidered the iris as a diflinft membrane. It derives —-v—J
its name from the variety of its colours, and is perfo¬
rated in its middle. This perforation, which is called
the pupil or fight of the eye, is clofed in the foetus by
a very thin vafcular membrane. This membrana
pupillaris commonly difappears about the feventh-
month.
On the under fides of the iris, we obftrve many mi¬
nute fibres, called ciliary procefes, which pafs in radii
or parallel lines from the circumference to the centre.
The contraftion and dilatation of the pupil are fuppofed
to depend on the aflion of thefe procefies. Some have
confidered them as mufcular, but they are not of an
irritable nature *, others have fuppofed them to be fila¬
ments of nerves; but their real Itrudlure has never yet
been clearly afeertained.
Befides thefe ciliary proceffes, anatomifts ufually fpeak
of the circular fibres of the iris, but no foeh feem to
exift.
The pofterior furfaee of the iris, the ciliary proceffes,.
and part of the tunica choroides, are covered with a
black mucus for the purpofes of accurate and diilin<R
vifion ; but the manner in which it is focreted has not
been determined.
Immediately under the tuniea choroides we find the
third and inner coat, called the retina, which feems to
be merely an expanfion of the pulpy fubflance of the ’
optic nerve, extending to the borders of the cryftalline
humour.
The greateft part of the globe of the eye, within
thefe feveral tunics, is filled by a very tranfparent and
gelatinous humour of confiderable confiftence, which
from its fuppofed rcfemblance to fufed glafs, is called
the vitreous humour. It is invefted by a very fine and
delicate membrane, called tunica vitrea, and fometimes
arachnoides.— It is fuppofed to be compofed of two la¬
minae ; one of which dips into its fubftance, and by di¬
viding the humour into cells adds to its firmnefs. The
fore part of the vitreous humour is a little hollowed, to
receive a very white and tranfparent fubftance of a firm
texture, and of a lenticular and fomewhat convex ftiape,
named the cryfaHine humour. It is included in a cap-
fula, which feems to be formed by a feparation of the
two laminae of the tuniea vitrea.
The fore part of the eye is filled by a very thin and
tranfparent fiuid, named the aqueous humour, which oc¬
cupies all the fpace between the cryftalline and the
prominent cornea.—That part of the choroides which
is called the iris, and which comes forward to form
the pupil, appears to be fufpended as it were in this
humour, and has occafioned this portion of the eye to
be diftinguilhed into two parts. One of thefe, which
is the little fpace between the anterior furfaee of the
cryftalline and the iris, is called the pofenor chamber ;
and the other, which is the fpace between the iris and
the cornea, is called the anterior chamber of the eye (d).
Both
(c) Some writers, who have given the name of cornea to all this outer coat, have named what is here and moft
commonly ca\\e& fclerotica, cornea opuca ; and its anterior and tranfparent portion, cornea lucida.^
(d) We are aware that fome anatomifts, particularly Lieutaud, are of opinion, that the iris is everywhere in
cfofe contaft with the cryftalline, and that it is of courfe right to fpeak only of one chamber of the eye; but as.
this.
iChaj
Of the
Senfes.
}. VI. ANA
Both thefe fpaces are completely filled with the aqueous
humour (e).
The eye receives its arteries from the internal caro¬
tid, through the foramina optica j and its veins pafs
through the foramina lacera, and empty themfelves in¬
to the lateral finufes. Some of the ramifications of thefe
veffels appear on the inner furface of the iris, where
they are feen to make very minute convolutions, which
are fufficiently remarkable to be dillinguiflied by the
name of circulus arteriofus, though perhaps improperly,
as they are chiefly branches of veins.
The optic nerve paflfes in at the pofterior part ol the
eye, in a confiderable trunk, to be expanded for the
purpofes of vifion, of which it is now univerfally fuppo-
fed to be the immediate feat. But Meffrs Mariotte and
Mery contended, that the choroides is the feat of this
fenfe j and the ancients fuppofed the cryftalline to be
fo. Befides the optic, the eye receives branches from
the third, fourth, fifth, and fixth pair of nerves.
The humours of the eye, together with the cornea,
are calculated to refraft and converge the rays of light
in fuch a manner as to form at the bottom of the eye
a diftinft image of the object we look at; and the
point where the rays meet is called the focus of the
eye. On the retina, as in a camera obfcura, the ob¬
ject is painted in an inverted pofition 5 and it is only by
habit that we are enabled to judge of its true fituation,
T O M Y.
and likewife of its diftance and magnitude. To a
young gentleman who was born blind, and who was
couched by Mr Chefelden, every object (as he expref-
fed himfelf) feemed to touch his eyes, as what he felt
did his (kin •, and he thought no obje&s fo agreeable as
thofe which were fmooth and regular, although for
fome time he could form no judgment of their thape,
or guefs what it was in any of them that was pleafingto
him.
In order to paint objefts- diftin&ly on the retina,
the cornea is required to have fuch a degree of con¬
vexity, that the rays of light may be collefted at a cer¬
tain point, fo as to terminate exactly on the retina.—
If the cornea is too prominent, the rays, by diverging
too foon, will be united before they reach the reti¬
na, as is the cafe with near-fighted people or myopes;
and, on the contrary, if it is not fufficiently convex,
the rays will not be perfectly united when they reach
the back part of the eye; and this happens to long-
fighted people or prejbi, being found conftantly to take
place as we approach to old age, when the eye gra¬
dually flattens (f). Thefe defers are to be fupplied
by means of glaffes. He who has too prominent an
eye, will find his vifion improved by means of a concave
glafs; and upon the fame principles, a convex glafs
will be found ufeful to a perfon whofe eye is naturally
too flat.
277
Of the
Senfes.
EXPLANATION of PLATE XXXII.
Fig. I. Shows the Lachrymal Canals, after the Com¬
mon Teguments and Bones have been cut away,
a, The lachrymal gland, b, The two pun£ta la-
chrymalia, from which the two lachrymal canals pro¬
ceed to c, the lachrymal fac. d. The large lachrymal
du£t. e, Its opening into the nofe. f, The caruncula
lachrymalis. g, The eyeball.
Fig. 2. An Interior View of the Coats and Humours
of the Eye.
aaaa, The tunica fclerotica cut in four angles, and
turned back, bbbb, The tunica choroides adhering to
the infide of the fclerotica,-and the ciliary veflels are
feen paffing over—cc, The retina, which covers the vi¬
treous humour, dd, The ciliary proceffes, which were
continued from the choroid coat, ee, I he iris, f, I he
pupil.
Fig. 3. Shows the Optic Nerves, and Mufcles of the
Eye.
aa, The two optic nerves before they meet, b, The
two optic nerves conjoined, c, The right optic nerve.
d, Mufculus attollens palpebrae fuperioris. e, AttollenS
oculi. f, Abdu&or. gg, Obliquus fuperior, or troch-
learis. h, Adductor, i, The eyeball.
Fig. 4. Shows the Eyeball with its Mufcles.
a, The optic nerve, b, Mufculus trochlearis. c, Part
of the os frontis, to which the trochlea or pulley is fix¬
ed, through which,—d, The tendons of the trochlearis
pafs. e, Attollens oculi. f, Addudor oculi. g, Ab-
dudor oculi. h, Obliquus inferior, i, Part of the fu¬
perior maxillary bone to which it is fixed, k, The eye¬
ball.
Fig. 5. Reprefents the Nerves and Mufcles of the. Right
Eye, after part of the Bones of the Orbit have been
cut away.
A, The eyeball. B, The lachrymal gland. C, Muf¬
culus abdudor oculi. D, Attollens. E, Levator
palpcbrae fuperioris. F, Depreflbr oculi. G, Adduc¬
tor, H, Obliquus fuperior, with its pulley. I, Its
infertion into the fclerotic coat. K, Part of the obli¬
quus inferior. L, The anterior part of the os frontis
cut.
this does not appear to be the cafe, the fituation of the iris and the two chambers of the eye are here defcribed in
the ufual way. , ...
(e) When the cryfialline becomes opaque, fo as to prevent the paflage of the rays of light to the retina, it con-
ftitutes what is called a cataraB; and the operation of couching confifts in removing the difeafed cryftalline from
its bed in the vitreous humour. In this operation the cornea is perforated, and the aqueous humour efcapes out of
the eye, but it is conftantly renewed again in a very ffiort time. The manner, however, in which it is fecreted
has not yet been determined.
(f) Upon this principle, they, who in their youth are near-lighted, may exped to fee better as they advancs
in life, as their eyes gradually become more flat.
2^78 ANA
Of the cut. M, The crifta galli of the ethmoid bone.^ N, The
Senfes. pofterior part of the fphenoid bone. O, Iranfverfe
fpinous procefs of the fphenoid bone. P, The carotid
artery, denuded where it paffes through the bones.
The carotid artery within the cranium. R, The
ocular artery.
Nerves.—aa, The optie nerve. b, The third
pair. c, Its joining with a branch of the firft branch
of the fifth pair, to form 1, the lenticular ganglion,—
which fends off the ciliary nerves, d. ee, The fourth
pair, f, The trunk of the fifth pair. g, The firft
branch of the fifth pair, named ophthalmic, h, The
frontal branch of it. i, Its ciliary branches, along
with which the nafal twig is fent to the nofe. k, Its
branch to the lachrymal gland. 1, The lenticular gan¬
glion. m, The fecond branch of the fifth pair, named
fuperior maxillary, n, The third branch of the fifth
pair, named inferior maxillary, o, The fixth pair of
nerves,—which fends off, p, the beginning of the great
fympathetic. q, The remainder of the fixth pair, fpent
on c, the abduftor oculi.
Fig. 6. Reprefents the Head of a Youth, where the
upper part of the Cranium is fawed off,—to (how the
Upper Part of the Brain, covered with the Pia Ma¬
ter, the veffels of which are minutely filled with wax.
AA, The cut edges of the upper part of the cra¬
nium. B, The two tables and intermediate diploe.
BB, The two hemifpheres of the cerebrum. CC, The
incifure made by the falx. D, Part of the tentorium
cerebello fuper expanfum. E, Part of the falx, which
is fixed to the crifta galli.
Fig. 7. Reprefents the parts of the External Ear, with
the Parotid Gland and its Du6t.
' O M Y. Part II.
aa, The helix, b, The antihelix, c, The anti- of the
tragus, d, The tragus, e, The lobe of the ear. f, Senfes.
The cavitas innominata. g, The fcapha. h, The
concha. ii, The parotid gland. k, A lymphatic
gland, which is often found before the tragus. . 1, The
du<ft of the parotid gland, m, Its opening into the
mouth.
Fig. 8. A View of the Pofterior Part of the External
Ear, Meatus Auditorius, Tympanum, with its Small
Bones, and Euftachian tube of the Right Side,
a, The back part of the meatus, with the fmall ce¬
ruminous glands, b, ihe incus, c, Malleus, d, The
chorda tympani. e, Membrana tympani. f, The Eu¬
ftachian tube, g, Its mouth from the fauces.
Fig. 9. Reprefents the Anterior Part of the Right Ex¬
ternal ear, the Cavity of the Tympanum—its Small
Bones, Cochlea, and Semicircular Canals,
a, The malleus, b, Incus with its long leg, refting'
upon the {tapes, c, Membrana tympani. d, e, The
Euftachian tube, covered by part of—ff, the mufcu-
lus circumflexus palati. 1, 2, 3, The three femicircu-
lar canals. 4, The veftible. 5, The cochlea. 6, The
portio mollis of the feventh pair of nerves.
Fig. 10. Shows the Mufcles which compofe the flefhy
fubftance of the Tongue.
aa, The tip of the tongue, with fome of the papil¬
la; minimse. b, The root of the tongue, c, Part of
the membrane of the tongue, which covered the epi¬
glottis. dd, Part of the mufculus hyo-gloffus. e, The
lingualis. f, Genio-gloffus. gg, Part ef the ftylo-
gloffus.
EARTH.
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.
HAVING fully examined and defcribed the ftruc-
ture of man, we are now to take a view of that of the
inferior animals, and to confider in what the reft of
animated nature differs from man.
Comparative anatomy was formerly, as we have
fhewn in the hiftory, much more cultivated than that
of the human body ; but when the prejudices of bigo¬
try and ignorance fubfided, and allowed human diffec-
tion to be more freely eXercifed, the ftudy of this fpe-
cies of anatomy was almoft entirely neglefted. Of
late, however, it has attrafted the attention of feveral
of the moft eminent naturalifts and anatomifts, parti¬
cularly of Monro, Hunter, Vicq d’Azyr, and Cuvier,
from whofe labours it has received confiderable im¬
provement, and has attained a degree of accuracy and
an extent of application, which render it an objeft of
inquiry highly interefting to the philofopher and the
phyfician.
Many advantages are derived from the ftudy of
comparative anatomy. Firft, It furnifties us with a
fufficient knowledge of the feveral parts of animals, to
prevent our being impofed on by thofe authors who
have defcribed and delineated many organs from brutes
as belonging to the human body. T hat this is of im¬
portance, is evinced by examining the works of fome
of the earlieft and greateft mafters of anatomy, who,
for want of human fubjefts, have often taken their de-
fcriptions from other animals j Galen is notorioufly
faulty in this refpeft, and the great Vefalius, though
he juftly reproved Galen, has fallen into the fame er¬
ror, as is plain from his delineations of the kidneys,
the uterus, the mufcles of the eye, and other parts.
Nor is antiquity only chargeable with this, fince in
Willis’s Anatomia Cerebri (the plates of which were
revifed by that accurate ar atomift Hr Lower) there
are feveral of the figures taken from different brutes,
efpecially from the dog, befides what he acknowledges
for fuch.
Secondly, It helps us to underftand feveral paffages
in the ancient writers on medicine, efpecially Hippo¬
crates and Galen, who have taken many of their de-
fcriptions from brutes, and reafoned from them.
Thirdly, It affords one of the beft affiftants and moft
certain g-uides in the ftudy of natural hiftory ; and the
6 beft
W'ATONn
E. Mitchell^/r-r ''} *
■
PLATE XXII.
Eng d. ~byEL. WUsoTbESinX
—
Fig .18.
K
•w
98^ioI16J48 211314 12,
A JY ATOMY.
Fig. 3.
Fv-1- Fig.6.
Fig.!.
lEruj^ by IF.^chCbal^FcUnF
Anatomy
/'/.A TE xxiv
E/ujmved by J. Grant Eifiit!'
Jl\
%
I' I; i (c XXY\
7
AN ATOMY.
PLATE XXVII
ANATOMV
PI.A J1 JC XXVHI
Fiy.2
Fig. 3
by WArchilrdd EcUn
.1
Anatomy
Plate XVIV
ANATOMY.
J. Grant Srutp *
PLATE XXX.
AXATOMY
Pl ate XXXI.
-/vy. 1.
VN A I O M Y.
Platt XX XU
Fit/ - ‘3.
Fig. /.
Fry. O.
JS. Mitcfc e // y<\t //
I
f
[pap. T.
(General beft and moft fclentific metljods of arranging the feveral
Lrktions, clafles of organized beings, are founded on their anato-
Z*-0- ^ mical iirufture.
| h '» Fourthly, From comparing the organization of man
•with that of other animals, we derive conliderable aid
in our phyfiological refearches, as many functions of
the animal economy can be but imperfe&ly underftood,
without comparing in various claffes the organs which
are fubfervient to them. From a want of this compa¬
rative view, there have arifen among anatomifts many
difputes, which a more enlarged acquaintance with this
fubjeit has decided.
To thefe advantages of comparative anatomy, we
may add, that it may be pra6tifed at all times and in
all places •, and this enables thofe, who from preju¬
dice or delicacy, are withheld from the ftudy of ana¬
tomy on the human fubjeft, to acquire at an eafy rate
a knowledge of this ufeful fcience, fufficient for the
ufual purpofes of a liberal education.
279
In the view which we are here to take of compara- General
tive anatomy, it is by no means our intention to enter variations,
into a particular detail of the ftrufture of the feveral C
fpecies, or even genera of animals. We propofe, how-
ever, to confider pretty fully the diverfities of organiza¬
tion exhibited by the feveral clalfes, and to exemplify
thefe by fome well-known individuals of each. We
{hall thus, we truft, render the fubjedt interefting to
the general reader, for whom this article is calculated,
rather than for profeffional men*, and enable the na-
turalift, the veterinary ftudent, the fportfman, and the
artift, to profit by our labours. But before entering
on the particular comparative view of the feveral clal¬
fes, we think it proper to premife a few general obfer-
vations on the variations which appear in the organiza¬
tions and fundtions of animals, on the relations which
take place among thefe variations, and the arrange¬
ment of animals founded on them.
ANATOMY.
CHAP. I. GENERAL VARIATIONS IN THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONS.
X49 THE moft obvious and limple fiindtion of an ani¬
mal is motion, and we therefore begin with the organs
by which this is produced. All animals are furnifhed
with mufcles, or mufcular fibres, but a great propor¬
tion of them having nothing analogous to bone. In
thofe which have bones, there are two ftriking diftinc-
tions ; in one divifion they are fituated within the
mufcles, forming an internal articulated Ikeleton j in
the other they form an external fcaly or {belly cover¬
ing, within which the mufcles are included.
Thofe animals which are furniftied with articulated
Ikeletons, and conftituting what is called a vertebral
column, are denominated vertebral animals. Of thefe
there are four orders, the mammalia, birds, fifties, and
reptiles. All other animals, comprehending the mol-
lufca, infedls, worms, and zoophytes, may be called
invertebral animals.
*5° The. general differences in the organs of fenfation
are much lefs ftmple y they may be confidered as re-
fpedling the internal nervous fyftem, and the organs of
the external fenfes. With refpedl to the former, fome
animals appear to have no nervous fyftem, as the zoo¬
phytes ; another clafs has all of this internal fylkm ex¬
cept the brain, fituated in the fame cavity with the vif-
cera, as the mollufca, infedls, and fome of the articu¬
lated worms y the third and moft complete clafs, have
the common origin of the nerves fituated in a cavity,
diftindl from that of the vifcera, within the vertebral
column y this comprehends all the vertebral animals.
The two firft claffes have the ganglia or nervous knots,
(Vid. Ganglia, Anatomy) forming protuberances in
the general nervous cord, as is the cafe with infedls
and fome articulated worms y or have them only within
the larger cavities, as the mollufca : the laft divifion
have them either on the tides of the cord, or within the
cavities, or both.
iS1 The external fenfes differ in number and energy.
All the vertebral animals agree with man in having five
fenfes. Of the invertebral animals, all appear to pof-
fefs fmell, tafte, and feeling y moft of the mollufca and
infedls, as far as is yet known, are without hearing y
and the mollufca who want heads, the larvae of fome
infedls, many of the articulated worms, and all the
zoophytes, are not poffeffed of fight. The energy of
the fenfes varies very confiderably in different claffes,
and in different individuals y fome, as moll ot the dogs,
the vulture, and moft of the farcophaga, or animals
which prey on carrion, have the fenfe of fmelling ex¬
tremely acute, and in thefe the membrane lining the
nafal cavities appears to be proportionally more ex¬
tended than in others. Some excel in the lenfe of
feeling, particularly man and the monkey tribe, in
whom the extremities are moft divided, moft delicate,
and furniftied with the moft minute ramifications of the
fuperficial nerves. Man, and thofe animals who, like
man, have the power of moving the head in all direc¬
tions, poffefs a great extent of vifion, both as to circuit
and diilance y and thefe have two eyes funk and fixed
within the head : others, as moft infe&s, which are to
fee minute objects near at hand, have either feveral eyes,
or at leaf! eyes containing feveral lenfes. But the differ¬
ences which appear in thefe organs will be fully noticed
in comparing the feveral claffes.
The organs of digeftion furnifti us with two great
diftin£tions. Some animals, as moft of the zoophytes,
have only one opening to the alimentary canal, which
ferves both for the taking in of aliment, and the rejec¬
tion of the excrement y in all others this canal has two
diftintfl openings, at a greater or lefs diftance from
each other, according as the convolutions of this canal
are more or lefs numerous. Another difference which
has a confiderable influence on the nature of the aliment,
adapted to the feveral fpecies is, that fome animals have
the mouth furniftied with teeth or other hard bodies for
the purpofe of breaking down folids, and that others want
thefe organs. In the latter cafe, the animal, iiits mouth
be large, can fwallow its food entire, or it its mouth
be in the form of a tube, can only fuck in fluid fub-
ftances. The nature of the bodies which the animal
is to mafticate, is alfo influenced by the form of the
teeth : thus fome animals have only teeth formed for
cutting and tearing, and therefore can only fubfift on
flefti, or are carnivorous y others have chiefly grinding
teeth, calculated only for bruifing herbs and grain,
and
•2 Bo
,A N A T O M Y.
Part II.
General and tliefe are herbivorous •, a third clafs have both, and
variatioHs, are omnivorous. The difference of aliment is attend-
ed with a correfpondent difference in the ftrufture of
the alimentary canal, as to its greater or fmaller length,
the number of ftomachs, &c.
153 The chyle formed from the aliment by the a&ion of
thefe organs, is carried to its place of deftination in
one of two ways; it either exudes through the fides of
the alimentary canal, or it is abforbed by particular
veffels, bv which it is conveyed into the general circu¬
lation. The former takes place in the zoophytes, and
according to Cuvier in molt infedts, which appear to
poffefs no proper circulating veffels. The latter is the
cafe in the mollufca, and in all the vertebral animals ;
but thefe have the blood red and the chyle white,
while thofe have all the fluids of the fame whitilh co¬
lour. Of the vertebral animals too, the chyle is opake
in fome, as the mammalia, and tranfparent like the
lymph in others, as in birds, fillies, and reptiles.
154 * In Jtlie organs of circulation feveral very important
diftindtions take place.
Some appear to have no circulating fyftem, as in-
fedls and zoophytes. In thofe which poffefs circulating
organs, fome have a double circulation, or in them all
the venous blood paffes through the lungs, before it
again enter the arterial fyffem, as man, mammalia,
birds, fillies, and many of the mollufca ; others have
only a Angle circulation, or in thefe a great part of
the venous blood re-enters the arterial fyftem, with¬
out palling through the lungs, as in reptiles. The
ftrudture and pofition of the heart is different in various
claffes. In fome it is double, one part ferving for cir¬
culating the blood through the lungs, and the other
for diftributing it through the reft of the body; and
in this cafe the parts may be united, as in man, the
mammalia, and birds, or they may be diftindt, as in the
cuttle-filh. In others the heart is Angle, or confift* of
one ventricle, which may be fituated either at the bafe
of the general artery, as in fnails and fome other mol¬
lufca, jr at the bafe of the pulmonary artery, as in
fillies.
155 The organs of refpiration difplay ftriking varieties,
fir ft, according to the element which is to ferve as the
medium : if this be air, it is received into the interior
of the refpiratory organs ; if it be water, it merely
glides over the furface of lamellae, which have been
named branchiae, as in fifties and many of the molluf¬
ca, or of fringes, as in fome worms. The air may be
admitted into the body by one opening or by many.
The former is the cafe with all animals who have pro¬
per lungs ; the tube which receives the air is fubdivid-
ed into numerous branches terminating in cells, which
are reunited, ufually, into two maffes, which the ani¬
mal can at pleafure comprefs or dilate. In infedts,
which refpire through many openings, the air veffels
are moft minutely ramified, fo as to admit the air to
every part of the body, and thefe animals are faid to
refpire by tracheae. Laftly, The zoophytes, with the
exception of the echinodermata, appear to have no re¬
fpiratory organs.
156 There are only two general differences in the organs
of voice, and thefe refpedt the pofition of the glottis,
where the found is formed. In birds, this is fituated
at the bafe of the windpipe, where this divides into
two branches going to the lungs ; in (Quadrupeds and General
reptiles, it is placed at the commencement of the v;.r atiom,
windpipe, at the root of the tongue. Only thefe three
claffes have a glottis ; in others founds are produced by
various mechanical means, by which the external air, or
that contained within fome part of their bodies, is let
in rapid motion.
The differences which take place in the organs of 157
generation are of two kinds, as they relate to the ac¬
tion itfelf, and to the confequences of this a<Stion. In
a few animals which moftly belong to the zoophytes,
there is no copulation, but the young grows upon the
body of the parent, like a (hoot upon a tree : others
propagate only by copulation, and are of courfe of two
fexes; thefe, however, may be diftinft in different ani¬
mals, or united in the fame ; this laft only takes place
in the mollufca and the zoophytes : all the vertebral
animals and infe£ts have the fexes diftindt.
In hermaphrodite animals each individual can gene¬
rate alone, as the bivalve thell filh ; others copulate re¬
ciprocally, or each individual performs the double office
of male and female ; this is the cafe with fnails, and
fuch other of the mollufca as crawl on the belly.
As to the produce of generation, there are three
modes in which the offspring is brought forth.. Some
animals, as fome of the zoophytes and of articulated
worms produce Ihoots wffiich remain for fome time on
the body of the animals, and thefe are gemmiparous.
Others, as man and the mammalia, contain the fetus
within a uterus, to which it is connedled by a net-work
of blood-veffels, and from which it is lent forth alive ;
thefe, therefore, are viviparous. A third clafs, compre¬
hending all the other animals, have the young contain¬
ed within a {hell, and enveloped by a fubftance which
it abforbs before it is hatched ; the viper may feem an
exception to this divifion, as it brings forth its young
alive j but then thefe have been hatched in the recep¬
tacle which contained the eggs; thefe animals are call¬
ed oviparous.
Laftly, The organs of fecretion fliow fome diverfity.
All the vertebral animals and fome mollufca fecrete
by means of glands fituated in various parts of the
body, or at leaft by means of expanfions of veffels.
The only fecretory organs in infers feem to be tubes
of various lengths, which attradf, with the fpongy tif-
fue of their fides, thofe fluids which they are to fepa-
rate from the general nutritious mafs. Ihe fecretory
organs in the zoophytes are very imperfeaiy under-
ftood.
Thefe are the principal general differences which we
had to notice as taking place in animals. The fol¬
lowing Table exhibits a comprehenfive view of thefe,
arranged in the order in which we have enumerated
them.
1. OSSIFICATION.
A. a. Animals with an internal bony IKeleton.
Man, Mammalia, Birds, Reptiles,
Fishes properly fo called.
I,   with an internal cartilaginous Ikeleton.
Cartilaginous Fishes.
B.
with an external horny Ikeleton.
Perfect Insects, Lithophytes.
b. Animals
1
Chap. II.
General
relations,
&-c.
c.
A N A T
b. Animals with an external cretaceous (keleton. B.
Crustacea, and moft of the Zoo¬
phytes.
i. .. ■■ without a ikeleton.
Larvae of Insects, Worms, Po- C. -
LYPI.
2. IRRITABILITY.
A. Animals which have the whole body mufcular.
Moft larvae of Insects, Worms, Po¬
lypi.
B.  which have the mufcles covering the fke-
leton.
Man, Mammalia, Birds, Fishes, Rep¬
tiles.
C. - which have the mufcles covered by the
Ikeleton.
Perfect Insects, Crustacea.
3. SENSATION.
A. Animals which have a brain and nerves readily di-
ftinguilhed from the fpinal marrow.
Man, Mammalia, Birds,Fishes,Rep¬
tiles.
B.
C.
O M Y.
Animals with white blood, and a heart formed
of a longitudinal canal jointed and
eontradtile.
Moft Crustacea, Worms.
— without a heart, but with fluids contained
in veffels.
Insects, Zoophytes.
  which have a brain and nerves fcarcely to
be diftinguifhed from the fpinal marrow.
Insects, Crustacea, Worms.
 which have no apparent fenforium.
Zoophytes.
4. DIGESTION.
A. Animals which have one ftotnach, or more, readily
diftinguilhed from the cefophagus and
the alimentary canal.
Man, Mammalia, Birds, Crustacea.
B. ■ - which have the ftomach diftinguilhed from
the oefophagus and alimentary canal
only by certain fwellings.
Fishes and Reptiles.
C. . which have only an alimentary canal.
Insects, Worms, Zoophytes.
5. CIRCULATION.
A. u. Animals with red blood, and a heart having two
ventricles and two auricles,
Man, Mammalia, Birds.
b.   .i. —. with a heart having one ventricle di¬
vided into feveral cavities, and two
auricles.
Reptiles.
   with a heart having but one ventricle
and one auricle.
Fishes.
B.
C.
D.
E.
7. GENERATION.
A. Animals viviparous.
Man, Mammalia.
B.
oviparous.
Birds, Fishes, Reptiles,
Crustacea, Worms.
C.
6. RESPIRATION.
A. a. Animals which refpire by means of lungs not
adhering and fpongy.
Man, Mammalia.
b. . which refpire by means of lungs not ad¬
hering, but formed of cells, and muf¬
cular.
Reptiles.
c. —— which refpire by means of lungs adhe¬
ring to the ribs, and furniftied with
appendages.
Birds.
■ — which refpire by means of gills of va¬
rious forms.
Fishes, Crustacea.
———which refpire by means of ftigmata, or
holes fituated in different rings.
Insects, Terrestrial Worms.
—— which refpire by means of tracheae, or
by external fringed bodies.
Aquatic Worms.
■ which appear to have neither ftigmata
nor tracheae.
Zoophytes ex. Echinodermata.
Insects,
1 which may be propagated by cuttings.
Worms, Polypi.
8. SECRETION.
A. Animals fecreting by means of glands.
Man, Mammalia, Birds, Fishes, Rep¬
tiles, and fome Mollusc A.
B.  - which appear to have no glands.
Some Mollusc a, Inserts, Worms,
Zoophytes.
CHAP. II. GENERAL RELATIONS WHICH TAKE PLACE AMONG THE VARIATIONS
OF ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONS.
WE fliall beft obferve thefe relations by comparing
together the feveral funftions, two by two.
To begin with one of the moft obvious, refpiration,
we perceive that this is always regulated by the mo¬
tion of the nutritious fluid. In animals which are
furnilhed with a heart and veffels, there is a central
Vol. II. Part I.
receptacle, in which this fluid is collefted, and from
which it is diftributed to every part of the body ; the
heart is its great goal, from which it fets out, and to
which it muft return before performing a new cir¬
cuit.
It muft, therefore, at its fource undergo the a£Hon
Nn of
282
A N A T
&c.
158
General o£ the air, and accordingly, before it is fent through the
relation?, general artery, to the various organs, it is circulated
through the lungs or branchiae for this purpofe. But
in animals, as infea?., which have neither heart nor vef-
fcls, this correfpondence is unneceffary. In them the
nutritious iluid has no regular motion,.. no general
fource ; it could not have been prepared in a feparate
oro.an, before its diftribution to the reft of the body,
as, exuding through the pores of the inteftinal canal, it
continually bathes the feveral parts, and introduces frefh
particles between thofe which compoi’e them. 1 he air,
therefore, could exert its aftion only at the very points
of this introduction, and the very inftant when it hap¬
pens. This is extremely well provided for by the difpo-
fttion of the tracheae, as there is no one folid point m
the bodies of infefts to which the Sne ramifications of
the air-veffels do not extend, and at which the chemical
aCtion of the air does not take place. As we clearly
fee the caufes of thefe relations between the organs be¬
longing to thefe two functions of refpiration and circu¬
lation, we are authorized to conclude that other rela¬
tions, which are found to hold between them, depend
upon caufes of the fame kind, though perhaps not equal¬
ly evident...
For inftance, of thofe animals who have blood-veiiels
and a double circulation, fome refpire by admitting the
air immediately into the fpongy fubftance of the lungs,
and in thefe the two trunks of the large arteries approach
each other, and are furnilhed with mulcular ventricles
united into one flefhy mafs; others refpire through the
medium of water paffing between the folds of their
branehice, and in thefe the two trunks are always fepa-
rated, whether each be furniftied with a feparate ven¬
tricle as in the cuttle-fifh, or both have a common ven¬
tricle as in fifties and the mollufca. # .
The relation which fubfifts between refpiration and
motion is more eafily explained. We find, that thofe
animals which move qaickeft, and are conftantly refi-
dent in the air, Hand moft in need of pure air, and can
obtain it with the greateft facility. I he conftant de¬
mand for frelh air, is found by modern chemiftry to be
owing to the lofs of irritability in the mufcular fibre,
which is fupplied by fomething from the air.. Birds,
therefore, who, from the fwiftnefs of their motion, and
confequent lofs of irritability, have the greateft demand
for frefti air, have alfo the moft complete and extenfive
refpiratory organs. In reptiles, again, whofe motion is
generally very ilow, and whofe irritability is retained
with great obftinacy, thefe organs are incomplete,, and
their vefiels confounded with thofe of the general circu¬
lation, and they can'exift long without air. The mam¬
malia feem to hold the middle rank between thefe two
extremes*
The relations which take place between the differen*
4
*59
160
O M Y. ' Part II
ees of the organs of fenfation, with thofe of refpiration, General
likewife deferve attention. relations.
In animals with cold blood, the external fenfes are , ^ ^
much lefs acute than in the warm-blooded animals •, and
in the former the brain is lefs, and does not completely
fill the Ikull. This is doubtlefs owing to the flower mo¬
tion of the cold-blooded animals requiring lefs nervous
energy.
The digeftive organs are found to poffefs more power
in proportion as thofe of refpiration are more adlive, as
the great wafte occafioned by thefe muft be compenfa-
ted by a proportional fupply of aliment received.
Hence in birds, the ftomaeh is extremely powerful, the
digeftion very vigorous, and the demand for food fre¬
quent and importunate j while reptiles require very little
nouriftiment, and can remain very long without a frefli
fupply.
We have feen the relations which fubfift between
the organs of refpiration and thofe of digeftion. 1 hefe
laft are alfo immediately related to the.organs of mo¬
tion and of fenfation j for the nature of t'ie aliment by
which the animal is to be nounflied is completely de¬
termined by the difpofition of the alimentary canal j
but if the animal had not its organs of fenfation and
of motion calculated for diftinguiftiing and procuring
its proper food, it is evident that it could not exift :
thus an animal who can digeft only flefh, muft of ne-
ceflity be enabled to perceive, to purfue,' to feize, to
overcome, and tear in pieces its proper prey. It muft
therefore poffefs a piercing fight, an acute fmell, a ra¬
pid motion, agility, and confiderable ftrength in its-
jaws and talons. Accordingly, we never fee exifting
in the fame animal a tooth formed for cutting flefli to¬
gether with a horny foot *, this explains why every
animal with hoofs is herbivorous, and why hoofs indi¬
cate grinding teeth with flattened crowns, a very
long alimentary canal, a large ftomach, or feverai
ftomachs, and many other fimilar relations. Among
all thefe relations there are many which have fome¬
thing in common, and there are always fome in which
the differences are few, fo that by bringing together
thofe which have the neareft refemblance, we are en¬
abled to form a kind of feries, which will appear gra¬
dually to proceed from a primitive ftandard. Hence
the idea of a fcale of beings, which fome r.aturalifts
have formed, exhibiting a regular gradation, beginning
at the moft perfeft, and defeending to the moft Ample
ftate of organization, or vice verfa. As the links
which conftitute this chain are by no means entirely
known, a perfect fcale of beings is at prefent not to be
expelled.
The following table difplays a feries of animals, be¬
ginning with the moft Ample ftate of organization, and
afeending to the moft perfedh
SCALE
Chap. III.
ANATOMY.
283
Arrange-
irnent of A-
mimals, S*c.
SCALE of Animals according to the greater or lefs fimplicity of their Stru&ure.
Lintie.
I, Having only a ftomach,
Arrange¬
ment of A-
nimals, &c.
2. A ftomach and inteftines,
n f Sea anemonies.
!/l&inias.
Nettles.
Medufce.
Argonauts.
I Beroe.
j Moft animalcula of vegelahle hi-
fufions.
^ P Flower-polypes.
5. Having befide thefe an external organ for refpira-J VorticelU.
tion in the water, - - - ] Brachioni.
* LBotrylh.
4. Having befides thefe, fome viicera, a fyftem of ab- C ^nornjge>
forbents, organs of generation, (but not of copu-<
lation), and a net-work of nerves, - LAnimals of the bivalve fiiells.
5. Having befide, a blood-veffel, and fometimes 7 Inteftinal worms,
fenfe of feeing, - - ~ S
6. Having befide, organs of copulation (hermaphrodites) Leeches#
a heart without auricles, but with diftintt pulfa- ( gnajis>
tions, nervous ganglia, the fenfe of vifion, and an f Anim’als of the univalve {hells,
imperfeft organ of maftication, - J
iy. Having befides a brain, organs of locomotion, male""!
and female organs of generation diftinft, fome- / lnfe£{s.
times the Fenfe of hearing, and an external bony f
fyftem, J
8. Having rudiments of an internal bony fyftem, al cartJiagjnous fifhes.
heart and blood-veffels, - ■ 1 ■
Forjkall.
Linnc.
Miller.
Pallas.
Linnc.
heart and blood-veffels, ~ ~ $
9. Having a complete internal bony fyftem,
30. Having internal lungs, and an organ of fmelling,
11. Having befides a bilocular heart,
12. Having perfeft organs of tafte and maftication, or-7Mamma^a-
gans for fecreting milk, and a uterus, - JMan.
Fifties properly fo called.
Amphibia.
Birds.
CHAP. HI. ARRANGEMENT OF ANIMALS FOUNDED ON THE GENERAL
DIFFERENCE OF THEIR ORGANIZATION.
HAVING taken a furvey of the general differences
which take place in the organization and fun&ions of
animals, and of the relations which fubfift among thefe
differences-, we are now to proceed to a fummary
view of the whole animal kingdom, and confider what
is common in the organization of the various claffes of
which it is compofed.
The -whole animal kingdom is generally divided in¬
to two great families, that of the vertebral animals,
who have red blood ; and that of the invertcbral ani¬
mals, almoft all of which have white blood.
In the firft divifion we always find an interior arti¬
culated fkeleton, of which the principal fupport is the
vertebral column, having the head at its atlantal ex¬
tremity, and containing within its cavity the general
origin of the nerves j its facral extremity is commonly-
prolonged to form a tail. The ribs, which are feldom
wanting, are fituated on both fides of this column (g).
N n 2 Thefe
fg) As the terms generally employed in the human anatomy are by no means calculated for defcribing the
v ' • ftructure
284 A N A T
Qf Qua- Thefe animals 'have never more than four limbs ; but
drupeds. ;a fome of them two of thefe are wanting, in others
Their brain is always contained within a peculiar
cavity of the head called the cranium; all the fpinal
nerves fend off filaments to aflift in forming a nervous
chord, which is derived from one of the nerves of the
cranium, and is diftributed to moft of the vifcera.
They have always five fenfes : two ey.es which they
can move at pleafure j the ear has always at leaft three
femicircular canals 5 the organ of fmell is always con¬
fined to cavities in the fore part of the head \ there is al¬
ways at leaft one flefhy ventricle, by which the circula¬
tion of the blood is carried on ; fometimes there are two
ventricles, which are always united.
The lymphatic veffels are always diftinft from the
blood-veffels.
The jaws are always fituated horizontally, and fepa-
rate from above downwards.
The alimentary canal is continued from the mouth
to the anus, which is always fituated behind the bones
with which the facral extremities are articulated.
The inteftines are enveloped in a membranous bag,
called peritonceum.
There are always a liver* and a pancreas or fweet-
bread, by which liquors are fecreted for the purpofes of
digeftion, and a fpleen, in which one part of the blood,
which goes afterwards to the liver, undergoes fome pre¬
vious change.
The urine is always feparated by two kidneys, which
are fituated on both fides of the vertebral column with¬
out the peritonaeum, and above which are always two
bodies called atrabiliary capfules, the ufe of which is
unknown. The vertebral animals are fubdivided into.
two feftions } the hot-blooded, and the cold-blooded.
In the hot-blooded vertebral animals there is always a
heart and a double circulation. Refpiration is carried on
by means of lungs, and without the exerciie of this
fun£Hon they cannot exift.
The brain in thefe animals completely fills the cavity
of the flcull, and their eyes clofe by means of lids. The
tympanum of their ear is funk in the folid bone of the
O M Y. Part II.
ikull, as the parts of the labyrinth are entirely furround- of Qua.
ed by bone j befides the femicircular canal, there is al- drupeds.
ways an organ with two fpiral cavities, like the (hell of » -1
a fnail j the noftrils ferve for the paifage of the air in
breathing, and form a communication with the mouth.
The trunk is always furrounded by the ribs, and there
are for the moft part four limbs.
The cold-blooded vertebral animals are deficient in
feveral of thefe particulars ; many of them want ribs,
and fome of them have no limbs. In them the brain
never entirely fills the cavity of the flcull, and their eye¬
lids are feldom moveable ; the tympanum of their ear,
as alfo the fmall bones, is often wanting, the fpiral cavity
always j when the tympanum is prefent, it is never funk
within the fkull.
Each of thefe two divifions is again fubdivided into
two clafles j the former into the mammalia and the
birds ; the latter into the fifties and the reptiles: the
ftru&ure of thefe claffes will be confidered in their pro¬
per place.
The invertebral animals have fewer common circum-
ftances, and conftitute a lefs regular feries than thofe of
which we have been fpeaking 5 their hard parts, when
they are prefent, are generally, at leaft when articulated,
placed externally. No part of their nervous fyftem is
contained within a bony {heath, but floats in a common
cavity with the vifcera.
The brain only is placed above the alimentary ca¬
nal j from it proceed two branches which embrace the
gullet like a collar, and. from which the general bun¬
dle of the nerves is formed. In thefe animals refpira¬
tion is never carried on by means of cellular lungs, and
they are all deftitute of voice j their jaws have no par¬
ticular dire&ion, and their mouths are often merely
fuckers j tbey have no kidneys, and confequently fecrete
no urine ; if they have limbs, thefe are always at leaft
fix in number.
Confidered in an anatomical point of view, they may
be divided into five clafles, namely, the mollufca, the
cruftacea, infedls, worms, and zoophytes. We ftiall
treat of thefe feveral clafles in the order in which we
have enumerated them*
CHAP. IV. MAMMALIA, OR QUADRUPEDS.
Sect. I. General Ohfervations.
162 A question has been ftarted by fome fanciful phi-
Whtther i0f0phers, “ Whether man is naturally a biped or a
r^llvT* quadruped?” and much ingenuity has beep employed
biped or*a to eftablHh the latter opinion. But it is prefumed
quadruped, that few of their readers have been made converts to
fuch an opinion, and that not many of ours will require
much argument to perfuade them of their ereft defti-
nation. It may therefore fuffice to obferve, that this
ere& pofition is beft adapted to the conformation of
the human head, and the ponderous quantity of hu¬
man brains:—that the articulation of the os occipitis
with the firft vertebra of the neck, is differently con-
ftrufted from that of quadrupeds, with the obvious de-
fign that man fliould be able to move his head in every
direftion with the greateft facility that the human
fpecies (and alfo monkeys) are deftitute of that ftrong
ligament or tendinous aponeurofis, 'vulgarly called pax-
wax, which quadrupeds poffefs (as a kind of Jlay
tape,) to prevent the head from finking to the earth ;
to which, from its natural pofition, it muft be very
proneand that our eyes and ears are, fortunately,
not
ftrufture of the inferior animals, we (hall in this article make ufe of others, with which we have been favoured
by Dr Barclay, the ingenious lefturer on anatomy, to whbfe publication on anatomical nomenclature we refer the
reader for their explanation.
iChap.
Of Qua¬
drupeds.
IV. ANA
not placed as tliofe of tlie quadrupeds,
the human eye is nearly perpendicular with a vertical
fe^ion of the head j whereas, in the brute creation
(the larger ape excepted), the pofition of the eyes
forms an acute angle :—nature has alfo furniflied other
animals with a fufpenforium ocuh, a mufcle which the
ereB attitude renders needlefs, though highly neceffary
in the prone; confequently, whoever tries the experi¬
ment will find that, in the inclined direction, both his
eyes and his ears are in the moft unfavourable fituation
poflible for quick hearing or extenfive vifion. In fine,
the fhape, breadth, ftrength of the vertebrae of the
back and loins, are all coincident with the ereft atti¬
tude of the trunk.
All quadrupeds have a covering of hair, wool, &c.
to defend them from the injuries of the weather, which
varies in thicknefs according to the feafon of the year
and difference of the climate j thus in Ruflia and the
northern countries, the furs are very thick and warm,
while the little Spanilh lap-dogs, and Barbary cows,
have little or no hair at all.
The cutis and cuticula in quadrupeds are difpofed
LUll3) Fail_ much in the fame way as the human, only more elaf-
niculus car-tic j immediately under this, there is a very thin cu-
nofus. taneous mufcular fubftance called panniculus carnofus,
which is common to all quadrupeds, the porcine kind
excepted j this principally covers the trunk, fetving
N A T O M Y. 285
The axis of to fhrivel the Ikin, in order to drive off infecls, their Of Qua-
163
Cuticula,
cutis, pan
tails and heads not being fufficient for this purpofe,, drupeds. _
while their extremities are employed in their fupport y
and progreffion. 164
It has probably been from obferving fome mufcles of Whence
the human body, fuch as the platyfma myoides, ere-the motion
mafter, and frontales, and the collapfed tunica cellulofa njcujus car_
of emaciated fubje£ts, to refemble this thin mufcle, thatnofUJ)
fome of the oldeft anatomifts reckoned fuch a pannicu¬
lus among the common teguments of the human body.
This Carolus Stephanus has well obferved. 165
Moft part of quadrupeds want clavicles, whereby Why moft
their atlantal extremities fall upon their cheft, fo s
to make their thorax proportionally narrower than thev-cies<
human. This fmall diftance of their atlantal extre¬
mities is very neceffary for their uniform progreflion :
apes indeed and fquirrels have clavicles to allow them
a more full ufe of their extremities in climbing; but
when they walk on ail-fours, they move but indiffer-
ently.
Their head is conne&ed to the firft vertebra of the
neck by two eminences as in man. The vertebrae of
the neck are never lefs than fix, or more than nine.
The number of the dorfal and other vertebrae differs
confiderably in the various individuals. The follow¬
ing table exhibits thefe differences in each fpecies.
The brain of thefe animals is more complicated than
that of the other claffes.
TABLE of the Proportional Number of Spinal Vertebra in various fpecies of
Mammalia.
Species.
Man, -
Simia fatyrus, Lin. Orang-outang,
—— troglodytes. Jocko,
    lar. Gibbon,
 panifeus. Coai’ta,
 capucina. Weeping monkey, fa'i,
—— rofalia. Silky monkey, marakina,
-    pat as. Patas.
Maimon, rib-nofed ape,
—— cynomolgus. Macaca,
 chinenfis. Chinefe monkey,
——■ fphinx. Baboon, papion,
 inuus. Magot,
 maimon. Mandrill,
    pongo. Pongo,
 beel%ebul. Alofti, howling baboon,
Lemur catta. Macauco,
—   gracilis. Lori,
 — tarjius. Tarfier,
Vefpertilio vampyrus. Roufette, vampyre bat,
 murinus. Common bat,
  noBula. Nodtule, great bat,
    ferrum equinum. Horfe (hoe bat,
Dorfal
Vertebra.
12
12
J3
I4
14
H
12
12
12
12
11
12
12
12
12
14
12
r5
14
12
11
12
12
Lumbar
Vertebra.
Sacral
Vertebra.
Coccygian
Vertebra.
4
4
5
o
32
25
26
i6-f-
J3
5
20
31
3
13
4
25
18
9
I7 +
o
12
6
12
TABLE,
3
286
Of Qua¬
drupeds.
anatomy.
TABLE, &c. continued.
Part II,
Of Qua.
drupeds.
Species.
Dorfal
Vertebrce.
Lemur volans. Flying lemur,
Erinaceut europceus. Hedgehog,
 ecaudatus. Tanrec,
Sorex mus araneus. Mufetta, Ihrew,
Talpa cur opera. Mole,
Urfus maritimus. White bear,
 arRos. Brown bear,
 melcs. Badger, -
 gulo. Glutton, f
Viverra. Coati, - - *
Ur. lot or. Racoon, - * *
Mujlela iutra. Otter,
martes. Marten,
. -- vulgaris. Weafel,
Viverra civetta. Civet,
Felis leo. Lion,
 tigris. Tiger,
 pardus. Panther,
. concolar. Couguar,
- catus. Cat,
Canis familiaris. Wolf-dog,
 lupus. Wolf,
  vulpes. Fox. «,
 hycena. Hyaena,
Didelphis cancriphaga. Cayenne opoffum, crab-eater,
  murina. Marmofe,
■ — orientalis. Phalarger,
Hi/lrix criftata. Porcupine, - - -
Lepus timidus. Hare,
  cuniculus. Rabbit, - - . "
Cavia capijbara. C$> ae, -
 cobaya, Guinea pig,
 paca. Paca, or fpotted cavy,
 a^uti. Agouti,
Cajlor fiber. Beaver,
Sciurus volans. Hying fquirrel,
Mas marmotta. Marmotte,
. arvalis. Field moufe,
- n amphibius. Water rat,
  rattus. Black rat,
   deettmanus. Norway rat,
 muficulus. Common moufe,
 fylvaticus. Field or harveft rat,
   cricetus. Hamfter,
 glis. Fat dortnoufe, _ - -
- yueremus. Garden dormoufe,
Myrmecophaga dida&yla. Ant-eater,
Mams pentadaRyla. Pangolin,
 tetradaRyla. Long-tailed manis,
Dufy pus. Armadillo, - - - —-
Brady pus didaRylus. Two-toed flolh,
Elephas indicus. Elephant,
Sus ficrofa. Hog,
12
15
12
J3
x4
*5
16
14
J4
14
J3
13
J3
J3
J3
13
J3 .
J3
J3
16
J3
J3
13
J4
12
12
!3
J3
!3
12
15
12
J3
13
J3
!3
13
12
12
13
J3
JS
16
L3
11
23
20
J4
Lumbar
Vertebrcv.
7
6
7
6
6
6
5
5
6
7
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
6
7
7
4
6
6
6
5
7
7
6
6
6
8
5
8
7
7
7
9
7
7
7
6
7
7
2
5
5
4
2
3
5
Sacral
Vertebra.
4
3
3
7
7
5
3
3
1
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
5
1
1
4
4
2
2
4
5
4
3
3
6
3
4
3
4
4
3
4
2
4
4
3
2
3
4
4
3
Coccygian
Vertebra.
22
12
8
17
XI
11
4+
16
18
10-f-
20
21
18
14
20
23
J9
24
22
22
22
J9
20
8 +
16-f-
29
30
8+
20
20
4+
6
7
7
23
!3
22
*5
23
26
23
24
23
18
24
40
28
45
30
7 +
H
' 4
TABLE,
:hap. IV.
)Qf Qua¬
druped*
ANATOMY.
TABLE, &c. continued.
287
Of Qua¬
drupeds.
Species.
Tapirus. Tapir,
Rhinoceros,
Camelus ba&rianus. Camel,
■ — dramedarius. Dromedary,
Cervus elaphus. Stag,
Camelo -pardalia. Camelopard,
Antelope vervicapra. Antelope,
. ——— dorcas. Gazelle,
 — rupicapra. Chamois goat,
Capra hircus. Goat,
Ovis aries. Sheep,
Bos taurus. Gx,
Equus caballus. Horfe,
  quagg a. Couaga,
Phocn vitulina. Seal,
Del planus delphis. Dolphin,
 phoccena. Pbrpoife,
Dorfal
Vertebrce.
20
'9
12
12
J3
13
J3
J3
13
13
T3
18
18
15
13
13
Lumbar Sacral
Vertebrce. { Vertebrce.
}
4
3
7
7
6
5
6
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
. 5
in all
66
Coccygian
Vertebrce.
12
22
17
18
11
18
11
7f
12
16
16
J7
18
12
Their eyes have only two lids, and they agree \vith
man in having the internal ear furniflied with four little
bones articulated with each other, and a completely
fpiral cochlea, and a tongue entirely foft and tklhy.
Their heart, lungs, and diaphragm referable thofe of
man in their general ftru&ure } and differ only in a
few cireumftances, which will be beil ieen in the ex¬
emplification of their firutlure, 'which is prefently to be
given.
In treating of quadrupeds we thall divide them into
the carnivorous, or rather tbofe which feed indifferent¬
ly on flefh and vegetables, and the granivorous. The
ftru&ure of the former we fhall exemplify in the dog,
that of the latter in the cow.
Sect. II. The Anatomy of a Dog.
We may fir ft obferve of this animal, as of moft
quadrupeds, that its legs are much (hotter in proportion
to its trunk than in man, the length of whofe iteps de¬
pends entirely on the length of his facral extremities j
however, to balance this, the trunk of. tne animal is
proportionally longer and fmaller, his fpine more flex¬
ible, by which he is able at each ftep to bring his facral
nearer to his atlantal extremities. His common tegu¬
ments are much a-kin to thofe of other quadrupeds, on¬
ly they allow little or no paffage for fweat ; but when
he is over-heated, the fupertluous matter finds an exit
by the falivary gland*, for he lolls out his tongue and
flavers plentifully. \Ve are not, however, to iuppoie,
that becaufe a dog does not fweat, he has no infenfible
perfpiration. That a dog perfpires is evident, becaufe
one of thefe animals can trace another by the fcent of
of his footfteps 5 which could not happen if a large
quantity of perfnirable matter was not conftantly going
off.
The pyramidal mufcles are wanting, to fupply which
the redlus is inferted fleftiy into the os pubis.
The brain is proportionally much fmaller than the Brain,
human 5 but as in man, it is divided into cerebrum and
cerebellum, and thefe two parts bear nearly the fame
proportion to one another as in us. There was no fucli
occafion for fo great a quantity of brain in thefe ani¬
mals as in man •, feeing that in them all its energy is
employed in their progreflion, while man has a great
watte of fpirits in the exercife of his reafon and intel¬
lectual faculties. And befides all this, a bulky brain
would be inconvenient to thefe creatures, in fo far as
it would add confiderably to the weight of the head j
which having the advantage of a long lever to a£t with,
would require a much greater force to fupport it than
it does now ; for the heads of the greateft part of qua¬
drupeds are not near fo heavy as they would at (lift
fight feem to be, from the frontal finufes being produ¬
ced a great way upwards to enlarge the organ of fmel-
ling.
The pits in the anterior part of their fkull are much
more confpicuous than in the human ; which may be
occafioned by the depending polture of thefe creatures
heads while they gather their food : The brain at this
time gravitating much on the bones while they are as
yet foft, will gradually make impreflions upon them at
thofe places where it riles into eminences. This is
prevented in man moftly by his ert<R pofture.
The falx is not near fo large in quadrupeds as in man, Falx,
as they have little occafion to lie on either fide, and the
two hemifpheres of the brain are in a great meafure
hindered from juftling againft one another in violent
motions, by the brain’s infinuating itleif into the above-
mentioned pits.
The fecond procefs of the dura mater, or tentorium
cerebello fuper-expanfum, is conlidtrably thicker and
ftronger
288
Of Qua¬
drupeds.
ANATOMY. Part II.
This membrane is generally of- the papillae alfo the furface of the tongue is increafed, of Qua-
168
Proceffiis
mamiliaris.
169
N ates,
teftes.
i-jo
Rete mira-
bile Galeni
171
Tongue,
Aronger than in man. ^ .
fified, or we find the place of it fupplied by a bone, that
it may the more effeaually keep off the fuperincumbent
brain from the cerebellum in rapid motions, which other-
wife would be of bad confequence.
The olfattory nerves are very large, and juftly de-
ferve the name olprocejfut tmmillaris. They are hol¬
low, and confift of a medullary and cineritious fub-
ftance, and at firft fight appear to be the frontal ven¬
tricles of the brain produced •, but in man they are
1'mall, and without any difcernible cavity. The reafon
of this is pretty evident, if we confider how this animal’s
head is fituated j for the lymph continually gravitating
upon the inferior part of the ventricles, may thus elon¬
gate and produce them ; but from this very inferior
part the olfafrory nerves rife, and are fent immediately
through the ethmoid bone into the note. Hence the
ancients, thinking they were continued hollow into the
nofe, believed they were the emunftories of the brain :
in the brain of fheep, which by its firm texture is the
beft fubjeft of any for fearching into the ftrufture of
this part, we evidently fee, that the name oi \.\ie Jigmoid
cavity was very properly applied by the ancients to the
lateral ventricles of the brain ; which are really of a
Treater extent than they are ordinarily painted by ana-
tomifts, reaching farther backwards, and forwards again
under the fubftance of the brain. The cortical and me¬
dullary parts, as well as the corpus callofum, are fimilar
to thofe parts in man.
The nates and tejles deferve this name much better
here than in the human body, with refpett to each
other. They are larger in the quadrupeds •, and hence
we perceive that there is no great reafon for afcribing
the different operations to any particular fize or Ihape
of thefe parts. They are here alfo of different colours $
the nates being of the colour of the cortical, and the
tejies of the medullary fubftance of the brain •, where¬
as in man they are both of one colour. The reafon
of thefe differences, and others of the like nature to be
met with, we fhall not pretend to determine ; for we
have hitherto fuch an iijperfeft knowledge of the
brain itfelf, that we are entirely ignorant of the va¬
rious ufes of its different parts. We may in general
conclude, that the varying in one animal from what it
is in another, is fitted to the creature’s particular way
of living.
The rete mirabUe Galeni, fituated on each fide of the
.fella turcica, about which there has been fo much dif-
pute, is very remarkable in thefe animals. This net¬
work of veffels is nothing elfe than a continuation of
the internal carotid arteries, which, entering the Ikull,
divide into a vaft number of minute branches running
along the fide of the fella turcica and, uniting after¬
wards, are fpent on the brain in the common way. Ga¬
len feems with juftice tofuppofe, that this plexus of vef¬
fels ferves for checking the impetuofity of the blood
deftined for the brain.
The tongue, in confequence of the length of the
^aws, is much longer than ours •, and as this creature
feeds with his head in a depending pofture, the bolus
would always be in danger of falling, out of the mouth,
were it not for feveral prominences or papillae placed
moftly at the root of the tongue, and crooked back¬
wards in fuch a manner as to allow any thing to pafs
eafilv down to the jaws, but to hinder its return, ^y
drupeds.
172
and a ftronger impreflion is made on the fenfation of
tafte. In fome animals who feed on living creatures,
thefe tenter-hooks are ftill more confpicuous} as in fe¬
veral large fifties, where they are almoft as large as
their teeth in the fore part of their mouth, and near as
firm and ftrong. _ # - f
The nofe is generally longer than in man, and its ex-Nofe.
ternal pafi'age much narrower. The internal ftrufture
is alfo better adapted for an acute fmelling, having a
larger convoluted furface on which the membrana fchnei-
deriana is fpread •, and this is to be obferved in mofl:
quadrupeds, who have the offa fpongiofa commonly
large, and thefe too divided into a great number of
exceffively fine thin lamellae. The fenfibility feems to
be increafed in proportion to the furface j and this will
alfo be found to take place in all the other fenfes. The
elephant, which has a head pretty large in proportion
to its body, has the greateft part of it taken up with
the cavity of the nofe and frontal finufes \ which laft
extend almoft over their whole head, and leave but a
fmall cavity for their brains. A very nice fenfe of
fmelling was not fo abfolutely neceffary for man, who
has judgment and experience to diredt him in the choice
of his food •, whereas brutes, who have only them fenfes,
muft of neceflity have thef© acute, fome having one
fenfe in greater perfedion than others, according to their
different way of life. We not only conclude^ a. priori
from the large expanded membrana fchneidenana, that
their fenfe of fmelling is very acute, but we find itfoby
cows and horfes diftinguilhing fo readily betwixt noxious
and wholefome herbs, which they da principally by this
fenfe. , 173
The external ear in different quadrupeds is difter-Ear.
ently framed, but always calculated for the creature s
manner of life. In ftiape it commonly refembles the
oblique fedlion of a cone from near the apex to the
bafis. Hares, and fuch other animals as are daily ex-
pofed to infults from beafts of prey, have large ears di-
refted backwards, their eyes warning them of any dan¬
ger before j rapacious animals, on the other hand, have
their ears placed diredlly forwards, as we fee in the
lion, cat, &c. The flow hounds, and other animals
that are defigned to hear moft diftinftly the founds
coming from below, have their ears hanging down¬
wards ; or their ears are flexible, becaufe they move
their head for the moft part with greater difficulty than
man. Man, again, who muft equally hear founds co¬
ming from all quarters, but efpecially fuch as are fent
from about his own height, has his external ear placed
in a vertical manner, fomewhat turned forwaid. In
ffiort, wherever we fee a fpecialty in the make of this
'organ in any creature, we {hall, with very little reflec¬
tion, difeover this form to be more convenient for that
creature than another. The animal alfo has the power
of dire£lirig the cone of the ear to the fonorous body
without moving the head. There are fome differences
to be obferved in the ftruaure of the internal ear in
different animals •, but we know fo very little of the ufe
of the particular parts of that organ in the human fub-
jeft, that it is altogether impcffible to affign reafons for
thefe variations in other creatures. 'If
All quadrupeds have at the internal canthus of the^™^
eye a ftrong firm membrane with a cartilaginous edg
'-j ^ o   r 1 •
which may be made to cover fome part of their eye j
Jnap.
Qf Qua¬
drupeds.
TV.
ANATOMY.
17 s
Mufculus
fufpenfo-
175
Pupilla.
177
fapetum.
and this is greater or lefs in different animals as their
eyes are more, or lefs expofed to danger, in fearching
' after their food. This membrana niRitans, as it is
called, is not very large in this animal. Cows and
horfes have it fo large as to cover one half of the eye
like a curtain, and at the fame time it is fufficiently
tranfparent to allow abundance of the rays of light to
pafs through i,t. Fillies have a cuticle always over
their eyes, as they are ever in danger in that inconftant
element. In this then we may alfo obferve a fort of
gradation.
All quadrupeds have a feventh mufcle belonging
to the eye, called fufpenforius. It furrounds almoft
the whole optio nerve, and is fixed into the fclerotic
coat as the others are. Its ufe is, to fultain the
weight of the globe of the feye, and prevent the optic
nerve from being too much ftretched, without obli¬
ging the four llraight mufeles to be in a continual con¬
traction, which would be inconvenient.; at the fame
time this mufcle may be brought to affifl^any of the
other four, by caufing one particular portion of it to
act at a time.
The next thing to be remarked is the figure of the
pupil, which is different in different animals, but always
exactly accommodated to the creature’s way of life, as
well as to the different fpecies of objects that are view¬
ed. Man has it circular, for obvious reafons : an ox
has it oval, with the longed diameter placed tranfverfe-
ly, to take in a larger view of his food ; cats, again,
have theirs likewife oval, but the longed diameter
placed perpendicularly ; they can either exclude a
bright light altogether, or admit only as much as is
neceffary. The pupil of different animals varies in
widenefs, according as the internal organs of vifion
are more or lefs acute : Thus cats and owls, who feek
their prey in the night, or in dark places (and confe-
quently mud have their eyes fo formed as that a few
rays of light may make a lively impreffion on the re¬
tina), have their pupils in the day-time contra&ed in¬
to a very narrow fpace, as a great number of rays
Would opprefs their nice organs; while in the night,
or where the light is faint, they open the pupil, and
very fully admit the rays. In the fame way, when the
retina is inflamed, a great number of rays of light
would occafion a painful fenfation; therefore the pupil
is contrafted: on the contrary, in dying people, or in
a beginning amaurofis, it is generally dilated, as the
eyes on fuch occafions are very difficultly affe&ed, and
as it were infenfible.
The poderior part of the choroid coat, which is
called tapetum, is of different colours in different crea¬
tures. For oxen, feeding modly on grafs, fyave this
membrane of a green colour, that it may reflefl upon
the retina all the rays of light which come frorg obje<ds
of that colour, while other rays are abforbed ; Thus
the animal fees its food better than it does other ob-
}e<3:s. Cats and owls have their tapetum of a whitifh
colour; and for the fame reafons have the pupil very
dilatable, and their organs of vifion acute : And we
fhall find, that all animals fee-more or lefs didinftly in
the dark, according as their tapetum approaches near¬
er to a white or black colour. Thus dogs, who have
it of a grayidr colour, didinguifh obje£ts better in the
night than man, whofe tapetum is dark brown; and
who, it is believed, fees word in the dark of any crea-
Vol. II. Part I.
289
Of Qua¬
drupeds.
178
ture : it being originally defigned' that he fhould reft
from all kinds of employment in the night-time. The
difference then of the colour of the tapetum, as indeed
the fabric of any other part, in different creatures, al¬
ways depends on fome particular advantage accruing
to the animal in its peculiar manner of life From this
Angularity.
We look on it as a general rule, that all. quadrupeds, Neck,
as having occafion to gather their food from the ground,
are provided with longer necks than man ; but as a
long neck not only gives the advantage of too long a
lever to tire weight of the head, but alfo, when the ani¬
mal is gathering his food, makes the brain in danger
of being oppreffed with too great a quantity of blood,
by the liquor in the arteries having the advantage of
a defcent, while that in the veins muft remount a con-
fiderable way contrary to its own gravity ; it was
therefore neceffary that a part of the length of the neck ^
fhould be fupplied by the length of the jaws. Thus we Jaws,
fee horfes, cows, &c. who have no occafion for open¬
ing their mouths very wide, yet have long jaws. Bull¬
dogs, indeed, and fuch animals as have occafion for
very ftrong jaws, mull of 'necelfity have them fhort ;
beeaufe the longer they are, the refiftance to be over¬
come a£ls with a longer lever. Another exception to
this general rule, is fuch animals as are furnifhed with
fomething analogous to hands to convey their food to lSt3
their mouths, as cats, apes, &c. The teeth of this Teeth,
creature plainly (how it to be of the carnivorous kind;
for there are none of them made for grinding its
food, but only for tearing and dividing it. It has fix
remarkably (harp teeth before, and two very long tulks
behind ; both of which the ruminating animals want.
Thefe are evidently calculated for laying very firm
hold of fubftances, and tearing them to pieces; and
the vaft rtrength of the mufcles inferted into the lower
jaw, afiifts greatly in this a&ion ; while the grinders
have fiiarp cutting edges, calculated for cutting tlefti,
and breaking the hardeft bones. Even its pofterior
teeth are not formed with rough broad furfaces as
ours are; but are made confiderably (harper, and prefs
over one another when the mouth is (hut, that fo
they may take the firmer hold of whatever comes be¬
twixt them. lSf
When we open the mouth, we fee the amygdalae Amygdals*
very prominent in the pofterior part of it; fo that it
would appear at firft view, that thefe were inconve¬
niently placed, as being continually expofed to injuries
from the hard fubftances this creature fwallows ; but
upon a more narrow ferutiny, we find this provided
for by two membranous capfules, into which the amyg¬
dalae, when preffed, can efcape, and remove themfelves
from fuch injuries. ^
The velum pendulum palati is in this creature con ft- Velum pen-
derably longer than in man, to prevent the food from dulum pa-
getting into his nofe ; which would happen more fre-lati.
quently in this animal than in man, becaufe of its fitua-
tion while feeding. ig^
In this fubjedt, as well as in other quadrupeds, there Glottis,
is no uvula ; but then the epiglottis, when preffed down, 184
covers the whole rima entirely, and naturally continues Epiglottis*
fo: there is therefore a ligament, or rather mufcle,
that comes from the os hyoides and root of the tongue
that is inferted into that part of the epiglottis where it
is articulated with the cricoid cartilage, which ferves
O o to
290
Of Qua¬
drupeds.
185
The ufe of
the uvula.
1S6
Gullet.
187
Omentum
188
Stomach.
A N A T
to ralfe it from the rima, though not fo ftrongly
but that it may with a fmall force be clapped down
again.
It may be alked, however, Why the uvula is want¬
ing here, and not in man ? This Teems to be, that
quadrupeds, who fwallow their food in a horizon¬
tal fituation, have no occafion for an uvula, though
it is neceffary in man on account of his erefl fitua¬
tion.
In the upper part of the pharynx, behind the cricoid
cartilage, there is a pretty large gland to be found,
which ferves not only for the feparation of a mucous
liquor to lubricate the bolus as it paffes this way, but
alfo fupplies the place of a valve, to hinder the food
from regurgitating into the mouth, which it would be
apt to do by reafon of the defcending fituation of the
creature’s head. In man, the mufcle of the epiglottis
is wanting, its place being fupplied by the elafticity of
the cartilage.
The gullet is formed very much in the fame way as
the human. Authors indeed generally allege, that
quadrupeds have their gullet compofed of a double row
of fpiral figures decuflating one another } but this is pe¬
culiar to ruminating animals, who have occafion for
fueh a decuffation of fibres. I he a£lion of thefe you
may eafily obferve in a cow chewing her cud.
The omentum reaches down to the os pubis, which
confidering the pofture of the animal, we lhall find to
be a wife provifion, fince its ufe is to feparate an oily
liquor for lubricating the guts and facilitating their
periftaltic motion j fo in our ereft pofture the natural
gravity of the oil will determine it downward, but in
the horizontal pofition of thefe creatures, if all the in-
teftines were not covered, there would be no favour¬
able derivation of the fluid to the guts lying in the fa-
cral part of the abdomen, which is the higheft \ and
befides, had the omentum reached much farther down
in us, it would not only have fupplied too great a quan¬
tity of oil to the lower part of the abdomen, but we
fhould have been in continual danger of herniae *, and
even at prefent the omentum frequently pafies down
with fome of the other vifcera, and forms part of
thefe tumours. To thefe, however, the dog is not
fubjeft, as his vifcera do not prefs fo much on the rings
of the abdominal mufcles, and befides are prevented
from palling through by a pendulous flap of fat men¬
tioned N° 35. The facral and fternal lamella of the
omentum is fixed to the fpleen, fundus of the ftomach,
pylorus, liver, &c. in the lame way as the human •, but
the fuperior having no colon to pafs over,, goes dire&ly
to the back-bone. This ferves to explain the forma¬
tion of the fmall omentum in the human body \ which
is nothing but the large omentum, having loft its fat,
palling over the ftomach and colon, where it reaffumes
its fat, fo proceeds, and is firmly attached to the liver,
fpine, &c. The ftriae of fat are pretty regularly dif-
pofed through it, accompanying the diftribution of the
blood-veffels to guard them from the preffure of the
fuperincumbent vifcera.
This animal’s ftomach, though pretty much refem-
bling the human in its lhape, is fomevvhat differently
fituated. It lies more longitudinal, as indeed all the
other vifcera do, to accommodate themfelves to the
lhape of the cavity in which they are contained 5 that
is, its facral orifice is much farther down with refpedh
O M Y.
Part II,
to the atlantal than the human : by this means the grofs of Qua-
food has an eafier paffage into the duodenum. Again, drupeds.
the fundus of the human ftomach, when diftended, -y—^
Hands almoft direflly fternal, which is occafioned by
the little omentum tying it fo clofe down to the back
bone, &.c. at its two orifices j but it not being fixed in
that manner in the dog, the fundus remains always dor-
fal: this alfo anfwers very well the ftiape of the differ¬
ent cavities, the diftance betwixt the cardia and fundus
being greater than that betwixt the two fides. It feems
to be much larger in proportion to the bulk of the ani¬
mal than the human, that it might contain a greater
quantity of food at once ; which was very neceffary,
fince this animal cannot at any time get its fuftenance
as men do. The turbiilion is not fo large, nor is there
any coarftion forming the antrum Willefii, as in the
ftomach of man. It is confiderably thicker and more
mufcular than ours, for breaking the cohefion of their
food, which they fwallow without fufficient chewing.
Hence it is evident the force of the ftomach is not fo
great as fome would have it, nor its contra&ion lo vio¬
lent : otherwife that of dogs would be undoubtedly
wounded by the (harp bones, &c. they always take
down ; for the contraction here is ftill greater than in
the human ftomach, which is much thinner. The rugae
of the tunica villofa are neither fo large, nor fituated
tranfverfely, as in the human, but go from one orifice
to the other : the reafon of which difference is, per¬
haps, that they might be in lefs danger of being hurt by
the hard fubftances this creature frequently feeds upon $
and for the fame reafon there is not the like ftri&ure at
their pylorus. _ 1S9
The inteftines of this animal are proportionally much Inteftines,
ftiorter than ours; for the food which thefe creatures
moftly ufe, foon diffolves, and then putrefies; on which
account there was no occafion for a long trad of in¬
teftines, but on the contrary that it fhouid be quickly
thrown out of the body. The fame is to be obfer-
ved of all the carnivorous animals. The mufcular coat
of the inteftines is alfo thicker and ftronger than the
human, to protrude the contents quickly and accu¬
rately.
The valvulae conniventes are lefs numerous, and in a
longitudinal direction ; and the whole trad! of the ali¬
mentary canal is covered with a {lime, which lubricates
the inteftines, faves them from the acrimony of the ex-
crementitious part, and facilitates its pafiage. . If)0
The duodenum differs confiderably in its fituation Duodenuri>
from the human. For in man it firft mounts from the
pylorus upwards, backwards, and to the right fide j
then paffes down by the gall bladder 5 and, marching
over the right kidney and fuperior part of the pfoas
mufeles, makes a curvature upwards $ and paffes over
the back bone and vena cava inferior, to the left hypo-
chondrium, where it gets through the omentum, me-
fentery, and mefocolon, to commence the jejunum, be- Jejunum,
ing firmly tied down all the way, the biliary and pan¬
creatic du£ts entering in at its moft depending part:
Whereas, in the dog, the duodenum is fixed at the py¬
lorus to the concave furface of the liver, and hangs
loofe and pendulous with the mefentery backwards in¬
to the cavity of the abdomen 5 then turning up again,
is fixed to the back bone, where it ends in the jejunum j
the bile and pancreatic juice are poured into it at the
moft depending part. Therefore the fame intention
191
Chap. IV. ANA
Of Qua- feems to have been bad in view in the formation of this
dtupe.ds. part in both, viz. the giving the chyle, after the liquors
of the liver and pancreas are poured into it, a difadvan-
tageous courfe, fo that it. might be the more intimately
blended with the humours before its entry into the je¬
junum, where the lafteals are very numerous: And
thus, by reafon of their different pofture, the fame de-
fign (though by a very different order of the parts) is
192 brought about in both.
Inteftina The other fmall guts are much the fame with ours,
tenuia. only fhorter. The great guts are alfo fhorter and lefs
capacious than in the human body ; and we take it for
a general rule, that all animals that live on vegetable
food, have not only their fmall guts confiderably long¬
er, but alfo their great guts more capacious, than fuch
creatures as feed on other animals. Hence man, from
this form of his inteftines, and that of the teeth, feems
to have been originally defigned for feeding on vege¬
tables chiefly ; and ftill the moft of his food, and all his
drink, is of that clafs.
The reafon of this difference feems to be, that as
animal food is not only much more eafily reduced in¬
to chyle, but alfo more prone to putrefa&ion, too long
a delay of the juices might occafion the worft confe-
quences. So it was neceffary that their receptacles
• fliould not be too capacious ; but, on the contrary, be¬
ing fhort and narrow, might conduce to the feafonable
difcharge of their contents. Whereas vegetable food
being more difficultly diffolved and converted into an
animal nature, there was a neceflity for fuch creatures
as fed on it to be provided with a long inteflinal canal,
that this food in its paffage might be conflderably re¬
tarded, and have time to change its quality into one
more agreeable to our nature. Eefides which there is
another advantage which accrues to man in particular,
from having his great guts very capacious : for as he
is a rational being, and moftly employed in the func¬
tions of focial life, it would have been very inconve¬
nient as well as unbecoming for him to be too fre¬
quently employed in fuch ignoble exercifes •, fo that,
having this large refervoir for his faeces alvinae, he
can retain them for a confiderable time without any
trouble.
A The appendix vermiformis juftly enough deferves the
Verraifor-X name an ™tejlinum ccecum in this fubjecl, though in
mis. the human body it does not ; and it has probably been
from the largenefs of this part in this and fome other
animals, that the oldeft anatomifts came to reckon that
fmall appendiele in man as one of the great guts. On
its internal furface we obferve a great number of mu¬
cous glands. As all thefe throw out flime, their prin¬
cipal office Woiild feem to be the procuring a fufficient
quantity of that matter for the purpofes above men¬
tioned. Still, however, there feems to be fome un¬
known ufe for this organ in other animals ; for the ap-
pendicula vermiformis ;n them is either of great ffze or
of great length. In a rat. it is rather larger than the
ftomach ; in others, as fwine, and fome of the animals
which live on vegetables, it has long convolutions, fothat
the food mull oe lodged in it for a long time. Thus,
probably, fome change takes place in the food, which
requires a confiderable time to effWffuate, and though un¬
known to us, may anfwer very ufeful purpofe's to the
animal.
I he colon has no longitudinal ligaments 3 and confe-
T O M Y*
291
quently this gut is not purfed up into different bags or of Qua-
cells as the human : nor does this inteffine make any drupeds.
circular turn round the abdomen j but paffes direftly 1 ^
acrofs it to the top of the os facrum, where it gets the
name of feElum. Co.on.
At the extremity of the mtejlinum re Rum, or verge of Redtum.
the anus, there are found two bags or pouches, which
contain a moft abominable fetid mucus of a yellow co¬
lour, for which we know no ufe, uniefs it ferves to lu¬
bricate the ftrained extremity of the redtum, and defend
it again ft the afperity of the faeces, or to feparate fome
liquor that might otherwife prove hurtful to their bodies.
There is nothing analogous to thofe facs in the human
fubjedt, uniefs -we reckon the mucilaginous glands that
are found moft frequent and largeft about the lower
part of the redtum. ^
The inefentery is confiderably longer than in the hu-Mefentery.
man body 3 that, in his horizontal fituation, the inte-
ftines may reft fecurely on the foft cuftiion of the ab¬
dominal mufcles. 1 he fat is here difpofed in the fame
way,_ and for the fame reafon, as in the omentum.
The interftices betwixt the fat are filled with a fine
membrane. Inftead of a great number of glandulse
vagae to be found in the human mefentery, we find
the glands few in number, and thofe are clofely con-
nedted together 5 or there is only one large gland to
be obferved in the middle of the mefentery of a dog,
which, from its imagined refemblance to the pancreas l97
and the name of its difcoverer, is czWeA pancreas .*^7-Pancreas
hi; but the refemblance, if there is any, dependsA-febb.
chiefly on the connexion, the ftrudlure being entire¬
ly different. The reafon why this In man is as it were
fubdivided into many fmaller ones, may poflibly be,
that as the guts of a human body are proportionally
much longer than thofe of this creature, it would have
been inconvenient to have gathered all the lafiea primi-
gcneris into one place 3 whereas, by colledling a few
of thefe veffels into a neighbouring gland, the fame
effedt is procured much more eafily. Whether the
food in this animal needs lefs preparation in its paffage
through thefe glands, is a matter very much unknown
to us 3 though it is certain that fome changes really do
take place. ^ ^
The pancreas in man lies acrofs the abdomen, tied Pancreas,
down by the peritonaeum ; but the capacity of this crea¬
ture’s abdomen not allowing of that fituation, it is dif¬
pofed more longitudinally, being tied to the duodenum,
which it accompanies for fome way. Its dudt enters
the duodenum about an inch and a half below the dudtus
communis.
L he fpleen of this animal differs from the human Spleen?
very much, both in figure and fituation. It is much
more oblong and thin, and lies more according to the
length of the abdomen, like the pancreas. Though
the ipleen of this creature is not firmly tied to the dia¬
phragm. (which was neceffary in our ereft pofture to
hinder it from falling downwards), yet by the animal’s
prone pofition, its dorfal parts being rather higher
than the fternaJ, it comes to be always contiguous
to this mufcle, and is as effeflually fubjeiled to
an alternate prefiure from its action as the human
fpleen is.
The human liver has no fiffures or divifions, uniefs Liver,
we may reckon that fmall one betwixt the two pylce,
where the large veffels enter : Whereas in a dog, and
O O 2 6 all
2C)2
Of Qua¬
drupeds.
ao I
Mediafti-
Tuim.
202
Heart.
203
Vena cava
A N A T
all other creatures that have a large flexion in their
fpine, as lions, leopards, cats, &c. the liver and lungs
are divided into a great many lobes by deep feftions,
reaching the large blood-vefleIs, which in great motions
of the back bone may ealily Hide over one another ;
and fo be in much lefs danger of being torn or bruif-
ed, than if they were formed of one entire piece, as
we really fee it is in horfes, cows, and fuch creatures
as have their back bone fliff and immoveable. There
is here no i.gamentum latum cohnedting the liver to the
diaphragm, which, in our fituation, was neceffary to
keep the vifeus in its place: Whereas, in this creature,
it naturally gravitates forwards, and by the horizontal
po fit ion of the animal is in no danger of prefling againft
the vena cava-, the preventing of which is one ufe ge¬
nerally afligned to this ligament in man. Had the
liver of the dog been thus connected to the diaphragm,
the refpiration muft neceflarily have fuffered ^ for, as
we {hall fee afterwards, this mufcle is here moveable at
the centre as well as at the fides : But in man the liver
is fixed to the diaphragm, moftly at its tendinous part;
that is, where the pericardium is fixed to it on the other
fide ; fo that it is in no danger of impeding the refpira¬
tion, being fupended by the mediaftinum and bones of
the thorax. In confequence of this vifeus being divided
into fo many lobes, it follows, that the hepatio dufts
cannot poflibly join into one common trunk till they
are quite out of the fubftance of the liver becaufe a
branch comes out from every lobe of the liver ; all of
which, by their union, form the hepatic dutt : whence
we are led to conclude, that the hepatico-cyftic duds,
mentioned by former authors, do not exift. The gall¬
bladder itfelf is Avanting in feveral animals, fuch as the
deer, the horfe, the afs, &c. ; but, in place of it, in
fuch animals,-the hepatic duft, at its beginning, is
widened into a refervoir of confiderable fize, which may
anfwer the fame purpofe in them that the gall-bladder
does in others.
The mediajlinum in this creature is pretty broad.
The pericardium is not here contiguous to the dia¬
phragm, but there is an inch of diftance betxvixt them,
in which place the fmall lobe of the lungs lodges •, and
by this means the liver, &c. of this animal, though
continually prefling upon the diaphragm, yet cannot
difturb the heart’s motion.
The heart is fituated with its point almoft dire£lly
fternally, according to the creature’s pofture, and is but
very little inclined to the left fide. Its point is much
(harper, and its (hape more conoidal, than the human.
The animal has the vena cava of a confiderable length
within the thorax, having near the whole length of the
heart to run over ere it gets at the finus Lowenamis dex¬
ter. In man, as foon as it pierces the diaphragm, it
enters the pericardium, which is firmly attached to it,
and immediately gets into firms Lowerianus ; which
finus, in the human fubjeft, by the oblique fituation of
the heart is almoft contiguous to the diaphragm : and
by this we difeover, that feveral authors have taken
their delineations of the human heart from brutes ;
which is eafily detefted by the (hape and fituation of
the heart, and long vena cava, within the thorax. This
was one of the faults of the curious wax-work that was
fiiown at London and Paris, which was plainly taken
from a cow.
O M Y. Part II.
This fituation of the heart of the creature agrees beft of Qua.
with the lhape of its thorax, which is lower than the drupeds.
abdomen. L_J<
The egrefs of the large blood-veffels from the heart
is fomewliat different from the human: For here thecenat.ns,
right fufeclavian comes off firft : and as a large trunkimpiopeily |
runs feme way upwards before it gives off the lett ca-f° called. I
rotid, and fplits into the carotid and fubclavian of the
right fide, then the left fubclavian is fent off. So that
neither here, properly fpeaking, is there an aorta afeen-
dens, more than in the human j but this name has pro¬
bably been impofed upon it from obferving this in a
cow, where indeed there is an alcending and defeend-
ing aorta.
From this fpecialty of the diftribution of the veffels
of the right fide, which happens, though not in lo great
a degree, in the human fubjeft, we may perhaps in tome
meafure account for the general greater ftrength, readi-
nefs, or facility of motion, which is obfervable in the 2o5
right arm*. Upon meafuring the fides of the veffels, the a media-
furface of the united trunk of the right lubclavian andnical ac- i
carotid is lefs than that of the left i’ubclavian and caro-c£unr of. ^
tid, as they are feparated. If fo, the refiflance to the
blood muft be lefs in that common trunk than in the leltthe r^ht
fubclavian and carotid : But if the refiiiance be fmaller, arm, leg,
the abfolute force with which the blood is lent from the
heart being equal, there muft neceffarily be a greater
quantity of blood fent through them in a given time $
and as the ftrength of the mufcles is, ccetens paribus,
as the quantity of blood fent into them in a given time,
thofe of the right arm will be ftronger than thofe of the
left. Now children, being confcious of this fuperior
ftrength, ufe the right upon all occafions; and thus
from ufe comes that great difference which is fo obfer¬
vable. That this is a fufficient caufe, feems evident
from faft -, for what a difference is there betwixt the
right and the left arm of one who has played much at
tennis ? View but the arms of a blackfmith and legs of
a footman, and you will foon be convinced of this effe6l
arifing from ufing them. But if by any accident the
right arm is kept from aflion for feme time, the other
from being ufed gets the better •, and thofe people ars
left-handed : For it is not to be imagined, that the
fmall odds in the original formation of the veflels Ihould
be fufficient to refill the effeft of ufe and habit (inftan-
ces of the contrary occur every day) ; it is enough for
our prefent argument, that where no means are ufed to
oppofe it, the odds are fufficient to determine the choice
in favour of the right. Now becaufe it is natural to
begin with the leg correfponding to the hand we have
moft power of, this is what gives alfo a fuperiority to
the right leg. -
This difference is not peculiar to man, but is ftill
more obfervable in thofe creatures in whom the fame
mechanifm does obtain in a greater degree. Do but
obferve a dog at a trot, how he bears forward with his
right fide $ or look at him when a feraping up any¬
thing, and you will prefently fee that he ufes his right
much oftener than he does his left foot. Something
analogous to this may be obferved in horfes. It has
been the opinion of fome anatomills, that left-handed
people, as well as thofe diftinguiflied by the name of
ambidexter (who ufe both hands alike), have the two
carotid and fubclavian arteries coming off in four di-
ffinft
Of Qua¬
drupeds.
Chap. IV. ANA
ftinft trunks from the arch of the aorta : but no ap¬
pearance of this kind has ever been obferved in fuch
bodies as have been examined for this purpofej though
indeed thefe have been but few, and more experience
20(f might throw greater light on the fubjeft.
Diaphragm. 1'he diaphragm, in its natural fituation, is in general
more loofe and free than the human 5 which is owing
to its connexion with the neighbouring parts in a dif¬
ferent manner from ours. The human diaphragm is
connected to the pericardium ; which again, by the
intervention of the mediaftinum, is tied to the fternum,
fpine, &c. but here there is fome diltance between the
diaphragm and pericardium. We obierve further,
that its middle part is much more moveable, and the
tendinous parts not fo large. And indeed it was ne-
ceffary their diaphragm fhould be fomewhat loofe, they
making more ufe of it in difficult refpiration than man.
This we may obferve by the ftrong heaving of the
207
Sternum-
20S
Ribs.
209
Kidneys.
210
PapillEe.
211
Pelvis.
flanks of a horfe or dog when out of breath ; which
correfponds to the rifing of the ribs in us.
The Jlernum is very narrow, and confifts of a great
number of fmall bones, moveable every way ; which
always happens in creatures that have a great mobility
in their fpine. The ribs are flraighter, and by no
means fo convex as the human j wffiereby in refpira¬
tion, the motion forward will very little enlarge their
thorax, which is compenfated by the greater mobility
of their diaphragm ", fo our thorax is principally enlar¬
ged according to its breadth and depth, and theirs
according to its length. The want of clavicles, and
the confequent falling in of the atlantal extremities upon
the cheif, may contribute fomewhat to the ftraightnefs
of the ri bs.
We come next to difcourfe of thofe organs that
ferve for the fecretion and excretion of urine. And
firll of the kidneys: Which’in this animal are fituated
much in the fame way as in the human fubjeftj but
have no fat on their inferior furface, where they face
the abdomen, and are of a more globular form than
the human. The reafon of thefe differences rvill eafily
appear, if we compare their lituation and pofture in
this animal with thofe in a man who walks ereft. They
are placed in them in the facral part of the body, fo
are not fubjeft to the preffure of the vifcera, which
feems to be the principal caufe of the fatnefs of thofe
organs in us, and perhaps-may like wife be the caufe
of our being more fubjeft to the rtone than other ani¬
mals. Hence there is no need of any cellular fub-
ftance to ward off this preffure where there would ne-
ceffarily be fat collefted ; but the atlantal part of their
kidneys is pretty well covered with fat, left they Ihould
fuffer any compreflion from the abtion of the ribs and
fpine.
In the internal rtruflure there is ftill more confider-
able difference : For the papillce do not here fend
out fingle the feveral tubuli urwiferi; but being ail
united, they hang down irj form of a loofe pendulous
flap in the middle of the pelvis, and form a kind of
partition ; fo that a dog has a pelvis formed within
the fubftance of the kidney. The only thing that is
properly analogous to a pelvis in man is that fac or di¬
latation of the ureters formed at the union of the duc¬
tus unniferi. The external part of the kidney of a
dog fomewhat refembles one of the lobes of the kidney
of a human foetus: but in a human adult the appear-
4
T O M Y. 2^3
ance is very different; becaufe, in man, from the con- of Qua-
tinual preffure of the furrounding vifcera, the lobes, drupeds.
which in the foetus are quite diftinft and feparated, v
concrete, but the original cortical fubftance is ftill pre-
ferved in the internal parts of the kidney. The rea¬
fon of thefe peculiarities may probably be, that the
liquors of this animal, as of all thofe of the carnivo¬
rous kind, being much more acrid than thofe that live
on vegetable food, its urine muft incline much to an
alkalefcency, as indeed the fmell and tafte of that li¬
quor in dogs, cats, leopards, &c. evidently fliow, be¬
ing fetid and pungent, and therefore not convenient to
be long retained in the body. For this, end it was
proper that the fecreting organs ftiould have as little
impediment as poffible by preffure, &e. in the per¬
forming their fundlions; and for that defign, the me-
chanifm of their kidneys feems to be excellently
adapted : We have molt elegant pictures in Euftachius
of the kidneys of brutes, delineated as fuch, with a
view to lliow Vefalius’s error in painting and defcribing
them for the human.
The glandules or capfulce atrabilarice are thicker and Capful*
rounder than the human, for the fame reafon as the atrabilari*.
kidneys.
The ureters are more mufcular than the human, be-ureters
caufe of the unfavourable paffage the urine has through
them ; they enter the bladder near its large extre-
mity- . .214
JL he bladder of urine differs confiderably from the Bladder,
human ; and lirft in its form, which is pretty much
pyramidal or pyriform. This ftiape of the dog’s blad¬
der is like wife common to all quadrupeds, except the
ape and thofe of an ere£t pofture. In man it is by no
means pyriform, but has a large fac at its dorfal and
facral part : this form depends entirely on the urine
gravitating in our ereft pofture to its bottom, which
it will endeavour to protrude; but as it cannot yield
before, being contiguous to the os pubis, it will natu¬
rally ftretch out where there is the lealt refiftance,
that is, at the pofterior and lateral parts ; and were it
not for this fac, we could not fo readily come at the
bladder to extract the ftone either by the leffer or la¬
teral operation of lithotomy. Moft anatomifts have
delineated this wrong: fo much, that we know of
none who have juftly painted it, excepting Mr Cow-
per, in his Myotomia, and Mr Butty. It has certainly
been from obferving it in brutes and young children,
that they have been led into this miftake. The fame
caufe, viz. the gravity of the urine, makes the bladder
of a different form in brutes: In their horizontal pofir
tion the neck, from which the urethra is continued,
is higher than its fundus; the urine muft therefore
diftend and dilate the moll depending part by its
weight. . . 2IS
As to \\.H CGnne£H(>n, it is faftened to the abdominal Connec-
mufcles by a procefs of the peritoneum, and that mem-Uon*
brane is extended quite over it; whereas in us its fin-
perior and pofterior parts are only covered by it: hence
in man alone the high operation of lithotomy can be
performed without hazard of opening the cavity of the tjie
abdomen. Had the peritoneum been fpread over the human
bladder in its whole extent, the weight of the vifcera bidder but
in our eredt pofture would have fo borne upon it, thatl)al'^co-
they would not have allowed any confiderable quantity thfT'pgmr,
vi urine to be collected there; but we muft have beennemn.
obliged
294
ANATOMY.
Part I
Of Qua¬
drupeds.
obliged to difcharge its_contents too frequently to be
confiftent with the funftions of a focial life : Whereas
by means of the peritoneum, the urine is now collected
in fufficient quantity, the vifcera not gravitating this
way.
117
A ftimulus
proved to
be a prin¬
cipal caufe
of the eva¬
cuation of
the blad¬
der.
218
Vafa fper-
matica.
219
Whence
the falfe
notion of
hernia or
rupture.
It may be taken for a general rule, that thofe crea¬
tures that feed upon animal food have their bladder
more mufcular and confiderably ftronger and lefs ca¬
pacious, than thofe that live on vegetables, fuch as
horfes, cows, fwine, &c. whofe bladder of urine is per-
feftly membranous, and very large. This is wifely
adapted to the nature of their food : For in thefe firft,
as all their juices are more acrid, fo in a particular
manner their urine becomes exalted ; which, as its de¬
lay might be of very ill confequence, mult neceflari-
ly be quickly expelled. This is chiefly effe&ed by its
ftimulating this vifcus more ftrongly to contraft, and
fo to difcharge its contents, though the irritation does
not altogether depend upon the ftretching, but likewife
arifes from the quality of the liquor. That a ftimulus
is one of the principal caufes of the excretion of urine,
we learn from the common faline diuretic medicines
that are given, which are diflblved into the ferum of
the blood, and carried down by the kidneys to the
bladder : The fame appears likewife from the applica¬
tion of cantharides ; or without any of thefe, when
the parts are made more fenftble, as in an excoriation
of the bladder, there is a frequent defire to make wa¬
ter. Accordingly we find thefe animals evacuate their
urine much more frequently than man, or any other
creature that lives on vegetable food. And if thefe
creatures, whofe fluids have already a tendency to pu-
trefadtion, are expofed to heat or hunger, the liquids
muft for a confiderable time undergo the actions of
the containing veffels, and frequently perform the
courfe of the circulation, without any new fupplies of
food ; by which the fluids becoming more and more
acrid, the creature is apt to fall into feverifh and putrid
difeafes.
Their fpermatic vejfels are within the peritoneum,
which is fpread over them, and from which they have
a membrane like a mefentery, to hang loofe and pen¬
dulous in the abdomen : whereas in us, they are con¬
tained in the cellular part of the peritoneum, which is
tenfely ftretched over them. At their pafiage out of
the lower belly, there appears a plain perforation, or
holes ; hence the-adult quadruped, in this refpeft, re-
fembles the human foetus. And from obferving this
in quadrupeds, has arifen the falfe notion of hernia or
rupture among authors. This opening, which leads
down to the tefticle, is of no difadvantage to them,
but evidently would have been to us ; for from the
weight of our vifcera, and our continually gravitating
upon thefe holes, we muft have perpetually laboured
under enteroceles. This they are in no hazard of,
fince in them this paiTage is at the higheft part of their
belly ; and in their horizontal pofture, the vifcera can¬
not bear upon it: And to prevent even the fmalleft
hazard, there is a loofe pendulous femilunar flap of fat 5
which ferves two ufes, as it both hinders the inteftines
from getting into the paffage, and alfo the courfe of
the fluids from being flopped in the veffels, which is
fecured in us by the cellular fubftance and tenfe peri¬
toneum : And it may be worth while to obferve, that
2
this procefs remains almoft unaltered, even after theani- 0fQua.
mal has been almoft exhaufted of fat. drupeds.1
There is next a paffage quite down into the cavity'“""NT'—
where the tefticles lie. Had the fame ftrudlure ob¬
tained in man, by the conftant drilling down of the li¬
quor which is fecreted for the lubricating of the guts,
we ftiould always have laboured under an hydrocele j
but their pofture fecures them from any hazard of this
kind : indeed very fat lap-dogs, who confequently have
an overgrown omentum, are fometimes troubled with an
epiplocele. _ „0
'The fcrotum is ftiorter and not fo pendulous as the Scrotum,
human in all the dog kind that want the veftculce femi-
tiales, that the feed at each copulation might the foon-
er be brought from the teftes, thus in fome meafure |
fupplying the place of the vejiculce feminales; for theTheveli-
courfe of the feed through the vafa deferentia is thus culje femi
fhortened by placing the fecerning veflels nearer the 'l0'*
excretory organs. Perhaps its paffage is likewife quick-lu^ ie
ened by the mufcular power of the vafa deferentia,
which is ftronger in this creature than in man. The
want of vcfculce feminales at the fame time explains
the reafon why this creature is fo tedious in copula¬
tion. But why thefe bodies are abfent in the dog kind
more than in other animals, is a circumftance we know
nothing of. 224
The ftruclure of the teficlcs is much the fame with Teftes.
the human ; as are likewife the corpus pijramidale, va-
ricofum, or pampiniforme, and the epididymis or excre¬
tory veffel of the tefticle. The vafa deferentia enter the
abdomen where the blood veffels come out ; and, palling
along the upper part of the bladder, are inferted a little
below the bulbous part of the urethra.
The praeputium has two mufcles fixed to it : one
that arifes from the fphindler ani, and is inferted all
along the penis; and this is called retraBor prcepulii:
But the other, whofe office is direftly contrary to this,
is cutaneous ; and feems to take its origin from the
223
224
mufcles of the abdomen, or rather to be a production
of their tunica carnofa. The corpora cavernofa rife
much in the fame way as the human; but thefe foon
terminate ; and theTeft is fupplied by a triangular bone,
in the inferior part of which there is a groove excava¬
ted for lodging the urethra. There are upon the penis
two protuberant bulbous fleffiy fubftances, refembling
the glans penis in man, at the back of which are two
veins, which by the ereBores penis and other parts are
compreffed in the time of coition j and the circulation
being flopped, the blood diftends the large cavernous
bodies. After the penis is thus fwelled, the vagina Cmuis.
by its contraction and fwelling of its corpus caverno-
fum, which is confiderably greater than in other ani¬
mals, gripes it clofely *, and fo the male is kept in ac¬
tion fome time contrary to his will, till time be given
for bringing a quantity of feed fufficient to impregnate
the female: and thus, by that orgaftnus veneris of the
female organs, the want of the vefculce feminales is
in fome meafure fupplied. But as it would be a very
uneafy pofture for the dog to fupport himfelf folely up¬
on bis hinder feet, and for the bitch to fupport the
weight of the dog for fo long a time'; therefore, as
foon as the bulbous bodies are fufficiently filled, he
gets off-and turns averfe to her. Had, then, the penis
been pliable as in other animals, the urethra muft of
neceflity
Chap. IV.
ANA
Of Qua¬
drupeds.
2*5
Proftata.
226
Uterus.
227
Maramse.
necefiity have been cotnpfeffed by this twilling, and
confequently the courfe of the feed intercepted j but
■* this is wifely provided againft by the urethra’s being
formed in the hollow of the bone. After the emilFion
of the feed, the parts turn flaccid, the circulation is
reftored, and the bulbous parts can be eafily ex¬
tracted.
The jirq/lata feems here divided into two, which are
proportionably larger than the human, and afford a
greater quantity of that liquid.
The uterus of multiparous animals is little elfe but a
continuation of their vagina, only feparated from it by
a fmall ring or valve. From the uterus two long ca¬
nals mount upon the loins, in which the foetus are
lodged : thefe are divided into different facs, which are
flrongly conflriCled betwixt each foetus yet thefe coarc-
tions give way in the time of birth. From thefe go out
the tubce Fa/lopiana-, fo that the ovaria come to lodge
pretty near the kidneys.
I he difpafition and fituation of the tnammce vary as
they bear one or more young. Thofe of the unipa-
rous kind have them placed between the facral ex¬
tremities, which in them is the higheft part of their
bodies, whereby their young get at them without the
inconvenience of kneeling: Neverthelefs, when the
creatures are of no great fize, and their breafl: large,
as in fheep, the young ones are obliged to take this
pofture. In multiparous animals, they mult have a
gfeat number of nipples, that their feveral young ones
may have room at the fame time, and the'fe difpofed
over both thorax and abdomen ; and the creatures ge¬
nerally lie down when the young are to be fuckled,
that they may give them the moft favourable fituation.
From this it does not appear to be from any particular
fitnefs of the veffels at certain places for giving a pro¬
per nourifhment to the child, that the breads are fo
placed in women as we find them, but really from that
fituation being the mod convenient both for mother and
infant.
Sect. III. Anatomy of ruminating Animals, and par¬
ticularly of the Cow.
The animal whofe druclure we have been examin-
ing, being one of thofe which live chiefly on other
animals, had a foot formed for running and feizing its
prey. But the tribe of ruminating animals have their
feet enveloped in a horny covering, fitting them for
walking much, as is required of many of them, but
totally difqualifying them for feizing living prey.
In thefe animals, the fpinous precedes of the verte¬
brae of the neek diminidi in fize according to the
length of the neck j the atlas, or fird vertebra, has its
lateral proceffes flatted and bending forwmrds, and the
mammillary proceffes of the back of the head are
lengthened out; hence, they can move the head with
ditficulty fideways or forwards, but the motion of the
neck is very extenfive. The ribs are broad and thick.
1 he feapula is narrow next the back, and lengthened
out towards the neck, and it has neither acromion nor
coiacoid procefs. The great tuberofity near the head
of the thigh bone, in the atlantal extremity is very
arge, and the rough line on the bone very prominent,
to give greater room for the infertion of drong muf-
c es* I he two bones of the fore leg grow together
TOM Y. 295
almod their whole length, being only didinguilhed OfQua-
from it at the top by a furrow. Hence, the fide mo- drupeds.
tion of the foot in thefe animals is almod entirely pre- l~“~v 1
vented. The haunch bone is draped fomething like a
hammer, with the anterior part of the fpine extremely
large, and the mufcles fituated about thefe bones ex¬
ceeding drong and bulky, as one would fuppofe they
ought to be, in order to enable thefe animals to kick
with greater power.
There are no parietal bones in the Ikull of thefe ani¬
mals, but their place is occupied by one very drong bone
in the top of the head j the frontal bone is very large,
and forms a large arch overhanging each orbit.
The brain, in thefe animals, is much fmaller in pro¬
portion to the red of their body, than in man ; in the
ox it conditutes of the weight of the body, where¬
as in man it amounts to about ^; its general form does
not differ much from that of man.
In the eye of the cow the pupil is oblong, rounded
at the ends, and the tapetum is of a beautiful green
colour, changing to an azure blue ; the flrice at the
back of the uvea are very large and confpicuous. The
eye of this animal is ufually the fubjedl of diffeftion
in examining the dru6ture of this organ, which it ex¬
hibits to great advantage. It is in the organs of di-
gedion, that thefe animals differ mod tffentially from
the other mammalia j thefe therefore deferve a parti¬
cular examination. 8
Ihere are no cutting teeth in the upper jaw, but The hiftory
the gums are pretty hard, and the tongue rough. °f the cow
Ihis roughnefs is occafioned by long fliarp-pointedas a run?‘~
papillae, with which the w hole fubilance of it is cover-ani_
ed. 1 hefe papillae are turned towards the throat; fo
that by their means the food, having once got into
the mouth, is not eafily pulled back. The animals
therefore fupply the defedt of teeth by wrapping their
tongue round a tuft of grafs: and fo, prefling it againd
the upper jaw, keep it dretched, and cut it with the
teeth 01 the under jaw ; then, without chewing, throw
it down into the gullet, which in thefe creatures con-
fids of a double row of fpiral fibres eroding one ano¬
ther. All animals which ruminate mud have more
domachs than one j fome have two, fome three; our
prefent fubjedt has no lefs than four. The food is car- jt has^our
ried diredlly down into the fird, which lies upon theftomachs.
left fide, and is the larged of all : it is called 230
yentricu/us, and noiyicc, by way of eminence. It is what Their
is called by the general name of puuncli by the vulgar. name.s ancl
There are no rugae upon its internal furface ; butrtin-defcription*
dead of thefe there are a vad number of fmall blunt-
pointed proceffes, by which the whole has a general
roughnefs, and the furface is extended to feveral times
the fize of the paunch itfelf. The food, by the force
of its mufcular coat, and the liquors poured in here,
is diffidently macerated ; after which it is forced up
hence by the gullet into the mouth, and there it is
made very fmall by madication ; this is what is pro¬
perly called chewing the cud, or rumination ; for which
purpofe the grinders are exceedingly well fitted : for
indead of being covered with a thin crud, the enamel
on them confids of perpendicular plates, between which
the bone is bare, and conftantly wearing fader than
the enamel, fo that the tooth remains good to extreme
old age •, and by means of thefe teeth the rumination
is carried on for a long time without any danger of
fpoilingj
296
Of Qua¬
drupeds.
ANATOMY.
Part II
S31
Inteftina.
23*
Duode-
num.
fpoMing il.em. Aftef ruraination, the food is fent
down by the gullet into the fecond ftomach ; for the
gullet opens indifferently into both- It ends exactly
where the two ftomachs meet: and there is a fmooth
gutter with riling edges which leads into the fecond
ftomach, from thence to the third, and alfo to the
fourth : however, the creature has the power of di-
refhng it into which it will. Some tell us, that the
drink goes into the fecond ^ but that might be ealily
determined by making them drink before daughter.
The fecond ftomach, which is the anterior and fmafter,
is called KiK^vtpctXog, reticulum, honeycomb, the bonnet
ox king's hood. It confifts of a great number of ceils
on its internal fcrface, of a regular pentagonal figure,
like a honeycomb. Here the food is farther macerat¬
ed j from which it is protruded into the third, called
or dmctfum, vulgo the mamjplies, becaufe the in¬
ternal furface riles up into a great many plica; or folds,
and Jlratum fuper f.ratum, according to the length of
this ftomach. Some of thefe plicae arc farther produ¬
ced into the ftomach than others ; i. e. firft two long
ones on each fide, and within thefe two Ihorter in the
middle, &c. There are numberlefs glandular grains
like millet feeds difperfed on its plicae, from which
fome authors call this ftomach the millet. From this
it paffes into the fourth, whofe names are n»v^«v, abo-
mafum, caille, or the red, which is the name it com¬
monly has becaufe of its colour. This much refem-
bles the human ftomach, or that of a dog ; only the
inner folds or plicm are longer and loofer 5 and it may
alfo be obferved, that in aft animals there is only one
digeftive ftomach, and that has the fame coagulating
power in the foetus as the fourth ftomach in this ani¬
mal •, whence this might not improperly be called the
only true ftomach. Caille fignifies curdled; and hence
the French have given that as a name to this fourth
ftomach, becaufe any milk that is taken down by young
calves is there curdled. It is this fourth ftomach, with
the milk curdled in it, that is commonly taken for
making runnet: but after the bile and pancreatic
iuice enter, this coagulation is not to be found, which
{hows the ufe of thefe liquors. There are other crea¬
tures which ufe the fame food, that have not fueli a
mechanifm in their digeftive organs. Hojfes, affes, &c.
have hut one ftomach, where grafs is macerated,
and a liquor for their nourilhment extra&ed, and
the remainder fent out by the anus very little altered.
From this different ftruflure of the ftomach in thefe
creatures, a ruminant animal will be ferved with one-
third lefs food than another of equal bulk : grafters
are fufficiently acquainted with this. The reafon is,
that ruminating animals have many and ftrong di-
neftive organs-, aft their food is fully prepared, and
"Imoft wholly converted into chyle: But a horfe’s
ftomach is not fitted for this fo that he requires a
much greater quantity of food to extract the fame
nouriffiment.
The guts of thefe creatures are of a conhderable
length in proportion to the bulk of the body; and
this confirms what we faid formerly on the lubjeft ot
the inteftines of a dog, viz. that the length and capa¬
city of the guts were different in different animals, ac¬
cording to the nature of their food.
The duodenum is formed here much the lame way as
in a doa, and the general intention kept in view with
Of Qua¬
drupeds,,
regard to the mixture of the bile and pancreatic lymph.
The great guts here hardly deferve that name, their
diameter differing very little from that of the fmall ;
but to. compenfate this, they are much longer propor-
tionally than a dog’s, being convoluted as the fmall
guts are. The csecum is very large and long. . The
digeftion of the cow, as well as fome other animals,
is accomplifhed with rumination ; the intention of which
feems to be, that the food may be fufficiently commi¬
nuted, and thus more fully acted upon by the ftomach :
for it is not obferved that a calf ruminates as long as .
it is fed only upon milk, though the aftion takes place
as foon as it begins to eat folid food. But it is to be
obferved, that as long as a calf feeds only Upon milk,
the food defeends immediately into the fourth ftomach
(which, as has been already mentioned, feems only ca¬
pable of performing the operation of digeftion) with¬
out flopping in any of the firft three. I he rumina¬
tion does not take place till after the animal has eaten
a pretty large quantity : after which Ihe lies down,
if ffie can "do it conveniently, and begins to chew,
though the operation will take place in a Handing pof-
ture, if Ihe cannoT lie down. In this a&ion a baft is
obferved to rife from the ftomach with great velocity,
almoft as if fhot from a mufket. This ball the animal
chews very accurately, and then fwallows it again, and
fo on alternately, till all the food ffie has eaten has un¬
dergone this operation. I his is eafily explained from
the ftrufture of the gullet, which has one fet of fibres
calculated for bringing up the grafs, and another for ta¬
king it down.
By means of rumination, the cow extra&s a much
larger proportion of nourilhment from her food than
thofe animals which do not ruminate ; and hence Ihe
is contented with much woffe fare, and fmaller quan¬
tities of it, than a horfe ; hence alfo the dung of
cows, being much more exhaufted of its fine parts
than horfe-dung, proves much inferior to it as a ma«
nure* . . „ ^ *0^
The fpleen differs not much either in figure or fitua-Spleen.
tion from that of a dog; but it is a little more firmly
fixed to the diaphragm, there not being here fo much
danger of this vifeus’s being hurt in the flexions of the
fpleen. _ , 234
The liver is not fplit into fo many lobes in this crea-L;ver.
lure as either in a man or dog; which depends on the
fmall motion this creature enjoys in -its fpine, which
made fuch a divifion needlefs. 1 his alfo confirms what
we formerly advanced on this head.
The fituation of the hearth pretty much the fameHeart,
with that of a dog, only its point is rather (harper :
In us, the heart beating continually againft the ribs,
and both ventricles going equally far down to the con-
ftitution of the apex, it is very obtufe : but here the
apex is made up only of the left ventricle, fo is more
acute. _ _ _ _ .236
The aorta in this creature is juftly divided, into ff/-Aorta af-
cending and defeending, though this divifion is ill found-cemlens
ed either in a'dog or man ; and it has certainly been and defeer
from this fubjeft that the older anatomifts took their116"8-
deferiptions when they made this divifion ; for here
the aorta divides into two, the afeending and defeend-
ing. _ m . 237
Their urinary bladder is of a pyramidal fhape. It is Bladder,
very large, and more membranaceous; for the urine
233
\
Chap.
Of Qua-
draped s.
238
Scrotum.
Veficulse
feminales.
TV.
ANATOMY.
*39
Uterus.
240
Cornua
uteri.
241
Uterus if
thicker in
time of ge-
ftation.
242
Chorion.
^ 243
Cotyledo.
nes.
of thefe creatufes not being fo acrid as that of carnivo¬
rous animals, there was no fuch occafion for expelling
' it fo foon.
The male is provided with a loofe pendulous fcrotum,
and confequently with veficulce feminales. The female
organs differ from thofe of a bitch, moffly as to the
form of the cornua uteri, which are here contorted
in form of a fnail. In this, and all uniparous animals,
they contain only part of the fecundines $ but in
bitches, and other multiparous animals, they run
ftraight up in the abdomen, and contain the foetus
themfelves.
The form of a cow’s uterus differs from the human in
having two pretty large cornua. This is common to it
withjother brutes ; for a bitch has two long cornua ute¬
ri: But thefe again differ (as being multiparous and
uniparous) in this, that in the bitch’s cornua the loetus
are contained; whereas here there is only part of the
fecundines, being moftly the allantois with the includ¬
ed liquor. The mufcular fibres of the uterus are
more eafily difcovfired ; its internal furface has a great
number of fpongy, oblong, protuberant, glandular bo¬
dies fixed to it. Thefe are compofed of veffels of the
uterus terminating here. In an impregnated uterus
we can eafily prefs out of them a chylous mucilaginous
liquor 5 they are compofed of a great many proceffes
or digituli, and deep caverps, anfwering to as many
caverns and proceffes of the placenta. Their refem-
blance has occafioned the name of papi/lce to be given
them; and hence it was that Hippocrates was induced
to believe that the fcetus fucked in utero. The papillae
are found in all the different ftages of life, in the va¬
rious ftages of pregnancy, and likewife in the unim¬
pregnated ftate. It is not eafy to determine whether
the uterus grows thicker or thinner in the time of gef-
tation. The membranes, it is plain (by the ftretch-
ing of the parts), muff be made thinner ; but then it is
as evident, that the veffels are at that time enlarged,
upon which principally the thicknefs of any part de¬
pends j fo there feems to be as much gained the one
way as loft the other.
The os uteri is entirely (hut up by a glutinous muci¬
laginous fubftance, that is common to the females of
all creatures when with young : by this the external air
is excluded, which would foon make the liquors cor¬
rupt : it alfo prevents the inflammation of the mem¬
branes, and the hazard of abortion. By this means
alfo the lips of the womb are kept from growing to¬
gether, which otherwife they would certainly at this
time do. There are mucous glands placed here to fe-
crete this gluten, which on the breaking of the mem¬
branes with the contained waters make a foap that lu¬
bricates and wafties the parts, and makes them eafily
yield. The firft of the proper involucra of the fcetus is
the chorion.
The chorion is a pretty ftrong firm membrane, on
whofe external furface are difperfed a great many red
flefliy bodies of the fame number, fize, and ftrudfture,
with the papillae, with which they are mutually indent¬
ed. They have been called cotyledones, from xstvAjj,
“ cavity.” This is greatly difputed by fome as a name
very improper 5 but we think without reafon, fince
the furface that is connected to the papillae is concave,
though when feparated it appears rather convex. To
fliun all difpute, they may be called properly enough
Vol. II. Part I.
297
plaeentulce, fince they ferve the fame ufe as the placenta of Qua-
in women. The feparation of thefe from the papillae drupeds.
without any laceration, and our not being able to injedt
coloured liquors from the veffels of the glands of the
uterus into the placentulae, feem to prove beyond a re¬
ply, that there can be here no anaftomofes betwixt the
veffels. On their coats run a great number of veffels ’
that are fent to the feveral placentulse, on the external
fide next to the uterus j whereas in creatures that have
but one placenta, as in the human fubjedf, cats, dogs,
&c. the adhefion is fomewhat firmer : The placentae are
likewife joined to the papillae in the cornua uteri. We
lhall next give the hiftory of the allantois. 244
This is a fine tranfparent membrane contiguous to Allantois,
the former. It is not a general involucrum of the foe¬
tus in the mother, for it covers only a fmall part of the
amnios. It is moftly lodged in the cornua uteri. In
mares, bitches, and cats, it furrounds the amnios, be¬
ing everywhere interpofed betwixt it and the chorion.
In (beep and goats it is the fame as in this animal j and
in fwine and rabbits it covers ftill lefs of the amnios.
This fac is probably formed by the dilatation of the
urachus, which is connedled at its other end to the
fundus of the bladder, through which it receives its
contents j and a great quantity of urine is commonly
found in it. The membrane is doubled at the extre¬
mity of the canal, to hinder the return of the urine
back into the bladder. Its veffels are fo exceflively fine '
and few, that we cannot force an injedled liquor farther
than the beginning of this coat. This membrane is fo
far analogous to the cuticula, as not to be liable to cor¬
ruption, or eafily irritated by acrid liquors. The exift-
ence of this membrane in women has been very warmly 245
difputed on both fides. Thofe who are againft its exift-The argu-
ence deny they could ever find it j and, allowing it016018 for
were fo, allege, that fince the urachus is impervious, ashuman
appears by our not being able to throw liquors from theanantois,
bladder into it, or vice verfay it cannot ferve the ufe
that is agreed by all it does ferve in beafts ; and there¬
fore in the human body there is no fuch thing. But if
we confider, on the other hand, firft, that there feems
to be the fame neceflity for fuch a refervoir in man as in
other animals ; fecondly, that we aftually find urine
contained in the bladder of the human foetus : thirdly,
that urine has been evacuated at the navel when the
urethra was flopped, which urine without this conduit
would have fallen into the cavity of the abdomen:
fourthly, that midwives have pretended to remark two
different forts of waters come away at the time of
birth : and, laftly, that Dr Littre and Dr Hale have
given in this membrane of a human fubjeft, with all
the other fecundines, curioufly prepared, the one to the
Royal Academy at Paris, the other to the Royal So¬
ciety at London j by which focieties their refpeftive ac¬
counts are attefted 5 not to mention Verheyen, Heifter,
Keill, &c. who affirm their having feen it; and Albi-
nus is faid to have ffiown to his college every year a
preparation of it: On all thefe accounts it feems moft
probable, that there is fuch a membrane in the human
body. _ _ 246
The third proper integument of the foetus is the am- Amnios.
nios. It is thinner and firmer than the chorion ; it has
numerous ramifications of the umbilical veffels fpread
upon it, the lateral branches of which feparate a liquor
into its cavity. This is the proper liquor of the am-
P p nios j
298 - A N A T
Of Birds, nios *, which at firft is in a fmall quantity, afterwards in-
'—’V——' creafes for foiae months, then again decreafes; and in
a cow near her time, the quantity of this liquor is not
above a pound. The membrane does not enter the cor¬
nua uteri in this creature, being confined to the body of
the uterus *, whereas the allantois occupies chiefly its
cornua. But for what further relates to the ftru&ure of
the involucra, with the nature of the liquors contained
in them, we muft refer to the fecond volume of Medi¬
cal Eflays, from page 121, where you have the fum of
all we know of this matter.
CHAP. V. THE A>
O M Y. Part II,
There are here two vcnce unihiiicales, and but one in Of Birds,
the human fubjeft 5 becaufe the extreme branches co- * 1 "v ■>*'
ming from the feveral placentulae could not unite fofoon
as they would have done had they come all from one
cake, as in the human.
There is a fmall round flefhy body that fwims in ths
urine of this creature, mares, &c. which is the hippo,
manes of the ancients. Several idle opinions and whims
have been entertained as to itsufe ; but that feems to be
ftill unknown, or how it is generated or nouriftied, for
it has no connexion with the foetus or placentulse.
&TOMY OF BIRDS.
247
Their
wings, how
furnilhed.
24S
Why not
placed in
the middle
of the body
Sect. I. Of Birds in General.
The ftrufture of the greater part of thefe animals is
obviouily calculated for the moft rapid of all mo¬
tions. . That part of the vertebral column which con-
ftitutes the back is immoveable } but the neck is ex¬
ceedingly flexible, the vertebrae being articulated to¬
gether, not by flat furfaces, but by portions of cylin¬
ders, but in fueh a manner as that the more atlantal
vertebrae can move only forward, the more facral only
backward. The neck is generally long, but its length
differs in various fpecies, being determined by their man¬
ner of life and other circumftances. The head is fmall
in proportion to the body, and generally ends in a
{harp bill, that the animal may the more eafily make
its way through the air. The bread: bone is fliaped
like a (hield, and has in the middle a large and broad
fpine, like the keel of a (hip, thus forming a confider-
able extent of furface for the infertion of mufcles.
This ridge is moft confpicuous in birds that fly. On
each fide of the bread bone, next the wings, are two
bones, which correfpond to the clavicle or collar bone
in man, by which the wings are conne£ted to the breaft
bone, and between thefe is a very elaftic bone with
two horns, {haped like a V, and commonly known by
the name of merry thought. The wings are compofed
in a manner fimilar to the atlantal extremity in the mam¬
malia, and are generally divided into two portions •, the
wing, to which the principal mufcles are attached, and
the pinion.
Fowls have the flrongeft mufcles of their whole bov
dy inferted into their wings •, whence by the way we
may obferve, that it is altogether impoflible for man
to buoy himfelf up into the air like birds, even though
he had proper machines in place of wings, unlefs he
were likewife provided with mufcles ftrong enough for
moving them, which he has not. In the next place,
their wings are not placed in the middle of their bo¬
dies, but a good deal farther forwards $ whence it
would at firft view appear, that their heads would be
erett, and their pofterior parts moft depending when
railed in the air •, but by ftretching out their heads
which aft upon the lever of a long neck, they alter
their centre of gravity pretty much j and alfo by fil¬
ling the facs or bladders in the infide of their abdomen
with air, and expanding their tail, they come to make
the pofterior part of their bodies confiderably higher j
and thus they fly with their bodies nearly in a hori¬
zontal fituation. Hence we find, that if their necks
are kept from being ftretched out, or if you cut away
their tails, they become incapable of flying any confider-
able way.
The largenefs of the wings in different fowls varies
according to the wants of the creature. Thus birds
of prey, who muft fly a confiderable way to provide
their food, have large ftrong wings ) whereas domeftic
birds, who find their nourilhment almoft everywhere,
have very fhort and but fmall wings. Their tail is of
ufe in aflifting to raife them in the air ; though the
chief purpofe of it is to ferve as a rudder in guiding
their flight, whilft they ufe their wings as we do oars
in putting forward a boat. The beft account of this
manner of progreffion of fowls is given by Alfonfus
Borellus, in his treatife De Motu Animalium ; and in the
Religious Philofopher we have Borelli’s doftrine xlripped
pretty much of its mathematical form. The facral
extremities are fituated fo far back, as to make us at
firft think they would be in continual hazard of falling
down forwards when they walk: but this is prevented
by their holding up their head and neck, fo as to
make the centre of gravity fall upon the feet; and when
they have occafion for climbing up a fteep place, they
ftretch out their heads and necks forward, efpecially if
they are {hort-legged, the better to preferve properly the
balance of the body. Thus we may obferve a goofe en¬
tering a barn door, where generally there is an afeend-
ing ftep, to ftretch out its neck, which before was rai£
ed, and incline its body forwards. This is laughed at
by the common people, who afcribe it to a piece of folly
in the goofe, as if afraid of knocking its head againft
the top of the door.
Carnivorous birds are provided with ftrong crook-A peculiar
ed claws for catching their prey: water fowls ufemechanifm
them for fwimming ; and, principally for this purpofe; in the toes
have a ftrong firm membrane interpofed betwixt theot owS
toes. There is a beautiful mechanifm to be obferved
in the toes of fowls, which is of confiderable ufe to
them. For their toes are naturally drawn together,
or bend, when the foot is bended : this is owing to
the ftiortnefs of the tendons of the toes, which pafs
over them, which is analogous to our heel; and that
the toes are fet in the circumference of a circle, as our
fingers are : Hence, when the foot is bended, the ten¬
dons muft confequently be much ftretched; and, fince
they are inferted into the toes, muft of neceflity bend
them when the foot is bended ; and when the foot is
extended, the flexors of the toe are again relaxed,
and they are therefore expanded. This is alfo of great
ufe to different kinds of fowls j thus the hawk de- ^
fcending
Chap.
Of Birds.
V.
A N 'A T
250
Their co¬
vering.
251
The organ
of fmelling,
Eye.
252
fcending Tvltli Ms legs and feet extended, fpreads his
' talons over his prey ; and the weight of his body bend¬
ing his feet, the toes are contracted, and the prey is
feized by the talons. This is alfo of great ufe to water
fowls: for had there been no fuch contrivance as this,
they muft hare loft as much time when they pulled their
legs in as they had gained by the former ftroke: but, as
the parts are now framed, whenever the creature draws
in its foot, the toes are at the fame time bended and
contracted into lefs fpace, fo that the refiftance made
againft the water is not near fo great as before : on the
contrary, when they ftretch their foot, their toes are
extended, the membrane betwixt them expanded, and
confequently a greater refiftance made to the water*
Again, fuch fowls as live moftly in the air, or have
occafion to fuftain themfelves on branches of trees in
v/indy weather, and even in the night-time when
afleep, while all their mufdes are fuppofed to be in a
ftate of relaxation, have only to lean down the weight
of their bodies, and their toes continue bended without
any mufcles being in aClion •, and whenever they would
difentangle themfelves, they raife up their bodies, by
which their feet, and confequently their toes, are ex¬
tended.
Fowls have a particular covering of feathers different
from all other creatures, but exaClly well fuited to their
manner of life : fgr it not only proteCls them from the
injuries of.the weather, but ferves them in their progref-
lion through that thin aerial element they are, for the
moft part, employed in j and as fowls live much in the
water, their feathers being continually befmeared with
an oily liquor, keeps the water from foaking into their
fkins, and fo prevents the bad effeCls which it would in¬
fallibly otherwife produce.
The brain in birds is large in proportion to their heads:
it has neither corpus callofum, fornix, nor corpora qua-
drigemina. Hence we may conclude, that thefe parts
are not effential to life, nor probably to reafon.
The organ of fmelling is placed at the bafe of the
beak j the noftrils are fometimes naked, fometimes con¬
cealed by feathers, and by a fmall fcale, or even by a
fleftiy fubftance.
The organ oi fmelling is very large, and well pro¬
vided with nerves; hence they have this fenfation very
acute. Ravens and other birds of prey give a fure
proof of this, by their being able to find out their prey,
though concealed from their fight and at a confiderable
diftance.
Thofe birds that grope for their food in the waters,
mud, &c. have large nerves, which run quite to the end
of their bills, by which they find out and diftinguilh
their food.
The anterior part of their eyes (inftead of having the
fclerotic coat continued, fo as to make near a fphere as
in us) turns all of a fudden flat *, f» that here the
fclerotic makes but half a fphere j and the cornea rifes
up afterwards, being a portion of a very fmall and di-
ftindt fphere: fo that in thefe creatures there is a much
greater difference betwixt the fclerotic and cornea than
in us. Hence their eyes do not jut out of their heads,
as in man and quadrupeds. As moft of thefe creatures
are continually employed in hedges and thickets, there¬
fore, that their eyes might be fecured from thefe inju¬
ries, as well as from too much light when flying in the
face of the fun, there is a very elegant mechanifna in
299
Of Birds.
253
O M Y.
their eyes* A membrane rifes from the internal can-
thus, which at pleafure, like a curtain, can be made to
cover the whole eye $ -and this by means of a proper
mufcle that rifes from the fclerotic coat, and pafling
round the optic nerves, runs through the mufcuius
oculi attollens (by which however the optic nerves are
not compreffed) and palpebra, to be inferted into the
edge of this membrane. Whenever this mufcle ceafes
to aft, the membrane by its own elafticity again dif-
covers the eye. This covering is neither pellucid nor
opaque, both which would have been equally inconve¬
nient j but, being fomewhat tranfparent, allows as ma¬
ny rays to enter as to make any objeft juft vifible, and is
fufficient to direft them in their progreflion. By means
of this membrane it is that the eagle is faid to look at
the fun.
Befides, all birds have another peculiarity, the ufeBourfe
of which is not fo well underftood : and that is, a”oire: Jts
pretty long black triangular purfe, rifing from the^^j
bottom of their eye juft at the entry of the optic *
nerve, and flretched out into their vitreous humour,
and one would imagine it gave fome threads to the
cryftalline. To this the French (who probably were
the firft who took notice of it in their diffeftions be¬
fore the Royal Academy) gave the name of bourfe noir-.
This may probably ferve to fuffocate fome of the rays of
light,"that' they may fee objefts more diftinftly with¬
out hurting their eyes. It has a connexion with the
vitreous, andieems to be joined alfo to the cryftalline
humour. If we fuppofe it to have a power of con-
traftion (which may be as well allowed as that of the
iris^), it may fo alter the pofition of the vitreous and
cryftalline humours, that the rays from any body may
not fall perpendicularly upon the cryftalline : and this
feems to be neceffary in them, fince they cannot change
the figure of the anterior part of their eye fo much as
we can do : and as this animal is expofed often to too
great a number of rays of light, fo they have no ta-
petum, but have the bottom of their eye wholly black
on the retina j and in confequence of this, fowls fee very
ill in the dark. 1
They have no external ear j but in place of it a tuft Organ of
of very fine feathers covering the meatus auditoriusfwsw'g,
which eafily allows the rays of found to pafs them, and
likewife prevents dull or any infeft from getting in. An
external ear would have been inconvenient in their paf-
fing through thickets, and in flying, &c. A liquor is
feparated in the external part of the ear, or meatus au-
ditorius, to lubricate the paffage, and further prevent
the entrance of any infefts, &c. The membretna tym~
pani is convex externally ; and no mufcles are fixed to
the bones of their ear, which are rather of a cartilagi¬
nous confiftence : any tremulous motions imprefled on
the air are communicated in thefe creatures merely by
the fpring and elafticity of thefe bones •, fo probably, -
the membrane is not fo ftretched as in the human ear
by mufcles. The femicircular canals are very diftinft,
and eafily prepared. 255
The roftrum, bill, or beak of fowls, is compofed ofThevariety
two mandibles •, and, as in quadrupeds, the upper one aks
has no motion but what it poffeffes in common with jtiUfe;, ^_c-
the head. But parrots are an exception to this rule j
for they can move the upper mandible at pleafure :
that is exceedingly convenient, as it enables them to lay
hold of whatever comes in their way. Carnivorous
P p 2 fowls '
'00
256
Crop.
A N A T
fowls have their beaks long, (harp, and crooked; the
‘ domeftic fowls, fueh as the hen kind, &c. have ftrong.
fhort beaks, commodioufly fitted to dig up and break
their food ; the water-fowls, again, have long or very
broad fcoop-like beaks, which is moft convenient for
them.
The other circumftances in which the ftrufture of
birds differs from that of other animals, particularly as
to the organs of digeftion, refpiration, and generation,
will be beft explained by defcribing them in an indivi¬
dual inftance; and we fliall feieft for this purpofe the
domeftic cock, taking an opportunity of contrafting the
vifcera of a carnivorous bird with thofe of this fpecies as
a granivorous bird.
Sect. II. Anatomy of a Coch.
Though this kind of birds live upon food fomewhat
fimilar to that of man, yet as they have no teeth to fe-
parate or break down this food, we fhould expefl to find
fomething to compenfate for the want of teeth, fome-
thing remarkable in the organs of digeftion : we Avail
therefore begin with thefe parts.
The gullet of this creature runs down its neck, fome¬
what inclined to the right fide j and terminates in a
pretty large membranous fac, which is the ingluvies or
crop, where the food is macerated and diffolved by a li¬
quor feparated by the glands, which are eafily obferved
everywhere on the internal furface of this bag. The ef¬
fect of this maceration may be very well obferved in pi¬
geons, who are fometimes in danger of being fuffocated
by the peafe, &c. they feed upon, fwelling to fuch an
immenfe bulk in their ingluvies, that they can neither
get upwards nor downwards. If it be a favourite fowl,
it might be preferved by opening the fac, taking out the
peafe, and fewing up the wound,
v The food getting out of this fac goes down by the
lus fuccen- remaining part of the gullet into the ventncu/us fuc-
turwtu'i ieu centuriatus, or infundibulum Peyen, which is a continu-
}umntilbU* ati°n ot' t^ie with more numerous glands, which
feparate a liquor to dilute the food ftill more, which at
length gets into the true ftomach or gizzard, ventricu-
lus caliofus, which confifts of two very ftrong mufcles
covered externally by a tendinous aponeurofis, and lin¬
ed on the infide by a very thick firm membrane,
which we evidently difeover to be a produ&ion of the
cuticula. This might have been proved in fome mea-
fure a priori, from taking notice, that this membrane,
which in chicks is only a thin flight pellicle, by de¬
grees turns thicker and ftronger the more attrition it
fuffers : but there is no other animal fubftance, fo far
as we know, which grows more hard and thick by be-
25S ing fubjefted to attrition, excepting the cuticula.—
Epidermis Hence may be drawn fome kind of proof of what has
invtfts the been affirmed concerning the tunica villofa of the fto-
internal mach and inteftines in the human body, viz. that it was
alfuie c-t i[1 Part a continuation of the epidermis ; nay, all the
vitiesand hollow parts of the body, even arteries, veins, &c.
veffeis of feem to be lined with a production of this membrane,
the human or one analogous to it. The ufe of the internal coat
body. ^ t]ie ftomach of fowls is to defend the more tender
parts of that vifeus from the hard grains and little
• ftones thofe creatures take down. The ufe of the
o-izzard is to compenfate for the want of teeth j and it
3
257
Ventricu-
O M Y. Part II.
is well fitted for this purpofe, from the great ftrength Of Birds,
which it pofleffes.
The digeftion of thefe animals is performed merely
by attrition, as is evinced by many experiments j and it
is further aflifted by the hard bodies they fwaliew.
We fee them daily take down confiderable numbers of
the moft folid rugged little flints they find •, and thefe
can ferve for no other purpofe than to help the tritura¬
tion of their aliments. After thefe pebbles, by be¬
coming fmooth, are unfit for this office, they are
thrown up by the mouth. Hence fowls that are long
confined, though ever fo well fed, turn lean for want
of thefe ftones to help their digeftion. This was put
beyond all difpute by Mr Tauvry, who gave a piece
of metal to an oftrich, convex on one fide and concavs
on the other, but carved on both $ and opening the
creature’s body fome time after, it was found, that the
carving on the convex fide was all obliterated, while
the engraved character remained the fame as before
on the concave fide, which was not fubjeCted to the fto-
mach’s preffure : which could not have happened had
digeftion been performed by a menftruum, or any other
way whatfoever; but may be eafily folved by allowing
a fimple mechanical preffure to take place. We are,
however, by no means to conclude from this, as fome
have too raffily done, that in the human body digeftion
is performed by fimple attrition ; otherwife we may,
with equal ftrength of reafon, by as good arguments
drawn from what is obferved in fifties, prove that the
aliments are diffolved in our ftomachs by the aftion of a
menftruum. But this method of reafoningis very faul¬
ty ; nor can it ever bring us to the true folution of any
philofophical or medical problem. It is very plain, fince
the ftruCture of the parts of the human ftomach are fo
very different from that of this creature, that it is fool-
ifti and unreafonable to imagine both of them capable
of producing the fame effeCts. At each end of the fto-
fnach, there are as it were two particular facs of a dif¬
ferent texture from the reft of the ftomach, not confift-
ing\)f ftrong mufcular fibres ; they feem to be recepta¬
cles for the ftones (efpecially at the end which is farthefl;
from the orifice), while the digefted aliment is protrud¬
ed into the inteftines.
Spallanzani, however, has lately found, that pebbles
are not at all neceffary to the trituration of the food of
thefe animals. At the fame time, he does not deny,
that when put in motion by the gaftric mufcles, they
are capable of producing fome effefl on the contents
of the ftomach ; but is inclined to believe, that they
are not fought for and felefted by defign, as many fup-
pofe, but becaufe they frequently happen to be mixed
with the food. 259
The duodenum begins pretty near the fame place at Duodenuir-
which the gullet enters \ yet notwithftanding the vici¬
nity of thefe twn tubes, the aliments are in no danger
of getting out before they are perfectly digefted, by
reafon of a protuberance betwixt the orifices j and in
thofe creatures who have fuch a ftrong mufcular fto¬
mach, it is a matter of great indifference whether the
entry of the gullet or pylorus be higheft, provided that
the entry from the gullet does not allow the food to re¬
gurgitate, fince the force of the ftomach can eafily pro¬
trude it towards the duodenum. This gut is moftly in
the right fide, and hangs pendulous in their abdomen,
having
Chap.
V.
260
Duftus
choledo-
chus.
a^r
Inteftina
tsnuia.
Of Birds, having its two extremities fixed to the liver. The
ductus cho/edochus enters near its termination, where it
mounts up again to be fixed to the liver ; and left, by
the contraction of the inteftines, the bile fhould pafs
over without being intimately blended with the chyle,
that duCt enters downwards, contrary to the courfe of
the food, and contrary to what is obferved in any of
the animals we have yet mentioned. But ftill the ge¬
neral intention is kept in view, in allowing thefe juices
the faireft chance of being intimately blended with the
food.
The /mail guts are proportionally longer than thofe
of carnivorous birds, for the general caufe already af-
figned. At the end of the ilium they have two large
intejlina cceca, one on each fide, four or five inches long,
coming off from the fide of the reClum, and afcending ;
and we find them containing part of the food : Thefe
ferve as refervoirs to the feces ; which, after fome de¬
lay there, regurgitate into what foon becomes the rec¬
tum $ which, together with the excretories of urine and
organs of generation, empties itfelf into the common
cloaca. The fmall inteftines are connected by a long
loofe mefentery, which has little or no fat accompany¬
ing the blood veflels, there being no hazard of the
262 blood’s being flopped.
Carnivorous The principal difference to be obferved in carnivorous
birds. , • , .    
ANATOMY. 301
know. Their liver is divided into two equal lobes by of Birds,
a pellucid membrane, running according to the length ' v—■
of their body : and hence we may obferve, that it is not 268
.. .. ... - - - Liver.
263
Ingluvies.
2<>4
Ventricu-
lus fuccen-
turiatus.
265
■nteftina.
25(1
ancreas.
267
he fpleen.
birds is in their chylopoietic vifcera, which may be ac¬
counted for from their different way of life.
Immediately under their clavicles, you will obferve
the cefophagus expanded into their ing/uvies, which is
proportionally lefs than in the granivorous kind, fince
their food does not fwell fo much by maceration ; and
for the fame reafon, there is a lefs quantity of a men-
ftruum to be found here.
They have alfo a ventriculus fuccenturiatus, plenti¬
fully ftored with glands, fituated immediately above
their ftomach, which we fee here is thin and mufculo-
membranous, otherwife than in the granivorous kind :
and this difference, which is almoft the only one we
ftiall find betwixt the two different fpecies of fowls, is
eafily accounted for from the nature of their food,
which requires lefs attrition, being eafier of digeftion
than that of the other kind •, neverthelefs, it feems re-
quifite it ftiould be ftronger than the human, to com-
penfate the want of abdominal mufcles, which are here
very thin.
The fame mechanifm obtains in this creature’s duo¬
denum that we'have hitherto obferved. As being a car¬
nivorous animal, its guts are proportionally ftiorler than
thofe of the granivorous kind : for the reafon firft given,
viz. its food being more liable to corrupt, therefore not
proper to be long detained in the body j and for that
reafon it has no intefcinn cceca, of which the other fpe¬
cies of fowls have a pair. The difference in their
wings,^ backs, and claws, is obvious j and has been al¬
ready in fome meafure obferved.
T he pancreas in this creature lies betwixt the two
folds of the duodenum, and fends two or three dudts in¬
to this gut pretty near the biliary.
The fpleen is here of a round globular figure, fitua¬
ted between the liver and ftomach ; and betwixt thefe
and the back bone it enjoys the fame properties as in
other animals, viz. large blood veffels, &c. All its
blood is fent into the vena portarum, and has a perpe¬
tual conquaffation. It has no excretory, as far as we
peculiar to that bowel to lie on the right fide j which
is ftill more confirmed by what we obferve in fifties,
where the greateft part of it lies in the left fide. 26()
The fliape of their gall bladder is not much different Vefica fel-
from that of quadrupeds; but is thought to be longeriis- 'v
in proportion to the fize of the animal, and is farther
removed from the liver.
The principal difference to be remarked in their Cor.27°
heart, is the want of the valvulce tricufpides, and their
place being fupplied by one fleftiy flap.
The lungs are not loofe within the cavity of the tho- Pulmones,
rax, but fixed to the bone all the way; neither are ^‘r ftruc-
they divided into lobes, as in thofe animals that have a tl!re anc*
larger motion in their fpine. They are two red fpongyUleS*
bodies, covered with a membrane that is pervious, and
which communicates with the larger veficles or air-bags
that are difperfed over the whole abdomen ; which 272
veficles, according to Dr Monro, ferve trvo very confi- The ufe of
derable ufes. The one is to render their bodies fpecifi-the veficles
cally light, when they have a mind to afcend and buoy aomen.^*
themfelves up when flying, by diftending their lungs 273
with air, and alfo ftraiten their windpipe, and fo return The dia-
the air. Secondly, They fupply the place of a mufcu-Phra£m’
lar diaphragm and ftrong abdominal mufcles ; producing
the fame effefts on the feveral contained vifcera, as thefe P ^ ’
mufcles would have done, without the inconveniency of
their additional weight ; and conducing as much to the
exclufion of the egg and feces.
Dr Hunter has made fome curious difcoveries rela¬
tive to thefe internal receptacles of air in the bodies
of birds. Some of them are lodged in the flefhy
parts, and fome in the hollow bones ; but all of them
communicate with the lungs. He informs us, that
the air cells which are found in the foft parts have no
communication with the cellular membrane which is
common to birds as well as other animals. Some of
them communicate immediately with each other ; but
all of them by the intervention of the lungs as a com¬
mon centre. Some of them are placed in cavities, as
the abdomen ; others in the interftices of parts, as
about the breaft. The bones which receive air are of
two kinds ; fome of them divided into innumerable
cells ; others hollowed out into one large canal. They
may be diftinguifhed from fuch as do not receive air,
by having lefs fpecific gravity ; by being lefs vafcular ;
by containing little oil ; by having no, marrow nor
blood in their cells ; by having lefs hardnefs and firm-
nefs than others ; and by the paffage for the air beino-
perceivable.
The. mechanifm by which the lungs are fitted for
conveying air to thefe cavities is, their being attached
to the diaphragm, and conneaed alfo to the ribs and
fides of the vertebrae. The diaphragm is perforated
m feveral places by pretty large holes, allowing a free
paffage of air into the abdomen. To each of thefe
holes is attached a diftina: membranous bag, thin and
tranfparent. he lungs open at their interior part in¬
to membranous cells, which lie upon the fide of the
pericardium, and communicate with the cells of the
fternum. The fuperior parts of the lungs open into
cells of a loofe net-work, through which the wind¬
pipe and gullet pafs. When thefe cells are diftended
with:
3© 2
ANATOMY.
Part I]
as in the cafe of the
Of Bifdf. with air, it indicates pafiion,
   turkey-cock, pouting-pigeon, &c.
Thefe cells communicate with others in the axilla,
and under the large pe&oral mufcle *, and thofe with the
cavity of the os humeri, by means of fmall openings in
the hollow furface near the head of that bone. Laftly,
The pofterior edges of the lungs have openings into the
cells of the vertebrae, ribs, os facrum, and other bones
of the pelvis, from which the air-finds a paffage to the
cavity of the thigh bone.
Concerning the ufe of thefe cavities the doftor con-
je&ures, that they are a kind of appendage to the
lungs •, and that, like the bags continued through the
bellies of amphibious animals, they ferve as a kind of
refervoirs of air. They aflift birds during their flight,
.which muft be apt to render frequent refpiration diffi¬
cult. He farther infinuates, that this conftruftion of
the organs of refpiration may affifl birds in finging j
which, he thinks, may be inferred from the long con¬
tinuance of fong between the breathings of a canary
bird. On tying the windpipe of a cock, the animal
breathed through a canula introduced into his belly ;
.another through the os humeri, when cut acrofs ; and a
hawk through the os femoris. In all thefe cafes the
animal foon died. In the fir ft, the dodlor afcribes
the death to an inflammation of the bowels ; but in the
laft, he owns it was owing to difficult breathing. What
.took place, however, was fufficient to ffiow that the
animals did really breathe through the bone.
When we examine the upper end of the trachea, we
obferve a rima glottidis with mufcular fides, which may
aft in preventing the food or drink from paffing into
the lungs : for there is no epiglottis as in man and qua-
274 drupeds.
Windpipe. The windpipe, near where it divides, is very much
contrafted ; and their voice is principally owing to
this coarftation. If you liften attentively to a cock
crowing, you will be fenfible that the noife does not
proceed from the throat, but deeper ; nay, this very
pipe, when taken out of the body, and cut off a little
after its divifion, and blown into, will make a fqueak-
ing norfe fomething like the voice of thefe creatures.
On each fide, a little higher than this contraftion,
-there is a mufcle arifing from the fternum, which
dilates the trachea. The cartilages, of which the pipe
is compofed in this animal, go quite round it •, where¬
as in man and quadrupeds they are difcontinued for
about one-fourth on the back part, and the interme¬
diate fpace is filled up by a membrane. Neither is the
trachea fo firmly attached to their vertebrae as in the
other creatures we have examined. This ftrufture we
{hall find of great fervice to them, if we confider, that
had the fame ftrufture obtained in them as in us, their
breath would have been in hazard of being flopped at
every fleftion or twilling of the neck, which they are
frequently obliged to. This we may be fenfible of by
bending our necks confiderably on one fide, upon which
we fhall find a great ftraitnefs and difficulty of breath¬
ing; whereas their trachea is better fitted for following
the flexions of the neck by its loofe connexion to the
vertebrae.
In place of a tnvfcular diaphragm, this creature has
nothing but . a thin membrane connefted to the pe¬
ricardium, which feparates the thorax and abdomen.
j>ut befides this, the whole .abdomen and thorax are di¬
vided by a longitudinal membrane or mediaJHnum ’Con- of Birds,,
nefted to the lungs, pericardium, liver, ftomach, and to |
the fat lying over their ftomach and guts, which is ana¬
logous to an omentum, and fupplies its place. 275
The lymphatic fyftem in birds confifts, as in man, of ^Phati,|
lafteal and lymphatic veffels, with the thoracic duft. } te ’
The lafteals, indeed, in the ftrifteft fenfe, are the
lymphatics of the inteftines ; and, like the other lym¬
phatics, carry only a tranfparent lymph; and inftead
of one thoracic duft, there are two, which go to the
jugular veins. In thefe circumflances, it would feem
that birds differ from the human fubjeft, fo far at lead,
as we may judge from the diffeftion of 2. goofe, the
common fubjeft: of this inquiry, and from which the
following defcription is taken.
The lafteals run from the inteftines upon the mefen-
teric veffels : thofe of the duodenum pafs by the fide
of the pancreas; afterward they get upon the cteliac
artery, of which the fuperior mefenteric is a branch.
Here they are joined by the lymphatics of the liver,
and then they form a plexus which furrounds the ete-
liac artery. Here alfo they receive a lymphatic from
the gizzard, and foon after another from the lower
part of the gullet. At the root of ,the cseliac artery
they are joined by the lymphatics frotrr the glanduloe
renales, and near the fame part by the lafteals from the
other fmall inteftines, which veffels accompany the
lower mefenteric artery ; but, before they join thofe
from the duodenum, receive from the reftum a lym¬
phatic, which runs from the blood veflels of that gut.
Into this lymphatic fome fmall veffels from the kidneys
feem to enter at the root of the cseliac artery. .The
lymphatics of the facral extremities probably join thofe
from the inteftines. At the root of the caeliac artery
and contiguous part of the aorta, a net-work is formed
by the veffels above defcribed. From this net-work
arife two thoracic dufts, of which one lies on each fide
of the fpine, and runs obliquely over the lungs to the
jugular vein, into the infide of which it terminates,
nearly oppofite to the angle formed by this vein and
the fubclavian one. The thoracic duft of the left fide
is joined by a large lymphatic, which runs upon the
gullet. The thoracic dufts are joined by the lympha¬
tics of the neck, and probably by thofe of the wings,
where they open into the jugular veins. I he lympha¬
tics of the neck generally confift of two large branch¬
es, on each fide of the neck, accompanying the blood
veffels ; and thefe two branches join near the lower
part of the neck, and form a trunk which runs clofe to
the jugular vein, and opens into a lymphatic gland ;
from the oppofite fide of this gland a lymphatic comes
out, which ends in the jugular vein.
On the left fide, the whole of this lymphatic joins
the thoracic duft of the fame fide ; but, on the right
one, part of it goes into the infide of the jugular vein
a little above the angle; while another joins the tho¬
racic duft, and with that duft: forms a common trunk,
which opens into the infide of the jugular vein, a little
below the angle which that vein makes with the fub¬
clavian. This fyftem in birds differs moft from that of
quadrupeds, in the chyle being tranfparent and colour-
lefs, and in there being no vifible lymphatic glands,
neither in the courfe of the lafteals, nor in that of the
lymphatics of the abdomen, nor near the thoracic
dufts..
Ihe
Chap. V.
A N A T
Of Birds,
276
Kidneys.
*77
The organs
of genera¬
tion in the
male.
. 27* .
Viteihri-
um.
The kidneys lie in the hollow excavated in the fide
1 of the back-bone, from which there is fent out a bluilh-
coloured canal running almag by the fide of the vets de¬
ferens, and terminating dire&ly in the common cloaca.
This is the ureter, which opens by a peculiar aperture
of its own, and not at the penis. Fowls having no
urinary bladder, it was thought by fome they never paf-
fed any urine, but that it went to the nourifliment of
the feathers 1 but this is falfe ; for that whitifh fub-
ftance that we fee their greenilb faeces covered with,
and which turns afterwards chalkv, is their urine. Let
us next confider the organs of generation of both fexes,
and firft thofe of the male.
The teficles are fituated one on each fide of the
back-bone; and are proportionally very large to the
creature’s bulk. From thefe run out the vafa femini-
fera; at firft ftraight; but after they recede farther
from the body of the tefticle, they acquire an undu¬
lated or convoluted form, as the epididymis in man.
Thefe convolutions partly fupply the want of veficulee
feminaies, their coition being at the fame time very
ftiort: i hefe terminate in the penis, of which the-cock
has two, one on each fide of the common cloaca,
pointing directly outwards. They open at a diftance
from each other, and are very fmall and ftiort; whence
they have efcaped the notice of anatomifts, who have
often denied their exiftence. In birds there is no pro-
ftate gland. This is what is chiefly remarkable in the
organs of the male.
The racemus vitellorum, being analogous to the ova-
ria in the human fubjeft, is attached by a proper mem¬
brane to the back-bone. This is very fine and thin,
O M Y.
and continued down to the uterus. Its orifice is averfe
with refpeft to the ovaria ; yet notwithftanding, by
the force of the orgafmus venereus, it turns round and
grafps the vitellus, which in its paffage through this
du£t, called the infundibulum, receives a thick gela¬
tinous liquor, fecreted by certain glands. This, with
what it receives in the uterus, compofes the white
of the egg. By this tube then it is carried into the
uterus. The ftiell is- lined with a membrane ; and in
the large end there is a bag full of air, from which
there is no outlet.
The uterus is a large bag, placed at the end of the uteru£
infundibulum, full of wrinkles on its infide ; here the
egg is completed, receiving its laft involucrum, and is
at laft puftiedout at an opening on the fide of the com¬
mon cloaca. From the teftes in the male being fo very
large in proportion to the body of the creature, there
muft neceflarily be a great quantity of femen fecreted ;
hence the animal is falacious, and becomes capable of
impregnating many females. The want of the vificula: The^nt
feminaies is in fome meafure fupplied by the convolu-of the vefi-
tions of the vafa deferentia, and by the fmall diftanceCll,as femi~
betwixt the fecerning and excretory organs. The two
penes contribute alfo very much to their ftiort coition ; UpP ied’
at which time the opening of the uterus into the cloaca
is very much dilated, that the effe& of the femen on the
vitelli may be the greater.
A hen will of herfelf indeed lay eggs; but thefe are
not impregnated, and yet appear entirely complete, ex¬
cept that the fmall black fpot, which comes afterwards
to be the rudiments of the chick, is not here to be cb-
ferved.
TABLE of the Proportional Number of Ribs and Vertebra in various fpecies
of Birds. ,
Species.
Vultur. Vulture,
Falco fulvus. Eagle,
„ haliaetus. Bald buzzard,
—-— buteo. Buzzard,
 nifus. Sparrow hawk,
 milvus. Kitfc,
Strix ulula. Owl,
Mufcicapa grifola. Fly-catcher,
Turdus merula. Black-bird,
Tanngra taldo. Tanagra,
Corvus corone. Crow,
pica. Magpie,
   glandarius. Jay,
Stumus vulgaris. Starling,
Loxia coccothraufes. Grolheak,
—— pyrrhula. Bullfinch,
Fringilla domefica. Sparrow,
  car duelis. Goldfinch,
Purus major. Titmoufe,
Alauda arvenjis. Lark,
Verteb
of
Neck.
*3
13
14
11'
11
12
11 <
10
11
10
13
*3
12
10
10
10
9
11
11
11
Verteb,
of
Back.
Anter.
falfe
Ribs.
True
Ribs.
Pofler.
falfe
Ribs.
N° of Sacral
Ribs. Verteb.
1 I
17
I I
10'
I I
1 I
I I
10
IO
9
T3
!3
II
10
12
11
10
11
11
10
Coccyg
Verteb,
table;
3°4
Of Reptiles.
ANATOMY.
TABLE, &c. continued.
Species.
Motacilla rubecula. Redbreaft,
Hirundo urbica. Swallow,
Caprimulgus europceus. Goatfucker,
Trochilus pella. Topaz humming-bird,
Upupn epops. Hoopoe,
sllcedo ifpida. King’s-filher,
Ficus viridis. Woodpecker,
Ramphajlos. Toucan,
FJittacus crithacus. Parrot,
Columba anas. Stockdove,
Pavo crijlatus. Peacock,
Phajianus colchicus. Pheafant,
Mcleagris gallo-pavo. lurkey,
Crax nigra. Curaffow-bird. Hoceo,
Struthio carnelus. Oftrich,
cafuarius. Caffawary,
Phanicopterus. Flamingo,
Ardea cinerea. Heron,
 alba. Stork,
 grus. Crane,
Platalea didia. Spoonbill,
Recurvirojlra. Avofet,
Charadrius pluviahs. Plover,
Tringa vanellus. Lapwing,
Scolopax rujlicata. Woodcock,
    ar quota. Curlew,
Hcematopus ojlralegus. Oyfter-catcher,
Rallus crcx. Rail,
Fulica atra. Coot, - - -
Parra. Jacana,
Relic anus onocratalus. Pelican,
   carbo. Cormorant;
Sterna hirundo. Sea fwallow,
Procellaria. Petril,
Anas cyqnus. Swan,
—— anfer. Goofe,
 bernicla. Bernacle,
   bofchas. Duck,
, i... tadorna. Sheldrake,
- nigra. Black diver,
Mergus merganfer. Merganfer,
Colymbus crijlatus. Grebe,
Verteb.
of
Neck.
10
II
11
12
I 2
12
12
12
I 2
13
14
13
15
15
l8
15
l8
18
19
T9
M
15
14
18
13
12
13
15
14
16
16
14
14
23
15
18
14
16
15
J5
J4
Verteb.
of
Back.
Anter.
falfe
Ribs.
9
7
7
7
7
8
8
11
7
7
7
9
7
9
8
8
7
8
9
8
9
8
7
9
8
8
11
10
10
8
11
9
8
10
True
Ribs,
Poller.
fjilfe
Ribs.
No. of
Ribs.
Sacral
Verteb.
II
II
Coccyg.
Verteb.
10
11
11
9
10
8
10
12
11
13
12
10
10
20
J9
12
10
11
12
14
10
10
10
13
10
15
J3
7
12
14
14
10
? ?
14
14
M
15
11
14
13
13
8
9
8
8
7
7
9
7 +
8
7
8
5
5
7
9
7
7
7
8
7
8
8
7
7
8
8
o
8
8
7
7
8
8
7
9
8
9
7
7
7
Part II
Of Reptiles,
CHAP. VI. ANATOMY OF REPTILES.
Sect. I. Of Reptiles in general.
These animals, like the fifties, have their blood near¬
ly of the fame temperature with the element in which
they live. They have indeed a lung, and refpire air ;
but their pulmonary veffels are only branches of the
lar_e general artery and vein, and do not, as in the hot-
blooded animals, form a peculiar fyftem equal to the
vafcular fyftem of the reft of the body.
With refpeft to their organs of motion, reptiles may
be divided into two orders. In the one, the ferpents,
the body is cylindrical and entirely without limbs : their
motion is a kind of writhing or creeping.
The others have four feet very fimilar in ftru&ure
to thofe of the mammalia, whence thefe animals have
been called oviparous quadrupeds. Such of them as
live in the water have frequently membranes be¬
tween their toes, which they employ like the fins of
fifties for fwimming. One fpecies has a kind of mem¬
branaceous
Chap VI.
GfReptiles. branaceous wings. We know two fpecies which are
-y—» called bipedal reptiles, which are only diftinguifhed
from ferpents, in having two very fmall feet. In the
whole clafs the feet are fo fhort, and fo elofe to the body,
that they are not unaptly termed reptiles or creeping
animals.
Their eyes ate large and fiery, and are furniflied
with three lids. Their ear has neither concha nor
'external paffage, and its tympanum lies flat to the
head, and is often covered with fcales or flefli : inter¬
nally it has only one little bone compofed of a plate
furniflied with a fort of handle. In fome fpecies the
tympanum and its little bone are entirely wanting, as
alfo the cochlea 5 but they have all femicircular canals,
and a veftibule. Their noftrils are generally fmall.
In the ferpents, whofe tongue is almoft horny, the
fenfe of tafte cannot be very exquifite, but in the other
fpecies where the tongue is fofter it may be pretty
acute.
Their Ikin is naked or covered with fcales. The
tertoifes are remarkable for being covered with a kind
of buckler.
Some fpecies of oviparous quadrupeds have fix toes.
Serpents exercife the fenfe of touch by wrapping their
body round the objeft which they defire to feel.
The brain of reptiles is very fmall, and divided into
very diftindl tubercles. Their fenfation feems lefs to
depend on a common centre than in the other animals
which we have been confidering, as they can live for
a long time without the head, and after being depri¬
ved of the heart and all the vifcera ; their limbs when
feparated from the body preferve their irritability for
a confiderable lime ; the heart of a frog will beat for
many hours after it has been cut out. Reptiles have
alfo a confiderable power of reproduction. The tail
of a lizard and feveral parts of water falamanders will
grow again after being cut off. The jaws in thefe ani¬
mals are for the molt part armed with teeth which are
conical and pointed, but fome of them have only flefhy
or horny gums. Their alimentary canal is but fmall,
and has no caecum, but it receives fluids fimilar to thofe
of the hot-blooded animals. The urine, which is fecre-
ted by the kidneys, is received into a bladder, but is
evacuated bv the anus.
Their heart has only one ventricle, from which pro¬
ceeds a Angle artery divided into two large branches,
which furnifli each a twig to the lung of that fide,
and are then united to be diftributed to the other parts
of the body. Hence thefe animals can at pleafure
fufpend refpiration without flopping the circulation of
the blood, fo that they can remain a long time under
water, or in a elofe veffel. The cells of the lungs are
much larger than in the hot-blooded animals and
thefe organs referable oblong bags, which float in the
fame cavity with the other vifcera, without the inter-
pofition of a diaphragm. Some of thefe animals have
the power of inflating their lungs to a great extent.
They have a windpipe and a larynx, by which they can
produce founds as in other animals which are provided
with nerves.
I he females of reptiles have a double receptacle for
furniflied with two tubes, which open at the
anus. In fome fpecies copulation takes place, and
the eggs are covered with a ftiell more or lefs hard.
Vol. II. Part. I.
3°5
In others the male merely fprinkles with femen the of Reptiles
eggs already laid, and thefe are merely covered with v—
a membrane. Reptiles, no more than other animals
with cold blood, haye the power of hatching their
eggs.
Sect. II. Tortotfe.
2S1
The covering of this animal is compofed of a fhell Their Ihell
fo remarkably hard and firm in its texture, that a load-or cove^
ed waggon may go over it without hurting the {hell orins’ ^
the animal within it. In the young animal, this {hell
grows harder in proportion as its contents expand •, and
this creature never changes its fhell as feme others do ;
hence it was neceffary for it to be made up of dif¬
ferent pieces and thefe are more or lefs diftinft in.dif¬
ferent animals. Their feet are fmall. and weak $ and
they are exceedingly flow in motion.
It has neither tongue nor teeth ; to make up for
which, their lips are fo hard as to be able to break al-
mofi the hardeft bodies.
The alimentary canal very much refembles that of
the former clafs.
The principal difference is in the circulation of the
blood. I he heart has two diftinft auricles, without
any communication ; and under thefe there is the ap¬
pearance of two ventricles fimilar in Ihape to, thofe of
the former clafs: but they may be confidesed as one
cavity ; for the ventricle fends out not only the pul¬
monary artery, but likewife the aorta ; for there is a
paffage in the feptura, by which the ventricles com¬
municate freely, and the blood paffes from the left
into the right one. From the aorta, the blood re¬
turns into the right auricle, while that from the pulmo¬
nary artery returns to the left auricle, from which
it is fent to the left ventricle, &c. fo that only a part
of the blood is fent to the lungs, the relt going im¬
mediately into the aorta; hence the animal is not un¬
der the neceflity of breathing fo often as otherwife it
would he.
From the bale of the right ventricle goes out the Bio^veS.
pulmonary artery and aorta, T he pulmonary artery fels.
is fpent upon the lungs. The aorta may be faid to be
three in number ; for the aorta finiflra afeends through
the pericardium in company with the pulmonary ar¬
tery *, and afterwards turns down, and fends off a con¬
fiderable branch, which fplits into two 5 one of which
joins the right aorta, while the other is- diflributed
upon the liver, ftomach, inteftines, &c. What re¬
mains of this aorta runs to the. kidneys or pofterior ex¬
tremities of that fide. An aorta defeendens, &c.
after piercing the pericardium, runs down and com¬
municates with the branch already mentioned, is dif-
triouted upon the right kidney and inferior extremity,
and alfo upon the bladder and parts of generation.
An aorta afeendens, after getting out of the pericar¬
dium, fupplies the fore-legs, neck, and head. The
blood in the fuperior part of the body returns to the
right auricle by two jugular veins, which unite after
perforating the pericardium. From the inferior part
it returns to the fame auricle by two large veins ;
one on the right fide receives the blood in the right,
lobe of the liver •, the other on the left fide receives
the blood in the left lobe, and alfo a trunk which *
Q, qprrefponds
ANATOMY.
306 A N A T
Of Fifties, correfponds with the inferior vena cava in other animals.
» v~—J The pulmonary veffels run in the left auricle in the
common way.
The abforbent fyftem in the turtle, like that in the
former clafs, confifts of lafteals and lymphatics, with
their common trunks the thoracic duffs } but differs
from it in having no obvious lymphatic glands on any
part of its body, nor plexus formed at the termination
283 in the red veins.
Ladteals. The laBeals accompany the blood-veffels upon the
mefentery, and form frequent net-works acrofs thefe
veffels : near the root of the mefentery a plexus . is
formed, which communicates with the lymphatics
coming from the kidneys and parts near the anus. .At
the root of the mefentery on the left fide of the fpine,
the lymphatics of the fpleen join the ladfeals ; and im¬
mediately above this a plexus is formed, which lies
upon the right aorta. From this plexus a large branch
arifes, which palfes behind the right aorta to the left
fide, and gets before the left aorta, where it affifts in
forming a very large receptaculum, which lies upon that
artery.
From this receptaculum arife the thoracic duffs.
From its right fide goes one t^unk, which is joined by
thdt large branch that came from the plexus to the left
fide of the right aorta, and then paffes over the fpine.
This trunk is the thoracic duff of the right fide for,
having got to the right fide of the fpine, it runs up¬
wards on the infide of the right aorta, towards the
right fubclavian vein ; and when it has advanced a
little above the lungs, it divides into branches, which
near the fame place are joined by a large branch that
comes up on the outfide of the aorta. From this part
upwards, thofe veffels divide and fubdivide, and are
afterwards joined by the lymphatics of the neck, which
likewife form branches before they join thofe from be¬
low. So that between the thoracic duff and the lym¬
phatics of the fame fide of the neck, a very intricate
net-work is formed j from which a branch goes into
the angle between the jugular vein and the lower part
or trunk of the fubclavian. Fhis branch lies therefore
©n the infide of the jugular vein, whilft another gets
O M Y. Part II,
to the outfide of it, and feems to terminate in it, a of Fifties,
little above the angle, between that vein and the fub- *■ r—*
clavian. 284
Into the above-mentioned receptaculum, the lym-Lympha-
phaties of the ffomach and duodenum likewife enter, tics.
Thofe of the duodenum run by the fide of the pan¬
creas, and probably receive its lymphatics and a part,
of thofe of the liver. The lymphatics of the ftomach
and duodenum have very numerous anaftomofes, and
form a beautiful net-work on the artery which they
accompany. From this receptaculum likewife (befides
the trunk already mentioned, which goes to the right
fide) arife two other trunks pretty equal in fize ; one
of which runs upon the left fide, and the other upon
the right fide of the left aorta, till they come within
two or three inches of the left fubclavian vein ; where
they join behind the aorta, and form a number .of
branches which are afterwards joined by the lymphatics
of the left fide of the neck ; fo that here a plexus is
formed as upon the right fide. From this plexus a
branch iffues, which opens into the angle between the
jugular and fubclavian vein.
Sect. III. Serpent and Crocodile.
The circulation in thefe is fimilar to that of the Circulation
turtle ‘y but we find only one ventricle. The blood >n ferpents,
goes from the right auricle to the ventricle which fends
out the pulmonary artery and aorta ; the blood from
the pulmonary artery returns to the left auricle, that
from the aorta going to the right auricle, and both the
auricles opening into the ventricle.
Sect. IV. Frog and Lizard.
These differ from the former animals, in having
only one auricle and a ventricle : and befides, the
ventricle fends out a fingle artery, which afterwards
fp!its into two parts; one to fupply the lungs, the
other runs to all the reft of the body : from the lungs
and from the other parts, the blood returns into the
auricle.
'0
CHAP. VII. ANATOMY OF FISHES.
28(5
Cuticula, OF thefe we may firft oblerve, that they have a very
t0 ftrong thick cuticle, covered with a great number of
t e human. fcaleg> ^ one on another like the tiles of houfes.
This among other arguments is fuppofed to prove the
human epidermis to be of a fquamous ftrudlure : but the
fcales refemble the hairs, wool, feathers, &c. of the
creatures that live in air ; and below thefe we obferve
their proper cuticula and cutis.
The generality of fifties, particularly thofe fhaped like
the cod, haddock, &c. have alinerunningoneachfi.de.
Thefe lines open externally by a number of du£ls, which
throw out a mucous or {limy fubftance that keeps them
foft and clammy, and feems to ferve the fame purpofe
with tWfe mucous glands or du£ts which are placed with¬
in many of our internal organs.
In the next place, thefe creatures have neither at¬
lantal nor facral extremities, as quadrupeds and fowls;
%
2S7
for their progreflion is performed in a different way Swimming
from either of thofe fpecies of animals: for this pur-^^Pj.
pofe they are provided with machines, properly conhw'severalufe
ing of a great number of elaftic beams, connefted to0ftjieir
one another by firm membranes, and with a tail of the fins, tail,
fame texture; their fpine is very moveable towards theaSs’
pofterior part, and the ftrongeft muicles of their bodies
are inferted there. Their tails are fo framed as to
contraft to a narrow fpace when drawn together to. ei¬
ther fide, and to expand again when drawn to a ftraight
line with their bodies ; fo, by the affiftance of this
broad tail, and the fins on their fides, they make their
progreflion much in the fame way as a boat with oars
on its fides and rudder at its ftern. The perpendicular
fins fituated on the fuperior part of their body keep
them in cequilibrio, hindering the belly from turning
uppermoft ; which it would readily do, becaufe of the
7 air-bag
hap. VII. ANA
Of Fifties, air-bag in tbe abdomen rendering their belly fpecifi-
; cally lighter than their back ; but by the refiftance
thefe fins meet with when inclined to either fide, they
are kept with their backs always uppermoft.
It may be next obferved, that thefe creatures have no¬
thing that can be called a nech, feeing they feek their
food in a horizontal way, and can move their bodies
either upwards or downwards, as they have occafion, by
the contraftion or dilatation of the air-bag j a long
neck, as it would hinder their progreffion, would be
very difadvantageous in the element they live in.
In the bony fithes the bodies of the vertebrae are
fometimes cylindrical, fometimes angular, and frequent¬
ly comprefled : they are articulated only by their bodies,
as there are no articulatory proceffes. They may be
divided into two clafies : thofe of the tail, which are
furnithed with a fpinous procefs both above and below 5
and thole of the belly or back, which have it only
above. Thefe laft are ufually furnilhed, at the fides,
T O M Y,
1
with tranfverfe procefles for the attachment of the ribs.
The fpinous proceffes, both dorfal and fternal, are very
long, efpecially in Hat fifii. At the bafe of the
dorfal,proceffes there is a canal for lodging the fpinal
marrow j and the blood veffels pafs through a fimilar
canal at the bafe of the llernoid proceffes. There is near¬
ly the fame ftrudture in the cartilaginous fifties 5 but in
thefe all the cartilages are fo firmly fixed together,
that only the fpinous proceffes can be diftinguilhed.
The vertebra of a fifti differs from that of other ani¬
mals in the rtrufture of its body, at each extremity of
which there is a conical cavity, fo that between each
pair of vertebrae there is a hollow fpace formed by
thefe two cones joined bafe to bafe, filled with a very
foft cartilaginous or mucous fubftance on which the
motions of the vertebrae are eafily performed. The
annexed table (hows the proportional number of verte¬
brae of feveral fpecies of fifti.
TABLE of the Number of Vertebra: in feveral fpecies of Fishes.
Species.
Raia hates. Ray, _ . .
Squalus. Shark, - - „
Accipenfer Jiurio. Sturgeon,
Syngnathus acus. Sea-needle,
*   hippocampus. Sea-horfe,
Ba/ijles, - - _ _
OJiracion quadricornis.
Murana anguilla. Eel,
Anarrhichas lupus. Sea-wolf,
Traclnnus draco. Sea-dragon,
Vranofcopus. Uranofcope,
Gadus merlangus. Whiting, _
Cottus Jcorpius. Sea-fcorpion,
Trig/a loricata. Armed trigla,
—   cuculus. Red gurnard,
  j— volitans. Flying trigla,
Echineis remora. Remora,
Pleuronecies platejfa. Plaice,
Gafteroj}eus pungitius. Stickle-back,
Perea jluviatilis. Perch,
Eeus faber. Doree,
{
 * vomer.
Cheetodon cornu.
teira.
Cyprinus carpio.
■— nafus.
Horned chaetodon,
Striped chaetodon,
Carp,
Clupea harengus. Herring,
Salmo rhombus. Rhomboid falmon, '
Efox lucius. Pike, - - _
—- brajilienjis, Brafilian pike,
Si/urus felis. Sea-cat,
Loricaria. Armour-filh,
Fijiulana tabaccaria. Tobacco-pipe fifti,
Cervical
Vertebrce.
Offified into
one piece
Dorfal
Vertebra,
24
J3
9
17
8
12
13
8
12
J3
70
21
9
10
9
9
*5
T9
38
12
35
34
12
6
59
Lumbar
Vertebra,
Coccygian
Vertebra.
8o-j-
10
50
30
J5
32
J5
23
21
12
15
3°
22
20
16
*3
12
12
16
T9
18
20
20
J5
3°
28
22
Total N° of
Vertebra.
207
28
5° +
62
13
115
55
31
4i
44
44
36
Q,q2
307
Of Fifties,
< 
The
anatomy.
Part II.
ass
Cerebrum,
289
Organ of
fmell.
290
Optic
nerve.
291
The cry-
ftalline hu¬
mour a
complete
fphere, and
why.
The brain in fifhes is formed pretty much in the
fame way as that of fowls; only we may obferve, that
the pofterior lobes bear a greater proportion to the an¬
terior.
The organ of fmelling is large ; and they have a
power of contra£ling and dilating the entry into their
nofe as they have occafion. It feems to be moftly by
their acute fmell that they difcover their food ; lor their
tongue feems not to have been defigned for a very nice
fenfation, being of a pretty firm cartilaginous fubftance 5
and common experience evinces, that their fight is not
of fo much ufe to them as their fmell in fearching for
their nourilhment. If you throw a frelb worm into the
water, a fi(h will diftinguilb it at a eonfiderable diftance }
and that this is not done by the eye, is plain from ob-
ferving, that after the fame worm has been a confider-
able time in the water, and loft its fmell, no fifhes
will come near it j but if you take out the bait, and
make feveral little incifions into it, .fo as to let out more
of the odoriferous effluvia, it will have the fame ef-
fe£l as formerly. Now it is certain, that had the crea¬
tures difcovered this bait with their eyes, they would
have come equally to it in both cafes. In confequence
of their fmell being the principal me^ns which they
have of difcovering their food, we may frequently ob¬
ferve their allowing themfelves to be carried down with
the ftream, that they may afcend again leifurely againft
the current of the water-, thus the odoriferous par¬
ticles fwimming in that medium, being applied more
forcibly to their fmelling organs, produce a itronger fen¬
fation.
The optic nerves in thefe animals are not confounded
with one another in their middle progrefs betwixt their
origin and the orbit, but the one paffes over the other
without any communication; fo that the nerve that
comes from the left fide of the brain goes diftin&ly to
the right eye, and vice verfa.
Indeed it would feem not to be neceflary for the op¬
tic nerves of fifties to have the fame kind of connec¬
tion with each other as thofe of man have : for theii
eyes are not placed in the fore part, but in the fides of
their heads ; and of confequence, they cannot fo con¬
veniently look at any objeft with both, eyes at the fame
time. . , r 1 j
The cryJlaUine lens is here a complete fphere, and
more denfe than in terreftrial animals, that, the rays
of light coming from water might be fufficiently re¬
fracted. .... 1
As fifhes are continually expofed to injuries in the
uncertain element in which they live, and as they are
in perpetual danger of becoming a prey to the larger
ones, it was nccciXary that their eyes fhould never be
ftiut ; and as the cornea is fufficiently wafhed by the
element they live in, they are not provided with pal-
pebra; : but then, as in the current itfelf the eye muft
be expoled to feveral injuries, there was a neceflky it
ffiould b*e Sufficiently defended ; which in effeft it is by
a firm pellucid membrane, that feems to be a continua¬
tion of the cuticula, being ftretched over here. The
epidermis is fo very proper for this purpofe, as being
infenfible and deftitute of veflels, and confequently not
liable to obftruCtions, or, by that means, of becoming
opaque. In the eye of the Ikate tribe, there is a dx-
gited curtain which hangs over the pupil, and may
ftmt out the light when the animal refts, and it is firm- of Fillies,
lar to the tunica adnata of other animals. v “ J
Although it was formerly much doubted whether ^ *9^ ^
fifties poffeffed a fenfe of hearing,, yet there can behejgng.°
little doubt of it now ; fince it is found that they
have a complete organ of hearing as well as other ani¬
mals, and likewife as the water in which they live is
proved to be a good medium. Fifties, particulaily
thofe of the ikate kind, have a bag at fome diftance
behind the eyes, which contains a fluid and a foft cre¬
taceous fubftance, and fupplies the place of veliibule
and cochlea. There is a nerve diftributed upon it,
fimilar to the portio mollis in man. They have three
femicircular canals, which are filled with a tiuio, and
communicate with the bag : they have likewiie, as
the prefent profeffor of anatomy at Edinburgh has
difcovered, a meatus externus, which leads to the in¬
ternal ear. The cod fifti, and others of the fame
fliape, have an organ of hearing fomewhat fimilar to
the former : but inftead of a foft fubftance contained
in the bag, there is a hard cretaceous ftone. In this
kind of fifti no meatus externus has been yet obfer-
ved : And Dr Monro is inclined to think that they
really have not one, from the cbnfideration that, the
common canal or veftibule, where the three femicircu¬
lar canals communicate, is feparated from the cavity
of the cranium by a thin membrane only ; tnat tois ca¬
vity, in the greater number of fifties, contains a watery
liquor in confiderable quantity ; and that, by the
thinnefs of the cranium, the tremor excited by a fo-
norous body may readily and eafily be. tranimitted
through the cranium to the water within it, and fo to
tlic £2ir*
The belly is covered on the inferior part with a black-
coloured thin membrane refembling our peritoneum. It
is divided from the cheft by a thin membranous parti¬
tion, which has no mufcular appearance ; fo that we have
now feen two different forts of animals that have no muf¬
cular diaphragm. _ 293
Thefe creatures are not provided with teet/i proper Teeth, for
for breaking their aliment into fmall morfels, as the Mia
food they ufe is generally fmall fifties, or other animals
that need no trituration in the mouth, but fpontaneouf-
ly and gradually diffolve into a liquid chyle. Their
teeth ferve to grafp their prey, and hinder the creatures
they have once catched from efcaping again. For the
fame purpofe, the internal cartilaginous bails of the
bronchi, and the two round bodies fituated in the po-
fterior part of the jaws, have a great number of tenter¬
hooks fixed into them, in fuch. a manner as that any
thing can eafily get down, but is hindered from getting
back. The water that is neceffarily taken in along
with their food in too great quantities to. be received
into their jaws in deglutition, paffes betwixt the inter-
ftices of the bronchi and the flap that covers them.
The compreffion of the water on the bronchi is of con¬
fiderable ufe to the creature, as we ftiall explain by and
by. . n a 294
The gui/et in thefe creatures is very ihort, and Digeftion
fcarcely djftinguiftied from their ftomach, feeing their performed
food lies aim oft equally in both. The ftomach is
an oblong figure. There are commonly found fmall
fifties in the ftomach of large ones ftill retaining their
natural form but when touched, they melt down
inte
295
Inteltina.
297
Pancreas.
198
Liver, gall
bladder,
and their
duds.
Cliap. VII. ANA
Of Fifties, into a jelly. From this, and the great quantity of li-
-v—•— quors poured into their ftomachs, we may conclude,
that digeftion is folely brought about in them by the
diffolving power of a menftruum, and that no tritura¬
tion happens there.
The guts in thefe animals are very fhort, making on¬
ly three turns j the lalt of which ends in the common
cloaca for the feces, urine, and femen, lituated about
the middle of the inferior part of their bodies.
To what we call pancreas, lome give the name of
intejlinula cceca : it conhlls of a very great number of
fmall threads, like fo many little worm-, which all ter¬
minate at latt in two large canals that open into the
firft gut, and pour into it a vifcous liquor much about
the place where the biliary dudls enter. That kind of
pancreas formed of inteftinula caeca is peculiar to a cer¬
tain kind of fifhes ; for the cartilaginous, broad, and
flat kind, as the fkate, foie, flounder, &c. have a pan¬
creas refembling that of the former clafs of animals.
Thedr inteftines are connedted to the back-bone by a
membrane, analogous to a mefentery.
The /iver is very large, of a whitilh colour, and lies
almofl: in the left fide wholly, and contains a great deal
of fat or oil.
The gall-bladder is fituated a confiderable way from
their liver; and fends out a canal, the cyflic dudt,
which joins with the hepatic dudl juft at the entry in¬
to the gut. Some fibres being obferved ftretched from
the liver to the gall-bladder, but without any apparent
cavity, the bile was fuppofed not to be earned into
the gall-bladder in the ufual way, but that it muft ei¬
ther be fecerned on ihe fides of ihe lac, or regurgitate
into it from the canalis choledochus. It is certain,
however, that hepato-cyftic dudls exift in filh as well
as in fowls. This, for example, is very obvious in the
falmon, where large and diftindt dudts run from the bi¬
liary dudts of the liver, and open into the gall blad¬
der.
Spleen, its The fpleen is placed near the back-bone, and at a
life drawn place where it is fubjedted to an alternate preffure from
rom ana- Conftridtion and dilatation of the air ba£, which is
l0ay, , #
fituated in the neighbourhood. Since, in all the dif¬
ferent animals we have dhTedted, we find the fpleen
attached to fomewhat that may give it a conquaffaiion ;
as in the human fubjodt and quadrupeds, it is contigu¬
ous to the diaphragm ; in fowls, it is placed betwixt
the back-bone, the liver, and ftomach ; in fifties, it
lies on the fuccus aerius ; and fince we find it fo well
ferved with blood-veiTtls, and all its blood returning
into the liver, we muft not conclude the fpleen to be an
inutilepondus, only to ferve as a balance to the animal
pro (equilibria, but particularly defigned for preparing
the blood to the liver.
300 The heart is of a triangular form, with its bafe
downwards, and apex uppermoft ; which fituation
luricle and '*■ 'ias becaufe of the branchiae. It has but one auricle
>ne ventri- and one ventricle, becaufe they want lungs; and one
great artery. The fize of . the auricle and that of the
ventricle are much the fame ; the artery fends out
numberlefs branches to the branchiae or gills. And
what is rather curious, this artery, infiead of fupport-
ing all parts as in the frog, is diftributed entirely up¬
on the gills; every branch terminating there, and be¬
coming fo extremely fmall as at laft to efcape the na¬
ked eye.
299
T O M Y.
309
Thefe creatures have a membranous diaphragm, of Fifties
whieli forms a fae in which the heart is contained. v - *■
It is very tenfe, and almoli perpendicular to the verte- 301
brae. Diaphragm.
The branchiae lie in two large flits at each fide °f | ]lsf^an
their heads, and feem to be all they have that bears chlte their
any analogy to lungs. Their form is femichcular: ftrucfture
they have a vaft number of red fibrillas Handing out and ufe.
on each fide of them like a fringe, and very much re-
femble the vane of a feather. Thefe branchice are per¬
petually fubjedted to an alternate motion and preflure
from the water; and we may here remark, that we
have not found any red blood but in places fubjedted
to this alternate preflure. This obfervation will help
us in explaining the adtion of the lungs upon the
blood. Over thefe gills there is a large flap, allow¬
ing a communication externally ; by which the water
they are obliged to take into their mouths with their
food finds an exit without palling into their ftomach ;
it is owing to thefe flaps coming lo far down that the
heart is faid commonly to be fituated in their heads.
The blood is colledled again from the gills by a vaft
number of fmall veins, fomewhat in the fame manner
as our pulmonary vein ; but inftead of going back to
the heart a fecond time, they immediately unite, and
form an aorta defeendens, without the intervention of
an auricle and ventricle. Hence a young anatomift
may be puzzled to find out the power by which the
blood is propelled from the gills to the duTerent parts
ot the body ; but the difficulty will be confiderably
leffened when we confider the manner' in which the
blood is carried through the liver from the inteftines
in man and quadrupeds. The aorta in fillies fends off
branches which fupply all the parts of the body ex¬
cepting the gills. From the extremity of thofe branch¬
es the blood returns to the heart fomewhat in the fame
manner as in the former clafs of animals ; only there
are two inferior venae cavae, whereas the former has
but one.
Abfoi'bent Syjlem in Tijbes. We ffiall take the had¬
dock as a general example ; for the other fillies, parti¬
cularly thofe of the fame thape, will be found in gene¬
ral to agree with it.
On the middle of the belly of a haddock, immedi-Lymphatie-
ately below the outer Ikin, a lymphatic veffel runs up-veffels..
wards from the anus, and receives branches from the
parietes of the belly, and from the fin below the anus ;
near the head this lymphatic paffes between the two
pedloral fins ; and having got above them, it receives
their lymphatics. It then goes under the fymphyfis of
the two bones which form the thorax, where it opens
into a net work of very large lymphatics, which lie
clofe to the pericardium, and almoft entirely furrounds
the heart. This net-work, besides that part of it be¬
hind the heart, has a large lymphatic on each fide,
which receives lymphatics from the kidney, runs upon
the bone of the thorax backwards ; and when it has
got as far as the middle of that bone, it fends off a
large branch from its infide to join the thoracic dueff.
After detaching this branch, it is joined by the lym¬
phatics of the thoracic fins, and foon after by a lym¬
phatic which runs upon the fide of the fifli. It is form¬
ed of branches, which give it a beautiful penniform ap¬
pearance.
Befides thefe branches, there is another fet deeper
whiek
310
A N A T
304
't^ie lac-
teals.
Of Fifties, vvlilch accompanies the ribs. After the large lympha¬
tic has been joined by the above-mentioned veffels, it
receives lymphatics from the gills* orbit, nofe, and
mouth. A little below the orbit, another net-work
appears, confifting in part of the reffels above defcrib-
ed, and of the thoracic du&. This net-work is very
complete, fome of its veffels lie on each fide of the
mufcles of the gills 5 and from its internal part a trunk
is fent out, which terminates in the jugular vein..
The lafteals run on each fide of the mefenteric ar¬
teries, anaftomofing frequently acrofs thefe veffels.
The receptaculum into which they enter is very large,
in proportion to them j and confifts at its lower part
of two branches, of which one lies between the duo¬
denum and ftomach, and runs a little way upon the
pancreas, receiving the lymphatics of the liver, pan¬
creas, thofe of the lower part of the ftomach, and. the
lafleals from the greateft part of the fmall inteftines.
The other branch of the receptaculum receives the
lymphatics from the reft of the alimentary canal. 1 he
receptaculum formed by thefe two branches lies on the
right fide of the upper part of the ftomach, and is
joined by fome lymphatics in that part, and alfo by
fome from the found and gall-bladder, which in this
filh adheres to the receptaculum. I his thoracic duct
takes its rife from the rcceptaculum, and lies on the
right fide of the cefophagus, receiving lymphatics, from
that part} and running up about half an inch, it di¬
vides into two dudts, one of which paffes over the oefo-
phagus to the left fide, and the other goes ftraight
upon the right fide, pailes by the upper part of the
kidney, from which it receives fome fmall branches,
and foon afterwards is joined by a branch from the
large lymphatic that lies above the bone of the tho¬
rax, as formerly mentioned: near this part it likewife
fends off a branch to join the dudt of the oppofite fide;
and then, a little higher, is joined by thofe large lym¬
phatics from the upper part of the gilk, and from the
fauces.
The thoracic du£t, after being joined by thefe vef¬
fels, communicates with the net-work near the orbit,
where its lymph is mixed with that of the lymphatics
from the pofterior part of the gills, and from the fu-
jierior fins, belly, &c. and then from this net-work a
veffel goes into the jugular vein juft below the orbit.
This laft veffel, which may be called the termination
of the whole fyftem, is very fmall in proportion to the
net-work from which it rifes j and indeed the lympha¬
tics of the part are fo large, as to exceed by far the fize
of the fanguiferous veffels.
The thoracic du£t from the left fide, having paffed
under the gullet from the right, runs on the infide of
the vena cava of the left fide, receives a branch from
its fellow of the oppofite fide, and joins the large lym¬
phatics which lie on the left fide of the pericardium,
and a part of thofe which lie behind the heart; and
afterwards makes, together with the lymphatics from
the gills, upper fins, and fide of the filh, a net-work,
from which a veffel paffes into the jugular vein of this
fide. In a word, the lymphatics of the left fide agree
exaftly with thofe of the right fide above defcribed.
Another part of the fyftem is deeper feated, lying be¬
tween the roots of the fpinal proceffes of the back¬
bone. This part confifts of a large trunk that begins
from the lower part of the fifh, and as it afcends re-
O M Y.
Part II.
ceives branches from the dorfal fins and adjacent parts OfFithes.
of the body. It goes up near the head, and fends a * *
branch to each thoracic du£t near its origin. ^05
The only organs of generation in this animal are two Organs of
bags fituated in the abdomen uniting near the podex. generation.
Thefe in the male are filled with a whitifti firm fub-
ftance called the milt, and in the female with an infi¬
nite number of little ova cluftered together, of a red-
dilh yellow colour, called the roe. Both thefe at
fpawning time we find very much diftended j whereas
at another time the male organs can fcarcely be diftin-
guilhed from the female ; nor is there any proper in-
ftrument in the male for throwing the feed into the or¬
gans of the female, as in other creatures. We ftiall not
take upon us to determine the way whereby the fe¬
male fperm is impregnated : but we find that the
fpawn of frogs confifts in the fmall fpecks wrapped up
in a whitifh glutinous liquor : tnefe ipecks are the ru¬
diments of the young frogs, which are nourifhed in
that liquor till they are able to go in fearch of their
food. In the fame way, the ova of fifties are thrown
out and depofited in the fand, the male being for the
moft part ready to impregnate them, and they are in¬
cubated by the heat of the fun. It is curious enough
to remark with what care they feek for a proper place
to depofite their ova, by fwimming to the (hallow,
where they can better enjoy the fun’s rays, and (hun
the large jaws of other fifties. The river-fifties, again,
fpawn in fome creek free from the hazard of the impe¬
tuous ftream. But whether this mixture be brought
about in fifties by a fimple application of the genitaB
to each other, or if both of them throw out their li¬
quors at the fame time in one place, and thus bring
about the defired mixture, it is not eafy to determine.
Spallanzani has found, that the eggs of frogs,-toads,
and water newts, are not fecundated in the body of the
female 5 that the male emits his femen upon the fpawn
while it is flowing from the female *, and that the foe¬
tus pre-exifts in the body of the female : but whether
impregnation takes place in the fame manner in fifties,
he has not yet been able to determine, though he feems
to think it probable. Thefe creatures are fo (hy, tnat
we cannot eafily get to obferve their way of copula¬
tion, and are -confequently but little acquainted with
their natural hiftory. Frogs, it is very evident, do
not copulate : at lead no farther than to allow both
fexes an opportunity of throwing their fperm. . Early
in the fpring the male is found for fome days in clofe
contact upon the back of the female, with his lore legs
round her body in fuch a manner that makes it very
difficult to feparate them, but there is no communica¬
tion. At this time the female lays her fpawn in fom.e
place that is moft fecure, while the male emits his
fperm upon the female fpawn. . 306
After railing up the black peritoneum in fifties, there The air-
comes in view an oblong white membranous bag, in ^
which there is nothing contained but a quantity of
elaftic air. This is the fwimming-bladder: it lies clofe
to the back-bone ; and has a pretty ftrong mufcular
coat, "whereby it can contract itfelf. By contra&ing
this bag, and condenfing the air within it, they can
make their bodies fpecifically heavier than water, and
fo readily fall to the bottom ; whereas the mufcular
fibres ceafing to a£t, the air is again dilated, and they
become fpecifically lighter than water, and fo fwim
above.
Chap. VIII. ANA
iOf Molluf- above. According to the different degrees of contrac-
ca. tion and dilatation of this bladder, they can keep high-
V—’Y-—er or lower in the water at pleafure. Hence flounders,
foies, raia or flcate, and fuch other fifties as want this
fac, are found always grovelling at the bottom of the
water: it is owing to this that dead fifties (unlefs this
membrane has been previoufly broken) are found fwim-
ming a-top, the mufcular fibres then ceafing to a£t,
and that with their bellies uppermofi: j for the back¬
bone cannot yield, and the diftended fac is protruded
into the abdomen, and the back is confequently hea-
vieit at its upper part, according to their pofture.
There is here placed a glandular fubftance, containing
a good quantity of red blood j and it is very probable
^ that the air contained in the fwimming-bladder is de-
Its procef- rived from this fubftance. From the anterior part of
fes, or com-the hag go out two proceffes or appendices, which, ac-
wit'h the°n corc^nS to the gentlemen of the French academy, ter-
ventriculus. minate in their fauces ; in a variety of other fifties we
T o M Y. 3*i
find communications with fome part of the alimentary of Molluf-
canal, particularly the oefophagus and ftomach. The ca.
falmon has an opening from the fore end of the air-bag
into the oefophagus, which is furrounded by a kind of
mufcular fibres. The herring has a funnel-like paffage
leading from the bottom of the ftomach into the air¬
bag ; but it is not determined whether the air enters
the air-bag by this opening, or comes out by it: the
latter, however, feems to be the more probable opi¬
nion, as the glandular body is found in all fifties,
whereas there are feveral without this paffage of com¬
munication. 305
At the fuperior part of this bag there are other red- Ureters,
coloured bodies of a glandular nature, which are con- V€flca.
nefted with the kidneys. From them the ureters go Ur'cth^-
down to their infertion in the vejica urinaria, whichv
lies in the lower part of the abdomen ; and the ure¬
thra is there produced, which terminates in the po-
dex»
CHAP. VIII.
IN thefe animals the mufcles or fleftiy fibres are
white, and poffeffed of great irritability : they retain
the power of motion even after being cut into fmall
pieces; and many parts of their body are capable of be¬
ing reproduced after being feparated. Their external
furface is always moift, as there commonly exudes
from it a vifcous fluid. It is extremely fenfible, and
is furniftied with organs called tentacula, which are ca¬
pable of being lengthened out or contracted, fo as to
enable the animal to feel the better. It is uncertain
whether or not thefe animals poffefs the fenfation of
fmell, but if they do, the organ of this fenfe is pro¬
bably fituated at the entrance of their pulmonary vef-
fels. Many of them have eyes, and fome appear to be
poffeffed of ears.
Their body is ufually provided with, or at leaft part¬
ly enveloped by, a membraneous covering. In many
this covering is more or lefs cruftaceous, produced
from a calcareous juice exuding from the furface of the
animal, and forming a ftiell compofed of one or more
pieces or valves. The body of the animal is attached
to this {hell by mufcles, which enabl/' it to retire with¬
in the valves, or to fliut thefe together. Thefe mufcles
change their place, feparating from one part, and grow¬
ing to another, fo as always to preferve the fame rela¬
tive pofition, notwithftanding the unequal growth of the
fhell. Moft of thefe animals are inhabitants of the fea :
fome of them refide in frefti water; and fome of them
refide entirely on land.
The mollufca may be divided into three orders.
I. The cephalopoda, fo called becaufe their feet, or at
leaft the organs with which they feize their prey, are
fituated in the head. Their body is in the form of a
fack, which, when the external covering is removed,
exhibits the appearance of a compaCt network of flelhy
fibres in three diftinCt layers. Of thefe the outermoft
are placed length wife, the middle in a crofs direction,
and the innermoft in no regular order. By the various
aCtions of thefe fibres the fack of the animal is length¬
ened, contracted, bent, or twifted in various directions.
OF MOLLUSCA.
Thefe animals are furnifhed below the {kin of the
back with a folid body, which is for the moft part ex¬
ceedingly elaftic and tranfparent, and is foraetimes fur¬
rowed longitudinally. In all the fpecies of fepia or
cuttle-filh, except the S. o&opus, which wants it, this
body is a fort of bone, formed of thin concentric plates,
feparated by fmall columns, arranged fo as to form a
quincunx. It is oval and lenticular, or thickeft in the
middle.
The feet in this order are eight in number, and form
a circle round the mouth ; they end in fuckers, by
which the animal fixes itfelf to any fubftance, and are
furniftied with numerous mufcles, by which they are
moved in every direction, The other fpecies of fepia
(except the oElopus and the calmar), have, befides
thefe eight feet, two others which are longer and
fm after.
They have three hearts; their refpiration is carried
on in the water by means of branchiae; they have very
large eyes, and organs of hearing fituated within the
head; their ftomach is very fleftiy, fo as to referable
the gizzard of a fowl, and they have a very large liver.
They are alfo furniftied with a peculiar gland for the
purpofe of fecreting an inky fluid, which, when they
wifh to conceal themfelves, they throw out, and thus
obfcure the water round them.
2. The gajleropoda, which have upon the belly a
mufcular plane, by the contraction of which they
creep upon the belly, as may be obferved in the fnail;
and hence their name. They have no heart; their
branch!® are fituated fometimes within the body,
fometimes they furround the body, and are often on
the back : they are naked in the firft cafe, and in the
others are covered with a kind of lid, and are of va¬
rious forms. The common trunk of the blood-veffels
is fubdivided for the purpofe of diftributing to the
branch!® the blood which has circulated through the
body. The moft of this order are hermaphrodite, but
require reciprocal copulation. There is almoft always
fituated near the matrix a bag, containing a fluid,
which
312
Of ('rufta-
cea, See.
ANATOMY. Part II.
which is generally thought to be the fubflanee em¬
ployed by the ancients in the dyeing of purple ; the
ufe of this fluid in thefe animals is unknown. The in-
teftines .confift of a flomach more or lefs flelhy, and an
alimentary canal ; they have a very large liver, and a
confiderable number of them are provided with brain
and nerves.
3. The acephala, fo called becaufe they have no
heads. Thefe animals are commonly contained within
two (hells, and have their body entirely enveloped in
a membranaceous covering, which opens either in one
part or two ; and to this covering, efpecially at that
part where the water enters, are attached the tentacu-
la, the only external organ of fenfation which the ani¬
mals of this order appear to pofiefs. Their organs of of Crufta.
refpiration are compofed of large vafcular laminae, ii- ct-a. Sec.
tuated at the two fldes, immediately beneath the co- l_f
vering ; their heart is placed towards the back. The
ftomach and great part of the inteftinal canal pafles
through the liver. Their mouth, which opens imme¬
diately into the ftomach, is placed between the bran-
chise, at the orifice oppofite to that by which the wa¬
ter enters, and round it are placed four triangular bo¬
dies which appear to be tentacula. The brain, w here
it is prefent, is placed between the branchiae and the
inteftinal canal. They appear to be all hermaphro¬
dites, and do not require copulation.
CHAP. IX. OF THE CRUSTACEA.
THE animals which compofe this order have com¬
monly been ranked among the inle'dls ; but we have
thought it better to feparate them, a« they are poflef-
fed of character by which they are fufficiently diftin-
guiftred. They have the body enveloped in a fort
of armour compofed of feveral pieces or feales, and
are ufually provided with a great number of jointed
limbs.
The head in thefe animals is immoveable, their prin¬
cipal motions being confined to the tail and feet. The
tail forms a confiderable portion of the animal, and is
furniftied with very large and ftrong mufcles, by the
a£tion of which the animal is enabled to leap and fwim
with great celerity.
Their feet are of different forms in the feveral fpecies,
and alfo vary in number, and in fome fpecies anfwer
feveral very different purpofes. What in thefe animals
is analogous to the brain, is a long knotted nervous
cord, from the knots of which the nerves are diftri-
buted to the body. Their eyes are hard and complex,
and are ufually placed on a fort of footftalks, which
enable them to move with great facility in all direc¬
tions. They are furniftied with feelers and antennae,
as we (hall fee in infefts. Their organs of hearing
are very imperfeft. They have a heart, and both an
arterial and a venous fyftem of blood-veflels. They
breathe by means of branchiae. Their jaws are gene¬
rally numerous, very ftrong, and fituated in a tranf-
verfe direction. They are of diftinft fexes, and the
male has two penes.
CHAP. X. OF INSECTS.
AS under Entomology, now become a ftudy fo
faftiionable, and which has been carried to a high de¬
gree of perfe£tion, w'e propofe to give a particular
account of the ftrudture and economy of infedls,
we (hall at prefent only offer a (hort (ketch of their
anatomy.
Infedts differ from the former claffes, by their bodies
being covered with a hard cruft or fcale, by their having
feelers or antennae arifing from their head, and many of
them breathing the air through lateral pores. As to the
drape of their bodies, though it fomewhat differs from
that of birds, being in general not fo (harp before to
cut and make way through the air, yet it is well adapt¬
ed to their manner of life. The bafe of their bodies
is not formed of bones, as in many other animals, but
the hard external covering ferves them for (kin and
bone at the fame time. Their feelers, befide the ufe
of cleaning their eyes, are a guard to them in their
walk or flight. Their legs and wings are well fitted
for their internal furface *, but the latter vary fo much
in different infedts, that from them naturalifts have
given names to the feveral orders of the clafs. As,
rfirft,the
Coleoptera, or beetle tribe, which have a cruftaceous
4
elytra or (hell, that (huts together, and forms a longi¬
tudinal future down their back.
Hccmiptera—as in cimex, cockroach, bug, &c. which
have the upper wings half cruftaceous and half mem¬
branaceous ; not divided by a longitudinal future, but
incumbent on each other.
Lepidoptera—as the butterfly, have four wings, co¬
vered with fine feales in the (orm of powder.
Neuroptera—ns the dragon-fly, fpring-fly, &c. have
four membranaceous tranfparent naked wings, generally
reticulated.
Hi/menoptera—zs wafps, bees, &c. have four mem¬
branaceous wings, and a tail furniftied with a (ting.
Diptera—as the common houfe-fly, have only two
wings.
siptera—zs the fcorpion, fpider, &:c. have no
wings.
The ftrudlure of the eye in many infedls is a moft
curious piece 9! mechanifm. The outer part is re¬
markably hard, to guard againft injuries*, and has com¬
monly a reticular appearance, or the whole may be
looked upon as an affemblage of fmaller eyes j but
whether they fee objtdts multiplied before them, has
not yet been determined.
Linnaeus,
hap. XT. A
Worms, Linnaeus, and fevei'al others following him, deny
8cc. the exigence of a brain in thefe creatures.
Their ear has been lately difcovered to be placed at
the root of their antennae or feelers, and can be diitindl-
ly feen in fome of the larger kinds.
They have a ftomach, and other organs of digeftion.
They have a heart and blood veffels, and circulation
is carried on in them fomewhat as in the former clafs ;
but the blood is without red globules ; or, as naturalifts
fpeak, is colourlefs. In fome of the larger kind, when a
piece of the fhell is broken, the pulfation of the heart is
feen diftimSly, and that fometimesfor feveral hours after
it has been laid bare.
Lungs. 1 he exiftence of thefe by fome has been
denied. But late experiments and obfervations Ihow
that no fpecies want them, or at lead fomething fimi-
lar to them j and in many infe&s, they are larger in
proportion than in other animals: in mod of them
they lie on or near the furface of their body ; and fend
out lateral pores or tracheae, by which, if the animal
is befmeared with oil, it is indantly fuffocated.
Generation. The fame difference in fex exids in in¬
fers as in other animals, *and they even appear more
difpofed to increafe their fpecies j many of them, when
become perfedt, feeming to be created for no other
purpofe but to propagate their like. Thus the filk-
worm, when it arrives at its perfedf or moth date, is
incapable of eating, and can hardly fly j it endeavours
only to propagate its fpecies: after which the male
immediately dies, and fo does the female as foon as die
has depofited her eggs.
CHAP, XI.
THE worms form a clafs in the fydem of Linne,
comprehending the mollufca, and the next affemblage
of which we are to fpeak, viz. the Zoophytes, befides the
worms properly fo called.
We have feen that infedls in one part of their exid-
ence appear in the date of larVse, or organized beings
refembling the common caterpillar or larva of the
butterfly. In fome of thefe the organs of motion are
very perfedl, and they are furnidied with regular arti¬
culated members, provided with folid parts. From
thefe there is a gradation to the worms, which have
no feet, but move forwards either by means of bridles
or hairs fixed in the furface of their bodies, as in the
common earth-w7orm and the lumbricus of the intef-
3M
Befides thofe of the male and female, a third fex of Woims
exids in fome infedls, which we call neuter. As thefe &c.
have not the didinguifhing parts of either fex, they ' ""
may be confidered as eunuchs or infertile. We know
of no indance of this kind in any other clafs of ani¬
mals j and it is only found among thofe infedts
which form themfelves into focieties, as bees, wafps,
and ants: and here thefe eunuchs are real Haves, as
on them lies the whole bufmels of the economy. No
hermaphrodites have as yet been difcovered among in¬
fedls.
Many have imagined that the generality of infedls
were merely the produdtion of putrefadlion, becaufe
they have been obferved to^arife from putrified fub-
dances ; but a contrary opinion is now more generally
adopted j and it is pretty certain, that if putrid bo¬
dies be fhut up in a clofe veffel, no infedls are ever ge¬
nerated unlefs their ova have been originally depofited
there. They are oviparous animals, and lay their eggs
in places mod convenient for the nourifhment of their
young j fome in water, others in fledi ; fome in fruit
and leaves ; while others make neds in the earth or in
wood, and fometimes even in the harded done. The
eggs of all infedls fird become {larva') caterpillar, or
maggot ; from which they are changed into (pupa)
chryfalis or aurelia, fo named from their being inclofed
in a cafe j and thefe dying, or feeming to die, the
{imago) fly, or butterfly, or perfedl date, fucceeds ; and
during each of thefe changes their appearance differs
wonderfully.
OF WORMS.
tines, or they are provided at each extremity with a
circular fucker, as in the leech, by which they faden
one end of their body to the furface on which they
are to move, and proceed forward by the contrac¬
tions of the mufcular rings of which their body is
chiefly compofed. Within their body is found a
white nervous cord. Thofe which inhabit the water
carry on refpiration by means of membranaceous bran¬
chiae) in others there are pores or digmata, analo¬
gous to the tracheae of infedls ) fome of them are fur¬
nidied with feelers. Of the mod important of this
clafs, the worms which inhabit the intedines of other
animals, we propofe to give a particular account in a
future article.
N A T O M Y.
CHAP. XII. OF THE ZOOPHYTES.
1HE zoophytes form the lowed -olafs of animated
nature ; and many of them bear fo clofe a refemblance
to plants and minerals, that they would feem to be-
ong rather to thefe kingdoms than to that in which
modern naturalifls have agreed to arrange them. The
mo ufca poffefs organs of digedion, fenfation, circula-
ion, and refpiration, and are furnidied with vifcera
not very unlike thofe of the vertebral animals. In-
^OL. II. Part I.
fedls form the next degree, which have no didinA
circulation, and very imperfedl refpiratory organs )
but in them we fee fomething like a brain, and well-
marked organs of fenlation. We obferve the fame in
many worms, in mod of which they probably exid.
But in the zoophytes there is no appearance of circu¬
lation j there are no nerves, and no fenforium or com¬
mon centre of fenfation ) there is but little appearance
Rr of
3!4
ANATOMY.
Part 111
Of of refpiration, and often fcarcely any thing which may
Zoophytes, be termed an organ of digeftion. E,very point of their
' body feems independently to attrafl nourilhment, and
independently to poflefs the faculty of fenfation *, hence
the extreme degree of irritability, the great power of
vitality and of reprodudlion, which we find in thefe
animals. For propagation, they need only be cut in
pieces, and do not require a difference of fex or organs
of generation to preferve the fpecies : They may be di¬
vided into two orders j the firft of which, as bearing
a refemblance to both animals and plants, may be pro- Of
perly called zoophytes ; and the laft, as refemblingboth Zoophyt
plants and ftones, may be called hthophytes. See Li- 'r“
THOPHYTES and Zoophytes. We have in this com¬
parative view of organized beings, purpofely avoided
giving any defeription of the anatomy of plants. I his
would form a neceflary part of a complete fyftem or
comparative anatomy : but does not properly fall to be
conlidered in a Iketch of this kind. It will be fully
detailed in its proper place. See Botany.
ABDOMEN, N° 80
ufe of the veficles
in,
272
Air-bladder in fifties, 3°5
Allantois in cows, # 244
arguments for and again!! the
human, 245
Amnios in cows, 24^
Shnygdalsy 1 °1
Anatomy, Comparative, *45
many advantages from the
ftudy of, _ J4^
helps to explain ancient wri¬
ters, *47
dive.rfities of organization
in, confidered, 14^
u4ngiology, m 1
Animal motion, the fim[<lt !l function
of, . 149
differences in the fenfitive or¬
gans of an, ti1
Aorta afeendens in dogs, . 2°4
afeendens and defeendens in a
cowr, 23^
Appendix vermiformis, 193
Arm, bones of the, 5^
right, mechanical account of the
fuperior ftrength of, 205
Afiragalus, ^5
B
Beaks, the variety in thofe of fowls, 255
Bile, 98
Birds, anatomy of, 246
wings, how furnifhed, 247
wings of, why not placed in the
middle of the body, 248
covering of, 250
carnivorous, 262
Bladder, in dogs, 2I4
connexion of the, 215
why the human only partly
covered by the peritone¬
um, 2I^
a ftimulus a principal caufe
of the evacuation of the, 217
in cows, 237
INDEX.
Blood, circulation of,
nature of,
veffels of, in tortoifes,
Bone, occipital,
Bones, compofition of,
connexion of,
marrow,
parietal,
temporal,
Bourfe noire in birds,
Brain,
integuments of,
parts of,
Branc/iue,
Breajls,
Burfce mucofee.
N° 128
129
282
14
1
2
5
J3
15
253
132
k 133
i37
3°4
115
8
Cuticula,
Cutis,
N'
Deglutition,
Dejedhon,
Diaphragm,
D
17
II
18
26
23
3°
Digejlion, I;5
organs of, furnifti us with
in dogs,
in birds,
in fifties,
*13
ftru&ure of, compared
with the capfular li-
gamentsof the joints, 9
C
Capfulce atrabilaria, 212
Carpus, 54
Cartilages, 3
Cellular membraner °3
Cerebrum, 13 5
Cerebellum, x3^
in fifties, 208
Chejl, ' 1I4
Chorion in cows, _ _ 242,
Circulation, important diftinftions in
the organs of, 154
Clavicula, 4^
Coitus, 224
Colon, 194
Conception, 1I2V
Cor in birds, 270
Cornua uteri in cows, 240
Cotyledones in cows, _ 243
Cow, hiftory of, as a ruminant ani¬
mal, 228
has four ftomachs, 229
names of the ftomachs, 230
Cranium, bones of, 11
Crop in birds, 1 25^
Cruftacea, P* 312
Crystalline humour in fifties a com¬
plete fphere, 291
1;
2)3
two great diftin£lions, I
aftion of the organs of,
forms the chyle,
power of the organs of, I
in fifties performed wholly
by a menftruum, 2
Dog, anatomy of, 1
brain of,
DuElus choledochus in birds,
Duodenum,
in a cow,
in birds,
E
Ear, . ^
Epidermis, how it invefts the internal
furface of all the cavities
and veffels of the human
body,
Epiglottis, 1J
Eye in birds, W
Extremities,
upper,
lower,
F
Face, bones of the, 1^
Foetus in utero, iP
Fat,
Fibula, ' B
Fingers,
Fijhes, anatomy of,
cuticula fimilar to the human,
ufes of the fins, tail, air-bags
&c. of,
teeth of, $
heart of, has but one auricle
and one ventricle,
M
Index.
Foot, N® 63
Fore-arm, bones of, 50
Fow/s, peculiar mechanifm in the toes
of, 249
Frog, 285
G
Gall-bladder, 97
Generation, differences in the organs
of, . 137
organs m the males of
birds,
organs in fifties,
Glands, fynovial,
’ . febaceous,
Glandules renales,
Glottis in dogs,
Gullet in dogs,
H
Hair,
Hand, bones of the,
! Hearing,
in birds,
in fifties,
1 Heart, and its auricles,
action of, and its auricles and
arteries,
in a dog,
in a cow,
i Hernia, or rupture, whenoe the falfe
notion of,
S Hunger,
I
Taws, 179
Jejunum, 191
Jngluvies in birds, 263
Infetts, p. 312
Jnteguments, common, and their ap-
277
3°4
6
77» I3I
100
183
186
82
53
J44
254
292
I25
127
202
235
219
106
pendages,
jntejlina tenuia,
in a cow,
tenuia in birds,
in fifties,
\ntejlines,
in dogs,
vKidneys, of the,
in dogs,
in birds,
K
N° 73
192
231
261, 265
296
93
189
101
209
276
^aBeals in tortoifes,
in fifties,
right, mechanical account of the
fuperior ftrength of,
Ligaments,
'aver,
in a dog,
in a cow,
in birds,
gall-bladder, and the dufts in
I filhes,
; dzard,
tmgs,
yjmphalic veflels,
fyftera in birds.
283
303
60
205
7
96
200
234
268
297
285
120
109
275
ANATOMY.
Lymphatics in fifties, N° 302
in tortoifes, 284
M s
Mammas, 227
Man, whether a biped or a quadruped, 162
Majlication, 107
Maxilla inferior, 26
Mediajlinum, 201
Medulla oblongata, 137
fpinalis, 138
Membrana niflitans, 174
Mefentery,
in dogs, 196
Metacarpus, 33
Metaturfus, 70
Mollufca, P-3 11
Mouth, form and pofition of the, N° 105
Mufcles, 85
Mufcuius fufpenforius, 173
N
Nails, g 1
Nates and te/les in dogs, 169
Neck, vertebrae ef the, 31
of a dog, 1-78
Nerves, , 139
Nofe of a dog, 172
Nutrition, 130
o
Oefophagus, 92
Omentum, 96
in dogs, 187
Optic nerve in fifties, 290
Organization and funftions, variations
which take place a-
. mong>
inftance of,
Organs, male, of generation,
female, of generation,
Os frontis,
fphenoides,
ethmoides,
hyoides,
facrutn,
coccyx,
ilium,
ifchium,
pubis,
humeri,
femoris,
calcis,
naviculare,
cuboides,
Ojja malarum,
muxillaria fuperior a,
naf,
unguis,
palati,
fpongiofa inferiora,
cuneiformia,
fefamoidea,
P
Pancreas,
afellii in dogs,
in birds,
in fifties,
J57
158
no
in
12
16
J7
28
34
35
40
41
42
49
58
66
67
68
J9
20
21
22
23
25
69
72
95
296
315
Panniculus carnofus, whence the mo¬
tion of, N°i64
Papilla, 210
Pelvis, bones of the, 39
in quadrupeds, 211
Penis, 223
Pericardium, j 24
Periojleum, 4
Peritoneeum, 89
Perfpiration, infenfible, and fweat, 78
difpute whether thefe
are one and the fame
or different excretions, 79
ufes of, 80
Pleura, n6
Procejfus mamillaris, 168
Prof at a, 223
Pulmones in birds, 271
Pupilla, 1:76
Quadrupeds, cuticula, cutis, and pan¬
niculus carnofus in, 163
why moft want clavicles, 163
falx of, 167
R
Radius, ^
Reflum in dogs, yr
Reptiles, 280
Refpiration, of, 121
organs of, difplay ftriking
varieties, 135
and motion, relation between, 139
Rete mucofurn, 7 3
mirabile galcni in dogs, 170
Ribs, 38
in dogs, 208
Rotula, ry
acapu/a,
Scrotum,
Secretions, of,
Senfation, differences between the or¬
gans of, and thofe of re¬
fpiration,
Senfes,
differences in the external,
Serpents, circulation in,
Shoulder,
Skeleton,
Skin,
Smelling,
in birds,
in fifties,
Spine,
Spleen,
in dogs,
in cows,
in birds,
in fifties,
Sternum,
in a dog,
Stomach,
in quadrupeds,
Swimming of filhes, how performed,
47
226
*3*
R r 2
160
140
151
285
45
10
73
M3
25*
289
30
99
199
233
267
298
37
207
96
188
287
Tape turn.
316
Tape turn,
Tarfus,
Tajle, the fenfe of,
Teeth,
in dogs,
Tejles,
Thirjl, of,
Thymus,
Tibia,
Toes,
Tongue,
Tortoife,
(hell and covering of the,
Touch, fenfe of,
Trachea,
Trunk, bones of the,
V
Vafa fpermatica.
N° 177
64
142
27
180
222
106
117
61
71
171
281
ib.
I4I
119
29
218
ANATOMY.
Veins, lafteal, N° ic8
Velum pendulum palati in dogs, 182
Vena cava, _ 203
Ventriculus fuccenturiatus, feu infun¬
dibulum, in birds, 257, 264
its communication with the
air-bladder, 306
Vertebne of the back, 3 2
lumbar, 33
Ve/tca fellis in birds, 2^9
Vejicult feminalce, how the want of
them is fupplied,
how fupplied in birds,
Vis infita,
nervea,
Vifion,
Vitellarium in birds,
Voice,
differences in the organs of,
Index,,
Vomer,
U
NG 24 am*
22T
280
86
87
144
278
121
I56
Vina,
Ureters,
in dogs,
in fifties,
Urinary bladder.
Urine,
Uterus \n dogs,
in cows,
if thicker in time of
tion,
in birds,
Uvula, the ufe of it in man,
w
Wind-pipe in bird?,
Worms,
51
10;
2i:
3c:
10:
10
22?
gefta-
23;
141
27 jl
i£:
27l
P- 31:
'Zoophytes,
P‘31
ANA
ANA
An attorn,
Anaxago¬
ras.
ANATTOM, in Geography, the moft foutherly
ifland of the New Hebrides, in the fouthern Pacific
^-oean. S. Lat. 20. 3. E. Long. 170. 4*
ANAXAGORAS, an eminent philofopher of an¬
tiquity, was born in the firft: year of the y^th Olym¬
piad, or 500 years before Chrift. In confequence of
the eminent talents of this philofopher he obtained the
appellation of Mind. Pythagoras reprefents philofophers
as mere fpedlators of the affairs of human life, and who,
negledling all other purfuits, devote their exertions to
the inveftigation of nature, and the fearch after w ifdom.
According to this definition of a philofopher, Anaxago¬
ras ftriftly merited the honourable appellation j for
though he was of a refpe&able defcent, and poffeffed of
a confiderable fortune, yet he relinquifhed both, fo that,
in the language of Cicero, he might “ give himfelf
wholly to the divine pleafures of learning and inquiry.1
The fons of wealth, and the lovers of money, will pro¬
bably unite in the ridicule caft upon hirn by the age in
which he lived, even “ that he philofophized very fool-
ilhly 5” but the mind of Anaxagoras difregarded their
fcorn, and perfevered in his plan ; and although the
reader may hefitate in giving applaufe to the man who
deprives fociety of the benefits of his focial talent, yet
the eager thirft of his mind after knowledge is entitled
to becoming credit.
Leaving his- lands to be cultivated and enjoyed by
his friends, Anaxagoras placed himfelf under the care
of Anaximenes the Milefian. About the age of
twenty he went to Athens and entered upon the ftudy
of philofophy, where he continued 30 years. Some
fuppofe that he was the firft difciple of the Ionian
fchool, founded by Thales a teacher of philofophy in
Athens. When Anaxagoras aflumed the chara&er
of a public teacher of philofophy, he quickly rofe to
high eminence, and produced many famous fcholars,
among whom were Euripides the tragedian, Pericles the
ftatefman, and the renowned Socrates. This philofo¬
pher contented himfelf with ferving the republic in his
own ftation, without interfering in any of the public Anaxago-
affairs of the ftate. Both by the principles of wifdom ^ ra?
which he infpired into the minds of the Athenian youth,
and alfo by his daily advice in the moft important affairs,
particularly in the cafe of Pericles, he was of lingular
fervice to his country. But neither the fnendlhip of the
famous Pericles, nor his own general difintereftednefs of
charadler, nor his immenfe ftores of learning, could
ward off the lhafts of perfecution. Cleo accufed him
of impiety, and the introdu&ion of new opinions con¬
cerning the gods, becaufe he taught that the fun was
a burning mafs of ftone, or an inanimate fiery fub-
ftance. By this opinion he was faid to rob the fun of
his divinity, becaufe in the popular opinion he was-
deemed Apollo, one of the greateft deities. But al¬
though Cleo made religion the avowed caufe of the
accufation of Anaxagoras, it is highly probable that
civil caufes chiefly operated towards his condemna¬
tion. It is, however, abundantly evident, that he did
not hefitate to expofe the vulgar fuperftftions on feveral
occafions; but the evidence is not lufficient which pre¬
tends to prove that he was condemned for teaching the
dodtrine of a fupreme intelligence, the creator of this
world. His judges condemned him to death 5 but
Pericles appearing in his defence, the fentence was
changed from that of death to baniftnnent and a pecu-.
niary fine. ,
It is reported, that when one of his friends regretted
his exile, he replied: “ It is not I who have loft the
Athenians, but the Athenians who have loft me.”
Whilft a fmall degree of vanity appears in this fenti-
ment, it neverthelefs informs pofterity with what calm-
nefs of mind he endured the changes of fortune. But
other favings tend more fully to unfold his character.
During the courfe of a lefture one day, he was inter-
ruoted with the unpleafant news of the death of a fon $
he' calmly replied, “ I knew that I begat him mor¬
tal.” When he received the fentence of condemna¬
tion, he confoled himfelf by this confideration : “ Na¬
ture,,.
ANA [3
ture, (faid he) long ago pronounced the fame fentence
againft me.”
Expelled from Athens, Anaxagoras paffed the re¬
mainder of his days at Lampfacus, teaching philofophy
in the fchool of his deceafed mailer Anaximenes, until
the infirmities of nature terminated his ufeful life in
the year 428 before Chrift. Before his death his
friends inquired if they ihould carry his bones to his
native city : he returned for anfwer, that this was quite
“ unneceffary, the way to the regions below is every¬
where alike open.” When the magiftrates of Lamp¬
facus fent a meffage to him before his death, requefting
to know in what manner he wifhed them to honour his
memory, he faid, “ Only let the day of my death be
annually kept as a holiday by the boys in the fchools of
Lampfacus.” This was complied with, and the cuftom
remained even in the time of Diogenes Laertius. This
great philofopher died at the advanced age of 72, and
the inhabitants of Lampfacus eredled a tomb over his
remains, with the following epitaph.
EvOuth, TtXeifov oi\iti6&xs itti ngpix Trignrxs
Ovgxvtx xocrftii, xetTxt A^x^xyo^xg.
This tomb great Anaxagoras confines,
Whofe mind explor’d the paths of heavenly truth.
It is alfo reported, that there was an altar erefted to
his memory, upon which were infcribed the words Truth
and Mind.
Many fabulous reports are narrated concerning this
philofopher, of which it appears unneceffary to take
any particular notice; and Diogenes Laertius has col-
ledled with little care and judgment, after an interval
of more than 700 years, the remains concerning this
philofopher, which were fcattered through various
writings. With no fmall degree of diffidence then the
pen muft record a fummary of his dodlrine colledled
from fuch unfatisfaflory information ; efpecially fince
his biographer himfelf has given full proof both of his
ignorance and negligence, and as the whole narrative
abounds with chronological contradictions and other in-
confiftencies.
It appears, however, that in the midft of fome ex¬
travagant conceptions Anaxagoras held opinions which
indicate a confiderable acquaintance with the laws of
nature. His idea of the heavens appears to have been,
that they were a folid vault, originally compofed of
ftones, elevated from the earth by the violent motion
of the ambient aether, inflamed by its heat, and by the
rapid circular motion of the heavens fixed in their re-
fpeClive places. T he teftimonies of feveral writers,
among which is that of the refpeftable Xenophon, unite
in proving that he confidered the fun to be a large
fiery ftone ; and Xenophon introduces Socrates as re¬
futing that doCfrine, and delivering an unfavourable
opinion concerning his other writings. From his per¬
ceiving that the rainbow is the eftedf of the reflection
of the lolar rays from a dark cloud, and that wind is
produced by the rarefaCtion, and found by the percuf-
fion of the air, Anaxagoras feems to have paid confi¬
derable attention to the phenomena of nature. He muft
have had fome knowledge of the nature of the atmo-
phere, and the doCtrine of eelipfes, if, according to re¬
port, he could predict a fall of rain and darknefs at
noonday.
17 ] ANA
Our information is more correCt concerning his opi- Anaxar-
nions of the principles of nature and the origin of things. chus.
He imagined that in nature there are as many kinds of —"-V'—^
principles as there are fpecies of compound bodies, and
that the peculiar form of the primary particles of which
any body is corripofed, is the fame with the quality of
the compound body itfelf. For inftance, he fuppofed
that a piece of gold is compofed of fmall particles which
are themfelves gold, and a bone of a great number of
fmall bones 5 thus, according to Anaxagoras, bodies of
every kind are generated from fimilar particles. That
part of his fyftem is more agreeable to reafon which ex¬
plains the aClive principle in nature. According to
Diogenes Laertius, Anaxagoras taught, that “ the
univerfe confifts of fmall bodies compofed of fimilar
parts, and that mind is the beginning of motion.”
“ He was the firft, (fays the fame writer) who fuper-
added mind to matter, opening his work in this pleaf-
ing and fublime language : “ All things were confuf-
ed $ then came mind, and difpofed them in order.”
Plato informs us that this philofopher taught the exift-
ence of a difpofing mind, the caufe of all things. An¬
axagoras, according to Ariftotle, taught that mind xvas
“ the cauffc of the world, and of all order; and that
while all things elfe are compounded, this alone is pure
and unmixed j” and that “ he afcribes to this principle
two powers, to know and to move, faying, that mind
put the univerfe into motion.” Cicero exprefsly af-
ferts, that Anaxagoras was the firft who taught, that
“ the arrangement and order of all things was contrived
and accompliffied by the underftanding and power of an
infinite mind.” (Gen. Biog.)
ANAXARCHUS, a Grecian philofopher, who li¬
ved under Philip of Macedon and Alexander, was born
in Abdera, and belonged to the fe£t generally know A
by the name of the Eleatrc. He is faid to have been
conduced in the prognefs of his early ftudies by the
Ikilful hands of Diomenes of Smyrna and Metrodorus
of Chios. He had the honour to be a companion of
Alexander 5 and a few anecdotes tranfmitted to pofte-
rity concerning him render it evident that he treated
him with the ufual freedom of a friend. This philo¬
fopher candidly checked the vain glory of Alexander
(when elated with pride he afpired to the honours of
divinity), by pointing to his finger when it bled, fay¬
ing, “ See the blood of a mortal, not of a god.” It is
likewife reported, that, on another occafion, while in¬
dulging immoderately at a banquet, he repeated a verfe
from Euripides, reminding Alexander of his mortality.
It is, however, to be regretted, that the fidelity of the
philofopher was wanting at the time when the mind
of Alexander was tortured with remorfe at having llain
his friend Clitus ; for it is reported that he, on that oc¬
cafion, endeavoured to foothe the agitated mind of A-
lexander, by faying, that “ kings, like the gods, could
do no wrong.” It is reported that Nicocreon, king
of Cyprus, expofed him to the torture of being pound¬
ed in a mortar, and that he endured this torture with
incredible patience ; but as the fame faff is reported
of Zeno the Eleatic, there is reafon to fuppofe that it
is fabulous ; and it may be added, that this narrative
is inconfiftent with the general charafler of Anaxar-
chus, who, on account of his eafy and peaceable life,
received the appellation of “ The Fortunate.” (Gen.
Biog.) -
ANAXIMANDER,
ANA [31
Anaximan- ANAXIMANDER, a famous Greek philofopher,
^er, born at Miletus in the 42d Olympiad, in the time of
Ar.axime- p0]ycrates tyrant of Samos. He was the firft Avho pub-
» ^ . licly taught philofophy, and wrote upon philofophical
fubje&s. He carried his refearches into nature very
far for the time in which he lived. It is faid, that he
difeovered the obliquity of the zodiac, was the lirft
who publilhed a geographical table, invented the gno¬
mon, and fet up the firft fun-dial in an open place at
Lacedcemon. He taught, that infinity of things was
the principal and univerfal element *, that this infinite
always preferved its unity, but that its parts underwent
changes ; that all things came from it 5 and that all
were about to return into it. According to all appear¬
ance, he meant by this obfcure and indeterminate prin¬
ciple the chaos of the other philofophers. He afferted,
that there is an infinity of worlds j that the ftars are
compofed of air and fire, which are carried in their
fpheres, and that thefe fpheres are gods ; and that the
earth is placed in the midft of the univerfe, as in a
common centre. He added, that infinite worlds were
the produift: of infinity, and that corruption proceeded
from reparation.
ANAXIMENES, born at Miletus, an eminent
Greek philofopher $ friend, fcholar, and fucceffor of
Anaximander. He diffufed fome degree of light upon
the obfcurity of his mafter’s fyftem. He made the firft
principle of things to confift in the air, which he con-
lidered as immenfe or infinite, and to which he afcribed
a perpetual motion. He afferted, that all things which
proceeded from it were definite and circumfcribed j
and that this air, therefore, was God, fince the divine
power refided in it and agitated it. Coldnefs and moi-
fture, heat and motion, rendered it vifible, and dreffed
it in different forms, according to the different degrees
of its condenfation. All the elements thus proceed
from heat and cold. The earth was, in his opinion,
one continued flat furface.
Anaximenes, a Greek hiftorian and rhetorician,
was born at Lampfacus about 580 years before Chrift.
Diogenes, the Cynic, laid the principles of erudition in
the mind of this great man. Some writers afcribe to
him, “ A Treatife on the Principles of Rhetoric,” which
bears the name of Ariftotle ; and it is reported that
Philip of Macedon invited him to his court to inftruft
his fon Alexander in that fcience. Alexander was at¬
tended in his expedition againft Perfia by this learned
philofopher and many other eminent men. The inha¬
bitants of the city, which had the honour to give him
birth, having efpoufed the caufe of Darius, upon Alex¬
ander’s conquering them, they entreated their country¬
man Anaximenes to intercede with Alexander in their
behalf. He humanely undertook to interpofe for them 5
but the king being informed of his intention, as foon
as he came into his prefence, fwore that he would
grant him nothing that he (hould alk. He inftantly
replied, u I entreat you to deftroy Lampfacus, to burn
its temples, and to fell the inhabitants for flaves.” Alex¬
ander, ftruck with this dexterous reply, kept his word,
and faved the city.
Another pleafing anecdote is related of Anaxime¬
nes. For fome unrecorded caufe, he being difpleafed
with the hiftorian Theopompus, in order to revenge
himfelf, wrote a fevere fatire againft the Spartans and
Thebans, in a ftile exa&ly fimilar to that of Theo-
8 1 A N C
pompus, and under his name addreffed it to the Athe- Anaxfman. A!ice
nians. Theopompus was generally believed to be the drians ^
author of that work, and confequently it brought upon II
him the odium and indignation of all Greece. Whilft .Ancefto1?'
this action afforded an illuftrious proof of the ftrength
of his talents, it afforded an equal evidence of the qua¬
lity of his heart. The hiftory of Philip, of Alexander,
and likewife twelve books on the early hiftory of Greece,
were the productions of his pen, but are now unfortu¬
nately loft. (Gen. Biog.)
ANAXIMANDRIANS, in the hiftory of philofo¬
phy, the followers of Anaximander, the moft ancient of
the philofophical atheifts, who admitted of no other fub-
ftance in nature but matter.
ANAZARBUS (Pliny), Anazarba (Stephanus) j
a town of Cilicia, on the river Pyramus, the birth¬
place of Diofcorides, and of the poet Oppian. It
was fometimes called Ccefarea, in honour either of
Auguftus or of Tiberius. The inhabitants are called
Anwzarbeni (Pliny), and on coins Ancvzarbeis after
the Greek idiom. It was deftroyed by a dreadful
earthquake in the year 525, along with feveral other
important cities : but they were all repaired at a vaft
expence by the emperor Juftin j who was fo much af-
feCted with their misfortune, that putting off the dia¬
dem and purple, he appeared for feveral days in fack-
cloth.
ANBERTKEND, in the eaftern language, a ce¬
lebrated book of the Brachmans, wherein the Indian
philofophy and religion are contained. The word in
its literal fenfe denotes the ciftern wherein is the water
of life. The anbertkend is divided into 50 beths or
difcourfes, each of which confifts of 10 chapters. It
has been tranflated from the original Indian into Ara¬
bic, under the title of Moral al Maani, q. d. “ the
marrow of intelligence.”
ANCARANO, a town of Italy, in the marquifate
of Ancona. E. Long. 14. 54. N. Lat. 42. 48.
ANCASTER, a town of Lincolnfliire, fituated in
W. Long. 30. N. Lat. 52. 30. It gives title of duke
to the noble family of Bertie,
ANCENIS, a town of France in the province of
Brittany. W. Long. 1. 9. N. Lat. 47. 20.
ANCESTORS, thofe from whom a perfon is de~
fcended in a ftraight line. The word is derived from
the Latin anceffbr^ contrafted from antecejfbr, q. d.
“ goer before.”
Moft nations have paid honours to their anceftors.
It was properly the departed fouls of their forefathers
that the Romans worfhipped under the denominations
of lares, lemures, and houfehold gods. Hence the an¬
cient tombs were a kind of .temples, or rather altars,
whereon oblations were made by the kindred of the
deceafed. .
The Ruffians have ftill their anniverfary feafts in
memory of their anceftors, which they call roditoliJabot,
q. d. “ kinsfolk’s fabbath 5” wherein they make formal
vifits to the dead in their graves, and carry them pro-
vifions, eatables, and prefents of divers other kinds.
They interrogate them, with loud lamentable cries,
what they are doing ; how they fpend their time j
what it is they want j and the like.
The Quojas, a people of Africa, offer facrifices of
rice and wine to their anceftors before ever they un¬
dertake any confiderable action. The anniverfaries of
their
A N C [ 3i9 1 A N C
^nceftors. their deaths are always kept by their families with by the fubfequent kings, and now obtains amon<r the Amhilow
—v 'great folemmty. The king invokes, the fouls of his grandees and literati: all now worfhip their anceftors, 11 1
father and motner to make trade flourith and the chafe according to the rank which they themfelves hold Anchor,
fucceed. . in the world. If the fon be a mandarin, and the fa-
Ihe Lmneie leem to have diftingmlhed themfelves ther only a doftor, the latter is buried as a doftor, but
above all other nations in the veneration they bear facrifice^l to as a mandarin. The like holds in degra-
their anceftors. By the laws of Confucius, part of dations, where the condition of the fathers is that of
the duty which children owe their parents confifts in their fons.
worlhipping them when dead. This fervice, which ANCHILOPS, contraBioti, and *4, eye)
makes a confiderable part of the natural religion of in Medicine, denotes an abcefs, or colleflion of mat-
the Chinefe, is faid to have been inftituted by the em- ter, between the great angle of the eye and the nofe.
peror Kun, the fifth in order from the foundation of If fuffered to remain too long, or unlkilfully managed
that ancient empire. Bibl. Un. tom. vii. I he Chinefe it degenerates, the ftagnating humours corrupt, and
have both a folemn and ordinary worfliip which they an ulcer is produced. When the tumour is broke, and
pay their .anceftors.. The former is held regularly twice the tears flow involuntarily, whilft the os lachrymale is
a year, viz. in fpring and autumn, with much pomp. not carious, it is an eegy/ops ; but when the ulcer is of
A perfon who was prefent at it gives the following ac- a long Handing, deep, fetid, and the os lachrymale be-
count of the ceremonies on that occafion : The facri- comes carious, it is a Ji/lula. The cure is by reftric-
fices were made in a chapel well adorned, where there tion and excifion, tying it at the root on the ^landula
were fix altars furnifhed with, cenfers, tapers, and lachrymalis, and, when ready, cutting it off. See Sun¬
flowers. There were three minifters, and behind them GERY Index.
two young acolites. The three former went with a pro¬
found filence, and frequent genuflexions, towards the
five altars, pouring out wine : afterwards they drew
near to the fixth, and when they came to the foot of
the altar, half bowed down, they faid their prayers
with a low voice. That being finiftied, the three mi¬
nifters went to the altar j the officiating prieft took up
a veffel full of wine, and drank 5 then he lifted up the
head of a deer or goat; after which, taking fire from
the altar, they all lighted a bit of paper : and the mi-
nifter of the ceremonies turning towards the people,
faid with a loud voice, That he gave them thanks in
the name of their anceftors for having fo well honour¬
ed, them j and in recompenfe he promifed them, on
their part, a plentiful harveft, a fruitful iffue, good
health, and long life, and all thofe advantages that are
moft pleafing to men.
The Chinefe give their anceftors another Ampler
and. more private worfhip. To this end they have in
their houfes a niche or hollow place, where they put
the names of their deceafed fathers, and make prayers
and offerings of perfumes and fpices to them at cer¬
tain times, with bowing, &c. They do the like at
their tombs.
The Jews fettled in China are faid to worfhip their
anceftors like the heathens, and with the fame cere¬
monies, except that they offer not fwines flefh. Near
their fynagogue they have a hall, or court of anceftors,
wherein are niches for Abraham, Ifaac, &c. The Je-
fuits alfo conformed, and were permitted by their ge¬
neral to conform to this and many other fuperftitious
cuftoms of the Chinefe.
There is one peculiarity of another kind, wherein
the Chinefe fhow their regard for their anceftors j in
proportion as any of their defcendants are preferred
to a higher degree of dignity, their dead anceftors are
at the.fame time preferred and ennobled with them.
The kings Yen Van, Veu Van, and Cheu Cum, who
were, defce.nded from vaffal kings, when they mounted
the imperial throne, raifed their anceftors from the
vaffal or depending ftate wherein thefe had lived to
the dignity of emperors j fo that the fame honours
were for the future rendered them as if they had been
emperors of China. The fame example was followed
3
ANCHISES, in fabulous hiftory, a Trojan prince,
defcended from Dardanus, and the fon of Capys. Ve¬
nus made love to him in the form of a beautiful
nymph ; and bore him YEneas, the hero of Virgil’s
iEneid. b ^
ANCHOR (anchora, Lat. from ctyytvQx, Greek), a
heavy ijrong,. crooked inftrument of iron, dropped
from a fhip into the bottom of the water, to re¬
tain her in a convenient ftation in a harbour, road, or
river.
The moft ancient anchors are faid to have been of
ftone $ and fometimes of wood, to which a great quan¬
tity of lead was ufually fixed. In fome places, bafkets
full of ftones, and facks filled with fand, were employ¬
ed for the fame ufe. All thefe were let down by cords
into the fea, and by their weight ftayed the courfe of
the fhip. Afterwards they were compofed of iron,
and furnifhed with teeth, which being faftened to the
bottom of the fea, preferved the veffel immoveable j
whence and dentes are frequently taken for an¬
chors in the Greek and Latin poets. At firft there was
only one tooth,, whence anchors were called ijt^oc-opoi ;
but in a fhort time, the fecond was added by Eupala-
mus, or Anacharfis the Scythian philofopher. The an¬
chors with two teeth were called xpp&oXci or ;
and from ancient monuments appear to have been much
the fame with thofe ufed in our days, only the tranf-
verfe. piece of wood upon the handles (the flock) is
wanting in all of them. Every fhip had feveral an¬
chors j one of which, furpaffing all the reft in bignefs
and ftrength, was peculiarly termed <£gae or J'acra, and
was never ufed but in extreme danger ; whence facram
anchoram folyere, is proverbially applied to fuch as are
forced to their laft refuge.
The anchors now made are contrived fo as to fink
into the ground as foon as they reach it, and to hold
a great ftrain before they can be loofened or diflodged
from their ftation. They are compofed of a fliank^ a
flock, a ring, and two arms with their flukes. The
flock, which is a long piece of timber fixed acrofs the
fhank, ferves to guide the flukes in a diredlion perpen¬
dicular to the furface of the ground : fo that one of
them, finks into it by its own weight as foon as it falls,
and is Hill preferved fleadily in that pofition by the
flock,.
A N C [ 32° ] A N C
Anther, flock, which, together with the (hank, lies flat on the
V—   bottom. In this fituation it muft neceffarily fuftain a
great effort before it can be dragged through the earth
horizontally, Indeed this can only be eflfefted by the
violence of the wind or tide, or both of them, fome-
times increafed by the turbulence of the fea, and ail¬
ing upon the fhip fo as to flretch the cable to its utmoft
tenfion, which accordingly may diflodge the anchor
from its bed, efpecially if the ground be foft and oozy,
or rocky. When the anchor is thus difplaced, it is
faid, in the fea phrafe, to come home.
That the figure of this ufeful inftrument may be
Plate more clearly underftood, let us fuppofe a long maffy
XXXII. beam of iron eredled perpendicularly, b, at the lower
Fig. 2.N°i. en[j 0£ which are two arms, d e, of equal thicknefs
with the beam (ufually called the Jhank\on\.y that they
taper towards the points, which are elevated above the
horizontal plane at an angle of 30 degrees, or in¬
clined to the fhank at an angle of 60 degrees 5 on the
upper part of each arm (in this pofition) is a fluke or
thick plate of iron, g //, commonly fhaped like an ifo-
fceles triangle whofe bafe reaches inwards to the mid¬
dle of the arm. On the upper end of the fhank is fix¬
ed the flock tranfverfed with the flukes; the flock is
a long beam of oak, f, in two parts, ftrongly bolted
and hooped together with iron rings. See alfo N° 2.
Clofe above the flock is the ring a, to which the cable
is fattened or bent; the ring is curioufly covered with
a number of pieces of fhort rope, which are twilled
about it fo as to form a very thick texture or covering
called the puddening, and ufed to preferve the cable
from being fretted orxhafed by the iron.
Every fhip has, or ought to have, three principal
anchors, with a cable to each, viz. the fheet, maitrejfe-
ancre ( which is the anchora facra of the ancients) ; the
belt \w\yrx,fecond ancre; and fmall bower, ancre d'of-
fourchc, fo.called from their ufual fituation on the fliip’s
bows. There are befides fmaller anchors, for removing
a fhip from place to place in a harbour or river, w'here
there may not be room or wind for failing ; thefe are
the flream anchor, ancre de tone ; the kedge and grap¬
pling, grapin: this lafl, however, is chiefly defigned
for boats.
Method of Mahing ANCHORS. The goodnefs of the
anchor is .a point of great importance. Great care is
therefore to be taken, that the metal it is made of be
neither too foft nor too brittle ; the latter rendering it
liable to break, and the former to flraighten.
The fhank, arms, and flukes, are firft forged fepa-
rately ; then the hole is made at one end of the fhank
for the ring, which being alfo previoufly forged, is put
into the hole,of the fhank, and the two ends fhut to¬
gether. After which the arms are fhut to the fhank
one after the other, and the anchor is finifhed.
Proof is made of anchors by raifing them to a great
height, and then letting them fall again on a kind of
iron block placed acrofs for the purpofe. To try whe¬
ther the flukes will turn to the bottom and take hold
of the ground, they place the anchor on an even fur-
face, with the end of one of the flukes, and one of the
ends of the flock refling on the furface : in cafe the
anchor turns, and the point of the fluke rifes upwards,
the anchor is good.
In England, France, and Holland, anchors are made
of forged iron ; but in Spain they are fometimes made Anchor,
of copper, and likewife in feveral parts of the South y-—
fea.
For the proportions of anchors, according to Man-
waring, the fhank is to be thrice the length of one of
the flukes, and half the length of the beam. Accord¬
ing to Aubin, the length of the anchor is to be four
tenths of the greatefl breadth of the fhip ; fo that the
fhank, e. gr. of an anchor in a veffel 30 feet wide, is
to be 12 feet long. When the fhank is, for inflance,
eight feet long, the two arms are to be feven feet
long, meafuring them according to their curvity. As
to the degree of curvity given the arms, there is no
rule for it; the workmen are here left to their own dif-
cretion.
The latter writer obferves, that the anchor of a large
heavy veffel is fmaller in proportion than that of a
leffer and lighter one. The reafon he gives is, that
though the fea employs an equal force againfl a fmall
veffel as againfl a great one, fuppofing the extent of
wood upon which the water a£is to be equal in both,
yet the little veffel, by reafon of its fuperior lightnefs,
does not make fo much refillance as the greater ; the
defedt whereof muff be fupplied by the weight of the
anchor.
From thefe and other hydroflatic principles, the fol¬
lowing table has been formed ; wherein is fhown, by-
means of the fhip’s breadth within, how many feet
the beam or fhank ought to be long, giving it four-
tenths or two-fifths of the fhip’s breadth within : by
which proportion might be regulated the length of the
other parts of the anchor. In this table is reprefented
likewife the weight an anchor ought to be for a fhip
from eight feet broad to 45, increafing by one foot’s
breadth ; fuppofing that all anchors are fimilar, or that
.their weights are as the cubes of the lengths of the
flianks.
<D
-a
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ce
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s-<
PQ
Teet.
8
9
10
11
12
J3
>4
15
16
l8
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
' Feet.
c
<1
•5 <
3r
3i
4
4t
4t
5t
5t
6
6f
7f
73-
8
8f
8#
9f
9f
10
1 Or
103:
12
U2j-
.be .
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Pounds.
33
47
64
84
no
140
J75
216
262
3I4
373
439
5*2
592
681
778
884
1000
1124
1259
*4°5
I ;62
1728
1906
Breadth
1
A3YEMOME TER.
AN E MOS C OPE.
Anchor.
£
£
o
-a
4->
T3
C3
<U
A
Feet.
32
33
34
35
36
37
33
39
4°
41
42
43
44
45
N C
f Feet.
sc
12#
J3f
I3r
M
i4t
j4t
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j5t
16
16#
16#
^ 7t
!7t
18
' Pounds.
2097
2 300
2514
2742
2986
3242
35r2
3796
4096
4426
4742
5088
545i
5832
M. B
ouguer, in
his
Traite de Navire, directs to
take the length of the (hank in inches, and to divide
the cube of it by 1160 for the weight. The reafon
Is obvious; becaufe the quotient of the cube of 201
inches, which is the length of an anchor weighing
7000 lb. divided by the weight, is 1160; and therefore,
by the rule of three, this will be a common divifor for
•the cube of any length, and a fingle operation will fuf>
fice.
The fame author gives the following dimenfions of
the feveral parts of an anchor. The two arms gene¬
rally form the arch of a circle, whofe centre is three-
eighths of the (hank from the vertex, or point where
it is fixed to the (hank ; and each arm is equal to the
fame length, or the radius ; fo that the two arms to¬
gether make an arch of 120 degrees : the flukes are
half the length of the arms, and their breadth two-
fifths of the faid length. With refpeft to the thick-
nefs, the circumference at the throat,' or vertex of the
(hank, is generally made about a fifth part of its
length, and the fmall end two-thirds of the throat;
the fmall end of the arms of the flukes, three-fourths
of the circumference of the (hank at the throat. Thefe
dimenfions ftiould be greater when the iron is of a bad
quality, efpecially if caft iron is ufed inftead of forged
iron.
ydt ANCHOR, the fituation of a (hip which rides by her
anchor in a road or haven, &c. Plate XXXII. fig. 1.
N° 3. reprefents the fore part of a (hip as riding in this
fituation. See alfo BUOT-Rope.
To filh the ANCHOR, to draw up the flukes upon the
(hip’s fide after it is catted. See the articles Davit
and Fish.
To Jieer the Jhip to her ANCHOR, is to fleer the flop’s
head towards the place where the anchor lies when
they are heaving the cable into the (hip ; that the
cable may thereby enter the haufe with lefs refiftance,
and the flop advance towards the anchor with greater
facility.
siNCHOR Ground, is a bottom which is neither too
deep, too (hallow, nor rocky ; as in the firft the cable
bears too nearly perpendicular, and is thereby apt to
jerk the anchor out of the ground ; in the fecond, the
(hip’s bottom is apt to ftrike at low water, or when the
fea runs high, by which (lie is expofed to the danger
of finking ; and in the third, the anchor is liable to
hood the broken and pointed ends of rocks, and tear
Vol. II. Part I.
321 ] A N C
away its flukes, whilft the cable, from the fame caufe, Anchor
is conftantly in danger of being cut through as it rubs I!
on their edges. .Anciently,
Anchor, in ArclriteElure, is a fort of carving fome- v
what refembling an anchor. It is commonly placed as
part of the enrichment of the boultins of capitals of the
'1 ufcan, Doric, and Ionic orders, and alfo of the boul¬
tins of bed mouldings of the. Doric, Ionic, and Corin¬
thian cornices, anchors and eggs being carved alternate¬
ly through the whole building.
Anchors, in Heraldry, are emblems of hope, and
are taken for fuch in a fpiritual as well as a temporal
fenfe.
Anchorage, in Law, is a duty upon (hips for the
ufe of the port or harbour where they call anchor.
ANCHOVY, in Ichthyology, the Englifli name of
the clupea encraficolus. bee Clupea, Ichthyology
Index.
ANCHOVT-Pear. See Grias.
ANCHUSA, Alkanet or Bugloss. See Bo¬
tany' Index.
ANCHYLOBLEPHARON. See Ancyloble-
pharon.
ANCHYLOPS. See Anchilofs.
ANCHYLOSIS. See Anc YLOSIS.
ANCI ENT, or Anti ENT, a term applied to things
which exifted long ago; thus we fay, ancient nations,
ancient cuftoms, &c. See Antiquities.
Ancient, fometimes denotes elderly, or of long (land¬
ing, in oppofition to young, or new ; thus we (ay, an
ancient barrifter, ancient buildings.
Ancient, in a military fenfe, denotes either th&en-
fign or colours.
Ancient, in (hips of war, the dreamer or flag borne
in the ftern.
ANCIEN F DEMESNE, in Engljh Law, is a te-
nuie, whereby all manors belonging to the crown in
William the Conqueror’s and St Edward’s time were
held. I he numbers, names, &c. hereof were entered
by the Conqueror, in a book called Domefday Book,
yet remaining in the Exchequer ; fo that fuch lands as
rby that book appeared to have belonged to the crown
at that time, are called ancient demcfne.—The tenants
in ancient demefne are of two forts; one who hold
their lands frankly by charter; the other by copy of
court-roll, or by the verge, at the will of the lord, ac¬
cording to the cuilom of the manor.—— I he advantages
of this tenure are, 1. That tenants holding by charter
cannot be rightfully impleaded cut of their manor ;
and, .when they are, they may abate the writ, by
pleading the tenure. 2. They are free from toll for
ail things relating to their livelihood and hufbandry ;
nor can be impannelled on any inqueft.—Thefe tenants
held originally by ploughing the king’s land, piafhing
his hedges, and the like fervice, for the maintenance
of his houfehold ; and it was on this account that fuch
liberties were given them, for which they may have
writs of monjlraverunt to fuch as take the duties of
tolls &c. No lands are to be accounted ancient de¬
mefne, but fuch as are held in (ocage. Whether land
be ancient demefne or not, (hall be tried by the book
of Domesday.
ANCIEN FLY, in fome ancient flatutes, is ufed for
elderfliip or feniority. The elder lifter can demand no
S f more
A N C [ 322 ] A N C
Ancillon. more than her other fitters, beiide the chief rnefne, by
iM.ii.i.y-",,-' reafon of her ancienty. This word is ufed in the fta-
tute of Ireland, 14 Henry III.
ANCILLON, David, a minifter of the reformed
church at Metz, where he was born the 17th of March
1617. He ftudied from the ninth or tenth year of his
age in the Jefaits college, where he gave fuch proofs
of his genius, that the heads of the fociety tried every
means to draw him over to their religion and party ;
but he continued firm againft their attacks. He Avent
to Geneva in 1633 ; and ftudied divinity under Span-
heim, Diodati, and Tronchin, Avho conceived a very
great efteem for him. He left Geneva in April 1641,
and offered himfelf to the fynod of Charenton in order
to take upon him the office of a minifter : his abilities
were greatly admired by the examiners, and the whole
affembly were fo highly pleafed with him, that they
gave him the church of Meaux, the moft confiderable
then unprovided for. Here he acquired a vaft reputa¬
tion for his learning, eloquence, and virtue, and Avas
even highly refpe£led by thofe of the Roman Catholic
communion. He returned to his oAvn country in the
year 1653, where he remained till the revocation of
the edift of Nantes in 1685. He returned to Francfort
after this fatal blow •, and having preached in the
French church at Hanau, the whole congregation
were fo edified by it, that they immediately called to¬
gether the heads of the families, in order to propofe
that he might be invited to accept of being minifter
there. The propofition Avas agreed to ; and he began
the exercife of his miniftry in that church about the
end of the year 1685. His preaching made fo great a
noife at Hanau, that the profeffors of divinity, and the
German and Dutch minifters, attended his fermons
frequently : the count of Hanau himfelf, Avho had ne¬
ver before been feen in the French church, came thi¬
ther to hear Mr Ancillon : they came from the neigh¬
bouring parts, and even from Francfort } people who
underftood nothing of French flocked together with
great eagernefs, and faid, they loved to fee him fpeak.
This occafioned a great jealoufy in the two other mi¬
nifters j which tended to make his fituation uneafy.
He therefore Avent to Berlin j Avhere he met Avith a
kind reception from his highnefs the eleftor, and was
made minifter of the city. Here he had the pleafure
of feeing his eldeft fon made judge and director of the
French in the fame city, and his other fon reAvarded
with a penfion, and entertained at the univerfity of
Francfort upon the Oder. He had likewife the fatis-
faftion of feeing his brother made judge of all the
French in the ftates of Brandenburg *, and Mr Cayart
his fon-in-law, engineer to his electoral highnefs. He
enjoyed thefe agreeable circumftances, and feveral
others, till his death, Avhich happened at Berlin the
3d of September 1692, Avhen he Avas 75 years of age.
—-Mr Ancillon having got a confiderable fortune by
marriage, Avas enabled thereby to gratify his paffion
for books; his library Avas accordingly very curious
and large, and he increafed it every day with all that
appeared neAV and important in the republic of letters,
fo that at laft it was one of the nobleft colle&ions in
the hands of a private perfon in the kingdom. He
publiffied a book, in quarto, in Avhich the Avhule dif-
pute concerning Traditions is fully examined; he alfo
2*
Avrote an apology for Luther, Zuinglius, Calvin, and Anclam
Beza, and feveral other pieces. ||
ANCLAM, a ftrongtown of Germany, in the cir- Ancony.
cle of Upper Saxony, and duchy of Pomerania, re-
markable for its excellent paftures. It is feated on the
river Pene. E. Long. 14. 5. N. Lat. 54. 10.
ANCLE, or Ankle. See Ankle.
ANCONA, Marquisate of, a province in the
pope’s territories in Italy. It lies betAveen the gulf of
Venice and the Appenines, which bound it on the
north $ Abruzzo on the eaft j the duchy of Spoletto,
and that of Urbino, on the weft. The air is indiffer¬
ent j but the foil is fruitful, particularly in hemp and
flax ; and there is great plenty of Avax and honey. It
contains feveral large toAvns, as Fermo, Loretto, Re-
canati, Macerata, Jefi, Tolentino, Afcoli, Ofimo, St
Severino, Monte Alto, Camerino, and Ripatranfone,
which are all archiepifcopal or epifcopal fees.
Ancona, a fea-port toAAm of Italy, the capital of
the marquifate of that name, and the fee of a biffiop.
It Avas formerly the fineft port in all Italy, being built
by the emperor Trajan, about the year 115 j but Avas
almoft ruined, and its trade loft : however, it has again
begun to revive. Its harbour is the beft in all the
pope’s dominions. The town lies round it on Iavo
hills 5 one of Avhich is at the point of Cape St Syriaco,
from Avhence there is a delightful profpedl. On the
other ftands the citadel, which commands the town
and harbour. The ftreets of this city are narrow and
uneven ; and the public and private buildings inferior
to thofe of the other great toAvns in Italy. The ca¬
thedral is a low dark ftnnfture *, and though the front
is covered with fine marble, the architefture has nei¬
ther beauty nor regularity. The church of St Domi¬
nic, and that of the Francifcans, have each an excellent
pifture by Titian. The exchange, where the mer¬
chants meet, is a handfome fquare portico, in Avhich is
an equeftrian ftatue of Trajan, Avho firft built the port.
At the four corners are four other ftatues. The trium¬
phal arch of Trajan remains almoft entire, with its in-
feription. The common people in this toAvn are a lit¬
tle particular and fantaftical in their drefs, but the bet¬
ter fort follow the French mode. It is a great thorough¬
fare from the north of Italy to Loretto; which ren¬
ders provifions very dear. The tide does not rife here
above a foot, and near the Mediterranean it is fcarce
vifible. E. Long. 15. 5- N. Lat. 43. 36.
ANCONES, in Archite&ure, the corners or quoins
of Avails, crofs beams, or rafters.—Vitruvius calls the
confoles by the fame name.
ANCONY, in the iron-works, a piece of half-
wrought iron, of about three quarters of 100 Aveight,
and of the ffiape of a bar in the middle, but rude and
unAvrought at the ends. The procefs for bringing the
iron to this ftate is this : They firft melt off a piece
from a fow of caft iron, of the proper fize j this they
hammer at the forge into a mafs of tAVo feet long, and
of a fquare ffiape, which they call a bloom ; Avhen this
is done, they fend it to the finery ; Avhere, after two or
three heats and workings, they bring it to this figure,
and call it an ancony. The middle part beat out at the
finery, is about three feet long, and of the ffiape and
thicknef^ the whole is to be ; this is then fent to the
chafery, and there the ends are ivrought to the ffiape^
A N C [ 323 1 • A N G
Ancorarum of the middle, and the whole made into a bar. See
|| Bar.
Ancjfe- ANCORARUM URBS IToAif), a city in
the Nomos Aphroditopolites, towards the Red fea j fo
called becaufe there was in the neighbourhood a ftone
quarry, in which they hewed ftone anchors (Ptolemy)
before iron anchors came to be ufed. The gentilitious
tiame is Ancyropolites (Stephanas).
ANCOURT, Florent Carton d’, an eminent
French adtor and dramatic writer, was born at Fon-
tainbleau, Odtober 1661. He ftudied in the Jefuits
college at Paris under Father de la Rue 5 who, difco-
Vering in him a remarkable vivacity and capacity for
learning, was extremely defirous of engaging him in
their order j but Ancourt’s averfion to a religious life
rendered all his efforts ineffedtual. After he had gone
through a courfe of philofophy, he applied himfelf to
the civil law, and was admitted advocate at years
of age. But falling in love with an adtrefs, he was
induced to go upon the ftage, and he married her.
As he had all the qualifications neceffary for the thea¬
tre, he foon greatly diftinguifhed himfelf; and not be¬
ing fatisfied with the applaufe only of an adtor, he be¬
gan to write pieces for the ftage ; many of which had
fuch prodigious fuccefs, that moft of the players grew
rich from the profits of them. His merits in this way
procured him a very favourable reception at court j
and Louis XIV. fhowed him many marks of his fa¬
vour. His fprightly converfation and polite behaviour
made his company agreeable to all the men of figure
both at court and in the city, and the moft confidera-
ble perfons were extremely pleafed to have him at their
houfes. Having taken a journey to Dunkirk, to fee
his eldeft daughter who lived there, he took the op¬
portunity of paying his compliments to the eledtor of
Bavaria, who was then at Bruffels : this prince recei¬
ved him with the utmoft civility ; and having detained
him a confiderable time, difmiffed him with a prefent
of a diamond valued at 1000 piftoles: he likewife re¬
warded him in a very generous manner, when, upon
his coming to Paris, Ancourt compofed an entertain¬
ment for his diverfion. Ancourt began at length to
grow weary of the theatre, which he quitted in Lent
17!8, and retired to his eftate of Courcelles le Roy,
in Berry, where he applied himfelf wholly to devotion,
and compofed a tranflation of David’s Pfalms in verfe,
and a facred tragedy, which were never printed. He
died the 6th of December 1726, being 65 years of
age.—The plays which he wrote are 52 in all ; moft
of which were printed feparately at the time when they
were firft reprefented : They were afterwards collected
into five volumes, then into feven, and at laft into
nine. This laft edition is moft complete.
ANCRE, a fmall town of France, in Picardy, with
the title of a marquifate, feated on a little river of the
lame name. E. Long. 2. 45. N. Lat. 49. 59.
ANGUS Martius, the fourth king of the Ro¬
mans, fucceeded Tullus Hoftilius, 639 years before
Chrift. He defeated the Latins, fubdued the Fide-
nates, conquered the Sabines, Volfci, and Velentines,
enlarged Rome by joining to it Mount Janiculum, and
made the harbour of Oftia. He died about 615 year's
befor the Chriftian era.
ANCYLE, in antiquity, a kind of ftiield that fell*
as Avas pretended, from heaven, in the reign of Numa
Pompiiius ; at which time, likewife, a voice was heard
declaring that Rome ftiould be miilrefs of the world as
long as ftie ftiould preferve this holy buckler. It was
kept with great care in the temple of Mars, under the
direction of twelve priefts j and left any fhould attempt
to fteal it, eleven others were made fo like, as not to
be diftinguilhed from the facred one. Thefe ancylia
were carried in proceflion every year round the city of
Rome.
Ancyle, in Surgery. See Ancylosis.
ANCYLOBLEPHARON, (from ayevXej,
and/3Ae<pieg«y, an eyelid'); a difeafe of the eye, which
clofes the eyelids. Sometimes the eyelids grow to¬
gether, and alfo to the tunica albuginea of the eye,
from careleffhefs when there is an ulcer in thefe parts.
Both thefe cafes are called anajloblepharon by the
Greeks. This diforder muft be diftinguifhed from
that coalition of the eyelids which happens from vif-
cid matter gluing them together. If the cohefion is
on the corner, the fight is inevitably loft. This hath
fometimes happened in the fmall pox. If there is
only a growing together of the eyelids, they may be
feparated with the fpecillum, and pledgets kept be¬
tween them to prevent their reunion. If the eyelids
adhere to the eye, they are to be feparated by a fine
edged knife ; and their reunion is to be prevented by a
proper ufe of injections, and lint placed between them,
after dipping it in fome proper liniment.
ANCYLOGLOSSUM (from xy>cvXt>s, crooked, and
yXuTirei, the tovgue') ; a contraction of the ligaments of
the tongue. Some have this imperfection from their
birth, others from fome difeafe. In the firft cafe, the
membrane which fupports the tongue is too fhort or
too hard ; in the latter, an ulcer under the tongue,
healing and forming a cicatrix, is fometimes the
caufe c Thefe fpeak with fome difficulty. The ancy-
logloffi by nature are late before they fpeak ; but
when they begin, they loon fpeak properly. Thefe
we call tongue-tied. Mauriceau fays, that in this cafe
it is a fmall membranous production, which extends
from the fraenulum to the tip of the tongue* that hinders
the child from fucking, &c. He juttly condemns
the cruel praCtice among nurfes, of tearing this mem¬
brane with their nails \ for thus ulcers are fometimes
formed, which are of difficult cure : he advifes to fnip
it with feiffars in two or three places, taking care not
to extend the points of the feiffars fo far as the fraenu¬
lum. The inftances rarely occur which require anv
kind of affiftance ; for if the child can thruft the tip of
its tongue to the outer edge of its lip, this difeafe does
not exift 5 and if the tongue is not greatly reftrained,
the. fraenulum will ftretch by the 'child’s fucking and
crying.
.ANCYLOSIS, in Surgery, implies a diftortion or
ftiffnefs of the joint's, caufed by a fettlement of the hu¬
mours, or a diftenfion of the nerves; and therefore re¬
medies of a mollifying and relaxing nature are re¬
quired.
ANCYRA, the capital of Galatia, (Livy, Pliny,
Ptolemy) ; at no great diftance from the river Halys,
(Livy) : faid to be built by Midas, king of Phrygia,
and to take its name from an anchor found there (Pau-
fanias). It was greatly improved by Auguftus, deem-
S f 2 * " ed
Ancyle
If
Ancyra.
—Y——»
Ancyftrum
I!
Anilely.
AND [ 324 ] AND
ed the fecund founder of it, as appears from the Mar-
mor Ancyratium. It is now called Angara, or Angoura.
E. Long. 330. N. Lat. 41. 20.
ANCYSTRUM. See Botany Index.
ANDABATAi, in antiquity, a fort of gladiators,
who, mounted on horfeback or in chariots, fought hood¬
winked, having a helmet that covered their eyes.
ANDALUSIA, is the moil weflern province of
Spain, having Ettremadura and La Mancha on the
north } the kingdom of Granada, the ftraits of Gibral¬
tar, and the ocean, on the eaft and fouth ; and on
the weft, the kingdom of Algarva in Portugal, from
which it is feparated by the river Guadjana. It is
about 182 miles long, and 130 broad. The chief
cities and towns are Seville the capital, Baeza, Gib¬
raltar, Cordova, Cadiz, Medina Sidonia, Jaen, Port
St Mary, &c. It is the beft, moft fruitful, and the
rieheft part of all "Spain., There is good air, a ferene
iky, a fertile foil, and a great extent of fea coaft lit ior
commerce.
New Andalusia, a divifion of the province of Ter¬
ra Firma in South America, whofe boundaries cannot
be well afeertained, as the Spaniards pretend a right to
countries in which they have never eftabliftied any fet-
tlements. According to the moft reafonable limits, it
extends in length 500 miles from north to fouth, and
about 270 in breadth from eaft to weft. '1 he interior
country is woody and mountainous, variegated with fine
valleys that yield corn and pafturage. The produce of
the country confifts chiefly in dyeing drugs, gums, me¬
dicinal roots, brazil wood, fugar, tobacco, and fome
valuable timber. To this province alfo belonged five
valuable pearl filheries. The capital of New Andalu-
fia is Comana, Cumana, or New Corduba, fituated in
N. Lat. 9. 55. about nine miles from the north fea.
Here the Spaniards laid the foundation of a town in
the year 1520. The place is ftrong by nature, and
fortified by a caftle capable of making a vigorous de¬
fence y as appeared in the year 1670, when it was af-
faulted by the Bucaniers, who were repulfed with very
great daughter.
ANDAMAN or AndemaN I (lands, in the Eaft
Indies, fituated about 80 leagues diftant from Tanaf-
ferira on the coaft of Siam. They are but little known.
The Eaft India (hips fometimes touch at them, and are
fupplied by the natives with rice, herbs, and fruits.
The inhabitants are by fome reprefented as a harmlefs
inoffenfive race of men, and by others as cannibals.
E. L ong. 92. o. N. Lat. from io° to 150.
ANDiltNTE, in Mujic, fignifies a movement mode¬
rately (low, between largo and allegro.
ANDECAVI, (Tacitus) ; AndeGAVI, (Pliny) •,
Andes, (Ciefar); Andi, (Lucan).: A people of Gal¬
lia Celtica, having the Turones to the eaft, theNamne-
tes to the weft, the Pi&ones to the fouth, and the Au-
lerci Coenomani to the north : now Anjou 1
ANDEGAVI, or Andegavus, a town of Gallia
Celtiea, (Pliny, Ptolemy;) now Angiers. Called An-
decavi, ( Tacitus). W. Long. 32). N. Lat. 47' 3®*
ANDELY, a town of Normandy in France, parted
in two by a paved caufeway. Here is a fountain to
which pilgrims flock from all parts, to be cured of
their diforders, on the feaft day of the faint to which
it is dedicated. It is 20 miles fouth-eaft of Rouen,.
4
and 40 north-weft of Paris. E. Long. I. 30. Lat. Andena
49- 20* . . . , „ II
ANDENA, in old writings, denotes the fwath made Anderfon,
in the mowing of hay, or as much ground as a man * —
could ftride over at once.
ANDEOL, Saint, a town of France, in the Vi-
varais, five miles fouth of St Viviers, whofe bifhop
formerly refided there. E. Long. 2. 50. N. Lat. 44.
24*
ANDERAB, the moft fouthern city of the pro¬
vince of Balkh, poffeffed by the Ufbeck Tartars. It
is very rich and populous, but a place of no great
(Length. The neighbouring mountains yield excel¬
lent quarries of lapis lazuli, in which the Bukhara
drive a great trade with Perfia and India.—This city is
fituated at the foot of the mountains dividing the do¬
minions of the Great Mogul and Perfia from Great
Bukharia. As there is no other way of crofting thefe
mountains but by the road through this city, all tra¬
vellers with goods muft pay 4 per cent. On this ac¬
count the khan of Balkh maintains a good number of
foldiers in the place.
ANDERNACFIT, a city of Cologne, in the circle
of the Lower Rhine. It is fituated in a plain on the.
river Rhine j and is fortified with a wall, caftle, and-
bulwarks. It has a trade in ftone jugs and pitchers,
which are fent to the mineral waters at Dunchflein.
There are three monafteries here and feveral churches.
E. Long. 7. 4. N. Lat. 50. 27.
ANDERO, Saint, a fea port town in the bay of
Bifcay, in Old Caftile, feated on a fmall peninfula.
It is a trading town, and contains about 700 houfes,
two pariftr churches, and four monafteries. Here the
Spaniards build and lay up fome of their men of war.
W. Long. 4. 3c. N. Lat. 43. 20.
ANDERSON, Sir Edmund, a younger fon of an
ancient Scotch family fettled in Lincolnfture. He
was fome time a ftudent of Lincoln-college, Oxford $
and removed from thence to the Inner Temple, where
he applied himfelf diligently to the ftudy of the law,
and became a barrifter. In the ninth of Queen Eliza¬
beth he was both Lent and Summer reader, and in the
16th double reader. He was appointed her majefty’s
ferjeant at law in the 19th year of her reign; and feme
time after, one of the juftices of the aflize. In 1582
he was made lord chief juftice of the common pleas,
and in the year following was knighted. He held his
office to the end of his life, died in the year 1605,
and was buried at Eyeworth in Bedfordfhire. He was-
an able but pumftilious lawyer ; a (courge to the Pu¬
ritans; and a ftrenuous fupporter of the eftabliftied
church. His works are, 1. Reports of many princi¬
pal cafes argued and adjudged in the time o( Queen
Elizabeth in the common bench. Loud. 1644. fol.
2. Refolutions and judgements on the cafes and matter,
agitated in all courts of Weftminfter, in the latter
end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Publift.ed by
John Goldfborough,. Efq. Lend. i655> 4U>- Bolides
thefe, there is a manufeript copy of his readings ft ill in-
being.
Anderson, Adam, a native of Scotland, was bro¬
ther to the reverend James Anderfon, D. D. editor
of the Diplomata Scotice and Royal Genealogies, many,
years fince minifter of the Scots Prefbyterian church
in.
AND [3
, in Svvallow-ftreet, Piccadilly, and well known in thofe
days among the people of that perfuafnm refident in
London by the name of Bilhop Anderfon, a learned
but imprudent man, who loft a confiderable part of his
property in the fatal year 1720. He married, and had
ifl’ue a fon, and a daughter who was the wife of an ofti-^
cer in the army.
Adam Anderfon was for 40 years a clerk in the
South-fea houfe ; and at length arrived at his acme
there, being appointed chief clerk of the Stock and
New Annuities, which office he retained till his death.
He was appointed one of the truftees for eftabliffiing
the colony of Georgia in America j and was alfo one
of the court of affiftants of the Scots corporation in
London. The time of the publication of his “ Hifto-
rical and Chronological Deduclion of Trade and Com¬
merce,” a work replete with ufeful information, was
about the year 1762. He was twice married ; by
the firft wife he had iiTue a daughter, married to one
Mr Hardy, an apothecary in the Strand, who are both
dead without ifl'ue j he afterwards became the third
hulband of the widow of Mr Coulter, formerly a whole-
fale linendraper in Cornhill, by whom he had no iffue.
She was, like him, tall and graceful j and her face has
been thought to have fome refemblance to that of the
ever-living countefs of DCmond, given in Mr Pen¬
nant’s firft Tour in Scotland. Mr Anderfon died at
his houfe in Red-Lion (Ireet, Clerkenwell, January 10.
1775. He had a good library of books, which were
fold by his widow, who furvived him feveral years, and
died in 1781.
ANDES, a great chain of mountains in South A-
merica, which running from the moft northern part of
Peru to the ftraits of Magellan, between 3000 and 4000
miles, are the longeft and moft remarkable in the
world. The Spaniards call them the Cordillera de los
Jlndet. They form two ridges, the lovvermoft of which
is overfpread w’ith woods and groves, and the upper-
moft covered with everlafting fnow. Thofe who have
been at the top, affirm, that the &y is always ferene
and bright ; the air cold and piercing •, and yet fo thin,
that they were fcarce able to breathe, and the refpiration
was much quicker than ordinary ; and this is attended
with retching and vomiting •, which, however, has been
confidered by fome as merely accidental. When they
looked downwards, the country was hid by the clouds
that hovered on the mountains fides. The mountains
juft mentioned, which have been frequently afcended,
are much inferior.in height to many others in this enor¬
mous chain. The following is the account given of the
mountain called Pichincha, by the mathematicians fent
by the kings of France and Spain to make obfervations
in relation to the figure of the earth.
Soon after our artifts arrived at Quito, they deter¬
mined to continue the feries of the triangles for mea-
furing an arch of the meridian to the fouth of that city:
the company accordingly divided themfelves into two
bodies, confifting of French and Spaniards, and each
retired to the part affigned them. Don George Juan
and M. Godin, who were at the head of one party,
went to the mountain of Pambamarca j while M.
Louguer, de la Condamine, and Don Ulloa, together
wutli their affiftants, climbed up to the higheft furnmit
of Pichincha. Both parties fuffered extremely, as well
Lom the feverity of the cold as from the jmpetuofity
15 ] AND
of the winds, which on thefe heights blow with incef-
fant violence ; difficulties the more painful, as they had
been little ufed to fuch fenfations. Thus in the torrid
zone, nearly under the equinodlial, where it is natu¬
ral to fuppofe they had moft to fear from the heat, their
greateft pain was caufed by the exceffivenefs of the
cold.
Their firft fcheme for fhelter and lodging in thefe
uncomfortable regions, was to pitch a field-tent for
each company j but on Pichincha this could not be
done from the narrownefs of the fummit; they were
therefore obliged to be contented with a hut fo fmall
that they could hardly all creep into it. Nor will this
appear ftrange, if the reader confiders the bad difpofi-
tion and fmallnefs of the place, it being one of the
loftieft crags of a rocky mountain, 100 fathoms above
the higheft part of the defert of Pichincha. Such w'as
the fituation of their manfion, which, like all the other
adjacent parts, foon became covered with ice and fnow.
The afcent up this ftupendous rock, from the bafe or
the place where the mules could come, to their habita¬
tion was fo craggy as only to be climbed on foot 5 and
to perform it coft them four hours continual labour and
pain, from the violent efforts of the body, and the fub-
tlety of the air •, the latter being fuch as to render re¬
fpiration difficult.
The ftrange manner of living to 'which our artifts
were reduced during the time they were employed in
a geometrical menfuration of fome degrees of the me¬
ridian, may not perhaps prove unentertaining to the
reader*, and therefore the following account is given
as a fpecimen of it. The defert of Pichineha, both
with regard to the operations performed there and its
inconveniences, differing very little from others, an
idea may be very eafily formed of the fatigues, hard-
ffiips, and dangers, to which they were continually
expofed during the time they were prnfeculing the en-
terprife, with the condinft of which they had been ho¬
noured. The principal difference between the feveral
deferts confifted in their greater or leffer diftance from
places where they could procure provifions ; and in the
inclemency of the weather, which was proportionate to
the height of the mountains, and the feafon of the
year.
They generally kept within their hut. Indeed they
were obliged to do this, botli on account of the in-
tenfenefs of the cold, the violence of the wind, and
th eir being continually involved in fo thick a fog, that
an obje£l: at fix or eight paces was hardly dilcernible. ■
When the fog cleared up, the clouds by their gravity
moved nearer to the furface of the earth, and on all
fides furrounded the mountains to a vaft diftance, ■ re-
prefenting the fea, with their rock like an ifland in the
centre of it. When this happened, they heard the
horrid nuifes of the tempefts, which then difcharged
themfelves- on Quito and the neighbouring country.
They faw the lightnings iffue from the clouds, and
heard the thunders roll far beneath them : and whilft
the lower parts were involved in tempefts of thunder
and rain, they enjoyed a delightful ferenity *, the wind
was abated, the fky clear, and the enlivening rays of
the fun moderated the feverity of the cold. But their
circumftances were very different when the clouds rofe :
their thicknefs rendered refpiration difficult ; the fnow
and hail fell continually j and the wind returned with
all
Andes-
*
AND [ 326 ] AND
Amies, all its violence •, fo that it was impoflible entirely to
—v——' overcome the fears of being, together with their hut,
blown down the precipice, on whofe edge it was built,
or of being buried under it by the daily accumulations
of ice and fnow.
The wind was often fo violent in thefe regions, that
its velocity dazzled the fight, whilft their fears were in-
Creafed from the dreadful concuflions of the precipice,
caufcd by the fall of enormous fragments of rocks.
Thefe craflies ivere the more alarming, as no other
noifes are heard in thefe deferts ^ and during the night,
their reft, Avhich theyfo greatly Avanted, Avas frequently
difturbed by fuch hidden founds. When the weather
Avas any thing fair with them, and the clouds gathered
about fume of the other mountains which had a connec¬
tion Avith their obfervations, fo that they could not
make all the ufe they defired of this interval of good
Aveather, they left their hut to exercife themfelves.
Sometimes they defcended to fome fmall diftance j and
at others, amufed themfelves Avith rolling large frag¬
ments of rocks down the precipice ; and thefe frequent¬
ly required the joint ftrength of them all, though they
often faw the fame effefted by the mere force of the
Avind. But they ahvays took care in their excurfions
not to go lb far out, but that on the leaft appearance of
the clouds gathering about their cottage, which often
happened very fuddenly, they could regain their ftiel-
ter. The door of their hut Avas faftened Avith thongs
of leather, and on the infide not the fmalleft crevice
Avas left unftopped ; befides Avhich, it Avas very com-
pa£lly covered with ftraw : but notAvithftanding all
their care, the Avind penetrated through. The days
were often little better than the nights } and all the
light they enjoyed Avas that of a lamp or two, Avhich
they kept continually burning.
Though their hut Avas fmall, and crowded Avith in¬
habitants, befides tits heat of the lamps ; yet the intenfe-
nefs of the cold Avas fuch, that every one of them Avas
obliged to have a chafing-dith of coals. Thefe precau¬
tions Avould have rendered the rigour of the climate
fupporteble, hkd not the imminent danger of periftiing
by being bloAvn doAvn the precipice roufed them, every
time, it fnowed, to encounter the feverity of the outAvard
air, and fally out with Ih'ovels to free the roof of their
hut from the mafles of fnow Avhich Avere gathering on
it. Nor Avould it, Avithout this precaution, have beeh
able to fupport the Aveight. They Avere not indeed
Avithout fervants and Indians 5 but thefe Avere fo be¬
numbed Avith the cold, that it was Avith great difficulty
they could get them out of a fmall tent, Avhere they
kept a continual fire. So that all our artifts could ob¬
tain from them Avas to take their turns in this labour ;
and even then they Avent very unwillingly about it, and
confequently performed it flowly.
It may eafily be conceived Avhat this company fuf-
fered from the afperities of fuch a climate. Their feet
Avere fwelled, and fo tender, that they could not even
bear the heat j and Avalking Avas attended Avith extreme
pain. Their hands Avere covered Avith chilblains 5 their
lips fAvelled and chopped ; fo that every motion in
fpeaking, or the like, dreAv blood ; confequently they
Avere obliged to ftrift tacittirnity, and little difpofed to
laugh, as, by caufing an extenfion of the lips, it pro¬
duced fuch fiffures as were very paihful for two or three
days after.
Their common food in this inhofpitable region was Andes,
a little rice boiled Avith fome fleffi or foAvl procured from u—y""*
Quito ; and, inftead of fluid Avater, their pot Avas filled
Avith ice. They had the fame refource svith regard td
Avhat they drank : and while they Avere eating, every
one Avas obliged to keep his plate over a chafing-diflt
of coals, to prevent his provifions from freezing. The
fame was done Avith regard to the Avater. At firft they
imagined the drinking ftrong liquors Avould diffufe a
heat through the body, and confequently render it lefs
fenfible of the painful fliarpnefs of the cold ; blit, t®
their furprife, they felt no manner of ftrength in fuch
liquors, nor were they any greater prefervative againft
the cold than common Avater.
At the fame time, they found it impoffible to keep
the Indians together. On their firft feeling of the
climate, their thoughts were immediately turned on
deferting their mafters. The firft; inftance they had of
this kind Avas fo unexpedted, that had not one, of a
better difpofition than the reft, ftaid and acquainted
them of their defign, it might have proved of very bad
confequence. The affair was this : There being on the
top of the rock no room for pitching a tent for the In¬
dians, they ufed every evening to retire to a cave at the!
foot of the mountain ; where, befides a natural diminu¬
tion of the cold, they could keep a continual fire ; and
confequently enjoyed more comfortable quarters than
their mafters. Before they AvithdreAV at night, they
faftened on the outfide the door of the hut, Avhich Avas
fo Ioav that it Avas impoffible to go in or out Avithout
{looping ; and as every night the hail and fnoAV which
had fallen formed a Avail againft the door, it Avas the
bufinefs of one or tAvo of the Indians to come early and
remove this obftrudtion. For though the negro fervants
Avere lodged in a little tent, their hands and feet Avere
fo covered with chilblains, that they Avould rather have
fuffered themfelves to have been killed than move. The
Indians therefore came conftantly up to defpatch this
Avork betAvixt nine and ten in the morning : but they
had not been there above four or five days, Avhen they
Avere not a little alarmed to fee ten, eleven, and tAvelve
o’clock come, Avithout any news of their labourers ;
when they Avere relieved by the honeft fervant mention¬
ed above, Avho had Avithftood the feduftion of his coun¬
trymen, and informed his mafters of the defertion of
the four others. As foon as the fnow Avas cleared away
from the door, they defpatched the Indian to the cor-
regidor of Quito, Avho with equal defpatch fent other
Indians, threatening to chaftife them feverely if they
Avere wanting in their duty.
But the fear of puniffiment was not fufficient to in¬
duce them to fupport the rigour of this fituation ; for
Avithin two days they deferted. The corregidor there¬
fore, to prevent any other inconvenience, fent four In¬
dians under the care of an alcade, and gave orders for
their being relieved every fourth day.
Twenty-three tedious days our artifts fpent on this
rock, viz. to the 6th of September, and even Avithout
any poffibility of finiffiing their obfervations of the
angles : for when it was fair and clear weather with
them, the others, on whofe fummits the fignals Avhich
formed the triangles for meafuring the degrees of the
meridian, Avere hid in the clouds ; and Avhen thofe were
clear, Pichincha Avas involved in clouds. It Avas there¬
fore neceffary to ereft their fignals in a loiver fituation,
AND [ 3
Andes, and in a more favourable region. This, however, did
y—not produce any change in their habitation till the be¬
ginning of December j when, having finifhed the ob-
fervations which particularly concerned Pichincha, they
proceeded to others j but with no abatement either of
inconveniences, cold, or fatigue 5 for the places where
they made their obfervations being neceffarily on the
higheft parts of the deferts, the only refpite in which
they enjoyed fome little eafe was during the ftiort inter¬
val of palling from one to the other.
In all their ftations fubfequent to that on Pichincha,
during their fatiguing menfuration of the degrees of
the meridian, each company lodged in a field-tent,
which, though fmall, they found lefs inconvenient than
the hut on Pichincha j though at the fame time they
had more trouble, being oftener obliged to clear it from
the fnow, as the weight of it would otherwife have de-
molilhed the tent. At firft, indeed, they pitched it in
the molt Iheltered places •, but on taking a refolution
that the tents themfelves Ihould ferve for fignals, to pre¬
vent the inconvenience of having others of wood, they
removed them to a more expofed fituation, where the
impetuofity of the winds fometimes tore up the piquets,
and blew them down.
Though this mountain is famous for its great height,
it is confiderably lower than the mountain of Cotopaxi :
but it is impolfible to conceive the coldnefs of the fum-
mit of the laft mentioned mountain from that felt on
this ; fince it mull; exceed every idea that can be form¬
ed by the human mind, though they are both feated
in the midll of the torrid zone. In all this range of
mountains, there is faid to be a conllant inferior boun¬
dary, beyond which the fnow never melts : this boun¬
dary, in the midll of the torrid zone, is faid by fome
to be 2434 fathoms above the level of the fea ; by
others, only 2400 feet. The fnow indeed falls much
lower, but then it is fubjeft to be melted the very
fame day. It is affirmed, that there are in the Andes
16 volcanoes or burning mountains, which throw out
fire and fmoke with a terrible noife. The height of
Chimborazo, faid to be the highefl peak of the Andes,
has been determined by geometrical calculations to be
20,282 feet. But the great differences between the
calculators of the height of mountains in other parts of
the world, mull very much diminish the credit of fuch
calculations. Inllances of this we have already given
under the article ./Etna. No lefs remarkable are the
differences concerning the height of the Peak of Te-
neriffe ; which, according to the calculation of Vare-
nius, is three miles and three quarters, or 19,800 feet ;
and according to thofe of Dr Heberden, it is only
i5>39^5 feet J and according to thofe of M. Feuille, is
no more than 13,128 feet. From thefe fpecimens, we
can fcarce avoid concluding, that all the methods hither¬
to invented for calculating the exa£l height of moun¬
tains are infufficient.
As all or moil rivers have their fouree in mountains,
it is no wonder a great number run down the fides of
the Anctes. Some hurry along with a prodigious ra¬
pidity •, while others form beautiful cafeades, or run
through holes in rocks, which look like bridges of a
ftupendous height. There is a public road through the
mountains, 1000 miles in length, part cf which runs
from Quito to Cufco.
7 ] AND
Andes, a hamlet of Mantua in Italy, the birthplace Amies
of Virgil. Hence the epithet (Silius Italicus).- H
Now called Pietola, two miles to the well of Mantua. 'frdra?-0'
ANDETRIUM 5 Andretium (Strabo) : Ande- t0C-Pyei‘._
CRIUM, or Andrecium (Ptolemy) : An inland town
of Dalmatia. The genuine name is Andetrium (In-
feription). It is deferibed as fituated near Salonse, on
a naturally llrong and inacceflible rock, furrounded
with deep valleys, with rapid torrents ; from which it
appears to be the citadel now called Cli[fa. E. Long.
17. 46. N. Lat. 43. 20.
ANDEUSE, a city of Languedoc in France, fitu¬
ated in E. Long. 3. 40. and N. Lat. 43. 45.
ANDOMADUNUM; Andomatunum (Ptole¬
my) j and Antematunum (Antonine) j Cl vitas
Lingonum (Tacitus) : A city of Gallia Belgica j
now Langres in Champagne, fituated on an eminence
(which feems to jullify the termination dununi), on the
borders of Burgundy, at the fprings of the Marne.
Tacitus calls an inhabitant Linton. E. Lone. c. 22
N. Lat. 48. o. o j
ANDOVER, a large market town in Hamplhire,
which is fituated on a branch of the river Tell. It lias
feveral inns, which afford good accommodation for tra¬
vellers 5 and has a market on Saturday, well Hocked
with provifions. It is governed by a bailiff, a lleward,
a recorder, ten approved men, and twenty-two capital
burgeffes, who yearly choofe the bailiff, and he elefts
two lerjeants at mace to attend him. The living is a
vicarage valued at 171I. 4s. 4d. in the king’s books.
W. Long. o. 56. N. Lat. 51. 20.
ANDRACHNE, Bastard Orpine. See Botanv
Index.
ANDRADA, Diego de Payva d’, or Andra-
Dius, a learned Portuguefe, born at Coimbra, who di-
ftinguifhed himfelf at the council of Trent, where King
Sebaflian lent him as one of his divines. There is fcarce
any Catholic author who has been more quoted by the
Protelfants than he, becaufe he maintained fome opi¬
nions a little extravagant concerning the falvation of
the Heathens. Andrada was efleemed an excellent
preacher. His fermons were publilhed in three parts,
the fecond of which was tranllated into Spanifh by Be¬
nedict de Alcoran. Many encomiums have been be¬
llowed upon Andrada. Oforius in his preface to the
Onhodox Explanations of Andradius,” gives him the
charadler of a man of wit, vail application, great know¬
ledge m the languages, with all the zeal and eloquence
neceffary to a good preacher ; and Rofweidus fays, that
he brouglit to the council of Trent the underllanding
of a moil profound divine, and the eloquence of a con-
fummate orator.
. ANDRAPODISMUS, in ancient writers, the fel¬
ling of perlons for Haves. Plence alfo (indrapodi/les^
a dealer in Haves, more particularly a kidnapper, who
Heals men or children to fell them ; a crime for which
the Theffalians were noted.
ANDRAPODOCAPELI, in antiquity, a kind of
dealers in Haves. The Andrapodoccpeh had a parti¬
cular procefs for taking off moles and the like disfi¬
gurements on the faces of the Haves they kept for fale„
by rubbing them with bran. At Athens, feveral
places in the forum were appointed for the fale of Haves.
Upon the firfl day of every month, the merchants call¬
ed
AND
t 328 1
AND
Andrea,
Andreas.
eel Avh^iKcooxxTrqXoi brought them into the market, and
expofed them to fale j the crier {landing upon a done
ere died for that purpofe, called the people together.
ANDREA, St, a fmall village on the Malabar
coail in the Eaft Indies, founded originally by the Por-
tuguefe. It takes its name from a church dedicated to
St Andrew, and ferved by the priefts of St Thomas.—
On the (bore of St Andrea, about half a league out in
the fea, lies Mud Bay, a place which few in the world
can parallel. It is open to the wide ocean, and has nei¬
ther ifland nor bank to break the force of the billows,
which come rolling with great violence from all parts,
in the fouth-weft monfoons : but on this bank of mud
they lofe themfelves in a moment ; and fhips lie on it
as fecure as in the bed harbour, without motion or di-
iturbance. It reaches about a mile along {here, and
has been obferved to (hift its place from the northward
about three miles in 30 years. From St Andrea to
Kranganor, about 12 leagues to the fouth, the Avater
has the bad property of cauling fwellings in the legs of
thofe who drink it conftantly. Some it affefts in one
leg, and fume in both. It caufes no pain, but itch¬
ing; nor does the fwelled leg feem heavier to the
owner than the fmall one, though fome have been feen
a yard in circumference at the ancle. Lhe Romifh
legends impute the caufe of this diftemper (for which
no pre\mntive or cure hath been hitherto found) to
a curfe laid by St Thomas upon his murderers and
their pofterity ; though, according to the Romans
themfelves, St Thomas was killed by the Tillinga
priefts at Meliaphur, on the coaft of Coromandel, about
400 miles diftant, and Avhere the natives have not this
diftemper.
ANDREAS, John, a celebrated canonift in the
14th century, tvas born at Mugello, near Florence j
and was profeffbr of canon larv at Padua, Piia, and af¬
terwards at Bologna. It is faid that he macerated his
body with fafting : and lay upon the bare ground every
night for 20 years together, covered only Avith the {kin
of a bear. This is attefted by very good authors; but
if the ftory Avhich Poggius tells of him in his jefts be
true, he muft afterwards have relaxed much of this con-
tinency: “ Joannem Andream (fays he), do&orem
Bonnonienfem, cujus fama admodum vulgata eft, fuba-
gitantem ancillam domefticam uxor deprehendit : re in-
fueta ftupefafta mulier in virum verfa, Ubi nunc, ait
Joannes, eft fapientia veftra ? Ille nil amplius locutus,
In vulva iftius, refpondit, loco admodum {ap entise ac-
commodato.” The French tranflation of this perhaps
will not be difpleafing.
Jean, dit Andre, fameux Do cl cur des Loix,
Fut pris un jour au peche d"1 amourette:
II acol/oit unejeune foubretle.
Sa femme vint,fit un figne de croix.
Ho ho, dit elle, ef ce vous ? non je penfe :
Vous, dont par-tout en vante la prudence.
ajjAeJl devenu cet efprit ft fubtil ?
Le bon Andre, poUrfuivant Jon negoce,
Honteux pourtant, ma foi, repondit-il.
Prudence, efprit, tout git dans cettc foffe.
a baftard,
and it was
Since .it is agreed that John Andreas had
this ftory is at the bottom very probable ;
perhaps with the mother of Banicontius that his Avife
found him. Andreas had a beautiful daughter, named
Novella, Avhom he loved extremely : and he is faid to Andreas,
have inftruFted her fo Avell in all parts of learning, that v—-
Avhen he Avas engaged in any affair Avhich hindered him
from reading leisures to his fcholars, he fent his daugh¬
ter in his room ; and left her beauty ftrould prevent the
attention of the hearers, ftie had a little curtain draAvn
before her. To perpetuate the memory of this daugh¬
ter, he entitled his commentary upon the Decretals of
Gregory IX. the Novella:. He married her to John
Calderinus, a learned canonift. The firft rvork of An¬
dreas Avas his Glofs upon the Sixth Book of the Decre¬
tals, Avhich he Avrote Avhen he Avas very young. He
wrote alfo Gloffes upon the Clementines ; and a Com¬
mentary in regula Sexti, which he entitled Mercuria-
les, becaufe he either engaged in it on Wednefdays
(diebus Mercurii), or becaufe he inferted his Wednef¬
days difputes in it. He enlarged the Speculum of Du¬
rant, in the year 1347. This is all Avhich Mr Bayle
mentions of his evritings, though he Avrote many more.
Andreas died of the plague at Bologna in 1348, after
he had been a profeffor 45 years ; and was buried in
the church of the Dominicans. Many eulogiums have
been beftoAved upon him. He has been called Arclu-
doFtor decretorum : In his epitaph, Rabbi doElorwn ,•
lux, cenfor, normaque morum; “Rabbi of the doftors,
the light, cenfor, and rule of manners And it is faid,
that Pope Boniface called him lumen mundi, “ the light
of tire Avorld.”
Andrkas, John, Avas born a Mahometan, at Xativa
in the kingdom of Valencia, and fucceeded his father
in the dignity of altaqui of that city. He was en¬
lightened Avith the knoAvledge of the Chriftian reli¬
gion by being prefent at a fermon in the great church
of Valencia on the day of Affumption of the Bleffed
Virgin, in the year 1487* Upon this he defired to be
baptized ; and, in memory of the calling of St John
and St Andrew, he receAed the name John Andreas.
“ Having received holy orders (fays he), and from
an alfaqui and a Have of Lucifer, become a prieft and
minifter of Chrift ; I began, like St Paul, to preach
and publifli the contrary of what I had erroneoully be¬
lieved and afferted; and, with the afliftance of Al¬
mighty God, I converted at firft a great many fouls of
the Moors, Avho Avere in danger of hell, and under the
dominion of Lucifer, and condufled them into the Avay
of falvation. After thL, I Avas fent for by the moft
catholic princes King Ferdinand and Queen Ifabelia,
in order to preach in Granada to the Moors of that
kingdom, Avhich their majefties had conquered : by
God’s blefling on my preaching, an infinite number of
Moors were brought to abjure Mahomet, and to turn
to Chrift. A little after this, I was made a canon by
their grace ; and fent for again by the moft Chriftian
Queen Ifabella to Arragon, that I might be employed
in the converfion of the Moors of thofe kingdoms, Avho
ft ill perfifted in their errors, to the great contempt and
diftionour of our crucified Saviour, and the prodigious
lofs and danger of all Chriftian princes. But this ex¬
cellent and pious defign of her rnajefty was rendered
ineffeflual by her death.” At the defire of Martin
Garcia, biftiop of Barcelona, he undertook to tranf-
late from the Arabic, into the language of Arragon,
the whole law of the Moors ; and after having finished
this undertaking, he compofed his famous Avofk of The
Confufion of the Sea of Mahumed ; it contains twelve
chapters,
AND [3
Andiein* chapters, wherein he has collected the fabulous ftories,
II impoftures, forgeries, brutalities, follies, oblcenities, ab-
Andrew. far(lities, impoflibilities, lies, and contradictions, which
Mahomet, in order to deceive the fimple people, has
difperfed in the writings of that feCt, and efpecially in
the Alcoran, which, as he fays, was revealed to him
in one night by an angel, in the city of Meke j though
in another place he contradicts himfelf, and affirms that
he was 20 years in compofing it. Andreas tells us, he
wrote this work, that not only the learned amongff
Chriftians, but even the common people, might know
the different belief and doCtrine of the Moors j and on
the one hand might laugh and ridicule fuch infolent
and brutal notions, and on the other might lament
their blindnefs and dangerous condition. This book,
which was publifhed at firft in Spanifh, has been tranf-
lated into feveral languages ; all thofe who write
againft the Mahometans quote it very much.
ANDRE INI, Isabella, a native of Padua, was
an excellent poetefs, and one of the beft comedians in
Italy, towards the beginning of the I7lh century.
The Intenti of Pavia thought they did their fociety an
honour by admitting her a member of it j and fire, in
acknowledgment of this honour, never forgot to men¬
tion amongft her titles that of Academica Infanta ; her
titles rvere thefe, “ Ifabella Andreini, comica, gelofa,
academica infanta, delta Pacceffa.” She was alfo a
woman of extraordinary beauty : which, added to a
fine voice, made her charm both the eyes and ears of
the audience. She died of a mifcarriage, at Lyons, the
1 Oth of June 1604, in the 4 2d year of her age. Her
death being a matter of general concern and lamenta¬
tion, there were many Latin and Italian elegies print¬
ed to her memory : feveral of thefe pieces were placed
before her poems in the edition of Milan, in 1605.
Befides her fonnets, madrigals, fong% and eclogues,
there is a paftoral of hers entitled Myrtilla, and let¬
ters, printed at Venice in 1610. She fung extremely
well, played admirably on feveral inftruments, under-
ftood the French and Spanifh languages, and was not
unacquainted with philofophy.
ANDRELINUS, Publius Faustus, born at •
Forli in Italy. He was long time profeflbr of poetry
and philofophy in the univerfity of Paris. Louis XII.
of France made him his poet laureat ; and Erafmus
tells us he was likewife poet to the queen. His pen
was not wholly employed in making verfes; for he
wrote alfb moral and proverbial letters in profe, which
were printed feveral times. His poems, which are
chiefly in Latin, are inferted in vol. i. of the De/icice
Poet arum Italorum. M. de la Monnoie tells us, “ that
Andrelinus, when he was about 22 years old, received
the crown of laurel: That his love verfes, divided in¬
to four books, entitled Li^ia, from the name of his
miftrefs, were efleemed fo fine by the Roman Acade¬
my, that they adjudged the prize of the Latin elegy
to the author.” He died in 1518. This author’s
manner of life was not very exemplary 5 yet he was fo
fortunate, fays Erafmus, that though he took the li¬
berty of rallying the divines, he was never brought in¬
to trouble about it.
ANDREW, St, the apoftle, born at Bethfaida in
Galilee, brother to Simon Peter. He had been a dif-
ciple of John the Baptift, and followed Jefus upon the
teftimony given of him by the Baptift (John i. 30, 37,
Vol. II. Part I.
19 ] AND
&c.) He followed our Saviour with another of John’s Andrew
difciples, and wrent into the houfe were Jefus lodged j [|
here he continued from about four o’clock in the after- An(1^evv s
noon till it was night. This was the firft difciple
whom our Saviour received into his train. Andrew
introduced his brother Simon, and they pafled a day
with Chrift, after which they went to the marriage in
Cana (id. ii.), and at laft returned to their ordinary
occupation. Some months after, Jefus meeting them
while they were both filhing together, called them to
him, and promifed to make them fiihers of men. Im¬
mediately they left their nets, followed him (Mat. iv.
19.), and never afterwards feparated from him.
After our Saviour’s afcenfion, his apoftles having
determined by lot what parts of the world they ftiould
feverally take, Scythia and the neighbouring countries
fell to St Andrew, who, according to Eufebius, after
he had planted the gofpel in feveral places, came to
Patrae in Achaia, where, endeavouring to convert the
proconful ASgeas, he was by that governor’s orders
fcourged, and then crucified. The particular time of
his fuffering martyrdom is not known •, but all the an¬
cient and modern martyrologies, both of the Greeks and
Latins, agree in celebrating his feftival upon the 30th
of November. His body was embalmed, and decently
interred at Patrae by Maximilla, a lady of great qualL
ty and eftate. Afterwards it was removed to Conftan-
tinople by Conftantine the Great, and buried in the
great church, which he had built to the honour of the
apoftles. There is a crofs to be feen at this day in the
church of St Victor at Marfeilles, which is believed by
the Romanifts to be the fame that St Andrew was faft-
ened to. It is in the fliape of the letter X, and is en- «
clofed in a lilver fhrine. Peter Chryfologus fays, that
he was crucified upon a tree ; and the fpurious Hip-
polytus affures us it was an olive tree.
Andrew, or Knights of St Andrew, an order of
knights, more ufually called the order of the Thiftle,
See Thistle.
Knights of St ANDREW, is alfo an order inftituted by
Peter the Great of Mufcovy in 1698 j the badge of
which is a golden medal $ on one fide whereof is re-
prefented St Andrew’s crofs, with thefe words, Catsar
Pierre monarque de tout le Ruffe. This medal, being
faftened to a blue ribbon, is fufpended from the right
ftioulder.
St ANDREW'S Crofs, one in form of the letter X.
See Cross.
St ANDREW'S Pay, a feftival of the Chriftian church,
celebrated on the 30th of November, in honour of the
apoftle St Andrew.
ANDREW’S, St, a town of Fifelhire in Scotland,
once the metropolis of the Piftifli kingdom, lying in
W. Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. 56. 18. If we may credit
legend, St Andrew’s owes its origin to a Angular ac¬
cident. St Regulus (or Ru/e, as he is likewife call¬
ed), a Greek of Achaia, was warned by a vifion to leave
his native country, and vifit Albion, an ifle placed in
the remoteft part of the world 5 and to take with him
the arm-bone, three fingers, and three toes, of St An¬
drew. He obeyed, and fet fail with his companions,
but had a very tempeftuous paflage. After being toffed
for fome time on a ftormy fea, he was at laft ftiipwreck-
ed on the cwaft of Otholania, in the territories of Her-
guftus king of the Pi<fts, in the year 370. On hear^
T t ing
AND
in" of the arrival of the ftrangers, with their precious
relics, the king immediately gave orders for their re¬
ception, afterwards prefenting the faint with his own
palace, and building near it tht^ church, which ilill
bears the name of St Regulus.
At this time the place wTas ftyled Mucrofs, or the
land of boars : all round was foreft, and the lands be-
•ftowed on the faint were called Byrehid. The boars
equalled in fize the ancient Erymanthian ; as a proof
of which, two tulks, each fixteen inches long and four
thick, were chained to the altar of St Andrew’s. St
Kegulus changed the name to Kilrymont; and eftablith-
ed here the firll Chriftian priefts of the country, called
Culdees. The church was fupreme in the kingdom of
the Pi£ts 5 Ungus having granted to God and St An¬
drew, that it (hould be the head and mother of all the
churches in his dominion. He alfo diredled that the
crofs of St Andrew fhould become the badge of the
country. In 518, after the conqueft of the Pifts, he
removed the epifcopal fee to St Andrew’s, and the bi-
fhop was ftyled maximus Scotorum epifcopus. In 1441,
it was erefted into an archbithopric by Sextus IV. at
the interceflion of James III. In 1606, the priory was
iupprefled ; and, in 1617, the power of eledlion was
transferred to eight bifhops, the principal of St Leo¬
nard’s college, the archdeacon, the vicars of St An¬
drew’s, Leuchars, and Cupar. This fee contained the
greateft part of the fhire of Fife, with a part of Perth,
Forfar, and Kincardine Ihires, and a great number of
parilhes, churches, and chapels in other diocefes.
The town of St Andrew’s was erefted into a royal
borough by David I. in the year 1I40, and its privi¬
leges afterwards confirmed. The charter of Mal¬
colm II. is preferved in the tolbooth 5 and appears
written on a bit of parchment, but the contents equally
valid w’ith what would at this time require whole fkins.
Here alfo are kept the filver keys of the city ; which,
for form’s fake, are delivered to the king, if he {hould
vifit the place, or to a victorious enemy, in token of fub-
miflion. In this place, likewife, is to be feen the mon-
ftrous axe which, in 1646, took off the heads of Sir
Robert Spotfwood and other diftinguiftted loyalifts.
The towm underwent a fiege in 1337 } at which time
it was poffeffed by the Englifti and other partizans of
Baliol ; but the loyalifts, under the earls of March and
File, made themfelves mafters of it in three weeks, by
the help of their battering machines.
St Andrew’s is now greatly reduced in the number
of its inhabitants ; at prefent fcarcely exceeding 2000.
It is impoflible to afeertain the fum when it wa« the
feat of the primate; all that can be known is, that du¬
ring the period of its fplendour, there were betw'een
Jixty and feventy bakers ^ but now nine or ten are fuf-
ficient for the place. It is a mile in circuit, and con¬
tains three principal ftreets^ On entering the weft
port, a well built ftreet, ftraight, and of a vaft length
and breadth appears ; but fo grafs-grown, and prefent¬
ing fuch a dreary folitude, that it forms the perfedt idea
of having been laid wafte by the peftilence.
The cathedral of St Andrew’s was founded by BP
{hop Arnold in 1161, but did not attain its full mag¬
nificence till 1318. Its length from eaft to weft was
370 feet j that of the trahfe'pt, 322. But though this
vaft pile was A 57 years in building, John Knox, in
June 1559, effedled its demolition in a fingle day j and
AND
fo effedlually has it been deftroyed, that nothing now Andrew’s,
remains but part of the eaft and weft ends, and of the w—v~—
fotith fide.
Near the eaft end is the chapel of St Regulus ; the
tower of which is a lofty equilateral triangle, of 20 feet
each fide, and 103 feet high •, the body of the chapel
remains, but the two fide chapels are ruined. The ar¬
ches of the windows and doors are round, and fome
even more than femicircles j an undoubted proof of their
antiquity.
The priory was founded by Alexander I. in 1122 j
and the monks (canons regular of St Auguftine) were
brought from Scone in 1140, by Robert bithop of this
fee. By an aft of parliament, in the time of James I.
the prior had precedence of all abbots and priors, and
on the days of feftival wore a mitre and all epifcopal
ornaments. Dependent on this priory were thofe of
Locbleven, Portmoak, Monimulk, the iile of May, and
Pittenweem, each originally a feat of the Culdees. The
revenues of the hoiife were vaft, viz. in money 2237I.
2s. lojd. •, 38 chalders 1 boll 3 firlots of wheat j 132
ch. 7 bolls of bear j 114 ch. 3 bolls 1 peck of meal j
151 ch. 10 bolls 1 firlot 1 peck and a half of oats j
3 ch. 7 bolls of peafe and beans : 480 acres of land al¬
fo belonged to it. Nothing remains of the priory except
the walls of the precinft, which {how its vaft extent.
In one part is a moft artlefs gateway, formed only of
feven ftones. This enclofure begins near the cathedral,
and extends to the fhore.
The other religious houfes were, one of Dominicans
founded in 1274, by Bifhop Wiftiart; another of Ob-
fervantines^ founded by Bifhop Kennedy, and finiftied
by his fueceffor Patrick Graham in 1478; and, accor¬
ding to fome, the Carmelites had a fourth.
Immediately above the harbour flood the collegiate
church of Kirk-heugh, originally founded by Conftan-
tine III. who, retiring from the world, became here a
Culdee. From its having been firft built on a rock, it
was ftyled, Prcepoftura Sanllcc MAR 1M de rupe.
On the eaft fide of the city are the poor remains of
the caftle, on a rock overlooking the fea. This fortrefs
was founded in 1481, by Rithop Trail, who was buried
near the high altar of the cathedral, with this Angular
epitaph :
Hie fuii cede/ice diredla columna, feneflra
Lucida, thuribulum redo lens ^ canipana fonora.
The caftle was the refidence of Cardinal Beaton ;
who, after the death of George Wifhart, apprehending
fome danger, caufed it to be fortified fo ftrongly as to
be at that time deemed impregnable. In this fortrefs,
however, he was furprifed and affaflinated by Norman
Lefly with 15 others. They feized on the gate of the
caftle early in the morning of May 29. 1346 ; it ha¬
ving been left open for the workmen who were finifliing
the fortifications : and having placed fentinels at the
door of the cardinal’s apartment, they awakened his
numerous domeftics one by one •, and, turning them
out of the caftle, they, without violence, tumult, or of¬
fering an injury to any other perfon, inflifted on Bea¬
ton the death he juftly merited. The confpirators were
immediately befieged in this caftle by the regent, earl
of Arran 5 and'notwithftanding they had acquired no
greater ftrength than 150 men, they refilled all his ef¬
forts for five months. This, however, was owing to
[ 33° 1
A N D [ 331 ] AND
Andrew’s, the unfkllfulnefs of the befiegers more than to the
k——v > ftrength of the place or the valour of the befieged ;
for in 1547 the caftle was reduced and demoliQied.
The entrance of it is ft ill to be feen ; and the window
is ftiown, out of which it is faid the cardinal leaned to
glut his eyes with the cruel martyrdom of George
Wiftiart, who was burnt on a fpot beneath.
In the church of St Salvator is a molt beautiful tomb
of Bilhop Kennedy, who died, an honour to his family,
in 1466. The Gothic work is uncommonly elegant.
Within the tomb were difcovered fix magnificent maces,
which had been concealed here in troublefome times.
One was given to each of the other three Scotch uni-
verfities, and three are preferved here. In the top is
reprefented our Saviour •, around are angels, with the
inftruments of the paftion.
With thefe are fhown fome filver arrows, with large
filver plates affixed to them, on which are infcribed the
arms and names of the'noble youth, vielors in the an¬
nual competitions in the generous art of archery, which
were dropt but a few years ago 5 and golf is now the
reigning game. That fport, and foot-ball, were for¬
merly prohibited, as ufelefs and unprofitable to the pub¬
lic} and at all weapon fc/iawings, or reviews of the
people, it was ordered, that fate-ball and golfe be utter¬
ly cryed down, and that bowe-markes be made at iik pa¬
ri fh kirk, a pair of butts and fchatting be ufed; and
that ilk man fchutte fex Jhottes at leaf, under the painc
to be raiped upon them that cummes not, at leaf twa
pennyes to be given to them that cummis to the bow-
markes to drink.
The celebrated univerfity of this city was founded
in 14x1, by Bilhop Wardlaw. It confifted once of
three colleges. 1. St Salvator’s, founded in 1458, by
Bilhop Kennedy. This is a handfome building, with
a court or quadrangle within: on one fide is the
church, on another the library ; the third contains
apartments for Undents: the fourth is unfinilhed.
2. St Leonard’s college was founded by Prior Hep¬
burn, in 1522. This is now united with the laft, and
the buildings fold, and converted into private houfes.
3. The new, or St Mary’s college, was eftablilhed by
Archbifhop Hamilton in 1552} but the houfe was built
by James and David Bethune, or Beaton, who did not
live to complete it. This is faid to have been the fite of
a fchola illufris long before the eftablilhment even of
the univerfity, where feveral eminent clergymen taught,
gratis, the fciences and languages. But it was called
the new college, becaufe of its late eredlion into a divi¬
nity college by the archbilhop.
The univerfity is governed by a chancellor, an office
originally defigned to be perpetually veiled in the arch¬
bilhop of St Andrews } but fince the Reformation, he
is elefted by the two principals, and the profeffors of
both the colleges.
The reftor is the next great officer ; to whofe care
are committed the privileges, difcipline, and ftatutes of
the univerfity. The colleges have their re&ors, and
profelfors of different fciences, who are indefatigable in
their attention to the inftrudtion of the ftudents, and
to that effential article their morals. The place pof-
feffes feveral very great advantages refpefling the edu¬
cation of youth The air is pure and falubrious } the
place for exercife, dry and extenfive} the exercifes
aiemfelves are healthy and innocent. The univerfity
is fixed in a peninfulated country } remote from all Andrew’s,
commerce with the world, the haunt of diffipation. Andrews.
From the fmallnefs of the fociety, every ftudent’s cha-—\r-—J
radler is perfectly known. No little irregularity can
be committed, but it is inftantly difcovered and check¬
ed : vice cannot attain a head in this place, for the in¬
corrigible are never permitted to remain the corrupters
of the reft.
1 he trade of St Andrew’s was once very confider-
able. So late as the reign of Charles I. this place had
thirty or forty trading veffels, and carried on a confi-
derable herring and white filhery, by means of buffes,
in deep water } which fifheries had for ages been the
grand fource of their commerce, wealth, and fplendour.
Alter the death of the king, this whole eoaft, and St
Andrew’s in particular, became a fcene of murder,
plunder, and rapine : every town fuffered in propor¬
tion to its magnitude and opulence. Nor were thofe
hypocritical ruffians fatisfied with the (hipping, mer-
chandife, plate, cattle, and whatever came within their
fight } they alfo laid the whole coaft under contribu¬
tion. St Andrew’s was required to pay xoool. } but
the inhabitants not being able to raife that fum after
being thus plundered, the general compounded for
500I. which was raifed by a loan at intereft, and hath
remained a burden upon the corporation, it is believed,
ever fince.
The harbour is artificial, guarded by piers, with a
narrow entrance, to give (belter to veffels from the vio¬
lence of a very heavy fea, by the encroachments of
which it has (offered much. The manufactures this
city might in former times poffefs, are now reduced to
one, that of golf balls} which, trilling as it may feem,
maintains a great number of people. It is, however,
commonly fatal to the artifts; for the balls are made
by fluffing a great quantity of feathers into a leathern '
cafe,^ by help of an iron rod, with a wooden handle,
preffed againft the bread, which feldom fails to bring
on a confumption.
Andrews, Lancelot, bilhop of incheder, was
born at London in 1555, and educated at Cambridge.
After feveral preferments, he was made biftiop, firft of
Chichefter, then of Ely, and, in 16x0, was raifed to
the fee of Winchefter. This very learned prelate, who
was diftinguiffied by his piety, charity, and integrity,
may be juftly ranked with the bed preachers and com¬
pleted fcholars of his age } he appeared to much great¬
er advantage in the pulpit than he does now in his
works, which abound with Latin quotations and trivial
witticifms. His fermons, though full of puns, were
fuited to the tade of the times in which he lived, and
were confequently greatly admired. He was a man of
polite manners and lively converfation : and could quote
Greek and Latin authors, or even pun, with King James.
There is a pleafant dory related of him in the life of
Waller the poet. When that gentleman was young, he
had the curiofity to go to court, and flood in the circle
to fee King James dine ; where, among other company,
there fat at table two biffiops, Neale and Andrews.
The king propofed aloud this queflion, Whether he
might not take his fubjeCls money when he needed it,
without all this formality of parliament ? Neale replied,
God forbid you fhould not} for you are the breath
of our noflrils.” Whereupon the king turned, and faid
to the bifliop of Wincheder, “ Well, my lord, what
T t 2 fay .
AND
[ 332 ]
AND
Andrew; fay you ?” “ Sir (replied the bilhop), I have no {kill
\\ to judge of parliamentary cafe,” The king anfwer-
Androgeus put-off^, my lord ‘7 anfwer me prelently.
 ' “ then, Sir (faid he), I think it lawful for you to take
my brother Neale’s money, for he offers it.” Mr Wal¬
ler fays, the company was pleafed with this aniwer, but
the wit of it feemed to affeft the king *, for a certain
lord coming foon after, his majefty cried out, O, my
lord, they fay you lig with my lady.” “ No, Sir (lays
his lordfhip, in confufion), but I like her company
becaufe (lie has fo much wit.” “ Why then (fays the
kingj) do not you lig with- my lord of Wincheuer
there ?” This great prelate was in no lefs reputation
and efteem with King Charles I. than he had been with
his predeceffors. He died at Winchefter houfe in
Southwark, September 27. 1626, in the 7i[lyearot
his age ; and was buried in the parifh church 01 St Sa¬
viour’s, where his executors erected to him a very (air
monument of marble and alabafter, on which is an ele¬
gant infcription, in Latin, written by one of his chap¬
lains. Mr Milton alfo, at 17 years of age, wrote a
beautiful elegy on his death, in the fame language. Bi-
Ihop Andrews had, I. A (hare in the tranflation of the
Pentateuch, and the hiftorical books from Jothua to the
flrft book of Chronicles exclutively. He alfo wrote,
2. Tortura Torti, in anfwer to a work of Cardinal Bek
larmine, in which that cardinal affumes the name of
Matthew Tortus.. 3. A Manual of Private Devotions j
and, 4. A Manual of Direeffions for the Vifitation of
the^ick j befides the Sermons and Trails, in Jinghfh
and Latin, publifhed after his.death.
ANDRIA, in Grecian antiquity* public entertain¬
ments firft inftituted by Minos of Crete, and, a iter his
example, appointed by Lycurgus at Sparta, at which
a whole city or a tribe affifted. They were managed
with the utmoft frugality ; and perfons of all ages were
admitted, the younger fort being obliged by the law¬
giver to repair thither as to fchools of temperance and
fobriety. „ . ,
Andria, a city and a bilhop’s fee in the territory
of Bari, in the kingdom of Naples. It is pretty large,
well peopled, and feated in a fpacious plain, four miles
from the Adriatic coaft. E. Long. i7-4*^* Eat. 41.15.
ANDRISCUS, a man of mean extraaion, who,
pretended to be the fon of Perfeus laft king of Mace
h . . 1 1 rvf P/ii/tn fnr which
taken Athens and Megara, obliged the inhabitants to
fend him an annual tribute of feven young men and as ^
many virgins, to be devoured by the Minotaui , but
Tbefeus delivered them from that tribute.
ANDROGYNES, in Natural HiJIory, a name giv¬
en to thofe living creatures which, by a monftrous for¬
mation of their generative parts, feem (for it is only
feeming) to unite in themfelves-the two fexes, that of
the male and of the female. i his lujus natures, i.us
defeft, or perhaps redundancy, in the animal ftruflure,
is deferibed by medical authors in the following man¬
ner : “ There is a depravation in tire llrudure of the
parts intended by nature for propagation, when, be-
fides thofe concealed parts that are found neceffary for
the difeharge of prolific fun&ions, the pudenda of the
other fex likewife appear. This monftrous produaion
of nature is diverfified in four different ways j of
which three appear in males and one in females. In
men, the female pudendum, clothed with hair, fonre-
times appears contiguous to the perineum ■ at other
times, in the middle of the ferotum ; at other times,
which conftitutes the third diverfity, through that part
itfelf which in the midft of the ferotum exhibits the
form of a pudendum, urine is emitted. Near that part
which is the teft of puberty, and above the pudendum,
even in females, the mafeuline genitals appear in fome,
confpicuous in all their three forms, one refembling
the veretrum or yard, the other like the two tefticles .
but for the moft part it happens, that, of the two in-
ftruments of generation, one is feeble and inert} and
it is extremely rare that both are found fufficiently va¬
lid and proper for feats of love : nay, even in a great
many, both thefe members are deficient and impotent,
fo that they can perform the office neither of a male
nor of a female.”
With refpedl to them, it appears, from a collation
of all the circumftances which have been obferved by
naturalifts worthy of credit, that there is no fuch thing
as a perfeft androgyne, or real hermaphrodite ; that
is to fay, a living creature, which, by its unnatural,, or
rather preternatural ftrufture, poffeffes the genuine
powers of both fexes, in fuch a manner as to be qua¬
lified for performing the fun&ions of either with fuc-
cefs: the irregularity of their fabrication almoft always
confifts in fomething fuperfluous added to one of the
Andro¬
gynes.
pretended to be the fon ot Ferieus lal ing - ^ which „;ves it the appearance of the other,
donia, took upon h.m the name of „hhL'U0mJ the real and charafteriftioal diflinc-
reafon he was called Pfeudo-Philippus, the Fa/fe Philip.
After a complete viftory over Juventus, the Roman
praetor fent againft him, he affumed kingly power, but
exercifed. it with vaft cruelty. At laft, the Romans
obliged him to fly into Thrace, where he was betrayed
and delivered into the hands of Metellus. This vic¬
tory gained Macedonia once more into the power of
. "I 1 . -n/r . 11 x L     ^ \/frtr'orjn n i/'Tt C
without beftowing the real and.chara&eriftical diftinc-
tion y and every hermaphrodite is almoft always a very
woman. Since this monftrous exhibition of nature is
not fuch as to abrogate the rights or deftroy the.cha-
ra£ler of humanity amongft human beings, this invo¬
luntary misfortune implies no right to deprive thole
upon whom it is infliaed by nature of the. privileges
but coft the Romans 25,000 men. Andrifcus adorned
the triumph of Metellus, walking in chains before the
general’s chariot.
ANDRO AS, or Androdamas, among ancient na¬
turalifts, a kind of pyritse, to which they attributed cer¬
tain magical virtues.
ANDROGEUS, in fabulous hiftory, the fon.ot
Minos king of Crete, was murdered by the Athenian
youth and thofe of Megara, who envied his being.al¬
ways vi&or at the Attic games. But Minos having
more infe&ious than any other corporeal mutilation, it
is not eafy to fee why marriage ffiould be prohibited to
one of thefe unhappy beings, merely on account of its
equivocal appearance, which a£ls in the charadler of its
prevailing fex. If fuch a creature, by the defed of its
conftruftion, ffiould be barren, this does not infer any
right of diffolving the marriage which it may have con-
tra&ed, more than the fame fterility proceeding from
any caufe whether known or unknown, if his or her
confort ffiould not on that account require a divorce.
It
1
AND
f 333 ]
AND
Andro- It is only the licentious abufe either of one or the other
gynes. (hx which can be fubje&ed to the animadverfion of the
* police. See HERMAPHRODITE.
Such are the fentiments of the authors of the French
Encyclopedic. After all, we cannot forbear to add
that from fuch heterogeneous matches nature feems to
recoil with innate and inextinguifhable horror. Nor are
any of thefe invincible averfions implanted in our frame
without a final caufe worthy of its Author. We would
gladly alk thefe free-thinking gentlemen, In cafes
where the fexes are fo unnaturally confounded, how
the police can, by its moft fevere and rigorous animad-
verfions, either detect or prevent thofe licentious abufes
againft which they remonfirate ? Since, therefore,
an evil fo baneful to human fociety could no otherwife
be prevented than by the fanblion of Nature againft
fuch horrible conjundlions, the inftin&ive antipathy
which they infpire was highly worthy of her wifdom
and purity.
Androgynes, in ancient mythology, creatures of
whom, according to the fable, each individual pofleffed
the powers and characters of both fexes, having two
heads, four arms, and two feet. The word itfelf is
compounded of two Greek radical words 5 etn^ in ge¬
nitive a male ; and yyvn, a female. Many of the
rabbinical writers pretend, that Adam was created
double, one body being male, the other female, which
in their origin not being effentially joined, God after¬
wards did nothing but feparate them.
The gods, fays Plato in his Banquet, had formed
the ftructure of man round, with two bodies and two
fexes. This fantaftic being, polfefting in itfelf the
whole human fyftem, was endowed with a gigantic
force, which rendered it infolent, infomuch that it re-
folved to make war againft the gods. Jupiter, ext
afperated, was going to deftroy it but, forry at the
fame time to annihilate the human race, he fatisfied himi
felf with debilitating this double being, by disjoining
the male from the female, and leaving each half to fub-
fift with its own powers alone. He affigned to Apollo
the talk of repolifhing thefe two half bodies, and of
extending their {kins fo that the whole furface might
be covered. Apollo obeyed, and faftened it at the urn*
bilicus: If this half fliould ftill rebel, it was once more
to be fubdivided by another fecftion, which would on¬
ly leave it one of the parts of which it was then con-i
llituted ; and even this fourth of a man was to be an¬
nihilated, if it ftiould perfirt in its obftinacy and mif-<
chief. T he idea of thefe androgynes might well be
borrowed from a paflage in Mofes, where that hrfto-
rian of the birth and infancy of nature, defcribes
Adam as calling Eve bone of his bone and flefh of his
fief). However this may be, the fable of Plato has
had it not been for the infolence of our original double- Amhogy-
fexed progenitor: nous,
Androides.
The heart, with fond credulity imprefs’d, y- -»
Tells us the half is found, and hopes for reft j
But ’tis our curfe, that fad experience {hows,
We neither find our half, nor gain repofe.
ANDROGYNOUS, in Zoology, an appellation
given to animals w'hich have both the male and female
fex in the fame individual.—In Botany, the term is ap¬
plied to fuch plants as bear both male and female
{lowers on the fame root.
ANDROIDES, in Mechanics, a human figure,
which, by certain fprings or other movements, is
capable of performing fome of the natural motions
of a living man. The motions of the human body
are more complicated, and confequently more difficult
to be imitated, than thofe of any other creature 5
whence the conftru&ion of an andraides, in fuch a
manner as to imitate any of thefe aftions with tolerable
exaftnefs, is juftly fuppofed to indicate a greater {kill
in mechanics than any other piece of workmanlhip
whatever.
A very remarkable figure of this kind appeared
in Paris, in the year 1738. It reprefented a flute-
player^ and was capable of performing many different
pieces of mufic on the German flute j which, confider-
ing the difficulty of blowing that inftrument, the dif¬
ferent contra&ions of the lips neceffary to produce the
diftinftions between the high and low notes, and the
complicated motions of the fingers, muft appear truly
wonderful.
This machine was the invention of M. Vaucanfonj
member of the Royal Academy of Sciences j and a par^
ticular defcription of it was publiflied in the Memoirs
of the Academy for that year.
The figure itfelf was about five feet and a half in
height, fituated at the end of an artificial rock, and pla¬
ced upon a fquare pedeftal four feet and a half high
and three and a half broad.- The air entered the body
by three pipes feparated one from the other. It was
conveyed to them by nine pair of bellows, three of
which were placed above and fix below. Thefe were
made to expand and contraft regularly in fucceflion by
means of an axis of fteel turned round by fome clock¬
work. On this axis were different protuberances at
proper diftances, to which were fixed cords thrown
over pulleys, and terminating in the upper boards of the
bellows, fo that, as the axis turned, thefe boards were
alternately raifed and let down. A contrivance was
alfo ufed to prevent the difegreeable hiding fluttering
noife ufually attending the? motion of bellows. This
was by making the cord, by which the bellows was
been ufed with great ingenuity by a French poet, who., moved, prefs, in its defcent, upon one end of a fmaller
has been rendered almoft as confpicuous by his misfor- lever, the other end of which afcending forced open
tunes as by his verfes. With the ancient philofopherj
he attributes the propenfity which attrafts one of the
fexes towards the other, to the natural ardour which
each half of the androgynes feels for re-union ; and
their inconftancy, to the difficulty which each of the
feparated parts encounters in its efforts to recover its
proper and original half. If a woman appears to us
amiable, we inftantly imagine her to be that moiety
with whom we fliould only have conftituted one whole)
the fmall leathern valve that admitted the air, and kept
it fo, till, the cord being relaxed by the defcent of the
upper board, the lever fell, and the air was forced out.
Thus the bellows performed their functions conftantly
without the leaft hifling, or other noife, by which it
could be judged in what manner the air was conveyed
to the machine. The upper boards of three of the
pairs of bellows were preffed down by a weight of four
pounds, that of three others by a weight of two pounds*
and
AND [ 331 ] AND
Androides. and thofe of the three remaining ones by nothing but
their own weight.
The three tubes, by which the air entered, terminat¬
ed in three fmall refervoirs in the trunk of the figure.
There they united, and, afcending towards the throat,
formed the cavity of the mouth, which terminated in
two fmall lips adapted in fome meafure to perform their
proper funflions. Within this cavity alfo was a fmall
moveable tongue j which, by its play, at proper pe¬
riods, admitted the air, or intercepted its palfage to
the flute.
The fingers, lips, and tongue, received their pro¬
per diredlions by means of a fteel cylinder turned by
-clock-W'ork. Jt was divided into 15 equal parts, which
by means of pegs, prefling upon the ends of 15 difter-
ent levers, caufed the other extremities to afcend. Se¬
ven of thefe levers directed the fingers, having wires
and chains affixed to their afcending extremities, which
being attached to the fingers, caufed them afcend in
proportion as the other extremity was preffed down by
the motion of the cylinder, and vice verfa. I hus the
afcent or defcent of" one end of a lever produced a fimi-
lar afcent or defcent in the correfponding finger, by
which one of the holes of the flute was eccahonally
opened or flopped, as by a living performer. Three
of the levers ferved to regulate the ingrefs of the air,
being contrived fo as to open and fhut, by means of
valves, the three refervoirs of air above mentioned, fo
that more or lefs ftrength might be given, and a higher
or lower note produced as occafion required. The lips
were, by a fimilar meebanifm, diredted by four levers,
one of which opened them, to give the air a freer paf-
fage 5 the other contradted them \ the third drew them
backward •, and the fourth pufhed them forward. The
lips were projedted upon that part of the flute which
receives the air *, and, by the different motions already
mentioned, modified the tone in a proper manner.
The remaining lever was employed in the diredtion of
the tongue, which it eafily moved fo as to flmt or
open the mouth of the flute.
Thus w'e fee how all the motions neceflary for a
German flute player could be performed by this ma¬
chine ; but a confiderable difficulty ftill remains, name¬
ly, how to regulate thefe motions properly, and make
each of them follow' in juft fucceflion. J.his, however,
was effedted by the following fimple method. fhe
extremity of the axis of the cylinder was terminated on
the right fide by an endlefs fcrew, confiding of twelve
threads, each placed at the diftance of a line and a
half from the other. Above this fcrew was fixed a
piece of copper, and in it a fteel pivot, which, falling
in between the threads of the fcrew’, obliged the cy¬
linder to follow the threads, and, inftead of turning
diredtly round, it was continually pufhed. to one fide.
Hence, if a lever was moved, by a peg placed on the
cylinder, in any one revolution, it could not be moved
by the fame peg in the fucceeding revolution, becaufe
the peg would be moved a line and a half beyond it
by the lateral motion of the cylinder. T hus, by an ar¬
tificial difpofition of thofe pegs in different parts of
the cylinder, the ftatue was made, by the fuccefiiye
elevation of the proper levers, to exhibit all the dif¬
ferent motions of a flute-player, to the admiration of
every one who faw it.
The conftru&ion of machines capable of imitating
even the mechanical adtions of the human body, fliow Asdroife
exquifite fkill 5 but what fliall we fay of one capable, ‘
not only of imitating adtions of this kind, but of adt-
ing as external circumftances require, as though it were
endued with life and reafon ? This, neverthelefs,
has been done. M. de Kempelen, a gentleman of Frei¬
burg in Hungary, excited by the performances of M.
de Vaucanfon, at firft endeavoured to imitate them,
and at laft far excelled them. This gentleman con-
ftrudted an androides capable of playing at chefs !-—
Every one who is in theleaft acquainted with this game
muff know, that it is fo far from being mechanically
performed, as to require a greater exertion of the judge¬
ment and rational faculties than is fufficient to accom-
plifli many matters of greater importance. An attempt,
therefore, to make a wooden chefs-player, mult appear
as ridiculous as to make a wooden preacher or coun-
fellor of ftate. That this machine really was made,
however, the public have had ocular dcmonftration.
rrt / ttur^ninr r-aroe over to 11 ritain in where he
remained above a year with his automaton.
It is a figure as large as life, in a .Turkifti drefs, fit¬
ting behind a table, with doors of three feet and a half
in length, two in depth, and two and a half in height.
The chair on which it fits is fixed to the table, which
runs on four wheels. The automaton leans its right
arm on the table, and in its left hand holds a pipe :
with this hand it plays after the pipe is. removed. A
chefs board of 18 inches is fixed before it. 'i his table
or rather cupboard, contains wheels, levers, cylinders,
and other pieces of mechanifin •, all which are publicly
difplayed. The veftments of the automaton are then
lifted over its head, and the body is feen lull of fimilar
wheels and levers. i here is a litlle door in its thigh,
which is likewife opened ; and with this, and the table
alfo open, and the automaton uncovered, the whole is
wheeled about the room. The doors are then (hut, and
the automaton is ready to play \ and it always takes
the firft move.
At every motion the wheels are heard ; the image
moves its head, and looks over every part of the chefs
board. When it checks the queen, it {hakes, its head
twice, and thrice in giving check to the. king. It
likewife {hakes its head when a falfe move is made, re¬
places the piece, and makes its own move j by which
means the adverfary lofes one.
M. de Kempelen remarks as the moft furprifing cir-
cumftance attending his automaton, that it had been
exhibited at Freiburg, Vienna, Paris, and London, to
thoufands, many of whom were mathematicians and
chefs-players, and yet the fecret by which he governed
the motion of its arm was never difeovered. He prided
himfelf folely in the conUruftion of the mechanical
powers, by which the arm could perform ten or twelve
moves. It then required to be wound up like a watch,
after which it was capable of continuing the fame num¬
ber of motions.
The automaton could not play unlefs M. de Kem¬
pelen or his fubftitute was near it to direct its moves.
A fmall fquare box, during the game, was frequently
confulted by the exhibiter ; and herein confifted _the
fecret, which he faid he could in a moment commu¬
nicate. He who could beat M. de Kempelen was,
of courfe, certain of conquering the automaton. It
•was made in 1769. His own account of it{ was^r
2
AND [ 355 ] AND
;ndrolepfy M C’eft une bagatelle qui n’eft pas fans merite du cote
[| da mechanifme : mais les effets n’en paroiflent fi mer-
Sindrona vejileilx que par la hardieffe de Pidee, et par I’heureux
v choix des raoyens employes pour faire illu^ion.,,
The ftrongeft and bell armed loadftone was allowed to
be placed on the machine by any of the fpe£lators.
As the inventor of this admirable piece of mechanifm
bath not yet thought proper to communicate to the
public the means by which it is actuated, it is in vain
for any, except thofe who are exquifitely {killed in me¬
chanics, to form conje&ures concerning them.—Many
other curious imitations of the human body, as well as
that of other animals, have been exhibited, though none
of them equal to the laft mentioned one. See the ar¬
ticle Automaton.
ANDROLEPSY, in Grecian antiquity, an aftion
allowed by the Athenians againft fuch as protedled
perfons guilty of murder. The relations of the deceaf-
ed were empowered to feize three men in the city or
houfe whither the malefa&or had fled, till he were
either furrendered, or fatisfadlion made fome way or
other for the murder.
ANDROMACHE, the wife of the valiant Heftor,
(the mother of Aftyanax, and daughter of Eetion king
of Thebes in Cilicia. After the death of Heftor and
the deftruftion of Troy, fhe married Pyrrhus ; and af¬
terwards Helenus the fon of Priam, with whom fhe
reigned over part of Epirus.
ANDROMEDA, in AJlronomy, a northern con-
ftellation, behind Pegafus, Cafliopeia, and Perfeus. It
reprefents the figure of a woman chained j and is
fabled to have been formed in memory of Andromeda,
daughter of Cepheus and Cafliopeia, and wife of Per¬
feus, by whom Ihe had been delivered from a fea mon-
Her, to which fire had been expofed to be devoured
for her mother’s pride. Minerva tranflated her into
the heavens.
The liars in the conflellation Andromeda, in Ptole¬
my’s catalogue are 23, in Tycho’s 22, in Bayer’s 27,
in Mr Flamtted’s no lefs than 84.
Andromeda, the name of a celebrated tragedy of
Euripides, admired by the ancients above all the other
compufitions of that poet, but now loft.
It was the reprefentation of this plav, in a hot fum-
mer day, that occafioned that epidemic fever, or phren-
fy, for which the Abderitesare often mentioned, where¬
in they walked about the itreets, rehearfing verfes, and
afling parts of this piece. See Abdera.
Andromeda, or March Cyjhis. See Botany Index.
ANDRON, in Grecian antiquity, denotes the apart¬
ment in houfes defigned for the ufe of men ; in which
fenfe it Hands oppofed to Gynceceum.—The Greeks
alfo gave their dining-rooms the title of an dr on ^ be-
caufe the women bad no admittance to feafts with the
men.
ANDRON A, in ancient writers, denotes a ftreet,
or puolic place, where people met and converfed toge¬
ther. In fome writers, androna is more exprefslv ufed
for the fpace between two houfes j in which fenfe, the
Greeks alfo ufe the term for the way or paf-
fage between two apartments.
Androna is alfo ufed, in ecclefiaflical writers, for
that part in churches deftined for the men. Anciently
it was the cuftom for the men and women to have fepa-
rate apartments in places of worlhip, where they per-
formed their devotions afunder ; which method is Hill Androni-
religioufly obferved in the Greek church. The cus.
or androna, was in the fouthern fide of the church, and ' 1
the women’s apartment on the northern.
ANDRONICUS I. Comnenus, emperor of the
Eall, was the fon of Ifaae, and grandfon of Alexius
Comnenus. Naturally endowed with a vigorous habit
of. body, and a firm mind, adtive, temperate, martial,
and eloquent, he Urines as one of the moll confpicuous
charadlers of his age. Following the bent of his incli¬
nation, he attended the Roman army in their retreat;
but in their march through Alia Minor, wandering in¬
to the mountains, he fell into the hands of fome Tur-
kifli huntfmen, was carried to the fultan, and remained
his/prifoner. But regaining his liberty, both his virtues
and vices foon recommended him to the favour of his
coufin Manuel, the reigning emperor. The vicious
heart of Andronicus manifefted itfelf clearly in main¬
taining a licentious correfpondence with Eudocia the
emperor’s niece, while the emperor himfelf lived in
public incelf with her lifter Theodora. His martial
fpirit gained him a conliderable command in Cilicia,,
where he laid fiege to Mopfueftia: but by a fuccefsful
fally of the enemy, he was obliged to raife the fiege,
and retire in confiderable diforder. Inflamed with a
defire of revenging the infamy of their filler in his
blood, the brothers of Eudocia made an unfuccefsful
attempt to aflaflinate Andronicus at midnight in his
tent ; but being providentially awakened, he defended
himfelf with furprifing bravery, forced bis way through
his enemies, and efcaped in fafety. Afterwards en¬
gaging in a treafonable correfpondence, with the em¬
peror of Germany and the king of Hungary, he was
arrefted, and thrown into confinement. He remained
in this ftate about twelve years, and after feveral re¬
peated attempts to efcape, he at laft effe£luated his pur-
pofe, and fled for refuge to the court of the great duke
of Ruffia. The cunning of Andronicus foon found
means to regain his favour with the emperor Manuel ;
for having exerted all his influence, he fucceeded in
obtaining the Ruffian prince, to engage to join his troops
with thofe of Manuel, in the invafion of Hungary.
Accordingly, on account of his important fervice, he
obtained a free pardon from the emperor, and after an
expedition to the Danube, returned with him to Con-
ftantinople. He again fell under the difpleafure of the
emperor, by refufing to take an oath of allegiance to
the prince of Hungary, his intended fon-in-law, and
confequently prefumptive heir to the crown, and was
thereupon, returned to his former command in Cilicia.
While refiding here, his powerful addrefs captivated
the heart of Philippa, daughter of the Latin prince of
Antioch, and filler to the emprefs Maria; and in her
company, he fpent his time in all the amufements that
country could afford, till the emperor’s refentment put
a Hop to their correfpondence. Thus circumftanced,
he collefled a band of adventurers, and undertook a
pilgrimage to the holy land, where by his infinuating
turn of mind, he fo far fucceeded in gaining the favour
of the king and clergy, as to be invefted with the
lordlhip of Berytus on the coaft of Phoenicia. In this
neighbourhood, Theodora the beautiful widow of Bald¬
win, king of Jerufalem, and nearly allied in blood to
him, refided. The perfonal accomplifliments and ad¬
drefs of Andronicus captivated her heart, and Ihe be¬
came
AND
came the third viftim to his artful
lived publicly as his concubine. Still purfucd by
the emperor with unabating refentment, he was forced
to take refuge in Damafcus, and then in feveral other
places in the call, till at length he fettled in Afia
Minor. While refiding here,, he made frequent in-
curfions into the province of Trebizond, and feldotn re¬
turned without fuccefs. After feveral occurrences,
Theodora was made captive, by the governor of Trebi¬
zond, along with her two children, and fent to Con-
ftantinople : upon which Andronicus implored and ob¬
tained pardon. He a£ted the affe6ted penitent in fuch
a manner, that he again ingratiated himfelf into the
favours both of the church and Hate : but was fent to
dwell at Oenoe, a town fituated on the Euxine coaft.
In the year 1177 Manuel died, and was fucceeded
by his fon Alexius II. a youth about twelve or fourteen
years of age, without wifdom or.experience, by which
the ambition of Andronicus was again called into ac¬
tion. A civil war having been occalioned, by the
mifconduft of the emprefs in Conftantinople, the pub¬
lic mind was diredled towards Andronicus, as the only
perfon whofe rank arid accomplilhments could reftore
the public tranquillity. Incited by the patriarchs and
patricians, he marched towards Conrtantinople, which
he entered, took poffefiion of the palace, confined the
emprefs, configned her minifter to death, affumed the
office of protedor, put to death many perfons of diftinc-
tion, tried and executed the queen, on a charge of cor-
refponding with the king of Hungary, and vowed fi¬
delity to the young emperor upon his coronation, at
the fame time teaching the neceffity of an experienced
ruler, to alfuage the evils that threatened the empire;
upon which his adherents called out “ Long live Alex¬
ius and Andronicus, Roman emperors.” While he
affeded reludance, he was elevated to a partnerffiip in
the empire. This conjundion of the royal power was
foon diffolved, by the murder, of the unfortunate Alex¬
ius. The body of the deceafed being brought into his
prefence, ftriking it with his foot, hefaid, “Thy father
was a knave, thy mother a whore, and thyfelf a fool.”
Having arrived at the dignity of foie emperor, A. D,
1183, he continued to fway the fceptre, with a mixture
of juftiee and bounty towards his fubjeds at large, but
thofe whom he feared or hated he governed with the
moft cruel tyranny. The noble families.that were either
cut off, or exiled by him, were all allied to the Gomneni.
Some of thefe were engaged in revolt; and the public
calamity was heightened, by an invafion of the Sicilians,
in which they took and facked Theffalonica. A rival
without merit, and a people without arms, at laff over¬
turned his throne. A defcendant from the firft Alexius,
in the female line, named Ifaac Angelus, being fingled
out by Andronicus, as a vidim to his cruelty, he with
courage and refolution defended his life and liberty,
{lew his executioner, fled to the church of St Sophia,
and there took refuge with feveral of his friends. Ifaac
was inftantly raifed by the populace, from a fanduary
to a throne. When this event took place, Andronicus
was abfent from Conftantinople ; but he no fooner heard
of it, than he with the utmoft fpeed returned. Upon
his arrival there, he found himfelf deferted by all, and
was feized, and dragged in chains before the new em¬
peror. All the eloquence he difplayed was of no avail;
for Ifaac delivered him into the hands of thofe whom
[ 336 1 AND
fedudion, and he had injured, and for the fpaee of thr,:e days, he en¬
dured with uncommon patience, all the infultsand tor¬
ments that were inflided upon him. In the midft of
thefe he would frequently cry out, “ Lord have mercy
upon me,” and, “ why will you bruife a broken reed.”
Atlaft, two friendly or furious Italians, plunging their
fwords into his body, put a period to his life. His death,
in the 73d year of his age, terminated the dynafly of
the Comneni. (Gen. Biog.)
ANDRONICUS of Cyrrhus, an Athenian aftronomer,
built at Athens an odagon tower, with figures carved
on each fide, reprefenting the eight principal winds.
A brafs Triton at the fummit, with a rod in its hand,
turned round by the w’ind, pointed to the quarter
from whence it blew. From this model is derived the
euftom of placing weathercocks on fteeples.
ANDROPH AGI, in Ancient Geography, the name
of a nation whofe country, according to Herodotus,
was adjacent to.Scythia. Their name, compounded of
two Greek words, fignifies man-eaters. Herodotus
does not inform us whether their manner of fubfifting
eorrefponded with their name : whether they were lo
favage as to eat human flefli. See the article Anthro¬
pophagi. They are reprefented, however, as the
moft barbarous and fierce of all nations. Ihey were
not governed by laws ; the care of their cattle was
their chief employment. 'I heir drefs was like that of
the Scythians; and they had a language peculiar to
themfelves.
ANDROPOGON, or Man’s-Beard. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ANDROS, one of the ancient Cyclades, lying be-
tween Tenedos and Euboea : being one mile diftant
from the former, and ten from the latter. The ancients
gave it various names, viz. Cauros, Lafia, Nonagria,
Epagris, Antandros, and Hydrufia. The name of
Andros it received from one Andreus, appointed, ac¬
cording to Diodorus Siculus, by Rhadamanthus, one
of the generals, to govern the Cyclades, after they had
of their own accord fubmitted to him. As to the name
of Antandros, the fame author tells us, that Afcanius
the fon of iEneas, being taken prifoner by the Pelaf-
gians, gave them this illand for his ranfom, which on
that account was called Antandros, or “ delivered for
one man.” *1 he name of Hydrufa it obtained in com¬
mon with other places well fupplied with water. It
had formerly a city of great note, bearing the fame
name, and fituated very advantageoully on the brow
of a hill, which commanded the whole coaft. In this
city, according to Strabo and Pliny, flood a famous
temple dedicated to Bacchus. Near this temple, Mu-
tianus, as quoted by Pliny, tells us, there was a fpring
called the gift of Jupiter ; the water of which had the
tafte of wine in the month of January, during the
feaft of Bacchus, which lafted feven days. I he lame
author adds, that the waters, if carried to a place
whence the temple could not be feen, loft their mira¬
culous tafte. Paufanias makes no mention of this
fpring ; but fays, that, during the feaft of Bacchus,
wine flowed, or was at leaft by the Andrians believed
to flow, from the temple of that god. The priefts, no
doubt, found their account in keeping up this belief,
by conveying, through fecret conduits, a great quan¬
tity of wine into the temple.
The Andrians were the firft of all the iflanders who
joined
Androiii- j
cus
11
Andros.
Andros
AND
Andros, joined the Perfians at the time Xerxes invaded Greece j
' and therefore Themiftocles, after the viftory at Sala-
mis, refolved to attack the city of Andros, and oblige
the inhabitants to pay large contributions for the main¬
tenance of his fleet. Having landed his men on the
ifland, he fent heralds to the magiftrates, acquainting
them, that the Athenians were coming againft them
with two powerful divinities, perfuafion and force; and
therefore they muft part with their money by fair
means or foul. The Andrians replied, That they like-
wife had two mighty deities who were very fond of
their ifland, viz. poverty and impojjibility; and there¬
fore could give no money. Themiftocles, not fatisfied
with this anfwer, laid fiege to the town ; which he
probably made himfelf matter of and deftroyed, as we
are informed by Plutarch, that Pericles, a few years
after, fent thither a colony of 250 Athenians. It was,
however, foon retaken by. the Perflans ; and, on the
overthrow of that empire by Alexander the Great,
fubmitted to him, along with the other iflands. On
his death it fided with Antigonus, who was driven out
by Ptolemy. The fucceflbrs of the laft mentioned
prince held it till the time of the Romans ; when At¬
tains, king oT Pergamus, befieged the metropolis at
the head of a Roman army ; and, having taken it,
was by them put in pofleflion of the whole ifland. Up¬
on the death of Attains the republic claimed this
ifland, as well as his other dominions, in virtue of his
laft will.
Andros is now fubjeft to the Turks •, and contains
a town of the fame name, with a great many villages.
It is the moft fruitful ifland in all the Archipelago,
and yields a great quantity of filk. There are faid to
be about 12,000 inhabitants, befides thofe of the vil¬
lages Arni and Amoldeos, who are about two hundred,
have a different language and cuftoms, and are called
Albanois. There are feven monafteries, a great num¬
ber of churches, and a cathedral for the biftiops of the
Roman Catholic perfuafion j but moft of the inhabi¬
tants are of the Greek communion. The Jefuits had
a houfe and a church in this ifland •, but they were
forced to quit them long ago. Here are fome delight¬
ful valleys j but the air is bad, and the water of the
city worfe. The women would be agreeable enough,
if it was not for their drefs, which is very unbecoming •,
for they fluff out their clothes without the leaft regard
to their fliape : but the Albanefe women make a much
better appearance. The peafants make wicker-balkets,
wherewith they fupply the greateft part of the Ar¬
chipelago. They have all forts of game in the woods
and mountains, but know not how to take them for
want of guns. Their principal food is goats flefti ; for
there is no fifh to be met with on their coafts. When
they are fick, they are obliged to let the difeafe take
its natural courfe, having neither phyfician nor furgeon
on the ifiand. A cadi, aflifted by a few of the prin¬
cipal perfons of the ifland, has the management of ci¬
vil affairs, and his refidence is in the caftle : an aga,
who prefides over the military force, lives in a tower
without the city. About two miles from the nrefent
town are ftill to be feen the ruins of a ftrong wall, with
the fragments of many columns, chapiters, bafes, bro¬
ken ftatues, and feveral infcriptions, fome of which
mention the fenate and people of Andros, and the
Vol. II. Part I.
A N r E
priefts of Bacchus; from which it is probable that this
was the ftte of the ancient city. E. Long. 2C. 20. 11
N. Lat. 37. 50. * ( Anee.
Andros, in Ancient Geography, an ifland in the v"“
Irifti fea (Pliny), called Hedros by Ptolemy. Now
Bardfey, diftant about a mile from the coaft of North
Wales. i
ANDROSACE. See Botany Index.
ANDRUIY1, a kind of. hydrocele, to which the
people of Malabar are very fubjefl.—Its origin is de¬
rived from the bad quality of the country waters, im¬
pregnated with certain falls, the fource of raoft other
difeafes that affeft the Malabrians. Its figns, or fymp-
toms, are an eryfipelas of the fcrotum, returning every
new moon, by which the lymphatics, being eroded,
pour a ferous faline humour into its cavity. The an-
drum is incurable ; thofe once feized with it have it
for life ; but it is not dangerous nor very trouble-
fome to thofe ufed to it; though fometimes it dege¬
nerates into an hydrofarcocele. The method of pre¬
vention is by a heap of fand fetched from a river of
the province Mangatti, and ftrewed in the wells. This
is praftifed by the rich. As to the cure, they have
only a palliative one •, which is by incifion, or tapping,
and drawing off the wrater from the fcrotum, once in a
month or two.
ANDRYALA, Downy Sow-thistle. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ANDUXAR, a city in the province of Andalufia,
in Spain, fituated on the Guadalquiver, It is pretty
large, indifferently rich, and defended by a good caf¬
tle. It is adorned with handfome churches and feve¬
ral religious houfes, and inhabited by many families of
high rank. The land about it abounds in corn, wine,
oil, honey, and fruit of all forts ; and the inhabitants
carry on a confiderable trade in filk. W. Long. 4. 2.
N. Lat. 37. 45.
ANDUZE, a town of France, in the department of
the Card, feated on the river Garden. It carries on a
confiderable trade in ferges and woollen cloth. E.
Long. 3. 42. N. Lat. 43. 39. ,
ANECDOTE, (Anecdotaf a term ufed by fome
authors for the titles of Secret Hifories : but it more
properly denotes a relation of detached and interefting
particulars. The word is Greek, u-ny^orm., q. d. things
not yet known or hitherto kept fecret. Procopius gives
this title to a book which he publilhed againft Juftini-
an and his wife Theodora •, and he feems to be the
only perfon among the ancients who has reprefented
princes fuch as they are in their domeftic relation.—
Varillas-has publiflied Anecdotes of the Houfe of Me-
dicis.
Anecdotes is alfo an appellation given to fuch
works of the ancients as have not yet been publiftied.
In which fenfe, M. Muratori gives the name Anecdota
Greeca to feveral writings of the Greek fathers, found
in the libraries, and firft publiftied by him.—F. Mar¬
lene has given a Thefaurus Anecdotarum Novus, in fo¬
lio, 5 vols.
ANEE, in commerce, a meafure for grain, ufed in
fome provinces of France. At Lyons it fignifies alfo
a certain quantity of wine, which is the load an afs can
carry at once : which is fixed at 80 Englifh quarts, wine
meafure.
U u ANEMOMETER,
[ 337 1
mJ
* Plate
XXXIII.
fis- 2-
A N E [33
ANEMOMETER, in Mechanics, implies a ma¬
chine for meafuring the force and velocity of the
•wind.
Various machines of this kind have been invented at
different times, and by different perfons. The follow¬
ing has been often experienced, and found to anfwer
the intention. #
An open frame of wood, ABCDEFGHI , is fup-
ported by the {haft or arbor I. In the two crofs-pieces
HK, LM, is moved a horizontal axis QM, by means
of the four fails ah, cm, Of, gh, expofed to the wind
in a proper manner. Upon this axis is fixed a cone of
wood, MNO ; upon which, as the fails move round, a
weight R, or S, is raifed by a firing round its fuper-
ficies, proceeding from the fmaller to the larger end
NO. Upon this larger end or bafe of the cone, is
fixed a rocket-wheel k, in whofe teeth the click X
falls, to prevent any retrograde motion from the de¬
pending weight. .
The ftruQure of this machine fufficiently (hows that
it may be accommodated to eftimate the variable force
of the wind j becaufe the force of the weight will con¬
tinually increafe as the firing advances on the conical
furface, by atffing at a greater diftance from the axis
of motion j confequenlly, if fuch a weight be added
on the fmaller part M, as will juft keep the machine
in equilibrio in the w7eakeft wind, the weight to be
raifed, as the wind becomes ftronger, will be increafed
in proportion, and the diameter of the cone NO may
be fo large in comparifon to that of the fmaller end at
M, that the ftrongeft wind (hall but juft raife the
weight at the greater end.
If, for example, the diameter of the axis be to that
of the bafe of the cone NO as 1 to 28 j then, if S be a
weight of one pound at M on the axis, it will be equi¬
valent to 28 pounds when raifed to the greater end :
if therefore, when the wind is weakeft, it fupports one
pound on the axis, it muft be 28 times as ftrong as to
raife the weight to the bafe of the cone. If therefore a.
line or fcale of 28 equal parts be drawn on the fide of
the cone, the ftrength of the wind will be indicated
bv that number on which the firing refts.
" ANEMONE, Wind-flower. See Botany /«-
dex.
Sea-ANEMONE. See ANIMAL-Flower.
ANEMOSCOPE, a machine that (hows either the
courfe or velocity of the wind. (See alfo the article
Wind-GAUGE).
The machine which (hows the courfe of the wind,
or from what point of the compafs it blows, confifts
of an index moving about an upright circular plate,
like the dial of a clock, on which the 32 points.of
the compafs are drawn inftead of the hours. I he in¬
dex, which points to the divifions on the dial, is turn¬
ed by a horizontal axis, having a trundle-head at its
external extremity. This trundle-head is moved by a
cog-wheel on a perpendicular axis ; on the top of which
a vane is fixed, that moves with the courfe of the wind,
and puts the whole machine in motion. The whole
contrivance is extremely fimple ; and nothing required
in the conftruaion, but that the number of cogs in the
wheel, and rounds in the trundle-head, be equal ; be¬
caufe it is neceffary, that, when the vane moves en¬
tirely round, the index of the dial al.fo make a com¬
plete revolution,—An anemofeope of this kind is placed
]
A N E
8
in one of the turrets of the queen’s palace. The ane¬
mofeope, calculated for indicating the force or velocity
of the wind is the fame with what moft writers call an ~"
ane?nometer; and rve have accordingly deferibed one of
thofe machines under that article. We fliall here add
another, contrived by the late Mr Pickering, and
publiftied in the Philofophical Tranfaflions, N° 473.
This anemofeope is a machine four feet and a quarter
high, confifiing of a broad and weighty pedeftal, a
pillar faftened into it, and an iron axis of about half an
inch diameter faftened into the pillar. Upon this axis
turns a wooden tube j at the top of which is placed a
vane, of the fame materials, 2J inches long, confiding
of a quadrant, graduated, and (hod with an iron rim,
notched to each degree j and a counterpoife of wood,
as in the figure, on the other. Through the centre of
the quadrant runs an iron pin, upon which are faftened
two {mail round pieces of wood, which ferve as move-
able radii to deferibe the degrees upon the quadrant,
and1 as handles to a velum or fail, whofe pane is one
foot fquare, made of canvas, ftretched upon four bat¬
tens, and painted. On the upper batten, next to the
{hod rim of the quadrant, is a fmall fpring which catch¬
es at every notch correfponding to each degree, as the
wind (hall, by prefling againft the fail, raife it up ■, and
prevents the falling back of the fail, upon leffening of
the force of the wind. At the bottom of the wooden
tube, is an iron index, which moves round a circular
piece of wood faftened to the top of the pillar on the
pedeftal, on which are defcribed the 32 points of
the compafs. The figure of this machine is given on
Plate XXXIII. fig. 3. where a is the pedeftal ; b, the
pillar on which the iron axis is fitted ; c, the circle of
wood, on which are defcribed the 3 2 .points of the com¬
pafs •, e, the wooden tube upon its axis •, f, the velum j
g, the graduated quadrant •, h, the counterpoife of the
vane. The adjoining figure reprefents the velum,
which takes off: a is the plane of the velum b, the
fpring j cc, the wooden radii 5 dd, the holes through
which the pin in the centre of the quadrant goes. Its
ufes are the following.
I. Having a circular motion round the iron axis,
and being furniftied wffth a vane at top, and index at
the bottom, when once you have fixed the artificial car¬
dinal points, defcribed on the round piece of wood, on
the pillar, to the fame quarters of the heavens, it gives
a faithful account of that quarter from which the wind
blows. 2. By having a velum or fail elevated by the
wind along the arch of the quadrant to a height pro¬
portionable to the power of the column of wind .prefling
againft it, the relative force of the wind, and its com¬
parative power, at any two times of examination, may
be accurately taken. 3. By having a fpring fitted to
the notches of the iron with which the quadrant is (hod,
the velum is prevented from returning back upon the
fall of the wind ; and the machine gives the force to
the higheft blaft, fince the laft time of examination,
without the trouble of watching it.
The ingenious contriver of this machine tells us,
that he carefully examined what dependence may be
had upon it, during the ftorms of February 1743-4J
and found that it anfwered exceedingly well ; for that,
in fuch winds as the failors call violent forms, the ma¬
chine had fix degrees to fpare for a more violent guft,
before it comes to a horizontal pofition. It is cer¬
tainly
AneTt-
fcope.
A N G [ 339 ] A N G
Anethum tainly to be depended upon in ordinary weather, the
|| velum being hung fo tenderly as to feel the inoft gen-
Ange*‘ tie breeze. There is however realon to fear, that the
v expoling the anemofeope to all winds for a continuance,
muft diforder it, efpecially irregular blafts and fqualls.
It may not therefore be amifs, in violent weather, for
■ the oblerver to take the tube with its vane and velum
in his hand, in order to know the force of the wind;
and when he has finilhed his obfervations, to carry the
machine into the houfe, till the violence of the ftorm
is abated, when it may be placed in its former litua-
tion.
ANETHUM, Dill and Fknnll. See Botany
Jndex.
ANEURISM, in Surgery, a throbbing tumor, di-
ftended with blood, and formed by a dilatation or rupture
of an artery. See Surgery Index.
ANGARI, or Angarii, in antiquity, denote pu¬
blic couriers, appointed for the carrying of meflages.
The ancient Perfians, Budaeus obferves, had their
wyya.giiM ; which was a fet of couriers on horfe-
back, potted at certain Rages or dittances, always in
readinefs to receive the difpatches from one, and for¬
ward them to another, with wonderful celerity, anfwer-
ing to what the moderns call pojts, q. d. pofiti, as being
potted at certain places or Rages. The angari were
alfo called by the Perfians ajlandx; by the Greeks
on account of the long journeys they made
in one day, which, according to Suidas, amounted not
to lefs than 1500 fladia.
ANGARIA, in Roman antiquity, a kind of public
fervice impofed on the provincials, which confided in
providing horfes and carriages for the conveyance of
military flores and other public burdens. It is fome-
times alfo ufed for a guard of foldiers, poRed for the de¬
fence of a place. In a more general fenfe it is ufed for
any kind of oppreflion, or fervices performed through
42ompulfion.
ANGAZYA, one of the Comora iflands, lying
between the north end of Madagafcar and the coaR
of Zanguebar in Africa, from Lat. io° to 150 S. It
is inhabited by Moors, who trade with fivers parts of
the continent, in cattle, fruits, and other commodities
of the iRand; which they exchange for eallicoes and
other cotton cloths. The houfes here are built of Rone,
and lime made of calcined oyfler fliells; with which
the walls and roof are plaflered in a very elegant man¬
ner. The government of Angazya is a pure ariflocra-
cy j the ifland being fubjeft to ten lords, who have all
the. title of Su/tan. The people are very careful of
their women ; never permitting flrangers to fee them,
without permiflion from a fultan, or an order which
the flranger brings with him. Many of them read and
write Arabic with great facility : and fome even under-
Rand Portuguefe, which they learn from their inter-
courfe with Mofambique, whither they trade in veffels
of 40 tons burden.
ANGEIOPOMY, in Surgery, implies the opening
a vein or artery, as in bleeding ; and confequently in¬
cludes both arteriotomy and phlebotomy.
. ANGEL, a fpiritual intelligent fubRance, the firR
m rank and dignity among created beings. The word
Agge/ is Greek, and fignifies a mejjenger: the Hebrew
“'tK n Signifies the fame thing. The angels are in Da¬
rnel (chap. iv. ver. 13, &c.) called o'sr, or watchers,
irom their vigilance : for the lame reafon they are, in An^el.
the remains we have of the prophecy attributed to ’ - -1
Enoch, named Egregori; which word imports the fame
in Greek.
Angels, therefore, in the proper fignification of the
word, do not import the nature of any being, but only
the ofiice to which they are appointed, efpecially by
way of melfage or intercourfe between God and his
creatures ; in which fenfe they are called the niinijlers
of God, who do his pleafure, and minijleringfpirits fent
forth to minifler for them who {hall be heirs of falva-
tion. That there are fuch beings as we call angels,
that is, certain permanent fubRances, invifible and im¬
perceptible to our fenfes, endued with underRanding
and power fuperior to that of human nature, created by-
God, and fubjeft to him as the Supreme Being; mi-
r ill ring to his divine providence in the government of
the world by his appointment, and more efpecially at¬
tending the affiirs of mankind ; is a truth fo fully at-
teRed by Scripture, that it cannot be doubted. Nay,
the exiRence of fuch invifible beings was, generally
acknowledged by the ancient heathens, though under
different appellations : the Greeks called them demonsi
and the Romans genii, or lares. Epicurus feems to
have been the only one among the old philofophers
who absolutely reje&ed them. Indeed, the belief of
middle intelligences influencing the affairs of the world,
and ferving as miniflers or interpreters between God
and man, is as extenfive as the belief of a God ; having
never, fo far as we know, been called in queflion by
thofe who had any religion at all.
I he creation of angels is not indeed exprefsly men- when crea-
tioned by Mofes in the firR of Genefis, yet it is gene-ted.
rally confidered by judicious expofitors as implied. The
reafon why the facred hiflorian is filent on this fubjeft,
is fuppofed by Berrington to be the natural pronenefs
of the.Gentile world, and even of the Jews, to idolatry*. * 0n the
And it is thought, if they worlhipped mere material Creation,
elements, which was the cafe, much more might they P- 8l-
be inclined to worfliip fuch fuperior and fublime beings Seealfo
as angels. But a better reafon is perhaps given by °n
other writers, viz. that this firfl hiflory was purpofely
and principally for information concerning the vifible
world ; the invifible, of which we know but in part,
being referved for a better lifef. ’3 AJfem-
On what day they were created has been matter ofbly'sAnnot.
conjefture. It is a point on which learned men have 672 Gen‘i-
differed. The Socinians, indeed, hold, fays Bilhop'^0'
Hopkins f, that it was long berore the account given by + Work
Mofes : but it muR have been within the fix days crea-p. 50c/5
tion ; becaufe, as we are informed, that within this fpace'
God made heaven and earth, and all things that are
therein.. All the writers that we have feen on this fub-
jeft, think they were included in the firR day’s work,
when the heavens were framed.
It has been thought by fome perfons, that the words
of Job, “ When the morning flars fang together, and
all the fons of God fliouted for joy,” militate againft
the creation of angels within the fix days. About the
meaning of thefe words, however, expofitors are not
agreed ; but admitting that they refer literally to an¬
gels, Dr Lightfoot, Caryl, and others, fee no difficulty
in the paffage. The Do6lor thinks they were created
on the firfl day Avith the heavens; and that they Avere
fpedlatorsof God’s Avorksin the other parts of the creation,
U u 2 and
A N G
[ 34° ]
A N G
Ano-el. and praifed and magnified the Lord for las works all
——y——j along $ finging and (houting when God laid the founda¬
tion of the temple, Ezra iii.
On a fubjeft of this nature it would be imprudent
to indulge a fpirit of conjeaure 5 Scripture is the only
ftandard by which truth and error can be tried, and to
this we muft ultimately appeal. It is acknowledged
that Mofes has not exprefsly mentioned angels by name 5
yet, as we have remarked, their creation is undoubted¬
ly implied; for the heavens mult include all that are-in
them ; and therefore it is that the divine penman fays,
in the conclufion of his narrative, “ Thus the heavens
and the earth were finifhed, and all the holt of them.”
Of the liojl of heaven, the angels muft form a confider-
able part; they are exprefsly called the heavenl 1/ hojl,
and the armies of heaven, Dan. iv. 3 5* Luke ii. 13.
And if divine authority be admitted as decifive, the
reafons adduced by Jehovah for the fanftification of
fabbath, demonttrate that they did not exift previous
to the creation of the heavens. It is, furely, afiferted
with propriety, that in fix days the Lord made heaven
and earth, the fea, and all that in them is. Similar
to which is a declaration of the divine hiftorian relating
to the fame faft.—“ And God bleffed the feventh day,
and fanaified it ; becaufe that in it he had refted from
all his work which God created and made, Gen.
ii. 3. Now if angels exifted prior to the fix days of
creation, the language of Mofes is far from being ac¬
curate and intelligible ; and efpecially when it is con-
fidered that the obfeurity might have been removed by
adding, “ from all the work which God had then crea¬
ted and made.”
But if angels were created before the heavens, where
« Boct. Di- could they exift ? For, as the learned Gill || has remark-
‘ ' e(^ n though angels have no bodies, and fo are not in
place circumfcriptively ; yet as they are creatures, they
mud have an ubi, a fomewhere in which they are de¬
finitely ; fo that they are here, and not there, and much
lefs everywhere : Now where was there an ubi, a fome¬
where for them to exift in, before the heavens and the
earth were made ? It is moft reafonable,_ therefore, to
conclude, that as God prepared an habitation for all the
living creatures before he made them ; as the fea for the
fifties, the expanfe, or air, for the fowls, and the earth
for men and beafts; fo he made the heavens firft, and
then the angels to dwell in them.
That this was the fa&, will appear very evident, it
the words of Mofes be impartially confidered. “ In
the beginning (fays he), God created the heavens and
the earth ;” which words muft refer either to the be¬
ginning of creation or of time: if to the former,, and
angels previouflv exitted, the language is neither intel¬
ligible nor conformable to truth; if to the latter, the
difficulty remains ; for what is time but the meafure of
created exiftence. “ Time (fays the judicious Lhar-
nock *) began with the foundation of the world : be¬
fore the beginning of the creation and the beginning
of time, there could be nothing but eternity : nothing
but what was uncreated, that is, nothing but what was
without beginning.” But if angels were in a pre-ex-
iftent ftate, the hiftorian’s language is unaccountably
•vin. vol
p. 422
* Works,
vol. i. n 2
ftrange and inaccurate : for if the phrafe in the begin- Angel.
ning, which is remarkably emphatical, refer to the 
creation of the heavens and the earth only, they are
unhappily expreffed ; fo expreffed, indeed, as to con¬
vey no meaning to thofe who confider words as the
vehicle of thought, and as intended to exprefs clearly
to others the meaning of the writer. For the natural
obvious fenfe is as follows—“ In the beginning of the
creation of the heavens and the earth, God created
the heavens and the earth ;” which language is not on¬
ly a departure from that perfpicuity and precifion which
diftinguiffi all his narrations, but entirely irrational and
abfurd.
That the words in the beginning refer to the firfl
creation, cannot be doubted, if it be remembered, that
Jehovah himfelf founds a cfeim to eternity on this
very ground: “ Before the day was, I am he.”—
“ Before the mountains were brought forth, or ever
thou had ft formed the earth and the world, even from •
everlaftmg to everlafting thou art God, Ila. xliii. I3»
Pfal. ix. 2. See alfo Prov. vni. 22, 23» &c. Now
there'could be no propriety in this kind of reafoning,
if angels or any other creature exifted before the crea¬
tion of the world, becaufe all claims to eternity from
fuch premifes would apply even to Gabriel as well as
to Jehovah. “ Before the world was,” is, in Scrip¬
ture language, a phrafe always expreflive of eternity.;
and on this principle the evangelift John afferts the di¬
vinity of Jefus Chrift in the firft chapter of his hiftory.
For this purpofe he alludes to the words of Mofes, and
introduces his divine mafter to notice by celebrating
the firft aft of his creative power. “ In the beginning
(fays he) was the Word,” that is, Dr Doddridge re¬
marks §, before the foundation of the world, or the § Family
firft produftion of any creature : and Dr Sherlock t is *W£or-
clearly of opinion, that the words, in their moft.
mon and ufual acceptation, fignify the firft creation of Chrifs
all things, and are a demonftration of the divinity oiDivin. p.
Chrift. Of the fame mind was Dr Owen. He fays, See
that if the phrafe beginning does not abfolutely and for- ^ f
mally exprefs eternity, yet it doth a pre-exiftence to the ^
whole creation, which amounts to the'fame thing ; for
nothing can pre-exift before allcreatuies but the nature
of God, which is eternal, unlefs we fuppofe a creature
before the creation of any. But what is meant by this-
expreffion is fully declared by other paffages of Scrip¬
ture: “ I was fet up from everlafting, before the
ginmng, or ever the earth was;” <4 Glorify thou me
with thine own felf, with the glory which I had with
thee before the world was;” both which-paffages not
only explain the text, but undeniably prove the pre-
exiftence of Chrift the Son of God *. It ftiould be re- ^
membered, that, in the paffage under confideration, the jyjmty,
evangelift’s argument for the divinity of Jefus Chrift isp. 43.
grounded on his pre-exlfting the creation of the world ;
and it is confequently afferted, that he is the creator, of
all things : but if angels had a being before the period
to which he alludes, the argument lofes all its force, and
no more proves the divinity of Chrift than the divinity
of an angel (a),
If, therefore, the words of Mofes be impartially
viewed
* On the
(A-) Of this Socinus and his followers were aware; and therefore they endeavoured to evade the fo™ of
4
Angel.
Their na¬
ture, power,
employ¬
ment, &c.
A N G [ 34i ]
viewed in their natural obvious meaning, and compared fhown them,
with other paffages of Scripture that relate to the fame
fubje£t, we have no doubt but every unprejudiced mind
will perceive, that as he intended to give a fummary
hillory of the creation of all things both in heaven and
in earth, he has done it in language intelligible and ac¬
curate, and in terms fufficiently explicit.
As to the nature of thefe beings, we are told, that
'they are fpirits : but whether pure fpirits divefted of all
matter, or United to fome thin bodies or corporeal ve¬
hicles, has been a controverfy of long Handing. Not
only the ancient philofophers, but fome of the Chritlian
fathers, were of opinion that angels were clothed with
ethereal or fiery bodies, of the fame nature with thofe
which we (hall one day have when we come to be equal
to them. But the more general opinion, efpecially of
later times, has been, that they are fubftances entirely
fpiritual, though they can at any time affume bodies,
and appear in human or other fhapes.
That the angelical powers and abilities vaflly excel
thofe of man, cannot be denied, if we confider, that
their faculties are not clogged or impeded, as ours
are, by any of thofe imperfections which are infeparable
from corporeal being: fo that their underftandings are
always in perfect vigour j their inclinations regular •,
their motions itrong and quick ; their aftions irrefift-
ible by material bodies, whole natural qualities they
can controul, or manage to their pprpofes, and occa-
fion either bleflings or calamities, public or private,
here below 5 inftances of which are too numerous to
fnention.
Befides their attendance on God, and their waiting
and executing of his commands, they are alfo prefumed
to be employed in taking care of mankind and their
concerns : and that every man had fuch a tutelar or
guardian angel, even from his birth, was a firm belief
and tradition among the Jews; and our Saviour him-
felf feems to have been of the fame fentiment. The
heathens were alfo of the fame perfuafion, and thought
it a crime to neglefl the admonitions of fo divine a
guide. Socrates publicly confeffed himfelf to be un¬
der the direction of fuch an angel, or demon, as feve-
ral others have fince done. And on this tutelar genius
of each perfon they believed his happinefs and for¬
tune depended. Every genius did his belt for the in-
tereft of his client; and if a man came by the word,
it was a fign the ftrength of his genius was inferior to
that of his opponent, that is, of an inferior order ;
and this was governed by chance. There were fome
genii, whofe afcendant was fo great over others, that
their very prefence entirely difconcerted them ; which
was the cafe of that of Auguftus in refpeft of that
bf Mark Antony ; and for the fame reafon, perhaps
fome perfons have wit, and fpeak well, when others are
abfent, in whofe prefence they are confounded, and out
of countenance. The Romans thought the tutelar ge¬
nii of thofe who attained the empire to be of an emi--
nent order; on which account they had great honours
Angel.
A N G
Nations and cities alfo had their feveral
genii. The ancient Perfians fo firmly believed the mi-«—-y—■
niilry of angels, and their fuperintendance over human
affairs, that they gave their names to their months, and
the days of their months; and affigned them diftindt of¬
fices and provinces : and it is from them the Jews con-
fefs to have received the names of the months and an¬
gels, which they brought with them when they return¬
ed from the Babylonifh captivity. After which, we
find they alfo afligned charges to the angels, and in
particular the patronage of empires and nations ; Mi¬
chael being the prince of the Jews, as Raphael is fup-
pofed to have been of the Perfians.
The Mahometans have fo great a refpedl for the
angels, that they account a man an infidel who either
denies their exilfence, or loves them not. They believe
them to be free from fin, enjoying the prefence of God,'
to whom they are never difobedient : that they have
fubtle pure bodies, being created of light; and have
no difiindlion of fexes, nor do they need the refrefh- ^
ment of food or fleep. They fuppofe them to have dif¬
ferent forms and offices: That fome adore God in fe¬
veral poftures ; others fing his praifes, and intercede'
for men ; fome carry and encompafs his throne ; others
write the a&ions of men, and are affigned guardians to '
them.
As the number of thefe celeftial fpirits is very
great, it is likewife reafonable to believe that there
are feveral orders and degrees among them, which is
alfo confirmed by Scripture; whence fome fpeculative
men have diftributed them into nine orders, according
to-the different names by which they are there called ;
and reduced thefe orders into three hierarchies, as they
call them ; o the firlt of which belong feraphim, che¬
rubim, and thrones ; to the fecond, dominions, virtues,-
and powers; and to the third, principalities, archan¬
gels, and angels. They imagine, farther, that there
are fome who conftantly refide in heaven ; others who
are minifters, and fent forth, as there is occafion, to'
execute the orders they receive from God by the form¬
er. 1 he Jews reckon but four orders or companies of
angels, each headed by an archangel ; the firll order
being that of Michael, the fecond of Gabriel, the third
of Uriel, and the fourth of Raphael ; but though the
Jews believe them to be four, yet it feems there were
rather feven. 1 he Perfians alfo held, there wer^ fub-
ordinate degrees among the angels.
Although the angels were originally created perfe<R,! Of the faU
good; and obedient to their Mafter’s will, yet fome of^en angels-
them finned, and kept not their firfi eftate, but left
their habitation ; and fo, of the moft bleffed and glo¬
rious, became the moft vile and miferable of all God’s
creatures. They were expelled the regions of light,
and call down to hell, to be referved in everlaftino'
chains under darknefs, until the day of judgment.
With heaven they loft their heavenly difpofition, which
delighted once in doing good and praifing God; and
'a fettled rancour againft him, and malice
, ! againft
fell into
the apoftle’s reafoning, by interpreting the phrafe in the beginning either in a figurative fenfe, or as referring to
the beginning of John the Baptift’s miniftry. We will only fubjoin, that we do not remember to have feen any
^r!ter, eviate *rom primary obvious meaning of the. paffage, who had not fome hypothefis to fupport inimicai
to truth.
A N G
again ft men their inward peace was gone *, all defire
of doing good departed from them ; and, inftead there¬
of, revengeful thoughts and defpair took pofleffion of
them, and created an eternal hell within them.
When, and for what offence, thefe apoftate fpirits
fell from heaven, and plunged themfelves.into fuch an
abyfs of wickednqfs and woe, .are queftions very hard,
if not impoffible to be determined by any clear evi¬
dence of Scripture. As to the time, we are certain
that it could not be before the fixth day of creation •,
becaufe on that day it is faid, “ God faw every thing
that he had made, and behold it was very good but
that it was not long after it is very probable, as it muft
have preceded the fall of our firft parents. Some have
imagined it to have been after j and that carnality, or
lulling to converfe with women upon earth, was the
lin which ruined them : an opinion (b) built upon a
mi (taken interpretation of Scripture, as if angels were
meant by the fons of God who are faid to have begotten
the mighty men of old on the daughters of men. O-
thers have fuppofed, that the angels, being informed of
God’s intention to create man after his own image,
and to dignify his nature by Chrift’s affuming of it,
and thinking their glory to be eclipfed thereby, en¬
vied man’s happinefs, and fo revolted *, and with this
opinion that of the Mahometans has fome affinity ;
who are taught, that the devil, who was once one of
thofe angels who are neareft to God’s prefence, and
named forfeited paradife for refilling to pay
homage to Adam at the command of God. . But on
what occafion foever it firll fhowed itfelf, pride feems
to have been the leading fin of the angels j who, ad¬
miring and valuing themfelves too much on the ex¬
cellence of their nature and the height of their ftation,
came at length to entertain fo little refpeft for their
Creator, as to be guilty of downright rebellion and
apoftafy.
It is certain from Scripture, that thefe fallen angels
were in great numbers, and that there were alfo fome
order and fubordination preferved among them ; one
cfpecially being confidered as their prince, and called
by feveral names, Beelzebub, Satan, or Sammael by the
Jews ; Ahdrimam by the Perfians; and Kbits by the
Mahometans. Their conftant employment is not only
doing evil themfelves, but endeavouring by all arts and
means to feduce and pervert mankind, by tempting
them to all kind of fin, and thereby bringing them in¬
to the fame defperate llate with themfelves.
Angel is likewife a title given to bilhops of feveral
churches. In this fenfe St Paul is underftood by fome
authors, where he fays, Women ought to be covered in
A N G
the church, becaufe of the angels. The learned Dr Ah^I
Prideaux obferves, that the miniller of the fynagogue, jj
who officiated in offering up the public prayers, being Angeiltes-
the mouth of the congregation, delegated by them as
their reprefentative, meffeitger, or angel, to fpeak to
God in prayer for them, was therefore, in the He¬
brew language, called the angel of the church ; and
from thence the bilhops of the feven churches of Alia
are, by a name borrowed from the fynagogue, called
the angels of thofe churches.
Angel, in commerce, the name of a gold coin for¬
merly current in England. It had its name from the
figure of an angel reprefented upon it, weighed four
pennyweights, and was twenty-three and a half carats
fine. It had different values in different reigns ; but
is at prefent only an imaginary fum, or money of ac¬
count, implying ten (hillings.
ANGEL-fJh, See Squalus, Ichthyology Index.
ANGELIC, or Angelical, fomething belonging
to, or that partakes of, the nature of angels. We lay
an angelical Wie, &c. St Thomas is ftyled the angelical
dollar. The angelical falutation is called by the Ro-
manifts Avc Maria; fometimes fimply angelus.
Angelic Garment (Angelica vejlis), among our an-
cellors, was a monkilh garment, which laymen put on
a little before their death, that they might have the
benefit of the prayers of the monks. It was from them
called angelical, becaufe they were called angeh, who by
thefe prayers animee faluti fuccurrebant. Plence, where
we read the phrafe monachus ad fuccurrendum in our
old books, it muft be underftood of one who had put
on the habit when he was at the point of death.
ANGELICA. See Botany Index.
ANGELICS, Angelici, in church hiftory, an an¬
cient feet of heretics, fuppofed by fome to have got this
appellation from their exceffive veneration of angels 5
and by others, from their maintaining that the world
was created by angels.
Angelics is alfo the name of an order of knights,
inftituted in xipijby Angelus Flavius Comnenus, em¬
peror of Conftantinople.
Angelics is alfo a congregation of nuns, founded
at Milan in 1534, by Louifa Torelli, countefs of Gua-
ftalla. They oblerve the rule of St Auguftine.
ANGELITES, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a feft of
Chriftian heretics, in the reign of the emperor Analla-
fius, and the pontificate of Symmachus, about the year
494, fo called from Angelium, a place in the city of
Alexandria, where they held their firft meetings. A hey
were called likewife-SewrzteJ-, from one Severus, who
was the head of their fe£l as alfo Theodofians, from
^ one
t 342 ]
fBj This opinion feems to have been originally occafioned by fome copies of the Septuagint, which, m the
days of St Auftin, had in this place the angels of God. LaSantius fuppofes the angels, who were guilty of this
enormity, had been fent down by God to guard and take care of mankind ; and being endued with iree-will,
were charged by him not to forfeit the dignity of their celeftial nature, by defiling themfelves with the corrup¬
tions of the earth ; but that the devil at length enticed them to debauch themfelves with women. He ados, that
not being admitted into heaven by reafon of the wickednefs into which they had plunged themfelves, they ieli
down to the earth, and became the devil’s minifters ; but that thofe who were begotten by them, being neither
an eels nor men, but of a middle nature, were not received into hell, no more than their.parents were into hea¬
ven. Hence arofe two kinds of demons, celeftial and terreftrial. Thefe are unclean fpints, the authors of what¬
ever evils are committed, and whofe prince is the devil. From hence very probably proceeded the notions 0.
Incubi, or demons who are fuppofed to have carnal knowledge of women.
Angelo,
Angelos
A N G [ 343
one among them named Theodofiu?, whom they made
pope at Alexandria. They held, that the perfons of
- the Trinity are not the fame; that none of them exifts
of himfelf, and of his own nature; but that there is a
common god or deity, exifling in them all, and that
each is God, by a participation of this deity.
ANGELO, Michael. There were five celebrated
Italian painters of this name, who flourilhed in the 16th
and 17th centuries; but the two moft diftinguilhed of
them are thefe.—Firft, Michael Angelo Buonarotti,
who. was a moft incomparable painter, fculptor, and
architeft, born in 1474, in the territory of Arezzi in
Tufcany. He was the difciple of Dominico Ghirlan¬
daio ; and eretfted an academy of painting and fculpture
in Florence, under the prote&ion of Lorenzo di Me-
dicis; which, upon the troubles of that houfe, was obli¬
ged. to remove to Bologna. About this time he made
an image of Cupid, which he carried to Rome, broke
off one of its arms, and buried the image in a place he
knew would foon be dug up, keeping the arm by him.
It was accordingly found, and fold to Cardinal St Gre¬
gory for an antique ; until Michael, to their confufion
and his. own credit, difcovered his artifice, and con¬
firmed it by the deficient arm which he produced : it
is rather unufual for the manufacturers of antiques to
be fo ingenuous. His reputation was fo great at Rome,
that he was employed by Pope Sixtus to paint his cha¬
pel; and by the command of Pope Paul III. executed
•his moft celebrated.piece, TAe Lafl Judgment. He has
the character of being the greateft defigner that ever
lived ; and it is univerfally allowed that no painter ever
underftood anatomy fo well. He died immenfely rich
at Rome, in 1564.—Secondly, Michael Angelo de
Caravaggio, born at that village in Milan, in 1569.
He was at firft no more than a bricklayer’s labourer ;
but he was fo charmed with feeing fome painters at
work, that be immediately applied himfelf to the art;
and made fuch progrefs in a few years, that he was
admired as the author of a new ftyle of painting. It
was obferved of Michael Angelo Buonarotti, that he
was incomparable in defigning, but knew little of co¬
louring;.and of Caravaggio, that he had as good a gout
m colouring as he had a bad one in defigning. There
is one piClure^ of his in the Dominican church at Ant-
w-erp,. which Rubens ufed to call his mafter. It is faid
of this painte.r, that he was fo ftrangely contentious,
that the peucil was no fooner out of his "hand but his
iword was in it. He died in 1609.
Angelo, St, a fmall but ftrong town of Italy, in
the Capitanata. There are feveral other towns and
cables of the fame name in Italy, and particularly the
caftle of St Angelo at Rome. E. Long. 15. 56. N.
Lat. 41. 4^.
. ANGELOS, Los, a province of Mexico, the an¬
cient republic of Tlafcala, of which a city called T/aJ-
cnla was once the capital. That city is now reduced
to an inconfiderable village, and has given place to
anot er called. Pueb/a des /os Angelos, or the city of
nge s. It is fituated in W. Long. 103. 12. and
1 . Lat. 19. 13. It was formerly an Indian town;
U ln 'vas entire,y abandoned bv the natives-, on
account of the cruelties of the Spaniards. A fuc-
ii0? yiCer°y Mexico, by a milder treatment,
eca e t em; and 1 he town is now exceedingly rich
and populous, fo as even to vie with Mexico itfelf in
3
]
A N G
magnificence. It is fituated on the river Zacatula, in
a fine valley, about 25 leagues to the eaftward of Mex¬
ico. In the middle is a beautiful and fpacious fquare,
from whence run the principal ftreets in diredt lines,
which are croffed by others at right angles. One fide
is almoft entirely occupied by the magnificent front of
the cathedral; while the other three confift of piazzas,
under which are the Ihops of tradefmen. The city is
the fee of a biftiop, fuffragan to the a'rchbifhop of Mexi¬
co, and we may form a judgment of the wealth of the
place by the revenue of the cathedral and chapter,
which amounts to 300,000 pieces of eight annually.
It muft be remembered, however, that in all popifti
countries the wealth of the laity by no means bears the
fame proportion to that of the clergy as in Britain.
What contributes greatly to increafe the riches of this
province is, that here is fituated the city of Vera Cruz,
the natural centre of all the American treafures belong¬
ing to Spain. See Vera Cruz.
ANGELOT, an ancient Englith gold coin, ftruek
at Paris, while under fubjedlion to the Englith. It was
tnus called from the figure of an angel fupporting the
fcutcheon of the arms of England and France. There
was another coin of the fame denomination ftruck un¬
der Philip de Valois.
Angelot is alfo ufed in Commerce to denote a
fmall, fat, rich fort of cheefe, brought from Normandy.
Skinner fuppofes it to have been thus called from the
name of the perfon who firft made it up in that form,
and perhaps ftatnped it with his own name. Menage
takes it to have been denominated from the rcfemblance
it bears to the Englifh coin called angelot. It is made
chiefly in the Pays de Bray, whence it is alfo denomi¬
nated angelot de Bray. It is commonly made in vats,
either fquare or fhaped like a heart.
ANGER, a violent paflion of the mind, confifting
in a propenfity to take vengeance on the author of fome
real or fuppofed injujy done the offended party.
Anger is.either deliberative or inftin61ive ; and the
latter kind is rafti and ungovernable, becaufe it operates
blindly, without affording time for deliberation or fore¬
fight. Biftiop Butler very juftly obferves, that anger
is. far from.being a felfifti paflion, fince it is naturally ex¬
cited by injuries offered to others as well as to ourfelves;
and. was defigned.by the Author of nature not only to
excite us to a6t vigoroufly in defending ourfelves from
evil, but to intereft us in the defence or refeue of the
injured and helplefs, and to raife us above the fear of
the proud and mighty oppreffor.
Neither, therefore, is all anger finful: hence the pre¬
cept, “ Be ye angry and fin not.”—It becomes finful,
however, and contradi&s the rule of Scripture, when it
is conceived upon flight and inadequate provocations,
and when it. continues long. It is then contrary to the
amiable fpirit of charity, which “ fuffereth long, and is
not eafily provoked.” Hence thefe other precepts,
“ Let every man be flow to anger;” and, “ Let not the’
lun go down upon your wrath.”
J hefe precepts, and all reafoning indeed upon the
lubjedt, fuppofe the paflion of anger to be within our
power : and this power confifts not fo much in any fa¬
culty we have of appeafing our wrath at the time (for
we are paflive under the fmart which an injury or af¬
front occafions, and all we can then do is to prevent
its breaking out into action), as in fo mollifying our
minds
Angelot,
Anger.
i
A N G
An®-er. winds by babits of juft reflexion, as to be lefs irritated
 y—" 1 by itnpreffions of injury, and to be fooner pacified.
As reflexions proper for this purpofe, and which
may be called the fedatives of anger, the following are
fuggefted by Archdeacfm Paley, in his excellent treatife
t ^ . TTT x)tMoral and Political Philofophy*—“ The pofiibility of
Book III. ‘
C S44 ]
A N G
Tart ii.
chap. 7.
miftaking the motives from which the condud that of¬
fends us proceeded *, how often our offences have been
the effe£l of inadvertency, when they were miftaken
for malice; the inducement which promoted our adver-
fary to aft as he did, and how powerfully the fame in¬
ducement has, at one time or other, operated upon our-
felves ; that he is fuffering perhaps under a contrition,
which he is afliamed, or wants opportunity, to confels;
and how ungenerous it is to triumph by coldnefs or in-
fult over a fpirit already humbled in fecret;. that the
returns of kindntfs are fweet, and that there is neither
honour nor virtue nor ufe in refifting them—for fome
perfons think themfelves bound to chenih and keep
alive their indignation, when they find it dying away ot
itfelf. We may remember that others, have their pai-
fions* their prejudices, their favourite aims, their fears,
their cautions, their interefts, their fudden impulfes,
their varieties of apprehenfion, as well as we : we may
recoiled what hath fometimes paffed in our own minds,
when we have got on the wrong fide of a quarrel, and
imagine the fame to be paffing in our adverfary s mind
now ; when we became fenfible of our mifbehaviour,
what palliations we perceived in it, and expeded others
to perceive ; how we were affeded by the kindnefs, and
felt the fuperiority of a generous reception and ready
foroivenefs ; how perfecution revived our fpirits with
our”enmity, and feemed to juftify the condud in our-
felves which we before blamed. Add to this, the in¬
decency of extravagant anger ; how it renders us
whilft it laffs, the (corn and fport of all about us, of
which it leaves us, when it ceafes, fenfible and afhamed ;
the inconveniences and irretrievable mifcondud into
which our irafcibility has fometimes betrayed us; the
friendfiiips it has loll us ; the diftreffes and embarra s-
ments in which we have been involved by it, and the
fore repentance which on one account or other it al¬
ways coils us. , , , . ,
“ But the reflexion calculated above all others, to
allay that haughtinefs of temper which is ever finding
out provocations, and which renders anger fo impetu¬
ous, is that which the gofpel propofes ; namely, that
we ourfelves are, or Ihortly lhall be, fupp.iants for mer¬
cy and pardon at the judgment-feat of God.. Imagine
our feCret fins all difclofed and brought to light ; ima¬
gine us thus humbled and expofed; trembling under
the hand of God.; calling ourfelves on his compallion;
crying out for mercy—imagine fuch a creature to talk
of fatisfa&ion and revenge, refufing to be entreated,
difdaining to forgive, extreme to mark and to relent
what is done amifs; imagine, I fay,' this ; and you can
hardly feign to yourfelf an inftance of more impious
and unnatural arrogance.” , , • a c
Phyficians and naturalifts have recorded infiances.ot
very extraordinary effe£ls of this paflion Bornchius
cured a woman of an inveterate tertian ague, which had
baffled the art of phyfic, by putting the patient in a
furious fit of anger. Valeriola made ufe ot the fame
means, with the like fuccefs, in a quartan ague. Ihe
feme paffion has been equally falutary to paralytic,
gouty, and even dumb perfons ; to which laft it has Anger
fometimes given the ufe of fpeech. Etmuller gives 11
divers inftances of very Angular cures wrought by ^ev0^
anger ; among others, he mentions a perfon laid up in
the gout, who being provoked by bis phylician, tiew
upon him, and was cured. It is true, the remedy is
fomevvhat dangerous in the application, when a patient
does not know how to ufe it with moderation. . We
meet with feveral inftances of princes to whom it has
proved mortal ; e. g. Valentinian the firft, Wenceflaus,
Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, and others. 1 here
are alfo inftances wherein it has produced the epilepfy,
jaundice, cholera morbus, diarrhoea, &c. In laft,
this paffion is of fuch a nature, that it quickly throws
the wholje nervous fyftem into preternatural commo¬
tions, by a violent ftrifture of the nervous and mufcu-
lar parts; and furprifingly augments not only the fyitole
of the. heart and of its contiguous veffels, but alio the
tone of the fibrous parts in the whole body. It is alfo
certain, that this paflion, by the fpafmodic ftrifture it
produces in the parts, exerts its power principally on
the ftomach and inteftines, which aie highly neivous
and membranous parts ; whence the fymptoms are
more dangerous, in proportion to the greater confent
of the ftomach and inteftines, with the other nervous
paits, and almoft with the whole body. The unhap¬
py influence of anger likewife, on the biliary and hepa¬
tic dufls, is verv furprifing ; fince by an intenfe con-
ftriaion of tliefe, the liver is not only rendered fcir-
rhous, but Hones alfo are often generated in the gall¬
bladder and biliary dufts: thefe accidents have fcarce-
ly any other origin than an obftruftion of the. free mo¬
tion and efflux of the bile, by means of this violent
ftriflure. From fuch a ftriflure of thefe dufls likewife
proceeds the jaundice, which in procefs of time lays a
foundation for calculous concretions in the gall blad¬
der. Laftly, By increafing the motion of the fluid, or
the'fpafms of the fibrous parts, by means of anger, a
larger quantity of blood is propelled with an impetus
to certain parts ; whence it happens that, they are too
much diftended, and the orifices of the veins diftnbuted
there opened. It is evident from experience, that an¬
ger has a great tendency to excite enormous haemor¬
rhages, either from the nofe, the aperture of the pulmo¬
nary artery, the veins of the anus; or in women, fror^
the uterus, efpecially in thofe.f revioufly accuftomed and
difpofed to fuch evacuations.
ANGERMANNIA, or Angermanland, a pro¬
vince of Sweden, bounded on the north by Lapland
and Bothnia, on the eaft by the gulf of. Bothnia, and
Medelpadia, and on the weft by Jempti and Herndel.
It is full of rocks, mountains, and forefts ; and there
E one very high mountain called Scull. . It has ex*
cellent iron works, and lakes abounding with fifh. #
ANGERMOND, a town of the duchy of Berg, in
Germany, on the eaft fide of the Rhine, fubjeft to the
El eft or Palatine. E. Long. 6. 20. N. Lat. 51. 10.
ANGERONA, in Mythology, the name of a Pa¬
gan deity whom the Romans prayed to for the cure
of the quinfy, in Latin angina. Pliny calls her.^h6
goddefs of ftlcnce and calmnefs of mind, vi\w bamlnes
all uneafinefs and melancholy. She is reprefented
with her mouth covered, to denote patience and re¬
fraining from complaints. Her ftatue was fet up, and
fecrificed to, in the temple of the goddefs Volupia, to
{how
%
A N G [ 345 1 A N G
An^rcna- &ow that a patient enduring of affliftion leads to plea-
lia fure.
jl ANGERONALIA, in antiquity, folemn feafts held
A-ndnera. jjy J{ocians on 21ft of December, in honour of
Angerona, or Angeronia, the goddefs of patience and
filence. Feltusand Julius Modeftu1:, quoted by Macro-
bius, Saturn, lib. i. cap. 10. derive the name from a/ig/-
tia, “quinfy and fuppofe the goddefs to have been
thus denominated, becaufe the prefided over that difeafe.
—Others fuppofe it formed from angor, “ grief, pain j”
to intimate that (he gave relief to thofe afflidled there¬
with.—Others deduce it from angeo, “ I prefs, I clofe,”
as being reputed the goddefs of filence, &c.
ANGERS, a city of France, and capital of the
former duchy of Anjou, now the department of the
Maine and Loire. It is feated a little above the place
where the Sarte and the Loire lofe themfelves in the
Maine. This laft river divides the city into two equal
parts, called the High and the Low Town. There
are twelve parithes in the city, and four in the fuburbs,
which contain upwards of 36,000 inhabitants. Be-
lides thefe, there are eight chapters, and a great num¬
ber of convents for both fexes. Its greatelt extent is
along the declivity of a hill, which reaches quite
down to the river fide. The caflle was built by St
Louis, about the middle of the 13th century. The
walls, fofles, and numerous towers which yet fubfift,
evince its former magnificence : and its fituation in
the centre of the city, on a rock overhanging the river,
conduces to give it an air of grandeur, though at pre-
fent in decay. It was the principal refidence of the
kings of Sicily, as dukes of Anjou, but is now in a
Rate of total ruin. 1 he cathedral of Angers is a ve¬
nerable ftru&ure ; and although it has undergone
many alterations in the courie of ages fince its con-
ftruftion, yet the architefture is Angular, and deferves
attention. Here lies interred with her anceftors the
renowned Margaret, daughter of Rene king of Sicily,
and queen of Henry VI. of England. She expired,
after her many intrepid but ineffeftual efforts to re¬
place Jier hufband on the throne, in the year 1482,
at thecaftle of Dampierre in Anjou. Near the church
of St Michael is the handfomeft fquare in the city, from
whence runs a ftreet which has the name of the church.
On one fide of this ftreet is the town-houfe j w hich has
•a fine tower, with a clock, raifed upon an arch which
ferves for a pafiage into the great fquare. There are
two large bridges, which keep up a communication
between the two parts of the city 5 and in the lefl'er of
thefe there is another fquare, which ferves for a mar¬
ket. Ihe univerfity of Angers was founded in 1398,
and the academy of belles lettres in 1685. This laft
confifts of thirty academicians. At the end of the
suburb of Brefigny are the quarries of Angers, fo
famous for the fine flate which is got from thence.
The pieces are of the thicknefs of a crown piece, and
a foot fquare. All the houfes in Angers are covered
flatej which has gained it the appellation of
the B/ack City. The walls with which King John of
England furrounded it in 12x4 remain nearly entire,
and are of very great circumference. V/. Long. o. 3 c.
N. Lat. 47. 30.
;^-NGFnERA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of
Milan, and capital of a county of the fame name. It
Vol. II. Part I.
is-feated on the eaftern fide of the lake Maggiore, in Arghia
E. Long. 8. 40. N. Lat. 45. 42. H
ANGINA, in Medicine, a violent inflammation of AngleiVyi
the throat, otherwife called quinfu. See Medicine v ' '''
Index.
Angina Pe&oris. See Medicine Index.
ANGIOSPERMI A, in the Linnaean fyftem of bo¬
tany, the fecond order in the clafs didynamia. It con¬
fifts of thofe plants, of that clafs, whole feeds are enclo-
fed in a pericarpium. In this order the ftigma is gene¬
rally obtufe. Thefe are the perfonati of Tournefort.
ANGITI^E lucus or nemus, (Virg.), fituated
on the weft fide of the Lacus Fucinus. The inha¬
bitants are called Lucenfes, by Pliny. Angitia was After
of Medea, who taught antidotes againft poifon and
ferpents, according to Sil. Italicus. But Servius on
Virgil fays, that the inhabitants called Medea by this
name for the fame reafon. The town is now called
Luco.
ANGLE, the inclination of two lines meeting one
another in a point. See Geometry.
ANGLE of Incidence, in Optics, the angle which a
ray of light makes with a perpendicular to that point of
the furface of any medium on which it falls ; though it
is fometimes underftood of the angle which it makes
with the furface itfelf.
Angle of RefraSlion now generally means the angle
which a ray of light, refrafted by any medium, makes
with a perpendicular to that point of the furface on
which it was incident; but has fometimes been under¬
ftood of the angle which it makes with the furface of
the refrafting medium itfelf.
ANGLER, a perfon who praflifes the art of ang¬
ling, whether as a diverfion or otherwife. See the ar¬
ticle Angling.
Angler, the Englifti name of a fpecies of lophus.
See Lophus, Ichthyology Index.
ANGLES, an ancient German nation, originally
a branch of the SueVi: who, after various migrations,
fettled in that part of Denmark, and duchy of Slefwick,
which to this day is called Angel, and of which the city
of Flenlburgh is the capital. Here they u'ere known,
even in the time of Tacitus, by the name of Ang/i. The
origin of this name is varioufly accounted for. Accord¬
ing to Saxo-Grammaticus, they were called Angli, from
one Angulus, fon to Humblus king of Denmark. Wi-
difchind, a Saxon writer, will have them to be called
Angh, from an illand in the corner or angle of the fea,
which they conquered. Goropius derives their name
from the Saxon word Angel or Engel, fignifying a fifh-
hook ; the Angles, like the other Saxon nations, being
greatly addicted to piracy, and on that account being
fo named by the neighbouring nations j as if, like hooks,
they caught all that was in the fea. To this nation
the Britifti ambafladors ar» faid to have applied, when
foliciting fuccours againft the Scots and Pi£ts. The
Angles, therefore, came over in greater numbers than
any other Saxon nation } and accordingly had the ho¬
nour of giving the name of Anglia to England. See
England.
ANGLESEY, Isle of, is the moft weftern county
of North Wales. It is 24 miles in length, 18 in
breadth, and fends one member to parliament. It is
feparated from Caernarvonlhire by a ftrait called
X x Menai,
A N G [ 346
Anglefey. Men a and on every other fide is furrounded by the fea.
-1 It is a fertile fpot, and abounds in corn, cattle, flefh,
filli, and fowls.
At Port Aetlvwy, the rcoft general ferry into the
ifland, there is a great paffage of cattle. It is computed
that the ifland fends forth annually from 12,000 to
15,000 head, and multitudes of flieep and hogs. It
is alfo computed that the remaining ftock of cattle is
30,000. In 1770 upwards of 90,000 bulhels of corn
were exported, exclufive of wheat. I he improvement
in bufbandry has greatly increafed fince the fuppreflion
of fmuggling from the ifle of Man : before that time
every farmer was mounted on fome high promontory,
expecting the vefltl with illicit trade *, but fince that
period, he fets in earneft to induftry and cultivation.
Not but that the ifland was in the moll remote times
famous for its fertility : Mon, Mam Gymry, the Nur-
fing mother of Wales, was a title h affumed even in
the 12th century.
This ifland is divided into 74 parilhes, of which raoft
of the churches are fituated near the fhores. By an ac¬
count given on the 13th of Auguft 1563, there were
2010 houfeholds, or families, in Anglefey •, allowing
five to a family, the whole number of inhabitants at
that period was 10,050. In 1776, the. number of
houfes in Anglefey was about 395^ • allowing five per-
fons to a family, the whole number of inhabitants was
at that time 19,780; which wants only 340 of doubling
the number of inhabitants in the intervening fpace.
The chief town is Beaumaris.
In ancient times this ifland was called Mon, Mona, or
Moneg. It was the great nurlery of the religion of the
I>ruids, .being the refidence of the grand druid, or chief
pontiff-, and confequently of all the learned doftors in
that religion.
Many ancient monuments of druidifm ftill remain
in the ifland.—At Tre’r Dry w, or the habitation of the
arch druid, are feveral mutilated remains, which have
been defcribed by Mr Rowlands. His Bryn Gwyn, or
Brein Gwyn, or royal tribunal, is a circular hollow of
180 feet in diameter, furrounded by an immenfe agger
of earth and ftones, evidently brought from forne other
place, there not being apy mark of their being taken
from the fpot. It has only a Angle entrance. This is
fuppofed to have been the grand confiftory of the
druidical adminiftration.—Not far from it was one of
the Gorfeddau, now in a manner difperfed, but which
once confifled of a great copped heap of ftones, on
which fat aloft a druid, inftrufting the furrounding
people multa de Deorum immortalium vi et potejlate dif-
putare, et juventuti tradUnt: Caef. lib. vi.—Here were
alfo the relicks of a circle of ftones, with the cromlech
in the midft ; but all extremely imperfedl. Two of
the ftones are very large ; one, which ferves at prefent
as part of the end of a houfe, is 12 feet 7 inches high,
and 8 feet broad ; and another 11 feet high, and
23 feet in girth. Some leffer ftones yet remain. This
circle, when complete, was one of the temples of the
druids, in which their religious rites were performed.
It is the conjedlure of Mr Rowlands, that the whole
of thefe remains were furrounded with a circle of oaks,
and formed a deep and facred grove : Jam per fe ro-
borum eleyunt lucos, mque ulla facra fine ea fronde
conficiunt; (Plin. Hift. Nat. xy. 44.).—Near this
is Cacr Leb, or the moated intrenchment; of a
] ' A N G
fquare form, with a double rampart, and broad ditch Anglefey,
intervening, and a leffer or the outfide. ‘Within'-——v——'
are foundations of circular and of fquare buildings.
This Mr Rowlands fuppofes to have been the refidence
of the arch druid, and to have given the name, 1're'r
Dryw, to the townfliip in which it Hands. At Trev
Wry are feveral faint traces of circles of ftones, and
other vefliges of buildings; but all fo dilapidated, or
hid in weeds, as to become almoft formlefs. Bod-
druddn, or the habitation of the druids, Tre'r-Beirdd,
or that of the bard, and Bodowyr, or that of the
priefts, are all of them hamlets, nearly furrounding the
feat of the chief druid, compofing the effential part of
his fuite. At the laft is a thick cromlech, refting on
three ftones.
The fliore near Forth am el, not far from hence, is
famed for being the place where Suetonius landed, and
put an end in this ifland to the druid reign. His in¬
fantry paffed over in flat-bottomed boats, perhaps at
the fpot ftill called Pant yr Yfcraphie, or the valley of
Skiffs. His cavalry croffed partly by fording, partly
by fwimming. Of the conflidf on this occafion we
have the following animated defeription by Tacitus * : * AnnnH
“ Stat pro littore diverfa acies, denfa armis virifque,xiv-30-
intercurfantibus feeminis in modum furiarum, vefte fe-
rali, crinibus dejedlis, faces perferebant; drmdceque cir-
cum, preces diras fublatis ad ccelum manibus funden-
tes. Novitate afpedlus percutere militem, ut quafi hae-
rentibus membris, immobile corpus vulneribus praebe-
rent. Dein cohortationibus ducis, et fe ipfe ftimulantes,
ne muliebre et fanaticum agmen pavefeerent, inferunt
figna, fternuntque obvios et igni fuo involvunt. Pras-
fidium pofthac impofitum vicis, excifique luci, faevi fu-
perftitionibus facri. Nam cruore captivo adolere aras,
et hominum fibris confulere does fas habebant.”—I bus
* Engliftred : “ On the fliore flood a motley army, in
clofe array, and well armed ; with women running
wildly about in black attire, with difhevelled hair, and
like the furies brandifliing their torches; furrounded by
the druids, lifting up their hands to heaven, and pour¬
ing forth the molt dreadful imprecations. The loldier
flood aftonifhedwith the novelty of the fight.. His
limbs grew torpid, and his body remained motionlefs;
refigned to every wmund. At length, animated by
their leader, and roufing one another not to be inti¬
midated with a womanly and fanatic band, they dif-
played their enfigns, overthrew7 all who oppofed them,
and flung them into their own fires. After the battle,,
they placed garrifons in the towns, and cut down the
groves confecrated to the moft horrible fuperftitions .
for the Britons held it right to facrifice on their altars
with the blood of their captives, and to confult the
gods by the infpedlion of human entrails.” There are
no traces of any Roman works left in this country.
Their flay w7as fo ftiort, that they had not time to form
any thing permanent.
Near the ferry of Moel y Don appear the fine woods
of Sir Nicholas Bayley, fkirting the Menai for a.con-
fiderable way. The w’ooded part of the ifland is on
this fide. It commences at Llanidan, and recals the
ancient Britiftr name of Anglefey, Ynys Dywyll, or the
Dark If and, on account of the deep fhade of its-
groves: but at prefent it is (except in this part) entirely
diverted of trees; and the climate fo averfe to their
growth, that in moft parts it is with great difficulty
tllE
A N G [ 347 ] A N G
nglefey. gentry can raife a plantation round tlieir houfes.
— Ptas Newydd, the feat of Sir Nicholas Bayley, lies
clofe upon the water, protedled on three fides by vene¬
rable oaks and alhes. The view up and down this
magnificent river-like (trait is extremely fine. The
(liores are rocky j thofe on the oppofite fide covered
with woods; and beyond foar a long range of Snow-
donian Alps. Here Hood a houfe built by Gwenllian,
a defeendant of Cadrod Hardd. The manfion has been
improved, and altered to a caftellated form by the pre-
fent owner.
In the woods are fome very remarkable druidical
antiquities. Behind the houfe are to be feen two vaft
cromlechs. The upper (tone of one is 12 feet 7
inches long, 12 broad, and four thick, fupported by
five tall (tones. The other is but barely feparated from
the firft 5 is almolt a fquare of five feet and a half,
and fupported by four (tones. The number of fup-
porters to cromlechs is merely accidental, and de¬
pends on the fize or form of the incumbent (tone.
Thefe are the mod magnificent we have, and the high-
eft from the ground; for a middle fized horfe may ea-
fily pafs under the largeft. In the lands of Llugwy,
indeed, there is a molt (tupendous one of a rhomboi-
dal form. The greateft diagonal is iyi feet, the lef-
fer 15, and the thicknefs three feet nine inches; but
its height from the ground is only two feet: it was
fupported by feveral (tones. The Weld), who aferibe
every thing ftupendous to our famous Britifti king, call
it Arthur'1 s Quoit. In the wToods at this place are fome
druidical circles nearly contiguous to each other.
At a fmall diftance from Beaumaris, on the (liore,
(land the remains of Llanvaes, or the Friars. It was
founded by Prince Llewelyn ap Jerwerth, and, accord¬
ing to the general tradition of the country, over the
grave of his wife Joan, daughter of King John, who
died in 1237, and Avas interred on the fpot. Here alfo
were interred a fon of a Danifh king, Lord Clifford,
and many barons and knights who fell in the Welfh
Avars. It was dedicated to St Francis, and confecrated
by Howel biftiop of Bangor, a prelate Avho died in
1240. I he religious Avere Franciicans, or minor friars.
Their church and houfe Avere deftroyed, and their lands
Availed, in the infurredtion made &on after the death
of Llewelyn, laft Welfti prince, by his relation Madoc.
Edward II. in confideration of their misfortunes, re¬
mitted to them the payment of the taxes due to him,
Avhich before the war Avere levied at the rate of 12I. 10s.
Thefe friars Avere ftrong favourers of Owen Glendwr.
Henry IV. in his firft march againft Owen, plundered
the convent, put feveral of the friars to the fword,
and carried away the reft ; but afterurards fet them at
liberty, made reftitution to the place, but peopled it
Avith Englifti reclufes. It poflibly vvas again reduced
to ruin ; for Henry V. by patent, eftablifties here eight
friars, but diredts that only two ftiould be Welfti. At
the diffolution, Henry VIII. fold the convent and its
poffeflions to one of his courtiers. They became in
latter days the property of a family of the name of
White (now extindl), Avho built here a good manfion.
It of late became, by purchafe, the property of Lord
Bulkeley. Tim church is turned into a barn, and the
coffin of the princefs Joan now fences for a watering
trough. A little farther is Caftell Aber LlienaAvg, a
(marl fquare fort, with the remains of a little round
tower at each corner. In the middle Hood a fquare Anglefey.
tower. A foffe furrounds the whole. A hollow Avay
is carried quite to the (hore, and at its extremity is a
large mound of earth deligned to cover the landing.
This caftle Avas founded by Hugh Lupus earl of Chefter,
and Hugh the Red earl of Shrewffiury, in IC98, Avhen
they made an invafion, and committed mcire favage bar¬
barities on the poor natives, efpecially on one Kenred a
prieft, than ever ftained the annals of any country.
Providence fent Magnus king, of Norway to revenge
the cruelties. His coming Avas to all appearance cafual.
He offered to land, but wasoppofed by the earls. Mag¬
nus flood in the prow of his (hip, and calling to him a
moft expert boAvman, tiiey at once directed their arrows
at the egrl of Shrewfbury, Avho (rood all armed on the
(hore. An arrow pierced his brain through one of his
eyes, the only dcfencelefs part. The vidfor, feeing him
fpring up in the agonies of death, infultingly cried out
in his own language, Leite loupe, u Let him dance.”
This fort Avas garrifoned fo lately as the time of
Charles I. Avhen it Avas kept for the parliament by Sir
Thomas Cheadle; but was taken by Colonel Robinfon
in 1645.
Above Llandonna is a high hill, called Bwrrd Ar¬
thur, or Arthur’s round table: the true name was pro¬
bably Dm or Dinas Su/wy : for a church immediately
beneath bears that of Llanvihangle Din-Su/wy. On
the top of it is a great Britifti poft, furrounded by a
double row of rude (tones with their (harp points up-
permoft; and in fome parts the ramparts are formed of
fmall (tones. In the area are veftiges of oval build¬
ings ; the largeft is formed with two roAVs of flat (tones
fet on end. Thefe had been the temporary habitations
of the poffeffors. It had been a place of vaft ftrength :
for, befides the artificial defence, the hill (lopes deep¬
ly on all fides, and the brink next to the ramparts is
moftly precipitous. It is Avorth Avhile to afeend this
hill for the fake of the vaft profpedt, and intermixture
of fea, rock, and alps, moft favagely great.
About tAvo miles fouth of Plas Gvvyn, the feat of
Paul Panton, Efq. Avas fituated Penmynnydd, once the
refidence of the anceftors of Owen Tudor, fecond huf-
band to Catherine of France, queen dowager of Hen¬
ry V.; “ who beyng (as honeft Halle informs us)
young and luftye, folowyng more her own appetyte
than frendely confaill, and regardyng more her pri¬
vate affedtion than her open honour, toke to huiband
privily (in 1428) a goodly gentylman, and a beauti¬
ful perfon, garniged with manye godly gyftes both of
nature and of grace, called Owen Teuther, a man
brought forth and come of the noble lignage and aun-
cient lyne of Cadvvalader, the laft kynge of the Bri-
tonnes.” The match, important in its confequences,
reftored the Britiffi race of princes to this kingdom :
Thefe reigned long, under the title of the Houfe of
Tudor; the mixed race having ceafed on the aceef-
fion of Henry VIE grandfon to our illuftrious country¬
man. The remains of the refidence of the Tudors are,
the door of the gateway: part of the houfe, and the
great chimneypiece of the hallj are to be feen in the
prefent farm-houfe. Some coats of arms, and dates of
the building or time of repairs, are to be feen, Avith
the initial letters of the names of the OAvners. The
Tudors, for a confiderable fpace before the extinftion.
of their race, affomed the name of Given. Richard
X x 2 Avas
\
A N G [ ^548 ] A N G
Anglefey. was the laft male of the family, and was Iheriff of the
*  /——'county in 1657. Margaret, heirefs of the houie, mar¬
ried Coningiby Williams, Efq. of Gian y gors, in this
ifland, who poffeffed it during his life. It was after¬
wards fold to Lord Bulkeley, in whofe defcendant it
{till continues. In the church of Penmynndydd L a
moft magnificent monument of white alabailer, remo¬
ved at the diflolution from the abbey of Llanvaes to
this place •, probably erected in memory of one of the
Houfe of Tudor, who had been interred there. On it
is the figure of a man in complete armour, a conic helm,
and mail guard down to his breait ; his lady is in a
thick angular hood •, their feet reft on lions, and their
heads are fupported by angels.
On the weftern point ot the bay is a fmall cape, flat
at top, called CaJIell Mazur, joined to the land by a
low ifthmu-. It is compofed of limeftone, which is
carried to diitant parts in fmall veffels, which He in a
fmall channel near the rock, and by their numbers fre¬
quently enliven the view. Roman coins have be< n
found in this neighbourhood : but there are no veftiges
of there having been any ftation. Beyond Caftlemawr,
on the ihore, are vaft blocks of black marble filled with
fhells, coralloids, and fungit*.
At Tryfclwyn mountain is the moft confiderable
bodv of copper ore perhaps ever known. The part of
Tryfclwyn which contains it is called Parys mountain.
Of this mountain, and the works there carried on, we
have the following very curious and particular account
* Tour in by Mr Pennant * :—“ The external afpeft of the hill
Wales, II. js extremely rude, and rifes into enormous rocks of
coarfe white quartz. The ore is lodged in a bafon, or
hollow, and has on one fide a fmall lake, on whofe
waters, diftafteful as thofe of Avernus, no bird is
known to alight. The whole profpeft of this tract h&*,
by the mineral operations, affumed a moft favage ap¬
pearance. Suffocating fumes of the burning heaps of
copper arife in all parts, and extend their baneful in¬
fluence for miles round. In the adjacent parts^vege¬
tation is nearly deftroyed : even the moffes and lichens
of the rocks have perilhed ; and nothing feems capable
of re lifting the fumes but the purple melic grafs, which
flourilhes in abundance. It is thought that the ore
had been worked in a very diftant period. Veftiges
of the ancient operations appear in feveral parts, car¬
ried on by trenching, and by beating the rocks intenfe-
Iv, then fuddenly pouring on water, fo as to caufe thein
to'crack or fcale ; thus awkwardly fupplying the ufe of
gunpowder. Pieces of charcoal were alfo found, which
proves that wood was made ufe of for that purpofe. As
the Britons imported all works in brafs, it is certain
that the Romans were the undertakers of thefe mines j
and it is very probable that they fent the ore to Caer-
hen to be fmelted, the place where the famous cake of
copper was difcovered. They might likewife have had
a fmelting hearth in this ifland ) for a round cake ©f
copper was difcovered at Llanvaethlle, a few miles-
from this place. Its weight was fifty pounds, and it
had on it a mark refembling an L.
“In the year 1762, one Alexander Frazer came
into Anglefey in fearch of mines. He vifited Parys
mountain \ called on Sir Nicholas Bayley, and ga\©
him fo flattering an account of the profpedl, as in¬
duced him to make a trial, and fink fhafts. Ore was
difcovered $ but before any quantity could be gotten,
the mines were overpowered with water. In about Anfflefer.
two years after, Mellrs Roe and Co. of Macclesfield —v—
applied to Sir Nicholas for a leafe of Penrhyn ddu mine
in Caernarvonfhire ; with which they were, much
againft their wills, compelled to take a leafe of part of
this mountain, and to carry on a level, and make a fair
trial. The trial was accordingly made ; ore was dif¬
covered \ but the expences overbalanced the profit".
They continued working to great lois; and at length
determined to give the affair up. They gave their
agent orders for that purpofe : but he, as a final at¬
tempt, divided his men into ten feveral companies, of
three or four in a partnerfliip, and let them fink fhafts
in various places., about eight hundred yards eaftward
of a place caitrci the Golden Venture, on a prefumption
that a fpring, which ifiued from near the place, muft
come from a body of mineral. His conjefture was
right ; for in lefs than two days they met with, at the
depth of feven feet from the furface, the folid mineral,
w hich proved to be that vaft body which has fince been
worked to fuel) advantage. The day that this dif-
covery was made was March 2. 1768 : which has ever
fince been obferved as a feftival by the miners. Soon
after this dilcovery, another adventure was begun by
the reverend Mr Edward Hughes, owner of part of
the mountain, in right of his wife Mary Lewis of Llys
Dulas ; fo that the whole of the treafure is the pro¬
perty of Sir Nicholas Bayley and himfelf. The body
of copper ore is of unknown extent. The thicknefs
has been afcertained in fume places by the driving of a
level under it, feveral years ago, and it was found to
be in fome places twenty-four yards. The ore is moft-
ly of the kind called by Cronfted, Pyrites cuprifiavo
virixtejkens, and contains vaft quantities of fulphur. It
varies in degrees of goodnefs j fome of it is rich, but
the greater part poor in quality.
“ There are other fpecies of copper ore found here.
Of late a vein of the Pyrites cupri grifeus of Cronfted,
about feven yards wide, has been difeovered near the
weft end of the mountain : fome is of an iron gray,
fome quite black •, the firft contains fixteen lb. of cop¬
per per loolb. ^ the laft forty. An ore has been lately
found, in form of loofe earth, of a dark purplifti co¬
lour •, and the beft of it has produced better than eight
in twenty. Some years ago, about thirty pounds of
native copper were found in driving a level through a
turbery j fome was in form of mofs, fome in very thin
leaves. #
“ It is quarried out of the bed in vaft maffes ; is
broken into fmall pieces ; and the moft pure part is
fold raw, at the rate of about 3I. to 61. per ton, or
fent to the fmelting-houfes of the refpeaive companies
to be melted into metal. Mr Hughes has great fur¬
naces of his own at Ravenhead near Liverpool, and at
Sw’anfea in South Wales.. An idea of the wealth of
thefe mines may be formed, by confidering that the
Macclesfield Company have had at once fourteen thou-
fand tons of ore upon bank, and Mr Hughes thirty
thoufand. _ _
“ The more impure ore is alfo broken to the fize 01
about hens eggs j but in order to clear it from the quan¬
tity of fulphur w ith which it abounds, as well as other
adventitious matter, it muft undergo the operation of
burning. For that purpofe it is placed between two
parallel walls of vaft length ; fome kilns are 20, others
A N G [ 349 ] A N G
Ans-lefev. 40, and 50 yards In length ; fome 10, others 20, feet
' wide, and above four feet in height. The fpace be¬
tween is not only filled, but the ore is piled many feet
higher, in a convex form, from end to end. The
whole is then covered with flat fitones, clofely luted
with clay ; and above is placed a general integument
of clay, and fmall rubbifh of the work, in order to
prevent any of the fumes from evaporating. Of late,
fome kilns have been conftru&ed with brick arches
over the ore, which is found to be the beft method of
burning. Within thefe few years, attempts are made
to preferve the fulphur from flying away ; and that is
done by flues made of brick, whofe tops are in form of
a Gothic arch, many fcores of feet in length. One
end of thefe opens into the beds of copper which are
to be burnt. Thofe beds are fet on fire by a very fmall
quantity of coal, for all the red is elfe6ted by its own
phlogifton. The volatile part is confined to, and direct¬
ed to tlfe flues; in its courfe the fulphureous particles
ftrike againft their roofs, and fall to the bottom in form
of the fined brimdone ; which is collected and carried
to adjacent houfes, where it is melted into what is call¬
ed in the diops Jlone brimjlone.
“ The beds of copper, thus piled for burning, are
of vad extent. Some contain 400 tons of ore, others
2000. The fird require four months to be completely
burnt, the lad near ten. Thus burnt, it is carried to
proper places to be prefled, «nr wathed, and made mer¬
chantable. By this procefs the ore is reduced to a
fourth part in quantity, but confiderably improved in
quality : and by this means the water is drongly or
richly impregnated with copper, which is diflblved by
the acid quality of the fulphur •, and is colleCfed or pre¬
cipitated again by iron in the above-deferibed pits. The
iron is alfo diiTolved.
“ But a far richer produce of copper is difeovered
from the water lodged in the bottom of the bed of ore,
which is highly faturated with the precious metal.
This is drawn up, either by means of whimfies or
windmills, to the furface, and then didributed into
numbers of reClangular pits 36 feet long, fome pits
more fome lefs, 12 to 15 feet broad, and 20 inches
deep. To fpeak in the language of the adept, Venus
mud make an aflignation with Mars, or this folution
will have no effeft. In plain Englidi, a quantity of
iron mud be immerfed in the water. The kind of iron
is of no moment; old pots, hoops, anchors, or any re-
fufe, will fudice ; but of late, for the convenience of
management, the adventurers procure new plates, four
feet long, one and a half broad, and three quarters of an
inch thick. Thefe they immerfe into the pits. The
particles of copper indantly are precipitated by the iron,
and the iron is gradually diflblved into a yellow ochre.
Great part of it floats off by the water, and fink* to the
bottom. The plates, or the old iron (as it happens),
are frequently taken out, and the copper feraped off ;
aad this is repeated till the' whole of the iron is confu-
med. The copper thus procured differs little from na¬
tive copper, and is prized accordingly, and fold for pri¬
ces from 25I. to 45I. a ton.
“ This difeovery is far from new : it has been prac-
tifed long in the Wicklow mines in Ireland ; and above
a century in thofe of Hern-grundt in Hungary, where
it is called ‘ziment copper. The waters of the Hunga¬
rian mines are much more ftrongly impregnated with
copper than thofe of Parys mountain, i he firft ef- Angiefey.
leifis its operation in about 12 or 20 days, the lad re- 1 ,
quires two months. Horfe Ihoes, iron made in Ihape
of hearts and other forms, are put into the foreign wa¬
ters ; and when perfectly tranlmuted, are given as pre-
fents to curious ftrangers.
“ The ore is not got in the common manner of min¬
ing, but is cut out of the bed in the fame manner as
done is out of a quarry. A hollow is now formed in
the folid ore open to the day, and extends about 100
yards in length, about 40 yards in breadth, and 24
yards in depth. The ends are at prefent undermined,
but fupporled by valt pillars and magnificent arches,
all metallic; and thefe caverns meander far under
ground. Thefe will foon difappear, and thoufands of
tons of ore be gotten from both the columns and roofs.
The fides of this vaft hollow are moftly perpendicular,
and accefs to the bottom is only to be had by fmall
fteps cut in the ore ; and the curious vifitor mull trull
to them and a rope, till he reaches fome ladders, which
will condudl him the reft of the defeent. On the
edges of the ehafms are wooden platforms, which pro¬
ject far ; on them are windlaflbs, by which the work¬
men are lowered to tranfaft their bufinefs on the face
of the precipice. There fufpended, they work in mid
air, pick a fmall place for a footing, cut out the ore
in vaft mafles, and tumble it to the bottom with great
noife. In luch fituations they form caverns, and there
appear fafely lodged till the rope is lowered to convey
them up again. Much of the ore is blafted with gun¬
powder, eight tons of which are faid to be annually ufed
for the purpofe.
“ Nature hath been profufe in bellowing her mine¬
ral favours on this fpot: for above the copper ore, and
not more than three quarters of a yard beneath the
common foil, is a bed of yellowifh greafy clay, from
one to four yards thick, containing lead ore, and
yielding from 600 to 1000 pounds weight of lead from
one ton ; and one ton of the metal yields not lefs than
47 ounces of filver. Mixed with the earth, are fre¬
quently certain parts of the colour of cinnabar. Whe¬
ther thefe are fymptomatic of the fulphureous arfenical
filver ores or of quickfilver, I will not pretend to de¬
cide. Something interferes with the fuccefsful fmelt-
ing of this earth in the grate ; infomuch that it has
not yet been of that profit to the adventurers which
might reafonably be expected from the crucible afiays
of it ; and they have at this time about 8oco tons on
bank undifpofed of. This place has been worked for
lead ore in very diftant times. In the bottom of the
pool was found an ancient fmeltrng hearth of grit
ftone, and feveral bits of fmelted lead, of about four
inches in length, two in breadth, and half an inch
thick.
“ Thefe works have greatly added to the popula¬
tion of the ifland : for about 1500 perfons are employ¬
ed ; who, with their families, are fuppofed to make
near 8000 perfons, getting their bread from thefe
mines. The little village of Amlwch, the port of the
place, is increafing fall, and the market grows confi-
derable. At the feafon of the greateft work, Mr
Hughes’s men alone receive for many weeks 200I. in
one week, and 150I. in another, merely for fubfiftence.
The port is no more than a great ebafm between two
rocks, running far into land, and dry at low water ;
inta>
AngJcfey,
Angling.
A N G [ 35
into wliicli (loops run, and lie fecure to receive their
lading.”
Near Ketnlyn bay is a quarry of marble, common
to this place, fome parts of Italy, and to Corfica, and
known in the (hops by the name of Verde di Corftca.
Its colours are green, black, white, and dull purple,
irregularly difpofed. , In different blocks one or other
of the colours is frequently wanting 5 but among the
green parts are oftener found narrow veins of a mod
elegant and filky white afbeftos. It is a compound
fpecies of marble : part is calcareous, and may be adt-
ed on by nitric acid. The green parts partake of the
nature of jafper. It is apt to be interfered by fmall
cracks, or by afbeftine veins, therefore incapable of ta¬
king a high poliih. This quarry lies on the lands of
Monachty, in the pariih of Llan-Fair-Ynghornwy *,
and it is found again in the ifle of Skerries, off this pa-
rifh. Neither the quarry nor the afbeftos are at pre-
fent in ufe. In Khofcolyn parifh, a green amianthus,
or brittle afbeftos, is met with in great plenty in a
green marble fimilar to the above 5 but by reafon of
the inflexible quality of its fibres not applicable to the
fame ufe.
ANGLING, among fportfmen, the art of fifhing with
a rod, to which are fitted a line, hook, and bait. See
Fishing-Rad, FisniNG-Hook, Fishing FIij.
The angler’s firft bufinefs is to attradl the fifli to the
place intended for angling. The method of doing this,
in (landing waters, by throwing in grains, chopped
worms, and the like, is well known : but the chief dif¬
ficulty is in running rivers and brooks. The method,
in this cafe, is to prepare a tin box capable of holding
fome hundreds of worms, bored on all fides, and full
of holes of fuch a fize as they may be juft able to
-crawl out at •, there muft be a plummet faftened to this
box to fink it, and a line to draw it back at pleafure ;
in this cafe it is to be thrown into the water in a proper
place, above which the angler may (land under cover.
The w'orms will (lowly and gradually crawl out of this
box, and the fifh will be gathered about to feed on them ;
the baited hook is to be thrown in higher up and carri-
-ed down by the ftream. If this method do not bring
the fifh about the place in a little time, there is reafon
to fufpect that fome pike lies lurking thereabout, and
deters them: in this cafe, it is proper to throw out a
baited hook, and he will generally be taken 5 after this
the attempt will fucceed.
When the angler takes his (land, he is to fhelter
himfelf under fome tree or bufh, or (land fo far from
the brink of the water that he can only difeern his
float; as the fifh are timorous and eafily frightened
away. The angling rod muft be kept in a moderate
ftate, neither too dry nor too moift : in the firft cafe,
it will be brittle ; in the other, rotten. When paftes
are ufed, it is proper to mix a little tow with them,
and rub them over with honey ; finally, a fmall anoint¬
ing with butter is of great ufe to keep them from waffl¬
ing off the hook. The eyes of any fifh that is taken
are an excellent bait for almoft any other kind of fifh.
The beft way of angling with the fly is down the ri¬
ver, and not up ) neither need the angler ever make
above half a dozen of trials in one place, either with fly
or ground bait, when he angles for trout : by that time
the fifh will either offer to take, or refufe the bait and
not ftir at all.
o ] A N G
In a pond, the beft place for the angler to take his
(land is ufually that where the cattle go up into wa¬
ter : in rivers, if breams are fifhed for, it fhould be in
the deepeft and moft quiet places if eels, under the
banks of rivers that hang over ; perch are to be expell¬
ed in clean places, where the ftream is fwift; and chub
in deep (haded holes : roach are moftly found where the
perch are, and trout only in fwift and clear ftreams.
Places where there are many weeds, or old flumps of
trees, harbour fifh in great numbers, and they ufually
bite freely there •, but there is danger of entangling the
line, or faftening the hook to the w'eeds. In cafe of
this accident, recourfe is to be had to a ring of lead,
of about fix inches round, faftened to a fmall pack¬
thread : this ring is to be thruft over the rod, and let
fall into the water. It will defeend to the place where
the hook is entangled ; and then, by pulling the pack¬
thread gently, the hook will be foon difengaged, or
at the word it can only be broke off near the end of
the line ; w'hereas, when this is not employed, the rod
itfelf is fometimes broken, or the line nearer its upper
end.
Deep waters are beft for angling in, for the fifh do
not love to be difturbed by wind and weather.
The openings of fluices and mill dams always bring
fifli up the current to feek for the food which is brought
with the ftream j and angling in thefe places is ufually
fuccefsful.
The beft feafon is from April to pfrober ; for, in
very cold ftormy weather, the fifh will not bite j the
beft times of the day are from three till nine in the
morning, and from three in the afternoon till funfet.
In an eafterly wind, there is never much fport for the
angler 5 the foutherly winds are the beft for his pur-
pofe, and a warm but lowering day is moft of all to be
chofen ; a gentle wind, after a fudden fhower, to di-
fturb the water, makes a very good opportunity for
the angler: the cooler the weather in the hotted
months, the better j but in winter, on the contrary,
the warmer the day the better. A cloudy day, after
a bright moonlight night, is always a good day for
fport ; for the fifh do not care for going after prey in
the bright moonfhine, and are therefore hungry the
next morning.
Thofe who are fond of angling might fave themfelves
fome fruitlefs trouble, by obferving when fmall fifh in a
jar take or refufe food. See Fish.
The feveral methods of angling for falmon, trout,
carp, tench, perch, pike, dace, gudgeon, roach, flounder,
&.c. may be feen under the article Fishing.
ANGLO-CALViNlSTS,a namegiven by fome writers
to the members of the church of England, as agreeing
with the other Calvinifts in moft points except churcli
government.
ANGLO-Saxon, an appellation given to the language
fpoken by the Englifh Saxons j in contradiftimftion
from the true Saxon, as well as from the modern
Englifh.
ANGLUS, Thomas, an Englifh prieft, well known
for the fipgularity of his opinions, and feveral little
trafts which he wrote in the 17th century. He went
by feveral names. IVIr Baillet fays his true name
While; but that he ufed to difguife it under that of
Candidus, Alhus, Bianchi, and Richworth ; but he was
moft known in France by the name of Thomas Anglus.
Des
2
Angul,
Angola
A N G
Des Cartes generally called liim Mr Vitus.
fed feme time in moft countries of Europe ; but bis
longed day was at Rome and Paris. When he was in
England, he lived a confiderable time in the family of
Sir Kenelm Digby j and feems to have had a great
edeem for the opinions of this gentleman, as may be
feen in his writings, particularly in the Preface to his
Latin work concerning the Inditutions of the Peripa¬
tetic Philofophy, according to the hypothefis of Sir Ke¬
nelm. He was a great advocate for the Peripatetic
philofophy. He attempted even to make the princi¬
ples of Aridotle fubfervient to the explaining the mod
impenetrable myderies of religion j and with this view
he engaged in the difeudion of prededination, free will,
and grace. Mr Baillet fays, “ What he wrote upon
this fubje£t refembles the ancient oracles for obfeurity.”
In fuch abdrufe points as we have mentioned, he was
much embarrafled $ and, by giving too great fcope to
his own thoughts, he pleafed neither the Molinids nor
Janfenids. He is allowed, however, to have been a
man of an extenfive and penetrating genius. On the
loth of June 1658, the congregation of the Index Ex-
purgatorius at Rome condemned fume treatifes of Tho¬
mas Anglus. The do£tors of Douay cenfured alfo
22 propofitions extra<ded from his Sacred Inditutions.
He publiftied his Supplicatio pojiulativa jujlitice, in oppo-
dtion to their cenfure j wherein he complains that they
had given him a vague undetermined cenfure, without
taxing any particular propofition. He died fome time
after the redoration of Charles II. but in what year is
uncertain.
ANGOL, a city of Chili in South America, fituated
in W. Long. 'ya. 59. S. Lat. 37. 36.
ANGOLA, a kingdom on the wedern coad of A-
frica, lying, according to the mod probable accounts,
between Lat. 8. 30. and 16. 21. S. forming a coad of
upwards of 480 miles j but how far it extends from wed
to ead, has never beeen exaftly determined. Angola
Proper is bounded on the north by the river Danda,
which feparates it from Congo •, and on the fouth by
the Coanza, by which it is feparated from Benguela.
This lad, however, is now included in the kingdom of
Angola, having been conquered by its monarchs,
though it dill retains the name of a kingdom, and is in¬
cluded in the dimenfions we have jud now given. The
air here is very hot and unwholefome, and the country
mountainous ; there being but few plains to be met with'
in it, except on the fea-coad, and between the huge
j ridges of mountains.
'Hginally a That part of the kingdom which we have didinguifh-
rovince of ed by the name of Angola Proper, was fubjtdt to the
kings of Congo in the year 1484, when the Portuguefe
fifd difeovered the country : but how long it had been
fo before that time, is not known ; the inhabitants being
utterly deditute of chronology, and having no other
way of didinguilhing pad events, but by faying they hap¬
pened in fuch a king’s reign. Neither, though Angola
became a didindt kingdom fince its difeovery by the
Portuguefe, is it known with more certainty at what
time that revolution happened \ or whether the Portu¬
guefe were not concerned in adiding the viceroy of the
king of Congo, who governed the province of Angola,
to fet up for himfelf.
All accounts agree, that this kingdom was founded
by one Ngola or Angola, from whom it took its name.
t 351 1 ..A N G .
He paf- According to the tradition of the country, tills Ngola AngoITi.
was a fmith, and the inventor of that trade, in which v 1
he had been indrudled by the demons of the country.
In confequence of this, he became exceeding rich, not concerning
in gold, filver, or {hell money, which were not at that its becom-
time in ufe, but in corn, cattle, and fruits, which wereing a ch-
then exchanged in traffic. The country being not long kin?“
after vifited by a grievous famine, Ngola generoufly re¬
lieved his didreffed countrymen, and faved the lives of
fome thoufands. In gratitude for this generofity, he was
unanimoudy chofen king : and hence the fmith’s trade is
reckoned among the royal arts of Angola.
According to other accounts, which can be more de- Moreau-
pended upon, Ngola was the king of Congo's viceroy jthentic ac-
who, having become powerful by the redu£tion of feve-count,
ral of the neighbouring dates, was induced to fet up for
himfelf. Dreading, neverthelefs, the power of his old
mader, he chofe to fend him the ufual tribute and pre-
fents annually, till he reckoned himfelf firmly feated on
the throne, and had fecured it to his defeendants. His
meafures were greatly facilitated by the wrars which the
king of Congo was then engaged in with the Giagas, a
barbarous nation in the neighbourhood. 1 hefe madefuch
a poiverful inroad into his dominions that he was glad to
afk affidance from Ngola 5 not as a fubjedt, but as a
friend and ally. This was readily granted ; and the
two monarchs continued ever after fending prefents and
affidance to each other, and encouraging a mutual com¬
merce between their fubjedds. . ^
Ngola lived to a great age, highly refpefted by his Ngoi! the
fubje<ds, and in alliance with the king of Congo and firtt king,
the Portuguefe, whofe numerous fettlements on the
coad had made them become very powerful. Accord¬
ing to the cudom of the country, he had many wives
and concubines. By his chief favourite he had three
daughters, Zunda Riango/d, Tumba Riangola, and ano¬
ther whofe name is unknown. Towards the latter
part of his life, the king’s chief care was to fecure the
crown to the elded of thefe 5 for which purpofe hecon-
fulted his beloved queen, who encouraged him in the
defign with all the eloquence in her power. By her
advice, he fent for his lieutenant-general, a favourite
Have, whom he had created viceroy over the whole king¬
dom, to acquaint him with his refolutiorr. The artful
miniller did not fail to applaud his defign, though his
intention was to defraud the princefs, and feize the
throne for himfelf. He accordingly took the opportu¬
nity, one day, when that princefs and the whole court
were employed in fowing their lands, to fpread a re¬
port that the Angolic enemies had entered the king-
ongo.
dom, and were dedroying every thing with fire and
fword. In this confufion, the treacherous viceroy con-
dudted the three princefles to the royal palace ; and ac¬
quainting Ngola with the pretended danger, urged him
to betake himfelf to a fpeedy flight. The frighted mo¬
narch, unable to {fir with age, defined his minifter to
take the moft proper means for his fafety : whereupon,
being a ftout young fellow, he takes his majefty on his
back, and carries him into a neighbouring wood ; where
he no fooner had him in a convenient place, than he
{tabbed him with a dagger. This ftratagem was too 5
{hallow to remain long concealed ; the murderer was hindered
quickly difeovered, and many of the nobles rofe in arms
againft him *, but finding his party too ftrong to be op- whofeizes-
pofed, they were at laft obliged to fubmit, and fuffer the throne,
him
ceetl-:d by
Zunda Ri-
angoia.
7
Murders
her ne¬
phew.
A N G . [35
Angola, him quietly tu afcend the throne, upon his publicly de-
' v~w daring that he had not feized it but with a view of fe-
curing it to the princefs Zunda Riangola.
To this princefs the ufurper palliated his condu£l in
the befi manner he could j and (he had art enough to
g difguife her relentment fo efFefltually, that he never
Deathofthe difcovered the fmalleft occafion for jealoufy. At laft,
ufurper, his fudden death gave Zunda an opportunity of alcend-
who is fuc- ing the throne peaceably j when the behaved with fuch
moderation and jullice, as to gain the love and affec¬
tion of all her fubjeds. Her jealous temper prevent¬
ed her from marrying ; and, by giving too much way
to it, the came at laff to dread as rivals the two fons
of her younger filter Tumba, and fo form defigns
againft their life. To accomplilh her purpofcs, fire or¬
dered them to be brought to court, pretending to have
them educated under her own eye. This was declined
for feme time *, but at length the queen prevailed fo far
as to have the eldeft fent to her j whom fire no fooner
got in her power, than fire caufed him to be maffacred,
with all his attendants j only one efcaping, all covered
with wounds, to carry the dreadful news to the prin-
cefs and her hufirand.
On hearing of this bloody aft, the airlifted parents
immediately fallied forth at the head of all their vaflals.
They were waited for by Queen Zunda at the head of
a numerous army 5 but no fooner did her foldiers per¬
ceive the parents of the deceafed prince, than they im¬
mediately abandoned the queen to their refentnrent.
Tumba immediately rufired upon her filler, and ftab-
bed her to the heart •, after which, (he commanded her
entrails to be taken out, and thrown into the hole in
which her fon’s body bad been call. Upon this Tumba
was crowned queen of Angola, and invited her huf-
band to participate with her in the management of
public affairs. This offer he was too wife to accept j
and Tumba, upon bis refufal, refigned the crown into
the hands of her furviving fon, named Angola Chihvag-
ni. He proved a great and wife prince, extending his
dominions by conqueft, and gaining the love of his fub-
jefts by the moderation and equity of his government.
9 He was fucceeded by one of his younger fons, named
Cambi An- JAambi Angola; who no fooner afcended the throne,
Sola a cruel t[ian jie pUt ajq brethren to death, left they firould
tjrrant* unite in favour of the eldeft. The reft of his reign
proved conformable to fuch a beginning. He was a
monfter of cruelty, avarice, lewdnefs, and perfidy.
Death, however, in a fiiort time, happily delivered his
fubjefts from this tyrant ; who, notwithftanding his
infamous life, was buried with the greateft magnifi¬
cence j and a mount was erefted over his grave, con¬
fining, according to the cuftom of the country, of a
prodigious number of human viftims which had been
10 facrificed to his ghoft. Dambi Angola was fucceeded
Ngola Chi- by Ngola Chilivagni, a warlike and cruel prince. He
livagni, his conquered many nations, and made the moll dreadful
eonquelts. inroads into the kingdom of Congo, along the rivers of
Danda, Lucalla, Zanda, and Coanza; whofe waters
were often tinged with the blood of thoufands whom
he maffacred in bis incurfions. Notwithftanding thefe
butcheries, N^ola Chilivagni {bowed fuch generofity to
thofe who readily fubmitted to him, that he was fure
to conquer, not only wherever he came, but wherever
he feemed to direft his forces. At laft, as if weary
of conqueft, he planted a tree on the banks of the
G
•Is herfelf
murdered
by her lif-
fter.
2 ] AN
Coanza, about eight leagues Irom Loanda San Paulo, Angola,
as a boundary to his ravages. This tree the Portuguefe ——-v —^
called Ifanda, or Ifandaura; and afterwards erefted a
fortrefs near it. n
The fame folly and infolence which took place in the Fancies
breaft of Alexander the Great, on account of bis rapid himfelf a
conquefts, foon puffed up the mind of this petty Afri- Sod-
can tyrant. Becaufe he had conquered and ravaged
fome of the neighbouring countries, and brought un¬
der his fubjeftion a few cowardly barbarians, he firft
fancied himfelf invincible, and then that he was a god.
He demanded the fame adoration and refpeft that was
paid to their other deities •, and with this demand his
fubjefts were fervile enough to comply. Phis pretend¬
ed deity, however, was forced to fubmit to the fate of
other mortals, and died without leaving a fucceffor be¬
hind him.
On the deceafe of Ngola Chilivagni,.the ftates eleft-
ed Ngingha-Angola-Chilombo-Kickafanda, great ne¬
phew to Queen Tumba’s hufband, as his lueceffor. He
proved fuch a capacious and cruel tyrant, that his fub¬
jefts univerfally wiftied for his death •, which, luckily
for them, foon happened. He was interred with the
ufual pomp and folemnities, particularly that of having
a whole hetacomb of human viftims faerificed upon his
grave. His fon Bandi Angola, who fueceeded him,
proved yet a greater tyrant than his lather *, fo that he 17i
foon became intolerable to his fubjefts. A general re-Revolta-
volt enfued, in which his fubjefts called in the cannibal ®an*
Giagas to their afliftance. Thefe immediately pouredc' A‘n^° a‘
in like a band of hungry dogs haftening to feed upon
a carcafs; and having defeated and devoured the forces
of the tyrant, befieged him in an inaccefiible mountain ;
where, not being able to come at him, they refolved to
reduce him by famine. Bandi Angola applied to the Quelled by
king of Congo for affiftance. As it was the intereft1^6
of that prince to hinder the ravenous Giagas from en-g^g0f
tering into the Angelic dominions, whence they could cong0 and
fo eafily pafs into his own, he did not hefitate at grant-the Portu-
ing his requeft ; and ordered a ftrong reinforcement ofguefe’
the Portuguefe, of whofe valour he had a high opinion,
and of whom he entertained a great number at his
court, to march to the affiftance of the king of Ango¬
la. The command of the army was given to one of
the moft experienced Portuguefe officers ; who, de¬
pending more on the handful of Europeans he had un¬
der his command than on the Congoefe, attacked the
rebels, though greatly fuperior in number 5 and having
utterly defeated them, reftored the king of Angola to
his throne.
This effential piece of fervice fo endeared the Portu¬
guefe to Bandi Angola, that he took them into his fer-
vice, and even into his council. Their general became The king’s
a great favourite of the king, but much more fo of hisdau§hter^
daughter, who conceived a violent paftion for him.^i^1”^6
Unfortunately for them both, the amour was carried portUguefe
on with fo little precaution on her part, that the king general;
quickly difcovered it : and immediately formed a refo-
lution of exterminating the Portuguefe all at once.
Such violent meafures, however, could not be concert¬
ed fo privately but the princefs got fome intelligence of
and having apprifed her lover of his danger, he im-
mediately withdrew into Congo, taking with him aswho retires
many of his countrymen as he conveniently could. Thet0 f'on^0'
king of Congo expreffed fuch ftrong refentment againft
Bandi
A N G t 3
Angola. Bandi Angola for his ingratitude, that the Portuguefe
general would have probably prevailed upon him to de¬
clare war againft Angola, had he not been obliged to
defend his own dominions againft a neighbouring prince
who then made an invafion. 'J^his afforded that gene¬
ral a fair pretence of afking leave to return home ; pro-
mifing to come with fuch reinforcements as would en¬
able the king of Congo to revenge himfelf for the af¬
front put upon him by the Angolic monarch. His
real intention, however, was to give the king of Por¬
tugal an opportunity of feizing upon the kingdom of
i6 Angola..
k,ays a plan On his return to L’lbon, the Portuguefe general hav-
for the con- ing laid his plan before the king, it was fo well relilh-
■queftot An-ed> an armament was ordered to be fitted out, well
thAnsTof furn'died with every necefi’ary for building forlrtfles,
Portugal. &c. and a fufficient number of men. The wind proving
favourable all the way back, the Portuguefe foon ar¬
rived fafe at Luanda San Paulo ; whence the general
difpatched a meffenger to acquaint the king of Congo
with his arrival, and to make him fome rich prefents.
Thefe were no fooner gone than the admiral failed up
the Coanza; and, landing without oppofition in the
kingdom of Angola, fet about erecting a fortrefs in
a convenient fituation, which was completed in a few
days.
The king being informed of the return of the Por¬
tuguefe, and of their fortifying tbemfelves on advanta-
geous ground, gathered together a numerous army :
Defeats the but his forces, though upwards of 100,000 in number,
Angolans, were utterly deteated by the Portuguefe ; and num¬
bers killed, and many more carried into flavery. The
admiral now ravaged the whole country, putting all to
fire and fword, and making himfelf mafter of every ad¬
vantageous fpot of ground. The king, however, had
ftill the good luck to efcape all the ftratagems that were
laid for him j and once more got fafe to his inacceffible
fortrefs.
All this time Bandi Angola had himfelf tyrannized,
and allowed his favourites to tyrannize, in fuch a man¬
ner, that his fubje£ls were become no lefs weary of his
government than when they formerly revolted. Being
now exafperated beyond meafure at the calamitous war
of which he had been the occafion, they formed a de-
fign of putting an end to his life ; and in order to draw
him out of his retreat, where he wallowed in all man¬
ner of debauchery, they had recourfe to the • following
ffratagem : A deputation was fent, acquainting him
with the revolt of one Cuculo Cabazzo j who, at the
head of a numerous band, committed the moft cruel
ravages. They befought his majefty, either to levy a
fufficient number of troops, and march in perfon againft
him, or to allow them to arm themfelves againft him.
The credulous king complied with this lait propofal ;
and granted them leave to raife what force might be
thought neceffary. Four days after, notice was fent to
the king, that his fubjedls had attacked the rebels, and
had been repulfed with lofs ; but that, if his majefty
would but condefcend to animate them with his pre¬
fence, the fight of him would infpire them with fuch
courage, that they would affuredly prove vi£lorious.
I his had the defired effedl; and t he king fet out a few
days after, without any other precaution than his own
guards, to head his army, which was encamped on the
banks of the Lucalla. He no fooner appeared in view
Vol. II. Part I. f
53 1 A N G
than all the chief officers came out to meet him ; and Angola,
having under pretence of paying their refpefls, gradu- v—■ -1
ally feparated him from his guards, they fell upon him 18
and difpatched him at once. danufr0"
Bandi Angola was fucceeded by his fon Ngola Ban-
di, whofe mother had been a Have, and whole title to
the crown was confequently difputable, according to I(?
the laws of the country. Of this the new king being Cruelty of
well appiifed, thought proper to begin his reign by the new
murdering every perfon who had oppofed his election, king-
Fie began with the Tendula, or commander of the
king’s rear guard \ who, by his office, is the chief of
the electors, and the perfon who governs the kingdom,
during the interregnum. Him he ordered to be put
to death with all his family. Thefe were followed by
the principal officers of his father’s court ; all his con¬
cubines, together with their parents and near relations,
whom he cauled to be butchered *, together with his
half-brother, his father’s fon by a favourite concubine,
and then but an infant. H'- did not Ipare even the fon
of his lifter Zingha Bandi, whom the had by one of her
paramours. The intereft of his filler had contribu¬
ted greatly to raife this tyrant to the throne ; and his
ingratitude, with the murder of her fon, fo ejcafperated
her, that Ihe fwore to be revenged on him in the fame
war.
The Portuguefe were the next obje&s of his refent- Makes war
ment. 1 hefe he fo much dreaded on account of their on the Por-
valour and policy, that he immediately declared war, tu£uek>
refolving not to lay down his arms till he had extermi- Aed to"
nated them to the laft man, or driven them totally out t reat di-
of his dominions. Hisralhnefs, however, coft him dear, ftiefs.
Myriads of the Angolic poltroons were overthrown by
a handful of Portuguefe $ and the king himfelf was for¬
ced to fly, firft into the illand of Chiconda in the river
Coanza, and then into, the deferts of Oacco. Here his
conquerors, out of great clemency, allowed him to live
among the wild beafts, without any other fuftenance
than what the deferts afforded. He had the misfortune
alfo to lofe his queen and two filters Cambi and Fungi
who were taken prifoners by the Portuguefe, but ho¬
nourably treated.
The king being informed of this, fent an embaffy to
treat of their ranfom and an exchange of prifoners.
1 he propofal was readily agreed to; and the princeffes 2I
were fent back, laden with prefents. The king, how- His treach-
ever, refufed to perform his part of the agreement, and ery.
thereby plunged himfelf into ftill greater difficulties. A
new Portuguefe viceroy being arrived about this time,
Ngola was quite at a lofs how to excufe the non-per- 23
formance of his part of the treaty. At laft he had re- Sends his
courfe to his exafperated filter Zingha ; and having ex-hfter Zing-
cufed, as well as he could, the murder of her fun, pro- ha °nf,an
pofed to fend her on a fplendid embaffy to the viceroy.em ^
Having confented, but without forgetting her refent-
ment, (he fet out, as plenipotentiary for the king of
Angola, with a magnificent retinue ; was received
with all the honour due to her rank, and lodged in a
fplendid palace prepared for her.
At the firll audience Zingha had of Don John (the Her haugh-
Portuguefe viceroy), ffie was greatly furprifed to find ly behavi-
a (lately elbow chair prepared for him to fit upon, andour‘
for herfelf only a rich tapeftry fpread on the floor, with
a velvet culhion embroidered with gold, and placed over
againft the chair of (late, Diffembling her difpleafure,
Y y however,
24
Embraces
the Chri-
ftian reli¬
gion.
A N G [ 354 ]
Angola, howe.ver, ftie beckoned to one of the ladies of her re- time, however
tinue, commanded her to lay herfelf down on her el¬
bows and knees upon the carpet, and fat herfelf upon
her back during the whole time of the audience. She
behaved with fuch addrefs and dignity, as to gain the
admiration of the whole council. A propofal was made
of entering into an alliance offenfive and defenfive with
the king of Angola, provided he acknowledged him-
felf the vaffal of the king of Portugal, and lubmitted
to pay a yearly tribute. To this Zingba replied, that
fuch conditions were indeed fit to be impofed upon
thofe who had been conquered by the fword ; but not
^ upon a great and powerful monarch, who only fought
their friendfhip and alliance : upon which the treaty
was concluded on both fides, without any other con¬
ditions than the exchange of prifoners. ihe audience
being over, Don John took notice to Zingha, as he
condu&ed her out of the hall, that the lady who had
ferved her as a feat, continued ftill in the fame pofture j
upon which fire replied, That it did not become the
ambaffadrefs of a great monarch to make ufe of the
fame chair twice, fo fire looked upon her as a piece of
caft-off goods not worthy of further notice.
Zingha was fo taken with the honours done her by
the Portuguefe, and fo intent upirn obierving the or¬
der, drefs, arms, &c. of their troops, that fire ftaid.at
Loanda a confiderable time •, during which fire was in-
firutled in the Chriftian religion, and confented to be
baptized. Don John and his fpoufe -were her fponfors :
who difmiffed her foon after, with all poffible honours,
and highly fatisfied with her reception and fuccefs.
At her return, fhe took care to have the articles rati¬
fied by her brother •, who expreffed his approbation of
them, and the higheft obligations to her. He even went
fo far as to defire the viceroy to fend him fome pro-
- per perfons to inftruft him in the Chriftian religion,
which he faid he wTas very defirous of embracing. Ihis
requeft was immediately granted ; and Don Denis de
Fiara, a negro prieft, a native of Angola, was de-
fpatched, along with an officer of diftinftion, to ftand
godfather to the king. Thefe met at firft with a
gracious reception : but when they came to talk of bap-
tifm, Ngola altered his tone, and told them it w7as
too much below his dignity to receive it from the fon
of one of his flaves, and fent them both back. 1 his
was cried up by the courtiers as a princely aft : but
Zingha reprefented, that it could not fail to exafperate
the viceroy } and tried all poffible means to dilTuade
him from it, but in vain. He fuffered, however, his
other two lifters, Cambi and Fungi, to be baptized ;
which was performed in 1625, with a fplendour fuited
to their dignity.
War\\ain As no experience feems to have been a fufficient an-
declared a- tidote againft the innate folly of Ngola Bandi, he foon
gainft the aftt>r took it into his head to make war on the Portu-
Portuguefe. guefe5 an(i invaded fome of their territories. This laft
aftion proved his ruin : his troops were all cut off, and
himfelf forced to fwim for his life to a fmall iiland in
the Coanza, about a mile long, and two bow-fhots in
breadth ; whither the Portuguefe purfued and fur-
rounded him •, fo that he had no other chance, but
26 either to fall into their hands, or be devoured by the
The ki’ig wild beafts with which ihe place fwarmed. From both
poifotit'd. thepe dangers he was relieved by a dofe of poifon, given
him, as was fuppofed, by his lifter Zingha. Before this
3
A N G
lie had taken care to fend his eldeft
Angola.
28
fon to the country of the Giagas, and put him under
the care of one of their chiefs, called (jiaga Caz-ct,
whom he befought to take care of him, and protedl him
from his aunt Zingha, as he rightly imagined fire would
not fail of attempting his life, in order to feeure her¬
felf on the throne. _ _ 27
Zingha Bandi was crowned queen of Angola, with- Zingha
out oppofition, in 1627.—She was a very artful woman, Bandi
endowed with great prefence of mind, firm in her refo- cr°e^,ed
lutions, of an intrepid courage, and a great miftrefs in ”ueen'
the art of diffimulation. She inherited a large fhare of
her brother’s jealous and cruel temper, to which flip
would not hefitate to facrifice her neareft relations, if a
they gave her the leaf! umbrage.—To this jealoufy,
therefore, fhe refolved to facrifice her nephew, as web.
knowing he had a better title to the crown than herfelf.
She made ufe of the moft folemn oaths to draw him out
of the hands of his guardian, protefting that fhe had
accepted of the throne with no other view’ than to pre-
ferve it for him. But Giaga, being well acquainted
with her temper, was proof againft all her oaths and
fair fpeeches.——Zingha, finding this method ineffedlual,
pretended a defire ofrefigning the crown to her nephew,
to which fire faid fhe had no other objeaion, than that
ftie was afraid he was yet incapable of affuming the
reins of government. She therefore defired an inter¬
view with him, though ever fo ftiort, that ihe might
fatisfy herfelf in this particular, and promifed to de¬
tain him no longer than Giaga fhould think neceffary.
Giaga thought there could be no danger in confenting
to a ftiort interview } and therefore fent the unfortunate
prince to her, attended by a magnificent retinue. Ihe
cruel queen no fooner got him in her power, than ftie She mur-
murdered him with her own hand, and caufed his body das her
to be thrown into the Coanza, ridding herfeh, by thatneP
inhuman aft, of a dangerous rival, as well as revenging
herfelf on her brother, as fhe had fworn to do, for the
murder of her fon. _ r r c t>
Zingha’s next fcheme was to rid herfelf of the For-
tuguefe, who had eftablifhed themfelves in fuch a man¬
ner as to be almoft entire mafters of toe country, ft hey
had built fortrefles on every convenient fpot that fuited
them, efpecially near her principal towns, which they
could level with the ground with the greateft eafe.
They had engroffed all her commerce, W’ere become
very wealthy, and their numbers increafed daily 5 fo
that they wTere dreaded not only by her fubjefts, but
by all the neighbouring nations. As Zingha. was of a j
martial temper, fne did not long hefitate. She ec[ajes
ly made all neceftary provifions, ftrengthened herielt war aga;n
by alliances with the Giagas, and other idolatrous na-the Poitu.
tions, and even with the Dutch and the king of Congo, guefe.
With this combined force fire attacked the Portugueie
fo fuddenly and unexpeftedly, that fire gained fome
advantages over them : and the Dutch made themfelves
mafters of San Paulo de Loando, and foon after of fome
of the beft provinces in the kingdom. This happened
in the year 1641 ; and the Portuguefe did not recover
thefe places till the year 1648, when the Dutch were
entirely driven out of Angola. , tt wcrbad
Zingha’s fucceffes proved ftill more flrort-lived. Her
allies the Congoefe were fo completely overthrown,
that they we*:e forced to fue for peace j which the
Portuguefe did not grant till they had gained a tuf-
A N~ G [3
Angola, ficient number of hoftages, and obliged the Congoefe
to deliver up to them fome confiderable ports, upon
which they immediately erected fortreffes. Zingha’s
troops, were now defeated in every battle ; and thefe
defeats followed one another fo clofe, that the was foon
abandoned, not only by her allies, but by her own
troops. She was now conftrained to abandon her do¬
minions, and retire to fome of the eattern deferts, whi¬
ther the Portuguefe did not think it worth while to fol¬
low her.
Zingha being reduced to fuch diftrefs, the Portuguefe,
after giving her fome time to ruminate on her lituation,
fent her propofals of peace, upon condition that the
31 fhould become tributary to the crown of Portugal.
Refutes to This propofal the rejected with fcorn ; and let them
know, that, however her dartardly fubjefts might fub-
them. mirtively and thamefully behave towards them, their
3a queen difdained fubjedtion to any foreign power. On
They fet up this haughty anfwer, the Portuguefe, to mortify her
a king. ftill
more, fet up a king in her place. The perfon they
pitched upon wras named Angola Oarij, or Aaru, who
was of the royal family. Before he wTas crowned,
the Portuguefe obliged him to turn Chrirtian ; and he
was accordingly baptized by the name of John. The
new king, however, foon died of grief, at feeing him-
felf fo hardly treated by his mafters the Portuguefe.
They quickly fet up another, named Philip ; who bore
the yoke with more patience, and lived to the year
33 , i66d.
Zingha’s a- In the mean time Zingha, exafperated at feeing
! deprived of eleven of the beft provinces in her
Angola.
)anty.
dominions, and her authority in the remaining fix
greatly weakened, renounced the Chriftian religion,
and embraced all the horrid and bloody cuftoms of the
Giagas, whom the outdid even in their own barbarity.
—We have already hinted the barbarity of this nation
in eating human flertu In this Zingha not only joined
them, but took pleafure in devouring the raw flefli of
human vi&ims, and drinking their blood while warm
both at her facrifices and at her public meals.—She af-
fedted a martial and heroic fpirit, together with an ut¬
ter averfion to the male fex ; but, according to the Por¬
tuguefe, maintained a number of the ftrongeft and luft-
ieft youths, in whofe embraces the gave a full fcope to
her inclinations, and managed matters with fuch fecre-
cy that her intrigues could never be difcovered. At the
fame time the ordered many of her own fex to be ripped
up, when their incontinency was manifefted by their
pregnancy •, and their bodies with thofe of the infants
to be cart to wild beafts.
But what made her moft admired, as well as dreaded,
by her fubjedts, was a notion that the had by various
ftratagems inculcated upon them, of her being able to
penetrate into the moft fecret thoughts. To keep up
this apprehenfion, the ordered the bones of herdeceafed
brother to be brought from the ifland where he was
poifoned, locked up in a chert covered with coarfe plates
of filver, and laid on a fine carpet upon a pedeftal. A
number of finghillos or priefts were ordered to offer
iacrifices to thefe bones, and to keep lamps continually
buining before them. To this place the herfelf fre¬
quently repaired, to aflift at thofe rites, w'hich, as the
gave out, and every body believed, engaged the fpirit
of the deceafed to inform her of every thing that was
done, faid, or even defigned, either in the kingdom or
34
S3 ] A N G
out of it.—To procure, however, as much real intelli¬
gence as pofiible, the kept vaft numbers of (pies all over
the kingdom, who conftantly gave her notice of what
happened in their refpedtive circles ; and this Ike to
cunningly improved to her own ends, that her fubjedts
looked upon her as a kind of deity from whom nothing
could be concealed.
By fuch means as thefe, Zingha gained fuch autho-Her influ-
rity over the Giagas, that they were ready, at the very ence oyer
firft indication of her will, to follow her through the t^e Giagas.
moft dreadful dangers, and to engage in the molt def-
perate enterprifes. She now made many ftrenuous and
daring efforts to drive out the Portuguefe ; but though
the had, in all probability, more valour and {kill than
her enemies, their fire arms gave them fuch an advan¬
tage, that flie was always defeated with great lofs. Per¬
ceiving therefore the folly of attempts of this kind,
the contented herfelf with making continual inroads
into their country, carrying off or deftroying every ^
thing that fell in her way. Though {he fpared nei-Her terri-
ther Europeans, nor blacks, who were fubjefts of the ble ravages,
mock monarchs fet up by the Portuguefe, yet the cafe
of the former was peculiarly dreadful when they hap¬
pened to be taken prifoners. They were either roafted
by a flow fire, or had their flefh cut off in pieces, and
devoured before their faces, in the manner related by
Mr Bruce of the Abyftinian oxen*. In this manner * See
fhe infefted the Portuguefe territories for 28 years,
fcarce ever allowing them a moment’s ceflation of arms.
Their mock kings were often obliged to {belter them-
felves from her fury in an inacceflible rock called
Maopongo ; and they themfelves could never hope to
enjoy their dominions with any kind of peace fo
long as this furious queen continued alive. They in
vain exhaufted all their politics either to reduce her
by force, or to mollify her by prefents and fair offers.
The one fhe rejefred with difdain, and always found
means to baffle the other. Nor would {he hearken to
any terms, unlefs they confented to refign all their
conquefts. The refufal of this demand was fo com¬
monly followed by fome marks of her refentment, that
it was with the utmoft difficulty the Portuguefe could
prevail on any body to carry their propofals to her j
and as for Zingha, fhe difdained to make any to them,
except thofe of the hoftile kind. The terror of her
arms procured her a free paffage wherever Ihe diredted
her courfe ; all the inhabitants of a province making
no lefs hafte to abandon, than fhe to invade it. Thus
the continued to advance, till at length fhe was got fo
far as the fmall ifland of Dangii in the river Coanza.
The Portuguefe now found themfelves under the ne-
ceffity of railing an army of negroes, in order to drive
her out of it. Accordingly they furrounded the ifland,
and intrenched themfelves along the banks on both tides
of the river; but while they were buiy at their work,
Zingha attacked them with fuch advantage, that flie
killed and wounded feveral hundreds of the blacks,
and fome of the white men. Elated with this advan¬
tage, fhe was preparing for another attack ; when flie
perceived, to her furprife, that the Portuguefe had drawn
their lines fo elofe, and raifed them to fuch a height,
that they overlooked her whole camp, and could fire
upon her naked foldiers as if they {hot at a mark.—
Thus great numbers of her men were cut. off, particu¬
larly her chief officers. The queen, now perceiving the
Y y 2 danger
An sol a.
3^
Outvvits the
Fortusuele.
37
Her com¬
plicated
misfor¬
tunes.
The Portu-
guefe fend
an embafiy
ty her.
39
Their pro-
nufals re-
jscled.
A N G [ 35
danger of her fituation, amufed the Portuguefe with
' propofals of an accommodation ; and having obtained
a truce for three days, crofted the river in the dead of
the night, and led her forces to the province of Oacco.
The next morning, the Portuguefe, feeing no human
creature upon the iftand, began to apprehend fome new
ftratagem ; but, upon landing fome of their troops, they
perceived themfelves over-reached, and deprived of the
faireft opportunity they ever had of forcing her to fur-
render at difcretion.
Zingha (laid no longer in that province whither (he
had retired, than till (he was affured that the Portu¬
guefe were retired from the Coanza ; and then, crofting
that river once more, marched diredlly towards the
kingdom of Metamba, which had been invaded by
fome of the neighbouring princes. The fpeed with
which (he led her forces thither, and recruited her army
with multitudes of Giagas, who were all emulous of
fighting under her banner, quickly enabled her to re¬
cover fome of her territories in that kingdom. Begin¬
ning now to think he.rfelf luce* fsful, (lie again attacked
the Portuguefe •, but was defeated with great lofs, to as
to be obliged to fend for frtfti troops. To complete
her misfortunes, (be received news that the Giaga Caf-
fan<d had taken the advantage of her abfence, to enter
the0 kingdom of Metamba with a numerous army,
had carried o(F the, greateft part of the inhabitants, de-
ftroyed all the fruits of the earth, plundered the towns
of all that was valuable, and fet fire to the reft, lea¬
ving that kingdom in a manner defolate. To add to
all this, her "troops, exafperated at the lofs of their
wives, children, and goods, which were carried to the
fartheft corner of Benguela, were all on the point of
revolting.
Notwithftanding tbefe difafters, Zingha behaved
with fueh refolution and addrefs, that the Portuguefe,
who, according to chara&er, had probably jnftigated
the Giaga againft her, were fo much afraid of her
ioining with him in alliance againft them, that they
"defpatehed one Anthony Coglio, a learned prieft and
an excellent negociator, with Don Gafpar Borgia an
eminent officer, under pretence of negociating a peace
between them, firft to the Giaga, and afterwards to
the queen. They met with a very civil reception from
the firft, who told them that he was very willing to
live at peace with that princefs, and even to let her
enjoy the kingdom of Metamba, though he was the
rightful heir to it, provided (lie would lay down her
arms. This anfwer encouraged the prieft to try whe¬
ther he could prevail on him to embrace the Chriftian
religion j but that was declined by the Giaga in fuch
ftrong terms, that the prieft thought proper to defift,
and fet out for Zinga’s camp.
The ambafladors, at their firft arrival, met with fuch
a polite reception, as made them hope for fuc eefs ; but
after (he bad beard their propofals, (he aflumed a
haughty threatening tone, and told them in the eontlu-
fton of her fpeech, “ That it did not become her dig¬
nity to lay down her arms, till (be had brought the war
(he had begun to an honourable conclufion : that as to
the Giagas, whofe fe£l (he had embraced fome years
before, and who had furniffied her with fueh a prodi¬
gious number of forces to fight in her defence, her ho¬
nour and intereft required that (lie fhould ftill keep
them in her fervice, and under her prote&ion : and
4
6 ] A N G
laftly, that as fo herfelf, (lie remembered, indeed, that Angof4>
(lie had formerly embraced Chriftianity; but that it was
not now a proper feafon to propole her returning to it,
and they ought to remember that they themielves were
the caufe of her abandoning it.”
Borgia, perceiving that (lie was not to be wrought
upon by religious motives, (hifted the topic ; anu told
htr, that (be had gained honour enough in war, and
that it was now high time to think of granting peace
and tranquillity to the fubjeas of two fuch powerful
kingdoms, and accept of the favour and friendftiip of
the king of Portugal, which was offered her by his
viceroy. To this the queen made anfwer, that (lie was
perfectly well acquainted with the valour and ftrength
of the Portuguefe, and (hould efteem it an honour to
be allied to that monarch *, but that (lie thought it juft
that their relpeaive claims to the dominions which
(he juftly inherited from her anceftors, and of which
he had unjuflly deprived her, ftiould firlt of aft be
decided, either by the fword or by fome equitable jud-
ges*
Borgia, vainly imagining that he had now obtained
enough, fet off immediately for Luanda San Paulo j
but left the prieft, on fome pretence or other, to fee
whether, in the time of ficknels, he could make any
impreflion on the inflexible mind ot Zingha, who now
laboured under a lingering diitafe. Coglio, however,
found aft his arts to no purpofe $ and, upon the queen’s
recovery, (he commenced the war with more fury than
ever* . . 40
For fome time hoftilities were carried on with va-z;ng£a’s
rious fuccefs ; Zingha being fometimes viftorious and narrow
fometimes defeated. In one attempt of the latter kind,
before the fortrefs of Maffangana, fhe not only loft a
great number of men, but. had her two filters Cambi
and Fungi taken prifoners, (lie herfelf efcaping with the
utmoft difficulty. Exafperated by this lofs, flic led her
troops into fome of the beft provinces of the Portu¬
guefe, and reduced them to a mere wildernefs. Still,
however, (lie had the mortification to find her Ioffes
vaftly greater than what (lie gained 5 and had now the
additional misfortune of lofing her fifter Fungi, who
was put to death by the Portuguefe for treachery, and
feeing her allies the Dutch totally expelled out of An-
gola. . _ # 41
Zingha being thus oppreffed with a complication of Begins to
misfortunes, and confcious of the crimes (Ire had com-relent;
mitted, began ferioufly to confider whether fuch a con¬
tinued feries of difafters was not owing to the difpleafure
of the God of the Chriftians. To this opinion (lie
feemed to have inclined ; and therefore began to treat
with more lenity fueh Chriftians as fell into her hands,
efpecially if they happened to be priefts or monks. To
tbefe (be now began to liften with fome attention ; and
ordered them, under fevere penalties, to be treated with
all poffible refpedt; yet, without lofing in the leaft that
invincible hatred (he had conceived againft thofe who
had dripped her of her dominions, or dropping her
refolution never to make peace till (he had recovered
them. 42
The viceroy, Don Salvador Correa, who had driven but Hillr*
out the Dutch, being apprifed of the regard (hown tohftsthe w
the clergy by Queen. Zingha, thought proper to fend ^^0^.
fome capuchins to her, in hopes that they might now gUefe,
find her more tradable. But Zingha was ftill proof
againft
A N G [ 357 1 A N G
.43
'heir infa.
aous con-
ud.
againft their utmoft art; obferving, however, that if
they would confent to reflore what they had unjuftly
taken from her, the would not only return to the Chri-
ftian religion, but encourage it to the utmoft of her power.
The viceroy, being now afraid that Zingha might
make an alliance againft him with the king of Congo,
firft raifed a powerful army, and then acquainted that
monarch, that, if he defigned to prevent the total ruin
of his dominions, he muft immediately make reparation
for all the damage he had caufed to the Portuguefe by
his alliance with the Dutch. The fame of the Portu¬
guefe valour fo intimidated the king, that he fubmitted
to a treaty almoft on the viceroy’s own terms; and as
foon as this treaty was concluded, Don Huy Pegado, an
old experienced officer, was defpatched to Zingha, of¬
fering a firm and lafting alliance with her, provided flie
renounced the Giagan left, and returned to the bofom
'of the church. To this embaffy {he returned the old
anfwer, namely, that the Portuguefe themfelves had
been the occafion of all that had happened j as they
had not only ftripped her of her hereditary dominions,
but dared to proclaim one of her vafials king of Angola ;
but, provided thefe dominions were reftored, Hie would
immediately embrace Chriftianity.
All this time the furiou> Queen Zingha went on with
her ravages, notwithftanding the viceroy kept plying her
with letters for near three years. At laft he had re-
couife to the artifice of taking advantage of the remorfe
for her crimes with which Zingha was fometimes affec¬
ted, in order to procure the peaceable enjoyment of his
own ill-gotten conquefts.
It is eafv to fee, that had this viceroy,-or the pritfls
he employed, really intended to. convert Zingha to
Chriftianity, they ought to have fo far let her an ex¬
ample, as at leaft to abandon part of the countries of
which they had robbed her: but, inftead of this, they
impioufly made ufe of the facred name of our Saviour,
in order to deter a poor lavage African from recovering
what juftly belonged to her.
he returns Queen Zingha, at laft, came to incline fo much ta
^Chriftia- return to the Chriftian religion, that a general mur-.
mur ran through her army. But having, by various
artifices, reconciled the minds of her fubje£!s to this
event, (lie explained her defign in a fet fpeech; offering
at the fame time liberty to thofe who chofe to abandon
her on this account to go where they would ; and fuch
was their attachment to her, that even on fuch a fudden
and important change in her refolutions, they expreffed
no uneafinefs, but on the contrary applauded her to the
higheft degree.
The Portuguefe, after having been haraffed In a ter¬
rible manner for 28 years, and at laft obliged to pro¬
fane the name of their Saviour to procure a peace, be-
45 gan nowT freely to enjoy the fruits of their villany. A
reatywitli treaty was fet on foot between the viceroy and Zing-
uefepro- ’ which, however, was not eafily concluded. She
ofed. demanded the releafe of her lifter Cambi, whofe Chri-
ftian name was Donna Barbara 5 and the Portuguefe
demanded a ranfom of 200 Haves or an equivalent in
money. This Zingha did not well relifh •, and, being
preffed to a compliance, threatened them with a more
furious war than any they had yet experienced. Upon
this the viceroy was obliged to have recourfe to the
ufual method of fending priefts to perfuade her to com¬
44
ply through motives of religion. Thefe hypocrites ef- Angola,
fefted their purpofe 5 and the Haves were fent, as if Chri- —'y—J
ftianity required the delivering up innocent people to
thofe who had no lawful authority over them ; but not
being able to conclude a lafting peace about the ceffion
of the Angolic provinces, they were forced to conclude
a ftiort truce, and fent back her lifter.
This princefs was received by Zingha in a very afj
feftionate manner: and, fume time after, the queen, her
mind being probably weakened through the infirmities
of old age, not only was thoroughly reconciled to the
Portuguefe, but looked upon them as her belt friends.
She encouraged the Chriftian religion j had a church
built in her capital j made feveral laws againft Pagan-
ifm 5 and, to encourage marriage, Ihe herfelf wedded a
handfome young fellow in the 75th year of her age.
The Portuguefe now imagining they would at lalt
gain their point, propofed to her the following terms,
as the balls of a lafting treaty between the two nations. ^
1. “ That they Ihould yield to her, as a prefent, fome The Portu-
of the countries of which they had already robbed her. guefe
2. That,, in confideration of the faid prefent, whichterms*
ftiould in noways be interpreted as an inveftiture, th&
queen Ihould pay yearly a certain acknowledgement to
the king of Portugal, who Ihould be at liberty to with¬
draw tlie faid prefent whenever Ihe failed of making
the faid acknowledgement. 3. That a free commerce
Ihould be opened between thofe two Hates, as well for
Haves as for other merchandifes. 4. That the queen
Hiould moleft none of the lords that were feudatory to
the Portuguefe, whatever damages or ravages they
might have committed during the late wars between
them. 5. That he Ihould reft ore all the Portuguefe
Haves that had taken refuge in her dominions. 6. That
Ihe Ihould deliver up the Giaga Colanda, who had re¬
volted from the Portuguefe, upon condition that his
crime ftiould go unpunilhed.”
The queen, having now a thorough view of the deep-
rooted villany of thofe with whom Ihe had to do, con¬
ceived fuch difpleafure againft the Portuguefe, that Ihe
fell lick. During this ficknefs, Father Anthony, her
chief confidant, and a creature of the viceroy, never
left off foliciting her to make her peace with God, and
to accept of the terms offered her by the Portuguefe :
but Zingha, though worn out with age and ficknefs,
had ft ill the good fenfe to perceive, that there was no
connexion between making her peace with God and
complying with fuch infamous terms ; and therefore 47
gave the following anfwer, which, under fuch circum- Ihequeen’S-
ftances, Ihows a magnanimity fcarce equalled in anyT,0,lle an_
age or in any country. 1. “ That as to her conver-fwer*
lion, as it was neither owing to any defire of obtaining
a peace, or other worldly motives, but the Divine
grace by which Ihe was recalled, Ihe was refolved to
perfevere in it to her laft breath. 2. That as to her
going over to the Giagan feft, Ihe had in a great mea-
fure been forced to it by the Portuguefe viceroy.
3. That the king of Portugal would do a generous
aft in reftoring feme of her Angolic dominions ; but
it would be more fo, were be to reftore them all.
4. That as to her paying homage to him, neither her
mind nor heart were bale enough to confent to it ; and
that as Hie had refufed the propofal while {he lived
among the Giagas, much more did Ihe think herfelf .
above
A N G
[ 358 ]
A N G
Angola.
48
Articles of
the treaty.
49
The peace
ligned.
above it now Pne was a Chriftian queen, and owed nei¬
ther tribute nor homage to any but to the Supreme
Potver, from whom (lie had received both her being and
her kingdom : That, neverthelefs, if fhe could be con¬
vinced that there was any thing in her dominions that
would be acceptable to his Portuguefe majefty, Ihe would
voluntarily make him a prefent of it •, and as to the reft
of the articles, fueh was her defire of making a firm and
lafting peace with them, that Ihe ftiould make no diffi¬
culty of confenting to them.”
This anfwer was not altogether fatisfaiftory to the
viceroy } but the prieft, finding it impofiible to make
any impreftion upon her mind, eafily prevailed upon
him to confent to the following terms: 1. “ ihat the
river Lucalla fhould be the boundary between the domi¬
nions of the Portuguefe and of Queen Zingha. 2.1 hat
neither fide Ihould henceforth give any reception to the
fugitive Haves of the other, but fend them back without
any delay, together with the prifoners which had been
taken during the lalt year. 3. That the queen fliould
remain wholly free and exempt from all tribute and ho¬
mage whatever, provided fhe agreed to the other ar¬
ticles.”
Thefe terms were at laft figned by the queen and
viceroy in the month of April 1657, and ratified by
the king of Portugal in the month of November the
fame year.—The only difficulty the queen had concern¬
ing this treaty was with regard to the Giaga Colanda :
and the manner in which ffie extricated herfelf from it,
with her fubfequent behaviour, cannot fail to give us
a high idea of the mental abilities of this African he-
5o
Zingha’s
honourable
behaviour.
land a.
The Giagan chief, weary of the Portuguefe yoke,
had retired from them, at the head of 1000 ftout fol-
diers, and a much greater number of Haves, fome
leagues beyond the river Lucalla, and put himfelf un¬
der the queen’s prote&ion. This fhe readily granted,
as he was very able to be ferviceable to her in cafe the
perfidious conduft of the Portuguefe fhould oblige her
to renew the war. She could not therefore but look
upon it as unjuft and difhonourable, to deliver up a
brave chief who had devoted himfelf to her fervice, and
whom Pne had taken under her fpecial protedlion, to a
nation with whofe perfidy fhe was fo well acquainted.
To fave her honour, therefore, fome time before the
ratification of the treaty, fhe fent privately for the Gia¬
ga, and acquainted him with the demand of the Portu¬
guefe ; telling him, at the fame time, that though fhe
doubted not of the viceroy’s keeping his word, and
forgiving his offence, yet fhe advifed him to go out of
her dominions, and fettle himfelf and his men in fome
country diftant from the Portuguefe frontiers; but for¬
bade him, on pain of her higheft difpleafure, to com¬
mit the leaft outrage or hoftility within their domi¬
nions.
The Giaga thanked her majefty, and feemed to ac-
quiefce with her advice, but did not follow it. On the
contrary, he had no fooner reached his fortrefs, than he
fet himfelf about fortifying it in fuch a manner as look¬
ed rather like defiance than defence : and, having ga-
Defeats and thered a confiderable army, foon fpread a general ter-
kills the ror around him. Of this the Portuguefe failed not to
Giaga Co- complain to the queen : who immediately marched
againft him, furprifed and defeated his army ; and he
himfelf being killed in the action, his head was cut off Angola.
and fent to the Portuguefe. _ ‘ 
This was among the laft memorable aflions perform¬
ed by this famous queen ; who, now finding herfelf un¬
fit for the fatigues of war, contented herfelf (in 1658)
with difpatching an old experienced general againft a
neighbouring prince who had invaded her territories.
He&proved no lefs fuccefsful than herfelf, and quickly 52
forced the aggrtffor to fubmit to her terms. She now Encourage!
gave herfelf up to ftudy the beft method of propagating
Chriftianity among her fubjefts ; and for this purpofe y*
fent a folemn embaffy to Rome, to pay homage to the
Pope in her name, and torequeft a frefh fupply of mif-
fionaries. To this letter fhe received an anfwer from
his Holinefs in 1662; and it was read in the church
that fame year, in the moft public and folemn manner.
The day appointed was the 15th of July; on which fhe
repaired to the church at the head of a numerous reti¬
nue, and having the letter hanging about her neck in
a purfe made of cloth of gold. The concourfe was fo
great, that the church could not contain one half of the
people, fo that none were admitted but perfons of rank.
The father having finifhed the mafs, read the letter at
the altar in the Portuguefe language ; and the fecretary
interpreted it in that of the country. The queen, who
had flood all the while it was reading, went towards
the altar, and on her knees received it from the fa¬
ther ; and having kiffed it, and fworn afrefh upon the
gofpel to continue in obedience to the church of Rome, 53
kiffed the letter again, put it into the purfe, and re- Ceremonies
turned to the palace amidft the fhouts and acclamations
of many thoufands of her fubjefts. On that day fhe from tjje
gave a magnificent treat to the Portuguefe refident, andpope.
to all her court, in two great porticos, and fhe herfelf
vouchfafed to eat after the European manner; that is,
fitting on a ftately elbow chair, with a high table be¬
fore her, covered with the fineft linen, and with difhes,
plates, knives, and forks, all of filver gilt. She be-
ftowed fome largeffes upon her chief officers, releafed
a good number of Haves, and at night appeared at the
head of her ladies of honour, both Hie and they dreffed
in the Amazonian manner. They performed a kind of
combat, in which the queen, though upwards of eighty
years of age, behaved with all the vigour and aftivity
of a woman of thirty. - , -.jP
Her life, however, was not lengthened in proportion z;ngha
to her vigour and aftivity; for in the month of Septem-dies.
ber fhe was feized with an inflammation in her throat;
which, in December, having feized her breaft and lungs,
fhe expired on the 17th of that month, and was fucceed-
ed by her fifter Barbara. ^
The deceafed queen was buried with extraordinary
pomp ; and out of regard to her, Barbara was inau-by her lifter
gurated a fecond and third time, with the greateft Barbara,
pomp, and the moft joyful acclamations. She was a
very zealous Chriftian, but wanted her filler’s abilities,
and had the misfortune of being in the decline of life,
lame, and almoft blind. Befides this, fhe had been
married to a proud ill-natured hufband, named Mona
Zingha : who, though to her he owed all his fortune 0f
and advancement, being himfelf no more than the fonherhuf-
of a Have, ufed her with fuch cruelty, even in the late band Mona
queen’s life, that fhe was obliged to take refuge in the^iog^10
palace, from whence he had the infolence immediatelyher*
to
A N G
[ 359 ]
A N G
Angola.
57 r
-le accufes
Father An-
hony:
S®
,Vho re-
irimands
he queen.
^ 59 -
lona Zm-
ha revives
ie Giagan
tes :
6o
id poi-
ns Father
nthony.
to fetch her. This fo exafperated Queen Zingha, that
the had 'well nigh ordered him to be cut in pieces be¬
fore her face ; but pardoned him at the requeft of Fa¬
ther Anthony, who probably knew he was privy to
fome religious fecrets, which he might, in cafe of fuch
emergency, have difclofed. On Barbara’s acceffion to
the throne, however, he not only redoubled his cruelty
to her, in hopes of getting the management of affairs
entirely into his own hands, but invented accufations
againfl Anthony himfelf, with a defign to extirpate
both him and his religion. He gave out that the late
queen had been poifoned by fome favourite European
difhes, with which Brother Ignatio ufed to regale her
during her laid illnefs ; and attributed his wife’s lame-
nefs and blindnefs to fome forceries or charms ufed by
the convent againfl; her. He had even perfuaded, or
rather forced, his queen to confent that fome of the fing-
hillos or priefts fhould be brought to counter-charm her
diftemper.
Father Anthony, far from being intimidated at the
accufations brought againft him, repaired immediately
to the palace ; where he boldly reprimanded the queen
for giving ear to thefe jugglers, threatening at the fame
time to leave her dominions, and carry off with him all
the croffes, and other religious utenflls, from which
alone they could have any benefit. The queen return¬
ed a very fubmiflive anfwer ; and promifed to deliver up
the counter-charms which fne at that time had upon
her, before funfet ; which fhe accordingly did, and fent
them to the convent by the hands of her fecretary. This
fo exafperated her hufband, and all the Giagan fe£f,
that they refolved upon the deftruflion of all the priefts
and Europeans, and even the queen herfelf. This,
however, was found improper to be attempted ; and
Mona Zingha was fo much chagrined at his difappoint-
ment, that he retired to his own eftate j giving out,
that he defigned to meddle no more with ftate affairs j
but, in reality, to concert meafures for engrofling the
fovereignty to himfelf, and to deprive his wife of her
life and crown.
To accomplifh his purpofe, he fent a meffenger to
her, defiring her to repair to his houfe, where he had
fomething of importance to communicate ; but fhe de¬
clining the invitation by the advice of Father Anthony,
he found himfelf difappointed, and begged leave to
retire to a neighbouring province, which was under
his government. He wras again difappointed, and
forbid to ftir out of the province of Metamba. The
queen was, however, guilty of an error not long after,
in fending Mona Zingha, at the head of an army, to
quell a revolt on the frontiers. On his returning vic¬
torious, he thought himfelf ftrong enough to revive the
ancient Giagan rites, and therefore ordered xoo flaves
to be facrificed to the manes of the deceafed queen.
Though the queen was immediately apprifed of his in¬
tention, and difpatched a meffenger exprefily command¬
ing him to defift •, yet Mona, by diftributing fome pre-
fents, particularly fome European wines, among the
counfellors, effe&ed his purpofe with impunity. He did
not forget to fend fome of this wine to Father Anthony;
but to prevent fufpicion, prefented him only with a fmall
quantity, to be ufed, as he faid at the mafs ; adding,
that if it proved agreeable, he would fupply him with
a larger quantity. The unfufpedling prieft drank
about two glaffes of it j and in about a quarter of an
hour was feized with violent convulfions in his bowels, Angola.
and other fymptoms of being poifoned. By proper ' 
aftiftance, however, he recovered : yet fo far was he
difabled by this dofe, that he was obliged to abandon
his miffion.
The queen’s infirmities in the mean time daily in-The queen
creafing, Mona Zingha was foon delivered from all fur-d es*
ther oppofition on her part, by her death, which hap¬
pened on the 24th of March 1666. Upon this, Mona
Zingha made all poflible hafte to get himfelf elected
king ; and immediately renounced the Chriftian reli¬
gion, raifing a perfecution at the fame time againfl; its
profeflors. He even wrote to the Portuguefe viceroy,
acquainting himw'ith his having renounced Chriftianity,
which he had only embraced out of complaifance to his
queen, and with his defign to revive the Giagan rites.
To (hew that he meant to be as good as his word, he Cruelties of
ordered all the children under fix years of age, that^ona2in-
could be found, to be facrificed in honour of their in-^*'3*
fernal deities. He alfo recalled the finghillos, and
heaped many favours upon them ; fo that they became
entirely devoted to his purpofes. He likewife caufed
many of his fubje&s to be privately poifoned ; and then
gave out, that their unaccountable deaths were owing to
their having abandoned the religion of their anceftors,
and embraced Chriftianity; which he ftyled the religion
of a parcel of famifhed ftrangers, who, through their ex¬
treme mifery, had been forced to leave their native
country, and feek for a livelihood in the richeft provin¬
ces of Africa.
By thefe and fuch like ftratagems he almoft entirely
extirpated Chriftianity, and any appearances of civili¬
zation which had been introduced among his fubjedls.
His career, however, was flopped by Don John the
princefs Barbara’s firft hulband, from whom (lie had
been divorced on account of his having another wife.
He foon compelled the ufurper to fly into an ifland in
the Coanza ; but not having the precaution to reduce
him entirely, Mona Zingha found means to retrieve his
affairs, and at laft defeated and killed Don John him¬
felf, by which he became mafter of the throne without
any further oppofition. He rvas no fooner re-eftablifti-
ed, than he began to purfue his butcheries with more
fury than ever ; when, on a fudden, Don Francifco, the
fon of Don John, appeared at the head of an army in 63
oppofition to the ufurper ; and in the firft engagement We is de-
Mona Zingha being defeated and killed, Don Francifco^e3te,c* am*
became foie mafter of the empire. 1 e '
It is not known whether this prince kept to the
terms of the alliance made by Queen Zingha with the
Portuguefe or not. Thefe, however, have prelerved
their conquefts, and for fome time they allowed the
natives to choofe a king for themfelves, or rather they 6
chofe him for them, as we have already noticed. Thefe Low ftate
kings enjoyed only a mere fhadow of royalty; their of the kings
whole grandeur confifting in being allowed to breedfet by
peacocks, and adorn themfelves with their feathers, tl^fg0rt;u'
which was forbidden to their fubje&s under pain of§Ut C’
perpetual flavery. The laft of thefe kings was named
Ngola Sedefio, who difliking an empty name of roy¬
alty, revolted from the Portuguefe, and carried on a
long war with them ; but being at laft defeated and
killed, his head was cut off, felted, and fent to Lifhon
in pickle. After this the Portuguefe feem not to have
thought it fefe to truft their Angolic fubjeds even with
the
Angola,
Angon.
. .65
Djvlfion
into pro¬
vinces.
66
Rivers.
A N G t 36°
tire name of a king of their own, but have vefted the ,
power entirely in their viceroy ; but, as to the extent
of his dominions, and how matters ftand between him
and that race of Angolic princes who have preferved
their liberty, wre are entirely in the dark.
When in its greatelt fplendour, the kingdom of An¬
gola contained the 17 following provinces: Cheffama,
Sumbi, Benguela, Rimba, Sietta, High and Low Bem-
bea, Temba, Oacco, Cabezzo, Lubolo, Loanda, Ben-
go, Danda, Mofiche, Higher and Lower Ilamba, Oraij,
and Embacca. The provinces conquered by the Poriu-
guefe during the wars above mentioned were, Danda,
Mofiche, Bengo, the Higher and Lower Ilamba, Oraij,
Embacca, Benguela, Sietta, Cabezzo, Lubolo, and
Oacco.
The principal rivers are thofe already mentioned,
viz. the Danda and Coanza. rI he Coanza is large,
deep,, and rapid. It empties itfelf into the Atlantic
ocean about latitude 90 70' fouth, twelve leagues fouth
©f Loando the capital of the kingdom. It is navigable
for 150 miles, and abounds with variety of fifh. It
forms feveral iflands, has fome cataracts, and one in
particular which bears its name. As for its fource,
and the length of ground it croffes from eaft to weft
before it comes to the Portuguefe fettlements, it is ab-
folutely unknown, as well as the countries through
which it runs. Its mouth, which runs between the
capes Palmerino and. Lego, is above a league widej the
northern ftiore is the deepeft, and along which the
veffels fail. The fall of this river into the ocean is fo
rapid, that the fea appears quite muddy for two or
three leagues below it. Its mouth is not eafily per¬
ceived from the open fea, by reafon of an ifland quite
covered with high trees which lies juft before it. The
two principal iflands formed by this river are called
Mqffander and Motchiamia. The one is fix leagues
long, and about two miles broad : it is very fertile in
maize, millet, and fome other grains, which are reaped
at three different feafons of the year. It produces like-
wife vaft quantities of manhioc, a root of which they
make a coarfe kind of meal, which ferves inftead of
bread. Here alfo grow great numbers of palm and
other fruit trees of various kinds. The ifland of Mot¬
chiamia is four or five miles long, and one in breadth,
moftly plain, and producing variety of roots and herbs.
It likewife abounds in cattle ; and there were formerly
five or fix Portuguefe families fettled upon it, who drove
a confiderable trade in thofe commodities, and likewife
in flaves.
Concerning the river Danda we know little or no¬
thing : only, that though its mouth is not above 70 or
80 miles diftant from that of the Coanza, yet their di-
ftance grows fo confiderably wider as you penetrate
further into the inlands, as to be much above twice if
not thrice that fpace *, though how much, k not exa&ly
known.
The manners, religion, and drefs, &c. of the inha¬
bitants, are much the fame with the Congoefe. See
Congo.
Angola Pea, or Pigeon pea. See Cytisus, Bo¬
tany Index.
ANGON, in the ancient military art, a kind of ja¬
velin ufed by the French. They darted it at a confi¬
derable diftance. The iron head of this weapon refem-
bled a fleur-de-luce. It is the opinion of fome writ-
A N * G
that the arms of France are not fleurs-de-luce, but
the iron point of the angon or javelin of the ancient
French.
ANGOR, among ancient phyficians, a concentration
of the natural heat : the conftquence of which is a pain
of the head, palpitation, and fadnefs.
ANGOT, a province or kingdom of Abyflinia, for¬
merly rich and fertile, but almoft ruined by the Gallas,
a wandering nation in the internal parts of Africa, who
difpoffeffed the Abyfiinian monarchs of all that was
worth poffeffing.
ANGOULESME, a city of France, the capital of
the former duchy of Angoumois, now the department of
Charente, and the fee of a biftiop. It is feated on the
top of a hill, furrounded wjth rocks, at the foot of which
runs the river Charente. The inhabitants are faid to
be about 8000, and have a confiderable trade in paper,
which they manufafture. E. Long. c. 14. N. Lat.
45* 39-
ANGOUMOIS, formerly a province of France, now
a diftrift, bounded on the north by Poitou, on the eaft
by Limofin and Marche, on the fouth by Perigord, and
on the weft by Sairitonge. Through this province run
the rivers Touvre and Charente. This laft is full of ex¬
cellent fifli ; and though it often overflows its banks, it
is fo far from doing any damage, that it greatly enrich¬
es the foil. The Touvre is full of trouts. The air is
generally warmer than at Paris, though the country is
hilly. The foil produces plenty of wheat, rye, oats,
Spanilh corn, faffron, grapes, and all forts of fruits.
Here are feveral iron mines, which yield a very good
fort of iron.
ANGOURA, Angora, or Angori, a city of A-
fia, in Anatolia, formerly called Ancyra, and ftill full
of remarkable antiquities, which are fo many marks of
its ancient magnificence. It is at prefent one of the
beft cities in Anatolia j its ftreets are full of pillars
and old marbles, among which are fome of porphyry
and jafper. The greateft part of the pillars are fmooth
and cylindrical j fome are channelled fpirally •, but
the moft Angular are oval, with plate bands before
and behind from the top to the bottom of the pedeftal.
The houfes are now made of clay, which is fometimes
intermixed with fine pieces of marble. The walls of
the city are low, with very mean battlements. The
mafonry of the walls is intermixed with pillars, archi¬
traves, capitals, and other ancient fragments, efpecial-
ly that of the towers and gates. The caftle of Ango¬
ra has a triple enclofure } and the walls are of large
pieces of white marble, and a ftone much like por-
pbyry.
The bafha of Angora has about 30 purfes income 5
and there are here about 300 janizaries, under the
command of a fardar. The Turks are faid to be 40,000,
the Armenians 4000 or 5000, and the Greeks 600.
The Armenians have feven churches, befides a mona-
ftery, and the Greeks two. They breed the fineft
goats in the world ; and their hair, Which is of a daz¬
zling white, is almoft as fine as filk, and nine inches in
length: it is worked into very fine fluffs, particularly
camblet. All the inhabitants are employed in this ma-
nufatfture. Several large caravans pafs through this
city to different places. E. Long. 32. 5. N. Lat. 39.
30. See Ancyra.
ANGOY, a kingdom of Loango in Africa, bound¬
ed
A N G [ 361 ] A N G
ed on the north by Cacongo, and on the fouth by Con¬
go*, from the former of which it is feparated by the
river Cabinda, and from the latter by the river Zaire.
It is but of fmall extent j being only a valfal province
of Cacongo, till the mani or prince, who had married
a Portuguefe’s daughter, was perfuaded by his father-
in-law to make himfelf independent. This he elfefted
at a favourable juncture, the king of Loango having
but juft before revolted from the king of Congo, and
the king of Cacongo from the new king of Loango.
The country is full of woods and thickets; and has no
towns of any note, except one called Bomangoy, fitu-
ated on the north bank of the Zaire, and not far from
Its mouth. Its chief port is Cabinda, called alfo Ka-
benda, or Cubenda, fituated on the mouth of. a river of
the fame name, about five leagues north of Cape Pal-
merino, on the north fide of the Zaire’s mouth. The
bay is very commodious for trade, or wooding and wa¬
tering along the (hore. It is flat and marlhy in fome
places •, but afcends gradually about three miles inland,
and then forms itfelf into a ridge of hills. On the af-
cent of thefe is fituated a town belonging to the father-
in-law of the king above mentioned, where he conftant-
ly kept a flock of wood ready cut, to fell to foreign fhips
at an eafy rate. From thefe wood piles, fouth-weft
along the bay, lie fcattered a number of fifliermen’s
huts, on each fide a fmall frelh-water river which falls
into the bay 5 and thence all the water for fliips is
brought in calks to the mouth of the river, which is fo
lhallow, that even at full flood it can only be entered
by a yawl carrying a calk or two. The town Hands
on the round point of the bay looking to the weftward ;
and the Englilh have a fadtory on the fouth-weft of the
road.
The country round the bay is moftly barren ; owing
chiefly to the lazinefs of the inhabitants, which often
occafions a fcarcity of provifions. The wild beafts
fwarm fo in the woods, that they deftroy all the tame
kinds 5 fo there are no cattle bred here but hogs. From
the woods in this country fome monkeys have been
brought away which in Ihape and ftature refembled the
human fpecies. Civet cats abound here in great plenty,
and parrots may be bought for three or four ordinary
knives. The coafts abound fo with oyfters, that the
failors quickly load their boats with them ; they being
found lying in great heaps like fmall rocks. The na¬
tives follow the occupation of filhing more than any
other. They filh both in the fea and in the rivers,
making ufe of drag nets, which have long canes fixed
at equal diftances, inftead of corks, to Ihow when any
filh is caught. Thefe nets are made of a peculiar kind
of root, which, after being beaten, may be fpun like
hemp.
The drefs of the inhabitants is the fame with that of
the Congoefe. They allow polygamy, and the belt be¬
loved wife hath the command of the reft; but is no lefs
liable to be turned out, if Ihe proves unfaithful. The
ladies of the blood-royal have the privilege of choofing
their hufbands out of any, even the meaneft rank •, and
have even the power of life and death over them •, as
likewife over their paramours, if any of them are caught
tripping: but the hufbands are by no means entitled to
expe& the fame fidelity from their royal ladies. Wo¬
men of the lower rank are obliged, when they receive
a ftranger, to admit him for a night or two into their
Vol. II. Part I.
embraces. This obliged the miflionaries, who travel- Angra.
led through this country, to give notice of their ap- s——y——.
proach to any of their houfes, that none of the female
fex might enter within their doors.-—Their religion
confifts chiefly in a variety of fuperftitious cuftoms j
fuch as powdering their public and domeftic idols with
the duft of a kind of red wood, on the firft day of the
moon, and paying a kind of worftiip to that planet.
If, on that night, it happens to fhine clear and bright,
they cry out, “ Thus may I renew my life as thou
doft but if the air is cloudy, they imagine the moon
hath loft her virtue, and pay her no refpe<ft. We do
not hear of their offering any facrifices to their idols j
though they commonly confult them about the fuccefs
of their enterprifes, thefts, or fuch like. The king of
Congo ftill ftyles himfelf fovereign of Angoy ; but the
king of this little ftate pays neither tribute nor homage
to any foreign power.
ANGRA, a city of Tercera, one of the Azores $ the
capital, not only of that ifland, but of all the reft,
and the refidence of the governor. It is feated on the
fouth fide, near the middle of the longeft diameter of
the ifland, on the edge of the fea. The harbour is
the only tolerable one in the whole ifland, being equal¬
ly fecured againft ftorms and the efforts of an ene¬
my. It is of the form of a crefcent *, the extremities
of which are defended by two high rocks, that run fo
far into the fea as to render the entrance narrow, and
eafily covered by the batteries on each fide. From
this harbour the town is faid to derive its name, the
word Angra fignifying a creek, bay, or ftation for (hip¬
ping 5 and this is the only convenient one among all the
Azores. The opening of the port is from the eaft to
the fouth-weft j and, according to Frezier, it is not
above four cables length in breadth, and not two of
good bottom. Here ftiips may ride in great fafety du¬
ring the fummer ; but as foon as the winter begins, the
ftorms are fo furious, that the only fafety for (hipping
is the putting to fea with all poflible expedition. Hap¬
pily, however, thefe ftorms are preceded by infallible
figns, wfith which experience has made the inhabitants
perfectly well acquainted. On thefe occafions the Pico,
a high mountain in another of the Azores, is overcaft
with thick clouds, and grows exceedingly dark \ but
what they look upon as the molt certain fign is the
fluttering and chirping of flocks of birds round the city
for fome days before the ftorm begins.
The town is well built and populous, and is the fee of a
bilhop, under the jurifdidtion of the archbilhop of Lif-
bon. It hath five parifties, a cathedral, four monafteries,
as many nunneries, befides an inquifition and bi(Imp’s
court, which extends its jurifdiftion over all the A-
zores, Flores, and Corvo. It is furrounded by a good
wall, a dry ditch of great depth and breadth, and de¬
fended by a ftrong caftle rendered famous by the im-
prifonment of King Alphonfo by his brother Peter in
1668. Though mod of the public and private build¬
ings have a good appearance externally, they are but
indifferently furniftied within j but for this poverty the
Portuguefe excufe themfelves, by faying, that too much
furniture would prove inconvenient in fo warm a cli¬
mate.
At Angra are kept the royal magazines for anchors,
cables, fails, and other (lores for the royal navy, or oc-
cafionally for merchantmen in great diftrefs. All ma-
Z z ritime
._r
A N G
Anerivarii ritirae affairs are under the infpeehn
°JJ ed Defembergrador, who hath fubordmate omcers and
Anguinum. pilots for condufting (hips into the harbour, or to pro-
    per watering places. The Englifli, French, and Dutch,
have each a conful refiding here, though the commerce
of any of thefe nations with the Azores is very incon-
fiderable.
ANGRIVARII, (Tacitus) : a people of Germany
fituated between the Wefer and the Ems, and eaftward
reaching beyond the Wefer, as far as the Cherufci, on
which fide they railed a rampart (Tacitus) 5 to the
fouth, having the Tubantes on the Ems, and on the
Wefer where it bends to the foreft Bacemis} to the
weft, the Ems and the confines of the Brufteri *, and
to the north, the territory of the Angrivarii lay be¬
tween the Chamavi and Anfibarii. . Ptolemy places
them between the Cauchi and Suevi or Catti. Sup-
pofed now to contain a part of the county of Schaum¬
burg, the half of the biihopric or principality of Min-
den to the fouth, the greateft part of the biihopric of
Ofnaburg, the north part of the country of Teclenburg,
and a part of the county of Ravenfburg. A trace, of
the name of the people ftill remains in the appellation
Energn, a fmall town in the county of Ravenlburg.
ANGUILLA, one of the Weft India or Caribbee
iHands, lying in about 18° 15' N. Lat. It has its name
from its fnake-like form ; and is about ten leagues in
length and three in breadth. It was firft difcOvered by
the Englifli in 1650, when it was filled with alligators
and other noxious animals j but they, finding the loll
fruitful, and proper for railing tobacco and corn, let tied
a colony on it, and imported live cattle, which have
fince multiplied exceedingly. But the colony not being
fettled under any public encouragement, each planter
laboured for himfelf, and the ifland became a prey to
everv rapacious invader, which dHheartened the inhabi¬
tants fo much, that all induftry was loft among them.
Their chief fufferings were from a party of wild Infti,
who landed here after the Revolution, and treated them
worfe than any of the French pirates who had attacked
them before. The people of Barbadoes, and other En-
gliih Caribbees, knowing the value of the foil,, feveral
of them removed to Anguilla, where they remained for
many years, and even carried on a profitable trade,
though without any government either civil or ecele-
fiaftical. In 1745. their militia, though not exceeding
100 men, defended a breaftwork againft 1000 French
who came to attack them ; and at laft obliged them to
retire with the lofs of 150 men, befides carrying off
fome of their arms and colours as trophies of then: vic¬
tory. Since that time the inhabitants have fubfifted
moftly by farming •, though they ftill plant fugar, and
the ifland is faid to be capable of great improvements.
ANGUILLIFORM, an appellation given by 200-
logifts, not only to the different fpecies of eels, but to
other animals refembling them in ftiape.
ANGUINA. See Tricosanthes.
ANGUINUM ovum, a fabulous kind of egg, faid
to be produced by the faliva of a duller of ferpents,
and poffefled of certain magical virtues. The fuper-
ftition in refped to thefe was very prevalent among the
ancient Britons, and there ftill remains a ftrong tradi¬
tion of it in Wales. The account Pliny * gives of it
is as follows: “ Pneterea eft ovorum genus in. magna
“ Gallisntm famsj oroiffum Gr.Eccis. Angues mnume-
[ 362 1 A N H
it of an officer call- “ ri teflate convoluti, falms faucium col;Por.UTr*flue Angumum
♦Lib. xix. 3.
« mis artifici complexu glomerantur j anguinum appel-
“ latur Druidae fibilis id dicunt in fublime jactari, ^
«< fagoque oportere intercipi, ne tellurem attingat j
“ profugere raptorem equo: ferpentes enim inieqm,
“donee arceantur amnis alicujus interventu.,,--Ot
which the following may ferve as a tranflation : (from
Mafon's Carattacus ; the perfon fpeaking, a Druid.)
But tell me yet
From the grot of charms and fpells,
Where our matron filler dwells,
Brennus, has thy holy hand
Safely brought the Druid wand,
And the potent Adder-Jlone,
Gender’d ’fore th’ autumnal moon ?
When, in undulating twine,.
The foaming fnakes prolific join }
When they hifs, and when they bear
Their wond’rous egg aloof in air ;
Thence before to earth it fall,
The Druid in his hallow’d pall
Receives the prize,
And inftant flies,
Follow’d by th’ envenom’d brood,
’Till he crofs the cryftal flood.
This wondrous egg feems to be nothing more than
a bead of glafs, ufed by the Druids as a charm to im-
pofe on the vulgar, whom they taught to believe, that
the poffeffor would be fortunate in all his attempts, and
that it would gain the favour ot the great.
Our modern Druidefles (fays Mr Pennant, from
whom we extraft) give much the fame account of the
ovum anguinumy glain naidr, as the Welfti call it, or
the adder gem, as the- Roman philolopher does j but
feem not to have fo exalted an opinion of its powers,
ufing it only to affift children in cutting their teeth, or
to cure the chincough, or to drive away an ague.
Thefe beads are of a very rich, blue colour ; fome
plain, others ilreaked. For their figure, fee Plats
XXXVI. fig. 22. N0 I, 2, 3.
ANGUIS, or Snake, in Zoology, a
ing to the order of amphibia ferpentes,
LOGY Index.
ANGURIA, the Water Melon.
Index.
ANGUS, a diftria of the county
Scotland. It was an earldom belonging to the Doa-
glaffes, now extindl.
ANGUSTICLAVIA, in Roman antiquity, a tu¬
nica embroidered with little purple ftuds. It was worn
by the Roman knights, as the laticlavia was by the
fenators.
ANHALT, a principality of Germany, in the cir¬
cle of Upper Saxony, is along narrow tra£l, fituated
for the moft part betwixt the rivers Elbe and baal,
about 90 miles in length from eaft to weft, but of un¬
equal breadth, the greateft being on the eaft fide,
which is but 35 miles. The houfe of Anualt, from
whence the eleflors of Saxony and Brandenburg are
faid to derive their original, is a very ancient and ho¬
nourable family. The beft genealogifts deduce their
origin from Berenthobaldus, who made war upon the
Thuringians in the fixth century : it has produced ma¬
ny princes who make a great figure in the German hi-
Anhalt.
genus belong-
See Ophio-
See Botany
of Forfar ia
A N J
i\nhelat!o ftory. Joacliim Erneft, who died in 1586, left five
|1 fons, who divided the principality among them. All
Aiijengo. 0f them having children, and being of equal authority,
‘ they unanimoufly agreed to fubmit to the eldeft of the
family, who has the fupreme government, which is
Anhalt Dejfau. The others are, Anhalt Bernburg,
Anhalt Schaumburg, Anhalt Coethen, and Anhalt Zerbjl.
The Saxons acknowledge that the inhabitants of thefe
little independent fovereignties live in the land of milk
and honey. Thefe petty princes poffefs land fufiicient
for their expences, the revenues being reckoned about
half a million of dollars. The tax on lands is four
per cent, which, rating them at 20 years purchafe, is
not quite one (hilling in the pound. Upon an emer¬
gency the fubjefls are able to raife half a million ex¬
traordinary. The towns in thefe little dates are not
lb numerous in proportion to the extent of country as
in Saxony, but better peopled. It is bounded on the
■fouth by the county of Mansfeld, on the weft by the
duchy of Halberftadt, on the eaft by the duchy of
Saxony, and on the north by the duchy of Magde¬
burg. It abounds in corn, and is watered by the Sadie
and Mulda j its principal trade is in beer.
ANHELATIO, or Anhelitus, among phyfi-
cians, a ftiortnefs of breath.
ANHINGA. See Ornithology Index.
ANHOLT, an ifland of Denmark, in North Jut¬
land, lying in the Categat, eight miles from the coaft
of Jutland, ten from Zealand, and feven from Holland.
It is dangerous for feamen, for which reafon there is a
lighthoufe.
ANIAN, the name of a ftrait formerly fuppofed
to lie between the north-eaft of Afia and the north-weft
of America: but now found to exift only in imagination.
Anian is alfo the name of a barren fandy defert ly¬
ing on the eaft coaft of Africa. It is fo exceflively hot
and otherwife inhofpitable, that it contains but very
few inhabitants, except fume wandering Arabs who live
-In camps.
ANIELLO, or Massaniello. See Hiftory of
Naples.
ANJENGO, a fmall town and faiftory, with a fort,
on the coaft of Malabar, in the peninfula on this fide
the Ganges, belonging to the Eaft India Company.
The fort is (mail, but neat and ftrong; it is a fquare
with four baftions, having eight guns mounted on each,
carrying a ball of 18 pounds. Two of thefe baftions
face the fea, the other two the country. Befides thefe,
there is a line of 18 or 20 guns pointing towards the
fea, of 18 and 24 pounders. About a piftol (hot from
the back of the fort runs a river, which, befides being
a fecurity to the factory, adds much to the agreeable
fituation of the place. This river has its fource in fome
diftant mountains •, and, defcending in a courfe from
the north and eaft, it afterwards turns in feveral plea-
fmg meanders fo far to the weft as to wafti the bottom
of our factory’s garden, and at laft winding to the
louth, it empties itfelf into the fea. Several beautiful
fmall iftands too, which are walked by its current, di-
verfify the fcenery, and greatly heighten the beauty
of the profpeft. I his fettlement fupplies our Eaft In¬
dia Company with pepper*, and its fituation is alfo very
convenient for giving proper intelligence to our ftiips
touching here from Europe, or from any part of India.
E. Long. 76. 1. N. Lat. 7. o.
A N I
ANIL, in Botany, a fynonyme of a fpecies of indi- Anil
gofera. See Indigofera, Botany Index. II
ANIMA, among divines and naturalifts, denotes Animal,
the foul or principle of life, in animals. See Soul. v
Anima, among chemifts, denotes the volatile or fpi-
rituous parts of bodies.
ANIMA Hepatis, is a name by which fome call fal
martis, or fait of iron, on account of its fuppofed ef¬
ficacy in difeafes of the liver.
ANIMA Mundi, a certain pure ethereal fubftance or
fpirit, diffufed, according to many of the ancient phi-
lofophers, through the mafs of the world, informing,
actuating, and uniting the divers parts thereof into
one great, perfeft, organical, and vital body or ani¬
mal. Plato treats at large of the tx Koa-px, in
his Tinueus ; and is even fuppofed to be the author of
the dogma ; yet are interpreters much at a lofs about
his meaning. Ariftotle, however, taking it in the
common and obvious fenfe, ftrenuoully oppofes it. The
modern Platonifts explain their mailer’s anima mundi
by a certain univerfal ethereal fpirit, which in the hea¬
vens exifts perfectly pure, as retaining its proper na¬
ture ; but on earth pervading elementary bodies, and
intimately mixing with all the minute atoms thereof, it
aflumes fomewhat of their nature, and becomes of a pe¬
culiar kind.— So the poet :
Spiritus intus alit, totofque infufa per artus
Mens agitat molem, et magno fe corpore mifcet.
They add, that this anima mundi, which more imme¬
diately refides in the celeftial regions as its proper feat,
moves and governs the heavens in fuch a manner, as
that the heavens themfelves firft received their exift-
ence from the fecundity of the fame fpirit: for that
this anima, in being the primary fource of life, every¬
where breathed a fpirit like itfelf, by virtue whereof
various kinds of things were framed conformable to
the divine ideas.
ANIMA Batumi, a white powder obtained by pour¬
ing diftilled vinegar on litharge j of confiderable ufe in
enamelling. See Enamel.
ANIMADVERSION, in matters of literature, is
ufed to fignify, fometimes corredlion, fometimes re¬
marks upon a book, See. and fometimes a ferious con-
fideration upon any point.
ANIMAL, in Natural Hijlory, an organized and
living body, which is alfo endowed with fenfation :
thus, minerals are faid to grow or increafe, plants
to grow and live, but animals alone to have fenfa¬
tion.
It is this property of fenfation alone that can be
deemed the efiential chara6feriftic of an animal; and
by which the animal and vegetable kingdoms feem to
be fo eflentially feparated, that we cannot even ima¬
gine the leaft approximation of the one to the other.
Thofe naturalifts, indeed, who have fuppofed the di-
ftin&ion between animals and vegetables to confift in
any thing elfe than what we have already mentioned,
have found themfelves greatly embarrafled; and have
generally agreed, that it was extremely difficult, if not
impodible, to fettle the boundaries between the animal
and vegetable kingdoms. But this difficulty will be
eafily ften to arife from their taking the chara&eriftic
marks of the animal kingdom from fomething that
was evidently common to both. Thus Boerhaave at-
Z z 2 tempted
[ 363 1
Animal.
A N I [
tempted to diftinguifli an animal from a vegetable, by
V-*~ the former having a mouth, which the latter has not.
but here, as the mouth of an animal is only the inftru-
ment by which nourifnment is conveyed to its body, it
is evident that this can be no eflential diftin<EUon, be-
caufe vegetables alfo require nouriftiment, and have in-
ftruments proper for conveying it into their bodies ;
and where the end is the fame, a difference in the means
can never be effential. The fixing the difference in an
animal’s having a gula, ftomach, and inteflines, as is
done by Dr Tyfon, is as little to the purpofe.
The power of moving from one place to another,
hath by many been thought to conftitute their differ¬
ence •, and indeed, in moil cafes, it is the obvious mark
by which we diftinguifh an animal from a vegetable :
but Lord Karnes hath given feveral very curious in-
fiances of the locomotive power of plants 5 fiime ol
which, as he fays, would do honour to an animal.—
“ Upon the flighteft touch, the fenfitive plant fhrinks
back and folds up its leaves, fimilar to a fnail j which
on the flighteft touch retires within its fhell. A new
fpecies of the fenfitive plant hath been lately difcover-
ed. See DlONiEA. If a fly perch upon one of its
flower leaves, it clofes inftantly, and crufhes the in.ect
to death. There is not an article in botany more ad¬
mirable than a contrivance, vifible in many plants, to
take advantage of good weather, and to protect them-
felves againft bad. They open and clofe their flowers
and leaves in different circumftances; fome clofe be¬
fore funfet, fome after } fome open to receive rain,
fome clofe to avoid it. The petals of many flowers
expand in the fun; but contraft at night, or on the
approach of rain. After the feeds are fecundated, the
petals no longer eontra£L All the trefoils may ferve
as a barometer to the hufbandman ; they always
contraft their leaves on an impending ftorm. Some
plants follow the fun, others turn from it. Many plants,
on the fun’s recefs, vary the pofition of their leaves,
* A fpecies which is ftyled the f^ep of plants. A Angular plant
ofthe/fr- was lately difcovered in Bengal. Its leaves are in con¬
tinual motion all day long ; but when night approaches,
they fall down from an ereft pofture to reft.
“ A plant has a power of dire&ing its roots for pro¬
curing food. The red whortleberry, a low evergreen
plant, grows naturally on the tops of our higheft hills,
among ftones and gravel. This (hrub was planted in
an edging to a rich border, under a fruit wall. In two
or three years, it overran the adjoining deepdaid gra¬
vel walk; and feemed to fly from the border, in which
not a Angle runner appeared. An effort to come at
food in a bad fituation, is extremely remarkable in the
following inftance : Among the ruins of Newabbey,
formerly a monaftery in Galloway, there grows on the
top of a wall a plane tree about 20 feet high. . Strait¬
ened for nourifliment in that barren fituation, it feve¬
ral years ago dire&ed roots down the fide of the wall,
till they reached the ground ten feet below ; and now
the nouriftiment it afforded to thofe roots during the
time of their defending is amply repaid, having every
year fince that time made vigorous {hoots. From the
top of the wall to the furface of the earth, thefe roots
have not thrown out a fingle fibre ; but are now united
in a fingle root. ^
“ Plants, when forced from their natural pofition,
are endowed with a power to reftore themfelves. A
N I
a ftick, dire&s its courfe Animal.
364 1 ... ,
fv.'m I'mUh 'he futl Untwilt it and
tie it in the oppofite direaion ; it dies. Leave it loofe
dyfarunu
tie it in me     . , ,•
in the wrong direflion : it recovers .ts natural dtrec-
Twift » branch of a tree fo as
tion in a (ingle night. Tw.ft a branch ot a tree fo as
to invert its leaves, and 6« it in that pofitlon : if left
in any degree loofe, it untwlfts .tfelf gradually, t, 1 the
leaves be reftored to their natural pofition. W hat bet¬
ter can an animal do for its welfare ? _ A root of a tree,
meeting with a ditch in its progrefs, is laid open to the
air. What follows ? It alters its courfe like a rational
being, dips into the ground, furrounds the ditch, rife*
on the oppofite fide to its wonted diftance from the lur-
face, and then proceeds in its original direaion. Lay
a wet fponge near a root laid open to the air ; the root
will direa its courfe to the fponge. . Change the place
of the fponge : the root varies its direaion. Ihruft a
pole into the ground at a moderate diftance from a
fcandent plant: the plant direas its courfe to the pole,
lays hold of it, and rifes on it to its natural height. A
honeyfuckle proceeds in its courfe, till it be too Jong
for fupporting its weight; and then {Lengthens lUelt
by {hooting into a fpiral. If it meet with another plant
of the fame kind, they coalefce for mutual fupport; the
one fcrewing to the right, the other to the left. If a
honeyfuckle twig meets with a dead branch, it fcrews
from the right to the left. The clafpers of bnony ftioot
into a fpiral, and lay hold of whatever comes in their
way for fupport. If, after completing a fpiral ot three
rounds, they meet with nothing, they try again by al¬
tering their courfe.”—-— ...
By comparing thefe and other inftances ot ieeming
voluntary motion in plants, with that {hare of life
wherewith fome of the inferior kinds of animals are
endowed, we can fcarce hefitate at afcribing the fu-
periority to the former; that is, putting fenfation out
of the queftion. Muffels, for inftance, are fixed to
one place as much as plants are; nor have they any
power of motion, befides that of opening and {hutting
their ftiells : and in this refpea they have no fupeno-
rity over the motion of the fenfitiye plant; nor doth
their aftion difcover more fagacity, or even fo umeb
as the roots of the plane tree mentioned by Lord
Karnes. <• r 4
Mr Buffon, wbo feems to be defirous ot contound-
ing the animal and vegetable kingdoms, denies fenfa¬
tion to be any effential diftindtion. “ Senfation (Lys
he) more effentially difiiriguiflies animals from vege¬
tables : but fenfation is a complex idea, and requnes
fome explication. For if fenfation implied no more
than motion confequent upon a ftroke or an impulfe,
the fenfitive plant enjoys this power. But if, by fen¬
fation, we mean the faculty of perceiving and compar¬
ing ideas, it is uncertain whether brute animals are
endowed with it. If it fliould be allowed to dogs,
elephants, &c. whofe aftions feem to proceed from
motives fimilar to thofe by which men are adluated, it
muft be denied to many fpecies of animals,, particularly
to thofe which appear not to poffefs the faculty of pro-
greflive motion. If the fenfation of an oyfter, for ex¬
ample, differed only in degree froni that of a dog ;
why do we not afcribe the fame fenfation to vegetables,
though in a degree ftill inferior ? This diftindbion,
therefore, between the animal and vegetable, is nei¬
ther fufficiently general nor determined. ^
A N I [ 365 ] * A N I
Animal. “ From this inveftigation we are led to conclude, that
— y '■ 1 there is no abfolute and effential diftinftion between the
animal and vegetable kingdoms 5 but that nature pro¬
ceeds, by imperceptible degrees, from the moft perfedl
to the moft imperfeft animal, and from that to the ve¬
getables ; and the frefh water polypus may be regarded
as the laft of animals and the lirft of plants.”
It were to be witiled, that philofophers would on
fome occafions confider, that a fubje£I may be dark as
well on account of their inability to fee, as when it
really affords no light. Our author boldly concludes,
that there is no effential difference between a plant
and an animal, becaufe we afcribe fenfation to an oy-
fter, and none to the fenfitive plant; but we ought to
remember, that though we cannot perceive a diftinc-
tion, it may neverthelefs exift. Before Mr Buffon,
therefore, had concluded in this manner, he ought to
have proved that fome vegetables were endowed with
fenfation.
It is no doubt, however, as much incumbent on
thofe who take the contrary fide of the queftion, to
prove that vegetables are not endowed with fenfation,
as it was incumbent on Mr Buffon to have proved that
they are. But a little attention will ftiovv us, that the
difficulty here proceeds entirely from our inability to
fee the principle of fenfation. We perceive this prin¬
ciple in ourfelves, but no man can perceive it in an¬
other. Why then does every individual of mankind
conclude that his neighbour has the fame fenfations
with himfelf ? It can only be from analogy. Every
man perceives his neighbour formed in a manner fimi-
lar to himfelf j he afts in a fimilar manner on fimilar
occafions, &c. Juft fo it is with brute animals. It
is no more doubtful that they have fenfations, than
that we have them ourfelves. If a man is wounded
with a knife, for inftance, he expreffes a fenfe of pain,
and endeavours to avoid a repetition of the injury.
Wound a dog in the fame manner, he will alfo ex-
prefs a fenfe of pain ; and, if you offer to ftrike him
again, will endeavour to efcape, before he feels the
ftroke. To conclude here, that the aflion of the dog
proceeded from a principle different from that of the
man, would be abfurd and unphilofophioal to the laft
degree.
We muft further take notice, that there are fenfa¬
tions effentially diftindl from one another j and in
proportion as an animal is endowed with more or fewer
of thefe different fenfes, it is more or lefs perfect
as an animal ; but, as long as one of them remains, it
makes not the leaft approach to the vegetable king¬
dom j and, when they are all taken away, is fo far
from becoming a vegetable, that it is only a mafs
of dead matter. The fenfes of a perfect animal, for
inftance, are five in number. Take away one of them,
fuppofe fight •, he becomes then a lefs perfedl animal,
but is as unlike a vegetable as before. Suppofe him
next deprived of hearing : his refemblance to a vegeta¬
ble would be as little as before j becaufe a vegeta¬
ble can neither feel, tafte, nor fmell, and we fuppofe?
him ftill to enjoy thefe three fenfes. Let us, laftly,
fuppofe him endowed only with the fenfe of feeling,
which, however, feems to include that of tafte, and
he is no more a vegetable than formerly, but only an
imperfeft animal. If this fenfe is then taken away,
we connedt him not with the vegetable kingdom," but
with what Mr Buffon calls brute matter. It is to this Animal,
kingdom, and not to the vegetable, that animals plainly
approximate as they defcend. Indeed, to fuppofe an
approximation between the vegetable and animal king¬
doms, is very abfurd : for, at that rate, the moft im-
perfedl animal ought to be the moft perfedt plant j but
we obferve no fuch thing. All animals, from the high-
eft to the loweft, are poffeffed of vegetable life ; and
that, as far as we can perceive, in an equal degree,
whether the animal life is perfedt or imperfedt j nor
doth there feem to be the fmalleft connexion between
the higheft degree of vegetation and the loweft degree
of fenfation. Though all animals, therefore, are poffef¬
fed of vegetable life, thefe two feem to be as perfedlly
diftindt and ineommenfurate to one another as any two
things we can poffibly imagine.
The power of vegetation, for inftance, is as perfedl
in an onion or leek, as in a dog, an elephant, or a
man j and yet, though you threaten a leek or an onion
ever fo much, it pays no regard to your words, as a
dog would do •, nor, though you wound it, does it
avoid a fecond ftroke. It is this principle of felf-pre-
fervation in all animals, which, being the moft power¬
ful one in their nature, is generally taken, and with
very good reafon, as the true charadlerirtic of animal
life. This principle is undoubtedly a confequence of
fenfation j and as it is never obferved to take place in
vegetables, we have a right to fay that the foundation
of it, namely fenfation, belongs not to them. There
is no animal, which makes any motion in confequence
of external impulfe where danger is threatened, but
what puts itfelf in a pofture of defence j but no vege¬
table whatfoever does fo. A mufcle, when it is touch¬
ed, immediately fhuts its ffiell , and as this action puts
it in a ftate of defence, we conclude that it proceeded
from the principle of felf-prefervation. When the fen¬
fitive plant contradls from a touch, it is no more in a
ftate of defence than before ; for whatever would have
deftroyed it in its expanded ftate, will alfo do it in its
contrafted ftate. We conclude, therefore, that the
motion of the fenfitive plant proceeds only from a cer¬
tain property called by phyficians irritability; and
whichy though our bodies poffefs it in an eminent de¬
gree, is a chara&eriftic neither of animal nor vegetable
life, but belongs to us in common with brute matter. It
is certain that an eleflrified filk thread (hows a much
greater variety of motions than any fenfitive plant. If
a bit of filk thread is dropt on an eledlrified metal
plate, it immediately erects itfelf j fpreads out the
fmall fibres like arms j and, if not detained, will fly
off. If a finger is brought near it, the thread feems
greedily to catch at it. If a candle approaches, it
clafps clofe to the plate, as if afraid of it.—Why do
we not conclude that the thread in this cafe is really
afraid of the candle ? For this plain reafon, That its
feeming flight is not to get away from the candle, but
to get towards the eledtrified metal 5 and, if allowed
to remain there, will fuffer itfelf to be burnt without of¬
fering to ftir.—The fenfitive plant, in like manner, af¬
ter it has contradled, will fuffer itfelf to be cut in pieces,
without making the leaft effort to efcape. The cafe is
not fo with the meaneft animal. A hedgehog, when
alarmed, draws its body together, and expands its
prickles, thereby putting itfelf in a pofture of defence.
Throw it into water j and the fame principle of felf-
prefervation *
, A N I t
Ahimal. prefervation prompts it to expand its body and fwim.
—-V—A {nail, when touched, withdraws itfelf into its (hell j
but if a little quicklime is fprinkled upon it, fo that its
{hell is no longer a place of fafety, it is thrown into
agonies, and endeavours to avail itfelf of its locomo¬
tive power in order to efcape the danger. In muffels
and oyfters, indeed, we cannot obferve this principle
of felf-prefervation fo ftrongly, as nature has deprived
them of the power of progreffive motion : but, as we
obferve them conftantly to ufe the means which nature
has given them for felf-prefervation, we can have no
reafon to think that they are deftitute of that principle
upon which it is founded.
But there is no need of arguments drawn from the
inferior creation. We ourfelves are pofieffed both of
the animal and vegetable life, and certainly muft know
whether there is any connexion between vegetation
and fenfation, or not.—We are confcious that we exift ;
that we hear, fee, &c. : but of our vegetation we are
abfolutely unconfcious. We feel a pleafure, for in-
ftance, in gratifying the calls of hunger and third: j
but of the procefs by which our aliment is formed into
chyle, the chyle mixed with the blood, the circula¬
tion of that fluid, and the feparation of all the humours
from it, we are altogether ignorant. If we then, who
are more perfedt than other vegetables, are utterly
infenfible of our own vegetable life, why flrould we
imagine that the lefs perfeft vegetables are fenfible
of it ?
To illuftrate our reafoning here by an example.—
The direction of the roots of the plane tree mentioned
by Lord Karnes, (hows as much fagacity, if we are to
look only to the outward adlion, as can be obferved in
any motion of the moll perfedl animal whatever ; ne-
verthelefs, we have not the leaft fufpicion, either that
the tree faw the ground at a diftance, or that it was
informed of Its being there by the reft of its roots. If
a wound is made in the body of a man, and a lofs of
fubftance is to be repaired, the fame fagacity will be
obferved in the arrangement of the fibres, not only as
if they were animated, but they will difpofe of them-
felves feemingly with a degree of wifdom far fuperior
to what we have any idea of; yet this is done without
our having the leaft knowledge either how it is done,
or of its being done at all. We have therefore in our¬
felves a demonftration, that vegetable life a&s without
knowing what it does : and if vegetables are ignorant
of their moft fagacious adlions, why ftiould we fufpeft
that they have a fenfation, let it be ever fo obfcure,
^ of any of their inferior ones, fuch as contrafting from
a touch, turning towards the fun, or advancing to meet
a pole ?
Thus we may eafily give Mr Buffon a reafon why
we afcribe fenfation to an oyfter, and none to a vege¬
table ; namely, becaufe we perceive the vegetable do
nothing but what is alfo performed in our own bodies,
Avithout our having the leaft fenfation of it; whereas
on oyfter puts itfelf in a defenfive pofture on the ap¬
proach of danger ; and this being an action fimilar to
our own upon a like occafton, we conclude that it
proceeds from the fame principle of fenfation. Here
it may alfo be obferved, that though the inferior ani¬
mals are deficient in the number, they are by no means
To in the acutenefs of their fenfations; on the contra¬
ry, though a muffel or an oyfter is probably endowed
366 ] A N I
with no other fenfe than that of feeling, yet this fenfe Animal,
is fo exquifite, that it will contraft upon the flighteft —v——
touch, fuch as we would be altogether infenfible of.
As to .that power of contrattility, or irritability,
which is obferved in fome plants ; our folids have it,
When deprived both of vegetable and animal life : for
mufcle, cut out of a living body, will continue to
cOntraft, if it is irritated by pricking it, after it has
neither fenfation nor vegetation.
A very good moral reafon may alfo be adduced why
we do not believe vegetables to be endowed with fen¬
fation.—Had they been fo, we muft fuppofe them to
fufifer pain when they are cut or deftroyed ; and, if fo,
what an unhappy ftate muft they be in, who have not
the leaft power to avoid the injuries daily offered them !
In fa£l, the goodnefs of the Deity is very confpicuous
in not giving to vegetables the fame fenfations as to
animals ; and, as he hath given them no means of de¬
fence, though wTe had not been told it by himfelf, we
might have known that he gave them for food to ani¬
mals ; and, in this cafe, to have endowed them with
fenfation would have been a piece of cruelty. Though
animals without number prey upon one another, yet
all of them have fome means of defence ; from whence
we may juftly conclude, that their mutual deftru&ion
was not an original appointment of the Creator, but
what he forefaw would happen in a courfe of time, and
which he therefore gave every one of them fome means
of guarding againft. It may no doubt be here ob¬
jected, that the giving fome means of felf-defence to
every animal cannot be reckoned a fufficient proof that
it was not the original defign of the Creator that they
ftiould be deftroyed, feeing thefe means are not always
effectual for their prefervation. This objection, how¬
ever, cannot be completely obviated Avithout a folution
of the queftion concerning the origin of evil among
the works of a perfectly good Being. But Avhatever
difficulty there may be in folving this queftion, it is
certain, that, as fome means of felf-defence is given to
every animal, it has been the original defign of the
Creator, that in all cafes one fpecies of animals fhould
not be deftroyed at the pleafure of any other fpecies ;
and as no means of felf-defence is given to any vege¬
table, it is plain that they have been deftined for a
prey to every fpecies of animals that had accefs to them.
Philofophers have infilled much on the neceflity of one
animal’s devouring another, that there might be room
fufficient for all ; but this, fo far from being a fyftem
wrorthy of the divine Avifdora, feems to us to be a re¬
flection upon it, as if the Author of nature could not
have found means to preferve the life of one part of his
creatures, Avithout the deftruCtion and mifery of the reft.
The facred writings leave us at no lofs to fee hovv this
carnivorous difpofition came in ; and, in the next world,
this piece of perfection (as the fanguinary philofo-
phers above mentioned Avould have it to be) feems to
be left out; for there, it is faid, “ They ftiall not hurt
nor deftroy ; the lion fhall eat ftrarv like the ox, and
there {hall be no more pain.”
When fpeaking of the food of plants, we took occa-
fion to mention a certain power totally different from
that of attraction or repulfion, by Avhich the food of
a plant, after it Avas attracted, or othenvife brought to
it, Avas affimilated to its fubftance. This power which
we there diftinguilh by the name of tranfmutation, be¬
longs
A N I [ 367 ] A N I
Animal, longs in a more eminent degree to animals. The ali-
Animal- mentary fubftance is changed into two kinds of matter:
Flower, (j,) An excrementitious one, which paffes off through
^ ' the inteftines j and (2.) A fluid, which is the dire£t
pabulum of the animal. Different fubftances, how¬
ever, are not equally changeable by this procefs. The
human ftomach is not capable of afting upon any ani¬
mal fubftance till it has loft its vital principle: the
ftomachs of fome animals cannot aft upon creatures of
their own fpecies : fome have an apparatus for grind¬
ing their food after it is fwallowed, &c. and there are
no animals but what are fubjeft to death by taking
certain fubftances into their ftomach. Some fubftances
alfo, though they refift the aftion of the ftomach, and
pafs unchanged into the fyftem, produce no bad ef-
fefts. Thus, madder will turn the bones of animals
red 5 rhubarb will communicate its purgative nature to
the milk, and its deep yellow colour to the urine.—All
thefe changes, however, feem to belong to the vegeta¬
tive part of our fyftem : for as every one of them are
performed without our knowledge of the manner how ;
and not only fo, but while we are abfolutely uncon-
fcious of their being done j we can have no reafon to
fuppofe, that the animal life, properly fo called, is at
all connefted with them, any farther than as they are
at prefent the means of preferving the creature alive, and
making the connexion betwixt the principle of life and
this vifible creation.
The defcription and clafling of animals make a con-
flderable part of Natural Hiftory, known by the name
of Tioologij.
Animal, ufed adjeftively, denotes any thing belong¬
ing to, or partaking of, the nature of animals. Thus,
animal aftions, thofe that are peculiar to animals j fuch
are lenfation and mufcular motion.
ANIMAL-Flower, in Thoologij, a name given to feve-
ral fpecies of animals belonging to the genus Actinia
of Linnceus. They have likewife been diftinguifhed
by the names of Urtica Marina, or Sea-nettle, from their
fuppofed property of flinging j and Sea-anemone, from
their claws or tentacles being difpofed in regular cir¬
cles, and tinged with a variety of bright lively co¬
lours, refembling the petals of fome of our moft beau¬
tiful flowers. As to one fpecies particularly, mention¬
ed by Abbe Dicquemarre, (Phil. Tranf. for 1773,
art. 37.) the pureft white, carmine, and ultramarine,
are faid to be fcarce lufficient to exprefs their bril¬
liancy. The bodies of fome of them are hemifpherical,
of others cylindrical, and of others fhaped like a fig.
Their fubflance likewife differs : fome are ftiff and
gelatinous, others flefhy and mufcular; but all of
them are capable of altering their figure when they ex¬
tend their bodies and claws in fearch of food. They
are found on many of the rocky coafts of the Weft In¬
dia iflands, and likewife on fome parts of the coaft of
England.
I hey have only one opening, which is in the centre
of the uppermoft part of the animal; round this are
placed rows of flefhy claws ; this opening is the mouth
of the animal, and is capable of great extenfion. The
animals themfelves, though exceedingly voracious, will
bear long failing. They may be preferved alive a
whole year, or perhaps longer, in a veffel of (ea-water,
without any vifible food; but, when food is prefen ted,
one of them will lucceffively devour two muffels in their
fhells, or even fwallow a whole crab as large as a hen’s Animal-
egg. In a day or two the crab-fhell is voided at the Flower,
mouth, perfeftly cleared of all the meat. The muffelv—
(hells are likewife difcharged whole, with the two fhells
joined together, but entirely empty, fo that not the
leait particle of fifh is to be perceived on opening them.
An anemone of one fpecies will even fwallow an indi¬
vidual of another fpecies; but after retaining it ten or
twelve hours, will throw it up alive and uninjured.
Through this opening alfo it produces its young ones
alive, already furnifhed with little claws, which, asfoon
as they fix themfelves, they begin to extend in fearch
of food.
One of the extremities of the fea-anomene refembles,
as we have faid, the outward leaves of that flower j
while its limbs are not unlike the lhag or inner part of
it. By the other extremity it fixes itfelf, as by a fucker,
to the rocks or (tones lying in the fand ; but it is not
totally deprived of the power of progreflive motion, as
it can fhift its fituation, though very (lowly.
A particular fpecies of animal-flowers has been found
in fome of the iflands ceded to Britain at the laft treaty'
of peace with France ; and the following account of
them was publifhed in the Philofophieal Tranfaftions,
vol. Ivii. by Mr Ellis, in a letter to Lord Hillfborough.
“ This compound animal, which is of a tender flellry
fubftance, confifts of many tubular bodies (welling gent¬
ly towards the upper part, and ending like a bulb or
very fmall onion : on the top of each is its mouth, fur-
rounded by one or two rows of tentacles, or claws, which
when contrafted look like circles of beads.
“ The lower part of all thefe bodies has a Com¬
munication with a firm flelhy wrinkled tube, which
(ticks faft to the rocks, and (ends forth other flefliy
tubes, which creep along them in various direftions.
Thefe are full of different fizes of thefe remarkable
animals, which rife up irregularly in groups near to one
another.
“ This adhering tube, that fecures them faft to the
rock, or (belly bottom, is worthy of our notice. The
knobs that we obferve, are formed in feveral parts of
it by its infinuating itfelf into the inequalities of the
coral rock, or by grafping pieces of fhells, part of
which Kill remain in it, with the fleftiy fubftance grotvn
over them.
“ I his (hows us the inftinft of nature, that direfts
thefe animals to preferve themfelves from the violence
of the waves, not unlike the anchoring of muffels, by
their fine lilken filaments that end in fuckers ; or ra¬
ther like the (belly balls of the ferpula, or worm (hell,
the tree oyfter, and the flipper barnacle, &c. whofe ba-
fes conform to the fhape ot whatever fubftance they
fix themfelves to, grafping it faft with their teftaceous
claw's, to withftand tire fury of a ftorm.
“ When we view the infide of this animal diffefted
length wife, we find like a little tube leading from the
mouth to the ftomach, from whence there rife eight
wrinkled fmall guts, in a circular order, with a yel-
lowifti foft fubftance in them ; thefe bend over in the
form of arches towards the lower part of the bulb,
from whence they may be traced downwards, to the
narrow part of the upright tube, till they come to the
fltfhy adhering tube, w'here fome of them may be per¬
ceived entering into a papilla, or the beginning of an
animal of the like kind, moft probably to convey it
nouriftiment
A N I [
Aftknal- iiomifhment till it is provided 'ivhh claws *, the re-
FJower. maining part of thefe flender guts is continued on in
 v  the flefliy tube, without doubt, for the fame purpofe of
producing and fupporting more young ones from the
fame common parent.
« The many longitudinal figures that we difcover
lying parallel to each other, on the infide of the femi-
tranfparent lkin, are all inferted in the Several claws
round the animal’s mouth, and are plainly the tendons
of the mufcles for moving and direfling the claws
at the will of the animal; they may be like wife traced
down to the adhering tube.
“ As this fpecimen has been preferved in fpints, the
colour of the animal, when living, cannot be certainly
known •, it is at prefent of a pale yellowilh brown.
“ With regard to its name, it may be called AShnia
fociata, or the Clujlcr Animal flower."
The Abbe Dicquemarre, by many curious though
cruel experiments, related in the Phil. Iranf. for I773>
has fhown that thefe animals poffefs, in a moft extra¬
ordinary degree, the power of reproduflion j fo that
fcarce any thing more is necetfary to produce as many
fea anemonies as we pleafe, than to cut a fingle one in¬
to as many pieces. A fea anemone being cut in two
by a feftion through the body, that part, where the
limbs and mouth are placed, ate a piece of a muffel
offered to it foon after the operation, and continued to
feed and grow daily for three months after. The food
fometimes pafled through the animal j but was gene¬
rally thrown up again, confiderably changed, as in the
perfeft fea anemone. In about two months, two rows
of limbs were perceived growing out of the part^wheie
the incifion was made. On offering food to this new
mouth, it was laid hold of and eaten j and the limbs
continually increafing, the animal gradually became as
perfeft: as thofe which had never been cut. In fame
inftances, however, he found, that, when one of thefe
creatures was cut through, new limbs would be produ¬
ced from the cut place, thofe at the mouth remaining
as before •, fo that a monftrous animal was the confe-
quence, having two mouths, and feeding at both
ends. Having put fame of them into a pan of wTater,
fet over a flow fire, he found that they loft their life
at 50 degrees of Reaumur’s thermometer. To avoid
the imputation of cruelty in thefe experiments, the
author argues the favourable confequences that have
attended his operations on the fea anemonies which
have been fo fortunate as to fall into his hands j as he
hath not only multiplied their exiftence, but alfo re¬
newed their youth ; w'hich laft, he adds, “ is furely
no fmall advantage.”
In Hughes’s Natural Hiftory of Barbadoes, an ac¬
count is alfo given of feveral fpecies of animal-flowers.
They are there defcribed as only found in a bafon in
one particular cave ; and of the moft remarkable fpecies
mentioned by him we have the following defcription.
« In the middle of the bafon, there is a fixed ftone,
or rock, which is always under water. Round its
fides, at different depths, feldom exceeding 18 inches,
are feen, at all times of the year, iffuing out of little
holes, certain fubftances that have the appearance of
fine radiated flowers, of a pale yellow, or.a bright
ftraw colour, flightly tinged with green, having a cir¬
cular border of thickfet petals, about the fize of, and
mueli refemblingj thofe of a fingle garden marigold,
368 ] A N I
except that the whole of this feeming flower is narrow¬
er at the difcus, or fetting-on of the leaves, than any
flower of that kind. , 1 r r
“ I have attempted to pluck one 01 thete trom the
rock, to which they are always fixed; but never could
effeft it: for as foon as my fingers came within two or
three inches of it, it would immediately contraft, clofe
together its yellow border, and fhrink back into the
hole of the rock 5 but if left undifturbed for about four
minutes, it would come gradually in fight, expanding,
though at firft very cautioufly, its feeming leaves, till
at latt it appeared in its former bloom. However, it
would again recoil, with a furprifing quicknefs when
my hand came within a fmall diftance of it. Having
tried the fame experiment by attempting to touch it
with my cane, and a fmall flender rod, the effedt was
the fame.
“ Though I could not by any means contrive to
take or pluck from the rock one of thefe animals en¬
tire ; yet I once cut off (with a knife which I had held
for a long time out of fight, near the mouth of a hole
out of which one of thefe animals appeared) two of
thefe feeming leaves. ’Ihefe, when out of the water,
retained their ftiape and colour; but, being compofed
of a membrane-like fubftance, furprifingly thin, it foon
fhrivelled up, and decayed.”
The reproductive power of the Barbadoes animal-
flower is prodigious. Many people coming to fee
thefe ftrange creatures, and occafioning fome inconve¬
nience to a perfon through whofe grounds they were
obliged to pafs, he refolved to deftroy the objeas of
their curiofity } and, that he might do fo effedtually,
caufed all the holes out of which they appeared, to be
carefully bored and drilled with an iron inftrument, fo
that we cannot fuppofe but their bodies muft have, been
entirely crufhed to a pulp : neverthelefs, they again ap¬
peared in a few weeks from the very fame places.
Plate XXXIV. fig. 1. reprefents the aainia .fociata,
or cluftered animal-flower, defcribed by Mr Ellis, with
its radical tube adhering to a rock.: (a) One of the ani¬
mals ftretching out its claws. Fig. 2. A perpendicular
diffedion of one of the bodies, to (how the gullet, in-
teftines, ftomach, and fibres or tendons that move the
claws : (a) A young one arifing out of the adhering
tube. Fig* 3- The adlinia after, or animal-flower of the
newly ceded iflands. Fig* 4’ ^ a^:*n^a aueraone, or
fea anemone from the fame place. Fig. 5. 1 he under
part of the fame by which it adheres to the rocks. Fig. 6.
The aftinia helianthus, or the fea fun-flower, from ditto.
Fig. 7. The under part of the fame. Fig. 8. I he ac¬
tinia dianthus, or fea carnation, from the rocks at
Haftings in Suffex. This animal adheres, by its tail, or
fucker, to the upper part of the projefting rocks op-
pofite to the town ; and, when the tide is out, has the
appearance of a long white fig j this is the form of it
when put into a glafs of fea water. It is introduced
here as a new variety of this animal not yet defcribed.
Animal Food. See Food.
ANIMAL Oeconomy. This fubje£l is explained under
Anatomy.
Animal Magnetifm. See Magnetism.
Animal Spirit. See Nexvous Fluid.
Animal System denotes the whole clafs of beings
endowed with animal life, otherwife called Animal
Kingdom.
Animals,
Animal-
Flower
II
Animal
Syftem.
/i- ■
fAJ.
uu
iT-wr-WL.
X?f*
Animal
Flowers.
rLATEXxxnr
S'?//. /
/v ,/ ^ .
A N I
[ 369 1
A N I
Animals, ANIMALS, the preparation of, for colleBions or mu-
Animal- feums. See Quadrupeds, Birds, Reptiles.
cu!e^ Pairing of \NIMALS. See PAIRING.
^ ANIMALCULE, in general, fignifies a little ani-
"ommon ma^ 5 ar‘d thus the term might be applied to every ani-
.cceptation mal which is confiderably inferior in fize to ourfelves.
^ if the word. hath been cuftomary, however, to diltinguiih by the
name of animalcules only fuch animals as are of a lize
fo diminutive, that their true figure cannot be difcerned
without the aflidance of glaffes ; and more eipecially it
is applied to fueh as are altogether invinble to the na¬
ked eye, and cannot even be perceived to exift but by the
aflidance of microlcopes.
By the help of magnifying glaffes, we are brought in¬
to a kind of new world; and numberlefsanimals are dif-
covered, which from their minutenfcfs muft otherwife for
8 ever have efcaped ourobfervation; and how many kinds
Different of thefe invifibles there may be, is dill unknown ; as they
zes ot aui- are difcerned of all fizes, from thofe which are barely in-
aaicules. vj{jble to the naked eye, to fuch as refill the aftion of the
mierofcope, as the fixed liars do that of the telefcope, and
with the bed magnifiers hitherto invented appear only
as fo many moving points.
The fmalled living creatures our indrumentscan (how
are thofe that inhabit the waters: for though poffibly
animalcules equally minute, or perhaps more fo, may fly
in the air, or creep upon the earth, it is fcarce poflible to
bring fuch under our examination; but water being tranf-
parent, and confining the creatures in it, we are able,
by applying a drop of it to our glades, to difcover, to a
certain degree of fmallnefs, all that it contains.—Some
of the mod curious of thefe animalcules, which have
been deferibed by microfcopical obfervers, we fliall here
give an account of.
I. The Hair-like InfeB. This is fo called by Mr Baker
on account of its fhape ; being extremely {lender, and
frequently an hundred and fifty times as long as broad.
The body or middle part, which is nearly draight, ap¬
pears, in fome, compofed of fuch rings as the windpipe
of land animals is made up of; but in others feems ra¬
ther fcaled, or made up of rings that obliquely crols one
another. Its two ends are hooked or bent, pretty near¬
ly in the fame degree, but in a direction oppofite to one
another ; and as no eyes can be difcerned, it is difficult
to judge which is the head or tail. Its progreffive * mo¬
tion is very Angular, being performed by turning upon
one end as a centre, and defcribing almolt a quarter of
a circle with the other, as reprefented in the figure. Its
motions are very flow, and require much patience and
attention in the obferver. Thefe creatures are fo fmall,
that millions of millions of them might be contained in
an inch fquare. When viewed fingly, they are exceed¬
ingly Irani parent, and of a beautiful green colour; but
when numbers of them are brought together, they be¬
come opaque, lofe their green colour, and grow entirely
black.
Notwithflanding the extreme minutenefs of thefe ani¬
malcules, they feem to be fond of fociety ; for, after
viewing for fome time a parcel of them taken up at
random, they will be feen difpofing themfelves in a kind
of regular order f. If a multitude of them are put into
a jar of water, they will form themfelves in a regular
body, and afeend flowly to the top, where after they
have remained for fome time expofed to the air, their
green colour changes to a beautiful fky blue. When
Vol. II. Part I.
'air-like
.fed.
Plate
XXV.
ig. I.
4
s extreme'
nallnefs,
slights in
ciety.
Fig. a.
they are weary of this fituation, they form themfelves in- Animal-
to a kind of rope, which flowly defeends as low as they cule.
intend ; but if they happen to be clofe to the fide of the v'
jar, they will defeend upon it. They are fo nearly of
the fpecific gravity of water itfelf, that they will either
remain at the bottom, float on the furface, or be fuf-
pended in the middle, according as they are originally
placed, or as they themfelves have a mind.
A fmall quantity of the matter containing thefe ani¬
malcules J having been put into a jar of water, it lo hap- j Fig. 3.
pened, that one part went down immediately to the bot¬
tom, whillltheothercontinued floatingon the top. When
things had remained for fome time in this condition, each
of thefe fwarms of animalcules began to grow weary
of its fituation, and had a mind to change its quarters.
Both armies, therefore, fet out at the fame time, the
one proceeding upwards, and the other downwards; fo
that, after fome hours journey, they met in the middle. 6
A defire of knowing how they would behave on this oc-Seems poL
cafion, engaged the obferver to watch them carefully ;feffed of a
and to his furprife he favv the army that was inarchingc°”^er‘
upwards, open to the right and lelt, to make room f^o^ty
thofe that were defeending. Thus, without confulion 0
or intermixture, each held on its way: the army
that was going up, marching in two columns to the
top, and the other proceeding in one column to the bot¬
tom, as if each had been under the dire&ion of wife
leaders.
The hair-like infe£l was firft difeovered in a ditch at
Norwich, one end of which communicates with the ri¬
ver there, and the other end with a fecond ditch, into ^
which feveral kennels empty themfelves. The length of Found in
this ditch, when Mr Baker wrote his account of this piodigious
animalcule, was at lead 100 yards, and its breadth nine. (luaDtlty*
The bottom, for more than a foot thick, was covered
with a blackifli green fubilance, in appearance like mud,
made up-for the moll part of thefe infefls ; but fuppofing
only a half or a quarter part of it to be compofed of
them, according to the dimenfiotis we have given, their
numbers muft exceed all imagination.
2. Eels in pafe, &c. When pafte is allowed to Hand
till it become four, it is then found to be the habita¬
tion of numberlefs animalcules, which may be difcern¬
ed by the naked eye; and though their form cannot be
perfectly diftinguiflied, their motion is very percept¬
ible, and the whole pafte will feem to be animated.
Fig. 4. reprefents one of thefe anguillae magnified. s
The moll remarkable property of thefe infefts is, thatEelsinpafte
they are viviparous. If one of them is cut through near vMparous.
the middle, feveral oval bodies of different fizeswill be
feen to iffue forth. Thefe are young anguillce, each of
them coiled up and enclofed in its proper membrane,
which is fo exquifitely fine, as fcarcely to be difcernible
by the greatell magnifier, while it enclofes the embryo
animal. The largeft and moll forward immediately
break through this covering, unfold themfelves, and
wriggle about in the water nimbly; others get out, un¬
coil, and move themfelves about more flowly ; and the
lead mature continue entirely without motion. The
uterus, or veffel that contains all thefe oval bodies, is
compofed of many ringlets,’ not unlike the afpera arte-
ria of land animals, and feems to be confiderably elalllc ;
for as foon as the animalcule is cut in two, the oval
bodies are thruft out with fome degree of violence,
from the fpringing back or a£lion of this bowel. An ■'
3 A hundred
Animal¬
cule.
9
Similar
creatures
found in
blighted
wheat.
A N I [ 37° ]
hundred and upwards of the young ones have been feen transformations;
to iffue from the body of one Angle eel, whereby the
1 prodigious increafe of them may be accounted for j as
probably feveral fuch numerous generations are pro¬
duced in a lliort time. They feem to be all prolific j
and unlefs trial happens to be made upon one that has
brought forth all its young, or when the pafte has been
kept for a very long time, the experiment will always
fucceed.—This property of thefe eels being viviparous
renders it highly improbable that they ever become
^Animalcules of a fimilar kind are likewife found in
vinegar : and, like thofe already defcribed, are found
to be viviparous. But it is not only in acid matters that
fuch appearances are obferved. In fome fields of wheat,
many grains may be obferved, that appear blackifli out¬
wardly, as if fcorched *, but when opened are found to
contain a foft white fubftance, which, attentively con-
fidered, appears to be nothing elfe than a congeries of
threads or fibres lying clofe to each other in a parallel
direftion, much refembling the unripe down of lome
thirties on cutting open the flower heads before they
be-in to blow. This fibrous matter difcovers not the
leaft fi-n of life or motion, unlefs water is applied; but
immediately on wetting, provided the grains of wheat
A N I
iraiisiuiiijamjnj, and indeed, unlefs it be carefully Animal-
watched while parting from one (hape to another, it will ^ cu’e.
often become fuddenly invifible, as happened more than
once to Mr Baker. 13
When water, wherein any fort of vegetable has been where
infufed, or animals preferved, has flood quietly for found,
fome days, or weeks, in any glafs or other veffel, a
flimy fubftance will be collefted about the fides : fome
of which being taken up with the point of a penknife,
placed on a flip of glafs in a drop of water, and looked
at through the microfcope, will be found to harbour
feveral kinds of little animals that are feldom found
fwimming about at large j among which the proteus is ,4
one. Its (hape is better underftood from the figure, Its fhai;e,
than from any defcription that could be given. Itscolour, &
fubftance and colour feem to refemble that of a fnailj
and its whole Ihape feems to bear a confiderable refern-
blance to that of a fwan. It fwims to and fro with
great vivacity ; but will now and then flop for a minute
or two ; during which time its long neck is ufually em¬
ployed as far as it can reach, forwards, and on every
fide, Avith a fomewhat flow, but equable motion, like
that of a fnake, frequently extending thrice the length
of its body, and feemingly in fearch of food.
There are no eyes, nor any opening in the head like
immediately on Avettmg, provided 1 ^ °f ^ ’ te a mouth to be difcerned : but its aftions plainly prove
. 1 1 1-1 — . 11 o H1 rc fUThf:?r miTo^rfirft itTbehan a^imaUhat can for ZgK multhudes
10
How dif-
coverable.
11
Precautions
neceffary in
making the
experi¬
ment.
12
Proteus,
why fo call¬
ed.
and appear to be living creatures. Their motions at firft
are very languid-, but gradually become more vigorous,
twilling and wriggling themfelves fomewhat in the man¬
ner of the eels in pafte, but always flower than they,
and with a great deal lefs regularity.
If the grains of wheat are grown dry by keeping,
and in that condition are cut open, the fibrous matter
is very diftinguiftiable *, and, on putting water to it, aviII
feparate with great readinefs, and feem like fine tubes
or threads tapering at both ends *, but not the leaft mo¬
tion Avill be perceived till they have been in water tor
feveral hours, and fometimes they will never move at all.
But if the fame grains are fteeped in water for three or
four hours, or buried for fome days in the earth, till
they are fully faturated with moifture, and then open¬
ed with a penknife j on taking out a fmall portion of
the white matter carefully, and fpreading it thin upon
a flip of glafs, the animalcules will be feen bundled
together, and extended longitudinally, but without mo-
tion ; and though, upon the application of water, they
will not revive fo foon as thofe taken from frerti grains,
whofe moifture has never been exhaled •, yet, after re¬
maining an hour or two in water, they are conftantly
found alive and vigorous, even though the grains have
been kept in a dry condition for feveral years. It is
neceflarv, however, to adapt,, in fome meafure, the
time of continuing the grains in water or earth to the
age and drynefs of them : for if they are not opened
before they are too much foftened, the animalcules will
be dead ; and unlefs the hulks are opened to let thofe
creatures out after they have been fteeped, they ine¬
vitably perilh in them : otherwife, they wi 1 continue
alive in water for many months and., ftiould the water
dry away, may be revived again by giving them a trelh
fupply^ Pro(euS' Th;s animalcule has been dignified
bv Mr Baker with the name of Proteus, on account of
its affuming a great number of different.lhapes, fo as
fcarce to be knoAvn as the fame animal m us various
H II1U LI 111 iw .      - 1 ^ 1
it to be an animal that can fee} for though multitudes
of different animalcules fwim about in the.fame water,
and its own progreffive motion is very fwift, it never
ftrikes againft any of them, but diredls its courfe be¬
tween them with a dexterity wholly unaccountable,
ftiould we fuppofe it deftitute of fight. . iS
When the proteus is alarmed, it fuddenly draws in Its transfoj
its long neck, reprefented in fig. 5. and 6. transform-matlor‘s-
ing itfelf into the Ihape reprefented in fig. 7. when it
becomes more opaque, and moves about very floivly
with the large end foremoft. When it has continued
fome time in this pofture, it will often, inftead of the
head and neck it had formerly, put forth a new one,
with a kind of wheel machinery reprefented fig. 8.
the motions of which draw a current of water to it
from a confiderable diftance. Having often pulled m
and thruft out the rtiort head, fometimes with and
fometimes ivithout the wheel-work, the creature, as.if
weary, will remain motionlefs for a while 5 then its
head and long neck will be very flowly protruded, as
in fig. Q. and it foon refumes it former agility. Some¬
times it difpofes of its neck and head, as reprefen ted in
fig. 10. 16
4. The Wheel Animal, or Vorticella. This wonder-Vorticella
ful animalcule is found in rain water that has flood where
fome days in leaden gutters, or in hollows of lead- on*ollfl •
the tops of houfes; or in the flime or fediment left by
fuch water ; and perhaps may alfo be found .111 other
places; but if the water Handing in gutters of lead, or
the fediment left behind it, has any thing of a red co¬
lour in it, one may be almoft certain of finding them
therein. Though it difcover^ no fignsof .life except
when in the Avater, yet it is capable of continuing alive
for many months after it is taken out of the Avater, and
kept in a ftate as dry as duft. . In this ftate it.is of a glo¬
bular {hape, exceeds not the bignefs.of a gram of fand,
and no figns of life appear : but being put into Avater,
in the fpace of half an hour a languid motion begins,
the globule turns itfelf about, lengthens itfelf by How
0 decrees*.
A N 1
[ 371 ]
A N I
*7
Its wheel
work de-
fcribed.
Animal- degrees, affumes the form of a lively maggot, and moft
cule, commonly in a few minutes afterwards puts out its
v ' wheels ; fwimming vigoroully through the water, as if
in fearch of food j or elfe, fixing itfelf by the tail,
works the wheels in fuch a manner as to bring its food
to it.
Fig. 23. and 24. {how the wheel animal in its glo¬
bular form } fig. II. and 1 2. in its maggot date 5 and
fig. 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 2i, and 22, (how
the different appearances of its wheels, and alfo its va¬
rious intermediate changes between the globular and
maggot ftate.
The moft remarkable part of this animalcule is its
wheel-work. This confifts of a couple of femicircular
inftruments, round the edges of which many little
fibrillae move themfelves very brilkly, fometimes with
a kind of rotation, and fometimes in a trembling or vi¬
brating manner. When in this ftate, it fometimes un-
faftens its tail, and fwims along with a great deal of
fwiftnefs, feemingly in purfuit of its prey. Sometimes
the wheel^eem to be entire circles, armed with fmall
teeth, like thofe of the balance wheel of a watch, ap¬
pearing proje6led forwards beyond the head, and ex¬
tending fidewife fomewhat wider than its diameter.
The teeth or cogs of thefe wheels feem to ftand very
regularly at equal diftances : but the figure of them
varies according to their pofition, the degree of their
protrufion, and perhaps the will of the animal itfelf.
They appear fometimes like minute oblong fquares, ri¬
ling at right angles from the periphery of a circle, like
ancient battlements on a round tower •, at other times,
they terminate in (harp points, and altogether referable
a kind of Gothic crown. They are often feen in a
kind of curved dire&ion, all bending the fame way, and
feeming like fo many hooks; and now and then the
ends of them will be perceived to be clubbed like mal¬
lets. This figure, however, as well as the firft, they
affume but rarely.
As thefe wheels are everywhere exceftively tranfpa-
rent, except about their circular rim or edge, v'here
the cogs are fet, it is very difficult to determine by
what contrivance they are turned about, or what their
real figure is, though they feem exa£lly to referable
wheels moving round upon an axis. It is alfo hardly
poffible to be certain whether thofe circular bodies in
which the teeth are fet, are of a flat form, or hollow
and conical ; but they feem rather to be of a conical
figure. The difficulty of conceiving how an articula¬
tion could be contrived fo as to caufe a real rotation,
hath caufed many people imagine that there was a de¬
ception in this cafe : But Mr Baker affures us, that
when the wheels are fully protruded, they never fail to
{how all the vifible marks of a regular rotation j and,
in fome pofitions, the fame cogs or teeth may be traced
by the eye during a complete revolution.
Showsgreat a(^ons this creature feem to imply faga-
quicknefsof^ty an<l quicknefs of fenfation. At the leaft touch or
fenfaticm. motion in the water, they inftantly draw in their wheels j
and Mr Baker conjeftures, that their eyes are lodged
fomewhere about the wheels; becaufe, while in the
maggot fiate, its motions are flow and blundering ; but
after the wheels are protruded, they are performed with
great regularity, fwiftnefs, and fteadinefs.
Notwithftanding the minutenefs of this animalcule,
the microfcope generally difcovers o.thers in the fame
is
Shows all
the marks
of a real
otation.
19
drop of water, compared with which the wheel-animal Animal-
may be faid to be a whale. The tranfparency of its bo- cule.
dy, therefore, allows its internal parts to be feen, which '——v'-—
cannot be perceived in the minuteft animalcules, on ac¬
count of the fmallnefs of their fize. «, Is the appear- pj^ r,
ance of the head ; and though it is everywhere tranf- 2o
parent, a ring or circle, more particularly remarkable Defcription
for its clearnefs, is commonly perceived about the mid-0^lts inter-’
die of the forehead, a little above the mouth. This, na^art3’
Mr Baker thinks, might juftly be called the feat of the
brain. Many veffels which feem to take their origin
from thence are difcernible in the head, wherein fome
tranfparent fluid appears continually agitated by a kind
of flufluating motion.
The thorax, £, is joined to the head by a very fliort
neck, c, and appears to be about the fixth part of the
whole length of the animal. In the middle of the
thorax is placed the heart, d, where its fyftole and dia-
Hole are plainly vifible. It is feen through the back of
the infeff, {hutting and opening alternately with great
regularity and exadnefs. Its fize is proportionable to
the creature’s bignefs; and its ffiape, during the fyftole,
is nearly circular, being compofed feemingly of two fe-
milunar parts, which then approach each other late¬
rally, and form between them a roundifli or horfe-flioe-
like figure, whofe upper fide is flat, and the under one
convex. The diaftole is performed by a feeming fe-
paration, or opening, of thefe two femilunar parts,
whereby the tranfverfe diameter of the heart is very
much enlarged. This feparation begins exadly in the
middle of the lower part next the tail ; and opens to
fuch a confiderable width upwards, that the two parts,
when at their utmoft diftenfion, feem only joined by an
arched veffel at their anterior end. The alternate mo¬
tions of contra&ion and dilatation are performed with
great ftrength and vigour, in pretty much the fame
time as the pulfation of the arteries of a man in health.
I he motions of the heart are communicated to all the
internal parts of the thorax, and feem to extend a great
deal further; for a ftrift examination difcovers, at the
fame time, throughout the whole animal, contra&ions
and dilatations going on, that are apparently corre-
fpondent thereto. Thefe motions of the heart, how¬
ever, are fometimes fufpended or imperceptible for
two or three minutes: after which they are renewed,
and go on again with the fame regularity as before.
From the under part of the thorax proceeds a fmall
tranfparent horn reprefented at a, fig. 11. and 12. It
is never vifible but when the animal turns on its back
or fide.
The blood or circulating fluid of the wheel-animal is
fo abfolutely colourlefs, that the current of it through
the veffel is undiftinguiffiable by glaffesj. A fort of ir¬
regular agitation of fome fluid is indeed perceived, which
is perhaps a compound motion of currents running dif¬
ferent ways, and forming fuch an appearance, though
no fingle current is anywhere diftin&ly vifible.
Immediately below the thorax is another annular di-
vifion, e, joining upwards to the thorax and down¬
wards to the abdomen, the entrance whereof it ferves
occafionally to enlarge or diminiffi. The abdomen, f,
is by much the largeft part of the animal, and contains
the ftomach and inteftines. When the in fed! is full of
food, thefe bowels appear opaque and of a blood-red
colour, extending quite through the belly and great
3 A 2 part
A N I
[ 372 1
A N I
Animal¬
cule.
21
Othe' kinds
of wheel
animals.
22
Manner of
producing
their you. g
ones.
Fig. 2 S. b.
23
In fell the
Pulex A-
quaticus.
24
Bell- flower
animal.
part of the tail, and exhibiting a variety of contractions
and dilatations. The belly is capable of Itretching out
greatly in length, or being (hortened very much, and
widening its diameter. It afluraes many (hapes, and
becomes oeealionally a cafe for all the other parts of the
body.
Befides the above-mentioned one, there are found in
the waters feveral other fpecies of animals furnilhed
with wheels, fome of which appear to have a rotatory,
and others a vibratory, motion. Fig. 25. reprefents. a
kind found in the ditch at Norwich, where the hair¬
like infeft is produced. They differ from the forego¬
ing only in having very long tails. Fig. 26, 27> and
28, reprefent a fpecies of wheel animals, which are alfo
covered with fhells. The body of this fpecies confifts
of three parts, in like manner as the other *, only the
thorax and abdomen, in this, are not feparated by any
gut, or intermediate veffel, but are joined immediately
together. The heart is plainly perceived, having a re¬
gular fyflole and diaitole, at a, as in the former fpecies.
Thefe creatures occafionally draw themfelves entirely
within their fhells} and the (hell then appears ter*
minated by fix fhort fpikes on one fide and two on the
other.
The young ones of this fpecies are carried in oval fac*
culi, or integuments, fattened externally on the lower
part of their fhells fomewhere about the tail 5 thefe fac-
culi are fometimes opaque only at one end, and feem-
ingly empty at the other ; fometimes they appear
opaque in the middle, with a tranfparency all round, as
in fig. 26. When the young one is about to burfl its in¬
teguments, the parent affifts it greatly, by wagging its
tail, and ftriking the oval bag, fo that the young one’s
head becomes as it were forced into the water, though
the tail cannot be fo foon difengaged. In this condi¬
tion the young one fets its wheel a-going, and exerts
all its endeavours to free itfelf from its confinement.
When it has got clear, it fvvims away, wagging its tail
as the old one does, and leaving the integument adhe¬
ring to the fliell of the parent. The old one then ufes
a number of efforts to get rid of this incumbrance,
ffriking againfl: it with her tail, fixing the end of her
tail upon it, and then darting her body forward j with
feveral very odd motions not eafily to be deferibed. This
kind of wheel animals are great tormentors of the wa¬
ter flea, Pu!ex aquaticus arborefeens of Swammerdam }
of which a figure is given from that author (Plate
XXXVI.) : fig. 2. (hows the natural fize of the flea •,
and fig. 1. fhows it magnified, with fome of the wheel
animals adheiing to it. Thefe infefts are often found
in great numbers in the fame water : and when that is
the cafe, it is not uncommon to difenver five or fix of
the{e c uttaceous wheel-animals fattened by their tail to
the fliell or horns of the flea-, caufing it, Seemingly, a
vaft deal of uneafinefs : nor can they be driven away, or
flnken off, by all the efforts the flea can ufe for that
purpofe.
5 The BeilJtower Animal, ox Plumed P&Iype. Fh< fe
animalcules dwell in colonies together, from ten to fif-
te< o (feldom falling fhort of the former number, or
exceeding the latter), in a flimy kind of mucilaginous
or gelatinous cafe ; which, out of the water, has no de¬
termined form, appearing like a little lump of flime ;
but, when expanded therein, has fome refembknee to
the figure of a bell with its mouth upwards; and is
4
Animal-
cule.
ufually about half an inch long, and a quaiter of an
inch in diameter. Ihefe bells, or colonies, are to ^
found adhering to the large leaves of duckweed, and' v *|j
other aquatic plants. 1 hey may be moft eafily difeo-^^^e diJ]
vexed by letting a quantity of water, Avith duckweed incovere(i.
it, ftand quietly for three or four hours in glafs veffels
in a window, or other place whence a ftrong light
comes : for then, if any are about the duckweed, they
will be found, on careful infpeffion, extending them-
felves out of their cafes, and making an elegant appear¬
The bell, or cafe, which ihefe animals inhabit, being
very tranfparent, all the motions of its inhabitants may
be difeerned through it diftinaiy. It feems divided in¬
ternally into feveral apartments, or rather to contain fe¬
veral fmaller facculi, each of which enclofes one ot thefe
animals. The openings at the tops ol theie facculi, are
but juft fufficient to admit the creature’s head and a
fmall part of its body to be thruft out beyond them, the
reft remaining always in the cafe. It can, hoAvever, oc¬
cafionally retire into its cafe altogether ; and never fails
to do fo when alarmed by any fudden motion of the wa¬
ter, or of the veffel which contains it. . _ 2g
Be fide the particular and feparate motion which each Motions of
of thefe creatures is able to exert within its own cale, ihe whoie
and independent of the reft ; the whole colony together colony-
has a power of altering the pofition of the bell, or even
of removing k from one place to another ; and hence
this bell is fometimes found Handing perfe&ly upright,
as in fig 29. and 33. and fometimes bending the upper
part downwards, as in fig. 30. As thefe animalcules
feem not to choofe to flay together in focieties vvhofe
number exceeds 15, when the colony happens to in-
creafe in number, the bell may be obferved to fplit gra¬
dually, beginning from about the middle of the upper
or anterior extremity, and proceeding downwards to¬
wards the bottom, as in fig. 32. till they at latt feparate
entirely, and become two complete colonies independent
of each other, one of which fometimes removes to ano¬
ther part of the veffel. * 27 .
The arms of each individual of this colony are fetDefenptioj
round the head, to the number of 40, having each the‘
figure of an Italic one of whofe hooked ends is faft-
ened to the head ; and all together, wThen expanded,
compofe a figure (haped fomewhat like a horfe’s {hoe,
convex on one fide next the body, but gradually open¬
ing and turning outwards, fo as to leave a confiderable
area within the outer extremities of the arms. When
the arms are thus extended, the creature, by giving
them a vibrating motion, can produce a current in the
water, which brings the animalcules, or whatever other
minute bodies are within the fphere of its a&ion, with
great velocity to its mouth, fituated between the arms;
where they are taken in if liked, or driven away by a
contrary motion. The food is conveyed immediately
from the mouth or opening between the arms, through
a narrow neck, into a paffage feemingly correfpondent
to the oefophagus in land animals ; down which it pal-
fits into the ftomach, -where it remains for forae time,
and then is voided upwards, in fmall round pellets,
through a gut whofe exit is near the neck. The body
confifts of three divifions ; in the uppermoft of which
are contained all the above-mentioned inteftines, which
are only to be difeerned when the creature is full, at
which titne they become opaque. The other two di-
vifions»
A N I [ 373 ] A N I:
Animal- vifions, Which are probably fixed to the bell, feem to
cule. ke 0f no other ufe than to give the creature a power
- ’ of contradtion and extenfion. The armb are not able
to contract like thofe of the common polype •, but
when the animal retires into its cafe, they are brought
together in a clofe and curious order, fo as to be eafily
drawn in. Though their general appearance, when
expanded, is that of a cup whofe bale and top are of
a horfe-fhoe form, they fometimes feparate into four
a8 parts, and range themfelves as in fig. 36. fo as to re-
Seemto fembie four ieparate plumes of feathers. Though their
have a per-cannot De difcoveted, ye t Mr Baker thinks they
't'hu"° ^dVr fotne perception of the light: for when kept in
the dark, they always remain contracted; but on be¬
ing expofed to the light of the fun or of a candle, they
conftantly extend their aims, and thow evident figns of
being pleafed.
Fig. 29 reprefents one complete colony or bell (land¬
ing ereCt, with all the animals out of their kingdom, and
! their arms extended, exhibiting all together a very pretty
appearance: n, reprefents two oval bodies, fuppofed by
Mr Bakr-r to be eggs.
Fig. 30. (hows all the creatures withdrawn into their
cells, and the end of the bell hanging downwards.
Fig. 33. Ihows the bell ered, with only one of the
animals coming out, in order to (how its connexion with
the bell.
Fig. 34. (hows the head and arms of a (ingle polype
doling together, and difpofing themfelves in order to be
drawn into the bell.
Fig. 35. (hows one complete animal greatly magni¬
fied, to (how its feveral parts more diftinCtly ; viz. a, the
head, refembling a hoife (hoe ; bb, the arms feen from
one fide; c, the narrow neck; </, the oefophagus; e,
the (lomach ; the gut, or (alt inleiiine through which
the food palfes after being digefiyd in the itomach ;
g, the anus, where the faeces are difeharged in little
pellets ; b i, that part of the bell which furrounds the
body of the animal, and clofes upon it when it retires
down.
19 Fig. 37. The head and arms feen in front.
Globe-ani- 6. T/ie Globe-animal. This animalcule, reprefented
aial. fig. gg. feems exadly globular, having no appearance
of either head, tail, or fins. It moves in all directions,
forwards or backwards, up or down, either rolling over
and over like a bowl, fpinning horizontally like a top,
or gliding along fmoothly without turning itfelf at all.
Sometimes its motions are (low, at other times very
fwift; and, when it pleafes, it can turn round, as it were,
upon an axis, very nimbly, without removing out of
its place. The whole body is tranfparent, except
where the circular black fpots are (hown in the figure.
Some of the animals have no fpots, and others from one
to feven. The furface of the whole body appears, in
fome, as if all over dotted with points; in others, as
if granulated like (hagreen : but their more general ap¬
pearance is, as if befet thinly round with (hort moveable
hairs or bridles, which probably are the indruments by
which their motions are performed. The animalcules
may be feen by the naked eye, but appear only like mo-
ving points.
V ani- 7- ^ he Pipe-animal. Thefe creatures are found on
ttal, the coad of Norfolk, living in fmall tubes or cafes of
fandy matter, in fuch multitudes as to compofe a mafs
fometimes of three feet in length. Fig. 39. (hows a
piece of fuch a congeries broke off, where aaaa repre- Animai-
fent the mouths or openings of the pipes wherein the cule.
little animals make their abode. Fig. 40. diows one *
fingle pipe, with its inhabitant, feparated from the red,
and magnified nine or ten times in diameter. The pipe
or cafe b is made of fand,-intermixed here and there with
minute ditlls, and all cemented together by a glutinous
dime, probably iffuing from the animal’s own body f,
which is compofed of mufcular ringlets like thofe of a
worm, capable of great extenfion or contraction. The
interior end or head, d, is exceedingly beautiful, having
round it a double row of little arms difpofed in a very
regular order, and probably capable of extenfion, in or-
der to catch its food, and bring it to its mouth. Some Sometimea
of thefe tubes are found petrified, and conditute one found petri-
fpecies of (yringoides. ^ie^-
8. An Infell with net-like arms. The properties ami infers with
drape of this little animal are very extraordinary. It is11et-like
found only in eafeades, where the water runs very fwift. arms.
I here thefe infedts are found in cluders, (landing erect
on their tails; and refembling, when all together,
the combs of bees at the time they are filled with their
aureliae. On being taken out of the water, they fpin
threads, by which they hang exaflly in the fame man-,
ner as the garden fpider. Fig. 42. (hows one of thefe
infeiils magnified. Its body appears eurioufly turned
as on a lathe ; and at the tail are three (harp fpines, on
which it raifes itfelf, and dands upright in the watery
but the mod curious apparatus is about its head, where
it is turnidied with two indruments like fans or nets,
which ferve to provide its food. Thefe it frequently
fpreads out and draws in again ; and when drawn up,
they are folded together with the utmod nicety and
exaCtnefs, fo as to be indifcernible when brought clofe to
the body. At the bottom of thefe fans a couple of claws
are fadened to the lower part of the head, which, every
time the nets are drawn in, conduct to the mouth of
the animal ivbatever is taken in them. When the
creature does not employ its nets, it thruds out a pair
of diarp horns, as in fig. 41. where the infed is diown
magnified about 400 times.
Some of thefe creatures being kept with water in a
vial, mod of them died in two days ; and the rpd,
having fpun themfelves tranfparent cafes (which were
fadened either to the (ides of the glafs, or to pieces
of grafs put into it), feemed to be changed into a kind
of chryfalis: but, before taking this form, they ap¬
peared as in fig. 43. which (hape they likewife affirmed
when weary with catching their food, or when lying
in wait for it. None of them lived above three days ;
and though fre(h water was given them two or three
times a-day, yet, in a few hours, it would dink to a de-s 33
gree fcarce conceivable, and that too at feveral yards di-property of
dance, though in proportion to the water, all the in-(pollingwa-
cluded infeds were not more than as 1 to 130,000.ter
This makes it probable, that it is neceffary for them to
live in a rapid dream, led they (hould be poifoned by
the effluvia iffuing from their own bodies, as no doubt
they were in the vial.
9. A curious aquatic worm. This animalcule is Xn
drown, magnified, at fig. 31. It is found in ditch worm,
water ; and i- of various fizes, from ^ to { of an inch in
length. About the head it is fomewhat f a yellowidr
colour; but alt the red of the bodv is perfedly colour-*
Ids and tranfparent, except the intedmes, which are
conliderably
A N I [3H] , . A.N 1
/ conilderably opaque, and difpofed as jn the figure. Along provided there is fluid fufficient for them to fwim about Animal¬
cule. its fides are feveral papillae, with long hairs growing in. Thefe anitnalcula are peculiar to the femen; 110-
1 r .t  i._.. v.„.. ui„..u thing that has the lead token of life being difcovered,
cule.
35'
Its horn or
probolcis.
36
Spermatic
animals,
when dif-
ccvered.
from them: it has two black eyes, and is very nimble.
But the moll remarkable thing in this creature is a long
horn or probofcis ; which, in the large ones, may be feen
with the naked eye, if the water is clear, and is fome-
times Tg- of an inch in length: this it waves to and fro
as it moves in the water, or's^geeps up the fide of the
glafs •, but it is not known whether it is hollow, or of
what ufe it is to the creature itfelf.
10. Spermatic Animals, and Animalcula Infufoma.
The difcovery of living animalcules in the femen of moft
animals is claimed by Mr Leeuwenhoek and Mr Nicho¬
las Hartfoeker, who both fay they publiihed it about the
end of the year 1677 or beginning of 1678: but Mr
Leeuwenhoekhaving given the moll particular delcription
of, and made by far the greateft number of experiments,
concerning them, the difcovery is commonly attributed
to him.
General ap- According to this naturalift, thefe animalcules are
pearance found in the femen mafculinum of every kind of animal:
the fame in their general appearance is very much the fame, nor
every ani- the;r gze differ in proportion to the bulk of the
animal to which they belong. The bodies of all of
them feem to be of an oblong oval form, with long ta¬
pering flender tails iffuing from them; and as by this
lhape they referable tadpoles, they have been frequently
called by that name; though the tails of them, in pro¬
portion to their bodies, are much longer than the tails
of tadpoles are: and it is obfervable, that the animalcules
in the femen of filhes have tails much longer and more
flender than the tails of thofe in other animals j infomuch,
that the extremity of them is not to be difcerned without
the beft glaffes, and the utmoft attention. Fig. 21.
Pi XXXII N° 2> 3> 4> reprefent thefpermatic animalcula of the
rabbit j and N° 5, 6, 7, 8, thofe of a dog j according
s to Mr Leeuwenhoek.
nconceive- The numbers of thefe animalcula are inconceivable,
able num- On viewing with a microfcope the milt or femen maf-
ber and mi-cuijnum 0f a living cod filh, innumerable multitudes of
nutenels. anim2lcules were found therein of fuch a diminutive fize,
that he fuppofed at leaft 10,000 of them capable of be¬
ing contained in the bulk of a grain of fand J whence
he concludes, that the milt of this Angle filh contained
more living animalcules than there are to be found peo¬
ple living in the whole world, do find the compara¬
tive fize of thefe animalcules, Mr Leeuwenhoek placed
a hair of his head near them 5 which hair, through his
microfcope, appeared an inch in breadth ; and he was
fatisfied, that at leaft 60 fuch animalcules could eafily
lie within that diameter; whence, their bodies being
fpherical, it follows, that 2x6,000 of them are but
equal to a globe whofe diameter is the breadth of a
hair. He obferved, that when the water wherewith
he had diluted the femen of a cod filh was exhaled, the
little bodies of the animalcules burft in pieces; which
did not happen to thofe in the femen of a ram : and
this he imputes to the greater firmnefs and confiftency of
the latter, as the flelh of a land animal is more com-
padl than fifh.
Thefe animalcules appear to be very vigorous, and
tenacious of life : for they may be obferved to move
long after the animal from which they are taken is dead.
They have this peculiarity alfo that they are continu¬
ally in motion, without the leafl reft or intermiflion,
39 .
Are conti¬
nually in
.motion.
by the beft glaffes, either in the blood, fpittle, urine,
gall, or chyle. Great numbers, however, are to be
found in the whitilh matter that ftieks between the
teeth ; fome of which are of an oval figure, and others
referable eels. _ 40
The Animalcula Infuforia take their name from their Animala
being found in all kinds either of vegetable or animal in!ul°na.
infufions. Indeed there is fcarcely any kind of water,
unlefs impregnated with fome mineral fubftance, but
what will difcover living creatures.—Mr Leeuwenhoek Mr Leeu.
fays, that at firft he could difcern no living creatureswenhoek’'
in rain water } but after ftanding fome days he difco-^^j^
vered innumerable animalcules, many thoufands of times
lefs than a grain of fand, and in proportion to a mite aster>
a bee is to a horfe.—In other rain water, which had
likewife ftood fome time, he found the fmalleft fort he
had ever feen *, and, in a few days more, met with
others eight times as big as thefe, and almoft round.
In another quantity of rain water that had been ex-
pofed like the former, he difcovered a kind of animal¬
cules with two little horns in continual motion. The
fpace between the horns was flat, though the body
was roundilh, but tapering a little towards the end;
where a tail appeared, four times as long as the body,
and the thicknefs of a fpider’s web. He obferved fe¬
veral hundreds of thefe within the fpace a grain of fand
would occupy. If they happened on the leaft filament
or firing, they were entangled in it; and then would
extend their bodies into an oblong round, and^ruggle
hard to difengage their tails. He obferved a fecond
fort of an oval figure, and imagined the head to ftand
at the lharpeft end. The body was flat with feveral
fmall feet moving exceeding quick, but not difcernible
without a great deal of attention. Sometimes they
changed their lhape into a perfect round, efpecially when
the water began to dry away. He met alfo with a third
fort, twice as long as broad, and eight times fmaller than
the firft: yet in thefe he difcerned little feet, whereby
they moved very nimbly. He perceived likewife a
fourth fort, a thoufand times fmaller than a loufe’s eye,
and which exceeded all the reft in brilknefs: he found
thefe turning themfelves round, as it were upon a point,
with the celerity of a top. And he fays, there were fe¬
veral other forts. _ 42
The production of animalcula infuforia is very fur-Surprifin;
prifing. In four hours time, an infufion of cantharides produdw
has produced animalcula lefs than even the tails of the^^®^
fpermatic animals we have already defciibed. Neither
do they feem to be fubjeft to the fate of other animals;
but, feveral kinds of them at leaft, by dividing them¬
felves in two, to enjoy a fort of immortality. Nor do
the common methods by which other animals are de-
ftroyed, feem to be effe&ual for deftroying their vital
principle. Hot mutton gravy, fecured in a phial with a
cork, and afterwards fet among hot allies to deftroy as
effedtually as poflible every living creature that could
be fuppofed to exift in it, has neverthelefs been found
fwarming with animalcules after ftanding,a few days.^Ell;s
In the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, vol. lix. we have theacc0unt c
following curious account, given us by Mr Ellis, of Jnl'
malcules produced from an infufion of potatoes and 0^^°n0fp(
hempfeed. u ^ tatoes.
A N I l 375 1 A N I
Animal- “ On 25th of May 1768, Fahrenheit’s thermo-
cule meter 70°, I boiled a potato in the New River water
U—V“,J till it was reduced to a mealy confidence. I put part
of it, with an equal proportion of the boiling liquor,
into a cylindrical glals veflel that held fomething lefs
than half a wine pint, and covered it clofe immediately
with a glafs cover. At the fame time, I fliced an un¬
boiled potato j and, as near as I could judge, put the
fame quantity into a glafs veffel of the fame kind *, with
the fame proportion of New River water not boiled ;
and covered it with a glafs cover 5 and placed both vef-
fels clofe to each other.
“ On the 26th of May, 24 hours afterwards, I ex¬
amined a fmall drop of each, by the firft magnifier of
Wilfon’s microfcope, whofe focal diftance is reckoned
at-jL- part of an inch} and, to my amazement, they
were both full of animalcula of a linear drape, very di-
ftinguidrable, moving to and fro with great celerity ;
fo that there appeared to be more particles of animal
than vegetable life in each drop.
“ This experiment I have repeatedly tried, and al¬
ways found it to fucceed in proportion to the heat of
the circumambient air } fo that even in winter, if the
liquors are kept properly warm, at lead in two or three
days, the experiment will fucceed.
“ What I have obferved are infinitely fmaller than
ipermatic animals, and of a very different fhape *, the
truth of which every accurate obferver will foon be
convinced of, whofe curiofity may lead him to compare
them} and I am perfuaded he will find they are no
way akin.
“ At prefent I diall pafs over many other curious
obfervations, which I have made on two years expe¬
riments, in order to proceed to the explaining a hint
which I received lad January, from M. de Sauffure of
Geneva, when he was here •, which is, that> he found
one kind of thefe animalcula infuforia that increafe by
dividing acrofs into nearly two equal parts.
“ I had often feen this appearance in various fpecies,
a year or two ago, as I found upon looking over the
minutes I had taken when I made any new obferva-
tion; but always fuppofed the animal, when in this
date, to be in coition.
_ “ Not hearing, till after M. de Sauffure left this
kingdom, from what infufion he had made his obfer-
vation } his friend Dr de la Roche of Geneva informed
me, the latter end of February lad, that it was from
hempfeed.
Fromanin- “ I immediately procured hempfeed from different
fofionof feedfmen in different parts of the town. Some of it I
hempfeed. put into New River water, fome into didilled water,
and fome I put into very hard pump water. The re-
fult was, that in proportion to the heat of the weather,
or the warmth in which they were kept, there was an
appearance of millions of minute animalcula in all the
mfufions; and, fome time after, fome oval ones made
their appearance, as at fig. 3. b, c. Thefe were much
larger than the fird, which dill continued : thefe wrig¬
gled to and fro in an undulatory motion, turning them-
Divid^ ^eives round very quick all the time that they moved
'hemfsives ^°.rwar<is- I was very attentive to fee thefe animals
mtotwoT ^ide themfelves} and at lad I perceived a few of the
appearance of fig. 3. a, as it is reprefen ted by the fird
magnifier of Wilfon’s microfcope} but I am fo well
convinced by experience that they would feparate,
that I did not wait to fee the operation: however, as Animal-
the following Iketches, which I have drawn from five cule.
other fpecies, will very fully explain this extraordinary v——J
phenomenon, there will be no difficulty in conceiving
the manner of the fird. See fig. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
“ The proportion of the number of thefe animals
which I have obferved to divide in this manner, to the
red, is fcarce 1 to 50 } fo that it appears rather to arife
from hurts received by fome few animalcula among
the many, than to be the natural manner in which thefe
kinds of animals multiply } efpecially if we confider the
infinite quantity of young ones which are vifible to us
through the tranfparent Ikins of their bodies, and even
the young ones that are vifible in thofe young ones
while in the body of the old ones.
“ But nothing more plainly ffiows them to be zoo¬
phytes than this circumdance, That when, by acci¬
dent, the extremity of their bodies has been ffirivelled
for want of a fupply of fredi water, the applying more
freffi water has given motion to the part of the animal
that was dill alive : by which means, this ffiapelefs fi¬
gure has continued to live and fwim to and fro all the
time it was fupplied with freffi water.
“ I cannot finifli this part of my remarks on thefe
animals, without obferving, that the excellent Linnaeus
has joined the hero? with the volvox, one of the animal- ^
cula infuforia. The beroe is a marine animal, found Beroe Je¬
on our coad } of a gelatinous tranfparent nature, and fexibed.
of an oval or fpherical form, from half an inch to an-
inch diameter; divided like a melon into longitudinal
ribs, each of which is furnilhed with rows of minute
fins ; by means of which, this animal, like the animal-
cula infuforia, can fwim in all direftions with great
fwiftnefs. In the fame manner I have feen mod of
thofe minute animals move fo fvvift that we could not
account for it, without fuppofing fuch a provifion in
nature, which is really true, but cannot be feen till the
animals grow faint for want of water ; then, if we at¬
tend, we may with good glaffes plainly difeover them
“ I have lately found out, by mere accident, a me- Method of
thod to make their fins appear very didinftly, efpeci-difeovering
ally in the larger kind of animalcula, which are com-th? fins ot
mon to mod vegetable infufions; fuch as the terebella.
This has a longiffi body, with a cavity or groove at one
end, like a gimlet: by applying, then, a fmall dalk of
the horfe-ffioe geranium (or geranium zonale of Lin¬
naeus), freffi broken, to a drop of water in which thefe
animalcula are fwimming, we ffiall find that they will
become torpid indantly } contrafling themfelves into
an oblong oval ffiape, with their fins extended like fo
many bridles all round their bodies. The fins are in
length about half the diameter of the middle of their
bodies. Before I difeovered this expedient, J tried to
kill them by different kinds of falts and fpirits ; but
though they were dedroyed by this means, their fin^
were fo contrafled, that I could not didinguiffi them,
in the lead. After lying in this date of torpidity
for two or three minutes, if a drop of clean water is
applied to them, they will recover their diape, and
fwim about immediately, rendering their fins again in-
vifible.”
Fig. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, reprefent different fpecies of
animalcula infuforia, mentioned by Mr Ellis as belong¬
ing to the genus volvox of Linnaeus.
Fig. 3. reprefents the volvox ovalis, or egg-draped
volvox • „
Animal*
cule.
ANT F 376 .1
volvox; at (b) and (c) it is expreffed in its natural equivocal generation
(bape ; at (a) the manner in which it becomes two ani-
' mals, by feparating acrofs the middle. This was found
in the infuficn of hempfeed; but is found in other vege¬
table infufions, particularly that of tea feed.
Fig. 4. is the volvox torquilla, or wryneck. At (a)
is reprefented its divided Hate j at (b) and (c) its na¬
tural Hate $ this is common to mofl vegetable infufions,
as is the following :
Fig- 5. is the volvox volutans, or the roller. At (a)
the animal is feparated, and becomes two diflindt be¬
ings, each fwimming about and providing foritfelf: this
is often the prey of another fpecies of this genus, efpe-
cially while it is weak by this feparation, not being fo
a&ive for fome time till it can recover itfelf. At (c) the
animal appears to be hurt on one fide ^ this impreffion
in a little time is fucceeded by another in the oppofite
fide, as at (b), which foon occafions a divifion. At (d)
is the fide view, and at (e) the front view, of the natu¬
ral fiiape t>f the animal.
Fig- 6. is the volvox onifcus, or wood loufe. At (a)
is the natural fliape of it, as it appears full of little
hairs, both at the head and tail ; with thofe at the head,
it whirls the water about to draw its prey to it; the
feet, which are many, are very vifible, but remarkably
fo in a fide-view at (d). At (b) it is reprefented.be¬
ginning to divide 5 and at (c) the animals are ready
to part : in this Hate, as if in exquifite pain, they
fwim round and round, and to and fro, with uncom¬
mon velocity, violently agitated till they get afunder.
This was found in an infufion of different kinds of pine
branches. . .
Fig. 7. is the volvox terebella, or the gimlet. I his
is one of the largefl of the kind, and is very vifible to
the naked eye. It moves along fwiftly, turning itfelf
round as it fwims, juH as if boring its way : (a) and
(bj are two views of its natural lhape 5 (c) fhows the
manner of its dividing. When they are fepaiated,
the lower animal rolls very awkwardly along, till it
gets a groove in the upper part : (d) reprefents one
of them lying torpid, by means of the juice of the
horfe-flioe geranium, with its fins extended. This ani¬
mal is found in many infufions, particularly of grafs or
corn.
Fig. 8. is the volvox vorax, or glutton. This animal
was found in an infufion of the 1 artarian pine *, it varies
its fliape very much, contrafling and extending its pro-
bofcis, turning it to and fro, in various direftions, as at
a, b, c, d, e. It opens its probofcis underneath the ex¬
tremity, when it feizes its prey. The lefs aftive ani¬
mals, that have lately been divided, fuch as thole at fig.
3. (a), and at fig. 4. (a), ferve it as food, when they
come in its way : thefe it fwallows down inflantly, as it
is reprefented at fig. 8. h and i. At (f) it is ready to
divide, and at (g) it is divided ; where the hinder part
of the divided animal has got a probofcis or beak, to
procure nouriftiment for itfelf, and foon becomes a di-
flinft being from the fore part.
Thus wre have given as full an account as our limits
would admit, of the mofl curious kinds of animalcules
that have hitherto been obferved. We cannot, however,
difmifs this fubjeft, without taking notice of fome of
the mofl remarkable hypothefes which have been form¬
ed concerning their nature and origin.
Before the invention of microfcopes, the doflrine of
A N I
c   both with regard to animals and
plants of fome kind-, was univerfally received : but this
inftrument foon convinced every intelligent perion, that
Animal¬
cule.
jmiruiuent iuun Wi.v   J tr j 1 1 ' 1 48
thofe plants which formerly were foppoled to be produ-Do(fh
ine of
ced by equivocal generation arofe from feeds, and the equivocal
animals, in like manner, from a male and female. But generanoa
as the microfcope threw light upon one part of nature exPl«^a-
it left another involved in darknefs : for the ongm of
the animalcula infuforia, or of the fpermatic animals al¬
ready mentioned, remains as yet as much unknown as
that of many other kinds was when the doflnne of equi¬
vocal generation reigned in full force. 49
The difcovery of fpermatic animalcules was thought Suppofed
to throw fome light on the myfterious affair of genera-^covery
lion itfelf, and thefe minute creatures were imagined to generatio£
be each of them individuals of the fame fpecies with
the parent. Here the infinite number of thefe ani¬
malcules was an objeftion, and the difficulty remain¬
ed as great as before : for, as every one of thefo ani¬
malcules behoved to be produced from a male and fe¬
male, to explain their origin by anirnalcular generation
in the fame manner, was only explaining generation by
itfelf. . , r • r
This hypothefis, therefore, having proved uniatistac-
tory, others have been invented. M. Buffon, particu¬
larly, hath invented one, by which he^t once annihilates
the whole animalcular world ; and in this he hath been
followed by feveral very ingenious philofophers. For
a particular account of this, fo far as it concerns genera¬
tion, we muff refer to that article j but as he gives luch
a particular account of his having examined the human
femen, that we cannot doubt of his accuracy, we (hall
here contraft his account with that of Mr Leeuwenhoek
already mentioned. _ so
Having procured the feminal veffels of a man who ^ Buffon’s
died a violent death, he extrafled all the liquor from experiments
them while they were ftill warm 5 and having examined on the hu-
a drop of it with a double microfcope, it had the ap-man
pearance, fig. 9. Large filaments appeared, which in
fome places fpread out into branches, and in others in¬
termingled with one another. Fhefe filaments clearly
appeared to be agitated by an internal undulatory mo¬
tion, like hollow .tubes, which contained fome moving
fubftance. He faw diftinftly this appearance changed
for that fig. JO. Two of thefe filaments, which were
joined longitudinally, gradually feparated^ from each
other in the middle, alternately approaching and re¬
ceding, like two tenfe cords fixed by the ends, and
drawn afonder in the middle. Thefe filaments were
compofed of globules that touched one another, and re-
fombled a chaplet of beads. After this, he obferved
the filament fwelled in feveral places, and perceived
ftnall globular bodies iffue from the fwelled parts, which
had a vibratory motion like a pendulum. 1 hefe fmall
bodies were attached to the filaments by fmall threads,
which gradually lengthened as the bodies moved. At
laft, the fmall bodies detached themfelves entirely from
the filaments, drawing after them the fmall thread,
which looked like a tail. When a drop of the feminal
liquor was diluted, thefe fmall bodies moved in all di¬
reftions very brifkly ; and had he not feen them fepa-
rate themfelves from the filaments, he would, he fays,
have thought them to be animals. The feminal matter
w'as at firft too thick, but gradually became more fluid j
and, in proportion as its fluidity increafed, the filaments
fan neared.
A N I [ 377 1 A N I
Animal- difappeared, but the fmall bodies becatn? exceedingly
cule. numerous. Each of them had a long thread or tail
 v* attached to it, from which it evidently endeavoured to
get free. Their progreflive motion was extremely flow,
during which they vibrated to the right and left, and
at each vibration they had a rolling unfteady motion in
a vertical direction.
At the end of two or three hours, the feminal matter
becoming ftill more fluid, a greater number of thefe
moving bodies appeared. They were then more free of
encumbrances j their tails were fliorter; their progreflive
motion was more direft, and their horizontal motion
greatly diminifhed. In five or fix hours, the liquor had
acquired almoft all the fluidity it could acquire without
being decompofed. Mod of the fmall bodies were now
difengaged from their threads ; their figure was oval.
They moved forward with confiderable quicknefs, and,
by their irregular motions backward and forward, they
had now more than ever the appearance of animals.
Thofe that had tails adhering to them, feemed to have
lefs vivacity than the others •, and of thofe that had no
tails, fome altered both their figure and their fize. In
twelve hours, the liquor had depofited at the bottom of
the vial a kind of alh-coloured gelatinous fubflance,
and the fluid at top was almofl: as tranfparent as water.
The little bodies being now entirely freed from their
threads, moved with great agility, and fome of them
turned round their centres. They alfo often changed
their figures, from oval becoming round* and often
breaking into fmaller ones. Their activity always in-
creafed as their fize diminifhed. In 24 hours, the li¬
quor had depofited a greater quantity of gelatinous
matter, which, being with fome difficulty diluted in
water, exhibited an appearance fomewhat refembling
lace. In the clear femen itfelf only a few fmall bodies
were now feen moving ; next day, thefe were ftill far¬
ther diminilhed ; and after this nothing was to be feen
but globules, without the leaf!' appearance of motion.
Moft of the above-mentioned appearances are fhown
fig. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16. Fig. 17, and 18. re-
prefent an appearance of the globules in another ex¬
periment, in which they arranged themfelves in troops,
and puffed very quickly over the field of the micro-
fcope. In this experiment they were found to proceed
from a fmall quntity of gelatinous mucilage.
From thefe experiments, M. Buffon concludes, that
what have been called fpermatic animals, are not crea¬
tures really endowed with life, but fomething proper
to compofe a living creature ; and he diftinguiflies them
by the name of organic particles. The fame individual
kinds of animals he declares he has found in the fluids
feparated from the ovaria of females : and for the truth
of this appeals to the teftimony of Mr Needham, who
was an eye witnefs of his experiments. He alfo brings
Needham’s an additional proof of his doflrine from Mr Needham’s
experiment obfervation on the milt of the calmar, a fpecies of cut-
of the caf1 ^ere ^ie fpermatic animals, at leaf! what
mar. have the only appearance of life, are vaftly larger than
in any other creature, fo as to be plainly vifible to the
naked eye. When magnified, they appear as at fig. 19.
and 20. a. Their firfl: appearance is at fig. 19. « and b,
when they refemble fprings enclofed in a tranfparent
cafe. Thefe fprings were equally perfeft at firfl as af¬
terwards ; only in time they contracted themfelves, and
became like a kind of ferew. The head of the cafe is
VOL. II. Part I.
a fpecies of valve which opens outward, and through Animal-
which every thing within may be forced out. It con- cur¬
tains, befides, another valve b, a little barrel c, and a v
fpongy fubflance e. Thus the whole machine con-
fifts of an outer tranfparent cartilaginous cafe a, the fu. ‘S’
perior extremity of which is terminated by a round
head formed by the cafe itfelf, and performs the office
of a valve*. This external cafe contains a tranfparent
tube : which includes the fpring, a pifton or valve, a
little barrel, and fpongy fubltance. The ferew occu¬
pies the fuperior part of the tube and cafe, the pifton
and barrel are fituated in the middle, and the fpongy
fubftance occupies the inferior part. Thefe machines
pump the liquor of the milt *, the fpongy fubftance is
full of this liquor •, and, before the animal fpawns, the
whole milt is only a congeries of thefe bodies which
have fucked up all the liquor of it. Whenever thefe
fmall machines are taken out of the body of the ani¬
mal, and put in water, or expofed to the air, they be¬
gin to aft, as reprefented fig. 19. and 20. j the fpring
mounts up, and is followed by the pifton, the barrel,
and the fpongy fubftance which contains the liquor :
and, as foon as the Ipring and the tube in which it is
contained begin to iffue out of the cafe, the fpring
plaits, and the whole internal apparatus moves, till the
fpring, the pifton, and the barrel, have entirely efcaped
from the cafe. When this is effefted, all the reft in-
ftantly follow, and the milty liquor which had been
pumped in, and confined in the fpongy fubftance, runs
out through the barrel. 52
According to this account, the milt of the calmar Condufion
contains no animalcules-, and therefore we may from
analogy conclude, that the fmall moving bodies which an;mai_
are to be feen in the femen of other animals, are notcules.
really creatures endowed with life. M. Buffon extends
the analogy ftill further ; and concludes, that all the
moving bodies which are to be found in the infufions
either of animal or vegetable fubftances are of a fimilar
nature. “ To difeover (fays he) whether all the parts of
animals, and all the feeds of plants, contained moving
organic particles, I made infufions of the flefh of differ¬
ent animals, and of the feeds of more than 20 different
fpecies of vegetables •, and after remaining fome days in
clofe glaffes, I had the pleafure of feeing organic moving
particles in all of them. In fome they appeared fooner,
in others later ; fome preferved their nations for
months, and others foon loft it. Some at firft produced
large moving globules refembling animals, which
changed their figure, fplit, and became gradually
fmaller. Others produced only fmall globules, whofe
motions were extremely rapid j and others produ¬
ced filaments, which grew longer, feemed to vegetate,
and then fwelled and poured forth torrents of moving
globules.” $3
This lafl: obfervation pave rife to a new fyftem. Ba- ^.aron.
ron Munchanfen, perceiving that the laft-mentioned fen’stheoly,
moving globules, after moving for fome time, began
again to vegetate, concluded that they were firft animals 54
and then plants. This ftrange hypothefis Mr Ellis
has overturned in the paper already quoted *, in which0"' il
he afferts that they arc no other than the feeds of that
genus of fungi called tnucor or mouldinefs, and that
their motion is owing to numbers of minute animal¬
cules attacking them for food. “ Having (fays he), at
the requeft of Dr Linnaeus, made feveral experiments
3 B on
A. N I
on the infufion of muflirooms in water, in
prove the theory of Baron Munchanfen, that their
feeds are firft animals, and then plants (which he takes
notice of in his Syftem of Nature, p. 1326, under the
genus of chaos, by the name of chaos fungorum femi-
nuni), it appeared evidently, that the feeds were put
into motion by very minute animalcules, which pro¬
ceeded from the putrefa&ion of the mufhroom : for by
pecking at thefe feeds, which are reddiih, light, round
bodies, they moved them about with great agility in a
variety of direftions j while the little animals them-
felves were fcarcely vilible, till the food they had eaten
had difcovered them. The fatisfaftion I received from
clearing up this point, led me into many other curious
and interefting experiments.
“ The ingenious Mr Needham fuppofes thefe little
tranfparent ramified filaments, and jointed or coralloid
bodies, which the microfcope difcovers to us on the
furface of moft animal and vegetable infufions when
they become putrid, to be zoophytes, or branched ani¬
mals 5 but to me they appear, after a careful fcrutiny
with the beft glaffes, to be of that genus of fungi call¬
ed mucor ox mouldinefs ; many of which Michclius has
figured, and Linnaeus has accurately defcribed.
“ Their vegetation is fo amazingly quick, that
[ 378 ] A N I
order to Needham calls chaplets, ^pearl necklaces, I have feen
frequently very diltindtly. Thefe appear not only on ^
an infufion of bruifed wheat when it becomes putrid,
but on moft other bodies when they throw up a vilcid
fcum and are in a ftate of putrefaftion. Ihefe, then,
are evidently no more than the moft common mucor, the
feeds of which are everywhere floating in the air; and
bodies in this ftate afford them a natural proper foil to
grow upon. Here they fend downwards their fine
tranfparent ramified roots into the moifture which they
float upon ; and from the upper part of the fcum,
their jointed coralloid branches rife full of feed into
little groove-like figures. When a fmall portion of
thefe branches and feeds are put into a drop of the
fame putrid water upon which the fcum floats, many
of thefe millions of little animalcula which which it
abounds, immediately feize them as food, and turn
them about with a variety of motions, as in the expe¬
riments on the feeds of the common mufhrooms, either
fingly, or two or three feeds connefted. together •, an-
fwering exa6Uy to Mr Needham’s defcription, but evi¬
dently without any motion of their own, and confe-
quently not animated.
Animal¬
cule.
ss.
they
M. Buffon, however, is not content with denying life m. Buffon’j
may be perceived in the microfcope even to grow and
feed under the eye of the obferver.
“ Mr Needham has pointed out to us a fpecies that
is very remarkable for its parts of fructification. (See
Philofophical Tranfa&ions, vol. xlv. tab. $' %• 3*
a, A). This, he fays, proceeds from an infufion of
bruifed wheat.
“ I have feen the fame fpecies arife from the body of
a dead fly, which was become putrid by lying floating
for fome time in a glafs of water, where fome flowers
had been, in the month of Auguft 1768. This fpecies
of mucor fends forth a mafs of tranfparent filamentous
roots •, from whence arife hollow {terns, that fupport
little oblong oval feed veffels, with a hole on the top
of each. From thefe I could plainly fee minute globu¬
lar feeds iffue forth in great abundance with an elaftic
force, and turn about in the water as if they were ani¬
mated.
“ Continuing to view them with fome attention, I
could juft difeover, that the putrid water which fur-
rounded them was full of the minuteft animalcula ; and
that thefe little creatures began to attack the feeds of
the mucor for food, as I have obferved before in the
experiment on the feeds of the larger kind of fungi or
mUibrooms. This new motion continued the appear¬
ance of their being alive for fome time longer: but
foon after, many of them arofe to the furface of the
only to thofe beings where the figns of it are the moft opinion of
* t 1 fUe romp rank of nrcranic “1“eren_t .
water, remaining there without motion j and a fuccef-
...7 -    c>   /
fion of them afterwards coming up, they united toge¬
ther in little thin maiTes, and floated to the edge of
the water, remaining there quite inaftive during the
time of obfervation.
“ As this dilcovery cleared up many doubts which
I had received from reading Mr Needham’s learned dif-
fertation, I put into the glafs feveral other dead flies 5
by which means this fpecies of mucor was propagated
fo plentifully, as to give me an opportunity of fre¬
quently trying the fame experiment to my full fatif-
faftion.
“ Laftly, Thefe jointed coralloid bodies, which Mr
equivocal} but includes in the fame rank of organic
particles, almoft every animal too fmall to be dilcover-
ed by the naked eye, and even fome of thofe whofe
motions are evidently perceptible to the eye. Al¬
moft all microfcopic animals,” fays he, “ are of the
fame nature with the moving bodies in the feminal
fluids and infufions of animal and vegetable fubftances.
The eels in pafte, in vinegar, &c. are all of the fame
nature, and derived from the fame origin. 1 here are,
perhaps, as many beings that either live or vegetate,,
produced by a fortuitous affemblage of organic parti¬
cles, as by a conttant and fucceflive generation. Some
of them, as thofe of the calmar, are only a kind of ma¬
chines, which, though exceedingly fimple, are very ac¬
tive. Others, as the fpermatic animalcules, feem to imi¬
tate the movements of animals. Others refemble vege¬
tables in their manner of growth and extenfion. 1 here
are others, as thofe of blighted wheat, which, at plea-
fure can be made alternately either to live or die, and it
is difficult to know to what they fhould be compared.
There are. ftill others, and in great numbers, which are
at firft a kind of animals, then become a fpecies of ve¬
getables, and again return alternately to their vegeta¬
ble ftate. The eels in pafte have no other origin than
the union of the organic particles of the moft eflential
part of the grain. The firft eels that appear are cer¬
tainly not produced by other eels *, but though they are
not propagated themfelves, they fail not to engender
other living eels. By cutting them with the point ot
a lancet, we difeorer fmaller eels iffuing in great num¬
bers out of their bodies. The body of this animal
feems to be only a (heath or fac, containing a multi¬
tude of fmaller animals, which perhaps are other (heaths
of the fame kind, in which the organic matter is afli-
milated into the form of eels.” 56
Though we can by no means pretend to account forHis reafej-
the appearance of thefe animalcules, yet we cannot helping ^011
obferving, that our ignorance of the caufe of any phe-^ ulive
nomenon is no argument againft its exiftence. Though
we are not able to account in a fatisfa&ory manner for
tha
A N I [ 379 ] . A N I
Animal- the origin of the native Americans, \ve fuppofe M.
cule. BufFon himfelf -would reckon it abfurd to maintain that
J * the Spaniards on their arrival there found only organic
particles moving about in diforder. The cafe is the
very fame with the eels in pafte. They are exceeding¬
ly minute in comparifon with us; but, with the folar
microfeope, Mr Baker has made them aflfume a more
refpeftable appearance, fo as to have a diameter of an
inch and a half, or two inches, and a length propor¬
tionable. They fwam up and down very brilkly ; the
motion of their inteftines was plainly vilible j when the
water dried up, they died with apparent agonies, and
their mouths gaped very wide. Were wTe to find a
creature of the fize of this magnified eel, gafping in a
place where water had lately been, we certainly would
never conclude it to be an organic particle, or a fortui¬
tous affemblage of them j but a fifh. Why then Ihould
we conclude other wife with regard to the eel while in
its natural ftate, than that it is a little filh ? In reafon-
ing on this fubjedl, we ought always to remember,
that, however effential the diftinftion of bodies into
great and fmall may appear to us, they are not fo to
the Deity j with whom, as Mr Baker well expreffes
himfelf, “ an atom is as a world, and a world but as
an atom.”—Were the Deity to exert his power for a
little, and give a natural philofopher a view of a quan¬
tity of pafte filled with eels, from each of whofe bodies
the light was reflefted as when it pafles through a fo¬
lar microfeope; inftead of imagining them organic
particles, the pafte would appear like a little moun¬
tain $ he would probably look upon the whole as a
monftrous affemblage of ferpents, and be afraid to come
near them. Wherever, therefore, we difeover beings
to appearance endowed with the principle of felf-pre-
fervation, or whatever elfe avc make the charadleriftic
of animals, neither the fmallnefs of their fize, nor the
impoflibility of our knowing how they come there,
ought to caufe us doubt of their being really animated.
—At the fame time, it muft alfo be remembered, that
motion is not always a chara&eriftic of animal life,
even though the moving bodies ftiould avoid one ano¬
ther, or any feeming obftaele placed in their v’ay. We
know, that inanimate bodies, when electrified, will
avoid others endowed with an eleCtricity of the fame
kind, and adhere to thofe which have the oppofite one.
As we are by no means acquainted with the utmoft
powers of eleCtricity, but on the contrary, from what
we do know of it have all the reafon in the world to
conclude that it can produce effedts utterly beyond our
comprehenfion, it is impoffible for us to know what
ftiare it may have in producing the motions obferved
in vegetable infufions, or in the femen of animals.—
We may alfo further obferve, that though in Mr El¬
lis’s experiment of the boiled potato he took it for
granted that every feed of animal life would be de-
ftroyed by the boiling water, yet even this cannot be
proved ; nay, on the contrary, it hath been proved by
undeniable experiments, that the human body itfelf
hath endured a heat of 240 degrees of Fahrenheit (28
degrees above that of boiling water) without injury.
The eggs of thefe animalcula might therefore be ftrong
enough to refift the heat hitherto ufed in Mr Ellis’s or
any other experiment.
A confiderable obje&ion to the exiftence of animal¬
cules in the femen, or any other part of animal bodies,
muft arife from the total exclufion of air, which is found Animal-
fo neceffary to the life of larger animals. Some inftan- _
ces, however, have been obferved of large animals be- " v
ing found in fuch lituations as they could not poflibly Animals
have enjoyed the leaft benefit from the air for a greatfometimes
number of years; and in this ftate they have not only found living
lived, but lived much longer than they would otherwife^®1'^ Mo¬
have done.
In Toulon harbour and road, are found folid hard
ftones, and perfeClly entire; containing, in different
cells, fecluded from all communication with the air, fe-
veral living ffiell fifh, of an exquifite tafte, called Dac-
tyli, i. e. Dates : to come at thefe fiih, the ftones are'
broken with mauls. Alfo, along the coaft of Ancona,
in the Adriatic, are ftones ufually weighing about 50
pounds, and fometimes even more ; the outfide rug¬
ged, and eafily broken, but the infide fo hard, as to re¬
quire a ftrong arm and an iron maul to break them ;
within them, and in feparate niches, are found fmall ftiell-
fifh, quite alive, and very palatable, called Solenes or
Cappe lunghe. Thefe fads are attefted by Gaffendi,
Blondel, Mayol, the learned biftiop of Sulturara, and
more particularly by Aldrovandi a phyfician of Bolog¬
na. The two latter fpeak of it as a common fad which
they themfelves faw.
In the volume for 1719,0! the Academy of Sciences
at Paris, is the following paffage :
“ In the foot of an elm, of the bignefs of a pretty
corpulent man, three or four feet above the root, and
exaftly in the centre, has been found a live toad, mid¬
dle fized, but lean, and filling up the whole vacant
fpace : no fooner was a paffage opened, by fplitting the
wrood, than it fcuttled away very haftily : a more firm
and found elm never grew ; fo that the toad cannot be
fuppofed to have got into it. The egg whence it was
formed, muft, by fome very Angular accident, have
been lodged in the tree at its firft growth. There the
creature had lived without air, feeding on the fubftance
of the tree, and growing only as the tree grew. This
is attefted by Mr Hubert, profeffor of philofophy at
Caen.”
The volume for the year 1731 has a fimilar obferva-
tion, expreffed in thefe words :
“In 1719, we gave an account of a fadt, which,
though improbable, is well attefted ; that a toad had
been found living and growing in the ftem of a mid¬
dling elm, without any way for the creature to come
out or to have got in. M. Seigne, of Nantes, lays be¬
fore the academy a fadt juft of the very fame nature,
except that inftead of an elm, it was-an oak, and lar¬
ger than the elm, which ftill heightens the wonder. He
judges, by the time requifite for the growth of the
oak, that the toad muft have fubfifted in it, without
air, or any adventitious aliment, during 80 or 100 years.
M. Seigne feems to have known nothing of the fadl in
1719.”
With the two foregoing may be claffed a narrative of
Ambrofe Paree, chief furgeon to Henry III. king of
France, who, being a very fenfible writer, relates the
following fadl, of which he was an eye witnefs.
“ Being (fays he) at my feat, near the village of
Meudon, and overlooking a quarryman whom I had
fet to break fome very large and hard ftones ; in the
middle of one we found a huge toad, full of life, and
without any vifible aperture by which it could get
3 B 2 there.
A N I
[ 380 ]
A N J
Animal- there. I began to wonder how it received birth, had
cule, grown, and lived ^ but the labourer told me, it was not
Animated. tjie £rfl. tjme had inet with a toad, and the like crea-
v tures, within huge blocks ot Hone, and no vilible open¬
ing or fiffure.” # ,
Obfervations of living toads, found in very hard and
entire (tones, occur in feveral authors, particularly Bap-
tift Fulgofa doge of Genoa, the famous phyiicians Agn-
cola and Horftms, and Lord Verulam : others give very
fpecious accounts of Inakes, frogs, crabs, and lobtlers,
being found alive, enclofed within blocks of marble,
rocks, and large (tones.
An mttance (imilar to thefe, of the truth of which we
have no reaion to doubt, was obferved in this countiy
in the year 1773, where a large toad was found in the
middle of a piece of coal having not the lead vifrble
c8 crack or fiflure. , ,
The lubject Upon the whole, therefore, though philofophers are
ftillobfcure. yet able to difcover how thefe minute creatuies
are produced 5 yet, that there really are animals much
fmaller than what we can difcern with our naked eye,
feems to be indifputable. The fubjeft, however, is (till
evidently obfcure, and will no doubt require the ut-
moft attention of philofophers, as well as further im¬
provements in the conftruaion of microfcopes, fully to
inveftigate it. * . ,.r
Animalcula are faid to be the caufe of various dil-
orders. The itch, from feveral experiments, is aflrrm-
ed to be a diforder ariling from the irritations of a fpe-
cies of animalcula found in the puftules of that ail¬
ment ; whence the communication of it by contadl from
one to another is eafily conceived, as alfo the reafon of
the cure being efFefted by cutaneous applications. On
this foundation fome have attributed the fmatlpox and
mealies, and infedious difeafes ; others the epilepfy,
&c. to animalcules. Langius goes farther, and pre¬
tends to reduce all difeafes in general to the fame prin¬
ciple. A late writer at Paris, who aflumed the title
of an Englith phyfrcian, has done more. He not only
accounts for all difeafes, but for the operation of all
medicines, from the hypothefrs of animalcules. He has
peculiar animalcules for every difeafej fcorbutic animal¬
cules, podagrical animalcules, variolous animalcules, &c.
all at his fervice. Journ. des Sfav. tom Ixxxii. p. 535»
&.c. ‘
But as moll difcoveries in natural philofophy have laid
a foundation for the warm imaginations of fome men to
form vifionary theories, to the great prejudice of real
knowledge j fo thofe relating to animalcula have been
drawn in, however improperly, to fupport the mod whim-
fical and chimerical fyftems.
ANIMALCULES, Invifible.—Naturalifts fuppofe ano¬
ther fpecies or order of invifible animacules, viz. fuch as
efcape the cognizance even of the bed microfcopes, and
give many probable conjedures in relation to them.
Keafon and analogy give fome fupport to the exiftence
of infinite imperceptible animalcules. The naked eye,
fay fome, takes in from the elephant to the mite *, but
there commences a new order referved only for the mi-
crofcope, which comprehends all thefe from the mite to
thofe 27 millions of times fmaller 5 and this order can¬
not be yet faid to be exhautted, if the microfcope be not
arrived at its latl perfedion. See further on this fubjed
the article Microscope.
ANIMATED, or Animate, in a general fenfe,
denotes fomething endowed with animal life. It alio Animated
imports a thing to be impregnated with vermme or am-
malcules. jjr • -v—J
ANIMATED Horfe-Hatrs. See HCRSE-Hairs. '
ANIMATION fignifies the informing an animal
body with a foul.—The different hypothefes of phyfi-
cians and philofophers, concerning the time of anima¬
tion, have had their influence on the penal laws made
ayainft artificial abortions : it having been made capital
to procure mifcarriage in the one (late, while in the
other it was only deemed a venial crime. 1 he emperor
Charles V. by a confiitution publifhed in 153 2,-put the
matter on another footing •, inftead of the diftindion of
an animated and unanimated feetus, he introduced that
of a vital and non-vital feetus, as a thing of more
obvious and eafy decifion, and not depending on any
fyftem either of creation, tradudion, or infufion. Ac¬
cordingly a foetus is faid, in a legal fenfe, to be ani¬
mated, when it is perceived to (lir in the womb ; which
ufually happens about the middle of the term of gefla-
11 ANIME, in Hera/drtj, a term ufed when the eyes of
a rapacious creature are borne of a different tindure from
the creature itfelf.
AnimE, a refin exfuding from the trunk of a large
American tree, called by Idi{o jetaiba, by the Indians
courbaril, (a fpecies of HymenjEa). This refin is of
a tranfparent amber colour, a light agreeable fmell,
and little or no tafte. It diflblves entirely, but not
very readily, in redified fpirit of wine j the impurities',
which are often in large quantity, remaining behind.
The Brazilians are faid to employ anime in fumigations
for pains and aches proceeding from a cold caufe : with
us, it is rarely, if ever, made ufe of for any medicinal
purpofes.
ANIMETTA, among eeclefiaftical writers, de¬
notes the cloth wherewith the cup of the eucharift is
covered.
ANING A, in commerce, a root which grows m the
Antilles iflands, and is pretty much like the China plant.
It is ufod by fugar bakers for refining the fugar.
ANJOU, a province and duchy of France before
the revolution, bounded on the eaft by louraine, on
the fouth by Poidou, on the weft by Bretagne, and
on the north by Maine. It is now included under the
departments of the Mayne and Loire, and the Saite
and Mayenne. It is 70 miles in length, and. in
breadth 60. Through this province run five naviga¬
ble rivers : the Loire, which divides it into two
parts j the Vienne, the Tone, the Mayenne, and the
Sarte.
The air is temperate, and the country agreeably di-
verfified with hills and meadows. There are 33 fo-
refts of oak trees mixed with beech. The country
produces white wine, wheat, barley, rye, oats, peafe,
beans, flax, hemp, -walnuts, and fome chefnuts. In
Lower Anjou they make cyder. There are fruit trees
of all kinds, and pafture proper for horfes. 1 he great-
ell riches of the province confift in cows, oxen, and
ftieep. There are feveral coal and iron mines j and
■yet there are but two forges in the whole province.
There are quarries of marble and of flate } as well as
quarries of white (lone, proper for building, on the
fide of the river Loire. Here are alfo'feveral faltpetre
works and fome glafs-houfes.. The remarkable towns;
befide&
ANIMALCULES
PLATE XXXV.
Fig 15
Fig 29.
Hcfl'c Sculp.'
Tiff. 16.
Tiff. 2
Fiff.3.
2 iff. 2.
Tiff. 7
ANIMALCULES.
PLATEXXX^TT
Fig. 14.
Fig. 23.
Tig. IS.
Fiff.lO.
Fiff.ll.
Tiff. 12.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 16.
Fig. 20.
Fig. 23.
Araeometer.
Fig. 22.
AXOUINVM OVUM.
7\itFFcuTp* JvttmV
I
ANN [ 381 ] ANN
Anio be/ides Angers the capital, are Saumur, Brifac, Pons de
II Cea, La Fieche, and Beaufort.
, ANIO, (Cicero, Horace, Prifcian) •, AnIEN, (Sta-
’ tius) •, now il Teverone : a river of Italy, which falls
into the Tiber, three miles to the north of Rome, not
far from Antemnse. It rifes in a mountain near Tre-
ba, (Pliny) ; and running through the country of the
ALquiculi, or Aiqui, it afterwards feparated the Latins
from the Sabines 5 but nearer its mouth, or confluence,
it had the Sabines on each fide. It forms three beau¬
tiful lakes in its courfe, (Pliny). In the territories of
Tibur it falls from a great height, and there forms a
very rapid cataraft *, hence the epithet preeceps, and
hence the fleam caufed by its fall, (Horace). Anienus
is the epithet formed from it, (Virgil, Propertius).
Anienus is alfo the god of the river, (Propertius, Sta¬
tius.)
ANISUM, or Anise. See Pimpinelea, Botany
Index.
ANKER, a liquid meafure at Amfterdam. It con¬
tains about 32 gallons Englifh meafure.
ANKLE, in Anatomy, the joint which conne&s the
foot to the leg.—We have an account of the menfes be¬
ing regularly evacuated at an ulcer of the ankle, Edin.
Med. Obf. vol. iii. art. 29.
ANN, or Annat, in Scots Law, is half a year’s fti-
pend, which the law gives to the executors of minifters
of the church of Scotland, over and above what was due
to the minifter himfelf for his incumbency.
ANNA, one of the three principalities into which
Arabia Deferta is divided.
Anna, one of the chief cities of the above princi¬
pality, and formerly a famed mart-town, is fituated in
Lat. 33. 57. and E. Long. 42. 10. on the river Eu¬
phrates, in a fruitful and pleafant foil. It has two
ftreets, which are divided by the river. That on the
Mefopotamia fide is about two miles long, but thinly
peopled, and by none but tradefmen $ that on the op¬
posite fide is about fix miles in length, and it is there
that the principal inhabitants of the city dwell. Every
houfe has fome ground belonging to it ; and thefe
grounds are loaded with noble fruit trees, as lemons,
oranges, citrons, quinces, figs, dates, pomegranates,
olives, all very large and in great plenty. Some of
the flat grounds are fown with corn and other grain,
which yield like wife a confiderable crop. This city is
the common rendezvous of all the robbers that infeft
the country, and from which they difperfe themfelves
into all parts of the defert. Here they meet to con-
fult ; here they hold their grand council,; and delibe¬
rate where to rob next with fuccefs. It is with great
difficulty that the Turkiffi aga, and the janizaries who
are kept here, can levy the tribute impofed by the
Turks on all the commodities carried through this
city, which is one of the great thoroughfares for the
palling of the caravans that go to and from Aleppo,
Tripoli, Damafcus, Bagdad, and fome other parts of the
Turkifh empire.
Anna Comnena, daughter of the emperor Alexius
Comnenus I. was not lefs diftinguiffied by her eleva¬
ted rank than by her mental qualifications. Her fu-
periority of mind began early to difplay itfelf. De-
fpifing and negledling the effeminacy and voluptuouf-
nefs of the court in which fhe was educated, fhe dire&ed
her attention to literary purfuits. Indulging her favou¬
rite ftudies, (he folicited the acquaintance of the more
eminent philofophers of that period.
But the purfuits of literature did not induce her en¬
tirely to abandon fociety $ fhe gave her hand to Ni-
cephorus Bryennius, a young nobleman of a refpe&a-
ble family. This accomplilhed woman was, however,
actuated with unjuftifiable ambition $ and, during the
laft illnefs of her father, (he united with the emprefs
Irene, in attempting to prevail upon that monarch to
difinherit his own fon, and give the crown to her huf-
band. The afftflion and virtue of the father pre¬
vailed over female addrefs and intrigue. But the am¬
bition of Comnena was not diminiffied j for Ihe enter¬
ed into a confpiracy to depofe her brother; and
when her hufband difplayed a timidity and hefitation
in this unjuft enterprife, Ihe exclaimed, that “ Nature
had miftaken their fexes, for he ought to have been the
woman.”
Either through the vigilance of her brother, or the
timidity of her hufband, the treafonable plot was dif-
covered, and Anna punilhed with the confifcation of
all her property. But generofity has an opportunity
of difplaying its real nature when an enemy is van-
quiffied; thus was the generofity of her brother
difplayed on the prefent occafion, by returning all her
property. Alhamed, however, of her bafe conduff,
Ihe retired from court, and never more poffeflid any
influence there. Difappointed ambition took flielter
among the walks of literature, and (he employed herfelf
in her folitude in writing the hiftory of her father’s
reign. This production of her pen is ftill extant, and
compofes a part of the collection of the Byzantine hr-
ftorians. The flores of rhetoric areranfacked to embel-
liffi this work, and every effort made to< enrich it with
fcience ; but the general complexion of it is rather
like an apology, than an impartial narrative. It muff,
however, be acknowledged, that (he is not more partial
than many other Latin hiftorians, and that her hiftory
contains many valuable fads and obfervations. (Gert.
Biog.)
ANNA BON. See Annobon.
ANNALE, in the church of Rome, a term applied
to the maffes celebrated for the dead during a whole
year.
ANNALIS claves, the nail which the praetor, com-
ful, or didator, drove into the wall of Jupiter’s temple
annually upon the ides of September, to ftiow the num¬
ber of years. But this cuftom was fuperfeded by reck-
oning years by confnlfhips. The ceremony was fome-
times performed to avert the plague, &c.
ANNALS, in matters of literature, a fpecies of
hiftory, which relate events in the chronological order
wherein they happened. They differ from perfeCf hi¬
ftory in this, that annals are but a bare relation of what
paffes every year, as a journal is of what paffes every
day ; whereas hiftory relates not only the tranfadions
themfelves, but alfo the caufes, motives, and fprings of
adions. Annals require nothing but brevity ; hiftory
demands ornament.— Cicero informs us of the origin
of annals. To preferve the memory of events the
Pontifex Maximus, fays he, wrote what paffed each
year, and expofed it on tables in his own houfe, where
every one was at liberty to read : this they called
annales •’
ANN
[ 38
Annan.
annales moxitni; and hence the writers who imitated
1 this Ample method of narrating'fa&s were called anna-
^ANNAN, the capital of Annandale, a divifion of
Dumfrieslhire in Scotland } a fmall town, conta.ining
coo or 600 inhabitants, and fituated on a river of the
fame name, in W. Long. 30. N. Lat. 54. 4°; This
place, which is a royal borough, has fome trade in wine,
and exports annually between 20 and 30,000 V inchef-
ter bulhels (10 and 15,000 bolls) of corn. Veflels of
about 250 tons can come within half a mile of the town }
and of 60, as high as the bridge j which confifts of five
arches, defended by a gateway. A fabric for carding
and fpinning of cotton has lately been erefted, and the
town begins to increafe. Here was formerly a caflle •,
which was built by the Bruces, after they became lords
of Annandale. Upon the death of David II. the fonot
King Robert, in 1371, this cattle (Lochmaben), and
the lordttiip of Annandale, came to Thomas Randolph
earl of Murray, and went with his fitter Agnes to the
Dunbars, earls of March : after their forfeiture it went
to the Douglafles, who alfo loft it by the fame fate ;
and then having come to Alexander duice of Albany,
he, for rebelling againft his brother King James III.
and plundering the fair of Lochmaben in 1484, was al¬
fo forfeit. Since which time it continued in the hands
of the king, and became the great key of the weft bor-
The ftewarty or diftrift of Annandale, .of which
Lochmaben caftle Avas the chief fortalice, is a fertile
vale, 24 miles long, and about 14 miles broad. From
its vicinity to England, and the continual incurfions
and predatory wars of the borderers, the greateft part
of it was uncultivated and common ; but fince the be¬
ginning of the prefent century, or rather within the
laft thirty years, all thefe waftes and commons have
been divided and brought into culture, and the country
has alfumed a new appearance; which may be afcribed
not only to the divifion of the commons, but likewife
to the improvement made in the roads, and particularly
in the great weftern road from Edinburgh to London
by Moffat, Gratney, and Carlifle, running through this
vale, and carried on by fome gentlemen of the country,
after they had obtained an aft of parliament for levying
a toll to defray the expence of making and keeping it in
repair. .
Annandale formed a part of the Roman province ot
Valentia ; and Severus’s wall ending here, it abounds
with Roman ftations and antiquities. The camps at
Birrens in IVIiddlebie, and on the hill of Burnfwark,
are ftill entire, and their form is preferved; and the tra¬
ces and remains of a military road are now vifible in
different parts of the country. 1 he ruins of the houfe
or caftle of Auchincafs, in the neighbourhood of Mof¬
fat, once the feat of that potent baron, Thomas Ran¬
dolph, earl of Murray, lord of Annandale, and regent
of Scotland in the minority of David II. covers above
an acre of ground, and even now conveys an idea of the
plan and ftrength of the building. The ancient caftle
of Comlongan, formerly belonging to the Murrays, earls
of Annandale, and now to Lord Stormont, is ftill in a
tolerable ftate of prefervation; but except this caftle
and that of Hoddam, moft of the other old fortalices and
towers are now taken down, or in ruins.
2
2 J ANN
Annandale is a marquifate belonging to the John- Annan^,
ftones, and the chief of the name. , . _
ANNAND, William, dean of Edinburgh in Scot- *—■
land, the fon of William Annand minifter of Ayr was
born at Ayr in 1633. Five years after, his father
was obliged to quit Scotland with his iamily, on
account of their loyalty to the king, and adherence
to the epifcopal government eftablilhed by law in that
country. In 1651, young Amnand was admitted a
fcholar in Univerfity-'college in Oxford ; and though
he was put under the care of a prelbyterian tutor,
yet he took all occafions to be prefent at the fer-
mons preached by the loyal divines in and near Ox¬
ford. In 1656, being then bachelor of arts, he re¬
ceived holy orders from the hands of Dr Thomas Ful-
war, bifliop of Ardfert or Kerry in Ireland, and was
appointed preacher at Wefton on the Green near Bi-
cefter in Oxfordlhire, where he met with great en¬
couragement from Sir Francis Norris, lord of that
manor. After he had taken the degree of matter of
arts, he was prefented to the vicarage of Leighton-
Buzzard in Bedfordttiire; where he diftinguifned him-
felf.by his edifying manner of preaching, till 1662,
when he went into Scotland, in quality of chaplain to
John earl of Middleton, the king’s high commiffioner
to the church of that kingdom, In the latter end of
the year 1663, he was iuftituted to the Folbooth church
at Edinburgh, and from thence was removed .fome
years after to the Tron church of that city, which is
likewife a prebend. In April 1676, he was nomi¬
nated by the king to the deanery of Edinburgh; and
in 1685, he commenced do£lor of divinity in the
univerfity of St. Andrew’s. Fie wrote, 1. Ficles Ca-
tholica ; or, The Doftrine of the Catholic Church, in
eighteen grand Ordinances, referring to the word, fa-
craments, and prayer, in purity, number, and nature,
catholically maintained, and publicly taught, aga.inft
heretics of all forts. Lond. 1671-2, qto. .2. Solutions
of manv proper and profitable queftions, fuitable to.the
nature of each Ordinance, &c. printed with the Fid.es
Catholica. 3. Panem ^uotidianem; or, A ftiort Dif-
courfe, tending to prove the legality, decency, and ex¬
pediency, of fet forms of prayers in the Churches of
Chrift, with a particular Defence of the Book of Com¬
mon Prayer of the Church of England. Lond. 1661,
4to. 4. Patet' No/ler, Our Father; or, The Lord’s
Prayer explained, the fenfe thereof, and duties there¬
in, from Scripture, Hiftory, and the Fathers, metho¬
dically cleared, and fuccintftly opened. Lond. 1670,
8vo. 5. Myjlerium Pietatis; or, The Pdyftery of God-
linefs, &c. Lond. 1672, 8vo. 6. Doxologia; or, Glory
to the Father, the Church’s Hymn, reduced to glo¬
rifying the Trinity. Lond. 1672, 8vo. 7. Dua/itas;
or, A twofold fubjeft difplayed and opened, conduci-
ble to godlinefs and peace in order: Firft, Lex loquens,
the honour and dignity of magiftracy, with the duties
thereupon, &c.; Secondly, Duorum Umtas ; or, The
agreement of magiftracy and miniftry at the eledhon
of the honourable magiftrates at Edinburgh and open¬
ing of the Diocefan Synod of the Reverend Clergy there.
Edin. 1674, 4to. Dr Annand died the 13th of June
1689, and was honourably interred in the Grey-Friars
church in Edinburgh.
ANNANO, a ftrong fort of Italy, in the duchy of
Milan.
A N N
Annapolis Milan. It has been twice taken by the French ; but
|| was reftored to the duke of Savoy in 1706. It is feat-
Anne. on river Tanaro, in E. Long. 8. 30. N. Lat.
rmm"/ 44* 40.
ANNAPOLIS, the chief town in Maryland, in
North America 5 which as yet is but mean, becaufe the
people in this province choofe to live on their planta¬
tions, as in Virginia. St Mary’s was once the capital
of the province of Maryland, and the town of Anna¬
polis was known by the name of Severn. It received
its prefent name in 1694, when it was made a port
town, and the refidence of a colleftor and naval officer.
W. Long. 78. 10. N. Lat. 38. 25.
Annapolis Royal, a town of Nova Scotia, is feat-
ed on the bay of Fundy ; and, though a mean place,
was formerly the capital of the province. It has one
of the fineft harbours in America, capable of contain¬
ing 1000 veflels at anchor in the utmoft fecurity. The
place is alfo prote&ed by a fort and garrifon. At the
bottom of the harbour is a point of land, which divides
two rivers j and on each fide there are pleafant mea¬
dows, which in fpring and autumn are covered with all
forts of freffi-water fowl. There is a trade carried on
by the Indians with furs, which they exchange for Eu¬
ropean goods. W. Long. 64. 5. N. Lat. 45. 10.
ANNATES, among ecclefiaftical writers, a year’s
income of a fpiritual living.
Thefe were, in ancient times, given to the pope
through all Chrirtendom, upon the deceafe of any bi-
fliop, abbot, or pariffi clerk, and were paid by his fuc-
cefibr. At the Reformation they were taken from the
pope, and veiled in the king*, and, finally, Queen Anne
reflored them to the church, by appropriating them to
the augmentation of poor livings.
ANNE, queen of Great Britain, fecond daughter of
King James II. by his firft wife, Anne Hyde, was born
in 1664. In 1683, Ihe married George, prince of
Denmark, by whom ffie had feveral children, but none
of them arrived at the age of maturity. On the death
of King William, (lie afeended the throne, A. D. 1702,
and her reign comprehends one of the moll illuftrious
periods of Englilh hiftory. PolTeiTed, however, of a
very feeble character, which did not permit her to aft for
herfelf, this period is the reign of her counfellors, and
favourites ; and ffie exhibited no decided inclination
which could influence Rate affairs, except a Itrong de¬
lire for tory principles, both in church and Hate. In
the commencement of her reign, being entirely govern¬
ed bv the duchefs of Marlborough, ffie was induced
to follow out the premeditated defigns of her prede-
ceffors with refpefl to Louis XIV. king of France, and
for many years repeated fuccefs attended her armies
with glory. Thefe were at length, after afruitlefs pro-
traflion of hollilities, terminated by the peace of Utrecht,
in 1713. This peace was chiefly owjng to the acquir¬
ed influence of a female favourite of the oppofite party.
Byanafl of the legillaturein the year 1706, the union of
the Englhh and Scottiffi nations was formed, which event
contributed more than the former towards the profpeii-
ty ot the kingdom. Yet thefe fuccefsful events prevent¬
ed not the contention of parties which prevailed during
the greatefl; nart of her reign. And about the clofe of
it, when this fpirit was juft on the eve of breaking into
a flame, the queen manifefted an ardent defire, that the
exiled part of her family ffiould fucceed to the throne,
ANN
and fo conduced towards the fuperiority of the tories, as Anne;
that they were inclined to puffi to the utmoft extremity * /—■
their plans, with refpe£l to the government both of
the church and ftate. The death of Queen Anne in
Auguft 1714, of a dropfy, in the fiftieth year of her
age, and thirteenth of her reign, was therefore equally
to the difapointment of the one, and to the triumph of
the other. In her private ftation fire fupported the
character of an amiable woman, and not devoid of un-
derftanding, although her indolence and yielding tem¬
per prevented her from exerting it. She was general¬
ly well beloved by her fubje&s, whofe prejudices co¬
incided with her own, and the title of the Good ^ueen
Anne beft expreffes their fentiments. Although her
own difpofitions and accompliffiments had no ffiare in
the honour, yet this age was rendered a fort of Augu-
ftan age of Britiffi literature, on account of the feveral
eminent writers who flouriffied under her reign (Gen,
Biog.).
ANNE Bo/et/n, queen of Henry VIII. king of Eng¬
land, daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, a nobleman of
a powerful family, and numerous alliances. The daugh¬
ter of the duke of Norfolk was her mother, and during-
the reign of the former king her father had been
honoured with feveral embaffies. Mary the king’s
fifter, who married Lewis XII. king of France, carried
over this lady with her at an early age, where flie im¬
bibed the freedom, the vivacity, and the opennefs of
manners of that nation. After the death of Lewis,
that queen returned to England, and Anne continued to
attend her royal miflrefs. Having fome time after left
her fervice, ftie was introduced into the family of the
duchefs of Alen^on. In addition to all her acquired
accompliihments, flie poffeffed the greateft perfonal ele¬
gance, and was highly famed in that age.
Hiftory does not explicitly mention whether or not
it was on her account, but upon her return to England
the king expreffed his fcruples concerning his union
with Catharine of Arragon. Enamoured, however,
of Anne, he expreffed his attachment to her; but
ffie was poffeffed of too much virtue and policy, to con¬
fer any improper favours. This prudent and vir¬
tuous reftraint only increafed the paffion of Henry j
and placing her at court, he diftinguiflied her by many
marks of royal favour. The impetuous king at length
came to the refolution to divorce his queen, to make
way for his favourite Anne. In this inftance, the in¬
jury done to that queen proved the caufe of the final
feparation of England from the dominion of the pope.
Various delays and difficulties occurring to the divorce,
Henry privately married Anne during the month of
November IJS2* and April following he publicly
declared her queen of England. The famous queen
Elizabeth was the firft fruits of this marriage, who was
born the September following. For fome time ffie en¬
joyed a confiderable ftiare of the royal favour, and ffie
made ufe of that influence in fubduing the haughty
prelate Wolfey, and widening the breach between the
king and the pope. But this favour was not of long
continuance ; for the king, ever varying in his temper,
and difappointed at her being brought to bed of a dead
male child, imbibed a new paffion for Jane Seymour;
and troubled at the evil inclinations of the Catholics,.,
he allowed the jealoufy of conjugal affeflion to enter
his bofom, which her thoughtlefs demeanour tended in
[ 383 ]
A N
Anne, a great meafure to realize ^ _ .
Annealing, inerealing, (he was accufed of adultery with leveral of
< n-.-y~.i_i i Jjoufehold officers, and even with her own brother,
Lord Rochfort. She was accordingly tried on a charge
of high treafon, and although proof was very fcanty,
yet ffie was condemned to be beheaded ; which fen-
tenced was executed in May 1536. Her behaviour on
that occafion was a fingular mixture of firmnefs and
unufual levity. She avowed being guilty of many ex-
ceffes, yet to the laft refolutely denied any ferious guilt.
Although her charafter has been greatly depreciated
by feveral authors, yet a letter written by her to the
Ling after condemnation, gives a much higher idea of
her charaaer than thefe partial accounts would endea¬
vour to convey.
The important part which ffie and-her daughter aaed
in the Reformation has drawn upon her memory many
jn<dignaffi ar,d vicious ilories, by thofe of the Catholic
party, who were likewife induced to this by the ex-
peaation of being conducive to the injury of Protef-
tantifm, by ftigmatizing the various charaaers and mo¬
tives of its promoters. Thefe various accounts are,
however, for the raoft part refuted by faas univerfally
known, or have no evidence or probability by which
they may be fupported. Refpeaing her innocence of
the charge on which ffie loft her life, it is a matter of
uncertainty, yet it appears to be lefs certain that ffie
was guilty than that her huffiand was a bloody and ca¬
pricious tyrant. (Gen. Biog.)
St Anne's Day, a feftival of the Chriftian church,
celebrated by the Latins on the 26th of July, but by
the Greeks on the 9th of December. It is kept in ho¬
nour of Anne or Anna, mother of the Virgin Mary. _
ANNEALING, by the workmen called nealing, is
particularly ufed in making glafs : it conftfts in placing
the bottles, See- vvhilft hot, in a kind of oven or fui-
nace, where they are fuffered to cool gradually : they
would other wife be too brittle for ufe.—Metals are ren¬
dered hard and brittle by hammering : they are there¬
fore made red hot, in order to recover their malleabili¬
ty ; and this is called nealing.
The difference between unannealed and annealed
glafs, with refpe£l to brittlenefs, is very remarkable.
When an unannealed glafs veflel is broken, it often
flies into a fmall powder, with a violence feemingly very
,unproportioned to the ftroke it has received. In ge¬
neral, it is in greater danger of breaking from a very
flight ftroke than from one of fome confiderable force.
One of thofe veffels will often refill the effedls of a
piftol bullet dropt into it from the height of two or
three feet •, yet a grain of fand falling into it will make
it burft into fmall fragments. This takes place fome-
,times immediately on dropping the fand into it: but
often the veffel will Hand for feveral minutes after,
.feemingly fecure 5 and then, without any new injury,
it will fly to pieces. If the veffel be very thin, it does
not break in this manner, but feems to poffefs all the
properties of annealed glafs.
The fame phenomena are ftill more ftrikingly feen in
glafs drops or tears. They are globular at one end,
and taper to a fmall tail at the other, They are the
drops which fall from the melted mafs of glafs on the
jods on which the bottles are made.. They drop into
the tubs of water which are ufed in the work j the
greater part of thern burft immediately in the water.
N { 38+ ] A N N _
The king’s jealouly ftill When thofe that remain entire are examined, they dif- Anreal
cover all the properties of unannealed glafs in the high-
eft degree. They will bear a fmart ftroke on the
thick end without breaking ; but if the fmall tail be
broken, they burft into fmall powder with a loud ex-
plofion. They appear to burft with more violence,
and the powder is fmaller, in an exhaufted receiver than
in the open air. When they are annealed, they lofe
thefe properties. > .
Glafs is one »f thofe bodies which increale in bulk
when palling from a fluid to a folid ftate. When it is
allowed to cryftallize regularly, the particles are fo ar¬
ranged, that it has a fibrous texture : it is elaltic, and
fufceptible of long-continued vibrations j but when a
mafs of melted glafs is fuddenly expofed to the cold,
the furface cryftallizes, and forms a folid fliell round
the interior fluid parts : this prevents them from ex¬
panding when they become folid. They, therefore,
have not the opportunity of a regular cryflallization j
but are compreifed together with little mutual cohe-
fion : On the contrary, they prefs outward to occupy
more fpace, but are prevented by the external cruft.
In confequence of the effort of expanfion in the inter¬
nal parts, the greater number of glafs drops burft in
cooling ; and thofe which remain entire are not regu¬
larly cryftallized. A fmart ftroke upon them commu¬
nicates a vibration to the whole mafs, which is nearly
fynchronous in every part : and therefore the effort of
expanfion has little more effefl than if the body were
at reft ; but the fmall tail and the furface only are re¬
gularly cryftallized. If the tail be broken, this com¬
municates a vibration along the cryftallized furface,
without reaching the internal parts. By this they are
allowed fome expanfion ; and overcoming the cohefion
of the thin outer {hell, they burft it, and are difperfed
in powder.
In an unannealed glafs veffel, the fame thing takes
place. Sometimes the vibration may continue for a
confiderable time before the internal parts overcome
the refiftance. If the veffel be very thin, the regular
cryftallization extends through the whole tnickne{s•, or
at leaft the quantity of compreffed matter in the. middle
is fo inconfiderable as to be incapable of burfting the
external plate.
By the procefs of annealing, the glafs is kept for
fome time in a ftate approaching to fluidity ; the heat
increafes the bulk of the cryftallized part, and renders
it fo foft, that the internal parts have the opportunity
of expanding and forming a regular cryftallization.
A fimilar procefs is now ufed for rendering kettles
and other veffels of caft iron lefs brittle : of it the fame
explanation may be given. The greater number of me¬
tals diminifti in bulk when they pais from a fluid to a
folid ftate •, iron, on the contrary, expands.
When caft iron is broken, it has the appearance of
being compofed of grains: forged or bar iron appears
to confift of plates. Forged iron has long been pro¬
cured, by placing a mafs of caft iron under large ham¬
mers, and making it undergo violent and repeated com-
preffion. A procefs is now ufed for converting caft
iron into forged, by heat alone. The caft iron is pla¬
ced in an air furnace, and kept for feveral hours in a
degree of heat, by which it is brought near to a fluid
ftate. It is then allowed to cool gradually, and is
found to be converted into forged iron. This procefs
is
ANN F 385 1 ANN
Annealing, is conduced under a patent; although, if Reaumur’s
v——V——^ experiments upon call iron be confulted, it will appear
not to be a new difcovery.
By thefe experiments, it is afcertained, that if caft
iron be expofed for any length of time to a heat confi-
derably below its melting point, the texture and pro¬
perties are not changed : but if it be kept in a heat
near the melting point, the furface foon becomes lamel-
lated like forged iron j and the lamellated ftrudture ex¬
tends farther into the mafs in proportion to the length
of time in which it is expofed to that degree of heat.
When it is continued for a fufficient time, and then al¬
lowed to cool gradually, it is found to poffefs the la-
mellated ftru&ure throughout.
Caft iron, then, is brittle, becaufe it has not had the
opportunity of cryftallizing regularly. When it is ex¬
pofed to cold while fluid, the furface becoming folid,
prevents the inner parts from expanding and arran¬
ging themfelves into regular cryftals. When caft iron
is brought near to the melting point, and continued for
a fufficient length of time in that degree of heat, the
particles have the opportunity of arranging themfelves
into that form of cryftals by which forged iron is di-
ftinguifhed, and by which it pofleffes cohefion and all
its properties.
There appears, therefore, to be no other efiential
difference between forged and caft iron, except what
arifes from the cryftallization. Caft iron is indeed of¬
ten not fuffieiently purified from other fubftances which
are mixed with the calx. It appears alfo to contain a
confiderable quantity of calx unreduced} for during
the procefs for converting it into forged iron, by heat
alone, a pale flame arifes from the metal till near the
end of the procefs. This is owing to fixed air which
the heat forces off from the calx. The expuliion of
this air reduces the calx, and thereby frees the metal
from that injurious mixture. .
That this explanation of the annealing of iron is
probable, appears alfo from the well-known fadt of
forged iron being incomparably more difficult of fufion
than caft iron. A piece of forged iron requires a very
violent heat to melt it j but when it is reduced to a
fmall powder, it melts in a much lower degree of heat.
Iron diminiffies in bulk when it paffes into a fluid ftate,
while moft other metals increafe in volume. The ex-
panfion which heat occafions in bringing them to their
melting point, will be favourable to their fluidity, by
gradually bringing the particles to the fame ftate of
feparation in which they are when the mafs is fluid 5
but the expanfion of iron by heat removes it farther
from that ftate, and keeps it in the ftate which is fa¬
vourable to the continuance of it in a cryftallized form.
It will not melt till the heat expand it fo much that
the cohefion of cryftallization be overcome. When it
is reduced to a minute powder before it be expofed to
the heat, it melts fooner. The cryftals having been de-
ftroyed, that cohefion has no effedl in preventing it from
paffing into a ftate of fluidity.
Upon the fame principles may be explained the al-
moft peculiar property of welding poffeffed by iron, and
the converfion of forged iron into fteel.
But perhaps they may alfo be applied to platina, a
metal which has lately gained much attention. It
poffeffes fome of the properties of iron. It is ftill more
difficult of fufion than that metal. It is fufceptible of
Vol. II. Part I.
being welded. The natural grains of it can fcarctly Annecy,
be melted in the focus of the moft powerful burning Anncfley.
glafs; but when it is diffolved in aqua regia, and pre- '"~v “
cipitated by potafti, it has been melted in fmall glo¬
bules by the blowpipe. When precipitated by mu¬
riate of ammoniac, it has been melted in a confiderable
mafs in the heat of a furnace $ but it is faid to be hard
and brittle.
Many attempts have been made to procure a mafs of
it in a malleable ftate, but without fuccefs. It is faid
that the procefs is now difcovered by a chemift in Spain.
The treatment of the metal is probably very fimple.
Perhaps it only confifts in precipitating it in a minute
powder from aqua regia, expofing it to a ftrong heat
which melts it, and keeping it for fome time in a ftate
yearly fluid, that it may, like iron, cryftallize regularly :
by this it will poffefs all its metallic properties.
ANNECY, a city of Savoy, feated between Cham-
berry and Geneva, on the banks of a lake of the fame
name, from whence run feveral brooks, which flow
through the town, and uniting at length, form a river.
There are piazzas in moft of the ftreets of the town,
which ferve to ffielter the inhabitants from rain. It
has feveral collegiate and pariffi churches, as well as
convents for mem and women. The lake is about nine
miles long and four broad. E. Long. 6. 12. N. Lat.
45- 53-
ANNESLEY, Arthur, earl of Anglefey, and
lord privy feal in the reign of King Charles II. was the
fon of Sir Francis Annefley, Baronet, Lord Mount-
Norris, and Vifcount Valentia, in Ireland j a d was
born at Dublin on the 10th of July 1614. He was
for fome time at the univerfity of Oxford, and after¬
wards ftudied the law at Lincoln’s Inn. He had a
confiderable (hare in the public tranfa&ior.s of the laft
century *, for in the beginning of the civil war he fat
in the parliament held at Oxford ; but afterwards be¬
came reconciled to the oppofite party, and' was fent
commiffioner to Ulfter, to oppofe the defigns of the re¬
bel Owen Roe O’Neal. He engaged in feveral other
affairs with great fuccefs. He was prefident of the
council of ftate after the death of Oliver, and was prin¬
cipally concerned in bringing about the Reftoration j
foon after which, King Charles II. railed him to the
dignity of a baron, by the title of Lord Annefley, of
Newport-Pagnel, Bucks ; and a (hurt time after he was
made eail of Anglefey. During that reign he was
employed in fome very important affairs, was made
treafurer of the navy, and afterwards lord privy feal.
In Oflober 1680, his lordfliip was charged by one
Dangerfield, in an information delivered upon oath,
at the bar of the houfe of commons, with endeavour¬
ing to (lifle evidence in relation to the Popifh plot, and
to promote the belief of a Prelbyterian one. The un-
eafinefs he received from this attack did not prevent
his fpeaking his opinion freely of thofe matters in the
houfe of lords, particularly in regard to the Popifh plot.
About the fame time he anfwered the Lord Caftle-
haven’s Memoirs, in which that nobleman endeavour- ^
ed to paint the Iriffi rebellion in the lighteft colours j
and a (harp difpute was raifed, which ended in the
feal’s being taken from him. He was a perfon of
great abilities, had uncommon learning, and was well
acquainted with the conftitution and laws of England.
He tvrote, befides his Animadverfions on Caftlehaven’s
3 C Memoirs,
ANN
[ 386 ]
ANN
Memoirs, I. The Privileges of the Houfe of Lords and
Commons ftated. 2. A Difcourfe on the Houfe of
Lords. 3. Memoirs. 4. The Hiftory of the Troubles
in Ireland,from the rebellion in 1611 till the Reftoration.
r. Truth unveiled, in behalf of the Church of Eng¬
land •, and fome other works. He died in April, 1686,
in the 73d year of his age j and was fucceeded by hvs
fon James. .
ANNEXATION, in Law, a term ufed to imply
the uniting of lands or rents to the crown.
ANNIHILATION, the aft of reducing any created
being into nothing. .
Chriftians, Heathens, Jews, Siamefe, Perfians, divines,
phiiofophers, &c. have their peculiar fyftems, fentiments,
conjedtures, not to fay dreams, concerning annihilation*,
and we find great difputes among them about the reali¬
ty, the poflibility, the means, meafures, prevention, ends,
&c. of annihilation.
The firft notions of the produdlion of a thing frorn,
or reduaion of it to, nothing, Dr Burnet (hows, arofe
from the Chriftian theology, the words creation and an¬
nihilation, in the fenfe now given to them, having been
equally unknown to the Hebrews, the Greeks, and the
Latins. ...
The ancient phiiofophers in effea denied all annihi¬
lation as well as creation, refolying all the changes in
the world into new modifications, without fuppofing
the produaion of any thing new, or deftruaion of the
old. By daily experience, they faw compounds^ dif-
folved *, and that in their diffolution nothing jierilhed
but their union or connexion of parts : when in death
the body and foul were feparated, the man they held
was gone, but that the fpirit remained in its original the
great foul of the world, and the body in its earth from
whence it came *, thefe were again wrought by nature
into new compofitions, and entered new Hates of being
which had no relation to the former.
The Perfian bramins hold, that after a certain^ period
•f time, confifting of 71 j00§s5 God not only annihilates
the whole univerfe, but every thing elfe, angels, fouls,
fpirits, and all, by which he returns to the fame ftate he
was in before the creation ; but that, having breathed a
while, he goes to work again, and a new creation arifes,
to fubfift 71 joogs more, and then to be annihilated in its
turn. Thus they hold there have been almoft an infi-
wite number of worlds : but how many joogs are elapfed
fince the laft creation, they cannot certainly tell; only
in an almanack written in the Shanfcrit language in
1670, the world is faid to be then 3,892,771 years old
from the laft creation.
Th^ Siamefe heaven is exaftly the hell of fome Soci-
nians and other Chriftian writers; who, fhocked with
the horrible profpeft of eternal torments, have taken
refuge in the fyftem of annihilation. This fyftem feems
countenanced by Scripture j for that the words death,
dejlruftion, and penjhing, whereby the punifhment of
the wicked is moft frequently exprelfed in Scripture, do
moft properly import annihilation and an utter end of
being. To this Tillotfon anfwers,. that thefe words, as
well as thofe correfponding to them in other languages,
are often ufed, both in Scripture and other writings,
to fignify a ftate of great mifery and fuffering, without
the utter extin&ion of the miferable. Thus God is of¬
ten faid in Scripture to bring dcJlruBion on a nation,
when he fends ludgment upon them, but without ex¬
terminating or making an end of them. So, in other Anmhiia-
languages, it is frequent, by perijbing to exprefs a per-
fon’s bling made miferable ; as in that known paffage in «
Tiberius’s letter to the Roman fenate: Ita me du, dece-
aue omnes, pejus perdant, quam hodie perire me fentio
As to the word death, a ftate of mifery which is as bad,
or worfe than death, may properly enough be called by
that name *, and thus the puniftiment of wicked men af¬
ter the day of judgment is in the book of Revelation
frequently called \.\\efecond death. _
Some Chriftian writers allow a long time of the moft
terrible torments of finners \ and after that luppofe
that there ftiall be an utter end of their being. Ui
this opinion Irenaeus appears to have been ; who, ac¬
cording to M. du Pin, taught that the fouls, at leaft of
the wicked, would not fubfift eternally j but that, after
having undergone their torments for a certain period,
they would at laft ceafe to be at all. But T illemont,
Petit, Didier, and others, endeavour to defend Irenaeus
from this imputation, as being too favourable to the
It has been much difputed among divines, whether,
at the confummation of all things, this form is to be
annihilated, or only purified, and fitted for the habita¬
tion of fome new order of beings. Gerard in his Com¬
mon Places, and Hakewil in his Apology, contendear-
neftly for a total abolition or annihilation. Ray, Cal-
met, and others, think the fyftem of renovation or refti-
tution more probable, and more confonant to Scripture,
reafon, and antiquity. The fathers who have treated on
the queftionare divided; fome holding that the univerte
{hall not be annihilated, but only its external face
changed ; others afferting, that the fubftance of it lhaii
be deftroyed.
How widely have the fentiments of mankind ditter-
ed as to the poflibility and impoflibility of annihilation!
According to fome, nothing fo difficult ; it requires the
infinite power of the Creator to effeft it : fome go fur¬
ther, and feem to put it out of the power of God him-
felf. According to others nothing fo eafy : Exiftence
is a ftate of violence ; all things are continually endea¬
vouring to return to their primitive nothing ; it requires
no power at all; it will do itfelf; nay, what is more,
it requires an infinite power to prevent it.
Many authors confider prefervation as a continual re-
produftion of a thing, which, fubfifting no longer of it.
felf, would every moment return into nothing. Gaffendi
on the contrary afferts, that the world may indeed be
annihilated by the fame power which firft created it,
but that to continue it there is no occafion for any power
of prefervation.
Some divines, of which number the learned Biftiop
King feems to be, hold annihilation for the greateft of
all evils, w'orfe than even the utmoft torments of hell
flames ; whilft others, with fome of the eaftern philofo-
phers, acknowledge annihilation for the ultimate pitch
of happinefs human nature is capable of ; that fovereign
good, that abfolute beatitude, fo long vainly fought for
by the phiiofophers, is found here. No wonder it had
been fo long concealed ; for who would have thought of
looking for the fummum bonum, where others have placed,
the fum of mifery ?
The faid prelate propofes it as a queftion, Whether
fuffering eternal torments be a greater evil than not ex-
ifting ? He thinks it highly prebable, that the damned,
•will
ANN [ 387 ] ANN
Anm will be fuch fools, that feeling their own mifery in the
II moll exquifite degree, they will rather applaud their own
Annobon. conc}u£t, and choofe to be, and to be what they are, ra-
' 'r"~~ ther than not to be at all; fond of their condition, how¬
ever wretched, like people enraged, they will perfift in
their former fentiments without opening their eyes to
their folly, and perfevere by way of indignation and re¬
venge. Mr Bayle refutes him on this head } but might,
one would think, have faved himfelf the trouble.
The Talapoins hold it the fupreme degree of happi-
nefs to have the foul totally annihilated, and freed from
the burden and flavery of tranfmigrations. They fpeak
of three Talapoins, who, after a great number of tranf¬
migrations, became gods 5 and when arrived at this Hate,
procured this further reward of their merit, to be anni¬
hilated. The ultimate reward of the bigheft perfe&ion
man can arrive at is neiurepan, or annihilation ; which
at length is granted to thole who are perfectly pure and
good, after their fouls have wandered many thoufand
years through various bodies.
ANN1 NUBILES, in Law, denotes the marriageable
age of a woman, viz. after ihe has arrived at twelve.
ANNIVERSARY, the annual return of any re¬
markable day. Anniverfary days, in old times, more
particularly denoted thofe days in which an office was
yearly performed for the fouls of the deceafed, or the
martyrdom of the faints was yearly celebrated in the
church.
ANNOBON, a fmall ifland of Africa, on the coaft
of Loango, belonging to the Portuguefe. It lies in
E. Long. 5. 10. S. Lat. I. 50. and receives its name
from being difcovered on New-year’s-day. According
to Pyrard, it is about five or fix French leagues in com-
pafs j but Baudrand fays, it is ten leagues round. Here
are two high mountains, the tops of which being con¬
tinually covered with clouds, occafion frequent rains.
On the fouth-eaft of the iiland are two rocks j one of
which is low, and upon a level with the furface of the
fea j the other higher and larger, but both danger¬
ous in the night to ffiipping ; but between them the
channel is deep and clear. Thefe rocks are inhabited
by vaft numbers of birds, fo tame, that the failors fre¬
quently catch them with their hands. On the fame
fide of the ifland is a convenient watering place at the
foot of a rivulet, which tumbles from the mountains
down to a valley covered with orange and citron trees,
&c. and affording a pleafant and refreflung (hade j but
the road on the north-weft; fide is difficult and danger¬
ous, though moft frequented by ffiips who have no in¬
tention of touching upon the continent. In either
place it is difficult to take in a fufficient quantity of
water, on account of the violent breaking of the fea,
and a ftone intrenchment erefiled by the negroes, from
which they annoy all ftrangers that attempt to land.
The true road for (hipping lies on the north-eaft fide,
where they may anchor in feven, ten, thirteen, or fix-
teen fathoms, on a fine fand clofe to the land, oppofite
to the village where the negroes have thrown up their
intrenchments.
The climate is wholefome, and the air clear and fe-
rene for the greateft part of the year. Every part of
the ifland is watered by pleafant brooks and freffi wa¬
ter fprings, which, however, at the new and full moons,
or in all high tides, acquire a brackiffinefs. The banks
«f every rivulet are covered with palms, whence the in¬
habitants extraft their wine by incifion. Here are a Annobon
number of fertile valleys, which produce Turkey corn, ||
rice, millet, yams, potatoes, &c. and afford pafture for . Annoafi t
abundance of oxen, flieep, goats, &c. Poultry and fiffi *"
alfo abound here : but the only mercantile produftion
is cotton, which is efteemed equal in quality to any pro¬
duced in India, though the quantity is fmall.
In the year 1605, the Dutch admiral Matelief
found 200 negroes, and two Portuguefe, on Annobon,
moft of them able to bear arms, expert in the ufe of
them, and trained up in military difcipline. La Croix
fays, it has a town oppofite to the road that contains
above 100 houfes, the whole furrounded by a parapet.
Moft of their dwellings are cane huts. In the whole
ifland there is not a Angle houfe built of ftone, and
only two of wood, which belong to the Portuguefe,
All the inhabitants are meanly clothed ; the women
go bareheaded, and have alfo the upper part of the
body naked, modefty being defended by a piece of
linen wrapt under their ftomach, and falling down in
the form of a petticoat, or wide apron, to the knees.
As to the men, they wear only a linen girdle round
the loins, with a fmall flap before. The women carry
their children on their backs, and fuckle them over
the ffioulder. All the inhabitants are fubjedt to the
Portuguefe governor, who is the chief perfon in the
ifland j at the fame time that the negroes have their
own chief fubordinate to him. They are all rigid Ca¬
tholics, having either been compelled or perfuaded by
the arguments of the Portuguefe to embrace that faith j
and, like all other converts, they are bigotted in propor¬
tion to the novelty of the belief, and their ignorance of
the true tenets.
ANNO Domini, i. e. the year of our Lord; the
computation of time from our Saviour’s incarnation.
ANNOMINATION, in Rhetoric, the fame with
\vhatisotherwifecalled/?fl/'o«oOT«/?o. See Paronomasia.
ANNONA, in Roman antiquity, denotes provifion
for a year of all forts, as of fleffi, wine, &.c. but efpeci-
ally of corn. Annona is likewife the allowance of oil,
fait, bread, fleffi, corn, wine, hay, and ftraw, which
was annually provided by the contradlors for the main¬
tenance of an army.
Annona, the Cujlard Apple. See Botany Index.
ANNONAi pralfectus, in antiquity, an extraor¬
dinary magiftrate, whole bufinefs it was to prevent a
fcarcity of provifions, and to regulate the weight and
finenefs of bread.
ANNONAY, a fmall town of France, in the depart¬
ment of Ardeche, formerly Upper Vivarais, feated on
the river Deunre. E. Long. 4. 52. N. Lat. 45. 15.
ANNOT, a fmall city on the mountains of Provence
in France. E. Long. 7. O. N. Lat. 44. 4.
ANNOTATION, in matters of literature, a brief
commentary, or remark, upon a book or writing, in or¬
der to clear up fome paffage, or draw fome conclufion
from it.
ANNOTTA. See Anotta.
ANNUAL, in a general fenfe, an appellation given
to whatever returns every year, or is always performed
within that fpace of time.
Annual Motion of the Earth. See Astronomy.
Annual Leaves, are fuch leaves as come upi afrelh
in the fpring, and periffi in winter. Thefe Hand oppoled
to Evergreens.
3 C 2
Annual
ANN
[ 388 ]
ANN
Annual ANNUAL Plants, called alfo fimply annuals, are fuch
|) as only live their year, i. e. come up in the fpring and
Annuity. dJe again in the autumn ^ and accordingly are to be
recruited every year.
ANNUALRENT is ufed, in Scots Law, to denote
a yearly profit due by a debtor in a fum of money to
a creditor for the ufe of it. . .
Right of ANNUALRENT, in Scots Law, the original
method of burdening lands with a yearly payment for
the loan of money, before the taking of intereft for
money was allowed by ftatute.
ANNUEL of Norway, of which mention is made
in the ads of parliament of King James III. was an
annual payment of a hundred merks fterling, which
the kings of Scotland were obliged to pay to the kings
of Norway, in fatisfadion for fome pretenfions which
the latter had to the Scottilh kingdom, by virtue of a
conveyance made thereof by Malcolm Kenmore, who
ufurped the crown after his brother’s deceafe. This
annuel was firft eftablilhed in 1266: in confideration
whereof the Norwegians renounced all title to tne fuc-
ceffion to the ifles of Scotland. _ It was paid till the
year 1468, when the annuel, with all its arrears, was
renounced in the con trad of marriage between King
James III. and Margaret daughter of Chritlian I. king
of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden.
ANNUITY, a fum of money, payable yearly, half-
yearly, or quarterly, to continue a certain number of
years, for ever, or for life.
An annuity is faid to be in arrear, when it continues
unpaid after it falls due. And an annuity is faid to be
in reverfion, when the purchafer, upon paying the price,
does not immediately enter upon poffeflion ; the annuity
not commencing till fome time after.
Interell on annuities may be computed either in the
way of fimple or compound intereft. But compound
intereft being found mod equitable, both for buyer and
feller, the computation by fimple intereft is univerfally
difufed.
I. Annuities for a certain time.
Problem i. Annuity, rate, and time, given*, to
find the amount, or fum of yearly payments, and inte¬
reft.
Rule. Make 1 the firft term of a geometrical feries,
and the amount of il. for a year the common ratio j
continue this feries to as many terms as there are years
in the queftion, and the fum of this feries is the
amount of il. annuity for the given years ; which, mul¬
tiplied by the given annuity, will produce the amount
fought.
Example. An annuity of 40I. payable yearly, is
forborn and unpaid till the end of 5 years: What will
then be due, reckoning compound intereft at 5 per cent*
on all the payments then in arrear ?
1 : 1.05 : 1.1025 : 1.157625 : T.21550625 ? whofe
fum is 5.525631251.5 and 5.25563125 X 4° =
221.02525=2211. os. 6d. the amount fought.
The amount may alfo be found thus : Multiply the
given annuity by the amount of il. for a year 5 to the
produft add the given annuity, and the fum is the
amount in two years 5 which multiply by the amount
4
of 11. for a year ; to the produft add the given annul- Annuity,
ty and the fum is the amount in 3 years, &c. The '
former queftion wrought in this manner follows :
40 am. m 1
1.05
year.
126.1 am. in 3 years.
1.05
42.00
40
I31 2 * 4*4°5
40
82 am. in 2 years.
1.05
86.10
40
172.405 am
1.05
181.02525
40
in 4 years.
126.1 am. in 3 years. 221.02525 am. in 5 years.
If the given time be years and quarters, find the
amount for the whole years, as above : then find the
amount of il. for the given quarters ; by which
ply the amount for the whole years j and to the product
add liich a part of the annuity as the given quarters are
of a year.
If the given annuity be payable half yearly, or quar¬
terly, find the amount of il. for half a year or a quar¬
ter 5 by which find the amount for the feveral half-
years or quarters, in the fame manner as the amount
for the feveral years is found above.
Prob. 2. Annuity, rate, and time given: to find
the prefent worth, or fum of money that will purchafe
the annuity.
Rule. Find the amount of the given annuity by the
former problem 5 and then, by compound intereft, find
the prefent worth of this amount, as the fum due at the
end of the given time.
Examp. What is the prefent worth of an annuity
of 40k to continue 5 years, difcounting at 5 per cent*
compound intereft ?
By the former problem, the amount of the given an¬
nuity for 5 years, at 5 per cent, is 221.OZ525 5 and by
compound intereft. the amount of il. for 5 years, at
5 per cent, is 1.2762815625.
And, 1.2762815625)221.02525000(1.73.179=
173I, 3-. 7d. the prefent worth fought.
The prefent worth may be alfo found thus : By com¬
pound intereft,, find the prefent worth of each year by
itfelf, and the fum of thefe is the prefent worth fought*
The former example done in this way follows t
1.2762815625') 40.000000000(31.3410
1.21550625)40.000:000 (32 9080
1.157625)40.00000 (34*5535
1.1025)40.000 (36.2811
1.05)40.0 (38-c952
Prefent worth
I73*1788
If the annuity to be purchafed be in reverfion, find
firft the prefent worth of the annuity, as commencing
immediately, by any of the'methods taught above 5 and
then, by compound intereft, find the prefent worth of
that prefent worth, rebating for the time in reverfion j
and this laft prefent worth is the anfwer.
Ex AMP.
ANN t 389 3 ANN
Annuity. EXAMP. What is the prefent worth of a yearly pen-
v fion or rent oi 75I. to continue 4 years, but not to com¬
mence till three years hence, difcounting at 5 per cent. ?
.05 : i : : 75 : 1500
1.05X 1.05X 1.05X i.05=:i.21550625
1.21550625)1500.00000(1 234.05371
1500
1234.05371
265.94629, prefent worth of the annuity, if it
was to commence immediately.
1.05 X ».Os X 1.05= 1.1 57625 L. s. d.
1.157625)26594629(229.7344=229 1
Prob. 3. Prefent worth, rate, and time given 5 to
find the annuity.
Rule. By the preceding problem, find the prefent
worth of ll. annuity for the rate and time given *, and
then fay. As the prefent worth thus found to ll. an¬
nuity, fo the prefent worth given to its annuity ; that
is, divide the given prefent worth by that of ll. an¬
nuity.
Examp. What annuity, to continue 5 years, will
173I. 3s. yd. purchafe, allowing compound interefl at
5 per cent. ?
.05 : 1 : : 1 : 20I.
1.05X I-05X I-05X I-05X 1.05=1.2762815625
1.2762815625)20.00000000(15.6705
20
15.6705
4.3295 prefent worth of ll. annuity.
4.329)173.179(401. annuity. Arif.
II. Annuities for ever, or freehold Ffates.
In freehold eflates, commonly called annuities in fee-
fmple, the things chiefly to be confidered are, 1. The
annuity or yearly rent. 2. The price or prefent worth.
3. The rate of intereft. The queftions that ufually oc¬
cur on this head will fall under one or other of the fol¬
lowing problems.
Prob. i. Annuity and rate of interell given, to find
the price.
As the rate of ll. to ll. fo the rent to the price.
Ex AMP. The yearly rent of a fmall eftate is 40!. :
What is it worth in ready money, computing interefl
at 34 per cent. ?
As .035 : 1 : : 40 : 1142.857142=1.1142 17 i|.
Prob. 2. Price and rate of intereft given, to find the
rent or annuity.
As ll. to its rate, fo the price to the rent.
Examp. A gentleman purchafes an eftate for 4000I.
and has 4^ per cent, for his money : Required the rent.
As 1 : .045 : : 4000 : 1 : 180I. rent fought.
Prob. 3. Price and rent given, to find the rate of in¬
tereft.
As the price to the rent, fo 1 to the rate.
Examp. An eftate of 180I. yearly rent is bought
for 4000I.: What rate of intereft has the purchafer for
his money ?
As 4000 : 1 Sol. : : 1 : .045 rate fought. Annuity.
Prob. 4. The rate of intereft given, to find how
many years purchafe an eftate is worth.
Divide I by the rate, and the quot is the number
of years purchafe the eftate is worth.
Examp. A gentleman is willing to purchafe an
eftate, provided he can have 2^ per cent, for his money ;
How many years purchafe may he offer ?
.025)1.000(40 years purchafe. Anf.
Prob. 5. The number of years purchafe, at whi'ca
an eftate is bought or fold, given; to find the rate of
intereft.
Divide 1 by the number of years purchafe, and ‘the
quot is the rate of intereft.
Examp. A gentleman gives 40 years purchafe for
an eftate : What intereft has he for his money ?
4o)i.ooo(.c25 rate fought.
The computations hitherto are all performed by a
fingle divifion or multiplication, and it will fcarcely be
perceived that the operations are conduced by the rules
of compound intereft 5 but when a reverfion occurs, re-
courfe muft be had to tables of annuities on compound
intereft.
Prob. 6. The rate of intereft, and the rent of a free¬
hold eftate in reverfion, given ; to find the prefent worth
or value of the reverfion.
By Prob. 1. find the price or prefent wrorth of the
eftate, as if poffeftion was to commence prefently j and
then, by the Tables, find the prefent value of the given
annuity, or rent, for the years prior to the commence¬
ment 5 fubtrafl this value from the former value, .and
the remainder is the value of the reverfion.
Examp. A has the poffeffion of an eftate of 130I. per
annum, to continue 20 years 5 B has the reverfion of the
fame eftate, from that time for ever : What is the
value of the eftate, what the value of the 20 years pof¬
feffion, and what the value of the reverfion, reckoning
compound intereft at fix per cent. ^
By Prob. I. .06)130.00(2166.6666 valueof the eftate.
By Tables 1491.0896 val. of the poffiffion.
675.5770 val. of the r^verfion.
Prob. 7. The price or value of a reverfion, the time
prior to the commencement, and rate of intereft, given,
to find the annuity or rent.
By the Tables, find the amount of the price of the
reverfion for the years prior to the commencement •, and
then by Prob. 3. find the annuity which that amount
will purchafe.
Examp. The reverfion of a freehold eftate, to com¬
mence 20 years hence, is bou^hf for 675.577]. com¬
pound intereft being allowed ai 6 per cent.: Required
the annuity or rent ?
By the Tables the amount of 675.577I 1 L
for 20 years, at 6 per cent. y 2166 &
By Prob. 2. 2166.6 X *c6—130.0 rent fought.
III. Life Annuities.
The value of annuities for life is determined from
obfervations made on the bills of mortality. Dr Halle ,
Mr
ANN
Annuity.
ANN [ 39°
Mr Sin’ipfon, and Monf. de Moivre, are gentlemen of
' didinguiihed merit in calculations of this kind.
Dr Halley had recourfe to the bills of mortality at
Breflaw, the capital of Silefia, as a proper ftandard for
the other parts of Europe, being a place pretty central,
at a diftance from the fea, and not much crowded with
traffickers or foreigners. He pitches upon loco per-
fons all born in one year, and obferves how many of
thefe were alive every year, from their birth to the ex-
tinaion of the lad, and confequently how many died
each year, as in the firft of the following Tables} which
is well adapted to Europe in general. But in the city
of London there is obferved to be a greater difparity in
the births and burials than in any other place, owing
probably to the vaft refort of people thither, in the way
of commerce, from all parts of the known world. Mr
Simpfon, therefore, in order to have a table particularly
foiled to this populous city, pitches upon 1280 perfons
all born in the fame year, and records the number re¬
maining alive each year till none were in life.
It may not be improper, however, to obferve, that
however perfea tables of this fort may be in themfelves,
and however well adapted to any particular climate,
yet the conclufions deduced from them muft always be
uncertain, being nothing more than probabilities, or
conje£lures drawn from the ufual period of human life.
And the practice of buying and felling annuities on
lives, by rules founded on fuch principles, may be juft-
ly confidered as a fort of lottery or chance work, in
which the parties concerned muft often be deceived.
But as eftimates and computations of this kind are now
become falhionable, we ftrall Subjoin fome brief account
of fuch as appear moft material.
Dr Halley’s Table
on the Bills
Breflaw.
]
Mr Simpfon’s Table
on the Bills
London.
of Mortality
Annuity.
of Mortality at
From the preceding Tables the probability of the
continuance or extinflion of human life is edimated as
follows.
1. The probability that a perfon of a given age ihall
live a certain number of years, is meafured by the pro¬
portion which the number of perfons living at the pro-
pofed age has to the difference between the faid number
and the number of perfons living at the given age.
Thus, if it be demanded, what chance a perfon o
40 years has to live feven years longer ? from 445, the
number of perfons living at 40 years age Hr Hal¬
ley’s table, fubtraft 377, the number of perfons living
at 47 years of age, and the remainder 68 is the num¬
ber of perfons that died during thefe feven years ; and
the probability or chance that the perfon in the quef-
tion ffiall live thefe 7 years is as 377 to 68, or nearly
as 5^ to 1. But, by Mr Simpfon’s table, the chance
is fomething lefs than that of 4 to 1.
2. If the year to which a perfon of a given age has
an equal chance of arriving before he dies, be required,
it may be found thus : Find half the number of perfons
living at the given age in the tables, and in the column
of age you have the year required.
Thus, if the queftion be put with refpeft to a per¬
fon of 30 years of age, the number of that age in Dr
Halley’s table is 531, the half whereof is 265, which
is found in the table between 57 and 58 years*, fo that
a perfon of 30 years has an equal chance of living be¬
tween 27 and 28 years longer.
3. By the tables, the premium of infurance upon
lives may in fome meafure be regulated.
Thus,
3
ANN
A N-N [ 391
Annuity. Thus, the chance that a perfon of 25 years has to
t——y-—1 > live another year, is, by Dr Halley’s table, as 80 to
I j but the chance that a perfon of 50 years has to live
a year longer is only 30 to I j and, confequently, the
premium for infuring the former ought to be to the pre¬
mium for infuring the latter for one year, as 30 to 80,
or as 3 to 8.
Prob. I. To find the value of an annuity of xl. for
the life of a fingle perfon of any given age.
Monf. de Moivre, by obferving the decreafe of the
probabilities of life, as exhibited in the table, compo¬
sed an algebraic theorem or canon, for computing the
value of any annuity for life j 'which canon we here lay
down by way of
Rule. Find the complement of life ; and, by the
tables, find the value of il. annuity for the years de¬
noted by the faid complement; multiply this value by
the amount of il. for a year, and divide the product
by the complement of life ; then fubtradt the quot from
1 5 divide the remainder by the intereft of il. for a
year ; and this laft quot will be the value of the an¬
nuity fought, or, in other words, the number of years
purchafe the annuity is worth.
Examp. What is the worth of an annuity of il. for
an age of 50 years, intereft at 5 per cent. ?
86
50 age given.
36 complement of life.
By the tables, the value is 16.5468
Amount of il. for a year, 1.05
J
827340
165468
Complement of life, 36)17.374i4o(.482615
From unity, viz. 1.000000
Subtract .482615
Intereft of il. .05).517385(10.3477 value fought.
By the preceding problem is conftrudled the follow¬
ing table.
The value of il. annuity for a fingle life.
9= 10
8=r 1 j
7= 12 19.60
x3' 19-47
6=M x9'33
15 19.19
Age. 3 per c.
l^perc./^ per c
19.87
J9-74
16
5= 17
18
x9
4= 20
21
22
23
3=24
25
I9-°5
18.90
18.76
18.61
18.46
jS.so
18.15
I7-99
17-83
17.66
18.27
18.16
i8.o5
17.94
17.82
17.71
I7-59
I7,49
x7-33
17.21
17.09
16.96
16.83
16.69
16.56
I5*42
^\perc.
16.88
16.79
16.64
16.60
16.50
16.41
16.31
16.21
16.XO
l5'99
i5-89
I5-78
I5*55
J5-43
lS-3l
l5^7
IS-S9
tS-S1
I5-43
IS-3S
I5*27
I5*I9
15.10
15.01
14.92
i4-83
x4 73
14.64
I4-54
14.44
14-34
5 per c.
14.60
I4-53
I4-47
14.41
I4-34
I4-27
14.20
14.12
i4°5
I3-97
13.89
13.Si
13.72
13.64
I3-55
x3-46
6 per c.
12.80
12-75
1 2.70
12.65
12.60
12.55
12. CO
12.45
12.40
12.35
12.30
12.20
12.15
12.10
12.00
X2.95
The value of il. annuity for a fingle life.
Annuity.
Annuity.
A N 'N ^ [
The value of il. annuity for a Angle life.
Age
3 Per c-
76
77
78
79
80
qlperc
4-°5
3-63
a.21
2.78
2-34
3-98
3-57
a.x6
2.74
2.31
4 per c.\\\perc
3-91
3-52
3-11
2.74
2.31
3*84
3-47
3-°7
2.67
2.26
5 Per
6 per c.
3-78
3-41
3-°3
2.64
2.23
3*65
3-3°
2.95
2-55
2.15
392 ] ANN
' value by tbe remainder ; and the quot will be the value Annuity,
of il. annuity, or the number ot years purchafe (ought. ^—v 
Ex amp. What is the value of tool, annuity for the
joint lives of two perfons, of the age of 30 years each,
reckoning intereft at 4 per cent. ?
By the table, one life of years is -
Multiply by
Subtra6l the produdl
From r
14.68
.04
587a.
2.0000
The above table (hows the value of an annuity of one
pound for a Angle life, at all the current rates of inte-
reft; and is efteemed the beft table of this kind extant,
and preferable to any other of a different conftruaion.
But yet thofe who fell annuities have generally one and
a half or two years more value, than fpecified in e
table, from purchafers whofe age is 20 years or up-
''^Annuitiesof this fort are commonly bought or fold at
fo many years purchafe : and the value afligned in the
table may be fo reckoned. Thus the value of an annui¬
ty of one pound for an age of 50 years, at 3 per cent, in¬
tereft is 12. a ; that is, 12I. 1 os. or twelve and a halt
years’purchafe. The marginal figures on the left of the
column of age ferve to (horten the table, and figmfy, that
the value of an annuity for the age denoted by them is
the fame with the value of an annuity for the age deno¬
ted by the numbers before which they nand. I hus the
value of an annuity for the age of 9 and 10 years is the
fame; and the value of an annuity for the age of 6 and
14, for the age of 3 and 24, &c. is the fame. T he fur¬
ther ufe of the table will appear in the queftions and
problems following.
OlTEST. i. a perfon of 50 years would purchafe an
annuity for life of 200I.: What ready money ought he
to pay, reckoning intereft at 4^ per cent. ?
L*
By the table the value of il. is 10.8
Multiply by 200
Value to be paid in ready money, 2164.00 Anf.
Quest 2. A young merchant marries a widow lady
of vears of age, with a jointure of 300I. a-year and
wants to difpofe of the jointure for ready money : What
lum ought he to receive, reckoning intereft at 3^ per
cent. ?
By the table, the value of il. is 13.98
400
Remains
1.4128
And 1.4128)14.68(10.39 value of il. annuity.
And 10.39 X 100= 1039 the value fouSht*
2. If the two perfons are of different ages, work as
djredled in the following .
Rule. Take the values of the two lives from the
table 5 multiply them into one another, calling the re-
fult the firft produft ; then multiply the (aid firft pro-
dua by the intereft of il. for a year, calling the refult
the fecond produa; add the values of the two lives,
and from their fum fubtraa the fecond produa *, divide
the firft produa by the remainder, and the quot will be
the value of il. annuity, or the number of years purchafe
fought.
ExoiP. What is the value of 70I. annuity for the
joint lives of two perfons, whereof one is 40 and the
other 50 years of age, reckoning intere.ft at 5 per cent. ?
By the table, the value of 40 years is - 11*83
And the value of 50 years is - i°*35
Firft produa, 122.4405
'Multiply by *05
Second produa, 6 122025
Sum of the two lives, - - - 22.180000
Second produa dedua, - - - 6.122025
Remainder, - 16.057975
And 16.05797 5)122.4405(7.62 value of il. annuity.
70
Value to be received in ready money, 4194.00 Anf.
Prob. 2. To find the value of any annuity for the
joint continuance of two lives 5 one life failing, the an¬
nuity to ceafe.
Here there are two cafes, according as the ages ot the
two perfons are equal or unequal.
1. If the two perfons be of the fame age, work by
the following
Rule. Take the value of any one of the lives from
the table; multiply this value by the intereft of il. for
a year; fubtraft the produft from 2; divide the forefaid
533.40 value fought.
Prob. 3. To find the value of an annuity upon the
longeft of two lives ; that is, to continue fo long as ei¬
ther of the perfons is in life.
Rule. From the fum of the values of the Angle lives
fubtraft the value of the joint lives, and the remainder
will be the value fought.
Examp. What is the value of an annuity of il. up¬
on the longeft of two lives, the one perfon being 30,
and the other 40 years of age, intereft at 4 per cent. ?
By the table, 30 years is - - 14.68
40 years is - - - 13’20
Value of their joint lives, by Prob. 2.1
Cafe 2. is J
Value fought, - - - 18.26
ANN
Annuities.J If the annuity be any other than il. multiply the
*•——v—— anfvver found as above by the given annuity.
If the two perfons be of equal age, find the value of
their joint lives by Cafe I. of Prob. 2.
Prob. 4. To find the value of the next prefentation
to a living.
Rule. From the value of the fucceflbr’s life fub-
traft the joint value of his and the incumbent’s life, and
the remainder will be the value of il. annuity ; which
multiplied by the yearly income, will give the fum to
be paid for the next prefentation.
Ex amp. A enjoys a living of 100I. per annum, and
B would purchafe the faid living for his life after A’s
death : The queflion is. What he ought to pay for it,
reckoning intereft at 5 per cent. A being 60, and B 25
years of age ?
L.
By the table, B’s life Is - - I3-4^
Joint value of both lives, by Prob. 2. is 6.97
The value of tl. annuity, - - 6.49
Multiply by - - 100
ANN
tiply that product by the intereft of il. and that pro- Annuities.
duff again by 2, calling the refult the double pro-   j
du£l ; then, from the fum of the feveral products of
the lives, taken two and two, fubtradl the double pro¬
duct ; divide the product of the three lives by the re¬
mainder, and the quot will be the value of the three
joint lives.
Examp. A is 18 years of age, B 34, and C 56 5
What is the value of their joint lives, reckoning in¬
tereft at 4 per cent. ?
By the table, the value of A’s life is 16.1, of B’s
14.12, and of C’s 10.01.
16.1 X 14-12 X 10.01 = 2 275.6, product of the three lives.
•04
91.024
2
182.048, double product.
Prcduft of A and B, 16.1 X 14.1 2 X 227.33
A and C, 16.1 X 10.01 161.16
B and C, 14.12 X io.oo= 141.34
[ 393 ]
Value of next prefentation, - 649.00
The value of a direct prefentation is the fame as that
of any other annuity for life, and is found for il. by
the table ; which being multiplied by the yearly in¬
come, gives the value fought.
Prob. 5. To find the value of a reverfion for ever,
after two fucceflive lives; or to find the value of a living
after the death of the prefent incumbent and his fuc-
ceflsr.
Rule. By Prob. 3. find the value of the longeft of
the two lives, and fubtraci that value from the value of
the perpetuity, and the remainder will be the value
fought.
Sum of all, two and two, - 529.83
Double product fubtraft, - 182 048
Remainder, - 347.782
And 347.782)2275.600(6.54 value fought.
Prob. 7. To find the value of an annuity upon the
longeft of three lives.
Rule. From the fum of the values of the three fingle
lives taken from the table, fubtraft the fum of all the
joint lives, taken two and two as found by Prob. 2. and
to the remainder add the value of the three joint lives,
as found by Prob. 6. and that fum will be the value of
the longeft life fought.
Examp. A, aged 50, enjoys an eftate or living of
100I. per annum 5 B, aged 30, is entitled to his lifetime
of the fame eftate after A’s death ; and it is propofed
to fell the eftate juft now, with the burden of A and
B’s lives on it: What is the reverfion worth, reckon¬
ing intereft at 4 per cent. ?
L.
1T-34
By the table, A’s life of 50 is
B’s life of 30 is
Sum,
Value of their joint lives found byl
Prop. 2. Cafe 2. is - J
Value of the longeft life,
From the value of the perpetuity,
14.68
26.02
8.60
17.42 fub.
25.CO
Remains the value of xl. reverfion, 7.58
Pvlultiply by 100
Value of the reverfion, - - 758.00
Prob. 6. To find the value of the joint continuance
of three lives, one life failing, the annuity to ceafe.
Rule. Find the fingle values of the three lives from
the table; multiply thefe fingle values continually,
calling the refult the produft of the three lives ; mul-
Vol. II. Part I.
Examp. A is 18 years of age, B 34, and C 56:
What is the value of the longeft of thefe three lives,
intereft at 4 per cent. ?
By the table, the fingle value of A’s life is 16.1
fingle value of B’s life is 14.12
fingle value of C’s life is jo.OI
Sum of the fingle values, 40.23
By Prob. 2. the joint value of A and B is 10.76
joint value of A and C is 8.19
joint value of B and C is 7.65
Sum of the joint lives, 26.60
Remainder, - I3‘^3
By Prob. 6. the value of the 3 joint lives is 6.54
Value of the longeft of the 3 lives,
20.17
Other problems might be added, but thefe adduced
are fufficient for moft purpofes. The reader probably
may wilh that the reafon of the rules, which, it muft be
owned, are intricate, had been afligned : but this could
not be done without entering deeper into the fubje<5l;
than was practicable in this place. See Chances.
3 D ANNUITIES)
ANN
t 39+ 1
ANN
ANNUITIES, Borrowing upon i fine of the methods
employed by government for raifing iupplies.
Of tbis there are two methods •, that of borrowing
upon annuities for terms of years, and that of borrowing
upon annuities for lives.
During the reigns of King William and Queen Anne,
large fums were frequently borrowed upon annuities
for terms of years, which were fometimes longer and
fometimes fhorter. In 1693, an aft was palled for
borrowing one million upon an annuity of 14 per cent,
or of 140,0001. a year for 16 years. In 1691, an aft
was paffed for borrowing a million upon annuities tor
lives upon terms which in the prefent times would ap¬
pear very advantageous. But the fubfcription was not
filled up. In the following year the deficiency was
made good by borrowing upon annuities tor lives at
14 per cent, or at a little more than feven year^pur-
ehafe In l6gt, the perfons who had purchaied thole
annuities vfere allowed to exchange them for others of
06 years, upon paying into the exchequer 63 pounds
in the hundred 5 that is, the difference between 14 per
cent. for life, and 14 per cent, for 96 years, was fold
for 63 pounds, or for four and a half years purchafe
Such was the fuppofed infiability of government, that
even thefe terms procured few purchasers. In toe
reign of Queen Anne, money was upon different occa-
fions borrowed both upon annuities for lives and upon
annuities for terms of 32, of 89, of 98, and of 99 years.
In 17IQ, the proprietors of the annuities for 32 years
ivere^ induced accept in lieu of them South Sea
flock to the amount of eleven and a half years purcbaie
of the annuities, together with an additional quantity
of flock equal to the arrears which happened then to
be due upon them. In 1720, the greater part of the
other annuities for terms of years both long and Ihort
were fubfcribed into the fame fund, i he long annui¬
ties at that time amounted to 666,821k 8s. 3^d. a-year.
On the tth of January 1775, the remainder of them,
or what was not fubfcribed at that time, amounted only
to 136,453k 12s, 8d. . , .
Diving the two wars which began in 1739, and in
17 " r * little money was borrowed either upon annuities
for terms of years, or upon thofe for lives. An annui¬
ty for 98 or 99 vears, however, is worth nearly as
much money as a perpetuity, and Ihould, therefore, one
mi^ht think, be a fund for borrowing nearly as much.
But thofe who, in order to make family fettlements,
and to provide for remote futurity, buy into the public
flocks, would not care to purchafe into one of which
the value was continually diminilhingj and fuch people
make, a very confiderable proportion both of the pro¬
prietors and purchafers of flock. An annuity for a
Ion o' term of years, therefore, though its intnnfic value
may be very nearly the fame with that of a perpetual
annuity, will not find nearly the fame number of pur-
chafers.’ The fubferibers to a new loan, who mean ge¬
nerally to fell their fubfcription as foon as poflible, pre¬
fer greatlv a perpetual annuity redeemable by parlia¬
ment to'an irredeemable annuity for along term of
years’of only equal amount. The value of the former
may be fuppofed always the fame, or very nearly the
fame-, and it makes, therefore, a more convenient
transferable flock than the latter. _
During the two laft-mentioned wars, annuities, either
for terms of years or for lives, were feldom granted but
as premiums to he fubferibers to a new loan, over and Am
above the redeemable annuity to intereft upon the ere-
dit of which the loan was luppofed to be made. _ 1 hey
were granted, not as the proper fund upon which the
money was borrowed j but as an additional encourage¬
ment to the lender. „ n ,
Annuities for lives have occafionally been granted
in two different ways -, either upon leparate lives, or
upon lots of lives, which in French are called Tontines,
from the name of their inventor. When annuities are
granted upon feparate lives, the death of every indivi¬
dual annuitant difburdens the public revenue fo far as
it was affedted by his annuity. When annuities are
granted upon tontines, the liberation of the public re¬
venue does not commence till the death of all the an¬
nuitants comprehended in one lot, which may fometimes
confifl of twenty or thirty perfons, of whom the iur-
vivors fucceed to the annuities of all thofe who die be¬
fore them 5 the laft furvivor fucceedmg to the annui¬
ties of the whole lot. Upon the fame revenue more
money can always be raifed by tontines than by an¬
nuities for feparate lives. An annuity, ■with a right
of furvivor (hip, is really worth more than an equal an¬
nuity for a feparate life ; and from the confidence which
every man naturally has in his own good fortune, the
principle upon which is founded the fuccefs of all lot¬
teries, fuch an annuity generally fells for Something
more than it is worth. In countries where it is ulual
for government to raife money by granting annuities,
tontines are upon this account generally preferred to
annuities for feparate lives. I he expedient which wi
raife moft money, is almoft always preferred to that
which is likely to bring about in the fpeedieft manner
the liberation of the public revenue. .
In France a much greater proportion of the public
debts confifts in annuities for lives than in England.
According to a memoir prefented by the parliament or
Bourdeaux to the king in 1764, the whole public debt
of France is eftimated at twenty-four hundred millions
of livres j of which the capital, for which annuities for
lives had been granted, is fuppofed to amount to three
hundred millions, the eighth part of the whole public
debt. The annuities themielves are computed to a-
mount to thirty millions a-year, the fourth part of one
hundred and twenty millions, the fuppofed intereft of
that whole debt. It is not the different degrees of
anxiety in the two governments of France and England
for the liberation of the public revenue, which occa-
fions this difference in their refpeftive mode of bor¬
rowing ; it arifes altogether from the different views
and interefts of the lenders.
In Britain, the feat of government being in the
greateft mercantile city in the world, the merchants
are generally the people who advance money to go¬
vernment. By advancing it they do not mean to di-
minilh, but on the contrary, to increafe their mercan¬
tile capitals ; and unlefs they expe&ed to fell with
fome profit their fhare in the fubfcription for a new
loan, they never would fubferibe. But if by advan¬
cing their money they were to purchafe, inftead of
perpetual annuities, annuities for lives only, whether
their own or thofe of other people, they would not al¬
ways be fo likely to fell them with a profit. Annui¬
ties upon their owrn lives they would always fell with
lofs; becaufe no man will give for an annuity upon the
life
ANN [
Annuities life of another wliofe age and date are nearly the fame
jj with his own, the fame price which he would give for
Annuncia- one Up0n his own. An annuity upon the life of a
^a‘ third perfon, indeed, is no doubt, of equal value to
the buyer and the feller •, but its real value begins to
diminifh from the moment it is granted, and continues
to do fo rrtore and more as long as it fublifts. It can
never, therefore, make fo convenient a transferable
dock as a perpetual annuity, of which the real value
may be fuppofed always the fame, or very nearly the
fame.
In France, before the revolution, the feat of go¬
vernment not being in a great mercantile city, mer¬
chants did not make fo great a proportion of the peo¬
ple who advance money to government. The people
concerned in the finances, the farmers general, the re¬
ceivers of the taxes which were not in farm, the court
bankers, &c. made the greater part of thofe who ad¬
vance their money in all public exigencies. Such peo¬
ple were commonly men of mean birth, but of great
wealth, and frequently of great pride. They were too
proud to marry their equals, and women of quality
difdained to marry them. They frequently_ refolved,
therefore, to live bachelors *, and having neither any
familie :of their own, nor much regard for thofe of
their relations, whom they were not always very fond
of acknowledging, they defired only to live in fplen-
dour during their own time, and were not unwilling
that their fortune fhould end with themfelves. The
number of rich people, befides, who were either averfe
to marry, or whofe condition of life rendered it either
improper or inconvenient for them to do fo, was much
greater in France than in England. TLo fuch people,
who had little or no care for pofterity, nothing could be
more convenient than to exchange their capital for a re¬
venue, which is to laft juft as long, and no longer, than
they wilh it to do.
ANNUITY OFTEINDS, in Scots Zrtw, a certain pro¬
portion of the teindsof ere&ed benefices formerly payable
to the crown, but now gone into difufe.
ANNULAR, in a general fenfe, fomething in the
form of, or refembling a ring. It is alfo a peculiar de¬
nomination of the fourth finger, commonly called the
ring finder.
ANNULET, in ArcJiitcRure, a fmall fquare member
in the Doric capital, under the quarter round.
Annulet is alfo a narrow flat moulding, which is
common to divers places of the columns, as in the ba-
fes, capitals, &c. It is the fame member which Vi¬
truvius calls a fillet; Palladio, a lifiil or cinRure ; Sca-
mozzi, and Mr Brown, zfiupercilium, lift, tinea, eye-
brow, fquare, rabbit. See ARCHITECTURE.
Annulet, a little circle, born as a charge in coats
of arms, as alfo added to them as a difference. Among
the Romans it reprefented liberty and nobility. It alfo
denotes ftrength and eternity, by reafon of its circular
form.
When this figure is added as a difference, fome au¬
thors alfert, that itferves to remind the bearer to achieve
great aftions.
ANNULLING, a term fometimes ufed for cancel¬
ling or making void a deed, fentence, or the like.
ANNUNCIADA, Annuntiada, or Annuncia-
ta, an order of knighthood in Savoy, firft inftituted
by Amadeus I. in the year 14^9 '• their collar was of
595 1 A N Q
15 links, interwoven one with ■ another, in form of aAmnuicia-
true lover’s knot : and the motto, F. E. R. T. figni- da
fying, For til ltd0 ejus Rhodum tenuit. Amadeus VIII.
gave the Vi^xxoi Annnncuida this order, which was for- ades.*
merly known by that of the knot of love ; changing at'
the lame time the image of St. Maurice patron of Sa-
vov, which hung at the collar, for that of the Virgin
Mary j and inftead of the motto above mentioned, fub-
ftituting the words of the angel’s falutation.
Annunciada is alfo the title of feveral religious or¬
ders, inrtituted at different times, and at different places,
in honour of the annunciation. See the next article.
ANNUNCIATION, the tidings.brought by the an¬
gel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary of the incarnation of
Chrift.
Annunciation is alfo a feftival, kept by the church
on the 25th of March, in commemoration of thefe tid¬
ings. This feflival appears to be of very great anti¬
quity. There is mention made of it in a fermon which
goes under the name of Athanajius. Others carry it up
to the time of Gregory Thaumaturgus, becaufe there is
a fermon likevvife attributed to him upon the fame fub-
je£L But the bell criticsrejed both thefe writings as
fpurious. However, it is certain, this feftival was ob-
ferved before the time of the council of Trullo, in which
there is a canon forbidding the celebration of all fefti-
vals in Lent, excepting the Lord’s day, and the feaft of
the annunciation : fo that we may date its original from
the feventh century.
In the Romifh church, on this feaft, the pope performs
the ceremony of marrying or cloiftering a certain num¬
ber of maidens, who are prefented to him in the church,
clothed in white ferge, and muffled up from head to
foot : An officer Hands by, with purfes containing notes
of 50 crowns for thofe who make choice of marriage, and
notes of a hundred for thofe who choofe to veil.
Annunciation, is likewife a title given by the Jews
to a part of the ceremony of the paffover.
ANNUNCIATOR, the name of an officer in the
church of Conftantinople. It was his bufinefs to in¬
form the people of the feftivals that were to be cele-
brated.
ANODYNE, from « privative, and doleo;
or « neg. and uSuiyi, pain), a term applied to medicines
which eafe pain, and procure fleep. They are divided
into three forts, viz. 1. Paregorics, or fuch as affuage
pain. 2. Hypnotics, or fuch as relieve by procuring
fleep. 3. Narcotics, or fuch as eafe the patient by ftupi-
fying him.
Opiates and narcotics deftroy fenfation. Some hyp¬
notics and paregorics, as nitre, camphor, &c. procure
eafe and fleep by removing the offending caufe. Cam¬
phor is faid to be the beft anodyne in nervous cafes and
at the decline of fevers. The dofes of thefe medicines
are generally regulated by the pulfe.
ANOINTERS, a religious feft in fome parts of
England, fo called from the ceremony they ufed of
anointing all perfons before they admitted them into
their church. They founded their^opinion of anointing
upon the fifth of James, ver. 14. and 15.
ANOLYMPIADES, in antiquity, a name given
by the Elians to thofe Olympic games which had been
celebrated under the direftor of the Pifaeans and Ar¬
cadians. The Elians claimed the foie right of mana¬
ging the Olympic games, in which they fometimes
3 D 2 met
A N O [ 396
Anwmli. met with competitors. The hundred and four th Olym-
4” Ye,rpiad was celebrated by order of the Arcadians by
whom the Elians were at that time reduced very low j
Anomoeans. this as wen as thofe managed by the inhabitants ot
W 'r~~~ Pifa' they called cuio^vpinctiei;, that is, “ unlawful U-
Ivmpiads j” and left them out of their annals, wherein
tile names of their viftors and other occurrences were
^ANOMALISTICAL year, in AJlronomy, the
time that the earth takes to pals through her orbit : it
is alfo called the Periodical Tear. I he fpace.of time
belonging to this year is greater than the tropical year,
on account of the precefiion of the equinoxes. bee
Astronomy.
ANOMALOUS, a term applied to whatever is ir¬
regular, or deviates from the rule obferved by other
things of the like nature.
ANOMALOUS Verbs, in Grammar, fuch as are not
eoniugated conformably to the paradigm of their con¬
jugation. They are found in all languages. In Latin,
the verb lego is the paradigm of the third conjugation;,
and runs thus, lego, legis, legit: by the fame rule it
fliould be fero, feris, fent ; but vie hy,fero,fers,Jei t.
fero, then, is an anomalous verb. In Englilh the irre¬
gularity relates often to the preter tenfe and paliive par¬
ticiple : for example, give, were it formed according to
rule, would make gived in the preter tenfe and paflive
participle ; whereas, in the former, it makes gave, and
in the latter given. . ....
ANOMALY, in AJlronomy, an irregularity in the
motion of the planets, whereby they deviate from the
aphelion or apogee. r • r rr u 1
ANOMIA, in Zoology, a genus ot micas belong¬
ing to the order of vermes tellacea. 1 heir (lull is bi¬
valve, and the valves are unequal. One valve is per¬
forated near the hinge j affixed by that perforation to
fome other body. There are 25 fpecies of the ane¬
mia : of which only two are natives of the Bntith leas,
viz. 1. The ephippium, with the habit of an oyller ; the
one tide convex, the other flat, perforated-, adherent to
other bodies, often to oyfter {hells, by a ftrong tendinous
ligature; colour of the infide perlaceous. Size, near two
inches diameter. 2. rl he fquammula, with ffiells re-
fembling the feales of fiffi ; very delicate, and hlvery;
much flatted; perforated ; very fmall. Adheres to oy-
fiers, crabs, lobfters, and ffiells. This fpecies of the
genus are commonly called Beaked Cockles. Nonane
has been given to the fiflithat inhabits it; for the recent
(hells of this kind are fo very rare, that there is fcarcely
one to be found perfect. They are perhaps, as weU as
that which has given its form to the cornu ammoms, in¬
habitants of the deeped parts of the ocean; confequent-
ly it mud be fome extraordinary agitation of that great
body of water that can bring them at all to our know¬
ledge in their recent date. See Concholcgy In¬
dex.
The foffil fpecies of the Anomia genus are uncommon¬
ly numerous in this ifland, in our chalk pits and lime-
done quarries; and in Gloucederfliire they are as com¬
mon on the ploughed lands as pebbles on other places.
ANOMOE ANS, in ecclefiadical hidory, the name
fey which the pure Arians were called in the fourth
century, in contradidinftion to the Semi-Arians. 1 he
word is formed from the Greek, caoptio;, different, dif-
Jimilar; For the pure Arians afferted, that the Son
] A N O
was of a nature different from, and in nothing like. Aroma.
that of the Father : whereas the Semi-Arians acknow-rhombmdia
lodged a likenefs of nature in the Son; at the fame time Ancr1exja>
that they denied, with the pure Arians, the confubflan-  
tiality of the Word. The Semi-Arians condemned the
Anoraceans in the council of Seleucia ; and the Anomoe-
ans in their turn condemned the Semi-Arians in the
councils of Condantinople and Antioch, erafing the
word opw, Be, out of the Formula of Rimini and that
of Condantinople. . . ,, . ,,
ANOMORHOMBOIDI A, m Natural Hi/lory, the
name of a genus of fpars ; the word is derived from the
Greek irregular, and a rhomboidal
fioure. The bodies of this genus are pellucid cryltallme
fpars of no determinate or regular external form, but al¬
ways breaking into regularly rhomboidal mafles; eafily
fiffile. and compofed of plates running both horizontal¬
ly and perpendicularly through the maffes, but cleaving
more readily and evenly in a horizontal, than in a per¬
pendicular direction ; the plates being ever com pole dot
irregular arrangements of rhomboidal concretions. Gt
this^genus there are five known fpecies. 1. A white,
bright, and {battery one ; found in great quantities^ in
the lead mines of Derbyffiire, Yorkffiire, and Males.
2. A milk-white, opaque, and (battery one, found m
fome parts of France, and very plentifully in Ger¬
many, and fometimes in Wales and Scotland, and in
the hills of Yorkffiire. 3. A hard, dull, and fnow-
white one, found in fome of the mines in Derbyflnre,
and in many of our northern counties. 4* hard,
gray, and pellucid one, found in the lead mines ot
Yorkffiire, and very common in Germany. And, 5. A
pellucid and colourlefs one ; this is found in the lead
mines of Derbyfhire and Yorkftrire. All thefe in fome
degree have the double refradlion of the Iceland cryftal.
See Iceland Cryjlal.
ANONIS. See Ononis, Botany Index.
ANONYMOUS, fomething that is namelefs, or 01
which the name is concealed. It is a term ufually ap¬
plied to books which do not exprefs the author’s name,
or to authors whofe names are unknown.
Anonymous, in commerce. Partnerffiips in trade in
France are ftyled anonymous, when they are not carried
on under any particular name, but wherein each of the
partners trades vifibly on his own account, and in his
own name ; after which all the partners give one ano¬
ther an account of their profit or lofs in trade. Thefe
forts of partnerffiips are concealed, and known only to
the parties themlelves. .
ANONYMOUS Partnerjhips in Trade, are alfo m
France, fuch, wherein perfons of fortune and quality de-
pofite fumsof money, in order to (hare of the profits and
lofs. To this end thofe who furnifti the capital have no
trouble in carrying on the trade, nor do their names ap¬
pear to be any way interefted therein.
Anonymous, in Law. The fending anonymous let¬
ters demanding money, &c. is felony by the Black A£t,.
9 Geo. I. cap. xxii.
ANOREXIA, Anorexy, (from « negative, and
«£s£<5, appetite) : a want of appetite, or a loathing of
r 1 The diforder is either original or fymptomatic..
•. # * * 1   /Y . ...... L. ~
food.
When it is original, its caufes are bad diet, too free
drinking, voracioufnefs, &c. : In which cafes, a vomit
or two of ipecacuanha may be taken ; and temperance*
a light but cordial nouriffiing diet* and daily exercife*
perfifted
Anoffi.
A N O C 397 ] A N O
perfided in, 'will generally efteft a recovery. But it is
more frequently a fymptotn of fome other diforder j
and then the cure depends on the removal of the ori¬
ginal one.
ANOSSI, a province of the ifland of Madagafcar,
lying between Lat. 23. 18. and 26. O. S. It is water¬
ed by many rivers, molt of which run into the Fran-
chere, Ramcvatte, or Immour, the fpringof which is in
a mountain called Manghage, and difcharges itfelf in¬
to the fea in Lat. 25. 18. S, The mouth of this river
is often flopped, and the courfe to the fea interrupt¬
ed, uniefs kept open by the overflowings of great
rains and high tides. The water runs fait one league
above the mouth, particularly in a free communica¬
tion with the fea. A lake, called Ambou, is formed
at the mouth, half a league wide, with depth fufficient
for any fhip if the mouth of the river was kept open.
Next in bignefs to the Franchere, is the Manghafia,
which fprings from a mountain called Silivo, and emp¬
ties itfelf into the fea, where large drips may ride at
anchor. Crocodiles breed in thefe and all the other
rivers of the ifland, ■
Between the two rivers above mentioned lies Cape
St Remain, half a mile diflant from the mouth of the
Franchere, and which runs from the north-wed fix or
feven leagues into the fea. When the cape is paded
the coad forms a great bay, in the drape of a crofs,
which extends to the mouth of a river called Dian
Panouge or Pitorah. In the middle of this bay the
land runs out, and almod forms a peninfula called Tho-
langare. Fort Dauphin lies to the north of this pen¬
infula, and Port Dauphin over againd it, This pro¬
vince has feveral other peninfulas and fmall idands be¬
longing to it. The country is beautiful} abounds in
fruit trees ; is fertile in paduresfor cattle ; and, if care¬
fully cultivated, would produce all the neceflaries of life.
It is furrounded by high mountains, which are covered
with woods and drrubs ; but, about four miles didant
from Fort Dauphin, the adjacent hills are quite defli-
tute of verdure. The French often dug in this neigh¬
bourhood, expe&ing to meet with mines of gold and
diver, particularly in one mountain where feveral fprings
tlow near each other and empty themfelves into a neigh¬
bouring river. In this river they found feveral dones
and heaps intermixed with yellow clay, with a great
quantity of black and white fpangles ddning like filver,
which they carefully pounded and walhed, but without
effedl. About 60 yards above thefe fprings the grafs,
and every fort of vegetable, appears half dried and yel¬
low, from a metalline fulphur, which gives that afpeft ;
but the top of the mountain is covered with a frelh and
beautiful verdure. It isfaid that the Portuguefe found
gold at the foot of this mountain on the north fide,
but that the place they had dug was filled up by the
chiefs of the country after the Portuguefe had been
driven out.
The province of Anofii is inhabited by three differ¬
ent forts of whites, and four forts of negroes. The
whites are diftinguifhed by the names of Rohandrians,
Anacandrwns, and Ond'zatji. The whites are diflin-
guilhed from the negroes by the general name of Ra-
feratmm or Rahimini; and the Rohandrians are di¬
ftinguifhed above the other whites. When they pro¬
ceed to an eleftion of a fovereign, whom they call 0m~
piandriari) or Dian Bahouachet he is chofen from the
Rohandrian race. Next to him the others hold the
rank of princes, and are honoured as fuch by all the
reft of the fubjedls. The Anacandrians are defcendants
of the chiefs, but who have degenerated, and are ac¬
counted the baftards of princes, or thofe who are de-
fcended from a Rohandrian and any inferior white or
black woman. Thefe are likewife called by the name
of Qntempa/femaca, or people from the fandy parts of
Mecca, from whence, they fay, came the Rohandrians.
Both the Rohandrians and Anacandrians wear long
hair, which hangs down in curls j and enjoy the pri¬
vilege of killing beads. The Ondzatfi, or lowed clafs
of whites, are defcended from the baftards of the Ana¬
candrians. Thefe are all fifhermen, and are allowed
to kill no land animal except a chicken.
The four elaffes of negroes are named Voadziri, Lo-
havohits, Ontfoa and Ondeves. The Voadziri, the moll
powerful and the richeft, are tnaftersof feveral villages j
and defeended from the original lords of the country.
They enjoy the privilege of killing beafts, when at a
diftance from the whites, and no Rohandrian or Ana^
candrian in the village. The Lohavobits are defcend¬
ants from the Voadziri, and alfo lords j but with this
difference, that the one commands a whole diftriff, and
the jurifdidiion of the others extends only to their own
village and family. They are alfo permitted to kill
thofe beafts they intend to eat, when at a diftance from
the whites. The Ontfoa are next to the Lohavohits,
and are their near relations. The Ondeves are the loweft
of all, being originally Haves by father and mother.
The Voadziri, Lohavohits, and Ontfoa, enjoy the pri¬
vilege of fubmitting themfelves, on the death of their
lord or king, to any chief they pleafe. In return for fuch
homage, the new lord makes them a prefent, in confe-
qu,ence of which he becomes heir to all their pofieffions.
Hence the lower claffes both of whites and blacks,
when death approaches, are under the greateft concern
and anguifh of mind, well knowing that their lords
will not fail to deprive their children of every thing
they poffefs. The Ondeves have not the fame liberty
with the others ; but, in times of famine, the chiefs
are obliged to fupply them with neceffaries ; which if
they fail to do, they have the liberty of fubmitting
themfelves to new mafters. The inhabitants of this
province have no temples, and very little appearance
of religion 5 only they keep up a cuftom of immolating
beafts upon particular occafions, as in ficknefs, plant¬
ing yams or rice, on afiemblies, &c. They offer the
firft born beaft to the devil and to God, naming the
devil firft, in this manner, Dianbilis Aminhanhabare, or
“ Lord Devil and God.”—There are feveral towns on
the river Franchere; and near this river the Portuguefe
had a fort built upon a deep rock, and feveral build¬
ings below, with enclofures, which furnifhed all forts
«f neceffaries for their fubfiftence j but they were all
maffacred by the natives.
This province feems originally to have been inhabited
by negroes. The whites or Zaferamini fettled in it
about 200 years ago, and conquered the negroes. But
they themfelves were conquered by the French, though
under the government of a king whom they honoured
as a god. In 1642, Captain Rivault obtained permif-
fion to eftablilh a colony in this part of the ifland j and
accordingly he took poflefiion of ft in the name of the
king of France, in the month of September, that fame
year.
Ancfli.
39
Anotta.
A N 0 [
year. Tlie French landed 200 men, well armed, and
provided with (lore of ammunition and other neceffaries
for building a fort, which they immediately let about •,
but no fooner did the natives obferve their intention,
than they ufed their utmoft art to prevent their defign
from taking effeft. This created a war, in which the
French were vidtors ; and, the natives becoming in time
much better reconciled to them, they intermarried, and
lived up and down in feveral towns at fome diftance from
one another, not above five or fix in a place. 1 his tran¬
quillity lafted for fome years *, but at laft the natives,
growing jealous, refolved to free themfelves from a fo¬
reign yoke ; and accordingly formed a confpiracy to cut
off all the French in one day j which they foon after ef-
fedted, not leaving a (ingle perfon alive. In 1644 the
above-mentioned Fort Dauphin was eredted in Lat. 25.
6. S. Many buildings were eredfed, behind the fort,
adjoining to the governor’s houfe, with great enclofures
that produced every fort of fruit and kitchen herb. In
1656 it was accidentally deftroyed by fire •, but was
foon after repaired, and llill continues, notwithltanding
the cataftrophe above mentioned, and its garrifon car-
ties on frequent wars with the natives.
ANOTT A, or Arnotta, in dyeing, an elegant red
colour, formed from the pellicles or pulp of the feeds of
the Bixa, a tree Gofrusion in South America. It is alfo
Called Terra Orleana, and Roucou.
The manner of making anotta is as follow's : The
red feeds, cleared from the pods, are fteeped in water
for feven or eight days, or longer, till the liquor begins
to ferment •, then ftrongly ftirred, damped with wooden
paddles and beaters, to promote the feparation of the
fed Ikins 5 this procefs is repeated feveral times, till the
feeds are left white. The liquor, paffed through clofe
cane fie.ves, is pretty thick, of a deep red colour, and
a very ill fmell *, in boiling, it throws up its colouring
matter to the furface in form of fcum, which is after¬
wards boiled down by itlelf to a due conudence, and
made up while foft into balls. The anotta commonly
met with among us, is moderately hard and dry, of ^a
brown colour on the outfide, and a dull red within, ic
is difficultly adted upon by water, and tinges the liquor
only of a pale browniffi yellow colour. It very readily
diffolves in redtified fpirit of wine \ and communicates
a high orange or yellowiffi red. Hence it is ufed as
an ingredient in varniffies, for giving more or lefs of
an orange caft to the fimple yellows. Alkaline falts
render it perfedtly foluble in boiling water, without al¬
tering its colour. Wool or filk boiled in the folution
acquires a deep, but not a very durable, orange dye.
Its colour is not changed by alum or by acids, any
more than by alkalies : but when imbibed in cloth, it
is dlfcharged by foap, and deftroyed by expofure to
the air. It is faid to be an antidote to the poifonous
juice of manioc or caffava.—-Labat informs us, that
the Indians prepare anotta greatly fuperior to that
which is brought to us, of a bright fhining red colour,
almoft equal to carmine : that, for this purpofe, in-
ftead of fteeping and fermenting the feeds in water,
they rub them with the hand, previoufly dipped in oil,
till the pellicles come off, and are reduced into a clear
pafte : which is fcraped off from the hands with a
knife, and laid on a clean leaf in the (hade to dry.
"De Laet, in his notes on Margrave’s Natural Hiftory
•of Brazil, mentions alfo two kinds of anotta j one of a
1
A N S
Anout
permanent crimfon colour, ufed as a iucus or paint for
the face ; and another which gives a colour' inclining
more to that of faffron. This laft, which is our anotta,
he fuppofes to be a mixture of the firft fort with certain
refinous matters, and with the juice of the root of the
tree. The wax or pulp in which the feeds are enclofed
is a cool agreeable rich cordial, and has been long in ufe
among the Indians and Spaniards in America, who (till
mix it with their chocolate, both to heighten the flavour
and raife the colour. It is faid to be a fuccefsful remedy-
in bloody fluxes. The roots have much the fame pro¬
perties with the wax ; but thefe are obferved to work
more powerfully by the urinary paffages ; they are ufed
by fome people in their broths, and feem to anfwer all
the puipoles of the pulp, but in a more faint degree. See
Bixa, Bot'aKy Index.
ANOUT, a fmall ifland in the Schagerrack, or that
part of the fea of Denmark which has Norway on the
north, Jutland on the weft, and the ifle of Zeeland on
thefouth. It lies in 13. o. E. Long, and 56. 36. N.
Lat.
ANS/E, in j4J}ronomy, implies the parts of Saturn’s
ring proje&ing beyond the dilk of the planet.— The
word is Latin, and properly fignifies handles; thefe
parts of the ring appearing like handles to the body of
the planet.
ANSARIANS, a people of Syria, fo called in the
country, but ftyled in De I’lfle’s maps Enfarians, and
in thole of D’Anville, NaJJaris. The territory occupied
by thefe Anfaria is that chain of mountains which ex¬
tends from Antakia to the rivulet called Nahr-el-Kabir,
or the Great River. The hiftory of their origin, though
little known, is yet inftru&ive. The following ac¬
count is from the Biblwtheque Orientate of Affemani,
a writer who has drawn his materials from the beft au¬
thorities.
“ In the year of the Greeks, 1202 (A. D. Sp1)*
there lived at the village of Nafar, in the environs of
Konfa, an old man, who, from his fadings, his conti¬
nual prayers, and his poverty, paffed for a faint. Seve¬
red of the common people declaring themfelves his par-
tizans, he feledled from among them twelve difciples
to propagate his dodlrxne. But the commandant of the
place, alarmed at his proceedings, feized the old
man, and confined him in prifon. In this reverfe of
fortune, his fituation excited the pity of a girl who
was Have to the gaoler, and ffie determined to give
him his liberty. An opportunity foon offered to effeft
her defign. One day when the gaoler was gone to bed
intoxicated, and in a profound fleep, ffie gently took
the keys from under his pillow, and after opening the
door to the old man, returned them to their place un¬
perceived by her mafter : the next day when the gaoler
went to vifit his prifoner, he was extremely aftonilhed
at finding he had made his efcape, and the more fo
fince he could perceive no marks of violence. He
therefore judicioufty concluded he had been delivered
by an angel, and eagerly fpread the report, to avoid
the reprehenfion he merited : the old man, on the other
hand, afferted the fame thing to his difciples, and
preached his do6!rines with mere earneftnefs than ever.
He even wrote a book, in which, among other things,
he fays, * I fuch a one, of the village of Nafar, have
feen Chrift who is the word of God, who is Ahmad,
fon of Mohammed, fon of Hanafa, of the race of Ali ;
who
Anfarians
I!
Anfelm.
A N S [* 399 ] A N S
who alfo is Gabriel: and. he faid to me, Thou art he
who readeth (with underftanding) ; thou art the man
who fpea^eth truth ; thou art the camel which pre-
ferveth the faithful from wrath *, thou art the beaft
which carrieth their burden ; thou art the (Holy)
Spirit, and John, the fon of Zachary. Go, and preach
to men that they make four genuflexions in praying ;
two before the riflng of the fun, and two before his
fetting, turning their faces towards Jerufalem : and let
them fay, three times, God Almighty ! God Molt
High ! God Moft Great ! Let them obferve only the
fecond and third feftival ; let them faft but two days
annually ; let them not walh the prepuce, nor drink
beer, but as much wine as they think proper; and laft-
ly, let them abftain from the flelh of carnivorous ani¬
mals. This old man palling into Syria, propagated his
opinions among the lower orders of the country people,
numbers of w'hom believed in him : And after a few
years he went away, and nobody ever knew what be¬
came of him.”
Such was the origin of thefe Anfarians, who are, for
the moft part, inhabitants of the mountains before men¬
tioned.
The Anfaria are divided into feveral tribes or feXs;
among which are diftinguiflied the Shamfia, or adorers
of the fun ; the Kelbia, or w'orftnppers of the dog •, and
the Kadmoufia, who are faid to pay a particular ho¬
mage to that part in women which correfponds to the
priapus.
Many of the Anfaria believe in the metempfychofis;
others rejeX the immortality of the foul j and in ge¬
neral, in that civil and religious anarchy, that ignorance
and rudenefs which prevail among them, thefe peafants
adept what opinions they think proper, following the
feX they like beft, and frequently attaching themfelves
to none.
Their country is divided into three principal di-
ftriXs, farmed by the chiefs called Mohaddamim. Their
tribute is paid to the pacha of Tripoli, from whom they
annually receive their title. Their mountains are in
general not fo fteep as thofe of Lebanon, and confe-
quently are better adapted to cultivation ; but they are
alfo more expofed to the Turks; and hence, doubtlels,
it happens, that with greater plenty of corn,^ tobacco,
wines, and olives, they are more thinly inhabited than
thofe of their neighbours the MaroNITES and the
Druses.
ANSE, an ancient town of France, in the Lyo-
nois, ten miles north of Lyons. Long. 6. 55- N. Lat.
45- 55-
ANSELM, archbilhop of Canterbury, in the reigns
of William Rufus and Henry I. He was born in the
year 1033, at Aoft, a town in Savoy at the foot of the
Alps. He became a monk in the abbey of Bee in
Normandy ; of which he was afterwards chofen prior,
and then abbot. In the year 1092, he was invited over
to England by Hugh earl of Chefter} and in the year
following was prevailed on, as we are told, with great
difficuliy, to accept the archbiftuipric of Canterbury.
He enjoined celibacy on the clergy 5 for which he was
baniftied by King Rufus, but recalled by Henry at his
coming to the crown. He retufed to confecrate fuch
bifhops as were invefted by the king, according to Pope
Urban’s decree •, flatly denying it to be the king’s pre¬
rogative j for this he was outed again j till, the pope and
king agreeing, he was recalled in 1107. In Ihort, from
the day of his confecration to that of his death, he was
continually employed in fighting the prerogative of the
church againft that of the crown j and for that purpofe
fpent much of his time in travelling backwards and for¬
wards between England and Rome, for the advice and
direXion of his holinefs. At the council of Bari, in
the kingdom of Naples, the pope being puzzled by the
arguments of the Greeks againft the Holy Ghoft’s pro¬
ceeding from the Father, he called upon Anfelm, who
was prefent, and he difeufled their objeXions with great
applaufe. Priefts call him a refolute faint j to other
people he appears to have been an obftinate and info-
lent prieft. He wrought many miracles, if we believe
the author of his life, both before and after his death,
which happened at Canterbury, in the 76th year of his
age, anno 1109. He was canonized in the reign of
Henry VII. Anfelm, though we may difregard him
as a faint, deferves to be remembered as one of the
principal revivers of literature, after three centuries of
profound ignorance.
His works have been printed in different years, and
at different places, viz. Nuremb. 1491. Paris 1544
and 1549. Venice 1549. Cologne 1573 and 1612.
Lyons 1630. But the beft is that of Father Gerberon,
printed at Paris 1675. It is divided into three parts j
the firft contains dogmatical traXs, and is entitled Mo-
no/ogia ; the. fecond contains praXical and devotional
traXs j the third part confifts of letters, in four books.
ANSER, the trivial name of a fpecies of anas. See
Anas, Ornithology Index.
Anser, in Aftronomy, a fmall ftar, of the fifth or
fixth magnitude, in the milky way, between the fwan
and eagle, firft brought into order by Hevelius.
ANSERES, the name which Linnaeus gives to his
third order of birds. See ORNITHOLOGY Index.
ANSIBAR1I, or Ansivarii, an ancient people of
Germany, fituated fomewhere in the neighbourhood of
the Chauci. All we know of their hiftory is, that, in
the reign of the emperor Nero, they were driven from
their own poffeflions by the Chauci. Being then in a
forlorn condition, they took poffeflion of fome uninha¬
bited lands, which had been ufed as pafture for the
horfes of the Roman foldiers. They were led by one
Boiocalus, a man of great valour, and of known fidelity
to the Romans. He remonftrated to the Romans, who-
objeXed to their taking pdffefiion of thefe lands, That
the territory in difpute was large j and requefted, that
it might be allowed to an unhappy people driven from
their own habitations : that, at the fame time, wide
traXs might be retained for the horfes and cattle of
the foldiers to graze in *, that it was inconfiftent with
humanity to famifh men in order to feed beafts, &c.:
and at laft, lifting up his eyes to heaven, he afked the
celeftial luminaries how they could behold a defolate
foil, and if they would not more juftly let loofe the fea
to fwallow up ufurpers, who had engroffed the whole
earth ? To this the Roman commander, Avitus, replied.
That the weakeft mull fubmit .to the ftrongeft ; and
that fince the gods, to whom they had appealed, had
left the fovereign judgment to the Romans, they were
refolved to fuffer no other judges than themfelves. To
Boiocalus himfelf, however, he privately offered lands
as a reward for his long attachment to the Romans j.
but tiffs offer the brave German rejeXed, as a price for.
betraying
A N S
betraying his people: adding, L „ rp, *
may want, but a place to die in we cannot. _ 1 he An-
fibarii now invited the neighbouring nations to join
them againft the Romans-, but they, dreading the
power of that nation, refufed to give them any athtt-
ance; upon which they applied to the neighbouring
nations, begging leave to fettle in their territories ; but
being everywhere driven out as enemies and intruders,
thefe unhappy people were reduced to wander up and
down till every one of them perithed.
ANSIKO, a kingdom of Africa, bounded on the
weft by the river Umbre which runs into the Zaire,
the kingdom of Wangua, and the Amboes who bor¬
der on Loango on the north, by fome deferts of Nu¬
biaand on the fouth, by Songo and Sonda, pro¬
vinces of Congo. Here are great numbers of wild
beafts, as lions, rhinocerofes, Stc. and many copper
mines. The king of Anfiko, or the great Macoco,
commands 13 kingdoms, and is efteemed the molt
.powerful monarch in Africa. The inhabitants of An¬
gola have a tradition, that this is the proper country of
the Giagas, who came originally from Sierra Leona,
and overran, like a torrent, the whole coaft as far as
Benguela ; that, being weakened by numerous battles,
and unable to force the defiles in order to return to Si¬
erra Leona, they arrived on the borders of Monomo-
tapa, where being defeated, they were forced to remain
in the provinces of Anfiko. Be this as it will, the An-
fikans yield not in the lead to the Giagas in fiercenefs
and barbarity. They are fo accuftomed to the eating
of human flelh, that it is averted they have markets
where it is publicly fold, and that there are no other
graves for the dead than the bellies of the living. I hey
try the courage of their prifoners of war by (hooting at
them as at marks, dire£fing their arrows above or around
their heads ; and whoever difcovers the leaft figns of
fear, is immediately devoured without remedy. Thofe
who appear intrepid and refolute, have their ncfes and
.ears bored, and two fore teeth of the upper jaw drawn.
T hey are then improved m barbarity, by accuftommg
them to the moft horrid cruelties.
The Anfikans are neat, well proportioned, and
ftrong; wandering about from place to place, without
either fowing or reapings 1 hey are dreaded for their
extreme brutality, and never traded with by the Euro¬
peans. Their language is barbarous, and difficult to be
learned, even by the inhabitants of Congo. The moft
diftinguiffied among them wear red and black caps of
Portuguefe velvet ;"the lower ranks go naked from the
waift upwards -, and, to preferve their health, anoint
their bodies with a compofition of pounded white fan-
dal wood and palm oil. 1 heir arms are battle axes,
and fmall but very ftrong bows, adorned with ferpents
{kins. Their ftrings are made of fupple and tender
(hoots of trees, that will not break, and their arrows
of hard and light wood. Thefe people, who kill birds
flying, (hoot with fuch furprifing fwiftnefs, that they
can difeharge 28 arrows from the bow before the firlt
falls to the ground. With equal dexterity they ma¬
nage their battle axes ; one end of which is (harpened
and cuts like a wedge, and the other flattened like
a mallet, with a handle fet between, about half the
length of the iron, rounded at the end like an apple,
and covered with the {kin of a ferpent.—The current
money in this country is the xitnbis or ftiell, which is
[ 4OO ] ^ S
A place to live in we fiffied for, and paffes among feveral African nations —
1 - — * They worihip the fun as their chief deity whom tl ey
reprefent by the figure of a man, and the moon by
that of a woman. They have alfo an infinite number
of inferior deities, each individual having a particular
idol whom he addreffes en certain occafions..
ANSLO, a fea port town of Norway, in the pro¬
vince of Aggerhuys, with a biffiop’s fee. The fu~
preme court of juftice is held here for Norway. It is
feated on a bay of the fame name. E. Long. 10. 14.
N. Lat. 50. £4. , r -f j
ANSON, George, a gentleman whole merit and
good fortune, as a naval commander, exafted him to
the rank of nobility. He was the fon of \\ illiam An-
fon Efq. of Huckborough, in Staffordihire ; and,
'{bowing an early inclination for the fea, received a
fuitable education. The firft command he enjoyed was
that of the Weafel {loop, in 1722 but the moft me¬
morable aflion of his life, and the foundation of his
future good fortune, took place on his receiving the
command of five (hips, a Hoop, and two viauallers,
equipped to annoy the Spaniards in the South
and to co-operate with Admiral Vernon acrofs the
ifthmus of Darien ; an expedition the principal objeft
of which failed by the unaccountable delay in fitting
him out. He failed, however, in Sept. 1740 doubled
Cape Horn in a dangerous feafon loft moft of his men
by the feurvy j and with only one remaining fhip,
the Centurion, croffed the great Pacific ocean. If no
confiderable national advantage refulted from this
voyage, Commodore Anfon made his own fortune,
. and enriched his furviving companions, by the capture
of a rich galleon on her paffage from Acapulco to Ma¬
nilla with which he returned home round the Cape of
Good Hope. If he was lucky in meeting this galleon,
he was no lefs fortunate in efcaping a French fleet
then cruifing in the Channel, by failing^through it du
Anflo,
Anfon.
fo
fi¬
ring a tog. He arrived at Spithead in June 1744-
In a fhort time after his return, he was appointed rear-
admiral of the blue, and one of the lords of the ad¬
miralty. In April 174^’ 'vas ttiade rear-admiral
of the white, and the following year vice-admiral of
the blue-, at which time he was chofen to reprefent
the borough of Heydon in parliament. In I747» ^e"
ing on board the Prince George of 90 guns, in com¬
pany with Admiral Warren, aftd 12 other (hips, he
intercepted, off Cape Fmiflerre, a powerful fleet,
bound from France to the Fail and Weft Indies j
when, by his valour and conduct, he again enriched
himfelf and his officers, and at the fame time {Length¬
ened the Britiffi navy, by taking fix men of war
and four Fall Indiamen, not one of them efcaping.
The French admiral, M. Jonquiere, on prefenting his
fword to the conqueror, faid, Monjieur, vous avez, vain-
cu PInvincible, et la Gloire vous fuit: “ Sir, you have
conquered the Invincible, and Glory follows you j ”
pointing to the (hips, named the Invincible and the
G lor if, he had taken. Fur his ftgnal fervices, his late
majefty created him baron of Sober ton in Hants. The
fame year he was appointed vice-admiral of the red 5
and, on the death of Sir John Norris, was made vice-
admiral of England. In 1748 he was made admiral
of the blue : he was afterwards appointed firft lord
of the admiralty, and was at length made admiral and
commander in chief of his ir.ajefty’s fleet j in which
rank
A N T
I '40 r ]
ANT
Anfpacli
rank ke continued, with a very Ihort Interval, until
his death j and the lalt fer^ice he performed was to
Ant-egg?, convey Q^ueen Charlotte to England. He died in
June 1762. No performance ever met with a more
favourable reception, than the account of Anfon’s Voy¬
age round the World. Though it is printed under
the name of his chaplain, it was cotnpofed under his
lordlhip’s own infpe&ion, and from the materials he
himfelf furnithed, by the ingenious Mr Benjamin Ro¬
bins.
ANSPACH, MarquisatE of,a fnvall territory of
Franconia, in Germany, bounded on the north by the
bilhopr-ics of Wartfburg and Bamberg, -which laft like-
wifb lies to the weft j by the earldoms of Holach and
Oeting, with the biftiopric of Aichftet, on the fouth j
and the palatinate of Bavaria and the territory of Nu¬
remberg on the eaft. The country is fruitful, and in-
terfperfed with woods, which render it agreeable for
hunting. Befides the city Anfpach, which is the capi¬
tal, the chief towns are Kreglin, Swafbach, Kreillheim,
Rot, and Waffer-Truding.
Anspach is a fmall but pretty town, very well built,
and has feveral churches. It is walled round, but has
-no other fortifications. In the palace there is a remark-
■able cabinet of curiofities. It is feated on a river of the
fame name, and belongs to the houfe of Brandenburg.
E. Long. xo. 42. N. Lat. 49. 14.
ANSPESSADES, in the French armies, a kind of
inferior officer in the foot, below the corporals, but
-above the common fentinels. There are ufually four or
five of them in a company.
ANSTRUTHER, Easter and Wester, two royal
-boroughs of Scotland, fituated on the fouth-eaft coaft
of the county of Fife, in W. Long. 2. 2f. N. Lat.
56. 20.
. AN l\ in Zos/o^y. See Formica and Termes.
ANT-Bear, or Ant-eater, in Zoology. See Myrme-
COPHAGA.
Ant eggs, a name popularly given to a kind of little
white balls found in the banks or nefts of ants, ordinari¬
ly fuppofed to be the ova of this infedl.
Late naturalifts have obferved that thefe are not
properly the ants eggs, but the young brood them-
felves in their firft ftate ; they are fo many little vermi-
culi wrapped up in a film, or Ikin, compofed of a fort
of filk, which they fpin out of themfelves as filk worms
and caterpillars do. At firft they are hardly obferved
to ftir ; but, after a few days continuance, they exhibit
a feeble motion of flexion and extenfion ; and begin to
look yellowiffi and hairy, ffiaped like fmall maggots,
in which ffiape they grow up till they are almoft as
large as ants. When they pafs their metamorphofis,
and appear in their proper ffiape, they have a fmall
black fpeck on them clofe to the anus of the enclofed
ant, which M. Leeuwenhoek probably enough ima¬
gines to be the faeces voided by it. Dr Edward King
opened feveral of thefe vulgarly reputed eggs; in fome
of which he found only a maggot in the circumftances
above deferibed j while in another the maggot had be¬
gun to put on the ffiape of an ant about the head, ha¬
ving two little yellow fpecks, where the eyes were to
be. In others, a further pmgrefs was obferved, the
included maggots being furniffied with every thing to
complete the ffiape of an ant, but wholly tranfparent,
the eyes only excepted, which were as black as bugles.
Vox.. II. Part II.
Anta.
Laftly, In others he took out very perfe<fl and complete Ant-hills
ants, which immediately crept about among the reft.
Thefe firppofed ants eggs are brought up every morning
in fummer near the top of the bank, where they are
lodged all the warm part of the day, within reach of
the fun’s influence. At night, or if it be cool, or like to
rain, they carry them down to a greater depth $ fo that
you may dig a foot deep e’er you come at them. The
true ants eggs are the white fubflance, which, upon
opening their banks, appears to the eye like the bat¬
terings of fine white fugar, or fait, but very foft and ten¬
der. Examined by a microfcope, it is found to confift
of feveral pure white appearances, in diftindft membranes,
all figured like the lefier fort of birds eggs, and as clear
as a fiffi’s bladder. The fame fubftance is found, in the
bodies of the ants themfelves. On this' fpavrn, when
emitted, they lie in multitudes, to brood, till in fome
time it is turned into little vermicules as fmall as mites,
commonly called ants eggs.
AnT-HMs, are little hillocks of earth, which the
ants throw up for their habitation and the breeding of
their young. They are a very great mifehief to dry
paftures, not only by wafting fo much land as they
cover, but by hindering the feythe in mowing the grafs,
and yielding a poor hungry food pernicious to cattle.
The manner of deftroying them is to cut them into four
parts from the top, and then dig into them fo deep as
to take out the core below, fo that, when the turf
is laid down again, it may lie fomewhat lower than
the level of the reft of the land: by this means it will
be wetter than the reft of the land : and this will pre¬
vent the ants from returning to the fame place, which
otherwife they would certainly do. The earth that is
taken out muft be fcattered to as great a diftance every
way as may be, otherwife they will collect it together,
and make another hill juft by. The proper time for
doing this is winter; and if the places be left open,
the froft and rains of that time of the year will deftroy
the reft : but in this cafe care muft be taken that they
are covered up early enough in the fpring, otherwife
they will be lefs fertile in grafs than the other places.
In Hertfordftiire they ufe a particular kind of fpade
for this purpofe. It is very {harp, and formed at the
top into the ftiape of a crefcent, fo that the whole edge
makes up more than three-fourths of a circle ; this cuts
in every part, and does the bufinefs very quickly and
effeftually. Others ufe the fame inftruments that they
do for mole-hills. Human dung is a better remedy
than all thefe, as is proved by experiment ; for it
will kill great numbers of them, and drive all the reft
away, if only a fmall quantity of it be put into their
hills.
Acid of AnTS, an acid produced by diflilling millions
of thefe infedls, either without addition, or with water.
It refembles vinegar in many refpefts j but differs from
it in forming cryftals with magnefia, iron, and zinc. Its
attra&ions are not yet determined, but are fuppofed to
coincide with thofe of vinegar.
ANTA, in the Ancient ArchiteElure, a fquare pilafter,
placed at the corners of buildings.
Anta, or Ante, a fmall kingdom on the Gold coaft
of Africa, extending about ten leagues in length.—•
The country is covered with large trees, among which
ftand a number of fine villages. The foil is exceeding¬
ly rich, and the face of the country beautiful. The
3 E air
ANT [ 402 ] A N ,.T ,r k
Antaciils, air is alfo much more falubrious than in other places of fqueezed htm to dea'h. l.hetv. e may e e- A*«»t
Antaeus, the Gold coaft j it being oblerved by ail writers,
—  ' the number of deaths here bears no proportion to that
on any other part on the coafts of Guinea. This coun¬
try contains the following villages, which deferve a
particular defeription on account of the commerce they
drive; viz. B our trey, Tokorari, Sukoada, and Satna; for
which, fee thofe articles.—Formerly Anta was potent
and populous, inhabited by a bold and rapacious peo¬
ple, who greatly annoyed the Europeans by their fre¬
quent incurfions ; but by continual wars with their
neighbours they are now greatly enfeebled, and the
country in a mannfr depopulated. I he fpirit of the
few remaining inhabitants is fled: they aye defponding,
difpirited, and abjeft, feeking proteftion from the
Dutch and other Europeans who have forts on this
coaft, and looking upon them as their beft friends. ^
ANTACIDS, in Pharmacy, an appellation given
to all medicines proper to corredl acid or four humours.
Under the clafs of Antacids come, 1. Abforbents:
as chalk, coral, fea-fhells, haematites, and fteel filings.
2. Obtundents; as oils and fats. 3* Immutants ; as
lixivious falts and foaps.
ANTaEUS, in fabulous hiftory, a giant of Libya,
fon of Neptune and Terra. Defigning to build a tem¬
ple to his father, of men’s fkulls, he flew all he met ;
but Hercules fighting him, and perceiving the afiillance
he received from his mother, (for by a touch of the
earth he refrefhed himfelf when weary), lifted him up
from the ground and fqueezed him to death.
Antaeus was king of Mauritania ; and from feve-
ral circumflances, with which we are fupplied by va¬
rious authors, it appears extremely probable that he
was the fame perfon with Atlas: they were both of
them the fons of Neptune, who reigned over Maurita¬
nia, Numidia, and a great part of Libya; as may be
naturally inferred from his having fuch particular marks
of diftin&ion conferred upon him by the inhabitants of
thofe regions. They both ruled with abfolute power
over a great part of Africa, particularly Tingitana.
Hercules defeated and flew Antaeus in the fame war
wfierein he took the Libyan world from Atlas: both
Atlas and Antaeus invaded Egypt, and contended with
Hercules in the wars with the gods, and were both
vanquifhed by him. Antaeus, as well as Atlas, was
famed for his knowledge in the celeftial fciences : from
whence we may fairly conclude them to have been the
lame king of Mauritania.
Antaeus, in his wars with Hercules, who command¬
ed an army of Egyptians and Ethiopians, behaved with
great bravery and refolution. Receiving large rein¬
forcements of Libyan troops, he cut off vaft numbers
of Hercules’s men ; but that celebrated commander
having at laft intercepted a ftrong body of Mauritanian
or Libyan forces fent to the relief of Antaeus, gave
him a total overthrow, wherein both he and the beft
part of his forces were put to the fword. This deci-
five action put Hercules in poffeflion of Libya and
Mauritania, and confequently of all the riches in thofe
kingdoms ; hence arofe the fable that Hercules find¬
ing Antaeus, a giant of an enormous fize, with whom
he was engaged in Angle combat, to receive frefh
ftrength as often as he touched his mother earth when
hrown upon her, at laft lifted him up in the air and
ouceu toe iduic,   At
las’s globe upon his own (boulders, overcame, the dra- Antavare.
gon that guarded the orchards of the Hefperides, and '
made himlelf mafter of all the golden fruit. The gold¬
en apples, fo frequently mentioned by the old my-
thologifts, were the treafures that fell into Hercules’s
hands upon Antaeus’s defeat, the. Greeks giving the
Oriental word nb'O riches, the fignification annexed to
their own term, yi/iXct, apples. Alter the moft diligent
and impartial examination of all the difterent hypo-
thefes of hiftorians and chronologers, relating to Atlas
and Antaeus, we find none lo little clogged with diffi¬
culties as that of Sir Ifaac Newton. According toUat
illuftrious author, Ammon, the father of Sefac, was the
firft king of Libya, or that vaft tra& extending from
the borders of Egypt to the A-tlantic ocean ; the con-
queft of which country was effedted by Sefac in his fa¬
ther’s lifetime. Neptune afterwards excited the Libyans
to a rebellion againft Sefac; flew him, and then invaded
Egypt under the command of Atlas or Antaeus, the fon
of Neptune, Sefac’s brother and admiral. Not long af¬
ter, Hercules, the general of Thebais and Ethiopia for
the gods or great men of Egypt, reduced a fecond time
the whole continent of Libya, having overthrown and
flain Antaeus near a town in 1 hebais, from that event
called Antaea or Antaeopolis : this, we fay, is the no¬
tion advanced by Sir Ifaac Newton, who endeavours to
prove, that the firft redudtion of Libya by Sefac hap¬
pened a little above a thoufand years before the birth
of Chrift, as the laft by Hercules did fome few years
after.
ANTAGONIST, denotes an adverfary, efpecially
in fpeaking of combats and games.
Antagonist Mufcles, in Anatomy, thofe which have
oppofite functions; as flexors and extenfors, abduftors,
and addudlors, &c.
ANTANACLASIS, in Rhetoric, a figure which
repeats the fame word, but in a different fenfe ; as dum
vivimus vivamus.
ANTAGOGE, in Rhetoric, a figure by which,
when the accufation of the adverfary is unanfwerable,
we load him with the fame or other crimes.
ANT ANDROS, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Myfia, on the fea-coaft, at the foot of Mount Alexan¬
dria, a part of Mount Ida, (Strabo, Ptolemy): it was a
town of the Leleges, (Strabo); anciently called Edoms,
then, Citnmeris, (Pliny, Stephanus). It takes its name
from Antandros, a general of the ALolians : it is now
called S. Dimitri.
ANT APHRODISIACS, in Pharmacy, medicines
proper to diminifh the femen, and confequently extin-
guifh or leffen all defires of venery.
ANTARCTIC, in a general fenfe, denotes fome-
thing oppofite to the northern or arflic pole. Hence
antardlic circle is one of the leffer circles of the fphere,
and diftant only 230 30' from the fouth pole, which is
likewife called antardlic for the fame reafon.
ANTARES, in AJlronomy, the name of a ftar of
the firft magnitude, called alio the fcorpion’s heart.
Its longitude is 6q° 13' 14" of Sagitarius; and its la¬
titude 430 51' 26" fouth.
ANTAVARE, a province of the ifland of Mada-
gafcar, lying about 210 30' S. Lat. and bounded by
the
ANT
[ 4°3 ]
ANT
Ante
the province and cape of Manoufi. The greateft part
of it is watered by the river Mananzari, whofe fource
is in the red mountains of Ambohitfmene.
ANTE, in Heraldry, denotes that the pieces are
let into one another in fuch a form as there is expreffed ;
for inftance, by dove tails, round, fwallow tails, or the
like.
ANTE A.MBULONES, in Roman antiquity, fer-
vants who went before perfons of diftinclion to clear the
way before them. They ufed this formula, Date locum
domino meo, i. e. “ Make room or way for my mafter.”
ANTECEDENT, in general, fomething that goes
before another, either in order of time or place.
Antecedent, in Grammar, the words to which a
relative refers.
Antecedent, in Logic, is the firfl; of the two pro-
pofitions in an enthymeme.
ANTECEDENT, in Mathematics, is the firft of two
terms of a ratio, or that which is compared with the
ther.
ANTECEDENCE, in AJlronomy, an apparent
motion of a planet towards the weft, or contrary to the
order of the tigns.
ANTECESSOR, one that goes before. It was an
appellation given to thofe who excelled in any fcience.
Juftinian applied it particularly to profeffors of civil
law •, and, in the univerfities of France, the teachers
of law take the title antecejjors in all their thefes.
ANTECURSORES, in the Roman armies, a party
of horfe detached before, partly to get intelligence,
provifions, &c. and partly to choofe a proper place to
encamp in. Thefe were otherwife called antecejfores,
and by the Greeks prodromi.
ANTEDATE, among lawyers, a fpurious or falfe Aatedate
date prior to the true date of a bond, bill, or the 1!
... r Antedifu-
•• vians.
ANTEDILUVIAN, in a general fenfe, implies . . .
fomething that exitted before the flood.
Antediluvian World; the earth as it exifted be¬
fore the flood. See Earth.
ANTEDILUVIANS, a general name for all man¬
kind who lived before the flood, and fo includes the
whole of the human race from Adam to Noah and his
family. _ 1
As Mofes has not fet down the particular time ofchronolo-
' any tranfa&ion before the flood, except only the years gy of the
of the father’s age wherein the feveral defcendants offilCt aSeir-
Adam in the line of Seth were begotten, and the
length of their feveral lives *, it has been the bufinefs
of chronologers to endeavour to fix the years of the
lives and deaths of thofe patriarchs, and the diftance of
time from the creation to the deluge. In this there
could be little difficulty, were there no varieties in the
feveral copies we now have of Mofes’s writings j which
are, the Hebrew, the Samaritan, and the Greek verfion
of the Septuagint j but as thefe differ very confiderably
from one another, learned men are much divided in
their opinion concerning the chronology of the firfl;
ages of the world; fome preferring one copy, and fome
another.
That the reader may the better judge of the varia¬
tions in the three copies in this period, they are exhi¬
bited in the following table, with the addition of thofe
of Jofephus as correfted by Dr Wells and Mr Whi
\ fton.
A TABLE of the Years of the Antediluvian Patriarchs.
Their ages at their fons birth.
Adam,
Seth,
Enos,
Cainan,
Mahalaleel,
Jared,
Enoch,
Methufelah,
Lamech,
Noah was aged,
at the flood
!’}
Heb.
13O
90
70
65
162
65
187
182
600
Sam. Sept. Jof.
130 230 130
105 205 105
90 190
70 170
65 165
62 162
65 165
67 167 187
53 188 182
iloo 600 600
90
70
65
62
65
To the Flood, 1656 1307 2262 1556
Years they lived
after their fons
birth.
Heb. Sam. Sept.
800 800 700
807 807 707
815 815 715
840 840 74O
8?0 830 730
800 785 800
3OO 3OO 200
782 653 802
595 600 565
Length of their
lives.
Heb. Sam. Sept.
93° 93° 930
912 912 912
9°5 9°5 9°5
910 910 910
895 895 895
962 847 962
365 365 365
969 720 969
777 653 753
To this Table it will be neceflary, in order to ex¬
plain the confequences of thefe variations, to add fepa-
xate chronological tables, fhowing in what year of his
contemporaries the birth and death of each patriarch
happened, according to the computation of each of the
faid three copies.
3 E 2
A Chronological
Antedi¬
luvians.
ANT
[ 404 1
ANT
A Chronological TABLE of the Yeart of the Patriarchs, according to the Computation of the Hebrew.
Antedi
luvians
Adam created,
Seth born,
Enos born,
Cainan born, -
Mahalaleel born,
Jared born,
Enoch bom,
Methufelah born,
Lamech born,
Adam dies,
Enoch tranflated,
Seth dies,
Noah born,
Enos dies,
Cainan dies, -
Mahalaleel dies,
Jared dies,
Japhet born,
Shem born,
Lamech dies,
Methufelah dies,
S3 %
O
I3O r
235 I05
325 '95
395 265
460 330
622 492
687 557
874 744
930 800
987 857
1042 912
1056
1140
1235
1290
1422
1556
155 8
1651
1656'
90
160
n
5*
3
3
65
70
225 135
387 297 227
452 362 292
639 549 479
695 6o5 535
752 662 592
807 717 647
821 731 661
905 817 745
910 840
895
p w
5? 3
P- 8
162
227 65
414 252
470 308
527 365
c82
596
680
775
830
962
The Flood,
s'
c
3
84
187 •
243 56
300 113
355 t68
369 182
453 266
548 361 179
603 4*6 234
735 548 366
869 682 500
871 684 502
964 777 595
969 600
A Chronological TABLE of the Tears of the Patriarchs, according to the Computation oj me Septuagint*
Adam created,
Seth born,
Enos born,
Cainan born,
Mahalaleel born,
Adam dies,
Jared born,
Enoch born,
Seth dies,
Methufelah born,
Enos dies,
Lamech born,
Enoch tranflated,
Cainan dies, -
Noah born,.
Mahalaleel dies,
Jared dies,
Japhet born, -
Shem born,
Lamech dies,
Methufelah dies,
The Flood,
C/3
- I
230
435 205
625 395
795 565
930 700
960 730
1122 892
1142 912,
i387
1340
1474
i487
1535
1662
1690
1922
2162
2164
2227
2256
2263.
D
o
190 •
360 170
495 3°5.
525 335'
687 467'
707 517
852 662
9°5 7r5
849
862
910
135 n
165 •
327 l62
347 182
492 327
545 38°
679 5H
692 527
740 575:
867 702
895: 730
962
3
l65 g
218, •
352 187
365 200
248
375
403
635
875
877
940
969,
P
S
o
61
188 "
216 28
448 260
688 500
690 502
753 565
594:
609
ANT
C 405 ]
ANT
Antedilu¬
vians.
A Ghronological TABLE, of theTearsof the Patriarchs, according to the Computation of the Samaritan Pentateuch*
Adam created, - 1
Seth born, - 130
Enos born, - 235
Cainan born, - 325
Mahalaleel born, 395
Jared born, - 460
Enoch born, - 522
Methufelah born, 587
Lamech born, 654
Noah born, - 707
Enoch tranflated, 887
Adam dies, - 930
Seth dies, - 1042
Enos dies, - 1140
Japhet born, - 1207
Shem born, - 1209
Cainan dies, - 1235
Mahalaleel dies, 1290
Jared, Methufe-'V
lah, and La- > 1307
mech, die, J;
w
zr 3
• o
C/5
IOJ *•
i95 9°
265 160
33° 225
392 287
457 352
524 419
577 472
757 652
800 693
912 807
9°5
n *si
w p
3 co
fO t—‘
a
• CD
CD
7o r-
135 6S
I97 127
262 192
329 259
382 312
562 497
603 335
717 647
815 745
882 812
884 814
9x0 840
895
The Flood,
62
127
194
247
427
470
582
680
747
749
775
830
847
W
o
65
132
185
365
67 •
120 33
300 233
343 276
462 388
553 486
620 333
622 333
648 381
7°3 636
55
O
s-
180.
323
335
433-
500
502.
328
583
720 6'33 600
To the varieties exhibited in the two laft tables, others
might be added, by admitting the various readings of
fome numbers in the Samaritan and Septuagint: for as
to the Hebrew copies, there is here a conftant agree¬
ment among them.
The manufcript from which the Samaritan Penta¬
teuch was publilhed, agrees exa£lly with the Samari¬
tan numbers given by Eufebius. But St Jerome tells
us, that in his time, there were fome Samaritan co¬
pies which make Methufelah 187 years old at thabirth
of Lamech, and Lamech 182 at the birth of Noah,
juft as the Hebrew does. Now if thefe numbers be
approved as the true original numbers, the interval
from the creation to the flood will be 1356 years ; dif¬
fering from the Hebrew computation but 100 years in
the age of Jared at the birth of Enoch ; and if this laft
be allowed to be a miftake of the tranfcriber, by his
dropping a number, and writing 62 inftead of 162, as
has been fufpe&ed, the Samaritan will be perfeflly re¬
conciled with the Hebrew,, and all difference between
them vanifh.
Scaliger, on the authority of an old Samaritan chro¬
nicle, having at the end a table of the years of the pa¬
triarchs to the time of Mofes, would corredt two of
the Samaritan numbers in Eufebius j viz. inftead of
63, the age of Mahalaleel when he begat Jared, he
thinks it (hould be 73 $ and inftead of 67, the age of
Methufelah when he begat Lamech, he would have k
77. By which alterations he reckons 20 years more to
the flood than Eufebius and the manufcript; that is,
1327, But, as he acknowledges the table, whereon.he
grounds thefe corrections, contains fome great abfurdi-
ties, it feems unreafonable to oppofe it to the joint au¬
thority of Eulbbius and the Samaritan manufcript,
4<
As to the Septuagint, in the common editions of that’
verfion, the age of Methufelah at the birth of Lamech
is 167 ; and confequently the fum of this period, ac¬
cording to them, is no more than 2242. But, in this
cafe, Methufelah ivill outlive the flood 14 years •, and
we may well wonder, with Eufebius, where he was
preferved. To obviate this objeClion, we are told, that,
in fome copies, Methufelah is faid to have lived but 782
(not 802) years after the birth of Lamech, and no more
than 949 in all. But the Alexandrian manufcript en¬
tirely takes away the difficulty, by giving the fame
number in this place with the Hebrew.
Pezron is of opinion, that the age of Lamech, at the
birth of Noah, fhould be but 182, as it is-both in the
Hebrew and in Jofephus, fuppofing, with St Auftin,
that the prefent number is the error of the fcribe who
firft copied the original Septuagint manufcript in Pto¬
lemy’s library. So that he computes 2236 years to the
flood* And^ if this correction be admitted, and one
more mentioned alfo by St Auftin, viz. that Lamech
lived 593 years after the birth of Noah, and not 363,
as in the prefent copies, there will then remain no other
difference between the Septuagint and the Hebrew
than 600 years added • to the ages of the fix patriarchs
when they begat their fons, and Methufelah will, cone
formably to the Hebrew and Samaritan, die in the year
of the flood.
Having premifed this chronological viewy we (hall
proceed to the hiftory of the antediluvian patriarchs. a
Qf the great progenitor we are told, that “ the Lord Of Adam
God took the man and put him into the garden.”111 haradiA
Thefe words plainly indicate, that Adam was not created
within the preckCts of Paradife ; and it is afterwards
faid,. upon his bung turned out of the garden, “ He
was.',
ANT
[ 4°6 ]
ANT
Antediiu- w.ii i’^nt to till the ground whence he was taken.”—
vians. As to the lituation of this garden, concerning which
' v ' there has been fo much learned but uncertain inquiry,
fee the article Paradise. #
Adam was doubtlefs created in the prime of his life,
with all his powers and faculties in the higheft degree
of ftrength and vigour. His body would be graceful,
and well proportioned; while his countenance^ was
comely, and glowed with all the luftre of youthful inno¬
cence.' The poet thus defcribes our firfc parents :
Adam the goodlieft man, of men fince born
His fons: the faireft of her daughters Eve.
 for in their looks divine
The image of their glorious Maker (hone. Milton.
Many have entertained an opinion (as mentioned
under the article Adam), that our firft parent was
created an adept in knowledge and in fcience, a. con-
fummate philofopher, and an accomplilhed divine.
But the very reverfe of this muft be true, providing
we ^ive credit to the account which. Mofes gives of
him? If Adam was created with intuitive knowledge,
for what end was he endowed with the fenfes of a man,
through which ideas might be conveyed to his mind,
and make him capable of fuch improvements as arife
from experience and obfervation ? And if he original¬
ly poffeffed fuch a fund of valuable knowledge, why
had he fuch an ardent third for an unwarrantable por¬
tion of more, and for the fake of this additional pittance
forfeited his happinefs and life ? Befides, if Adam was
at firft all light and knowledge, and was fopn after re¬
duced to a date of ignorance and error, this tranfition
would make a retrograde in the fyftem of nature, quite
diflimilar to that uniformity which obtains throughout
the whole of the divine government and economy.
Mofes introduces our firft parents into life in the moft
natural manner, as having capacities to acquire know¬
ledge, fenfes to receive impreffions from obje&s round
them’ and a fufficient degree of reafon to form a judge¬
ment of the things perceived: yet all thefe faculties can
only be confidered as fo many inftruments, by the exer-
cife of which they might be enabled to difcharge the du¬
ties of their future life.
Smellie's The following portrait of our firft progenitor when
Tranjla- he firft came into life, drawn by the inimitable pencil
tion, vol iii. 0f Buffon, is extremely beautiful, while it is diffonant
p 5o. Sec. from nQ part of the Mofaic hiftory. “ Let us fuppofe
flge here a man in the fame fituation with him who firft received
abridged.) exiftence ; a man whofe organs were perfe&ly formed,
but who was equally new to himfelf, and to every
objedft which furrounded him. Were he to give a .hi¬
ftory of his thoughts, and of the manner in which
he received impreflions, he might give fome fuch in¬
formation as this. I remember the moment when my
exiftence commenced. It was a moment replete with
joy, with amazement and anxiety. I neither knew
what I was, where I was, nor whence I came. I opened
my eyes. But what an amazing increafe of fenfation !
The light, the celeftial vault, the verdure of the earth,
the tranfparency of the waters, gave animation to
my fpirits, and conveyed pleafures which exceed the
powers of expreffion. At firft I believed that all thefe
obje£b exifted within me, and formed a part of my-
felf. When, turning mine eyes to the fun, his fplen-
4our overpowered me. I voluntarily (hut out the
3
lioht and felt a fmall degree of pain. During this Antedilu-
moment of darknefs, I imagined that I had loft the vians.
greateft part of my being. I was then roufed with
a variety of founds. 1 he finging of birds and the
murmuring breezes formed a concert, which excited
moft fweet and enchanting emotions. I liftened, and
was convinced that thefe harmonious founds exifted
within me.—I made a ftep forwards; and afterwards
renewing my motion, I walked with my lace turned
towards the heavens; till I ftruck againft a palm tree,
and felt fome degree of pain. Seized with terror, I
ventured to lay my hand upon the object, and per¬
ceiving it to be a being diftinA from myfelf, becaufe it
did not, like touching my own body, give me a double
fenfation. I refolved then to feel every objeft I faw,
and had a ftrong defire to touch the fun ; out ftretch-
ing out my hands to embrace the heavens, they met
without any intermediate object. All obje&s appear¬
ed to me equally near; and it was not till after many
trials that I learned to ufe my eye as a guide to my hand.
At laft the train of my ideas was interrupted, and I loft
the confcioufnefs of my exiftence. My fleep was pro¬
found; but having no mode of meafuring time, I knew
nothing of its duration. When I awakened, I wasafto-
nilhed to find by my fide another form, perk&ly fimilar
to-my own. I conceived it to be another felf; and in-
ftead of lofing by my fleep, I imagined myfelf to be
double. I ventured to lay my hand upon this new be¬
ing. With rapture and aftoniftunent I perceived that
it was not myfelf, but fomething much more glorious
and defirable.”
This philofophical detail coincides with the opinion
that, excepting what portions of knowledge Adam
might acquire by the exercife of his fenfes, his Maker
taught him every thing that was neceffary lor his com¬
fort and fubfiftence. ^But before the Almighty gave
any inftruaions to our firft parents, we muft fuppofe
he infpired them with the knowledge of the mean¬
ing of every word which they heard him fpeak ; other-
wife it would have been impoflible that he could have
had any fuch communication with them. The words
which they heard and were made to underftand, be¬
ing imprinted upon their memories, would ferve as
the foundation of a language, which they would af¬
terwards increafe and enlarge as new obje£ls began to
multiply, and hence give rife to new terms and defini¬
tions.
One of the firft leffons taught to Adam by his in¬
fallible Dire&or, would be the neceflity of food for
the fupport of his life. Accordingly Mofe.s informs us,
that for this purpofe a grant was made him to eat of
every tree of the garden, excepting one. At the fame
time it was made known to him, in what manner he
was to repair the decays of nature, namely, by eating
of the tree of life. Then, in order to qualify him for
focial intercourfe, he was ordered to exercife his fa¬
culty of fpeech, by giving names to different creatures.
The author of the book of Ecclefiafticus fays of our
firft parents, “ They received the ufe of the five ope¬
rations of the Lord ; and in the fixth he imparted to
them underftanding; and in the feventh, fpeech to in¬
terpret the cogitations thereof.” The meaning can¬
not be, that he gave them every word they were to
pronounce, more than every idea which their fenfe*
were to convey to their underftanding. Our talents,
and
ANT
A n ted i'li¬
ar) d tire exercife of them, may be both
given us of God ; but whatever capacities we receive
■ t from him, it Is fuppofed that we ourfelves mud im¬
prove them, before we can attain to any fiecjuirements
whatever. Although Adam had heard and underftood
the words of God, yet Mofes does not give the lead
hint that he ever attempted to fpeak before this time.
For if he had, as fome imagine, innate knowledge and
proper terms for every thing prefented to him, what
occafion was there to bring animals before him to fee
what names he would impofe upon them ? Some wai¬
ters have endeavoured to turn into ridicule the whole
of this tranfa&ion, and have alked, how could all
creatures upon earth appear at one time before Adam ?
not only one, but many days would have elapfed be¬
fore he could give each a name. But this objection
arifes from not underftanding the words of Mofes.
What our tranflators render, to fee what he would call
THEM, is in the original, to fee what name he would
call IT. “ And whatfoever Adam called IT, (viz. the
living creature), that wras the name of IT.” The mean¬
ing feems to be no more than this : God brought a few
creatures to Adam, to make him try to name them ;
and whatever he called any of them, that continued to
be its name. And no doubt he would denominate
every animal before him, from its external appearance,
from its fize, its colour, or its voice : And in procefs
of time, he would give names to all thofe creatures
which Providence brought within his view, or with
which he became afterwards acquainted.
The next thing in which God inftru&ed Adam,
though probably in a trance or vifion, was his near re¬
lation to Eve, as being a part of his own body. This
piece of knowledge was imparted to him, in order to
cement the greater love and affedtion between the two
during the remaining period of their lives.
Thefe, according to Mofes, are all the tranfadlions
in which our firft parents were interefted during their
abode in paradife, till they loft their innocence, and
forfeited the enjoyments of their happy fituation. And
nothing can be more evident, than that the inftruc-
tions which they received befpoke the infantile ftate of
their minds; though there is no doubt but further and
higher difpenfations of knowledge would have been
communicated to them, as they became able to bear
them, and had their minds matured by experience and
3 refledlion.
Hew long How long our firft parents retained their innocence,
rents re-Pa"'we are nowhere told. Many affert that they fell on
tained their the very firft day of their creation. But Mofes men-
innoeence. tions fo many tranfa£lions on that day, as muft have
engrofled the whole of their attention, and prevented
them from falling into fuch temptations as arife from
indolence and want of refledlion. Befides, if, in fuch
circumfiances as they were placed, they could not re¬
frain from an open violation of the Divine law for the
fpace of one day, it would befpeak a deceitfulnefs of
heart in them greater than in moft of their pofterity.
It is fomewhat Angular, that many of the great trials
recorded in facred writing were limited to 40 days $
which in prophetic ftyle is fometimes equivalent to 40
years. This appears from the hiftory of Mofes, of Eli-
[ 407 ] ANT
faid to be jah, of NineVeb, and of the Jewifti nation after the Antedilu-
death of Chrift. And, what is very remarkable, he, vians.
of whom Adam was a type, was tempted 40 days in ——v——J
the wildernefs. Agreeable to this part of the Divine
economy, perhaps the trial of our firft parents lafted
fo long. However, that they remained for a confider-
able time in the garden, appears highly probable from
this confideration, that their indulgent Creator, who
had manifefted his tender concern for them while in¬
nocent, and extended his mercy to them when fallen,
would never have turned them out of paradife, and
fent them into an uncultivated w7orld, before they had
acquired the arts of living, and were capable of provid¬
ing againft the viciflitudes of their future lot. The
particulars of this memorable tranfadion are confidered
under the article Fall.
Mofes gives us no farther account of Adam’s life
after leaving the garden, but that he begat fome chil¬
dren, and died at fuch an age. Yet we have noreafon
to doubt, but the venerable patriarch ever after led a
life of penitence, and of the ftrideft piety. The va¬
rious communieations which he had enjoyed with his
Maker in paradife, and which were probably renewed
to him after his fall, could not fail to make the deepeft
impreflions upon his mind. The gracious refpite he
had met with, from the execution of the fentence de¬
nounced againft him, would make him cautious of of¬
fending for the time to come j left the next violation
of the Divine authority ftiould put an end to his exift-
ence. The cherubim andJiaming/word, or the devour¬
ing flame, on the eajl of Eden (which might continue
burning all his life) would be to him w hat the veftiges
of the ark were to Noah and his fons, an awful memo¬
rial of the danger of incurring the Divine difplea-
fure. Befides, his W'orldly comforts being in a great
meafure withdrawn, his mind would be naturally difpo-
fed for reliftiing thofe pleafures which flow from piety
and religion.
The firft thing which we hear of Adam in his new Qf tj^jr
fituation was, that he knew Eve his wife, and Jhe con- progeny.
ceived and bare Cain. Afterwards, we are told, Ihe
bare Abel. When the brothers were grown up, they
betook themfelves to diftin£l employments j the for¬
mer to hufbandry, and the latter to the keeping of
flieep. Their inward difpofitions rvere ftill more dif¬
ferent ; Cain being wicked and avaricious, but Abel
juft and virtuous.
In procefs of time they brought their refpe&ive of¬
ferings to God ; Cain of the fruit of the ground, and
Abel of the firftlings of his flock : but they met with
very different fuccefs j for God accepted the offering
of Abel, but Cain’s he did not accept j the confe-
quences of which are related under the articles Abel
and Cain.
Soon after the murder of Abel, his lofs was made up
to his parents in another fon they had, whom Eve na¬
med Seth, that is “ appointed becaufe he was ap¬
pointed inftead of Abel whom Cain flew.
As the whole progeny of Adam, of whom we have
any mention in Scripture, were the defeendants of Cain
and Seth, it may be proper to give the following
Genealogical
sei/i.
ANT
vians.
I - f
ANT [ 40B 3
Genealogical TABLE of the ANTEDILUVIANS.
'An ted Hu-*
vians.
Of the line The facred hiftorian, confining himfelf chiefly to the
of Cain. line of Seth, from whence Noah was defcended, has
acquainted us with very few particulars relating to that
of Cain: nor can we thus form any conje&ures how
long he or any of his defcendants lived. All we know
is, that Lamech, the fifth in defcent from him, married
two wives, Adah and Zillah, the firft known inflance
of polygamy 5 that by the former he had two funs,
Jabal, who was the firft that dwelt in tents, and fed
cattle, and Jubal, the inventor of mufic ; and by the
other, a fon named Tubal-Cain, who found out the art
of forging and wofking metals. Zillah likewife brought
him a daughter named Naamah, fuppofed to have in¬
vented fpinning and weaving: and we are told that,
on fome occafion or other, i«amech made a fpeech to
6 his wives, the explication of which has greatly puzzled
The line of the interpreters. See Lamech.
Seth. Mofes proceeds to tell us, that Seth had a Ion born
Miln's Phy- to h;m called Enos, and that then began men to call up-
JicoTheol. Qn the name 0fthe Lord% Commentators give us three
“c. different fenfes of thefe words. Some think the words
fhould be rendered, Then men profaned in calling on
the name of the Lord; and that even Enos arrogated
to himfelf a power as if he had been a god.. But this
fenfe feems harlh and unnatural. There is nothing
more unlikely, than that Adam’s grandchildren, who
lived under his own eye, would fo foon fhake off pa¬
rental authority, and apoftatize from the belief and
worfhip of the one true God. Others think,, that
though men had hitherto worlhipped God in private,
yet they now inftituted public affemblies, met in larger
focieties for folemn and focial worlhip, and introduced
liturgies and forms for more effe&ually paying their
homage to the Almighty. 1 his indeed is a very na¬
tural comment from thofe who place religion in modes
and fet forms of worlhip. But it is fcarcely credible,
that Adam and his family had never met together to
worlhip God till now, when we are told that Cain and
Abel, and probably both their families along with
them, brought their offerings to the Lord ; this they
no doubt did every Sabbath day. Others, therefore,
put a more confiftent interpretation upon the words,
namely^
ANT [ 409 ] ANT
Antedilu- namely, that men now called them/elves by the name of
vians. the Lord. The meaning of which is, that about this
u—    period, the family of Seth, who adhered to God and
his worlhip, began to give themfelves a denomination,
expreflive of their relation and regards to him. They
diftinguilhed themfelves from the irreligious family of
Cain, and affumed the title of the fans or children of
God : which defignation was afterwards applied to them
by Mofes ; it was even ufed after the flood, and adopted
by the writers of the New Teftament.
Of the three next defcendants of Seth, Cainan, Ma-
halaleel, and Jared, and of Methufelah and Lamech,
the grandfather and father of Noah, Mofes has record¬
ed no more than their feveral ages. The oriental au¬
thors commend them, as they do Seth and Enos, for
their piety, and the falutary injunflions they left behind
them, forbidding their children all intercourfe with the
race of curfed Cain.
Enoch the fon of Jared, and father of Methufelah,
was a perfon of moft extraordinary piety, walking with
God, as the Scripture exprelfes it, for at lead the laft
three hundred years of bis life 5 as a reward for which
exemplary behaviour in fo corrupt an age, he was ta¬
ken up by God into heaven, without tailing death. See
7 Enoch.
Corruption Mofes afterwards informs us, When men began to
ofthehu-; multiply, i. e. when the earth was filled with inhabi-
naan race, tants, and tribes formerly living remote began to ap¬
proach nearer to one another, Daughters were born un¬
to them: meaning in greater abundance than formerly j
which feems to hint, that at this period there were
confiderably more females than males born into the
world. Some think that Mofes, being now about to
mention the wickednefs of the Antediluvians, intro¬
duces the pollerity of Cain as being the chief caufe of
their corruption ; and that he ftyles them men and
daughters of men, becaufe they were fenfual and earthly $
in which fenfe the word men is fometimes ufed in the
Scriptures.
The fans of Godfuw the daughters of men that they
were fair; and they took them wives of all that they
chofe. Thefe words have given rife to many abfurd
and ridiculous comments both of Jews and Chriftians.
There are two meanings affixed to them, which may
be mentioned as the moft probable. Whenever the
name of God is added to any thing, it not only de¬
notes God’s being the efficient caufe, but it heightens
and increafes its ufual meaning. For which reafon
any thing that is excellent in its kind, or uncommonly
lofty and magnificent, Avas by the Jews faid to be of
God, or of the Lord. Thus the angels are called the
fons of God. And Adam being created with a nobler
image than any other creature, is faid to be made in
the image of God. The cedars of Lebanon are called
the cedars of the Lord; and great mountains, the
mountains of God. Therefore by the fons oj God in
this place are meant men of great opulence, power,
and authority. And by way of contrail, the hiftorian
introduces thofe of poor and mean circumftances in
life, and calls them the daughters of men. The words
thus explained, are not an unlikely defcription of that
diffolute age. The great and mighty in this world
are commonly moft addi&ed to fenfual gratifications,
becaufe they have fo many incentives to inflame their
paffions, and fo few reftraints to curb them j and, in-
Vol. II. Part II.
Head of ufing their power to punifti and difcountenance Antedilu-
vice, are too often the greateft examples and promoters viaus.
of lafcivioufnefs and debauchery. Thus, thefe fons of ' v "‘l
God, thefe great men, when they happened to meet
with the daughters of their inferiors, gazed upon them
as fit objects to gratify their lull \ and from among
thefe they took to themfelves, in a forcible manner,
wives, or (as it may be rendered) concubines, of all that
they chofe, whether married or unmarried, without ever
alking their confent. No wonder, then, that the earth
fliould be filed with violence, when the higheft rank of
men were above the reftraint of law, of rcafon, and re¬
ligion, and not only opprefled the poor, but with im¬
punity treated them and their children in fuch a bafe
and cruel manner.
But there are other writers who cannot reliffi the
above opinion 5 becaufe they think it a harfti and un¬
natural conftruftion, to call great and powerful perfons
the, f ns of God, and all mean and plebeian Avomen the
daughters of men. Befides, the text does not fay, that
the fons of God offered any violence to thefe inferior
Avomen ; but that they faw that they were fair, and
made choice of them for wives. And Avherein is the
heinoufnefs of the offence, if men of a fuperior rank
marry their inferiors, efpecially when an excefs of
beauty apologizes for their choice ? Or why ffiould a
few unequal Matches be reckoned among the caufes of
bringing upon the Avorld an univerfal deftru&ion ? For
thefe reafons many are of opinion, that the defcendants
of Seth, Avho Avere ftyled the fons of God on account of Miln,
their near relation to him, farv the daughters of menf 2<55'
i. e. the impious progeny of Cain, and by intermar¬
riages became affociated Avith them *, and furrendering
to thofe enchantreffes their hearts and their freedom,
they furrendered at the fame time their virtue and their
religion. From this union proceeded effedls fimilar to
Avhat has happened ever fince. When a pure fociety
mixes Avith a profane, the better principles of the one
become foon tainted by the evil praftices of the other -y
Avhich verifies the old adage, Evil communication cor¬
rupts good manners. Thus it appears, that the great
fource of univerfal degeneracy was OAving to the pofte-
rity of Seth mingling with the progeny of Cain, in op-
pofition to Avhat their pious fathers had ftridlly charged
them.
It is afterwards faid, There were giants, in the earth
in thofe days : and alfo after that, when the fons of God
came in unto the daughters of men, and they bare chil¬
dren to them, the fame became mighty men, which were
of old men of renown. Tranflators are not agreed
about the meaning of the word giants. Some render
the vtard, violent and cruel men ; others, men Avho fall
upon and rufh forward, as a robber does upon his prey :
the meaning then is, that they Avere not more remark¬
able for their ftrength and ftature, than for their vio¬
lence and cruelty. In Luther’s German tranflajion of
the Bible, this Avord is render* d tyrants. It is generally
agreed, that in the firft ages of the world, men were of
a gigantic ftature ; though Mofes does not mention
them as giants till after the union of the families of
Seth and Cain, when men ufed their fuperiority in bodi¬
ly ftrength for the purpofes of gratifying their unhallow¬
ed paffions.
At this period of the Avorld, and long after, politi¬
cal poAver and bodily ftrength went hand and hand to-
3 F gether.
God’s for¬
bearance.
ANT [41
Ante&lu- getlier. Whoever was able to encounter and kill a
vians. fierce and dangerous wild beaft, and clear the country
‘u 1 v— ' of noxious animals, or who was able in the day of
battle to deftroy moll; of his enemies, was looked up to
by the reft of his companions as the fitteft to be their
leader and commander. Thus Nimrod, from being a
might]] hunter, became a great king, and, grafpmg at
power, was never fatisfied till every obftacle to his am¬
bition was removed. And it appears from hiftory,
that all his fucceffors have pretty nearly trodden in
the fame path. Thefe giants then, or Jons of God,
might be the chief warriors, who formed themfelves
into chofen bands, and living among a cowardly and
effeminate people, had no curb to their cruelty and
luft. From them might fpring an illegitimate ract,
refembling their fathers in body and mind, who, when
they grew up, having no inheritance, would be turned
loofe ’upon the world, and follow no other employ¬
ment but theft, rapine, and plunder. Thus they be¬
came mighty men and men of renown, and procured
themfelves a name', but this was owing to the.mifchief
they did, and the feats ©f favage cruelty which they
" performed. #
Mankind running thus headlong into all manner or
vice, were admonifhed to repent j and God, out of his
great mercy, was pleafed to grant them a convenient
time for that purpofe} no lefs than 120 years, during
which fpace, but no longer, he declared his Spirit ftiould
“ ftrive with man,” or endeavour to awaken and reclaim
them from their wicked courfe of life.
Amidft this general corruption, one man, however,
was found to be juft and perfea in his generation, walk¬
ing with God. This extraordinary perfon was Noah,
the fon of Lamech ; who, not thinking it fufficient to
be righteous himfelf, unlefs he did his utmoft to turn
others likewife to righteoulnefs by admonition as rvell as
example, became a preacher to the abandoned race
among which he lived, employing both his counfel and
authority to bring them to a reformation of their
manners, and to reftore the true religion among
them. But all he could do was to no purpofe j for
they continued incorrigibly obftinate \ fo that at length
(as Jofephus tells us), finding himfelf and family in
imminent danger of fome violence in return for his good
will, he departed from among them, with his wife and
children.
On his departure, it is probable they fell into greater
diforders than before •, having now none to controul, or
even to trouble them with unwelcome advice. Mofes
affures us, that the wickednefs of man was great in the
earth, and that every imagination of the thoughts of
his heart was continually evil 5 and that “ the earth
was corrupt and filled with violence, all flefti having
corrupted his way upon the earth.” Thefe words leave
no room to incjuire into the particular crimes of the A.n-
tediluvian world, which feemsto have been overrun with
a complication of all manner of debauchery and wick¬
ednefs, and above all with violence and injuftice towards
one another.
The whole Things being in this ftate, God, as the facred hifto-
workl rian pathetically expreffes it, “ repented that he had
ftroyed by made nian on earth, and it grieved him at his heart.”
9
Preaching
of Noah.
10
Mankind
incorrigi¬
ble.
11
And the time of forbearance being elapfed, he paffed
cept Noah - • • ' n
a fk O' c-«-
and hisla1 the Sentence of their utter deftruflion by a flood of
mily. waters; a fentence which likewife included the beads
o ] AN T
of the earth, and every creeping thing, and the fowls of Antedilu-
the air. But Noah found grace in the eyes of the _ vi&ns.
Lord-,” who had before acquainted him with his defign '
of bringing a deluge on the earth, and direaed him to
make an ark, or veffel, of a certain form and fize, ca¬
pable of containing not only himfelf and family, but fuch
numbers of animals of all forts as would be fufficient to
preferve the feveral fpecies, and again repleniffi the earth,
together with all neceffary provifions for them. All
thefe injunaions Noah performed ; and, by God’s pe¬
culiar favour and providence, he and thofe that were
with him furvived this tremendous calamity. See the
article Deluge. . , r> j ^ a\- r
As to any further tranfaaions before the flood, we are Tradmonaf
left entirely in the dark by the facred hiftorian. The
Jews and eaftern nations, howTever, have made ample juv-alis>
mends for the filence of Mofes, by the abundance of
their traditions. T he only part of thefe, which can be
conneaed in any thing like hiftory, is what follows.—- '
After the death of Adam, Seth, with his family, fepa-
rated themfelves from the profligate race of Cain, and
chofe for their habitation the mountain where Adam
was buried, the Cainites remaining below, in the plain
where Abel was killed ; and, according to_ our hifto-
rians, this mountain was fo high, that the inhabitants
could hear the angels finging the praifes of God, and
even join them in that fervice. Here they lived in great
purity and fanftity of manners. Their conftant employ¬
ment was praifing God, from which they had few or no
avocations j for their only food was the fruit of the
trees which grew on the mountain, fo that they had
no occafion to undergo any fervile labours, nor the trou¬
ble of fowing and ‘ gathering in their harveft. They
were utter ftrangersto envy, injuftice, or deceit. I heir
only oath ivas, “ By the blood of Abel j ’ and they
every day went up to the top of the mountain to
worffiip God, and to vifit the body of Adam, as
a mean of procuring the divine blefiing. Here, by
contemplation of the heavenly bodies, they laid the
foundations of the feience of aftronomy j and left their
inventions ftiould be forgotten, or loft before tkey were
publicly known, underftanding, from a predidlion of
Adam’s, that there would be a general deftruftion of
all things, once by fire, and once by water, they built
two pillars, one of brick, and the other of ftone, that
if the brick one happened to be overthroivn. by the
flood or other wife deftroyed, that of ftone might re¬
main. This laft, Jofephus fays, was to be feen in his
time in the land of Syriad, (thought to be in Upper
Egypt). _ _
The defeendants of Seth continued in the practice
of virtue till the 40th year of Jared, when an hundred
of them hearing the noife of the mufic and the riotous
mirth of the Cainites, agreed to go down to them from
the holy mountain. On their arrival in the plain, they
were immediately captivated by the beauty of the wo¬
men, who were naked, and with whom they defiled
themfelves •, and this is what is meant by the inter¬
marriage of the fons of God with the daughters 01-
men, mentioned by Mofes. The example of thefe
apoftate fons of Seth was foon followed by others ^ and
from time to time great numbers continued to defeend
from the mountain, who in like manner took wives
from the abandoned race of Cain. From thefe mar¬
riages fprung the giants (who, however, according^to
iylonian
Antiqui¬
ties.
ANT [ 411 ]
AntecUlu- Mofes, exifted before) 5 and thefe being as remarkable mankind.
vians, for their impiety as for their ilrength of body, tyran-
nized in a cruel manner, and polluted the earth with
wickednefs of every kind. This deletion became
at laft fo univerfal, that none were left in the holy
mountain, except Noah, his wife, his three fons, and
j. their wives.
Profane hi- Berofus, a Chaldean hiftorian, who flourilhed in the
ftory. ^-time of Alexander the Great, enumerates ten kings
rofus's Ba- wj10 reigned in Chaldea before the flood ; of whom the
called Alot'us, is fuppofed to be Adam, and Xi-
futhrus, the laft, to be Noah.—This Alorus declared
that he held his kingdom by divine right, and that God
himfelf had appointed him to be the pallor of the
people. According to our hiftorian, in the firft year
of the world, there appeared out of the Red fea, at a
place near the confines of Babylonia, a certain irra¬
tional animal called Cannes. He had his whole body
like that of a filh ; but beneath his fifti’s head grew
another of a different fort (probably a human one).
He had alfo feet like a man, which proceeded from his
filh’s tail, and a human voice, the pi£lure of him be¬
ing preferved ever after. This animal converfed with
mankind in the day time, without eating any thing :
he delivered to them the knowledge of letters, fciences,
and various arts : he taught them to dwell together in
cities, to ere£l temples, to introduce laws, and inftru£l-
ed them in geometry : he likewife Ihowed them how
to gather feeds and fruits, and imparted to them what¬
ever was necelfary and convenient for a civilized life j
but after this time there was nothing excellent invent¬
ed. When the fun fet, Cannes retired into the fea, and
continued there all night. He not only delivered his
inftruftions by word of mouth, but, as our author aifures
us, wrote of the origin of things, and of political econo¬
my. This, or a fimilar animal, is alfo mentioned by
other authors.
Of Alafporus, the fecond king, nothing remarkable
is related. His fucceffor, Amelon, or Amillarus, was
of a city called Pantabibla. In his time another animal
refembling the former appeared, 260 years after the be¬
ginning of this monarchy. Amelon was fucceeded by
Metalarus *, and he by Daonus, all of whom were of
the fame city. In the time of the latter, four animals
of a double form, half man and half fifti, made their ap¬
pearance. Their names were Euedocus, Eneugamus,
Encubulus and Anementas. Under the next prince, who
was likewife of Pantabibla, appeared another animal of
the fame kind, whofe name was Odacon. All thefe ex¬
plained more particularly what had been concifely de¬
livered by Oannes.
In the reign of the tenth king, Xifuthrus, happened
the great deluge, of which our author gives the follow¬
ing account: Cronus, or Saturn, appeared to Xifu¬
thrus in a dream, and warned him, that on the fifteenth
of the month Dtefius mankind Avould be deftroyed by
a flood, and therefore commanded him to write down
the original, intermediate ftate, and end of all things,
and bury the writings under ground in Sippara, the
city of the fun ; that he (houid alfo build a (hip, and
go into it with his relations and deareft friends, having
firft furnilhed it with provifions, and taken into it fowls
and four-footed beafts; and that, w'hen he had provid¬
ed every thing, and was alked whither he was failing,
he ftiould aufwer, To the gods, to pray for happinefs to
vians.
ANT
Xifuthrus did not difobey ; but built a vef- Antedilu-
fel, whofe length was five furlongs, and breadth two
furlongs. He put on board all he was directed j and
went into it with his wife, children, and friends. The
flood being come, and foon ceafing, Xifuthrus let out
certain birds, which finding no food, nor place to reft
upon, returned again to the fliip. Xifuthrus, after
fome days, let out the birds again •, but they returned
to the fliip, having their feet daubed with mud : but,
when they were let go the third time, they came no
more to the fhip, whereby Xifuthrus underftood that
the earth appeared again $ and thereupon he made an
opening between the planks of the ftiip, and feeing
that it refted on a certain mountain, he came out with
his wife, and his daughter, and his pilot : and having
worfliipped the earth, and raifed an altar, and facrifi-
ced to the gods, he and thofe who went out with him
difappeared. They who were left behind in the ftiip,
finding that Xifuthrus and the perfons that accompa¬
nied him did not return, went out themfelves to feek
for him, calling him aloud by his name; but Xifu¬
thrus was no more feen by them : only a voice came
out of the air, which enjoined them, as their duty was,
to be religious ; and informed them, that on account
of his own piety he was gone to dwell with the gods,
and that his wife and daughter and pilot were parta¬
kers of the fame honour. It alfo diredted them to re¬
turn to Babylon, and that, as the fates had ordained,
they fliould take the writings from Sippara, and com¬
municate them to mankind $ and told them, that the
place where they were was the country of Armenia.
When they had heard this, they offered facrifice to
the gods, and unanimoufly went to Babylon $ and
when they came thither, they dug up the writings at
Sippara, built many cities, raifed temples, and rebuilt
Babylon.
The Egyptians, who would give place to no nation Antedilu-
in point of antiquity, have alfo a feries of kings, who,vian kmgs
as is pretended, reigned in Egypt before the flood : °^ ^yP1*
and to be even with the Chaldeans, began their ac¬
count the very fame year that theirs does according to
Berofus.
There was an ancient chronicle extant among the
Egyptians, not many centuries ago, which contained
30 dynafties of princes who ruled in that country, by
a feries of 113 generations, through an immenfe fpacc
of 36,525 years, during which Egypt was fucceflively
governed by three different races ; of whom the firft
were the Auritee, the fecond the Meftraei, and the third
the Egyptians.
But this extravagant number of years Manetho (to
whofe remains we muft chiefly have recourfe for the
ancient-Egyptian hiftory) has not adopted-, however,
in other refpedls, he is fuppofed to have been led in¬
to errors in chronology by this old chronicle, which
yet feems to have been a compofition fince Manetho’s
timR* . . . 15
The account given by Berofus is manifeftly taken ganchonia-
from the writings of Mofes ; but we have another ac-tho’s Phoe-
count of the firft ages of mankind, in which no men-mc’an lo¬
tion is made of the flood at all. This is contained in1’-01^*
fome fragments of a Phoenician author called Sancho-
niatho, who is by fome faid to have been contemporary
with Gideon, by others to have lived in the days of
King David j while fome boldly affert there never was
3 F 2 fuch
14
ANT [41
Antedilu- fuch a pcrfon, and that the whole is a fiaion of Philo
vians. Biblius in oppolition to the books of Jolephus, wiitten
'   ' againft Apion. To gratify the reader’s curiofity, how¬
ever, we have fubjoined an account of the firft ten ge¬
nerations mentioned by him, which are luppofed by the
compilers of the Univerfal Hiftory to correfpond to the
generations mentioned by Mofes before the flood.
Sanchoniatho having delivered his cofmogopy, or
generation of the other parts of the world, begins his
hiftory of mankind with the produ&ion of the firft pair
of mortals, whom Philo, his tranflator, calls Protogonus
and PPoii; the latter of whom found out the food which
■which was gathered from trees.
Their iffue were called Genus and Genea, and dwelt
in Phoenicia : but when the great droughts came, they
ft retched forth their hands to heaven towards the fun ;
for him they thought the only God and Lord of hea¬
ven, calling him Beelfamen, which in Phoenician is Lorn
of heaven, and in Greek Zeus.
Afterwards from Genus, the fon of Protogonus and
iEon, other mortal iffue was begotten, whofe names were
Phos, Phur, and Phlox ; that is, Light, Fire, and Flame.
Thefe found out the way of germinating fire, by the
rubbing of pieces of wood againft each other, and taught
men the ufe thereof. They begat Ions of vaft bulk and
height, whofe names were given to the mountains on
which they feized : fo from them were named Mount
CaJJius, Libanus, Antihbanus, and Brathys.
Of thefe laft were begotten Memrumus and Hypfu-
ranius ; but they were fo named by their mothers, the
women of thofe times, who without fhame lay with any
man they could light upon. Hypfuranius inhabited
Tyre, and he invented the making of huts of reeds and
rulhes and the papyrus. He alfo fell into enmity
with his brother Ufous, who firft invented a covering
for his body out of the Ikins of the wild beafts which
he could catch. And when violent teropefts of winds
and rains came, the boughs in Tyre, being rubbed
againft each other, took fire, and burnt the wood there.
And Ufous, having taken a tree, and broke off its
boughs, was fo bold as to venture upon it into the fea.
He alfo confecrated two rude ftones, or pillars, to fire
and wind •, and he worfhipped them, and poured out
to them the blood of fuch wild beafts as had been
caught in hunting. But when thefe were dead, thofe
that remained confecrated to them flumps of wood and
pillars, worlhipping them, and kept anniverfary feafts
unto them.
Many years after this generation came Agreus and
Halicus, the inventors of the arts of hunting and fiftiing,
from whom huntfmen and fiftiermen are named.
Of thefe were begotten two brothers, the inventors
of iron and of the forging thereof : one of thefe, called
Chryfor, the fame with Hepheftus, or Vulcan, exer-
cifed himfelf in words and charms and divinations :
found out the hook, bait, and fiftiing-line, and twats
flightly built ; and was the firft of all men that failed.
Wherefore he alfo was worfhipped after his death for a
god : and they called him Zeus Michius, or Jupiter
the engineer \ and fome fay his brother invented the
way of making walls of brick.
Afterwards from this generation came two brothers
one of whom was called Technites, or the Artift 5 the
other Geinus Autochthon, [the home-born man of the
2 1 ANT
earth ] Thefe found out to mingle ftubble, or fmall Antedilu-
twigs, with the brick earth, and to dry them in the <
fun, and fo made tyling. r ,
By thefe were begotten others •, of which one was
called Agrus [Field] ; and the other Agrouerus, or
Agrotes [Hulbandman], who had a ftatue much wor¬
fhipped, and a temple carried about by one or more
yoke of oxen, in Phoenicia ; and among thofe of Byblus
he is eminently called the greatejl of the gods. Thefe
found out how to make courts about men’s houfes, and
fences, and caves or cellars. Hulhandmen, and fuch
as ufe dogs in hunting, derive from thefe j and they
are alfo called Aletce and litans.
Of thefe were begotten Amynus and Magus, who
(bowed men to conftitute villages and flocks.
In thefe men’s age there was one Eliun, which im¬
ports in Greek Hypfflus [the moft high] and his wife
Avas named Berulh, who dwelt about Byblus . and by
him was begot one Epigerus, or Autochthon, Avhom
they afterwards called Uranus [heaven] ; fo that irom
him that element which is over us, by reafon of its ex¬
cellent beauty, is called heaven ; and he had a fifter of
the fame parents called Ge [the earth] ; and by reafon
of her beauty the earth had her name given to it.
Hypfiftus, the father of thefe, dying in fight with
Avild beafts, Avas confecrated, and his children offered
facrifices and libations to him.—But Uranus taking
the kingdom of his father, married his fifter Ge, and
had by her four fons •, Ilus, who is called Cronus, [or
Saturn] •, Betylus; Dagon, who is Siton, or the god
of corn •, and Atlas : but by other wives Uranus had
much iffue.
As to the cuftoms, policy, and other general cxr-
cumftances of the Antediluvians, we can only form
conjeftures. . # # _ .
The only thing Ave knoAV as to their religious rites is,
that they offered facrifices, and that very early, both of
the fruits of the earth and of animals but whether the
blood and flefh of the animals, or only their milk and
avooI, were offered, is a difputed point.— 16
Of their arts and ftiences, we have not much more Arts,
to fay. The Antediluvians feem to have fpent their^Antc 1-
time rather in luxury and Avantonnefs, to which the
abundant fertility of the firft earth invited them, than
in difcoveries or improvements, Avhich probably they
flood much lefs in need of than their fucceffors. The
art of working metals was found out by the laft: gene¬
ration of Cain’s line *, and mufic, Avhich they might be
fuppofed to pra£tife for their pleafure, xvas not brought
to any perfeftion, if invented, before the fame genera¬
tion. Some authors have fuppofed aftronomy to have
been cultivated by the Antediluvians, though this is
probably oAving to a miftake of Jofephus : but it is to
be prefumed, the progrefs they made therein, or in any
other fcience, was not extraordinary 5 it being even
very doubtful whether letters Avere fo much as knoAvn
before the flood. See ALPHABET.
As to their politics and civil conftitutions, we have
not fo much as any circumftances Avhereon to build con-
jefrure. It is probable, the patriarchal form of go¬
vernment, Avhich certainly was the firft, was fet afide
Avhen tyranny and oppreflion began to take place, and
much fooner among the race of Cain than that of Seth..
It feems alfo that their communities were but few, and
confifted
*P. 2S2,
283.
ANT [41
Antcdilu- confifted of vaftly larger numbers of people than any
vians. former fince the flood : or rather, it is a queftion, whe-
——V—- ther, after the union of the two great families of Seth
and Cain, there were any diflin&ion ot civil focieties, or
diverfity of regular governments, at all. It is more like¬
ly, that all mankind then made but one great nation,
though living in a kind of anarchy, divided into feveral
diforderly aliociations •, which, as it was almoft the
natural confequence of their having, in all probability,
but one common language, fo it was a circumftance
which greatly contributed to that general corruption
which otherwife perhaps could not have fo univerfally
overfpread the Antediluvian world. And for this rea-
fon chiefly, as it feems, fo foon as the pofterity of
Noah were fufficiently increafed, a plurality of tongues
was miraculoufly introduced, in order to divide them
into dittimfl focieties, and thereby prevent any Inch
total depravation for the future. See CONFUSION of
Tongues.
Of the condition of the Antediluvians, Mr Whitehurft,
in his Inquiry into the originalfate and format ion of the
earth*, has given us/the following picture : “ Under a
mild and ferene Iky, and when the fpontaneous pro-
dudlions of the earth were more than fufficient for the
calls of nature, without art or labour, mankind had
no need of any other protedlion from the inclemency
of the feafons, nor of barns for winter’s ftore, than
the benevolent Author of nature had plentifully pro¬
vided for them. Confequently, in a Hate of nature like
this, there was no temptation to afts of violence, in-
juftice, fraud, &c.; every one having plenty and enough,
each equally partook of the numerous bleflings thus
amply provided for him. Power and property being
equally dilfufed, men lived together in perfedl peace
and harmony, without law, and without fear 5 there¬
fore it may be truly fald of the Antediluvians, that
they flept away their time in fweet repofe on tho. ever-
verdant turf. Such apparently was the ftate of nature
in the firft ages of the world, or from the creation to
the firft convulfion in nature, whereby the world was
not only univerfaily deluged, but reduced to a heap of
ruins.” But our ingenious author, whofe Inquiry is
not profefledly repugnant to revelation, feems here to
have loft himfelf in a pleafing reverie. At leaft he has
forgot to inform us, For what purpofe, under fuch
circumftances, he fuppofes the deluge to have been fent
upon the earth j and, Flow we are to underftand the
account given by Mofes, who reprefents the Antedilu¬
vians, not as an innocent race, quietly repofing on the
ever-verdant turf, but as a corrupt generation, by whom
“ the earth was filled with violence.”
One of the moft extraordinary circumftances which
occurs in the Antediluvian hiftory, is the vaft length of
the.Antedi-lmnjan lives in thofe firft ages, in comparifon with our
Vlans’ own. Few perfons now arrive at eighty or an hun¬
dred years; whereas, before the flood, they frequently
lived to near a thoufand : a difproportion almoft incre-
dible, though fupported by the joint teftimonies of fa-
cred and profane writers. Some, to reconcile the
matter with probability, have imagined that the ages
of thofe firft men might pofllbly be computed, not by
folar years, but months; an expedient which reduces
the length of their lives rather to a fhorter period than
our own. But for this there is net the leaft founda¬
tion j befides the many abfurdities that would thence
*7
Of the lon¬
gevity of
3 1 ANT
follow, fuch as their begetting children at about fix Antedilu-
years of ago? as fume of them in that cafe muft have
done, and the contrafting of the whole interval be¬
tween the creation and the deluge to confiderably lefs
than two hundred years, even according to the larger
computation of the Septuagint.
Again : Jofephus, the Jewith hiftorian, and fome
Chriftian divines, are of opinion, that before the flood,
and fome time after, mankind in general did not live
to fuch a remarkable age, but only a few beloved of
God, fuch as the patriarchs mentioned by Mofes.
They reafon in this manner : Though the hiftorian re¬
cords the names of fome men, whofe longevity was An¬
gular, yet that is no proof that the reft of mankind
attained to the fame period of life, more than that
every man was then of a gigantic ftature, becaufe he
fays, in thofe days there were giants upon the earth.
Befides, had the whole of the Antediluvians lived fo
very long, and increafed in numbers in proportion to
their age, before the flood of Noah, the earth could
not have contained its inhabitants, even fuppofing nw
part of it had been fea. And bad animals lived as
long, and multiplied in the fame manner as they have
done afterwards, they would have confumed the whole
produce of the globe, and the ftronger would have ex-
tinguiftied many fpecies of the weaker. Flence they
conclude, that for wife and good ends, God extended
only the lives of the patriarchs, and a few befide, to
fuch an extraordinary length.
But moft writers maintain the longevity of man¬
kind in general in the early world, not only upon the
authority of facred, but likewife of profane hiftory.
And for fuch a conftitution, the moral reafons are
abundantly obvious. When the earth was wholly un- ]y{orai rea„
peopled, except by one pair, it was neceffary to endow fons for this
men with a ftronger frame, and to allow them a longer longevity,
continuance upon earth for peopling it with inhabi¬
tants. In the infant ftate of every mechanical art, re¬
lating to tillage, building, clothing, &c. it would re¬
quire many years experience to invent proper tools and
inftrurnents to eafe men of their labour, and by multi¬
plied effays and experiments to bring their inventions
to any degree of maturity and perfeftion. Every part
of their work muft have been exceedingly arduous from
fuch a penury and coarfenefs of tools, and muft have re¬
quired longer time and more ftrength of body than af¬
terwards, when mechanical knowledge was introduced
into the world. If parents at this period had not con¬
tinued long with their children, to have taught them
the arts of providing for themfelves, and have defended
them from the attacks of rvild beafts, and from other
injuries to which they were expofed, many families
would have been totally extinguiihed. But one of
"the belt and moft valuable ends which longevity would
anfwer was, the tranfmitting of knowledge, particularly
of religious knowledge, to mankind. And thus, be¬
fore writing was invented, or any fuch eafy and dur¬
able mode of conveyance was found out, a very few
men ferved for many generations to inftrudl their pofte¬
rity, who would not be at a lofs to confult living and
authentic records. >
The natural caufes of this longevity are varioufly af- Natural
figned. Some have imputed it to the fobriety of the caufes of its
Antediluvians, and the limplicity of their diet 5 alleging
that they had none of thofe provocations to gluttony,
■which.
A 'N T
which vilt and vice have fince invented
might undoubtedly have feme efteft, but not poffibly
to fuch a degree. There have been many temperate
and abftemious perfons in later ages, who yet feldom
have exceeded the ufual period.—Others have thought
that the long lives of thole inhabitants of the old world
proceeded from the ilrength of their liamina, or firll
principles of their bodily conftitutions : which might,
indeed, be a concurrent, but not the foie and adequate
caufe of their longevity •, for Shem, who was born be¬
fore the deluge, and had all the virtue of the antedilu¬
vian conftitution, fell three hundred years fhort of the
age of his forefathers, becaufe the greateft part of his
life was paffed after the flood.—Others have computed
the longevity of the Antediluvians to the excellency of
their fruits, and fome peculiar virtue in the herbs and
plants of thofe days. But to this fuppofition it has
been objefted, that as the earth was curfed immediately
after the fall, its produ&ions we may fuppoie gradually
decreafed in their virtue and goodnefs till the flood j
and yet we do not fee the length of men’s lives decreafe
confiderably, if at all, during thatinterval. Waving this
objection, as the import of the curfe is varioufly inter¬
preted, it appears certain that the produ&ions of the
earth were at firft, and probably continued till after
the deluge, of a different nature, from what they were
in future times. Buffon fuppofes this difference may
have continued gradually to diminiih for many ages
fubfequent to that cataftrophe. The furface of the
o-lobe (according to his theory) was in the firft ages
of the world lefs folid and compaft •, becaufe, gravity
having a£ted only for a ftiort time, terreftrial bodies
had not acquired their prefent denfity and confiftence.
The produce of the earth, therefore, muft have been
analogous to its condition. The furface being more
loofe and moift, its produdlions would of courfe be
more dudlile and capable of extenfion. Their growth,
therefore, and even that of the human body, would re¬
quire a longer time of being completed. The ioftnefs
and du&ility of the bones, mufcles, &c. would pro¬
bably remain for a longer period, becaufe every fpecies
of food was more foft and fucculent. Hence the full
expanfion of the human body, or when it was capable
of generating, muft have required 120 or 130 years j
and the duration of life would be in proportion to the
time of growth, as is uniformly the cafe at prefent :
For if we fuppofe the age of puberty, among the firft
races of men, to have been 130 years, as they now ar¬
rive at that age in 14 years, the age of the Antedilu¬
vians will be in exadt proportion to that of the prefent
race ; fince by multiplying thefe two numbers by feven,
for example, the age of the prefent race will be 98,
and that of the Antediluvians will be 910. The pe¬
riod of man’s exiftence, therefore, may have gradually
diminifhed in proportion as the furface of the earth ac¬
quired more folidity by the conftant aftion of gravity :
and it is probable, that the period from the creation,
to the days of David, was fufficient to give the earth
all the denfity it was capable of receiving from the in¬
fluence of gravitation •, and confequently that the fur¬
face of the earth has ever fince remained in the fame
ftate, and that the terms of growth in the produdlions
of the earth, as well as the duration of life, have been
invariably fixed from that period.
It has been further fuppofed, that a principal caufe
2
[ 414 ] ant.
Temnerance of the longevity under confideration was the wholefome Antedilu-
pera Conftitution of the Antediluvian air, which, after the
deluge, became corrupted and unwholefome, breaking, •
by degrees, the priftine crafis of the body, and fliorten-
ing men’s lives, in a very few ages, to near the pre¬
fent ftandard.
The temperature of the air and feafons beiore that
cataftrophe are upon very probable grounds fuppofed
to have been conftantly uniform and mild : the burn¬
ing heats of fummer and the feverities of winter’s cold
were not then come forth, but fprmg and autumn
reigned perpetually together : And indeed, the cir-
cumftance above all others moft conducive to the pro¬
longation of human life in the poftdiluvian world ap¬
pears to be an equal and benign temperature of cli¬
mate (fee the article Longevity) j whence it feems
reafonable to infer, that the fame caufe might have pro¬
duced the fame effea in the Antediluvian world. 2(>
Whether flefti was permitted to be eaten before the whether
deluge, is a queftion which has been much debated, any flefh
By the permiflion exprefsly given to Noah, for that^S1^^
purpofe, after the flood, and God’s afligning vege-tU”
tables only for food to man, as well as beaft, at the flood,
creation, one would imagine it was not lawful before :
yet others have fuppofed, that it was included in the
general grant of power and dominion given to Adam
by God over the animal creation *, and the diftin&ion
of beafts into clean and unclean, which was well
known before the flood, is infifted on as a ftrong argu¬
ment on this fide.
But in anfwer to this it has been obferved that, if
fo, it does not appear what occafion there was to re¬
new this grant after the flood, and to add, “ Every
moving thing that liveth ftiall be food for you, even
as the green herb have I given you all things.” This
furely implies that the green herb and fruits of the
trees were all that was granted to man at firft ; but
now, over and above that, was added the grant of
animal food j for in a deed of gift, all is fpecified that
is given or granted, and whatever is not exprefsly men¬
tioned is excluded, or not given. Here man’s food is
appointed and fpecified ; what is not exprefsly men¬
tioned is therefore referved and not granted. Befides,
his grant or appointment of man’s food refpedled not
Adam only, but all his pofterity, till an additional
grant was made.
To the animals no further grant was made than at
firft ; but to man another was made immediately after
his fall and expulfion from Paradife, implied in thefe
words: “ In the fweat of thy face lhalt thou eat
bread, till thou return unto the ground.” This was in
truth a puniftnnent for his tranfgreflion, as well as a
grant of other food, but yet what was now become
neceffary to him. Paradife no doubt was planted
with the moft excellent fruits, fufficient to have fuf-
tained his life in health and vigour in his innocent
ftate ; but after his tranfgreflion, being thruft out from
that happy abode, and having then only the fruits of
the common earth to feed on j which were not fo nu¬
tritious as thofe of Paradife, he flood in need of fome-
thing elfe to fuftain life •, and therefore bread produced
by culture and other preparations for his food was now
added, which before was not neceffary, and thence call¬
ed the Jl of of life. This feems a plain reafon why bread
was added after he came to live on the common earth ;
though
Antedilu¬
vians.
21
Increafe of
mankind
before the
flood.
ANT [ 4i5 I ANT
though perhaps another reafon alio for that addition
may be given from the change, that happened in man’s
body after his fall. Bread being now become the ftaff
of life, Cain, the firft man born, became a tiller of the
ground, or an hulbandman ; as the next in birth, Abel,
became a keeper or feeder of flieep.
As to the diftin6lion between clean and unclean, this
folely refpe&ed animals offered in facrifice in the Ante¬
diluvian world ; as is evident from hence, that Noah,
upon his coming out of the ark, “ took of every clean
beaft and of every clean fowl, and offered burnt offer¬
ings unto the Lord $” and that upon the grant of ani¬
mal food to him and his pofterity, which was pofterior
in time to the facrifice, there is not the leaft mention
of any diftin£Hon between clean and unclean with re-
fpeft to food, but the very contrary, fince the grant
runneth : “ Every moving thing that liveth (hall be
meat for you, even as the green herb have I given you
all things.” That diftin&ion of clean and unclean as
to food, came in with the law of Mofes, and was differ¬
ent from that of facrifices, there being feveral crea¬
tures clean for food which were not to be offered in fa¬
crifice.
But another obje&ion here occurs. What occafion
was there for keeping (heep, when none of them could
be eaten ? In anfwer to this, it has been obferved,
that (heep and other animals might at this period'
be of great ufe to men befides yielding them food.
Their flocks, no doubt, confided of fuch creatures as
were of the domedic kind, and fuch as by the divine
law were pronounced clean and fit for being offer¬
ed in facrifice j therefore numbers would be kept for
this very purpofe. Their (kins, befides ferving men
as garments, might anfwer many other valuable inten¬
tions. Vedments of hair and wool foon fucceeded the
ruder coverings of (kins ; confequently great profit
would be derived from fuch animals as could be (horn,
efpecially in countries where the inhabitants led a paf-
toral life and dwelt in tents. And we afterwards find
that Abel’s facrifice was of this kind. They might ufe
feveral of thefe animals, as they dill do in feme parts
of the world, for bearing of burdens and drawing of
carriages : for we may take it for granted that the fird
inventions for eafing men of labour, would be of the
fimpled kind, and fuch as came eafied to hand. But
keeping flocks of (heep, goats, and fuch like, would be
of great utility, by affording quantities of milk, which
is found to be the mod nouridting diet both to the young
and the old 5 and their carcafes, though not ufed as food,
might anfwer fome ufeful purpofes perhaps in manuring
the foil.
The Antediluvian world was, in all probability,
docked with a much greater number of inhabitants
than the prefent earth either aftually does, or perhaps
is capable of containing or fupplying. This feems na¬
turally to follow from the great length of their lives,
which exceeding the prefent dandard of life in the pro¬
portion, at lead, of ten to one, the Antediluvians mud
accordingly in any long fpace of time double them-
felves, at lead in about the tenth part of the time in
which mankind do now double themfelves. It has
been fuppofed that they began to beget children as
early, and left off as late, in proportion, as men do
now j and that the feveral children of the fame father
fucceeded as quickly one after another as they ufually Antedilu-
do at this day : and as many generations, which are vians.
but fucceflive with us, were contemporary before the " ' »
flood, the number of people living on the earth at
once would be by that means fufficiently increafed to
anfwer any defeat which might arife from other cir-
cumftances not confidered. So that, if we makd a com¬
putation on thefe principles, we (hall find, that there
was a confiderable number of people in the world at the
death of Abel, though their father Adam was not then
130 years old j and that the number of mankind before
the deluge would ealily amount to above one hundred
thoufand millions (even according to the Samaritan
chronology), that is, to twenty times as many as our
prefent earth has, in all probability, now upon it, or can
well be fuppofed capable of maintaining in its prefent
conftitution.
The following table, made upon the above-mention¬
ed principles by Mr Whifton, (hows at lead what a
number of people might have been in the Antediluvian
world.
5 £
3 3
PS- cr
S' 3
4
8
16
32
64
. 128
256
512
1024
2048
4096
8192
16,384
32,768
65.536
I3I>°72
262,144
524,288
1,048,576
2,097,152
4»I94;3°4
8,388.608
16,777,216
33.554.432
67,108,864
I34.2I7.728
268.435,456
536,870,912
i,073,74i,824
2,147.483.648
4,294.967,296
8,589,934,592
17,179 869,184
34,359 738,368
68,719476.736
137438-953472
274,877,906,944
549,755,8x3,888
. n
3 su
2
6
12
20
30
42
56
72
90
110
132
156
182
210
240
272
306
342
380
420
462
506
552
600
650
702
756
812
870
93°
992
1056
1122
1190
1260
133 2
1406
1482
Q.
c *!
cr n
r— w
3* ^
Oq O
4
6
8
30
12
H
l6
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
*3
14
J5
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
S6
37
38
But
A N T
[ 4i<5 ]
ANT
Antedilu- But according to a later '* writer upon tlie fuojeft,
vians* the above table, though the numbers there may be
1 thought fufficient for the peopling of the earth, we
* Coc^Kr/z ld b means depend upon, for feveral reafons j
upon the / .
Delude particularly, # i i a
2Y 1. It is laid down there as a foundation, that the An-
Objeftlons tediluvians would double themfelves every 40 years j as
t° indeed they would, and in lefs time, after there came to
'table!°n S be xoo marriages. Now, had the author obferved this
reo-ular progreffion in his computation, by adding forty
ye^rs to every former period of the age of. the world,
the amount, inftead of two millions of millions, &c.
would have been above five millions of millions at the
year 1656, the age of the world at the deluge, accord¬
ing to the Hebrew numbers, which he contends for.
What would the fum then have been, had we carried
on the computation for 600 years more, according to
the Septuagint ? . „ . ,
2. He fuppofes the period of doubling mult have been
much Ihorter in the earlieft ag®?, and much longer m
the later, contrary to reafon and fadh. For mankind
being fprung from one pair only, the increafe at firtt
mull have been very flow, but come on very fait when
a considerable number were married. His table there¬
fore is made not regularly, but according to fancy, by
unequal Harts or chafms, at great intervals in the latter
part, where it Ihould have been molt regular ; it would
feem with no other view than to raife fuch a number,
upon the whole, as might be thought fufficient to peo¬
ple the earth. . , . .
3. In that calculation the two material points, the
time of nurfing and the age of puberty, are quite
overlooked, by which all computations of the numbers
in the Antediluvian world muft be regulated. What
unavoidable miftakes this omiffion muft occafion, will
be feen by examining the firft ten numbers of the faid
table.
S ^0
<* c
"'S
o 3
O
u c
1
2
6
12
20
30
42
72
90
XIO
2 Adam and Eve.
4 Cain and Abel.
JO
6
3
&
8
16
32
64
281
236
512
1024
2048
Cockburn,
p. isS.
On this table it may be obferved, 1. That though
there were but two perfons created at firft, this compu¬
tation makes four perfons in the fecond year of the
world. This could not poffibly be, except Cain had
been born within 12 months after the creation, which
is highly improbable, and Abel in the fecond year, yet
far more improbable j and in that cafe Eve could not
have fuckled Cain.
2. In the fixth year of the world we have eight per¬
fons that is, fix children of Eve’s in fix years. “ But
four author adds) what ffiall Eve do with fix infants
m fix years ? Where could ffie find fo many wet nurfes
for them ? Or would the mother of all living deny her
children that nouriftiment which the Creator had ap¬
pointed for their firft food, the milk in her breafts ?
Do they confider that there was but one woman in the Autedilu-
world to do for herfelf, her huffiand, and her children, 'dans. _
what belongs to women to do ? We ffiould furely have
more refpect and compaffion for the mother of an man¬
kind, than to lay fuch an intolerable burden upon her,
whole forrow for her own deception, and thereby ruin¬
ing both herfelf and her huffiand, muft have been very
great for many years. In puniffiment of which, though
God had faid he would greatly multiply her forrow and
conception, the meaning was not, that ffie ihould have
a child every year, which could not be, becaiue the na-
ture of that food and nouriffiment appointed by himfelf
for her children would not permit it. Nor yet when he
commanded them to increafe and multiply andreplenijh
the earth, could the command be obeyed in fuch a man¬
ner as was contrary to the order of pature and provi¬
dence. But the method intended to anfwer the defign
of the command was to prolong their lives to above 3~o
and 900 years, and their prolific powers foi 34° an^
360 years of that term of life, that by flow and fureand
long continuance of increafe they might people the
earth in due time.”
3. The fame exception lies to all the following pe¬
riods of doubling, where the number far exceeds what
it could poffibly be in faft ; but we (hall pafs them
over, and come to the laft of them in the year 110, in
which the number of mankind is made 2048* Now in
the year xxo, not one of Adam’s children was married,
becaufe not vet come to the age of puberty. In that
year of the world there could be no more than 1 8 or
20 perfons, at fingle births, befides Adam and Eve.
It is a great miftake therefore to imagine, that the pe¬
riods of doubling were much ffiorter in the earlier times
than in the latter j the contrary of which is evident to
reafon.
According to our author, two errors have been fallen ^ ^
into in treating of this point’, namely, 1. T. hat in the
firft ages of the world, both before and after the Flood,
men began to propagate their kind as eaiiy as they
commonly do at prefent. 2. 1. hat the children of the
fame father fucceeded one after another as fall as they
do now, that is, that the women brought forth chil- 23
dren every year. The firft of thefe errors he confutes, Of the age
by ffiewing that the feveral periods or ftages of man s the
life bear a juft proportion to one another, and to the Anteciiiu_
whole term of life j and that the period of puberty or yiatu,
maturity has not been the fame at all times, but is ac¬
cording to the length or brevity of life in the different
ages of the world, according to that remark of St Au-
guftine, Tanto ferior fuit proportione pubertas, quanto
vitce totius major annojitas. Mofes, he obferves, gi'es
the age of the world from the creation to the deluge,
and from that period to his own time chiefly by gene¬
rations. A generation is the interval of years between
the births of father and fon. This the Latins call
cetas, and the Greeks yss/ta. Now, a generation, or
the interval of years between father and fon, has not
been, neither poffibly could be, the fame in all ages
from the beginning, as Vofiius juftly obferves *, but has
varied greatly according to the length or brevity of
man’s life in the feveral periods of the world. Since
the ordinary term of man’s life has been reduced to
70 and 80 years, the time of puberty is in proportion
to this brevity of life, and reckoned at 20 or 21, which
is the fourth part of a life of fourfeore. I he feveral
ft ages
ANT [ 417 ] ANT
Antedilu- ftages of human life are infancy, childhood, youth,
vians. manhood, full age, declenfion, old or decrepit age j
v.i y—"—' all which commonly bear a proportion to the whole
term of life. Now the bounds and limits of thefe fe-
veral ftages cannot be preeifely the fame in all, but va¬
ry in refpeft of the difpolition of men’s bodies, their
courfe of life, and alfo the places and ages in which
they live. In the Antediluvian world then, when men
lived to upwards of 800 and 900 years, can it be
thought that they palled through the feveral ftages of
life in as Ihort time as men do now, who feidom ex¬
ceed 80, and not one in ten arrives at that age ? But if
the Antediluvians arrived at puperty or manhood as
foon as men do now, then would the feveral ftages of
human life have been loft or confounded, and men
would have ftarted from childhood to manhood at once,
without any due or regular intervals, contrary to the or¬
der of nature : But if, according to the prefent economy
of nature, man is but a youth at 20, which is a fourth
part of our term of life, we may reafonably conclude,
there would be a fuitable proportion of years in a much
longer term of life, fince nature is conftant and uni¬
form in her operations. And though in fo long a life
as the Antediluvians enjoyed, the time of puberty might
be a fifth or fixth part of their term of life, yet would
they be but youths at 150 or 160 5 which bears much
the fame proportion to the whole of their life as 20 is to
that of ours.
The other is an error, he thinks, which could never
have been fallen into, had it been confidered that every
mother fuckled her own children in thofe early days :
and indeed where could (he have found another to have
done it for her ?
Taking it for granted, then, that it was an univer-
fal cuftom for women to fuckle their children as well
before as after the flood, the next queftion is, for how
long time they continued nurfes ? He ftiows various
inftances, that when man’s life was reduced to 130 or
Of the time 140 years, the ordinary time of nurfing was two years j
allotted for he thence infers, that for three or four generations af-
thofe'early tfr flood’ when men to about 400 years> tbe
<laySi ‘ } time would be fo much longer in proportion, and would
-not be lefs than three or four years j and confequently,
that before the flood, when life was protrafted to 800
or 900 years, it would be ftill longer, in proportion to
their longevity j fo that five years might be the ordi¬
nary time of nurfing in the old world ; and there¬
fore that we cannot reckon lefs than fix years between
the births. For man’s life being prolonged to fo ma¬
ny hundred years at firft for the more fpeedy peopling
of the earth, he came by flow degrees to mature age,
there being a long time required to rear up a body that
was to laft near 1000 years. The intervals, therefore,
of infancy, childhood, youth, and mature age, were fo
much longer in proportion to ours as the difference is
between our term of life and theirs: and 150 or 160
years, with refpedl to their longevity, was no more in
Diftance proportion than 20 is to the brevity of our life. As
between the Antediluvians therefore were fo very long in grow-
the births, ing up to mature age, he concludes, that the time of
nurfing could not be ftiorter than five years, and that
the diftance between the births in a regular way muft
be fet at fix years.
Upon the whole, he thinks it evident that there
could be no fuch fpeedy increafe of mankind at the be-
VoL. II. Part II.
ginning as is imagined; that the time of nurfing above Antedilu-
fpecified w!as no more than neceflary for that ftrength of vians.
conftitution which was to laft for 800 and 900 years; v——^
and that women who were to continue bearing children
for 340 or 360 years of their life, fhould have them but
flowly and at the diftance of feveral years, that their
ftrength might hold out, and that they might not be
overburdened with too many cares at once ; and there¬
fore when Eve’s firft child was fix years old, it was
time enough for her to have another, and fo on, though
poflibly fometimes twins. 2g
Thefe points being difcuffed, he proceeds, 1. To com-Cockbnrn’s
pute what number upon the whole might be born into calculation
the world from the creation to near the time erf the de-ofllie,nr
luge ; and then, 2. To ftate the needful dedu&ions for j.'!.'*!!- d
deaths and other deficiencies.
1. 1. How long the parents of mankind continued in
paradife, tve know not; though longer perhaps than is
commonly imagined. We ftiall even fuppofe two or
three years, in which time there was no child born,
nor any attempt towards it. We (hall allow them two
or three years more to lament their fall, and the mifer-
able eftate their want of faith and difobedience had
brought them to, from a moft happy condition ; and
fuppofe Cain to be born fix years after the creation (in
which fuppofition few, probably, will be apt to think,
us too hafty), and Abel again fix years after him, and
fo every fixth year Eve to have had a child, the firft
feven, eight, or nine whereof probably were all males
(the males being longer in coming to maturity than the
females) ; and this dillance between the births will alfo
be thought a fuftieient allowance. At this rate of in¬
creafe Adam would have in 100 years 16 children, in
200 years 32, and in 400 years 64 children ; when we
will fuppofe Eve to have left off child-bearing. Nor
need the number of Adam’s children be thought too
great, when there are inftances in thofe later ages, and
this fhort period of man’s life, of thofe who have had 40
children at fingle births by two fucceflive wives, and of
many others who have had 20, 25, and 30, by one wife ;
though in fuch cafes it is not to be fuppofed that the wo¬
men fuckled their childen.
2. Though it is reafonable to think that the Ante¬
diluvians, notwithftanding their longevity, came to
mature age at 130 ; yet, as we are not fure that they all
married fo foon as they were ripe for marriage, and
that the earlieft in the genealogies is born in the 162d
year of his father, who might probably be a firft born,
our author does not fuppofe Cain, Abel, or any of the
fucceeding children or grandchildren of Adam to have
married till they were 160, but to have had children
from 161 or 162 till they were of the age of 500,
at the fore-named diftance or interval between the
births ; though Noah we know had three fons after he
was 500, at the due intervals. And to all the Ante¬
diluvians we may allow, without fear of exceeding, 50
or 54 children in general, according to the courfe of
nature, and the longevity of thofe firft ages of the
world.
3. Let us next inquire in what number of years the
men of that world might double themfelves, notwith¬
ftanding the long intervals between the births. The
increafe indeed will be found very fmall for the firft;
300 or 400 years, as they were late in coming to ma¬
turity ; but the fucceeding ages will fwell the account
3 G exceedingly.
1700
I15°
1800
1850
1900
1,950
2000
2050
* ANT [ 418 ]
Antedilu- exceedingly. Let us fuppofe at prefent (what ftiall be Years of the World.
‘ vians. proved afterwards) that in the year of the world 500,
—■*—' there were 200 perfons only, male and female, of full
age to marry, the men at 160, the women at 120 or
thereabout. The firft or fecond year after the mar¬
riage will probably produce 100 births from lOp
couple, and every fixth year after 100 more. At this
flow progreflion the 200 married perfons will, in 19 or
20 years, be increafed to 600: fo that the number of
mankind would be trebled in 20 years, after there came
100 pair to be married. And in this manner they
would increafe and multiply every 20 years, or in that
fpace treble themfelves.
It may perhaps be objefted, that though it appears
that fuch an increafe might be at firlt from the firfl:
100 marriages', yet they could not continue thus to
multiply at fuch periods-, becaufe, according to the
rule we have laid down, none of the iffue of thefe 100
firft marriages could increafe the number of mankind
till the men had attained the age of 160. It is true
they could not: but then it muft be remembered, that
the firft zoo pair are ftill adding every fixth year zoo
more to the number of mankind, even till after the 400
born in the firft 20 years are married, and begin a new
flock for increafe ; fo that when there came to be fome
hundred couples married, the increafe and multiplication
would come on very faft, and in ZOOO years mankind
would be prodigioufly increafed.
But though there be nothing in this fuppofition con¬
trary to reafon, viz. That after the year of the world
500, they might treble themfelves in 20 years j yet
we will not reckon upon fo fhort an interval, but will
allow a much longer time even to their doubling them¬
felves, and fhall exhibit two tables of doubling-, the
firft at the interval of 50 years (much too long indeed),
the other at the interval of 40 years, and both begin¬
ning at the year 500, when there could not be fewer
(whatever more there might be) than zoo married or
marriageable perfons defcended from Adam and Eve.
ANT
Number of Mankind. Antedila-
3>335>443>20o vians-
6,710,886,500 —
Z3,421,772,800
26,843,545,600
53,687,C9Z,200
I07,374,I^2,40°
214,748,364,800
429,496,729,600
This table is calculated at the long interval of 50
years, that it may appear that even by under-rating the
number of mankind, there would be fo many millions
born into the world before the deluge came, that they
would be obliged to fpread themfelves over the face of
the earth, though but one half of the fum total of
429,496 millions had been alive at the time of the de«
luge -, but as the interval here allowed may appear to
be too long for the time of doubling, the fecond is cal¬
culated at the interval of 40 years, which comes nearer
to the truth of the cafe, though even this may exceed
the time of doubling.
Years of the World.
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
IOOO
1050
1100
IZ50
1200
1250
1300
1350
I4OO
*45°
I coo
I55°
1600
1650
Number of Mankind.
200
400
- 800
1,600
3,200
6,400
- z 2,800
- 25,600
51,200
202.400
204.400
409,600
8z9,2oo
z,638.400
3,276,800
6,553,600
- 13,107,200
- 26,2Z4,4oo
- 52,428,800
- 104,857,600
- 209,7Z5,2oo
- 4Z9,43o,4oo
- 838,860,800
i,677,72z,6qo
Years of the World.
500
540
58°
620
660
700
74O
780
820
860
900
940
980
1020
I060
I ZOO
ZZ40
iz8o
Z 220
1260
z 300
1340
1380
1420
1460
I COO
1540
Z580
1620
1660
Z700
Z740
Z780
Z820
z86o
1900
1940
1980
2020
Number of Mankind.
200
- . - - 400
800
^ z,6oo
3,200
6,400
12,800
25,600
5Z,200
Z02,400
204,800
- 409,60c
8z9,200
1,638,400
3,276,800
6,553,600
13,107,200
26,2Z4,400
52,428,800
104,857,600
209,715,200
4Z9,430,4°o
. . _ 838,860,800
- - - 1,677,721,600
3’355’443’20°
6,710,886,400
- z3,42z,772,8oo
- 26,843,545.600
53,687,o9z,20o
- 107,374,182,400
- 2Z4,748,304,800
- 429,496,729,600
- 858,993,459,200
i,7Z7,986,9z8,40o
3.435.973>836>8oo
6,871,947,673,600
i3>743>895.347>200
27,487,790,634,400
54.975.58i>388.800
The firft table is brought down no lower than to
the year 2050, and the fecond to the year 2020^
thoupk
ANT
[ 4i9 1
A N T
.*7.
Objection
antwered.
though there remain by the firft 206, imd by the fe-
cond 236 years to the flood: the reafon is, that in
thofe lalt 200 years of the world, mankind would not
increafe in any meafure equal to what they had done
in the preceding years (though regularly the increafe
fliould have been much greater) j becaufe that violence
was then great in the earth, and thoufands, yea mil¬
lions, might have been cut off by untimely deaths ; for
•which caufe the world’s deftruftion was determined 120
years before the flood came.
II. But now againft this immenfe number of mankind
that might in a regular and ordinary way have been
born into the world between the creation and the de¬
luge in 20156 years, it will no doubt be objefled by
fome (as it has been done to far lefs numbers), that all
fuch calculations are mere guefs work, the product of
fruitful imaginations.
But it Ihould be confidered, that in calculations of
this nature fome regular order or method muft be ob-
ferved: and though, according to the courfe of nature
fuch an increafe and multiplication of mankind there
might have been periodically, efpecially at the begin¬
ning, when the command was to increafe and multiply
and repleni/h the earth; yet we will not fuppofe that
all things went on thus regularly, without difference or
interruption. We do not know what extraordinary ob-
ffruflions or interruptions there might be to fuch a re¬
gular increafe. Though every married pair might by
the courfe of nature have had fuch a number of chil¬
dren as has been mentioned, yet the Divine Providence
might order it otherwife in manifold inftances, and it
might poffibly be in the old world, as it has been fince
the flood, viz. that fome marriages have produced ma-~
ny children, others few, and fome none at all. Al¬
lowing, therefore, for all fuch obllruflions and deficien¬
cies, and likewife for all cafualties and accidents (to
which men might be liable in that world as well as in
the prefent), in as ample a manner as can be defired,
let the former number be reduced to one half, viz. to
27,487,790,694,400, that is, 27 billions, or millions
of millions, four hundred and eighty-feven thoufand
feven hundred and ninety millions, fix hundred and
ninety-four thoufand and four hundred. And this we
{hall now fuppofe to be the whole number of thofe who
were born into the world before the deluge. But from
this fum is to be fubtra&ed the number of thofe who
died before that time.
Of thofe in the genealogies from Adam by Seth,
Enoch was tranflated at the age of 365, Lamech the
father of Noah died juft before the flood at 753, Ma-
halaleel at 895. Adam and the other five patriarchs
lived to about 900. Before the year 900, therefore,
we may fuppofe there were no deaths except that of
Abel, who was flain, a young man, but that all born
within that period were alive altogether. But in the
tenth century death began to reign, and Adam and
Eve, we may prefume, were the firft over whom death
had power in a natural way, aa their difobedience was
the caufe of it. The children alfo born of them in the
firft hundred years would alfo die in this 10th century,
thofe born in the fecond hundred would die in the I ith,
thofe born in the third century would die in the 12th,
and fo on. But though we are far from thinking that
after the beginning of the 10th century (till which
time few or none died), the deaths would be equal to
the births ; yet as we have made large conceflions all Antedilu-
in along, we ftiall do the fame in this cafe, and fuppofe t t
them upon the whole to have been equal, efpecially
fince we cannot precifely fay how long that violence or
bloodthed, which was their crying fin, came to prevail j
and therefore will reduce the laft fum mentioned to one
half again, to allow for the deaths and prevailing vio¬
lence, and fuppofe the total number of mankind alive
upon earth at the time of the deluge to have been no
more than 13,743,895,347,200, that is, 13 billions
or millions of millions, feven hundred and forty-three
thoufand eight hundred and ninety-five millions, three
hundred and forty-feven thoufand and two hundred j
a number vaftly exceeding that of the prefent inhabi¬
tants of the whole earth. 28
Notwithftanding the very large allowances and abate- Probability
ments made to reduce the number of mankind, yet even °^e ab.ov*
the laft redu&ion to 13 billions or millions of millions,caiCU a'K,“
&c. feems fo vaftly great, that it will hardly be thought
poflible that fuch a number of men could ever be at one
time upon the earth. Now, though we pretend to no
certainty in this point (which made it the more requi-
fite to allow largely for deaths and deficiencies), yet
the calculation we have given muft appear highly pro¬
bable, fince it is founded upon grounds certain and un¬
deniable : for inftance,
1. It cannot be denied but that the Antediluvians
were come to the age of puberty and marriage at 160
years, when we find a fon born in 162. Nor,
2. Can it be faid, that they could not have children
at the age of 500, when we have an inftance of one
that had three fons at due diftances after that age.
Neither,
3. Can it be alleged that we have not allowed a due
diftance or interval between the births, viz. fix years,
when moft will be of opinion that it could not be fo
long. Nor yet,
4. Can it be judged that we have made the period of
doubling far too fhort, when we had before ibowed that
after 100 marriages confummated, they would treble
themfelves in half the time we have taken for their
doubling. Nor,
5. Will any one make a doubt, but that there might
be 200 perfons of mature age for marriage in the year
of the world 500, the men at 160, the women young¬
er. Neverthelefs, as this is the foundation of our cal¬
culation, we ftiall now fliow that there was at leaft fuch
a number of perfons marriageable at that age of the
world.
It may be obferved, that as we take 160 for the
years of maturity and marriage, according to that period
all married or marriageable in the year 500 muft have
been born in or before the year 340; the males at leaft,
though the females, coming fooner to maturity, might
fome of them be born later or after the year 380. Now,
according to this ftated period of marriage,
x. In or before the year 340, Adam might have had
54 children, males and females, or 27 pair married or
fit for marriage.
2. Cain, whom we fuppofe to be but fix years
younger than Adam (which by the by is more than
others allow), and to have married in the year 166,
might have in the year 340, 28 children, or 14 pair
fit for marriage, which added to the former, makes
41 pair.
3G2
3- Abel,
ANT [420
Antedilu- Abel, married fix years later, that is, in the year
vians 172, and whom we (hall fuppofe flain in the year 225
11 or 226, could in that cafe have no more than eight or
Antenati. njne children, or four pair, which with the former
make 45 pair. . 0 ...
4. Adam’s third fon, married in the year 178, will
afford us in the year 340, 26 children, or 13 pair,
which increafe the number of marriageable perfons to
58 pair. ... o
3. A fourth fon of Adam’s, married in tne year io4>
will give us in the year 34°» 25 children, or 12 pair j
which makes the number of pairs 70. . ^
6. A fifth fon of Adam’s, married in the year 190,
might in the year 340 have 24 children, or 12 pair
ao-ain, which increafe the former number to 82 pair.
& 7. A fixth fon of Adam’s, married in the year 196,
would have in the year 340, 22 children, or 11 pair;
which added to the former make up 93 pair.
8. A feventh fon of Adam’s, married in the year
202, will, in the year 340, give us 20 children, or to
pair : which makes in the whole 103 pair, already three
pair more than we reckoned upon. I need therefore
00 no farther on to the eighth or ninth fon ; but the
following eight or nine births I may reafonably take
to have been daughters, and married to the brothers
that preceded them. ,
Here are now no more than 14 children of Adam s
married, who have given us the too pair we have rec¬
koned upon, and three over. We might yet have 13
pair to bring into the account, all born before the year
340, and marriageable in the year 500,_ which would
very much increafe the number of mankind. And by
this the reader may perceive that we have been far from
building on uncertain or precarious foundations, fince
we have omitted 13 pair more, which we might have
taken into the account. And if it be confidered that
the command given to Adam was to increafe and mul¬
tiply and replenilh the earth, no doubt can be made,
but that his own and his children’s marriages were fruit¬
ful in the procreation of children, that the eaith might
be inhabited.
ANTEGO. See Antigua.
ANTEJ UR AMENTUM, by our anceftors called
juramentum calumnice, an oath which anciently both
a-ccufer and accufed were to take before any trial or
purgation.—The accufer was to fwear that he would
profecute the criminal ;■ and the accufed to make oath,
on the day he was to undergo the ordeal, that he was
innocent of the crime charged againft him.
ANTELOPE, in Zoology. See Capra.
ANTE LUC AN, in ecclefiaftical writers, is applied
to things done in the night- or before day.. We find
frequent mention of the antelucan affemblies (Ccetus
antelucani) of the ancient Chrilfians, in times of per-
fecution, for religious worfhip.
ANTEMURALE, in the ancient military art, de¬
notes much the fame with what the moderns call an
out-work. .
ANTENATI, in modern Englilh hiitory, is chief¬
ly underftood of the fubjeas of Scotland, born before
King James the Firft’s acceflion to the Englilh crown,
and alive after it. In relation to thefe, thole who
were born after the acceflion were denominated Pq/lna-
ti. The antenati were confidered as aliens in England,
4
1
ANT
whereas the poftnati claimed the privilege of natural A"'“ad«-
fubjeas. . , ,11 It
ANTENCLEMA, in Oratory, is where the whole Antefta-
defence of the perfon aceufed turns on criminating the ture.
accufer. Such is the defence of Oreftes, or the ora-' r—
tion for Milo : Occifus ejl, fed latro. ExfeBus, fed
r^ANTENlCENE, in ecclefiaftical writers, denotes
a thing or perfon prior to the firft council of Nice.
We fay the Antenicene faith, Antenicene creeds, Aa-
tenicene fathers. r • r n
ANTENNiE, in the hiftory of inleas, ilender
bodies with which nature has furnilhed the heads
of thefe creatures, being the fame with what in Eng¬
lilh are called horns or feelers. See Entomology
Index.
ANTENOR,a Trojan prince, came into Italy, ex¬
pelled the Enganians on the river Po, and built the
city of Padua, where his tomb is faid to be ftill ex-
tant. .
ANTEPAGMENTA, in the Ancient Architec¬
ture, the jafnbs of a door. They are alfo ornaments,
or garnilhmgs, in carved work, of men, animals, Sec.
made either of wood or ftone, and fet on the archi¬
trave.
ANTEPENULTIM A, in Grammar, the third fyl-
lable of a word from the end, or the laft fyllable but
two.
ANTEPILANI, in the Roman armies, a name
given to the haftati and principes, becaufe they marched
next before the triarii, who, were called pilani.
ANTEPILEPTTCS, among phyficians, medicines
efteemed good in the epilepfy.
ANTEPOSITION, a grammatical figure, whereby
a word, which by the ordinary rules of fyntax ought to
follow another, comes before it. As when, in the La¬
tin, the adjedlive is put before the fubftantive, the verb
before the nominative cafe, &c.
ANTE PREDICAMENTS, among logicians, cer¬
tain preliminary queltions which illuftrate the dodfrine
of predicaments and categories.
ANTEQ^UIERA, a handfome town of Spain, in
the kingdom of Granada, divided into two parts, the
upper and loiver. The upper is feated on a hill, and
has a caftle : the lower Hands in a fertile plain, and is
watered with a great number of brooks. There is a
large quantity of fait in the mountain ; and five miles
from the town, a fpring famous for the cure of the gra¬
vel. W. Long. 4. 40. N. Lat. 36. 51.
ANTERIOR, denotes fomething placed before an¬
other, either with refpeft to time or place.
ANTEROS, in Mythology, one of the two Cupids
who were the chief of the number. They are placed
at the foot of the Venus of Medicis ; this is reprefented
with a heavy and fullen look, agreeably to" the poeti-
tical defeription of him, as the caufe of love’s ceafing.
The other was called Eros.
ANTESIGNANI, in the Roman armies, foldiers
placed before the ftandards, in order to defend them,
according to Lipfius ; but Caefar and Livy mention
the antefignani as the firft line, or firlt body, of heavy-
armed troops. The velites, who ufed to fkirmifh be¬
fore the army, were likewife called antefgnam.
ANTESTATURE, in Fortification, a fmall re¬
trenchment
ANT * [ 421 ] ANT
Anteftari trenchment made of palifadoes, or facks of earth, with
{| a view to difpute with an enemy the remainder of a
An hefte- piece 0t ground.
ria- ANTESTARI, in Roman antiquity, fignifies to
' bear witnefs againfl any one who retuled to make his
appearance in the Roman courts of judicature, on the
day appointed, and according to the tenor of his bail.
The plaintiff, finding the defendant after f'uch a breach
of his engagement, was allowed to carry him into court
by force, having firft aiked any of the perfons preient
to bear witnefs. The perfon afked to bear witnefs in
this cafe, expreffed his confent by turning his right
ear, which was inftantly taken hold of by the plaintiff,
and this was to anfwer the end of a fubpcena. Ihe
ear was touched upon this occafion, fays Pliny, as be¬
ing the feat of memory, and therefore the ceremony
wa-- a fort of caution to the party to remember his en¬
gagement.
AN L’HELION. See Corona and Parhelion.
AN THEEIX, in Anatomy, the inward protuberance
of the external ear, being a femicircle within, and al-
moft parallel to the helix. See Anatomy.
ANTHELMINTICS, among phyiicians, medi¬
cines proper to deifroy worms.
ANTHEM, a church fong performed in cathedral
fervice by choriilers, who fung alternately. It was ufed
' to denote both pfalms and hymns, when performed in
this manner. But, at prefent, anthem is ufed in a more
confined fenfe, being applied to certain paffages taken
out of the Scriptures, and adapted to a particular folem-
nity. Anthems were firft introduced in the reformed
fervice of the Englifh church, in the beginning of the
reign of Queen Elizabeth.
ANTHEMIS, Chamomile. See Botany Index.
ANTHERA, in Botany, that part of the ftamen
which is fixed on the top of the filamentum, within the
corolla : it contains the pollen or fine duft, which, when
mature, it emits for the impregnation of the plant, ac¬
cording to Linnaeus. The Apex of Ray, Tournef. and
Rivin. ; Capfula Jlaminis, of Malpighi.
AN fHERICUM, Spider-wort. See Botany
Index.
ANTHESPHORI A, in antiquity, a Sicilian feftival
inftituted in honour of Proferpine. I he word is derived
from the Greek flower, and I carry ; be-
caufe that goddefs was forced away by Pluto when fhe
was gathering flowers in the fields. Yet Feftus does not
afcribe the feaft to Proferpine $ but fays it was thus cal¬
led by reafon ears of corn were carried on this day to
the temples.—Anthefphoria feems to be the fame thing
with the florifertum of the Latins, and anfwers to the
harveft-home among us.
ANTHESTER1A, in antiquity, was a feaft cele¬
brated by the Athenians^ in honour of Bacchus. The
moft natural derivation of the word is from the Greek
etvS-es (flos), a flower, it being the cuftom at this feaft
to offer garlands of flowers to Bacchus.
The anthefteria lafted three days, the 1 ith, 12th, and
13th of the month $ each of which had a name fuited
to the proper office of the day. The firft day of the
feaft was called 'x&oiyict, i. e. opening of the vefle/s, be-
caufe on this day they tapped the veffels, and tailed
the wine. The fecond day they called ^<jos, congn, the
name of a meafure containing the weight of 10 pounds $
on this they drank the wine prepared the day before. Anthefte-
The third day they called kettles : on this day rion
the boiled all forts of pulfe in kettles j which however Allt2ony.
they wTere not allowed to tafte, as being offered to Mer- : _ ^
cury.
ANTHESTERION, in ancient chronology, the
fixth month of the Athenian year. It contained 29
days 5 and anfwered to the latter part of our November
and beginning of December. The Macedonians called
it dceflon or deflon. It had its name from the feftival
anthefteria kept in it.
ANTHISTIRIA. See Botany Index.
ANTHOCEROS, or Horn-flower. See Bo¬
tany Index. ,
ANTHOLOGION, the title of the fervice book
ufed in the Greek church. It is divided into 12 months,
containing the offices fung throughout the year, on the
feftiyals of our Saviour, the Virgin, and other remark¬
able faints.
ANTHOLOGY, a difcourfe of flowers, or of beau¬
tiful paffages from any authors.—It is alfo the name
given to a colledlion of epigrams taken from feveral
Greek poets.
ANTHOLYZA, Mad-flower. See Botany
Index.
ANTHONY, Saint, was born in Egypt in 251,
and inherited a large fortune, which he diftributed
among his neighbours and the poor, retired into folitude,
founded a religious order, built many monafteries, and
died anno 356. Many ridiculous ftories are told of his
conflidls with the devil, and of his miracles. There
are feven epiftles extant attributed to him.
St Anthony is fometimes reprefented with a fire by
his fide, fignifying that he relieves perfons from the in¬
flammation called after his name 5 but always accompa¬
nied by a hog, on account of his having been a fwine-
herd, and curing all diforders in that animal. To do
him the greater honour, the Romanifts in feveral places
keep at common charges a hog denominated St Anthony"1 s
hog, for which they have great veneration. Some will
have St Anthony’s pidlure on the walls of their houfes,
hoping by that to be preferved from the plague ; and
the Italians, who do not know the true fignification of
the fire painted at the fide of their faint, concluding
that he preferves houfes from being burnt, invoke him
on fuch occafions. Both painters and poets have made
very free with this faint and his followers: the former
by the many ludicrous pidlures of his temptation ; and
the latter, by divers epigrams on his difciples or friars :
one of which is the following, printed in Stephen’s
World of Wonders r
Once fedd’ft thou, Anthony, an herd of fwine,
And now an herd of monks thou feedeft ftilh
For wit and gut alike both charges bin •,
Both loven filth alike •, both like to fill
Their greedy paunch alike : nor was that kind
More beaftly, fottifh, fwinifh, than this laft.
All elfe agrees : one fault I only find,
Thou feedeft not thy monks with oaken maft.
Anthony, or Knights of St Anthony, a military
order, inftituted by Albert duke of Bavaria, Holland,
and Zealand, when he defigned to make war againfl
the Turks in 1382. The knights wore a collar of
gold
Anthony
II
Anthropo-
latna.
—-
ANT
[ 422 ]
ANT
gold made in form of a hermit’s girdle, from which
hung a ftick cut like a crutch, with a little bell, as they
are reprd'ented in St Anthony’s pi&unjs.
St j^NTHONT a\(o gives the denomination to an or¬
der of religious founded in France about the year 1095,
to take care of thofe afflided with St Anthony’s fire ;
(fee the next article).—It is faid, that, in fome places,
thefe monks affume to themfelves a power of giving, as
well as removing, the ignis facer, or eryfipelas a power
which Hands them in great Head for keeping the poor
people in fubje&ion, and extorting alms. To avoid the
menaces of thefe monks, the country people prefent them
every year with a fat hog a piece. Some prelates en¬
deavoured to perfuade Pope Paul III. to abolilh the or¬
der ; quafluarios ijlos fanSii Anthonii, qui decipiunt ru-
Jlicos et Jimplices, eofque innurneris fuperJHtionibus imph-
cent, de medio tcllendos effe. But they fubfift, notwith-
Handing, to this day, in feveral places.
St ANTHONT's Fire, a name properly given to the
eryfipelas. Apparently it took this denomination, as
thofe afflifted with it made their peculiar application to
St Anthony of Padua for a cure. It is known, that an¬
ciently particular difeafes had their peculiar faints: thus,
in the ophthalmia, perfons had recourfe to St Lucia; in
the toothach, to St Apollonia; in the hydrophobia, to
St Hubert, &c.
ANTHORA, the trivial name of a fpecies of aconi-
tum. See Aconitum, Botany Index.
ANTHOR1SMUS, in Rhetoric, denotes a contrary
defcription or definition oi a thing from that given by
the adverfe party.—Thus, if the plaintiff urge, that to
take any thing away from another without his know¬
ledge or confent, is a theft; this is called «go?, or defini¬
tion. If the defendant reply, that to take a thing away
from another without his knowledge or confent, provided
it be done with defign to return it to him again, is
not theft ; this is an
ANTHOSPERMUM, the Amber Tree. See
Botany Index.
ANTHOXANTHUM, or Vernal Grass. See
Botany Index.
ANTHRACI8, Anthracias, or Anthracitis,
names promifcuoully ufed by ancient naturalifts for very
different foflils, viz. the carbuncle, haematites, and a
kind of afteria. See Carbuncle, &c.
ANTHRACOCIS, in Medicine, a corrbfive fcaly
ulcer either in the bulb of the eye or the eyelids..
ANTHRAX, a Greek terra, literally fignifying a
burning coal, ufed by the ancients to denote a gem, as
well as a difeafe, more generally known by the name
of carbuncle.
Anthrax is fometimes alfo ufed for lithanthrax or
pit coal,
ANTHROPOGLOTTUS, among zoologifts, an
appellation given to fuch animals as have tongues re-
fembling that of mankind, particularly to the parrot
kind.
ANTHROPOGRAPHY, denotes the defcription
of the human body, its parts, itru&ure, &c. See ANA¬
TOMY.
ANTHROPOL ATRiE, in church hiflory, an ap¬
pellation given to the Nettorians, on account of their
worlhipping Chrift, notwithftanding that they believed
him to be a mere man.
ANTHROPOLATRIA,the paying divine honours
to a man ; fuppofed to be the moft ancient kind of ido- Anthropu-
. t r lites.
xatry- , . -r ■ - '
ANTHROPOLITES, a term denoting petnxac- ’
tions of the human body, as thofe of quadrupeds are call¬
ed %oolites.
It has been doubted whether any real human petri-
fadlions ever occur, and whether thofe which have
been fuppofed fuch were not mere lufus natures. But
the generality of naturalifts belt veried in this branch
affure us of real anthropolites being, fometimes found*
And indeed, as it is univerfally admitted that the zoo-
lites are frequently feen, what negative argument there¬
fore can be brought againft the exiftence of the others ?
Are not the component parts of the human body near¬
ly fimilar to thofe of the brute creation ? Confequently,
correfpondent matter may be fubjeft to, and acquire,
the like accidental changes, wherever the fame power
or caufes concur to aft upon either objeft. It the for¬
mer are not fo common, it may be accounted for, in
fome meafure, by reflefting that human bodies are ge¬
nerally depofited in feleft and appropriate places*,
whereas the bones of animals are difperfed everywheie,
and falling into various beds of earth, at a greater or
lefs depth, there is more probability of their encoun¬
tering the petrifying agent. Could we credit fome
authors who have treated on this fubjeft, they will tell
us of entire bodies and fkeletons that were found pe¬
trified. One in particular, difeovered at Aix in Pro¬
vence, anno 1583, in a rocky cliff, the cerebrum where¬
of, when ftruck againft a piece of fteel, produced
fparks, the bones being at the fame time friable. The
reports of Happel and Kircher are too abfurd for be¬
lief. Van Helmont’s ftrange relations, together with
thofe of Jean & Cofta, muft alfo be rejefted as fabu¬
lous. Scheuhzer has publilhed an engraved figure,
which he calls the Antediluvian man: how far it is au¬
thentic, it would be rafh to fay. It is, however, ai-
ferted by many refpeftable writers on natural hiftory,
that whole fkeletons petrified have been brought to
light from certain old mines, which remained clofed
up and difufed for feveral centuries. Thefe indeed are
acknowledged to be very rare. Yet it is a known
faft, that detached parts (ojleolithi) are fometimes
found, efpecially in fituations where either the water,
the foil, or both, have been obferved to poffefs a ftrong
petrefeent quality. The human vertebrae, fragments
or portions of the tibia, and even the whole cranium
itfelf, have been feen in an abfolute ftate of petrifac¬
tion. Some of thefe are faid to appear vitriolated or
mineralized. As to the petrified bones of pretended
giants, they are more probably real zeolites, the bones
of the larger animals. All thefe bones are found in
various ftates, and under different appearances. Some
are only indurated j others calcined, vitriolated, or mi¬
neralized ; fome, again, are fimply incrufted } whilft
others have been proved completely petrified. Not¬
withftanding what is here advanced, it may be granted
that a pofitive lufus natures, in fome hands, is repeat¬
edly miftaken for a real petrifaftion. They are, how¬
ever, diftinguifhable at all times by an experienced na-
turalift ; particularly by the two following rules : Firft,
We may determine that foffil a lufus natures, which, on
a firift examination, is obferved to deviate in any ma¬
terial degree from the true res analogica exifens. Se¬
condly, By the fame parity of reafoning, thefe foflil
fhells
ANT [ 423 ] ANT
Anthropo- (hells are to be efteemed certain petrifications, and ge-
nuine Antediluvian rehquicey in which, on a corapari-
Anthropo ^on their analogues, collected from the fea, there
phagil appears an exa£t conformity in fize and figure. This
'■—■’V"—^ comparative obfervation will hold good for all foflils j
that is, fuch as prefent themfelves either under the
animal or vegetable form. It is neverthelefs worthy
of notice, that all teftaceous foflils are not petrified j &
fince fome kinds of them have been found in beds of
fand, which retained their original perfe6l fhape and
quality, but at the fame time they proved very brittle,
indeed fcarcely bearing the moft gentle touch. Shells
of this defcription are always diffbluble by acids, in
contradiftinftion to the petrified or calcareous foflil
(hells, whofe property it is to refift the a£lion of fuch
like menjlrua. See further the article PETRIFAC¬
TION.
ANTHROPOLOGY, a difcourfe upon human na¬
ture.
Anthropology, among divines, denotes that man¬
ner of expreflion, by which the infpired writers attri¬
bute human parts and paflions to God.
ANTHROPOMANCY, a fpecies of divination,
performed by infpedting the entrails of a human crea¬
ture.
ANTHROPOMORPHA, a term formerly given
to the primates of that clafs of animals which have the
greateft refemblance to the human kind.
ANTHROPOMORPHISM, among ecclefiaftical
writers, denotes the herefy or error of the Anthropo-
morphites. See the next article.
ANTHROPOMORPHITES, in Church Hi/lory,
a fe£t of ancient heretics, who, taking every thing
fpoken of God in Scripture in a literal fenfe, particu¬
larly that paffage of Genefis in which it is faid, God
made man after his own image, maintained that God
had a human (hape. They are likewife called Audeans,
from Audeus their leader.
ANTHROPOMORPHOUS, fomething that bears
the figure or refemblance of a man. Naturalifts give
inftances of anthropomorphous plants, anthropomorphous
minerals, &c. Thefe generally come under the clafs of
what they call lufus naturce, or monflers.
ANTHROPOPATHY, a figure or expreflion by
which fome paflion is afcribed to God, which properly
belongs only to man.
ANTHROPOPHAGI, (of a man, and
<Pctyu, to eat, Men-EATERS). That there have been,
in almoft all ages of the world, nations who have fol¬
lowed this barbarous pra£tice, we have abundance of
teftimonies.
The Cyclops, the Leftrygons, and Scylla, are all re-
prefented in Homer, as Anthropophagi, or man-eaters ;
and the female phantoms, Circe, and the Sirens, firft
bewitched with a (how of pleafure, and then deftroyed.
This, like the other parts of Homer’s poetry, had a
foundation in the manners of the times preceding his
own. It was dill, in many places, the age fpoken of
by Orpheus,
When men devour’d each other like the beads,
Gorging on human flefli.——
According to Herodotus, among the Efledonian
Scythians, when a man’s father died, the neighbours
brought feveral beads, which they killed, mixed up
their flefli with that of the deceafed, and made a feafl. Anthropo..
Among the Maffagetae when any perfon grew old, phogi.
they killed him and ate his flefli j but if he died of fick-
nefs, they buried him, edeeming him unhappy. The
fame author alfo affures us, that feveral nations in the
Indies killed all their old people and their fick, to
feed on their flefli: he adds, that perfons in health
were fometimes accufed of being fick, to afford a pre¬
tence for devouring them. According to Sextus Em¬
piricus, the fird laws that were made, were for the
preventing of this barbarous praftice, which the Greek
writers reprefent as univerfal before the time of Or¬
pheus.
Of the praftice of anthropophagy in later times, we
have the tedimonies of all the Romifli miflionaries who
have vifited the internal parts of Africa, and even fome
parts of Afia. Herrera fpeaks of great markets in China,
furniftied wholly with human flefli, for the better fort
of people. Marcus Paulus fpeaks of the like in his
time, in the kingdom of Concha towards Quinfay, and
the ifland of Zapengitothers, of the great Java; Bar-
bofa, of the kingdom of Siam and ifland of Sumatra ;
others, of the iflands in the gulf of Bengal, of the coun¬
try of the Samogitians, &c.
The philofophers Diogenes, Chryfippus, and Zeno,
followed by the whole feft of Stoics, affirmed, that
there was nothing unnatural in the eating of human
flefti; and that it was very reafonable to ufe dead bo¬
dies for food, rather than to give them a prey to worms
and putrefaftion. In order to make the trial, how¬
ever, whether there was any real repugnancy in nature
to the feeding of an animal with the flefli of its own
fpecies, Leonard-us Floroventius fed a hog with hog’s
flefli, and a dog with dog’s flefli ; upon which he found
the bridles of the hog to fall off, and the dog to become
full of ulcers.
When America was difcovered, this practice was
found to be almoft univerfal, infomuch that feveral au¬
thors have fuppofed it to be occafioned through a want
of other food, or through the indolence of the people to
feek for it; though others afcribe its origin to a fpirit of
revenge.
It appears pretty certain from Dr Hawkefworth’s ac¬
count of the Voyages to the South feas, that the inha¬
bitants of the ifland of New Zealand, a country unfur-
nirtied with the neceffaries of life, eat the bodies of
their enemies. It appears alfo to be very probable, that
both the wars and anthropophagy of thefe favages, take
their rife and owe their continuance to irrefiftible ne-
ceffity, and the dreadful alternative of deftroying each
other by violence, or of perifliing by hunger. See vol.
iii. p. 447. et feq. and vol. ii. p. 389, &c.
Mr Marfden alfo informs us, that this horrible cu-
ftom is pra&ifed by the Battas, a people in the ifland
of Sumatra. “ They do not eat human flefli (fays he)
as a means of fatisfying the cravings of nature, owing
to a deficiency of other food ; nor is it fought after
as a gluttonous delicacy, as it would feem among the
New Zealanders. The Battas eat it as a fpecies of
ceremony ; as a mode of (bowing their deteftation of
crimes, by an ignominious puniffiment; and as a hor¬
rid indication of revenge and infult to their unfortu¬
nate enemies. The objefts of this barbarous repaft are
the prifoners taken in war, and offenders eonvifted
and condemned for capital crimes. Perfons of the
former
ANT
[ 424- 1
ANT
Anthropo- former defcrintion may be ranfomed or exchanged, for
pha1
Anthropo-
phagia.
which they often wait a confiderable timej and the lat¬
ter fuffer only when their friends cannot redeem them
, by the cuftomary fine of twenty beenchangs, or eighty
dollars. Thefe are tried by the people of the tribe
where the fadl was committed, byt cannot be execu¬
ted till their own particular raja or chief has been ac¬
quainted with the fentence ; who, when he acknow¬
ledges the juftice of the intended punilhment, fends a
cloth to cover the delinquent’s head, together with a
large dilh of fait and lemons. The unhappy objeft,
whether prifoner of war or malefadtor, is then tied to
a flake : the people affembled throw their lances at
hin from a certain diftance j and when mortally wound¬
ed, they run up to him, as if in a tranfport of paflion j
cut pieces from the body with their knives j dip them
in the diflr of fait and lemon juice j flightly broil them
over a fire prepared for the purpofe j and fwallow the
morfels with a degree of favage enthufiafm. Some¬
times (I prefume according to the degree of their
animofity and refentment) the whole is devoured; and
inftances have been known, where, with barbarity flill
aggravated, they tear the flefh from the carcafs with
their mouths. To fuch a depth of depravity may man
be plunged, when neither religion nor philofophy en¬
lighten his fteps ! All that can be faid in extenuation
of the horror of this diabolical ceremony, is, that no
view appears to be entertained of torturing the fuf-
ferers ; of increafing or lengthening out the pangs of
death: the whole fury is.direaed againft the corfe,
warm indeed with the remains of life, but pafi the fen-
fation of pain. I have found a difference of opinion
in regard to their eating the bodies of their enemies
flain In battle. Some perfons long refident there., and
acquainted with their proceedings, affert. that it is not
cuftomary : but as one or two particular inftances have
been given by other people, it is juft to conclude, that
it fometimes takes place, though not generally.. It was
fuppofed to be with this intent, that Idaja Neabin main¬
tained a long conflift for the body of Mr Nairne, a moft
refpeftable gentleman and valuable fervant of the India
Company, who fell in an attack upon the campong of
that chief, in the year 1775.”
It may be faid, that whether the dead body of an
enemy be eaten or buried, is a matter perfe6Uy indif¬
ferent. But whatever the praftice of eating human
flefti may be in itfelf, it certainly is relatively, and in
its confequences, moft pernicious. It manifeftly tends
to eradicate a principle, which is the chief fecurity of
human life, and more frequently reftrains the hand of
the murderer, than the fenfe of duty or the dread of
puniftiment. Even if this horrid praftice originates
from hunger, ftill it muft be perpetuated from revenge.
Death muft lofe much of its horror among thofe who
are accuftomed to eat the dead 5 and where there is little
horror at the fight of death, there muft be lefs repug¬
nance to murder. See fome further obfervations on this
fubjeft, equally juft and ingenious, by Dr Hawkefworth,
ut fupra.
ANTHROPOPHAGI A, the aft or habit of eat¬
ing human flefti. This is pretended by fome to be the
effeft of a difeafe, which leads people affefted with it
to eat every thing alike. Some choofe only to con-
fider it as a fpecies of Pica. The annals of Milan fur-
nirfi an extraordinary inftance of anthropophagy. A
Milanefe woman named Elizabeth, from a depraved Amhropo-
appetite, like what women with child, and thofe whofe fcopia
menfes are obftruaed, frequently experience^ had an A
invincible inclination to human flefti, of which ftie v ( ;
made provifton by enticing children into her houfe,
where (he killed and falted them : adifcovery of which
having been made, ftie was broken on the wheel and
burnt in IJIQ'
ANTHROPOSCOPIA, from and wcxiu,
I confuJcr, the art of judging or difcovering a man’s
ehara£ter, difpofition, paflions, and inclinations, from
the lineaments of his body. In which fenfe, anthro-
pofcopia feems of fomewhat greater extent than phy-
fiognomy or metopofcopy. Otto has publifhed an An-
thropofcopia, five judicium hominis de hcniine ex linea¬
ment is externis.
ANTHROPOTHYSIA, the inhuman pra&ice of
offering human facrifices. See SACRIFICE.
ANTHUS, in Ornithology, a fynonyme of a fpecies
of loxia. See Loxia, Ornithology Index.
ANTHYLLIS, Kidney-vetch. See Botany
ANTHYPOPHORA, in Rhetoric, a figure of
fpeech •, being the counterpart of an hypophora. See
Hypophora.
ANTI, a Greek prepofition, which enters into the
compofition of feveral words, both Latin, French, and
Englifti, in different fenfes. Sometimes it fignifies be¬
fore, as an antichamber 5 and fometimes oppofite or con¬
trary, as in the names of thefe medicines, anti fcorbu-
tic, anti-venereal.
Anti, in matters of literature, is a title given to
divers pieces written by way of anfwer to others, whofe
names are ufually annexed to the anti. See the Anti
of M. Baillet; and the Anti-Baillet of M. Menage:
there are alfo Anti-Menagiam, &c. Caefar the dicta¬
tor wrote two books by way of anfwer to what had
been objected to him by Cato, which he called Anti-
Catones ; thefe are mentioned by Juvenal, Cicero,. &c.
Vives affures us, he had feen Ctefar’s Anti-Catones in an
ancient library.
ANTIBACCHIUS, in ancient poetry, a foot con¬
fining of three fyllables, the two firft long, and the laft
one Ihort •, fuch is the word ambire.
ANTIBES, a fea port town of Provence in France,
with a ftrong cattle. Its territory produces excellent
fruit •, and the town ftands oppofite to Nice, in the Me¬
diterranean. E. Long. 7. 9. N. Lat. 45. 50.
ANTICHAMBER, an outer chamber for ftran-
gers to wait in, till the perfon to be fpoken with is at
leifure.
ANTICHORUS, in Botany. See Botany Index.
ANTICHRIST, among ecclefiaftical writers, de¬
notes a great adverfary of Chriftianity, who is to appear
upon the earth towards the end of the w’orld.
We have demonftrations, difputations, and proofs, in
great order and number, both that the pope is, and that
he is not, Antichrift.
F. Calmet is very large in defcribing the father and
mother of Antichrift, his tribe and pedigree, his wars
and conquefts, his achievements againft Gog, Magog,
&c.
Some place his capital at Conftantinople, others at
Jerufalem, others at Mofcow, and fome few at London;
but the generality at Rome, though thefe laft are di¬
vided
ANT [4
Antichrift. vided. Grotius and Tome others fuppofe Rome Pagan
u——y—--1 to have been the feat of Antichrift : moft of the Lu¬
theran and reformed dodfors contend earneftly for Rome
Chriftian under the papal hierarchy. In fa<ft,the point
having been maturely debated at the council of Gap,
held in 1603, a refolution was taken thereupon, to in-
fert an article in the Confeflion of Faith, whereby the
pope is formally declared to be Antichrift.—Pope Cle¬
ment VIII. was ftung to the quick with this decifion •,
and even King Henry IV. ot France was not a little
mortified, to be thus declared, as he faid, an imp of An-
tichrift.
M. le Clerc holds, that the rebel Jews and their
leader Simon, whofe hiftory is given by Jofephus, are
to be reputed as the true Antichrift. Lightfoot and
Vanderhart rafher apply this charafter to the Jewiftr
Sanhedrim, flippolitus and others held that the devil
himfelf was the true Antichrift , that he was to be in¬
carnate, and make his appearance in human fnape be¬
fore the confummation of all things. Others among
the ancients held that Antichrift was to be born of a
virgin by fome prolific power imparted to her by the
» Bayle’s devil. A modern writer * of the female fex, whom
Dictionary, many hold for a faint, has improved on this fentiment j
voce Sou- maintaining that Antichrift is to be begotten by the
rignon. devil on the body of a witch by means of the femen of
a man caught in the commiffion of a certain crime, and
conveyed, &c.
Hunnius and fome others, to fecure Antichrift to
the pope (notwithftanding that this lat'er feemed
excluded by not being of the tribe of Dan), have
broke in upon the unity of Antichrift, and aflert
that there is to be both an eaftern and a weftern Anti¬
chrift.
Father Malvenda, a Jefuit, hath publiftied a large
work entitled Antichrijio, in which this fubjefl is amply
difeuffed. It confifts of thirteen books. In the firft
he relates all the opinions of the fathers with regard
to Antichrift. In the fecond, he fpeaks of the times
when he (hall appear ; and (hows, that all the fathers
who fuppofed Antichrift to be near at hand, judged the
world was near its period. In the third, he difeourfes
of his origin and nation j and (hows that he is to be a
Jew, of the tribe of Dan : this he founds on the autho¬
rity of the fathers ; on the paflage in Genefis xlix. 1 7.
Dan fhnll be a ferpent by the way, &cc. ; on that of Je¬
remiah viii. 16. where it is faid, The armies of Dan foall
devour the earth ; and on Rev. vii. where St John, enu¬
merating all the tribes of Ifrael, makes no mention of
that of Dan. In the fourth and fifth bocks he treats of
the figns of Antichrift. In the fixth, of his reign and
wars. In the feventh, of his vices. In the eighth, of
his dodtrine and miracles. In the ninth, of his perfe-
cutions : and in the reft, of the coming of Enoch and
Elias, the converfion of the Jews, the reign of Jefus
Chrift, and the death of Antichrift, after he has reign¬
ed three years and a half. See alfo Lawman on the Re¬
velation.
How endlefe are conjectures ! Some of the Jews, we
are told, adtually took Cromwell for the Chrift •, while
fome others have laboured to prove him Antichrift
himfelf. Pfaffius allures us he faw a folio book in the
Bodleian library, written on purpofe to demonftrate this
latter nofition.
Upon the whole, the Antichrift mentioned by the
Vol. II. Part II.
:5 ] AN T
npoftle John, I Ep. ii. 18. and more particularly de- Ant;chn-
feribed in the book of Revelation, feems evidently to be ft anmn
the fame with the of Sin, &c. characterized by St Antjc?.rtb
Paul in his Second Epiftle to the Theffalonians, ch. ii. >..~v ,
And the entire defeription literally applies to the excel-
fes of papal power. Had the right of private judgment,
fays an excellent writer, been always adopted and main¬
tained, Antichrift could never have been ; and when
that facred right comes to be univerfally alierted, and
men follow the voice of their own reafon and con-
fciences, Antichrift can be no more.
ANTICHRISTI AHISTvl, a ftate or quality in per*
fonsor principles, which denominates them anlichriftian,
or oppofite to the kingdom of Chrift.
M. Jurieu takes the idea of the unity of the church
to have been the fource of Antichriftianfm. Had not
mankind been infatuated with this, they would never
have flood in fuch awe of the anathemas of Rome. It
is on this the popes ereCIed their monarchical power.
ANTICHRISTI ANS, properly denote the follow¬
ers or worftiippers of Antichrift.
Antichristians are more particularly underlined
of thofe who fet up or believe a falfe Chrift or Mei-
fiah.
ANTICHTHONES, in Ancient Geography, an ap¬
pellation given to the inhabitants of oppofite hemi-
fpheres.
ANTTCOR, or Anticoeur, among Farriers, an in¬
flammation in a horfe’s throat, being the fame with the
quinfy in mankind. See Farriery.
ANTICOSTE, a barren ifland lying in the mouth
of the river St Lawrence, in North America. W.
Long. 64. 16. N. Lat. from 49. to 53.
ANTICYRA, in Ancient Geography, a town in
Phocis, on the Corinthian bay, oppofite to Cirrha, ly¬
ing to the weft on the fame bay. The Phoceans (eiz-
ing the temple of Apollo at Delphi, a war, called the
_/«i7YY/, commenced, and lafted ten years-, when Phi¬
lip, father of Alexander the Great, avenged the god
by deftroying many of the cities of the pillagers. An-
ticyra was one of the number. It was again taken
and fubverted by Attilius a Roman general in the war
with the Macedonians. It afterwards became famous
for its hellebore. That drug was the root of a plant,
the chief produce of the rocky mountains above the
city, and of two kinds, the black, which had a pur¬
gative quality, and the white, which was an emetic.
Sick perfons reforted to Anticyra to take the medicine,
which was prepared there by a peculia- and very ex¬
cellent recipe: Hence the adage, Naviget Anticyram,
(Horace). By the port in the fecond century was a
temple of Neptune, not large, built with felefted ftones,
and the infide white-wafhed : the ftatue of brafs. The
agora or market-place was adorned with images of the
fame metal *, and above it was a well with a fpring,
(heltered from the fun by a roof fupported by columns.
A little higher was a monument formed with fuch
ftones as occurred, and defigned, it was faid, for the
fons of Iphitus. One of thefe, Schedius, was killed by-
Heftor, while fighting for the body of Patrocliw, but
his bones were tranfported to Anticyra 5 where his
brother died after his return from Troy. About two
ftadia or a quarter of a mile diftant was a high rock,
a portion of the mountain, on which a temple of Diana
flood j the image bigger than a large woman, and made
3 H by
t
ANT
[ 426 3
ANT
Anidefina by PraxiLelds. The avails and otner edifices at Anti-
li cyra were probably erefled, like the temple of Nep-
Antigonea. tunej v>ith ftones or pebbles. 1'be file is now called
v_" Afprofpitia, or The White Houfes; and lome traces^ of
the buildings from which it was fo named remain. 1 he
port is landlocked, and frequented by veflfels for corn.
Some paces lip from the fea is a fountain.
ANTIDESMA, Chinese Laurel. See Botany
Index. ,
ANTIDICOMARIANITES, ancient heretics
■who pretended that the Holy Virgin did not preferve a
perpetual virginity, but that (he had feveral children by
Jofeph after our Saviour’s birth. Their opinion was
o-rounded on fome expreffions of our Saviour, whereon
he mentions his brothers and his filters *, and of ot
Matthew, where he fays, that Jofeph knew not Mary
till flic had brought forth her firft-born fon; _ l he An-
tidicomarianites were the difciples of Helvidius and Jo-
vinian, who appeared in Rome toward the clofe ol the
fourth Century.
ANTIDORON, in Ecclcftajlical Writers, a name
given by the Greeks to the confecrated bread, out of
which the middle part, marked with the crofs, where¬
in the confecration refides, being taken away by the
prieft, the remainder is diflributed after mafs to the
poor.’ On the fides of the antidoron are impreffed the
words Je/us Chrijlus vicit. The word is formed from
low, donum, “ a gift,” as being given away loco mu-
neris, or in charity. The antidoron is alfo called pa-
nis prcefanBificatus. Some fuppofed the antidoron to
be diftributed in lieu of the facrament, to fuch as were
prevented from attending in perfon at the celebration ;
and thence derive the origin of the word,, the euchanft
being denominated doron, “ gift,” by way of eminence.
ANTIDOSIS, in antiquity, denotes an exchange
of eftates, praftifed by the Greeks on certain occa-
fions with peculiar ceremonies, and firft inftituted by
Solon. _
When a perfon rvas nominated ta an office, the ex¬
pence of which he was not able to fupport, he had re-
courfe to the antidofis: that is, he was to feek fume
other citizen of better fubftance than himfelf, who was
free from this, and other offices ; in which cafe the for¬
mer wTas excufed. In cafe the perfon thus fubffituted
denied himfelf to be the richeft, they were to exchange
eftates, after this manner the doors of their houfes
were clofe {hut up and fealed, that nothing might be
conveyed away t then both took an oath to make a
faithful difcovery of all their effefts, except what lay
in the filver mines, which by the laws was* excufed
from all impolls : accordingly, within three days, a full
difcovery and exchange of eftates was made.
ANTIDOTE, among phyfieians, a remedy taken to
prevent,, or to cure, the effedls of poifon, &c.
ANTIENT. See Ancient.
ANTIGONEA, or Antigonia, in Ancient Geo-
qraphy, a town of Bithynia, fo called from Antigonus,
the fon of Philip, and afterwards called Niece a (Strabo,
Stephanus). Another of Epirus, to the north of the
Montes Ceraunii, oppofite to the city of Oricum (Po¬
lybius, Ptolemy). A third of Arcadia, namely Man-
tinea, fo called in honour of King Antigonus, (Plu¬
tarch, Paufanias). A fourth in Macedonia, in the
territory of Mygdonia (Pliny, Ptolemy). A fifth in
the territory of Chalcidice, in Macedonia, on the eaf-
fide of the Sinus Thermaicus (Livy). A flxth of Antigonui.
Syria, built by Antigonus, not far from Antioch, on v '
the (ironies (Stephanus) j but foon after deftroyed by
Seleucus, who removed the inhabitants to beleucia,
town built by him (Diodorus Siculus). A feventh oi
Troas, called Alexandria in Pliny’s time.
ANTIGONUS I. one of the captains of Alexander
the Great, was the fon of Philip a Macedonian noble¬
man. After Alexander’s death, a divifion of the pro¬
vinces taking place, Pamphylia, Lycia, and Phrygia
Major fell to his Ihare. But. Perdiccas, well ac¬
quainted with his ambitious fpirit and great abilh
ties, determined to diveft him of his government,
and’ laid plans for his life, by bringing various accu-
fations againft him. Antigonus, aware of the dan¬
ger, retired with his fon Demetrius into Greece,, where
he obtained the favour and proteftion of Antipater j
and in a ftiort time Perdiccas dying, a new divifion ta¬
king place, he was invtfted not only with the govern¬
ment of the former provinces, but alfo with that of Ly-
caonia. He was likewife entrufted with the command
of the Macedonian houfehold troops, and upon Eume-
nes being declared a public enemy, he received orders
to profecute the war againft him with the utmoft vi¬
gour. On the commencement of this war, Eumenes
luffered a total overthrow, and was obliged to retire
with only 600 brave followers to a catile fituated on
an inacceffible rock, where he might reft in fafety from
all the a {faults of Antigonus. In the interval, his
friends affembling a new army for his relief, were rout¬
ed bv Antigonus,-who now began to exhibit the great
projedls of his ambition. Polyfperchon fuccetding to
the tutorfhip of the young king of Macedo.n after An¬
tipater’s death, Antigonus refolved to fet himfelf up as
lord of all Afia. On account of the great power of
Eumenes, he greatly deftred to gain him over to Ins
intereft, but that faithful commander effeaing his efcape
from the fortrefs where he was clofely blockaded, raif-
ed an army, and was appointed the royal general in
Afia. The governors in Upper Afia co-operating with
him, he fucceeded in feveral engagements againft An¬
tigonus, but was at laft delivered, up to him through
treachery, and put to death. Upon thisj the govern¬
ors of Upper Afia yielded to Antigonus.. Thofe
whom he fufpefled, he either facrificed to his refent-
ment or difplaced them from their offices. Then feiz-
ing upon all the treafures at Sufa, he directed his march
towards Babylon, of which city Seleucus was govern¬
or. Seleucus fled to Ptolemy, and entered into a
league with him, together with Lyfimachus and Caf-
fander, with the intention of giving a check to the ex¬
orbitant power of Antigonus, who, notwithftanding.
this, made a fuccefsful attempt upon the provinces of
Syria and Phenicia. Yet thefe provinces were foon af¬
ter recovered by Ptolemy, who defeated his fon De¬
metrius, wjiile he himfelf was employed in repelling
Caffander, who had made rapid progrefs in Leffer
Afia. They were again taken by Antigonus, and he
being ftuftied with his fuccefs, planned an expedition
againft the Nabathsean Arabs, dwelling in the deferts
adjacent to Judea j but on the firft enterprife againft
the town of Petra, his general Athenaeus, with almoft
all his troops, was cut to pieces by the Arabs. An¬
tigonus then font his fon againft them, who returned
after forcing them to reafonable terms. Demetrius
ANT [ 427 ] ANT
AVitlgonus. then expelled Seleucus from BabyLn, and fuccefs at-
tending his arms wherever he went, the confederates
■were obliged to make a treaty with Antigonus, in
which it was ftipulated, that he fhould remain in pof-
feflion of ail Alia, but that the Greek cities ftiould con¬
tinue in poffeffion of their liberty. This agreement
was foon violated, under the pretence that garritons
had been placed in fome of thefe cities by Antigonus.
At firfl Ptolemy made a fuccebful defcent in Lefler
Afia and on feveral of the iflands of the Archipelago *,
but he was at length defeated by the fuccefsful arms
-of Demetrius in a fea-fight, who alfo took the illand of
Cyprus, with many prifoners. On this viftory Anti¬
gonus was fo elated that he affumed the title of king,
and bellowed the fame upon his fon 5 and from that
time, B. C. 306, his reign in Afia, and that of Ptole¬
my in Egypt, and of the other captains of Alexander
in their refpective governments, properly commence.
Irritated at the- hollile conduft of Ptolemy, Anti¬
gonus prepared a numerous army and a formidable
fleet, and having taken the com mail'd of the army, he
gave the command of the fleet to Demetrius, and baft-
ened to attack him in his own dominions. After en¬
during the fever eft hardlhips, they met in the vicinity
of Mount Caflius ; but Ptolemy atted with fucli valour
and addrefs that Demetrius could gain no advantage
over him ; and after feveral fruitlefs attempts, he aban¬
doned the undertaking. He next attempted the re-
dudlion of Rhodes, but meeting with obftinate refift-
ance, he was obliged to make a treaty upon the beft
terms that he could, having been called to join Anti¬
gonus againft Caffander, who at this time had formed
a confederacy with Seleucus and Lyfimachus. When
Demetrius united his forces with thofe of Antigonus,
they advanced to Phrygia, and having met the enemy
at Ipfus, a deciflve battle was fought, in which Antigo¬
nus fell, in the 84th year of his age, B. C. 301.
Ardent in his paflions, Antigonus frequently ufed
improper means for their gratification ; but as a foldier
he was fagacious, aftive, brave, and fortunate. An in-
fatiable ambition, however, the general paflion of great
men, proved a ftrong ftimulus to all his aftions ; but
with thefe blemifhes better qualities were blended in his
character. The violence and temerity of youth were tem¬
pered by the clemency and moderation of advanced
life, and he endeavoured to conciliate the affedlions of
thofe whom force had fubjecled to his power. In mat¬
ters of private concern he was ftri6!ly juft ; for when
his brother withed him to liften to a caufe in private
where he was concerned, he exclaimed, “ No, my dear
brother, I will hear it in the open court of juftice, be-
caufe I mean to do juftice.” When flattered with the
title of god, he replied, “ My chamberlain well knows
the contrary $” and fimilar philofophical fentiments
would frequently drop from his lips. He apologized
for the rigour of his taxes by faying, “ Alexander
reaped Afia, but I only glean it.” He (hone with
peculiar luftre in domeftic retirement. Notwithftand-
ing the ftrong ambition of his fon Demetrius, he con¬
tinued in perfeft harmony both with him and all his
family. The fon had a full {hare of the authority of
the father ■, and one day faluting his fon upon his return
from hunting in the prefence of fome ambafiadors, he
defired them to tell their mafters upon what terms he
lived with his fon. (Gen. Biog.)
Antigonus Gonalus, fon of Demetrius Polioreetcs, Antigonus
was the grandfon of the former Antigonus. Elis cha- II
ra&er was eminently dillinguifhed by humanity and , • ^
mildnefs of difpofition. W hen he bcfieged ihebes
under the command of his father, he ftrongly remon-
ftrated againft the lofs of fo many lives for fuch an in-
fignificant objedl. Filial affeftion was fo powerful in
his mind, that when his father was taken prifoner by
Seleucus, he generoully offered himfelf in his ftead, and
being rejected, he wore deep mourning, and refrained
from all feftivals and amufements during bis father’s
imprifonment. Informed of his death, all the floods
of forrow burft from his tender heart, and failing with
a fleet to meet his afhes, he received them with all the
demonftrations of filial fenfibility and dutiful refpefl.
By the death of his father he became mailer of all the
European dominions of Demetrius, together with the
kingdom of Macedon and various other cities in
Greece. The Gauls invading his country, he defeat¬
ed and expelled them, but was foon after muted by-
Pyrrhus king of Epirus. Some time after, however,
Pyrrhus was (lain at Argos ; and when his head was
brought him by his fon, he expreffed the higheft dif-
pleafure, and throwing his robe over it, he gave orders
to fearch for his body, and to inter the fame with all fu¬
neral honours. With Angular kindnefs, alfo, he treated
Helenas, the fon of that unfortunate king, who fell into
his hands by the fortune of war.
In the evening of his reign, he fo cultivated the arts
of peace, and fo conciliated the minds of his lubje&s,
that he fecured their affections both to himfelf and his
defeendants. The taking of the citadel of Corinth by
intrigue was the meaneft action of his reign, but he im¬
proved that event in maintaining the freedom of the
fmall ftates of Greece, and in increafing his own domi¬
nions. The Achoeans, and Aratus their famous chief,
vigoroufly oppofed his meafures, and at length recovered
Corinth •, but Antigonus was fo inclined to peace, that
not with ftanding this event, he puvfued his wonted plan,
and left his kingdom in peace about the 80th year of his
life, and the 44th of his reign, B. C. 243 ; and Deme¬
trius II. his fun, next afeended the throne. (Gen.
Biog.)
ANTIGRAPHUS, in antiquity, an officer of A-
thens, who kept a counterpart of the apodedli, or chief
treafurer’s accounts, to prevent miftakes, and keep them
from being falfified.
Antigraphus is alfo ufed, in middle-age writers,
for a fecretary or chancellor. He is thus called, ac¬
cording to the old gloffarifts, on account of his writing
anfwers to the letters fent to his mafter. The antigra-
phus is fometi mes alfo called archigraphus ; and his dig¬
nity antigraphia or archigraphia.
Antigraphus is alfo ufed in Ifidorus for one of the
notes of fentences which is placed with a dote to denote
diverfity of fenfe in the tranflations.
Antigraphus is alfo applied in ecclefiaftical writ¬
ers to an abbreviator of the papal letters. In which
fenfe the word is ufed by Pope Gregory the Great in
his regifter. Of late days the office of antigraphus con-
fifts in making minutes of bulls from the petitions
agreed to by his holinefs, and renewing the bulls after
engrofling.
ANTIGUA, one of the Antilles or Caribbee
iflands, fituated 20 leagues eaft of St Chriftopher’s, in
3 H 2 w.
ANT [428
A.tlgtia W. Long. 62. 5. and N. Lat. 17. 30. It is about 50
(| miles in circumference, and is reckoned the large ft of
Antiliba- ajj |’ne Jgritifn leeward iflands.
, nus- , This ifland having no rivers, and but few fprings, or
^ fuch as are brackifti, the inhabitants are obliged to pre-
ferve the rain water in cifterns. The air here is not fo
wholefome as in tlie neighbouring iflands, and it is more
fubject to hurricanes; but it has excellent harbours,
particularly Englilh Harbour, which is capable of re¬
ceiving the largeft man of rvar in the navy. Here is
alfo a dock yard, fupplied with all ftores and conveni¬
ences for repairing ai d careening ihips. 1 he principal
trade, however, is carried on in the harbour of St John s,
the capital, fituated in the north-weft part of the ifland,
and which has water fufficienlly deep for merchant vef-
fels. The town of Si John’s was once in a very flou-
rifhing condition, as may be judged by the lols fuftained
at the late fire, which was computed at the amazing
fum of 400,0001.
This ifland was firft attempted to be fettled by Sir
Thomas Warner, about the fame time with St Chrifto-
pher’s and Nevis : but no eftablifliment then took place.
It was afterwards granted by Charles II. to Lora Wil¬
loughby, then governor of Barbadoes, who fettled a co¬
lony upon it in the fpace of a few years. In a fhort
time, but by what means is not evident, it became again
the public property. It raifes at prefent about 16,000
hogfheads of fugar, which was at firft of a very bad
quality, unfit for the Englifh market j but. the planters
have greatly improved their ftaple fince, and it is now
as good as m any of the other iflands. It has continued
unmolefted in all the late Avars with France. Ihe num¬
ber of Avbite inhabitants is reckoned about 10,000. It
is divided into five parifhes •, that of St John’s lown,
which is reckoned the capital of the north weft part,
and confifts of above 2CO boufes ; thofe of Falmouth,
Porham, and Bridge Town, on the fouth fide •, and St
Peter’s, which has no town, but lies almoft in the mid¬
dle of the ifland. f
ANTIGUGLER, is a crooked tube of metal, fo
bent as eafily to be introduced into the necks of bottles,
and ufed in decanting liquors, Avithout difturbing them.
For this purpofe the bottle thould be a little inclined,
and about half a fpoonful of the liquor poured out, fo as
to admit an equal quantity of air; let one end of the
bent tube be flopped with the finger, whilft the other
Js thruft into the body of the liquor near to the bubble
of air already admitted. When the finger is taken off,
the bottle Avill have vent, and the liquor Avill run out
fteadily and undifturbed.
ANTIHECTICS, in Pharmacy, medicines good in
heflical diforders.
ANTIHECTICUM foterii, the name of a medi¬
cine formerly much celebrated, but noAV laid afide in
common practice.
ANTI LIB ANUS, in Ancient Geography, a moun¬
tain of Ccelofyria, Avhich bounds it on the fouth, run¬
ning parallel with Eibanus : they both begin a little
above the fea, Libanus near Tripolis, Antilibanus at
Sidon : and both terminate near the mountains of Ara¬
bia, which run to the north of Damafaus, and the moun¬
tains of Traconitis, and there end in other mountains,
(Strabo). The Scripture, making no diftin&ion be¬
tween Libanus and Antilibanus, calls them by the com¬
mon name Lebanon.
] ANT
ANTILLES, the French name for the CARIBBEE Antilles
ANTILOGARITFIM, the complement of the lo- A bole
o-arithm of a fine, tangent, or fecant} or the difference
of that logarithm from the logarithm of 90 degrees.
ANTILOGY, in matteis of literature, an incon-
fiflency between two or more paffages of the fame
book.
ANTILOPE. See Capra.
ANT1MENSIUM, a kind of confecrated table¬
cloth, occafionaily ufed in the Greek church, in places
av here there is no proper altar. F. Goar obferves, that
in regard the Greeks had but few confecrated churches,
and that confecrated altars are not things eafy to be re¬
moved, that church has, for many ages, made ufe of
certain confecrated fluffs or linens, called anUmenJia, to
ferve the purpofes thereof.
Antimensium, in the Greek church, anfAvers to the
altare portubile, or portable altar in the Latin church.
They are both only of late inA’ention, though Habertus
would have them as old as St Bafil. But Durant and
Bona do not pretend to find them in any author before
the time of Bede and Charlemagne.
Anttrnenjia is alfo applied to other tables, ufed in of¬
fices of religion, befides thofe whereon the eucharift is
adminiftered : fuch, e. g. are thofe whereon the hoft is
expofed, &c. The origin of the antimenfia is defcribed
bv Meurfius : wflien the biftiop had confecrated a church,
the cloth which had been fpread on the ground and over
the communion table, Avas torn in pieces, and diftribut-
ed among the priefts, Avho carried each a fragment aAvay,
to ferve to cover the tables in their churches and cha¬
pels. Not that it Avas neceffary that fuch cloths fhould
be laid on all tables } but only on thofe which either
Avere not confecrated, or at leaf! whofe confecration Avas
doubted of.
ANTIMERIA, in Grammar, a figure Avhereby one
part of fpeech is ufed for another : e. g. velle fuam cin¬
que ejl, for voluntas fua cuique ejl; alfo populus late
rex, for populus late regnans.
Antimeria, in a more reftrained fenfe, is a figure
Avhere the noun is repeated inftead of the pronoun. L he
antimeria is frequent in the Hebrew, and is fometimes
retained in our verfion of the Old Teftament according¬
ly : e. g. Hear mi] voice, ye wives of Lameck, for my
wives, Gen. iv. 23.
ANTIMETABOLE, in Rhetoric, a figure-which
fets two things in oppofition to each other. The Avord
is Greek, compounded of againjl, and pilxZoM from
fitlotZxl.Xu, I Jhift or transfer, i. e. fluffing, or fetting
tAvro things over-againft each other. T his figure is twice
exemplified in an apophthegm of Mufonius •, Avhich, on
account of its excellence, is called aurcum momtum, the
golden maxim or precept.
A» r< kxXov p.tT» 7r«»y, opu ntios ro & kcc-
Xov p,mi.
Av t< Trottirm tno-g^ov p.nx to oiftiTcti, to ?£
jtosvsi.
In Englifli thus :
“ AlloAving the performance of an honourable a£Iion
to be attended Avith labour ; the labour is foon over,
but the honour immortal : Avhereas, ftiould even plea-
fure wait on the commiffion of what is diftionourable,
the pleafure is foon gone, but the difhonour eternal.”
ANTIMETATHESIS,
ANT
[ 429 ]
ANT
Ant:aieta-
theiis
.1!
Antimony.
ANTIMETATHESIS, In Rhetoric, is the inver-
fion of the parts or members of an antithefis. Such
is that of Cicero in Verrem, lib. iv. cap. 52. “ Com¬
pare this peace with that war ; the arrival of this go¬
vernor with the vittory of that general; his profligate
troops with the invincible army of the other; the lux¬
ury of the former with the temperante of the latter :
you will fay, that Syracufe was founded by him who
took it; and taken by him, who held it when founded.”
ANTIMONARCHICAL, an appellation given to
whatever oppofes monarchical government.
ANTIMONIALS, in Medicine, preparations of
antimony. See Pharmacy.
ANTIMONY, a blackilh mineral fubflance, Rain¬
ing the hands, full of long, fhining, needle-like ftriae,
hard, brittle, and confiderably heavy. It is found in
different parts of Europe, as Bohemia, Saxony, Tranfyl-
vania, Hungary, France, and England ; commonly in
mines by itfelf, intermixed with earth and ftony matters.
Sometimes it is blended with the richer ores of filver,
and renders the extraftion of that metal difficult by
volatilizing a part of the filver, or, in the language of
the miners, robbing the ore. See Metallurgy, for
the different operations.
Antimony is the Jiibium of the ancients; by the
Greeks called <nu.fu. The reafon of its modern deno¬
mination, antimony, is ufually referred to Bafil Valen¬
tine a German monk; who, as the tradition relates,
having thrown fome of it to the hogs, obferved, that,
after purging them violently, they immediately grew
fat upon it. This made him think, that by giving
his fellow monks a like dofe, they would be the better
for it. The experiment, however, fucceeded fo ill,
that they all died of it : and the medicine thencefor¬
ward was called antimony, q. d. anti-monk.
Ufes. Antimony at firft was of fervice only in the
compofition of paint. Scripture defcribes it to us as
a fort of paint, with which the women blackened their
eyebrows. Jezebel, underftanding that Jehu was to
enter Samaria, painted her eyes with antimony ; or,
according to the Hebrew, “ put her eyes in antimo¬
ny.” As large black eyes were thought the fineft,
they of both fexes, who were careful of their beauty,
rubbed their eyes, eyelids, and round the eyes, with
a needle dipped in a box of paint made of antimony,
with a defign of blackening them.-—At this day, the
women of Syria, Arabia, and Babylonia, anoint and
blacken themfelves about the eyes; and both men and
women put black upon their eyes in the defert, to
preferve them from the heat of the fun and the pier¬
cing of its rays. M. Darvieux tells us, that the Ara¬
bian women border their eyes with a black colour made
of tutty, which the Arabians call rebel. They draw a
line of this kind of blacking without the corner of their
eyes, to make them appear larger. Ifaiah, in his enu¬
meration of the feveral ornaments belonging to the
daughters of Sion, has not forgot the needles which they
made ufe of in painting their eyes and eyelids. Nor has
this praflice efcaped the laffi of Juvenal :
llle fupercilium madida fuligine tinchim
Obliqua producit acu, pingitque trementes
Attollens oculos.
Ezekiel, difcovering the irregularities of the Jewiffi
nation under the idea of a debauched woman, fays, Antimony,
that (lie bathed and perfumed herfelf, and that ffie
anointed her eyes with antimony. Job {hows fuffi-
ciently how much antimony was in efteem, by calling
one of his daughters a veffel of antimony, or a box to
put paint in, cornuJlibii. The author of the book of
Enoch fays, that before the deluge the angel Azleel
taught young women the art of painting themfelves.
Tertullian and St Cyprian have declaimed very
warmly againft this cuftdm of painting the eyes and
eyebrows, which was much praftifed in Africa even
by the men : Inunge oculos tuos non Jlibio diaboh, fed
collyrio Chrifti, fays St Cyprian. Pliny, fpeaking of
the Roman ladies, fays, that they painted their very
eyes: Tanta eft decoris affeciatio, ut tingantur ocuh
quoque. Sardauapalus painted his eyes and eyebrows.
Jofephus reproaches the feditious with the fame, who
affumed the name of zealots, and made themfelves
mafters of the temple of Jerufalem.
The modern ufes of antimony are very numerous
and important. It is a common ingredient in fpecula
or burning concaves, ferving to give the compofition
a finer texture. It makes a part in bell metal, and
renders the found more clear. It is mingled with tin,
to make it more hard, white, and founding; and with
lead, in the cafting of printers letters, to render them
more fmooth and firm. It is alfo a general help in
the melting of metals, and efpecially in cafting of
cannon-balls. It is likewife made ufe of for purifying
and heightening the colour of gold. See CHEMISTRY
Index.
For a long time this mineral was efteemed poifonous.
In 1566, its ufe was prohibited in France by an edidl:
of parliament ; and in 1609, one Befnier was expelled
the faculty for having given k. The edidt was re¬
pealed in 1650; antimony having a few years before
been received into the number of purgatives. In 1668,
a new edidt came forth, forbidding its ufe by any but
dodlors of the faculty. It is now univerfally allowed,
that pure antimony in its crude ftate has no noxious
quality, and that though many of its preparations are
moft virulently emetic and cathartic, yet, by a flight
alteration or addition, they lofe their virulence, and
become mild in their operation.
The virtues of antimony in the difeafes of animals
are greatly extolled. Pigs that have the meafles are
at all times recovered by it, which proves it a great
purifier of the blood. Horfes who have running heels
that cannot be cured by the common methods ufed
by the farriers, will generally be cured by this medi¬
cine in a little time. The manner of ufing it is this :
Mix one drachm with every feeding of oats which the
horfe has in a morning. It is beil put together in one
place, buried under a few oats; and the borfe’s head
being withheld a little, and then let go juft againft
that place, he will take it all in at a mouthful. Some
horfes do not diflike it : others obftinately refufe it,
but to thefe it may be eafily given in balls. The vir¬
tues of this drug in fattening cattle have been thought
imaginary, but experiment proves it to be a real truth.
A horfe that is lean and fcabby, and not to be fatted
by any other means, will become fat on taking a dofe
of antimony every morning for two months together.
A boar fed on brawn, and having an ounce of anti¬
mony
X
ANT
[ 430 ]
ANT
Antinoe mony given him every morning, will become fat a fort-
11 night fooner than others put into the flye at the fame
Antioch. t'irne and fed in the fame manner, but without the anti-
mony.
ANTINOE, See Enfine.
ANTINOEIA, in antiquity, annual facrifice=q and
quinquennial games, in memory of Antinous the Bithy-
nian. They were inftituted at the command of Adrian,
the Roman emperor, at Mantinea, in Arcadia, where
Antinous Was honoured with a temple and divine wor-
fliip.
ANTI N OMI AN S, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, certain
heretics who maintain the law of no ufe or obligation
under the gofpel-difpenfation, or who hold doarines that
clearly fuperfede the neceffity of good woiks and a vir¬
tuous life. The Antinomians took their origin from John
Agricola about the year 153S ; who taught that the law
Is no ways neceffary under the gofpel j that good works
do not promote our falvation, nor ill ones binder it •, that
repentance is not to be preached from the decalogue, but
only from the gofpel.
This fea fprung up in England during the protec¬
torate of Oliver Cromwell, and extended their fyftem
of libertinifm much farther than Agricola the difciple
of Luther. Some of their teachers exprefsly maintain¬
ed, that as the deft cannot fall from grace, nor forfeit
the Divine favour, the wicked adions they commit
are not really finful, nor are to be confidered as in fian¬
ces of their violation of the divine law 5 and that con-
fequently they have no occafion either to confefs their
fins, or to break them off by repentance. _ According
to them, it is one of the effential and diftinclive cha-
rafters of the cleft, that they cannot do any thing
which is either difpleafing to God or prfihibited by the
law.—Luther, Rutherford, Schluffelburg, Sedgwick,
Gataker, Witfius, Bull, Williams, &c. have written
refutations j Crifp, Richardfon, Saltmarfti, &c. defen¬
ces, of the Antinomians-, Wigandus, a comparifon be¬
tween ancient and modern Antinomians.
The doftrine of Agricola was in itfelf oblcure, and
perhaps reprefented worfe than it really was by Luther,
who wrote with acrimony agaiuft him, and firft ftyled
him and his followers Antinomians. Agricola Hood on
his own defence, and complained that opinions were
imputed to him which he did not hold. Nicholas Amf-
dorf fell under the fame odious name and imputation,
and feems to have been treated more unfairly than even
Agricola himfelf. It is rather hard to charge upon a
man all the opinions that may be inferred from things
that have haftily dropped from him, when he himfelf
difavows fuch inferences.
ANTINOUS, the favourite of Adrian, was born at
Bithynus in Bithynia. His beauty engaged the heart
nf Adrian in fuch a manner, that there never was a more
boundlefs and extravagant paflion than that of this em¬
peror towards this youth. After his death, the emperor
ordered divine honours to be paid him and he alfo
erefted a city of his name. See Enfine.
ANTIOCH, a city of Syria, in Afia, fituated on
the river Orontes, in E. Long. 37. 5* N- Lat. 36. 20.
It was built by Seleucus Nicator, founder of the Syro-
Macedonian empire, who made it his capital. It flood
on the above mentioned river, about 20 miles from the
place where it empties itfelf into the Mediterranean j
being equally diftant from Conftantinople and Alex-
2
andria in Egypt, that is, about 700 miles from each.
Seleucus called it Antioch, from his father s name, ac- e**
cording to feme } or from that of Ids fon, according to
others.° He built 16 other cities bearing the fame
name 5 of which one, fituated in Pifidia, is probably that
where the name of Chri/Hans was firrt given to the fol¬
lowers of Jefus Chrift. But that fituated on the Orontes
by far eclipfed, not only ail the othe rs of this name, but
all the cities built by Seleucus. Antigonus, not long
before, bad founded a city in that neighbourhood, which
from his own name he had called Antigonia, and de-
figned it for the capital of his empire : but it was razed
to the ground by Seleucus, who employed the materials
in building his metropolis, and alfo tranfplanted the
inhabitants thither.
The city of Antioch was afterwards known by the
name of Tclra poll's, being divided as it were into four
cities, each of them being furrounded with its proper
wall, befides a common one which enclofed them all.
The'firfl of thefe cities was built by Seleucus Nicator,
as already mentioned ; the fecond by thofe who flock¬
ed thither on its being made the capital of the Syro-
Macedonian empire $ the third by Seleucus Callinicus £
and the fourth by Antiochus Eniphanes.— About iour
or,five miles diflant, flood a place called Daphne, which
was neverthelefs reckoned a fuburb of Antioch. . Here
Seleucus planted a grove, and in the middle of it built
a temple which he confecrated to Apollo and Diana,
making the whole an afylum. To this place the inha¬
bitants of Antioch reforted for their pleafures anff di-
verfions j whereby it became at latt fo infamous, that
“ to live after the manner of Daphne” was ufed as a
proverb to exprefs the moft voluptuous and diffolute
way of living. Here Lucius Verus, the colleague of
M. Aurelius, chofe to take up his refidence,.inftead of
marching againft the Parthian^j while his general
Cafiius forbade by proclamation any cf his foldiers to
enter or even go near the place. In (liort, fo remarkable
was Daphne of old, that the metropolis itfell was diftin-
guifhed by it, and called Antioch near Daphne.
Though Antioch continued to be, as Pliny calls it,
the queen of the Eaft, for near 1600 years; yet fcarce
any city mentioned in hiftory hath undergone fuch ca¬
lamities, both from the attacks of its enemies, and its
being naturally fubjeft to earthquakes. The firft
difafter mentioned in hiftory which befel the Antio-
chians happened about 145 years before Chrift. Being
at that time very much difaffefted to the perfon and
government of Demetrius their king, they were conti¬
nually raifing tumults and feditions \ infomuch that he
found himfelf at laft cBliged to folicit afliflance from
the Jews j and was furnilhed by Jonathan, one of the
Maccabees, with 3000 men ; by which reinforcement,
believing himfelf fufficiently ftrong to reduce the mu¬
tineers by force, he ordered them immediately to de¬
liver up their arms. This unexpefted order caufed
a great uproar in the city. The inhabitants ran to
arms, and invefted the king’s palace, to the number
of 120,000, with a defign to put him to death. All
the Jews haftened to his relief, fell upon the rebels,
killed 100,000 of them, and fet fire to the city. On
the deftruftion of the Syrian empire by the Romans,
Antioch fubmitted to them as well as the other cities
of that kingdom, and continued for a long time under
their dominion. About the year 115, in the reign of
the
Antioch.
ANT [ 43i ] ANT
Antioch, the: emperor Trajan, it wasalmoft entirely ruined by one
i—-V-—of the moft dreadful earthquakes mentioned in hiftory.
Trajan himfelf happened to be there at that time, being
returned from an expedition againft the Parthians; fo
that the city was then full of troops, and ftrangers come
from all quarters either out of curiofity or upon bufinefs
and embaflies : the calamity was by this means felt al¬
moft in every province of the Roman empire. The
earthquake was preceded by violent claps of thunder,
unusual winds, and a dreadful noife under ground. The
(hock was fo terrible, that great numbers of houfes were
overturned, and others toffed to and fro like a fliip at
fea. Thofe who happened to be in their houfes were
for the mod part buried under their ruins: thofe who
were walking in the ftreets or in the fquares, were, by
the violence of the (hock, dallied againft each other,
and moft of them either killed or dangeroufly wounded.
This earthquake continued, with fome fmall intermif-
fion, for many days and nights ; fo that vaft numbers
periflied. The moft violent (hock, according to the
A£ts of St Ignatius, was on a Sunday, December 23.
Ey this Trajan was much hurt, but efcaped through a
window. Dion Caflius pretends, that he was taken out
of the window by one who exceeded the human fize in
tallnefs. The fame hiftorian adds, that Mount Lifon,
which (food at a finall diftance from the city, bowed
its head and threatened to fall down upon it : that
other mountains fell 5 that new rivers appeared, and
others that had flowed before forfook their courfe and
Vaniftied. When the earthquake ceafed, a woman was
heard crying under the ruins ; which being immediately
removed, (lie was found with a living child in her
arms. Search was made for others ; but none was found
alive, except one child which continued fucking its dead
mother.
No doubt, Trajan, who was an eye-witnefs of this
terrible calamity, would contribute largely toivards the
re-eftabli(hment of Antioch in its ancient fplendour. Its
good fortune, however, did not continue long ; for in
155, it was almoft entirely burnt by accidental fire;
when it was again reftored by Antoninus Piu^. In 176
or 177, the inhabitants having fided with Caflius, the
above mentioned Roman general, who had revolted from
M. Aurelius, that emperor publiftied a fevere edict a-
gair.ft them, deprived them of all their privileges, fup-
prelfed their public aflemblies, and took from them the
(hows and fpe£tacles to which they were greatly addict¬
ed : but his anger being foon appeafed, he reftored them
to their former condition, and even condefcer.ded tovifit
their city. In 194, having fided with Niger againft Se-
verus, the latter deprived them of all their privileges,
and fubjected Antioch as a mere village to Laodicea ;
but, however, pardoned them the next year, at the en¬
treaties of his eldeft fun, then a child.
When the power of the. Roman empire began to de¬
cline, Antioch became the bone of contention between
them and the eaftern nations; and, accordingly, on the
breaking out of a Perfian war, it was almoft always
fare to fufier. In 242, it was taken and plundered by
Sapor ; and, though he was defeated by Gordian, it
underwent the fame misfortune in the time of Valerian,
about 18 vears after; and after the defeat and capti¬
vity of Valerian, being taken by the Perfian monarch
a third time, he not onfy plundered it, but levelled
all the public buildings with the ground. The Per-
fians, however, being foon driven out, this unfortunate Antioch,
city continued free from any remarkable calamity till 1 ——y
about the time of the divifion of the Roman empire by
Conllantine in 331. It was then afflidted with fo grie¬
vous a famine, that a buftiel of wheat was fold for 400
pieces of filver. During this grievous diftrefs, Con-
ftantine fent to the bilhop 30,000 bufhels of corn ; be-
fides an incredible quantity of all kinds of provinons,
to be diftributed among the ecclefiaftics, widows,, or¬
phans, &c. In the year 347, Conftantine II. caufed
a harbour to be made at Seleucia, for the conve-
niency of Antioch. This was effected at an immenfe
expence ; the mouth of the Orontes, where the port
was made, being full of fands and rocks. When the
emperor Julian fet out on his expedition againft the
Perfians, he made a long ftay at Antioch ; during
which time, many of the Roman provinces were af-
flidled with a famine, but which raged more violently
at Antioch than in other places. The ecclefiaftical
writers of thofe times fay, that this famine followed
Julian from place to place; and as he continued long¬
er at Antioch than any other city, it raged more vio¬
lently there than anywhere elfe. To remedy this evil,
Julian fixed the price of corn : by which means the
famine was greatly increafed, the merchants convey¬
ing their corn privately to other places, fo that this
metropolis was reduced to a moft deplorable fituation.
In 381, in the reign of Theodofius the Great, Antioch
was again vifited by a famine, accompanied by a grie¬
vous plague. The latter foon ceafed: but, the fa¬
mine (till continuing, the biftiop, Libanius, applied to
Icarius, count of the Eaft, requefting him by fome
means or other to relieve the poor, who had flocked
from all parts to the metropolis, and were daily perifli-
ing in great numbers ; but to this Icarius gave no
other anfwer, than that they were abhorred and juftly
punifhed by the gods. This inhuman anfwer railed
great difturbances; which, however, were terminated
without bloodthed. In 387, Theodofius, finding his
exchequer quite drained, and being obliged to be at an
extraordinary expence in celebrating the fifth, year of
the reign of his fon Arcadius, and the tenth of his own,
an extraordinary tax was laid upon all the people in
the empire. Moft of the cities fubmitted willingly to
this : but the people of Antioch, complaining of it
as an unreafonable oppreflion, crowded to the houfe
of Flavianus, their bilhop, as foon as the edi<5t was
publiftied, to implore his prote&ion. Being unable
to Jind him, they returned to the forum ; and would
have torn the governor in pieces, had not the officers
who attended him kept back with great difficulty the
enraged multitude, till he made his efcape. Upon this,
they broke fome of the emperor’s (latues, and dragged
others through the city, uttering the moft injurious and
abufive exprtffions againft him and his -whole family.
They were, however, difperfed by a body of archers,
who, by wounding only two of the rabble, (truck ter¬
ror into all the reft. The governor proceeded a^ainft
the offenders with the utmoft cruelty ; expofing fome
to wild beafts in the theatre, and burning others alive..
He did not fpare even the children, who had infulted
the emperor’s ftatues ; and caufed feveral perfons to be
executed, who had been only fpedftators of the difor-
der. In the mean time a report was fpread, that a bo¬
dy of troops was at hand, with orders to plunder the
citlK
ant . f 43
Antioch, citv, and put all to the fword, without dlflinaion of
 ' fex or aKe ; upon which the citizens abandoned their
dwellings in the utmoft terror and confufion, retiring
to the neighbouring mountains with their wives and
families. As the report proved groundleis, iome ol
them returned*, but the greater part dreading the
cruelty of the governor, and the difpleafure of the em¬
peror, continued in their retreats. 1 o thofe who re¬
turned, St Chryfoftom preached feme homilies, which
have reached our times, and are greatly admired *, and
which are faid by St Chryfoftom himfelf, as well^ as
fome cotemporary writers, to have had a conftdera^e
effea in reforming the lives of this licentious and ditlo-
lute people. On hearing the news of this tumui ,
Theodofius was fo much enraged, that he commanded
the city to be deftroyed, and its inhabitants to be put
to the fword without diftinaion *, but this order was
revoked before it could be put into execution, and he
contented himfelf with a punilhment fimnar to that in-
fliaed by Severus above mentioned. He appointed
iudges to punifti the offenders *, who proceeded with luch
feverity, and condemned fuch numbers, that the city
was thrown into the utmoft confternation. On this
occafion St Chryfoftom and the hermits, who were
very numerous in the neighbourhood, exerted all their
eloquence in behalf of the unhappy people, and ob¬
tained a refpite for thofe who had been condemned.
They next proceeded to draw up a memorial to the
emperor in favour ef the citizens in general *, and be¬
ing ioined by Flavianus, at laft obtained a general
pardon, and had the city reftored to all its former pri-
'^ifthe year 458, Antioch was almoft entirely ruined
by an earthquake, which happened on the 14th of Sep¬
tember ; fcarce a Angle houfe being left (landing m the
moft beautiful quarter of the city. Ihe like misfor¬
tune it experienced in 529, during the reign of the
emperor Juftin ; and in 15 years after, being taken by
Cofrhoes king of Perfia, that infult.ng and haughty
monarch gave it up to his foldiers who put all they
met to the fword. The king himfelf feized on all the
gold and filver velTels belonging to the great church J
and caufcd all the valuable ftatues, pidures &c to be
taken down and conveyed to Perfia, while his folders
carried off every thing elfe. The city being thus com¬
pletely plundered, Cofrhoes ordered his “icn to fet;
fire to if, which was accordingly done fo effectually,
that none of the buildings even without the walls
efcaped. Such of the inhabitants as efcaped (laughter
were carried into Perfia and fold as (laves.
Notwithstanding fo many and fo great calamities,
the city of Antioch foon recovered its wonted iplen-
dour*, but in a (hort time underwent its ufual fate, be¬
ing almoft entirely deftroyed by an earthquake in 587,
by which 30,000 perfons loft their lives. In 634, it
fell into the hands of the Saracens, who kept poffet-
fion of it till the year 858, when it was furprifed by
one Burtzas, and again annexed to the Roman empire.
The Romans continued mafters of it for fome time,
till the civil diffenfions in the empire gave the Turks
an opportunity of feizing upon it as well as the whole
kingdom of Syria. From them it was again taken by
the Crufaders in 1098. In 1262, it was again taken
by Bibaris fultan of £gypt, who put a final period to
its glory,
2 ] ANT
Antioch is now no more than a ruinous town, whofe Antioch
houfa, built with mud ur.d ftruw, and narrow und m.ry J ^
flreels exhibit every appearance uf m.fery and wretch-
ednefs. Thefe houfes are fituated on tne (outhern
bank of the Orontes, at the extremity of an old decay¬
ed bridge : they are covered to the fouth by a moun¬
tain : upon the (lope of which is a wall built by the
Crufaders. The diftance between the prefent town and
this mountain may be about 400 yards, which (pace is
occupied by gardens and heaps of rubbifn, but pre-ents
nothing interefting. r • v,.,
Notwithftanding the unpolifiied manners of its inha¬
bitants, Antioch was better calculated than Aleppo to
be the emporium of the Europeans. By clearing the
mouth of the Orontes; which is fix leagues lower down
boats might have been towed up that river, though
they could not have failed up, as Pococke has a An ted :
its current being too rapid. The natives, who never
knew the name Orontes, call it, on account ol the
fwiftnefs of its ftream, E/ aafi, that is, the rebel, its
breadth at Antioch, is about forty paces beyen
leagues above that town it paftes by a lake abounding
in fifti, and efpecially in eels. A great quantity o(
thefe are failed every year, but not fufticient. for tne
numerous fads of the Greek Chrift.ans. It is to be
remembered, we no longer bear at Antioch, either ot
the Grove, or Daphne, or of the voluptuous (cenes ol
which it was the theatre. p . .
The plain of Antioch, though the foil of it is ex¬
cellent, is uncultivated, and abandoned to the lurco-
mans *, but the hills on the fide of the Orontes, parti¬
cularly oppofite Serkin, abound in plantations ot tigs
and olives, vines, and mulberry trees, which, a thing
uncommon in Turkey, are planted in quincunx, and
exhibit a landfcape worthy our fined: provinces.
Seleucus Nicator, who founded Antioch, built alio
at the mouth of the Orontes, on the northern bank, a
large and well fortified city, which bore his name, but
of which at prefent not a (ingle habitation remains j
nothing is to be feen but heaps of rubbifh, and works
in the adjacent rock, which prove that this was once a
place of very confiderable importance. In the lea alio
may be perceived the traces of two piers, which are in¬
dications of an ancient port, now choked up. The in¬
habitants of the country go thither to fi(h, and call the
name of the place Souaidia. _
ANTIOCHETTA, a town of Turkey in Aha, m
Caramania, with a biftiop’s fee, over againft the illand
of Cyprus. E. Long. 32. 15. N. Eat. 36. 42.
ANTIOCHIA, in Ancient Geography, a town ot
Affyria, fituated between the rivers Tigris and lor-
nadotus (Pliny).—Another of Caria, on the Meander*,
called alfo PytJiopolis, Athyrnbra, and NyJJ'a, or Nyja,
(Stephanas) : but Strabo fays, that Nyfa was near
Tralles.—A third of Cilicia Trachea, on Mount Cra-
,tUs (Ptolemy).—A fourth called Epidaphnes, the ca¬
pital of Syria, diftinguiftied from cities of the fame
name, either by its fituation on the Orontes, by which
it was divided, or by its proximity to Daphne (See
Antioch).— A fifth Antiochia, a town of Comagene,
on the Euphrates (Pliny).—A fixth of Lydia Jralles,
fo called (Pliny).—A feventh, of Margiana (Strabo,
Pliny, Ptolemy), on the river ,Margus, taking its
name from Antiochus, (on of Seleucus, who rebuilt it,
and walled it round, being before called Alexandria,
from
ANT [
Antiochian from Alexander the founder, and furnamed Syria j in
|| compafs feventy ftadiaj whither Orodes carried the Ro-
Antiparos. after the defeat of Craffus (Pliny).—An eighth,
jn Mefopotomia, on the lake Calirrhoe, the old name
'of Edefla (Pliny).—A ninth Antiochia, on the river
:Mygdonius, in Mefopotomia, fituated at the foot of
Mount Mahus, and is the fame with Nifibis (Strabo,
Plutarch). It was the bulwark and frontier town of
the Romans againft the Parthians and Perfians, till
given up to the Perfians, by Jovinian, by an ignomini¬
ous peace (Ammian, Eutropius).—A tenth Antiochia,
was that fituated in the north of Pifidia (Luke, Pto¬
lemy, Strabo): it was a Roman colony, with the ap¬
pellation Ccefarea. There is an Antiochia at Mount
Taurus, mentioned by Ptolemy, but by no other au¬
thor.
ANTIOCHIAN SECT or Academy, a name given
to the fifth academy, or branch of Academies. It took
the denomination from its being founded by Antiochus,
a philofopher contemporary with Cicero.—The Antio¬
chian academy fucceeded the Philonian. As to point
of doftrine, the philofophers of this fe£I appear to
have reltored that of the ancient academy, except that
in the article of the criterion of truth. Anticchus was
really a Stoic, and only nominally an Academic.
ANTIOCHIAN Epocha, a method of computing time
from the proclamation of liberty granted the city of
Antioch about the time of the battle of Pharfalia.
ANTIOCHUS, the name of feveral kings of Sy¬
ria. See that article,
Antiochus of Afcalon, a celebrated philofopher,
the difciple of Philo of Lariffa, the mailer of Cicero,
and the friend of Lucullus and Brutus. Pie was found¬
er of a fifth academy : but, inllead of attacking other
fe£ls, he fet himfelf down to reconcile them together,
particularly the fe£l of the Stoics with that of the an¬
cient academy.
ANTIOPE, in fabulous hillory, the wife of Licus,
king of Thebes, who, being deflowered by Jupiter in
the form of a fatyr, brought forth Amphion and Ze-
thus.—Another Antiope was queen of the Amazons •,
and, with the affiilance of the Scythians, invaded the
Athenians 5 and was vanquilhed by Thefeus.
ANTIPALDOBAPTISTS, (derived from «yr<,
againff, ttcus, iru^of, child, and baptvze, whence
fix.-rcurTte'), is a ditlinguilhing denomination given to
thofe who objefl to the baptifm of infants ; becaufe
they fay infants are incapable of being inftrufled, and
of making that profefiiun of faith which entitles them
to this ordinance, and an admiflion into church com¬
munion. See Anabaptists and Baptists.
AN I I PAROS, an ifland in the Archipelago, op-
pofite to Paros, from which it is feparated by a ftrait
about feven miles over. It is the Oleares or Oliaros,
mentioned by Strabo, Pliny, Virgil, Ovid, &c. 5 and
was, according to Heraclides Ponticus, as quoted by
Stephanus, firft peopled by a Phoenician colony from
Sidon. According to Mr Tournefort’s account, it is
about 16 miles in circumference, produces a little wine
and cotton, with as much corn as is neceffary for the
maintenance of 60 or 70 families, who live together in
a village at one end of the ifland, and are moftly Mal-
tefe and French corfairs.
This ifland is remarkable for a fub erraneous cavern
or grotto, accounted one of the greafeft natural curio-
Vol. II. Part II.
433 1 A N ,T .
fities in the world. It was firft difeovered in the laft Antiparos.
century by oneMagtii an Italian traveller, who has given _v
us the following account : “ Having beer, informed
(fays he) by the natives of Paros, that in the little
ifland of Antiparos, which lies about two miles from
the former, a gigantic ftatue was to be feen at the
mouth of a cavern in that place, it was refolved that
we (the French conful and himfelf) ftiould pay it a vi-
fit. In purfuance of this refolution, after we had land¬
ed on the ifland, and walked about four miles through
the midft of beautiful plains and Hoping woodlands,
we at length came to a little hill, in the fide of which
yawned a moil horrid cavern, that, with its gloom, at
firft ftruck us with terror, and almolt repreffed curiofi-
ty. Recovering the firft furprife, however, we entered
boldly •, and had not proceeded above 20 paces, when
the fuppofed ftatue of the giant prefented itfelf to our
view. We quickly perceived, that what the ignorant
natives had been terrified at as a giant, was nothing
more than a fparry concretion, formed by the water
dropping from the roof of the cave, and by degrees
hardening into a figure that their fears had formed in¬
to a monfter. Incited by this extraordinary appear¬
ance, we were induced to proceed Hill further, in queft
of new adventures in this fubterranean abode. As we
proceeded, new wonders offered themfelves ; the fpars,
formed into trees and fhrubs, prefented a kind of pe¬
trified grove ; fome white, fome green 5 and all reced¬
ing in due perfpe£tive. They ftruck us with the
more amazement, as we knew them to be mere produc¬
tions of nature, who, hitherto in folitude, had, in her
playful moments, dreffed the feene as if for her own
amufement.
“ But we had as yet feen but a few of the wonders
of the place, and we were introduced as yet only into
the portico of this amazing temple. In one corner of
this half-illuminated recefs, there appeared an opening
of about three feet wide, which feemed to lead to a
place totally dark, and that one of the natives affured
us contained nothing more than a refervoir of water.
Upon this we tried, by throwing down fome ftones,
which rumbling along the fides of the defeent for fome
time, the found feemed at laft quafhed in a bed of wa¬
ter. In order, however, to be more certain, we fent
in a Levantine mariner, who, by the promife of a good
reward, with a flambeau in his hand, ventured into this
narrow aperture. After continuing within it tor about
a quarter of an hour, he returned, carrying fome beau¬
tiful pieces of white fpar in his hand, which art could
neither imitate nor equal. Upon being informed by
him that the place was full of thefe beautiful incrutia-
tions, I ventured in once more with him, for about 50
paces, anxioufly and cautioufly defeending by a fteep
and dangerous way. Finding, however, that we came
to a precipice which led into a fpacious amphitheatre,
if I may fo call it, ftill deeper than any other part, we
returned; and being provided with a ladder, flambeaux,
and other things to expedite our defeent, our whole
company, man by man, ventured into the fame open¬
ing, and, defeending one after another, we at laft faw
ourfelves all together in the moft magnificent part of
the cavern.
“ Our candles being now all lighted up, and the
whole place completely illuminated, never could the eye
be prefented with a more glittering or a more magnifi- ^
3 I cent
A N T [ 43
Antipy.ros. cent fcene. The roof all hung with folid icicles, tranf-
narent as glafs, yet folid as marble. I he eye could
katce-reach the lofty and noble ceiling ; the fides were
regularly formed with fpars- j and the whole prefented
the idea of a magnificent theatre, illuminated with an
immenfe profufion of lights. The floor confifted of fo¬
lid marble j and in feveral places, magnificent columns,
thrones, altars, and other objects, appeared, as if nature
had defigned to mock the curiofities of art. Our voices,
upon fpeaking or finging, were redoubled to an afto-
nifliing loudnefs •, and, upon the firing of a gun, the
noife and reverberations were almott deafening. In the
midft of this grand amphitheatre rofe a concretion of
about 15 feet high, that, in feme meafure, refembled
an altar ; from which, taking the hint, we caufed mals
to be celebrated there. The beautiful columns that
{hot up round the altar, appeared like candlefticks; and
many other natural objefts reprefented the cuflomary
ornaments of this facrament.
“ Below even this fpacious grotto, there feemed an¬
other cavern ; down which I ventured with my former
mariner, and defeended about 50 paces by means of a
rope. I at laft arrived at a fmall fpot of level ground,
where the bottom appeared different from that of the
amphitheatre, being compofed of foft clay, yielding to
the preffure, and in which I thruft a flick to about fix
feet deep. In this, however, as above, numbers of die
moft beautiful cryftals were formed 5 one of which,
particularly refembled a table. _ Upon our egrefs^ from
this amazing cavern, We perceived a Greek infeription
upon a rock at the mouth ; but fo obliterated by time,
that we could not read it. It feemed to import, that
one Antipater, in the time of Alexander, had come thi¬
ther \ but whether he penetrated into the depths of the
cavern, he does not think fit to inform us.”
From this account Mr Tournefort’s differs confider-
ably. Mr Magni mentions only one defeent or pre¬
cipice from the entry of the cave to the grotto, or
m'oft magnificent part j Mr Tournefort fays that there
were many very dangerous precipices and rugged ways,
through which they were obliged to pals fometimes on
their back, and fometimes on their belly, but gives no
particular account of his journey till he come to the
grand cavern. This indeed he deferibes very pompouf-
ly j but as by it he evidently wants to fupport a favour¬
ite’ hypothefis, namely, the vegetation of ftones, per¬
haps the particulars are not altogether to be depended
upon. He informs us, that, at the entry into the ca¬
vern, he met with a Greek infeription almoft effaced,
containing a good number of proper names j and that
there was&a tradition among the inhabitants, that thefe
were the names of thofe who had confpired againft Alex¬
ander the Great, and having miffed their aim, had ta¬
ken refuge in this grotto.
The moft particular account, however, of this fa¬
mous grotto that hath hitherto been publifhed, appear¬
ed in the Britifh Magazine, in a letter figned Char/es
Saunders, and dated Feb. 24. 1746-75 which, as it
is very particular, and feems to bear fufficient marks of
authenticity, we fhall here infert. “ Its entrance lies
in the fide of a rock, about two miles from the fea-
fhore ; and is a fpacious and very large arch, formed
of rough craggv rocks, overhung with brambles and
a oreat many climbing plants, that give it a gloomi-
jjefs which is very awful and agreeable. Our furgeon,
4 1 ANT
royfelf, and four paffengers, attended by fix guides Antiparos.
with lighted torches, entered this cavern about eight
o’clock in the morning in the middle, of Auguft laft.
We had not gone 20 yards in this cavity when w'e loft
all fight of day light: but our guides going before us
with light, we entered into a low narrow kind of al¬
ley furrounded every way with ftones all glittering like
diamonds by the light of our torches •, the whole be¬
ing covered and lined throughout with fmall cryftals,
which wave a thoufand various colours by their different
reflexions. The alley grows lower and narrower as
one goes on, till at length one can fcarce get along it.
At the end of this paffage we were each of us prefent¬
ed with a rope, to tie about our middles j which when
we had done, our guides led us to the brink of a moft;
horrible precipice. The defeent into this was quite
fteep, and the place all dark and gloomy. We could
fee nothing, in fhort, but fome of our guides with
torches in a miferable dark place, at a vaft diltance be¬
low us. The dreadful depth of this place, and the hor¬
ror of the defeent through a miferable darknefs into it,
made me look back to the lane of diamonds, if I may
fo call it, through which we had juft paffed •, and ! could
not but think I was leaving heaven, to defeend into the
infernal regions. The hope of fomething fine at my
journey’s end tempted me, however, to truft myfelf
to the rope and my guides at the top, to. let myfelf
down. After about two minutes dangling in this pef-
ture, not without much pain as well as terror, I
found royfelf fafe, however, at the bottom ; and our
friends all foon followed the example. When we had
congratulated here with one another on our fafe de¬
feent 5 I was inquiring where the grotto, as they call¬
ed it, was. Our guides, fhaking their heads, told us,
we had a great way to that yet : and led us forward
about 30 yards under a roof of ragged rocks, in a
fcene of terrible darknefs, and at a vaft depth from the
furface of the earth, to the brink of another precipice
much deeper and more terrible than the former. 1 wo
of the guides went down here with their torches firft 4
and by their light we could fee, that this paffage was
not fo perpendicular indeed as the other, but lay in a
very fteep flant, with a very flippery rock for the bot¬
tom ; vaft pieces of rough rugged rocks jutting out in
many places on the right hand, in the defeent, and for¬
cing the guides fometimes to climb over, fometimes to
creep under them, and fometimes to round them •, and
on the left, a thoufand dark caverns, like fomany monf-
trous wells, ready, if a foot ftiould flip, to fwallow them
up for ever. We flood on the edge to fee thefe people
with their lights defeend before us ; and were amazed
and terrified to fee them continue defeending till they
feemed at a monftrous and moft frightful depth. When
they were at the bottom, however, they hollaed to
us ; and we, trembling and quaking, began to defeend
after them. We had not gone 30 feet down, when w.e
came to a place where the rock was perfeXly perpendi¬
cular *, and a vaft: cavern feemed to open its mouth to
fwallow us up on one fide, while a wall of rugged
rock threatened to tear us to pieces on the other. I
was quite difheartened at this terrible profpeX, and de¬
clared I would go back *, but our guides affured us
there was no danger •, and the reft of the company re-
folving to fee the bottom now they were come fo far, I
would not leave them : fo on we went to a corner where
there
ANT [ 435 ] . ANT
there was placed an old flippery and rotten ladder,
which hung down clofe to the rock ; and down this,
one after another, we at length all defcended. When
we had got to the bottom of this, we found ourfelves at
the entrance of another paffage, which was terrible
enough indeed j but in this there was not wanting fome-
thing of beauty. This was a wide and gradual de-
fcent; at the entrance of which one of our guides feat-
ed himfelf on his breech, and began to Hide down,
telling us we muft do the fame. Wre could difcover, by
the light of his torch, that this paffage was one of the
noblelt vaults in the world. It is about nine feet high,
feven wide, and has for its bottom a fine green gloffy
marble. The walls and arch of the roof of this being
as fmooth and even in moft places as if wrought by
art, and made of a fine glittering red and white gra¬
nite, fupported here and there with columns of a deep
blood-red fliining porphyry, made, with the reflexion
of the lights, an appearance not to be conceived. This
paflage is at leaft 40 yards long •, and of lb fteep a de-
fcent, that one has enough to do, when feated on one’s
breech not to defcend too quickly. Our guides, that we
kept with us, could here keep on each fide of us 5 and,
what with the prodigious grandeur and beauty of the
place, our eafy travelling through it, and the diverfion
of our now and then running over one another whether
we would or not •, this was much the ple&fantefl: part of
our journey. When we had entered this paflage, I
imagined we firould at the bottom join the two guides
we had firit fet down ; but alas ! when we were got
there wre found ourfelves only at the mouth of ano¬
ther precipice, down which we defcended by a fecond
ladder not much better than the former. I could have
admired this place alfo, would my terror have fuffered
me; but the dread of falling, kept all my thoughts
employed during my defcent. I could not but obferve,
however, as my companions were coming down after
me, that the wall, if I may fo call it, which the lad¬
der hung by, was one mafs of blood-red marble, co¬
vered with white fprigs ,of rock cryftal as long as my
finger, and making, with the glow of the purple from
behind, one continued immenfe fheet of amethyfts.
From the foot of this ladder we Hided on our bellies
through another lhallow vault of polilhed green and
white marble, about 20 feet : and at the bottom of this
joined our guides. Here we all got together once
again, and drank fome rum, to give us courage before
we proceeded any farther. After this ftiort refrelh-
ment, we proceeded by a ftrait, but fomewhat flanting
paflage, of a rough, hard, and fomewhat coarfe ftone,
full of a thoufand ftrange figures of fnakes rolled round,
and looking as if alive j but in reality as cold and hard
as the reft of the ftone, and nothing but fome of the
ftone itfelf in that ftiape. We walked pretty eafily a-
long this defcent for near 200 yards j where we faw
two pillars feemingly made to iupport the roof from
falling in •, but in reality it was no fuch thing ; for they
were very brittle, and made of a fine glittering yellow
marble. When we had pafled thefe about 200 yards,
we found ourfelves at the brink of another very terrible
precipice : but this our guides aflured us was the laft j
and there being a very good ladder to go down by, we
readily ventured. At the bottom of this fteep wall, as
I may call it, we found ourfelves for fome way upon
plain even ground) but, after about 40 yards walking,
were prefented by our guides with ropes again ; which Antiparos.
we faftened about our middles, though not to be fwung \ '
down by, but only for fear of danger, as there are lakes
and deep waters all the way from hence on the left hand.
With this caution, however, we entered the laft alley :
and horrible work it was indeed to get through it. All
was perfe&ly horrid and difmal here. The fides and
roof of the paflage were all of black ftone ; and the
rocks in our way were in fome places fo fteep, that we
were forced to lie all along on our backs, and Hide
down •, and fo rough, that they cut our clothes, and
bruifed us miferably in pafling. Over our heads, there
was nothing but ragged black rocks, fome of them
looking as if they were every moment ready to fall in
upon usj and, on our left hands, the light of our guides
torches Ihewed us continually the furlaces of dirty and
miferably looking lakes of water. If 1 had heartily
repented of my expedition often before, here I aflure
you I was all in a cold fweat, and fairly gave myfelf
over for loft ) heartily curfing all the travellers that had
written of this place, that they had defcribed it fo as
to tempt people to fee it, and never told ns of the hor¬
rors that lay in the way. In the midft of all thefe re¬
flexions, and in the very difmalleft part of all the ca¬
vern, on a Hidden we had loft four of our fix guides.
What was my terror on this fight! The place was a
thoufand times darker and more terrible for want of
their torches ) and I expeXed no other but every mo¬
ment to follow them into fome of thefe lakes, into
which I doubted not but they were fallen. The remain¬
ing two guides faid all they could indeed, to cheer us
up ) and told us we fliould fee the other four again
foon, and that we were near the end of our journey. I
do not knew what effeX this might have upon the reft
of my companions 5 but I alfure you I believed no part
of the fpeech but the laft, which I expeXed every mo¬
ment to find fulfilled in fome pond or precipice. Our
palfage was by this time become very narrow, and we
were obliged to crawl on all-fours over rugged rocks)
when in an inftant, and in the midft of thefe melancho¬
ly apprehenfions, I heard a little hilling noife, and faw
myfelf in utter, and not to be defcribed, darknefs. Our
guides called indeed cheerfully to us, and told us that
they had accidentally dropped their torches into a pud¬
dle of water, but we Ihould foon come to the reft of
them, and they would light them again ) and told us
there was no danger, and we had nothing to do but
to crawl forward. I cannot fay but I was amazed at
the courage of thefe people ) who were in a place where,
I thought, four of them had already perilhed, and
from whence we could none of us ever efcape ) and de¬
termined to lie down and die where I was. Words can¬
not defcribe the horror or the extreme darknefs of the
place. One of our guides, however, perceiving that I
did not advance, came up to me, and clapping his hand
firmly over my eyes, dragged me a few paces forward.
While I was in this ftrange condition, expeXing every
moment death in a thoufand fliapes, and trembling to
think what the guide meant by this rough proceeding,
he lifted me at once over a great ftone, fet me down on
my feet, and took his hand from before my eyes. What
words can defcribe at that inftant my aftonilhment and
tranfport ! Inftead of darknefs and defpair, all was
fplendour and magnificence before me : our guides all
appeared about us : the place was illuminated by 50
3 I 2 torches,
Antiparos.
ANT [
torches, and the guides all welcomed me into the grot¬
to of Antiparos. The four that were firft milling, I
now found had only given us the flip, to get the torches
lighted up before we came j and the other two had put
out their lights on purpofe, to make us enter out of ut¬
ter darknefs into this pavilion of fplendour and glory.
I am now come to the proper bufinefs of this letter :
which was to defcribe this grotto. But I mull confefs
to you that words.cannot do it. The amazing beau¬
ties of the place, the eye that fees them only can con¬
ceive. The belt account I can give you, however,
pray accept of. , . , . , Q
“ The people told us, the depth of this place was
vards; the grotto, in which we now were, is a cavern
of 120 yards wide, and 113 long, and feems about 60
Yards high in moft places. Thefe meafures differ fome-
thing from the accounts travellers in general give us ;
but you may depend upon them as exaft, for I took
them with my own hand. Imagine then with your-
felf, an immenfe arch like this, almoft all ovei lined
Avith fine and bright cryftallized white marble, and
illuminated with 50 torches •, and you will then have
feme faint idea of the place I had the pleafure to Ipend
three hours in. This, however, is but a faint defenp-
tion of its beauties. The roof, which is a fine vaulted
arch, is hung all over with icicles of white (hining mar¬
ble, fome of them ten feet long, and as thick as one s
middle at the root •, and among thefe hang a thoufand
felloons of leaves and flowers^ of the fame fubftance ;
but fo very glittering, that there is no bearing to look
up at them. The fides of the arch are planted with
feeming trees of the fame white marble, rifing in rows
one above another, and often enclofing the points of
the icicles. From thefe trees there are alfo hung fe¬
lloons, tied as it were from one to another in vaft
quantities j and in fome places among them there ^err^
rivers of marble winding through them in a thoufand
meanders. All thefe things are only made, in a long
courfe of years, from the dropping of water, but really
look like trees and brooks turned to marble. The
floor we trod upon was rough and uneven, with cry-
ftals of all colours growing irregularly out of it, red,
blue, green, and fome of a pale yellow. Thefe were
all fhaped like pieces of faltpetre *, but fo hard, that
they cut our Ihoes •, among thefe, here and there, are
placed icicles of the fame white {hining marble with thofe
above, and feeming to have fallen down from the roof
and fixed there ^ only the big end of thefe is to the floor.
To all thefe our guides had tied torches, two or three
to a pillar, and kept continually beating them, to make
them burn bright. You may guefs what a glare of
fplendour and beauty muft be the eftedl of this illumina¬
tion, among fuch rocks and columns of marb.c. All
round the lower part of the fides of the arch are a thou¬
fand white malTes of marble, in the (hape of oak trees.
Mr Tournefort compares them to cauliflowers, but I
fhould as foon compare them to toadftools. In ftiort,
they are large enough to enclofe, in many places, a
piece of ground big enough for a bedchamber. One of
thefe chambers has a fair white curtain, whiter than
fatin, of the fame marble, ftretched all over the front
of it. In this we all cut our names, and the date of
the year, as a great many people have done before us.
In a courfe of years afterwards, the ftone blifters out
like this white marble over the letters. Mr Tourne-
4
436 1 . 'A N T
fort thinks the reck grows like oaks or apple trees for Antipas.
this reafon •, but I remember I faw fome of the fineit v
cockle and muffel {hells, in the rock thereabouts that
ever I faw in my life. I wonder whether he thinks
they grow there too. Befides, if this rock grows fo
fail, the cavern ought to be all grown up by this time j
and yet, according to his meafures and mine, the ca¬
vern feems on the other hand to be turned larger fince.
Indeed, all that I can gather from his account of this
glorious place is, that he had drank a bottle or two too
much before he went down into it.”
ANTIPAS herod, or Herod-Antipas, the fon
of Herod the Great, by one of his wives called Cleo¬
patra, a native of Jerufalem. Herod the Great, in
his firft will, appointed Antipas his fucceffor in the
kingdom *, but afterwards, altering that will, he named
his fon Archelaus his fucceffor, giving to Antipas the
title only of tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea.
Antipas took a great deal of pains in adorning and
fortifving the principal places of his dominions. He
married the daughter of Aretasking of Arabia ; whom
he divorced about the year of Chrift 33, to marry his
fitter-in-law Herodias, wife to his brother Philip, who
was ftill living. St John the Baptift exclaiming con¬
tinually againft this inceft, was taken into cuftody by
order of Antipas, and imprifoned in the cattle ot Ivla-
chserus, (Mat. xiv. 3, 4. Mark 1. 14. vi. 17, iS.
Luke iii. 19, 20.) Jofephus lays, that Antipas earned
St John to be laid hold of, becaufe he drew too great a
concourfe of people after him ; and that he was afrani
left he fheuid make ufe of the authority which he had
acouired over the minds and affedtions of the people,,
to induce them to revolt. But the evangelifts, who
were better informed than Jofephus, as being eye wit-
neffes of what paffed, and acquainted in a particular
manner with St John and his difciples, affure us that
the true reafon of imprifoning St John was the aver non
which Herod and Herodias had conceived againft him
for the liberty he had ufed in cenfuring their fcandal-
ous marriage. The virtue and holinefs of St John were
fuch, that even Herod feared and rcfpedled him ; but
his paflion for Herodias had prevailed with him to have
killed that prophet, had he not been reftrained by his
apprehenfions of the people, w'ho efieemed John the
Baptift as a prophet. {Mat. xiv. 5, 6.). One day,,
however, while the king was celebrating the feftival of
his birth, with the principal perfons of his court, the
daughter of Herodias danced before him ; and pleafed
him fo well, that he promifed with an oath to give her
whatever fire fliould alk of him. By her mother’s ad¬
vice fine alked the head of John the Baptift : upon
which the king commanded John to be beheaded in
prifon, and the head to be given her.. Aretas, king
of Arabia, to revenge the affront which Herod had
offered to his daughter, declared war againft him, and
overcame him in a very obftinate engagement. Herod
being afterwards detefted as a party in Sejanus’s con-
fpiracy, was banilhed by the emperor Caius to Lyons-
in Gaul *, whither Herodias accompanied him.
This Antipas is the Herod who, being at Jeruialem
at the time of our Saviour’s paflion (Luke xxiii. n.)»
ridiculed him, by dreffing him in a white robe, and di-
redfting him to be conduced back to Pilate, as a mock
king, whofe ambition gave him no umbrage. Ihe
time when Antipas died is not known : however, it is
certain
ANT
Antipater, certain he died in exile, as well as Heredias.
Antipathy, phus fays, that he died in Spam, whither Cams upon
'—"'v his coming to Gaul, the firft year of his banifhment,
might order him to be fent.
ANT I PATER, the difciple of Ariftotle, and one
of Alexander the Great’s generals, was a man of great
abilities, and a lover of the fciences •, but was accufed
of poifoning Alexander. He fubdued the revolted
Thracians, relieved Megalopolis, and overthrew the
Spartans there. He died 321 years before the Chrif-
tian era.
Antipater, an Idumean of illullrious birth, and
pofleiTed of great riches and abilities, taking advantage
of the confution into wjiich the two brothers Hyrcanus
and Ariitobulus plunged Judea by their conteft for
the office of high prieft, took fuch meafures as to gain
Hyrcanus that office, and under his government to
obtain the abfolute direftion of all affairs; while his
great abilities and application to bufinefs made him fo
confiderable, that he was honoured as much as if he
had been inverted with the royal authority in form :
but he was at laft poifoned by a Jew, named Mala-
chus, 43 years before the Chriitian era. He left,
among his other children, the famous Herod king of
the Jews.
Antipater, Ccclius, a Roman hiftorian, who wrote
a hiftory of the Punic war, much valued by Cicero.
The emperor Adrian preferred him to Salluft.
Antipater of Sidon, a Stoic philofopher, and like-
wife a poet, commended by Cicero and Seneca : he
flouriffied about the 1711! Olympiad. We have feveral
of his epigrams in the Anthologia.
ANTIPATHY, in PhyJiologij, is formed from the
two Greek words, contrary, and 57*^05 pajjion. Li¬
terally taken, the word fignifies incompatibility: but for
the moft part the term antipathy is not ufed to fignify
fuch incompatibilities as are merely phyfical ; it is re-
ferved to exprefs the averfion which an animated or
fenfitive being feels at the real or ideal prefence of par¬
ticular objects. In this point of view, which is the
light in which we at prefent confider the term, antipa¬
thy, in common language, fignifies “ a natural hor¬
ror and deteftation, an infuperable hatred, an invo¬
luntary averfion, which a fenfitive being feels for fome
other objeft, whatever it is, though the perfon who
feels this abhorrence is entirely ignorant of its caufe,
and can by no means account for it. Such is, they
fay, the natural and reciprocal hoftilitybetween the fa-
lamander and the tortoife ; between the toad and the
W'eafel ; or between (beep and wolves. Such is, the in¬
vincible averfion of particular perfons againft cats,
mice, fpiders, &c. : a prepoffc ffion which is fometimes
fo violent, as to make them faint at the fight of thefe
animals. Of thefe and a thoufand other antipathies,
the ancient naturalifts, the fchoolmen, and the vul¬
gar, form fo many legends ; and relate them as cer¬
tain faffs, that they may demand an explication of
them from the philofophers. But thefe fages begin
with inveftigating whether fuch antipathies aflually
exift or not.
To explore the matter without prejudice, we {hall
find it neceffary to abrtrafl from the fubjefts of this
difquifition, I. All fuch antipathies as are not afcer-
tained ; as that which is fuppofed to be felt by hens
at the found of a harp whofe firings are made of a
1 437 1 ANT
Jofe- fox’s bowels, between the falamander and tortoife, and Antipathy.
between the weafel and the toad. Nothing is lefs con- ' ■ v
firmed, or rather nothing is more falfe, than thete
faffs, with which vulgar credulity and aftonirtiment
are amufed and affuated : and though fome of thefe
antipathies Ihould be afcertained, this would be no
proyf that the animals which feel them are not ac¬
quainted with their caufes, according to their mode and
proportion of knowledge ; in which cafe it will be no
longer the antipathy which we have defined.
2. We mufi abfirafl thofe antipathies which can be
extinguiffied or refumed at pleafure ; thofe fiffitious
averfions, which certain perfons feel, or pretend to feel,
with affefled airs, that they may appear more precife
and finical, or Angularly and prodigioufly elegant ;
that they may feem to have qualities fo exquifitely fine,
as require to be treated with peculiar delicacy. One
who bellows any attention on the fubjeft, would be
aftonifhed to find how many of thefe chimerical aver¬
fions there are, which are pretended, and parted upon
the world by thofe who affefl them as natural and un¬
conquerable.
3. When we abftrafl thofe averfions the caufes of
which are known and evident ; we lhall be furprifed
after our deduflion of thofe pretended antipathies from
the general fum, how fmall, how inconfiderable, is the
quantity of thofe which are conformable to our defini¬
tion. Will any one pretend to call by the name of an¬
tipathy, thofe real, innate, and inconteftable averfions
which prevail between fheep and wolves ? Their caufe
is obvious ; the wolf devours the (beep, and fubfifts up¬
on his victims;'and every animal naturally flies with
terror from pain or deftrurtion ; ffitep ought therefore
to regard wTolves with horror, which for their nutrition
tear and mangle the unrefitling prty. From principles
fimilar to this, arifes that averfion which numbers of
people feel againft ferpents ; againft fmall animals, fuch
as reptiles in general, and the greateft number of in¬
fers. During the credulous and fufceptible period of
infancy, pains have been taken to imprefson our minds
the frightful idea that they are venomous ; that their
bite is mortal ; that their fling is dangerous, produc¬
tive of tormenting inflammations or tumours, and
fometimes fatal : they have been reprefented to us as
ugly and fordid ; as being, for that reafon, pernicious
to thofe who touch them ; as poifoning thofe who
have the misfortune to fwallow them. i hefe horrible
prepoffeffions are induftrioufly inculcated from our in¬
fancy ; they are fometimes attended and fupported by
difmal tales, which are greedily imbibed, and indelibly
engraved on our memories. It has been taught us
both by precept and example, when others at their
approach have affumed in our view the appearance of
deteftation and even of terror, that we fhould fly from
them, that wTe (liould not touch them. Is it then won¬
derful (if our falfe impreffions as to this fubjeft have^
been correfled neither by future reflections nor expe¬
riments) that we fliould entertain, during our whole
lives, an averfion for thefe objefls, even when we
have forgot the admonitions, the converfations, and
examples, which have taught us to believe and appre¬
hend them as noxious beings ? and in proportion to the
fenfibility of our frame, in proportion as our nerves
are irritable, our emotions at the fight of what we
fear will be more violent^ efpecially if they anticipate
our
ANT
[ 438 ]
ANT
Antipathy, our expectation, and feize us unprepared, though our
' y-—j ideas of what we have to fear from them are the moft
confufed and indiftinCt imaginable. -To explain thefe
fads, is it neceffary to fly to tlm exploded fubterfuge
of occult qualities inherent in bodies, to latent relations
productive of antipathies, of which no perfon could ever
form an idea ?
It is often fufficient to influence a perfon who had
formerly no averfion for an objeft, if he lives with fome
other affociate who gives himfelf up to fuch capricious
panics •, the habit is infenfibly contracted to be agitated
with difagreeable emotions at the prefence ot an ob-
jeCt which had been formerly beheld with indifference
and cold blood. I was acquainted (fays the author
of the article Antipathy in the French Encyclopedic)
with a perfon of a very found underftanding, whom
thunder and lightning by no means terrified *, nay,
to whom the fpedacle appeared magnificent and the
found majeftic : yet to a mind thus feemingly fortified
againft the infe&ious terror, no more was necefiary
than fpending the fummer with a friend in whom, the
appearance of lightning excited the ftrongeft emotions,
and whom the remoteft clap of thunder affeded with
extravagant paroxyfms, to become timid in excefs at
the approach of thunder •, nor could he ever afterwards
furmount the fear which it infpired. The frightful
dories of dogs and cats, which have killed their mailers,
or which have given them mortal wounds, are more
than fufficient to infpire a timorous perfon with aver-
flon againft thefe animals 5 and if the olfactory neives
of fuch a perfon be delicate, he will immediately dif-
cover the fmell of them in a chamber : difturbed by.the
apprehenfion which thefe effluvia excite in his mind,
lie gives himfelf up to the moft violent uneafinefs, which
is tranquillized when he is aflured that the animal is.no
longer in the room. If by chance, in the fearch which
is made to calm the uneafinefs of this timorous per¬
fon, one of thefe creatures fhould at laft be difcovered,
every one prefently exclaims, A miracle ; and admits
the reality of antipathies into his creed ; whilft all this
is nothing but the effe& of a childifti fear, founded
on certain confufed and exaggerated ideas of the ha¬
zard which one may run with thefe animals. The anti¬
pathy which fome people entertain againft; eels, though
they are eaten by others with pleafure, arifes from no¬
thing but the fear of ferpents, to which thefe fifties are
in fome degree fimilar. There are likewife other anti¬
pathies which do not originate in the imagination, but
arife from fome natural incongruity ; fuch as we often
remark in children, for particular kinds of viftuals,
with which their tafte is not offended, but which their
ftomaehs cannot digeft, and which are therefore dif-
gorged as foon as fwallowed.
To what then are thofe antipathies of which we have
heard fo much, reducible ! Either to legendary tales $
or to averfions againft objects which we believe danger¬
ous ; or to a childifti terror of imaginary perils 5 or to
a difrelifti, of which the caufe is difguifed ; or to a ri¬
diculous affectation of delicacy ; or to an infirmity of
the ftomach •, in a word, to* a real or pretended reluc¬
tance for things which are either invefted, or fuppofed
to be invefted, with qualities hurtful to us. Too much
care cannot be taken in preventing, or regulating, the
antipathies of children •, in familiarizing them with ob-
yjeCts of every kind ; in difcovering to them, without
3
emotion, fuch as are dangerous 5 in teaching them the Antipathy
means of defence and fecurity, or the methods of efca- 11
ping their noxious influence: . and, when the rational Antipnony.
powers are matured by age, in reflecting on. the na¬
ture of thofe objefts which we fear, in ascertaining what
has been told concerning their qualities, or in vigor
oufly operating upon our own dilpofitions to overcome
thole vain repugnancies which we may feel. See Sym¬
pathy, which is the oppofite of Antipathy.
Antipathy, in Ethics, hatred, averfion, repug¬
nancy. Hatred is entertained againft perfons ; aver¬
sion, and antipathy, indifcriminately againft perfons or
things •, and repugnancy againft aCtions alone.
Haired is more voluntary than averfion, antipathy, or
repugnancy. Fhefe laft have greater auinity with the
animal conftitvition. The caufes of antipathy are lefs
known than thofe of averfion. Repugnancy is lefs per¬
manent than either the one or the other. W.e hate a
vicious chara&er, we feel averjion to its exertions : we
are affeCted with antipathy for certain perfons at firft
fight •, there are fome affairs which we tranfaCl with
repugnancy.—Hatred calumniates •, averfion keeps us at
a diftance from certain perfons: antipathy makes
us deteft them 5 repugnancy hinders us from imitating
them. ,
ANTIPATRIS (Acts xxiii. 31.), a town of Pa-
leftine, anciently called Caphar Saba, according to Jo-
fephus, but named Antipatris by Herod the Great, in
honour of his father Antipater. It vyas fltuated in a
pleafant valley near the mountains, in the way from
j erufalem to Caefarea. Jofephus places it at about the
diftance of feventeen miles from Joppa.
ANTIPELARGIA, among the ancients, a law,
whereby children are obliged to furnifh neceffaries to
their aged parents. TL he ciconia, or ftork, is a bird
famous for the care it takes of its parents when grown
old. Hence, in fome Latin writers, this is rendered
lex ciconiana, or the ftork’s law.
ANTIPHON ARY, Antiphonarium, a fervice
book, which contained all the invitatories, refponfories,
colleCls, and whatever elfe was fung or faid in the
choir, except the leffons. This is otherwife called re-
fponfarium, from the refponfes therein contained. I he
author of the Roman antiphonary was Pope Gregory
the Great. We alfo find mention of noCturnal and
diurnal antiphonaries, for the ufe of the daily and night¬
ly offices j fummer and winter antiphonaries ; alfo an¬
tiphonaries for country churches, &c. By the provin¬
cial conftitutions of Archbilhop Winchelfey, made at
Merton, A. D. 1305, it is required that one of thefe
ftiould be found in every church within the province of
Canterbury. The ufe of thefe, and many other popifti
books, was forbid by the 3d and 4th of Edward VI.
c. 10.
ANTIPHONY, the anfwer made by one choir to
another, when the pfalm or anthem is fung between
two. *
Antiphony fometimes denotes a fpecies of pfal-
mody, wherein the congregation being divided into
two parts, repeat the pfalms, verfe for verfe. alternate¬
ly. In this fenfe, antiphony Hands contradiftinguilhed
from fymphony, where the whole congregation fings
together.
Antiphony differs from refponforium, becaufe in this
latter the verfe is only fpoken by one perfon, where¬
as
ANT [ 439 l ANT
Anti iiony as *n t^ie f°rmer» the verfes are fung by the two choirs
jj alternately. The original of antiphonal finging in the
Antiquare. weflern churches is referred to the time of St Am-
*■—-Y-brofe, about the year 374. That father is faid to have
firft introduced it into the church of Milan, in imita¬
tion of the cuftom of the eaflern church, where it ap¬
pears to be of greater antiquity, though as to the time
of its inftitution, authors are not agreed j it was moft
probably introduced at Antioch, between the year of
Chrift 347 and 356.
Antiphony is alfo ufed to denote the words given
out at the beginning of the pfalm, to which both the
choirs are to accommodate their finging.
Antiphoky, in a more modern fenfe, denotes a
kind of eompofition made of feveral verfes extracted out
of different pfalms, adapted to exprefs the myftery fo-
lemnized on the occafion.
ANTIPODES, in Geography, a name given to
thofe inhabitants of the globe that live diametrically
oppofite to each other. The word is Greek, and com¬
pounded of cem, oppojite, and 5ry?, a foot; becaufe their
feet are oppwiite to each other.
The antipodes lie under oppofite meridians and op¬
pofite parallels; in the fame degree of latitude, but of
oppofite denominations, one being north and the other
fouth. They have nearly the fame degree of heat and
cold, days and nights of equal length, but in oppofite
feafons. It is noon to one when midnight to the other \
and the longelt day with the one is the fhortefl: wdth
the other.
Plato is efteemed the firft who thought it poflible
that the antipodes fubfifted, and is looked upon as the
inventor of the word. As this philofopher apprehended
the earth to be fpherical, he had only one ftep to make
to conclude the exiftence of the antipodes.
The ancients, in general, treated this opinion with
the higheft contempt j never being able to conceive
how men and trees could fubfift fufpended in the air
with their feet upwards, for fo they apprehended they
muft be in the other hemifphere.
They never reflefted that thefe terms upwards and
downwards are merely relative •, and fignify only near¬
er to, or farther from, the centre of the earth, the com¬
mon centre to which all heavy bodies gravitate ; and
that, therefore, our antipodes have not their feet up¬
wards and head downwards any more than ourfelves;
becaufe they, like us, have their feet nearer the centre
of the earth, and their heads farther from it. To have
the head downwards and feet upwards, is to place the
body in a direction of gravity tending from the feet to
the head : but this cannot be fuppofed with regard to
the antipodes; for they, like us, tend toward the centre
of the earth, in a direftion from head to foot.
ANTIPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, now Anti¬
bes, on the coaft of Provence, a colony of the Maf-
filians, near the river Verus, in Gallia Narbonenfis
(Livy), three leagues to the weft of Nice. E. Long. 7.
N. Lat. 43. 40.
ANTIQUARE, among Roman lawyers, properly
denotes the rejecting of a new law, or refufing to pafs
it. In which fenfe, antiquating differs from abrogating;
as the latter imports the annulling an old law, the for¬
mer the reje&ing a new one.
Antiquare is alfo ufed for a law’s growing obfo-
lete, or into difufe, either by age or non-obfervance.
ANTIQUARII, a name given to copiers of old Antiquarii,
books. After the decline of learning among the Ro- Antiquary,
mans, and when many religious houfes were ere&ed, '-“"'v ^
learning was chiefly in the hands of the clergy ; the
greateft number of whom were regulars, and lived in
monafteries. In thefe houfes were many induftrious
men who were continually employed in making new
copies- of old books, either for the ufe of the monaftery
or for their own emolument. Thefe writing monks
were diftinguifhed by the name of Antiquarii. They
deprived the poor librarii, or common fcriptores, of great
part of their bufinefs, fo that thefe found it difficult to
gain a fubfiftence for themfelves and families. This
put them upon finding out more expeditious methods of
tranfcribing books. They formed the letters fmaller,
and made ufe of more jugations and abbreviations than
had been ufual. They proceeded in this manner till
the letters became exceedingly fmall j the abbrevia¬
tions were very numerous, and extremely difficult to
be read. This in fome meafure accounts for the great
variety of hands in the fpecies of writing called Mo¬
dern Gothic. When a number of copies were to be
made of the fame work, it was ufual to employ feveral
perfons at the fame time in writing it ; each perfon,
except him who wrote the firft Ikin, began where his
fellow was to leave oft.
ANT IQU ARY, a perfon who ftudies and fearches
after monuments and remains of antiquity ; as old me¬
dals, books, ftatues, fculptures, and infcriptions $ and,
in general, all curious pieces that may afford any light
into antiquity.
In the chief cities of Greece and Italy, there were
perfons of diftinftion called antiquaries, whofe bufinefs
it was to thow ftrangers the antiquities of the place, to
explain the ancient infcriptions, and to give them all
the afliftance they could in this way of learning.—
Paufanias calls thefe antiquaries The Sici¬
lians call them myjiagogi.
There was an ancient college of antiquaries erected
in Ireland by Ollamh Fodhla, 700 years before Chrift,
for compofing a hiftory of that country: And to this,
fay the Irifti hiftorians, it is-owing that the hiftory and
antiquities of that kingdom may be traced back beyond
thofe of moft other nations.
There is a fociety of antiquaries in London, and ano¬
ther in Edinburgh, incorporated by the king’s charter.
See Society.
Antiquary is alfo ufed by ancient writers for the
keeper of the antiquarium or cabinet of antiquities.
The officer is otherwife called archceota, or antiquary
of a king, a prince, a ftate or the like.
Henry VIII. gave John Leland the title of his an¬
tiquary ; a title which, fays the author of his life, no¬
body ever enjoyed befides himfelf. But the reftriflion,
we fuppofe, was only intended to be underftood in re-
fpeft of the kings of England. M. Schott, we find,
had the title of antiquary to the king of Pruflia j
P. Pedruzzi, that oi antiquary of the duke of Parma j
M. Galland refided fome time in Turkey under the title
of antiquary of the king of France.-—The univerfity of
Oxford have ftill their antiquary, under the denomi¬
nation of cujios archivorutn.—The kings of Sweden
have been at great expences in order to illuftrate the
antiquity of their country, having eftabliflred an aca¬
demy of antiquaries with this Angle view.—The office
ANT
[ 44° 1
ANT
Aitiq'iated of the ancient Irifti antiquaries was to preferve the ge-
H nealogies of the kings of Ireland, to correft the regal
Antiquities, tables of fucceflion, and deliver down the pedigree of
v""~ every collateral branch of the royal family.
ANTIQUATED, fomething obfolete, out of date,
or out of ufe.
ANTIQUE, in a general fenfe, fomething that is
ancient : but the term is chiefly ufed by fculptors,
painters, and architefts, to denote fuch pieces of their
different arts as were made by the ancient Greeks and
Romans. Thus we fay, an antique buft, an antique
ftatue, &c.
Antique is fomething contradiftinguifhed from an¬
cient, which fignifies a lefs degree of antiquity. Thus,
antique archite&ure is frequently diflinguiflied from an¬
cient architedlure.
ANTIQUITIES, a term implying all teftimonies,
or authentic accounts, that have come down to us, of
ancient nations. Bacon calls antiquities tJie wrecks of
hijlonj, or fuch particulars as induflrious and learned
perfons have colle&ed from genealogies, infcnptions,
monuments, coins, names, etymologies, archives, in-
ftruments, fragments of hiftory, &c.
Antiquities form a very extenfive fcience, including
“ an hiftorical knowledge of the edifices, magiftrates,
offices, habiliments, manners, cuftoms, ceremonies,
worlhip, and other obje£ls worthy of curiofity, of all
the principal ancient nations of the earth.
This fcience is not a matter of mere curiofity, but
is indifpenfable to the theologian ; who ought to be
thoroughly acquainted with the antiquities of the Jews,
to enable him properly to explain numberlefs paffages
in the Old and New Teftaments: to the lawyer, who,
without the knowledge of the antiquities of Greece and
Rome, can never well underftand and properly apply
the greateft part of the Roman laws : to the phyfician
and the philofopher, that they may have a complete
knowledge of the hiftory and principles of the phyfic
and philofophy of the ancients : to the critic, that he
may be able to underftand and interpret ancient au¬
thors ; to the orator and poet; who will be thereby
enabled to ornament their writings with numberlels
images, allufions, comparifons, &c.
Antiquities are divided into facred and profane, into
public and private, univerfal and particular, &c. It is
true, that the antiquaries (efpecially fuch as are infefted
with a fpirit of pedantry, and the number of thefe is
great) frequently carry their inquiries too far, and em¬
ploy themfelves in laborious refearches after learned
trifles ; but the abufe of a fcience ought never to make
us negledl the applying it to rational and ufeful pur-
pofes.
Many antiquaries alfo reftrain their learned labours ta
the eclairciffement of the antiquities of Greece and
Rome : but this field is far too confined, and .by no
means contains the whole of this fcieuce, feeing it
properly includes the antiquities of the Jews, Egyp¬
tians, Perfians, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Hetrufcans,
Germans, and, in general, all thofe principal nations
mentioned in ancient hiftory : fo far as any accounts
of them are come down to us.
If to the general fubje&s above-mentioned ive add
the particular ftudy of antiques, of the ftatues, bafs-
reliefs, and the precious relicks of architefture, paint¬
ing, camaieus, medals, &c. it is eafy to conceive that
antiquities form a fcience very extenfive and very com- Antiquitus
plicated, and with which only a very fmall acquaintance  v  
could have been attainable by any one man, if our pre-
decefl'ors had not prepared the way for us j if they had
not left us fuch ineftimable works as thofe of Gronovi-
us, Grsevius, Montfaucon, Count Caylus, Winckelman,
the Hebraic antiquities of D. Iken of Bremen, the
Grecian antiquities of Bruunings, the R 'man antiqui¬
ties of Nieupoort, and efpecially that work which is
entitled Bibliographia Antiquaria Joh. Alberti Fabrten,
profeffor at Hamburgh, &c. &c. Nor mult we here
forget that very valuable work, with which our coun¬
tryman Mr Robert Wood has lately enriched this
fcience, and which is fo well known, and fo juftly
efteemed by all true connoiffeurs, under the title of the
Ruins of Palmyra, and thole of Baa/bec. It is by this
work that we are fully convinced of the grandeur and
magnificence, the tafte and elegance, of the buildings
of the ancients. We here fee that the invention of
thefe matters i^. not all owing to the Greeks, but that
there were other nations who fervid them as models*
For though many of the edifices of Palmyra are to be
attributed to the emperor Aurelian, and to Odenatus
and his wife Zenobia, who reigned there about the year
264, yet there are found at the fame place ruins of
buildings that appear to be of far greater antiquity,
and that are not lefs beautiful. Fhe ancient Perfe-
polis is fufneient to prove this affertion. When we
duly reflea on all thefe matters, and efpecially if we
attempt to acquire any knowledge of this fcience, we
ffiatl foon be convinced that it but ill becomes a petit-
maitre to laugh at a learned antiquary.
The knowledge of thofe monuments of the ancients,
the works of fculpture, ftatuary^ graving, painting, &c.
which they call ant’ques, requires a ftna attention,
with regard to the matter itfelf on which the art has
been exercifed 5 as the wax, clay, wood, ivory, ftones
of every kind, marble, flint, bronze, and every fort 01.
metal. We ffiould begin by learning on what mat¬
ter each ancient nation principally worked, and in
which of the fine arts they excelled : For the .matter
itfelf, as the different forts of marble, compofitions of
metals, and the Ipecies of precious Hones, ferve fre¬
quently to characterize the true antique, and to dif-
cover the counterfeit. The connoiffeurs pretend alfo
to know, by certain diftinff characters in the defign
and execution of a work of art, the age and nation
where it was made. They find, moreover, in the in¬
vention and execution, a degree of excellence which
modern artifts are not able to imitate. Now, though
we ought to allow, in general, the great merit of the
ancients in the polite arts, we ffiould not, however,
fuffer our admiration to lead us into a blind fuperfti-
tion. There are pieces of antiquity of every fort,
which have come down to us ; fome that are perfeClly
excellent : and others fo wretched, that the meaneft
among modern artifts would not acknowledge them.
The mixture of the good and bad has taken place in
all fubjefls, at all times and in all nations. The mif-
fortune is, that moft of our great antiquaries have
been fo little (killed in defigning as fcarcely to know
how to draw a circle with a pair of compaffes. It is
prejudice, therefore, which frequently direCls them to
give the palm to the ancients, rather than a judgment
direCled by a knowledge of the art. That character
ANT
[ 44i ]
ANT
Antiquity expreffion which they find fo marvellous in the
, works of antiquity, is often nothing more than a mere
Antifeutics. cj1jmera# They pretend that the artifts of our days
V“““"v conftantly exaggerate their expreflions j that a modern
Bacchus has the appearance of a man dirtradled with
intoxication ; that a Mercury feems to be animated with
the fpirit of a fury } and fo of the refi. But let them
not decide too haftily. Almoft all the antique figures
are totally void of all fpirit of ex predion ; we are forced
to guefs at their ehara&ers. Every artificial expreffion
requires, moreover, to be fomewhat exaggerated. A
flatue or portrait is an inanimate figure ; and muft
therefore have a very different effect from one which,
being endowed with life, has the mufcles conflantly in
play, and where the continual change of the features,
the motion of the eyes, and the'looks more or lefs lively,
eafily and clearly exprefs the paffions and fentiments.
Whereas, in a figure, that is the produce of art, the de¬
licate touches, that Ihould exprefs the paffions, are loft
to the eyes of the fpeftators : they muft therefore be
ftruck by ftrong bold charadlers, which can affeft
them at the firft glance of the eye. A very moderate
artift is fenfible, at the fame time, that he is not to
give his figures extravagant expreflions, or to place them
in diftorted attitudes.
ANTIQUITY fignifics time or ages part long ago.
Thus, we fay, the heroes of antiquity, &c.
Antiquity is alfo ufed to denote the works or mo¬
numents of antiquity. See Antiquities.
Antiquity likewife expreffes the great age of a
thing •, and in this fenfe we fay, the antiquity of a fa¬
mily, the antiquity of a kingdom.
ANTIRRHINUM, Snap-dragon, or Calves
Snout. See Botany Index.
ANTIRRHIUM, in Ancient Geqgi'aphy, a promon¬
tory at the mouth of the Corinthian bay, where it is
fcarce a mile broad, and where it feparates /Etoiia from
the Peloponnefus j fo called from its oppofite fituation
to Rhium in Peloponnefus (Pliny) : both are now'call¬
ed the Dardanelles of Lepanto.
ANTIS ABB ATARI ANS, a modern religious feft
who oppofe the obfervance of the Chriftian fabbath.
The great principle of the Antifabbatarians is, that the
Jewifti fabbath tvas only of ceremonial, not moral obli¬
gation } and confequently is aboliflied by the coming of
Chrift.
ANTISAGOGE, in Rhetoric, a figure differing
little from that called concefp.on. The following paffage
from Cicero is an inftance of it : Difficilis ratio bellige~
rendi; at plena fidei, plena pietatis : et Ji dicas, magnus
labor, multa pericula proponuntur ; at gloria ex his im-
tnortalis ejl confecutura. See CONCESSION.
ANTISCII, in Geography, people who live on dif¬
ferent fides of the equator, whofe fhadows at noon are
projected oppofite ways. Thus the people of the north
ate Antifcii to thofe of the fouth : the one projefling
their lhadows at noon towards the north pole, and the
other towards the fouth pole.
ANTISCORBUTICS, medicines good in fcor’ou-
tic cafes.
ANTISEPTICS (from and putrid, of
(Oja-* to putrifyf an appellation given to fuch fubftances
as refill putrefaction.
We have fome curious experiments in relation to an-
VOL. IE Part II.
tifeptic fubftances by Dr Pringle, who has afcerlained Antifq-.tics.
their feveral virtues. Thus, in order to fettle the an- —v 
tifeptic virtue of falts, he compared it with that of
common fea fait; which being one of the weakeft, he
fuppofes equal to unity, and expreffes the proportional
ftrength of the reft by higher numbers, as in the fol¬
lowing table.
Sea fait - 1
Sal gemmee - 1 -j-
Tartar vitriolated 2
Spirit us Mindereri 2
Tartarus folubilis 2
Sal diureticus - 2-}-
Crude fal ammoniac 3
Salts, their antifeptic virtue.
Saline mixture
Nitre
Salt of hartlhorn
Salt of wormwood
Borax
Salt of amber
Alum
3
4 +
4 +
4 +
I 2-f-
2C-j-
3°-{-
In this table the proportions are marked in integral
numbers: only to fome there is added the fign -j-, to
lliow, that thofe falts are pcffeffed of a ftronger anti¬
feptic virtue than the number in the table expreffes, by
fome fraClions : unlefs in the three laft, where the fame
fign imports that the fait may be ftronger by fome
units.
Some refinous and other fubftances even exceed the
antifeptic virtues of the neutral falts ; thus myirh, afa-
foetida, terra japonica, and aloes, are at Itaft 12 times
more antifeptic than fea fait. Tw'o grains of cam¬
phor are equivalent to 60 grains of that fait. An infu-
fion of a few grains of Virginian fnake-root, in pow¬
der, exceeds 12 times its weight of fea fait. Chamo¬
mile flowers have nearly the fame extraordinary quali¬
ty. 1 he Jefuits bark has it alfo. Befides thefe, pep-
per, ginger, faffron, contrayerva root, are 12 times
more antifeptic than fea fait. Dried fage, rhubarb,
the root of the Avild valerian, mint, angelica, ground
ivy, fenna, green tea, red roles, wormwood, muftard,
and horfe radilh, were likewife found more antifeptic
than the ftandard.
lo the clafs of antifeptic medicines may likewife be
added fermented liquors, acids, fpirits, and even thofe
plants called anti-acids, and erroneouily fuppofed haft-
eners of putrefa&ion, particularly horfe radilh. Now
vegetables, poffeffmg this virtue, are the more valuable,
in that being ufually free of acrimony, they may be
taken in much greater quantities than either Ipirits,
acids, refins, or even the neutral falts.
Antifeptics are preferibed in all putrid, malignant,
and peftilential cafes. It is to be remarked, however,
that different kinds of them are to be given in different
difeafes, and even in different ftages of the fame dif-
eafe. Thus, the bark is a fpecific in gangrene, when
the veffels are relaxed, and the blood refolved or dif-
pofed to putrefaCHon ; but will fail, if the veffels are
too full, or the blood be too thick. With the fame
e*ution is the bark to be ufed in wounds, viz. chiefly in
cafes of abforbed matter, when it infeCts the humours,
and brings on a heCtic fever.
By the great antifeptic virtue of alum, the bark, and
other aftrmgents, it Ihould feem, that aftriClion had no
fmall lhare in the cure of putrid diforders 5 and, in¬
deed, the very nature of putrefadlion confifts in a fepa-
ration or difunion of the parts. But as aftringents are
improper to be adminiftered in many cafes, contrayer-
3 K va
1
Antifpaf-
naodics
.1)
Antitadlss,
ANT
[ 442 ]
ANT
va root, fnake root, camphor, &c. may fupply their
place 5 which, though highly antifeptic, have very
little, or any, of an aftringent quality.
ANT ISP AS MOD ICS, are medicines proper for
the cure of fpafms and convullions. Opium, ballam
of Peru, and the effential oils of many vegetables, are
the principal in this clafs of medicines. Opium ex¬
cels, for its immediate effects. Peruvian balfam, in
many inftances, produces more lafting benefit than opi¬
um, and fometimes fucceeds where opium fails. As
antifpafmodics, the effential oils differ in this from opi¬
um, that they aft more on a particular part than on
the fyftem in general, and have no foporific effeft.
Some medicines remove fpafms by immediate contaft,
as affes milk, cream, oil of almonds •, others by repel¬
ling heat, as gas, fulphur, nitre, fal ammoniac, &c.
And where the flriftures are produced by inanition
and a defeft of vital heat, fpafms are removed by thofe
medicines that reflore the vis vitce, fueh as valerian,
caftor, mufk, &c.
ANTISTASIS, in Oratory, a defence ft an aftion
from the confideration that, had it been omitted, worfe
would have enfued. This is called by Latin writers
comparativum argumentum; fueh, e. g. would be the
general’s defence who had made an inglorious capitu¬
lation, That, without it, the whole army muff have
Gnoftics, who held, that God was good and juft, but Antitheaar
that a creature had created evil ; and confequently |j
that it is our duty to oppofe this author of evil, in or- Anntype^
der to avenge God of his adverfary#
ANTTTHENAR, in Anatomy, a name given to
the adduftor indicis. See Anatomy, Table of the
Mufcles • *
ANTITHESIS, in Rhetoric, a contraft or oppoft-
tion of words or fentiments. Such is that of Cicero,
in the fecond Catilinarian : “ On one fide ftands mo-
defty, on the other impudence j on one fidelity, on
the other deceit j here piety,
there facrilege 5 here
continency, there lull, &.c.'’ Such alfo is that of Au-
guftus to fome feditious young men, Audite, juvenes,
fenem, quem juvenem Jenes audivere. Such again is
that of Seneca : Cura: Iceves loquuntur, ingentes fupent.
And that of Virgil:
Fleftere fi nequeo fupcros, Acheronta movebo.
St Auguftine, Seneca, Salvian, and many other an¬
cient writers, feem greatly to affeft antithefesj but a-
mong the moderns they are generally decried. Defma-
retz reprefents them as the favourites of young tvriters.
The following is an example of modern antithefis.
-  Though gentle, yet not dull j
uiitinni rptcie i without o’erflowinP'. full.
ptriincu. if* 1
ANTISTHENES, a Greek philofopher, and fuund-
er of the Cynics, tie was born at Athens, and paffed
the former part of his life as a foldier. Having after¬
wards been an attendant at the leftures of Socrates, he
was principally charmed with thofe exhortations of tnat
great philofopher, which perfuaded to frugality, to tem¬
perance, and to moderation } thefe Antifthenes was re¬
vived to praftife by carrying every precept to its ut-
moft extent. Permitting therefore his beard to grow,
he went about the ftreets in a thread-bare coai, fcarceiy
to be diftinguiftied from a common beggar. He prided
himfelf upon the moft rigid virtue, and thought himfelf
obliged to attack the vicious wherever he found them.
This gave him fome reputation in the city *, but it may
be fuppofed, that, in a place fo very luxurious as A-
thens, he had more enemies than difciples. His phi-
lofophy confifted rather in aftion than fpeculation : it
was therefore his conftanl maxim, I hat to be virtuous
was to be happy, and that all virtue confifted in ac¬
tion •, that the wife man fhould live for himfelf, con¬
tented in all fituations, and happy alone in the con-
feioufnefs of his own virtue. He acknowledged no¬
thing to be good but what was honourable; and affert-
ed, that virtue might be acquired by praftice. Laer¬
tius tells us there were 10 tomes of his works 5 and he
has given us many of his apophthegms.
ANTISTOCHEON, in Grammar, the ufing one
letter inftead of another : as olli for illi.
ANTISTROPHE, in Grammar, a figure by which
two things mutually depending on one another, are
reciprocally converted ; as, the fervant of the rnafer,
the mafer of the fervant.
Antistrophe, among lyric poets, that part of a
fong and dance in ufe among the ancients, which
was* performed before the altar, in returning from
weft to eaft j in oppofition to ftrophe. See Strophe
and Ode.
ANTITACTiE, in church hiftory, a branch of
Antithesis is fometimes ufed for controverfy. In
this fenfe, we meet with antithetic method, antithetic
difeourfes, &c. Marcion compofed a volume of Anti-
thefes, or contrarieties and oppofitions between the law
and the gofpel.
ANTITRAGUS MUSCULUS, in Anatomy, a mufcle
of the ear. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
ANTTT R1 NTT A RI AN S, thole who deny the
trinity, and teach that there are not three perfons in
the Godhead. Tl^is the Samofatenians who do. not
believe the diftinftion of perfons in God 5 the Arians,
wLo deny the divinity of the. Word, and the Macedo¬
nians who deny that of the Holy Spirit, are all pin*-
yierly Antitrinitarians. Among the moderns, Antitri-
nitarians are particularly underftood of Socinians, call¬
ed alfo Unitarians.
The Bibliotheca Antitrinitariorum, or Antitnmtarian
Library, is a pofthumous work of Chriftopher Sandius,
an eminent Antitrinitarian ; wherein he gives a lift,
digefted in order of time, of all the Socinian or mo¬
dern Antitrinitarian authors, with a brief account of
their lives, and a catalogue of their works. See Uni¬
tarian.
ANTITYPE, a Greek word, properly fignifying
a type or figure correfponding to fome other type.
The word antitype occurs twice in the New Tefta-
ment ; viz. in the epiftle to the Hebrew’s, ix. 24. and
in St Peter, 1 Eph. iii. 21. where its genuine import
has been much controverted. The former fays, that
“ Chrift is not entered into the holy places made with
hands, which are, avTiTVTrct, the figures or antitypes of
the true—wow to appear, in the prefence of God for
us.” Now tv7s«s fignifies the pattern by which another-
thing is made ; and as Mofes was obliged to make the
tabernacle, and all things in it, according to the pat¬
tern ftiovvn him in the mount, the tabernacle fo form¬
ed was the antitype of what was ffiovn to Mofes: any
thing, therefore, formed according to a model or. pat¬
tern.
ANT
[ 443 1
A N T
Antitype
Antoine.
tern, is an antitype. In the latter paffage, the apoftle
fpeaking of Noah’s flood, and the deliverance only of
eight perfons in the ark from it, fays O x.cu -tuxs mti-
Tterev vvvtrM^u fixTTTto'tc.ci, B(iptif>7i being an antitype to
that, now faves us ; not putting away the filth of the
fief}), but the anfwer of a good confcience towards God,
iS’c. The meaning is, that righteoufnefs, or the an¬
fwer of a good confcience towards God, now faves us
by means of the reflarreftion of Chrilt, as formerly
righteoufnefs faved thefe eight perfons by means of the
ark, during the flood. The word antitype, therefore,
here lignifies a general fimilitud '. of circumftances;
and the particle a, whereunto, refers, not to the im¬
mediate antecedent, vp.xrt>s, water, but to all that pre¬
cedes.
Antitype, among the ancient Greek fathers, and
in the Greek liturgy, is alfo applied to the fymbols of
bread and wine in the facrament. Hence it hath been
argued, by many Proteftants, that the Greeks do not
really believe the doftrine of tranfubftantiation; be-
caufe they call the bread and wine antitypes,
q. d. figures, fimilitudes ; and this even after the con-
fecration.
ANTIUM, in Ancient Geography, a city of the
Volfci, (Livy) j fituated on the Tufcan fea, yet with¬
out a harbour, becaufe they had a neighbouring ham¬
let called Ceno, with a harbour, (Strabo). The Ro¬
mans gained their firfl: reputation in naval affairs a-
gainfl: the Antiates; part of whofe (hips they convey¬
ed into the arfenal of Rome, and part they burnt; and
with their beaks or rotlra adorned the pulpit erefled
in the forum, thence called Rojlra, (Livy, Florus).
Here flood a famous temple of Fortune, (Horace).
Addifon fays, there were two Fortunse worfhipped at
Antium.—It is now extinfl, but the name ftill remains
in the Capo d' Antao.
ANTIVARI, a ftrong town of Turkey in Europe,
in Dalmatia, a Greek archbiflrop’s fee, and fubjedl to
the Turks. E. Long. 29. 15. N. Lat. 43. O.
ANTIVIRGILIAN husbandry, an appellation
given to Mr Tull’s new method of horfe-hoeing huf-
bandry. See Agriculture.
ANTLER, among fportfmen, a ftart or branch of
a deer’s attire.
Brow ANTLER, denotes the branch next the head;
and,
Bes-ANTLER, the branch next above the brow ant¬
ler.
ANTLIA, an ancient machine, fuppofed to be the
fame with our pump. Hence the phrafe in antliam con-
demnari, according to the critics, denotes a kind of pu-
nilhment whereby criminals were condemned to drain
ponds, ditcheSj or the like.
ANTOEICI, in Geography, thofe inhabitants of the
earth who live under the fame meridian, and at the
feme diflance from the equator : the one toward the
north, and the other toward the fouth. Hence they
have the fame longitude : and their latitude is alfo the
lame, but of a different denomination. They are in the
feme femieircle of the meridian, but in oppofite paral-
le.ls. They have precifely the fame hours of the day and
night, but oppofrte feafons; and the night of the one
is always equal to the day of the other.
ANTOINE, a town of France, in Dauphiny, in
the diocefe of Vienne, with a celebrated abbey. It is
fealed among the mountains, 13 miles eafl: of Lyons. An ton a
E. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat. 45. 43. H
ANTON A, (Tacitus) ; a river of Britain, which Antomdes.
Camden fuppofes to be a faulty reading for Avuona 1
or Aufona, (the Avon).
ANTON AC UM, Antonnacum, or Antunna-
CUM, a town of the Treviri ; now Andernach, below
Coblentz. E. Long. 7. 5. N. Lat. 30. 25.
ANTONIA, a citadel of Jerufalcm, the origin of
which we have in Jofephus : who fays, that Hircanus,
the firfl; high-prieft of that name, built Baris near the
temple, a houfe with turrets, where he generally re-
flded. Hercd afterwards made it ftronger, for the fe-
curity and defence of the temple ; and in honour of
Mark Antony, who then commanded in the eaft, called
it Antonia. It was very extenfive, and could accommo¬
date a Roman legion : from it there was a full view of
the temple.
Antonia, Saint, a town of France, in Rouer-
gue, in the diocefe of Rhodez, whofe fortifications are
demolilhed. It is feated on the river Aveiron. E. Long,
o. 55. N. Lat. 44. jo.
ANTONIAN waters, medicinal waters of Ger¬
many, very pleafent to the tafte, and efteemed good in
many chronic and hypochondriac cafes. See Tons-
TEIN.
ANTONIANO, Silvio, a man of great learning,
who raifed himfelf from a low condition by his merit,
was born at Rome in the year 1540. When he was but
ten years old, he could make verfes upon any fubjeft
propofed to him ; and thefe fo excellent, though pro¬
nounced extempore, that even a man of genius could not
compofe the like without a good deal of time and pains.
The duke of Ferrara coming to Rome, to congratulate
Marcellus II. upon his being raifed to the pontificate,
was fo charmed with the genius of Antoniano, that he
carried him to Ferrara, where he provided able mafters
to inftruft him in all the fciences. From thence he wras
fent for by Pius IV. who made him profeffor of the
belles lettres in the college at Rome. Antoniano filled
this place with fo much reputation, that, on the day
when he began to explain the oration pro Marco Mar¬
cello, he had a vaft crowd of auditors, and among thefe
no lefs than 25 cardinals. He was afterwards chofcu
reflor of the college; and after the death of Pius IV.
being feized with a fpirit of devotion, he joined himfelf
to Philip Neri, and accepted the office of fecretary to
the feored college, offered him by Pius V. which he
executed for 25 years with the reputation of an honeft
and able man. He refufed a biffiopric which Grego¬
ry XIV. would have given him; but he accepted the
office of fecretary to the briefs, offered him by Cle¬
ment VIII. who made him his chamberlain, and after¬
wards a cardinal. Antoniano killed himfelf by too
great fatigue : for he fpent whole nights in writing
letters ; which brought on a ficknefs, u'hereof he died,
in the 63d year of his age. He wrote with fuch eafe
,and fluency, that he never almoft made any blot or
rafure; and it is feid of him, that he preferved the
flower of his virginity during his whole life.
ANTONIDES Vander Goes, John, an eminent
Dutch poet, born at Goes in Zealand, the 3d of April
1647. His parents were Anabaptifts, people of good
charafler, but of low circumftances. They went to live
at Amfterdam when Antonides was about four year
3 K 2 old 3
ANT [ 44<
Antonides, old; and, in the ninth year of his age, he began hisftu-
Antoninus. dies, under the direction of Hadrian Junius and James
v ' -■ Cocceius. Antonides took great pleafure in reading
the Latin poets, and carefully compared them with
Grotius, Heinfius, &c. By this means he acquired a
tafte for poetry, and enriched his mind with noble
ideas. He firft attempted to tranflate fome. pieces of
Ovid, Horace, and other ancients; and, having form¬
ed his tafte on thefe excellent models, he at length
undertook one of the moft difficult talks in poetry, to
write a tragedy : This was entitled 7 raxil, or, lhe vi-
vafeoti of China. Antonides, however, was fa modeft,
as not to permit it to be publiftied. Vondel, who was
then engaged in a dramatic piece, which was taken
alfo from fome event that happened in China, read An-
tonides’s tragedy; and was fo well pleafed with it, that
he declared," if the author would not print it, he would
take fome paffages out of it, and make ufe of them in
his own tragedy. He accordingly did fo ; and it was
reckoned much to the honour of Antonides, to have
written what might be adopted by fo great a poet as
Vondel was acknowledged to be by all good judges.
Upon the conclufion of the peace between Great Bri¬
tain and Holland, in the year 1674, Antonides wrote
a piece, entitled Bellona nan bund, i. e. “ Bellona
chained a very elegant poem, conftfting of feveral
hundred verfes. He next wrote an ingenious^ heroic
poem, which he entitled The River 2~ (the river on
which Amfterdam is built).
Antonides’s parents had bred him up an apothecary ;
but his remarkable genius for poetry foon gained him
the efteem and friendffiip of feveral perfons of diftinc-
tion; and particularly of Mr Buifero, one of the lords
of the admiralty at Amfterdam, and a great lover of
poetry, who font him at his expence to purfue his ftu-
clies at Leyden, where he remained till he took his de¬
gree of dodlor of phyftc, and then his patron gave him
a place in the admiralty. In 1678, Antonides married
Sufanna Bermans, a minifteUs daughter, who had alfo
a talent for poetry. His marriage was celebrated by
feveral eminent poets, particularly by the famous Pe¬
ter Francius, profeffor of eloquence, who compofed
fome Latin verfes on the occafion. After marriage, he
did not much indulge his poetic genius; and within a
few years he fell into a confumption, of which he died
on the 18th September 1684, being then but thirty-
feven years and a few months old. He is efteemed the
moft; eminent Dutch poet after Vondel. His works
have been printed feveral times, having been collefted
by Father Antony Tanfz. The laft edition was
printed by Nicholas Ten Hoom, at Amfterdam, in
the year 1714, in qto, under the direftion of David
Van Hoogftraaten, one of the mafters of the Latin
fchool of that city, who added to it alfo the life of the
poet.
ANTONINUS Pius, a celebrated Roman em¬
peror, was born A. D. 86, at Lanuvium in Italy.
Diftinguilhed for eminence of charafter, his family
had long maintained the honour of the houfe of Nif-
mes in Gaul, from whence they had defcended. Both
his father and grandfather had held the office of con-
ful. Anus Antoninus his maternal grandfather, by
his amiable difpofition and love of literature, had ac¬
quired an eminent character, and was very intimate
with Pliny the younger. Under him the young Titus
x
. ] ANT
after his father’s death completed his education. His Antoninas,
charafter on arriving at the age of maturity, manifefted "v
jtfelf in the moft promifing manner. To an improved
underftanding, a virtuous heart, a mild and dignified
character, and a ftoble eloquence, he joined a happy
phyftognomy. Simple in his tafte, and guided by tem¬
perance in all his adtions and lentiments, he ivas entire¬
ly free from all aftedation and pompofity.
In the year 120, among the many public honours
which his birth and connexions gave him a claim to,
he was elevated to the high poll of conful, and was af¬
terwards appointed by Adrian to be one of the four
confulars, betwixt v/hom the fupreme power of Italy
was divided. Becoming in his turn proconful of Afia,
he acquitted himfelf with fuch reputation, that he even
excelled his grandfather Arius who had formerly en¬
joyed that high truft. Returning from Afia he was not
only received into the favour, but likewife the confi¬
dence and council of Adrian, and was always difpofed
to adt with lenity. He married Annia Fauftina, the
daughter of Annius Verus, whofe charader was far
from being untaxed with reproach, but his lenient dif¬
pofition induced him to avoid public fcandal, and he
behaved towards his aged father-in-law with the moft:
becoming refptd. T wo fons and two daughters were
the fruits of this marriage. The fons died when they
were young, and the eldeft daughter, who was married
to Lamia Sylvanus, died when Titus proceeded towards
his Afiatic government. Fauftina the youngeft married
Marcus Aurelius, who was afterwards emperor.
After the death of Verus, Adrian refolving to adopt
Antoninus, he was induced to accept of theJucceffion
to fo important a charge as the Roman empire, although
with a confiderable degree of reludlance, and was ac¬
cordingly nominated by Adrian in February 25. A.D.
1 38, in the prefence of the council of the chief fenators,
who at the fame time created him his colleague in per¬
forming the proconfular and tribunitial duties. Extend¬
ing his plans of adoption flill farther, Adrian caufed
Antoninus adopt the fon of Verus, then feven years of
age, and Marcus Annius, afterwards named Aurelius,
then feventeen years ot age, a relation of Adrian’s,
and nephew to his own wife. The dutiful and merited
attention which Antoninus beftowed on Adrian during
the laft months of his illnefs, gives a very high idea of
his cbarafler. On July 10. A. D. 138, lie iucceeded
to the empire amid ft the univerfal acclamations of the
fenate and people, wrho anticipated in his well tried vir¬
tues that happinefs which a good and wife fovereign is
able to beftow' upon his fubjedls.
The Roman world enjoyed fuch tranquillity under
his reign that it affords few materials for hiftory ; yet
it is to be regretted that Capitolinus is the only hifto-
rian from whom any direft information can be received
concerning this peaceful period, and-he is none of the
moft perfpicuous. It however appears that the ufual
honours and titles, together with the addition of the fur-
name of Pius, which both his conduct and zeal in de¬
fending and honouring the memory of his predeceffor
united to fuggeft, were willingly conferred upon him
by the fenate. In the beginning of his reign there
were feveral confpiracies formed againft him, but this
only afforded him an inftance of fignalizing his clemen¬
cy, which he did in the moft ftriking manner. Although
he was unable to prevent juftice from taking its due
courfe
»
ANT r 445 ] ANT
Antna'nus. courfe again ft the ringleaders, he prohibited all invefti-
u,—y—— gation after their accomplices, and took tlie fon of At-
tilius, one of the principal confpirators, under his protec¬
tion. Various commotions were raifed in feveral parts of
the empire j but by the vigilance of his lieutenants, thefe
were eafily quelled. The incurfions of the Brigantes
in Britain were reftrained, and a new wall which was
built to the north of that of Adrian, from the mouth
bf the Elk to that of Tweed, and which was called the
Wall of Antoninus, was iixed as the boundary of the Ro¬
man province in Britain. The reign of Antoninus upon
the whole was fingularly peaceful, and realized a fay¬
ing of Scipio, “ That he preferred faving the life of
one citizen, <o deftroying a thoufand enemies.”
A defire of promoting the intereft of his people, of
protefting them from oppreftion, of adminiftering juftice
through every corner of the realm, and of being inftru-
mental to the happinefs and peace of his government,
influenced all his proceedings. He delighted greatly
in laying before the fenate the motives of all his aftions $
and in his manner of living and converfing he employ¬
ed the fame prudential economy and air of equality,
which had fo diftinguifhed his predeceflbrs Trajan and
Adrian. On account of the fweetnefs of his temper he
bore with firmnefs many indignities offered him j and
under his reign the race of informers was entirely ex-
tinguifhed, and condemnations and confifcations were
very rare. The various public calamities which occur¬
red in his time were all relieved by him with the great-
eft benevolence. He avoided as much as poflible lay¬
ing any burthens upon his people, and on this account
made few journeys through his dominions. He was
frugal in the ufe of the public revenues, but profufe in
his own patrimony, a great economift, devoid of ava¬
rice, and very liberal towards works of ornament and
utility,-and even towards gratifying the pleafure of his
people. A temple in honour of Adrian in Rome, and
perhaps the amphitheatre and aqueduft at Nifmes, were
his chief buildings.
Jurifprudence was to this emperor, like that of his
predeceffor, an interefting fubjeft for improvement', and
feveral decrees which he iflued, difplay his commend¬
able fpirit of equity. The natural confequence of this
equity was, that Antoninus acquired a reputation and
fame which no military atchievements could have con¬
ferred ; and his friendfhip was courted by the neigh¬
bouring princes.
There is fcarcely a blot to be found to tarnifh his
charaifter ; and frugality, modefty, and harmlefs amufe-
ment continued to employ his private hours. It may
perhaps be admitted that he was ton indulgent towards
an unworthy wife, and that the divine honours he be-
ftowed on her memory were not merited by her conduft.
In the management of his complicated bufinefs, he was
exa£l tofuch a degree that it was even ridiculed by fome;
but he found the daily advantage of this accuracy. The
growing virtue of Marcus Aurelius foon drew his atten¬
tion after he afeended the throne, and having given him
his daughter in marriage, he declared him Caefar. Nor
was he miftaken in his choice j for Aurelius adfed with
the utmoft fidelity and affe&ion amid all the honours that Antoninus,
he continued to confer upon him. Enjoying this large ——v—^
jfhare of domeftic blifs, in the 74th year of his life he
was feized with a fever at his favourite country feat of
Lori. Convinced of his approaching fate, he convened
the principal officers of the ftate, and confirmed his
eledtion of Aurelius, and gave him the imperial enfigns.
A delirium enfued, in an interval of which he gave the
watchword JEquanimitas, and calmly refigned his breath
in the 23d year of his reign. His allies were configned
to the tomb of Adrian, and divine honours paid to
his memory. He was univerfally regretted, and fuc-
ceeding emperors bore his name as a badge of honour.
The fenate and his fucceffor eredled a fculptured pillar
to his memory, which is ftill fliown to ftrangers as one
of the chief ornaments of Rome. (Gen. Biog.)
Antoninus Philosophus, Marcus Aurelius, the
Roman emperor, born at Rome, the 26th of April,
in the 121ft year of the Chriftian era. He was called
by feveral names till he was admitted into the Aure-
lian family, when he took that of Marcus Aurelius
Antoninus. Hadrian, upon the death of Cejonius Corn-
modus, turned his eyes upon Marcus Aurelius \ but, as
he was not then 18 years of age, and confequently too
young for fo important a ftation, he fixed upon Anto¬
ninus Pius, whom he adopted, upon condition that he
ffiould likewife adopt Marcus Aurelius. The year after
this adoption, Hadrian appointed him quertor, though
he had not yet attained the age preferibed by the law.
After the death of Hadrian, Aurelius married Faufti-
na, the daughter of Antoninus Pius, by whom he had
feveral children. In the year 139, he was inverted with
new honours by the emperor Pius, in which he behav¬
ed in fuch a manner as endeared him to that prince and
the whole people.
Upon the death of Pius, which happened in the year
161, he was obliged by the fenate to take upon him
the government; in the management of which he took
Lucius Verus as his colleague. Dion Caflius fays, that
the reafon of doing this was, that he might have leifure
to purfue his ftudies, and on account of his ill ftate of
health ; Lucius being of a ftrong vigorous court itution,
and confequently more fit for the fatigues of war. The
fame day he took upon him the name of Antoninus,
which he gave likewife to Verbs his colleague, and be¬
trothed his daughter Lucilla to him. The two empe¬
rors went afterwards to the camp ; where, after having
performed the funeral rites of Pius, they pronounced
each of them a panegyric to his memory. They dif-
charged the government in a very amicable manner.
It is laid that, foon after Antoninus had performed the
apotheofis of Pius, petitions were prefented to him by
the Pagan priefts, philofophers, and governors of pro¬
vinces, in order to excite him to perfecute the Chri-
ftians j which he reje&ed with indignation, and inter-
pofed his authority for their prote&ion, by writing a
letter to the common afiembly of Afia, then held at
Ephefus (a). The happinefs which the empire began
to enjoy under thefe two emperors was interrupted, in
the year 162, by a dreadful inundation of the Tiber,
which
(a) Eufebius has preferved tins letter, Hift. Ecclef. lib. iv. cap. 13. but he falfely aferibes it to Antoninus*
Pius, whereas it was wrote by Marcus Antoninus, as Valerius makes it appear in his annotations on Eufebius^
ANT
[ 44c ]
ANT
Antoninus, "wliicli deftroyed a vaft number of cattle, and occafioned
a famine at Rome. Ihis calauuly was followed by the
Parthian war 5 and at the fame time the Catti ravaged
Germany and Rhsetia. Lucius Verus went in perfon
to oppofe the Parthians } and Antoninus continued at
Rome, where his prefence was neceflary.
During this war with the Parthians, about the year
163 or 164, Antoninus fent his daughter Lucilla to
Verus, ilie having been betrothed to him in mairiage,
and attended her as far as Brundufium : he intended to
have conduced her to Syria j but it having been inti-
nuated by feme perfons, that his defign of going into
the eaft was to claim the honour of having finifiied the
Parthian war, he returned to Rome. I he Romans
having gained a victory over the Parthians, who were
obliged to abandon Mefopotamia, the two emperors
triumphed over them at Rome in the year 166 j and
Were honoured with the title of Fathers of their coun¬
try. This year was fatal, on account of a terrible ptfii-
lence which fpread itfelf over the whole world, and a
famine under which Rome laboured ‘ it was likewiie
in this year that the Marcomanni, and many other peo¬
ple of Germany, took up arms againfi; the Romans ;
but the two emperors having marched in perfon againfi:
them, obliged the Germans to fue for peace. The war,
however, was renewed the year following, and the two
emperors marched again in perfon ; but Lucius \erus
was feized with an apoplectic fit, and died at Altinum.
The Romans were now defeated with great flaughter j
and the emperor, not choofing to burden his fubjeas
with new taxes, expofed to fale the furniture of the pa¬
lace, the gold and filver plate belonging to the crown,
and his wife’s rich garments embroidered with gold,
and a curious collection of pearls, which Adrian, had
purchafed during his longprogrefs through the provinces
of the empire, and was called Adrian''s cabinet.
In the-year 170, Antoninus made vaft preparations
againft the Germans, and carried on the war with great
vigour. During this war, in 174, a very extraordinary
event is faid to hare happened, which, according, to
Dion Caffius, was as follows: Antoninus’s army being
blocked up by the Quadi, in a very difadvan.tageous
place, where there was no pofiibility of procuring wa¬
ter ; in this fituation, being worn out with fatigue and
wounds, oppreffed with heat and tnnfi, and incapable
of retiring or engaging the enemy, in an infiant the
thy was covered with clouds, and there fell a vaft
quantity of rain : the Roman army were about to
quench their thirft, when the enemy came upon them
with fuch fury, that they muft certainly have been de¬
feated, had it not been for a (bower of hail, accompa¬
nied with a ftorm of thunder and lightning, which fell
upon the enemy, without the lead: annoyance to the Antoninus.
Romans, who by this means gained, the victory (b). —v—^
In 175, Antoninus made a treaty with fcveral nations
of Germany. Soon after, Avidius Caffius, governor
of Syria, revolted from the emperor : this infurreCtion,
however, was put an end to by the death of Caffius,
who was killed by a centurion named Anthony. An¬
toninus behaved with great lenity towards thofe who
had been engaged in Caffius’s party j he would not
put to death, nor imprifon, nor even fit in judganent
hinifelf upon any of the fenators engaged in this re¬
volt ; but he referred them to the fenate, fixing a day
for their appearance, as if it had been only a civil affair.
He wrote aifo to the fenate, defiring them to aft with
indulgence rather than feverity; nor to (lied the blood
of any fenator or perfon of quality, or of any other per¬
fon whatfoever 5 but to allow7 this honour to his reign,
that, even under the misfortune of a rebellion, none
had lofi their lives, except in the firft heat of the tu¬
mult. In 176, Antoninus vifited Syria and Egypt:
the- kings of thofe countries, and arobaffadors aifo from
Parthia,' came to vifit him. He ftaid feveral days at
Smyrna j and, after he had fettled the affairs of the
eaft, went to Athens, on which city he conferred feve¬
ral honours, and appointed public profeffors there.
From thence he returned to Rome with his fon Corn-
modus, whom he chofe conful for the year.following,
though he was then but 16 years of age, having obtain¬
ed a difpenfation for that purpofe. On the 27 th of
September, the fame year, he gave him the title of
Imperator; and on the 23d of December, he entered
Rome in triumph, with Cotnmodus, on account of the
victories gained over the Germans. Dion Caflius tells
us, that he remitted all the debts which were due to
himfelf and the public treafury during 46 years, from
the time that Hadrian had granted the fame favour,
and burnt all the writings relating to thefe debts. . He
applied himfelf likewife to correct many enormities,
and introduced feveral excellent regulations. In the
year 179, he left Rome with his fon Commodus, in
order to go againft the Marcomanni, and other bar¬
barous nations*, and the year following gained a confi-
derable viftory over them, and would, in all probabi¬
lity, have entirely fubdued them in a very ftiort time,
had he not been taken with an illnefs, which carried
him off on the 17th of March 180, in the 59th year of
his age, and 19th of his reign. The whole empire re¬
gretted the lofs of fo valuable a prince, and paid the
greateft regard to his memory : he was ranked amongft
the gods, and almoft every perfon had a ftatue of him
in their houfes. His book of meditations has been
much admired by the beft judges.
A •» -r*r -* TT-O .
(b) The Pagans, as well as Chriftians, according to Mr Tillement (p. 621. art xvi.), have acknowledged the
truth of this prodigy, but have greatly differed as to the caufe of fuch a miraculous event; the former alcribing
it fume to one magician and fome to another: In Antoninus’s pillar, the glory is aferibed to Jupiter, the.gcd of
rain and thunder. But the Chriftians affirmed, that God granted this favour at the.prayer of the Chrifiian fol-
diers in the Roman army, who are faid to have compofed the twelfth or Melitene legion ; and, as a mark of dif-
tinftion, we are told that they received the title of the Thundering legion, from Antoninus (Eufeb. Ecclef. Hift.
lib. v. cap. 5.) Mr Moyle,’ in the letters publifired in the fecond volume of his works, has endeavoured to ex¬
plode this flory of the Thundering Legion *, which occafioned Mr Whifton to publiffi an anfwer, in 1726, en¬
titled, Of the Thundering Legion ; V, Of the miraculous deliverance of Marcus Antoninus and his army, upon the
prayers of the Chriflians.
2
Antoninus.
ANT [
Antoni he's Column. See Column.
Antoninus''S Wall, the name of the third rampart or
defence that had been built or repaired by the Romans
againil the incurfions of the North Britons. It is called
by the people in the neighbourhood, Graham's Dyke ;
from the notion that one Graham, or Grimus, firft made
a breach in it after the retreat of the Romans out of
Britain. The firft barrier eredted by the Romans 'was
#See4gr/-the chain of forts made by Agricola* from the frith of
cola. Forth to that of Clyde, in the year 81, to protedl his
conqueft from the inroads of the Caledonians. The
f See ^n'-fecond was the vallum, or dyke, flung up by Adrian f
an' in the year 121. It terminated on the weftern fide of
the kingdom z\. Axelodunum, or Brugh, on the Solway
fands, and was fuppofed to have reached no further
than Pons IE Hi, or Newcajlle, on the eaftern. But from
an infeription lately difeovered, it appears to have ex-
X See Scve- tended as far as the wall of SeverusJ. This rampart
of Adrian’s was fituated much farther fouth than A^
gricola’s chain ; the country to the north having been
either, according to fome authors, recovered by the na¬
tive Britons after the departure of Agricola ; or, ac¬
cording to others, voluntarily flighted by Adrian.
However, this work of Adrian’s did not long continue
to be the extreme boundary of the Roman territories
to the north in Britain. For Antoninus Pius, the
adopted fon and immediate fucceffor of Adrian, hav¬
ing, by his lieutenant Lollius Urbicus, recovered the
country once conquered by Agricola, commanded ano¬
ther rampart to be erefted between the friths of Forth
and Clyde, in the track where Agricola had formerly
built his chain of forts. The great number of inferip-
tions which have been found in or near the ruins of
this wall, or rampart, to the honour of Antoninus Pius,
leave us no room to doubt its having been built by his
direftion and command. If the fragment of a Roman
pillar with an infeription, now in the college library of
Edinburgh, belonged to this work, as it is generally
fuppofed to have done, it fixes the date of its execution
to the third confulftdp of Antoninus, which was A. D.
140, only 20 years after that of Adrian, of which this
feems to have been an imitation. This wall or ram¬
part, as fome imagine, reached from Caer-ridden on
the frith of Forth to Old Kirkpatrick on the Clyde 5
or, as others think, from Kinniel on the eaft to Dun-
glafs on the weft. Thefe difterent fuppofitions hardly
make a mile of difference in the length of this work,
which, from feveral adlual menfurations, appears to
have been 37 En^lilh or 40 Roman miles. Capitdlr-
, nus, in his life of Antoninus Pius, diredlly affirms, that
the wall which that emperor built in Britain was of
turf. This in the main is unqueftionably true j though
it is evident (from the veftiges of it ftill remaining,
which not very many years ago were dug up and e.x-
amined for near a mile together) that the foundation
was of ftone. Mr Camden alfo tells us, from the pa¬
pers of one Mr Anthony Pont, that the principal ram¬
part was faced with fquare ftone, to prevent the earth
from falling into the ditch. The chief parts of this
work were as follows : 1. A broad and deep ditch,
whole dimenfions cannot now be difeovered with cer¬
tainty and exaftnefs, though Mr Pont fays, it was 12
feet wide. 2. The principal Avail or rampart was about
12 feet thick at the foundation, but its original height
cannot now be determined. This Avail was fituated on
447 1 ANT
the fouth brink of the ditch. 3. A military way on Antoninus,
the fouth fide of the principal wall, well paved, and ‘ - v
raifed a little above the level of the ground. 'Ihis
work, as well as that of Adrian, was defended by gar-
rifons placed in forts and ftations along the line ot it.
The number of thefe forts or ftations, whofe veftiges
were vifible in Mr Font’s time, was 18, fituated at
about the diftance of two miles from each other. In
the intervals between the forts, there were turrets or
watch towers. But the number of thefe, and their di¬
ftance from each other, cannot now be difeov'ered.
It is not a little furprifing, that thougli it is now
more than 1600 years fince this work was finiftied, and
more than 1300 fince it was flighted, we can yet dif-
cover from authentic monuments, rvhich are ftill re¬
maining, by what particular bodies of Roman, troops
almoft every part of it was executed. This difeovery
is made from inferiptions upon ftones, which were ori¬
ginally built into the face of the wall, and have been
found in or near its ruins, and are carefully preferved.
The number of Hones with inferiptions of this kind now
extant, is 11 : of which fix may be feen at one view in
the college of Glafgow, one in the college of Aber¬
deen, one in the college of Edinburgh, one in the col-
leftion of Baron Clerk, one at Cochnoch houfe, and
one at Calder houfe. From thefe inferiptions it ap¬
pears in general, that this great work was executed by
the fecond legion, the vexillations of the fixth legion
and of the twentieth legion, and one cohort of auxilia¬
ries. If thefe corps were all complete, they would
make in all a body of 7800 men. Some of thefe in¬
feriptions have fuffered greatly by the injuries of time
and other accidents 5 fo that we cannot difeover from
them, with abfolute certainty, how many paces of this
work were executed by each of thefe bodies of troops.
The fum of the certain and probable information con¬
tained in thefe inferiptions, as it is colle£led by the
learned and illuftrious Mr Horfley, Hands thus :
Paces.
The fecond legion built - - -
The vexillation of the fixth legion
The vexillation of the twentieth legion
11,603
7411
7801
All certain - - 26,815
The vexillation of the twentieth legion, the mo¬
nument certain, and the number probable 341*
The fame vcxillation, on a plain monument, no
number vifible, fuppofed - _ - 3500.
The fixth legion, a monument, but no number,
fuppofed - - - - - 3000
Cohors prima Cugernorum - - 3000
Total
39,726
or 39 miles 726 paces, nearly the whole length of the
wall. It would have been both ufeful and agreeable to
have known how long time thefe troops were employ¬
ed in the execution of this great work. But of this
we have no information. Neither do we know what
particular bodies of troops were in garrifon in the fe¬
veral forts and ftations along the line of this wall, be—
caufe thefe garrifons were withdrawn before the Notilia-
Imperii was written.
Though we cannot difeover exadlly how many years*
this
A N T
[ 448 ]
ANT
Antonio.
Dio. 1. 72.
p. S02»
this wall cf the emperor Antoninus continued to be
the boundary of the Roman territories in Britain, yet
we know with certainty that it was not very long. For
we are told by. an author of undoubted credit, that, in
the reign of Conimodus, A. D. 180, “ he had wars
with feveral foreign nations, but none fo dangerous^ as
that of Britain. For the people of the ifland, haying
paffed the wall which divided them from the Romans,
attacked them, and cut them to pieces.”
ANTONIO, Nicholas, knight of the order of St
James and canon of Seville, did great honour to the
Spanilb nation by his Bibliotheque of their writers.
He was born at Seville in 1617, being the fon of a
gentleman whom King Philip IV. made prefident of
the admiralty eftablifhed in that city in 1626. After
having gone through a courfe of philofophy and divi¬
nity in his own country, he went to ftudy law at Sala¬
manca; where he clofely attended the lectures of Fran-
cifeo Ramos'del Manzano, afterwards councilor to the
king and preceptor to Charles II. Upon his return to
Seville, after he had finifhed his law ftudies at Sala¬
manca, be (hut himfelf up in the royal monaftery of
Benedi£fines, where he employed himfelf feveral years
in writing his Bibliotheca Hijpanica, having the ufe of
the books of Bennet de la Sana, aobot of that mona¬
ftery and dean of the faculty of divinity at Salamanca.
In the year 1659, he was font to Rome by King Phi¬
lip IV." in the charader of agent general from the
prince : he had alfo particular commiflions from the
inquifition of Spain, the viceroys of .Naples and Sicily,
and the governor of Milan, to negotiate their affairs at
Rome. The cardinal of Arragon procured him, from
Pope Alexander VII. a canonry in the church.of Se¬
ville, the income whereof he employed in charity and
purchafing of books ; he had above 30,000 volumes in
his library. By this help, joined to continual labour,
and indefatigable application., he was at laft enabled to
finifh his Bibliotheca Hifpanica, in four volumes in fo¬
lio, two of which he publifhed at Rome in the year
1672. The work confifts of two parts ; the one con¬
taining the Spanifh writers who flouriftied before the
15th century, and the other thofe fince the end of that
century. After the publication of thefe two volumes,
he was recalled to IVladrid by King Charles II. to take
upon him the office of counfellor to the crutade, which
he difcharged with great integrity till his death, which
happened in 1684. He left nothing at his death but
his vatt library, which he had brought from Rome to
Madrid ; and his two brothers and nephews being un¬
able to publiffi the remaining volumes of his Biblio¬
theca, fent them to Cardinal d’Aguifne, who paid the
charge of the impreffion, and committed the care there¬
of to Monfieur Martin, his librarian, vvho added notes
to them in the name of the cardinal.
ANTONIO, St, one of the Cape de Verd iflands,
lying in E. Long. o. 26. N. Lat. 18. 10. It is fe-
para^ed from St Vincent’s by a clear navigable chan¬
nel two leagues in breadth. On the north iide it has a
o-ood road fur (hipping, with a colle&ion of frelh wa¬
ter rifing from fprings, which, however, fcarcely merits
the name of a pond. The bland ffretches from north-
eaft to fouth-weft, and is filled with mountains ; one of
which is of fo extraordinary a height, as to be compa¬
red with the Peak of Teneriffe : Its top is conftantly
covered with fnow, and; notwithftanding the clearnefs
of the Iky, is generally hid in clouds. Here are pro- Antonio,
duced a variety of fruits; oranges, lemons, palms, me- Antomus,
lens, &c. and fame fugar canes. The potatoes and
melons are particularly excellent, and are much fought
after by mariners. But notwithftanding all this plen¬
ty, the inhabitants live in the moft wretched poverty.
They are in number about 500, chiefly negroes, un¬
der the protection of the Portuguefe, whofe language
they fpeak, and imitate their manners. To the north-
weft Hands a village, containing about twenty huts ;
and at leaft 50 families, under the diredioil of a go¬
vernor, or, as they call him, a captain, a prieft, and a
fehoolmafter. • _
Antonio, St, a Dutch fort in Axim, on the Coid
coaft of Africa. It Hands on a high reek, which pro¬
jects into the fea in form of a peninfula ; and is fo en¬
vironed by rocks and dangerous fhoals, as to be inac-
ceffible to an enemy but by land, where it is fortified .
by a parapet, drawbridge, and two batteries of heavy
cannon. Befides this it has a battery towards the lea.
The three batteries confift of 24 cannon. Its form is
triangular ; the building is neat, ftrong, and commo¬
dious for the extent, that being but fmall, on account
of the narrownefs of the rock on which it is built. I he
garrifon is ufually compofed of 25 white men, and an
equal number of negroes, under the command of a IVr-
jeant. It is maintained at the expence of the Weft
India Company ; and when well ftored with provifions,
is capable of making a long defence againft any num¬
ber of negroes. It is, however, as well as all othei forts
on this coaft, liable to inconveniences from the heavy
and continual rains, which damage the walls, and ren¬
der frequent reparations neceffary. This obliges the
Dutch always to keep ready a quantity of lime or ce¬
ment made of calcined oyfter (hells, of which the coaft
produces great numbers. This fettlement was firft
founded by the Portuguefe during the reign of Ema¬
nuel. They fixed it firft upon a fmall point ; where,
finding themfelves infecure, they built the fort where it
now (lands. They were driven out by the Dutch in
1641 ; and upon the conclufion of a peace with the
States General, the fort remained by treaty in the hands
of the Dutch Weft India Company, who have kept
poffeffion of it ever fince.
ANTONI US, Marcus, a famous Roman orator.
While he filled the office of praetor, Sicily fell to his
lot, and he cleared the feas of the pirates which infefl-
ed that coaft. He was made conful with A. Pofthumi-
us Albinus, in the year of Rome 653'*, when he oppof-
ed the turbulent defigns of Sextus litus, tribune of
the people, with great refolution and fuccefs. Some
time after, he was made governor of Cilicia, in quality
of proconful ; where he performed fo many great ex¬
ploits, that he obtained the honour of a triumph. We
cannot omit obferving, that, in order to improve his
great talent for eloquence, he became a fcholar to the
greateft men at Rhodes and Athens, in Ins way to Ci¬
licia, and when on his return to Rome. Soon after, he
was appointed cenfor ; which office he difcharged with
great reputation, having carried his caufe before the
people, againft Marcus Duronius, who had preferred
an accufation of bribery againft him, in revenge for
Antonius’s having erafed his name out of the lift of
feuators, which this wife cenfor had done, becaufe Du¬
ronius, when tribune of the people, had abrogated a
ANT [ 449 ] ANT
Astonius. law which feftrained immoderate expence in feafts. He
-y——’ W7a3 one of the greateft orators ever known at Home 5
and it was owing to him, according to the teflimony of
Cicero, that Rome might boafl: herfelf a rival even to
Greece itfelf in the art of eloquence. He defended,
“amongft many others, Marcus Aquilius j and moved
the judges in fo lenfible a manner, by the tears he (hed,
and the fears he (bowed upon the bread of his client,
that he carried his caufe. He never would publifh any
of his pleadings, that he might n?>t, as he faid, be
proved to fay in one caufe, what might be contrary to
what he (hould advance in another. He affsfted to be
a man of no learning. His modefty, and many other
qualifications, rendered him no lefs dear to many per-
fons of diitinction, than his eloquence made him uni-
verfally admired. He was unfortunately killed dur¬
ing thole bloody confufions raifed at Rome by Marius
and Cinna. He was difeovered in the place where he
had hid himfelf, and foldiers were fent to difpatch him :
but his manner of addrefling them had fuch an efteft,
that none but he who commanded them, and had not
heard his difeourfe, had the cruelty to kill him. His
head was expofed before the roftra, a place which he
had adorned with his triumphal fpoils. This happened
90 years before the Chriftian era.
Antonius, Marcus, the triumvir, grandfon to the
former, was very handfome in his youth ; for which
reafon he was greatly beloved by Curio, a fenator, who
by carrying him about in all his debaucheries, made him
contract fuch heavy debts, that his orvn father forbade
him his houfe. Curio, howrever, was fo generous as to
bail him for 250 talents. When the civil war broke
out, Curio took Caefar’s party, and prevailed with An¬
tonius to do the fame; for 'which he was made a tri¬
bune of the people, and in that office did Caefar great
fervice. Caefar having made himfelf mafter of Rome,
gave Antonius the government of Italy : At the battle
of Pharfalia, Caefar confided fo much in him, that he
gave him the command of the left wing of his army,
whilft he himfelf led the right. After Caefar was made
dictator he made Antonius general of the horfe, though
he had never been praetor •, in which command he ex
erted his power with the utmoft violence. He was made
conful, when Caefar enjoyed that honour for the fifth
time, the laid year of that ufurper’s life. On Ccefar’s
death, he harangued the populace with great art, and
raifed their fury againft his murderers; flattering him¬
felf that he (hould eafily get into the place which Cie-
(ar had filled ; but his haughty behaviour made him
lofe all the advantages his affefted concern for Cmfar
had gained him. His ill treatment of Oftavius, and
quarrel with him, produced another civil war ; which
ended in an accommodation between him, Oftavius, and
Lepidus, fatal to the peace of Rome. They agreed to
(hare the fupreme power among them ; and many of the
moft illuftrious Romans were facrificed by profeription
to cement this bloody league, which is known by the
name of the Second Triumvirate. But the triumvirs
were too ambitious, and hated one another too much,
to be long united. Antonius went into Afia to raife
money for his foldiers: during his abfence, Fulvia his
wife quarrelled w'ith Oftavius. When Antonius was in
Afia, indulging himfelf in all manner of luxury, the
famous Cleopatra infpired him with the mod violent
paflion. Hearing of the quarrel between Fulvia and
Vol. II, Part II.
Oflavius, and finding Oflavius was become publicly his Antoroma*
enemy, Antonius entered into a confederacy with Sex- fni
tus Pompeius, who was (fill mafter of Sicily. He then An^j m
went into Italy, in order to fight Oftavius ; but Fulvia, ‘ ^
who had been the author and promoter of this w7ar,
dying, Oftavius and Antonius came to an agreement.
One of the conditions of this new peace w7a«, that they
(hould together attack Pompey, though the former had
lately made an alliance with him. Antonius then mar¬
ried Oftavia, filler of Octavius, as a pledge of their re¬
newed friendlhip : but returned foon after to his belov¬
ed Cleopatra, and again lived with her in Alexandria.
Octavius took hold of this pretence to inveigh againft
him, and begin the war again. At laft they engaged
in a fea fight at A6tium, in which Oiftavius gained a
complete victory ; which was followed by the deaths
both of Antonius and Cleopatra. The infatuated An¬
tonius fell upon his own fword ; and Cleopatra (lung
herfelf to death with an afp, as was fuppofed, to avoid
gracing the viftor’s triumph at Rome.
ANTONOMASI A, a form of fpeech, in which,
for a proper name, is put the name of fome dignity,
office, profeffion, fcience or trade ; or wdien a proper
name is put in the room of an appellative. Thus a
king is called his majejly; a nobleman, his lordjhip.
"We fay the philofopher mftead of Ariftotle, and the ora¬
tor for Cicero: Thus a man is called by the name of
his country, a German, an Italian; and a grave man is
called a Cato, and a wife man a Solomon.
ANTOSI ANDRIANS, a fed of rigid Lutherans,
who oppofe the doflrine of Ofiander relating to juftifi-
cation. Thefe are otherwife denominated Ofiandro-
majliges.—The Antofiandrians deny that man is made
juft, with that juftice wherewith God himfelf is juft ;
that is, they aflert, that he is not made effentially, but
only imputatively, juft ; or, that he is not really made
juft, but only pronounced fo.
ANT RIM, the moft northerly county of Ireland.
It is bounded by that of Down on the fouth-eaft,
that of Londonderry on the weft, from which it is fe-
parated by the river Bann, part of Armagh on the
fouth, St George’s channel on the eaft, and the Deu-
caledonian ocean on the north. Its greateft length is
about 46 miles, its greateft breadth about 27 ; and the
number of acres it contains, plantation meafure, is
computed at 383,000. Though the country is much
encumbered with bogs and marfties, yet it enjoys a
pretty good air : and it is w7ell peopled, chiefly with
Proteftants. Where it is free from bogs the foil is fruit¬
ful. It fends two members for the (hire, and two for
each of the following towns, viz. Lifburn, Belfaft, An¬
trim and Randalftown.
Certain narrow valleys, called glyns, beginning here,
and running a great way along the coaft, belonged
formerly to the Eiffels, noblemen of Scotland, who
having been obliged to quit that country for having
affaffinated Patrick earl of Athole upon a private quar¬
rel, came hither, and had a great eftate beftowed up¬
on them by Henry III. of England ; of which in the
reign of Edward II. a part was forfeited by the rebel¬
lion of Hugh, then chief of the family. Another
tradt near this, called the Rowte, belonged anciently
to the Macgulllersf but now to the M‘Donnels, earls
of Antrim.
Upon the coaft of this county are the promontories
3 L called
ANT [45
Antrim called by Ptolemy, Rohogdium, Vennicinium, and Bo¬
ll rceum, now Tuir Torelond, Ramjkead, and 5/ Helen s
Antwerp. Jiea(f, The river alfo, ftyled by the fame author Vi-
  v   dua, and now Crodach, runs through this county.—
Here alfo is the remarkable natural curiofity called
the GIANT'S Caufeway, for a particular defeription of
which fee that article.
Antrim, the capital town of the county of An¬
trim, in Ireland, feated at the north end of the lalce
Lough Neagh, about fix miles from the mouth of the
bay, having a good road before it, with a pier near
the place, within which veffels lie dry at low water.
It was anciently a borough of great confequence, as
appears from the mayor’s being admiral of a confider-
able extent of coaft, as well in Down as in this coun¬
ty *, the corporation enjoying the cuftoms paid by all
veffels within thofe bounds, the creeks of Bangor and
Bel fa ft only excepted. This grant, however, the crown
repurchafed, and thereupon transferred the cuftom-
houfe to Belfaft, to which town it js now much infe¬
rior as well in fize as in trade. It is, however, ftill a
place of note, and fends two members to the houfe of
commons. It gives the title of earl to the noble fa¬
mily of M‘Donnel.—At Antrim is a feat, with noble
demefnes, and beautiful and highly cultivated lands, of
the earl of Maffareene. W. Long. 6. 26. N. Lat.
"^ANTRUM, among Aiiatomifls, a term ufed to de¬
note feveral cavities of the body : as the antrum high-
morianum, or that in the maxillary or jaw bone ; an¬
trum pt/lori, or that at the bottom of the pylorus, &c.
AN PWERP, a city of the duchy of Brabant, in
the Auftrian Netherlands, capital of the marquifate of
Antwerp, otherwife called the marquifute of the holy
Roman empire, fituated in E. Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 51.
12. It lies in a low marftiy ground on the Scheld,
24 miles from Bruffels to the north. It is the third
city in rank in Brabant, large and well built, contain¬
ing 22 fquares, and above 200 ftreets, all ftraight and
broad, efpecially that called the Mere, in which fix
coaches can go abreaft. Moft of the houfes are of
freeftone, and have an air of antiquity, being high,
with courts before and gardens behind. At the head
of the Mere is a crucifix of brafs thirty-three feet high.
The cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mary, the
ftadthoufe, and the exchange, are magnificent. ftruc-
tures: the latter is the fir ft building of that kind in
Europe, and on its model the exchanges of London
and Amfterdam are built. Its pillars are all of blue
marble, and carved, but all in a different manner.
The exchange coft the city 300,000 crowns. Ant¬
werp, towards the end of the fifteenth century,, was
one of the moft celebrated towns that ever exifted.
The Scheld, on which it Hands, being 20 feet deep
at low water, and rifing 20 feet more at flood, (hips of
% the greateft burden came up to the quays, as in the river
Thames at London •, but when the United Provinces
formed tbemfelves into a free ftate, after having flvaken
off the yoke of Spain, they got the entire command of
the navigation of the Scheld •, which ruined the trade
of Antwerp, and transferred it to Amfterdam.. This
made the inhabitants turn their heads to painting,
jewelling, and banking, which they have continued to
this day with great fuccefs and reputation ; for at Ant¬
werp bills of exchange may be negociated for any fum
o ] 'A N T
to any part of Europe } and in the tune of Queen Antwerp.
Anne’s wars, two brothers of the name of De Koning, "
paid the one the army of France, and the other that of
the confederates. Befides, here is a fine manufaaure
of tapeftry and lace ; and, for the promoting.of trade,
an infurance company has been erected. I his city is
the fee of a bilhop, who, as abbot of bt Bernard, is.
the fecond prelate in Brabant. The biftiopric is. of
oreat extent, and the cathedral a moft noble piie, wi.h
one of the fineft fteeples in the world. The emperor,
Charles V. when he made his entry into Antwerp,
faid it ought to be put in a cafe, and fhowed only ones
a year for a rarity. I he houfe of the hanfe towns,
built when the city was in its flouriihing condition, L
a {lately building, with magazines above for. dry goods,
and cellars below for wet, and in the middle ftory
were 300 lodging rooms for merchants ^ but new it is
turned to a horfe barrack. T here is a market here
called the Friday's market, becaufe it is held, every
Friday, where all forts of houfehold goods, pi dure 4
and jewels, are fold by audfion. No city in the Ne¬
therlands has fo many and fo fine churches as^ this.
Many of them, particularly the cathedral and Jefuits
church, are adorned with paintings, by Sir Peter Paul
Rubens, who was a native of this city •, and by Quin-
tin Maffeys, who is faid to have been a blackfmith j
but having fallen in love with a painter’s daughter,
and been told by her father, ivhen he a{ked her. of
him in marriage, that he would have none but a paint¬
er for his fon in-law, he went to Italy to ftudy paint¬
ing and, in a few years, returned fo eminent in his
new profeflion, that he found no difficulty in obtain¬
ing the father’s confent. He is interred at the. entry
of the cathedral, where his effigy is put up, with an
infeription, fignifying, that conjugal love made an A-
pelles of a blackfmith. The above mentioned Jefuits
church is extremely magnificent, and the chapel of
the Virgin, joining to it, ftill more fo. Among the
cloifters the moft remarkable are, the noble and rich
abbey of St Michael, on the banks of the Scheld, the
apartments of which are truly royal, and in which all
fovereign princes that pafs this xvay ailually lodge ;
and the Englifh nunnery, of the order of St Terefa,
the nuns of which never wear linen, nor eat flefti, and
lie upon ftraw : the grates of the convent are fo dil-
mal, that it looks like a prifon. As to the fortifica¬
tions of the city, it is environed with a fine wall, plant¬
ed with row's of trees on each fide, with walks between,
broad enough for two coaches to go abreaft, being alfo
defended by a very ftrong, large, regular citadel, in
form of a pentagon, eredled by the duke of Alva in
1568, which commands the town and the neighbour¬
ing country. The magiftracy of this city is chofen
only out of the feveral patrician families; and confifts
of two burgomafters and 18 echevins, befides inferior
magiftrates. Among the privileges granted to it by
its princes, there is one by which every perfon born in
it is a citizen, though both his father and mother were
foreigners.
In 1585, Antwerp underwent a remarkable fiege
by the duke of Parma. It was then the moft wealthy
city in the Netherlands, and had long been the objeft
of his defigns ; but the difficulties attending the enter-
prife obliged him to poftpone it for a confiderable time.
In order to fucceed, it was neceffary to cut off the
ANT [ 45i 1 A N U
Antwerp, communication of the city with Holland, Ghent, and
v——- all places above and below Antwerp on the Scheld.
To effe£t this, he laid fiege to Lifkenhoulk. and Tillo,
places of the utmoft confequence to the lecurity and
commerce of the city : both were obftinately defend¬
ed 5 and the fiege of the latter was raifed, after it had
been carried on for three months : however, the duke
gained feveral other pofts on the river, where he built
forts, and greatly annoyed the fhipping and trade of
the city. He next laid fiege to Dendermonde, in or¬
der to cut off the communication with Ghent, in which
he fucceeded by the reduddion of the town. His next
attempt was on Vilvorde : this place he took by af-
fault, and thereby cut off the communication with
Bruffels. Finding, however, this method of hemming
in the city tedious, and ineffeftual while an opening
to the mouth of the river remained, he formed a de-
fign of building a bridge acrofs the Scheld, the extre¬
mities of which were to be defended by ftrong forts
and outworks. He began with colledling great quan¬
tities of wood at Callo and Fort St Philip, where he
intended the bridge Ihould be built •, but his projedl
was for fome time retarded by the Antwerpers, who
broke down the dykes, overflowed the whole country,
and carried off his magazines by the inundation. Not
difcouraged by this lofs, he applied himfelf diligently
to repair it, and with incredible expedition cut a canal
from Steken to Callo, by which he carried off the wa¬
ters. He then fet to work upon the bridge, and fi-
niflied it in feven months, without any interruption
from the Zealanders. During the building of this
bridge, Aldegonde, governor of Antwerp, propofed
to build a fort on Couvenfteyn dyke, in order to fe-
cure that important port, and then break down the
dyke when the bridge was near finilhed : but he was
violently oppofed by certain citizens, who apprehend¬
ed that their lands and villas would be deflroyed by
the inundation. This unfeafonable oppofition, with
the negligence of the magiftrates, who, becaufe the
markets were high, had not laid in a fufficient flock
of corn, occafioned the lofs of the city. However, in
defpite of all the duke of Parma’s precaution, the
Zealanders found means to throw in a convoy of corn ;
but the citizens, knowing they would not run the rilk
of carrying it back again, fo cheapened the price, that
thefe bold traders refufed ever to bring their goods
again to fo bad a market. The Antwerpers, having
thus through avarice brought on their ruin, began in
a thort time to fuffer by famine j they then preffed the
Zealanders to attempt fomething for their relief, but it
was now too late. While the magiftrates were delibe¬
rating on fome means for deftroying the bridge, which
they might have prevented from being ever completed,
one Ginebelli, a Mantuan engineer, offered his fer-
vices, undertaking at a certain expence to blow it into
the air. Even in this extremity the expence was
grudged : but neceflity at laft overcame this obftacle $
Ginebelli was furnilhed with two large veffels, a num¬
ber of fmall boats, and every thing neceffary. He
formed the two large veffels into fire (hips, which he
fet adrift with the ftream, deceiving the enemy by
means of falfe fires lighted up in the fleet of fmall
boats. The train of one of the fire (hips was expended
before the time expefted, and (lie blew up with a ter¬
rible explofion, but with little damage to the bridge.
The other was more fuccefsful, carrying off all the Antwerp,
outworks, fetting fire to the whole bridge, and bury- Anubis.
ing above 500 foldiers in the ruins it made. The fire, v
however, was foon extinguiflied, and the bridge re¬
paired by the duke of Parma, while the Antwerpers
were prevented by avarice from repeating the experi¬
ment j fo that they were foon reduced to the greateft
drafts, and obliged to furrender. It is (aid that the
city of Amfterdam had obfiru£ted every mealure for
the relief of Antwerp, hoping to profit by its deftruc-
tion. It was not doubted but the Protertants would
forfake it as foon as it fell into the hands of an arbi¬
trary Catholic prince : and this conjedlure was foon
fulfilled by the removal of many families with their ef¬
fects to Amfterdam.—After the battle of Ramillies,
the city of Antwerp furrendered to the duke of Marl¬
borough. It was taken by the French in 1746, but
reftored to the houfe of Auftria at the treaty of Aix-
la-Chapelle.
ANUBIS, a fymbolical deity of the Egyptians, was
regarded as the faithful companion of Ofiris and of
Ifis. Tempi es and priefts were confecrated to him, and
his image wTas borne in all religious ceremonies.
Cynopolis, the prefent Minieh, fiteated in the Low¬
er Thebais, was built in honour of Anubis. The
temple wherein he was worftiipped no longer fubfifts.
The priefts celebrated his feftivals there with great
pomp, and confecrated the dog to him as his living
reprefentation. “ Anubis (fays Strabo) is the city of
dogs, the capital of the Cynopolitan prefecture. Thefo
animals are fed there on facred aliments, and religion
has decreed them a worfliip.” An event, however, x-e-
lated by Plutarch, brought them into confiderable dif-
credit with the people. Cambyfes having (lain the
god Apis, and thrown his body into a field, all ani¬
mals refpeCted it except the dogs, which alone ate of
his flefti. This impiety diminiflred the popular venera¬
tion for them.
Cynopolis was not the only city which burned in-
cenfe on the altars of Anubis. He had chapels in al-
moft all the temples. On folemnities, his image al¬
ways accompanied thofe of Ifis and Ofiris. Rome hav¬
ing adopted the ceremonies of Egypt, the emperor
Commodus, to celebrate the Ifiac feafts, (haved his
head, and himfelf carried the god Anubis. The fta-
tue of this god was either of maffive gold or gilt, as
well as the attributes that accompanied him. Anubis
fignifies gilded. The denomination was myfterious ;
and the Egyptian priefts, it would feem, had not gi¬
ven it without reafon.
The fignification of this emblematical deity is thus
explained by Plutarch : “ The circle which touches
and feparates the two hemifpheres, and which is the
caufe of this divifion, receiving the name of horizon,
is called Anubis. He is reprefented under the form of
a dog, becaufe that animal watches day and night.”
St Clemens of Alexandria, who was well informed in
the myftic theology of the Egyptians, favours this ex¬
plication. The two dogs, fays he, (the two Anubes)
are the fymbols of two hemifpheres which environ the
terreftrial globe. He adds in another place : Others
pretend that thefe animals, the faithful guardians of
men, indicate the tropics, which guard the fun on the
fouth and on the north like porters.
According to the former of thefe interpretations,
3 L 2 the
Anubis
!)
Aorafia.
A O R [ 4Sa
the priefts, regarding Anubis as the horizon, gilded
his ftatue ; to mark, that this circle, receiving the firft
rays of the fun, appears fparkling with brlghtnefs on
his riling, and that at his fetting he reflefts his lait rays
upon the earth. They faid, in their facred fables, that
Anubis was the fon of Ofiris, but illegitimate. In faff,
he only gives to the earth a borrowed light ; and can¬
not be efttemed, like Horns, -as the father ot the day,
or as the legitimate offspring of Ofiris. It may be add¬
ed, that the vifible horizon turning with the fun, is
his infeparable companion.
In the latter of thefe explications, where Anubis
reprefents the tropics, he is alfo the faithful guardian
of Ifis and Ofiris. In faft, the courfe of the fun and
of the moon is contained between the circles wherein
the folfiices are performed. They neither deviate to
the right nor left. Thefe limits afligned by the Au¬
thor of nature might therefore, in hieroglyphic lan¬
guage, be reprefented by a divinity with the head of
a dog, who feemed to oppofe their paffage on the iide
of the two poles. The other opinion, notwithlland-
ing, feems more natural, and to be more analogous to
the ideas of the priefts. . .
Upon the whole, it is reafonable to imagine, that
Anubis at firft was only a fymbolical image, invented
by aftronomers to give a fenfible eXpreffion oU their
difcoveries ; that afterwards, the people, accuftoined
to fee it in their temples, which were the depofitanes
of fcience, adored it as a deity j and that the pnefts
favoured their ignorance by connefting it with their
religion. The worftiip of Anubis introduced, that or
the dog became his emblem. Almoft all the gods of
the Gentiles have originated in this manner. _
ANUS, in Anatomy, the lower extremity of the m-
teftinum reflum, or orifice of the fundament.
ANVIL, a fmith’s utenfii, ferving to place the
work on to be hammered or forged. I he face or up-
permoft furface of the anvil, muft be very flat and
fmooth, without flaws, and fo hard that a file will not
touch it. At one end there is fometimes a pike, bic-
kern or beak-iron, for the rounding of hollow work.
The whole is ufually mounted on a firm wooden
block Forced anvils are better than thofe of caft
work, and the heft have the upper part made of fteel.
Lockfmiths have a fmaller kind of anvil called uwjrake,
which is moveable, and placed ordinarily on their
work bench. Its ufe is for fetting fmall cold work
ftraight, or to cut or punch on with the cold chiilel or
cold punch. . . _r .
ANXUR, in Ancient Geography, a city ot the Vol-
fci, in Latium ) called Tarracina, by the Greeks and
Latins: Now Tertacina; fituated on an eminence
(Livy, Horace, Sil. Italicus). Anxuras, a citizen
of Anxur (Livy). And the epithet Anxurus, a name
of Jupiter, worlhipped without a beard at Anxur
(Virgil). Though others read Axiiras, or Axyrus,
without a razor. E. Long. 14. 5. Lat. 41. 18.
AONIDES, in Mythology, one of the many appel¬
lations of the Mufes 5 fo called from Aonia, a part of
ancient Bceotia. . .
AORASIA, in Antiquity, the mvifibility ot the
n-ods The word is Greek, ««<**«*, and derived from
^ priv. and to fee. The opinion of the. ancients
w-ith regard to the appearance of the gods to men, was
that they never Ihowed themfelves face to facej but
4
1 A O IV-
were known from their backs as they withdrew.^ Nep
tune affumed the form of Calchas 4o ipeak to tke two
Ajacesj but they knew him not till h- turned Ins back
turned his back
to leave them, and difcovered the'god by his raajeftic
ftep as he went from them. Venus appeared to .Eneas
in the charaaer of a huntrefsj but her ion knew hen
not till the departed from him : Wivmity xvas then
betrayed by her radiant head, her flowing robe, «nd
her maieftic pace. . . .
AORIST, among grammarians, a tenfe pecu.iar to
the Greek language, comprehending all the tenies j or
rather, expreffing aaion in an indeterminate manner,
without any regard to paft, prefent or future.
AORISTIA, in the fceptic philofophy, denotes that
ftate of the mind wherein we neither affert nor deny
any thing pofitively, but only fpeak of things as kern¬
ing or appearing to us in fuch a manner I he aonftia
is one of the great points or terms of fcepticnm, to
which the philofophers of that denomination had con¬
tinual recourfe by way of explication, or lubteriuge.
Their adverfaries, the dogmatifls,_ charged them with
dogmatizing, and afferting the principles arid petitions
of their fi-H to be true and certain. ...
AORNUS, a very high rock, of India, having its
name from its extraordinary height, as being above the
flight of a bird. Its circuit was about 25 miles, its
height ix furlongs, and the way leading up to the top
artificial and narrow. At the bottom, on one ride, ran
the river Indus 5 on the top was a fine plain part ct
which was covered with a thick wood $ the reft arable
land, with a fountain furnifiring abundance ol excel¬
lent water. This roek was taken by Alexander the
Great, in whofe time there was a report that Hercules
had attempted it in vain ; however, according to Ai>
rian this report was without foundation. It is proba¬
ble ’indeed, that it was raifed after the place waslak-
en, in order to magnify Alexander’s exploit. _ YV Into
the Macedonian monarch was preparing all things ne-
ceffary for the fiege, an old man with his two mns,
who had long lived in a cave near the fummit, came
and offered to (how him a private way of amending.
This being readily accepted, Ptolemy, with a confi-
derable body of light-armed troops, was delpatched
with them, with orders, in cafe they fucceeded, to in¬
trench themfelves ftrongly upon the rock, in the wood
to which the old man was to direft them, before they
ventured to attack the Indians. _ Ptolemy exa£ily exe¬
cuted his orders ; and gave notice, by a lighted torch
fet upon a pole, that he had got fafely up. Upon
this, Alexander gave immediate orders for a body 01.
troops to attempt the paffage by which the rock was
commonly amended ; but they were repulfed with great
{laughter. He then fent an Indian with letters to Pto¬
lemy, defining him, the next time an attack was made
by the common way, to fall upon the enemy behind.
But in the mean time, thofe who defended the ro<-“-
attacked Ptolemy with great vigour *, but were at laft
repulfed, though with much difficulty : but the next
day, when Alexander renewed the attack, though
Ptolemy attacked the Indians in thfc rear, the Mace¬
donians were repulfed on both fides. At laft, the king
perceiving that the ftrength of the Indians lay in the
ftraitnefs and declivity of the way by which they were
attacked, caufed a great quantity of trees to be idled,
and with them filled the cavities between the plain on
which
A P iE [ 453 ] A P A
Aorta tvViich the Indians were encamped and the higheft of
jj his own advanced polls. The Indians at firft derided
Apset.ifi. undertaking ; but at length perceiving the ardour
U*—with which the work was carried on, and having felt
the eife&s of the miflile weapons of the Macedonians,
they fent deputies to propofe terms of capitulation.
Alexander fuipeifting that their defign was only to
amufe him till they made their efcape* withdrew his
troops from the avenues. As foon as he knew the
Indians were defcended, he, with 700 of Ptolemy’s
light-armed foot, took pofleffion of the delerted rock,
and then made a lignal for his forces to fall upon the
flying Indians. They, fetting up a loud ihout, fo ter¬
rified the fugitive*, that numbers of them fell from the
rocks and precipices, and were dafhed to pieces, while
the greateft part of the remainder were cut off in the
roads.
AORTA, in Anatomy, the great artery which rifes
immediately from the left ventricle of the heart, and
is from thence diilributed to all parts of the body. It
is divided info two grand trunks, diftinguiihed by the
epithets afcending and defcending. See Anatomy.
AOUST A, on Aosx, a town of Italy, in Piedmont,
and capital of the duchy of the fame name, a bhhop’s
fee, and fubjedl to the king of Sardinia. It is remark¬
able for feveral monuments of the Romans, and for the
birth of Anfelm archbilhop of Canterbury* It is feat-
ed at the foot of the Alps, on the river Doria. E.
Long. 7. 33. N. Latv-45. 58.
Aousta. a territory of Piedmont, with the title of
a duchy. It is a valley 30 miles in length, and ex¬
tends from the pafs of St Martin’s, near the frontiers
of Yvree, to St Bernard. It abounds in paduves,
and all forts of fruits. The capital is rof the fame
name. • ' • "A" 'Si '
AOUT A, the name of the paper mirlberry tree at
Otaheite in the South fca, from which a cloth is ma-
nufaftured that is worn by the principal inhabitants.
See the article Bark.
APACHES, a people of New Mexico in North
America. They are brave, refolute, and warlike, fond
of liberty, and the inveterate enemies of tyrtinny and
oppreffion. Of thi<rdiIpofition.the Spaniards had fatal
experience towards the end of the laft century, when
they revolted againlt the Catholic king, mafiaered fe¬
veral of his officers, and committed the greateft devaf-
tations. Ever ftnee, thev have remained the allies, not
the fubje<Rs of the Spaniards ; and the viceroy of Mexi¬
co has been obliged to maintain a more formidable gar-
rifon, and a greatet number of troops.
APyEDUSIA, denotes -ignorance or unfkilfuloefs
in what relates to learning and the faiences. Plence
alfo perfons uninftrufted and illiterate are called npcv-
deutce. The term apetdeuice was particularly ufed
among the French in the time of Huet ; when the men
of wit at Paris were divided into two factions, one
called bv way of reproach apeedeutce, and the Others
cruditi. The apcodeutce are reprefented by Huet as per¬
fons who, finding themfelvcs either incapable or un¬
willing to undergo a fevere courfe of fludy in order to
become truly learned, confpire to decry learning, and
turn the knowledge of antiquity into ridicule, thus
making a merit of their own incapacity. The apee¬
deutce in effect were the men of pleafure j the eruditi
the men of ftudy. The apcedeutce in every thing pre¬
ferred the modern writers to the ancient, to fuperfede Apagoge
the neceffity of ftudying the latter. The derided (f
the moderns, and valued themfelves wholly on their ac-. APamea»
quaintance with the ancients.
APAGOGE, in Logic. See Abduction.
Apagogk, in the Athenian law, the carrying a
criminal taken in the fact to the magiftrate. If the
accufer was not able to bring him to the magiftrate, it
was ufual to take the magiftrate along with him to the
houfe where the criminal lay concealed, or defended
himfelf.
Apagoge, in Mathematics, is fometimes ufed to de¬
note a progrefs or paffage from one propofition to ano¬
ther ; when the firft having been once demonftrated, is
afterwards employed in the proving of others.
APAGOGICAL demonstration, an indiredil
way of proof, by ftiowing the abfurdity of the con¬
trary.
APAL ACHIAN mountains, more properly call¬
ed the Allegany Mountains, have their fouthern begin¬
ning near the bay of Mexico, in the latitude, of 30°,
extending northerly on the back of the Britifti colo¬
nies, and running parallel with the fea coaft to the la¬
titude of 40° north ; but their diftance from the fea,
on the weft, is not exadlly known, though it is gene¬
rally thought to be above 20c miles. A great part of
thefe mountains is covered with rocks, fotne of which
are of a ftupendous height and bulk the foil between
them is generally black and fandy, but in fotne places
differently coloured, compofed of pieces of broken
rock and fpar, of a glittering appearance, which feem
to be. indications of minerals and ores, if proper fearch
was made for them. Chefnuts and fmall oaks are the
trees that principally grow on thefe mountains, with
fimnt chinkapin * and other fmall flirubs. The grafs is ^ p? ,n s
thin, mixed with vetch and fmall peafe ; and in fome pua^fa
places there is very little vegetable appearance.
The rocks of the Apalachian mountains ftem to en-
grofs one half of the furface. They are moftly of a
light gray colour ; lome are of a coarfe-grained marble
like alabafter j others of a metallic luftre : lome pieces
are in the form of flate, and brittle ; others in lumps,
and hard : and fome appear with fpangles, or covered
over with innumerable imall flrining fpecks, like lilver.
Thtfe frequently appear at the roots of trees when
blown down. The different fpars are found moftly on
Ahe higheft and fteepeft parts of the hillsj where there
is little grafs and few trees j but the greateft part of
the foil between the rocks is generally a dark fandy-
coloured kind of mould, and (hallow ; yet fertile, and
productive of good corn, which encourages the Talli-
poofes, a clan of the Cherokee Indians, to fettle among
them in latitude 340 : and they are the only Indian
nation that has a eonftant refidence upon thefe moun¬
tains.
APAMEA, or Afamia, the name of .feveral an¬
cient cities. I iV. ; ; ; .
I. One of Bithynia, formerly called Myrlca, from
Myrlus, general of the Colophonians : deftroyed by
.tPhilip^ fathej; pf :Pt;rftus and given to his ally-Prufias,
who rebuilt it, and called it Apamea,Sxom the name of
his queen Apama (Strabo). Stephanus fays, that Ni-
eomedes Epiphanies, fbn of Prufias, called it after his
mother ; and that it had its ancient name from Myrlea,
an Amazon, The Romans led a colony thither (Stra¬
bo) ;
Apamea
II
Apanthro-
py-
A. P A [
bo) ; called Colonia Afxitnena (Pliny, Appian)^ The
gentilitious name is Apamceus and Apamenus (Trajan
in a letter to Pliny).
2. Another Apamea, called Cibotus, of Phrygia, at
fome diftance from the Meander (Agathodsemon) ; but
by a coin of Tiberius, on the Meander. The name is
from Apame, mother of Antiochus Soter, the found¬
er, and the daughter of Artabazus (Strabo). _ The
rife, or at lead the increafe, of Apamea, was owing to
the ruins of Celenae. d he inhabitants were called
Apamienfes ; and, though inland, were worlhippers of
Neptune. The reafon, it has been conje&ured, was,
that they had fuffered often from earthquakes, of
which he was the fuppofed author. Mithridates gave
a hundred talents towards the reftoration of the city •,
which, it is faid, had likewife been overthrown in the
time of Alexander. Their tribute money was remit¬
ted to them for five years on the fame account under
the emperor Tiberius. The fubterraneous paffage of
the Lycus and the other dreams, (bowed that the
ground had many cavities $ and thefe, it has been fur-
mifed, rendered the region very liable to be ftiaken.
3. A third, on the confines of Parthia and Media,
furnamed Raphane (Strabo, Pliny).
4. A fourth Apamea, a town of Mefene, an ifiand
in the Tigris (Pliny, Ammian) *, where a branch of
the Euphrates, called the Royal River, falls into the
Tigris (Ptolemy).
5. A fifth in Mefopotamia, on the other fide of the
Euphrates, oppofite to Zeugma on this fide, both found¬
ed by Seleucus, and joined by a bridge, from which the
latter takes its name (Pliny, Ifidor. Characenus).
6. A fixth Apamea, now Famia, alfo in Syria, below
the confluence of the Orontes and Marfyas •> a drong
city, and fituated in a peninfula, formed by the Oron¬
tes and‘a lake. “ It is here (fays Strabo) that the
Seleucidse had edabliflied the fchool and nurfery of
their cavalry.” The foil of the neighbourhood, abound¬
ing in padurage, fed no lefs than 30,000 mares, 300
dallions, and 500 elephants *, indead of which, the
marlhes of Famia at prefent fcarcely afford a few buf¬
faloes and (heep. To the veteran foldiers of Alexan¬
der, who here repofed after their viftories, have fuc-
ceeded wretched peafants, who live in perpetual dread
of the oppredions of the Turks and the inroads of the
Arabs. # .
Apamea was alfo the ancient name of Pel la, in the
Decapolis.
APANAGE, or AppennacIe, in the French cuf-
toms, lands afiigned by a fovereign for the fubfidence
of his younger fons, which revert to the crown upon
the failure of male iffue in that branch to which the
lands are granted.
APANOMIA, a town of Santorin, an ifland in the
Mediterranean fea, called in this part by fome the fea
of Candia. It has a fpacious harbour, in the form of a
half moon ; but the bottom is fo deep, that (hips can¬
not anchor there. E. Long. 25. 59. N. Lat. 36. 18.
APANTHROPY, in Medicine, denotes a love of
folitude, and averfion for the company of mankind.
Apanthropy is by fome reckoned among the fymptoms,
by others among'the fpecies or degrees of melancholy j
and alfo paffes for an ill indication in leucophlegmatic
cafes.
45+ 3 A P A c ,
APARINE, in Botany, a fynonyme cf the urticu-
laria and feveral other plants.
APARITHMESIS, in Rhetoric, denotes the an- _
fwer to the protafis or propofition itfelf. Thus, if the
protafis be, Appellandi tempus non erat.—The aparith-
mefis is, At tecum anno plus vixi.
APARTISMENUS, in the ancient poetry, an ap¬
pellation given to a verfe, which comprehended an en¬
tire fenfe or fentence in itfelf. This is fometimes alfo
written apartemenus, i. e. fufpended, as not needing
any following verfe.
APATHY, among the ancient philofphers, im¬
plied an utter privation of pafiion, and an infenfibility
of pain. The word is compounded of « priv. and
ajfeBion. The Stoics affeaed an entire apathy j
they confidered it as the higheft wifdom to enjoy a per-
fea calmnefs or tranquillity of mind, incapable of be¬
ing ruffled by either pleafure or pain. In the firft ages
of the church, the Chriftians adopted the term apathy,
to exprefs a contempt of all earthly concerns 5 a (late of
mortification, fuch as the gofpel prefcribes. Clemens
Alexandrinus, in particular, brought it exceedingly in
vogue ; thinking hereby to draw the philofophers to
Chriftianity, who afpired after fuch a fublime pitch of
virtue. Quietifm is only apathy difguifed under the
appearance of devotion.
APATURIA, in antiquity, a folemn feaft cele¬
brated by the Athenians in honour of Bacchus. The
word is ufually derived from ctTrccvn, fraud. It is (aid to
have been inftituted in memory of a fraudulent viftory
obtained by Melanthus, king of Athens, over Xanthus,
king of Bceotia, in a fingle combat, which they agreed
upon, to put an end to a debate between them relating
to the frontiers of their countries. Hence Budaeus
calls it fejlum deceptionis, “ the feaft of deceit.”
Other authors give a different etymology of this
feaft : They tell us, that the young Athenians were
not admitted into the tribes on the third day of the
apaturia, till their fathers had firft fworn that they
were their own children •, and that, till that time, they
were fuppofed, in fome meafure, to be without fathers,
•, whence the feaft, fay they, took its name.
Xenophon, on the other hand, informs us, that the re¬
lations and friends met on this occafion, and joined
with the fathers of the young people who were to be
received into the tribes j and that from this affembly
the feaft took its name : that in the as, far
from being a privative, being here a conjundlive, figni-
fies the fame thing with opu, together. I his feaft lafied
four days : the firft day, thofe of the fame tribe made
merry together j and this they called ^agw/aa. 1 he fe¬
cund day, which they called xvx^vo-is, they facrificed
to Jupiter and Minerva. The third day, which they
called *si§6*T<s, fuch of their young men and maids as
were of age were admitted into their tribes. The
fourth day they called tm/Zvs.
APAULIA, in antiquity, the third day of a mar¬
riage folemnity. It was thus called, becaufe the bride,
returning to her father’s houfe, did xTrxvhtfyirOxi ru
vv/xQhu, lodge apart from the bridegroom. Some will
have the apaulia to have been the fecond day of the
marriage, viz. that whereon the chief ceremony was
performed thus called by way of contradiftinftion
from the firft day, which was called tt^xv^ix. On
Aparine
li
Apaulia.
APE f 455 ] A P. E
Ape the day called ccn-xvhix (whenever that was), the bride
II prefented her bridegroom with a garment called uttxv-
, Apelles.. x*iTrig ICC.
APE, in Zoology, the general Engliih name of a
very numerous race of animals, the natural hiflory of
which is given at large under the article SlMlA j com¬
prehending Apes, properly fo called, or fuch as want
tails j and Monhys and Baboons, or fuch as have
tails, the former <ong, and the other Jhort, ones. See
Simia.
Sea Ape, a name given by Steller to a marine ani¬
mal which he faw on the coaft of America, and is thus
* Hijl. of defcribed *. “ The head appeared like that of a dog,
Kamtfchat- w1l1i (harp and upright ears, large eyes, and with both
P-13^ jjpS bearded : the body round and conoid ; the thickeft
part near the head : the tail forked ; the upper lobe
the longest: the body covered with thick hair, gray on
the back, reddilh on the belly. It feemed deftitute of
feet. It was extremely wanton, and played a multi¬
tude of monkey tricks. It fometimes fwam on one
fide, fometimes on the other fide of the fliip, and gazed
at it with great admiration. It made fo near an ap¬
proach to the veffel, as almoft to be touched with a
pole ; but if anybady moved, it inftantly retired. It
would often ftand ereft for a confiderable fpace, with
one-third of its body above water j then dart beneath
the Ihip, and appear on the other fide ; and repeat the
fame thirty times together. It would frequently arife
with a fea plant, not unlike the bottle gourd, tofs it
up, and catch it in its mouth, playing with it number-
lefs fantaflic tricks.
APELYTES, Chriftian heretics in the fecond cen¬
tury, who affirmed that Chrift received a body from
the four elements, which at his death he rendered back
to the world, and fo afcended into heaven without a
body.
APELLA, among phyficians, a name given to
thofe whofe prepuce is either wanting, or ffirunk, fo
that it can no longer cover the glans. Many authors
have fuppofed this fenfe of the word Apella warranted
from the paffage in Horace, credat Judceus Apella non
ego. But, according to Salmafius and others, Apella
is the proper name of a certain Jew, and not an adjec¬
tive fignifying circumcifed.
APELLES, one of the moft celebrated painters of
antiquity. He was born in the ifland of Cos, and flou-
riffied in the time of Alexander the Great, with whom
he was in high favour. He executed a pifture of this
prince, holding a thunderbolt in his hand : a piece,
finiffied with fo much Ikill and dexterity, that it ufed
to be faid there were two Alexanders ; one invincible,
the fon of Philip $ the other inimitable, the produc¬
tion of Apelles. Alexander gave him a remarkable
proof of his regard : for when he employed Apelles
to draw Campafpe, one of his miftreffes, having found
that he had conceived an affedtion for her, he refigned
her to him ; and it was from her that Apelles is faid to
have drawn his Venus Anadyomene.
_ One of Apelles’s chief excellencies was his making
his pidtures exadtly refemble the perfons reprefented ;
mfomuch that the phyfiognomifts are faid to have been
able to form a judgment of the perfon’s defiiny as
readily from his portraits as if they had feen the origi¬
nals. But what is called grace was the charadteriltic
of this artift. His pencil was fo famous for drawing
3
fine lines, that Protogenes difcovered by a Angle line Apelles,
that Apelles had been at his houfe. Protogenes lived —y—-
at Rhodes: Apelles failed thither, and went to his
houfe with great eagernefs to fee the works of an ar¬
tift who was known to him only by name. Protoge¬
nes was gone from home : but an old woman was left
watching a large piece of canvafs, which was fitted in
a frame for painting. She told Apelles that Protoge¬
nes was gone out 5 and alked him his name, that ffie
might inform her mafter who had inquired for him.
“ Tell him (fays Apelles) he was inquired for by
this perfon $”—at the fame time taking up a pen¬
cil, he drew on the canvafs a line of great delicacy.
When Protogenes returned, the old woman acquainted
him with what had happened. That artift, upon con¬
templating the fine ftroke of the line, immediately
pronounced that Apelles had been there-, for fo finiffi¬
ed a wTork could be produced by no other perfon. Pro¬
togenes, however, himfelf drew a finer line of another
colour : and, as he was going away, ordered the old
woman to ffiow that line to Apelles if he came again j
and to fay, “ This is the perfon for whom you are in¬
quiring.” Apelles returned, and faw the line : he
would not for ffiame be overcome $ and therefore, in a
colour different from either of the former, he drew
fome lines fo exquifitely delicate, that it was utterly
impoffible for finer ftrokes to be made. Protogenes
now confeffed the fuperiority of Apelles, flew to the
harbour in fearch of him, and refolved to leave the
canvafs with the lines on it for the aftoniffiment of fu¬
ture artifts.
Apelles ffiowed great liberality of mind towards Pro¬
togenes. With ideas enlarged by education and litera¬
ture, he was incapable of harbouring little jealoufies of
noble competitors j on the contrary, he was the firft
who made the works of Protogenes to be valued as
they deferved among the Rhodians. He acknowledged
that Protogenes was in fome refpefts fuperior to him¬
felf ; but that in one particular himfelf excelled, viz.
in knowing when to take his hand from the pifiure ;
an art which Protogenes had not yet learned, and
therefore over-worked his pieces. Apelles equally
difapproved of too elaborate diligence, or too hafty
negligence in execution. A ftudied work of Proto¬
genes he efteemed lefs on the one account j and on the
other, when a filly painter once brought him a pidlure,
and faid, “ This I painted in a hurry,”—he replied,
“ Though you had not told me fo, I perceived it was
painted in hafte : but I wonder you could not execute
more fuch pieces in the fame time.”
There are two ftories related of Apelles, which ffiow
him to be at once an artift of modefty, in amending
even trifling improprieties, when pointed out to him
by competent judges ; and yet of felf-confidence fuffi-
cient to make him know the perfection and value of his
own paintings. It was cuftomary with Apelles to ex-
pofe to public view the works which he had finiffied,
and to hide himfelf behind the picture, in order to hear
the remarks paffed on it by perfons who chanced to
view it. He once overheard himfelf blamed by a ffioe-
maker for a fault in the flippers of fome picture : he
corrected the fault which the man had noticed : but
on the day following the ffioemaker began to animad¬
vert on the leg; upon which Apelles with fome an¬
ger looked out from behind the canvafs, and bade him,
keep,
APE [ 45
Apelles keen to Me own province, “ Ne futor ultra crepidan, ”
‘ || It is well known that Alexander forbade any one behdes
Apenninus. ^p^Hes to paint his portrait. We are not, however,
  V  to conclude from this, that Alexander was a more
fkilful judge of painting than he was of poetry. Lik.e
Auguftus, he cherifhed the fine arts more from vanity
than tafte. A remarkable proof is given of this prince’s
inability to difcern merit, and of the painter’s freedom
in expreffing the mortification he felt, when a work ot
his was not fufficiently commended. “ Alexander (lays
iElian, lib. ii.c. 3. Var. Hift.) having viewed the pic¬
ture of himfelf which was at Ephefus, did not praiie it
as it deferved. But when a horle was brought in, and
neighed at feeing the figure of a horfe in the pitdure,
as though it had been a real horfe •, O king, (laid A-
• pelles) this horfe [corns to he by far a better judge^
painting than you:' It happened more than once that
the horfes drawn by him were miftaken for real ones,
bv living horfes which faw and neighed at the piflures.
In his fiuifhing n drawing of this animal, a remarkable
eircumftance is related of him. He had painted a horle
returning from battle, and had fucceeded to his wilhes
in defenbing every other mark that could indicate a
mettlefome Heed, impatient of reftraint ; there was
wanting nothing but a foam of a bloody hue iliumg
from the mouth. He again and again endeavoured to
exprefs this, but his attempts were unfuccefsful. At
lart, with vexation, he threw again!! the reins of the
horfe a fponge which had in it many colours; a mixture
of which coming out of the fponge, and tinging the
reins, produced the very effea defired by the painter.
The works of Apelles were all admired ; but the
moft celebrated were the pifture of Alexander in the
temple of Diana at Ephefus, and that of Venus emer¬
ging from the fea. Alexander was drawn with thun¬
der in his hand ; and fuch relief was produced by the
chiaro feuro in this piece, that the fingers feemed io
{hoot forward, and the thunderbolt to be out of the
piaure. His Venus was efteemed the moft
exquifite figure which the pencil could create : it is
therefore extolled by the Roman poets Propertius and
Ovid ; and the poet of Sidon, Antipater, has left us the
following Greek epigram on it :
Tesv avro fixli^os ct£lt B-xXxrlxg
Kvirgiv A-iriXXun po-gtoov o^ct,
dtx£go%ev vcicili x,xPtX)>
ErJX&H VoUgfilV X<p£OV X7T6 TTXtKXpm,
Avlxi VVV igiKTLV Afavxm T6 XXI HgJ)
“ Ovk ill <roi ".oDtpxs
Anth. iv. 12.
Graceful as from her natal fea (he fprings,
Venus, the labour of Apelles, view :
With prefling hand her humid locks (lie wrings,
. While from her treffes drips the frothy dew :
Ev’n Juno and Minerva now declare,
“ No longer we contend whofe form’s moft rare.
APENE, in antiquity, a kind of chariot wherein
the images of the gods were carried in proceffion on
certain days, attended with a folemn pomp, fongs,
hymns, dancing, &c. It was very rich, made feme-
times of ivory, or of filver itfelf, and vanoufly deco¬
rated.
APENNINUS, now the Apennines a mountain, or
6 ] APE
ridge of mountains, running through the middle of Apenrade
Italy, from north-weft to iouth-weft for 700 miles,
in the form of a crefcent (Phny) ; beginning at the
Alps in Liguria, or the Rivierra di Genoa -, and ter¬
minating at the ftrait of Mefifana, or at Reggio, and
the promonotry Leucopetra ; and feparating, as by a
back or ridge, the Adriatic from the iuican lea
(Pliny, Strabo, Ptolemy, Polybius, Vitruvius), This
mountain, though high, is greatly ftiort of the height
of the Alps. Us name is Celtic, figmfying a high
mountain. , . . , ,
APENRADE, a town of Denmark m the duchy
of Slefwick, feated at the bottom of a gulf in the
Baltic fea, between Flenfbourg.and Hadafchleben. It
is 25 miles north from Sltfwick. E. Long. 9. 28.
N. Eat. 55. 4- ,
APENZEL, a town of Switzerland, m the canton
of the fame name, feated on the river Chus, E Long,
n 1 N Eat. 47. 31. The canton itfelf, which was
allied to'the others in 1513, conftfts only of three or
four valleys; having the town and abbey of St Gall on
the north ; the county of Toggenburg on the weft ;
the lord (hip of Sax in the canton of Zurich and that
of Gambs in the canton of Schweitz, on the ieuth ;
and the Rheinthall, or Rhine-valley, on the eaft. Its
greateft length is about thirty miles, and its breadth
about twenty. It yields good pafturage, and confe-
quently is not deftitute of cattle, milk, butter, or cheefe.
Confiderable quantities alfo of wheat, rye, barley, oats,
beans, peafe, flax, and wine, are produced in it ; be-
" fides a great deal of fruit, wood, and turf ; with mi¬
neral waters, and warm baths. I here are many moun¬
tains in the canton, the higbeft of which is that called
the Hohefantis, or the Ho he Mefmer, which commands
a profpea. of a prodigious extent. There are alfo fe-
veral lakes and rivers. The inhabitants, who are
partly Proteftants, and partly Roman Catholics fubfift
chiefly by their manufaftures of linen, crape, fufiian,
and thread, or by bleaching, and the fale of their cat¬
tle, butter, cheefe, horfes, wood, and coal. Of the
twenty-three parifbes in the canton, four are Popifh,
and nineteen Proteftant. Before the Reformation, the
inhabitants were fuRjedl to the abbot of St Gall ; bu
they then {hook off" his yoke, and united themfelves
with the other cantons : after that, however, there were
violent animofities between the Papifts and I roteftants,
the former continually perfeculing the latter, till at
laft, in 1587, by the mediation of the other cantons,
the’two parties came to an accommodation, by which
certain diftri£ls were afligned to each party, whereas
before they lived promifeuoufly together: and though
thefe two divilions now conftitute but one canton, yet
each forms a diftind! community or free ftate, fending
its particular reprefentatives to the diets of the confe¬
deracy, and having its feparate councils and officers.
In fpirituals, the Papifts are fubjeft to the bifliop of
Conftance, but the Proteftants to their own conlntory.
The militia of the former does not exceed 30CO, where¬
as thofe of the latter amount to 10,000. >
APEPSIA, (from « negative, and Wl», to digejl).,
indigeftion. r• j*
Abftemioufnefs and excefs are alike caufes ot indi-
geftion. An over-diftenfion of the ftomach may in
fome meafure injure its proper tone ; and long faffing,
by inducing a bad quality in the juice? fecerned inta
t
A P H [ 457 1 A P H
Aper the ftomach, renders it feeble, and generates wind.
il Hard drinking, and any of the caufes of an anorexy,
Aphafia. ajf0 jnjure digeilion.
The columbo root is faid to be particularly ufeful
when the flomach is languid, the appetite defedlive,
digeftion with difficulty carried on, or when a naufea
with flatulency attends. It is prefcribed in fubftance,
with any grateful aromatic, or infufed in Madeira wine,
now and then interpoflng gentle dofes of the tindlure of
rhubarb.
A mixture of muftard feed with the columbo root is
of admirable utility in complaints of this kind ; parti¬
cularly where acidity and flatulence prevail much in
the primte vise.
A PER, in 'Zoology, a fynonyme of the fus fcrofa.
See Sus.
APERIENTS, in the Materia Medica, an appella¬
tion given to fuch medicines as facilitate the circulation
of the humours by removing obftrudlions. The five
aperient roots of the (hops are, fmallage, fennel, afpara-
gus, parfley, and butchers broom.
APERTURE,' the opening of any thing, or a hole
or cleft in any continuous objedt.
Aperture, in Geometry, thefpace between two right
lines which meet in a point and form an angle.
Aperture, in Optics, a round hole in a turned bit of
wood or plate of tin, placed within the fide of a tele-
fcope or microfcope, near to the objedt glafs, by means
of which more rays are admitted, and a more diltindl ap¬
pearance of the object is obtained.
JPERTURES, or Apertions, in ArchiteBurc, are ufed
to fignify doors, wundows, &c,
APETALOSE, or Apetalous, among botanifts,
an appellation given to fuch plants as have no flower
leaves.
APEX, the vertex or fummit of any thing.
Apex, in antiquity, the creft of a helmet, but more
efpecially a kind of cap worn by the flamens.
Apex, among grammarians, denotes the mark of a
long fyllable, falfely called a long accent.
APHACA, in Ancient Geography, the name of a
place in Syria, fituated between Heliopolis and Byblus,
near Lebanon ; infamous for a temple of Venus, called
Aphacetis, near which was a lake, round which fire
ufually burft forth, and its waters were fo heavy, that
bodies floated on them. The temple was deftroyed by
Conftantine, as being a fchool of incontinence, (Eu-
febius). The name is of Syriac origin, fignifying em^
braces.
APHiERESIS, in Grammar, a figure by which a
letter or fyllable is cut off from the beginning of a word.
Thus ciconia. by aphaerefis, is written conia ; contemnere,
temnere ; oniittere, mittere, <&’c
A like retrenchment at the end of a word is called
APOCOPE.
Apha:resis, in Medicine, denotes a neceffary taking
away or removal of fomething that is noxious.—In fur-
gery, it fignifies an operation whereby fomething fuper-
fluous is taken awray.
APHANES, Parsley root. See Botany Index.
APHASIA, (from ci, and Qwi, “ I fpeak,”) in the
fceptic philofophy, denotes a ffate of doubt, wherein
a perfon not knowing what to determine on, it is heft
for him to be filent. In this fenfe, aphafia (lands op-
Vol. II. Part II.
pofed to phajts, under which are included both affeition Aphek
and negation. If
APHEK, the name of feveral cities mentioned in
Scripture. I. Aphek, in the tribe of Judah, where the ^
Philiftines encamped when the ark was brought from
Shiloh, which was taken by them in battle, I Sam. iv.
i, 2, &c. It is thought to be the fame with Aphekah
mentioned in Jodi. xv. 53. 2. Aphek in the valley of
Jezreel, where the Phililtines encamped while Saul and
his army were near Jezreel, upon the mountains of Gil-
boa, Sam. xxix. 1, &c. 3. Aphek, a city belonging
to the tribe of Affier, near the country of the Sidoniansj
(Joffi. xix. 30. and xiii. 4.) 4. Aphek, a city of Syria,
one of the principal in Benhahad’s kingdom, near
which the battle was fought between Ahab and Benba-
dad, wherein the Syrians were worded 5 and whereof,
as they retreated with precipitation into the city, the
walls fell upon them, and cruffied in pieces 27,000
(1 Kings xx. 26. et feqf) This city lay between Heli¬
opolis and Byblus.
APHELIUM, or Aphelion, in Ajlronomy, is that
point in any planet’s orbit, in which it is fartheft diflant
from the fun, being that end of the greater axis of the
elliptical orbit of the planet mod remote from the focus
where the fun is.
APHIOM, Karahissart, a town of Natolia, in A-
fiatic Turkey j it is named Aphiom, becaufe it produces
a great deal of opium, called aphiom by the Turks.
E. Long. 32. 18. N. Lat. 38. 35.
APHIS, the Puceron, Vine-fretter, or Plant-
louse. See Entomology Index.
Linnaeus enumerates 33 fpecies of the aphis, all of
them inhabitants of particular plants, from which their
trivial names are taken ; as aphis ribi, ulmi, rofce, &c.
And he adds, that there feems to be a greater va¬
riety of plants producing aphides than there are dif¬
ferent forts of this infedi. But fome late obfervers have
been able to didinguiffi more than double the above
number of fpecies ; and it is probable that many more
remain dill to be added, as many of the fame kind of
plants are found to fupport two or three quite different
forts of aphides. Thus the plum tree has two forts
very diflindl from each other; one of a yellowiffi green,
with a round ffiort body ; the other of a bluifli green,
as it were enamelled with white, and the ffiape more
oblong. On the goofeberry buflr and currant the fame
aphides may be found •, but each of thefe is inhabited
by two very different fpecies : the one being of a du(ky
green, with a (hort plump body ; the other of paler
green, the body more taper, and tranfverfely wrink¬
led. The rofe tree, again, fupports not lefs than three
diflindl fpecies : the larged is of a deep green, having
long legs of a brownifli cad, with the joints of a very
dark brown, as alfo are the horns and antennae j a fe-
cond fort is of a paler green, has much fliorter legs, and
a more flat body ; the third fort is of a pale red, its
body tranfverfely wrinkled, and is mod frequently on
the fweet-briar.
The - extraordinary nature of thefe infe£ls has for
fome time pad juffly excited the wonder and atten¬
tion of naturalifls. They were long ranked among
the animals which had been claffed with the true an-
drogynes fpoken of by Mr Breynius ; for having never
been catched copulating, it was haflily concluded that
3 M they
A P H
[ 458 ]
A P H
Aphis.
they multiplied without copulation. This, however,
was but a doubt, or at belt a mere furmife : but this
furmife was believed and adopted by Mr Reaumur.; and
though he fupported it by fome obfervations peculiar to
himfelf, the queftion remained ftill undecided, till Mr
Bonnet feemed to have cleared it up in the affirmative,
by taking and limiting up a young aphis at the inflant
of its birth, in the moft perfect folitude, which yet
brought forth in his fight 95 young ones. The fame,
experiment being made on one of the individuals of
this family, that had been tried with its chief, the
new hermit foon multiplied like its parent; and one of
this third generation, in like manner brought up^in
folitude, proved no lefs fruitful than the former. Re¬
peated experiments, in this refpecl, as far as the fifth
or fixth generation, all uniformly prefenting the obfer-
ver with fecund virgins, were communicated to the
Royal Academy of Sciences ; when an unforefeen and
very llrange fufpicion, imparted by Mr Trembley to Mr
Bonnet engaged him anew in a feries of ftill more
painful experiments than the foregoing. In a letter
•which that celebrated obferver wrote to him from the
Hague, the 27th January 1741, he thus expreffes him¬
felf : 44 X formed, fince the month of November, the
defign of rearing feveral generations of folitary puce-
ronsq in order to fee if they would all equally, bring
forth young. In cafes to remote from umal circum-
ftances, it is allowed to try all forts of means ; and I
argued with myfelf, Who knows but that one copula¬
tion might ferve for feveral generations ?” This “ who
knows f to be fure, was next to avouching nothing ;
but as it came from Mr Trembley, it was fufficient to
perfuade Mr Bonnet that he had not gone far enough
in his inveftigation. If the fecundity of aphides was
owing to the fecret copulation fuggefted by Mr Trem¬
bley; this copulation ferved at leaft five or more iuccei-
five generations. Mr Bonnet therefore reared to. the
amount of the tenth generation of folitary aphides,
and had the patience to keep an account of the days
and hours of the births of each generation. In ffiort
it was difeovered. That they are really diftinguiffied by
fexes: That there are males and females amongft them,
whofe amours are the leaft equivocal of any in the
world : that the males are produced only in the tenth
generation, and are but few in number: that thefe,
foon arriving at their full growth, copulate with the
females : that the virtue of this copulation ferves for
ten generations : that all thefe generations, except
the firft, (from the fecundated eggs), are produced vi¬
viparous ; and all the individuals are females, except
thofe of the laft generation, among whom, as we have
already obferved, fome males make their appearance
to lay the foundation of a freffi feries.—Thefe circum-
ftances have been confirmed by other naturalifts. In
particular we have a curious and accurate detail of
them by Dr Richardfon of Rippon, in the Philofophi-
cal Tranfa&ions, vol. xi. art. 22. an extraft of which
we ffial! here infert, in order to give the reader as full
an infight into the nature of thefe Angular infe&s, as
can be done by a mere detail of faffs in themfelves ut¬
terly unaccountable.
“ The great variety of fpecies which occur in the
infefls now under confideration, may make an inquiry
into their particular nature feem not a little perplexed ;
having them, however, fkilfully reduced under their pro¬
per genus, the difficulty is by this means confiderably
diminilhed. All the infefls comprehended under any
diftinft genus, we may reafonably.fuppofe to partake
of one general nature ; and, by diligently examining
any of the particular tpecies, may thence gain fome.in¬
fight into the nature of all the reft. With this view
I%ave chofen, out of the various forts of aphides, the
largeft of thofe found on the rede tree; not only as its
fize makes it the more confpicuous, but as there are
few others of fo long a duration. This fort appearing
early in the fpring, continues late in the autumn; while
feveral are limited to a much fhorter term, in conformi¬
ty to the different trees and plants from whence they
draw their nouriffiment.
If at the beginning of February the weather
Aphis.
happens to be fo warm as to make the buds of the rofe
tree fwell and appear green; fmall aphides are frequent¬
ly to be found upon them, not larger than the young
ones in fummer when firft produced. But there being
no old ones to be found at this time of the year, which
in fummer I had obferved to be viviparous, I was for¬
merly not a little perplexed by fuch appearances, and
almoft induced to give credit to the old dodlrine of
equivocal generation. 1 hat the fame kind of animal
ffiould at one time of the year be viviparous, and at
another time oviparous, was an opinion I could then by
no means entertain. i. his, however, frequent obierva-
tion has at laft convinced me to be fa ft ; having found
thofe aphides which appear early in the fpring, to pro¬
ceed from fmall black oval eggs, which were depofited
on the laft year’s ffioots in autumn ; though when it
happens that the iniefts make too early an appearance,,
I have obferved the greateft part to fuffer from the ffiarp
weather that ufually fucceeds, by which means the rofe
trees are fome years in a manner freed from them.
“ Thofe which withftand the feverity of the weather
feldom come to their full growth before the month of
April; at which time they ufually begin to breed,, af¬
ter twice calling off their exuviae or outward covering.
It appears then that they aim all females, which pro¬
duce each of them a very numerous progeny, and that
without having intercourfe with any male infeft. As
I obferved before, they are viviparous; and what is
equally uncommon, the young ones all come into the
world backwards. When they firft come from the pa¬
rent they are enveloped by a thin membrane, having
in this fituation the appearance of an oval egg ; which,
I apprehend, muft have induced Reaumur to fufpeft
that the eggs difeovered by Bonnet were nothing more
than mere abortions. Thefe egg-like appearances ad¬
here by one extremity to the mother ; while the young
ones contained in them extend the other; by that
means gradually drawing the ruptured membrane over
the head and body to the hind feet. During this ope¬
ration, and for fome time after, by means ot lome-
thing glutinous, the fore part of the head adheres to
the vent of the parent. Being thus fufpended in the
air, it foon frees itfelf from the membrane in which it
was confined, and after its limbs are a little ftrenglhen-
ed, is fet down on fome tender {hoot, and then ieit to
provide for itfelf.
2. “ In the fpring months, there appear on the rofe
trees but two generations of aphides, including thofe
which immediately proceed from the lafr year’s eggs y
the warmth of the fummer adds fo much to their, ferti¬
lity.
A PH [4:
lity, that no lefs than five generations fucceed one ano¬
ther in the interval. One is produced in May, which
cafts off its coverings while the months of June and
July each fupply two more, which caft off their coverings
three or four times, according to the different warmth
of the feafon. The frequent change of the outward co¬
vering is the more extraordinary, as it is the oftenelt re¬
peated when the infecls come the fooneft to their growth •,
which I have foOietimes obferved to happen in ten days,
where warmth and plenty of nourifhment have mutually
confpired. From which confiderations I am thoroughly
convinced that tbefe varioas coverings are not connate
with the infeft-, but that they are, like the fcarf fkin,
fucceffively produced.
“ Early in the month of June, feme of the third ge¬
neration which were produced about the middle of May,
after cafting off their laft covering, difeover four eredf
wings, much longer than their bodies ; and the fame is
obfervable in all the fucceeding generations, which are
produced during the fummer months j without, however,
diflinguifhing any diverfity of fex, as is ufual in feveral
other kinds of infefts. For fome time before the aphides
come to their full growth, it is eafy to difeover which of
them will have wings, by a remarkable fulnefs of the
breaft, which, in the others, is hardly to be diftinguith-
ed from the body. When the laft covering is rejedfted,
the wings, which were before folded up in a very narrow
compafs, gradually extend themfelves in a moft furpri-
fing manner, till their dimenfions are at laft very con-
fiderable. But thefe winged ones have the peculiarity,
that the number of them does not feem fo much to de¬
pend on their original ftrufture, ss on the quantity or
quality of the nourifhment with which they are fup-
plied; it being frequently obferved, that thofe on a
fucculent fhoot have few or none with wings among
them, while others of the fame generation, on a lefs
tender branch, are moft of them winged ; as if only
the firft rudiments of wings were compofed in the for¬
mer, while nature thought proper to expand them in
the latter, that they might be more at liberty to fupply
their wants.
“ The increafe of thefe infers in the furmr.er time
is fo very great, that, by wounding and exhaufting the
tender fhoots, they would frequently fupprefs all vege¬
tation, had they not many enemies which restrain them.
To enumerate the variety of other infers that in their
worm and fly ftate are conftantly deftroying them,
would exceed the bounds of the prefent defign : there
is one, however, fo fingular in the manner of executing
its purpofe, that I cannot pafs by it without fome fur¬
ther notice. This is a very fraall black inchneumon
fly, with a flender body and very long antennae, which
darts its pointed tail into the bodies of the aphides, at
the fame time depofiting an egg in each. This egg
produces a worm, which feeds upon the containing in-
fe6l till it attains its full growth ; when it is ufual-
ly changed to that kind of ily from whence it came.
In this, however, it is fometimes prevented by ano¬
ther fort of fmall black fly, which wounds this worm
through its pearl-iike habitation $ and by laying one
of its eggs therein, in (lead of the former fly, produces
its own likenefs. I muft, however, further obferve,
notwithftanding thefe infers have many enemies, they
are not without friends; if we may confider thole as
fuch who are very officious in their attendance, for the
9 ] A P H
good things they expeeft to reap thereby. I he ant
and the bee are both of this kind, colledting the honey
in which the aphides abound : but with this difference,
that the ants are conftant vifitors, the bee only when
flowers are fcarce. To which let me ailo add, that the
ants will fuck in the delicious netlar while the aphides
are in the a£t of difebarging it from the anus *, but the
bees only colled it from the leaves on which this honey
dew has fallen.
3. “ In the autumn I find three more generations of
aphides to be produced 5 two of which make their ap¬
pearance in the month of Auguft, and the third ufual-
ly appears before the middle of September. As the two
firft differ in no relped from thofe which we meet with
in fummer, it would be wafting time to dwell any long¬
er upon them 5 but the third differing greatly from all
the reft, demands our giving it a more ferious atten¬
tion. Though all the aphides which have hitherto ap¬
peared were females, in this tenth generation are found
leveral male inteds } not that they are by any means fo
numerous as the females, being only produced by a Iraall
number of the former generation. To which I muft
further add, that I have obferved thofe which produ¬
ced males, previoufly to have produced a number of
females; which in all refpeds refembling thofe already
deferibed, I ftiall decline taking into any further con-
fideration.
“ The females have at firft altogether the fame ap¬
pearance with thofe of the former generations; but
in a few days their colour changes from a green to a
yellow, which is gradually converted into an orange
colour before they come to their full grorvth. They
differ likewife in another refped, at leaft from thofe
which occur in the fummer, that all thofe yellow fe¬
males are without wings. The male infeds are, how¬
ever, ftill more remarkable •, their outward appearance
readily diftinguiftring them from the females of this and
of all other generations. When firft produced, they
*re not of a green colour like the reft, but of a red--
difti brown j and have afterwards, when they begin
to thicken about the breaft, a dark line along the mid¬
dle of the back. Thefe male infeds come to their full
growth in about three weeks time, and then caft off
their laft covering ; the whole infed being, after this
operation, of a bright yellow colour, the wings only-
excepted. But after this they foon change to a darker
yellow ; and in a few hours to a very dark brown ; if
we except the body, which is fomething lighter colour¬
ed, and has a reddilh caft. They are all of the winged
fort ; and the wings, which are white at firft, foon be¬
come tranfparent, and at length appear like very fine
black gauze.
“ The males no fooner come to maturity than they
copulate with the females ; in which ad they are rea¬
dily difeovered, as they remain in conjundion for a
confiderable time, and are not eafily difturbed. The
commerce between them continues the whole month of
Odober, and may be obferved at all times of the day,
though I have found it moft frequent about noon;
efpecially when the weather is moderately warm, and
the fun overcaft. The females, in a day or two after
their intercourfe with the males, I have obferved to
lay their eggs; which they ufuaily do near the buds,
when they are left to their own choice. Where there
are a number crowded together, they of courfc inter-
3M2 fere.
A P H [460
Aphis fere with each other: in which cafe they will frequent-
!1 ly depolite their eggs on other parts of the branches, or
Aphrodifia- even on the fpines with which they are befet.”
> qq)efe Jnfefts are found in great numbers not only on
the Items and leaves, but even upon roots of many trees
and plants. Thofe trees that are moft loaded with the
.infefts, as already obferved, fuffer greatly from them.
The plant-lice thruft their fharp-pointed roftrum into the
fubftance of the leaf to draw out their fuftenance, which
warps the items and leaves, and occaiions in the latter
cavities underneath, and fwellings above ; nay, even in
fome, a kind of hollow gall filled with.infedts, as is of¬
ten feen on elm leaves.
It appears aitoniihing that the llight puncture of fo
fmall an animal ihould fo greatly disfigure a plant j
but it muft be remembered, that plant-lice always live
in numerous afibciations, which increafe vifibly by the
prodigious fruitfulnefs of thofe infects j fo that although
each puncture be flight, yet the number of them is fo
great, fo reiterated, that it is no longer a wonder the
leaves fhould be disfigured. Lovers of gardening and
plants are.extremely anxious to free and cleanfe their
trees from this vermine ; but their care often proves
unavailing, the infect is fo fruitful that it foon produ¬
ces a frefh colony. The belt and furelt method of ex¬
tirpating it is to put on the trees infefted with them
fome larvae of the plant-loufe lion, or aphidivorous flies ;
for thofe voracious larvae deftroy every day a great
number of the infects, and that with fo much the more
facility, as the latter remain quiet and motionlefs in the
neighbourhood of thofe dangerous enemies, who range
over heaps of plant-lice, which they gradually walte and
diminifh.
APHL ASTUM, in the ancient navigation, a wood¬
en ornament, (haped like a plume of feathers, faflened
on the goofe’s or fwan’s neck ufed by the ancient
Greeks in the heads of their ftiips. The aphlafium had
much the fame office and effect in a fliip that the creft
had on the helmet. It feems alfo to have had this fur¬
ther ufe, viz. by the waving of a party-coloured ribband
fattened to it, to indicate from what quarter the wind
blew.
APHONIA, among pbyficians, fignifies-a fuppref-
fion or total lofs of voice. It is never a primary difeafe *,
but a confequence of many different diforders. The
cure is to be effefled by removing the diforder from
whence the aphonia proceeds.
APHORISM, a maxim or principle of a fcience j
or a fentence which comprehends a great deal in a few
words. The word comes from I feparate;
q. d. a choice or fele£t fentence. The term is chiefly
ufed in medicine and law. We fay the aphorifms of
Hippocrates, of Sanflorius, of Boerhaave, &c. apho¬
rifms of the civil law, &c. ,
APHRACTI, in the ancient military art, denotes
• open veffels, without decks or hatches, furniffied only at
head and ftern with crofs planks, whereon the men flood
to fight.
APHRODISIA, in antiquity, feftivals kept in ho¬
nour of Venus, the moft remarkable of which was that
celebrated by the Cyprians. At this folemnity feveral
myfterious rites were praftifed : all who were initiated
to them offered a piece of money to Venus as a har¬
lot, and received as a token of the goddefs’s favour a
xneafure of fait, and a j the former, becaufe fait
] API
is a concretion of fea water, to which Venus was thought
to owe her birth ; the latter, becaufe flie was the god-
defs of wantonnefs. _ # ■
APHRODISIACS, among phyficians, medicines u
which were fuppoled to increafe the quantity of femen,
and create an inclination to venery.
APHRODITA. See Helminthology Index.
APHRODITE, in Mythology, a name of Venus,
derived from mQqo; froth; becaufe, according to the
poets, Venus is fuppofed to have been produced from
the froth or foam ot the fea.
APHRONITRE, in Natural Hifory, a name given
by the ancients to a particular kind ol natrum.
^ APHTHAL, in Medicine, fmall, round, and fuper-
fieial ulcers arifing in the mouth. See MEDICINE
Index.
APHTHARTODOCETAE, a fe£l, fworn ene¬
mies of the council of Chalcedon. The word is deri¬
ved from ct<p6x^T»?, incorruptible, and tox-iu, I imagine ;
and was given them, becaufe they imagined the body
of Jefus Chrift was incorruptible and impaffible, and not
capable of death. They arofe among the Eutychians,
and made their appearance in the year 535*
APHYLLANTHES, Leafless Flower, or
Blue Montpelier pink. See Botany Index.
APIARY, a place where bees are kept. Seethe
article Bee.
A PI ASTER, in Ornithology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of the merops. See Merops, Ornithology
Index.
APICES, in Botany, the fame with Anthers.
APICIUS. There were at Rome three of that
name, famous for their gluttony. I he fecond is the
moft celebrated of the three, tie lived under Tiberius,
fpent immenfe fums on his belly, and invented divers
forts of cakes which bore his name. He kept as it were
a fchool of gluttony at Rome. After having fpent two
millions and a half in entertainments, finding himfelf
very much in debt, he examined into the ftate of hi#
affairs ; and feeing that he had but 250,000 livres re¬
maining, be poifoned himfelf, out of apprehenfion of
ftarving with fuch a fum. He had proftitufed himfelf
when very young to Sejanus.
APINA, or Apince, a town of Apulia, built by Dio¬
mede*, as was alfo Tricas (Pliny). Apince and Tncce
is a proverbial faying for things trifling and of no value
(Martial) ; and Apinarii was the appellation for triflers
or buffoons, (Trebellius Pollio).
APION, a famous grammarian, born in Egypt, was
a profeffor at Rome in the reign of Tiberius. He had
all the arrogance of a mere pedant, and amufed himfelf
with difficult and infignificant inquiries. One of his
principal works are his Antiquities of Egypt.
APIS, in Mythology, a divinity worftupped by the.
ancient Egyptians at Memphis. It was an ox, having
certain exterior marks; in which animal the foul of the
great Ofiris was fuppofed to fubfift. The animal had
the preference to all others, as being the fymbol of a-
griculture, the improvement of which that prince had
fo much at heart.
According to feveral learned writers on-the Egyp¬
tian religion, Apis was only a fymbolical deity. “ A--
mongft the animals confecrated to ancient rites (fays
Ammianus Marcellinus), Mnevisand Apis are the moft
celebrated ; the firft is an emblem of the fun, the fe¬
cond
Aphrodi-
fiacs
I):
Apis.
API [ 461 1 API
Cond of the moon.” Porphyry tells us, that Apis bore
the chara&eriftic figns of the two ftars j and Macrobius,
who confirms this opinion, adds, that he ^as equally
confecrated to them both.
This bull, become the object of public adoration, it
snay be fuppofed, could not be born like other animals j
accordingly the priefts publilhed that his origin was
celeftial. “ An Apis is feldom born, (fays Pomponius
Mela.) He is not produced by the ordinary laws of
generation. The Egyptians fay he owes his birth to
celeilial fire.” Plutarch explains this paffage : “ The
priefts pretend that the moon diffufes a generative in¬
fluence, and as foon as a cow who takes the bull is
ftruck by it, (he conceives an Apis. Accordingly we
difcover in him the figns of that ftar.”
Such were the fables induftrioully fpread by thofe
who prefided over the divine inftitutions. The vulgar,
to whom this emblematical deity prefaged abundance,
received them eagerly, and implicitly believed them.
Pliny has defcribed the characters which diftinguifhed
this facred bull : “ A white fpot, refembling a cref-
cent, on the right fide, and a lump under the tongue,
were the difiinguiftiing marks of Apis.” When a cow,
therefore, which was thought to be ftruck with the
rays of the moon, produced a Calf, the facred guides
went to examine it, and if they found it conformable to
this defcription, they announced to the people the birth
of Apis, and fecundity.
“ Immediately (fays Htdian) they built a temple to
the new god, facing the riling fun, according to the
precepts of Mercury, where they noilriflied him with
milk for four months. This term expired, the priefte
repaired in pomp to his habitation, and faluted him by
the name of Apis. They then placed him in a veffel
magnificently decorated, covered with rich tapeftry,
and refplendent with gold, and conduced him to Nilo-
polis, finging hymns, and burning perfumes. There
they kept him for forty days. During this fpace of
time, women alone had permiflion to fee him, and fa-
luted him in a particular manner. After the inaugu¬
ration of the god, in this city, he was conveyed to
Memphis with the fame retinue, followed by an innu¬
merable quantity of boats fumptuoufly decked out.
There they completed the ceremonies of his inaugura¬
tion, and he became facred to all the world. Apis was
fuperbly lodged, and the place where he lay was my-
ftically called the bed. Strabo having vifited his pa¬
lace, thus defcribes it : “ The edifice where Apis is
kept, is fituated near the temple of Vulcan. He is fed
in a facred apartment, before which is a large court.
The boufe in which they keep the cow that produced
him, occupies one of its (ides. Sometimes, to fatisfy
the curiofity of ftrangers, they make him go out into
this court. One may fee him at all times through a
window 5 but the priefts produce him alfo to public
view.” Once a year (fays Solinus) they prefent a hei¬
fer to him, and the fame day they kill her.
A bull, born in fo marvellous a manner, muft be
poffefled of fupernatural knowledge. Accordingly the
priefts pubiifhed, that he predi6ted future events by
geftures, by motions, and other ways, which they con-
ftrued according to their fancy. “ Apis (fays Pliny)
has two temples called Beds, which ferved as an augury
for the people. When they come to confult him, if
he enters into a particular one, it is a favourable pre-
fage, and fatal if he pafles into the other. He gives
anfwers to individuals by taking food from their hands.
He refufed that offered him by Germanicus, who died
foon after.” It v-ould be unjuft to conclude, that this
refpedable writer gave credit to fuch auguries. He
relates the opinion of the Egyptians, and contents
himfelf with citing fails without offering his judge¬
ment.
Such was the inftallation of Apis. His anniverfary
was always celebrated for feven days. The people af-
fembled to offer facrifices to him, and what is extraor¬
dinary, oxen were immolated on the occafion. This
folemnity did not pafs without prodigies. Ammianus
Marcellinus, who has collected the teftimonies of the
ancients, relates them in thefe vmrds : “ During the
feven days in which the preifts of Memphis celebrate
the birth of Apis, the crocodiles forget their natural fe¬
rocity, become gentle, and do no harm to anybody.”
This bull, how'ever, fo honoured, muft not exceed
a myfterious term fixed for his life. “ Apis (fays
Pliny) cannot live beyond a certain number of years.
When he has attained that period they drown him in
the fountain of the priefts •, for it is not permitted,
adds Ammianus Marcellinus, to let him prolong his
life beyond the period prefcribed for him by the facred
books.” When this event happened, he was embalm¬
ed, and privately let down into the fubterraneous places
deftined for that purpofe. In this circumftance, the
priefts announced that Apis had difappeared ; but when
he died a natural death, before this period arrived, they
proclaimed his death, and folemnly conveyed his body
to the temple of Serapis.
“ At Memphis was an ancient temple of Serapis
which ftrangers were forbidden to approach, and where
the priefts themfelves only entered when Apis was in¬
terred. It was then (fays Plutarch) that they opened
the gates called Lethe and Cocythe (of oblivion and la¬
mentation), which made a harfh and piercing found.”
Ammianus Marcellinus, and Solinus, paint with great
energy the general defpair of the Egyptians, who with
cries and lamentations demanded another Apis from
heaven.
According to Plutarch, the term prefcribed for the
life of Apis was 25 years ; which number marked a
period of the fun and of the moon, and- the bull was
confecrated to thefe two bodies. Syncellfils, in his
Chronography, when he comes down to the 3 2d Pha¬
raoh, called Afeth, fays, “ before Afetb, the folar year
confided of 360 days. This prince added five to com¬
plete its courfe. In his reign a calf was placed amongft
the gods, and named Apis” And in the Bibliotheca
of Fabricius we have the following paffage : “ It was
cuftomary to inaugurate the kings of Egypt at Mem¬
phis, in the temple of Apis. They were here firft ini¬
tiated in the myfteries, and were, religioufly invefted ;
after which they w'ere permitted to bear the yoke of
the god through a town to a place called the SanBuary,
the entrance of which was prohibited to the profane;
There they were obliged to fwear that they would nei¬
ther infert months nor days in the year, and that it
(hould remain compofed of 365 days, as had been efta-
blifhed by the ancients.” From thefe fa6E, Mr Sava-
ry, in his letters on Egypt, infers, that Apis was the
tutelar divinity of the new form given to the folar
year, and of the cycle of 25 years, difcovered at the
fams
A P O [ 4'5
Apt* fame time. This deity, befides, had a marked lela-
I! lation to the fwelling of the Nile, as is teftified by a great
Apobate- nulnber of hiftorians. The new moon which followed
, ncn- : the fummer folftice, was the era of this phenomenon,
on which the eyes of every body AVere fixed : And
Pliny fpeaks as follows on this fubjedt: “ Anis had on
his right fide a white mark, reprefenting the crefcent.
This mark (continues /Elian) indicated the commence¬
ment of the inundation.” If Apis poffefied the cha-
radteriftip figns which proved his divine origin, he
promifed fertility and abundance of the fruits of the
earth. It feems demonftrated, therefore, Mr Savary
adds, that this facred.bull, the guardian of the folar
year of 365 days, svas alfo regarded as the genius who
prefided over the overflowing of the river. I he priefis
by fixing the courfe of his life to 25 years, and by ma¬
king the inftallation of a new Apis concur with the
renewal of the period above mentioned, had probaoly
perceived, as the refult of long meteorological obferva-
tions, that this revolution always brought about abun¬
dant feafons. Nothing was better calculated to pro¬
cure a favourable reception of this emblematical deity
from the people, fince his birth was a prefage to them
of a happy inundation, and of all the treafures of teem¬
ing nature-.
The folemnity of his inauguration was called Appa¬
rition. That which was renewed every year towards
the 12th or 13th of the month Payn, which corre-
fponds with the 17th or 18th of June, rvas called the
birth of Apis. It was a time of rejoicing, which /Elian
defcribes in the following manner : “ What feftivals !
what facrifices take place in Egypt at the commence¬
ment of the inundation ! It is then that all the people
celebrate the birth of Apis. It would be tedious to
defcribe the dances, the rejoicings, the fhows, the ban¬
quets, to which the Egyptians abandon themfelyes on
this occafion, and impoffible to exprefs the intoxication
of joy which breaks forth in all the towns of the king¬
dom.”
Thefc obvervations Mr Savary thinks further con¬
firmed by the name of this refpeftable bull-, Apts, in
the Egyptian tongue, fignifying number, meafurs.
This epithet perfectly characterizes an animal efta-
bliflied as the guardian of the folar year, the type of
the cycle of 25 years, and the prefage of a favourable
inundation.
Monfieur Huet, bifliop of Avranches, has endea¬
voured to prove that Apis was a fymbolical image of
the patriarch Jofeph, and has fupported his opinion
with all his erudition. Dr Bryant apprehends that the
name of Apis was an Egyptian term for a father j that
it referred to the patriarch Noah •, and that the cref¬
cent which was ufually marked on the fide of the ani¬
mal, was a reprefentation of the ark.
Apis, or Bee. See Entomology Indete, and Bee.
APIUM, Parsley. See Botany Index.
APIVOROUS, in Ornithology, a fyncnyme of a fpe-
cies of falco. See Falco, Ornithology Index.
APLUDA. See Botany Index.
APOBATANA, the metropolis of Media, and
where the kings kept their treafure (Ifiodorus Chara-
cenus) ; fuppofed to be the fame with F.cbatana.
APOBATERION, in antiquity, a valedictory
fpeech or poem made by a perfon on departing out of
1
A P O
his own country, and addrefled to his friends or rela- Apobathraj
tlons*
APOBATHRA, a place near Seftos (Strabo) ;   
the landing place where Xerxes’s fhips were frozen and
ftuek in the ice (Eiiftatbius).
APOCALYPSE, Revelation, the name of one
of the facred books of the New 'Teflament, containing
revelations concerning feveral important doduines v.
Chriftiamty. I he word is Green, anci derived iicm
ot’TsoYM'Kwxxu, to reveal or difcovet.
This book, according to Irenaeus, was written a-
bout the year 96 ^ Chrifl, in the ifland of Patinos,
whither St John had been baniflied by the emperor
Domitian. But Sir Ifaac Newton places the writing
of it earlier, viz. in the time of Nero. Some attri¬
bute this book to the arch-heretic Cerinthus : but the
ancients unanimoufly afcribed it to John, the fon of
Ztbedee, and brother of James *, whom the Greek fa¬
thers called the Divine, by way of eminence, to diftin-
guifh him from the other evangelifts. This book has
not, at all times, been elteemed canonical. There
were many churches in Greece, as St Jerome informs
us, which did not receive it : neither is it in the cata-
logue of canonical books prepared by the council of
Laodicea, nor in that of St Cyril of Jerufalem : but
Juftin, Irenaeus, Origen, Cyprian, Clemens of Alex¬
andria, Tertullian, and all the fathers of the fouitu,
fifth, and the following centuries, quote the Reyela-
tion as a book then acknowledged to be canonical.
The Alogians, Marcionites, Cerdonians, and Luther
himfelf, rejected this book : but the Proteflants have
forfaken Luther in this particular and Beza has
ftrongly maintained againft his objections, that the A-
pocalypfe is authentic and canonical.
The Apocalypfe confifts of twenty-two chapters.
The three firft are an inftru&ion to the bifliops of the
feven churches of Afia Minor. The fifteen following
chapters contain the perfecutions which the church was
to fuffer from the Jews, heretics, and Roman empe¬
rors. Next St John prophefies of the vengeance of
God, which he will exercife againft thole perfecutors,
aoainft the Roman empire, and the city of Rome }
which, as the Proteftants fuppofe, he defcribes under
the name of Babylon the great whore, feated upon
feven hills. In the laft place, the 19th, 2Cth, 2lft, and
22d chapters, defcribe the triumph of the church over
its enemies, the marriage of the Lamb, and the happi-
nefs of the church triumphant.
“ It is a part of this prophecy (fays Sir Ifaac New¬
ton), that it fliould not be underftood before the laft.age
of the world } and therefore it makes for the credit of
the prophecy, that it is not yet underftood. The folly
of interpreters has been to foretel times and things
by this prophecy, as if God defigned to make them
prophets. By this ralhnefs they have not only expofed
themfelves, but brought the prophecy alfo into con¬
tempt. The defign of God was much otherwife : He
gave this and the prophecies of the Old Leftament,
not to gratify men’s curiofities, by enabling them to
foreknow things j but that, after they were fulfilled,
they might be interpreted by the events $ and his own
providence, not the interpreters, be then manifefted
thereby to the world. And there is already fo much
of the prophecy fulfilled, that as many as will take
pains
Apoca-
lypfe.
A P O [ 463 J A P O
Apocope pains in this ftudy, may fee fufficient inftances of God’s
|| providence.
Apecrypha. There have been feveral other works publithed un-
"* der the title of Apoca/ypfes. Sozomen mentions a
book ufed in the churches of Paleftine, called the A-
pocahjpfe or Revelation of St Peter. He alfo men¬
tions an Apocalypfe of St Paul : which the Coph-
tae retain to this day. Eufebius alfo fpeaks of both
thefe Apocalypfes. St Epiphanius mentions an Apo¬
calypfe of Adam ; Nicephorus, an Apocalypfe of Ef-
dras : Gratian and Cedrenus, an Apocalypfe of Mofes,
another of St Thomas, and another of St Stephen ;
St Jerome, an Apocalypfe of Elias. Porphyry, in his
life of Plotin, makes mention of the Apocalypfe or Re¬
velations of Zoroaiter, Zoftrian, Nicothaeus, Allogenes,
&c.
APOCOPE, among grammarians, a figure which
cuts off a letter or fyllable from the end of a word j as
ingeni for ingenii.
APOCRIS ARIUS, in eeclefiaftical antiquity, a fort
of refident in an imperial city, in the name of a foreign
church or bifhop, whofe office was to negotiate, as proc¬
tor at the emperor’s court, in all eeclefiaftical caufes in
which his principals might be concerned. The infti-
tution of the office feems to have been in the time of
Conftantine, or not long after, when, the emperors
being become Chriffians, foreign churches bad more
occafions to promote their fuits at court than formerly..
However, we find it eftabliftied by law in the time of
Juftinian. In imitation of this officer, almoft every
monaftery had its Apocrifarius, or refident, in the impe¬
rial city.
The title and quality of Apocrifary became at length
appropriated to the pope’s agent, or nuncio, as he is now
called ; who refided at Conftantinople, to receive the
pope’s defpatches, and the emperor’s anfvvers. The
word is formed from a.TvoKfi'iui, to anfwer.
APOCRUSTICS, in Medicine, the fame with re¬
pellents.
APOCRYPHA,or Apocryphal Books, fuch books
as are not admitted into the canon of Scripture, being
either not acknowledged as divine, or confidered as fpu-
rious. The word is Greek ; and derived from x^ro,
and kqv'xtu, to Jude or conceal.
When the Jews publiflied their facred books, they
gave the appellations of canonical and divine onlv to
fuch as they then made public: fuch as were ftill retain¬
ed in their archives they called apocryphal, for no other
reafon but becaufe they were not public ; fo that they
might be really facred and divine, though not promul-
ged as fuch.
Thus, in refpeifl of the Bible, all books were called
apocryphal which were not inferted in the Jewiffi canon
of Scripture. Voffius obferves, that, with regard to
the facred books, none are to be accounted apocryphal,
except fuch as had neither been admitted into the fyna-
gogue nor the church, fo as to be added to the canon,
and read in public.
The Proteftants do not only reckon thofe books to
be apocryphal which are efteemed fuch in the church
of Rome, as the prayer of Manaffeh king of Judah,
the third and fourth books of Efdras, St Barnabas’s
epiftle, the book of Hermos, the addition at the end
of Job, and the 151ft pfalm ; but alfo Tobit, Judith
Either, the book of Wifdom, Jefus the fon of Siracb,
Baruch the prophet, the Song of the Three Children, Apot-rypEa
the Hiftory of Sufannah, the Hiftory of Bel and the |!
Dragon, and the firft and fecond books of the Macca- ^ Apwiofts. ^
bees. v "'
It is now pretended that thefe books were not receiv¬
ed by the Jews, or fo much as known to them. None
of the writers of the New Teftament cite or mention
them : neither Philo nor Jofephus fpeak of them. The
Chriftian church was for fome ages an utter ftranger
to thefe books. Origen, Athanafius, Hillary, Cyril of
Jerufalem, and all the orthodox writers, who have given
catalogues of the canonical books of Scripture, unani-
moufly concur in rejedting thefe out of the canon. And
for the New Teflament, they are divided in their opi¬
nions, whether the epiftle to the Hebrews, the epiftle
of St James, and the fecond epiftle of St Peter, the
fecond and third epiftles of St John, the epiftle of St
Jude, and the Revelation, are to be acknowledged as
canonical or not.
The Proteftants acknowledge fuch books of Scripture
only to be canonical as were fo efteemed to be in the
firft ages of the church; fuch as are cited by the earliefi:
writers among the Chriftians as of divine authority, and
after the moft diligent inquiry were received and fo
judged to be by the council of Laodicea. The feveral
epiftles above mentioned, and the book of Revelation,
whatever the fentiments of fome particular perfons are
or may have been of them, are allowed by all the re¬
formed churches to be parts of the canon of the New
Teftament.
The apocryphal books, however, according to the
fixth article of the church of England, are to be read
for example of life and inftru&ion of manners j but it
doth not apply them to eftablifh any doctrine.
APOCYNUM. See Dogs-bane, Botany Index.
APODECTiE, in antiquity, a denomination gi¬
ven to ten general receivers appointed by the Athe¬
nians to receive the public revenues, taxes, debts,
and the like. The apodedlae had alfo a power to de¬
cide controverfies arifing in relation to money and
taxes, all but thofe of the moft difficult nature and
higheft concern, which were referved to the courts of
judicature.
APODECTA-I, in the Athenian government, of¬
ficers appointed to fee that the meafures of corn were
juft.
APODES, in a general fenfe, denotes things with¬
out leet. Zoologifts apply the name to a fabulous fort
of birds, fa;d to be found in fome of the iflands of the
new world, which, being entirely without feet, fupport-
ed themfelves on the branches of trees by their crooked
bills.
Afodes, in the Linncean fyftem, the name of theyf/y?
order of fifties, or tliofe which have no belly fins. See
Ichthyology Index.
APODIClICAL, among philofophers, a term im¬
porting a demonftrative proof, or fyftematical method of
teaching.
APODOSIS, in Rhetoric, makes the third part of.
a complete exordium, being properly the application
or reftriftion of the protafs. The apodofis is the-fame
with what is otherwife called axiofs ; and Hands op-
pofed to protafis: c. g. protafs, all branches of hif¬
tory are neceffary for a ftudent ; catefcene, fo that,
without thefe, he can never make any conficlerable fi¬
gure j
Apotly te¬
rm m
A P O [
gore; npodajts, but literary bittory is of a more efpecial
ufe, which recommends it, &c.
APODYTERIUM, in the ancient baths, the a-
partments where perfons dreffed and undrefted.
APOGEE, in AJlronomy, that point in the orbit of
a planet which is at the greateft diftance from the earth.
The apogee of the fun is that part of the earth’s orbit
which is at the greatert dittance from the fun \ and con-
fequently the fun’s apogee, and the earth’s aphelion, are
one and the fame point.
APOLIDES, in antiquity, thofe condemned tor life
to the public works, or exiled into fome ifland, and thus
divefted of the privileges of Roman citizens.
APOLLINARIAN GAMES, in Roman antiquity,
were inftituted in the year of Rome 542. 1 he occa-
fion was a kind of oracle delivered by the prophet Mar¬
cus after the fatal battle at Cannae, declaring that to
expel the enemy, and cure the people of an infectious
difeafe which then prevailed, facred games were to be
annually performed in honour of Apollo •, the praetor
464 1 APO
divided into various feds. In 388, the emperor 1 heo-Apod mam.
dofms enacted a law, forbidding them to hold affemblies,
to have any ecclefiaftics or bilhops, or to dwell in cities;
The rigorous execution of this law, in concurrence with
the decrees of different councils, reduced them to a
very fmall number, and their dodtrine had no long du¬
ration.
APOLLINARIS, Caius Sulpicius, a very learn¬
ed grammarian, born at Carthage, lived in the 2d cen¬
tury, under the Antonines 5 he is fuppofed to be the au¬
thor of the verfes which are prefixed to the comedies,
of Terence, and contain the arguments of them. He
had for his fucceffor in the profeffion of grammar Hel-
vius Pertinax, who had been his fcholar, and was at laft
emperor. . -
Apollinaris Sidonius, Caws Lol/ius, an eminent
Chriftian writer and bilhop in the 3th century, was
born of a noble family in France. He was educated
under the belt matters, and made a prodigious pvo-
prefs in the feveral arts and fciences, but particulany
V 11^ Mt.. A ftr-T Viarl left the
annually periormea in inmuui wi 9 . r— ^ , nr.lne literature
to tavotfc direction of them, anti the decemv.r, to of . >»
fer facrifices after the Grecian rite. The fenate ordered
that this oracle ttiould be obferved the rather, becaufe
another of the fame Marcus, wherein he had foretold
the overthrow at Cannae, had come true *, for this rea-
fon, they gave the praetor x 2,000 afes out of the public
calh to defray the folemnity. There were facrificed an
ox to Apollo, as alfo two white goats, and a cow to
Latona; all with their horns gilt. Apollo had alfo a
colieclion made for him, befides what the people who
were fpeftators gave voluntarily. The firft praetor by
whom they were held was P. Cornelius Sylla. For fome
time they were moveable or indictive 5 but at length
were fixed, under P. Licinius Varus, to the fifth of July,
and made perpetual. The men, wTho were fpeflators at
thefe games, wore garlands on their heads; the women
performed their devotions in the temples at the fame
time, and at laft they caroufed together in the veftibules
of their houfes, the doors ftanding open. The Apolli-
narian games were merely fcenical; and at firft only
obferved with finging, piping, and other forts of mufic
but afterwards there were alfo introduced all manner of
mountebank tricks, dances, and the like : yet fo as that
they ftill remained fcenical; no chariot races, wreftling,
or the like laborious exercifes of the body, being ever
praftifed at them.
APOLLINARIANS, Apollinarists, called alfo
by Epipbanius Dimarita, ancient heretics, who denied
the proper humanity of Chrift, and maintained that the
body which he affumed was endowed with a fenfitive,
and not a rational, foul, but that the Divine Nature
fupplied the place of the intelle&ual principle in man.
This feft derived its name from Apollinaris, biftiop of
Laodicea, in the fourth century.
The Apollinarians have been charged with other
opinions, fucb as, the Millenarian and Sabellian, the
pre-exiftence of the body of Chrift, and the paflxon of
his Deity •, but ecclefiaftical writers are not agreed with
refpeft to thefe and other particulars. Their do&rine
was firft condemned by a council of Alexandria in the
ygjir 362, and afterwards in a more formal manner by
a council at Rome in 375 ; and by another council in
378, which depofed Apollinaris from his biftiopric.
Notwithftanding all, his doftrine fpread through moft
of the churches of the eaft : and his followers were fub-
fcbools, he applied himfelf to the profeffion of war. Pie
married Papianilla, the daughter of Avitus, who was
conful, and afterwards emperor, by whom he had three
children. But Majorianus in the year 457 having de¬
prived Avitus of the empire, and taken the city of <
Lyons, in which our author refided, Apollinans lell
into the hands of the enemy. However, the reputation
of his learning foftened Majorianus’s refentment, lo
that he treated him with the utmoft civility, in return
for which Apollinaris compofed a panegyric in his ho¬
nour j which was fo highly applauded, that he had a
ftatue erefted to him at Rome, and was honoured with
the title of Count. In the year 467 the emperor An^
themius rewarded him for the panegyric which he had
written in honour of him, by railing him to the polt ol
governor of Rome, and afterwards to the dignity oi: a
patrician and fenator, and creeling a ftatue to him.
But he foon quitted thefe fecular employments for the
fervice of the church. The bilhopric of Clermont be¬
ing vacant in 472 by the death of Eparchus, Apolli-
naris, who was then only a layman, was cholen to
fucceed him without any intereft or Elicitation on his
part, in which fee he a£ted with the greateft in¬
tegrity. Clermont being befteged by the Goths, he
animated the people to the defence of that city, and
would never confent to the furrender of it; fo that,
when it was taken about the year 480, he ivas obli¬
ged to retire; but he was foon reftored by Evanges
king of the Goths, and continued to govern the church
as he had done before. He died in peace the 2ift of
Auguft 487 ; and his feftival is ftill obferved in the
church of Clermont, where his memory is held in great
veneration. He is efteemed the moft elegant writer of
his age, both in profe and verfe. He wrote a great
many little pieces; but preferved none but thofe which
he thought were worthy of being continued down to
pofterity. He collefled himfelf the nine books which
we have remaining of his letters. His chief pieces in
poetry are the three panegyrics upon the emperors A-
vitus, Majorianus, and Anthemius. ri he reft of them
are a colleflion of poems addreffed to his friends upon
particular fubjefts. Elis letters contain a variety of
particulars relating to polite literature and profane
APOLL1NARIUS,
\
A P O
[ 465 ]
A P O
Atjollina-
rius
II
Apollo.,
APOLLINARIUS, Claudius, a learned bilhop
of Hierapolis, who, about the year 170, prefented to
Marcus Aurelius an excellent Apology for the Chri-
ftians.
Apollinarius the Younger, thus called to diflin-
guith him from his father, called Apollinarius the El¬
der, was at firil: le&or or reader of Laodicea, and af¬
terwards biftiop of that city. He was univerfally
efteemed the greateft man of his age, both for learning
and piety, and a moft accurate and nervous defender of
the faith again!! all its enemies : but notwithflanding
this, on his advancing fome opinions that were not ap¬
proved, he was anathematized as an heretic by the fe-
cond general council of Conftantinople in 381.
APOLLO, in Mythology, a Pagan deity vvorfhip-
ped by {he Greeks and Romans. Cicero mentions
four of this name : the moft ancient of whom was the
fon of Vulcan j the fecond a fon of Corybas, and born
in Crete 5 the third an Arcadian, called Nomian, from
his being a great legiflator ; and the laft, to whom the
greateft honour is afcribed, the fon of Jupiter and La-
tona.
Apollo had a variety of other names, either derived
from his principal attributes, or the chief places where
he was worfhipped. He was called the Healer, from
his enlivening warmth and cheering inHuence ; Pcean,
from the peftilential heats : to fignify the former, the
ancients placed the Graces on his right hand ; and for
the latter, a bow and arrows in his left: Nomius, or
the fhepherd, from his fertilizing the earth, and thence
fuftaining the animal creation : Delius, from his ren¬
dering all things manifeft : Pythius, from his vidtory
over Python \ Lycias, Phoebus, and Phaneta, from
his purity and fplendour. As Apollo is a1 moft always
confounded by the Greeks with the fun, it is no won¬
der that he fhould be dignified with fo many attributes.
It ivas natural for the moft glorious objedf in nature,
whofe influence is felt by all creation, and leen by eve¬
ry animated part of it, to be adored as the fountain
of light, heat, and life. The power of healing dif-
eafes being chiefly given by the ancients to medicinal
plants and vegetable productions, it was natural to ex¬
alt into a divinity, the vifible caufe of their growth.
Hence he was alfo ftyled the God of Phyjic ; and that
external heat which cheers and invigorates all nature,
being transferred from the human body to the mind,
gave rife to the idea of all mental effervefcence coming
from this god •, hence, like wife, poets, prophets, and
xnuficians, are faid to be Numine affiati, infpired by
Apollo.
Whether Apollo was ever a real perfonage, or only
the great luminary, many have doubted. Indeed, Vof-
fius has taken great pains to prove this god to be only
a metaphorical being, and that there never was any
other Apollo than the fun. “ He was ftyled the Son
of Jupiter (fays this author), becaufe that god was
reckoned by the ancients the author of the world. His
mother was called Latona, a name which fignifies hid¬
den; becaufe, before the fun was created, all things
were wrapped up in the obfcurity of chaos. He is al¬
ways reprefented as beardlefs and youthful, becaufe
the fun never grows old or decays. And what elfe can
his bows and arrows imply, but his piercing beams ?”
And he adds, that all the ceremonies which were per¬
formed to his honour, had a manifeft relation to the
Vol. II. Part II.
great fource of light which he reprefented. Whence A {olio,
(he concludes) it is in vain to feek for any other divi- 1 "v™’"
nity than the fun, which was adored under the name of
Apollo.'” However, though this be in general true,
yet it does appear, from many paflages in ancient au¬
thors, that there was fome illuftrious perfonage named
Apollo, who, after his apotheofis, was taken for the
fun ; as Ofiris and Orus in Egypt, whofe exiftence can¬
not be called in queftion, were, after their death, con¬
founded with the fun, of which they became the fym-
bols, either from the glory and iplendour of their reigns,
or from a belief that their fouls had taken up their refi-
dence in that luminary.
Of the four Apollos mentioned by Cicero, it ap¬
pears that the three laft were Greeks, and the firft an
Egyptian ; who, according to Herodotus, was the fon
of Ofiris and Ifis, and called Orus. Paufanias is of
the fame opinion as Herodotus, and ranks Apollo among
the Egyptian divinities. I he teftimony of Diodorus
Siculus is ftill more exprefs; for in tpeaking of Ifis, af¬
ter faying that (lie had invented the pra£tice of medi¬
cine, he adds, that the taught this art to her fon Orus,
named Apollo, who was the latt of the gods that reigned
in Egypt.
It is eafy to trace almoft all the Grecian fables and
mythologies from Egypt.. If the Apollo of the Greeks
was faid to be the fun of Jupiter, it was becaufe Orus
the Apollo, of the Egyptians had Ofiris for his father,
whom the Greeks confounded with Jupiter. If the
Greek Apollo was reckoned the god of eloquence, ma¬
fic, medicine, and poetry, the reafon was, that Ofiris,
who was the fymbol of the fun among the Egyptians,
as well as his fon Orus, had there taught thole liberal
arts. If the Greek Apollo was the god and conduc¬
tor of the Mufes, it was becaufe Ofiris carried with him
in his expedition to the Indies finging women and mu-
ficians. This parallel might be carried on ftill further j
but enough has been faid to prove that the true Apollo
was that of Egypt. ,
To the other perfe£lions of this divinity the poets
have added beauty, grace, and the art of captivating
the ear and the heart, no lefs by the fweetnefs of his
eloquence, than by the melodious founds of his lyre.
However, with all thefe accomplithments, he had not
the talent of captivating the fair with whofe charms
he was enamoured. But the amours and other adven¬
tures related of this god during his refidence on earth,
are too numerous, and too well known, to be inferted
here. His mufical contefts, however, being more con-
nefted with the nature of this work, muft not be wholly
unnoticed.
To begin, therefore, with the difpute which he had
with Pan, that was left to the arbitration of Midas.
Pan, who thought he excelled in playing the flute,
offered to prove that it was an inftrument fuperior to
the lyre of Apollo. The challenge was accepted j
and Midas, who was appointed the umpire in this
conteft, deciding in favour of Pan, was rewarded by
Apollo, according to the poets, with the ears of an
afs for his ftupidity.—This fidlion feems founded upon
hiftory. Midas, according to Paufanias, was the fon
of Gordius and Cybele ; and reigned in the Greater
Phrygia, as we learn from Strabo. He was poffeffed
of fuch great riches, and fuch an inordinate defire of
increafing them by the moft contemptible parfimony,
3 N that,
A P O [ 466
that, according to the poets, he converted whatever
he touched into gold. However, his talent for accu¬
mulation did not extend to the acquirement of tafte
and knowledge in the fine arts ; and, perhaps, his dul-
nefs and inattention to thefe provoked fome mufical
poets to invent the fable of his decifion in favour of
Pan againft Apollo. 1 he fcholiaft upon Ariftophanes,
to explain the fidtion of his long ears, fays, that it was
defigned to intimate that he kept fpies in all parts of
his dominions.
Marfyas, another player on the flute, was ftill more
unfortunate than either Pan or his admirer Midas.
This Marfyas, having engaged in a mufical difpute
with Apollo, chofe the people of Nifa for judges. A-
pollo played at firft a Ample air upon his inftrument;
but Marfyas, taking up his pipe, ftruck the audience
fo much by the novelty of its tone, and the art of his
performance, that he feemed to be heard with more
pleafure than his rival. Having agreed upon a fecond
trial of (kill, it is faid that the performance of Apollo,
by accompanying the lyre with his voice, was allowed
greatly to excel that of Marfyas upon the flute alone.
Marfyas, with indignation, protefted againft the deci¬
fion of the judges j urging that he had not been fairly
vanquifhed according to the rules ftipulated, becaufe
the difpute was concerning the excellence of their fe-
veral inftruments, not their voices ; and that it w as
wholly unjuft to employ two arts againft one.
Apollo denied that he had taken any unfair advan¬
tages of his antagonift, fince Marfyas had employed
both his mouth and fingers in performing upon his
inftrument ; fo that, if he was denied the ufe of his
mouth, he would be ftill more difqualified for the con¬
tention. The judges approved of Appollo’s reafoning,
and ordered a third trial. Marfyas was again van¬
quifhed ; and Apollo, inflamed by the violence of
the difpute, flayed him alive for his prefumption. See
Marsyas.
Paufanias relates a circumftance concerning this con-
teft, that had been omitted by Diodorus, which is, that
Apollo accepted the challenge from Marfyas, upon
condition that the vidlor fhould ufe the vanquifhed as
Ke pleafed. • r
Diodorus informs us, that Apollo foon repenting of
the cruelty with which he had treated Marfyas, broke
the firings of the lyre, and by that means put a flop,
for a time, to any further progrefs in the practice of
that new inftrument.
The next incident to be mentioned in the hiftory of
Apollo is his defeat of the ferpent Python.
The waters of Deucalion’s deluge, fays Ovid, v'hich
had overflowed the earth, left a flime from whence
fprung innumerable monfters ; and among others the
ferpent Python, which made great havock in the coun¬
try about Parnaffus. Apollo, armed with his darts,
put him to death ; which, phyfically explained, implies,
that the heat of the fun having diffipated the noxious
fleams, thefe monfters foon difappeared : or if this fable
be referred to hiftory, the ferpent was a robber, who
haunting the country about Delphos,and very muchin-
fefting thofe who came hither to facrifice 5 a prince, who
bore the name of Apollo, or one of the priefts of that
god, put him to death. . .
This event gave rife to the inftitution of the Pythian
games, fo frequently mentioned in the Grecian hifto-
] A P O
ry •, and it was from the legend of Apollo’s viflory over Ap
the Python that the god himfelf acquired the name of ^
PytUus, and his prieftefs that of PYTHIA. The city of
Delphos, where the famous oracles were fo long deliver¬
ed, was frequently ftyled Pytho.
As Apollo was the god of the fine arts, thofe who
cultivated them were called his fans. Of this number
was Philammon of Delphos, whom the poets and my-
thoTo<dfts make the twin-brother of Autolychus, by
the nymph Chione, and Apollo and Mercury. It is
pretended that both thefe divinities were favoured by
the nymph on the fame day, and that their fires were
known from their different talents. Philammon, a
great poet and mufician, was reported to be the off-
fpring of the god who prefides over thofe arts j and
Autolychus, from the craftinefs and fubtility of his dif-
pofition, was faid to have fprung from Mercury, god
of theft and fraud. Philammon is one of the firft,
after Apollo, upon fabulous record, as a vocal per¬
former, who accompanied himfelf with the found of
the lyre : his fon was the celebrated Thamyris. See
Thamyris.
There can be no doubt but that Apollo was more
generally revered in the Pagan world than any other
deity 5 having, in almoft every region of it, temples,
oracles, and ieftivals, as innumerable as his attributes :
the wolf and hawk were confecrated to him, as fyna¬
bob of his piercing eyes j the crow and the raven, be¬
caufe thefe birds were fuppofed to have by inftinft the
faculty of predi&ion ; the laurel, from a perfuafion
that thofe who flept with fome. branches of that tree
under their heads received certain vapours, which ena¬
bled them to prophecy. The cock was confecrated to
him, becaufe by his crowing he announces the rifing
of the fun ; and the graftiopper on account of his Ting¬
ing faculty, which was fuppofed to do honour to the
god of mufic. Moft of the ancient poets have cele¬
brated this tuneful infeft, but none better than Ana¬
creon, Ode xliii.
Plato fays that the grafhopper fings all lummer
without food, like thofe men who, dedicating them-
felves to the Mufes, forget the common concerns of
life. . 1 • j r
The fvvan was regarded by the ancients as a bird la-
cred to Apollo in two capacities j firft, as being, like
the crow and raven, gifted with the fpirit of predic¬
tion j and, fecondly, for his extraordinary vocal powers.
The fweetnefs of his fong, efpecially at the approach
of death, was not only extolled by all the poets of anti¬
quity, but by biftorians, philofophers, and fages j and to
call a great writer xhe fwan of his age and nation, was a
full acknowledgement of his fovereignty. Thus Horace
calls Pindar the Theban fwan.
Plutarch, who was himfelf a prieft of Apollo, imprel-
fed with the higheft refpeft and veneration for him and
for mufic, in his dialogue upon that art, makes one of
his interlocutors fay, that an invention fo ufeful and
charming could never have been the work of man, but
muft have originated from fome god, fuch as Apollo,
the inventor of the flute and lyre, improperly attributed
to Hyagnis, Marfyas, Olympus, and others ; and the
proofs he urges in fupport of this aflertion, fhow, it not
its truth, at leaft that it w'as the common and received
opinion. > .
All dances and facrifices, fays he, ufed in honour 01
Apollo,
A P O
Apollo, are performed to the found of flutes : the fta-
tue of this god at Delos, ere&ed in the time of Hercu¬
les, had in its right hand a bow j and on the left flood
the three Graces, who were furniflied with three kinds
of inftruments, the lyre, the flute, and the fyrinx.
The youth alfo who carries the laurel of Tempe to
Delphos, is accompanied by one playing on the flute j
and the facred prefents formerly fent to Delos by the
Hyperboreans, were conduced thither to the found of
lyres, flutes, and (hepherds pipes. He fupports tbefe
fadls by the teflimonies of the poets Alcaeus, Aleman,
qnd Corinna.
It feems as if the account of Apollo could not be
concluded by any thing that is left to offer on the fub-
je<fl, fo properly, as by part of the celebrated hymn of
Callimachus, which during many ages was performed
and heard by the moft polifhed people on the globe
with the utmoft religious zeal, at the feftivals inftituted
to this god.
Ha ! how the laurel, great Apollo’s tree,
And all the cavern, fhakes ! Far off, far off,
The man that is unhallow’d : for the god
Approaches. Hark ! he knocks $ the gates
Feel the glad impulfe, and the fever’d bars
Submiflive clink againft their brazen portals.
Why do the Delian palms incline their boughs,
Self-mov’d ; and hovering fvvans, their throats releas’d
From native filence, carol founds harmonious ?
Begin, young men, the hymn : let all your harps
Break their inglorious filence 5 and the dance,
In myftic numbers trod, explain the mufic.
But firft, by ardent pray’r and clear luftration,
Purge the contagious fpots of human weaknefs :
Impure, no mortal can behold Apollo.
So may you flourifh, favour’d by the god,
In youth with happy nuptials, and in age
With filver hairs, and fair defeent of children j
So lay foundations for afpiring cities,
And blefs your fpreading colonies increafe.
Pay facred rev’rence to Apollo’s fong j
Left wrathful the far-fhooting god emit
His fatal arrows. Silent nature {lands:
And feas fubfide, obedient to the found
Of lo ! lo Paean ! nor dares Thetis
Longer bewail her lov’d Achilles’ death.
For Phoebus was his foe. Nor muft fad Niobe
In fruitlefs forrow perfevere, or weep,
Ev’n thro’ the Phrygian marble. Haplefs mother !
Whofe fondnefs could compare her mortal offspring
To thofe which fair Latona bore to Jove,
lo ! again repeat ye, lo Paean !
Recite Apollo’s praife till night draws on,
The ditty ftill unfinifh’d j and the day
Unequal to the godhead’s attributes
Various, and matter copious of your fongs.
Sublime at Jove’s right hand Apollo fits,
And thence diftributes honour, gracious king,
And theme of verfe perpetual. From his fobe
Flows light ineffable ! his harp, his quiver,
And Ladlian bow, are gold : with golden fandals
His feet are (hod. How rich ! how beautiful!
Beneath his fteps the yellow tnin’ral rifes ;
And earth reveals her treafures. Youth and beauty
Eternal deck his cheek : from his fair head
A p o
Perfumes diftil their fvveets ; and cheerful health,
His duteous handmaid, through the air improv’d
With lavifh hand diffufes feents ambrofial.
The fpearman’s arm by thee, great god, direfled,
Sends forth a certain wound. The laurel’d bard,
Infpir’d by thee, compofes verfe immortal.
Taught by thy art divine, the fage phyfician
Eludes the urn, and chains or exiles death.
Perpetual fires (hine hallow’d on thy altars,
When annual the Carnean feaft is held j
The warlike Libyans, clad in armour, lead
The dance j with clanging fvvords and fliields they beat
The dreadful meafure : In the chorus join
Their women •, brown, but beautiful : fuch rites
To thee well pleafing—— _______
 The monftrous Python
Durft tempt thy wrath in vain j for dead he fell.
To thy great ftrength and golden arms unequal,
lo ! while thy unerring hand elanc’d
Another and another dart, the people
Joyfully repeated lo ! lo Pcean !
Elance the dart, Apollo ; for the fafety
And health of man, gracious thy mother bore thee !
Prior.
jfPOLLO Belvidere, ranked the firft in the firft clafs
of ancient ftatues, and fo called from having been
placed in the Belvidere of the Vatican at Rome by
Pope Julius II. where it remained for 300 years, and
till Rome was taken and plundered by the French in
1797. This celebrated ftatue was found in the ruins
of ancient Antium about the end of the 15th century.
The artift is unknown. The excellence of this ftatue,
which has attracted univerfal admiration, confifts in the
elegance and fublimity of the expreflion. Befide this,
there are many ancient ftatues referred to the firft
which are diftinguifhed by peculiar beauties.
APOLLODORUS, a famous architedl under Tra¬
jan and Hadrian, was born at Damafcus. He had the
direction of the bridge of ftone which Trajan ordered
to be built over the Danube in the year 104, which
was efteemed the moft magnificent of all the works of
that emperor. Hadrian, one day as Trajan was dif-
courfing with this archite£l upon the buildings he had
raifed at Rome, would needs give his judgment, and
fhowed he underftood nothing of the matter. Apollo-
dorus turned upon him bluntly, and faid to him, Go
paint gourds, for you are very ignorant of the fubje£l
we are talking upon. Hadrian at this time boafted of
his painting gourds well. The infult coft Apollodorus
his life.
Apollodorus, a celebrated painter of Athens, a-
bout 408 years before the birth of Chrift, was the firft
who invented the art of mingling colours, and of ex¬
prefling the lights and {hades. He was admired alfo
for his judicious choice of fubje&s, and for beauty and
ftrength of colouring furpafled all the mailers that went
before him. He excelled likewife in ftatuary.
Apollodorus the Athenian, a famous grammari¬
an, the fon of Afclepiades and difciple of Ariftarchus.
He wrote many works not now extant $ but his moft
famous production was his Bibliotheca, concerning the
origin of the gods. This work confifted of 24. books,
but only three are now in being. Several other pieces
of his are to be found in Fabricius’s Bibliotheca Graca.
3 N 2 There
[ 467 1
Apollo,
Apollodo-
A P 0
[ 468 ]
A P O
April!..,,;,, There were various other perfons of this name. Scipio
Apollonius. Xefti a Neapolitan, has written a treatiie ot the Apoi-
v—'lodul.;feS5 which was printed at Rome ^555}
Dr Thomas Gale publilhed a work of the fame kind in
APOLLONI A, the name of feveral ancient cities,
particularly of a colony of the Milefians in Thrace
from which Luc nil us took away a coloffus of Apollo,
and placed it in the capitol. The greateft part of
town was fituated in a fmall ifland m the Euxme, in
which was a temple of Apollo (Strabo). Pliny lays the
coloffus was 30 cubits high, andcoft 5°° talentS-^ ^
was alfo an Apollonia at Mount Parnaffus near Delphi
(Stephanus). Troezen was formerly called Apo//onia.
Apollo^ 1 a, feafts facred to Apollo, mftituted upon
the following occatu.n. Apollo, having .vanqU1,^
Python, went with his fitter Diana to iEgialea , u ,
being driven from thence, he removed to the ifland
Crete. The iEgialeans were foon after yifited with a
plague ; upon which, confulting t,he foothfayers, they
were ordered to fend feven young men and as many
viroins, to appeafe thofe deities and bring them back
into their country. Apollo and Diana b-ng thus ap
peafed, returned to TEgialea ; in memory of which th y
dedicated a temple to Pitho, the gocUefs of perfuafton ,
whence a cuftom arofe of choofing every year feven
young men, and as many virgins, to go as it were in
fearch of Apollo and Diana. Africa
Apollonia, in Geography, a promontory of Africa,
upon the coaft of Guinea, near the mouth of the river
^APOLLONIUS, the author of the Argonauttcs,
and furnamed The Rhodian, from the place of his refi-
dence, is fuppofed to have been a_ native of Alexan¬
dria, where, he is faid to have recited feme portion of
his poem while he was yet a youth Finding it il re¬
ceived by his countrymen, he retired to Rhodes , wher
he is conjectured to have polffhed and completed hi
work, fupporting himfelf by the profeffion of rhetoric,
and receiving from the Rhodians the freedom of their
city. He at length returned, with considerable ho¬
nour to the place of bis birth •, fucceeding Erato-
fthenes in the care of the Alexandrian library in the
reign of Ptolemy. Euergetes, who afeended the throne
of Egypt in the year before Chrift 246. That prince
had been educated by the famous Anftarchus, and n-
vailed the preceding fovereigns of his liberal family r
the munificent encouragement nf learning. Apollo-
. . iLs. r.npt Callimachus
r .Af .Lg Argo ! and how beautifully is the wife of Apononias,
C'ln nlS, holding up the little AchWes in ^
her arms, and (honing him 10 h.s father Peleus as he
failed along the flrorc ! But the chief excellence in our
poet. Is the fpirlt and delicacy w.th which he has de¬
lineated the paffion of love in his Medea. 1 hat Vir¬
gil thought very highly of h,s merit in this particular
fs fuffieiently evident from the minute exaaneft with
which he has copied many tender t0"ch'“ of the
cian poet. Thofe who compare the third book of Apol-
Tnius with the fourth of Virgil may, I think perceive
not only that Dido has fome features of Medea but
that the two bards, however different in their reputa ion
refembled each other in their genius •, and they both
excel in delicacy and pathos.”_The ancient fchol.a up¬
on his Argon antics, ftill extant, are extremely ufeful, and
full of learning . . „ ...
Apollonius of Perga, a city of Pamphylia, was a
great geometrician, under the reign of Ptolemy Euer-
fetes, which reaches from the 2d year °f‘he 133<1 °-
fympiad to the 3d year of the 139th-. He
long"time at Alexandria, under the d.fc.ples d •
and8compofed feveral works, of which that only of the
Apollonius, a Pythagorean philofopher, born at
Tyana in Cappadocia, about the beginning of the firft
century. At 16 years of age he became a itria ob-
ferver of Pythagoras’s rules, renouncing wine, womeiy
amf all forts of flefti j not wearing fhoes, letting his
hair grow, and wearing nothing but linen. He foon
after let up for a reformer of mankind, and chofe his
habitation in a temple of zEfculapius, -here he js faid
to have performed many wonderful cures. Philollra-
tus has wrote the life of Apollonius, in which there
are numberlefs fabulous ftories recounted of him. W e-
are told that he went five years without fpeasing ; and
yet during this time, that he flopped many feditions
fn Cilicia and Pamphylia: that he travelled, and fefc
up for a legiflator ; and that he gave out he under-
ftood all languages, without having ever th^m ’
that he could tell the thoughts of men, and underftood
the oracles which birds gave by their finging. _ I he
Heathens were fond of oppofing the pretended mir cles
of this man to thofe of our Saviour j and by a trea-
tife which Eufebius wrote againlt one Hierocles we
find that the drift of the latter, in the treatife which
Eufebius refutes, feems to have been to draw a paral-
lel betwixt Jefus Chrift and Apollonius, m which he
i r  nUtlnfonVlPr- M. du Pin
the munificent encouragement of learning. Apoi o- preference to this philofopher
S v-m!r t mlty VlS L wrote a confutation of Philoflra^S l.fe of Apol-
0nApoltonxus wrote fome works, viz. four books of Ju¬
dicial Aflrology ; a treatife upon the Sacrifices, fiiowing
what was proper to be offered to each deity ; and a grea
number of letters ; all of which are now loft.
APOLLOS, in Scripture hiftory, a Jew ot Alex¬
andria, who came to Ephefus during the abfence of
St Paul, who was gone to Jerufalem ( A&s xvm. 24.)
Apollos was an eloquent man, and well verfed in the
Scriptures V and as he fpoke with zeal and fervour, hs
taught diligently the things of God : but knowing on¬
ly the baptifm of John, He was no more than a cate¬
chumen, or one of the lowed order of Chnftians, and
did not as yet diftinftly know the myftenes of the
Chriftian dudrine. However, he knew that ^
connexion ended in the moft violent enmity, which
was probably owing to fome degree of contempt ex
preffedby Apollonius for the light compofitions of his
matter. The learned have vainly endeavoured to dif-
cover the particulars of their quarrel.—The only work
of Apollonius which has defeended to modern times is
his poem above mentioned, in four books on t]ie Ar
gonautic expedition. Both Longinus and Quintilian
have afligned to. this, work the mortifying charader ot
mediocrity : “ But (fays Mr Hayley) there lies an ap-
peal rom the fentence of the moft candid and enlight-
IZd critics to the voice of Nature ; and the merit of
Apollonius has little to apprehend from the decifion of
th s ultimate judge. His poems abound in animated
defeription, and in paffages of the moft tender and pa-
theticbeauty. How finely painted is the firft fettmg
4
A P O [ 469 ] r A P O
Apollos Chrift was the Meffiah, and declared himfelf openly to
|| be his difciple. When therefore he was come to Epbe-
Apologue. pUSj jjg began to fpeak boldly in the fynagogue, and to
(how that Jefus was the Chrift. Aquila and Prilcilla
having heard him, took him home with them ; inftruft-
ed him more fully in the ways of God y and baptized
him, probably in the name of Jefus Chrift.
Some time after this he had a mind to go into Achaia j
and the brethren having exhorted him to undertake this
- journey, they wrote to the difciples, defiring them to
receive him. He arrived at Corinth } and was there
very ufeful in convincing the Jews out of the Scrip¬
tures, and demonftrated to them that Jefus was the
Chrift. Thus he watered what St Paul had planted in
this city (1 Cor. iii. 6.) : but the great fondnefs which
his difciples had for his perfon had like to have produ¬
ced a fchifm ; fome “ faying, 1 am of Paul j others, I
am of Apollos j I am of Cephas.” However, this di-
vifion, which St Paul fpeaks of in the chapter laft quoted,
did not prevent that apoftle and Apollos from being
clofely united by the bands of charity. Apollos hearing
that the epoftle was at Ephefus, went to meet him, and
was there when St Paul wrote the firft epiftle to the
Corinthians; wherein he teftifies that he had earneflly
entreated Apollos to return to Corinth, but hitherto
had not been able to prevail with him ; that neverthe-
lefs, he gave him room to hope that he would go when
he had an opportunity. St Jerome fays, that Apollos
was fo diflatisfied with the divifion which had happened
upon his account at Corinth, that he retired into Crete
with Zena, a doftor of the law; and that this difturb-
ance having been appealed by the letter which St Paul
wrote to the Corinthians, Apollos returned to this
city, and was bifliop thereof. The Greeks make
him bifhop of Doras; others fay, he was bilhop of Ico-
nium in Phrygia ; and others, that he was bilhop of Cae-
farea.
APOLLYON, a Greek word that fignifies the de-
Jlroyer, and anfwers to the Hebrew Abaddon. St John,
in the Revelation (ix. 11.) fays, that an angel having-
opened the bottomlefs pit, a thick fmoke iffued out of
it ; and with this fmoke locufts, like horfes, prepared
for battle, and commanded by the angel of the bottom¬
lefs pit, called in Hebrew Abaddon, but in the Greek
Apollyon.
APOLOGETIC, Apologetical, fomething faid
or written, by way of excufe or apology, for any a£Iion
or perfon.
The Apologetic of Tertullian is a work full of
ftrength and fpirit. He there vindicates the Chriftians
from all that had been objected to them ; particularly
from the abominable crimes faid to be perpetrated at
their meetings, and their want of love and fidelity to
their country. The ground of this laft accufation was,
their refufing to take the accuftomed oaths, and fwear
by the tutelar gods of the empire.—Tertullian addrefies
his Apologetic to the magiftrates of Rome, the emperor
Severus being then abfent.
APOLOGUE, in matters of literature, an ingenious
method of conveying inftruftion by means of a feigned
relation called a moral fable.
The only difference between a parable and an apo¬
logue is, that the former, being drawn from what pafles
among mankind, requires probability in the narration ;
whereas the apologue, being taken from the fuppofed
a&ions of brutes, or even of things inanimate, is not Apology
tied down to the ftri£t rules of probability. ^Tifop’s ||
fables are a model of this kind of writing. Apoao.
APOLOGY, a Greek term, literally importing an
excufe or defence of lome perfon or action.
APOMELI, among ancient phyficians, a decoclioa
of honey and vinegar, much ufed as a detergent, promo¬
ter of ftool, urine, &c.
APOMYOS deus («^o, and [Avia,Jly'), in the Hea*
then mythology, a name under which Jupiter was wor-«-
ftiipped at Elis, and Hercules at well as Jupiter at the
Olympic games. Thefe deities were fupplicated under
this name, to deftroy or drive away the vaft number of
flies which always attended at the great facrifices; and
in thofe who accompanied the Olympic games, the firft
was always to the Apomyos, or Myiagrus Deus, that
he might drive away the flies from the reft. The ufual
facrifice was a bull.
APONEUROSIS, among phyficians, a term fome-
times ufed to denote the expanfion of a nerve or tendon
in the manner of a membrane : fometimes for the cut¬
ting off a nerve ; and, finally, for the tendon itfelf.
APONO, Peter d’, one of the moft famous philo-
fbphers and phyficians of his age, born in the year 1350,
in a village about four miles from Padua. He ftudied
fome time at Paris, and was there promoted to the de¬
gree of doctor in philofophy and phyfic. When he came
to pradtifc as a phyfician, he is faid to have infifted on
very large fums for his vifits : we are not told what he
demanded for the vifits he made in the place of his re-
fidence ; but it is affirmed that he would not attend the
fick in any other place under 150 florins a day ; and
when he was fent for by Pope Honorius IV. he de¬
manded 400 ducats for each day’s attendance. He was
fufpefted of magic, and profecuted by the Inquifition
on that account. “ The common opinion of almoft all
authors (fays Naude) is, that he was the greateft ma¬
gician of his age ; that he had acquired the know¬
ledge of the feven liberal arts, by means of the feven
familiar fpirits, which he kept enelofed in a cry-
ftal; and that he had the dexterity to make the mo¬
ney he had fpent come back into his purfe.” The
fame author adds, that he died before the procefs
againft him was finiihed, being then in the 80th year
of his age ; and that, after his death, they ordered
him to be burnt in effigy, in the public place of the
city of Padua ; defigning thereby to ftrike a fear into
others of incurring the like puniftiment, and to fup-
prefs the reading three books which he had wrote ; the
firft being the Heptameron, which is printed at the
end of the firft volume of Agrippa’s work ; the fecond,
that which is called by Trithemius Klucidareum ne-
cromanticum Petri de Albano ; and the la it, that which
is entitled by the fame author. Liber experimentorum
mirabilium de annu/is fecundum xxviii. manjiones lunce.
His body being fecretly taken'up by his friends, efcap-
ed the vigilance of the inquifitors, who would have
burnt it. It was removed feveral times, and was at
laft placed in the church of St Auguftin, without an
epitaph or any mark of honour. The moft remarkable
book which Apono wrote, was that which procured
him the furname of Conciliator; he wrote alfo a piece
entitled De medicina omnimoda. There is a ftory told
of him, that, having no well in his houfe, he caufed'
his neighbour’s to be carried into the ftreet by devils,
wheat ,
Aponoge-
ton
II .
Aporia.
-v 1
A P O
[ 47° 1
A P O
when he heard they had forbidden his maid fetching
water thence. He had much better (fays Mr Bayle)
have employed the devils to make a well in his own
houfe, and have flopped up his neighbour s j _ or, at
lead, tranfported it into his houfe, rather than into the
flreet. _ r 7
APONOGETON. See Botany Index:
APONUS, a hamlet near Patavium, with warm
baths. It was the birth place of Livy, (Martial) *, and is
now called Albano. E. Long. io. N. Lat. 45. 15.
APOPEMPTICjin the ancient poetry, a hymn ad-
dreffed to a ftranger on his departure frorn a place to
his own country. The ancients had certain holidays,
wherein they took leave of the gods with apopemfitic
fongs, as fuppofing them returning each to his own
country. The deities having the patronage of divers
places, it was but juft to divide their prefence, and al¬
low fome time to each. Hence it was, that among the
Delians and Milefians we find feafts of Apollo, and
among the Argians feafts of Diana, called Epidemic
as fuppofing thefe deities then more peculiariy refident
among them. On the laft day of the feaft they dif-
miffed them, following them to the altars with apopemp-
tlC APOPH ASIS, a figure in Rhetoric, by which the
orator, fpeaking ironically, feems to wave what he would
plainly infinuate •, as, Neither will I mention thofe things,
which, if I Jhould, you notwithstanding could neither con¬
fute, nor [peak again/l them. ,.
APOPHLEGMATIZANTS, in medi¬
cines proper to clear the head from fuperfluous phlegm,
whether by fpitting or by the nofe. . .
APOPHTHEGM, a (hort, fententious, and in-
ftru&ive remark, pronounced by a perfon of diftinguifh-
ed charafter. Such is that of Cyrus: He is unworthy to
be a magijlrate, who is not better than his fubjetds.
Or this : He that will not take care of his own bu/inejs,
will be forced to take care of that of others. Or that of
Artaxerxes Mnemon, when reduced to hunger by the
lofs of his baggage: How much pleafure have I hither¬
to lived a f ranger to ? Or that of Cato, Homines nihil
agendo difcunt male agere. Or, finally, that of Auguftus,
Fejlina lent}. The apophthegms of Plutarch are well
known.
APOPHYGE, in Architefiure, a concave part or
ring of a column, lying above or below the flat member.
The French call it le conge d'en has or d'en haul: the
Italians, cavo di bajfo or di fopraand alfo il vivo di
baffo. The apophyge originally was no more than the
ring or ferril, at firft fixed on the extremities of wooden
pillars, to keep them from fplittingj which afterwards
was imitated in ftone.
APOPHYSIS, in Anatomy, a proceis or protube¬
rance of a bone. See Anatomy. . . ~ .
APOPLEXY, a diftemper in which the patient is
fuddenly deprived of all his fenfes, and of voluntary mo¬
tion. See Medicine Index. _
APORIA, is a figure in Rhetoric, by which the
fpeaker {hows’, that he doubts where to begin for the
multitude of matter, or what to fay in fome ftrange and
ambiguous thing-, and doth, as it were, argue the cafe
with himfelf. Thus Cicero fays, Whether he took them
from his fellows more impudently, gave them to a harlot
more lafcivioujly, removed them from the Roman people
more wickedly, or altered them more prefumptuoujly, I
cannot well declare.
APORON, or Aporime, a problem dithcult to re- ^
folve, and which has never been refolved, though it be
not, in itfelf, impoffible. ......
The word is derived from <*7rog«s, which iigmhes
fomething very difficult, and impraaicablej being form¬
ed from the privative a, and pajfage. Such we
conceive the quadrature of the circle ; the duplicature
of the cube; the trifeaion of an angle, &c. _ W hen a
queftion was propofed to any of the Greek philofophers,
efpecially of the fea of Academifts-, if he could not give
a folution, his anfwer was I cannot fee through it.
— This word is alfo ufed by iome law writers for an in¬
explicable {peech or difcourfe.
APOSIOPESIS, in Rhetoric, otherwife called reti-
cencu and fupprejjion; a figure, by which a perfon really
fpeaks of a thing, at the fame time that he makes a
(how as if he would fay nothing of.it. I he word
comes from xTsoriuTroita, I amfilent.—It is commonly ufed
to denote the fame with ellipsis. Jul. Scaliger diftin-
guifhes them. The latter, according to him, being,
only th« fuppreflion of a word ) as, me, me ; adfum qui
feci-, the former, the omitting to relate fome part of the
atlion j as,
Dixerat, atque illam media inter taha ferro
Collapfam adfpiciunt
Aporoft
u „
Apoftafy.
where the poet does not mention how Dido killed her-
felf. This figure is of ufe to keep up the grandeur and
fublimity of a difcourfe. , . .
APOSPHRAGISMA, (from ano, and etp^uyi^u, l
feal), in antiquity, the figure or impreflion of a ieal.—
It was forbid among the ancients to have the figure or
image of God on their rings and feals. To this pur-
pofe the precept of Pythagoras, Ev 'ha.x.-rvUa 0s*
witpipuv! But in procefs of time, this was little re¬
garded it was ufual enough to have the figures of Egyp¬
tian and other deities, as well as of heroes, monfters,
friends, anceftors, and even brutes, on their daByh or
ring-feals. Thus C*far had the image of Venus, Pol-
lio of Alexander, Auguftus of the Sphinx, Pompey of a
frog, Lentulus of his grandfather, &c.
APOSTASIS, in Medicine, the fame with abfcels.
APOSTASY, the abandoning the true religion.
The primitive Chriftian church diftinguiftied feveral
kinds of apoftafy. The firft, of thofe who went over en¬
tirely from Chriftianity to Judaifm* the fecond, ot thole
who mingled Judaifm and Chriftianity together j and
the third, of thofe who complied fo far with the Jews,
as to communicate with them in many of ^e‘r unlaw¬
ful praaices, without making a formal profelfion of their
religion. But the fourth fort was of thofe who, after
having been fome time Chriftians, voluntarily relapfed
into Paganifm. _ T , -r -r
The perverfion of a Chriftian to Judaifm, Pagamim,
or other falfe religion, was puniftied by the emperors
Conftantius and Julian with confifcation of. goods-, to
which the emperors Theodofius and Valentinian added
capital puniftiment, in cafe the apoftate endeavoured to
pervert others to the fame iniquity: A puniftiment too
fevere for any temporal laws to inflict and yet the
zeal of our anceftors imported it into this country } for
we find by Bratton, that in his time apoftates were to
J be
A P O [ 4?i ] A P O
Apotlaiy be burnt to death. Doubtlefs the prefervation of Chri-
|{ ftianity, as a national religion, is, abftra&ed from its
; Apoftle. . 0Avn Jntrinfic truth, of the utmoft confequence to the
* ” civil date: which a fingle inftance will fufficiently de-
jnonftrate. The belief of a future date of rewards and
punifliments, the entertaining juft ideas of the moral
attributes of the fupreme Being, and a firm perfuafion
that he fuperintends and will finally compenfate every
atlion in human life (all which are clearly revealed in
the dodtrines, and forcibly inculcated by the precepts,
of our Saviour Chrift), thefe are the grand foundation
of all judicial baths : which call God to witnefs the
truth of thole facts, which perhaps may be only
known to him and the party attefting: all moral evi¬
dence therefore, all confidence in human veracity,
mult be weakened by apoftafy, and overthrown by to¬
tal infidelity. Wherefore all affronts to Chriftianity,
or endeavours to depreciate its efficacy, in thofe who
have once profeffed it, are highly deferving of cenfure.
But yet the lofs of life is a heavier penalty than the
offence, taken in a civil light, deferves ; and, taken in
a fpiritual light, our laws have no jurifdi£tion over it.
This puniffiment, therefore, has long ago become ob-
folete ; and the offence of apoftafy was, for a long time,
the object only of the ecclefiaftical courts, which cor¬
rected the offender pro falute animce. But about the
clofe of the laft century, the civil liberties to which
we were then reftored being ufed as a cloak of maliei-
oufnefs, and the moft horrid doctrine fubverfive of all
religion being publicly avowed both in difcourfe and
writings, it was thought neceffary again for the civil
power to interpofe, by not admitting thofe mifcreants
to the privileges of fociety, who maintained fuch prin¬
ciples as deftroyed all moral obligation. To this end
it was enaCted, by ftatute 9 and 10 William III. c. 32.
That if any perfon educated in, or having made pro-
feffion of the Chriftian religion, ffiall, by writing,
printing, teaching, or advifed fpeaking, deny the
Chriftian religion to be true, or the holy Scriptures to
be of divine authority, he ffiall, upon the fir ft offence,
be rendered incapable to hold any office or place of
truft} and, for the fecond, be rendered incapable of
bringing any aCtion, or of being guardian, executor,
legatee, or purchafer of lands, and ffiall fuffer three
years imprifoment without bail. To give room, how¬
ever, for repentance, if, within four months after the
firft conviftion, the delinquent will in open court pub¬
licly renounce his error, he is difeharged for that once
from all difabilities.
APOSTATA CAPIENDO, in the Englifh Law, a
writ that formerly lay againft a perfon who, having
entered into fome order of religious, broke out again,
and wandered up and down the country.
APOSTATE, one who deferts his religion. Among
the Romanifts, it fignifies a man who, without a legal
difpenfation, forfakes a religious order of which he had
made profeffion. -
A POSTERIORI, or demonftration a pojleriori.
See Demonstration.
APOSTIL, in matters of literature, the fame with
a marginal note.
APOSTLE properly fignifies a meffenger or perfon
fent by another upon fome bufinefs; and hence, by
way of eminence, denotes one of the difciples commif-
fioned by Jefus Chrift to preach the gofpel.
Our bleffed Lord feleCted twelve out of the number Apoftle.
of his difciples to be invefted with the apoftleffiip. Their ——y——
names were Simon Peter, Andrew, James the greater,
John, Philip, Bartholomew, Thomas, Matthew, James
the lefs, Jude, furnamed Lebbeus or Thaddeus, Simon
the Canaanite, and Judas Ifcariot. Of thefe, Simon,
Andrew, James the greater, and John, were fiffier-
men j and Matthew a publican, or receiver of the pub¬
lic revenues : of what profeffion the reft were, we are
not told in Scripture : though it is probable they were
fiffiermen.
There are various conjeCtures as to the reafon of our
Saviour’s making choice of twelve apoftles. The moft
probable is, that it might be in allufion to the twelve
patriarchs, as the founders of their feveral tribes j or to
the twelve chief heads or rulers of thofe tribes, of which
the body of the Jewiffi nation confifted. This opinion
feems to be countenanced by what our Saviour tells his
apoftles, that “ when the Son of man ffiall fit on the
throne of his glory, they alfo ffiall fit upon twelve
thrones judging the twelve tribes of Ifrael.”
Our Lord’s firft commiffion to his apoftles was in the
third year of his public miniftry, about eight months
after their folemn eleftion j at which time he fent them
out by two and two. They.were to make no provifion
of money for their fubfiftence in their journey, but to
expeCt it from thofe to whom they preached. They
were to declare, that the kingdom of heaven, or the
Meffiah, was at hand $ and to confirm their doiftrine
by miracles. They were to avoid going either to the
Gentiles or to the Samaritans, and to confine their
preaching to the people of Ifrael. In obedience to
their Matter, the apoftles went into all the parts of
Paleftine inhabited by the Jews, preaching the gofpel,
and working miracles. The evangelical biftory is
filent as to the particular circumftances attending this
firft preaching of the apoftles; and only informs us,
that they returned, and told their Mafter of all that
they had done.
Their fecond commiffion, juft before cur Lord’s afcen-
fion into heaven, was of a more extenfive and particular
nature. They were now not to confine their preaching
to the Jews, but to “ go and teach all nations, bap¬
tizing them in the name ef the Father, and of the Son,
and of the Holy Ghoft.” Accordingly they began
publicly, after our Lord’s afcenfion, to exercife the of¬
fice of their miniftry, working miracles daily in proof
of their miffion, and making great numbers of converts
to the Chriftian faith. This alarmed the Jewifti San¬
hedrim j whereupon the apoftles were apprehended,
and being examined before the high prieft and elders,
were commanded not to preach any more in the name
of Chrift. But this injun&ion did not terrify them
from perfifting in the duty of their calling j for they
continued daily, in the temple, and in private houfes,
teaching, and preaching the gofpel.
After the apoftles had exercifed their miniftry for
twelve years, in Paleftine, they refolved to difperfe
themfelves in different parts of the world, and agreed
to determine by lot what parts each ffiould take. Ac¬
cording to this divifion, St Peter went into Pontus,
Galatia, and thofe other provinces of the Leffer Afia.
St Andrew had the vaft northern countries of Scythia
and Sogdiana allotted to his portion. St John’s was
partly the fame with Peter’s, namely the Leffer Afia.
St
Apoftle.
A P O . E 47
St Philip had the Upper Afia affxgned to him, with
feme parts of Scythia and Colchis. Arabia Felix fell
to St Bartholomew’s (hare. St Matthew preached m
Chaldea, Perfia, and Parthia. St Thomas preached
likewife in Parthia ; as alfo to the Hyrfcamans, Baari-
ans, and Indiana St James the lefs continued in Je-
rufalem, of which church he was bifhop. St Simon
had for his portion Egypt, Gyrene, Libya, and Mau¬
ritania ; St Jude, Syria and Mefopotamia; and St Mat¬
thias, who was chofen in the room of the traitor Ju¬
das, Cappadocia and Colchis. Thus, by the difperfion
Of the apoftles, Chriftianity was very early planted in
a great many parts of the world. We have but very
flrort and im per fed accounts of their travels and ac-
In order to qualify the apoftles for the arduous talk
of converting the world to the Chnftian religion, they
were, in the firft place, miraculoufty enabled to ipeak
the languages of the feveral nations to whom they were
to preach i and, in the fecond place, were endowed
with the power of working miracles, m confirmation
of the doctrines they taught j gifts which were unne-
ceffary, and therefore ceafed, in the after ages of the
church, when Chriftianity came to be eftabhftied by
the civil power. f
St Paul is frequently called the apojlle, by way ot
eminence ; and the apojlle of the Gentiles, becaufe his
miniftry was chiefly made ufe of for the converfion ot
the Gentile world, as that of St Peter was for the
Jews, who is therefore ftyled the apojlle of the circum-
cifton. The feveral apoftles are ufually reprefented
with their refpeftive badges or attributes *, St Peter
with the keys -, St Paul with a fword ; St Andrew
with a crofs or faltierj St James minor with a fuller s
pole ; St John with a cup, and winged ferpent flying
from it St Bartholomew with a knife St Philip with
a long ftaff, whofe upper end is formed into a crofs > St
Thomas with a lance St Matthew with a hatchet j St
Matthias with a battle axe; St James major with a
pilgrim’s ftaff and a gourd bottle ; St Simon with a law ;
and St Jude with a club.
This appellation was alfo given to the ordinary tra¬
velling minifters of the church.—Thus St Paul, in the
Epiftle to the Romans, xvii. 7. fays, “ Salute Andro-
nicus and Junia, my kinfmen and fellow prifoners, who
are of note among the apoftles.” It was hkewiie a
title given to thofe fent by the churches to carry their
alms to the poor of other churches. This ufage they
borrowed from the fynagogues, who called thofe whom
they fent on this meffage by the fame name ; and the
function or office itfelf httotoM, apojlle, q. d. miffion.
Thus St Paul, writing to the Philippian?, tells them
that Epaphroditus their apoftle had miniftered to his
wants, ch. ii. 25.
The appellation is given in like manner to thole per-
fons who firft planted the Chriftian faith in any place.
Thus Dionyfills of Corinth is called the apojlle of
France ; Xavier, the apojlle of the Indies, &c. In the
Eaft Indies the Jefuit miffionaries are alfo called a-
pojlles.
Apostle is alfo ufed among the Jews for a kind
of officer anciently fent into the feveral parts and pro¬
vinces in their jurifdiaion, by way of vifitor or com-
miffary, to fee that the laws were duly obferved, and
to receive the moneys colle&ed for the reparation of
2 ] A P O
the temple, and the tribute payable to the Romans.
The Theodofian code, lib. 14. De Judceis, calls thofe
apojloli, qui ad exigendutn aurum atque argentum, a pa-
tr litre ha certo tempore diriguntur, Julian the apoftate
remitted the Jews the apjlle, eixo^roM ; that is, as he
himfelf explains it, the tribute they had been accu-
ftomed to fend him. Thefe apoftles were a degree
below the officers of the fynagogue called patriarchs,
and received their commiffions from them. Some au¬
thors obferve, that St Paul had borne this office ; and
that it is this he alludes to hi the beginning of the
epiftle to the Galatians ; as if he had faid, Paul, no
longer an apoftle of the fynagogue, nor fent thereby
to maintain the law of Mofes, but now an apoftle and
envoy of Jefus Chrift, &c. St Jerome, though be does
not believe that St Paul had been an apoftle of this
kind, yet imagines that he alludes to it in the paffage
juft cited. # , .,1
Apostle, in the Greek liturgy, is particularly
ufed for a book containing the epiftles of St Paul,
printed in the order wherein they are to be read in
churches, through the courfe of the year. Another
book of the like kind, containing the Gofpels, is called
E^fyeAn,, G of pel.—The apoftle, of late days has alio
contained the other canonical epiftles, the A«s of the
Apoftles, and the Revelation. Hence it is alfo called
ABs of the Apoflies, ; that being the hrlt
book in it. .
Apostle is alfo thought by many to have been the
original name for biffiops, before the denomination
bi/Up was appropriated to their order. Ihus 1 heodo-
ret fays exprefsly, the fame perfons were anciently call¬
ed promifeuoufly both biihops and preffiyters, whilft
thofe who are now called biihops were called apof/es.
In the arfenal of Bremen, there are twelve pieces of
cannon called the Twelve Apojlles, on a fuppofition that
the whole world muft be convinced, and acquieice in
the preaching of fuch apoftles. f ,
Apostles Creed: a formula, or fummary ot the
Chriftian faith, drawn up, according to Ruffinus, by
the apoftles themfelves: who, during their flay at Je-
rufalem, foon after the Lord’s afeenfion, agreed upon
this creed, as a rule of faith, and as a word of di/linc-
tion by which they were to know friends from toes.
Baronius, and fome other authors, conjecture, that
they did not compofe it till the fecond year of the reign
of Claudius, a little before their difperfion. As to
their manner of conapofing it, fome fancy, that eac
apuftle pronounced his article, which is the realon ot
its being called fymbolum apqftolicum, it being made up
ot fentences jointly contributed, after the manner of
perfons paying each their club (fymbolum) or ffiare of
a reckoning. *
But there are reafons which may induce us to qu
ftion whether the apoftles compofed any fuch creed as
this. For, firft. Neither St Luke in the Afts, nor any
other ecclefiaftical writer before the 5th century, ma'e
any mention of an affembly of the apoftles in order to
the compofing of a creed. Secondly, The at ers 0
the three firft centuries, in deputing agamft the here¬
tics, endeavoured to prove that the doftrme contained
in this creed was the fame which the apoftles taught ;
but they never pretend that the apoftles compoled it.
Thirdly, If the apoftles had made this creed, it would
have been the fame in all churches, and in all ages;
Apoftle.
A P O f 473 ] A P O
Apoftolare and all authors would have cited it after the fame man-
11 ner. But the cafe is quite otherwife. In the fecond
Apoftolic. an(j third ages of the church, there were as many
creeds as authors, and one and the fame author fets
down the creed after a different manner in feveral pla¬
ces of his works 5 which is an evidence that there was
not at that time any creed which was reputed to be
the apoftles. In the fourth century Ruffinus compares
together the three ancient creeds of the churches of
Aquileia, Rome, and the Eaft, which differ very con-
fiderably in the terms. Befides, thefe creeds differed
not only in the terms and expreffions, but even in the
articles, fome of which were omitted in one or other
of them ; fuch as thofe of the defcent into hell, the com¬
munion of the faints, and the life everlajling. From
thefe reafons it may be gathered, that though this
creed may be faid to be that of the apoftles in regard
to the doftrines contained therein, yet it is not to be
referred to them as the authors and firft compofers of
it. Who was the true author of it, is not eafy to de¬
termine ; though its great antiquity may be inferred
from hence, that the whole form, as it now Hands in
the Englifh liturgy, is to be found in the works of
St Ambrofe and Ruffinus, the former of whom flou-
riftied in the third century, and the latter in the fourth
century.
The primitive Chriftians, in regard they always con¬
cealed this and their other myfteries, did not publicly
recite the creed, except at the times of baptifm •, which,
unlefs in cafe of neceflity, were only in Eafter and
Whitfuntide. The conftant repeating of it was not in¬
troduced into the church till the end of the fifth cen¬
tury $ about which time Petrus Gnapheus, biftiop of An¬
tioch, prefcribed the recital of it every time divine fer-
vice was performed.
APOSTOLARE, Apostolicare, apofolixing, in
fome middle age writers, denotes the being preferred to
the dignity of pope.
APOSFOLATE, in a general fenfe, is ufed for
miffion. In this fenle, Olearius has a difcourfe con¬
cerning the apoftolate of Chrift.
APOSTOLATE more properly denotes the dignity or
office of an apoftle of Chrift ; but it is alfo ufed, in
ancient writers, for the office of a biftiop. In this
fenfe we meet with feveral letters, petitions, requefts,
&c. direfled to biftiops, under the title of your apojlo-
late, or apojlolatus vejler. But as the title apojlolicus
had been appropriated to the pope, fo that of apojlo-
late became at length reftrained to the foie dignity of
the popedom. Every biffiop’s fee was anciently dig¬
nified with the title of fedes apojlolica, an apoftolical
fee, which is now the peculiar denomination of the fee
of Rome.
APOSTOLI, in Law, denote thofe letters miflive
which are demanded in cafes of appeal.
APOSTOLIC, Apostolical, fomething that re¬
lates to the apoftles, or defcends from them. Thus we
fay, the apojlolical age, apojlolical doftrine, apojlolical
chara&er, conftitutions, traditions, &c.
Apostolic, in the primitive church, was an appel¬
lation given to all fuch churches as were founded by
the apoftles j and even to the biftiops of thofe churches,
as being the reputed fucceflors of the apoftles.—Thefe
were confined to four, viz. Rome, Alexandria, Anti¬
och, and Jerufalem, - In after times, other churches
Vol. II. Part II,
affumed the fame quality, on account, principally, of Ayuftolit
the conformity of their doflrine with that of the I!
churches which ivere apoftolical by foundation, and Apofteha.
becaufe all biftiops held themfelves fuccelTors of the v ^
apoftles, or afted in their diocefe with the authority of
apoftles.
The firft time the term apojlolical is attributed to
biftiops, as fuch, is in a letter of Clovis to the council
of Orleans, held in 511, though that king does not
there exprefsly denominate them apojlolical {JwVapoflo-
hca fede dignijjimi) highly worthy of the apoftolical
fee. In 581, Guntram calls the bifliops, met at the
council of Ma^on, apojlolical pontiffs, apojlolici ponti-
fices.
In progrefs of time, the biftiop of Rome growing in
power above the reft, and the three patriarchates of
Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerufalem, falling into the
hands of the Saracens, the title apofo/ical was reftrained
to the pope and his church alone. Though fome of the
popes, and St Gregory the Great, not contented to hold
the title by this tenure, began, at length, to infift, that
it belonged to them by another and peculiar right, as
being the fucceffors of St Peter. The council of Rheims
in 1049 declared that the pope was the foie apoftolical
primate of the univerfal church. And hence a great
number of apoftolicals 5 apofolical fee, apojlolical nun¬
cio, apofolicalnotary, aprjlolical brief, apojto/icalchwa-
ber, apojlohcal vicar, &c.
Apostolical Conjlitutions. See Constitution.
Apostolical Traditions. See Tradition.
APOSTOLICAL Fathers is an appellation ufually given
to the writers of the firft century who employed their
pens in the caufe of Chriftianity. Of thefe writers,
Cotelerius, and after him Le Clerc, have publiftied a
colleflion in two volumes, accompanied both with their
own annotations and the remarks of other learned
men.
APOS1 OLIANS, a fe<ft of the Mennonites, which
firft fprung up in the year 1663, and derived its name
from Apoftool, one of the Mennonite minifters at Am-
fterdam. They concurred with them in do&rine, and
admitted to their communion thofe only who profeffed to
believe all the fentiments which are contained in their
public confefiion of faith.
APOSTOLICI, or Apostolics, was a name af¬
fumed by three different feels, on account of their pre¬
tending to imitate the manner and practice of the apo¬
ftles. The firft apoftolici, otherwife called udpotaBitee
and Apotaclici, rofe out of the Encratitae and Catha-
ri in the third century. They made profeflion of ab-
ftaining from marriage, and the ufe of wine, flefti, mo-
^ey, &c.
Gerhard Sagarelli was the founder of the fecond
fefl j he obliged his followers to go from place to
place as the apoftles did, to wander about clothed in
white, with long beards, difhevelled hair, and bare
heads, accompanied with women, whom they called
their fpiritual fifters. They likewife renounced all
kinds of property and poffeflions, inveighed againft the
growing corruption of the church of Rome, predi&ed
its overthrow, and the eftablifhment of a purer church
on its ruins. Sagarelli was burnt alive at Parma in
the year 1300, and was afterwards fucceeded by Dul-
cinus, who added to the character of an apoftle thofe
of a prophet and a general, and carried on a bloody
3 O and
A P O
[ 474 1
A P O
Apoftoli- and dreadful war for the fpce of more than two yean
cum againft fh-ynerius, bHhop of \ erce li 5 he was at len t
1! defeated and nut to death in a barbarous manner in the
Apoteichif- Neverthelefs, the feft fubfifted in France,
Germanv, and in other countries, till the beginning of
^ the 15th century, when it was totally extirpated under
- the pontificate of Boniface IX.. . f , ir. v
The other branch of apoftolici was of the tuelfll
century. Thefe alfo condemned marriage preierring
celibacy, and calling themfelves the chafte brethren
nnd fillers; though each was allowed a fpiritual filler,
Thom he ifved in a domeftic relat.on ; and on
tin, account they have charged tv.th concu^
nage
afide
the
n p •
APOSTOLICUM is a peculiar name given to a kind
of fong or hymn, anciently ufed in churches. 1 he
a no ft ol mum is mentioned by Greg 1 haumaturgus as
ufed in bis time. Voffius underftands it as %'ken of
the apoftles creed : Suieer thinks this impoffible, for
that this creed was then unknown in the churches of
,h APOSTROPHE, in Rhetoric, a figure by which
a perfon who is either abfent or dead is addrefled as if
lip3were prefent and attentive to us. I his figme is, m
boldnefs a degree lower than the addrefsto perfomfi-
ed oMs CSe? Personification) > fince it requires
a lefi effort of imagination to fuppofe perfons prefent
nvho are dead or abfent, than to animate mfenfible be¬
ings and direft our difeourfe to Uiem 1 he poems o
Oflian abound with the moft beautiful inftances of
this figure. “ Weep on the rocks of roaring winds,
O Maid of Iniftore ! Bend thy fair head over the waves,
,°hou fir than the ghoft of th, hilis ^™ » ^0--
a funbeam at noon over the filence of Morven . He is
fallen ! Thy youth is low : pale beneath the fword o
CUAiposTROFHE, in Grammar, the contra a ion of a
word by the ufe of a comma : as ca/t d for called, u
^'APOTACTITM, or Apotactici, an ancient fea,
who affeaing to follow the evangelical counfels.ofpo-
rr v and the examples of the apoftles and primitive
Chriftlans, renounced all their eflfeas and poffeffions.
It does not appear that they gave into any.errors du¬
ring their firft ftate ; fume ecclefiaftical writers allure
US they had divers holy virgins and martyrs under the
uerfecution of Dioclefian in the fourth century *, but
they afterwards fell into the opinions of the Encratitae
and taught that the renouncing of all riches was not
orlv a matter of counfel and advice but of precept
and neceftity. And hence the fixth law in the i heo-
dofian code joins the ApotadHt* with the Eunormans
an APOTEICHISMUS, in the ancient military art,
„ i-incl of line of circumvallation drawn round a place
in-order to befiege it. This tva, alfo called pen,^-
Ls The firft thing the ancients went about when
they defigned to lay clofe fiege to a place was the.apo-
teichifmus •, which fometimes confifted of a double wall
fieaed This anfwered to what are called lines <?/««-Apothecary
trlva'llation and circumvallation among the moderns. Apotheofis.
APOTHECARY, one who pradhles the art ot
pharmacy. In London, the apothecaries are one of
{he city companies. They were incorporated by a
charter from King James 1. procured at the folicita-
tion of Dr Maverne and Dr Aitkens; till that time
they only made a part of the grocers company ; plums
fugar, fpice, Venice treacle, mithndate &c. were fold
in the fame ftrop and by the fame perlon. The rea-
fonof feparating them was, that medicines might be
better prepared, and in oppofition to divers perfons
who impofed un wholefome remedies. on the people.
I « * i  11-* ninth
lies, or ill vvciaw I'   * -
make up their medicines according to the formulas pre-
feribed in the college difpenfatory j and are liable to
have their fliops vifited by the cenfors of the college,
who are empowered to deftroy fuch medicines as they
think not good. . ,
They have a hall in Black Friars, where there are
two fine laboratories, out of which all the. furgeons
chefts are fupplied with medicines for the Bntifti royal
naTo his maiefty belong two apothecaries : the falary
to the firft, 320I. *, to the fecond, 273I.—toe boule-
hold belong alio two. , . r, .
The charitable difpenfation of medicines by the L.hi-
nefe is well deferving notice. They have a ftone which
is ten cubits high, erefted in the public fquares of their
cities; on this ftone are engraven the names ot all torts
of medicines, with the price of each ; and when the poor
Hand in need of any relief from phyfic, they go to the
treafury, where they receive the price each meaicme is
Apothecary, Apot/iecanus-, in writers of the middle
aw, denotes a (hop-keeper or warehoufe-keeper.
° Apothecaries is alfoul'ed to denote a ftore-keeper,
or officer apoointed to have the direction of a magazine,
granary, &c. In which fenfe apotkecarn is fometimes
rendered by horearii and rationanu
APOTHEOSIS, in antiquity, a heathen ceremo¬
ny whereby their emperors and great men were placed
among the gods. The word is derived from and
©8os, God. ..
After the apotheofis which they alfo called deification
and confecration, temples, altars, and images were erect¬
ed to the new deity ; facrifices, &c. were offered, and
colleges of priefts inflituted. . . ,
It was one of the doctrines of Pythagoras, which he
had borrowed from the Chaldees, that virtuous perfons
after their death were raifed into the.order of the gods.
And hence the ancients deified all the inventors ot
things ufeful to mankind 5 and thofe who had done
anv important fervices to the commonwealth. Ilt>e'
rius propofed to the Roman fenate the apotheofis of
Jefus Chrift; as is related by Eufebius, Tertulhan, and
Chryfoftom. . ,
Juvenal rallying the frequent apotheofes, introduces
poor Atlas, complaining that he was ready to fink un¬
der the burden of fo many new gods a« were every day
. . , » 1 _ C    a cinnt ! tPOHS
Zri ,» the heavens. Senecakdicules the apotbeofia
or rampart, rant’d of ’ outPrmoft to keen off of Claudius with admirable humour. .
SrnSerJrom'comTng to the relief of the be- The ceremony, according to Herodian’s defcnp.mn.
A P P [ 475 ] A P P
Apothera- was as follows: After the body of the deceafed had
been burnt with the ufual foleftmities, an image of wax,
W ^ exadlly refembling him, was placed on an ivory couch,
Appar-tu \ i¥jiere jt jay £or feven (lays, attended by the fenate and
ladies of the higheft quality in mourning ; and then
the young fenators and knights bore the bed of Rate
through the Via Sacra to the old forum, and from
thence to the Campus Martius, where it was depofited
upon an edifice built in form of a pyramid. The bed
being thus placed amidR a quantity of fpices and other
combuftibles, and the knights having made a folemn
proceflion round the pile, the new emperor, with a
torch in his hand, fet fire to it, whilft an eagle, let fly
from the top of the building, and mounting in the air
with a firebrand, was fuppofed to convey the foul of
the deceafed to heaven j and thenceforward he was
ranked among the gods.
We often meet with the confecration or. apotheofis
of emperors reprefented on medals : where we fee the
pyramids of feveral ftories, each growing lefs and lefs ;
tve fee alfo the eagles flying away with the fouls of the
deceafed emperors. A gem in the mufeum of Bran¬
denburg reprefents the apotheofis of Julius Caefar,
mounted upon the celeftial globe, and holding a helm
in his hand, as if he were now the governor of heaven,
as before of the earth. See Deification.
APOTHERAPIA, (from I cure), in
Vhjfic, properly denotes a complete or finifhed cure.
Apotherapia is alfo ufed in the gymnaftic art, for
the laft part of all regular exercife, viz. fridlion, or unc¬
tion with oil, before as well as after bathing. The de-
fign of this was partly to cleanfe the fkin from any filth
or duft it might have contra&ed during the exercife,
and partly to remove wearinefs.
APOl'OME, in Geometry, the difference between
two incomrnenfurable lines.
Apotome, in Mujic, the difference between a
greater and a lelfer femi-tone $ exprelfed by the ratio,
1285125. _
APOTROPAi, (from aTctr^u, I avert), in the
ancient poetry, verfes compofed for averting the wrath
of incenfed deities 5 and the deities invoked for avert*
ing any threatened misfortune were called Apotrepe*
(ins; they were alfo called Alexiaci, from I
drive away ; and Averrunci from averrunco, which
denotes the fame.
APOZEM, in Medicine, the fame with decoclion.
See Decoction.
APPARATUS, a term ufed to denote a complete
fet of inftruments, or other utenfils, belonging to any
artift or machine.
Apparatus is frequently ufed for the operation of
cutting for the ftone. For this there are three forts .of
apparatus, viz. the fmall, great, and high apparatus.
See Surgery.
Apparatus is alfo ufed as a title of feveral books
compofed in form of catalogues, bibliothecas, diftion-
aries, &c. for the eafe and conveniency of ftudy. The
apparatus to Cicero is a kind of concordance, or col-
leflion of Ciceronian phrafes, &.c. The, apparatus
facer of Poffevin, is a collection of all kinds of eccle-
fiaftical authors, printed in 1611, in three volumes.—
Gloffaries, comments, &o» are alfo frequently called ap-
pnratufes.
APPARENT, in a general fenfe, fomething that Apparent,
is vifible to the eyes, or obvious to the underftanding. Apparition.
Apparent, among mathematicians and aflronomers,—-v——'
denotes things as they appear to us, in contradiflinc-
tion from real or true ; thus we fay, the apparent dia¬
meter, diflance, magnitude, place, figure, &c. of bo¬
dies.
APPARENT Heir, in Law. No inheritance can veft,
nor can any perfon be the aflual complete heir of ano¬
ther, till the ancellor is previoufly dead. Nemo efl luc¬
res viventis. Before that time the perfon who is next
in the line of fucceflion is called an heir apparent, or
heir prefumptive. Heirs apparent are fuch, wbofe right
of inheritance is indtfeafible, provided they outlive the
anceftor 5 as the eldeft fon or his iffue, who muff by
the courfe of the common law be heirs to the father
whenever he happens to die. Heirs prefumptive are
fuch, who, if the anceftor ftiould die immediately, would
in the prefent circumftances of things be his heirs :
but whofe right of inheritance may be defeated by the
contingency of fome nearer heir being born ; as a bro¬
ther, or nephew, whofe preramptive fucceflion may be
deftroyed by the birth of a child ; or daughter, whofe
prefent hopes may be hereafter cut oft by the birth of
a fon. Nay, even if the eftate hath defcended, by the
death of the owner, to fuch brother, or nephew, or
daughter, in the former cafes, the eftate (hall be di¬
verted, and taken away by the birth of a pofthumous
child ; and, in the latter, it ftiall alfo be totally divefted
by the birth of a port humous fon.
APPARITION, in a general fenfe, denotes Amply
the appearance of a thing. In a more limited fenfe,
it is ufed for a fpeCIre or ghoft. Several inftances of
apparitions occur in the Bible ; that of Samuel, raifed
by the witch of Endor, has occafioned great difputes.
We find great controverfies among authors, in relation
to the reality, the exiftence or iion-exiftence, the pofli-
bility or impoflibility, of apparitions. The Chaldeans,
the Jews, and other nations, have been the fteady af-
fertors of the belief of apparitions. The denial of
fpirits and apparitions is by fome made one of the
marks of infidelity, if not of atheifm. Many of the ap¬
paritions we are told of in writers, are doubtlefs mere
delufions of the fenfe 5 many others are fiflitious, con¬
trived merely to amufe, or anfwer fome purpofe. Ap¬
paritions, it is certain, arfe machines that on cceafion
have been of good fervice both to generals, to minifters
of ftate, to priefts, and others.
Partial darknefs, or obfcurity, are the molt powerful
means by which the fight is deceived : night is there¬
fore the proper feafon for apparitions. Indeed the fta te
of the mind, at that time, prepares it for the adm iflion
of thefe delufions of the imagination. The fear and
caution which muft be obferved in the night 5 the op¬
portunity it affords for ambufcades and aflaftinatVvOs j
depriving us of fociety, and (cutting off many pleafing
trains of ideas, which objects in the light never fa// to
introduce, are all circumftances of terror : and perhaps,
on the whole, fo much of our happine/s depends upon
our fenfes, that the deprivation of any one may 6a at¬
tended with proportionable horror and uneafimAe. The
notions entertained by the ancients refpefling the foul,
may receive fome illuftration from thefe pxinc pies. In
dark or twilight, the imagination frequently transforms
3 O 2 an
A P P [ 47
Apparitor an inanimate body into a human figure ; on approach-
' (1 ing, the fame appearance is not to be found : hence
Appeal, they fometimes fancied they faw their anceftors; but
' 'v ' not finding the reality, diftinguHhed thefe illufions by
the name of Jhades.
Many of thefe fabulous narrations might originate
from dreams. There are times of (lumber when we are
not fenfible of being alleep. On this principle, Hoboes
has ingenioufiy accounted for the fpeftre which is find
to have appeared to Brutus. “ We read,” fays he,
“ of M. Brutus, that at Philippi, the night before he
gave battle to Auguftus Caefar, he faw a fearful appa¬
rition, which is commonly related by hiftorians as a
vifion ; but, confidering the circumftances, one may
eafily judge it to have been but a (hort dyeam. lor
fitting in his tent, penfive, and troubled with the hor¬
ror of his rafin add, it was not hard for him, Aumber-
ing in the cold, to dream of that which moft_ affright¬
ed him j which fear, as by degrees it made him wake,
fo it muff needs make the apparition by degrees to
vanilh : and having no affurance that he flept, he could
have no caufe to think it a dream, or any thing but a
vifion.”—The well known ftory told by Clarendon, of
the apparition of the duke of Buckingham s father,
will admit of a fimilar folution. There was no man
in the kingdom fo much the fubjedt of converfation as
the duke j and from the corruptnefs of his charadder,
he was very likely to fall a facrifice to the enthufiafm
of the times. Sir George Villiers is faid to have ap¬
peared to the man at midnight : therefore there is the
greateft probability that the man was afleep; and the
dream affrighting him, made a ftrong impreffion, and
was likely to be repeated.
APPARITOR, among the Romans, a general term
to comprehend all attendants of judges and magifirates
appointed to receive and execute their orders. Appa¬
ritor, in England, is a meffenger that ferves the procefs
of a fpiritual court, or a beadle in a univerfity who car¬
ries the mace.
APAUMEE, in Heraldry, denotes one hand ex¬
tended, with the full palm appearing, and the thumb
and fingers at full length.
APPEAL, in Law, the removal of a caufe from air
inferior to a fuperior court or judge, when a perfon
thinks himfelf aggrieved by the fentence of the inferior
judge. Appeals lie from all the ordinary courts of
juftice to the houfe of lords. In ecclefiafth al cafts,
if an appeal is brought before a bifhop, it may be re¬
moved to the archbiftiop ; if before an archdeacon,
to the court of arches, and thence to the archbiihop ;
and from the archbiflhop’s court to the king in chan-
Appeal, in Common Law, denotes an accufation by
a private fubje& againft another for fome heinous crime *,
demanding punifhment on account of the particular in¬
jury fuffered, rather than for the offence againil the
public.
This private procefs, for the pumihment ol public
crimes, had probably its original in thofe times, when
a private pecuniary fatisfaftion, called a weregi/d,. was
conftantly paid to the party injured, or his relations,
to expiate enormous offences. This W'as a cuftom de¬
rived to the Englilh, in common with other northern
nations, from their anceftors the ancient Germans-,
$mong whom, according to lacitus, Imtur homicidmm
3
6 ] A P P
certo armentorwn ac pecorum numero ; recipitque fat is- Appeal.
fatilioncm univerfa domus. In the fame manner, by the *
Irifii Brehon law, in cafe of murder, the brehon or
uuGe was ufed to compound between the murderer and
the friends of the deceafed who profecuted him, by
caufir.p- the malefaftor to give unto them, or to the child
or wife of him that was {lain, a recompenie which they
called an eriach. And thus we find in the Anglo-
Saxon laws (particularly thofe of King Athelftan) the
feveral weregiids for homicide etxablirtied in progreffive
order from' the death of the ceorl or peafant, up to
that of the king himfelf. And in the laws of Heniy
I. we have an account of what other offences were
redeemable by weregild, and what were not fo. As,
therefore, during the continuance of this cuftom, a pro¬
cefs was certainly given for recovering the weregild by
the party to whom it was due j it leems that, when „
thefe offences by degrees grew no longer redeemable,
the private procefs was ftill continued, in order to en-
fure the infliftion of puniftiment upon the offender,
though the party injured was allowed no pecuniary com-
penfation for the offence.
But though appeals were thus, in the nature cl pro-
fecutions for fome atrocious injury, committed more im¬
mediately againft an individual, yet it alfo was ancient¬
ly permitted, that any fubjecft might appeal another
fubjtcl of high treafon, either in the courts of common
law, or in parliament, or (for treafons committed be¬
yond the feas) in the court of the high conftable and
marfhal. The cognizance of appeals in the latter ftill
continues in force ; and fo late as 1631, there AVas a
trial by battle arvarded in the court of chivalry, on iuch
an appeal of treafon : but that in the firft was virtually
aboliftied by the ftatutes 5 Edw. III. c. 9. and 2 Edw.
III. c. 24. and in the fecond exprefsly by ftatute 1
Hen. IV. c. 14. So that the only appeals now in force
for things done within the realm, are appeals of felony
and mayhem.
An appeal of felony may be brought for crimes com¬
mitted either againft the parties themfelves or their re¬
lations. The crimes againft the parties themfelves are
larcenu, rape, and arfon. And for thefe, as well as un-
mayhem, the perfons robbed, ravilhed, maimed, or
whofe houfes are burnt, may inftitute this private pro¬
cefs. The only crime againft one’s relation, for avmcIi
an appeal can be brought, is that of killing him, by ei¬
ther murder or manflaughter. But this cannot be
brought by every relation } but only by the Avne for
the death of her hufband, or by the heir male for the
de'ath of his anceftor -, which heirfhip was alfo confined
by an ordinance of Henry I. to the four neareft de¬
grees of blood. It is given to the wife on account of
the lofs of her hufband -, therefore, if fhe marries again,
before or pending her appeal, it is loft and gone : or,
if fhe marries after judgment, fhe fhall not demand ex¬
ecution. The heir, as rvas faid, muft alfo be heir male>
and fuch a one as was the next heir by the courfe of
the common larv at the time of the kifting of the an¬
ceftor. But this rule has three exceptions: 1. It the
perfon killed leaves an innocent wife, fhe only, and not
the heir, fhall have the appeal. 2. If there be no wife,
and the heir be accufed of the murder, the perfon, who
next to him Avould have been heir male, fhall bring the
appeal. 3. If the Avife kills her hufband, the heir may
appeal her of the death. And, by the ftatute of ^^ou'
A P P t 477 ] A P P
cefter, 6 Edw. I. c. 9. all appeals of death muft be fued
within a year and a day after the completion of the fe¬
lony by the death of the party : which feems to be only
declaratory of the old common law ; for in the Gothic
conftitutions we find the fame, “ prafcriptio annalis, quce
currit adverfus adiorem, Ji de homicida ei non conjiat in¬
fra annum a ccede faEla, nec quenquam interea arguat et
accu/et.
Thefe appeals may be brought previous to any in-
diftment 5 and, if the appellee be acquitted thereon, he
cannot afterwards be indidled for the fame offence. In
like manner as by the old Gothic conftitution, if any
offender gained a verdidt in his favour, wrhen profecu-
ted by the party injured, he was alfo underftood to be
acquitted of any crown profecution for the fame of¬
fence ; but, on the contrary, if he made his peace with
the king, ftill he might be profecuted at the fuit of the
party. And fo, in England, if a man be acquitted on
an indidfment of murder, or found guilty, and pardoned
by the king, ftill he ought not (in ftridlnefs) to go at
large, but be imprifoned or let to bail till the year and
day be paft, by virtue of the ftatute 3 Hen. VIII. c. 1.
in order to be forthcoming to anfwer any appeal for
the fame felony, not having as yet been puniftied for it:
though, if he hath been found guilty of manflaughter
on an indidtment, and hath had the benefit of clergy,
and fuffered the judgment of the law, he cannot after¬
wards be appealed ; for it is a maxim in law, “ that
nemo bis punitur pro eodem deii&o.'n Before this fta¬
tute was made, it was not ufual to indidt a man for ho¬
micide within the time limited for appeals j which pro¬
duced very great inconvenience.
If the appellee be acquitted, the appellor (by vir¬
tue of the ftatute of Weftm. 2. 13 Edw. I. c. 12.)
{hall fuller one year’s imprifonment, and pay a fine to
the king, befides reftitution of damages to the party
for the imprifonment and infamy which he has fuftain-
ed : and, if the appellor be incapable to make reftitu¬
tion, his abettors fliall do it for him, and alfo be liable
to imprifonment. This provifion, as was forefeen by
the author of Fleta, proved a great difcouragement to
appeals; fo that thenceforward they ceafed to be in
common ufe.
If the appellee be found guilty, he {hall fuffer the
fame judgment, as if he had been convidted by indidt¬
ment : but with this remarkable difference, that on an
indidtment, which is at the. fuit of the king, the king
may pardon and remit the execution ; on an appeal
which is at the fuit of a private fubjedt, to make an
atonement for the private wrong, the king can no more
pardon it, than he can remit the damages required on
an adtion of battery. In like manner as, while the
weregild continued to be paid as a fine for homicide,
it could not be remitted by the king’s authority. And
the ancient ufage was, fo late as Henry IV’s time, that
all the relations of the (lain fhould drag the appellee to
the place of execution : a cuftom, founded upon that
favage fpirit of family refentment which prevailed uni-
verfally through Europe after the irruption of the
northern nations, and is peculiarly attended to in their
feveral codes of law ; and which prevails even now
among the wild and untutored inhabitants of Ameri¬
ca : as if the finger of nature had pointed it out to
mankind, in their rude and uncultivated ftate. How¬
ever, the punilhment of the offender may be remitted
and difcharged by the concurrence of all parties inte- Appear-
refted ; and as the king by his pardon may fruftrate an ance
indiftment, fo the appellant by his releafe may dif- II
charge an appeal : “ nam quihbet potejl renunciare juri fp,na"
pro fe introduSio.'1'1 ■
APPEARANCE, in a general fenfe, the exterior
furface of a thing, or that which immediately ftrikes the
fenfes.
Appearance, in Law, fignifies a defendant’s filing
a common or fpecial bail, on any procefs iffued out of a
court of judicature.
APPELLANT, in a general fenfe, one who appeals.
See Appeal.
Appellants, in church hiftory, an appellation given
to fuch of the catholic clergy as appeal from the confti¬
tution unigenitus to a general council.
APPELLATION, the name by which any thing
is known or diftinguiftied when fpoken of. See Name.
Nothing can be more foreign to the original mean¬
ing of many words and proper names, than their pre-
fent appellations, frequently owing to the hiftory of
thofe things being forgotten, or an ignorance of the
language in which they were expreffed. Who, for ex¬
ample, when the crier of a court bawls out, “ O yesr
O yes,” would dream that it was a proclamation com¬
manding the talkers to become hearers, being the
French word Oye<z, “ liften,” retained in our courts
ever fince the law pleadings were held in French ? Or
would any perfon fuppofe that the headland em the
French coaft, near Calais, called by our feamen Black-
nefs, would be fo titled from its French name of Blanc
Nez, or the White Headland.
King Henry the Eighth having taken the town of
Boulogne in France, the gates of which he brought to
Hardes in Kent, where they are ftill remaining, the
flatterers ef that reign highly magnified this adtion,
which, Porto Bello like, became a popular fubjedt for
figns; and the port or harbour of Boulogne, called
Boulogne Mouth, was accordingly fet up at a noted
inn in Holborn. The name of the inn long outliving
the fign and fame of the conqueft, an ignorant painter,
employed by a no lefs ignorant landord, to paint a
new one, reprefented it by a bull and a large gaping
human mouth (anfwering to the vulgar pronunciation
of Bull and Mouth). The fame piece of hiftory gave
being to the bull and gate, originally meant for Bou-
logne gate, and reprefented by an embattled gate or en¬
trance into a fortified town.
The barbels pole has been the fubjedf of many con-
jedlures; fome conceiving it to have originated from
the word poll, or head, with feveral other conceits as
far-fetched and as unmeaning : but the true intention
of that party-coloured ftaff was to fhow that the ma¬
iler of the fhop pradlifed furgery, and could breathe a
vein as well as mow a beard ; fuch a ftaff being to this
day, by every village pradlitioner, put into the hand of
a patient undergoing the operation of phlebotomy.
The white band which encompaffes the ftaff, was
meant to reprefent the fillet, thus elegantly twined
about it.
Nor were the chequers, (at this time a common fign
of a public houfe) lefs expreffive, being the reprefenta-
tion of a kind of draught-board called tables, and fliow-
ed that there that game might be played. From their
colour, which was red, and the fimiliarity to' a lattice,
* A P P [
Appellative It Was corruptly called the red lettuce, which word is
'* |S frequently ufed by ancient writers to fignify an ale-
Appetite. l10Ufe<
 ' The Speftator has explained the fign of the bell-fa-
vage inn plaufibly enough, in fuppofmg it to have been
originally the figure of a beautiful female found in the
woods, called in French la belle fauvage. But another
reafon has fince been affigned for that appellation,
namely, that the inn was once the property of Lady ii-
rabclla Savage, and familiarly called Bell Savage's Inn,
probably reprefented, as at prefent, by a bell and a fa-
vao-e or wild man, which was a rebus for her name •,
rebmTes being much in faihion in the 16th century y of
which the bolt and tun is an inilance.
The three blue balls prefixed to the doors and win¬
dows of pawnbrokers {hops, by the vulgar humoroufly
enough faid to indicate that it is two to one that the
things pledged are never redeemed, was in reality the
arms’ o£ a let of merchants from Lombardy, who were
the firtl that publicly lent money on pledges. They
dwelt together in a ftreet, from them named Lombard
Street, in London, and alfo gave their name to an¬
other at Paris. The appellation of Lombard was for¬
merly all over Europe conlidered as fynonymous with
that of ufurer.
At the inftitution of yeomen of the guards, they
ufed to wait at table on all great Solemnities, and were
rarmed near the buffets -, this procured thena the name
of buffetiers, not very unlike in found to the jocular ap¬
pellation of beef-eaters, now given them ; though pro¬
bably it was rather the voluntary mifnomer of fome
wicked wit, than an accidental corruption arifing from
ignorance of the French language. _
The opprobrious title of bum bayliffe, fo conllantly
beftowed on the (heriff’s officers, is, according to Judge
Blackftone, only the corruption of bound baylife, every
fheriff’s officer being obliged to enter into bonds and
to give fecurity for his good behaviour, previous to his
appointment.
A cordwnmer feems to have no relation to the occu¬
pation it is meant to exprefs, which is that of a ffioe-
maker. But cordonier, originally fpelt cordaumer, is the
French word for that trade; the bell; .leather ufed for
fhoes coming originally from Cordova in Spain. Spa-
nifh-leatber Ihoes were once famous in England.
APPELLATIVE NAMES, in Grammar, incontra-
diftinftion to proper names, are fuch as Hand for uni-
verfal ideas, or a whole rank of beings, whether gene¬
ral or fpecial. Thus, fjb, bird, man, city, river, aie
common or appellative names y and fo are trout, eel,
lobfer; for they all agree to many individuals, and
fome to many fpecies. See Name.
APPELLEE, among lawyers, the perfon againft
whom an appeal is brought. See Appeal.
APPENDIX, in literature, a treatife or fupple-
ment added at the end of a work, to render it more
complete.
APPERCEPTION, or Adperception, a term
ufed by Leibnitz and his followers for confcioufnefs.
APPETITE, in a general fenfe, the defire of en¬
joying fume objt,a, fuppofed to be conducive to our
bappinefs. When this inclination is guided by reafon,
and proportioned to the intrinfic value of the obje£l, it
is called rational appetite ; as, on the other hand, it is
denominated fenjitive appetite, when we have only a
2
473 1 A P P
blind propenfity to a thing, without determinate ideas
of the good qualities for which we defire it.
Appetites are paffions dire tied to general objecls, in  
contradiftin&ion to paffions direfted to particular ob-
je£ts, which retain their proper name. Lous v.e fay,
an appetite for fame, for glory, for conqueit, for liches;
but we fay the pujfion of love, of gratitude, of envy,
&c. Appetite may be alfo diftinguillied from paffion,
fince the latter has no exiftence till a proper objecl be
prefented ; whereas the former exifts firff, and then is
dire<5led to an objeft.
Appetite, in Medicine, a certain painful or uneafy
fenfation, always accompanied with a defire to eat or
drink. An exceffive rppetite is called by pbyficians
bulimy or fames camna ; a defeat or lofs of it, anorexy ;
and that after things improper for food, pica.
APPIA via, a way reaching from Rome through
Capua to Brundufmra, between 330 and 350 miles long.
Appius Claudius, furnamed Cacus, in the year of the
city 441, carried it from the Porta Capena to Capua
(Livy, Frontinus). It was afterwards carried on ta
Brundufium ; but by whom, or when, is uncertain.. It
was laid with very hard ftone, brought from a great di-
ftance, large, and fquared (Diodorus) ; and it wras fo
wide, that feverel waggons could go abreaft. . Statius
calls it the queen of roads. Its courfe is deferibed by
Horace, Strabo, and Antonine.
APPIAN, an eminent writer of the Roman hiftory
in Greek, under4the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. He
was of a good family in Alexandria in Egypt ^ whence
he went ’to Rome, and there diftinguifhed himfelf fo
well as an advocate, that he was chofen one of the pro¬
curators of the empire, and the government of a pro*
vince was committed to him. He did not complete.the
Roman hiftory in a continued feries; but wrote diftind
hiftories of all nations that had been conquered by the
Romans, in which he placed every thing relating to
thole nations in the proper order of time. His ftyle is
plain and Ample: in the opinion of Phocius,. he has
Ihown the greateft knowledge of military affairs, and
the happieft talent at deferibing them, of any of the
hiftorians ; for while we read him, we in a manner fee
the battles which he deferibes. Of all this voluminous
\vork there remains only what treats of the Punic, Sy¬
rian, Parthian, Mithridatic, and Spaniffi wars, with
thofe againft Hannibal, the civil wars, and the wars m
Illyricum, and fome fragments of the Celtic or Gallic
wars.
APPIUS Claudius, a Sabine by birth, one of the
principal inhabitants of Regillum : His ftiining merit
having drawn the envy of his fellow citizens upon him,
he retired to Rome with all his family. Appius was
admitted into the fenate, and was made conful with
Publius Servilius Prifcus, in 258 from the building of
Rome ; but he wa$ hated by the plebeians, being an
auftere oppofer of their clamours and feditions. The
Claudian family continued long one of the moft illuftri-
ous of the patrician families in Rome ; and feveral in
fucceffion of the name of Appius fupported the fame
ftern charafler that diftinguilhed their firft founder.
APPLAUSE, an approbation of fomething, figni-
fied by clapping the hands, ftill pra&ifed in theatres.
 Applaufe, in antiquity, differed from acclamation,
as the latter was articulate and performed with the
voice, the former with the hands. Among the Ro¬
mans,
Appetite'
II .
Applaufe.
A !> P [ 479 ] A P P
Apple man?, applaufe was an artificial raufical kind of noife,
|! made by the audience or fpcftators to exprefs their fa-
Appointee. t;>,fa£Hon. There were three fpecies of applaufe, de-
1 nominated from the different noifes made in them, viz.
Bombus. Imbrices, and Tejlce; the firft a confufed din,
made either by the hands or the mouth 5 the fecond
and third, by beat ing on a fort of founding veffels pla¬
ced in the theatres for this purpofe. Perfons were in-
ftrufted to give applaufe with fkill •, and there were
even mailers who profeffed to teach the art. Ti he pro¬
ficients in this way let themfelves out for hire to the
vain glorious among the poets, adlors, &c. and were
properly difpofed to fupport a loud applaufe. Thefe
they called Laudiccem, and ZotpaxAsij* At the end of
the play, a loud peal of applaufe was expefted, and
even afked of the audience, either by the chorus or
the perfons who fpoke lalf. The formula was Specla-
tores plaudite, or Valete et plaudite. The plaufores, or
applauders, were divided into chori, and difpofed in
theatres oppofite to each other, like the chorifters in
cathedrals, fo that there was a kind of concert of ap-
plaufe«.
APPLE, the fruit of the pyrus malus. See Pyrus,
Botany Index.
Apple of the Eye, a name notunfrequently given to
the pupil. See Anatomy.
Apples of Love. See Lycopersicon, Botany
Index.
Mad Apples. See Melongena, Botany Index.
APPLEBY, the county town of Weftmoreland,
where the affizes are held, is feated on the banks of the
river Eden, which almoft furrounds it. It was for¬
merly a very confiderable town, and had great privi¬
leges : but it is long ago gone to decay, and now only
confifts of mean houfes in one broad ftreet, which runs
with an eafy afcent from north to fouth ; at the head of
which is the caftle, almoft entirely furrounded by the
river. It has two churches-, a town-hall, in which the
affizes are held ; a county jail ; and an hofpital for a
governefs and twelve widows, founded in 1651 by a
daughter of Lord Clifford. It is governed by a mayor,
twelve aldermen, a common council, and two ferjeanirs
at mace, &c. Here is faid to be the beft corn market
in thefe northern parts. It fends two members to par¬
liament. W. Long. 3. 52. N. Lat. 54. 30.
APPLICATION, in a general fenfe, is the laying
two things together, in order to difcover their agree¬
ment or difagreement.
Application, in Geometry, is ufed either for divi-
fion 5 for applying one quantity to another, whofe areas,
but not figure, ffiall be the fame ■, or, for transferring
a given line into a circle or other figure, fo that its
ends fhall be in the perimeter of the figure.
Application, in Theology, is particularly ufed, by
fome divines, for the a£t whereby our Saviour transfers,
or makes over to us, what he had earned or purchafed
bv his holy life and death. Accordingly it is by this
application of the merits of Chrift that we are to be ju-
ftified and entitled to grace and glory. The facraments
are the ordinary means or inftruments whereby this ap¬
plication is effedled.
APOGGIATUBA, in Mufc, a fmall note inferted
by the praftical mufician, between two others, at fome
diftance.
APPOINTEE, a foot foldier in the French army s
before the revolution, See. who for long fervice and bra- Appointee
very received pay above private fentinels. They were II
fuppreffed in France, except in the regiment of French
guards, where forty appointees were retained-to each < T ^ i
company of 150 men.
Tift the year 1670, they had alfo captains and lieu¬
tenants under the appellation of appointees, who, with¬
out rending in the regiment, received their pay.
Appointee, in Heraldry, the fame as aguifee: Thus
we fay, a crofs appointee, to fignify that with two angles
at the end cut off, fo as to terminate in points.
APPOINTMENT, in a general fenfe, the fame as
Assignation.
Appointment, in a particular fenfe, denotes a pen-
fion or falary given by great lords and princes to per¬
fons of worth and parts, in order to retain them in their
fervice. The term is chiefly ufed among the French.
The king of France gave large appointments to fevc-
ral of the officers in his fervice. ■ Appointments differ
from wages, in that the latter are fixed and ordinary,
being paid by the ordinary treafurers •, whereas ap¬
pointments are annual gratifications granted by brevet
for a time uncertain, and are paid out of the privy
purfe.
APPOSER fignifies an examiner. In the court of
exchequer there is an officer called the foreign appofer~.
In the office of confirmation, in the firft liturgy of Ed¬
ward VI. the rubric dire6ts the biftiop, or fuch as he
fhall appoint, to appofe a child y and a bi(hop’s exami¬
ning chaplain was anciently called his pofer.
APPOSITION, in Grammar, the placing two or*
more fubftantives together, in the fame cafe, without
any copulative conjunction between them ; as Ardebat
Alcxitn, dehcias domini.
APPRAISER (from ad, “ to,” and pretium, “ va¬
lue”), one who rates or fets a value upon goods, &c.
He muft be a fkilful and honeft perfon. It is not a bu-
finefs of ilfelf, but is praCtifed by brokers of houfehold
furniture ; to which let of men the word is chiefly ap¬
plied : Yet upholflerers and other brokers are employ¬
ed, or ev m any perfon or perfons who are fuppofed to be
(killed in the commodities to be appraifed or valued.
They are employed in cafes of death, executions brought
in upon goods, or of ftoek to be turned over from one
perfon to another, or divided between copartners j and
are called [worn appraifers, from their taking an oath to
do juftice between party and party. They fometimes
appraife on behalf of both fides, each party agreeing to
have the fame appraifer or appraifers •, fometimes in 6p-
pofition, each party choofingone or more of a fide} and
fometimes by commiffion or deputation of truftees, ma'-
fters in chaneerv, &c.
APPRAISING, the a Cl of rating, valuing or fetting
a price on goods, bv a perfbn whoi s a competent judge,
and is authorized thereto. See Appraiser.
APPREHENSION, in Logic, denotes the Ample
attention of the mind to an objecl prefented either to
our fenfe or our imagination, without paffing a judge¬
ment or making any inference.
Apprehension, L Hkewife ufed to exprefs an ina¬
dequate and imperfeCI idea } and thus it is applied to
our knowledge of Gud, in contradiftinCHon to eompre-
henfion.
Apprehension, in Law, fignifies the feizing a cri¬
minal, in order to bring him to juftice.
APPRENTICE,,
A P P
[
Apprentice, APPREN FICE, (from apprendt'fp<i tolearn, ) one
Apprentice-w]10 js bound by covenant to ferve a tradefman or arti-
gcer a certain time, upon condition of the matter’s in-
,J" ^ ftrufling him in his art or myttery.
Apprentices may likewife be bound to hufbandmen,
or even to gentlemen j and they, as well as tradelmen
in England, are compellable to take the children of the
poor, whom the overfeers, with the confent of two juf-
iices, may bind till the age of 24 years. Apprentices
may be difeharged on reafonable caufe *, but if any,
whofe premium has been lefs than ten pounds, run away
from their matters, they are compellable to ferve out
the time of abfence, or give fatislaflion for it, at any
period within feven years after expiration of the original
contract. Apprentices gain a fettlement in that parifti
where they latt ferved 40 days } and by the 5th of Eli¬
zabeth, c. 4. they have an excluttve right to exercife
the trade in which they have been inftru&ed, in any
part of England. However, the refolutions of the
courts have in general rather confined than extended the
reftrielion of this ftatute. bee Blackftone s Com. vol. i>
p. 426, &c. # . .
In France, the fons of tradefmen, living in their fa¬
ther’s houfe till feventeen years of age, are reputed to
have ferved an apprenticeftiip. In that country, the
times of ferving are different in the different profeffions,
from three years to eight. After ferving out an ap-
prenticeftrip, the perfon becomes what they call an af-
pirant, or candidate for mafterlhip, and is to be exami¬
ned by proper officers as to his {kill and proficiency, and
alfo to exhibit a c/ief d'cewure or mafterpiece in the art
he has been bred to, before he be fuffered to fet up to
praftife for himfelf. And the cuftom of France in re¬
gard to apprentices, is not unworthy the imitation of
other nations.
Anciently, benchers in the inns of court were called
apprentices of the /aw, in Latin apprenticii juris nobih-
ores; as appears by Mr Selden’s note on Fortefcue :
and fo the learned Plowden ftyles himfelf. Sir Henry
Finch, in his Nomotechnia, writes himfelf, apprentice de
ley: Sir Edward Coke, in his Inf. fays, Apprenticii le-
gis, in pleading, are called homines confiliarn et in lege
periti; and in another place, apprentices and other coun-
fellors of law.
Apprentices indentures and articles of clerklhip, pay
of duty 6s. Parifh indentures are excepted, and pay
6d. only, by 5 William III. c. 21. For fees given with
apprentices, clerks, or fervants, bound or articled by
indentures, from il. to 50I. matters pay for every pound
6d. ; and for fees above 50I. one (hilling in the pound.
8 Ann. c. 9.
APPRENTICESHIP, the fervitude of an appren¬
tice, or the duration of his indenture.
Seven years feem anciently to have been, all over
Europe, the ufual term eftabliffied for the duration of
^pprenticettiips in the greater part of incorporated
trades. All fuch incorporations were anciently called
univerfties, which indeed is the proper Latin name
for anv incorporation whatever. The univerfity of
fmiths, the univerfity of taylors, &c. are expreffions
which we commonly meet with in the old charters of
ancient towns. When thofe particular incorporations
which are now peculiarly called univerfities were firft
eftablifhed, the term of years which it was neceffary to
Sudy, in order to obtain the degree of matter of arts,
480 ] A P P
appears evidently to have been copied from the term of Apprentice,
apprenticefliip in common trades, of which the incorpo- flop-
rations were much more ancient. As to have wrought v "'"'J
feven years under a matter properly qualified was ne¬
ceffary in order to entitle any perfon to become a ma¬
tter, and to have himfelf apprentices in a common trade 5
fo to have ttudied feven years under a matter properly
qualified was neceffary to entitle him to become a ma¬
tter, teacher or doftor (words anciently fynonymous),
in the liberal arts, and to have fcholars or apprentices
(words likewife originally fynonymous) to ftudy unaer
him.
By the 5th of Elizabeth, commonly called \\wfa-
tute of apprenticefjip, it was enabled, that no perfon
ttiould for the future exercife any trade, craft, or my-
ftery at that time exereifed in England, unlefs he had
previoufly ferved to it an apprenticefliip of feven years
at leaf! j and what before had been the bye-law of
many particular corporations, became in England the
general and public law of all trades carried on in
market towns. For though the words of the ftatute
are very general, and feem plainly to include the whole
kingdom, by interpretation its operation has been limit¬
ed to market towns ; it having been held, that in coun¬
try villages a perfon may exercife feveral different trades,
though he has not ferved a feven years apprenticeftiip to
each, they being neceffary for the conveniency of the
inhabitants, and the number of people frequently not
being fufficient to fupply each with a particular let of
hands.
By a drift interpretation of the words, too, the ope¬
ration of this ftatute has been limited to thofe trades
which were eftabliffied in England before the 5th of
Elizabeth, and has never been extended to fuch .as have
been introduced fince that time. X his limitation has
given occafion to feveral diftinftions which, confioered.
as rules of police, appear as foolifh as can well be ima¬
gined. It has been adjudged, for example, that a
coachmaker can neither himfelf make, nor employ jour¬
neymen to make his coach wheels, but mutt buy them
of a matter wheelwright, this latter trade having been
exercifed in England before the jjth of Elizabeth. But
a wheelwright, though he has never ferved an appren-
ticeftiip to a coachmaker, may either himfelf make, or
employ a journeyman to make, coaches ; the trade of a
coachmaker not being within the ftatute, becaufe not
exercifed in England at the time when it was made.
The manufafturers of Manchefter, Birmingham, and
Wolverhampton, are many of them upon this account
not within this ftatute •, not having been exercifed in
England before the 5th of Elizabeth.
In France the duration of apprenticeftiips is different
in different towns and in different trades. In Paris, five
years is the term required in a great number; but be¬
fore any perfon can be qualified to exercife the trade as
a matter, he muft, in many of them, ferve five years
more as a journeyman. During this latter term he is
called the companion of his matter, and the term itfelf is
called his companionfhip.
In Scotland there is no general law which regulates
univerfally the duration of apprenticeftiips. The term
is different in different corporations. WThere it is long,
a part of it may generally be redeemed by paying a
froall fine. In moft towns, too, a very fmall fine is
fufficient to purchafe the freedom of any corporation.
The
a P p r 481 ] a p p
Appren- Tlie weavers of linen and hempen cloth, the principal
ticeihips, manufactures of the country, as well as all other arti-
Apprifing. ficers fubfervient to them, wheelmakers, reedmakers,
i &c. may exercife their trades in any town corporate
without paying any fine. In all towns corporate, all
perfons are free to fell butcher’s meat upon any lawful
day of the week. Three years is in Scotland a com¬
mon term of apprenticelhip, even in fome very nice
trades : and in general there is no country in Europe
in which corporation laws are fo little oppreffive.
Apprenticefhips were altogether unknown to the
ancients. The reciprocal duties of mailer and appren¬
tice make a confiderable article in every modern code.
The Homan law is perfeftly filent with regard to them.
There is no Greek or Latin word which exprelfes the
idea we now annex to the word apprentice ; a fervant
bound to work at a particular trade for the benefit of
a mailer during a term of years, upon condition that
the mailer lhall teach him that trade.
Wealth of Long apprenticelhips Dr Smith confiders as alto-
Nations, gether unneceffary. The arts which are much fupe-
volj ^ rior to common trades, fuch as thofe of making clocks
^ ' and watches, contain no fuch myllery as to require a
long courfe of inllru61ion. The firlt invention of fuch
beautiful machines, indeed, and even that of fome
of the inftruments employed in making them, mull, no
doubt, have been the work of deep thought and long
time, and may jullly be confidered as among the hap-
piell efforts of human ingenuity : but when both
have been fairly invented and are well underllood 5 to
explain to any young man, in the completell manner,
how to apply the inltruments, and how to conllruft
the machines, cannot well require more than the lef-
fons of a few weeks j perhaps thofe of a few days might
be fufficient. In the common mechanic trades, thofe
of a few days might certainly be fufficient. The dex¬
terity of hand, indeed, even in common trades, cannot
be acquired without much pra61ice and experience.
But a young man would practice with much more
diligence and attention, if from the beginning he
wrought as a journeyman, being paid in proportion
to the little work which he could execute, and pay¬
ing in his turn for the materials which he might
fometimes fpoil through awkwardnefs and inexperi¬
ence. His education in this way generally would be
more effeflual, and always lefs tedious and expenfive.
The mailer, indeed, would be a lofer 5 he would lofe
all the wages of the apprentice, which he now' faves,
for feveu years together. In the end, perhaps, the
apprentice himfelf would be a lofer. In a trade fo
eafily learnt he would have more competitors ; and his
wages when he came to be a complete workman,
would be much lefs than at prefent. The fame in-
creafe of competition wmuld reduce the profits of the
mailers as well as the wages of the workmen. The
trades, the crafts, the mylteries, would be all lofers :
but the public would be a gainer : the work of all ar¬
tificers coming in this wTay much cheaper to market.
APPRISING, in Scots Law, the name of that ac¬
tion by which a creditor formerly carried off the ellate
of his debtor for payment. It is now abolilhed, and
adjudications are appointed in place of it. Adju¬
dications, charter, refignation, dare conjlat, cognition
°f. heirs, heritable right, confirmation, novodamus,
principal and original inllrument of furrender, retour,
Vcl. II. Part II.
feifin, and fervice in Scotland, pay by different a£ls Approach
4s. gd. duty. j]
APPROACH, or Approaching, in a general APProPnR-
fenfe, the acceding or coming together of turn or more tlf'u' ,
things. —y—
APPROACHES, in Fortification, the works thrown
up by the befiegers, in order to get nearer a fortrefs,
without being expofed to the enemy’s cannon.
APPROACHING, in fowling, a term ufed to ex-
prefs fuch devices as are contrived for the getting with¬
in Ihot of Ihy birds. It is principally ufed in marlhy
low places. The bell method of approaching is by
means of three hoops tied together at proper diftances
according to the height of the man that is to ufe it,
and having boughs of trees tied all round it, with cords
to hang it over his Ihoulders : a man getting into this,
conceals himfelf, and approaches by degrees towards
his game in the form of a moving buffi. Geefe, ducks,
and teal, quit the waters in the evening, and pafs the
night in the fields j but at the approach of morning
they return to the water again, and even when on the
water they will retire to great diftances, on the ap¬
proach even of a horfe or cow, fo that the bufinefs of
the ftalking horfe is of little ufe ; but this device of ap¬
proaching by the moving buffi fupceeds tolerably well
with them.
Approaching, in Gardening, the inoculating or
ingrafting the fprig of one tree into another, without
cutting it off the parent tree.
APPROBAI ION, a ftate or difpofition of the
mind, wherein we put a value upon, or become pleafed
with, fome perfon or thing. Moralifts are divided on
the principle of approbation, or the motive which de¬
termines us to approve and difapprove. The Epicu¬
reans will have it to be only felf-intereft : according to
them, that which determines any agent to approve his
own adlion, is its apparent tendency to his private hap-
pinefs ; and even the approbation of another’s aflion
flows from no other caufe but an opinion of its tenden¬
cy to the happineff of the approver, either immediate¬
ly or remotely. Others refolve approbation into a mo¬
ral fenfe, or a principle of benevolence, by which we are
determined to approve every kind affe61ion either in
ourfelves or others, and all publicly ufeful aflions,
which we imagine to flow from fuch affection, without
any view therein to our own private happinefs.
Approbation, is more particularly ufed, in {peak¬
ing of recommendations of books, given by perfons
qualified ©r authorized to judge of them. Thofe ap¬
pointed to grant licenfes and imprimaturs, frequently \
exprefs their approbation of books. Books were for¬
merly fubjefted to a licenfer in England, (fee 1 Jth
Car. II. c. 33.), which a£t is long fince expired ; and
being incompatible with the noble principles of the
Revolution, has never fince been, and it is hoped never
will be, revived.
APPROPRIA1 ION, in the canon law, a fever-
ipg of a benefice ecclefiaftical to the proper and per¬
petual ufe of fome religious houfe. See the article
Parson.
1 he contrivance of , appropriations feems to have
fprung from the policy of the monaftic orders, who
have never been deficient in fubtle inventions for the
increafe of their own power and emoluments. At
the firft: eftabliflunent of parochial clergy, the tithes
3 P of
tion.
A P P I 48
Am.rotma.of tfce parilh'were diHributed in a fourfold divifion ;
one for the ufe of the bifhop, another for main-
taining the fabric of the church, a third for the poor,
and the fourth to provide for the incumbent. hen
the fees of the bifhops became otherwife amply endow¬
ed, they were prohibited from demanding their uluai
{hare of thefe tithes, and the divifion was into three
parts only. And hence it was inferred by the mo-
nafteries, that a fmall part was fufficient for the offici-
ating pried*, and that the remainder might well be
applied to the ufe of their own fraternities (the en¬
dowment of which was conftrued to be a work of the
mod exalted piety), fubjeft to the burden of repairing
the church and providing for its conllant fupply. And
therefore they begged and bought, tor made? and
obits, and fometitries even for money, all the advowions
within their reach, and then appropriated the benefices
to the ufe of their own corporation. But, fn oruer to
complete fitch appropriation eff -ftually, the king s li-
cenfe, and confent of the bidiop, mud fird be. obtain¬
ed •, becaufe both the king and the bilhop may feme
time or other have an intered, bv iapfe, in the pie-
fentalion to the benefice j which can never happen
if it be anpropriated to the ufe of a corporation,
which never dies: and alfo becaufe the law repoles a
confidence in them, that they will not confent to any
thing that fhall be to the prejudice of the church. I he
confent of the patron alfo is neceffaniy implied, be-
caufe the appropriation can be originally. m'dPe to
none but to. fuch fpiritual corporation as is alto the
patron of the church ; the whole being indeed nothing
elfe but an allowance for the patrons , to retain tne
tithes and glebe in their own hand*, without preient-
ing any clerk, they themfelves undertaking to provide
for the fervice of the church. When the appropriation
is thus made, the appropriators and their fuccedors are
perpetual parfons of the church ; and mud. fue and be
fued, in all matters concerning the rights ol the church
by the name, of parfons. , , ,
This appropriation may be fevered, and the church
become difappropriate, two ways *, as, fird. If the pa¬
tron or appropriator prefents a clerk, who is indituted
and induded to the parfonage : for the incumbent fo
indituted and induded is to all intents and purpoies
complete parfon *, and the appropriation being once le¬
vered, can never be reunited again, unlefs by a repe¬
tition of the fame folemnities. And, when the clerk
fo prefented is didind from the vicar, the redory thus
veded in him becomes what is called a Jinecure ; be¬
caufe he hath no cure of fouls, having a vicar, under
him to whom that cure is committed. Alio it the
• corporation which has the appropriation is dido ved,
the'parfonage becomes difappropriate at common law j
becaufe the perpetuity of perfon is gone, which is ne-
ceflarv to funport the appropriation.
In'this manner, and fubjed to thefe conditions, may
appropriations be made at this day : and thus were
mod if not all of the appropriations at prefentexitting
originally made *, being annexed to bidiopn.es, pre¬
bends, religious houfes, nay, even to nunneries and
certain military orders, all of winch were cor¬
porations. At the diffolution of monaftenes, by ftatutes
27 Hen. VIII. c. 58. and 31 Hen. \ III. c. 13. the
appropriation of fe.veral paifonages, which belonged
to thofe refpeflive religious houfes (amounting to mote
Appulfe.
2 1 A P P
than one third of all the pari dies in England) , would Approver
have been by the rules of the common law difappro-
priated j had not a claufe in thofe datutes intervened, 
to give them to the king in as ample a manner as the
abbots, &c. formerly bekl the lame at the time of
their diffolution. This, though perhaps fcarcely de-
fenfible, was not without example : for the fame was
done in former reigns, when the alien priories (that is,
fuch as were filled by foreigners only) were diffolved
and given to the crown.. And from thefe two roots
have fprung all the lay appropriations or iici.lur parfon-
ages which we now lee in the kingdom j they having
been afterwards granted out from time to time by the
crown. See the article PARSON and Vicar.
APPROVER, in Law, one who, con felling felony
in himfelf, appealeth or impeacheth another or more of
his accomplices. tie is fo called fiom the Trench
approuver, comprobare, becaufe he mud prove what he
hath alleged in his appeal. This proof was anciently
either by battle, or by the country, at the choice of the
appellee; and the form of this accufation may be found
in Crompt. Jud. 250.
Approvers of the king, are thofe who have the
]ettin<* of the king’s demefnes in fmall manors, &c.
In the datute of the id of Ed. III. c. 8. Iheriffs are
called the king’s approvers.
It being in the diferetion of the court to differ one
to be an approver, this method of late hath feldom
been pratf Red. Rut we have, in cafes of burglary and
robbery on the highway, what feems to amount to the
fame by datute ; it being ordained, that where perfons
charged with fuch crimes out of prifon, difeover two
others concerned in the crime, they Iball have a pardon,
&c. Stat. 5th Anne, c. 31.
Approver is particularly ufed in ancient law writ¬
ers, for a bailiff or land devvard, appointed to have the
care of a manor, franchife, or the like, and improve
and make the mod of it for the benefit of his mader.
In this fenfe, the word is alfo written appruare.
APPROXIMATION, in Arithmetic and Algebra,
the coming nearer and nearer to a root, or other quan¬
tity fought, without expe&ing to be ever able to find it
exactly. , .
APPUI, in the manege, (q. d. red or day upon the
hand), is the reciprocal effort between the horfe s mouth
and the bridle-hand, or the fenfe of the a&ion of the
bridle on the hand of the horfeman.
A jud appui of the hand, is the nice beaiing up or
day of the bridle, fo that the horfe, being awed by the
fenfibility and’ tendernefs of his mouth, dares not red
too much upon the bit mouth, nor check or beat up¬
on the hand to with Hand it. A horfe is faid to have
no appui, when he is too apprehenfive of the hand,
and cannot bear the bit. He is faid to have too muen
appui, when he reds or throws himfelf too Much upon
the bit. Horfes defigned for the army ought to have
a full appui upon the hand. I o give a horfe a good
appui, he dundd be galloped, and put often back.
APPULSE, in Aftroitomy, the approach of any
planet, to a conjumflion with the fun, or a dar. JtJs a
ftep towards a tranfit, occupation, eonjun&ion, eclipfe,
&.c. Mr Flamded, M. de la Hire, and others, have
given obfervations of the moon’s appulfes to the Pleia¬
des. Phil. Tronf N° 76. p. 361. M. Acad. Science, an.
17°8, APRICOT,
APT t 483 1 A P U
Apricot APHICOT, in Botany. See Prunus.
II APRIES, fon of Piammis, king of Egypt; the
Apta. fame witlj Pharaoh Hoplirah in Jeremiah and Ezekiel.
He ruined Sidon, and fome fiiy he put Jeremiah to
death. He thought neither God nor man could de¬
throne him ; which yet was eafily done by Amahs,
and he himfelf was ftrangled by the Egyptians.
APRIL, the fourth month of the year, according
to the common computation ; but the fecond, accord¬
ing to that of the attronomers. It contains 30 days.—
The word is derived from aprilis, of aperio, “ I open
becaufe the earth, in this month, begins to open her
bofom for the produ&ion of vegetables. In this month
the fun travels through the fign of Taurus.
A PRIORI, a kind of demonftration. See De¬
monstration.
APRON, in Naval ArchiteElure, is a piece of cur¬
ved timber fixed behind the lower part of the fiern,
immediately above the foremolt end of the keel.
Apiion is alfo a name given to a platform or floor¬
ing of plank, railed at the entrance of a dock, againfl:
which the dock gates are flmt.
Apron, in Gunnery, a piece of lead which caps or
covers the vent or touch-hole of a great gun.
APSIS, or Absis, fignifies the bowed or arched
roof of a houfe, room, or oven, &c. as alfo the ring
or compafs of a wheel.
Apsis, in ecclefiaftical writers, denotes an inner part
in the ancient churches, wherein the clergy fat, and
where the altar was placed. It is fuppofed to have
been thus called, becaufe covered with an arch or
vault of its own, by the Greeks called by the
Latins afyis. Apfis, in this fenfe, amounts to the
fame with what is otherwife called choir, concha, came¬
ra, and prejbyterium; and Hands oppofed to the nave
or body of the church.
Apsis is more particularly ufed for the bilhop’s feat,
or throne, in ancient churches. This was peculiarly
called ap/is gradata, becaufe raifed on Heps above the
ordinary flails. It was alfo denominated exedra, and
in latter times tribune.
Apsis is alfo ufed for a reliquary, or cafe, wherein
the relicks of faints were anciently kept. It took the
name apfis, from its being round or arched at the
top 5 or perhaps from the place where it w'as kept.
The apjis was commonly placed on the altar : it was
ufually of wood, fometimes alfo of gold and filver,
with fculptures, &c.
Apsis, in AJlronomy, a term ufed indifferently for
either of the two points of a planet’s orbit, where it
is at greateft or leafl diftance from the fun or earth ;
and hence the line connecting thofe points is called the
line of the apjidcs. The word is Greek, and derived
from to comieSl. The apfis, at the greateft di¬
ftance from the fun, is called the aphelion, and at the
greateft diftance from the earth the apogee; while that
at the leaft diftance from the fun is termed the perihe¬
lion, and at the leaft diftance from the earth the peri-
gee.
APSIRTIDES. See Aesorus.
APTA, or Apta Julia, (Pliny) 5 now Jpte, in
Provence, on the river Calavon, feven leagues to the
north of Aix, and nine io the north of Avignon. In
the Nntitige it is called Civi/as Aptenftum : Pliny rec¬
kons it among the Latin towns. That it was a co¬
lony, appears from an infeription on a ftone found at Aptera
Arles, (Sirraond). E. Long. 5. 56. N. Lat. 43. 23. il
APTERA, (Strabo, Stephanus) ; Aptyron, (Pli- ,Apuieio?
ny) •, Apteria, (Ptolemy) : An inland town of Crete,
whofe port was Cifamus, on the weft fide of the ifland,
(Strabo) j 12 miles to the fouth of Cydonia towards
the Montes Leuci, and as many from the Sinus Am-
phimales. So called from the Sirens, who, being there
vanquifhed in fong by the Mufes, ftript them ft Ives of
their wings, and out of grief leaped into the fea, (Ste-
phanus). There was a town of Lycia of the tame
name. E. Long. 25. N. Lat. 35. 30.
Aptera, a term ufed by Linnaeus for his feventli
order of infeefs, comprehending fuch as have no wings.
APTHANE, a title anciently given to the higher
degrees of nobility in Scotland. See Thane.
APTITUDE, (from apius, “ fit”), the natural dif-
pofition any thing hath to ferve fur fuch or iueh a pur-
pofe.—Thus, oil hath an aptitude to burn, and water to
extinguifh fire.
Aptitude, or Aptness, is often ufed, in fpeaking
of the talents of the mind, for a promptitude, or dil-
pofition to learn things with eafe and expedition : in
which fenfe aptnefs amounts to the fame with what the
Greeks call ivputitx, bona indoles, and we fometimes do¬
cility. Charlton divides aptnefs into three parts, viz.
acutenefs, fagacity, and memory.
APTOTE, among grammarians, an indeclinable
noun, or one which has no variation of cafes.
APULEIUS, Lucius, a Platonic philofopher,
univerfally known by his performance of the Golden
Afs. He lived in the fecond century, under the An-
tonines j and was born at Madura, a Roman colony
in Africa. He ftudied firft at Carthage, then at
Athens, and afterwards at Rome, where he learned the
Latin tongue without the help of a mafter. He was
a man of a curious and inquifitive difpofition, efpecial-
ly in religious matters : this prompted him to take fe-
veral journeys, and to enter into feveral focieties of re¬
ligion. He.fpent his whole fortune almoft in travel¬
ling; fo that, at his return to Rome, when lie was about
to dedicate himfelf to the fervice of Ofiris, he had not
money enough to defray the expence attending the ce- '
remonies of the reception, and was obliged to pawn
his clothes to raife the neceffary fum. He fupported
himfelf afterwards by pleading caufes : and as he was
a great mafter of eloquence, and of a fubtle genius,
many confiderable caufes were trufted to him. Eut he
availed himfelf more by a good marriage than by his
pleadings; a widow, named Pudentilla, who was nei¬
ther young nor handfome, but wanted a hufhand and
was very rich, took a great fancy to him. This mar¬
riage drew upon him a troublefome law fuit. The la¬
dy’s relations, pretending he made ufe of forcery to
gain her heart and money, accufed him of being a ma¬
gician before Claudius Maximus proconful of Africa.
Apuleius was under no great difficulty of making his
defence. As Pudentilla was determined, from confi-
derations of health, to enter upon a fecond marriage,
even before fhe had feen this pretended magician, the
youth, deportment, pleafing converfation, vivacity, and
other agreeable qualities of Apuleius, were charms fuf-
ficient to engage her heart. He had the rroft favour¬
able opportunities too of gaining her friendlhip, for he
lodged fome time at her houfe : Pudentilla’s eldeft fon
3 P 2 having
A P U [484
Aptileius having a great friendfhip for him, was likewife defirous
!1 of the match, and folicited him in favour of Pudentil-
Apns* ]a< “ Do you make a wonder (faid Apuleius, in his
defence) that a woman fhould marry again, after ha¬
ving lived a widow 13 years ? It is much more wonder¬
ful that (lie did not marry again fooner. You think
that magic muft have been employed to prevail with a
widow of her age to marry a young man ) on the con¬
trary, .this very circumftance ihows how little occalion
there was for magic.” He offered to prove by his
marriage-contract, that he got nothing of Pudentilla
but a promife of a very moderate furn, in cafe he fur-
vived her and had children by her. He was alfo obli¬
ged to make fuch confeflions in court as Pudentilla
would gladly have excufed. He faid the was neither
handfome nor young, nor fuch as could any ways tempt
him to have recourle to enchantments: moreover, he
added, that Pontianus her fon propofed the marrying
his mother to him only as a burden, and the aftion of a
friend and philofopber. He alfo took notice of many
inconveniences which attend the marrying of widows,
and fpoke highly of tjie advantages of a maid above a
widow : “ A handfome virgin (faid he), let her be ever
fo poor, is abundantly portioned ; die brings to her
hufband a heart quite newq together with the flower
and fir ft fruits of her beauty. It is with great reafon
that all hulbands fet fo great a value upon the flower
of virginity : all the other goods which a woman brings
her hulband are of fuch a nature,-that he may return
them again, if he has a mind to be under no obliga¬
tion to her : that alone cannot be reftored, it remains
in the poffeffion of the firft hufband. If you marry a
widow, and fhe leaves you, (he carries away all that fhe
brought you.” Upon which paffage Mr Bayle makes
a very coarfe remark, viz. “ That this good which is
never taken back out of the hands of a hufband, is
very chimerical 5 and that there is never a baker nor
a butcher, who wmuld lend fixpence upon this un-
perifhable pofleftion.” The apology is ftill extant, and
is reckoned a very fine piece. Apuleius was extremely
indefatigable in his ftudies : and compofed feveral
books, foine in verfe, and others in profe ; but moft
of them have been loft. He took great pleafure in de¬
claiming, and was beard generally with great applaufe :
When he declaimed at Oeca, the audience cried out
with one voice, that they ought to confer upon him
the honour of citizen. The citizens of Carthage heard
him w'itb great fatisfaifHon, and erefttd a ftatue to
him } and feveral other cities did him the fame honour.
Several critics have publifhed notes on Apuleius’s
Golden Afs, and there have been tranflalions of it in¬
to different languages.
APULI A, now Puglia, a territory of Italy, bor¬
dering on the Adriatic, and extending from the river
Trento to Tarentum in length, and from the Adriatic
to the Lucans in breadth. s?pu/i the people (Horace) j
divided into the Apulia Daurtia, now called Puglia
Pinna or the Capitanata ; and into the Apulia Peucetia,
now Terra di Bari, (Pliny, Ptolemy). Apulia abound¬
ed in {keep, which yielded the fineft wool (Martial).
It is now the eaft fide of the kingdom of Naples.
APUS, Avis Jndica, in AJlronomy, a conftellation of
the fouthern hemifphere placed near the pole, between
the triangulum auftrale and the chameleon, fuppofed
to reprefent the bird of paradife.
4
] A Q U
APYCNI SUONI, in Mufic, founds diftant one or Apycni
more o&aves, and yet concord. . AflJj vi
APYCNOS, in Mufic, is faid of the diatonic genus, ^ ^
on account of its having fpacious intervals, in compa- »mim4
rifon of the chromatic and enharmonic.
APYREXY, among phyficians, denotes the inter-
mifiion of a fever.
APYROUS, a word applied to denote that proper¬
ty of fome bodies, by which they refift the moft violent
fire without any fenfible alteration. Apyrous bodies
ought to be diflinguiftied from thofe which are refrac¬
tory. Refractory fubftances are thofe which cannot
by violent heat be fufed, whatever other alteration they
may fuftain. But a body, properly fpeaking, apyrous,
can neither be fufed by heat, nor can undergo any
other change. Diamonds were long thought to be
poflefled of this property. But fome late experiments
have fhown, that diamonds may be entirely diflipated
or evaporated by heat, and are therefore not entitled
to be ranked among apyrous fubftances. Perhaps there,
is no body in nature effentially and rigoroufly apyrous.
But it is fufficient that there be bodies apyrous rela¬
tively to the degree of fire which art can pioduce, to
entitle them to that name.
AQUA, a term frequently met with in the writings
of phyficians, chemifts, &c. for certain medicines, or
menftruums, in a liquid form, diftinguifhed from each
other by peculiar epithets, as AgWA Alexitena, AQUA.
Aluminofa, A%UA Mirabilis, &c. for which fee PHAR¬
MACY. , ...
AQUA Extincla, or Extinguijhed Water, is aquafortis
into which fome river water has been poured, in order
to quality it, and render it lefs corrofive. Its ufe is
to get the filver from the aquafortis that ferved to part
gold from it. ....
AQUA Fords, a name given by artifts to nitric acid
of a certain ftrength, from its diffolving power. See
Chemistry Index.
Aqua Marina, a name by which the jewellers call
the beryl, on account of its fea-green colour. See
Beryl.
Aqua Regia, a compound of nitric and muriatic
acid, in different proportions according to the purpofe
for which it is intended. It is uiually made by dif¬
folving in nitric acid, fal ammoniac, or common fait,
both which are combinations of muriatic acid with al¬
kali. When made with fal ammoniac, the common
proportion is one part of this fait to four parts of nitric
acid ; but to diffolve platina, equal parts are requifite.
A purer aqua regia may be made by limply mixing
the two acids.
Aqua regia is particularly ufed as a menftruum for
gold ; it likewife diffolves all other metals, except fil¬
ver. The gold dilfolved in aqua regia is, in fatf, dif-
folved in the oxygenated muriatic acid only, which
gives out its oxygen to the gold, and then diflblves the
oxide : for metals are not foluble in acids until they
are oxidated. See Chemistry Index.
AQUA Secunda, aquafortis diluted,with much pure
water. It is employed in feveral arts, to clear the
furface of metals and certain ftones, and for various
other purpofes.
AQUA Vitce, is commonly underftood of what is
otherwife called or fpirit of wine, either fim-
nle, or prepared with aromatics. Some, however,
^ ’ * 1 diftingufh
\
A Q U [485
Aqufc Au- diftinguifti between them j appropriating the term
gultx brandy to what is drawn from wine, or the grape j and
II aqua vita: to that drawn after the lame manner from
Aqme Pan-maItj &c<
^nom^ ^ A^JUJE Augujlce (Ptolemy) J Aqua Tarbel/ica ('An-
tonine) ; Aquenfts Civitas, in the Notida. Now Acqs,
or Dax, a town in Gafcony, on the river Adour, fa¬
mous for its baths. W. Long. 1. 40. N. Lat. 43.
56.
A^UM Bilbilitana, (Antonine) : baths 24 miles to
the weft of Bilbilis. Now Banos de Albania, in Ara-
gon.
A^UJE Calidce, (Ptolemy); Aqua Solis, (Antonine);
a place of the Belgae in Britain, famous for its hot wa¬
ters. Now Bath in Somerfetlhire. W. Long. 1. 5.
Lat. 51. 20.
A^UJE Cali da-, (Ptolemy) j Aquicaldenfis, (Pliny) j
formerly in great repute, and a public bath ; whofe
ruins ftill remain, teftimonies of the Roman grandeur.
Now Orenfe, in Galicia, ftill famous for its baths j on
the river Minho, 54 miles fouth-eaft of Compoftella.
W. Long. 8. 30. N. Lat. 42. 30. Alfo a place in the
bay of Carthage, (Strabo). Other Aquicaldenfes, to
the north of Gerunda in Catalonia, (Ptolemy).
A^UJE Calidce, a colony between the rivers Serbetes
and Savus, in Mauritania Caefarienfis (Ptolemy).
Aqi/JE Celeince, (Ptolemy) ; or Ciiince, (Antonine).
Now Caldus, a hamlet on the Minho, in Galicia.
AQUJE Convenarum, a hamlet of Gaul, in Aquitaine,
(Antonine), and on the borders of the Convene, or
le Cominge, at the foot of the Pyrenees, near the fource
of the Garonne. Now Bagneres. W. Long. 3. 39.
N. Lat. 42. 20.
A^UJE Cutilice, a lake of the Sabines, in the territo¬
ry of Rear (Pliny) ; Lacus Cutilienjis, (Varro) *, with a
moveable ifland in it, (Seneca, Pliny) j fuppofed to be
the centre of Italy, CVarro). Th^ waters were me¬
dicinal, and extremely cold, good for a weak ftomach
and in weak nerves ; they feemed to aft by a kind
of fuftion, which approached to a bite, (Pliny).- Vef-
pafian ufed them every fummer ; and there he died,
(Sueton. Xiphilin from Dio). Now Lago di Contig-
liano.
AQUM Flavice, a town on the confines of Galicia
and Portugal, fo called from Vefpafian and Titus. The
inhabitants are called Aquijlnvienfes on coins. Now
called Chiaves, a mean hamlet -, but the ruins of its
bridge teftify its former grandeur. W. Long. 6. 6.
N. Lat. 41. 40.
AQUM Helvetice, defcribed by Tacitus as a munici¬
pal town, and much frequented for its excellent water ;
and though he does not mention its name, Cluverius
fuppofes it to be Baden, in Switzerland, on the ri¬
vulet Limat, which foon after falls into the Aar. It
is called the Upper, to diftxnguifh it from another call¬
ed the Lower Baden, in Alface. E. Long. 8. 49.
N. Lat. 47. 55.
AQUJE Merom (Jofhua), famous for the defeat of
Jabin : fuppofed to be the lake called Samachomtes, or
Semechonites, by Jofephus ; into which the river Jordan
falls, before it comes to the fea of Genefereth, or Ga¬
lilee.
A&USE Pannonice, famous baths of Auftria, now call¬
ed Baden, 28 miles to the fouth of Vienna.
] A Q U
A^UJE Patavince, are baths in the territoty of Ve- Aquae Pa¬
nice near Padua, (Pliny) ; called Fontes Aponi (Livy, tavirue
Martial). Now Bagni d’>Abano. E. Long. 13. 4^* AquaeduA.
N. Lat. 45. 15. v—' *
Aquje Quintiance, put by Ptolemy in room of the
Aquce Ciiince of Antonine. Now fuppofed to be Sarria,
a town of Galicia, on a rivulet of the fame name, three
leagues to the fouth of Lugo.
A^UJE Sextice, a colony to the north of Marfeilles,
fo called both from the founder Sextius Clavinus, and
from its quantity of water, and number of cold and
hot fprings ; built after the defeat of the Salyes, or
Salvii, whofe territory in the fouth of Provence, reach¬
ed from the Rhone on the borders of Italy, (Livy, Vel¬
leius, Strabo, Ptolemy). By an infcription the colony
appears to have been either increafed or renewed by
Auguttu?. In the Notitia it is called Civitas Aquen-
Jis. Now Aix. Here the Teutones and Cimbri were
defeated with great {laughter by Marius. E. Long.
6. 4. N. Lat. 48. 4.
A^UJE Statiel/ce, or Statiellorum, (Pliny), a town in
Liguria, on the river Bormia. Now Acqm, a town of
Montferrat. E. Long. 8. 40. N. Tat. 44. 45.
A^UJE Tauri, hot waters or baths in Tufcany, at
the diftance of three miles from the fea, faid to be
difeovered by a bull, hence the appellation. There
are ftill to be feen the ruins of thefe baths. Now
Aquapendente, in Orvieto. E. Long. I 2. 40. N. Lat.
42. 20.
QyEDUCT, in Hydraulics and ArchiteBure, a
ftruAure formed for conveying water from one place to
another, over grounds that are unequal. The word is
compounded of the Latin fubftantive aqua, water, and
duBus a channel by which that water may be con¬
duced.
ArchiteCs diftinguifh two kinds of aquasduCs $ the
vijible, and thefubterraneous.—The vijib/e are conftruft-
ed in valleys or marfties, and protraCed in longitude
or latitude as the fituation requires. They are compof-
ed of adminicula for fupporting the arches and con¬
fining the ftream, and of arcades.—The fubterraneous
are formed, by piercing the mountains, and conduCing
them below the furface of the earth. They are built of
ftone hewn or rough: and covered above with vaults,
or with flat ftones, which may be termed flags ; thefe
flags {belter the waters from the heat of the fun.
They divide them ftill into double and triple aquse-
dudls ; that is to fay, fuch as are fupported either by
two or by three ranges of arcades. Such was the aquae-
du£t which Procopius records to have been built by
Cofroes king of the Perfians, for the city of Petra in
Mingrelia : it had three conduits upon the fame line,
each elevated above the other.
Frequently aquaeduCs are paved. Sometimes the
waters flow through a natural channel of clay. Fre¬
quently they are conveyed by pipes of lead into re-
fervoirs of the fame metal, or into troughs of hewn
ftone. The channels are cut with an imperceptible
defeent, that the current may be accelerated by its
own weight. Parallel to its courfe, on each fide, is cut
a narrow footpath, where people may walk when ne-
ceffary. By conduits, or gimoves, the waters are con¬
veyed into large citterns, but not forced above their
original level. To make them rife and iffue from their
apertures.
A Q, U [48'
AqujeduA. spettures with force, they mud be confined in tubes of
V*“~ a fmall diameter, and abruptly fall from a confiderable
declivity.
Aqusedufls of every kind were long ago the wonders
of Rome : the vail quantities of them which they had j
the prodigious expenee employed in conducing waters
over arcades from one place to another, at the diftance
of 30, 40, 6o, and even 100 miles, which were either
continued or fupplied by other labours, as by cutting
mountains and piercing rocks j all this ought to fur-
prife us : nothing like this is undertaken in our times :
we dare not even think of purchafing public conveni-
ency at fo dear a rate. Appius the cenfo.r advifed and
conftru&ed the firft aquoeduft. His example gave the
public luxury a hint to cultivate thefe objt&sj and the
force of prodigious and indefatigable labour diverted
the courfe of rivers and floods to Rome. Agrippa, in
that year when he was redile, put the lad hand to the
magnificence of thefe works. It is chiefly in this re-
fpedl that the modern fo much refembles the ancient
city of Rome. For this advantage, the is peculiarly
indebted to Sextus V. and to Paul V. who for gran¬
deur and magnificence emulated the mailers of the uni-
* See New verfe *. There are Hill to be feen, in different places
Memoirs contiguous to Rome, linking remains of thefe aquae-
+f>Iudy, dU(cb •, arches continued through a long fpace, over
which were extended the canals which carried the wa¬
ter to the city. The arches are fometimes low, fome-
timesraifed to a vail height, to humour the tumidities or
depreflions of the ground. There are fome which have
two arcades •, one conllru61ed above the other; and this
precaution wras obferved, left the height of a fingle. ar¬
cade, if extended as far as the fituation required, might
render the ftrufture lefs firm and permanent. They are
commonly of bricks : which by their cement cohere fo
ftrongly, that the parts are not feparated without the
utmoft difficulty.—When the elevations of the ground
were enormous, it became neceffary to form fubterrane-
ous aquaedu&s. Thefe carried the waters to fuch aquae-
du£ts as were raifed above ground, in the declivity or at
the foot of mountains. If the artificial channel of the
water was not fufceptible of a downward bias but by
palling through a rock, through this they cut a paflage
at the fame height with the fuperior aquedudl : fuch
a one may be feen above the city of Tivoli, and at the
place called Vivacaro. The canal which formed the
courfe of the aquaedudl is hewn out of the rock to the
extent of more than a mile, about five feet in height
and four in breadth.
There is one thing, however, which deferves to be
remarked. It is, that thefe aquaedudts, which might
have been diredled in a ftraight line to the city, did not
arrive at it but by frequent and winding mazes. Some
have faid that this oblique track was purfued to avoid
the expence which mull attend the building of arcades
to an extraordinary height: others, that it was their
intention to diminilh the impetuofity of the current ;
which, rolling in a ftraight line through an immenfe
fpace, mull always have increafed its velocity, mull
have worn the canals by perpetual and forcible attri¬
tion, and of confequence afforded an impure and un-
wholefome draught to the inhabitants. But fince there
was fo great a defeent between the cafcade of Tivoli and
Rome, it is demanded why they Ihould go to draw
water from the fame river at the diftance of more than
) ] A Q, U
20 miles higher; nay, of more than 30 mile?, if weAqusdaft.
reckon the curvatures of its diredlion through that v—
mountainous countiy ? It is replied, the motive of ob¬
taining the water more falubrious and more limpid,
was fufficient to make the Romans think their labour
neceffary, and their expence properly bellowed ; and to
thofe who reflect that the waters of this river were im¬
pregnated Avith mineral particles, and by no means
wholefome, the anfwer will appear fatisfaftory.
If any one will call his eyes upon Plate l 28th ofVol. iv.
the Antiquities of Father Montlaucon, he will fee
with how much care thefe immenfe hoiks were con-
ftrudted. From diftance to diftance fpiramenta were
left, that, if the water Ihould happen to be flopped by
any accident, it might gradually difembogue, till they
could clear its ordinary paffage. There were like wife,
even in the Very canals which conveyed the water, ca¬
vities confiderably deeper than its internal furface, into
which the ftream was precipitated, and w lie re it re¬
mained ftagnant till it was refined from mud and fecu¬
lence ; and ponds, where it might expand itfelf till it
was purified.
The aquaedufl of the Aqua Murcia had an arch of
16 feet in diameter. The whole was compofed of three
different kinds of ftone ; one of them reddifh, another
brown, and a third of an earth colour. Above, there
appeared two canals ; of which the higheft was fed by
the newr waters of the Tiverone, and the lower by what
they called the Clundian river. The entire edifice is 70
Roman feet high. Near this aquseduft, we have in
Father Montfaucon the plan of another with three ca¬
nals ; the higheft fupplied by the water called Julia,
that in the middle from Tepula, and the leweft from the
Aqua Marcia.
The arch of the aqumduft of the Aqua Claudia is of
hewn ftone, very beautiful; that of the aqusedudl of
the Aqua Neronia is of bricks : they are each of them
72 Roman feet in height.
The canal of the aquaeduft which was called the
Aqua Appia, deferves to be mentioned for a Angularity
which is obferved in it; for it is not, like the others,
plain, nor gradual in its defeent ; but much narrower at
the lower than the higher end.
The conful Frontinus, who fuperintended the aquse-
du£ts under the emperor Nerva, mentions nine of them
which had each 13,594 pipes of an inch in diameter.
Vigerus obferves, that, in the fpace of 24 hours, Rome
received 500,000 hoglheads of water.
We might likewife have mentioned the aquseduft of
Drufus, and that of Riminius: but we {hall fatisfy
ourfelves with obferving here, that Auguftus caufed all
the aqusedufls to be repaired ; and afterwards pafs to
other monuments of the fame kind, and ftill more im¬
portant, which give the moll ftriking ideas of Roman
magnificence.
One of thefe monuments is the aqusedu6l of Metz,
of which a great number of arcades ftill remain. Thefe
arcades croffed the Mofelle, a river which is broad and
vaft at that place. The copious fources of Gorze fur-
niftied water for the reprefentation of a fea fight. This
water was colledled in a refervoir : from thence it was
condufted by fubterraneous canals formed of hewn
ftone, and fo fpacious that a man could walk ere£t in
them : it traverfed the Mofelle upon its fuperb and lof¬
ty arcades, which may ftill be feen at the diftance of
two
A Q U [ 487 ] A Q U
AqutEduft two leagues from Metz •, fo nicely wrought and fo
|| firmly cemented, that, except thofe parts in the mid-
Aquarms. which have been carried away by the ice, they have
L ' ref,(|eC|^ anc} wm dill refill, the fevered fliocks of the
mod violent feafons. From thefe arcades, other aqua:-
du£ts conveyed the waters to the baths, and to the
place where the naval engagement was mimicked.
If we may trud Colmenarus, the aquaedudf of Sego¬
via may be compared with the mod admired labours of
antiquity. There dill remain 159 arcades, wholly con¬
fiding of dones enormoufly large, and joined without
mortar. Thefe arcades, wTith what remains of the edi¬
fice, are 102 feet high } there are two ranges of ar¬
cades, one above another. The aquctduB flows through
the city and runs beneath the greated number of houfes
which are at the lower end.
After thefe exorbitant drudtures, we may be in fome
degree believed when we fpeak of the aqucedudl which
Louis XIV. caufed to be built near Maintenon, for
caraying water from the river Bucq to Verfailles : it is
perhaps the greated aquaeduft which now fubfifis in
the w'orld : it is 700 fathoms in length, and contains
242 arcades.
AOUAMBOE, one of the greated monarchies on
the coad of Guinea in Africa, dretching 20 miles in
breadth, and ten times that fpace in length from ead
to wed. According to Bofman, the coad is divided
into a great number of petty royalties, but all of them
fubjedl to the king of Aquamboe, who indifcrimi-
nately ufes an unlimited authority over them and the
meaned of his fubjefts. His defpotifm gave rife to a
proverbial faying, that “ there are only two ranks of
Inen at Aquamboe 5 the royal family, a;id flaves.”
The natives of this country are haughty, turbulent,
and warlike j and their power is formidable to all the
neighbouring nations. They grievoufly infed fuch na¬
tions as are tributaries to the king of Aquamboe, en¬
tering their territories by troops, and carrying off
from the inhabitants whatever they think proper j nor
do they ever meet with any oppofition from the inha¬
bitants, as they are fenfible the king would not fail to
refent this as an indignity offered to him.
AQUAPENDENTE. See Fabricius.
AQUARIANS, Chridians in the primitive church
who confecrated water in the eucharid indead of wine.
This they did under pretence of abfiintnce and tempe¬
rance •, or, beeaufe they thought it univerfally unlaw¬
ful to eat fiefh or drink wine. Epiphanius calls them
Encratiies, from their abftinence; St Auflin, Aqua¬
rians, from their ufe of water ; and Theodoret, who
fays they fprang from Tatian, HijdropornJluicc, becaufe
they offered water inflead of wine.
Befides thefe, there w'as another fort of Aquarians,
who did not rejeft the ufe of wine as unlawful j for
they adminidered the eucharid in wine at evening
fervice ; but, in their morning affemblies, they com¬
monly ufed w'ater, for fear the fmell of wine fliould
difcotfer them to the heathens.
AQUARIUS, the Water-carrier, in AJlrono-
my, the nth fign in the zodiac, reckoning from A-
ries; from which alfo the nth part of the ecliptic
takes its name.—The fun moves through Aquarius in
the month of January j it is marked thus,
The poets feign, that Aquarius was Ganymede,
whom Jupiter raviftied under the diape of an eagle,
and carried away into heaven, to ferve as a cup-bear- Aquarius
er, in the room of Hebe and Vulcan •, whence the II
name.—Others hold, that the fign was thus called, Aquahnta.
becaufe, when it appears in the horizon, the w'eather *
ufually proves rainy.
The dars in the condellation Aquarius, in Ptole¬
my’s catalogue, are 45 j in Tycho’s 41 j in HeveliusY
47 in Flamded’s 108.
AQUARTIA. See Botany Index.
AQUATIC, in Natural Hijlory, an appellation gi¬
ven to fuch things as live or grow in water.
AQUATIMTA, a method of etching on copper,
lately invented, by which a foft and beautiful colour is
produced, refembling a fine drawing in water colours ,
or Indian ink.
Previous to the operation upon the plate, the fol¬
lowing powder mud be prepared.—Take of afphaltum
and fine tranfparent rofin, equal parts, fuppofe two
ounces of each, and pound them feparately. Through
a mullin fieve (which may be formed with part of a
chipbox of three or four inches diameter) fift upon a
fheet of paper a thin dratum of the afphaltum, above
which fift a fimilar layer of the rofin, and upon this
another layer of afphaltum, continuing thefe alternate
layers till both of the powders are exhauded ; then
pafs the mixture through the fame fieve upon the paper
once or twice, or till both appear to be fuffieiently in¬
corporated 5 when the powder is ready for ufe. Some, in¬
dead of the above mixture, ufe gum fandarach pounded.
The main procefs is as follows:—A copperplate be¬
ing polidied in the ufual W'ay, lay the etching ground
upon it, and etch the outlines of your defign in the
manner directed under the article Etching : The
ground is then to be foftened with a little greafe, and
wiped off with a piece of rag : leaving, however, as
much greafe upon the plate as jud to dim the cop¬
per. You now fift your powder upon the furface of
the plate j after which, drike the other fide of it pret¬
ty fmartly againd the edge of the table, in order to
difeharge it of the loofe powder : This done, with a
hand-vice hold the back of the plate over a chaffing
difh of charcoal fire, till it become fo hot as to give
pain upon being touched with the back of the hand j
and the powder which adhered to the greafe will now
be fixed to the plate. The plate being then differed
to cool, take turpentine varnifh mixed with ivory
black 5 and with a hair pencil dipt in it, cover all the
lights or places where there is no work or fhades. A
rim or border of bees-wax is new to be ra/fed under
the plate : Then having reduced the aquafortis to a
proper drength by vinegar or water, you pour it on,
and let it dand five minutes for the fird or lighted
fhade : after which, pour it off; and having wafhed
the plate wdth ivater, let it on edge to dry : Then with
the varnifh dop up your light (hades : pour on the
aquafortis for the fecond lint, and let it dand five mi¬
nutes more ; proceeding in the fame manner for every
tint till you produce the darked Grades. If a bold
open ground is wanted in any part, this requires an
after operation : The ground mud be laid as the other,
by fifting on the powder ; only this powder is much
eoarfer, and the plate mud be much more heated in
order that the particles of the powder may fpread, and
form fmall circles : even good clean rofin will do by
A Q, U
[ 488 ]
Aquat'mta In etching landfcapes, the fky and diftant objeas
li are alfo performed by a fecond operation, and the
Aquila. powder is fitted upon the plate with a finer fieve. If
‘   the trees or any part of the fore-ground require to be
higher finilhed, the plate mull be entirely cleanled
from greafe with bread, and a ground laid in the com¬
mon way of etching; when you may finifti as highly
and neatly as you pleafe with the needle or point, by
ftippling with dots, and biting up thofe parts, or by a
rolling-wheel. _
The preceding is the method for prints of one (ingle
tint. But if different colours are to be expreffed, there
will be required as many different, plates, each plate
having only the part etched upon it which is defigned
to be charged with its proper colour : unlefs (as may
happen in particular fubjefts) fome of the colours are
fo diftant from each other as to allow the printer room
to fill them in with his rubber without blending them •,
in which cafe, two or more different colours may be
printed from the fame plate at once.—Where different
plates are neceffary, a feparate one, having a pm in
each corner, muff be provided as a foie or bottom to
the aquatinta plates •, and thefe again muft be exad y
fitted, having each a fmall hole in their corners for pai-
fing over the pins of the foie ; the faid pins ferving the
double purpoie of retaining the plates fucceffively in
their due pofition, and of direfting the printer in pla-
-cing the paper exa£Ily on each plate fo as not to (hift j
by which means each tint or colour will be exa&ly re¬
ceived on its proper place.—This is the method prac-
tifed at Paris. A landfcape or fimilar fubjea, how¬
ever, may be printed off at once in the difterent pro¬
per colours, by painting thefe upon the plate. In this
cafe, the colours muff be pretty thick in their confift-
ence •, and the plate muft be carefully wiped in the
ufual way after the laying on of each tint, as well as
receive a general wipe upon its being charged with all
the tints. , , r ^
This art is kept as fecret as poffible by thole who
pra&ife it; and it is believed that no particular expla¬
nation or direftions, before the prefent, have been
communicated to the public. In order to fucceed,
however, great care and judgment are requifite ; and
much depends upon a certain nicety of management,
which is only attainable by praaice.
AQUAVIVA, a town of the kingdom of Naples,
and province of Bari.
AQUEDUCT. See Aqueduct.
AQUEOUS, in a general fenfe, fomething partak¬
ing of the nature of water, or that abounds with it.
Aqueous Humour. See Anatomy, p. 276.
AQUILA, in Ornithology, a fynonyme of the ea¬
gle. See Falco.
Aquila, the Eagle, in AJlronomy, a conftella-
tion of the northern hemifphere •, ufually joined with
Antinous. The ftars in the conftellation Aquila and
Antinous, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 15 •, in Ty¬
cho’s 19 } in Hevelius’s 425 in the Britannic cata¬
logue, 71. .
Aquila, a fine large city of Italy, and the capital
of Abruzzo, feated on a hill, on the banks of the ri¬
ver Pefcaro, near its fource. It has an ancient caftle,
and is a biftiop’s fee immediately under the pope. The
land about it produces great plenty of faffron. It was
very near being all deffroyed by an earthquake, in Fe-
A Q U
bruary 1703. The firft (hock was fo terrible, that the
inhabitants abandoned the city •, but returning to vef-
pers, it being Candlemas day, the (hocks followed one
another with fuch violence, that 24,000 people pe¬
riled, and great numbers were wounded j 800 were
killed in one Angle church ; many other churches, mo-
nafteries, noble buildings, and the townhoufe, were
either fwallowed up or overturned, together with the
greater part of the city and its walls. Aquila (lands
30 miles from the fea, and about 16 from the confines
of the pope’s dominions. E. Long. 14. 20. N. Lat.
42. 20.
AQUILEGIA, Columbine. See Botany In-
Cla
AQUILEIA, a large city of the Carni, or Veneti,
and a noble Roman colony, which was led thither be¬
tween the firft and fecond Macedonian wars, (Livy).
It is waftied by two rivers, the Natifo and Turrus,
(Pliny). The reafon of leading this colony was, in
order to be a bulwark againft the neighbouring bar¬
barians. The colony was afterwards increafed with
1300 families by a decree of the fenate, (Livy) j from
which it became a very famous port towm, (Herodian).
The emperor Julian afcribes the appellation to the au¬
gury of an eagle at the time of building it; but Ifaac
Voflius on Mela, to the great plenty of water, as if
the town were called Aquilegw. Fhe harbour, at the
mouth of the Natilo, is diftant 60 ftadia from the city ^
fo that (hips of burden are towed up the river, (Stra¬
bo). In 452 it was befieged by Attila with an innu¬
merable hoft of barbarians. The walls were affaulted
by a formidable train of battering rams, moveable tur¬
rets, and engines that threw (tones, darts, and fire ;
and’the monarch of the Huns employed the forcible
impulfe of hope, fear, emulation, and intereft, to fub-
vert the only barrier which delayed the conqueft of
Italy. Aquileia was at that period one of the richeft,
the mod populous, and the ftrongeft of the maritime
cities of the Hadriatic coaft. Three months were
confumed without effe6t in the fiege } till the wTant of
provifions and the clamours of his army compelled
Attila to relinquifh the enterprife, and reluftantly to
iffue his orders that the troops (hould (trike their
tents the next morning and begin their retreat. But
as he rode round the walls, penfive, angry, and difap-
pointed, he obferved a ftork preparing to leave her
neft in one of the towers, and to fly with her in¬
fant family towards the country. He feized, with the
ready penetration of a ftateiman, this trifling incident
which chance had offered to luperftition , and exclaim¬
ed, in aloud and cheerful tone, that fuch a domeftic
bird, fo conftantly attached to.human fociety, would
never have abandoned her ancient feats, unlefs thofe
towers had been devoted to impending rum and foli-
tude. The favourable omen infpired an affurance of
viftory ; the fiege was renewed and profecuted with
frefti vigour j a large breach was made in the part of
the wall from whence the ftork had taken her flight;
the Huns mounted to the affault with irrefiftible fury;
and the fucceeding generation could fcarcely difcover
the ruins of Aquileia. The place, however, is dill
called Aquileia; and there are feveral infcriptions and
antiquities to be feen in it, which are worthy of a tra¬
veller’s notice •, and, though dwindled into a poor vil¬
lage, it gives a title to the patriarch of Aquileia.
)
A Q U [ 480 ] A R A
AquiliciumThe patriarch is named by the Venetians, and refides
II at Udino, becaufe the town of Aquileia belongs to
Aquinum. jqoufe 0f Auftria. E. Long. 13. 30. N. Lat.
* 46. 20.
AQUILICIUM, or Aquiliciana, in Roman an¬
tiquity, facrifices performed in times of exceffive drought,
to obtain rain of the gods.
AQdJILINE, fomething belonging to or refembling
an eagle : Thus an aquiline nofe is one bent fomewhat
like an eagle’s beak.
AQUILO, is ufed by Vitruvius for the north-eaft
wind ; or that which blows at 450 from the north to¬
ward the eaft point of the horizon.—The poets gave
the name aquilo to all iformy winds dreaded by the ma¬
riner.
AQUTLUS, among the ancients, a dark or dulky
colour approaching to black. Hence fome of the Hea¬
then gods were called dii aquili, q. d. nigri.
AQUIMINARIUM, in antiquity, a kind of luftral
veffels, wherein the Romans carried their holy water for
expiation and other religious offices.
AQUINAS, St Thomas, flyled the Angelical
Do£lor, was of the ancient and noble family of the
counts of Aquino, defcended from the kings of Sicily
and Arragon \ and was born in the caftle of Aquino,
in the Terra di Lavora in Italy, in the year 1224 or
1225. He entered into the order of the Dominicans \
and, after having taught fchool divinity in molt of the
univerfities of Italy, at laft fettled at Naples 5 where
he fpent the reft of his life in ftudy, in reading of lec¬
tures, and in adfts of piety ; and was fo far from the
viexvs of ambition or profit, that he refufed the arch-
biftiopric of that city, when it was offered him by Pope
Clement IV. He died in 1274, leaving an amazing
number of writings, which were printed at Venice in
17 vols. folio, in the year 1490. He w'as canonized
by Pope Jsftm XXII. in the year 1323 *, and Pius V.
who was of the fame order with him, gave him, in
1567, the title'of the Fifth Doftor of the church, and
appointed his feftival to be kept with the fame folem-
nity as thofe of the other four doflors. His authority
has always been of great authority in the fchools of
the Roman Catholics. Lord Plerbert, in his life of
Henry VIII. tells us, that one of the principal rea-
fons which induced that king to write againft Luther
was, that the latter had fpoken contemptuoufly of A-
quinas.
AQUINO, Philip d’, in Latin Aquinas or Aqui-
nius, having turned from Judaifm, had a penfion from
the clergy of France ; and acquired much reputation
by his knowledge of the Hebrew language, which he
taught at Paris, in the reign of Lous XIII. and by
the books he publifhed, among which is his Di&io-
■ narium Hebrceo-Chaldceo-Thalmudico-Rabbinicutn. His
grandfon, Anthony D’Anquin, was firft phyfician to
Louis XIV.
Aquino, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and Terra di Lavora ; a bifhop’s fee, but ruined
by the emperor Conrade, and now confifting of about
35 houfes. It was the birthplace of the poet Juvenal,
and of Thomas Aquinas. E. Long. 14. 30. N. Lat.
41. 32.
AQUINUM, in Ancient Geography, a large muni¬
cipal town, and a Roman colony on the borders of the
Samnites, walked by the river Melpha (Strabo). The
• Vol. II. Part II.
inhabitants are called Aquinates. Now Aquino, but Aquitama
almoft in ruins, in the territory of Lavora. E. Long. I!
17. II. N. Lat. 41. 35. Arabia.
AQUITANIA, in Ancient Geography, one of the v
three principal divifions of Gallia Comata (Caefar) $
bounded by the Garonne, the Pyrenees, and the ocean :
this is the Aquitania Ccefariana, or Vetus. Auguftus
fat the different boundaries, viz. the Loire, the Ceven-
nes, the Pyrenees, and the ocean (Strabo). It was
called Gallia Aquitanica (Pliny) j and in the old No-
titice Provincia Aquitanica. The people are called Aqui~
tarn (Caefar). Now comprifing Guienne (which feems
to be a corruption of Aquitania) and Gafcony.
AR, in Ancient Geography, the metropolis of Moab,
in Arabia Petraea (Mofes), and the royal refidence,
fituated on the eaft fide of the river Arnon. It was
called alfo Rabba (Joffiua) : and to diftinguifh it from
Rabba of the Ammonites, Rabbat Moab, and on coins
Rabbath Moma (Reland). Eufebius fays it was called
Areopo/is in his time, from Ar and Polis. The inha¬
bitants are called Areopolitee. St Jerome fays that this
city was entirely deftroyed by an earthquake when he
was a young man.
ARA thuribuli, the altar of incenfe, in AJlrono-
my, a fouthern conftellation, not vifible in our hemi-
fphere, confifting, according to Ptolemy, of feven ftars ;
and according to Sharp’s Catalogue, annexed to that of
Mr Flamfted, of nine ftars.
Ara, in AJlronomy, a fouthern conftellation, con¬
taining eight ftars.
AR AB.or Arabian Horse. See Equus.
ARABESQUE, or Arabesk, fomething done af¬
ter the manner of the Arabians. Arabefque, Grotefque,
and Morefque, are terms applied to fuch paintings, or¬
naments of friezes, &c. where there are no human or
animal figures, but which confift wholly of imaginary
foliages, plants, ftalks, &c. The words take their rife
from hence, that the Moors, Arabs, and other Maho¬
metans, ufe thefe kind of ornaments j their religion
forbidding them to make any images or figures of men.
or other animals.
ARABIA, a country of Afia, famous from the re-whence
moteft antiquity for the independency of its inhabitants named,
during the vaft conquefts of the Affyrians, Perfians,
Greeks, and Romans •, and, in later times, for being
the centre of an empire equal, if not fuperior, in extent
to any that ever exifted.
This country, or at leaft the greater part of it, was
in the earlieft ages called Arabah. Concerning the
etymology of this word there are various conjec¬
tures. It has moft generally been derived from the
Hebrew word aix, fignifying the wejl, mixture, or
traffic; but, according to M. Volney, Arab, in the
ancient language of thefe countries, fignifies a folitude
or defert. In its largeft extent, Arabia lies between
the 12th and 35th degrees of N. Lat. and the 36th
and 61ft of E. Long. Its greateft length from north
to fouth is about 1430 miles, and its breadth from eaft
to weft is 1200. It is bounded on the weft by Pale- 2
ftine, part of Syria, the iftbmus of Suez, and the Red Boundaries,
fea, called by the Arabs the fea Al Kol%om ; on the Stc-
eaft by the Euphrates, the Perfian gulf, and bay of
Ormus ; on the north, by part of Syria, Diyar Beer,
Irak, and Khuzeftan ; and on the fouth by the ftraits
of Babelmandel and the Indian ocean. It grows nar-
3 Q rower
A U A
[ 49° 1
A R A
Arabia.
.3
JJivifion.
rower as we approach the frontiers of Syria and Diyar
Beer : and, by reafon of the proximity of the Euphra¬
tes to the Mediterranean, may be looked upon as a
peninfula, and that one of the largeft in the whole
■world.—Arabia Proper, however, is much narrower,
including little more than what was comprehended by
the ancients under the name of Arabia tehx, which
we (hall prefently deferibe •, and here the Arabs have
been fettled almoit lince the flood.
The firft divifion of the peninfula of Arabia was in¬
to Arabah and Kedem, as we learn from Scripture ; the
firft of which implies the weft, and the other the ealt,
denoting the fituation of the two countries. Ptolemy
■was the firft who divided the peninfula we (peak of into
three parts, Arabia Petraea, Arabia Deferta, and Ara¬
bia Felix, which divilion has generally prevailed fince
his time. , , , ^ -
Arabia Petnta, on the eaft was bounded by byna
and Arabia Deferta ; on the weft, by Egypt, or rather
the ifthmus of Suez, which feparates Afia frt'miAtr‘ca?
and the Hieropolitan gulf or weftern arm of the Red
fea; on the north, by Pakftme, the lake Afphalti es,
and Ccelofyria-, and on the fouth by Arabia Felix.
This tract did not admit of much cultivation, the great-
eft part being covered with dry fands or rifing into
rocks, interfperfed here and there with fome fruitful
fports. Its metropolis was Petra, which by the Syrians
was ftyled Rakam, and in Scripture Joktheel. Several
other cities of Arabia Petraea are mentioned by Ptole-
mv • but as it is very improbable fuch a barren country
fhould abound with large cities, we muft look upon
them as inconlideraole places. ,
Arabia Deferta was bounded on the north by the
Euphrates, which feparated it from Mefopotamia •,
on the weft, by Syria, Judma, and Arabia Petraea j on
the eaft, by a ridge of mountains which feparated it
from Babylonia and Chaldea •, on the fouth, by Ara¬
bia Felix,’ from which it was 1 kewife feparated by fe-
veral ridges of hills. By far the greateft part of this
kingdom, as well as the former, was a lonefome de-
fert diverfified only with plains covered with fand, or_
mountains confiding of naked rocks and precipices j
nor were they ever, unlefs fometimes at the equinoxes,
refrefhed with rain. I he few vegetables which they
produced were ftunted by a perpetual drought, and the
riouriftiment afforded them by the noaurnal dews was
greatly impaired by the heat of the fun in the day¬
time. Throughout the deferts were found huge moun¬
tains of fand, formed by the violence of the winds that
continually blew over them in the day-time, though
they ceafed in the night. Wells and fountains were
for the moft part exceedingly rare j however, notwith-
flanding the fterility of thefe countries, the vaft plains
of fand juft now mentioned were interfperfed with fruit¬
ful fpots, which appeared here and there like fo many
iftands in the midft of the ocean. Thefe being ren¬
dered extremely delightful by their verdure and the
more fo by the neighbourhood of thofe frightlul de¬
ferts the Arabs encamped upon them y and having
con fumed every thing they found upon one removed
to another, as is the cuftom of their defeendants the
Bedoweens at this day. Thefe fruitful fpots were like-
wife frequent in Lybia, and by the Egyptians called
auares or abafes, as we learn from Strabo. Ihe bar¬
ren part of Arabia Felix, bordering upon the Red fea,
Arabia,
was in like manner interfperfed with abafes ; which
probably gave the name of Abafem to a nation fettled '
there, and in the adjacent fertile region. A body of
thefe it is faid, crofting the ftraits of Babelmandel,
paffed into Ethiopia, which from them received the
name of Abaffta. From this account of Arabia De¬
ferta we may reafonably conclude, that the towns laid
by Ptolemy to have been fituated in it were places of
very little eonfequence.
Arabia Felix was bounded on the north by the two
kingdoms juft deferibed-, on the fouth, by the Red
feat on the eaft and weft, by part of that fea, toge¬
ther with the Arabian and Periian gulfs. In Strabo’s
time it was divided into five provinces, by the orien¬
tal hiftorians called Taman, Heja%, Tehamah, Najd,
and Tumama. In this diftrift ftoud feveral towns
particularly Nyfa, famous for being the birthplace ot
Bacchus 5 and Mufa, or Muza, a celebrated empo¬
rium or harbour, where the Arabian merchants refort-
ed with their frankincenfe, i'pices,. and perfumes.
Thefe two were fituated in the province of Yaman.
In that of Hejaz flood the ftill more famous cities of
Mecca and Medina j alfo Thaifa or Taifa, Gjudda or
Joddo, Yanbo or A1 ^ anbo, and Madian, the Mo-
diana of Ptolemy, and the Midian or Madian of Scrip-
ture* - . 1 , • j , 4
At wdiat time the above-mentioned kingdoms were When peo*
firft peopled we have no certain accounts. The moft P1{1d.
confiderable nations inhabiting Arabia Petrma, in the
early ages, were the Ifhmaelites, the Nabataei or Na-
batheans, the Cedraei or Kedareni, and the Agareni or
Hagareni j and of thefe the Ifhmaelites were the moft
powerful, if they did not comprehend all the reft *, and
if the Hagareni were not the fame people with them,
they muft at leaft have been nearly related. Kimchi,
an oriental hiftorian, infinuates, that they were origi¬
nally the children of Hagar by an Arab, after fire had
left Abraham. In after ages, the names of all the na¬
tions fituaied here were abforbed in that of Saracens,.
by which the Iftimaelites are diftinguiftied in the Jeru- •
falem Targum. A nation is alfo mentioned by Pliny,
called Arraceni, and Saruceni by Ptolemy and Diofco-
rides, which was probably no other than the Ifhmael¬
ites above mentioned. In Arabia Delerta feveral tiibes
refided, all of whom were very obfeure, except the
Aifitse and Araei. The former are fuppofed by Bo-
chart to have been Job’s countrymen, and the latter
to have been the fame with the Hagareni, Arraceni,
or Saraceni, above mentioned. Arabia Felix was in¬
habited by many different tribes •, the moft remarkable
of which were the Sabaei, Gerraei, Minaei or Minnaer*
Atramitae, Marinatae, Catabani, Afeitae, Homeritae,
Sapphoritae, Omanitae, Saraceni, Nabathaei, Thamy—
deni, and Bnizomenae j but neither their limits nor fi¬
tuation can now be determined with any manner of
precifion. . , , , $ -
According to the oriental hiftorians, the Arabs are B-vihon o
to be divided into two claffes ; viz. the old lojl the Ara->
bians, and the prefent* The moft famous tribes among
the former were thofe of Ad, Thamud, lafm, Jades,
Jorham, Amalek, Amtem, Hafbem, Abil, and Bar.
Concerning thefe, though now entirely loft and fwah-
lowed up among other tribes, there are fome remark¬
able traditions, of which the following may ferve as a
fpecimen. „ - ^
AKA [ 49* 1 AKA
Arabia. The tribe of Ad deduced their origin from Ad the fon
i——v—of Aws, or Uz, the fon of Aram, the fon of Shem, who,
after the confufion of tongues, fettled in Al Abkaf, or
^nc mino- fands in the province of Hadramant, on
the tribe of the confines of Yaman, where his pofterity greatly
Ad. multiplied. Their firft king was Sheddad, the fon of
Ad, who built a ftately palacer and made a delightful
garden in the deferts of Aden, which he defigned as
an imitation of the celeftial paradife. This garden he
called Irem : and when it was finilhed, he fet out with
a great retinue to take a view of it; but, having fome
thoughts of affuming divine honours, he was deftroyed
by a tempeft from heaven, while yet a day’s journey
from his paradife. The garden and palace, however,
were preferved, though invifible, as a monument of di¬
vine vengeance.
After the death of Sheddad, the kingdom of Ad
was governed by a long feries of princes, concerning
whom many fables are related by the eaftern writers.
The conclufion of their hiftory, however, is as follows.
The Adites, in procefs of time, falling from the
worlhip of the true God into idolatry, God fent the
prophet Hud, fuppofed to be the fame with Heber, to
preach to and reclaim them. But they refufing to ac¬
knowledge his million, or to obey him, God fent a hot
and fuffocating wind, which blew feven nights and eight
days, and entering at their noftrils pafled through their
bodies, and deftroyed them all, a very few only except¬
ed, who had liftened to Hud, and retired with him to
another place.” Others relate, “ that before this ter¬
rible cataftrophe, they had been previoully chaftifed
with a three years drought; and therefore fent Kail
Ebn Ithar, and Morthen Ebn Sdaa, with 70 other
principal men, to Mecca, then in the hands of the tribe
of Amalek, whofe prince was Moahwiyah Ebn Beer, to
obtain of God fome rain. Kail having begged of God
that he would fend rain to the people of -Ad, three
clouds appeared, a white, a red, and a black one ; and
a voice from heaven ordered him to choofe which he
would. Kail failed not to make choice of the laft,
thinking it would be laden with molt rain ; but when
this cloud came over them, it proved to be fraught with
the divine vengeance, and a tempeft broke forth from
y it which deftroyed them all.
Arabs from The prefent Arabs, according to their own hiftorians,
whom de- are fprung from Kahtan, the fame with Joktan, the fon
leended. of Eber, and Adnan, defeended in a direft line from
Ilhmael the fon of Abraham. The former of thefe they
called genuine or pure Arabs, and the latter the natura-'
Jized or injititious Arabs.
Joktan the fon of Eber had 13 fons, who fome time
after the confufion of languages fettled in Arabia, ex¬
tending themfelves from Media.to Sephar, a mountain¬
ous place in the fouth eaftern part of that peninfula.
According to the Arabian hiftorians, he had 3 1 fons,
all of whom left Arabia and went into India, except
two, viz. Yarab and Jorham ; the former of whom, they
fay, gave the name both to their country and language.
Iftvmael and his mother Hagar having been difmifi’ed
by Abraham, entered into the wildernefs of Paran, as
related in the book of Genefis. The facred hiftorian
informs us, that during his refidence in the wildernefs
he married an Egyptian ; and the Arabian writers fay
that he alfo took to wife the daughter of Modab king
*)f Hejaz, lineally defeended from Jorham the founder
of that kingdom. By the Egyptian he was probably Arabia.
the father of the Scenite or w ild Arabs 5 ancf having —v—
allied himfelf to the Jorhamites, he is eorffidered by
the Arabians as the father of the greateft part of their
nation, g
Kahtan, or Joktan, is faid to have firft reigned, and j0ktaa th&
worn a diadem, in Yaman-, but the particulars of his firft king,
reign we nowhere learn. He was fucceeded by Yarab
already mentioned, he by Yafliab, and Yafliab by Abd
Shems. He wras fuccefsful in his expeditions again!!
his enemies, carried off great fpoils, and took many ?
of them prifoners. He is faid to have built the city Refervoir
of Saba or Mareb, and above it a ftupendous mound of Saba,
or building, which formed a vaft refervoir, containing
all the water that came down from the mountains. By
means of this refervoir the kings of \ aman not only
fupplied the inhabitants of Saba and their lands with
water, but likewife kept the territories they had fub-
dued in greater awe, as by cutting off their communi¬
cation with it they could at any time greatly diftrefs
them.
Abd Shems was fucceeded by his fon Hamyar, from
whom the tribe of Hamyar is faid to take its name j
and he by a feries of 17 kings, concerning w-hom we
have no remarkable particulars, except that from one of
them, called Africus, the continent of Africa took its ni
name. The laft of thefe was fucceeded by a daughter Balkis Tup-
named Ba/kis or Be/kis, whom fome W'ill have to
the queen of Sheba who paid a vifit to Solomon. Af-u/sheb^
ter Balkis came Malca, furnamed Najlserolneam on ac¬
count of his magnificence and liberality. Having had
bad fuccefs in an expedition, where his army was over¬
whelmed by torrents of fand, he caufed a brazen ftatue
to be erefted, with the following infeription in the old
Hamyaritic character : “ There is no paffage behind
me, no moving farther the fon of Sharhabil.” He was
fucceeded by Shamar Yaraafti, fo called on account of tl
his being affedted with a conftant tremour. To this Samarcand,
prince the city of Samarcand is faid to owe its exiftence. by whom
After Shamar Yaraafh we have a lift of 15 kings, ofbuilt.
whom nothing worth mentioning is recorded, except
of one Abu Carb Afaad, who adorned the Caaba or
temple of Mecca with tapeftry, and firft introduced
Judaifm among the Hamyarites. He was put to death
by his fubje&s, probably on account of religion. The
laft of the 15 kings above mentioned was called Abra-
hah, who was fuceeeded by his fon Sabban. He had
that famous fword called Samfannuh, which afterwards
came into the hands of the caliph Al Ralhid. This
prince was fucceeded by Dhu Shanater, who had fix
fingers on each hand. He was abandoned to unnatu¬
ral luft, and dethroned for abufing fome of the noblefi:
youths in the kingdom. To him fucceeded Yufef, whoyufef a
lived about 70 years before Mahomet. He perfecuted bloody per-
all thole who would not turn Jews, putting them tofccutor-
death by various tortures, the moft common of which
was throwing them into a glowing pit of fire; whence
he had the appellation of the lord of the pit. This per-
fecution is taken notice of in the Koran. The laft of
the Hamyaritic monarehs was Dhu Jadan, according
to Abulfedaj but, according to others, the Yufef juft
mentioned, who was furnamed Dhu Nowaf on account
of his flowing curls, and was the laft who reigned in
an uninterrupted fucceffion. He was a bigotted Jew,
as already mentioned ; and treated his fubje&s with
3 Q. 2 fuch
A R A
[ 492- ]
A R A
Arabia.
Yufef.
14
Chriftiaji
religion e-
ftabiiftied
iji Arabia.
IS
Ethiopians
16
Terrible
inundation
by the
breaking
down of
the refer-
voir of
Saba.
fucli barbarity, that they were obliged to afk the affift-
v ance of Elefbaas, or Elafbaan, king of Ethiopia, againft
13 him. Dhu Nowas, not being able to make head againft
Hisfubjofi the Ethiopians, was at laft driven to fuch extremity,
kin-of E- that he forced his horfe into the fea, and loft both his
thopia, who life and crown together.
dethrones The king of Ethiopia, having thus become mafter of
Yaman, eftablifhed there the Chriftian religion, and fix¬
ed upon the throne one Abryat an Ethiopian. He was
fucceeded by Abraha Ebn-A1 Sabah, furnamed the S//i-
no/ed, from a wound he had formerly received in it.
He was likewife ftyled lord of the elephant, from a ftory
too ridiculous to deferve notice. He was fucceeded by
two other Ethiopian princes j but at laft Sief Ebn Dhu
Yazan, of the old royal family of Harnyar, having ob¬
tained gftiftance from the king of Perfia, which had been
denied him by the emperor Heraclius, recovered his
  throne, and drove out the Ethiopians \ but was himfelf
driven out {]aJn by f0me of them who were left behind. 1 he fuc-
ceeding princes were appointed by the Perfians, till Ya¬
man fell into the hands of IVfahomet.
We have already taken notice of the vaft mound or
refervoir made by Abd Shems, from which he fupplied
the city of Saba with water. This building flood like
a mountain above the city, and was by the Sabaeans
efteemed fo ftrong, that they were under no fear of its
ever failing. The water rofe almoft to the height of
20 fathoms ; and was kept in on every fide by a work
fo folid, that many of the inhabitants had their houfes
upon-it. About the time of Alexander the Great,
however, a terrible inundation happened. According
to the Arabian hiftorians, God being difpleafed at the
pride and infolence of the inhabitants ot this city, re¬
vived to humble them : and for this purpofe fent a
mighty flood, which broke down the mound by night
whilft the inhabitants were afleep, and carried away the
whole city with the neighbouring towns and people.
This inundation is ftyled in the Koran the inundation
of Al Haram; and occafioned fo terrible a deftruftion,
that from thence it became a proverbial faying to
exprefs a total difperfion, “ that they were gone and
{battered like Saba.”—By this accident no lefs than
eight tribes were forced to remove their habitations }
feme of which gave rife to the kingdoms of Hira and
Ghaffan.
Origin7 &C The kingdom of Hira was founded by Malec, a de-
of the king-feendant of Cahlan the brother of Hamyar ; but after
dom of Hi- three defeents, the throne came by marriage to the
ra. Lakhmians, who were defeendants of Lakhm the fon of
Amru, the fan of Abd Etns. Thefe princes,^vhofe ge¬
neral name was Mondar, preferved their dominion, not-
withftatiding fome fmall interruption from the Perfians,
till the caliphate of Abu Beer, when Al Mondar Ma-
ghrur, the laft of them, loft his life and crown by the
arms of Khaled-Ebn-Al-Walid. This kingdom conti¬
nued 622 years and eight months, according to Ahmed
Ebn Yufef. Its princes were under the protea ion of
the kings of Perfia, and were their lieutenants over the
Arabs of Irak, as the kings of Ghaffan were for the Ro-
> iS man emperors over thole of Syria.
OfGhafian. The kingdom of Ghaffan was founded by the tribe
of Azd, who according to fome, fettling in Syria Da-
mafeena, near a water called Ghaffan, from thence took
their name j but others fay they went under this ap¬
pellation before they left Yaman. Having driven out
Arabia.
the Daiaamian Arabs, who before poffeffed the country,
they made themfelves matters of a confiderable tern-
tor v. Here they maintained themfelves, according to
fome 400, according to others 600, and according to
Abulfeda 613 years, when the laft of their kings fub-
mitted to the caliph Omar, and embraced the Maho¬
metan religion ; but receiving afterwards a difguft, foon
returned to Chriftianity, and took refuge in Conitanti-
nople. „ , , , T 1 1
The kingdom of Hejaz was founded by Jopham the of Htjaz.
fon of Kahtan, where princes of his line reigned till
the time of llhmael, who married the daughter of Mo-
dad one of thofe princes. Some authors relate that
Kidar, one of Ifhmael’s fons, had the crown rtfigned
to him by his uncles the Jorhamites : but, according to
others, the defeendants of llhmael expelled that tribe ;
who, retiring to Johainah, were after various adventures
deftroyed by an inundation. After the expulfion of
the Jorhamites, the government of Hejaz feems not to
have continued long in the hands of one prince, but to
have been divided' among the heads of tribes, almoft
in the fame manner as the Arabs of the defert are go¬
verned at this day. The tribe of Khozaab, after the
above mentioned inundation of Saba, tied into the king
dom of Hejaz, and fettled themfelves in a valley call- 20
ed Marri near Mecca. Here they founded an arif- Tribe of
tocracy, affuming to themfelves both the government Ehozaab
of the city of Mecca, and the cuftody of the Caaba
temple there. They continued matters of this city and ment of
territory, as well as prefidents of the Caaba, for many Mecca*
ao'es, till at length one Kofa, of the tribe of Koreilh,
circumvented Abu Gabfhan, a weak and filly man, of
whom, while in a drunken humour, he bought the keys
of the temple for a bottle of wine ; but when Abu Gab-
flian grew cool, and reflefted on his imprudence, he iuf-
ficiently repented of what he had done ; whence the
Arabian proverbs, “ More vexed with late repentance
than Abu Gabftian *, More foolilh than Abu Gabftian, -p0jj 0f '
&c. The tribe of Khozaab endeavoured afterwards to Abu Gab<i
give fome difturbance to the Koreilh in the poffeflion of man.
the keys of the Caaba, which furnilhed the latter with
a pretence for depriving them of the civil government
of Mecca. After the Koreilh had poffeffed themfelves
of this city, they kept up the fame form of government
which had prevailed there before. Befides thefe king¬
doms, there were many others of leffer note, of which
we find nothing remarkable.
Thus we have briefly mentioned the moft memorable
events recorded by the Arabian hiftorians previous to
the time of Mahomet 5 but, before entering upon an
account of that famous impoftor and the kingdom found¬
ed by him, it will be proper to take notice of feverai
circumftances in different parts of the worid, which at
that time coneurred to facilitate his fcheme, and with¬
out which, in all probability, he would never have been
able to accomplifti it. 22
The firft and great caufe of Mahomet’s fuccefs mCaufesof^
his impofture, was the grofs corruption and fuperfti-Mah0™et’s
tion with which the Chriftian religion was at that time (-
obfeured in all parts of the world. Had the pure
dodrines of Chriftianity been then as publicly known
as the ridiculous fopperies which deformed the Eaftern
'and Weftern churches, Mahometanifm could never
have got a hearing. But along with the true reli¬
gion, mankind feemed alio to have loft the ufe oi their
AHA [ 493 ] A R A
Arabia, rational faculties, fo that they were capable of fvval-
i—-v—— lowing the groffeft abfurdities j fuch as it now appears
almoft incredible that any of the human race could
receive as truths. Another caufe was, the manner of
government and way of life among the Arabs. Di¬
vided into fmall independent tribes, they never were
capable of a firm union but by fuperftition ; and had
Mahomet attempted their conqueft in any other way,
it was impoflible he could have fucceeded. As there
were alfo among them Jews, Pagans, and Chriftians of
all forts, this impoftor, by adopting fomething out of
every religion then extant, cunningly recommended
himfelf to the profeffors of every one of them. Add
to all this, that by allowing of polygamy, and fetting
forth his paradife as confifting in the enjoyment of wo¬
men, he adapted himfelf to the corrupt difpofitions of
mankind in general.
If the diftra&ed Hate of religion favoured the de-
figns of Mahomet on the one hand, the weaknefs of
the Grecian and Perfian monarchies aftifted him no lefs
powerfully on the other. Had thofe once formidable
empires been in their vigour, either of them would have
been fufficient to crulh Mahometanifm in its birth j but
both of them were then ftrangely reduced. The Ro¬
man empire had continued to decline after the time of
Conftantinej the weftern parts of it were then entirely
overrun by the Goths and other barbarous nations ;
and the eaftern, or Greek empire, was fo much redu¬
ced by the Huns on the one hand, and the Perfians on
the other, as to be incapable of making any great elfort.
The Perfian monarchy itfelf was in little better con¬
dition. It is true, they ravaged the dominions of the
Greeks, and often overcame them in the field 5 but
that was owing more to the weaknefs of the Grecian
' empire, than to the firength of the Perfians, and fo
effedfually did the inteftine broils, which arofe chiefly
on account of religion, weaken the kingdom of Perfia,
that the moft confiderable part of it was annexed by
the caliph Omar to his dominions.
As the Greeks and Perfians were then in a languifia-
ing fituation, fo the Arabs were ftrong and flouriftiing.
Their country had been peopled at the expence of the
Grecian empire j whence the violent proceedings of the
different religious fedlaries forced many to take refuge
in Arabia. The Arabs were not only a populous na¬
tion, but unacquainted with the luxuries and delicacies
of the Greeks and Perfians. They were inured to bard-
Ihips of all kinds, and confequently much better fitted
than their effeminate neighbours to endure the fatigues
of war, as the event very fully verified.
t, Mahomet was born in the year of Chrift 569. Ac-
birth de- * corcbng to the eaftern hiftorians, he was defcended in
kent’ &c. a diredl line from Ifhmael. Keder, or, as the Arabians
call him Kidar, after his father IfhmaePs death, com¬
municated his name to the greateft part of Arabia Pe-
traea. Pie was fucceeded in his authority and poffef-
fions by his fon Hamal ; Hamal by Nabat, and Nabat
by Salaman. After Salaman came Al Homeifa, then
Al Yafa, whofe fon Odad was fucceeded by Odd the
father of Adnan. Counting ten generations forward in
the fame line, we come at laft to Fehr, who feems to
Fehhead ^aVe diftinguilhed himfelf by fome glorious actions, as
of the Ko- 'vas denol:ninat<;“d Koreifh, on account of his bravery,
reith. He is to be confidered as the root of the politeft and
moft celebrated tribe of the Arabs. He had three fons,
Caleb, Mohareb, and Al Hareth. From Moharebthe Arabia.
Banu Mohareb, denominated likewife Sheiban, took 1 v——;
their origin ; from Al Hareth, the Banu Al Kholoj :
and from Caleb in a direft line, the impoftor Mahomet.
Caleb was the father of Lowa •, and he of Caab, whofe
fon Morrah had for his immediate defcendant Kelab
the father of Kofa. It was this Kofa who aggrandized
the tribe of the Koreifh, by purchafing the keys of the
Caaba from Abu Gabftian, as we have already related.
By this he not only aggrandized his tribe, but became
the prince of it himfelf. Pie was fucceeded by his fe-
cond fon Abd Menaf^ to whom the prophetic light,
Avhich is faid to have manifefted itfelf in his face, gave
the right of primogeniture. Abd Menaf was fucceed-
ed by his fon Amni, furnamed Hajhem, or “ one thatgenerofity.
broke bread,” on account of his lingular generofity
during a famine at Mecca. Having amaffed great fums
of money, he took a journey into Syria, where he pur-
chafed a vaft quantity of meal, which he made into
cakes, and divided with his own hands amongft the peo¬
ple of Mecca. He likewife killed a prodigious number
of camels, with which he fed them, and relieved them
in the time of their diftrefs; and finding that the foil
about Mecca was fo barren as to produce no fruits
but what are common in the deferts, and confequently
no corn or grain, which the Meccans are obliged to
bring from other places, he appointed two caravans to
fet out yearly for that purpofe, the one in fummer, and
the other in winter 5 by means of which the city was
amply fupplied with provifions of all kinds. The pro-
vifions brought by them, were diftributed twice a-yearj
and Halhem, by his prudent conduct, raifed the glory
of his people to the higheft pitch-, infomuch, that all
the neighbouring great men and heads of tribes made
their court to him. Nay, fo great veneration is the
memory of Halhem held in by the Arabs, that from
him the family of Mahomet among them are called
Hajhemites ; and he who prefides over Mecca and Me¬
dina, who muft always be of the race of Mahomet, has
to this day the title of the “ Chief or Prince of the
Halhemites.”
Halhem died at Gaza in Syria, and was fucceeded
by his fon Abdal Motalleb or Mateleb. Pie is faid to
have been extremely affable and eafy of accefs, as well
as juft and generous to a great degree •, fo that, in the
beginning of the month Ramadan, he entertained the
poor upon the flat roof of his houfe, and afterwards
fupplied the fowls of the air and wild beafts of the
field with provifions of various kinds, which he ordered
his fervants to leave upon the fummits of the neighbour-
ing mountains. The well w hich God Ihowed to Plagar Well Zem¬
in the wildernefs is faid to have been miraculoufly dif- zem difco-
covered to Abdal Motalleb, about 500 years after it^d^Mo
had been filled up by Amru prince of the Jorhamites.tallej3>
This well is by the Arabs called Xem^em; which fome
derive from her calling to Ilhmael, when fhe fpied it,
in the Egyptian tomgue, Them, Zem, i. e. Stay, Stay :
though others afcribe it to a different origin. The
water of this well, which is on the eaft fide of the
Caaba, and covered with a fmall building and cupola,
is highly reverenced j being not only drank with parti¬
cular devotion by the pilgrims, but alfo fent in bottles
as a great rarity to moft parts of the Mahometan do¬
minions.
Abdalla the father of Mahomet, was a younger fon
of.
.Arabia.
27
Mahomet
at firft a
merchant.
28
Begins to
broach his
doftrine.
AKA [494
of Abdal Motalleb, and remarkable for bis beauty.
In his 24th or 25th year, he married Amina, the
daughter of Waheb, the fon of Abdal Menaf. She is
reprefented as the moft beautiful, prudent, and virtuous
lady of her tribe •, and confequently the moft worthy
of fuch an extraordinary perfon as Abdalla. He died
young, and, in his father’s lifetime, left his widow and
infant fon in very mean circumftances ; his whole fub-
ftance confifting only of five camels and one female
Ethiopian (lave. Abdal Motalleb was, therefore, obli¬
ged to take care of his grandfon Mahomet •, which he
not only did during his life, but at his death en¬
joined his eldeft fon Abu Taleb to provide for him for
the future. Abu Taleb was extremely kind to his
nephew, and inftru&ed him in the bufinefs of merchan-
dife: for which purpofe he took him into Syria when
he was but 13 years of age, recommending him to
Khadijah, a noble and rich widow, for her faftor ^ in
whofe fervice he behaved fo well, that Ihe married him,
and thus raifed him to an equality with the richeft in
Mecca.
Though Mahomet had probably formed a defign of
introducing his new religion pretty early, he did not
think proper to avow it till the 40th year of his age.
The grand article of his faith was, the unity of the di¬
vine nature, which he pretended was violated by the
Jews and Chriftians no lefs than by the Pagans j for
which reafon, he refolved to make an attempt to refcue
the world from the ignorance and fuperftition which
prevailed at that time. This reformation he intended
]
29
sBonverts
ihould begin in his own family ; and therefore, having
retired with his houfehold to a cave in Mount Hara,
near Mecca, he there opened the fecret of his miflion
to Khadijah j acquainting her that the angel Gabriel
•had juft appeared to him, and told him that he was
appointed the Apoftle of God. He alfo repeated to
her a paffage which he faid had been revealed to him
by the miniftry of the angel, with an account of many
prodigies which happened at his birth. (See^MAHO-
MET). This pretended revelation was received by
Khadijah with the greateft joy 5 and in a kind of ecfta-
his wife and r ^ ;mrnediately communicated the good news to
couiin, &c. her coufm Waraka Ebn Nawfal, who, being a Chrifti-
an, could write in the Hebrew character, and was pret¬
ty well verfed in the Scriptures both of the Old and
New Teftament. He very readily came into her opi¬
nion, fwore by God that what fhe faid was true, and that
“ Mahomet was the great prophet foretold in the law
by Mofes the fon of Amram.”
^ Mahomet finding his firft ftep fuccefsful, as Wa¬
raka rvas a very confiderable perfon, began to entertain
great hopes of accomplifhing his defign. He next
converted his fervant Zeid, to whom he gave his, liber¬
ty on the occafion, which afterwards became a rule to
his followers j and then Ali the fon of Abu laleb,
though at that time only nine or ten years of age. This
laft, however, making no account of the other two, he
ufed to call t/ie firfi of believers. The next perfon he
applied to was Abu Beer, a man of very confidemble
authority among the Koreifti. He was eafily gained
over, and by his influence feveral others; fo that Ma¬
homet now made his miflion no longer a fecret. To
Abu Beer he gave the name of Al Saddik, or the faith¬
ful witnefs; becaufe he not only vouched for every thing
he faid, but alfo greatly increafed the number of his
AKA
followers. Mahomet likewife complimented him with Arabia,
the title of Atik, or preferred ; intimating thereby that1 *—
he was certainly faved from hell fire.
Having given out that he was commanded from hea¬
ven to admoniih his near relations, IVIahoroet direfted
Ali to prepare an entertainment, and invite to it the
fons and defeendants of Abdal IVIotalleb. He intended
to open his mind to them : but Abu Laheb, one of
Mahomet’s uncles, making the company break up be¬
fore the prophet had an opportunity of ipeaking to
them, he was obliged to invite them again the next
day. Having now propofed the matter, he alked which
of them would become his wazir, prime minifter, or
vicegerent. This was accepted by Ali ; upon which
Mahomet faid to him, “ This is my brother, my de¬
puty, and my {caliph) fucceflbr, or vicar ^therefore _ 3©^
{how yourfelves fubmiflive and obedient to him.” AtR^je&ed
this fpeech all the company fell a-laughing, telling Abu
Taleb that he muft now pay obedience and fubmiflion
to his own fon. Notwithftanding this repulfe, how¬
ever, Mahomet was fo far from being difeouraged, that
he began to preach to the people in public. They
heard him with fome patience till he began to upbraid
them with the idolatry, obftinacy, and perverfenefs of
themfelves and their fathers ; which fo highly provoked
them, that they openly declared themfelves his enemies*
except fome few who were converted.^ The prophet w-aa
now protedled by the authority of his uncle Abu I a-
leb } who, however, was earneftly folicited to perfuade
his nephew to defift, and at laft threatened with an
open rupture in cafe he could not prevail on him fo to
do. This had fuch an efFeft upon Abu Taleb, that he
advifed his nephew not to pufh the matter any farther £
reprefenting the great danger he and his followers
would othervvife run : but our prophet was not to bf:
fo intimidated j and told his uncle plainly, that “lution.
they fet againft him the fun on his right hand, and the
moon on his left, he would not abandon his enter-
prife.” Abu Taleb, therefore, finding him G firmly
refolved, ufed no further arguments, but promifed to
ft and by him to the utmoft of his power : fo that not¬
withftanding the people of his tribe came to a determi¬
nation to expel both Mahomet and his followers, he
found a powerful fupport in his uncle againft all their
machinations.
Mahomet now entered upon his apoftolic fun&ion
with uncommon diligence and applicationj and foon
gained over his uncle Hamza, and Omar Ebn Al
Khattah, a perfon very much efteemed, and who be¬
fore had been his violent oppofer. Notwithftanding
this fuccefs, however, the Koreifti continued their op-
pofition, and came to a refolution to proferibe all who
had embraced Mahomet’s dottrine. In confequence of
this refoluticn, the Mofenis, as his followers were tall-
ed, were now treated with fuch feverity, that ^ey ersSperfec*
found it no longer fafe to continue in Mecca : nay, fie- teik
veral of them in the fifth year of his miflion found
themfelves obliged to fly into Ethiopia, where they
were kindly received by the Najaflii or king of that
country, who refufed to deliver them up to thofe whom
the Koreifti fent to demand them. At this refufal they
were fo exafperated, that they came to a refolution to
fupprefs effedhially the new religion, which had now
made a confiderable progrefs. In order to this, they
entered into a folemn league or covenant againft the
Hafliemitesg
A R A L 495 ] A R A
Arabia. Hafliemites, and the family of Abdal Motalleb in par-
»    titular, engaging themfelves to contraft no marriages
33 with them, nor to have any manner of communication
T-fl K° r 'with them otherwjfe ; and» to 8ive tllis the greater
intQ1 gnter weight, they reduced it into writing, and laid it up in
league a- the Caaba. Upon this the tribe became divided into
gaialt him. two fa&ions; and all the family of Haftiem, both Mof-
lems and unbelievers, repaired to Abu Taleb as their
head j except only Abdal Uzza $ furnamed Abu La-
heb, the fon of Abdal Motalleb, who, out of hatred
to his nephew and his do&rine, went over to the op-
pofite party. After this the authority of Abu Taleb
was fcarce fufficient to protect Mahomet from the tury
of the Koreilh; who, according to A1 Jannabi, made
frequent attempts upon him 5 fometimes endeavouring
to deftroy him by force, at other times by fecret wiles
and machinations : nay, to compafs their end, he tells
us that they had recourfe to magic, enchantments, and
diabolical illufions. In fhort, they gave him at laft fo
much trouble, that he was obliged to change his habi¬
tation, and feek a new afylum for himfelf and his
companions. This he found in the hsufe of one Orkam,
which was advantageoufly fituated on a hill called Safa.
Here he converted Orkam’s family, and the houfe was
34 afterwards held in high eftimation by the Modems.
Their writ- two fa(q;ons into which the tribe of Koreilh
ecfb^a^" was divided fubfifted for five years, when they were
worm. put an end to by a very ftrange accident. Mahomet
told his uncle Abu Taleb, that God had manifeftly
fhowed his difapprobation of the covenant entered into
againlt them, by fending a worm to eat out every word
of the inftrument except the name of God. \\ ith
this particular Abu Taleb, immediately acquainted the
Koreilh j offering, in cafe it proved falfe, to deliver up
his nephew to them ; but if it Ihould prove true, he
infilled that they ought to lay afide their animofity,
and annul the league they had made againlt the Ha-
fhemites. To this they acquiefcedj and going to in-
fpeft the writings, found it to be as Abu Taleb had told
them 5 the words “ In thy name, O God,” being the
only ones which remained. On fo remarkable a proof
of the divine difpleafure, the league was immediately
annulled, and all the a6ts of hoftility between the two
parties ceafed.
ftiU perfe After thk memorable event Mahomet remained with
tutedbv the his uncle Abu Taleb, who furvived the reconciliation
Koreifli. only about eight months. The fame year alfo died
Khadijah, Mahomet’s wife. Her death, as well as that
of his uncle, proved a great detriment to his affairs j
for the Koreilh, notwithllanding the former reconcilia¬
tion, began now to perfecute him with more violence
than ever. He was therefore obliged to ffy for Ihelter
to A1 Tayef $ which he chofe on account of its being
the refidence of his uncle A1 Abbas, whofe protection
he imagined he would be able to fecure. In this, how¬
ever, he found himfelf miffaken : and though he ftaid
a month in the city, during which time he gained over
»few, yet at laft the lower fort of people rofe againlt
him, and obliged him to return to Mecca. This refu-
fal, though it greatly difcouraged the new converts,
did not in the leall abate the zeal of Mahomet; on the
contrary, he continued to preach boldly to the public
affemblies at the pilgrimage to Mecca, exclaiming
againft idolatry, and particularly againft the worfhip
cf two idols Allat and A1 Vzzw, to which the tribes,
efpecially the women of that of Thakif, were very Arabia,
much addidled. By this the prophet was often expofed u—y——<
to great danger: however, he gained fome converts,
and amonglt them fix of the inhabitants of Yathreb,
of the Jewilh tribe of Khazraj ; who, on their return
home, failed not to fpeak much in commendation of
their new religion, and exhorted their fellow-citizens 3^
immediately to embrace it. Thefe converts of the tribe Anfaiv
of Khazraj, are by the Arab writers called Al Anfar,'*^0'
Al Anfariiy or Anfars; that is, affiftants, favourers,
fupporters, &c. becaufe they aflifted and fupported the
prophet when he was purfued to the very brink of de-
llruCtion. They firtt met Mahomet on a little hill
called A/ Akabah, where a temple flood, and where they
firft took an oath to exert themfelves in fupport of their
new apollle and his religion. An uninterrupted friend-
fhip and harmony reigned for a long time amongft the
members of the Jewiffi tribes of Khazraj, Koreidha, and
Nadir, whofe great progenitor, fays the Arabs, was Aa¬
ron the fon of Amram. Mahomet therefore infinuating
himfelf into the good graces of the Anfars, they readily
embraced his religion, and proved of very conliderable
fervice. 37
The next remarkable thing recorded of Mahomet is Mahomet’s
the invention of his night ieurney to heaven. This heJourneyto
probably intended to lupply the place of miracles. ’
The abfurdities contaimd in that relation, however,
are fo great, that when he related it to his uncle Al
Abbas, and Omm Hana, the daughter of Abu Taleb,
they endeavoured to diffuade him from making it pub¬
lic. This advice he was fo far from following, that
he related the whole to Abu Jabl, one of his moft in¬
veterate enemies, who ridiculed him for it, and placed
the ffory in fuch a ridiculous light to the Koreilh, that
they were on the point of infulting. him j feveral of his 38
followers alfo left him •, and the whole defign had pro-almoft
bably been ruined, had not Abu Beer vouched for his
veracity, and declared, that, if Mahomet affirmed it to
be true, he firmly believed the whole. This declara¬
tion not only retrieved the prophet’s credit, but in-
creafed it to fuch a degree, that he was fure of making
his difciples fwallow whatever he pleafedj and on this
occafion it is faid by fome that he gave Abu Beer the
name of the faithful witnefs-, as we have already re¬
lated.
In the twelfth year of Mahomet’s million, twelve
men of Yathreb, or Medina, of whom ten were of the
tribe of Kharaj, and two of that of Aws, came to Mec¬
ca, and took an oath of fidelity to the prophet at the-
hill Al Akabah. When they had folemnly engaged
to do all required of them, Mahomet fent one of his
difciples, named Mafab Ebn Ornair, home with them*
to inftrudl them more fully in the grounds of their new
religion. Mafab being arrived at Medina, with the
affiflance of the new profelytes, gained feveral othersj
and acquainting Mahomet with the fuccefs of his mif-
fion, defired leave to form a congregation of Moflems 39
at Medina. This the prophet readily granted ; in
confequence of which, the new M Hems regularly af-jems fonro-
fcmbled, to the number of forty perfons, in the houfe ed at -
of Saad Ebn Khaithama. The next year Mafab re-dina.
turned to Mecca, accompanied by 73 men and two wo¬
men of Medina, who had profeflld Mahometanifm, be-
fides feveral others who were yet unbelievers. On*
their arrival they fent iaunediately to Mahomet, andj
offered.*
A R A
r 496 ]
A R A
Arabia.
offered him their affiftance, of which he now flood in
the greateft need *, for his adverfaries were by this time
grown fo powerful in Mecca, that he could not flay
there much longer without imminent danger. He
therefore accepted their propofal, and met them one
night by appointment at the hill A1 Akabah. At
this interview he was attended by his uncle A1 Ab¬
bas j who, though then an unbeliever, wiihed his ne¬
phew well, and made a fpeech to the people of Medi¬
na ; wherein he told them, that as Mahomet was obli¬
ged to quit his native city and feek an afylum elfe-
where, and as they had offered him their protection,
they would do well not to deceive him ; and if they
were not firmly refolved to defend, and not to betray
him, they had better declare their minds, and let him
feek for protection fomewhere elfe. Upon their pro-
tefting their fincerity, Mahomet fwore to be faithful
to them, a part of the Koran being read to all prefent,
on condition they (houl^l proteCt him againft all infults,
as heartily as they would do their own wives and fa¬
milies. They then afeed him what recompenfe they
Avere to expeCt if they fliould happen to be killed in
his quarrel : he anfvvered, Paradife ; upon which they
pledged their faith to him, after Mahomet had chofen
twelve out of their number, who Avere to have the fame
authority under him that the tAvelve apoftles had under
Chrift.
Finding norv a confederacy formed in his favour,
our prophet began to pull off the mafk as to his true
fentiments concerning the means of reformation. Hi¬
therto he had propagated his religion by fair means on¬
ly *, and in feveral paffages of the Koran, which he pre¬
tended were revealed before this time, he declared, that
his bufinefs was only to preach and admonifh ; that he
had no authority to compel any perfon ; and that Avhe-
ther they believed or not, was none of his concern, but
belonged folely to God. But no fooner did he find
himfelf enabled, by the alliance above mentioned, to re¬
fill: his enemies, than he gave out that God had allowed
him and his followers to defend themfelves ; and at
length, as his forces increafed, he pretended not only
to have leave to aft on the defenfive, but to attack the
infidels, deltroy idolatry, and fet up the true religion
by the poAver of the fword. To this he was excited by
an apprehenfion that pacific meafures would greatly re¬
tard, if not entirely overthrow, his defigns $ and there¬
fore he determined to ufe the mod violent methods to
convert the Pagan Arabs, or rather to extend his own
authority.
The Koreilh, in the mean time, finding that Maho-
had confiderably extended his influence, and hear-
folve to puting of the league concluded with the Anfars, began to
Mahomet think it abfolutely neceffary that he fliould be prevent¬
ed from efcaping to Medina ; and, in order to do this
the more effedually, they refolved in a council, Avhere-
in it is faid the devil hflifted in perfon, to put an end
to his life. To accomplifh this Avith the greater fafe-
ty, they agreed that a man fliould be chofen out of
every tribe, and that each fliould have a bloiv at him ;
that fo the guilt of his death might fall equally on all
the tribes 5 and thus the Hafliemites would be prevent¬
ed from attempting to revenge the death of their kinf-
roan, as they were much inferior in power to the reft
of the tribes put together. Mahomet now dire£ted his
companions to repair to Medina, Avhtre, in confequence
AO
The Ko
reifli re-
to death.
of the late treaty, they might be affured of protedion. Arabia.
This they accordingly did : but he himfelf, with Abu —v—
Beer and Ali, remained behind j not having received,
as he pretended, the divine permiflion to retire. Here
he narrotvly watched the motions of the Koreilh, and
Avas foon apprifed of their machinations : for the above-
mentioned eonfpiracy Avas fcarcely formed, Avhen by
fome means or other it came to Mahomet’s knorvledge j
and he gave out that it Avas revealed to him by the an¬
gel Gabriel, Avho alfo commanded him to retire from
Mecca. The confpirators were already affembled at the
prophet’s door *, but he, to amufe them, ordered Ali to
lie down in his place, and wrap himfelf in his green ^
cloak : this Ali complied Avith, and Mahomet miracu-He outwits
loufly, according to the Arabs, efcaped to the houfe ofthemjmd
Abu Beer. The confpirators, in the mean time, per- e
ceiving through a crevice Ali wrapped up in the green
cloak, took him for Mahomet himfelf, and watched
there till morning, when Ali arofe, and they found
themfeh^es deceived. The prophet next retired in com- In great
pany with Abu Beer to a cave in Mount Thur, a hill a;
a little fouth of Mecca. Here he had a ftill more nar-
row efcape $ concerning Avhich avc have the following
account from an Arabic tradition. “ The Koreifh ha¬
ving detached a party from Mecca to reconnoitre the
mouth of the cave, when they came there, found it co¬
vered by a fpider’s web, and a neft built at the entrance
by two pigeons, which they faw, and Avhich had laid
ttvo eggs therein. On fight of this they reafoned with
themlelves in the following manner : ‘ If any perfon
had lately entered this cavern, the eggs now before us
Avould infallibly have been broken, and the fpider’s web
demolilhed } there can therefore be nobody in it :’ alter
Avhich they immediately retired. As the prophet,
therefore, and his friend, were now faved fo miracu-
loufly by means of the pigeon’s eggs and the interpofi-
tion of the fpider’s web, he afterwards enjoined his fol¬
lowers, in memory of fo reinarkable an event, to look
upon pigeons as a kind of facred animals, and never to
kill a fpider.” # # _ 4?
The prophet and Abu Beer having ftaid in this cave jje js pUr_
three days in order to recover a little from their con- fue(} an(i
fternation, fet out for Medina j but the Koreifti, being ovtrtaken,
informed of the route they had taken, fent a party
ter them, under the command of Soraka Ebn Malec. ^
Thefe overtook them *, and, as the Arab hiftorians tell
us, Soraka’s horfe fell doAvn Avhen he attempted to
feize Mahomet. Upon this he recommended himielf
to the prophet’s prayers, and remounted his horfe with¬
out hurt: but, as he ftill continued the purfuit, his
horfe fell down Avith him a fecond time 5 upon Avhich
he returned to Mecca, without offering any farther
violence : and Mahomet, thus happily delivered from
the greateft dangers, arrived Avithout farther molefta-
tion at Medina, Avhere he Avas received with the gre^t-
eft demonftrations of joy. This flight of the prophet Era 0f
from Mecca to Medina Avas reckoned fo remarkable Hegira,
by the Moflems, that they made it the era from whence
all their remarkable tranfadtions Avere dated, calling it
the Era of the Hegira, or flight. The beginning of
the Hegira correfponded Avith the 16th of July, A. D.
622.
On Mahomet’s arrival at Mecca, his firft care Avas to
build a mofque for his religious Avorftiip, and a houfe
for himfelf. The city of Medina at that time Avas in-
* habited
A R A [ 497 ] AH A
Arabia, habited partly by Jews and partly by heretical Chri-
ftians, that formed two fa6tions which perfecuted one
another with great violence. This gave the impoitor
fuch an opportunity of propagating his new religion,
that in a flrort time the city was entirely at his devo¬
tion. Here he ftrengthened himfelf by marrying Ay-
eflra the daughter of Abu Beer, though then only
feven years of age, and gave his own daughter Fatima
UnionV marriage to Ali, the fun of Abu Taleb. The next
the Anfars point he had in view was the union of the Mohajerin,
and Moha- or thofe who fled from Mecca on account of their re*
«!enn' ligion, with the Anfars above mentioned. To facili¬
tate this, after his mofque and houfe were finilhtd, he
eftablithed among the Moflems a fraternity, the prin¬
cipal ftatute of which w>as, that they fhould not only
treat one another like brethren, but likewife moft cor¬
dially love and mutually cherifli ©ne another to the ut-
moft of their power. But led even this Ihould prove
infufficient, he coupled the individuals of the two bo¬
dies of Anfars and Mohajerin ; and this was the laft
tranfaclion of the firlt year of the Hegira.
The next year was ulhered in, according to Abul-
feda, with a change of the Keb/a, or place whither the
Mahometans were to turn their faces in prayer. At
firfl; it had been declared to be perfeftiy indifferent
where they turned their faces. Afterwards he directed
them to pray with their faces towards the temple of
Jerufalem, probably wuth a view to ingratiate himfelf
with the Jews; and now, in order to gain the Pagan
Arabs, he ordered his followers to pray with their
faces towards the eaft. This inconftancy gave great
offence, and occafioned the apoftafy of many of his dif-
ciples. About this time Mahomet receiving advice
that a rich caravan of the Koreifli wTas on the road from
Syria to Mecca, he detached his uncle Hamza, at the
head of 30 horfe, to feize upon it; who accordingly
lay in wait for it in one of the woods of Yamana,
through which it was to pafs : here, however, he was
informed that the caravan was guarded by 300 men, fo
that he returned without making any attempt ; but the
prophet made the proper difpofitions for acting hereafter
againfl the Kortifli with fuccefs. This year alfo Ma¬
homet fent out a party of 60 or 80 horfe, all Moha¬
jerin, except one who was an Anfar, to make reprisals
on the ICoreifh. They were met by a party of their
enemies, and both fide^ immediately prepared for an
engagement : however, they parted without bloodflied,
except one of the Koreifli, who was killed by an arrow
46 flint by one of the Moflems.
Mahomet Mahomet having now put himfelf into an offenfive
1 mm CV P°^urf’> heR3r‘ in earned to make reprifals on the Ko-
gams’the re^- Hi* hr A exploit was the taking of a caravan
battieuf attended by a fmall guard ; and this being accomplifli-
Ikdr. ed by a party confiding only of nine men, contributed
greatly to encourage the Moflems. But what mod:
edabiidred the impodor’s affairs, and was indeed the
I, true foundation of ail his future greatnefs, was his gain¬
ing the battle of Bedr; of which we have the follow¬
ing account.—The prophet being informed that Abu
Sofian Ebn Harb efcorted a caravan of the J^oreiflr
with only 30 or 40 men, refolved to advance at the
head of a fmall detachment of his troops to intercept
it. To this he was excited-by the riches of the cara¬
van, which confided of a large quantity of merchan-
dife, confiding of the riches of Syria, carried on the
Vol. II. Part II.
backs of a thoufand camels. He therefore fent out a Arabia,
party to reconnoitre it, with orders to wait in feme *—'-v—-■*
convenient place where they might remain undileo-
vered. But Abu Sofian having notice of Mahomet’s
motions, defpalched a courier to Mecca, requeding
fuccours from his countrymen, that he might be able to
defend the caravan. Upon this Mahomet drew toge¬
ther all his force, which amounted to no more than
313, while his enemies confided of very near ICOO,
Abu Sofian having been reinforced by the Meccans
with 950 men. The two armies did not long remain
in a date of inaction : but before the battle three cham¬
pions from each party engaged each other in fingle
combat. In this the Modem champions were vi<do-
riou*, and the event greatly difeouraged the Koreidi.
Mahomet, in the mean time, taking advantage of
this lucky event, offered up his prayers to God with
great fervency and vehemence ; after which, feigning
himfelf in a trance, he pretended that God had allured
him of viftory. Then throwing an handful of dud or
gravel towards the enemy, he cried out, “ May the
faces of them be confounded and attacked the Ko¬
reidi with fuch bravery, that they were foun put to
dight, leaving 70 dead on the fpot, and having as many
taken prifoners. The lofs on Mahomet’s fide was only
14 men, and among the prifoners was A1 Abbas, the
prophet’s uncle. -
Though this aflion may feem of little confequence
in itfelf, it was of very great advantage to Mahomet’s
affairs at that time. He was immediately treated with *
the higbed refpefl by the Naj.idii, or king of Ethio¬
pia, who received a particular account of the vi&ory
loon after it was gained ; while the fiiperditious Mof¬
lems did not fail to look upon it as an evident declara¬
tion of heaven in their favour. Nay, notwithdanding
the fmall number of enemies to be overcome, and who
were only mortal men, thefe ignorant bigots did not he-
fitate to own the adiltance of no lefs than 4000 angels,
who, according to them, rode on black and white horfes,
having on their heads white and yellow fadies, that
hung down between their dioulders.
Notwithdanding this difader, however, Abu Sofian
made a pretty good retreat, and conduced the greated
part of the caravan to Mecca. This chagrined the
Modems, though they found great fpoil on the field of
battle j the divifion of which had likely to have psoved
fatal to their caufe, by the quarrels that it occafion¬
ed among them. So violent, indeed, were the difputes
on this occafion, that the impodor was obliged to
pretend an immediate revelation from heaven, em-fjfsilw
powering him to retain a fifth part for religious pur- . minj
pofes, and to didribute the red equally. This became A16 divjfiod
a law for his fucceffors ; but, with regard to himfelf,ot
the prophet often took the liberty of infringing it;
for which, no doubt, a new revelation was always a
ready and convenient falvo. As for thofe who were
dain on Mahomet’s part in this battle, they were all
looked upon by the Moflems as martyrs j and the pro¬
phet perceiving among the prifoners two of his invete¬
rate enemies, immediately caufed their heads to be
ftruck off.
The Koreidi, in order to be revenged on Mahomet
for their late defeat at Bedr, fent Amro Ebn A1 As,
who afterwards conquered Egypt, with fome other of
their principal people, on an embaffy to the king of
3 ft Ethi»pia,
A R A
[
Arabia.
498 ] A. R A • „
and his followers of fpeakmg dilrelpettfully ol Jesus ihealtacK v*a D g 1
and hi. mother Mary t which accufalion they ho- the enemy with filch fury, that their cenue ^ ^ ^
Arabia.
48
Abu Sofi
ped would likewife induce him to deliver up the Muf-
lem refugees that were then at his court. But the bad
fuccefs that had attended the arms of the Koreifh hi¬
therto, joined to the excufes-made by the refugtes,
not only hindered the Najatbi from delivering them up,
but alfo prompted him to difmifs the ambaffadors, and
return the prefents they had brought him. In the
mean time, Abu Sofian, who had fworn never to u e
perfumes or enjoy w'omen till he had another battle
with Mahomet, fet out from Mecca with a body of 200
horfe. He advanced to a poll within three miles of
Medina •, from whence he fent a detachment, who
burnt a barn, together with a man in it that was win¬
nowing wheat. ^ Mahomet being informed of this
outrage, moved immediately towards him with a de¬
an’s cowar-tachment of cavalry-, but Abu Sofian was fo intimi-
1 1 •  u fwith nreciDitation,
50
dice
dated by his approach, that he fled with precipitation
leaving behind him all the facks of flour or meal that
had been brought for the fubfiftence of his troops. In-
ftead therefore of coming to an engagement with the
impoftor, as he had fworn, he contented himfelf with
alarming the country, and pillaging fuch as he fufpedled
of favouring Mahometanifm.—This year alio Maho¬
met conquered the tribes called Banu Solaim, Ghat-
fan, and the Banu Kainoka; plundering hkewite a
rich caravan belonging to the Koreilh, and acquiring
from thence 25,000 dirhems for his own fliare of the
PlTn the year of Chrift 625, being the third of the He¬
gira, the Koreifh affembled an army of 3000 men,
among whom were 200 horfe and 700 armed with coats
of mail. The command of this army was given to
Abu Sofian, who was attended with his wife Henda
Bint Otba, and fat down at a village about fix miles
diflant from Medina. Mahomet being much inferior
to the enemy, refolved at firft to keep himfelf within
the town, and receive them there ; but afterwards, by
the advice of his companions, marched out againfl
them at the head of 1000 according to fome, 1050
according to others, or, as fome fay, only 900 men,
Of thefe 200 were cuirafliers *, but he had only one
horfe befide his own in the whole army. He diftri-
buted three ftandards among his troops j of which one
given to the tribe of Aws, another to that of
49
Battle of
Ohod.
Khazraj, and the third to the Mohajerin. The grand
ftandard was carried before the prophet by Mofaab
Ebn Omair. With thefe forces Mahomet formed a
camp in a village near Ohod, a mountain about four
miles north of Medina, which he contrived to have on
his backand the better to fecure his men from being
furrounded, he placed 5® archers, the flower of his
troops in the rear, with ftrift orders not to qmt their
polk On the other hand, the army of the Koreilh was
drawn up in the form of a crefcent, and made a very
good appearance. The right wing was commanded
by Khaled Ebn A1 Walid, afterwards fi> terrible to
the Greeks ; the left by Acrema Ebn Abu Jahl; and
the centre by Abu Sofian. The corps de referve
was headed by Abu Sofian’s wife, accompanied by 15
other matrons, who performed the office of drummers,
ately began to give way. Ali, or, according to Abul-
feda, Hamza, flew Arta the enemy’s great Itanoard-
bearer ; which ftruek them with fuch terror, that they
foon betook themfelves to flight, ia ling ioul upon
their own corps de referve. Vi6tory had now been
no longer doubtful, notwithftanding the vail inferiori¬
ty of Mahomet’s troops, had not the 50 archers, con¬
trary to the prophet’s exprefs command, quitted their
poll to pillage the enemy. Upon this Khaled, per¬
ceiving the Moflem army to be greatly expoied, at¬
tacked them in the rear with fuch bravery, that he
turned the fortune of the day. Not content with put¬
ting the troops there in diforder, he cried out with all
his might, “ Mahomet is (lain and this had fuch an
effed upon the Moderns, that they immediately took
to their heels, nor could the utmoft endeavoms of the
prophet himfelf afterwards rally them. He therefore ;^ahomet
found himfelf obliged to quit the field of battle in defeated,
doing which he was very near lofing his life, being
ftruck down by a ffiower of ftones, and wounded in
the face by two arrows, which occafioned the lois or
two of his fore-teeth. He likewife received a contufion
on his upper lip and had even been killed on the
fpot, had not one of his companions, named le/ha,
Abu Beer’s nephew, received a blow that was levelled
at him. On thisoccafion Telha received a wound in his
hand which deprived him ever after of the ufe of fome
of his fingers. Of the Moflems 70 were flain j among
whom were Hamza, the prophet’s uncle, and Moiaab,
the ftandard-bearer. Among!! the wounded were Abu
Beer Omar, and Othman j but as foon as they un-
derftood that the prophet was fafe, they returned to
the charge with a confiderable body, and after an ob-
ftinate difpute, carried him off. J. he good retreat rnace
by thefe champions fo difeouraged the. troops of Abu
Sofian, that they did not purfue the flying enemy, but
contented themfelves with remaining matters of the
field of battle ; nor did that general, though he exulted
not a little in his viftory, make any further uie of it
than to give Mahomet a challenge to meet him the next
year at Bedr, which was accepted and after his return
to Mecca, he defired a truce with the Moflems, whic
was readily granted. , • r 5r,
This defeat had like to have proved the total ruin of He apolo-
the impoftor’s affairs, and mutt have inevitably done fog««tor
had the conquerors made the leaf! ufe of their vnttory.
Some of his followers now afferted, that had he been
really a prophet fent from God, he could not have
been thus defeated : and others were exafperated on ac¬
count of the lofs of their friends and relations who had
been flain in the late engagement. To ftill the mur¬
murs of the former, he laid the blame on the fins of
thofe who had accompanied him and, to pacify the
latter, he pretended ft revelation from heaven, wherein
the period of all men’s lives was faid to be unalterably
fixed without regard to their own aftions, or to any
external obje£ls : fo that thofe who were killed in bat¬
tle behoved to have died, though they had remained at
home in their own houfes. By the affiftance of this
laft dodlrine he encouraged his followers to fight, with¬
out
A R A
[ 499 ]
A R A
Arabia.
5*
Siege of
Medina.
. &
The fiege
raifed.
Khoreid-
maffa.
cred.
out fear, for tlie propagation of their faith, as all their
1 caution would not be fufficient to avert their deftiny,
or prolong their lives even for a fingle moment.
The next year, (A. D. 626), Mahomet, befides fe-
veral other lefs confiderable fucceffes, reduced a fortrefs
belonging to the Jewifh tribe of A1 Nadir, Avho had
revolted on account of the defeat at Ohod. On this
occafion, by an exprefs revelation as he pretended, he
kept the whole booty to himfelf: and, about the fame
time, forbade his followers the ufe of wine, or to play
at games of chance, on account of the difturbartces and
quarrels which were likely to be excited by that means
among them. This year alfo he marched with a body
of infantry to Bedr, to meet Abu Sofian, as he had
promifed the year before : but that general’s heart fail¬
ing him, he returned home without facing the prophet j
and this piece of cowardice the Moflems did not fail to
impute to a terror fent immediately from God. The
year following, however, tha Koreifh, in conjunftion
with the tribe of Ghatfan, and the Jews of A1 Nadir
and Koreidha, aflembled an army of 12,000 men, with
which they formed the fiege of Medina •, thus threaten¬
ing the impoftor and all his followers with utter de-
ftruftion at once. On the enemy’s approach, Maho¬
met, by the advice of a Perrtan named Salman, or¬
dered a deep ditch to be dug round the city, and went
out to defend it with 3000 men. The Arabs having
inverted the town, both i'ides remained in a ftate of in-
affivity for fome time; which was fo well employed by
the impoftor, that he found means to corrupt fome of
the leading men in the enemy’s camp. -The good effecls
of this foon appeared ; for a champion having advan¬
ced to the Mortem intrenchments, and challenged the
beft man in their army to fight him in fingle combat,
the challenge was immediately accepted by Ali, who
flew him and another that came to his affiftance ; after
which, thofe who had been corrupted by Mahomet’s
agents fo foured a confiderable part of the forces, that
they deferted their camp; upon which all the reft were
obliged to raife the fiege and return home.
The prophet, being now happily delivered from the
moft powerful combination that had ever been formed
againft him, was vifited by the angel Gabriel ; who
alked him, whether he had fuffe.red his men to lay down
their arms, when the angels had not laid down theirs ?
ordering him at the fame time to go immediately againft:
the tribe of Koreidha, and afluring him that he himfelf
would lead the way. Upon this Mahomet immediate¬
ly fet out for the fortrefs of the Koreidhites, and pufti-
ed on the fiege with fo much vigour, that, though it
■Was deemed irnnregnable, he obliged the garrifon to
capitulate in 2? days. The Koreidhites, not daring
to truft themfelves to the impoftor’s mercy, furrender-
ed at diferetion to Saad Ebn Moadh, prince of the
tribe of Aws, hoping that he, being one of their old
friends and confederates, would have fome regard for
them. Here, however, they found themfelves disap¬
pointed ; for Saad, being highly provoked at them for
aflifting the Koreifti while in league with Mahomet,
ordered the men to be put to the fword, the women
and children made Haves, and their goods divided
among the. Modems. This fentence was no fooner
heard bv Mahomet, than he cried out that Saad had
.pronounced the fentence of God ; and, in confequence
of this decifion, ordered the men, to the number of
600 or 700, to be immediately maflacred. The women Arabia,
and children were alfo carried into captivity. Their ——y—J
immoveable poffeflions were given to the Mohajerin,
and the goods divided equally.
Mahomet now continued to be fuccefsful, gradually
reducing the Arab tribes one after another. In 628,
he fent an agent to Conftantinople, defiring leave of the
Greek emperor to tr?.de with his fubjedls ; which was
immediately granted. The fame year alfo he conclud¬
ed a peace for ten years with the inhabitants of Mecca,
and obtained liberty the next year to perform his devo¬
tions at the Caaba. What tended conliderably to bring
about this pacification was an account brought to the
Koreifli by one whom they had fent with an aftual de- ^
fiance to Mahomet, of the prodigious veneration which Prodigious
his followers had for him. This meffenger acquainted veneration
them that he had been at the courts both of the Ro ^or Maho-
man emperors and of the kings of Perfia, but nevermet’
favv any prince fo highly relpefted as Mahomet was
by his campanions. Whenever he made the ablution,
in order to fay his prayers, they ran and .caught the
water which he had ufed; whenever he fpit, they licked
it up, and gathered up every hair that fell from him,
with great veneration. This intimated how defpe-
rately they would fight in his defence, and probably
inclined his enemies to avoid hoftilities. In 629, the pie invites
impoftor began to think of propagating his religion be-foreign
yond the bounds of Arabia, and fent meflengers to fe- princes to
veral neighbouring princes to invite them to embrace en?.br.ace ^'3
Mahometanifm; but, before fending the letters, he a
caufed a filver feal to be made, on which were engra¬
ved in three lines the following words, “ Mahomet
the Apostle of God.” This feal he believed would
procure the letters to which it was affixed a more fa¬
vourable reception at the courts of thofe princes whi¬
ther they were directed. The firft to whom he applied
was Khofru Parvis the king of Perfia ; but he, finding
that Mahomet had put his own name before his, tore the
letter in pieces, and fent away the meflenger very ab¬
ruptly. He alfo fent a letter to the fame purpofe to Con¬
ftantinople ; but though the emperor Heraclius difmif-
fed his meflengers honourably, he refufed to abandon
the Chriftian faith. Befides thefe, he wrote five other
letters, which he diftributed among thofe who he thought
would be moft likely to acknowledge him for an apoftle.
However, we do not hear that by means of letters he
ever introduced his religion into a foreign country.— 57
But while our impoftor was thus going on in the full ca-Is poifoned,
reer of fnccefs, and induftrioufly propagating his infa-1)Ut reco*
mous falfehoods by all the means he could think of, heVelS*
was poifoned by a maid, who wanted, as (he faid, to
make an experiment whether he was a prophet or not.
This was done by communicating fome poifon to a
(boulder of mutton, of which one of his companions, na¬
med Ba/har Ebn dl Bara, eating heartily, died upon
the fpot ; and Mahomet himfelf, though he recovered
a little, and lived three years after, yet never enjoyed
perfect health. Notwithftanding this misfortune, how¬
ever, he ftill continued his enterprifes. The year 630
proved remarkably fortunate. It was ulhered in by
the converfion of Khaled Ebn A1 Walid, Amru Ebn
A1 As, and Othman Ebn Telha, three of the moft
confiderable perfons among the Koreifti ; and thi- foon
enabled him to become mafter of the whole peninfula
of Arabia. This year alfo the inhabitants of Mecca
3 R 2 took
A R A
[ 5°° ]
A R A
Arabia.
58
Meccans
vjolate the
V
took it into their heads to violate the treaty concluded
with Mahomet: for the tribe of Beer, who were the
confederates of the Koreilh, attacking thofe ofKho-
zaab, who were in alliance with Mahomet, maflacred
treaty w.Th 20 of them, and afterwards retired being fupported
Mahomet, in this ion by a party of the Koreith themfelves.
The confequence of this violation was foon apprehend¬
ed ; and Abu Sofian himfelf made t-journey to Medina,
in order to heal the breach and renew the truce : but m
vain •, for Mahomet, glad of this opportunity, refuted
to fee him. Upon this he applied to Abu Beer, Ah,
Omar, and Fatima, to intercede for their countrymen
with the prophet but fome of thefe giving him rough
anfwers, and others none at all, he was obliged to re¬
turn to Mecca as he came. Mahomet immediately gave
orders for the neceffary preparations, that he might lur-
prife the Meccans, who were by no means in a condi¬
tion to receive him ; but Hateb Ebn Abu Baltaa, hi¬
therto a faithful Mofiem, attempted to give them notice
of their danger by a letter ; though without eftedt. Mis
letter was intercepted : and he alleged in his excule,
that the only reafon he had for his conduft was to in¬
duce the Koreifh to treat his family with kmdnefs. 1 his
excufe the prophet accepted, as he had greatly diftm-
guilhed himfelf at the battle of Bedr, but ftriftly for¬
bade anv fuch praaices for the future 5 which having
done, he immediately made the neceffary difpofitions for
felting forward. f
Mahomet’s army, on this occafion, was compofed ot
Mohaierin, Anfars, and other Arabs, who had lately
become profelytes. As they drew near to Mecca, he
fet up his ftandards, and advanced in order of battle
to Mar A1 Dharan, a place about four parafangs from
Mecca, where the whole army encamped. Here he
ordered 10,000 fires to be lighted, and committed
the defence of the camp to Omar, who cut oft ad com¬
munication with the town, fo that the Meccans could
receive no certain advice of their approach. Among
others that came from Mecca to reconnoitre the Moilem
camp, Abu Sofian Ebn Harb, Hakim Ebn Hezam, and
Bodail Eb'n Warka, fell into Omar’s hands ; and being
conduced to Mahomet, were obliged to embrace Ma-
hometanifm in order to fave their lives.
The firft rumour of this expedition had not a little
terrified the Koreifh, though they were not apprifed
that the prophet had refolved upon a war ; but perceiv¬
ing now. upon the report of Abu Sofian, who had been
fent back to them, that the enemy was at their gates,
they were thrown into tire utmoft confternation. Of
this Mahomet being informed, he refolved to take ad¬
vantage of the confufion that then reigned among them.
He therefore firft defpatched Hakem and Bodail to the
Meccans, inviting them to take an oath of allegiance
to him, and become converts to his new religion ; after
which, he made the following difpofition of his forces.
Al Zobeir was ordered to advance with a detachrocnt
toward the town on the fide of Mount Cada. Saad
Ebn Obad, prince of the tribe Khazraj, marched by
his order with another detachment towards the height
of Coba, which commands the plain of Mecca. Ah
commanded the left wing of the army, confifting of An¬
fars and Mohajerin. The prophet put into his hands
the oreat ftandard of Mahometanifm, with orders to
poftliimfelf upon Mount Al Hajun^and to plant the
ftandard there j ftri&ly enjoining him, however, not
3
to ftir from thence till he himfelf arrived, and till a Arabia,
proper fignal fhould be given him from Saad for that "v
purpofe. Khaled led the right wing, confifting of the
Arabs lately converted, with which he was to poffeis
himfelf of the plain of Mecca. Abu Obeidah com¬
manded in the centre, which confifted entirely of m.an-
try ; the prophet himfelf remained in the rear, from
whence he could moft eafily defpatch his orders to all
the generals as occafion fhould require. He expreisly
prohibited Khaled and all his other officers from afting
offenfwely unlefs they w'ere firft attacked. Things be-
ino- in this fituation, the army upon a fignal given put
itfelf immediately in motion. The prophet mounted his
camel with gyeat alacrity, and was that day clothed in
red A1 Zobeir purfued the route afligned him with¬
out oppofition ; nor did Saad difeover the fainteft traces
of an enemy : Ali took poffeffion of his poft without
the lofs of a man •, and in like manner Abu Obeidah
feized on the fuburbs. Khaled, however, m his march
to the plain, was met by a large body of the Koreith
and their confederates, whom he immediately attache ^
and defeated, putting 28 of them to the fword. Not Mecca ta-
content with this, he purfued them into the town, and ken.
maffacred a great number of the inhabitants *, winch to
terrified the reft, that fome ftiut themfelves up in their
houfes, while others fled different ways in order to avoid
the fury of the mercilefs and impious tyrant, wTho was
now become mafter of the city. Ihus was Mecca re¬
duced, with the lofs only of two men on the fide of the
impoftor. . j 1 •
Mahomet being now mafter of the city, made Jus
public entry into it exaftly at funrifing. When the firft
tumult was over, he went in procefiion round the Caaba
feven times, touching the corner of the black ftone with
the ftaff in his hand, as often as he pafl'ed it, with
great devotion. Then he entered the Caaba j where
obferving feveral idols in the form of angels, and the
ftatues of Abraham and Ilhmael with the arrows of
divination in their hands, he caufed them all to be de-
ftroyed. He alfo broke in pieces with his own hands
a wooden pigeon, that had long been efteemed a deity
by the idolatrous Koreifh. Afterwards entering into
the interior part of the Caaba, he repeated with a loud
voice the form ufed at this day by the Mahometans,
“ Allah Akbar, God is great,” &c. turning towards
every part of the temple. Then he prayed between
the two pillars there, with two inclinations, as weft as
without the Caaba j faying to thofe that attended him,
“ This is your Kebla, or the place towards which you
are to turn your faces in prayer.”
Having thus effeUually fubdued the Koreifh, put
an end to all commotions, and purged the Caaba of
360 idols, the prophet’s next care ivas to ingratiate
himfelf with the people. Sending therefore for. fome
of the principal of them, he afked them what kind of
treatment they expected from him, now he had con¬
quered them ? To this they replied, “ None but what
is favourable, O generous brother:” upon which he
difmiffed them, telling them they were from that mo¬
ment a free people. After this, pretending a new re¬
velation, he reftored the keys of the Caaba to Othman
Ebn Telha, who was in pofl^fiion of them before; and
who was now fo much affedled by this piece of juftice,
that he immediately became a profelyte. Next day
the prophet declared Mecca an afylum, and publicly
6o
Mahomet
dies.
A R A [50
Arabia, gave out that he would maintain to the utmoft of his
-—V——' power the inviolable fecurity of the place. He then
was folemnly inaugurated ; after which he^profcribed,
according- to feme, fix men and four women, according
. to others, eleven men and one woman : but of thefe on¬
ly three men and one woman were put to death , the
reft being pardoned on their embracing Mahometan-
ifm, and one woman making her efcape. The remain¬
der of this year was fpent in various expeditions againft
different tribes of the Arabs, which were in general
attended with fuccefs.
The pth year of the Hegira, being that of Clirift
631, is called by the Mahometans the year of Em-
bajfres ; for the Arabs, who had hitherto been expe£ting
the iffue of the war between Mahomet and the Koreifh,
no fooner faw that tribe, which was the molt confiderable
of the whole, fubmit to him, than they began to come
in to him in great numbers, and to fend embaffies to
make their fubmiflions to him, both while at Mecca
and after his return to Medina, whither he had return¬
ed foon after the taking of Mecca : and this good for¬
tune continued without interruption to the year 632,
when the famous impoftor breathed his laft, having
juft reduced under his fubje&ion the whole peninfula
of Arabia, and being ready to break into the neighbour-
fir ing kingdoms in order tofatisfy his ambition.
Great con- The death of Mahomet occafioned fuch a confterna-
fufion on his £jon jn ]\/[eccaj that the governor hid himfelf, fearing
to be called to an account for his former conduft ; and
the inhabitants, upon the firft arrival of this melancholy
news, confidered themfelves as deftitute of all manner
of prote&ion. After the firft impreflions of their fear,
however, were over, they began to meditate a revolt ;
but were prevented by one Sohail Ebn Amru, a prin¬
cipal man of the Koreifh. The tumults at Medina, how¬
ever, were not fo eafily appeafed. The news of this fad
event were no fooner publifhed there, than a number of
people affembled before his door, crying out, “ How
can our apoftle be dead ! Our interceffor, our media¬
tor has not entirely left us ! He is taken up into hea¬
ven, as was Ifa (Jefus) ; therefore he fhall not be buried.”
This was confirmed by Omar $ who drew his fword, and
fwore, that if any perfon affirmed Mahomet to be dead,
he would cut off his hands and his feet. “ The apof¬
tle of God (fays he) is not dead : he is only gone for
a feafon, as Mofes the fon of Amram was gone from
the people of Ifrael for 40 days, and then returned
to them again.” The populace therefore kept the body
above ground, even after the belly began to fwell ;
nor could the prophet’s uncle xM Abbas, notwithftand-
ing this, convince them to the contrary. Upon hear¬
ing of thefe tranfatffions, Abu Beer immediately polled
from A1 Sonah, another quarter of the city, and ex-
poftulated with them in the following manner : “ Do
you worlhip Mahomet, or the god of Mahomet ? If
the latter, he is immortal, and liveth for ever *, but if
the former, you are in a manifeft error, for he is cer¬
tainly dead.” The truth of this affertio'n he immedi¬
ately evinced from feveral paffages of the Koran, in fo
clear and conclufive a manner, that he not only fatisfied
Omar, but calmed the minds of all the people.
The prophet having left no direflions concerning a
fucceffor, very warm difputes arofe between the Moha-
jerin and the Anfars about the right of elefling a ca~
liph. The former infilled on having that right, becaufe
i ] A 11 A
they had attended Mahomet in his flight to Medina j Arabia,
and the others, becaufe they had fupported him when -v—^
expelled from his native city, &c. In Ihort, the dif¬
putes became fo hot, that an open rupture muft have
commenced, had not they been terminated by a propo-
fal that each party Ihould choofe a caliph. This amufed
them a little for the prefent j but not proving perfeftly
agreeable to the Mohajerin, Abu Beer propofed two
perfons, Omar and Abu Obeidah, offering to Iwear al¬
legiance to him on whom the fuffrages of both parties
fliouid fall. But this producing no decifion, Omar fiz
fwore fealty to Abu Beer, and his example was follow-Abu Beer
ed by all the Moflems on the fpot; upon which he was[^eeds
acknowledged both by the Mohajerin and Anfars as
the rightful fucceffor of Mahomet. ^
Thefe tranfadlions, however, were not at all agree- Ali diflatif-
able to Ali, who, as fon-in-law-to the prophet, had fed.
undoubtedly the belt title to the fucceffion. He expof-
tulated with Abu Beer about the manner of his elec¬
tion, which had been effected without his knowledge ^
and received for anfwer, that the exigence of affairs
would not admit of deliberation j and that, had not the
election been fo hidden, the oppofite party would have
wrefted the power entirely out of their hands. Ali was
in Fatima’s apartment when Abu Beer had the good
luck to be defied caliph 5 and, upon the arrival of the
news, expreffed great diffatisfaflion. He found himfelf,
however, foon obliged to change his note, when the new
caliph fent Omar with orders to burn the houfe where
he and his friends were affembled, in cafe he did not
concur in fupporting the eleftion. But notwithftand-
ing his forced compliance on this occafion, it is not to
be doubted that he reckoned himfelf injured ; and his
pretenfions were thought to be juft by a great number
of Moflems : which notion is entertained by a very
confiderable party of Mahometans even at this day $
and thefe are called Shiites ov fe&anes.
Soon after Abu Beer’s aceeflion, many of the Arabs
refufed to pay the tribute impofed upon them by Ma¬
homet, and even attempted to fliake off his yoke alto¬
gether. This fo alarmed the caliph and his fubjefls at
Medina, that, fearing a general revolt, they fent ali
not able to bear arms into the cavities of the rocks and
mountains, and put themfelves in as good a pofture of
defence as the fhort time would permit. In the mean ^
time Khalcd was defpatched with an army of 45°° men Rebellions
to reduce the rebels : and he loon coming up with them, extmgmfli-
gave them a total defeat, brought off a vaft quantity of^by
plunder, and made many of their children (laves. Nor
was he content with this ; for being fent by Abu Beer
to Malek Ebn Noweirah, an eminent perfon among the
Arabs, and famous for his fkill in poetry as well as his
horfemanlhip and brevery, to bring him over by fair-
means, he immediately ordered his head to bg, cut off.
By this means, indeed, he extinguilhed all the remains
of rebellion 5 but rendered himfelf exceedingly obnoxi¬
ous to Abu Beer, who would have put him to death,
had not Omar ftrongly interceded for him : for Khaled
had greatly exceeded his commiflion, as Malek had re¬
turned to Mahometamfm, and had offered to pay the
money. This was not, however, the only piece of fer-
vice Khaled performed at this time} he alfo defeated
and killed Mofeilama, who had fet up for a prophet in
the time of Mahomet, and even wanted to take the
grand impoftor himfelf into company with him. The
fame
Arabia',
A R A [ 5°2
fame general likewife defeated and difperfed the troops
w——y——q£ another prophet, called Toleicih Ebn K/ioivcttled, obli¬
ging himfelf to remain concealed till after the death of
Abu Beer. About the fame time another body ol re¬
bels committed great diforders in the province of Bah¬
rein. Againft thefe Abu Beer defpatched A1 Ola at
the head of a confiderable army, who. foon obliged
them to return to Mahometanifm ; having put great
numbers of them to the fvvord, and plundered their
country in a dreadful manner.
*>5 Abu Beer having now no enemy to contend with in
th* Greeks. Arabia, and being free from all apprehenfions of a com-
’petitor, refolved next to turn his arms againft the
Greek emperor. Some Ikirmifhes had happened, in
the time of Mahomet, between the Modems and
Greeks ; in one of which Zeid, a Modem commander,
had been killed. To revenge his death, his fon Ofa-
ma was on the point of making an. irruption into Syria
at the time of Mahomet’s deceafe. This enterprife
the caliph ordered him to go on with ; and it was ex¬
ecuted by Ofama with great fuccefs. He entered
Syria, and laid wafte the country, doing the Greeks a
crood deal of damage : after which he returned to A-
rabia without any confiderable lofs.
' . ^ Soon after the caliph fent Khaled at the head of a
of mra?e-',powerful army to invade Irak, and put an end to the
ftroyed. kingdom of Hira. In this undertaking he was attem -
ed with his ufual fuccefs. The king A1 Mondar A1
Maghrur loft his life in defence of his dominions ; and
the kingdom was totally deftroyed, after it had conti¬
nued 622 years and eight months, as wre have already
hinted. The inhabitants became tributaries j and, ac¬
cording to Eutyehius, the tribute collefled on this oc-
cafion amounted to 70,000 pieces of money. This, ac¬
cording to A1 Makin, was the firft tribute money ever
brought to Medina.
The exigence of the caliph^s aftalrs in Syria, how-
ever, did not fuffer Khaled long to remain in Irak.
Before the departure of the army under his command,
Abu Beer had come to a refolution to invade Syria ;
and finding his defign approved by the principal offi¬
cers of his court, he fent circular letters to the petty
princes of Yaman, the chief men of Mecca, &c. in¬
forming them of his intention to take Syria out of the
hands of the infidels •, acquainting them, at the fame
time, that a war for the propagation of the true reli¬
gion was an a£f of obedience to God. To thefe letters
they paid a proper regard ; and in a very fhort time
appeared at Medina at the head of their, refpe&ive
troops, and pitched their tents round the city. Here
they ftaid till the Modem army deftined to a51 againft
the emperor was completely formed, and in a capacity
to begin its march. The caliph having viewed the
troops from the top of a hill, and prayed to God for
fuccefs, attended the generals a little way on foot. As
the generals were on horfeback, they could not forbear
expreffing their uneafinefs at the caliph’s thus demean¬
ing himfelf*, buthe told them, that it fignified little
whether they walked on foot or rode, as they had all
the fame views, viz. the fervice of God, and the pro-
, pagation of religion. At parting, he addrefled Yezid
Abu Beer’s Abu Sofian, whom he had invefted with the fu-
preme command, in the following manner . I ake
care, Yezid Ebn Abu Sofian, to treat your men with
tendernefs and lenity. Confult with your officers on
4
I
A R A
all preffing oCcafions, and encourage them to face the
enemy with bravery and refolution. It you (hall hap¬
pen to be victorious, deft toy neither old people, wo-
nor children. Cut down no palm trees, not burn
Arabia.
men.
to his ge¬
neral.
any fields of corn. Spare all fruit trees, and lEy no
cattle but fuch as you thall take' for your own ufe.
Adhere always inviolably to your engagements, and
put none of the religious perfons you (hall meet with
in monafteries to the fword. Offer no violence to the.
places they ftrve God in. As for thofe members of
the fynagogues of Satan who Jhave their crowns, cleave
their fkulls, and give them no quarter, except they em¬
brace Iflamifm fMahometanifm), or pay tribute.”
The Greek emperor was greatly alarmed at the ap¬
proach of the Moflem army ; however, he made all
neceffary preparations for his defence, and fent out a
detachment to reconnoitre the enemy. 1 hef. having
fallen in with the Arabs, a battle enfued, in which the
Greeks were defeated with the lofs of 1 200, while the
Arabs loft only 120 men. This was fucceeded by a
great many Ikirmiffies, in which the Modems were ge¬
nerally victorious. The rich fpoil taken on thefe oc¬
casions were fent as a prelent to the caliph ; who having
acquainted the inhabitants of Mecca with his good luc-
cefs, they were thereby fo elated, that they furnidied
him with a ftrong reinforcement, which was immedi¬
ately ordered into Syria. The Greek emperor, in the
mean time, having ordered another body ot his troops
to advance towards the frontiers, they found an oppor-
tunitv of engaging the Modem army uncer Abu Obei-
dab, "a perfon of great piety, but little experience in rhe viof-
war. Him they totally defeated *, and Abu Beer waslems de-
fo much provoked at his defeat, that he deprived him16" e
of the command, which was given to Khaled, who v\as
for this purpofe recalled from Irak. 1 hat general’s
firft exploit wTas the reduClion of Bo lira, a very rich and
populous city of Syria Damafcena ; which, however,
he accompliftied by treachery rather than by force of
arms. Having left a garrifon of 400 men in Boftra,
and being joined by Abu Obeidah’s forces, he laid ^
fiege to Damafcus with an army of 45,000 men. 1hisQamafcus
fo alarmed the emperor, that he defpatched an army ofbefieged.
100,000 men, commanded by one Werdan, to the re¬
lief of that city. Khaled, on hearing of the approach
of this formidable army, was for marching immediate¬
ly with all his forces, and giving them battle; but this
was opp<>fed by Abu Obeidah, as it would enable, the
inhabitants 0/ Damafcus to procure freffi fupplies both
of arms and provifions, and confequently render the re¬
duction of the place more difficult. It was, therefore,
at lait agreed, that a body of troops fhould be detached
under Derar Ebn A1 Wazar, an excelb-nt officer, and
an implacable enemy to the Chriftiam (as indeed were
all the Modem generals except Abu Obeidah), to fight
the enemy, whilft the fiege was carried on by the two
generals. «0
Khaled, fearin'/ left Derar’s furious zeal and hatredGreeks
to the Chriftians fhould prove fatal to h’s troops, told (lefeatecl
him before, his departure, that though they were com-with great
manded to fight for the propagation of their religion,^™*’
yet they were not allowed to throw away the lives of
their men; and therefore ordered him to retire to the
main body of the army, in cafe he found himfelf pref-
fed by a fuperior force. But Derar, deaf to this falu-
tary admonition, with his fmall body of troops rulhed
upon
A , R A
Arabia, upon the whole Chriftian army, notwithftanding the
vaft difproportion of numbers. He charged them,
h.'Wever, with fuch bravery, that he penetrated to the
fpot where the general gave his orders, killed the fland-
ard-bearer, and carried off the ilandard itfelf, in which
was a crofs richly adorned with precious ftones. Nay,
he would in all probability have put Werdam’s army
to flight, had not the general’s fon, the commandant
of Hems, arrived in the heat of the engagement, with
a body of 10,000 men ; with which he attacked the
Moflems fo brilkiy in the rear, that he forced them to
retire, and took Derar himfelf pnfoner. This fo dif-
couraged them, that they would have taken to their
heels, had not Rafi Ebn Omeirah animated them with
the following words : “ What! do not you know, that
whoever turns his back upon his enemies offends God
and his prophet ? and that the prophet declared the
gates of paradife fliould be open to none but fuch as
fought for religion ? Come on ! I will go before you.
If your captain be dead, or taken prifoner, yet your
God is alive, and fees what you do.” This exhortation
had fuch an effedt upon his troops, that returning to
the charge, they maintained their ground with unpa¬
ralleled bravery, till Khaled arrived with a coniide-
rable body of infantry and 1000 horfe. The arrival
of this general foon turned the fortune of the day. A
party of the imperial army went over to the Mollems,
and the relt took to their, heels. Eerar alfo was re¬
taken, and carried off in triumph. However, Wer-
dan having colledfed the fcattered remains of his for¬
ces, and received a reinforcement from the emperor,
found his army {till to amount to 70,000 men, with
which he refolved to make another attempt for the re¬
lief of Damafeus. They were attended with ftill worfe
fuccefs in this fecond attempt than they had been be¬
fore j being utterly defeated, with the lofs of 50,000
men, fo that they were no more in a condition to at-
The"city terT1Pt any thing ; and, in confequence of this, the city
taken. was foon taken, notwithftanding the utmoft efforts of
the befieged.
Abu‘Beer ^his difaftrous event happened in the year 634 •, and
die‘ -ndis t^ie veJT ^ay t^iat Hamafcus was taken, Abu Beer died
fuceeeded °f a confumption in the 63d year of his age. He was
by Omar fucceeded by Omar, who was proclaimed caliph that
very day •, and the firft title aftigned him was, T/ie ca¬
liph of the caliph of the apoftle of God. But the Arabs
confidering, that by the additions to be continually
made at the acceffion of every new caliph, the title
would become too long, they with one voice fainted
him. Emperor of the believers ; which illuftrious title
defeended afterwards to his fucceffors by a kind of in-
conteftable right.
The new caliph was no fooner fettled than he repla¬
ced Abu Obeidah in the command of the army in Sy¬
ria, being greatly difpleafed with the cruel and blood-
thirfty difpofition of Khaled. He alfo commanded A-
bu Obeidah to have an eye upon Paleftine, and to in¬
vade it as foon as an opportunity offered. Khaled bore
his difgrace with great magnanimity ; and fwore, that
though he had always had the greateft regard for Abu
Beer, and the utmoft: averfion to Omar, he would fub-
mit to God’s will, and obey the new caliph as the law¬
ful fucceffor of Mahomet. The Modem forces in the
inean time having made all proper difpofitions for im¬
proving the advantages they had gained, Abu Obei-
A R A
dab fent a detachment of 500 horfe to a place called Arabia.
Dair Abel Kories, about 30 miles from JLotmalco, io —y—-
plunder the Chriltians there. In this place there lived
a pneft lo eminent for his fan&ity, that the neighbour¬
ing people of all ranks retorted to him fur his bleflmg
and inftruction. W hen any perfon of diftindion mar¬
ried, he took with him his new ipoufe, in order to re¬
ceive this holy man’s benediction. The fame of this
pneft’s lanclity drew fuch numbers of people to that
place every Eafter, that a great faif;; was kept annually
at his houfe, to which were brought vaft quantities of
the richeit filk, plate, jewels, &c. W hen the Arabs
drew near to this place, to which they vvere conducted
by a Chriftian, they vvere informed that the governor
of Tripoli hae married his daughter to a perfon of di-
ftindtion, who had carried his lady to the above-men¬
tioned pritft. She was attenued by a guard of 50CO
men •, befides which, the Jews, Greeks, Copts, and
Armenians, at that time aflembltd about the monafte-
ry, amounted to 10,ooo. Notwithftanding this, the
Moftem commander determined to carry off the lady ; Governor
and having told his men, that they fliould either enjoy ot Tripoli’s
the riches of the Chriftians, or the plealures of para-^au?^ter
dife, he commanded them to fall on the enemy. Thecarriedoff
impetuofity of thefe enthuftafts at firft bore all down
before them ; but the Chriftians, perceiving they were
but a handful of men, furrounded them on all fides,
and refolved to make them pay dear for their temerity.
But Abu Obeidah, being informed of their dangerous
fituation, immediately dtfpatched Khaled with a ftrong
detachment to the relief of his diftre.ffed countrymen.
The confequence of this was, that the Chriftians were
entirely defeated, and the unhappy lady carried off,
with 40 maids that waited upon her, as well as all the
wealth brought to the above-mentioned fair j among
which were many rich garments eurioufly wrought,
and in particular one adorned with the effigies of our
Saviour. All thefe were fold for ten times their weight
of gold to lome of the opulent Arabs of Yaman. The
young lady was given to Abdallah, who kept her to
the reign of Yezid. Of this advantage Abu Obei¬
dah fent notice to the caliph by a letter, in which he
alfo acquainted him that lome of his men had drunk 74
wine. Thefe delinquents, by the advice of Ali, had Puniflnnent
each of them 80 ftripes bellowed upon the foies of of fome
their feet: after which, many others, who had never
been fufpedled of drinking this prohibited liquor, made vv'ilieC.rUn
a voluntary confeflion, and received the fame chaftife-
ment.
The Mcflem general next fet about reducing the
principal fortreffes in Syria, and foon became mailer of
Kinnifrin, Baalbec, Adeftan, Shaizar, and Hems ; on
the news of which, the Greek emperor Heraclius, re¬
viving if poflible to put a (lop to the cruel and unpro¬
voked ravages of thefe barbarians, fent againft them an
army of 240,000 men, commanded by one Manuel,
whom the Arabs called Mahan. But this vaft multitude 75
was utterly defeated by Khaled 5 upon whom Abu O-Thefireeks
beidah conferred the fupreme command, on account of'ltter!.y de*
his fuperior fkill in military affairs. This battle wasyfr^ouk.
fought near a village called TCermouh ; and, according
to the Arabian hiftorians, the Chriftians had 150,000
men killed and 40,000 taken prifoners, while the Mo¬
flems loft no more than 4030 men.
The defeat at Yennouk was immediately followed
by
l 5°3 1
. - 
77
Anecdote
him.
A R A . 1 * * * 5
, ,. i.v tl,„ l0r5 of the whole province of Paleilirie. 'I he
J2$LL, re^flion of Jerufalem was one of its firft confequences;
l6 anil Omar, being apprifed of the fuccels o
Omar vifits Iramediately fet oat to vifit that holy place, at the re-
Jerufalem. ^ it J faid? of the inhabitants. The caliph was
attended in his journey by a numerous retinue, moito
whom afterwards returned home. He rode uP°n ;
camel, and carried with him two faeks, one of which
contained a fort of provifion confiftmg of barley, nc ,
or wheat, fodden and unhufked, and the other fruits.
Before him he had a leather bottle, very neceffary m
thefe defert countries to put water in j and behind
a wooden platter. Before he left the place where he
had relied the preceding night, he conftant y a;
morning prayer-, after which he addreffed lumklf
liis attendants in a devout ftrain, always uttering be¬
fore them fome pious ejaculations. I hen he .corn
nicated his proton to them ; every one of hn. fel ow
travellerseating with him out of the fame platter, with-
out the lead didiwai™. His clothe, were made of
camel, hair, and were in a very tattered condition
• nor could any thing be more mean or fordid than the
figure he made. On the road he diftnbuted jufiice
among his fubjeftsconcerning which we have feverH
anecdotes ; but that moft to his honour is the follow
ing - Having obferved fome poor tributaries expofed
togthe heat of the fun, a very cruel pumlhment in thme
hot countries, for not being able to pay the fpm d
manded of them, he ordered them to be releafed tel-
ling his attendants, that he once heard the aPoftlJ
God fay “ Do not afflift men in this worlu for t.io
who do^o, God (hall punifh in hell fire at the day of
judgment.” His orders were immediately executed
Jto the great grief of the opprefforsand the caliph
continued his route. On the confines of Syria he was
met by Abu Obeidah attended by an efcort who con-
duaed him to the Modem camp, where he was re¬
ceived with the utmoft demonftrations of joy ^ and
from thence to Jerufalem. The morning alter his ar¬
rival, he faid prayers and preached to the troops. In
his fermon he repeated the following paffage out of the
Koran. “ Whorafover God {hall direa, he (hall be
rightly direded ; and whomfoever he (hall caufe^to
ei, thou lhalt not find any to defend or to direa.
Upon this a Chriftian rofe up, and faid aloud twice,
“ God caufes no one to err.” Omar made no anlwei
to him, but commanded the Modems near him o
firike off the infidel’s head if he repeated thofe words
aaain but the pried took care to give him no further
interruption. After the concluhon H his fermon, he
pitched his tent, made of hair, within fight of the ci¬
ty : then he figned the articles of capitulation by
which the inhabitants were entitled to the free exer-
eife of their religion, the poffedion of their properties,
and his proteaion. , „
The articles of capitulation being figned, Omar, in
purfuance of his engagements, gave the inhabitants a
fchedule, by which they were fecured in the lull pol-
fefifnm of all that had been agreed upon : after which
the gates were opened to him, and be entered the town.
He was waited upon by the patriarch Sophromus,
with whom he converfed familiarly^ and a,Iked him
many queftions concerning the antiquities of the city.
One of the firft places they vifited was the temple of
the refurreftion, in the midft of which Omar fat down 3
Arabia.
04 ] AHA
and when the hour of prayer was come, told the pa¬
triarch he had a mind to pray, and defired him to ftiow
him a place for that purpofe. Sophromus told him he
might do fo where he was 3 but phis he abfolutely re¬
filled Then the patriarch led him to St Conftantine s
church 3 but he likewife declined praying there At
laft he faid his prayers upon one of the fteps or the eatt
gate of the church 3 telling the patriarch afterwards,
that had he prayed in any of the churches, the Mo¬
dems would infallibly have taken it from them which,
he faid, they might attempt as it was, and therefore
gave him a paper wherein the Modems were com¬
manded not to pray on the fteps of St Conftantme s
church in any numbers, but only one by one. Alter
this he defired the patriarch to (how him a place where
he might erect a mofque 3 and was conduaed to the
place where Jacob’s ftonfe lay, on which he dept when
he faw the vifion of the ladder. This ftone had been
hitherto dighted, and no building differed to be erect¬
ed upon it, in order to fulfil our Saviour’s prophecy,
that the habitation of the Jews diould be left unto
them defolate, and that not one ftone diould .be left
upon another. In confequence of this negled it was
entirely covered with dirt, which the caliph ^medi¬
ately began to carry away in his veft 3 and the Modems
foon battening to affift him, the ftone was cleared in a
very ftiort time. We are told by Theophanes, that
Mien Omar entered the temple of the refurre&ion, he
was clad in fuch mean and dirty apparel, that the pa¬
triarch took great offence at his appearance, and with
much difficulty at laft prevailed upon him to put on
fome clean linen and clothes till his own could be waffi-
ed. The fame author relates, that when the patriarch
firft faw Omar in that place, he could not forbear cry¬
ing out, “ This is of a truth the abomination oide-
folation, fpoken of by Daniel the prophet landing
in the htily place I” Thefe words, as Mr Ockley ima¬
gines, being overheard by the Modems, they trumped
up a dory of'the patriarch’s having owned that the
conqueft of Jerufalem by Omar was foretold by the
prophet Daniel 3 and that. an ancient prophecy was
kept in Jerufalem concerning Omar, wherein his per-
fon was deferibed, his name and religion fpecified, and
he declared to be the only man that could reduce that
1 Before the caliph left Syria, he divided that country
into two parts 3 one of which, that lay between Hau-
ran or Affian and Aleppo, which was not peHeaiy
conquered, he committed to the care of Abu Obeidah,
giving him the drifted: orders to reduce it as foon as
poffible. Yezid Ebn Abu Sofian was commanded to
take upon him the care of the other, which compre¬
hended Paleftine, and the fea coaft, and to make him-
felf abfolute mailer of it, having a bodyof troops ai-
figned him for that purpofe. He alfo direfted Amru
Ebn A1 As to invade Egypt, then in a very languiv
ing condition, with a body of Modem forces _ After
having made thefe difpofitions for extending Ins con-
quells, Omar fet out for Medina, where he arrived
perfeft health, to the great joy of the inhabitants, who
apprehended, from his long Hay at Jerufa.em, that he
had intended to fix his refidence there. _
Soon after Omar’s departure, Yezid advanced to
Ctefarea 3 but fmnd the place fo drong that 1m was
obliged to continue fome time in a ftate of in aft 10 n.
AHA
Arabia. Abu Obeidab, in the mean time, advanced towards
■ Aleppo, the citadel of which was at that time the
ftrongeft in Syria. The citizens were flruck with the
utmod confternation at his approach. They had at
that time two governors, who were brothers, and re-
fided in the caftie, which was fituated at a little di¬
fiance from the city. The names of thefe two gover¬
nors, who were of very different difpofitions, were
Youkinna and John. Their father, by the emperor
Heraclius’s appointment, prefided over all that traft
which lay betwixt Aleppo and the Euphrates •, and,
after his death, the chief management of affairs de¬
volved upon Youkinna, his brother John fpending his
time moftly in devotion and a£ts of charity. He would
therefore gladly have prevailed upon Youkinna to pur-
chafe a peace from the Arabs with money, rather than
make his country a fcene of blood and ravages j but
this not fuiting the martial genius of Youkinna, he
armed a confiderable number of the citizens, among
whom were feveral Chriftian Arabs, and diftributed
money among them. He then told his men that he
intended to a<fr offenfively againft the Arabs, and even
to engage them if poflible before they drew too near.
To infpire them with the greater refolution, he ob-
ferved, that the Moflem army was divided into feveral
bodies j one of which had orders to befiege Caefarea,
another to march to Damafcus, and the third to in¬
vade Egypt. Having thus animated hi? troops, he
put himfelf at the head of i 2,ooo of them, and march-
ijp ed forwards to get intelligence of the enemy’s motions.
A Moflem Abu Obeidah, in the mean time, had fent before him
detachment Caab Ebn Damarah, with 1000 men : giving him ex-
Y0^^aby prefs orders not to fight till he had received informa¬
tion of the enemy. Youkinna’s fpies difcovered Caab
and his men refting themfelves and watering their horfes
without the lead apprehenfion of danger ; of which the
general being apprifed, he ported one part of his troops
in ambufcade, and with the other attacked the Mof-
lems. The Arabs behaved with their ufual valour ; and
at firft repulfed the ChriIlians, notwithftanding their
fuperiority in numbers j but being attacked by the
troops that lay in ambufh, they were at laft forced to
retire*, having 170 killed, and almoft all the reft
80 wounded.
Aleppo fub- After Youkinna’s departure, the inhabitants of A-
rnits to Abu Jeppo, confidering the calamities that awaited them if
>eidah. their city fhould be taken by ftorm, fubmitted with¬
out delay to Abu Obeidah, and were taken under the
prote£lion of the caliph. This difagreeable news be¬
ing communicated to Youkinna, he ported home with
all poflible expedition, left an attempt (hould be made
on the caftie in his abfence. On his arrival at Alep¬
po, he was fo highly incenfed againft the inhabitants,
81 that he threatened them with death if they did not dif-
Gmelty of annul the treaty with the Arabs, and deliver up the
Youkinna. authors of it into his hands. This demand not being
immediately complied with, he fell upon the citizens
with great fury, and killed 300 of them j among whom
was his brother John, whofe head he caufed to be
ftruck off, charging him with being the author and
abettor of the late pernicious fcheme. He would have
made a much greater flaughter, had not the Moflem
army at that inftant arrived before the town ; upon
which Youkinna retired into the caftie with a confide¬
rable body of troops $ but before this could be effefl-
Vol. II. Part II.
A R A
ed, he was obliged to fuftain an attack from the Arabs, Arabia,
in which he loft 3000 men. The adlion was no fooner ' 
ended than the inhabitants of Aleppo brought out forty
of Youkinna’s men, and as a proof of their fidelity de¬
livered them into Abu Obeidah’s hands. Of thefo
feven embraced Mahometanifm, and the reft were be¬
headed. s 2
Immediately after Youkinna had fhut himfelf up in He is belT<--
the caftie, a council of war was held in the Moflem ged in the
camp, wherein it was deliberated what meafures werec’tac^‘
to be purfued on the prefent occafion. Khaled gave it
as his opinion, that the caftie ought immediately to be
attacked with all the Arab forces, before the emperor
had time to fend them any afliftance. This advice was
followed by Abu Obeidah, who caufed the citadel to
be immediately inverted ; and foon after he had fur-
rounded it with all his forces, made a moft vigorous af-
fault. The befieged defended themfelves with great
bravery, and after a very warm difpute drove the enemy
into their camp ; and as they threw a great many ftones
out of their military engines, many of the Moflems
were killed, and a much greater number -wounded. This
encouraged Youkinna to make a fally with a ftrong
party of the garrifon the following night. The fires
being then out in the Moflem camp, and the befiegers
not expedling fuch an unfeafonable vifit, 60 of them
were killed on the fpot, and 50 taken prifoners. You¬
kinna, however, being brilkly attacked by Khaled, who
foon drew together a body of troops to oppofe him, loft
about 100 men in his retreat. The next day, he caufed
the prifoners to be beheaded in fight of the Moflem
camp; and receiving advice that a ftrong party of A- •
rabian cavalry was fent out to forage, he ordered a
body of his horfe to drive them to their camp ; which
they accordingly did, killed 130 of them, feized all
their camels, horfes, &c. and then retired to the moun¬
tains. Here they propofed’to remain concealed till the
following night, and then return to the caftie ; but
Abu Obeidah, being informed of what had happened,
detached Khaled and Derar with a body of troops to
purfue the Greeks, and revenge the late affront. Kha¬
led, being informed of the route the Chriftians had ta¬
ken, poffeffed himfelf of the only pafs by which they
could return to the caftie ; and having ported there a
body of his men whofe courage he could depend upon,
took 300 of the Greeks prifoners as they attempted
to return, and put all the reft to the fwqrd. The next
morning, to retaliate Youkinna’s cruelty, the prifoners
were all brought out and beheaded in fight of the gar¬
rifon.
Notwithftanding this difafter, Youkinna made feve-jj!s vigor-
ral fallies with good fuccefs, wherein he killed a greatousdefence,
number of the enemy, and haraffed them to fuch a de¬
gree, that Abu Obeidah found himfelf obliged, for
his greater fecurity, to remove his camp to about a
mile’s diftance from the caftie •, by which manceuvre
he likewife hoped that Youkinna would be lefs upon
his guard. Herein, hourever, he found himfelf mif-
taken : for the Greek commander, by the prudent mea¬
fures he took, eluded all furprife : and though Abu
Obeidah continued the fiege for four months after the
laft mentioned blow given to the garrifon by Kha¬
led, yet he had fcarce any hopes of making himfelf
mailer of it at laft. Having nothing material to write
to the caliph, he remained a long time filent j at which
3 S Omar
[ 50s 1
A R A
[ 5°6 ]
A R A
Arabia.
Omar being very much concerned, wrote to him defir-
1 ino- an account of the affairs in Syria. Abu Obeidah
acquainted him that the city of Aleppo had fubimtted
i-:— . and that the citadel was the only place which
• -ii .1 .    Vi**
Arabia.
to him anu mai uic " r- t
held out in all that country, before which he had lolt
a great number of men, which, he faid, had induced
him to think of railing the fiege, and moving with his
army in that track which lay between Antioch and A-
leppo. This news was by no means agreeable to the
caliph, who commanded his general to continue the
fiege at all events, and fent him a reinforcement of Arab
troops, together with 70 camels, to affift the infantry in
their march. . r
Among the troops fent by Omar on this occalion,
there was an Arab of a gigantic fize, called Dames,
who was a man of great courage and refolution. irie
obferving the little progrefs made by the Modems, be¬
thought himfelf of a ftratagem by which that fortrels
might be reduced, which feemed fo difficult to be ac-
complifhed by force. He therefore defired that Aou
Obeidah would aflfign him the command of a party con-
lifting only of thirty men j which at Khaled s requeft
was readily granted'. Then he begged the general to
raife the fiege, and retire to about three miles diitance
from the caftte, which was likewife immediately com¬
plied with. The following night Dames who had
polled himfelf with his party very near the citadel,
found means to fe.ize a Greek, from whom he lear"e<j
that Youkinna, after the fiege was raifed, had exacted
laro-e fums of money from the citizens, on account ot
the* treaty they had concluded with the Arabs j and
that he was one of thofe who had endeavoured to make
their efcape from the oppreflion of fuch a tyrant, by
leaping down from the wall. This man Dames took
under his protea ion : but beheaded five or fix others
who fell into his hands, and tould give no good account
of themfelves. He then covered his head and ftioulders
84
The citadel
taken by
ftratagem.
with a goat’s Ikin, and took a dry cruft in his hand,
A... 1. 1 » ■T’J W\ t- /AT
creeping” on the ground till he got clofe to the foot oi
the wall. If he heard any noife, or fulpeded any
perfon to be near, he made fuch a noife with his cruft
as a dog does when he is gnawing a bone j his compa¬
nions fometimes walking, and fometimes creeping after
him in the fame manner. He had before defpatcbed
two of his men to Abu Obeidah, to defire that a de¬
tachment of horfe Ihould be fent him by break of day
to.fupport his fmall party, and facilitate the execution
of the plan he had formed. At laft Dames found
an onportunity of raifing feven men upon his Ihoul-
ders, who flood upon one another’s Ihoulders m fuch
a manner that the higheft reached the top of the
wall. Here he foon placed himfelf, feized a watch¬
man whom he found afteep, and threw him over the
wall. Two others, whom he found in the fame condi¬
tion,’he llabbed with his dagger, and threw them over
likewife. Then he let down his turban, and drew
up the fecond of his brethren, as they two did the
third, and by their help Dames himfelf ^and all the
reft were enabled to mount the wall. He then pricatc-
]v ftabbed the fentry at each of the gates, and put
his men in poffeffion of every one of them. The fol-
diers of the garrifon, however, were at laft alarmed,
and furrounded the Arabs, who were on the point of
perifiiing, when Khaled appeared at the head Oi. a de¬
tachment uf cavalry. On the fight of that general, who
was now grown terrible to the Chriftians the befieged
threw down their arms, and Surrendered at difcretion.
Youkinna and fome of the principal °®c®rs turnc .
hometans, in order to fave their ppffeflions j *nd ‘he apoftafy#
caftle, being taken by ftorm, was pillaged by the Mo-
flems. Dames acquired great glory by this exploit >
and, out of complaifance to him, the army did not de¬
camp from Aleppo till he and his men were perfeaiy
cured of their wounds. . . . - A. A.
After the reduaion of the citadel of Aleppo, Abu
Obeidah intended to march to Antioch j but was di¬
verted bv Youkinna, who was now become a violent
enemy to' the Chriftians. He told the Modem gene¬
ral, that his conqueft of that part of the country would
not be complete without the reduaion of Azaz,_ a
place of great importance, where Theodorus, Youkin¬
na’s coufm-german, was commandant. This fortrefs he
propofed to become matter of, by putting himfelf at
the head of 100 Arab horfe, dreffed in the Greek habu ,
who were to attend him to Azaz. Upon his arrival
there he was to affure Theodorus that he was Ihll m
reality a Chriftian, and had taken that opportunity to
efcape from the Moflem camp. But to make his ft or y
more probable, Abu Obeidah was to fend after him a
detachment of 1000 horfe, who were to purfue him
as far as Morah, a village in the neighbourhood ot
Azaz, with orders to poll themfelves there ; from
whence, if fuch a meafure Ihould be found necefiary,
they might eafily advance to Azaz, to meditate
conqueft of that place. To this Scheme Abu Obeidah
agreed ; but Youkinna with all his men were immedi- s6
ately taken prifoners by Theodorus, who had been in-He is taken
formed of tli whole affair by a Spy in the ^mc^p,pnfener |
who had fent him a letter by a pigeon. a he ^trels, ^
however, was foon reduced, and Youkinna regained hisradms-
liberty ; but was foon after taken pvifoner a fecond lime,
and brought before bis old matter Heracl.us, who then
refided at Antioch. He told the emperor, that he had
only pretended to embrace Mahometanifm, in order to
be able to do his imperial majefty the more effential Ser¬
vice : and fo far gained upon him, that he was loon af¬
ter appointed governor of that city the conference of
which was, that the Arabs were put in poffeflion of it
by his treachery. . , . s7
The emperor being quite diftieartened at his conti-Attempt tc
nual bad fuccefs, it was fuggefted to him by the kmg aflaffitme
of Ghaffan, who had fled to him for refuge, as
have already obferved, that, however defperate his af¬
fairs might be, they would be perfedlly reftored by ie
affaffinafion of the caliph. This piece of Service he un¬
dertook to perform for the emperor j and defpatched
one Wathek Ebn Mofafer, an Arab of his tribe, and a
refolute young man, to Medina for that purpofe. M a-
thek, fome time after his arrival there, having obftived
the caliph to fall afleep under a tree, on wmth he had
placed himfelf fo as not to be obferved by any one, drew
his dagger, and was upon the point of dabbing him ,
but, as the Arab writers tell us, he was deterred by a
Dm, as uic xaiiu r 1 , ’ c .
lion, who walked round the caliph, and licked his feet
till he awoke, after which he inftantly went away. I Ins
{truck Wathek with a profound reverence for Umar ;
he came down from his tree where he had been confin¬
ed by the lion, confeffed his defign, and embraced the
Mahometan religion.
S8
iahometan religion. m. • 1 i -re rrPe
Soon after the reduaion of Antioch, Abu Obeidah ^5^
A R A
. ^ Tent an account of his fuccefs to Omar ; and receiving
. ’ ' ^ an order to invade the mountainous parts of Syria, he
a Iked his general officers which of them would com¬
mand the body of troops deftined for this purpofe.
One Meifarah Ebn Mefrouk having offered his fervice,
the general gave him a black ftandard, with the fol¬
lowing infcription upon it in white letters: “There
is but one God ; Mahomet is the Apollle of God.”
The body affigned him for this purpofe confifted of
300 Arabs, and 1000 black Haves commanded by
JDames. Meifarah, at the head of his troops, with
fome difficulty afeended the mountains, and, with
much more, advanced to that part where the emperor’s
forces were polled. The cold was fo intenfe on the
fummits of thofe mountains, that the Arabs, who had
been accullomed to a warm climate, could hardly bear
it. For fome time they could not meet with a (ingle
perfon to give them intelligence of the enemy’s mo¬
tions j but at lalt they took a Greek prifoner, who in¬
formed them, that the imperial army, which confilted
of 30,000 men, lay encamped on a fpot not three
leagues diHant. The prifoner refufing to profefs Ma-
hometanifm, they cut off his head, and then marched
towards the imperial camp. The Greeks, hearing of
their approach, advanced to meet them j and the Mof-
lems being furrounded on all (ides, were on the point
of being all cut off, when Khaled appeared at the head
of 3000 horfe, and after him Ayab Ebn Ganem with
2000 more. At the approach of the horfe under the
command of the terrible Khaled, the Greeks retired,
leaving all their tents, together with their rich furni¬
ture and eftetls, to the Arabs. In this engagement,
one of Omar’s chief favourites, named Abdalla Ebn
Hodafa, was taken prifoner, and fent dire&ly tw Con-
ftantinople. I he caliph was fo much concerned at
this, that he fent a letter to Heraclius, defiring his re-
leafe ; which the emperor not only complied with, but
made him many valuable prefents, fending at the fame
89 time a jewel of immenfe value as a prefent to the ca-
Omr’s dif-lipb. This Omar offered to the jewellers of Medina,
nsfs. ed* but tbey were ignorant of its value: the JYIoflems there¬
fore begged him to keep it for his own ufe; but this he
faid he could not be anfwerable for to the public. It
was therefore fold, and the money depofited in the pu¬
blic treafury.
About this time alfo Khaled advanced with a bo¬
dy of troops as far as the Euphrates, and took Man-
bij, Beraa, Bales or Balls j exafling of the inhabitants
100,000 dinars for their prefent fecurity, and impofing
on them an annual tribute for the future. He aifo
made himfelf mailer of Raaban, Dulouc, Korus, the
Cyrus or Cyrrhus of the ancients, and feveral other
iortified towns, nothing being now able to fiand before
him. Amru Ebn Al As now likewife prepared for
the reducing fome places in Palelline that (till held out.
While he remained in this province, he had a conference
with Conllantine the emperor’s fun, who endeavoured
to perfuade him to make peace with the Chriltians ;
but this he not agreeing to, unlefs they would confent
to pay tribute, all hopes of an accommodation vanilk-
cd, and the generals on both fides prepared to enter
upon action. In the mean time an officer came from
the Chrillian camp, dreffed in very rich apparel, who
challenged the llouteft man among 'he IVI< Hems to fight
him in fingle combat. The challenge was accepted
A li A
by a young Arab officer of Yaman ; who being ani- Arabia,
mated by a notion, derived from the prophet himfelf, 1--—~v
that “ the fpirits of the martyrs reil in the crops ol
green birds, that eat of the fruits and drink of the ri¬
vers ol paradile,” difcovered an uncommon eagernefs
to encounter his enemy. But the Chrillian officer not
only killed this youth, but two or three more of the
Moflems who came to his affulance. He was then at¬
tacked by Serjabil Ebn Hofanah, one of the generals,
but a man fo weakened by falling, that he could fcarce
Hand before him, and would therefore have been un¬
doubtedly killed, had not a Greek horfeman very op¬
portunely interpofed, and with one blow of his fci-
mitar cut off the Chrillian’s head. Serjabil, greatly
furprifed at this deliverance, aflced the horfeman who
he was, and from whence he came; to which he replied 9o
in the following terms: “I am the unfortunate To-Account of
leiha Ebn Khowaid, who fet up for a prophet, and, ly- f°leiha d1®
ing againil God, pretended to infpiration.” In con-^ro"
fequence of having faved his life, Serjabil introduced'
him to Amru ; and writing a letter to Omar, wherein
he acquainted him with the fignal proof Toleiha had
given of his repentance, he obtained his pardon from the
caliph.
Though the two armies did not come to a general
engagement, yet they had frequent Ikirmilhes, in which
the Arabs always got the better, and in fome the Greeks
fuffered very confiderably. This together with the fe-
verity of the feafon, which wTas then uncommonly cold,
fo deje&ed the foldiery, that they began to defert in
great numbers. Conllantine, therefore, finding bis troops
to diminilh daily, and the Arabs to grow ftronger and
ftronger, took the advantage of a tempelluous night to
efcape to Caefarea, which Yezid had not been able to
take, leaving his camp to be plundered by the enemy.
This city was foon after invelled by Amru; and at the
fame time, Youkinna having made himfelf mailer of
1. ripoli by treachery, feized 50 Ihips from Cyprus and
Crete, which carried a fupply of arms and provifions for
the emperor’s troops, and had entered the port with¬
out knowing that the Arabs were mailers of the town.
With thefe Hups he undertook an expedition again!!
'(yre ; and telling the inhabitants that he brought a
fupply of arms and provifions for Conftantine’s army,
he was admitted into the town, and received with great
kindnefs. Here, however, he had not been long before Youkinna
he was difcovered by one of his own foidiers, and putta^enPn*
under arrell, with 900 of his men. He was, however, ^u! cr‘
fet at liberty by thofe to whofe care he was committed;
and then opened the gates of the town to Yezid, by
whom it had been inveired. Conllantine having got in- Tyre and
telligence at Ceefarea of the lofs of Tripoli and Tyre, Yadarca re-
was lo diflieartened, that he fet lail from that city with^UCP^’
all h is family and the greatell part of his wealth; and
the citizens then thought proper to make the bed terms
they could with Amru. The furrender of this citv
was followed by that of all the other cities and fortrefies
in the province ; and thus the Aiabs drove the Greeks
out of the whole country of Syria extending from the
Mediterranean to the Euphrates. This conquell was
completed in the 18th year of the Hegira, fix years after
it had been undertaken. 93
This year there happened fuch violent florins ftorras*
in the peninfula of Mie Arabs, that a confiderable extent
of territory was laid wafte by them, and a great num-&c.
3 S 2 her
[ 507 ]
Arabia.
'—-n—
94
Egypt re-
duced;
95
together
with Barca
aad Tripo¬
li.
A R A
ber of animals of various kinds deftroyed.
mital diftemper likevvife raged at Medina, which fpread
itfelf all over the neighbouring territory, and fwept
away great numbers of people. Syria was alfo vifited
by a dreadful plague •, fo that the Modems loft_ there
2C,O0O men, among whom were Abu Obeidah himfelf,
Yezid Ebn Abu Sofian, and many other perfons of
diftinaion. In flrort, fo great was the mortality occa-
fioned by the plague, both in Arabia and Syria, that
the Arabs ftyle the 18th year of the Hegira the year of
deflruEiion.
Amru Ebn A1 As, having now executed the caliph s
orders in Syria, fet out on his expedition againft Egypt.
His fir ft attempt was on Tarma, a town fituated on the
ifthmus of Suez. This he reduced after a month’s
fieo-ej and having narrowly viewed its fituation, he
formed a defign of cutting through the ifthmus, and
thus joining the Mediterranean and Red fea : but this
proieft was not well relilhed by the caliph, who appre¬
hended that it would facilitate the entrance of the
Chriftians into the peninfula of Arabia. From Tarma
he marched to Mefr, the Memphis of the ancient geo¬
graphers 5 which, after a fiege of feven months, was
delivered up to him by the treachery of A1 Mokawkas
the governor. From Mefr Ine continued his march to¬
wards Alexandria, and having defeated the emperor’s
army, clofely invefted that city. While his army lay
before this capital, Amru himfelf had the misfortune to
be taken prifoner and carried into the town. Being
brought before the governor, he alked him why he
committed fuch ravages and depredations in the Chri-
ftian territories? To this Amru refolutely anfwered,
“ We are come hither to oblige you either to profefs
Mahometanifm, or pay an annual tribute to the ca¬
liph ; to one of which conditions you muft fubmit, or be
all of you put to the fword.” A Greek who flood by
hearing this, told the governor that Amru was cer¬
tainly the Modem general, and therefore defired him
to cut off his head. Upon this Werdan, one of Ara¬
m’s flaves, perceiving the extreme danger his mafter
was in, gave him a box on the ear, exclaiming againft
his impudence for talking in fuch a manner. The go¬
vernor being impofed upon by this (hallow artifice,
not only faved his life, but, to (how his generofity, dif-
miffed him without ranfom. This was foon followed by
the lofs of Alexandria, and that by the conqueft of the
whole kingdom : after which, Amru defpatched Okba
Ebn Nara with a body of troops to penetrate farther
into Africa j and that general made himfelf mafter of
all the country lying between Barca and Zoweilah, re¬
ducing under his dominion alfo that part of the conti¬
nent which now forms the piratical kingdom of Tripoli
in Barbarv.
Soon after the Modems had made themfelves matters
of Alexandria, a grievous famine raged in Arabia, par¬
ticularly at Medina, then the refidence of the caliph.
This obliged Omar to write to Amru to fend him a
fupply of corn, with which Egypt at that time abound¬
ed. In compliance with this order, Amru fent a train
of camels laden with corn, in a continued line from
Egypt to Medina-, the firft of which were entering
Medina when the laft were leaving Alexandria. But*
this method of conveying corn proving too tedious
and expenfive, he ordered him to clear the Amnis
Trajanus of Ptolemy, now the Khalis, which runs from
3
Arabia.
[ 508 ] A R A
An epide- one end of Cairo to the other, of the fand and gravel
with which it was choked. This he accordingly did,
and by that means rendered the communication between
Egypt and Arabia much more eafy than it had formerly
been. .
While the Arabs thus extended their conqueits mTher'erf..
the weft, they were no lefs fuccefsful in the eaft. We a»s‘kieat-
have already taken notice of Khaled’s having been fente 1
into Irak to reduce the kingdom of Hira, and of his be-
in0' recalled to affift in the conqueft of Syria. As the
kings of Hira were under the proteftion of the Perfian
monarehs, the deftruaion of that kingdom neceffarily
brought on a war with the Perfians. After the depar¬
ture of Khaled, the command of the forces was left
with Abu Obeid Ebn Mafud, together with A1 Mo-
thanna Ebn Haretha, Amru Ebn Hafem, and Salit Ebn
Kis. Abu Obeid having paffed a river contrary to the
advice of the other generals, was killed, and his troops
in great danger ; however, A1 Mothanna made an ex¬
cellent retreat, and repaffed the river without any con-
fiderable lofs After this he fortified himfelf in his camp
till he received a confiderable reinforcement from the
caliph ; when the Modem army marched to Dir Hind,
and thence continued to make frequent excurfions, ra¬
vaging that part of Irak that lay next to the Euphrates.
A body of 12,000 chofen horfe was now defpatched
againft thofe invaders, under the command of one Mah-
ran. At firft the Perfians had the advantage, and obli-
°ed the Arabs to retire ; but they were foon brought
back by A1 Mothanna, and the battle laded from noon
till funfet. At laft A1 Mothanna, engaging Mahran m
Angle combat, laid him dead at his feet 5 upon which
the Perfians fled to A1 Madayen, a town fitualed on the
Tigris, about a day’s journey from Bagdad. After this
a powerful army was defpatched by the Perfians under
the command of one Ruftam : but he alfo was killed,.and
his troops were entirely difperfed. At the fame time,
Abu Mufa, another Modem general, defeated a formi¬
dable body of troops under the command of A1 Harza-
man, a noble Perfian, at Ahwaz..
Not content with thofe vi&ories, foon after the re¬
duction of Damafcus, the caliph defpatched Saad Ebn
Abu Wakkas, to didodge the Perfians from fome di-
firifts they poffeffed in the neighbourhood of the Eu¬
phrates. Saad having drawn together a body of 12,000
men, advanced to Kadefia, a city bordering upon t e
deferts of Irak *, where, having utterly defeated an ar¬
my of 120,000 Perfians, he made himfelf mafter of the ^
opulent city of A1 Madayen, and poffeffed himfelf Incredible
of Yezdejerd’s treafury, which was fo rich, if we maytmiure^
believe the Arabian writers, that Saad took out of tt
three thoufand millions of dinars, amounting to two
thoufand and twenty-five millions of pounds tterhng
an enormous and almoft incredible fum. From thence
Saad went to that part of the palace where the king’s
plate was depofited, which he carried off, as well as an
immenfe quantity of camphire with which another part
of the palace was entirely filled. ft his laft the Arabs
feemed to have carried off merely for the fake of plun¬
dering, as they were fo much unacquainted with the
nature of it, that they mixed it with their bread, which
gave it a bitter and difagreeable tafte. Afterwards the
Arab general carried off the crown arid royal garments,
adorned with gold and jewels of ineftimable value.
He alfo plundered his armoury, which was well ftored
1 with
98
vlefopota-
aia redu-
rd.
99
)mar mur-
ered,
too
iuceeeded
7 Othman
A R A
[ S°9 ]
A R A
with all forts of weapons j after which he caufed the
roof of his porch to be opened, where he found ano¬
ther treafure, equal in value to ten millions of crowns.
He alfo found among the furniture of the palace a
piece of filk tapeftry, 6o cubits fquare, which was
adorned with a great variety of beautiful flowers, herbs,
and plants, formed of gold, hlver, and jewels, the moft
valuable that could be procured. This being brought
to Omar, he cut it in pieces, and diftributed it among
the Moflems : and that part which fell to Ali’s fhare,
and which was yet none of the beft, he fold for 20,000
crowns.
In the 20th or 21 ft year of the Hegira, the Arabs,
ftill unfated with conqueft, invaded Melbpotamia under
Aiyad Ebn Ganem, where the city of Edeffa fubmit-
ted on the firft fummons. From Edefla he marched
to Conftantia, or Conftantina, fuppofed to be. the Ni-
cephorium of the ancients. This he took by ftorm, as
likewife Daras, where he maffacred all the people he
found in the place ; and thefe repeated fucceftes fo ter¬
rified the reft of the fortified towns, that they all fub-
mitted without refiftance. At the fame time A1 Mog-
heirah Ebn Shaabah, one of the caliph’s commanders,
made himfelf mafter of Shiz, a place famous for the
birth of Zerdulht the Perfian philofopher, and overran
the whole province of Aderbijan. He alfo poffeffed
himfelf of all the country of Armenia bordering on
Mount Taurus j nay, he in a manner obliged the whole
region to own the authority of the caliph, and pene¬
trated into Cappadocia. The fame year alfo Saad made
himfelf mafter of Ah was, the capital of Khuzertan (the
ancient Sufiana; ; in conlequence of which he became
mafter of the greateft part, if not the whole, of that pro¬
vince ; at the fame time that A! Nooman conquered the
.greateft part of Khorafan. But while Omar’s troops
were thus irrefiftibly overrunning the fineft countries in
the known world, a period was put to his conquefts and
his life by a Perfian named Auu Lulua, who ftabbed
him thrice in the belly while he was performing his
devotions at Medina. The reafon of this was, becaufe
the caliph refufed to remit him fome part of the tribute
which, according to the Mahometan cuftom, he was
obliged to pay for the free exercife of his religion. The
Arabs, perceiving that he had killed their fovereign,
immediately rufhed upon him ; but the aflaflin defend¬
ed himfelf fo defperately. that he killed feven of them
and wounded thirteen : but at laft one of the ca¬
liph’s attendants threw his veil over him, and feized
him ; upon which he ftabbed himfelf, and foon after ex¬
pired.
Omar having languiftied three days after the wounds
given him by the Perfian, expired in the 10th, nth, or
12th year of his reign, and after his death Othman Ebn
. Affan was chofen ; though Ali had a better title, and
feems indifputably to have been the moft virtuous, if not
the only virtuous perfon, as well as the braveft warrior,
among them. He was inaugurated in the 24th year of
the Hegira, nearly coincident with the year of our Lord
645-
Olhman was no fooner fettled on the throne, than
he commanded A1 Mogheirah to complete the conqueft
of the territory of Hamadan ; which he ealily accom-
plifhed, and at the fame time reduced Bira, a ftrong
caftle in Mefopotamia, which either had never fub-
aiitted, or had revolted on the departure of the Mof-
lem troops out of that province. Another army, under Arabia.
Abdallah Ebn Amar, was alfo defpatched into Perfia "v '
to deprive Yezdejerd of the poor remains of his domi¬
nions j and this was done fo effedtuaily, that the unhap¬
py monarch was obliged to fly to Sijeftan and abandon
Perfia altogether.
In the 27th year of the Hegira, the ifland of Cy¬
prus was reduced by Moawiyah ; who foon after con¬
quered the ifland of Aradus, and took Ancyra ; after
which he reduced the ifland of Rhodes, broke in pieces IOI
the famous Coloffus, and fold the metal of it to a Jew Coloftus o
of Edelfa. In the mean time another of the Arab com-^-hofl®s
manders entered Ifauria, where he committed dreadful^ 10^e
depredations, plundering many towns and villages, put-
ting a great number of people to the fword, and carry- ,
ing off 5000 prifoners. In the 31ft year of the Hegira,
one Habib having made an irruption into that part
of Armenia which Avas ftill unconquered, defeated a
body of thtr emperor’s 'troops, purfuing them as far
as Mount Caucafus, and laying wafte all the neigh¬
bouring territory. About the fame time alfo, Abul
Abar, who had been conftituted admiral by Moawiyab,
gave the. emperor Contlans a fignal defeat by fea, on
the coaft of Lycia, in Avhich fuch a number of Chri-
ftians were killed, that the neighbouring fea was dyed
with their blood. * 1Q2
But while Othman Avas thus carrying every thing ir-Infurrec_
refiftibly before him abroad, he negleded to fecure tions a-
the affections of his fubjeCts at home, Arhich foon prov-ga»nft the
ed his ruin. Sedition Avas induftrioufly propagatedca ip
through all the provinces of the empire, and articles of
accufation brought againft the caliph. The chief of
thefe Avere, That he had recalled one Avho had been ba-
niftied by the prophet} that he had removed Saad, an
officer of diftinguifhed bravery, and fupplied his place
by one Avho drank Avine, and AATas otherwife of a fean-
dalous life; that he had fquandered aAvay vaft fums
among his favourites ; that he had removed Amru from
the government of Egypt, to Avhich he had preferred
his oavu fofter brother ; and, laftly, that he had pre¬
fumed to fit on the top of Mahomet’s pulpit, Avhereas
Abu Beer had ahvays fat on the higheft ftep and Omar
on the loAveft. To this formidable accufation the poor
caliph pleaded guilty, and promifed to make all the re¬
paration in his poAver ; but his condefcenfion only fer-
ved to increafe the infolence of the rebels. They Avere
however appeafed by Ali; and public tranquillity had
undoubtedly been reftoredjftiad it not been for Ayeflia,
one of Mahomet’s widows, who procured the deftruc-
tion of the caliph by a fcheme truly Avorthy of the wife
of fuch a hulband. That traitrefs, being defirous of
raifing one of her favourites named Telha to the digni¬
ty of caliph, prevailed on Merrvan the feeretary of Rate
to write a letter to the prefect of Egypt, enjoining him
to put to death Mahomet Ebn Abu Beer, with whom
it was fent, and Avho Avas to be his fucceffor. This
letter Merwan took care Ihould be difco.vered : and Ma¬
homet taking it for a genuine order of the caliph, pub-
liftied the fuppofed injury all over the neighbouring
countries. Fie then marched Avith a body of rebels to
Medina, Ayhere the innocent caliph Avas befieged in his _
palace; and, notwithftanding all his proteflations, no¬
thing lefs than his death, could fatisfy the enraged mul¬
titude. In this deplorable fituation Othman fent to
Ali for affiftance; Avho commanded his tAyo fons Hafan
and.
AHA [ 5*
Ar.bia. and Hofein to defend the palace gates. This they did
■ t— for fome time with fidelity enough, till finding the
caliph reduced to great ftraits for want of water, they
abandoned their ports ; upon which the rebels eafity
made themfelves mafters of the palace, and cruelly
103 murdered the caliph, in the 8 2d year of his.age, alter
mur™ - . « • i _ t t i.— i-» > **i-vx o 1c~* /"l f" ^ f*.
O ]
A It A
dered.
he had reigned 12 years. His body remained three
days unburied ; and was at laft thrown into a hole made
for it, without the ufual ablution, or the leaft funeral
folemnity. r
The arms of the Modems had hitherto been io iuc-
cefsful, and their conquefts fo rapid, that they may
Teem not only to have vied with Alexander, out to have
bid fairer for univerfal monarchy than any nation ei¬
ther before or fince.—The ruin of mighty empires al¬
ways originates from the impoffibility ol keeping them
united. Divifions arife *, civil wars break out •, and the
kingdom being weakened by thefe inteftine feuds, the
common enemies take advantage of them to rum toe
whole fabric. If we confider Mahomet, as in truth
lie was, not as an enthufiaft, but as as a politician and
the founder of an empire •, we (hall find him m tnat
capacity fuperior perhaps to any that ever exilted.
The empire of Alexander the Great, which arme with
ftill more rapidity than that of the Arabs, had no tup-
port but from his own ambition and perfonal qualifi¬
cations. While he lived, he was without a rival, be-
caufe all were afraid of him } but when he died, the
bands of union, whereby his empire had been held to¬
gether, were immediately diffolved. His captains were
not infpired with the fame veneration for his ton, who
was unborn at the time of his death, that they had for
his father •, and therefore they fought not to conquer
for him, but for themfelves *, and the confequence was
that the kingdom fell to pieces the moment that he
died. The fame thing happened to the empires of
Jemdiis Khan, Tamerlane, and others, who made vatt
conquefts in a flmrt time. They erected mighty em¬
pires indeed ; but their duration, we may fay, was but
momentary. The empire of the Romans was founded
on a kind of enthufiaftic defire of aggrandizing the city
of Rome : patriotifm became fafhionable ; and as the
city never ceafed to exift, thofe who conquered always
had the fame end in view, namely to exalt the republic
more and more. This empire, therefore, was not only
very extenfive, but very durable •, though, as it was
impofiible that mankind could always continue to vene¬
rate a city, the fame divifions that ruined other em¬
pires at laft brought this to an end. _ The foundation
of Mahomet’s empire feemed to be ftill more firm. He
was not only the king, but, we may fay, the god of
his people. * Whatever enthufiafm people may ftiow in
defending their country, nay even their neareft rela¬
tions, experience has taught us that it is^ greatly jn‘e"
rior to what is fiiown by thofe who fight in defence ot
religion. This enthufiafm Mahomet had taken care
not^only to bring over to his fide, but to exalt to its
hmheft pitch, by inculcating upon his followers, that
their rewards in the next world ftiould be proportion-
able to the fury with which they fought in this. 1 o
live at peace, except with thofe who fubmitted to his
will did not at all enter into his plan •, and he who
made no conquefts, or at leaft did not ftrive to make
them was no true believer. By this means, let his
empire be ever fo much extended, the temptation to
2
making frefh conquefts was ftill equally ftrong -, and not Arabia,
only the commanders of armies, but every private per- "_"| J
fon, had the moft powerful motives to urge him to^rds Caufes4cf
the conqueft of the whole world, had that been pollib e* (iec]ine
The only tiling Mahomet feems to have failed in was,0f the Mof.
the appointment of the fucceflion to the apoftleftiip ; andlem empire,
why he was deficient in this is inconceivable. _ From
this one fource proceeded the divifions which ruined his
empire when it was fearce ere&ed, and of which we are
now to give the hiftory.
Though the prophet had been fo deficient m provid¬
ing for the fafety of his kingdom as not to name a fuc-
ceffor at his death j yet his fon-in-law Aii was always
of opinion that the fucceffion belonged cf right to him
and that it ought to be, like that of other kingdoms,
hereditary. This difpofition to render the apoltlefmp
hereditary in the family, was in all probability, what
difgufted the Modems with Ali : again ft whom they I0S
could Otherwife have no objection *, for he was endowed Charader
with every amiable quality j a firm believer in Mahout ah.
met ; and" of fuch unparalleled itrength and courage,
that he never declined a combat to which he was chal¬
lenged, nor ever failed to come eff viaorious j for
which reafon he was ftyled by his countrymen, “ the
lion of God.” .
On the death of Othman, however, notwithftandmg
the preiudices againft Ali, as none could pretend io
. .i  oc A mbs imme-
UIC    J . 10(5
good a right to the caliphate as he, the Arabs He is cho-
diately took the oath of allegiance to him, though with )en caiiph.
an intention to break it as foon as poffible, as was lully
evinced by the event. The difturbances which hap¬
pened immediately on All’s acceffion were owing part¬
ly to the machinations of Ayeiha, who having got
Othman murdered on purpofe to raife Felha to the dig¬
nity of caliph, and now finding Ali unammoufly cho-
fen, refolved to deftroy him aifo. She therefore pre¬
tended great concern for the death of the late caliph,
and accufed Ali of being his murderer •, but being re¬
proved by one of the Moflems for endeavouring to
blacken an innocent perfon, when ihe could not but
know herfelf guilty •, ihe replied, that Othman’s infide¬
lity had indeed made her bis enemy, but that me hac
forgiven him upon his repentance. At the time ot Ah s
inauguration ihe was at Mecca, where ihe enjoyed a
very confiderable (hare of influence and authority. At I07
her inftigation, Telha Ebn Obeidallah, and Zobeir Ebn Difturban.
A1 Awam, began to reprefent to Ali, that the murder-ces railed
ers of Othman ought to be brought to condign pumih-by A,ema
ment: offering themfelves at the iame time for that pur-
pefe. This they did purely to fow diffenfion, for they
themfelves had been deeply concerned in the murder .
and Ali, furticientlv aware of their intention, told them
it was impoffible till the emprfe ibould be more fettled.
Finding themfelves difappointed in this attempt, they
next begged the government of Cufa and Bafra, that
they might with the greater facility extinguiih any re¬
bellion that flmuld happen. Here again Ali was aware
of their intention ; and refufed their requeft, under pre¬
tence that he flood in need of perfons of their great ca¬
pacity, as counfellors, about his perfon. Then they ce-
fired leave to perform a pilgrimage to Mecca, which the
caliph could not refufe j and they were no former got
there, than they fet about raifing an army againft him
without any provocation at all.
This, however, was not the only fource of diicora
’ at
A R A [ 5ii ] A
Arabia, at prefent. Ali had been difpleafed with the governors
' of provinces appointed by Othman 5 and therefore dif-
miffed them immediately upon his acceflion. This was
very impolitic j but he was prompted to do it by that
ralhnefs and want of prudence which is infeparable from,
or rather is the very effence of, great Courage. The
confequence of this was, that Moawiyah, governor of
Syria, was, immediately upon his difmiffion by Ali,
ieS proclaimed caliph by the troops under his command,
and^toa- Thus the Modems were divided into two faftions j the
wiyah. one under Moawiyah and Ayedia, who adhered to the
houfe of Ommiyah, to which Othman and Moawiyah
belonged •, and the other to Ali. The adherents of the
houfe of Ommiyah were called Mota%alites, orfepara-
ii/ls. '
Ali raifes Ali, finding how matters vrere fituated, and that a
an army. very drong party was formed againft him, endeavoured
to ingratiate himfelf as much as pofiible with the Ko-
reith j and to raife an army againft Ayeftia, who had
now taken the field, and even reduced the city of Bafra.
He made a formal fpeech to the people on hearing this
bad news, and defired their affiftance. But though he
was very much beloved on account of his perfonal me¬
rit, and the belt orator of the age, he could not with
all his eloquence for fome time prevail on them to give
a decifive anfwer in his favour.. At laft Ziyad Ebn
Hantelah ftept to Ali of his own accord, and faid,
“ Whofoever retreats, we will advance.” Upon this
tw'o Anfars, doftors of the law, flood up, and pro¬
nounced Ali innocent of the death of Othman ; which
decifion focn induced the Anfars and the body of the
people to efpoufe his quarrel. He then left Medina
with a body of 900 men, and advanced to Arrabah,
where he was joined by feveral other parties. From
this place he wrote to the people of Cufa and Medina,
prefling them to fend him farther afliftanee, and to dif-
pofe the Motazalites to an accommodation. From
Medina he vdry foon obtained a large fupply of horfes,
arms, and other neceffaries 5 and from Cufa he obtained
with difficulty a reinforcement of 8oco men.
Being greatly animated by this feafonable fupply,
Ali advanced towards Bafra, where the jroops of A-
yeflra were ready to receive him. Both parties feemed
averfe to an engagement j and Ayelha began to be very
much intimidated at the fight of Ali’s army, which,
no however, was inferior to her own : but, by fome means
!e defeats or other, a battle was at laft brought about, in which
nd takes Ayefha w’as defeated and taken prifoner. The only
yeflia pri-remarkable effort that was made by the troops of Aye¬
lha in this engagement, tvas in defence of her perfon.
It is faid, that no fewer than 70 men who held her
camel by the bridle, had their hands cut off fucceflive-
ly ; and that the pavilion in which Ihe fat was fo full of
darts and arrows, that it refembled a porcupine. Aye-
Iha was treated very kindly by Ali, who at firft fet her
at liberty*, but afterwards confined her to her houfe at
Medina, and commanded her to interfere no more with
ftate affairs, though he ftill allowed her to perlorm the
pilgrimage to Mecca.
After this victory, All had no enemies to contend
■with either in Arabia, Irak, Egypt, Perfia, or Khora-
fan. A ftrong party, however, ftill remained in Sy¬
ria, headed by Moawiyah, who founded his claims to
the caliphate on a pretended declaration of Othman that
he lliould be his fitceeffor. In this defeflion he was
joined by Amru Ebn Al As, who had obtained a pro- Arabia,
mife of the government of Egypt, provided Moawiyah 1 ■' w 11 ,J
could be advanced to the dignity of caliph.
Ali, with his ufual good nature, endeavoured to bring
the rebels p) a fenfe of their duty, and often lent pro-
polals of accommodation to Moawiyah j but he ftill re¬
mained inflexible. Perceiving, therefore, that it would
be neceffary to invade Syria, he entered that country
with an army of 70,000 men, while Moawiyah ad¬
vanced to meet him with 80,000 •, and by repeated re¬
inforcements Ali’s army at laft amounted to 90,000
and Moawiyah’s to 120,000. The two armies came
in fight of each other towards the clofe of the 36th
year of the Hegira, when they feemed ready to en¬
ter upon a£Iion j but only fome fkirmilhes happened
between them, wherein neither party fuflained any con-
fiderable lofs. The firft month of the 37th year was
fpent in fruitiefs negotiations •, but in the fecond month
they began to fight in different parties, without ever
hazarding a general engagement. Thefe battles con¬
tinued, according to fome, for 40 days, and accord¬
ing to others, 110. Moawiyah’s lofs amounted to
45,000 men, and Ali’s to 25,000, among whom were
26 who had been intimately acquainted with Mahomet
himfelf and were dignified with the title of 'Ihe Com¬
panions. The moft famous of thefe was Ammar Ebn
Yafar, Ali’s general of horfe, who was upwards of 90
years of age, and was highly efteemed by bnth parties.
The lofs of this general fo exafperated Ali, that he ? ItI
charged the Syrians with a body of 12,000 men, Moawiyah
broke them, and challenged Moawiyali to fight him challenged
in finale combat. This challenge Moawiyah declined, toa/'in^le
infilling that it was not a fair one, as Ah could notAj]->
but be lenfible of his fuperiority in ftrength. As the
challenge was given in the hearing of both armies,
Amru infilled that Moawiyah could not in honour re-
fufe it 5 but the coward made no other reply than that
Amru afpired to the caliphate himfelf, and wanted to
enjoy it after his death. The battle being now renew¬
ed with great fury, Moawiyah’s forces were pulhed to
their camp *, which had certainly been taken, had not ua
Amru bethought himfelf of the following ftratagem Amru’s
to retrieve Moawiyah’s affairs, when he leemed on the ^l‘tta£efE’
very brink of deftruclion. He ordered fome of his
men to fix copies of the Koran to the points of their
lances, and carry them to the front of the battle, cry¬
ing out at the fame time, “ This is the book that
O t ' 7 # #
ought to decide all differences between us *, this is the
tiook" of God between us and you, that abiolulely pro-
hibits the e ffufion of Muflem blood.” This produced
the defired efftcl. The caliph’s troops threw down
their arms, and even threatened him with death if he
did not found a retreat ; which he therefore found him¬
felf obliged to do, and thus had a decifive victory wreft-
ed out of his hands.
According to this new mode of decifion, the two par¬
ties were each to choofe their arbitrator; but even this
was not allowed to Ali, though Moawiyah had liberty
to choofe Amru Ebn Al As. The troops of Irak, not *
content with offering lo grofs an affront to the caliph,
infilled on naming for his arbitrator Abu Mufa Al
Afhavi ; a very weak man, and one who had already
betrayed him. The confequence of this appointment Ir„
was, that Ali was depofed by both arbitrators; and Ali clspo-
he accordingly dropt his title to the caliphate, but fed.
without
Arabia.
A R A. . £ ,SI
Avithout laying down liis arms, or pillting himfelf in
v—Moawiyali’s power. _ ,
After this decilion, Ali retired to Cufa where he
was no fooner arrived, than 12,000 of tliofe troops
who had themfelves forced him to accept of the arbi¬
tration, pretending to be offended with the ftep he had
taken, revolted from him. Thefe were called Khare-
jites, that is, rebels or revolters : and Mohaikemitesi
or judieiarians, becaufe they affirmed that Ali had re¬
ferred to the judgment of men what ought to have
been only referred to the judgment of God j and,
therefore, that inftead of keeping the peace he had
made with Moawiyah, he ought to purfue his enemies,
who were likewife the enemies of God, without mercy.
To this Ali replied, That as he had given his word, he
ought to keep it; and, in fo doing, he only followed
what was prefcribed bv the law of God. i he Ivna-
rejites replied, That God was the only judge between
him and Moawiyah, and that confequently he had
committed an enormous fin, of which he ought fincere-
ly to repent. This irritating Ali, he with fome warmth
replied, That if any fin had been committed on this
occafion, it was by themfelves, who had forced him
to take the fteps of which they now complained. Ihis
anfvver not proving agreeable, they chofe for their ge¬
neral Abdallah Ebn Waheb, who appointed for their
rendezvous Naharwan, a town fituated between vv alet
and Bagdad, about four miles to the eafiward of the
Tigris. Here they affembled an army of 25,000 men •,
and Ali, having tried gentle methods ineffeaually, at
laft marched againfl them in perfon. Before he attack¬
ed them, however, he planted a flandard without the
camp, and made proclamation by found of trumpet, that
whoever fhould repair to it fhould have quarter, and
xu whoever would retire to Cufa fliould find a fanctuary
He defeats there. This had fuch an effeff, that Abdallah s anny
the Khare- was foon reduced to 4000 men, with whom he rufhed
jltes- upon the caliph’s forces j but all of them were cut in
pieces, except nine who efcaped. _ .
Had Ali marched againft Moawiyah immediately af¬
ter the defeat of the Kharejites, and while his troops
were flulhed with vhEtory, he had probably reduced him
entirely : but by allowing his troops to refrelb them¬
felves, they all deferted him, and Moawiyah’s party
had an opportunity of gathering ftill more ftrength ;
and though Moawiyah’s troops often made mcuriions
into the ferritories of Ali, the latter feems afterwards
. to have a died only on the defenfive. At laft the Kha-
uimuc. «-|bre:jtes imagining that it would be for the good of the
Modem affairs, .hat Moawiyah All and Amru, were
dead, defnatched affaffins to murder all the three. Moa-
xviyah was wounded, but recovered V Amru’s fecretary
AUaffaffi- was killed by miftake 5 but Ali was wounded with a
^ated. poifoned fword, which occafioned his death. I he af-
faflin was taken, and Ali would have pardoned him had
he recovered, but ordered him to be put to death it he
died, that he might, as he faid, “ have an immediate
opportunity of accufing him before God. Even in
this order he (bowed his ufual clemency, as he ordered
the affaffin to be defpatched at one blow, and without
torture of any kind. . r n .1 tvt 1
Thus fell Ali, the moft virtuous of all the Maho¬
metan caliphs, after he had reigned near five years,
and lived 63. He was preffed by thofe about him to
nominate a fucceffor before he died-, but this he. de-
' US
’I hey at¬
tempt to |
murder Ali,
2 ] A B. A
dined, faying, he would follow the example of the Arabia.
Apoftle of God, who had not named any : and, as his    
fon Hafan inherited his father’s piety, though not Ins ^”7^
courage, he was declared caliph without any-icruple. by Hafiln,
Moawiyah, however, behaved in fuch a manner to¬
wards him, as (bowed his hoftile intentions 5 and. thole
about Hafan preffed him to declare war immediately.
This Hafan, who was of an exceeding mild and peace¬
able difpofition, could hardly be perfuaded to do ; and nS
though he at laft took the field, yet he immediately per-who refigns
ceived his incapacity to difpute the empire with Moa-the cah-
wiyah and therefore refigned it, in fpite of all the re- Moawiyah>
monftrances of bis friends, to a traitor, who cauled him
after fome years to be poiioned by bis wife.
Moawiyah being thus left foie mafter of the Moilem
empire, found himfelf under the neceflity of reducing
the Kharejites, who were his enemies as well as Ah s,
and had now gathered together a confiderable ar™V-
Aoainft thefe rebels the caliph would have defpatched
Hafan, but that prince refufed j upon which he lent
the Syrian troops againft them, who were defeated:
however the Cufans, being at laft perfuaded to take up
arms, foon extinguiftied the rebellion, and fettled Moa-
wiyah more firmly,than ever on the Modem throne.
In'the 48th year of the Hegira, the caliph fent his ton II9
Yezid with a powerful army to befiege Conftantinople. Conftanti-
In this expedition he teas attended by three or four ofoople^
the Cvmpatnotis, tvho, notwithftanding then age. ^re out fuetds.
prompted by zeal to undergo incredible fatigues. 1 he
Mofiem forces, too, though they fuffered extremely, were
animated to furmount all difficulties by a tradition,
according to which the prophet in his lifetime declared,
“ That the fins of the firft army.that took the city of
Conftantinople ffiould be. forgiven.’] Concerning the
particulars of this expedition we are in the dark : only,
in general, that it proved unfuccefstul; and in it Abu
Avub, who had been with Mahomet at the battles ot
Bedr and Ohod, loft his life, fdis tomb is held in tuch
veneration by the Modems, that the fultans of the Ot¬
toman family gird their fwords on at it on their accel-
fion to the throne. In the 54th year of the Hegira,
the Arabs made an irruption into Bukharia, and de- 12<s.
feated a Turkiffi army that oppofed them. The 1 urks Turks de¬
loft a great number of men ; and the queen, who com- eate .
manded in perfon, with great difficulty made her efcape.
She had only time to put on one of her buduns the
other fell into the hands of the Arabs, who valued it
at no lefs than 2000 dinars. About this time alio,
according to the Greek hiftorians, a treaty was con-
eluded between the emperor and the Modems,, where¬
by the latter were allowed to keep the territories they
had feized in confideration of which they were to pay
aooo pounds weight of gold, 50 tlaves, and as many
choice horfes. To thefe diffionourable conditions they
were obliged to fubmit in confequence of their late
' unfuccefsful expedition to Conftantinople, and fome
other defeats they had received. This peace was to
continue for 30 years. The next year, Moawiya ,
having conferred the government of Khoratan upon
Saad, Othman’s grandfon, that general, foon after his
promotion, paffed the Jihun, or Amu, the Oxus ot the
ancients, and advanced with a body of troops to ba-
marcand, which opened its gates to him on his ap¬
proach ; foon after which he defeated an army of Ul-
*   * 1 11* CY1 j-n *• I Jit***
beck Tartars, and marched direftly to larmud, orTar-
mid.
Succeeded
hj Yezid.
123
A R. A [ 5
Arabia, fnid, 'wliicVi alfo furrendered without oppofnion. The
— 57th year of the Hegira was remarkable for nothing
but vaif fwarms of locufts, which did incredible da¬
mage in Syria and Mefopotamia’j and great difcontents
on account of the caliph’s having nominated for his
fucceffor his fun Yezid, a perfon of fcandaious life, and
no way worthy of the throrte. The 58th year of the
tit Hegira was rendered remarkable by the death ot Aye-
Moawiyah Mahomet’s widow 3 and the 6of!i bv that of Moa-
wiyah, alter having reigned, from Hafan’s refignation,
nineteen years, three months, and five days : but con¬
cerning his age authors are not agreed. He was in¬
terred at Damafcus, w’hich was made the reiidence of
the caliphs as long as the houie of Ommiyah continued
on the throne.
Yezid was proclaimed, in confequence of his nomi¬
nation, the lame day his father died. His inaugura¬
tion was performed on the new moon of the month Ra-
jeb, corresponding to April 7. 680. Immediately af¬
ter his election, he wrote to Ai Walid, governor of Me-
~ dina, to feize Hofein, the remaining fon of Ali, and
Abdallah E*311 Zobeir, in cafe they refufed to acknow-
refufe to leclge his right. He accordingly tendered the oath of
acknow- allegiance to Hofein, who returned an evaiive anfwer,
ledge him. and found means to efcape to his own houfe. As for
Abdallah, he delayed waiting upon the governor, under
various pretences, for 24 hours ; after which he made
his efcape to Mecca ; hither Hofein followed him 5 but
received an invitation from the people of Cufa, who
promifed to aflilt him in vindicating the rights of his
father Ali and himfelf. In the mean time, Yezid, being
informed of Al Walid’s negligence in fuffering Abdal¬
lah and Hofein to efcape, removed him from his em¬
ployment, appointing in his room Amru Ebn Saad, at
that time commandant of Mecca. The new governor
immediately defpatched againft Abdallah Arner Ebn
Zobeir, Abdallah’s own brother, who mortally hated
him ; but Abdallah having engaged Amer in the field,
defeated and took him prifoner ; which greatly raifed
his reputation at Medina, although Hofein’s fuperior
intereft among them ftill rendered him incapable of
afpiring to the caliphate by himfelf.
While Abdallah was thus lirengthening himfelf at
Mecca and Medina, Hofein was doing the fame at Cufa.
On the fir ft notice of their inclinations, he had font to
them Modem Ebn Okail, to whom, as reprefentative
of the fon of Ali, they had taken an oath of allegiance,
and were now very prefling on Hofein to honour their
city with his prefence. Befides this, Hofein was fup-
ported by the forces of Irak, who retained a great ve¬
neration for the memory of his father, and had all along
confidered the government of Moawiyah as a downright
ufurpation.
Notwithftanding all thefe fteps taken at Cufa in fi
vour of Hofein, the deliberations of the confpirators
were carried on with fuch fecrecy, that Al Nooman,
the governor, continued a ftranger to them, even after
the Cufans had determined immediately to enter upon
a&ion with an army of 18 000 men. At laft, how¬
ever, he began to be roufed from his lethargy ; but
Yezid being difpleafed with hb conduft, removed him
from his government, appointing for his fucceffor O-
heidallah Ebn Ziyad. This governor entered the city
m the evening, and was received with all poffible de-
fflonftrations of joy by the Cufans, who miftook him
Vol. II. Part II.
A R A
*3 ]
for Hofein, owing to a black turban which he Lad on Arabia,
his head, refembling that which Hofein ufually wore. ' ^—-~-
His firft care was to extinguifti the fedition that had
been excited by Mollem. In order to this, he com¬
manded a trufty fervant to difguife himfelf, and perfo-
nate a ftranger come out of Syria to fee the inaugura¬
tion of Hofein : that he might get admiflion into JVlof-
lem’s houfe, and penetrate all his councils. This com-
miffnm was taitfifuliy executed ; and Obeidallah under-
ftanding that Muftero lodged in the houfe of one Slia-
rik, who was then fick, fent a meffenger to Sharik,
letting him know that he ini' ncied to vifit him on a
certain day. Shank immediately came to a refidu-
tion to receive him, and appointed Modem a place in
the corner of the room whence he might rulh uut upon
Ooeidallah and kill him. The vifit was according¬
ly made j but Mofletn’s heart failing him, the gover¬
nor efcaped : Hani, however, in whofe houfe Modem
had firft lodged, was imprifnned by Obeidallah. Up¬
on the news of this, Modem affetnbled about 4300
men, and befieged Obeidallah in the caftle. The go¬
vernor, however, not in the lead difpirited, made a
fpeech to Modem’s followers ; which had fuch an ef¬
fect upon them that they all deferted him except about
30. By the favour of the night, Modem efcaped to
a poor woman’s cottage in the neighbourhood; but
being betrayed by her fon, Obeidallah fent a detach¬
ment of 80 horfe to feize him. Modem made a gal¬
lant refiftance, and thrice cleared the houfe ot them ;
but being at laft overpowered Avith numotrs, and grie-
voudy wounded, he was taken and brought to Cufa.
While on the road, he endeavoured to fend an account
of his bad luccefs to Hofein, then, as he fuppofed, on
the road to Cufa j but without fuccefs. When arrived
at the caftle he begged a draught of water : but thofe
who flood by told him he fhould have none lill he drank
the hamim, or boiling liquor, which the Mahometans
pretend is drunk , by the damned in hell ; and foon af¬
ter this, being brought before the governor, he was be¬
headed along with Hani, and both their heads fent as a
prefent to Yezid. I24
Hofein, in the mean time, was preparing to fet out Robin’s
for Cufa, having received the moft favourable advices obftina<'>''
from Moflem, of whofe fate he was ignorant, and who
had fent him a lift of 140,000 men that were ready to
obey his orders. This the wifeft of his friends repre-
fented as a defperate enterprife, and entreated him to
drop it, or at leaft to defer his journey till he (houid be
better affured of fuccefs : but Hofein was deaf to all
falutary counfel ; nay, he would not, by the moft ear-
neft entreaties, be prevailed upon to forbear taking his
wives and children along with him. The confequences
of this obftinacy may be eafily imagined : Obeidallah
defpatched firft 1000 and then 5000 men againft him •,
with orders, however, not to offer any violence to him
provided he fubmitted himfelf. To thefe terms the
infatuated Hofein would not agree : he offered indeed
to return home, if Obeidallah would permit ; but that 125
not being granted, he defperately engaged the troops is
of Obeidallah, and was, after long re fiftance, cut in ancI
pieces with all his men. His head was brought to 1 *
Obeidallah, who ftruck it over the moufh with a ftick,
and treated it with great contempt. He was alfo in¬
clined to have put his family to death : but probably-
feared an infurredlion, as the people of Cufa expreffed
3 T great
L
Arabia.
\i6
Abdallah
proclaimed
caliph.
127
Yezitl for
mally de-
pofed.
A R A [51
great refentment on account of Hofein’s death j nor
was it at all agreeable to the caliph Yezid, who treated
the family of the unfortunate Holein with the greateft
kindnefs.
This year, the 61 ft of the Hegira, Yezid appointed
Salem Ebn Ziyad governor of Khoralan ; who, loon
after entering upon the government, made an irruption
into the Turkilh territories. He took his wife along
with him in this expedition, who was delivered of a
child in the neighbourhood of Samarcand *, on which
occafion lire is faid to have borrowed fome jewels from
the prince of Sogd’s lady, which Are afterwards carried
off with her. In the mean time Salem detached Mo-
halleb with a conliderable body of troops to Khowa-
razm, the principal city of the Turks or lartars in
thofe parts, from which he extorted the immenfe fum
of 50,000,000 pieces of money ; from whence advan¬
cing to Samarcand, he forced the inhabitants of that
city alfo to pay him an immenfe fum 5 and then reti¬
red with little lofs, into the province he governed.
In the mean time Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, finding
himfelf, by the death of Holein, at the head of the
partizans of the houfe of Haftiem, who were greatly
oppreffed by Yezid, began in earneft to afpire to the
caliphate. As he had therefore never owned the autho¬
rity of Yezid, he now openly declared againtt him,
and was proclaimed caliph at Medina foon after the
arrival of Hofein’s family in that place. Soon after his
inauguration, to render himfelf the more popular, he
expatiated on the tircumftances of Holein’s death,
which indeed were very tragical, and reprefented the
Cufans as the moft abandoned and perfidious villains
upon earth. This went fo ■well doAvn with the citi¬
zens of Mecca and Medina, that they flocked to him
in great numbers, fo that he foon found himfelf at the
head of a confiderable force. The caliph Yezid being
informed of his progrefs, fwore he would have him in
chains \ and accordingly fent a filver collar ior him to
Merwan, then governor of Pvledina : but the intereft of
Abdallah was now fo ftrong, that he laughed at the
menaces both of the caliph and Merwan. Nay, the
governor of Mecca, though he fecretly hated him,
thought it good policy, as matters then flood, to keep
up a good underftanding with Abdallah : but this co¬
ming to the ears of Yezid, he depofied the governor ;
appointing in his place Walid Ebn Otbah, p man of
known fidelity, and a bitter enemy of Abdallah. The
new governor, therefore, immediately on his aceeflion,
ufed all his art and fldll to circumvent Abdallah *, but
to no pur pole, as the latter rvas always on his guard.
This condufl, however, giving him great difguft, as
Avell as terrible apprehenfions, he Avrote to the caliph,
informing him that all the diflurbances were owing to
the untradlable difpofition of Walid j and that, if he
Avould fend a perfon of a different chara&er, peace
would foon be reftored. This letter, the caliph very
injudicioufly gave ear to, and difmiffed his faithful go¬
vernor, appointing in his room one aa'Iio Avas totally un¬
qualified for that poft. The people of Medina ooav
having frefti intelligence of Yc zid’s diflolute manner of
life, renounced their allegiance to him, and formally
depofed him in a very Angular manner. After they
had affembled in the mofque, about the pulpit there,
one of them faid, “ I lay afide Yezid as I do this tur¬
ban,” and immediately threw his turban on the
ABA
4 i
ground. Another faid, “ I put arvay Yezid as I do
this thoe,” calling arvay his (hoe at the fame time. 1
Thefe examples being followed by others, there Avas a
large heap of fhoes and turbans almoft inftantly form¬
ed upon the fpot. They then difmiffed Yezid’s gover¬
nor, and baniihed from the city all the friends and de¬
pendents of the houfe of Ommiyah. Thefe, to the num¬
ber of about 8000, took refuge in the houfe of Menvan
Ebn A1 Hakem, Avhere they Avere fo clofely befieged
by Abdallah’s party, that they found themfelves ob¬
liged to fend to Yezid for immediate affiftance 5 ac¬
quainting him, that if they Avere not fuccoured, they
mu ft all inevitably perilh. The caliph, though he
Avondered that fuch a number of men lliould fuffer
themfelves to be fo cooped up Avithout making the
leaft refiftance, defpatched Modern Ebn Okba to Me¬
dina, with a confiderable body of troops, to quell the
difturbances. He ordered him to fpare Ali the fon of
Hofein and his family, as they had no hand at all in
the difturbances : then he Avas to fummon the toAvn
of Medina to furrender for three days fucceflively ;
which if they refufed, he Avas to take it by ftorm, and
give it up to be plundered by the foldiers for three Avhole
days.
The inhabitants of Medina being noAv fenfible of
their danger, fuffered the friends of the houfe of Om¬
miyah to AvithdraAV quietly out of the city j though be¬
fore they departed, a promife Avas extorted from them
not to appear in arms againft the reigning faftion.
Modern, in the mean time, advanced towards the city
at the head of 5000 foot and 12,000 horfe j and having
fummoned it according to lais iftftrudtions, upon its re-
fufal made the neceflary preparations for an attack.
The garrifon, hoAvever, for a confiderable time, made
Arabia.
vigorous defence 5 but at laft, moft of the Aniars
128
and principal officers being killed, the Arabs propofed ^
a capitulation. Moflem, hoAvever, Avould hearken toMedina
no terms, and infifted on their furrendering at difere-ken and
tion ; which being refufed, he entered the city after a plundered
faint refiftance. Ali Avas treated Avith great refpedb ; for.
but all the men that had carried arms were put to the^
fword, and Moflem fuffered his troops to raviffi 1000
AA’omen, and to pillage the city for three days fuccef-
fively. Thofe that efcape.d the daughter he forced .to
acknoAvledge themfelves the fiaA'es and vaffals of Yezid.
For this extreme feverity he Avas furnamed by the A-
rabs Si! Mufreif or The extravagant, and ever after
confidered as an impious perfon, efpecially as the pro¬
phet had declared that the Avrath of God ftiould moft
certainly remain upon thofe Avho facked or plundered
the city of Medina.
After the redu&ion of Medina, Moflem dire&ed his
courfe to Mecca, where Abdallah then refided *, but he
died by the Avay, and the command of the troops de-
volved upon Hofein Ebn Thamir A1 SelAvi. Ibis ge¬
neral advanced to Mecca, Avhich he befieged for 40
days, battering the toAvn Avith fuch fury, that he beat
doAvn a great part of the famous temple there, and
burnt the reft 5 nor Avould the city itfelf have efcaped
the fame fate, had not an end been put to the Avar by
the arrival of certain accounts of the death of Yezid, I29
Avho departed this life in the 64th year of the Hegira,yeridtlie
anfAvering to the year 684 of the Chriftian era, having
lived 39, and reigned three years and fix or eight
months. On the neAvs of his death, Hofein offered to
take
L
Arabia.
130
Moawiyah
[I. pro-
rlaimed
[caliph, and
refigns.
131
ftbeidallah
orced to
!y into Sy-
A It A. [5
take the oatli of allegiance to Abdallali ; but tbe latter
at that time durft not truft him, of which he had after¬
wards fufficient reafon to repent.
Yezid was fucceeded by his fon Moawiyah II. who
was proclaimed caliph at Damafcus the fame day that
his father died ; but being of a weakly conftitution,
and unable to bear the fatigues of government, refign-
ed the crown fix tveeks after‘his inauguration, and died
foon after without naming a fuccefior.
This abdication having left the Moflem empire ab-
folutely without a mailer, great commotions enfued.
On the death of Yezid, Obeidallah Ebn Ziyad, go¬
vernor of Bafra, reprefented to the citizens that they
ought to choofe a protector till a new caliph fliould be
chqfen; and if the perfim fo chofen fhould be difagree-
able to them, they might then remain in a Hate of in¬
dependency under the protedlor whom they had cho¬
fen. The inhabitants perceiving the drift of this
fpeech, complimented him with that honour ; which
he accepted with feeming difficulty : but fending a
deputy to Cufa, the inhabitants of that city not only
refufed to acknowledge his authority, but threw dull
and gravel at. his mefienger. This coming to the ears
of the people of Bafra, they not only deprived Obei¬
dallah of the dignity they had newly conferred upon
him, but even expelled him the city. Nor could he
prevail Upon the Najari, a tribe of Anfars, to efpoufe
his quarrel, nor even upon his own relations, though
he dillributed among them great part of the fixteen
millions of pieces of money which he had found in the
treafury of Bafra, and kept the remainder to himfelf.
Nay, fo odious had he rendered himfelf to all ranks,
on account of his cruelties, particularly the death of
Hofein the fon of Ali, that his brother Abdallah was
unable to proteft him from the fury of the populace,
though he kept him concealed in women’s clothes, and
difiributed among the mob 200,oco pieces of money.
He was therefore at lati conilrained to leave the city,
attended by a guard of 100 men. Immediately after
his departure, the mob plundered his houfe, and purfu-
ed him, fo that he was obliged to exchange his camel
for an afs, and thus with the utmofl difficulty efcaped
into Syria.
In the mean time, Hofein Ebn Thamir, being re¬
turned into Syria with the forces under his command,
gave a faithful account of the fituation of affairs in A-
rabia to Merwan Ebn A1 Hakem. He alfo acquainted
him of the offer he had made to Abdallah of the oath
of allegiance, which the latter had refufed, or at lead:
would not come to Damafcus in order to be invefted
with the fupreme authority there. On this account he
advifed Merwan to take care of himfelf and the reft
of the houfe of Ommiyah, who had fled to Damafcus
after their expulfion from Medina. On this difeourfe
Merwan was inclined to fubmit to Abdallah ; but was
diverted from it by Obeidallah, who infifted that no
fuperior ought to be acknowledged by Merwan, who
Was at the head of the Koreiffi. The people of Da¬
mafcus had conflituted Dahak Ebn Kais their protec¬
tor, who inclined to Abdallah. The Bafrans were at
this juncture entirely in tumult and confufion, not be¬
ing able to agree about a proteflor after the expulfion
of Obeidallah ; fo that at lafl they wrote to Abdallah,
offering him the government of their territory. This
he accepted, but could not be prevailed upon to ftir
15] ~ A II A
from Mecca; fior cffltld Merwan be perfuaded to fuf- Arabia,
fer any of the Syrians to perform the pilgrimage to ' v—“■
Mecca, left they fhould join Abdallah, and thereby
contribute to his exclufion from the throne.
In the midft of this confufion Abdallah might have
eafily fecured the caliphate to himfelf, had he not with
the utmoft imprudence as well as inhumanity given or¬
ders for the extermination of the houfe of Ommiyah.
This ruined his affairs •, for they being now obliged to Merwan
provide for their own fafetv, Merwan was proclaimed proclaimed
caliph at Damafcus *, and thus the whole Moflem empire
was rent into two potent faflions, the one under Mer¬
wan and the other undc'r Abdallah.
We have already obferved, lhat Dahak Ebn Kais
inclined to favour Abdallah. This he continued to do
after Merwan was proclaimed caliph, infomuch that a
battle foon enfued between his followers and thole of
Merwan, in which Dahak was defeated and killed; and
thus Merwan became mailer of all the province of Sy¬
ria. Soon after this viiftory, Merwan advanced with a
confiderable body of troops towards Egypt; but fent
before him Amru Ebn Said with a detachment, in or¬
der to facilitate his paffage. That general having de¬
feated Abdalrahman, Abdallah’s lieutenant, in feveral
brilk aflions, he at laft furrendered the whole country
to Merwan for a fum of money, and retired with the
Arabs under his command to Hejaz. The Syrian
troops, therefore, immediately took poffeffion of that
country, and obliged tbe inhabitants to take an oath
of allegiance to Merwan ; who having appointed his fon
Abdalaziz to prefide over Egypt, returned with the
greateil part of his forces to Damafcus. Here he was 133
informed that Abdallah had defpatched againil him his ^clallab s
brother Mufab with a confiderable army. Againft him
Merwan defpatched Amru Ebn Said ; who having foon Merwan s.
come up with him, gave him a total defeat, and difper-
fed his troops in fuch a manner that Mufab found it im-
poffible to rally them again. 134
In the 65th year of the Hegira, the inhabitants bf The Oifarts
Cufa, pretending to be feized with remorfe of con-
fcience for their treachery to Hofein the fon of Ali,
raifed an infurreftion againft both the caliphs, and
therefore affembled a body of 16,000 men, under the T, „
command of one Soliman, who was to revenge the death Joined by
of Hofein upon Obeidallah Ebn Ziyad and his adhe- A1 Moklj-
rents. But while Soliman and his troops remainedtar’
yet ina£live, A1 Mokhtar, who had ferved under Ab¬
dallah, and was difgufted at not having been promoted
as he expefled, arrived at Cufa, and reprefenting the
incapacity of Soliman, who indeed appears to have
been totally unfit for fuch an enterprife, offered to take
the command upon himfelf. This, however, was re¬
fufed ; and as A1 Mokhtar had no opinion of Soliman’s
military capacity, he found means to draw off 2000 of
his troops ; while 10,000 more chofe rather to violate
the oaths they had taken, than' run the riff; of being
cut to pieces by a fuperior enemy. Soliman, however, Soliman’s
put a good face upon the matter; and, telling hisfo!iy :1!<1
troops that they were to fight for another world and tl't
not this, fet forward to invade Syria with the 4000
who remained with him : but being advanced as far as
Ekfas upon the Euphrates, he found that he had loft
1000 men by defertion ; nor was he joined by the Se-
paratifts of Bafra and A1 Madayen, though they had
promifed him a reinforcement. Firmly perfuaded,
3 T 2 however.
A P. A [ 51
Arabia, however, that his caufe was the caufe of heaven, Soli-
nian continued his march all night, and next day ar¬
rived at the tomb of Hofein, where his men performed
their devotions with fuch enthuliafm of penitence, that
one prefent fwore he never faw fuch crowding about
the black ftone in the temple of Mecca itfelf.—Conti¬
nuing ftill to advance, he received a friendly letter
from Abdallah Ebn Yezid, the governor of Cufa, ad-
vifing him to return, and reprefenting to him the folly
of engaging fo powerful an army as would be fent
againft him, with a handful of men : but Soliman,
imagining that he was only recalled in order to fupport
Abdallah Ebn Zobeir in his pretenfions to the cali¬
phate, perfifted in his refolution of penetrating into
Syria. He told his troops, that they would never be
nearer the two Hofeins (Hofein, and his brother Ha-
fan, to whom alfo the Shiites gave that name) than
they were at prefent •, and that Ihould they at this time
meet with death, they would be in a ftate of repent¬
ance, and confequently could never die in a more pro-
per time j and after this fpeeeh, continuing ftill to ad-
He is cut in vance, he was at laft met by Obeidallah, at the head
pieces with 0f 20,000 horfe, who, after an obftinate engagement,
all Ins men. cut p*leces Soliman and all his troops.
Merwan Soon after this decifive aftion died the caliph Mer-
dies. wan, after he had reigned eleven months. He is faid
by fome authors to have been poifoned by his wife
Zeinab, Moawiyah’s widow. Her he had married, with
a promife that her fon Khaled ftiould fucceed him* but
afterwards altering the fucctffion in favour of his own
fon Abdalmalec, young Khaled reproached him with
his breach of promife : upon this Merwan calling him
bajlard, the child complained to his mother *, who, to
be revenged for this affront, is faid to have poifimed:
him, or fmothered him with a pillow. '
In the beginning of the "caliphate of Abdalmalec,
A1 Mokhtar, who had been imprifoned by the gover¬
nor of Cufa, was releafed at the interceflion of Abdal¬
lah Ebn Omar, who had married his After. The year
following, having put himfelf at the head of the Shiite
fe£laries, he fent propofals of alliance to Abdallah Ebn
Zobeir j but he, juftly fufpe&ing his fincerity, by a
ftratagem cut off near 3000 of his men. Upon this dif-
after, A1 Mokhtar, fearing the houfe of Ali might be
intimidated, fent a letter to Mahomet Ebn Hanifyah,
one of that family, in which he offered his afliftance
w|th a powerful army. This offer Mahomet declined,
ftape of the declaring himfelf only for pacific meafures j but though
family of he and all the reft of Ali’s family behaved in the moft
Ali. peacuable niauncr, iYbdallah did not think, himfelt fafc
till they owned his authority. He therefore imprifim-
ed them, together with 17 of the principal citizens of
Cufa, whom he threatened to put to death, and after¬
wards burn their bodies, if they did not within a limit¬
ed time take an oath of allegiance to him. A1 Mokhtar
being informed of the diftrtffed fituation they were in,
fent a body of 75^ ^lor^e Mecca, under Abu Ab¬
dallah, to releafe them. That general not only execu¬
ted his orders with great bravery, but took Abdallah
himfelf prifoner, whom he would have cut to pieces on
the fpot, had he not been releafed at the interceffion of
Mahomet, who for the prefent adjufted the differences
to the mutual fatisfaftion of all parties. After this re¬
conciliation, Abu Abdallah, or rather Mahomet him-
fclfs diftributed, among 4000 of Ali’s mends a ium oi
6 ] A R A
money brought for that purpofe, in order to indemnify Arabia;
them for the Ioffes they had fuftained. Thus the friends  y**
of Ali were happily delivered, when only two days of
the time granted them by Abdallah remained, and a
fufficient quantity of wood and other combuftibles was ■
coilefted, in order to confume their bodies. Notwith-
ftanding the reconciliation, however, that had lately
taken place, Mahomet Ebn Hanifyah thought proper
to poft himfelf on a mountain near Mecca with a body
of 4000 men.
The Cufans having received advice before Merwan*s
death, that he had fent Obeidallah with a powerful
army towards their city, and even given them permil-
fion to plunder it in cafe it fliould be taken, appointed
Yezid Ebn Ares, a man of undaunted courage, to op-
pofe him •, but Merwan dying before Obeidallah could
execute his commiflion, an end was put for the prefent
to this expedition. The memory of it, however, ftill
remained j and A1 IVIokhtar, to whom Obeidallah was
perfonally obnoxious, afftmbled a body of troops to
a£l offenfively againft him, and even againft the Sy¬
rian caliph himfelf in cafe he ftiould fupport Obeidallah. I40
Among other preparations for this enterprife, A1 Impiety of
Mokhtar caufed a kind of portable throne to be made, Al lVk)kh-
telling his troops, that “ it would be of the fame ufet‘ir•
to them that the ark was to the children of Ifrael.” It
was therefore carried on a mule before the troops that
were to march againft Obeidallah, and the following
prayer faid before it : “ O God ! grant that we may
live long in thy obedience } help us } and do not for¬
get us, but proteft us.” This expedient was fo well
adapted to the hot-headed enthufiafts who compofed ^
Al Mokhtar’s army, that they attacked Obeidallah’s 0bei4aliBil
camp, defeated him, and gained a complete viftory.defeated
Obeidallah hiroftlf was killed in the a&ion, his head and killed,
fent to Al Mokhtar, and his body reduced to afties.—
By this viftory the fetlaries were rendered fo formi¬
dable, that Nilibin or Nifibis, and feveral other cities,
furrendered to them without oppofition. They now
began to entertain thoughts of depofing both the ca¬
liphs, and placing on the Moflem throne one of the fa¬
mily of Ali j but all their towering hopes Avere foon
fruftrated by the defeat and death of Al Mokhtar by ^
Mufab brother to Abdallah Ebn Zobeir. Al Mokh- Al Mokh.
tar, after being defeated in a general engagement by tar defeat-
Mufab, fled to the caftk of Cufa, where he defended ed and kill-
himfelf Avith great bravery for fome time; but beingiU
at laft killed, his men, to the number of 7000, fur-
rendered at diferetion, and were all of them put to
the fword on account ot the outrages they had com¬
mitted.
The next year, the 68th of the Hegira, the Azara-
kites, fo denominated from Nafe Ebn Al Azarak, the
author of their fe6lr having affembled a confiderable
force, made an irruption into Irak. They advanced ^
almoft to the gates of Cufa, and penetrated to Al Ma- Horid
dayen. Being fworn enemies of the houfe of Ommi-cruelties^
yah, and acknowledging no government, fpiritual orbymtbeA.-
temporal, they committed terrible ravages in every Part zatakites.
of the Moflem territories through which they paffed.
They carried their exceffes to fuch a height as to mur¬
der all the people they met with, to rip open women
with child, and commit ever fpecies of cruelty that
could be invented upon the inhabitants Avithout diftinc-
tion. The governor of Mawiel and Mefopotamia, be¬
ing
A R A. [ 5«
Arbia. ing infof™ed of thefe unparalleled outrages, marched
f againft them with a body of troops, and carried on a
brilk war with them for eight months. During this
period their leader Nafe Ebn A1 Azarak died ; and was
fueceeded by Katri Ebn Ai Fujat, under whofe con¬
duct they continued their depredations. Mufab not
being ple^fed with his lieutenant’s management of the
War, recalled him, and fent in his place one Omar Ebn
Abdallah t'ernini, who gave the Azarakites a great
overthrow at Naifabur in Khorafan, put many of them
I44 to the fword, and purfued the reft as far as Ifpahan
Th-yare and the province of Kerman. Here having received
ice itvd a reinforcement they returned into the province of
md dil'perf-AlivvaZj and i,credible damage to the country
i<1, through which they paffed. But Omar advancing a-
gainft them a fecond time, they retired at his approach
to Al Mudayen, ravaging the diftrift belonging to
the city in a dreadtul manner. However, Omar pur-
fuing them thither alfo, they fled into the province of
Kerman, and thence gradually difperfed themfelves.
This year there was a grievous famine in Syria, which
fufpended all military operations.
The next year, being the 69th of the Hegira, Ab-
dalmalec left Damafcus to march againft Muiab. In
his abfence he left Amru Ebn Said governor of the
city ; but he immediately feized upon it for himfelf,
which obliged the caliph to return. After feveraUkir-
xnithes had happened between fome detachments of the
x4^ caliph’s troops with thofe of Amru, a pacification was
Barbarity concluded at the interceflion of the women : but Ab-
of Abdal- ftalmalec barbaroufly put Aroru to death with his own
hand, notwithftanding his promife ; and was imme¬
diately feized with fuch a tremor, that he loft the ufe
of almoft all his faculties, and was obliged to be laid
in bed. In the mean time the palace was attacked by
Yahyah, Amru’s brother, at the head of iogo flaves.
After a warm difpute, they forced open the gates,
killed feveral of the guards, and were upon the point
of entering the palace, when the people within threw
Amru’s head among them. This fo cooled their ar¬
dour, that they defifted from the attempt •, and fume
money having been afterwards diftributed among them
they retired. So great, however, was Abdalmalec’s
avarice, that after the tumult was appeafed, he recalled
all the money which had been diftributed, and com-
I45 manded it to be depofited in the public treafury.
Difgrace- In the 70th year of the Hegira, the Greeks made
fultreaty an irruption into Syria; and Abdalmalec having oc-
with the cafion for all his forces to aft againft Abdallah Ebn
lee s‘ Zobeir, was obliged to pay a tribute of 1000 dinars
per day, according to Theophanes, and fend every
year 365 flaves and as many horfes to Confiantinople.
In this treaty, it was alfo ftipulated, that the reve¬
nues of Cyprus, Armenia, and Heria, fliould be
equally divided between the caliph and the Greek em-
147 peror.
Mufab de- Abdalmalec being now at leifure to purfue his in-
feated and tended expedition againft Mufab, marched againft him
Abdalma *n Per^on ’ ar1^ having arrived at Mafken, a fmall town
lec. * ori the frontiers of Mefopotamia, where he was waited
for by Mufab, the latter was defeated through the
treachery of his troops, and himfelf killed. After the.
battle, Abdalmalec repaired to Cufa, where he was re¬
ceived with the utmoft fubmillion ; and people of all
ranks came in crowds to take the oath of allegiance to
4
7 ] A R A
him. He then ordered vaft fums of money to be dil- Arabia,
tributed among them, and gave a fplendid entertain- s——y—
ment to his new fubjefts, to which even the meaneft of
them were not refufed admittance. During this enter¬
tainment, the unfortunate Mufab’s head was prefented
to the caliph ; upon which one of the company took
occafion to fay to him, “ I faw Hofein’s head in this
fame caftle prefented to Obeidallah : Obeidailah’s to
Al Mokhtar ; Al Mokhtar’s to Mufab ; and now at
laft Mufab’s to yourfelf.” This obfervation fo affeft-
ed the caliph, that, either to avert the ill omen, or
from fome other motive, he ordered the caftle to be
immediately demolilhed. Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, in
the mean time, having received the melancholy news
of the defeat and death of his brother, affembled the
people of Mecca, and from the pulpit made a fpeech
fuitable to the occafion. He alio did his utmoft to
put Mecca in a proper pofture of defence, expefting
a fpeedy vifit from his formidable competitor, who
now gave law to Irak, Syria, and Egypt, without
controul.
Soon after Abdalmalee’s return to Damafcus, he ap¬
pointed his brother Baftiar governor of C11 fa, and Kha-
led Ebn Abdallah governor.of Bafra. Ihe latter had
no fooner entered upon his office, than he indifcreetly
removed from the command of the army Al Mohalleb,
one of the greateft generals of the age ; appointing in
his room Abdalaziz, who was greatly his inferior in
military Ikill. Of this difmiffion the Azarakites being
informed, they immediately attacked Abdalaziz, en¬
tirely defeated him, and took his wife prifoner. A dif¬
pute arifing among the viftors about the price of that
lady, one of them, to end it, immediately cut oflf her
head. Upon this difafter, Khaled was commanded to
replace Al Mohalleb, which he did ; and having in
conjunftion with him attacked the Azarakites, forced
their camp, and entirely defeated them. defeated.
In the 7 2d year of the Hegira, Abdalmalec having
no enemy to contend with but Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, .
made great preparations for an invafion of Hejaz, giv¬
ing the command of the army to be employed on this
occafton to Al Hejaj, one of his moft warlike and elo¬
quent captains. Before that general had put his army
in march for Mecca, he offered his proteftion to all the
Arabs there that would accept of it. Abdallah being
informed of the enemy’s approach, fent out feveral par¬
ties of horfe to reconnoitre, and give him intelligence
of their motions. Between thefe and fome of Al He-
jaj’s advanced guards feveral fkirmiffies happened, in
which Abdallah’s men had generally the worft. This
encouraged Al Hejaj to lend to the caliph for a rein¬
forcement, his troops amounting to no more than 2000
men, who were infufficient for reducing Mecca. He
affured him at the fame time, that Abdallah’s fieree-
nefs was very much abated, and that his men deferted
to him daily. The caliph, upon this, ordered a rein¬
forcement of 5000 men under the command of Tharik
Ebn Amer ; but notwithftanding this additional
ftrength, he made but little progrels in the fiege for
fome time.. While he battered the temple of Mecca
with his machines, it thundered and lightened fo dread¬
fully, that the Syrians were ftruck with terror, and re¬
fufed to play them any longer upon that edifice. Upon
this Al Hejaj ftuck the corner of his veft into his gir¬
dle, and putting into it one of the ftones that was tor
r49
Mecca be--
fieged by
A.1 Hejaj.
A 11 A
[ 5i3 ]
A R A
Arabia.
be difcharged out of the catapults, flang it into the
town, and this occafioned the recommencement of the
operations. The next morning the S/.ians were an¬
noyed by frefli idorms, which killed 12 men, and quite
difpirited them. A1 Hejaj, however, animated them,
by obferving that he was a fon of Tehama ; that this
was the ftorm of Tehama, and that their adverfaries
fuflfered as much as they. The day following fome of
Abdallah’s men were killed by a very violent {form,
which gave A1 Hejaj a further opportunity of animat¬
ing his troops. At laft, Abdallah having been defert-
ed by moft of his friends, 10,000 of the inhabitants of
Mecca, and even by his own fons Hamza and Kho-
beib, defired to know his mother’s fentiments as to
what courfe he was to take. He reprefented to her,
that he was almoft entirely abandoned by his fubje&s
and relations ; that the few who perfifted in their fide¬
lity to him could fcarce enable him to defend the city
any longer ; and that the Syrian caliph would grant
him any terms lie could think fit to demand. His
mother, however, being of an inflexible refoldtion,
and not able to bear the thoughts of feeing her fon re¬
duced to the rank of a private perfon, being herfelf the
daughter of Abu Beer, the firft caliph, advifed him
by no means to lurvive the fovereignty, of which he
was on the point of being deprivtd. This advice be-
ing agreeable to his own fentiments, he refolved to die
in defence of the place. In purfuance of this refolu-
tion, he - defended the city, to the amazement of the
befiegers, for ten days, though deftitute of arms,
troops, and fortifications. At laft, having taken a fi¬
nal leave of his mother, and being animated by de-
fpair, he made a fally upon the enemy, deftroyed a
great number of them with his own hand, and was at
Abdallah length killed fighting valiantly upon the fpot. At
killed. tj)e ]af(; interview he had with his mother, (lie is faid
to have defired him to put off a coat of mail he had on
for his defence ; and, in order to infpire him with the
greater fortitude, ftie gave him a draught in which a
whole pound of mulk had been infufed. A1 Hejaj or¬
dered his head to be cut off, and his body to be af¬
fixed to a crofs \ and by reafon of the mufk he had
drank, the body emitted a grateful odour for feveral
days.
By the redu£llon of Mecca, and the death of Ab¬
dallah Ebn Zobeir, Abdalmalec remained foie mafter
of the Modem empire ; but he fuftained a great lofs
next vear, in having an army of 100,000 men totally
cut off by the Khazarians in Armenia. The governor,
however, having marched in perfon againft them at the
head of only 40,000 men, but all chofen troops, pene-
I:;I trated into the heart of Armenia, defeated and difper-
-iChazariars fed a large body of the Khazarians, drove them into
reduced. their temples, and reduced them to afhes. One of his
generals alfo defeated an army of 80,000 Khazarians at
the Iron or Cafpian Gates, and deftroyed a great num¬
ber of them, obliging the reft to embrace the Mahome¬
tan religion.
A1 Hejaj, in confequence of his fervices, was made
governor, firft of Medina, and then of Irak, Khora-
fan, and Sijiftan ; in all which places he behaved with
the greateft cruelty. Having entered the city of Cufa
muffled up in hie turban, he was furrounded by crowds
of people who preffed forward to fee him. Pie told
them their-curiofity would foon be gratified ; which he
150
152
Cruelty of
Al Hejaj
effectually did, by afeending the pulpit, and treating Arabia,
them in a very coarfe manner ; fwearing that he would y—
make the wicked bear his own burden, and fit him
with his own fttoe; and telling them among other
things, that “ he imagined he law the heads of men
ripe and ready to be gathered, and turbans and beards
befprinkled with blood.” At Bafra he made a fpeeth
much to the fame purpofe j and, to give the inhabi¬
tants a tafte of his difeipline, caufed one of them who
had been informed againft as a rebel to be beheaded
on the fpot without any trial. So great indeed was
the abhorrence'in which he was held by thofe over
whom he prefided, that having once recommended him-
felf to the prayers of a religious Moflem, the latter in-
ftantly prayed that it would pleafe God to kill Al He¬
jaj quickly •, “ for nothing, faid he, could be more ad¬
vantageous for himfelf or the people.” In confequence
of thefe cruelties, rebellions were foon raifed againft
him ; but they were eafily fuppreffed, and Al Hejaj
continued in the full enjoyment of all his employments
till he died. j--.
In the 76th year of the Hegira, one Saleh Ebn Saleh and
Marj, a hot-headed enthufiaft, and Shebib Ebn Zeid,Siwbib
a Kharejite, took up arms againft the caliph. They ^e“
had eonfpired againft him the year before when on a
pilgrimage to Mecca \ and Al Hejaj had been ordered
to feize them : but at that time they found means to
make their efcape } and having now affembled about
120 men, Saleh was proclaimed emperor of the faith¬
ful at Daras in Mefopotamia. The governor foon re¬
ceived intelligence of their motions ; and ordered a
body of 500 men, under the command of one Adi, to
march againft them : but that general, being afraid to
attack them notwithftanding his fuperiority in num¬
bers, demanded a reinforcement. He therefore was
fupplied with 500 more troops, with which he advan¬
ced to Daras ; but being ftill afraid of the rebels, he
entered into negociations with them 5 during which
they attacked him, entirely defeated his army, and
made themfelves mafters of his camp. Upon this the
governor fent a detachment of J 500 horfe againft them ;
but the rebels, notwithftanding the fmallnefs of their Their brai
number, defended themfeives in fuch a manner, that very,
the caliph’s troops were forced to difmount and fight
on foot. The engagement continued till night *, when
the rebels, finding themfelves unable to contend with
fuch numbers, retired to Mawfel. After this, Al He¬
jaj being informed that they had taken poft at Dafcara,
fent againft them an army of 5000 men. The rebels
hearing of this formidable army, abandoned their camp j
but were fo clofely purfued, that they found themfelves
obliged to ftand an engagement at Modbaj, a fmall vil¬
lage on the Tigris. Saleh’s forces, confifting only of 155
three companies of 30 men each, were foon thrown into Saleh killed
diforder, and himfelf killed : but Shebib m^de an ex¬
cellent retreat to a neighbouring caftle ; from whence
he fallied out at midnight on the caliph’s forces, pene¬
trated to the very heart of the camp, where he wound¬
ed the general himfelf, and difperfed the greateft part
of his army. 156
After this viftory, the rebels became terrible even Al Hejaj j
to Al Hejaj himfelf, whom they afterwards debated d'‘teated l}|
in feveral engagements j and taking advantage of his
being at Bafra, made themfelves mafttrs of Cura with
little oppofition. Al Hejaj was now conftrained to
write
A R A
[ 5
Arabia.
157
Shebib’s
ralour and
ieath.
15s
ngratitucU
if the re-
lels.
XS9
They are
11 deftroy-
d.
i5o
doney firft
oined in
Arabia.
Iff!
arthage
emoliflied.
nrhe to the caliph for a ftrong detachment of the Sy-
' rian troops, trith which he advanced again ft Shebib ;
whole army bearing no proportion to that of A1 He-
jaj, the former was totally defeated, had his wife’s
brother killed in the adtion, and was obliged to fty into
Kerman. Having reirelhed his men in this province,
he again advanced to Ahwaz, where he was met by
one ot Al Htjaj’s generals at the head of the Syrian
army. Shebib defended himfelf with incredible va¬
lour, and feveral times repulfed the caliph’s forces ;
but being overpowered by numbers, as his army con¬
fided of no more than 6oo men, he was at laft put to
flight, and in pafling a bridge, rvas thrown off by his
horfe and drowned. His body was drawn up by a
net, and the. head fent to Al Hejaj, who was not a
little pleafed at the fight. After his death, the rebels
quarrelled among themfelves, fo that the caliph’s
troops cut off the greateft part of them. The remain¬
der, under Katri Ebn Fojat, tied to Tabreftan. Here
they were kindly received by Alliid the king, who af-
figned them a part of his territories for their habita¬
tion. But they had not been long fettled before they
infilled upon Alhid’s either embracing Mahometanifm,
or paying them an annual tribute which he refufing,
they drove him into Irak, where he implored the ca¬
liph’s protection. Alhid afterwards conduced a body
of Mollem troops into Tabreftan ; where they fell up¬
on the rebels with fuch fury, that they killed Katri
himfelf, cut a great number of his men to pieces, and
took all the reft prifoners.
This .year alfo (the 76th of the Hegira) money
was firft coined in Arabia. Before this time, the di¬
nars, or gold coins, had Greek infcriptions ; and the
dirhems, or filver ones, Perfic infcriptions. The firft
eredtion of a mint in Arabia was occafioned by the fol¬
lowing accident. Abdalmalec added to the letters he
wrote to the Greek emperor this Ihort paffage of the
Koran, “ Say, God is one j” or “ Say, there is one
God;” and then inferted the year of the Hegira, with
the name of the prophet, in fuch a manner as gave the
emperor great offence. Upon this he wrote to Abdal¬
malec, defiring him to alter that manner of writing,
or he would fend him fome coins in which the name
of Mahomet fhould be mentioned in fuch a manner as
would not prove very agreeable. Abdalmalec now re-
folved to coin money of his own; and accordingly
fome dirhems were this year ftamped by Al Hejaj,
with the infcription “ Alla Samad, “ God is eternal;”
which gave great offence to the fuperftitious Modems,
as they imagined that the name of God would be
thereby profaned by the touch of unclean perfons.
In the 77th yeaj of the Hegira, the Arab# made an
incurfion into the imperial territories, and had Lazica
and Bernucium betrayed to them ; and the next year
they made themfelves mafters of Africa Propria, de-
moliftiing the city of Carthage fo effeChially, that
fearce a veftige of it was left. They were foon driven
out, however, by John the Patrician, a man of great
valour and experience in war ; but returning with a
fuperior force, they obliged John in his turn to fly to
Conftantinople.
The 7Sfth year of the Hegira is remarkable for no¬
thing but the rebellion of Abdalrahman in Perfia ;
who drove the khan, or emperor of the Turks,
Tartars, or Moguls, out of that country : but the fol-
19 ] A R A
lowing year, one of the Greek generals, named Hera- Aiabia.
clius, penetrated into Syria as far as Samafata, and
deftroyed 200,000 Arabs, ravaging the country in a 1^2 ^
terrible manner; and Abdalrahman was defeated andrabs’cie_
killed by Al Hejaj, after a great number of engage-ftr0yed by
ments, fome fay 81, and others 100. In the 83dHeraclius.
year of the Hegira, the nobility of Armenia revolting,
drove the Arabs out of that province; but Mahomet,
one of the caliph’s generals, entering the country with
a powerful army, got the authors of the revolt into his
hands, and caufed them all to be burnt alive. En¬
couraged by this fuccefs, the Mulleins invaded Cilicia
under one Azar ; but were to the number of 10,000,
cut in pieces by Heraclius; and the next year, having
again entered that country, 12,000 of them were de¬
ftroyed by the fame general, and the reft forced to fly
into their own country. 15-
In the 86th year of the Hegira died the caliph Abdalma-
Abdalmalec, after a reign of 21 years. He is faid to^ec‘^es"
have had fuch a ftinking breath, that the Hies which
accidentally fettled on his lips were almoft inftantly
ftruck dead by it. He was lucceeded by Al Walid,
who greatly extended the Moflem dominions. The firft
year of his reign, one of his generals having paffed the
Oxus (now the Jihun), defeated a numerous army of
Turks and Tartars. He then overran and entirely re¬
duced the countries of Sogd or Sogdiana, Bagrafs,
Shafti, Targana, and the whole immenfe traift going
under the name of Mawaralnahr, or Great Bukharia. ^
He alfo conquered the khan of Khowarazm, obligingProdigiou&.
him to pay an annual tribute of two millions of di-conclue^s
nars. About the fame time another general, called
Mahomet, made an irruption into India, and fubdued
a confiderable part of that country. He alfo entirely
fubdued the kingdom of Al Sind, lying between Per¬
fia and India. In this expedition, Derar king of Al
Sind was defeated and killed, and had his head cut off
by Mahomet.
In the 90th year of the Hegira, the Modems made
an irruption into Cappadocia, defeated the emperor’s
army who oppofed them, and took the city of Tyana.
The next year they made another incurfion into the
imperial territories, whence they carried off numbers of
flaves ; and the year following one Othman penetrated
into the heart of Cilicia, where he made himfelf mafter
of feveral cities, but does not appear to have long kept
his conquefts. 1(5V
In the 93d year of the Hegira, anfwer.ing to that They make
(it Chrift 712, Tarik Ebn Zarka made a defcent on :i hefcent
Spain, defeated Roderic, the laft king of the Goths,00 sI)aub
reduced the city of Toledo, and overran a confider¬
able part of the kingdom. Being afterwards joined by
Mufa, commander of the African Moflems, the two
generals made themfelves mafters of molt of the for-
treffes, fubjugating in a manner the whole country, 161?
and obliging it to pay tribute to the caliph. In tliefe/111^ over¬
expeditions the Moflems acquired fpoils of immenfe va-\ruo |he
lue ; and, amongft other things, an exceeding rich loan fry.
table, called by the Arab writers “ the table of Solo¬
mon the fon of David.” According to thefe writers,
this table confifted entirely of gold and filver, and was
adorned with three borders of pearls ; but Roderic of
Toledo, a Spanifh hiflorian, fays it confifted of one en¬
tire ftone, of a green colour, and of an immenfe fize,
having no lefs than 365 feet. He adds, that it was
found
A R A
[ 520 1
A R A
167
A.1 Hejaj
dies.
Arabia, found in a certain village or town, near tire mountain
—r   called in his days Jibal So/iman, or “ the mountain of
Solomon.”
After Mufa and Tarik had committed dreadful de¬
predations in Spain, they were both recalled by the
caliph *, but the next year, Tarik having undertaken
another expedition into the fame country, landed a
body of 12,000 men at Gibraltar, with which he plun¬
dered the whole province of Bsetica, and overran the
^reateft part of Lufitania. Roderic hearing of thefe
depredations, fent againft him an army of raw undifci-
plined troops, who were eafdy defeated, and molt of
them left dead on the fpotj which fo animated the A-
rab commander, that he refolved not to lay down his
arms till he had made an abfolute conquelt of Spain.
About the fame time that Tarik made fuch progrefs
in Spain, another Modem general entered Pifidia with
a powerful army, took the city of Antioch, and, after
having ravaged th^ country, retired into the caliph s
territories with very little lofs.
Tn the 95th year of the Hegira died A1 Hejaj go¬
vernor of Irak, See. after he had prelided over that
country 20 years. He exercifed fuch cruelties upon
thofe who were in fubje£lion to him, that he is faid to
have killed 120,000 men, and to have fuflfered 50,000
men and 30,000 women to perilh in prifon. lo ex-
cufe this cruelty, he ufed frequently to fay, That a fe-
vere, or even violent government, is better than one too
weak and indulgent •, as the firft only hurts particular
perfons, but the latter the whole community. This
year alfo the Arabs gained a complete viftory in Spain
over Roderic king of the Goths, who perilhed in the
a£lion. In this campaign, Tarik poffeffed himfelf of
immenfe treafures •, by which means he was enabled to
reward not only his officers, but common foldiers alfo.
In the ealtern parts of the world alfo, the Arabs were
this year very formidable 5 Moflema, an Arab general,
having entered the imperial territories, ravaged the
whole province of Galatia, carrying off with him many
rich fpoils, and a vaft number of prifoners. The Greek
emperor, hearing that A1 Walid defigned to attack
him both by fea and land, fent fome of his nobles to
treat of a peace •, and, among other things, defired them
to bring him a particular account of the force with
which the caliph defigned to invade the Greek empire.
This they reprefented as fo terrible, that it would be
next to impoffible to oppofe it. The emperor therefore
caufed a great number of light ffiips to be built, the
walls to be repaired, and ordered fuch of the citizens
as had not laid up provifions for three years lo depart
the city. A1 Walid, in the mean time, continued his
warlike preparations with the utmoft vigour, being de-
termined to make himfelf mailer of Conlfantinople in a
fingle campaign. ,
... In the 96th year of the Hegira died the caliph A1
dies, anti is Walid ; and was fucceeded by his brother Soliman.
fucceeded Thj3 the Modem conqueffs on the eaft fide were
by Sofiman. ^ the re(jU(^jon 0f Tabreftan and Jurgan or
Georgia. In Spain, alfo, the city of Toledo which
had revolted was reduced, and Csefarea Augulfa, now
Saragoffa, as well as feveral others. The next year
>.v^ Moflema fet out for Conftantinople, which he befieged
fuccefsfully wjthout fuccefs till the 99th year of the Hegira ; at
befieged. ^ he wag obliged to return, after having loft
before it 120,000 men. The foldiers were reduced to
168
A1 Walid
l<>9
Conftant'-
nople un-
tbe greateft extremities of hunger, being forced to live Arabia,
upon hides, the roots and bark of trees, the moft noi- v"—
fome animals, and even the dead bodies of their com¬
panions. This year alfo (the 99th of the Hegira) is 170
remarkable for the death of the caliph Soliman. Ac-^fc:';h°f
cording to fome, he was poifoned by \ ezid his brother,
governor of Perfia, who was difpleafed with his having
appointed his coufin-german, Omar Ebn Abdalaziz,
as his fucceffor, to the exclufion of himfelf. Accord¬
ing to others he died of an indigeftion ; which is not
greatly to be wondered at, if, as thofe authors fay, he
ufed to devour ico pounds weight of meat every day,
and dine very heartily after eating three lambs roafted
for breakfaft. In the latter part of his reign, the Mof-
lems were by no means fuccefsful in Spain : the king¬
dom of Navarre being founded at this time by Pela-
gius, or Pelayo, whom the Arabs were never able to
reduce.
The new caliph Omar Ebn Abdalaziz was by no
means of a martial charafter ; but is faid to have been
very pious, and poffeffed of very amiable qualities. He
fuppreffed the ufual maledi£lion, which was folemnly
pronounced by the caliphs of the houfe of Ommiyah
againft the houfe of Ali; and always (bowed great t i?1 . j
kindnefs to the latter. He was poifoned by Yezid, af- 1
ter a (hort reign of two years and five months. It is re-"0 0 ’ !
lated, as an inftance of this caliph’s humility, that when
Msflema vifited him in his laft ficknefs occafioned by
the poifon, he lay upon a bed of palm tree leaves, fup-
ported by a pillow formed of beads (kins, and covered
with an ordinary garment. He had alfo on a dirty
(hirt; for which Moflema blamed his After Fatima,
Omar’s wife; but (lie excufed herfelf by telling him,
that the emperor of the faithful had not another ftiirt
to put on.
Concerning Yezid the fucceffor of Omar we find
very little worth mentioning. He did not long enjoy
the" dignity he had fo iniquitoufly purchafed, dying af¬
ter a reign of little more than four years. He died of
grief for a favourite concubine named Hababah, who
was accidentally choked by a large grape which ftuck
in her throat.
Yezid was fucceeded by his brother Heftiam, who
afeended the throne in the 105th year of the Hegira.
In the fecond and third year of his reign, feveral incur-
fions were made into the imperial territories, but
generally without fuccefs. In the 109th year of the 172
Hegira, Moflema drove the Turks out of Armenia and
Aderbijan, and again confined them within the Cafpian
Gates. The next year he obliged them to take an oath
that they (hould keep their own country; but this they
foon violated, and were again driven back by Moflema. i73_
About this time alfo the Arabs, having paffed the Py-^”^1"’
renees, invaded France to the number of 400,000, Aral*,
eluding women and (laves, under the command of one
Abdalrahmnn. Having advanced to Arles upon the
Rhone, they defeated a large body of French that op-
pofed them ; and having alfo defeated Count Erudo,
they purfued him through fcvtral provinces, wafted the
whole country with fire and fword, making themfelves
mafters of the city of Tours, moft of which they redu-
ced to allies. Here, however, a flop was put to thtsir^®^^.
devaftations by Charles Martel ; who coming up withfeate(i by
them near the above-mentioned city, engaged them for Charles
feven days together, and at laft gave them a total Martel.
overthrow.
/
A R A [ S2i ] A R A
Arabia, overthow. The French general made himfelf mailer
of all their baggage and riches ; and Abdalrahman,
with the ihattered remains of his army, reached the
frontiers of Spain with the utmoft difficulty. The fol¬
lowing year alfo, according to feme hiftorians, the
Arabs were overthrown at Illiberis, ficarce any of them
making their efcape. To make amends for this bad
fortune, however, the caliph’s arms were fuccefsful
againft the Turks, who had again invaded fome of the
eailern provinces.
In the 125th year of the Hegira died the caliph He-
iham, after a reign of 19 years, feven months, and ele¬
ven days. He was fucceeded by A1 Walid II. who is
reprefented as a man of a moil diflblute life, and was
afl’aflinated the following year on account of his profef-
fing Zendicifm, a fpecies of infidelity nearly refembling
Sadducifm. He was fucceeded by Yezid the fon of
A1 Walid I. who died of the plague, after a reign of
iyS fix months: and was fucceeded by Ibrahim Ebn A1
Reign of Walid, an imprudent and ftupid prince. He was-depo-
Alerwan. pecj jn tj)e j2*7th year of the Hegira by Merwan Ebn
Mahomet, the governor of Mefopotamia j who gave
out, as an excufe for his revolt, that he intended to re¬
venge the murder of the caliph Al Walid II. He
was no fooner feated on the throne, than the people
of Hems rebelled againlt him. Againft them the ca¬
liph marched with a powerful army; and afking them
what could excite them to this rebellion, fummoned
them to furrender. They alfured him that they were
difpofed to admit him into their city ; and, accord-
ing'ly, one of the gates being opened, Merwan en¬
tered with about 30O of his troops. The men that
entered with him were immediately put to the fword ;
and the caliph himfelf efcaped with great difficulty.
However, he afterwards defeated them in a pitched
battle, put a great number of them to the fword, dif-
mantled the city, and crucified 600 of the principal
authors of the revolt.
This, however, was far from quieting the commotions
in different parts of the empire. The inhabitants of
Damafcus foon followed the example of thofe of Hems,
and depofed the caliph’s governor ; but PTerwan, im¬
mediately after the extindlion of the former rebellion,
marched to Damafcus with great celerity, entered the
city by force, and brought to condign punifliment the
authors of the revolt. Peace, however, was no fooner
ellabliffied at Damafcus, than Soliman Ebn Heffiam
let up for himfelf at Bafra, where he was proclaimed
caliph by the inhabitants. Here he affembled an army
of 10,000 men, with whom he marched to Kinniffin,
where he was joined by vaft numbers of Syrians, who
flocked to him from all parts. Merwan, receiving ad¬
vice of Soliman’s rapid progrefs, marched againft him
with all the forces he could affembie, and entirely de¬
feated him. In this engagement Soliman loft 3000
men; fo that he was obliged to fly to Hems, where
900 men took an oath to ftand by him to the laft. Ha¬
ving ventured, however, to attack the caliph’s forces a
fecond time, he was defeated, and again forced to fly
to Hems. But, being clofely purfued by Merwan,
he conftituted his brother Said governor of the city,
leaving with him the Ihattered remains of his troops,
and himfelf fled to Tadmor. Soon after his depar¬
ture Merwan appeared before the town, which he be-
fieged for feven months) during which tijne he bat-
Vol. II. Part II.
tered it inceffantly with 80 catapults. The citizens, Arabia,
being reduced to the laft extremity, furrendered, and l—1
delivered Said into the caliph’s hands. In confidera-
tion of this fubmiflion, Merwan pardoned the rebels,
and took them all under his protedlion. About the
fame time, another pretender to the caliphate appeared
at Cufa ; but Merwan took his meafures fo well, that
he extinguiftied this rebellion before it could come to
any height. _ ^6
Notwithftanding the fuccefs, however, that had hi-A party
therto attended Merwan, a ftrong party was formed^0™61*
againft him in Khorafan by the houfe of Al Abbas.
The firft of that houfe that made any confiderable fi-fan,
gure w’as named Mahomet, who flouriihed in the reign
of Omar Ebn Abdalaziz. He was appointed chief of
the houfe of Al Abbas about the hundredth year of the
Hegira; and is faid to have prophefied, that after his
death, one of his fons, named Ibrahim, fhould prefide
over them till he was killed, and that his other fon Ab¬
dallah, furnamed Abul Abbas Al Saffah, thould be ca¬
liph, and exterminate the houfe of Ommiyah. Upon
this Al Saffah wras introduced as the future fovereign,
and thofe prefent kiffed his hands and feet.
After the deceafe of Mahomet, his fon Ibrahim no¬
minated as his reprefentative in Khorafan one Abu
Moflem, a youth ot 19 years of age; who beginning
to raife forces in that province, Merwan defpatched
againft him a body of horfe under the command of Nafr
Ebn Sayer ; but that general was entirely defeated by MerwL’s
Abu Moflem, and the greateft part of his men killed, forces de-
The next year (the 128th of the Hegira) Merwan feated.
made vaft preparations to oppofe Abu Moflem, who
after the late viftory began to grow formidable to fe-
veral parts of the empire. According to fome authors,
Merwan gained two vidlories over fome of Ibrahim’s
generals ; but the year following, Abu Moflem brought
fuch a formidable army into the field, that the caliph’s
troops could not make head againft them ; his officers
in Khorafan therefore were obliged either to take an
oath of allegiance to Ibrahim, or to quit the province
within a limited time.
In the 130th year of the Hegira, the caliph’s gene¬
ral Na'fr having drawn together another army, -was
again defeated by Khataba another of Ibrahim’s gene¬
rals, and forced to fly to Raya, a town of Dylam, ac¬
cording to fome, or of Khorafan, according to others. 173
The next year Ibrahim having foolifhly taken it intoR)rahim Put
his head to go on a pilgrimage to Mecga, attended byt0
a numerous retinue fplendidly accoutred, was feized
and put to death by Merwan ; and the year following
Abu Abbas was proclaimed caliph at Cufa. As foon
as the ceremony was ended, he fent his uncle Abdallah
with a powerful army to attack Merwan’s forces that
were encamped near Tubar at a fmall diftance from
Moful, where that caliph was then waiting for an ac¬
count of the fuccefs of his troops under Yezid gover¬
nor of Irak, againft Kbataba one of Al Saffah’s gene¬
rals. Khataba receiving advice of Yezid’s approach,
immediately advanced againft him, and entirely defeat¬
ed him ; but in crofting the Euphrates, the waters of
which were greatly I welled, he was carried away by
the current and drowned. The purfuit, however, was
continued by his fon Hamid, who difperfed the fugi¬
tives in fuch a manner that they could never afterwards
be rallied. At the news of this difafter, Merwan was
' 3 U at
A R A
Arabia.
179
Merwan
himfe'.f de¬
feated,
1S0
and killed.
181
lleign of
rid Alan fur
18a
He mur¬
ders Abu
Modem.
183
Abdalr air¬
man pro¬
claimed
caliph in
Spain.
184
Attempt to
affaffinate
the caliph.
[ 52
at full greatly difpirited } but foon recovering himfelf,
he advanced to meet Abdallah. lit the beginning of
the battle, the caliph happened to difraount j and his
troops perceiving their fovereign’s horfe without his
rider, concluded that he was killed, and therefore im¬
mediately fled -7 nor was it in the power of the caliph
himfelf to rally them again, fo that he was forced to fly
to Damafcus; but the inhabitants of that city, feeing
his condition defperate, {hut their gates againft him.
Upon this he fled to Egypt, where he maintained him¬
felf for feme time •, but was at laft attacked and kale
by Saleh, Abdallah’s brother, in a town of Thebais,
called Bufir KuriJes. The citizens of Damafcus, though
they had fhamefully deferted Merwan, refufed to open
their gates to the viftors upon which Saleh entered
the city by force, and gave it up to be plundered lor
three days by his foldiers. A, c rr 1
Bv the total defeat and death of Merwan, Ai Saitah
remained foie mafter of the Moflera throne j but we
hear of no very remarkable events that happened during
his reign : only that he maffacred great numbers of the
partifans of the houfe of Ommiyah j and that Conflan-
tine Copronymus, taking advantage of the. intelhne
divifions among the Modems, ravaged Syria. ie
caliph died of the fmall pox in the 136th year ot the
Hegira, in the 3^ year of his age*, and was fucceeded
by his brother Al Manfur. In the beginning ot A1
Manfur’s reign, hoftilities continued againft the houte
of Ommiyah, who ftill made refiftance, but were al¬
ways defeated. Abdallah, however, the caliph’s uncle,
caufed himfelf to be proclaimed caliph at Damafcus;
and having affembled a powerful army in Arabia, Sy¬
ria and Mefopotamia, advanced with great expedition
to the banks of the Mafius near Nifibis, where he en¬
camped. Al Manfur, being informed of this rebellion,
deipatched Abu Modem againft Abdallah. Fins gene¬
ral, having haraffed him for five months together, at laft
brought him to a general adlion ; and having entirely
defeated him, forced him to fly to Bafra. Notwith-
ftanding all his fervices, however, Abu Modem w-as
foon after ungratefully and barbaroufty murdered by Al
Manfur, on fume ridiculous pretences of being deficient
in refpect towards him.
After the death of Abu Modem, one Sinan, a Ma-
gian, or adorer of fire, having made, himfelf mafter 01
that general’s treafures, revolted againft the caliph *, but
he was foon defeated by Jamhur Ebn Morad, who had
been fent againft him with a powerful army.. In this
expedition Jamhur having acquired immenfe riches, the
covetous difpofition of the caliph prompted him to lend
a perfon exprefs to the army to feize upon all the wealth.
This fo provoked Jamhur, that he immediately turned
his arms againft his mafter ; but. was foon defeated,
and entirely reduced. The following year (the 139th
of the Hegira, one Abdalrahman, of the h.oule ot (_hn-
mivah, after the entire ruin of that family in Afia, aru-
ved in Spaip, where he was acknowledged calipn ; nor
did he or his defeendants ever afterwards own fubjechon
to the Arabian caliphs.
The 140th year of the Hegira is remarkable tor an
attempt to aifaffinate the caliph. . This attempt was
made by the Rawandians; an impious lea, who held
the do&rihe of metempfyehofis or tranfmigration.—
They fir ft offered Al Manfur divine honours, by going
jn procefiion round his palace, as the Modems were
1
A R A
Arabia.
wont to do round the Caaba ; but the caliph, highly in-
cenfed at this impiety, ordered 100 of the principal of
them to be imprifoned. Thefe, however, were foon re¬
leafed bv their companions ; who then went in a body
to the palace with an intention to murder their fove-
reign *, but he being a perfon of uncommon bravery,
though he was furprifed with very few attendants,
mounted a mule, and advanced towards the mutineers,
with an intention to fell his life as dear as poflible. In
the mean time, Maan Ebn Zaidat, one of the chiefs of
the Ommiyan fa&ion, who had concealed himfelf in or¬
der to avoid the caliph’s refentment, fallied out of his
retreat, and putting himfelf at the head of Al Manfur’s
attendants, charged the rebels with fuch fury, that he
entirely defeated them. This generofity of Maan was
fo remarkable, that it afterwards paffed into a proverb.
On thisoccafion 6000 of the Rawandians were.killed
on the fpot, and the caliph delivered from inftant
death : he was, however, fo much difgufted with the
Arabs on account of this attempt, that he refolved to
remove the capital of his empire out of their peniniula ; ^
and accordingly founded a new city on the banks or the jje remove
Tigris which from that time to this has been known by the feat of
the name of Bagdad. The foundations of it were laid empire to
in the 145th year of the Elegira, and fimlhed four years13 £ '
after. ' r> j 4
On the removal of the feat of government to Bagdad,
the peninfula of the Arabs feems all at once to have loft
its confequence, and in a (bort time the inhabitants
feem even to have detached themfelves from the juri1:
didion of the caliphs : for in the 156th year of the
Hegira, while Al Manfur was yet living,, they made
irruptions into Syria and Mefopotamia, as if they had
defigned to conquer thefe countries over again tor
themfelves; and though the Arabs, properly fo cafted,
continued nominally fubjea to the caliphs of Bagdad till
the abolition of the caliphate by Hulaku the 1 artar, yet
they did not become fubjea to him when he became
mafter of that city. There is even the ftrongeft reaion
to believe that the Arabs (i. e. the inhabitants of the
peninfula properly called Jrabia) have remained inde¬
pendent, not only of Hulaku, but of every other con¬
queror that the world hath yet produced. , .
The perpetual independence of the Arabs, indeed. Gibbon; I
‘‘has been the theme of praife among ft rangers and
natives. The kingdom of Yemtm,.it is true, has been!*
fucceflivelv fubdued by the Abyfiimans, the Perhans, Nationai
the fultans of Egypt, and the Turks ; the holy cities of indeed
Mecca and Medina have repeatedly bowed under a ence of -
Scythian tyrant; and the Roman province ot Arabia
embraced the peculiar wildernefs in which limael and
his fons muft have pitched their tents in the race ot
their brethren. Yet thefe exceptions are temporary or
local; the body of the nation has efcaped the yoke ot
the moft powerful monarchies ; the arms of SeiOitiis
and Cvrus, of Poropey and Trajan, could never, a-
chieve the conqueft of Arabia; the prefent fovereign
of the Turks mav exercife a ftiadow of jurifdiaion,
but his pride is reduced to folicit the friendihip ot a
people whom it is dangerous to provoke and fruitleis
to attack. The obvious caufes of their freedom are
inferibed on the charafter and country of the Arabs.
Manv ages before Mahomet, their intrepid valour had
been feverely felt by their neighbours in .offenfive and
defenfive war. The patient and afhve virtues oi a lot-
A R A [ 523 ] , A R A
Arabia. ^’er are in^en^bly nurfed in the habits and difcipline
- of a paftoral life. The care of the flieep and camels
is abandoned to the women of the tribe ; but the mar¬
tial youth, under the banner of the emir, is ever on
horfeback, and in the field, to pra&ife the exercife of
the bow, the javelin, and the fcimitar. The long
memory of their independence is the firmeft pledge of
its perpetuity ; and fucceeding generations are animated
to prove their defcent and to maintain their inheri¬
tance. Their domeftic feuds are fufpended on the ap¬
proach of a common enemy j and in their laft hofliii-
ties againft the Turks, the caravan of Mecca was at¬
tacked and pillaged by fourfcore thoufand of the con¬
federates. -When they advance to battle, the hope of
viftory is in the front; and in the rear, the aflurance
of a retreat. Their horfes and camels, who in eight or
ten days can perform a march of four or five hundred *
miles, difappear before the conqueror ; the fecret wa¬
ters of the defert elude his fearch j and his victorious
troops are confumed with thirft, hunger, and fatigue,
in the purfuit of an invisible foe, who fcorns his efforts,
and fafely repofes in the heart of the burning folitude.
The arms and deferts of the Bedoweens are not only
the fafeguards of their own freedom, but the barriers
alfo of the Happy Arabia, whofe inhabitants, remote
from war, are enervated by the luxury of the foil and
climate. The legions of Auguftus melted away in dif-
eafe and laflitude : and it is only by a naval power that
the reduClion of Yemen has been fuccefsfully attempt¬
ed. When Mahomet eredled his holy ftandard, that
kingdom was a province of the Perfian empire yet
feven princes of the Homerites ftill reigned in the
mountains ; and the vicegerent of Chofroes was tempt¬
ed to forget his diftant country and his unfortunate
mailer. The hiftorians of the age of Juftinian repre-
fent the Hate of the independent Arabs, who were di¬
vided by intereft or alfeClion in the long quarrel of the
Eaft : the tribe of Ghaffan was allowed to encamp on
the Syrian territory $ the princes of Hira were per¬
mitted to form a city about 40 miles to the- fouthward
of the ruins of Babylon. Their fervice in the field
was fpeedy and vigorous } but their friendfhip was ve¬
nal, their faith inconftant, their enmity capricious :
it was an eafier talk to excite than to difarm thefe
roving barbarians : and, in the familiar intercourfe of
war, they learned to fee, and to delpife, the fplendid
weaknefs both of Rome and of Perfia. From Mecca
to the Euphrates, the Arabian tribes were confound¬
ed by the Greeks and Latins, under the general ap¬
pellation of Saracens *, a name which every Chriftian
mouth has been taught to pronounce with terror and
1S7 abhorrence.
Their do- “ The Haves of domeltic tyranny may vainly exult
dora'a ^e*r nati°nal independence •, but the Arab is perfo-
charaftrr na^y free 5 an^ ^ie enj°ys» bi fome degree, the benefits
of fociety, without forfeiting the prerogatives of na¬
ture. In every tribe, fuperlhtion, or gratitude, or
fortune, has exalted a particular family above the heads
of their equals. The dignities of Iheich and emir in¬
variably defcend in this chofen race 5 but the order of
fucceffion is loofe and precarious 5 and the moll worthy
or aged of the noble kinfmen are preferred to the
fimple, though important, office of compofing difputes
by their advice, and guiding valour by their example.
The momentary jun&ion of feveraV tribes produces an
army : their more lading union conlhtutes a nation ; ArabiS.
and the fupreme chief, the emir of emirs, whofe ban- y—«.
ner is difplayed at their head, may deferve, in the eyes
of ftrangers, the honours of the kingly name. If the
Arabian princes abufe their power, they are quickly
puniffied by the defertion of their fubjedls, who had
been accultomed to a mild and parental jur.fdi&ion.
Their fpirit is free, their Heps are unconfined, the de¬
fert is open, and the tribes and families are held toge¬
ther by a mutual and voluntary compadl. The fofter na¬
tives of Yemen fupported the pomp and majefty of a
monarch ; but if he could not leave his palace without
endangering his life, the adlive powers of government
muft have been devolved on his nobles and magiftrates.
The cities of Mecca and Medina prefent, in the heart
of Afia, the form or rather the fubftance of a common¬
wealth. The grandfather of Mahomet, and his lineal
anceflors, appear in foreign and domeftic tranfaftions
as the princes of their country ; but they reigned like
Pericles at Athens, or the Medici at Florence, by the
opinion of their wifdom and integrity : their influence
was divided with their patrimony j and the fceptre was
transferred from the uncles of the prophet to a younger
branch of the tribe of Koreiffi. On folemn occafions
they convened the afiembly of the people ; and, fince
mankind muft be either compelled or perfuaded to
obey, the ufe and reputation of oratory among the an¬
cient Arabs is thecleareft evidence of public freedom.
But their fimple freedom was of a very different call;
from the nice and artificial machinery of the Greek and
Roman republics, in which each member poffeffed an
undivided (hare of the civil and political rights of the
community. In the more fimple ftate of the Arabs, *
the nation is free, becaufe each of her Tons difdains a
bafe fubmiffion to the will of a mafter. His breaft is
fortified with the auftere virtues of courage, patience,
and fobriety ; the love of independence prompts him
to exercife the habits of felf-command ; and the fear
of diftionour guards him from the meaner apprehenfion
of pain, of danger, and of death. The gravity and
firmnefs of the mind is confpicuous in its outward de¬
meanour : his fpeech is flow, weighty, and conciie ; he
is feldom provoked to laughter ; his only gefture is
that of llroaking his beard, the venerable fymbol of
manhood } and the fenfe of his own importance teaches
him to accoft his equals without levity, and his fuperi-
ors without awe. The liberty of the Saracens furvi-
ved their conquefts: the firft caliphs indulged the bold
and familiar language of their fubje&s : they afeended
the pulpit to perfuade and edify the congregation ;
nor was it before the feat of empire was removed to
the Tigris, that the Abbaffides adopted the proud
and pompous ceremonial of the Perfian and Byzantine
courts. xss
“In the ftudy of nations and men, we may obferve Civil wars
the caufes that render them hoftile or friendly to each an£l Private
other, that tend to narrow or enlarge, to mollify or revenoe-
exafperate, the focial cbaradler. The feparation of
the Arabs from the reft of mankind has accuftomed
them to confound the ideas of ftranger and enemy j
and the poverty of the land has introduced a maxim
of jurifprudence, which they believe and pratftife to
the prefent hour. They pretend, that in the divifion
of the earth the rich and fertile climates were affigned
to the other branches of the human family 5 and that
3 U 2 the
Arab'a.
189
Annual
truce.
A Pt A
the pofterity of the outlaw Ifmael might recover, by
fraud or force, the portion of inheritance of which he
had been unjuftly deprived. According to the remark
of Pliny, the Arabian tribes are equally addifted to
theft and mtrchandife : the cafavans that traverfe tlie
defert are ranfomed or pillaged ; and their neighbours,
fmce the remote times of Job and Sefotlris, have been
the victims of their rapacious fpirit. If a Bedoween
difcovers from afar a fulitary traveller, he rides furi-
oufiy againlt him, crying, with a loud voice, “ Undrefs
thyfelf ; thy aunt, («y wife) is without a garment.” A
ready fubmiffion entitles him to mercy •, reliftance will
provoke the aggrefior, and his own blood muft expiate
the blood which he prefumes to died in legitimate de¬
fence. A fingle robber, or a few affociates, are brand¬
ed with their genuine name •, but the exploits of a
numerous band aflume the charafter of lawful and ho¬
nourable war. The temper of a people, thus armed
againft mankind, was doubly inflamed by the domeftic
licence of rapine, murder, and revenge. In the con-
flitution of Europe, the right of peace and war is
now confined to a fmall, and the a61ual exereife to a
much fmaller, lift of refpeflable potentates •, but each
Arab, with impunity and renown, might point his
javelin againft the life of his countryman. The union
of the nation confided only inavague refemblance of lan¬
guage and manners j and in each community the jurif-
didtion of the magiftrate was mute and impotent. Of
the time of ignorance which pfeceded Mahomet, 1700
battles are recorded by tradition : hoftiiity was embit¬
tered with the rancour of civil faftion ; and the re¬
cital, in profe or verfe, of an obfulete feud was fuffi-
cient to rekindle the fame paffions among the descend¬
ants of the hoftiie tribe§. In private life, every man,
at leaf! every family, was the judge and avenger of its
own caufe. The nice fenfibility of honour, which
■weighs the infult rather than the injury, fheds its dead¬
ly venom on the quarrels of the Arabs: the honour
of their women, and of their beards, is mod eadly
wounded *, an indecent aflion, a contemptuous word,
can be expiated only by the blood of the offender ;
and fueh is their patient inveteracy, that they expect
whole months and years the opportunity of revenge.
A fine or compenfation for murder is familiar to the
barbarians of every age : but in Arabia the kinfmen
of the dead are at liberty to accept the atonement, or
to exercife with their own hands the law of retaliation.
The refined malice of the Arabs refufes even the head
of the murderer, fubditutes an innocent to the guilty
perfon, and transfers the penalty to the bed and mod
confiderable of the race by whom they have been in¬
jured. If he falls by their hands, they are expofed in
their turn to the danger of reprifals ; the intered and
principal of the bloody debt are accumulated 5 the in¬
dividuals of either family lead a life of malice and fuf-
picion, and 50 years may fometimes elapfe before the
account of vengeance be finally fettled. This fangui-
nary fpirit, ignorant of pity or forgivenefs, has been
moderated, however, by the maxims of honour, which
require in every private encounter feme decent equa¬
lity of age and drength, of numbers and weapons.
An annual fedival of two, perhaps of four months,
was obferved by the Arabs before the time of Mahomet •,
during which their fwords were religiolifly dreathed both
in foreign and domedic hodility : and this partial truce
A R A
is more drongly expreffive of the habits of anarchy Arabia.
and warfare. '   i
“ But the fpirit of rapine and revenge was attempered ^
by the milder influence of trade and literature. The cialei^u“‘.
folitary peninfula is encompaffed by the mod civilized ficatjo,)S
nations of the ancient world; the merchant is the and virtues
friend of mankind ; and the annual caravans imported
the fird feeds of knowledge and politenefs into the cities,
and even the camps of the defert. The arts of gram¬
mar, of metre, and of rhetoric, were unknown to the
freeborn eloquence of the Arabians ; but their pene¬
tration was ftiarp, their fancy luxuriant, their wit
ftrong and fententious, and their more elaborate com-
pofitions were addreffed with energy and effeft to the
minds of their hearers. The genius and merit of a p0etry.
rifing poet was celebrated by the applaufe of his own
and the kindred tribes. A lolemn banquet was pre¬
pared, and a chorus of women, driking their cymbals,
and difplaying the pomp of their nuptials, fung in the
prefence of their fons and hulbands the felicity of their
native tribe ; that a champion had now appeared to
vindicate their rights ; that a herald had raifed his
voice to immortalize their renown. The didant or
hodile tribes reforted to an annual fair which was abo-
lidied by the fanaticifm of the fird Mollems ; a nation¬
al affembly that mud have contributed to refine and
harmonize the barbarians. Thirty days were employ¬
ed in the exchange, not only of corn and wine, but
of eloquence and poetry. The prize was difputed by
the generous emulation of the bards ; the victorious
performance was depofited in the archives of princes
and emirs ; and we may read in our own language the
feven original poems which were inferibed in letters of
gold, and fufpended in the temple of Mecca. The
Arabian poets were the hidorians and moralids of the
age ; and if they fympathized with the prejudices, they
infpired and crowned the virtues of their countrymen.
The indiffoluble union of generofity and valour was
the darling theme of their fong : and when they point¬
ed their keened fatire againlt a defpicable race, they
affirmed, in the bitternefs of reproach, that the mem
knew not how to give, nor the women to deny. The
fame hofpitality which was praCtifed by Abraham, and
celebrated by Homer, is dill renewed in the camps
of the Arabs. The ferocious Bedoweens, the terror
of the defert, embrace, without inquiry or hefitation,
the dranger who dares to confide in their honour and
to enter their tent. His treatment is kind and re-
fpeftful : he diares the wealth or the poverty of bis-
hod ; and, after a needful repofe, he is difmiffed on
his way, with thanks, with bleffings, and perhaps
with gifts. _ _ ip*
“ The religion of the Arabs, as well as of the Indi-Ancient
ans, confided in the worfhip of the fun, the moon, and idolatry,
the fixed dars ; a primitive and fpecious mode of fu-
perdition. The bright luminaries of the Iky difplay
the vifible image of a deity : their number and didance
convey to a pbilofophic, or even a vulgar eye, the idea
of boundlefs fpaee : the character of eternity is mark¬
ed on thefe folid globes, • that feem incapable of cor¬
ruption or decay : the regularity of their motions may
be aferibed to a principle of reafon or indinCl; and
their real or imaginary influence encourages the vain
belief that the earth and its inhabitants are the object
of their peculiar care. The fcience of adronomy was
cultivated
[ 524 1
k
A It A [ 5
Arabia, cultivated at Babylon ; but the fchool of the Arabs
—v*—; was a clear firmament and a naked plain. In their
nofturnal marches, they fleered by the guidance of the
flars : their names, and order, and daily ftation, were
familiar to the curiofity and devotion of the Bedo-
ween ; and he was taught by experience to divide in
28 parts the zodiac of the moon, and to bid's the con-
ftellations who refrdhed, with falutary rains, the thirft
of the defert. The reign of the heavenly orbs could
not be extended beyond the vifible fphere j and fome
metaphyfical powers were neceffary to fuftain the tranf-
migration of fouls and the refurre&ion of bodies j a
camel was left to perilh on the grave, that he might
ferve his mafter in another life j and the invocation of
departed fpirits implies that they were ftill endowed
with confcioufnefs and power. Each tribe, each fami¬
ly, each independent warrior, created and changed the
rites and the objedl of his fantaftic worfhip j but the
nation in every age, has bowed to the religion as
well as to the language of Mecca. The genuine an-
The Caaba tiquity of the Caaba extends beyond the Chrittian era.
]
A R A
or temple
of xWecea.
In defcribing the coaft of the Red fea, the Greek bi-
ftorian Diodorus has remarked between the Thaumau-
dites and the Sabaeans, a famous temple, whofe fupe-
rior fan&ity was revered by all the Arabians : the li¬
nen or filken veil, which is annually renewed by the
Turkiflr emperor, -was firft offered by a pious king of
the Homerites, who reigned 700 years before the time
of Mahomet. A tent or a cavern might fuffice for
the worthip of the favages, but an edifice of done and
clay has been erefted in its place j and the art and
power of the monarchs of the eaft have been confined
to the fimplicity of the original model. A fpacious por¬
tico enclofes the quadrangle of the Caaba ; a fquare cha¬
pel, 24 cubits long, 23 broad, and 27 high ; a door and
a window admit the light 5 the double roof is fupported
by three pillars of wood 5 a fpout (now of gold) dif-
charges the rain water, and the well Zemzem is pro-
tefled by a dome from accidental pollution. The tribe
of Koreilh, by fraud or force, had acquired the cuftody
of the Caaba; the facerdotal office devolved through
four lineal defcents to the grandfather of Mahomet;
and the family of the Halhemites, from whence he
fprung, was the moff refpedlable 'and facred in the eyes
of their country. The precinfls of Mecca enjoyed the
rights of fancluary ; and. in the laft month of each
year, the city and the temple w'as crowded with a
long train of pilgrims, who prefented their vows and
offerings in the houfe of God. The fame rites which
are now accompliffred by the faithful Muffulmans were
invented and praftifed by the fuperftition of the idola¬
ters. At an arvful diftance they call away their gar¬
ments : feven times, with hafty fteps, they encircled
the Caaba, and kiffed the black ftone ; feven times
they vifited and adored the adjacent mountains ; feven
times they threw flones into the valley of Mina ; and
the pilgrimage was achieved, as at the prcfent hour,
by a facrifiee of fheep and camels, and the burial of
their hairs and nails in the confecrated ground. Each
tribe either found or introduced into the Caaba their
domeftic worihip : the temple was adorned or defiled
with 360 idols of men, eagles, lions, and antelopes ;
and moff confpicuous was the flatue of Hebal, of red
agate, holding in his hand feven arrows, without heads
or feathers, the inffruments and fymbols of profane di¬
vination. But this flatue was a monument of Syrian Arabia,
arts ; the devotion of the ruder ages was content with 1v-—
a pillar or a tablet ; and the rocks of the dx lert were
hewn into gods or altars in imitation of the black
ftone of Mecca, which ie deeply tainted with the re- I()^
proach of an idolatrous origin. From Japan to Peru,Sacrifices
the ufe of facrifice has univerfally prevailed ; and the and rites,
votary has expreffed his gratitude or fear by deftroying
or confuming, in honour of the gods, the deareft and
moff; precious of their gifts. The life of a man is the
moft precious oblation to deprecate a public calamity;
the altars of Phoenicia and Egypt, of Rome and Car¬
thage, have been polluted with human gore, the cruel
pradlice was long preferred among the Arabs ; in the
third century, a boy was annually facrificed by the
tribe of the Dumatians ; and a royal captive was pi-
oufly flaughtered by the prince of the Saracens, the
ally and foldier of the emperor Juftinian. The father
of Mahomet himfelf vvas devoted by a rath vow, and
hardly ranfomed for the equivalent of 100 camels. The
Arabs, like the Jews and Egyptians, abftained from
the tafte of fwine’s flefli ; and they circumcifed their
children at the age of puberty : the fame cuftoms,
without the cenfure or the precept of the Koran, have
been filently tranfmitted to their pofterity and profe-
lytes ; and it has been fagaciouffy conjedlured, that the
artful legiflator indulged the flubborn prejudices of his
countrymen. *
“ Arabia was free : from the adjacent kingdoms, jntr^uc-
which were fhaken by the ftorms of conqueft and ty- Uon of the
ranny, the peifecuted fedls fled to the happy land whereSabians.
they might profefs what they thought, and pradlife
what they profeffed ; and the religions of the Sabians
and Magians, of the Jews and Chriftians, were diffe-
minated from the Perfian gulf to the Red fea. In
a remote period of antiquity, Sabianifm was diffufed '
over Afia by the fcience of the Chaldeans and the
arms of the Affyrians. From the obfervations of 2000
years, the priefts and aflronomers of Babylon deduced
the eternal laws of nature and providence. They ado¬
red the feven gods or angels who diredb d the courfe
of the feven planets, and ftied their irrefiftible influence
on the earth. The attributes of the feven planets,
with the twelve figns of the zodiac and the twenty-
four conftellations of the northern and fouthern hemi-
fphere, were reprefented by images and talifmans ;
and feven days of the week were dedicated to their re-
fpeftive deities ; the Sabians prayed thrice each day ;
and the temple of the moon at Haran was the term, of
their pilgrimage. But the flexible genius of their faith
was always ready either to teacli or to learn. The al-
tars of Babylon were overturned by the Magians; butai)S<
the injuries of the Sabians were revenged by the fword
of Alexander. Perfia groaned about 300 years under
a foreign yoke ; and the pureft difciples of Zoroafter
efcaped from the contagion of idolatry, and breathed
with their adverfaries the freedom of the defert. Se¬
ven hundred years before the death of Mahomet the
Jews were fettled in Arabia : but a far greater multi- T97
tude was expelled from the holy land in the wars 0f
Titus and Hadrian. The induftrious exiles afpired to
liberty and power : they ere died fynagogues in the
cities and caltles in the wildernefs ; and their Gentile
converts were confounded with the children of Ifrael,
whom they refembled in the outward mark of circum-
cifiono .
Arabia
A R A t
clfion. The Chriftian miffionaries were ftill more ac-
t  tive and fuccefsfuU the Catholics afferted their univer-
xo's fal reign j the fedls whom, they oppreffed fucceffively
The Chri- retired beyond the limits of the Roman empire *, the
ftians. Marcionites and Manichaeans difperfed their fantajhc
opinions and apocryphal gofpels 5 the churches of Ye¬
men, and the princes of Hira and Ghaffan, were in-
llru&ed in a purer creed by the Jacobite and.Neftonan
bilhops.” Such was the ftate of religion in Arabia
previous to the appearance of Mahomet. See N 22.
fupra.
As the Arabs are one of the moft ancient nations m
the world, having inhabited the country they at prefent
poffefs almoft from the deluge, without intermixing
with other nations, c* being fubjugated by any foreign
power their language muft have been formed foon at-
ter if’not at, the confufion of Babel. The two princi¬
pal’ dialeas of it were, that fpoken by the Hamyarrtes
and other genuine Arabs, and that of the Koreifh, in
which Mahomet wrote the Koran. The firft is ftyled by
the Oriental writers the Arabic of Hamijar, and tne
other the pure or defecated. As Yarab, grandfather of
Hamyar, is fuppofed by the Oriental writers to_ have
been the firft whofe tongue deviated from the Syriac to
the Arabic, the Hamyaritic dialed according to them
muft have approached nearer to the purity of the Sy¬
riac; and confequently have been more remote from the
true genius of the Arabic than that of any other tribe.
The dialed of the Koreiftr, termed by the Koran the
perfpicuous and clear Arabic, is referred to Iftimael as
its author ; who, fay the above-mentioned writers, firft
fpoke it j and, as Dr Pococke believes, after he had con-
traded an alliance with the family of Jorham by mar¬
riage, formed it of their language and the original He¬
brew As, therefore, the Hamyaritic dialed partook
principally of the Syriac, fo that of the Koreilh was
fuppofed to confift chiefly of the Hebrew. But, ac¬
cording to Jalialo’ddin, the politenefs and elegance
of the dialed of the Koreilh ought rather to be attri¬
buted to their having, from the remoteft antiquity,
the cuftody of the Caaba, and dwelling in Mecca the
centre of Arabia. The Arabs are full of the commen¬
dations of their language, which is very harmonious,
expreflive, and, as they fay fo immenfely copious,, that
no man uninfpired can be a perfed.matter of it in its
utmoft extent. How much, in this laft article, it is
fuperior to the Greek and Latin tongues, in fome
meafure appears from hence, that fometimes a. bare
enumeration of the Arabic names of one particular
thing, and an explication of them, will make a confi-
derable volume. Notwithftanding this, the Arabs be¬
lieve the greateft part of their language to be loft j
which will not feem improbable, when we confider how
late the art of writing became generally pradifed^
among them. For though it was known to Job their
countryman, to the Edomites, as well as the other Ara¬
bian nations bordering upon Egypt and,Phoenicia, and
to the Hamyarites many centuries before Mahomet, as
appears from fome ancient monuments faid to be re¬
maining in their charader: yet the other Arabs, and
thofe of Mecca in particular, unlefs fuch of them as
were either Jews or Chriftians, were to the time.of Mo-
ramer perfedly ignorant of it. It was the ancient A-
rabic language preceding the reign of Juftiman, which
fo nearly refembled the Ethiopic j for fince that time,
526 1 A R A
and especially fince the age of Mahomet, all the Arabic Arabia.
dialeds have been not a little corrupted. This is now <    
the learned language of the ^Mahometans, who ftudy it
as the European Chriftians do theHeorew, Greek, and
Latin. . 199
The charader ufed by them, the moft ancient of any Letters,
peculiar to the Arabs, wherein the letters were not di-
ftindly feparate, went by the appellation of Al Mof-
nad, from the mutual dependency of its letters or parts
upon one another. This was neither publicly taught,
nor fuffered to be ufed, without permiflion firft obtain¬
ed. Could we depend upon what A1 Firauzabadius re¬
lates from Ebn Hafbem, this character muft have been
of a very high antiquity •, fince an infeription in it, ac¬
cording to the laft author, was found in Yaman as old
as the time of Jofeph, Be that as it will, Moramer
Ebn Morra of Anbar, a city of Irak, who lived not
many years before Mahomet, was the inventor of the
prefent Arabic charader, which Bathar the Kendian,
who married the fitter of Abu Sofian, is faid to have
learned from the houfe or Anbar, and to have introdu¬
ced at Mecca but a little time before the inftitution of
Mahometanifm. Moramer’s alphabet the Oriental au¬
thors agree to have been very different from the an¬
cient one of the Hamyarites, fince they diftinguifh the
Hamyaritic and Arabic pens. In Mahomet’s time,
the Morameric alphabet had made fo fmall a progrefs,
that no one in Yaman could either write or read it ;
nay, Mahomet himfelf was incapable of doing either ;
for which reafon he was called the illiterate prophet.
The letters of this alphabet were very rude; being ei¬
ther the fame with, or very much like, the Cufic,
which charader is ftill found in inferiptions and the
titles of ancient books’, nay, for many years, it was
the only one ufed by the Arabs, the Koran itfelf being
the firft written therein. In order to perpetuate the me¬
mory of Moramer’s invention, fome authors call the Ara¬
bic letters Al Moramer, \. e. the progeny of Moramer.
The moft remarkable fpecimens of the Cufc charader
(fo denominated from Cufa, a city of Irak, where fome
of the firft copies of the Koran were written) are the
following : Part of that book in it on vellum, brought
from Egypt by Mr Greaves; fome other fragments of
the fame book in it publitbed by Sir John Chardin ;
certain paffagts of a MS. in the Bodleian library ; the
legends on feveral Saracenic coins dug up not many
years ago on the coaft of the Baltic, not far from Dant-
zic; and, according to Mr Profeffor Hunt, thofe noble
remains of it that are, or were lately, to be feen in Mr
Jofeph Ames’s valuable colledion of antique cunofities.
As to the true origin of the ancient and modern Arabic
alphabets, we muft own ourfelves pretty much in the
dark. See Alphabet. aco
The Arabian learning may be divided into two pe-Learning,
riods, viz. Ante-Mahometan and Mahometan.
The Arab learning, in this firft period, confifted,
according to Abulpharagius, in the knowledge of their
language, the propriety of difeourfe, the compofition
of verfe, and the fcience of the ftars : but their chief
attention feems to have been direded to oratory and
poetry. . . „
The fame period is more dittinguithen, at leait
from the time of Al-Mamon, the feventh caliph of
the family of the Abaflides, who flourifhed about the
year 820, and has the honour of being the founder of
J the
%
\
A R A [ 527 ] A R A
Anbia. the modern Arabian learning. He fent for all the belt
—y—1 books out of Chaldea, Greece, Egypt, and Perfia, re¬
lating to phyfic, atlronomy, cofmography, mufic, chro¬
nology, &c. and penfioned a number of learned men,
{killed in the fevferal languages and fciences, to tranf-
late them into Arabic. By this means, divers of the
Greek authors, loft in their own country and language,
have been preferred in Arabic. From that time Ara¬
bia became the chief feat of learning •, and we find men¬
tion by Abulpharagius, Pococke, D’Herbelot, and Hot-
tinger, of learned men, and books without number.
The revival of learning in the tenth century, by
Gerbert, known after his elevation to the pontificate
by the title of Silvefter II. and afterwards among the
Europeans in general, may be afcribed to the inftruc-
tions and writings of the Arabian doctors and philofo-
phers, and to the fchools which they founded in feve-
ral parts of Spain and Italy. And in the 12th centu¬
ry, the inquifitive of different countries frequented the
fchools of the Saracens in Spain, and diffeminated the
knowledge which they obtained there after their re¬
turn. At this time, many of the learned productions
of the Arabians were tranflated into Latin, which fa¬
cilitated the general progrefs of fcience.
The philofophy of the Arabians, before Mahomet,
was Sabian, and included the fyftem and ceremonies
of that fed of idolaters. This it was that Mahomet
fet hitnfelf to decry 5 and he is even faid by fome to
have carried his oppofition fo far, as to prohibit, if not
punith, all ftudy of philofophy. But his followers, by
degrees, got over this reftraint: the love of learning
increafed ; till, under the memorable caliphate of A1
Mamon, Ariftotle’s philofophy was introduced and
eftabliihed among them ; and from them propagated
with their conquefts, through Egypt, Africa, Spain,
and other parts. As they chofe Ariftotle for their
mafter, they chiefly applied themfelves to that part of
philofophy called logic> and thus became proficients in
the knowledge of words rather than things. Whence
they have been fometimes denominated Mnjlers of the
wifdom of words ; fometimes the Talking feEi. Their
philofophy w as involved in quaint arbitrary terms and
notions, and their demonftrations drawn from thence
as from certain principles, &c. Walch, Hiji. Log. lib. ii.
fee. 2. § 1.
Their phyfic fucceeded the Grecian ; and their phy-
ficians handed down the art to us, having made confi-
derable improvements, chiefly in the pharmaceutical
and chemical parts.
It is certain we owe to them mod of our fpices and
aromatics, as nutmegs, cloves, mace, and other matters
of the produce of India. We may add, that moft of
the gentler purgatives w’ere unknown to the Greeks,
and firft introduced by the Arabs, as manna, fenna,
rhubarb, tamarinds, caflia, &e. They likewife brought
fugar into ufe in phyfic, where, before, only honey
was ufed. They alfo found the art of preparing wa¬
ters and oils, of divers fimples, by diftillation and fub-
limation. The firft notice of the fmallpox and the
meafles is likewife owing to them. Laftly, The refto-
ration of phyfic in Europe took its rife from their
writings. M. le Clerc has given a Iketch, and Dr
Freind an ample hiftory, of the Arabian phyfic. We
have alfo a Notitia of all the Arabian phyfieians by Fa-
bricius.
3
Their poetry may be divided into two ages. The Arabia,
ancient, according to Voflius, was no other than fhym- ‘ i_'v ' "
ing *, was a ftranger to all meafure and rule } the ver-
fes loofe and irregular, confined to no feet, number of
fyllables, or any thing elfe, fo that they rhymed at the
end : oftentimes all the verfes in the poem ended with
the fame rhyme. It is in fuch verfe that the Alcoran
is faid to be written.
The modern Arabian poetry takes its date from the
caliphate of A1 Rafchid, who lived toward the clofe
of the eighth century. Under him poetry became an
art, and laws of profody were laid down. Their com-
parifons, in which they abound, are taken, with little
choice, from tents, camels, hunting, and the ancient
manners of the Arabs. 20I
That fome of the Arabs had a good degree of know- Mechanical
ledge in feveral mechanical arts, appears from Strabo,arts-
who informs us, that the people of Tamna and the ad¬
jacent provinces had magnificent temples, and elegant
houfes, built in the Egyptian tafte. The fame author
likewdfe relates, that in Arabia Felix, befides the huf-
bandmen, there were many artificers j and amongft
others, thofe who made palm wine, which he inti¬
mates, was* much ufed by the Arabs. As for the ex-
ercife of arms and horfemanlhip, they looked upon this
as one of their principal accomplilhments, being obli¬
ged to pracfife and encourage it by reafon of the inde¬
pendency of their tribes, whofe frequent jarring made
wars almoft continual amongft them, which for the moft
part ended in field battles. Hence it became an ufual
faying amongft them, that God had beftowed four pe¬
culiar things on the Arabs, viz. turbans injlead of dia¬
dems, tents injlead of walls and houfeS, fwords injlead
of intrenchments, and poems injlead of written laws.
The principal arms ufed by the ancient Arabs were
bows and arrows, darts or javelins, and broadfwords
or feimitars. The bows and arrows wrere the moft an¬
cient of thefe $ being ufed by Iftiraael himfelf, accord¬
ing to Scripture. It is probable alfo, that fome of them
were acquainted with every branch of the military art
cultivated by their neighbours the Egyptians, Syrians,
and Phoenicians. 20a.
Before the Portuguefe interrupted the navigation of Commerce,
the Red fea, the Arabs were the fa&ors of all the trade
that paffed through that channel. Aden, which is fitu-
ated at the moft fouthern extremity of iVrabia upon the
Indian ocean, was the mart in thofe parts. The fitua-
tion of its harbour, which opened an eafy communica¬
tion with Egypt, Ethiopia, India, and Perfia, had ren¬
dered it, for many ages, one of the moft fiourifliing fac¬
tories in Afia. Fifteen years after it had repulfed the
great Albuquerque, who attempted to demolifli it in
1513, it fubmitted to the Turks, who did not long re¬
main mafters of it. The king of Yemen, who poffeffed
the only diftriff in Arabia that merits the title of Hap¬
py, drove them from thence, and removed the trade to
Mocha, a place in his dominions which till then was
only a village.
This trade was at firft inconfiderable ; confiding
principally in myrrh, incenfe, aloes, balm of Mecca,
fome aromatics, and medicinal drugs. Thefe articles,
the exportation of which is continually retarded by
exorbitant impofts, and does not exceed at prefent
30,625!. were at that time more in repute than they
have been fmee 5 but muft have been always of little
confequence.,,
> 1
A R A [ 528 ] A R A
Arabia, contequence. Soon after a great cnange enfued from
—-y—^ the introduftion of coftee.
Though this article is generally ufed in the Arabian
entertainments, none but the rich citizens have the
pleafure of tailing the berry itfelf. The generality are
obliged to content themfelves with the (hell and the
hulk of this valuable produ&ion. Thefe remains, fo
much defpifed, make a liquor of a pretty clear colour,
which has a talle of coffee without its bitternefs and
flrength. Thefe articles may be had at a low price at
Betelfagui, which is the general market for them.
Here likewife is fold ail the coffee which comes out of
the country by land. 1 he reft is carried to Mocha,
which is 35 leagues diftant, or to the nearer ports of
Loheia or Hodeida, from whence it is tranfpoyted in
fmall veffels to Jodda. The Egyptians fetch it from
the laft-mentioned place, and all oilier nations from the
former.
The quantity of coffee exported may be eftimated at.
twelve millions five hundred and fifty thoufand weight.
The European companies take oft a million and a half;
the Perfians three millions and a half; the fleet from
Suez fix millions and a halt; Indoftan, the Maldives,
and the Arabian colonies on the coaft of Africa, fifty
thoufand ; and the caravans a million.
As the coffee which is bought up by the caravans
and the Europeans is the belt that can be procured,
it cofts about S^d. a pound. The Perfians, who con¬
tent themfelves with that of an inferior quality, pay
no more than about 6|-d. a pound. The Egyptians
purchafe it at the rate of about 8d.; their caigoes
being compofed partly of good and partly of bad cof¬
fee. If we eftimate coffee at about a Pound,
which is the mean price, the profits accruing to Arabia
from its annual exportation will amount to, 384,343!.
This money does not go into their coffers ; but
it enables them to purchafe the commodities brought
from the foreign markets to their ports of Jodda and
Mocha.
Mocha receives from Abyflinia, (beep, elephants
teeth, mulk, and Oaves. It is fupplied from the eaftern
coaft of Africa with gold, Haves, amber, and ivory ;
from the Perfian gulf, with dates, tobacco, and corn ;
from Surat, with a vaft quantity of coarfe, and a few
fine linens; from Bombay and Pondicherry, with iion,
lead, and copper, which are carried thither from Eu¬
rope ; from Malabar, with rice, ginger, pepper, Indian
faffron, with coire, cardamom, and alfo with planks ;
from the Maldives, with gum benzoin, aloes wood, and
pepper, which thefe iflands take in exchange ; from Co¬
romandel, with 400 or 500 bales of cottons, chiefly
blue. The greateft part of thefe commodities, which
may fetch 262,500!. are confirmed in the interior parts
of the country. The reft, particularly the cottons, are
difpofed of in Abyflinia, Socotora, and the eaftej.n coaft
of Africa.
None of the branches of bufinefs which are managed
at Mocha, as well as throughout all the country of Ya-
man, or even at Sanaa the capital, are in the hands of
the natives. The extortions with which they are per¬
petually threatened by the government deter them from
interfering in them. All the warehoufes are occupied
by the Banians of Surat or Guzerat, who make a point
of returning to their own country as loon as they have
made their fortunes. They then refign their fettlements
to merchants of their own nation, who retire in their Arabh.
turn, and are fucceeded by others.
The European companies, who enjoy the exclufive
privilege of trading beyond the Cape of Good Hope,
formerly maintained agents at Mocha. Notwithftand-
ing it was ftipulated by a folemn capitulation, that thb
impofts demanded Ihould be rated at two and a quar¬
ter per cent, they were fubjeft to frequent extortions :
the governor of the place infilling on their making him
prefcnts which enabled him to purchafe the favour of
the courtiers, or even of the prince himfelf. However,
the profits they obtained by the fale of European goods,
particularly cloths, made them fubmit to thefe repeated
humiliations. When thefe feveral articles were furnilh-
ed by Grand Cairo, it was then impoflible to withftand
the competition, and the fixed fettlements were therefore
given up.
The trade was carried on by fhips that failed from
Europe with iron, lead, copper, and filver, fufficient
to pay for the coffee they intended to buy. I he fuper-
cargoes, who had the care of thefe tranfa&ions, fettled
the accounts every time they returned, i hefe voyages,
which at firft were pretty numerous and advantageous,
have been fucceffively laid afide. The plantations of
coffee, made by the European nations in their colonies,
have equally leffened the confumpticn and the price of
that which comes from Arabia. In procefs cf time
thefe voyages did not yield a fufficient profit to anfvver
the high charges of undertaking them on purpofe.
The companies of England and France then refolved,
one of them to fend Drips from Bombay, and the other
from Pondicherry, to Mocha, with the merchandife of
Europe and India. They even frequently had recourfe
to a method that was lefs expenfive. The Englilh and
French vifit the Red fea every year. Though they dil-
pofe of their merchandife there to good advantage, they
can never take in cargoes from thence for their return.
They carry, for a moderate freight, the coffee belong¬
ing to the companies, who lade the. veffels with it,
which they defpatch from Malabar and Coromandel to
Europe. The Dutch company, who prohibit their fer-
vants from fitting out Ihips, and who fend no veffels
themfelves to the gulf of Arabia, are deprived of the
(hare they might take in this branch of commerce. They
have alfo given up a much more lucrative branch, that
of Jodda.
Jodda is a port fituated near the middle of the gulf
of Arabia, 20 leagues from Mecca. The govern¬
ment there is of a mixed kind : the grand fignior and
the xeriff of Mecca {hare the authority and the reve¬
nue of the cuftoms between them. Thefe impofts are
levied upon the Europeans at the rate of 8 per cent,
and upon other nations at 13. They are always paid
in merchandife, which the managers oblige the mer¬
chants of the country to buy at a very dear rate. The
Turks who have been driven from Aden, Mocha, and
every part of Yaman, would long ago have been ex¬
pelled from Jodda, if there had not been room to ap¬
prehend that they might revenge themfelves in fuch a
manner as to put an end to their pilgrimages and com¬
merce. , ■* C03
The coins which are current at Mocha, the prin- Coins,
cipal port of the Red fea, are dollars of all kinds ; btft
they abate five per cent, on the pillar dollars, beeaufe
they are reckoned not to be the pureft filver, and the
dollar,
Arachis
A R A f 529 ] A R A
Arabic dollar weight with them Is 17 drachms 14 grams. All
j| their coins are taken by weight, and valued according
Aracan. t0 their purenefs. The gold coins current here are
ducais of Venice, Germany, Turkey, Egypt, &c. The
comafles are a fmall coin, which are taken at fuch a
price as the government fets on them ; and they keep
their accounts in an imaginary coin, called cabeers, of
which 80 go to a dollar. For an account of the an¬
cient coins called dinars and dirhems, fee thefe two ar¬
ticles.
Gum ARABIC. See Gum.
ARABICI, a fedt who fprung up in Arabia about
the year 207, whofe diftinguilhing tenet was, that the
foul died with the body, and alfo rofe again with it.
Eufebius, lib. vi. c. 38. relates that a council was
called to flop the progrefs of this riling fe£t; and that
Origen affifted at it, and convinced them fo thorough¬
ly of their error that they abjured it.
ARABIS, Bastard Tower Mustard. See Bo¬
tany Index
ARAB1SM, Arabismus, an idiom or manner of
fpeaking peculiar to the Arabs or the Arabic ian-
guage.
ARABIST, a perfon curious of, and fkilled in, the
learning and language of the Arabians : fuch were
Erpenius and Golius. The furgeons of the 13th cen¬
tury are called Arabijls by Severinus.
ARABLE lands, thofe which are fit for tillage,
or which have been formerly tilled.
ARACAN, the capital of a fmall kingdom to the.
north-eaft of the bay of Bengal, fituated in E. Long.
93. o. N. Lat. 20. 30. It has the conveniency of a fpa-
cious river, and a harbour large enough to hold all the
fhips in Europe. It is faid by Schouten to be as large
as Amfterdam ; but the houfes are flight, being made
with palm trees and bamboo canes, and covered with
leaves of trees. They are feldom above fix feet high,
but have many windows or air-holes. But the people
of the higheft rank are much better accommodated.
They have no kitchens, chimneys, or cellars, which
obliges the women to drefs the viftuals out of doors.
Some of the ft reels are on the ridges of rocks, where¬
in are a great many lhop«. Their orchards and gar¬
dens contain all the ^ruits common to the Indies, and
their trees are green all the year. Their common drink
is toddy ; which is the fap of the cocoa tree, and when
new, will intoxicate like wine, but foon grows four.
Elephants and buffaloes are very numerous here, and
are made ufe of inftead of horfes. They have plenty
of provifions, and but little trade : for when Mr Char-
nock was here in 1686, with fix large (hips, there was
nothing to be had in the way of commerce 5 and yet
the country produces lead, tin, flick lac, and elephants
teeth. The Mogul’s fubjefts come here to purchafe
thefe commodities ; and fometimes meet with diamonds,
rubies, and other precious flones. They were former¬
ly governed by a king of their own, called the king of
the White Elephant; but this country has been con¬
quered by the king of Pegu. They pay little or no
regard to the chaflity of their women, and the common
failors take great liberties among them. Their reli¬
gion is Paganifm *, and the idols, temples, and priefts
are very numerous. The drefs of the better fort is
very flight, for it confifts chiefly of a piece of white
cotton over their arms, bread, and belly, with an apron
Vol. II. Part II.
before. The complexion of the women is tolerable :
they wear thin flowered gauze over their breaft and H
fhoulders, and a piece of cotton, which they roll three , Arack.
or four times round their waift, and let it hang as low v
as their feet. They curl their hair, and put glafs rings
in their ears, and ftretch them of a monftrous length.
On their arms and legs .they have hoops of copper,
ivory, filver, &c. The country produces great quanti¬
ties of rice, and the water is good. Their flocks of
fheep and herds of cattle are alfo numerous near Ara¬
can ; but what they fay of the towns and villages, with
which the country is pretended to be overfpread, may
be doubted. Captain Hamilton affirms, that there are
but few places inhabited, on account of the great num¬
ber of wild elephants and buffaloes, which would de-
ftroy the fruits of the ground ; and that the tigers
would deftroy the tame animals. There are feme
villages near the fea, inhabited by a few miferable fiftier-
men, who can juft keep themfelves from ftarving,
though they are out of the reach of oppreftion. The
rich burn the dead bodies j but the poor, who are not
able to buy wood, throw them into the river.
ARACHIS. See Botany Index.
ARACHNE, in fabulous hiftory, a young maid of
Lydia, faid to have been the inventrefs of fpinning.
She is fabled to have been fo fkilful in this art, as to
challenge Minerva at it; who tore her work, and
ftruck her, which difgrace driving her to defpair, fha
hanged herfelf. Minerva from compaflion brought
her to life, and transformed her into a fpider, -which ftiR
employs itfelf in fpinning.
ARACHNOIDES, in Anatomy, an appellation
given to feveral membranes ; as the tunic of the cry-
ftalline humour of the eye, the external lamina of the
pia mater, and one of the coverings of the fpinal mar¬
row.
ARACK, Arrack, or Rack, a fpirituous liquor
imported from the Eaft Indies, ufed by way of dram
and in punch.
The word arack, according to Mr Loekyer, is an
Indian name for ftrong waters of al\ kind*- ; for they
call our fpirits and brandy Englijh arack. But what
we underftand by the name arack, he affirms, is really
no other than a fpirit procured by diftillation from a
vegetable juice called toddy, which flows by ineifion out
of the cocoa-nut tree, like the birch juice procured
among us. The toddy is a pleafant drink by itfelf,
when new, and purges thofe who are not ufeu to it:
and, when ftale, it is heady, and makes good vinegar.
The Englifh at Madras ufe it as leaven to raife their
bread with.
Others are of opinion, that the araek, or arrack, is a
vinous fpirit obtained by diftillation, in the Eaft Indies,
from rice or fugar, fermented with the juice of cocoa
nuts.
The Goa arack is faid to be made from the toddv,
the Batavia arack from rice and fugar ; and there is
likewife a kind of fhrub from which arack is made.
Goa and Batavia are the chief places for arack. At
Goa there are divers kinds : Angle, double, and treble
diflilled. The double diftilled, which is that common¬
ly fent abroad, is but a weak fpirit in comparifon with
Batavia arack ; yet, on account of its peculiar and
agreeable flavour, is preferred to all the other aracks
of India, This flavour is attributed to the earthen vef.
3 X fels
A 11 A
[ 53° 1
A R A
A^ack. fels whicli they ufe at Goa to draw the fpirlt 5 where-
—-v—— as at Batavia they ufe copper ftills.
The Parier arack made at Madras, and the Columbo
and Q^uilone arack at other places, being fiery hot fpi-
rits, are little valued by the Europeans, and therefore
rarely imported 5 though highly prized, among the na¬
tives. In the belt Goa arack, the ipirits of the cocoa
juice do not make above a fixth or eighth part..
The manner of making the Goa arack is this : 1 ne
juice of the trees is not procured in the way of tapping
as we do j but the operator provides himfelf with a
parcel of earthen pots, with bellies and necks like our
ordinary bird bottles: he makes taft a number ot thefe
to his girdle, and any way die that he commodioully
can about him. Thus equipped, he climbs up the
trunk of a cocoa tree •, and when he comes to the
boughs, he takes out his knife, and cutting oft one of
the fmall knots or buttons, he applies the mouth of
the bottle to the wound, fattening it to the bough with
a bandage j in the fame manner he cuts oft other but¬
tons, and fattens on his pots, till the whole number is
ufed : this is done in the evening, and defcending irom
the tree, he leaves them till the next morning •, when
he takes off the bottles, which are moftiy filled, and
empties the juice into the proper receptacle. .This is
repeated every night, till a lufficient quantity is produ¬
ced '■) and the whole being then put together, is left to
ferment, which it foon does. When the fermentation
is over, and the liquor or wadi is become a little tart,
it is put into the ftill, and a fire being made, the ttill is
fuffered to work as long as that which comes over has
any confiderabie tafte of fpirit.
The liquor thus procured is the low wine of arack •,
and this is fo poor a liquor, that it will foon corrupt
and fpoil if not diftiiled again, to feparate fome of its
phlegm ; they therefore immediately after pour back
this low wine into the ftill, and rediity it to that veiy
wefik kind of proof fpirit, in which ftale we find it.
The arack we meet with, notwithftanding its being of
a proof teft, according to the way of judging by the
crown of bubbles, holds but a fixth, and fometimes but
an eighth part of alcohol, or pure fpirit j whereas our
other Ypirits, when they (how that proof, are generally
efteemed to hold one half pure fpirit. Shaw's EJfay
on Di/Hl/ing. #
is a paper of obfervations on arack9 in the ivl€m
langes d'Hiftoire Natur. tom. v. p. 302. By ferment¬
ing, diftilling, and reaifying the juice of the American
maple, which has much the fame tafte as that of the
cocoa, the author fays, he made arack not in the leau
inferior to any that comes from the Eaft Indies •, and
he thinks the juice of the fycamore and of the birch
trees would equally anfwer the end.
Befides the common forts of Goa and Batavia arack,
there are two others lefs generally known 5 thefe are
the bitter arack and the black arack.
By ftat. nth Geo. I. c. 30. arack, on board a fhip
within the limits of any port of Great Britain, may be
fearcbed for and feized, together with the package 5 or
if found unHupping or unthipped, before entry, may be
feized by the officers of excife, in like manner as by the
officers of the cuftoms.—Upon an excife officer’s fufpi-
cion of the concealment of arack, and oath made of the
grounds of fuch fufpicion before the commiffioners or a
juftice of peace, they may empower him to enter fuch
fufpe&ed places, and feize the liquors, with the calks,
&c. If the officers are oblirufted, the penalty is icol.
Arack is not to be fold but in warehoufes, entered as ^
diredled in the 6th of Geo. I. c. 21. upon forfeiture,
and the calks, Stc. If permits are not returned which
are granted for the removal of arack, or if the goods
are not lent away within the time limited, the penalty
is treble the value. If the permits are not returned,
and the decreafe is not found to be fufficient, the like
quantity is forfeited. Permits are not to be taken
out but by direction in writing of the proprietor of the
flock, or his ki*own fervant, upon forfeiture of 50I. or
three months imprifonment.
By ftat. 9th Geo. II. c. 35. if arack is offered to fale
without a permit, or by any hawker, pedlar, &c. with
a permit, the perfon to whom it is offered may feize
and carry it to the next warehoufe belonging to the
cuiloma or excife, and bring the perfon offering the
fame before anyjuftice of the peace, to be committed
to prifon, and profecuted for the penalties incurred by
fuch offence. The perfon feizing fuch goods may pro-
fecute in his own name ; and on recovery is entitled to
one-third part of the grofs produce of the fale j and the
commiffioners are, if defired, upon a certificate from
the juftice of the offender’s being committed to prifon,
to advance to the feizer 1 $1. per gallon for the arack
fo feized.
Arack (except for the ufe of feamen, two gallons
each) found in any ffiip or veffel arrived from foreign
parts, at anchor, or hovering within the limits of any
port, or within two leagues of the Ihore, and not pro¬
ceeding on her voyage (unlefs in cafe of unavoidable
neceffity and diftrefs of weather, notice whereof muff;
be given to the collector or chief officer of the port up¬
on the fnip’s arrival), is forfeited, with the boxes, calks,
or other package, or the value thereof.
Arack is alfo the name of a fpirituous liquor made
by the Tartars of Tungufia, of mares milk, left to four,
and afterwards diftiiled twice or thrice between two
earthen pots clofely flopped, whence the liquor runs
through a fmall wooden pipe. It is more intoxicating
than brandy.
ARAD, in Ancient Geography, a city lying to the
fouth of Judah and the land of Canaan, in Arabia Pe-
trsea. The Ifraelites having advanced towards the
land of Canaan (Numb. xxi. 1.), the king of Arad
oppofed their paffage, defeated them, and took a great
booty from them ; but they deftroyed his country as
foon as they became matters of the land of Canaan
(Numb, xxxiii.). Arad was rebuilt, and Eulebius
places it in the neighbourhood of Kades, at the di-
ftance ®f 20 miles from Hebron. The Ifraelites in
their paffage through the wildernefs, having departed
from Sepher, came‘to Arad, and from thence to Mak-
kelath. .n , ,
ARAD US, in Ancient Geography,' an illand be¬
tween the borders of Phoenicia and Seleucia, at the
diftance of 20 ftadia from a dangerous coafl: : all of it
a rock furrourtded by the fea, in compafs feven ftadia.j
and forming a very powerful city and republic. It is
now called Ronad; but not a Angle wall is remaining
of all that multitude of houfes which, according to
Strabo, were built with more ftories than even thofe
of Rome. The liberty enjoyed by the inhabitants bad
rendered it very populousj and it fubfifted by naval
commerce,
Aratk
li
Aradin,,
AHA
[ 53i ]
A Pv A
commerce, mnnufa&ures, and arts. At prefent the
jfland is deferted ; nor has tradition even retained the
memory of a fpring of frefli water in its environs,
which the people of Aradus difcovered at the bottom
of the fea, and from which they drew water in time of
Avar by means of a leaden bell and a leathern pipe fit¬
ted to its bottom.
APiAL Phil/ENON, or PhiueNORUM (Strabo) ;
to the fouth of the Syrtis Major; but in Peutinger
more wefterly, to the fouth almoft of the Syrtis Mi¬
nor. In Strabo’s time, the altars were not extant, but
a village of the fame name flood on the fpot. On a
difpute about limits, between the Cyreneans and Car¬
thaginians, it Avas agreed that two of each people
fnould fet out on the fame day, and that a-here they
fliould happen to meet, there the limits of both fhould
be fixed. The Philceni, Iavo brothers, Carthaginians,
undertook it for Carthage : thefe, after having advan¬
ced a great many miles into the territory of the Cy¬
reneans, Avere met by their antagonifts; who, enraged
at their being beforehand Avith them fo far, gave them
the option of either returning back, or of being bu¬
ried alive on the fpot. Like zealous patriots, they
chofe the latter; and there the Carthaginians raife.d
tAvo altars in honour of the Philceni. (Salluft, Vale¬
rius Maximus).
AUiEOMETER, an inftrument to meafure the
denfity or gravity of fluids.
The araeometer, or Avaterpoife, is ufually made of
glafs; confifting of a round holloAv ball, Avhich termi¬
nates in a long ilender neck hermetically fealed at top:
there being firft as much running mercury put into it
as will ferve to balance or keep it fAvimming in an
eredt pofition.
The ftem is divided into degrees (as reprefented
Plate XXXVI. fig. 23.) ; and by the depth of its de-
feent into any liquor, the lightnefs of that liquor is
concluded : for that fluid in winch it finks leal! mull
be heavieft ; and that in which it finks loAveft lighteft.
Mr Homberg has invented an araeometer, de-
feribed in Phil. Tran fa ft. N° 262. thus : ^ is a glafs
bottle or matrafs, Avith fo flender a neck that a drop
of Avater takes up in it above five or fix lines, or half
of an inch. Near that neck is a fmall capillary tube
Z), about fix inches long, and parallel to the neck.—
To fill the veffel, the liquor is poured in at the mouth
B (which is widened to receive a tunnel), till it run
out at Z), that is, till it rife in the neck to the mark
C, by which means you have always the fame bulk or
quantity of liquor ; and confequently, by means of the
balance, can eafilv tell, when different liquors fill it,
which weighs tnoft, or is molt intenfely heavy.
Some regard, hoAvever, is to be bad in thefe trials
to the feafon of the year, and degree of heat and cold
in the Aveather ; btcaufe fi>me liquors rarefy with heat
and condenfe with cold more than others, and accord¬
ingly take up more or lef- room.
By means of this inflrumerk the ingenious author
has made a table to (how the different weights of the
fame bulk of the muff confiderable chemical liquors
both in fummer and Avinter a- folloAvs :
Weighed in i'ummer. In av nter.
The a’-seometer full of oz-.dr.qr. 0%. df.gr.
Quick'tlver, - 11 00 06 - 11 00 32
Oil of tartar, - Ol 03 08 - Ol 03 13
Weighed in fummer. In winter.
The araeometer full of 0%. dr. gr. 02;. dr. gr.
Spirit of urine, - 01 co 32 - 01 00 43
Oil of vitriol, - 01 03 58 - 01 04 03
Spirit of nitre, - 0101 40 - 0101 70
Spirit of fait, - Ol 00 39 - OI 00 47
Aquafortis, - OX 01 38 - 01 OX 57
Vinegar; - 00 07 55 - 00 07 65
Spirit of wine, - 00 c6 47 - 00 06 60
River Avater, - 00 07 53 - 00 07 51
Diftilled Avater, - 00 07 50 - 00 07 54
The inftrument itfelf weighed, when empty,, one
drachm twenty-eight grains. See Hydrometer,
AR/EOPAGUS. See Areopagus.
ARALOSTYLE, in Architecture, a term ufed by
Vitruvius, to fignify the greateft interval which can be
made between columns.
ARZEOTICS, in Medicine, remedies which rarefy
the humours, and render them eafy to be carried off
by the pores of the Ikin.
ARAF, among the Mahometans. See Alaraf.
ARAFAH, the ninth day of the laft month of the
Arabic year, named Dhoulhegiat; on which the pil¬
grims of Mecca perform their devotions on a neigh--
bouring mountain called Airafat. The Mahometans
haA'e a very great veneration for this mountain, be-
caufe they believe that Adam and Eve, after they
Avere banilhed out of Paradife, having, been feparated
from each other during 1 20 years, met aftenvards on
this mountain.
ARAFAT, or GlBEL el Orphat, the mountain of
knowledge, a mountain in Arabia near Mecca. The
Mahometans fay this was the place where Adam lirft:
met with and knew his Avife Eve after their expulfion
from Paradife. This mountain not being large enough
to contain all the devotees that come annually in pil¬
grimage to Mecca, ftones are fet up all round it to
(how how far it reaches. The pilgrims are clad in
robes of humility and mortification, Avith their heads
uncovered. They feem to be very much affefted; for
the tears flow doAvn their cheeks, and they fob and
figh moft bitterly, begging earneftly for remifliun of
fins, and promifing to lead a new life. They continue
here about four or five hours, and at half an hour af¬
ter funfet they all decamp to perform a religious duty
called A/ham nomac. After this, they all receive the
honourable title of hadgees, Avhich is conferred upon,
them by the imam or prieft. This being pronounced,
the trumpet founds, and they all return to Mecca.
ARAGON. See Arragon.
AR AL, a great lake in the kingdom of Khotva-
razm, lying a little to the call ward of the Cafpian
fea. Its length from north to fouth is faid to be near
1 50 miles, and its breadth from call to Aveft about 70*
The ftiore on the Aveft fide is high and rocky, and de-
ftitute of good Avater : yet there are abundance of wild
horfes, affes, antelopes, and wolves ; as alfo a fierce
creature called 2. jolhart, Avhieh the Tartars fay is of
ftu b a prodigious ftrength as to carry off a horfe. It
is furprifing that this lake fhould be quite unknown to
geographers till within thefe few years. Several great
rivers, which were fuppofed to run into the Calpian
fea, are noev knoAvn to fall into this lake, par'icuiarly
the Sihun or Sirr, and the Ghihun or Amo, fo often
3X2 mentioned
Areome¬
ter
il
Aral.
A R A
Arahum tnentioned by the Oriental hiftonans#
E S3
This lake, like
„ t'he Cafpian fea, has no vifible outlet. Its water is alfo
Aranjuez. pallt. and for t]iat reafon is conveyed by the neigh-
' * hour in g inhabitants by fmall narrow canals into Tandy
pits, where the heat of the fun, by exhaling the water,
leaves them a fufficient quantity of fait. I he lame
kinds of fith are found in the Aral that are found in
the Cafpian fea. The former is alfo called the Lake
of Eagles. ^ . .
ARAHUM, or Harahum, in ancient writers, de¬
notes a place confecrated or fet apart lor holy purpofes.
Hence the phrafe in araho jurare, or conjurare, “ to
make oath in the church becaufe, by the Ripuanan
laws, all oaths were to be taken in the church on the
relicks of the faints.
ARALIA, the Angelica Tree. See .Botany
ARAM, or Aramcea Regio, in Ancient Geography,
the Hebrew name of Syria, fo called from Aram the
fon of Shem, (Mofes, Jofephus).
Aram Beth-Rehob, in Ancient Geography, was that
part of Syria lying to the north of Paleftine j becaufe
Rehob was its boundary towards that quarter, (Mo¬
fes) •, allotted to the tribe of Alher, (Judges) j where
it loins Sidon, (Jolhua). . . . .
ARAM-Dammafek, or Syria Damafcena, in Ancient
Geography, a principal part of Syria, and more power¬
ful than the reft (2 Sam.), taking its name from Da-
mafcus, the principal city.
A RAM- Mancha, in Ancient Geography, a diftrict ol
Syria, at the foot of Mount Hermon, (2 Samuel,
l Chronicles); on the borders of the half tribe of Ma-
naffeh, on the other fide the Jordan, called the coaft ot
Maachathi, (Mofes, Jolhua).^ _
Aram-Naharaim, in Ancient Geography, i. e. Aram
cr Syria of the Rivers, or Mefopotamia, fituated be¬
tween the Euphrates and Tigris ; which is the reaion
of the name. . _ 7 , . ,
ARAM-Soba or Zoba, in Ancient Geography, which
David conquered, was a country near the Euphrates,
where afterwards Palmyra flood: the Euphrates bound¬
ed it on the eaft, as the land of Canaan and Syria Da¬
mafcena d:d on the weft, (2 Samuel). _
ARAMONT, a town of Languedoc in Trance,
feated on the river Rhone. E. Long. 4. 52. N. Lat.
43ARANEA, the Spider. See Entomology In-
Uf^ARANJUEZ, a town in the province of New Ca-
ftile, where the king of Spain has a palace and gar¬
dens which are reckoned the molt delightful in the
This place is 20 miles from Madrid, by a noble
road, planted on each fide with trees, lately made at
the expence of 120,000!. fterling. It is delightfully
fituated at the conflux of the rivers Tagus and Jara-
ma ; which run through the gardens, and add new
beauty to this charming fpot, where art and nature leem
to go hand in hand with the moft pleafing and rural
fimplicity. On one fide fine avenues of ftately oaks
and lofty elms convey the trueft ideas of magnificence,
while they afford the moft reviving fhade ; on the
other the hidden tranfitions to lawns and wildernels, the
cafeades of water breaking through the thickets the
tuneful fosgs of numberlefs birds fheltered m thcfe
4
2 ] A R A
cool receffes, the occafional appearance and paffage of Aranjaez.
the monarch attended by the grandees of his kingdom j ——y—.
all thefe objedts united, and concentred in one. point,
fill the imagination with pleafing ideas, and imprefs
the mind of a traveller with a thoufand agreeable fenfa-
tions.
The general fituation is in a very large plain fur-
rounded with large hills, of a moft difagreeable afpedt
indeed, but feldom appearing, being wrell hidden by
the noble rows of trees that extend aerofs the fiat in
every diredlion. The main body of the palace is an
old building, to which have been lately added two
new wings. I he firft part of the building was eredled
by Philip II. who purchafed the eftate, planted many
of the avcrues, and, in order to extend his chafe, or
to indulge his fplenetic diipofition, had all the vines
that grew on the hills rooted up. By that means he
drove away the inhabitants, and rendered the environs
of his villa a perfed defert.—The apartments are good*,
but contain nothing very particular to take off from
the enjoyment of fo many fine objedls abroad. In one
of the new wings is a playhoufe, and in the other a
chapel. Part of' the ceiling of the former was painted
by Mengs, who was alfo fent to Rome to paint a holy
family for the principal altar in the chapel. There
are feven fine pictures of Luca Jordano in the apart¬
ment called El Cabinete Antigua, and fix others in that
De los Mayordotnos. The portraits of the grand duke
and ducheis of Tufcany, by Mengs, are in a new apart¬
ment called the king's dr effing room. In the chapel,
over the great altar, there is a fine pidlure of the An¬
nunciation, by Titian, prefented by him to Charles V. ■
and brought from the convent of Jufte, after the death
of that emperor. The porcelain cabinet, where there
are feveral large pieces of the king’s own manufadlure,
is alfo an objeft of curiofity to a traveller.
As to the gardens, the whole of them may be
thrown into three grand divifion«, diftinguilhed by the
names of La Huerta Valenciana, Los Deleites, and EL
Cortijo. In the Huerta Valenciana, agriculture and
gardening are carried on in the fame manner as in that
fruitful province, and they plough with horfes. . In the
Cortijo they ufe oxen, as in Andalufia ; and in other
places they fcratch up the ground with mules, as is
ftill pra&ifed in feme parts of Spain. Whichever way
one looks round, a conftant variety pleafes the eye,
and enraptures the mind. At one moment the fturdy
buffalo moves before you, drawing his heavy burden \
foon after, the flow camel, with his ponderous load j
while the fwift zebra with his ftriped garment fnlks
over the plains. If you approach the farm, every ob¬
ject of convenience is confulted, and in the dairy every
degree of neatnefs. The Dutch cow enjoys a luxuri¬
ant pafture, the brood mares greatly enliven the land-
fcape, and the {tables are filled with the moft excellent
horfes y and an immenfe nurfery furnifties all manner
of trees and plants. The fine avenue, which ferves alfo
for a public walk, called Calle de Reyna, has nothing
equal to it at Verfailles. It is three miles long, quite
ftraight from the palace gate, crofting the Tagus twice
before it lofes itfelf in the thickets, where fome noble
Threading elms and weeping poplars hang beautifully
over the deep {till pool. Near this road is a flower
garden for the fpring, laid out with great tafte by Mr
Wall during his miniftry. The gay variety of flowers
A R A [ 533 1 AKA
jVtaniuez, at this time of year is particularly plealing to the eye j
Arar. but its beauty foon fades on the approach of fummer.
As the weather grows hot, the company that thoofe
to walk retire to a garden in an illand of the Tagus,
on the north fide of the palace. This is a heavenly
place, cut into various walks and circular lawns, which
in their primitive Hate may have .been very ftiff and
formal: but in the courfe of a century, Nature has
obliterated the regular forms of art ; the trees have
fwelled out beyond the line traced for them, and de-
flroyed the enfilade by advancing into the walks or re¬
tiring from them. The fvveet flowering Ihrubs, in-
llead of being clipped and kept down, have been al¬
lowed to (hoot up into trees, and hang over the tlatues
and fountains they were originally meant to ferve as
humble fences to. The jets-d’eau dalh up among the
trees, and add frelh verdure to the leaves. The ter¬
races and baluftrades built along the river, are now
overgrown with rofes, and other luxuriant bullies,
hanging down into the ftream, which is darkened by
the large trees growing on the oppofite banks. Many
of the ftatues, groupes, and fountains, are handfome,
fome mafterly, the works of Algardi : all are placed
incharming points of view, either in open circular fpots,
at a dilfance from the trees, or elfe in gloomy arbours,
and retired angles of the wood. The banks of this
wood, called the Ila, are alfo enlivened by elegant yachts
for the amufement of the royal family.
The town or village formerly confided of the pa¬
lace, its offices, and a few miferable huts, where the
ambafladors, and the attendants of the court, endea¬
voured to lodge themfelves as well as they could, but
always very uncomfortably ; many of the habitations
were vaults half under ground. What determined the
king to build a new town, and to embelliffi the envi¬
rons, was an accident that happened at the nuncio’s •,
a coach broke through the ceiling of his dining-room,
and fell in upon the table. The court then began to
apply very confiderable fums to the purpofe of erecting
proper dwellings for the great number of perfons that
flock to the place where the fovereign refides ; near
10,000 are fuppofed to live here two or three months
in fpring •, the king keeps 115 fets of mules, which re¬
quire a legion of men to take care of them. Above a
million llerling has been laid out at Aranjuez fince
the year 1763 ; and it muft be acknowledged, that
wonders have been performed : feveral fine ftreets drawn
in ftraight lines with broad pavements, a double row
of trees before the houfes, and a very noble road in
the middle ; commodious hotels for the minifters and
ambafladors j great fquares, markets, churches, a thea¬
tre, and an amphitheatre for bull feafts, have been
raifed from the ground ; befides the acceffion of two
new wings to the palace. Neatnefs and convenience
have been more ftudied and fought for than ffiow in
the architedlure, but altogether the place has fomething
truly magnificent in the coup d’oeil.
ARAR, (Caefar, Strabo) $ Araris, (Dio Caffius) •,
Saucona, (Ammian): A river of Celtic Gaul, now
the Saone ; which rifes out of Mount Vogefus on the
confines of Lorrain, runs through the Tranche Comte
and Burgundy, and below -Lyons falls into the Rhone.
It is fo incredibly flow, that the eye cannot diftinguiffi
which way it moves, (Caefar) ; and therefore Pliny
calk, it the S/uggi/h river. Its courfe is from north to
fouth. It is famous for a bridge of Csefar, which was Ararat,
built by the foldiers in one day. It is navigable equally l—-y—
with the Rhone.
ARARAT, the name of the mountain on which
Noah’s ark relied, after the abatement of the waters
of the univerfal deluge. Concerning this mountain
there are various conjectures 5 though it is almolt uni*
verfally allowed to be in Armenia Major. Some are
of opinion that it is one of the mountains which divide
Armenia on the fouth from Mefopotamia and that part
of Aflyria inhabited by the Curds ; from whom thefe
mountains took the name of Curclu or Cardu, by the
Greeks turned into Gordycei, &c. Others, that it lies
towards the middle of Armenia, near the river A raxes,
abeve 280 miles diftant from the above mentioned
mountains, making it belong to Mount Taurus ; but the
Armenians are pofitive that Noah’s Ararat is no other
than a mountain to which they now give the name of
Majis, which lies about 12 leagues to the call of Eri-
van, and four leagues from the Aras. It is encompaf-
fed by feveral petty hills: on the tops of them are found
many ruins, thought to have been the buildings of the
firil men, who wefe, for fome time, afraid to defcend
into the plains. It Hands by itfelf, in form of a fugar-
loaf, in the midlt of a very large plain, detached, as it
were, from the other mountains of Armenia, which
make a long chain. It confifts, properly fpeaking, of
two hills j the lefler of which is the more ffiarp and
pointed : the higher, on which it is faid the ark refted,
lies to the north-well of it, and rifes far above the
neighbouring mountains. It feems fo high and big,
that, when the air is clear, it may be feen four or five
days journey off ; yet travellers think the height is not
extraordinary. Chardin is of opinion that he paffed a
part of Mount Caucafus which is higher ; and Poullet
thinks the height of Mount Mafis, or Ararat, not above
twice as great as that of Mount Valerian near Paris.
They therefore think that its being vifible at fuch a
great diltance is owing to its lonely fituation in a vaft
plain and upon the moll elevated part of the country^ .
without any mountains before it to obflrudl the view.
Nor is the fnow with which it is always covered from
the middle upwards any argument of its height j for
in this country, ice hath often been obferved in the
mornings of the middle of July. (See Armenia).
Certain it is, however, that this mountain hath never
yet been afcended j which the Armenians pretend was
owing to the interpofition of angels, in order to difap-
point the curiofity of thofe who wanted to advance to
fuch a facred place as that whereon the ark refted : but
the excefs of cold may very reafonably be fuppofed
able to fruftrate all fuch attempts, without any fuper-
natural interpofition. The- moll diftinfl account we
have of this mountain is that given by M. Tournefort :
which, however, being much fwelled with immaterial
circumftances, it is needlefs to trouble our readers with
at length. He tells us, that this mountain is one
of the moft difagreeable fights upon earth, without
either houfes, convents, trees, or Ihrubs; and feems as
if continually wafting and mouldering away. He di¬
vides it into three regions : The lowermoft, he fays, is
the only one which contains any human creatures, and
is occupied by a few miferable fhepberds that tend fcab-
by flocks ; and here are alfo found fome partridges:
the fecond is inhabited by crows and tigers; and a!i>
the
Ararat
II
Aratus.
A R A [5
the reft is covered with fnow, which half the year is
involved in thick clouds. On the fide of the moun¬
tain that looks towards Erivan is a prodigious preci¬
pice, from whence rocks of an immenfe fize are con¬
tinually tumbling down with a hideous nolle. Ibis
precipice feems quite perpendicular } and the extremi¬
ties are rough and blackilh, as if fmutted with (moke.
The foil of the mountain is loofe, and on the fancy
parts it is impoflible to take a firm fiep ; fo that our
traveller encountered great difficulties in his afcent and
defc^nt of this mountain ; being often obliged, in or¬
der to avoid the fand, to betake himfelf to places
where great rocks were heaped on one anothei, under
which he palled as through caverns, or to places lull
of Hones, where he was forced to leap from one Hone
to another. If we may believe Struys, a Dutch writ¬
er, however, all thefe difficulties may be furmounted.
He affures us, he went five days journey up Mount A-
rarat, to fee a Romiffi hermit : that he palled through
three regions of clouds } the fird dark and thick, the
next cold and full of fnow, and the thud culdei iliil 5
that he advanced five miles every day •, and. when he
came to the place where the hermit had his cell, he
breathed a very ferene and temperate air 5 that the
hermit told him, that he perceived neither wind nor
rain all the 25 years he had dwelt there 5 and that on
the top of the mountain there reigned a Hill greater
tranquillity, whereby the ark was preferved uncorrupt¬
ed. He farther pretends, that the hermit gave him a
erofs made out of the wood of the ark, together with
a certificate j a formal copy of which the author has
given in his ffiam relation.
ARASSI, a maritime, populous, and trading town
of Italy, in the territory of Genoa. E. Long. 7. 20.
N. Eat. 44. 3.
ARAXEIA, in antiquity, a yearly feftival celebra¬
ted at Sicyon, on the birth day of Aratus, wherein
divers honours were paid by a prieft confecrated to this
fervice, who for diftinftion’s fake wore a ribband be-
fpangled with white and purple fpots. The Arateia
were folemnized with much pomp of mufic, the chorift-
ers of Bacchus attending.
ARATUS, general of the Achceans, conquered
Nicocles tyrant of Sicyon. Two years after he fur-
prifed the caftle called Acrocorinthus, and drove out
the king of Macedonia : he delivered Argos from its
tyrants, and was poifoned by Philip II. king of Ma¬
cedonia, whom he had newly reflored. He was about
62 when he died, the fecond year of the 141ft Olym¬
piad. He was interred at Sicyon, and received the
greateft honours from his countrymen. His fon, who
had alfo been praetor, was poifoned by King Philip.
Polybius gives us fo great a charaifler ot Aratus the
father’s Commentaries or Hiftory, that the lofs of fo
valujble a work is highly to be regretted.
Aratus, a Greek poet, born at Soli, or Solae,
a town in Cilicia, which afterwards changed its name,
and was called Pompeiopolis, in honour of Pompey the
Great. He flourifhed about the 124th; or according
to fome, the 126th Olympiad, in the reign of Ptole¬
my Philadelphus king of Egypt. He difeovered in
his youth a rema'-kable poignancy of wit, and capacity
for improvement ; and having received his education
under Dionyfius Heracleotes, a Stoic philofopher, he
efpoufed the principles of that fed. Aratus was phy-
3+ 1 A R A
fician to Antigonus Gonatus, the fon of Demetrius
Arztuj
Anises.
Poliorcetes, king of Macedon : this prince being a !l
great encourager of learned men, fent tor him to court,
admitted him to his intimacy, and encouraged him in
his ftudies. The Pltcencmena of Aratus, which is ftill
extant, gives him a title to the character of an aftro-
nomer as well as a poet ; in this piece he defcribes the
nature and motion of the ftars, and (hows the particular
influences of the heavenly bodies, with their various dif-
pofitions and relations. He wrote this poem in Greek
verfe : it was tranflated into Latin by Cicero; who tells
us, in his firll book De Oratore, that the verfes of Ara¬
tus are very noble. This piece was tranflated by others
as well as Cicero *, there being a tranflation by Germa-
nicus Crefar, and another into elegant verfe by Feftus
Avienus. An edition of the Phcenotnena was publilhed
bv Grotius, at Leyden, in quarto, 1600, in Greek
and Latin, with the fragments of Cicero’s verfion,
and the tranflations of Germanicus and Avienus; all
which the editor has illuftrated with curious notes.
He was certainly much efteemed by the ancients, fince
we find fo great a number of fcholiafts and commenta¬
tors upon him. There are feveral other works alfo
aferibed to Aratus. Suidas mentions the following :
Hymns to Pan ; Aftrology and Aftrothefy ; a compo-
fition of Antidotes ; an on Theopropus ; an
Uionoix on Antigonus ; an Epigram on Phila, the daugh¬
ter of Antipater, and wife of Antigonus: an Epiee*
dium of Cleombrotus •, a Correftion of the Odyffey ;
and fome Epiftles in profe. Virgil, in his Georgies,
has imitated or tranflated many paflages from this au¬
thor ; and St Paul has quoted a paflage of Aratus.
It is in his fpeech to the Athenians CA6Is xvii. 28.)
wherein he tells them, that fome of their own poets
have faid, Taw y-xt yws to-piv: “ For we are alfo his
offspring.” Theie words are the beginning of the fifth
line of the Phenomena of Aratus.
ARAVA, a fortrefs of Upper Hungary, in a coun¬
ty and on a river of the fame name. E. Long. 20. O.
N. Lat. 47. 20.
ARAUCO, a fortrefs and town of Chili, in South
America ; fituated in a fine valley, on a river of the
fame name. The bravery of the natives drove the
Spaniards out of their country even without fire-arms.
W. Long. 51. 20. S. Lat. 42. 30.
ARAUSIO, or Civitas Araujienfis, nr Araufico¬
rum (Notitise) ; Colonia Secundanorum (Mela, Pliny,
Coins) ; fo called, becaufe the veterans of the feeond
legion were there fettled : The capital of the Cavares,^
in Gallia Narbonenfis. Now Orange, in the weft of
Provence, on an arm of the rivulet Egue, which foon
after falls into the Rhone, from which it is diftant a
league to the eaft, at the foot of a mountain. Here is
an ancient amphitheatre to be ftill feen. E. Long. 4.
46. N. Lat. 44. 10.
ARAW, a town of Swifferland, in Argow, feated
on the river Aar. It is handfome, large, and remark¬
able for its church, its fountain, and the fertility ol the
foil. E. Long. 18. o. N. Lat. 47. 25.
ARAXES, now the Aras, a river of Armenia
Major, which takes its rife in a mountain called Ablos,
where the Eunhrates alfo hath its origin. From this
mountain it runs eaftward with a ferpentine courfe, dif-
charging itfelf into the Cafpian fea, after a run of up¬
wards of coo miles, during which it receives fome con-
fiderable
ARB [ 535 ] ARB
fiderable rivers. Some' have imagined that it hath its
rife in Mount Ararat; but Tournefort allures us that
it comes no nearer that mountain than 12 miles. The
Araxes is a very rapid river, and is fuppofed to be the
Gihon mentioned by Mofes. Befides this extreme rapi¬
dity, it is very apt to overflow after rains ; fo that
they have in vain endeavoured to build bridges over
it; though fome of them appear, from the few arches
remaining, to have been built of the beft materials,
and in the ftrongefl: manner. Such is the vehemence
of its current after the thawing of the adjacent fnows,
or fome fierce rains, that neither banks nor dikes can
refill it; fo that nothing can be more terrible than the
noife and violence of its waves at fuch times: but in
winter, when its waters are low, it is fordable in fome
places on camels.
AllBA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland and city
of Illyria, now Arbe, in the gulf of Quarnaro. Of
this ifland, which has been but flightly noticed by
geographers, we have the following defcription by the
abbe Fortis.
In the Roman times, it is probable that there were
no other cities in Arbe but that which bears the hatne
of the ifland, in the neighbourhood of which ancient
monuments are frequently dug up.
I his city of Arbe, though the capital of a fmall
ifland, not above thirty miles round, wholly unculti¬
vated, and Uninhabitable in the highell part that faces
the channel of Morlacca, has always maintained itfelf
with decorum. That it was inhabited by civilized peo¬
ple in the Roman times, is evident, by the infcriptions
that have been frequently difcovered there, and others
ftill remaining at Arbe. In the lower times it fuffered
all the calamities to which the neighbouring countries
were fubjedled, but it always recovered itfelf with
honour even after difiblution.
The archives of the community of Arbe contain
fome ancient papers that are truly valuable, and they
are kept with great jealoufy ; by them it appears, that
in the eleventh century, gold and filk were not rare
among the inhabitants. Arbe was fubjeft to the kings
of Hungary ; afterwards it became dependent on Ve¬
netian feudatories ; and at laft was taken under the im¬
mediate dominion of the moft ferene republic, by which
a governor is appointed who has the title of count and
captain. The number of people on the ifland does
not much exceed three thoufand fouls, diflributed in
a few parifhes, which might be officiated by a fmall
number of priefts ; Yet, through a monftrous incon-
fiftency that falls very heavy on the poor inhabitants,
they have to maintain no Lefs than three convents of
friars, and as many of nuns, befides the confiderable
charge of near fixty priefts, who have a very fcanty
provifion.
The climate of Arbe is none of the happieft ; the
winter feafon is horrid, efpecially when agitated by the
violent northerly winds, which. fometimes transform
the intermediate feafons into winter, and caufe the fum-
mer itfelf to difappear. Thefe furious winds do great
damage to the ifland, particularly in the winter and
fpring. Two years ago, about twelve thoufand ffieep
periffied in one night, of cold, in the common paf-
tures of the mountain ; where, according to the cuf-
tom over all Dalmatia, they are left in the open air the
whole year round. The. fait fog raifed by the dread¬
ful commotion of the waves, which often roar between Arba;
the mountains of Arbe and the oppofite Alps, in the '' '*" y—*
narrow channel of Morlacca, confumes all the buds of
the plants and corn, if it happens to be driven upon the
ifland by the wind; and it is followed by a cruel fear-
city of every kind of product. This calamity commu¬
nicates its baneful influence even to the flefli of the
animals left on the paftures, that becomes ill tafted, in
confequence of the bitternefs and bad nouriffiment of
the food. Abftrafling from thefe irregularities, the
air of Arbe is healthful; nor ought the conftant fum-
mer fevers among the inhabitants to be attributed to its
influence, as they are, more probably, derived from un-
w hole fome food, and a way of life differing little from
that of the Hottentots.
The appearance of the ifland is exceedingly pleafant.
On the eaft it has a very high mountain, of the fame
fubftance as the Morlacca, of which it was once a part.
At the foot of this mountain, the reft of the ifland is
extended to the weft ward, and divided into beautiful
and fruitful plains interfperfed with little hills fit to
bear the richeft produiSts. At the extremity that
looks to the north, a delightful promontory, called
Loparo, ftretches into the fea; it is crowned with lit¬
tle hills, which almoft quite enclofe a fine cultivated
plain. Near this promontory are the two fmall iflands
of S. Gregorio and Goli, very ufeful to fhepherds and
fifliers. The coaft of Arbe, that faces the Morlacca
mountains, is quite fteep and inacceflible; and the
channel between them is extremely dangerous, being
expofed to furious winds, and without a Angle port on
either fide. The long and narrow ifland of Dolin,
lying parallel to the ifland of Arbe, along the coaft of
Barbado, forms a channel lefs dangerous, though by no
means fo fecure as it is beautiful to look at. There
are feveral harbours in the neighbourhood of the city
of Arbe, by which the trade of the beft part of the
ifland is facilitated.
The city ftands on "a rifing ground between two har¬
bours, which form a peninfula ; it contains about a
thoufand inhabitants, among whom are many noble fa¬
milies, but few of them are rich. Among the moft
remarkable curiofities of the ifland, the Arbegiani are
proud of many egregious relicks, and particularly of
the head of S. Chriftofano their protedlor ; but the lovers
of facred antiquity will find fomething much more An¬
gular in the three heads of Shadrach, Meftiech, and
Abednego, which are venerated there with great devo¬
tion. Four of the principal gentlemen are keepers of
the fanfluary, and to their care the precious records of
the city are alfo committed. Among thefe records
there is a tranfaflion of 1018, by which the city of
Arbe promifes to the doge of Venice, Ottone Orfeolo,
a tribute of fome pounds de ferta /erica, “ of wrought
filk,” and in cafe of contravention, pounds dc auro o'bri-
255, “ of pure gold.”
In the laft age there was a learned bifliop of Arbe,
named Ottavio Spaderi, who would not permit the re¬
licks of S. Chriftofano to be expofed to the public ve¬
neration, on the folemnity of the faint’s day, becaufe
he doubted of their authenticity. The mob rofe, and
was going to throw him down from the top of the hill
on which the cathedral ftands; nor did the tumult
ceafe after the day was paft. The government fent
an armed veffel to deliver the prelate from the danger.
he
%
ARB
[ 536 ]
ARB
hii
-Aiba, 4ie was in : and the pope thought proper to giv
Arbhces. a more tradable fpoufe in Italy.
' The nature of the foil of Arbe is not the fame in
every fituation •, nay it would be difficult to find a coun¬
try where there is fo great a variety in fo little fpace.^
There is a very great difference between the ground of
the extremity of the mountain above the channel of
Barbado, and the fides of it on the one part towards the
ifland, and on the other facing the ridge of Morlacca.
Nor is the top of the mountain itfelf always of the fame
ftrufture : for in forae parts it is extended in a.fine le¬
vel plain, partly woody and partly cultivable ; in other
places it is quite rocky, and compofed of bare marble.
The ground at the foot of the mountain, where it
ft retches towards the fhore, oppofite to Jablanaz, is
nothing but marble *, and in the diftricl^ of Barbado
it is gravelly, and a good foil for vines. The wine of
Barbado is of- excellent quality, and in great eftima-
tion •, hardly any other produft is cultivated along that
coaft, as the vines fucceed fo well, notwithftanding
the negligent culture. Below the pretended ruins of
-Colento the land bears vines, olives, mulberry, and
other fruit trees, and alfo corn in the loweft parts. All
the lowrer part of the ifland is compofed alternately of
little hills and valleys, and of a fubfiance for the mofl
part very different from that of the mountain and its
adjacencies. As the organization of the mountain is
wholly of marble, fo that of the hills is generally are¬
naceous. The whetftone forms a large part, and fre¬
quently contains ojlracites and lenticulares; the ex¬
terior ftratum is commonly friable. The valleys, which
according to appearances fliould be full of fand, are
provided with an excellent foil, with fuch a mixture
of very minute fand as is requifite to keep it light.
Springs of frefh water are by nature well diftributed
over the ifland, and maintain a proper humidity w-hen
the fummer is not exceflively dry •, fo that the dark ver¬
dure of the hills covered with wood, the luxuriance of
the vines, and frefhnefs of the corn ground, form a
fpedacle extremely cheerful and agreeable.
The ifland of Arbe would have every thing requi¬
fite for the fubfiftence of its fmall population, if the
land was cultivated by a people lefs ftupid and lazy.
It produces, however, firewood, of which many car-
o-oes are annually fent to Venice j corn, oil, excellent
wine, brandy, and filk, fince very ancient times ; it alfo
exports hides, wool, ftieep, hogs, and horfes of a good
breed. There is alfo abundance of good fait made on
the ifland 5 and the fifhing of tunny and mackarel, not¬
withftanding it is managed in a flovenly and awkward
manner, makes no inconfiderable article of trade to the
Arbegiani, who, like all their neighbours, find their ac¬
count in felling this commodity to ftrangers rather than
to the Venetians. Yet, with all thefe natural produfts,
the ifland is very far from being rich, or even in a tole¬
rably flourifhing ftate *, becaufe there is much land left
uncultivated, and the peafants are lazy.
ARB ACES governed Media under Sardanapalus.
Seeing him fpinning among a company of his women,
he ftirred up his people to revolt, and dethroned Sar¬
danapalus : who thereupon burnt himfelf in his palace.
Arbaces being crowned, began the monarchy of the
Medes, which lafted 317 years under nine kings, till
Aftyages was expelled by Cyrus. Arnaces reigned 22
years, and died A. M. 3206. See Media.
Arbaleft,
Arbela.
ARBALEST, or Cross Bow. See CfiOSS-Bow.
ARBELA, now Irbil, a city of Affyria, lying in ^ 
E. Long. 44. 5. N. Lat. 35. 15. It is famous for' v-
the laft and decifive battle fought in its neighbourhood
between Alexander the Great and Darius Codomannus.
This battle was fought 331 years before Chrift, and
the event of it determined the fate of the Perlian em¬
pire. Arrian relates, that Darius’s army confifted of a
million of foot and 40,000 horfe } according to Diodo¬
rus, there were 200,000 horfe and 8co,oco foot ; Plu¬
tarch re lates, that the horfe and foot together made up
a million : and Juftin gives us exaftly hall Diodorus s
number. The Macedonian army, according to Ar¬
rian, confifted of 40,000 foot and 7000 horfe.
Upon receiving notice of the vaft ftrength of the Gillies't
enemy, Alexander exprefled neither furprife nor appre- H,/l. of
henfion *, but having “ commanded a halt, he encamped reece‘
four days, to give his men reft and refreftiroent. His
camp being fortified by a good intrenchment, he left
in it the fick and infirm, together with all the baggage ;
and, on the evening of the fourth day, prepared to
march againft the enemy with the effeftive part of his
army, which was faid to confift of 40,000 infantry and
7000 horfe, unencumbered with any thing but their
provifions and armour. The march was undertaken at
the fecond watch of the night, that the Macedonians,
by joining battle in the morning, might enjoy the im¬
portant advantage of having an entire day before them,
to reap the full fruits of their expeffed viffory. .About
half way between the hoftile camps, fome. eminences
intercepted the view of either army. Having afcend-
ed the rifing ground, Alexander firft beheld the bar¬
barians, drawn up in battle array, and perhaps more
fkilfully marfhalled than he had reafon to apprehend.
Their appearance, at leaft, immediately determined him
to change his firft refolution. He again commanded
a halt, fummoned a council of war } and different
fures being propofed, acceded to the fingle opinion of
Parmenio, who advifed that the foot fhould remain fta-
tionary until a detachment of horfe had explored the
field of battle and carefully examined the difpofition of
the enemy. Alexander, whofe conduct was equalled
by his courage, and both furpafled by his aiftivity, Per*
formed thofe important duties in perfon at the head of
his light horfe and royal cohort.. Having returned
with unexampled celerity, he again aflembled his cap¬
tains; and encouraged them by a ftiort fpeech. Their
ardour correfponded with his own ; and the foldiers,
confident of vi&ory, were commanded to take reft and
refrefhment.
“ Meanwhile Darius, perceiving the enemy s ap¬
proach, kept his men prepared for affion. Notwith¬
ftanding the great length of the plain, he was obliged
to contraft bis front, and form in two lines, each of
which was extremely deep. According to the Perfian
cuftom, the king occupied the centre of the firft line,
furrounded by the princes of the blood and the great
officers of his court, and defended by his horfe and
foot guards, amounting to 15,000 chofen men. Thefe
fplendid troops, who feemed fitter for parade than bat¬
tle, were flanked on either fide by the Greek merce¬
naries and other warlike battalions, carefully felefted
from the whole army. The right wing confifted of the
Medes, Parthians, Hyrcanians and Sacae : the left was
chiefly occupied by the Ba&rians, Perfians, and Car-
J ' dufians.
ARB [ 537 ] ARB
Arbela. dufians. The various nations compofing tins immenfe
hoft were differently armed, with fwords, fpears, clubs,
and hatchets: while the horfe and foot of each divi¬
sion were promifcuoufly blended, rather from the re-
fult of accident than by the dire&ion of defign. The
armed chariots fronted the firft line, whofe centre was
farther defended by the elephants. Chofen fquadrons
of Scythian, Baftrian, and Cappadocian cavalry advan¬
ced before either wing, prepared to bring on the ac¬
tion, or after it began to attack the enemy in flank
and rear. The unexpected approach of Alexander
within fight of his tents prevented Darius from forti¬
fying the wide extent of his camp •, and, as he dreaded
a nodturnal affault from enemies who often veiled their
defigns in darknefs, he Commanded his men to remain
all night under arms. This unufual meafure, the
gloomy filence, the long and anxious expectation, to¬
gether with the fatigue of a reftlefs night, difcouraged
the whole army, but infpired double terror into thofe
who had witneffed the miferable difafters on the banks
of the Granicus and the Iffus.
“ At daybreak Alexander difpofed of his troops in
a manner fuggefted by the fuperior numbers and deep
order of the enemy. His main body confifted of two
heavy-armed phalanxes, each amounting to above
16,000 men. Of thefe the greater part formed into
one line j behind which he placed the heavy-armed
men, reinforced by his targeteers, with orders, that
when the outfpreading wings of the enemy prepared
to attack the flanks and rear of his firft line, the fecond
fliould immediately wheel to receive them. The caval¬
ry and light infantry were fo difpofed on the wings,
that while one part refilled the (hock of the Perfians
in front, another, by only facing to the right or left,
might take them in flank. Skilful archers and darters
were polled at proper intervals, as affording the bell
defence againft the armed chariots, which (as Alexan¬
der well knew) mull immediately become ufelefs when¬
ever their conductors or horfes were wounded.
“ Having thus arranged the feveral parts, Alexan¬
der with equal judgment led the whole in an oblique
direction towards the enemy’s left; a manoeuvre which
enabled the Macedonians to avoid contending at once
with fuperior numbers. When his advanced battalions,
notvvithftanding their nearnefs to the enemy, Hill ftretch-
ed towards the right, Darius alfo extended his left, till,
fearing that by continuing this movement, his men
Ihould be drawn gradually off the plain, he command¬
ed the Scythian fquadrons to advance, and prevent the
farther extenfion of the hoftile line. Alexander imme¬
diately detached a body of horfe to oppofe them. An
equeftrian combat enfued, in which both parties were
reinforce^? ar!d the barbarians finally repelled. The
armed chariots then iffued forth with impetuous vio¬
lence ) but their appearance only was formidable ; for
the precautions taken by Alexander rendejed their af¬
fault harmlefs. Darius next moved his main body,
but with fo little order, that the horfe, mixed with
the infantry, advanced, and left a vacuity in the line,
which his generals wanted time or vigilance to fupply.
Alexander feized the decifive moment, and penetrated
into the void with a wedge of fquadrons. He was
followed by the nearefl: feCfions of the phalanx, who
ruflied forward with loud fliouts, as if they had already
purfued the enemy. In this part ofthe field, the vic-
Vol. II. Part II.
tory u as not long doubtful j after a feeble tefiflance, Arfcela'
the barbarians gave way j*and the pufillanimous Darius |}
was fortmoff in the flight. Arbitrary.
“ The battle, however, was not yet decided. The
more remote divifions of the phalanx, upon receiving
intelligence that the left wing, commanded by Parme-
nio, was in danger, had not immediately followed
Alexander. A vacant fpace was thus left in the Ma¬
cedonian line, through which fome fquadrons of Per-
fian and Indian horfe penetrated with celerity, and
advanced to the hoftile camp. It was then that Alex¬
ander derived fignal and well-earned advantages from
his judicious order of battle. The heavy-armed troops
and targeteers, which he had Ikilfully polled behind
the phalanx, fpeedily faced about, advanced with a ra- '
pid llep, and attacked the barbarian cavalry, already
entangled among the baggage. The enemy, thus fur-
prifed, were deftroyed or put to flight. Meanwhile,
the danger of his left wing recalled Alexander from
the purfuit of Darius. In advancing againft the ene¬
my’s right, he was met by the Parthian, Indian, and
Perfian horfe, who maintained a ftiarp conflitff. Sixty
of the Companions fell j Hepheeftion, Coenus, and Me-
nidas, were wounded. Having at length diffipated this
cloud of cavalry, Alexander prepared to attack the
foot in that wing. But the bufinefs was already effefl-
ed, chiefly by the Theffalian horfe ; and nothing re¬
mained to be done, but to purfue the fugitives, and to
render the viftory as decifive as poflible.
“ According to the teaft extravagant accounts, with
the lofs of 500 men, he deftroyed 40,000 of the bar¬
barians, who never thenceforth affembled in fuffeient
numbers to difpute his dominion in the eaft. The in¬
valuable provinces of Babylonia, Sufiana, and Perils,
with their refpeftive capitals of Babylon, Sufa, and
Perfepolis, formed the prize of his Ikill and valour.
The gold and filver found in thofe cities amounted to
thirty millions fterling •, the jewels and other precious
fpoil, belonging to Darius, fufficed, according to Plu¬
tarch, to load 20,000 mules, and 500c camels.” The
confequences of this viflory the reader will find narrat¬
ed under the article Persia.
ARBERG, a town of Swifferland, in the canton
of Bern, with a handfome caftle, where the bailiff re-
fides. It is feated on the river Aar, in a kind of illand.
E. Long. 17. 15. N. Lat. 47. o.
ARBITER, in the Civil Law, implies a judge no¬
minated by the maglftrate, or chofen voluntarily by
the two contending parties, in order to decide their
differences.
The civilians make a difference between arbiter and
arbitrator, though both found their power on the com-
promife of the parties; the former being obliged to
judge according to the cuftoms of the law, whereas the -
latter is at liberty to ufe his own diferetion, and ac¬
commodate the differences in the manner that appears
to him moll juft and equitable.
ARBITRARY, that which is left to the choice or
arbitration of men, or not fixed by any pofitive law or
injun£lion.
ARBITRARY Punifhment, in Law, denotes, fuch pu-
nilhments as are by llatute left to the diferetion of the
judge. It is a general rule in arbitrary piinilliments,
that the judge cannot inflidft death. Hence all punilh-
ments that are not capital have acquired the name of
3 Y arbitrary
A ft B [ 538 ] A
Arbitra- arbitrary punifhments, even although they be exprefsly fortrefs cut out of the rock.
a. * —   * A... 1 i'X V • I . 5
Arburg.
pointed out by ftatute.
ARBITRATION, is where the parties, injuring
, and injured, fubmit all matters in difpute, concerning
any perfonal chattels or perfonal wrong, to the judge-
ment of two or more arbiters or arbitrators j who are
to decide the controverfy : and, if they do not agree,
it is ufual to add, that another perfon be called in as
umpire, {imperator or impar'), to whofe foie judgment
it is then referred j or frequently there is only one ar¬
bitrator originally appointed. This decifion, in any of
thefe cafes, is called an award. And thereby the
queftion is as fully determined, and the right transfer¬
red or fettled, as it would have been by the agreement
of the parties or the judgment of a court 01 juftice.
See Law.
ARBITRATOR, a private extraordinary judge,
chofen by the mutual confent of parties, to determine
controverfies between them. See Arbiter and Arbi¬
tration.
ARBOIS, a fmall populous town of France, in the
department of Jura, formerly branche Compte, famous
for its wines. E. Long. 5. 40. N. Lat. 46. 55-
ARBON, an ancient town in Swiflerland, on the
fouth banks of the lake Conftance, in Thurgaw.. It
has a caftle built by the Romans, and is under the ju-
rifdidlion of the bithop of Uonflance. In the time of
war, the Swifs have a right to put in a garrifon. The
Popifh and Prqteftant religions are equally tolerated in
this town. E. Long. 9. 30, ^T* Eat. 4. 38.
ARBOR, in Botany, a tree. Trees are by Linnaeus
claifed in the feventh family of the vegetable kingdom,
and are diftinguilhed from (hrubs in that their Items
come up with buds on them j but this diltinftion holds
not univerfally, there being rarely any buds on the
large trees in India.
Arbor, in Mechanics, the principal part of a ma¬
chine, which ferves to fuftain the reft •, alfo the axis or
fpindle on which a machine turns', as the arbor of a
crane, windmill, &c.
j4eB0R Dianw. See Chemistry Index.
Arbor Vitce. See Thuya, Botany Index.
ARBORESCENT, an epithet applied to fuch ob¬
jects as referable trees.
ARBORIST, a perfon fkilled in that part of botany
which treats of trees.
Arborescent Star-JiJh, in Zoology, a fpecies of af-
terias. See Asterias.
ARBORIBONSES, in modern hiftory, priefts of
Japan, who live an erratic life, and fubfift on alms.
They dwell in caverns, and cover their heads with
bonnets made of the bark of trees.
ARBOUR, in Gardening, a kind of fhady bower,
formerly in great efteem j but of late rejected on ac¬
count of its being damp and unwholefome.
Arbours are generally made of lattice work, either
ef wood or iron •, and covered with elms, limes, horn¬
beams ; or with creepers, as honeyfuckles, jafmines, or
paflion flowers; either of which will anfwer the purpofe
very well, if rightly managed.
ARBROATH. See Aberbrothick.
ARBURG, a town of Swiflerland, in the canton
of Bern, on the river Aar. It is fmall, but very
ftrong, being feated on a rock, and defended by a good
R B
E. Long. 17. 55. N. Lat.
47. 10.
ARBUSCULA, is ufed by Bradley to denote a ^
little or dwarf tree, above the rank of ftirubs, but be¬
low that of trees ; fuch, e. g. as the elder.
ARBUSTUM, implies a number or multitude of
trees planted for the fruit’s fake.
The word was more peculiarly applied to a place
planted with trees for fattening vines to, which are
hence called by Columella arbujlivce.
Arbustum is fometimes alio ufed to denote an or¬
chard, or field wherein trees are planted at fuch di-
ftance that there is room for ploughing and growing
corn between.
ARBUTHNOT, Alexander, principal of the
univerfity of Aberdeen in the reign of James VI. of
Scotland, was born in the year 153S. He ftudied firft
at Aberdeen ; and was afterwards fent over to France,
where, under the famous Cujacius, he applied himfelf
to the ftudy of the civil law. In the year 1563, he
returned to Scotland, and took orders. Whether he
was ordained by a bilhop or by prefbyters, is a matter
of uncertainty. In 1568, he was appointed minifter of
Arbuthnot and Logie Buchan ; and in the following
year, Mr Alexander Anderfon being deprived, our au¬
thor was made principal of the king’s college at Aber¬
deen, in his room. In the general afiembly which met
at Edinburgh in the years 1573 and 1577, he was
chofen moderator ; and to the end of his life was an
adtive fupporter of the reformed religion. He died in
1583, in the 45th year of his age; and was buried in
the College church of Aberdeen. We are told in the
Biographia, that he was eminent as a poet, a philofo-
pher, a mathematician, a lawyer, a divine, and a phy-
lician. He wrote Orutiones de origine et dignitate juris,
printed at Edinburgh, 1572, 410. His cotemporary
Thomas Maitland wrote a copy of Latin verfes on the
publication of this book: they are printed in the Belie.
Poet. Scot. He publilhed Buchanan’s Hiftory of
Scotland in the year 1582.
Arbuthnot, John, M. D. the fon of an Epifcopal
clergyman in Scotland, was born foon after the Refto-
ration at Arbuthnot near Montrofe. After acquiring
a competent knowledge of the elementary parts of
education, he was fent to the college of Aberdeen,
where the buddings of thofe great qualities and thofe
failles of wit, which contributed fo much to his future
greatnefs, foon made their appearance. Having there
oone through a courfe of academical ftudies, and ob¬
tained the degree of dodtor of phyfic, he went to Lon¬
don, in order to reap the fruits both of his natural and
acquired abilities. He then began to difplay his ta¬
lents, in teaching mathematics, in which be was very,
expert. “ An Examination of Dr Woodward’s Ac¬
count of the Deluge,” &c. in 1697, firft made him
known to the learned world. This performance was
received with great applaufe ; and in 1700 a treatife
“ On the Ufefulnefs of Mathematical Learning” ftill
increafed his reputation. A very interefting paper
“ On the Regularity of the Births of both Sexes,”
demonftrating from authentic proofs the univerfal fi-
milarity which is obferved by nature in this circum-
ftance, and drawing from thefe feveral political and
moral inferences, which he prefented to the Royal So-
Arbufccla
II
Arbudinot.
ARC r 539
clety, procured his election in 1704 into that body.
Meanwhile, in his own proper profeffion, he was ac¬
quiring confiderable eminence, and was appointed, on
account of his great medical knowledge, phyfician ex¬
traordinary to Prince George of Denmark, and Ihortly
afterwards one of the phyficians in ordinary to Queen
Anne. He was admitted in 1710 a fellow of the col¬
lege. He formed about this period a very intimate
acquaintance, which lafted with unabating tendernefs
and affefrion during the reft of his life, with thefe
great literary men, Pope, Gay, and Swift. In I714
lie engaged in an extenfive defign, of making a fatire
upon all the abufes of fcience in every branch in co¬
operation with Pope and Swift, which was to be writ¬
ten under the form of the hiftory of a fictitious cha¬
racter, and in the grave ironical ftyle. The plan was
never finithed, but the “ Memoirs of Martinus Scrib-
lerus,” publiihed in Pope’s works, form a part ; of
which, much is the performance of Dr Arbuthnot.
It is very probable, that the whole of the firLt book is
of his compufition, in which the great profoundnefs of
knowledge that is difcerned, and the good-natured
pleafantry with which the fatire is direfted, has gain¬
ed it the character of one of the moft original, learn¬
ed, and interefting pieces in the Englifh language.
Thofe parts which relate to anatomy, the manners
and cuftoms of antiquity, and logic, are particularly his
performance. On the death of Queen Anne, he made
a vifit to Paris, in order to drive away the melancholy,
which attended him on account of that circumftance,
which was a fevere ftroke to him, and deftruCtive not
only to his perfonal, but alfoto his political views. Re¬
turning from thence, as his medical fervices were no
longer required at St James’s, he retired from it, and
followed at large the praCIice of his profeffion ; yet
he did not thence give up his literary purfuits, but
purfued them with great ardour, although long in¬
tervals take place between the times of his publi¬
cations. A work entitled “ Tables of Ancient Coins,
Weights, and Meafures,” explained and exemplified
in feveral differtations, in a 4to vol. appeared in 1727,
which is the chief of his ferious performances. Al¬
though there are feveral inaccuracies in it, which could
hardly be avoided in fo intricate a fubjeft, it is a work
of great merit, and has ever fince been confidered as
the ftandard authority. A treatife “ On the Nature
and Choice of Aliments,” which was publifhed in
1732, and another publiihed in 1733, “ On the Effe&s
of Air on Human Bodies,” finilh the lift of his fterling
works. Both thefe were well received by the facul¬
ty, and continue to be ftill efteemed, and are occa-
fionally read and quoted. Refpe&ing his humorous
works, which were the productions of his leifure
hours, they are fo confounded with thofe of his con¬
temporaries, that it is not eafy to diftinguifh them.
But a piece which, independent of any other, would
raife him to the character of the firft humorous wri¬
ter in the Englilh language, entitled the “ Hiftory
of John Bull,” is confidently afcribed to him. This
is conducted with great wit and humour, and all the
circumltances and characters are moft admirably adapt¬
ed. Among his feveral avowed ironical pieces are
“ A Treatife concerning the Altercation or Scolding
of the Ancients,” and the “ Art of Political Lying.”
In the year 1751, there were publilhed two fmall vo-
] ARC
lumes, entitled “ The Mifcellaneous Works of t)f Arbuthnot
Arbuthnot; but the greateft part of what they con-
tain is denied by bis fon to be of his compofition. As
it was cuftomary for him, when any comical occur¬
rence took place, which ftruck his fancy, to write
concerning it in a large folio which lay in his parlour j
it is very probable, that many flight and imperfeCt ef-
fays, which had gone out of his remembrance, might
get abroad into the world. Through all his pieces of
this kind there runs a vein of good-natured pleafantry}
and this tends to confirm the charafter given of him
by Swift, to a lady who defired to know his opinion
concerning Dr Arbuthnot, “ Pie has more wit than
we all have, and his humanity is equal to his wit.”
Although his writings are free from that gall and ran¬
cour, too common among party writers, yet they
cannot be faid to be altogether free from a party fpirit.
He, however, cannot be excufed in one inftance, of
allowing his perfonal diflike to overrule his humanity,
viz. in the “ Memorandums of the fix days preceding
the death of a late Right Reverend” (meaning Bilhop
Burnet). The indignation of a virtuous man towards
an infamous chara&er, is fufficient to juftify his feve-
rity in his bitter “ Epitaph on Colonel Chartres and
this feverity was probably aggravated by party fpirit.
Although he had no proper poetical talent, yet he
made an effort to try his genius in that kind of com¬
pofition. A piece, publiihed in Dodfley’s colleiftior,
is valuable for its philofophical fentiment, which is en¬
titled rN£20I 2EATT0N, Know thyfelf He wTas alfo
{killed in mufic ; and Sir J. Hawkins mentions an an¬
them and a burlcfque fong, which are afcribed to him.
In thefe occupations he pafftd his days, amid all the
pleafures that can render domeftic life happy, in the
affeflion and eftimation of his friends, beloved and
efteemed by all his literary affociates, who have each
taken great pains to celebrate their mutual friendlhip.
Swift in one of his poems fincerely laments that he is
“ Far from his kind Arbuthnot’s aid,
Who knows his art, but not his trade.”
Pope has dedicated to him an epiftle, called a “ Pro¬
logue to the Satires.” He was full of humility and
refignation in all the difpenfations of Providence. Of
his two fons, he witneffed the death of one ; and the
other, with fome daughters, furvived him. At length,
from an inveterate afthma, he fell into a dropfical dif-
order j and, in order to try the effeft of a change of
air, he repaired to Hampftead, but without the leaft
gleam of hope refpedting a recovery, as he affured his
friends Pope and Swift. Returning to his houfe in
London, he died February 27. 1734-5. His lateft
letters difplay a great ferenity of mind, an exemplary
piety, a contempt of vice, and a glowing defire of vir¬
tue. (Ge«. Biog.)
ARBUTUS, the Strawberry tree. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ARC, Joan OF, generally called the Maid of Or¬
leans, one of the moft famed heroines in the annals of
hiftory, was born about the beginning of the 15th
century at Domremy, near Vaucouleurs in Lorrain,
where her father, a peafant, named James d’Arc, re-
fided. When fire was able in the leaft degree to earn
a fuftenance for herfelf, her parents, who were but
poor, put her to fervice at a fmall inn, where lire per-
3 Y 2 formed
ARC [ 540 ] ARC
Arc. formed feveral offices, more properly belonging to the
-1 other fex, fuch as riding the horfes to water without a
faddle, and attending them in the fields, and many
other fimilar fervices, which greatly difplayed her maf-
culine habit of body. At the time when Charles VII.
was reduced to a very low condition, and the greatefl
part of his country had been overrun by the Englilh,
Joan, probably then at the age of 27 or 28, imagined
that ffie faw feveral vifions, and that in one of thefe
ffie was commanded by St Michael, to go immediately
to the relief of Orleans, at that time cloiely befieged
by the Engliffi army, and then to procure the confe-
cration of the king at Rheims. In February 1429,
her parents took her to the governor of Vaucouleurs,
named Baudricourt, who at firlt held her pretended in-
Ipiration to be no more than an idle tale, and treated it
with the contempt fuch a thing would have deferred ;
but at laft induced by her entreaties, he fent her to
Chinon, where the king then was, in order that ffie
might be introduced to him. Charles, whether it
proceeded from earneft or not, in order to found her,
determined to prefent her to a company of his nobles,
where no mark of dignity tended to diftinguiffi him
from, them j and, it is afferted, that (lie immediately
recognized him, and informed him of fecrets which he
had endeavoured to conceal from every perfon. She
boldly engaged to accomplifh the two objefls of her
million, and required that they fnould arm her with a
confecrated fword, which lay in the church of St Ca¬
tharine of Fierbois; and although ffie had never feen
it, (lie accurately defcribed every particular concerning
it. The manner in which (lie a&ed infpired many with
confidence 5 and certain do£fors of the church were ap¬
pointed to infpedt into the nature of her infpiration,
and matrons to give proofs of her virginity. The re¬
port which they gave was very favourable j but being
next put into the hands of the parliament, they treated
her as fran tick, and demanded that ffie ihould Ihew
them a miracle. She anfwered, that although ffie had
not any at that time to prefent, flie would foon accom-
pliffi one at Orleans. At length being fully armed
and mounted, ffie was fent to Orleans along with the
army deftined for its relief. By difplaying a confe¬
crated banner, ffie foon cleanfed the camp of intempe¬
rance ; and by her whole deportment, animated the
foldiers by her exemplary enthufiafm. Entering Or¬
leans, ffie introduced a convoy, and boldly attacking
the Engliffi in their forts, ffie routed them with great
daughter, and ftruck them with fuch a panic that
they were even obliged to raife the fiege with great
precipitation. The dignity of a fuperiur mind and a
brave heroifm reigned through all her adlions. \a-
rious other fucceffes followed in a ffiort time, and the
difmaved Engliffi everywhere fled before the hand of
a conquering enemy, whom they had but lately con-
tenroed. Joan now thinking it proper to perform her
other promife of crowning the king at Ilheims, pro¬
ceeded with him- through the kingdom, in order to re¬
ceive fubmiffion of the towns as he marched, which he
did without any oppofition. Arriving at Rheims, the
keys of the city were delivered to him, and, entering
the town, he was anointed and crowned with the holy
oil of Clovis, Joan Handing by his fide in full armour,
and difplaving her confeerated banner. Charles filled
with gratitude for her important fervices, ennooled
Z
her family, and conferred upon it the title of the Sys, Are.
with a conformable eftate in land. The two objedls of ——y-•
her miffion being now aceompliffied, Joan prepared to
retire into the country 5 but Dunois, the general, be¬
ing fenfible of her importance on account of her pre¬
tended infpiration, endeavoured to perfuade her to re¬
main in arms until the Engiiffi ffiould be fully driven
from the country \ which by his perfuafions he effedl-
ed. Adviied by him, ffie caft herfelf into Compeigne,
then clofely befieged by the Engliffi and the duke of
Burgundy. Having there made a fally upon the ene¬
my, ffie drove them from their entrenchments j but be¬
ing bafely deferted by her followers, ffie wras taken
priloner. Upon her capture, the Engliffi enjoyed a
malignant gratification, and refolved to ffiew her no
mercy on account of the change ffie had occafiontd
in their affairs. The duke of Bedford, the regent, ha¬
ving ranfomed her from the captors, appointed a cri¬
minal profecution againft her upon the charges of em¬
ploying forcery and magic, and of being impious. He
was joined in the accufation by the clergy, and by the
univerfity of Paris. She was carried in irons before
an ecclefiaftical commiffion at Rouen, where ftveral
capricious interrogatories were put to her during a trial
of about four months, to which ffie anfvvered with ftea-
dinefs and gravity. Among feveral other queftions^
ffie was interrogated why fhe had affifted at the coro¬
nation of Charles with her ftandard in her hand.
She boldly replied, “ Becaufe the perfon who ffiared
in the danger, had a right to ffiare in the glory.”
Her defence was not fo ftrong concerning her pretend¬
ed infpiration and vifions, which were the molt dange¬
rous points of the attack. She appealed to the pope
upon being accufed on thefe grounds of impiety and
herefy j but her appeal was not allowed. At length
ffie was condemned of being a blafphemer and force-
refs, and accordingly delivered over to the pow’er of
the civil magiftrate. A view of the dreadful punifli-
ment that awaited her, at laft overpowered her refolu-
tion ; and (he endeavoured to efcape it, by making a
difavowal of her pretended revelations, and a full re¬
nunciation of her errors. Her fentence w7as then
changed into perpetual imprifonment, but this puniffi-
ment did not affuage the fury of her barbarous ene¬
mies. They craftily laid a man’s drefs in her cham¬
ber, and ffie, induced by the fight of an apparel in
which ffie had gained fo much honour, put it on j and
upon being difcovered, her enemies condemned her to
the flake, interpreting the a&ion into a relapfe of he¬
refy. She fuffered her puniffiment in June 1431, at
the market-place of Rouen, with great firmnefs $ and
even the Engliih themfelves beheld the fcene with
tears. Her death will for ever caft an indelible fligma
on the character of her cruel profecutors. Charles did
nothing towards avenging her caufe: but ten years after¬
wards, contented himfelf with procuring the reftora-
tion of her memory by the pope, and a reverfion of
the procefs. She was ftyled in that a£l, a “ martyr to
her religion, her country, and her king.” In their
enthuliaftic admiration, her countrymen w'ere not fo
flow in honouring her memory. Many marvellous {lo¬
ries were related by them concerning her death. Some
fuppofed that ffie was not actually dead, and conti¬
nually expedited, that, as formerly, ffie would come*,
and at their head lead them on to victory. A confift-
ent
ARC [ S4i 1 ARC
ent and uniform judgment refpe&ing the a&ions and
addrefs of this perfonage cannot be made by poiterily.
That (lie gave herfelf up to the influence of a heated
fancy, and that file was confident in the idea of her
divine infpiration, and that this notion was fo improved
by certain favourites of Charles, as to excite the emo¬
tions of the public, feems to be the mofl probable lup-
pofition. That the appearance of the Maid of Or¬
leans tended to give a decifive turn to the conteft be¬
tween the Englifh and the French, has never in the
leaft been questioned.
The praife and exploits of this noble heroine have
formed the fubjeft of various works both in profe and
verfe. In verfe, that of Voltaire is very licentious and
burlefque, and is an injury to her memory ; but it
has in a great degree been repaired by that mod Spi¬
rited and fublime poem of Southey, in Englifh, which
reprefents her in the mod lively and driking colours of
heroifm and virtue; and by that of Chapelain, although
it did not meet with fuch fuccefs. (Gen. Biog.).
ARCADE, in ArchiteBure, is ufed to denote any
opening in the wall of a building formed by an arch.
ARC AD I, or Arcadians, the name of a learned
fociety at Rome. See Academy.
ARCADIA, an inland didrift in the heart of Pe-
loponnefus (Strabo). It is mountainous, and fitter for
padure than corn ; and therefore chiefly celebrated by-
bucolic or pafloral poets, who feign Pan the god of
fhepherds, to be the guardian of it (Virgil). It has
to the north Achaia, to the eafl Argos and Laconia,
Meflenia to the fouth, and Elis to the wed. Accord¬
ing to Pliny, the wine of this country cured barren-
nefs in women, and infpired the men with rage ; and
the berries of the yew gathered there were fo drong a
poifon, that whoever flept or took refrefhment under
that tree was fure to die. In Strabo’s time there
were few cities remaining in it, moil of them being
deflroyed in the Grecian wars. Eullathius fays, that
the country was anciently called Pelafgiay from Pelaf-
gos, who brought the people, from roots, herbs, and
leaves of trees, to feed on acorns, efpecially beech
mad ; as Artemidorus obferves, that the Arcadians
ufually lived on acorns. It was alfo called Lycaoma,
Giganiis, and Parrhajia (Stephanus). dhe Arcadi¬
ans are greatly commended for their love of, and fkill
in, mufic (Virgil, Polybius). To imitate the Arca¬
dians, is to labour and toil for the benefit of others,
never conquering their own, but the enemies of others
(Hefychius). This probably took its rife from the an¬
cient Arcadians being aecudomed to hire thernfelves
out as mercenaries to foreign nations. Homer com¬
mends their martial prowefs, their padures, their (beep,
and their country well watered. The gentilitious
name is ; who beaded of their great antiqui¬
ty, and that they were older than the fun and moon
(Apollonius Rhodius, Nonnius, Plutarch, Ovid, Sta¬
tius). They were the firfl who had a year of three
months, and therefore called Proce/em, becaufe their
year was prior to that adjuded in Greece to the courfe
of the moon (Cenforinus).
ARCANGIS, in the Turkifh armies, an inferior
kind of infantry, which ferve as enfans perdus, and to
harafs and pillage the enemy’s frontiers. The Arcangis
are an order inferior to the Janizaries ; and when any
them didinguiih themfelveSj are ufually preferred
into the Janizaries order. They have no pay, but ate Arc
to fubfid on their plunder. A
ARCANUM, among phyficians, any remedy, the, 
preparation of which is indudriouily concealed, in or¬
der to enhance its value.
Arcanum, in Ancient Geography, a villa of £). Ci¬
cero, Tally’s brother, in Latium, (Cicero). Now
Arce, in the Terra di Lavora, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, on the borders of the Campagna di Roma, on the
river Melpis, between Arpinum and Aquinum.
ARCBOUTANT, in building, an arched buttrefs.
See Buttress.
ARCESILAUS, a celebrated Greek philofopher,
about 300 years before the Chridian era, was born at
Pitane, in Eolis. He founded the fecond academy,
which is called the fecond fchool. He was a man of
great erudition, and well verfed in the writings of the
ancients. He was remarkable for the feverity of his
criticifms; but neverthelefs he knew how to accom¬
modate himielf to the age, and purfue the allurements
of pleafure. He had a great number of difciples. His
dodtrines were different in feveral relpedts from thofe
of the ancient fchool: and perhaps he was led into this
diverlity of opinions by many capital errors in the an¬
cient fchool, fuch as the incredible arrogance of the
dogmatids, who pretended to a flip n caufes for all
things; the myfterious air they had thrown upon the
doftrine of ideas ; the entirely difearding the teflimo-
ny of the fenfes ; the objection of the Pyrrhonifts, who
now began to broach their opinions; the powerful
opposition of the Stoics and Peripatetics, who difeo-
vered the feeble parts of the Academic pbilofophy.
Thefe might have given caufe to reform the ancient
fchool, and to found a new one. The middle fchool,
therefore, laid it down as a principle, that we could
know nothing, nor even affure ourfelves of the certain¬
ty of this poiition ; fiom whence they inferred, that
we fhould affirm nothing, but always lul'pend our judge- .
ment. They advanced, that a philofopher was able to
difpute upon every fubjetd, and bring conviction with
him; even upon contrary Tides of the fame queftion ;
for there are always reafons of equal force both in the
affirmative and negative of every argument. Accord¬
ing to this dottrine, neither our fenfes nor even our4"
reafon, are to have any credit: and therefore, in com¬
mon’ affairs, we are to conform ourfelves to received
opinions. Avcefilaus was fucceeded by his difciple
Lacydes.
ARCH, in Geometry, any part of the circumfe¬
rence of a circle or curved line, lying from one point
to another, by which the quantity of the whole circle
or line, or foroe other thing fought after, may be ga¬
thered. See Bridge and Center.
Arch, a concave or hollowed piece of building,
contfrucled in fuch a manner that the feveral ftones of
which it is compofed keep one another in their places.
The terms arch and vault properly differ only in this,
that the arch expreffes a narrower, and the vault a
broader piece of the fame kind. The principal dif¬
ference in the form of arches is, that feme are circu¬
lar, and others elliptical ; the former having a larger
or fmaller part of a circle, the other of an ellipfis..
What are called fruit arches, are thofe frequently
ufed for doors and windows, the upper and under
edges of w hich are ftraight and parallel, and the ends and
joints.
ARC
Arch joiu’o .ill pointing toward a centre. The fpace between
II two piers of a bridge is called an arch, becaufe ufually
Archangel. afC]iecl 0Vt'r
[ 542 1
ARC
Triumphal ARCHES are magnificent entries into ci¬
ties, ere died to adorn a triumph, and perpetuate the
memory of the adlion. The arches of l.itus and Con-
flantine make at this time a great figure among the
ruins of old Rome.
Arch, in compofition, fignifies chief, or of the frf
clafs: as archangel, archbilhop, &c.
ARCHiEUS, or Archeus. See Archeus.
ARCHANGEL, an angel occupying the eighth
rank in the celellial hierarchy. See Angel and Hie¬
rarchy.
Archangel, a city of Ruffia, in the province of
Dwina, fituated on the eaft fide of the river Dwina,
about fix miles from the White fea, in E. Long. 39.
N. Lat. 64. 30. The city extends about three
miles in length and one in breadth. It is rich, popu¬
lous, built in the modern tafte, and is a metropolitan
fee. It rofe from a caftle built on the fpot by Bafilo-
witz II. to protect the increafing trade brought there
by the difcovery of the White fea by the Englilh, and
took its name from a monaftery built in honour of the
archangel Michael. Before this period the commer¬
cial intercourfe between Ruflia and the northern parts
of Europe had been long carried on by the Hanfeatic
towns; which ufually failed to Revel or Narva, and
from thence paffed through Dorpt or Plefcof and No-
vogorod, where their factories were eftablilhed. The
accidental difcovery of Archangel, in I553» deprived
the Hanfeatic towns of a great part of this lucrative
commerce, and transferred it to the Englilh. On the
nth of May, in the above-mentioned year, three (hips
failed from Deptford, in order to explore the northern
feas, under the command of Sir Hugh Willoughby.
Two of thefe veflels penetrated as high as the ^2d de¬
gree of latitude, to the coaft of Spitzbergen •, and be¬
ing afterwards forced by llrefs of weather into the
bay of the river Arzina in Ruffian Lapland, both their
crews were frozen to death. Richard Chancellor, who
commanded the other (hip, called the Bonaventu) e,
difcovering the country bordering upon the White fea,
landed near the mouth of the Dwina, in a bay, which
he denominated the Bay of St Nicholas, from a con¬
vent of that name near the prefent port of Archangel.
The czar Iwan Bafilowitz, being informed of his ar¬
rival, invited him to his court, where he was hofpita-
bly entertained, and the czar indulged the Englilh
with a free trade in his dominions : in confequence of
this permiffion, a company of merchants was incorpo¬
rated in London •, and being encouraged by particular
privileges from the czar, let on foot a confiderable
commerce, to the mutual advantage of both nations.
This traffic the Englilh for fome time enjoyed without
competition. The Dutch, however, and other na¬
tions, gradually infinuated themfelves into this com¬
merce ; which they carried on to a very great difadvan-
tage, as not being favoured with thofe privileges which
the czar had granted to the Englilh company. . Thefe
were at lad fuddenly annihilated by Alexis Michaelo-
vitch; who in 1648 banilhed the Englilli merchants
from all his dominions. The caufe of this expulfion is
generally imputed to the refentment which the czar
conceived againft the Englilh for the execution of
3
Charles I. with whom he ivas clofely conne&ed by Archan^tf,
leagues of amity and alliance : but in effecl he abolilh-Archbifhop
ed the company’s privileges in the year before thats—-v"—^
event •, and his indignation againfl the Englilh for their
rebellion, Mr Coxe affirms, was only a political pretext •,
the real motive being derived from the offers made by
the Dutch to pay duties of export and import to the
amount of 15 per cent, if they were indulged with the
liberty of carrying on as free a trade as the Englilh
throughout his dominions. For not long afterwards, the
czar fuffered William Prideaux, Cromwell’s agent, to
refide at Archangel ; and permitted the Englilh to
renew their commerce in that port upon the fame foot¬
ing with other foreigners. And upon this footing alone
our merchants ever after continued to trade.
The commodities chiefly imported into Archangel,
were gold and filver fluffs and laces, gold wire, cochi¬
neal, indigo, and other drugs for dyeing*, wine, bran¬
dy, and other dillilled fpirits. The culloms arifing to
the czar were computed at 200,000 rubles a-year, and
the number of foreign {hips at 400 annually. But up¬
on the building of Peteilhurg, Peter the Great abolilh-
ed the immunities of Archangel, and removed the
commerce of the White fea to the havens of the Baltic.
Still, however, its exports of tar were confiderable ;
in 1730, to the amount of 40,000 lafts, of 11 barrels
each. It fends, during winter, great quantities of the
rawaga, a fmall fpecies of three-finned cod, to Peter-
fburg frozen. \
In 1752 Elizabeth again reftored the ancient immu¬
nities of Archangel *, and its prefent trade is not in-
confiderable. It fupplies the government of Archan¬
gel, part of thofe of Nilhnei-Novogorod and Cafan,
with European commodities *, and draws in exchange
from thofe parts corn, flax, hemp, coarfe linen, cor¬
dage, fails, malls and tallow, which are mollly con¬
veyed by the Dwina: it forms alfo a principal com¬
munication with the northern and wellern parts of Si¬
beria, from whence the merchants procure furs, {kins,
and iron.
The houfes of Archangel are generally of wood, but
well contrived; and every chamber is provided with a
{love, as a fence againft the cold, which is here excel-
five in the winter. The ftreets are paved with broken
pieces of timber and rubbifti, difpofed fo unlkilfully,
that one cannot walk over it without running the rilk
of falling, except when the ftreets are rendered fmooth
and equal by the fnow that falls and freezes in the
winter. Notwithftanding the feverity of the cold in
this place, there is always plenty of good provifions j
butchers meat, poultry, wild fowl: and filh, in a great
variety, are fold furprifingly cheap.
The moft remarkable edifice in Archangel is a large
townhoufe, built of fquare ftones in the Italian manner,
and divided into three parts. One of thefe confifts
of large commodious apartments, for the accommo¬
dation of merchants, ftrangers as well as natives : here
they are permitted to'refide with their merchandife
till the month of Oaober, when all the foreign {hips
fet fail for their refpeflive countries. Then, too, the
native traders are obliged to remove their quarters from
the townhoufe. In 1793 great part of this city and
fuburbs was deftroyed by fire, but has fince been ele¬
gantly rebuilt.
ARCHBISHOP, the name of a church dignitary
of
ARC [ 543 1 ARC
.rchbifljop. ^ie Archbifhops were not known in the
-y—' eaft till about the year 320; and though there were
fome foon after this who had the title, yet that was
only a perfonal honour, by which the bifhops of confi-
derable cities were diftinguifhed. It was not till of
late that archbilhops became metropolitans, and had
fuffragans under them. Athanafius appears to be the
firfi: who ufed the title Archbifhop, which he gave oc-
cafionally to his predeceflbr •, Gregory Nazianzen, in
like manner, gave it to Athanafius j not that either of
them were entitled to any jurifdiftion, nor even any
precedence in virtue of it. Among the Latins, Ifi-
dore Hifpalenfis is the firft that fpeaks of archbifhops.
He diftinguifhes four orders or degrees in the ecclefiaf-
tical hierarchy, viz. patriarchs, archbilhops, metropo¬
litans, and bilhops.
The archbilhop, befide the infpe&ion of the bifhops
and inferior clergy in the province over which he pre-
fides, exercifes epifcopal jurifdiftion in his own dio-
cefe. He is guardian of the fpiritualties of any va¬
cant fee in his province, as the king is of the tempo¬
ral ties; and exercifes ecclefiaftical jurifdiftion in it.
He is entitled to prefent by lapfe to all the ecclefiafti-
cal livings in the difpofal of his diocefan bifhop, if not
filled within fix months. He has likewife a cuftomary
prerogative, upon confecrating a bifhop, to name a
clerk or chaplain to be provided for by fuch bifhop j
in lieu of which it is now ufual to accept an option.
He is faid to be enthroned when veiled in the arch-
bifhopric $ whereas bifhops are faid to be inflalled.
The ecclefiallical government of England is divided
into two provinces, viz. Canterbury and York. Can¬
terbury hath the following fuffragan bifhoprics apper¬
taining to it, St Afaph, Bangor, Bath and Wells, Bri-
ftol, Chichefter, Litchfield and Coventry, St David’s,
Ely, Exeter, Gloucefler, Hereford, LandafF, Lincoln,
London, Norwich, Oxford, Peterborough, Rochefler,
Salifbury, Winchefler, and Worcefler. To York ap¬
pertained! the bifhoprics of Carlifle, Chefter, and Dur¬
ham *, to which may be added the bilhopric of Sodor
and Man, whofe bifhop is not a lord of parliament.
See Canterbury and York.
The archbifhop of Canterbury had anciently, viz.
till the year 1152, jurifditlion over Ireland as well as
England, and was Ityled a patriarch, and fometimes
alterius orbis papa, and orbis Britannici pontifex. Mat¬
ters were done and recorded in his name thus, Anno
yontificatus nojiriprimo, &c. The firfi archbifhop of
Canterbury was Autlin, appointed by King Ethelbert,
on his converfion to Chritlianitv, about the year 598.
He was alfo regains natus. He even enjoyed fome
fpecial marks of royalty ; as, to be patron of a bifhop-
ric, which he was of Rochefler j and to make knights,
coin moneys, &c. He is Hill the firfl peer of Eng¬
land, and the next to the royal family j having pre¬
cedence of all dukes and all great officers of the crown.
It is his privilege, by cuflom, to crown the kings and
queens of this kingdom. He may retain and qualify
eight chaplains j whereas a duke is allowed by llatute
only fix. He has, by common law, the power of pro¬
bate of wills and teflaments, and granting letters of
adminiflration. He has alfo a power to grant licenfes
and difpenfations in all cafes formerly fued for in the
court of Rome, and not repugnant to the law of God.
He accordingly iiTu.es fpecial licenfes to marry, to hold
twro livings, Sec. and he exercifes the right of confer- Archbf-
ring degrees. He alfo holds feveral courts of judica- thopric
ture : as, court of arches, court of audience, preroga- J1
tive court, and court of peculiars. ^on62"
The archbifhop of York has the like rights in his
province as the archbiffiop of Canterbury. He has
precedence of all dukes not of the royal blood 5 and of
all officers of Hate, except the lord high chancellor.
He has alfo the rights of a count palatine over Hex-
amfhire. The firfi archbifhop of York was Paulinus,
appointed by Pope Gregory about the year 622. He
had formerly jurifdi&ion over all the bifhops of Scot-
lend ; but in the year 1470, Pope Sextus IV. created
the bifhop of St Andrew’s archbifhop and metropolitan
of all Scotland.
Scotland, whilfl epifcopacy prevailed in that country,
had two archbifbops, of St Andrew’s and Glafgow ; of
which the former was accounted the metropolitan j
and, even before it arrived at the dignity of an arch-
bifhopric, refilled with great fpirit all the attempts of
the archbifhops of York in England to become the me¬
tropolitans of Scotland. The fees of Argyll, Galloway,
and the Lies, were fuffragans to Glafgow ; all the others
in the kingdom to St Andrew’s.
Ireland has four archbifhops •, of Armagh, Dublin,
Cafhel, and Tuam , of which the former is primate of
all Ireland.
ARCHBISHOPRIC, in Kcclejiajlical Geography,
a province fubje£l to the jurifdidion of an archbi-
ffiop.
ARCHBUTLER, one of the great officers of the
German empire, who prefents the cup to the emperor
on folemn occafions. This office belongs to the king
of Bohemia.
ARCHCHAMBERLAIN, an officer of the em¬
pire, much the fame with the great chamberlain in
England. The eledlor of Brandenburg was appointed
by the golden bull archchamberlain of the emoire.
ARCHCHANCELLOR, a high officer, who, in
ancient times, prefided over the fecretaries of the court.
Under the two firfi races of the kings of France, when
their territories were divided into Germany, Italy, and
Arles, there were three archchancellors: and hence the
three archchancellors flill fubfilling in Germanv ; the
archbiffiop of Mentz being archchancellor of Germa¬
ny, the archbiffiop of Cologn, and the archbifhop of
Treves.
ARCHCHANTOR, the prefident of the chantors
of a church.
ARCHCOUNT, a title formerly given to the earl
of Flanders, on account of his great power and riches.
ARCFIDEACON, an ecclefiaflical dignitary or of¬
ficer next to a biffiop, whofe jurifdiflion extends either
over the whole diocefe or only a part of it. He is ufual-
ly appointed by the biffiop himfelf; and hath a kind of
epifcopal authority, originally derived from the biffiop,
but now independent and diflinfl from his. He there¬
fore vifits the clergy ; and has his feparate court for pu-
nifhment of offenders by fpiritual cenfures, and for
hearing all other caufes of ecclefiaflical cognizance.
There are 60 archdeacons in England.
ARCHDEACON''s Court, is the mofl inferior court in
the whole ecclefiaflical polity. It is held in the arch¬
deacon’s abfence, before a judge appointed by himftlf
and called his officiali and its jurifdiflion is fometimes
in.
ARC
[ 544 1
ARC
jtaMimd m concottence ^ith, fometimes m excluGon of, the b.-
5 (hop’s court of the diocefe. From heoce, however by
Archers. ftatute 24 Hen. VUI. c. 12. there lies an appeal to that
bf the biiliop. . • .
ARCHDRUID, the chief or pontiff of the ancient
druids of a nation. See Druid. . , r f
ARCHDUKE, a title peculiar to the houie ot
Auftria j all the fons of which are archdukes, and the
daughters archducheffes. See Duke. ... r ,
ARCHELAUS, a celebrated Greek philoiopher,
the difciple of Anaxagoras, flouriftied about 44° years
before Chrift. He read leflures at Athens and di
not depart much from the opinions of his He
taught that there was a double principle of all thing ,
namely, the expanfton and condenfation of the air,
which he regarded as infinite. Heat, according to him,
was in continual motion. Cold was ever at reft.. e
earth, which was placed in the midft of the umverff,
had no motion. It originally refembled a tvet marlh,
but was afterwards dried up j and its figure, he faid
refembled that of an egg. Animals were product
from the heat of the earth, and even men were formed
An the fame manner. All animals have a foul., which
v was born with them : but the capacities of which vary
according to the ftrudure of the organs of the body in
which it refides.—Socrates, the moft illuftnous of his
-ftifrinles was his fucceffor.
Arch’elaos, the fon of Herod the Great, was e-
clared king of Judea the fccond year after the birth of
Chrift. He put to death 3000 perfons before he went
to Rome to be confirmed by Auguftus. How^ ^
emperor gave him half of what had been poffeffed by
his father *, but at length, on frefh complaints exh.bit-
ed againft him by the Jews, he bamftied him to \ lenne
in Gaul, A. D. 6. where he died. .
ARCHELAUS, the fon of Apollonius,, one of the
greateft fculptors of antiqdity, was a native of Ionia,
and is thought to have lived in the time of the empe¬
ror Claudius. He executed, in. marble, the apotheofis
of Homer. This mafterpiece in fculpturC was found
in 1568, in a place named FraWnn belonging to the
princes of Colonna, where, it is fafd, the emperor Clau¬
dius had a pleafure houfe. Father Kircher,. Cupert,
Spanheim, and feveral other learned antiquaries, have
given a defeription and explication of this work.
h ARCHERS, a kind of militia or foldiery armed
with bows and arrows. The word is formed of arcus,
“ a bow whence arcuanus, and even arqms, and at-
quileSy as they are alfo denominated m the corrupt
Rate of the Latin tongue. . ,
Archers were much employed in former times ’ ^
they are now laid afide, excepting in Turkey and.fome
of the ealiern countries ; where there are companies of
archers (till fubGfting in their armies, and with wh,eh
they did terrible execution at the battle of Lepanto.—
AsL exercife, the praflice of archery is ftnl kept up
:n many places. See the article Archer y.
> In France, the officers who attend the. lieutenants e
police and provofts, to make captures, feizures, arrelis,
&c. are called archers ; though their arm, be only bal-
berds or carabines. In this fenfe they fay, M archers
Of the grand prevat de Hotel; of the frevot des mar-
, ^ the city archers; the archers de gleet, or of
)„, „4tj, sJ.—Small parties of archers caWei
alfo gens de marechatejfde, are continually patrolling on
the great roads, to fecure them againft robbers.— The Archery,
carriages of Lyons, &c. are always efcorted by a party w-
of archers. To the diligence of thefe archers or mar- *
dial’s men, it is partly owing, that perfons now travel
in all parts of France in the utmoft fecurity ; there.be¬
ing fewer robberies on the highway in that whole king¬
dom in a year than about London in a week.
ARCHERY, the art or exercife of ffiouting with a
bow and arrow. . . .
In moft nations, the bow was anciently the principal
implement of war and by the expertnefsof the archers
alone was often decided the fate of battles and of em¬
pires.—In this ifland archery was greatly encouraged
in former times, and many ftatutes were made for the
regulation thereof j whence it was that the Englifh
archers in particular became the bed in Europe, and
procured them many fignal victories.
The Artillery Company of London, though they have
long difufed the weapon, are the remains ot the ancient
fraternity of bowmen or archers. Artillery (artillene) Archxolo.
is a French term fignifying archery; as the king's!1*2) vo .’m
bowi/er is in that language ftyled artillier du roy: And
from that nation the Engliffi feem to have learnt at lead
the crofs-bow archery. 1A e therefore find that illiam
the Conqueror had a confiderable number of bowmen in
his army at the battle of Haftings, when no mention is
made of fuch troops on the fide of Harold : And it is
fuppofed that thefe Norman archers ftiot with the arba-
left (or crofs-bow), in which formerly the arrow was
placed in a groove, being termed in French a quadrel,
and in Engliffi a bolt. . , , , ,
Of the time when {hooting with the long bow hrtt
began among the Engliffi, at which exercife they.after-
wards became fo expert, there appear no certain ac¬
counts. Their chronicles do not mention the uie ot ar¬
chery as exprefsly applied to the crofs bow, or the long
bow, till the death of Richard I. who was killed by an
arrow at the fiege of Limoges in Guienne, which Hem-
mingford mentions to have iffued from a crofs bow.—
After this, which happened in 1199, there appear not
upon record any notices of archery for neatly 150
years when an order was iffued by Edward III. in the
1 rth year of his reign, to the flierives of moft of the
Engliffi counties for providing 500 white bows and 500
bundles of arrows, for the then intended war agai.nft
France. Similar orders are repeated in the following
years *, with this difference only, that the ffienff ot
Gloucefterffiire is direaed to furniffi 5C0 pmnted bows
as well as the fame number of white. The famous
battle of Creffy was fought four years afterwards, m
which our chroniclers ftate that we had 2800 archers,
who were oppofed to about the fame number oi the
French, together with a circumftance which Lems to
prove, that by this time we ufed the long bow, whilft
the French archers ffiot with the arbaleft. I-"® c|r"
cumftance alluded to is as follows: Previoufly to the
engagement there fell a very heavy rain, which is laid
to have much damaged the bows of the French, or
perhaps rather the ftrings of them. Now the long
bow (when unftrung) may be moft conveniently cover¬
ed, fo as to prevent the rain’s injuring it*, nor is there
fear cel y any addition to the weight from a cale *
whereas the arbaleft is of a moft inconvenient form to
be ffieltered from the weather. As therefore, in the
year 1342, orders were iffued to the ffienves of each
ARC [ 545 ] ARC
Archery.
lenry's
ii/t. vol. v
, 463.
county to provide 500 bows, with a proper proportion
of arrows, it feetns probable that thefe were long bows,
and not the arbaleft.
At the above-mentioned battle, the Englilh afcribed
their victory chiefly to the archers.— The battle of
Poiftiers was fought A. D. 1356, and gained by the
fame means.
Sometimes the archers gained great victories with¬
out even the leaft aflirtance from the men at arms; as
particularly, the decifive viftory over the Scots at Ho-
mildon, A. D. 1402. In that bloody battle, the men-
at-arms did not ftrike a ftroke, but were mere fpefta-
tors of the valour and victory of the archers. The
earl of Douglas, who commanded the Scotch army in
that action, enraged to fee his men falling thick around
him by thowers of arrows, and trufting to the goodnefs
of his armour (which had been three years in making),
accompanied by about eighty lords, knights, and gen¬
tlemen, in complete armour, ruthed forward, and at¬
tacked the Englifh archers fw.>rd in-hand. But he
foon had reafon to repent his ralhnefs. The Englifli
arrows were fo (harp and ftrong, and difcharged with
fo much force, that no armour could repel them.
The earl of Douglas, after receiving five wounds, was
made prifoner ; and all his brave companions were ei¬
ther killed or taken. Philip de Comines acknowledges,
what our own writers affert, that the Englifh archers
excelled thofe of every other nation j and Sir John
Fortefcue fays again and again,—“ that the might of
the realme of England ftandyth upon archers.” The
fuperior dexterity of their archers gave the Englifli a
great advantage over their capital enemies the French
and Scots. The French depended chiefly on their men-
at-arms, and the Scots on their pikemen •, but the ranks
of both were often thinned and thrown into diforder by
flights of arrows before they could reach their ene¬
mies.
James I. of Scotland, who had feen and admired the
dexterity of the Englifh archers, and who was himfelf
an excellent archer, endeavoured to revive the exercife
of archery among his own fubjedh, by whom it had
been too much negle£ted. With this view, he ridicu¬
led their awkward manner of handling their bows, in
his humorous poem, of Chrift’s Kirk on the Gyeen j
and procured the following law to be made in his firfl
parliament, A. D. 1424, immediately after his return
to Scotland : “ That all men might bufk thame to be
archares fra the be 12 years of age ; and that ilk ten
punds worth of land thair be made bow markes, and
fpeciallie near paroche kirks, quhairn upon halie dayis
men mav cum, and at the leift fchute thryfe about, and
have ufage of archarie ; and whafa ufis not archarie, the
laird of the land fal rais of him a wedder; and giflf the
laird raifes not the faid pane, the king’s fhiref, or his
minifters, fal rais it to the king.” But the untimely
death of that excellent prince prevented the effectual
execution of this law.
There is not found any aft of parliament of Henry
V. in relation to archery, and all the orders in Rymer
till the battle of Agincourt relate to great guns, from
which he feems at firft to have expefted nt^ore confi-
derable advantage than from the training of bowmen.
It fhould feem, however, that this fort of artillery,
from its umvieldinefs, bad and narrow roads, together
with other defefts, was as yet but of little ufe in mili-
Vol. II. Part II.
tary operations. In the year 1417 this king therefore Archery,
afcribes his viftory at Agincoui t to the archers, and —y——
direfts the therives of many counties to pluck from
every goofe fix wing-feathers for the purpofe of im¬
proving arrows, which are to be paid for by the
king.
In 1421, though the French had been defeated both
at Creffy, Poiftiers, and Agincourt, by the Englifli ar- Archaolt-
chers, yet they ftill continued the ufe of the crofs bovv;^7'7,
for which reafon, Henry V. as duke of Normandy, con¬
firms the charters and privileges of the baliftarii, who
had been long eftablilhed as a fraternity in his city of
Rouen.
In the fifth of Edward IV. an aft paffed, that
every Englithman, and Irifhman dwelling with Eng-
lilhmen, ihall have an Englifli bow of his own height,
which is directed to be made of yew, wych, hazel, afh,
or avvburne, or any other reafonable tree according to
their power. The next chapter alfo direfts that butts
{hall be made in every townfliip, which the inhabitants
are obliged to thoot up and down every feaft day, un¬
der the penalty of a halfpenny when they fliall omit this
exercife. ,
In the 14th year, however, of this fame king, it ap¬
pears by Rymer’s that IOOO, archers were to
be fent to the duke of Burgundy, vvhofe pay is fettled
at fixpence a day, which was a confiderable fum in thefe
times, when the value of money was fo much higher
than it is at prefent. This circumflance feems to prove,
very ftrongly, the great eftimation in which archers
were ftill held. In the fame year, Edward, preparing
for a war with France, direfts the ftierives to procure
bows and arrows, “ as moft fpecially requifite and ne-
ceflary.”
On the war taking place with Scotland, eight years
after this, Edward provides both ordnance and archers;
fo that though the ufe of artillery (as we now term it)
was then gaining ground, yet that of the bow and ar¬
row was not neglefted.
Richard III. by his attention to archery, was able
to fend 1000 bowmen to the duke of Bretagne, and
he availed himfelf of the fame troops at the battle of
Bofworth.
During the reign of Henry VII. however, there ap¬
pears no order relative to gunpowder or artillery ; whilft
on the other hand, in 1488, he direfts a large levy of
archers to be fent to Brittany, and that they fliall be
reviewed before they embark. In the 19th year of his
reign, the fame king forbids the ufe of the crofs bow,
becaufe “ the long bow had been much ufed in this
realm, whereby honour and viftory had been gotten a-
gainft outward enemies, the realm greatly defended, and
much more the dread of all Chriftian princes by reafon
of the fame.”
During the reign of Henry VIII. feveral ftatutes
were made for the promotion of archery. The 8th
Eliz. c. 10. regulates the price of bows, and the 13th
Eliz. c. 14. enafts, that bow ftaves {hall be brought in¬
to the realm from the Hanfe towns and the Eaftward ;
fo that archery ftill continued to be an objeft of atten¬
tion in the legiflature.
In Rymer’s Fcedera there is neither ftatute or pro¬
clamation of James I. on this head ; but it appears by
Dr Birch’s life of his fon (Prince Henry)," that at
eight years of age, he learned to (hoot both with the
3 Z bow
)
ARC
[ 5+6 3
ARC
Archery, bow and gun, whilft at the fame time this prince had in
> v   his eftabliihment an officer who was ftyled bow bearer.
The king granted a fecond charter to the Artillery-
Company, by which the powers they had received from
Henry VIII. were confiderably extended.
Charles I. appears, from the dedication of a treatife
entitled 1'he Bowman's Glory, to have been himfelf an
archer •, and in the eighth year of his reign he iffued a
commiffion to the chancellor, lord mayor, and feveral
of the privy council, to prevent the fields near London
being fo enclofed as to “ interrupt the neceffary and
profitable exercife of {hooting,” as alfo to lower the
moynds where they prevented the view from one mark
to another.
Catharine of Portugal (queen to Charles II.) feems
to have been much pleafed with the fight at lead of
this exercife \ for in 1676, by the contribution of Sir
Edward Hungerford and others, a filver badge for the
marlhal of the fraternity was made, weighing 25 oun¬
ces, and reprefenting an archer drawing the long bow
(in the proper manner) to his ear, with the following
infcription : Regina Catharince Sagtttarn. I he fup-
porters are two bowmen, with the arms of England and
Portugal. In 1682 there was a mod magnificent ca¬
valcade and entertainment given by the Finfbury arch¬
ers, w hen they bedowed the titles of “ duke of Shore¬
ditch,” “ marquis of Iflington,” &c. upon the mod de-
ferving. Charles II. was prefent upon this occafion ;
but the day being rainy, he was obliged foon to leave
the field.
So lately as the year 1753 targets were erefted in the
Finfbury fields, during the Eader and Whitfun holi¬
days ; when the bed diooter was dyled Captain for the
enfoing year, and the fecond Lieutenant.
Why this military w-eapon was lo decifive in the
battles of former days, the following reafons may be
fuggeded.
Before the introdudHon of fire arms the enemy could
only be druck at a didance by flings, the bow ufed by
the ancients, or the crofs bow j to all which the Eng-
liffi long bow was infinitely fuperior. As for flings,
they never have been ufed in the more northern parts
of Europe by armies in the field 5 nor does their ufe
indeed feem to have been at all convenient or exten-
fively practicable, for two principal reafons : In the
fird place, {lingers cannot advance in a compadt body,
on account of the fpace to be occupied by this weapon
in its rotatory motion 5 in the next place, the weight
of the dones to be carried mud neceffarily impede the
dingers greatly in their movements. The bow of the
ancients again, as reprefented in all their reliefs, was a
mere toy compared with that of our ancedors ; it was
therefore chiefly ufed by the Parthians, whofe attacks
(like thofe of the prefent Arabs) were defultory. As
for the crofs bow, it is of a mod inconvenient form for
carriage, even with the modern improvements $ and, in
cafe of rain, could not eafily be fecured from the wea¬
ther. After the fird flrot, moreover, it could not be
recharged under a confiderable time, whild the bolts
were alfo heavy and cumberfome. The Engliffi long
bow, on the other hand, together with the quiver of ar¬
rows, was eafily carried by the archer, as eafily fecured
from the rain, and recharged almod indantaneoufly.
It is not, therefore extraordinary, that troops, who fole-
h ufed this mod effediual weapon, fliould generally ob¬
tain the vicfory, even when oppofed to much more nu- Archery.
merous armies. _
It may be urged, that thefe Ioffes having been ex¬
perienced by our enemies, mud have induced them
to pra&ife the fame mode of warfare.—But it is
thought that the long bow was not commonly ufed
even in England till the time of Edward III. when
the vidory at Creffy diffidently proclaimed the fupe-
riority of that weapon. It required, however, fo much
training before the archer could be expert, that we
mud not be furprifed if foon afterwards this military
exercife was much neglefted, as appears by the pre¬
ambles of feveral ancient flatutes. Whild the milita¬
ry tenures fubfifled, the fovereign could only call upon
his tenants during war, who therefore attended with
the weapons they' had been ufed to, and which requir¬
ed no previous pradice. On the other hand, the Eng¬
liffi archers were obliged by ads of parliament, even
in time of peace, to ered butts in every pariffi, and to
flioot on every Sunday and holiday, after repairing per¬
haps to thefe butts from a confiderable didance, whild
the expence of at lead a yew bow is reprefented as be¬
ing a charge which they were fcarcely equal to. The
king and parliaments of this country having thus com¬
pelled the inhabitants to fuch training, the Engliflr ar¬
mies had (it ffiould feem) the fame advantage over their
enemies as the exclufive ufe of fire-arms would give us
at prefent.
It appears alfo, by what hath been already dated,
that the long bow continued to be in edimation for
more than two centuries after gunpowder was intro¬
duced, which probably arofe from mulkets being very
cumberfome and unwieldy. It is well known that ra¬
pid movements are generally decifive of the campaign }
and for fuch the archers were particularly adapted, be-
caufe, as they could not be annoyed at the fame di¬
dance by the weapons of the enemy, they had fcarcely
any occafion for armour. T. he flow'er of ancient ar¬
mies likewife was the cavalry, againd which the long
bow never failed to prevail, as man and horfe were too
large objedls to be miffed i and hence the great num¬
ber of French nobility who were prifoners at Creffy,
Poiaiers, and Agincourt ; for being difmounted (if
not wounded) whild they were alfo clad in heavy ar¬
mour, they could not make their efcape. I he fame
reafon accounts for the Engliffi obtaining thefe fignal
viaones with fo inferior numbers ^ for the nobility and
gentry thus becoming prifoners, the other parts of the
French army made little or no refiflance. No w'onder,
therefore, that in England the greated anxiety was
ffiown to promote the exercife of this mod important
weapon, and that fo many datutes were made for that
purpofe.
In Scotland, alfo, little lefs attention, though ap¬
parently not with equal fuccefs, was fliown to the en¬
couragement of the art. In both kingdoms, it was
provided, that the importers of merchandife ffiould
be obliged, along with their articles of commerce, to
import a certain proportion of bows, bow daves, and
fliafts for arrows. In both, every perfon was enjoin¬
ed to hold himfelf provided in bows and arrows, and
was prefcribed the frequent ufe of archery. In both,
a redraint was impofed upon the exercife of other
games and fports, led they ffiould interfere with the
ufe of the bow j for it was intended, that people ffiould
be
A R d
r 547 ]
ARC
be made expert in the ufe of it as a military weapon, by
habituating them to the familiar exercii'e of it as an in-
ftrument of amufement. As there was no material dif¬
ference between the aftivity and bodily ftrength of the
two people, it might be fuppofed that the Englilh and
Scots wielded the bow with no unequal vigour and dex¬
terity : but from undoubted hitlorical monuments it ap¬
pears that the former had the fuperiority ; of which one
inftance has been already narrated. By the regulations
prefcribed in their llatute book for the practice of arch¬
ery, we find that the Englilh Ihot a very long bow,
thofe who were arrived at their full growth and matu¬
rity being prohibited from {hooting at any mark that
was not diftant upwards of 2 20 yards.
In the ufe of the bow, great dexterity as well as
ftrength feems to have been requiiite. Though we hear
of arrows at Cheviot Chafe which were a yard long, yet
it is by no means to be fuppoled that the whole band
made ufe of fuch, or could draw them to the head.
The regulation of the Irilh ftatute of Edward IV. viz.
that the bow {hall not exceed the height of the man,
is allowed by archers to have been well conftdered j
and as the arrow ftiould be half the length of the bow,
this would give an arrow of a yard in length to thofe
only who were fix feet high. A ftrong man of this
fize in the prefent times cannot eafily draw above 2*7
inches, if the bow is of a proper ftrength to do execu¬
tion at a confiderable diftance. At the fame time it
muft be admitted, that as our anceftors were obliged by
fome of the old ftatutes to begin {hooting with the long
bow at the age of feven, they might have acquired a
greater flight in this exercife than their defcendants,
though the latter ftiould be allowed to be of equal
ftrength.
As the {hooting with the long bow was firft introdu¬
ced in England, and praftifed almoft exclufively for
nearly two centuries, fo it hath occafioned a peculiar
method of drawing the arrow to the ear and not to
the breaft. That this is contrary to the ufage of the
ancients is very clear from their reliefs, and from the
tradition of the Amazons cutting off one of their paps,
as it occafioned an impediment to their (hooting. The
Finfbury archer is therefore reprefented in this attitude
of drawing to the ear, both in the Bowman's Glory,
and in the filver badge given by Catharine to the Ar¬
tillery Company. Not many years ago there was a
man named Topham, who exhibited furprifing feats of
ftrength, and who happened to be at a public boufe
near Iftington, to which the Finfbury archers reforted
after their exercife. Topham confidered the long bow
as a plaything, only fit for a child ; upon which one of
the archers laid him a bowl of punch, that he could not
draw the arrow two-thirds of its length. Topham ac¬
cepted this bet with the greateft confidence of winning 5
but bringing the arrow to his breaft inftead of his ear,
he was greatly mortified by paying the wager, after
many fruitlefs efforts.
As to the diftance to which an arrow can be (hot
from a long bow with the befl: elevation of 45 de¬
grees, that muft neceflarily depend much both upon
the ftrength and flight of the archer but in general the
diftance was reckoned from eleven to twelve fcore yards.
The butts for exercife, as above noticed, were diredt-
ed to be diftant upwards of 220 yards. There is in¬
deed a tradition, that an attorney of Wigan in Lan-
caftiire (named Leigh) (hot a mile in three flights ^ but Arfhefy.
the fame tradition ftates, that he placed himlelf in a  
very particular attitude, which cannot be ufed common¬
ly in this exercife. According to Neade, an archer might
(hoot fix arrows in the time of charging and difcharging
one mufket.
The archers confider an arrow of from 20 to 24
drop weight to be the befl; for flight or hitting a
mark at a confiderable diftance, and that yew is the
befl: material of which they can be made. As to
the feathers, that of a goofe is preferred ; it is alfo
wiftied, that the bird ftiould be two or three years
old, and that the feather may drop of itfelf. Two
out of three feathers in an arrow are commonly
white, being plucked from, the gander ; but the third
is generally brown or gray, being taken from the
goofe j and, from this difference in point of colour,
informs the archer when the arrow is properly placed.
From this moft diftinguiftied part therefore the whole
arrow fometimes receives its name : And this, by-the-
by, affords an explanation of the gray goofe wing in
the ballad of Cheviot Chafe. Arrows were armed
anciently with flint or metal heads, latterly with heads
of iron •, of thefe there were various forms and deno¬
minations, By an act of parliament made the 7th of
Henry IV. it wfas enabled, That for the future all the
heads for arrows and quarrels fhotild be well boiled or
brafed, and hardened at the points with fteel ; and
that every arrow head or quarrel ftiould have the
mark of the maker; W'orkmen difobeving this order,
were to be fined and imprifoned at the king’s will,
and the arrow heads or quarrels to be forfeited to the
crown.
Arrows were reckoned by (heaves, a ftieaf confiding GVc/" on
of 24 arrows. They were carried in a quiver, called
alfo an arrow cafe, which ferved for the magazine ;
arrows for immediate ufe were w'orn in the girdle.
In ancient times phials of quicklime, or rather com-
buftible matter, for burning houfes or (hips, were fixed
on the heads of arrows, and {hot from long bows.
This has been alfo pradlifed fince the ufe of gun¬
powder. Neade fays, he has known by experience,
that an archer may (hoot an ounce of fireworks upon
an arrow twelve fcore yards. Arrows with wildfire,
and arrows for fireworks, are mentioned among the
ftores at Newhaven and Berwick, in the ift of Ed¬
ward VI.
The force wftth which an arrow ftrikes an obje£l at a
moderate diftance, may be conceived from the account
given by King Edward VI. in his journal; wherein he
fays, that 100 archers of his guard Ihot before him two
arrows each, and afterwards altogether ; and that they
(hot at an inch board, which fome pierced quite through
and ftruck into the other board ; divers pierced it quite
through with the heads of their arrows, the board be¬
ing well-feafoned timber ; their diftance from the mark
is not mentioned.
To protect our archers from the attacks of the ene¬
my’s horfe, they carried long flakes pointed at both
ends : thefe they planted in the earth, Hoping before
them. In the ift of Edward VI. 350 of thefe were in
the ftores of the town of Berwick, under the article of
archers flakes ; there were alfo at the fame time eight
bundles of archers flakes in Pontefraff caftle.
To prevent the bowftring from ftriking the left
3 Z 2 arm,
ARC
[ S48 ]
ARC
Archery, arm, the arm is covered with a piece of fmooth leather,
'——v——'fattened on the outfide of the arm*, this is called a
tracer; and to guard the finge rs from being cut by
the bowfiring, archers wore fliooting gloves. Chaucer,
in his prologue to the Canterbury Tales, thus defcribes
an archer of his day :
And he was clade in cote and hode of grene,
A iheaf of peacock arwes bright and keenj
Under his belt he bare full thriftily :
Wei coude he dreffe his takel yewmanly,
His arwes drouped not with fetheres lowe,
And in his hand he bare a mighty bowe,
A not hed hadde he, with broune vifage,
Of wood craft coude he wel all the ulage j
Upon his arms he had a gai bracer,
And by his fide a fwerd and a bokeler,
And on the other fide a gaie daggere
Harneifed wel, and fliarp as pointe of fpere :
A criftofre on his bread of filver flrene,
A horn he bare, the baudrik was of grene,
A foreder was he fothely as I geffe.
Though archery continued to be encouraged by
the king and legiflature for more than two centu¬
ries after the fir'd knowledge of the effeds of gun¬
powder, yet by the latter end of the reign of Hen¬
ry VIII. it feems to have been partly confidered as
a padime. Arthur, the elder brother of Henry, is
faid to have been fond of this exercife, infomuch that
a good diooter was dyled Prince Arthur. We are
alfo informed, that he pitched his tent at Mile End
in order to be prefent at this recreation, and that
Henry his brother alfo attended. When the latter af¬
terwards became king, he gave a prize at Windfor to
thofe who (hould excel in this exercife ; and a capital
{hot having been made, Henry faid to Barlow (one of
his guards), “ If you dill win, you fhall be duke over
all archers.” Barlow therefore having fucceeded, and
living in Shoreditch, was created duke thereof. Upon
another occafion, Henry and the queen were met by 200
archers on Shooter’s hill, which probably took its name
from their affembling near it to dioot at marks. . Phis
king likewife gave the fird charter to the Artillery
Company in the 29th year of his reign, by which they
are permitted to wear dreffes of any colour except pur¬
ple and fearlet, to dioot not only at marks but birds, if
not pheafants or herons, and within two miles of the
royal palaces. They are alfo enjoined by the fame
charter not to wear furs of a greater price than thofe of
the martin. The mod material privilege, however, is,
that of indemnification from murder, if any perfon paf-
fing between the diooter and the mark is killed, pro¬
vided the archers have fird called out foji.
The following defcription of an archer, his bow, and
accoutrements, is given in a MS. written in the time
of Queen Elizabeth. “ Captains and ofiicers fhould be
fkilful of that mod noble weapon, and to fee that their
foldiers according to their draught-and drength have
good bowes, well nocked, well drynged, every drynge
whippe in their nocke, and in the myddes rubbed
with wax, brafer and diuting glove, fome fpare drynges
trymed as aforefaid, every man one diefe of arrows,
with a cafe of leather defenfible againd the rayne,
and in the fame fower and twentie arrowes, whereof
eight of them Ihould be lighter than the refidue, to
gall or adoyne the enemye with the haildiot of light Archery,
arrows, before they fhall come within the danger of —
the harquebufs diot. Let every man have a brigan-
dine, or a little cote of plate, a Ikuil or hulkyn, a
mawle of leade of five foote in lengthe, and a pike, and
the fame hanging by his girdle, with a hook and a
dagger ; being thus furnilhed, teach them by muders
to marche, fhoote, and retire, keepinge their faces up¬
on the enemy’s. Sumtyme put them into great nowm-
bers, as to battell apparteyneth, and thus ufe them
often times praflifed, till they be perfedfe 5 ffor thofe
men in battell ne ikirmidi can not be fpared. None
ether weapone maye compare with the fame noble wea-
pon.”
The long bow, as already obferved, maintained its
place in our armies long after the invention of fire¬
arms. Nor have there been wanting experienced fol¬
diers who were advocates for its continuance, and who
in many cafes even preferred it to the harquebufs or
mulket. King Charles I. twice granted fpecial commif-
fions under the great feal for enforcing the ufe of the
long bow. The fird was in the 4th year of his reign :
but this was revoked by proclamation four years after¬
wards, on account of divers extortions and abufes com¬
mitted under fandlion thereof. The fecond, anno 1633,
in the ninth year of his reign, to William Neade and
his fon, alfo named William, wherein the former is dy¬
led an ancient archer, who had prefented to the king a
warlike invention for uniting the ufe of the pike and
bow, feen and approved by him and his council of war ^
wherefore his majedy had granted them a commifiion
to teach and exercife his loving fubjedls in the faid in¬
vention, which he particularly recommended the chief
officers of his trained bands to learn and praftife •, and
the judices and other chief magidrates throughout Eng¬
land, are therein enjoined to ufe every means in their
power to affid Neade, his fon, and all perfons autho¬
rized by them in the furtherance, propagation, and prac¬
tice of this ufeful invention. Both the commiffions and
proclamation are printed at large in Rymer. At the
breaking out of the civil war, the earl of Edex ilTued
a precept, dated in November 1643, for dirring up all
well affefted people by benevolence, towards the rai-
fing a company of archers for the feivice of the king
and parliament.
Archery with the long bow continues to be ufed as
a manly exercife by the inhabitants of Geneva, and in
many parts of Flanders; nor is it totally neglefted in
Great Britain, There are feveral focieties of archers
in England ; the chief of which are, the Woodmen of
Arden, and the Toxopholite. But the mod noted fo-
ciety of this kind, now exiding, is .
The Royal Company of Archers in Scotland.—The '
ancient records of this Company having been dedroyed
by fire about the beginning of the lad century, no
authentic traces of their inditution now remain. It is
faid that they owe their origin to the commiffioners
appointed in the reign of James I. of Scotland for
enforcing and overfeeing the exercife of archery in dif¬
ferent counties. Thofe commiffioners, Avho were in
general men of rank and power, picking out amongd
the better fort of people under their cognizance the
mod expert archers, formed them into a company, and
upon perilous occafions made a prefent of their fervices
to the king as his chief body guards j in which fitua-
tien
Archery.
ARC r 549 ] ARC
tion they often diftinouifliecl themfelves for their loyal¬
ty, their courage, and Hull in archery. Ihis rank of
the king’s principal body guards the. Royal Company
ftiil claim, within feven miles of the metropolis of Scot¬
land.
Certain it is, that by an aft of the privy council of
Scotland, in 1677, this company was recognized under
the name and title of “ His Majefty’s Company of
Archers and by the fame aft a piece of plate of
the value of 20I. Iterling was ordered to be given to
be (hot for by them at their annual parades, called
Weapon /bawings, and to be called The King's Prize.
At this period the Royal Company conhtted, as it
does at prefent, of the principal nobility and gentry of
Scotland. But their unfortunate attachment to anti¬
revolution principles, upon that event’s taking place,
put almolt a period to their exiftence : Their public pa¬
rades or marches were difcontinued, and the royal prize
was withheld.
Upon the acceffion of Queen Anne, their former
fplendour was revived ; and in the year 1703 they ob¬
tained a royal charter, confirming in general terms all
their former rights and privileges, and conferring others
upon them. But their partiality to the family of Stuart
was at various after periods the caufe of a temporary
profperity and decline.
Thefe unhappy differences of opinion having totally
fubfided, the Royal Company are now more numerous
and flourifhing than ever, and perhaps even more dex¬
terous archers. His prefent Majelty, as a mark of his
royal patronage and approbation, has been pleaftd to
revive the royal prize, which for the firft time was (hot
for upon the 28th of July 1788 by a numerous and re-
fpeftable meeting.
The Woodmen of Arden and the Toxophilite have
lately been pleafed to admit the members of the Royal
Company to the freedom of their focieties { thefe grants
have been followed by reciprocal diplomas from the
Royal Company } fo that the three chief focielies of
archers in Britain may be faid to be now incorporated
into one.
The prizes belonging to this Company, and which
are annually {hot for, are, 1. A filver arrow, given by
the town of Muffelburgh, which appears to have been
(hot for as early as the year 1603. The viftor in this,
as in the other prizes, except the king’s prize, has the
cuftody of it for a year, then returns it with a medal
appended, on which are engraved any motto and de¬
vice which the gainer’s fancy diftates. 2. A filver
arrow given by the town of Peebles, A. D. 1626. 3. A
filver arrow given by the city of Edinburgh, A. D.
1709. 4. A filver punch bowl of about the value of
50I. made of Scottifh filver at the expence of the
Company, A. D. 1720. And, 5. The king’s prize
above mentioned, which becomes the abfolute property
of the winner. All thefe prizes are (hot for at what is
termed Rovers, the marks being placed at the diltance
of 185 yards.
Befides thefe, there is another prize annually con¬
tended for at butt or point-blank diftance, called the
Goofe. The ancient manner of (hooting for this prize
was, a living goofe was built in a turf butt, having
the head only expofed to view \ and the archer who
firft hit the goofe’s head was entitled to the goofe as his
reward. But this cuftom, on account of its barbarity,
has been long ago laid afide ; and in place of the goofe
head, a mark of about an inch diameter is affixed upon
each butt, and the archer who firft hits this mark is
captain of the butt (hooters for a year.
The affairs of the Company are managed by a prefes
and fix counfellors, who are chofen annually by the
whole members. The council are vefted with the
power of receiving or rejefting the candidates for ad-
miffion, and of appointing the Company’s officers civil
and military. ^
The Royal Company now confifts of above 1000
members, among whom are mo ft of the Scottiffi no¬
bility of the firft diftinftion. A number of the Com¬
pany meet weekly during the fummer feafon at Edin¬
burgh, in the Meadows, where they exercife themfelves
in (hooting at butts or rovers And in the adjoining
ground they have a handfome building, erefted within
thefe 1 2 years, with fuitable offices, whither they ad¬
journ after their exercife, and where they hold their
eleftions and other meetings relative to the bufinefs of
the fociety.
The uniform of the Royal Company of Archers is
tartan, lined with white, and trimmed with green and
white fringes $ a white faffi with green taffels ; and a
blue bonnet, with a St Andrew’s crofs and feathers.
The Company have twm ftandards. The firft of thefe
bears on one fide Mars and Venus encircled in a w?reath
of thiftles, with this motto, “ In peace and war.” On
the other, a yew tree, with two men dreffed and equip¬
ped as archers, encircled as the former j motto, Dat
gloria vires. The other ftandard difplays, on one fide,
a lion rampant gules, on a field or, encircled with a
wreath ; on the top, a thiftle and crown 5 motto, Ne¬
mo me impune lacejjet. On the other, St Andrew on
the crofs, on a field argent ; at the top, a crown ; mot¬
to, Dalce pro patria periculnm.
ARCHES COURT, in Engliffi ecclefiaftical polity,
is a court of appeal, belonging to the archbiffiop of
each province •, whereof the judge is called the dean of
the arches, becaufe he anciently held his court in the
church of St Mary le bow, (Sanfla Maria de arcubus'),
though all the principal fpiritual courts are now holden
at Doftors Commons. His proper jurifdiftion is only
over the 13 peculiar pariihes belonging to the archbi¬
ffiop in London ; but the office of dean of the arches
having been for a long time united with that of the
archbiffiop’s principal office, he now, in right of the
laft mentioned office, receives and determines appeals
from the fentences of all inferior ecclefiaftical courts
within the province. And from him there lies an ap¬
peal to the king in chancery (that is, to a court of de¬
legates appointed under the king’s great feal), by fta-
tute 25th Hen. VIII. c. 19. as fupreme head of the
Engliffi church, in the place o( the biffiop of Rome, who
formerly exerciftd this jurifdiftion •, which circum-
ftance alone will furnilh the reafon why the Popiffi cler¬
gy were fo anxious to feparate the fpiritual court front
the temporal.
ARCHETYPE, the firft model of a work, which
is copied after to make another like it. Among mint-
ers, it is ufed for the ftandard weight by which the
others are adjufted. The archetypal world, among
Platonifts, means the world as it exifted in the idea of
God before the vifible creation.
ARCHEUS, (from aex”; the principal, chief, or
firft
Archery
ii
Archeus.
■Archiaeo-
iythus
II
Archil.
A R G ^ [ 55
firft mover) •, a fort of primum mobile fet up by Hel-
mont, to fuperintend tbe animal economy, and pre-
ferve it. It is akin to Plato’s animn mundi. Hippo¬
crates ufes the words (Pwrig, to fignify the former
healthy date before the attack of the difeafe.
ARCHIACOLYTHQS (from c/tief, and
evcoXafos minijler), an ancient dignity in cathedral
churches : the minifters whereof were divided into four
orders or degrees, viz. priefts, deacons, fubdeacons, and
acolythi j each of which had their chiefs. The chief
of the acolythi was called archiacolythus.
ARCHIATER, Archiatrus, properly denotes
chief phyfician of a prince who retains feveral. The
word is formed of principium, “ chiefand <flST£o$,
tnedicus, a “ phyfician.”
ARCHIDAPIFER, (from and dapifer,
“ fewer,”) or chief fewer, is a great officer of the em¬
pire. The eleftor of Bavaria is archidapifen The
palatine of the Rhine at one time pretended this office
was annexed to his palatinate j but he has fince de-
fiiled.
ARCHIEROSYNES, in the Grecian antiquity, a
high pried veiled with authority over the red of the
priests, and appointed to execute the more facred and
myderious rites of religion.
ARCHIG ALLUS, in antiquity, the high pried of
Cybele, or the chief of the eunuch prieds of that god-
defs, called Ga//t.
ARCHIGERONTES (from and ysg&iy old'),
in antiquity, the chiefs or maders of the feveral com¬
panies of artificers at Alexandria. Some have mida-
ken the archigerontes for the arch prieds appointed to
take the confeffion of thofe who were condemned to the
mines.
ARCHIGUBERNUS, Archiguberneta, or Ar-
CHIGUBERN1TES, in antiquity, the commander of the
imperial drip, or that which the emperor was aboard of.
Some have confounded the office of archigubernus with
that of prafe&t/s clajfis, or admiral, but the former was
under the command of the latter. Potter takes the pro¬
per office of the archiguberneta to have been, to ma¬
nage the marine affairs, to provide commodious har¬
bours, and order all things relating to the failing of the
fleet, except what related to war.
ARCHIL, Archilla, Rocella, Orsieli.e, is a
whitifh mofs which grows upon rocks, in the Canary
and Cape de Verd iflands, and yields a rich purple tinc¬
ture, fugitive, indeed, but extremely beautiful. This
weed is imported to us as it is gathered. Thofe who
prepare it for the ufe of the dyer, grind it betwixt
dones, fo as to thoroughly bruife, but not to reduce it
into powder ; and then moilfen it occafionally with a
ffrong fpirit of urine, or urine itfelf mixed with quick¬
lime : in a few days it acquires a purpliffi red, and at
length a blue colour. In the firft it is called Archili
■in the latter, Lacmus or Litrnafe.
The dyers rarely employ this drug by itfelf, on ac¬
count of its dearnefs and the periffiablenefs of its beau¬
ty. The chief ufe they make of it is, for giving a
bloom to other colours, as pinks, &c. This is effeft-
ed by paffing the dyed cloth or filk through hot wa¬
ter ligh'lv impregnated with the archil. The bloom
thus communicated foon decays upon expofure to the
air. Mr Hellot informs us, that by the addition of a
Kttle folution of tin, the drug gives a durable dye j
o ] ARC
that its colour is at the fame time changed towards a
fear let \ and that it is the more permanent in propor¬
tion as it recedes the more from its natural colour.
Prepared archil very readily gives out its colour to
water, to volatile fpirits, and to fpirit of wine •, it is
the fubftance principally made ufe of for colouring the
fpirits of thermometers. As expofure to the air de-
ftroys its colour upon cloth, tbe exclufion of the air pro¬
duces a like effect in thefe hermetically fealed tubes,
the fpirits of large thermometers becoming in the com-
pafs of a few years colourltfs. M. PAbbe Nollet ob-
ferves (in the French Memoirs for the year 1742),
that the colourlefs fpirit, upon breaking the tube, foon
refumes its colour, and this for a number of times fuc-
ceffivdy ; that a watery timfture of archil, included
in the tubes of thermometers, loft its colour in three
days; and that, in an open deep veffel, it became
colourlefs at the bottom, while the upper part retained
its colour. See COLOUR-Making.
A folution of archil in water, applied on cold mar¬
ble, ftains it of a beautiful violet or purplifli blue colour,
far more durable than the colour which it communi¬
cates to other bodies. M. du Fay fays he has feen
pieces of marble ftained with it, which in two years
had fuffered no fenfible change. It finks deep into the
marble, fometimes above an inch •, and at the fame
time fpreads upon the furface, unlefs the edges be
bounded by wax or other like lubftances. It feems to
make the marble fomewhat more brittle.
Linnaeus informs us, in the Swediffi Tranfadions for
the year 174^> that the true archil mofs is to be
found on the weftern coafts of England.
ARCHILOCHI AN, a term in poetry, applied to
a fort of verfes, of which Archilochus was the inventor,
confilling of feven feet *, the four firft whereof are ordi¬
narily daclyls, though fometimes fpondees j the three
laft trochees, as in Horace,
Solvitur acris hyems, grata vice veris et Favoni.
ARCHILOCHUS, a famous Greek poet and mu-
fician, was, according to Herodotus, cotemporary with
Candaules and Gyges, kings of Lydia, who flourilhed
about the 14th Olympiad, 724 years before Chrift.
But he is placed much later by modern ehronologifts ;
viz. by Blair 686, and by Prieftley 660 years, before
Chrift.
He was born at Paros, one of the Cyclades. His fa¬
ther Teleficles was of fo high a rank, that he was cho-
fen by his countrymen to confult the oracle at Del-
phos concerning the fending a colony to Thafos : a
proof that he was of one of the moft diftinguilhed fa¬
milies upon the ifland. However, he is faid to have
fullied his birth by an ignoble marriage with a flave
called Enipo, of which alliance our poet mufician was
the fruit.
Though Archilochus fhowed an early genius and at¬
tachment to poetry and mufic, thefe arts did not pre¬
vent his going into the army, like other young men of
his birth •, but in the firft engagement at which he was
prefent, the young poet, like Horace, and like our own
Suckling, loft his buckler, though he faved his life by
the help of his heels. It is much eajier, faid he, to get
a new buckler than a new exijlence. This pleafantry,
however, did not fave his reputation *, nor could his
poetrv or prayers prevail upon Lycambes, the father
r ' ' of
Archil
II
Archilo¬
chus.
ARC [ 551 ] ARC
Archilo- of his raiftrcfs, to let him marry his daughter, though
* elms. lire had been long promifed to him. After thefe mor-
v ' tifieations, his life feems to have been one continued
titfue of difgrace and refentment.
Archilochutn proprio rabies armavit iamlo.
Hor. Art. Poet. 79.
Archilochus, with fierce refentment warm’d,
Was with his own fevere iambics arm’d. Francis.
The rage of Archilochus was proverbial in antiquity j
which compared the provoking this fatirift to the tread¬
ing upon a ferpent: A comparifon not very fevere, if
it be true that Lycambes, and, as fome fay, his three
daughters, were fix mortified by his fatire, as to be
driven to the confolation of a halter.
In this piece, many adventures are mentioned, full
of defamation, and out of the knowledge of the pu¬
blic. There were likewife many loofe paffages in it5
and it is faid to have been on account of this fatire
that the Lacedgemonians laid a prohibition on his
Vat Max- verfes *.
. vi. c. 3. However, according to Plutarch, there is no bard of
antiquity by whom the two arts of poetry and mufic
have been fo much advanced as by Archilochus. To
him is attributed particularly the fudden tranfition from
one rhythm to another of a different kind, and the
manner of accompanying thofe irregular meafures upon
the lyre. Heroic poetry, in hexameter verfe, feems to
have been folely in ufe among the more ancient poets
and muficians j and the tranfition from one rhythm to
another, which lyric poetry required, was unknown to
them } fo that if Archilochus was the firft author of
this mixture, he might with propriety be ftyled the
Inventor of Lyric Poetry, which, after his time, became
a fpecies of verfification wholly diftindl from heroic.—
To him is likewife aferibed the invention of Fpodes.
See Erode.
Our poet-mufician is generally ranked among the
firft. viftors at the Pythic games: and we learn from
Pindar, that his mufe was not always a termagant j
for though no mortal efcaped her rage, yet flie was at
times fufficiently tranquil and pious to didlate hymns
in praife of the gods and heroes. One in particular,
written in honour of Hercules, acquired him the ac¬
clamations of all Greece j for he lung it in full affem-
bly at the Olympic games, and had the fatisfadtion of
receiving from the judges the crown of vidlory confe-
crated to real merit. This hymn, or ode, was after¬
wards fung in honour of every vidlor at Olympia, who
had no poet to celebrate his particular exploits.
Archilochus was at laft {lain by one Callondax Co¬
rax, of the ifland of Naxos j who, though he did it in
fight, according to the laws of war, was driven out of
the temple of Delphi, by command of the oracle, for
having deprived of life a man confecrated to the
Mufes.
The names of Homer and Archilochus were equally
revered and celebrated in Greece, as the two moft ex¬
cellent poets which the nation had ever produced. This
appears from an epigram in the Anthologia ; and from
Cicero, who ranks him with poets of the firft clafs-, and
in his Epiftles tells us, that the grammarian Ariftopha-
nes, the moft rigid and fcrupulous critic of bis time,
ufed to fay, that the longeft poem of Archilochus al- Arc-hima-
ways appeared to him the moft excellent. gus
ARCHIMAGUS, the high prieft of the Perfian J!
Magi or worfhippers of fire. He refided in the high-
eft fire temple ; which was held in the fame veneration ..i ■ .i
with them as the temple of Mecca among the Maho¬
metans. Zoroafter firft fettled it at Balch ; but after
the Mahometans had overrun Perfia in the 7th cen¬
tury, the Archimagus was forced to remove from thence
into Kerman, a province of Perfia, lying on the fimth-
ern ocean, where it hath continued to this day. Da¬
rius Hyftafpes took upon himfelf the dignity of Ar¬
chimagus : for Porphyry tells us, he ordered before
his death, that, among the other titles, it ftiould be en¬
graven on his monument, that he had been Mafer of
the Magi; which plainly implies that he had borne
this office among them, for none but the Archimagus
was mafter of the whole fedl. From hence it feems to
have proceeded, that the kings of Perfia were ever after
looked on to be of the facerdotal tribe, and were always
initiated into the facred order of the Magi, before they
took on them the crown, and were inaugurated into the
kingdom.
Archimandrite, in ecciefiafticai inftory,
was a name given by the ancient Chriftians to what
w'e now call an abbot. Father Simon obferves, that
the word mandrite is Syriac, and fignifies a folitary
monk.
ARCHIMEDES, one of the moft eminent of the
ancient mathematicians, was born at Syracufe in Sici¬
ly, about the year 180 before the Chriftian era. Hie-
ro, king of Syracufe, deemed it an honour to have
this philofopher for his relative and friend. Hiftory
does not inform us, to whom he was indebted for the
rudiments of literature, but he flouriffied about 50
years after Euclid. It is reported, that he was in¬
debted to Egypt for much of his knowledge *, but
other accounts indicate, that he conferred more know¬
ledge than he received from that celebrated nation j
and, in particular, Diodorus mentions, that Egypt
was indebted to him for the invention of the ferew-
pump, for drawing off water. And the fi-me author
narrates, that he was the inventor of feveral other ufe-
ful machines, which conveyed his fame to every quar¬
ter of the globe. The following paflage from Livy,
proves, that he was dexterous both for the inventing
warlike machines, and alfo for his accurate obferva-
tion of the heavenly bodies: “ Unicus fpe&ator cseli'
fiderumque, mirabilior tamen inventor ac machina-
tor bellicorum tormentorum,” &c. lib. xxiv. It ap¬
pears alfo, that in Cicero’s time, he had become pro¬
verbial for his {kill in folving problems. In a letter to
Atticus, he informs him, that he is now freed from
a difficulty, which he termed an Archimedian problem,
lib. xiii. ep. 28.
It may perhaps be impoffible diftinftly to afeertain
the different inventions of this great man ; but from
the following paffage, it appears that he formed zg/afs
fyhere, or fome kind of planetarium, which, with no
fmall degree of accuracy, reprefented the phenomena
of the heavenly bodies. Hence fays Claudian
Jupiter, in parvo cum cerneret cethera vitro.
Pi/it, et ad fuperos talia dicla dedit;
IIuccine>
ARC [
Archime- Uuccine mortalis prog reflet potentia cur* ?
des. Jam meus in fragile ludetur orbe labor.
t Jura poll, rerumque fdem, legefque dec rum,
Ecce Syracofius tranflulit artifenex.
Inclufus variis famulatur fpiritus aflris,
Et verum certis motibus urget opus.
Percurrit proprium mentitus flgmfer annum.
Et funulata novo Cynthia menfe redit.
Jamque fuurn volvens audax indujlria mundum
Gaudet, et hutnana ftdera mente regit.
Quid faflo infontem tonitru Salmonea miror ?
Emula naturce parva reperta manus.
“ When in a glak’s narrow fphere confin’d,
Jove faw the fabric of th’ Almighty mind \
He frail’d, and faid, ‘ Can mortals art alone
Our heav’nly labours mimic with their own ?
The Syracufan’s brittle work contains
Th’ eternal law that through all nature reigns.
Fram’d by his art, fee ftars unnumber’d burn,
And in their courfes rolling orbs return >
His fun, through various figns deferibe the year,
And every month his mimic moons appear.
Our rival’s laws his little planets bind,
And rule their motions by a human mind :
Salmoneus could our thunder imitate;
But Archimedes can a world create.”
In the following lines the fame machine is mention¬
ed by Ovid.
Arte Syracojia fufpenfus in acre claufo,
Stat globus, immenji parva flgura poll.
Ovid, Faft. vi. 277.
Vitruvius mentions a fa£t, which proves Archime¬
des’s knowledge in the doftrine of fpecific gravity.
Hiero, the king, having given a certain quantity of
gold wherewith to make a.golden crown, and fufpeft-
ing that the workmen had ftolen pait of the gold and
fubftituted filver in its ftead, he applied to Archimedes
to employ his ingenuity in detefting the fraud. Rumi¬
nating upon this fubject when he was bathing himfelf,
he obferved that he diflodged a quantity of water
eorrefponding to the bulk of his own body ; therefore,
inftantly quitting the bath with all the eagernefs natu¬
ral to an inventive mind upon a new difeovery, he run
into the ftreets naked, erving, Ev^kx! Ev^Kce ! / have
found it outl I have found it out! L'hen taking one mafs
of gold and another of filver, each equal in weight to
the crown ; he carefully obferved the quantity of fluid
which they alternately difplaced, when introduced in
the fame veffel full of water. Next he afeertained how
much water was difplaced by the crown when put into
the fame veflel full of water ; and, upon comparing
the three quantities together, he afeertained the exafl
proportions of gold and filver, of which the crown was
compofed.
Archimedes was well acquainted with the mechanb
cal powers. His celebrated faying with regard to the
power of the lever has been often repeated, “ Give
me a place to ftand upon, and I will move the earth.”
In order to (hew Hiero the effttt of mechanical
powers, it is faid, that aided by ropes and pulleys, he
drew towards him a galley, which lay on the (bore
manned and loaded : but the difplays of his mechani¬
cal (kill mentioned by Marcellus at the fiege of Syra-
552 ] ARC
cufe, were long deemed almoft incredible j until the Archinye*
after improvements in mechanics have demonflrated des.
them practicable. He haraffed the veffels of the be- r—
fiegers, both when they approached and kept at a di-
flance from the city. When they approached, he
funk them by means of long and huge beams of wood ;
or, by means of grappling hooks placed at the extremi¬
ty of levers, he hoifted up the veifels into the air, and
dalhtd them to pieces either againlt the walls or the
rocks. When the enemy kept at a diftance, he em¬
ployed machines which threw from the walls fuch a
quantity of ftones as (hattered and deftroyed their vef¬
fels. In (hort, his mechanical genius fupplied tlrength
and courage to the city, and filled the Romans with
aftonifhment and terror. Until Buffon invented and
frame'd a burning glafs, compofed ot about 400 glafs
planes, capable of fetting fire to wood at the diftance of
200 feet, and of melting lead and tin at the diftance of
120 feet, and filver at the diftance of 50 j the account
of Archimedes’s inftrument for burning (hips at a great
diftance by means of the rays of the fun, was deemed
fabulous and impoflible.
But, however eminent for mechanical invention,
he was (till more eminent for the inveftigation of ab-
ftraft truths ; and the formation of conclufive demon-
ftratiuns in the branches of pure geometry. Plutarch
alfo mentions, that Archimedes himfelf efteemed me¬
chanical invention greatly inferior in value to thofe
fpeculations which convey irrefiftiblt convi&ion to the
mind. His geometrical works afford numerous proofs
of his fuccefs in this field of fcience. It is reported,
that he was often fo deeply engaged in mathematical
fpeculations, as both to negleft his food and the care
of his perfon ; and at the bath he w< uld fometimes
draw geometrical figures in the afties, and fometimes
upon his own body when it was anointed, according
to the cuftom of that time. He valued himfelf fo much
upon the difeovery of the ratio between the fphere and
the containing cylinder, that, indifferent to all his other
inventions, he ordered his friends to engrave upon his
tomb a cylinder’containing a fphere, with an infeription
explanatory of its nature and ufe.
It muft be extremely paintul to every humane mind',
but particularly to every lover of philofophic merit, to
learn, that when Syracufe was taken by (Wm, he,
being ignorant of that faft, was run through the body,
when engaged in drawing a geometrical figure upon
the fand. As Marcellus had given exprefs orders that
both his perfon and his houfe fhouid be held faertd J
this appears to have happened through ignorance, and
therefore removes a great part of the odium from the
Roman name. This mournful event happened.in the
I42d Olympiad, or 212 years before the Chriiiian era.
Marcellus, in the midft of his triumphant laurels, la¬
mented the death of Archimedes, conferred upon him
an honourable burial, and took his furviving relations
under his prote&ton; but greater honour was confer¬
red upon him when the philofopher of Arpinum, 140
years after, went in fearch of his long-neglefted tomb.
Hence, fays Cicero, “ I diligently (ought to difeover
the fepulchre of Archimedes, which the Syracufans
had totally neglefteiS, and fuffered to be overgrown
with thorns and briers. Recollefting feme verfes,
faid to be inferibed on the tomb, which mentioned,
that on the top was placed a fphere with a cylinder,
ARC [ 553 ] ARC
Ardiime- looked round me upon every obje£l at the Agrigen-
des. tine gate, the common receptacle of the dead. At
**~~Y~**~ laft I obferved a little column which juft rofe above
the thorns, upon which was placed the figure of a
fphere and cylinder. ‘ This,’ faid I to the Syracufan
nobles who were with me, ‘ This muft, I think, be
what I am feeking.’ Several perfons were immedi¬
ately employed to clear away the weeds, and lay
open the fpot. As foon as a paflage was opened, we
drew near, and found on the oppofite bafe the in-
fcription, with nearly half the latter part of the verfes
worn away. Thus would this moft famous, and for¬
merly moft learned, city of Greece have remained a
ftranger to the tomb of one of its moft ingenious ci¬
tizens, had it not been difcovered by a man of Arpi-
num.”
Several works of this moft celebrated mathematician
have efcaped the wreck of time. Of ahftraft geometry
we have a treatife “ on the Sphere and Cylinder,” an¬
other “ on the Dimenfion of the Circle, or the Propor¬
tion between the Diameter and the Circumference; on
Obtufe Conoids and Spheroids j on Spiral Lines ; and
on the (Quadrature of the Parabola.” Of his mechanics
Archimedes has left a “ Treatife on Equiponderants,
or Centres of Gravity ;” and in hydroftatics, a “ Trea¬
tife concerning Bodies floating on Fluids j” and a geo¬
metrical piece, entitled Ajjumpta or Lemmata. His
other works are either loft or remain unpublifhed.
(Gen. Biog.)
ARCHIPELAGO, in Geography, a general term Arch:>-
fignifying a fea interrupted with iflandsj it is however
more efpecially applied to that lying between Europe Arcv)!eii
and Afia, which contains the illands anciently called , . “ mm^m
Cijclades and Sporades. See thefe two words.
ARCHIPHERACITAi,, minifters in the Jewifli fy-
nagogues appointed to read and interpret the Perakim,
or titles and heads of the law and the prophets.
ARCHPRESBYTER, or Archpriest,a prieft efta.
blilhed in fome diocefes with a fuperiorily over the reft.
He was anciently chofen out of the college of prelbyters
at the pleafure of the bilhop. Thefe arch prelbyters
were of much the fame nature with deans in the cathe¬
dral churches, as the college of prclbyters anfwers to
the chapter. See Presbyter.
ARCHISYNAGOGUS, the chief of the fyna-
gogue ; the title of an officer among the Jews, who
prefided in their fynagogues and aflemblies. The num¬
ber of thefe officers was not fixed, nor the fame in all
placesthere being 70 in fome, and in others only
one. They are fometimes called princes of the fyna
gogue, and had a power of excommunicating fuch as
deferved that punilhment.
ARCHITECT, a perfon (killed in architecture, or
the art of building; who forms plans and defigns for
edifices, condu&s the work, and direCts the feveral ar¬
tificers employed in it. The word is derived from
princeps, and rucrm, faber, “ workman j” q. d
the principal workman.
A R C H I T
TN the utmoft latitude of the word, fignifies the art of
building in general j but the term is moft frequent¬
ly applied only to the conftruClion of fuch buildings as
are neceffary for the purpofes of civil life, fuch as houfes,
churches, halls, bridges, porticos, &c.
Hijlory of ArchiteBure.
The origin of this art, like that of moft others, is
totally unknown. We are affured, however, that it is
as old as Cain ; for Mofes tells us that he built a city ;
though what were the materials, or how the buildings
were conftrufted, we are entirely ignorant. It is com¬
monly faid, that the firft materials employed in build¬
ing were branches and tvVigs of trees, wherewith men
1 conftrufted huts j fuch as the wigwams in ufe among
Materials the American Indians at prefent. This, however, ap-
Juildinn Pears difputable. The natural (belter afforded by hol-
lows in the fides of mountains or rocks, it may be fup-
pofed, would much more readily fuggeft the idea of
ufing ftones and earth as materials for building houfes.
Indeed, confidering that tents were not invented before
the days of jabal, Tubal Cain’s brother, it is very pro¬
bable that fuch temporary houfes as the Indian wig¬
wams were not originally known ; otherwife the me¬
thod of covering poles with the Ikins of beafts, inftead
of fmall branches or twigs, muft very foon have taken
place. Thefe temporary houfes feem to have come in¬
to ufe only when men began to lead an idle wandering
Vol. II. Part II.
E C T U R E,
life, like the Tartars, and could not be at the trouble
of conftrudling durable habitations in every place where
they were obliged to wander with their cattle; and Ja¬
bal perhaps from them took the hint of making portable
houfes or tents. Accordingly we fee, that no nations,
except thofe who are in a perpetually unfettled ftate,
make ufe of fuch wretched materials. Even in Ame¬
rica, where the human race has appeared in the rudeft
form, they were no fooner colledled into great bodies
under the emperors of Mexico and Peru, than ftone
buildings began to be erected.
We are not, therefore, to look for the origin of ar-
chite&ure in any fingle nation ; but in every nation,
when the inhabitants began to leave off their favage
way of life, and to become civilized : and if there is
any nation to be found which hath been always in a ci¬
vilized ftate, we may be affured that architedlure hath
always had an exiftance there. But whatever may be
in this, the origin of regular buildings hath been de¬
duced from the conftrudlion of the meaneft huts in a
very natural and plaufible manner by feveral authors.
“ Anciently (fays Vitruvius) men lived in woods,
and inhabited caves ; but in time, taking perhaps ex¬
ample from birds, who with great induftry build their 2
nefts, they made themfelves huts. At firft they made Primitive
thefe huts, very probably, of a conic figure ; becaufe ^uts‘
that is a figure of the fimpleft ftru&ure ; and, like the XXXVIT
birds, whom they imitated, compofed them of branches fig, It
df trees, fpreading them wide at the bottom, and join-
/ 4 A ing
554
architecture.
Hiftory,
Fiff. 2.
ing them in a point at the top •, covering the whole
with reeds, leaves, and clay, to fcreen them from tern*
„ pells and rain.
Their im- “ But finding the conic figure inconvenient on ac-
provement. count of its inclined fides, they changed both the form
and conftru&ion of their huts, giving them a cubical
figure, and building them in the following manner :
Having marked out the fpace to be occupied by the
hut, they fixed in the ground feveral upright trunks
of trees to form the fides, filling the intervals between
them with branches clofely interwoven and covered
with clay. The fides being thus completed, four large
beams were placed on the upright trunks •, which, be¬
ing well joined at the angles, kept the fides firm, and
like wife ferved to fupport the covering or roof of the
building, compofed of many joifts, on which were laid
feveral beds of reeds, leaves, and clay.
“ Infenfibly mankind improved in the art of build¬
ing, and invented methods to make their huts lalling^
and handfome as well as convenient. They took off
the bark, and other unevenneffes, from the trunks of the
trees that formed the fides : raifed them, probably above
the dirt and humidity, on Hones •, and covered each
of them with a flat {tone or Hate, to keep off the rain.
The fpaces between the ends of the joiils were doled
with clay, wax, or fome other fubftance ; and the ends
of the joilts covered with thin boards cut in the man¬
ner of triglyphs. The pofition of the roof was like-
wife altered : for being, on account of its flatnefs, un¬
fit to throw off the rains that fell in great abundance ,
during the winter feafon, they raifed it in the middle •,
.riving it the form of a gable roof, by placing rafters on
the joifts, to fupport the earth and other materials that
compofed the covering. _
“ From this fimple conftru&ion the orders of archi-
tedure took their rife. For when buildings of wood
were let afide, and men began to ereft folid and (late¬
ly edifices of ftone, they imitated the parts which ne-
ceftity had introduced into the primitive huts ; info-
much that the upright trees, with the ftones at each
end o{ them, were the origin of columns, bafes, and ca¬
pitals, and the beams, joifts, rafters, and ftrata of ma¬
terials that formed the covering^ gave birth to archi¬
traves, frizes, triglyphs, and cornices, with the corona,
the mutules, the modillions, and the dentils.
“ The firft buildings were in all likelihood rough
and uncouth 5 as the men of thofe times had neither
experience nor tools : but when, by long experience
and reafoning upon it, the artifts had eftabliined cer¬
tain rules, had invented many inftruments, and by great
praftice had acquired a facility in executing their ideas,
they made quick advances towards perfeflion, and at
length difcovered certain manners of building, which
fucceeding ages have regarded with the higheft venera-
tion.” . . „ . , „
Among the ancient Egyptians, Affynans, and rer-
rhi ecture fians, this art was carried to an incredible length,
among the The pyramids of Egypt are fuch ftruaures as wou d
Egyptians, exceed the power of the moft potent monarch on earth
to raife at this day. The largeft of thefe, according
to the account of M. Goguet, is near 500 feet high
and contains 313,590 folid fathoms It is compofed
of ftones enormouflv large 5 many of them being 30
feet long, four feet 'high, and three m breadth ; and
all this huge mafs ef building was coated over with
Fig- 3-
fquare flags of marble.—The ftruaure called the laby¬
rinth, in the fame country, according to Herodotus,
who faw it, excelled every thing which he could have
conceived from the imagination either of himfelf or
others. Within the fame circuit of walls they had en-
clofed 3000 halls, 12 of which were of a Angular form
and beauty 5 and of thefe, half were above, and half
below ground 5 and the whole was terminated by a py¬
ramid 40 fathoms high. All this prodigious mafs of
building was compofed of white marble, and the walls
were adorned with engravings.—The obelifks were not
lefs aftonifliing ; the largeft of them being entire pieces
of granite, no lefs than 180 feet high.—Near Andera,
in Upper Egypt, are the ruins of a palace of gray gra¬
nite, the ceilings of which are fupported by columns of
fuch thicknefs, that four men can fcarcely fathom them.
The ceilings themfelves are compofed of ftones of the
fame kind, fix or feven feet in breadth and 18 feet in
length. The grand hall is 112 feet long, 60 high, and
58 broad. The roof of the whole edifice is a terrace,
on which the Arabs formerly built a very large village,
the ruins of which are ftill vifible. » ^ v
Among the Babylonians and Perfians, too, fuch im-Amongth*
menfe piles of building have been raifed, as appear ut- ^ jnd
terly inconceivable and incredible to many, modern au- perfians,
thors, where their former grandeur is not demonftrable
by ruins vifible at this day. The ruins of Perfepolis,
the ancient capital of Perfia, were fo ftupendous in the
time of Avicenna the Arab phyfician, that his courr-
trymen could not believe fuch ftruaures poflible to be
crofted but by evil fpirits. Of their extraordinary
magnificence, indeed, we may have feme idea from the
account of the ftaircafes belonging to the palace. 1 he
remains, feme time ago, confifted of 95 fteps of white .
marble, fo broad and flat, that 12 horfes might conve¬
niently go up abreaft. . . <>
In thefe vaft ftrudures, however, the nations oi whom Their
we fpeak feem to have regarded the greatnefs, rather bmldiBgs
than the elegance or ufefulnefs of their works. In ^ ma^able
pyramids and obelilks of Egypt this is exceeding y forgreat.
confpicuous } but whethef it was fe in the labyrinth or nefsthan
in the palace at Thebes above mentioned, it is. impof- elegance,
fible to determine, unlefs the buildings were entire, and
we knew for what purpofe they had been defigned. It
the kings who built the pyramids defigned to immor¬
talize their memories by building, they certainly could
not have fallen upon any thing more proper for this
purpofe ; though even in this they have fomehow or
other failed, the names of thofe who erefled them not
being certainly known even in the time of Herodotus,
x. • , • 1   tUot npitlipr the ancient Ailv-
4
State of ar¬
chitecture
being certainly known even in tne ume 01 iiciuuutua. ?
It is certain, however, that neither the ancient Afly-ignorant
rians nor Babylonians knew the method of couftruft-the ufeoj
ing arches. The roofs of all their halls were flat, and^h >
covered with prodigioufly large ftones, feme of them
fe big as to cover a whole room fingly. Their manner
of building was alfo quite deftiUite of what is now
called tajle; the columns were ill proportioned, and
their capitals executed in the pooreft^ manner imagin¬
able. This was obierved by the Greeks, who im¬
proved upon the proportions formerly ufed, and were
the inventors of three of the five orders of archite.aure, g
viz. the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. “ Anciently and of f
(fays Vitruvius) they were ignorant of the art of pro-P^H
portioning the various parts of a building : they ufed
columns; but they cut them at hazard, without rules,
' without.
555
Hiftory.
A n C H I T
Origin of
the Doric
order.
TO
Of the Io¬
nic.
ii
Hints of im.
provement
probably
taken from
I |Solomon’s
temple.
■without principles, ami without having any attention
to the proportions which they ought to give them :
they placed them likewife without any regard to the
other parts of the edifice. Dorus, fon of Helen and
grandfon of Deucalion, having caufed a temple to be
built at Argos in honour of Juno, that edifice was
found by chance to be conftruCted according to the
tafte and proportions of the order which afterwards
they called Doric. The form of this building having
appeared agreeable, they conformed to it in the con-
ftruftion of edifices which they afterwards had to
build.
“ About the fame time, the Athenians fent into A-
fia a colony under the conduct of Ion, nephew of Do¬
rus : this undertaking had very good fuccefs. Ion
feized on Caria, and there founded many cities : thefe
new inhabitants thought to build temples. They pro-
pofed for a model that of Juno at Argos : but, igno¬
rant of the proportion which they ought to give to the
columns, and in general to the whole edifice, they
fought for rules capable of regulating their operaiion.
Thefe people wanted, in making their columns fuffi-
ciently ftrong to fupport the whole edifice, to render
them at the fame time agreeable to the fight. For this
purpofe, they thought to have given it the fame propor¬
tion that they found between the foot of a man and the
reft of his body. According to their ideas, the foot
made a fixth part of the human height: in confequence,
they gave at firft to a Doric column, taking in its cha¬
piter, fix of its diameters 5 that is to fay, they made it
fix times as high as it was thick : afterwards they added
to it a feventh diameter.
“ This new order of architecture was not long in
giving birth to a fecond : they would immediately go
beyond the firft invention. The lonians tried to
throw ftill more delicacy and elegance into their edifi¬
ces. They employed the fame method which they had
before put in practice for the compofition of the Doric
order : but inftead ©f taking for a model the body of a
man, the lonians were regulated by that of a woman.
With a view to make the columns of this new order
more agreeable and more pleafing, they gave them
eight times as much height as they had diameter.
They alfo made channellings all along the trunk, to imi¬
tate the folds of the robes of women : the volutes of
the chapiter reprefented that part of the hair which
hung in curls on each fide of the face. The lonians
added, laftly, to thefe columns a bafe, which was not
in ufe in the Doric order.” According to Vitruvius,
thefe bafes were made in the manner of twifted cords,
as a kind of cafe for the columns. This order of ar¬
chitecture was called Ionic, from the name of the people
who had invented it.
Such is the account given by Vitruvius of the origin
of improvements in the proportion of columns. Had
thefe improvements, however, exifted in fuch early
times, Homer, who was greatly pofterior to them, would
certainly have made mention of fomething of that kind $
but in all his writings he gives us no account of any
thing like a column of ftone, but ufes a word which
■ would rather incline us to think that his columns were
nothing more than bare polls.
It is remarkable, that improvements in architeClure
did not take place in any nation till after, or about, the
time that Jerufalem was taken by Nebuchadnezzar.
E C T U R E.
The grandeft buildings ereCled among the Aflyrians
feem to have owed their exiftence to-this monarch j and
it can fcarce be imagined that he would not endeavour
to imitate the architcClure of Solomon’s temple, to
which, by his conqueft of Jerufalem, he had full accefs.
It is alfo remarkable, that the dimenfions of the two
pillars, Jachin and Boaz, fetup by Solomon, very nearly
correfpond with thofe of the Doric order, firft invented
by the Greeks, and which originally came from then-
colonies fettled in Afia Minor. The height of Solo¬
mon’s pillars, without the chapiter, was 18 cubits;
that of the chapiter itfelf was five cubits ; the circum¬
ference was i 2 cubits; from whence, according to the
Scripture language, we may reckon the diameter to
have been exaftly four cubits. Had they been a fingle
cubit higher, they would have been precifely of tiie
fame height with column? of the original Doric order.
We do not indeed mean to aflert, that this famous tem¬
ple gave a model of archite&ure to the whole world ;
although it is fcarce conceivable but imitations of it, as
far as it could be known, muft have taken place among
many nations. I2
Notwithftanding all their defefls, however, the E-Egyptian
gyptian buildings undoubtedly had an air of vaft gran-banqueting-
deur and magnificence, if we may credit the defcription ^e*
given of one of their banqueting rooms by Vitruvius.
The ufual fize of one of thefe rooms was from 100 to
150 feet in length, and its breadth fomewhat more
than half its length. At the upper end, and along the
two fides, they placed rows of pillars tolerably well
proportioned to one another, though not of any regu¬
lar order ; and at the lower part they made a magnifi¬
cent and fpacious entrance : this, with its ornaments,
feems to have taken up one end of the building entire.
We are not told that there were any pillars there ;
though perhaps they placed two or more toward the
angles on each fide, for uniformity, the central fpace
being enough for an entrance in the grandeft and moft
auguft manner. Thofe rows of columns were fet at a
diftance from the wall, forming a noble portico along
the two fides and upper end of the building. Upon the
pillars was laid an architrave ; and from this was carried
up a continued wall with three quarter columns, an-
fwering dire&ly to thofe below, and in proportion one-
fourth fmaller in all their parts. Between thefe three
quarter columns were placed the windows for enlighten¬
ing the building. From the tops of the lower pillars to
the wall was laid a floor ; this covered the portico over¬
head within, and made on the eutfide a platform, which
was furrounded by a corridor with rails and ballufters.
This was terraced, and ferved as a plain for people to
walk on; and from this they could look through the
windows down into the room. To this terrace there
was no covering required, as the Egyptians were in no
fear of rain. The Egyptians decorated this fort of
building with ftatues; and no kind of ornament could
anfwer it fo well, as the light cannot fall upon ftatues
to fuch advantage in any dire&ion, as when it comes
from above, in fuch a regular, proportioned, and unin¬
terrupted manner. ^
We have already taken notice, that among the an- Ancient ar-
cient Egyptians, Perfians, and Babylonians, the vaft chite<fture
and extent of their buildings feems to have Superior in
at they chiefly valued ; and in this they cer* the mode/r*
tainly as much excelled the Greeks and modern nations,
4 A 2 as
ftrength
been wl
556
as the latter excel them in the beautiful proportion
and elegance of their ftru&ures. There are not want¬
ing, however, fome modern authors, who endeavour to
deprive the ancients of what is juftly their due, and
■will have every thing to be exaggerated which feems
beyond the power of modern princes to accomplilh. In
this way M. Goguet remarkably diftinguilhes himfelf •,
and that without giving any reafon at all, but merely
that he takes it into his head. Speaking of the won¬
ders of ancient Babylon, “ All thefe works (fays he),
fo marvellous in the judgment of antiquity, appear to
me to have been extremely exaggerated by the authors
■who have fpoken of them. How can we conceive, in
effeft, that the walls of Babylon could have been 318
feet high, and 81 in thicknefs, in a compafs of near
ten leagues ?” To this we may eafily reply, that the
pyramids of Egypt, and the immenfe wall which di¬
vides China from Tartary, Ihow us, that even fuch a
■work as the wall of ancient Babylon is faid to have
been is not altogether incredible. The loweft com¬
putation of the dimenfions of the Chinefe wall is, that
it extends in length 1200 miles, is 18 feet high at a
medium and as many thick-, according to which com¬
putation, it muft contain 9,504,000 folid fathoms-,
and yet, if we may credit the Chinefe hiftorians, this
immenfe mafs of building was finilhed in five years. If
therefore we can fuppofe Nebuchadnezzar, «r whoever
fortified the city of Babylon, to have been capable of
employing as many men for ten years as were employ¬
ed in raifing the Chinefe wall, we may fuppofe him
able to have fortified the city of Babylon as ftrongly as
it is faid to have been ; for the mafs of building is not
quite double that of the Chinefe wall, though nearly
fo, amounting to 18,189,600 folid fathoms. When
our author afterwards gafconades about the works of
the French king, it is difficult to avoid laughter at
hearing him declare, that “ infinitely more money has
been expended, and much more genius required, as
well as more power, tafte, and time, to finiffi Verfailles,
with all its defeas, than to conftrua a pyramid, or
erea an obeliik.” The genius, tafte, and time, we
fhall not difpute j but as the fame author cenfeffes that
100,000 men were employed for 30 years together in
the conftruaion of the largeft pyramid, we think the
power may juftly be doubted. I his doubt will appear
ftill the more reafonable, when we confider what time
the above-mentioned number of men would have taken
to accompliffi fome of the works of which. M. Goguet
boafts fo much. 1 he canal of Languedoc, he tells us,
extends in length upwards of 70 leagues, and required
the removal of two millions of cubic fathoms of earth.
This was no doubt a great work-, but had 100,030
men been employed upon it at once, they muft have
removed this quantity of earth in three weeks, fuppof-
ing each to have removed only a fingle fathom a-day.
Nor can we imagine, that any modern work will at
all ftand in competition with the works of the ancients
ate to greatnefs, whatever they may do in other re-
fpe&s.
V4 As to the improvements in architecture, the Greeks
ture impro- were undoubtedly the firft European nation who began
ved by the to diftinguilh themfelves in this way. Whence they
Greeks. took tbe hint of improvement, we have no means
of knowing -, though, as we have4already hinted, it is
jfgarce credible but that Solomon’s temple muft have
2
ARCHITECTURE. . Hiftory.
fomewhat contributed thereto j efpecially as we learn
from Scripture, that the capitals of the columns there
were ornamented in the richeft manner. I he origin of
the Doric and Ionic orders we have already given an
account of from Vitruvius } to which we may add, that
the volutes, which are the peculiar ornament of the Io¬
nic capital, are by fome faid to reprefent the natural
curling down of a piece of bark from the top of a
beam, which is fuppofed to have been the firft kind of 15 !
column. The Corinthian order was not invented till°”S^
long after the others, and is faid to have taken its ri^e th*anU0™r.
from the following accident : A bafket had been fet
upon the ground, and covered with a fquare tile -, there
grew near it a plant of acanthus or bear’s breech j the
leaves fhot up and covered the outer furface of the
balket -, and, as the ftalks rofe up among them, they
foon reached the tile which overhung the edges of the
bafket at the top j this flopping their courfe upwards,
they curled and twifted themfelves into a kind of vo¬
lutes. In this fituation a fculptor, Callimachus, faw it}
the twifted part of the ftalk reprefented to him the vo¬
lutes of the Ionic capital, which, as they were here
fmaller, and more numerous, appeared in a new form :
he faw the beauty of raifing them among leaves, and
was ftruck with the reprefentation of a noble and lofty
capital; which being afterwards put into execution, has
been univerfally admired. 16
In their private houfes the Greeks had greater conve-Private
niences, but much lefs magnificence, than the Romans,houfes of
as the former referved the ufe of their grandeft archi-the Gret
te£lure for their temples and public buildings. The en¬
trance to their private houfes, however large they were,
was always fmall, narrow, and plain. The whole edi¬
fice ufually confifted of two courts, and feveral ranges
of buildings. The porter’s lodge, if fuch a phrafe may
be allowed, was ufually on the right hand of this nar¬
row entrance, and oppofile to this were the ftables.
From this entrance one came into the firft or fmaller
court. This had piazzas on three fides } and on the
fourth, which was ufually the fouth fide, there were
butments of pilafters, which fupported the more inward
parts of the ceiling. A fpace being thus left between
the one and the other, they had places for the lodgings
of men and maid fervants, and fuch as had the princi¬
pal care of the houfe. Upon the fame floor with thefe
butments they had feveral regular apartments, confift-
ing of an antichamber, a chamber, and clofets } and
about the piazzas, rooms for eating and other common
purpofes. Oppofite to the entrance was a lobby, or
veftibule, through which lay the paffage into the feve-
veral rooms } and through this, in front, one entered a
large paffage, which led into the larger or principal
fquare. Round this they had four piazzas, which, in
the common way of building, were all of one height }
but, in more magnificent houfes, they made that which
faced the great entrance loftier, and every way nobler,
than the other three. A nobleman of Rhodes added
this to the common method of building } and it was
thence called the Rhodian manner. In this more noble
part of the building were the apartments of the family.
Thefe were adorned with lofty galleries, and here were
the beft rooms : they were called the men's apartments ;
for, in rude times, the Greeks lodged their wives and
female relations in the beft rooms of the firft court,
tv here they had alfo their fenarate and detached place.
Tha
ARCHITECTURE.
Hiflory.
The two fides of this larger court were kept for the re¬
ception of vifitors $ and fervants were appointed to wait
upon them. The mafter of the houfe entertained his
guefts the firft day in his own apartments $ but after
this, how long foever they ftaid, they lived without re-
ftraint in one of thofe feparate piazzas, and joined the
family only when they chofe it. Thus was the upper
end and two fides of the great court difpofed of j and
its lower end, being the fame range of building that
was the upper end of the firft court, held the lady of
the houfe and her female friends.
Of the Ro- The Romans borrowed their archite&ure from the
mans. Greeks, but did not imitate them in the modefty of
their private dwellings. They placed the principal
front of their houfe towards the fouth, and on this they
beftowed all the decoration of expenfive ornament. They
had here lofty galleries and fpacious rooms, and every
thing carried an air of greatnefs and Ihow. In their
country houfes, they preferved the fame fituation and
the fame front, but the inner diftribution was different.
At the entrance they placed the meaner and more of-
fenfive offices, after the manner of the Greeks. The
firft gallery, which received the ftranger at his entrance,
had on one fide a paffage to the kitchen, and on the
other to the ftalls where they kept cattle, that their
noife or fmell might not be offenfive within, while yet
they were in readinefs for all fervices. Thefe ftalls were
placed to the left, as in the Greek houfes ; on the
right was the kitchen, which had its light from above,
and its chimney in the middle. Farther within the
building were placed on one fide bathing rooms, and
on the other family conveniences, in the manner of our
butteries and ftore rooms; the bathing rooms were on
the left, and the others on the right. Backwards, and
full to the north, they placed their cellars, for fear of
the fun, and over thele were other ftore rooms. From
this part of the ftrufture one came into the court : for
in thefe there generally was only one court: this was
taken up by fervants, and thofe who had the care of
the cattle ; and on each fide there were ftalls for the
cattle. In front from the entrance, but very far from
all thefe annoyances, flood the nobler apartments for
i8 the mafter of the family.
Decline of How magnificent the Romans were in their temples
the art and public buildings, is yet to be feen in what remains
among the 0i them, and which are not only models for all modern
Romans. architefts, but have never been furpaffed or even equal¬
led to this day. But though the art of architecture
continued almoft at its higheft pitch among the Ro¬
mans for two centuries, it declined exceedingly as the
empire began to fail. Tacitus relates, that after the
battle of ACtium no men of genius appeared ; and af¬
ter the reign of Alexander Severus, a manner of build¬
ing altogether confufed and irregular was introduced,
ip. wherein nothing of the true graces and majefty of the
Gothic former was preferved. When the empire w7as entire-
kuider overrun by the Goths, the conquerors naturally
u£' introduced their own method of building. Like the
ancient Egyptians, the Goths feem to have been
more ftudious to amaze people with the greatnefs of
their buildings, than to pleafe the eye with the re¬
gularity of their ftruclure, or the propriety of their
ornaments. They corrected themfelves, however, a
little by the models of the Roman edifices which they
faw before them: but thefe models themfelves were
faulty •, and the Goths being totally deftitute of genius,
neither architecture nor any other art could be impro¬
ved by them.
Moft writers who mention the ancient buildings in
this ifland, particularly the religious ones, notwith-
ftanding the ftriking difference in the ftyles of their
conftruCtion, clafs them all under the common denomi¬
nation of Gothic ; a general appellation by them applied
to buildings not exaCtly conformable to fome one of the
five orders of architecture. Our modern antiquaries,
more accurately, divide them into Saxon, Norman, and
Saracenic, or that fpecies vulgarly, though improperly,
called modern Gothic. ao
It has been maintained by fome, that the Saxon Of the Sax-
churches, after they began to be built with ftone, con-on anc^or’’
filled only of upright walls, without pillars or arches,man ^ es*
the conftruCtion of which, it is alleged, they were en¬
tirely ignorant of. But this opinion is not only con¬
tradicted by the teftimony of feveral cotemporary or
very ancient writers, whoexprefsly mention them both,
but alfo by the remains of fome edifices uniyerfally al¬
lowed to be of Saxon workroanlhip, one of them the
ancient conventual church of Ely. Indeed, it is high¬
ly improbable that the Saxons could be ignorant of fo
ufeful a contrivance as the arch. Many of them, built
by the Romans, they mult have had before their eyes 3
fome of which have reached our days : two particular¬
ly are now remaining in Canterbury only j one in the
caftle yard, the other at Riding gate. And it is not
to be believed, that once knowing them and their con¬
venience, they would negleCt to make ufe of them 5
or having ufed, would relinquiffi them. Befides, as
it appears from undoubted authorities they procured
workmen from the continent to conftruCt their capital
buildings “ according to the Roman manner,” this
alone would be fufficient to confute that ill-grounded
opinion ; and at the fame time proves, that what we
commonly call Saxon, is in reality Roman architec¬
ture.
This was the ftyle of building praftifed all over Eu¬
rope •, and it continued to be ufed by the Normans,
after their arrival here, till the introduftion of what is
called the modern Gothic, which was not till about the
end of the reign of Henry II. fo that there feems to
be little or no grounds for a diflin£Hon between the
Saxon and Norman archite&ure. Indeed it is faid,
the buildings of the latter were of larger dimenfions
both in height and area ; and they were conflriifted
with a ftone brought from Caen in Normandy, of
which their workmen were peculiarly fond : but this
was fimply an alteration in the fcale and materials,
and not in the manner of the building. The ancient
parts of moft of our cathedrals aie of this early Nor¬
man work.—The charadleriftic marks of this ftyle are
thefe : the walls are very thick, generally without
buttreffes j the arches, both within and without, as
well as thole over the doors and windows, femicircu-
lar, and fupported by very folid, or rather clumfy, co¬
lumns, with a kind of regular bafe and capital: in
ftiort, plainnefs and folidity conftitute the ftriking fea¬
tures of this method of building. Noverthelefs, the
archite&s of thofe days fome.times deviattd from this
rule : their capitals were adorned with carvings of fo¬
liage, and even animals j and their maffive columns
decorated with fmall half columns united to them, and
their
SS8 A U C H 1 T '
their furfaces ornamented with fpirals, fquares, lozenge
net-work, and other figures, either engraven or in re¬
lievo. Various inftances of thefe may be feen in the
cathedral of Canterbury, particularly the under croft,
the monaftery at Lindisfarn or Holy illand, the cathe¬
dral at Durham, and the ruined choir at Oxford in
Suffolk. The colums I, I, I, i, (Plate XXXVIII.),
are at the monaftery of Lindisfarn or Holy ifland.
Thofe 2, 2, 2, belong to the ruined chancel at Or-
ford in Suffolk. N° 3 is at Chrift church, Canterbu¬
ry. N° 4, a column with two remarkable projeftions
like claws, in the fouth aifle of Romney church, Hamp-
(hire.
Of the mo To what country or people the modern Gothic, or
dem Gothic the ftyle of building with pointed arches fo called,
or Saracenic owes its origin, feems by no means fatisfa£!orily deter-
mined. Some have imagined it may poftibly have ta¬
ken its rife from thofe arches we fee in the early Nor¬
man or Saxon buildings or walls, where the wide fe-
micircular arches crofs and interfe£! each other, and
form at their interfe&ion a narrow and fharp-pointed
arch: But it is more generally conje&ured to be of
Arabian extra&ion, and to have been introduced into
Europe by fome perfons returning from the Crufades
in the Holy Land. Sir Chriftopher Wren was of .that
opinion, and it has been fubfcribed to by moft writers
who have treated on this fubjeft.
“ Modern Gothic, as it is called (fays Rious), is
diftinguifhed by the lightnefs of its work, by the ex-
ceflive boldnefs of its elevations and of its fedtions j
by the delicacy, profufion, and extravagant fancy of
its ornaments. The pillars of this kind are as {lender
as thofe of the ancient Gothic are maflive ; fuch pro-
duftions, fo airy, cannot admit the heavy Goths for
their author. How can be attributed to them a ftyle
of architedlure, which was only introduced in the tenth
century of our era, feveral years after the deftrudlion
of all thofe kingdoms which the Goths had raifed
upon the ruins of the Roman empire, and at a time
when the very name of Goth was entirely forgotten ?
Erom all the marks of the new architedlure, it can on¬
ly be attributed to the Moors 5 or, what is the fame
thing, to the Arabians or Saracens, who have expref-
fed, in their architetture, the fame tafte as in their
poetry ; both the one and the other falfely delicate,
crowded with fuperfluous ornaments, and often very
unnatural : the imagination is highly worked up m
both ; but it is an extravagant imagination 5 and this
has rendered the edifices of the Arabians (we may in¬
clude the other orientals) as extraordinary as their
thoughts. If any one doubts of this affertion, let us
appeal to any one who has feen the mofques and pa¬
laces of Fez, or fome of the cathedrals in Spain built
by the Moors *, one model of this fort is the church at
Burgos j and even in this ifland there are not wanting
feveral examples of the fame. Such buildings have been
vulgarly called modern Gothic, but their true appel*
lation is Arabic, Saracenic, or Morefque.—This man¬
ner was introduced into Europe through Spain. Learn¬
ing flourifhed among the Arabians all the time that
their dominion was in full power ; they ftudied philo-
fophy, mathematics, phyfic, and poetry. The love of
learning was at once excited 5 in all places that were
not at too great a diftance from Spain, thefe authors
were read : and fuch of the Greek authors as they had
3
: C T U R E. Hiftory,
tranflated into Arabic, were from thence turned into
Latin. The phyfic and philofophy of the Arabians
fpread themfelves in Europe, and with thefe their ar-
chitedlure : many churches were built after the Sara¬
cenic mode ; and others with a mixture of heavy and
light proportions, the alteration that the difference of
the climate might require, wras little, if at all confi-
dered. In moft fouthern parts of Europe, and in A-
frica, the windows (before the ufe of glafs), made
with narrow apertures, and placed Tery high in the
walls of the building, occafioned a (hade and dark-
nefs within fide, and were all contrived to guard
againft the fierce rays of the fun ; yet were ill fuited
to latitudes where that glorious luminary fheds its
feebler influence, and is rarely feen but through a wa¬
tery cloud.”
Mr Grofe, how'ever, thinks the above opinion is not
fufficiently favoured by the obfervations of feveral learn¬
ed travellers who have accurately furveyed the ancient
mode of building in thofe parts of the world. Thus
Cornelius le Brun, an indefatigable and inquifitive tra¬
veller, has publiflied many views of eaftern buildings,
particularly about the Holy Land : in all thefe, only
one Gothic ruin, the church near Acre, and a few
pointed arches, occur; and thofe built by the Chri-
ftians when in poffeflion of the country. Near Ifpa-
han, in Perfia, he gives feveral buildings with pointed
arches: but thefe are bridges and caravanferas, whofe
age cannot be afcertained confequently are as likely
to have been built after, as before the introdudlion of
this ftyle into Europe. At Ifpahan itfelf, the mey
doen, or grand market place, is furrounded by divers
magnificent Gothic buildings 5 particularly the royal
mofque, and the Talael Ali-kapie, or theatre. The
magnificent bridge of Alla-werdie-chan, over the river
Zenderoet, 540 paces long and 17 broad, having 33
pointed arches, is alfo a Gothic ftrufture ; but no
mention is made when or by whom thefe were built.
The Chiaer Baeg, a royal garden, is decorated with
Gothic buildings *, but thefe were, it is faid, built only
in the reign of Schah Abbas, who died anno 1629.
One building indeed, Mr Grofe admits, feems at firft
as if it would corroborate this affertion, and that the
time when it was erected might be in fome degree fix¬
ed ; it is the tomb of Abdallah, one of the apoftles of
Mahomet, probably him furnamed Abu Beer.. “ If this
tomb (fays he) is fuppofed to have been built foon af¬
ter his death, eftimating that even to have happened
according to the common courfe of nature, it will
place its ereftion about the middle of the feventh cen¬
tury : but this is by far too conje&ural to be much
depended on. It alfo feems as if this was not the com¬
mon ftyle of building at that time, from the temple of
Mecca ; where, if any credit is to be given to. the
print of it in Sale’s Koran, the arches are femicircu-
lar. The tomb here mentioned has one evidence to
prove its antiquity j that of being damaged by the in¬
juries of time and weather. Its general appearance
much refembles the eaft end of the chapel belonging
to Ely Houfe, London, except that which is filled up
there by the great window', in the tomb is an open
pointed arch, where alfo the columns or pinnacles on
each fide are higher in proportion.
As to the fuppofition that this kind of architedlure
was brought into Spain by the Moors (who poffeffed
themfelves
559
ffiftory. A R C H I T
themfelves of a great part of that country in the begin¬
ning of the eighth century, which they held till the
latter end of the fifteenth), and that from thence, by
way of France, it was introduced into Britain j this
at firit feems plaufible : though, according to Mr
Grofe, the only inltance which feems to corroborate
this hypothefis, or at leatl the only one proved by au¬
thentic drawings, is the mofque at Cordova in Spain ;
where, if we rpay judge from the views publilhed by
Mr Swinburne, although moft of the arches are circu¬
lar or horfe-lhoe fafhion, there are fome pointed arches
formed by the interfeftion of two fegments of a circle.
This mofque was, as it is there faid, begun by Ab-
doulrahman I. who laid the foundation two years be¬
fore his death, and was finifhed by his fon Hiffem or
Ifcan about the year 800. If thefe arches were part
of the original ftrufture, it would be much in favour
of the fuppofition ; but as it is alfo faid that edifice has
been more than once altered and enlarged by the Ma¬
hometans, before any well grounded conclufion can be
drawn, it is neceffary to afcertain the date of the pre-
fent building.
There are alfo feveral pointed arches in the Moorilh
palace at Granada, called the Alhambra ; but as that
was not built till the year 1273, long after the intro-
du&ion of pointed arches into Europe, they are as
likely to be borrowed by the Moors from the Chri-
ifians, as by the Chriftians from the Moors. The
greateft peculiarity in the Moorifh architedlure is the
horfe-fhoe arch, which containing more than a femi-
circle, contrails towards its bafe, by which it is ren¬
dered unfit to bear any confiderable weight, being
folely calculated for ornament. In Romfey church,
Hampfiiire, there are feveral arches of this form.
In the drawings of the Moorith buildings given in Les
Dslices de I'E/pagne, faid to be faithful reprefentations,
there are no traces of the ftyle called Gothic architec¬
ture : there, as well as in the Moorifti caftle at Gibral¬
tar, the arches are all reprefented circular. Perhaps a
more general knowledge of thefe buildings would throw
fome light on the fubjedl j poffibly the Moors may,
like us, at different periods, have ufed different manners
of building.
The marks which conflitute the charadler of Go¬
thic or Saracenical architedlure, are its numerous and
prominent buttreffes, its lofty fpires and pinnacles, its
large and ramified windows, its ornamental niches or
canopies, its fculptured faints, the delicate lace-work
of its fretted roofs, and the profufion of ornaments la-
vifhed indifcriminately over the whole building: but
its peculiar diflinguifhing chara6leriflics are, the fmall
cluftered pillars and pointed arches formed by the feg¬
ments of two inlerfefting circles; which arches, though
laft brought into ufe, are evidently of more fimple and
obvious conftru&ion than the femicircular ones ; two
flat Hones, with their tops inclined to each other, and
touching, form its rudiments; a number of boughs
ftuck into the ground oppofite each other, and tied to¬
gether at the top, in order to form a bower, exactly
defcribe it : whereas a femicircular arch appears the
refult of deeper contrivance, as confifting of more parts;
and it feems lefs probable chance, from whence all thefe
inventions were firft derived, fhould throw feveral wcdge-
Kke ftones between two fet perpendicular, fo as exactly
to fit and fill up the interval.
E C T U R E.
Bifhop Warburton, in his notes on Pope’s Epiftles,
in the odtavo edition, has the following ingenious ob-
fervations on this fubjeft:—“ Our Gothic anceftors
had jufter and manlier notions of magnificence, on
Greek and Roman ideas, than thefe mimics of tafle
who profefs to fludy only clafiic elegance ; and be-
caufe the thing does honour to the genius of thofe bar¬
barians, I fhall endeavour to explain it. All our an¬
cient churches are called without diftinftion Gothic,
but erroneoufly. They are of two forts; the one.built
in the Saxon times, the other in the Norman. Seve¬
ral cathedral and collegiate churches of the firft fort
are yet remaining, either in whole or in part; of which
this was the original : When the Saxon kings became
Chriftians, their piety (which was the piety of the
times), confifted chiefly in building churches at home,
and performing pilgrimages abroad, efpecially to the.
Holy Land : and thefe Spiritual exercifes aflifted and
fupported one another; for the moft venerable as well
as itioft elegant models of religious edifices were then
in Paleftine. From thefe the Saxon builders took the
whole of their ideas, as may be feen by comparing the
drawings which travellers have given us of the churches
yet Handing in that country, with the Saxon remains
of what we find at home ; and particularly in the
famenefs of ftyle in the latter religious edifices of the
knights templars (profeffedly built upon the model
of the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerufalem),
with the earlier remains of our Saxon edifices. Now
the archite&ure of the Holy Land was Grecian, but
greatly fallen from its ancient elegance. Our Saxon
performance was indeed a bad copy of it, and as much
inferior to the works of St Helena and Juftinian, as
theirs were to the Grecian models they had followed ;
yet ftill the footfteps of ancient art appeared in the cir¬
cular arches, the entire columns, the divifion of the en¬
tablature into a fort of architrave, frize, and cornice,
and a folidity equally diffufed over the whole mafs.
This, by way of diftindlion, I would call the Saxon
architedlure. But our Norman works bad a very dif¬
ferent original. When the Goths had conquered
Spain, and the genial warmth of the climate and the
religion of the old inhabitants had ripened their wits
and inflamed their miftaken piety, both kept in exer-
cife by the neighbourhood of the Saracens, through
emulation of their fervice, and averfion to their fuper-
ftition, they ftruck out a new fpecies of architefture,
unknown to Greece and Rome, upon original princi¬
ples, and ideas much nobler than what had given birth
even to claflical magnificence. For this northern peo¬
ple having been accuftomed, during the gloom of Pa-
ganifm, to worftiip the deity in groves (a practice
common to all nations) ; when their new religion re¬
quired covered edifices, they ingenioufly projefted to
make them refemble groves, as nearly as the diftance
of architeifture would permit ; at once indulging their
old prejudices, and providing for their prefent conve¬
niences, by a cool receptacle in a fultry climate : and
with what Ikill and fuccefs they executed the project
by the afliftance of Saracen architedls, whofe exotic
ftyle of building very luckily fuited their purpofe, ap¬
pears from hence, that no attentive obferver ever view¬
ed a regular avenue of well-grown trees intermixing
their branches overhead, but it prefently put him in
mind of the long vifto through the Gothic cathedral ;
or.
/
560
A R C H I T
or ever entered one of the larger and more elegant
edifices of this kind, but it prefented to his imagina¬
tion an avenue of trees j and this alone is what can be
truly called the Gothic ftyle of building. . Under this
idea of fo extraordinary a fpeeies of architecture, all
the irregular tranfgreflions againfl art, all the mon-
ftrous offences againft nature^ difappearevery thing
has its reafon, every thing is in order, and an harmo¬
nious whole arifes from the ftudious application of
means proper and proportionate tx> the end. For could
the arches be otherwife than pointed, when the wont-
men were to imitate that curve which branches of two
oppofite trees make by their infertion with one ano¬
ther ? or could the columns be otherwife than fplit in¬
to diftinft fhafts, when they were to reprefent the Items
of a clump of trees growing clofe together ? On the
fame principles they formed the fpreading ramification
of the ftone work in the windows, and the Itained glals
in the interftices 5 the one to reprefent the branches,
and the other the leaves of an opening grove, and
both concurred to preferve that gloomy light which
infpires religious reverence and dread. Laftly, We
fee the reafon of their ftudied averfion to apparent fo-
lidity in thefe llupendous maffes, deemed fo abfurd
by men accuftomed to the apparent as well as real
ftrength of Grecian architecture. Had it been only a
wanton exercife of the artift’s {kill, to (how he could
give real ftrength without the appearance of any, we
might indeed admire his fuperior fcience, but we muft
needs condemn his ill judgment. But when one con-
fiders, that this furprifing lightnefs was neceffary to
complete the execution of his idea of a fylvan place ot
worlhip, one cannot fufficiently admire the ingenuity
of the contrivance. This, too, will account for the con¬
trary qualities in what I call the. Saxon architecture.
Thefe artifts copied, as has been faid, from the church¬
es in the Holy Land, which were built on the models
of the Grecian architecture, but corrupted by prevail-
- ing barbarifm •, and ftill farther depraved by a religious
idea. The firft places of Chriftian worfhip were fe-
pulchres and fubterraneous caverns, low and heavy
from neceflity. When Chriftianity became the reli¬
gion of the ft ate, and fumptuous temples began to be
ereCted, they yet, in regard to the firft pious ages,
preferved the maflive ftyle, made ftill more venerable
by the church of the Holy Sepulchre j where this
ftyle was, on a double account, followed and aggra¬
vated.”
Ancient In Britain, before the Roman invaficn, the natives
rife andpre-appear to have had no better lodgings than thickets,
grefsofar- dens, and caves. Some of thefe caves, which were
fchiteCture wjnter habitations, and places of retreat in time
m Britain. ^ war> were formed and rendered fecure and warm by
art, like thofe of the ancient Germans, which are thus
deferibed by Tacitus: “ They are ufed to dig deep
caves in the ground, and cover them with, earth, wheie
they lay up their provifions, and dwell in winter for
the fake of warmth. Into thefe they retire alfo from
their enemies, who plunder the open country, but can¬
not difeover thefe fubterranean receffes.” Some of
thefe fubterraneous, or earth houfes, as they are called,
are ftill remaining in the Weftern ifles of Scotland and
in Cornwall. The fummer habitations of the moft an¬
cient Britons were very flight; and, like thofe of the
Finnians, confifted only of a few flakes driven into the
Ancient
E C T U R E. Hiftory.
ground, interwoven with wattles, and Covered over with
the boughs of trees.” # #
When Julius Caefar invaded Britain, the inhabitants .
of Cantium (Kent), and of fome other parts in the
fouth, had learned to build houfes a little more fubfian-
tial and convenient. “ The country (fays Ctefar) abounds
in houfes, which very much refemble thofe of Gaul.’
The firft ftep towards this improvement feems. to have
been that of daubing the wattled walls of their houfes
with clay, to fill up the chinks and make them warmer*
“ The Germans ufed for this purpofe a kind of pure re-
fplendent earth of different colours, which had an ap¬
pearance of painting at a diftance but the Gauls and
Britons chofe rather to whitewafti the clay after it was
dry with chalk. Inftead of the boughs of trees, they
thatched thefe houfes with ftraw, as a much better fe-
curity againft the weather. They next proceeded to
form the walls of large beams of wood, inftead of flakes
and wattles. This feems to have been the mode of
building in Britain, when it was firft invaded by the
Romans. “ The Britons (fays Diodorus Siculus, who
was cotemporary with Caefar) dwell in wretched cot¬
tages, which are conftru&ed of wood) covered with
ftraw,.” Thefe wooden houfes of the ancient Gauls and
Britons were not fquare but circular, with high taper¬
ing roofs, at the top or centre of which was an aperture
for the admiflion of light and emiflion of fmoke. Thofe
of Gaul are thus deferibed by Strabo 1. “ They build
their houfes of wood, in the form of a circle, with lofty
tapering roofs.” The foundations of fome of the moft
magnificent of thefe circular houfes were of. ftone, of
which there are fome veftiges ftill remaining in Angle-
fey and other places. It was probably in imitation of
thefe wooden houfes, that the moft ancient ftone edi¬
fices, of which there are ftill fome remains in the
Weftern iflands of Scotland, were built circular, and
have a large aperture at the top.
When the Britons were invaded by the Romans,
they had nothing among them anfwering to our ideas
of a city or town, confifting of a great number of con¬
tiguous houfes difpofed into regular ftreets, lanes, and
courts. Their dwellings, like thofe of the ancient
Germans, were fcattered about the country, and gene¬
rally fituated on the brink of fome rivulet for the fake
of water, and on the Ikirt of fome wood or foreft for
the convetiiency of hunting and pafture for their cat¬
tle. As thefe inviting circumftances were more con-
fpicuous in fome parts of the country than others, the
princes and chiefs made choice of thefe places for their
refidence; and a number of their friends and follow-
ers for various reafons, built their houfes as near to
them as they could with conveniency.^ This naturally
produced an ancient Britifti town, which is delcnbed
by Csefar and Strabo in the following manner : “ From
the Cafli he learnt that the town of Caflivelaun was at
no great diftance j a place defended by woods and
mar flies, in which very great numbers of men and cat¬
tle were colleaed. For what the Britons call a town
is a traft of woody country furrounded by a mound
and ditch, for the fecurity of themfelves and their cat¬
tle againft the incurfions of their enemies. Ihe
forefts of the Britons are their, cities j for when they
have enclofed a very large circuit with felled trees,
they build within it houfes for themfelves and hovels
for their cattle. Thefe buildings are very flight, and
not
5^£
ARCHITECTURE.
Hiftoiy.
not defigned for long duration.” The palaces of the
Britifh princes were probably built of the fame mate¬
rials, and on the fame plan, with the houfes of their
fubje&s, and differed from them only in folidity and
magnitude.
Though the communication between this ifland and
the continent was more free and open after the firit
Homan invafion that it had been before, and feme of the
jBritifh princes and chieftans even vifited Rome, then in
its greateft glory •, it doth not appear that the people of
Britain made any confiderable improvements in their
manner of building for at leatt a hundred years after that
invafion. For when the renowned Csfta&aeus was car¬
ried prifoner to Rome, A. D. 52, and obferved the beau¬
ty and magnificence of the buildings in that proud me¬
tropolis of the world, he is faid to have expreffed great
furprife, “ That the Romans, who had fuch magnificent
palaces of their own, thould envy the wretched cabins
of the Britons.”
It muft appear very furprifing that the ancient Bri¬
tons, when they were fo ignorant of architedlure, were
capable of erefting (if indeed it was ereflted by them)
fo ftupendous a fabric as that of Stonehenge on Salifbury
plain : A fabric which hath been the admiration of all
fucceeding ages, and hath outlafted all the lolid and
noble ftrudtures which tvere erefled by the Romans in
this ifland. See the article Stonehenge.
Of another very extraordinary fpecies of building fe-
veral remains are found in the Highlands of Scotland.
They confift of ruins •, the walls of which, inftead of be¬
ing cemented with lime or fome other fimilar fubftance,
or of being railed with dry Hones as was the method be¬
fore cement came into ufe, are deferibed as having been
vitrified, or the Hones run and compa&ed together by
the force of fire. Concerning the origin, ufe, &c. of
thefe buildings, different opinions have been formed j
and even the reality of them as works of contrivance has
been called in queHion : of all which particulars the rea¬
der will find an account under the article FORTS (Vitri-
But for whatever purpofes, or by whatever means,
the above and other fimilar Hrurfures of a peculiar na¬
ture were ere&ed, we have fufficient evidence that the
people of Britain, before they were fubdued and in-
flru&ed by the Romans, had but a rude knowledge of
architecture, and were very meanly lodged. As foon,
however, as the Romans began to form fettlements and
plant colonies in this ifland, a fudden and furprifing
change enfued in the Hate of architecture. For that
wonderful people were as induHrious as they were brave,
and made hafie to adorn every country that they con¬
quered. The firfi Roman colony was planted at Came-
lodunum, A. D. 50 *, and when it was deflroyed by the
Britons in their great revolt under Boadicea, only eleven
years after, it appears to have been a large and well-
built town, adorned with flatues, temples, theatres, and
other public edifices.
The Rbmans not only built a prodigious number of
folid, convenient, and magnificent flruCtures for their
own accommodation, but they exhorted, encouraged,
and inflruCled the Britons to imitate their example.
This was one of the arts which Agricola, the moH ex¬
cellent of the Roman governors, employed to civilize
the Britons, and reconcile them to the Roman govern¬
ment. “ The following winter (fays Tacitus) was
Vol. II. Part II.
fpent by Agricola in very falutary meafures. That
the Britons who led a roaming and unfettied life, and
were eafily infiigated to war, might contraCf a love
of peace and tranquillity, by being accuHomtd to a
more pleafant way of living, he exhorted and aflifted
them to build houfes, temples, courts, and market¬
places. By praifing the diligent and reproaching the
indolent, he excited fo great an emulation among the
Britons, that after they had ereCted all thofe necefiary
edifices in their towns, they proceeded to build others
merely for ornament and pleafure, as porticoes, galle¬
ries, baths, banqueting houfes, &c.” From this time,
which was A. D. 80, to the middle of the fourth cen¬
tury, architedlure and all the arts immediately connedt-
ed with it greatly Hourifhed in this ifland j and the
fame tafie for eredting folid, convenient, and beautiful
buildings, which had long prevailed in Italy, was in¬
troduced into Britain. Every Roman colony and free
city (of which there was a great number in this coun¬
try) was a little Rome, entompaiTed with flrong walls,
adorned with temples, palaces, courts, halls, bafilics,
baths, markets, aquedudts, and many other fine build¬
ings, both for ufe and ornament. The country every¬
where abounded with well-built villages, towns, forts,
and flations; and the whole was defended by that high
and Hrong wall, with its many towers and caftles,
which reached from the mouth of the river Tyne on
the eafi to the Solway frith on the wefl. This fpirit
of building, which was introduced and encouraged by
the Romans, fo much improved the tatie and increaftd
the number of the Britiili builders, that in the third
century this ifland was famous for the great number
and excellence of its architects and artificers. When
the emperor ConHantius, father of Confiantine the
Great, rebuilt the city of Autun in Gaul, A. D. 296,
he was chiefly furnifhed with workmen from Britain,
“ which (fays Eumenius) very much abounded with the
be if artificers.”
Not very long after this period, architecture and all
the arts eonne£fed with it began to decline very fenfi-
bly in Britain, and in all the provinces of the weftern
empire. This was partly owing to the building of
Conflantinople, which drew many of the moil famous
archite6ls and other artificers into the eaft, and partly
to the irruptions and depredations of the barbarous na¬
tions.
The final departure of the Romans was followed by
the almoft total deflru£lion of architecture in this ifland.
For the unhappy and unwarlike people whom they left
behind, having neither fkill nor courage to defend the
numerous towns, forts, and cities which they pofleffed,
they were feized by their ferocious invaders, who firft
plundered and then deflroyed them. By this means,
the many noble flructures, with which Provincial Bri¬
tain had been adorned by the art and induflry of the
Romans, were ruined or defaced in a very little time ;
and the unfortunate Britons were quite incapable of re¬
pairing them, or of building others in their room. That
long fucceflion of miferies in which they were involved
by the Scots, Picfls, and Saxons, deprived them of the
many ufeful arts which they had learned from their for¬
mer maflers, and lodged them once more in forefls, dens,
and caves, like their favage anceflors.
The mofl wanton and extenfive devaflations were
thofe committed by the Anglo-Saxons j among whom
4B it
A R C H I T
it feems to have been a maxim to deftroy all the towns
and cattles which they took from their enemies, inftead
of preferving them for their own ufe.
It cannot be fuppofed that a people who wantonly
demolithed fo many beautiful and ufehil ftrudiures had
any tatte for the arts by which they had been erefted.
The truth is, that the Anglo-Saxons at their arrival in
this ifland were almoft totally ignorant of thefe arts ;
and, like all the other nations in Germany, had been
accuftomed to live in wretched hovels, built of wood
or earth, and covered with ftraw or the branches of
trees : nor did they much improve in the knowledge
of architecture for 200 years after their arrival. Du¬
ring that period, mafonry was quite unknown and un-
praClifed in this ifland •, and the walls even of cathe¬
dral churches were built of wood. “ There was a time
(fays venerable Bede) when there was not a ftone
church in all the land ; but the cuftorn was to build
them all of wood. Finan, the fecond bifliop of Lin-
disfarne, or Holy ifland, built a church in that ifland,
A- F>. 652, for a cathedral, which yet was not of
ftone, but of wood, and covered with reeds : and fo it
continued till Eadbert, the fucceffor of St Cuthbert,
and feventh bifnop of Lindisfarne, took away the reeds,
and covered it all over, both roof and walls with Iheets
of lead.” The firtt cathedral of York was built of the
fame materials ; and a church of ftone was efteemed a
kind of prodigy in thofe tiroes that merited a place in
hi ft or y. “ Paulinas, the firft biftiop of York, built a
church of ftone in the city of Lincoln, whofe walls
(fays Bede) are ftill (landing, though the roof is fallen
down ; and fome healing miracles are wrought in it
every year, for the benefit of thofe who have the faith
to feek them.”
There does not feem to have been fo much as one
church of ftone, nor any artifts who could build one,
in all Scotland, at the beginning of the eighth centu¬
ry. For Naitan king of the Pias, in his famous let¬
ter to Ceolfred abbot of Weremouth, A. D. 7IC> ear”
neftlv entreats him to fend him foine mafons to build a
church of ftone in his kingdom, in imitation of the
Romans 5 which he promifes to dedicate to the honour
of the anoftle Peter, to whom the abbey of Weremouth
was dedicated : and we are told by Bede who was
then living in that abbey, that the reverend abbot Leol-
fred granted this pious requeft, and fent mafons accord-
ing to his defire. _ ^
Mafonry was reftored, and fotne other arts connect-
ed with it introduced into England, towards the end
of the feventh century, by two clergymen, who were
great travellers, and had often vifited Rome, where
they had acquired fome tafte for thefe arts. The e
were, the famous Wilfrid biftiop of ork, and after'
wards of Hexham, and Benedia Bifcop, founder of
the abbey of Weremouth. Wilfrid, vvho was one of
the moft ingenious, aaive, and magnificent prelates of
the feventh century, was a great builder, and ereded
feveral ftrudures at York, Rippon, and Flexham,
which were the admiration of the age in which he
flouriflied. The cathedral of Hexham, which was one
of thefe ftrudures, is thus defcribed by his biographer :
Zdd/i Vita u Having obtained a piece of ground at Hexham from
IVilfridi, Queen Etheldreda, he there founded a moft magmfi-
Q- cent church, which he dedicated to the bleffed apoftle
St Andrew. As the plan of this facred ftruaure feems
E C T U R E. Hiftory.
to have been infpired by the Spirit of God, it would
require a genius much fuperior to mine to defcribe it
properly, fdow large and itrong were the luDrtna-
neous buildings, conllruded 01 the fineft poliUnd
ftones! How magnificent the fuperftrufture, with its
lofty roof, fupported by many pillars, Us long and
high walls, its fublime towers, and winding flairs ! In
one word, there is no church on this fide of the Alps
fo great and beautiful.” This admired edifice, of
which fome veftiges are ftill remaining, was built by
mafons and other artificers brought from Rome by the
munificence of its generous founder. Benedict Bifcop
was the cotemporary and companion of Wilfrid in fome
of his journeys, and had the fame tafte for tne arts.
He made no fewer than fix journeys to Rome, chiefly
with a view of coliefling books, pictures, ftatues, and
other curiofities, and of perfuading artificers of various
kinds to come from Italy and France and fettle in
England. Having obtained a grant of a confiderable
eftate from Egfrid king of Northumberland, near the
mouth of the river Were, he there founded a mona-
ftery, A. D. 674. “ About a year after the founda-^^-
tions of this monaftery were laid, Benedifl croffed the
fea into France, where he collefled a number of ma¬
fons, and brought them over with him, in order to
build the church of his monaftery of ftone after the
Roman manner, of which he was a great admirer.
His love to the apoftle Peter, to whom he defigned to
dedicate his church, made him urge thefe workmen to
labour fo hard, that mafs was celebrated in it about a
year after it was founded. When the work was far ad¬
vanced, he fent agents into France to procure if poflible
fome glafs-makers, a kind of artificers quite unknown
in England, and to bring them over to glaze the win¬
dows of his church and monaftery. Thefe agents were
fuccefsful, and brought feveral glafs-makers with them ;
who not only performed the work required by Bene-
dift, but inftruaed the Englifti in the art of making
glafs for windows, lamps, drinking veffels, and other
. . c n
But though thefe arts of building edifices of ftone,
with windows of glafs and other ornaments, were thus
introduced by thefe two prelates in the latter part of
the feventh century, they do not feem to have flourifh-
ed much for feveral centuries. It appears from many
incidental hints in our ancient hiftomns, that ftone
buildings were ftill very rare in the eighth and ninth
acres j and that when any fuch buildings were ereaed,
they were the objeas of much admiration, \vhen Al¬
fred the Great, towards the end of the ninth cen¬
tury, formed the defign of rebuilding his ruined cities,
churches, and monafteries, and of adorning his domi¬
nions with more magnificent ftruaures, he was obliged
to bring many of bis artificers frmn foreign countries.
“ Of thefe (as we are told by bit friend and compa¬
nion Afferius) he had an almoft innumerable multitude
colleaed from different nations j many of them the moft
excellent in their feveral arts.”
In the other parts of this ifland architeaure was^ as
might naturally be imagined, in a ftill lefs flourifliing
ftate. It appears indeed to have been almoft entirely loft
among the pofterity of the ancient Britons after they
retired to the mountains of Wales. The chief palace
of the kings of Wales, where the nobility and wife men
afttmbled for making laws, was called the iv/iite palace,
becaufe
5^3
ffiftory. ARC HIT
bccaufe tbe walls of it were woven with white wands,
which had the bark peeled off. By the laws of Wales,
Whoever burnt or deitroyed the king’s hall or palace
was obliged to pay one pound and eighty pence, be-
fides one hundred and twenty pence for each of the ad¬
jacent buildings, which were eight in number ; viz.
the dormitory, the kitchen, the chapel, the granary,
the bakehoufe, the ftorehoufe, the liable, and the dug-
houfe. From hence it appears, that a royal refidence
in Wales, with all its offices, when thefe laws were
made, was valued at five pounds and eighty pence of the
money of that age, equal in quantity of diver to iix-
teen pounds of our money, and in efficacy to one hun¬
dred and fixty. This is certainly a fufficient proof of
the meannefs of thofe buildings which were only of
wood. Even the calfles in Wales, in this period, that
were built for the fecurity of the country, appear to
have been comfrufled of the lame materials ; for the
laws required the king’s vaffals to come to the building
of th^fe caifles with no other tools but an axe.
The arts of building do not Teem to have been much
better underflood by the Scots and Pifls than by the
ancient Britons in the former part of this period.
When Finan, the fecond biffinp of Lindisfarne, built a
church of wood in that ifland, A. D. 652, he is faid to
have done it fnore Scotorum, after the manner of his
countrymen the Scots ; and it hath been already ob-
ferved, that Naitan king of the Pidls was obliged to
bring mafons from Northumberland, when he retolved
to build a church of Hone in his dominions, A.D. 710.
After this lafl period, it is probable that the Prdls,
and perhaps the Scots, began to learn and praftife the
art of mafonry j becaufe there are Hill Tome flone build¬
ings of a very fingular conflrudlion, and great antiquity,
to be feen in Scotland. Thefe buildings are all circular ;
though of two kinds fo different from each other, that
they Teem to be the work of different ages and of dif¬
ferent nations. T he largeft of thefe flrmffures are in
a very extraordinary tafle of architedlure ; and arc thus
ordon's 7-deferibed by a modern antiquary, who viewed them
merarium w’ith no little attention : “ Having arrived at the bar-
eptentrio- racp 0f Glenelg, I was conduced to the remains of
thofe flupendous fabrics, feated about two miles from
thence, in a valley called G/enbeg, in which four of
them anciently flood. Two of thefe are now almoft
quite demolifhed, the third is half fallen down, the
fourth is almoft entire. The firft I met with lies to¬
wards the north fide of the valley, and is called Cnjlle
Chalctmine, or Maicotn's Cnjlle. It (lands upon a con-
fiderable eminence, and affords us a fine profpeft of
the ifiand of Skye, and a good part of the fea coaft.
The foundation of this only appears; as alfo of that
other, on the eafl end of the valley, called Cajlle Cho-
nel. About a quarter of a mile further, upon the
bank of a rivulet which paffes through the middle of
the glen, (lands the third fabric, called Cajlle Tel/ve.
I found it compofed of Hones without cement ; not
laid in regular courfes, after the manner of elegant
buildings, but rudely and without order. Thofe to¬
ward the bafe were pretty large, but afcending higher
they were thin and flat, fome of them fcarce exceeding
the thicknefs of an ordinary brick. I was furprifed to
find no windows on the outfide, nor any manner of en¬
trance into the fabric, except a hole towards the weft,
at the bafe, fo very low and narrow, that I was forced
fa/e,
165
E C T U R E.
to creep in upon hands and knees, and found that it
carried me down four or five, fteps below the lurface of
the ground. When I was got within I was environed
betwixt two walls, having a cavity or void fpace
which led me round the whole building. Oppofite to
the little entry, on the outfide, was a pretty large
door in the fecond or inner wall, which led me into
the area or inner court. When 1 was there, 1 per*
ceived that one half of the building was (alien down,
and thereby had the opportunity of feeing a complete
fedtion thereof. The two walls join together at the
top, round about, and have formed a large void fpace
or area in the middle. But to give a more complete
idea of thefe buildings, I Ihall defcribe the fourth,
called Cajlle Troddan, which is by far the mod entire
of any in that country, and from whence I had a very
clear notion how thefe fabrics were originally contrived.
On the outfide were no windows, nor were the mate¬
rials of this caftle any wife different from thofe ox the
other already defcribed, only the entry on the outfide
was fomewhat larger*, but this might be occafi. ned
by the falling of the ftones trorU above. The area of
this makes a complete circle ; and there are tour doors
iu the inner wall, which face the four cardinal points
of the compafs. Thefe doors arc each eight feet and
a half high, and five feet wide, and lead from the area
into the cavity between the two walls, which runs
round the whole building. The perpendicular height
of this fabric is exa6lly 33 feet *, the thicknefs of both
walls, including the cavity between, no more than 12
feet 5 and the cavity itfelf is hardly wide enough for
two men to walk abreaft 5 the external circumference
is 178 feet. The whole height of the fabric is divided
into four parts or (lories, feparated from each oilier by
thin floorings of flat ftones, which knit the two walls
together, and run quite round the building: and there
have been winding Hairs of the fame flat Hones afeend-
ing betwixt wall and wall up to the top. The under-
mofl partition is fomewhat below the furface of the
ground, and is the w'ideft *, the others grow narrower
by degrees till the walls clofe at the top. Over each
door are nine fquare windows, in a dmfel line above
each other, for the admiffion of light : and between
every row of windows are three others in the uppermoft
(lory, rifing above a cornice which projefls out from
the inner wall and runs round the fabric-.” Fiom this
defeription of thefe Angular edifices, it plainly appears
that they Were defigned both for lodging and defence ;
and confidering the Hate of the times in which they
were built, they were certainly very well contrived for
anfwering both thefe purpofes.
The ftone edifices of the other kind which were
probably erefled in this period, and of which fome few
are Hill to be feen in Scotland, are not fo large as the
former, but more artificial. They are (lender, lofty,
circular towers, of cut ftone, laid in regular rows, be¬
tween 40 and 50 feet in external circumference, and
from 70 to 100 feet high, with one door fome feet
from the ground. They arc exaflly fimilar to the
round tower of Ardmore, and feveral others, in Ireland ;
and therefore were probably built about the fame time,
which was in the tenth century, and for the fame pur¬
pofes ; which are believed by fome to have been for
the confinement of penitents while they were perform¬
ing penance. On this account thefe towers are always
4 B 2 found
564 ' A R C H I T
found in the neighbourhood of churches both in Scot¬
land and Ireland ; and are faid to have been ufed in this
Archteolo- manner : “ The penitents were placed in the upper-
gia, voi. i. moft ftory Gf the tower (which commonly confifted of
P- 3fe7* five or fix ftories) •, where having made probation, or
done penance, fuch a limited time, according to the
heinoufnefs of their crime, they then were permitted
to defcend to the next floor, and fo on by degrees,
until they came to the door, which always faced the
entrance of the church, where they flood to receive
abfolution from the clergy, and the bleffings of the
^ people. A tedious procefs, to which few penitents
in the prefent age would willingly fubmit. Other
writers are of opinion, that the defign of thefe circular
towers (of which one is ftill remaining at Abernethy
and another at Brechin) was to be places from
whence the people were called to public worfhip by
the found of a horn or trumpet, before the introdudHon
of bells. .
This art received very great improvements in the
12th century ; which indeed may be called the age of
architeBure; when the rage for building was more vio¬
lent in England than at any other time. The great
and general improvements that were made in the fa¬
brics of houfes and churches in the firft years of this
century, are thus defcribed by a cotemporary writer.
Oraerio Vi u he new cathedrals and innumerable churches that
tp'- Hi/l. were built in ali parts, together with the many mag-
r^bTs" nificent eloifters and monafteries, and other apartments
7 ‘ of monks, that were then erefted, afford a fufficient
proof of the great felicity of England in the reign of
Henry I. The religious of every order, enjoying
peace and profperity, difplayed the moft aftonilhing
ardour in every thing that might increafe the fplendour
of divine worfhip. The fervent zeal of the faitmul
promoted them to pull down houfes and churches every¬
where, and rebuild them in a better manner. By this
means the ancient edifices that had been railed in the
days of Edgar, Edward, and other Chriflian kings, were
demolifhed, and others of greater magnitude and mag¬
nificence, and of more elegant workmanship, were eredt-
in their room, to the glory of God.”
As the prodigious power of religious, zeal, what¬
ever turn it happens to take, when it is thoroughly
heated, is well known, it may not be improper to give
one example of the arts employed by the clergy and
monks of this period, to inflame the pious ardour of
the kings, nobles, and people, for building and adorn¬
ing churches. When Joffred abbot of Croyland re¬
folded to rebuild the church of his monaftery m a moft
magnificent manner, A. D. 1106, he obtained from
the arehbifhops of Canterbury and ork, a bull di -
penfing with the third part of all penances for fin. to
thofe who contributed any thing towards the building
of that church. This bull was dire&ed not only to
the king and people of England, but to the kings of
France and Scotland, and to all other kings, earls, ba¬
rons, archbiChops, bifhops, abbots, priors, reftors, pn f-
bvters, and clerks, and to all true believers in Chriit,
rich and poor, in all Chriflian kingdoms. To make
the beft ufe of this bull, he fent two of his moft eloquent
monks to proclaim it over all France and Flanders two
other monks into Scotland, two into Denmark and Nor¬
way two into Wales, Cornwall, and Ireland, and others
into different parts of England. “ By this means (fays
4
E C T U R E. Hiftory.
the hiftorian) the wonderful benefits granted to all the
contributors to the building of this church were pu-
blifired to the very ends of the earth ; and great heaps
of treafure and maffes of yellow metal flowed in from
all countries upon the venerable Abbot Joffred, and
encouraged him to lay the foundations of his church.
Having fpent about four years in colle&ing mountains
of different kinds of marble from quarries both at
home and abroad, together with great quantities of
lime, iron, brafs, and other materials for building, he
fixed a day for the great ceremony of laying the foun¬
dation, which he contrived to make a very effeiftual
mean of raifing the fuperftru£lure ! For on the long-
ex pefted day, the feaft of the holy virgins Felicitas
and Perpetua, an immenfe multitude of earls, barons,
and knights, with their ladies and families, of abbots,
priors, monks, nuns, clerks, and perfons of all ranks,
arrived at Croyland, to aflift at this ceremony. The
pious Abbot Joffred began by faying certain prayers
and fhedding a flood of tears on the foundation. Then
each of the earls, barons, knights, with their ladies,
fons, and daughters, the abbots, clerks, and others,
laid a ftone, and upon it depofited a fum of money, a
grant of lands, tithes, or patronages, or a promife of
ftone, lime, wood, labour, or carriages, for building
the church. After this the abbot entertained the
whole company, amounting to 5000 perfons, at din¬
ner. To this entertainment they were all entitled ; for
the money, and grants 01 different kinds, which they
had depofited on the foundation flones, were alone fuf¬
ficient to have raifed a very noble fabric. By fuch
arts as thefe the clergy infpired kings, nobles, and
people of all ranks, with fo ardent a fpirit for thefe
pious works, that in the courfe of this period almoft
all the facred edifices in England were rebuilt, and ma¬
ny hundreds of new ones raifed from the foundation.
Nor was this fpirit confined to England,, but prevailed
as much in Scotland in proportion to its extent and
riches. King David I. alone, befides feveral cathedrals
and other churches, built no fewer than thirteen abbeys
and priories, fome of which were very magnificent flruc-
tures.
The facred architeaure of the Anglo-Normans m
the beginning of this period did not differ much in itj
ftyle and manner from that of the Anglo-Saxons $
their churches being in general plain, low, ftrong, and
dark ; the arches both of the doors and windows fe-
micircular, with few or no ornaments. By degrees,
through much praaice, our architeas,. who were
all monks or clergymen, improved their tafte.and
{kill, and ventured to form plans of more noble, light,
and’elevated ilruaures, with a great variety of orna¬
ments-, which led to that bold magnificent ftyle of build¬
ing, commonly, though perhaps not very properly, call-
ed the later Gothic. It is not improbable that.our monk-
ifti architeas were affifted in attaining this flyle.of
building by models from foreign countries, or by.in-
ftruaions from fuch of their own number as had v.ifi.t-
ed Italy, France, Spain, or the Eaft. But the origin
of this ftyle of architeaure has been already e.onfi-
dered, and the charaaers by which it is diftmguifhed
from the ancient Gothic have alfo been . delcnbed :
/S.e N° 21. funra). Its firft appearance in England
[L tlzrlsZ latter end of the reign of King Hen-
rv II. But it tv as not at once thoroughly adopted j
J feme-
565
Hiftory. A !! CHIT
fome fhort folid columns and femicireular arches being
retained and mixed with the pointed ones; as for ex¬
ample, in the weft end of the Old Temple church ;
and at York, where, under the choir, there remains
much of the ancient work, the arches of which are
but juft pointed and rife on ftiort round pillars. In the
reign of Henry III. however, this manner of build¬
ing feems to have gained a complete footing ; the cir¬
cular giving place to the pointed arch, and the maf-
live column yielding to the {lender pillar. Indeed, like
all novelties, when once admitted, the rage of talhion
made it become fo prevalent, that many of the ancient
and folid buildings, eredled in former ages, were taken
down in order to be re-edified in the new tafte, or had
additions patched to them, of this mode of architec¬
ture. The prefent cathedral church of Saiifbury was
begun early in this reign, and finiftred in the year 1 258.
It is entirely in the Saracenic ftyle'; and, according to
Sir Chriftopher Wren, may be juftly accounted one of
the beft patterns of archite&ure of the age in which
it was built. Its excellency is undoubtedly in a great
meafure owing to its being conftrufled on one plan ;
whence arifes that fymmetry and agreement of parts,
not to be met with in many of our other cathedral
churches ; which have moftly been built at different
times, and in a variety of ftyles. From this time till
the reign of Henry VIII. the falhionable pillars in
churches were of Purbeck marble, very {lender and
round, encompaffed with marble ftxafts’a little detached,
having each a capital adorned with foliage, which join¬
ing, formed one elegant capital for the whole pillar.
The windows were long and narrow', with pointed
arches and painted glafs, which was introduced about
that time, or at leaft became more common. In this
century alfo they began to delight in lofty fteeples, with
fpires and pinnacles. In the fourteenth century, the
pillars confifted of an affemblage of {hafts not detached,
but united, forming one folid and elegant column ; the
windows, efpecially thofe in the eaft and weft ends, were
greatly enlarged, divided into feveral lights by ftone
mullions running into ramifications above, and forming
numerous compartments in various fanciful ihapes. Thofe
windows, filled with ftained glafs of the moft lively co-
lours, reprefenting kings, faints, and martyrs, and their
hiftories, made a moft folemn and glorious appearance.
There were feveral other variations, efpecially in the tafte
of the carvings and other ornaments, which are too mi¬
nute for general hiftory.
As to the ftate of civil architefture during the fame
period : The houfes of the common people in the coun¬
try, and of the lower burgeffes in towns and cities, were
very little improved in their ftrufture, that moft nu¬
merous and ufeful order of men being much depreffed
in the times we are now delineating. Even in the ca¬
pital city of London, all the houfes of mechanics and
common burgeffes were built of wood, and covered with
ftraw or reeds, towards the end of the twelfth century.
But the palaces, or rather caftles, of the Anglo-Nor¬
man kings, barons, and prelates, were very different
from the refidences of perfons of the fame rank in the
Anglo-Saxon times. For this we have the teftimony of
a perfon of undoubted credit, who was well acquainted
with them both. “ The Anglo-Saxon nobles (fays
William of Malmlbury) fquandered away their ample
tevenues in low and mean houfes; but the French and
e c t u R E.
Norman barons are very different from them, living at
lefs expence, but in great and magnificent palaces.”
The truth is, that the rage of building fortified caftles,
was no lefs violent among the Norman princes, prelates,
and barons, than that of building churches. To this
they were prompted not only by the cuftom of their
native country, but alfo by their dangerous fituation in
this ifland. Surrounded by multitudes, whom they
had depreffed and plundered, and by whom they were
abhorred, they could not think themfelves fafe with¬
out the protection of deep ditches and ftrong walls.
The Conqueror himfelf was fenfible, that the want of
fortified places in England had greatly facilitated his
conqueft, and might facilitate his expulfion; and there¬
fore he made all poffible hafte to remedy this defeft,
by building very magnificent and ftrong caftles in all
the towns within the royal demefnes. “ William (fays
Matthew Paris) excelled all his predeceffors in building
caftles, and greatly haraffed his fubjedts and vaffals with
thefe works,” All his earls, barons, and even prelates,
imitated his example; and it was the firft care of every
one who received the grant of an eitate from the crown
to build a caftle upon it for his defence and refidence.
The difputes about the fuccefiion in the following
reigns, kept up this fpirit for building great and ftrong
caftles. Vviiliarn Rufus was ftill a greater builder than
his father. “ This William (fays Henry Knyghton),
was much addidled to building royal caftles and pala¬
ces, as the caftles of Dover, Windfor, Norwich, Exe¬
ter, the palace of Weftminfter, and many others, tefti-
fy ; nor was there any king of England before him
that erefled fo many and fuch noble edifices.”
Henry I. was alfo a great builder both of caftles and
raonafteries. But this rage for building never prevail¬
ed fo much in any period of the Engliih hiftory as in
the turbulent reign of King Stephen, from A. D.
1135 to A. D. 1154. “ In this reign (as we are told
by the author of the Saxon Chronicle) every one who
was able built a caftle ; fo that the poor people were
worn out with the toil of thefe buildings, and the
whole kingdom was covered with caftles.” This laft
expreflion will hardly appear too ftrong, when we are
informed, that befides all the callles before that time
in England, no fewer than 1115 were raifed from the
foundation in the ftiort fpace of 19. years. See the ar¬
ticle Castle.
The caftles, monafteries, and greater churches of
this period, were generally covered with lead, the
windows glazed ; and when the walls were not of afti-
ler, they were neatly plaftered and whitewaftied on
both fides. The doors, floors, and roof, were com¬
monly made of oak planks and beams, exactly fmooth-
ed and jointed, and frequently carved. It is hardly
neceffary to obferve, that the building one of thefe
great and magnificent caftles, monafteries, or churches,
of which there were many in England, muft have been
a work of prodigious expence and labour ; and that
the architects and artificers, by whom that work was
planned and executed, muft have attained confiderable
dexterity in their refpeftive arts. Several of thefe ar¬
chitects have obtained a place in hiftory, and are high¬
ly celebrated for their fuperior {kill. William of Sens,
architeft to ArchbHhop Lanfranc in building his cathe¬
dral, is faid, by Gervafe of Canterbury, to have been
a moft exquifite artift both in ftone and wood. He
made
ARCHITECTURE.
made not only a model of the whole cathedral, but of
every particular piece of feulpture and carving, for the
direction of the workmen*, and invented many curious
machines for loading and unloading (hip^, and convey¬
ing heavy weights by land, becaufe all the Hones were
brought from Normandy. Matthew Paris fpeaks even
in a higher ftrain of Walter of Coventry, who flourilhed
towards the end of this period, when he fays, that “ fo
excellent an architeft had never yet appeared, and pro¬
bably never would appear, in the world.” i his en¬
comium was undoubtedly too high *, but it is impof-
fible to view the remains of many magnificent fabrics,
both facred and civil, that were eretted in this period,
without admiring the genius of the architetts by whom
they were planned, and the dexterity of the workmen
by whom they were executed.
In the beginning of the reign of Henry VIII. or ra¬
ther towards the latter end of that of Henry Vil. when
brick building became common, a new kind of low
-pointed arch grew much in ufe j it was deferibed from
four centres, was very round at the haunches, and the
angle at the top was very obtufe. 'I his fort of arch is
to be found in every one of Cardinal Wolfey’s build¬
ings ; alfo at Weft Sheen *, an ancient brick gate at
Mile End, called King John's Gate; and in the great
gate of the palace of Lambeth. From this time Go¬
thic architetture began to decline ; and was foon after
fupplanted by a mixed ftyle, if one may venture to call
it one ; wherein the Grecian and Gothic, however dif-
cordant and irreconcileable, are jumbled together. Con¬
cerning this mode of building, Mr Warton, in his ob-
fervations on Spencer’s Faery Queene, has the follow¬
ing anecdotes and remarks i
“ Although the Roman or Grecian architetture did
not begin to prevail in England till the time of Inigo
Jones, yet our communication with the Italians, and our
imitation of their manners, produced fome fpecimens of
that llyle much earlier. Perhaps the earlieft u7as Somer-
fet Houfe in the Strand, built about the year 1549,
by the duke of Somerfet, uncle to Edward VI. i he
monument of Bifhop Gardiner, in Wdnchefter cathe¬
dral, made in the reign of Mary, about 1555* deco¬
rated with Ionic pillars. Thefe verfes of Spenfer,
   — ——Did rife
On ftately pillars, fram’d after the Doric guife-—
Hiflory,
bear an aHuiion to fome of the faftiionable improvements
in building, which at this time were growing more and
more into efteem. I hus alfo Bilhop Plali, who wrote
about the fame time, viz. 1398:
There findeft thou fome ftately Doric frame,
• Or neat lonicke work.—— - -
But thefe ornaments were often abfurdly introduced
into the old Gothic ftyle : as in the magnificent por¬
tico of the fchools at Oxford, ere6ted about the year
1613; where the builder, in a Gothic edifice, has af-
fettedly difplayed his univerfal fkill in the modern ar¬
chitetture, by giving us all the five orders together*
However, moft of the great buildings of Queen Eliza¬
beth’s reign have a ftyle peculiar to themielves both in
form and finiftiing; where, though much of the old
Gothic is retained, and great part of the new tafte is
adopted, yet neither predominates ; while both, thus
diftinttly blended, compofe a fantaftic fpecies, hardly
reducible to any clafs or name. One of its charatter-
iftics is the afftttation of large and lofty windows.;
where, fays Bacon, “ you (hall have fometimes fair
houfes fo full of glafs, that one cannot tell where to
come to be out of the fun.”
To return now to our general hiftory, and to con¬
clude: In the 15th and 16th centuries, when learning
of all kinds began to revive, the chafte architetture of
the Greeks and Romans feemed as it were to be re¬
called into life. The firft improvements in it began
in Italy, and owed their exifttnee to the many ruins
of the ancient Roman ftruttures that were to be found
in that country ; from whence an improved method oi
building was gradually brought into the other countries
of Europe : and though the Italians for a long time
retained the fuperionty as architetts over the other
European nations j yet, as men of genius travelled
from all quarters into Italy, where they had an oppor¬
tunity of feeing the originals from whence the Italians
copied, architetts have arifen in other nations equal, if
not fuperior, to any that ever appeared in Italy. Of
this we have a recent inftance in our own country¬
man Mr Mylne, who lately gained the prize in archi¬
tetture at Rome, where it would no doubt be dif-
puted by fuch natives of Italy as were belt Ikilled in
that art.
PART I. PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURE.
MANY ages muft have elapfed before architetture
fcame to be confidered as a fine art. Utility Was its
original deftination, and Hill continues to be its prin¬
cipal end. Experience, however, has taught us, that
architetture h capable of exciting a variety of agreeable
feelings. Of thefe, urility, grandeur, regularity, order,
and pr portion are the chief.
Biftinl A-cbitetture, being an ufeful as well as a fine art,
tion of leads us to diftinguifh buildings, and parts of buildings,
buildings. jnto three kinds, viz. what are intended for ufe folely,
what for ornament folely, and what for both. Build¬
ings intended for utility folely, ought in every part^to
correfpond precifely to that intention ; the leaft devia¬
tion from ufe, though contributing to ornament, will
be difagreeable *, for every work of ufe being confider¬
ed as a mean to an end, its perfettion as a mean is the
capital circumftance, and every other beauty in oppo-
fition is negletted as improper. On the other hand, in
fuch things as are intended folely for ornament, as co¬
lumns, obelilks, triumphal arches, &c. beauty alone
ought to be regarded. 1 he principal difficulty in ar¬
chitetture lies in combining ufe and ornament. In or¬
der to accomplifb thefe ends, different and even oppo-
fite means muft be employed 5 which is the reafon why
they are fo feldom united in perfettion ; and hence, in
buildings of this kind, the only pratticable method is,
'art I. A R C H I T
’rinciples. to prefer utility to ornament according to the charadkr
“—of the building: in palaces, and fuel) buildings as ad¬
mit of a variety of ufeful contrivances, regularity ought
to be preferred ; but in dwelling houfes that are too
fmall for variety of contrivance, utility ought to prevail,
neglecting regularity as far as it ftands in oppolition to
„ convenience.
ntrinfle In confidering attentively the beauty of vifible ob-
ind rela- jeCts, we difeover two kinds. The firlt may be termed
I live beauty intrinjic beauty, becaufe it is difeovered in a fingle cb-
je£t, without relation to any other. 'The fecond may be
termed relative beauty, being founded on a combina¬
tion of relative objeCts. Architecture admits of both
kinds. We fuall firft give a few examples of relative
beauty.
The proportions of a door are determined by the ufe
to which it is deitined. The door of a dwelling houfe,
which ought to correfpond to the human fize, is confin¬
ed to feven or eight feet in height and three or four
in breadth. The. proportions proper for a liable or
coachhoufe are different. The door of a church ought
to be wide, in order to afford an eafy paffage for a
multitude j and its height mufl be regulated by its
widenefs, that the proportion may pleafe the eye. The
iize of the windows ought always te be proportioned
to that of the room they are deftined to illuminate j for
if the apertures be not large enough to convey light to
every corner, the room muft be unequally lighted,
which is a great deformity. Steps of flairs fhould like-
wife be accommodated to the human figure, Avithout
regarding any other proportion \ they are accordingly
the fame in large and in fmall buildings, becaufe both
are inhabited by men of the fame fize.
We fhall next confider intrinjic beauty blended Avith
that Avhich is relative. A cube itfelf is more agree¬
able Than a parallelopipedon ; this conftantly holds in
fmall figures : but a large building in the form of a cube
is lumpifli and heavy •, Avhile a parallelopipedon, fet on
its fmaller bafe, is more agreeable on account of its
elevation : Hence the beauty of Gothic toAvers. But if
this figure were to be ufed in a dwelling houfe, to make
Way for relative beauty, we fhould immediately per¬
ceive that utility ought chiefly to be regarded *, and
this figure, inconvenient by its height, ought to be fet
on its larger bafe : the loftinefs in this cafe Avould be
loft ; but that lofs Avill be more than fufticiently com-
penfated by the additional convenience. Hence the
form of buildings fpread more upon the ground than
raifed in height, is always preferred for a dwelling
as houfe.
'vH^ f With regard to the internal divifions, utility re-
Jufes" ° qu^res that the rooms be reftangular, to avoid ufelefs
fpaces. An hexagonal figure leaves no void fpaces j
but it determines the rooms to be all of one fize, which
is both inconvenient and difagreeable for Arant of va¬
riety. Though a cube be the moft agreeable figure,
and may anfwer for a room of a moderate fize 5 yet, in
a very large room, utility requires a different figure.
Unconfined motion is the chief convenience of a great
room *, to obtain this the greateft length that can be
had is neceffary. But a fquare room of large fize is
inconvenient. It removes chairs, tables, &c. at too
great a diftance from the hand, Avhich, Avhen unem¬
ployed, muft be ranged along the fides of the room.
Utility, therefore, requires a large room to be a paral-
E C T U R E. 567
ielogram. This figure is likewife heft calculated for the Principles,
admiffion of light •, becaufe, to avoid crofs lights, all the —y—■
AvindoAVs ought to be in one Avail ; and if the oppofite
Avail be at fuel) a diftance as not to be fully lighted, the
room mult be obfeure. The height of a room exceed¬
ing nine or ten feet has little relation to utility j there¬
fore proportion is the only rule for determining the height
ay hen above that number of feet. 26
Artifls Avho deal in the beautiful, love to entertain Ul'luy and
the eye : palaces and fumptuous buildings, in which in-beauty of-
trinfic beauty may be fully difplayed, give them an op-
portunity of exerting their taile. But fuch a propen-1
fity is peculiarly unhappy Avith regard to private dwell¬
ing houfes 5 becaufe, in thefe, relative beauty cannot be
difplayed to perfection Avithout hurting intrinfic beau¬
ty. There is no opportunity for great variety of form
in a fmall houfe j and in edifices of this kind, internal
convenience has not hitherto been happily adjufted to
external regularity. Perhaps an accurate coincidence
in this refpeCt is beyond the reach of art. Architects,
however, conftantly fplit upon this rock 3 for they ne¬
ver can be perfuaded to give over attempting to recon¬
cile thefe two incompatibles : how otherwife fhould it
happen, that of the endlefs variety of private dwelling
houfes, there fhould not be one found that is generally-
agreed upon as a good pattern ? the unwearied propen-
fity to make a houfe regular as Avell as convenient ob¬
liges the architect, in fome articles, to facrifice con¬
venience to regularity, and, in others regularity to
convenience; and accordingly the houfe, which turns
out neither regular nor convenient, never fails to dif-
pleafe.
Nothing can be more evident, than that the form of
a dwelling houfe ought to be fuited to the climate j yet
no error is more common than to copy in Britain the
form of Italian houfes, not forgetting even thofe parts
that are purpofely contrived for collecting air, and for
excluding the fun ; Avitnefs our colonnades and logics,
defigned by the Italians to gather cool air, and exclude
the beams of the fun, conveniences Avhich the climate
of this country does not require. 27
We fhall next view architecture as one of the fine Arcfutec-
arts ; which will lead us to the examination of fuch
buildings, and parts of buildings, as are calculated fole-f;ne art.
ly to pleafe the eye. Variety prevails in the works of
nature j but art requires to be guided by rule and com*-
pafs. Hence it is, that in fuch works of art as imitate
nature, the great art is, to hide every appearance of art;
which is done by avoiding regularity and indulging
variety. But in works of art that are original and not
imitative, fuch as architecture, flriCt regularity and
uniformity ought to be ftudied, fo far as confiftent with
utility. 28
Proportion is not lefs agreeable than regularity and Difference
uniformity ; and therefore, in buildings intended to bctvve®n
pleafe the eye, they are all equally tffenlial. It is taken of number3
for granted by many writers, that in all the parts and qu;m-
of a building there are certain ftriCt proportions YYhich11^’
pleafe the eye, in the fame manner as in found there
are certain ftriCt proportions which pleafe the ear ; and
that, in both, the flighteft deviation is equally difagrte-
able. Others feem to relifh more a comparifon between,
proportion in numbers and proportion in quantity ;
and maintain, that the fame proportions are agreeable
in both. The proportion, for example, of the num--
bers
568 A R C H I T E
Principles, bers i5, 24, and 36, are agreeable ; and fo, fay they,
y-—1 are the proportions of a room, whofe height is 10 teet,
the breadth 24, and the length 36. But it ought to be
confidered, that there is no refemblance or relation be¬
tween the obje&s of different fenfes. What pleafes the
ear in harmony, is not the proportion of the firings of
the inftrument, but of the found which thefe firings pro¬
duce. In architeaure, on the contrary, it is the pro¬
portion of different quantities that pleafes the eye, with
out the leafl relation to found. The fame thing may
be faid of numbers. (Quantity is a real quality of every
body ; number is not a real quality, but merely an idea
that arifes upon viewing a plurality of things in lucj:ei-
fion. An arithmetical proportion is agreeable in num¬
bers ; but have we from this any reafon to conclude,
that it mufl alfo be agreeable in quantity ? At this rate,
a geometrical proportion, and many others, ought alfo
to be agreeable in both. A certain proportion may
coincide in quantity and number *, and among an end-
lefs variety of proportions, it would be wonderful it
there never fhould be a coincidence. One example is
given of this coincidence in the numbers 16, 24, and
36 •, but to be convinced that it is merely accidental, we
need but refleft, that the fame proportions are not ap¬
plicable to the external figure of a houfe, and far lefs to
a column. . , , .
It is ludicrous to obferve writers acknowledging the
neceflity of accurate proportions, and yet differing wide¬
ly about them. Laying afide reafoning and philofophy,
one fa£l univerfally agreed on ought to have undeceived
them, that the fame proportions which pleafe in a model
are not agreeable in a large building : a room 48 feet
in length, and 24 in breadth and height, is well propor¬
tioned: but a room 12 feet wide and high, and 24 long,
approaches to a gallery.
Beauty ari- Perrault, in his companfon of the ancients and mo¬
ling from derns, goes to the oppofite extreme j maintaining, that
proportion. tjie different proportions afligned to each order of co¬
lumns are arbitrary, and that the beauty of thefe pro¬
portions is entirely the effea of cuflom. But he fhould
have confidered, that if thefe proportions had not ori¬
ginally been agreeable, they could never have been efla-
blifhed by cuflom.
For illuflrating this point, we fhall add a few exam¬
ples of the agreeablenefs of different proportions. In a
fumptuous edifice, the capital rooms ought to be large
otherwife they will not be proportioned to the fize of
the building; for the fame reafon, a very large room is
improper in a fmall houfe. But in things thus related,
the mind requires not a precife or fingle proportion, re-
iedling all others; on the contrary, many different pro¬
portions are equally agreeable. It is only when a pro¬
portion becomes loofe and diflant, that the agreeable¬
nefs abates, and at laft vanifhes. Accordingly, in
buildings, rooms of different proportions are. found to
be equally agreeable, even where the proportion is not
influenced by utility. With regard to the proportion
the height of a room fhould bear to the length and
breadth, it muft be extremely arbitrary, confidering
the uncertainty of the eye as to the height of a room
when it exceeds 16 or 17 feet. In columns, again,
every architea muft confefs, that the proportion of
height and thicknefs varies betwixt eight diameters and
10 and that every proportion between thefe two ex¬
tremes is agreeable. Befides, there muft certainly be
C T U R E. Parti.
a further variation of proportion, depending on the fize Principles,
of the column. A row of columns 10 feet highland ■—y—j
a row twice that height, require different proportions:
The intercolumniations muft alfo differ in proportion ac¬
cording to the height of the row.
Proportion of parts is not only itfeif a beauty, but is
infeparably conneaed with a beauty of the higheft rt;-
lifh, that of concord and harmony; which will be plain
from what follows: A room, the parts of which are all
finely adjufted to each other, itrikes us not only with
the beauty of proportion, but with a pleafure far fupe-
rior. The length, the breadth, the height, the^ win¬
dows, raife each of them a feparate emotion : Thefe
emotions are iimilar ; and, though faint when feparate-
ly felt, they produce in conjunclion the emotion of con¬
cord or harmony, which is very pleafant. On the other
hand, where the length of a room far exceedsthebreadth,
the mind, comparing together parts fo intimately con-
ntdled, immediately perceives a difagreement ordifpro-
portion which difgufts. Hence a long gallery, however
convenient for exercife, is not an agreeable figure of a
room.
In buildings deftined chiefly or folely to pleafe the
eye, regularity and proportion are effentially neceffary,
becaufe they are the means of producing intrinfic beau- ^
ty. But a fkilful artift will not confine his view to re- Form of
gularity and proportion ; he will alfo ftudy congruity, Ihuctures
which is perceived when the form and ornaments of a ^bt*
ftru&ure are fuited to the purpofe for which it is »p-pUrp°fese
pointed. Hence every building ought to have an ex-for ^jj],
preflion fuited to its deftination. A palace ought to they are
be fumptuous and grand; a private dwelling, neat and intended,
modeft ; a playhoufe, gay and fplendid ; and a monu¬
ment gloomy and melancholy. A heathen temple has
a double deftination : It is eonfidered as a houfe dedi¬
cated to fome divinity ; therefore it ought to be grand,
elevated, and magnificent : It is alfo confidered as a
place of worlhip ; and therefore ought to be fomewhat
dark and gloomy, becaufe dimnefs or obfeurity pro¬
duces that tone of mind which is favourable to humi¬
lity and devotion. Columns, befides their chief defti¬
nation of being fupports, contribute to that peculiar
expreflion which the deftination of a building requires.
Columns of different proportions ferve to exprefs lofti-
nefs, lightnefs, &c. as well as ftrength. Situation may *
alfo contribute to expreflion : Conveniency regulates
the fituation of a private dwelling-houfe; and the fitua-
tion of a palace ought to be lofty. This leads to a
queftion, Whether the fituation, where there happens
to be no choice, ought, in any meafure, to regulate
the form of the edifice ? The connexion between a
great houfe and a neighbouring field, though not ex-
tremely intimate, demands, however, fome congruity.
It would, for example, difpleafe us to find an elegant
building thrown away upon a wild uncultivated coun¬
try : congruity requires a polifhed field for fuch a build¬
ing. The old Gothic form of building was well fuited
to the rough uncultivated regions where it was invent¬
ed ; but was very ill adapted to the fine plains of France
and Italy. 3*
The external ftruaure of a houfe leads naturally
its internal ftruaure. A large and fpacious room,J^
which is the firft that commonly receives us, is a bad
contrivance in feveral refpeas. In the firft place,
when immediately from the open air we ftep into fuch
Part I. A R C H I T
Principles, a fooiii, its fize in appearance is diminiflied by con-
traft ; it looks little, compared with the great canopy
of the iky. In the next place, when it recovers its
grandeur, as it foon doth, it gives a diminutive ap¬
pearance to the reft of the houfe ; pa fling from it, eve¬
ry apartment looks little. In the third place, by its
Situation it ferves only for a Availing room, and a paf-
fage to the principal apartments. Rejecting therefore
this form, a hint may be taken from the climax in wri¬
ting for another that appears more fuitable : A hand-
fome portico, proportioned to the fize and fafliion of
the front, leads into a waiting room of a larger fize,
and this to the great room, all by a progreflion of
fmall to great.
Grandeur is the principal emotion that architeflure
is capable of raifing in the mind : it might therefore
be the chief ftudy of the artift, in great buildings de¬
fined to pleafe the eye. But as grandeur depends
partly on fize, it is unlucky for architedture that it is
governed by regularity and proportion, which never
deceive the eye by making objedls appear larger than
they are in reality. But though regularity and pro¬
portion contribute nothing to grandeur, fo far as that
emotion depends on fize ; yet they contribute greatly
to it by confining the fize within fuch bounds that it
can be taken in and examined at one view ; for when
objedts are fo large as not to be comprehended but
in parts, they tend rather to diftradt than fatisfy the
mind.
We {hall next pafs to fuch ornaments as contribute
to give buildings a peculiar expreflion. It has been
doubted, whether a building can regularly admit any
ornament but what is ufeful, or at leaft has that ap¬
pearance. But, confidering the double aim of archi-
tedlure, as a fine as well as an ufeful art, there is no
reafon why ornaments may not be added to pleafe
the eye, without any relation to utility. A private
dwelling houfe, it is true, and other edifices, where
ufe is the chief aim, admit not regularly any ornament
but what has at leaft the -appearance of ufe ; but
temples, triumphal arches, and other buildings, in¬
tended chiefly or folely for ftiow, may be highly orna¬
mented.
Different This fuggefts a divifion of ornaments into three
kinds of or- kinds, viz. I. Ornaments that are beautiful without
laments, relation to ufe ; fuch as ftatues, vafes, baflb or alto re¬
lievo : 2. Things in themfelves not beautiful, but pof-
fefling the beauty of utility, by impofing on the fpec-
tator, and appearing to be ufeful; fuch as blind win¬
dows : 3. Where things are beautiful in themfelves,
and at the fame time take on the appearance of ufe $
luch as pilafters.
With regard to the JirJl, we naturally require that
a ftatue be fo placed, as to be feen in every diredfion,
and examined at different diftanees. Statues, there¬
fore, are properly introduced to adorn the great ftair
that leads to the principal door of a palace, or to lef-
fen the void between pillars. But a niche in the ex¬
ternal front is an improper place for a ftatue. There
is an additional reafon againft placing them upon the
roof or top of the walls : their ticklifh fituation gives
pain, as they have the appearance of being in danger
of tumbling down j befides we are inclined to feel
from their being too much expofed to the inclemen¬
cies of the weather. To adorn the top of the Avail
Vol. II. Part II.
E C T U R E. 569
with a roAv of vafes, is an unhappy conceit, by placing Principles,
a thing Avhofe natural deftination is utility, where itv——*v-*~*
cannot have even the appearance of ufe. As to carv¬
ings upon the external furface of a building, termed
ba[fo relievo Avhen flat, and alto relievo Avhen promi¬
nent, all contradictory expreflions ought to be avoided.
Now, firmnefs and folidity being the proper expreffions
of a pedeftal, and, on the contrary, lightnefs and deli¬
cacy of carved Avork, the pedeftal, whether of a column
or of a ftatue, ought to be fparingly ornamented. The
ancients never ventured any bolder ornament than the
baffo relievo.
With refpedl to ornaments of the fecondV\x\&, it is
a great blunder to contrive them fo as to make them
appear ufelefs. A blind AvindoAV, therefore, Avhen ne-
ceffary for regularity, ought to be fo difguifed as to
appear a real Avindow : when it appears Avithout dif-
guile, it is difguftful, as a vain attempt to fupply the
want of invention \ it (Iioavs the irregularity in a ftronger
light, by fignifying that a Avindow ought to be therein
point of regularity, but that the architedt had not {kill
fuflicient to connedt external regularity Avith internal
convenience.
As to the third, it is an error to fink pilafters fo far
into the Avail, as to remove totally, or moftly, the ap¬
pearance of ufe. They Ihould always project fo much
from the wall, as to have the appearance of fupporting
the entablature over them. ^
From ornaments in general, we defcend to a pillar, Culumns.
the chief ornament in great buildings. The deftinalion
of a pillar is to fupport, really, or in appearance, ano¬
ther part, termed the entablature. With regard to
the form of a pillar, it muft be obferved, that a circle
is a more agreeable figure than a fquare, a globe than
a cube, and a cylinder than a parallelopipedon. This
laft, in the language of architedlure, is faying, that a
column is a more agreeable figure than a pilafter 5 and
for that reafon it ought to be preferred, when all other
circumftances are equal. Another reafon concurs,
that a column annexed to a Avail, Avhich is a plain fur-
face, makes a greater variety than a pilafter. Befides,
pilafters at a diftance are apt to be miftaken for pillars j
and the fpedlator is difappointed, Avhen, on a nearer
approach, he difcovers them to be only pilafters.
As to the parts of a column, a bare uniform cylin¬
der, without a capital, appears naked; and Avithout a
bafe, appears too ticklifhly placed to ftand firm; it
ought therefore to have fome finishing at the top and
bottom : Hence the three chief parts of a column, the
ftiaft, the bafe, and the capital. Nature undoubtedly
requires proportion among thefe parts, but it admits
of variety of proportion. Vitruvius and fome of the
elder Avriters feem to think, that the proportions of
columns Avere derived from the human figure, the ca¬
pital reprefenting the head, the bafe the feet, and the
{haft the body. The Tufcan has been accordingly
denominated the Gigantic ; the Doric, the Herculean ;
the Ionic, the Matronal; and the Corinthian, the Vir¬
ginal:—The Compofite is a mixture of the Corinthian
and Ionic. As to the bafe, the. principle of utility in-
terpofes to vary it from the human figure, and to pro¬
portion it fo to the Avhole, as to give the column the ^
appearance of {lability. Whether
Among the Greeks, we find only three orders of new orders
columns, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian, di-can
4 C diftingui{hedvented*
35
Rules re-
gardin
57o A R C H I T
Principles, ftinguifned from eacli other by their deftination as
v-.., ■ we^ as by their ornaments. It has been difputed,
whether any new order can be added to thefe : fome
hold the affirmative, and give for inftances the Tufcan
and Compofite : others maintain, that thefe properly
are not diflinft orders, but only the original orders
with fome flight variation. The only circumftances
that can ferve to diftinguiffi one order from another,
are the form of the column, and its deftination. Io
make the firft a diftinguiffiing mark, without regard
to the other, would multiply orders without end. De¬
ftination is more limited j and it leads us to diftinguiffi
three kinds of orders ; one plain and ftrong for the
purpofe of fupporting plain and mafly buildings ; one
delicate and graceful, for fupporting. buildings of that
chara6!er 5 and between thefe, a third, for fupporting
buildings of a mixed nature. So that, if deftination
alone is to be regarded, the Tufcan is of the fame or¬
der with the Doric, and the Compofite with the Corin-
thian.
The ornaments of thefe three orders ought to be
fuited to the purpofes for which they are intended.
Plain and ruftic ornaments would not be a little difcord-
ant with the elegance of the Corinthian order, and
fweet and delicate ornaments not lefs with the ftrength
of the Doric.
With refpeft to buildings of every kind, one rule,
«» s . diftated by utility, is, that they be firm and liable.
tmitdings in Another? abated by beauty, is, that they alfo appear
?enera ’ fQ to the eye : for every thing that appears* tottering,
and in hazard of tumbling down, produceth in the
fpeaator the painful emotion of fear, inftead. of the
pleafing emotion of beauty ; and accordingly it ffiould
be the great care of the artift, that every part of his
edifice appear to be well fupported. Some have intro¬
duced a kind of conceit in architeaure, by giving parts
of buildings the appearance of falling j of this kind is
the church of St Sophia in Conftantinople : the round
towers in the uppermoft ftories of Gothic buildings are
in the fame falfe tafte. ^ .
The moft confiderable ornaments ufed in architeaure
are five orders of columns, pediments, arches, ballufters,
&c. of which in the following chapters.
Chap. I. Of the Orders of ArchiteBure.
An order confifts of two principal members, the Co¬
lumn and the Entablature ; each of which is com-
pofed of three principal parts. 1 hofe of the columns
are, the Bafe, the Shaft, and the Capital; and thofe of
the entablature are, the Architrave, lh%Frize, and the
Cornice. All thefe are fubdivided into many leffer
parts, whofe number, form, and dimenfions, charafie-
rize each order, and exprefs the degree ol ftrength, de-
6 licacy, richnefs, or fimplicity peculiar to it. . _
Parts of an The parts that compofe an order may be diftributed
order divid- into two different claffes. In the frf may be rangid
ed into two ^ y,ave any analogy to the primitive huts, and
reprefent fome part that was neceffary in their con-
ftruaion. Such are the ffiaft of the column, with
the plinth of its bafe, and the abacus of its capital ;
likewife the architrave and triglyphs, the mutules, mo-
dilions, or dentiles, which all of them reprefent the
rafters, or fome other pieces of timber ufed to fup-
3
clafles.
E C T U R E. Parti.
port the covering; and the corona, reprefenting the Principles.
beds of materials that compofed the covering. All  y-—^
thefe may properly be diftinguiffied by the name of ef-
fential members. The fubfervient parts, contrived for
the ufe or ornaments of the former, and commonly cal¬
led mouldings, may conftitute thefecond clafs.
There are eight regular mouldings in ornamenting
columns: the fillet, liftel, or fquare j the aftragal, or
bead ; the turps, or tore •, the fcotia, mouth, or cafe-
ment ; the echinus, ovolo, or quarter-round j the in¬
verted cyma, talon, or ogee 5 the cyma, cyma re6ta,
or cvmation the cavetto, or hollow. 1 he names of
thefe allude to their forms, and their forms are adapted
to the purpofes for which they are intended. See Plate
XLII.
The ovolo and talon, as they are ftrong at the extre¬
mities, are fit for fupports ; the cyma and cavetto,
though improper for fupports, ferve for coverings, to
ffielter other members ; the torus and aftragal,. being
ftraped like, ropes, are intended to bind and fortify the
parts with which they are conne&ed: But the ufe of
the fcotia and fillet is only to feparate and diftinguiffi
the other mouldings, to give a graceful turn to the
profile, and to prevent the confufion which would arife
from joining feveral curved members together.
There are various methods of defcribing the contours
of mouldings; but the fimpleft and beft is to form them
of quadrants of circles. _ 37
An affemblage of what are called effential parts and Profile,
mouldings is termed a prof/e. The moft perfed pro- what.
files are fuch as are compofed of few mouldings, varied
in form and fize ; and'fo difpofed, that the ftraight
and curved ones fucceed each other alternately. When
ornaments are employed in mouldings, fome of them
fhould be left plain, in order to give a proper repofe :
For when all are ornamented, the figure of the profile
is loft. 38
Columns, in imitation of trees, from which they drew Dimmu-
their origin, are tapered in their ffiafts. In the an-tion^cfco-
tiques the diminution is varioufty performed : beginning um
fometimes from the foot of the ffiaft, and at others from
one quarter, or one-third of its height } the lower
part being perfectly cylindrical. The former of thefe
was moft in ufe among the ancients, and being the moft
natural and graceful, ought to have the preference,
though the latter hath been more univerfally pra&ifed
by modern artifts.
'The firft architects, fays lyt.. Auz.oul.t, probably
made their columns in ftraight lines, in imitation of
trees ; fo that their ffiaft was a fruftum of a cone 5
but finding this form abrupt and difagreeable, they,
made ufe of fome curve, which, fpringing from the
extremities of the fuperior and inferior diameters of
the column, fwelled beyond the Tides of the cone,
and by that means gave a more pleafing figure to the
contour. .
Vitruvius, in the fecond chapter of his third book,
mentions this pra&ice, but in fo obfeure and curfory a
manner, that his meaning hath not been underftood \
and feveral of the modern architefts, intending to
conform themfelves to his doarine, have .made the
diameters of their columns greater in the middle, than
at the foot of the ffiaft. Leon Baptifta, Alberti, and
others of the Florentine and Roman architeas, have
carried ■
'art I.
rinciples.
39
ignola’s
Ethod.
Plate
XXVII.
40
icome-
s’s in-
ument.
A R C H I T
carried tins to a very great excefs j for which they have
been juftly blamed, as it is neither natural, reafonable,
nor beautiful.
MonGeur Auzoult obferves, that a column, fuppofing
its (haft to be the fruftum of a cone, may have an ad¬
ditional thicknefs in the middle, without being fwelled
there beyond the bplk of its inferior parts j and fup-
poit s the addition mentioned by Vitruvius to (ignify no¬
thing but the increafe towards the middle of the column,
oecafioned by changing the ifraight line, which at firit
was in ufe, for a curve.
The fuppofition is extremely juft, and founded on
what is obferved in the works of antiquity ; where
there is no inftance of columns thicker in the middle
than at the bottom, though all have the fwelling hint¬
ed at by Vitruvius, all of them being terminated by
curves j fome granite columns excepted, which are
bounded by ftraight lines j a proof, perhaps, of their
antiquity, or of their having been wrought in the
quarries of Egypt, by bungling and unlkilful work¬
men.
Monfieur Blondel, in his book entitled Refolution
des quatre principuux problemes d'Architecture, teaches
various manners of diminiftiing columns; the beft and
ftmpleft of which is by means of the inftrument which
Nicomedes invented to defcribe the firft conchoid :
for this, being applied at the bottom of the (baft, per¬
forms at one fvveep both the fwelling and the diminu¬
tion ; giving fuch a graceful form to the column, that
it is univerfally allowed to be the moft perfeft practice
hitherto difcovered. The columns in the Pantheon,
accounted the moft beautiful among the antiques, are
made in this manner ; as appears by the ex aft meafures
of one of them, to be found in Defgodet’s Antiquities of
Rome.
To give an accurate idea of the operation, it will be
neceflary firft to defcribe Vignola’s method of diminu¬
tion, on which it is grounded. “ As to this fecond me¬
thod, fays Vignola, it is a difcovery of my own, and al¬
though it be lefs known than the former, it will be ea-
fily comprehended by the figure. Having therefore de¬
termined the meafures of your column, (that is to fay,
the height of the (haft, and its inferior and fuperior dia¬
meters), draw a line indefinitely from C through D,
perpendicular to the axis of the column: this done, fet
off the diftance CD, which is the inferior femidiameter,
from A, the extreme point of the fuperior femidiame¬
ter, to B, a point in the axis ; then from A, through
B, draw the line ABE, which will cut the indefinite
line CD in E •, and, from this point of interfeftion E,
draw through the axis of the column any number of
rays, as E b a, on each of which, from the axis towards
the circumference, fetting off the interval CD, you may
find any number of points, a, a, a, through which if a
curve be drawn, it rvill defcribe the fwelling and dimi¬
nution of the column.”
Though this method be fufficiently accurate for
praftice, efpecially if a confiderable number of points
be found, yet, ftriftly fpeaking, it is defeftive ; as the
curve muft either be drawn by hand, or by applying
a flexible ruler to all the points ; both of which are
liable to variations. Blondel, therefore, to obviate this
objeftion, (after having proved the curve pafling from
A to C through the points a, a, to be of the fame na¬
ture with the firft conchoid of the ancients), employed
E C T U R E.
the inftrument of Nicomedes to deicribe it; the con-
ftruftion of which is as follows :
Having determined, as above, the length of the
(haft, with the inferior and fuperior diameters of the
column, and having likewife found the length of the
line CDE, take three rulers, either of wood or metal,
as EG, ID, and AH; of which let EG and ID be
fattened together at right angles in G. Cut a dove¬
tail groove in the middle of EG, from top to bottom ;
and at the point E on the ruler ID (u'hofe diftance,
from the middle of the groove in EG, is the lame as
that of the point of interfeftion from the axis of the
column) fix a pin : then on the ruler AH fet off" the
diftance AB, equal to CD the inferior femidiameter
of the column, and at the point fix a button, whole
head muft exaftly be fitted to the groove made in
EG, in which it is ,to Hide; and, at the other extre¬
mity of the ruler AH, cut a flit or canal from H to
K, whole length muft not be lefs than the difference
of length betw'een EB and ED, and whofe breadth
muft be fufficient to admit the pin fixed at E, which
muft pafs through the flit, that the ruler may Hide
thereon.
The inftrument being thus completed, if the middle
of the groove, in the ruler EG, be placed exaftly
over the axis of the column, it is evident that the
ruler AH, in moving along the groove, will with the
extremity A defcribe the curve A a a C ; which curve
is the fame as that produced by Vignola’s method of
diminution, fuppofing it done with the utmoft accuracy ;
for the interval AB, a b, is always the fame ;/and the
point E is the origin of an infinity of lines, of which
the parts BA, b a, b a, extending from the axis to the
circumference, are equal to each other and to DC.
And if the rulers be of an indefinite fize, and the
pins at E and B beN made to move along their refpec-
tive rulers fo that the intervals AB and DE may be
augmented or diminilhed at pleafure, it is likewife evi¬
dent that the fame inftrument may be thus applied to
columns of any fize. 41
In the remains of antiquity the quantity of the di-Quantity of
minution is various ; but feldom lefs than one-eighth 0f t^m*nut^on*
the inferior diameter of the column, nor more than one-
fixth of it. The laft of thefe is by Vitruvius efteemed
the moft perfeft.
Of the Tuscan Order.
This is the moft folid and Ample of all the orders.
It is compofed of few parts, devoid of ornaments, and
fo maffy, that it feems capable of fupnorting the hea-
vieft burden. There are no remains of a regular Tuf-
can order among the antiques : the doftrine of Vitru¬
vius concerning it is obfcure ; and the profiles of Pal¬
ladio, Scamozzi, Serlio, de 1’Orme and Vignola, are all
im perfeft.
The height of the Tufcan order is 14 modules, or
femidiameters, each confiding of 30 minutes ; and that
of the whole entablature 3^ modules; w hich being di¬
vided into ten equal parts, three of them are for the
height of the architrave, three for the frize, and the
remaining four for the cornice. The capital is one
module ; the bafe, including the lower cinfture of the
(haft is likewife one module; and the (haft, with its
upper cinfture and aftragal, 12 modules.
Thefe are the general dimenfions of the order; the
4 C 2 particular
42
Plate
XXXIX.
s72 A r, C H I T
Principles, particular diraenfions may be learned by xnfpe&ion of
‘ 1 ” v ■ the plates.
In the remains of ahtiquity, the quantity of diminu¬
tion at the top of the Tufcan column is various ; but
feldom lefs than one-eighth, nor more than one-lixth, of
the inferior diameter ot the column. I he laft of thefe
is generally preferred j and Chalmers and others make
the fame diminution in all columns, without regard to
their order.
Of the Doric Order.
43 r J
Plate XL. This order is next in ftrength to the Tufcan } and
being of a grave, robuft, and mafculine afpeft, is by
Scamozzi, called the Herculean. As it is the molt
ancient of all the orders, it retains more of the ftruc-
ture of the primitive huts than any of the reft *, the
triglyphs in its frize reprefenting the ends. of the
joifts, and the mutules in its cornice reprefenting the
rafters.. . .
The height of the Doric column, including its capital
and bafe, is 16 modules, and the height of the entabla¬
ture 4 •, the latter of which being divided into eight
parts, two of them are for the architrave, three for the
frize, and three for the cornice.
In mod of the antiques, the Doric column is exe¬
cuted without a bafe. Vitruvius likewife makes it
without one \ the bafe, according to him, having been
firft employed in the Ionic order, in imitation of the
fandal of a woman’s foot. Scamozzi blames this, prac¬
tice, and molt of the modern architeas are of his opi-
. nion. .
Ornaments In the profile of the theatre of Marcellus, the frize
ofthefrize. is enriched with hufks and rofes \ the architrave con-
fifts only of one fafcia and a fillet j the drops are coni¬
cal } the metope is enriched with a bull’s fkull, adorn¬
ed with a garland of beads, in imitation of thofe on.the
temple of Jupiter Tonans, at the foot of the Capitol.
In fome antique fragments, and in a great many mo¬
dern buildings, the metopes are alternately adorned with
ox fkulls and pateras. But they may be filled with any
other ornaments, according to the deftination of the
building.
45 • rn r
Plate XLl. Is of a more {lender make than the Doric or luf-
can j its appearance is limple, yet graceful and ma-
jeftic; its ornaments are few j fo that it has been
compared to a fedate matron, in decent, rather than
magnificent, attire.
Among the ancients, the form of the Ionic profile
appears to have been more pofitively determined than
that of any other order : for in all the antiques at
Rome (the temple of Concord excepted), it is exadly
the fame.
The modern artifts have likewife been unanimous in
their opinions ; all of them, excepting Palladio and
his imitators, having employed the dentil, cornice, and
the other parts of the profile, nearly as they are found
in the Colifeum, the temple of Fortune, and the theatre
of MarcelVus. _ .
The heinht of the Ionic column is 18 modules, and
that of the'entablature 4J, or one quarter of the height
of the column, as in the other orders, which is a trifle
lefs than in any of the antique Ionics. In all the an¬
tiques the bafe is Attic j and the fhaft of the column
The Ionic Order
E C T U R E. Parti.
may either be plain, or fluted with 24 flutings, or 20 Principles,
onlyj as in the temple of Fortune. The plan of the —
flutings may be a trifle more than a femicircle, as in the
forum of Nerva, becaufe they then appear more diftimft.
The fillets, or intervals between them, muft not be
broader than one-third of the breadth of a fluting, nor
narrower than one-fourth. Uhe ornaments of the ca¬
pital muft correfpond with the flutings of the {haft;
and there muft be an ove above the middle of each flut¬
ing. The volutes ought to be traced according to Mr
Goldman’s method, which is as follows : 46
Plate XLII. fig. 9. Draw the cathetus, FC, whofe Method of.
length muft be 15 minutes, or one-fourth of a module
and from the point C, defcribe the eye of the volute u ev
AEBD, of which the diameter is to be 6-f minutes •,
divide it into four equal fe&ors by the diameters AB,
DE. Bifeft the radii CA, CB, in I and 4 j and on
the line I, 4, conftruft a fquare, 1, 2, 3,4.. From
the centre C, to the angles 2, 3, draw the diagonals
C 2, C 3, and divide the fide of the fquare 1, 4, into
fix equal parts, at 5, 9, C, 12, 8, Then through the
points, 5, 9, 12, 8, draw the lines 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, II,
8, 7, parallel to the diameter ED, which will cut the
diagonals in 6, 7, 10, 11 j and the points I, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, IO, ll, 12, will be the centres of the vo¬
lute. From the firft centre I, with the diftance 1 F,
defcribe the quadrant FG ; from the fecond centre 2,
with the diftance 2 G, defcribe the quadrant GH j and
continuing the fame operation from all the 12 centres,
the contour of the volute will be completed.
Fig. 10. The centres for defcribing the fillet are
found in this manner. Conftrutt a triangle, of which
the fide AF is equal to the part of the cathetus con¬
tained between AF. and the fide FV equal to C 1 j
place the dillance FS from F towards A, equal to FS
the breadth of the fillet, and through the point S draw,
the line ST, which will be to C 1 in the fame propor¬
tion as AS is to AF ; place this line on the diameter
of the eye AB : divide it into three equal parts j and
through the points of divifion, draw lines parallel to the
diameter ED, which will cut the diagonals C 2, C 3,
and you will have twelve new centres, from whence the
interior contour of the fillet may be defcribed in the
fame manner as the exterior one was from the firft
centres.
Of the Corinthian Order.
47
The proportions of this order are extremely delicate. Plate
It is divided into a great variety of members, and en- XLIIu
riched with a profufion of ornaments. Scamozzi calls
it the virginal order ; and indeed it has all the delicacy
in its make, and all the delicacy in its drefs, peculiar
to young girls.
The moft perfeft model of the Corinthian order is
generally allowed to be in the three columns in the
Campo Vaccino at Rome, the remains, as it is thought,
of the temple of Jupiter Stator.
The Corinthian column ftiould be 20 modules high,
and the entablature 5 •, which proportions are a me¬
dium between thofe of the Pantheon and the three co¬
lumns. The bafe of the column may be either Attic
or Corinthian : They are both beautiful. If the enta¬
blature be enriched, the {haft may b'e fluted.. i he flut¬
ings may be filled, to one-third of their height, with
eabblings. as the infide of the Pantheon j which wftl
ftrengthea
43
Plate
XLIV.
49
Afferent
inds ot or-
aments.
5°
, S1
dafters
here ufe-
A R C H I T
ftrengthen tlie lower part of the column, and make it
lefs liable to injury.
In moft of the antiques at Rome, the capital of this
order is enriched with olive leaves ; the acanthus being
feldom employed but in the Compofite. De Cordemoy,
however, prefers the acanthus.
The divilions of the entablature bear the fame pro¬
portions to each other, as the Tufcan, Ionic, and Com¬
pofite orders.
The Composite
Is, ftri&ly fpeaking, only afpecies of the Corinthian ;
and therefore retains, in a great meafure, the fame cha-
ra6ter.
It does not appear that the ancients affe&ed any par¬
ticular form of entablature to this order. Sometimes
the cornice is entirely plain, as in the temple of Bac¬
chus 5 at others, as in the arch of Septimius Severus, it
is enriched with dentiles differing very little from the
Ionic ; and in the arch of Titus, there are both dentils
and modilions ; the whole form of the profile being
the fame with the Corinthian, as executed in the an¬
tiques at Rome.
The modern architects have varied more in this than
in any other order, each following the bent ef his own
fancy.
The height of the Compofite column, and parts of
the entablature, is the fame with that of the Corin¬
thian. The foot of the leaves of the capital ought
not to projeCt beyond the upper part of the fhaft.
The different bunches of leaves fhould be ftrongly
marked j the fprigs which arife between the upper ones
fhould be kept flat upon the vafe 5 and the ornaments of
the volutes muft not projeCt beyond the fillets that en-
clofe them.
Chap. II. Of Pilafers.
These differ from columns only in their plan ;
which is a fquare, as that of columns is round. Their
bafes, capitals and entablatures, have the fame parts,
with the fame heights and projeftions, as thofe of co¬
lumns : they are alfo diflinguifhed in the fame manner,
by the names of Tufcan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and
Compofite.
The column is undoubtedly more perfeCf than the
pilafter. However, they may be employed with great
propriety on many occafions. Some authors declaim
againfl pilaflers, becaufe, according to them, they do
not admit of diminution. But this is a miftake $ there
are many inftances in the remains of antiquity, of their
being diminiflied. Scamozzi always gave his pilafters
the fame diminution as his columns : Palladio and. Inigo
Jones have likewife diminiflied them in many of their
buildings.
Pilaflers are employed in churches, galleries, halls,
and other interior decorations, to fave room 5 for,
as they feldom projeCt beyond the folid wall above
one quarter of their diameter, they do not occupy near
fo much fpace as columns. They are likewife ufed
in exterior decorations ; fometimes alone, inftead of
columns, on account of their being lefs expenfive •,
and fometimes they accompany columns, being placed
behind them to fupport the architraves, where they
enter the building, as in the Pantheon at Rome j or,
E C T U R E. 573
in the fame line with them, to fortify the angles, as in Principles,
the portico of Septimius. ' »
When pilafters are ufed alone, they ftiould projeft
one quarter of their diameter beyond the walls. When
placed behind columns, efpecially if they be very near
them, they need not projeft above one-eighth of their
diameter. But, when placed on a line with eolumns,
their projeftion muft be regulated by that of the co¬
lumns j and confequently, it can never be lefs than a
femidiameter, even when the columns are engaged as
much as poffible. . „
The fhafts of pilafters are frequently adorned withHowoma*
flutings, in the fame manner as thofe of columns; themented.
plan of which may be a trifle more than a femicircle ;
their number muft be feven on each face, which makes
them nearly of the fame fize with thofe of columns.
The intervals, or fillets, muft either be one-third or
one-fourth of the fluting in breadth.
The capitals of pilarters are profiled nearly in thePlateXLV.
fame manner as thofe of columns.
Chap. III. Of Attics.
These very properly follow the pilafters; being 53
nothing more than fquare pillars with their cornices.
They had their origin in Athens,, where it was for
many ages a rule in building to conceal the roof.
For this purpofe, nothing ferved fo well as a kind of
low or little order ranged in a continued line, fingly,
or with the interruption of ballufters ; which, rifing
above the reft of the work and before the roof, hid
it perfedlly, and placed fomething agreeable in view.
The place of attics, therefore, is at the uppermoft
extremity of a building, to which they ferve as a
crown, or very properly make a finifhing for the
other orders when they have been ufed in the ftruc-
ture. They muft never ftand under any thing except
fuel) ornaments as are placed at the very top. Thefe
attics fhould never exceed in height one-third of the
height of the order on which they are placed, nor be
lefs than one quarter of it. The bafe, dye, and cor¬
nice, of which they are compofed, may bear the fame
proportions to each other as thofe of pedeftals do ; and
the bafe and cornice may be compofed of the fame
mouldings as thofe of pedeftals. Sometimes the attic is
continued throughout ; at others, it projefts, and forms
a pilafter over each column of the order. The breadth
of this pilafter is feldom made narrower than the upper
diameter of the column below it, and never broad¬
er. Its projection may be equal to one quarter of its
breadth.
Chap. IV. Of Perfians% Caryatides, and ’Termini.
Besides columns and pilafters, it is fometimes cuf-
tomary to employ reprefentations of the human figure,
to fupport entablatures in buildings. The male figures
are called P erf an s ; and the female, Carians or Carya-
tides.
The Perfans are fo called from a vi&ory gained Origin o£
over the Perfians by Paufanias, who having brought Perfians.
home fpoils and trophies to the Athenians, they fixed
upon Perfian figures for tbofe which Ihould fupport
entablatures, and thus kept in mind that there were
once Perfian Haves in Athens. To rejjrefent thefe con¬
quered
54-
574
Principles
56
Of Carya¬
tides.
57
Their pro¬
portions,
&c.
55
Termini.
59
A R C H I T
quered people in the lowed: date poffible, they loaded
them with the heavieft entablature viz. that of the
Doric order. In procefs of time, however, other fi¬
gures befides thofe of Perfians were introduced, and
other entablatures put over them ; but the name was
ftill retained.
The proper Caryatides are women drefled in long
robes, after the Afiatic manner and the origin of
the device was as follows:—The Carians had been
long at war with the Athenians j but being at length
totally vanquilhed, their wives were led away cap¬
tives ; and, to perpetuate the memory of this event,
trophies were erefted, in which figures of women
dreffed in the Caryatic manner, were ufed to fupport
entablatures like the Perfians •, and though other fe¬
male figures were afterwards ufed in the fame manner,
the name of Caryatides was always retained.
The ancients made frequent ufe of Perfians and Ca¬
ryatides, and delighted in diverfifying them a thou-
fand ways. The modern artifts have followed their
examples ; and there is a great variety of compofitions
of this kind to be met with in different parts of Europe.
Indecent attitudes, difforted features, and all mon-
ftrous productions, ought to be avoided, of which there
are many examples in Gothic buildings. On the con¬
trary, the ^attitudes fhould be Ample and graceful, the
countenance always pleafing, though varied and ffrong-
ly marked agreeable to the nature of the objeCt repre-
fented.
The Caryatides, or female figures, fhould never much
exceed the human fize. But the Perfians, or male fi¬
gures, may be of any fize ; and the larger the better,
as they will ftrike the beholder with the greater awe
and aftonifhment. Perfians may be ufed with proprie¬
ty in arfenals, galleries of armour, &c. under the fi¬
gures of captives, heroic virtues, &c. Their entabla¬
ture ought to be Doric, and bear the fame proportion
to them as to columns of the fame height. The enta¬
blature for Caryatides ought to be either Ionic or Co¬
rinthian, according as the chara&er of the figures is
more or lefs delicate.
Termini are fometimes employed, inffead of Perfians
or Caryatides, to fupport the entablatures of monu¬
ments, chimney-pieces, and fuch like compofitions.
Thefe figures owe their origin to the ftones ufed by
the ancients to mark the limits of particular^ poffef-
fions. Numa Pompilius, to render thefe inviolable,
confecrated the terminus into a deity, and inftituted
feftivals and facrifices to his honour. In a ftiort time,
what were formerly only large upright ftones, were re-
prefented in human fhape ; and afterwards introduced
as ornaments to temples and other buildings. The ter¬
mini are now principally ufed as ornaments for gardens
and fields.
Chap. V. Of Pedejlals.
Most writers confider the pede/lal as a neceflary
part of the order, without which it is not complete.
It is indeed a matter of little importance whether it
be confidered in that light, or as a diftina compofi-
tion : we (hall therefore treat of a pedeftal as a di-
ftina body, having no more connexion with the order
than an attic, a bafement, or any other part with which
it may on fome occafions be affociated.
E C T U R E. Parti.
A pedeftal confifts of three principal parts: the bafe, principles,
the dye, and the cornice. The dye is always nearly of u—
the fame figure ; being conftantiy either a cube or a
parallelopipedon : but the bafe and cornice are varied
and adorned with more or fewer mouldings, according
to the fimplicity or richnefs of the compofition in which
the pedeftal is employed. Hence pedeitals are, like co¬
lumns, diftinguiftied by the names of Tufcan, Doric,
Ionic, Corinthian, and Compojite. 6o
Some authors are averfe to pedeftals, and compare ape(]efta^
column raifed on a pedeftal to a man mounted on ftilts j where pro-
imagining that they were introduced merely from necef-P61'*
fity, and for want of columns of a fufficient length. It
is indeed true, that the ancients often made ufe of arti¬
fices to lengthen their columns ; as appears by fome .
that are in the Baptiftery of Contlantine at Rome j the
drafts of which, being too llrort for the building, were
lengthened and joined to their bales by an undulated
fweep, adorned with acanthus leaves. Neverlhelefs,
there are many occafions where pedeftals are evidently
neceflary $ and fome iir which the order, were it not fo
raifed, would lofe much of its beautiful appearance. Thus,
in the infides of churches, if the columns that fupport
the vault were placed immediately on the ground, the
feats would hide their bales and a good part of their
drafts •, and in the theatres of the ancients, if the co¬
lumns of the fcene had been placed immediately on the
ftage, the aftors would have hid a part of them from
the audience. In anterior decorations, a pedeftal dimi-
nifires the parts of the order, which otherwife might per¬
haps appear too clumfy, and hath the advantage of pla¬
cing the column in a more favourable view, by railing
its bafe nearer the level of the fpe&ator’s eye. In a fe-
cond order of arcades, there is no avoiding pedeftals: as
without them it is impoflible to give the arches any to¬
lerable proportion.
With regard to the proportion that pedeftals ought Tlie;r prc>.
to bear to that of the columns they fupport, it is by no portions,
means fixed. Both the ancients and moderns vary
greatly on this head. Vignola’s proportions are gene¬
rally reckoned the beft. He makes his pedeftals in all
the orders of the fame height, viz. one third of the co¬
lumn j and as their breadth of courfe increafes or dimi-
nifties in the fame degree as the diameters of their refpec-
tive columns do, the chara&er of the order is always
preferved, which, according to any other method, is
impoflible.
As to the divifions of the pedeftals j if the whole
height be divided into nine parts, one of them may be
given to the height of the cornice, two to the bafe, and
the fix remaining to the dye. The breadth of the dye
is always made equal to that of the plinth of the column.
The projedtion of the cornice may be made equal to its
height; and the bafe being divided into three parts,
two of them will be for the height of the plinth, and
one for the mouldings, whofe projedlion mutt be lefs
than that of the cornice. Thefe meafures are common
to all pedeftals. See Plate XLV.
Chaf. VI. Of Intercolumniat'tons.
Columns are either engaged, or infulated \ and,
when infulated, are either very near the wall, or at a
confiderable diftance from it. Engaged columns, or
fuch as are near the walls of a building, are not limited
62
ARCHITECTURE.
«3
Different
interco-
lurania*
tions ufed
by the an.
dents.
lied by
Vignola.
in their intercolumniations, as thefe depend on the
breadths of the arches, windows, niches, or other de¬
corations placed between the columns. But columns
that are entirely detached, and perform alone the of¬
fice of fupporting the entablature, as in periftyles,
porches and galleries, muft be near each other, for the
fake both of real and apparent folidity.
The intercolumniations among the ancients were va¬
rious. Thofe ufed in the Ionic and Corinthian orders
were the pycnoftyle, of which the interval was equal
to one diameter and a half of the column ; the fyftyle,
whofe interval was equal to two diameters: the eu-
liyle, to two and a quarter ; the diaftyle to three, and
the areeoftyle to four. In the Doric order, they ufed
other intercolumniations, regulating them by the tri¬
glyphs, one of which was always placed dire&ly over
the middle of each column ; fo that they were either
fyftyle, monotriglyph, of one diameter and a half;
diaftyle, of two diameters and three quarters ; or araeo-
ftyle, of four diameters ; and the Tufcan intervals were
\rery wide, fome of them being above feven diameters,
which was very practicable, as the architraves were of
wood.
Among thefe different intercolumniations, the pyc¬
noftyle and fyftyle are too narrow ; for although the
ancients made frequent ufe of them, that ought ra¬
ther to be afcribed to neceflity than choice. For as
the architraves were compofed of fingle ftones, ex¬
tending from the middle of one column to the middle
of another, it would have been difficult, efpecially in
large buildings, to find blocks of a fufficient length
for diaftyle intervals. With regard to the araeoftyle
and Tufcan intercolumniations, they are by much too
wide, and can only be ufed in ruftic buildings, where
the architraves are of wood ; neither is the diaftyle
fufficiently folid in large compofitions. The euftyle is
a medium between the narrow and broad intervals; and
being at the fame time both fpacious and folid, hath been
preferred to any of the reft by the ancients as -well as
the moderns.
Vignola obferved nearly the fame proportion in all
his intercolumniations : which praftice, though con¬
demned by feveral writers, is certainly preferable to
any other; as it preferves the character of each order,
and maintains in all of them an equal degree of real
folidity. Setting afide therefore the pycnoftyle and
fyftyle difpofitions on account of their want of fpace,
and the araeoftyle for its deficiency in point of ftrength,
it may be eftabliffied, that the diaftyle and euftyle in¬
tercolumniations (the latter of which, on moftoccafions,
ought to have the preference) may be employed in all
the orders without diftinftion, excepting the Doric ; in
which the moft perfeft interval is ditriglyph ; neither
the monotriglyph, nor the araeoftyle being to be fuffer-
ed but in cafes of neceffity.
Sometimes, oh account of the windows, doors, nich¬
es, and other decorations, which correfpond with the
intercolumniations of the periftyle, or gallery, it is
not poffible to make the intervals fo narrow as euftyle,
or even as diaftyle : wherefore the moderns, autho¬
rded by fome few examples of the ancients, where
grouped columns tye employed, have invented a man¬
ner of difpoftng them, called by Perrault arceojhjle,
■which admits of a larger interval, without any detri¬
ment to the apparent folidity of the building. This
575
kind of compofition is compofed of two fyftyle interco- Principles,
lumniations ; the column that feparates them being ap- s——
proached towards one of thofe at the extremities, fuf¬
ficient room only being left between them for the pro-
jedliun of the capitals ; fo that the great fpace is three
diameters and a half wide, and the little one half a dia¬
meter.
In periftyles, galleries, or porticoes, all the interco¬
lumniations muft be equal; but in a logio, or porch,
the middle interval may be broader than the others,
by a triglyph or modilion, or three or four dentils ; un-
lefs the columns at the angles be coupled or grouped
with pilafters : in w'hich cafe, all the intervals (hould be
of the fame dimenfions.
When buildings are very fmall, as is frequently the
cafe in temples and other inventions ufed for ornament-
ing gardens, the intercolumniations may be broader, in
proportion to the diameter of the columns, than ufual;
becaufe, when they are nearer each other than three
feet, there is hardly room for a buiky perfon to pafs be¬
tween them.
Chap. VII. Of Arches.
6$
Arches are not fo magnificent as colonnades; but Arches,
they are more folid and lefs expenfive. They are pro- where pro¬
per for triumphal entrances, gates of cities, of palaces, P61"
of gardens, and of parks, and, in general, for all open¬
ings that require an extraordinary breadth. ^
There are various manners of adorning arches. How a-
Sometimes their piers are rufticated ; fomelimes they domed,
are adorned with pilafters, termini, or caryatides ; and
fometimes they are made fufficiently broad to admit
niches or windows. The circular part of the arch is
either furrounded with ruftic key-ftones, or with an
archivolt enriched with mouldings; which, in the
middle, is fometimes interrupted by a confole, a mafic,
ferving at the fame time as a key to the arch, and as
a fupport to the architrave of the order. The archi¬
volt is fometimes fupported by an impoft, at the head
of the pier ; and at others by columns placed on each
fide of it, with a regular entablature, or architrave
and cornice. There are likewife inftances of arcades
without piers, the arches being turned on fingle co¬
lumns, as in thetemple of Faunus at Borne, &c. This
practice, however, ought to be feldom imitated, as it
is neither folid nor handfome.
When arches are large, the key-ftone fhould never
be omitted, but cut in the form of a confole, and car¬
ried clofe under the foffit of the architrave, which on
account of its extraordinary length, requires a fup¬
port in the middle. The imports of arches ftiould ne¬
ver be omitted : at leaft, if they be, a platform ought
to fupply their place. If columns are employedWith¬
out pedeftals in arcades, they ftiould always be railed
on a plinth. In all arches, the circular part ought
not to fpring immediately from the impoft, but take
its rife at luch a diftance above it as is nec£ffary in or¬
der to have the whole curve feen at the proper point of
view. _ 6
The void or aperture of arches ftiould never be Prcpor-
higher nor much lower, than double their breadth ; tions.
the breadth of the pier fhould feldom exceed two-
thirds, nor be lefs than one-third, of the breadth of
the arcn ; and the angular pier ought to be broader
than
than the others, by one-half, one-third, or one-fourth ;
the impoft thould not be more than one-feventh, nor
lefs than one-ninth of the aperture •, and the archivolt
muft not be more than one-eighth, nor lefs than one-
tenth of it. The breadth of the confole muft, at the
bottom, be equal to that of the archivolt •, and its ftdes
xnuft be drawn from the centre of the arch ; the length
of it muft not be lefs than one and a half of its fmalleft
breadth, nor more than double. 1 he thicknefs of the
pier depends on the breadth of the portico*, for it muft
be ftrong enough to refill the preffure of its vault.
But with regard to the beauty of the building, it
fliould not be lefs than one quarter of the breadth of
the arch, nor more than one-third. Thefe are the ge¬
neral dimenfions of arches.
Chap. VIII. Of Orders above Orders.
Wren, in a building, two or more orders are em-
>S ployed, one above another, the laws of folidity require
the' ftrongeft ftioutd be placed lowermolt Hence the
Tufcan muft fupport the Doric,_ the Doric the Ionic,
the Ionic the Compofite or Corinthian, and the Com-
pofite the Corinthian.
This rule, however, is not always ftndlly adhered to.
Moll authors place the Compofite above the Conn-
thian. There are likewife examples where the fame
order is repeated, as in the theatre of Statilius Taurus,
and the Colifeum 5 and others, where an intermediate
order is omitted, and the Ionic placed on the 1 ulcan,
or the Corinthian on the Doric. But none of theie
praflices ought to be imitated. .
In placing columns above one another, the axis ot
all the columns ought to correfpond, or be in the fame
perpendicular line, at leaft in front. 1 j
69 With regard to the proportions of columns placed
Proper- above eacb other, Scamozzi’s rule, That the lower dia-
llmLlr meter of the fuperior column fllould conftantly be equal
led above to the upper diameter of the inferior one, is uniyerfal-
each other jy efteemed the beft, and gives all the columns ic ap¬
pearance of one long tapering tree, cut into feveral
pieces. According to this rule, tne Doric, column
will be to the Tufcan, as 13-y to 14 ; the Ionic to the
Doric as 15 to 16; the Compofite or Corinthian to
the Ionic, as x6| to 185 and the Corinthian to the
Compofite, as 164 to 23.
In Britain there are few examples of more than
two ftories of columns in the fame afpeft *, and thoug 1
in Italy, and other parts of Europe, we frequently
meet with three, and fometimes more *, yet it is a prac¬
tice by no means to be imitated ; for there is no poiii-
bility of avoiding many ftriking inconfiftencies, or o
preferving the charafter of each order in its interco-
lumnal decorations.
Chap. IX. Of Bafements.
no Instead of employing feveral orders one above the
other in a compofition, the ground floor is fometimes
made in the form of a bafement^ on which the order
that decorates the principal ftory is placed. 1 he pro¬
portion of thefe bafements is not fixed, but depends on
the nature of the rooms on the ground floor. In the
palace of the Porti in Vicenza, the height of the baie-
ment is equal to that of the order. In fome buildings, Principles,
its height exceeds two-thirds of that of the order 5 and,"1 V M J
in others, only half the height of the order. . It is not,
however, advifable to make the bafement higher than
the order it fupports; neither fhould it be lower than
one half of the order. # 71
The ufual method of decorating bafements is withEecora-
ruftics of different kinds. The beft, where neatnefs
and finifiling is aimed at, are inch as have a fmoothmentSi
furface. Their height, including the joint, ftiould ne¬
ver be lefs, nor much more, than half a module of
the order placed on the bafement. Their figure may
be from a fquare to a fefquialtera *, and their joints
may be either fquare or chamfered. The fquare ones
ftiould not be broader than one-eighth of the height
of the rultic, nor narrower than one-tenth *, and their
depth muft be equal to their breadth } thofe thal are
chamfered muft form a redlangle j and toe breadth.of
the whole joint may be from one-fourth to one-third
of the height of the flat furface of the ruftic.
Chap. X. Of Pediments.
7*
Pediments, among the Romans, were ufed only
as coverings to their facred buildings, till .Csefar ob¬
tained leave to cover his houfe with a pointed roof,
after the manner of temples. In the remains of anti¬
quity we meet with two kinds of pediments, the tri¬
angular and the circular. The former of thefe .are
promifcuoufly applied to cover fm.all or large bodies .
But the latter, being of a heavier figure, are never
ufed but as coverings to doors, niches, windows, or
^ As a pediment reprefents the roof, it fliould never
be employed but as a finiftiing to the whole compofi-
The ancients introduced but few pediments into their
buildings, ufually contenting themfelves with a fingle
one to adorn the middle or principal part. But iome
of the moderns, and particularly the Italians, have been
fo immoderately fond of them, that their buildings fre¬
quently confift of almoft nothing elfe. .
The girder being a neceffary part in the conftruc-
tion of a roof, it is an impropriety to intermit, the
horizontal entablature of a pediment, by which it is
reprefented, to make room for a niche, an arch, or a
"“in regular arcliteaure, no oilier form of pedi-Formi l
ments can be admitted, befides tlie triangular and c.r-^-
cular. Both of them are beautiful.; and when a con-
fiderable number of pediments are introduced, as when
a range of windows are adorned with them, thefe two
figures may be ufed alternately, as in the niches of the
Pantheon, and in thofe of the temple of Diana at
Nifmes. , .
The proportion of pediments, depends, upon their
fize: for the fame proportions will not do in all cates.
When the bafe of the pediment is fliort, its height
muft be increafed ; and when the pediment is long,
the height muft be diminifhed. The beft proportion
for the height is from one-fifth to one-fourth of the
bafe, according to the extent of the pediment, and the
charaaer of the body it covers. The materials of the
roof muft alfo be attended to; for if it be covered with
Part L
I Principles* tiles, it will be neceflary to raife it more than one qnar-
-V*—' ter of the bafe, as was the cuftom of the ancients in
their Tufcan temples*
The tympan is always on a line with the front of
the frize j and when large, admits of various orna¬
ments.
Chap. XI. Of Ballujlrades.
ARCHITECTURE.
5
74
IS.
(Proportion,
kc. of bill
kifters.
L 7«
-oors and
;atM.
Ballustrades are fometimes of real ufe in build¬
ings ; and at other times they are only ornamental.
Such as are intended for ufe, as when they are em¬
ployed in ftaircafes, before windows, or to enclofe ter-
raffes, &c. muft always be nearly of the fame height ;
never exceeding three feet and a half, nor ever lefs than
three. But thofe that are principally defigned for or¬
nament, as when they finifh a building, (hould be pro¬
portioned to the archite&ure they accompany: and their
height ought never to exceed four-fifths of the height
of the entablature on which they are placed; nor Ihould
it ever be lefs than two thirds thereof, without count¬
ing the zocholo, or plinth, the height of which muft
be fufticient to leave the whole balluftrade expofed to
view\
The beft proportion for balluftrades is to divide the
whole given height into thirteen equal parts; eight
of thefe for the height of the ballufter, three for the
bafe, and two for the cornice or rail ; or into four¬
teen, (if it be required to make the ballufter lefs),
giving eight parts to the bailufter, four to the bafe,
and two to the rail. One of thefe parts may be called
a module; and being divided into nine minutes, may
ferve to determine the dimenfions of the particular
members.
In balluftrades, the diftance between two ballufters
{hould not exceed half the diameter of the ballufter
meafured in its thickeft part, nor be lefs than one-third
of it.
The breadth of the pedeftals, when they are placed
on columns or pilafters, is regulated by them ; the dye
never being made broader than the top of the (haft, nor
much narrower; and when there are neither columns
nor pilafters on the front, the dye fliould not be much
lower than a fquare, and feldom higher. On flairs,
or any other inclined planes, the fame proportions are
to be obferved as on horizontal ones.
Chap. XII. Of Gates, Doors, and Piers.
There are two kinds of entrances, viz. doors and
gates. The former ferve only for the paffage of per-
fons on foot; but the latter likewife admit horfemen and
carriages. Doors are ufed as entrances to churches
and other public buildings, to common dwelling-
houfes and apartments : And gates ferve for inlets
to cities, fortreffes, parks, gardens, palaces, &c. The
apertures of gates being always wide, they are gene-
rail v made in the form of an arch, that figure being
the ftrongeft. But doore, which are generally of fmall
dimenfinns, are commonly parallelograms, and clofed
horizontally.
The general proportion for the apertures, both of
gates and doors, whether arched or fquare, is, that the
height be about double the breadth.
1 he moft common, and indeed almoft the only or-
Vol. II. Part II.
Piers.
naments for gates are the piers by which they are fup- prim’pies,
ported, and which were originally no more than bare
pofts into which the hinges of the gate were driven. 77
Though this, however, is the only proper ufe of piers,
it muft be concealed as much as pofiible, and they muft
feem as if placed there only for ornament. As they
are to be fixed to the wall before the houfe, fo they
muft allb be proportioned to it ; and as they are to be
feen in the fame view with the front of the houfe, their
correfpondence with it is equally neceffary. They are
to be placed on a plinth, and fomething muft be al¬
lowed by way of ornament and finifhing at the top.
All the luxuriance of fancy may be employed in the
decoration of piers : but it will be proper to obferve
this general rule, that the pier being an inferior build¬
ing, it muft never be richer than the front of the houfe.
If, for inftance, the front of the houfe is ornamented
with columns of the Doric order, the Ionic muft not
be ufed in the piers; and it will be found better to
omit columns altogether, than to make ufe of the Tuf¬
can order for piers in any cafe. If the Ionic or Co¬
rinthian orders are employed in the front of the houfe,
the Doric or Ionic may be ufed with propriety in the
piers. One piece of ornament is almoft univerfal in
piers, namely, a niche with its feat, made as if for the
conveniency of weary travellers. On this account, it
will be proper to raife the columns on pedeftals, becaufe
the continued moulding from their cap will be a good
ornament under the niche. The bafe of the columns
ought always to be the Attic.
Infide doors, however fmall the building may be,
fbould never be narrower than two feet nine inches ;
nor (hould they ever, in private houfes, exceed three
feet fix inches in breadth, which is more than fufficient
to admit the bulkieft perfo'n. Their height {hould at
leaft be fix feet three or four inches ; otherwife a tall
perfon cannot pafs without {looping. In churches, pa¬
laces, &c. where there is a conftant ingrefs and egrefs
of people, the apertures muft be larger. The fmalleft
breadth that can be given to a gate is eight and a half
or nine feet, which is but juft fufficient for the paffage
of a coach.
Plate XLVI. fig. i. is a ruftic door, compofed by the
celebrated Vignola, in which the aperture occupies two-
thirds of the whole height, and one-half of the whole
breadth ; the figure of it being a double fquare. The
ruftics may be either fmoothed or hatched ; their joints
muft form a re£langle, and the breadth of each joint
may be one-third, cr two-fevenths, of the vertical fur-
face of a ruftic. The joints of the claveaux, or key-
ftones, muft be drawn to the fummit of an equilateral
triangle, whofe bafe is the top of the aperture. The
architrave furrounding the aperture may be compofed
either of a large ogee and fillet, or of a platband and
fillet. Its whole breadth muft be one-tenth of the breadth
of the aperture : the remaining part of each pier being
for the ruftics. The entablature is Tufcan : the cor¬
nice is to be one-fifteenth of the whole height of the
door; and what remains below it being divided into 21
equal parts, the two uppermoft of them will be for the
frize and architrave, and the remaining 19 for the ruf¬
tics and plinth at the foot of the door.
Fig. 2. is a difpofition of Michael Angelo’s. The
windows of the Capitol.at Rome are of this kind ; and
Sir Chriftopher Wren has executed doors of the fame
4 D hind
57s a r c h i t
Principles kind under the femicircular porches in the flanks
of St Paul’s. The figure of the aperture may be a
double fquare 5 the architrave one-fixth of the breadth
of the aperture •, and the whole entablature one quar¬
ter of its height. The front of the pilallers or co¬
lumns, on each fide, muft be on a line with the falcia
of the architrave ; and their breadth muft be a lemi-
diameter. • r
Fig. is likewife a defign of Vignola s. it is ol
the Cojrinthian order, and executed in the Cancellaria
at Rome. The height is equal to double its breadth ;
and the whole ornament at the top is equal to one-
third of the height of the aperture. The architrave
is in breadth one-fifth of the breadth of the aperture ;
and the pilafters, that fupport the confides are halt as
broad as the architrave. The whole is well imagined,
but rather heavy •, and it will be beft to reduce the
architrave to one-fixth of the aperture, dimimthing
the entablature proportionally.
Fig. 4. is a defign of Serlio’s. The aperture may
be either twice as high as broad, or a trifle le s. ne
diameter of the columns may be equal to one quarter
of the breadth of the aperture •, and their height
may be from eight diameters to eight and a halt. 1 ne
entablature muft be fomewhat lefs than.one quarter ot
the height of the columns; and the height of the pe¬
diment may be one quarter of its bafe. .
Fig. 5. is a door in the faloon of the Farnele m
Rome defigned by Vignola. The aperture forms a
double fquare. The entablature is equal to three-
elevenths of its height, the architrave being one ot
thefe elevenths; and the whole ornaments on the
fides, confiding of the architrave and pilafters, are
equal to two-fevenths of the breadth of the aperture .
the cornice is Compofite, enriched with mutules and
dentils ; and the frize is adorned with a feftoon ot
laurel.
Fig. 6. is copied from a door at Florence, laid to
be a 'defign of Cigoli’s. The height of the aperture is
a trifle more than twice its breadth. It is arched ;
and the impoft is equal to half a diameter. The co¬
lumns are Ionic, fomewhat above nine diameters high ;
and their lhafts are garniftied each with five ruftic
cinaures. The entablature is lefs than one quarter of
the column ; and the breadth of the tablet, in whicn
there is an infeription, is equal to the oread th of the
aperture.
Plate LVI. fig. 1. is a pier invented by Mr Cham¬
bers. Its diameter may be one quarter of its height,,
exclufive of the plinth and vafe ; and the height of
both thefe may be equal to one diameter of the pier,
or a trifle lefs. The ruftics may either be plain,
hatched, or vermiculated : the height of each courfe
may be one-eleventh part of the height of the pier,
counting to the top of the entablature ; the entabla¬
ture two-elevenths ; and the bafe of the pier one-
eleventh part.
Fig. 2. is likewife a compofition of Mr Chambers,
imitated from M. Angelo Buonaroti’s defign for Car¬
dinal Sermonetti. The height of the aperture is fome¬
what more than twice its breadth; which breadth oc¬
cupies one-third of the breadth of the whole compofi¬
tion. The order is Compofite ; and the height of the
entablature is equal to one quarter of the height of
the column. He has made a break in. it over each
E C T U R E. Part P
column : but, unlefs the column projeft confiderably, Principles.
78
it will be as well to carry the entablature on m a
ftraight line. The dimenfions of the particular parts
may be meafured on the defign.
Fia. is alfo a compofition of Mr Chambers, exe¬
cuted’ at Goodwood, the feat of his grace the duke ot
Richmond, in Suffex. The diameter is one quarter
of the height, exclufive of the finiflnng, whien is equal
to one diameter; and the height of the pier, from the
top of the entablature downwards, being divided into
eleven and a half parts, one of thefe parts is given to
the bafe, one to each ruftic, and one and a halt to the
aftragal, frize, and cornice. 1 r t> r
Fig. 4. is a compofition of the late earl of Burling¬
ton’s,"1 that great architea and patron of the fine arts,
which is executed at Chifwick, and at. Bedford-houfe
in Bloomfbury fquare, with fome little difference.
Fig. 5. is an invention of Mr Chambers.
Fig. 6. is one of Inigo Jones’s ; of which kind he
hath executed a couple at Aimtbury in Wiltfture, the
feat of his grace the duke of Queenfberry.
Chap. XIII. Of Windows.
The firft confideration with regard to windows is proportions
their fize which varies according to the climate, the of windows,
deftination of the building, &c. In Britain, the win¬
dows of the fmalleft private houfes are commonly irom
0 to cG feet broad ; and being generally twice their
breadth in height, or fomewhat more, in the principal
apartments, they generally rife to within a foot or two
of the ceilings of the rooms, which are frequently no
higher than 10 feet, and at moft 12 or 13. But, in
more confiderable houfes, the apartments are from 15.
to 20 feet high, and fometimes more ; and in theie
the windows are from 4 to 5 and 5! feet broad, and
high in proportion. Thefe dimenfions are furncient tor
dwelling houfes of any fize in this country ; when they
are larger, they admit too much of the cold air in win¬
ter. But churches, and other builaings of that kind^
may have larger windows, proportioned to the fize of
the ftru61ures. . . . ,
The proportions of the apertures of windows de¬
pend upon their fituation. Their breadth in all the
Rories muft be the fame ; but the different heights of
the apartments make it neceffary to vary the height
of the windows likewife. In the principal floor, it
may be from 2^ of the breadth to 2|, according as
the rooms have more or lefs elevation. In the groun
ftory, where the apartments are lower, the apertures
of the windows feldom exceed a double fquare, and,
when they are in a ruftic bafement, they are frequent¬
ly made much lower. The height of the windows of
the fecond floor may be from l-J- of their breadth to
14.. ancl attics and mezzanines may be either a per-
feft fquare, or fomewhat lower. 79
The windows of the principal floor are generally How onxr
moft enriched. The fimpleft method of adorning rented,
them is, with an architrave furrounding the apertuie
and crowned with a frize and cornice.^ The windows
of the ground floor are fometimes left entirely plain,
without any ornament : and at others they are. fur-
rounded with ruftics, or a regular architrave with a
frize and cornice. Thofe of the fecond floor have ge¬
nerally an architrave carried entirely round the aper¬
ture y.
Part T.
Principles.
So
A R C H I T
ture 5 and the Tame is the method of adorning attic
and mezzanine windows, but the two lait have leldom
either frize or cornice', whereas the fecond floor win¬
dows are often crowned with both.
The breads of all the windows on the fame floor
fhould be on the fame level, and raifed above the floor
from two feet nine inches to three feet fix inches at
the very moft. ^ hen the walls are thick, the breafts
thould be. reduced under the apertures, for the conve-
niency of looking out. In France, the windows are
frequently carried quite down to the floor. W hen the
building is furrounded with gardens, or other neautilul
objeds, this method renders the rooms exceeding plea-
fant.
The interval between the apertures of windows de¬
pends in a great meafure on their enrichments. The
breadth of the aperture is the lead didance that can
be between them; and twice that breadth fliould be
the larged in dwelling houfes j otherwife the rooms
will not be diffidently lighted. The windows in all
the dories of the fame afped mud be placed exadly
above one another.
Plate XLVII. fig. I. is a defign of P. Lefcot, ab¬
bot of Clagny, executed in the old Louvre at Paris.
The apertures may be a double fquare, or a trifle
more the architrave from one-fix.th to one-feventh
of the breadth of the aperture : the pilafier is equal
to that breadth, when the architrave is narrow 5 or
lefs by one quarter, or one-fifth, when it is broad.
The whole entablature fliould not exceed one quarter
of the height of the aperture, nor be much lower.
The confides may be equal in length to half the
breadth of the aperture at mod, and to one-third of it
at lead.
Fig. 2. is a defign of Palladio’s executed at the
Chiericato in Vicenza : its proportions are not much
different from the following. I he plat-band that lap-
ports the window is equal to the breadth of the archi¬
trave.
Fig. 3. is likewife a defign of Palladio’s, executed by
him in many of his buildings. I he aperture is a double
fquare. The breadth of the architrave is one-fixth of
the breadth of the aperture •, and the frize and cornice
, together are double the height of the architrave. The
breadth of the confoles is two-thirds of the breadth of
the architrave.
Fig. 4. is a defign of Ludovico da Cigoli ', and exe¬
cuted in the ground floor of the Ranunchini palace at
Florence.
Fig. 5. is a defign of Inigo Jones, executed at the
Banqueting Houfe. 1 he aperture may be a double
fquare ; the architrave may be one-fixth of its breadth ;
the whole entablature one quarter of its height ', and
the breadth of the confoles two-thirds of the breadth of
the architrave.
Fig. 6. is a defign of M. Angelo Buonaroti, execu¬
ted at the Farnefe.
Chap. XIV. Of Niches and Statues.
It has been euftomary, in all ages, to enrich differ¬
ent parts of buildings with reprefentations of the hu¬
man body. Thus the ancients adorned their temples,
baths, theatres, &c. with ftatues of their deities, heroes,
and legiflators. The moderns Hill preferve the fame
E C T U R E. 579
cuflom, placing in their churches, palaces, See. flatues Prinopkn
of illuftrious perfons, and even groups compofed ot ~v
various figures, reprefenting occurrences collected trom
hiftory, fables, &c. Sometimes thefe rtatues or groups
are detached, raifed on pedeflals, and placed contigu¬
ous to the walls of a building, or in the middle ot a
room, court, or public fquare. Bui they are molt fre¬
quently placed in cavities made in the walls, called 5r
inches. Of thefe there are two forts; the one formed Different
like an arch in its elevation, and femicircular or fenn-
elliptical in its plan ; the other is a parallelogram both 1 tu ’
in its plan and elevation.
The proportion of both thefe niches depends on the
charadlers of the ftatues, or the general form of the
groups placed in them. The loweit are at leaft a
double fquare in height; and the higheft never exceed
2^- of their breadth. . , < 8i2
With regard to the manner of decorating them hmvdeco-
when they are alone in a compofition, they aie gene¬
rally enclofed in a pannel, formed and proportioned
like the aperture ol a window, and adorneci in the
fame manner. In this cafe the niche is carried quite
down to the bottom ; but on the tides and at the top,
a fmall fpace is left between the niche and the archi¬
trave of the pannel. And when niches are intermix¬
ed with windows, they may be adorned in the fame
manner with the windows, provided the ornaments be
of the fame figure and dimenflons with thofe of the
windows. s3
The fize of the ftatues depends on the dimenfions of statues,
the niches. They ftiould be neither fo large as to have
the appearance of being rammed into the niches, as in
Santa Maria Majora at Rome; nor fo narrow as to
feem loft in them, as in the Pantheon. The diftance
between, the outline of the itatue and fide of the niche
fhould never be lefs than one-third of a head, nor more
than one-half, whether the niche be fquare or arched ;
and when it is fquare, the diftance from the top of the
head to the ceiling 'of the niche ftiould not be greater
than the diftance on the fides. Statues are generally
raifed on a plinth, the height of which may be from
one-third to one-half of a head ; and fometimes, where
the niches are large, the ftatues may be raifed on fmall
pedeftals.
The chara&er of the ftatue ftiould always correfpond
with the chara£ter of the architeflure with which it is
furrounded. "1 hus, if the order be Doric, Hercules,
Jupiter, Mars, vTffculapius, and all male ftatues, repre¬
fenting beings of a robuft and grave nature, may be in¬
troduced ; if Ionic, then Apollo, Bacchus, &.C. ; and
if Corinthian, Venus, Flora, and others of a delicate
nature, fhould be employed.
Chap. XV. Of Chimney-pieces.
Among the ancients there are very few examples of *4
chimney-pieces to be met with. Neither the Italians
nor French have excelled in compofitions of this kind.
Britain, by being poffeffed of many able fculptors at
different times, has furpaffed all other nations, both in
tafte of defign, and workmanfhip. „
The fize of the chimney muft be regulated by the proportions
dimenfions of the room where it is placed. In theandfitua-
fmalleft apartments, the breadth of the aperture ffiouldd™5-
never be lefs than three feet, or three feet fix inches.
4 D 2 In
I
58o a r c h i t :
Principles. In rooms, from 20 to 24 feet fquare, or of equal fuper-
* ^   ficial dimenfions, it may be from 4 to 4^ feet broad ;
in thofe of 24 to 27, from 4^' to 5 i anct in fuch as ex¬
ceed thefe dimenlions, the aperture may even be ex¬
tended to 51 or 6 feet.
The chimney fhould always be fituated fo as to be
immediately feen by thofe who enter the room. The
middle of the partition wall is the moft proper place
in halls, faloons, and other rooms of pafiage ; but.in
drawing-rooms, dreffing-rooms, and the like, the mid¬
dle of the back wall is the belt fituation. In bed¬
rooms, the chimney is always in the middle of one of
the partition walls ; and in clofets and other very fmall
places, to fave room, it is put in a corner. Wherever
two chimneys are ufed in the fame room, they Ihould
be placed either directly facing each other, it in differ¬
ent walls, or at equal dillances from the centre ot the
•wall in which both are.
The proportion of the apertures of chimney-pieces
of a moderate fize is generally a perfect fquare j in
fmall ones, it is a trifle higher} and in large ones, a
trifle lower. Their ornaments confifl in architraves,
frizes, cornices, columns, pilaflers, termini, caryati¬
des, confoles, and all kinds of ornaments of fculpture,
reprefenting animals, vegetables, &c. likewile vafes,
chalices, trophies of arms, &c. In deligning them,
regard muft be had to the nature of the place where
they are to be employed. Such as are intended for
halls, faloons, guard-rooms, galleries, and other large
places, mufl be compofed of large parts, few in num¬
ber, of diftinft and Ample forms, and having a bold
relief 5 but chimney-pieces for drawing-rooms, drefling-
rooms, &c. may be of a more delicate and complica¬
ted nature.
Chimney-pieces are compofed of wood, ftone, or
t marble •, the lalt of which ought to be preferred,.
as figures or profiles are btft reprefented in a pure
white.
Plate XLVIII. exhibits different defigns for chim¬
ney-pieces by Palladio and Inigo Jones. Their pro¬
portion may be gathered from the defigns, which are
accurately executed.
Chap. XVI. Of the Proportions of Rooms,
36 The proportions of rooms depend in a great mea-
fure on their ufe and aftual dimenfions-, but, with
regard to beauty, all figures, from a fquare to a fef-
quilateral, may be employed for the plan.
The height of rooms depends on their figure. Flat-
ceiled ones may be lower than thofe that are coved.
If their plan be a fquare, their height fliould not ex¬
ceed five-fixths of the fide, nor be lefs than four-fifths
and when it is oblong, their height may be equal to
their breadth. Pmt coved rooms, if fquare, muft be
as high as broad ; and when oblong, they may have
their height equal to their breadth, more one-fifth,
one quarter, or even one-third of the difference be¬
tween the length and breadth : and galleries fhould at
leaft be in height one and one-third of their breadth,
g7 and at moft one and a half, or one and three-fifths.
High rooms The coldnefs of the Britifh climate is a ftrong ob-
Iinproper inje(q;on to high rooms-, fo that it is not uncommon to
Britain. Jpee tpe magnificent apartments not above 15, 16,
or at moft 18 feet high j though the extent of the
E C T U R E. Parti.
rooms would require a much more confiderable eleva- Principles,
tion. But where beauty is aimed at, this prattice -—y-w
ought not to be imitated.
When rooms are adorned with an entire order, the
entablature (hould never exceed one-fixth of the whole
height in flat-ceiled rooms, and one fixth of the up¬
right part in coved ones ; and when there are neither
columns nor pilafters, but only an entablature, its
height fliould not be above one-feventh of thefe
hei -hts. If the rooms be finiflied with a Ample cor¬
nice, it fliould never exceed one-fourteenth, nor ever
be lefs than one-fifteenth part of the above-mentioned
height.
Chap. XVII. Of Ceilings.
Ceilings are either flat, or coved in different man- 8$
ners. The limpleft of the flat kind are thofe adorned
with large compartments, furrounded with one or fe~
veral mouldings, either let into the ceiling, or projeft-
ing beyond its furface ; and when the mouldings that
form the compartments are enriched, and fome of the
compartments adorned with well executed ornaments,
fuch ceilings have a good effeft, and are very proper
for common dwelling houfes, and all low apartments.
Their ornaments and mouldings do not require a bold
relief j but, being near the eye, they muft be finilhed
with tafte and neatnefs. For higher rooms, a flat ceil¬
ing, which has the appearance of being compofed of
various joifts framed into each other, and forming com¬
partments of various geometrical figures, fhould be em¬
ployed. The fides of the joifts forming the compart¬
ments are generally adorned with mouldings, and re-
prefent either a fimple architrave, or an architrave
cornice, according to the fize of the compartments and
the height of the room.
Coved ceilings are more expenfive j but they are
likewife more beautiful. They are ufed promifeuoufly
in large and fmall rooms, and occupy from one-fifth
to one-third of the height of the room. If the room
be low in proportion to its breadth, the cove muft like¬
wife be low and when it is high, the cove muft be to
likewife j by which means the excefs of the height
will be rendered lefs perceptible. But where the ar-
chitefl is at liberty to proportion the height of the
room to its fuperficial dimenfions, the moft eligible
proportion for the cove is one-fourth of the whole
height. In parallelogram-figured rooms, the middle
of the ceiling is generally formed into a large flat pan-
nel. This panned, with the border that furrounds it,
may occupy from one half to three-fifths of the breadth
of the room. The figure of the cove is commonly
either a quadrant of a circle or of an ellipfe, taking its
rife a little above the cornice, and finifhing at the bor¬
der round the great pannel in the centre. I he border
proje&s fomewhat beyond the coves on the outfide ;
and, on the fide towards the pannel, it is generally
made of fufficient depth to admit the ornaments of an
architrave, or architrave and cornice.
In Britain circular rooms are not much in ufe j but
they are very beautiful. Their height muft be the
fame with that of fquare rooms j their ceilings may be
flat j but they are handfomer when coved, or of a
concave form.
Arcs doub/aux, or foflats of arches, when narrow^
ar©.
Parti. 'A 11 C H I T
Principles. ornamented with guil/och, or frets ; but when
u— ' broad, they may be adorned in a different manner.
When the profiles of the room are, gilt, the ceilings
ought likewife to be gilt. The ufual method is to
gild all the ornaments, and to leave the grounds white,
pearl colour, light blue, or of any other tint proper to
fet off the gilding to advantage. Painted ceilings, fo
common in France and Italy, are but little ufed in Bri¬
tain.
Chap. XVII. Of Stairs and Staircafes.
$2 There are many kinds of ftaircafes : for, in fome,
the fteps are made ftraight; in others winding •, in
others, mixed of both. Of ftraight ftairs, fome fly
diredtly forward, others are fquare, others triangular.
Others are called French flights ; or winding flairs,
(which in general are called fpirui, or cockle flairs') ;
of which fome are fquare, fome circular or round, and
fome elliptical or oval •, and thefe again are various,
fome winding about a folid, others about an open
newel. Stairs mixed of ftraight and winding fteps
are alfo of various kinds ; fome are called dog-legged ;
fome there are that wind about a folid newel, and others
90 that fly about a fquare open newel.
Staircafes Great care ought to be taken in placing of the
whereto ftaircafe in any building ; and therefore ftaircafes
be placed. 0Ug|1(- t0 be fteferibed and accounted for juftly when
the plan of a building is made. For rvant of this,
fometimes unpardonable errors have been committed:
fuch as having a little blind ftaircafe to a large houfe,
or, on the other hand, a large fpacious ftaircafe to a
little one.
Palladio fays, in placing ftaircafes, the utmoft care
ought to be taken •, it being difficult to find a place
convenient for them, that will not at the fame time
prejudice the reft of the building. But commonly the
ftairs are placed in the angle, wing, or middle of the
front.
To every ftaircafe are required three openings.
Firft, The door leading thereto.
Secondly, The window, or windows, that give light
to it:
And, Thirdly, The landing.
Firft, The door leading to the ftaircafe ffiould be fo
placed, that moft of the building may be feen before
you come at the ftairs, and in fuch a manner that it may
be eafy for any perfon to find out.
Secondly, For the windows •, if there be but one, it
muft be placed in the middle of the ftaircafe, that
thereby the whole may be enlightened.
Thirdly, The landing of ftairs fhould be large and
fpacious, for the convenient entering into rooms j in
a word, ftaircafes ffiould be fpacious, light, and eafy
in afeent. The height of large fteps muft never be
lefs than fix inches, nor more than feven inches and a
half.
The breadth of fteps ffiould never be lefs than 10 in¬
ches, nor more than 18 inches j and the length of them
not lefs than three feet, nor more than 12.
Plate XLIX. fig. I. A ftaircafe of two flights.^—
A (hows the manner of drawing the ramp, which is to
rife equal to the height of the firft ftep of the next flight,
and as much as its kneeling ; as is ffiown by the ramp
interfedting the rail of the fecond flight.
e c t u r E. 581
Fig. 2. (hows the ftraight rail interfecling a circular Principles.
Fig 3. fedtion of two different hand rails.
Fig. 4. (hows the manner of dove-tailing the rifer
into the ftep.
Plate L. fig. I. reprefents a ftaircafe, with flights, $2
and its landing rail.
Fig. 2. (hows the folid part of the ftep out of which
the fcroll is formed ; where a reprefents the overfall of
the ftep *, b, The thicknefs of the bracket, with its mi¬
tring to the rifer ; and c, The firing board.
Fig. 4. (hows the fcale for drawing the fcroll of
fig. 3.—To perform which, take the diftance from I
to the centre, in fig. 3. and fet it from I to the centre
in fig. 4. ; divide that extent into three parts, then fet
4 fuch parts on the upper fide oi the fcale, and draw
the line from 4 to 1 ; fet one foot of your compaffes at
4, and ftrike the circular line ; let that be divided in¬
to 12 equal parts, and then draw lines from 4 through
thofe divifions to the upright line.
The fcale being thus made, draw the fcroll of fig. 3. .
by it in the following manner.
Set one foot of your compafles in I, and deferibe a
ftroke at c; take the fame diftance, and with one
foot in 2, crofs the ftroke at c; then from c, turn the
part from I to 2, and proceed in the fame manner : for
if the diftance were taken in the fcale from 1 to the
centre, it would ftrike the circle too flat; and if taken
from 2, it would ftrike the circle too quick.
When this is well underftood, there will be little dif¬
ficulty in drawing the fcroll below fig. 2.; which
throws itfelf out farther in proportion than that in fig. 3.;
for this will always be the cafe when the upper line
of the fcale, which confifts of four divifions in fig. 4.
is made but with three divifions or lefs $ whence it
appears, that the upper line of the fcale may be drawn
at what length you pleafe, according as you would
bring in or keep out the fcroll.
Pate LI. (hows the manner of.fquaring twift rails. ' 93
Fig. 2. exhibits the pitch board, to ffiow what part
of the ftep the twifted part of the rails contains j the
three doated lines drawn from the rail to the pitch
board reprefent the width of the rail, which is to be
kept level. The dotted lines a and b ffiow how much
half the width of the rail turns up from its firft: begin¬
ning to 3.
Fig. 3. (hows the fame pitch board, with the man-
mer of the rail’s turning up. If the fides of the twifted
part of the rail be ffiaped by the rail mould, fo that
they dire£l down to its ground plan, that is, the upper
fide of the rail being firft (truck by the mould, then
apply the mould to the under fide, as much back as
the level of the pitch board (hows, by being (truck on
the fide of the rail, and then fig. 3. being applied to
the outfide of the rail, from its firft twitting part to 3, .
will ffiow how much wood is to be taken off.
Fig. 5. exhibits the fquare of the rail, with the
raking line of the pitch board drawn through the mid¬
dle on the upper fide j then draw the depths of the fide
of the rail parallel to this, and the dotted lines from
the diagonal of the rail ; thefe lines (how what quanti¬
ty of wood will be wanting on the upper and lower
fides of the rail. Set your compaffes at c, and draw
the circular ftroke from the raking part of the pitch
board to b ; take the diftance a b and transfer it from
a te
A R C H I T E
a to in fig. 7. The feveral difiances thus found may¬
be fet at any number of places, ranging with die ftraight
part of the rail; and it then forms the width of the
mould for the twilling part of the rail.
Fig. 7. fhows the fweep of the rail. The rail cannot
be fixed lefs than one-fourth part from the r.oftng or
front of the ftep.
The remaining part of the pitch board may be di¬
vided into any number of parts, as here into four •,
from thefe divifions draw lines acrofs the pitch board
to the raking line } then take the diftances from the
ground line of the pitch board to the plan of the rail,
and fet them perpendicular from the raking line of the
pitch board ■, and thefe divifions, when the rail is in its
proper pofition, lie directly over the divifions on the
ground plan.
In this figure /, tn, and «, rife as much aoove 0 as
the dotted line in fig. 5' does above the width of the
rail : and they fink as much below 0 as the other dot¬
ted line in fig- 5. falls below the width of the rail} the
fame' thicknefles muft be glued upon 0, though the
greateft part will come oft in fquaring. I he reafon
of placing the letters /, tn, and w, where they are, is
that they might not obfiruft the fmall divifions of the
rail mould.
C T U R E. Part II.
To find the rail.—Set five divifions, as from e to //, Pradlice.
which is the height of the five ftep* } draw the diagonal  ^
h to the plan of the rail} then take the diftance ej,
and transfer it to g h, and proceed in the fame manner
with the other feven diftances.
To find the width of the rail mould.—Draw the lines
acrofs the plan of the rail, as at k; fet that diftance
from the diagonal to 1 } and fo proceed with the reft,
as fhown in fig. 4.
Having formed the fides of the rail perpendicular to
its ground plan, and having fquared^ the lowered of
the rail, then take a thin lath, and bend it with the
rail, as is reprefented by m. fig. 1.
This is the readieft method of fquaring a folid rail }
but if the rail be bent in the thickneffes, the nofing of
the fteps muft be drawn upon a cylinder, or fome other
folid body of a fufficient width to contain the width of
the rail or ftring board. _
r Reprefents the depth of the rail, touching the
nofe of each ftep. Take a fufficient number of thick¬
nefles of this width, to make the thicknefs of your rail,
glue them altogether upon your cylinder or templet;
confine them till they are dry, and the rail taken off is
ready fejuared. Proceed in the fame manner with the
frax/f* marked Clm
Fig. 4. ftiows how to find the rail when it takes
more than one ftep. I he remaining part of the pitch
board is divided into four parts, as before in fig. 7.
and it takes in two fuch parts of the next ftep. Draw-
lines from thefe divifions to the diagonal of the pitch
board as in fig. 7* then take the diftance cib, and
fet it from c to d, and fo proceed with the other divi¬
fions.
Another way to find the outfide of the rail mould is,
to draw all the divifions acrofs the plan of the rail} then
take the diftance from the ground line of the pitch
board to 4, transfer it from the diagonal of the pitch
board to 4 on the rail} and fo proceed with the other
diftances. Now, when the rail is put in its proper fitu-
ation, c will be perpendicular to £, and all the divifions,
as 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. in the rail, will be perpendicular to
I, 2, 3, 4, &c. in the ground plan.
Fig. 6. fliows the plan of a rail of five fteps.
Chap. XIX. Of Roofs.
Plate LII. fig. 1. ftiows the form of a truffed roof, 5>4
with three ring polls, that may carry 70 or UP'
wards.
Fig. 2. exhibits an M roof, capable of carrying as
great an extent as the former. Indeed both thefe de-
figns are capable of carrying almolt any extent.
Fig. 3. reprefents two different forts of truffes.
Fig. 4. lliow-s the manner of piecing timber.. Some¬
times the joint may be extended as far as a, with ano¬
ther bolt through it. To the right is ftiowm a different
fort of joint.
Fig. 5. ftiows the manner of trufling a girder. If the
trufles are full long, with the pieces b and c, you may
make them as light as you pleafe.
Fig. 6. reprefents the manner of truffing partitions.
PART II. PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.
HAVING thus deferibed and given rules for the
moft generally received proportions of the different
parts of buildings, both of the ufeful and ornamental
kind, we muft next give an account of the method of
ere&ing different kinds of edifices} and here the judge¬
ment of the architeft muft neceffarily be very much
employed, as no fixed rules have been laid down by
which he can be directed in all cafes. As a neceffary
preliminary, however, to the conftruflion, we muft firft
confider.
Chap. I. The Situations of Houfes.
Though it mud be, in many cafes, impoflible to
choofe fuch a fituation as might be agreeable either to
the archite£l or the proprietor, yet where a choice can
be made, there are certainly a great many circum
fiances that will determine one fituation to be prefer¬
able to another. Thefe circumftances depend entirely
on the perfon who is to inhabit the houfe. A farmer,
for inftance, ought to dwell in the moft centrical part
of his farm } an independent gentleman muft regard
the healthinefs, the neighbours with whom he can eon-
verfe, the profpedl from his houfe, and alfo the afpect
of the ground near it. To anfwer thefe purpofes of
health and pleafure, an open elevated fituation is the
belt, as the air is there pure, and the profpe£t extenfiye :
but too elevated a fituation is difagreeable, as being
both difficult of accefs, and expofed to cold and bleak
winds. To build in bottoms between hills is both un¬
heal thful and unpleafant, the houfe being in a manner
buried, and the ground near it generally marffiy from
the
Part IT.
ARCHITECTURE.
Practice.
the rain water which runs down from the hills, which
renders the air unwholefome. As a garden alfo is a
very neceflary article to a country habitation, the foil
is by no means a matter of indifference ; and therefore
it may be concluded, that an elevated lituation on a
gravelly loam, near fome running water, is the belt
fituation for a country houfe.
583
Chap. II. Of the ConJlruEtion of Edifices in general.
be exanun.
ed.
97
Rocky
ground
fometimes
dangerous,
The proper fituation of a houfe, or any other build¬
ing, being chofen, according to its intended nature, the
next thing to be confidered is to lay the foundation in
a proper manner. The only fecurity in a houfe or any
other building whatever, is in having a good founda¬
tion, and no error is fo dangerous as that which is com¬
mitted here ; as the fiirinking of the foundation but the
pg breath of a ftraw may caufe a rent of five or fix inches
Qualities of wide in the fuperftrufture. To guard againft errors of
the ground this kind, the qualities of the ground for a confiderable
neceffary to muft be carefully obferved.
t.A <avomin_ Vtm inf* t • • « 1 • t nn n
The belt foundation is that which confius of gravel
or ftone 5 but, in order to know whether the inferior
flrata are fufficient for the fupport of the building, it
will be advifable to fink wells at fome little, difiance.
By attending to what is thrown up in digging thefe,
the architefl wTill be acquainted with what lies under
the ftony or gravelly bed which on the furface pro-
mifes fo much fecurity, and will know what meafures
to take.
But though a ftony or gravelly bottom is undoubt¬
edly the' moft fure and firm, where all is found beneath,
there is no kind of ground which may prove more fal¬
lacious, or occafion fuch terrible accidents. The rea-
fon of this is, that fuch kind of ground often contains
abfolute vacuities ; nor is rock itfelf, though a founda¬
tion upon a rock is ftrong even to a proverb, free from
dangers of the fame kind. Caverns are very frequent
in rocky places : and fhould a heavy building be erect¬
ed over one of thefe, it might fuddenly fall down alto¬
gether. To guard againft accidents of this kind, Pal¬
ladio advifes the throwing down great weights forcibly
on the ground, and obferving whether it founds hollow,
or (hakes •, and the beating of a drum upon it, by the
found of which an accuftomed ear will know whether
the earth is hollow or not.
Where the foundation is gravel, it xvill be proper to
examine the thieknefs of the ftratum, and the qualities
of thofe that lie under it, as they have appeared in dig¬
ging. If the bed of gravel is thick, and the under
ftrata of a found and firm kind, there needs no affift-
ance •, if otherwife, we muft have recourfe to various
methods in order to fupply the defeat.
The other matters which may occur for a founda¬
tion are clay, fand, common earth, or rotten boggy
ground. Clay will often both raife and fink a founda-
‘ tion ; yet it has a folidity which, with proper manage¬
ment, is very ufeful. The marfhy, rotten, or boggy
ground is of all others the vorft ; yet even upon this
great buildings may be raifed with perfect fafety, pro¬
vided proper care be taken. In cafe of boggy earths,
or unfirm fand, piling is one of the moft common me¬
thods of fecuring a foundation ; and, notwithftanding
the natural difadvantage of the earth, piles, when pro¬
98
Sandy or
boggy
perly executed, are one of the firmeft and moft fecure Practice,
foundations.
In foundations near the edge of waters, we fliould^, 99
always be careful to found to the very bottom : as
many terrible accidents have happened from the ground Waters dan-
being undermined by rivers. The fame method is togerous.
be followed when the ground on which we build has
been dug or wrought before. It ought never to be
trufied in the condition in which it is left : but we muft
dig through it into the folid and unmoved ground, and
fome way into that, according to the weight and big- roo
nefs of the intended edifice. The church of St Peter’s Defedl in
at Rome is an inftance of the importance of this laft^ Peter’s
obfervation. That church is in great part built upona,: 1{ome*
the old circus of Nero ; and the builders having ne¬
glected to dig through the old foundation, the ftruc-
ture is confequently fo much the weaker. The walls
were judged of ftrength enough to bear two fteeples
upon the corners of the frontifpiece j but the founda¬
tion was found too w'eak, when it was impoflible to re¬
medy the defeCt perfeftly.
Before the architect, however, begins to lay the
foundation of the building, it will be proper to con-
ftruCt fuch drains as may be neceflary for carrying off
the rain, or other refufe water that would otherwife I0I
be collected and lodged about the houfe. In making Drains how
of drains for carrying off this water, it will be necef-made.
fary to make large allowances for the different quanti¬
ties that may be collected at different times. It muft
alfo be confidered, that water of this kind is always
loaded with a vaft quantity of fediment, which, by its
continual falling to the bottom will be very apt to
choke up the drain, efpecially at thofe places where
there happen to be angles or corners in its courfe.
The only method of preventing this is by means of cer¬
tain cavities difpofed at proper diftances from one an¬
other. In thefe the fediment will be colleCfed, and
they are for that reafon called fefspools. With regard sefspooIs,
to thefe, the only direflions neceifary are, that they
be placed at proper diftances, be fufficiently large, and
placed fo as to be eafily cleaned. It is a good rule to
make a fefspool at each place were the water enters
the drain : as by this means a confiderable quantity of
fediment will be prevented from entering the channel
at all. Others are to be made at proper diftances,
efpecially where there are any angles. They muft be
made fufficiently large ; the bigger, in moderation,
the better ; and they muft alfo be covered in fuch a
manner as to be eafily got at in order to be cleaned.
But, as putrid water is exceedingly noxious, it will be
neceflary to carry up a brick funnel over every fefs¬
pool, in order to prevent the colle&ion of the putrid
effluvia, which would otherwife occafion the death of
the perfon who cleaned it.
All drains ought to be arched over at top, and may Proportions
be moft: conveniently built of brick. According to0f drains,
their different fizes, the following proportions of height
and thicknefs may be obferved. If the drain is 18
inches wide, the height of the walls may be one foot,
and their thicknefs nine inches j the bottom may be
paved with brick, laid flatwife, and the arch turned
four inches. If the drain is 22 inches vvide, the fide
walls are then to be one foot three inches in height,
and the reft conftruifted as before. If it is 14 inches
wide,.
L
584
A n 0 II I T
P -v ^!ce.
104
Foundation
of buildings
how laid.
_ieS
Thicknofs
and dimi¬
nutions of
walls, See.
wide, the heiglit of the walls may be nine inches, end
the fweep of the arch four. A drain of a yard wide
fhould have the fame height, and the arch turned over
it ought to be nine inches thick. Upon the fame prin¬
ciples and proportions may other drains of any lize be
conitrudled.
The fewers and drains being conftrufled in a man¬
ner proportioned to the fize of the intended building,
the architeft may next proceed to lay the foundation
of the walls. Here the firlt care muft be, that the
floor of the foundation be perfectly fmooth and level.
The Italians begin with laying over it an even cover¬
ing of lirong oak plank j and upon that they lay, with
the moft exaff care, the firfl: courfe of the materials.
Whether we take this method, or begin upon the na¬
ked floor, all muft be laid with the moft exa& truth
by rule and line. When the board plat is laid, a
courfe of ftgne is the belt firft bed, and this is to be
laid without mortar; for lime would make the wood
decay, which ertherwife, in a tolerably good foil, will
laft for ages. After this, all the courfes Ihould follow
with the fame perfeft evennefs and regularity. If the
materials are brick, they ftiould be laid on with an
equal, and not too great quantity of mortar : if ftone,
they ought to be placed regularly, and in the fame ft-
tuation in which they lay in the quarry for many
ftones which will bear any weight flatwife, and in
their natural pofition, are of fuch a grain, that they
will fplit otherwife. The joinings of the under courfe
muft be covered by the folid of the next courfe all the
way up ; and the utmoft care muft be taken that there
be no vacuity left in the wall, for the weight will port
certainly crutb it in. The lefs mortar there is in a
foundation, the better. Its ufe is to cement the bricks
and ftones together; and the evener they are, the lefs
will be required for that purpofe. Where mortar is
ufed to fill up cavities, it becomes part of the wall *,
and not being of equal ftrength with the folid mate¬
rials, it takes from the firmnefs of the building. For
the fame reafon nothing can be more abfurd than to
fillip a foundation with loofe ftones or bricks thrown
in at random ; and where this is done, the ruin of the
building is inevitable. Where the foundation of a
principal wall is laid upon piles, it will be neceffary
alfo to pile the foundations of the partitions, though not
fo ftrongly.
The thicknefs of foundation walls in general ought
to be double that of the walls which they are to fup-
port. The loofer the ground, the thicker the founda¬
tion wall ought to be : and it will require the fame ad¬
dition alfo in proportion of what is to be raifed upon
it. The plape of the ground muft be perfeftly level,
that the weight may preis equally everywhere : for
when it inclines more to one fide than another, the
wall will fplit. The foundations muft diminifh as they
rife, but the perpendicular is to be exactly kept in the
upper and lower parts of the wall •, and this caution
ought to be obferved all the way up with the fame
ftriftnefs. In fi>me ground, the foundation may be
arched •, which will fave materials and labour, at the
fame time that the fuperftrufture has an equal fecurity.
This praftiee is peculiarly ferviceable where the foun¬
dation is piled.
As the foundation walls are to diminilh in thicknefs,
fo are thofe which are built upon them. This is ne-
E C T U n E. _ Part II.
ceffary in order to fave expencc, but is not abfolutely Pradice.
fo to ftrengthen the wall j for this would be no lefs    *
ftrong though it was continued all the way to the top DJ«
of an equal thicknefs, provided the perpendicular wasof the
exa£Hy kept. In this the ancients were very expert jthicknefe
for we fee, in the remains of their works, walls thus of wails,
carried up to an exorbitant height. It is to be obfer¬
ved, however, that, befides perfea truth in their per¬
pendiculars, they never grudged iron-work, which
contributed greatly to the ftrength of their buildings.
The thicknefs and diminution of walls is in a great
meafure arbitrary. In common houfts built of brick,
the general diminution from the bottom to the top is
one half the thicknefs at the bottom ; the beginning is
two bricks, then a brick and a half, and latlly one
brick thicknefs. In larger edifices, the walls muft
be made proportionally thicker } but the diminution
is preferved much in the fame manner. Where ftones
are ufed regard muft be had to their nature, and the
propriety of their figures for holding one another.
Where the wall is to be compofed of two materials, as
ftone and brick, the heavieft ought always to be placed
undermoft. *°7
There is one farther particular regarding the ftrength fA"?^hov
of a plain wall, and that is, the fortifying its angles. ortl e
This is beft done with good ftone on each fide, which
gives not only a great deal of ftrengtb, but a great
deal of beauty. Pilafters properly applied are a great
ftrengthening to walls. Their b©ft diftance is about
every 20 feet, and they fhould rife five or fix inches
from the naked of the wall. A much (lighter wall of
brick with this afliftance, is ftronger than a heavier
and maffier one built plain. In brick walls of every
kind, it is alfo a great addition to theft ftrength to lay
fome chief courfes of a larger and harder matter $ for
thtfe ferve like finews to keep all the reft firmly toge¬
ther, and are of great ufe where a wall happens to fink ioi
more on one fide than another. As the openings in a
wall are all weakenings, and as the corners require to
be the ftrongeft parts, there fhould never be a window corners,
very near a corner. Properly, there fhould always be
the breadth of the opening firm to the corner. In
the moft perfeft way of forming the diminution of
walls, the middle of the thinneft part being direftly
over the middle of the thickeft, the whole is of a py¬
ramidal form : but where one fide of the wall muft be
perpendicular and plain, it ought to be the inner, for
the fake of the floors and crofs walls. T he diminifh-
ed fide, in this cafe, may be covered with a fafeia or
cornice, which will at once be a ftrength and orna¬
ment. . ,C59
Along with the conftruftion of walls, that of ^the c^linBeP*
chimneys muft alfo be confidered ; for errors in the
conftruftion of thefe, will render the moft elegant
building extremely diiagreeable. The common caufes
of fmnking are either that the wind is too much let in
above at the mouth of the (haft, or the fmoke is (lifted
below \ and fometimes a higher building, or a great
elevation of the ground behind, is the fource of the
mifehief: or, laftly, the room in which the chimney is
may be fo fmall or clofe, that there is not a fufheient
current of air to drive up the fmoke. Altnoft all that
can be done, while the walls are conftru<5ling, to pre¬
vent fmoke, is, to make the chimney vent narrower
at bottom than top : yet this muft not be carried to an
Fart II.
ARCHITECTURE.
5*5
Praftice.
no
Hoofs.
in
Floors.
extreme •, becaufe the fmoke will then linger in the
1 upper part, and all the force of the draught will not
be able to fend it up. As for the methods of curing
fmoky chimneys in houfes already built, fee the article
Chimney.
After the walls are finifhed, the roof is the next
conlideration: but concerning it very little can be
faid $ only that its weight muft be proportioned to the
llrength of the walls. It mull alfo be contrived fo as
to prefs equally upon the building; and the inner
walls muft bear their lhare of the load as well as the
outer ones. A roof ought neither to be too maffy nor
too light j as being neceffary for keeping the walls to¬
gether by its preffure, which it is incapable of doing
while too light j and if too heavy, it is in danger of
throwing them down. Of thefe two extremes, how¬
ever, the laft is to be accounted the worft.
With regard to the floors, they are moft commonly
made of wood} in which cafe, it will be neceflary that
it ftiould be well feafoned by being kept a confiderable
time before it is ufed. The floors of the fame ftory
ftiould be all perfectly on a level : not even a threftiold
riling above the reft j and if in any part there is a room
or clofet whofe floor is not perfe£tly level, it ought not
to be left fo, but.raifed to an equality with the reft $
what is wanting of the true floor being fupplied by a
falfe one.
In mean houfes, the floors may be made of clay, ox
blood, and a moderate portion of iharp fand. Thefe
three ingredients, beaten thoroughly together and well
fpread, make a firm good floor, and of a beautiful co¬
lour. In elegant houfes, the floors of this kind are
made of plafter of Paris, beaten and lifted, and mixed
with other ingredients. This may be coloured to any
hue by the addition of proper fubftances j and, when
well worked and laid, makes a very beautiful floor.
Belides thefe, halls, and fome other ground rooms,
are paved or floored with marble or ftone j and this ei¬
ther plain or dotted, or of a variety of colours 5 but
the univerfal pra£lice of ^carpeting has, in a great mea-
fure, fet alide the bellowing any ornamental workman-
Ihip upon floors. In country buildings, alfo, floors
are frequently made of bricks and tiles. Thefe, ac¬
cording to their lhapes, may be laid in a variety
of figures ; and they are alfo capable of fome variation
in colour, according to the nature of the earth from
which they were made. They may be laid at any
time 5 but for thofe of earth or plafter, they are bell
made in the beginning of fummer, for the fake of their
drying.
Chap. III. Of the Dijlribution of the Apartments of
Houfesy with other conveniences.
As houfes are built only for the fake of their inha¬
bitants, the diftribution of the apartments muft of ne-
ceflity be direfted by the way of life in which the in¬
habitants are engaged. In the country, this is com-
X12 monly farming ; and here, befides the houfe for the
pan of a family, there is alfo neceflary a barn for the reception
ana houfe. 0£ the produce of the ground, a liable for cattle, a
cart-houfe for keeping the utenfils under cover, and
Iheds for other ufes.—To accomplilh thefe purpofes,
let a piece of ground be taken of five times the extent
of the front of the .houfe, and enclofed in the leaft ex-
Vol. II. Part II.
penfive manner. Back in the centre of this let the Pra&ice.
houfe be placed, and in the front of the ground the ——“v 11 ‘
barn and the liable, with the adjoining Iheds. Thefe
are to be fet one on each fide, to the extreme meafure
of the enclofed ground ; they will thus fill up a part
of the entrance, and will leave all about the houfe
fome enclofed ground by way of yard. From the bam
to the liable may be extended a fence with a gate in
the middle, and this gate ought to front the door of
the houfe.
This much being fettled, the plan of the houfe and
out buildings may be made as follows. The door may
open into a plain brick paffage, at the end of which
may be carried up a fmall llaircafe. On one fide of
the palfage may be a common kitchen j and on the
other fide a better or larger room, which will ferve the
family by way of parlour. Beyond this may Hand on
one fide the pantry, and on the other the dairy room,
the laft being twice the fize of the former. They are
placed on the fame fide with the parlour, on account
of the heat of the kitchen, which renders it improper
to be near them. On the kitchen fide, a brewhoufe
may very conveniently be placed. More rooms may
be added on the ground floor as occafion requires j and
the upper ftory is to be divided into bedchambers for
the family, with garrets over them for the fervants.—
A houfe of this kind is reprefented Plate LIII. fig. 1. j
and one of a fomewhat better kind, fig. 2. where a
private gentleman who has a fmall family may find
conveniency. nj
On Plate LIV. is reprefented a gentleman’s country- Of an ele-
feat, built on a more eleg-ant plan. Here the front Sant.coun'
may extend 65 feet in length, the depth in the centre y
being 40 feet, and in each of the wings 45. The of¬
fices may be difpofed in wings j the kitchen in the
one, and the ftables in the other ; both of which, how¬
ever, may correfpond in their front with the reft of
the building, which they ought alfo to do with one
another. Thefe wings may have a projection of 13
feet from the dwelling houfe, to which they ought to
be connefted, not by ftraight lines, but by curves as
reprefented fig. 2.
The beft proportion of thefe offices to a houfe ex¬
tending 65 feet in front, is 35 feet. If they are fmal-
ler, the houfe will look gigantic •, if larger, they will
leffen its afpeCt. To a front of 35 feet, a depth of 48
is a very good proportion. There ought alfo to be a
covered communication between the dwelling houfe
and offices, which muft not appear only to be a plain
blank wall, but muft be ornamented with gates, as in
the figure. The arch by which the offices are joined
to the dwelling houfe muft be proportioned to the ex¬
tent of the buildings ; and there cannot be a better
proportion than five feet within the angles of the build¬
ings. By this means the wings, which have only a
projedion of 13 feet, will appear to have one of 18,
and the light will be agreeably broken.
With regard to the internal diftribution of a houfe
of this kind, the under ftory may be conveniently di¬
vided into three rooms. The hall, which is in the
centre will occupy the whole of the projeCling part,
having a room on each fide. The length of the hall
muft be 24 feet and its breadth 12 : the rooms on
each fide of it muft be 16 feet long, and 11 wide. Of
thefe two front rooms, that on the right hand may be
4 E conveniently
586
Practice.
,T4
Another
A R C H I T
conveniently made a waiting room for perfons of better
rank and that on the left hand a dreffing room for
the mailer of the houfe. Behind the hall may run a
paffage of four feet and a half, leading to the apart¬
ments in the hinder part of the houfe and the. ftair-
cafe. Thefe may be difpofed as follows : Diredlly
behind the hall and this paifage the fpace may be oc¬
cupied by a faloon, whofe length is 23 feet and its
breadth 17. On the left hand of the paffage, behind
the hall, is to be placed the grand ftaircafe ; and as
it will not fill the whole depth, a pleafant common
parlour may terminate on that fide of the houfe. On
the other fide, the paffage is to lead to the door of
the great dining parlour, which may occupy the whole
fpace. n ^ & 0f the fame kind, but fomewhat
different in the diftribution, is reprefented below in
the fame plate. The front here extends 68 feet, and
the wingw projeft 28 feet 5 their depth is 48, and their
breadth 36. The hall may be 26 feet long and 17 broad.
On the left hand of the hall may be a waiting room
16 feet long and 10 broad j behind which .may be a
liandfome dining room. The paffage into this waiting
room iliould be at the lower end of the hall; and it
muft have another opening into the room behind it.
On the right hand of the hall is the place of the great
ftaircafe, for which a breadth of 16 feet three inches
is to be allowed. In the centre of the building, be¬
hind the hall, may be a drawing room 2.6 feet long
and 16 broad 5 and behind the ftaircafe will be room
for a common parlour of 16 feet j'quare. 1 he paffage
of communication between the houle and wings may
be formed into colonnades in a cheap manner behind :
a flight of fteps, raifed with a fweep, occupying the
centre of each, and leading up to a door, and the co¬
vering being no more than a Ihed fupported by the
plained; and cheapeft columns.
The two wings now remain to be difpofed of. That
on the right hand may contain the kitchen, and offices
belonging to it, and the other the {tables. H be front^
of the right-hand wing may be occupied by a kitchen
entirely, which will then be 30 feet long and i64
■ wide : "or it may be made fmaller by fetting off a imall
room to the right. Twenty-two feet by 16 will then
be a good bignefs. The other room will then have the
fame depth of 16 feet, and the width to the front may
be 7J. Beyond the kitchen may ftand the ftaircafe,
for which 7! feet will be a proper 'allowance •, and
to the right of this may be a fcullery 12 feet 10
inches deep from the back front by feven in breadth.
To the left of the flair may be a fervants hall 16 feet
fquare, and behind that a larder 12 feet 10 by 14 feet
6. In the centre of the other wing may be a double
coach-houfe : for which there fhould be allowed the.whole
breadth of the wing, with 10 feet 6 inches in the
clear ; and on each fide of this may be the ftables.
The external decorations of the front and wings will be
better underftood from the figure than they can be by
any defcription.
nr t ie f arl Plate LV. (hows the plan and elevation of the houfe
ofWerii)fs’s of the earl of Wemyfs at Newmills. The propor-
fcoufe. tions of the rooms are marked in the plan j and the
front being decorated with columns of the Ionic or¬
der, will Efficiently ffiow in what manner any of the
3
E C T U R E. Part II.
five orders may be introduced with propriety and ele- Prartice.
gance. ' ~t
115 ,
Of the.earl
Chap. IV. Of Aquatic Buildings.
1. Of Bridges.
116
These are confirufted either of wood or ftone ; of
which the laft are evidently the ftrongeft and moft du¬
rable, and therefore, in all cafes, to be preferred where
the expence of erecting them can be borne. Ihe pro¬
per fituation for them is eafily known, and requires no
explanation 5 the only thing to be oblerved is, to make
them crofs the ftream at right angles, for the fake of
boats that pafs through the arches.with the current of
the river ^ and to prevent the continual ft*iking of the
ftream againft the piers, which in a long courfe may
endanger their being damaged and deftroyed in the
Bridges built for a communication of high roads,
ought to be fo ftrong and fubftantial as to be proof
againft ail accidents that may happen, to have a free
entrance for carriages, ^afford an eaiy paffage to the
waters, and be properly adapted for navigation, if the
river admits of it. Therefore the bridge ought to be
at leaft as long as the river is wide in the time of its
greateft flood ; becaufe the flopping of the waters above
may caufe too great a fall, which may prove danger¬
ous to the veffei*, and occafion the under gravelling
the foundation of the piers and abutments ; or, by re¬
ducing the paffage of the water too much in time of
a great flood, it might break through the banks of the
river, and overflow the adjacent country, which would
caufe very great damages 5 or if this ftiould not hap¬
pen, the water might rife above the arches, and en¬
danger the bridge to be overfet, as has happened in
many places.
When the length of the bridge is equal to the breadth
of the river, which is commonly the cafe, the current is
leffened by the fpace taken up by the piers $ for which
reafon this thicknefs ftiould be no more than is neceffa-
ry to fupport the arches } and it depends, as well as that
of the abutments, on the width of the arches, their
thicknefs, and the height of the piers. . . ”7
The form of the arch is commonly femicircular ; but proper form
when they are of any great width, they are made ellip-of arches,
tical, becaufe they would otherwife become too high.
This has been done at the Pont Royal at Paris, where
the middle arch is 75 feet, and its height would have
been 37.5 feet, inftead of which it is only 24 by being
made elliptical.
Another advantage of much more importance arifes
from the oval figure, which is, that the quantity of ma-
fonry of the arches is reduced in the fame proportion as
the radius of the arch is to its height. That is, if the
radius is 36 feet, and the height of the arch 24, or
three-fourths of the radius, the quantity of mafonry. of
the arches is likewife reduced to three-fourths •, which
muft leffen the expence of the bridge confiderably. Not-
witbftanding thefe advantages, however, the lateft ex¬
periments have determined fegments of circles to be pre¬
ferable to curves of any other kind $ and of thefe the
femicircle is undoubtedly the belt, as preffing moft per¬
pendicularly on the piers.
When.
Pradtice,
ix8
Thicknefs
Part II.
When the height of the piers is about fix feet, and
the arches are circular, experience has (hown, fays Mr
Belidor, that it is fufficient to make the thicknefs of
the piers the fixth part of the width of the arch, and
two feet more j that is, the thicknefs of the piers of an
arch of 36 feet, ought to be eight feet j thofe of an
arch of 48 feet, to be 10.
When the arches are of a great width, the thicknefs
of the piers. 0f the piers may be reduced to the fixth part of that
width ; but the depreftion of the two feet is not done
at once •, that is, in an arch of above 48 feet, 3 inches
are taken off for every 6 feet of increafe of the width
of the arch. For inftance, the thicknefs of the piers
fupporting an arch of 72 feet wide, Ihould be 14 feet,
according to the preceding rule; but by taking off
3 inches for every 6 feet, above an arch of 48 wide,
the thicknefs of the piers is reduced to 13 feet ; con-
fequently, by following the fame rule, the thicknefs of
the piers fupporting an arch of 16 fathoms wide, will
be 16 feet; all the others above that width are the
fixth part of the width.
After this, Mr Belidor gives a rule for finding the
thicknefs of the piers which fupport elliptic arches,
and makes them ftronger than the former ; the abut¬
ments he makes one-fixth part more than the piers of
the largeft arch. But it is plain that thefe rules are
infufficient, being merely guefs-work, determined from
np fome works that have been executed.
Ofthearch- The thicknefs of the arch-ftones is not to be deter-
ARCHITECTURE.
Table containing the thicbiefs of piers of bridges.
587
Practice.
' 1
{tones.
mined by theory, nor do thofe authors who have writ¬
ten on the fubjedl agree atnongft themfelves. Mr Gau¬
tier, an experienced engineer, in his works, makes the
length of the arch-ftones, of an arch 24 feet wide, two
feet; of an arch 45, 60, 75, 90 wide, to be 3, 4, 5,
6, feet long refpeftively, when they are hard and du¬
rable, and fomething longer when they are of a foft na¬
ture r on the contrary, Mr Belidor fays, they ought to
be always one twenty-fourth part of the width of the
arch, whether the ftones be hard or foft; becaufe, if
they are foft, they weigh not fo much.
But that the length of the arch-ftones ftiould be but
a foot in an arch of 24 feet wide, 2, 3, 4, in arches of
48, 72, 96 feet, feems incredible ; becaufe the great
weight of the arches would crufh them to pieces, by
the preffure againft one another : and therefore Mr
Gautier’s rule appears preferable. As he made the
length of the arch-ftones to increafe in a flower pro¬
portion, from 10 to 45 feet wide, than in thofe above
that width, we imagine that the latter will be fufficient
for all widths, whether they are great or little; there¬
fore we {hall fuppofe the length of the arch-ftones of 30
feet in width to be two feet, and to increafe one foot in
15 ; that is, 3 feet in an arch of 45 feet; 4, 5, 6, in
an arch of 60, 75, and 90 feet: and fo the reft in the
fame proportion.
L
^5
35
4-574
5-49°
6.',86
7.258
8.404
8.965
9.805
10.640
11.400
12.265
13.114
14.000
M-747
I5-5I3
16.373
17.184
I7-99I
4.918 | 5.165
5-9I3
6.816
7.786
8.691
9-5 79
10.454
x 1.245
13-025
13.869
14-705
15-542
16.328
17.201
17.826
x 8.848
6.216
7.225
8.200
9.148
10.077
10.987
11.882
12-718
13.648
I4-5I7
I5-336
16.234
17.041
17.929
15
5-350
6-455
7-513
8-532
9-523
10.489
n-435
18
5-492
6.645
7.746
8.807
9-835
10.837
11.817
12.364 13.019
13.281
14.185
15.049
i5-96i
16.842
17.674
I3-723
14.654
15-573
16.480
17.381
18.237
18.578
18.772 19.438
19.610 i 20.293
I9I57
20.036
20.908
24
5.610
6.801
7-939
9-°37
11.136
12.146
5.698
7-930
8.102
9-233
10.328
n-394
12.434
13-149
14.109
15.082
16.011
16.940
17.864
18.742
19.679
20.577
21.466
13.2x8
I4-3I4
15-433
16.400
17-354
18.298
19.198
20.152
21.068
21.976
The firit horizontal line exprefl'es the height of theExplana-
piers in feet, from 6 to 24 feet, each increafing bytionofthe
three ; the firft vertical column, the width of archestabIe*
from 20 to 100 feet, for every five feet.
The other columns exprefs the thicknefs of piers in
feet and decimals, according to the refpe&ive height
at the head of the column, and the width of the arch
auainft it in the firft column
O
Thus, for example, let the width of the arch be 60
feet, and the height of the piers 12 ; then the number
12.718, under 12, and againft 60, expreffes the thick¬
nefs of the piers, that is 12 feet and 8.6 inches : we
muft obferve again, that the length of the key-ftone is
two feet in an arch of 30 feet wide ; 3, 4, 5, 6, in an
arch of 45, 60, 75, 90 ; that of 20 feet wide, one foot
four inches ; and the length of any other width is
found by adding four inches for every five feet in width.
As this table contains the thickneffes of piers in re-
fpeft to arches that are commonly ufed in praftice, we
imagined, that to carry it farther would be needlefs ;
becaufe the difference between the thicknefs of the
piers of any contiguous arches being but fmall, thofe
between any two marked here, may be made equal to
half the fum of the next below and above it: thus the
thicknefs of the piers of an arch 52 or 53 feet wide is
nearly equal to 10.222, half the fum of the thickneffes
9.085 and 10.64 t^e arches 50 and 55 feet wide
when the height of the piers is fix feet. v .
Rectangular piers are feldom ufed but in bridges overporm 0f
fmall rivers. In all others they projeft the bridge piers,
by a triangular prifm, which prefents an edge to the
ftream, in order to divide the water more eafily, and to
4 E 2 prevent
S88
Pradlice.
122
Slope of
the bridge
123
Width, See,
prevent the Ice from flieltering there, as well as veffels
from running foul againft them : the edge is termi¬
nated by the" adjacent furfaces at right angles to each
other at Weftminfter bridge, and makes an acute angle
at the Pont Royal of about 60 degrees; but of late the
French terminate this angle by two cylindnc furfaces,
whole bafes are arcs of 60 degrees, in all their new
bridges. # ,
When the banks of the rivers are pretty high, the
bridge is made quite level above, and all the- arches of
«neachfide.a ual w;dth ; but where they are low, or for the
fake of navigation, a large arch is made in the middle
of the ftream, then the bridge is made higher in the
middle than at the ends : in this cafe, the Hope mult
be made eafy and gradual on both fides, fo as to form
above one continued curve line, otherwife it appears
difagreeable to the eye. Mr Belidor will have the
defeent of that Hope to be one twenty-fourth part of
the length ; but this is undoubtedly too much, as one-
fiftieth part of the length is quite fufficient for the de¬
feent. ,
The width commonly allowed to fmall bridges is 30
feet: but in large ones near great towns, thefe 30 teet
are allowed clear for horfes and carriages, befides a ban¬
quette at each fide for foot paffengers of 6 to 9 feet each,
raifed about a foot above the common road } the para¬
pet walls on each fide are about 18 inches thick, and
4 feet high ; they generally projeft the bridgewith a
cornice underneath : fometimes ball all rades ot none or
iron are placed upon the parapet, as at Weftminfter •,
but this is only praftifed where a bridge of a great
length is made near the capital of a country.
The ends of bridges open from the middle of the two
large arches with two wings, making an angle of 45
degrees with the reft, in. order to make their entrance
more free and eafy : thefe wings are fupported by the
fame arches of the bridge next to them, being conti¬
nued in the manner of an arch, of which one pier is
much longer than the other. t
How the work is to be carried on.
144, As the laying the foundation of the piers is the mofi:
ETthe difficult part of the whole work, it is neceffary we
foundation, ftiould begin with an eafy cafe, that is, when the depth
of the water does not exceed 6 or 8 feet } and then
proceed to thofe which may happen in a greater depth
12l. of water.
By batar- One of the abutments, with the adjacent piers, is en-
aleaus. clofed by a dyke called batardeau by the French, of a
fufficient width for the work, and room for the work¬
men. This batardeau is made by driving a double row
of piles, whofe diftance is equal to the depth of water,
and the piles in each row are 3 feet from each other :
they are faftened together on the outfide by bonds of
6 by 4 inches : this being done, frames of about 9
feet wide are placed on the infide to receive the boards
■which are to form the enclofure the two uprights of
frames are two boards of an inch and a half thick,
ffiarpened below to be driven into the ground, and faft¬
ened together by double bonds, one below and the other
above, each feparated by the thicknefs of the uprights ;
thefe bonds ferve to Aide the boards between : after
thefe frames have been driven into the ground as hard
as can be, then the boards themfelves are likewile dri¬
ven in till they reach the firm ground underneath.
a
ARCHITECTURE. Part II.
Between every two piles tie-beams are faftened to plaice.
the bonds of the piles* to faften the mfide wall to the
outfide one ; thefe tie-beams are let into the bonds and
bolted to the adjacent piles : this being done, the bot¬
tom is cleared from the loofe fand and gravel, by a ma¬
chine like thofe ufed by ballaft-heavers j and then well
prepared clay is rammed into the cofter very tight and
firm, to prevent the water from oozing through.
Sometimes thefe enclofures are made with piles only
driven clofe to each other 5 at others, the piles are
notched or dove-tailed one into the other j but the moft:
ufual method is to drive piles with grooves in them, 5
or 6 feet diftant from each other, and boards are let
down between them.
This being done, pumps and other engines are ufed
to draw the water out of the enclofures, fo as to be
quite dry *, then the foundation is dug, and the ftones
are laid with the ufual precautions, obferving to keep
fome of the engines always Handing, in order to draw
out the water that may ooze through the batardeau.
The foundation being cleared, and every thing ready
to begin the work, a courfe of ftones is laid •, the out¬
fide all round with the largeft ftretchers and headers
that can be had, and the infide filled with affilers well
jointed, the whole laid in terrafs mortar : the facings
are crampt together, and fet in lead ^ and fome cramps-
are alfo ufed to faften the facings with the infide. The
fame manner is to be obferved throughout all the courfes
to the height of low water mark j after which the fa¬
cings alone are laid in terrafs mortar, and the infide
with the beft of the common fort. When the founda¬
tion is carried to the height of low water mark, or to
the height whe- e the arches begin, then the Ihaft or
middle wall is to be carried up nearly to the height of
the arches, and there left Handing till all the piers are
finiftied, in order that the mafonry may be fufficiently
dry and fettled before the arches are begun-
As the piers end generally with an arch at each end^Proper
it is cuftoraary to lay the foundation in the fame man>rmof^
ner : which is not fo well as to continue the bafe reft- 1 !
angular quite to the ends of the piers, and as high as
low water mark y both becaufe the foundation becomes
then fo much broader, and alfo becaufe the water will
not be able to get under it ^ for when the current fets
againft a flat furface, it drives the fand and mud againft:
it fo as to cover it entirely ; whereas if a Iharp edge be
prefented to the ftream, it carries every thing away,
and expofes the foundation to the continual aftion o£
the water, which in courfe of time muft deftroy it.
After the intervals between the arches are filled up
with ftones laid in a regular manner without mortar,
and the gravel is laid over them j two drains or gutters
are to be made lengthwife over the bridge, one on each
fide next to the footpath, about fix feet wide and a foot
deep j which being filled with fmall pebble ftones, ferve
to carry off the rain water that falls on the bridge, and
to prevent its filtering through the joints of the arches,
as often happens. _
The former method of laying the foundation by Mediae j
means of batardeaus is very expenfive, and often meets
with great difficulties : for when the depth of water iSferSiaswa
8 feet or more, it is fcarcely poffible to make the ba-pradifed s
tardeaus fo tight as to prevent the water from oozing Weftmin-
through them j and in that cafe the number of engines Aer brit£'
required, as well as the hands to wqrk them, becomes
very
126
Part IT.
ARCHITECT
Practice, very extenfive *, and if part of the batardeau ftiould
!_ ' break by fome extraordinary wind or tide, the -work¬
men would be expofed to very great danger.
The next and belt method therefore is to build with
coffers, when it is practicable, fuch as were ufed at
Weftminfter bridge. Here the height of water was 6
feet at a medium when loweft, and the tide rofe about
10 feet at a medium alfoj fo that the greateft depth
of water was about 16 feet. At the place where one
of the piers of the middle or great arch was to be,
the workmen began to drive piles of about 13 or 14
inches fquare, and 34 feet long, Ihod with iron, fo as
to enter into the gravel with more eafe, and hooped
above to prevent their fplitting in driving them : thefe
piles were driven as deep as could be done, which was
13 or 14 feet below the furface of the bed of the ri¬
ver, and 7 feet diftant from each other, parallel to the
fliort ends of the pier, and about 30 feet diftant from
them : the number of thefe piles was 34, and their in¬
tent to prevent any veffels or barges from approaching
the work ; and in order to hinder boats from pafting
between them, booms were placed fo as to rife and fall
with the water.
This being done, the ballaft-men began to dig the
foundation under the water of about 6 feet deep, and
5 wider all round than the intended coffer was to be,
with an eafy flope to prevent the ground from falling,
in : in order to prevent the current from walking the
fand into the pit, Ihort-grooved piles were driven be¬
fore the two ends and part of the Tides, not above 4
feet higher than low water mark, and about 15 feet
diftant from the coffer : between thefe piles rows of
boards were let into the grooves down to the bed of the
river, and fixed there.
The bottom of the coffer was made of a ftrong grate,
confifting of two rows of large timbers, the one long¬
ways, and the other croffways, bolted together with
wooden trunnels ten feet wider than the intended foun¬
dation. The fides of ihe coffer were made with fir tim¬
bers laid horizontally clofe one over another, pinned
with oaken trunnels, and framed together at the cor¬
ners, excepting at the two falient angles, where they
were fecured with proper irons, fo that the one half
might be loofened from the other if it Ihould be thought
neceffary ; thefe fides were lined on the infide as well
as on the outfide- with three inch planks placed verti¬
cally •, the thicknefs of thofe. fides was l8 inches at the
bottom, reduced to 15 above,, and they were 16 feet
high •, befides, knee timbers were bolted at the angles,
in order to fecure them in the ftmngeft manner. 1 he-
fides were faftened to the bottom by 28 pieces of tim¬
ber on the outfide, and 18 within, called Jlraps, about
8 inches broadband 3 or 4 inches thick, reaching and
lapping over the ends of the fides : the lower part of
thefe (traps had one fide cut dove tail faftiion, in order
to fit the mortifes made near the edge of the bottom
to receive them, and were kept in their places by iron
wedges $ which being drawn out when the fides were
to be taken away, gave liberty to clear the (traps from
the mortifes.
Before the coffer was launched, the foundation was
exarmned, in order to know whether it was level *, for
which purpnfe fereral gauges were made, each of which
confided of a (tone of about 15 inches fquare and three
thick, with, a wooden pole in the middle of about 18
U R E. 589
feet long. The foundation being levelled and the cof- pradtice.
fer fixed diredtly over the place with cables faftened to v
the adjacent piles, the malons laid the firft courfe of
the (tones for the foundation within it •, which.being
finiftied, a fluice made in the fide was opened near the
time of low water ; on which the coffer funk to the
bottom 5 and if it did not fet level, the fluice was (hut,
and the water pumped out, fo as to make it float till
fuch time as the foundation was levelled : then the ma-
fons crampt the (tones of the firft courfe, and laid a fe-
cond j which being likewife crampt, a third courfe was
laid : then the fluiee being opened again, proper care
was taken that the coffer (hould fettle in its due place.
The ft one work being thus railed to within two feet of
the common low water mark, about two hours before
low water the fluice was (hut, and the water pumped
out fo far as that the mafons could lay the next courfe
of (tone, which they continued to do till the water was
rifen fo high as to make it unfafe to proceed any fur¬
ther : then they left off the work, and opened the fluice
to let in the water. Thus they continued to work
night and day at low water till they had carried their
work fome feet higher than the low water mark : af¬
ter this, the fides of the coffer were loofened from the
bottom, which made them float ; and then were carried
afliore to be fixed to another bottom, in order to ferve
for the next pier.
It mud be obferved, that the coffer being no higher
than 16 feet, which is equal to the greatetl depth of
wrater, and the foundation being 6 feet under the bed
of the river 5 the coffer was therefore 6 feet under wa¬
ter when the tide was in j but being loaded with three
courfes of (tones, and well fecured with ropes fattened'
to. the piles, it could not move from its place. By ma¬
king it no higher, much labour and expence were fav-
ed ; yet it anfwered the intent fully as well as if it had
been high enough to reach above the highelt flood.
The pier being this carried on above low water
mark, the mafons finilbed the reft of it during the in¬
tervals of the tides in the ufual way ; and after all the
piers and abutmentswere finiftied in a like manner, the
arches were begun and completed as mentioned be¬
fore : the whole bridge was built in about feven years,,
without any accidents happening either in the work or
to the workmen, which is feldom the cafe in works of
this nature. uS
It may be obferved, that all the piers were built Materials
with folid Portland (lone, fome of which weighed four emPloye
tons. The arch (tones were likewife of the fame fort:
but the reft of the mafonry wTas finiflied with Kentifti
rag-Jlones ; and the paths for foot paffengers were pa¬
ved with Purbec, which is.the hardelt (tone to be had
in England, excepting Plymouth marble. 129
Th is method of building bridges is certainly the ea- This me-
fleft and cheapeft that can be thought of, but cannot ^eg
be ufed in many cafes: when the foundation is fo bad practicable,
as not to be depended upon without being piled, or the
depth of water is very great, with a ftrong current and
no tide, it cannot then be pra&ifed. For if piles are
to be ufed, it will be next to impoflible to cut them off
in the fame level five or fix feet below the bed of the
river, notwithftanding that faws have been invented for
that purpofe: becaufe if they are cut off feparately, it
will he a hard matter to do it fo nicely that the one
(hall not exceed the other in height j and if this is not
done.
130
Ruffian me
thod.
131
French me
thod.
A 11 C H I T
done, the grating or bottom of the coffer .will not be
equally fupported, whereby the foundation becomes
precarious : neither can they be cut off altogether } for
piles are to be driven as far as the bottom of the coffer
extends, which at Weftminfter bridge was 27 feet; the
faw mult have three feet play, which makes the total
length of the faw 30 feet; now, if either the water is
deeper than it is there, or the arches are wider, the faw
muff ftill be longer, fo that this method is impra&icable
in any fuch cafes.
In a great depth of water that has a ftrong current
and no tide, the coffers muff reach above the water,
which makes them very expenfive, and unwieldy to
manage, as well as very difficult to be fecured in their
places, and kept fteady: fo that there is no probability
of ufitng them in fuch a cafe.
In fome cafes, where there is a great depth of water,
and the bed of the river is tolerably level, or where it
can be made fo by any contrivance, a very ftrong frame
of timber, about four times as large as the bafe of the
piers may be let down with (tones upon it round the
edges to make it fink : after fixing it level, piles mull
be driven about it to keep it in its place j and then the
foundation may be laid in coffers as before, which are
to be kept fteady by means of ropes tied to the piles.
This method has frequently been ufed in Ruffia ;
and though the bed of the river is not very folid, yet
fuch a grate, when once well fettled with the weight of
the pier upon it, will be as firm as if piles had been
driven under the foundation j but to prevent the water
from gulling under the foundation, and to fecure it
againft all accidents, a row of dove-tail piles muft be
driven quite round the grating; this precaution being
taken, the foundation will be as fecure as any that can
be made.
The French engineers make ufe of another method
in raifing the foundations of mafonry under water 5
which is, to drive a row of piles round the intended
place, nearer to, or farther from, each other, according
as the water is more deep or (hallow : thefe piles being
ftrongly bound together in feveral places with horizon¬
tal tie-beams, ferve to fupport a row of dove-tail piles
driven within them: when this is done, and all well
fecured according to the nature of the fituation and cir-
cumftances, they dig the foundation by means of a ma¬
chine with fcoops, invented for that purpofe, until they
come to a folid bed of gravel or clay j or if the bed
of the river is of a foft confidence to a great depth, it
is dug only to about fix feet, and a grate of timber is
laid upon it, which is well fecured with piles driven
into the oppofite corners of each fquare, not minding
whether they exceed the upper furface of the grate
much or little.
When the foundation is thus prepared, they make
a kind of mortar called betoti, which confifts of twelve
parts of pozolano or Dutch terrafs, fix of good fand,
nine of unflaked lime, the bed that can be had, thir¬
teen of (lone fplinters not exceeding the bignefs of an
egg, and three parts of tile dull, or cinders, or elfe
fcales of iron out of a forge: this being well worked
together muft be left (landing for about 24 hours, or
till it becomes fo hard as not to be feparated without a
pick-axe.
This mortar being thus prepared, they throw into
the coffer a bed of ruble ftones, not very large, and
E C T U R E. Part II.
fpread them all over the bottom as nearly level as they Pra&ke.
can ; they then fink a box full of this hard mortar, bro- -y-—j
ken into pieces, till it come within a little of the bot¬
tom ; the box is fo contrived as to be overfet or turned
upfide down at any depth •, which being done, the
pieces of mortar foften, and fo fill up the vacant (paces
between the ftones 5 by thefe means they fink as much
of it as. will form a bed of about 12 inches deep all
over ; then they throw in another bed of (lone, and
continue alternately to throw one of mortar and one of
(lone till the work approaches near the furface of the
water, Avhere it is levelled, and then the reft is finiffied
with ftones in the ufual manner.
Mr Belidor fays, in the fecond part of his Hydrau¬
lics, vol. ii. p. 188. that Mr Millet de Montville hav¬
ing filled a coffer containing 27 cubic feet, with mafon¬
ry made of this mortar, and funk it into the fea, it was
there left (landing for two months, and -when it was
taken out again it was harder than (lone itfelf. ^
We have hitherto mentioned fuch fituations only Impoffibili.
where the ground is of foft nature j but where it is ty of build,
rocky and uneven, all the former methods prove inef-jng bridges
fefinal $ nor indeed has there yet been any one propof-^0™*
ed which can be always ufed upon fuch occafions,
efpecially in a great depth of water. When the water
is not fo deep but that the unevennefs of the rock can
be perceived by the eye, piles ftrongly (hod with iron
may be raifed and let fall down, by means of a machine,
upon the higher parts, fo as to break them off piece
by piece, till the foundation is tolerably even, .efpecial¬
ly when the rock is not very hard ; which being done
either this or any other way that can be thought of,
a coffer is made without any bottom, which is let
down and well fecured, fo as not to move from its
place : to make it fink, heavy ftones (hould be fixed on
the outfide ; then ftrong mortar and ftones muft be
thrown into it; and if the foundation is once brought
to a level, large hewn ftones may be let down fo as to
lie flat and even : by thefe means the work may be
carried on quite up to the furface of the water. But
when the water is fo deep, or the rock fo hard as not
to be levelled, the foundation muft be founded, fo as to
get nearly the rifings and fallings ; then the lower part
of the coffer muft be cut nearly in the fame manner,
and the reft finilhed as before. It muft however be ob-
ferved, that we fuppofe a poffibility of finking a cof¬
fer 'y but where this cannot be done, no method that
we know of will anfwer. _ I3,
Among the aquatic buildings of the ancients none Trajan'lJ
appears to have been more magnificent than 1 rajan’s bridge ov«r
bridge. Dion Caflius gives the following account ofthe Dj“1“be
it : “ Trajan built a bridge over the Danube, whichcn e *
in truth one cannot fufficiently admire j for though all
the works of Trajan are very magnificent, yet this far
exceeds all the others: the piers were 20 in number,
of fquare (lone : each of them 150 feet high above the
foundation, 60 feet in breadth, and diftant (rom one
another 170 feet. Though the expence of this work
muft have been exceeding great, yet it becomes more
extraordinary by the river’s being very rapid, and its
bottom of a foft nature : where the bridge was built,
was the narrowed part of the river thereabout, for in
mod others it is double or treble this breadth j and al¬
though on this account it became fo much the deeper
and the more rapid, yet no other place was fo fuitable
for
134
Wooden
bridges.
Part II. A R C H I T
Practice, for this undertaking. The arches were afterwards
‘-“nr”—^ broken down by Adrian ; but the piers are ftill re¬
maining, which feems as it were to teftify that there
is nothing which human ingenuity is not able to ef¬
fect.” The whole length then of this bridge was
1590 yards j fome authors add, that it was built in
one fummer, and that Apollodorus of Damafcus was
the architect, who left behind him a defcription of this
great work.
Where (tone bridges cannot be erected on account
of the expence, very ftrong and durable ones may be
conftrudted of wood : in which cafe they ought to be
fo framed, as that all the parts may prefs upon one
another like the arch of a ftone bridge ; and thus, in-
ftead of being weakened by great weights paffing over
them, they will become the Itronger. How this is to
be accomplilhed, will be better underftood from the fi¬
gure at bottom of Plate LIV. which reprefents a
wooden bridge conftrufted after this manner, than it
can be by any defcription.
2. Of Harbours.
^35 • •
Situation 1° thefe, the firft thing to be conlidered is the fitu-
proper for ation j swhich may be fome large creek or bafon of wa-
harbours. ter, in or near the place where the harbour is intended
to be made, or at the entrance of a large river, or near
the fea : for a harbour fhould never be dug entirely out
of dry land, unlefs upon fome extraordinary occafions,
where it is impoflible to do otherwife, and yet a har¬
bour is abfolutely needfary. When a proper place is
found, before it is fixed upon, it muft be confidered
whether fhips can lie there fafe in flormy weather, ef-
pecially when thofe winds blow which are moft danger¬
ous upon that coaft ; whether there be any hills, rifing
ground, or high buildings, that will cover it j in thefe
cafes, the filualion is very proper : but if there be no¬
thing already that will cover the fhips, it muft be
obferved whether any covering can be made at a mode¬
rate expence, otherwife it would be ufelefs to build a
harbour there.
The next thing to be confidered is, whether there
be a futficient depth of water for large fliips to enter
with fafety, and lie there without touching the ground j
and if not, whether the entrance and infide might not
be made deeper at a moderate expence : or, in cafe a
fufficient depth of water is not to be had for large
fhips, whether the harbour would not be ufeful for
fmall merchantmen j for fuch a one is often of great
advantage, when fituated upon a coaft much frequent¬
ed by fmall coafting vefiels.
The form of the harbour muft be determined in fuch
a manner, that the fhips which come in when it is
ftormy weather may lie fafe, and fo as there may be
fufficient room for as many as pafs that way: the
depths of water where the piers are to be built muft
be taken at every 1®, 15, or 20 feet diftance, and
marked upon piles driven here and there, in order
that the workmen may be directed in laying the
foundation.
Materials. This being done, it muft be confiJered what kind of
materials are to be ufed, whether ftone, brick, or wood.
When ftones are to be had at a moderate price, they
ought to be preferred, becaufe the work will be much
ftronger, more lafting, and need fewer repairs, than if
made with any other materials; but when ftones are
E C T U R E. 59I
fcarce, and the expence becomes greater than what is Practice,
allowed for building the harbour, the foundation may ——
be made of ftone as high as low water mark, and the
reft finifhed with brick. If this manner of building
fhould ftill be too expenfive, wood muft be ufed ; that
is, piles are driven as clofe as is thought neceflary;
which being faftened together by crofs bars, and co¬
vered with ftrong oaken planks, form a kind of coffer,
which is filled with all kinds of ftones, chalk, and
fhineles.
The manner of laying the foundation in different French mg.
depths of water, and in various foils, requires particu-thod of
lar methods to be followed. When the water is verybuiwing*
deep, the French throw in a great quantity of ftones at
random, fo as to form a much larger bafe than would
be required upon dry land ; this they continue to with¬
in 3 or 4 feet of the furface of the water, where they
lay the ftones in a regular manner, till the foundation
is raifed above the water : then they lay a great weight
of ftones upon it, and let it Hand during the winter to
fettle; as likewife to fee whether it is firm, and refifts
the force of waves and winds : after that, they fi-
nifh the fuperftrudture with large ftones in the ufual
manner.
As this method requires a great quantity of ftones, ^ prefer-
it can be praftifed only in places where ftones are in able one.
plenty : and therefore the following one is much pre¬
ferable. A coffer is made with dove-tail piles, of about
30 yards long, and as wide as the thicknefs of the
foundation is to be ; then the ground is dug and level¬
led, and the wall is built with the beft mortar.
As foon as the mortar is tolerably dry, thofe piles-
at the end of the wall are drawn out, the fide rows are
continued to about 30 yards farther, and the end en-
clofed ; then the foundation is cleared, and the ftones
laid as before. But it muft be obferved, that the end
of the foundation finifhed is left rough, in order that
the part next to it may incorporate with it in a proper
manner; but if it is not very dry, it will incline that
way of itfelf, and bind with the mortar that is thrown
in next to it ; this method is continued till the whole
pier is entirely finifhed.
It muft likewife be obferred, that the piers are not
made of one continued folid wall j becaufe in deep wa¬
ter it would be too expenfive : for which reafon, two
walls are built parallel to each other, and the interval
between them is filled up with fliingle, chalk, and ftone.
As thefe walls are in danger of being thruft out or
overfet by the corps in the middle, together with the
great weight laid at times on the pier, they are tied
or bound together by crofs walls at every 30 or 40 •
yards diftance, by which they fupport each other in a
firm and ftrong manner.
In a country where there is great plenty of ftones,
piles may be driven in as deep as they will go, at about
two or three feet diftance ; and when the foundation is
funk and levelled, large ftones may be let down, which
will bed themfelves : but care muft be taken to lay
them clofe, and fo as to have no two joints over each
other ; and when the wall is come within reach, the
ftones muft be crampt together.
Another method pra£tifed is to build in coffers much Another
after the fame manner as has been done in building the method
piers of Weftminfter bridge ; but as in this cafe the wkh coffers,
ends of the coffers are left in the^wall, and prevent their
joining
592 A R C H I T
pradlice. jommg fo well as to be water fight, the water that pe-
■ - ' netrates through and enters into the corps may occa-
fion the wall to burll and to tumble down. Another
inconvenxency arifing from this manner of building is,
that as there are but few places without worms, which
will deftroy wood wherever they can find it *, by their
means the water is let into the pier, and confequently
makes the work liable to the fame accident as has been
mentioned above.
To prevent thefe inconveniences, the bell method is
140
Ruffian me¬
thod.
• I41,
Thicknefs
of piers.
to take the wood away, and joggle the ends of the walls
together with large ftones, pouring terrafs mortar into
the joints ; when this is done, the water between the
two walls may be pumped out, and the void fpace filled
up with ftone and ftiingle as ufualj or if thefe joggles
cannot be made water tight, feme dove-tail piles muft
be driven at each end as clofe to the wall as can be
done, and a ftrong failcloth put on the outfide of them,
which, when the water is pumped out, will fiick fo clofe
to the piles and wall, that no water can come in. This
method is commonly ufed in Ruffia.
The thicknefs of a pier depends on two confidera-
tions: it ought to be both fuch as may be able to refill
the (hock of the waves in llormy weather •, and alfo to
be of a fufficient breadth above, that Ihips may be la¬
den or unladen whenever it is thought neceffary. Now,
becafe the fpecific gravity of fea water is about one
half that of brick, and as 2 to 5 in comparifon of
ftone ; and fince the preffure of ftagnated water againft
any furface is equal to the weight of a prifm of water
whofe altitude is the length of that furface, and whofe
bafe is a right-angled ifofceles triangle, each of the
equal fides being equal to the depth of the water j
therefore a pier built with bricks, whofe thicknefs is
equal to the depth of the water, will weigh about four
times as much as the preffure of the water againll it;
and one of ftone of the fame breadth, about fix times
and a quarter as much. Now this is not the force to
be confidered, fince this preffure is the fame within as
without the pier: but it is that force with which the
waves ftrike againft the piers, and that depends on the
weight and velocity of the waves, which can hardly
be determined ; becaufe they vary according to the
different depths of water, the diftance from the
Ihore, and according to the tides, winds, and other
caufes. Confequently the proper thicknefs of the
E C T U R E. Part II.
piers cannot be determined by any Other means than Pradice.
by experience. . ‘"i
Praaitioners fuppofe, that if the thicknefs of a pier
is equal to the depth of the water, it is fufficient; but
for a greater fecurity they allow 2, 3> or 4 p101"6”
This might probably do, if piers were built with folid
ftones crampt together ; but as this is hardly ever the
cafe, and on the contrary, as the infide is filled up with
ffiingle, chalk, or other loofe materials, their rule is
not to be depended upon j befides it makes the fpace
above too narrow for lading and unlading the fhips,
unlefs in a great depth of water ; fo that it does not^ap¬
pear that their method can be followed, excepting in a
very few cafes where the water has but very little motion.
When ftone can be had, no other materials ftiould be
ufed, becaufe they being of a larger bulk than brick,
will better refill the waves by their own weight, till
fuch time as the mortar is grown hard y for after this
is effe&ed, brick will refill better againft the aftion of
fea water than foft ftones.
The wall muft be built with terrafs mortar from the
bottom to the height of low water mark, and the reft
finilhed with cinder or tile-duft mortar, which has been
found fufficiently good in thofe places where the wall
is wet and dry alternately. The upper part of the
pier ffiould be paved with flat hewn ftones laid in ftrong
mortar, in order to prevent any water from penetrat¬
ing into it: iron rings ought alfo to be fixed here and
there at proper diftances, to fallen the fhips, and. pre¬
vent them from ftriking againft the pier when agitated
by the waves. # .
Wooden fenders or piles ftiould be driven at. the in¬
fide clofe to the wall, and crampt to it with iron,, to
prevent the ftiips from touching them, and from being
worn by the continual motion. Where the fea breaks
againft the piers with great violence, breakers fliould
be made at proper diftances j that is, two rows of piles
are driven nearly at right angles to the piers for the
length of about 12 or 15 feet, and at about 8 or. IO
feet diftant from each other ; and then another to join
the two former : thefe piles being covered with planks,
and the infide being filled with ffiingles and ruble ftones,
then the top is paved with ftones of about a foot, in
length, fet longwife to prevent the waves from tearing
them up. This precaution is abfolutely neceffary where
the water ruflies in very ftrongly.
ARC
Architec- Military AliCHITEGTURE, the fame with what is other-
ture wife called fortification. See FORTIFICATION.
, the art of building ftiips. See
ciinus Ship-Building.
. ARCHITRAVE, in ArcliiteBure, that part of a
column which lies immediately upon the capital, being
the loweft member of the entablature. See Plate
XXXIX.
Over a chimney, this member is called the mantle'
piece; and over doors or windows, the hyperthy-
ron.
ARCHITRICLINUS, in antiquity, the mafter or
diredlor of a feaft, charged with the order and eco-
A R C
nomy of it, the covering and uncovering of the tables, Archivault.
the command of the fervants, and the like. '
The architriclinus was fometimes called jkrmr trick-
niarcha, and by the Greeks Tr^eyivcYis, i. e. pragufator,
or foretajler. Potter alfo takes the architriclinus for
the fame with the fympofiarcha.
ARCHIVAULT, in ArchiteBure, implies the in¬
terior contour of an arch, or a band adorned with mould¬
ings, running over the faces of the arch-ftones, and
bearing upon the impofts. It has only a fingle face in
the Tufcan order, two faces crowned in the Doric and
Ionic, and the fame mouldings as the architrave, in the
Corinthian and Compofite.
ARCHIVE,
AR CHI T K C TXT RE .
Plate XXXVII ,
^ // W // ./rv
;/
/.
>rv,
y-' V V y / ^
y;
y
07V ?l//u*Z7Z
'/ /Ax
/ //
f^rr/sr.
11'. 7’/ '< rr/ i
ARCHITEC TURE.
SAXON CAPITALS.
PLATE XXXV]JL
SAXON ARC If.
SAXON ARC HES .
METHOD OF DESCRIBING A
Gothic arch.
SAXON ARCH.
HZ*JrchHalil Sculpt
Piojer E,.ldllf AR r HI T E t T F U E. Plate WXIX
Koits. ^
fP J rch i bald Sculp
Architecture
Piojec .
t ous.
Architec ture.
-//
n
-75.
/;
'I
Vs
V
■ s
1
\ X
\
U2l
' J
/p%
zzz
1
/J>
24i
/#
s j
7%
N
TJ
~rT x
y v
;/
/o
P u
//
r
7^
7
■“
7
The
A f~\ (~\ /^\ Ov
Ionic Order
,'J/\ W/sriu/t..
7jP. /7/,mu/cj.-
W w 1 / Z7 W 7UV
c
c
J
• y^/- s*
S////-
G
- ft#. 9.
AnctiLT t: c tvuk.
^(S'~ J ‘ //</. 5
r y^r/M sj/vjA
Fig .
'FaS/s/ * /Sp///A '
Sit/. SS.
rA/<y
nate.Xl.il
U. Archibald jru/p t
Plr^^ ' ' '
ARCHITE CTURE. PLATE XL Of.
7/’.. ircAibald Sculp!
ARCHITECTURE.
PLATE XL1V.
Architect ur e
Plans or Pilaster Capitals .
J^L^ITEXLV.
i
Rate XLVI
AjiCHlTKCTlliE
PI ate XLVIL.
Fia.d.
K. Mitc/bt/lyGu/fL*:
\hci iite ct ure
Plate XLVm.
Fiff J ■
E.MiitUtj&U/i*
ARCHITECTURE.
PLA1K XLIX.
Ernjfbv M.X' D.Lhnrp E(/m
#
ARCHITECTURE.
PLATE L.
Eaj/nnvd iv W. &r DJLiiaty Edin 7
m
AH CHIT E C T URE
Plate LI
Aft CHTTE C TUTt E
Plate Ell
Fy.2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
E.lvTilche-llyZa/ftt
Architecture
Plate LIU .
dca/i' of \lect
Ar CHITE C Tim E
/‘/.ytT/: /.jr.
ARCHITECTURE.
PLATE LVI.
Designs for Gates Piers.
i.
ARC t 503 ] ARC
Archive ARCHIVE, or Archives, a chamber or apartment
!i wherein the records, charters, and other papers and evi-
Archons. (ienceSj ()f a ttate, houfe, or community, are preferved,
^ to be confulted occafionally.
We fay, the archives of a college, of a monaftery,
&c. The archives of ancient Rome were in the temple
of Saturn ; the archives of the court of chancery are in
the rolls office,
ARCHIVIST, Archivista, a keeper of an ar¬
chive.
Under the emperors, the archivift was an officer of
great dignity, held equal to the proconfuls, veiled with
the quality of a count, ifyled clarijjimus, and exempted
from all public offices and taxes. Among the ancient
Greeks and Periians, the truif was committed to none
but men of the firft rank; among the Franks, the clergy
b«ing the only men of letters, kept the office among
themfelves. Since the eredtion of the electoral college,
the archbiffiop of Mentz has had the diredHon of the
archives of the empire.
ARCHMARSHAL, the grand marffial of the
empire, a dignity belonging to the eledtor of Sax¬
ony.
ARCHONS, in Grecian antiquity, were magiftrates
• Seethe appointed after the death of Codrus*. They were cho-
ankle At- fen from the moil illuftrious families till the time of Ari-
ftides, who got a law paffed, by which it was enadted,
that, in eledling thefe magiftrates, lefs regard fliould be
paid to birth than to merit.
The tribunal of the archons was compofed of nine
officers. The firft was properly the archon; bv whofe
name the year of his adminiftration was diftinguifhtd.
The title of the fecond was king ; that of the third,
polemarchus; to thefe were added fix thefmothetce.
Thefe magittrates, eledfed by the ferutiny of beans,
were obliged to prove, before their refpedtive tribes,
that they had fprung, both in their father’s and their
mother’s fide, for three defcents, from citizens of
Athens. They were likewife to prove that they ivere
attached to the vrorfhip of Apollo, the tutelary god of
their country ; that they had in their houfe an altar
confecrated to Apollo; and that they had been re-
fpedffully obedient to their parents ; an important and
facred part of their charadler, which promifed that they
would be faithful fervants to their country. They were
likewife to prove, that they had ferved in a military
capacity the number of years which the republic re¬
quired of every citizen : and this qualification gave
the (fate experienced officers ; for they were not al¬
lowed to quit the army till they were 40 years old.
Their fortune too, of which they were to inform thofe
before whom they were examined, was a warrant for
their fidelity.
After the commiffioners, who were appointed to in¬
quire into their charafter and other requifites, had
made a report of them, they were then to fwear that
they would maintain the laws ; which obligation if they
negle&ed, they engaged to fend to Delphi a ftatue of
the weight of their bodies. According to a law of So¬
lon, if an archon got drunk, he wTas condemned to pay
a heavy fine, and fometimes even puniffied with death.
■Such magiftrates as the Athenian archons were well
entitled to refpefl Hence it was eternal infamy to
infult them ; and hence Demofthent’s obferved, that
Vol. II. Part II.
to treat the thefmothetae with difrefpeft, wa« to fhow Archoa
difrefpeft to the republic. W .
Another qualification indifpenfably required of the
fecond officer oi this tribunal, who was called the king,
was that he had married the daughter of an Athenian
citizen, and that he had efpouled her a virgin. This
was exafled of him, fays Demofthenes, becaufe part of
his duty was to facrifice to the gods jointly with his
wife, who inftead of appeafing, would have irritated
them, if (he had not poffeffed both thefe honours.
The inquiry into the private title of the nine archons
was very ievere ; and this attention was the more ne-
ceffary, as they had a right to take a feat in the Areo¬
pagus, after they had quitted their office, and given an
account of their adminiftration.
When any obfcurity occurred in the laws relative te
religion and the worthip of the gods, the interpretation
was fubmitted to the tribunal of the archons.
Ariftotle obferves, that Solon, whofe aim was to make
his people happy, and who found their government ia
his time ariftocratical, by the election of the nine ar¬
chons, who were annual magiftrates, tempered their
power, by eftabliffiing the privilege of appealing from
them to the people, called by lot to give their luffrage,
after having taken the oath of the Htliaftae, in a place
near the Panathenaeum, where Hiffus had formerly calm¬
ed a fedition of the people, and bound them to peace by
an oath.
The archons were the principal officers, not only in
civil, but likewife in facred matters, and efpecially ia
the myfteries of Bacchus. The archons, however, who
were furnamed eponytni, were chiefiy employed in civil
affairs; yet they prefided at the great feafts, and held
the firft rank there. Hence they are fumetimes ftyled
priejls.
Archon is alfo applied by fome authors to divers
officers, both civil and religious, under the eaftern or
Greek empire. Thus bifhops are fometimes called
archontes ; and the fame may be faid of the lords of
the emperor’s court. W e alio read of the archons of
■the antimenfia, archon of archons, grand archon, ar¬
chon of churches, archon of the gofpel, archon of the walls,
&c.
ARCHONTICI, in church hiftory, a branch ofVa-
lentinians; w ho maintained that the world was not crea¬
ted by God, but by angels called Archontes,
ARCHPRIEST, Archfresbyter, a prieft or pref-
byter eftabliffied in fome diocefes, with-a pre-eminence
over the reft. Anciently the archprieft was the firft
perfon after the biffiop: he was feated in the church
next after the bifhop ; and even a&ed as his vicar, in
his abfence, as to all fpiritual concerns. In the fixth
century, there were found feveral archpriefts in the fame
diocefe ; from which time fome will have them to have
been called deans. In the ninth century, they diftin-
guiffied two kinds of cures or parifhes : the fmalier go¬
verned by fimple priefts ; and the baptifmal churches
by archpriefts ; who, befides the immediate concern of
the cure, had the infpeftion of the other inferior priefts,
and gave an account of them to the biihop, who go¬
verned the chief or cathedral church, in perfon. There
are archprefbyters ftill fubfifting in the Greek church ;
veiled with inoft of the fundlions and privileges of cho-
repifcopi or rural deans.
4 F ARCHTREASURER,
Archtrea-
furer
Archytas.
ARC
ARCIITREASURER, the great treafurer of the
German empire. This office was created with the
eighth ele&orate, in favour of the eleflor Palatine,
who had loll his former ele£lorate, which was given to
the duke of Bavaria, by the emperor Ferdinand II.
who took it away from Frederic V. elector Palatine,
after, the battle of Prague, where he was defeated in
maintaining hiseleftion to the crown of Bohemia. I he
dignity of archtreafurer was conteded between the
elector of Brunfwick, who claimed it in virtue of his
defcent from the ele&or Frederic, and the eleftor Pa¬
latine.
ARCKILUTE, Arcileuto, a long and large lute,
having its bafs firings lengthened alter the manner of
the theorbo, and each row doubled, either with a little
oftave or an unifoh. It is ufed by the Italians for play¬
ing a thorough bafs.
"ARCHYTAS of Tarentum, was a Pythagorean
philofopher, and alfo well {killed in mathematics and
geography. He lived in the time of Plato, and ac¬
cording to report, inlerpofed his influence with Diony-
lius the tyrant, in order to fave the life of that renown¬
ed philofopher. According to this date, it would ap¬
pear that Jamblichus is miftaken when he afferts, that
he was a hearer of Pythagoras •, and the teilimony of
a writer mentioned by Photius, would feem more
worthy of credit, that he was the eighth fucceffive pre¬
ceptor of the Pythagorean fchool. But his fame, was
not confined to the circle of literature ; for fo eminent
were his military talents, that, in oppofition to an ex-
prefs law of his country, that no man ffiould be chofen
more than once the general of its armies, he was ele¬
vated to that important ftation no lefs than feven.times.
He adopted the fentimentsof Pythagoras in his differta-
tions on fpeculative philofophy. He taught in mora¬
lity, that there is nothing fo deftructive to man as plea-
lure j that in every condition of foeiety, virtue is to be
purfued for its own merit, and that every, extreme is
incompatible with virtue. Ariftotle was indebted to
Archytas for his general heads of arrangement, en¬
titled his “ Ten Categories,” and very probably for
that principal idea in his Ethics, that virtue confifts in
avoiding exceffes. By difcovering the duplication of
the cube by means of the conic feflions, and the me¬
thod of finding two mean proportionals between two
given lines, he difplayed his great knowledge in ma¬
thematics. He is reported to have invented feveral
curious hydraulic machines, and to have made a kind
of winged automaton ; and his genius is likewife ho¬
noured with the invention of the fcrew and crane. In
fa beautiful ode, Horace records his fad fate, in being
caft upon the Apulian ihore, an unburied corpfe ; and
mentions him as an excellent aflronomer and geogra¬
pher.
Tc marts et terrce numeroque carcntis arc nee
Menforem cohtbent, Archyta,
Pulveres exigui prope /ilus par-vet Matinum
Munera : nec quidquam tibi prodejl
Aericts tentaJJ'e dotnos, animoque rotundum
Vercurriffe polum, monturo.
Archytas, what avails thy nice furvey
Of ocean’s countlefs fands, of earth, and fea ?
In vain thy mighty fpirit once could foar
To orbs celeftial, and their courfe explore.
4
ARC
If here, upon the tempeft-beaten ftrand,
You lie confin’d, till fome more lib’ral hand
Shall drew the pious dull in funeral rite,
And wing thee to the boundlefs realms of light.  
Francis.
A Angular modefty, and a firm command of his paf-
fions, were the leading features in his moral charadler.
In his anger he never chaftifed any of his fervants. He
faid one day to a certain dependant who had difobliged
him, “ What ffiould I have done to you if I had not
been angry ?” He maintained a uniform decency not
often obferved in ancient writings.
A fmall treatife, entitled ra navro? “ On
the Univerfe,” and fome other fmall fragments, “ On
Wifdom,” and “ On the Good and Happy Man,” are
the only pieces aferibed to this philofopher that are {till
eXtant#
ARCIS-SUR-AUBE, a fmall town of France, in
Champagne, now the department of Aube, feated on the
river Aube. E. Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 48. 40.
ARCO, a ftrong town and caftle in the 'Irentin, be¬
longing to the houfe of Auftria. It was taken by the
French in 1703, and abandoned foon after. It Hands
on the river Sarca, near the north extremity of the lake
Garda. E. Long. 4. 15. N. Lat. 45. 52.
ARCONA, a flrong town fituated on the ifland of
Rugen in the Baltic. It flood on a high promontory,
with the eaft, north, and fouth fides defended by fteep
and lofty precipices, and the weft by a wall 50 feet
high, propertionably thick, and lecured by a deep and
broad ditch. It was, however, taken and ruined, in
1168, by Valdemar king of Denmark. One of the
conditions impofed by the conqueror was, that the inha¬
bitants fliould deftrpy a temple they had eroded to St
Vitus, and deliver up the vaft treafure belonging to this
tutelary faint. Another was, that they flrould pay 40
filver yokes for oxen, by way of tribute, and enter as
foldiers in the Danifli fervice when called upon.
' ARCOS, a flrong city of Andalufia in Spain, feated
on a high craggy rock, at the bottom of which runs the
Guadeleto. Its ftrength lies not only in its fituation,
but in the works eroded for its defence, and it is inac-
ceffible on every fide but one. The governor refides in
an old caftle, from whence there is a delightful prolped,
which extends very far into the neighbouring country.
W. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat. 36. 40.
ARCTIC, in AJlronomy, an epithet given to the
north pole, or the pole raifed above our horizon. . It is
called the ardiic po/e, on occafion of the conftellation of
the little bear, in Greek called ; the laft ftar in
the tail whereof nearly points out the north pole.
Arctic Circle, is a lefier circle of the fphere, parallel
to the equator, and 230 30' diftant from the north
pole •, from whence its name. This, and its oppofite,
the antarBic, are called the two polar circles ; and may
be conceived to be deferibed by the motion of the poles
of the ecliptic, round the poles of the equator, or of the
world.
ARCTIUM, Burdock. See Botany Index.
ARCTOPHYLAX, (from sextos, hear, and $v-
Xxriu, I guard), in AJlronomy, a conftellation, otherwife
called Bootes.
ARCTOPUS. See Botany Index.
ARCTOTIS. See Botany Index.
ARCTURUS,
[ 59+ l
Arcis-fur-
Aube
Ardtotis.
A R D [ 595 ] A R D
Arifturus ARCTURUS, in SlJIronomy, a fixed fiar, of the
II firft magnitude, in the conftellation Ardlophylax, or
Ardebil. Bootes. The word is formed of bear, and
tail, q. d. bear's tail, as being very near it. This
ftar was known to the ancients, as in the following
verfe of Virgil :
ArBurum, pluviafque Hyades, geminafque Triones.
See alfo Job ix. 9. xxxviii. 32.
ARCUATION, in Gardening, the method of raif-
ing trees by layers, which is done in the following
manner.
Strong mother plants or ftools muft be planted in a
clear border, and in a ftraight line, about fix feet
afunder. When thefe have fiiot five or fix main branches
from the roots, and as many collateral branches, the
former muft be bent to the ground, and there fattened.
The fmall branches muft be covered three inches deep
upon the joints, and have a large bafon of earth made
round them to hold the water.
About the middle of September they may be opened,
and if they have taken root, may be immediately re¬
moved into the nurfery ; but if they have not fufficient-
ly extended their roots, they muft be fuffered to remain
till the fpring, and then tranfplanted.
ARCUCCIO, Arcutio, a machine made of a
board, covered with pieces of hoops, like the tilt of a
waggon : ufed in Italy to prevent children from being
overlaid and fmothered by nurfes or others. Every
nurfe in Florence is obliged to lay her child in an ar¬
cutio, under pain of excommunication.
ARDAMON, or Ardama, in 'antiquity, a veflel
of water placed at the door of a perfon deceafed, till
the time of burial, as a token that the family was in
mourning, and to ferve to fprinkle and purify perions as
they came out of the Iv ufe.
ARD ASSES, in Commerce, the coarfeft of all the
filks of Perfia ; and as it were the refufe of each kind.
In this fenfe, they fay, the legis, the houfets, the choufs,
and the paqas ardajfes, to fignify the worft of thofe
four forts of Perfian filks.
ARDASSINES, in Commerce, called in France
ablaques ; a very fine fort of Perfian filks, little inferior
in finenefs to the fourbaftis, or rather cherbaftis, and yet
it is little ufed in the filk manufa£lures of Lyons and
Tours, becaufe that kind of filk will not bear hot water
in the winding.
ARDEA, the crane. See Ornithology Index.
Ardea, in Ancient Geography, a town of Latium,
the royal refidence of Turnus king of the Rutuli,
(Livy) ; fo called, either from the augury of the heron,
(Hyginus) ; or from the exceffive heat of the counti'Yj
(Martial). It was in a marlhy, fickly fituation, (Stra¬
bo, Seneca). It tvas built by Danae, the mother of
Perfeus, (Virgil) ; above five miles diftant from the
fea, and 20 from Rome : now a hamlet. It was a Ro¬
man colony, ('Livy) ; the inhabitants called Ardeates.
E. Long. 17. 49. N. Lat. 41. 30.
ARDEBIL, or Ardevil, a town of Perfia in the
province of Aderbijan. It was taken and burnt by
Jenghiz Khan, in 1222, when moft of the inhabitants
were deftroyed : but it has been fince rebuilt; and is
ftill ranked for dignity among the beft cities of the
kingdom, on account of its having been the refidence
and burying-place of fome of the Perfian kings; par¬
ticularly the fepulchre of Sheik Sefi is at this place, Ardebil
to which the people refort in pilgrimage. He founded |i
a place, which they call his kitchen, with a revenue Arden‘
fufficient to maintain 1000 poor people, and to feed
them three times a-day. Three or four of the largeft
principal ftreets have fhops, and are planted on each
fide with elms and linden trees, to keep off the excef¬
five heat of the fun ; but the houfes are poorly built,
with bricks dried in the fun : yet moft of them, that
are not in the bazars or market places, have the plea-
fure and eonveniency of a garden full of trees bearing
fruit ; and there are large fpots in the out parts of the
town, where the houfes are at a diftance from each
other, and the fpaces between planted with trees, which
render the city of a large extent. The meidan, or
great fquare, is 300 paces long, and 150 broad, having
(hops all round •, which, when this place was in a
flourifhing condition, were ftored with all manner of
valuable commodities.
Through the city there pafs two branches of a rivu¬
let, which are foraetimes enlarged by the melting of
the fnow on the mountains, fo that they have been
forced to make canals to divert the ftream. In the
reign of Shah Abbas, it broke down the dikes and
carried away a great number of houfes. The city is
without walls, and is feated in the midft of a large
plain encompafled with mountains, the higbeft of which
lies weft ward, and is always covered with fnow. Thefe
render the air fometimes extremely hot, and at others
intolerably cold, which occafions epidemical diltempcrs,
that carry off great numbers of people. The foil pro¬
duces no fruit near the city but apples, pears, and
peaches ; and yet is good both for corn and pafture.
The (beep are fo numerous, that 100,000 have paffed
over the city bridge in a day. There are here feveral
f .rts of mineral waters, which ferve both for common
bathing, and for the cure of various difeafes ; one of
thefe is a fulphureous fpring, whofe exhalations render
the circumambient air extremely difagreeable. There
are three fprings which produce water as hot as if it
was boiling ; and from which, waters are conveyed to
the public baths in the city. About half a league
from the city, on the right hand of the public road,
there is a pool of (landing water, which is covered all
over with fait like ice. E. Long. 47. 30. N. Lat.
37- 55-
ARDECHE, a department of France, which de¬
rives its name from a river, and comprehends part of
Dauphiny.
ARDEN, the common name of forefts among the
Celtse, from the widely extenfive one which ranged for
500 miles acrofs the country of Gaul, or that which
covered more than half the county of Warwick in Bri¬
tain, and the fites of which ftill retain the appellation
of Arden, to the much fmaller one of the ancient Man-
cenion, that covered and furrounded the fife of the
prefent Manchefler. It is written Arduen by Caefar and
Tacitus in fpeaking of the foreft in Gaul, and Ardven
by Offian in mentioning the woods of Caledonia. It
cannot ('fays Mr Whitaker) be compounded of ar the
prepofitive article in Celtic, and the fubftan'tive den, as
Baxter and Camden affert it to be ; but is formed of
ard an adjeiftive, and ven the fame as r/fv?. The mean¬
ing of the name therefore is not, as Mr Baxter renders
it, (imply the hills, or even, as the ingenious tranflator
4 F 2 of
A R r> r 596 • ] ARE
Arden- of Offian interprets it, the high h'U. Ard fignifies ei-
ther high or great, and ven or den either a hi// or
A J h Arduen, Slrdven, or Arden, then, means a con-
a 1 . fiderable wood. Hence, only, the name became ap¬
plicable to fuch very different fites, as the plains of
Warwickshire and the lulls of Scotland : and it was
given, not only to the molt extenfive toreffs, to that
which was the greateft in Gaul, or fo confiderable in
Britain •, but to many that were important only with¬
in their own contra&ed diilridts, as the wood of Man-
cenion above mentioned, and others.
ARDENBURG, a town of the Netherlands, in
Dutch Flanders, and formerly the moft confiderable in
that country •, but it has been difmantled by the Dutch.
E. Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 51. 16.
ARDENNE, a foreft in France, formerly of vaft
extent ; but the trees are in many places grubbed up,
and where thev flood are built cities, towns, and ab¬
beys. At prefent it extends from Thionville, neai^ the
country of LJeige, to Doncherry and Sedan, on the con¬
fines of Champagne. The roads are fo narrow in fome
places, that two waggons cannot pafs each other *, and
therefore the waggons are obliged to provide them-
felves with bells or horns to give one another notice to
flop in time.
ARDENNES, a department of France, which com¬
prehends part of Champagne, and takes its name from
the foreft.
ARDENTES, in middle-age writers, an appella¬
tion given to thofe affliifted with the ignis facer, or
eryfipelas. They were thus called, as feeming to be
fcorched or burned with the difeafe. Hence alfo the
abbey of St Genevieve at Paris is called Domus Arden-
tium, by reafon, as it is faid, that great numbers were
cured of that diftemper at the ftirine of this faint, in the
reign of Louis VI.
ARDES, a town of France, in Lower Auvergne,
and the principal place of the duchy of Mercoeur. It
ferves as a. mart for the commodities and trade between
Upp;'r and Lower Auvergne. E. Long. 3. 10. N. Lat.
45. 22.
ARDFERT, a town of Ireland, was the ancient
capital of Kerry, with an univerfity, which was held in
the higheft efteem. It is a bilhop’s fee, and borough
by ancient prefcription, and has been held in commen-
dam with the bifhopric of Limerick ever fince the Re-
floration. The bifliops were anciently called Biftiops
of Kerry. St Brandon, to whom the cathedral is de¬
dicated, had his firft education in this county, under
Bifhop Ert ; but he finitlied his ftudies in Connaught,
St Jarlath bifhop of Tuam being his preceptor. The
ruins here are very extenfive. Near the cathedral was
an anchorite tower, the loftieft and fineft in the king¬
dom, being 120 feet high : it fell fuddenly in 1771.
In the ruined churches there are feveral infcriptions
round the mouldings of the tombftones 5 and over an
arch, behind Lord Glandore’s houfe, is an infcription
in relief done in a mafterly manner, but the charadlers
unknown.
ARDRAH, a fmalt territory or kingdom of Africa,
jn Guinea properly fo called. It lies at the bottom
of the gulf of St Thomas, and has a town called Ar-
dres, fuppofed to be the capital. The inhabitants are
very licentious, and have neither temple nor any place
for religious worfbip. However they are very courage-
J
ous *, and their king was abfolute, till lately that the Ardres
king of Dahomy made war upon this and the neigh- U
bouring territories, brought tin m under fubjeftion, and Arelate-
burnt the towns, particularly Aidres. The air is very ¥ ^
unwholefome to Europeans : yet the natives live to a
great age j byt the fmallpox makes great deftruftion
among them. This country is fertile in Indian corn,
palm wine, plants, and fruits, which laft all the year j
and they make a great deal of fait.
ARDRES, a town of France, in Lower Picardy,
now the department of the Straits of Calais. Here was
an interview between Francis I. and Henry V11L
king of England in 1520. It is feated in the midft of.
a morals eight miles fouth of Calais. E. Long. 2. O'.
N. Lat. 50. 35.
ARDS, Barony of, in the county of Down in Ire¬
land : it is a narrow flip of land, in fome places three
and in none above fix miles broad ; but the foil is for
the moft part tolerably good. It lies between the lake
of Strangford and the fea, and in the fouth part it is
oppofite to Lecale. Sir Thomas Smith obtained a pa¬
tent for this barony from Queen Elizabeth, and fenthis
natural fon with a colony to poffefs it; but he w'as in¬
tercepted and flain by an Irifhman. After Sir Thomas’s
death, Ards was granted by James I. to fome of the
Scots nobility.
ARDUBA, an ancient city of the Pannonians. It
was taken by Germanicus about the 7th year of the
Chriftian sera ; but its reduftion was more owing to the
difagreement that reigned among the inhabitants than
to the valour of the Romans. The greater part of the
citizens were for fubmitting but the women, more fond
of their ancient laws and liberties than the men, join¬
ed fome Roman deferters, and falling upon their huf-
bands, killed a great number of them : but being at
laft overcome by the men, who then fubmitted to the
Romans, the women either threw themfelves head¬
long from the tops of the walls, or, fetting fire to
their houfes, burnt themfelves and their children to
death.
„ARE A, in general, denotes any plain furface, where¬
on we walk, &c. The word is Latin, importing more
properly a threftiing floor •, and is derived from arere
“ to be dry.’r
Area, in ArchiteSlure, denotes the fpace or file of
ground on which an edifice ftands. It is alfo ufed for
inner courts and thofe portions of ground.
Area, in Geometry, denotes the fuperficial content
of any figure. Thus, if a figure, e. g. a field, be in
form of a fquare, and its fide be 40 feet long,, its area
is faid to be 1600 fquare feet; or it contains 1600
little fquares, each a foot every way.
AREB, a kind of imaginary money ufed in the do¬
minions of the Great Mogul. Four arebs are equal to
one crou, or 100 lacs ; one lac to ico,ooo roupees.
AREBO, or Arebon, a town on the Slave coaft of
Guinea, in Africa, feated at the mouth of the river
Formofa. The Englifli had once a faftory there, as
the Dutch have ftill. It is a large oblong place, indif¬
ferently well peopled, and furniftied with houfes built
of reeds and leaves. E. Long. 5. 5* N. Lat. 5. o.
ARECA, the Fausei.-nut. See Botany Index.
ARELATE, or Arelatum, is a town of Gallia
Narbonenfis, fituated on the Rhone, denoting a town
on, or beyond, a marlh, according to the particular
fituatior^
A R
Aremberg filiation of the fpeaker j
E [ 597
called Arelate Sextanorurn
(Piiny, Mela, Coin), becaufe it had a colony of the
AreotJi^u>. Qxtj1 legJon> Writers of the lower age call it /lre/as,
^ * -all's, (Prudentius, Aufonius). There was a double
Arelas, one on each iide of the river, and joined by a
bridge, (Aufonius) ; that on the left fide is thought to
have been built by Conitantine. Tiberius’s father was
fent by Julius Ccefar at the head of the colony, (Sueto¬
nius) and hence the appellation Ju/ia Paterna, as ap¬
pears from an infcription. It was a favourite place of
the Romans, and greatly ornamented ; and hence called
Gallula Roma, (Aufonius). It is now called Arles.
E. Long. 5. 5. N. Lat, 43. 40.
AREMBERG, a fmall town of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, defended by a catlle. It is the
capital of a county of the fame name, and was ere&ed
into a principality by the emperor Maximilian II. in
favour of John de Ligne, lord of Barbazon, who took
the name of Aremberg. It is feated on the river Aer.
E. Long. 7. 3. N. Lat. 50. 27.
AREMORIC A, or Armorica, a part of Gaul, be¬
tween the Sequana and Ligeris, (Ceefar, Hirtius) j de¬
noting a country on, or beyond the fea, ar moer, or are
tnoer, Celtic. Piiny indeed fays, that Aquihmia was
formerly called Aremorica ; but in this he Hands alone.
In the lower age, the term Armorica was confined to
Bretagne in France.
ARENA, in Roman Antiquity,* place where the
gladiators fought4 fo called from its being always
firewed with fand, to conceal from the view of the peo¬
ple the blood fpilt in the combat. Nero is faid to have
ilrewed the arena with gold dull.
ARENARIA, or Sandwort. See Botany In¬
dex.
AREN ACUM, or Arenacus, one of the four towns
or larger villages1 in the ifland of the Batavi, (Tacitus).
Now Arnheim, in Guelderland. E. Long. 5. 20. N.
Lat. 52. 2.
ARENARII, in Antiquity, gladiators who combated
with beads in the arena or amphitheatre. The arenarii
■were flaves of the loweft rank ; fo that, though manu¬
mitted, they were not capable of being Roman citizens.
They were the fame with what were otherwife called
Bejliarii.
ARENARIUM, in Ecclefiajlical Writers, denotes
a cemetery or burying ground. The arenaria were
properly a kind of pits, or holes, under ground, where¬
in the ancient Chriftians not only buried their dead,
but held their religious aflemblies in times of perfecu-
tion.
ARENSBERG, a fmall town of Germany, in the
circle of Weftphalia, upon the river Roer. E. Long.
8. 20. N. Lat. 51. 25.
ARENSBURG, an epifcopal and maritime town of
Livonia in Sweden, feated in the ifle of Ofel, in the
Baltic fea. E. Long. 22. 40. N. Lat. 58. 15.
AREOLA, among Anatomijls, the coloured circle
furrounding the nipple of the bread.
AREOPAGUS, a fovereign tribunal at Athens, fa¬
mous for the juftice and impartiality of its decrees, to
which the gods themfelves are faid to have fubmitted
their differences. It was in the town, on a rock or hill
oppofite to the citadel. The word fignifies ftri&ly,
rock of Mars.
Plutarch attributes the eftablifhment of the Areo-
] ARE
pagus to Solon. Other authors think differently : and Areopagus.
with good reafon ; for it appears undeniable, that this »
tribunal was inftituted before Solon. But the beft au¬
thorities allow him the honour of its reftoration. ihe
city of Athens, governed till this time by tribunals of
a eircumfcribed jurifdiffion, which were multiplied by
the moft trifling accidents and circumftances, took no
fixed political or civil form, however clofely united
the members of thofe tribunals were by their general
views towards the public good, and by the common
love of their country. As each of thofe tribunals could
only acl in proportion to the power delegated to it,
it was impoflible that fo many different and unequal
impreflions fhould give to the great machine of the
ftate that uniform and regular movement which, by
an impulfe always the fame, would keep each part in
the filuation it fhould maintain with relation to the
whole.
To effeft this univerfal and harmonious power, it
was neceffary to'unite the different channels of public
authority, which, by being too much diftributed, loft
its force. This authority Solon collected, and placed
it all in the court of Areopagus, which confequently
became the mainfpring of the government. The judges
of this court, who, under Draco, decided only in^cafes
of murder, now took cognizance of crimes of every
kind : and the fame tribunal which infliiBed capital pu-
nifhment on murder, poifoning, burning of huufes, theft,
&c. ft ruck at the roots of thofe crimes, by arraigning
idlenefs, luxury, and debauchery. Equally attentive to
ftimulate the indolence of the young, and the languor of
the old, thefe fage judges roufed in the one the laudable
ambition to ferve the ftate, and reftored to the others
their former aftivity. Satisfied that extremes produce
the fame effedls, they thought the republic had as much
to fear from the excefs of wealth as from the gripe of
poverty. Hence they exacted a minute account of the
effe&s of every individual. Hence their great feverity
to thofe idle citizens, who, inftead of being ufeful mem¬
bers in a ftate, are its bane, and its difhonour. liberates
draws a moft beautiful and ftriking picture of thofe ve¬
nerable and aftonifhing men, and of the order and har¬
mony which flourifhed in Athens by their wife admini-
ftration.
The judges of the Areopagus, fays that author,
were more induftrious to prevent crimes, by reprefent-
ing them in an odious light, than to eftablifh modes of
punilhment. It was their opinion, that the enemies of
the ftate were the inftruments deftined by thb gods to
punifh the wicked ; but that it was their province to
correft and reform public and private manners. They
were vigilantly attentive to the conduct of all the citi¬
zens, but particularly to that of the youth. They
well knew that the impetuofity of juvenile paftion gave
the moft violent {hocks to health and growing virtue ;
that it was the duty of infpedlors of education to fof-
ten the aufterity of moral difeipline with innocent plea-
fure ; and that no recreations were more eligible than
bodily exercifes, which enable a young man to give a
good education its full play, which improve health,
give a pleafurable and agreeable vivacity, and even for¬
tify the mind. The fortunes of the Athenians were
too unequal to admit the fame mode of education ; and
therefore the youth were trained in a manner fuitable
to the rank and circumftances of their refpeftive fami¬
lies.
A H E [ 593 ] ARE
‘Areopagus, lies. Thofe of the inferior claffes were taughLagrieul-
■ jj. v — ^,-g ancj commerce from thi^ principle, that idlenefs
is followed by indigence, and that indigence excites
to the mod daring and atrocious crimes. Having thus
endeavoured, by wife precautions, to preclude the en¬
trance of moral evil, they thought they had little to
fear.
ExercifeS of the body, fuch as horfemanfhip and
hunting, were objects of education to the youth of li¬
beral fortune. In this fage diifribution, their great
aim was to prevent the poor from committing crimes,
and to facilitate to the rich the acquifition of virtue.
Not fatisfied witli having eftabiilhed good laws, they
were extremely'caretul to fee that they were oblerved.
With this view they had divided the city into quar¬
ters, and the country into cantons. Thus every thing
palled under their eyes *, nothing efcaped them ; they
were acquainted with the private condutfl of every ci¬
tizen. Thofe who had been guilty of any irregula¬
rity were cited before the magitlrates, and were repre¬
hended, or punilhed in proportion to their mifdemea-
nour.
The lame Areopagites obliged the rich to relieve the
poor. They repreffed the intemperance of the youth by
a fevere difeipline. Corruption in magiftrates was fup-
prefled by the punifhments denounced againft it ; and
the old men, at the fight of the employments of the
young, felt themfelves animated with a degree of juve¬
nile vigour and activity.
Religion came likewife under the cognizance of the
Areopagites. Plato durlt never, we are told by Judin
Martyr, divulge his private opinion concerning the Dei¬
ty. He had learned from the Egyptians the dodlrine of
Mofes. It appeared to him the belt, and he embraced
it with ardour. But his dread of the Areopagites, who
•were attached to the prevailing fytlem, would not per¬
mit him even to name the author of fentiments which
oppofed the common tradition.
The public edifices, the cleannefs of the flreets, the
pay of the foldiers, the didribution of the public mo¬
ney ; in a word, whatever intereded the republic, was
under the direftion of the Areopagus. The people them-
felves, jealous as they were of their power, did nothing
without confulting this aflembly, and fullered it, without
* a murmur, to amend their precipitate decrees. Yet this
authority, however great it may feem, was fubjedl to
the laws ; by them rewards and punilhments were de¬
termined •, and thofe refpetflable judges gave an account
of the exercife of their tiuft to public cenfors, who were
placed betwixt them and the people to prevent the arif-
tocracy from growing too powerful.
The molt important qualifications were required in
thofe who entered into the Areopagus. Solon made a
law, by which they who had not been archons for a
year Ihould not be admitted members of the Areopa¬
gus. To give more force to his law, he fubje&ed him-
felf to it, and was only admitted on that title. This
was but the firft Hep ”, thofe annual magiftrates, after
having given law to the republic, were interrogated on
their adminiftration. If their conduft was found irre¬
proachable, they were admitted Areopagites with eu-
logium ”, but the fmalleft mifeonduft excluded them
from that honour for ever. What adminiftration was
not to be expe&ed from a tribunal fo well compofed !
what veneration was not due to men of fuch rare talents Areopagus.
and virtue ! Such refpebl was paid them, that people  y-—<
prefumed not to laugh in their prefence •, and fo well
eftabiilhed was their reputation for equity, that thofe
whom they condemned, or difmified without granting
their petition, never complained that they had been un-
juftly treated.
The edifice of the Areopagus was extremely Ample ;
and its roof, which was at firft of the molt common
materials, remained in that date till the time of Au-
guftus. This we learn from Vitruvius. Oreftes was
the firft who thought of embelliftiing it. He raifed in
it an altar to Minerva. He likevvife adorned it with
two feats of folid filver j on one of which the accufer
fat, and the accufed on the other. The one feat was
confecrated to Injury, and the other to Impudence.
This religious {ketch was brought to perfebfion by E-
pimenides, who erefted altars to thofe allegorical dei¬
ties, and foon after a temple, which Cicero mentions
in his fecond book of laws. This temple correfponded
with that which Oreftes had built to the Furies, who
brought him to Athens, and procured him the protec¬
tion of Minerva. Epimenides dedicated it a fecond
time to the Furies, or Jevere Goddejfes, as they were
termed by the Athenians. A man was thought loft
without refource, and a viftim to every human ill, if he
enforced a perjury by invoking the facred name of thofe
tremendous divinities.
Thofe who employed their thoughts in folving the
myfteries of Paganifm, imagined that the Eumenides
had their temple fo hear the court of Areopagus, that
they might enlighten the judges by their infpiration,
and, by their continual aftiftance, prevent them from
committing thofe errors to which human weaknefs is
liable. To propitiate thofe terrible deities, and to pro¬
cure their favour for the Areopagus, they were wor-
ftupped with great pundluality and devotion ; and the
fenate itfelf appointed their priefts. Demofthenes had
been nominated to prefide over their facrifices ”, and he
thought it very extraordinary, that he, to whom the re¬
public had confided fo important an office, ffiould be
publicly impeached.
It was natural to aflociate with the Eumenides the
other deities who ffiared with them the fovereign em¬
pire over the dead. Epimenides placed in their temples
the ftatues of Pluto, of Mercury, and of Tellus. They
were all, according to Paufanias, of an agreeable form.
Each of them was placed upon an altar, on w'hich the
citizens, or ftrangers, who had been acquitted by the
Areopagus, made their grateful offerings. But it was
not to gratitude alone that thefe feveral deities ow'ed all
the incenfe that fmoked upon their altars. They who
had been accufed before the fenate, haraffed with fuper-
ftition, and uncertain how thefe deities would be affedl-
ed towards them, were laviftr of facrifices to obtain their
clemency, by which they hoped their judges would like¬
wife be influenced.
The tomb of Oedipus was another of the ornaments
of the Areopagus. It was in the outward court oi the
Areopagus, where a barge was likewife placed, which
made a part of the pomp at the public games.
Whatever homage and implicit obedience the court
of Areopagus might derive from all this religious
parade, the public good was always dearer to them
than
ARE [ 599 ] ARE
than any lower advantages they might have drawn
from the altars and temples with which they were fur-
rounded.
The fenate afiembled in a hall built on the fummit
of a hill, which was afcended with difficulty by the old
men bent, with age. However, as for ionie time they
only afiembled on the three lad days of each month,
they bore with patience this inconvenient fituation.
But public affairs multiplied to fuch a degree, that
they rvere obliged to add to their three former fittings
a fourth, which Avas held on the feventh day of the
month, and which Avas foon fucceeded by an affembly
every day. Their meetings Avere fo regular, that they
Avere not interrupted by the moft folemn feilivals, till
Cephifodorus Avas archon, Avho, in the third year of
the 105th Olympiad, made a decree, which obliged
the Areopagites to celebrate, after the example of the
other courts, the Apaturian feafts, which laded five
days.
This affiduous and painful exercife of their office
made the Areopagites feel all the inconvenience of the
fituation of their tribunal, and determined them to re¬
move it to a part of the city called the Royal Portico.
It Avas a fquare, expofed to all the inclemencies of the
Aveather. When the judges, Avho affembled there in
profound filence, had taken their places, they Avere
enclofed by a thread, or rather a cord, draAvn around
them.
They held their affemblies in the night, that their
attention to public affairs might not be diverted by ex¬
ternal objeft^,—and (adds Lucian) that they might only
be influenced by the arguments, and not by the pre¬
fence and aftion, of the fpeakers. This circumftance
explains a paffage in Athenaeus, Avho tells us, that none
kneAV the numbers nor faces of the Areopagites. I he
cudom of adminidering judice in the open air was not
peculiar to them. It Avas folloAved by all the other
tribunals Avhen they tried for murder : for Iavo reafons;
— id, That the judges, the fworn protectors of inno¬
cence, might not be hurt by being under cover Avith
criminals, Avhofe hands Avere polluted with blood, idly,
That the accufer and the accufed might not be under
the fame roof.
When all the members of the fenate Avere conven¬
ed, a herald enjoined filence, and ordered the people
to retire. As foon as they had departed, the affem¬
bly proceeded to bufinefs ; and as they deemed the
lead preference a flagrant injudice, the caufes Avhich
they Avere to determine were drawn by a kind of
lottery ; and the fame chance Avhich brought them up,
diflributed them to different numbers of judges, fraall
or great, according to the importance of the feveial
caufes.
In early times, the parties themfelves dated their
caufe in a Ample manner. The eloquence of advocates
Avas thought a dangerous talent, fit only to varnilh
crimes. But afterwards the Areopagus, on this point,
relaxed from their feverity ; at fird the accufed, and
foon after the accufers, Avere permitted to engage thofe
to make the attack and the defence, Avhofe profeflion it
Avas to exert the art of fpeaking for others Avith accura¬
cy and elegance.
Sextus Empiricus feems not to have fufficiently di-
ftinguiffied times, Avhere he fays, that the court of A-
reopagus did not differ thofe who are to be tried at Areopagus,
their bar to avail themfelves of the abilities of others. —-'v
What undoubtedly led him into that millake, Avas an
inviolable cudom of that tribunal, which prohibited,
in pleadings, all that Avarm and pifturefque oratory Avhich
feduces the judgment and inflames the paffions. When
the fuffrages Avere collected, each perfon gave his in fi¬
lence. They voted Avith a fmall flint, Avhich they held
betwixt the thumb and the two next fingers, and which
they put into one of the two urns that flood in a corner
of the hall. One flood before the other. The firff Avas
called the urn of death ; the fecond, the urn of compaf-
fion. That of death was of btafs, and Avas termed pro¬
per ; that of compafiion was of wood, and Avas termed
improper. The judges commonly brought their flint to
the affembly, and put it into the urn ; but, that all the
fuffrages might be collected, the herald took the two
urns, and p^efented them, one after another, to every
fenator, commanding him, in the name of the republic,
no longer to defer his acquittal or condemnation.
From this method of giving fentence, Avhich Avas cal¬
led zsvQyv 4/y'P°s> becaufe it kept the Arote of each per¬
fon undifcovi red, the Thirty Tyrants, to make them¬
felves mailers of the decifions of the Areopagus, fublli-
tuted another, by means of which they knew exadlly
the opinion of each of the judges j for they obliged them
to bring their flints publicly, and lay them upon Iavo
tables placed before them, the fituation of which Avas
quite oppofite to that of the urns; for the firfi: of thofe
tables Avas that of life, and the fecond that of death.
The firft fubflances Avith which they gave their fuf¬
frages were not fmall pieces of the bones of a hog, as
fome authors affert, but fea-ffiells \ for Avhich pieces of
brafs, of the fame form, termed fpondy/a, Avere after-
Avards fubffituted. The fubftances Avith Avhich they
voted Avere diftinguilhed by their form and colour.
Thofe which condemned Avere black, and perforated in
the middle ; the others Avere Avhite, and not perforated.
The precaution of piercing the black ones tends to prov'e,
Avhat avc have already obferved, that the court of Areo¬
pagus fat in the night : for Avhat end did it ferv'e to
pierce the black (hells, or flints, if the judges could have
feen them and the Avhile ones, and confequently have
diftinguiftied their colours by the affiflance of the light ?
But as they paffed fentence in the dark, it is evident
that a difference bolides that of colour Avas neceffary, to
knoAv the black ones from the white. The judges Avere
likeAvife permitted to multiply, at pleafure, the diftinc-
tions between figns, which effentially dittinguiflied the
fates of men.
After the fuffrages Avere colle£ted, they Avere taken
out of the tAVo urns, and put into a third vafe of brafs.
They Avere then counted ; and as the number of
Avhite or of black flints was higher or inferior, one of
the judges drerv Avith his nail a Ihorter or a longer line
on a tablet Avith a waxen furface, on Avhich the rel'ult
of each caufe Avas marked. The fliort line expreffed
acquittal; the long, condemnation.
With regard to the emoluments of the judges, they
were as moderate as thofe of the advocates. 1 lie
length of the procefs did not enhance its expenee ; and
Avhen the decifion of a caufe Avas poftponed till the next
day, the committee Avere only paid an obolus on that
day. Hence Mercury, in Lucian, is furprifed that luch
fenfibhe
HE [ 6co
fenfible old men as the fenators of Areopagus were
ftiould fell at fo low a price the trouble of afcending
fo high.
As to the number of the judges which compoled
the Areopagus, fome authors, attentive only to a part
of Solon’s regulations, by which he ena&ed, that lor
the future, none but the nine archons Ihould be ad
Blitted members of the Areopagus, have imagined,
that this tribunal was filled anew every year, and that
it never confifted of more than nine magiftrates. . J his
opinion, and fome others, are refuted by the circum-
ftantial account which Diogenes Laertius gives us of
the condemnation of Socrates. 1 his great man had
wifhed to fubilitute a rational hypothefis for the fa¬
bulous and extravagant fyftem of religion which pre¬
vailed in his time. His projeft, however laudable,
appeared impious in the eye of fuperftition. Informa¬
tion was laid a gain ft him before the Areopagus, and
he had as many accufer* as fellow-citizens. At er the
charges and the anfwers were heard, they proceeded
to fuffrages. The opinions were divided, but not equal¬
ly, for the number of thofe who condemned him ex¬
ceeded by 281 the number of thofe who declared him
innocent. He made an ironical reply to this iniqui¬
tous fentence, by telling his judges, that he took it for
granted they would admit him to a maintenance in the
Prytaneum. On this farcafm, 80 of thofe who had vo¬
ted in his favour forfook him, went over to the oppofite
party, and condemned him to die. Here then we have
q6l judges who condemn j to whom if we add thofe
who perfift in acquitting him, the number mull be very
confiderable. s - ' '
Of all the judgments of the Areopagus, the moft
famous one, excepting that of IVIars, was the fentence
which thev paffed on Oreftes. His trial, which hap¬
pened under Demophoon the 12th king of Athens, in
3*7 ^ of the Attic era, owed all its fame to a remark¬
able circum(lance, that gave rife to a cuftom which
was obferved ever afterwards. Oreftes had killed his
mother. He was accufed before the Areopagus, and
-cited to appear in that court. He would have loft his
life in confequence of the equal divifion of the votes,
had not Minerva, moved with his misfortunes, decfted
herfclf for thofe who had abfolved him, and joined her
fuffrage to theirs. Thus Oreftes was faved. In ve-
nerati m to this miracle, the Areopagites, whenever
the fuffrages were equally divided, decided in favour
of the a ecu fed, by granting him what they termed the
Jhe/l of Minerva. Cephalus and Dedalus were con¬
demned by the Areopagus long before the time of
Oreftes.
We find in ancient authors fome decifions of this
tribunal, which bear the ftrongeft marks of juftice,
though their obje6fs are not interefting. We {hall
here quote an anecdote from Aulus Gellius, and Va¬
lerius Maximus, of a woman who was accufed of ha¬
ving poifoned her hulband and her fon. She was ta¬
ken and brought before Dolabella, who was then pro-
eonful of Afia. She was no fooner in his prefence
than (he owned the fafl: and added, that fhe had very
<rood reafons for putting her hufband and her fon to
death. “ I had (Taid the) to mv fivft hufband a
fan whom I tenderly loved, and whofe virtues render¬
ed him worthy of my affettion. My fecond hiifband,
and the fon whorp I bare to him, murdered my favour-
] ARE
ite child. I thought it would have been unjuft to Areopagus,
have fuffered thofe two monfters of barbarity to live. Anquiba.
If you think, Sir, that I have committed a crime, it is » —t
your province to punilh it ; I certainly never ftiall re¬
pent of it.” This affair embarraffed Dolabella. She
was afterwards fent to the Areopagus ; and that court,
when they had examined her a long time, ordered her
and her accufer to appear before them again a hundred
years after, from the firft day ol her trial.
We muft not, however, luppofe that the Areopagus
always preferved its old reputation \ for fuch is the con-
ftitution of human affairs, that perfedlion, with regard
to them, is a violent, and confequently a tranfitory,
ftat£. Pericles, who lived about 100 years after So¬
lon, to flatter the people and win them to his party,
ufed his utmoft efforts to weaken the authority of the
Areopagus, which was then difliked by the multitude.
He took from it the cognizance of many affairs which
had before come under its jutifdiftion j and to forward
his defign of humbling it, employed the eloquence of
Ephialtes, whofe talents were formidable, and wha
was an avowed enemy to the great men of Athens.
The Areopagus itfelf feemed to Jecond the endea¬
vours of a man who projected its ruin, and by its mif-
condufl haftened its fall. 1 he old rules of the court,
by which none were admitted its members but thofe
whofe unexceptionable conduft would fupport its ma-
jefty, feemed too fevere. They grew lefs delicate in
their choice •, and prefuming that the faults with which
they difpenfed, would foon be reformed in the fociety
of fo many good examples, vice imperceptibly crept
among them : corruption, at firft fecret and timid, grew
infeniibly open and daring, and made fuch progrefs, that
the moft ftiameful crimes were foon exhibited on the
ftage •, and they were not copied from the low and aban¬
doned multitude, but from thofe fenators, once the ve¬
nerable and auflere cenfors of idlenefs and of vice. De¬
metrius, the comic poet, wrote a piece which he entitled
The Areopagitee, where he ftrips the malk off thofe hy¬
pocritical legiflators, who were now equally apt to be
feduced by wealth and by beauty. So much had the
Athenian fenate degenerated in the days of Ifocrates,
cir. 340 years before the Chriftian era.
Before this tribunal St Paul was called to give an ac¬
count of his doarine, and converted Dionyfius one of
their number.
The end of this court of judicature is as obfeure as
its origin, which was derived from very remote^ anti¬
quity. It exifted, with the other magiftracies, in the
time of Paufanias, i. e. in the 2d century.. The term
of its fubfequent duration is not afeertained 5 but a
writer, who lived under the emperors Theodofms the
Elder and Younger, in the 5th century, mentions it as
extina.
AREQUIBA, a city of Peru in South America,
fituated in W. Long. 730, S. Lat. if. ^ is one of
the moft beautiful cities in all Peru, being delighttully
fituated in the valley of Quilca, 100 leagues from Li¬
ma, and 20 from the fea, with which it communicates
by a fine river. The entrance into the harbour is ra¬
ther (hallow for (hips of great_ burden •, but when once
they are entered, they may ridefecurely in 18 fathoms
water. This city was founded in 1539, by order of
Don Francifco Pizarro, in a place known likewile by
the name of jireauiba > but its fituation being oun
1 fa v 12 or 01.1
ARE [ 601 ] ARE
difadvantageous, the inhabitants obtained leave to re¬
move to the place where the city now fiands. The
houfes are built with Hone, and vaulted; and, contrary
to what is ufual in warm countries, they are lofty, neat¬
ly furnilhed within, and finely di corated on the outfide.
The inhabitants alfo are exempt from many difeafes
common in other parts of Peru ; which perhaps is ow¬
ing to their keeping the ftreets clean by means of canals
which extend to the river. The temperature of the
air is extremely good ; and though fomeiimes a flight
froft is perceivable, the cold is never excefiive, nor the
heat troublefome, fo that the furrounding fields are
clothed with perpetual verdure. Thefe natural advan¬
tages, however, are confiderably allayed by its being
very fubject to earthquakes, by which it has already
been five times laid in ruins ; notwithflanding which, it
is populous, and has among its inhabitants fome of the
nobleft families in America.
ARES, a word of Paracelfus’s, by which he would
exprefs that power of nature in the whole material world,
by which fpecies are divided into individuals.
ARETiEUS of Cappadocia, a Greek phyfician of
the fe£t of the Pneumatifts, lived in the reign of Au-
guftus, according to fome ; according to others, under
Trajan or Adrian. He wrote feveral treatifes in the
Ionian dialeft, on acute difeafes, and other medicinal
fubjedls ; fome of which are fiill extant. The bell edi¬
tion of his works is that of Boerhaave, in Greek and
Latin, with notes, printed in 1731 : that of Wigan,
printed at Oxford in 1723, in folio, is alfo much ef-
teemed.
ARETHUSA, in Fabulous Hijlory, the daughter
of Nereus and Doris, and the companion of Diana, who
changed her into a fountain to deliver her from the pur-
fuit of her lover Alpheus.
Arethusa, a celebrated fountain near the city of Sy-
racufe in Sicily, famous for the quantity of its waters,
and the number of fillies it contained. Many fables
were invented by the ancients concerning this fountain.
They had alfo a notion that the river Aepheus ran un¬
der or through the waters of the fea, without mixing
with them, from Peloponnefus to Sicily. P*Ir Brydone
informs us, that it ftill continues to fend forth an im-
menfe quantity of water, riling at once to the fize of a
river, but is entirely abandoned by the filhes it formerly
contained in fuch plenty. At fome diltance from Are-
thufa is a fountain of frelh water, which boils up very
ftrongly in the fea, infomuch that, after piercing the fait
water, it may be fomeiimes taken up very little affebted
by it. This fountain Mr Brydone thinks the ancients
were ignorant of, or they would not have failed to ufe
it as an argument for the fubmarine journey of the Al¬
pheus.
Mr Swinburne defcribes this once famous fountain as
a large pool of water near the quay, defended from the
fea by a wall, and almoft hidden by houfes on every
other fide. The water is not fait, but brackilh, and
fit for no purpofe but walking linen. “ This (fays he)
is the celebrated fountain of Arethufa, whofe loft poe¬
tical name is known to every reader. The fable of the
nymph and her confiant lover Alpheus, the excellency
of the fpring, and the charms of its fituation, are themes
on which ancient and modern poets have indulged their
fancy, and exercifed their pens. Alas, how altered !
rubbilh chokes up its wholefome fources; the waves
Vol. II. Part II.
have found a pafi'age through the rocks, which repeat- Aretliufa
ed earthquakes have fplit ; and not a fill) is to be feen |]
in it. Sometimes, after an earthquake, it has been left
dry ; and, at other times, the whole mals of its waters ^
has been tainted by fubterraneous effluvia. Its fountain
head probably lies among the neighbouring hills.”
Arethusa. See Botany Index.
ARETIA. See Botany Index.
ARETIN, Guido, famous for his mufical improve¬
ments, lived in the 13th century. He was a native of
Arezzo, a city in Tufcany ; and having been taught
the practice of mufic in his youth, and probably retain¬
ed as a chorilter in the fervice of the Benedidtine mo-
naftery founded in that city, he became a monk profef-
fed, and a brother of the order ot St BeneditR.
In this retirement he feems to have devoted himfelf
to the ftudy of mufic, particularly the fyftem of the an¬
cients, and, above all, to reiorm their method of nota¬
tion. The difflculties that attended the inti ruction of
youth in the church offices were fo great, that, as he
himfelf fays, ten years were generally confirmed barely
in acquiring the knowledge of the plain fong ; and this
confideration induced him to labour after fome amend¬
ment, fome method that might facilitate inflrudtion,
and enabje thofe employed in the choral office to per¬
form the duties of it in a correft and decent manner.
If we may credit thofe legendary accounts that are ex¬
tant in old monkifii manuferipts, we Ihould believe he
was affifted in his pious intention by immediate com¬
munications from heaven : fome fpeak of the invention
of the fyllables as the effe£t of infpiration : and Guido
himfelf feems to have- been of the fame opinion, by his
faying it was revealed to him by the Lord; or, as
fome interpret his words, in a dream : but graver hifio-
rians fay, that being at vefpers in the chapel of his mo-
offices appointed for ^ r
a.
WT queant laxis REfonare fibris
Mira gejlorum ¥AmitU tuorum
SOLve pollutis LAbiis real urn,
Sandie Joannes.
During the performance of the hymn, he remarked
the iteration of the words, and the frequent returns of
ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la : he obferved likewife a dif-
fimilarity between the clofenefs of the fyllable Ml and
the broad open found of fa, which he thought could
not fail to imprefs upon the mind a lafting idea of their
congruity ; and immediately conceived a thought of ap¬
plying thefe fix fyUables to perfect an improvement ei¬
ther then actually made by him, or under confidera¬
tion, viz. that of converting the ancient tetrachords into
hexachords.
Struck with the difeovery, he retired to his itudy,
and having perfected his fyftem, began to introduce it
into praftice ; the perfens to whom he communicated
it were the brethren of his own monafiery, from whom
it met wfith but a cold reception, which in the epi-
ftle to his friend, he aferibes undoubtedly to its true
caufe, envy : however, his intereft with the abbot, and
his employment in the chapel, gave him an opportu¬
nity of trying the efficacy of his method on the boys
who were training up for the choral fervice, and it ex¬
ceeded the mofl fanguine expeftation. “ To the ad¬
miration of all (fays Cardinal Baronins) a boy there-
4 G by
fed by Paul,
a deacon of
the church
of Aquileia
about the
year 770.
nafiery, it happened that one of the
that day was the hymn * to St Johi
• A B. E [ 602 ]
Aretin. by learnt, in a few months, what no man, though
 v ^ of great ingenuity, could before that attain in feveral
years.”
The fame of Guido’s invention foon fpread abroad,
and his method of inftruftion was adopted by the clergy
of other countries. We are told by Kircher, that Her-
mannus, biftiop of Hamburgh, and Elviricus bilhop of
Ofnaburg, made ufe of it ; and by the authors of the
Hi/loire Literaire a la France, that it was received in
that country, and taught in all the monafteries in the
kingdom. It is certain that the reputation of his great
{kill in mulic had excited in the pope a defire to fee and
converfe with him ; of which, and of his going to Rome
for that purpofe, and the reception he met with from
the pontiff, he himfelf has given a circumftantial ac¬
count in the epiftle hereafter mentioned.
The particulars of this relation are very curious ;
and as we have his own authority, there is no room to
doubt the truth of it. It^ feems that John XX. or as
fome writers compute, the 19th pope of that name,
having heard of the fame of Guido’s fchool, and con¬
ceiving a defire to fee him, fent three meffengers to in¬
vite him to Rome ; upon their arrival, it was refolved
by the brethren of the monaftery, that he fiiould go
thither attended by Grimaldo the abbot, and Peter the
chief of the canons of the church of Arezzo. Arriv¬
ing at Rome, he was prefented to the holy father, and
by him received with great kindnefs. 1 he pope had
feveral converfations with him, in all which he inteiro-
gated him as to his knowledge in mufic *, and upon
fight of an antiphnnary which Guido had brought with
him, marked rvith the fyllables agreeable to his new
invention, the pope looked upon it as a kind of prodigy 5
and ruminating on the doctrines delivered by Guido,
would not ftir from his feat till he had learned perfeft-
ly to fing off a verfe : upon which he declared that he
could not have believed the efficacy of the method, if
he had not been convinced by the experiment he had
himfelf made of it. The pope would have, detained
him at Rome *, but labouring under a bodily difor-
der, and fearing an injury to his health from the air
of the place, and the heats of the fummer, which was
then approaching, Guido left that city upon a promife
to revifit it, and explain to his holinefs the principle*
of his new fyftem. On his return homewards, he made
a vifit to the abbot of Pompofa, a town in the duchy
of Ferrara, who was very earneft to have Guido fettle
in the monaftery of that place; to which invitation it
feems he yielded, being, as he fays, defirous of render¬
ing f0 great a monaftery ftill more famous by his ftudies
there.
Here it was that he compofed a traft on mufic, en¬
titled Micrologus, i. e. “ a Ihort difcourfe 5” which he
dedicated to Theobald bilhop of Arezzo j and finilhed,
as he himfelf at the end of it tells us, under the ponti¬
ficate of John XX. and in the 34th year of his age.
Voflius fpeaks alfo of another mufieal treatife written by
him, and dedicated to the fame perfon.
Molt of the authors who have taken occafion to
mention Guido, fpeak of the Micrologus as containing
the fum of his doarine ; but it is in a fmall trad, en¬
titled Argumentum novi Cantus inveniendi, that his de¬
claration of his ufe of the fyllables, with their feveral
mutations, and in Ihort his whole doarine of folmi-
fation, is to be found. This traa makes part of an
ARE
epiftle to a very dear and intimate friend of Guido, Aretin.
whom he addrefles thus, “ Beatiflimo atque dulciffimo l—~v~—
fratri Michaeli j” at whofe requeft the traa itfelf feems
to have been compofed.
Whether Guido was the author of any other traas,
is not eafy to determine. It nowhere appears that any
of his works were ever printed, except that Baronius,
in his Annales Ecc/ejiajlici, tom. xi. p. 73. has given
at length the epiftle from him to his friend Michael of
Pompofa, and that to Theobald bilhop of Arezzo, pre¬
fixed to the Micrologus : and yet the writers on mufic
fpeak of the Micrologus as of a book in the hands of
every one. Martini cites feveral manufcripts of Gui¬
do j namely, two in the Ambrofian library at Milan,
the one written about the twelfth century, the other
lefs ancient •, another among the archives of the chap¬
ter of Piftoja, a city in Tufcany ; and a third in the
Medico-Laurenziano library at Florence, of the 15th
century •, thefe are clearly the Micrologus. Of the
epillle to Michael of Pompofa, together with the Ar¬
gumentum novi Cantus inveniendi, he mentions only
one, which he fays is fomewhere at Ratilhon. Of the
feveral trafts above mentioned, the laft excepted, a
manufcript is extant in the library of Baliol college in
Oxford. Several fragments of the two firft,. in one
volume, are alfo among the Harleian manufcripts now
in the Britilh Mufeum, N° 3199*, but fo very much
mutilated, that they afford but fmall fatisfa&ion to a
curious inquirer.
Aretin, Leonard, one of the moft learned men of
the 15th century, was lecretary to the republic of
Florence, and tranflated from the Greek into Latin
fome of the Lives of Plutarch, and Ariftotle’s Ethics :
he alfo- compofed three books of the Punic war, thai
may ferve as a fupplement to thofe wanting in Livy ;
the hiftory of the tranfa&ions in Italy during his time j
that of ancient Greece \ that of the Goths j that of the
republic of Florence 5 and many other books. He died
in 1443, aged 74.
Aretin, Francis, a man of great reading, and well
acquainted with the Greek language. He tranflated
into Latin the Commentaries of St Chryfoftom upon
St John, and about 20 homilies of the fame father ;
he alfo tranflated the Letters of Phalaris into Latin,
and wrote a treatife De balneis Puteolanis. He ftudied
at Sienna, about the year 1443 5 an<^ afterwards taught
law there with fuch reputation, that they called him
the Prince of Subtleties, and his wit became a proverb.
He difplayed his talents chiefly in difputes,. in which
nobody could withftand him. He gave his opinions
in law with fo much confidence, as to aflure thofe who
confulted him that they fhould carry, their caufe : nor
did experience contradifl him 5 for it was a common
faying at the bar, fuch a caufe has been condemned
by Aretin, it muft therefore be loft. He taught alfo
in the univerfity of Pi fa, and in that of Ferrara. He
was at Rome under the pontificate of Sixtus IV. but
did not flay here long ; for he foon perceived that the
great hopes which he had built upon his reputation
would come to nothing. This pope, however, de¬
clared he would have given him a cardinal’s hat, had
he not thought he fhould have done a public injury by
depriving the youth of fuch an excellent profeflor.
When old age would not permit him to go through
the duties of his office, they difpenfed with his reading
ARE [ 603 ] ARC
Aretin, of Je&ures, and his falary was contiaued. He conti-
Aretologi. nued, however, fometimes to mount the chair; and
although his lectures had now but little fpirit in them,
yet he had dill many hearers on account of his reputa¬
tion. One day when the ftudents were gone to fome
public Ihows, there were but 40 perfons in his audi¬
tory ; which fo mortified him, that he threw away his
book : and crying out, “ Aretin lhall never explain
law to a few perfons,” retired in a paffion, and would
teach no more. He was fevere in his temper, and
never kept a fervant longer than a month or two ; for
it was a maxim of his, “ that new-hired fervants al¬
ways ferved bed.” He was honoured with the title of
knight, and fpent all his life in celibacy ; and his way
of living W’as fo parfimonious, that he was thereby en¬
abled to amafs a great deal of wealth. He had de-
figned this wealth for the maintenance of a college;
but he altered his refolution, and left it to his rela¬
tions.
Aretin Peter, a native of Arezzo, who lived in
the 16th century. He was famous for his fatirical
writings ; and was fo bold as to carry his inveftives
even againd fovereigns, and from thence got the title
of the Scourge of Princes. Francis I. the emperor
Charles V. mod of the princes of Italy, feveral cardi¬
nals, and many noblemen, courted his friendfhip by
prefents, either becaufe they liked his cempofitions, or
perhaps from an apprehenfion of falling under the ladi
of his fatire. Aretin became thereupon fo infolent,
that he is faid to have got a medal druck, on one fide
of which he is reprefented with thefe words, il DIV1NO
ARETINO ; and on the reverfe, fitting upon a throne,
receiving the prefents of princes, with thefe words,
I PRINCIPI TRIBUTATI DA POPOLI, TRIBUTANO IL
servido LORO. Some imagine that he gave himfelf
the title of Divine, fignifying thereby that he perform¬
ed the funftions of a god upon earth, by the thunder¬
bolts with which he druck the heads of the highed
perfonages. He ufed to boad, that his lampoons did
more fervice to the world than fermons ; and it was
faid of him, that he bad fubje&ed more princes by his
pen than the greated had ever done by their arms.
Aretin wrote many irreligious and obfcene pieces ; fuch
are his dialogues, which were called Ragionamenti.
There is likewife imputed to him another very obfcene
performance, De omnibus Veneris fchematibus. “ It
* On£z‘« was about the year 1525 (fays Mr Chevillier*) that
I'imprimc- Jui;0 Romano, the mod famous painter of Italy, indi-
gated by the enemy of the falvation of mankind, in¬
vented drawings to engrave 20 plates; the fubjefts are
fo immoded that I dare only name them. Peter Are¬
tin compofed fonnets for each figure. George Vafari,
who relates this in his Lives of the Painters, fays, he
does not know which would be the greated impurity,
to cad one’s eyes upon the drawings of Julio, or to
dip into the verfes of Aretin.” Some fay that Aretin
changed his libertine principles ; but however this may
be, it is certain that he compofed feveral pieces of de¬
votion. He wrote a paraphrafe on the penitential
pfalms, and another on Genefis; he wrote alfo the
Life of the Virgin Mary, and that of St Catharine of
Sienna, and of St Thomas Aquinas. He was author
likewife of fome comedies. He died in the year 1556,
at the age of 65.
ARETOLOGI, in antiquity, a fort of philofo-
rie de
Paris,
p, 224.
phers, chiedy of the Cynic or Stoic tribe, who having Arezzo
no fchool or difciples of their own, haunted the tables jj
of great men, and entertained them in their banquets _ Argvia.
with difputations on virtue, vice, and other popular '“"'“v
topics. Thefe are fometimes alfo denominated Circula-
tores Philofophi. In this fenfe, the word is derived
from the Greek virtue, and Aeyaj, difcourfe. Some
authors choofe to derive the word from eagere?, gratus,
“ agreeable;” and define Aretologi, by perfons who
ftrive to divert and entertain their audience with jokes
and pleafant tales ; which latter feems the more natural
explication.
AREZZO, a city of Italy, in Tufcany, featcd in
the territory of Florence, on the declivity of a hill that
overlooks the neighbouring plain, between the Citta di
Cafielli and Florence. It is an ancient city and a bi-
Ihop’s fee ; and was famous for a kind of earthen ware
much efleemed by the Romans. It was greatly fallen
to decay u'hen Cofmo de Medicis took it under his
protedb’on ; fince which it has been recovering gradu¬
ally. ■ It is famed for being the birthplace of Mecoe-
nas. E. Long. 12. 2. N. Lat. 43. 27.
ARGEA, or Argei, in Roman antiquity, thirty
human figures made of rulhes, thrown annually by the
prieih or veftals into the Tiber, on the day of the ides
of May.—Plutarch, in his Roman Queftions, inquires
why they are called Argen. There are two reafons
afligned. The firft, that the barbarous nations who
firft inhabited thefe parts call all the Greeks they could
meet with into the Tiber : for Argians was a common „
name for all Grecians : but that Hercules perfuaded
them to quit fo inhuman a praftice, and to purge
themfelves of the crime by inftituting this folemnity.
The fecond, that Evander, an Arcadian, and a fworn
enemy of the Argians, to perpetuate that enmity to
his pofterity, ordered the figures of Argians to be thus
call into the river.
ARGEI A, or Argolis, a diftriel of Peloponnefus,
fituated between Arcadia to the weft, the Egean fea
to the eaft, Laconia and the Sinus Argolicus to the
fouth, and to the north the territory of Corinth and
the Sinus Saronicus (Livy, Ptolemy) ; fo called from
Argos, the capital : Now Romania di Morea.
By the Greeks the people were called /Jrgeii, from
Argi or Argos; by the Romans, Argivi, Argives.
They were a colony who migrated, it is faid, from
Egypt, under the command of Inachus. Polemon
and Ptolemy Mendefius, ancient Greek writers, in¬
form us, that Inachus was contemporary with Amofi^,
who demolilhed Avaris, and expelled the (hepherds
out of Egypt. If, with fome learned chronologers,
we fuppofe Inachus to have begun to reform the Ar¬
gives B. C. 1856, and to have died B. C. 1808, he
muft have been coeval with Amofis, who reigned in
Upper Egypt 15 years before the expulfion of the
fhepherds, and 10 years after that event, which hap¬
pened B. C. 1806. Inachus was ftyled the Son of the
Ocean, becaufe his origin was not known, or becaufe
he had come by fea into Greece. Before his arrival
the inhabitants were rude and barbarous. Thefe he
united and civilized, and inftrufted in various arts.
His fon Phoroneus inftituted the laws of government;
and, on that account, has been called the firjl king in
Argos, the firf of men, and the father of mortals. The
family of Inachus, after having kept poffeflion of the
4 G 2 throne
ARC [ 60
Argeia throne 347 years, were expelled by Danaus, who ar¬
il rived C. 1509 vvith a colony from Canaan. Acri-
Argentaria.f1U3) the laft king of Argos, died B. C. 13135 and
L" v was fucceeded by Perfeus, his grandfon, who transfer¬
red the feat of government to Mycenae, 544 years
from the firft year of Inachus, in the reign of Cecrops
II. king of Athens, and about the time when Pelops
the fon of Tantalus king of Phrygia, having been
compelled by Ilus to leave his native country, came
into Greece with great wealth, and acquired Supreme
power in the region afterwards called by his name.
In the 37th year of Euryftheus, grandfon of Perleus,
the Argonautic expedition happened, i. e. B. C. 1224.
This unjuft and tyrannical prince had affigned to Her¬
cules his talks; and, after the death of that hero, he
banithed all his children. Thefe were the Heraclidm
who fled to Athens for proteftion, and who returned
to Peloponnefus 50 years after the deflruftion of Troy.
In the reign of Agamemnon, the'Trojan w'ar com¬
menced, and it was carried on with vigour during the
fpace of ten years. In the year B. C. 1184, Troy was
taken, and the war was concluded. Scarcely had the
Grecians fettled in their own country after their return
from this dangerous expedition, when the pofterity of
Hercules invaded Peloponnefus, took pofleffion of it,
and divided it among themfelves. Here the kingdom
of Mycenrn ended, and that of Sparta was eftablilhed
on its ruins. See Sparta.
APiGEMONE, Prickly Poppy. See Botany
Index.
ARGENCES, a town of France, in Lower Nor¬
mandy, now the department of Calvados, on the river
Meance. W. Long. O. 10. N. Lat. 49- if*
ARGENT, the common French wTord for Jifaery
of which metal all white fields or charges are fuppofed
to confift. Argent of itfelf is ufed in heraldry to fig-
nify purity, innocence, beauty, and gentlenefs; and,
according to G. Leigh, if it is compounded with
Gul. I „ fboldnefs;
Azu. I da j courtefy ;
Ver. virtue ;
Pur. | ^ | favour ;
Sab. J •” (^religion ;
ARGENT AC, a town of France, in the Limofia,
on the river Dordogne. E. Long. 2. 3. N. Lat. 45. 5.
ARGENT AN, a town of France, in the depart-
ipent of Owie, and in the diocefe of the Seez. It is
feated on an eminence, in the middle of a fertile plain,
on the banks of the river Orne, and has a confiderable
trade in lace. E. Long. O. 5. N. Lat. 48. 54.
ARGENT ARIA, a town of ancient Gaul, thought
to Hand in the place where the city Colmar now Hands.
It is remarkable for a great vi&ory gained by the em¬
peror Gratian over the Lentienfes, in the month of
May, A. D. 378. The Romans being but few in
number, were at firft overpowered, and obliged to give
ground ; but foon returning to the charge, they gain¬
ed in the end a complete victory. Thirty thoufand of
the barbarians, and among the reft their king Triarius,
were killed on the fpot; and all the reft, except 50CO,
taken prifoners.
Argentaria Creta, pure white earth, found in
Pruflia, and much efteemed for cleaning plate.
2
I. ] A R G
ARGENTARIUS is frequently ufed in Roman Argcnta-
writers for a money changer or banker. The argen- rius
tarii were moneyed people, who made a profit either by II
the changing, or lending of money at interell. 1 hefe -rcentum,
had their taberna:, or otfices, in the forum Romanum,
built there as early as the reign of L. Tarquinius Priicus..
The argentarii and foeneratores were much hated on ac¬
count of their covetoufnefs and extortion.
ARGENT ATI MILITES, inantiquity. Livy, lib.vi.
fpeaks of argentati milites, as diftinguifhed from aurati.
Aquinas fuppofes thefe to have been fimilar to the argy-
rafpides and chryfafpides; but the deferiptions do not
quadrate. Livy only reprefents the argentati as clothed
in white linen coats.
ARGENTEUIL, a town of the Ifle of France,
feated on the river Seine, five miles north-weft of Paris..
It is a very beautiful place, with fine vineyards. In
the environs are quarries of ftucco. In the Benedidline
prit ry they pretend to havt^ the feam.efs coat of Chrift.
E. Long. 2. 28. N. Lat. 48. 52.
ARGENTIERE, a fmall ifland in the Archipela¬
go, near Milo. It is about 18 miles in compafs ; and
is full of barren mountains, producing nothing but bar¬
ley, cotton, and a few grapes fit only for eating. The
barley and cotton are fown round tlie only village there
is in the ifland. The ladies are handfome enough, have
no other employment but making cotton ftockings,
and take up with the failors, who put into the port.
The men all ufe the fea, and in time become good pi¬
lots. They have very little religion, are very igno¬
rant, and of very bad morals. Juftice is adminiftered
by an itinerant cadi, who is fometimes the only Muf-
fulman in the whole ifland. The only article relating
to natural hiftory is the terra cimolia fo highly efteem¬
ed by the ancients; it is a kind of white chalk, which
is very heavy, without tafte, and crumbles eafily :
they ufe it in waffling linen. E. Long. 23. 10. N. Lat.
36- 50.
ARGENTINA. See Ichthyology Index.
ARGENTINES, a deity worfhipped by the an¬
cients, as the god of filver coin ; as ALlculanus, whom
they made his father, was the god of brafs money,
which was in ufe before filver.
ARGENTON, a town and county of France, in
the department of Indre, divided into two by the river
Creufe. Here -was formerly a caftle ; but it was de-
moliftied by Lewis XIV. E. Long. 1. 38. N. Lat.
40. 30.
ARGENTORA, Argentina, (Notitiae) ; Argen to-
ratum, (Ptolemy; ; Argentoratus, (Ammian) ; a city
of the Triboeci ; one or the fifty forts built by Druius
on the Rhine, (Floru1-) : an appellation formed by the
Romans from the German, Argen StraJJ'en or Strcten,
“ unfafe roads for travellers,” from the marauding par¬
ties of the garrifons that infeifed the roads. Now Straf-
burg, in Lower Alfact, on the rivulet 111, near the
Rhine. E. Long. 7. 35. N. Lat. 48. 38.
ARGENTUM album, in our old cuftoms, filver
coin, or pieces of bullion that anciently palled for mo¬
ney. By Doomfday tenure, fume rents to the king
were paid in argento a/bo, common filver pieces of mo¬
ney ; other rents in libris urjis et penfttis, in metal of
full weight and purity : in the next age*, that rent
which was paid in money, was called blanch fearmy
AUG t 605 ] A R G
Argentum and afterwards white rent; and what was paid in pro-
° || vifions, was termed black mail.
Argonau- Argentum Dei, God's pennyy anciently fignified
t‘c’ , earneft money, or money given to bind a bargain 5 in
'1' fome places called erles, or arles, and by the civilians
and canonills, arrhce. Et cepit de pnxdiclo Henrico tres
denarios de argenti Dei prce manibus.
Argentum Mujivum is a mafs conlifting of filver-
like tlakes, ufed for the colouring of plafter figures, and
for other purpofes, as pigment. It conlifts of an amal¬
gam of equal parts of tin, bifmuth, and mercury. It is
to be mixed with white of eggs, or fpirit yarnilh, and
then applied to the intended work, which is afterwards
to be burnifhed.
Argentum Vivum, Mercury or ^uickjilver. See
Mercury, and Chemistry Index.
ARGESTES, is ufed by Vitruvius for the wind
which blows from that quarter ol the horizon, which is
from the fouth and weft ward. Ricciolus ufes the
term to denote the wind which blows at 22 30' from
the weft towards the north, coinciding with that which
is otherwife called we/l north-wejj.
ARGIL, in Ornithology, a ipecies of ardea. See
Ardea, Ornithology Index.
ARGIL LA, Clay, in Natural Hijlory. See Clay.
ARGIVI, or ARGEII, the people of Argeia or Ar-
golis. See Argeia.
ARGO, in antiquity, a (hip or veffel celebrated a-
mong the poets; being that wherein the Argonauts, of
whom Jafon was the chief, made their expedition in queft
of the golden fleece. Jafon having happily accomplifli-
ed his enterprife, confecrated the Ihip Argo to Nep¬
tune ; or, as others fay, to Minerva, in the ifthmus of
Corinth ; where, they add, it did not remain long be¬
fore it was tranflated into heaven, and made aeontlella-
tion. The generality of authors reprefent the Ihip Ar¬
go as of a long make, refembling the modern galleys ;
and furnilhed with thirty benches of rowers. It could
not, however, be of any great bulk, fince the Argo¬
nauts were able to carry it on their backs from the
Danube to the Adriatic fea.
Argo Navis, the Ship Argo, in Agronomy, is a con-
ftellation in the fouthern hemifphere, whofe ftars in
Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 45 ; in Tycho’s 11 •, in the
Britannic catalogue, and Sharp’s Appendix, 64.
ARGOB, in Ancient Geography, a canton lying
beyond Jordan, in the half tribe of ManaiTeh, and in
the country of Balkan, one of the moft fruitful on the
other fide of Jordan. In the region of Argob there
were fixiy cities, called Bafhan-havoth jair, which had
very high walls and ftrong gates, without reckoning
many villages and hamlets which were not enclofed,
Deut. Hi. 4. 14. and l Kings iv. 13. But Argob was
more particularly the name of the capital city of the
region of Argob, which Eufehius fays was 13 miles
weft from Gerafa.
ARGON \UTA. See Conchology Index.
ARGONAUTIC, fomething belonging to the Ar¬
gonauts.
The Argonautic expedition is one of the greateft
epochas or periods of hiftory which Sir Ifaac Newton
endeavours to fettle, and from thence to redlify the
ancient chronology. Tnis he (hows, by fevera! au¬
thorities, to have been one generation or about 30
years earlier than the taking of Troy, and 43 years la- Argonau-
ter than the death of Solomon. See Chronology. t|Ca*
Dr Bryant, however, rejedls the hiftory of the Ar- Argoi.auts.
gonautic expedition as a Grecian fable, founded indeed
on a tradition derived from Egypt, and ultimately re¬
ferring to Noah’s prefervation, &c. in the ark. But
although we are not to believe all the romantic ftories
which poets, and even fome grave hiftorians, have
told us of thefe famous adventurers, yet it feems un-
reafonable to diferedit entirely the Argonautic expedi¬
tion. See Argonauts.
ARGONAUTICA, in literary hiftory, denotes
poems on the fubjeft and expeditions of the Argonauts.
We have the Argonautics of Orpheus in epic verfe,
publilhed by H. Stephens; the Argonauticon of Vale¬
rius Flaccus, in eight books of Latin heroics, in imi¬
tation of Apollonius, with refpedl: to which Burman
obferves that the imitator has often furpaffed the ori¬
ginal ; the Argonautics of Apollonius Rhodius, an he¬
roic poem, confifting of four books, opus, as Quintilian
calls it, non contemnendum.
ARGONAUTS, in antiquity, a company of illuf-
trious Greeks, who embarked along with Jafon, in the
Ihip Argo, from Colchis, with a defign to obtain the
golden fleece.
The occafion of this expedition is thus reprefented by
Greek write's. Phryxus, flying with his After Helle
from the rage of their ftepmother Ino, the daughter of
Cadmus, went on board a Ihip, whofe enfign was a gol¬
den ram, and failed to Colchis, (now Mingrelia, part
of Georgia). Helle was drowned by the way, in
that fea which from her was called the Hellefpont, now
the Dardanelles. This, according to fome, was the
ground of the poetical fable, that a ram with a golden
fleece fwam away with them to Colchis; and that the
Argonauts undertook their famed expedition, in order
to find that fleece. But Strabo and Arrian inform u?,
that it was a pradlice of the Colchians to colled! gold
on Mount Caucafus by extending fleeces acrols the beds
of the torrents ; and as the water palled, the metallic
particles remained entangled in the wool: hence, ac¬
cording to thofe hiftorians, the adventure was named
the expedition of the golden jieece. Sir Ifaac Newton
thinks that this expedition was really an embafly fent
by the Greeks, during the inteftine divifions of Egypt
in the reign of Amenophis, to periuade the nations up¬
on the coafts of the Euxine and the Mediterranean
feas, to take that opportunity of lhaking off the yoke
of Egypt, which Seloftris had laid upon them; and
that fetching the golden fleece, was only a pretence
to cover their true defign.
But the moft judicious and fatisfadlory account of
the Argonautic expedition feems to be that given by
Dr Gillies in his hiftory .of Greece. “ The northern
diftridls of Theffaly being peculiarly expofed to the
dangerous fury of invaders, the petty princes of that
province entered into a confederacy for their mutual
defence. They aficmbled in fpring and autumn at
Thermopylae, a place afterwards fo illuftrious, and
then governed by Amphidlyon, a defeendant of Deu¬
calion, whofe name is immortalized in the Amphifty-
onic council. The advantages which the confederates
derived from this meafure, were foon perceived by
their neighbours. The central ftates gradually acced-
ed to their alliance j and about the middle of the 14th
century before Chrift, Acrilius king of Argos, and
other princes of Peloponnefus, were allowed to (hare
the benefits and fecurity of this ufeful aflbciation. See
Amphictyons.
“ After this event, the Amphi&yons appear to have
long confined themfelves to the original purpofe of
their inflitution. The dates, whofe meafures were di~
refted by this affembly, found fufficient occupation in
defending their own territories ; and near a century
elapfed, before they undertook, by common confent,
any dittant expedition. But it was not to be expefted
that their refllefs adtivity could always be exhaufted in
defenfive war. The eftabliikment of the Amphidtyons
brought together the chiefs mod didinguilhed by birth
and bravery. Glory and emulation prompted them to
arms, and revenge diredted thofe arms againd the bar¬
barians. Jafon, Admetus, and other chieftains of Thef-
faly, having equipped a Imall fieet in the neighbouring
harbour of lolcus, and particularly the drip Argo of
fuperior fize and condrudtion to any before known,
were animated with a defire to vifit foreign lands, to
plant colonies in thofe parts of them that appeared
mod delightful, and to retort on their inhabitants the
injuries which Greece had differed from drangers. The
princes of the north having proclaimed this fpirited
defign over the central and fouthern provinces, the
dandard of enterprife and glory was fpeedily furround-
ed by the flower of the Grecian youth, who eagerly
embraced this honourable opportunity to fignaltee their
manly valou,-. Peleus, Tydeus, Telamon, and in ge¬
neral the fathers of thofe heroic chiefs who in the fuc-
ceeding age drone with didinguiflied ludre in the plains
of Troy, are numbered among the leaders of the Ar¬
gonauts. They were accompanied by the chofen war¬
riors, and by the venerable prophets, of their refpeftive
tribes ; by an Efculapius, the admired father of the
healing art; and by the divine Orpheus, whofe fublime
genius was worthy to celebrate the amazing feries of
their adventures.
“ Thefe adventures, however, have been too much
adorned by the graces of poetry, to be the proper fub-
je£t of hidorical compofition. The defigns of the Ar¬
gonauts are veiled under the allegorical, or at lead
doubtful, phrafe, q/* carrying off the golden fleece ; which,
though eafily explained, if we admit the report that
the inhabitants of the eadern banks of the Euxine ex¬
tended fleeces of wool, in order to colledt the golden
particles which were carried down by the torrents from
Mount Caucafus, is yet defcribed in fuch various lan¬
guage by ancient writers, that almod every modern
who examines the fubjeft, thinks himfelf entitled to
offer, by way of explanation, fome new conjedture of
his own. But in oppofition to the mod approved of
thefe conjeflures, we may venture to aflarm, that the
voyage to Colchis was not undertaken with a view to
edablifli extenfive plans of commerce, or to fearch for
mines of gold, far lefs to learn the imaginary art of
converting other fubdances into that precious metal ;
all fuch motives exprefling a degree of fpeculation and
refinement unknown in that age to the gallant but un-
indrudled youth of Theffaly. The real obje6t of the
-expedition may be difcovered by its confequences.
The Argonauts fought, conquered, and plundered ;
+hey fettled a colony, on the fliores of the Euxine ;
and carried into Greece a daughter of the king of Col- Argonauts
chis, the celebrated Medea, a princefs of Egyptian ||
extraction, whofe crimes and enchantments are con- , Ar§os-
demned to eternal infamy in the immortal lines of Eu-
ripides.”
Argonauts of St Nicholas, was the name of a mi¬
litary order indituted by Charles III. king of Naples,
in the year 1382, for the advancement of navigation,
or, as fome fay, merely for preferving amity among the
nobles. They wore a collar of fliells, enclofed in a diver
crcfcent, whence hung a fliip, with this device, Non cre¬
do tempori, “ I do not trud time.” Hence thefe Ar¬
gonaut knights came to be called hiights of the fhell.
They received the order of St Bafil, archbifhop of Na¬
ples ; and held their affemblies in the church of St Ni¬
cholas, their patron.
ARGOPHYLLUM, White-leaf (Forfl. Nov.
Gen.) ; a genus of the monogynia order, belonging to
the pentandria clafs of plants. The capfule is trilocu-
lar ; the neftarium is pyramidal, pentagonous, and the
length of the corolla. There is but one fpecies, the ni-
tidum or gloffy, a native of New Caledonia. This ge¬
nus has great affinity with the ivy ; but differs in the
neClarium, and perhaps in the fruit.
ARGOS, an ancient name of Peloponnefus 5 from
Argos, one of the kings, (Homer, Strabo).
Argos, the capital, and an inland town, of Argo-
lis or Argeia. It had different furnames; as Achat-
cum, from the country, or an ancient people, (Homer) j
Hippium, from its breed of horfes j and Inachium,
from the river Inachus, which runs by, or from Ina-
chus the founder of the kingdom, whofe name was al~
fo given to the river. The Argives related, that this
was one of the river gods who adjudged the country
to Juno, when the contended for it with Neptune,
which deity in return made their water to vanifh 5 the
reafon why the Inachus flowed only after rain, and
was dry in fummer. The fource was a fpring, not co¬
pious, on a mountain in Arcadia, and the river ferved
there as a boundary between the Argives and Manti-
neans.
Ancient Argos flood chiefly on a flat. The fprings
were near the furface and it abounded in wells, which
were faid to have been invented by the daughters of
Danaus. This early perfonage lived in the acropolis
or citadel, which was named Lariffa, and accounted
moderately flrong. On the afcent w'as a temple of
Apollo on the ridge, which in the fecond century con¬
tinued the feat of an oracle. The woman who pro-
phefied was debarred from commerce with the male
fex. A lamb was facrificed in the night monthly ;
when, on tailing of the blood, flie became poffeffed
with the divinity. Farther on was a ftadium, where
the Argives celebrated games in honour of Nemean
Jupiter, and Juno. On the top was a temple of Ju¬
piter, without a roof, the ftatue off the pedeftal. In
the temple of Minerva there, among other curious ar¬
ticles, was a wooden Jupiter, with an eye more tha»
common, having one in the forehead, i his flatue, it
was faid, was once placed in a court of the palace of
Priam, who fled as a fuppliant to the altar before it,
when Troy was facked. In this city was alfo the bra¬
zen tower in which Danae, being confined there by her
father, was deflowered by Jupiter.
Argos retains its original name and fituation, Hand¬
ing
A R G
Ar^os, ing near the mountains which are the boundary of the
Arguim. plain, with Napoli and the fea in view before it. The
'■'"V"**’'' fliining houfes are whitened with lime or plafter.
Churches, mud-built cottages and Avails, with gardens
and open areas, are interfperfed, and the town is of
confiderable extent. Above the other buildings towers
a \Tery handfome mofque Aiaded with folemn cypreffes;
and behind is a lofty hill, brown and naked, of a co¬
nical form, the fummit croAvned with a fiegledted caftle.
The devaftations of time and Avar have effaced the old
city. We look in vain (fays Mr Chandler) for veAiges
of its numerous edifices, the theatre, the gymnafium, the
temples, and monuments, which it once boafted, con¬
tending even with Athens in antiquity and in favours
conferred by the gods.
Argos Amphilochium, (Thucydides), a city of A-
carnania, (Scylax, Pliny) 5 its territory Amphilochia :
fituated on the eaft fide of the Sinus Ambracius, (Thu¬
cydides) •, diftant an hundred and eighty Aadia to the
fouth-eaft of Ambracia, (Polybius). Alfo called Ar-
gia Amphilochis, (Mela) $ Amphiloci and Amphilochici
the people. (Stephanus). The name is from Amphi-
lochus, fon of Amphiaraus ; and from'Argos, the name
of his country, in Peloponnefus, (Thucydides).
Argos Hippium. See Argos in Peloponnefus,y«-
pra.
Argos Hippium, the ancient name of Arpi ; but
Lampe is a Aill more ancient j afterwards called Ar-
gynppa, and Argippa ; built by, and the refidence of,
Diomedes, on the Cerbalus, (Virgil) j afterivards a
large and populous city, (Livy) : A town of Apulia j
now in ruins, and the place called Arpi.
Argos Pelafgicum, (Homer) j an appellation denot¬
ing Theffaly j fo called from the Pelafgi.
Argos Portus, a port of Tufcany, (Strabo) : novv
Porto Ferrajo, in the north of the ifiand Elba. E.
Long. it. 30. N. Lat. 42. 35.
ARGUIM, an ifiand on the coaft of Africa, about
fixteen miles diftant from Cape Blanco, fituated in W.
Long. 16. 30. N. Lat. 20. 20. It is fcarce two miles
in length j notwithftanding .which, it was a bone of
contention for 87 years betAveen the Portuguefe, Dutch,
Englifh, and French ; and, after a variety of fortune,
has at laft been totally abandoned.
This ifland Avas firft difcovered by the Portuguefe in
1444, when a fleet bound to the eaft; touched at Ar¬
guim, and from fome little trade carried on with the
natives, it Avas imagined that a fettlement there might
be of fome advantage to Portugal. In confequence of
this opinion, a fort Avas ere£ted on the ifland, and the
Portuguefe enjoyed the peaceable poffeffion of it till
1638. At this time, the Dutch having received a
minute account of the condition of the ifland, refolved
to attack it : and accordingly landed without molefta-
tion from the garrifon, which Avas too Aveak to oppofe
them. The Portuguefe, hoAvever, defended them-
felves Avith great intrepidity, and at laft furrendered
upon honourable terms. The Dutch immediately fet
about repairing the fortifications, and feenring it in
the beft manner they could: however, in 1665, the
fort Avas reduced almoft to a heap of rubbifh by an
Englifh fquadron *, but as the fortifications were total¬
ly deftroyed, and only a fmall garrifon left there, it
was eafiiy retaken by the Dutch the next year. They
now redoubled their diligence in ftrengthening the
A R G
ifland, entering into alliance Avith Moorifh chiefs, pro- Arguim
curing a number of families to fettle under proteftion 11
of the fort, and giving extravagant prices for gums,, Argus~
in order to monopolize the gum trade. By this means
the gum trade of the French Senegal Company was
almoft entirely deftroyed ; upon which they fitted out
a fquadron, difpofleffed the Dutch, and had the ifland
finally ceded to them by the treaty of Nimeguen.
Though the Dutch norv feemed to be finally expel¬
led, they refolved not to part fo eafiiy with fuch a va¬
luable fettlement. Under pretence of being fubje&s
of the eleftor of Brandenburg, therefore, they erefled
one of the forts Avhich had been demolifhed, and there
maintained themfelves in fpite of the utmoft endea¬
vours of the French Company to difpofiefs them. Num-
berlefs were the memorials, protefts, referipts, &c.
which Avere publiftied on this occafion, till a neAV Avar
in 1701 put an end to them. In 1717, however, the
French Company having found all their remonftrances
ineffe&ual, fitted out a nevv fquadron ; but this arma¬
ment did not arrive at Arguim before Feb. 26. 1721.
The Dutch defended themfelves with fuch intrepidity
and conduit as had almoft baffled the utmoft efforts of
the French; but the latter having found means to
draw off a Mooriih chief from his allegiance, the Dutch
Avere obliged to evacuate Arguim, arid retire to Por-
tendic, Avhere they fortified themfelves, determining
to Avatch a favourable opportunity for recovering their
fettlement at Arguim. This Avas not long wanting*
by means of the Aveaknefs of the garrifon and the im¬
prudence of Duval the French direflor, Avho having
quarrelled with the Moors, was furprifed, defeated,
and killed by them; in confequence of which, the ,
fettlement fell again into the hands of the Dutch on
the 11th of January 1722. In 1723, the Dutch Avere
attacked by another French fquadron under the com¬
mand of the Sieur Riguadiere. This gentleman boaft¬
ed that the fort could not hold out one day ; but
though he prevailed fo far as to get poffefflon of tho
citterns which contained the Avater of the befieged, he
Avas at laft thamefully repulfed, and forced to raife the
fiege Avith precipitation. The Dutch, however, did
not long enjoy the poffeflion Avhich they had fo bravely
defended; for, in 1725, their fort Avas entirely demo-
liftied by the French under Du Caffe, and has never
fince been rebuilt by any European nation.
ARGUMENT, in Rhetoric and Logic, an inference
draAvn from premifes, the truth of which is indifputablc,
or at leaft highly probable. See Logic.
Argument, in matters of literature, denotes alfo the
abridgement or heads of a book, hiftory, comedy, chap¬
ter, &c. See Syllabus.
ARGUMENTATION, the aft of inventing, or
framing arguments, of making induftions, and drawing
conclufious. See INDUCTION, &c.
Argumentation, according to Cicero, is the deliver¬
ing or unfolding of an argument.— I he matter of ar¬
gumentations is propofitions ; the form, their due dif-
pofition, rvith regard to one another, fo as a cnnclu-
fion may be drawn from them. See. Enthymeme,
Proposition, Ratiocination,Sorites, Syllogism,
&c.
ARGUS, in fabulous hiftory, was the fon of Arif-
tor, and had looevyes, 50 of Avhich ivere ahvays open.
Juno made choice cf him to guard lo, whom Jupiter
had.
[ 607 ]
Argyll-
flnre.
A R G [6c
Argus fl»ell Tiad transformed into a white heifer •, but Jupiter, pity-
II ing lo for being fo clofely confined, fent Mercury, who,
with his flute, charmed Argos to fleep, fealed up his
, eyes with his caduceus, and then cut off his head ; when
Juno, to reward his fidelity, turned him into a peacock,
and placed his eyes in his tail.
ARGUS-fhell, a fpecies of porcelain (hell, beautifully
variegated with fpots, refembling in fome meafure thole
in a peacock’s tail.
ARGUTIiE, witty and acute fayings, which com¬
monly fignify fomething further than what tlie'ir mere
words at firfi: fightfecm to import. Writers on rhetoric
fpeak of divers fpecies of argutiae, viz.
ArguTIJE ab alieno, when fomething is faid, which
feems repugnant either to the nature and property of a
thing, .or to common cuftom, the laws, &c. which yet
in reality is confiftent therewith ; or when fomething
is given as a realon of another, which yet is not the rea-
fon of it. For inftance, Si Caius nihil didicijp't, errajfet
minus; again, Aureum hoc Jccculum cjl, quia ptunmus
jam auro honos venit.
Ar^utice ab ullujione, thofe w’herein allufion is made
to fome hiAory, fable, fentence, proverb or the like ;
e. g. Multi umbram captunt et carnem amittunt.
Arguticc a comparatis, when two things are compared
together, which yet at firft fight appear very difterent
from each other, but fo as to make a pretty kind of fi-
mile or difimile •, e. g. Par ejl pauper nil cupiens
principi omnia habentL
Aigutice a repugnantibus, when two things meet in a
fubjedt, which yet regularly cannot be therein •, or when
two things are oppofed to each other, yet the epithet
of the one is attributed to the other, e. g. Dum tacent
clamant.
ARGYLL, Dukes of. See Campbell.
ARGYLLSHIRE, one of the counties of Scot¬
land, fuppofed to have formed the principal part of the
Caledonian kingdom, when the eaftern provinces of
Scotland fubmitted to the irrefillible power of the Ro¬
man empire. It is bounded on the eaft by the {hires
of Perth and Dunbarton •, on the north by Invernefs ■,
on the weft and fouth by the Irifli fea and the frith of
Clyde, which enter into various bays, founds, and in¬
lets, round the coaft, and form both in the main land
and the iflands, many fpacious and commodious har¬
bours. This county is fubdivided into the diftrifts
of Kintyre, Knapdale, Argyll Proper, Cowal, and
Lorn. Within the fame divifion are alfo compre¬
hended feveral Hebudian iflands, of which two or three
are of confiderable extent. Its length from fouth to
north, between the mull of Kintyre and the point of
Ardnamurchan, where it joins the {hire of Invernefs,
is about 114 miles, and its breadth, in feveral places,
including the ifles, is 70. The inland part of the
county is, in fome meafure, irregular, with an appen¬
dant triangle.
Similar to the other parts of the Highlands of Scot¬
land, this county prefents a very wild and horrid pro-
fpeft of hills, rocks, and huge mountains, piled upon
each other in a ftupendous and dreadful diforder, bare,
bleak, and barren to the view •, or, at beft covered
with fliaggy heath, which appears black and difmal to
the eye/except in the fummer, when it is variegated
with an agreeable bloom of a purple colour. Hence
lofty mountains, deep glens, inlets of the fea entering
B j A R. G
far into the land, form the moft Unking features in
the general afpefl of this country. Cruacha-Ben in
this county is one of the loftieft mountains in Scotland 5 1
and where this county meets the confines of Perth and
Dunbarton, the mountains contiguous to Ben-Lo-
mond are but little inferior in height to that moun¬
tain. J.he Loch bine, Loch Etive, Linnhe Loch,
are inlets of the fea. The diftridt of Kintyre enters
into the north channel, and is almoft divided from
the main land at the narrow ifthmus of larbat.
The diftrict of Cowal is alio nearly peninfulated by
Loch Long on one fide and Loch Fine on the other.
The interior parts of the county are interiperfed. with
a great number of ftnall frefh-waler lakes. A bar¬
ren nefs of foil and fcanty vegetation prevail chiefly
on the fummits of the great mountains, which exhi¬
bits great mafles of ftratified rocks or groups in a co¬
lumnar form. Even a number of the glens are. bar¬
ren, and afford little pafturage, and are covered in fe¬
veral places with large fragments, which have been
feparated and precipitated from the impending rocks.
On the declivities of the hills and the banks of the
lakes there are, however, numerous woods interfperfed,
which unite with the lofty mountains to form a molt
romantic fcene. In a run of feveral miles, fertility, ver¬
dure, and cultivation, reign through the valley of Gle-
nurchay. Remains of ancient forefts are ftill very ex-
tenfive in various places j and thefe confift chiefly of
oaks, afhes, pines, and birches. 1 he level of the coun¬
try, towards the fouthern parts, defcends the.neareft to
an equality with that of the fea. I he elevation of the
country is higheft towards the interior parts of the coun¬
ties of Perth and Invernefs.
The mountains and forefts abound with fallow-deer^
roes, flags, and all kinds of wild game •, and all over
the fea coaft, the moors, the heaths, and on the lakes,
the wild fowl are numerous. i he mountains feed an
innumerable quantity of black cattle, which run wild
among the hills in winter as well -as fummer. 1 he
circumambient fea, with its lochs, bays, and harbours,
pours forth myriads of fifti; and in feveral places
of the county iron, copper, lead, and other metals
and minerals, have been ting out. T et, notwith-
Handing thefe numerous local advantages, . Argyll-
ftiire, as well as many other parts of the Highlands,
druggies with many great obftacles in the way of
improvement. I he want of long leafes is one of
the moft material. What inducement can a perfon
have to manure or cultivate a piece of land which he
may have taken, when his firft work is to ereft a hut
for himfelf j and after all the difagreeable inconveni-
encies attending it, he holds his farm year by year,
dependant on the will of his landlord ? \vhen he
alfo refle&s, that by cultivating his ground in fuch a
manner, the rent which he was this year fcarcely able
to pay, may be nearly doubled the next year, how
can he be able to defray the expence neceflarily at¬
tending fuch an improvement, when be is uncertain
of a competent return for his labour ? It is hoped
that proprietors will at length fee the manifeft advan¬
tage that will arife from granting long leafes, both to
themfelves and their tenants \ and, by fo doing, either
to encourage the tenants to build houfes, by paying
any expence that may remain unpaid at the end cf the
leafe, or build houfes for the tenants themfelves j and,
by
Argyll-
fliire.
Argyll-
Aii re.
* This is
the Grinan
canal,
whieh is
now navi¬
gable.
ARC t 1 A R G
by tliefe means, they would havefurer payment of their
rents, which would be augmented ; their grounds would
be greatly improved, and their vaffals would enjoy
comtort and eafe. Another great obilacle to the ge¬
neral improvement is the rugged face of this county,
which renders the great roads few in number, and the
interfedled roads for the purpofe of conveying manure
to the grounds being ftill in their natural rudenefs.
The chief branch of hulbandry followed over the
greateft part of this county is the management of ftieep,
black cattle, and goats. In former times, the ordina¬
ry animal Hock confided moftly of black cattle : but
within thefe laft 20 years a more fkilful method of
managing flocks of ftieep than was formerly pra&ifed,
having been introduced by the farmers of the low
country j thefe have been mulliplied with great at¬
tention and afliduity. Cows and oxen now form
only the fecond confiderable branch of the animal
flock.
Barley, oats, and potatoes, are the principal articles
of crop j and, in fome places, the proper manner of
tillage has been made ufe of, excellent manures have
been laid upon the ground, and the moft fuitable ro¬
tation of crops has been adopted. In years of ordina¬
ry plenty it would appear, that befides affording a con¬
fiderable furplus to the breweries and diftilleries, the
grain commonly produced in this county is a fufficient
fuftenance for its inhabitants. Befides the great profits
arifing from the iron works and the falmon filberies, the
cutting down of woods has brought much money into
Argyll, and ftill continues to be equally beneficial to
the labourer and the landlord.
When the projected canal * ftiall be completed,
and fome villages and harbours eredled, the populous
county of Argyll (Mr Knox affirms) will become one
of the moft valuable provinces of the Britiffi em¬
pire. Waflied on both fides by the fea deeply in¬
dented by navigable lakes and bays •, having an eafy
communication with the fiffiing grounds on the north
Highlands, with Glafgow and the trading towns on
the Clyde, with Ireland, Wales, Whitehaven, Liver¬
pool, Briftol, and other marts on the weft coaft of
England ; we may eafily conceive, that the period is
at no great diftance when ArgylHhire will become a
great commercial county. To corroborate this opi¬
nion, he obferves, that after a veffel gets under fail
from this coaft, (he enters at once into the Atlantic,
where ffie meets with no interruption till ffie makes the
coaft of America or the Weft Indies. The line, there¬
fore, which nature points out for the inhabitants is that
of falt-making, fiffiing, ffiip-building, freight or the
carrying trade, f»ap and glafs-making, by means of
the kelp upon their ffiores, and fand found upon the
iflands of Jura and Gigha, which is adapted for the
latter.
In this diftrift the deeds of the celebrated Fingal,
whofe invincible arm gave a check to the progrefs of
the conquerors of the world, were moftly achieved.
Many of the fcenes of the battles of that illuftrious hero
and his gallant followers, which are fo beautifully
defcribed by Oflian, are ftill pointed out, and many
very ancient monuments ftill difplay the warlike fpirit
of its former inhabitants. In the courfe of the eighth
and ninth centuries, Argyll, along with the neigh-
Vol. II. Part II.
bouring ifles, was conquered by the Danes and Nor- Argyll-
wegians. For five or fix centuries it continued under _ fliire.
the dominion of Norway, and during that period was ^ '
under the dirtdl adminiftration of feudal chieftains,
generally of Norwegian extraflion, who each main¬
tained an almoft independent government. Along
with the Hebudean ifles, all the weftern parts of Ar¬
gyll became the conqueft of the Scottifh monarchs in
the 14th century. Some time after, Macdonald, the
reprefentative of this region, obtained leave from the
Scottiffi crown to hold his poffeffions as a feudatory to
that kingdom j but the turbulent fpirit of him and his
family could not remain in quietude, and therefore their
rebellions were puniffied with forfeiture. Their eftates
and titles were beftowed on the Campbells; and thefe
have ever fince retained them in peace and loyalty, be¬
loved and honoured by their country. I he county of
Argyll gives the title of duke and earl to the chief of
this family. He likewife enjoys feveral other import¬
ant polls under the crown, and is the chief of the Scot-
tifti nobility. His vaffals are fo numerous, that in for¬
mer times he could on occafion bring 3000 or 4000
fighting men into the field. Argylllhire is generally
peopled by this clan, and affords a great number of
caftles and feats belonging to gentlemen who hold of
the duke, and boaft themfelves defcended from his fa¬
mily. Argylllhire fends one member to parliament:
it is alfo the feat of a provincial fynod. It contains two
royal boroughs and 49 pari flies j the population of
which is as follows.
Parijhes.
Ardchattan
Ardnamurchan
Campbelltoun
Craignilh
3 Dunoon
Glaffary
Glenorchy
Inverary
Inverchaolin
10 Kilbrandon
Kilcalmonell
Kilchrenan
Kilfinan
Killean
if Kilmadan
Kilmartin
Kilmore
Kilninver
Knapdale, North
20 Knapdale, South
Lifmore
Lochgoylhead
Morven
Saddel
25 Southend
Strachur
Population
in 1755-
2195
5OOO
4597
769
I757
27Sl
J654
2751
944
1492
*925
1030
1793
2391
806
1150
1200
1045
1369
1292
2812
l5°5
1223
J369
J391
”93
Islands.
{Torofay 1012
Kilfinichen 1685
Kilninian 259°
4H
Population in
1790—1798.
24OO
4542
8700
770
1683
2568
1869
1832
5°4
2060
2448
1124
1417
1911
1537
1886
1178
1009
1524
35 26
1012
1764
I34I
1300
1061
1733
3002
3281
30 Iflay
/
Argyraf-
pules
II
Aria.
A R I
Parijhes.
{Kilarow
Kilchom
Kildalton
*.'d Colonfay, &c
30 Iflay -j Kilchoman
35
Jura
Coll and Tiry
Gigha and Cara
Small ifles
Population
in 11SS-
5344
1097
2702
5'4
943
Total, 63,291
[ 61
Population in
1790—1798.
9500
1838
MSI
614
I339
76,101
63,291
Inereafe, 12,810
ARGYRASPIDES, or Argyroaspides, in anti¬
quity, perfons armed with filver bucklers, or bucklers
iilvered.
The argyrafpides, according to Quintus Curtius,
made the fecond corps of Alexander’s army ; the firfl:
was the phalanx.—According to Juftin’s account, lib.
xii. cap. 7. Alexander having penetrated into India,
and extended his empire as far as the ocean ; for a mo¬
nument of his glory, ordered the armour of his foldiers,
and the houfings of his horfes, to be adorned with fil¬
ver. And hence commanded them to be called argy-
I'afpides, from the Greek Jilver, and htths,
buckler.
By this author it fhould feem, that Alexander’s whole
army were called argyrafpides.—After that prince’s
death, the argyrafpides defpifed all other chiefs of the
army, difdaining to obey any other, having borne arms
under Alexander.
ARGYRIPAE. See Argos Hippium.
ARGYRUNTUM, a maritime town of Illyria
(Ptolemy, Pliny). Now Novigrad, a town of Dalma¬
tia. E. Long. 17. 30. N. Lat. 44. 30.
ARHUSEN, a diocefe in North Jutland, in Den¬
mark, to the fouth of Wilburg, about 60 miles in
length and 30 in breadth. It contains two capital ci¬
ties, called Arliufen and Rander; befides feveral mar¬
ket towns of lefs note, and upwards of 300 villages.
Arhufen, one of the capitals, is advantageoufly litua-
ted on the coaft of the Baltic fea, at the mouth of the
river Guda, which runs through it ; and it is furround-
ed with forefts full of game. E. Long. 10. o. N. Lat.
, 56. 10.
ARIA, one of the ancient names of Thrace, (Ste-
phanus) •, that is, martial, from the charafter of the
people, whofe country Euripides calls the refidence of
Mars, and Sophocles his place of nativity.
Aria, and Ariana, in Ancient Geography, whether
the fame or diftinct countries authors are not agreed.
Ptolemy has only Aria, and knows nothing about Ari¬
ana. Pliny mentions only Ariana, and fays nothing
about Aria •, but diltinguifhes between the Arii and
Ariani : Parthia, he fays, has the Arii to the eaft,
Caramania and the Ariani to the fouth j from which it
is conjectured, the Ariani extended farther than the
Arii, and comprifed the Gedrofii and the Drangae.
Arrian has only Aria and Arii, and is filent about A-
riana. But Sh abo gives more extenlive bounds to A-
riana than to Aria, without particularly defining them ;
only in gene/al he fays, fhat Ariana begins from India,
and quotes Eratoithenes ; according to whom, Ariana
o ] art
is bounded by the Indus on the eaft ; on the fouth by Aria
the Great fea ; by Paropamifus on the north, and by H d
the mountains, quite to the Portae Cafpiae ; on the weft Anano*:
by the fame boundaries by which Parthia is feparated
from Media, Caramania from Paraetacene and Perfia ;
and thus Ariana is extremely extenfive.—Aria has its
limits thus defcribed by Ptolemy : On the north, fome
parts of Margiana and BaCtriana ; on the eaft, the
Paropamifidae 5 on the fouth the Drangianse : and Stra¬
bo fays, the Arii adjoin to the Paropamifidae on the
eaft.
Aria, called Ariapolis, (Strabo) : Now Herat, in
Chorafan, fet down in an ancient map as fituated on the
river Arias, which probably gave name to the country
Aria. Arrian calls the river Areios; Pliny, Arius;
Ammian, Arias : now Heri, which runs by Alexan¬
dria, alfo called Alexandria Arion or Ariorum.
ARIADNALA, in Grecian antiquity, two feftivals
at Naxos, in honour of two women named Ariadne.
One of them being the daughter of King Minos, they
had, in the folemnity dedicated to her, a fhow of fur¬
row and mourning *, and, in memory of her being left
by Thefeus near the time of child-birth, it was ufual
for a young man to lie down and counterfeit all the
agonies of a woman in labour. This feftival is faid to
have been firft inftituted by Thefeus, to atone for his
ingratitude to that princefs.—The other Ariadne was
thought to be of a gay and fprightly temper ; and there¬
fore her feftival was obferved with mufic and other ex-
preflions of mirth and joy.
ARIADNE, daughter of Minos king of Crete.
Thefeus being lent to deftroy the Minotaur, Ariadne
was fo taken with him, that, as a teftimony of her
love, the gave Thefeus a clue of thread to guide him
out of the labyrinth. Thefeus, having killed the Mi¬
notaur, carried off the Athenians he had relieved, toge¬
ther with Ariadne : whom, however, he afterwards
forfook.
ARIADNIA, in antiquity. See Ariadnjea.
ARIANA, in Ancient Geography, an extenfive
country, comprifing Paropamifus, Arachofia, Drangi-
ana, and Gedrofia, if we fuppofe it to reach to the fea.
See Aria.
ARIANNA, a fmall village fix miles north-eaft
from the city of Tunis. Here is a beautiful range of the
ancient Carthaginian aqueduCt, 74 feet high, fupported
by columns 16 feet fquare, and which ftill increafed in
grandeur the nearer it approached Carthage. The
ftones are all diamond cut. Near this fpot feveral an¬
cient mattamones, or fubterraneous magazines for corn,
have been difcovered within thefe few years, capable of
containing 100 buftiels, ftrongly arched with large
fquare ftones. The Moors have already begun to de-
rnolifh them, it being their cuftom to do fo with every
thing beautiful as foon as it comes to light.
AR1ANO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples in the Ulterior Principality, with a bilhop’s
fee. Mr Swinburne defcribes it as an ugly city, built
upon the uneven fummit of a mountain, with an ex¬
tenfive look-out on all fides, but expofed to every
blaft that blows. It does not appear to be fo old as
the time of the Romans ; therefore may be fuppofed
to owe its rife to the demolition of fome neighbouring
town, and to the advantages its fituatiort afforded for
difcovery and defence. It is but a poor place* with¬
out
A R I [ 61
out trade or raanufaftures *, having declined ever fince
the defolation caufed by an earthquake in 1456. It
reckons about 14,000 inhabitants, and no lefs than 20
parilhes and convents, befides an ill-endowed cathedral.
The wine made here is pale, like red Champagne,
which it alfo refembles in a certain tartnefs, exceed¬
ingly refrething in hot weather. The foil lies upon a
foft argillaceous ftone. At a fmall didance to the eaft
is a bank confiding of layers of volcanic earths, in-
terfperfed with thick drata of oyder (hells. ^
Below the town is a convent of Dominicans, whofe
houfe, within thefe lad hundred years, has been thrice
rebuilt, having been as often thrown to the ground by
earthquakes. The lad and mod dedruftive happened
in 1732, fatal to all the country that lies along the
eadern verge of the Apennines. In order to fecure a
retreat in cafe of future accidents, which from their fi-
tuation they have every reafon to expect, thefe fathers
have condrudted a fmall building of wood, the parts of
which being joined together with drong iron chains,
are contrived fo as to have a proper play, and by yield¬
ing to the ofcillatory motion of the earth, return
eadly to their equilibrium. E. Long. 15. 19. N. Lat.
41. 8.
ARIANS, followers of Arius, a prelhyter of the
church of Alexandria about the year 315 who main¬
tained that the Son of God was totally and effentially
didindt from the Father ; that he was the fird and
nobled of thofe beings whom God had created, the
indrument by whofe fubordinate operation he formed
the univerfe; and therefore inferior to the bather both
in nature and dignity : alfo, that the Holy Ghod was
not God, but created by the powrer of the Son.
The Arians owned that the Son was the Word, but
denied that Word to have been eternal. They held,
that Chrid had nothing of man in him but.the de(h, to
which the Aayaj or Word was joined, which was the
fame as the foul in us. See Lardner1 s Credibility, &c.
vol. ix. book i. c. 69.
The Arians were fird condemned and anathematized
by a council at Alexandria in 3^<-)> under Alexander,
bidrop of that city ; who accufed Arius of impiety,
and caufed him to be expelled from the communion of
the church *, and afterwards by 380 fathers in the ge¬
neral council of Nice, adembled by Condantine in the
year 325. But, notwithdanding that, it was not ex-
tinguidred-, on the contrary, it became the reigning
religion, efpecially in the ead, where it obtained much
more than in the wed. Arius was recalled from ba-
nidiment by the emperor Condantine in two or three
years after the council of Nice, and the laws that had
been ena&ed againd him were repealed. In the year
335, Athanafius, his zealous opponent, was depofed
and banifhed into Gaul, and Arius and his followers
were reindated in their privileges, and received into
the communion of the church. In little more than a
year after this, he fell a viftim to the refentment of
his enemies, and died a tragical death, occafioned pro¬
bably by poifon, or fome other violence. The Arian
party found a protedlor in Condantius, who fucceeded
his father in the empire of the ead ; and the zeal with
which he abetted them produced many animofities and
tumults to the time of his death in the year 362. 1 hey
underwent various revolutions, perfecuting and oppref-
fed, under fucceeding emperors, according to the de-
! ] A R I
gree of intered they had in the civil power, till at
length Theodofius the Great exerted every poffible ef- —
fort to fupprefs and difperfe them.
The Arians were divided into various fe£ls, of
which ancient writers give an account under the names
of Semi-Arians, Eufebians, Actions, Eunomians, Aca¬
cia ns, Pfathyrians, and others. But they have been
commonly ddlributed into three claffes, viz. the Ge¬
nuine Arians, Semi- Arums, and Eunomians.
Arianifm was carried in the fifth century into Africa •
under the Vandals; and into Afia under the Goths.
Italy, the Gauls, and Spain, were alfo deeply infe&td
with it; and towards the commencement of the fixth
century, it was triumphant in many parts of Afia,
Africa, and Europe. But it funk almoft all at once,
when the Vandals were driven out of Africa, and the
Goths'out of Italy, by the arms of Juftinian. How¬
ever, it revived again in Italy under the protection ot
the Lombards in the feventh century.
Erafmus feems to have aimed in fome meafure to
reftore Arianifm at the beginning of the fixteenth cen¬
tury, in his Commentaries on the New Teftament.
Accordingly, he was reproached by his adverfaries with
Arian interpretations and gloffes, Arian tenets, &c.
To which he made little anfwer, fave that there was
no herefy more thoroughly extinCl than that of the
Arians : 'Nulla herefis magis extinBa quom Arianorum.
But the face of things was foon changed. Servetus,
a Spaniard by nation, publithed in 1531 a little trea-
tife againft the Trinity, which once more revived the
opinions of the Arians in the weft. Indeed he rather
(howed himfelf a Photinian than an Arian ; only that
he made life of the fame paflages of Scripture, and
the fame arguments pgainft the divinity of our Saviour,
with the proper Arians.
It is true, Servetus had not, properly fpeaking, any
difciples ; but he gave occafion after his death to the
forming of a new fyftem of Arianifm in Geneva, much
more fubtle and artful than his own, and which did not
a little perplex Calvin. From Geneva the new Arians
removed to Poland, where they gained confiderable
ground ; but at length became Socinians.
The appellation Arian has been indifcriminately ap¬
plied, in more modern times, to all thofe who confider
Jefus Chrift as inferior and fubordinate to the Father;
and whofe fentiments cannot be fuppofed to coincide
exadly with thofe of the ancient Arians. Mr Whifton
was one of the firft divines who revived this controver-
fy, in the beginning of the 18th century. He was
followed by Dr Clarke, who publifhed his famous book,
entitled, “ The Scripture Doftrine of the Trinity, &c.
In confequence of which he was reproached with the
title of Semi-Arian. He was alfo threatened by the
convocation, and combated by argument. Dr Wa-
terland, who has been charged with verging towards
Tritheifm, svas one of his principal adverfaries. The
hiftory of this controverfy during the prefent cen¬
tury may be found in a pamphlet entitled, “ An
Account of all the confiderable Books and Pam¬
phlets that have been wrote on either fide, in the
Controverfy concerning the Trinity, from the Year
1712; in which alfo is contained an Account of the
Pamphlets written this laft Year, on each fide, by the
Diffenters, to the End of the Year 1719.” Publilhed
in London 1720.
Arians.
4 H 2
ARICINA,
A R I [ 61
ARICINA, in Mythology, a furname of Diana j
under which appellation file was honoured in the foreft
Aricine, fo called from Aricia a princefs of the blood
royal of Athens. Hippolytus, to whom this princefs
was married, is laid to have eredted a temple to Diana
in this foreft, where he was concealed after his refur-
xe&ion by Efculapius, and to have ellablilhed a prieft
and feftivals.
ARIUS Montanus, a learned Spanifh divine, em¬
ployed by Philip II. of Spain to publifti another edi¬
tion of the Bible, after that of Cardinal Ximenes j
which he finilhed with applaufe, and died at Seville in
1589.
ARICA, a port town of South America, in the pro¬
vince of Los Charcas, in Peru. It was formerly a con-
fiderable place, but the earthquakes, which are frequent
here, have almoft entirely ruined it; for there are no
more than 150 families, which are moft of them blacks,
mulattoes, and Indians. Moft of the houfes are made
•with canes or reeds, fet upright and bound together
with cords er thongs \ and as it never rains here, they
are covered only with mats, which makes the place look
at a diftance like a heap of ruins.
The vale of Arica is about a league wide, and fix
leagues long, next the fea, and is all a barren country,
except the fpot where the old town flood, which is di¬
vided into little meadows of clover graft, and plots for
fugar canes, with a few olive and cotton trees inter¬
mixed. This vale grows narrower as it runs eaftward :
and a league up there is a village, where they begin to
cultivate pimento or Jamaica pepper, which is planted
throughout all the reft of the vale ; and there are fe-
veral farms, which produce nothing elle, that bring
in the value of 80,-too crowns yearly. The Spaniards
of Peru are fo ufed to this pepper, that they drefs
no provifions without it. W. Long. 70. I5*
18. 26.
ARICONIUM, a town of the Silures, (Antonine) j
now Hereford, (Camden). W. Long. 2. 42. Lat. 52. 6.
ARIDAS, a kind of tafivty, manufa&ured in the
Eaft Indies from a (hining thread which is got from
certain herbs, whence they are ftyled aridas of herbs.
ARIDULLAM, in Natural Hiftory, a kind of zar-
nich found in the Eaft Indies. See ZarnicH.
ARIES, in Xoology. See Ovis.
Aries, the battering ram. See BATTER1NG Ram.
Aries, in AJlronomy, a conftellation of fixed ftars,
drawn on the globe, in the figure of a ram. It is the
firft of the twelve figns of the zodiac, from which a
twelfth part of the ecliptic takes its denomination.
ARILLUS, an improper term invented by Lin¬
naeus, and defined to be the proper exterior coat or co¬
vering of the feed which falls off fpontaneoufly.
All feeds are not furnifhed with an arillus \ in many,
a dry covering, or fcarf fkm, fir, plies its place. In
jafmine $ hound’s tongue, cynog/offitm; cucumber j
fraxinella, di&amnus ; ftaff tree, celajbus i fpindle-tree,
euonymus ; African fpiraea, diofma ; and the coffee-tree,
cojfea ; it is very confpicuous.
In the genus hound’s tongue, four of thefe arilli or
proper coats, each enfolding a fingle reed, are affix¬
ed to the ftylus : and in this circumftance, fays Lin¬
naeus, does the eflence of the genus confift. In
ffaxinella, the arillus is common to two feeds. The
2 ] A R I
flaff tree has its feeds only half involved with this co- Ariil -
ver', ... , vu
The arillus is either baccatus, fucculent, and of the Arimaniu
nature of a berry 5 as in the fpindle tree, cuonymus— v
Carti/agineus, cartilaginous, or griftly $ as in the Afri¬
can fpiraea, diofma—Coloratus, coloured j as in the
ftaff tree—Elajlicus, endued with elafticity, for difperf-
ing the feeds •, as is remarkable in the African fpiraea,
diofma, and fraxinella—Scuber, rough and knotty j as
in hound’s tongue.
Although covered with an arillus or other dry coat,
feeds are faid to be naked (femina nuda') when they
are not enclofed in any fpecies of pericarpium or fruit
veffel j as in the graffes, and the labiati or lipped
flowers of Tournefort, which correfpond to the didynamia
gijmnofpermia of Linnaeus. Seeds are faid to be co¬
vered (femina tedlai) when they are contained in a fruit
veffel, whether capfule, pod, or pulpy pericarpium, of
the apple, berry, or cherry kind : (See Semen). This
exterior coat of the feed is, by fome former writers,
ftyled calyptra. See Calyptra.
The different (kins or coverings of the feeds are adap¬
ted, fay naturalifts, for receiving the nutritive juices,
and tranfmitting them within.
ARIMANIUS, the evil god of the ancient Per-
fians. The Perfian Magi held two principles ; a good
demon, or god, and an evil one : the firft the author
of all good, and the other of all evil : the former they
fuppofed to be reprefented by light, and the latter by
darknefs, as their trueft fymbols. The good principle
they named lCe%ad or ICefdan, and Ormo%d or Hormi%-
da, which the Greeks wrote Oromafdes ; and the evil
demon they called Ahriman, and the Greeks Arima-
nius. Some of the Magians held both thefe principles
to have been from all eternity ; but this fe£t was repu¬
ted heterodox : the original doftrine being, that the
good principle only was eternal, and the other created.
—Plutarch {De IJide et OJiride, p. 369.) gives the
following account of the Magian traditions in relation
to thefe gods, and the introdudlion of evil into the
world, viz. That Oromazes confifted of the moft pure
light, and Arimanius of darknefs ; and that they were
at war with each other : That Oromazes created the
gods j the firft, the author of benevolence •, the fecond,
of truth j the third of juftice, riches, and the plea-
fure which attends good adlions; and that Arimanius
made as many, who were the authors of the oppofite
evils- or vices : that then Oromazes, triplicating him-
felf, removed as far from the fun as the fun is from the
earth, and adorned the heaven with ftarsr- appointing
the dog ftar for their guardian and leader : that he al-
fo created 24 other gods, and enclofed them in an egg $
but Arimanius having alfo made an equal number, thefe
laft perforated the egg, by which means evil and good
became mixed together. However, the fatal time will
come, when Arrmanius, the introducer of plagues and
famine, muft be of neceffity utterly deftroyed by the
former, and annihilated j then the earth being made
plain and even, mankind ftiall live in a happy ftate, in
the fame manner, in the fame political fociety, and
ufing one and the fame language. Theopompus writes,
that, according to the Magians, the faid two gods,
during the fpate of 3000 years, alternately conquer*
and are conquered j that for other 3000 years, they
A R 1
Aritnafpi
Arion-
A 11 1 t 6l3 ]
•ii wa?e mutuai war, fight and deftroy the works of poetic hiflory than Bucephalus in that oi Alexander,
each other, till at .aft Hades (or the evil fpirit) toll Authors fpeak h^ ongtn, ^^7
Arion
perith, and men become perfeaiy happy, their bodies
' needing no food, nor cafting any fliadow, i. e. being
perfectly tranfparent. .
AllIMASPI, (Pliny), a people of Sarmatia Euro-
pea, to the fouth of the Montes Riplnei, faid by Mela
to have but one eye} a fable broached by Arifteas Pro-
connefius, according to Herodotus.
ARIMATHEA, a town of Judea, (Evangehfts) }
thought to be the fame with Ramatha, I Sam. i. and
thus in the tribe of Ephraim (Wells).—This place
is now called Ramla; and is in a very ruinous fiate,
containing nothing but rubbilh within its boundaries.
The aga of Gaza refides here in a ferai, the floors
and walls of which are tumbling down. He maintains
about one hundred horfemen, and as many Barbary
foldiers, who (fays Mr Volney) are lodged in an old
Chriftian church, the nave of which is ufed as a ftable,
and in an ancient khan, which is difputed with them by
the fcorpions. The adjacent country is planted with
lofty olive trees, difpofed in quincunces. The greateft
part of them are as large as the walnut trees of France}
but they are daily periftiing through age, the ravages
of contending faftions, and even from fecret mifchief:
for, in thefe countries, when a peafant would revenge
himfelf of his enemy, he comes by night, and faws or
cuts his trees clofe to the ground, and the wound,
which he takes care to cover, draining off the fap like
an iffue, the olive tree languiflies and dies. Amid
the plantations, we meet, at every ftep, with dry
wells, cifterns fallen in, and vaft vaulted relervoirs,
which prove that, in ancient times, this town muff
have been upwards of a league and a half in circumfe¬
rence. At prefent it fcarcely contains two hundred
families. The little land which is cultivated by a few
of them, belongs to the mufti, and two or three per-
fons related to him. The reft content themfelves with
fpinning cotton, which is chiefly purchafed by two
’French'houfes eftablifhed there. The only remarkable
antiquity at Ramla, is the minaret of a ruined molqne
on the road to Yafa, which is very lofty ■, and by an
Arabic infcription appears to have been built by the
fultan Saladin
ARIMINUM, a town of Umbria, or Romagna, at
the mouth of the Ariminus, on the gu;- of Venice.
The feizing on it by Caefar gave rife to the civil war.
Now called Rimini. E. Long. 13- 3° 44-
ARIOLI, in antiquity, a kind of prophets, or reli¬
gious conjurers, who by abominable prayers, and hor¬
rible facrifices at the altars of idols, procured anfoers
to their queftions concerning future events. IJid. Grig.
lib. vin. cap. Thefe are alfi> called hnrio>iy and the
operation hnnoiotion. Sometimes they were denomi¬
nated arufpices or harufpices. T he ano/i were diftm-
guifhed by a flovenly drefs, diforderly and matted
beards, hair, &e.
ARION, an excellent mufician and poet, inventor of
dithyrambics. Periander entertained Him at his court,
where getting an eftate, and returning to Corinth, the
failors, for lucre of his money, threw him into the fea 5
when, according to the poets, a dolphin, charmed with
his mufic, took him on her back and carried him fafe
to (bore.
Arion, an admirable horfe, much more famous in
Aviofto.
agree in giving him a divine
moft commonly afcribed to Neptune. This god, ac¬
cording to fume, raifed him out of the ground by a
ftroke of his trident: according to others, he begot him
upon the body of the. fury Erinnys; according to
others, upon that of Ceres, whom he raviftied in the
form of a horfe., (he having previoufly affumed the form
of a mare to elude his purfuit. f his horfe was nurfed
by the Nereids 5 and being fometimes yoked with the
fea horfes of Neptune to the chariot of this god, he
drew him with incredible fwiftnefs through the fea.
He had this Angularity in him, that his right feet re-
fembled thofe of a man. Ni ptune gave him to Capreus
king of Haliartus. Capreus made a prefent of him to
Hercules } who mounted him when, he took the city
of Elis, gained the prize with him in the race againft
Cygnus the fon of Mars near Trcecena, and at laft
made a prefent of him to Adraftus. It is under this
laft mafter that Arion has fignalized himfelf the moft.
he won the prize for racing at the Nemean games,
which the princes who went to befiege T hebes infli-
tated in honour of Archemorus *, and was the caufe
that Adraftus did not perith in this famous expedition
as all the. other chiefs did.
ARIOSTO, Lodovico, the famous Italian poet,
and author dt Orlando Furiofo, was born at the caftle
of Reggio in Lombardv in 1474. His father, who
Avas major domo to JD.ike Hercules, lived to the ex¬
tent of his fortune, to left but little at his death. A*
rioito, from his childhood, thowed great marks of ge¬
nius, efpecially in poetry ; and wrote a comedy in verfe
on lh.j Itory of Pyramus and Thiibe, which his brothers
and filters played. His father being utterly unlearned,
and rather regarding profit than his fon’s inclination,
compelled him to ftudy the civil law, in which ha¬
ving plodded forne years to no purpofe, he quitted it
for more pleafing Audits} yet often lamented, as Ovid
and P frarch d'^ before him, and our own Milton
fince*, that his father baniihed him from the Mufes. * See hls
At the age of 24, Ariofto loft his father, and found
himftlf perplexed with family affairs. However, in
about fix years he was, for his good parts, taken into
the fervice of Don Hippolito, cardinal of Efte. At
thi- time he had written nothing' but a few fonnetsj
but now he refolved to make a poem, and chofe Bay-
ardo’s Orlando Inamorata for a groundwork. How¬
ever, he was prevented writing for a great many years,
and was chofen as a fit perfon to go on an embaffy to
Pope Julius II. where he gave fuch fatisfa&ion, that
he was fent again, underwent many dangers and diffi¬
culties, and at his return %vas highly favoured. Then,
at his leifure, he again applied himfelf to his poem :
but foon after, he incurred the cardinal’s difpleafure
for refilling to accompany him into Hungary} by
which he ivas fo difc<mraged, that he deferred writing
for 14 vears, even till the cardinal’s death. After that,
he finithed by degrees, in great perfection, that which
he began with great expectation. Duke Aftolfo of¬
fered him great promotions if he would ferve him ; but
preferring liberty to grandeur, he refilled this and
other great offers from princes and cardinals, particu¬
larly from Leo X. from all whom he received not-
withftanding great prefents. The duke of terrara
delighted
A R I [ 614 ] ART
Ariodo. delighted fo much in his comedies, of which he wrote
five, that he built a ftage on purpofe to have them
played in his court, and enabled our poet to build him-
felf a houfe in Ferrara, with a pleafant garden, where
he ufed to compofe his poems, which were highly
efteemed by all the princes in Italy, whofent him many
prefents ; but he faid, “ he would not fell his liberty for
the beft cardinal’s hat in Rome.” It was but a fmall,
though convenient houfe : being alked, why he had
not built it in a more magnificent manner, fince he had
given fuch noble defcriptions of fumptuous palaces,
beautiful porticoes, and pleafant fountains, in his Or¬
lando Furiofo ? he replied, That words were cheaper
laid together than ftones. Upon the door was the fol¬
lowing infcription :
Varva^ fed apt a mihi,fed nulli obnoxia,fed non
Sordid a, porta meo fed tamen cere, do?nus.
Which Mr Harrington thus tranflates :
This houfe is fmall, but fit for me, but hurtful unto none j
But yet not fiuttifh, as you fee, yet paid for with mine
own.
In his diet he was temperate, and fo carelefs of dain¬
ties, that he was fit to have lived in the world when
they fed upon acorns. Whether he was ever married,
is uncertain. He kept company with one Alexandria,
to whom, it was reported, he was married privately,
and a lady Genevera, whom he (lily mentions in the
24th book of his Orlando, as poets are apt to intermix
with their fidtions feme real amours of their own. He
was urged to go ambaflador to Pope Clement, but
would by no means accept this embaffy. He tranllated
the Menecmi of Plautus: and all his own comedies
were fo efteemed, that they were frequently adted by
perfons* of the firft quality j and when his Lena was
firft reprefented, Ferdinand of Efte, afterwards mar¬
quis of Maffa, fo far honoured the piece as to fpeak the
prologue. He began one of his comedies in his fa¬
ther’s lifetime, when the following incident (hows the
remarkable talent he had for poetry. His father one
day rebuked him ftiarply, charging him with fome
great fault *, but all the while he returned him no an-
fwer. Soon after, his brother began on the fame fub-
jedt: but he eafily refuted him, and, with ftrong argu¬
ments, juftified his own behaviour. “ Why then (faid
his brother) did you not fatisfy my father ?” “ In
truth (faid Lodovico) I was thinking of a part in my
comedy *, and methought my father’s fpeech to me was
fo fuited to the part of an old man’s chiding his fon,
that I forgot I was concerned in it myfelf, and confi-
dered it only to make it a part of my play.” It is alfo
reported of Ariofto, that coming by a potter’s ftiop,
he heard him finging a ftave out of his Orlando, with
fo bad a grace, that, out of all patience, he broke
with his ftick feveral of his pots. The potter, in a pi¬
tiful tone, afldng ■what he meant by wronging a poor
man that had never injured him ? “ You rafeal (he
replied), I have not done thee half the wrong thou haft
done me : for I have broken but two or three pots of
thine, not worth fo many halfpence • whereas thou
haft broken and mangled a ftanza of mine worth a
mark of gold.”
Ariofto was tall, of a melancholy complexion, and fo
abforbed in ftudy and meditation, that he often forgot
himfelf. His pifture was drawn by Titian in a mafterly
manner. He was honoured with the laurel by the Ariofto
hands of the emperor Charles V. He was naturally |)
affable, always afluming lefs than was his due, yet never Ariftardei:
putting up a known injury, even from his fuperiors. 'r
He was fo fearful on the water, that, whenever he went
out of a (hip, he would fee others go before him ; and,
on land, he would alight from his horfe on the leaft ap-
prehenfion of danger. He was of an amorous difpofition,
and left two natural fons. He enjoyed the friendftiip
of the moft eminent men of learning of his time, moft
of whom he mentions with great refpedt in the laft
canto of his Orlando Furiofo. His conftitution was but
weakly, fo that he was obliged to have recourfe to phy-
ficians the greateft part of his life. He bore his laft
ficknefs with great refolution and ferenity ; and died at
Ferrara the 8th of July 1533, according to Sir John
Harrington, being then 59 years of age. He was in¬
terred in the church of the Benedidtine monks, who,
contrary to their cuftom, attended his funeral. He had
a buft erected to him, and the following epitaph, writ¬
ten by himfelf, inferibed upon his tomb :
Ludovici Ariofti humantur ofla
Sub hoc marmore, feu fub hac humo, feu
Sub quidquid voluit benignus haeres,
Sive haerede benignior comes, feu
Opportunius incidens viator:
Nam feire baud potuit futura: fed nec
Tanti erat, vacuum fibi cadaver
Ut urnam cuperet parare,
Vivens ifta tamen fibi paravit,
Quae feribi voluit fuo fepulchro,
Olim fi quod haberet id fepulchrum ;
Ne cum fpiritus hoc brevi perafto
Prefcripto fpatio mifellos artus,
Quos aegre ante reliquerat, repofeet,
Hac et hac cinerem hue et hue revellem
Dum nofeat proprium, diu vagetur.
ARIPO, a town on the weftern coaft of the ifland of
Ceylon, at the mouth of the river Sarunda. To the eaft
of this town, is a bank, where they fifti for pearls. E.
Long. 80. 25. N. Lat. 8. 42.
ARISBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
ifiand of Lefbos (Herodot).—Another of Troas on the
continent, in the territory and to the fouth-eaft of A-
bydos (Polyb.) : the rendezvous of Alexander’s army
after the palfage of the Hellefpont (Arrian) ; a colony
of the Mitylenians (Stephanus) j taken and plundered
by Achilles (Virgil.) The refidence of Axylus, cele¬
brated by Homer for his hofpitality, which gained him
the character of Friend of mankind.
ARISH, a Perfian longmeafure, containing about 38
Englifh inches.
ARISI, the Indian name for the plant which pro¬
duces the rice. See Oryza, Botany Index.
ARISTA, or Awn, among botanifts, a long needle-
like beard, which Hands out from the hulk of a grain
of corn, grain, &c.
ARISTiEUS, fon of Apollo and Cyrene, whom, for
the many fervices he had rendered to mankind by his
knowledge of all profitable arts, the gods placed among
the ftars; fo that he is the Aquarius in the zodiac.
The refemblance of his hiftory to that of Mofes has
been curioufly difeufled by Huetius.
ARISTANDER, a famous foothfayer under A-
lexander the Great, over whom he gained a wonder¬
ful
Ariftar-
ehus
II
Ariftwes.
A R I
ful Influenre by the good fuecefs of his art
already had the lame employment at the court of King
Philip ; and it was he who explained better than his
brethren the dream that this prince had after having
married Olympias.
ARISTARCHUS, a Grecian philufopber of Sa¬
mos, one of the firft that maintained that the earth
turns upon its own centre. We are not fare of the age
in which he lived; and have none of his works but a
Treatife of the greatnefs and difiance of the Sun and
Moon, tranflated into Latin by Frederic Commandine,
and publilhed with Pappus’s explanation in 1572.
Aristarchus, a celebrated grammarian, much
efteemed by Ptolemy Philometor, who committed to
him the education of his fon. He applied himfelf
chiefly to criticifm, and made a revifal of Homer’s
poems, but in too magitterial a way ; for fuch verfes
as he did not like he treated as fpurious. He com¬
mented on other poets. Cicero and Horace made ufe
of his name to exprefs a very rigid critic.
ARISTIDA. See Botany Index.
ARISTIDES, furnamed the Juf, one of the mofi.
celebrated chara£lers of his age for purity and integri¬
ty, and cotemporary with Themiftocles, was the fon of
Lyfimachus, a man of middle rank, and born at Athens.
His difpofitions and temper from his youth all conjoin¬
ed in anticipating that grealnefs to which be afterwards
arofe. To a firm, refolute, and placid temper, he like-
wife added a great contempt of diflimulation, and an
utter abhorrence of every thing difhonourable. He
began very early to meditate on fubjefts of govern¬
ment, and applied to his Rudies with the greateft afli-
duity. He imbibed a ftrong predile&ion for oligar¬
chy upon becoming acquainted with the laws of Ly-
curgus, which excited his admiration, and gave him a
diftafte of the unlimited democracy then eftablifhed in
his native city. On the other hand, Themiflocles fa¬
voured democracy; and even when at fchool, he is
faid to have been his conftant antagonift: on that point.
A perpetual oppofition to one another in all political
points, whether juft or unjuft, was the confequence
of this difference of opinion, when their abilities raifed
them to feveral important ftations in the ftate. Al¬
though it was deemed abfolutely neceffary at that time
for a party leader to oppofe all the a6Is of his antago¬
nift whatfoever with the greateft vehemence, yet A-
riftides did not follow this practice without felf-re-
proach. It is related, that one day having firmly op-
pofed a propofal of Themiftocles in the affembly, which
in his own confcience he knew to be right, on coming
out he exclaimed, “ The affairs of the Athenians will
never profper, till they throw both of us into the bara¬
thrum,'''' (the dungeon for condemned criminals). A-
riftides maintained a ftriet obfervance of juftice, and
when in his own opinion a friend was guilty, he would
never fcreen him from the puniftiment due to his of¬
fence. Neither defirous of profit nor honour, he ferved
his country from the pureft principles of duty ; and
his character was fo univerfally known, that once,
when thefe verfes of Aifchylus, defcribing Amphiaraus
were recited in the theatre,
<{ To be, and not to feem, is this man’s maxim j
“ His mind repofes on its confcious worth,
“ And wants no other praife”—
3
[ 615 ] A R I
He had the eyes of the whole affembly were immediately di-
redled towards Ariftides, as the true piflure of the *■
idea the poet wiftied to delineate. When in the office
of public treafurer, by convi&ing Themiftocles and fe¬
veral others of making tree with the public property,
he raifed up a party againft himfelf \ and when he gave
in his own account, they to retaliate the affront, ac-
cufed him of embezzling the public ftores : and it was
only by the interpofition of the court of Areopagus
that he got himfelf cleared. He was, however, again
elected to that office, and then, aith ugh he kept a fe-
cret account againft thofe people concerned with him,
he permitted them to plunder without reprehenfion.
It confequently fell out that he was univerfally praifed,
his acquaintance cultivated with the greateft avidity,
and intereft made on all fides to continue him in office :
But when the people were about to proceed to eleft
him again to that truft, he feverely chided them, and
faid, “ that while he had ferved them with fidelity he
was treated with calumny, and incurred their difplea-
fure j now that he had really violated his truft, he met
with general applaufe, and was reckoned an excellent
citizen.” He then exhibited their deceits, and made
all parties alhamed of the part they had adled.
Ariftides was prefent at the battle of Marathon,
fought B. C. 490, and was next in command among
the Athenians to Miltiades ; and there, upon that ge¬
neral’s propofing to come to battle as foon as poffible,
he feconded his motion with the utmoft vigour. In
the field he diftinguifhed himfelf with intrepidity, va¬
lour, and generofity ; and being left after the battle to
fecure the fpoils, Ire executed his truft with honour and
fidelity, bringing all to the public account, referving
nothing for himfelf. He was ele£led to the important
office of chief magiftrate the year following j but by
the art of Themiftocles, the high authority he had at¬
tained by his merits was at length converted into an
accufation againft him pand he was accordingly banifh-
ed by the oftraeifm, although a mild, often an unjuft,
meafure in the policy of the Athenian ftate, for get¬
ting a temporary relief from the prefence of any poli¬
tical influence by which they thought their independ¬
ence might be injured. A circumftance which oc¬
curred on this occafion gives a very high idea of his
chara&er. A ruftic citizen coming up to vote againft
him, although not perfonally acquainted with Ariftides,
and being himfelf unable to write, ordered the firft:
perfon whom he met, who accidentally happened to
be Ariftides himfelf, to infcribe his name upon the
flrell, fignifying his acquiefcence in the fentence of the
ftate. The patriot faid, “ Did Ariftides ever injure
you.. ?” The ruftic replied, “ I do not fo much as
know him, but I am tired with everywhere hearing
him called the‘JuJi.’'''—Ariftides, taking the fliell, wrote
his own name upon it, and returned it in filence to the
voter. Lifting up his hands to heaven, he fupplicated
that the Athenians might never behold the day which
fhould induce them to remember Ariftides; and then
quitted the city.
As the Perfians were meditating a new invafion of
Greece, he employed himfelf in his exile in encoura¬
ging the Greeks to defend their liberties againft the
invaders. The Athenians immediately, upon the ap¬
proach of Xerxes, recalled Ariftides, whofe abfence
they began fincerely to regret, along with their other
exile'.
Ariftide?.
A R I [ 61
Ariftides. exiles. At this critical moment, upon his return, he
^ fufpended all political animolities ; and upon under-
ftanding that it was the defign of Themiftocles to fight
the Perfian navy in the llraits of Salamis, he waited on
him in private, propofed an oblivion of all paft circum-
Itances, extolled his intentions, and gave him his fin-
cere promife to do the utmoft in his power towards ef-
fefting his defigns. Themiftocles, fome time after the
battle of Salamis, acquainted the Athenians that he had
formed a fcheme which, although it was of fuch a na¬
ture as forbade his public avowal of it to them, was of
ineftimable advantage to the. Hate. They immediately
ordered that he (hould communicate it to Ariftides.
It was a project for confuming the whole confederate
fleet of Greece by fire, except their own fhips ; and
thus the entire fway of the fea would be left to the
Athenian navy. Ariftides reported that nothing could
be more unj'uft, and at the fame time, nothing more ad¬
vantageous than the fcheme of Themiftocles. Upon
this report, the people immediately determined to drop
any further thought of it. It was equally to the ho¬
nour of the Athenians that they made fuch a determi¬
nation, and to Ariftides that he was made the referree
on this occafion. Ariftides, before the battle of Pla-
taea, was of confiderable fervice in perfuading his coun¬
trymen, who were elated with their former fucceffes,
to fubmit to the fuperior power of the Spartans, and in
preferving peace and amity between the confederate
forces. He acquitted himfelf with great valour and
refolution in the engagement, and was appointed after
the victory to determine a very dangerous difpute con¬
cerning the honour of the day, which he conferred
upon the Plataeans, giving up the claim of the Athe¬
nians, the Lacedemonians following his example. Upon
the rebuilding of Athens, he was the firft perfon to pro¬
mote a law which divided the adminiftration among the
citizens at large, and enjoined that the archons, or chief
magiftrates, (hould be elected out of the whole body of
the people, who had fo defervedly merited the favour of
the ftate.
Ariftides, upon the continuation of the war with the
Perfians, was fent along with Cimon, the fon of Mil-
tiades, to take the command of the Athenian forces in
the confederate army. Their humility and meeknefs,
compared with the haughty domineering temper of
Paufanias, fo engaged the reft of the allies, that the fu-
periority of rank was conferred upon Athens, with the
joint concurrence qf the other ftates. The nomination
of Ariftides to lay an equal affeffment upon all the
ftates for the purpofe of defraying the expence of the
Avar, was a fignal proof of the high idea all Greece had
of his integrity and juftice. The wifdom and impar-
tality Avith which he performed this commiflion gave
univerfal fatisfa&ion. He obliged all the confederates,
after this affair was terminated, folemnly to fwear to
all the articles of affociation. The advice Avhich he
afterAvards gave the Athenians to extend their OAvn
territories beyond their proper limits, muft certainly
have proceeded from fome very prefling neceflity, when
he thus drew down the confequenees of the perjury
upon his OAvn head. Ariftides, on Themiftocles’s fall¬
ing under the difpleafure of the ruling party, Avould
not concur in a capital profecution of him ; and in-
ftead of triumphing over an old enemy, he always fpoke
of him after his baniftiment with the higheft refpeft.
6 ] A R I
In that age it was common for men who had borne Ariftide, !r
the higheft public offices to make no increafe to their Ariftippu,*/'
private fortunes, but no man ever carried this difinte- V”,,llv
reftednefs to fo high a pitch as Ariftides. He Avas in¬
deed fo remarkably poor, that when a profecution was
raifed againft Callias, a rich relation of his, the orator
pleading againft him, in order to excite the indigna¬
tion of his audience, made fome remarks upon his abi¬
lity to aflift Ariftides, and at the fame time upon the
extreme indigence in which he permitted him and his
family to live. Callias, in his vindication, was forced
to call Ariftides to teftify that he had frequently of¬
fered him confiderable fums, which he would not ac¬
cept, faying, “ that it better became Ariftides to glory
in his poverty than Callias in his riches,” which appear
tft have been acquired not very honourably.
This great man died about 407 years B. C. accord¬
ing to fome at Athens, at an advanced age j others
fay at Pontus, where he was tranfadting public bufinefs.
He Avas buried at the public expence, and his daugh¬
ters received portions out of the public treafury ; and
a penfion and an eftate in land was bellowed on his
fon Lyfimachus, in gratitude for the fignal fervices
Ariftides had done his country. (Gen. Biog.)
Aristides of Miletus, a famous Greek author,
often cited by the ancients.
Aristides, a very eloquent Athenian orator, who
became a convert to the Chriftian religion, and about
the year 124 prefented to the emperor Adrian an apo¬
logy for the Chriftians.
Aristides, /Elius^ a celebrated orator, born in
Myfia, about 129 years before the Chriftian era. The
beft edition of his works is that of Oxford, printed in
Greek and Latin, in two volumes quarto.
Aristides, a painter cotemporary with Apelles,
flouriftied at Thebes about the i22d Olympiad. He
was the firft, according to Pliny, Avho expreffed cha-
radter and paflion, the human mind, and its feveral
emotions 5 but he was not remarkable for foftnefs of
colouring. “ His moft celebrated pidlure was of an
infant (on the taking of a town) at the mother’s breaft,
who is wounded and expiring. The fenfations of the
mother were clearly marked, and her fear left the
child, upon failure of the milk, fhould fuck her blood.”
Alexander the Great (continues the fame author)
took this pidlure with him to Pella.”
Junius (in his Treatife de BiEiura Veterum) conjec¬
tures that the following beautiful epigram of iEmili-
anus Avas Avritten on this exquifite pidlure :
EXKi, TttXccv, wasgtfS (tturgsj tv UK ixt [*.*£•* xftlX%Ui
EXkvo-ov vtrrxTtof vctpu, x-ctrx (p&ifttmf.
H Jn !<pes(r<r< Aittottva#? ctXXct rat
QiXrgcc KXi tin TrettotKotMiv ifixfai.
Elegantly tranflated thus :
Suck, little Avretch, Avhile yet thy mother lives,
Suck the laft drop her fainting bofom gives !
She dies ! her tendernefs furvives her breath,
And her fond love is provident in death.
WebPs Inquiries, Dial. vii. p. 161.
ARISTIPPUS, the founder of the Cyrenaic fedl of,
philofophy, Avas the fon of Aretades, and born at Gy¬
rene in Libya. He flouriftied about the 96th Olym¬
piad! The great reputation of Socrates induced him
' to
A R I [ 6i? ] A R I
i ftippus. to leave his own country, and remove to Athens, that
■' he might have the fatisfadtion of hearing his difcourfes.
He was chiefly delighted with thofe difcourfes of So¬
crates that related the mofl: to pleafure : which he af-
ferted to be the ultimate end in which all happinefs
confifts. His manner of life was agreeable to his opi¬
nion : for he indulged himfelf extremely in all the luxu¬
ries of drefs, wine, and women. Though he had a
good eftate, and three country feats, yet he was the
only one of the difciples of Socrates who took money
for teaching j which being difcoveredby the philofopher,
he alked Ariftippus, How he came to have fo much
Who in reply alked him, How he came to have fo lit¬
tle ? Upon his leaving Socrates, he went to ALgina,
as Athenseus informs us, where he lived with more free¬
dom and luxury than before. Socrates fent frequent
exhortations to him, in order to reclaim him 5 but all
in vain ; and with the fame view he publilhed that dif-
courfe which we find in Xenophon. Here Ariflippus
became acquainted with Lai's, the famous courtezan
of Corinth ; for whofe fake he took a voyage to that
city. He continued at Angina till the death of So¬
crates, as appears from Plato’s Phcedo, and the epiftle
which he wrote upon that occafion. He returned at
lafl: into his own country Cyrene, where he profefied
philofophy, and inftituted a fedl which, as we obferved
above, was called ihe Cyrenaic, from the place, and by
fome writers the Hedonic ox voluptuous, from its doc¬
trines. During the height of the grandeur of Diony-
lius the Sicilian tyrant, a great many philofophers re-
forted to him ; and among the reft Ariftippus, who
was tempted thither by the magnificence of that court.
Dionyfius alking him the reafon of his coming, he re¬
plied, “ That it was in order to give what he had,
and to receive what he had not or, as others repre-
fent it, “ That when he wanted wifdom, he went to
Socrates 5 but now as he wanted money, he was come
to him.” He very foon infinuated himfelf into the
favour of Dionyfius ; for being a man of a foft eafy
temper, he conformed himfelf exaftly to every place,
time, and perfon, and was a complete mafter of the
.moft refined complaifance.
We have feveral remarkable paflages concerning him
during his refidence at that court, mentioned by Dio¬
genes Laertius. Dionyfius, at a feaft, commanded that
all Ihould put on women’s purple habits, and dance in
them. But Platorefufed, repeating thefelines;
I cannot in this gay effeminate drefj
Difgrace my manhood or my fex betray.
But Ariftippus readily fubmitted to the command, and
made this reply immediately :
 At feafts, where mirth is free,
A fober mind can never be corrupted.
At another time, interceding with Dionyfius in behalf
of a friend, but not prevailing, he call; himfelf at his
feet: being reproved by one for that excefs of humility,
he replied, “ That it was not he who W’as the caufe of
that fubmiflion ; but Dionyfius, whofe ears -were in his
feet.” Dionyfius lliowed him three beautiful courte-
>zans, and ordered him to take his choice. Upon which
he took them all three away with him, alleging that
Paris was punifhed for preferring one to the other two:
but when he had brought them to his door, he difmif-
Vol. II. Part II.
fed them, in order to (how that he could either enjoy Ariftippus.
or reje<ft with the fame indifference. Having defired —-y—-j
money of Dionyfius, the latter obferved to him, that
he had affured him a wife man wanted nothing. “ Give
me (fays he) what I alk, and we will talk of that af¬
terwards.” When Dionyfius had given it him, “ Now
(fays he), you fee I do not want.” By his complai¬
fance he gained fo much upon Dionyfius, that he had a
greater regard for him than for all the reft of the philo¬
fophers, though he fometimes fpoke with fuch freedom,
to the king, that he incurred his difpleafure. When
Dionyfius alked, Why philofophers haunted the gates
of rich men, but not rich men thofe of philofophers:
he replied, “ Becaufe the latter know what they want,
and the others not.” Another time, Dionyfius re¬
peating (out of Sophocles, as Plutarch affirms, who
afcribes this to Zeno) thefe verfes,
He that with tyrants feeks for bare fupport,
Enllaves himfelf, though free he came to court:
he immediately anfvvered,
He is no Have, if he be free to come.
Diodes, as Laertius informs us, related this in his
Lives of the Philofophers ; though others afcribe this
faying to Plato. Ariftippus had a conteft with Antif-
thenes the Cynic philofopher j notwithftanding which,
he was very ready to employ his intereft at court for
fome friends of Antifthenes, to preferve them from
death, as we find by a letter of his to that philofopher.
Diogenes followed the example of his mafter Antif¬
thenes in ridiculing Ariftippus, and called him the court
fpanieL
We have many apophthegms of his preferved.—
To one who alked him what his fon would be the
better for being a fcholar ? “ If for nothing elfe
(laid he), yet for this alone, that when he comes in¬
to the theatre, one ftone will not fit upon another.”
When a certain perfon recommended his fon to
him, he demanded 500 drachmas; and upon the fa¬
ther’s replying, that he could buy a Have for that fum,
“ Do fo (faid he), and then you will be mafter of a
couple.” Being reproached, becaufe, having a fuit of
law depending, he fee’d a lawyer to plead for him,
“ Juft fo (faid he), when I have a great fupper to
make, I always hire a cook.” Being alked what was
the difference between a wife man and a fool, he re¬
plied, “ Send both of them together naked to thole
who are acquainted with neither of them, dnd then
you will know.” Being reproved by a certain per¬
fon (who, according to Mr Stanley, was Plato) for his
coftiy and voluptuous feafts, “ 1 warrant you (faid he),
that you would not have bellowed three farthings upon
fuch a dinner}” which the other confeffing, “Why,
then (faid he), I find myfelf lefs indulgent to my pa¬
late than you are to your covetous humour or, as it
is otherwife reprefented, “ I find, that I love my belly
and you love your money. “ When Siraus, treafurer
to Dionyfius, fliowed him his houfe magnificently fur-
niftied, and paved with coftiy marble, (for he was a
Phrygian, and consequently profufe) ; Ariftippus fpit
in his face : upon which the other growing angry,
“ Why, truly (faid he), I could not find a fitter place.
His fervant carrying after him a' great weight of mo¬
ney, and being ready to fink upon the road under his
4 I burden,
A 11 I [ 61
Ariffippuj. burden, be bid him throw away all that was loo much
— for him to carry. Horace mentions this fafl; in his
third fatire of the fecund book :
 ^nid pmile ijli
Gt'cecus Ar Jiippus ? qm fervos projicere durum
In media jujfit Libya, quia tardius irent
Propter onus fegnes.
Being afked, what things were moft proper for children
to be inltruCted in ? ht anfwered, “ Thofe which might
prove of the greateft advantage to them when they came
to be men.” Being reproached for going from Socrates
to Dionyfius, he replied, “ That he went to Socrates
when he wanted ferious inftruftion, and to Dionyfius
for diverfion.” Having received money of Dionyfius
at the fame time that Plato accepted a book only, and
being reproached for it, “ The reafon is plain (fays he),
1 want money, and Plato wants bopks.” Having loft
a confiderable farm, he faid to one who feemed excef-
fively to cotnpaftionate his lofs, “ You have but one
field ) I have three left: why fliould not I rather grieve
for you ?” Plutarch, who relates this, in his book De
Tranquil/itate SJnimi, obferves upon it, that it is very
abfurd to lament for what is loft, and not to rej ice for
what is left. When a perfon told him, “ That the
land for his fake was loft,” he replied, “ That it was
better fo, than that he fhould be loft for the land.”
Being call by fhipwreck aihore on the ifland of Rhodes,
and perceiving mathematical fchemes and diagrams
drawn upon the ground, he faid, “ Courage, friends;
for I fee the footfteps of men.”
After he had lived a long time with Dionyfius, his
daughter Arete fent to him, to defire his prefence at
Cyrene, in order to take care of her affairs, fince fhe
was in danger of Being opprelfed by the magiftrates.
But he fell fick in his return home, and died at Lipa-
ra, an Eolian ifland. With regard to his principal opi¬
nions, like Socrates, he rejected the fciences as they
were then taught, and pretended that logic alone was
’Tufilcient to teach truth and fix its bounds. He affert-
ed, that pleafure and pain were the criterions by which
we were to be determined ; that thefe alone made up
all our paffions ; that the firft produced all the foft
emotions, and the latter all the violent ones. The af-
femblage of al! pleafure, he aflerted, made true happi-
nefs, and that the beft way to attain this was to enjoy
the prefent moment'. He wrote a great many books:
particularly the hiftory of Libya, dedicated to Diony¬
fius ; feveral Dialogues : and four books of the Lux¬
ury of the ancients. There are four epiftles of his
extant in the Socratic collefiion publiflied by Leo Al-
)atiu<
Befides Arete his daughter, whom he educated in
philofophy, Ariflippus had alfo a fon, whom he difin-
herited for his ftupidity. Arete had a fon who was
named AriJHppus from his grandfather, and had the
furname of MvTgoctiexxToc, from his mother’s inftrudling
him in philofophy. Among his auditors, befides his
daughter Arete, we have an account of ^Ethiops of
Ptolemais, and Antipater of Cvrene. Arete commu¬
nicated the philofophy which (lie received from her fa¬
ther to her fon Ariflippus, who tranfmitted it to Theo-
dorus the Atheiji, who inflituted the fedl called Theo-
dorean. Antipater communicated the philofophy of
Ariftippus to Epitimedes his difciple ; Epitinacdes to
I
8 ] A 11 I
Parasbates; Par&hates to Hegefias and Anniceris : and ^
thefe two laft improving it by feme additions of their |j
own, obtained the honour each of them of giving a Arizo¬
na me to the Hegefiac and Annicerian fe6t. piianes.
ARISTO, a Stoic pliilofoplier, the difciple of Zeno
the chief of the Stoics, flourilhed about 290 years be¬
fore the Chriftian era. He dilfered but little from his
mailer Zeno. He rejected logic as of no ufe, and na¬
tural philofophy as being above the reach of the hu¬
man underftanding. It is faid, that being bald, the
fun burnt his head ; and that this caufed his death.—
There is a faying of his recorded, which might render
the doftrine of Ariftippus lefs odious than it ordinarily
is ; (fee Aristippus). He ufed to fay, “ That a
philofopher might do thofe of his hearers a prejudice
who put a wrong interpretation upon good meanings ;
as for example that the fchool of Ariftippus might
fend out debauchees, and that of Zeno cynics
which feems to imply, that the dotftrine of this philo¬
fopher never produced this effedt but when it was mif-
underftood. He fliould alfo have added, that every
teacher is therefore obliged to forbear lading down am¬
biguous maxims, or to prevent falfe gloffes being put
upon them.
ARISTOCRACY, a form of government where
the fupreme power is veiled in the principal perfons
of the ftate. The word is derived from optitms,
and Kg'XTitu, impero, “ I govern.” The ancient writers
of politics prefer the ariftoeratical form of government
to all others. The republic of Venice is an ariftocracy.
Ariftocracy feems to coincide with oligarchy ; which,
however, is more ordinarily ufed to fignify a corruption
of an ariftocratical ftate, where the ad rain ifi ration is in
the hands of too few, or where feme one or two ufurp
the whole power.
ARISTOGITON, a famous Athenian, who, with
Harmodius, killed Hipparchus tyrant of Athens, about
513 vears before the Chriftian era. The Athenians
eredled a ftatue to him.
ARISTOL ACHI A, Birthwort. See Botany
Index.
ARISTOMENES, a general of the Meffenians, re¬
nowned for his valour and virtue. See Messenia.
ARISTOPHANES, a celebrated comic poet of
Athens. Pie was contemporary with Plato, Socrates,
and Euripides ; and moft of his plays were written
daring the Peloponnefian war. His imagination was
warm and lively, and his genius particularly turned to
raillery. He had alfo great fpirit and refolution ; and
was a declared enemy to flavery, and to all thofe who
wanted to opprefs their country. The Athenians fuf-
fered themielves in his time to be governed by men
who had no other views than to make themfelves ma¬
ilers of the commonwealth. Ariftophanes ex pi fed the
defigns of thefe men, with great wit and feverify, upon
the ilage. Cleon was the firft whom he attacked, in
his comedy of the Equites; and as there was not one
of the comedians who would venture to perfonate a
man of his great authority, Ariftophanes played the
charafler himfelf, and with fo much fuccefs, that the
Athenians obliged Cleon to pay a fine of five talents,
which were given to the poet. He deferibed the af¬
fairs of the Athenians in fo exadl a manner, that his
comedies are a faithful hiftory of that pc pie. For
this reafon, when Dionyfius king of Syracufe defired
A?il [619] ARI
Ai-ifta. to learn the flate and language of Athens, Plato fent
phanes. him the comedies of Ariftophanes, telling him, thefe
  y ' were the belt reprefentations thereof. He wrote above
50 comedies •, but there are only 11 extant which are
perfect : theie are, Plutus, the Cloud-, the Frogs, E_
quites, the Acharnenfes, the Wafps, Peace, the Birds,
the Eccleliazufce or Female Orators, the Thefmopho-
fiazufae or Priefteffes of Ceres, and Lyfifirata. The
See the Qoag3? which he wrote in ridicule of Socrates*, is
Iterates* mo^ celebrated of all his comedies. Madame Da-
cier tells us, ihe was fo much charmed with this per¬
formance, that after ihe had trandated it, and read it
over 2DO times, it did not become the lead tedious to
her, which ihe could not fay of any other piece ; and
that the pleafure which ihe received from it was fo ex-
quifite, that (he forgot all the contempt and indigna¬
tion which Aridophanes deferved for employing his
wit to ruin a man who was wifdom itfelf, and the
greated ornament of the city of Athens. Aridophanes
having conceived fame averdon to the poet Euripides,
fatirizes him in feveral of his plays, particularly in his
Frogs and his Thefmophofiazufae. He wrote his Peace
in the 10th year of the Peloponnefian war, when a
treaty for 50 years was concluded between the Athe¬
nians and the Lacedaemonians, though it continued but
feven years. The Acharnenfes was written after the
death of Pericles and the lofs of the battle in Sicily,
in order to dilfuade the people from intruding the fafety
of the commonwealth to fuch imprudent generals as
Lamachus. Soon after, he reprefented his Aves or
Birds ; by which he admonifhed the Athenians to for¬
tify Decelaea, which he calls by a fiftitious name Ne-
phelococcygia. The Vefpte, or Wafps, was written af¬
ter another lofs in Sicily, which the Athenians dif¬
fered from the mifeonduft of Chares. He wrote the
Lyddvata when all Greece was involved in war ; in
which comedy the women are introduced debating upon
the affairs of the commonwealth j when they come to
a refolution, not to go to bed with their hufbands till
J a peace fhould be concluded. His Plutus, and other
comedies of that kind, were written after the magi-
ftrates had given orders that no perfon fhould be expo-
fed by name upon the dage. He invented a pecu¬
liar kind of verfe, which was called by his name, and
is mentioned by Cicero in his Brutus ; and Suidas fays,
that he alfo was the inventor of the tetrameter and oc¬
tameter verfe.
Ariftophanes was greatly admired among the an¬
cients, efpecially for the true Attic elegance of his
ftyle. The time of his death is unknown j but it is
certain he was living after the expuldon of the tyrants
by Thrafybulus, whom he mentions in his Plutus and
other comtdies. There have been feveral editions and
tranflations of this poet. Nicodemus Frifchin, a Ger¬
man, famous for his claftical knowledge, in the 16th
century, tronflated Plutus, the Clouds, the Frogs, the
Equites, and the Acharnenfes, into Latin verfe. Quin¬
tus Septimus Florens rendered into Latin verfe the
Wafps, the Peace, and Lydftrata •, but his trandation
is full of obfolete words and phrafes. Madame Dacier
publifhed at Paris in 1692, a French verdon of Plutus
and the Clouds, with critical notes, and an examina¬
tion of them according to the rules of the theatre.
Mr I ^ewis Theobald likewife tranllated thefe two come¬
dies into the Englifh, and publifhed them with remarks.
The mod noble edition of this author is that published Arlftotefia
by Ludolphus Kufter, at Amfterdam, in folio, in 1710, I!
and dedicated to Charles Montague earl of Halifax. ,
ARISTOTELIA, in antiquity, annual feafts cele¬
brated by the citizens of Stagyra, in honour of Ari-
ftotle, who was born there and in gratitude for his
having procured from Alexander the rebuilding and
repeopling of that city, which had been demoliftied
by King Philip.
ARISTOTELIAN, fomething that relates to thd
philofopher Ariftotle.
Aristotelian Philofophij, the philofophy taught
by Ariftotle, and maintained by his followers. The
Ariftotelian is otherwife called the Peripatetic Philofo-
phy. See PERIPATETICS.
ARISTOTELIANS, a fe61 of phiJofgphers, other-
wife called Peripatetics.
The Ariftotelians and their dogmata prevailed for a
long while in the fchools and univerfities j even in fnite
of all the efforts of the Cartefians, Newtonians, and
other corpufcularians. But the fyfteras of the latter
have at length gained the pre-eminence ; and the New¬
tonian philofophy in particular is now very generally
received. The principles of Ariftotle’s philofophy,
the learned agree, are chiefly laid down in the four
books de Ccelo; the eight books of Phyjical. Situfculta-
tton, (pvTtKvii ettc^oxc-wg, belonging rather to logic, or
metaphyfics, than to phyfics. Inftead of the more an¬
cient fyftems, he introduced matter, form, and priva¬
tion, as the principles of all things ; but he docs not
feem to have derived much benefit from them in natu¬
ral philofophy. His doftrines are, for the moft part,
fo obfeurelv expreffed, (hat it has not yet been fatis-
fa&orily afeertained what were his fentiments on fome
of the moft important fubjefts. He attempted to re¬
fute the Pythagorean dodtrine concerning the twofold
motion of the earth ; and pretended to demonftrate,
that the matter of the heavens is ungenerated, incor¬
ruptible, and fubjeft to no alteration 1 and he fuppofed
that the ftars were carried round the earth in folid
orbs. The reader will find a diftinct account of the
logical part of his philofophy, by Dr Reid profeffor of
moral philofophy in the univerfity of Glafgow, and in
the fecond volume of Lord Karnes’s Sketches of the
Hiftory of Man. Mr Harris has pubKftied a commen¬
tary on his Categories, under the title of Philofophical
Arrangements.
ARISTOTLE, the chief of the Peripatetic pliilo-
fophers, born at Stagyra, a fmall city in Macedon, in
the 99th Olympiad, about 384 years before the birth
of Chrift. He was the fun of Nicomachus, phyfician
to Amyntas the grandfather of Alexander the Great.
He loft h is parents in his infancy ; and Pn-xenes, a
friend of his father, who had the care of his educa¬
tion, taking but little notice of him, he quitted hi*
ftudies, and gave himfelf up to the follies of youth.
After he had fpent moft of his patrimony, he entered
into the army ; but not fucceeding in this profeffion, he
went to Delphos to confult the oracle what courfe of
life he fhould follow ; when he was advifed to go to
Athens and ftudy philofophy. Fie accordingly went
thither about 18 years of age, and ftudied under Plato
till he was 37. Bv this time he had fpent his whole
fortune ; and we are told that he got his living by
felling powders, and fome receipts in pharmacy. He
4 I 2 followed
A R I [620
Ariftctle. fallowed his ftadies with moft extraordinary diligence,
fo tliat he foon fnrpaffed all in Plato’s fchool. He ate
little, and flept leis ■, and that he might not overfleep
himfelf, Diogenes Laertius tells us, that he lay always
with one hand out of the bed, having a ball of brafs in
it, which, by its falling into a bafon of the fame me¬
tal, awaked him. We are told, that Ariftotle had fe-
veral conferences with a learned Jew at Athens, and
that by this means he inftru&ed himfelf in the fciences
and religion of the Egyptians, and thereby faved
himfelf the trouble of travelling into Egypt. When
he had fludied about 15 years under Plato, he began
to form different tenets from thofe of his matter, who
became highly piqued at his behaviour. Upon the
death of Plato, he quitted Athens •, and retired to A-
tarnya, a little city of Myfia, where his old friend Her-
mias reigned. Here he married Pythias, the lifter of
this prince, whom he is faid to have loved fo paflion-
ately, that he offered facriiice to her. Some time after,
Hermias having been taken prifoner by Meranon, the
king of Perfia’s general, Ariftotle went to Mitylene
the capital of Lefbos, where he remained till Philip
king of Macedon having heard of his great reputation,
fent for him to be tutor to his fon Alexander, then
about 14 years of age: Ariftotle accepted the offer;
and in eight years taught him rhetoric, natural philo-
fophy, ethics, politics, with a certain fort of philofo-
phy, according to Plutarch, which he taught nobody
elfe. Philip ereffed, ftatues in honour of Ariftotle;
and for his fake rebuilt Stagyra, which had been al-
moft ruined by the wars.
The laft fourteen years of his life he {pent moftly at
Athens, furrounded with every afliftance which men
and books could afford him for profecuting his philo-
fophical inquiries. The glory of Alexander’s name,
which then filled the world, enfured tranquillity and
refpeft to the man whom he diftinguilhed as his friend :
but after the premature death of that illuftrious protec¬
tor, the invidious jealoufy of priefts and fophifts inflam¬
ed the malignant and fuperftiLious fury of the Athenian
populace ; and the fame odious paflions which proved
fatal to the offenfive virtue of Socrates, fiercely affailed
the fame and merit of Ariftotlc. To avoid the. cruelty
of perfecution, he fecretly withdrew himfelf to Chalcis
in Euboea. This meafure was fufficiently juftified by a
prudent regard to his perfonal fafety ; but left his con-
du£t fhould appear unmanly, when contrafted with the
firmnefs of Socrates in a fimilar fituation, he condefcend-
ed to apologife for his flight, by faying, that he was
unwfllling to afford the Athenians a fecond opportunity
“ to fin againft philofophy.” He feems to have fur-
vived his retreat from Athens only a few' months ; vex¬
ation and regret probably ended his days.
Befides his treatifes on philofophy, he wrote alfo on
poetry, rhetoric, law, &c. to the number of 400 trea¬
tifes, according to Diogenes Laertius; or more, ac¬
cording to Francis Patricius of Venice. An account
of fuch as are extant, and of thofe faid to be loft, may
be feen in Fabricius’s Bibliotheca Grccca, He left his
writings with Theophraftus, his beloved difciple and
fucceffor in the Lycseum ; and forbade that they fliould
ever be publifhed. Theophraftus, at his death, trufted
them to Neleus, his good friend and difciple : whofe
heirs buried them in the ground at Scepfis, a town of
Troas, to fecure them from the king of Pergamus,
4
1
A R X
who made great fearch everywhere for books to adorn Ariftotle
his library. Litre they lay concealed 160 years, until, ||
being almoft fpoiled, they were fold to one Apellicon, Arilloxe-
a rich citizen of Athens. Sylla found them at this , "us'
man’s houfe, and ordered them to be carried to Rome. v_ ^
They were fome time after purcbafed by Tyrannioh
a grammarian : and Andronicus of Rhodes having
bought them of his heirs, was in a manner the firft re-
ftorer of the works of this great philofopher ; for he
not only repaired what had been decayed by time and
ill keeping, but alfo put them in a better order, and
got them copied. There w’ere many who followed
the dotftrine of Ariftotle in the reigns of the 1 2 Cae-
fars, and their numbers increafed much under Adrian
and Antoninus : Alexander Aphrodinus was the firft
profeffor of the Peripatetic philofophy at Rome, being
appointed by the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lu¬
cius Verus ; and in fucceeding ages the doftrine of
Ariftotle prevailed among almoft all men of letters,
and many commentaries were written upon his
works.
The firft doftors of the church difapproved of the
doftrine of Ariftotle, as allowing too much to reafon
and fenfe ; but Antoninus biftiop of Laodicea, Didy-
mus of Alexandria, St Jerome, St Auguftin, and fe-
veral others, at length wrote and fpoke in favour of it.
In the fixth age Boethius made him known in the
weft, and tranflated fome of his pieces into Latin. But
from the time of Boethius to the eighth age, Joannes-
Damafcenus was the only man who made an abridge¬
ment of his philofophy, or wrote any thing concerning
him. The Grecians, who took great pains to reftore
learning in the lith and following ages, applied much
to the works of this philofopher, and many learned
men wrote commentaries on his writings : amongft
thefe were Alfarabius, Algazel, Avicenna, and Aver-
roes. They taught his doftrine in Africa, and after-
xvards at Cordova in Spain. The Spaniards introduced
his doftrine into France, with the commentaries of A-
verroes and Avicenna ; and it was taught in the uni-
verfity of Paris, until Amauri having fupported fome
particular tenets on the principles of this philofopher,
was condemned for herefy, in a council held there in
1210, when all the works of Ariftotle that could be
found were burnt, and the reading of them forbidden
under pain of excommunication. This prohibition was
confirmed, as to the phyfics and metaphyfics, in 1215,
by the pope’s legate ; though at the fame time he gave
leave for his logic to be read, inftead of St Auguftin’s,
ufed at that time in the univerfity. In the year 1265,
Simon, cardinal of St Cecil, and legate from the holy
fee, prohibited the reading of the phyfics and meta¬
phyfics of Ariftotle. All thefe prohibitions, however,
were taken off in 1366 ; for the cardinals of St Mark
and St Martin, who were deputed by Pope Urban V.
to reform the univerfity of Paris, permitted the read¬
ing of thofe books which had been prohibited : and in
the year 1448, Pope Stephen approved of all his works,
and took care to have a new tranflation of them into
Latin.
ARISTOXENUS, one of the moft ancient mu-
fical writers, was born at Tarentum, a city in Magna
Grcecia, now Calabria. He was the fon of a mu-
fician, and it appears that he lived about the time of
Alexander the Great and his fucceffors.. His Har¬
monics
A R I r 621 ] A R I
iriftexe- monies in three books, all that are come down to us,
nus. together with Ptolemy’s Harmonics, were firft publilh-
—v ' 1 1 ed by Gogavinus, but not very correftly, at Venice,
1562, in 410, with a Latin verfion. John Meurfius
next tranilated the three books of Arilloxenus into La¬
tin, from the MS. of Jof. Scaliger; but according to
Meibomius, very negligently. With thefe he printed
at Leyden, 1616, 4to, Nicomachus and Alypius, two
other Greek writers on mufic. After this, Meibomius
collected thefe mufical writers together •, to which
he added Euclid, Bacchius fenior, Ariftides Quintili-
anus 5 and publilhed the whole with a Latin verlion
and notes, from the elegant prefs of Elzevir, AmiL
A R I T H
S a fcience which explains the properties of num¬
bers, and (hows the method or art of computing
by them.
Hiftory of Arithmetic.
1 At what time this fcience was firfl introduced into
the world, we can by no means determine. That
fome part of it, however, was coeval with the human
race is abfolutely certain. We cannot conceive how
any man endowed with reafon can be without fome
knowledge of numbers. We are indeed told of na¬
tions in America who have no word in their language
to exprefs a greater number than three ; and this they
call poetarrarorincouroac: but that fuch nations Ihould
have no idea of a greater number than this, is abfo¬
lutely incredible. Perhaps they may compute by
threes, as we compute by tens •, and this may have oc-
cafioned the notion that they have no greater number
than three.
But though we cannot fuppofe any ilation, or indeed
any fingle perfon, ever to have been without fome
knowledge of the difference between greater and
fmaller numbers, it is poffible that mankind may have
fubfifted for a confiderable time without bringing this
fcience to any perfe&ion, or computing by any regu¬
lar fcale, as 10, 60, &c. That this, however, was
very early introduced into the world, even before the
flood, we may gather from the following expreffion in
Enoch’s prophecy, as mentioned by the apoitle Jude :
“ Behold, the Lord cometh with ten thoufands of his
faints.” This (hows, that even at that time men had
ideas of numbers as high as we have at this day, and
computed them alfo in the fame manner, namely, by
tens. The directions alfo given to Noah concerning
the dimenfions of the ark, leave us no room to doubt
that he had a knowledge of numbers, and of meafures
likewife. When Rebekah was fent away to Ifaac,
Abraham’s fon, her relations withed file might be the
mother of thoufands of millions ; and if they were to¬
tally unacquainted with the rule of multiplication, it
is difficult to fee how fuch a wifh could have been
formed.
It is probable, therefore, that the four fundamental
rules of Arithmetic have always been known to fome
nation or other. No doubt, as fome nations, like the
Europeans formerly, and the Africans and Americans
1652. The learned editor dedicates thefe ancient mu- Ariftoxe.
fical treatifes to Chriflina queen of Sweden. Ariftoxe- nus.
nus is laid by Suidas to have written 452 different
works, among which thofe on mufie were the moft
efteemed •, yet his writings on other fubjeCts are very
frequently quoted by ancient authors, notwithftanding
Cicero and fome others fay that he was a bad philofo-
pher, and had nothing in his head but mufic. The
titles of feveral of the loft works of Ariftoxenus, quoted
by Athenaeus and others, have been collected by Meur¬
fius in his notes upon this author, by Tonfius and Me¬
nage, all which Fabricius has digefted into alphabeti¬
cal order.
M E T I C
now, have been immerfed in the moft abjeCt and de¬
plorable ftate of ignorance, they might remain for
fome time unacquainted with numbers, except fuch as
they had immediate occafion for j and, when they came
afterwards to improve, either from their own induftry,
or hints given by others, might fancy that they them-
felves, or thofe from whom they got the hints, had
invented what was known long before. The Greeks 2
were the firft European nation among whom arithme¬
tic arrived at any degree of perfection. M. Goguet
is of opinion, that they firft ufed pebbles in their cal¬
culations : a proof of which he imagines is, that the
wmrd which comes from a little ftone,
or flint, among other things, fignifies to calculate. The -
fame, he thinks, is probable of the Romans ; and de¬
rives the word calculation from the ufe of little ft ones
(calculi) in their firft arithmetical operations.
If this method, however, was at all made ufe of, it
muft have been but for a ffiort time, fince we find the
Greeks very early made ufe of the letters of the alpha¬
bet to reprefent their numbers. The 23 letters of
their alphabet taken according to their order, at firft;
denoted the numbers I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20,
30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600,
700, and 800 ; to which they added the three follorv-
ing, y, b, D, to reprefent 6, 90, and 900. The diffi¬
culty of performing arithmetical operations by fuch
marks as thefe may eafily be imagined, and is very
confpicuous from Archimedes’s treatife concerning the
dimenfions of a circle.
The Romans followed a like method ; and befides 3
characters for each rank of claffes, they introduced
others for five, fifty, and five hundred. Their method
is ftill ufed for diftinguilhing the chapters of books,
and fome other purpofes. Their numeral letters and
values are the following :
I V X L C D M
One, five, ten, fifty, one hundred, five hundred, one thoufand.
Any number, however great, may be reprefented
by repeating and combining thefe according to the fol¬
lowing rules:
1 ft, When the fame letter is repeated twice, or of-
tener, its value is reprefented as often. Thus II fig¬
nifies two ; XXX thirty ; CC two hundred.
2d, When a numeral letter of lefler value is placed
after one of greater, their values are added ; thus XI
fignifies
62.2
A R I T H
Sexagefi-
mal Arith¬
metic.
Indian cha-
racers,
when
brought
into ufe.
fignmcs eleven, LXV nxty-five, MDCXXVIII one
thoufand fix hundred and twenty-eigdit.
3d, When a numeral letter of leffer value i,s placed
before one or greater, the value of the Idler b taken
from that of the greater : thus IV fignifies four, XL
forty, XC ninety, CD four hundred.
Sometimes ID L ufed inltead of D for 500, and the
value is increafed ten times by annexing 0 to the
right hand.
Thus 19 fignifies 500 Allb 919 is ufed for icco
199 CCI99 for 10000
1999 50000 CCCI999 for 100000
Sometimes thoufands are reprefented by drawing a
line over the top of the numeral V being ufed for
five thoufand, L for fifty thoufand, CC two hundred
thoufand.
About the year of Chrift 200, a ne\v kind of arith¬
metic, called fexagejttnal, was invented, as is fuppoled,
by Claudiu1' Ptolemaeus. The defign of it was to re¬
medy the difficulties of the common method, efpecially
with regard to fractions. In this kind of arithmetic,
every unit was fuppofed to be divided into 60 parts,
and each of thefe into 60 others, and fo on : hence any
number of fueh parts were called fexagejimal fractions ;
and to make the computation in whole numbers more
eafy, he made the progreffion in thefe alfo fexagefimal.
Thus from one to 59 were marked in the common
•way : then 60 was called a fexagefima prima, or firtf
fexagefimal integer, and had one Angle dalh over it; fo
60 was expreffed thus l'; and fo on to 59 times 60, or
3540, which was thus expreffed LIX'. He now pro¬
ceeded to 60 limes 60, which he called a fexagefmafe-
cunda, and was thus expreffed I". In like manner,
twice 60 times 60, or 7200, was expreffed by IP'*, and
fo on till he came to 60 times 3600, which was a third
fexagefimal, and expreffed thu'-, V". If any number
lefs than 60 was joined with thefe fexagefimais, it was
added in its proper characters without any dalh ; thus
I'XV reprefented 60 and 15, or 75 ; I'VXXV is four
times 60 and 25, or 265 ; X'TPXV, is ten times
3600, twice 60 and 15, or 36, 135, &e. Sexagefimal
fractions were marked by putting the dalh at the foot,
or on the left hand of the letter : thus I/ or 'I de¬
noted -jV 5 I// or "T T<roo> &.c.
The molt perfeCt method of notation, which we
now ufe, came into Europe from the Arabians, by
the way of Spain. The Arabs, however, do not pre¬
tend to be the inventors of them, but acknowledge
that they received them from the Indians. Some
there are, indeed, who contend that neither the Arabs
nor the Indians were the inventors, but that they were
found out by the Greeks. But this is by no means
probable •, as Maximus Planudes, who lived towards
the clofe of the 13th century, is the fitil Greek who
makes ufe of them : and he is plainly not the inventor ;
for Dr Wallis mentions an infeription on a chimney
in the parfonage houfe of Helendon in Northampton-
ftiire, where the date is expreffed by M° 133, inftead
of 1133. Mr Luffkin furnilhes a ftill earlier inflance
of their ufe, in the window of a houfe, part of which
is a Roman wall, near the market place in Colchefter •,
where between two carved lions Hands an efcutcheon
with the figures 1090. Dr Wallis is of opinion that
M E T I C. Hiftory.
thefe characters mull have, been ufed in England at leaft
as long ago as the year 1050, if not in ordinary affairs,
at leall in mathematical ones, and in affronomical tables.
How thefe characters came to be originally invented by
the Indians we are entirely ignorant.
r he introduction of the Arabian characters in no¬
tation did not immediately put an end to the fexage-
fimal arithmetic. As this had been ufed in all the
agronomical tables, it was for their fakes retained for
a considerable time. 'The fexagefimal integers went
firil out, but the fractions continued till the invention
of decimals.
I he oldeit treatites extant, upon the theory of arith- Treatifes os.
metic, are the feventh, eighth, and ninth books of Eu-arithmetic*
clid’s Elements, where he treats of proportion and of
prime and compolite numbers ; both of which have
received improvements fince his time, efpecially the
former. The next, of whom wc know any thing, is
Nicomachus the Pythagorean, who wrote a ti'eatife of
the theory of arithmetic, confifting chiefly of the di-
flinftions and divifions of numbers into claffes, as plain,
folid, triangular, quadrangular, and the refl of the figu-
rate numbers as they aie called, numbers odd and
even, 8ic. with feme of the more general' properties of
thefeveral kinds. This author is, by fome, faid to have
lived before the time of Euclid ; by others, not long
after. His arithmetic was publifhed at Paris in 1538.
The next remarkable writer on this fubjeCI is Boethius,
who lived at Rome in the time of Theodoric the Goth.
Pie is fuppofed to have copied meft of his works from
Nicomachus.
From this time no remarkable writer on arithme¬
tic appeared till about the year 1200, when Jordanus
of Namur wrote a treatife on this fubjed, which was
publifhed and demonftrated by Joannes Faber Stapu-
lenfis in the 15th century, foon after the invention of
printing. The fame author alfo wrote upon the new
art of computation by the Arabic figures, and called
this book Alqotifmus Demorr/iratus, Dr Wallis fays,
this manufeript is in the Savillian library at Oxford,
but it hath never yet been printed. As learning ad¬
vanced in Europe, fo did the knowledge of numbers :
and the writers on arithmetic foon became innumer¬
able. About the year 1464, Regiomontanus, in his
triangular tables, divided the radius into 10,000
parts, infitad of 60,000 \ and thus tacitly expelled the
fexagefimal arithmetic. Part of it, however, Hill re¬
mains in the divifion of time, as of an hour into 60
minute^, a minute into 60 feconds, &c. Ramus in
his arithmetic, written about the year 1550, and pub¬
lifhed by Lazarus Schonerus in 1586, ufed decimal
periods in carrying on the fquare and cube roots to
fraflions. The fame had been done before by our
countrymen Buckley and Record ; but the firfl who
publifhed an exprels treatife on decimals was Simon
Stevinius, about the year 1582. As to the circulating
decimals. Dr Wallis is the firft who took much no¬
tice of them. He is alfo the author of the arithmetic
of infinites, which has been very ufefully applied to
geometry. The greateft improvement, however, which
the art of computation ever received, is the invention
of logarithms. T he honour of this invention is un-
queflionably due to Baron Napier of Merchifton in
Scotland, about the end of the 16th or beginning of
Chap. I. A I! I T II
Notation the 17th century. By thefe means arithmetic has ad-
and Name-Vanced to a degree of perfection which the ancients
Lrat‘ n‘ , could never have imagined poffible, much lefs hoped to
attain ; and we believe it may now he reckoned one of
thofe few faiences which have arrived at their utmoft
height, and which is in its nature capable of little fur¬
ther improvement.
Chap. I. NOTATION and NUMERATION.
The firft elements of arithmetic are acquired dur¬
ing our infancy. The idea of one, though the fim-
pleft of any, and fuggefled by every lingle objeft, is
perhaps rather of the negative kind, and con fids part¬
ly in the exclulion of plurality, and is not attended to
till that of number be acquired. Two is formed by
placing one objeff near another; three, four, and
every higher number, by adding one continually to
the former collection. As we thus advance from
lower numbers to higher, we foon perceive that there
is no limit to this increafing operation •, and that,
whatever number of objefls be collefted together,
more may be added, at lead, in imagination ; fo that
we can never reach the highed poflible number, nor
approach near it. As we are led to underdand and
add numbers by collecting objeCls, fo we learn to di-
minidi them by removing the objeCls collected *, and
if we remove them one by one, the number deereafes
through all the deps by which it advanced, till only*
one remain, or none at all. When a child gathers as
many dones together as fuits his fancy, and then throws
them away, he acquires the fird elements of the two
capital operations in arithmetic. The idea of numbers,
which is fird acquired by the obfervation of fenfible
objeCts, is afterwards extended to meafures of fpace
and time, affeCtions of the mind, and other immaterial
qualities.
Small numbers are mod eafily apprehended : a child
foon knows what two and what three is ; but has
not any diftinCt notion of feventeen. Experience re¬
moves this difficulty in fume degree *, as we become
accudomed to handle larger collections, we apprehend
clearly the number of a dozen or a (core ; but per¬
haps could hardly advance to a hundred without the
aid of claffical arrangement, which is the art of form¬
ing fo many units into a clafs, and fo many of thefe
clafles into one of a higher kind, and thus advancing
through as many ranks ot clafies as occahon requires.
If a boy arrange an hundred dones in one row, he
would be tired before he could reckon th^m ; but if
he placed them in ten rows of ten doncs each, he will
reckon an hundred with cafe ; and if he colleCt ten
fucb parcels, he will reckon a thoufand. In thb cafe,
ten is the lowed clals, a hundred is a clafs of the fe-
cond rank, and a thoufand is a clafs of the third
rank.
There does not feem to be any number naturally
adapted for condhuting a clafs of the lowed, or any
higher rank, to the exclufion of others. However, as
ten has been univerddly ufed for this purpofe bv the
Hebrews, Greeks, Romans, and Arabians, and by all
nations who have cultivated this fcience, it is proba¬
bly the mod convenient for general ufe. Other feales,
however, may be a flamed, perhaps on fome occa'
MET! c: 623
lions, with fuperior advantage; and the principles of Not nr on
arithmetic will appear in their full extent, if the itu and Nume-
dent can adapt them to any fcale whatever : thus, if ;iil'ori-
eight were the fcale, 6 times 3 would be two claffes, '' ' ^
and two units, and the number 18 would then be re-
prefented by 22. If 12 were the fcale, 3 times C) would
be three claffes and nine units, and 45 would be repre-
fented by 39, &c.
It is proper, whatever number of units conditutes
a elafs of the lower rank, that the fame number of
each clafs ffiould make one of the next higher. This
is obferved in our arithmetic, ten being the univerfal
feale : but it is not regarded in the various kinds of
moneys, weights, and the like, which do not advance
by any univerfal meafure; and much of the difficulty
in the practice of arithmetic arifes from that irregula¬
rity.
As higher numbers are fomewhat difficult to appre¬
hend, we naturally fall on contrivances to fix them in
our minds, and render them familiar : but notwith-
llanding all the expedients we can fall upon, our ideas
of high numbers are ftill imperfedd, and generally far
lliort of the reality ; and though we can perform any
computation with exadlnefs, the anfvver we obtain is
often incompletely apprehended.
It may not be amifs to illuftrate, by a few exam¬
ples, the extent of numbers which are frtquently
named without being attended to. If a petfim em¬
ployed in telling money reckon an hundred pieces in
a minute, and continue at work ten hours each day,
he will take feventeen days to reckon a million ; a
thoufand men would take 45 years to reckon a bil¬
lion. If we fuppwfed the whole earth to be as well
peopled as Britain, and to have been fo from the
creation, and that the whole race of mankind had
conftantly fpent their time in telling from a heap
confiding of a quadrillion of pieces, they would hard¬
ly have yet reckoned the thoufandth part of that quan¬
tity.
All numbers are reprefented by the ten following
charatlers.
1 2 3 45^7 89 o
One,two, three, four, five, fix, feven,eight, nine, cypher.
The nine fird are called Jignificarit figurcs, or digits ;
and fometimes reprefent units, fometimes tens, hun¬
dreds, or higher elaffes. When placed fingly, they
denote the fimple numbers fubjorned to the charac¬
ters. When feveral are placed together, the fird or ^
right-hand figure only is to be taken for its fimple
value : the fecund fignifies fo many tens, the third fo
many hundreds, and the others fo many higher
claffes, according to the order they fiand in. And
as it may fometimes be required to exprefs a num¬
ber confiding of tens, hundreds, or higher claffes,
without anv units or claiTes of a lower rank annexed ;
and as this can only be done by figures danding in
the fecond, third, or higher place,- while there are
none to fill up the lower ones; therefore an additional
character or cypher (o) is neceffary, which has no fig-
nification when placed by itfelf, but ferves to fupply the
vacant places, and bring the figures to their proper fta-
tior.
I he following table ffiows the names and divifions of
the claffes.
8
624
Notation
and Nume¬
ration.
A R I T II M E T I C.
S. 4. 3. 7. 9. 8. 2. 5. 6. 4. 7. 3. 8. 9. 7. 2. 6. 4, 5,
JD _a ,a _o
^ -u -a fl
^ 0 0 c a) a)
o g c n a
« ^2 ^iS o 3
J 3 D -£= 1—1
h) O O hH
0<
"O G
^ D aj
-a ^
c
3
G G G G C
.2 0 .2 .2 .2
'2 1= ‘s's 'a
^ 14-, na -3 G
w o c aj aj
S 'g n3 e2 H
‘ 2 G G
tiS ,« o
Gl _
14 2
-1 ^3
.pq -
13
QJ
'^hW
13 13 "6 -d c ti
C C C <U a ' G
i2 dS dS -3 H L3
g g a c
O O O 3
-G ^ ^3 ^
^ HK
c« 13 C
t?; a a
2iH
^ §
3. k
Chap. II.
feveral fums obtained are eafily retained in the memo- Addition,
is neither neceflary nor ufual to mark them v 
13 H
G
£
The firft fix figures from the right hand are called
the unit period, the next five the million period, after
which the trillion, quadrillion, quintillion, fextillion,
fcptillion, oRillion, and nonillion periods follow in their
order.
It is proper to divide any number, before we reckon
it, into periods and half periods, by different marks.
We then begin at the left hand, and read the figures
in their order, with the names of their places, from the
table. In writing any number, we muft be careful to
mark the figures in their proper places, and fupply the
vacant places with cyphers.
As there are no pofiible ways of changing numbers,
except by enlarging or diminilhing them according to
fome given rule, it follows, that the whole art of
arithmetic is comprehended in two operations, Addition
and SubtraRion. However, as it is frequently required
to add feveral equal numbers together, or to fubtratff
feveral equal ones from a greater, till it be exhaufted,
proper methods have been invented for facilitating
the operation in thefe cafes, and diftinguilhed by the
names of Multiplication and Divijion; and thefe four
rules are the foundation of all arithmetical operations
whatever.
As the idea of number is acquired by obferving fe¬
veral objefls collected, fo is that of fraftions by obferv¬
ing an object divided into feveral parts. As we fome-
times meet with objefts broken into two, three, or more
parts, we may confider any or all of thefe divifions
promifcuoufly, which is done in the dodbine of vulgar
fraftions, for which a chapter will be allotted. How¬
ever, fince the practice of collecting units into par¬
cels of tens has prevailed univerfally, it has been found
convenient to follow a like method in the confidera-
tion of fractions, by dividing each unit into ten equal
parts, and each of thefe into ten fmaller parts ; and fo
on. Numbers divided in this manner are called Deci¬
mal FraRions.
Chap. II. ADDITION.
Addition is that operation by which we find the
amount of two or more numbers. The method of do¬
ing this in fimple cafes is obvious, as foon as the mean¬
ing of number is known, and admits of no illullra-
tion. A young learner will begin at one of the num¬
bers, and reckon up as many units feparately as there
are in the other, and practice will enable him to do it
at once. It is impoflible, ftri£Uy fpeaking, to add
more than two numbers at a time. We muft firft
find the fum of the firft and fecond ; then we add the
third to that number 5 and fo on. However, as the
346863
876734
123467
3I42I3
712316
438987
279654
ry, it
down. When the numbers confift of more figures
than one, we add the units together, the tens together,
and fo on. But if the fum of the units exceed ten, or
contain ten feveral times, we add the number of tens
it contains to the next column, and only fet down the
number of units that are over. In like manner we
carry the tens of every column to the next higher.
And the reafon of this is obvious from the value of the
places *, fince an unit, in any higher place, fignifies the
fame thing as ten in the place immediately lower.
Example*
Role. “ Write the numbers diftinftly,
“ units under units, tens under tens j and
“ fo on. Then reckon the amount of the
“ right-hand column. If it be under ten,
“ mark it down. If it exceed ten, mark
“ the units only, and carry the tens to the
“ next place. In like manner, carry the
“ tens of each column to the next, and mark
“ down the full fum of the left-hand co- 3092234
u lumn.” 24433
As it is of great confequence in bufinefs to perform
addition readily and exaftly, the learner ought to
pra6tice it till it become quite familiar. If the learn¬
er can readily add any two digits, he will foon add a
digit to a higher number with equal eafe. It is only
to add the unit place of that number to the digit j
and, if it exceed ten, it raifes the amount accordingly.
Thus, becaufe 8 and 6 is 14, 48 and 6 is 54. It will
be proper to mark down under the fums of each co¬
lumn, in a fmall hand, the figure that is carried to the
next column. This prevents the trouble of going
over the whole operation again, in cafe of interrup¬
tion or miftake. If you wTant to keep the account
clean, mark down the fum and figure you carry on a
feparate paper, and after revifing them, tranfcribe the
fum only. After fome pra&ice, we ought to acquire
the habit of adding two or more figures at one glance.
This is particularly ufeful when turn figures which
amount to 10, as 6 and 4, or 7 and 3, Hand together
in the column.
Every operation in arithmetic ought to be revifed,
to prevent miftakes ; and as one is apt to fall into the
fame miftake, if he revife it in the fame manner he per¬
formed it, it is proper either to alter the order, or elfe
to trace back the fteps by which the operation advan¬
ced, wrhich will lead us at laft to the number we began
wdth. Every method of proving accounts may be re¬
ferred to one -or other of thefe heads.
ift, Addition may be proven by any of the following
methods : Repeat the operation, beginning at the top of
the column, if you began at the foot when you wrought
it.
2d, Divide the account, into feveral parts j add thefe
feparately, and then add the fums together. If their
amount correfpond with the fum of the account, when
added at once, it may be prefumed right. This method
is particularly proper when you want to know the fums
of the parts, as well as that of the whole.
3d, Subtract the number fucceflively from the fum ;
if the account be right, you will exhauft it exactly, and
find no remainder.
When
Chap.
Addition.
II. - ARITHMETIC.
When ihe given number ctmfifts of articles of dif-
’ ferent value, as pounds, {hillings, and pence, or the
like, which are called different denominations, the ope¬
rations in arithmetic muft be regulated by the value of
the articles. We {hall give here a few of the moft
ufeful tables for the learner’s information.
II. Avoirdupois Weight.
16 Drams=:i ounce, 02.
16 Ounce^m pound, lb.
28 Poundsrzi quarter, qr.
4 Quart.~ 1 hun. wght, C.
20 Hun. weightzzi ton, T.
I. Sterling Money.
4 Farthings=l penny,
marked d.
12 Pences I {hilling, s.
20 Shillings=ri pound, L.
Alfo, 6s. 8d.= i noble
12s.—1 angel
13s. 4d. or two-thirds
of a pounds 1 merk.
Scots money is divided in the fame manner as fter-
ling, and has one twelfth of its value. A pound Scots
is equal to is. 8d. Iterling, a {hilling Scots to a penny
fterling, and a penny Scots to a twelfth part of a penny
flerling; a merk Scots is two-thirds of a pound Scots,
or 13 yd. Sterling.
III. Troy Weight. IV. Apothecaries Weight.
20 Mitesm grain, gr. 20 Grainszri fcruple, j)
24 Grainsi=i pen.w1, dw1. 3 Scruples=:i dram, 3
20 Penny wts= I ounce, oz. 8 Dramsm ounce, 3
12 Ounces=i pound, lib. 12 Ounces=:i pound, lb
V. Eng/i/h Dry Meafure. VI. Scots Dry Meafure.
2 Pintsm quart
4 Quartszii gallon
2 Gallonsm peck
4 Pecksm bufliel
8 Buftielsiri quarter
VII. Englifh Land Mea¬
fure.
4 Lippies=i peck
4 Peck-m firlot
4 Firlotsrzrl boll
16 Bolls=:i chalder
VIII. Scots Land Mea¬
fure.
30y Square yardszrl pole 36 Square ells=rl fall
or perch
40 Polesm rood
4 Roods= 1 acre
IX. Long Meafure.
12 Inchesrr 1 foot
3 Feetm yard
5t Yards—1 pole
40 Poles—I furlong
8 Furlongs—1 mile
3 Milesm league
40 Falls zr 1 rood
4 Roodszzi acre
X. Time.
60 Seconds=i minute
60 Minuteszzi hour
24 Hourszzi day
7 Days=i week
365 Days=i year
52 Weeks & 1 dayrr 1 year
Rule for Compound Addition. “ Arrange like quan-
“ tities under like, and carry according to the value of
“ the higher place.”
Note 1. When you add a denomination, which con¬
tains more columns than one, and from which you car¬
ry to the higher by 20, 30, or any even number of tens,
firft add the units of that column, and mark down their
ium, carrying the tens to the next column ; then add
the tens, and carry to the higher denomination, by the
number of tens that it contains of the lower. For ex¬
ample, in adding {hillings, carry by 10 from the units
to the tens, and by 2 from the ten« to the pounds.
Note. 2. If you do not carry by an even number of
tens, firft find the complete fum of the lower denomi¬
nation, then inquire how many of the higher that fum
contains, and carry accordingly, and mark the remain-
Vol. II. Part II.
625
der, if any, under the column. For example, if the Addition,
fum of a column of pence be 43, which is three Ihil- v ■ '
lings and fevenpence, mark 7 under the pence column,
and carry 3 to that of the {hillings.
Note 3. Some add the lower denominations after the
following method : when they have reckoned as many
as amounts to one of the higher denomination, or up¬
wards, they mark a dot, and begin again with the ex-
cefs of the number reckoned above the value of the de¬
nomination. The number of dots fhows how many are
carried, and the laft reckoned number is placed under
the column.
Examples in Sterling Money.
L.145 6
2J5 3
172 18
645 7
737 2
35 3
9 -
1764 12
780 - -
99 9 9
150 10 -
844 9 7
L. 16 9 iil
169 16 10
36 12 9I
54 7 6
30 - il
7 19 6
707 19 11
14 14 4
84 18 81
125 3 7
16 16 81
62 5 3
In Avoirdupois Weight.
T. c.' qr. Ih. T. C. qr. lb.
*9
H
18
1
1
J7
1S
6
6
4
5
26
16
16
27
10
24
18
5
9
4
5
15
3
7
2
3
18
1
3
4
6
1
24
*9
26
10
12
1
7
9
5
4
When one page will not contain the whole account,
we add the articles it contains, and write againft their
fum Carried forward; and we begin the next page
■with the fum of the foregoing, writing againft it,
Brought forward.
When the articles fill feveral pages, and their whole
fum is known, which is the cafe in tranfcribing ac¬
counts, it is beft to proceed in the following manner:
Add the pages, placing the fums on a feparate paper j
then add the fums, and if the amount of the whole be
right, it only remains to find what number {hould
be placed at the foot and top of the pages. For this
purpofe, repeat the fum of the firft page on the fame
line; add the fums of the firft and fecond, placing
the amount in a line with the fecond ; to this add
the turn of the third, placing the amount in a line
with the third. Proceed in the like manner with the
others ; and if the laft fum orrefponds with the amount
of the page, it is right. Theft* fums are tranferibed at
the foot of the refpe&ive pages, ahd tops of the follow¬
ing ones.
4 K Examples.
625
ARITHMETIC.
L. 134 6 8
42 3 9 L. 170
Examples.
I73 4 9
42 5 7
l63 7 4
148 5 8
73 2 3
66
73 8
45 3
5 4 l-7° 4 2 L.15 3
98 18 6 8 12 2
6
78
12
7 9
12 13
*5 3
J7 5
18 6
8 f 1
-96
- 5 IQ
L.
L.
L.
L.
1 ft Page, L. 778 16
2d,- 445 14
3d, 151 19
4th, 43 6
- L. 778 16 -
5 1224 10 5
9 1376 10 2
ir 1419 17 1
L. 1419 17 1
Then we tranfcribe 778I. r6s. at the foot of the firft
and top of the fecond pages, 1224I. 10s. 5d. at the foot
of the fecond and top of the third ; and fo on.
Chap. III. SUBTRACTION.
Subtraction is the operation by which we take a
lefltr number from a greater, and find their difference.
It is exadUy oppofite to addition, and is performed by
learners in a like manner, beginning at the greater, and
reckoning downwards the units of the leffer. The great¬
er is called the minuend, and the leffer the fubtrahend.
If any figure of the fubtrahend be greater than the
correfponding figure of.the minuend, we add ten to that
of the minuend, and having found and marked the dif¬
ference, we add one to the next place of the fubtrahend.
This is called borrowing ten. The reafon will appear,
if we confider that, when two numbers are equally in-
creafed by adding the fame to both, their difference will
not be altered. When we proceed as directed above,
we add ten to the minuend, and we likewife add one to
the higher place of the fubtrahend, which is equal to
ten of the lower place.
Rule. “ Subtraft units from units, tens from tens,
“ and fo on. If any figure of the fubtrahend be greater
“ than the correfponding one of the minuend, barrow
41 ten.”
Example. Minuend 173694 738641
Subtrahend 21453 379235
Remainder 152241 359406
To prove fubtra&ion, add the fubtrahend and re¬
mainder together ; if their fum be equal to the minuend,
the account is right.
Or fubtraft the remainder from the minuend. If the
difference be equal to the fubtrahend, the account is
right.
RuLE_/or Compound SubtraElion. “ Place like deno-
“ minations under like ; and borrow, when neceflary,
“ according to the value of the higher place.”
Examples.
C. qr. lib.
3 12 3 19
6 4 3 24
L.
146
58
A.
!5
12
F.
24
36
E.
18
7
T. 87 15 9 7 3 23 23 28 11
Note 1. The reafon for borrowing is the fame as in
fimple fubtradlion. Thus, in fubtra&ing pence. yve add.
Subtrac¬
tion.
Chap. 113
12 pence when neceffary to the minuend, and at the
next ftep, we add one ftiilling to the fubtrahend.
Note 2. When there are two places in the fame de¬
nomination, if the next higher contain exadlly fo many
tens, it is beft to fubtract the units firft, borrowing ten
when neceffary ; and then fubtraft the tens, borrowing,
if there is occafion, according to the number of tens in
the higher denomination.
Note 3. If the value of the higher denomination be
not an even number of tens, fubtraft the units and tens
at once, borrowing according to the value of the higher
denomination.
Note 4. Some choofe to fubtratt the place in the fub¬
trahend, when it exceeds that of the minuend, from the
value of the higher denomination, and add the minuend
to the difference. This is only a different order of pro¬
ceeding, and gives the fame anfwer.
Note 5. As cuftom has eftabliftied the method of pla¬
cing the fubtrahend under the minuend, we follow it when
there is no reafon for doing otherwife ; the minuend may
be placed under the fubtrahend with equal propriety j
and the learner fiiould be able to work it either way,
with equal readinefs, as this laft is fometimes more con¬
venient 5 of which inftances will occur afterwards.
Note 6. The learner ftiould alfo acquire the habit,
w'hen two numbers are marked down, of placing fuch
a number under the leffer, that, when added together,
tha fum may be equal to the greater. The operation
is the fame as fubtraftion, though conceived in a dif¬
ferent manner, and is ufeful in balancing accounts and
on other occafions.
It is often neceffary to place the fums in different co¬
lumns, in order to exhibit a clear view of w7hat is re¬
quired. For inftance, if the values of feveral parcels of
goods are to be added, and each parcel confifts of feve¬
ral articles, the particular articles ftiould be placed in an
inner column, and the fum of each parcel extended to
the outer column, and the total added there.
If any perfon be owing an account, and has made
fome partial payments, the payments muft be placed in
an inner column, and their fum extended under that of
the account in the outer column, and fubtra&ed there,.
An example or two will make this plain,
ift.] 30 yards linen at 2s. L. 3 — —
45 ditto at is. 6d. 3 7 6
120 lb. thread at 4s. L.24
40 ditto at 3s. 6
30 ditto at 2s. 6d. 3
-L.6 7 6
!5
33 J5
2d.] 1773.
Ian. 15. Lent James Smith L. 50
L.40
22. Lent him further
Feb. 3. Received in part
5. Received further
In gold L.io 10
In filver 13
70
L. I2C
L. 62
23 10
85 10
Balance due me L.34 10
Chap.
Multipli¬
cation.
;hap. IV. ARITHMETIC.
Chap. IV. MULTIPLICATION.
In multiplication, two numbers are given, and it is
required to find how much the firft amounts to, when
reckoned as many times as there are units in the fe-
cond. Thus, 8 multiplied by 5, or 5 times 8, is 40.
The given numbers (8 and 5) are called faclors; the
firft (8) the multiplicand; the fecond (5) the multiplier;
and the amount (40) the product.
This operation is nothing elfe than addition of the
fame number feveral times repeated. If we mark 8 five
times under each other, and add them, the fum is 40.
But, as this kind of addition is of frequent and extenfive
ufe, in order to Ihorten the operation, we mark down
the number only once, and conceive it to be repeated
as often as there are units in the multiplier.
For this purpofe, the learner muft be thoroughly ac¬
quainted with the following multiplication table, which
is compofed by adding each digit twelve times.
Twice
1 is 2
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
4
6
8
10
12
16
18
20
22
24
Thrice
1 is 3
2
6
9
12
x5
18
Eight times
1 is 8
2 16
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
24
32
40
48
56
64
72
80
88
96
21
24
27
3°
33
36
Nine times
1 is 9
2
Four times:
1 is 4
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
44
48
Five times
1 is 5
2 IO
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
*5
20
25
3°
35
40
45
50
55
60
Six times
1 is 6
2 12
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
18
27
36
45
54
63
72
81
90
99
108
Ten times
i is 10
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
IIC
120
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
to
11
(2
Eleven times
i is 11
18
24
30
36
42
48
54
60
66
72
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
22
33
44
55
66
77
88
99
110
121
132
Seven times
1 is 7
2 14
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Twelve times
1 is 12
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
21
28
35
42
49
56
63
70
77
84
24
36
48
60
72
84
96
108
120
122
144
If both factors be under 12, the table exhibits the
produdt at once. If the multiplier only be under 12,
we begin at the unit place, and multiply the figures in
their order, carrying the tens to the higher place, as in
addition.
Ex. 76859 multiplied by 4, or 76859 added 4 times.
4 76859
   76859
3°7436 76859
307436
If the multiplier be 10, we annex a cypher to the
multiplicand. If the multiplier be loo, we annex two
cyphers ; and fo on. The reafon is obvious, from the
ufe of cyphers in notation.
If the multiplier be any digit, with one or more
cyphers on the right hand, we multiply by the figure,
627
and annex an equal number of cyphers to the product. MuItipU-
Thus, if it be required to multiply by 50, we firft mul- cation,
tiply by 5, and then annex a cypher, It is the fame ^
thing as to add the multiplicand 50 times-, and this
might be done by writing the account at large, dividing
the column into 10 parts of 5 lines, finding the fum of
each part, and adding thefe ten firms together.
If the multiplier confift of feveral fignificant figures,
avc multiply feparately by each, and add the produ&s.
It is the fame as if we divided a long account of addi¬
tion into parts correfponding to the figures of the mul¬
tiplier.
Example. To multiply 7329 by 365
7329 7329 7329 36645=: 5 times.
5 60 300 439740= 60 times.
  — " 1 ■ -— - 2198700=3001111163.
36645 439740 2198700     
2675085=365 times.
It is obvious that 5 times the multiplicand added to
60 times, and to 300 times, the fame muft amount to
the produtt required. In pra&ice, we place the pro- '
duds at once under each other 5 and as the cyphers
arifing from the higher places of the multiplier are loll
in the addition, we omit them. Hence may be infer¬
red the following
Rule. “ Place the multiplier under the multipli¬
cand, and multiply the latter fucceflively by the figni¬
ficant figures of the former ; placing the right-hand
figure of each produd under the figure of the multi-
“ plier from which it arifes j then add the produd.”
Ex. 7329
365
36645
43974
21987
2675085
42785
91
42785
385P65
3893435
37846
235
93956
8704
189230 375824
II3538 657692
75692 751648
8893810 817793024
.A number which cannot be produced by the multi¬
plication of two others is called a prime number; as
3> 5> 7> II> an<I many others.
A number which may be produced by the multipli¬
cation of two or more fmaller ones, is called a compojite
number. For example 27, which arifes from the multi¬
plication of 9 by 3 j and thefe numbers (9 and 3) are
called the component parts of 27.
ContraBions and Varieties in Multiplication.
Firft, If the multiplier be a compofite number, we
may multiply fucceffively by the component parts.
Ex. 7638 by 45 or 5 times 9 7638 ift,
45 9 2d,
3d,
5492 by 72
13759 b7 56
56417 by 144
73048 by 84
38190 687424th,
3-552 5 5th, 166549 by 125
“  6th, 378914 by 54
342710 343710 7th> 520813 by 63
u ,
Becaufe the fecond produd is equal to five times the
firft, and the firft is equal to nine times the multi-
4 K 2 plicand,
628
Ex. jft.J
1372
84
2d.]
1348
36
5488
IO976
8088
4044
II5248
48528
In the firft example, inftead of multiplying by 5, we
may multiply 5480 by 2 ; and, in the fecond, inftead
of multiplying by 3, we may divide 8088 by 2.
Fifthly, Sometimes the produft of two or more figures
may be obtained at once, from the produdl of a figure
already found.
Ex. 1 ft.] 14356
648
2d.] 3462321
96484
114848
918784
9302688
13849284
166191408
332382816
334058579364
In the fecond example, we multiply firft by 4; then
becaufe 12 times 4 is 48, we multiply the firft line
of the produft by 12, inftead of multiplying feparately
by 8 and 4 j laftly, becaufe twice 48 is 96, we multi¬
ply the fecond line of the produft by 2, inftead of mul¬
tiplying feparately by 6 and 9.
When we follow this method, we muft be careful to
place the right-hand figure of each produdl under the
right-hand figure of that part of the multiplier which it
is derived from.
It would anfwer equally well in all cafes, to begin
the work at the higheft place of the multiplier j and
contractions are fometimes obtained by following that
order
Ex. 1 ft.] 3125
642
3I25
642
2d.] 32452
52575
18750
12500
6250
18750
1312S°
2006250
2006250
162260
811300
2433900
[706163900
A R I T H
Mu It ip! i- plicand, it is obvious that the fecond produtt muft be
cation, five times nine, or forty-five times as great as the mul-
' ' tiplicand.
Secondly, If the multiplier be 5, which is the half'
of 10, we may annex a cypher, and divide by 2. If
it be 25, which is the fourth part of 100, we may
annex two cyphers, and divide by 4. Other con¬
tractions of the like kind will readily occur to the
learner.
Thirdly, To multiply by 9, which is one lefs than
10, we may annex a cypher j and fubtraCt the multi¬
plicand from the number it compofes. To multiply
by 99,999, or any number of 9% annex as many cy¬
phers, and fubtraCt the multiplicand. The reafon is
obvious j and a like rule may be found, though the
unite place be different from 9.
Fourthly, Sometimes a line of the produCt is more
eafily obtained from a former line of the fame than from
the multiplicand.
M E T I C.
Chap. 1V;
It is a matter of indifference which of the faCtors Multinli
be ufed as the multiplier j for 4 multiplied by 3 gives cation.1’
the fame produCt as 3 multiplied by 4 ; and the like-v—
holds univerfally true, To illuftrate this, we may
make three rows of points, four in each ....
row, placing the rows under each other ; . . . .
and we ftiall have alfo four rows, con- ....
taining three points each, if we reckon the rows down¬
wards.
Multiplication is proven by repeating the operation,
ufing the multiplier for the multiplicand, and the mul¬
tiplicand for the multiplier. It may alfo be proven by
divifion, or by calling out the 9’s j of which after¬
wards ; and an account, wrought by any contraction,
may be proven by performing the operation at large, or
by a different contraction.
Compound Multiplication.
Rule I. “ If the multiplier do not exceed 12, the
“ operation is performed at once, beginning at the
“ loweft place, and carrying according to the value of
“ the place.”
[Examples.Cwt. qr. lb. A. R. P. Lb. o^.divt.
L. 13 6 7 12 2 8 13 3 18 759
9 5 6 12
L.119 19 3 62 3 12 83 — 28 89 5
Rule II. “ If the multiplier be a compofite number,
“ whofe component parts do not exceed 12, multiply
“ firft by one of thefe parts, then multiply the produCt
“ by the other. Proceed in the fame manner if there
“ be more than two.”
Ex. lit.] L. 15 3
8 by 32=8X4
8
L.121 9
4 = 8 times.
4
L.485 17 4 = 32 times.
2d.] L. 17 3 8by75=5X5XS
3
L. 51
11
- = 3 times.
5
L.257 IS
— =15 times.
5
L.1288 15 — = 75 times.
Note T. Although the component parts will an¬
fwer in any order, it is belt, when it can be done, to
take them in fuch order as may clear off fome of the
lower places at the firft multiplication, as is done in
Ex. 2d.
Note 2. The operation may be proved, by taking
the component parts in a different order, or dividing the
multiplier in a different manner.
Rule III. “ If the multiplier be a prime number,
“ multiply firft by the compofite number next lower,
“ then by the difference, and add the products.”
La
(Chap.
Multipli¬
cation.
IV.
L. 35 17 9 by 67=64+3
8 ' “
L. 287
2 -=8 times.
8
L.2296 16 -=64 times.
107 13 3= 3 times.
L.2404 9 3=67 times
A R I T H
Here becaufe 8 times 8
64= 8x8 is 64, we multiply twice
by 8, which gives 2296I.
16'. equal to 64 times the
multiplicand; then we find
the amount of 3 times the
multiplicand, which is
107I. 13s. 3d. j and it is
evident that thefe added,
amount to 67, the multi¬
plicand.
Rule IV. “ If there be a compofite number a lit-
“ tie above the multiplier, we may multiply by that
“ number, and by the difference, and fubtra£t the fe-
“ cond product from the firft.”
L. 17 4 5 by 106=108— 2 Here we multiply
12 108= 9X I2by I2and9, thecom-
     ponent parts of 108,
L. 206 13 — and obtain a produdl
9 of x 860I. 6s. equal to
.....   108 times the multi¬
plicand ; and, as this
is twice oftener than
was required, we fub-
traft the multipli¬
cand doubled, and
the remainder is the
number fought.
Example. 34I. 8s. 2id. by 3465.
Rule V. “ If the multiplier be. large, multiply by
“ 10, and multiply the product again by 10 j by
“ which means you obtain an hundred times the given
“ number. If the multiplier exceed 1000, multiply
“ by 10 again 5 and continue it farther, if the multi-
“ plier require it ; then multiply the given number
“ by the unit place of the multiplier ; the firft produdl
“ by the ten-place, the fecond produ£l by the hun-
“ dred place; and fo on. Add the produfts thus ob-
“ tained together.”
L. 34 8 a^by 5=L. 172 r o^= 5 times
10
L.1859 17 —=108 times.
34 8 10= 2 times.
L.1825 8 2=206 times.
M E T I C. 629
This computation, for changing any fum of money, Divifion.
weight, or meafure, into a different kind, is called ‘ f
Reduction. When the quantity given is expreffed
in different denominations, we reduce the higheft to
the next lower, and add thereto the given number of
that denomination j and proceed in like manner till we
have reduced it to the loweft denomination.
Example. To reduce 46I. 13s. 8+i. to farthings.
L. 46
10 times L. 344 2 1 by 6” 2054 12 6 ~ 5o times
10
100 times L 3441 — 10 by 4= 13764 3 4 = 40c times
icoo times L.344io S 4 by 3—103231 5 — =3000 times
L.119232 9 10^=3465 times
The ufe of multiplication is to compute the amount
of any number of equal articles, either in refpefr of
meafure, weight, value, or any other eonfideration.
The multiplicand expreffes how much is to to be rec¬
koned for each article •, and the multiplier exprtffes
how many times that is to be reckoned. * As the
multiplier points out the number of articles to be
added, it is always an abftrafl number, and has no
reference to any value or meafure whatever. It is
therefore quite improper to attempt the multiplica¬
tion of (hillings by (hillings, or to confider the multi¬
plier as expreflive of any denomination. The mod
common inftances in which the practice of this opera¬
tion is required, are, to find the amount of any
number of parcels, to find the value of any number of
articles, to find the weight or meafure of a number of
articles, &c.
20
920 fhillings in L.46
*3
933 (hillings in L.46 13
12
Or thus:
L. 46 13 4!
20
933
12
11196 pence in L.46 13 11204
8 4
11204 Pence in L.46 13 8 44819
4
44186 farthings in L.46 13 8
44819 farthings in L.46 13 8|-
It is eafy to take in or add the higher denomination
at the fame time we multiply the lower.
Chap. V. DIVISION.
In divifion, two numbers are given j and it is re¬
quired to find how often the former contains the lat¬
ter. Thus, it may be alked how often 21 contains 7,
and the anfwer is exactly 3 times. The former given
number (21) is called the Dividend; the latter (7) the
D'vifor; and the number required (3) the Quotient. It
frequently happens that the divifion cannot be com¬
pleted exadlly without fraflions. Thus it may be afk-
ed, how often 8 is contained in 19 ? the anfwer is
twice, and the remainder of 3.
This operation confifts in fubtra&ing the divifor from
the dividend, and again from the remainder, as often as
it can be done, and reckoning the number of fubtrac-
tions $ as,
21
7 firft fubtra£lion
7 fecond fubtraftion
7 third fubtradlion.
8 firft fubtra&ion
11
8 fecond fubtra&ion
3 remainder.
As this operation, performed at large, would be
very tedious, when the quotient is a high number, it
is proper to (horten it by every convenient method j
and, for this purpofe, we may multiply the divifor
by any number whofe produft is not greater than
the dividend, and fo fubtradl it twice or thrice, or
oftener at the fame time. The beft way is to mul¬
tiply it by the greateft number, that does not raife
the produdl too high, and that number is alfo the
quotient. For example, to divide 45 by 7, wre in¬
quire what is the greateft multiplier for 7, that does
not
2
p
630
A R I T H
Divifion. not give a product above 45; and we {hall find that
““^V——' it is 6 5 and 6 times 7 is 42, which, fubtradled from
45, leaves a remainder of 3. Therefore 7 may be
fubtradled 6 times from 45 ; or, which is the fame
thing, 45, divided by 7, gives a quotient of 6, and a
remainder of three.
If the divifor do not exceed 12, we readily find the
higheit multiplier that can be ufed from the multipli¬
cation table. , If it exceed 12, we may try any multi¬
plier that we think will anfwer. If the product be
greater than the dividend, the multiplier is too great;
and if the remainder, after the produft is fubtradled
from the dividend, be greater than the divifor,
the multiplier is too fmall. In either of thefe cafes,
we mull try another. But the attentive learner, after
fome pradlice, will generally hit on the right multiplier
at firft.
If the divifor be contained oftener than ten times in
the dividend, the operation requires as many Heps as
there are figures in the quotient. For inftance, if the
quotient be greater than too, but lefs than 1000, it
requires 3 Heps. We firft inquire how many hundred
times the divifor is contained in the dividend, and fub-
tradl the amount of thefe hundreds. Then we in¬
quire how often it is contained ten times in the remain¬
der, and fubtradl the amount of thefe tens. Laftlv,
We inquire how many Angle times it is contained in
the remainder. The method of proceeding will ap¬
pear from the following example :
To divide 3936 by 8.
From 5936
Take 5600—70Q times 8.
M K T I C.
Examples.'] ift. 8)3936(742
36 . .
Rem. 336
From which take 320=40 times 8
Rem.
From which take
16
16 = 2 times 8
o 742 times 8 in all.
It is obvious, that as often as 8 is contained in 39,
fo many hundred times it will be contained in 3900,
or in 3936 j and, as often as it is contained in 33, fo
many ten times it will be contained in 330, or in
336 j and thus the higher places of the quotient will
be obtained with equal eafe as the lower. The ope¬
ration might be performed by fubtradling 8 conti¬
nually from the dividend, which will lead to the fame
conclufion by a very tedious procefs. After 700 fub-
tradlions, the remainder would be 336 ; after 40 more,
it would be 16} and after 2 more, the dividend would
be entirely exhaufted. In pradlice, we omit the cy¬
phers, and proceed by the following
Rules, ift, “ Affume as many figures on the left
“ hand of the multiplier as contain the divifor once
“ or oftener : find how many times they contain it,
“ and place the anfwer as the higheft figure of the
“ quotient.
2d, “ Multiply the divifor by the figure you have
“ found, and place the product under the part of the
“ dividend from which it is obtained.
3d, “ Subtradt the produdl from the figures above it.
4th, 44 Bring down the next figure of the dividend
44 to the remainder, and divide the number it makes
^ up, as before.”
Chap. V.
2d, 63)30^14(748
33
32
16
16
3d. 363)974932(2671
730 . ..
491
441
5°4
5°4
1 7
T'cJT
2449
2190
2593
2553
Remainder 17
The numbers which we divide, as 39, 33, and 16,
in the firft: example, are called dividuals.
It is ufual to mark a point under the figures of the
dividend, as they are brought down, to prevent mif*
takes.
If there be a remainder, the divifion is completed
by a vulgar fradlion, whofe numerator is the remainder,
and its denominator the divifor. Thus, in Ex. 3. the
quotient is 2671, and the remainder 17 j and the quo¬
tient completed is 2671-^3-.
A number which divides another without a remain¬
der is faid to meafure it ; and the feveral numbers
which meafure another, are called its aliquot parts.
Thus, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 12, are aliquot parts of 24.
As it is often ufeful to difcover numbers which mea¬
fure others, we may obferve,
ift, Every number ending with an even figure, that
is, with 2, 4, 6, 8, or o, is meafured by 2.
2d, Every number ending with 3 or o, is meafur¬
ed by 3.
3d, Every number, whofe figures, Avhen added, a-
mount to an even number of 3’sor 9’s, is meafured by
3 or 9, refpeflively.
ContraRions and Varieties in Divifion.
Firft, When the divifor does not exceed 12, the whole
computation may be performed without fetting down
any figures except the quotient.
Ex. 7)33868(3124 or 7)35868
5124
Secondly, when the divifor is a compofite number,
and one of the component parts alfo meafures the di¬
vidend, we may divide fucceflively by the component
parts.
Ex. ift.] 30114 by 63 2d.] 973 by 103=3X 7 X3
9)30114 5)975
7) 3346 3)I95
Quotient 478 7) 63
Quotient 9^
This method might be alfo ufed, although the com¬
ponent parts of the divifor do not meafure the divi¬
dend 5 but the learner will not underftand how to
manage
Chap.
Divifion.
V. A R I T H
manage the remainder till he be acquainted -with the
' doftrine of vulgar fra£Hons.
Thirdly, When there are cyphers annexed to the
divifor, cut them off, and cut off an equal number of
figures from the dividend; annex thofe figures to the
remainder. Ex. To divide 378643 by 5200.
5 2| 00)3786! 43(72!^.
364 •
M E T I C. 631
figures which remain on the left hand compofe the Divifion.
quotient, and thofe cut off the remainder.^ u—y—««,•
If there be any carriage to the unit place of the quo¬
tient, add the number carried likewife to the remain¬
der, as in Ex. 2. $ and if the figures cut off be all 9%
add 1 to the quotient, and there is no remainder.
146
104
Examples, iff.] 99)324123
3241
32
99)547825
5478
54
r . 4243
The reafon will appear by performing the operation
at large, and comparing the fteps.
To divide by 10, 100, 1000, or the like. 'Cut off
as many figures on the right hand of the dividend as
there are cyphers in the divifor. The figures which
remain on the left hand compofe the quotient, and
the figures cut off compofe the remainder.
Fourthly, When the divifor confifts of feveral fi¬
gures we may try them feparately, by inquiiing how
often the firft figure of the divifor is contained in the
firft figure of the dividend, and then confidering whe¬
ther the fecond and following figures of the divifor be
contained as often in the correfponding ones of the di¬
vidend with the remainder (if any) prefixed. If not, •
we muff begin again, and make trial of a lower num¬
ber. When the remainder is nine, or upwards, we
may be fare the divifion will hold through the lower
places j and it is unneceffary to continue the trial far¬
ther.
Fifthly, We may make a table of the produiffs of
the divifor, multiplied by the nine digits, in order to
difcover more readily how often it is contained in each
dividual. This is convenient when the dividend is
very long^ or when it is required to divide frequently
by the fame divifor.
3 27 3'96 5533157
Quotient 3273 and rem. 96. 1
3d.] 999)476523
476
Quotient 5533.58 rem.
476(999
1
73 b7 2 = 146
3 = 216
4 =r 292
5 = 365
6 = 438
7 = 511
8 = 584
9 = 657
73)53872694(737982
511 
277
219
582
5ii
716
657
599
584
Rem.
Sixthly, To divide by 9, 99, 999, or any number
of 9’s, tranfcribe under the dividend part of the
fame, fhifting the higheft figure as many places to
the right hand as there are 9’s in the divifor. Tran¬
fcribe it again, with the like change of place, as often
as the length of the dividend admits; add thefe to¬
gether, and cut off as many figures from the right
hand of the fum as there are 9’s in the divifor. The
3
Quotient 477
To explain the reafon of this, we muff recolleft,
that whatever number of hundreds any dividend con¬
tains, it contains an equal number of 99’s, together
with an equal number of units. In Ex. 1. the divi¬
dend contains 3241 hundreds, and a x'emainder of 23.
» It therefore contains 3241 times 99, and alfo 3241,
befides the remainder already mentioned..— Again,
3241 contains 32 hundreds, and a remainder of 51: it
therefore contains 32 99’s, and alfo 32, befides the re¬
mainder of 41. Confequently the dividend contains
99, altogether, 3241 times, and 32 times, that is, 3273
times, and the remainder confifts of 23, 41, and 32,
added, which makes 96.
As multiplication fupplies the place of frequent ad¬
ditions, and divifion of frequent fubftraftions, they are
only repetitions and contradlions of the fimple rules,
and when compared together, their tendency is ex¬
actly oppofite. As numbers, increafed by addition,
are diminilhed and brought back to their original quan¬
tity by fubtraflion ; in like manner, numbers com¬
pounded by multiplication are reduced by divifion to
the parts from which they were compounded. The
multiplier (hows how many additions are neceffary to
produce the number j and the quotient fhows how
many fubftra&ions are neceffary to exhauft it. It
follows,- that the produft, divided by the multipli¬
cand, will quote the multiplier j and becaufe either
fadtor may be affumed for the multiplicand, therefore
the produdb divided by either ffaftor, quotes the other.
It follows, alfo, that the dividend is equal to the pro-
du£l: of the divifor and quotient multiplied together j
and hence thefe operations mutually prove each o-
ther.
To prove multiplication. Divide the produft by
either faftor. If the operation be right, the quotient
is the other faftor, and there is no remainder.
To prove divifion. Multiply the divifor and quo¬
tient together ; to the produft add the remainder, if
any 5 and, if the operation be right, it makes up the-
dividend. Otherwife divide the dividend (after fub-
trafting the remainder, if any) by the quotient. If
the operation be right, it will quote the divifor. The
reafon of all thofe rules may be collefted from the laft
paragraph.
Compound
A R I T H
CoMPOtrKD Division.
Rule I. “ When the dividend only confifts of dif-
“ ferent denominations, divide the higher denotnina-
“ tion, and reduce the remainder to the next lower,
“ taking in (p. 629. Rule V.) the given number of
“ that denomination, and continue the divifion.”
Examples.
Divide L. 465 : 12 : 8 Divide 345 cwt. 1 q. 8 lb.
by. 7 2.
L. s. d. L. s. d.
72)465 12 8 (6 9 4
432 •• •
33
20
72)672
648
24
M
72)296
288
8 Rem.
by 22.
Cwt. q. lb. Cwt. q. lb.
22)345 18 (15 2 21
22 . . .
M E T I C. Chap. V
when the other fafior is given \ and therefore is of Divifion.
two kinds, fince either the multiplier or the tnultipli- -y—
cand may be given. If the former be given, it difco-
vers what that number is which is contained fo many
times in another. If the latter be given, it difcovers
how many times one number is contained in another.
Thus, it anfwers the queftions of an oppofite kind to
thofe mentioned under Rule IV. p. 629. as, To find
the quantity of a fingle parcel or ftiare; to find the
value, weight, or meafure, of a fingle article } to find
how much work is done, provifions confumed, interefi:
incurred, or the like, in a fingle day, &c.
The laft ufe of divifion is a kind of reduftion ex¬
actly oppofite to that defcribed under Rule V. p. 629.
The manner of conducing and arranging it, when
there are feveral denominations in the queftion, will
appear from the following examples.
1. To reduce 15783 pence 2. To reduce 174865 grs.
to pounds, fh. and pence, to lb. oz. and dwt. Troy.
20 20 12
Or we might divide by 22)484
the component parts of 44
72, (as explained under ——
Thirdly, p. 631). 44
44
Rule II. “ When the divifor is in different deno-
“ minations, reduce both divifor and dividend to the
“ loweft denomination, and proceed as in Ample di-
“ vifion. The quotient is an abftrad! number.”
To divide 381. 13s.
by 3I. 4s. 5d.
To divide 96 cwt. 1 q.
by 3cwt. 2q. 81b.
Cwt. q. lb. Cwt. q.
3 2 8 ) 96 I
4 4
14
28
20 lb.
lb.
20
39276(12 quote. 120
773 28
j546
*546
4|oo( io8|oo(27 quote.
I2)I5783(I3I5(^5
12 • • • 120 •
I1C5
100
15
24)174865(7286(364(30
168 • • • 60 • • 36 •
04
It is belt not to reduce the terms lower than is ne-
teffary to render them equal. For inftance, if each of
them confifts of an even number of fixpences, four-
pences, or the like, we reduce them to fixpences, or
fourpences, but not to pence.
The ufe of divifion is to find either of the faftors
by whofe multiplication a given number is produced,
37
36
18
12
6.3
60
Anfwer, 65I. 155.3d. Anf. 381b. 40Z. 6dwt. igr.
In the firft example, we reduce 15783 pence to {hil¬
lings, by dividing by 12, and obtain 1315 {hillings,
and a remainder of 3 pence. Then we reduce 1315
{hillings to pounds, by dividing by 20, and obtain 65
pounds and a remainder of 15 {hillings. The divifions
might have been contradled.
In the practice of arithmetic, queftions often occur
which require both multiplication and divifion to re-
folve. This happens in reduflion, when the higher
denomination does not contain an exaft number of the
lower.
Rule for mixed redu&ion. “ Reduce the given de-
“ nomination by multiplication to fome lower one,
“ which is an aliquot part of both ; then reduce that
“ by divifion to the denomination required.”
Ex. Reduce 31742I. to guineas.
Here we multiply by
20, which reduces the
pounds to {hillings j and
divide the prodmft by 21,
which reduces the {hillings
to guineas.
3I742
20
21)634840(30230
63....
10 Anfwer, 30230 guineas and 10 {hillings.
As
A R I T H
As Portuguefe money frequently paffes here in pay¬
ments, we (hall give a table of the pieces, and their
value. A moidore
A half moidore
A quarter moidore
A double Joannes
A Joannes
A half ditto
:L.i
= 3
7
*3
6
12
16
18
A quarter ditto ~ — 9 —
An eighth ditto = — 46
Note 1. Guineas may be reduced to pounds, by add¬
ing one-twentieth part of the number.
2. Pounds may be reduced to merles by adding one
half.
3. Merks may be reduced to pounds by fubtra&ing
one-third.
4. Four moidores are equal to three Joannes: where¬
fore moidores may be reduced to Joannes, by fubtradl-
ing one-fourth j and Joannes to moidores, by adding
one-third.
5. Five Joannes are equal to 9I. Hence it is eafy
to reduce Portuguefe money to fterling.
Another cafe, which requires both multiplication
and divifion, is, when the value, weight, meafure, or
duration of any quantity is given, and the value, &c.
of a different quantity required, we firft find the value,
&c. of a fingle article by divifion, and then the value,
&c. of the quantity required, by multiplication.
Ex. If 3 yards coft 15s. 9d. what will 7 yards coft,
at the fame rate ?
s. d.
3) 15 9 Price of 3 yards.
5 3 Price of 1 yard, by Rule IV. p. 629.
7
L. 1 16 9 Price of 7 yards (by par. ult. p. 632.
col. 1.).
Many other inftances might be adduced, where the
operation, and the reafon of it, are equally obvious.
Thefe are generally, though unneceffarily, referred to
the rule of Proportion.
We (hall now offer a general obfervation on all the
operations in arithmetic. When a computation re¬
quires feveral fteps, we obtain a juft anfwer, whatever
order we follow. Some arrangements may be prefer¬
able to others in point of eafe, but all of them lead to
the fame conclufion. In addition, or fubtradlion, we
may take the articles in any order, as is evident from
the idea of number; or, we may colled them into fe-
veral firms, and add or fubtrad thefe, either feparately
or together. When both the fimple operations are re¬
quired to be repeated, we may either complete one of
them firft, or may introduce them promifeuoufly, and
the compound operations admit of the fame variety.
When feveral numbers are to be multiplied together,
we may take the fadors in any order, or we may ar¬
range them into feveral claffes, find the produd of each
clafs, and then multiply the produds together. When
a number is to be divided by feveral others, we may
take the divifors in any order, or we may multiply them
into each other, and divide by the produd; or we may
multiply them into feveral parcels, and divide by the
produds fucceflively. Laftly, When multiplication and
divifion are both required, we may begin with either ;
and when both are repeatedly neceffary, we may colled
Vol. II. Part II.
M E T I C.
633
the multipliers into one produd, and the divifors into Divifion.
another •, or, we may colled them into parcels, or ufe 
them fingly, and that in any order. Still we ftiall obtain
the proper anfwer, if none of the terms be negleded.
When both multiplication and divifion are neceffary
to obtain the anfwer of a queftion, it is generally belt
to begin with the multiplication, as this order keeps the
account as clear as poflible from fradions. The exam¬
ple laft given may be wrought accordingly as follows :
s.' d.
15 9
7
3)5 ^ 3
i 16 9
Some accountants prove the operations of arithmetic
by a method which they call calling out the 9’s, de¬
pending on the following principles :
Firft, If feveral numbers be divided by any divifor :
(the remainders being always added to the next num¬
ber), the fum of the quotients, and the laft remainder,
will be the fame as thofe obtained when the fum of
the number is divided by the fame divifor. Thus,
JP’ T5> ant^ 23> contain, together, as many j’s, as ma-
ny 7’s, &.c. as their fum 57 does, and the remainders
are the fame •, and, in this way, addition may be pro¬
ven by divifion. It is from the correfpondence of the
remainders, that the proof by calling out the 9’s is de¬
duced.
Secondly, If any figure with cyphers annexed, be
divided by 9, the quotient confifts entirely of that fi¬
gure ; and the remainder is alfo the fame. Thus, 40,
divided by 9, quotes 4, remainder 4 *, and 400 divided
by 9, quotes 44, remainder 4. The fame holds with
all the digits ; and the reafon Avill be eafily under-
ftood : every digit, with a cypher annexed, contains
exaflly fo many tens; it mull therefore contain an
equal number of 9’s, befides a remainder of an equal
number of units.
Thirdly, If any number be divided by 9, the re¬
mainder is equal to the fum of the figures of the num¬
ber, or to the remainder obtained, when that fum is
divided by 9. For inftance, 3765, divided by 9,
leaves a remainder of 3 ; and the fum of 3, 7, 6, and
5, is 21, which divided by 9, leaves a remainder of
3. The reafon of this will appear from the following
illuftration :
3000 divided by 9 quotes 333 ; remainder 3
700 quotes 77 j remainder 7
60 quotes 6} remainder 6
5 quotes o } remainder 5
3765 _ 416 Sum of rem. 21
Again: 21 divided by 9 quotes 2j remainder 3
wherefore, 3765 divided by 9 quotes 4185 remainder 3 j
for the reafon given. Hence we may colled! the fol¬
lowing rules for pradlice.
To call the 9’s out of any number, or to find what
remainder will be left when any number is divided by
9 : Add the figures 5 and when the fum exceeds 9,
add the figures which would exprefs it. Pafs by the
pV; and when the fun* comes exadlly to 9, negledt
it, and begin anew. For example, if it be required
to call the q’s out of 3573294, we reckon thus j 3 and
<5.34
A R T T H
Dinfion. 5 *s 8* and 7 is 15 ; I and 5 is 6, and 3 is 9, which vve
' negleft •, 2 and (pafling bv 9) 4 is 6 ; which is the re¬
mainder or Result. If the article out of which the
9’s are to be cad contains more denominations than one,
■we call the 9’s out of the higher, and multiply the re-
«fult by the value of the lower, and carry on the produdl
'(calling out the 9%, if nec; ffary). to the lower.
To prove addition, cad the 9’s out of the feveral ar¬
ticles, carrying the refults to the following articles-,
cad them alfo out of the fum. If the operation be
right, the refults will agree.
To prove fubtradlion, cad the 9’s out of the minuend
cad them alfo out of the fubtrahend and remainder to¬
gether ; and if you obtain the fame re.fult, the operation
is prefumed right.
To prove multiplication, cad the 9’s out of the mul¬
tiplicand, and alfo out of the multiplier, if above 9.
Multiply the refults together, and call the 9’s, if necef-
fary, out of their produft. Then cad the 9’s out of the
produff, and obferve if this refult correfpond with the
iortner.
Ex. id.] 9276 ref. 6x8=48 ref. 3.
8
74208 ref. 3.
2d.] 7898 ref. 5 X 3=15 ref. 6.
48 ref. 3
63184
3'S92
379104 ref. 6.
The reafon of this will be evident, if we confider
multiplication under the view of repeated addition.
In the fird example it is obvioufly the fame. In the
fecond, we may fuppofe the multiplicand repeated 48
times. If this be done, and the 9’s cad out, the re¬
fult, at the end of the 9th line, will be o -, for any
number, repeated 9 times, and divided by 9, leaves
no remainder. The fame mud happen at the end of
the 18th, 27th, 36th, and 45th lines-, and the lad re¬
fult will be the lame as if the multiplicand had only
been repeated 3 times. This is the reafon for cading
out the 9’s from the multiplier as well as the multipli¬
cand.
To prove divifion, cad the 9’s out of the divifor, and
alfo out of the quotient ; multiply the refults, and cad
the 9’s out of the product. If there be any remainder,
add to it the refult, cading out the p’s, if neceffary.
If the account be right, the lad refult will agree with
that obtained from the dividend.
Ex.] 42) 2490 (59 ref. 5 x 6=30 ref. 3.
ref. 6 210
39°
378
Rem. 12 - - ref. 3.
And the refult of the-dividend is 6
This depends on the fame reafon as the lad ; for the
dividend is equal to the produft of the divifor and
quotient added to the remainder.
M E T I C. Chi
We cannot recommend this method, as it lies under
the following difadvantages.
Firft, If an error of 9, or any of its multiples, be
committed, the refults will neverthelefs agree ; and fo
the error will remain undifeovered. And this will al¬
ways be the cafe, when a figure is placed or reckoned
in a wrong column ; which is one of the mod frequent
caufes of error.
Secondly, When it appears by the difagreement of
the refults, that an error has been committed, the parti¬
cular figure or figures in which the error lies are not
pointed out; and, confequently, it is not eafily corre&ed.
Chap. VI. RULE OF PROPORTION.
Sect. I. Simple Proportion.
Quantities are reckoned proportional to each other,
when they are connedted in fuch a manner, that if one
of them be increafed or diminifhed, the other increafes
or diminifhes at the fame time ; and the degree of the
alteration on each is a like part of its original meafure;
thus four numbers are in the fame proportion, the fird
to the fecond as the third to the fourth, when the fird
Contains the fecond, or any part of it, as often as the
third contains the fourth, or the like part of it. In ei¬
ther of thefe cafes, the quotient of the firlf, divided by
the fecond, is equal to that of the third divided by the
fourth ; and this quotient may be called the tneafure of
the proportion.
Proportionals are marked down in the following
manner :
6 : 3 :: 8 : 4
12 : 36 :: 9 : 27
9 : 6 :: 24 : 18
16 : 24 :: 10 : 15
The rule of Proportion diredls us, when three num¬
bers are given, how to find a fourth, to which the third
may have the fame proportion that the fird has to the
fecond. It is fometimes called the Rule of Three, from
the three numbers given ; and fometimes the Golden
Rule, from its various and extenfive utility.
Rule. “ Multiply the fecond and third terms toge-
“ ther, and divide the produft by the fird.”
Ex. To find a fourth proportional to 18, 27, and 34.
18 : 27 :: 34 : 51
34
108
81
18)918(51
90
18
18
o
To explain the reafon of this, we mud obferve that
if two or more numbers be multiplied or divided alike,
the produfts or quotients will have the fame propor¬
tion.
18 : 27
Multiplied by 34, 612 : 918
Divided by 18, 34 : 51
The
hap. VI. ARITHMETIC. 655
Proportion. The products 612, 918, and the quotients 34, 51,
^ have therefore the fame proportion to each other that
18 has to 27. In the courfe of this operation, the pro-
ducts of the firft and third term are divided by the firlt j
therefore the quotient is equal to the third.
The firft and fecond terms muft always be of the
fame kind ; that is, either both moneys, weights, mea-
fures, both abftradt numbers, or the like. The fourth,
or number fought, is of the fame kind as the third.
When any of the terms is in more denominations
than one, we may reduce them all to the loweft. But
this is not always ntctflary. The firft and fecond
fhould not be reduced lower than diredled p. 632, col. 1.
par. penult.; and, when either the fecond or third is a
fiimple number, the other, though in different denomi¬
nations, may be multiplied without reduction.
L. s. d.
Etc. 5 : 7 :: 25 11 3
7
—— Z. j. d.
5) i?8 18 9 (35 x9 9
The accountant muft confider the nature of every
queftion, and obferve the circumftance which the pro¬
portion depends on j and common fenfe will diredt him
to this if the terms of the queftion be underftood. It is
evident that the value, weight, and meafure of any com¬
modity is proportioned to its quantity ; that the amount
of work or confumption is proportioned to the time ;
that gain, lofs, or intereft, when the rate and time are
fixed, is proportioned to the capital fum from which it
arifes-j and that the effect produced by any caufe is
proportioned to the extent of the caufe. In thefe, and
many other cafes, the proportion is diredt, and the num¬
ber fought increafes or diminifhes along with the term
from which it is derived.
In fome queftions, the number fought becomes lefs,
when the circumftances from w'hich it is derived be¬
come greater. Thus, when the price of goods in-
ereafes, the quantity which may be bought for a given
fum is fmaller. When the number of men employed
at work is increafed, the time in which they may com¬
plete it becomes fhorter ; and, when the adlivity of any
caufe is increafed, the quantity neceffary to produce a
given effedt is diminifhed. In thefe, and the like, the
proportion is faid to be inverfe.
General Rule for fating all quefions, whether di¬
rect or inverfe. “ Place that number for the third
“ term which fignifies the fame kind of thing with
“ what is fought, and confider* whether the number
“ fought will be greater or lefs. If greater, place the
“ leaft of the other terms for the firft j but, if lefs,
place the greateft for the fiift.”
Ex. ift.J If 30 horfes plough 12 acres, how many
will 42 plough in the fame time ?
H. H. A.
30 :: 42 :: 12
Here, becaufe the thing fought is a number of acres,
we place 12, the given number of acres, for the third
term •, and, becaufi 42 horfes will plough more than
12, we make the lelfer number 30, the firft ttrm, and
the greater number, 42, the fecond term.
Ex. 2d.] If 40 horfes be maintained for a certain
fum on hay, at 3d. per ftone, how many will be
maintained on the fame fum when the price cf bay riles prCp0rtl(,IU
to 8d «—-v—^
d. d. H.
8 : 5 :: 40
Here, becaufe a number of horfes is fought, wTe make
the given number of horfes, 40, the third term *, and,
becaufe fewer will be maintained for the fame money,
when the price of hay is dearer, we make the gieater
price, 8d. the firft term; and the lefler price jd. the fe¬
cond term.
The firft of thefe examples is diredl, the fecond in¬
verfe. Every queftion confifts of a fuppofition and de¬
mand. In the firfl, the fuppofition is, that 30 horfes
plough 12 acres, and the demand hoxv many 42 will
plough? and the firft term of the proportion, 30, is
found in the fuppofition, in this and every wther di¬
redt queftion. In the fecond, the fuppofition is, that
40 horfes are maintained on hay at $d. and the demand,
how many will be maintained on hay at 8d. ? and t he
firlt term of the proportion, 8, is found in the demand,
in this and every other inveile queftion.
When an account is ftated, if the firft and fecond
term, or firft and third, be meafured by the lame num¬
ber, we may divide them by that meafure, and ule the
quotients in their ftead.
Ex. If 36 yards coil 42 (hillings, what will 27 coft ?
Y. Y. Ih. Here 36 and 27 are boih
36 : 27 :: 42 meafured by 9, and we work
4 : 3 :: 42 with the quotients 4 and 3.
•  s. d.
4)i26(3i 6
Sect. II. Compound Proportion.
Sometimes the proportion depends upon feveral cir¬
cumftances. Thus, it may be alktd, if 18 men con-
fume 6 bolls corn in 28 days, how much will 24 men
confume in 56 days ? Here the quantity required de¬
pends partly on the number of men, partly on the time;
and the queftion may be refolved into the two following
ones:
Ift, If 18 men confume 6 bolls, in a certain time,
how many will 24 men confume in the fame time ?
M. M. B. B.
18 : 24 : 6 : 8 Anfwer, 24 men will confume
6 8 boils in the fame time.
i8)i44(8
2d, If a certain number of men confume 8 bolls in
28 days, how many will they confume in 56 days ?
D. D. B. B.
28 : 56 :: 8 : 16 Anf The fame number of men
8 will coufume 16 bolls in 56 days.
28)448(16
In the courfe of this operation, the original number
of bolls, 6, is firft multiplied into 24, then divided by
18, then multiplied into 8, then divided by 28. It
would anfwer the fame purpofe to colled the multipli¬
ers into one produd, and the divifors into another; and
then to multiply the given number of bolls by the for¬
mer, and divide the produd by the latter, p.633. col. 1.
par. ult.
The above queftion may therefore be ftated and
wrought as follows:
4 L 2 Men
636
Proportion. Men iS : 24
1—Days 28 : 56
arithmetic.
6 bolls Here tve multiply 18 into
28 for a divifor, and 6 into
the product of 24 by 56, for
a dividend.
144 144
36 120
5°4 1344
6
504)8064(16
“ In general, ftate the feveral particulars on 'which
“ the queflion depends, as fo many fimple proportions,
“ attending to the fenfe of the queftion to difcover
“ whether the proportions ihoukl be ftated dire6Hy or
“ inverfely ; tlien multiply all the terms in the firlt
“ rank together, and all thofe in the feeond rank to-
“ gether •, and work with the products as direfled in
“ the fimple rule (Seft. i. p. 634.”)
Examp/e. If 100 men make 3 miles of road in 27
days, in how many days will 150 men make 5 miles?
Men
I50
3
450
100
5
500
27
27 days. Here the firft Ha¬
ting is inverfe, becaufe
more men will do it in
fewer days} but the fe¬
cund is dired, becaufe
more miles will re-
4^0) 13 500(30 days,anfw. quire more days.
The following contraction is often ufeful. After
Hating the proportion, if the fame number occurs in
both ranks, dalh it out from both } or, if any term in
the firlt rank, and another in the fecond rank are mea-
fured by the fame numbers, dalh out the original terms,
and ufe the quotients in their Head.
Ex. If 18 men confume 30I. value of corn in 9
months, when the price is 16s. per boll, how many
will confume 54I. value in 6 months, when the price
is 12s. per boll ? In th’s queftion, the proportion de¬
pends upon three particulars, the value of corn, the time
and the price. The firft of which is direCt, becaufe the
more the value of provifions is, the more time is requi¬
red to confume them: but the fecond and third are
inverfe, for the greater the time and price is, fewer
men will confume an equal value.
Value
Months
Price
30
a
10
3
18 men.
Here we obferve 6 in the
firft rank meafures 54 in the. fe-
cond : fo we dalh them out, and
place the quotient pin the fecond.
rank. Next, becaufe 30 and 9 are
both meafuredby 3, we dalh them
out, and place down the quotients
10 and 3} then, becaufe 12 and
16 are both meafured by 4, we
dalh them out, and place down
the quotients 3 and 4. Laftly,
• Becaufe there is now 3 in both
10)648(64^0- columns, we dath them out, and
work with the remaining terms,
according to the rule.
The moneys, weights, and meafures of different coun¬
tries, may be reduced from the proportion which they
bear to ea h other.
Ex. f 1 f 2 'b. avoirdupois make 104 lb. of Holland,
and 100 lu. of Holland make 89 of Geneva, and no
3
U
$
*0
9
3
4
36
18
288
36
IS
Chap. VI
of Geneva make 117 of Seville, how many lbs. of Se- Propone
ville will make 1 colb. avoirdupois ? a
112 : 104 :: too
100 : 89
no : 117
If it be required, how many lb. avoirdupois will
make 100 of Seville, the terms would have been placed
in the different columns thus :
104 : 112 :: 100
89 : 100
117 : 110
Sect. III. Distributive Proportion.
If it be required to divide a number into parts, which
have the fame proportion to each other, that feveral
other given numbers have, we add thefe numbers toge¬
ther, and ftate the following propoiition : As the fum
is to the particular numbers, fo is the number required
to be divided to the feveral parts fought.
Ex. 1 ft.] Four partners engage to trade in company}
A’s flock is 150I. B’s 320I. C’s 350I. D’s 500I } and
they gain 730I. : Required how much belongs to each,
if the gain be divided among them in proportion to their
flocks ?
Rem.
A’s flock L. 150 1320 : 150 :: 730 : L. 82 19 1 — 120
B’s 320 1320 s 320 :: 730 : t 176 19 4 — 960
C’s 353 1320 ; 350 :: 730 : 193 11 2 — 720
£>’s 500 1320 : 500 :: 730 : 276 10 3^-840
Wholeftocki320 Proof L. 730
This account is proved by adding the gains of the
partners } the fum of which will be equal to the whole
gain, if the operation be right } but, if there be re¬
mainders, they muft. be added, their fum divided by
the common divifor, and the quotient carried to the
loweft place.
Ex. 2d.] A bankrupt owes A 146I. B 170I. C. 45I.
D 480I. and E 72I.} his whole effects are only 342I.
7s. 6d. How much fhould each have ?
A’sdebtL.146 913: 146 :: L.342 7 6 : L. 54 15 A’sfliare.
B’s 17© 913 : 170 :: 342 76 63 15 B’s
C’s 45 913 : 45 :: 342 76 16 17 6 C’s
D’s 480 9x3 : 480 :: 342 7 6 180 D’s
E’s 72 913-: 72 :: 342 76 27 E’s
L913 L.342. 7 6
This might alfo be calculated, by finding what com-
pofition the bankrupt was able to pay per pound}
which is obtained by dividing the amount of his ef-
fedls by the amount of his debts, and comes to 7s. 6d.
and then finding by the rules of practice, how much
each debt came to at that rate.
Chap. VII. RULES FOR PRACTICE.
The operations explained in the foregoing chapters
comprehend the whole fyftem of arithmetic, and are
fufficient for every computation. In many cafes, how¬
ever, the work may be contradled, by adverting to
the particular circumftances of the queftion. We fhall
explain, in this chapter, the mod ufeful methods which
practice has fuggefted for rendering mercantile compu¬
tations eafy; in which ihe four elementary rules of
arithmetic are fometimes jointly, fometimes feparately
employed.
Sect. I. Computation of Prices.
The value of any number of articles, at a pound, a
fhilling,
16
17
Chap.
Pradfrce.
VIT.
A R I T H
{lulling, or a penny, is an equal number of pounds,
{hillings, or pence ; and thefe two laft are ealily reduced
to pounds. The value, at any other rate, may be cal¬
culated by eafy methods, depending on fome contrac¬
tion already explained, or on one or more of the fol¬
lowing principles. '
i ft, If the rate be an aliquot part of a pound, a
{hilling, or a penny, then an exaft number of articles
may be bought for a pound, a {hilling, or a penny ;
and the value is found by dividing the given number
accordingly. Thus, to find the price of fo many yards
at 2s. 6d. which is the eighth part of a pound, we
divide the quantity by eight, becaufe every eight
yards coft L.i.
2d, If the rate be equal to the fum of two other
rates which are eafily calculated, the value may be
found by computing thefe feparately, and adding the
fums obtained. Thus, the price of fo many yards, at
gd. is found, by adding their prices, at 6d. and 3d.
together.
3d, If the rate be equal to the difference of two
eafy rates, they may be calculated feparately, and the
leffer fubtrafled from the greater. I hus, the value of
fo many articles at lid. is found, by fubtrafting their
value at a penny from their value at a {hilling. We
may fuppofe that a {hilling was paid for each article,
and then a penny returned on each.
4th, If the rate be a compofile number, the value
may be found by calculating what it comes to at one of
the component parts, and multiplying the fame by the
other.
Case I. “ When the rate is an aliquot part of a
“ pound, divide the quantity by the number which
“ may be bought for a pound.”
Table of the aliquot parts of L.I.
.10 {hillings = -f of L.I.
6s. 8d. = f
4d.
6d.
— 4
— x
— 5
= S
■ To
M E T I C.
Ex. ift.] 4573 at 13s
J3
is. 4d. •— xt of L.i.
IS. 3d. = tV
IS. — To"
8d. = to
6d. tV
4d. = tV
3d- = ^
2d. —t^t
2d.] What is the value
of 1773 yards, at 3d. ?
8|°)i773
L. 22 3 3
is
id.] 7543 at 14s-
7
I37I9
4573
10)52801
L. 5280 2S.
5s'
4s'
3s
2S,
2S.
is. 8d
Ex. 1 ft.] What is the value
of 7463 yards, at 4s. ?
5)7463
L. 1492 12s.
In the firft example we divide by 5 becaufe 4s.
f of a pound ; the quotient 1492 {hows how many
pounds they amount to $ befides which there remain
three yards at 4s. and thefe come to 12s. In the fecond
example, we divide by 80, as direfled, and the quotient
gives L.22, and the remainder 13 yards, which at 3d.
come to 3s. 3d.
This method can only be ufed in calculating for
the particular prices fpecified in the table. The fol¬
lowing 6 cafes comprehend all poflible rates, and will
therefore exhibit different methods of folving the fore¬
going queftions.
Case II. “ When the rate confifts of {hillings only,
“ multiply the quantity by the number of {hillings, and
“ divide the product by 20 : Or, if the number of
“ {hillings be even, multiply by half the number, and
“ divide the product by 10.”
20)59449
L. 2972 9s.
The learner will eafily perceive, that the method in
which the fecond example is wrought, muft give the
fame anfwer as if the quantity had been multiplied by
14, and divided by 20 j and as the divifion by 10
doubles the laft figure for {hillings, and continues all
the reft unchanged for pounds, we may obtain the an¬
fwer at once, by doubling the right-hand figure of the
product before we fet it down.
If the rate be the fum of two or more aliquot parts
of a pound, we may calculate thefe as direfted in Cafe I.
and add them. If it be any odd number of {hillings,
we may calculate for the even number next lower, and
add thereto the value of a {lulling. If it be 19s. we
may fubtradl the value at a {hilling, from the value at a
pound.
Case III. “ When the rate confifts of pence only.”
Method I. If the rate be an aliquot part of a {hil¬
ling, divide the quantity accordingly, which gives the
anfwer in {hillings j if not, it may be divided into two
or more aliquot parts: calculate thefe feparately, and
add the values j reduce the anfwer to pounds.
1 penny is T\- of a {hilling
2d. % of ditto.
3d. ^ of ditto.
4d. -f ditto.
6d. f of ditto.
3d. is the fum of 4d. and id. or of 2d. and 3d.
7d. is the fum of qd. and 3d. or of 6d. and id.
8d. is the fum of 6d. and 2d. or the double of 4d.
9d. is the fum of 6d. and 3d.
lod. is the fum of 6d. and qd.
1 id. is the fum of 6d. 3d. and 2d
Ex. ift.] 7423 at 4d.
3)7423
20)2474 4
L. 123 14 4
2d.] 9786 at 9d.
At6d.rr|- of is. 4893
At 3d.=:fof 6d. 2446
At 9d.
7339 6
Here, becaufe 4d. is one
third of a" {lulling, we di¬
vide by 3, which gives the
price in {hillings, and reduce
thefe by divifion to pounds.
Here we fiippofe, that
firft 6d. and then 3d. is
paid for each article ; half
the quantity is the num¬
ber of {hillings which they
would coft at 6d. each.
3d.] 4856 at nd.
At 6d.=rfof is. 2428
At 3d.=fof 6d. 1214
At 2d.=r|of 6d. 809
L. 366 19 6 Half of that is the coft at
3d. and thefe added and re¬
duced give the anfwer.
Here we calculate what
the articles would coft at
6d. at 3d. and at 2d. and
add the values.
1 id.
4451 4
L. 222 11 4
It is fometimes eafier to calculate at two rates, whofe
difference is the rate required, and fubtraft the leffer
value from the greater. Thus, the laft example may
be wrought by fubtrafting the value at a penny from
the value at a {hilling. The remainder muft be the
value
638
Practice, value at ii(3.
v—‘ At is. 4856s.
At 1(1.=,-% 404
arithmetic.
lod. may be wrought as
the difft-rence of is. aud
2d. *, and feveral other
rates in like manner.
At 1 id. 4451 4
Li. 222 11 4
Metb. 2. Multiply the quantity by the number of pence,
the produB is the anfwer in pence. Reduce it to pounds.
IVTeth. 3 • Rind the value at a penny by dtvijion, and
multiply the [ante by the number of pence.
Case IV. “ When the rate confiits of farthings only,
“ find the value in pence, and reduce it by divifion to
“ pounds.”
R.X. ill.3 57813 at 1 farthing.
4>o7843 krth
12) 9 60-1 oence
788 4^
L. 39 8 4|
3d. 7256431^
3
2d.] 23754 at -Jd.
2)23754 halfpence
12)1i877 pence
989 9
L. 49 9 9
Or, 72564
4)217692 farth.
O 54423 Pence
4535 3
L. 226 15 3
At
At
3682
18141
d.
d.
12)54423 d.
4535 3
L.226 15 3
We may alfo find the amount in twopences, three¬
pences, fourpences, or fixpences, by one divifion, and
reduce thefe as direfted in Cafe I.
Case V. “ When the rate confifts of pence and far-
“ things, find the value of the pence, as directed in
{i Cafe III. and that of the farthings from the propor-
“ tion which they bear to the pounds. Add thefe toge-
M ther, and reduce.”
Ex. ill.] 3287 at 5^8.
At 48.=^ of is. 1095 8
At id.=r£of4d. 273 11
At if.=^ of id. 68 5!
At 5-J
Md8 i
L.yi 18 £
2d-] 4573 at H
At 2d.—^ of is. 762 2
At 48.-=^ of 2d. 190 6|-
At 1.—y of ^8. 85 3^
i°37
L. 51 17 11^:
3d.] 2842 at 3|d.
At 38.=^ of is.
At 3^=4 ol 3d*
710 6
176 7t
At 3^ 887 iy
L.44 8 i^
4tdl-3 3572 at 7^d*
At 6d.=y of is. 1386
At iyd.=r^ of 6d. 346 6
At 7y
1732 6
L.87 12 6
It is f>metimes beft to join fome of the pence with the
farthings in the calculation. Thus, in Ex. 4. we reckon
the value at 6d. and at 3 halfpence, which makes 7^.
If the rate be li, which is an eighth part of a Hul¬
ling, the value is found in (hillings, by dividing the
quantity by 8.
Case VI. “ When the rate eonfifts of fliillings and
“ lower denominations.”
Method 1. Multiply the quantity by the fhillmgs, and
fnd the value of the pence and farthings, if any, from the
proportion which they bear to theJhillings. And add reduce.
Ex. ill.] 4258 at 17s. 3d.
Chap. VII.
Pradtice.
17s.
38.—^ of IS.
17s. 3d.
29806
4258
72386
1064 ^
73450 6
I..3672 10 6
2d.] 5482 at 12s. 438.
12
12s.
3d —5 of is.
I ^d. — ^ of 3d.
65784
I37°
685
12s. 44-d.
67839 9
L.3391 19 9
Method 2. Divide the rate into aliquot parts of «
pound; calculate the values correfponding to thefe, as di~
reBed in Cafe I. and add them.
s. d. s. d.
Ex. ill.] 3894 at 17 6 2d.] 1765 at 9 2
ios.—L. 1947
5s-=t 973 10
2S. 6d.=|- 486 15
6s. 8d.=4 L.588 6 8
2s. 6d.=L 220 12 6
9s. 2d.
808 19 2
17s. 6d. L.3407 5
Sometimes part of the value is more readily obtained
from a part already found j and fometitne^ it is eafieft
to calculate at a higher rate, and fubtraft the value at
the difference. s. d. s. d.
3d.] 6*790 at 5 4 4th.] 3664 at 14 9
4s. rr-jofL.i 27 t8 los.rri L. 1832
15.48. rz-J-oi^s. 4252 13 4 5s.=^ofios. 916
55.48. L. 17010 13 4 15s. 2748
3d.—Ar of 5s. 45 16
14s 98. L. 1702 4
Method 3. If the price contain a compofite number of
pence, we may multiply the value at a penny by the coin-*
ponent parts.
Ex. 5628 at 2s. iid. or 358.
12)5628
20)469
L. 23 9
5
L.117 5
7
L.820 15
Case
Chap. VII. ARITHMETIC. 639
Practice. Case VII. “ When the rate confifts of pounds and
— “ lower denominations.”
Method 1. Multiply by the pounds, and find the value
of the other denominations from the proportion which they
bear to the pounds.
Ex, ift.J 359.2 at L.3 : 12 : 8.
3
L.3 10776
12s. =f of L.3 2155 4
8d.—x'-g- of X 2?. I 19 14 8
L.3 12 8 L.13050 18 8
2d*] 543 at L<2 •'5 : I2»-
2
Note i ft, 7 lb. 14 lb. and 21 lb. are aliquot parts of Pra^iee.
i qr.: and 16 lb. is -tj of I cwt. j and are therefore y—^
eafily calculated.
2d, If the price of a dozen be fo many (hillings, that
of an article is as many pence j and if the price of a
grofs be fo many (hillings, that of a dozen is as many
pence.
3d, If the price of a ton or fcore be fo many pounds,
that of 1 cwt. or a (ingle article, is as many (hillings.
4th, Though a fraftion lefs than a farthing is of no
confequence, and may be rejefted, the learner muft be
careful left he lofe more than a farthing, by rejefting
feveral remainders in the fame calculation.
Sect. II. Deductions on Weights, &c. it
L.2 /
5s. =rf of L.l
I0d.=r-§- of 5s.
•fd.rz-jk of rod.
1086
435
22 12 6
1 27
L.1245 10 *4
Method 2. Reduce the pounds to Jh tilings, and proceed
as in Cafe VI.
Ex. ift.]3592at L.3 : 12 : 8 2d.] 36833^.2:4:11
72 20 45
7184 72 1841c
25444 14732
258624 At 45s. 165735
4d.=rfs. 1197 4 At id.rrxxS. 307 II
4d.=fs. 1197 4    1 
—   44s. 1 id. 165427 - 1
8d. 261018 8 L.8271 7 1
L.13050 18 8
The learner (hould at firft try every calculation more
ways than one j which will not only ferve the purpofe
of proving the operation, but will render him expert at
difcovering the bed method for (olving each queftion,
and will lead him to invent other methods j for we
have not exhaufted the fubjedt.
Thus, if the number of articles be 20, each (hilling
of the rate makes a pound of the amount. If it be 12,
each penny of the rate makes a (hilling of the amount.
If 240, each penny of the rate makes a pound of the
amount. If 480, each halfpenny makes a pound. If
960, each farthing makes a pound. If the number of
articles be a multiple, or an aliquot part of any of thefe,
the amount is eafily calculated. And if it be near to
any fuch number, we may calculate for that number,
and add or fubtradl for the difference.
We have hitherto explained the various methods of
computation, when the quantity is a whole number, and
in one denomination. It remains to give the proper
diredlions when the quantity contains a fradlion, or is
expreffed in feveral denominations.
When the quantity contains a fraftion, work for the
integers by the preceding rules, and for the fruBion take
proportional parts.
When the quantitif is expreffed by feveral denomina¬
tion*, and the rate s*iven for the higher; calculate the
higher, confider the lower one as fraBions, and work by
the la ft rule.
When the rate is given for the low°r denomination, re¬
duce the higher denomination to the lower, and calculate
accordingly.
The full weight of any merchandife, together writh
that of the calk, box, or other package, in which it is
contained, is called the grofs weight. From this we
muft make proper dedudlions, in order to difcover the
quantity for which price or duty (hould be charged,
which is called the nett weight.
Tare is the allowance for the weight of the package j
and this (hould be afeertained by weighing it before the
goods are packed. Sometimes, however, particularly
in payment of duty, it is cuftomary to allow fo much
per C. or fo much per 100 lb. in place of tare.
Tret is an allowance of 41b. on 104 granted on cur¬
rants, and other goods on which there is wafte, in order
that the weight mayanfwer when the good" are retailed.
Cloff, or Draught, is a further allowance granted on
fome goods in London, of 2 lb. on everv 3 C. to turn
the fcale in favour of the purchafer. The me; hod of
calculating thefe and the like will appear from the fol¬
lowing examples.
Ex. iff. What is the nett weight of 17 C. 2 q. 141b*
tare 18 lb. per cwt.
C. q. lb. C. q. lb.
17 2 14 grofs. or 17 2 14
  6
i61b.~x C. 222 — 
2lb.=:f of 161b. 17 105 3 —
—  3
18 lb. 23 9I tare  —
  347 4 -
14 3 4;|nett.28J)3 i7Jlb. <7./&.
4) 11 91(23 9I tare.
In the firft method, we add the tare at i61b. which
is 4 of the grofs weight, to the tare, at 2 lb. which is f
of the former. In the fecond, we multiply the grols
weight by 18 ; the tare is 1 lb. for each cwt. of the
produdt, and is reduced by divifion to higher denomina¬
tions.
2d.] What is tret of 158 C. 2 q. 24 lb.
C. q. lb. C q. lb.
26) 158226(6-11 Tret.
Becaufe tret is always 4 lb. in 104, or
I lb. in 26, it is obtained by dividing
by 26.
3#
456
2
4
10
28
286
286
o
Ip
3d.] What is the cloff on 28 C. 2 q. ?
q.
28 2
2
ARITHMETIC. Chap. VII,
The intereft of any fum for a year, at any rate, is Pradlice.
3) 57 C^113* ^ ,
This allowance being 2 lb. on every 3 C. might be
found by taking of the number of C’s and multiply¬
ing it by 2. It is better to begin with multiplication,
for the reafon given, p. 633. col. 2. par. 1.
Sect. III. Commission, &c. •
It is frequently required to calculate allowances on
fums of money, at the rate of fo many per 100I. Of
this kind is Commission, or the allowance due to a
factor for buying or felling goods, or tranfafting any
other bufinefs $ Premium of Insurance, or allowance
given for engaging to repay one’s Ioffes at fea, or other-1
wife ; Exchange, or the allowance neceffary to be
added or fubtrafted for reducing the money of one place
to that of another 5 Premiums on Stock, or the allow¬
ance given for any lhare of a public flock above the
original value. All thefe and others of a like kind are
calculated by the following
Rule. “ Multiply the fum by the rate, and divide
“ the produdl by 100. If the rate contain a frattion,
“ take proportional parts.”
TLx. What is the commiflion on 'ysSl. at 2\ per cent.?
728
2 per cent.
1 [00)20 [02
20
found by the method explained in the laft feftion.
The intereft of any number of pounds for a year, at
5 per cent, is one-twentieth part, or an equal number of
{hillings. Thus, the intereft of 34675I. for a year, is
34675 {hillings.
The intereft for a day is obtained by dividing the in¬
tereft for a year, by the number of days in a year. Thus,
the intereft of 34675!. for a day is found by dividing
34675 {hillings by 365, and comes to 95 {hillings.
The intsreft for any number of days is obtained by
multiplying the daily intereft by the number of days.
Thus the intereft of 34675I. for 17 days, is 17 times
95 {hillings or 1615 {hillings j and this divided by 20,
in order to reduce it, comes to Sol. 15s.
It would have ferved the fame purpofe, and been
eafier, to multiply at firft by 17, the number of days ;
and inftead of dividing feparately by 365, and by 20,
to divide at once by 7300, the produft of 365 multi¬
plied by 20 } and this divifion may be facilitated by the
table inferted p. 631. col. 1.
The following praflical rules may be inferred from
the foregoing obfervations.
I. To calculate interejl at 5 per cent. “ Multiply the
“ principal by the number of days, and divide the pro-
“ du£l by 7300.”
II. To calculate interejl at any other rate. “ Find
“ what it comes to at 5 percent, and take a proper pro-
“ portion of the fame for the rate required.”
Ex. ift. Intereft on 34675I. for 17 days, at 5 per cent. ?
34675
17
242725
34675
L.
4 Anfvv. L. 20 — 4^
3|20
When the rate is given in guineas, which is common
in cafes of infurance, you may add a twentieth part to
the fum before you calculate. Or you may calculate
at an equal number of pounds, and add a twentieth part
to the anfwer.
When the given fum is an exa£t number of 10
pounds, the calculation may be done without fetting
down any figures. Every 10I. at per cent, is a {hil¬
ling j and at other rates in proportion. Thus, 170I.
at i per cent, is 17 s. $ and, at f per cent. 8s. 6d.
Sect. IV. Interest.
Intereft is the allowance given for the ufe of money
by the borrower to the lender. ’I his is computed at
fo many pounds for each hundred lent for a year, and
a, like proportion for a greater or a lefs time. The
higheft rate is limited bv our laws to 5 per cent, which
is called the legal interejl; and is due on all debts con-
ftituted by bond or bill, which are not paid at the pro¬
per term, and is always underftood when no other rate
is mentioned.
73l0°)5894l75(8° 15
584
5475
20
1095I00
73
Ex. 2d. Intereft on 304I. 3s. 4d. for 8 days, at 4per cent,
L-3°4 3 4
8
11   - s. d.
73l00)2433 6 8(6 8
20
486(66
43 8
4866
12
584l0°
584
Int.
Chap. VII.
Intereft. Int. at 5 per cent. L. •
“ —y——' Deduce £
6 8
1 4
Int. at 4 per cent. L. — 5 4
When partial payments are made, we proceed in the
following manner: Let us fuppofe a bill of 170I. was
due 12th Auguft, that 54I. was paid on the 18th Sep¬
tember, 56I. on the 17th O&ober, and the balance on
the 14th November j and let it be required to find how
much intereft is due.
Days.
Aug. 12. L.170 37 1190
Sept. 18. pd. 54 510
1044
232
  3364
1680
061. 17. pd.
29
28
Nov. 14. pd.
— 730°>i334(L.i : n
Here wre fubtrafl the feveral payments from the ori¬
ginal fum in their order, placing the dates in the mar¬
gin ; and from this it appears that there is intereft due
on 170I. from 12th Auguft to 18th September, on
116I. from 18th September to 17th Oclober, and on
60I. from 17th 061ober to 14th November. We next
compute the number of days in each of thefe periods,
and mark it againft the refpe6five fum. Then we mul¬
tiply each fum by the number of days •, referving a co¬
lumn, when neceffary, for the produ6fs of the feveral
figures in the multiplier. Laftly, We add thefe pro-
dufts, and divide their fum by 7300.
Intereft on current accounts is calculated nearly in
the fame manner. For example, let the intereft due
on the following account be required to 31ft July, at
4 per cent;
Dr. Mr A. Baird, his account current with W.Neil, Cr«
1775. I775*
Jan. 15. To cafli L. 160 Mar. *2.
Mar. 12. To ditto 35 May 16.
June 23. To ditto 13 4 6 June 15.
July 19. To ditto 26 13 4 28.
*775'
Jan. 15.
Mar. 12.
May 16.
June 15.
*3-
28.
July 19.
3T"
L.
16c
3^
196
5°
146
37
109
9*
Day
56
55
3°
960
Soo
730
730
64
1287
8960
i960
8030
3270
667
483
I35I
1092
By cafli L 50
By ditto 37
By ditto 25 12 6
By ditto 32 54
Jan. 16
Feb. 28
Mar. 31
Apr. 30
May 31
June 30
July 31
Days 197
19773°° *5813 (L.3 to 8| at
Deduce £ part 14 1^
Intereit at 4 per cent.
Vox. II. Part II.
L.a 16 7
M E T I C.
Here the fums on either fide of the account are in¬
troduced according to the order of their dates. Thofe
on the Dr. fide are added to the former balance, and.
thofe on the Cr. fide fubtradled. Before we calculate
the days, we try if the laft fum 91I. be equal to the
balance of the account, which proves the additions and
fubtraflions j and, before multiplying, we try if the
fum of the column of days be equal to the number of
days, from 15th January to 31ft of Jul/.
In the 5th and 6th multiplications, we begin at the
pence column, and take in the carriage. In the 7th,
inftead of multiplying the 6s. 8d. by 21, wTe add the
third part 21 to the produdl, be.caufe 6s. 8d. is the
third of a pound. This is done by marking down the
fecond line 1287, inftead of 1280. As the computa¬
tion on the odd fliillings and pence is troublefome, and
makes a very fmall increafe of the intereft, fome negle6t
them altogether j others add one to the pound, when the
(hillings exceed 10, and negleft them when below it.
2d.] Required intereft on the following account to
31ft December, allowing 5 per cent, when the balance
is due to J. T. and 4 per cent, when due to N. W.
Dr. Mr J. T. his account current with N. W. Cr.
Dec. 31. To balance L.150 April 9. By cafh L. 70
Mar. 1 2. To calh
June 17. To cafti
Sept. 24. To calh
061. 9. To calh
111S-
Dec. 31.
1776-
Mar. 12.
April 9.
May 12.
June 3.
• 17.
Aug. 2.
Sept. 24.
061. 9.
Dec. 31.
Dr.
Dr.
Dr.
Cr.
Dr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Cr.
Dr.
Cr.
Cr
Cr.
Dr
Dr.
Dr.
Dr.
L.
15°
120
May 12. By calh
165 June 3. By calh
242 Aug. 2. By calh
178
300
240
10
270
70
200
300
100
240
340
*65
175
10
185
242
57
178
235
Days
71
28
33
22
M
46
53
J5
_83
365
J5o
1050
2160
54°
1360
340
1050
700
555
925
281
57
7°5
1880
10650
756o
66oo
855
I95°5
220»
476®
805®
9805
73oc 4517024815
Intereft due to N. W. at 5 per cent. L. 6 8 9
Deduce £ - - * 5 9
Due to N. W. at 4 per cent. L. 5 3 o
Due to J. T. at 5 per cent. 3 7 u|-
Balanc« dus to N. W. L. 1 1 c
4M IR
64I
Intereft,
642 A R I T H
Intereft. In this account, the balance is fometimes due to the
one party, fometimes to the other. At the beginning,
there is a balance due to N. W. ; and on the 9th of
April there is 200I. due him. On the 12th of May,
.1. T. pays him 300I. which difcharges what he owed,
and leaves a balance of 100I. due him. The balance
continues in J. T’s favour till the 24th of September,
when N. W. pays 242I. Thefe changes are diitinguifh-
ed by the marks Dr. and Cr. The products are ex¬
tended in different columns, and divided feparately.
When payments are made on conftituted debts, at
confiderable diftances of time, it is ufual to calculate
the intereft to the date of each payment, and add it to
the principal, and then fubtraff the payment from the
amount.
Ex. Abondfor 540I. was due the 18th Aug. 1772
and there was paid 19th March 1773, 50I.J and 19th
December 1773, 25I. j and 23d September 1774, 25k j
and 18th Auguft 1775, nol. Required the interefi
and balance due on the nth November 1775 ?
A bond due 13th Auguft 1772
Intereft to 19th March 1773, 218 days L. 16 2
Paid 19th March 1773
Balance due 19th March 1773
Intereft to 19th December 1773,272 days 19 1
Paid 19th December 1773
Balance due 19th December 1773
fntereft to 23d September 1774, 278 days 19 cr
Paid 23d September 1774
Batanee due 23d September 1774
Intereft to 18th Auguft 1775, 329 days 22 5
Paid 18th Auguft 1775
Balance due 18th Auguft 1775
Intereft to irth November 1775, 85 days 4 14
L. 540
6 16 2 6
L. 566 2 6
50 o o
L 506 2 6
2 19 I 2
l-S2S 3 8
25 o o
coo 3 8
9 19 ° 9
L 4 S
25
L.494 4 s
3 22 5 3
L. 5x6 9 8
110
L.406 9 8
6 4 14 d
Balance due nth November 1775
Amount of the intereft L. 81 4
L.4x1 4 2
Chap. VIII. VULGAR FRACTIONS.
In order to underftand the nature of vulgar fractions,
we muft fuppofe unity (or the number 1) divided into
feveral equal parts. One or more of thefe parts is call¬
ed a fraElion, and is reprefented by placing one number
in a fmall character above a line, and another under it :
For example, two fifth parts is written thus, f. The
number under the line (5) fhow^ how many parts unity
is divided into, and is called the denominator. The num¬
ber above the line (2) (hows how many of thefe parts
are reprefented, and is called the numerator.
It follows from the manner of reprefenting fraffions,
that, when the numerator is increafed, the value of the
fraftion becomes greater ; but, when the denominator
is increafed, the value becomes lefs. Hence we may
infer, that, if the numerator and denominator be both
inoieafed, or both diminifhed, in the fame proportion,
the value is not altered ; and therefore, if we multiply
M E T I C. Cliap. VIII
both by any number whatever, or divide them by any Vulgar
number which meafures both, we fhall obtain other Fradions.
fractions of equal value. Thus, every fra&ion may be V—
expreffed in a variety of forms, which have all the fame
fignification.
A fraction annexed to an integer, or whole number,
makes a mixed number. For example, five and two
third-parts, or A fra&ion whofe numerator is
greater than its denominator is called an bnproperfrac¬
tion. For example, feventeen third-parts, or *T7. Frac¬
tions of this kind are greater than unity. Mixed num¬
bers may be reprefented in the form of improper frac¬
tions, and improper fraftions may be reduced to mixed
numbers, and fometimes to integers. As fractions
whether proper or improper may be reprefented in dif¬
ferent forms, we muft explain the method of reducing
them from one form to another, before we confider the
other operations.
Problem I. “ To reduce mixed numbers to improper
“ fraftions: Multiply the integer by the denominator
“ of the fra&ion, and to the produft add the numerator.
“ The fum is the numerator of the improper fra&ion
“ fought, and is placed above the given denominator.,v
Ex. 54= V
5 integer.
3 denominator.
15 produ£L
2 numerator given.
17 numerator fought.
Beeaufe one is equal to two halves, or 3 third-parts,
or 4 quarters, and every integer is equal to twice as
many halves, or four times as many quarters, and fo
on ; therefore, every integer may be expreffed in the
form of an improper fraftion, having an affigned deno¬
minator : The numerator is obtained by multiplying
the integer into the denominator. Hence the reafon
of the foregoing rule is evident: 5, reduced to an im¬
proper fratftion, whofe denominator is 3, makes 'f.
and this added to y amounts to tf.
Problem II. “ To reduce improper fractions to
“ whole or mixed numbers : Divide the numerator by
“ the denominator.”
Ex. VV=64t
17)112(64°
102
10
3 2 4 8
To
3 42
TT
75 3 «
TT
15764
TVS'
3tt
7 3 9 4
TX
8 C 4 2
9 T
4 3 6 2
tXTV
This problem is the converfe of the former, and the
reafon may be illuftrated in the fame manner.
Problem III. “ To reduce fradtions to lower terms:
“ Divide both numerator and denominator by any num-
“ ber which meafures both, and place the quotients in
“ the form of a fraftion.”
Example. -4 to — 4t — ■g’
Here we obferve that 135 and 360 are both mea-
fured by 5, and the quotients form which is a frac¬
tion of the fame value as 4-gx *n lower terms. Again,
27 and 72 are both meafured by 9. and the quotients
form which is ftill of equal value, and in lower terms.
It is generally fufficient, in pradliee, to divide by fuch
meafures as are found to anfxver on infpedfion, or by the
rules given p. 629. col. 2. But, if it be required to re¬
duce a fraction to the loweft poftible terms, we muft di¬
vide
Chap. VIII. A R I T H
Vulgar vide the numerator and denominator by the greateft
Fractions, number which meafures both. What number this is
may not be obvious, but will always be found by the
following rule.
To find the greatefi: common meafure of two num¬
bers, divide the greater by the leffer, and the divifor
by the remainder continually, till nothing remain ; the
laft divifor is the greatefi: common meafure.
Example. Required the greateft number which mea¬
fures 475 and 589
' 475)589(i
475
iI4)475(4
456
i9)ii4(6
114
Here we divide 589 by 475,
and the remainder is 1143 then
we divide 475 by 114, and
the remainder is 195 then we
divide 114 by 19, and there is
no remainder : from which we
infer, that 19, the laft divifor,
is the greatefi common mea-
fure.
To explain the reafon of this, we muft obferve, that
any number which meafures two others, will alfo mea¬
fure their fum and their difference, and will meafure
any multiple of either. In the foregoing example, any
number which meafures 589, and 475, will meafure
their difference 114, and will meafure 456, which is a
multiple of 114; and any number which meafures 475,
and 456, will alfo meafure their difference 19. Con-
fequently, no number greater than 19 can meafure 589
and 475. Again, 19 will meafure them both, for it
meafures 114, and therefore meafures 456, which is a
multiple of 114, and 475, which is juft 19 more than
456; and, becaufe it meafures 475 and 114, it will
meafure their fum 589. To reduce to the lowed:
poffible terras, we divide both numbers by 19, and it
■comes to
If there be no common meafure greater than 1, the
fraftion is already in the loweft terms.
If the greateft common meafure of 3 numbers be re¬
quired, we find the greateft meafure of the two firft,
and then the greateft meafure of that number, and the
third. If there be more numbers, we proceed in the
fame manner.
Problem IV. “ To reduce fraftions to others of
“ equal value that have the fame denominator : ift,
“ Multiply the numerator of each fra&ion by all the
“ denominators except its own. The produ&s are nu-
“ merators to the refpeftive fractions fought.” 2d,
“ Multiply all the denominators into each other*, the
c< produft is the common denominator.”
Ex. 4 and 4 and and and f||.
4X9X8=288 firft numerator.
7 X 5 X 8=280 fecond numerator.
3 X 5 X 9=135 third numerator.
5 X 9 X 8—360 common denominator.
Here we multiply 4, the numerator of the firft frac¬
tion, by 9 and 3 the denominators of the two others j
and the product 288 is the numerator of the fraction
fought, equivalent to the firft. The other numerators
are found in like manner, and the common denomina¬
tor 360, is obtained by multiplying the given denomi.
nators 5, 9, 8, into each other. In the courfe of the
whole, operation, the numerators and denominators of
each fraction are multiplied by the fame number, and
therefore their value is not altered.
M E T I C. 643
The fraftions thus obtained may be reduced to loiver Vulgar
terms, if the feveral numerators and denominators have Fradtions.
a common meafure greater than unity. Or, after ar-v—
ranging the number for multiplication, as is done
above, if the fame number occur in each rank, we may
dalh them out and neglect them } and if numbers
which have a common meafure occur in each, we may
dafh them out and ufe the quotients in their ftead *, or
any number which is a multiple of all the given deno¬
minators, may be ufed as a common denominator.
Sometimes a number of this kind will occur on infpec-
tion, and the new numerators are found by multiply¬
ing the given ones by the common denominator, and
dividing the produfls by the refpeftive given denomi¬
nators.
If the articles given for any operation be mixed num
bers, they are reduced to improper fractions by Pro¬
blem I. If the anfwer obtained be an improper frac¬
tion, it is reduced to a mixed number by Problem II.
And, it is convenient to reduce fractions to lower
terms, when it can be done, by Problem III. which
makes their value better apprehended, and facilitates
any following operation. The reduction of fractions to
the fame denominator by Problem IV. is neceffary to
prepare them for addition or fubtra&ion, but not for
multiplication or divifion.
1. Addition of Vulgar Fractions. 22
Rule. “ Reduce them, if neceffary, to a common
“ denominator; add the numerators, and place the
“ fum above the denominator.”
Ex. Ift.]f4.*=44-H4 by Problem IV
nA T V  4 5 0 I 5 <So I 5 g 7 1577 4S O
By Problem II.=-34T<y=Tf4v
The numerators of fra&ions that have the fame de¬
nominator fignify like parts j and the reafon for add¬
ing them is equally obvious, as that for adding {hillings
or any other inferior denomination.
Mixed numbers may be added, by annexing the fum
of the fractions to the fum of the integers. If the for¬
mer be a mixed number, its integer is added to the
other integers.
2. Subtraction of Vulgar Fractions.
“ Reduce the fra6lions to a common deno-
; fubtraft the numerator of the fubtrahend
Rule.
“ minator
“ from the numerator of the minuend, and place the
“ remainder above the denominator.”
Ex. Subtraft 4 from remainder f-J
from 35
by Prob. IV. take 24
rem. 11.
To fubtraft a fraftion from an integer : fubtratt the
numerator from the denominator, and place the remain¬
der above the denominator 5 prefix to this the integer
diminifhed by unity.
Ex. Subtract 4 from I2* remainder n^*
To fubtradl mixed numbers, proceed with the frac¬
tions by the foregoing rule, and with the integers in
the common method. If the numerator of the frac¬
tion in the fubtrahend exceed that in the minuend,
borrow the value of the denominator, and repay it by
adding i to the unit place of the fubtrahend.
4 M 2 Ex.
33
644
Vulgar
Fractions.
A K I T
Ex. Subtract 238f.
248|t 4y
f—f? [ by Pr°b. IV. 145II-
H M E T I C.
Ex. 138x51=7931
Chap. VIII
138x5=690 Vu!gar
*3^ X ^ Fradlions.
3
I°2^
Here, becaufe 27, the numerator of the fra&ion in
the minuend, is lefs than 35, the numerator of the
fubtrahend, we borrow 45 the denominator j 27 and
45 make 72, from which we fubtraft 35, and obtain
37 for the numerator of the fra&ion in the remain¬
der, and we repay what was borrowed, by adding 1
to 5 in the unit place of the fubtrahend.
The reafon of the operations in adding or fubtraft-
ing fraftions will be fully underftood, if we place the
numerators of the fra&ions in a column like a lower
denomination, and add or fubtraft them as integers,
carrying or borrowing according to the value of the
higher denomination.
3. Multiplication of Vulgar Fractions.
Rule. “ Multiply the numerators of the fa&ors
“ together for the numerator of the product, and the
“ denominators together for the denominator of the
“ produdt.”
Ex. Ift.]|x4=i| 2d.]8fX7l=,4^1X65^
2 X 5=10 num. 8x=V by Prob. I.
3X7=21 den. 7i= V by ditto.
42x31 = 1302
5 X 4 = 20 '
To multiply 4 by 4j is the fame as to find what two
third parts of 4 comes to ; if one-third part only had
been required, it would have been obtained by mul¬
tiplying the denominator 7 by 3, becaufe the value
of fractions is lefiened when their denominators are
increafed : and this comes to -£T j and, becaufe two-
thirds were required, we muft double that fraction,
which is done by multiplying the numerator by 2,
and comes to Hence we infer, that fradtions of
fradtions, or compound fradtions, fuch as 4 of 3- are
reduced to fimple ones by multiplication. The fame
method is followed when the compound fradtion is
exprelfed in three parts or more.
If a number be multiplied by any integer, its va¬
lue is increafed : If it be multiplied by I, or taken
one time, it undergoes no alteration. If it be multi¬
plied by a proper fradtion, or taken for one half, two
thirds, or the like, its value is diminilhed, and the
produdt is lefs than the number multiplied.
The foregoing rule extends to every cafe, when there
are fradtions in either fadtor. For mixed numbers may
be reduced to improper fradtions, as is done in Ex. 2d. ;
and integers may be written, or underftood to be writ¬
ten, in the form of fradtions whofe numerator is 1. It
will be convenient, however, to give fome further di-
redtious for proceeding, when one of the fadtors is an
integer, or when one or both are mixed numbers.
lit, To multiply an integer by a fradtion, multiply
it by the numerator, and divide the produdt by, the
denominator. Ex. 3756x1=22534
3
5)1.1268(2253!
2d, To multiply an integer by a mixed number,
we multiply it firft by the integer, and then by the
fradtion, and add the produdts.
3
4)4I4( 103J
793i
3d, To multiply a mixed number by a fradtion,
we may multiply the integer by the fradtion, and the
two fradtions together, and add the produdts.
Ex. I 5t X1=3 tv
15 X 1=31 =3tt
5 v 1  6   1
IT 9— 7 a — TV
4th, When both fadtors are mixed numbers, we may
multiply each part of the multiplicand firit by the in¬
teger of the multiplier, and then by the fradtion, and
add the four produdts.
Ex. 8! by 7!
8 X 7 =
8 x i=y=
1 x 7 =V4=2l
T X ■%—
produdt 65/^ as before.
4. Division of Vulgar Fractions.
Rule I. “ Multiply the numerator of the divi-
“ dend by the denominator of the divifor. The pro-
“ dudt is the numerator oi the quotient.”
II. “ Multiply the denominator of the dividend by
“ the numerator of the divifor. The produdt is the
“ denominator of the quotient.”
Ex. Divide 1 by Quotient H
2X9=i8
5 X 7 = 35-
To explain the reafon of this operation, let us fup-
pofe it required to divide 4 by 7» or to ta^e one fe~
venth part of that fradlion. This is obtained by
multiplying the denominator by 7} for the value of
fradtions is diminilhed by increafing their denomina*
tors, and comes to -yr. Again, Becaufe is nine
times lefs than feven, the quotient of any number di¬
vided by 1 will be nine times greater than the quo¬
tient of the fame number divided by 7. Therefore
we multiply -yj by 9, and obtain -^J-.
If the divifor and dividend have the fame denomina*
tor, it is fufficient to divide the numerators.
Ex. !4 divided by X3T quotes 4.
The quotient of any number divided by a proper
fradlion is greater than the dividend. It is obvious,
that any integer contains more halves, more third
parts and the like, than it contains units; and, if an
integer and fradlion be divided alike, the quotients
will have the fame proportion to the numbers divi¬
ded ; but the value of an integer is increafed when
the divifor is a proper fradlion j therefore, the value
of a fradlion in the like cafe is increafed alfo.
' The foregoing rule may be extended to every cafe,
by reducing integers and mixed numbers to the form
of improper fradlions. We lhall add fome diredlions
for Ihortening the operation when integers and mixed
numbers are concerned.
ill, When the dividend is an integer, multiply it
by
56
6 by Prob. II.
<s_
UTo
Chap. VIII. A R I T H
Vuljiur by the denominator of the divifor, and divide the pro-
Fradions. dud by the numerator.
V™1' Ex. Divide 36^ by 4
7
5)2576(SMi-quotient. _ <
2d, When the divifor ib an integer, and the dividend
a fradion, multiply the denominator by the divifor,
and place the produd under the numerator.
Ex. Divide !■ by 5 quotient ^
8x5=4°
3d, When the divifor is an integer, and the dividend
a mixed number, divide the integer, and annex the
fradion to the remainder ; then reduce the mixed num¬
ber, thus formed, to an improper fradion, and multiply
its denominator by the divifor.
Ex. To divide 576 t4! by 7 quotient
7) 576 (82
56
16
14
21
« 4 _>«
2TT—TT
X 7 = 76
Here we divide 576 by 7,
the quotient is 82, and the
remainder 2, to which we an¬
nex the fradion T4r *, and re¬
duce 2xt to an improper
fradion if, and multiply its
denominator by 7, which
gives 44.
Hitherto we have considered the fradions as abflrad
numbers, and laid down the neceffary rules accordingly.
We now proceed to apply thefe to pradice. Shillings,
and pence may be considered as fradions of pounds,
and lower denominations of any kind as fradions of
higher *, and any operation, where different denomina¬
tions occur, may be wrought by exprefling the lower
ones in the form of vulgar fradions, and proceeding by
the foregoing rules. For this purpufe the two follow¬
ing problems are neceflary.
Problem V. “ To reduce lower denominations to
“ fradions of higher, place the given number for the
4t numerator, and the value of the higher for the deno-
“ minator.” Examples.
1. Reduce 7d. to the fradion of a (hilling. Anf. tV
2. Reduce 7d. to a fradion of a pound. Anf. vj-o-
3. Reduce 1 5s. 7d. to a fradion of a pound. Anf.
Problem VI. “ To value fradions of higher deno-
u minations, multiply the numerator by the value of
“ the given denomination •, and divide the produd by
4< the denominator ; if there be a remainder, multiply
“ it by the value of the next denomination, and conti-
“ nue the divifion.”
Ex. ill.] Required the value 2d.] Required the value
of |- of 1 cwt.
8
of H of ll.
17
20
6o)34°( 5
3°°
40
12
60)480
480
d.
8
—— qrs. lb.
9)32C 3 'Si
27
5
28
9)I4°
9
5°
45
M E T I C. - 645
In the firll example, we multiply the numerator 17 Decimal
by 20, the number of (hillings in a pound, and divide Fradtions..
the produd 340 by 60, the denominator of the frac- ^ 1 r
tion, and obtain a quotient of 5 (hillings; then we
multiply the remainder 40 by 12, the number of
pence in a (hilling, which produces 480, which divid¬
ed by 60 quotes 8J. without a remainder. In the
fecond example we proceed in the fame manner ; but
as there is a remainder, the quotient is completed by %
fradion.
Sometimes the value of the fradion does not amount
to an unit of the lowed denomination ; but it may be
reduced to a fradion of that or any other denomina¬
tion, by multiplying the numerator according to the
value of the places. 1 hus tiVit a Pountl 's equal
to of a (hilling, or TWtr of a penny, of a
farthing.
Chap. IX. DECIMAL FRACTIONS.
Sect. I. Notation and Reduction.
The arithmetic of vulgar fradions is tedious, and
even intricate to beginners. The difficulty arifes chiefly
from the variety of denominators-, for when numbers
are divided into different kinds of parts, they cannot be
eafrly compared. This confideration gave rife to the
invention of decimal fradions, where the units are di¬
vided into like parts; and the diviflons and fubdivifions
are regulated by the fame fcale which is ufed in the
arithmetic of integers. The firft figure of a decimal
fradion fignifies tenth parts, the next hundredth parts,
the next thoufandth parts, and fo on : and the columns
may be titled accordingly. Decimals are dillinguifhed
by a point, which feparates them from integers, if any
be prefixed.
The ufe of cyphers in decimals, as well as in inte¬
gers, is to bring the fignificant figures to their proper
places, on which their value depends. As cyphers,
when placed on the left hand of an integer, have no
fignification, but, when placed on the right hand, in-
creafe the value ten times each; fo cyphers, when pla¬
ced on the right hand of a decimal, have no fignifica¬
tion ; but, when placed on the left hand, diminifti the
value ten times each.
The notation and numeration of decimals will be ob¬
vious from the following examples.
4.7 fignifies Four and feven tenth parts.
•47
.047
.407
4-°7
4.007
Four tenth parts, and feven hundredth
parts, or 47 hundredth parts.
Four hundredth parts, and feven thou¬
fandth parts, or 47 thoufandth parts.
Four tenth parts, and feven thoufandth
parts, or 407 thoufandth parts.
Four, and feven hundredth parts.
Four, and feven thoufandth parts.
The column next the decimal point is fometimes
called decimal primes, the next decimal feconds ; and
fo on.
To reduce vulgar fractions to decimal ones : “ An-
“ nex a cypher to the numerator, and divide it by the
“ denominator, annexing a cypher continually to the
“ remainder.’*
2<?
5
Ex..
646
Decimal Ex. I ft.] 4f-=M6
.Fntaions-. 75)120(16
" ' 75
A
2d.] ^=.078125
64)500(078125
448
R I T H
3d.] 4-666
3)20(666
18
*20
18
20
18
20
4th.] 4=.833
6)50(83
48
5 th.] 4V—259
27)70(259
54
6th.] —.3,18,18.
22)70(31818
66
*20
18
20
18
20
The reafon of this operation will be evident, if we
confider that the numerator of a vulgar fradion is un-
derftood to be divided by the denominator; and this
divifion is actually performed when it is reduced to a de¬
cimal.
In like manner, when there is a remainder left in di¬
vifion, we may extend the quotient to a decimal, in-
itead of completing it by a vulgar fradlion, as in the
following example:
25)646(25-44 or 25.84.
50
Rem. 21.0
200
100
100
M E T I C. Chap. IX
as Ex. 3d and 5th. If otherwife, as Ex. 4th and 6th, Decim ,
they are mixed repeaters or circulates, and the figures Fractions,
prefixed to thofe in regular fucceflion are called the ' 7’-.>
finite part. Repeating figures are generally difiinguiflv-
ed by a da(h, and circulates by a comma, or other mark,
at the beginning and end of the circle ; and the begin¬
ning of a repeater or circulate is pointed out in the di¬
vifion by an afterilk.
Lower denominations may be confidered as fra&ions
of higher ones, and reduced to decimals accordingly.
We may proceed by the following rule, which is the
fame, iiveffeft, as the former.
T0 reduce lower denominations to decimals of higher.
Annex a cypher to the lower denomination, and di-
“ vidt! it by the value of the higher. When there are
“ feveral denominations, begin at the lowed, and reduce
“ them in their order.”
Ex. To reduce 5 cwt. 2 qr. 21 lb. to a decimal of a
ton ?
23)2io(.75
196
140
140
4)2-7506875
24
35
32
3°
28
20
20
-e
2o)5.6874(.2S4375
40
*5°
140
100
100
Here, in order to reduce 21 lb. to a decimal of 1 qr. we
annex a cypher, and divide by 28, the value of 1 qr.
This gives .75. Then we reduce 2.75 qrs. to a de¬
cimal of i cwt. by dividing by 4, the value of 1 cwt.
and it comes to .6875. Laftly, 5.6875 cwt. is redu¬
ced to a decimal of a ton by dividing by 20, and comes
to.284375.
To value a decimalfraSlion. “ Multiply it by the
“ value of the denomination, and cut off as many de-
“ cimal places from the product as there are in the mul¬
tiplicand. The reft are integers of the lower deno-
“ mination.”
Example.
From the. foregoing examples, we may diftinguifti
the feveral kinds of decimals. Some vulgar fradions
may be reduced exadly to decimals, as Ex. ift and
2d, and are called terminate or finite decimals. Others
cannot be exa&ly reduced, becaufe the divifion al-
Avays leaves a remainder ; but, by continuing the di¬
vifion, we will perceive how the decimal may be ex¬
tended to any length whatever. Thefe are called infi¬
nite decimals. If the fame figure continually returns,
as in Ex. 3d and 4th, they are called repeaters. If two
or more figures return in their order, they are called
circulates. If this regular fucceflion go on from the
beginning, they are called pure repeaters, or circulates,
What is the value of .425 of L. 1 ?
•425
20
ftl. 8.500
6
d. 3.000
Sect. II. Arithmetic ©/"Terminate Decimals.
The value of decimal places decreafes like that of in¬
tegers, ten of the lower place in either being equal to
one of the next higher : and the fame holds in pafling
from decimals to integers. Therefore, all the opera¬
tions are performed in the fame way with decimals,
whether
17
Chap. IX. A R I T H
Decimal whether placed by themfelves or annexed to integers,
Fractions as with pure integers. The only peculiarity lies in the
arrangement and pointing of the decimals.
In addition and fubtrafiion, “ Arrange units under
“ units, tenth parts under tenth parts, and proceed as
“ in integers.”
32.035 from 13.348 and 12.248
116.374 take 9.2993 10.6752
160.63 —— - — 
12.3645 4.0487 1.5728
33M°35.
In multiplication^ “ Allow as many decimal places
“ in the produft as there are in both faftors. If the
“ product has not fo many places, fupply them by pre-
“ fixing cyphers on the left hand.”
Ex. ill.] 1.37 2d.] 43.75 3d.] .1572
1.8 .48 .12
1096 3cooo .01864
J37 17V00
2.466 21.0000
The reafon of this rule may be explained, by obferv-
ing, that the value of the product depends on the va¬
lue of the factors ; and fince each decimal place in ei¬
ther factor diminilhes its value ten times, it mult equal¬
ly diminilh the value of the product.
To multiply decimals by 10, move the decimal point
one place to the right j to multiply by 100, 1000, or
the like, move it as many places to the right as there
are cyphers in the multiplier.
In divijion, “ Point the quotient fo that there may
“ be an equal number of decimal places in the dividend
“ as in the divifor and quotient together.”
Therefore, if there be the fame of decimal places in
the divifor and dividend, there will be as many in the
quotient.
If there be more in the dividend, the quotient will
have as many as the dividend has more than the di¬
vifor.
If there be more in the divifor, we muft annex (or
fuppofe annexed) as many cyphers to the dividend as
may complete the number in the divifor, and all the
figures of the quotient are integers.
If the divifion leave a remainder, the quotient may
be extended to more decimal places ; but thefe are not
regarded in fixing the decimal point.
The reafon for fixing the decimal point, as dire&ed,
may be inferred from the rule followed in multiplica¬
tion. The quotient multiplied by the divifor produces
the dividend; and therefore the number of decimal
places in the dividend is equal to thofe in the divifor
and quotient together.
The firfl: figure of the quotient is always at the fame
diftance from the decimal point, and on the fame fide
as the figure of the dividend, which Hands above the
unit place of the firft produft. This alfo takes place in
integers : and the reafon is the fame in both.
It was formerly obferved, that numbers were dimi-
nilhed when multiplied by proper fractions, and increaf-
ed when divided by the fame. Thus, multiplication by
fractions correfpohds with divifion by integers ; and
divifion by fractions with multiplication by integers ;
when we multiply by f or .5, we obtain the fame an-
M E T I c. 647
fwer as when we divide by 2, and every integer has a Decimal
correfpondent decimal, which may be called its red Fractions.
procal. Multiplication by that decimal fupplies the
place of divifion by the integer, and divifion fupplies
the place of multiplication.
To find the reciprocal of any number, divide 1 with
cyphers annexed by that number.
Ex. Required the reciprocal of 625*
625)i.ooo(.ooi6
625
375'o
3750
o
The produft of any number multiplied
the fame as the quotient divided by 625.
625)9375(i5
625
by .0016 is
Example.
9375
.0016
3125 56250
3I25 9375
o 15.0000
Becaufe .0016 is -5^ cf unity, any number multi¬
plied by that fraftion will be diminilhed 625 times.
For a like reafon, the quotient of any number divided
by .0016, will be equal to the produft of the fam« mul¬
tiplied by 625. Example.
.0016)516.0000(322500 516
48* • • •• 625
36 2580
32 1032
  3096
40  
32 322500
80
80
o
Sect. III. Approximate Decimals.
It has been ftiown that fome decimals, though ex¬
tended to any length, are never complete ; and others,
which terminate at laft, fometimes confift of fo many
places, that it would be difficult in praftice to extend
them fully. In thefe cafes, we may extend the decimal
to three, four, or more places, according to the nature
of the articles, and the degree of accuracy required,
and rejeft the reft of it as inconfiderable. In this man¬
ner we may perform any operation with eafe by the
common rules, and the anfwers we obtain are fufficient-
ly exaft for any purpofe in bufinefs. Decimals thus re-
ftrifted are called approximates.
Shillings, pence, and farthings, may be eafily redu¬
ced to decimals of three places, by the following rule.
Take half the {hillings for the firft decimal place, and
the number of farthings increafed by one, if it amount
to 24 or upwards; by two, if it amount to 48 or up¬
wards ; and by three, if it amount to 7 2 or upwards,
for the two next places.
The reafon of this is, that 20 {hillings make a pound,
two {hillings is the tenth part of a pound ; and there¬
fore
648 A R T T H
Decimal fore half the number of {hillings makes the firft deci-
Fradtions. mal place. If there were 50 farthings in a (hilling,
* ' v or 1000 in a pound, the units of the farthings in the
remainder would be thoufandth parts, and the tens
would be hundredth parts, and fo would give the two
next decimal places; but becaufe there are only 48
farthings in a (hilling, or 960 in a pound, every far¬
thing is a little more than the thoufandth part pf a
pound ; and finde 24 farthings make 25 thoufandth
parts, allowance is made for that excefs by adding 1
for every 24 farthings, as dire&ed.
If the number of farthings be 24, 48, or 72, and
confequently the fecond and third decimal places 25,
50, and 7 9, they are exa<511y right; otherwife they are
not quite complete, lince there fhould be an allowance
of -z1?, not only for 24, 48, and 72 farthings, but for
every other (ingle farthing. They may be complet¬
ed by the following rule : Multiply the fecond and
third decimal places, or their excefs above 25, 50, 75,
by 4. If the product amount to 24 or upwards,
add I ; if 48, add 2; if 72, add 3. By this ope¬
ration we obtain two decimal places more; and by
continuing the fame operation, we may extend the
decimal till it terminate in 25, 50, 75, or in a re¬
peater.
Decimals of darling money of three places may ea-
fily be reduced to (hillings, pence, and farthings, by
the following rule : Double the firft decimal place, and
if the fecond be 5 or upwards, add 1 thereto for (hil¬
lings. Then divide the fecond and third decimal places,
or their excefs above 50, by 4, firft deducing 1, if it
amount to 25, or upwards; the quotient is pence, and
the remainder farthings.
As this rule is the converfe of the former one, the
reafon of the one may be inferred from that of the other.
The value obtained by it, unlefs the decimal terminate
in 25, 50 or 75, is a little more than the true value;
for there (hould be a deduflion, not only of I for 25,
but a little dedu£tion of ^ on the remaining figures of
thefe places.
We proceed to give fome examples of the arithme¬
tic of approximates, and fubjoin any neceffary obferva-
tions.
Addition.
Cwt. qrs. lb.
3 2 14= 3.625
2 3 22” 2.94642
3 3 ^9~
4 1 25= 4.47321
M E T I C.
Multiplication.
Meth, lft]8278-J- Meth. 2d]8278
2153
Chap. IX
Subtraction.
Civt. qrs. lb.
3 2 2 = 3.51785
I I 19=1.41964
- II
2.09821
M'lh.
21534-
3338278
35*2
Decimal
Fradtiorii.
24834
4139O
8278
!6556
i782|2534
i^556
827
4T3
24
8
90
834
I782,2534
Here the laft four places are quite uncertain,
right-hand figure of each particular product is obtained
by multiplying 8 into the figures of the multiplier ;
but if the multiplicand had been extended, the carriage
from the rjght-hand place would have been taken in ;
confequently the right-hand place of each particular
product, and the four places of the total produfl, w hich
depend on thefe, are quite uncertain. Since part of the
operation therefore is ufelefs, we may omit it; and for
this purpofe, it will be convenient to begin (as in p. 629.
col. x. fifth variety) at the higheft place of the multi¬
plier. We may perceive that all the figures on the
right hand of the line on Meth. 2. ferve no purpofe, and
may be left out, if we only multiply the figures on the
multiplicand, whofe products are placed on the right
hand of the line. This is readily done by inverting
the multiplier in Meth. 3. and beginning each produft
with the multiplication of that figure which (lands above
the figure of the multiplier that produces it, and in¬
cluding the carriage from the right-hand place.
If both faftors be approximates, there are as many
uncertain places, at leaft in the produft, as in the
longeft faflor. If only one be an approximate, there are
as many uncertain places as there are figures in that
fa£lor, and fometimes a place or two more, which
might be affefled by the carriage. Hence we may in¬
fer, how far it is neceffary to extend the approximates,
in order to obtain the requifite number of certain places
in the produft.
Division.
.3724—3798 64327 +(2144 or liif)79864327(2144
744 8 7448
16
M
602
896
14 3 24 14.96427 . .
If we value the fum of the approximates, it will fall
a little ftiort of the fum of the articles, becaufe the de¬
cimals are not complete.
Some add I to the laft decimal place of the approxi¬
mate, when the following figure would have been 5,
or upwards. ’Thus the full decimal of 3 qrs* 22lb. is
.946,428571, and therefore .9-’643 is nearer to it than
.946,42. Approximates, thus regulated, will in gene¬
ral give exafter anfwers, and fometimes above the true
one, fometimes below it.
The mark + fignifies that the approximate is lefs
than the exaft decimal, or requires fomething to be
added. The mark — fignifies that it is greater, or re¬
quires fomething to be fubtrafled.
7063
4892
2171 4
Here all the figures on the right hand of the line
are uncertain; for the right-hand figure of the firft pro-
duft 7448 might be altered by the carriage, if the divi-
for were extended ; and all the remainders and dividu-
als that follow are thereby rendered uncertain. We
may omit thefe ufelefs figures; for which purpofe, we
da(h a figure on the right hand of the divifor at each
ftep, and negleft it when we multiply by the figure of
the quotient next obtained ; but we include the car¬
riage. The operation, and the reafon of it, will appear
clear, by comparing the operation at large, and con-
tratted, in the above example.
’ Chap.
Chap. X. ARITHMETIC.
Intermi-
nate
Decimals.
Chap. X. INTERMINATE DECIMALS. .
Sect. I. Reduction of Interminate Decimals.
Ex. TV=:.03125, a decimal of 5 places, and 32=|.
32)l.OOOOO(.03I2J
96...
649
Intermi¬
nate
Decimals.
As the arithmetic of interminate decimals, otherwife
called the arithmetic of infinites, is facilitated by com¬
paring them with vulgar fractions, it will be proper to
inquire what vulgar fractions produce the feveral kinds
of decimals, terminate or interminate, repeaters or cir¬
culates, pure or mixed. And firft, we may obferve,
that vulgar fractions, which have the fame denominator,
produce decimals of the fame kind. If the decimals
correfponding to the numerator I be known, all others
are obtained by multiplying thefe into any given nume¬
rator, and always retain the fame form, providing the
vulgar fraction be in its lowed: terms.
Thus, the decimal equal to \ is .142857
which multiplied by 3
produces the decimal equal to ^..^28
Secondly, If there be cyphers annexed to the fignifi-
cant figures of the denominator, there will be an equal
number of additional cyphers prefixed to the decimal.
The reafon of this will be evident, if we reduce thefe
vulgar fractions to decimals, or if we confider that each
cypher annexed to the denominator diminilhes the value
of the vulgar fraftion ten times, and each cypher pre¬
fixed has a like effedt on the value of the decimal.
Thus, ^=.142587, tV=.28 ^-i5~.045
^=.0,142857, -ff-^o=-0°28 ^^-=.000,45
We may therefore confine our attention to vulgar frac¬
tions, whofe numerator is 1, and which have no cy¬
phers annexed to the fignificant figures of the denomi¬
nator.
Thirdly, Vulgar fraflions, whofe denominators are
2 or 5, or any of their powers, produce terminate deci¬
mals j for if any power of 2 be multiplied by the fame
power of 5, the produft is an equal power of 10, as ap¬
pears from the following table:
2 X 5 =10
2* or 4 X 5* or 25— 100 or 10*
2s or 8 X 52 3 or 125= 1000 or ioJ
24 * * * * * 10 or 16 x 54 or 625= IOOOO or ic4
2s or 32 X 5s or 3125— 100000 or 10s
And the reafon is eafily pointed out: for 23 X 5s=r2X 2
X 2 X 5 X 5 X 5 or, becaufe the fadlors may be taken
in any order, =r2 X5- X2X5X2X5; and this, if we
multiply the fa&ors by pairs, becomes 10X10X10, or
103. The like may be fliown of any other power.
And we may infer, that if any power of 10 be divided
by a like power of 2 or 5, the quotient will be an equal
power of 5 or 2 refpe&ively, and will come out exaft,
without a remainder ; and, fince the vulgar fractions
above mentioned are reduced to decimals by fome fuch
divifion, it follows that the equivalent decimals are ter¬
minate.
The number of places in the decimal is pointed out
by the exponent of the power; for the dividend muft
be a like power of 10, or mult have an equal number
of cyphers annexed to 1, and each cypher of the divi¬
dend gives a place of the quotient.
VOL. II. Part II.
40
32
80
64
160
160
Again, No denominators except 2, 5, or their powers,
produce terminate decimals. It is obvious from p. 631.
col. 2. par. 4. that, if any denominator which produces a
terminate decimal be multiplied thereby, the product
will confift of 1, with cyphers annexed; and eonfequent-
ly the lowed places of the factors, multiplied into each
other, muft amount to 10, 20, or the like, in order to
fupply a cypher for the lowed place of the produft}
but none of the digits give a produdl of this kind, ex¬
cept 5 multiplied by the even numbers; therefore one
of the faflors muft terminate in 5, and the other in an
even number. The former is meafured by 5, and the
latter by 2, as was obferved p. 630. col. 2. par. 7. Let
them be divided accordingly, and let the quotients be
multiplied. This laft produft will be exaftly one-tenth
part of the former ; and therefore will confift of 1, with
cyphers annexed, and the faflors which produce it are
meafured by 5 and 2, as was (hewn before. This ope¬
ration may be repeated; and one of the faflors may be
divided by 5, and the other by 2, till they be exhauft-
ed; confequently they are powers of 5 and 2.
Fourthly, Vulgar fractions, whofe denominators ar#
3 or 9, produce repeating decimals.
Thus, i=.ii^ 1>=S58
.22g 4 or •| = 66$
t or i-=-333
£—444 f—88$
The repeating figure is always the fame as the nume¬
rator. Hence we infer, that repeating figures fignify
ninth parts; a repeating 3 fignifies 4 j a repeating 6 fig-
nifies 4 5 and a repeating 9 fignifies or 1.
. The value of repeating decimals may alfo be illuf-
trated by colle&ing the values of the different places :
for example, let the value of uf be required ; the firft
decimal place fignifies the next th® next toW*
The fum of tfie two firft places is T’oV» of the three
places tVo-V? and on* If we fubtraft thefe values
fucceflively from 4, the firft remainder is the fecond
•g4o> the third •g-54)Tr» Thus, when the value of the
fucceflive figures is reckoned, the amount of them ap¬
proaches nearer and nearer to 4, and the difference be¬
comes 10 times lefs for each figure affumed ; and, fince
the decimal may be extended to any length, the differ¬
ence will at laft become fo fmall, that it need not be re¬
garded. This may. give a notion of a decreafing feries,
whofe fum may be exactly afcertained, though the num¬
ber of terms be unlimited.
Fifthly, Vulgar fractions, whofe denominators are
a product of 3 or 9 multiplied by 2, 5, or any of their
powers, produce mixed repeaters. The reafon of this
will be evident, if, informing the decimal, we divide
the numerator fucceflively by the component parts of
the denominator, as direfted p. 630. col. 1. par. ult.
4 N &c.
650
Intermi-
tfate
Decimals.
A R I T H
&c. The firH: divifor is 2, 5, or fo of their powers,
and confequently gives a finite quotient by p. 649, col.
I. par. 3, &c. The fecond divifor is 3 or 9 j and there¬
fore, when the figures of the dividend are exhaufted,
and figures annexed to the remainder, the quotient will
repeat, by p. 649. col. 2. par. 2.
Ex, 144=16x9-
9
J44)
1.000(00694
864
or i6)i.oo(.o625
96.00694
1360
1296
* 640
576
40
32
80
80
640 o
In order to illuflrate this fubjeft further, we {ball ex¬
plain the operation of calling out the threes, which re-
fembles that for callingout the nines, formerly laid down,
p. 633. col. 2. par. 4.—-p. 634.col. 2. par. 3. and depends
on the fame principles, being a method of finding the re¬
mainder of a number divided by 3. If the fame number
be divided by 3 and by 9, the remainders will either a-
gree, or the fecond remainder will exceed the firll by 3 or
by 6. The reafon of this will be obvious, if we fuppofe
a collection of articles afforted into parcels of 3, and
afterwards into parcels of 9, by joining three of the
former together. If the leffer parcels be all taken up
in compofing the greater ones, the remainder will be
the fame at the end of the fecond alfortment as before j
but if one of thefe lelfer parcels be left over, the re¬
mainder will be more, and if two of them be left over,
the remainder will be 6 more. Therefore, when the
nines are calt out from any number, and the refult di¬
vided by 3, the remainder is the fame as when the num¬
ber is divided by 3 : Thus, the refults on calling out
the 3’s may be derived from thofe obtained by calling
out the 9’h ; and the fame correfpondence which was
pointed out with refpeCt to the latter, for proving the
operations of arithmetic, applies alfo to the former.
To call out the 3’s from any number, add the figures,
neglefting 3, 6, or 9 *, and, when the fum amounts
to 3, 6, or 9, rejeCl them ; and carry on the computa¬
tion with the excefs only. For example, take 286754 :
in calling out the 3’s we compute thus ; 2 and 8 is 10,
which is three times 3, and 1 over; I and (palling by
6) 7 is 8, which is twice 3 and 2 over ; 2 and 5 is 7,
which is twice 3 and 1 over ; lallly, 1 and 4 is 5, which
contains 3 once, and 2 over, fo the refult is 2.
If the 3’s be call out from 2* or 4, the refult is 1 ;
from 25 or 8, the refult is 2 ; from 24 or 16, the refult
is 1 ; and univerfally the odd powers of 2 give a refult
of 2, and the even powers give a refult of 1. As
every higher power is produced by multiplying the
next lower by 2, the refult of the produfl may be
found by multiplying the refult of the lower power
by 2, and calling out the j’s if neceflary. There¬
fore if the refult of any power be 1, that of the next
higher is 2, and that of the next higher (4 with the 3’s
call out, or) 1. Thus the refults of the powers of 2 are 1
and 2 by turns ; alfo, becaufe the refult of 5, when the
3’s are call out, is 2, its powers will have the fame re¬
fults as the correfponding powers of 2.
M E T I C. • Chap, x
If the denominator be a produff of an even power intermi
of 2 or 5, multiplied by 3, the repeating figure of the nate
correfponding decimal is 3 ; but, if it be the product Decimals,
of an odd power, the repeating figure is 6. For, in '‘"“■"V'—-11
forming the decimal, we may divide by the component
parts of the denominator, and the firil divifor is a
power of 2 or 5 ; therefore the firll quotient is a like
power of 4 or 2 (p. 649. col. 1. par. 3. &c.) and this
power is again divided by 3. If it be an even power, the
remainder or refult is 1, as was demonllrated above ;
and if cyphers be annexed to the remainder, and the
divifion continued, it quotes a repeating 3 ; but if it be
an odd power, the remainder is 2, and the quotient
continued by annexing cyphers is a repeating 6.
If the denominator be 9, multiplied by 2, or any of
its powers, the repeating figure may be found by call¬
ing out the 9’s from the correfponding power, by 5;
and if it be multiplied by 5, or any of its powers, by
calling out the 9’s from the correfponding power of 2.
For if the decimal be formed by two divifions, the firll
quotes the correfponding power ; and the fecond, be¬
caufe the divifor is 9, repeats the refulting figure after
the dividend is exhaulled.
If any mixed repeater be multiplied by 9, the produdl
is a terminate decimal, and may be reduced (p. 649.
col. 1. par. 3. &c.) to a vulgar fra61ion, whofe deno¬
minator is 2, 5, or fome of their powers; therefore all
mixed repeaters are derived from vulgar fraftions, whofe
denominators are produdls of 2, 5, or their powers, x .
multiplied by 3 or 9.
Sixthly, All denominators, except 2* 5, 3, 9, the
powers of 2 and 5, and the products of thefe powers,
multiplied by 3 or 9, produce circulating decimals.
We have already Ihown, that all terminate decimals are
derived from 2, 5, or their powers ; all pure repeaters,/
from 3 or 9 ; and all mixed repeaters, from the pro-
dudls of the former multiplied by the latter. The num¬
ber of places in the circle is never greater than the
denominator diminifhed by unity. Thus 4 produces
.142857, a decimal of 6 places; and -j-V produces
.0588235294117647, a decimal of 16 places. The
reafon of this limit may be inferred from the divifion ;
for whenever a remainder which has recurred before, re¬
turns again, the decimal mull circulate, and thegreatefl
number of poffible remainder is one lefs than the divi¬
for : But frequently the circle is much (liorter. Thus
xt=-°9» a circle of 2 places.
When a vulgar fradlion, whofe numerator is 1, pro¬
duces a pure circulate, the produfl of the circle multi¬
plied by the denominator will confiit of as many 9’s
as there are places in the circle. Thus 4=:-I42857,
_ which multiplied by 7 produces 999999. The like
holds in every decimal of the fame kind ; for they are
formed by dividing 10, or 100, or 1000, or fome like
number, by the denominator, and the remainder is 1,
when the decimal begins to circulate ; for the divifion
mull be then exaflly in the fame Hate as at the begin¬
ning: Therefore, if the dividend had been lefs by 1, or
had confilled entirely of 9,s, the divifion would have
come out without a remainder ; and fince the quotient
multiplied by the divifor, produces the dividend, as was
Ihown p. 631. col. 2. par. 3. it follows, that the circu¬
lating figures, multiplied by the denominator, produce
an equal number of q’s.
Every vulgar fraction, which produces a pure circu¬
late.
Chap. X.
ARITHMETIC.
651
Intermi- late, is equal to one whofe numerator is the circulating
nare figures, and its denominator a like number of p’s. If
Decimals, numerator be r, the vulgar fraftion is reduced to
“ that form by multiplying both terms into the circle of
the decimal ; and if the numerator be more than I,
the equivalent decimal is found by multiplying that
which correfponds to the numerator 1 into any other
numerator.
Thus t=*i42857»—"rTrlinr and
T=«2857I4>='?4ir5'-r5' tt—
4=-42857i,=r^-54l^g- ^—.216.—^^
Hence we may infer, that pure circulates are equal in
value to vulgar fractions whofe numerators confift of the
circulating figures, and denominators of as many p’s as
there are places in the circle. To place this in another
point of view, we fhall reduce a vulgar fra&ion, whofe
numerator confifts entirely of p’s, to a decimal.
W 990)375000(-375>
2PP7* •
753°
6993
5370
4995
*375
The remainder is now the fame as the dividend, and
therefore the quotient mufl circulate j and, in general,
fince any number with 3 cyphers annexed, may be di¬
vided by IOOO, without a remainder, and quotes the
fignificant figures j therefore, when divided by ppp, it
mull quote the fame figures, and leave an equal remain¬
der. This alfo applies to every divifor which confifls
entirely of p’s. Circles of two places, therefore, fignify
ninety-ninth parts; circles of 3 places, fignify nine hun¬
dred and ninety-ninth parts *, and fo on.
The value of circulating decimals may alfo be illu-
flrated by adding the values of the places. Thus, if
two figures circulate, the firft circle fignifieth hundredth
parts, and every following circle fignifies one hundred
times lefs than the preceding ; and their values added,
as in p. 64p. col. 2. par. 3. will approach nearer to
ninety-ninth parts than any affigned difference, but will
never exaftly complete it.
All denominators which are powers of 3, except p,
produce pure circulates ; and the number of places in
the circle is equal to the quotient of the denominator
divided by p.
Thus, tt—-037, a circle of 3 places, and 27 divided
by p=3
234567P, a circle of p places, and 81
divided by 9—p.
Thefe decimals may be formed, by dividing the nu¬
merator by the component parts of the denominator.
In the firft example, the component parts of the nume¬
rator are p and 3. The.divifion by p quotes a pure
circulate, and the circulating figure is not 3, 6, or p,
if the vulgar fraflion be in its loweft terms. And any
other repeating figure divided by 3, quotes a pure cir¬
culate of.3 places; for the firfl dividual rouft leave a
remainder of 1 or 2. If the firif remainder be 1, the intermi-
fecond remainder is 2, (becaufe, if 1 be prefixed to nate
the repeating figure, and the 3’s be caff out, the refult Decimals,
is 2), and, for a like reafon, the third dividual clears ' v
off without a remainder. If the firft remainder be 2,
the feeond is (twice 2 or 4, with the 3’s csft out, or)
1, and the third o ; fo the circle is always complete
at 3 places, and the divfion begins anew. The fum of
fuch a circle cannot be a multiple of 3 ; for fince the
repeating figure is not 3, nor any of its multiples, the
fum of 3 places is not a multiple of p, and therefore
cannot be divided by p, nor twice by 3, without a re¬
mainder.
Again, If the decimal equal to ^tt be divided by 3,
we {hall obtain the decimal equal to ¥IT. The dividend,
as we have fhown already, is a pure circulate of 3
places, whofe fum is not a multiple of 3. Therefore,
■when divided by 3, the firfl; circle leaves a remainder
of 1 or 2, which being prefixed to the fecond, and the
divifion continued, the remainder at the end of the
fecond circle, is 2 or 1, and, at the end of the third
circle, there is no remainder ; all which may be illu-
flrated by eafting out the 3’s. The divifion being com¬
pleted at p places, finifhes the circle ; and it may be
fhown, as before, that the fum of thefe places is not a
multiple of 3. The learner will apprehend all this if
he reduce thefe, or the like vulgar ffa£tions, to deci¬
mals, by fucceflive divifions.
27= p X 3, and p)i.o(.liijt, and 3) ij t4(.o37,
81 = 27x3, and 3)037,037,037(.o 1234367P.
For the fame reafon, if any circulating decimal, not
a multiple of 3, be divided by 3, the quotient will cir¬
culate thrice as many places as the dividend ; and if
any circulate obtained by fuch divifion be multiplied by
3, the circle of the produdl will be reftri&ed to one1-
third of the places in the multiplicand.
All vulgar fradlions, whofe denominators are multi¬
ples of 2, 5, or their powers, except thofe already con-
fidered, produce mixed circulates ; for they may be re¬
duced by dividing by the component parts of the deno¬
minator. The firft divifor is 2, 5, or fome of their
powers, and therefore gives a finite quotient. The fe¬
cond divifor is none of the numbers enumerated p. 650.
col. 2. par. 2. and therefore gives a circulating quotient
when the fignificant figures of the dividend are ex-
haufted, and cyphers annexed to the remainder.
Fv 1
TT-g
2i6)i.coo(.o04,62p,
864
*1360
I2p6
640
432
2080
I944
All mixed circulates are derived from vulgar frac-
4 N 2 tions
216=27x8,
or 8)1.000
27) •1250004,629,
108
*170
162
80
54
260
243
I
A R I T H
tions of this kind, whofe denominators are multiples
of 2, 5, or their powers j and therefore all other de¬
nominators, except 3 and 9, produce pure circulates.
The reader will eafily perceive, that when a decimal is
formed from a vulgar fra&ion, whofe numerator is 1,
■when the remainder 1 occurs in the divifion the deci¬
mal is a pure circulate; but if any other remainder oc¬
curs twice, the decimal is a mixed circulate. We are
to lliow that this laft will never happen, unlefs the di-
vifor be a multiple of 2, 3, or their powers. If two
numbers be prime to each other, their produft will be
prime to both j and il two numbers be propofed,
whereof the firft does not meafure the fecond, it will
not meafure any produfl of the fecond, if the multiplier
be prime to the firft. Thus, bccaufe 7 does not mea-.
lure 12, it will not meafure any produdt of 12 by a
multiplier prime to 7. For inftance, it will not meafure
I2X3» or 36. Otherwife, the quotient of 12 divided
by 7, or 14 multiplied by 3, would be a whole number,
and 5X3 would be meafured by 7, which it cannot be,
fince 5 and 3 are both prime to 7.
Now, it we infpeft the foregoing operation, we fhall
perceive that the produdf of 136, the remainder where
the decimal begins to circulate, multiplied by 999, is
meafured by the denominator 216. But 999 is not
meafured by the denominator, otherwife the decimal
would have been a pure circulate $ therefore 126 and
136 are not prime to each other, but have a common
meafure, and that meafure muft apply to 864, a mul¬
tiple of 126, and to 1000, the fum of 136 and 864 j
fee p. 642, col. 2. par. ult. &c. But it was proven,
p. 649, col. 1. par. 1. that no numbers, except the
powers of 3 and 2, meafure a number confifting of 1
with cyphers annexed; confequently the denominator
mult be meafured by a power of 2 or 3. The reader
will perceive, that the exponent of the power muft be
the fame as the number of cyphers annexed to 1, or
as the number of figures in the finite part of the de¬
cimal.
We fhall now recapitulate the fubftance of what has
been faid with refpedt to the formation of decimals, 2,
3, and their powers, produce finite decimals, by p. 649,
col. 1. par. 3, &c. and the number of places is mea¬
fured by the exponent of the power ; 3 and 9 produce
pure repeaters (p. 649. col. 2. par. 2.) The products
°f 2> 5> ancl their powers, by 3 or 9, produce mixed re¬
peaters by p. 649. col. 2. par. ult. ,• their products by
other multipliers, produce mixed circulates by p. 649.
col. 2. par. ult.; and all numbers of which 2 and 3 are
not aliquot parts, except 3 and 9, produce pure circu¬
lates. To find the form of a decimal correfponding to
any denominator, divide by 2, 3, and 10, as often as
caai be done without a remainder ; the number of divi-
fions fhows how many finite places there are in the deci-
mal, by p. 631. col. 2. par. 3. If the dividend be not
exhaufted by thefe divifions, divide a competent number
of 9’s by the laft quotient, till the divifion be completed
without a remainder : the number of 9’s required ftiow
how many places there are in the circle; and the reafon
may be inferred from p. 630. col. 2. par. 5.
We {hall conclude this fubjedl by marking down the
decimals produced by vulgar fradtions, whofe nume¬
rator is 1, and denominator 30 ; and under that the
reader may obferve their connexion with the denomi¬
nators.
M E T I
£=•5
i=-333
4—-25
"e—•166$
-*-.142837,
irr.123
To’—— •1
TIT=.09,Q9,
tV = .08333'
TT—-979623
TT—-0,714283
■I1r=.o,66^
c.
tV—•0623
TT —■ 0388233294117647
tV=-°55£
T,9=-03 263 1 378947368421 ,
Chap X„
Intermi.
nate
Dec: reals.
To 05
^-1 =-047619,
^2=.o,43,43,
tit:=-04347826o8693632I739I3,
^=.041666
■2T—•°4
^=.0,384613,
tV=-037,
t-f=-o3,37i428
aV—•c'a44 b 2 7 i s 6 2o6S p 6 5 517 2413 7P3 r f
ts—‘0333
Rules for reducing interminate decimals to vulgar
fractions.
I. “ If the decimal be a pure repeater, place there-
“ peating figure for the numerator, and 9 tor the deno-
“ minator.”
II. “ If the decimal be a pure circulate, place the
“ circulating figures fur the numerator, and as many
“ 9’s as there are places in the circle for the denomi-
“ nator.”
III. “ If there be cyphers prefixed to the repeating
“ or circulating figures, annex a like number to the 9’s
“ in the denominator.”
IV. “ If the decimal be mixed, fubtradl the finite
“ part from the whole decimal. The remainder is the
“ numerator ; and the denominator confiits of as many
“ 9’s as there are places in the circle, together with
“ as many cyphers as there are finite places before the
“ circle.”
Thus, 233,62,
From the whole decimal 23362
We fubtradl the finite part 233
and the remainder 23327 is the numerator.
The reafon may be illuftrated by dividing the deci¬
mal into two parts, whereof one is finite, and the other
a pure repeater or circulate, with cyphers prefixed. Th»
fum of the vulgar fradlions correfponding to thefe will
be the value of the decimal fought.
.233,62, may be divided into .233-1%^ by Rule I.
and .ooo,62=-g-AW hy Rules II. III.
In order to add thefe vulgar fradtions, we reduce them
to a common denominator ; and, for that purpofe, we
multiply both terms of the former by 99, which gives
5 ^en we add the numerators.
233 or by method explained p. 628. col. 1. par 3,
99
—  Sum of numerators.
2113 233CO 23263 or 23362
2113 233 62 233
23263 23263. 23327 23327
The value of circulating decimals is not altered,
though one or more places be feparated from the circle,
and confidered as a finite part, providing the circle be
completed. For example, .27 may be written .2,72,
which is reduced by the laft of the foregoing rules to
or J-J, which is alfo the value of .27. And if two
or more circles be joined, the value of the decimal is
ftill the fame. Thus, which is reduced by
dividing the terms by 101 to fj.
All
Chap. X.
Interim- All circulating decimals may be reduced to a fimilar
nate form, having a like number both of finite and circula-
Decimals. places. For this purpofe, we extend the finite part
L * of each as far as the longeft, and then extend all the cir¬
cles to fo many places as may be a multiple of the num¬
ber of places in each.
Ex. .34,725, extended, .34,725725725725,
1,4562, 14,562456245624,
Here the finite part of both is extended to two places,
and the circle to 12 places, which is the leaft multiple
for circles of 3 and 4 places.
Sect. II. Addition and Subtraction o/'Intermi-
nate Decimals.
To add repeating Decimals. “ Extend the repeating
u figures one place beyond the longeft finite ones, and
“ when you add the right-hand column, carry to the
next by 9.”
fe
ARITHMETIC. 653
To fubtraB circulating Decimals. “ Extend them till Intermi-
“ they become fimilar j and when you fubtradl the ^ n.ate.
“ right-hand figure, confider whether I would have been Decima .
“ borrowed if the circles had been extended further,
“ and make allowance accordingly.
.5,72, .974, or .974974 -8,i35» or •8,i35I35»
.4,86, .86, .868686, .452907 or .4,529074,
Ex. .37524: or 37524: .2^ .296
.8 8888$ .34 .42
•643 643 -469^ -7548
•73 73333' -3^ -3l
T?
t 1
IT
1 1
TV
TT
264046
To fubtraB repeating Decimals. “ Extend them as
dire6b d for addition, and borrow at the right-hand
place, tf neceffary, by 9.1’
.93566 .646 .735$ .7382 .469
.8474 *534^ -62563 .6$ :3£
.0874 .11172
The reaion of thefe rules will be obvious, if we recoi¬
led that repeating figures fignify nine parts. If the
right-hand figure of the fum or remainder be o, the de¬
cimal obtained is finite -, otherwife it is a repeater.
To add circulating Decimals. “ Extend them till they
“ become fimilar (p. 652. col. I. par. ult. &c.) ; and
“ when you add the right-hand column, include thefi-
“ gure which would have been carried if the circle had
“ been extended further.”
Ex. lit.] Extended. Ex. 2d.3 Extended.
•574> *574>574» -874* .874,874,874,
.2,698, .269,869, .146.3 •* 46>333 33 3*
.428 .428 .1,58, .158,585858,
•37>983 •379>839* -32, .323,232323,
1.652,284, ^ _ 1.503,026390,
Note 1. Repeaters mixed with circulates are extended
and added as circulates.
Note 2. Sometimes it is neceffary to infped two or
more columns for afcertaining the carriage •, becaufe
the carriage from a lower column will fometimes raife
the fum of the higher, fo as to alter the carriage from
it to a new circle. This occurs in Ex. 2.
Note 3. The fum of the circles muft be confidered as
a fimilar circle. If it confift entirely of cyphers, the
amount is terminate. If all the figures be the fame,
the amount is a repeater. If they can be divided into
parts exaftly alike, the amount is a circle of fewer places j
but, for the moft part, the circle of the fum is fimilar to
the extended circles.
.3,868, .0842,
•4,375*
•853492> -0*842
.62^ .0842
XT
x 6
TT
.363
•57*
•895
.742
.003094.
•765,
.76,
•765
s
TV *
TT
.0,85, .106288, .3,606060,
or 3,60
Sect. III. Multiplication o/Interminate Deci¬
mals.
Case I. “ When the multiplier is finite, and the
“ multiplicand repeats, carry by 9 when you multiply
“ the repeating figure : The right-hand figure of each
“ line of the produdl is a repeater ; and they muft be
“ extended and added accordingly.”
Ex. .13494
•376
9446*
80966$
4°4833'?
.04952461
If the fum of the right-hand column be an even
number of 9’s, the product is finite j otherwife, it is a
repeater.
Case II. “ When the multiplier is finite, and the
“ multiplicand circulates, add to each product of the
“ right-hand figure the carriage which would have
“ been brought to it if the circle had been extended.
“ Each line of the product is a circle fimilar to the
“ multiplicand, and therefore they muft be extended
“ and added accordingly.”
The produdl is commonly a circulate fimilar to the
multiplicand 5 fometimes it circulates fewer places,
repeats, or becomes finite ;
places.
it never circulates more*
Ex. .37,46, X -235
235.
i87*32,
1123,93,
7492,92,
1.
2.
3-
4-
5-
6.
.674.
•37*
.625,
•4793:
•3*75:
X-78
X-86
X.42
X4-8
X 1.24
•2,963, X-36
.08804,19,
Case III. “ When the multiplier repeats or cir
culates, find the product as in infinite multipliers, and
place under it the products which would have arifen
from the repeating or circulating figures, if extend¬
ed.”
Ex. ift.]
•958+-8
8
7664
7664
7664
2d.]
•784+-36
36
47°4
2352
664
7664
28224
282
•85i3
24
8224
a*
3d.]
.284,09,
3d-]
.714285, X54»
54
ahithmetic.
2859142
357*4285
38,571428571428
38571428571^)
.3857142857
38 57*428
3857*4
3857
38
571428,
2857*4,
*42857,
571428,
385714,
*42857,
57*428,
3857*4,
3857,
38,
38,961038,961038,961038,
Chap. X
The multiplication of interminate decimals may be Intermi.
often facilitated, by reducing the multiplier to a vul- nate
gar fra£tion,. and proceeding as dire&ed p. 643. col. 1.
par. 6.
Thus,
Decimals,
4th.] .3824
7
5th.]
•384 X -2^ 
23 2
9)2.6768
•9742
XI52
768
23
90)8.832
•098
Therefore, in order to multiply by £, we take one-
third part of the multiplier ; and, to multiply by we
take two-thirds of the fame. Thus,
6th.] .784=.^ Xt
7th.]
.8761 X.
2
It is evident, that if a repeating multiplier be ex¬
tended to any length, the produ£t arifing from each fi¬
gure will be the fame as the firft, and each will {land
one place to the right-hand of the former. In like
manner, if a circulating multiplier be extended, the
produft arifing from each circle will be alike, and will
{land as many places to the right-hand of the former
as there are figures in the circle. In the foregoing
examples, there are as many of thefe produdls re¬
peated as is neceflfary for finding the total produdl.
If we place down more, or extend them further, it
will only give a continuation of the repeaters or circu¬
lates.
This is obvious in Ex. ill and 2d. As the learner
may not apprehend it fo readily in Ex. 3d. when the
multiplicand is a circulate, and confequently each line
of the produft is alfo a circulate, we have divided it in¬
to columns, whofe fums exhibit the fucceffive circles.
The fum of the firft column is 38,961037, and there
is a carriage of 1 from the right-hand column, which
completes 38,961038. This one is fupplied from the
three firft lines of the fecond column, the fum of which
is 999999, and being increafed by 1 in confequence
of the carriage from the third column, amounts to
1,000000, and therefore carries 1 to the firft column,
and does not affedl the fum of the remaining lines,
which are the fame as thofe of the firft column. The
third column contains two fets of thefe lines, which
amount to 999999, befides the line which compofe the
circle. Each of thefe fets would be completed into
1,000000 by the carriage from the 4th column, if ex¬
tended, and each would carry 1 to the fecond column.
One of thefe would complete the fum of the three firft
lines, and the other would complete the fum of the
circle. In like manner, if the circles be extended ever
fo far, the increafing carriages will exactly anfwer for
the increafing deficiencies, and the fum will be always
a continuation of the circle ; but the produft could not
circulate, unlefs the fum of the lines marked off in the
fecond column had confifted entirely of p’s ; or had been
fome multiple of a number of p’s j and the circles muff
be extended till this take place, in order to find the
complete produfr.
3).784 —  
.2613- 3)*.7522
.58400
As the denominator of the vulgar fradlions always
Confifts of 8’s, or of p’s with cyphers annexed, we mayufe
the contraftion explained p. 631. col. 1. par. ult. &c. ;
and this will lead us exaftly to the fame operation which
was explained p. 653. col. 2. par. ult. &c. on the prin¬
ciples of decimal arithmetic.
8th.] .735X.3,26=441 pth.] .278x365,=444
323 3 365
2205 323 1390
1470 1668
2205 834
99l°(237405 999)101470,
2374,05 IOI,
23>74  
>23 *01,571,
•239803*
When the multiplier is a mixed repeater or circu¬
late, we may proceed as in Ex. 5th and 8th ; or we may
divide the multiplier into two parts, of which the firft is
finite, and the fecond a pure repeater or circulate, with
cyphers prefixed, and multiply feparately by thefe, and
add the produ&s.
Thus, .384x.2^ or by .2 =.0768 or thus, .384
and by ,05=.02i3^ .2£
.09813
9)1920
2I3£
768
09813:
In the following examples, the multiplicand is a re¬
peater ; and therefore the multiplication by the nume¬
rator of the vulgar fraftion is performed as directed
P* 653. col. 2. par. 2.
< 10th.]
r
I
Clmp.
Intermi-
nate
Decimals.
/
X.
loth.] .68^X-#|
5
27
71
63
*86
81
~
54
26
18
*86
A R I T H
nth.] .63-x.2,39=1^
.237 2
443' 237
1890
1266^
M E T I C.
655
99)i5oio(.i5,i6,
99
495
*160
99
610
594
* 16
In the following examples the multiplicand is a cir¬
culate, and therefore the multiplication by the nume¬
rator is performed as diredled p. 653. col. 2. par. 4.
12th.] .3,81, x 53=4!-
. 48 5
3°54 48
15272
9l°)l83»27,(-203,63,
18
P°32
27
57
54
32
13th.] . 12, X 03)—^V
3
99)36,36(.03673094582i8549i2764,
666
723
306
936
453
576
8i3
216
i83
846
543
486
9°3
126
273
756
633
396
*036
Decimals.
In Ex. 13th, we have omitted the produ&s of the intermi-
divifor, and only marke ddown the remainders. Thefe nate
are found, by adding the left-hand figure of the divi¬
dual to the remaining figures of the fame. Thus, 363
is the firft dividual-, and 3, the left-hand figure, added
to 63, the remaining figures, gives 66 for the firft re¬
mainder ; and the fecond dividual, 666, is completed
by annexing the circulating figure 6. The reafon of
which may be explained as follows. The higheft place
of each dividual fhovvs, in this example, how many
hundreds it contains ; and as it muft contain an equal
number of ninety-nines, and alfo an equal number of
units, it follows, that thefe units, added to the lower
places, muft fhow how far the dividual exceeds that
number of ninety-nines. The figure of the quotient is
generally the fame as the firft place of the dividual,
fometimes one more. This happens in the laft ftep of
the foregoing example, and is difcovered when the re¬
mainder found, as here dire&ed, would amount to 99,
or upwards j and the excefs above 99 only, muft in that
cafe be taken to complete the next dividual.
J4th.].oi,X.oi,= <£j-
1
95)) 01(000102030405000708091011121314151617181920
(2x22232425262728293031323334353637383940
(414243444546474S495051525354555657585960
(6162636465666768697071727374757677787980
(Si82S3S4S586S7SS8990919293949596979S99
The number of places in the circle of the produfl
is fometimes very great, though there be few places in
the ladders : but it never exceeds the product of the
denominator of the multiplier, multiplied by the num¬
ber of places in the circle of the multiplicand. There¬
fore, if the multiplier be 3 or 6, the product may cir¬
culate three times as many places as the multiplicand'j
if the multiplier be any other repeater, nine times as
many ; if the multiplier be a circulate of two places,
ninety-nine times as many ; thus, in the laft example,
.01, a circulate of two places, multiplied by .10, a cir¬
culate of two places, produces a circulate of twice 99,
or 198 places. And the reafon of this limit may be in¬
ferred from the nature of the operation ; for thegreateft
poffible number of remainders, including o, is equal to
the divifor 99 and each remainder may afford two
dividuals, if both the circulating figures, 3 and 6, oc¬
cur to be annexed to it. If the multiplier circulate
three places, the circle of the produdd, for a like rea¬
fon, may extend nine hundred and ninety nine times
as far as that of the multiplicand. But the number of
places is yften much lefs.
The multiplication of interminate decimals may be
proven, by altering the order of the fa£tors, (p. 628.
col. 2. par. 2.) or by reducing, them both to vulgar
fraddions in their loweft terms, multiplying thefe as di-
refted p. 643. col. 2. par. 3. and reducing the produft
to a decimal.
Sect IV. Division of Interminate Decimals.
Case I. “ When the dividend only is interminate,
44 proceed as in common arithmetic ; but, when the fi-
“ gures of the dividend are exhaufted, annex the re-
“ peating figure, or the circulating figures in their or-
“ der, inftead of cyphers, to the remainder.”
Ex,
32
6 56
Intermi-
nate
Decimals.
Ex. ift.] Divide .5376 by 7
•7)-5370G76,O95238»
49
42
42
*066
63
36
35
16
I4
, 26
21
A R I T H
ad.l Divide .842 by c.
.5)84^.168^
5
34
30
43
40
M E T I C. Chap. X.
The foregoing method is the only one ■which pro- Extraftion
perly depends on the principles of decimal arithmetic j of Roots,
but it is generally ftiorter to proceed by the following '"'v
rule.
“ Reduce the divifor to a vulgar fra&ion, multiply
“ the dividend by the denominator, and divide the
“ produft by the numerator.”
Ex. ift.] Divide .37845 by g=-§.
9
33
3°
33
2d.] Divide .6532$ by 8.
8)-6532$(.o8i66a
5)3>4o6o5068i2I*
2d.] Divide .3784^ by
3
2)i-353^(*5^7^8-3'*
# Note I. Divifion by ^ triples the dividend, and di-
vifion by $ increafes the dividend one-half.
56
56
*066
In thefe accounts the quotient is never finite. It
may repeat if the dividend repeats j or, if the dividend
circulate, it may circulate an equal number of places,
often more, and never fewer. The greatefl poffible
extent of the circle is found by multiplying the divifor
into the number of places in the circle of the dividend.
Thus, a circulate of 3 places, divided by 3, quotes a
circulate of 3 times 3 or 9 places.
Case II. “ When the divifor is interminate, the
“ multiplications and fubtraftions muft be performed
“ according to the diredlions given for repeating and
“ circulating decimals.”
Ex. ill.] Divide .37845 by g.
5)-37845(-68121
333333
451I0
4444*
672
558
ii0
in
8
8
o
2d. j Divide .245892 by 2.18.
.2,18.).245892(1.127005
218181,81,
27710.18,
21818.18,
"5892,00,
4363,63,
1528,36,
1527,28,
1090,90
1090,90
o
Note 2. When the divifor circulates, the denomina¬
tor of the vulgar fradion confifts of 9’s, and the mul¬
tiplication is fooner performed by the contra&ion ex¬
plained p. 628. col. 1. par. 1. It may be wrought in
the fame way, when the divifor repeats, and the deno¬
minator, of confequence, is 9.
Note 3. If a repeating dividend be divided by a re¬
peating or circulating divifor ; or, if a circulating di¬
vidend be divided by a fimilar circulating dividend j
or, if the number of places in the circle of the divifor
be a multiple of the number in the dividend ; then the
product of the dividend multiplied by the denominator
of the divifor will be terminate, fince like figures are
fubtra&ed from like in the contra&ed multiplication,
and confequently no remainder left. The form of the
quotient depends on the divifors as explained at large,
p. 649. col. 1. par. 1.—p. 651. col. 2. par. 3.
Note 4. In other cafes, the original and multiplied
dividend are fimilar, and the form of the quotient is
the fame as in the cafe of a finite divifor. See p. 655.
col. 2. par. ult. &c.
Note 5. If the terms be fimilar, or extended till
they become fo, the quotient is the fame as if they
were finite, and the operation may be conduced ac¬
cordingly •, for the quotient of vulgar fra&ions that
have the fame denominator is equal to the quotient of
their numerators.
Chap. XI. OF THE EXTRACTION OF ROOTS. 33
The origin of powers by involution has already been
explained under the article Algebra, N° 66. There
now remains therefore only to give the moll expeditious
methods of extrafting the fquare and cube roots j the
reafons of which will readily appear from what is faid
under that article. As for all powers above the cube,
unlefs fuch as are multiples of either the fquare and
cube, the extra&ion of their roots admits of no devia¬
tion from the algebraic canon which muft be always
conftrudfed on purpofe for them.
If the root of any power not exceeding the feventh
power be a fingle digit, it may be obtained by infpec-
tion, from the following table of powers.
ift, Te
Chap* XT.
Extraction
of Roots.
ARITHMETIC.
Oj t)
> _o
5 1:3
&< u
N
CO
1
16
8i
16 | 64
25 i j25
36 I 216
49
64
82
343
512
729656
256
625
1296
2401
40963
S2
243
1024
3125
7776
16807
2768
59049
1
64
729
4096
15625
46656
117649
262144
531441
CL.
-c
I
128
2187
16384
78125
279936
823543
2097152
4782969
2 div. 725) 3625 refolvend.
3625 produft.
^57
_ 133225 proof.
2d.] Required the fquare root of 72, to eight decimal
places.
72.00000000
64
164(800
656
Extraction
of Roots.
1688)14400
I35°4
16965)89600
84825
34 Sect. I. Extraction 0/the Square Root.
Rule I, “ Divide the given number into periods of
“ two figures, beginning at the right hand in integers,
“ and pointing toward the left. But in decimals, be-
“ gin at the place of hundreds, and point toward the
“ right. Every period will give one figure in the
“ root.”
II. “ Find by the table of powers, or by trial, the
neareft lefler root of the left-hand period ; place the
“ figure fo found in the quot; fubtrafl its fquare from
the faid period, and to the remainder bring down the
“ next period for a dividual or refolvend.”
III. “ Double the quot for the firft part of the
“ divifor j inquire how often this firft part is contained
“ in the whole refolvend, excluding the units place ;
“ and place the figure denoting the anfwer both in the
<£ quot and on the right of the firft part j and you have
“ the divifor complete.”
IV. “ Multiply the divifor thus completed by the
“ figure put in the quot, fubtraft the product from the
<£ refolvend, and to the remainder bring down the fol-
“ lowing period for a new refolvend, and then proceed
“ as before.”
Note ill. If the firft part of the divifor, with unity
fuppofed to be annexed to it, happen to be greater than
the refolvend, in this cafe place o in the quot, and alfo
on the right of the partial divifor ; to the refolvend
bring down another period ; and proceed to divide as
before.
Note 2. If the producft of the quotient figure into the
divifor happen to be greater than the refolvend, you muft
go back and give a lelfer figure to the quot.
Note 3. If, after every period of the given number is
brought down, there happen at laft to be a remainder,
you may continue the operation, by annexing periods or
pairs of cyphers, till there be no remainder, or till the
decimal part of the quot repeat or circulate, or till you
think proper to limit it.
Ex. ift. Required the fquare root of 133225.
Square number 133225(365 root
9
1 div. 66)432 refolvend.
396 producft.
VOL. II. Part II.
169702)477500
339404
After getting half of the
decimal places, work by con-
tradled divifion for the other
half 5 and obtain them with
the fame accuracy as if the
work had been at large.
169704)138096
•••• I357^3
(9)
3d.] Required the fquare root of .2916.
.29i6(.54 root.
25
If the fquare root of a vulgar fraction be required,
find the root of the given numerator for a new nume¬
rator, and find the root of the given denominator for a
new denominator. Thus the fquare root of 4 is f,
and the root of 44 is £5 and thus the root of ^ (=64)
is 2-ij-.
But if the root of either the numerator or denomi¬
nator cannot be extracted without a remainder, reduce
the vulgar fra&ion to a decimal, and then extraft the
root, as in Ex. 3d. above.
Sect. II. Extraction of the Cube Root.
Rule I. “ Divide the given number into periods of
three figures, beginning at the right hand in integers,
“ and pointing toward the left. But in decimals, begin
“ at the place.of thoufands, and point toward she right.
“ The number of periods Ihows the number of figures
“ in the root.”
II. “ Find by the table of powers, or by trial, the
“ neareft lefler root of the left-hand period ; place the
“ figure fo found in the quot; fubtra£t its cube from
“ the faid period; and to the remainder bring down the
<£ next period for a dividual or refolvend.”
I he divifor confifts of three parts, which may be
found as follows:
40
35
III.
6S8
Ext-aftxon
of Roots
III.
ARITHMETIC.
The firft part of the divifor is found thus :
Proof.
“ Multiply the fquare of the quot by 3, and to the pro-
“ du£t annex two cyphers j then inquire how often this
“ firrt part of the divifar is contained in the refolvend,
“ and place the figure denoting the anfwer in thequot.”
IV. “ Multiply the former quot by 3, and the pro-
“ du6l by the figure now put in the quot; to this laft
“ produft annex a cypher j and you have the fecond
“ part of the divifor. Again, Square the figure now
“ put in the quot for the third part of the divifor ;
“ place thefe three parts under one another, as in addi-
“ tion j and their fum will be the divifor complete.”
V. “ Multiply the divifor, thus completed, by the
“ figure laft put in the quot, fubtraft the product from
“ the refolvend, and to the remainder bring down the
“ following period for a new refolvend, and then pro-
“ ceed as before.”
Note 1. If the firft part of the divifor happen to be
equal to or greater than the refolvend j in this cafe,
place o in the quot, annex two cyphers to the faid firft
part of the divifor, to the refolvend bring down another
period, and proceed to divide as before.
Note 2. If the produft of the quotient figure into
the divifor happen to be greater than the refolvend, you
muft go back, and give a lefler figure to the quot.
Note 3. If, after every period of the given number is
brought down, there happen at laft to be a remainder,
you may continue the operation by annexing periods
of three cyphers till there be no remainder, or till you
have as many decimal places in the root as you judge
neceffary. * >
Ex. ift. Required the cube root of 12812904.
Cube number 12812904(234 root.
8 
ift part 1200)4612 refolvend.
2d part I^° r
3d part 9 J
1 divifor 1389X3=4167 produft.
ift part 138700! J645904 roioivend.
ad part 2760 >
3d part 16 J
a divifor 161476 X4=645904 produft.
234
234
936
702
468
Square 54756
234
219024
164268
109512
Square 54756 Cube 12812904
2d. j Required the cube root of 28^.
270000'S
54°°}-
36]
28.750000(3.06 root.
27
) 1750000 refolv.
Div. 275436 X 6 =: 1652616 prod.
3.06
3.06
1836
918
, Sq-9-3636
97384 rem.
Proof.
Sq. 9.3636
3.06
561816
280908
Chap. XI.
Extraction
of Roots.
28.6 52616
97384 rem.
28.750000 cube.
If the cube root of a vulgar fraftion be required,
find the cube root of the given numerator for a new
numerator, and the cube root of the given denomina¬
tor for a new denominator. Thus, the cube root of
is 4, and the cube root of 13 and tlius the
cube root of I|-s (=15!) is 4 = 2*.
But if the root of either the numerator or denomi¬
nator cannot be extracted without a remainder, reduce
the vulgar fraction to a decimal, and then extracft the
root.
eflKassaenm
Ariuv
A R I
ARIUS, a divine of the fourth century, the head
and founder of the AriaNS, a fecft which denied the
eternal divinity and fubftantiality of the Wo/d. He
was born in Libya, near Egypt. Eufebius, biftiop of
Nicomed'a, a great favourite of Conftantia, filler of the
emperor Conftantine, and wife of Licinius, became a
zealous promoler of Arianilm. He took Arius under
his protection, and introduced him. to Conftantia ; lo
that the ft (ft increafed, and feveral bifhops embraced it
openly. There arofe, however, fuch dilputes in the
cities, that the emperor, in order to remedy thefe dif-
orders, was obliged to nffemble the council of Nice,
where, in the year 325’ doeftrine of Arius was
condemned. Arius was baniftied by the emperor, all
his books were ordered to be burnt, and capital pu-
niftiment was denounced againft whoever dared to keep
them. After five years baniftiment, he was recalled to
A R I
Conftantinople, where he prefented the emperor with
a confeflion of his faith, drawn up fo artfully, that it (.
fully fatbfied him. Notwithftanding which, Athana-
fius, now advanced to the fee of Alexandria, refufed to
admit him and his followers to communion. 1 his fo
enraged them, that by thtir intereft at court, they
procured that prelate to bd depofed and banifhed. But
the church of Alexandria ftill refufing to admit Arius
into their communion, the emperor fent for him to
Conftantinople ; where, upon delivering in a frefti con-
fefliun of his faith in terms lefs offenfive, the emperor
commanded Alexander, the bifliop of that church, to
receive him the next day into his communion: but that
very evening Anus died. I he manner of his death
was very extraordinary : as his friends were conducing
him in triumph to the great church of Conftantinople,
Arius, prefled by a natural neceflity, ftepped afide to eaie
hiaafelf j
Arias*
ARK [ <
Arms* liimfelf; but expired on the fpot, hi3 bowels gulhing
Ark. out.
^—•V—But the herefy did not die with the herefiarch : his
party continued ftill in great credit at court. Athanafius,
indeed, was foon recalled from baniihment, and as foon
removed again 5 the Arians being countenanced by the
government, and making and depofing bilhops as it
belt ferved their purpofes. In {hurt, this fe£t conti¬
nued with great lullre above 300 years : it was the
reigning religion of Spain for above two centuries : it
was on the throne both in the eafl and weft ; it prevail¬
ed in Italy, France, Pannonia, and Africa ; and was not
extirpated till about the end of the 8th century.
This herefy was again fet on foot in the weft by
Servetus, who, in 1531, wrote a little treatife againft
the myftery of the Trinity. After his death Arianifm
got footing in Geneva ; from whence it removed into
Poland ; but at length degenerated, in a great mea-
fure, into Socinianifm. Erafmus feems to have aimed
at reviving Arianifm, in his Commentaries on the New
Teftament ; and the learned Grotius feems to lean a
little that way. ,
With regard to the ftate of Arianifm in England, it
may be fufficient to obferve, that from the numerous
publications of that call which are daily making their
appearance, it feems to be rather a growing, than ex¬
ploded, doftrine there.
Fiate ARK, or Noah's Ark, a floating vefiel built by
LVII, Noah, for the prefervation of his family, and the feve-
*• ral fpecies of animals, during the deluge.
The ark has afforded feveral points of curious inquiry
among the critics and naturalifts, relating to its form,
capacity, materials, &c.
The wood whereof the ark was built is called in
the Hebrew Gopher wood, and in the Septuagint fquare
limbers. Some tranflate the original cedar, others pine,
others box, &c. Pelletier prefers cedar on account of
its incorruptibility, and the great plenty of it in Alia;
whence Herodotus and Theophraftus relate, that the
kings of Egypt and Syria built whole fleets thereof,
inftead of deal.
The learned Mr Fuller, in his Mifcellanies, has ob-
ferved, that the wood whereof the ark was built was
nothing but that which the Greeks call KVTretye-r*;, or
the cyprefs tree; for, taking away the termination, ku-
par'And gopher differ very little in found. This ob-
fervation the great Bochart has confirmed, and ftiown
very plainly that no country abounds fo much with
this wood as that part of Affyria which lies about Ba¬
bylon.
In what place Noah built and finiftied his ark is no
lefs made a matter of deputation. But the moft pro¬
bable opinion is, that it was built in Chaldea, in the
territories of Babylon, where there was fo great a quan¬
tity of cyprefs in the groves and gardens in Alexander’s
time, that that prince built a whole fleet out of it for
want of timber. And this conjeflure is confirmed by
the Chaldean tradition, which makes Xifuthrus (ano¬
ther name for Noah) fet fail from that country.
The dimenfions of the ark, as given by Mofes, are
300 cubits in length, 50 in breadth, and 30 in height $
which fome have thought too fcanty, confidering the
number of things it was to contain ; and hence an ar¬
gument has been drawn againft the authority of the
relation. To folve this difficulty, many of the ancient
)59 ] ARK
fathers and the modern critics have been put to very
iniferable ftiifts; But Buteo and Kirchtr have proved
geometrically, that taking the common cubit of a loot
and a half, the ark was abundantly fufficient for all the
animals fuppofed to be lodged in it. Snellius com¬
putes the ark to have been abovfe half an acre in area.
Father Lamy fliows, that it was no feet longer than
the church of St Mary at Paris, and 64 feet narrower :
and if fo, it muft have been longer than St Paul’s
church in London, from weft to eaft, and broader
than that church is high in the inlide, and 1^4 feet of
our meafure in height ; and Dr Arbuthnot computes
it to have been 81062 tons.
The things contained in it were, befides eight per-
fons of Noah’s family, one pair of every fpecies of un¬
clean animals, and feven pair of every fpecies of clean
animals, with provifions for them all during the whole
year. The former appears, at firlt view, almoft infi¬
nite j but if we come to a calculation, the number of
fpecies of animals will be found much lefs than is ge¬
nerally imagined j out of which, in this cafe, are ex¬
cepted fuch animals as can live in the water $ and Bi-
fhop Wilkins fhows that only 72 of the quadruped kind
needed a place in the ark.
By the defeription Mofes gives of the ark, it ap¬
pears to have been divided into three ftories, each ten
cubits or 15 feet high ; and it is agreed on, as moft
probable, that the loweft ftnry was for the beafts, the
middle tor the food, and the upper for the birds, with
Noah and his family j each ftoiy being fubdivided in¬
to different apartments, flails, &c. though Jofephus,
Philo, and other commentators, add a kind of fourth
ftory under all the reft ; being, as it were, the hold of
the veffel, to contain the ballaft and receive the filth
and faeces of fo many animals : but F. Calmet thinks,
that what is here reckoned a ftory, was no more than
what is called the heel of ftiips, and ferved only for a
confervatory of freftr water. Drexelius makes 300
apartments ; F. Fournier, 333 ; the anonymous author
of the queftions on Genefis, 400 ; Buteo, Tempora-
rius, Arias Montanus, Hoftus, Wilkins, Lamy, and
others, fuppofe as many partitions as there were differ¬
ent forts of animal*. Pelletier makes only 72, viz.
36 for the birds, and as many for the beafts. His rea-
fon is, that if we fuppofe a greater number, as 333 or
400, each of the eight perfons in the ark muft have
liad 37, 41, or 60 flails to attend and cleanfe daily,
which he thinks impoffible to have been done. But
it is obferved, that there is not much in this : to di-
minifli the number of flails without the diminution of
animals is in vain 5 it being perhaps more difficult to
take care of 300 animals in 72 flails than in 300. As
to the number of animals contained in the ark, Buteo
computes that it could not be equal to 500 horfes $ he
even reduces the whole to the dimenfions of 56 pair of
oxen. F. Lamy enlarges it to 64 pair of oxen, or
128 oxen 5 fo that, fuppofing one ox equal to two hor-
fes, if the ark had room for 236 horfes, there muff
have been room for all the animals. But the fame au¬
thor demonftrates, that one floor of it would fuffice for
500 horfes, allowing nine fquare feet to a horfe.
As to the food in the fecond ftory, it is obferved by
Buteo from Columella, that 30 or 40 pounds of hay
ordinarily fuffices for an ox a-day ; and that a folid
cubit of bay, as ufually preffed down in our hay ricks,
4 O 2 weighs
ARK [ 660 1 ARK
Ark. weighs about 40 pounds} fo that a fquare cubit of hay
•“'V—"*'' is more than enough for one ox in one day. Now it
appears, that the lecond ftory contained 150,000 iolid
cubits j which divided between 206 oxen, will afford
each more hay, by two-thirds, than he can eat in a
year. Bilhop Wilkins computes all the carnivorous
animals equivalent, as to the bulk of their bodies, and
their foods, to x 7 wolves, and all the red to 280 beeves.
For the former he allows 1825 ibeep j and for the
latter, 109,500 cubits of hay : all which will be eafily
contained in the two firft dories, and a deal of room
to fpare. As to the third dory, nobody doubts of its
being fufficient for the fowls, with Noah, his fons,
and daughters. Upon the whole, the learned bifhop
remarks, that of the two, it appears much more diffi¬
cult to affign a number and bulk of neceffary things to
anfwer the capacity of the ark, than to find fufficient
room for the feveral fpecies of animals already known
to have been there. This he attributes to the imper-
fedlion of our lid of animals, efpecially thofe of the un¬
known parts of the earth ; adding, that the mod ex¬
pert mathematician at this day could not adign the pro¬
portion of a veffcl better accommodated to the purpofe
than is here done : and hence he finally concludes, that
the capacity of the ark, which had been made an objec¬
tion againd Scripture, ought to be edeemed a confir¬
mation of its divine authority j fince, in thofe ruder
ages, men, being lefs verfed in arts and philofophy,
were more obnoxious to vulgar prejudices than now $ fo
that, had it been a human invention, it would have
been contrived, according to thofe wild apprehenfions,
which arife from a confufed and general view of things,
as much too big as it had been reprefented too little.
But it mud be obferved, that, befides the places re-
quifite for the beads and birds, and their provifions,
there was room required for Noah to lock up houfe-
hold utenfils, the indruments of hufbandry, grains, and
feeds to fow the earth with after the deluge; for which
purpofe it is thought that he might fpare room in the
third dory for 36 cabins, bolides a kitchen, a hall,
four chambers, and a fpace about 48 cubits in length to
walk in.
p]ate Ark of the Covenant, a fmall ched or coffer, three
LVII. feet nine inches in length, two feet three inches in
%• a. breadth, and two feet three inches in height, in which
were contained the golden pot that held manna, and
Aaron’s rod, and the tables of the covenant. This
coffer was made of ffiittim wood, and covered with
a lid, which was made of folid gold. The ark was
repofited in the holied place of the tabernacle. It
was taken by the Philidines, and detained 20, fome
fay 40 years, at Kirjath-jearim ; but the people be¬
ing afflicted with emerods on account of it, returned
it with divers preftnts. It was afterwards placed in
the temple.
The lid or covering of the ark was called the propi¬
tiatory or mercy-feat; over which were two figures
placed called Cherubinis, with expanded wings of a pe¬
culiar form. Here the Schechinah reded both in the
tabernacle and temple in a vifible cloud: hence were
iffued the Divine oracles by an audible voice ; and the
high-pried appeared before this mercy-feat once every
year on the great day of expiation ; and the Jew1--,
wherever they worthipped, turned their faces towards
the place where the ark dood.
'Z
In the fecond. temple there was alffi an ark, made Arlr
or the lame ihape and dimenfions with the fird, and ||
put in the fame place, but without any of its contents Arkwright,
and peculiar honours. It was ufed as a reprefentative
of the former on the day of expiation, and a repofitory
of the original copy of the holy Scriptures, colledted
by Ezra and the men of the great fynagogue, after the
captivity. And in imitation of this, the Jews to this
day have a kind of ark in their fynagogues, wherein
their facred books are repofited. This they call aron.
Leo of Modena gives a defcription thereof in his Ac¬
count of the Cudoms and Ceremonies of thofe of his
Nation. “ The Jews (fays he), in the eadern fide of
their fynagogues, have an ark, or armory, called aron,
in memory of the ark of the covenant. In this are
preferved the five books of Mofes, written on vellum,
with ink made on purpofe,” &.c. Some have fuppofed
that the figure of this ark is dill remaining on the tri¬
umphal arch of Titus at Rome ; though Villalpandus
and others, with greater reafon, are of opinion, that
it is the table of ffiew bread. Prideaux'ls Con. vol. i.
p. 209. Tertullian calls this ark Armarium Judai-
cum; whence the phrafe, to be in the armory of the fy¬
nagogue, q. d. in the number of canonical writings.
A ched or coffer, very nearly refembling the Jewifh
ark, and called the houfe of the God, w'as found in Hua-
heine, one of the iilands in the fouthern fea. Mr Banks
could obtain no other information concerning it than
what the name imports. Hawkefworth's Account, &c.
vol. ii. p. 252.
ARKLOW, a fea-port town of Ireland, in the
county of Wicklow', and province of Leinder. W,
Long. 6. 15. N. Lat. 52. 55.
ARKWRIGHT, Sir Richard, celebrated for his
invention of machinery in fpinning and carding cotton,
was originally a country barber in poor circumdances,
but acquired by his inventions a very great fortune.
About the year 1767, when he had quitted the profef-
fion of a barber, and went up and down the country
buying hair, he came to Warrington. At that time,
it is laid, he had fome mechanical projeft in view, of
the nature of a perpetual motion. One John Kav, a
clockmaker of that place, becoming acquainted with
him, endeavoured to diffuade him from this fcheme,
but faid that much money might be made by fpinning
cotton, which he promifed to defcribe to him. Ark¬
wright urged as an objection, that that fcheme had
been the ruin of many ; but he came to Kay’s bedfide
next morning, and alked him if he could make a fmall
engine at a moderate expence, as this Kay had been
employed to make a cotton-fpinning engine for a Mr
Hayes, wffio likewife employed himfell in making cy¬
lindrical carding engines, and who w'as brought as a
witnels on the trial in vfhich Arkwright’s patent was
fetafide in 1785. Mr Hayes proved, that he had invent¬
ed an engine of a fimilar conftruflion to Arkwright’s,
but had not brought it to perfefliun. Arkwright and
Kay made application to Peter Atherton, Efq. now
of Liverpool, to make fuch an engine ; but he refufed
to undertake it, from the external poverty of the former,
although on the evening of the fame day he under¬
took to give Kay the ufe of a fmith, and watch-tool
maker, to make the heavier parts of the engine ; and
Kay agreed to inftruft the workmen, aid to make
the clockmakers ftiare of it. In this manner Ark-
wright’s
N oah's Ark
Plate L.V1I.
f'loalwjjr on tfie wai^rs of t/i e deluge
Fig l
Fig. 2.
Ark of file COVENANT
ARK [ 661 ] ARM
Wright's firft engine was made, for which he afterwards
took out a patent. Mr Arkwright went into partner-
fhip foon after with a Mr Smally of Prefton in Lanca-
ftiire j but being at a lofs for money, they went to Not¬
tingham, and there, by the affiftance of fome rich indi¬
viduals, ere&ed a confiderable cotton mill, which was
turned by horfes.
The report generally circulated through the manu¬
facturing towns is, that he borrowed thefe inventions,
and that he enriched himfelf at other men’s expence
and ingenuity. From all accounts, however, it ap¬
pears, that the cotton fpinning was no new attempt at
the time Mr Arkwright engaged in it, but an objeCt
which had been the fubjeCt of much attention $ but as
it had not fucceeded, it would accordingly happen,
that more difficulties were to be overcome, and fub-
jeCts of fubordinate inventions to be digefted, and
brought to maturity and effeCt. Although the carding
and fpinning of cotton before Mr Arkwright engaged
in it was hardly any thing, yet it became a great
national manufacture through his means. He itates
in his cafe, as drawn by himfelf, that one Paul and
others of London, about 40 or 50 years previous to
his time, having invented an engine for fpinning cot¬
ton, obtained a patent for it, after which they repair¬
ed to Nottingham; and there, after having been af-
fifled by feveral perfons, and much money had been
expended on the.undertaking, many families had been
ruined by the failure of their fcheme •,—that various
engines had been conflruCled by different perfons, for
fpinning cotton, flax, wool, &c. into feveral threads
at once, about 20 or 30 years back, but that no real
advantage had been derived from them j and that an
engine wa- conftru&ed in 1767, by one Hargrave of
Blackwell in Lancashire, which would at once fpin
20 or 30 threads of cotton into yarn for the fuftian
manufacture, but that after his engine had been de-
ftroyed by popular tumults in Lancaffiire, he removed
to Nottingham, where for a while he praCtifed under
a patent j but an affociation being formed againft him,
his patent was rendered null, and at length he died in
obfcurity and diftrefs; that he, Arkwright, had in¬
vented certain engines for fpinning and carding, which
had taken about five years in bringing them to perfec¬
tion •, and after 12,oool. had been expended upon
them, they had neither produced advantage or profit
either to him or his partners. As it muff be allowed,
that he did not think to make his fcheme to bear all
at once, he muft certainly be conftdered as the perfon
who after many others had been unfuccefsful, engaged
in a national undertaking, did difplay fo much fkil!,
perfeverance, and aftivity, as to make it not only pro¬
ductive of value to himfelf, but likewife to the nation at
large.
It appears, from thefe various accounts, that the ob-
jeCt in which Sir Richard Arkwright was engaged, is
of the greateft national value 5 that from his various
exertions, he is deferving both of the refpeCt and admi¬
ration of the world ; and, that although his family is en¬
riched, the benefits which the nation have received are
inefHmably greater.
On the 22d of December, 1786, upon prefenting
an addrefs from the high fheriff and hundred of Witkf-
worth, he was knighted by his prefent majefty, and
died Auguft 3. 1793, at his works at Crumford, in Der- Arles
byffiire. {Gen. Biog.) j|
ARLES, a city of France, in the department of tne Arm.
Mouths of the Rhone, formerly Provence, feated on '/~m'
the eaft fide of the Rhone, on a hill, whole declivity is
towards the north. It is an archbiffiop’s fee $ and is
celebrated for its antiquities both within and without
the city. Thofe of which any remains are now to be
feen are the amphitheatre, the obelifk, the elyfian fields,
the fepulchres, columns with their capitals, buffs, pe-
deftals, aqueduCls, with fome remains of the cap!t il,
and the temples of their gods. The other ancient mo¬
numents are entirely deftroyed. Under the amphitheatre,
in 1651, they found the ffatue of Venus, which was
worfliipped by this city $ and has been fince carried to
the caftle of Verfailles. It is a mafter-piece which will
always be admired by connoiffeurs.
The amphitheatre is one of the moft remarkable
pieces of antiquity. It was built by the Romans, but
the time is unknown, though fome fay by Julius Csefar.
It is of an oval form, and about 400 yards in circumfe¬
rence, and the front is 34 yards in height. The middle,
called the arena, is 142 yards wide and 104 broad. The
porticoes or piazzas are three ftories, built with ftones of
a prodigious fize. Each of them confiffs of 60 arches,
which rtill remain; and the walls are of furprifing thick-
nefs, but gone to decay.
The obelilk is the only one of this kind to be feen in
France. It feems to be one of the forty brought from
Egypt to Rome, becaufe it is of the fame oriental gra¬
nite with them. They are generally full of hieroglyphic
charadffers ; but this is quite fmooth. In 1675, it was
found in a private garden near the walls of the city, not
far from the Rhone. It confifts of one piece ; and is 52
feet high, and 7 in diameter at the bafe. It is now fup-
ported wish four lions made of bronze ; and on the top
a blue ball is placed, wuth the arms of France, and over
that a fun.
The Pagans burying place called the EhjJian Fields,
is without the city, upon an agreeable hill, divided into
two parts. The firff, called Moitlaires, has very few
tombs, they having been broken to build the walls of
gardens, which are made in that place. The fecond,
called Elifcamp, contains a great number. Thofe of the
Pagans have the letters D. M. which fignify Diis Mani-
bus. Thofe of the Chriffians have a crofs. Pieces of
coin of gold, filver, and bronze, are found here ; as alfo
urns, lamps, and cups, without number.
Plere is a royal academy of foiences, confifting of
thirty members, who muft be natives, gentlemen, and
inhabitants of the city. It enjoys the fame privileges
as that at Paris. Arles is furrounded with marffiy land,
which renders the air full of vapours, and makes it not
verv wholefome. E. Long. 4. 48. N. Lat. 43. 40.
ARLEUX, an ancient town of the Netherlands, in
Cambri'fis, with a caffle. It was taken by the French
in 1645, and retaken by the Allies in 1711 : but the
French got poffeffion again the fame month. E. Long.
3. 16. N. Lat. 59. 17.
ARLON, an ancient town of the Netherlands, for¬
merly a ftrong place, but now difmantled. It belongs to
the huufe of Auftria. E. Long. 15. 50. N. Lat 49. 4.
ARM, a part of the human body, terminating at one
end in the ffioulder, and at the other in the hand.
Arm,
ARM [ 662 1 ARM
Arm Arm, among fportfmen, is applied to a liorfe, when
(1 by preffing down his head, he endeavours to defend
Aimada. himfeif againft the bit, to prevent his being checked by
it. The remedy is, to have a wooden ball covered with
velvet, or other matter, put on his chaul, which will fo
prefs him between the jawbones as to prevent his bring¬
ing his head fo near his bread.
Arm, in Geography, is ufed for the branch of a fea
or river. Italy and Sicily are only parted by an arm of
the fea. St George’s arm in the Mediterranean is the
Thracian Bofpborus.
Arm is alfo ufed figuratively for power. The fecular
arm is the lay or temporal authority of a fecular judge ;
to which recourfe is had for the execution of the len¬
iences paired by ecclefiallical judges.
The church (beds no blood : even the judges of the
inquifition, after they have found the perfon guilty, fur-
render him to the fecular arm. The council of An¬
tioch, held in 341, decrees, that recourfe be had to
the fecular arm to reprefs thofe who refufe obedience
to the church : for fecular arm, they here ufe exterior
power.
Arm, in refpeft of the magnet. A loadftone is faid
to be armed, when it is capped, cafed, or fet in iron
or Heel, in order to make it take up the greater
weight, and alfo to diftinguilh readily its poles. See
Magnetism.
ARM AC ALES, a river of Babylon (Abydenus) •,
called Fq/Ja Regia, the Royal Trench or Cut (Polybius) 5
the Royal River (Ptolemy) •, Almarchur (Pliny) j
Naarmalcha, (Ammian) j a faftitious channel or cut,
made by NabuChodonofor, and a horn or branch of the
Euphrates, (Abydenus). The Euphrates naturally di¬
vides into two channels, one palling through Babylon,
the other through Seleucia, and then falls into the
Tigris ; the faftitious channel between thefe two is
the Royal River ; which mixes with the Tigris, a
great deal lower down than Seleucia, at Apamea,
(Ptolemy).
ARMADA, a Spanilh term, fignifying a fleet of
men of war. The armada which attempted to invade
England in the time of Queen Elizabeth, is famous in
hiftory.
This armada, to which the Spaniards, in confidence
of fuccefs, gave the name of Invincible, confilted of 150
fhips, moft of which were greatly fuperior in ftrength
and fize to any that had been feen before. It had on
board near 20,000 foldiers, and 8000 failors, befides
2000 volunteers of the moft diftinguilhed families in
Spain. It carried 2650 great guns, was viffualled for
half a year, and contained fuch a quantity of military
ftores, as only the Spanilh monarch, enriched by the
treafures of the Indies and America, could fupply.
The troops on board were to be joined by 34 oco more
which the duke of Parma had affembled in the neigh¬
bourhood of Nieuport and Dunkirk. For tranfport-
ing thefe, he had, with incredible labour, provided a
great number of flat-bottomed velfels, and had brought
failors to navigate them from the towns in the Baltic.
Moft of thefe veflels had been built at Antwerp ; and
as he durft not venture to bring them from thence by
fea to Nieuport, left they fheuld have been intercepted
by the Dutch, he was obliged to fend them along the
Scheldt to Ghent, from Ghent to Bruges by the canal
®diich joins thefe towns, and from Bruges to Nieuport
3
by a new canal which he dug on the prefent occafion.
This laborious undertaking, in which feveral thoufand
workmen had been employed, was already finilhed. and
the duke now waited tor the arrival of the Spanilh tket j
hoping, that as foun as it Ihould approach, the Dutch
and Englilh Ihips which cruifed upon the coait would
retire into their harbours.
When the news reached England that this mighty
fleet was preparing to fail, terror and contternation
univerfally feized the inhabitants. A fleet of not above
30 fhips of war, and thofe very fmall in cornparifon,
was all that was to oppofe it by fea. All the com¬
mercial towns of England, however, were required to
furnifti Ibips for reinforcing this fmall navy. The citi¬
zens of London, inftead of fifteen veffels, which they
were commanded to equip, voluntarily fitted out dou¬
ble the number ; and the gentry and nobility equipped
43 fliips at their own charge. Lord Howard of Ef¬
fingham was admiral : and under him ferved Drake,
Hawkins, and Forbifher, all of them renowned as fea-
men of courage and capacity. The principal fleet was
flationed at Plymouth. A fmaller fquadron, confift-
ing of 40 veffels, Englilh and Fiemilh, was command¬
ed by Lord Seymour, lecond fon of Protedlor Somerfet,
and lay off Dunkirk in order to intercept the duke of
Parma.
The land forces of England were more numerous
than thofe of the enemy, but inferior in difcipline and
experience. An army of 20,coo men was difpoftd in
different bodies along the fouth coaft, with orders to
retire backwards and wafte the country, if they could
not prevent the Spaniards from landing ; 22,000 foot
and 1000 horle, under the command of the earl of
Leicefter, were Rationed at Tilbmy, in order to de¬
fend the capital j and the principal army, confiding of
34,000 foot and 2000 horfe, commanded by Lord
Hunfdon, was referved for guarding the queen’s per¬
fon, and appointed to march vvhitherfoever the enemy
Ihould appear. Thefe armies, though all the Spanifh
forces had been able to land, would poftibly have been
fufficient to proteff the liberties of their country'. But
as the fate of England, in that event, muft depend on
the iffue of a Angle battle, all men of ferious refledfion
entertained the moft awful apprehenfions of the (hock
of at leaft 50,000 veterans, commanded by experienced
officers, under fo confummate a general as the duke of
Parma. The queen alone was undaunted. She iffued
all her orders with tranquillity, animated her people to a
fteady refiftance, and employed every refource which
either her domeftic fituation or her foreign alliances
could afford her. She even appeared on horfeback in
the camp at Tilbury ; and riding through the lines, dif-
covered a cheerful and animated countenance, exhorted
the foldiers to remember their duty to their country and
their religion, and profefied her intention, though a wo¬
man, to lead them herfelf into the field againft the ene¬
my, and rather perifti in battle than furvHe the ruin and
flavery of her people. “ I know (faid file, intrepidly)
I have but the weak and feeble arm of a woman •, but I
have the heart of a king, and of a king of England too !”
The heroic fpirit of Elizabeth communicated itfelf to
the army, and every man refolved to die rather than
defert his ftalion.
The Spanifh armada was ready in the beginning of
May $ but its failing was retarded by the death of the
marquis
Armada.
ARM [ 663 ] ARM
Armada, marquis of Santa Croce the admiral, and that alfo of
— v—.1 1 the vice-admiral the duke of Paliano. The command
of the expedition was therefore given to the duke of
Medina Sidonia, a man entirely unexperienced in fea
affairs. This promotion, in fome meafure, ferved to
fruftrate the defign, which was alfo rendered lefs fuc-
cefsful by fome other accidents. Upon leaving the
port of Lifbon, the armada next day met with a vio¬
lent temped, which funk fome of the fmalleft of their
(flipping, and obliged the fleet to put back into the
harbour. After fome time fpent in refitting, they put
again to fea. Being defcried by Fleming, a Scotch
pirate, who was roving in thofe feas, he immediately
failed towards the Englifli fleet, and informed the ad¬
miral of their approach. Effingham had juft time to
get out of port when he faw the Spanifh armada com¬
ing full fail towards him, difpofed in the form of a
crefcent, and ftretching the diftance of feven miles
from the extremity of one divifion to that of the other.
The Englifh admiral confidering that the Spaniards
would probably be much fuperior to him in clofe fight,
by reafon of the fize of their fhips and the number of
their troops, wifely refolved to content himfelf with
harafling them in their voyage, and with watching at¬
tentively all the advantages which might be derived
from (forms, crofs winds, and fuqh like fortuitous ac¬
cidents. It was not long before he difcerned a favour¬
able opportunity of attacking the vice-admiral Recal-
do. This he did in perfon •, and on that occafion elif-
played fo much dexterity in working his (hip, and in
loading and firing his guns, as greatly alarmed the
Spaniards for the fate of the vice-admiral. From that
time they kept much clofer to one another ; notwith-
ifanding which, the Englifli on the fame day attacked
one of the largeft galeaffes. Other Spanilh (hips came
up in time to her relief; but in their, hurry one of the
principal galleons, which had a great part of the trea- .
• fure on board, ran foul of another (hip, and had one of
her mafts broken. In confequence of this misfortune
(he fell behind, and was taken by Sir Francis Drake ;
who on the fame day took another capital (hip, which
had been accidentally fet on fire.
Several other rencounters happened, and in all of
them the Englifti proved victorious, through the great
advantage which they derived from the lightnefs of
their (hips, and the dexterity of the failors. The Spa¬
niards in that age did not fufficiently underftand nau¬
tical mechanics,, to be able to avail themfelves of the
unufual magnitude of their (hips. The Englifli fail¬
ed round them, approached or retired, with a ve¬
locity tiiat filled them with amazement, and did in¬
finitely greater execution with their cannon ; for while
every (hot of theirs proved effectual, their (hips fuf-
fered very little damage from the enemy, whofe guns
were planted too high, and generally fpent their force
in air.
The Spaniards, however, (till continued to advance
till they came oppofite to Calais ; there the duke de
Medina having ordered them to caft anchor, he fent
information to the duke of Parma of his arrival,- and
entreated him to haften the embarkation of his forces.
Farnefe accordingly began to put his troops on board.
But at the fame time he informed Medina, that, agree¬
ably to the king’s inftruCtions, the veffels which he
had prepared were proper only for tranfporting the
troops, but were utterly unfit for fighting ; and for Armaieu
this reafon, till the armada were brought ftill nearer, * 11 v "M
and the coaft cleared of the Dutch (hips which had
blocked up the harbours of Nieuport and Dunkirk, he
could not ftir from his prefent ftation, without expo-
fing his army to certain ruin, the confequence of
which would probably be the entire lofs of the Nether¬
lands.
In compliance with this requeft, the armada wa*
ordered to advance ; and it had arrived within fight of
Dunkirk, between the Englifli fleet on the one hand,
and the Dutch on the other, when a fudden calm put
a flop to all its motions. In this fituation the thre«
fleets remained for one whole day. About the mid¬
dle of the night a breeze fprung up ; and Lord
Howard had recourfe to an expedient which had been
happily devifed on the day before. Having filled
eight Ihips with pitch, fulphur, and other combufti-
ble materials, he fet fire to them, and fent them be¬
fore the wind againft the different divifions of the Spa-
nilh fleet.
When the Spaniards beheld thefe (hips in flames ap¬
proaching towards them, it brought to their remem¬
brance the havock which had been made by the fire
(hips employed againft the duke of Parma’s bridge at
the fiege of Antwerp. The darknefs of the night in-
creafed the terror with which their imaginations were
overwhelmed, and the panic flew from one end of the
fleet to the other. Each crew, anxious only for their
own prefervation, thought of nothing but how to efcape
from the prefent danger. Some of them took time to
weigh their anchors, but others cut their cables, and
fuffered their Ihips to drive with blind precipitation,
without confidering whether they did not thereby ex-
pofe themfelves to a greater danger than that which
they were fo folicitous to avoid. In this confufion the
Ihips ran foul of one another : the Ihock was dreadful,
and feveral of them received fo much damage as to be
rendered unfit for future ufe.
When daylight returned, Lord Howard had the
fatisfa<ftion to perceive that his ftratagem had fully
produced the delired effefl. The enemy were ftill in
extreme difirder, and their (hips widely feparated and
difperfed. His fleet had lately received a great aug¬
mentation by the (hips fitted out by the nobility and
gentry, and by thofe under Lord Seymour, who had
left Juftin de Naffau as alone fufficient to guard the
coaft of Flanders. Being bravely feconded by Sir
Francis Drake and all the other officers, he made hafte
to improve the advantage which was now prefented to
him, and attacked the enemy in different quarters at
the fame tim« with the utmoft impetuofity and ardour.
The engagement began at four in the morning and
lalted till fix at night. The Spaniards difplayed in
every rencounter the mod intrepid bravery ; but, from
the caufes already mentioned, they did very little exe¬
cution againft the Englifti; while many of their own
Ihips were greatly damaged, and twelve of the largeft
were either run aground, or funk, or compelled to fur-
render.
It was now evident that the purpofe of the armada
was utterly fruftrated. The Spanilh admiral, after
many unfuccefsful rencounters, prepared therefore to
make his way home ; but as the winds were contrary
to his return through the Channel, he refoived to tak®
ARM [ 664 ] ARM
the circuit of the ifland. The Engllfli fleet followed
him for fome time 5 and had not their ammunition
fallen fliort, through the negligence of the public offi¬
ces in fupplying them, they had obliged the armada to
furrender at difcretion. Such a conclufion of that
vain-glorious enterprife would have been truly illuftri-
ous to the Engliffi, but the event was fcarcely lefs fatal
to the Spaniards. The armada was attacked by a
violent ftorm in paffing the Orkneys ; and the flaps,
having already loft their anchors, were obliged to keep
at fea, while the mariners, unaccuflomed to hardftiips,
and unable to manage fuch unwieldy veflels, allowed
them to drive on the Weftern ifles of Scotland, or on
the coaft of Ireland, where they were miferably wreck¬
ed. Not one half of the fleet returned to Spain, and
a ftill fmaller proportion of the foldiers and feamen ;
yet Philip, whofe command of temper was equal to his
ambition, received with an air of tranquillity the news
of fo humbling a difafter. “ I fent my fleet (faid he)
to combat the Englifb, not the elements. God be
praifed that the calamity is not greater !” This ca¬
lamity, however, was fenfibly felt all over Spain, and
there was fcarcely a Angle family of rank in the king¬
dom that did not go into mourning for the death of
fome near relation ; infomuch that Philip, dreading the
effeft which this univerfal face of forrow might pro*
duce upon the minds of the people, imitated the con¬
duct of the Roman fenate after the battle of Cannae,
and publiffied an edidl to abridge the time of public
mourning.
ARMADILLA, in Spaniffi America, denotes a
fquadron of men of war, to the number of fix or
eight, from twenty-four to fifty pieces of cannon, which
the king maintains, to prevent foreigners from trading
with the Spaniards and the Indians, both in time of
war and peace.
Theveffels of this armadilla are thofe that have been
fo much talked of, under the name of guarda cojlas.
They have even power to take all Spaniffi merchant
ffiips they meet with on the coaft that have not licenfes
from the king.
The South fea has its armadilla as well as the North
fea. The ordinary abode of the former is at Calao,
the port of Lima j that of the latter at Carthagena.
ARMADILLO, in Zoologij, a fynonyme of the da-
fypus. See Dasypus, Mammalia Index.
ARMAGEDDON, a place fpoken of in the Re¬
velation (xvi. 16.), which literally fignifies the moun¬
tain of Mageddon or Megiddo, a city fituated in the
great plain at the foot of Mount Carmel, where King
Jofiah received his mortal wound in the battle againft
Necho king of Egypt. At Armageddon, the three
unclean fpirits, coming out of the dragon’s mouth,
ffiall gather together the kings of the earth to the battle
of the great day of God Almighty (Rev. xvi. 13. 14.).
The word armageddon, according to Mr Poole, does
not fignify any particular place, but is here an allufion,
as fome think, to that of Megiddo, mentioned Judges
v. 19. where Barak overcame Sifera with his great
army, and where Jofiah was flain (2 Kings xxiii. 30.).
Others tranflate this word, the mountain of the gofpei,
and others, the mountain of apples or fruits.
ARMAGH, a county of Ireland, bounded by
Louth on the fouth j Lough-Neagh, on the north ;
Tyrone and Monaghan, on the weft 5 and Down in
part on the eaft, from which it is feparated by the
river Newry. It is in length 32 miles, in breadth 73 •,
and is divided into five baronies, containing about
170,620 acres. Both the air and foil are good,
efpecially the latter, which is faid to be the richeft in
Ireland $ only there is a certain traft in it called the
Fewes, that is, hilly and barren. The members it fends
to parliament are fix, viz. two for the city of Armagh,
two for the county, and two for the borough of Charle-
mont.
Armagh, Handing near the river Kalin, gives name
to the county, and is the fee of the primate of all Ire¬
land. It is faid to have been founded by St Patrick,
in the fifth century : and in 1142, it was conftituted
an archbiftiopric, together with Dublin, Caffiel, and
Tuam, by Cardinal Papyreo, with the confent of the
kings, dukes, bifhops, abbots, and ftates of Ireland*
Armagh
Armamaxi,
This Papyreo was fent into Ireland by Pope Eugenius,
to reform the abufes that had crept into the church
difcipline of that country. Plere was anciently a fa¬
mous monaftery built by St Columbo, or Columbanus,
about the year 610. The cathedral was often burnt,
but as often rebuilt and enlarged, and particularly by
Patrick Seanlain, about 1262. His fucceffor Nicho¬
las, fon of Moliffa, befides books, rich ecclefiaftical veft-
ments, and other things, bellowed on it an annual pen-
fion of twenty marks. He appropriated alfo to his fee
the manor of Dromyfkin. He died the 10th of May,
1303. This town was firft fubje&ed to the Engliffi
by John de Courcy ; but afterwards entirely deftroyed
by Tir Oen, or O’Neal, in Queen Elizabeth’s time.
However, it was afterwards recovered, rebuilt, and gar-
rifoned by the Engliffi.
The fee of Armagh is valued in the king’s books,
by an extent taken anno 30th Henry VIII. at 183!,.
17s. jfd. Iriflr money per annum, which amounts to
187I. 18s. t>jd. the difference between Iriffi and Ster¬
ling money being at that time one fourth. But by
an extent returned in the 15th of-James I. it is valued
at 400I. fterling per annum, and pays fo much firft
fruits to this day. It is reputed to be worth annually
8000I. The chapter of Armagh is compofed of five
dignitaries and four prebendaries, who have voices in
every capitular a£t. The dignitaries are thus ranked,
viz. a dean, chanter, chancellor, treafurer, and arch¬
deacon. There are alfo eight vicars choral, and an or-
ganift, attendant on the fervice of the cathedral. The
vicars choral were anciently fewer ; and of the number
only one prieft. Primate Marffi added another prieft,
but without increafing the number of vicars. In the
year 1720, Primate Lindfay obtained a new charter
for enlarging the number of the faid vicars to eight,
and laid out upwards of 4000I, on a purchafe,' in aug¬
mentation of the eftate of the choir.
ARMAGNAC, formerly a province of Guienne in
France, which with Gafcony now forms the department
of Gers, is 55 miles in length, and 40 in breadth ;
bounded on the w'eft by the river Garonne, on the fouth
by Bigorre and Bearn, on the weft by Gafcony, and
on the north by Condomoisand Agenois : Auch is the
capital town. It is fertile in corn and wine, and car¬
ries on a confiderable trade in brandy, wool, and bon-
chretin pears, which are excellent.
ARMAMAXI, in antiquity, a kind of Scythian
chariots or carriages, compofed of two wheels, vari-
oufly
ARM [ 665 ] ARM
Armament oufly adorned with crowns, (liields, breaftplates, and
|| other fpoils, carried in proceffion after the images of
Armenia. ^ g0(js ancj great men>
^ '1'" ARMAMENT, a large body of forces, raifed and
provided with the furniture of war, either for land or
fea fervice.
ARM AT UR A, in a general fenfe, is the fame
with what we otherwife call armour.
Armatura is more particularly ufed in the ancient
military art, for a kind of exercife, performed with
miffive weapons, as darts, fpears, arrows, and the like.
In this fenfe, armatura Rands contradiftinguilhed from
palaria j the latter being the exercife of the heavy¬
armed, the former of the light-armed.
The armatura was prailifed with great diligence
among the Romans ; they had their campido&ores, on
purpofe to indrucR the tyrones or young foldiers in it.
Under it were included the throwing of the fpear or
javelin, (hooting with bow's and arrows, &c.
Armatura is alfo an appellation given to the fol¬
diers who were light armed.
Armatura is alfo a denomination given to the fol¬
diers in the emperor’s retinue. Of thefe we find two
fjhools, mentioned in the Notitia Imperii, called the
armatures feniorcs and armatures juniores. Their com¬
mander was entitled tribunus armalurarum.
ARMED, in the fea language. A crofs bar (hot
is faid to be armed, when fome rope yarn or the like
is rolled about the end of the iron bar, which runs
through the (hot.
Armed, in Heraldry, is ufed when the horns, feet,
beak, or talons, of any bead or bird of prey, are of a
different colour from the rett of their body.
Armed Ship, a veffel occafionally taken into the
fervice of the government in time of war, and em¬
ployed to guard fpme particular coaft, or attend on a
fleet. She is therefore armed and equipped in all re-
fpe£fo like a (hip of war, and commanded by an offi¬
cer of the navy, who has the rank of mafter and com¬
mander. All (hips of this fort are upon the eflabliflr-
ment of the king’s (loops, having a lieutenant, mafter,
purfer, furgeon, &c.
ARMENE, or Armina, anciently a hamlet of Pa-
phlagonia, (Ptolemy). The inhabitants encompafied
it with a wall, becaufe of the coldnefs of the place,
imagining by that means to render it warmer. But
this proving ineffectual, gave rife to the proverb Arttie-
nen muro cingere, ufed to exprefs fome egregious folly.
ARMENIA, a country of Afia, anciently divided
into Armenia Major and Minor. Armenia Major, ac¬
cording to Strabo, was bounded on the fouth by Mount
Taurus, which feparated it from Mefopotamia ; on the
•eaft, by the two Medias ; on the north by Iberia and
Albania, or rather that part of Mount Caucafus which
furrounds them both ; and on the weft, by Armenia
Minor, or the mountains Paryadres, fome Pontic na¬
tions, and the Euphrates. The moft confiderable ci¬
ties were Artaxata„ Tigranocerta, and Theodofiopolis.
—Armenia Minor was bounded on the eaft by the
Euphrates ; on the fouth by Mount Taurus, which
feparated it from Cilicia ; on the weft and north, by a
long chain of mountains, called in different places Mans
Scordifcus, Amanus, and Antitaurus, by which it was
feparated from Cappadocia.
Whence this trad received the name of Armenia is
Vol. II. Part II/
not determined. The Greeks fuppofe it to be fo call- Armenia.
ed from one Armenus, who attended Jafon in the Ar- ' y—1
gonautic expedition, and afterwards fettled in this coun¬
try. Others, transforming Armenia into Aramia, de¬
rive its name from Aram the fon of Shem, or from one
of the kings of Armenia bearing that name. Bochart
imagines it to be a contraction or compound of Aar,
a Hebrew word fignifying a “ mountain,” and Mini
fignifying “ metal,” and which was the name of a pro¬
vince of Armenia mentioned by the prophet Jeremiah.
Herodotus derives the ancient Armenians from the
Phrygians, by reafon that feveral Phrygian words were
crept into the ancient Armenian language. But Strabo
reckons them to have been originally Syrians, which
Bochart looks upon to be the moft probable opinion.
Armenia is faid to have been very early advanced to
the honour of a kingdom. Berofus makes one Sytha
the firft founder of this monarchy, vvhofe fucce(for Bar-
danes, he fays, wTas driven out by Ninus king of Af-
fyria. Plutarch mentions one Araxes king of Armenia,
who in a war with the Perfians, being allured of fuc-
cefs by an oracle, provided he facrificed his two daugh¬
ters, caufed the two daughters of one Miefalcus, a no¬
bleman of his court, to be facrificed in their (lead,
flattering himfelf that he thereby complied with the
oracle. But Mieialcus did not fail to revenge the death
of his own daughters by putting the king’s two daugh¬
ters to death, and purfued himfelf fo clofely, that he
was drowned in attempting to fwim acrofs the Araxes,
which was then called Helmus.
The Armenians were in procefs of time fubdued by
the Medes, to whom Aftyages made them tributaries,
but allowed them to be governed by their own kingsj
but on the diffolution of the Median empire by Cyrus,
the kingdom was reduced to the form of a province,
and they were governed by Perfian prefcCb or lieute¬
nants. On the deftruCtion of the Perfian empire by
Alexander the Great, Armenia fell into the hands of
the Macedonians ; to whom it continued fubjed till
the beginning of the reign of Antiochus the Great.
This prince having appointed two prefects, called Za-
driades and Artaxias, to govern Armenia, they excit¬
ed the people to a revolt, and caufed thernf Ives to be
proclaimed kings of the provinces over which they pre-
lided. Antiochus being then very young, they were
attended with fuccefs beyond their expectation $ which
encouraged them to attempt the enlargement of their
territories. Accordingly, invading the neighbouring
countries, they took from the Medes the provinces of
Cafpiana, Phaunitis, and Baforopida ; from the Ibe¬
rians Chorzena and Gogorena on the other fide of the
Cyrus j from the Chalybes and Molfynaeci, the pro¬
vinces of Pareneta and Herexena, which bordered on
Armenia Minor.
On this occafion, the above-mentioned divifion of
the kingdom into Armenia Major and Minor firft took
place. Artaxias became king of Armenia Major and
Zadriades of Armenia Minor ; and this diftinClion fub-
fifts even at this day.
By wdiom Artaxias was fucceeded is not known ;
neither have we any account of the tranfaClions of his
reign, farther than that Antiochus led a powerful ar-
my againft him and Zadriades, but without being able
to recover a (ingle province. Upon this he concluded
a peace, defigning to fall upon them at a proper op-
4 P portunity ;
fl
ARM
[ 666 ]
ARM
Armenia, portunity j but th6y having entered into alliance -with
,1_l "» ■ ' the Romans, by that means fecured themfelves in the
poffeffion of their kingdom. After this, Artaxias was
defeated and taken prifoner by Antioehus Epiphanes j
but, fomehow or other, feems to have been reftored to
his kingdom.
From this time we meet with a chafm in the Arme¬
nian hiftory for 70 years ; during which all we know
is, that Tigranes, the king’s fon, was delivered up as
an hoftage to the Parthians ; from whence it is plain,
that the Armenians had been carrying on an unfuc-
eefsful war with that nation. On the news of his fa¬
ther’s death, however, the Parthians fet the young king
at liberty, having firft obliged, him to give up a conli-
derable part of his kingdom by way of ranfom.
Tigranes being thus reftored to his father’s king¬
dom, was prevailed upon in the beginning of his reign
to enter into an alliance with Mithridates Eupator
againft the Romans, whofe power began to give jea-
loufy to all the princes of Alia. One of the articles of
this treaty was, that Mithridates (hould have the cities
and conquered countries, and Tigranes the captives
and plunder. In confequence of this, Tigranes was
to invade Cappadocia, which he had lately been obli¬
ged, by a decree of the fenate of Rome, to give up to
Ariobarzanes. But before either of the princes took
the field, a marriage was folemnized with all poffible
magnificence between Tigranes and Cleopatra the daugh¬
ter of Mithridates.
Immediately after the nuptials, Tigranes fet out on
his intended expedition ; and Ariobarzanes, on the firft
news of his march, abandoned his kingdom and fled to
Rome. Thus Tigranes, without fighting a ftroke, en¬
riched himfelf with the booty, and then proclaimed
Ariarathrs, Mithridates’s fon, king of Cappadocia, to
the univerfal fatisfaftion of the people.
In the mean time, the Syrians being harafled with
a long and inteftine war of the Seleucidae, invited Ti¬
granes to come and take poffeflion of their country j
which he accordingly did, and kept it for 18 years,
till he was driven out by Pompey, and Syria reduced
to the form of a Roman province. Encouraged by
this fuccefi, he next invaded Armenia Minor ; defeated
and killed King Artanes, who oppofed him with a
confiderable army ; and in one campaign made himfelf
mafter of the whole kingdom. From Armenia Minor
he marched againft the Afiatic Greeks, the Adiabe-
nians, the Affyrians, and the Gordians carrying all
before him, and obliging the people wherever he came
to acknowledge him fovereign. From this fecond ex¬
pedition he returned home loaded with booty, which
he foon after increafed by the fpoils of Cappadocia, in¬
vading that kingdom a fecond time at the inftance of
Mithridates, who had been obliged by the Romans to
withdraw his forces from thence. From Cappadocia
Tigranes, befides other booty, brought back into Ar¬
menia no fewer than 300,000 captives, having fur-
rounded the country with his numerous forces in fuch
a manner that none could efcape. Thefe, together
with the prifoners he had taken in his two firft expe¬
ditions, he employed in building the city of Tigrano-
certa, which they afterwards peopled.
In the mean time Mithridates, who had concluded a
peace with the Romans for no other end than to gain
dme, fent a folemn embaffy to Tigranes, inviting him
to enter into a fecond alliance againft the common ene- Armen!?,
my. This he at firft declined 5 but in the end was —y—«/
prevailed upon by his wife Cleopatra to fend him con¬
fiderable fupplies, though he never came heartily into
the war, not caring to provoke the Romans, who on
their part kept fair with him, taking no notice for the
prefent of the fupplies he had fent Mithridates. That
unfortunate prince being foon after defeated by Lu-
cullus, was forced to tly for Ihelter into Armenia,
where he met with a very cold reception from his fon-
in-law, who would neither fee him, treat with him,
nor own him as his relation ; however, he promifed tn
proteft his perfon, and allowed him in one of his
caftles a princely retinue, and a table fuitable to his
former condition.
Though this total overthrow of Mithridates might
have opened the eyes of Tigranes, and made him op-
pofe with all his might the growing power of the Ro¬
mans, he foolifhly left them to finilh their conqueft of
Pontus, while he marched at the head of a very nume¬
rous army againft the Parthians, with a defign to re¬
cover from them the dominions they had formerly ex¬
torted from him before they fet him at liberty. Thefe
he eafily retook j and not fatisfied with what formerly
belonged to him, he added to them all Mefopotamia,
the countries that lay about Ninus and Arbela, and the
fruitful province of Mygdonia j the Parthians, though
at that time a mighty people, flying everywhere be¬
fore him. From Mefopotamia Tigranes marched into
Syria to quell a rebellion which had been raifed by Cle¬
opatra, furnamed Selene i who, after the death of her
hufband Antiochus Pius, reigned jointly with her fons
in that part of Syria which Tigranes had not feized
on. The malcontents were quickly reduced j and the
queen herfelf was taken prifoner, and confined to the
caftle of Seleucia, where ftie was foon after put to
death by the king’s orders. From Syria Tigranes paf-
fed into Phoenicia, which he fubdued either entirely or
in great part, fpreading far and wide the terror of his
arms, infomuch that all the princes of Afia, except
thofe who were in alliance with the Romans, either in
perfon or by their deputies, fubmitted and paid homage
to the conqueror.
The king, having now fubdued all Syria to the bor¬
ders of Egypt, and being elated with a long courfe of
viiftories and profperous events, began to look upon
himfelf as far above the level of other crowned heads.
He affumed the title of King of kings, and had many
kings waiting upon him as menial fervants. He never
appeared on horfeback without the attendance of four
kings dreffed in livery, who ran by his horfe j and
when he gave anfwers to the nations that applied to
him, the ambaffadors flood en either fide the throne
with their hands clafped together, that attitude being
of all others then accounted among the orientals the
greateft acknowledgment of vaflalage and fervitude.
In the midft of all this haughtinefs, however, he was
unexpe&edly vifited by an ambaffador from Lucullus
the Roman general, who, without any ceremony, told
him, that he came to demand Mithridates king of
Pontus, who had taken refuge in his dominions, and*
in cafe of his refufal, to declare war againft him. Not-
withftanding his high opinion of himfelf, Tigranes re¬
turned a mild anfwer to this meffage : in which, how¬
ever, he refufed to deliver up his father-in-law ; and
being
ARM [ 667 ] ARM
Armenia, being highly provoked at Lucullus for not giving him
—-v~~J the title of King of kings in his letter, he did not fo
much as beftow upon him the title of general in his
anfvver. In the mean time, being informed that Zar-
bienus king of the Gordians had entered into a private
alliance with the Romans, he put him, his wife, and
children to death 5 and then, returning into Armenia,
received with the greateft pomp imaginable his father-
in-law Mithridates, whom till that time he had not ad¬
mitted into his prefence, though he had refided a year
and eight months in his dominions. They had feveral
private conferences *, and at laft Mithridates was fent
back to Pontus with 10,000 horfe, to raife there what
difturbances he could.
Lucullus, on the other hand, hearing the king’s re-
folution to prote6): Mithridates, immediately began his
march for Armenia, at the head of only two legions
of foot and 3000 horfe, having left 6000 men in Pon¬
tus to keep that country quiet. Having paffed the Eu¬
phrates without oppofition, he detached two parties j
one to befiege a city where he heard that Tigranes’s
treafure and concubines were kept j and the other, un¬
der Sextilius, to block up Tigranoctrta, in order to
draw the king to a battle. Rut Tigranes, after having
put to death the fcout that brought him the firft intel¬
ligence of the approach of the Romans, made towards
Mount Taurus, which he had appointed for the place
of the general rendezvous. The Roman general then
defpatched Muraena in purfuit of the king j who, having
overtaken him in a narrow pafs, defeated him, and,
befides all the baggage, carried off a great many pri-
foners, the king himfelf having fled in the beginning of
the Ikirmiih. After this, he fent out feveral parties to
fcour the country, in order to prevent the innumerable
forces of Tigranes from joining into one body. This,
however, he was not able to effeff 5 Tigranes was join¬
ed by fuch numbers of Gordians, Medes, Adiabenians,
Albanians, Iberians, &c. that, before he left Mount
Taurus, his army confifled, according to Plutarch, of
150,000 foot armed cap-a-pee, 35,000 pioneers, 20,000
archers and dingers, and 55,000 horfe.
Lucullus wras fo far from being difmayed at this
formidable army, that the only fear he had was left
the king (hould follow the advice of Mithridates, which
was, not to engage the Romans, but, by ravaging the
«ountry, diftrefs them for want of provilions. In or¬
der to draw him to a battle, therefore, he formed the
fiege of Tigranocerta, imagining that Tigranes would
never fuffer that fine city to be taken without making
an attempt to relieve it. The event fully anfwered his
expectations : Tigranes having called a council of war,
it was unanimoufly refolved to attack the Romans j and
Taxilis, whom Mithridates fent to diffuade the king
from venturing a battle, was in danger of lofing his
head on account of the advice he gave. The Roman
general finding Tigranes difpofed to come to an en¬
gagement, left Muraena with 6000 men to carry on
the fiege, while he himfelf marched againft the king’s
vaft army with only 10,000 men according to fome,
and the higheft computations make them no more than
18,000. The Romans were at firft greatly diftiearten-
ed ; but being encouraged by Lucullus, they imme¬
diately broke the Armenian army, who betook them-
felves to flight almoft at the firft onfet. The Romans
purfued them till night, making a moft terrible (laugh¬
ter. Plutarch informs us, that of the Armenians, Armetra.
100,000 foot were killed, and that very few of the ca-
valry efcaped j whereas of the Romans only five men
were killed and 100 wounded. Antiochus the philofo-
)her mentioning this battle, fays, that the fun never be-
reld the like : and Livy, that the Romans never fought
to fuch a difadvantage 5 the conquerors not amounting
to a twentieth part of the conquered. Tigranes in
his flight having met with his fon in as forlorn a con¬
dition as himfeif, refigned to him his royal robes and
diadem, defiring him to fhift for himfelf and fave thofe
royal enfigns. The young prince delivered them to a
trufty friend, who, being taken by the Romans, con-
figned them to Lucullus.
While the king was making his efcape after this ter¬
rible overthrow, he was met by Mithridates, who was
marching to his afliftance at the head of a confiderable
army. The king of Pontus cheered up his fon-in-law
as well as he could, and encouraged him to continue
the war : advifing him, inftead of fruitlefaly bewailing
the prefent difalter, to rally his troops, raile new fup-
plies, and renew the war, not queftioning but that iu
another campaign he might repair all the Ioffes he had
fuftained : but while the two kings were confulting up¬
on thefe matters, Lucullus made himfelf mafter of Ti¬
granocerta. From this city he marched into the fmall
kingdom of Gordyene, where he celebrated, with the
utmoft pomp, the obfequies of King Zarbienus, whom
Tigranes had put to death, lighting the funeral pile
with his own hand. In this kingdom, befides immenfe
fums of gold and filver, he met with fuch ftore of pro-
vifions as enabled him to carry on the war without put¬
ting the republic to any charge.
The two kings, having levied new forces, appointed
their troops to rendezvous in the fpacious plains on the
other fide of Mount Taurus ; whereupon Lucullus
leaving Gordyene, and pafling by Mount Taurus, en¬
camped clofe by the enemy. Several fkirmilhes hap¬
pened for fome time between the two armies without
any confiderable advantage ; but Lucullus could by
no means draw them to a general engagement. Upon
this he decamped, as if he defigned to march to Ar-
taxata and lay fiege to that place, where Tigranes
had left his wife and children, with great part of his
trcafures. fife had fcarce formed his camp when the
enemy appeared, and fat down clofe by him. Lu¬
cullus did not allow them to fortify their camp, but
immediately attacked them, and having put them to
flight after a faint refiftance, purfued them all night
with great daughter, took moft of the chief offi¬
cers prifoners, and returned the next day loaded with
booty.
The Roman foldiers now, finding the cold very fe-
vere, though it was no later in the year than the au¬
tumnal equinox, requefted their general to allow them
to retire into winter quarters. This requeft he reject¬
ed with indignation ; upon which they mutinied. Lu¬
cullus did all he could to perfuade them to continue in
their duty ; and prevailed fo far that they confented to
lay fiege to Nffibis in hopes of booty. This place
they took: and Lucullus, to the great fatisfaClion of
his troops, took up his winter quarters there. The
next year, however, his forces again mutinied, accu-
fing him of amaffing immenfe wealth for him felt; and
throwing their empty purfes at his feet, told him, that
4 P 2 as
ARM [ 668 ] ARM
Armenia, as lie enriched himfelf alone, he might carry on the
war by himfelf. He endeavoured to appeafe them as
much as poflible ; but the fedition being fomented by
a party who favoured Pompey the Great, at that time
afpiring to the command of Lucullus’s army, the latter
found himfelf obliged to fit flill and fee Mithridates
and Tigranes overrun Cappadocia, and recover all Ar¬
menia and great part of Pontus. They would have
gained much greater advantages, had- not a fon of Ti¬
granes taken arms againft liis father, and obliged him
to divide his troops. The father and fon coming to a
pitched battle, the latter was defeated, and forced to
fave.himfelf in Parthia, where he perfuaded Phraates,
king of that country, to alfift him with a numerous ar¬
my againft his father. Phraates having laid fiege to
Artaxata, Tigranes the elder was obliged to hide him¬
felf in the mountainous parts of his kingdom ; up¬
on which the king of Parthia returned home. Of this
Tigranes the father being apprifed, he immediately
abandoned the faftneffes of the mountains*, and falling
upon his fon at Artaxata, difperfed the rebels with
great daughter j and entered his metropolis in triumph.
Tigranes the fon firft fled to Mithridates *, but finding
him reduced to great flraits, having been overcome a
few days before, with the lofs of 40,000 men, by
Pompey, he went over to the Romans, and led them
into Armenia againft his father as an ally of Mithri¬
dates.
Tigranes, being now quite difpirited, and unable to
make head againft the Romans, refolved at once to
fubmit. Accordingly he waited on Pompey in his
camp, and having delivered his fword to two litftors,
proftrated himfelf before him, and laid his diadem at
his feet. Pompey, however, gave him a gracious re¬
ception, reftored him the kingdom of Armenia, but
fined him of 6coo talents for making war on the Ro¬
man people without caufe. As the king had appealed
to the Roman general for juftice againft his fon, Pom¬
pey heard both parties the next day, and made the fon
governor of Gordyene and Sophene ; but the treafures
that were kept in the latter he adjudged to his father,
becaufe without them he could not pay the fine. The
fon, being thus difappointed, endeavoured firft to make
his efcape, and afterwards, by private mt flengers, foli-
cited the inhabitants not to deliver up the treafures to
his father. This being taken very much amifs by
Pompev, he caufed him to be kept in irons *, and even
then he found means to ftir up Phraates king of Par¬
thia, whofe daughter he had married, againft the Ro¬
mans, and to form a confpiracy againft his father’s life ;
■whereupon Pompey font him in chains to Rome, where
he was kept prifoner in the houfe of L. Flavius a fena-
tor, till the tribuneftiip of P. Clodius, who, being
bribed with a large fum of money, fet him at liberty
in fpite of Pompey and the fenate.
Tigranes being now thoroughly humbled, willingly
yielded to the Romans, Cappadocia, Syria, Cilicia, and
that part of Phoenicia which he poffeffed, contenting
himfelf with his paternal kingdom ; and not only paid
the fine laid upon him, but made large prefents to
Pompey, and all the officers of his army, which pro¬
cured him the title of the friend and ally of the Roman
people. He afterwards entered into a war with Phra¬
ates king of Parthia, by whom he was overcome, and
would have been driven out of his kingdom? had not a
4
peace been brought about by the mediation of Pompey. Armenl*.
He ever after cultivated a ftrift friendftiip with the Ro-
mans ; infomuch that he not only refufed to receive Mi¬
thridates, who fled to him after he had been routed by
Pompey near Mount Stella, but even offered a reward
of 100 talents to any one that would put him to death.
His fecond fon alfo, by name Sariafter, took up arms
againft him j but by the affiftance of the Romans, that
rebellion was foon quelled. He died in the 8 5th year
of his age j and was fucceeded by his fon Artuafdes,
called by Jofephus Arlaba%es, by Orofius Artabanes,
and by others Artoadijles.
From this time to the time of Trajan, Armenia was
governed by its own kings ; but as they were plainly
vaffals to the Romans, though they did not take that
title till the reign of the emperor Nero, their hiftory
falls to be confidered under that of the Romans.
By Trajan the kingdom of Armenia Major was re¬
duced to the form of a Roman province *, but it foon
recovered its liberty, and was again governed by its
own kings in the reigns of Conftantine the Great, and
his fucceffor^to whom the kings of Armenia were feu¬
datories. In the reign of Jiiftin II. the Saracens fub-
dued and held it till the irruption of the l urks, who
poffeffed themfelves of this kingdom, and gave it the
name of Turcomania. The Turks, after the redudlion
of Armenia, invaded Perfia, and other countries fub-
jeft to the emperors of the eaft ; which gave the Ar¬
menians an opportunity of fhaking off the Turkifti
yoke, and fettir.g up kings of their own, by whom
they were governed till the country was again fubdued
by Occadan, or, as fome ftyle him Heccata, the fon
of Cingis, and firft cham of the Tartars. Neither was
the conqueft of Armenia by the Tartars fo abfolute as
to extirpate the race of their kings : feeing we read of
Haithon, furnamed the Armenian, reigning fome time
after, and going in perfon to treat with Mungo, the
great cham of Tartary, of the concerns of his king¬
dom ; and in our chronicles we find mention made of
Leo king of Armenia, who, in the reign of Richard II.
came into England to fue for aid againft the Turks,
by whom he had been driven from his kingdom. In the
year 1472 of the Chriftian era, Uffan Caffanes king of
Armenia fuccteding to the crown of Perfia, made Ar¬
menia a province of that empire ; in which ftate it con¬
tinued till the year 1522, when it -was fubdued by Se¬
lim II. and made a province of the Turkifti empire.
Some fay that Selim I. reduced it on his return from
Perfia, where he had gained a complete viftory over
the great Sophi Ifmael. But Sanfovin affures us, that
in the reign of Selim I. who died in 1520, both the
Leffer and Greater Armenia had their own kings \ and
adds, that Selim eaufed the head of the king of the
Leffer Armenia to be cut off and fent to Venice as a
mark of his viflory. We read nowhere elfe of any
kings of Armenia after it became a province of Perfia.
Be that as it will, the Turkifli annals cited by Calvifiu&
inform us, that Selim II. conquered Armenia in 1552,
fince which time it has ever continued fubjeft to the
Turks, except the eaftern part, which the Perfians are
mafters of to this day.
Concerning Armenia Minor, we find very little re¬
corded, except what has been already mentioned, and
what falls under the Roman hiftory. It was made a
Roman province by Vefpafian, continued fo till the
divifioB
ARM [ 669 ] ARM
Armenia, divifion of the empire, when it was fubje&ed to the
—'Y—emperors of the eaft j and, on the decline of their
power, was fubdued firft by the Perfians, and after¬
wards by the Turks, who gave it the name of Genech,
and have kept it ever fince.
This country is ftill divided into the Great and Small.
Great Armenia comprehends what is now called Tur-
comania. It has Georgia on the north, from which it
is feparated by high mountains ; the river Euphrates
on the weft *, Diarbeker, Curdiftan, and Aderbijan,
on the fouth ; and Shirvan on the eaft. T he chief
towns in that part of Armenia belonging to Turkey
are Arzum the capital, near the fprings of the Euphra¬
tes, a large city and a great thoroughfare for the cara¬
vans betwixt Turkey and Perfia *, Kara, a ftrong city,
head of the government of the fame name ; Bayazid, a
republic of Curds, near Mount Ararat : Baha, another
republic of the fame ; and Van or Wan, on the lake
Van, the head of a government of the fame name \
with other towns of lefs note. That part of Armenia
fubje£t to Perfia is chiefly contained in the province of
Aran, in which are. feveral fine towns ; as, Erivan or
Rivan, the capital of the whole ; Ganjals, one of the
fineft cities in Perfia, in the north of the province,
near the Kur ; Kapan, on the fouth fide, near the A-
ras 5 befides Nakfivan, Aftabad Julfa, Ordabad, Bay-
lakan or Pilkan on the Aras; Berdah and Shilkah on
the Kur.
The country in general is full of mountains and val¬
leys, lakes and rivers; particularly the country about
the Three Churches, near Erivan, is admirably fine, be¬
ing full of rivulets, which render it extremely fruitful.
Befides great quantities of all forts of grain, here are
fields of a prodigious extent covered with tobacco :
but it is not a native of the place, though fuppofed
by fome to be the terreftrial paradife : for it all came
originally from America. The reft of the country pro¬
duces rice, cotton, flax, melons, and grapes : in ftiort,
there is nothing wanting but olives ; which is by fome
thought to prove that the ark could not reft on Mount
Ararat, becaufe the dove brought an olive branch in
her mouth, and this tree never leaves a place where it
once grew. It feems, however, to have, been otherwife
anciently ; for Strabo tells us, that the olive grew in
Gogarene, a province of Armenia. They get oil to
burn from the ricinus, and ufe linfeed oil in the kitchen.
The water melons are as cool as ice in the, hotteft day,
and melt in the mouth ; the beft are produced in the
fait lands, near the Three Churches and the river
Aras. After rain, the fea fait lies in cryftals upon the
fields, and even crackles under the feet. About ten
miles from the Three Churches, in the road to Tef-
lis, there are pits or quarries of fulfil fait, which yield
enough to fupply all Perfia, without being exhaufted :
they cut it into large pieces like ftone, and each buf¬
falo carries two of them ; the'mountain from whence
it is dug is nothing but a mafs of fait, which appears
like a rock of filver when the fun (hines on the places
not covered with earth.
This country has been remarkable for its extreme
cold from the remoteft antiquity j Sir John Chardin
tells us, that he found ice in the rivulets in the morn¬
ings even of the month of July. In many places, alfo,
if they had not the convenience of watering their
grounds, they would be almoft entirely barren*
The Armenians are an honeft, civil, polite people, Armenian
fcarce troubling themfeives about any thing elfe but-y" *
trade, which they carry on in moft parts of the world,
by which means they have fpread themfeives over the
eaft, and alfo a great part of Europe j arid wherever
they come, commerce is carried on with fpirit and ad¬
vantage.
The religion of the Armenians is the Chriftian, of
the Eutychian fe£t j that is, they own but one nature
in Jefus Chrift ; and when they fpeak of the hypoftati-
cal union, that he is perfect God and perfect man with¬
out mixture. They have a high cfteem for a book they
call the Little Gofpel, which treats of the infancy of
Jefus, and fays that the Virgin Mary being pregnant,
her After Salome accufed her of having proftituted her-
lelf; to which the Virgin anfvvered, that flie needed
only to lay her hand on her belly, and (he would know
how (he came to be with child : this Salome accord¬
ingly did, and fire came out of her belly, which con-
lumed the half of her arm j upon which (he acknow¬
ledged her fault, and drew it back ; after which it was
healed by putting it to the fame place.
The Armenian clergy confift of patriarchs, arch-
bifhops, doctors, fecular priefts, and monks. The fe-
cular priefts are not allowed to marry a fecond time j
and therefore they take care to choofe young healthy
wives 5 they maintain themfeives and families by fol¬
lowing fome occupation, infomuch that they have
hardly time to perform their ecclefiaftical functions :
they lie in the churches on the vigils of thofe days they
are obliged to officiate.
The Armenian monks are of the order of St Bafil j
and every Wednefday and Friday they eat neither fiih,
nor eggs, nor oil, nor any thing made of milk, and
during Lent they live upon nothing but roots ; they
are allowed wine only on the Saturday in the Holy
Week, and meat on the Eafter Sunday. Befides the
great Lent they have four others of eight days each,
which are inftituted to prepare for the four great fefti-
vals, of the Nativity, the Afcenfion, the Annunciation,
and of St George ; in which times they mull not fo
much as fpeak of eggs, fifti, oil, or butter.
The Armenians have feven facraments j baptifm,
confirmation, penance, the eucharift, extreme unction,
orders, and matrimony. In baptifm, the child is plun¬
ged three times into the water, and the fame form of
words that is ufed with us is repeated every lime ; the
prieft then puts a fmall cord made with filk and cotton
on the neck of the infant, and anoints his forehe ad, chin,
ftomach, armpits, hands,- and feet, making the fign of
the crofs on each part. When the child is baptized,
he is carried home by the godfather with the found of
drums and trumpets. The women do not go to church
till 40 days after their delivery ; and they obferve many
Jevviffi cuftoms.
At the communion, to which infants of two or three
months old are admitted, the priefts give a piece of the
confecrated hoft foaked in the confecrated wine. The
elements are covered with a great veil, and placed in a
cupboard near the altar, on the fide of the gofpels.
When the prieft takes the chalice and patin, he is fol¬
lowed by his deacons and fubdeacons, with flambeaux
and plates of copper furniftied with bells : in this man¬
ner, with a cenfer before him, he goes in proceffiun
round the fanttuary ; he then fets them on the altar, ,
pronouncea
ARM [ 67
Armenia pronounces the words of conlecratlon, and turns him-
.11 felf to the people, who fall down, kils the earth, and
A rind ary. j3eat tlieir breads ; then, after* taking it him felf, he
dillributes the hoft foaked in wine to the people.
The Armenians feem to place the chief part of their
religion in fadings and abitinences : and among the
clergy, the higher the degree the lower they mud. live;
infomuch that it is faid the archbifhops live on nothing
but pulfe. They confecrate holy water but once
a-year ; at which time every one fills a pot and carries
it home, which brings in a confiderable revenue to the
church.
ARMEN I AC A. See Prunus.
ARMENIAN, fomething belonging to or produced
in Armenia : thus we fay, Armenian bole, Armenian
fione, &c. See Bole, and /lRMENUS Lapis.
ARMENTIERS, a fmall handfome town of the
Netherlands, in the county of Flanders, and didrict
"of Ypres. It was taken by Lewis XIV. in 1667, who
difmantled it; and it now belongs to the French. It
is feated on the river Lis. E. Long. 3. 3. N. Lat.
5°. 40.
ARMENUS lapis, Armenian Jlone, in Natural
Hijlory, a mineral fubdance, which is but improperly
called a Jlone; being no other than an ochreous earth,
and properly called blue ochre. It is a very valuable
fubdance in painting, being a bright and lively blue.
It was in fo high edeem as a paint among the ancients,
that counterfeits were continually attempted to ferve
in its place. Theophradus had recorded it as a thing
judged worthy a place in the Egyptian anaals, which
of their kings had the honour of inventing the fa£li-
tious kind ; and he tells us the genuine native fub¬
dance was a thing of that value, that prefents were
made of it to great perfons, and that the Phoenicians
paid their tribute in it.—It is a very beautiful earth,
of an even and regular texture; and of a fine blue,
fometimes deeper, fometimes paler, and frequently mix¬
ed with green. It is foft, tender, and light ; of an
even, but fomewhat dudy furface ; it adheres firmly
to the tongue, and is dry, but not hardi to the touch.
It eafily breaks between the fingers, and does not dain
the hands. It is of a brackidi difagreeable tade, and
does not ferment with acids. It is a very fcarce fulfil;
but is found very pure, though but in fmall quantities,
in the mines at Goffelaer in Saxony. It is frequently
found fpotted with green, and fometimes with black;
and very often is mixed among the green ochre, called
berggruen by the Germans, which has thence been er-
roneoudy called by its name. See further the article
Bice.
ARMIERS, a town of Hainault, in the French Ne¬
therlands, feated on the river Sambre. E. Long. 3. 45.
N. Lat. 50. 15. _
ARMIGER, a title of dignity, belonging to fuch
gentlemen as bear arms ; and thefe are either by cour-
tefy, as fons of noblemen, elded fons of knights, &c.;
or by creation, fuch as the king’s fervants, &c. See
Esquire.
ARMILLARY, in a general fenfe, fomething con¬
fiding of rings or circles.
jlRMlLLAR T Sphere, an artificial fphere compofed of
a number of circles of the mundane fphere, put toge¬
ther in their natural order, to eafe and afiid the ima-
o ] ~ ARM
gination in conceiving the conditution of the heavens, Armilufti;
and the motions of the celedial bodies. The armillary um,
fphere revolves upon its axis within a filvered horizon, Amnniani
which is divided into degrees, and moveable every way
upon a brafs fupporter. The other parts are the equi-
noflial, zodiac, meridian, the two tropics, and the two
polar circles. See Geography.
ARM IL UST PtI UM, in Roman antiquity, a feaft
held among the Romans, in which they facrificed, arm¬
ed, to the found of trumpets.
ARMINIANS, a religious feft, or party, which
arofe in Holland, by a feparation from the Calvinids.
They followed the doftrine of Arminius (fee the next
article) ; who, thinking the dodrine of Calvin, with
regard to free-will, prededination, and grace, too fe-
vere, began to exprefs his doubts concerning them in
the year 1591 ; and upon further inquiry adopted fen-
timents more nearly refembling thole of the Lutherans
than of the Calvinids. After his appointment to the
theological chair at Leyden, he thought it his duty to
avow and vindicate the principles which he had em¬
braced ; and the freedom with which he publidied and
defended them expofed him to the refentment of thofe
that adhered to the theological fydem of Geneva, which
then prevailed in Holland ; but his principal opponent
was Gomar, his colleague. The controverfy which
was thus begun, became more general after the death
of Arminius, in the year 1609, and threatened to in¬
volve the United Provinces in civil difeord. The Ar-
minian tenets gained ground under the mild and fa¬
vourable treatment of the magiftrates of Holland, and
were adopted by feveral perfons of merit and diftin£lion.
The Calviniils, or Gomarifts, as they were now called,
appealed to a national fynod : accordingly the fynod
of Dort was convened by order of the States General,
in 1618, and was compofed of ecclefialtical deputies
from the United Provinces, as well as from the reform¬
ed churches of England, Heffia, Bremen, Switzerland,
and the Palatinate. The principal advocate in favour
of the Arminians was Epifcopius, who, at that time,
was profeffor of divinity at Leyden. It was firft pro-
pofed to difeufs the principal fubjedts in difpute, and
that the Arminians fliould be allowed to flate and vin¬
dicate the grounds on which their opinions were found¬
ed : but fome difference arifing as to the proper mode
of condiuRing the debate, the Arminians were exclud¬
ed from the affembly ; their cafe was tried in their
abfence ; and they were pronounced guilty of peftilen-
tial errors, and condemned as corruptors of the true
religion. In confequence of this decifion, they were
treated with great feverity : they were deprived of all
their polls and employments ; their minifters were li-
lenced, and their congregations were fupprefl'ed. How¬
ever, after the death of Prince Maurice, who had been
a violent partizan in favour of the Gomarifts, in the
year 1625, the Arminian exiles were reftored to their
former reputation and tranquillity ; and under the to¬
leration of the Hate, they eredled churches and found¬
ed a college at Amfterdam, appointing Epifcopius to
be the firft theological profeffor. The Arminian fyftem
has very much prevailed in England fince the time of
Archbifhop Laud, and its votaries in other countries
are very numerous.
The diflinguifhing tenets of the Armim’ans may be
comprifed
ARM [ 671 ] ARM
Arminians. eomprrfed in the following five articles ; relating to pre-
■V—deftination, univerfal redemption, the corruption of man,
converfion, and perfeverance.
1. “ With refpeft to the firft, they maintained,
“ That God, from all eternity, determined to bellow fal-
vation on thofe who he forefaw would perfevere unto
the end in their faith in Chriil Jefus *, and to intlidl
everlafting punilliment on thofe who fhould continue in
their unbelief, and refill unto the end his divine fuccours:
fo that eledlion was conditional, and reprobation in like
manner the refult of forefeen infidelity and perfevering
■wickednefs.”
2. On the fecond point the Arminians taught, “ That
Jefus Chriil, by his fufiferings and death, made an a-
tonement for the fins of all mankind in general, and
of every individual in particular •, that, however, none
but thofe who believe in him can be partakers of their
divine benefit.”
3. On the third article, they held, “ That true faith
cannot proceed from the exercife of our natural facul¬
ties and powers, nor from the force and operation of
free will ; lince man, in confequence of his natural
corruption, is incapable either of thinking or doing
any good thing •, and that, therefore, it is neceffary,
in order to his converfion and falvation, that he be
regenerated, and renewed by the operation of the
Holy Gholl, which is the gift of God through Jefus
Chriil.”
4. “ That this divine grace, or energy of the Holy
Gholl, begins and perfefts every thing that can be call¬
ed good in man, and confequently all good works are
to be attributed to God alone ; that, neverthelefs, this
grace is offered to all, and does not force men to a£t
againft their inclination, but may be refilled and ren¬
dered ineffedlual by the perverfe will of the impenitent
finner.” Some modern Arminians interpret this and the
laft article with a greater latitude.
5. “ That God gives to the truly faithful, who are re-i
generated by his grace, the means of preferving them-
felves in this Hate and though the firft Arminians
made fome doubt with refpe£l to the doling part of this
article, their follosvers uniformly maintained, “ that the
regenerate may lofe true jullifying faith, forfeit their
Hate of grace, and die in their fins.”
The modern fyilem of Arminianifm likewife, found¬
ed on a comprehenlive plan projedled by Arminius him-
felf, as appears from a palfage in his laft will, extends
the limits of the Chrillian church, and relaxes the bonds
of fraternal communion in fuch a manner, that Chri-
flians of all feds and denomination', whatever their
fentiments and opinions may be, Papifis excepted, may
be formed into one religious body, and live together
In brotherly love and concord. But, in order to avoid
the reproach of being altogether unconneded by any
common principles, Epifcopius drew up a confeflion of
faith, exprefled for the moll part in words and phrafes
of Holy Scripture, which the Arminians have general¬
ly adopted, though not enjoined upon them by any au¬
thoritative obligation. The Arroinians are alfo called
Remorjirants, from an humble petition, entitled their
Remonjlrance, which, in the year 1610, they addreffed
to the States of Holland. Their principal writers are
Arminius, Epifcopius, Vorllius, Grotius, Curcellaeus,
Limborch, Le Clerc, and Wetftein; not to mention
®any others of more modern date.
ARMINIUS, James, whole real name in Low Arminius
Dutch was James Harmanni, a famous Protellant di- ||
vine, from whom the modern fed of Arminians (fee Armoifin*
the preceding article) take their name, was born at ^
Oude water, in Holland, in 1560. He was ordained
miniller at Amllerdam on the nth of Auguft 15885
where he foon diltinguifhed himfelf by his fermons,
Avhich were remarkable for their folidity and learning,
and gained him univerfal applaufe; but Martin Lydias,
profelTor of divinity at Franeker, judging him a fit per-
fon to refute a writing in which Beza’s dodrine of
prcdellination had been attacked by fome minillers of
Delft, Arminius at his entreaties undertook the talk 5
but upon thoroughly examining the reafons on both
fides, he came into the opinions he propofed to dellroy,
and afterwards went Hill farther than the minillers of
Delft had done. In 1600, he oppofed thofe who main¬
tained that minillers Ihould fubferibe the confeffion and
catechifm every year. In 1602, a pellilential difeafe
raged at Amllerdam, during which he aded with the
greatell refolution and courage, in aflilling the poor,
and comforting the lick ; and Lucas Trelcatius and
Francis Junius dying of that difeafe at Leyden, the cu¬
rators of that univerfity chofe Arminius profeflbr of
divinity there, and he was afterwards made dodor of
divinity. Difputes upon grace were foon after kindled
in that univerfity ; and he was at length engaged in a
new contell, occafioned by a deputation of his con¬
cerning the divinity of the Son. Thefe contefts, his
continual labour, and the concern of feeing his repu¬
tation Mailed by a multitude of Handers in relation to
his opinions, impaired his healtji, and threw him into
a fit of ficknefs, of which he died on the 19th of Oc¬
tober 1609. Arminius was efteemed an excellent
preacher ; his voice was low, but very agreeable 5 and
his pronunciation admirable 5 he was eafy and affable to
perfons of all ranks, and facetious in his converfation
amongft his friends. His great defire was, that Chri-
liians would bear with one another in all controverfies
which did not affed the fundamentals of their religion}
and when they perfecuted each other for points of in¬
difference, it gave him the utmoll diffatisfadion. The
curators of the univerfity of Leyden had fo great a re¬
gard for him, that they fettled a penfion upon his wife
and children. He left feveral works, viz. 1. Difputa-
tiones de diverfis Chrilliance religionis capitibus. 2. Ora-
tiones, itemque tradatus infigniores aliquot. 3. Exa-
men modelti libelli Gulielmi Perkinfi de prmdellina-
tionis modo et ordine, itemque de amplitudine gratis
divinee. 4. Analvfis capitis noni ad Romanos. 5. Dil-
fertatio de vers et genuine fenfu capitis feptimi epiliolse
ad Romanos. 6. Arnica collatio cum D. Francifco Ju-
nio de preedefinnatione, per literas habita. 7. Epiilola
ad Hippolytum a collibus.”
ARMIRO, a town of Macedonia, in European Tur¬
key } feated cm the gulf of Velo. E. Long. 23. 40.
N. Lat. 38. 34.
ARMISTICE, in military affairs, a temporary truce
or ceffation of arms for a very fhort Ipace of time. The
word is Latin, armijlitium; and compounded of anner,
“ arms,” and J}oy “ to Hand, or Hop.”
ARMOISIN, a filk Huff, or kind of taffety, manu-
fadlured in theEaft Indies, at Lyons in France, and at
Lucca in Italy. That of the Indies is llighter than thofe
made in Europe.
ARMONIAC,
I
ARM r 67
Armomac ATlMONIAC. See AMMONIAC, CHEMISTRY Index.
II ARMONICA. See Harmonica.
Armourer. ARMORIAL, fomething relating to arms or co?.ts
of arms. See Arms and Heraldry.
ARMORIC, or Aremoric, fomething that be¬
longs to the province of Bretagne, or Britanny, in
France. The name Armorica was anciently given to
all the northern and weftern coaft of Gaul, from the
Pyrenees to the Rhine ; under which name it was
known even in Csefar’s time. The word is of Bas Bre¬
ton origin, and denotes as much as maritime; com¬
pounded, according to M. Menage, of, ar, “ upon,” and
more, “ fea.”
ARMORIST, a perfon Ikilled in the knowledge of
armour.
ARMORUM concussio ; the clalhing of arms
praftifed by the Roman armies previous to an engage¬
ment, and intended to ftrike a panic into their enemies j
it always followed the claflicum and the barritus. See
Classicum and Barritus.
ARMOUR, a defenfive habit, wherewith to cover
and fecure the body frojn the attacks of an enemy. In
ancient ftatutes this is frequently called harnefs.—Parts
of armour are, the buckler, cuirafs, helmet, coat of mail,
gauntlet, Stc.
A complete armour anciently confifted of a cafque or
helm, a gorget, cuirafs, gauntlets, taffes, braffets,
cuifhes, and covers for the legs, to which the fpurs
were fattened. This they called armour cap-a-pie;
and was the wear of the cavaliers and men at arms.—
The infantry had only part of it •, viz. a pot or head-
piece, a cuirafs, and tafles ; but all light. Laftly, The
horfes themfelves had their armour, wherewith to co¬
ver the head and neck. Of all this furniture of war,
fcarce any thing is now retained except the cuirafs ;
the gorget, or neck-piece, w’orn by officers, being at pre-
fent only a badge of honour, and of no defence.
The gallantry of going to the battle naked, without
any defenfive armour, prevailed fo far, that the French,
during the reign of Louis XIV. were obliged to be con¬
tinually ifluing ordonnancestoreftrain it 5 in cohfequence
of w'hich the general officers, and thofe of the cavalry,
were obliged to refume the cuirafs, which yet has been
but ill obferved.
Armour, Coat, is the efcutcheon of any perfon, or
family, with its feveral charges, and other furniture •,
as mantling, creft, fupporters, motto, &c. Thus we fay,
a gentleman of coat armour ; meaning one who bears
arms.
ARMOURER, a maker of arms or armour.—The
Roman armourers were difpofed in certain places in the
empire, it being forbid either to fell, or buy, or make
arms elfewhere. They were exempt from all offices and
taxes, and received a falary from the public.
When once they had taken the employment on
themfelves, neither they nor their children were al¬
lowed to quit it. To prevent this, they had a kind of
note, or ftigma, impreffed on the arm, whereby they
might be known. If any of them fled, or fecreted
their ware, the reft were obliged to anfwer for him ;
on account of which, the effects of fuch as died with¬
out a legal heir went to the college. There were 15
armamentaries, or repofitories of arms, in the Eaft-
-^rn empire, placed near the frontiers, and 19 in the
Weftern.
2 ] ARM
Armourer of a Jhip, a perfon vvhofe office is to take Armourer
care that the arms be in a condition fit for fervice. |)
ARMOURY, a ftorehoufe of arms, or a place where- Arnis-
in military habiliments are kept, to be ready for ufe. "Y'—■'
There are armouries in the Tower, and in all arfenals,
citadels, caftles, &c.
Armoury is alfo ufed for a branch of heraldry j
being the knowledge of coat armours, as to their bla¬
zons and various intendments.
ARMOZA, or Harmozia, a towrn in Caramania,
at the mouth of the Anamis, which falls into the Per-
fian gulf (Arrian) *, Armu%a, (Ptolemy) ; and from
this the neighbouring illand, and a fmall kingdom, take
the modern name of Ormus. E. Long. 56. 17. N. Lat.
27. o.
ARMS, Arma, in a general fenfe, includes all kinds
of weapons, whether for defence or offence. Nicod de¬
rives the word from the Latin phrafe quod operiant ar-
mos, becaufe they cover the ilioulders or fides j but ,.
Varro derives arma, ab arcendo, eo quod arceant hojies.
It is fuppofed that the firft artificial arms were of wood,
and were only employed againft beads ; and that Be-
lus, the fon of Nimrod, was the firft that waged war :
whence, according to fome, came the appellation helium.
Diodorus Siculus takes Belus to be the fame with Mars,
who firft trained foldiers up to battle.—Arms of ttone,
and even of brafs, appear to have been ufed before they
came to iron and fteel. Jofephus affures us, that the
patriarch Jofeph firft taught the ufe of iron arms in
Egypt, arming the troops of Pharaoh with a cafque and
buckler.
What contributed moft to render the Romans maf-
ters of the world, was, that having fucceftively war-
red againft: all nations, they conftantly renounced their
own methods, arms, &c. wherever they met with bet¬
ter. Thus Romulus during his war with the Sabines,
a bold and warlike nation, adopted their broad buckler,
in lieu of the fmall Argian buckler, whHP he had ufed
till that time.
The principal arms of the ancient Britons were hat¬
chets, fcythes, lances, fwords, and bucklers : the Saxons,
&c. brought in the halbert, bow, arrows, arbalifts, &c.
By the ancient laws of England, every man was obliged
to bear arms, except the judges and clergy. Under
Henry VIII. it was exprefsly enjoined on all perfons to
be regularly inftru&ed, even from their tender years, in
the exercife of the arms then in ufe ; viz. the long bow
and arrows : and to be provided with a certain number
of them. 33 Hen. VIII.
Arms, Arma, in Luiv, are extended to any thing
which a man takes in his hand in his wrath, to caft at,
or ftrike another.
By the common law, it is an offence for perfons to
go or ride armed with dangerous weapons : but gentle¬
men may wear common armour, according to their
quality, 8tc. 3d Inft. The king may prohibit force of
arms, and punifti offenders according to law *, and here¬
in every fubjeft is bound to be aiding. Stat. 7. Edw. I.
None (hall come with force and arms before the king’s
juftices, nor ride armed in affray of the peace, on pain
to forfeit their armour, and to fuffer imprifonment, &c.
2 Edw. III. c. 3.
The importation of arms and ammunition are pro¬
hibited by I Jac. II. c. 8. and by 1 W. and M. flat. 2
c. 2. Proteftant fubjefts may have arms for their de¬
fence.
ARM [ 673 ] ARM
Arms. fence. So likewife arms, &c. {hipped after prohibition,
«-v~-are forfeited by 29 Geo. I. c. 16. fee. 2.
Arms of offence in ufe among us at prefent are, the
fword, piftol, mufket, bayonet, pike, &c.
The arms of the Highlanders are, the broadfword,
target, poniard, and whinyar or durk, &c. There are
feveral a£ls of parliament for difarming the Highland¬
ers ; fee 1 Geo. I. c. 54. j 11 Geo. I. c. 26. j 19 Geo.
II. c. 39. j 21 Geo. II. c. 34. j 26 Geo. II. c. 22. and
29.
Fire-A RMS are thofe charged with powder and ball;
fuch are cannon, mortars, and other ordnance j muf-
kets, carabines, piftols, and even bombs, grenadoes,
Carcaffes, &.c. In the Hiftory of the Royal Academy
for the year 1707, we have an account of feme experi¬
ments made with fire arms, differently loaded, by M.
Gaffini. Among other things he obferves, that by
loading the piece with a ball which is fomewhat lefs
than the calibre, and only laying a little gunpowder
below the ball and a good deal above it, it will yield
a vehement noife, but have no fenfible effeft or impulfe
on the ball. This he takes to have been all the fecret
of thofe people who pretended to fell the art of render¬
ing one’s felf invulnerable, or {hot proof.
Arms, Pafs of, was a kind of combat in ufe among
the ancient cavaliers.
Arms, Stand of. A ftand of arms fignifies a mu{ket,
a bayonet, a fword, belt, and cartridge box.
ARMS of parade or courtefy, were thofe ufed in the
ancient jufts and tournaments; which were commonly
unfliod lances, fwords without edge or point, wooden
fwords, and even canes.
Arms denote the natural weapons, or parts of de¬
fence, of beads ; as claws, teeth, tufles of elephants,
beaks of birds, &c.
Arms, are alfo ufed figuratively for the profeffion of
a foldier. Thus we fay, He was bred to arms.
Arms, or Armories, are alfo ufed in heraldry for
marks of dignity and honour, regularly compofed of
certain figures and colours, given or authorized by fo-
vereigns, and borne on banners, fhields, coats, &c. for
the diftin&ion of perfons, families, and dates ;,and paf-
iing by defeent to poderity. They are called arms,
in regard they are borne principally on the buckler,
cuirafs, banners, and other apparatus of war. They are
alfo called coats of arms, coat armour, &c. becaufe an¬
ciently embroidered on furcoats, &c. See Herald¬
ry. Some will have the name to have been fird oc-
cafioned by the ancient knights, who in their juds and
tournaments bore certain marks (which were frequently
their midrefs’s favours) in their armour, i. e. their hel¬
mets or fhields, to didinguifir them from each other.
Arms at prefent follow the nature of titles, which
being made hereditary, thefe are alfo become fo, being
the feveral marks for didinguidiing of families and
kindreds, as names are of perfons and individuals.
Arms are varioufly didinguilhed by the Heralds.
Arms of Alliance, are thofe which families or private
perfons join to their own, to denote the alliances which
they have contra£led by marriage.
Arms AJfumptive, are fuch as a man has a right to
affume of himfelf in virtue of feme gallant aftion.
As, if a man who is no gentleman of blood, nor has
coat armour, takes a gentleman, lord, or prince, pri-
foner in any lawful war; he becomes entitled to bear
Vol. II. Part II.
the diield of fuch prifener, and enjoy it to him and his Arms,
heirs. The foundation hereof is that principle in mi-1——v—
litary law, that the dominion of things taken in lawful
war paffes to the conqueror.
Arms, canting, are thofe wherein the figures bear
an allufion to the name of the family. Such are thofe
of the family of La Tour in Auvergne, who bear a
tower ; that of the family of Prado in Spain, whofe
field is a meadow. Mod authors hold thefe the mod;
noble and regular, as is drown by an infinity of indan¬
ces produced by Father Varrenne and Menetrier.—
They are much debafed when they come to partake of
the Rebus.
Arms, charged, are fuch as retain their ancient inte¬
grity and value, with the addition of feme new honour¬
able charge or bearing, in confideration of feme noble
adlion.
Arms of community, are thofe of bilhoprics, cities,
univerfities, and other bodies corporate.
Anns of concefjion, or augmentation of honour, are
either entire arms, or elfe one or more figures given by
princes, as a reward for feme extraordinary fervice.
Arms of dominion, are thofe which emperors, kings,
and fevereign dates bear; being annexed to the terri¬
tories which they poffefs. Thus the three lions are the
arms of England ; the fieurs de lys thofe of France, &c.
Arms of family, or paternal arms, are fuch as belong
to a particular family, and which no other perfen has a
right to affume.
Arms, full, or entire, are fuch as retain their primi¬
tive purity, integrity, or value ; without any altera¬
tions, diminutions, abatements, or the like. It is a
rule, that the fimpler and lefs diverfified the arms, the
more noble and ancient they are. For this reafon Gar¬
cias Ximenes, fird king of Navarre, and his fucceffors
for feveral ages, bore only gules, without any figure
at all.
The arms of princes of the blood, of all younger fens,
and junior families, are not pure and full; but didin-
guidied and diminilhed by proper differences, &c.
Arms of patronage, are thole which governors of pro¬
vinces, lords of manors, &c. add to thgir family arms,
in token of their peculiar fuperiority and jurifdi&ion.
Arms of pretenfion, are thofe of fuch kingdoms or
territories to which a prince or lord has feme claim,
and which he adds to his own, though the kingdoms
or territories be poffeffed by a foreign prince or other
lord. Thus the kings of England have quartered the
arms of France with their own, ever fince the claim of
Edward III. to that kingdom, in 1330.
Arms of fuccejfon, are affumed by thofe who inherit
edates, manors, &c. by will, entail, or donation, and
which they either impale or quarter with their own
arms.
Arms are alfo faid to be parted, couped, qdartered,
&cc.
Arms are faid to be falfe and irregular, when there
is femething in them contrary to the edablidied rules
of heraldry. As, when metal is put on metal, or colour
on colour, &c.
The laws, and other affairs of arms, with the cogni¬
zance of offences committed therein, belong, among us,
to the earl marfhal and college of arms.
Arms, in Falconry, denote the legs of a hawk, from
the thigh to the foot. See Falconry.
4 Q, ARMSTRONG,
ARM [ 674 ] A 11 M
Armftrong.. ARMSTRONG, Dr John, an eminent phyfician,
v" ■,l poet, and mifcellaneous v. riter, was born in Caftleton
parilh, Roxburgh (hire, where his father and brother
were minifters j completed his education in the univer-
fity of Edinburgh, where he took his degree in phy-
fic, Feb. 4. 1732, with much reputation 5 and publilh-
ed his thefis, as the forms of that univerfity require 5
the fubjeft was De take puru/enta. In 1735 he pub-
lifted a little humorous fugitive pamphlet in 8vo, en¬
titled, “ An Effay for abridging the Study of Phy-
fic j to which is added a Dialogue betwixt Hygeia,
Mercury, and Pluto, relating to the praddice of phy-
fic, as it is managed by a certain illuflrious Society.
As alfo an EpifUe from Uftek the Perfian to Joftua
Ward, Efq.” This piece contains much fun and
drollery ; in the dialogue, he has caught the very fpi-
rit of Lucian. In 1737 he publifted a Synopfis of
the Hidory and Cure of the Venereal Difeafe, 8vo.
This was foon followed by the Economy of Love; a
poem which has much merit, but, it muft be confef-
fed, is too itrongly tinctured with the licentioufnefs of
Ovid. It is faid, however, that his maturer judgment
expunged many of the luxuriances of youthful fancy, in
an edition “ revifed and correded by the author” in 1768.
It appears by one of the cafes on literary property, that
Mr Millar paid 50 guineas for the copy-right of this
poem, which was intended as a burlefque on fome di-
da£lic writers. It has been obferved of Dr Armftrong,
that his works have great inequalities, fome of them be¬
ing poflefied of every requifite to be fought after in the
molt perfect compofition, while others can hardly be
confidered as fuperior to the produdlions of mediocrity.
The Art of preferving Health, his bell performance,
which was publifted in 1744, will tranfmit his name to
pofterity as one of the firft Englift writers, and has been
honoured with the following tedimony of a refpedlable
critic. On this work we ftall alfo tranferibe a beauti-
* 2V Mac-^ eulogium from an eminent phyfician* : ‘‘ Of all the
kenAesHi- poetical performances on this fubjeft that have come to
Jlory of my hand>, Dr Armftrong’s Art of preferving Health is
Health. py far t])e qUOte every charming defeription
and beautiful paffage of this poem, one muft tranferibe
the whole. We cannot, however, expert new rules,
where the principal defign wras to raife and warm the
heart into a compliance with the folid precepts of the
ancients, which he has enforced with great ftrength and
elegance. And, upon the whole, he has convinced us,
by his own example, that we ought not to blame anti¬
quity for acknowledging
One power of phyfic, melody, and fong.”
In 1746 Dr Armftrong was appointed one of the
phyficians to the Hofpital for Lame and Sick Soldiers
behind Buckingham houfe. In 1751 he publiftied his
poem on~Benevolence, in folio; and in 1753? “ Tafte,
an Epiftle to a young Critic.” In 1758 appeared,
“ Sketches or Effays on various fubje61s, by Launce-
lot Temple, Efq. in two parts.” In this production,
which poflefies much humour and knowledge of the
world, and which had a remarkably rapid fale, he is
fuppofed to have been aflifted by Mr Wilkes. In 1760
be had the honour of being appointed phyfician to the
army in Germany, where in 1761 he wrote a poem
called “ Day, an Epiftle to John Wilkes of Ayleftu-
jy, Efq.” In this poem, which is not colle&ed in bis
works, he wantonly hazarded a re fit-61 ion on Church- Arn; [Irons
ill, which drew on him the ferpent-toothed vengeance || *
of that fevereft of fatirifts, whofe embalming or corro- Army,
five pen could deify or lampoon any man, according
as he acquiefced with, or difiented from his political
principles. In 1770 Dr Armftrong publifhed a col-
ledtion of “ Mifcellanies, in 2 vols.; containing, 1. The
Art of preferving Health. 2. Of Benevolence, an
Epiftle to Eumenes. 3. Tafie, an Epiftle to a young
Critic, 1753- 4- Imitations of Shakefpeare and Spen-
fer. 5. The Univerfal Almanack, by Noureddin Ali.
6. The Forced Marriage, a tragedy. 7. Sketches.”
In 1771 he publifted “ A ftiort Ramble through fome
parts of France and Italy, by Launcelot Temple ;”
and in 1773, in his own name, a quarto pamphlet, un¬
der the title of “ Medical Effays ;” towards the con-
clufion of which, he accounts for his not having fuch
extenfive practice as fome of his brethren, from his
not being qualified to employ the ufual means, from a
ticklifir ftate of fpirits, and a diftempered excefs of fen-
fibility. He complains much of the behaviour of fome
of his brethren, of the herd of critics, and particularly
of the reviewers. He died in Sept. 1779 ; and to the
no fmall furprife of his friends, left behind him more
than 300I. faved out of a very moderate income, arifing
principally from his half-pay.
ARMUYDEN, a fea port town of the United Pro¬
vinces, in the ifland of Walcheren, formerly very flou-
riftiing ; but now inconfidtrable, the fea having (top¬
ped up the harbour. The fait works are its chief re-
fource. E. Long. 3. 40. N. Lat. 51. 30.
ARMY, a large number of foldiers, confiding of
horfe and foot, completely armed, and provided with
artillery, ammunition, provifions, &c. under the com¬
mand of one general, having lieutenant-generals, ma¬
jor-generals, brigadiers, and other officers under him.
An army is compofed of fquadrons and battalions; and
is ufually divided into three corps, and formed in three
lines : the firft line is called the van-guard, the fecond
the main-body, and the third the rear-guard, or body of
referve. The middle of each line is poffeffed by the foot;
the cavalry form the right and left wung of each line;
and fometimes they place fquadrons of horfe in the inter¬
vals between the battalions. When the army is drawn
up in order of battle, the horfe are placed at five feet
diftance from each other, and the foot at three. In each
line the battalions are diftant from each other j 80 feet,
which is nearly equal to the extent of their front; and
the fame holds of the fquadrons, which are about 300
feet diftant, the extent of their own front. Thefe inter¬
vals are left for the fquadrons and battalions of the fe¬
cond line to range themfelves againft the intervals of the
firft, that both may more readily march through thefe
fpaees to the enemy : the firft line is ufually 300 feet di¬
ftant from the fecond, and the fecond from the third,
that there may be fufficient room to rally when the fqua¬
drons and battalions are broken. See the article War.
This is to be underftood of a land army only. A
naval or fea army is a number of (hips of war, equip¬
ped and manned with failors and marines, under the
command of an admiral, with other inferior officers un¬
der him. See War, Part II.
It has been obferved, that in Europe a prince with
a million of fubjefts cannot keep an army of above
10,000 men, without ruining himfelf. It was other-
wife
A II M [ 675 ] A R M
Arrty- in ^ie ancient republics : the proportion of fol-
—diers to the reft of the people, which is now as about
one to 100, might then be as about one to eight.
The reafon fcems owing to that equal partition of
lands which the ancient founders of commonwealths
made among their fubje£ts ; fo that every man had a
confiderable property to defend, and means to defend
it with : whereas, among us, the lands and riches of
a nation being fhared among a few, the reft have no
way of fubfifting but by trades, arts, and the like 5
and have neither any free property to defend, nor
means to enable them to go to war in defence of it,
without ftarving their families. A large part of our
people are either artifans or fervants, and fo only mi-
nifter to the luxury and-effeminacy of the great. While
the equality of lands fubfitled, Rome, though only a
little ftate, being refufed the fuccours which the La¬
tins were obliged to furnifti after the taking of the city
in the eonfulate of Camillas, prefenlly railed ten le¬
gions within its own walls •, which was more, Livy af-
fures us, than they were able to do in his time, though
matters of the greateft: part of the world. A full proof,
adds the hiftorian, that wre are not grown ftronger ; and
that what fvvells our city is only luxury, and the means
and effects of it.
Our armies antiently were a fort of militia, com-
pofed chiefly of the vaffals and tenants of the lords.
When each company had ferved the number of days
or months enjoined by their tenure, or the cuftoms of
the fees they held, they returned home. The armies
of the empire confift of divers bodies of troops furnifhed
by the feveral circles. The grofs of the French armies
under the Merovingian race, conlifted of infantry. Un¬
der Pepin and Charlemagne, the armies confifted almoft
equally of cavalry and foot : but fince the deelenfion of
the Carlavingian line, the fees being become hereditary,
the national armies, fays Le Gendre, are chiefly ca¬
valry.
A Avell regulated {landing army is greatly fuperior to
a militia ; although a militia, it is to be obferved, after
ferving two or three campaigns, may become equal to a
{landing army, and in every refpesfl a match for veteran
troops. See Militia.
One of the firft Handing armies of which we have
a diftinft account, in any well authenticated hiftory, is
that of Philip of Macedon. His frequent Avars with
the Thracians, Illyrians, Thefialians, and fome of the
Greek cities in the neighbourhood of Macedon, gra¬
dually formed his troops, Avhieh in the beginning Avere
probably militia, to the exaft difcipline of a Handing
army. When he Avas at peace, which Avas very feldom,
and never for any long time together, he Avas careful
not to difband that army. It vanquifhed and fubdued,
after a long and violent ftruggle, indeed, the gallant
and Avell exercifed militias of the principal republics of
ancient Greece ; and afterwards, Avith very little ftrug¬
gle, the effeminate and ill exercifed militia of the great
Perfian empire. The fall of the Gteek republics and
of the Perfian empire, Avas the effefl of the irrefiftible
fupcriority Avliich a (landing army has over every fort of
militia. It is the firft great revolution in the affairs of
mankind of which hiftory has preferved any diftinfl or
circumftantial account.
-The fall of Carthage, and the confequerit elevation
of Rome, is the fecond. All the varieties in the for¬
tune of thofe two famous republics may very ivell be ac- Army,
counted for from the fame caufe.
From the end of the firft to the beginning of the
fecond Carthaginian Avar, the armies of Carthage were
continually in the field, and employed under three
great generals, Avho fuccetded one another in the com¬
mand ; Hamilcar, his fon in-law Afdruba!, and his fon
Hannibal ; firft in chaftifing their own rebellious (laves,
afterwards in fubduing the revolted nations of Africa,
and, laftly, in conquering the great kingdom of Spain.
The army which Hannibal led from Spain into Italy
muft neceffarily, in thofe different Avars, have been
gradually formed to the exadl difcipline of a (land¬
ing army. The Romans, in the mean time, though
they had not been altogether at peace, yet they had
not during this period, been engaged in any war of
very great confequence •, and their military difcipline,
it is generally faid, was a good deal relaxed. The Ro¬
man armies which Hannibal encountered at Trebia,
Thrafymenus, and Cannae, were militia opnofed to a
{landing army. This circumftance, it is probable, con¬
tributed more than any other to determine the fate of
thofe battles.
The (landing army which Hannibal left behind hint
in Spain, had the like fuperiority over the militia
Avhich the Romans fent to oppofe it, and in a few
years, under the command of his brother the youngef
Afdrubal, expelled them almoft entirely from that
country.
Hannibal was ill fupplied from home. The Roman
militia, being continually in the field, became in the
progrefs of the war a Avell difeiplined and Avell exercifed
Handing army ; and the fuperiority of Hannibal greAV
every day lefs and lefs. Afdrubal judged it neceffary to
lead the whole, or almoft the whole, of the {landing ar¬
my which he commanded in Spain, to the afliftance of
his brother in Italy. In this march he is faid to have
been milled by his guides ; and in a country which he
did not knoAv, Avas furprifed and attacked by another
{landing army, in every refpeft equal or fuperior to his
OAvn, and was entirely defeated.
When Afdrubal had left Spain, the great Scipio
found nothing to oppofe him but a militia inferior to
his own. He conquered and fubdued that militia ;
and in the courfe of the Avar, his own militia neceffa-
rily became a Avell difeiplined and well exercifed Hand¬
ing army. That (landing army was afterwards carried
to Africa, Avhere it found nothing but a militia to oppofe
it. In order to defend Carthage, it became neceffary
to recal the (landing army of Hannibal. The dif-
heartened and frequently defeated African militia
joined it, and at the battle of Zama eompofed the
greater part of the troops of Hannibal. The event
of that day determined the fate of the Iavo rival re¬
publics.
From the end of the fecond Carthaginian Avar till
the fall of the Roman republic, the armies of Rome
Avere in every refpetl (landing armies. The Handing
army of Macedon made fome refiftance to their arms.
In the height of their grandeur it coft them tAvo great
wars and three great battles, to fubdue that little king¬
dom ; of Avhich the conqueft Avould pt obably have been
ftill more difficult, had it not been for the coAvardice
of its laft king. The militias of all the civilized na¬
tions of the ancient world, of Greece, of Syria, and
ARM [ 676 ] ARM
of Egypt, made but a feeble refiftance to the ftanding
armies of Rome. The militias of fome barbarous na¬
tions defended themfelves much better. The Scythian
or Tartar militia, which Mithridates drew from the
countries north of the Euxine and Cafpian feas, were
the moft formidable enemies whom the Romans had to
encounter after the fecond Carthaginian war. The
Parthian and German militias too were always refpec-
table, and upon feveral occafions gained very confi-
derable advantages over the Roman armies. In gene¬
ral, however, and when the Roman armies were well
commanded, they appear to have been very much fu-
perior.
Many different caufes contributed to relax the dif-
cipline of the Roman armies. Its extreme feverity
was, perhaps, one of thofe caufes. In the days of their
grandeur, when no enemy appeared capable of op-
pofing them, their heavy armour was laid afide as unne-
celfarily burdenfome, their laborious exercifes were ne-
glefted as unneceffarily toilfome. Under the Roman
emperors, befides, the Handing armies of Rome, thofe
particularly which guarded the German and Pannonian
frontiers, became dangerous to their maflers, againft
whom they ufed frequently to fet up their own gene¬
rals. In order to render them lefs formidable, accord¬
ing to fome authors Dioclefian, according to others
Conftantine, firlt withdrew them from the frontiers,
where they had always before been encamped in great
bodies, generally of two or three legions each, and
difperfed them in fmall bodies through the different
provincial towns, from whence they were fcarce ever
removed, but when it became neceffary to repel an
invafion. Small bodies of foldiers quartered in trading
and manufacturing towns, and feldom removed from
thefe quarters, became themfelves tradefmen, artificers,
and manufacturers. The civil came to predominate
over the military character j and the Handing armies
of Rome gradually degenerated into a corrupt, ne-
gleCted, and undifciplined militia, incapable of refifl-
ing the attack of the German and Scythian militias,
which foon afterwards invaded the weflern empire. It
was only by hiring the militia of fome of thofe nations
to oppofe to that of others, that the emperors were for
fome time able to defend themfelves. The fall of the
weflern empire is the third great revolution in the af¬
fairs of mankind, of which ancient hiflory has prefer-
ved any diflinCt or circumflantial account. It was
brought about by the irrefiflible fuperiority which the
militia of a barbarous has over that of a civilized na¬
tion } which the militia of a nation of fhepherds has
over that of a nation of hulbandmen, artificers, and
manufacturers. The victories which have been gained
by militias have generally been not over Handing ar¬
mies, but over other militias in exercife and difcipline
inferior to themfelves. Such were the victories which
the Greek militia gained over that of the Perfian em¬
pire ) and fuch too were thofe which in later times the
Swifs militia gained over that of the Auflrians and
Burgundians.
The military force of the German and Scythian na¬
tions, who eflabliflied themfelves upon the ruins of the
weflern empire, continued for fome time to be of the
fame kind in their new fettkments as it had been in
their original country. It was a militia of thepherds
and hufbandmen, which in time of war took the field
Z
under the command of the fame chieftains whom it was Arm-
accuftomed to obey in peace. It was therefore toler-
ably well exercifed and tolerably well difciplined. As
arts and induftry advanced, however, the authority of
the chieftains gradually decayed, and the great body
of the people had lefs time to fpare for military exer¬
cifes. Both the difcipline and the exercife of the feu¬
dal militia, therefore, went gradually to ruin, and fland-
ing armies were gradually introduced to fupply the place
of it. When the expedient of a Handing army, befides,
had once been adopted by one civilized nation, it ber
came necelfary that all its neighbours fhould follow the
example. They foon found that their fafety depended
upon their doing fo, and that their own militia was
altogether incapable of refifting the attack of fuch an
army.
The foldiers of a Handing army, though they may
never have feen an enemy, yet have frequently appeared
to poffefs all the courage of veteran troops, and the
very moment that they took the field, to have been fit
tq face the hardiefl and mofl experienced veterans. In
a long peace the generals perhaps may fometimes for¬
get their Ikill; but where a well regulated Handing
army has been kept up, the foldiers feem never to for¬
get their valour.
When a civilized nation depends for its defence upon
a militia, it is at all times expofed to be conquered by
any barbarous nation which happens to be in its neigh¬
bourhood. The frequent eonquefls of all the civilized
countries in Afia by the Tartars, fufficiently demon-
flrates the natural fuperiority which the militia of a
barbarous has over that of a civilized nation. A well
regulated Handing army is fuperior to every militia.
Such an army, as it can befl be maintained by an
opulent and civilized nation, fo it can alone defend
fuch a nation againfl the invafion of a poor and barba¬
rous neighbour. It is only by means of a Handing ar¬
my, therefore, that the civilization of any country can
be perpetuated, or even preferved for any confiderable
time.
As it is only by means of a well regulated Handing
army that a civilized country can be defended, fo it is
only by means of it that a barbarous country can be
fuddenly and tolerably civilized. A Handing army
eflabliflies, with an irrefiflible force, the law of the fo-
vereign through the remotefl provinces of the empire,
and maintains fome degree of regular government in
countries which could not otherwife admit of any.
Whoever examines with attention the improvements
which Peter the Great introduced into the Ruffian em¬
pire, will find that they almoft all refolve themfelves
into the eflablilhment of a well regulated Handing ar¬
my. It is the inflrument which executes and main¬
tains all his other regulations. That degree of order
and internal peace which that empire has ever fince
enjoyed, is altogether owing to the influence of that
army.
Men of republican principles have been jealous of a
Handing army as dangerous to liberty. It certainly is
fo, wherever the interefl of the general and that of the
principal officers are not neceflarily connefted with the
fupport of the conflitution of the Hate. The Handing
army of Caefar deflroyed the Roman republic j the
Handing army of Cromwell turned the long parliament
out of doors. But where the fovereign is himfelf tbs
general,.
A R N
Army general, and the principal nobility and gentry of the
|| country the chief officers of the army ; where the mi-
Amaud Utary force is placed under the command of thofe who
L ' have the greateft intereft in the fupport of the civil
authority, becaufe they have themfelves the greatefl:
ffiare of that authority j a ftanding army can never be
dangerous to liberty : on the contrary it may, in feme
cafes, be favourable to liberty. The fecurity which
it gives to the fovereign renders unneceffary that trouble-
fome jealoufy which in fome modern republics feems
to watch over the minuted: aftions, and to be at all
times ready to difturb the peace of every citizen.
Where the fecurity of the magiftrate, though fupport-
ed by the principal people of the country, is endanger¬
ed by every popular difcontent $ where a fmall tumult
is capable of bringing about in a few hours a great re¬
volution ; the whole authority of government mull be
employed to fupprefs and puniffi every murmur and
complaint againft it. To the fovereign, on the contra¬
ry, who feels himfelf fupported not only by the natu¬
ral ariftocracy of the country, but by a well regu¬
lated ftanding army, the rudeft, the moft groundlefs,
and the moft licentious remonftrances, can give little
difturbance. He can fafely pardon or negledt them,
and his confcioufnefs of his own fuperiority naturally
difpofes him to do fo. That degree of liberty which
approaches to licentioufnefs can be tolerated only in
countries ■where the fovereign is feeured by a well re¬
gulated ftanding army. It is in fuch countries only
that the public fafety does not require that the fove¬
reign ffiould be trufted with any difcretionary power
for fuppreffing even the impertinent wantonnefs of this
licentious liberty.
ARNALL, William, a noted political writer in
defence of Sir Robert Walpole, was originally an at¬
torney’s clerk •, but being recommended to Walpole,
he employed him for a courfe of years in writing the
J^ree Briton and other papers in defence of his admini-
ftration. By the report of the fecret committee, he ap¬
pears to have received, in the fpace of four years, no
lefs than 10,997!. 6s. 8d. out of the treafury for his
writings! but fpending his moneyas fall as it came,
and his fupplies flopping on Sir Robert’s refignation, he
died broken-hearted and in debt, in the 26th year of
his age. His invention was fo quick, that his honour¬
able employer ufed to fay, no man in England could
write a pamphlet in fo little time as Arnall.
ARNAUD de Mevryeilh, or Mereuil, a poet
of Provence, who lived at the beginning of the 13th
century. He wrote a book entitled Las recajienas de
fa cunteffe, and a collection of poems and fonnets. He
died in the year 1220. Petrarch mentions him in his
Triumph of Love.
Arnaud de Villa Nova, a famous phyfician,
who lived about the end of the 13th and beginning of
the 14th century. He ftudied at Paris and Montpelier,
and travelled through Italy and Spain. He was well
acquainted with languages, and particularly with the
Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic. He was at great pains
to gratify his ardent defire after knowledge ; but this
paffion carried him rather too far in his refearches : he
endeavoured to difeover future events by aftrology,
imagining this fcience to be infallible ; and upon this
foundation he publiffied a prediction, that the world
would come to an end in the middle of the 14th cen-
[ 677 ] A R N
tury. He praftifed phyfic at Paris for fome time j but Arnaud,
having advanced fome new doCtrines, he drew upon Arnay-le-
himfelf the refentment of the univerfity *, and his friends, (luc- i
fearing he might be arrefted, perfuaded him to re- v
tire from that city. Upon his leaving Fiance, he re¬
tired to Sicily, where he was received by King Fre¬
derick of Arragon with the greateft marks of kindnefs
and elteem. Some time afterwards, this prince fent
him to France, to attend Pope Clement in an iilnefs $
and he was ffiipvvrecked on the coaft of Genoa, about
the year 1313. The works of Arnaud, with his life
prefixed, were printed in one volume in folio, at Lyons,
in 1520 5 and at Bafil in 1585, with the notes of Ni¬
cholas Tolerus.
Arnaud d’Andilly, Robert, the fon of a cele¬
brated advocate of the parliament of Paris, was bom
in 15885 and being introduced young at court, was
employed in many confiderable offices, all which he dif-
charged with great integrity and reputation. In 1644
he quitted bufinefs, and retired into the convent of
Port Royal des Champs, where he paffed the remain¬
der of his days in a continued application to works of
piety and devotion ; and enriched the French language
with many excellent tranflations of different writers,
as well as with religious compofitions of his own.
He died in 1674, and his works are printed in 8 vols.
folio..
Arnaud, Antony, brother of the preceding, and
a doCtor of the Sorbonne, was born in 1612. He pu-
bliffied, in 1643, ^ Treatife on frequent Communion,
which highly difpleafed the Jefuits; and the difputes
upon grace, which broke out about this time in the uni¬
verfity of Paris, and in which he took a zealous part
with the Janfenifts, helped to increafe the animofity be¬
tween him and the Jefuits. But nothing raifed fo great
a clamour againft him as the two letters he wrote on
Abfolution; in the fecond of which the faculty of di¬
vinity found two propofitions which they condemned,
and M. Arnaud was expelled the fociety. Upon this
he retired ; and during a retreat which lafted near 25
years, he compofed that great variety of works which
are extant of his, on grammar, geometry, logic, me-
taphyfics, and theology. In 1679, he withdrew from
France, lived in obfeurity in the Netherlands, and
died in 1694. His heart, at his own requeft, was fent
to be depofited in the Port Royal. Arnaud had a re¬
markable ftrength of genius, memory, and command of
his pen ; nor did thefe decay even to the laft year of
his life. Mr Bayle fays, he had been told by perfons
who had been admitted into his familiar ccnverfaticn,
that he was a man very fimple in his manners* and that
unlefs any one propofed fome queftion to him, or de-
fired fome information, he fakt nothing that was be¬
yond common converfation, or that might make one
take him for a man of great abilities 5 but when he fet
himfelf to give an anfwer to fuch as propofed a point
of learning, he feemed as it were transformed into an¬
other man : he would then deliver a multitude of fine
things with great perfpicuity and learning, and had a
particular talent at making himfelf intelligible to per¬
fons not of the greateft penetration.
ARNAY-LE-DUC, a town of France, in the duchy
of Burgundy, which carries on a pretty good trade.
It is feated on the1 Auxois, in a valley near the river
Aroux. E. Long. 4. 26. N. Lat. 47. 7.
ARNDT,,
a n n [ 67
Arndt ARNDT, John, a famous Proteflant divine of Ger-
i) many, born at Ballenflad, in the duchy of Anhalt, in
Arnifseus. t;lie year 1555. At firfl he applied himfelf to the ftudy
v_' , of phyfic : but falling into a dangerous ficknefs, he
made a vow to change his profeffion fur that of divini¬
ty, if he fhould be reftored to health 3 which he accor¬
dingly did upon his recovery. He was a miniftc r firft
at Quedlinburg and then at Brunfwick. He met with
great oppofition in this laft city : his fuccefs as a preach¬
er railing the enmity of his brethren, who became his
bitter enemies. In order to ruin his charadter, they
afcribed a variety of errors to him 3 and perfecuted
him to fuch a degree, that he was obliged to leave
Brunfwick, and retire to Illeb, where he was minifter
for three years. In 1611, George duke of Lunenburg,
who had a high opinion of his integrity and fandlity,
gave him the church of Zell, and appointed him fu-
perintendant of all the churches in the duchy of Lu¬
nenburg 3 which office he difcbarged for 11 years, and
died in 1621. It is reported that he foretold his death,
having faid to his wife, upon his return home after his
lalt fermon, that now he had preached his funeral fer-
mon. He wrote in High Dutch A Treatife on True
ChriJlianitij, which has been tranHated into feveral lan¬
guages.
ARNE, Dr Thomas Augustine, diftinguiffied by
his {kill in mufic, was the fon of Mr Arne an uphol-
fterer in Covent-Garden, whom Addifon is fuppofed
to have charaflerized in N° 155 and N° 160 of The
Tatler 3 and brother of Mrs Cibber the player. He
Mras early devoted to mufic, and foon became eminent
in.his profeffion. July 6. 1759, he had the degree of
doftor of mufic conferred on him at Oxford. His com-
pofitions are univerfally applauded, and he was alfo
particularly Ikilful in inftrufling vocal performers. He
died March 5. 1778, having written the following
pieces: Artaxerxes, 17623 The Guardian outwitted,
1764 3 The Rofe, 1778 3 all of them operas.
ARNHEIM, a town of the Low Countries, in the
province of Guelderland, capital of Veluive. It is
adorned with feveral fine churches, particularly that of
St Walburg and of St Eufebius 3 which laft has a very
high tower. The town has five gates, and feveral
fine ramparts, part of which are wafhed by the Rhine,
and the other parts have wide and deep ditches before
them. There is a canal made between this place and
Nimeguen, at the expence of both towns, on which
boats pafs backwards and forwards to carry on a trade
between them. The air is very healthful ; on which
account it is inhabited by perfons of diftimftion. E.
Long. 5. 55. N. Lat. 52.0.
ARNICA. Leopard’s bane. See Botany/Wap.
ARNISAtUS, HenninguS, a philofopher and phy-
fician of great reputation, about the beginning of the
17th century. He was born at Halberftadt in Ger¬
many, and was profeflbr of phyfic in the univerfity of
Helmftadt. His political works are much efteemed.
The moft remarkable of them is his book De authori-
tate principum in populum femper inviolabili, printed at
Francfort in 1612. In this he maintains that the
authority of princes ought not to be violated. He
wrote alfo upon the fame do&rine his three books, De
jure Majejfatis, printed at the fame place in 16103 and
h\s Rejlefliones Toliticce, printed at Francfort in 1615.
3 ] A R N
Having received an invitation to go to Denmark, he Arno!;-
went thither, and was made counfellor and phyfician Arnold.’
to the king. He travelled into France and England,
and died in November 1635. Befides the pieces al¬
ready mentioned, he wrote feveral philofophical, me¬
dicinal, and poetical treatifes.
ARNOBIUS, profeffor of rhetoric at Sicca, in
Numidia, towards the end of the third century. It
was owing to certain dreams which he had that he
became defirous of embracing Chriftianity. For this
purpofe he applied to the bithops to be admitted into
the church. But they, remembering the violence with
which he had always oppofed the true faith, had feme
diftruft of him 3 and before they would admit him, in-
fified on fume proofs of his fincerity. In compliance
with this demand, he wrote againft the Gentiles;
wherein he has refuted the abfurdities of their religion,
and ridiculed their falfe gods. In this treatife he has
employed all the flowers of rhetoric, and difplayed great
learning : but from an impatience to be admitted into
the body of the faithful, he is thought to have been in
too great a hurry in compofing his work, and thence
it is that there does not appear in this piece fuch an
exaff order and difpofition as could be wiffied 3 and
not having a perfect and exaft knowdedge of the Chrif-
tian faith, he publiffied fome very dangerous errors.
Mr Bayle remarks, that his notions'about the origin of
the foul, and the caufe of natural evil, and feveral other
important points, are highly pernicious. St Jerome, in
his epiftle to Paulinus, is of opinion that his ftyle is
unequal and too diffufe, and that his book is written
without any method 3 but Dr Cave thinks this judge¬
ment too fevere, and that Arnobius wants neither ele¬
gance nor order in his compofition. Voffius ftyles him
the Varro of the ecclejiajiical writers. Du Pin obferves
that his work is written in a manner worthy of a pro-
feffor of rhetoric : the turn of his fentiments is very
oratorical 3 but his ftyle is a little African, his expref-
fions being harfti and inelegant. We have feveral edi¬
tions of this work of Arnobius againft the Gentiles,
one publiftied at Rome in 1542, at Bafil in 1546 and
1560, at Paris in 1570, at Antwerp in 1582, and one
at Hamburgh in 1610, with notes by Gebhard El- •
menhoftius, befides many others. He wrote alfo a
piece entitled De Rhetoricce Infitutione; but this is not
extant.
ARNOLD, of Brefcia, in Italy, diftinguiffied him¬
felf by being the founder of a feft which oppofed the
wealth and power of the Roman clergy. He went in¬
to France, where he ftudied under the celebrated Peter
Abelard. Upon his return to Italy, he put on the
habit of a monk, and opened his invedftives in the ftreets
of Brefcia. The people crowded round him. He
told them he was fent to reform abufes, to pull down
the proud and to exalt the humble. He then pointed
his declamation againft the bifliops, againft the clergy,
againft the monks, and finally againft the Roman pon¬
tiff himfelf: to the laity only he was indulgent.
Churchmen, faid he, who hold benefices, biffiops who
have domains, and monks that have poffeffions, will all
be damned. His hearers ftiouted approbation. Thefe
things, continued he, belong to the prince 3 he may
give them to whom he pleafes, but he muft give them
to the laity. It is on their tithes, and the voluntary
contributions
A R N [ (
Arnold, contributions of the people, that thofe Tons of God
-y——' muft live : they mull be frugal, continent, and mor¬
tified.
The church of Brefcia was foon thrown into the
greateft confufion, and the people, already prejudiced
againft their minifters, threatened to overturn their al¬
tars. The facred writings he urged in fupport of his
affertion, and from them he denounced the vengeance
of heaven againft the violators of the law. Indeed,
nothing could be more glaringly nffentive than the
oftentatious parade of the bitliops and great abbots,
and the foft and licentious lives of the monks and
clergy.
In 1139 was celebrated a grand council at Rome.
Arnold was cited to appear before it. His accufers
were the bifhop of Brefcia, and many others, whom
he had ridiculed and intuited. Nor from his judges
could he look for much indulgence. He was found
guilty, and fentenced to perpetual filence. Upon this
he left Italy, crofted the Alps, and found a refuge in
Zurich.
Though Arnold had quitted Italy, yet had his opi¬
nions taken deep root, and Rome itfelf was infedfted
by them. Irritated by the conduct of their mailer
Innocent II. the Roman people aftembled in the capi-
tol. It was propofed that the power of the pontiff",
which they called exorbitant, thould be reffrained:
this was carried : then fuddenly, infpired as it were
by the genius of the place, they moved that the fe-
nate, which for years had been abolithed, ffrould be re-
flored. The propofition was received with the loudeft
acclamations. Innocent in vain oppofed the bold de-
fign $ there was a magic in it which fpread irrefiftibly,
and for a moment feemed to roufe the fallen fpirit of
the nation. The pope viewed with horror the reverfe
of fortune which threatened the tiara j to be fhorn of
bis mighty power, and to become the mere fhepherd
of the Chriftian people, was a thought too afllidling :
he fell tick and died.
Under his two immediate fucceflbrs Celeftin and Lu¬
cius, whofe reigns were but of a few months, the Ro¬
mans purfued their darling objedf. They waited on
the latter, and, in an imperious tone, demanded the
reftitution of all the honours and civil rights which
had been ufurped from the people. The prince of the
fenate, laid they, whom we have chofen, will belt ad-
minifter the important truft ; the tithes and offerings
of the faithful will fufficiently anfwer all the exigencies
of your holinefs: It was thus that our ancient bifhops
lived. Lucius furvived this event but a few days. His
Idcceflbr was Eugenius III. the friend 1* id difciple of
the renowned Bernard. The night before his confe-
cration the fenators affembled, and it was agreed, that
either he ftiould folemnly confirm all their proceedings,
or they would annul his eledtion. This refolution was
notified to him. He called together hi's friends ; and
it was their advice, that he ftiould neither accede to the
extravagant demands, nor expofe himfelf, by a refufal,
to the fury of the populace. He therefore filently
withdrew from Rome, and retired to a neighbouring
fortrefs. Here the ceremony of his confecration was
performed.
Arnold, who in baniftiment had contemplated the
effedls of his admonitions on the minds of the Romans,
and the fuccefs which feemed to follow their exertions,
79 ] A R N
was now informed that the pope had retired, and the Arnold,
gates of the capital were open to receive him : it—y—~
w'as likewife fuggefted to him, that his prefence was
more than ever netefl’ary, to give energy to their re-
folves, form to their plans, and liability to their under¬
takings. Arnold took fire at the newsj an unufual
fwell of enthufiafm filled his breaft ; and he fancied
that, like Junius Brutus, he was called at once to give
liberty to Rome. At his appearance a new ftream of
vigour animated the citizens; they called him their
friend and deliverer. The Brefcian walked amongft
them •, his deportment was humble, his countenance
emaciated, his addrefs affable, and he fpoke to them
of moderation, fubmiflion, of obedience. With the
nobles and new fenators he held another language j
though to them alfo he was mild and diffident, fpeak-
ing much of virtue and of refpeft for religion and the
laws. But no fooner was he fenfible of his own real
influence, and faw the lengths to which the revolters
had already carried their defigns, than he threw afide
the mafk, and appeared in his own eharadltr, daring,
impetuous, feli-fufficient, vain. He harangued ihe
people : he talked ot their forefathers the ancient Ro¬
mans, who, by the wifdom of their fenate and the va¬
lour of their armies, had conquered nations and lub-
dued the earth. He dwelt on the names and the
achievements of the Bruti, the Gracchi, and the Sci-
pios; and of thefe men, faid he, are you not the chil¬
dren ? He advifed, that the capilol be inftantly repair¬
ed that the equellrian order be reffored j that ihe
people have ih( ir tribune? *, that dignity attend the fe¬
nate •, that the laws, which had been filent and ne¬
glected, be revived in all their vigour. He fpoke of
the pope as of a depofed and baniffied tyrant : “ But
fhould you again be difpofed (continued he) to admit
him within thefe walls; firft fix your own rights and
determine his. He is but your bithop : let him there¬
fore have liis fpiritual jurifdiClion. The government
of Rome, its civil eftabliffiments, and its territories, be¬
long to you. Thefe you will keep if you have the
fpirit of men and the hearts of Romans.” Fired by
this harangue, the people, headed by the molt difaf-
feCted of the nobles, publicly attacked the few cardi¬
nals and churchmen who remained in the city ; they
fet fire to the palaces ; and they compelled the citizens
to fvvear obedience to the new government. Moderate
men, who faw the folly of the attempt, were ftiocked
at thefe exceffes of popular phrenzy ; but it was in vain
to oppofe the torrent: they fubmitted, looking forward
with feme curiofity to the termination of an event
which had begun in extravagance, and muff; end in dif-
appointment.
Eugenius till now had viewed, with fome concern,
the wild derangement of his people : but when it feem¬
ed that their eyes opened to their own exceffes, he
could be inadtive no longer. He excommunicated the
ringleaders of the faCtion ; and at the head of his
troops, who were chiefly compofed of Tiburtini, a
people always hoffile to the Romans, he marched
againft the enemy. His friends within the walls, who
were numerous, co-operated with his defigns, and in
a few days overtures for peace were made to the pon¬
tiff. He acceded to them, but on condition that they
ffiould annul the arrangements they had made, and if
they would have fenators, that they fhould acknowledge
&U >
A R N
[ 680 ]
A R N
AYnold t^eir power was from him. The people were fatif-
j| fied, and they threw open the gates, through which
Arnoldus. Eugenius entered, amid the acclamations of a fawn-
1 " * ing and inconftant multitude. Before this event Ar¬
nold had retired 5 but he left behind him many friends
Itrongly attached to his perfon and principles. Of him-
felf we hear little more till the reign of Adrian our
countryman ; when, on account of frelh tumults, he
and his adherents were excommunicated, and Rome
was threatened with an interdi£l unlefs they expelled
the whole party from their walls. This they did. The
Arnoldifts retired with their champion into Tufcany,
where he was received as a prophet and honoured as a
faint. His enemies, however, prevailed j he was made
prifoner, and conducted under a ftrong efcort to
Rome. In vain was great intereft made to fave his
life 5 he was condemned and executed, and his allies
thrown into the Tiber, left the people Ihould colleft
his remains and venerate them as the relicks of a faint¬
ed martyr.
* HM of “ Smft1 was Arnold of Brefcia j a man (fays Mr
the lives of Berington*), whofe character, whofe principles, and
Abelard whofe views, we perhaps Ihould be difpofed to admire,
andHeloifa.\lz& his life been recorded by unprejudiced hiftorians,
and not brought down to us drawn in the blackeft co¬
lours which party, bigotted zeal, and enthuliafm, could
lay on. He was ralh, misjudging, and intemperate,
or never would he have engaged in fo unequal a con-
teft. The view of fuch a phenomenon in the 12th
century excites a pleafing admiration. To attack the
Roman pontiff and his clergy in the very centre of
their power, required a more than common lhare of
fortitude : to adopt a fettled fcheme of reftoring to
its priftine glory the republic of Rome, demanded a
ftreteh of thought comprehenlive and enterprifing ;
and to forego the eafe and indulgence of a diffipated
age, for the reformation of manners and the fuppref-
fion of what he thought ufurped dominion, argued a
charafter of mind difinterefted, generous, and benevo¬
lent. But Arnold, like other reformers, went too far j
and paflion foon vitiated undertakings which were be¬
gun perhaps with motives the moft laudable.—The
readinefs with which the Roman people embraced this
plan of lowering the jurifdi<ftion of the pontiff, and re-
ftraining it within thofe bounds which the true fpirit
of Chriftianity had fixed, at once Ihows that they could
reafon juftly, and that they confidered the unbounded
fway of the triple crown, to which reluctantly they
fubmitted, as an affumed prerogative, to which violence
or mifconftruCtion, and not Chriftian right, had given
ARNOLDISTS, in church hiftory, a feCt fo called
from their leader Arnold of Brefcia. See the preced¬
ing article.
ARNOLDUS, GothoFREDUS, paftorand infpeCtor
of the churches of Perleberg, and hiftoriographer to
the king of Pruffia, was born at Annaburg in the
mountains of Mifnia in 1666. He was a zealous defend¬
er of the Pietifts, a fed among the German Proteftants,
and compofed a great number of religious works ; par¬
ticularly an EccUfiaJlicalHijlory, which expofed him to
the refentment oTthe divines j and another giving an
account of the doCtrines and manners from the firft
ages, in which he frequently animadverts upon Cave’s
Primitive Chriftianity. He died in 1714. Various are
the opinions concerning Arnoldus in Germany ; feme Arnoldus
of his own countrymen and profeflion extolling him to |)
the Ikies as a faint of the laft century, and fetting an Arriway.
ineftimable value upon his works j while others pro-
nounce damnation upon him as an arch-heretic, and
condemn his writings as heterodox.
ARNON, in Ancient Geography, a brook running
between the borders of the Moabites and Ammonites
on the other fide Jordan (Mofes, Jolhua) : Jofephus
calls it a river rifing on the borders of Arabia, and at
length falling into the Dead fea. It is alfo called the
river of Gad, as appears 2 Sam. xxv. 5. compared with
2 Kings x. 33.
ARMOT. See Bunium, Botany Index.
ARNOTTO, the fame with Anotta. See Anot-
TA and Bixa, Botany Index.
ARNSTADE, a town of Germany, in Thuringia,
on the river Gera. E. Long. 11. 3. N. Lat. 50. 54.
ARNULPH, or Ernulph, bilhop of Rochefter in
the reign of Henry I. He was born in France, where
he was fome time a monk of St Lucian de Beauvais.
The monks led moft irregular lives in this monaftery ;
for which reafon he refolved to quit it, but firft took
the advice of Lanfranc archbilhop of Canterbury, under
whom he had ftudied in the abbey of Bee, when Lan¬
franc was prior of that monaftery. This prelate invit¬
ed him over to England, and placed him in the mona¬
ftery of Canterbury, where he lived a private monk till
Lanfranc’s death. When Anfelm came to the archi-
epifcopal fee, Arnulph was made prior of the mona¬
ftery of Canterbury, and afterwards abbot of Peterbo¬
rough. In 1115, he was confecrated biftiop of Ro¬
chefter, which fee he held nine years, and died in
March 1124, aged 84.
Arnulph wrote, I. A piece in Latin concerning the
foundation, endowment, charters, laws, and other things
relating to the church of Rochefter : it is generally
known by the title of Textus Rojfenjis, and is preferved.
in the archives of the cathedral church of Rochefter.
2. An Epiftle in Anfwer to fome Queftions of Lam¬
bert abbot of Munfter j and 3. An Epiftle on Inceftu-
ous Marriage.
ARNUS, now Arno, a very rapid river of Tufcany,
■which it divides, and in its courfe walhes Florence and
Pifa} rifing in the Apennines, to the eaft of Florence,
near a village called S. Maria della Grade, on the bor¬
ders of Romagna, 15 miles to the weft of the fources
of the Tiber; and then turning fouthwards towards
Arretium, it is there increafed by the lakes of the Cla-
nis ; after which it runs eaftward, dividing Florence
into two parts, and at length waftiing Pifa, falls eight
miles below it into the Tufcan fea.
ARNWAY, John, a clergyman diftinguiftied by
his benevolence and loyalty to King Charles I. was de¬
fended from a very good family in the county of Sa¬
lop, from which he inherited a confiderable eftate. He
was educated at Oxford ; and, having received holy or¬
ders, obtained the redtories of Hodnet and Ightfield,
where he diftinguiftied himfelf by his piety and exem¬
plary charity : for it was his cuftom to clothe annually
12 poor people, and every Sunday to entertain as many
at his table, not only plentifully, but with intimacy
and refpeft. The civil war breaking out, he preached
againft rebellion, and raifed and clothed eight troopers
for the fervice of King Charles I. upon which his houfe
was
A It R
ARP [ 681 ]
Arobe Was plundered by the parliament’s army. He then
j| went to Oxford to ferve the king in perfon, which fub-
Arpagms^ je6ted him to a new train of misfortunes : for his eftate
Was foon after fequeftrated, and himfelf imprifoned
till the king’s death; after which he went to the
Hague, where he publifhed, i. The Tablet, or the
Moderation of Charles I. the Martyr j and, 2. An
Alarm to the Subje&s of England. He at lalt went to
Virginia, where he died in 1653.
AROBE. See Arrobas.
AROLEO, an American weight, equal to 25 of
our pounds.
AROMA PHILOSOPHORUM, denotes either faffron,
or the aroph of Paracelfus 5 as aroma germanicum de¬
notes elecampane. See Aroph.
A ROM AT A, in yhicietit Geography, a town of
Lydia, famous for its generous wines; and hence the ap¬
pellation, (Strabo). Alfo the name of a trading town
and promontory of Ethiopia, at the termination of the
Sinus Avalites of the Red fea, (Arrian.)
AROMATIC, an appellation given to fuch plants
as yield a bride fragrant fmell, and a warm tafte ; as
all kinds of fpices, &c. See Materia Medica.
ARONA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Milan,
with a ftrong caflle. It {lands on the lake Maggiore.
E. Long. 8. 25. N. Lat. 45. 41.
ARONCHES, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo,
on the confines of Spain, feated on the river Caro. It
is well fortified, and has about 500 inhabitants. W.
Long. 5. 16. N. Lat. 14. 39.
AROOL, a town of the empire of Ruflia, in the
Ukraine, feated on the river Occa. E. Long. 38. 15.
N. Lat. 51. 48.
AROPH, a contraftion of aroma phUofophorum ; a
name given to faffron.
ArOFH Paracelji, a name given to a kind of chemi-
eal flowers, probably of the fame nature with the Ens
Veneris, elegantly prepared by fublimation from equal
quantities of lapis haematites and fal ammoniac.
Aroph is alio a term frequently ufed by Paracelfus
in a fenfe fynonymous with lithontriptic.
AROSBAY, a town of the Eaft Indies, on the
coaft of the ifland of Madura, near Java. E. Long.
14. 30. N. Latj 9. 30.
AROURA, a Grecian meafure of 50 feet. It was
more frequently ufed for a fquare meafure of half the
plethron. The Egyptian aroura was the fquare of 100
feet.
ARPAD, in Ancient Geography, is thought to have
been a city of Syria. It was always placed with Ha¬
math, (2 Kings xviii. 34. xix. 13. Ifaiah x. 9. xxxvi.
I9. xxxvii. 13. Jerem. xlix. 25.) Sennacherib boafts
ef having reduced Arpad and Hamath, or of having
deftroyed the gods of thefe two places. Hamath is
known to be the fame with Emefa ; and it is thought
that Arpad is the fame with Arad or Arvad, as it is
fometimes called in Hebrew. See Arad.
ARPAGIUS, or Harpagius, among the ancients,
a perfon who died in the cradle, at leaft in early youth.
The word is formed from the Greek kgrruZa, I /natch.
T he Romans made no funerals for their arpagii. They
neither burnt their bodies, nor made tombs, monu¬
ments, or epitaphs for them ; which occafioned Juve¬
nal to fay,
Vol. II. Part II.
 Terra clauditur infans Aip?. t
Et minor igne rogi. An agon.
In after times it became the cuftom to burn fuch as had v '
lived to the age of 40 days, and had cut any teeth; and
thefe they called Ag5rajxra< or A^uyy.ivai, q. d. rapti,
raviJJjed. I be ufage feems to have been borrowed
from the Greeks; among whom, Euftathius affures
us, it was the cuftom never to bury their children either
by night or full day, but at the firft appearance of the
morning; and that they did not call their departure by
the name of death, but by a fofter appellation, Hu^xs
x^Trxyyi, importing that they were raviftied by Aurora,
or taken away to her embraces.
ARPENP, fignifies an acre or furlong of ground;
and according to the old French account in Doomfday-
book, 100 perches make an arpent. The mod ordinary
acre, called /'arpent de France, is 100 perches fquare ;
but fome account it but half an acre.
ARPHAXAD, the fon of Shem and father of Sa-
lah. Arphaxad was born in the year of the world
1658, a year after the deluge, and died in the year of
the world 2096, at the age of 438 years, (Gen. xi. 12.
&c.)
ARPI. See Argos ffippium.
ARPINAS, or Arpino, Joseph Caesar, a famous
painter, born in the year 1560, at the caftle of Arpi-
nas, in the kingdom of Naples. He lived in great in¬
timacy with Pope Clement VIII. who conferred upon
him the honour of knighthood, and beftowed on him
many other marks of his friendfliip. In the year 1600,
he went to Paris with Cardinal Aldobrandin, who was
fent legate to the French court on the marriage of
Henry IV. with Mary of Medicis. His Chriftian ma-
jefty gave Arpinas many confiderable prefents, and
created him a knight of St Michael. The colouring of
this painter is thought to be cold and inanimate ; yet
there is fpirit in his defigns, and his compofitions have
fomewhat of fire and elevation. The touches of his
pencil b'dng free and bold, give therefore pleafure to
connoiffeurs in painting : but they are generally incor-
re£L What he painted of the Roman hiftory is the
moft efteemed of all his works. 1 he following pieces
of this mafter were in the late royal colleflion of France,
viz. the Nativity of our Saviour, Diana and Afteon,
the Rape of Europa, and a Sufanna. He died at Rome
in 1640.
ARPINUM, a town of the Vpllci, a little to the
eaft of the confluence of the rivers Liris and Fibrenus,
in the Terra di Lavora ; now decayed, and called Ar¬
pino. It was the native place of Cicero, and of Caius
Marius, (Salluft.)
ARQJJA, a town of Italy, in the Paduan, and ter¬
ritory of Venice, remarkable for the tomb of Petrareh.
E. Long. 11. 43. N. Lat. 45. 43.
ARQUEBUS. See Harquebus.
ARQUES, a town of Normandy, now the depart¬
ment of the Lower Seine, in France, feated on a fmall
river of the fame name. E. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 49. 34.
ARRACHEE, in Heraldry, a term applied to the
reprefen tations of plants torn up by the roots.
ARRACK. See Arack.
ARRAGON, a province of Spain, bounded on the
north by the Pyrenean mountains, which feparate it
4 & frem
/
A R R [ 682 ] A R R
from France *7 on the weft by Navarre and the two
Caftiles $ on the fouth, by Valencia j and on the eaft,
by Catalonia. It is in length about 180 miles, and in
breadth 149; but the land is mountainous, dry, fandy
or ftony, badly cultivated, and worfe peopled. How¬
ever it does not want rivers j for befides the Ebro,
which crofles it in the middle, there are the Xalo, the
Cinea, the Galego, and the Arragon. The air is pure
and wholefome ; and there are mines of iron, and lome
fay of gold. The mod fertile parts are about the ri¬
ver* r for there the land produces corn, w ine, oil, llax,
hemp, various fruits, and a fmall quantity of faffron,
beftdes large docks of (beep, and plenty of game in the
woods.
The Arragonefe have the chara&er of being bold,
courageous, and well bred j but poiitive in their opi¬
nions, and bigotted in their religion. Thefe were the
firft of the Spaniards that threw off the Moorilh yoke.
Saragaffa is the capital of this province j and the other
chief towns are Balbaftro, Jaca, Sarazona, Haefca, Ca-
latajud, Albarrazin, Trevel, Daroca, and Boria.
ARRAIGNMENT, in Law, the arraigning or fet-
ting a thing in order, as a perfon is faid to arraign
a writ of novel diffeifin, who prepares and fits it for
trial.
Arraignment is moft properly ufed to call a perfon
to anfwer in form of law upon an indictment, &c. -
When brought to the bar, the criminal is called up¬
on by name to hold up his hand ; which though it
may feem a trifling circumftance, yet is of this im¬
portance, that by the holding up of his hand conjlat de
perform, and he owns himfi-lf to be of that name by
which he is called. However it is not an indifpenlible
ceremony ; for being calculated merely for the pur-
pofe of identifying the perfon, any other acknowledge¬
ment will anfwer the purpofe as well: therefore, if the
prifoner obftinately and contemptuoufly refufes to hold
up his hand, but confeffes he is the perfon named, it is
fully fufticient.
Then the indi&ment is to be read to him diftinftly
in the Englilh tongue (which was law, even while all
other proceedings were in Latin), that he may fully
underftand his charge. After which it is to be demand¬
ed of him, whether he be guilty of the crime whereof
he Hands indiifted, or not guilty ?
When a criminal is arraigned he either Hands mute,
or confeffes the fa£l, or elfe he pleads to the indifl-
ment.
I. If he fays nothing, the court ought ex officio lo
impannel a jury to inquire whether he Hands obftinately
mute, or whether he be dumb ex viffitatione Dei. If
the latter appears to be the cafe, the judges of the
court (who are to be of counfel for the prifoner, and
to fee that he hath law and juftice) fliall proceed to the
trial, and examine all points as if he had pleaded not
guilty. But whether judgment of death can be given
againft fuch a prifoner, who hath never pleaded, and
can fay nothing in arreft of judgment, is a point yet
undetermined.
If he be found to be obftinately mute (which a pri¬
foner hath been held to be that hath cut his own
tongue), then, if it be on an indiftmentof high treafon,
Jt hath long been clearly fettled, that Handing mute is
equivalent to a conviftion, and he fhall receive the fame
judgment and execution.
The Englilh judgment of penance for Handing mute
was as follows : That the prifoner be remanded to the
prifon from whence he came, and put into a low dark
chamber •, and there be laid on his back, on the bare
floor, naked, unlefs where decency forbids j that there
be placed upon his body as great a weight of iron as he
could bear, and more j that he have no fuftenance, fave
only, on the firft day, three morfels of the worft bread j
and, on the fecond day, three draughts of Handing wa¬
ter that Ihould be neaveft to the prifon door j and in
this fituation this Ihould be alternately his daily diet,
till he died, or, as anciently the judgment ran, till he
anfwered.
It hath been doubted whether this punilhment fub-
fifted at the common law, or was introduced in confe-
quence of the ftatute Weftm. I. 3 Edw. I. c. 12. which
feems to be the better opinion. For not a word of it
is mentioned in Glanvil or Bra&on, or in any ancient
author, cafe, or record (that hath yet been produced),
previous to the reign of Edward I. : but there are in-
ftances on record in the reign of Henry III. where
perfons accufed of felony, and Handing mute, were
tried in a particular manner, by two fucceflive juries
and convi&ed \ and it is afferted by the judges in
8 Henry IV. that, by the common law before the fta¬
tute, Handing mute on an appeal amounted to a con-
viflion of the felony. This ftatute of Edward I. di-
retts fuch perfons, “as will not put themfclves upon
inquefts of felonies before the judges at the fuit of the
king, to be put into hard and ftrong prifon (foient
rnys en la prifone fort et dure) as thofe which refuie to
be at the common law of the land.” And, immedi¬
ately after this ftatute, the form of the judgment ap¬
pears in Fleta and Britton to have been only a very
ftrait confinement in prifon, with hardly any degree of
fuftenance ; but no weight is directed to be laid up¬
on the body, fo as to haften the death of the miterable
fufferer : and indeed any furcharge of pumlhment on
perfons adjudged to penance, lo as to Ihorten their
lives, is reckoned by Horne in the Mirror as a fpecies
of criminal homicide. It alfo clearly appears by a
record of 31 Edw. III. that the prifoner might then
poflibly fubfift for 40 days under this lingering punifh-
ment. It is therefore imagined that the pradice of
loading him with weights, or, as it is ufually called,
prejjing him to death, was gradually introduced between
31 Edward III. and 8 Henry IV. at which laft period
it firft appears upon the books $ being intended as a
fpecies of mercy to the delinquent, by delivering him
the fooner from his torment: and hence it is alfo pro¬
bable, that the duration of the penance was then firft:
altered } and inftead of continuing till he anfwered, it
was diredly to continue till he died, which muft very
foon happen under an enormous preflure.
The uncertainty of its original, the doubts that were
conceived of its legality, and the repugnance of its
theory (for it rarely was carried into pradice) to the
humanity of the laws of England, all concurred to re¬
quire a legiflative abolition of this cruel procefs, and a
reftitution of the ancient common law ; whereby the
Handing mute in felony, as rvell as in treafon and in
trefpafs, amounted to a confeflion of the charge.
2. If the prifoner make a fimple and plain confeflion,
the court hath nothing to do but to award judgment:
but it is ufually very backward in receiving and re¬
cording
A R R [6
cording inch confeffion, out of tendernefs to the life of
the fubjeft j and will generally advife the priloner to
retrafl it, and,
3. Plead to the indi&ment ; a* to which, fee the ar¬
ticle PLEA of IndiEiment.
ARRAN, an ifland of Scotland, in the frith of
Clyde, between Kintyre and Cunningham. Of this
ifland the bed defcription we have is that given by Mr
Pennant in his Tour through Scotland, vol. ii. 172—
184.
“ Arran, or properly Arr-inn, or, ‘ the ifland of
mountains,’ feems not to have been noticed by the an¬
cients, notwithtlanding it muft have been known to
the Romans, whofe navy, from the time of Agricola,
had its ftation in the Gloltce EJhiarium, or the Frith of
Clyde. Camden, indeed, makes this ifland the Glotta
of Antonine, but no fuch name occurs in his Itinerary :
it was therefore beftowed on Arran by fome of his com¬
mentators. By the immenfe cairns, the vafl monumen¬
tal flones, and many relicks of Druidifm, this ifland muft
have been confiderable in very ancient times. Here are
ftill traditions of the hero Fingal, or Fin Mac Coul, who
is fuppofed here to have enjoyed the pleafures of the
chafe ; and many places retain his name : but I can
difcover nothing but oral hiftory that relates to the
ifland till the time of Magnus the Barefooted, the
Norwegian vitftor, who probably included Arran in
his conquefts of Kintyre. If he did not conquer that
ifland, it was certainly included among thofe that Do¬
nald Bane was to cede ; for it appears that Acho, one
of the fucceffors of Magnus, in 1263, laid claim to
Arran, Bute, and the Cumbrays, in confequence of that
promife : the two firft he fubdued, but the defeat he
met with at Largs foon obliged him to give up his con¬
quefts. Arran was the property of the crown. Ro¬
bert Bruce retired thither during his diftreffes, and
met with prote&ion from his faithful vaflals. Numbers
of them followed his fortunes ; and after the battle of
Bannockburn, he rewarded feveral, fuch as the Mac-
cooks, Mackinnons, Macbrides, and Maclouis, or Ful¬
lertons, with different charters of lands in their native
country. All thefe are now abforbed by this great
family, except the Fullertons, and a Stewart, defcended
from a fon of Robert III. who gave him a fettlement
here. In the time of the Dean of the ifles, his defen¬
dant poflelfed Caftle Douan •, and he and his b/uid, fays
the Dean, are the bejl men in that countrey. About the
year 13^54, this ifland appears to have formed part of
the eftate of Robert Stewart, great fteward of Scotland,
aftenvards Robert II. At that time they took arms
to fupport the caufe of their mafter ; who afterwards, in
reward, not only granted at their requeft an immunity
from their annual tribute of corn, but added feveral
new privileges, and a donative to all the inhabitants
that were prefent. In 1456, the whole ifland was ra¬
vaged by Donald earl of Rofs and lord of the ifles. At
that period, it was ftill the property of James II. 5 but
in the reign of his fucceflor James III. when that mo¬
narch matched his fifter to Thomas lord Boyd, he cre¬
ated him earl of Arran, and gave him the ifland as a
portion. Soon after, on the difgrace of that family, he
caufed the countefs to be divorced from her unfortunate
hufband ; and beftowed both the lady and ifland on Sir
James Hamilton, in whofe family it continues to this
fcitne, a very few farms excepted.
53 ] A R R
“ Arran is of great extent, being 23 miles from
Sgreadan Point north to Beinnean foiath j and the
number of inhabitants is about 7000, who chiefly in¬
habit the coafts j the far greater part of the country
being uninhabited by reafon of the vaft and barren
mountains. Here are only two parilhes, Kilbride and
Kilmorie $ with a fort of chapel of eafe to each, found¬
ed in the laft century, in the golden age of this illand,
when it was blefled with Anne duchefs of Hamilton,
whofe amiable dilpofition and humane attention to the
welfare of Arran render at this diftant time her me¬
mory dear to every inhabitant. The principal moun¬
tains of Arran are, Goatfield, or Gaoilbheinn, or “ the
mountain of the winds,” of a height equal to moft of
the Scottifh Alps, compofed of immenfe piles of moor-
ftone, in form of wool packs, clothed only with lichens
and mofles, inhabited by eagles and ptarmigans $ Bein-
bharrain, or “ the (harp-pointed Ceum-na-caillich,
“ the ftep of the carline or old hag 5” and Grianan-
Athol, that yields to none in ruggednefs. The lakes
are, Loch-jorfa, where falmon come to fpawn ; Loch-
tana ; Loch-nab-jura, on the top of a high hill; Loch-
mhachrai 5 and Loch-knoc-a-charbeil, full of large eels.
The chief rivers are, Abhan-mhor, Moina mhor, Slon-
drai-machrei, and Jorfa 5 the two laft remarkable for
the abundance of falmon.
“ The quadrupeds are very few ; only otters, wild
cats, fhrew mice, rabbits, and bats: the flags, which
ufed to abound, are now reduced to about a dozen.
1 he birds are, eagles, hooded crows, wild pigeon^
flares, black game, grous, ptarmigans* daws, green
plovers, and curlews. It may be remarked, that the
partridge at prefent inhabits this ifland, a proof of the
advancement of agriculture.
“ The climate is very fevere : for befides the violence
of wind, the cold is very rigorous ; and fnow lay here
in the valleys for 13 weeks of the laft winter. In fum-
mer the air is remarkably falubrious; and many inva¬
lids refort here on that account, and to drink the whey
of goats milk.
“ The principal difeafe here is the pleurify : fmall-
pox, meafles, and chincough, vifit the ifland once in
feven or eight years. The pradlice of bleeding twice
every year feems to have been intended as a preven¬
tive againft the pleurify ; but it is now performed with
the utmoft regularity at fpring and fall. The duke of
Hamilton keeps a furgeon in pay ; who at thofe fea-
fons makes a tour of the ifland. On notice of his ap¬
proach, the inhabitants of each farm alfemble in the
open air; extend their arms ; and are bled into a hole
made in the ground, the common receptacle of the
vital fluid. In burning fevers, a tea of wood forrel is
ufed with fuccefs, to allay the heat. An infufion of
ramfons, or allium mfinum, in brandy, is efteemed here
a good remedy for the gravel.
“ The men are ftrong, tall, and well made ; all fpeak
the Erfe language, but the ancient habit is entirely laid
afide. Their diet is chiefly potatoes and meal ; and
during winter, fome dried mutton or goat is added to
their hard fare. A deep dejeftion appears in general
through the countenances of all; no time can be fpared
for amufement of any kind; the whole being given
for procuring the means of paying their rent, of laying
in their fuel, or getting a fcanty pittance of meat and
clothing.
4 R 2
“ The
A R R [ 684 ] A R R
Arran. “ The leafes of farms are 19 years. The fucceeding
—-v—tenants generally find the ground little better than a
caput mortuum; and for this reafon : Should they at
the expiration of the leafe leave the land's in a good
jftate, fome avaricious neighbours would have the pre¬
ference in the next fetting, by offering a price more
than the perfon who had expended part of his fubfiance
in enriching the farm could poflibly do. This induces
them to leave it in the original ftate. The method of
fetting a farm is very fingular j each is commonly pof-
feffed by a number of imall tenants ; thus a farm of
40I. a year is occupied by 18 different people, who
by their leafes are bound, conjun£tly and feverally, for
the payment of the rent to the proprietor. Thefe live
in the farm in houfes cluftered together, fo that each
farm appears like a little village. The tenants annually
divide the arable land by lot ; each has his ridge of
land, to which he puts his mark, fuch as he would do
to any writings and this fpecies of farm is called run-
rig, (i-e.) ridge. They join in ploughing; every one
keeps a horfe or more ; and the number of thofe ani¬
mals confumes fo much corn, as often to occafion a fcar-
city ; the corn and peafe raifed being (much of it) de-
figned for their fubfiftence, and that of the cattle, du¬
ring the long winter. The pafture and moor land an*
nexed to the farm is common to all the poffeffors. All
the farms are open. Enclofures of any form, except in
two or three places, are quite unknown : fo that there
mutt be a great lofs of time in preferving their corn,
&c. from trefpafs. The ufual manure is fea plants,
coral and {hells. The run-rig farms are now difcou-
raged : but fince the tenements are fet by roup or auc¬
tion, and advanced by an unnatural force to above dou¬
ble the old rent, without any allowance for enclofing,
any example fet in agriculture, any fecurity of tenure
by lengthening the leafes, affairs will turn retrograde,
and the farms relapfe into their old ftate of rudenefs ;
migration will increafe (for it has begun^), and the
rents be reduced even below their former value : the
late rents were fcarce 1200I. a-year ; the expefted rents
3000I.
“ The produce of the ifland is oats ; of which about
5000 bolls, each equal to nine Winchefter bufliels, are
{own, 500 of beans, a few peafe; and above 1000 bolls
of potatoes are annually fet: notwithftanding this, 500
bolls of oat meal are annually imported, to fubfift the
natives.
“ The live flock of the ifland is 3183 milch cows ;
2000 cattle, from one to three years old ; 1058 horfes ;
1500 (heap; and 500 goats : many of the two laft are
killed at Michaelmas and dried for winter provifion,
or fold at Greenock. The cattle are fold from 40s. to
50s. per head, which brings into the ifland about
J 200I. per annum : I think that the fale of horfes alfo
brings in about 300I. Hogs were introduced here on¬
ly two years ago. The herring-fiftiery round the ifland
brings in 300I. the fale of herring nets 100I. and that
of thread about 300I. for a good deal of flax is fown
here. Thefe are the exports of the ifland ; but the mo¬
ney that goes out for mere neceffaries is a melancholy
drawback.
“ The women manufa&ure the wool for the clothing
of their families; they fet the potatoes and drefs and
fpin the flax. They make butter for exportation, and
cheefe for their own ufe.
“ The inhabitants in general are fober, religious, Arran
and induflrious; great part of the fummer is employ- ||
ed in getting peat for fuel, the only kind in ufe here ; Arfas-
or in building or repairing their houfes, for the badnefs v~*"
of the materials requires annual repairs : before and
after harveft, they are bulled in the herring fifnery ; and
during winter the men make their herring nets ; while
the women are employed in fpinning their linen, and
woollen yarn. The light they often ufe is that of
lamps. From the beginning of February to the end
of May, if the weather permits, they are engaged in
labouring their ground : in autumn they burn a great
quantity of fern to make kelp. So that, excepting
at new-year’s day, at marriages, or at the two or three
fairs in that ifland, they have no leifure for any amufe-
ments: no w'onder then at their depreffion of fpirits.
“ Arran forms part of the county of Bute, and fs
fubjeft to the fame fort of government: but, befides,
juftice is adminiftered at the baron’s bailie-court, who
has power to fine as high as 20s.; can decide in mat¬
ters of property not exceeding 40s.; can imprifon for
a month ; and put delinquents into the flocks fm: three
hours, but that only during day-time.”
In this ifland there are many of thofe rude antiqui¬
ties or monuments called cairns, druidical circles, &c.
See Cairns.
ARRANGEMENT, or Rangement, the difpofi-
tion of the parts of a whole in a certain order.
The modern philofophy (hows us, that the diverfity
of the colours of bodies depends entirely on the fitua-
tion and arrangement of the parts, which refledl the
light differently ; the diverfity of taftes and .fmells on
the different arrangements of the pores, which render
them differently fenfible; and the general diverfity of
bodies on the different arrangement of their parts. The
happy arrangement of words makes one of the greatefl
beauties of difeourfe.
ARRAS, the capital city of Artois, a province in
the French Netherlands. It is feated on a mountain j
and the parts about it are full of quarries, where they
get ftone for building. It is divided into two parts,
the town and the city. The abbot of St Vedaft is lord
of the town, and the bifliop of Arras of the city, which
is the leaft part. They are divided by a ftrong wall,
a large foffe, and the little river Chrinchron, which
100 paces below falls into the Scarp. They are both
well fortified, enclofed by high ramparts, and by double
deep foffes, which in feveral places are cut out of the
rock. It has four gates; and fince the French are be¬
come mafters of it, has a ftrong citadel with five baf-
tions. Tire moft remarkable places are, the great
fquare where the principal market is kept ; this is full
of fine buildings, with piazzas all round it like thofe
of Covent-garden. Not far from this is the leffer mar¬
ket, which contains the town-houfe, a very noble ftruc-
ture, with a high tower covered with a crown, on the
top of which is a brazen lion, which ferves for a vane.
In the midft of this market is the chapel of the Holy
Candle, which the Papifts pretend was brought by the
Virgin Mary herfelf above 600 years ago, when the
city was afflifted with divers difeafes, and every one that
touched the candle was cured; it is kept in a filver
(brine. This chapel has a fpire fteeple, adorned with
feveral ftatues. The cathedral church of Notre-Dame
ftands in the city : it is a very large Gothic building,
extremely
A R R [ 685 ] A R R
Anas extremely well adorned •, the tower is very high, and
{I has a fine clock embellifhed with little figures in bronze,
A'r,eft- which reprefent the paffion of Jefus Chrift j they pafs
"^v before the bell to ftrike the hours and half hours. In
this church there is a filver fhrine, enriched with pearls
apd diamonds, which contains a fort of wool, which
they call manna, that they fay fell from heaven in the
time of a great drought, almoft 1400 years ago : they
carry it very folemnly in proceffion when they want
rain. The abbey-church of St Vedaft is the greateft
ornament of Arras, it being adorned with a fine Iteeple,
and feats for the monks of admirable workmanlhip •,
the pulpit is of brafs, falhioned like a tree, fupported
by two bears of the fame metal, fitting on their hind
legs •, there are little bears in different poftures coming
to climb up the tree. The chimes are remarkable for
the different tunes which they play. There are 11
parilh churches, and a great many convents of men
and women. It is from this city that the tapeftry call¬
ed arras hangings takes its denomination. E. Long. 2.
56. N. Lat. 50. 17.
Arras, or Al'axes, is alfo the name of a river of
Georgia, which difcharges itfelf into the Cafpian fea.
ARRAY, in Law, the ranking or fetting forth of
a jury, or inqueft of men impannelled on a caufe.
Battle-ARRAY, the order or difpofition of an army,
drawn up with a view to engage the enemy. See
Army.
ARRAYERS, or Arragers, Arraitores, is ufed
in fome ancient ftatutes, for fuch officers as had care of
the foldiers armour, and faw them duly accoutred in
their kinds. In fome reigns, commiffioners have been
appointed for this purpofe. Such were the commiffion¬
ers of array appointed by King Charles I. in the year
1642.
ARREARS, the remainder of a fum due, or money
remaining in the hands of an accountant. It likewife
fignifies the money due for rent, wages, &c. or what
remains unpaid of penfions, taxes, &c.
ARRENT ATI ON, in the foreft laws, implies the
licenfing the owner of lands in a foreft to enclofe them
with a low hedge and a fmall ditch, in confideration of
a yearly rent.
ARREST, in Eng/ijh Law, (from the French word
arrejler, to flop or Jlay'), is the reftraint of a man’s per-
fon, obliging him to be obedient to the law ■, and is de¬
fined to be the execution of the command of fome court
of record or office of juftice. An arreft is the beginning
of imprifonment •, where a man is firft taken, and re-
ftrained of his liberty, by power or colour of a lawful
warrant.
Arrefts are either in civil or criminal cafes.
I. An arreft in a civil caufe is defined to be the ap¬
prehending or reftraining one’s perfon by procefs in
execution of the command of fome court.
An arreft muft be by corporal feizing or touching
the defender’s body ; after which the bailiff may jufti-
fy breaking open the houfe in which he is, to take
him : otherwife he has no fuch pow'er ; but muft watch
his opportunity to arreft him. For every man’s houfe
isHooked upon by the law to be his caftle of defence
• and afylum, wherein he fhould fuffer no violence.
Which principle is carried fo far in the civil law, that,
for the moft part, not fo much as a common citation
or fummons, much lefs an arreft, can be executed upon
a man within his ewn walls. Peers of the realm, Arreft.
members of parliament, and corporations, are privileged y—».
from arrefts ; and of courfe from outlawries. And
againft them the procefs to enforce an appearance muft
be by fummons and diftrefs infinite, inftead of a capias.
Alfo clerks, attorneys, and all other perfons attending
the courts of juftice (for attorneys being officers of the
court, are always fuppofed to be there attending) are
not liable to be arrefted by the ordinary procefs of the
court, but muft be fued by bill (called ufually a bill of
privilege), as being perfonally prefent in court. » Cler¬
gymen performing divine fervice, and not merely flay¬
ing in the church with a fraudulent defign, are for the
time privileged from arrefts, by ftatute 50 Edw. III.
c. 5. and I Rich. II. c. 16. as likewife members of
convocation a£lually attending thereon, by ftatute
8 Hen. VI. c. I. Suitors, witneffes, and other per¬
fons, neceffarily attending any courts of record upon
bufinefs, are not to be arrefted during their addual at¬
tendance, which includes the neceffary coming and re¬
turning. Seamen in the king’s fervice are privileged
from arrefts for debts under 20I. (1 Geo. II. c. 14.
and 14 Geo. II. c. 38.) 5 and foldiers or marines are
not liable to arrefts for a debt of lefs than 10I.
(30 Geo. II. c. 6. 11.). And no arreft can be made
in the king’s prefence, nor within the verge of his
royal palace, nor in any place where the king’s jufti-
ces are a£lually fitting. The king hath moreover a
fpecial prerogative (which indeed is very feldom ex¬
erted), that he may by his writ of proteBion privilege
a defendant from all perfonal, and many real fuits, for
one year at a time, and no longer ; in refpeft of his
being engaged in his fervice out of the realm. And
the king alfo by the common law might take his credi¬
tor into his protection, fo that no one might fue or ar¬
reft him till the king’s debt was paid : but by the fta¬
tute 25 Edw. III. c. 19. notwithftanding fuch protec¬
tion, another creditor may proceed to judgment againft;
him, with a ftay of execution, till the king’s debt be
paid ; unlefs fuch creditor will undertake for the king’s
debt, and then he ffiall have execution for both. And,
laftly, By ftatute 29 Car. II. c. 7. no arreft can be*
made, nor procefs ferved, upon a Sunday, except for
treafon, felony, or breach of the peace:
2. An arreft in a criminal caufe is the apprehending
or reftraining one’s perfon, in order to be forthcoming
to anfwer an alleged crime. To this arreft all perfons
whatfoever are, without diftinClion, equally liable j and
doors may be broken open to arreft the offender : but
no man is to be arrefted, unlefs charged with fuch a
crime as will at leaft juftify holding him to bail when
taken. There is this difference alfo between arrefts in
civil and criminal cafes, that none (hall be arrefted for
debt, trefpafs, or other caufe of aCtion, but by virtue
of a precept or commandment out of fome court j but
for treafon, felony, or breach of the peace, any man
may arreft with or without warrant or precept. But
the king cannot command any one by word of mouth
to be arrefted ; for he muft do it by writ, or order of
his courts, according to law : nor may the king arreft
any man for fufpicion of treafon, or felony, as his lub-
jefls may j becaufe if he doth wrong, the party can¬
not have an aftion againft him.
Arrefts by private perfons are in fome cafes com¬
manded. Perfons prefent at the committing of a fe¬
lony
A R R [ 686 ] A R R
Arreft lony muit ufe their endeavours to apprehend the offend-
II . er, under penalty of fine and imprifonment j and they
. r^ePnorla[^ are alfo, with the utmoft diligence to purfue and endea¬
vour to take all thofe who (hall be guilty thereof out of
their view, upon a hue and cry levied againft them. By
the vagrant a6l 17 Geo. II. c. 5. every perfon may ap¬
prehend beggars and vagrants j and every private per¬
fon is bound to affift an officer .requiring him to appre¬
hend a felon.
In fome cafes likewife arrefts by private perfons are
rewarded by law. By the 4 and 5 William and Mary,
c. 8. perfons apprehending highwaymen, and profecut-
ing them to a convidiion, are entitled to a reward of
40I. ; and if they are killed in the attempt, their exe¬
cutors, &c. are entitled to the like reward. By the
6 and 7 William III. c. 17. perfons apprehending
counterfeiters and clippers of the coin, and pufecuting
them to convidtion are entitled to 40I.
By 5 Ann. c. 31. perfons who ffiall take any one
guilty of burglary, or the felonious breaking and enter¬
ing any houfe in the daytime, and profecute^them to
convidiion, ffiall receive the fum of 40I. within one
month after fuch convidlion.
-With regard to arrefts by public officers, as watch¬
men, conftables, &c. they are either made by their own
authority, which differs but very little from the power
of a private perfon j or they are made by a warrant from
a juftice of peace. See Warrant.
ARREST of Judgment, in Law, the affigning juft
reafon why judgment ffiould not pafs : as, Want of no¬
tice of the trial; a material defedt in the pleading j
when the record differs from the deed impleaded $
when perfons are mifnamed ; where more is given by
the verdidi than is laid in the declaration, &c. This
may be done either in criminal or civil cafes.
ARRESTMENT, in Scots Law, fignifies the fe-
curing of a criminal till trial, or till he find caution to
ftand trial, in what are called bailable crimes. In civil
cafes, it fignifies either the detaining of ftrangers, or
natives tn meditatione fugce, till they find caution judicio
Jijh, or the attaching the effedls of a ftranger in order to
found jurifdidlion. But, in the moft general accepta¬
tion of the word, it denotes that diligence by which a
creditor detains the goods or effedls of his debtor in the
hands of third parties till the debt due to him be either
paid or fecured. See Law.
ARRESTO FACTO super BONIS, &c. a writ brought
by a denizen againft the goods of aliens found within
this kingdom, as a recompenfe for goods taken from him
in a foreign country. *
ARRESTS, in Farriery, mangy tumours upon a
horfe’s hinder legs, between the ham and the pa¬
ttern.
ARRETIUM, (Cicero, Csefar) ; /Irrhetium, {F\.o-
lemy) *, Frbs Arrhetinorum, (Polybius) ; one of the
twelve ancient towns of Tufcany, near the Arm’s and
Clanis, fituated in a pleafant valley. Now Arezzo,
42 miles caft of Florence. E. Long. 13. 18. N. Lat.
43- I5-
ARRHABONARII, a fe£l of Chriftians, who held
that the eucharift is neither the real fleffi or blood of
Chrift, nor yet the fign of them j but only the pledge
or earneft thereof.
ARRHEPHORIA, a feaft among the Athenians,
Snftituted in honour of Minerva, and Herfe daughter
of Cecrops. The word is compofed of eerier, myjlery,
and I carry; on account of certain myfterious
things which were carried in proceflion at this folem-
nity.—Boys, or, as fome fay, girls, between feven and
twelve years of age, were the minifters that affifted at
this feaft, and were denominated This feaft
was alfo called Herfphoria, from the daughter of Ce¬
crops, already mentioned.
ARRIAN, a famous philofopher and hiftorian un¬
der the emperor Hadrian and the two Antonines, was
born at Nicomedia in Bithynia. His great learning
and eloquence procured him the title of Tie fecond
Xenophon, and raifed him to the moft conliderable
dignities at Rome, even the confulffiip itfelf. We have
four books of his Differtations upon Epi&etus, whofe
fcholar he had been \ and his Hiftory of Alexander the
Great, in feven books, is greatly admired by the beft
judges.
ARRIERE, the hinder or pofterior part of any
thing.
ARRIERE Ban, in the French cuftoms, was a general
proclamation, whereby the king fummoned to war all
that held of him, both his vaffals, i. e. the nobltffe, and
the vaffals of his vaffals.
ARRIERE Fee, or Fief, is a fee dependent on a fupe-
rior one. Thefe fees commenced, when the dukes and
counts, rendering their governments hereditary in their
families, diftributed to their officers parts of the royal
domains which they found in their refpedtive provinces,
and even permitted thofe officers to gratify the foldiers
under them in the fame manner.
ARROBAS, or Arobas, a weipht ufed in Spain,
Portugal, and the foreign dominions of both. The
arrobas of Portugal is alfo called arata, and contains
thirty-two Liffion pounds j that of Spain contains
twenty-five Spaniffi pounds. In Peru it is called ar-
rufe.
ARROE, a fmall ifland of Denmark, in the Baltic
fea, a little fouth of the ifland of Funen. It is eight
miles in length, and about two in breadth ; and pro¬
duces corn, anifeed, black cattle, and horfes. It has
three pariffies, the moft confiderable of which is Koping.
It ftands at the fouth fide of the ifland, in the bottom of
a bay, and has a port with fome trade. E. Long. 9. 40.
N. Lat. 55. 20.
ARROJO de St Servan, a town of Spain, in Ef-
tremadura. W. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat. 38. 40.
ARRONDEE, in Heraldry, a crofs, the arms of
which are compofed of feftions of a circle, not oppo-
fite to each other, fo as to make the arms bulge out
thicker in one part than another ; but the feftions of
each arm lying the fame way, fo that the arm is every¬
where of an equal thicknefs, and all of them ter¬
minating at the edge of the efcutcheon like the plain
crofs.
ARROW, a miffive weapon of offence, flender,
pointed, and barbed, to be caft or ffiot with a bow.
See Archery.
ARROW-Makers, are called fletellers ; and were for¬
merly, as well as bowyers, perfons of great confequence
in the commonwealth.
Arrow-heads and quarrels were to be well boched or
brafed, and hardened at the points with fteel 3 the doing
of which feems to have been the bufinefs of the arrow-
fmith.
Arrephoria
Arrow.
makers.
ArBOIT"
A R S [ 687 ] ART
Arrow- ABROTV-Head. See SaGITTARIA, Botany Index.
head AttROW-Root. See MaRANTA, BOTANY Index.
II ARSACES, otherwife Mithridates, a king of
Arfmoe^ par^jans> fpoken of in the firft book of Macca¬
bees, xiv. 2. He confiderably enlarged the kingdom
of Parthia by his good condudt and valour. See Par-
THIA.
ARSCHIN, in commerce, a long meafure ufed in
China to meafure fluff's. Four arfchins make three yards
of London.
ARSENAL, a royal or public magazine, or place
appointed for the making and keeping of arms, necef-
fary either for defence or afiault. Some derive this
word from arx, a fortref* ; others from ars, denoting a
machine; others again from arx and fenatus, becaufe
this was the defence of the fenate : but the more pro¬
bable opinion derives it from the Arabic darfenaa, which
fignifies arfenal.
The arfenal of Venice is the place where the galleys
are built and laid up. The arfenal of Paris is that
where the cannon or great guns are caft. It has this
infcription over the gate :
JEtna hcec Henrico vulcania tela minij}raty
Tela Giganteos debellatura furores.
There are arfenals or ftore-houfes, appropriated to
naval furniture and equipments. At Marfeilles is the
arfenal for the galleys 5 and at Toulon, Rochefort, and
Breft, are thofe for the men of war.
ARSENIC. See Mineralogy and Chemistry
Index.
ARSENIUS, a deacon of the Roman church, of
great learning and piety. He was pitched upon by
the pope to go to the emperor Theodofius, as tutor to
his fon Arcadius. Arfenius arrived at Conftantinople
in the year 383. The emperor happening one day to
go into the room where Arfenius was inftrufting Arca¬
dius, his fon was feated, and the preceptor flanding;
at this he was exceedingly difpleafed, took from his fon
the imperial ornaments, made Arfenius fit in his place,
and ordered Arcadius for the future to receive his lef-
fons Handing uncovered. Arcadius, however, profited
but little by his tutor’s inftru£lions, for feme time after
he formed a defign of defpatching him. The officer to
whom Arcadius had applied for this purpofe, divulged
the affair to Arfenius, who retired to the deferts of
Scete, where he pafled many years in the exercifes of
the moft flri£l and fervent devotion. He died there, at
95 years of age.
ARSHOT, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands, fi-
tuated about 14 miles eaft of the city of Mechlin, in
E. Long. 4. 45. N. Lat. 51. 5.
ARS I NOE, in Ancient Geography, a town of E-
gypt, on the weft fide of the Arabian gulf, near its
extremity, to the fouth of Hieropolis, (Strabo, Pto¬
lemy) ; called Cleopatris by fume. Another Arfinoe,
a town of Cilicia, (Ptolemy) *, and the fifth of that
name in Cilicia, (Stephanus) •, with a road or ftation
for (hips, (Sfrabo). A third Arfinoe, in the f-uth of
Cyprus, with a port between Citium and Salami's,
(Strabo.) A fourth, an inland town of Cyprus, call¬
ed Mariurn formerly, (Stephanus). A fifth in the
north of Cyprus, between Acamas and Soli, (Strabo);
fo called from Arfinoe, a queen of Egypt, Cyprus be¬
ing in the hands of the Ptolemies. A fixth Arfinoe,
a maritime town of Cyrene, formerly called Teuchira. Arfinoc
A feventh Arfinoe, in the Nomos Arfinoites, to the II
weft of the Heracleotes, on the weftern bank of the Art‘
Nile, formerly called Crocodilorum Urbs, (Strabo) ;
the name Arfinoe continued under Adrian, (Coin).
Ptolemy calls this Arfinoe an inland metropolis, and
therefore at fome diftance from the Nile, with a port
called Ptolemais. An eighth Arfinoe, a maritime
town of Lycia ; fo called by Ptolemy Philadelphus,
after the name of his confort, which did not hold long,
it afterwards recovering its ancient name Patara, (Stra¬
bo). A ninth, a town of the Troglodytse, near the
mouth of the Arabian gulf, which towards Ethiopia is
terminated by a promontory called Dire, (Ptolemy).
This Arfinoe is called Berenice, and the third of that
name in this quarter, with the diftinftion Epideres;
becaufe fituated on a neck of land running out a great
way into the fea.
ARSIS and Thesis, in Mufic, is a term applied to
compofitions in which one part rifes and the other
falls.
ARSMART. See Persicaria, Botany Index.
ARSON, in Englif) Law, is the malic'om and wil¬
ful burning of the houfe or outhoufe of another man ;
which is felony at common law.
This is an offence of very great malignity, and much
more pernicious to the public than fimple theft : be¬
caufe, firft, it is an offence againft that right of habi¬
tation which is acquired by the law of nature as well
as by the laws of fociety ; next, becaufe of the terror
and confufion that neceffarily attends it ; and, laftly,
becaufe in fimple theft the thing ftolen only changes its
mafter, but ftill remains in effe for the benefit of the
public ; whereas, by burning, the very fubftance is ab-
folutely deftroyed. It is alfo frequently more deftrue-
tive than murder itfelf, of which too it is often the
caufe : fince murder, atrocious as it is, feldom extends
beyond the felonious a<ft defigned, whereas fire too fre¬
quently involves in the common calamity perfons un¬
known to the incendiary, and not intended to be hurt
by him, and friends as will as enemies.
ARSURA, in ancient cuftoms, a term ufed for the
melting of gold or filver, either to refine them, or to ex¬
amine their value.—The method of doing this is ex¬
plained at large in the Black Book of the Exchequer,
afcribed to Gervaife, in the chapter De officio Mihtis
Argentarii, being in thofe days of great ufe, on account
of the various places and different manners in which the
king’s money was paid.
ARSURA is alfo ufed for the lofs or diminution of the
metal in the trial. In this fenfe, a pound was faid tot
ardere denarios, to loft* fo many pennyweights.
Arsura is alfo ufed for the duft and fweepings of
filverfmiths, and others, who work in filver, melted
down.
ART is defined by Lord Bacon, a proper difpofal
of the things of nature.by human thought and experi¬
ence, fo as to anfwer the feveral purpofes of mankind ;
in which fenfe art Hands oppofed to nature.
Art is principally ufed for a fyftem of rules ferving
to facilitate the performance of certain aftions; in which
fenfe it Hands oppofed to fcience, or a fyftem of fpecula-
tive principles.
Arts are commonly divided into ufeful or mechanic,
liberal or polite. The former are thofe wherein the
hand ' .
ART
Arts.
Origin ami
progrefs of
nfeful arts.
■ Karnes' s
Sketthes,
.Sit. Y.
hand and body are more concerned than the mind •, of
' which kind are moft of thofe which furnilh us with
the ntcejfca-ies of life, and are popularly known by the
name of trades ; as baking, brewing, carpentry, fmith-
ery, weaving, &c.— The latter are fuch as depend more
on the labour of the mind than that of the hand ; they
are the produce of the imagination, their effence con-
lifts in exprejjion, and their end is pleasure. Of this
kind are poetry, painting, mufic, &c.
Progrefs of the Arts. Some ufeful arts muft be
nearly coeval with the human race •, for food, clothing,
and habitation, even in their original fimplicity, require
fome art. IVTany other arts are of fuch antiquity as to
place the inventors beyond the reach of tradition. Seve¬
ral have gradually crept into the world without an in¬
ventor. 'I he bufy mind, however, accuftomed to a be¬
ginning in things, cannot reft till it finds or imagines
a beginning to every art. The moft probable conjec¬
tures of this nature tire reader may fee in the hiftorical
ifitrodutftions to the different articles.
In all countries where the people are barbarous and
illiterate, the progrefs of arts is extremely flow. It is
vouched by an old French poem, that the virtues of the
load ft one were known in France before the year u8o.
The mariner’s compafs rvas exhibited at Venice anno
l 260, by Paulus Venetus, as his own invention. John
Goya of Amalfi was the firft who, many years after¬
ward, ufed it in navigation ; and'alfo palled for being
the inventor. Though it was ttfed in China for navi¬
gation long before it was known in Europe, yet to this
day it is not fo perfect as in Europe. Inftead of fuf-
pending it in order to make it a£! freely, it is placed
upon a bed of fand, by which every motion of the fhip
difturbs its operation. Hand-mills, termed querns,
were early ufed for grinding corn : and when corn came
to be raifed in greater quantity, horfe-mills fucceeded.
Water-mills for grinding corn are defcribed by Vitru¬
vius. Wind-mills were known in Greece, and in Ara¬
bia as early as the feventh century j and yet no men¬
tion is made of them in Italy till the fourteenth. That
they were not known in England till the reign of Hen¬
ry VIII. appears from a houfehold book of an earl of
Northumberland, cotemporary with that king, ftating
an allowance for three mill-horfes, *l two to draw in
the mill, and one to carry ftuff to and from the mill.”
Water-mills for corn muft in England have been of a
later date. The ancients had mirror-glaflvs, and em¬
ployed glafs to imitate cryftal vafes and goblets •, yet
they never thought of ufing it in windows. In the
13th century, the Venetians were the only people who
had the art of making cryfial glafs for mirrors. A
clock that ftrikes the hours was unknown in Europe
till the end of the 1 2th century. And hence the cu-
ftom of employing men to proclaim the hours during
night ; which to this day continues in Germany, Flan¬
ders, and England. Galileo was the firft who con¬
ceived an idea that a pendulum might be ufed for
meafuring time ; and Huygens way the firft Who put
the idea in execution, by making a pendulum clock.
Hook, in the year 1660, invented a fpiral fpring‘;for
a watch, though a watch was far from being a new in¬
vention. Paper was made no earlier than the 14th
century ; and the invention of printing was a century
hter. Silk mannfa&ures were long eftablilhed in
t 688 ]
ART
Arts.
Greece before filk-worms were introduced there. The
manufafturers were provided with raw filk from Per-
fia : but that commerce being frequently interrupted
by war, two monks, in the reign of Juftinian, brought
eggs of the fiik-worm from Hindoftan, and taught
their countrymen the method of managing them.—
The art of reading made a very flow progrefs. To
encourage that art in England, the capital puniihment
for marder was remitted, if the criminal could but
read, which in law language is termed benefit of cler¬
gy. One would imagine that the arts muft have made
a very rapid progrefs when fo greatly favoured : but
there is a fignal proof of the contrary : for fo fmall an
edition of the Bible as 600 copies, tranflated into Eng-
lilh in the reign of Henry VIII. was not wholly fold
oft in three, years. The people of England muft have
been profoundly ignorant in Queen Elizabeth’s time,
when a forged claufe added to the 20th article of the
Englifti creed paffed unnoticed till about 50 years
ag°-
The difcoveries of the Portuguefe on the weft coaft:
of Africa, is a remarkable inftance of the flow progrefs
of arts. In the beginning of the 15th century, they
were totally ignorant of that coaft beyond Cape Non,
28 degrees north latitude In 1410, the celebrated
Prince Henry of Portugal fitted out a fleet for difco-
veyies, which proceeded along the coaft to Cape Baja-
dore in 28 deg. but had not courage to double it. In
1418, Triftan Vaz difcovered the ifland Porto Santo ;
and the year after, the ifland Madeira was difcovered.
In 1439, a Portuguefe captain doubled Cape Bajadore;
and the next year the Portuguefe reached Cape Blan¬
co, lat. 20 degrees. In 1446, Nuna Triftan doubled
Cape de Verd, lat. 14. 40. In 1448, Don Gonzallo
Vallo took pofleflion of the Azores. In 1449, the
iflands of Cape de Verd were difcovered for Don Hen¬
ry. In 1471, Pedro d’Efcovar difcovered the ifland
St Thomas and Prince’s ifland. In 1484, Diego Cam
difcovered the kingdom of Congo. In i486, Bartho¬
lomew Diaz, employed by John II. of Portugal, dou¬
bled the Cape of Good Hope, which he called Cab*
Tormentofo, from the tempeftuous weather lie found in
the paflage.
I he exertion of national fpirit upon any particular Caufes
art, promotes a&ivity to profecute other arts. The which ad-
Romans, by conftant ftudy, came to excel in the artvanced ^
of war, which led them naturally to improve uPon ^ *0
other arts. Having, in the progrefs of foeiety, ac¬
quired fome degree of tafte and polifh, a talent for
writing broke forth. Nevius compofed in verfe feven
books of the Punic war ; befides comedies, replete
with bitter raillery againft the nobility. Ennius wrote
annals, and an epic poem. Lucius Andronicus'was
the father of dramatic poetry in Rome. Pacuvius
wrote tragedies. Plautus and Terence wrote come¬
dies. Lucilius compofed fatires, which Cicero efteems
to be flight and void of erudition. Fabius Pi&or, Cin-
cius Alimentus, Pifo Frugi, Valerius Antias, and Ca¬
to, were rather annalifts than hiftorians, confining
themfelves to naked faffs, ranged in order of time.
1 he genius of the Romans for the fine arts was much
inflamed by Greek learning, when free intercourfe be¬
tween the two nations was opened. Many of thofe
who made the greateft figure in the Roman ftate com¬
menced
ART [ 689 ] ART
Aru. menced authors ; Caefar, Cicero, &c. Sylla compofed
memoirs of his own tranfadlions, a work much efteemed
even in the days of Plutarch.
The pr ogre is of art feldom fails to be rapid, when
a people happen to be roufed out of a torpid date by
fome fortunate change of circumftances. Profperity,
contrafted with former abafement, gives to the mind a
fpring, which is vigorouily exerted in every new pur-
fuit. The Athenians made but a mean figure under
the tyranny of Pififtratus •, but upon regaining free¬
dom and independence, they -were converted into he¬
roes. Miletus, a Greek city of Ionia, being deitroy-
ed by the king of Perfia, and the inhabitants made
Haves, the Athenians, deeply affected with the mifery
of their brethren, boldly attacked the king in his own
dominions, and burnt the city of Sardis. In lefs than
10 years after, they gained a fignal victory at Mara¬
thon ; and, under Themiftocles, made head againft that
prodigious army with which Xerxes threatened utter
ruin to Greece. Such profperity produced its ufual ef¬
fects : arts flourifhed with arms, and Athens became
the chief theatre for fciences, as well as for fine arts.
The reign of Auguftus Caefar, which put an end to
the rancour of civil war, and reftored peace to Rome,
with the comforts of fociety, proved an aufpicious era
for literature ; and produced a cloud of Latin hiftorians,
poets, and'philofophers, to whom the moderns are in¬
debted for their tafte and talents. One who makes a
figure roufes emulation in all : one catches fire from
another, and the national fpirit is everywhere triumph¬
ant: clafiical works are compofed, and ufeful difcove-
ries made in every art and fcience. With regard to
Rome, it is true, that the Roman government under
Auguftus was in effedl defpotic : but defpotifm, in that
fingle inftance, made no obftrudtion to -literature, it
having been the policy of that reign to hide power as
much as poflible. A fimilar revolution happened in
Tufcany about three centuries ago. That country
having been divided into a number of fmall republics,
the people excited by mutual hatred between fmall na¬
tions in clofe neighbourhood, became ferocious and
bloody, flaming with revenge for the flighteft offence.
Thefe republics being united under the great duke
of Tufcany, enjoyed the fweets of peace in a mild go¬
vernment. That comfortable revolution which made
the deeper impreffion by a retrofpedl to recent calami¬
ties, roufed the natiopal fpirit, and produced ardent
application to arts and literature. The reftoration of
the royal family in England, which put an end to a
cruel and envenomed civil war, promoted improvements
of every kind.j arts and induftry made a rapid progrefs
among the people, though left to themfelves by a weak
and fiuftuating adminiftration. Had the nation, upon
that favourable turn of fortune, been bleffed with a
fucceflion of able and virtuous princes, to what a height
might not arts and fciences have been carried ! In
Scotland, a favourable period for improvement was the
reign of the firft Robert, after (baking off the Englilh
yoke ; but the domineering fpirit of the feudal fyftem
rendered every attempt abortive. The reftoration of
the royal family mentioned above, animated the legif-
lature of Scotland to promote manufa6lures of various
kinds : but in vain j for the union of the two crowms
bad introduced defpotifm into Scotland, which funk
the genius of the people, and rendered them heartlefs
Vol. II. Part II.
and indolent. Liberty, indeed, and many other ad¬
vantages, were procured to them by the union of the
two kingdoms $ but the falutary effects were long fuf-
pended by mutual enmity, fuch as commonly iubfifts
between neighbouring nations. Enmity gradually wore
out, and the eyes of the Scots were opened to the ad¬
vantages of their prefent condition j the national fpirit
was roufed to emulate and to excel; talents were exert¬
ed, hitherto latent ; and Scotland at prefent makes a fi¬
gure in arts and fciences above what it ever made while
an independent kingdom.
Another caufe of aftivity and animation, is the be¬
ing engaged in fome important action of doubtful event ;
a Itruggle for liberty, the refifting a potent invader, or
the like. Greece, divided into fmall ftates frequently
at war with each other, advanced literature and the fine
arts to unrivalled perfe&ion. The Corficans, while en¬
gaged in a perilous war for defence of their liberties, ex¬
erted a vigorous national fpirit ; they founded a univ'er-
fity for arts and fciences, a public library, and a public
bank. After a long ftupor during the dark ages of
Chriftianity, arts and literature revived among the tur¬
bulent ftates of Italy. The Royal Society in London,
and the Academy of Sciences in Paris, were both of
them inftituled after civil wars that had animated the
people and roufed their aCfivity.
As the progrels of arts and feiences toward perfec¬
tion is greatly promoted by emulation, nothing is more
fatal to an art or fcience than to remove that fpur, as
where fome extraordinary genius appears who foars
above rivalfliip. Mathematics feem to be declining in
Britain ; the great Newton, having furpaffed all the an¬
cients, has not left to the moderns even the fainteft hope
of equalling him ; and what man will enter the lifts who
defpairs of victory.
In a country thinly peopled, where even neceffary
arts want hands, it is common to fee one perion ex-
ercifing more arts than one : in fevtral parts of Scot¬
land, one man ferves as a phyfician, furgeon, and apo¬
thecary. In every populous country, even fimple arts
are fplit into parts, and each part has an artift appro¬
priated to it. In the large towns of ancient Egypt,
a phyfician was confined to a fingle difeafe. In me¬
chanic arts that method is excellent. As a hand con¬
fined to a fingle operation becomes both expert and ex¬
peditious, a mechanic art is perfected by having its- dif¬
ferent operations diftributed among the greateft num¬
ber of hands: many hands are employed in making a
watch, and a ftill greater number in manufacturing a
web of woollen cloth. Various arts or operations car¬
ried on by the fame man, invigorate his mind, becaufe
they exercife different faculties ; and as he cannot be
equally expert in every art or operation, he is fre¬
quently reduced to fupply want of ikill by thought
and invention. Conftant application, on the contrary,
to a fingle operation, confines the mind to a ' fingle
objeCt, and excludes all thought and invention : in
fuch a train of life, the operator becomes dull and ftu-
pid, like a beaft of burden. The difference is vifi-
ble in the manners of the people : in a country where,
from want of hands, feveral occupations muft be car¬
ried on by the fame perfon, the peeple are knowing
and converfable : in a populous country, where manu¬
factures flourifh, they are ignorant and unfociable.
The fame effeCt is equally vifible in countries where an
4 $ art
ART [ 690 ] ART
Arts. art or manufa&ure is confined to a certain clafs of men.
It is vifible in Indoftan, where the people are divided
into eafts, which never mix even by marriage, and
where every man follows his father’s trade. The
Dutch lint-boors are a fimilar inftance : the fame fa¬
mily carries on the trade from generation to generation j
and are accordingly ignorant and brutilh even beyond
other Dutch peafants. The inhabitants of Buckhaven,
a fea-port in the county of Fife, were originally a co¬
lony of foreigners, invited hither to teach our peo¬
ple the art of fiflung. They continue filhers to this
day, marry among themfelves, have little intercourfe
with their neighbours, and are dull and ftupid to a pro-
3 verb.
Progrefs of Ufeful arts pave the way to fine arts. Men* upon
'arts**1' 'v^lom ^ie former had beftowed every convenience,
turned their thoughts to the latter. Beauty was ftu-
died in objects of fight j and men of tafte attached
themfelves to the fine arts, which multiplied their en¬
joyments, and improved their benevolence. Sculpture
and painting made an early figure in Greece ; which
afforded plenty of beautiful originals to be copied in
thefe imitative arts. Statuary, a more fimple imita¬
tion than painting, was fooner brought to perfettion :
the ftatue of Jupiter by Phidias, and of Juno by Poly-
cletes, though the admiration of all the world, were
s executed long before the art of light and lhade was
known. Apollodorus, and Zeuxis his difciple, who
flourifired in the 95th Olympiad, were the firfi: who
figured in that art. Another caufe concurred to ad¬
vance ftatuary before painting in Greece, viz. a great
demand for ftatues of their gods. Archite&ure, as a
fine art, made a flower progrefs. Proportions, upon
which its elegance chiefly depends, cannot be accurately
afcertained, but by an infinity of trials in great build¬
ings : a model cannot be relied on *, for a large and a
fmall building, even of the fame form, require different
4 proportions.
Literary From the fine arts mentioned, we proceed to litera-
eompofi- ture. It is agreed, among all antiquaries, that the firfi:
tion' writings were in verfe, and that writing in profe was of
a much later date. The firfi: Greek who wrote in profe
was Pherecides Syrus : the firfi: Roman was Appius
Ctecus, who compofed a declamation againft Pyrrhus.
The four books of the Chatah Bhade, which is the fa-
cred book of Hindoftan, are compofed in verfe ftanzas ;
and the Arabian compofitions in profe followed long
after thofe in verfe. To account for that lingular fa«fi,
many learned pens have been employed } but without
fuccefs. By fome it has been urged, that as memory
is the only record of events where writing is unknown,
hiftory originally was compofed in verfe for the fake of
memory. This is not fatisfaflory. To undertake the
painful talk of compofing in verfe, merely for the fake
of memory, would require more forefight than ever was
exerted by a barbarian t not to mention that other
means were ufed for preferving the memory of remark¬
able events •, a heap of ftones, a pillar, or other objeft
that catches the eye. The account given by Longinus
is more ingenious. In a fragment of his treatife on
verfe, the only part that remains, he obferves, “ that
meafure or verfe belongs to poetry, becaufe poetry re-
prefents the various paflions with their language ; for
which reafon the ancients, in their ordinary difcourfe,
delivered their thoughts in verfe rather than in profe.”
2
Longinus thought, that anciently men were more ex- Arts
pofed to accidents and dangers, than when they were
prote£!ed by good government and by fortified cities.
But he feems not to have adverted, that fear and grief'
infpired by dangers and misfortunes, are better- fuitedto
humble profe than to elevated verfe. It may be added,
that however natural poetical diftion may be when
one is animated with any vivid paflion, it is not fuppo-
fable that the ancients never wrote nor fpoke but when
excited by paflion. Their hiftory, their laws, their
covenants, were certainly not compofed in that tone of
mind.
An important article in the progrefs of the fine arts,
which writers have not fufficiently attended to, will
perhaps explain this myftery. The article is the pro-
feflion of a bard, which fprung up in early times before ^ ^
writing was known *, and died away gradually as writ-g^;^1'16
ing became more and more common f. Writing.
The fongs of the bards, being univerfal favourites,! See
were certainly the firft compofitions that writing was
employed upon : they would be carefully collefted
by the moft fkilful writers, in order to preferve them
in perpetual remembrance. The following part of the
progrefs is obvious. People acquainted with no writ¬
ten compofitions, but what were in verfe, compofed in
verfe their laws, their religious ceremonies, and every
memorable tranfaflion that was intended to be prefer-
ved in memory by writing. But when fubjefts of
writing multiplied, and became more and more invol¬
ved 5 when people began to reafon, to teach, and to
harangue ; they were obliged to defeend to humble
profe : for to confine a writer or fpeaker to verfe in
handling fubjefts of that nature would be a burden un-
fupportable. .
The profe compofitions of early hiftorians are all of Hiftory.
them dramatic. A W’riter deftitute of art is naturally
prompted to relate fadls as he faw them performed : ■
he introduces his perfonages as fpeaking and confer¬
ring ; and he himfelf relates wflrat was adfted, and not
fpoke. The hiftorical books of the Old Teftament are
compofed in that mode 5 and fo addjtfied to the drama¬
tic are the authors of thofe books, that they frequently
introduce God himfelf into the dialogue. At the
fame time, the fimplicity of that mode is happily fuited
to the poverty of every language in its early periods.
The dramatic mode has a delicious effeft in expref-
fing fentiment, and every thing that is fimple and ten¬
der. Read, as an infiance of a low incident becoming,
by that, means, not a little interefting, Ruth i. 8; to
iv. 16.
The dramatic mode is far from pleafing fo much in
relating bare hiftorical fa£ls. Read, as an example, the
ftory of Adonijah in 1 Kings i. 11 — 49.
In that palfage there are frequent repetitions ; not
however by the fame perfon, but by different perfons,
avho have occafion in the courfe of the ftory to fay the
fame things ; whicli is natural in the dramatic mode,
where things are reprefented precifely as they were
tranfadled. In that view, Homer’s repetitions are a
beauty, not a blemilh ; for they are confined to the dra¬
matic part, and never occur in the narrative.
But the dramatic mode of eompofition, however
pleafing, is tedious and intolerable in a long hiftory.
In the progrefs of fociety new appetites and new pafi
fions arife 3 men come to be involved with each other
in
ART
[ 69
in various connexions; incidents and events multiply,
and hiftory becomes intricate by an endlefs variety of
circumftances. Dialogue accordingly is more fparingly
ufed, and in hiitory plain narration is mixed with it.
Narration is as it were the ground-work $ and dialogue
is raifed upon it, like flowers in embroidery. Homer is
admitted by all to be the great mailer in that mode of
compofition.
The narrative mode came in time fo to prevail, that
in a long chain of hiftory, the writer commonly leaves
off dialogue altogether. Early writers of that kind
appear to have very little judgment in diftinguilhing
capital fadls from minute circumftances, luch as can be
fupplied by the reader without being mentioned. The
hiftory of the Trojan war by Dares Phrygius is a cu¬
rious inftance of that cold and creeping manner of com¬
pofition. The Roman hillories before the time of Ci¬
cero are chronicles merely. Cato, Fabius Piflor, and
Pifo, confined themfelves to naked fa6ls. In the Auguf-
tae Hiftoriae Scriptores we find nothing but a jejune
narrative of fa£ls, commonly of very little moment,
concerning a degenerate people, without a Angle inci¬
dent that can roufe the imagination or exercife the
judgment. The monkilh hiftories are all of them com-
pofed in the fame manner.
The dry narrative manner being very little intereft-
ing or agreeable, a tafte for embellilhment prompted
fome writers to be copious and verbofe. Saxo-Gram-
maticus, who in the I 2th century compofed in Latin a
hiftory of Denmark furprifingly pure at that early pe¬
riod, is extremely verbofe and full of tautologies. Such
a ftyle, at any rate unpleafant, is intolerable in a mo¬
dern tongue, before it is enriched with a flock of phrafes
for exprefling aptly the great variety of incidents that
enter into hiftory.
The perfection of hiftorical compofition which wri¬
ters at laft attain to after wandering through various
imperfeCl modes, is a relation of interefting fads,
connected with their motives and confequences. A
hiftory of that kind is truly a chain of caufes and ef¬
fects.
The hiftory of Thucydides, and ftill more that of
Tacitus, are (hining inftances of that mode.
Eloquence was of a later date than the art of litera¬
ry compofition ; for till the latter was improved there
were no models for ftudying the former. Cicero’s
oration for Rofcius is compofed in a ftyle diffufe and
highly ornamented j which, fays Plutarch, was uni-
verfally approved, becaufe at that time the ftyle of
Afia, introduced into Rome with its luxury, was in
high vogue. But Cicero, in a journey to Greece,
where he leifurely ftudied Greek authors, was taught
to prune off fuperfluities, and to purify his ftyle, which
he did to a high degree of refinement. He introdu¬
ced into his native tongue a fweetnefs, a grace, a ma-
jefty, that furprifed the world, and even the Romans
themfelves. Cicero obferves with great reg et, that if
ambition for power had not drawn Julius Csefar from
the bar to command legions, he would have become
the moft*complete orator in the world. So partial are
men to the profeffion in which they excel. Eloquence
triumphs in a popular affembly $ makes fome figure in
a court of law compofed of many judges,! very little
where there is but a Angle judge, and none at all in a
defpotic government. Eloquence flourilhed in the re-
Arti.
i ] ART
publics of Athens and of Rome 5 and makes fome figure
at prefent in a Britifh houfe of commons. v
The Greek ftage has been juftly admired among all^ 7^
polite nations. The tragedies of Sophocles and Eu¬
ripides, in particular, are by all critics held to be perfe6l
in their kind, excellent models for imitation, but far
above rivalftiip. If the Greek ftage was fo early
brought to maturity, it is a phenomenon not a little
lingular in the progrefs of arts. The Greek tragedy
made a rapid pregrefs from Thefpis to Sophocles and
Euripides, whofe compofitions are wonderful produc¬
tions of genius, confidering that the Greeks at that
period were but beginning to emerge from roughnefs
and barbarity into a tafte for literature. The compo¬
fitions of Efchylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, muft
have been highly reliftied among a people who had no
idea of any thing more perfect. We judge by com-
parifon, and every work is held to be perfect that has
no rival. It ought at the fame time to be kept in
view, that it was not the dialogue which chiefly en¬
chanted the Athenians, nor variety in the paflions re-
prefented, nor perfeftion in the actors 5 but machinery
and pompous decoration, joined with exquifite mufic.
That thefe particulars were carried to the greateft
height, we may with certainty conclude from the ex¬
travagant fums beftowed on them: the exhibiting a
Angle tragedy was more expenfive to the Athenians
than their fleet or their armies in any Angle campaign.
One would imagine, however, that thefe compofi¬
tions were too fimple to enchant for ever : as variety
in aftion, fentiment, and paflion, is requifite, without
which the ftage will not continue long a favourite en¬
tertainment : and yet we find not a fingle improve¬
ment attempted after the days of Sophocles and Euri¬
pides. The manner of performance, indeed, prevented
abfolutely any improvement. A fluctuation of paflion
and refined fentiments would have made no figure on
the Grecian ftage. Imagine the difcording fcene be¬
tween Brutus and Caflius in Julius Caefar to be there
exhibited, or the handkerchief in the Moor of Venice :
how flight would be their effeCt, when pronounced in
a mafic, and through a pipe ? The workings of nature
upon the countenance, and the flexions of voice ex-
preffive of various feelings, fo deeply affeCting in mo¬
dern reprefentation, would have been entirely loft. If
a great genius had arifen with talents for compofing a
pathetic tragedy in perfection, he would have made
no figure in Greece. An edifice muft have been ereCted
of a moderate fize : new aCtors muft have been trained
to aCt with a bare face, and to pronounce in their own
voice. And after all, there remained a greater miracle
ftill to be performed, viz. a total reformation of tafte in
the people of Athens. In one word, the fimplicity of
the Greek tragedy was fuited to the manner of aCting j
and that manner excluded all improvements. s
With refpeCt to comedy, it does not appear that the Corned)-.
Greek comedy furpaffed the tragedy in its progrefs
toward perfection. Horace mentions three ftages of
Greek comedy. The firft well fuited to the rough
and coarfe manners of the Greeks, when Eupolis, Cra-
tinus, and Ariftophanes wrote. Thefe authors were
not afhamed to reprefent on the ftage real perfons, not
even difguifing their names j of which we have a link¬
ing inftance in a comedy of Ariftophanes, called The
Clouds, where Socrates is introduced, and moft con-
4 S 2 temptuoufly
- „ r t 69
tempiuoullj treated. This fort of comedy, fparing
neither gods nor men, was reftrained by the magiftrates
Athens, fo far as to prohibit perfons to be named on
the It age. This led writers to do what is done at pre¬
terit . the characters and manners of known perfons
were painted fo much to the life, that there could be
no mihake ; and the fatire was indeed heightened by
diis regulation, as it was an additional pleafure to find
out the names that were meant in the reprefentation.
This was termed the middle comedy. But as there ftill
remained too great fcope for obloquy and licentioufnels,
a law was made, prohibiting real events or incidents to
be introduced upon the ftage. This law happily ba-
nidled fatire againft individuals, and confined it to man¬
ners and cuftoms in general. Obedient to this law are
the comedies of Menander, Philemon, and Diphilus,
who flourifhed about 300 years before the Chriftian era.
And this is termed the third ftage of Greek comedy.
JL he comedies of Ariftophanes which ftill remain, err
not lefs againft tafte than againft decency. But the
Greek comedy is fuppofed to have been confiderably
refined by Menander and his contemporaries. Their
works, however, were far from perfection, if we can
draw any conjeCture from their imitator Plautus, who
wrote about a century later. Plautus was a writer of
genius ; and it may be reafonably fuppofed that his
copies did not fad much ftiort of the originals, at lead
m matters that can be faithfully copied j and he ftiows
very little art, either in his compofitions or in the con¬
duct 6f his pieces. With refpeCt to the former, his
plots are wondrous fimple, very little varied, and very
little interefting. The fubjeft of almoft every piece is
a young man in love with a mufic girl, defiring to pur-
ehafe her from the procurer, and employing a favourite
flave to cheat his father out of the price; and the
different ways of accomplilhing the cheat is all the va¬
riety we find. In fome few of his comedies the ftory
fifes to a higher tone, the mufic girl being difcovered
to be the daughter of a freeman, which removes every
obftruCIion of a marriage between her and her lover.
In the conduCt of his pieces there is a miferable defeCt
of art. Inftead of unfolding the fubjeCt in the prog rets
of the aCtion, as is done by Terence, and by every
modern writer, Plautus introduces a perfon for no
other end but to explain the ftory to the audience. In
one of his comedies, a houfehold god is fo obliging as
not only to unfold the fubjeCt, but to relate before¬
hand every particular that is to be reprefented, not ex¬
cepting the cataftrophe.
The Roman theatre, from the time of Plautus to
that of Terence, made a rapid progrefs. Ariftotle
defines comedy to be “ an imitation of light and trivial
fubje&s, provoking laughter.” The comedies of Plau¬
tus correfpond accurately to that definition : thofe of
Terence rife to a higher tone.
Nothing is more evident than the fuperiority of Te¬
rence above Plautus in the art of writing ; and, confi-
dering that Terence is a later writer, nothing would
appear more natural, if they did not copy the fame ori¬
ginals. It may be owing to genius that Terence ex¬
celled in purity of language and propriety of dialogue j
but how account for his fuperiority over Plautus in the
fconftruCtion and conduCt of a play? It will not cer¬
tainly be thought, that Plautus would imitate the worft
conftru&ed plays, leaving the beft to thofe who (hould
2 ] ART
come after him. 1 his difficulty does not ieem to have
occurred to any of the commentators. Had the works
of Menander and of his cotemporaries been preferved,
they probably woiftd have explained the myftery j
which for want oi that light will probably remain a
myftery for ever.
Homer has for more than 2030 years been held the
prince of poets. Such perfe&ion in an author who
fiourilhed when arts were far fhort of maturity, is tru¬
ly wonderful. 1 he nations engaged in the Trojan war
are defcribed by him as in a progrefs from the (hepherd
ftate to that of agriculture. Frequent mention is made
in the Iliad of the moft eminent men being ftiepherds.
Andromache, in particular, mentions feven of her bre¬
thren who were flain by Achilles as they tended their
father’s flocks and herds. In that ftate, garments of
woollen cloth were ufed ; but the Ikins of beafts, the
original clothing, were ftill worn as an upper garment j.
every chief in the Iliad appeared in that drefs. Such in¬
deed was the fimplicity of this early period, that a
black ewe was promifed by each chief to the man who
would undertake to be a fpy. In times of fuch fimpli¬
city, literature could not be far advanced ; and it is a
great doubt, whether there was at that time a fingle
poem of the epic kind for Homer to imitate or improve
upon. Homer is undoubtedly a wonderful genius,
perhaps the greateft that ever exifted : his fire, and the
boldnefs of his conceptions, are inimitable. But in
that early age, it would fall little fhort of a real mi¬
racle, to find fuch ripenefs of judgment, and corre&nefs
of execution, as in modern writers are the fruits of long
experience and progreffive improvements during the
courfe of many centuries. Accordingly, that Homer
is far from being fo ripe, or fo corretft, cannot efcape
the obfervation of any reader of tafte and difcernment.
One ftriking particular is, his digreffions without end,
which draw our attention from the principal fubjeft.
Diomedes, for inftance, meeting with Glaucus in the
field of battle, and doubting from his majeftic 'airy
whether he might not be an immortal, inquires who he
was, declaring that he would not fight with a god.
Glaucus lays hold of this very flight opportunity, in
the very heat of action, to give a long hiftory of his
family. In the mean time the reader’s patience is
put to a trial, and his ardour cools. Again, Aga¬
memnon defiring advice how to refill; the Trojans, Dio¬
medes fprings forward ; but before he offers advice,
gives the hiftory of all his progenitors, and of their
chara&ers, in a long train. And, after all, what was
the fage advice that required fuch a preface ? It was,
that Agamemnon Ihould exhort the Greeks to fight
bravely. At any rate, was Diomedes fo little known,
as to make it proper to fufpend the aflion at fo critical
a junClure, for a genealogical hiftory ? There is a
third particular which juftly merits cenfure ; and that
is, an endlefs number of minute circumftances, efpe-
cially in the defcription of battles, where they are
moft improper. The capital beauty of an epic poem
is, the feleCtion of fuch incidents and circumftances
as make a deep impreflion, keeping out of view every
thing low or familiar. An account of a fingle battle
employs the whole fifth book of the Iliad and a great
part of the fixth : yet in the whole there is no general
aCtion ; but unknown warriors, whom we never heard
of before, killed at a diftance with an arrow or a jave¬
lin $.
ART
[ 693 ]
ART
Arts.
iCaul'es of
the decline
of the fine
arts.
Hn ‘7 and every wound defcribed with anatomical accu¬
racy. Tiie whole feventeenth book is employed in the
conteft about the dead body of Patroclus, flufftd with
minute circumftances, below the dignity of an t pic
poem. In fuch fcenes the reader is fatigued with end-
lefs particulars j and has nothing to lupport him but.
the melody of Homer’s verfification.
Having traced the progrefs of the fine arts toward
maturity, in a fummary way, the decline of thefe arts
comes next in order. An art, in its progrefs toward
maturity, is greatly promoted by emulation •, and, af¬
ter arriving at maturity, its downfal is not lefs promo¬
ted by it. It is difficult to judge of perfeflion but by
comparifon •, and an artift, ambitious to outilrip his
predeceffors, cannot fubmit to be an imitator, but mull
ftrike out fomething new, which, in an art advanced
to ripenefs, feldom fails to be a degeneracy. This
caufe of the decline of the fine arts may be illullrated
by various inflances. The perfection of vocal mufic is
to accompany paffion, and to enforce fentiment. In
ancient Greece, the province of mufic was well under-
ftood j which being confined within its proper fphere,
had an enchanting influence. Harmony at that time
was very little cultivated, becaufe it was of very little
«fe : melody reaches the heart, and it is by it chiefly
that a fentiment is enforced, or a paffion fopthed ; har¬
mony, on the contrary, reaches the ear only $ and it
is a matter of undoubted experience, that the moll me¬
lodious airs admit but of very Ample harmony. Art-
ifts, in later times, ignorant why harmony was fo little
regarded by the ancients, applied themfelves ferioufly
to its cultivation j and they have been wonderfully fuc-
cefsful. But they have been fuccefsful at the expence
of melody j which in modern compofitions, generally
fpeaking, is loft amid the blaze of harmony. Thefe
compofitions tickle the ear by the luxury of complica¬
ted founds, but feldom make any impreffion on the
heart. The Italian opera, in its form, refembles the
Greek tragedy, from which it is evidently copied ; but
very little in fubftance. In the latter, mufic being
made fubfervient to fentiment, the dialogue is nervous
and fublime : in the former, the whole weight is laid on
mufic ; and the dialogue, devoid of fentiment, is weak
and fpiritlefs. Reftlefs man knows no golden mean,
but will be attempting innovations without end. By
- the fame ambition, architecture has vifibly declined
from its perfeftion. The Ionic was the favourite order
when architecture was in its height of glory. The
Corinthian order came next ; which, in attempting
greater perfection, has deviated from the true fimpli-
city of nature : and the deviation is ftill greater in the
Compofite order. With refpeCt to literary prodiiCtions,
the firft eflays of the Romans were very imperfeCt.
We may judge of this from Plautus, whofe compofi¬
tions are abundantly rude, though much admired by
his cotemporaries, being the belt that exifted at that
time. The exalted fpirit of the Romans hurried them
on to the grand and beautiful ; and literary produc¬
tions of all kinds were in perfection when Auguftus
reigned. In attempting ftill greater perfection, the
Roman compofitions became a ftrange jumble of incpn-
fiftent parts : they were tumid and pompousand, at
the fame time, full of antithefes, conceit, and tinlel
wit. Every thing new in the fine arts pleafes, though
MiperfeCl than what we are accuftomed to) and, lor
that reafon, fuch compofitions were generally relifli-
ed. We fee not bv what gradual fteps writers, alter
the time of Auguftus, deviated from the patterns that
were before them j lor no book of any moment after
that time is preferved till we come down to Seneca,
in whofe works nature and fimplicity give place to ar¬
tificial thought and baltard wit. He was a great cor¬
rupter of the Roman tafte) and after him nothing
was relifhed but brilliant ftrokes of fancy, with very
little regard to fentiment: even Virgil and Cicero
made no figure in comparifon. Lucan has a forced
elevation of thought and ftyle very difficult to be fup-
ported *, and, accordingly, he finks often into puerile
reflections 7 witnefs his encomium on the river Po )
which, fays lie, would equal the Danube, had it the
fame number of tributary itreams. Quintilian, a wri¬
ter of true and claffical tafte, who was protected and
encouraged by Vt-fpaiian, attempted to Item the tide
of falfe writing. His rhetoric is compofed in an ele¬
gant ftyle ; and his obfervations contain every delicacy
of the critical art. At the fame time flourifhed Ta¬
citus, pofleffing a more extenfive knowledge of the
nature of man than any other author, ancient or mo¬
dern, if Shakefpeare be not excepted. His ftyle is ori¬
ginal, concife, compaCt, and comprehenfive ; and, in
what is properly called his hi/lory, perfectly correCt and
beautiful. He has been imitated by feveral, but never
equalled by any. Brutus is faid to be the laft of the
Romans for love of liberty : Quintilian and Tacitus
may be faid to be the laft of the Romans for literary
genius. Pliny the younger is no exception ; his ftyle
is affeCted, turgid, and full of childiffi brilliancy. Se¬
neca and Pliny are proper examples of writers who ftu-
dy (how more than fubftance, and who make fenfe yield
to found. The difference between thefe authors and
thofe of the Auguftan age, refembles the difference be¬
tween Greek and Italian mufic. Mufic, among the
Greeks, limited itfelf to the employment to which it is
deftined by nature, viz. to be the handmaid of fenfe, to
enforce, enliven, or fweeten a fentiment. In the Italian
opera, the mifirefs is degraded to be handmaid ; and
harmony triumphs, with very little regard to fenti¬
ment.
Another great caufe that precipitates the downfal of
every fine art is defpotilm. The reafon is obvious ; and
there is a difmal example of it in Rome, particularly
with regard to eloquence. We learn from a dialogue
accounting for the corruption of the Roman eloquence,
that in the decline of the art it became falhionable to
Huff harangues with impertinent poetical quotations,
without anv view but ornament merely ; and this alio
was long fafhionable in France. It happened unlucki¬
ly for the Romans, and for the world, that the fine
arts were at their height in Rome, and not much upon
the decline in Greece, when defpotifm put an end to the
republic. Augultus, it is true, retarded their fall, par¬
ticularly that of literature ; it being the policy of his
reign to hide defpotifm, and to give his government
an air of freedom. His court was a fchool of urbani¬
ty, where people of genius acquired that delicacy of
talle, that elevation of fentiment, and that purity ot
expreffion, which charafterife the writers ot his time.
He honoured men ot learning, admitted them to his
table, and was bountiful to them. It would be pain¬
ful to follow the decline of the fine arts in Rome to
their.
Arts.
ART - . [ 694 ]
Arts. their total extirpation. The tyranny of Tiberias, and vice alone
'"■“V1*-—' of fubfequent emperors, broke at latl the elevated and
independent fpirit of the brave Romans, reduced them
to abjedt ilavery, and left not a fpark of genius. The
fcience of law is the only exception, as it flourilhed even
in the word of times : the Roman lawyers were a re-
fpedlable body, and lefs the objedt of jealoufy than
men of power and extenfive landed property. Among
the Greeks alfo, a conquered people, the fine arts de¬
cayed •, but not fo rapidly as at Rome: the Greeks,
farther removed from the feat of government, being
lefs within the reach of a Roman tyrant. During
their depreffion, they were guilty of the moft puerile
conceits: witnefs verfes compofed in the form of an axe,
an egg, wings, and fuch like. The ftyle of Greek au¬
thors, in the reign of the emperor Adrian, is unequal,
obfcure, ftiff, and affedted. Lucian is the only exception
that may be made.
We fcarcely need any other caufe but defpotifm, to
account for the decline of ftatuary and painting in
Greece. Thefe arts had arrived at their utmoft perfec¬
tion about the time of Alexander the Great; and from
that time they declined gradually with the vigour of a
free people ; for Greece was now enflaved by the Mace¬
donian power. It may in general be obferved, that
when a nation becomes ftationary in that degree of power
which it acquires from its conftitution andfituation, the
national fpirit fubfides, and men of talents become rare.
It is Rill worfe with a nation that is funk below its for¬
mer power and pre-eminence ; and worft of all when it
is reduced to flavery. Other caufes eoncurred to acce¬
lerate the downfal of the arts mentioned. Greece, in
the days of Alexander, was filled with ftatues of excel¬
lent workmanfhip •, and there being little demand for
more, the later ftatuaries were reduced to heads and
bulls. At lad the Romans put a total end both to fta¬
tuary and painting in Greece, by plundering it of its
fineft pieces; and the Greeks, expofed to the avarice of
the conquerors, bellowed mo longer any money on the
fine arts.
r*': Petronius The decline of the fine arts in Rome is by a * writer
Arbiter. of tafte and elegance afcribed to a caufe different from
any above mentioned, a caufe that overwhelms man¬
hood as well as the fine arts wherever it prevails ;
and that is opulence, joined with its faithful attendants
avarice and luxury. “ In ancient times (fays he),
when naked virtue had her admirers, the liberal arts
were in their higheft vigour ; and there was a generous
conteft among men, that nothing of real and perma¬
nent advantage fhould long remain undifcovered. De¬
mocritus extradled the juice of every herb and plant;
and, left the virtue of a fingle ftone or twig Ihould
efcape him, he confumed a lifetime in experiments.
Eudoxus, immerfed in the ftudy of aftronomy, fpent his
age upon the top of a mountain. Chryfippus, to ftimu-
late his inventive faculty, thrice purified his genius with
hellebore. To turn to the imitative arts; Lyfippus,
while labouring on the form of a fingle ftatue, perifhed
from want. Myron, whofe powerful hand gave to the
brafs almoft the foul of man and animals,—at his death
found not an heir ! Of us of modern times what lhall
we fay ? Immerfed in drunkennefs and debauchery, we
want the fpirit to cultivate thofe arts which we poffefs.
'We inveigh againft the manners of antiquity; we ftudy
ART
and vice is all we teach. Where now is the
art of reafoning ? Where aftronomy ? Where is the '
right path of wifdom ? What man now-a-days is heard
in our temples to make a vow for the attainment of elo¬
quence, or for the difcovery of the fountain of true phi-
lofophy ? Nor do we even pray for health of body, or a
found underftanding. One, while he has fcarce entered
the porch of the temple, devotes a gift in the event of
the death of a rich relation ; another prays for the dif¬
covery of a treafure; a third for a minifterial fortune.
The fenate itfelf, the exemplary preceptor of what is
good and laudable, has promifed a thoufand pounds of
gold to the capitol ; and, to remove all reproach from
the crime of avarice, has offered a bribe to Jupiter him-
felf. How ftiould we wonder that the art of painting
has declined, when, in the eyes both of the gods and
men, there is more beauty in a mafs of gold than in all
the works of Phidias and Apelles.”—In England, the
fine arts are far from fuch perfeftion as to fuffer by opu¬
lence. They are in a progrefs, it is true, toward ma¬
turity ; but they proceed in a very flow pace.
There is ftill another caufe that never fails to under¬
mine a fine art in a country where it is brought to per-
fedlion, abftradling from every one of the caufes above
mentioned. It is remarked a little above, that nothing
is more fatal to an art or to a fcience than a performance
fo much fuperior to all of the kind as to extinguifti emu¬
lation. This remark is exemplified in the great Newton,
who having furpaffed all the ancients, has not left to his
countrymen even the fainteft hope of rivalling him; and
to that caufe is attributed the yifible decline of mathe¬
matics in Great Britain. The fame caufe would have
been fatal to the arts of ftatuary and painting among the
Greeks, even though they had continued a free people.
The decay of painting in modern Italy is, probably, ow¬
ing to thefamecaufe: Michael Angelo, Raphael, Titian,
&c. are lofty oaks that bear down young plants in their
neighbourhood, and intercept from them the funftiine of
emulation. Had the art of painting made a flower pro¬
grefs in Italy, it might have there continued in vigour
to this day. Velleius Paterculus fays judicioufly, “ Ut
primo ad confequendos quos priores ducimus accendi-
mur ; ita, ubi aut praeteriri aut sequari eos poffe de-
Arts.
fperavimus, ftudium cum fpe fenefcit; et quod adfe-
qui non poteft, fequi definit: prseteritoque eo in quo
eminere non poflimus, aliquid in quo nitamur conqui-
rimus.”
The decline of an art or fcience proceeding from the
foregoing caufe, is the moft rapid where a ftridl com-
parifon can be inftituted between the works of differ¬
ent mafters. The fuperiority of Newton above every
other mathematician can be afcertained with precifion ;
and hence the fudden decline of that fcience in Great
Britain. In Italy a talent for painting continued
many years in vigour, becaufe no painter appeared with
fuch fuperiority of genius as to carry perfection in
every branch of the art. As one furpaffed in defigning,
one in colouring, one in graceful attitudes, there was
ftill fcope for emulation. But when at laft there was
not a fingle perfection but what one or other mafter
had excelled in, from that period the art began to lan-
guifh. Architecture continued longer in vigour than
painting, becaufe the principles of comparifon in the
former are lefs precife than in the latter. The artift
wdio
ART [ 69
Arts. wlio could not rival his predeceffors in an eftablifhed
u—v '*J mode, fought out a new mode for himfelf, which,
though perhaps lefs elegant or perfeft, was for a time
11 fupported by novelty.
Ufeful arts Ufeful arts will never be neglefted in a country
lefs fubject wjiere there is any police; for every man finds his ac-
to decline. • » , • rPL
count m them, rine arts are more precarious. Ihey
are not reliihed but by perfons of tafte, who are
rare j and fuch as can fpare great fums for fupport-
ing them are ftili more rare. For that reafon, they
will never flourifh in any country, unlefs patronized
by the fovereign, or by men of power and opulence.
They merit fuch patronage, as one of the fprings of
government: and a capital fpring they make, by mul¬
tiplying amufements, and humanizing manners ; upon
which account they have always been encouraged by
good princes.
T e ry General Theonj of the Polite ARTS. The effence of
o/the^o- polite arts, as before obferved, confifts in exprcjjion.
lite arts. The end of thefe arts is ,* whereas the end of
the faiences is inflruRion and utility. Some of the
polite arts indeed, as eloquence, poetry, and architec¬
ture, are frequently applied to objefts that/ are ufeful,
or exercifed in matters that are inftrufUve, as we fhall
fhow more particularly in their proper place ; but in
thefe cafes, though the ground-work belongs to thofe
faiences which employ the underftanding, yet the ex-
preffion arifes from the inventive faculty. It is a pic¬
ture that is defigned by Minerva, to which the Mufes
add the colouring, and the Graces the frame. This
union forms therefore the perfection of the art, accord¬
ing to that fententious and well known precept of Ho¬
race :
Ornnc tulit minflum. aid mi feint utile dulci.
x3 . : r
What arts Under the denomination therefore, of Polite Arts*
ntted.!0m' we comPrehend, I. Eloquence; 2. Poetry ; 3 Muuc ;
4, Painting ; 5. Sculpture •, 6. Graving *, 7. Architec¬
ture ; 8. Declamation ; 9. Dancing. Particular de-
feriptions of .thefe arts are given under their refpe&ive
names. This branch of the prefent article is intended
as a general introduction to them; and, as fuch, will
be oceafionally referred to.
There is one very effential refleCtron, which it ap¬
pears to us proper to make in the firil place, on the po¬
lite arts in general. All the rules in the world are not
fufficient to make a great poet, an able orator, or an
excellent artitl ; becaufe the quality neceffary to form
thefe, depends on the natural difpofition, the fire of
genius, which no human art can confer, but which is
| jfg 0Tf4 the pure gift of heaven. The rules, however, will
:epts. prevent a man .from being a bad artift, a dull orator, or
a wretched poet; feeing they are the reflections of the
greateft mailers in thofe arts, and that they point out
the rocks which the artift (liould fhun in the exercife of
his talents. They are of ufe moreover, in facilitating his
labours, and in directing him to arrive by the fhorteil
and fureit road at perfection. They refine, ftrengthen,
and confirm his tafie. Nature, abandoned to herfelf, has
fomething conltantly wild and favage. Art, founded on
juft and fagacious rules, gives her elegance, dignity, and
politenefs ; and it is impnffible to facrifice properly to
the Graces, without knowing the incenfe that is pleafing
to them.
Beauty is the objeCt of all the polite arts. It is not,
5 ] . . A 11 T.
however, fo eafy, as it may feem, to give a clear and • Arts,
determinate idea of what we precifely mean by that —1
term *. Many able writers, who have treated ex- 15
prefsly on the fubjeCt, have Ihown that they were to*nms^tajfe"
tally ignorant of what it was. It is one of thefe expref-what.
fions that we comprehend immediately, that prefent * See th*
us with a clear and precife idea, that leave a diftinCt arncie
impreflion on our minds, when it is limply written or beauty.
pronounced ; but which philofophers envelope in dark-
nefs, when they attempt to elucidate it by definitions
and deferiptions ; and the more, as mankind have dif¬
ferent ideas of beauty, their opinions and taftes being
as various as their linderftandings and phyfiognomies.
We may fay, however, in general, that beauty refults
from the various perfections of which any objeCt is fuf-
ceptible, and which it actually poffeffes ; and that the
perfections which produce beauty confift principally in
the agreeable and delightful proportions which are
found, 1. Between the feveral parts of the fame ob¬
jeCt ; 2. Between each part and the whole together;
3. Between the parts and the end or defign of the
objeCt to which they belong. Genius, or invention, is
that faculty of the mind by which beauty is produced.
Tajle\, difpofilion, or rather the natural fenfation of t See TVi/fc.
the mind refined by art, ferves to guide the genius in
difeerning, embracing, and producing, that which is
beautiful of every kind. From whence it follows,
that the general theory of the polite arts is nothing
more than the knowledge of what they contain that is
truly beautiful and agreeable; and it is this knowledge,
this theory, which modern philofophers call by the
Latin name of ceJiheUca.
It ftiould be conftantly remembered, that the elfence
of the polite arts confifts in expreffion. This expreflion
lies fometimes in the words, and fometimes in the
pen ; fometimes in founds and their harmony, and at
others in corporeal attitudes ; fometimes in the pen¬
cil or in the chifel, and at others in the graver ; fome¬
times in a proper difpofition or judicious employment
of the mechanic arts, and at others merely in their
manner of aCting. From whence arife thofe arts that
we have mentioned, and which are deferibed in their
order. I0-
The general theory of the polite arts, or ejlhetics, Firft gene-
neeeffarily fuppofes, therefore, certain rules; but thefe ral ru^e*
general rules are of no great number. The firft is,
That whoever would devote himfelf to the polite arts,
ftiould above all things confult his genius-; diveft himfelf ’
of felf-love ; and examine if be be a true fon of Apollo,
and cheriftied by the Mufes : for
In vain, rafh author, doft thou drive to climb,
By lofty verfe, Parnaffus’ height fublime,
If heaven does not by fecret powers infpire,
Or if thy natal ftar darts not poetic fire.
\
This precept with regard to poetry in particular, is
applicable to all the polite arts in general: for their
molt happy fuccefs is founded on imagination. By Imagina-
this term, we underftand, in general, a faculty of the t^on w^at°
mind, a particular genius, a lively invention, a certain
fubtle fpirit, which gives a facility in difeovering
fomething new. But it is neceffary alfo to deferibe
juft bounds to this term new, which muft not be here jg
taken in an abfolyte fenfe. Solomon wifely remarks, Novelty
that, even in his time, there was nothing new underand Invcn—
the'™
Arts.
ART [ 696 ] ART
19
2 cl Rule,
Improve¬
ment of
tafte.
20
3^, Imita¬
tion of na¬
ture.
the fun. In fa&, all that exifts, and all that is capable
of being difcovered in the known world, has already
been difcovered. The fine arts in their imitations of
nature, in their expreffions, can borrow images, fi¬
gures, comparil'ons, from thofe things only that exift
and are known. As there have been from the begin¬
ning of the world to our days, millions of authors in
each of the polite arts, almoft all the poffible combi¬
nations of the various fubjefts have been produced by
their lively imaginations ; and when we hear the igno¬
rant part of mankind talk of a work of wit or of art
that'is entirely new, that offers ideas which were be¬
fore utterly unknown, that had never entered into the
brain of any other man, we fliould refer fuch affertions
to the clafs of popular errors: and refleft on thofe fto-
•ries we every day here of certain empirics, who pretend
to be alone poffeffed of marvellous methods of cure by
means of fimples *, as if there were any plant, any flalk
of grafs that grows in our w’orld, that can have efcaped
the refearcheS of botanifts. But the novelty, of which
we here fpeak, confifls in the ingenious ufe of combina¬
tions of all the various objedls of nature, that are new,
happy, and agreeable, that have not yet been exhauft-
ed, and which appear even to be inexbauftible j and of
the ufe which the artifl makes of all new difcoveries,
which he turns to his advantage by a judicious appli¬
cation. Invention therefore fuppofes a confiderable
fund of preliminary knowledge, fuch as is capable of
furnifhing ideas and images, to form new combinations.
But there is no ai;t by which invention itfelf can be
produced ; for that, as we have already faid, is the gift
of heaven *, and it is an endow’ment which we cannot
even make ufe of whenever we pleafe. We would ra¬
ther fay, therefore, that invention confifts in producing,
in works of genius, that which is unexpeEled; an objedl,
a harmony, a perfection, a thought, an expreffion of
which we had no idea, that we could not fortfee, nor
hope to find, where the artift has fo happily placed it,
and where we perceive it with delight. This idea ap¬
pears applicable to fuch of the polite arts as affedt the
mind by the hearing as well as by the fight $ and it is
a matter that is highly effential.
The fecond rule is, That every artift ought incef-
fantly to labour in the improvement of his tajle; in
acquiring that fenfible, refined, and clear difcernment,
by which he will be enabled to diftinguifti the real
beauties in each objedt, the ornaments that are agree¬
able to it, and the proportions and relations that fubfift
among the feveral parts : and by this faculty, he will
be regulated in the employment of his natural talents.
This labour confifts not only in the profound refleftions
he will make on the properties of objeCls, as they relate
to the fine arts, but alfo in a conftant, afliduous ftudy
of the grand models of beauty.
The third rule to be obferved in the praClice of the
polite arts, is the imitation of nature. Every objeft in
the univerfe has its peculiar nature, of which the artift
ftiould never lofe fight in his manner of treating it. In
vain will he otherwife ornament his work with the moft
refined and moft.brilliant ftrnkes ; for, if nature be not
juftly imitated, it will for ever remain imperfeCI. The
fublime Homer has fometimes finned againft this rule :
for, as the gods have a nature peculiar to themfelves,
it cannot be a juft imitation when we attribute to them
paflions that are fcarcely pardonable in mortals, and make Arts,
them frequently converfe in a language that is at once -v~—^
vulgar and ridiculous. It was not to imitate’nature,
to put in the mouth of a hero, at the moment of a
decifive battle, a harangue that muft become tedious
by its exceflive length, and which certainly could not
have been heard by the thoufandth part of a numerous
army : but we have already touched upon fome of the
faults that are ftrewed over the poems of that great
man j to multiply or dwell upon them would be un¬
grateful. We muft, however, obferve that this imita¬
tion of nature, which appears at firft view fo fimple
and fo eafy, is of all things the moft difficult in prac¬
tice 5 and that it requires a difcernment fo fagacious,
and an expreflion fo happy, as is rarely bellowed by
heaven on mortal man. Jr
forms the fourth rule of expreffion. In^b.per-
all the fine arts, in general, an obfeure, perplexed, am-fpicuity.
biguous, and elaborate expreffion, is always bad. The
true linking beauty muft be manifeft and perceptible
to the moft ignorant of mankind as well as the moft
learned. Thofe are even falfe or inferior beauties that
have occafion for a covering, a kind of veil that may
make them appear greater than they really are : true
beauty wants no veil, but fhines by its native luftre.
From the union of the true imitation of nature with
perfpicuity of expreffion arifes that truth which is fo ef¬
fential in the productions of the fine arts. 2J
In all the polite arts, and in all the fubjtds they 5tli, Eleva-
embrace, there muft neceflarily reign an elevation oftionoffen-
fentiment, that expreffes each objeft in the greateft
perfedion of which it is fufceptible 5 that imitates na¬
ture in her moft exalted beauty. This makes the
fifth general rule. The defign of the fine arts being
to excite pleafure by the expreffion of that which is
beautiful, every artift fliould raife himfelf above his
fubjeCt ; and, choofing the moft favourable light where¬
in to place it, ftiould there embelliffi it with the great-
eft, moft noble, and beautiful ornaments, that his own
genius can fuggeft j ftill, however, obferving a Arid
imitation of nature. 2-
From the obfervation of thefe two laft rules refults 6th, The
the fublime, which is the union of the greateft perfpi-
cuity with the ftriCteft truth and moft exalted eleva-V0ure(j
tion poffible. It is neceffary to remark here, that the ter.
moft fimple and common fubjeCls are fufceptible of a
fublime that is agreeable to their nature. An idyl or
landfcape may be as fublime in their kinds as an epic
poem or a hiftory piece. When Mofes begins the book
of Genefis, with thefe words, In the beginning God
created the heaven and the earth; or when he tells us,
that God faid, Let there be light, and there was light;
thefe expreffions are fublime in the higheft degree, be-
caufe they are perfeClly clear, true, and elevated. E-
very author ftiould therefore endeavour after the fu¬
blime* in every fubjeCl that he undertakes j and this* See the
makes the fixth and laft general rule in the praClice ofart‘clc
the polite arts. But if he cannot attain to this, it is,
however, indifpenfably neceffary that he conflantly
make ufe of expreffions that are noble and refned. E-
very thing that is low, indecent, or difagreeable, is na¬
turally repugnant to the fublime, and ought to be for
ever baniffied from all works that proceed from the
noble and liberal arts.
Art
3
a n t
Alt
ART is alfo an appellation given to feveral fuperfti-
tious practices, as, Sc AnfeIni's art, St Paul's art
Artaxata. >
W Art and Part, \n Scots Law. See Accessory.
A.R. I A, by fome called Larta, a town of flower
Albania, in Turkey in Europe, with a Greek arch-
bilhop’s fee. It is a pretty large town, and contains
about 7000 or 8000 inhabitants, Greeks and Turks •
but the former are the moft numerous. The cathe¬
dral has as many windows and doors as there are days
in the year. It is fupported by above 2000 marble
pillars 5 and was built by Michael Ducas Comneno
emperor of Conftantinople, as appears by an infcription
over the great door. It carries on a confiderable trade,
particularly in tobacco and furs. E. Lons'. 21 2c/
N. Lat. 39. 28. 6 0 3-
AR 1 ABA, an ancient meafure of capacity ufed by
the Perfians, Medes, and Egyptians.
The Perfian artaba is represented by Herodotus as
bigger than the Attic medimnus by three Atic chce-
nixes: from which it appears that it was equal to 6^
Roman modii j confequently that it contained i66-y
pounds of wine or water, or 126^ pounds of wheat.
The Egyptian artaba contained five Roman modii, and
fell Ihort of the Attic medimnus by one modiusj confe¬
quently held 133^ pounds of water or wine, zoo pounds
of wheat, or 60 of Hour.
ARI ABANUS, the name of feveral kings of Par-
thia. See Parthia.
ART AB AZUS, the fon of Fharnaces, command-
ed the Parthians and Chorafmians in the famous expe¬
dition of Xerxes. After the battle of Salamis, he
efcoi ted the king his matter to the Hellefpont with
60,000 chofen men ; and after the battle of Platma, in
which Mardonius engaged contrary to his advice, he
made a noble retreat, and returned to Afia with 40,000
men under his command.
ART AX A PA, the royal refidenee and metro¬
polis of Armenia Major (Strabo, Pliny, Juvenal),
and built according to a plan of Hannibal, for King
Artaxias, after whom it was called. It was fituated
on an elbow of the river Araxes, which formed a kind
of peninfula, and furrounded the town like a wall, ex¬
cept on the fide of the ifthmus, but this fide was fe-
cured by a rampart and ditch. This town was deem¬
ed fo ftrong, that Lucullus, after having defeated Ti-
granes, durtt not lay fiege to it ; but Pompey com¬
pelled him to deliver it up without ftriking a blow. It
was then levelled with the ground ; but the Armeni¬
ans have a tradition, that the ruins of it are ftill to be
feen at a place called Ardachat. Sir John Chardin
fays, that it has the name of Ardachat from Artaxias,
whom in the Eaft they call Ardechier. Here are the
remains of a ttately palace which the Armenians take
to be that of 1 iridates who reigned in the time of
Conftantine the Great. One front of this building is
but half ruined, and there are many other fine antiqui¬
ties which the inhabitants call Ta£l Tradat, that is,
the throne of Tiridates. Tavernier alfo mentions the
ruins of Artaxata between Erivan and Mount Ararat,
but does not fpecify them. The ancient geographers
mention another city of the fame name, like wife fi¬
tuated on the Araxes, but in the northern part of Me¬
dia, known among the ancients by the name of Acro-
jpatia.
Vol. II. Part II.
r 697 1
ART
dorus.
AR F AXERXES, the name of feveral kings of Per- Artaxerxes
fia. See Persia. j|
AR I'EDI, Peter, an eminent naturalift, was born Artemi-
in Sweden in the year 1705, in the province of An-
germania. Although his parents were poor, yet it
appears they found means to give him a liberal educa¬
tion, and with this view they fent him to the college
of Hurnefand. Intending to embrace the ecclefiaftieal
profeflion, he went in 1724 to Upfal ; but being fond
of the ftudy of natural hiftory, he yielded to the bent
of inclination, and directed his attention towards me¬
dicine. In natural hiftory he made rapid progrefs, and
foon arofe to confiderable eminence, particularly in the
knowledge of Ichthyology. His reputation for natural
knowledge was high when Linnaeus arrived at Upfal in
the year 1728. A lafting friendftiip was formed between
thefe two great men. Confining his botanical ftudies to
the umbelliferous plants, he fuggefted a new mode of
claflification; but Artedi was much better acquainted
with chemiftry than botany. His attention was chiefly
directed to ichthyology, the clattification of which he
greatly reformed, and new-modelled upon philofophi-
cal principles. This arrangement added greatly to
his reputation as a naturalift. When the two friends
were about to leave Upfal, Linnaeus to go to Lapland,
and Artedi to England, they reciprocally bequeathed
to each other their manufcripts and books upon the
event of death. In the year 1735, they, however,
met again at Leyden, where Artedi was introduced to
Seba, and employed in preparing for the prefs the
third volume of that eminent naturalift’s Thefaurus,
which_ chiefly related to fillies. Artedi formed the
refolution, as foon as that work was finilhed, to/eturn
to his native country, to publifti the fruits of his own
labours *, but unfortunately as he was returning home
from Seba’s houfe on the evening of September 27.
I735t n>ght being dark, he fell into the canal and
was drowned. According to agreement, his manu¬
fcripts came into the hands of Linnaeus, and he pub-
liftied his Bibliotheca Ichthyolngica, and Philofophia Ich-
thyo/ogica, together with a life of the author, at Ley¬
den in the year 1738. (Gen. Blog.)
ARTEDIA. See Botany Index.
ARl'EMIDORUS, famous for his Treatife on
Dreams. He was born at Ephefus, but took upon him
the furname of Daldianus in this book, by way of
refpedft to his mother country Daltis. He ftyled him-
felf the Ephejian in his other performances. He not
only bought up all that had been W'ritten concerning
the explication of dreams, which amounted to many
volumes j but he likewife fpent many years in travel¬
ling, in order to contra# an acquaintance with for¬
tune-tellers 5 he alfo carried on an extenfive correfpon-
dence with all the people of this fort in the cities'and
aflembiles ot Greece, Italy, and the moft populous
iflands; collefting at the fame time all the old dreams,
and the events which are faid to have followed them.
1 he work which he wrote on dreams confifted of five
books: the firft three were dedicated to one Caflius
Maximus ; and thedaft two to his fon, whom he took
a good deal of pains to inftru# in the nature and inter¬
pretation of dreams. This work, though filled with
frivolous obfervations, contains fome things that are
interefting. It was firft printed in Greek at Venice in
1518 j and Rigaltius publifhed an edition at Paris, in
4 T Greek
ART [ (598 ]
Artemifia, Greek and Latin, in 1603, and added fome notes. Ar- fury.
Artemifi- temidorus wrote alfo a treatife upon Auguries, and an¬
other upon Chiromancy 5 but they are not extant. He
lived under the emperor Antoninus Pius.
ARTEMISIA, wife of Maufolus, king of Caria,
has immortalized herfelf by the honours which die paid
to the memory of her hufband. She built for him in
Halicarnaffus, a very magnificent tomb, called the Mau-
foleum, which was one of the feven wonders of the
world, and from which the title of Maufolenm was af¬
terwards given to all tombs remarkable for their
grandeur •, but fhe died of regret and forrow before
the Maufoleum was finifhed. She appointed panegy¬
rics to be made in honour of him, and propofed a prize
of great value for the perfon who (hould compofe the
belt. He died about the end of the ic6th Olympiad,
351 years before the Chriftian era.
Artemisia, queen of Caria, and the daughter of
Ligdamis, marched in perfon in the expedition of
Xerxes againft the Greeks, and performed wonders in
the fea-fight near Salamis, 480 years before the Chrif-
tian era. Being purfued by an Athenian veffel, (lie
attacked one of the Perfian drips, commanded by De-
mafithymus, king of Calyndus, her enemy, and funk
it; on which the Athenians, thinking that her drip
■was on the fide of the Greeks,- ceafed their purfuit j
but Xerxes was the principal perfon impofed upon in
this affair 5 for believing die had funk an Athenian
veffel, he declared, that “ the men had behaved like
women, and the women like men.” Xerxes intruded
her with the care of the young princes of Perda, his
fons, when, agreeably to her advice, he abandoned
Greece, in order to return to Afia. Thefe great qua¬
lities, did not fecure her from the weaknefs of love :
die was padionately fond of a man of Abydos, whofe
name was Dardanus, and was fo enraged at his neglect
of her, that die put out his eyes while he was adeep.
The gods in order to punidi her for this, infpired her
with a dill dronger padion for him 5 fo that the oracle
having advifed her to go to Leucas, which was the
ufage of defperate lovers, die took the leap from
thence, and was interred at that place.—Many writers
confound this Artemifia with the former, the wife of
Maufolus.
Artemisia, Mugivort, Southernwood, and Worm¬
wood, See Botany Index.
ARTEMISIUM, in Ancient Geography, a promon¬
tory on the north-ead of Euboea, (called Leon and
Cale A£le by Ptolemy), memorable for the fird fea en¬
gagements between the Greeks and Xerxes.
The Grecian fieet was dationed in the harbour j
while that of the Perfians, too numerous for any har¬
bour to contain, had anchored in the road that extends
between the city of Cadanaea and the promontory of
Sepias, on the boad of Theffaly.
The fird line of their fleet was flieltered by the coad
of Theffaly ; but the other lines, to the number of fe¬
ven, rode at anchor, at fmall intervals, with the prows
of the veffels turned to the fea. When they adopted
this arrangement, the waters were fmooth, the fky
clear, the weather calm and ferene: but on the morn¬
ing of the fecond day after their arrival on the coad,
the Iky began ta lower ; the appearance of the hea¬
vens grew threatening and terrible 5 a dreadful dorm
fucceeded, and for three days raged with unabating
Artemifi.
ART
Four hundred galleys were deflroyed by its vio¬
lence, befides a vad number of dorediips and tranfpurts.
Eight hundred fliips of war, however, befides innume-
rable vellels of burden, failed into the Pegafean bay,
and anchored in the road of Aphete, which, at the di¬
dance of a few miles, lies direftly oppofite to the har¬
bour of Artemifium.
The Grecians had poded centinels on the heights of From Giu
Euboea to obferve the confcquence of the dorm, and &•
to watch the motions of the enemy. When informed ^^J-f
of the difader which had befallen them, they poured
out a joyous libation, and facrificed with pious grati¬
tude, to “ Neptune the Deliverer.”
The Perfians, however, being recovered from the
terrors of the dorm, prepared for battle ; and as they
entertained not the fmalled doubt of conquering, they
detached 200 of their bed failing veffels round the ifle
of Eubcea, to intercept the expedted flight of the ene¬
my through the narrow Euripus.
About funfet the Grecian fleet approached in a line 5
and the Perfians met them with the confidence of vic¬
tory, as their thips were dill fufliciently numerous to
furround thofe of their opponents. At the fird fignal
the Greeks formed into a circle, at the fecond they
began the fight. Though crowded into a narrow com-
pafs, and having the enemy on every fide, they foon
took 30 of their flrips, and funk many more. Night
came on, accompanied with an impetuous dorm of
rain and thunder j the Greeks retired into the harbour
of Artemifium j the enemy were driven to the coaft
of Theffaly.
By good fortune, however, rather than by defign,
the greated part of the Perfian fleet efcaped immediate
deflrudlion, and gained the Pegafean bay j but the
fliips ordered to fail round Euboea met with a more
dreadful difader. They were overtaken by the dorm,
after they had adventured further from the fliore than
was ufual with the wary mariners of antiquity. Clouds
foon intercepted the dars, by which alone they direft-
ed their courfe •, and after continuing during the
greated part of the night the fport of the elements,
they all peridied miferably amidd the flioals and rocks
of an unknown coafl.
The morning arofe with different profpedls and hopes
to the Perfians and the Greeks. To the former it
difcovered the extent of their misfortunes j to the
latter it brought a reinforcement of ^3 Athenian
fliips. Encouraged by this favourable circumdance,
they determined again to attack the enemy, at the
fame hour as on the preceding day, becaufe their
knowledge of the coad and their Ikill in fighting their
fhips rendered the dulk peculiarly propitious to their
defigns. At the appointed time, they failed towards
the road of Aphete j and having cut off the Cilician
fquadron from the red, totally dedroyed it, and re¬
turned at night to Artemifium.—The Perfian com¬
manders being deeply affefted with their repeated dif-
aders, but dill more alarmed at the much-dreaded re-
fentment of their king, they determined to make one
vigorous effort for redoring the glory of their arms.
By art and dratagem, and under favour of the night,
the Greeks had hitherto gained many important advan¬
tages. It now belonged to the Perfians to choofe the
time for aflion. On the third day at nopn, they fail¬
ed forth in the form of a crefcent, which was dill fuf-
ficiently
ART [ 699 ] ART
'irtemifi- ficiently extenfive to enfold the Grecian line. The
uin Greeks, animated by former fuccefs, were averfe to
Arthur. decijne an7 °ffer °f battle j yet it is probable that their
L-y   admirals, and particularly Themiftocles, would much
rather have delayed it to a more favourable opportani-
ty. Rage, refentment, and indignation, fupplied the de-
fefl of the barbarians in fldll and courage. The battle
was longer, and more doubtful, than on any former oc-
cafion ; many Grecian veflels were deftroyed, five were
taken by the Egyptians, who particularly fignalized
themfelves on the fide of the barbarians, as the Athe¬
nians did on that of the Greeks. The perfevering va¬
lour of the latter at length prevailed, the enemy reti¬
ring, and acknowledging their fuperiority, by leaving
them in pofTeflion of the dead and the wreck. But the
victory coft them dear j fince their veflels, particularly
thofe of the Athenians, were reduced to a very (batter¬
ed condition •, and their great inferiority in the number
and fize of their (hips, made them feel more fenfibly
every diminution of firength.
Artemisium, a town ofOenotria, (Stephanas): now
S. Agatha, in the Hither Calabria, on the river Pifaurus,
or la Foglia, diftant eight miles from the Tufcan fea 
Another of the Conteftani, in Spain, (Strabo) ; other-
wife called Dianium: now Denia, on the fea coaft of
Valencia.
ARTERIOTOMY, the opening an artery, with
defign to procure an evacuation of blood. See Sur¬
gery.
ARTERY, in Anatomy, a conical tube or canal
which conveys the blood from the heart to all parts of
the body. See Anatomy.
ARTHRITIS, in Medicine, the Gout. See the
Index fubjoined to Medicine.
ARTHRODIA., in Natural Hijlory, a genus of im-
perfedl cryftals, found always in complex maffes, and
forming long Angle pyramids, with very (hort and (len¬
der columns.
Arthrodia, in Anatomy, a fpecies of articulation,
wherein the flat head of one bone is received into a (hal¬
low focket in the other. The humerus and fcapula are
joined by this fpecies of articulation.
ARTHUR, the celebrated hero of the Britons, is
faid to have been the fon of Uthor Pendragon king of
Britain, and to have been born in 501. His life is a
continued fcene of wonders. It is faid that he killed
four hundred and feventy Saxons with his own hand in
one day ; and, after having fubdued many mighty na¬
tions, and inftituted the order of the Knights of the
Round Table, died A. D. 542, of wounds which he re¬
ceived in battle. The moft particular detail of his (lory
and his’exploits is that given by Geoffroy of Monmouth:
but the probable there is fo blended with the marvel¬
lous and the extravagant, that not only the truth of the
whole, but even the reality of Arthur’s exiftence, has
been called in queflion.
In this controverfy, Mr Whittaker has taken much
pains to vindicate the exiftence, and difcriminate be¬
tween the real and the fabulous tranfa&ions, of the
Britifti worthy. “ Many of the actions (he ©bferves)
attributed to Arthur by the Welfh chronicles of Bri¬
tain, are as abfurd in thrmfelves as they are fpurious
in their authority. Written, as thofe narratives were,
many centuries after the fafts, and being merely the
authentic accounts of Arthur, embelliftied with the
fictions and diftorted by the perverfions of folly j they Arthur.
are inconfiftent equally with the ftate of the times, and  r——*
the hiftory of the continent and the ifland. And the Hi.ftory °f
ignorance of the forgers, and the credulity of their
abettors, can be equalled only by the injudicioufnefs ^th’ edit,
and incredulity of the opponents to both. If fome ac- si.etfeq.
counts of Arthur and Cunobeline in thefe hiftories be
certainly fpurious, others are as certainly genuine.
And the relations of Suetonius, Dio, and Nennius, are
' not to be reje&ed, becaufe of the falfehoods which im-
pofture has grafted upon them, and abfurdity admit¬
ted with them.
“ The exiftence of Arthur is evinced by that of the
fables, which have at once annihilated his a£Hons and
his name with the misjudging critic. And the rea-
foner’s own arguments really turn againft himfelf, and
demonftrate the point which they were intended to dif-
prove. I he annals of Wales have long laboured in
Arthur’s commendation. The Highlanders have long
had a poetical hiftory of his exploits in their own lan¬
guage. The whole ifland is in traditionary poffeflion of
his character ; and 600 or 700 places within it are (till
diftinguiftied by his name.
“ The genuine attions of the chief are mentioned
by his own hiftorians, with a modefty and concifenefs
that is no bad argument of the truth, and with a par¬
ticularity of time and place that is a good evidence of
thefatfts. They are noticed by men, whom the death
of the hero had exempted from all temptation to flat¬
tery : they are recited by perfons, whom a proximity
to the time had precluded from all poflibility of mif-
take : and they are attefted by the beft hiftorical au¬
thority, writers who lived cotemporary with him, au¬
thors who converfed with his warriors, and hiftorians
that wrote within a few years after him. He is fpo-
ken of as the honourable father of the Britifti heroes
by the aged Llomarch, a writer aflually cotemporary
with him, and fome timerefident at his court. One of
his greater a&ions is incidentally recorded by Talieflin,
an hiftorical bard living under Maelwn G wined, who
was a fovereign among the Britons in the days of Ar¬
thur, Gildas, and Llomarch. Another of his confider-
able exploits is cafually intimated by Myrdhin Wyhlt or
Merlinus Caledonius, who complains of the fevere treat¬
ment which he himfelf received from Rydderch Hael,
a king cotemporary with Urien Reged, and engaged
with him in a war againft the Saxons on the death of
Ida in yqo* -Vnd all his actions are particularly reci¬
ted by Nennius.
“ In the Hi/loria Britonum of this laft author, Ar¬
thur’s victories over the Saxons are thus recorded.
The firft battle was fought at the mouth of the river
which is denominated G/em. The fecond, third, fourth,
and fifth, were upon another river, that is called Du-
glas, and lies in the region Linuis. The fixth was on
a ftream, which bears the appellation of Baffas. The
feventh was in the wood of Celidon, that is, in Cat
Coit Celidon. The eighth was at Caftle Gunnion ;
and the ninth was at the city of the Legion. The
tenth was on the bank of the river Ribroit ; the ele¬
venth at the hill Agned Cathregonion •, and the twelfth
at Mount Badon. Thefe twelves battle of Arthur are
defcribed to us in the fame manner as Vortimer’s three.
Only the general fa£ts are mentioned, and only the
common names of places are recited, in both. And
4 ^ 2 from
ART f 700 ] ART
Arthur, from the whole air and afpeft of the hiftory, the re-
v"" markable concifenefs with which the notices are given,
and the great eafe with which the places are pointed
out, the detail appears to have been drawn up at the
diflance only of a few years from the tranfaftions, and
when thefe little references were fufficiently under¬
flood.”
Mr Whittaker proceeds to afcertain the fcenes of
Arthur’s battles j after which he gives a relation of
Ibid. them with a furprifing particularity. A fevere critic
p. 34.—54. might be apt to fay, as Dr Kippis obferves, that it re¬
quires all our faith in the author’s judgment, as well
as in his ingenuity and learning, not to fufpeft that he
fometimes allows too much fcope to fancy and conjec¬
ture. However, the whole of what he hath advanced
is fingularly curious, and deferves peculiar attention
and confideration. And no one can help admiring the
penetration with which he hath formed fuch a regular
detail of fa6ls, from the combined aid of hiflory, ro¬
mance, and tradition. According to Mr Whittaker,
Arthur’s principal exploits were againft the northern
Saxons, vvhilft he was only prince of the Silures, and
Ambrofius was the didlator or pendragon of the Bri¬
tons. “ In a feries probably of five campaigns, and
in a fucceffion certainly of eleven victories, this great
commander had repelled the Saxons from the north of
Flavia, diflogcd them from all Maxima, and difpof-
felle.d them of all Valentia. And thefe were fucceffes
fo unchequered with misfortunes, fo great in tbem-
felves, and fo beneficial to the public, that the name
of Arthur claims the firit rank in the lift of military,
and the better one of patriot, heroes.” The twelfth
battle of Arthur was fought in the fouth of England,
after he was eledted to the pendragonfhip, againft Cer-
dic the Saxon. “This (fays Mr Whittaker) was a
moft extraordinary vidlory, and completes the circle
of Arthur’s military glories.” In the author’s ac¬
count of this prince’s condudl in peace, he afterts, that
“ Arthur faw that an appointment was wanted, which
Ihould at once be a more regular and more honourable
fignature of merit j by the certainty of the honour and
the greatnefs of the dignity, call out all the worth of
all the worthy in the nation, and colledl it round
the throne of the pehdragon. Accordingly he efta-
bliftied a military order. It was the firft that had ever
been inftituted in the ifland ; and it has fince been imi¬
tated by all the nations on the continent. By means
of this affociation, Arthur raifed among the provinci¬
als a general glow of ingenuous heroifm, the firft fpi-
rit of chivalry that ever appeared in Europe 5 that
manly and honourable gallantry of foul, which has
made him and his worthies the fubjedl of romantic
hiftories over aW the weft of it. By this, and this
alone, could he have been what hiftory reprefents him,
the Revered Father of the Britiih Heroes in general,
even to the conclufion of the fixth century, and nearly
the middle of the feventh. The order naturally fur-
vived its founder. And the members of it were deno¬
minated the Warriors of Arthur, though the perfons
were born half a century after his death.” Mr Whit¬
taker goes on to inform us, that under the prudent
management of Arthur for 20 years together, a fair
profpeft dawned upon the Britons, and long fcenes of
future glories opened to their imaginations. “ But the
gay vifion was deftroyed at once by the commence-
4
ment of a civil war. Many towns ftill remained in Arthur’s
ruins, the memorial of the former wars, and the difgrace Seat,
of the prefent. I he diffufed fpirit of chivalry was turn- r 'T-*
ed upon the nation, and heroifm became the tool of dif-
fenfion. And the dreadful combination of civil evils
was begun and confummated, at once, by the death of
the renowned Arthur in battle. Thus died the incom¬
parable hero in 542.”
lo thefe obfervations it may not be improper to add
the following account of the difcovery of Arthur’s
tomb, which appears to be tolerably well authenticated.
Henry II. who was the firft of the Plantagenet line,
being, in the Isft year of his reign, at Pembioke, and
hearing there a Welfti bard finging to hi> harp the
ftory of Arthur, concluding with an account of his
death, and burial in the churchyard of Glaftonbury
between two pyramids j the king inftantly gave orders
that the matter fhould be inquired into, and the body
dug up. Ihis was done as the king direfled j and at
the depth of feven feet was found a vaft ftune, where¬
on was fattened a leaden erofs, with this infcription on
the infide : Hie Jacet Sepulius Inclytus Rex Arturius in
Infula Avaloma ; i. e. “ Here lies the famous King Ar¬
thur, buried in the ifle of Avalon.” Digging ftill
lower, they found the king’s body in the trunk of a
tree, his beautiful queen lying by him, with long flow¬
ing hair, in colour bright as gold, w hich, however, funk
into duft when touched. The king’s bones were very
large fized j and in his fkull there were ten wounds or
more, all cicatrized, except that of which he died.
This difcovery was made in the year 1189, as Giraldus
Cambrenfis tells us, who faw thefe bones, and examined
the whole matter carefully. There was alfo a table con¬
taining this ftory, fet up in the monaftery of Glaftonbu¬
ry, and the leaden crofs with the infcription remained
there till the diflblution of the monaftery, where it was
feen by the great antiquary Leland 5 but what is become
of it fince does not appear.
Of the different places above alluded to as being di-
ftinguiftied by our hero’s name, and ferving to evince
his exiftence, the following may be mentioned as one of
the principal.
Arthur's Seat, a high hill in the neighbourhood
of Edinburgh, faid to have been fo denominated from
a tradition that King Arthur furveyed the country
from its fummit, and had alfo defeated the Saxons in
its neighbourhood. This hill rifes by a fteep and rug¬
ged afeent, till it terminates in a rocky point near yoo
feet high from the bafe, being more than double the
height «f the crofs on the top of St Paul’s, London,
which is 340 feet. On the fouth it is in many parts
a perpendicular rock, compofed of bafaltic pillars re¬
gularly pentagonal or hexagonal, about three feet in
diameter, and from 40 to 50 feet in height. Conti¬
guous upon the weft, and partly conne£led wdth it at
the bafe, are Salifbury Crags, of inferior height, but
exhibiting an appearance equally fingular and grand.
Thev prefent to the city an awful front of broken
rotks and precipices, forming a fort of natural amphi¬
theatre of folid rock ; and backward from the craggy
verge above, the hill forms an extenfive irregular Hope,
the furface affording pafture to numerous flocks of
Cheep. The crags, befides ores, fpars, rock plants,
and here and there, it is faid, fome precious Hones,
afford an inexhauftible fupply of Clone for paving the
ftreets
ART [ 701 ]
In quarrying, a part of the
ART
Article.
Arthur’s ftreets and other purpofes.
Seat crags has been worn down into a fpacious fhelf, having
the appearance of a lofty terrace, and ftretehing a con-
fiderable length. From hencr i« a near and diilindt
profpedt of the city, with its environs and the adjacent
country. But from the pinnacle called Arthur’s Seat
the view is more noble and extenfive. The traveller
mav here fit and furvey at his eafi the centre of the
kingdom, befides having a complete view of Edinburgh
and its cattle, on which he looks down as if feated
among the clouds. In a word, the German ocean,
the whole courfe of the Forth, the dirtant Grampians,
and a large portion of the mod populous and bed cul¬
tivated part of Scotland, form a landfeape fublime, va¬
rious, and beautiful.
The denomination of this hill, derived as above, has
been adduced as an argument againd thofe who dis¬
pute the exidence of the Britifh Arthur. That deri¬
vation, however, though probable, is not without un¬
certainty. For Arthur's Seat is faid to be derived, or
rather corrupted, from rf'rd Seir, a “ place or field of
arrows,” where people (hot at a mark : And this not
improperly ; for among thefe cliffs is a dell or reclufe
valley, where the wind can fcarcely reach, now called
the Hunter's Bogt the bottom of it being a morafs.
The adjacent crags are fuppofed to have taken their
name from the earl of Salijbury, who in the reign of
Edward III. accompanied that prince in an expedition
againd the Scots.
ARTICHOKE. See Cinara, Botany Index.
ARTICLE, a claufe or condition of a contraiR,
treaty, &c. It is alfo a fmall part or divifion of a dif-
courfe, book, or writing.
ARTICLE of Death, the lad pangs or agony of one
jud expiring.
ARTICLE of Faith, is by fome defined a point of
Chridian doftrine, which we are obliged to believe, as
having been revealed by God himfelf, and allowed and
edablidied as fuch by the church.
The thirty-nine articles were founded, for the mod
part, upon a body of articles compiled and publidied
in the reign of Edward VI. They were fird pafftd in
the convocation, and confirmed by royal authority in
the year 1562. They were afterwards ratified anew
in the year 1571, and again by Charles I. The law
requires a fubfcription to thefe articles of all perfons
ordained to be deacons or priefis, 13 Eliz. cap. 12 5 of
all clergymen indufted to any ecclefiadical living, by
the fame datute ; and of licenfed lefturers and curates,
13 Eliz. cap. 12. and 13 and 14 Ch. II. cap. 4. of the
heads of colleges, of chancellors, officials, and commif-
faries, and of fchoolmaders. By 1 Will. III. cap. 12.
diffenting teachers are to fubfcribe all, except the 34th,
35th, and 36th, and part of the 20th (and in the cafe
of Anabaptids, except alfo part of the 27th) ; other-
wife they are exempted from the benefits of the aft of
toleration.
Article, in ’Grammar, denotes a particle ufed in
mod languages for the declining of nouns, and denot¬
ing the feveral cafes and genders thereof.
The ufe of articles arifes chiefly hence, that in lan¬
guages which have no different terminations, to ex¬
press the different dates and circumdances of nouns,
there is fomething reqaired to fupply that office.
The Latins have no articles $ but the Greeks, and
Artificer.
mod of the modern languages, have had recourfe to Article
them, for fixing and afcertaining the vague fignification jj
of common and appellative names.
The Greeks have their e, the eadern tongues their
he emphaticum ; the Italians their i/, lo, and la ; the
French their le, la, and les; the Germans their der,
das, dat.
The Englidi alfo have two articles, a and the;
which being prefixed to fubdantives, apply their ge¬
neral fignification to fome particular things.
Some grammarians make the article a didinft part
of fpeeeh ; others will have it a pronoun, and others
a noun adjeftive. See Grammar.
Articles are of great fervice in a language, as they
contribute to the more neat and precife exprefling of
feveral properties and relations, which mud otherwife
be lod. And hence one great advantage of fuch
languages over the Latin, in that the article being ei¬
ther expreffed or left out, makes an alteration in the
fenfe, which the Latins cannot didinguidi. Thus
when the devil faid to our Saviour, Si tu es Films dei,
it may either be underdood, “ if thou art a fon of
God,” or, “ if thou art the fon of God.” The Ita¬
lians even prefix articles to proper names, which do
not naturally need any, becaufe they themfelves figni-
fy things individually. Thus, fay they, il Anofo, ji
Taffo, il Petrarcha. Even the French join the article
to the proper names of kingdoms, provinces, &c. as
la Suede, la Normandie. And we likewife annex it to
the names of certain mountains and rivers j as, the
Rhine, the Danube, the Alps, &c.
ARTICULATE SOUNDS, are fuch founds as ex-
prefs the letters, fyllables, or words of any alphabet
or language fuch are formed by the human voice,
and by fome few birds, as parrots, &c.
ARTICULATION, or Jointing, is the joining of
bones together. See Anatomy.
Articulation, in Botany, is the connexion of
parts that confid of joints or knees, fuch as the pods
of French honeyfuckles, which when ripe divide into
fo many parts as there are knees or joints 5 alfo thofe
parts of plants which fwell into nodes or joints, and
which ufually fend forth branches.
ARTIFICER, a perfon whofe employment it is to
manufafture any kind of commodity, as in iron, brafs,
wool, &c. fuch are fmiths, brafiers, carpenters, &c.
The Roman artificers had their peculiar temples, where
they affembled and chofe their own patron, to defend
their caufes j they were exempted from all perfonal
fervices. Taruntenus Paternus reckons 32 fpecies of
artificers, and Condantine 35, who enjoyed this privi¬
lege. The artificers were incorporated into divers col¬
leges or companies, each of which had their tutelar
gods, to whom they offered their worfhip. Several of
thefe, when they quitted their profeffion, hung up their
tools, a votive offering to their gods. Artificers were
held a degree below merchants, and argentani or mo¬
ney-changers, and their employment more fordid.
Some deny, that in the earlit d ages of the Roman date
artificers were ranked in the number of citizens :
others, who affert their citizenfhip, allow that they
were held in contempt, as being unfit for war, and fo
poor that they could fcarcely pay any taxes. For which
reafon they were not entered among the citizens in the
cenfor’s books y the defign of the cenfus being only to
fee.
ART [ 7
Artificer fee what number of perfons were yearly fit to bear
Artille arms> anc* to Pay taxes towards the fupport of the Rate.
i r 1 e'y~ 11 may be added, that much of the artificers bufinefs
was done by Haves and foreigners, who left little for
the Romans to mind but their hufbandry and war. By
means of the arts, the minds of men are engaged in
inventions beneficial to the whole community ; and thus
prove the grand prefervative againft the barbarifm and
brutality, which ever attend on an indolent and inac¬
tive ftupidity.
By the Englifh laws, artificers in wool, iron, Reel,
brafs, or other metal, going out of the kingdom into
any foreign country without licenfe, are to be impri-
loned three months, and fined in a fum not exceeding
one hundred pounds. And Rich as going abroad, and
not returning on warning given by our ambafladors,
Riall be difabled from holding lands by defcent or
devife, from receiving any legacy, &c. and be deemed
aliens.- Stat. 5. Geo. I. cap. 27. By 23 Geo. II. cap.
13. § I. penalty is alfo infli&ed on feducing artificers
to go abroad. Ramazini has a treatife on the difeafcs
of artificers.
ARTIFICIAL, in a general fenfe, denotes fome-
thing made, fafliioned, or produced by art, in contra-
diRinftion from the produdlion of nature.
Artificial is alfo frequently ufed for faftitious.
Thus we have artificial fal ammoniac, artificial borax.
&.c.
Artificial Fire-works are compofitions of inflam¬
mable materials, chiefly ufed on folemn occafions, by
way of rejoicing. See Pyrotechny.
Artificial Lightning. See Electricty and
Lightning.
Artificial Lines, on a fe£for or fcale, are certain
lines fo contrived, as to reprefent the logarithmic fines
and tangents ; which, by the help of the line of num¬
bers will folve all queflions in trigonometry, navigation,
&c. pretty exaftly.
Artificial Magnets. See Magnets.
ARTIGI,indeclinable, (Pliny); (Ptolemy);
a town of the Turduli, in Bcetica. Now Alhama.
AR i ILLERY, in its general fenfe, denotes the
offenfive apparatus of war, particularly of the miflile
kind. Among the French the term was anciently ap¬
propriated to Archery. In its modern acceptation it
fignifies fire-arms, mounted on their carriages and rea¬
dy for aftion, with their balls, their bombs, their gre¬
nades, &c.
If we take the term in a more extenfive meaning, it
includes the powder, the matches, inflruments for
fire-works, the utenfils of ordnance, the machines
which facilitate their motion and tranfport them, the
vehicles over which they traverfe rivers, every thing
neceffary to them, and all that enters into the form of
a train of artillery.
The fame word, Rill farther extended in its meaning,
likewife comprehends the men deflined for the fervice
of the artillery; the people who provide the artillery
with materials and implements when engaged, the can-
noniers, the bombardiers, the officers of every rank,
and engineers of every kind.
Bv artillery is likewife underflood the fcience which
the officers of artillery ought to poffefs. This fcience
teaches to know the nature of all the materials and
ingredients which enter into the compofition and the
]
ART
RruiRure of every thing relative to the artillery, Rich Artillery,
as nitre, fulphur, charcoal; the properties of air and y—w
fire ; the compofition and preparation of gunpowder;
the materials for fire-works ; the conflru&ion, propor¬
tions, &c. of the different warlike machines ; the ar¬
rangement, movement, and whole management, of
cannon, &c. in the field or in fieges, in fuch manner,
that each of them, according to the length of its tube
and the diameter of its bore, may be fituated in the
befl place and at the propereR diRance for execution,
and that the whole train taken together may recipro¬
cally affifl and fupport each other with the greatefl ad¬
vantage.
_ Artillery has undergone many changes from its ori¬
gin to the prefent time. The artillery of the ancients
were the catapulta, the baliflae, the different kinds of
flings, &c. In latter ages, the Franks ufed the hatchet
as a miffile weapon, throwing it in the fame manner as
the Americans do theirs called the tomahawk. The
Gafcons and Genoefe were excellent crofs-bow men.
The S wi fs owed their viftories to their firength and
Ikill in the ufe of the pike, halberd, and efpadon or
two handed Iword ; and the vidlories of Creffy, Poic-
tiers, and Agincourt, will occafion the valour and fldll
of the Englifli archers to be tranfmitted down to latefl:
pofierity. See Archery.
The chevalier Folard was extremely attached to the
ancient machines firfl mentioned, and feemed even to
prefer them to our fire-arms ; an opinion which muft
appear not a little extraordinary from fuch a perfon.
Father Daniel might well be miflaken in the compari-
fon which he made between the effedls of ancient and
modern artillery, and in his conclufion that the latter
was of little ufe : the fituation of this good father re¬
moved him from the fcenes of war and the opportuni¬
ties of military experience. But it is aflonifliing, that
one fo learned in the military art as the commentator
of Polybius, who had ocular demonftration of the fuc-
cefs of modern artillery, ffiould have declared fo violent¬
ly againfi it. Whatever be the cafe with thefe au¬
thors and their maxims, it may be afierted that can¬
non is one of the moR Angular difcoveries which have
been made amongfl men ; and by little and little it has
changed the whole art of war, and of confequence in¬
fluenced the whole fyflem of policy in Europe. The
era of artillery is dated from the battle of Creffy in
1346, becaufe it is only from that day that cannon
were mentioned in battle. Edward III. of England
fuccefsfully employed fome pieces of artillery placed in
the front of his army. The invention of artillery w7as
then known in France as well as in England ; but pro¬
bably Philip VI. marched with fo much hurry and pre¬
cipitation to attack his enemy, that he left his cannon
as ufclefs encumbrances behind him. The ignorance
of that age in mechanical arts confiderably retarded the
progrefs of artillery; and that of which they were then
poffefled was fo unwieldy and imperfecl, that they
could not poffibly difcern its importance and efficacy in
pradlice.
After the invention of gunpowder, the Spaniards
were the firfi who armed part of thpir foot with muf-
kets and harquebuffes, and mixed them with the pikes.
In this they were foon imitated by mofl other nations ;
though the Engliffi had not entirely laid afide their fa¬
vourite weapon the long bow, and generally taken to
the
ART [ 703 ] ART
Artillery, the ufe of fire-arms, during the reign of Queen Eliza-
The firft mufkets were very heavy, and could not be
fired without a reit : they had matchlocks, and barrels
of a wide bore, that carried a large ball and charge of
powder, and did execution at a great diltance. The
mulketeers on a march carried only their rolls and am¬
munition $ and had boys to bear their mufkets after
them, for which they were allowed great additional pay.
They were very flow in loading, not only by reafon of
the unwieldinefs of the pieces, and becaufe they carried
the powder and balls feparate, but from the time it took
to prepare and adjufi: the match ; fo that their fire was
not near fo brilk as ours is now. Afterwards a lighter
kind of matchlock mulket came into ufe ; and they car¬
ried their ammunition in bandeliers, which were broad
belts that came over the flioulder, to which were hung
feveral little cafes of wood covered with leather, each
containing a charge of powder : the balls they carried
loofe in a pouch, and they had alfo a priming horn
hanging by their fide. Matchlocks were, about the be¬
ginning of this century, univerfally difufed in Europe,
and the troops were armed with firelocks j to which,
much about the fame time, the bayonet being added,
pikes alfo were laid afide 5 which latter change, whe¬
ther it was for the better or not, is a point that ftill ad¬
mits of difpute among the bell military writers, who are
divided in their opinions about it, though moll of them
difapprove of it.
The old Englifti writers call thofe large mulkets ca-
livers; the harquebus was a lighter piece that could
be fired without a reft. The matchlock was fired by
a match, fixed by a kind of tongs in the ferpentine or
cock, which by pulling the trigger was brought down
with great quicknefs upon the priming in the pan,
over which there was a Aiding cover, which was drawn
back by hand, juft at the time of firing. There was a
great deal of nicety and care required to fit the match
properly to the cock, fo as to come down exaflly true
on the priming, to blow the allies from the coal, and
to guard the pan from the fparks that fell from it: a
great deal of time was alfo loft in taking it out of the
cock, and returning it between the fingers of the left
hand, every time that the piece was fired ; and wet
weather often rendered the matches ufelefs. However,
moft writers allow that they were very fure, and lefs apt
to mifs fire than the firelock.
The firelock is fo called, from producing fire of it-
felf, by the aftion of the flint and fteel. The moft an¬
cient invention of this fort is the wheel lock, which we
find mentioned in Luigi Collado’s Treatife of Artillery,
printed at Venice, 1586, as then lately invented in
Germany. This fort of lock was ufed till within thefe
hundred years, efpecially for piftols and carabines. It
was compofed of a folid fteel wheel, with an axis, to
which was faftened a chain, which, by being wound
round it, drew up a very ftrong fpring : on pulling the
trigger, the fpring afting, whirled the wheel about
with great velocity, and the fri£lion of the edge of it
(which was a little notched) againft the ftone produ¬
ced the fire j the cock was made fo as to bring the
ftone upon the edge of the wheel, part of which was in
the pan, and touched the priming ; they ufed any'com¬
mon hard pebble for that purpofe, which ferved as well
as flint.
I .
Thefe locks were inconvenient, took tirne to wind up Artillery.
(or fpan, as they termed it), and fometimes would not v /-—J
go off j an inftance of which may be feen in Ludlow’s
Memoirs.
When the firelock, fucb as we now ufe, was invent¬
ed, we cannot afcertain ; it is called by writers of about
the middle of the laft century, a fnaphane or fnapfiance,
which being the Dutch word for a firelock, feems to in¬
dicate that it is a Dutch invention, and that we took it
from them. But Ward, in his Animadverfions of War,
printed in 1639, P’ 502> after defcribing the exercife
of the firelock, piftol, and carabine (by which he means
the wheel-lock), fays, that as moft of our pieces go with
Englifti locks, which differ from firelocks, he (hall add
the method of handling them 5 and then gives the exer¬
cife of the fnaphine carabine j by which it appears, that
there was little or no difference between that and the
pieces now in ufe. The more modern writers call it a
fufiee from the French word fujil; whence the name of
fufileers is ftill continued to feveral of our regiments,
which were the firft that were armed with them on the
difufe of matchlocks.
They ufed the mulket and reft in England fo late as
the beginning of the civil wars, as may be feen in Col.
Bariffe’s Young Artillery Man, printed at London,
*643-
Figuera, in his embaffy in 1518, relates, that the
Perfians would neither make ufe of infantry nor of ar¬
tillery, becaufe by them the impetuofity of attack and
the facility of retreat were equally encumbered and re¬
tarded : in thefe expedients alone their addrefs and
their glory confifted. This method of advancing and
recalling is widely different from the prefent conduft
of war, as the artillery in armies is now prodigioufly
multiplied, and muft be tranfported to every place
where any body of troops whatever is deflined to ope¬
rate.
The length and diameter of cannon has been much
diminilhed, which muft likewife proportionably dimi-
mlh their weight. It is by long pradlice and expe¬
rience that they have difeovered how much might be
deduced from their magnitude in both thefe refpedls
with propriety, without hurting the grand effefts
which, on fome oecalions, it is neceflary they (hould
produce, by rendering them more eafy to be wielded,
which was the advantage purfued by leffening their fize.
See further the articles Cannon, Gunnery, and Pro¬
jectiles.
Improvements, however, are ftill making, and will
probably long continue to be made, in thefe ignivomous
machines that mock the thunder, which, though they
feem to be invented for the deftrudlion of the human
race and the fubverfion of empires, have yet by their ef-
fedls rendered war lefs favage and lefs fanguinary ; politi¬
cal alliances have been more fuccefsfully conciliated a-
mong all nations, conquefts are become lefs frequent and
lefs rapid, and'fucceffes in war have been more eafily
reduced to calculation.
The change introduced in the military art by the Wealth e if
modern artillery, Dr Smith obferves, has enhanced Nations
greatly both the expence of exercifing and difeiplining v°h hi.
any particular number of foldiers in time of peace, and P’ 70,
that of employing them in time of war. Both their
arms and their ammunition are become more expenfive.
A mu&et is a more expenfive machine than a javelin
0?' -
ART [ 7<H ] ART
Artillery, or a bow and arrows 5 a cannon or a mortar, than a ba-
■"■—-'v u—' litla or a catapulta. The powder which is fpent in a
modern review is loft irrecoverably, and occafions a very
conftderable expence. The javelins and arrows which
were thrown or fhot in an ancient one, could eafily be
lifted up again, and were befides of very little value.
The cannon and the mortar are not only much dearer,
but much heavier machines than the balifta or catapulta,
and require a greater expence, not only to prepare them
for the field, but to carry them to it. As the fuperio-
rity of the modern artillery too over that of the ancients
is very great, it has become much more difficult, and
confequently much more expenfive, to fortify a town fo
as to refill even for a few weeks the attack of that fu-
perior artillery.
In modern war the great expence of fire arms gives
an evident advantage to the nation which can bell af¬
ford that expence j and confequently, to an opulent and
civilized, over a poor and barbarous nation. In ancient
times, the opulent and civilized found it difficult to de¬
fend thcmfelves againft the poor and barbarous nations.
In modern times the poor and barbarous find it difficult
to defend themfelves againft the opulent and civilized.
The invention of fire arms, an invention which at firft
light appears to be fo pernicious, is certainly favourable
both to the permanency and to the extenfion of civiliza¬
tion.
It has to many appeared matter of furprife, that the
/battles of the ancients fhould be defcribed with an or¬
der, perfpicuity, and circumftantial minutenefs, which
are not to be found in the military writers of modern
times. Scholars have endeavoured to explain this dif¬
ference by obferving the immenfe difproportion, in
point of dignity and abilities, between the military hi-
llorians of modern Europe and thofe of Greece and
Rome. But the difficulty will be better folved, Dr
Gillies thinks, by refledling on the changes introduced
into the art of war by the change of artillery j which,
in military operations, form the pivot on which the
whole turns. 1. From the nature of fire arms, modern
battles are involved in fmoke and confufion. 2. From
the fame caufe, modern armies occupy a much greater
extent of groqnd, and begin to adl at much greater
diftances : which renders it more difficult to obferve
and afcertain their manoeuvres. 3. The immenfe train
of artillery, ammunition, &c. required in the practice
of modern war, gives a certain immobility to our ar¬
mies, which renders it impoffible to perform, without
great danger, thofe rapid evolutions in fight of an ene¬
my, which fo often decided the battles of the ancients.
With us, almoft every thing depends on the judicious
choice of ground, a matter requiring great military ge¬
nius, but not admitting the embelliftiments of hiftoricaF
defcription.
In the battles of the Greeks and Romans, the ex¬
traordinary difproportion between the numbers fiain on
• the fide of the vidlors and the vanquifhed has been ob-
ferved as another remarkable circumftance. But this
neceffarily refulted from the nature of their arms. Their
principal weapons being not miffile, but manual, armies
could not begin to adl till they had approached fo near
to each other, that the conquered found themfelves
cut off from all poflibility of retreat. In modern times,
fuch confequences feldom take place. The ufe of fire
arms (which often render the adlion itfelf more bloody,
furniffies the defeated party with various means of re- Artillery,
treating with confiderable fafety. The fphere of mili- Artift.
tary adiion i» fo widely extended in modern times, that ”yH§|
before the vidlors can run over the fpace which fepa-
rates them from the vanqmlhed, the latter may fall back,
, and proceed with little lofs beyond their reach j and
Ihould any village, hedge, ravine, &c. be found in their
way, may often check the ardour of their purfuers.
Upon thefe confiderations, the invention of gunpowder
and modern artillery may be faid to have faved the effu-
fion of human blood. Equeftrian engagements (fince
the principles on which cavalry adl remain nearly the
fame in every age) are ftill diftinguiftied by fimJlar cir-
cumftancesto thofe which appear fo extraordinary in the
battles of antiquity.
ARTILLERY Park, the place in the rear of both lines
of an army, for encamping the artillery, which is drawn
up in lines, of which one is formed by the guns $ the
ammunition waggons make two or three lines, 60 paces
behind the guns, and 30 diftant from one another j
the pontoons and tumbrils make the laft line. The
whole is furrounded with a rope which forms the park:
the gunners and matroffes encamp on the flanks $ and
the bombardiers, pontoon men, and artificers, in the
rear.
ArTILLERI' Train, a certain number of pieces of
ordnance, mounted on carriages, with all their furniture
fit for marching.
ARTILLERY Company, a band of infantry, confilling
of 600 men, making part of the militia or city guard
of London.
ARTIST, in a general fenfe, a perfon fkilled in fome
art. Mr Harris defines an artift to be, “ A perfon pof-
feffing an habitual power of becoming the caufe of fome
effedl, according to a fyftera of various and well-appro¬
ved precepts.” See Art.
We are told * of a privilege granted at Vicenza to *
artifts, like that of clergy in England j in virtue there- Difcourfe
of criminals adjudged to death fave their lives if they of Medalt,
can prove themfelves the moft excellent and confum-F 237>
mate workmen in any ufeful art. This benefit is allow¬
ed them in favorem artis, for the firft offence, except
in fome particular crimes, of which coining is one; for
here the greater the artift, the more dangerous the
perfon.
Artist (Artijla'), in an academical fenfe, denotes a
philofopher or proficient in the faculty of arts.
In the early ages of univerfities, the feven liberal arts
completed the whole courfe of ftudy, or philofophy, as
it is called : whence the mafters of this faculty were de¬
nominated arti/ls. What they underftood by the libe¬
ral arts ufed to be fummed up in the following Latin
verfe.
Lingua, Tropus, Ratio, Numerus, Tonus, Angulus, AJlra.
Artist is more peculiarly ufed, by Paracelfus and
other adepts, for a chemift or alchemift. We find fre¬
quent mention, in authors of this clafs, of Elias Artifta,
or Elias the artift, who is to come fome time before
the diffolution of the world, and reftore and make per-
fedl all arts and fciences, but efpecially the gold-mak¬
ing art; and uflier in a truly golden age, or millen¬
nium. The lower and meaner things in this fublime
art, Paracelfus obferves, God has permitted to be al¬
ready difcovered: but for the greater and more im-
portaat
A R U [ 7°5 1 A R U
Artubriga pbrtant matters, as the tranfmutation of other metals
II into gold, they are referved to the coming of Elias the
Aruba- artift.
'~"1' " *ARTOBRIGA, a town of Vindelicia (Ptolemy) :
Now Altxburg, in Bavaria, on the Danube, below In-
gollladt (Aventinus) : but Cluverius fuppofes it to be
Lebanau, on the Saltzbach, below Lauffen, in the arch-
bifliopric of Saltzburg.
ARTOCARPUS, the Bread-fruit tree. See
Botany Index.
ARTOIS, a late province of France, and one of the
fineft and moR fertile in the whole kingdom. Former¬
ly it was one of the 17 provinces of the Netherlands, but
liow belongs entirely to France, and is included in the
department of the ftraits of Calais. The names of Ar¬
tois, and Arras its capital, are derived from the Atre-
bates, a people of Gallia Belgica, mentioned by Ju¬
lius Ctefar. Its greateft length from north to fouth
is about 24 leagues, and its breadth about 12, being
bounded to the fouth and w'eft by Picardy, to the eall
by Hainault, and to the north by Flanders. A con-
liderable trade is carried on in the province in grain,
flax, hops, wool, and linen cloth. The molt conlider-
able places in Artois are, Arras the capital, Bapaume,
Bethune, St Venant, and St Omer.
ARTOLICA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Salaflii in Gallia Cifpadana, at the foot of the Alps :
now called la Tuile by the inhabitants, a hamlet of Sa¬
voy, in the duchy of Aouft, at the foot of Mount St
Bernard the Lefs.
ARTOTYRITES, a Chriltian fe£t, in the primi¬
tive church, who celebrated the eucharift with bread
and cheefe, faying, that the firfl; oblations of men were
not only of the fruits of the earth, but of their flocks.
The word is derived from awraj, bread, and rsgaj,
cheefe.
The Artotyrites admitted women to the priefthood
and epifcopacy ; and Epiphanius tells us, it was a com¬
mon thing to fee feven girls at once enter into their
church, robed in white, and holding a torch in their
hand \ where they wept and bewailed the wretched-
nefs of human nature, and the miferies of this life.
ARAU, in Ancient Geography, a town of Bcetica,
in the jurifdiftion of the Conventus Hifpalenfis : now
Alclea, a "citadel of Andalufia, on the Baetis or Guadal-
quiver, feven leagues above Seville.
ARVALES fratres, in Roman antiquity, a col¬
lege of 12 priefts, inftituted by Romulus, and chofen
out of the moft noble families, himfelf being one of
that body : they aflifted in the facrifices of the amber-
valia annually offered to Ceres and Bacchus, for the
profperity of the fruits of the earth 5 when they wore
on their heads crowns made of ears of corn. The ori¬
ginal of this inftitution was as follows : Acca Lauren-
tia, Romulus’s nurfe, was accuftomed once a-year to
make a folemn facrifice for a blefling on the fields, her
i2fons always affifting her in the folemnity ; but at
laft lofing one of her fons, Romulus offered himfelf to
fupply his place, and gave this fmall fociety the name
of Armies fratres. This order was in great repute at
Rome : they held the dignity for life, and never loft
it upon account of imprifonment, banilhment, or any
other accident.
ARUBA, a fmall ifland on the coaft of Terra Fir-
VOL. II. Part II.
ma, fubjeB: to the Dutch, and fituated in W. Long. Araci
69. 30. N. Lat. 12. 30. ||
ARUCI, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Cel- Arundel.
tici, in the north of Lufitania, (Antonine, Infcription), 'r J
called alfo Aruci Novum, to diftinguilh it from the fol¬
lowing : Now fuppofed to be Moura, a fmall city of
Portugal, near the confluence of the Ardila and Gua-
dalquiver.
ARUCI Vetus, in Ancient Geography, a fmall city of
the Turdetani, in Bcetica, (Ptolemy) 5 now Aroche, a
hamlet of Andalufia, on the confines of Portugal and
Eftremadura, on the river Gama, feven leagues to the
eaft of Aruci Novum or Pvloura. From it a mountain,
in its neighbourhood, takes the name Arucitunus. Now
la Sierra dc Aroche.
ARUCIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Illyria,
in the inland parts of Liburnia, (Ptolemy). Now
Bregna, according to fome ; but Ottofchatz, according
to others, a citadel of Morlachia.
ARVERNI, an appellation early ufed for the capi¬
tal of the Arverni, according to the cuftom of the latter
ages of naming towns from the people ; it was formerly
called Nemojfus, (Strabo). The Arverni, a brave and
ancient people, and one of the moft powerful nations of
Gaul, claimed affinity with the Romans, as defendants
from Antenor, (Lucan) : and after their conqueft by
the Romans, their ancient liberty was preferved to them
on account of their bravery, (Pliny). Above 1000
years ago the town was called Clarus Mans, from its fi-
tuation, (Valefius). Now Clermont, in Auvergne. E.
Long. 3. 20. N. Lat. 45. 42.
ARVIL supper, a feaft or entertainment made at
funerals, in the north part of England. Arvil bread is
the bread delivered to the poor at funeral folemnities j
and arvil, arval, arfal, are ufed for the burial or funeral
rites j as,
Come, bring my jerkin, Tibb, I’ll to the arvil;
Yon man’s dea fcuy feoun, it makes me marvil.
Torkfh. Dial. p. 58
ARVIRAGUS, an ancient Britifh king who flou-
riffied in the time of the emperor Domitian. He gained
a complete vi&ory over Claudius : but being foon after
befieged in the city of Winchefter, he made a treaty
with the Romans, and married the emperor’s daughter
Genuiffa. This monarch lived to a good old age : he
confirmed the ancient laws, enabled new ones, and li¬
berally rewarded perfons of merit.
ARUM, Wakerobin, or Cuckow-pint. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ARUNDA, a town of Hifpania Bcetica, on the A-
nas or Guadiana, (Ptolemy, Pliny): Now faid to be
Ronda, in the province of Granada, on the confines of
Andalufia. W. Long. 5. 40. N. Lat. 36. 26.
ARUNDEL, Thomas, archbiffiop of Canterbury
in the reigns of Richard II. Henry IV. and Henry V.
was the fecond fon of Robert earl of Arundel and
Warren, and brother of Richard earl of Arundel, who
was beheaded. At 22 years of age, from being arch¬
deacon of Taunton he was raifed to the bilhopric of
Ely, the 6th of April 1375, in the reign of Edward
III. He was a great benefactor to the church and
palace of this fee j among other donations he gave a
curious table of maffy gold, adorned with precious
4 U ftones,
A R U [ 706 ] A R U
Arundel, flones, ’which had been given to Prince Edward by
—~v—the king of Spain, and fold by the latter to Bilhop A-
rundel. In 1386, he was appointed lord chancellor of
England ; two years after, he was tranflated to the fee
of York j and, in I39^» was advanced to the archie-
pifcopal fee of Canterbury, when he refigned the chan-
cellorfliip. This was the firft inllance of the tranfla-
tion of an archbiftiop of York to the fee of Canterbury.
Scarcely was he fixed in this fee, when he had a conteft
with the univerfity of Oxford about the right of vifi-
tation. The affair was referred to King Richard, who
determined it in favour of the archbilhop. At his vi-
fitation in London, he revived an old conffitution, by
which the inhabitants of the refpedlive parilhes were
obliged to pay to their re<ffor one halfpenny in the
pound out of the rent of their houfes. In the fecond
year of his tranflation, a parliament being held at Lon¬
don, the commons with the king’s leave impeached
the archbilhop, together with his brother the earl of
Arundel, and the duke of Gloucefler, of high treafun.
The archbilhop was fentenced to bebanilhed, and with¬
in forty days to depart the kingdom on pain of death.
He retired firfi: to France $ and then to the court of
Rome, where Pope Boniface IX. gave him a kind re¬
ception. About this time the duke of Lancafter (af¬
terwards Henry IV.) was in France, having been ba-
nilhedby King Richard. The nobility and others, tired
with the oppreffrons of Richard, folicited the duke to
take the crown. This their requefi they drew up in a
letter, and fent it over by faithful meffengers to Arch¬
bilhop Arundel, defiring him to be their advocate on
this occafion with the duke. The archbilhop, being a
fellow fufferer, gladly accepted the office ; and went
with the meffengers to the duke at Paris, where they
delivered the letters from the nobles and commons of
England, and the archbilhop feconded them with the
bell arguments he could invent. The inviting offer,
after fome objections which were eafily obviated, the
duke accepted j and upon his acceffion to the throne,
Arundel, who had returned with him to England, was
reftored to his fee. In the firft year of this prince’s
reign, Arundel fummoned a fynod which fat at St
Paul’s.- The next year the commons moved that the
revenues of the church might be applied to the fervice
of the public j but Arundel oppofed the motion with
fuch vigour, that it was thrown afide. In the year 1408,
Arundel began to exert himfelf againft the Lollards,
or Wickliffites \ and his zeal for fuppreffing that feCl
carried him to feveral unjuftifiable.feverities againft the
heads of it, particularly againft Sir John Oldcaftle and
Lord Cob ham. He alfo procured a fynodical conftitu-
tion, which forbade the tranflation of the Scriptures
into the vulgar tongue. This prelate died at Canter¬
bury, Feb. 20. 1413, of an inflammation in bis throat,
with which he was feized (as is pretended) whilft he
was pronouncing lenience upon Lord Cobham. The
Lollards afferted this to be a judgment from God j
and indeed Bilhop Goodwin fpeaks in the fame manner,
faying, “ He who had withheld from the people the
Word of God, the food of the foul, by the juft judge¬
ment of God had his throat fo clofed, that he could
not fpeak a Angle word, nor fwallow meat or drink,
?fid was fo ftarved to death.” He was buried in the
cathedral church of Canterbury, near the weft end,
under a monument ereCIed by himfelf in his lifetime.
2
To this church he was a conliderable benefa&or 5 for Arandef
be built the lantern-tower and great part of the nave: Arundel
gave a ring of five bells, called from him Arundel's lian-
ring, feveral rich veftments, a mitre enchafed with ’
jewels, a filver gilt crelier, and two golden chalices.
Arundel, a borough and market town in Suffex,
feated on the north-weft fide of the river Arun, over
which there is a bridge. It had a harbour, wherein a
fhip of 100 tons burden might ride j but the fea had
ruined it fo far, that, in 1733, an aft paffed for re¬
pairing it, and for erefting new piers, locks, &c. The
caftle, which gives the title of earl to its poffeffors, is
feated on the call of the Tame, and is reputed to be a
mile in compafs. It fends two members to parlia¬
ment ; and is 55 miles fouth-weft-by-fouth of London,
and 10 miles eait of Chichefter. Arundel is the pre¬
mier earldom in England, belonging to the illuftrious
family of Norfolk ; and is the only title in England
that goes along with the lands. W. Long. o. 25. N.
Lat. 50. 45.
ARUNDEL Oil, in the Materia Medica. At Bom¬
bay, Gombroon, and Surat, in-the Eaft Indies, there
grows a tree which bears a nut enclofed in a rough
hulk, which refembles much the horfe chefnut; and
the kernel of the nut yields an oil by expreffion, which
is of a purgative nature. A tea fpoonful of it is rec¬
koned a dofe. The tree goes by the name of the arun-
del tree at Bombay, and its oil by that of the arundel
oil. Mr Sinclair, one of the furgeons belonging to the
royal regiment of artillery, who was formerly furgeon
to an Eaft India Ihip, gave Dr Monro of London a
fmall bottle full of this oil, which he faid was much
ufed for the cure of the dyfentery in India, and that he
had given it in four recent cafes of dyfentery with fuc-
cefs. Dr Monro thinks it probable that this is the oil
of the purgihg nuts mentioned in Dale’s Pharmacologia,
which are got from the tree called lignum moluccenfe,
pavana di5lum,fruElu avellance, J. B. I. 342 $ and pinus
Indica, nucleo purgante, C. B. 492 $ and the pa/ma
Chrijli Indica, Tournefort Mat. Med.
ARUNDELIAN Marbles, Oxford Marbles,
or Parian Chronicle, are ancient ftones (as has
been fuppofed), whereon is inferibed a chronicle of
the city of Athens, engraven in capital letters in the
ifland of Paros, one of the Cyclades, 264 years before
Jefus Cbrift. They take their firft name from Thomas
earl of Arundel, who procured them out of the Eaft,_
or from Henry his grandfon, who prefented them to
the univerfity of Oxford.
The Arundelian marbles, in their perfeft ftate, con¬
tained a chronological detail of the principal events
of Greece during a period of 1318 years, beginning
with Cecrops, before Chrifi 1582 years, and ending
with the archonlhip of Diognetus, before Chrift 264.
But the chronicle of the laft 90 years is loft ; fo that
the part now remaining ends at the archonfhip of Dio-
timus, 354 years before the birth of Chrift $ and in this
fragment the infeription is at prefent fo much corroded
and effaced, that the fenfe can only be difeovered by
very learned and induftrious antiquaries 5 or, more pro¬
perly fpeaking, fupplied by their conjeftures.
This chronicle, and many other relicks of antiquity,
real or pretended, were purchafed in Afia Minor, m
Greece, or in the iflands of the Archipelago, by Mr
William Petty, who in the year 1624 was fent by
Thomas
1
A R U t 7°7 1 A R U
Arur.de- Thomas earl of Arundel for the purpofe of making
iian. fuch colleftions for him in the eafL They were brought
' into England about the beginning of the year 1629,
and placed in the gardens belonging to Arundel houfe
in London.
Soon after their arrival they excited a general curio-
fity, and were viewed by many inquifitive and learned
men ; among others by Sir Robert Cotton, who pre¬
vailed upon Selden to employ his abilities in explaining
the Greek infcriptions. Selden and two of his friends,
Patrick Young, or, as he ftyled himfelf in Latin, Pa¬
tricias Junius, and Richard James, immediately com¬
menced their operations, by cleaning and examining
the marble containing the Smyrnean and Magnefian
league, and afterwards proceeded to the Parian chro¬
nicle. The following year Selden publilhed a fmall
volume in quarto, including about 39 infcriptions co¬
pied from the marbles.
In the turbulent reign of Charles I. and the fubfe-
quent ufurpation, Arundel houfe was often deferted by
the illuftrious owners $ and, in their abfence, fome of
the marbles were defaced and broken, and others either
ftolen or ufed for the ordinary purpofes of architetture.
The chronological marble in particular, was unfortu¬
nately broken and defaced. The upper part, contain¬
ing 31 epochas, is faid to have been worked up in re¬
pairing a chimney in Arundel houfe.
In the year 1667, the Hon. Henry Howard, after¬
wards duke of Norfolk, the grandfon of the firft collec¬
tor, prefented thefe fuppofed remains of antiquity to
the univerfity of Oxford.
Selden’s work becoming very fcarce, Bilhop Fell en¬
gaged Mr Prideaux to publilh a newT edition of the in¬
fcriptions, which was printed at Oxford in 1676. In
1732 Mr Maittaire obliged the public with a more
comprehenfive view of the marbles than either of his
predeceffors. Laftly, Dr Chandler publifhed a new
and improved copy of the marbles in 1763, in which
he corrected the miftakes of the former editors; and
in fome of the infcriptions, particularly that of the Pa¬
rian chronicle, fupplied the lacunce by many ingenious
conjectures.
The Arundelian marbles have generally been regard¬
ed as a curious monument of antiquity. They were,
however, difcovered in fome inftances to be inconfiftent
with the molt authentic hiftorical accounts; Sir Ifaac
Newton and feveral other modern philofophers paid
little or no regard to them ; and of late their abfolute
authenticity has been feverely queftioned in an exprefs
differtation upon the fubjedt, entitled T/ie Parian Chro¬
nicle. In this diflertation much ingenuity as well as
judgment, and a great extent of ancient learning, are
difplayed. His doubts, the author obferves, arife from
the following conliderations.
I. “ The charafters have no certain or unequivocal
marks of antiquity.” The IT and Z, which frequently
occur in the form fuppofed to be the molt ancient (viz.
the perpendicular line of the n on the right hand only
half as long as that on the left, and the Z in the form
of a proftrate K ), are fo well known, that any modern
fabricator of a Greek infcription, which he intends to
impofe upon the world as a relick of antiquity, would
moft probably ufe them in preference to the more
common and ordinary forms. But the letters in the
Parian chronicle tiave no appearance of antiquity ex¬
cept this very equivocal one. They do not in the leafi: Arunde.
refemble the Sigean, the Nemean, or the Delian in- ban.
feriptions, which are fuppofed to be of a more ancient
date. They differ in many refpeCls from the letters
on the Marmor Sandvicenfe, which, according to the
learned editor of that infcription, was engraved in the
year before Chrift 374. They bear no fort of refem-
blance to the characters on the Farnef.an pillars, to
thofe of the Alexandrian manufeript, or others of a
later date. They feem, continues our author, to re¬
femble perhaps more than any other the letters of the
alphabet taken by Montfaucon from the Marmor Cyzi-
cenum at Venice. They are plain and fimple in their
form, and fuch as an ordinary flonecutter of the pre-
fent age would probably make, if he were employed to
engrave a Greek infcription according to the alphabet
now in ufe. The fmall letters intermixed among the
larger have, in the opinion of our author, an air of af-
feClation and artifice, rather than genuine antiquity;
and he is perfuaded, that the antiquity of an infcrip¬
tion can never be proved by the mere form of the let¬
ters, becaufe the moft ancient characters may be as
eafily counterfeited as thofe which compofe our prefent
alphabets.
That the learned reader may form a competent idea
of the characters in the Parian chronicle, the author
has compared them with thofe of other infcriptions, and
given what is ufually termed a facJimile.
In regard to feveral archaifms, as they are called, in
this chronicle, and which our author fpecifies, he con¬
tends, that no conclufion can be drawn from them in
favour of its antiquity. What reafon could there be,
he afks, for introducing thefe into the Parian chroni¬
cle ? We do not ufually find them in Greek writers of
the fame age, or even in thofe of the moll early date.
The reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, with the 21ft year
of which the date of the chronicle coincides, was not
an age of rude antiquity v'ith refpeft to the Greek
language ; being only 130 years after the time of Xe¬
nophon and Plato', when the Greek was fpoken and
written in its utmoll purity and elegance : and we can
fcarcely fuppofe, that even a flonecutter, in that re¬
fined age, would have been permitted to difgrace a fu-
perb and learned monument with fuch barbarifms as
occur in the chronicle. The archaifms, however, he
remarks, are not uniformly obferved in this infcription.
He adduces fix inftances of deviation ; and adds, he is
almoft tempted to fufpeft, that tp.
and other pretended archaifms, are owing to a mere af-
feftation of antiquity, or to a corrupted dialeft and
pronunciation in later ages. Thofe 'archaifms, our au¬
thor acknowledges, appear on other marbles : but he
thinks, that, for that very reafon, they would naturally
be adopted by the fabricator of a fuppofititious infcrip¬
tion } and the authenticity of thofe infcriptions in
which they appear muft be eftabliftied before they can
be urged in oppofition to the prefent argument.
II. “ It is not probable that the chronicle was en¬
graved for private ufe.’1'1—Our author thinks it an im-
poflible fuppofition that fuch an expenfive and cumber-
fome work could have been executed by a private ci¬
tizen, either for his own amufement, or for the bene¬
fit of his fellow, citizens. In the firft place, a long in¬
fcription could not be engraved in marble without fuch
an expencc as few learned Greeks were able to afford,
4 U 2 Or,
A R U [ 708 ] A R U
Arunde- Or, if its author, by an uncommon felicity, was able
lian- to eredt fuch a literary monument, the fcheme would
111 v have been ulelefs and imprudent 5 as all the contents of
the inlcription might have been publiihed more commo-
dioufu and effedlually by the common mode of writing
in ufe at that time.
A variety ot arguments is adduced, illuflrating the
fuperiorkv of a manulcript to fuch an infcription as
the chtonicle, in a number of refpedls ; and enforcing
the improbability of its having ever been executed, ei¬
ther for public or private ufe. Much evidence from
ancient hiftory is likewife produced in fupport of the
affertion, that the common mode of writing, in the
reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, was not on Itones. It
is not, however, neceffary to prove, by the teftimony
of ancient authors, that books were written on parch¬
ment, or paper made of the Egyptian papyrus, or any
fuch materials, before the date of the Parian chronicle.
This is fufficiently evinced by the very exigence of the
writings of Mofes, David, Solomon, and the Jewifh
prophets 5 the works of Homer, Hefiod, Anacreon,
Pindar, vEfchylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Herodotus,
Hippocrates, Ariftophanes, Thucydides, Xenophon,
Plato, Demofthenes, Ariftotle, &c. : And it is ftill
more inconteifably proved by the libraries which were
colledlcd in preceding ages, or about that time 5 fuch as
thofe of Polycrates in Samos, Piiiflratus and Euclides
at Athens, Nicocrates in Cyprus, Euripides the poet,
Ariftotle the philofopher, Clearchus at Heraclea Pon-
tica, and lhe moft extenfive and magnificent library of
Ptolemy Philadelphus in Egypt, founded in or before
the year 284, which in his time is faid to have contain¬
ed 103,000 volumes, and to have been enlarged by his
fucceffors to the amount of almoft 600,000. Not long
afterwards a library was founded at Pergamus by Atta¬
ins and Eumenes, which, according to Plutarch, con¬
tained 200,000. Thefe are clear and decifive proofs that
the common mode of writing in the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphus was not on ftones.
III. “ The chronicle does not appear to have been
engraved by public authority?'
1. The firft argument in fupport of this opinion is,
that infcriptions of that kind ufually begin with a
particular form, as, H BOYAH KAI O AHMOS. ‘ The
fenate and the people or thus, EAOEEN THI BOYAHI
KAI TOI AHMS2I, ‘ It pleafed the fenate and the
people, &c.’ But the Parian chronicle begins in the
manner of a private man, fpeaking of his own perfor¬
mance in the firft perfun Angular. This argument,
our author remarks, cannot be much affefted by ob-
ferving, that the beginning of the infcription is obli¬
terated •, for it is neceffarily implied by the avords now
remaining.
2. The faffs and dates which are mentioned in this
chronicle, do not appear to have been extrafled from
any public records, or calculated to anfwer the purpofe
, of authentic documents; as many eminent princes and
magiftrates are paffed over without notice j in feveral
inftances, the tranfaffions of whole centuries are omit¬
ted •, and the faffs, chiefly fpecified, are not matters of
general or national importance.
3. The Parian infcription is fuch a one as we can
hardly fuppofe the magiftrates or the people of Paros
would have ordered to be engraved. Stately fepulchres,
pillars, triumphal arches, and the like, were ereffed to
perpetuate the glory of eminent men. The remem- Arurde.
brance of events in which nations were intertfted, the lian.
fucceflion of princes, &c. were prelcrved in the lame ' ■■■■■ v—
manner. Leagues, decrees, and law , were hkewife
engraved on marble or brafs, and fixed to a pillar, the
walls of a temple, or other public buildings bteaufe
fuch infcriptions were defigned for the infpe&ion of the
people, as they eflentially concerned their conduff, their
property, their liberty, or their lives. But, our author
afks, for whom could the chronicle of Paros be intend¬
ed ? It contains no encomiums of any of the patriots,
the heroes, or the demigods of the country, no de¬
crees of the magiftrates, no public records, no laws of
ftate. On the contrary, it is a work of mere fpecula-
tion and learning, in which the inhabitants of that
ifland, efpecially the common people, had not the lead
intereft or concern.
I hefe words at the beginning, ag%oirof tp, Uaga,
wrould naturally lead us to fuppofe, that the infcription
related to Paros. And, it fo, it would have been na¬
tural for the author to have mentioned fpme of the
moft important occurrences in the hiftory of that ifland.
But, fays this acute and learned critic, what fcheme
does our chronologer purfue on this occafion ? Does
he record the events and revolutions of his own coun¬
try ? Does he mention any of the battles, fieges,
and treaties of the Parians ? any of their public inftitu-
tions ? any of their poets, patriots, or warriors ? Does
he mention Archilochus, who was honoured by his
countrymen, and diftinguithed as a poet in a general
afiembly of the Greeks ? Not a fyllable on any of
thefe fubje&s! On the contrary, he rambles from place
to place, and records the tranfadfions of Athens, Co¬
rinth, Macedon, Lydia, Crete, Cyprus, Sicily, Perfia,
and other foreign countries with which Paros had no
connexion.
In this view the infcription feems to have been as
impertinent in the ifland of Paros, as a marble monu¬
ment would be in this country, recording the antiqui¬
ties of France or Spain ; or one in Jamaica recording
the revolutions of England. But upon fuppofition that
the infcription is a forgery, it is eafy to account for this
extraordinary circumftance. A few chronological oc¬
currences in the ancient hiftory of Paros would not hare
been fo interefting to the generality of readers, or fo
valuable in the eflimation of every lover of antiquities,
or, in ftiort, fo profitable to the compiler, as a general
fyftem of Grecian chronology.
IV. “ The Greek and Roman writers, for a long
time after the date of this work, complain that they
had no chronological account of the affairs of ancient
Greece.” This pofition is confirmed by the teftimony
of Julius Atricanus, Juftin Martyr, Plutarch, Jofephus,
Varro, Diodorus Siculus, and others; and the following
feries of interrogatories is fubjoined.: “ Thucydides,
1 know, lived 140 years before the chronicle is faid to
have been written but if Thucydides, as well as other
writers, complained that there was nothing but uncer¬
tainty in the earlier period of Grecian hiftory, from
whence can we fuppofe the author of this infcription
colledled fuch a clear, determinate, and comprehenfive
fyftem of chronology ? If he had any fources of infor¬
mation, which were unknown to fucceeding writers,
how happens it, that they Ihould all of them overlook
this moft confidcrable, moll exaft, moft creditable au¬
thor ?
*
A R U [ 709 ] A 11 U
Aninde- thor ? Why did tinjy ornii this ancient account of their
lian. eaily ages > Why did they not copy his moil memora¬
ble epochas ? Why did they not produce his authority ?
or, at lead, why did they not mention his opinion ? Sure¬
ly nothing, to all appearance, could be more elaborate,
more important, or of higher authority, than a chrono¬
logical table, which was thought worthy of being en¬
graved oh marble.
V. “ The chronicle is not once mentioned by any
writers of antiquity.” This, indeed, appears a ftrong
argument againft its authenticity. Apollodorus, an
Athenian, the difciple of Ariftarchus the grammarian,
and Panajtius the philofopher, wrote a genealogical
and hiftoricai work on the early ages of Greece ; but,
though compofed 1 20 years after the date of the Pa¬
rian chronicle, it does not contain the fmalleft traces
of a fyflemntical chronology. It is remarkable, too,
that the chronicle of Apollodorus is quoted by Dio¬
dorus Siculus, Strabo, Plutarch, A. Gellius, Lucian,
and many other writers of antiquity; while the Parian
chronicle, which comprehends a more extenfive period,
is entirely unnoticed. It contains, however, fuch won¬
derful difcoveries in ancient hiftory, that if it had ex-
ifted 264 years before the Chriftian era, it mult have
excited a general attention, and been referred to as an
authority by writers of fucceeding times. But we do
not find, in any author of antiquity, either poet or hi-
ftorian, geographer or chronologer, mythologift or fcho-
liaft, the moft diftant allufion to the Parian chronicle ;
though it was fuch a corrimon pra£lice among the an¬
cients to mention the works of their predecefibrs, that
in many books we find references and allufions to three,
four, five, fix, or fev.en hundred different authors of eve¬
ry denomination.
VI. “ Some of the fa£ls mentioned in the chronicle
feem to have been taken from writers of a later date.”
Our inquirer collates feveral paffages in the Parian
chronicle with parallel paffages in Greek authors, to
evince that there is, in the former, an appearance of
imitation, or a ftronger refemblance than fuch as may
be fuppofed to arife from accident ; that there are
likewife fome improbabilities attending the account of
Deucalion, as related in the Parian chronicle 5 and that
the names of fix, and, if the lacunae are properly fup-
plied, the names of 12 cities appear to have been en¬
graved on the marble, exa£lly as we find them in AS-
lian’s Various Hiftory. But there is not, our author
obferves, any imaginable reafon for this particular ar¬
rangement. It does not correfpond with the time of
their foundation, with their fituation in Ionia, with
their relative importance, or with the order in which
they are placed by other eminent hiftorians. The argu¬
ment by which our author endeavours to prove that the
Parian chronicle has, in this inftance, copied ^Elian’s
Various Hiftory, feems decifive of the fa£l. He ob¬
ferves, that fix names may be tranfpofed 720 different
ways 5 and that 12 names admit of 479,001,600 dif¬
ferent tranfpofitions. Suppofing, then, that there is no
particular reafon for one arrangement rather than ano¬
ther, it will follow, that the chance of two authors,
placing them in the fame order, is, in the former cafe,
as 1 to 720 j and in the latter, as I to 479,001,600.
It is therefore,, fays he, utterly improbable, that thefe
names Humid have been placed in this order on the
marble, if the author of the infeription had not tran- Arunde
feribed them from the hiftorian. lian>
It mav indeed be urged, with regard to this fimi- v~“
larity of arrangement in the Parian chronicle and
iEuan’s Various Hiftory, that the inference might be
the very inverfe of that which is fpecitied by our au¬
thor. But that .Elian fhould have feen the Parian
chronicle, without once mentioning it •, or that he
(hould have exa&ly copied a lift of towns, arranged
neither according to chronological or topographical
order, is indeed a fuppofition equally improbable with
the other.
VII. “ Parachronifms appear in fome of the epochas,
which we can fcarcely fuppofe a Greek chronologer in
the 129th Olympiad would be liable to commit.” Af¬
ter fpecifying thefe, our inquirer alks, Would a writer
of reputation and learning, in one of the moft polilhed
and enlightened eras of ancient Greece, commit fuch
miftakes, in oppofition to the pofitive atteftations of
the moft accurate hiftorians, in events of public no¬
toriety ? Would a private citizen, or a magiftrate of
Paros, order a crude and inaccurate feries of epochas
to be engraved at a great expence, and tranlmitted
to pollerity on a marble monument ? It is hardly pro¬
bable.
VIII. “ The hiftory of the difeovery of the Parian
chronicle is obfeure and unfatisfadlory.” Our author
obferves, that it is attended with fome fufpicious cir-r
cumftances, and without any of thofe clear and une¬
quivocal evidences which always diferiminate truth
from falfehood. There are no data in the infeription
by which to difeover the place where the marble was
erefled^ The place likewife where it was found is
not afeertained ; though the generality of writers who
have had occafion to mention it have fuppofed that it
was found in the iftand of Paros. If it was erefled at
Smyrna,, as fome imagine, our author afks for what
purpofe does the writer mention Aftyanax the archon
of Paros, and not one circumftance relative to Smyrna ?
If, adds he, it was erefted at Paros, why does he not
mention more archons of that city than one ? or how
lhall we account for his profound filence with refpe£l
to all the events and revolutions which muft have hap¬
pened in that ifland, and have been infinitely more inte-
refting to the natives than the tranfaftions of any foreign
country !
The train of circumftances by which the Parian chro¬
nicle came into the poffeflion of Mr Petty, whom Lord
Arundel had fent into the eaft for the purpofe of col*
letting antiquities, as well as the fubfequent condutt of
Peirefc its former owner, affords our author a ftrong
prefumption, that “ the infeription was attually fabrica¬
ted, with the view of obtaining for it a high price, up¬
on the pretence that it was a relick of great antiquity.
It is certain, that there is fomething myfterious in the
condutt: of the firft oftenfible proprietors. Thefe mar¬
bles had been totally unknown, or unnoticed, for almort
1900 years, and at laft are dug out of the ground—
nobody can tell us when or where !”
IX. “ The literary world has been frequently im-
pofed upon by fpurious books and inferiptions, and
therefore we ftiould be extremely cautious with regard
to what we receive under the venerable name of anti¬
quity.” This propofition is illuftrated by a great va.
A R U t 710 ] A R X
Amnde. nety of examples, and very properly expofes the forge-
lian ries which have difgraced the republic of letters in dif*
Arufmi ^erent ages i and although one of the more recent ones
‘ ■ cited, namely, Offian’s poems, be a point very far in¬
deed from being ellablilhed, yet that deceptions of this
kind have been pra&ifed is an unqueftionable faft.
In endeavouring, towards the end of his diffeftation
to invelfigate the time of the fuppofed forgery, he ob-
ferves that the 16th century, and the prior part of
the 17th, produced a multitude of grammarians, critics,
and commentators, deeply verfed in Grecian literature,
and amply qualified for the compilation of fuch a chro¬
nological fyftem as that of the Arundelian marbles.
Above all, the fcience of chronology was particularly
ftudied and invelfigated about that time •, “ Nunc fer-
vet chronologia,,, fays Scaliger in the year 1605,
omnes hoc ferrum excalfaciunt.” Cafaubon treats
thofe perfons with contempt who were unacquainted
wiih the improvements which had been made in that
department of learning after the revival of letters. In¬
numerable fyftems of chronology had been published
before the year 1625 : from which it was eafy to ex-
trad! a feries of memorable events, and give the com¬
pilation a Grecian drefs. f‘ The avidity,” fays our
author, “ with which all relicks of antiquity were then
colledted, and the high price at which they were pur-
chafed, were fufficient inducements to any one, whole
avarice or whofe neceflity was ftronger than his inte¬
grity, to engrave his labours on marble, and tranfmit
them to Smyrna, as a commodious emporium for fuch
rarities.”
The precife period of the fabrication, however, mull
flill be reckoned apocryphal and uncertain. The fum
of fifty guineas, which Peirefc gave to the fuppofed
fabricator, was inadequate to fuch a laborious and ex-
penfive work. Upon the whole, perhaps, it 'would be
too hafty to pronounce decifively that this famous
chronicle, fo long refpefted, is an impofition upon
the public. It may, however, be fafely affirmed, that
the fufpicions againft it are extremely ftrong, and the
objections already cited of a nature very difficult to be
removed. No attempts have yet been made with this
View : But under fome future article, as Chronology,
Marbles, or Parian Chronicle, we may poffibly have
an opportunity of refuming the fubjedt with additional
information^
ARUNDO, the Reed. See Botany Index.
ARUSINI campi (erroneoully written Taurajim
by Cluverius), plains in Lucania, famous for the laft
battle fought between the Romans and Pyrrhus. That
prince being at Tarentum, and hearing that the two
new confuls Curius Dentatus and Cornelius Lentulus
ffiad divided their -forces, the one including Lucania
and the other Samnium ; he likewife divided a chofen
detachment of his army into two bodies, marching
with his Epirots againit Dentatus, in hopes of furprif-
ing him in his camp near Beneventum. But the con-
ful having notice of his approach, marched out of
his intrenchments with a ftrong detachment of legion¬
aries to meet him, repulfed his vanguard, put many
of the Epirots to the fword, and took fome of their
elephants. Curius, encouraged by this fuccefs, march-
-ed into the Arufian fields, and drew up his army in a
plain, which was wide enough for his troops, but too
liarrrow for the Lpirot phalanx to adt with its full ef-
fedt. But the king’s eagernefs to try his flrength and ArufpHj
/kill with fo renowned a commander, itimulated him ||
to engage at that great difadvantage. Upon the firft Arx*
fignal the adtion began ; and one of the king’s wings
giving way, vidtory feemed to incline to the Romans.
But that wing where the king fought in perfon repul¬
fed the enemy and drove them to their intrenchments.
This advantage was in great part owing to the ele¬
phants j a circumltance which Curius perceiving, com¬
manded a body of referve, which he had polled near
the camp, to advance and attack thofe animals with
burning torches ; which frightened and annoyed them
to fuch a degree, that they wheeled about, broke into
the phalanx, and put that body into the utmoft difor-
der. The Romans taking advantage of this confufion,
charged with fuch fury that the enemy were entirely
broken and defeated. Pyrrhus retired U* Tarentum,
attended only by a fmall body of horfe, leaving the
Romans in full poffeffion of his camp ; which they fo
much admired, that they made it a model which they
followed ever after.
ARUSPICES, or Haruspices, in Roman anti¬
quity, an order of prielts who pretended to fortel future
events by infpe&ing the entrails of victims killed in fa-
crifice ; they were alfo confulted on occafion of portents
and prodigies. The harufpices were always chofen from
the belt families j and as their employment was of the
fame nature as that of the augurs, they were as much
honoured. Their college, as well as thofe of the other
religious orders, had its particular regifters and re¬
cords.
ARX, in the ancient military art, a town, fort, or
caftle, for defence of a place.
The arx in ancient Rome was a diftinft edifice from
the capitol, though fome have confounded the two.
According to Ryckius, the arx, properly fpeaking,
was a place on the higheft part of the Capitoline mount,
ftronger and better fortified than the reft, with towers
and pinnated walls : in which was alfo the temple of
Jupiter Capitolinus.
Arx alfo denotes a confecrated place on the Palatine
mount, where the augurs publicly performed their of¬
fice. Some will have the arx to have been the augural
temple j but Varro exprefsly diftinguiffies between the
two.
Arx, was particularly ufed for a public place in Rome,
fet apart for the operations of the augurs. In which
fenfe arx amounts to the fame with what is otherwife
called auguraculum and auguratorium, and in the camp
augurale. Out of this arx it was that the feciales, or
heralds, gathered the grafs ufed in the ceremony of ma¬
king leagues and treaties.
JiRX Britannica, a citadel of Batavia, whofe founda¬
tion is feen at low water, near the old mouth of the mid* ,
die Rhine: fome imagine it the pharos or high tower of
Caligula, as Suetonius calls it $ a monument of Caligu¬
la’s ffiam conqueft of Britain. Others that it was built
by Drufus, with an altar afterwards by Claudius, on his
expedition into Britain. But the ufual pafl'age was from
Gefforiacum ; and Suetonius exprefsly fays, Claudius
paffed over thence. The ancient name of this citadel,
now covered by the fea, is nowhere exprefled : Now
commonly called t'Huis Britten, or Brittenburg; that
is, Arx Britnnnica ; but from what authority does not
appear.
ARYTENOIDES,
Ar^te-
noides
«
Aia.
ASA [7
ARYTENOIDES, in Anatomy, the name of two
cartilages, which, together with others, conftitute the
head of the larynx. It is alfo applied to ibme mufcles
of the larynx.
ARYTHMUS, in Medicine, the want of a juft
modulation in the pulfe. It is oppofed 40 eurythmus, a
pulfe modulated agreeably to nature.
ARZILLA, a very ancient maritime town of A-
frica, in the kingdom of Fez, about five leagues from
Tangiers. It is built at the mouth of a river, and in¬
habited by Moors and Jews, who carry on no trade.
It was formerly a Roman colony j afterwards fell under
the government of the Goths ; and was next taken by
the Mahometans. Alphonfo of Portugal, - furnamed
the African, took it by affault in 1471, and brought
away the prefumptive heir of the crown. After that
prince came to the throne, he befieged it, in 1508,
-with 100,000 men; but was obliged to abandon the
undertaking. However, at length the Portuguefe for-
fook it of their own accord. W. Long. 5. 30. N. Lat.
35* 3C* . . . , .
AS, in antiquity, a particular weight, confiding of
12 ounces ; being the fame with /ibra, or the Roman
pound. The word is derived from the Greek «j$,
which in the Doric dialed! is ufed for one, q. d.
an entire thing; though others will have it named as
quafi ces, becaufe made of brafs.
As was alfo the name of a Roman coin, which was
of different weights and different matter in different
ages of the commonwealth. Under Numa Pdmpilius,
according to Eufebius, the Roman money was either
of wood, leather, or (hells. In the time of Tullus
Hoftilius, it was of brafs; and called as libra, libella,
or pondo, becaufe actually weighing a pound or 12
ounces. Four hundred and twenty years after, the firft
Punic war having exhaufted the treafury, they reduced
the as to two ounces. In the fecond Punic war, Han¬
nibal prefling very hard upon them, they reduced the
or to half its weight, viz. to one ounce. And, laftly,
by the Papirian law, they took away half an ounce
more, and confequently reduced the as to the diminu¬
tive weight of half an ounce : and it is generally
thought that it continued the fame during the common¬
wealth, and even to the reign of Vefpafian. The as,
therefore, was of four different weights in the common¬
wealth. Its original ftamp was that of a flieep, ox, or
fow : but from the time of the emperors, it had on
one fide a Janus with two faces, end on the reverfe the
roftrum or prow of a (hip.
As was alfo ufed to denote any integer or whole.
Whence the Englilh word ace. T hus as fignified the
whole inheritance ; whence hceres ex ajje, the heir to
the whole eftate.
ASA, king of Judah, fucceeded his father Abijam.
He pulled down the altars erefted to idols, reftored the
worftu'p of the true God, and, with the afliftance of
.Renhadad king of Syria, took feveral towns from the
king of Ifrael. He died 917 years before the Chriftian
era, and was fucceeded by Jehofhaphat.
Asa, among naturalifts. The writers of the later
ages have formed this word ofa from the lafar of the
ancients, and attributed it to a gum very different from
that anciently known by the name they have thus cor¬
rupted.
The afa of the ancients was an odoriferous and fra-
ii ] ' ASA
grant gum ; and the afa of the after ages had fo little Afa
title to this epithet, that they diftinguilhed it by one, ||
exprefling its being of an offenfive or ftinking fmell.
The Arabian writers, according to this diftindlion, ^ ‘ <
deferibe two kinds of afa, the one ftinking, the other
aromatic ; and the modern Greeks preferved the name
afa, or lafar, to the ftinking gum the Latins called by
that name, but added a diftinflive epithet to exprefs
its fmell, and called \\.Jcardolafarum.
Asa or Assa, in the Materia Medica, a name given
to two very different fubftances, .called afa-dulcis and
afa-feetida.
AsA-Dulcis is the fame with Benzoin.
ASA-Fcetida is the concrete juice of an umbelliferous
plant growing in feveral parts of Alia. See Ferula,
Botany and Materia Medica Index.
ASAPH, St, a city in Flintfhire, with a bilhop’s^-
fee ; on which account principally it deferves notice,
being in itfelf but a poor place. As a bilhopric, it is
of great antiquity, and was founded about the year
360, by Kentigern, a Scotfman, bifhop of Glafgorv.
He began the church on the banks of the river Elwy,
whence it is called by the Welfti E/xuy, and in
Latin Elwenfs. Kentigern returning into Scotland,
left a holy man his fucceffor, St Afaph. Who was his
fucceflor is uncertain, as there are no records that men¬
tion it; and it feems rather probable that the religi¬
ous fettled here had been noceftitated to remove to fome
more peaceable abode, as the country was frequently
the feat of war between the Englilh and the Welftn
This fee was formerly a very wealthy one ; but its re¬
venues were greatly leffened by the profufion of Biftiop
Parfew, who alienated much of the lands belonging to
this bilhopric.
This diocefe doth not contain any one whole coun¬
ty ; but confifls of part of Denbigh, Flint (where fts
church is), Montgomery, and Merioneth (hires, and a
fmall part of Shropftiire; wherein are 121 parilhes,
and 131 churches and chapels, molt of which are in
the immediate patronage of the biftiop. This fee hath
but one archdeaconry, viz. that of St Afaph, which is
united to the biftiopric, for the better maintenance
thereof. This fee is valued in the king’s books at 187],
iis. 6d. but computed to be worth annually 1500I.
The tenth of the clergy comes to 186I. 19s. 6^d. To
this cathedral belong a biftiop, a dean, archdeacon,
chancellor, &c.
ASAPPES, or Azapes, an order of foldiers in the
Turkifti army, whom they always expofe to the firft
(hock of an enemy : to the end that the enemy being
thus fatigued, and their fwords blunted, the fpahis and
janizaries may fall on and find an eafy conqueft. The
word is derived from the Turkifti faph, which fignifies
rank, from whence they have formed afphaph, “ to
range in battle.” The afappes are faid to be held of
fo little value, that they frequently ferve as bridges for
the cavalry to pafs over in bad roads, and as fafeines to
fill up the ditches of places befieged. They travel on 1
foot, and have no pay but the plunder they can get
from the enemy.
ASAR-addon, or Esar-HaDDON, the fon of Sen¬
nacherib, fucceeded his father about 712 years before
the Chriftian era, and united the kingdoms of Ni¬
neveh and Babylon. He rendered himfelf mafter of
Syria; fent a colony to Samaria ; and his generals took
King
A S B [71
Afarina &ing Manafles, and carried him loaded with chains to
jj Babylon. Afar-Addon died after a reign of 12 years.
Albertos. ASARINA. See Chelone.
v ASAROT A, ot<rct£aT%, from « and trxi^u, I/weep, a
kind of painted pavements in ufe before the invention of
mofaic work. The moft celebrated was that at Perga-
m-us, painted by Sefus, and exhibiting the appearance of
cbumbs, as if the floor had not been fwrept after dinner,
whence, according to Pliny, the denomination. Per-
rault fuppofes them to have been a black kind of pave¬
ments of a fpongy matter.
ASARUM, Asarabacca. See Botany Index.
ASBAMEA, a fountain of Cappadocia, near Ty-
ana, facred to Jupiter, and to an oath. Though this
fountain bubbled up, as in a Rate of boiling, yet its
water was cold, and never ran over, but fell back
again : (Philoftratus, Ammian).
ASBESTOS, a native foflil Rone, which may be
fplit into threads and filaments, from one inch to ten
inches in length, very fine, brittle, yet fomewhat flex¬
ible, filky, and of a grayifli colour, not unlike talc of
Venice. It is almoR infipid to the tafle, infoluble in
water, and poffeffes the wonderful property of remain¬
ing unconfumed in the fire, which only whitens it.
The induRry of mankind has found a method of
working this mineral, and employing it in divers ma-
nufaftures, chiefly cloth and paper. The manufafture
is undoubtedly difficult enough. Pliny calls the afljef-
tos inventu rarum, textn dtfficillimurn. Wormius af-
fures us, that the method of making cloth of aR)eRos is
now entirely unknown. And indeed one wmuld fcarce-
ly imagine the thing practicable, without the mixture
of fome other pliant matter, as wool, hemp, or flax,
along with the aRjeRos, the filaments of this latter ap¬
pearing too coarfe and brittle to make any tolerable
fine work. However this be, Bart. Porta affures us,
that in his time the fpinning of affieflos wTas a thing
known to every body at Venice. Sig. Caflagnatta, fuper-
intendant of fome mines in Italy, is faid to have car¬
ried the manufacture to fuch perfection, that hisafbeflos
Avas foft and traCtable, much refembling lamb fkin drtf-
fed white : he could thicken and thin it at pleafure, and
thus either make it into a very white Ikin or a very
white paper.
This kind of linen cloth was chiefly efleemed by the
ancients; though then better known and more com¬
mon than among us, being held equally precious with
the richefi pearls : nor is it now of mean value, even
in the country where it is moR generally made, a China
cover (i. e. a piece of 23 inches and three-quarters
long) being wrorth 80 tale, i. e. 36I. 13s. qd. Pliny
fays, he himfelf had feen napkins thereof, which, being
taken foul from the table after a feafl, were thrown
into the fire, and by that means were better fcoured
than if they had been waffied in water, &c. But its
principal ufe, according to Pliny, was for the making
of flirouds, for royal funerals, to wrap up the corpfe,
fo that the affies might be difiinCf: from that of thofe
of the wood, &c. whereof the funeral pile was com-
pofed : and the princes of Tartary, according to the
accounts in the Philofophical TranfaClions, Rill ufe it
at this day in burning their dead. Some of the an¬
cients are faid to have made themfelves clothes of it,
particularly the Brachmans among the Indians. The
wicks for their perpetual lamps, according to Dr Lif-
‘3
2 ] A S C
ter, were alfo made of it: fome to this day ufe it for the Afbefto*
wicks of fuch lamps as they would not have any trouble ||
with; becaufe the affieflos never wafling, there is no A^ceniknt.
occafion for ffiifting the wick. Septalla, canon of Mi- ' 
lan, had thread, ropes, nets, and paper made of the af-
beRos. A handkerchief or pattern of the linen was lon<*
fince prefented to the Royal Society, a foot long and
half a foot broad. This gave two proofs of its refifling
fire ; though, in both experiments, it lofl above three
drachms of its weight. When taken out red hot, it did
not burn a piece of white paper on which it was laid,
Mr Villette pretends that his large burning concave
ufually vitrifies the aflieflos.
The method of preparing the incombuflible paper
and cloth is thus deferibed by Ciampini: The Rone is
laid to foak in warm water; then opened and divided
by the hands, that the earthy matter may be waflied
out. The ablution being feveral times repeated, the
flaxlike filaments are collefled and dried ; and they are
moR conveniently fpun with an addition of flax. Two
or three filaments of the affiefios are eafily twifted along
with the flaxen thread, if the operator’s fingers are kept
oiled. The cloth alfo, when rvoven, is befl preferved
by oil from breaking or wading. On expofure to the
fire, the flax and the oil burn out, and the cloth remains
pure and white. Probably from the diffipation of fome
extraneous matter of this kind proceeded the diminution
of weight in the handkerchief juR recited ; for pure af-
beRos leaves nothing. The Riorter filaments which fe-
parate in waflring the Rone may be made into paper in
the common maner.
The afbeflos is found in Crete and Cyprus ; in Tar¬
tary ; at Namur in the Low Countries ; in Thuringia
among the mines ; in the old Noricum ; in Egypt; in
the mountains of Arcadia; at Puteoli; in the ifland
of Corfica ; in the ifland of Anglefey in Wales ; in
Aberdeenfliire in Scotland; at Montauban in France ;
and in Siberia.
ASCALON, an ancient city, and one of the five
fatrapies or principalities of the PhiliRines ; fituated
on the Mediterranean, 43 miles to the fouth-wefl of
Jerufalem (Antonine), between Azotus to the north
and Gaza to the fouth. The birthplace of Herod the
Great, hence furnamed Afcalonita (Stephanus). Fa¬
mous for its fcallions, which take name from this town
(Strabo, Pliny). Now Scalona. E. Long. 34. 30.
N. Lat. 31. 30. ,
ASCANIUS, the fon of TEneas and Creufa, fuc-
ceeded his father in the kingdom of the Latins, and de¬
feated Mezentius king of the Tufcans, who had refufed
to conclude a peace with him. At length he founded
Alba Longa; and died about 1139 years before the
Chriflian era, after a reign of 38 years.
AS CAR IS. See Helminthology Index.
ASCENDANT, in AJlrology, denotes the horofcope,
or the degree of the ecliptic which riles upon the ho¬
rizon at the time of the birth of any one. This is fup-
pofed to have an influence on the perfon’s life and for¬
tune, by giving him a bent and propenfity to one thing
more than another.
In the celeflial theme, this is alfo called the JirJl
Jioufe, the angle of the Eajl or Oriental angle, and the
fgnificator of life. Such a planet ruled in his afcendant:
Jupiter ivas in his afcendant, &c. Hence the word is
alfo ufed in a moral fenfe, for a certain fuperiority
which
A S C f 7
fcendants ’tvliich one man has over another, from fume unknown
caufe.
ASCENDANTS, in Law, are oppofed to defcend-
ants in fucceffion ; i. e. when a father fucceeds his f»n,
or an uncle his nephew, &c. heritage is faid to afcend,
or go to afcendants.
ASCENDING, in AJlronomy, is faid of fuch liars
as are rifing above the horizon in any parallel of the
equator.
ASCENDING Latitude, is the latitude of a planet when
going towards the north pole.
ASCENDING Node, is that point of a planet’s orbit,
wherein it paffes the ecliptic, to proceed northward.
This is otherwife called the northern node, and repre-
fented by this character .
ASCENDING Vejfels, in Anatomy, thofe which carry
the blood upwards j as the aorta afcendens. See Ana¬
tomy.
ASCENSION, in AJlronomy, is either right or ob¬
lique. Right afcenlion of the fun, or a liar, is that de¬
gree of the equino&ial, counted from the beginning of
Aries, which rifes with the fun or liar in a right fphere.
Oblique afcenfion is an arch of the equator intercepted
between the firft point of Aries and that point of the
equator which rifes together with a liar in an oblique
fphere.
ASCENSION Day, a feftival of the Chriftian church,
held ten days before Whitfuntide, in memory of our
•Saviour’s alcenfion into heaven after his relurretlion.
' ASCENSION IJland, a barren ifland on the coaft of
Africa, lying in W. Long. 140 22' 31". S. Lat. 70 56'.
The following account is given of it by Mr Fortier.
“ This ifland was firft difcovered in 1501, by Joao de
Nova Galego, a Portuguefe navigator, who named it
1/ha de Nojfa Senhora de Conceipao. The fame admiral
on his return to Portugal in 1502, difcovered the ifland
of St Helena, which obtained that name from the day
of the difcovery. Afcenfion was feen a fecond time
by Alfonfo d’Albuquerque on his voyage to India in
1503, and then received the name it now bears j but
"Was already at that time in the fame defolate condition
as at prefent. We fent feveral parties on fliore, who
palTed the night on the watch for turtles, which came
to lay their eggs on the fandy Ihores. The drearinefs
of this ifland lurpafled all the horrors of Eafter ifland
and Terra del Fuego, even without the afliftance of
fnow. It was a ruinous heap of rocks, many of which,
as far as we could difcern from the fliip, feemed to be
totally changed by the fire of a volcano. Nearly in
the centre of the ifland rifes a broad white mountain of
great height, on which we difcerned fome verdure by
the help of our glaffes, from whence it has obtained the
name of Green Mountain.
“ We landed early in the morning among fome
rocks, the furf being always immenfely high on the
great beach ; which confifts of minute (hell-fartd, chiefly
ef a fnowy white, very deep, dry, and intolerable to
the eyes wh-n the fun fliines. We afcended among
heaps of black cavernous ftone, which perfe&ly re-
lembles the moft common lavas of Vefuvius and Ice¬
land, and of which the broken pieces looked as if they
had been accumulated by art. The lava currents cool- .
ing very fuddenly, may eafily be imagined to produce
fuch an effeft. Having afcended about 12 or 15 yards
perpendicular, we found ourfelves on a great level plain
Vol. II. Part II.
13 ] A S G
of fix or eight miles in circuit ; in the different corners
of which we obferved a large hill of an exadl conical
ftiape, and of a reddilh colour, Handing perfedlly infu-
lated. Part of the plain between thefe conic hills was
covered with great numbers of fmaller hillocks, confid¬
ing of the fame wild and ragged lava as that near the
fea, and ringing like glafs when two pieces are knock¬
ed together. The ground between the heaps of lava
was covered with a black earth, on which we walked
very firmly 5 but when thefe heaps did not appear, the
whole was a red earth, which was fo loofe, and in fuch
.dry minute particles, that the wind railed clouds of
dull upon it. The conic hills confided of a very dif¬
ferent fort of lava, which was red, foft, and crumbling
into earth. One of thefe hills Hands dire611y in front
of the bay, and has a wooden crofs on its fummit, from
whence the bay is faid to take its name. Its fides are
very fteep, but a path near three quarters of a mile
long winds round it to the fummit. After examining
this remarkable country a little longer, we concluded,
with a great degree of probability on our fide, That the
plain on which we flood was once the crater or feat of
a volcano, by the accumulation of whofe cinders and
pumice ftones the conic hills had been gradually form¬
ed : that the currents of lava which we now faw divid¬
ed into many heaps, had perhaps been gradually bu¬
ried in frelh cinders and allies', and the waters coming
down from the interior mountain in the rainy feafon,
had fmoothened every thing in their way, and filled up
by degrees the cavity of the crater. The rocky black
lava was the refidence of numberlefs men-of-war birds
and boobies, which fat on their eggs, and fuffered us
to come clofe to them.
“ About eight in the evening, it being then quite
dark, a fmall veffel came into the bay, and anchored
diredly within us. Captain Cook having hailed her
repeatedly, received in anfwer that fhe was the Lucre-
tia, a New York Hoop, which had been at. Sierra Leon,
and was now come to catch turtles, in order to fell
them at the windward iflands of the Weft Indies. A
lieutenant was fent on board, who learned from the
mafter, that he had taken our ftrip to be a French In-
diaman, and was very defirous of trading with Ehglifli
India (hips, in which he was difappointed by the com¬
pany’s regulations. He dined with our officers the
next day, but on the 31ft at day-break left the ifland.
On the 30th in the morning, we landed a fecond time ;
and, crofling the plain, arrived at a prodigious lava
current, interfered by many channels from fix to eight
yards deep, which bore ftrong marks of being worn
by vaft torrents of water, but were at prefent perferiy
dry, the fun being in the northern hemifphere. In
thefe gullies we found a fmall quantity of foil confiding
of a black volcanic earth, mixed with fome whitiih
particles gritty to the touch. Here we faw fome fmall
bunches of purflane, and a fpecies of grabs Jpanieum
fanguineuni) which found fufficient nutriment in the
dry foil. Having at lad*, with great fatigue, climbed
over this extenfive and tremendous current of lava,
which was much more folid than the heaps nearer to
the fea, we came to the foot of the Green Mountain,
which even from the fhip’s place in the bay we had
plainly diftinguilhed to be of a different nature fn m all
the reft of the country. Thofe parts of the lava which
furrounded it were covered with a prodigious quantity
4 X of
Afcenfen
Ifland.
A S C [ 714. ] A S C
•Afcenfion of purflane, and a new kind of fern, lonchites Adfcen-
Ifland JioniS) where feveral flocks of wild goats were feed-
^11 ^ ing. The great mountain is divided in its extremities,
■ by various clefts, into feveral bodies j but in the centre
they all run together, and form one broad mafs of
great height. The whole appears to confiil of a grit¬
ty tophaceous limeftone, which has never been at¬
tacked by the volcano, but probably exifted prior to
its eruption •, its fides are covered with a kind of grafs,
peculiar to the ifland, which Linnseus has named arif-
tida Adfcenjionis. We likewife obferved feveral flocks
of goats feeding on it ; but they were all exceflively
fliy, and ran with furprifing velocity along tremendous
precipices, where it was impoflible to follow them.
The mailer of the New York floop acquainted us, that
there is a fpring of water on one part of this mountain,
which falls down a great precipice, and is afterwards
abf'rded in the fand. I am almolt perfuaded, that,
with a little trouble, Afcenfion might fhortly be made
fit for the refidence of man. The introduilion of
furze (ulex Europceus), and of a few other plants
which thrive bell in a parched foil, and are not likely
to be attacked by rats or goats, would foon have the
fame efiefl as at St Helena. The moillure attrafted
from the atmofphere by the high mountains in the
centre of the ifland, would then no longer be evapora¬
ted by the violent aflion of the fun, but colleft into
rivulets, and gradually fupply the whole ifland. A
fod of grades would everywhere cover the furface
of the ground, and annually increafe the llratum of
mould, till it could be planted with more ufeful vege¬
tables.
“ We returned gradually to Crofs Bay, in the heat
of noon, over the plain ; having a fpace of more than
five miles to traverfe, where the fun burnt and bliller-
ed our faces and necks, and heated the foil to fuch a
degree, that our feet were likewife extremely fore.
About three o’clock we arrived at the water’s fide j
and after bathing in a fmall cove among a few rocks,
we made a fignal for a boat, and were taken on
board. The next forenoon we made another fmall
excurfion, in company with Captain Cook, towards
the Green Mountain 5 but we were all of us fo much
fatigued, that we could not reach it. We made no
new obfervations in the courfe of this day, the nature
of the ifland being dreary beyond defcription in its out-
Ikirts.”
ASCENSIONAL DIFFERENCE, the difference be¬
tween the right and oblique afcenfion of the fame point
to the furface of the fphere.
ASCENT, in a general fenfe, implies the motion
of a body upwards, or the continual recefs of a body
from the earth. The Peripatetics attribute the fpon-
taneous afcent of bodies to a principle of levity inhe¬
rent in them. The moderns deny any fuch thing as
fpontaneous levity ; and fhovv, that whatever afcends,
does it in virtue of fome external impulfe or extrufion.
Thus it is that fmoke and other rare bodies afcend in
the atmofphere 5 and oil, light woods, &c. in water j
not by any internal principle of levity, but by the fu-
perior gravity or tendency downwards of the parts of
the medium wherein they are. The afcent of light bo¬
dies in heavy mediums is produced after the fame man¬
ner as the afcent of the lighter fcale of a balance. It
is not that fuch fcale has an internal principle whereby
it immediately tends upwards ; but it is impelled up¬
wards by the preponderancy of the other icale ; the
excefs of the weight of the one having the fame efieft,
by augmenting its impetus downwards, as fo much
real levity in the other ; by reafon the tendencies mu¬
tually oppofe each other, and that a&ion and reaction
are always equal.
A&CENT of Bodies on Inclined Blancs, the reader will
find explained under Mechanics •, Afcent of Fluids,
under Hydrostatics j Afcent of Vapours under the
article Evaporation.
ASCESIS, properly denotes exereife of the bodv.
It is formed from the verb cttruuv, ufed by the an¬
cients in fpeaking of the fports and combats of the ath-
letae.
Ascesis is alfo ufed by philofophers, to denote an
exereife conducive to virtue, or to the acquiring a
greater degree of virtue. This is particularly denomi¬
nated the philofophical afeefs, becaufe pradlifed chiefly
by philofophers, who make a more peculiar profeflion
of improving themfelves in virtue; on the model
whereof the ancient Chriftians introduced a religious
afeefis.
ASCETERIUM, in ecclefiaflical writers, is fre¬
quently ufed for a monaftery, or place fet apart for
the exercife of virtue and religion. The word is
formed from afeefs “ exercife j” or afeetra, “ one
who performs exercife.” Originally it fignified a place
where the athletae or gladiators performed their exer-
cifes.
ASCETIC, an ancient appellation given to fuch
perfons as, in the primitive times, devoted themfelves
more immediately to the exercifes of piety and virtue,
in a retired life ; and particularly to prayer, abfti-
nence, and mortification. The word is derived from
exerceo, “ I exercife.” Afterwards, when the
monks came in fafhion, this title was beftowed upon
them ; efpecially upon fuch of them as lived in foli-
tude.
Ascetic is alfo a title of feveral books of fpiritual
exercife.—As, the Afcetics, or devout exercifes of St
Bafil, archbilhop of Ceefarea in Cappadocia.
We alfo fay the afcetic life, meaning the exercife of
prayer, meditation, and mortification.
ASCH AFFENBURG, a town of Germany, feated
on the river Maine, in the circle of the Lower Rhine,
and territory of the eleftor of Mentz, who has a pa¬
lace there. It is memorable for being the place where
the king of Great Britain took up his quarters ths
night before the battle of Dettingen. E. Long. 9. 35.
N. Lat. 50. 14.
ASCHAM, Roger, an Englilhman of confiderable
learning in the 16th century, was born at Kirby
Wilke, a village in Yorkfliire, near Northallerton.
John Afcbam, his father, was houfe-fteward in the fa¬
mily of Scroop, and by his wife, Margaret, was con-
nefted viith feveral refpedlable families. A fhort time
before his death, Sir Anthony Winfield-, having con¬
ceived a prediledlion for his third fon Roger, took him
into his family, and extended his bounty fo far as to
give him the advantage of a private education along
with his own fons. Under a domeftic tutor, he made
a rapid progrefs in claffical learning, and early difeo-
vered a great partiality for reading. The fuperiority
of genius and docility of temper which he conftantly
difplayed,
A S C [ 715 ] A S C
Afcham. difplayed, induced his patron to fend him to St John’s
—-~v~— ■ college, Cambridge, in the year 1530.
The revival of Grecian and Roman literature at the
period Afcham entered upon his ftudies, was peculiarly
favourable to the natural bent of his inclination. A de¬
fire of excelling uniformly influenced his condudf, and
adopting the maxim, ^ui docet, difcit, he began to
teach boys the rudiments of the Greek language, as
foon as he was acquainted with the elementary parts
himfelf. His plan was approved by Pember ; and un¬
der the diredlion of this valuable friend, he foon became
acquainted with the beil Greek and Latin authors. But
he took particular delight in reading Cicero and Cas-
far 5 and upon them he formed the elegance of his La¬
tin ftyle, which proved fo honourable and fo advanta¬
geous in the after part of his life.
Afcham took his firtl degree of bachelor of arts in
the 18th year of his life, and was chofen fellow of the
college about a month afterwards. The favourable dif-
pofition, however, which he manifefted towards the re¬
formed religion, was no fmall obftacle in the -way of his
preferment. He was elefted matter of arts in the year
1537, the 21 ft of his age •, and about this period he be¬
gan to a£t in the capacity of a tutor.
His re put alio iv •'for Greek learning foon brought him
many pupils j;,and thefe were fo well inftrudted, that
feveral of them afterwards arofe to confiderable emi¬
nence. Of thefe, William Grindall was one of the
moft diftinguiftied, who obtained the ftation of mafter
of languages to the lady Elizabeth, upon the recom¬
mendation of Sir John Cheke. It appears uncertain
why Afcham himfelf was not appointed to that honour¬
able ftation, but his partiality for the univerfity feems,
from a hint in one of his letters, to have been the
caufe. At that period there was no particular chair
appropriated to the Greek language; but Afcham was
appointed by the univerftty to read leftures upon that
language in the fehools. A difpute arofe in the uni¬
verfity at that time about the pronunciation of the
Greek language, in which Afcham firft oppofed the
method obferved by Sir John Cheke and Sir Thomas
Smith ; but, upon more mature deliberation, he adopt¬
ed that method, which has ever fince been praftifed in
the Englifh fchools. Both on account of the beauty
of his hand-writing, and the purity and elegance of
his Latin, he was employed to write the public letters
»f the univerfity.
By the advice of his friend Pember, he turned his
attention to the ftudy of inftrumental mufic, and there¬
by enlivened his leifure hours, and prepared his mind
for renewed exertion. In his ftudy he alfo amufed
himfelf with embellifhing the pages of his manuferipts
with beautiful draughts ; and in the field he joined in
the diverfion of the bow and arrow. The learned Af¬
cham did not deem his labour improperly beftowed
in writing a book entitled Toxophilus, in that age
when the pra&ice of fire-arms was in its infancy, and
the proper ufe of the bow was of more importance than
for mere amufement. This work was ufeful at that
time for introducing into the Englifh language, a
more natural, eafy, and truly Englifti didHon, than
was formerly in ufe j and it alfo abounds with many
beautiful allufions and curious fragments of Englifti
hiftory. Afcham candidly acknowledges, that being
anxious to make the tour of Italy, which was then the
great republic of letters, and particularly of Grecian li¬
terature, he wiftied, by dedicating his book to the- king,
to obtain a penfion, to enable him to make that tour.
It refledls feme luftre on the benevolence of Hen¬
ry VIII. that in the year 1544, he fettled upon him an
annual penfion of 10I. which Dr Johnlon, confidering
the circumftance of the times, eilimates at the value of
loci. Upsn the death of Henry, this penfion was for
fome time difeontinued, but was again renewed by
Edward VI. and doubled by Queen Mary. In the
fame year alfo, Afcham obtained the appointment of
orator to the univerfity, an office which he retained
with great reputation, during the period he was con¬
nected with the univerfity.
For fome years he received an annual gratuity from
Lee, archbiffiop of York, but to what amount is not
recorded j and, in 1548, upon the death of his pupil
Grindall, preceptor to the lady Elizabeth, his pupils
and writings had acquired him fuch celebrity, that he
was appointed to direcl the ftudies of that princefs. He
fuccefsfully acquitted himfelf in that honourable charge j
but two years after, from fome unknown caufe of dif-
fatisfadlion, he returned to the univerfily, having taken
an abrupt leave of the princefs. This part of his con-
dudt did not leffen him in the efteem of Elizabeth j
for in the fame year, flie recalled him to court, and
appointed him fecretary to Sir Richard Morifine, am-
baflador to the emperor Charles V. In his way to Lon¬
don, he paid a vifit to Lady Jane Gray, whom he found
in her chamber, reading Plato’s Phaedo, in Greek,
“ and that,” fays he, “ with as much delight as fome
gentlemen would read a merry tale in Boccace j”
while tlie duke and duchefs, and the reft of the houfe-
hold, were hunting in the park.
In the charadler of fecretary to Sir Richard, befides
aiding him in the management of his public afiairs, he
alfo conduced his private ftudies. During the mornings
of four days in the week, he read with him a portion
of Herodotus or Demofthenes ; and, in the evenings,
fome pages of Sophocles or Euripides; and, on the
other mornings, he wrote the letters of public bufinefs;
and, on the evenings, he either wrote his own private
letters, or continued his diary and remarks. While
Afcham was on his travels, he made a ffiort excurfion
to Italy ; but was much difgufted with the manners of
the people, efpecially of the Venetians. After his re¬
turn from that tour, he favoured the world with a curi¬
ous tradl, entitled “ A Report and Difcourfe of the Af¬
fairs and State of Germany,” Sec.
Upon the death of Edward VI. Morifine was re¬
called, and Afcbam returned to the univerfity. But
through the intereft of Biffiop Gardiner, the fortune
of Afcham foon took a favourable turn, who although
he knew him to be a Proteftant, obtained him the of¬
fice of Latin fecretary to the queen, with liberty to re¬
tain his univerfity emoluments, and the additional fa-
lary of 10I. a year. The prudence of Afcham enabled
him to aft a refpftable part, both under the intolerant
reign of Mary, and alfo in the moft perilous fituations
during the reign of Elizabeth ; and the readinefs and
elegance of his Latin ftyle, rendered him a ufeful mem¬
ber at court. He is reported to have written, during
the courfe of three days, 47 letters to perfons in the
higheft ranks of life.
When the crown palled to a Proteftant prince, it
4,-X 2 made
A S C [7:
Afcham made little alteration in the condition of Afcham, who
1) ftill retained his ftation. He fpent feveral hours every
Afcites. ^ay reading the learned languages with the queen ;
and her proficiency was equal to his labours, and it
might have been expected, that his rewards would have
been more ample than 20I. per annum, together with
the prebend ot Weltwang. Some have alleged, that the
queen kepi him poor, beeaufe, it is faid, he was ad-
didded to cock-fighting, and in other refpefts extrava¬
gant ; but the detedds in his charadter fhould not have
deprived him of the rewards due to adtual fervices.
In confequence of a eonverfation which took place
in the apartment of Secretary Cecil, upon the fubjedf
of education, Sir Richard Sackville, who was prefent,
requefted him to write a book on the general fubjedf
of education. This work is entitled “ The School-
matter j” and while it ditpla^s the humanity of the
author, contains many excellent inftrudtions to the
teachers of youth. This treatife was publithed by his
widow after his death. By too dole application to
compofing a poem, which he intended to prefent to
the queen on the new year’s day of 1569, he was fei-
zed with an illnefs, which proved fatal, and he died
in the 53d year of his age, on the 23d of December,
1568. His death was univerfally lamented, and the
queen expreffed her regret, by faying, that, “ Ihe
would rather have loft io.oooI. than her tutor Af-
cham.” His epiftles, which are valuable, both on
account of their ftyle and hiftorical information, were
publifhed after his death, and dedicated to the queen j
and his other works have fince been colledled into one
volume by Bennet.
Roger Afcham appears to have been poffefied of an
amiable difpofition, kind to his friends, and grateful to
his benefactors. Although he was firm in his adhe¬
rence to his religious opinions, yet his zeal did not
carry him to excefs in oppofing thofe of other men.
His talents both as a man and as a fcholar were very
confiderable, and he deferved more ample returns for
his fervices than were conferred upon him by thofe
who enjoyed the benefit of his labours in the advance¬
ment of folid learning and correCl tafte. (Gen. Biog.)
ASCIBURGIUM, in Ancient Geography, mention¬
ed by Tacitus, fuppofed to be one of the 50 citadels
built on the Rhine; who adds, fome imagined it was
built by Ulyffes. Here was a Roman camp and a gar-
rifon. To its fituation on the banks of the Rhine an-
fwers a fmall hamlet, now called AJhurg not far from
Meurs, in the duchy of Cleves.
ASCIDIA. See Helminthology Index.
ASCII, among Geographers, an appellation given
to thofe inhabitants of the earth, who at certain fea-
fons of the year have no (hadow : Such are all the in¬
habitants of the torrid zone, when the fun is vertical
to them.
AS C IT At, (from a bag or bottle'), in anti¬
quity, a fed or branch of Montanifts, who appeared in
the fecond century. They were fo called, becaufe
they introduced a kind of Bacchanals into their aflem-
blies, who danced round a bag or fkin blowed up:
faying, they were thofe new bottles filled with new
wine whereof our Saviour makes mention, Matth. ix.
J7.—They are fometimes alfo called Afcodrogitce.
ASCITES, in Medicine, iht dropfy of the abdomen.
. See Medicine Index.
4
6 ] A S C
ASCLEPIA, a feftival of Atfculapius the god of Afclepis
phyfic, obferved particularly at Epidaurus, where it ||
was attended with a conteft between the poets and Afcuium
muficians, whence it was like wife called 'isgoj Ayui, APulum‘
the facred contention. v" ^
ASCLEPIAD, in Ancient Poetry, a verfe compof-
ed of four feet, the firft of which is a fpondee, the fe¬
cond a choriambus, and the two laft dadyls j or of
four feet and a caefura, the firft a fpondee, the fecond
a dadyl, after which comes the csefura, then the two
dadyls ; as, Mcecenas atavis edite regibus.
ASCLEPIADES, one of the moft celebrated phy-
ficians among the ancients, was a native of Prufa in
Bithynia ; and pradifed phyfic at Rome, usder Pom-
pey, 96 years before the Chriftian era. He was the
head of a new fed ; and, by making ufe of wine and
cold water in the cure of the fick, acquired a very
great reputation. He wrote feveral books, which are
frequently mentioned by Galen, Celfus, and Pliny j
but they are now loft.
Asclepiades, a famous phyfician under Hadrian,
of the fame city with the former. He wrote feveral
books concerning the compofition of medicines j both
internal and external.
ASCLEIHAS, Swallow-wort. See Botany
Index.
ASCODUTiE, in antiquity, a fed of heretics in
the fecond century, who rejeded all ufe of fymbols and
facraments, on this principle, That incorporeal things
cannot be communicated by things corporeal, nor di¬
vine myfteries by an^ thing vifible.
ASCOLI, formerly Ajculum Apulvm, a pretty large
and populous town of Italy, in the rnarquiiate of An¬
cona, and territory of the church. It is a bi(hop’s fee,
and feated on a mountain, at the bottom of which runs
the river Fronto. E. Long. 15. 20. N. Lat. 42 27.
Ascoli de Satriuno, formerly Afcuium Picenum, an
epifcopal city of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples j
feated on a mountain. E. Long. 13. 5. N. Lat. 42. 8.
ASCOLIA, in Grecian antiquity, a feftival cele¬
brated by the Athenian hufbandmen in honour of Bac¬
chus, to whom they facrificed a he-goat, becaule it-de-
ftroys the vines {Ovid. Fajl. i. 437.) 5 and, to (how the
greater indignity to an animal hated by Bacchus, the
peafants, after having killed him, made a foot-ball of
his fkin. Virgil has beautifully defcribed the occafion
of the facrifice and manner of celebrating the feftival,
Georg, ii. 380.
ASCR1PTITII, or Adscriptitii, were a kind of
villains, who, coming from abroad, fettle in the lands
of fome new lords, whofe fubjeds or fervants they com¬
mence ; being fo annexed to the lands, that they may
be transferred and fold with the fame. Adfcriptitii is
fometimes alfo ufed in fpeaking of aliens or foreigners
newly admitted to the freedom of a city or country.
Ascriptitii was alfo uled in the military laws for
the recruits appointed to lupply the Ioffes of the legions,
called alfo Alccenfi.
ASCRIVIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Dalmatia, on the Sinus Rhizicus (Piiry, Ptolemy);
Now Cattaro (Harduin) ; the capital of the territory
of Cattaro, in Venetian Dalmatia. E. Long. 19. 20..
Lat. 45. 25.
ASCULUM apulum, in Ancient Geography, a.
town of Apulia, much mentioned in the war with
Pyrrhus
ASH [7
Afculum Pyrrhus (Florus, Plutarch) : Now called Afcoli; a
picenum cJty of the Capitanata, in the kingdom of Naples.
Afobl'dela^ L°ng- l6, 3°' N< L.at' 4I-.15-
Zouch. ASCULUM Picenum, in Ancient Geography, a town
u*p*y—~ °f th6 Piceni (Caelar) j and the capital (Florus):
Now Afcoli, in the marquiiate of Ancona, on the river
Fronto. ■ E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 42. 50.
ASCYRUM, Peter’s-wort. See Botany Index.
ASDRUBAL, the name of feveral Carthaginian
generals. See Carthage.
ASEKI, or Asekai, the name which the Turks
give to the favourite fultanas who have brought forth
fons. Thefe are greatly diifinguifhed above others in
their apartments, attendants, penfrons, and honours.
They have fometimes (hared the government. The
fultana who firft prefents the emperor with a male child,
is reckoned the chief favourite, is called bayuk afeki,
and ranks as a legitimate wife : though, from the time
of Bajazet I. the fultans are forbid to marry by a pu¬
blic law, which Solyman II. violated in favour of Rox-
alana.
ASELLUS, in Zoology, the trivial name of a fpecies
of onifcus. See Oniscus, Entomology Index.
ASGILL, John, a late humorous writer, was bred
to the law, and pra&ifed in Ireland with great fuc-
cefs. He was there elected a member of the houfe of
commons, but was expelled for writing a treatife on
the poflibility of avoiding death ; and being afterwards
chofen a member for the borough of Bromber in Suf-
fex, he was alfo on the fame account expelled the par¬
liament of England. After this, he continued 30
years a priloner in the Mint, Fleet, and King’s-bench ;
during which time he publilhed a multitude of fmall
political pamphlets, feveral of which were in defence
of the fucceffion of the houfe of Hanover, and againft
the pretender. He died in the rules of the King’s-
bench, in the year 1738, when he was upwards of
fourfcore.
ASH. See Fraxinus, Botany Index.
AsH-Hole, among chemifts, is the lowed part of a
furnace ; and is intended to receive the allies falling
from the fire, and to give a paffage to the air which is
to be introduced into the furnace, to keep up the com-
budion.
ASH- Wednefday, the fird day of Lent ; fuppofed to
have been fo called from a cudom in the church, of
fprinkling afhes that day on the heads of penitents then
admitted to penance. See Lent.
ASHBORN, a town in Derbydiire, feated between
the rivers Dove and Compton, over which there is a
done bridge, in a rich foil. It is a pretty large town,
though not fo flouridling as formerly. W. Long. 1.
35. N. Lat. 53. o.
ASHBURTON, a town in Devondiire. It fends
two members to parliament, and is one of the four dan-
nery towns. It is feated among the hills, which are
remarkable for tin and copper j and has a very hand-
fome church ^ as alfo a chapel, which is turned into a
fchool. It gives title of Baron to the family of Dun¬
ning. W. Long. 3. 10. N. Lat. 50. 30._
ASHBY DELA Zouch, a market-town in Leiceder-
fhire, fituated in W. Long. I. 20. N. Lat. 52. 40. It
had a eadle which was long in the poffeffion ot the fa¬
mily of de la Zouch. It afterwards fell into the hands
7 ] ASH
of Edward IV. who granted it to Sir Edward Hading?, Aflulof
created Baron Hadings, with licenfe to make a cadle II
of the manor-houfe, to which he adjoined a very high ,Afh"10 e-
tower. It was demolifhed in 1648 ; but a^great part
of the tower is dill danding. It now belongs to the
earl of Huntingdon.
ASHDOD, or Azotus. See Azotus.
ASHES, the earthy particles of combudible fub-
dances after they have been burnt.
If the afhes are produced from vegetable bodies they
contain a confiderable quantity of fixed fait, blended
with earthy particles : and from thefe afhes the fixed
alkaline falls called pot-ajh, pearl ajh, &c. are extract¬
ed. See Chemistry Index.
The afhes of all vegetables are vitrifiable, and found
to contain iron.—They are alfo an excellent manure for
cold and wet grounds.
Several religious ceremonies depend upon the ufe of
afhes. St Jerome relates, that the Jews in his time
rolled themfelves in adies, as a fign of mourning. J o
repent in fackcloth and allies, is a frequent expreflion
in Scripture for mourning, and being afd’uSled for our
fins. There was a fort of ley and luitral water made
with the a flies of a heifer facrificed upon the great
day of expiation \ the adies whereof were didributed
to the people, and this water was ufed in purifications,
as often as any touched a dead body,, or was prefent at
funerals, (Numb. xix. 17.). Tamar after the, injury
received from her brother Amnon, covered her head
with afhes, (2 Sam. xiii. 9.). The Pfalmid in. great
forrow fays, that he had eaten afhes as if it were bread,
(Pf. cii. 9.) ; which, however, is to be confidered as
an hyperbole. Pie fat on adies, he threw allies on his
head 5 his food, his bread, was fpoiled with the adies
wherewith he was covered.
The ancient Perfians had a fort of punifhment for
fome great criminals, which confided in executing them
in allies. The criminal was thrown headlong from a
tower 50 cubits high, which was filled with adies to a
particular height, (2 Mac. xiii. 5. 6.). The motion
which the criminal ufed to difengage himfelf from this
place, plunged him dill deeper into it, and this agi¬
tation was further increafed by a wheel which Itirred the
a flies continually about till at lad he was difled.
ASHFORD, a market town of Kent, fituated about
12 miles fouth-wed of Canterbury, in E. Long. 45.
and N. Lat. 51. 15.
ASPILAR, a.term ufed among builders j by which
they mean common or free dones, as they come out of
the quarry, of different lengths and thickneffes.
ASHLERING, among builders, fignifies quarter¬
ing, to lath to, in garrets, about two and a half or
three feet high, perpendicular to the floor, up to the
under fide of the rafters, .
ASHMOLE, Elias, an indudrious Englifli anti¬
quarian, and an eminent philofopher of the 17th cen¬
tury, was born at Litchfield in 1617. Having enjoyed
the advantages of a country education, he went to
London at the age of 16, and refided in the family of
James Paget, Efq. one of the barons of the exchequer,
and then turned his attention to the law and other
branches of literature. In the year 1638, he married,
and commenced the bufinefs of attorney in London.
When the civil war began, he then being a widower,
entered
ASH [ 7
Alhmole. entered into tne king’s fervice in tlie ordinance de¬
partment. When reliding in the city of Oxford in
that capacity, he entered Erazen Nofe college, and be¬
gan the ttudy of natural philofophy, mathematics, and
atlronomy. Naturally inclined to grave and fcientific
trides, he wandered too far into the wilds of aftrological
impollure, not a little encouraged by feveral eminent
men of that age. From the lame caufe, he entered
keenly into the fecrets of mafonry, and made confider-
able additions to the biftory of that ft£h
When Worcefter was furrendertd to the parliament
in 1646, Alhmole retired to London, where he became
acquainted with the famous aftrologers, Moore, Lilly,
and Booker.
Having retired to Berklhire in the year following,
he added the knowledge of botany to his other ac¬
quirements. There he became acquainted with Lady
Mainwaring, a well-jointured widow, whom he married
in 1649; anc^ although her eftate was fequeflered on
account of his loyalty, yet through the interefl. of Lilly
and others, he again recovered his property, and after¬
wards fettled in London, where his houfe became the
refort of all the curious literati of the place. A tafte
for chemiltry, or rather alchemy, was produced, by his
converfation with William Blackhcufe ; and Alhmole,
under a feigned name, publilhed a work upon that fub-
je&. The next effort of his induftry, was a collection
of the manufcripts of Englifh alchemy, which he pub¬
lilhed under the title of Theatrum Chymicum Britanni-
cum, in 410. This work was the effeCt: of great labour
and much expence *, and although it procured him much
fame among the learned, yet it was only a collection of
Alchemy; and he appears to have been ignorant of real
chemical knowledge. About this period, he began to
number among his acquaintances, Selden, Oughtred,
and Dr Wharton.
The wealth he acquired by his marriage engaged
Fim in feveral difpules, and the lady herfelf at lalt
made an attack upon him in chancery, but he was
honourably acquitted, and the lady reltored to her
affectionate hulhand. His active indultry never wea¬
ried out, and he next attended to the Itudy of antiqui¬
ty and the inveftigation of records. Along with Sir
W. Dugdale, he about this period traced a Roman
road to Litchfield. Abandoning all other purfuits, he
began to make preparations for his “ Hiltory of the or¬
der of the Garter p a production which procured him
lafting fame. Upon a vifit to Oxford, he gave a full
defcription of the coins bequeathed to that univerfity by
Laud ; and about this time, John Tradefcant, the fa¬
mous gardener of Lambeth, prefented him with the
collection of curiofities, which both he and his father
had procured.
Upon the reftoration, Alhmole was greatly refpeCt-
ed by the king, who made him Windfor herald, and
employed him to give a defcription of the royal me¬
dals. The offices of commiffioner and comptroller of
excife were conferred upon him •, and being called to
the bar in the Middle Temple, he was afterwards ad¬
mitted a fellow of the Royal Society. The univerfity
of Oxford conferred upon him the degree of doCtor of
phyfic ; and feveral other employments and emolu¬
ments were given him, until he rofe to the higheft
eminence in the literary world. About this time his
fecond wife died, and he married the daughter of his
18 ] A S I
friend Sir W. Dugdale. In May 1762, he addreffed Afhmok
his great work on the order of the Garter to the king, Afia. ’
entitled “ The intlitution, laws, and ceremonies cf^—v  
the moft noble order of the Garter ; colleded and di-
gelled into one body, by Elias Aihmole of the Mid¬
dle lemple, Efq. Windfor herald at arms,” folio,
London, 1672. In favour of his brother-in-law, Mr
Dugdale, he. refigned his office of herald of Windfor ;
and when offered the office of garter king at-arms, he
declined it in favour of Sir W. Dugdale/ About this
time a fire broke out in one of the chambers of the
temple adjacent to his, and coniumed a library which
he had been collecting during the courfe of thirty-
three years, together with qoco coins, and many va¬
luable antiquities.; but his manufcripts and gold" me¬
dals fortunately were faved. In 1683, he fent his
manufcripts-and curiofities to the univerfity of Oxford,
which laid the foundation of the Mufceum AJhmolca-
niun, fliil in Oxford. On the death of Sir W. Dug¬
dale, he refufed a fecond time the office which he
held. At the advanced age of 76, he died, and was
interred in the church of Great Lambeth. Induftry,
perfeverance, curiofity, and accuracy, appear to have
been the leading features in his charafler. (Gen.
Blog.)
ASIA, according to the ancients, was one of the
three great divifions of the earth, and is confidered by
the moderns as one of the four quarters of the habitable
globe. Its extent is immenfe ; and its importance, both
in a hiftorical and in a philofophical point of view, is
very great. It contains every variety of foil and cli¬
mate, and is inhabited by nations which poffefs un¬
doubted claims to the higheft antiquity. When Eu¬
rope was yet covered by deep forefts, thinly inhabited
by a few wild animals, or by a barbarous race of men,
deftitute of fcience, and even of the meaneft of thofe
accommodations which the progrefs of art now enable*
all claffes of people to enjoy, Afia abounded with
flourilhing cities and populous nations, in which com¬
merce and agriculture had reached a confiderable mea-
fure of improvement.
The revolutions which have occurred in different re-'j^ *
gions of the great Afiatic continent, occupy a great trjees 0°™^
fpace in the general hiftory of the human race. Thefeto be confi-
revolutions have poffelled this peculiar character, that^ere(^as
when they commenced in one quarter of Afia, we moft C0I\ne<^e^
frequently find that they extended themfelves, in a few^[hereaC
years, to the remoteft regions, and even fometimes in¬
to the centre of Europe. As the human mind ufually
derives its charadler from the fituation in which it is
placed, we ffiall be enabled by attention to the foil and
climate, and geographical pofition of the principal
parts of Afia, to form fome general principles from
which to deduce the caufes that have influenced the
deftiny of the nations by which it is inhabited. With¬
out enlightened notions of general geography, hiftory
degenerates into a mere detail of romantic adventures,
and no valuable progrefs can be made in political or
in commercial fcience. We (hall here therefore give
a general defcription of this vaft continent, confider-
ing it, as far as poflible, as one great whole, the va¬
rious parts of which have at times poffeffed an in¬
fluence over each other; leaving its particular diftri&s
and countries, to be feparately dil’cuffed as they occur
in the arrangement of our work, unlefs in fuch in-
ftances
Afla.
Boundaries
•f Afia.
A S I [ ?
ftances as may Teem to claim fpecial notice from the
' fingularity of their nature, or the recentnefs of the
period at which time they have come to the knowledge
of the European nations.
Beginning with its north-weft corner adjoining to
Europe, the boundary of Afia commences at Waigats
ftraits, oppofite to the ifland of Nova Zembla,L in
what is called the Northern ocean or Icy fea. From
thence the boundary extends fouthward along the U-
ralian chain of mountains, which are thus accounted
half European and half Afiatic. After leaving ihefe
mountains, Afia is underitood by geographers, to pro¬
ceed in a fouth-wefterly diredlion, through the pro¬
vinces of the Ruffian empire, till it meets the river
Don, where it approaches neareft to the Wolga. Pro¬
ceeding along the river Don, it enters into the Black
fea, which it croftes diagonally, proceeding to the fouth-
weft through the ftraits of the Bofphorus, at Cpnftan-
tinople, and through the Propontis and Hellefpont ;
from whence turning fouth it proceeds through the Ar¬
chipelago, and the eaftern part of the Mediterranean fea
called the Levant, totheifthmus of Suez, a narrow neck
of land of 60 miles over, which divides Afia from Afri¬
ca. The remaining part of the weftern boundary of
Afia, is formed by the Red fea or Arabian gulf, which
is connefted with the Arabian fea, by the ftrait of Ba-
belmandel.
The fouthern boundary of Afia, is formed by the
great Indian ocean, under a variety of names derived
from the different parts of the Afiatic coaft, which are
wafhed by its waters. Along the whole of this fouth¬
ern boundary, the ocean and the land alternately en¬
croach upon each other, thereby forming immenfe bays
and gulfs of the ocean, and peninfulated trafts of
land. Thus to the eaftward of the ftraits of Babel-
mandel, the Indian ocean advances northward under
the appellation of the Arabian fea, having the penin-
fula of Arabia on the weft, and the weftern peninfula
of India on the eaft. Penetrating ftill farther north,
it receives the name of the gulf of Ormus, and after¬
wards of the Perfian gulf, which advances very far
in a north-wefterly direflion, having Arabia on the
fouth-weft, and Perfia on the north-eaft. The fame
Arabian fea in its north-eaftern extremity, making a
{lighter inroad upon the land, receives the river Indus
on the eaft of Perfia, and is called the gulf of Scindi.
To the eaftward of the neareft peninfula of India, the
fame Indian ocean forms a moft extenfive gulf, called
the bay of Bengal, bounded on the eaft and weft bv the
two Indian peninfulas. The farther peninfula ftretches
to a great diftance fouthward under the name of Ma¬
lacca, beyond which the boundaries of the continent
affume in general an eafterly direflion, more efpecially
after paffing the gulf of Siam, immediately beyond
Malacca and the gulf of Tonkin, on the boundaries
of China and of the farther India. The Chinefe em¬
pire encroaches eaftward upon the great Pacific ocean,
which is here the boundary of Afia. Its coafts are fuf-
ficiently regular. Its bays and gulfs are trifling when
compared with thofe of the Indian ocean, although to¬
wards its northern extremity, the Pacific ocean, under
the name of the Yellow fea, advances into the continent,
forming to the eaftward the peninfula of Corea, of mo¬
derate extent. After which this eaftern ocean paffing
the ifles of Japan, at a great diftance to the north, again
Atui
19 ] A S I
encroaches on the land, forming the fea or great bay
of Ochotlk, which has the peninfula of Kamtfchatka '"■—y"****'
on its eaftegn fide, and the country of Siberia or the
mainland of Afia on the weft. Beyond Kamtfchatka
one more gulf is formed in that direflion, called the
fea of Anadyr, terminating in the gulf of Notchen, to
which fucceeds the peninfula ofTlchutlki, ftretching to
the eaftward, till it approaches the coaft of America at
the bay of St Laurence. After which, turning to the
weftward, the Afiatic continent is entirely bounded on
its northern fide by the Icy fea, forming obfeure gulfs
and promontories, of which little knowledge has yet
been obtained, and which can never be of much im¬
portance to the human race.
The great continent whofe general outline we have £xte^t 0£
thus {lightly traced, muft neceffarily vary confider-the Aiiatie
ably in breadth and length, according to the points contin*nt.
from which an eftimate of its menfuration is formed.
Some idea, however, may be obtained of the territory
included in it, from obferving that the continent of Afia,
from the Hellefpont at 26° of E. Long, extends to near¬
ly 190° E. Long, at Eaft Cape, or to the 1 yo0 of W.
Long, being a line of 164° or 9500 geographic miles,
allowing 60 miles to a degree. 1 he extreme breadth of
this continent, from the fouth cape of Malacca, in
2° of N. Lat. to Cape Severe Voftochnoi, in 770 N.
Lat. amounts to about 4500 geographic miles. Hence
the length of the continent of Afia is not lefs than 7583
Britifh miles, and its breadth from fouth to north is
about 5250.
That the relative fituation of the nations inhabiting ^ ^ 4^
this continent may be rightly underftood, it is necef- pjfition'of
fary to remark that the centre of Afia confifts of an the nations
immenfe and irregular plain, which is elevated to a vaftof Afia.
height above the furrounding countries, find extends
fome thoufand miles in every direflion. I his elevated ^
region or high level of land, Hands aloft like a table, and ^ .
is fupported by a creft or front of lofty and precipitous centre of
rocks, which overlook in every direflion the furrounding Afia.
regions. The high level, or elevated territory, which
thefe rocks furround and feem to uphold on all fides,
conftitutes the prope?r country of Tartary. The climate,
even in latitude 270, which elfewhere is extremely hot,
is here very cold, and the foil is barren. In fome direc¬
tions, to the extent of 1000 miles, nothing is to be found
but frightful deferts, covered with moving fands, which
at times are carried aloft, as in Arabia and Africa, bv
the winds. They are rendered paffable by ridges of
mountains which divide them ; and the fummits of thefe
mountains are covered with perpetual fnow. Even
where the foil feems more favourable, only the hardieft
plants and trees can flourifti in this barren region,
whofe inhabitants have in all ages remained in the
paftoral ftate, fubfifting by the produce of their flocks
and herds, without engaging in the labours of agricul¬
ture. ^ r
This vaft upland trafl, which is probably the high- Diftribu-
eft region of the old hemifphere, and which forms the tion of the
largeft extent of continued elevated land upon the countries ;
globe, contains in general the tra<ft or countries of the
Kalmucs, of the Mongols, Thibet, and Eaftern Tur-
keftan, or the original country of the Turks. From
the borders of this traft in the centre of Afia, the
great rivers of that continent defeend towards the
ocean in every direction $ fuch as the 0,vus and Jaxartes
on <
Ada.
Geog- of
Herodot.
7
Alluvions
of the Afia
tic rivers.
8
Boundaries
■«f the high
level.
A SI [7
on the weft, the /Imur on the eaft, the Ganges and
Burrampooter on the fouth, and the Oby and Jenifea on
the north. The countries that furround this trail are,
therefore, juftly confidered by Major Rennel and
others, as a kind of inclined planes or hanging levels,
'or defcents along the Ikirts of it, feeing the waters
■flow fo regularly and uninterruptedly from it, as from a
-common centre, to all the furrounding • feas. On the
'fouth of this elevated region, are the vaft countries of
India, defcending gradually to the great fouthern or
Indian ocean. They receive from their expofure the
fierceft rays of a tropical fun, and are flickered by the
rocky front of the high country behind them from
every northern blaft. On the weft of the elevated
trail, are the countries which formed the ancient Per-
ftan empire, and which, in like manner, defcend gra¬
dually, though more irregularly, towards the fetting
-fun, and the territory of Europe. On the eaft of the
high table, or elevated central region, is the immenfe
■empire of China, defcending with its rivers towards
the great Pacific or Eaftern ocean. On the north of
-the fame region is Siberia, defcending gradually to the
Icy fea. The high country to the fouth intercepts
from Siberia the heated air which might otherwife
advance towards it from a more fervid climate, while
-its gradual defcent towards the, north expofes it unpro-
tefled to every blaft that may afcend from the icy re¬
gions of the pole, and thus the climate is rendered as
•much too cold in proportion to its latitude, as India
is too hot. The foil, however, of Siberia, is in many
places equal in fertility to that of almoft any other
country of the globe, and it has only been prevented
from rifing into importance, by the intolerable feveri-
ty of a long winter, which has always operated as a
tax upon the induftry of its inhabitants, to prevent any
great increafe of population. Its rivers are bound up
during half the year, under a covering of almoft im¬
penetrable ice ; and the ocean into which they flow,
can at no feafon be navigated with fafety, a circum-
ftance which baniflies thofe refources which an extenfive
^commerce might afford, to compenfate the evils of the
■ climate.
It may here be remarked, that the rivers which de¬
fcend towards the fouth, from the high centre of Afia,
through countries fubjeft to periodical rainy feafons,
have by their alluvions, or by carrying down immenfe
quantities of mud and earth, formed vaft fertile plains
near the fea coafts, fimilar in their nature to the Delta,
or rich valley of Lower Egypt. Accordingly, in the
fouth of Afia, from Perfia to China } near the mouths
of the Indus, the Ganges, and other rivers, immenfe
trafls of level country are found, which are periodi¬
cally overflowed, and which, aided by the warmth of
the climate, exhibit a degree of fertility in all the
produflions of the vegetable world, of which in our
temperate and colder regions tve have little concep¬
tion.
The high level of which avb have now fpoken, which
is of fo much importance both to the geography and
to the hiftory of Afia, is bounded, as already mention¬
ed, on all fides by a creft or ridge of mountains, ad¬
joining to which are leffer chains of hills, which gra¬
dually fubfide in the neighbouring low countries. The
great ridge called Imaus by the ancients, or the Indian
Caucafus, is properly the creft or front of the weftern
S I
Alia.
20 ] A
declivity towards Perfia. The part of this creft 6r
the front of the high level towards the fouth Avas an- -y—w
ciently called Emodus, and fometimes aifo Imaus, of
Avhich it is a continuation. The modern name is Urn-
doo Kha,The northern front of the high territory
Avhich overlooks the Baikal lake, and the whole length
of Siberia, is of immenfe extent, and is ufually called
by hiltorians the Altaic ridge or chain. The appella¬
tion of the front of the fame high country towards Chi¬
na is little known to European geographers, but it forms
in itfelf nothing more than a continuation of the ridges
of Imaus and Altai furrounding the high country of
Tartary. ^
This high country or elevated level, Avhich may Avith Chain of
propriety be called Grand Tartary, fends forth in dif- mountains
ferent diredlions various ramifications of itfelf, or c hainSfromethenS
of mountains, to the utmoft extremities of Afia. Thus high ievej>
it fends forth eaftward a chain of mountains to the
gulf of Corea to the northward of Pekin. This chain
appears like a continuation of the Altaic mountains,
Avhich may thus be confidered as proceeding from the
70° to the 140° of eaft longitude, or about 5000 miles.
Another mountainous chain proceeds north-eaft ward to
the gulf or fea of Ochotlk oppofite Kamtfchatka. A
fimilar ridge, called the Uralian chain, proceeds to the
north-weft, and terminating in the vicinity of Nova
Zembla, within the polar circle, has already been men¬
tioned as one of the boundaries which divide Afia from
Europe. Another chain, better known to both an¬
cient and modern Avriters, .proceeds from Imaus, or the
front of the great high level, Aveftward, under the cele¬
brated name of Mount Taurus, and terminates in the
Mediterranean fea at the peninfula of Leffer Alia,
This important ridge has on the one fide, or to the
fouth, a great part of the ancient Perfian empire, and
on the north the great fait lake called the Cafpian fea,
and alio the Black fea, with the high country of Geor¬
gia between them, which anciently received the appel¬
lation of the Grecian Caucafus.
A great tradt of low country which lies to the eaft
and to the north of the Cafpian, and proceeds weftAvard
along the ftioresof the Black fea, alfo receives from mo- I#
dern geographers the appellation of Tartary, and Avas Weftern
anciently denominated Scythia. Hence Avhat is called iartaiy.
Tartary muft be regarded as confifting of two very di-
ftindt trails of country fituated upon very different levels.
Eaftern Tartary, lying beyond the mountains of Imaus
and fouthward of the mountains of Altai, conftitutes the
high level or elevated central region of Afia ; whereas
the country called Thr/ary fituated upon the Cafpian and
the Black feas, uoav fometimes called Ruffian Tartary,
is not only fituated upon a lower level, but infiead of
confifting of a horizontal plane, it lies upon a fouth ex¬
pofure, and its rivers, fuch as the Wolga and the Don,
defcend fouth ward into the Cafpian and the Black feas,
which are placed along the northern bafis of the ridge of
mountains anciently denominated Taurus. Beyond the
fources of the Don and the Wolga, however, the coun¬
try begins to defcend towards the polar circle and the
Icy fea, like the reft of Siberia, of which it partakes the
name. n _
In all ages Afia might be divided into two regions; Afiadm-t
the civilized, containing men Avho cultivated the foil
and lived in cities ; and the barbarous, whofe inhabi-barl;)arous.
tants fubfifted by hunting or by the paftorai life. To
the
Afia.
A S I [ 7
the former belonged the three countries which defcend
'from the elevated region of Afia on the eaft, the fouth,
and the weft, forming the empires of China, of India,
and the ancient Perfian empire, extending to the Hel-
lefpont. To the barbarous or uncivilized nations have
always belonged the far more extenfive tratfs of Sibe¬
ria, of High Tartary, and of the Weftern or Lower
Tartary, which lies to the north of the Cafpian fea, of
Mount Caucafus, and of the Black fea. On the fouth-
weft of Afia alfo a different race of barbarians, engaged
in a great meafure in a fimilar life of pafturage, under
the denomination of Arabs, have occupied an immenfe
portion of territory ; and both of thefe claffes of bar¬
barians, the Tartars of the eaft and north, and the
Arabs of the fouth-weft, have at times a6ted a moft im¬
portant part in the affairs of Afia, and even of Eu¬
rope ; and by their movements have decided the def-
tiny of nations.
Knowledge The knowledge of the ancients concerning Afia ap-
ef Herodo- pears to have been extremely limited. Herodotus, like
tusconcern-an ^ 3!^}^ writers, admitted the exiftence of »
Afia.
14
ing Afia
northern ocean, upon the fhores of which the Hyper¬
boreans were fuppofed to exift, a peaceful race of men,
upon whom nobody made war, and who never diflur-
bed the tranquillity of other nations. He was alfo
acquainted with the exiftence of various Scythian, or,
as we now call them, Tartar tribes, inhabiting the
country tp the north of the Black fea and the Cafpian,
and upon the river Jaxartes, which he underftood to
flow into the lake Aral to the ealtward of the Cafpian.
But Herodotus did not believe in the exiftence of an
eaftern ocean, or that Afia was in that quarter bound¬
ed by the fea. He alfo extended Europe indefinitely
to the eart, including all in that divifion of the globe
that lies to the northward of Mount Caucafus and the
Cafpian fea. To the eaftward of what he called Afia,
that is, the Perfian empire, he confidered India as the
laft inhabited country, afferting, that “ the Indians
are the people of Afia that are neareft the eaft and the
place of the rifing fun.” Beyond India he confeffed
that he knew nothing. “ As far as India (fays he)
Afia is well inhabited; but from India eaftward the
whole country is one vaft defert, unknown and unex¬
plored.” In thefe times, therefore, it is certain that
the Greeks knew nothing of the vaft empire of China
and its dependencies, or of the peninfula beyond the
Ganges, which forms the eaftern divifion of India. In¬
deed it would appear that the elevated region of Tar¬
tary formed in thefe early times an impenetrable
barrier which divided the weftern nations of Afia
from thofe on the eaft. Neither does it appear that
Herodotus was well acquainted with the fouthern fron¬
tiers even of Perfia and Arabia. The whole Arabian
fea, including the Arabic gulf, was called the Erythre-
an or Red fea ; but he does not feem to have known
that the fea bordering upon the ancient kingdom of
Perfia or Perfia Proper, is itfelf nothing more than a
gulf like that which divides Arabia from Egypt and
Ethiopia, to which the name of Red fea is now exclu-
, 13 lively confined,
lb Mace- It is a circumftance not a little lingular, that the
ifitbn*" V'^t ^exan<^er t^e Great to India through Perfia
f died the ^ no means extend the limits which preceding geo¬
graphy graphers had afligned to Afia. A correft knowledge
®Kfia. of the coaft of the conquered empire of Perlia was in*
Vol. II. Part II.
21 ] a s r
deed acquired, but neither to the eaft nor to the north
was any knowledge gained. The high ridge of Imaus,' v—
forming the front of the elevated region of Tartary was
denominated by the geographers of Alexander the
Indian Caucafus, probably from fome obfcure notion,
that this ridge was a continuance of the mountains of
that name between the Euxine and Cafpian feas. Be¬
yond India alfo he admitted of no traft of land what¬
ever, thus making India the moft eaftern country of
Afia, and confequently of the whole earth, although
Herodotus had placed a vaft defert beyond it. But it
is probable that this diminution of territory to the eaft¬
ward might be a facrifice to the vanity of Alexander,
who wifhed to imagine, and to make others believe,
that he had approached the world’s boundary. In ano¬
ther point alfo the geography of Afia was falfified by
iffe followers of this conqueror. Herodotus had right¬
ly defcribed the Cafpian fea as a great lake, but the
followers of Alexander imagined they had difcovered
it to be a gulf of the northern ocean. With this
ocean, therefore, they were under the neceflity of fup-
pofing it to communicate by a narrow channel ; a cir¬
cumftance which led them to limit the continent to a
very trifling extenfion northward. The knowledge
which Herodotus poffeffed concerning the unconnected
ftate of the Cafpian in refpeft of other feas being thus
loft, its geographical pofition as a lake remained un¬
known in the times of Eratofthenes, Strabo, and Pliny.
It was, however, regained in the age of Ptolemy, who
reitored its form of a lake, but under fuch dimenfions
and proportions as demonflrate that the fmaller lake,
called Aral, which is 200 miles to the eaftward, was
miftaken for a part of it.
The moft remarkable feature in the'ancient Greek Mount
and Roman deferiptions of Afia, that is, of the coun-Taurus °f
try to the weft ward of Imaus, and to the fouth of thetlle an*
Cafpian fea, is the high ridge of mountains which theyCientS*
in general denominated Taurus. This ridge was to
them as it were a line of feparation between two worlds, *
the civilized and the barbarous 5 or two climates, the
warm and fertile, and the cold and barren. As Taurus,
however, is at times broken into diftinCI chains of
mountains which occafionally alter their general direc¬
tion, various names were aferibed to particular parts of
it, fuch as Niphates, Cafpius, Paropamifus, Caucafus,
Emodus, &c. The general chain, however, or the
Taurus of the ancient geographers, originated in the
fouth-weft extremity of what they called 4fia Minor,
that is, the fmall part of Afia embraced between the
Euxine or Black fea on the north, the ftraits of the
Hellefpont and the Dardanelles on the weft, and the
Levant or eaftern part of the Mediterranean fea on the
fouth. The ridge of Taurus was underftood to pafs
eaftward through leffer Afia at no great diftance from
the ftiores of the Levant. From thence, in its courfe
eaft ward, it feparated Armenia from Mefopotamia, the
two countries called Media from each other, and the
greater Media from the narrow traft along the fouthern
border of the Cafpian fea. Oppofite to the fouth end
of the Cafpian its inferior ridges were divided by a
vaft chafm called the Cafpiun f rails, which was with The Caf-
the ancients an important geographical point, being plan ftrait,
fuppofed to be in the fame parallel with Iffus and
Rhodes. This remarkable chafm or ftrait formed the
belt road or paffage from Media, Mefopotamia, and the
4 ^ weftern
A S I
Afia. weftern countries in general, to Parthia
■ ■•"v Aria, and others on the eaft, becaufe by it confiderable
deferts to the fouth might be avoided. Alexander the
Great paiTed through it in his way from Rages towards
Aria and Badtria. It is at prefent called the Jlrait of
Khowardy from a town or diilridlin the neighbourhood,
and is almolt due north from Ifpahan : it is eight miles
through, and is in general not more than 40 yards in
breadth. Pliny lays, that it is only wide enough for a
carriage, and modern writers have faid that where it is
narrowed; and molt winding, a litter can fcarcely pafs.
The mountains are very lofty on each fide. The bot¬
tom is upon the whole flat, and at certain feafons a con¬
fiderable Itream of fait water flows along it towards the
defert on the fouth.
After having paded the fouth-eaft corner of the Caf-
pian, Taurus proceeding farther eaitward, was under-
ftood by the ancients, and reprefented, as feparating the
countries of Parthia, Margiana, and Badtria, on the
north, from thofe of Aria, Drangiana, and the nortb-
ivcltern provinces of India, watered by the heads of the
Indus. Here Taurus was known to meet the lofty
ridge of Iraaus, which we have already mentioned as
the weftern front of the elevated region that forms the
centre of Afia. But as this general account of the opi¬
nions of the ancients concerning the courfe of thefe
mountains can give little idea of the general level of the
countries through which they pafs, we ftiall here notice
more particularly the elevation of thefe countries, and
the way in which they are divided from each other. In
doing fo we lhall chiefly follow the authority of the
learned and accurate Major Rennell •, and we prefer the
ufe of ancient appellations to the names aftigned to thefe
provinces by the barbarians who now inhabit or rather
16 wander over them.
Elevation We have faid, that from Imaus, or from the high
or level of region of central Afia, or Greek Tartary, the country
weftward de^cen^s gradually towards the weft, forming what was
from Imaus. called AJia by the ancients, but what was in truth lit¬
tle more than the Perfian empire. In departing from
Imaus, however, the country is very elevated, and vari¬
ous ridges occur, which gradually, after affuming a va¬
riety of forms, unite in the ridge which terminates far to
the weft at the extremities of the Leffer Afia, and was
called Mount Taurusy as already Hated. In their pro-
grefs the valleys or ordinary country near thefe moun¬
tains gradually becomes lower as it proceeds towards
the weft,and the mountains themfelves decline in height.
Even in the weft, however, the mountains appear not a
little elevated.
Moft weft- Returning from the weft, or beginning with the pe-
erly territo-ninfula of Afia or Afia Minor, which is enclofed on
ry loweft. three fides by the Mediterranean, iEgean, and Euxine
feas, it is to be remarked that even this traft acquires
fpeedily a confiderable elevation ; but the fouthern part
of Leffer Afia towards the Mediterranean is by far the
higheft, being the proper Taurus itfelf, rifing abruptly
from the neighbourhood of the fea-coaft, and turning
the courfes of the principal waters towards the Euxine
fea on the north.
I® The next portion of territory is ftill more elevated,
tiorThiXr' extending from the Euxine to the Cafpian fea. To
£ the north it fends forth a traft of very mountainous
country called CaucafuSy or the modern Georgia, which
overlooks the Sarmatian plains, or, in other words, the
Afia.
19
[ 722 ] A S I
Hyrcania, defert of Aftracan, and the country of the Tartars
called Don CoJJacSy being the low lands on the north
both of the Euxine and Cafpian feas. Southwards this
high region, which is a part of the Taurus of the an¬
cients, overlooks the vaft low countries, in which are
contained the kingdoms or ftates of Syria, Mefopota-
mia, Affyria, and Babylonia, and even the great Ara¬
bian defert. The ancient divifions of this high region
were called Cappadocia, Armenia, Pontus, Colchis,
Iberia, Albania, the country of the Carduchians, and a
part ef Media. It feems to be the higheft continued
tra£t of territory in Weftern Afia, giving rife to the ri¬
vers Euphrates, Tigris, Cyrus, Araxes, Hypanis or Ku¬
ban, and Phafis, which flow from it in different direc¬
tions towards the Euxine or Cafpian feas, or the Per¬
fian gulf. It is worthy of remark, that in the higher
parts of this region two great fait lakes are to be
found.
Advancing eaft ward is a third portion of ftill moreEaftem
elevated territory, extending from the Cafpian fea to tradt high*
the lofty Imaus, or weftern creft of the great Afiatic
highlands. This third region is ftill higher than the
two former parts of the tra£t of Mount Taurus. Its
breadth is very various. Its weftern quarter is limited
by the approach towards each other of the Cafpian and
Perfian feas 5 but the high country expands to a much
greater breadth beyond the Cafpian, till it is again nar¬
rowed on its approach to Imaus by two valleys, along
the one of which flows the river Indus to the fouth,
and along the other the Oxus to the north-weft, an¬
ciently terminating in the Cafpian fea, but now in the
fea or lake of Aral. Of this third portion of the high
country of Weftern Afia the northern part between
the Cafpian fea and Mount Imaus contains the ancient
Parthia, Margiana, and Sogdiana, which overlook to¬
wards the north the low countries of Weftern Tartary
in that quarter called Chorafmiay and the feats of the
Maffagetae (the ancient Magog) at the Jaxartes. The
middle part of the high country contains Aria and
Badlriana^adjoining on the eaft to Mount Irnaus. The
fouthern part of the fame elevated region contains Per-
fia Proper, Carmania, Arachofia, &c. which towards the
Perfian gulf are bordered by the low traft of mari¬
time Perfia. The higheft continuous ridge of this ter¬
ritory is that which paffes by the fouth-eaft of the Caf¬
pian fea and Hyrcanta, between Drangiana on the fouth
and Aria on the north, and from thence between Bac-
triana and the provinces of India; where, as it ap¬
proaches Imaus, which, as already ftated, is the front of
a yet more elevated region, it fwells to an immenfe mag¬
nitude and height, and is covered with fnow annually
till the month of Auguft. sa
From this traft of elevated country, which we have ^jtersa^
thus defcribed as gradually increafing in height from
the Mediterranean to Mount Imaus, various lateral
ridges projeft towards the fouth, forming between
them different hollow bafons or low countries. But
thefe fouthern projections are not equal in altitude to
the great chain that proceeds from well to eaft. The
moft wefterly of thefe crofs ridges i« that which begins
from the body of Taurus, near the place where it is
croffed by the Euphrates, at the northern extremity of
Syria. The ridge proceeds to the fouth, inclining to
the weft, and forms a kind of mound or dam, fkirting
the eaftern fhore of the Mediterranean, under the
names
A S I [ 723 ] A S I
Ain. names of Amanus, Lebanon, &c, Having pafled the
—v-—"■*' Mediterranean and the fouthern border of Paleftine, it
advances to the eaftern coart; of the Red fea, where it
fpreads out, and forms the centre of Arabia, finally
terminating in what is called Arabia FelixjOX the fouth¬
ern part of the Arabian peninfula.
Farther to the eait another ridge proceeds towards
the fouth, which was called by the Greeks Zagros,
and advances to the neighbourhood of the Perfian gulf.
Between this laft ridge on the eaft, and the former, or
Syrian ridge, on the weft, and Taurus on the north,
is a great valley or tra£l of low country that formed
the ancient empire of Affyria, which was guarded in
this manner by a wall of mountains on three Tides, and
by the Perfian gulf and the Arabian defert on the fouth.
It is watered by the fertilizing ftreams of the Tigris
and Euphrates, upon which Nineveh and Babylon for¬
merly flood. To the eaftward the country becomes
more dry and elevated. Parting through Media, a
great fait defert occupies the centre of the country,
having Perfia Proper on the fouth, and Parthia on the
north j and continuing ftill toafcend, the mountains be¬
come more numerous and lefs regular, in proportion as
they approach Imaus. Thefe regions, however, are of
great importance in ancient hiftory as the feats of civili¬
zation and of empire, though they are now funk into ob-
fcurity, and a prey in a great meafure to tribes of bar¬
barians, who wander over them with their flocks and
herds, and refide in tents. The eaftern part of the coun¬
tries known to the ancients as Alia, or rather as the Per¬
fian empire, ftill retains that name ; but to the weft ward
of the Euphrates Afia belongs to Turkey, excepting the
great country or peninfula of Arabia, of which we fliall
21 here take fome general notice.
.\rabia. This country is worthy of the utmoft attention in a
hiftorical point of view, on account ©f the influence
which its inhabitants have had upon a great part of the
nations of Afia, and confequently upon a large portion
of the human race. They have contrived to extend
themfelves farther over the world than almoft any other
people, and have preferved in all fituations more ftrong-
ly than other nations, their language, religion, manners,
and peculiar cuftoms. From the river Senegal, on the
weft coaft of Africa, to the Indus, colonies of Arabs are
to be met with, and alfo from the heads of the Euphra¬
tes on the north to the ifland of Madagafcar. Even the
Tartar hordes have fcarcely occupied a wider extent on
the globe.
Boundaries Arabia, properly fo called, is that great peninfula
f Arabia, formed by the Red fea, or Arabic gulf, on the weft,
the Indian ocean, or Arabian fea, on the fouth, and the
Perfian gulf on the north-eaft. Accordingly, the an¬
cients appear to have comprehended under the name of
Arabia, the whole tra<ft lying between thofe feas and
a line drawn from the point of the Perfian gulf to that
of the Arabic gulf. This line, however, was never
the real boundary of the country, which appears to
have at all times extended northwards to a great di-
ftance, and to have been limited on one fide by the ri¬
ver Euphrates, and on the weft bv Syria, Paleftine,
and the ifthmus of Suez. Thus Arabia may be re¬
garded as a vaft but irregular triangle. From the
northern point at Beles, where Xenophon and the
Greeks firft pafled the Euphrates, to the ftraits of Ba-
belmandel, is a line of 1500 miles, forming the weft-
ern fide of the triangle, while its fouthern bafis prefents ^fia.
a front of IOOO miles to the Indian ocean. The me- -v~-
dium breadth of the peninfula from Baflora on the Per¬
fian gulf to Suez on the Red fea is upwards of 700
miles. The entire furface of the country, therefore,
exceeds France or Germany in a fourfold proportion.
Being fituated from 130 to 30° of N. Lat. and of
confequence partly between the tropics, its climate
muft neceflarily be regarded as hot. In fome pro¬
vinces, indeed, the heat is exceflive j but in this coun¬
try, as in others, the degrees of elevation of the foil
produce eflefts upon the temperature which fet afide
all calculations that might be founded upon the gene¬
ral principle of the vicinity or remotenefs of the torrid
zone. To underftand the varieties of climate that ex-
ift in Arabia, it is neceffary to attend to the form and
afpedl of its furface. The whole centre of the Arabian
peninfula, or interior country, confifts of a fucceflion
of mountains. Around the foot of thefe mountains,
adjacent to the fea-coaft, is a belt of flat ground. This
belt furrounds the whole of the Arabian peninfula.
It proceeds along the (bores of the Red fea, of the In¬
dian ocean, and of the Perfian gulf. Even the defert
of Syria on the north may be confidered as a part of
this belt. It extends everywhere to the diftance of
about two days journey from the fea, and is denomina¬
ted Tehama by the Arabs. This belt of flat land is
dry and fandy, and prefents one unvaried pidlure of de¬
flation. It bears every mark of having been ancient¬
ly a part of the bed of the fea. Its bottom foil is a
grayifti clay, with a large proportion of fand, and hav¬
ing remains of marine animals interfperfed to a great
diftance from the flioxe. It contains large ftrata of
fait, which in fome places even rife up into hills. Its
regular inclination towards the fea indicates that it has
emerged gradually ; and the fea feeras ftill continuing
to recede. 'The banks of coral are ftill increafing, and
coming nearer to the (bore, fo as to render the naviga¬
tion round Arabia every day more and more danger¬
ous. The fand accumulated by the billows gradual¬
ly fills up the intermediate fpace, and joins thefe beds
of coral to the continent. This receflion of the fea,
however, or conqueft over the watery element, has pro¬
duced little advantage to man. The Tehama is every¬
where a frightful defert of fand, diverfified only by na¬
ked rocks, with nothing to foften the force of the fun’s
rays, and in which all vegetation is burnt up. The
drought is fo extreme in thefe flat plains, that whole
years pafs without rain ; and the torrents which de-
feend from the hills, which occupy the interior of the
country, are loft among the fands long before they cau
reach the fea.
In the interior country, the foil and climate are very
different. The great ranges of lofty mountains attraft
vapours, which, defeending in abundant rains, cool the
air, and quicken vegetation. The cold occafioned by
the height of the country produces falls of fnow, but
this never lies long upon the ground. While the in¬
habitants of the plains fuffer by heat, thofe of the hills
are obliged to wrap themfelves in pelices 5 but as the
hills or mountains are by no means of the primary ox-
der in point of elevation, ice and fteady froft feem to
be unknown. The foil, however, is as much diverfi¬
fied as in other countries j but the figure of the hills is
unfavourable to their fertility. They are in general
4Y2 fo
A S I [ 724 ] A S I
Afia. io craggy and precipitous as to afford little fpace or
' y—foil for vegetable produftions, the beft part of the foil
being continually wathed away by the rvaters. Hence
the culture of the land is difficult and expenfive. • Ter¬
races muff be formed, and the foil carefully preferved
and accumulated upon them ; fo that, upon the whole,
no part of Arabia can with any propriety be denomi¬
nated rich or fertile. In the fouthern divifion of it,
called by the ancients, by way of eminence, the Hap¬
py, or Arabia Felix, the inhabitants are at once indu-
ffrious and poor. The defert between Syria and the
Euphrates, or that part of Arabia which extends to the
northward of the peninfula, is altogether incapable of
improvement by culture. A wide level of land is on¬
ly interfered by (harp mountains deflitute of verdure,
which render more pow'erful by reflerion the intenfe
rays of an alrhoft tropical fun. The rare and hardy
plants, the tamarind, or the acacia, that ftrike their
roots into the clefts of the rocks, are nourifhed by the
dews of night. A grove of date trees, or a green pa-
fture, attrafts a fmall colony of Arabs *, and a well of
water is a place of importance and of refort.
Yet this defert is not deffitute of a tolerable number
of inhabitants. They rear the camel, a ffrong and
patient bead of burden, which fubfifts on the moft
ffunted and withered roots, or upon herbs of the gourd
fpecies, which abound in the drieft countries. Neither
are they deftitute of horned cattle, and goats and
(beep 5 and naturalifts confider this as the native coun¬
try of the horfe, which is the peculiar favourite of the
Arabians.
Two daffies Properly {’peaking, there are two kinds or claffes of
el Arabs. Arabs ■, the one fedentary, that is, living in cities, or
attached to hufbandry, and the other, wandering in the
paftoral ftate, called Bedouws. The Arabs fettled in
cities, and efpecially in fea-port towns, of which there
are feveral on the coafts of the peninfula, have loft
fomewhat of their diftinftive national manners by their
intercourfe with ftrangers } but the Bedouins, who live
in tents, and are divided into tribes or clans, retain the
euftoms and manners of their earlieft anceftors. 1 hey
are the genuine Arabs, and poffefs in the aggregate all
thofe chara«Sferiftics of which the other branches of
the nation exhibit different ftiades and degrees. It is
the difference in their ways of living that conftitutes
the great diftindlion between the different tribes. Hhe
genuine and nobler Arabs difdain hufbandry, as an em¬
ployment by which they would be degraded. They
maintain no domeftic animals but fheep, camels, and
horfes. Hence it is known, that Mahomet, the found¬
er of their religion, belonged to a noble tribe or race,
becaufe he was a dealer in camels. Some tribes are
even mentioned contemptuoufly by their countrymen,
becaufe they keep cows or dromedaries •, and the pea-
fants who cultivate the foil are accounted the lovteft
clafs. Even among the tribes which apply to agricul¬
ture, the chiefs live always in tents, and leave the cul¬
ture of their grounds to their fubje&s, whofe dwellings
are miferable huts.
In the interior of Arabia, towards the Indian ocean,
which is chiefly the quarter capable of being cultiva¬
ted, fome governments exift of a confiderable extent;
fuch as Yemen and Hadramant, and Oman. In thefe
the people are of a mild and civilized chara61er. A
flranger travels unprote£led and alone with as much
3- ,
fafety as in any country in Europe. The only danger
of impofition or of ill ufage occurs in the fea-port
towns, from the officers of government. Here alfo the
religion of Mahomet exhibits a lefs intolerant afpeft
than in Turkey, Africa, or almoft any other country.
Indeed it is not a little lingular, that while this reli¬
gion extended itfelf to the pillars of Plercules, to the
mouths of the Ganges, and to the extreme regions of
Tartary, feveral tribes of native Arabs, fecure in the
faftneffes of their rugged mountain^, regarded it with
indifference or contempt. Some tribes in the interior
could never be fubdued by the power of the caliphs,
and retain the worffiip of the heavenly bodies, as in
the times of their ancettors. Even a tribe of Jews has
exifted for ages amidft thefe inacceffible mountains,
though the moft odious of mankind in the eyes of the
furrounding Mahometans.
The Bedouins, or wrandering Arabs, who conflitute
the body of the nation, are divided into an endlefs va¬
riety of tribes. Their chiefs, whether high or low,
are denominated fchiecks. Thefe fchiecks of nobles
are very numerous, and the plebeians, are invariably
actuated and guided by them : They are both fhep-
herds and foldiers. The dignity of fchieck is heredi¬
tary, but is not confined to) the order of primogeniture.
The petty fchiecks, who form the hereditary nobility,,
choofe the grand fchieck of any diffrift out of the
reigning family, without regarding the degree of his
propinquity to his laft prcdeceflbr. They pay him lit¬
tle or no revenue, and the other fchiecks are rather his-
equals than his fubje£ls. If diffatisfied with his go¬
vernment, they depofe him, or go away with their-
cattle, and join another tribe. Thefe emigrations,
which happen not unfrequently, produce great revolu¬
tions among the tribes. Even the peafants poffefs a
fimilar privilege. Though underftoed to be flaves,.
they may quit the fervice of a mailer with whom they
are difl’atisfied, and choofe another. It was remarked,
in the time of the Romans, that the Arabs were at
once addi&ed to robbery and to commerce; a faft
which holds true to this day. They become the faith¬
ful fervants of the merchant, who hires them to con-
du£t him through the defert ; while at the fame time
they are extremely apt to confider the property of un-
protefted travellers as an objeft which they may law'-
fully feize. But it may alfo be remarked, that we are
fometimes apt to confider as robbery what the Arabs
view in another light. Every grand fchieck, or
fchieck of fchiecks, as he is called, confiders himfelf as
the abfolute lord of his whole territory, and exafls du¬
ties upon all goods carried through his dominions.
The Europeans are wrong when they fuppofe the fums
paid by travellers to the grand fchiecks to be a ranfom
to redeem them from pillage. On the contrary, it is
regarded by the Arab nobles in no other light than as-
the duties levied in other countries, by princes fof the
fupport of the government. The fouthern part of
Arabia, called by the znc\tr\ls Arabia Felix, has at
times been fubdued by ftrangers ; but the Bedouins,
who live in tents in the defert, do not appear to have-
ever been effe&ually conquered. In a conteft with
them, much is hazarded, and little can be wmn. Their
horfes and camels, which in eight or ten days can per¬
form a march of 400 or 500 miles, difappear before a
vidlorious army. The fecret waters of the defert elude:
' the
AST [ 7-
l fia. the fearcli of the invader, and his troops are confumed
u—v——- by hunger, thirft, and fatigue, in the purfuit of an in-
vifible foe, who mocks his efforts, and at all tunes finds
2. fafety in the midft of a burning folitude.
How far Notwithftanding the memory of their ancient inde-
connefted pendence, even the wandering Arabs are frequently
with fo- tempted to fettle near towns, or in fertile provinces;
reign dates, ^ jn djfferent ages brought them into fubjec-
tion to the fovereigns of thefe provinces. Their neigh¬
bours, alfo, fuch as the Perfians, the princes of the
Greek empire, and the modern Turks, have contrived
to acquire an influence over fome of the tribes, by fow-
ing diffenfions among the great families, and efpoufing
the caufe of pretenders to the dignity of grand fchieck.
Accordingly the Turks allege that they are the fove¬
reigns of Arabia •, but this is no more than a vain-glo¬
rious affertion, which is fo far from being true, that
they find it neceffary to pay the ufual tribute to the
fchiecks when their caravans pafs through the defert to
Mecca. The tribes who live near the road keep the
wells open, permit the pafiage of merchandife, and
efcort the caravans. Quarrels, indeed, often occur, in
which the rapacity of the Bedouins is feldom more re-
. markable than the infolence of the Turks, who regard
all the Arabs as rebels. The famous Ali Bey, when
he conduced the Egyptian caravan, would not pay all
the duties on his way to Mecca, but promifed to pay
the reft on his return, and forgot his promife. On the
year following the Arabs affembled in greater numbers,
and obliged the captain of the caravan to pay both
for himfelf and Ali Bey. The Turks exclaimed
againft this as an a£l: of robbery ; yet the Arabs had
only done themfelves juftice. The conduft of Abdal-
la, pacha of Damafcus, who commanded the Syrian
caravan in 1756, was ftill more odious. When the
fchiecks of the tribe of Harb came to meet him to re¬
ceive the ftipulated toll, he gave them a friendly invi¬
tation to vifit him j but inftead of paying the toll, he
cut off their heads, and fent them to Conllantinople, as
a proof of his vidftory over the rebel Arabs* The
ftroke which they had thus fuffered, by the death of
their chiefs, hindered them from attempting any thing
in revenge, on either that or the following year : The
caravans travelled in triumph to Mecca, and the Turks
boafted of the valour and prudence of Abdalla Pacha.
But in the third year the Arabs avenged the flaughter-
ed fchiecks, and, with an army of 80,000 men, raifed
out of all the tribes, routed the Turks, and pillaged
the caravan.—Thus the Arabs, notwithftanding their
internal divifions, confider themfelves on extraordinary
occafions as one nation. A certain fubordination even
fubfifts among the tribes: The petty tribes being un¬
able to defend themfelves, place themfelves under the
prote&ion of the greater, and are governed by their
laws; and thus are powerful tribes formed by the, union
of feveral fmall tribes.
Character ’ cl'raate anc* barren foil of their country has a
and food of confiderable influence on the general chara&er of the
the people. Arabians. They are an extremely fober and frugal
nation, which produces in them an appearance of lean-
nefs and ftinted growth. The ufual articles upon
which the better fort fubfift are, rice, pulfe, milk, and
butter : mutton is their moft common fpecies of but¬
cher’s meat, but they feldom eat of it, as all kinds of
animal,food are accounted unwholefome in thefe hot
5 1 A ST .
countries. The common people have little other food Afia.
than a kind of bread made of ciurra, a lort ot coarfe  '
millet, by kneading it with camels milk, oil, butter, or
greafe : They alfo ule bailey bread. Like the other
natives of the warm regions of Alia, they have lefs reft-
lefsnefs or natural defire for exercife than the natives
of the colder countries of Europe; and this inafti-
vity is, no doubt, increafed by their general habits of
abftinence and extreme frugality with regard to food.
They are aftoniftied when they obferve the quantity of
all kinds of meat that Europeans devour at a meal,
and account them guilty of the moft odious gluttony $
for they themfelves, at leaft the wandering Arabs, are
not only taught from their youth to live upon little,
but even to accommodate themfelves to any kind of
food. Hence loeufts are in common ufe among them,
and have a confiderable influence upon their condition.
Immenfe clouds of thefe animals fometimes defcend
upon a diftriift, and produce the greateft mifchief, by
deftroying the whole verdure. They darken the air,
and appear at a diftance like clouds of fmoke. The
noife of their flight is ftunning, like that of a water¬
fall. Every thing that is green is wafted by them j
but corn, either ripe or nearly fo, is too hard for< their
ufe. The Arabs of the defert convert this fcourge to
their advantage. They roaft the loeufts alive, and de¬
vour them eagerly j or they kill and dry them, and
ftore them up for ufe : This food is faid to be by no
means unwholefome. The Jews of Arabia affert, that
the fowls, of which the Ifraelites ate fo largely in the
wildernefs or defert, were only clouds of loeufts ; and
they ridicule our tranflators, for fuppofing that they
found quails where quails never were.
In Arabia polygamy was always tolerated, and is xheir con-
permitted by the law of Mahomet; but the Arabians duA to-
are, in general, too poor to avail themfelves of the wards wo-
privilege of poffefling a plurality of wives. The law,0161’’
however, has this effeft, that it often induces the rich
to give their daughters to poor men in preference to
thofe who are wealthy. The marriage articles are
made out before the cadi or judge. The wife’s pro¬
perty is fecured to her even during the marriage, fo
that (he becomes abfolute miftrefs of her hufband’s
houfe 5 and he, having no feparate property, can have
no means of bringing another wife into the family.
All women, however, in Arabia live in a moft retired
manner. They receive no vifits from ftrangers of the
other fex. In the houfes of the rich the front apart¬
ments belong to the men, and thofe behind to the wo¬
men. In the houfes of perfons of-inferior rank, defti-
tute of a variety of apartments, when the hulband car¬
ries a ftranger to his houfe, he enters before him, and
calls aloud, tarik, retire j upon which the women in-
ftantly difappear ; and even his moft intimate friends
never fee one of them. Their notions of the delicacy
neceffary to be obferved, with regard to women, is ex¬
treme. It is accounted unpolite to falute a woman, ^
or even to look her ftedfaftly in <the face. In the Jealoufy*
neighbourhood of the city of Barra, an adventure oc¬
curred which difplays in itrong colours the jealoufy
of the Arabians in whatever concerns the other fex.
A man of eminence, belonging to I he tribe of Monte-
fidfi, had given his daughter in marriage to an Arab
of the tribe of Korne. Shortly after the marriage a >
fchieck of an inferior tribe alked him in a coffeehoufe,
whether
A S I [72
Ana. whether he was father of the handfome young wife of
—v——^ fuch a one,§ whom he named ? The father iuppoling
his daughter’s honour ruined, immediately left the
company to ftab her. At his return from the execu-r
tion of this inhuman deed, he who had fo indifcreetly
put the queftion, was gone. Breathing nothing now
but vengeance, he fought him everywhere j and not
finding him, killed in the mean time feveral of his re¬
lations, without fparing even his cattle or fervants.
The offender offered the governor of Korne a great
fum, if he would rid him of fo furious an adverfary.
The governor fent for him who had been offended, and
endeavoured by threats and a (how of the apparatus of
punifhment to force him to a reconciliation; but the
vengeful Arab would tather meet death than forego
his revenge. Then the governor, to preferve a man
of fuch high honour, foothed him to an agreement, by
which the firft aggreffor gave his daughter, with a hand¬
fome portion, in marriage to him whom he had offend¬
ed. But the father-in-law durft never after appear be-
2S fore his fon-in-law.
Their vin- Bevenge is indeed among the Arabs a moft ungo-
'diitive vernable fentiment. In fome of the ftates of the fouth-
ern part of the peninfula the government is ftrong
enough to reflrain private revenge, and to affume to
itfelf the punifhment of crimes, as in other civilized
countries 5 but over a great part of Arabia the rela¬
tions of a perfon flain are allowed to accept a compo-
fition in money, to require the murderer to furrender
himfelf to juftice, or to avenge themfelves on him or his
family. The paflion of avarice is often found to afford,
among barbarians, the belt means of fubduing animo-
fity •, but in many places among the Arabians it is ac¬
counted difgraceful to take money for the fhedding of
blood, which, by their laws of honour, can be expiated
only by blood. Their refined malice even refufes to
be fatisfied by the. deftrudlion of the affaflin either by
their own hands or by the hand of public juflice ; for
this would be to deliver from an unworthy member a
family which deferves no fuch favour from them : hence
they revenge themfelves, as cuflom allows, by fubfti-
tuting an innocent to the guilty perfon, and feek an
opportunity of flaying the chief or the moft confider-
able perfon of the race of him by whom they have been
injured. When a murder has been committed, there¬
fore the two families are in continual fears till fome one
or other of the murderer’s family be flain. Till this
occur no reconciliation can take place, and the quarrel
is occafionally renewed. If in the conteft a man of
the murdered perfon’s family happen to fall, there can
be no peace till two others of the murderer’s have been
{lain, and there are inftances of fuch family feuds laft-
ing forty years.
Nor is the point of honour confined to fuch cafes as
thofe we have now mentioned. The noble Bedouins
carry their pride higher than even our barbarous an-
ceftors feem to have done. If one fchieck fays to an-
-other, with a ferious air, “ thy bonnet is dirty,” or
the wrong fide of thy turban is out,” nothing but
blood can wafh away the reproach ; and not merely
the blood of the offenders, but that alfo of all the Arabs
-of his family. An infult offered to the beard of an A-
-rab is regarded with equal indignation, and produces
equal refentment.
When thefe capital points, however, are avoided,
6 ] A S I
the Arabs are undevftood to be by no means quarrel-
fome. They take a pride in preferving their coolnefs u—
of temper againft reproachful language. When a dif-
pute happens fuddenly to arife among them, they make
much node, and are apt to forget themfelves, and to
proceed to extremities ; but fhould an indifferent per¬
fon calmly fay to them, “ think of God and his pro¬
phet,” they inftantly make an effort to refume their
tranquillity, and a reconciliation is effe&ed. If this
conteft cannot be fettled at once, they choofe arbitrators,
to whofe decifion they fubmit. ^
The manners of the Arabs are grave and ferious. Manners.
As foon as boys attain to five or fix years of age, they
pafs whole days together in their father’s company,
and are indeed allowed to be as feldom out of it as pof-
fible. Being thus always under the eyes of perfons
advanced in life, they acquire a penfivenels and gravi¬
ty of manners, arid an air of recolleftion, at a very early
age. Their imaginations being accuftomed to barren
deferts and bare rocks, are apt to acquire a gloomy
caft *, but in Yemen or Arabia Felix, where the foil
is more fertile and the population more confiderable*
they poffefs fufficient vivacity of charafter, and are ex¬
tremely fond of fociety. In the towns of Syria in
which they fettle they are far more cheerful and fond
of amufement than the Turks. Both there and in
Arabia Felix they are fond of frequenting coffee-houfes
and public markets.
In the earlieft ages the Arabians were always ac- Literature,
counted admirers of poetry, and were accuftoraed to
celebrate in verfe the military exploits of their chiefs.
The genius and merit of a rifing poet was rewarded
by the applaufe of his own and of the kindred tribes ;
and they regarded him as a herald rifen up to immor¬
talize their renown. Before the days of Mahomet
there exifted an inftitution which the fanaticifm of his
firft followers abolifhed. An annual fair was held,
to which the moft diftant or hoftile tribes reforted, and
which lafted thirty days. For fome time before and
after this fair, amounting in all to two, or as fome fay,
to four months, a general truce took place ; during
which every public and private quarrel was fufpended
throughout the whole extent of Arabia. This truce
was fanftioned by the laws of honour ; and, as a breach
of it was attended with perpetual infamy, every fword
was religioufiy fheathed while it lafted. At this great
market not only corn and wine, but alfo eloquence
and poetry were exchanged. The prize was difputed
by the emulation of the bards, and the vi6Wious per¬
formance vvas depofited in the archives of the prince j
and, on fome extraordinary occafions, infcribed in let¬
ters of gold, and fufpended in the temple of Mecca,
which even in thefe early times was a place of nation¬
al pilgrimage. Generofity and valour formed the fa¬
vourite theme of the ftmgs of the Arabian poets ; and
their keeneft fatire or bittereft reproach againft a def-
picable race, confifted of the affirmation, that the men
knew not how to give, nor the women to deny. Such,
a feftival, refembling, in fome meafure, the Olympic
games of the Greeks, muft have poffeffed confiderable
inflqence in humanizing the manners of the people.
As the northern part of Arabia was fituated in the
very centre of the moft civilized nations of antiquity,
whofe caravans muft .have been continually palling
through it j its inhabitants, therefore, could not fail
at
A S I [ 727 J A S I
Alia. at a very early period, to acquire fome portion of that
information which an acquaintance with intelligent
ftrangers brings along with it. As a commerce with
India appears at a very early period to have been car¬
ried on by fea from the fouthern parts of the penin-
iitla, it is probable that fuch a portion of literature
as might be requifite for conducing its tranfaftions
would be cultivated by the Arabians in a very diftant
antiquity. Literature however was never diffufed to
any great extent in this peninfula. In the northern
parts, indeed, or in the Syrian defert, where the Ro¬
man and Perfian empires flourilhed on each fide, the
Arabian city of Palmyra appears to have received and
cultivated the learning and the arts of Greece ; and at
a future period, when the fucceflbrs of Mahomet car¬
ried their dominion into other countries, in which they
fettled and purfued the arts of peace, the Arabian con¬
querors cultivated various branches of literature. At
all times, however, the defert itfelf, or the native coun¬
try of the Arabians, has exhibited an illiterate race of
men. At prefent their youth are not indeed entire¬
ly negle&ed. The chiefs of the defert can frequently
sread and write, and in the cities many of the loweft
of the people poffefs thefe qualifications. They have
fchools in their mofques for the education of the poor j
and in great towns there are fchools to which perfons
in better circumftances fend their fons; but no girls at¬
tend the public fchools, being privately taught at
home by women. The Arabians can fcarcely be faid
to polfefs any fcience. Aftronomy is fomewhat valued
by them, but only in fublerviency to aftrology, a fci¬
ence highly efteemed and very lucrative in the Eall,
though prohibited by the Mahometan law. From
their ignorance they are indeed extremely fond of
what are called the occult fciences, which are fuppofed
to enable their poffeffors to become tamiliar with genii,
and to oblige them to obey their pleafure, to teach
how to command the winds and feafons, to cure the
bites of ferpents and many difeafes or infirmities. A
great part, however, of thefe occult fciences have ap¬
peared to ftrangers to be nothing more than tricks,
which the credulity of the people induces individuals
to praflife upon them. The Arabians are alfo extreme-
Superfti- ty fuperftitious. It frequently happens that a town
tions. has been reared on the fpot which it occupies, merely
in confequence of its having been the dwelling place
of fome Mahometan hermit or faint. In this way the
city of Loheia was founded. Its founder and patron
was a faint called Schieck Scelei, who fpent his days in
a hut on the ftiore of the Red fea. A houfe of prayer
was afterwards raifed over his tomb, and fome devout
perfons imagining it would be a great happinefs to live
near the remains of fo holy a perfon, built huts around
it. Nearly at the fame time the fea having retreated
from a neighbouring harbour, an accident which is
always happening on the Arabian coaft, the inhabi¬
tants deferted it, and fettled at Loheia, which is now
a well-frequented port. In the fame way the city of
Beit el Fakeh originated around the tomb of a faint
called Achmed ibn Mufa. Some devout perfons built
themfelves cottages round his tomb, and the harbour
of Galelka being about the fame time choaked up, the
inhabitants of that city removed thither. This faint
was a great worker of miracles. A Turkifh pacha,
who had been for 20 years a captive in Spain, where
he was bound with ponderous chains to two large Afia.
ftones, long and vainly invoked the aid of different -~v ■— *
faints. Laft of all he bethought himfelf of the great
Achmed, and invoked him alfo in his turn. The faint
ftretched out his hand from his tomb \ and at that very
inftant, in the prefence of many witneffes, the pacha
arrived from Spain, bearing with him his chains and
the ftones to which they were fixed. This miracle
took place not many years ago, on the eve of the fefti-
val of the faint j and the Arabs regard it as authenti¬
cated by unexceptionable evidence, notwithftanding
all prayers or invocations to faints are ftridtly pro¬
hibited by the Koran. Another miracle performed
by Ifmael Mulk, the patron faint of the city of Taces,
is eafily accounted for. Two beggars had afked cha¬
rity from the dola or governor of Taces, but only one
of them had tafted of his bounty. The other went
upon this to the tomb of Ifmael Mulk to implore his
aid. Ifmael, who, when alive, had been very chari¬
table, ftretched his hand out of the tomb, and gave
the beggar a letter containing an order on the dola to
pay the beggar an hundred crowns. Upon examin¬
ing this order with the greateft care, it was found that
Ifmael Mulk had writti n it with his own hand, and
fealed it with his feal. The governor could not re-
fufe payment, but to avoid all fubfequent trouble from
fuch bills of exchange, he had a wall built inclofing the
tomb.
In the fouthern parts of Arabia the pofterity of the
faints are treated with as much refpeft as is ftiewn to
the defcendants of Mahomet at Mecca, which is very
great. Every perfon who can number a reputed
faint among his anceftors, is dignified with the title of
Schieck, and accounted an ecclefiailie by birth. Fa¬
milies thus find it their intereft to eftablilh, by every
poflible means, the fanftity of the perfon from whom
they are defcended, and to maintain the authenticity
of the miracles afcribed to him. In this manner, in
fpite of the Koran, which is ftri&ly Unitarian, the
fuperftitious worlhip of faints is daily extending its
influence among the Arabs, and feigned miracles are
confequently multiplying, fo that they may be faid in
fome meafure to be relapfing into the polytheifm of
their anceftors. At the fame time it is to be obferved,
that within thefe forty years a fort of reformation of reli¬
gion has been attempted, and even accomplilhed, in a
part of the central or mountainous country of Arabia,
by one Abdul Wahheb, in whofe family a fovereignty
of confiderable extent has been eftablifhed. He taught
that God, as the creator and governor of the world, is
the only proper object of worfhip. He forbade the in¬
vocation of faints, and the very mention of the name
of Mahomet, or of any other prophet, in prayer, as
pradtkes favouring of idolatry. He forbade the ma¬
king ; f v ws to obtain deliverance from danger, as a
crime againft providence. He reprefented Moles, Ma¬
homet, Jeius Chrift, who were refpefted by his country¬
men as prophets, as merely great men, whofe hiftory
might be read with improvement j denying that any
book was ever written by divine infpiration, or brought
down from heaven by the angel Gabriel.
In thinly peopled countries men can afford to be n0fp;tajjty
hofpitable to ftrangers, becaufe they fee them feldom. and charity®-
In Arabia, however, this virtue is ftill more valued
than elfewhere. Poverty is a misfortune very general
among
A S I [ 728 ] A S I
A.f>a. among the people of this country j and when travelling
' v" through their deferts they are apt to fuffer great hard-
(Itips both from hunger and thirft. Hence among
them kindnefs to llrangers, and charity to the poor, are
the molt popular of all virtues, and a breach of the fa-
cred laws of hofpitality is productive of the moft inde-
Jible dilhonour. The rapacity of even an Arabian
robber is checked by the influence of this law, and an
enemy is fafe with thofe who have confented to tafle
along with him a morfel of bread. On the whole it
appears that the inhabitants of this great territory,
though in general barbarians, are yet of a mixed cha¬
racter. A part of them have in every age participa¬
ted the civilization of the countries in their neighbour¬
hood } and though the tribes of the defert have been
always in fome meafure independent, and governed
only by their own fancy or prejudices, yet they have
always acknowledged a connexion with the reft of the
nation that refide in towns, or that cultivate the foil.
Though labouring under a degree of that tendency to
indolence which is common to rude nations, yet their
poverty and the hardfhips to which they are inured,
prepare them for the toils of war, and render them ca-
^ pable of enterprife.
Perfia. Of the prefent Perfian empire, in a general view of
Alia, it is unneceffary to take much notice. Both
tides of the Perfian gulf are to fome diftance poffefled
by the Arabs, and the interior provinces have funk into
decay under a long fucceflion of military ufurpations.
Cultivation is in a great meafure confined to the near
neighbourhood of a few towns j and a confiderable part
of the open country is ufed for the pafturage of the cat¬
tle of wandering hordes of barbarians that have defeend-
ed from Tartary, and that now occupy thefe feats of an¬
cient civilization and riches.
We have already remarked, that between the Per¬
fian gulf on the fouth, and the Cafpian fea on the north,
but neareft to the Cafpian, a chain of mountains, the
celebrated Taurus of the ancients, proceeds from the
ftraits of the Dardanelles eaftward to the front of the
high central region of Afia called Imaus. After paf-
fing the Cafpian fea and the Perfian gulf, thefe moun¬
tains widen to a great extent, and the middle ridge, as
it reaches Imaus, becomes very elevated. This middle
ridge appears to be croffed by no rivers, and according¬
ly the ftreams which defeend fromitfelf, or from Imaus
on the northern fide of it, proceed in a north-wefterly
direftion to the Cafpian or the lake Aral. Thefe are
chiefly the Oxus and the Jaxartes. To the fouth of
the middle ridge of Taurus, the rivers defeend fouth-
ward to the Arabian fea or Indian ocean. The prin¬
cipal river that defeends fouthward from the weftern or
River^Sind f°uth-weftern front of Imaus is the river Sind or Indus,
srlndvw. the upper branches of which approach very near to
thofe of the Oxus •, and it may be proper here to re¬
mark that the prefent commerce between the Ruffian
empire and India proceeds in this channel. The mer¬
chants, after leaving the Cafpian fea, travel in caravans
or bodies up the river Oxus and down the river Indus.
In the mountainous country near the weftern and
fouth-weftern front of Imaus, are feveral beautiful
valleys, which in all ages have been the admiration of
travellers. Among thefe we may mention between Imaus
and the Cafpian, the valley or country of Sogdia with
its capital Samarcand. This country was in ancient
times accounted by the orientals a terreftrial paradile, Afia.
poffeffing all the fertility of a torrid climate with the * —
falubrity of the coldeft regions. Not lefs remarkable,
upon the fouth-weftern front of Imaus, on one of the ^
heads of the river Indus, is the valley of Caftimere, Caflimere.
which in every age has been the happy valley of the
Indian poets, or the paradife of Hinduoftan. It is of
an oval form, about 80 miles in length and 40 in
breadth, and is fuppofed to have been once filled with
water, which having burft its mound, left this valley
fertilized to the moft diflant ages by the mud which
had been depofited in it. The emperors of Hindoo-
ftan frequently vifited it to forget the cares of govern¬
ment, and to colledt new health and vigour from the
falubrity of the air and the beauties of the place. In
1664 Aurengzebe went thither for this purpofe from
Agra his Indian capital. M. Bernier attended in qua¬
lity of phyfician to one of his omrahs. The train of the
emperor was extremely fplendid. The heats on the
march were dreadful, as the lofty mountains that Ikirt
the front of the high region of Tartary prevent the
cool air of the north from defeending to refrelh the
parched plains of India. A vaft mountain called
Bember divides Caflimere from India. The fouthern
fide of this mountain is fteep and arid. The procef-
fion encamped in the channel of a large torrent dried
up, full of fand and ftones, which were burning hot.
“ After palling the Bember (fays M. Bernier) we pafs
from a torrid to a temperate zone: for we had no
fooner mounted this dreadful wall of the world, I mean
this high, fteep, black, and bald mountain of Bember,
than in defeending on the other fide, we found an air
that was pretty tolerable, freffi, gentle and temperate.
But that which furprifed me more in thefe mountains
was to find myfelf in a trice tranfported out of the In¬
dies into Europe. For feeing the earth covered with
all our plants and ftirubs, except hyffop, thyme, mar¬
joram, and rofemary, I imagined I was in fome of our
mountains of Auvergne in the midft of a foreft of all
kinds of trees, pines, oaks, elms, plane-trees. And I
was the more aftonilhed, becaufe in all thofe burning
fields of Indoftan, whence I came, I had feen almoft
nothing of all that.
“ Among other things relating to plants this fur¬
prifed me, that one and a half days journey from Bem¬
ber I found a mountain that was covered with them
on both fides, but with this difference, that on the fide
of the mountain that was foutherly towards the Indies
there was a mixture of Indian and European plants,
and on that which was expofed to the north I obferved
none but European ones, as if the former had partici¬
pated of the air and temper of Europe and the Indies,
and the other had been merely European.” The fame
traveller proceeds in his defeription of this valley or
kingdom of Cafhmere. “ Thoufands of cafcades de¬
feend from the furrounding mountains of this en¬
chanting plain, and forming rivulets meandring through
all parts, render it fo fair and fruitful, that one would
take this whole kindgdom for fome great evergreen
garden, intermixed with villages and boroughs dif-
covering themfelves between trees, and diverfified by
meadows, fields of rice, corn, and divers other le¬
gumes, of hemp and faffron, all interlaced with ditches
full of water, with channels, with fmall lakes and rivu¬
lets here and there. Up and down everywhere are
Afia.
A S I [ 729 ]
alfo feen fome of our European plants, flowers, and all dian courtiers
forts of our trees, as apples, pears, prunes, apricots,
cherries, nuts, vines. The particular gardens are full
of melons, fkirrets, beets, radifnes, all forts of our pot¬
herbs, and of fome we have not.”
This delightful fpot is furrounded by the mountains
adjoining to Inaaus, which are of vafl height and rude
afpedt, perpetually covered with fnow. At the foot of
the exterior chain of mountains is an inner circle of
lulls, which abound in trees, grafs, and various forts of
vegetation, and which are full of all kinds of cattle, as
cows, flieep, goats, gazelles, and mu Iks. The exterior
mountains are fo lofty and cold, that the pioneers of
Aurengzebe were obliged to cut through a glaciere,
or a great mafs, as Bernier calls it, of icy fnow. The
capital is fometimes called Cajhmere, {bmetimes Siritia-
gur, and fometimes Nagas, It is in N. Lat. 34. 1 2. on
the banks of a celebrated river, the fabulofus Hydafpes
of the ancients. Its current is fmooth, and it is navi¬
gable in Calhmere by fmall boats. The town was in
Bernier’s time three quarters of a French league long
on both fldes of the river, and extending from it along
a navigable canal to a imall but beautiful lake. The
houfes are built of wood, four ftones or more in height.
The lower llory is for the cattle, the next for the fa¬
mily, and the third and fourth ferve as warehoufes.
The roofs are planted with tulips, which have a mold
beautiful effedd in the fpring. Every part of the coun¬
try exhibits the remains of palaces, pavilions, and gar¬
dens, formed there by the emperors of Hindooidan.
The periodical rains which almoft deluge the reft of
India, are excluded from Cafhmere by the height of
the mountains ; and it experiences only light Ihowers,
which, however, are fufticient to feed the thoufands of
cafcades which defcend into the valley from every part
of the ftupendous and romantic bulwark of mountains
by which it is encircled. The horfes of this country
are fmall, hardy, and fure-footed. The cows are black
and ugly, but yield abundance of milk and excellent
butter. They have alfb a kind of fneep which is ufed
to carry burdens. The elk is mentioned as one of the
wild animals that inhabit the woods at the bafe of the
fnowy mountains in the neighbourhood.
Cafhmere is famous for its manufacture of fhawls
made of the wool of the broad tailed fheep of Thibet,
whofe fleeces, in finenefs, beauty, and length, are faid
to exceed all others in the world. The Cafhmerians en-
grols this article, and have faftors in all parts of Thi¬
bet for buying up the wool, which is fenl into Cafhmere
and worked into fhawls of the higheft value. The In¬
dian emperor Akbar, who conquered this country in
1585, greatly encouraged this manufacture, and intro¬
duced it into Lahore. The natural colour of the wool
is faid to be gray tinged with red, but foraetimes it is
quite white.
The Cafhmerians are accounted an ingenious people,
fond of poetry, and having a language of their own.
They are induftrious mechanics, and the various ar¬
ticles of their workmanfhip are lent to all parts of
India. They are celebrated for the finenefs of their
features and their admirable complexions. They look
like Europeans, and neither refemble their neighbours
of Tartary nor of India, having nothing of the flat
nofes and fmall eyes of the Tartars, nor of the black
colour of the Indians. In the time of Bernier the In-
Vol. II. Part II.
A S I
were extremely felicitous to obtain A Ha.
Cafhmerian women, to have children by them whiter ' v
than the natives of Hindooftan, that they might pafs
for the true Mogul breed of the fame race with their
monarch.
As already mentioned, India confifts of two penin-
fulas, one to the weftward and the other to the eaft-
ward of the Ganges. I he w'eftern peninfula is over¬
looked from the north, by that part of the chain of
Im *us or Emodus which conftitutes the fouthern front ^,6
of the region of Tartary. In the foulh-weftern fide of Sources of
this high region the rivers Ganges and Indus have A®
their fource. After advancing weftward tone great3' uc 11'
diftance from the Indus, the river Ganges turns to¬
wards the fouth, and afterwards traverfes almoft the
whole breadth of the peninfula in an eafterly direction,
till at laft it proceeds louth into the bay or gulf of
Bengal. The Indus, riling ij\ the fouth-weftern part
of Tartary, called Cajhgar, defeends in a fouth but
fomewhat wrefterly courfe, till it enters the Arabian
fea by various channels to the northward of the bay of
Cutch. At its mouth it has a broad delta or trad of
fertile land, like the Nile in Egypt, formed by its own
alluvions, or the depofition of mud brought down
from the high country by the periodical floods to
which it is fubjeCt. To a great diftance from the fea
it flow's, like the Nile, along a fertile valley enriched
by its inundations. Parallel to the channel of the ri¬
ver, after it has received all its tributary ftream'-, run
two chains of mountains, by which its coutfe is direft-
ed, and its valley is feparated from other countries. Be¬
yond the mountains, on the eaft, extends a Tandy de-
fert of 200 miles in breadth, by which the valley of the
Indus is (hut out from the reft of India. I he whole
courfe of this river amounts to nearly 1000 miles. It
has an uninterrupted navigation from the fea, for flat-
bottomed veffels of nearly 200 tons, as high as the
city of Lahore, at the diftance of about 650 miles.
The current of the Indus mult be rapid, as veflels fre¬
quently fall down the river from Lahore in 12 days j
but the afeending paflage requires fix or feven weeks.
As the Indus and the Ganges nearly peninfulate orin(jUS(ie-
enclofe weftern India on the north, in a manner fimilar feribed.
to that in which it is enclofed by the ocean on the
fouth, we {hall take fome farther notice of the courfe
of the Indus. This river is the moft wefterly of In¬
dia. Before it enters the narrow traCl already men¬
tioned between the mountains, which run parallel to
its courfe, it is formed by the contribution of a variety of
ftreams, which have their fources in the rugged country
adjacent to high Tartary. Thefe rivers, whofe union
forms the Indus, water a large and fertile territory, a
part of which appears to have belonged to the ancient
Perfian empire of Darius Hyftafpes. Various great
and populous cities have in different ages flood upon
thefe ftreams, in what is called the Panjab, or country
of the five rivers, which confifts of fpacious and fertile
plains. Alexander the Great reached thefe plains,
and they formed the feene of his exploits again!! Po-
rus and other Indian kings. Here alfo ended the pro-
grefs of the Macedonian conqueror. He built a fleet
of veffels, and dtfeended the river with his army *, an
attempt which he is faid to have been induced to make,
from a notion that he had found out the head of the
Nile. As in his time it was not known to the Greeks
4 Z that
Afia.
38
Delta of
the Indus.
39
River Set
lege.
A S I [ 7
that any other river in the world, excepting that of
Egypt, contained crocodiles, the difcovery of crocodiles
in the river Indus, fuggefted the notion in thefe times,
when geography was fo little underftood, that there
might he fome communication between this river and
the great river of Africa. Arrian fays, that Alexander
had even written to his mother an account of his difco¬
very of the head of the Nile. But the voyage down the
river pointed out the miftake, as it brought him to the
ocean.
The lower parts of the Indus, or the fertile but
fvvampy land near its mouth, was in the time of the
ancients unhealthy and hot in the extreme. This rich
delta or triangle of land is of great extent, each fide
of the triangle being 115 miles in length. The mouth
of the river was well known at a very early period.
Not only did Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander the
Great, fail from it to the Perfian gulf; but at a much
earlier period, Darius Hyftafpes, from curiofity to af-
certain the place at which the Indus met the ocean,
built, according to Herodotus, a fleet on the borders of
Scythia, that is, of Tartary, high up the river, and gave
the command of it to Scylax, a Grecian of Caryandra,
an able failor. He was diredted to be attentive to dif-
coveries on both fides ; and when he reached the mouth,
to fail weft ward, and that way to return home. He
executed his commiffion •, paffed the ftraits of Babelman-
del j and in thirty months from the time he failed from
Cafpatyrus, landed fafely in Egypt, at the place from
Whence it is faid, that Necho fent his Phoenicians to cir¬
cumnavigate Africa, by its now well-known promontory
the Cape of Good Hope. This expedition took place
in the 12th year of Darius, and in the year 509 before
the Chriftian era.
The delta or low country is flill extremely un¬
healthy. The heats are fo violent, in confequence of
the vicinity of the fandy deferts, that it is found ne-
ceffary to ventilate the houfes occafionally, by means
of apertures in the tops like chimneys. When the
hotteft winds prevail, the windows that are clofely
fhut exclude the warmer current of the air, while
the more elevated part of the atmofphere being cooler,
defcends through the chimneys. The foil depends for
its fertility entirely upon the overflowings of the river j
and it fometimes happens that a (ingle fhower does not
fall during three years. There are no trees upon the
delta; but in the drier parts the foil is covered with
brufhwood. The city of Tatta Hands in the delta, up¬
on the weftern branch of the river, about 65 miles from
the fea, which is the diftance to which the tide af-
cends. The Britifh had at one period a fadtory here,
for the purpofe of tranfmitting the Englifh broad cloths
to the high countries around the fources of the Indus.
Beyond Tatta, various towns are formed along the
fertile banks of this river, during its whole progrefs
between the parallel ranges of mountains, which are
diftant from its banks from 30 to 40 miles. In lati¬
tude 290 8', on the eaftern fide, the Indus is joined
by the river Setlege or Hyfudrus j and it is to be re¬
marked, that in confequence of the fandy deferts by
which the lower parts of the Indus are furrounded,
this is the firft river that falls into it, in a tradl of 520
miles from the fea. The river Setlege is the fouth-
ern boundary of the Panjab already mentioned, which
having from time immemorial been a moft fertile and
2
30 ] A S I
populous region, and at the fame time the frontier of Afia.
India towards the north-weft, has been the fcene in dif- ——y——
ferent ages of the moft dreadful maflacres, by the ce¬
lebrated deflroyers of mankind, Alexander the Great,
Timur or Tamerlane, and Kouli Khan. The river
Setlege rifes at the foot of Mount Imaus, and is joined
by another ftream, called the Beyah or Hyphajis. Both
of them pafs through a fertile trail of country.
About 50 miles above the difeharge of the Setlege,,Chunaub*
another river, called the Chunaub or Acejines, falls into
the Indus. On the fouthern banks of the Chunaub,
in latitude 30° 34' Hands the city of Mnultan, the ca-^ .jPj
pital of a province, in a country very fertile in cotton, tjiel Ban;^
and alfo in fugar, opium, brimftone, galls, and abound-ans.
ing in camels, which animals alfo are reared in great
numbers on the lower parts of the Indus. This city
is remarkable for being the principal refidence of the
Banians, an hereditary call or tribe, who employ
themfelves folely in commerce, and are the merchants
or brokers of India. Their chief refides here, but
they form fettlements in every commercial town of In¬
dia \ and they fend colonies to the trading towns of A-
rabia and Perfia, and even as far as Aftracan. As
thefe die away or incline to return home, a fupply is.
fent from India of unmarried young men. As no
females attend them, they live at Aftracan and fome
other places, with Tartarian women : but the contract,
lafts only during their refidence. They are highly
efteemed for the integrity of their dealings, and are
trufted to a great extent by Europeans and other ftran-
gers, as well as by the natives. They are the bankers
of India; and the confidence repofed in them is one
of the means by which the civilization of that country
has been preferved amidft its revolutions and the fan-
guinary wars of its princes. No prince has ever of¬
fered violence to the Banians, with the view of extort¬
ing from them their treafures, without fpeedily finding
himfelf undone. His officers have inftantly confpired
againft him, becaufe by robbing the Banians, or
bankers in whofe hands their money was depofited, he
ultimately plundered the very perfons who fupported
his power, and had the readitft accefs to his perfon.
About 160 miles above Moultan, is Lahore, the
capital of the Seiks, a fet of religionifts who venerate
the ox like the Hindoos, but who are pure Monotheifb
and Predeftinarians, worfhipping God without the ufe
of images. They form a fort of ariftocratical republic.
They can raife 100,00a cavalry, and they have of late
become very formidable. They are a kind of Indian
reformers, hoftile both to the government and the reli¬
gion of the country. They admit of profelytes, and
have no calls or divifion into diftirnft hereditary profef-
fions. In their territory a vaft mountain of rock fait is
found, which is cut into diflies, plates, and flands for
lamps. 43.
Between Lahore and Moultan, the Chunaub is join-Behut.
ed by the Behut, or the fabulofus Hydafpes, which
flows, as already mentioned, from the romantic Cafh-
mere. A little above the mouth of the Chunaub, the
Indus receives an obfcure river, the Lucca, from the
territory on the north-weft, called the kingdom of Can-
dahar. The city of Candahar, fituated in N. Lat. 33.
E. Long. 67. 15. was anciently a place of much im¬
portance, being the gate of India, with refpe£t to Per-
fla, and the great magazine of Indian and Perfian
goods.
Bay of
Catch.
44 „
Pagoda of
Sumnat.
AS! [7
goods. Somewhat higher, that is, more northerly,
two tributary ftreams enter the Indus, called the Cow
or Cophenes, and the Kameh. or Gurdus. On the for¬
mer ftands the city of Ghizni, and on the latter is Ca-
bul. This lalt city is in N. Lat. 34. 36. and E. Long.
68. 58. near the foot of the Indian Caucafus, or I-
maus. It Hands in fo happy a climate, that it produ¬
ces the fruits both of the temperate and torrid zones,
though it is in the near neighbourhood of mountains,
whole fummits are covered with perpetual fnow. The
Indian hiftorians fpeak of it with raptures. Cabul is
the refidence of the kings of Candahar. It has at all
times been of much importance, as the frontier of In¬
dia towards the river Oxus, which flow's into the Caf-
pian fea, and towards Tartary. In ancient times, it
always was a great commercial magazine, as well as
an important iortrefs. To this day, it is on the direct
road by which the commerce of the fouthern parts of
the Ruilxan empire is carried on with India. It is at
prefent noted for its vafl fairs of horfes and cattle, the
firlt of which are brought hither by the Ufhec Tar¬
tars ; and merchants refort to thefe markets from Per-
iia, China, and Tartary. Near the mouth of the ri¬
ver Kameh, the city of Attock Hands upon the Indus.
Attock lignifies forbidden; this being the original
boundary of Hindoollan, tow’ards the north-weft, which
the Hindoos were prohibited to pafs. Here the river
is three quarters of a mile broad, and the water is cold,
and the ftream rapid and turbulent, having much black
fand fufpended in it. To this place the Indus defcends
from the lofty mountains of Imaus^ and the high re¬
gion of Tartary. The remainder of its courfe, there¬
fore, lies through a country little known, and fo rude
in its foil and climate, as fcarcely to admit even of the
moft llender population.
Returning to the ocean, it is to be obferved, that
the moft eaftern of the branches into which the Indus
is divided towards its mouth, flows into the bay or
gulf of Cutch, which advances far into the country,
receiving the river Puddar. This river, and the bay
into which it flows, form one ftde of the fertile penin-
fula of Guzerat, the other fide of the fame peninfula
being contiguous to the gulf of Cambay. The weft-
ern parts of the peninfula of Guzerat are mountainous
and woody. The reft is extremely rich, and once famed
for a very confiderable commerce of its produftions.
Here ftood in former times, on the promontory of Gu¬
zerat in the neighbourhood of Diu, one of the laft re¬
maining poffeflions of the Portuguefe in India, the
great temple or pagoda of Sumnat. It w’as deftroyed
in the eleventh century by Mahmud, the greateft of
the princes of that race of Tartars called Turks. He
was the fovereign of Ghizni, which we have already
noticed as a town in the kingdom of Candahar, upon
one of the ftreams that fall into the Indus from the
north-weft. Being a moft fanatical Mahometan, he
undertook 12 holy wars, as they were called, againft
the unbelieving nations of India. Lahore, Moultan,
and Delhi, were compelled to open their gates to him,
and he at laft reached and conquered the rich penin¬
fula or kingdom of Guzerat. On ‘the payment of a
tribute, the rajahs preferved their dominions, and the
people their lives and fortunes; but to the religion of
the country Mahmud was inexorable. Many hundred
temples or pagodas were levelled with the ground.
31 ] A S I
Many thoufand idols were demolifhed ; and the fer- Afk.
vants of the Arabian prophet were ftimulated, and re- " v 1 f
warded, by the precious materials of which they were
compofed. The pagoda of Sumnat was at this time
confpicuous beyond all the retreats of Indian fuperfti-
tion. Its magnificence and its deftrudlion deferve well
to be noticed, as indicating the charadler of two Afia-
tic nations : the riches and devout luperftition of the
one, and the furious fanaticifm which the other had
been able to diffufe over a great part of the world.
This pagoda, or temple, was endowed with the reve¬
nue of 2000 villages ; 2000 Brahmins were conlecrat-
ed to the fervice of the deity, whom they waftied
each morning and evening with vrater from the di-
ftant Ganges. The fubordinate minifters confifted of
300 muficians, 300 barbers, and 300 dancing girls,
confpicuous for their birth or beauty. 1 hree tides of
the temple were protected by the ocean : the narrow
ifthmus was fortified by a natural or artificial preci¬
pice, and the city and adjacent country were peopled
by a nation of fanatics. They confeffed the fins and
the puniftrment of Kinnoge and Delhi 5 but they boaft-
ed, that if the impious ftranger flrould prefume to ap¬
proach their holy precinfts, he would furely be over¬
whelmed by a blaft of the divine vengeance. By this
challenge the faith of Mahmud was animated to a per-
fonal trial of the ftrength of this Indian deity. Fifty
thoufand of his worlhippers were pierced by the fpears
of the Mofltms; the walls were fcaled ; the fandluary
was profaned ; and the conqueror aimed a blow of his
iron mace at the head of the idol. The trembling
Brahmins are faid to have offered ten millions fterling
for his ranfom *, and it W’as urged by the wiieft coun-
fellors, that the deftrudlion of a ftone image would
not change the hearts of the Gentoos, and that fuch a
fum might be dedicated to the relief of the true be¬
lievers : “ Your reafons,” replied the fultan, “ are
fpecious and ftrong ; but never in the eyes of pofteri-
ty ftrall Mahmud appear as a merchant of idols.” He
repeated his blows, and a treafure of pearls and rubies,
concealed in the belly of the ftatue, explained in fome
degree the devout prodigality of the Brahmins. The
fragments of the idol were diftributed to Gazna, Mec¬
ca, and Medina. Bagdad liftened, fays the hiftorian, G'/Wo^,
to the edifying tale ; and Mahmud was faluted by the v°h v*
caliph, with the title of Guardian of the fortune and
faith, of Mahomet.
Adjoining to the peninfula of Guzerat, and at thec;tyof
bottom of the gulf of Cambay, Hands the city of that Cambay,
name, which once was the capital of a confiderable
kingdom. It is fituated in a great manufafluring
country, which furnifties large quantities of coarfe
unbleached cotton cloth, for Perfia, Arabia, Egypt,
and Abyflinia ; alfo blue cloths for the fame countries,
and for the Engliftr and Dutch trade on the weftern
coaft of Africa ; likewife blue and white checks to be
ufed as mantles in Arabia and Turkey, fome coarfe,
and others enriched with gold ; muflins for turbans,
gauzes, mixed fluffs of filk and cotton, and fhawls
made of the Caftimerian wool. This country alfo
fends annually to Surat, Bengal, China, Perfia, and
Arabia, immenfe quantities of raw cotton, as well as
rich embroideries of various kinds. 46
From the bottom of the gulf of Cambay, the penin-F0™0^^*
fula of weftern India naay be faid to begin in the ftrift-g™^*^
4 Z 2 eft
A S I [ 732 ] A S I
Afia.' eft i’enfe j as a line of coaft here commences, which
proceeds without interruption, or any confiderable
bending, to Cape Comorin, the fouthern part of the
peninfula, after which the coaft fuddenly turns to the
north-eaft ; and the bay of Bengal bound' the penin¬
fula on the eaft. From Cambay to Cape Comorin, the
weftern coaft of the peninfula may be divided into
three unequal parts. The firft extends from the moft
advanced part of the gulf fouthward, a little beyond
the city of Surat. The fecond tra6! of coaft, which is
more extenfive than this, in a fourfold proportion, is
called the conjl of Concern, or the •pirate coajl. To the
fouthward of this, the eoaft of the peninfula, all the
way to Cape Comorin, receive' the appellation of the
Malabar coaf. The firft of thefe divifions, lying up¬
on the eaftern ftiore of the gulf of Cambay, confifts of
a low country, into which the rivers defcend from
the upper part of the peninfula of Hindoftan. After
palling Surat, however, the phyfical ftrudlure of the
peninfula aflumes a peculiar character well worthy of
attention. The Concan and Malabar coafts which
form alrnoft the whole of the weftern Ihores of the pe¬
ninfula are extremely low, and a narrow ftripe of le¬
vel land, of from 40 to 50 miles in breadth, runs along
the eoaft of Surat to Cape Comorin. At the back
47 of this ftripe of low land, a chain of mountains runs
Ghauts. parallel to the fea ftiore. They are called the Ghauts,
and rife to 2 furprifing height, opoofing to the weft a
lofty wall of rugged and precipitous rocks. The whole
chain feems one continued creft or wall, inacceffible
to the fummit, unlefs by paths which have been work¬
ed by the hand of man, and which cannot be amend¬
ed, even by a Angle traveller, without the fatiguing
labour of many hours. From the root of thefe rocks,
the plain towards the fea is variegated with fmail hills,
which gradually defcend into a level and fertile coun¬
try, bleft with a cool and healthy air. The fmail hills
near the foot of the Ghauts are clothed with forefts
of the moft valuable timber ; and from the fides of the
mountains magnificent catarafls defcend, forming tor¬
rents which facilitate the conveyance of the timber to
the fea coaft.
The word fignifies pajfes ; but this name has
been given to the whole front of rocks which over¬
looks the weftern coaft. At the fummit of the Ghauts
the country is level, and confifts of an elevated tradl
of fertile and populous plains, which are fupported to
the weft by the Ghauts, as by the walls of a terrace
. formed on an immenfe fcale. The country, however,
begins gradually to defcend towards the eaft ) and ac¬
cordingly from Surat to.Cape Comorin, the great ri¬
vers of the peninfula uniformly flow from the Ghauts
eaft ward, and form confiderable trafts of low rich
land upon that coaft, which receives the appellation of
the Coromandel coajl. Thus the weftern peninfula of
India muft be confidered as refembling a plane, gradual¬
ly inclining towards the eaft, and fupported on the weft
by a long chain of lofty rocks.
In the north-weftern quarter of the peninfula, the
twro moft confiderable rivers that flow into the gulf of
Nerbudda Cambay, are the Nerbudda, in N. Lat. 23. 10. E.
river. • Long. 82. 10. which runs a courfe of 700 miles, from
49 the centre of the northern part of the peninfula ; and
Tapri. the river Tapti, upon which ftands the celebrated city
of Surat, in N. Lat. 21. 11. This city has long been Afia.
well known as a place of greet commerce. It is the —v-—J
port from which the Mahometan pilgrims fail on their
way to Mecca. The oldeft Britiftr factory in India is
in this city, and it is ftill a place of the firft commer¬
cial importance. Wheat grows in great abundance in
the furrounding country, of equal quality with-that of
Europe, though it fcarcely flourifhes farther to the
foutb. #
On the coaft of Concan, or the Pirate coaft, is the Coaft^of
ifland of Bombay, containing a celebrated Britifli fet-Concan, or
tlement which need not here be noticed. The Pirate p‘ratecoalb
coaft contains a great variety of harbours, and is thus
deferibed by Mr Kennel : “ Perhaps there are few
coafts fo much broken into fmail bays and harbours,
and that at the fame time have fo ftraight a general
outline. This multitude of fmail ports, uninterrupted
view along fliore, and elevated coafts favourable to di-
ftant vifion, have fitted this coaft for the feat of pira¬
cy ; and the alternate land and fea breezes that pre¬
vail during a great part of the year, oblige vefiels to
navigate very near the ftiore. No wonder then that
Pliny fhould notice them in his time, as committing
depredations on the Roman Eaft India trade j and al¬
though a temporary check has been given them in the
deftruflion of i^ngria’s fleets-, &c. ; yet we may ex-
peft they will continue the praflice while commerce
lafts. They are protected by the ftiallownefs of their
ports and the ftrength of the country within. As pi¬
rates, they have greater natural advantages than thole
of Barbary, who being compelled to roam far from
their coafts, have expenfive outfets : here the prizes
come to their own doors, and the cruizers may be fecure
in port until the prey is difeovered.”
In ancient times the Romans were obliged to put on
board their merchant {hips a number of archers to de¬
fend them againft the attacks of thefe pirates. In mo¬
dern times the pirates have made a confiderable fi¬
gure, particularly under a chief called Angria, who
was fubdued by the Englifti, and his port Gheriah ta¬
ken. They fometimes ufe veffels of 300 tons with
three mafts ; but, in general, they are of 150 tons and
only two marts. Their cannon are fix and nine pound¬
ers. They make prize of all that do not condefcend
to purchafe their pafiports. As the Britifh trade in
thefe feas is carried on in large vefiels, it does not fuf-
fer from the pirates ; but the fhips of the Indians are
much expofed to their enterprifes. It is faid, that the
celebrated Hyder Ally eftabliftied a fea port upon this^ 5* _
coaft, at the town of Mangalore, with a view of ac-jjydei. Ai_*
complifhing a moft grand but vifionary plan. He had ly’s projedt
formed the projeft not only of becoming fovereign of of invading
the Indian feas, but even retaliating on the Britifli the^nSlan^*
invafions they had made into India. To become a na¬
val power, he invited (hipwrights from all countries,
and under them trained his own fubjefts. He had
heard fomething of the effedls of froft in cold climates,
and had formed fome ftrange ideas of the folidity and
ftrength, or hardinefs, of the waters of the European
feas. Under the notion, therefore, of combating
againft oceans of ice, he {Lengthened his {hips with
planks of great thicknefs. But his port was twice ta¬
ken by Britifti detachments. In 1786 a fleet from
Bombay brought away from it nine great fhips and fe-
veral
Alia.
S*
Water
A S I [ 73
veral leflfer ones. In 1781, he had nearly finiflied fix
fiiips of the line, and feveral frigates and Hoops of war,
when the port of Mangalore wa- again captured.
It is to be obferved, that the approach to this coaft
{hake= fhow Was formerly thought very dangerous. Ships were
the vicinityjunTjed forward by fo rapid a current, that they could
rate coait. keep their reckoning, nor diftinguifh the coaft
during the rainy feafon. Many veffels were confe-
quently loft. Thefe misfortunes have ceafed, fince an
obfervation was made of a faff noticed by Arrian in
ancient times, that in the Indian ocean, at a certain
diftance from land, many water ferpents, from I 2 to 13
inches in length, are to be feen riling above the fur-
face of the water. When thefe ferpents are feen, they
indicate that the coaft is precifely two degrees dillant.
This coaft of Concan was anciently denominated the
Lymirica regio. It was greatly frequented by Roman
merchants, and is thus fpoken of by Arrian : “ Origi¬
nally they performed only coafting voyages from har¬
bour to harbour, failing from Cana, on the coaft of A-
rabia Felix, till Hippalus, an adventurous feaman, ha¬
ving confidered the fituation of the harbours and the
form of the fea, found out a navigation through the
ocean, at the feafon in which the winds blow with us
from the fea, and the weft-fouth-weft wind prevails in
the Indian ocean, which wind is called Hippa/us, from
the firft difeoverer of that navigation. From that time
till now, 1'ome fail in a direct courfe from Cana, others
from the harbour of the Aromati : they who fail for
Lymirica make a longer flay •, others who fleer for
Barygafa or Scythia, flay not above three days ; they
fpend the reft of the time in completing their ufual
voyage.”
Southward of Mangalore, all the way to Cape Co¬
morin, this (hore receives the appellation of the Mala¬
bar eoajl. It contains feveral towns, the firft of which
is Tellicherry : from the fhore to the Ghauts, the coun¬
try here and elfewhere is extremely beautiful. Pepper
is the chief article of commerce \ but coffee is alfo cul¬
tivated. There are various other towns of note, par¬
ticularly Mahi, originally a French fettlement, Cali¬
cut, Canganore, Cochin, and Ajenga. The interior
of the level country, to the foot of the Ghauts, is co¬
vered with fine forefts, both here and in Concan, which
contain that moft valuable of all treafures for the na^-
Teek wood, vigation of the Indian fea, the teek wood, which de-
ferves particular attention. It is an evergreen, and
efteemed a facred tree, The Gentoos repair or build
their pagodas with this timber only, when timber is
at all ufed. Its property of refilling the worm, which
in thefe climates is fo deftruftive to all fhips, renders
it of the utmoft importance. Mr Kennel fpeaks in
the following terms of it: “I cannot clofe this ac¬
count, without remarking the unpardonable negligence
we are guilty of in delaying to build teek Ihips of
war for the ufe of the Indian feas. They might be
freighted home without the ceremony of regular equip¬
ment, as to mails, fails, and furniture, which might
be calculated juft to anfvver the purpofe of the home
paffage at the bell feafon, and crews could be provided
in India. The letter annexed, which was written
with the bell intentions nine or ten years ago, will ex¬
plain the circumftances of the fame cafe. Teek Ihips
of forty years old and upwards, are no uncommon ob¬
jects in the Indian feas, while an European built lliip
S3
Malabar
•oak.
54
3 ] A S I
is ruined there in five years. The Ihips built at Bombay Alia,
are the belt, both in point of workmanlhip and materials,
of any that are conftrufted in India ; and although
fourth rates are mentioned only in the letter, there is no
doubt that third rates may be conllrmfted, as there is
a choice of timber. The Spaniards build capital Ihips
in their foreign fettlements. The Fall India Company
have a teek ftiip on her fourth voyage at prefent, which
Ihip has wintered in England •, therefore, any obje&ion
founded on the effedls of froft on the teek timber is done
away.
“ Frequent have been the opportunities I have had
of obferving how very rapid the decay of fiiips built
of European timber is in the Fall Indies •, and, on
the contrary, how durable the fiiips are that are built
of the wood of that country, namely, the teek, which
may not be improperly ftyled Indian oak. The num¬
ber of Ihips of war that were ruined in thofe feas during
the late war (1757 to 1762,) may be admitted as a
proof of the former remark •, and the great age of the
Ihips built in India may ferve to prove the latter.
What I mean to infer from this for your lordlhips
ufe is, that Ihips of war under third rates may be con-
ftrufted in India, and, with moderate repairs, laft for
ages •, whereas a Ihip of European conftruftion can re¬
main there but a very few years •, to which difadvan-
tage may be added, that of lofing, in the mean time, the
fervices of the Ihips that are fent to relieve the worn-out
ones. ^ # 55
To the weft ward of the Malabar coaft, at the dx-Laccadivfr
fiance of feveral leagues, are the Laccadive illes. Theyhk5*
extend from latitude io° to 120 50' north. They are
fuppofed to be the illes mentioned by Ptolemy, under
the title of Infulce numero 195 though in fa£t they
are 32 in number. They are fmall, and covered with
trees. They have fume trade. They export the pro-
du£l of the cocoa trees, that is to fay, the oil extrafl-
ed from the nut, and cordage formed of the rind.
They alfo export dried fifh to the continent of India,
and receive rice in return. Ambergreafe is frequent¬
ly found floating near thefe illands. At a confiderable $$
diftance from the Laccadives are the Maidive illands. MaldiveSi
They extend from N. Lat. 1. to 7. 25. * From their
number, Ptolemy calls them Infulce 1378. The na¬
tives make the number of their ifles amount to 12,000.
They are divided into 13 provinces under one king,
whofe fubje£fs are miferably poor. He affumes, how¬
ever, the magnificent title of fultan of the Maldives,
king of 13 provinces and 12,000 ifles : But thefe illes,
whatever their number may be, are extremely trilling.
A filhery, however, is carried on in their vicinity j and
they produce cocoa nuts, which, with the cordage pro¬
duced from that ufeful tree, are fold upon the weftern
coaft of India. Thefe illes are chiefly worthy of notice,
on account of one article obtained from them : this is 57
the cowry, a fmall fpecies of Ihell, the cyprcea moneta 1’owry
of Linnaeus. Thefe Ihells, which appear to be pro-^16^3*
duced in the Maldives alone, have been ufed as cur¬
rent coin for ages paft in different parts of the world.
The fhells are colledled twice in the month, at the full
and new moon, by the women, who wade into the fea
for that purpofe up to their middle. They are pack¬
ed up in parcels of 12,000 each, and are ufed as cur¬
rent money among the poor in Bengal. As provifions
are exceedingly cheap in that country, it is found ab-
folutely
Afk.
58
Cape Co-
*nio rin.
59
Ceylon.
A S I [ 734 ] A S 1
folutely neceffary to employ, for tlie ufe of the common
people, fomething lefs valuable than any coin formed
of metal. Thefe ftiells or cowries ferve this purpofe.
One cowry is rated in Bengal at the hundredth and
fixtieth part of a penny. Eighty cowries make a pun;
and from 50 to 60 puns are equal to* a rupee, or four
Ihillings and fixpence Britifh money. In Africa, in
the country of the negroes, upon the rivers Niger, Sene¬
gal, and Gambia, thefe cowries alfo pafs as current mo¬
ney ; but at about ten times the value that they bear in
Bengal. Hence, the Englifh, French, and Dutch, are
induced to purchafe them in India, and to bring them
to Europe, from whence they are afterwards exported
for the purpofes of trade ; and thus, an ufelefs (hell,
brought from the miferable iflands of which we are now
fpeaking, comes to be ultimately employed to purchafe
the perfons of men.
Cape Comorin is the moft fouthern part of this pe-
ninfula, and confequently of Hindoftan. It is in N. LaU
8°. A little to the north of this cape, the Ghauts
terminate. The fea adjacent to it is confidered by the
natives as facred, and perfons refort thither to perform
ablutions and luflrations. From this point the land
turns towards the north-eaft, along the gulf of Man-
ara, which is between the main-land and the ifland of
Ceylon. This ifland was known to the ancients, by
the name of Taprobana. Pliny treats very particular¬
ly concerning it, and the Arabian geographers of a
later age give it the name of Serendib. It is rich in
almoft all mineral produ&ions excepting the diamond,
and pofTefles a fertile foil. On account of the cinna¬
mon which it produces, the Portuguefe made themfelves
mafters of the whole of its ports. In 1656, they were
expelled by the Dutch ; who had been invited thither
by the monarch of the ifland, to refcue him from the
ftate of dependance in which he was held by the Por¬
tuguefe. The emperor repaid the Dutch in cinnamon,
all the expence of their efforts in his favour; and in
return fpeedily found himfelf in the fame dependant
Hate as before his viflories over the Portuguefe. The
cunning Dutchmen obtained from him a grant of coaft,
round the ifland, 12 miles in breadth, reckoning from
the fea ; and under pretence of defending him from
foreign invafions, they fortified every one of his ports.
Having thus hemmed in his majefly, thefe good allies
had it at all times in their power, by refufing to fell him
fait, to compel him and his fubjefts to fubmit to any
terms they were pleafed to diftate.
It is to be obferved, that the natives of this ifland
differ totally in their language, and in a confiderable
degree in their religion, from the inhabitants of the
neighbouring continent. They are worihippers of Bud-
ho or Gaudma, who they believe came upon earth for
the falvation of mankind. They have many pagodas
or temples, which are richly carved. Between the
ifland of Ceylon and the continent, at the narroweft
part of the ffrait, is a chain of rocks which runs en¬
tirely acrofs the channel. The length of the chain is
about 30 miles, but the whole is frequently interrupted
by narrow paffages, which however are extremely (hal¬
low. It is very probable that this fucceflion of rocks,
at fome period, formed part of an iflhmus, which uni¬
ted Ceylon to the continent. Pliny takes notice of
the greenifh call of this (hallow part of the channel,
of its being filled with fhrubs, that is, with corals. On
each fide of the chain of rocks, the water does not ex*
ceed for fome diftance the depth of 13 or 14 feet. The ^
chain of rocks which we have now mentioned, is call- 6o
ed by the Mahometans Adam's Bridge. Their tradi-Adam’s
tion is, that our common father, after his tranfgreflion,bridge,
was caft down from paradife, which they underftand
to have been celellial, and not terreflrial as we do ;
that he fell upon Ceylon ; but that afterwards this
bridge was made by angels, to enable him to pafs over
to the continent. , The higheft mountain of the ifland, 61
which is of a conical form, is called Adam's Peak. On Adam’s
the fummit is a flat (lone, with an impreffion refem-^eals'
bling a human foot, which is two feet long. The Ma¬
hometans fay that it is the mark of Adam’s foot; that
he fell from paradife on this fummit, and that Eve fell
near Judda in Arabia. They were feparated 2C0 years,
after which he found his wife, and conducted her to
his old retreat in Ceylon, where he died and was bu¬
ried, and where two large tombs remain, which are vi-
fited by Mahometan pilgrims. But the Pagan inhabi¬
tants of the ifland afcribe the mark of the foot to
their great deity Buddo, Budho, or Gaudma, when he
afcended into heaven. To this fummit therefore they
alfo make pilgrimages, and here they offer facrifices,
winch, by an ancient cuflom, defcriptive of a very tole¬
rant fpirit, they give to the Mahometan pilgrims.
This fine ifland, with the valuable fpices and other Ceylon re„
riches which abound in it, is now' relinquifhed by thelinquilhed
Dutch in favour of the Britifh : and it remains to bet0^ntain*
feen, whether the natives will find their independence
increafed by this new alteration of the prote£fors of
their coaft, and the purchafers of their cinnamon ; or
whether the monarch and his people will not as ufual
be kept under controui, by the aid of the monopoly of
fait, an article of immenfe importance in hot climates
where vegetable food is chiefly ufed.
From Cape Comorin north-eaft ward to Cape Cal-
mere, in N. Lat. io° 20'. is above 220 miles. The
country is watered by frequent dreams from the north-
weft, that is, defcending from the haftern fide or fummit
of the Ghauts. At Cape Galmerewhat is properly call- 63
ed the Coromandel coaji begins. In the fouthern part of Coromandel
it is the pearl filhery, which has been w'ell known and003**-
praftifed during feveral ages. ^
Around Cape Calmere, is the delta of the river Ca-River Ca-
very, which proceeding from the fouth of the Ghauts, very,
near the weftern (hore of the peninfula, there forms
an extenfive trad! of low and fertile land, well fuited
to the cultivation of rice, the grain bed fuited to hot
climates. This delta formed what was called the king¬
dom of Tanjore, now a province belonging to the Britifh
Eaft India Company. The river is at one place divid*
ed by an ifland called Seringham, upon which are two
pagodas or Indian temples, one of which is perhaps the
mod famed in Hindoftan for its fandlity, magnitude,
and the vaft refort of pilgrims, who go to it from all ^
quarters. Mr Orme gives the following defcription of Pagoda of
this facred retreat. “ It is compefed of feven fquareSeringham.
enclofures one within the other, the wmlls of which are
20 feet high, and four feet thick. Thefe enclofures
are 350 feet diftant from one another, and each has
four large gates with a high tower, which are placed;
one in the middle of each fide of the enclofure, and
oppofite to the four cardinal points. The outward wall
is near four miles in circumference, and its gateway to
the
A S I
[ 735 I
A S I
Afia-
66
Tranque-
bar and
Pondi¬
cherry.
67
Vultures.
tlie foutli is ornamented with pillars, feveral of which
■are Angle ftones 35 feet long, and nearly five in dia¬
meter 5 and thofe which form the roof are ftill larger.
In the inmoft enclofures are the chapels. About half
a mile to the eaft of Seringham, and nearer to the Ca-
very than the Coleroon, is another large pagoda^ called
Jumbakijlna, but this has only one enclofure. The ex¬
treme veneration in which Seringham is held, arifes
from a belief that it contains the identical image of the
god Wifichnu, which ufed to be worfiiipped by the god
Brachma. Pilgrims from all parts of the peninfula
come here to obtain abfolution, and none come with¬
out an offering of money $ and a large part of the re¬
venue of the illand is allotted for the maintenance of
the Brahmins who inhabit the pagoda ; and thefe with
their families formerly compofed a multitude not lefs
than 40,000 fouls, maintained without labour by the li¬
berality of fuperftition. Here, as in all the other great
pagodas of India, the Brahmins live in a fubordination
which knows no refifiance, and Humber in a voluptu-
eufnefs which knows no wants j and fenfible of the hap-
pinefs of their condition, they quit not the filence of
their retreats to mingle in the tumults of the ftate, nor
point the brand, flaming from the altar, againft the
authority of the fovereign, or the tranquillity of the
government.”
Upon the fame coafi; is fituated the fmall Danifh
fettlement of Tranquebar ; to the northward of which
is Pondicherry belonging to the French, part of which,
at a confiderable diftance, the Britifh fettlement of
Madras fucceeds. Near Pondicherry, the bird^ called
the vulture is frequently found, i his animal is well
known to feed upon dead or putrid carcafes. A Angular
circumftance concerning it has been obferved in every
age in the eaftern countries, that though very rare in a
particular quarter, yet when two hoftile armies approach
to give battle to each other, the air is fuddenly feen fill¬
ed with multitudes of them, flying with their ufual flug-
gifh wing, from every quarter, to partake of the car¬
nage. Hence in former times they were fuppofed to
poffefs a prophetic inftintd, or prefage of battle, which
led them to feek the fpot of future {laughter three days
before the event. To this opinion . Milton alludes,
when he compares the great enemy of mankind to one
cf thefe birds.
As when a flock
6S
Kriflina.
Of ravenous fowl, though many a league remote,
Againft the day of battle, to a field
Where armies "lie encamp’d, come flying, lur’d
With fcent of living carcafes defign’d
For death, the following day, in bloody fight j
So fcented the. grim feature, and upturn’d
His noftril wide into the murky air,
Sagacious of his quarry from afar.”
Paradife Lojl, book x. 1. 273.
Between Pondicherry and Madras, the river Paliar
enters the fea. Upon this river, about 66 miles above
its mouth, ftands the city of Arcot, the Arcuti re¬
gia Sorce of Ptolemy, and Soro-mandalam, corrupted
into the modern Coromandel, giving name to the whole
coaft.
At a confiderable diftance to the north is the great
river Kiftnab or Krifhna, in Lat. 15. 43. It rifes near
the weftern Ghauts, and like all the other rivers of this
extenfive coaft annually overflows a vaft tra<ft of coun- Afia.
try. Into the north fide of this river, in Lat. i6. 20. v—*
flows a great ftream called the river Beema, which al-
fo rifes at the head of the Ghauts, within 50 miles of
the other fide of the peninfula. It runs a courfe of
350 miles. To the north of the river Kriftma is the
celebrated and once powerful kingdom of Golconda,
abounding in corn, rice, cattle, flieep, and every necef-
fary of life 5 alfo in fifli, which are found in the nume¬
rous rivers, which in fome places are in a great mea-
fure formed by art. Dams are made acrofs the hollows
between hills fometimes half a league in length. Thefe
are filled during the rainy feafon ; and the inhabitants
introduce the water as it is wanted into the lower coun¬
try, which, afiifted by the heat of this climate, produces
prodigious fertility. 69
The river Godavery is the next great ftream upon Godavery.
this eaftern coaft of the peninfula. Like the others,
it rifes near the weftern coaft, and flows towards the
eaft. It is joined by another great river called the
Bain-gonga. The delta of this river is of vaft fertility,
enriched by the foil brought down by the periodical
inundations. To this river fucceeds a flat coaft, which,
unlike the more foutherly parts of this eaftern fide of
the peninfula, has behind it, at fome diftance inland, a
barren lofty chain of rude and almoft inacceflible
mountains. The part of the coaft betwixt the fea atid
thefe mountains is called the Circars. To the north¬
ward the country defcends regularly towards the
eaft, as throughout the reft of the peninfula. In
general, however, it is foft and moraffy, though fer¬
tile. This country was known in the time of Pliny.
It is now called Or i/fa or Orixa, and was in his time
faid to be the feat of the Gangaridce Calingce, whofe
monarch was very powerful, being able to bring into
the field 70,000 foot, 1000 horfe, and 500 elephants.
Beyond this part of the Indian territory, at fome di¬
ftance, the mouths of the Ganges begin, forming the
extremity of the bay of Bengal, and of the eaftern fide
of this peninfula.*
The Ganges is the moft celebrated of all the eaftern
rivers, being in every part of its courfe held facred by
the original inhabitants of the country. It periodical¬
ly overflows an immenfe extent of fertile territory,
formed by the depofition of mud, which in the courfe
of ages it has brought down from the higher country.
Compared to this mighty ftream, the Egyptian Nile
finks into infignificance, and the fertility which it pro¬
duces is trifling. So completely is the whole of this
country formed by the alluvions of its river, that there
is not a ftone quarry on the banks of the Ganges for
the fpace of 500 miles. The depth of the river
to that diftance is 30 feet. Immediately at the
mouth, however, it is obftrufted by the mud brought
down by its own floods, fo that its eaftern or true
channel cannot be entered by large veffels. The
channel called the Hoog/ey river, upon which the Hoogley,
city of Calcutta ftands, is the moft ufeful of its
mouths, being that which is entered by large veffels,
though even at the mouth of this branch great danger
is experienced from numbers of longitudinal banks at
its entrance, formed by the mud or fand brought down
and depofited there by the waters of the river. There
are fome other branches alfo which may be entered
during the rainy feafon, or at its clofe. At the great
trad;
70
Ganges-
A S I [ 73
Afia. tra£l which faces the bay is a colleftion of flat iflands,
divided by a labyrinth of canals covered with trees, and
forming altogether a foreft as large as the principality
of Wales. The head of the delta is 220 miles from
the fea in a ftraight line. The numerous channels winch
pafs through it in every direction, form a complete in¬
land navigation along the lower parts. Ships fail
amidft a foreft divided into numberlefs ifles by a con¬
tinual labyrinth of channels, fo various in breadth that
a veffel has at one time her mafts almoft entangled in
trees, while at another (he pafles uninterruptedly along
a capacious river beautifully (heltered with woods.
The woods, however, are dreadfully infefted by tigers,
to which the pious Hindoos, when coming on a pilgri¬
mage, to wafh themfelves in the facred ftream, are apt
to fall a prey.
Source of It has been already mentioned, that this great river
the Ganges, rifes in the fouthern part of the high central region of
Afia. The territory round its fource is called the
kingdom of Thibet, and is in about Lat. 33. 10. From
thence the Ganges proceeds to a confiderable diftance
we ft ward, among lofty and favage mountains, after
which it precipitates itfelf into a vaft and deep chafra,
from which, at a great diftance, it efcapes after a courie
in all of 800 miles from its origin, and enters at once,
as from a fecond fource, into the vaft and fertile plains
of Hindooftan. Through thefe it runs navigable with
an eafy and fmooth current 1320 miles, till it reaches
the fea. The place at which it emerges through a
gap or divifion of the lofty Imaus, or fouthern front of
Tartary, is called Hurdwar. In this neighbourhood
the mountains are covered with lofty fpires of ice,
overlooking the torrid plains of India. Into the Ganges
flow' multitudes of great rivers from each fide, which
give a matchlefs inland navigation. It receives in its
courfe through the plains eleven rivers, fome of which
are equal in fize to the Rhine, and none lefs than the
Thames. It maintains 30,000 boatmen by the car¬
riage of fait and food for ten millions of people in the
province of Bengal, and all this independent of its
fifheries, and of its different exports and imports. Where
it paffes through valleys which require not the aid of
its inundations to aflift the fertility of the foil, the coun¬
try is defended by vaft dikes, which are kept up at an
enormous expence. One branch of the Ganges is thus
confined for the extent of 70 miles, fo that when the
river is full, paffengers in (hips and boats look down
on each fide as from a lofty eminence into the adjacent
country. Its waters are periodically increafed by the
tropical rains, and by the melting of the fnows in the
mountains of Tartary adjacent to its fource-, it then
affumes the appearance of a fea of almoft boundlefs ex¬
tent. When the rains fubfide the water quickly paffes
away, and in its (lead there fuddenly afcends to view a
fertile country, which, by the rapidity of tropical ve¬
getation, is almoft inftantly covered with corn fields
and other plantations, fome of the iflands of the Ganges
producing three or four crops yearly.
Jumna. The moft important of the rivers which join the
Ganges is the Jumna from the fouth. It proceeds
through a very fertile country; and Delhi and Agra,
the anciejit Mogul capitals, are fituated upon it.
Though the waters of the Ganges are in every part
held facred, yet they are doubly fo at their jundtion
with the Jumna, which is alfo accounted facred. The
6 ] A S I
city, which flands at the jumftion or forks of the two
rivers, is therefore called Allahabad or the City of God. J
At fome diftance below this is the city and diftrift of
Benares, the great feat of the Hindoo fciences, in which
the Brahmins inftruct immenfe numbers of pupils in
their religion, contained in books written in, what is
now a dead language, the Sanfcrit. Many other great
cities ftand upon this river, of which it is unnecefiary
here to take notice. The whole country naturally en¬
joys extreme fertility, and being poffeffed by an induf-
trious people it abounds with inhabitants.
To the north-eaft of Bengal, which is the provinceBootan.
at the mouth of the Ganges, the high country of
Bootan is fituated, near the foot of the mountains that
overlook the plains of Hindooftan. Here the great
chain of Emodus, caped with eternal Ihow, ftiows it¬
felf to the inhabitants of Hindooftan, over the lefftr
hills which guard its approach. On the eaft ward of
the Ganges the river Burrampooter alfo falls into the j;ur
bay of Bengal. This river is fuperior to the Ganges in pooler,
fize and in extent of courfe. It rifes, like it, in the
fouthern part of the high regions of Tartary, but flows
eaftward ; and as its channel lies among rugged rocks
and mountains, inhabited only by fcattered and bar¬
barous tribes, it is of little renown, and till lately was
unnoticed by ftrangers, though its mouth is clofe to the
mouth of the Ganges. It has only been difcovered
to be a firft-rate river fo late as the year 1765. Be¬
yond the lower part of the Burrampooter Hindooftan
fpeedily terminates to the eaft, at a narrow chain of
mountains running from north to fouth, the laft pro¬
vince receiving the appellation of Chittagong. This
province proceeds only to a fliort diftance fouthward
along the eaftern fhore of the bay of Bengal.
The great country of Hindooftan, from the Panjab
and the courfe of the Indus on the weft, to the lower-
part of the Burrampojoter and Chittagong on the eaft,
and from the front of Tartary on the north to Cape
Comorin on the fouth, has undoubtedly from the moft
diftant ages been one of the moft fertile and populous
regions on the globe. Its civilization runs back to
the remoteft periods, and the monuments of ancient
magnificence which it exhibits are innumerable. When
Alexander the Great invaded the weftern part of it,
he found it, as it now is, filled with an induftrious,
wealthy, and civilized people, poffefiing the fame reli¬
gion and1 manners as at prefent. In its original ftate
it does not appear that India, like China, was ever
united under one government, unlefs when fubjefted
to a foreign yoke. It would feem to have been divided
into a great number of independent principalities, and
it has always had a tendency to fall back into that
ftate, a circumftance which has rendered its different ^
parts an eafy prey to foreigners. The Hindoos are a Charafler
mild and humane people ; but they are at the fame time of the Hin<
an extremely inadtive, timid, and feeble race of men,^003*
patient of infults and injuftice, fo that all invaders have
been able to fubdue them. A Tartar cor.quefl intro¬
duced the Mahometan religion and a feudal govern¬
ment into their country, and changed their language
for that of Perfia, though to this day the Mahometans
are only as one to ten of the population. The Britifh
alfo coming from an ifland of the Weftern ocean, have,
with a handful of men, been able to become their
mafters. A remnant, indeed, of Hindoo independence
exifts
Afia.
A S I [ 737 ]
exifts in what are called the MahrattaJlates, upon the an ingenious writer :
fummit of the Ghauts in the weftern part of the penin-
fula ; but this independence they will not probably be
long able to preferve. Even in the ordinary exertions
of life, the Hindoos aft like men deftitute of energy.
As carpenters, for example, they perform their work
with much neatnefs and dexterity, but they employ
fmall and light tools, which to men of a more vigorous
charafter and habit, appear contemptible j and when
an ordinary beam is to be turned over, an affillant la¬
bourer muft give his aid, of which an European work¬
man would not perceive the neceflity j but the Hindoos
living in a country in which labour is extremely cheap,
are accuftomed to fupply by numbers their own defi¬
ciency of energy of mind, or of flrength of body.
A general imbecility of charafter feems indeed to
mark this nation, or an incapacity to make any vigor¬
ous effort of felf-command. In matters of intelleft
they are Haves of imagination and of education. On
the banks of the Ganges, in a fertile climate, in which
human life is eafily fuftained, and the conftitution na¬
turally prone to indolence, a fuperftition has been invent¬
ed which feems to have proved a fource of the greateft
misfortunes to the nation. Not only is the imagina¬
tion filled, and the exercife of the underftanding in¬
jured, by endlefs legends or tales about the transfigu¬
ration of their divinities, but a fet of ceremonies and
regulations is introduced which places every part of
life under controul. The whole people are divided in¬
to tribes or hereditary calls. A member of one of
thefe carts cannot marry into a different cart without
contrafting impurity, and being for ever difhonoured
or driven out of his tribe. A Hindoo is not permit¬
ted by his religion to eat with a llranger, or even to
drink water that has been drawn by impure hands,
that is to fay, by perfons belonging to a different catl.
One cart only, the Rajaputes, are permitted to eat ani¬
mal food, but the reft are compelled by their religion
to live upon vegetables alone. Endlefs minute obfer-
vances in their eatings are alfo impofed upon them,
founded on the notion of the poflibility of contrafting
pollution in this way. Thus are the Hindoos, though
a mild and humane race, rendered in the molt ordi¬
nary aftions of life, the rhoft unfocial as well as the
moft irrational of mankind. Being occupied at every
moment by fome religious ceremony or other, and fill¬
ed with the dread of pollution, they appear contemp¬
tible to thofe ftrangers whom they avoid as profane or
impure. From the impoffibility, in this manner im¬
pofed upon them, of uniting in any refpeft with the
Tartars who conquered their country, they have funk
into a degraded and defpifed race •, whereas, could they
have united or mingled with the invaders, they muft
fpeedily have become as one people, and the evils re-
fulting from conqueft would gradually have been for¬
gotten. They have perfevered for ages in the fame
intelleftual errors, becaufe they have got pofleflion of
their imaginations, and becaufe they want energy to
caft off any habit or train of thought to which they
have once fubmitted.
The Hindoos appear to be no lefs deftitute of felf-
command in their aftive than in their intelleftual
powers. Hence arifes the unbounded fuperiority in all
military enterprifes which the Europeans poffefs over
them. The attack of their armies is thus defcribed by
Vol. II. Fait II.
A S I
“ It may perhaps afford lome
meafure of gratification to European curiofity, to be Ul
informed, that the undifciplined troops of Afia, general¬
ly inflamed with bang and other intoxicating drugs,
pour forth, as they advance, a torrent of menacing
and abufive language on their adverfaries. Every ex-
preflion of contempt and averfion, every threat, fitted
to make any impreflion of terror, or to excite ideas of
horror, that cuftom readily prefents or inventive fancy
can fuggeft, accompanies the utmoft ferocity of looks,
voice, and gefture. A murmuring found, with clouds
of dull, announces their approach, while they are yet
at the diftance of feveral miles. As they advance,
their accents are more and more diftinftly heard, until
at laft, with their eyes fixed and weapons pointed at
fome individual, they devote him, with many execrations,
to deftruftion, giving his flefti, like the heroes in
Homer and the Philiftine warriors, to the dogs, and the
birds of the air, and the beafts of the field. The num¬
bers of the Afiatic armies, the ferocity of their manner,
and the novelty of their appearance, would unnerve
and overcome the hearts of the fmall European bodies
that are oppofed to them in the field of battle, if ex¬
perience had not fufficiently proved how much the
iilence of difcipline excels barbarian noife, and unifor¬
mity of defign and aftion, the defultory efforts of brutal
force, afting by ftarts, and liable to the contagion of
accidental impreflion.”
Indeed the fuperiority of Europeans over Hindoos is
fo great, that it is never balanced by almoft any differ¬
ence in point of numbers. If a body of European
troops is only fufficiently numerous to cover a tolerable
extent of ground, fo that one part of them may reft
while the other is on guard, and that advantage may
be taken of the viftory when gained, the event of the
war is uniformly unfavourable to the feeble natives of
this region. There feems to exift a dtfeft in their
moral nature, to which military difcipline cannot afford
a remedy. An European gentleman, though a ftranger
to the ufe of arms, if called upon by what he accounts
his honour or his duty, is able, with an unchanging
countenance, to meet the hazard of inftant death, and
can take the chance of giving or receiving deftrr.ftion
with little paffion, and without exhibiting the external
fymptoms either of anger or of fear. The cafe is dif¬
ferent with the mild and timid inhabitants of Hindoo-
ftan •, they cannot meet danger with coolnefs and re-
colleftion, but are under the neceffity of working
themfelves into a rage, which enables them to rufti upon
perils which they are unable calmly to encounter.
Thus their fury is irregular and fruitlefs, like that of
men under the influence of intoxication ; while at the
fame time, if their paffion decline for an inflant, they
are feized with fudden terror, and under its influence
fometimes rufli into greater perils than they wiflied to
avoid. They poffefs throughout their country fortrtffes
fituated upon elevated and precipitous mountains, or
furrounded by works of art of inconceivable folidity
and ftrength. Many of thefe fortreffes, under defence,
would prove abfolutely impregnable, and in this ardent
climate, the armies of their northern invaders might
perifh miferably before them *, but thefe fortrefles the
Hindoos have been utterly unable to defend. Thfcy
cannot long remain coolly and without paflion on the
defenfive ; in fome moment or other of weaknefs they
5 A become
Afia.
Afia.
77
What ad¬
vantages
arife from
an inter-
A S I [ 7
become panic-flruck, and all is loft. They call them-
felves headlong from the, fummit of the walls, and
fometimes, having murdered their wives and children,
they call themfelves upon the weapons of their anta-
gonifts ; finding death in this manner, though the agi¬
tation that accompanies their blind fury prevents them
from finding revenge for their calamities.
In every age, the inhabitants of Hindooftan, who
want nothing from the reft of mankind, have received
the gold and filver of other nations in return for the
. , precious productions of their favoured foil : the fugar,
Hirdoodan* ^ fp*ces> the gems, and the valuable manufactures of
'the country, have at all times been fought, either by
commerce or by conqueft. But excepting thefe pro¬
ductions of nature, or of art, ft does not appear that
any valuable advantages can be derived from an inter-
courfe with the people. Notwithftanding the high an¬
tiquity of their civilization, they are inferior in every
branch of fcience to ourfelves. Their moral and poli¬
tical fpeculations are extremely trifling, fo far at leaft
as has hitherto been difcovered. Their poetry may
have its beauties, but it undoubtedly equals not the
productions of the north-weftern regions, that is, of
Europe. It is probable, that the only branch of valu¬
able knowledge which could be improved by an in-
tercourfe with the people of thefe countries is, that
which concerns the conftruCtion of different machines,
or the performance of proceffes connected with the va¬
rious parts of manufacturing, agricultural, or domeftic
economy. They are underftood to poffefs fcveral
machines of wonderful fimplicity, and to perform ma-
* ny proceffes in an eafier and lefs expenfive mode than
we are accuftomed to do in Europe. They ufed, from
time immemorial, the drill plough, which with us is a
late invention. Their hand-mills for grinding grain
are at once Ample and effectual ; as alfo their procefs
of diftillation. It ought to be recolleCted by the Eu¬
ropean nations, that they are but of yefterday when
compared with the Hindoos j though we have outrun
them in the career of intellect, or of general fcience,
yet the improvement of the proceffes and inftruments
connected with the economy of ordinary life requires
various fucceffive experiments, which can only be per¬
formed during a great length of time, efpe.cially if
thefe proceffes are not ufually performed by perfons
converfant in the higheft walks of literature. All
newly invented machines and proceffes are apt to be
complex, expenfive, and imperfeCt. It is only after
repeated trials and alterations that they are reduced
to that fimplicity which conftitutes their excellence.
Ample leifure has been allowed for thefe trials and im¬
provements in the civilized nations of the Eaft ; and
the fimplicity of their machines, which deduCts from
their apparent importance, ought to be regarded as
their perfection. They were probably invented by
more ingenious men than thofe who now ufe them,
and they probably had the fame imperfections by which
ours are at prefent affeCted : but fucceeding genera¬
tions gradually improved them, and they have at laft
come down into the poffeffion of a degenerate race,
incapable of difeerning the value of tools in whofe
conftruCtion there is no feeming intricacy, though their
gradual progrefs to the prefent ftate may have requi¬
red much exertion from fucceflive minds poffeffed of
great energy and ingenuity. We may take the liber-
Afia.
38 ] A S I
ty to fuggeft, therefore, to fuch of our countrymen as
have occafion to refide for any length of time among < .j
this ancient people, that one ot the moft valuable fer-
vices which they can perform to fociety in Europe
might confift ot executing and tranfmitting accurate
deferiptions of the different tools and machinery made
ufe of by the Hindoos, and of the procefles ufed by
them in the different branches of their domeftic eco¬
nomy and management. The difeovery of the ancient
code of Roman law at Amalfi in Italy, together with
the introduction of Grecian literature after the taking
of Conftantinople by the Turks, gave to the Europe¬
an nations immenfe afliftance in their progrefs to civi¬
lization, by exhibiting to them the practices and the
fentiments of a former enlightened age, and thereby
abridging their labour in the purfuit of intellectual im¬
provement. A fimilar aid, or abridgement of the la¬
bours of invention, would in all probability be derived
from a minute acquaintance with the practices and ma¬
chinery employed with fuccefs during fo many ages in
the economy of Hindoftan.
Leaving this mild, but timid and feeble race of men,Enft^rSn
we pafs to the eaftern peninfula of India, a narrow ninfula of
part of which ftretches under tfie name of Malacca to India,
within two degrees ol the equator. Before advancing
to the main land, however, we may notice towards the
fouth-eaftern part of the bay of Bengal a group of ifles
called the Andamans, chiefly remarkable on account of
the Angular people by whom they are inhabited. They Andaman
are the northern divifion of a number of fmall iflands, files,
ftretching from io° 32' to 130 4c' N. Lat. and from
90° 6' to 92° 9' E. Long.: the fouthern divifion of
thefe ifles is called the Nicobars, inhabited by a mild
and inoffenfive people. What is called the Great An¬
daman, the chief of the northern divifion of iflands, is
140 miles in length, and 20 in breadth. A fettlement
was eftablifhed upon it by the Britifti in 1793, and con- '
viCts are tranfported thither from Bengal. All that
voyagers have related of uncivilized life is faid to fall
ftiort of the barbarifm of the people of Andaman. The
ferocious natives of New Zealand, or the ftiivering
half-animated favages of T.erra del Fuego, are in a
ftate of refinement, compared to thefe iflanders. The
population of the Great Andaman, and its dependen¬
cies amounts to little more than 2000 fouls, whofe foie
occupation it is to rove along the margin of the fea in
queft of a precarious meal of filh, which during the
tempeftuous feafon they often feek in vain. In ftature,
the Andamaners feldom exceed five feet. Their limbs,
are difproportionably flender, their bellies protuberant,
with high ftioulders and large heads j and, ftrange to
find in this part of the world, they are a degenerate
race of negroes, with woolly hair, flat nofes, and thick
lips. Their eyes are fmall and red ; their Ikin of a
deep footy black *, whilft their countenances exhibit
the extreme of wretchednefs, a mixture of famine and
ferocity. I hey go quite naked, and are infenfible of
any fhame from expofure. Two young women, allu- Sy?nes,JEm~
red by the temptation of filh, were fecured, and brought ^a^to 've'
on board a Ibip at anchor in the harbour. The captain
treated them with great humanity : They foon got rid
of all fear of violence, except what might be offered to
their chaftity, which they guarded with unremitting
vigilance. Although they had a fmall apartment al¬
lotted to themfelves, and had no real caufe for appre-
henfionj
A S I [ 1:
henfion, one always watched while the other dept.
They fuffered clothes to be put on, but took them off
again as foon as opportunity offered, and threw them
away as ufelefs incumbrances. When their fears were
over they became cheerful, chattered with freedom,
and were inexpreflibly diverted at the fight of their
own perfons in a mirror. They were fond of tinging,
fometimes in melancholy recitative, at others in a lively
key j and often danced about the deck with great agi¬
lity, flapping their pofteriors with the back of their
heel. Wine and fpirituous liquors were difagreeable
to them : no food feemed fo palatable as filh, rice, and
fugar. In a few weeks, having recovered ftrength,
and become fat, from the more than half-famiflied ftate
in which they were brought on board, they began to
think confinement irkfome, and longed to regain their
native freedom. In the middle of the night, when all
but the watchmen were afleep, they paffed in filence
through the captain’s cabin, jumped out of the ftern
windows into thefea, and fvvam to an ifland half a mile
diftant, where it was in vain to purfue them, had there
been any fuch intention 5 but the obieft was, to retain
them by kindnefs, not by compulfion *, an attempt that
has failed on every trial. Hunger may (and thefe in-
Itances are rare) induce - them to put themfelves in the
power of ftrangers; but the moment that want is fa-
tisfied, nothing fliort of coercion can prevent them from
returning to a way of life more congenial to their fa-
vage nature. The few implements they ufe are of the
rudeft texture •, a bow from four to five feet long; the
firing made of the fibre of a tree, or a flip of bamboo,
with arrows of reed, headed with fifli bone, or wood
hardened in the fire, is their principal weapon. Be-
fides this, they carry a fpear of heavy wood fharply
pointed, and a fliield made of bark, to defend them¬
felves from the affaults of their enemies ; for even thefe
poor wretches have rights to affert and dignities to
maintain. Neceflity has taught them an expert ma¬
nagement of their arms, on which they rely for fubfift-
ence. Happily for them, their numerous bays and
creeks abound with fifli, which they fhoot and fpear
with furprifing dexterity. They are faid alfo to ufe a
fmall hand-net made of the filaments of bark ; the fifli,
when caught, are put into a wicker balket, which they
carry on their backs. Having kindled a fire, they
throw the food on the coals, and devour it half-broiled.
A few diminutive fwine are to be found in the fldrts of
the forefts, and among the mangrove thickets in the
low grounds ; but thefe are very fcarce, and are pro¬
bably the progeny of a flock left by former naviga-
' tors. When a native has the good fortune to flay one,
lie carefully preferves the.lkull and teeth, to ornament
his hut. They crofs the bays, and go to fifli, either in
canoes formed of a hollow tree, or on rafts of bamboo,
which they direfl by paddles. Their habitations dif-
play little more ingenuity than the dens of wild beafts ;
for flicks ftuck in the ground are bound together at
the top, and faftened tranfverfely by others, to which
branches of trees are fufpended j an opening is left on
one fide, juft large enough to admit of entrance ;—
leaves compofe their bed. Being much incommoded
by infe6ts, their firft occupation in a morning is to pla-
fter tlieir bodies all over with mud, which, hardening
in the fun, forms an impenetrable armour. They paint
their woolly heads with red och-re and water. When
9 3 AST
thus completely dreffed, a more hideous appearance is All
not to be found in human form. ^ *
Although their principal food confifts of fifli, yet
they eagerly feize on whatever elfe prefents itfelf: Ha¬
zards, guanas, rats, and fnak€s, fupply a change o. re¬
paid. The vegetable diet of the Andamaners eonfifts
of the natural produce of the woods, in which the re-
fearches of Europeans find little that is palatable or
nutritious. The fruit of the mangrove is principally
ufed, having often been found in their deferted habita¬
tions, fteeping in an embanked puddle of water.. As
they have no pot or veffel that can bear the adtion of
fire, they cannot derive much advantage from fuch ef- >
culent herbs as the forefts may contain j indeed, their
extenuated and difeafed figures too plainly indicate the
want of wholefonse nouriftiment. Unhappily for them,
the cocoa-nut, which thrives in the utmoft luxuriance
in the neighbouring ifles, is not to be found here 5 but
they are extremely fond of it •, and whenever a nut
was left in their way by the fettlers, it was immediately
carried off with much apparent fatisfa&ion.
There are feveral forts of trees on the ifland ; amotig
which are, the feus religiofa, or banyan tree, the al¬
mond tree, and the oil tree ; which latter grows to a
great height, and from it a very ufeful oil is thus pro-
duced :—A horizontal incifion being made in the
trunk, fix or eight inches deep, a chip fourteen or fif¬
teen inches long is cut at right angles, and the furface
of the incifion being hollowed and filled with live coals,
the turpentine, or wood oil, exudes copioufly from the.
top of the wound. The peniagre tree is alfo found,
and is well adapted for the knees of /hips ; and the
iron tree, of ftupendous fize, whofe timber almoft bids
defiance to the axe of the wood-cutter j the red wood,
which makes beautiful furniture, little inferior to fine
mahogany. Befides thefe, there are numberlefs creeper*
and rattans which furround the ftemS of the larger trees,
and, interwoven with each other, form fo thick a hedge,
that it is impoflible to penetrate far into the forefts, but
by the flow and laborious procefs of cutting a road.
It is a fort of hiftorical myftery how a race of ne¬
groes ftiould be found here, a people fo widely differ¬
ing, not only from all the inhabitants of that vaft con¬
tinent in which the ifland of Andaman is embayed,
but alfo from the natives of the Nicobar iflands, which
are. immediately contiguous to it. Some have fuppo-
fed, that a Portuguefe veffel, early in the fixteenth
century, laden with flaves from Africa, may have been
call on thefe (bores, and that the prefent Andamaner#
are the defeendants of fuch as efcaped drowning. This
conjecture, however, is proved to be erroneous, from an
account of the Andamaners given by two Mahometan
travellers, long before the navigation of thofe feas by
Europeans. But an accident fimilar to that now fug-
gefted may poffibly, at fome period or other, have oc¬
curred to an Arabian veffel, as that people are known
to have failed upon the Indian ocean as early as the
feventh century 5 and they not only explored the conti¬
nent of India as far as the Chinefe fea, but likewife
gained a knowledge of mod of the Eaftern iflands.
Returning from thefe iflands to the province called
Chittagong, which forms the extremity on the eaft of
the Britifti Eaft India Company’s poffeflions, as well
as the boundary in that quarter of the territory of Hin-
dooftan, we enter upon the farther or eaftern peninfuJa
5 A 2 of
A s 1 [ 740 ] A S I
Alia of India. From Chittagong, proceeding fouthward
along the eaftern (bores, the coaft is fertile and rich for
. So a confiderable didance within land, forming the an-
Aiacan. . 1 ■ , <- a a-. n . , ^
cient kingdom or Aracan. Parallel to the coaft runs
a chain of lofty and precipitous mountains, forming
the boundary of Aracan to the eaftward. Beyond
thefe mountains eaftward is a level and fertile country,
containing rivers which, defcending from the regions
of High Tartary already mentioned, defcend fouth-
■ward along the peninfula, fertilizing the foil by their
periodical floods, and forming at their mouths a great
extent of low and fertile territory, or delta land. The
country to the fouth-eaft. of Aracan is called Pegu;
that to the eaft has long been called Ava by Europe¬
ans, from the name of the former capital, but is called
81 by the people of the country Birmah, and the people
Birmah. thenifelves Birmans. This laft people, the Birmans,
have recently fubdued both of the kingdoms called
Pegu and Aracan, and form at the prefent period a
riling empire of great importance in the eaft, and well
deferving our attention. Though their territories are
only divided from thofe of the Britifti Eaft India Com¬
pany by a narrow chain of mountains, and at one place
by a trifling river called the Naaf, yet it was only very
lately that they were at ail known to the Europeans in
that quarter as a neighbouring power of any confldera-
tion, our connexion with them having formerly been
■merely in the way of commerce carried on from their
fouthern ports, near the mouth of the bay of Bengal.
The following circumftance gave rife to farther inquiries
concerning them :—The trade of Aracan had fuffered
by the attacks of fome robbers, or pirates, who infefted
the rivers near the coaft. They conveyed their plunder
acrofs the river Naaf into the Chittagong province,
where, being fecured from purfuit under the protedtion
of the Britifti flag, they difpofed of their fpoils to ad¬
vantage, and lived at eafe till returning want impelled
them to refume their predatory excurfions. On its
being afeertained that three of the moft diftinguiftied of
the robbers had fought refuge in the Britifti diftridls,
the king or emperor of the Birmans font one of his offi¬
cers into the Eaft India Company’s territories at the
bead of 5000 men, with injundlions to the commander
to bring with him the delinquents, dead or alive, and
not to return without them. To fupport this detachment,
82 an army of 20,000 men was held in readinefsat Aracan.
Birman ar- Senee Nunda Kiozo, the Birman chief, having crof-
tke Britifh ^ the river Naaf, and encamped within the Company’s
territory in territory on the weftern bank, fent a letter to the Bri-
India. tifti magiftrate of Chittagong, acquainting him of the
reafons for the inroad; that the feizure of the delin¬
quents was his foie objedf, without harbouring any de¬
ft gn of hoftility againft the Englifh. At the fame time
he declared, that, till the delinquents were given up,
he would not depart from the Company’s territory. In
confirmation of this threat, be fortified bis camp with a
ftockade. Thefe matters being reported to the Britifh
government at Calcutta, the refugees were ordered to
be apprehended and kept in cuftodyT ; and, in the mean
time, detachments of Europeans, and of Indian troops
in their fervice, called Sepoys, with proper artillery,
were fent to the fpot under Major General Erfkine.
On the approach of General Erfkine, the Birman ge¬
neral fent a flag of truce to propofe terms of accojn-
modation, ftipulating for the furrender of the fugitive Ada.
pirates as the bafts of the agreement. It was replied,1 
that no propofal could be liftened to while the Birmans
continued on the Britifti territory 5 that, unlefs they
departed from it in a limited time, force would be ufed j
but that, if they would withdraw peaceably, the fubjeft
of their complaints would be difeufled. On receiving
this anfwer, the Birman chief, with a manly confidence
in the chara&er of his antagonifts, which commanded
refpeft, perfonally waited on General Erfkine, and
ftated the nature of his inftrudlion, the enormity of the
offenders, and the outrages they had committed. Ge¬
neral Erfkine affured him that the Britifh government
had no defire to afford an afylum to robbers ) that it
had no objedion to do juftice j but infifled, that in the
firft inftance, the Birmans ought to retire peaceably
from the Britifh territory. The Birman general, in
confequence of thefe affurances, profeffed his reliance on
General Erfkine, and agreed to withdraw his troops.
The retreat -was conducted in the moft orderly manner j
and fo Arid was the difeipline of the Birman army, that
not one irregular ad was committed while they remained
within the Company’s territory. The charges againft:
the refugees were afterwards inveftigated, and their guilt
being clearly eftablifbed, they were delivered over to
their own laws, by wftiofe fentence two out of the three
underwent capital punifhment.
This event called the attention of the Britifh go¬
vernment in India towards the Birmans, a people evi¬
dently of a fuperior charader to the Hindoos, whofe
territory was in their vicinity, and with whom, by
their fouthern ports, a very extenfive commerce had
within a few years fprung up j which, in the fingle ar¬
ticle of teek-wood, already required an annual return of
Indian commodities to the amount of 200,ccol. fter-
ling. It therefore appeared a matter of importance to
enter into fomething in the nature of a commercial
treaty with this power, at leaft to the effed of obtain-
ing regular protedion for our merchants when vifiting
their ports. With this view, and to obtain farther in¬
telligence concerning the nature of the government, the
charader of the people, and the advantages to be deri¬
ved from intercourfe with them, the governor-general
of Bengal, Sir John Shore, fent by fea to the principal
Birman port a regular embaffy 5 at the head of which
was Michael Svmes, Efq. then a captain in the Britifti ri
-f 1 • r 1 ■ i-i . rSritiin em-
army. ft rom the information obtained and publifhed bafly to the
in confequence of this embafly, the following account Birmans,
of the Birmans and their empire is extraded. Vide
As already noticed, the Birman empire extends
along the weftern coaft of the eaftern peninfula of In-
dia, or forms the eaftern fide of the bay of Bengal.
It approaches the frontier of China on the north-eaft,
and is limited on the north by the rugged and moun¬
tainous country which forms the fouth-eaftern front of
the high region of Tartary, being a continuation to
this quarter of the great chain of Imp,us. From the
foot of that elevated region, this, like the weftern pe¬
ninfula of India, defeends gradually to the fouth, and
the rivers proceed in that diredion till the largeft of
them terminate near Cape Negrais in the fouth-eaftern
quarter of the bay of Bengal, where the coaft turns
fuddenly eaftward to a confiderable diftance; after
which it proceeds as formerly to the fouth. The prin¬
cipal
4
A S 1
[ 741 3
A S I
Afia.
84
Hiftory of
the Bir¬
mans.
S5
Alompra,
firft of the
prefen t
dynalty.
85
Alompra’s
rebellion.
cipal towns of the Birman empire ftand upon the ri¬
vers ; and the Britiflr embaffy failed up the chief river,
the Irrawaddy or Erabatty, to a great diftance, till they
reached Ummerapoora, the preient capital of the Bir¬
man dominions.
The Birmans and the people of Pegu have long
been rival Hates. The Birmans, though formerly fub-
jeft to the king of Pegu, revolted about the middle of
the fixteenth century, and appear to have acquired a
fuperiority over the Peguers which continued down
to about the year 1740. At that period a war took
place, which was profecuted on both Tides with favage
ferocity, but as the Peguers, living to the fouth-
ward near the mouth of the navigable rivers alteauy
mentioned, had a confiderable intercourfe with Euro¬
pean traders, from whom they could purchafe better
arms than are manufaflured in the eafi, they gradu¬
ally obtained a fuperiority, and gained feveral vitfones
over the Birmans in the years 1750 and 1751. Thtfe
advantages were fo vigoroufly profecuted, that in the
year 1752 the Birman capital Ava was inverted. 1 ne
Birmans, difpirited by repeated defeats, and probably
ill commanded, after a rtiort fiege Diveepdee, the lart
of a long line of kings, was made prifoner with all
his family, except two fons who efeaped to Siam.
Beinga Della, king of Pegu, left his brother Apporaza
as governor of Ava, and carried to Pegu the captive
Birman king. Thus a complete conquetl appeared to
be effected.1 The landholders and principal inhabitants
of the country round Ava fubmitted, and took an oath
of allegiance to the king of Pegu, who in an infolent
proclamation, announced the annexation of the Bir¬
man country to the Pegu monarchy. In the mean time,
a Birman of low extra&ion, Alompra, afpired to be¬
come the deliverer of his country. He had lubmitted
like the reft, and was continued by the conqueror in
the command of an inconfiderable village, Moncha-
boo. Here he had no more than 100 devoted follow¬
ers, upon whofe intrepidity and fidelity he could rely.
This village, like moft of the Birman towns, was fur-
rounded by a ftockade. This he ftrengthened and re¬
paired, without awakening any fufpicion in the Pegu
conquerors, who never fufpefted that fo inconfiderable
a perfon would attempt a rebellion. In Alompra’s vil¬
lage of Monchaboo there were no more than 50 Pegu
foldiers, who treated the Birmans with great arrogance :
Taking advantage of the indignation excited by feme
particular aft of indignity, Alompra encouraged his
followers to attack the Pegu foldiers, and he put every
one of them to the fword. Even after this.aft of re¬
bellion, Alompra difguifed bis intention with a view
to gain time. He wrote to the brother of the. Pegu
king Apporaza, who had been left governor of Ava,
exprefling much humility and regret for what had
happened, profefling his fidelity to the Pegu govern¬
ment, and reprefenting the maflacre as the refult of an
accidental quarrel between the Pegu foldiers and the
people of his village. Thefe affurances prevented vi¬
gorous meafures from being taken with fufficient fpeed
again ft him. Apporaza, having prefling bufinefs at
Pegu, left Ava under the government of his nephew
Dotachew, with inftruflions to keep Alompra as a pri¬
foner. Accordingly about a thoufand men were fent
to occupy Alompra’s turbulent village, and. to fend
himfelf to Ava. They expe&ed no oppofition, and
came ill prepared for it. They were not a little difl- Alia.
concerted to find the gates of the ftockade around the -—* '
village Ihut againft them on their arrival, which was
late in the evening j and at daybreak next morning
they were fuddenly attacked and routed by the Bir¬
mans. Alompra, having thus involved a fmall party
of his countrymen in rebellion againft their conquerors,
reprefented to them that there no longer exifted for
them any fafety but in vi&ory ; that they would never
be forgiven, and muft refolve to conquer or perifh. .He
invited the Birmans of the neighbouring towns to join
his ftandard, and he found a fmall number who were
willing to embrace his apparently defperate fortunes:
with thefe he adopted the fudden refclution of march¬
ing towards Ava the Birman capital, before the nume¬
rous detachments of Peguers that were fcattered over
the provinces could be recalled for its defence. As
he advanced, fame magnified his numbers. ' The gover¬
nor of Ava, who had no more than 3000 men, was
difconcerted ; and, defpairing of fuccefs, deferted that
city with his troops, and a few of his countrymen
who remained behind him were put to death by the sy
populace. Inftead of advancing in perfon, Alompra Alompra’s
now fent his fecond fon Shembuan to take poffeftion ofiucce^
Ava. Thefe events occurred in autumn 1753- I'1 C()n^e*
quence of his firft fuccefs Alompra’s reputation became
unbounded. His countrymen everywhere revolted, and
attached themfclves to him as their deliverer. The Pe¬
gu king was alarmed for the northern diftrifts of his own
territory, in which the Birman population exceeded that
of the Peguers. A large force was colleftcd under Ap¬
poraza the Pegu king’s brother. It confided of an ar¬
my, and of a numerous fleet of war boats, which failed
up the Irrawaddy to reduce the infurgents. He laid
fiege to Ava, where Shembuan held out 40 days, till his
father Alompra advanced to his aid. Apporaza railed
the fiege, and went to encounter Alompra. ft he conteft
was chiefly confined to the fleet •, the armies only fldr-
mirtring on {bore. Shembuan having advanced from the
fort of Ava to attack the rear of the Peguers, they gave
way and fled with precipitation, fuffering great {laugh¬
ter in their retreat. The Peguers, enraged by thefe
misfortunes, put to death the dethroned monarch of the
Birmans, together with all the principal men of his na¬
tion, to the amount of feveral hundreds, that were in
their power, under pretence that they had been detect¬
ed in a plot againft their conquerors. This only render¬
ed the mutual hatred of the nations more violent ; and
in leveral towns the Birmans rofe upon the Pegu garri-
fons, and maffacred the whole of them. §g.
In the mean time Alompra continued to improve Alompra
his fortune, and avowedly endeavoured to eftablHh inatpiresto
his own perfon the fovereignty of his country. When r°yalty*
the fon of the late king attempted to return, he drove
him back to his afylurn among the Siamefe. "Towards
the end of the year 17 54 the Pegu king Beinga Della,
with a confiderable army, laid fiege to -Prome, a fron¬
tier town defended by a folid wall, a deep ditch, and
a ftmng ftockade. The Birmans fuccefsfully refilled
a general aflault, and the Peguers had recourfe to a
blockade. Alompra fent 36 war boats to the afliftance
of the town, which (lands upon a river ; the com¬
mander of thefe threw himfelf with a confiderable fup-
ply of men and provifions into the town, and fent
back his boats, only a few of which were taken. After
A S I [ 742 ] A S I
Afia. « farthtr delay of fix weeks, Alompra arrived in perfon
v—and attacked thePeguers both by land and water. In-
ftead of keeping up a fire of mufquetry as ufual, the
boats clofed, and after a defperate engagement, the
Peguers abandoned the fiege. The tide ot iuccefs was
now lo completely turned, that the war was become
defenfive on the part of the king of Pegu. He retired
to his capital, which being near the fea-coaft, the con-
tell became a kind of maritime warfare in the mouths
and creeks of the rivers •, which laft are extremely nu¬
merous in the low. delta land near their mouth. At
this time both the French and Englifii were in poffeflion
of fadlories in the Pegu country, and both the Pe¬
guers and Birmans folicited the afliftance of the ftran-
gers, being abundantly fenfible that a few (hips of bur¬
den furnifhed with guns would give a vail advantage
to either party, in a conteft againft the war boats ufed
in their country. In the courfe of the year 1755 both
the French and Englifli appear to have entered fecretly
into feparate negociations with each of the parties, and
to have promifed aid to each of them. Both of them
ultimately broke faith with Alompra, and joined the
people of Pegu. Notwithftanding this aflifiance, the
Birman leader continued to enjoy a career of fuccefs.
He was victorious on land, and the aid of the foreigners
by water only produced a flight degree of embarrafs-
ment. At one time three Englifli (hips and one
French (hip aflifted the Pegu force, confifting of 200
armed boats, while 10,000 men marched along with
them as a land force j but the Birmans difconcerted
the attack by a ftratagem. With confiderable ingenui¬
ty they conftruCted fire-rafts, confifting of a number of
boats faftened together, and filled with combuftibles.
Thefe rafts were floated with a ftrong fpring tide to
where the European (hips lay at anchor, and diredled
with fuch fldll and efFeCf as to oblige them to flip
their cables and remove, the French ftiip narrowly
efcaping deftrudtion. Alompra at laft fucceeded in
cutting off the communication between Pegu and
the fea. A French ftiip coming to the afliftance of
the Peguers was taken by furprife ; and as her papers
proved the objeCl of her voyage, her officers were put
to death by the order of Alompra : other foreigners,
however, particularly the Englifli, taken in the impor¬
tant Pegu town of Syriam, were fuffered to depart un-
molefted, though he had fufficient reafon to complain
of their countrymen. Alompra was at laft, in confe-
quence of his fuccefs in every quarter, enabled to lay
fiege to Pegu itfelf, the capital of his enemies. It was
fituated on an extenfive plain, furrounded with a high
folid wall, flanked by fmall towers, and ftrengthened
on each face by demibaftions equidiftant. A broad
ditch contained about three feet depth of wrater, and
the pagoda of Shoemadoo, which will be afterwards
deferibed, ferved as a citadel. Cjrcumvallation is a
favourite mode of warfare with the Birmans, ss they are
almoft deftitute of cannon, and therefore truft rather
to famine than to force. Having invefted Pegu, and
ere&ed numerous ftockades both to hem in the town,
and to fecure his own army againft external attack,
Alompra, in the month of January 1757, refolved to
wait patiently till the want of fupplies ftiould bring the
city into his power. After a fiege of two months the
numerous population of Pegu became mutinous in con-"
fequence of want. The king fummorved a counci} of
his family and chiefs, and propofed to fue for peace, on
condition of being allowed to govern his country, con- ' - ^ * .
fenting to do homage for it to the Birman monarch.
Ihe propofal was accepted by Alompra ; but, as a pre¬
liminary, the Pegu king was under the neceffity of fur-
rendering to the conqueror his only unmarried daugh¬
ter. for fome days the peace feemed reftored, and
the befiegers and the belieged mingled with each other
in amity j but Alompra, probably with a treacherous
intention, having introduced fome foldiers in dilguife
into the town, they w'tre feized and put to death by
order of the king of Pegu’s nephew Choupavea. Ho-
ftilities recommenced, and at laft the king of Pegu,
who appears to have been a timid man, privately ad- 89
mitted the Birmans into the city, on condition that ^egu taken,
his own life ftiould be fpared 3 the town itfelf was de¬
livered up to plunder.
Alompra, thus fuccefsful, extended his power over
feveral furrounding provinces, and rendered Moncha-
boo, his original refidence, the feat of imperial go¬
vernment. While upon an expedition to Caflay, a
northern province of his empire, the Peguers revolted,
but were defeated on his return. On this occafion he
was led to fufpeft, that the perfons belonging to a Bri-
tifti fettlement at the ifland of Negrah, had given af- 90
fiitance to the revolters : They were fuddenly attack-
ed, therefore, by his orders, in Ottober 1759, and°^he;Bru
moft of them deftroyed. A few efcaped in two vef-
fels, the Shaftefbury and the \i£toria. Alompra next 91
made war upon his neighbours on the eaft, the Siamefe,War w't!*
accufing them of aflifting his enemies of Pegu, and of513111,
raifing confpiracies againft his authority. He under¬
took an expedition againft the capital of Siam ; the
enemy haraffed his march, but did not hazard a deci-
five engagement. In a month he reached the vicinity
of the metropolis, which prepared to fuftain a fiege;
but here the career of Alompra terminated. He was
taken ill of a mortal difeafe, faid to be a fpecies of
fcrophula. He forefaw his end, and gave orders for
an immediate attack j but he died on the 15th of Mayueath^f
1760, before he reached his capital. He was deeply Alompra.
regretted by his people, who admired his talents and
his fuccefs, and regarded him as their deliverer from a
foreign yoke. He is reprefented as having performed
no lefs fervice to his country by the laws which he
enafted, than by the battles which he fought. In par¬
ticular, he reformed the adminiftration of juftice, pro¬
hibited magiftrates to fit in judgment, unlefs in a pub¬
lic place, and required every decree to be regiftered.
He alfo iflued edidls againft gaming, and the ufe of
fpirituous liquors, in his dominions.
The Birman law veils the right of fucceffion in the
eldeft heir malej but, upon the death of Alompra,
his fecond fon, Shembuan, made an attempt to feduce ^
the army and to feize the throne. Receiving little Alompra
fupport, he fubmitted to his eldeft brother, Namdogeehlceeeded
Praw, who, at the requeft of their common mother,
received him into favour. One of Alompra’s generals,
called Nuttoon, was a more dangerous rival. A divi- Praw.
lion of the army under his command feized upon the
city of Ava. He expedted fuccours from Siam, but
was dilappointed j and being befieged in Ava, he was
reduced to great diftrefs. He tried to make his efcape j
but was taken and put to death with moft of his adhe¬
rents. The deftruftion of Nuttoon did not put an end
to
A S I
f 743 1
A S I
Afia.
94
Shembuan
95
Invades
Siam.
c>6
The Chi-
to the dlfturbances that agitated the Birman empire.
A younger brother of Alompra, who held a confider-
able government, afpired to independence ; but he alio
was taken in his fortrefs, after a fiege of three months.
His life was fpared, but he was kept a clofe prifoner.
Namdogee Praw died at his capital in March 1764,
of the fame difeafe that brought his father to the grave,
leaving one fon, Momien, an infant. Shembuan, the
obtains the fecond fon of Alompra, now feized the government as
throne. king . and the child of his elder brother was educated
in religious obfcurity, as a rhahan or prielt. Shem-
buan’s firft undertaking was a war againit the Siamefe,
whofe country, in the year 1766, he entered at differ¬
ent points %vith three armies} which, after fome reliff-
ance, effe&ed a junfUon. Having approached the ca¬
pital, a general battle was fought, in which the
Birmans were fuccefsful, and invelted the capital of
Siam. Each party had fome artillery, which was of
little fervice ; and the Birmans had recourfe to block¬
ade, which, as already noticed, is their favourite fy-
ftem of warfare. After a two months fiege, the king
of Siam fecretly made his efcape. The city capitu¬
lated, and a Siamefe governor was appointed, who
fwore allegiance, and engaged to pay tribute to the
Birman monarch.
In the beginning of the year 1767, a Chinefe army
BirmahVa<le *nvaded t^e Birman empire. Shembuan prepared to
meet this danger ; and it appears that, in confequence
of the numerous wars in which they had recently been
engaged, the Birmans were enabled to a<ff upon this oc-
cafion with a confiderable degree of military fkill and
energy. They formed two feparate armies j one con¬
fining of 10,000 infantry and 2000 cavalry, was fent
to meet the invaders. They accordingly advanced,
and encamped within eight miles of the Chinefe army.
On the following day, an adlion took place, in which
the Birmans were worfted and retired. The Chinefe,
elated by their fuccefs, preffed eagerly forward, and
were in this manner drawn to a confiderable diftance
into the country. In the mean time, a fecond Bir¬
man army, amounting to 30,000 men, had taken a
circuitous road, and got into the rear of the Chinefe.
The army in front now made a ftand, and the inva¬
ders found themfelves hemmed in on all fides. The
Tartar cavalry, on whofe aflivily the Chinefe army
depended for provifions, would no longer venture out
either to procure fupplies or to protedt convoys. The
Birmans now attacked their enemy with impetuofity,
who refifted with a refolution founded on defpair- The
conflidt lafted three days, and the Chinefe at laft at¬
tempted to cut their way through the wreakeft part of
the Birman line. This attempt proved fatal. The
Birmans, fure of being reinforced, maintained their
ground till the troops of both their armies arrived to
their affiftance. The Chinefe now funk under the
preflure of an attack from numbers which were in-
creafing every hour. The carnage was dreadful, as
the Birmans are extremely ferocious and unrelenting
in war. Of the Chinefe army not a man returned to
his native country. About 2500 were preferved from
the fword and condudled to the Birman capital, where
they were employed in fuch occupations as they under-
ftood, without any other reward for their labour than
a bare fubfiftence.
Meanwhile, Shembuan’s fuccefies againft the Sia¬
mefe were attended with no permanent advantage. His Afia.
armies were no fowner recalled than his authority was " v "■ ■1
openly difregarded. He fent one of his generals once
more into their country ; but he met with fuch oppofi-
tion as compelled him to retreat and to demand rein¬
forcements. This laft requeft was complied with, in
a manner that produced a i'erious danger. One of the
viceroys of the fouthern parts of the empire was com¬
manded to raife the necelfary fupplies but as his ju-
rifdidtion was inhabited chiefly by families of Peguers,
he had no fooner affembled his recruits and placed
arms in their hands, than they became conieious of
their own ftrength, and were feized with a delire to
regain their empire. They rofe upon their Birman
officers and companions, and commenced an indilcri-
minate llaughter. It was not till after an army of
20,000 men was affembled, with 24 pieces of cannon,
befides a great number of war boats, that they could
be fubdued. While this ftruggle was going on in the
lower part of the empire againft the people of Pegu,
now confidered as rebels, Shembuan followed out a
plan of conqueft to the north-weft, in the country call¬
ed Caffarj. His troops even penetrated within what
are called the Himmaleh hills, which form a continua¬
tion of the lofty Imaus, and which defcending towards
the extremity of the bay of Bengal, feem to be a bar¬
rier raifed by nature to protedl the unwarlike inhabi¬
tants of Hindooftan from the more hardy natives of
the eaft. Shembuan loft a great number of troops in
attacking the chiefs or rajahs of thefe hilly countries,
but at laft fucceeded in fubduing a great number of
them, though the conqueft could be of little utility,
as poffeffion of thefe rude territories could fearcely be
retained.
On his return from this north-weftern expedition,
Shembuan went fo ithward to vifit his Pegu territories, 97
which had fo recently been involved in civil war. On Old king of
this occafion he pretended to difeover that the old king t>eSu
of Pegu, who had been taken by Alompra, and hadtottat *
remained all this while in prifon, had engaged in fome
kind of confpiracy. In confequence of an accufation
to this effeft, the dethroned monarch underwent the
form of a trial, was condemned and put to death.
Many perfons rank, of the race of the Peguers,
were alfo put to death on this occafion, under pre¬
tence that they had given countenance or aid to the late
rebellion.
Thefe were among the laft tranladlions of Shem-Death of
buan’s life. He died in the city of Ava, about the Shembuan.
middle of fpring, in the year 1776. He was fucceed- 59
ed by his fon Chenguza, who appears in every refpeft Chenguza
to have been incapable of exercifing dominion with Succeeds to
any tolerable degree of propriety. He degraded his ^le L^rone*
father’s moft refpeftable officers, and plunged into the
moft ftiameful debauchery, which he avowed openly by
repealing the edift againft the ufe of fpirituous liquors.
He put to death a younger brother, from jealoufy of
his ambition, employed himfelf wholly in hunting, and
left public affair-, to be managed by favourites. He
alfo put. to death one of his uncles, kept another of
them clofe prifoner, and watched vigilantly a third of
them, who affedled to live in the moft inoffenfive
obfcurity. In a fit of jealoufy he aifo put to death his
wife in a public and open manner, and having at laft
rendered himfelf both odious and terrible, a confpiracy
was,
A S I [ 744 ] AS!
Afia. was formed againft him, at the head of which was his
l‘—uncle Minderagee Praw, the refuit of which was, that
the latter obtained pofTeflion of the throne, and Chen-
guza, deferted by all the world, was killed by the fa¬
ther of the wife whom he had put to death, though
the flayer was afterwards alfo put to death, under pre¬
tence of having flied royal blood contrary to the ex-
100 prefs letter of the law of the Birmans.
Mindera- Shembuan Mia Shean Minderagee Praw', the fourth
gee fuc- fon of the deceafed Alompra, thus fucceeded to the
ceeds to the p0{pe{fjon 0f the empire. In the firfl: days of the con-
fpiracy, a pretence had been made that the objedf of
it was to raife to the throne Momien, the only child
of Namdogee Praw the eldeft fon of Alompra 5 but
this pretence was fpeedily laid afide, and in eleven days
after his acceflion to the throne, he was put to death.
Minderagee Praw, notwithftanding the manner in which
he obtained the fovereignty, is underftood to have go¬
verned well, and he was upon the throne when the
Britifli envoy, Captain Symes vifited that country.
While he led a private life, however, this monarch is
reprefented as having imbibed much of the fuperftition
that fo ftrongly charaflerizes every form of religion in
the eaft. During his days of leifure he had directed
much of his attention to aftronomy, and became a
thorough believer in judicial aftrology. Some few
Brahmins had for ages been accuftoraed to emigrate
from Caflay and Aracan, to Ava, where, on account
of their fuperior knowledge, they were employed as
ptofelTors of fcience. A college w'as eftablifhed and
lands appropriated for its fupport. Thefe Brahmin doc¬
tors compofed almanacks, calculating eclipfes ; and from
their intercourfe with the planets, pronounced the pro¬
pitious hour and feafon to attempt any momentous un¬
dertaking. Long before his elevation, thefe Brahmins
had foretold to Minderagee Praw the fortune that a-
waited him. The accompliflnnent of their prophecy
confirmed their influence over him. He appointed a
certain number to be his chaplains, who, on court days,
arrayed in white robes and Handing round the throne,
chaunt a folemn benediction in melodious recitative.
This ceremony is performed as foon as the king afcends
the imperial feat, and before the commencement of
public bufinefs. Prompted by the perfuafions of his
counfellors, Minderagee refolved to withdraw the feat
of government from Ava, and to found a new city.
New capi- The fite fixed on for the projefted fettlement was judi-
tal Umme- clous : about four miles north-eaft of Ava, there is a
rapoora. deep and extenfive lake called Toungemann, formed by
the influx of the river during the monfoon, through a
narrow channel, which afterwards expands and difplays
a body of water a mile and a half broad, and feven or
eight miles long. This lake firfl; takes a northerly di-
reClion, nearly parallel with the river ; it afterwards
curves to the fouth-eaft, in a leffening Iheet, and di-
minilhes to a morafs favourable to the culture of rice.
When filled by the periodical rains, the lake with the
river on one fide, enclofes a dry and healthy peninfula,
on which Ummerapoora, the name given to the new city,
now ftandsl Buildings in the Birman country are com-
pofed for the moft part of wood 5 and water carriage
being here convenient, the old town was fpeedily de-
molifhed, and the prefent capital rofe from its mate¬
rials j whilft fuch was the afliduity ufed in removal,
that Ummerapoora became, in a fhort time, one of the
moft flouriftiing and well built cities of the eaft. The Afm.
fort likewife, which is fpacious and regular, is com-s——y-*-
pletely fortified after the Afiatic manner. A lofty
rampart, protected by a parapet, and ftrengthened by
baftions compofed of excellent mafonry, is further le-
cured by a deep and broad ditch, faced with brick and
filled with water : the gateways are guarded by cannon,
and retrenchments defend the paffes of the ditch. The
new monarch foon refolved to extend his dominions
weft ward, by the conqueft of Aracan. This country, and con-
as already mentioned, is fituated to the weftward of quek of
Ava, along the (here of the bay of Bengal, but theAraca1'*
direCI road is embarrafled by a chain of mountains 56
miles in breadth. The road is fo difficult that an en-
terprifing people might eafily have defended the paffes
againft any fuperiority of number ; but the Birman
king knew too wTell the indolent cbaraCler of the king
of Aracan, and the unwarlike difpofttion of his fubjeCts,
to dread any vigorous oppofition. This country, how¬
ever, had never been completely conquered : the Mo¬
guls on the W’eft, the Peguers on the eaft, and the
Portuguefe from Europe, had at different times carried
their arms into the heart of the country, but after thefe
paffing inroads Aracan had always recovered its inde¬
pendence. The difficulty of conqueft, on the prefent
occafion, confifled chiefly of finding a way into a
country fo well defended by nature. The range of
lofty mountains, already mentioned, nearly encircles it
on the eaft. From the fouthern quarter at Negrais,
Aracan could only be invaded by water, through the
many rivers that interfed! the country adjacent to the
fea. From the fide of Chittagong, entry into Ara¬
can muft be effedled by a march along the fea beach,
which is interrupted by feveral channels, that owe
their waters chiefly to the adlion of the tide. The
coaft, however, is extremely wrell adapted to commerce,
by the various large and well cultivated iflands which
it poffeffes, and the variety of channels by which vef-
fels can pafs into the country, which to the mountains
is everywhere low and well watered. The trade of
Aracan has not indeed been very confiderable. It is
confined to fait, bees wax, elephants teeth, and rice.
This latter article is produced in fuch abundance, that
it might be improved into a lucrative branch of com¬
merce. Poffeffion of Aracan and its iflands is not on¬
ly coveted by the Birmans, on account of the fertility
of the foil, but alfo from the protedlion it might af¬
ford to their boats, which navigating along the coaft
make an annual voyage to Chittagong and Calcutta,
where they difpofe of the produce of their country,
and in return bring back cloth and the commodities of
India.
In the year 1783, the Birmans accompliffied their
intended invafion, by attacking Aracan in different de.-
tachments, a part of which croffed the mountains, while
others went round by water. After a naval engage¬
ment, which terminated in favour of the invaders, the
king of Aracan took flight with his family ; but being
clofely purfued, he was taken prifoner, and condudled
to the Birman capital, where he was treated with hu¬
manity, but died in the courfe of a year. The town
and port of Aracan fell after a faint refiftance. The
booty found in it was confiderable, but on nothing was
a higher value placed, than on an image of burniffied
brafs of the god of the Birmans, called Gaudma, or
Bood/i,
A S I
t 745 1
A S I
Afia.
103
Aracan
now a Bir¬
man pro¬
vince.
104
Extent of
the Birman
umpire.
Boodh, or Bud/ioo. The figure is about 10 feet high
in the cuftomary fitting pofture, with the legs croffed,
the left hand refting on the lap and the right pendent.
This image is believed to be an original refemblance,
taken from life, and is fo highly venerated, that pil¬
grims have for centuries come from the remoteft coun¬
tries, even Ceylon, China, and Japan, where the fu-
premacy of Gaudma is acknowledged, to pay their de¬
votions at the feet of his brazen reprefentative. There
were alfo found five images of Rakufs, the daemon of
the Hindoos, of the fame metal and ftature. Thefe
were valued as guardians of the fanflity of the idol.
A lingular piece of ordnance was alfo found of enor¬
mous dimenfions, compofed of huge bars of iron beat¬
en into form. This ponderous cannon meafured 30 feet
in length, two feet and a half in diameter at the mouth,
and 10 inches in the calibre j it was tranfported to
Ummerapoora by water, and depofited in the yard of
the royal palace, where it is now preferved as a mili¬
tary trophy j it is mounted on a low carriage fupported
by fix wheels, and is covered from the weather by a
wooden pent-houfe. Gaudma and his infernal guards
were, in like manner, conveyed by water to the capi¬
tal, with much pomp and fuperftitious parade.
Since this period Aracan, with its dependencies, has
conftituted a province of the Birman empire, and is
governed by a maywoon or viceroy. Birman troops
are diftributed in the different towns, and lands were
granted to many Birmans, on condition that they fhould
come with their families and fettle in the country. The
valuable acquifition of Aracan did not fatisfy the am¬
bition of Minderagee Praw, and he fpeedily turned
his arms againft the Siamefe, his neighbours on the
fouth-eaft. From the year 1785 to 1793, he carried
on againft them a very fanguinary war, in which he
fuffered a confiderable number of defeats, though the
Siamefe could make no progrefs againft him upon his
own territory. At length the Siamefe propofed a ne-
gociation, which terminated in a treaty of peace, very
favourable to the Birman interefts, as the Siamefe con-
fented to relinquifh to them a confiderable extent of
territory to the fouthward, on the weftern fide of the
peninfula.
The refult of all thefe acquifitions is, that the Bir¬
man empire upon the whole, at prefent, appears to
include the fpace between 90 and 26° N. Lat. and
between 920 and 107° E. Long, from Greenwich, or
about 1050 geographical miles in length, and 600 in
breadth. Thefe are ftated as the afcertainable limits
taken from the Birman accounts, though it is thought
that their territories ftretch ftill farther to the north j
but it muft be remarked, that in the fouthern parts the
breadth often varies, and is in many places very inconfi-
derable. On the whole, however, they poffefs a ter¬
ritory fuperior in extent to the German empire. But
their perpetual wars, efpecially their fanguinary con-
tefts with Pegu and Siam, have greatly depopulated
their country : and here, as in every other part of the
world, it has been found, that war, while it ruins the
vanquifhed, is feldom the fource of internal profperity
to the victorious nation. From what can be difcover-
cd, there is no reafon to believe that their prefent po¬
pulation, including Aracan, exceeds 17,000,000. Yet
the foil of the fouthern provinces of the Birman em¬
pire is remarkably fertile, and produces as luxuriant
VOL. II. Part II.
Afia
crops of rice as are to be found in the fineft parts of
Bengal $ but extenfive plains, on which the veftiges oi l»-—v
former culture and population are abundant, remain
without a fingle houfe or inhabitant, having been de-
fulated by the ravages of war, during the contefts of
Birmans and Peguers, fo that the fineft territories in
the world have in many places of this empire become,
for a time at leaft, the undifputed domain of the wild
beafts of the foreft. In the northern parts of the em¬
pire, the country becomes irregular and mountainous •,
but the plains and valleys, particularly near the rivers,
are exceedingly fruitful. They yield good wheat, and
the various kinds of fmail grain, which grow in warm
climates, with the different forts of efculent vegeta¬
bles : fugar canes, tobacco of fuperior quality, indigo,
cotton, and the different tropical fruits in perfeClion,
are all natural produCls of this favoured land. 105
The climate of every part of the Birman empire is Climate,
faid to teftify its own falubrity by the beft of all cri-
terions, the appearance and figure of the natives, who
appear equal in ftrength and aftivity to any other race
of men in the world. The feafons are regular, and
the extremes of heat and cold are feldom experienced j
at leaft the duration of that intenfe heat, which imme¬
diately precedes the commencement of the rainy fealon,
is fo Ihort, that it incommodes but for a very little time.
During the refidence of the Britilh embaffy in the coun¬
try, only one man was loft by difeafe. Another met an
accidental death : in wandering through the woods he
became the prey of a tiger. I0g
One of the moft valuable productions of this empire Teek wood,
is the teek tree, which grows in vaft abundance in the
fouthern parts of the empire, near the great rivers.
This article alone renders a free commerce with the
Birmans of vaft importance to the Britifh fettlements
in India. Teek wood, fo absolutely neceffary for the
navigation of the eaftern feas, cannot be conveyed from
the Malabar to the Coromandel coaft of the weftern
peninfula of India, or to Calcutta, but at an expence fo
great as to preclude the attempt. This wood grows
indeed on the banks of the river Godaverry, but the
impediments to procuring it from that quarter have
hitherto been found infurmountable. Hence a great
part of Britifh India depends for (hip-timber upon the
Birman empire. Moft other defcriptions of timber
are alfo found in this empire; on the banks of the
river Irravady a large log of fir was feen by Doftor
Buchanan, one of the gentlemen belonging to the em¬
baffy. He was informed by the natives that it had
been wafhed down by the torrents from a mountainous
part of the country northward of the capital, where it
grows in abundance and of confiderable magnitude.
It is called tcenys. The turpentine is extraCled from
it, and turned to ufe, but the wood is confidered as of
little value on account of its foftnefs. It will probably
hereafter be brought to market in India, as top-gallant-
mafts and yards made of teek are thought too heavy,
and European and American fpars are often bought
for thefe purpofes at a very exorbitant price. 107
On account of the depopulation of various parts of Animals,
the country by war, the wild animals have multiplied
to a great extent. The moft troublefome of thefe are
tigers, which infeft all the forefts, and what are called
jungles or woody thickets near the banks of torrents, fo
as to render it dangerous to enter them ; wild elephants
3 B alfo
A S I
Afia.
10S
Minerals.
109
Petroleum
wells.
alfo abound, and occupy the fortfts in great numbers.
' Thefe powerful animals, allured by the early crops pf
rice and fugar cane, make predatory excurfions in large
troops, and do much mifchief, deftroying more than
they devour. The peafantry have often to lament the
deftru&ion of their molt expofed plantations in confe-
quence of thefe inroads. Herds of deer are frequently
feen, and horfes and cattle are reared in abundance by
the people. They have alfo large herds of buffaloes,
which have a powerful antipathy to a red or fcarlet co¬
lour, and are fo extremely fierce, that the tigers dare
not attack them.
The two peninfulas of India are the native countries
of the peacock, and alfo of our barn-door fowl ; the lat¬
ter abound in the jungles or thickets, and are well known
to fportfmen in India. They differ little from the barn¬
door fowl in Europe, except that the wild fort are all
fimilar in colour j a dark red, with black bread and
legs : their flefli is very delicate.
The Birman empire abounds in minerals. Near the
frontiers of China they have mines of gold and filver ;
there are alfo mines of gold, filver, rubies, and fapphires,
at prefent open on a mountain near the river Keenduem ;
but the moft valuable, and thofe which produce the
fined jewels, are in the vicinity of the capital. Precious
dones are found in feveral other parts of the empire.
The inferior minerals, fuch as contain iron, tin, lead,
antimony, arfenic, fulphur, &c. are met with in great
abundance ; amber, of a confidence unufually pure and
pellucid, is dug up in large quantities near the principal
river. Gold likewife is difcovered in the fandy beds of
dreams w;hich defcend from the mountains; diamonds
and emeralds are not found in any part of the Birman
empire, but it affords amethyds, garnets, very beautiful
chryfolites, jafper, loaddone, and marble. This lad is
equal in quality to the fined marble of Italy, and ad¬
mits of a polifii that renders it almod tranfparent; but
it is not allowed to be fold in its rude date or in blocks,
being held facred, and ufed only for the purpofe of ma-
nufadduring images of Gaudma.
They have alfo wells of petroleum, which were vifited
by the Britifh envoy, who defcribes his journey to them
in the following terms : “ Do£tor Buchanan partook
of an early dinner with me, and when the fun had de-
fcended fo low as to be no longer inconvenient, we
mounted our horfes to vifit the celebrated wells that
produce the oil, an article of univerfal ufe throughout
the Birman empire. The face of the country was cheer-
lefs and derile ; the road, which wound among rocky
eminences, was barely ufide enough to admit the paffage
of a fingle cart; and in many places the track in which
the wheels mud run, was a foot and a half lower on
one fide than the other : there were feveral of thefe
lanes, fmie more circuitous than others, according to
the fituation of the fmall hills among which they led :
vehicles going and returning were thus enabled to pur-
fue different routes, except at particular places, where
the nature of the ground would only admit of one road ;
when a cart came to the entrance of fuch a defile, the
driver hallooed out to dop any that might interfere with
him from the oppofite fide, no part being fufficiently
wide for two carts to pafs. The hills, or rather hillocks,
were covered with gravel, and yielded no other vegeta¬
tion than a few dunted bufhes. The wheels had worn
ruts deep into the rock, which feemed to be rather a
2
[ 1
A S I
mafs of concreted gravel than hard done, and many Afia.
pieces of petrified wood lay drewed about. It is re- -y—J
markable, that wherever thefe petrifaddions were found,
the foil was unprodudtive, and the ground deditute of
verdure. The evening being far advanced, we met but
few carts ; thofe which we did obferve were drawn
each by a pair of oxen, and of a length difproportionate
to the breadth, to allow fpace for the earthen pots that
contained the oil. It was a matter of furprife to us how
they could convey fuch brittle ware, with any degree
of fafety, over fo rugged a road ; each pot was packed
in a feparate bafket, and laid on draw ; notwithfland-
ing which precaution, the ground all the way was
drewed with the fragments of the veffels and wet with
oil j for no care can prevent the fradlure of fome in
every journey. As we approached the pits, which
were more diflant than we had imagined, the country
became lefs uneven, and the foil produced herbage; it
was nearly dark when we reached them, and the la¬
bourers bad retired from work. There feemed to be a
great many pits within a fmall compafs : walking to
the neared, we found the aperture about four feet
fquare, and the fides, as far as we could fee down,
were lined with timber j the oil is drawn up in an iron
pot, fadened to a rope paffed over a wooden cylinder,
which revolves on an axis fupported by two upright
pods; when the pot is filled, two men take the rope
by the end, and run down a declivity which is cut in
the ground to a didance equivalent to the depth of the
well; thus, when they reach the end of their trackj
the pot is raifed to its proper elevation j the contents,
water and oil together, are then difeharged into a
cidern, and the water is afterwards drawn off through
a hole at the bottom. Our guide, an a&ive intelligent
fellow, went to the neighbouring houfe and procured a
well-rope, by means of which we were enabled to mea-
fure the depth, and afeertained it to be 37 fathoms,
but of the quantity of oil at the bottom we could not
judge; the owner of the rope, who followed our guide,
affirmed that when a pit yielded as much as came up
to the waid of a man, it was deemed tolerably produc¬
tive 5 if it reached to his neck it was abundant ; but
that which rofe no higher than the knee was account¬
ed indifferent: when a well is exhauded, they redore the
fpring by cutting deeper into the rock, which is ex¬
tremely hard in thefe places where the oil is produced.
Government farm out the ground that fupplies this ufe-
ful commodity ; and it is again let to adventurers, who
dig wells at their own hazard, by which they fometimes
gain, and often lofe, as the labour and expence of dig¬
ging are confiderable. The oil is fold on the fpot for a
mere tride ; I think two or three hundred pots for a ta-
chal or half-a-crown. The principal charge is incurred
by the tranfportation and purchafe of veffels. We had
but half gratified our curiofity when it grew dark, and
our guide urged us not to remain any longer, as the
road was faid to be infeded with tigers that prowled at
night among the rocky uninhabited ways through which
we had to pafs; we followed his advice, and returned,
with greater rifk, as I thought, of breaking our necks
from the badnefs of the road than of being devoured by
wild beads. At ten o’clock we reached our boats with¬
out any mifadventure.” IJQ
The Birmans are very far from being in a date of Character
intelleflual darknefs. Though they have not explored of the Bin*
the mans*
Alia.
Ill
Women,
A S I [
the depths of fcience, nor reached to excellence in the
finer arts, they yet have an undeniable claim to the
charadler of a civilized and well-inftru£ted people.
Their police is better regulated than in moft European
countries. In their natural difpolitions they are high-
fpirited, active, impatient and irafcible *, but at the
fame time they are friendly and hofpitable to ftrangers,
and their manners are rather expreflive of manly can¬
dour than of courteous diflimulation : a knowledge of
letters is fo widely diffufed, that there are no mechanics,
few of the peafantry, or even the common watermen,
ufually the moft illiterate clafs, who cannot read and
write in the vulgar tongue j few, however, are verfed
in their books of fcience, which containing many Shan-
fcrit terms, and being often written in the Pali text,
are (like the Hindoo Shafters) above the comprehen-
fion of the multitude. The Birmans are not (hackled
by any prejudices of calls like the Hindoos, reftridted
to hereditary occupations, or forbidden to participate
with ftrangers in every kind of focial connexion. Hence
it is probable, that if a refpite is allowed them from fo¬
reign wars, their progrefs in improvement will be rapid.
They are a very fober people, and though the a£livity
of their chara6ler renders them fond of amufements, yet
multitudes of them are feen affembled together upon
their public feftivals, without one a£t of intemperance
being committed, or a fingle inftance of intoxication be¬
ing perceived.
The laws or cuftoms of the Birmans with regard to
women contain a ftrange mixture of reafon and of ab-
furdity •, on the one hand the women are allowed en¬
tire freedom, and are confidered as of much importance,
while in other refpe&s they are treated with great con¬
tempt. The Birmans encourage all ftrangers to marry
Birman wives •, even (laves taken in war who comply
with this invitation, acquire confiderable privileges.
This cuftom, in which thefe people agree with the
wifeft and beft governed nations of antiquity, is lingular
among the civilized countries of the eaft, and peculiar¬
ly remarkable in a people furrounded by kingdoms
where women are kept inviolably facred from the fight
and converfe of ftrangers, and where the exclufive
fyftem of calls or tribes admits neither of civil nor re¬
ligious profelytifm. Even the public proftitutes in
China are prohibited from havi g intercourfe with
ftrangers. The Hindoo women of rank are no lefs in-
acceftible, and admiflion into a refpedlable caft is not
to be obtained by money. The Birmans, on the con¬
trary, fenfible that the ftrength of an empire confifts in
its population, admit to their fociety men of all reli¬
gions and complexions, Pagans or Jews, Mahometans
or Chriftians, the difciples of Confucius or the worftiip-
pers of fire ; the children of whom, born of a Birman
woman, are underftood to be natural-born fubiecls of
the (late, and are entitled to the fame proteftion and
privileges as if they had fprung from a line of Birman
anceftry. Accordingly the jealoul'y which prompts the
eaftern nations to immure their women within the walls
of a haram, and to furround them with guards, feems
fcarcely to have any influence over the minds of this
extraordinary people. Birman wives and daughters
are not concealed from the fight of men, and are fuf-
fered to have as free intercourfe with the world as the
rules of European fociety admit. A man can only
marry one wife 5 but it appears that their men of rank
747 ] A S I
take a fecond in the character of a concubine, who is
by law, however, obliged to attend and obey the law -
ful wife as a fervant. Women are accounted of fucb
political importance, that great care is taken to pre¬
vent their being conveyed out of the country, i he
law in this point is very rigorous ; every (hip, before
(lie receives her clearance, is diligently fearched by
the officers of the cuftomhoufe ; even if their vigilance
were to be eluded, the woman would be quickly milled,
and it would foon be difcovered in what veflel (he had
gone, nor could that (hip ever return to a Birman port
but under penalty of coniifcation of the property, and
the infliftion of a heavy fine and imprilonment on the
mailer : female children alfo, born o( a Birman mother,
are not fuffered to be taken away. Men are permitted
to emigrate ; but they think that the expatriation of wo¬
men would impoveriffi the Kate, by diminifliing the
fources of its population.
On the other hand, women are treated in many rc-
fpefts as not belonging to the fame fcale of creation as
men ; the evidence of a woman is not received as of
equal weight with that of a man, and a woman is not
fuffered to afeend the fteps of a court of juft ice, but is
obliged to deliver her teftimony on the outfide of the
roof. The low'er clafs of Birmans make no fcruple of
felling their daughters, or even their wives, to ftrangers
who come to refide among them for a fhort time, and
none of the parties are underftood to be diffionoured
by the connexion. When the mafter of a family in¬
curs debts which he cannot pay, his wife and daughters
may be fold as (laves for payment of his creditors.
Near the great towns i§ a place, called tackal/y, in the
fuburbs, a Aligned to common proftitutes, who are under
the controul of a public fuperintendant. He frequent¬
ly purchafes the unfortunate women who are fold for
the payment of the debts of their relations, and makes
gain by the proftitution of them.
Still, however, domedic fociety is on a very differ¬
ent footing among the Birmans from that in which it
is placed among the other eaftern nations, and the wo¬
men take a much more aftive (hare in the fuperintend-
ance of all affairs, as appears from the following anec¬
dote, which fell under the obfervation of the Britilh
embaffy, in the neighbourhood of w'hofe refidence a
large (hip was building for the governor of Maindu.
“ If this (hip was not compofed of prime materials, the
building at leaft was well attended to; every morning
the governor’s wife eroded the river in her hulband’s
barge, attended by two or three female fervants : after
landing, (he commonly took her feat on one of the
timbers in the yard, and overlooked the workmen for
fome hours; after which (lie returned home, and fel-
dom miffed coming back in the evening to fee that the
day’s ta(k had been completed. The (lip on which the
(hip was built happened to be contiguous to our firft
habitation, a circumftance that caufed us to remark her
conllant vifits; curiofiiy, however, did not prompt her,
or any of her attendants, to come within our precin£b,
whilft decorum deterred u^ from making advances to¬
wards an acquaintance. Her hufband never accom¬
panied her, and (be did not feem to require his aid.
Women in the Birman country are not only good houfe-
wives, but likewife manage the more important mer¬
cantile concerns of their hufbands, and attend to their
interefts in all out-door tranfaflions ; they are induftri-
5 B 2 ous
A fit;.
A S I
[ 743 ]
A S I
Alia.
112
Marriages,
113
Politenefs.
ous to the greateft degree, and are faid to be good mo-
' thers, and feldom from inclination unfaithful wives.”
Marriages among the Birmans are not contrafted till
the parties attain the age of puberty. The contraft is
purely civil, and the priefts have no interference in it.
When a young man is defirous to marry a girl, his mo¬
ther, or neareft female relation, firft makes the propofal
in private. If the fuit be fuccefsful, a party of his
friends proceed to the houfe of the parents of the maiden,
and adjuft the dowry. On the morning of the bridal-
day the bridegroom fends to the bride three loongees,
lower garments j three tubbecks, or falhes ; and three
pieces of white muflin ; alfo fuch jewels, ear-rings, and
bracelets, as his circumftances admit of. A feaft is
prepared by the bride’s parents, and formal writings are
executed. The new-married couple eat out of the fame
didi. The bridegroom prefents the bride with fome
pickled tea, which fhe accepts, and returns the compli¬
ment, which terminates the ceremony.
The Birmans are extremely polite, but at the fame
time unceremonious in their manners. Their form of
demonftrating refpeft conlifts of alfuming a fitting or
low pofture. Accordingly, when perfons of rank vi-
fited the Eaft India Company’s ambaflador, they no
fooner came into the apartment than they inflantly
took to themfelves chairs and fat down, while their
attendants aifumed a low pofiure, by refting upon
their hams in the eaftern manner. Though the em-
baffy was at firft received with confiderable diftrufi by
the government, yet the members of which it was com-
pofed were treated with the utmoft politenefs and per-
fonal refpeft, both by perfons in office and by all ranks
of people. The curiofity with which they were vifit-
ed when at Pegu is thus deferibed :—“ Our hall in
the morning was generally crowded, as every perfon
of diltindlion in Pegu paid us the compliment of a vi-
fit, except the maywoon, who, within the precindts of
his own government, where he reprefents the king, ne¬
ver returns a vilit. Numbers both of men and women,
prompted by harmlefs curiofity, furrounded the paling
of the enclofure from morning till night : Thofe of a
better clafs ufually came in, fome previoufly afking
permiffion ; but many entered without it. Perfedlly
free from rellraint among themfelves, the Birmans
fcruple not to go into your houfe without ceremony,
although you are an utter ftranger. To do them juf-
tice, however, they are not at all difpleafed at your
taking the fame freedom with them. This intrufion
is confined wholly to your public room : they do not
attempt to open a door •, and where a curtain dropped
denotes privacy, they never offer to violate the barrier.
On entering the room, they immediately defeend into
the pofture of refpedl. Of all our cuftoms, none feem-
ed to furprife them more than the preparations for din¬
ing : the variety of utenfils, and our manner of fit¬
ting at a table, excited their wonder. They never
took any greater liberty than merely to come into the
room, and fit down on the floor : they meddled with
nothing, and afked for nothing ; and when defired to
go away, always obeyed with cheerfulnefs. Had un¬
told gold been placed before them, I am confident not
a piece would have been purloined.” The behaviour
of thefe people at another of their towns is thus men¬
tioned : “ The tjews of the million had reached the
place before we arrived, and excited a general curio-
3
fity to fee the boamien of the colars, or the general of Alia,
the ftrangers, as they were pleafed to denominate me.—v—
Not only the better clafs of the inhabitants of Meca-
day came to vifit us, but likewife people of condition
from all the towns and villages twenty miles round:
I have fometimes received eight or ten different com¬
panies in a morning. When a party wiflied to be in¬
troduced, a meffage was fent to alk permiflion 5 which
being obtained, they entered the room in a crouching
pofition, and fat down on their heels, men and women
alike. They always brought a gift of fomething,
whatever they fuppofed might be acceptable j tobac¬
co, onions, fine rice, &c. No company prefented
themfelves empty handed : it would not have been re-
fpeflful. Of courfe, their offerings drew from me a
fuitable return ; fuch as, fillets of Indian muflin to the
women, and a Coffembuzar filk handkerchief to the
men. Several parties of ivomen came unaccompanied
by their hufbands, or any of their male friends j and,
according to the notions entertained by them, there
was nothing indecorous in it : They were unconfcious
of any thing but an innocent defire to gratify curiofity
and manifeft refpedt. Women of a better clafs were
always accompanied by a train of female attendants $
and, like the fex everywhere, were more lively, good
humoured, and inquifitive than the men.”
Among the public amufements of this people areAmufe-
mentioned boxing-matches, fireworks, preceffions, eX-m«ntSi
hibitions of dancing; as alfo plays and puppet-ftrows. 115
Perfons of rank among them are fond of chefs. This Chefs,
game is held in high eftimation among the fuperior
ranks : the board they ufe is exaflly fimilar to ours,
containing 64 fquares, and their number of troops the
fame, 16 on each fide ; but the names, the power, and
difpofal of them, differ effentially. The king and his
minifter (a queen is never introduced by the orientals)
are mounted on elephants : thefe are defended by two
caftles or yettay ; two knights on horfeback, / two
officers on foot, one called meem, the other chekey ; and
eight maundelay or foot foldiers. The forces of each
party are arranged on three lines, by •which eight fquares
remain unoccupied : none of the pieces poffefs equal
force with our queen ; and this reftri£ted operation
renders the Birman mode of playing more complex and
difficult than ours. The Birmans affirm that it is a
game of high antiquity, and that it is acknowledged
and authorized by their facred writings, although eve¬
ry play of chance is prohibited. This teftimony con¬
firms the opinion of the late Sir William Jones, that
chefs was invented in India, and is not, as generally
imagined, of Perfian origin. The Birmans call it
chedreen, a word that bears fome refemblance to the
name which is given to the game in moft other parts of
the world. ^
One of their amufements deferves attention, chiefly Throwing
on account of its Angularity and the good temper which water on
it indicates. It is thus deferibed by Mr Symes, whothe la^
held the place of ambaffador :—“ On the I2th of A-°^tie ym‘
pril, the laft day of the Birman year, we were invited
by the maywoon to bear a part ourfelves in a fport that
is univerfally praftifed throughout the Birman domi¬
nions on the concluding day of their annual cycle.
To wTalh aw:ay the impurities of the paft, and com¬
mence the new year free from ftain, women on this
day are accuftomed to throw water on every man they
meet9
V
A S I
[ 749 ]
A S I
Afia,
117
Srefs.
meet, which the men have the privilege of retorting.
-• This licenfe gives rife to a great deal of harmlefs mer¬
riment, particularly among the young women, who,
armed with great fyringes and flaggons, endeavour to
wet every man that goes along the ftreet, and in their
turn receive a wetting with perfedt good humour. Nor
is the fmalleft indecency ever manifefted in this or in
any other of their fports. Dirty water is never call.
A man is not allowed to lay hold of a woman, but may
fling as much water over her as he pleafes, provided fhe
has been the aggreflor 5 but if a women warns a man
that Ihe does not mean to join in the diverfion, it is
confidered as an avowal of pregnancy, and (he palles
without moleftation.
“ About an hour before funfet we went to the may-
woon’s, and found that his lady had provided plenti¬
fully to give us a wet reception. In the hall were
placed three large china jars, full of water, with bowls
and ladles to fling it. Each of us, on entering, had a
bottle of rofe water prefented to him, a little of which
we in turn poured into the palm of the may woon’s hand,
who fprinkled it over his own veil of fine flowered
muflin. The lady then made her appearance at the
door, and gave us to underlland that file did not mean
to join in the fport herfelf, but made her eldeft daugh¬
ter, a pretty child in the nurfe’s arms, pour from a
golden cup fome rofe-water mixed with fandel wood,
firft over her father, and then over each of the Englilh
gentlemen : this wa-. a fignal for the fport to begin.
We were preptred, being drelled in linen wailfcoats.
From ten to twenty women, young and middle aged,
ruftied into the hall from the inner apartments, who
furrounded and deluged without mercy four men, ill
able to maintain fo unequal a conteft. Ihe maywoon
was foon driven from the field j but Mr Wood having
got poffeffion of one of the jars, we were enabled to
preferve our ground till the water was exhauited : It
feemed to afford them great diverfon, efpecially if we
appeared at all diltreffed by fhe quantity of water flung
in our faces. All parties being tired, and completely
drenched, we went home to change our clothes, and
in the way met many damfels who would willingly
have renewed the fport j they, however, were afraid to
begin without receiving encouragement from us, not
knowing how it might be taken by ftrangers ; but they
affailed Baba-fheem and his Birman attendants with
little ceremony. No inconvenient confequences were
to be apprehended from the wetting ; the wea ner was
favourable, and we ran no rilk of taking cold. Hav¬
ing put on dry clothes, we returned to the maywoon’s,
and were entertained with a dance and puppet fiiow
that lafted till even.
The court drefs of the Birman nobles is reprefented
as very becoming. It confifts of a long robe of flower¬
ed fatin or of velvet, reaching to the ankles, with an
open collar and loofe fleeves. Over this there is a
fcarf, or flowing mantle, that hangs from ♦he flioulders,
and on their heads they wear high caps or velvet, ei¬
ther plain, or of filk, embroidered with flowers of gold,
according to the rank of the owner. Ear-rings are
worn by the men ; and fome perfons of condition ufe
tubes of gold about three inches long, and as thick as
a large quill, which expand1- at one end like the mouth
of a (peaking trumpet. Others wear a heavy mafs of
gold, beaten into a plate, and rolled up. This lump
of metal forms a large orifice in the lobe of the ear, Afia.
and drags it down by the weight to the extent fome- —-y——J
times of two inches. Men ot rank wear in common
drefs a tight coat, with long lleeves made of muflin,
or of extremely fine nankeen, which is manufactured
in the country ; alfi> a lilk wrapper that encircles the
waift. The working clafs are ufually naked to th*
middle, but in the cold feafon, a mantle or veil of Eu¬
ropean broad cloth is highly prized. The women tie
their hair in a bunch on the top of the head. They
bind it round with a fillet, the ornaments of which ex-
prefs the rank of the wearer. A thort (hift, reaching
to the pit of the ftomach, and drawn tight by firings,
fupports the breads. Over that is a loofe jacket, with
cfofe fleeves. Round their waift they roll a long piece
of filk or cloth, which reaching to their feet, and lome-
times trailing on the ground, encircles them twice, and
is then tucked in. When women of condition go
abroad, they wear a filk fafti refembling a long (bawl,
which croffes their bofom, and is caft over the (boul¬
ders, i’o as to flow gracefully on each fide. The low¬
ed elafs of females often wear only a Angle garment in
the form of a (heet, which, wrapped round the body,
and tucked under the arm, croffes their breads, which
it fcarcely conceals, and defeends to their ancles. 1 hus
when they walk, the lower part of the cloth, where it
overlaps, is opened by the protrufion of the leg, and
dilplays to a fide view as high as the middle of the
thigh. Indeed, every woman when walking mud (hew
a great part of her leg, as the lower part of their drefs
is never clofed by a learn. Women in full drefs ftain
the palms of their hands and their nails of a red colour,
by means of a vegetable juice, and drew on their bo-
foms powder of fandel wood, or of a bark called by them
funneka, with which fome rub their faces. Both men
and women tinge the edges of their eyelids and their
teeth with black. ug
The Birmans in their features have a nearer refem-Pert'ons of
blance to the Chinefe than to the natives of Hindoo-the people,
(tan. The women, efpecially in the northern parts of
the empire, are fairer than the Hindoo females, but not
fo delicately formed. They are inclined to corpu¬
lence, and their hair is black, long, and coarfe. The
men are athletic and a61ive, but not tall. They have
a very youthful appearance, from the cuflom of pluck¬
ing out the hair of their beards indead of (having.
Girls, are taught at an early age to turn their arms in
fueh a manner as to make them appear didorted.
When the arm is extended, the elbow is inverted, the
infide of the joint being protruded, and the external
part bending inwards. 119
With regard to religion, the Birmans are a fort of Religion.
Hindoos 5 not votaries of Brahma, but feflaries of
Boodh *, which latter is admitted by Hindoos of all
deferiptions to be the ninth avatar or defeent of the
deity in his capacity of preferver. He reformed the
doctrines contained in the vedas, and feverely cenfured
the facrifice of cattle, or depriving any being of life.
He is called the author of happinefs : his place of re-
fidence was difeovered at Gaya in Bengal, by the il-
luftrious Amara, renowned amongft men, “ who cau-
fed an image of the fupreme Boodh to be made, and
he wordlipped it : Reverence be unto thee in the form
of Boodh j reverence be unto thee, lord of the earth ;
reverence be unto thee an incarnation of the deity,
and
Alia.
120
' Laws.
A S I [ 75
and eternal one •, reverence be unto thee, O God, in
the form of mercy !”
Gotma, or Gantum, according to the Hindoos of
India, or Gaudma, among the inhabitants of the more
eadern parts, is faid to have been a philofopher, and is
by the Birmans believed to have flourilhed above 2300
years ago. He taught in the Indian fchools the he¬
terodox religion and philofophy of Boodh. The
image that reprefents Boodh is called Gaudma or Gan¬
tum, which is now a commonly receivea appellation of
Boodh himfelf: This image is the primary objedt of
worlhip in all the countries fituated between Bengal and
China. The fedtaries of Boodh contend with thofe of
Brahma for the honour of antiquity, and are certainly
far more numerous. The Cingalefe, that is, the ori¬
ginal inhabitants of Ceylon, are Boodhifts of the pu-
reft fource ; and the Birmans acknowledge to have ori¬
ginally received their religion from that ifland. It
was brought, fay the rhahaans, firft from Zehoo (Cey¬
lon) to Aracan, and thence was introduced into Ava,
and probably into China; for the Birmans alfert with
confidence that the Chinefe are Boodhifts.
This is a curious fubjedt of inveftigation; and the
concurrent teftimony of circumftances, added to the
opinions of the moft intelligent writers, feem to leave
little doubt of the fadt. It cannot, however, be de-
monftrated beyond the poftibility of difpute, till we
(hall have acquired a more perfedt knowledge of Chi¬
nefe letters, and a readier accefs to their repofitories of
learning. Little can at prefent be added to the lights
call on the fubjedl by the late Sir William Jones, in
his difcourfe delivered to the Afiatic fociety on the
Chinefe. That great man has expreffed his convidtion
in pofitive terms, that “ Boodh was unqueftionably the
Fo of China,” and that he was alfo the god of Japan,
and the Woden of the Goths ; an opinion which cor-
refponds with, and is perhaps grafted on, the informa¬
tion of the learned and laborious Krempfer, corrobora¬
ted afterwards by his own refearches. On whatever
grounds the latter inference refts, it will not tend to
weaken the belief of his firft pofition, rvhen I obferve
that the Chinefe deputies, on the occafion of our intro-
dudlion to the feredan, or high prieft of the Birman
empire, proftrated themfelves before him, and after¬
wards adored an image of Gaudma with more religious
fervour than mere politenefs or acquiefcence in the cu-
ftoms of another nation would have excited. The
bonzes alfo of China, like the rhahaans of Ava, wear
yellow, as the faeerdotal colour ; and in many of their
-cuftoms and ceremonies there may be traced a ftriking
ftmilitude.
The laws of the Birmans are connefled with their
religion, being contained in what they call the Derma
Sath, or Snjfra, which is one of many commentaries on
the writings of Menu, to whom, according to the Hin¬
doos, the facred principles of their law were revealed by
divine authority.
The Saftra provides fpecifically for almoft every cafe
of crime that can be committed, and adds a copious
chapter of precedents and decifions to guide the inex¬
perienced. The Birmans agree with the Hindoos in
one benevolent do£!rine, the finfulnefs of depriving any
creature of life to fatisfy a carnivorous appetite; but
the Birmans do not carry this branch of their religion
To any fcrupulous length, like the timid and fuperfti-
o ] A S 1
tious natives of the weftern peninfula. Merely to eat Afia.
flelh is not deemed a crime by the Birmans ; but he /
who eats it is not exempt from fin, unlefs the creature
died a natural death, or was {lain by accident, or by
other hands. But in every thing that concerns reli¬
gion the Birmans are abundantly liberal. The prohi¬
bition to kill animals as objebfs of food is nowhere ve¬
ry fcrupuloufly obferved, except by the rhahaans or
priefts. In times of danger, or in confequence of fu-
perftition, the king and his viceroys fometimes iffue
proclamations, enjoining obedience to the facred law ;
but thefe produce little other eft'ebt than to caufe the
animals for a fiiort time to be killed with more fecre-
cy than ufual; and wherever foreigners are in que-
ftion, both the government and the people are abun¬
dantly tolerant. The maywoon of Pegu, who fent to
the embalfy large fupplies of fruit, rice, oil, tamarinds,
and fpices, did not indeed offer any butcher’s meat for
the ufe of the table; but they were allowed to purchafe
and kill whatever they wanted, fuch as, fowls, kid,
and venifon. When they had advanced farther into
the country, a private intimation was given to the am-
baffador, that there would be no crime if a fervant of
his fhould kill a fat bullock' when he met one ; that it
would be afcribed to accident, and reparation might
be made to the owner, who would think himfelf amply
recompenfed for his lofs by two tachals, about fix (hil¬
lings; and the beaft being dead, there could be no fin
in eating it, but that a public fan6Hon could not pre- 121
vioufly be given to (laughter one. The Birmans ne- Religious
ver quarrel with a ftranger on account of his religion. t0iera“im*
Their principal fea-port, Rangoon, has long been the
afylum of infolvent debtors from the different fettle-
ments of India. It is crowded with foreigners of def-
perate fortunes, who find from the Birmans a friendly
reception, and carry on a petty trade, which affords a
decent fubfiftence to thofe who aft with prudence.
Here are to be found fugitives from all countries of the
eaft, and of all complexions : Malabars, Moguls, Per-
fians, Parfees, Armenians, Portuguefe, French, and
Englifti all mingle here, and are engaged in various
branches' of commerce. The members of this difcor-
dant multitude are not only permitted to refide under
the proteftion of government, but likewife enjoy the
moft liberal toleration in matters of religion : They
celebrate their feveral rites and feftivals, totally dif-
regarded by the Birmans, who have no inclination to
make profelytes. In the fame ftreet may be heard the
folemn voice of the muezzin, calling pious Ifiamiles to
early prayers, and the bell of the Portuguefe chapel
tinkling a fummons to Romifti Chriftians. Proceffions
meet and pafs each other without giving or receiving
caufe of offence. The Birmans never trouble them¬
felves about the religious opinions of any feft, nor dif-
turb their ritual ceremonies, provided they do not break
the peace, or meddle with their own divinity, Gaud¬
ma ; but if any perfon commit an outrage, which the
muffulmans in their zeal for the true taith will fome¬
times do, the offender is fure to be put into the (locks;
and if that does not calm his turbulent enthufiafm, they
baftinado him into tranquillity. 122
The rhahaans, or priefts, are a kind of monks who Rhahaans
live in cloifters, protefs celibacy, and abftain from or priefts.
every fenfual indulgence. The prefcribed punilhment
for a rhahaan detefted in an aft of incontinence, is
expulfion
Afia.
123
Kioums, or
monafte-
nes.
A S I [75
expulfion and public difgrace. The delinquent is
feated on an afs, and his face daubed with black paint,
interfperfed with fpots of white. He is thus led
through the flreets, with a drum beating before him,
and afterwards turned out of the city. The juniors
only go abroad by the permiflion of the fuperior or
prior of the convent. They are dreffed in a long loofe
cloak, and yellow is the only colour worn by them.
The rhahaans never drefs their own vi6luals, holding
it an abufe of time to perform any of the common func¬
tions of life, which, fo long as they occupy, mull di¬
vert them from the abftraft contemplation of the di¬
vine effence. They receive the contributions of the
laity ready cooked, and prefer cold food to hot. At
the dawn of the morning they begin to perambulate
the town, to colleft fupplies for the day : Each con¬
vent fends forth a certain number of its members, who
walk at a quick pace through the ftreets, fupporting
with the right arm a blue lackered box, in which the
donations are depofited ; thefe ufually confift of boiled
rice mixed with oil, dried and pickled filh, fweet-
meats, fruit, &c. During their walk they never call
their eyes to the right nor to the left, but keep them
fixed on the ground ; they do not flop to folicit, and
feldom even look at the donors, who appear more de-
iirous to bellow than the others to receive. The rha¬
haans eat but once a-day, at the hour of noon. A
much larger quantity of provifions being commonly pro¬
cured than fuffices for the members of the convent, the
furplus is difpofed of as charitably as it was given, to
the needy ftranger, or the poor fcholars who daily attend
them to be inflru£ted in letters, and taught their moral
and religious duties.
In their choice of a rtfidenee, the rhahaans com¬
monly fele61 the mofl retired fpots they can find,
where fhady trees, particularly the tamarind and ba¬
nyan, proteft them from the noonday fun. Their
monafleries are different from common houfes •, they
are made entirely of wood ; the roof is compofed of
different flages fupported by flrong pillars 5 the infide
comprehends one large hall j the whole houfe is open
at the fides, and no private apartments are allowed :
Publicity is the prevailing fyftem of Birman conduft,
and they admit of no fecrets either in church or flate.
All kioums or monafleries, whether in town or coun¬
try, are feminaries for the education of youth, in
which boys of a certain age are taught their letters,
and inflrudltd in moral and religious duties. To thefe
fchools the neighbouring villagers fend their children,
where they are educated gratis, no diflindlion being
made between the fon of the peafant, and of him who
wears the tfaloe or firing of nobility. A piece of
ground contiguous to the grove is enclofed for a gar¬
den, where they fow vegetables and plant fruit trees*,
the Indian fweet potato and the plantain, being the
mofl nutritious, are principally cultivated. The cha¬
rity of the country people fupplies them abundantly
with rice, and the few neceffaries which their narrow
wants require. Abflrafted from all worldly confide-
rations, they do not occupy themfelves in the common
concerns of life : they never buy, fell, or accept of
money. Formerly there, were nunneries of virgin
priefleffes, who, like the rhahaans, rvore yellow gar¬
ments, cut off their hair, and devoted themfelves to
chaflity and religion j but the Birman government lias
1 ]
A s 1
Afnr.
long fince abolifhed thefe focieties, and refufes to al¬
low women, under pretence of religion, to be with-v—■'v"—-'’
drawn from the performance of the important duty of
contributing to fupport and increafe the population of
the flate. . 124
The Birmans are extremely magnificent in the flruc-Temples,
ture of their temples; that of Sh<>emadoo, at the an¬
cient city of Pegu, is mofl remarkable. We fhall
therefore give the defcription of it at full length :
“ The objedl in Pegu that mofl atraifls and mofl me- 125
rits notice, is the noble edifice of Shoemadoo or the Temple of
golden fupreme. This extraordinary pile of buildings s^°ema’
is eredled on a double terrace, one raifed upon another.1
The lower and greater terrace is about 10 feet above
the natural level of the ground, forming an exadl paral¬
lelogram : the upper and leffer terrace is fimilar in
fliape, and rifes about 20 feet above the lower terrace,
or 30 above the level of the country. I judged a fide
of the lower terrace to be 1391 feet; of the upper 684;
The walls that fuflained the fides of the terrace, both
upper and lower, are in a ruinous flate ; they were for¬
merly covered with plafler wrought into various figures.
The area of the lower is fire wed with the fragments of
fmall decayed Buildings; but the upper is kept free
from filth, and is in tolerably good order. Ther1 is
reafon to conclude, that this building and the fortrefs
are coeval, as the earth of which the terraces are com¬
pofed, appears to have been taken from the ditch ; there
being no other excavation in the city, or in its neigh¬
bourhood, that could have afforded a tenth part of the
quantity.
“ The terraces are afeended by flights of flone fleps,
which are now broken and negledled. On each fide are
dwellings of the rhahaans raifed on timbers four or five
feet from the ground. Thefe houfes confift only of a
large wall; the wooden pillars that fupport them are
turned with neatnefs ; the roofs are covered with tileSj
and the fides are made of boards; and there are a num¬
ber of bare benches in every houfe, on which the rha-
hans fleep ; but we faw no other furniture.
“ Shoemadoo is a pyramidical building compofed of
brick and mortar, without excavation or aperture of
any fort, o£tagonal at the bafe, and fpiral at top ;
<fach fide of the bafe meafures 162 feet ; this immenfe
breadth diminifhes abruptly, and a fimilar building has
not unaptly been compared in fhape to a large fpeaking
trumpet.
“ Six feet from the ground there is a wide projec¬
tion that furrounds the bafe, on the plane of which are
57 fmall fpires of equal fize, and equidillant ; one of
them meafured 27 feet in height, and 40 in circumfe¬
rence at the bottom. On a higher ledge there is ano¬
ther row, confifling of 54 fpires of fimilar fhape and
meafurement.
“ A great variety of mouldings encircle the building,'
and ornaments fomewhat refembling the ileur-de-lys fur-
round the lower part of the fpire ; circular mouldings
likewife girt it to a confiderable height, above which
there are ornaments in flucco not unlike the leaves of
a Corinthian capital : And the whole is crowned by a
tee or umbrella, of open iron-work, from which rifes a
rod with a gilded pennant.
“ The tee or umbrella is to be feen on every facred
building that is of a fpiral form ; the raifing and con-
fecration cf this laft and indifpenfable appendage is an
a£t
A S I [ 752 ] , A S I
Afia. a<^ °f high religious folemnity, and a feafon of feftivi-
—V—ty and relaxation. The prefent king bellowed the tee
that covers Shoemadoo. It was made at the capital j
and many of the principal nobility came down from
Ummerapoora to be prefent at the ceremony of its ele¬
vation.
“ The circumference of the tee is 56 feet j it refts
on an iron axis fixed on the building, and is farther fe-
cured by large chains Itrongly rivetted to the fpire.
Round the lower rim of the tee are appended a number
of bells, which, agitated by the wind, make a continual
jingling.
“ The tee is gilt, and it is faid to be the intention of
the king to gild the whole of the fpire. All the lefler
pagodas are ornamented with proportionable umbrellas
of fimilar workmanfhip, which are likewife encircled
by fmall bells.
“ The extreme height of the edifice, from the level
of the country, is 361 feet, and above the interior ter¬
race 331 feet.
“ On the fouth-ealt angle of the upper terrace there
are two handfome faloons or kioums lately erefled, the
roofs compofed of different flages, fupported by pil¬
lars j we judged the length of each to be about 60
feet, and the breadth 30 ; the ceiling of one is already
embellifhed with gold leaf, and the pillars are lacker¬
ed } the decoration of the other is not yet completed.
They are made entirely of wood j the carving on the
outfide is laborious and minute; we faw feveral unfi-
nifhed figures of animals and men in grotefque atti¬
tudes, which were defigned as ornaments for different
parts of the building. Some images of Gaudma, the
fupreme obje£l of Birman adoration, lay fcattered a-
round.
“ At each angle of the interior and higher terrace
there is a temple 67 feet high, refembling in miniature
the great temple ; in front of that, in the fouthern cor¬
ner, are four gigantic reprefentations in mafonry of
Palloo or the evil genius, half beaft half human, feated
on their hams, each with a large club on the right
fhouldet. The Pundoo who accompanied me, faid that
they refembled the Rahufs of the Hindoos. Thefe are
guardians of the temple.
Nearly in the centre of the eafl face of the area are
two human figures in flucco beneath a gilded umbrella j
one Handing reprefents a man with a book before him,
and a pen in his hand ; he is called Thajiamee, the re¬
corder of mortal merits and mortal mifdeeds; the other,
a female figure kneeling, is Maha Sumdera, the protedl-
refs of the univerfe, fo long as the univerfe is doomed to
laft ; but when the time of general diffolution arrives,
by her hand the world is to be overwhelmed and ever-
laftingly deftroyed.
“ A fmall brick building, near the north-eafl angle,
contains an upright marble flab, four feet high, and
three feet wide : there is a long legible infcription on
it. I was told it was an aocount of the donations of pil¬
grims of only a recent date.
“ Along the whole extent of the north face of the
upper terrace there is a w'ooden fhed, for the conve¬
nience of devotees who come from a diftant part of
the country. On the north fide of the temple are three
large bejls of good workmanfhip, fufpended nigh the
ground between pillars •, feveral deers horns lie ftrew-
cd around ; thofe who come to pay their devotions firfl,
take up one of the horns and ftrike the bell three times, Alia,
giving an alternate ftroke to the ground : this afl I was w-y—
told is to announce to the fpirit of Gaudma, the ap¬
proach of a fuppliant. There are feveral low benches
near the foot of the temple on which the perfon who
comes to pray places his oftering, commonly confifting
of boiled rice, a plate of fweetmeats, or cocoa nut fried
in oil : when it is given, the devotee cares not what be¬
comes of it $ the crows and wild dogs often devour it in
prefence of the donor, who never attempts todiflurb the
animals. I faw feveral plates of victuals difpofed of in
this manner, and underftood it to be the cafe with all
that was brought.
“ There are many fmall temples on the areas of both
terraces, which are neglefled and fuffered to fall into
decay. Numbtrlefs images of Gaudma lie indifcrirai-
nately fcattered. A pious Birman who purchafes an
idol, firft procures the ceremony of confecration to be
performed by the rhahaans 5 he then takes his purchafe
to whatever facred building is moll convenient, and
there places it within the {belter of a kioum, or in the
open ground before the temple; nor does he ever again
feem to have any anxiety about its prefervation, but
leaves the divinity to Ihift for itfelf. Some of thofe idols
are made of marble that is found in the neighbourhood
of the capital of the Birman dominions, many are form¬
ed of wood and gilded, and a few are of filver. The
latter, however, are not ufually expofed and negledled
like the others. Silver and gold are rarely ufed, ex¬
cept in the compofition of houfehold gods.
“ On both the terraces are a number of white cylin¬
drical flags raifed on bamboo poles ; thefe flags are pe¬
culiar to the rhahaans, and are confidered as emblema¬
tic of purity and of their facred fundlions. On the top
of the ftaff there is a henza or goofe, the fymbol both of
the Birman and Pegu nations.
“ From the upper projedlion that furrounds the bafe
of Shoemadoo, the profpedl of the circumjacent coun¬
try is extenfive and pidlurefque ; but it is a profpedl of
nature in her rudeft ftate : there are few inhabitants,
and fcarcely any cultivation. The hills of Martaban
rife to the eaftward, and the Sitang river, winding
along the plains, gives an interrupted view' of its wa¬
ters. To the northward about 40 miles are the Galad-
zet hills, whence the Pegu river takes its rife ; hills re¬
markable only for the noifome effects of their atmo-
fphere. In every other direflion the eye looks over a
boundlefs plain, chequered by a wild intermixture of
wood and water.”
The temple of Shoemadoo appears to be the largeft
in the Birman dominions. At the fame time, they
have’many others formed upon a fimilar plan and of
great extent. Of one of tbefe we {hall take notice,
on account of the coincidence between its name, and
the name of a Pagan temple mentioned in the facred
Scriptures. It is to be obferved, that in the Birman
tongue the word fioe, fignifies golden ,* and the name
of the temple to which we allude, is called &fioedagony
or the temple of the golden Dagon. It is thus defcribed :
“ The temple of Sboedagon or Dagonng, about twTo
miles and a half north of Rangoon, is a very grand
building, although not fo high by 25 or 30 feet as
that of Shoemadoo at Pegu. It is much more orna¬
mented ; the terrace on which it Hands is raifed on a
rocky eminence, confiderably higher than the circum¬
jacent
c.
A S I
Afia. jacent country. It is afcended by above loo ftone fteps
that have been fuffered to fall into decay. The fituation
renders Shoedagon a confpicuous obje6t at the dirtance
of many miles. The tee and the whole of the fpire are
richly gilded, which, when the fun (hines, exhibit a An¬
gularly fplendid appearance.
“ The fmall auxiliary buildings are yet more nume¬
rous than thofe that furround the bafe of the Pegu tem¬
ple. Perceiving that feveral of thefe were in a ruinous
ilate, whilft the foundations of others were juit laid,
and fome half finifhed, I alked, why they did not
repair the damages of the old before they erefted new
ones, and was told, that to mend a decayed praw or
temple, though an adt of piety, was not fo meritorious
as to eredl a new one ; that fometimes the old ones
were repaired by thofe who were unwilling or unable
to be at the expence of a complete building •, but this
entirely depended on the means or inclination of the
donor.
“ The borders of the terrace on which the temple is
raifed are planted with fhady trees in regular rows :
From this eminence there is a beautiful and extenfive
profpedt; the Pegu and Rangoon rivers are feen wind¬
ing through a level waody country, and the temple of
Syriam, little inferior to thofe that have been de-
fcribed, Hands near the junction of the ftreams. The
rainy monfoon had now fet in, and inundations were
formed in feveral places. It would have been a more
pleafing, though perhaps lefs pidturefque fcene, had the
plains been cleared and the fields laid out for cultiva¬
tion : we could obferve few marks of improvement 5
woods, lakes, and rivers, prefented themfelves on every
^6 fide.”
Private. But although the Birmans difplay fufficient magnifi-
Wildings. cence in their temples and public buildings, their pri¬
vate houfes are conflrufted of very Ample and cheap
materials. Their king has even prohibited brick or
ftone to be ufed in the conftru&ion of any private
houfe, from an apprehenfion, it is faid, that if people'
were allowed to ere<ft brick houfes, they might eredt
brick fortifications to the danger of the ftate. It is
not improbable, however, that the prohibition is owing
to another caufe. In the hot climates, where the foil
is fertile, if the population happen to be defeftive, it
is extremely difficult to prevent the whole country
from being overrun with forefts, which is at prefent
in a great degree the cafe in the Birman dominions.
One of the eafieft modes of fubduing thefe forefts, con-
fifts of adopting the meafure now mentioned, of prohi¬
biting the ufe of brick or ftone for private buildings.
In other refpeffs, however, the houfes are built with
fufficient attention to conveniency, and are all raifed
from the ground, either on wooden pofts or bamboos,
according to the fize of the building •, fo that the lower
floor is above the ground. The monafteries of the
rhxhaans, and the habitations of the higher ranks, are
ufually elevated fix or eight feet, and thofe of the
lower dalles from two to four. The walls of the
houfes are made of boards or mats, fupported on bam¬
boos or pofts. One inconvenience, how'ever, attends
them all, that from their being compofed of fuch com-
buftible materials, the inhabitants are under continual
dread of fire, againft which they take every precau¬
tion. The roofs are lightly covered ; and at every
door Hands a long bamboo with an iron hook at the
Vol. II. Part II.
A S I
end to pull down the thatch. There is alfo another Alia.
pole with an iron grating at the extremity to fupprefs ——y——^
flame by preffure. Almoft every houfe has earthen
pots filled with water, Handing ready on the roof;
and a number of firemen patrol the ftreets during the
night to put out all fires and lights after a certain
hour. I2^
It is cuftomary when the king, or when perfons ofTemponry
high rank travel, to eredt temporary habitations fur houfes.
them, and this was done in honour of the Britilh em-
bafly. Thefe temporary houfes are thus defcribed i
“ The materials of which thefe houfes are made, are al¬
ways eafy to be procured ; and the flrudlure is fo Am¬
ple, that a fpacious and by no means an uncomfortable
dwelling, fuited to the climate, may be eredled in one
day. Our habitation, confifting of a fmall room to each,
and a hall, open to the north, in little more than four
hours was in readinefs for our reception. Fifty or fixty
labourers completed it in that time; and, on emergency,
could perform the work in much lefs. Bamboos, grafs
for thatching, and the ground rattan, are all the mate¬
rials requifite ; not a nail is ufed in the whole edifice }
a row of ftrong bamboos from eight to ten feet high
are fixed firm in the ground, which defcribe the outline,
and are the fupports of the building; fmaller bamboos 1
are then tied horizontally, by ftrips of the ground rat¬
tan, to thefe upright pofts ; the walls, compofed of bam¬
boo matts, are faftened to the fides with fimilar liga¬
ments ; bamboo rafters are quickly raifed, and a roof
formed, over which thatch is fpread in regular layers,
and bound to the roof by filaments of rattan ; a floor
of bamboo grating is next laid in the infide, elevated
two or three feet above the ground ; this grating is
fupported on bamboos, and covered with mats and car¬
pets : this ends the procefs, which is not more Ample
than effeftual. When the workmen take pains, a
houfe of this fort is proof againft very inclement wea¬
ther. We experienced during our flay at Meeaday a
fevere ftorm of wind and rain, but no water penetrated
nor thatch efcaped ; and, if the tempeft fhould blow
down the houfe, the inhabitants would run no rifle of
having their brains knocked out or their bones broken;
the fall of the whole fabric would not crufli a lady’s lap
dn£”   . 12g
In the adminiftration of juftice the Birmans are ex- Admini-
tremely regular and formal; the place where the judges ftration of
of any diftridl fit is called the rhoom, where they hear thejuft‘ce*
pleadings of parties or their counfel, and examine wit-
nefles, whofe depofitions are taken down in writing.
Thefe depofitions are fent to the maywoon or viceroy,
who reprefents the king, and the judges tranfmit their
opinions along with the evidence, which the maywoon
either confirms or rejefts as he thinks proper ; and, in
cafes of capital convi&ion, orders execution or pardons
the culprit. From his judgment there lies no appeal,
unlefs the offender hold a royal commiffion ; in which
cafe the evidence nrift be tranfmitted to the council of
ftate, and the king himfelf applies the law and pro¬
nounces judgment.
The building denominated the r)ioom is alfo the offi-TherhooiK,.
cial hall where the members of provincial governments
and all municipal officers are accuftomed to affemble
to tranfadl public hufinefs. Every man of high rank in
the Birman empire is a magiilrate, and has a place of
this defeription and name contiguous to his dwelling j
5 C but
[ 753 1
Afia.
130
Military
force.
A S I
[ 754 ]
A S I
but always on the outfide of the enclofure of his court¬
yard, and not furrounded by any fence or railing, in
order to manifeft publicity, and Ihow that it is the feat
of majtily and juftice, to which all mankind may have
free accefs. An imperial mandate to a governor, or an
order from a governor to a petty miongee or chief of a
fmall town or diftrift, is invariably opened and read
aloud in this fanftified hall. The Birman government,
in the adminiftration of public affairs, profeffes no fuch
thing as privacy or concealment. The rhoom is like-
wife an appendage of dignity, as it denotes him to
whofe habitation it is annexed to be a perfon of rank
and confequence •, a building of this fort was erefted
within a few yards of the front gate of the Britifh am-
baffador’s enclofure. It is to be remarked, that when
the ambaflador had obtained from the government the
eilabliihment of certain regulations refpefting com¬
merce, and had returned to the fea port of Rangoon,
the viceroy of that diftrift informed him that the or¬
ders for carrying into effeft the late regulations would
be publicly read and regiftered at the rhoom on the fol¬
lowing day. The viceroy alfo invited him to fend a
confidential perfon to be prefent at the ceremony *, ad¬
ding, that the records were alfo open to the public in-
fpection *, and that whoever chofe might, at any time,
procure a copy, by paying a trifling fee to the officers
of the court. The refult of this publicity is, that fo¬
reigners, acquainted with the charafler of the people,
do not hefitate to trufl themfelves in the very centre
of the country. At the diftance of 150 miles from the
coaft, including the windings of the river, our embafly
found a muffulman merchant from Surat, out of eco¬
nomy, building a veflel of four hundred tons burden,
inftead of building it at the fea port of Rangoon. He
meant, as foon a? the hull fhould be finiffied, to float it
down the ftream. The inland navigation is confidered
as dangerous ; but this merchant chofe to encounter
the rilk for the fake of obtaining the teek timber at a
cheap rate near the fpot where it grows, and proba¬
bly alfo for the fake of obtaining labour at a more mo¬
derate price. This adventurer furniffies a proof of the
confidence that may be placed in the Birman govern¬
ment, and the fecurity that a ftranger has for his pro-
perty.
The Birman government is of a feudal nature in the
ftri&eft fenfe of the word. The people are a nation
of foldiers •, every man in the kingdom being liable
to be called upon military fervice, and war is deemed
the moft,honourable occupation. The regular milita¬
ry eftabliffiment of the nation, however, as among our
anceftors in feudal times, is very inconfiderable, con-
filling only of the royal guards, and as many troops ..as
are necefiary to preferve the police of the capital.
Thefe are fuppofed to amount, in all, to about 2000
infantry, and 300 cavalry, though it is faid that the
cavalry fcattered in fmall detachments through the dif-
tri6ls adjoining to the capital, amount to about 2000.
The infantry are armed with mulkets and fabres, and
are not uniformly clothed ; the cavalry in the king’s
fervice, are natives of the northern province of Caflay,
who are accounted much better horfemen than the Bir¬
mans •, they feldom ufe any other weapon than a fpear
about feven or eight feet long. 1 hey ride like all
orientals with ffiort ftirrups, and a loofe rein their
drefs is not unbecoming; it confifts of a tight coat, with
4
Ail a.
Ikirts reaching down to the middle of the thigh, and
on their head they wear a turban of cloth rolled hard s.
and plaited, which forms a high cone, that bends back¬
wards in a graceful manner; their horfes are fmall,
but hardy and a6tive, and are frequently exported to
the wefttrn peninfula. When an army is to be raifed,
a mandate iffues to all the viceroys of provinces and
governors of diftrifts, requiring a certain number of
men to be at a general rendezvous on an appointed
day j the levy is proportioned to the population of the
province or diftri6l, efiimated from the number of re¬
giftered houfes that it contains 5 the provincial court
determines the burden which each houfe is to bear ;
a certain number of houfes furniffi a recruit among
them, or pay 300 tackal in money, about 40I. or 45I. :
The recruit is fupplied with arms, ammunition, and,
it is believed, with a daily allowance of grain, from
the government ; but he receives no pay. The fami¬
lies of thefe confcripts are carefully retained in their
diftri6ls as hoftages for the good conduct of their rela¬
tion. In cafe of defertion or treachery, the innocent
wife, children, and parents of the guilty perfon, are
dragged to execution without pity; even cowardice
fubjedts the family of the delinquent to capital pu-
niftrment, and this barbarous law is rigoroufly in-
forced.
By far the moft refpe£table part of the Birman mi- War-boats,
litary force is the eftabiiffiment of war-boats ; every
town of note in the vicinity of the principal rivers is
obliged to furniih a certain number of men, and one
or more boats, in proportion to the magnitude of the
place : thus the king can command at a very flrort no¬
tice 500 of thefe veilels : They are conftru&ed out of
the folid trunk of the teek-tree, which is excavated
partly by fire and partly by cutting ; the largeft are
from 80 to 100 feet long, but the breadth feldom ex¬
ceeds eight feet, and even this fpace is produced by
artificially extending the fides after the trunk has been
hollowed : they carry from 50 to 60 rowers, who ufe
ffiort oars, that work on a fpindle. The prow is folid,
and is a flat furface, on which, when they go to war.
131
a piece of ordnance is mounted ; a fix, a nine, or even
a twelve pounder. The gun-carriage is fecured by lath¬
ings to ftrong bolts on each fide, and fwivels are fre¬
quently fixed on the curvature of the ftern. Each
rower is provided with a fword and a lance, which are
placed by his fide while he plies the oars. Befides the
boatmen, there are ufually 30 foldiers on board, who
are armed with mulkets: thus prepared, they go in
fleets to meet the foe, and when in fight, draw up in a
line, prefenting their prows to the enemy. Their at¬
tack is extremely impetuous j they advance with great
rapidity, and fing a war fong, at once to encourage
their people, daunt their adverfaries, and regulate the
ftrokes of their oars •, they generally endeavour to
grapple, and when that is effefted, the a6tion becomes
very fevere, as thefe people are endowed with great
courage, ftrength, and aflivity. In times of peace
they are fond of exercifing in their boats, and they
difplay much dexterity in the management of them.
The veffels being low in the water, their greateft
danger is that of being run down by a larger boat
linking on their broadfide, a misfortune which the
lleerfman is taught to dread and to avoid above all
other, It is furprifing, fays the author, to fee the fa¬
cility
132
Revenue.
T33
The go¬
vernment
feudal.
T34
Ranks in
fociety.
A S I
[ 755 ] A S I
cility with which they fleer and elude each other in
their mock combats. The rowers are alio praftifed to
row backwards, and impel the veffel with the ftern
foremoft ; this is the mode of retreating, by means of
which the artillery ftill bears upon their opponent. The
largeft of the war boats do not draw more than three
feet water.
The revenue of the Birman king is, according to
the laws of their religion, as ftated in their facred
books, a tenth of all produce, and it is certain that one-
tenth is the amount of the king’s duty on all foreign
goods imported into his dominions. The revenues an¬
ting from the cufloms on imports, and from internal
produce, is moflly taken in kind ; a fmall part of which
is converted into carti : the reft is diftributed as received
in lieu of falaries to the various dependants of the
court. Princes of the blood, high officers of ftate, and
provincial governors, receive grants of provinces, cities,
villages, and farms, to fupport their dignity, and as
a remuneration of their fervices ; the rents of thefe
affignments they colleft for their own benefit. Money,
except on preffing emergency, is never diftmrfed from
the royal coffers: to one man the fees of an office are
allotted ; to another a ftation where certain imports are
collefted 3 a third has land *, each in proportion to the
importance of his refpeftive employment. By thefe
donations they are not only bound in their own perfonal
fervitude, but likewife in that of all their dependants;
they are called flaves of the king, and, in turn, their
flaves are denominated flaves to them ; the conditions
of thefe grants include alfo fervices of war as well as
the duties of office. Thus the Birman government
exhibits almoft a faithful picture of Europe in the
darker ages, when, on the decline of the Roman em¬
pire, the principles of feudal dependance were eftablifli-
*ed by barbarians from the north.
This fyftem of feudal dependance may be confider-
ed as exifting in the Birman government in its pureft
ftate. There are no hereditary dignities or employ¬
ments ; all honours and offices on the demife of the
poffeffor revert to the crown, a circumftance which
when taken along with the obligation to military fer-
vice, which is incumbent upon all down to the loweft
of the people, gives to this government that appearance
of a military encampment and fubordination which the
feudal tenures have been underftood to exhibit, but from
which they degenerated in Europe, when dignities and
authority became hereditary. In confequence of the
feudal principles which here prevail, the fubordination
of rank is maintained and marked by the Birmans with
the moft tenacious ftridlnefs. In the manner of con-
ftru&ing houfes, whether temporary or lafting, ftridt
attention is paid to the form which indicates the rank
of the inhabitants ; nor dare any fubjeft affume a mode
of ftrufture to which he is not legally entitled : the
diftinftion confifts chiefly of the number of ftages of
which the roof is compofed; even domeftic imple¬
ments, fuch as the betel-box, w'ater-flagon, drinking-
cup, and horfe-furniture, all exprefs by their ffiape and
quality the precife ftation of the owner ; nor can one
perfon intrude upon the rights of another under penalty
of incurring a moft fevere puniftiment, which is never
remitted. The tfaloe, or chain, is the badge of the
order of nobility, of which there are different degrees,
diftinguiffied by the number of firings or fmall chains
Etn Introduc-
that compofe the ornament. Thefe firings are faftened Afta.
by boffes where they unite : three of open chain-work —y*
is the loweft rank; three of neatly twilled wire is the
next ; then of fix, of nine, and of twelve ; no fubjeft
is ever honoured with a higher degree than tw'elve ;
the king alone wears 24.
As gold is underftood to be the nobleft of metals,
the king of the Birmans, who is the foundation of rank,
is defignated or defcribed by the appellation of fh&e
or golden; thus, a particular village inhabited by
■watermen in the fervice of the king, is called Shoe-lee-
rua, or golden boat village, nor is the perfon of the
fovereign ever fpoken of but in conjundtion with this
precious metal. When a fubjedl means to affirm that
the king has heard any thing, he fays, “ It has reached
the golden ears he who has obtained admiffion to
the royal prefence, has been at the golden feet; the
perfume of ottar of rofes, a nobleman obferved one
day, “ was an odour grateful to the golden nofe.”
Gold among the Birmans being a type of excellence,
is not merely afcribed to their king, but on folemn oe-
cafions it is placed on his drefs in fuch quantities as to
prove not a little cumberfome. The form in which the
ambaffadors were introduced to his majefty, and the
appearance which he made, are thus defcribed :
entering the gate, we perceived the royal faloon of ce- tion of am-
remony in front of us, and the court affembled in all kaff.idors to
the parade of pomp and decoration. It was an open
hall, fupported by colonnades of pillars, 20 in length 0
and only four in depth ; we were conduced into it by
a flight of fteps, and advancing, took our places next
the fpace oppofite to the throne, which is always left
vacant, as being in full view of his majefty. On our
entrance, the bafement of the throne was alone vifible,
which we judged to be about five feet high ; folding
doors fcreened the feat from our view : the throne, call¬
ed ya-zapalay, was richly gilded and carved ; on each
fide a fmall gallery, enclofed by a gilt baluftrade, ex¬
tended a few feet to the right and left, containing four
umbrellas of ftate ; and on two tables at the foot of the
throne were placed feveral large veffels of gold, of va¬
rious forms, and for different purpofes; immediately
over the throne a fplendid piafath or pyramid rofe in
feven ftages above the roof of the building, crowned
by a tee or umbrella, from which a fpiral rod was ele¬
vated above the whole.
“We had been feated little more than a quarter of
an hour, when the folding-doors that concealed the
feat opened with a loud noife, and difcovered his ma¬
jefty afcending a flight of fteps that led up to the
throne from the inner apartment; he advanced but
flowly, and feemed not to poffefs a free ufe of his
limbs, being obliged to fupport himfelf with his hands
on the baluftrade. I was informed, however, that
this appearance of weaknefs did not proceed from any
bodily infirmity, but from the weight of the legal ha¬
biliments in which he was clad ; and if what we were
told was true, that he carried on his drefs 15 vifs, up¬
wards of 50 pounds avoirdupois of gold, his difficulty
of afcent was not furprifing. On reaching the top, he
flood for a minute, as though to take breath, and then
fat down on an embroidered cuffiion, with his legs in¬
verted. His crown was a high conical cap, richly
ftudded with precious ftones; his fingers were covered
with rings, and in his drefs he bore the appearance of
5 C 2i a
A S I [ 756 ] A S I
Afla. a man cafed in golden armour, •whilft a gilded or pro-
bably a golden wing on each (boulder did not add
much lightnefs to his figure. His looks denoted him
to be between 50 and 60 years old, of a ftrong make,
in ftature rather beneath the middle height, with hard
features, and of a dark complexion j yet the expref-
lion of his countenance was not unpleafing, and feemed,
I thought, to indicate an intelligent and inquiring
mind.
“ On the firft appearance of his majefty, all the
eourtiers bent their bodies, and held their hands join¬
ed in an attitude of fupplication. Nothing farther was
required of us than to lean a little forward, and to turn
in our legs as much as we could •, not any aft being fo
impolite or contrary to etiquette as to prefent the foies
of the feet towards the face of a dignified perfon. Four
Bramins, dreffed in white caps and gowns, chanted the
ufual prayer at the foot of the throne : a nakhaan
then advanced into the vacant fpace before the king,
and recited in a mufical cadence the name of each per¬
fon who was to be introduced on that day, and of
whofe prefent, in the charafter of a fuppliant, he en¬
treated his majefty’s acceptance. My offering con-
lifted of two pieces of Benares gold brocade j Doftor
Buchanan and Mr Wood, each prefented one. When
our names were mentioned, we were feparately defired
to take a few grains of rice in our hands, and, joining
them, to bow to the king as low as we conveniently
could j with which we immediately complied. When
this ceremony was finifhed, the king uttered a few in-
diftinft words, to convey, as I was informed, an or¬
der for invefting fome perfons prefent with the in-
lignia of a certain degree of nobility j the imperial
mandate was inftantly proclaimed aloud by heralds
in the court. His majefty remained only a few mi¬
nutes longer, and during that time looked at us at¬
tentively, but did not honour us with any verbal no¬
tice, or fpeak at all, except to give the order before
mentioned. When he rofe to depart, he manifefted
the fame figns of infirmity as on his entrance ; after he
had withdrawn, the folding doors were clofed, and the
court broke up.”
It may here be added, that among the Birmans the
royal family is held of fo much importance, that to fuc-
ceed to the throne, every prince muft be defcended
from royal parentage by both father and mother j for
this reafon inceftuous marriages are permitted to
their princes, but to nobody elfe ; the king may in¬
deed marry a fecond wife of inferior rank while his
firft is alive, but (he is accounted merely a concubine,
and her children are illegitimate, and cannot inherit
the throne.
Literature. The books of the Birmans are generally formed of
the palmetto leaf, on which the letters are engraved
with a flylus. Books are fometimes compofed, how¬
ever, of thin ftrips of bamboo delicately plaited, and
varnifhed over in fuch a manner as to form a fmooth
hard furface upon a leaf of any dimenfion. This fur-
face is afterwards gilded, and the letters traced upon
it in black and (hining japan. The margin is illumined
by wreaths and figures of gold. The Birmans write
from left to right, and though they leave no diftinguifti-
ing fpace between their words, they mark the paufes
of a fentence and the full (tops. Their letters are
diftinft, and their manufcripts are in general very
beautiful. Their language contains 33 Ample founds, Afk
and their alphabet confifts of an equal number of di- ■ y-
ftinft charadiers, exclufive of various marks and con-
traftions, which are explained in their fpelling book.
Their common charafters confift of circles, and feg-
ments of circles, varioufly difpofed and combined. The
Birmans are extremely fond both of poetry and mufic :
their poetry, when repeatedly a well-educated perfon, goenj!
is extremely melodious 5 it is fometimes in fucceflive,
and fometimes in alternate rhymes : they have epic as
well as religious poems of high celebrity, and they are
fond of reciting in heroic numbers, the exploits of their
kings and generals. It is faid, that the prowefs of the
great Alompra, the deliverer of his country, is record¬
ed in vtrfes not unworthy of his courage and his for¬
tune. The members of the Britifti embafly were in¬
vited by the mayvvoon or viceroy of Pegu to one of
their dramatic reprefentations, which they applaud not
a little. “ The theatre was the open court, fplendid-
ly illuminated by lamps and torches j the maywoon
and his lady fat in a projefting balcony of his houfe j
W’e occupied feats below him, raifed about two feet from
the ground, and covered with carpets j a crowd of
fpeftators were feated in a circle round the ftage. The
performance began immediately on our arrival, and far
excelled any Indian drama that I had ever feen. The
dialogue was fpirited without rant, and the aftion ani¬
mated without being extravagant j the dreffes of the
principal performers were ftiowy and becoming. I was
told that the beft aftors were natives of Siam, a nation,
which though unable to contend w'ith the Birmans and
Peguers in war, have cultivated with more fuccefs the
refined arts of peace. By way of interlude between
the afts, a clownifti buffoon entertained the audience
with a recital of different paflages j and by grimace
and frequent alterations of tone and countenance, ex¬
torted loud peals of laughter from the fpeftators. The
Birmans feem to delight in mimickry, and are very ex¬
pert in the praftice, poflefling uncommon verfatility of
countenance. An eminent praftitioner of this art, amu-
fed us with a fpecimen of his (kill, at our own houfe,
and, to our no fmall aftonifhment, exhibited a mafterly
difplay of the paflions in pantomimic looks and gefturesj
the tranfitions he made from pain to pleafure, from joy
to defpair, from rage to mildnefs, from laughter to
tears ; his expreflion of terror, and, above all, his look
of idiotifra, were performances of firft-rate merit in their
line ; and we agreed in opinion, that had his fates de¬
creed him to have been a native of Great Britain, his
genius would have rivalled that of any modern come¬
dian of the Englifti ftage.
“ The plot of the drama performed this evening, I
underftood, was taken from the facred text of the
Ramayen of Balmiec (called by Sir William Jones,
Valmiec) a work of high authority among the Hindoos.
It reprefented the battles of the holy Ram, and the
impious Rahwaan, chief of the Rakufs or demons, to
revenge the rape of Sefta, the wife of Ram, who was
forcibly carried away by Rahwaan, and bound under
the fpells of enchantment. Viciflitudes of fortune took
place during the performance that feemed highly in-
terefting to the audience. Ram was at length wounded
by a poifoned arrow ; the fages (killed in medicine con-
fulted on his cure; they difcovered, that on the moun¬
tain Indragurry grew a certain tree that produced a
1 gum,
A S I [ 757 ] A S I
Afia. guni» which was a fovereign antidote againfl the dele-
—Y~~" terious effe£ts of poifon •, but the diftance was fo great
that none could be found to undertake the journey. At
length Honymaan, leader of the army of apes, offered
to go in queft of it. When he arrived at the place, be-
ing uncertain which was the tree, he took up half the
mountain and tranfported it with eafe : thus was the
cure of Ram happily effedted, the enchantment was bro¬
ken, and the piece ended with a dance and fongs of tri¬
umph.”
When at the capital, Ummerapoora, our author de-
fcribes his vilit to the royal library in the following
terms : “ Having finilhed our introductory vifits to the
different members of the royal family, we had now
leifure to gratify our curiofity by viewing whatever the
capital contained that was molt deferving the notice of
ftrangers. The day not being far advanced, we walk¬
ed from the palace of Pagahm to fee the pedigaut tick,
or royal library : it is fituated at the north-weft angle
of the fort, in the centre of a court paved with broad
flags, and clofe to a very handfome kioum or mona-
ftery. Before we entered the library we afcended the
kioum, and found the infide correfpond with the exter¬
nal appearance ; the building was fpacious and richly
gilded ; the pillars, the ceiling, and the pannels, were
entirely covered with gold leaf5 and the image of
Gaudma (hone with a brilliant luftre 5 a baluftrade of
wood, minutely and beautifully carved, protedled the
image from intruders. On the pannels of the walls
were reprefented figures of inferior agents of the divi¬
nity, and of proftrate rhahaans in the aft of devotion •,
thefe were all (haped in fret-work in the wood, and
were of no contemptible workmanftiip : a well wrought
foliage of the fame bordered the pannels. The image
of Gaudma in this kioum, was large, and made of mar¬
ble •, it was feated on a broad pedeftal entirely gilded j
in front of which, within the baluftrade, flood a hand¬
fome girandole of cut glafs of European manufafture :
near the image was a gilded couch, which avc were
informed was the cuftomary bed of the principal rha-
haan, or head of all the Birman priefthood, when he
chofe to pafs the night in the fort, which rarely hap¬
pened. It was fplendidly gilt; the bottom, however,
was only a bare board j pillars were not wanting, for
there were two, but they were made of wood. A mat
fpread on the floor is the higheft luxury of repofe in
which the rhahaans indulge.
“ From the kioum we proceeded to vifit the adjacent
library j it is a large brick building raifed on a terrace,
and covered by a roof of a very compound ftrufture.
It confifts of one fquare room, with an enclofed veranda,
or gallery, furrounding it : this room was locked, and
as we had not brought a fpecial order for feeing it, the
perfon who had the care of the library faid, that he was
not at liberty to open the doors ; but affured us, that
there was nothing in the infide different from what we
might fee in the veranda, where a number of large
chefts, curioufly ornamented with gilding and japan,
were ranged in regular order againfl the wall; I count¬
ed 50, but there were many more, probably not lefs
than 100. The books were regularly claffed, and the
contents of each chefl were written in gold letters on
the lid. The librarian opened two, and (hewed me
fome very beautiful writing on thin leaves of ivory,
the margins of which were ornamented with flowers of
gold neatly executed. I faw alfo fome books written Afia.
in the ancient Pali, the religious text. Every thingv”
feemed to be arranged with perftft regularity, and I
was informed, that there were books upon divers fub-
jefts j more on divinity than any other } but hiftory,
mufic, medicine, painting, and romance, had their fe-
parate treatifes. The volumes were difpofed under
diltinft heads, regularly numbered ; and if all the other
chefts were as well filled as thofe that were fubmitted
to our infpeftion, it is not improbable that his Birman
majefty may poffefs a more numerous library than any
potentate from the banks of the Danube to the borders
of China.” t •*
Books were afterwards brought for fale to the gentle¬
men of the embaffy, but always clandeftinely j and an
exorbitant price was demanded, under pretence that if
any perfon were difcovered to have fold books to a
foreigner without permiflion, he would be liable to a
fevere penalty. A man was aftually imprifoned for an
offence of this nature, upon which Captain Symes fent
a meffage to the chief woongee or prime minifter, ap-
prifing him of the circumftance, and defiring to know
whether it was illegal to fell books to himielf or his
fuit ; adding, that if their law prohibited it, he would
rejeft (uch as in future might be brought, and direft
every perfon under his authority to do the fame. The
woongee returned a civil meffage, and the man was fet
at liberty. His majefty being made acquainted with
the affair, fummoned on the following day, the princi¬
pal rhahaans to attend his council, and fubmitted to
them, whether or not it was confident with Birman
tenets, to grant books that treated of their hiftory and
laws to foreigners ? The conclave, after folemn delibe¬
ration, determined in the affirmative, and added, that it
was not only admiffible, but laudable, for the diffemina-
tion of knowledge. His majefly was thereupon pleafed
to order a handfome copy of the Razawayn, or hiftory
of their kings, and of the Dhermafath, or code of laws,
to be delivered to Captain Symes from the royal library j
each was contained in one large volume, written in a ••
beautiful manner, and handfomely adorned with paint¬
ing and gilding. - v
Mufic is a fcience that is held in no fmall degree of jviufic.
eftimation throughout the Birman empire, and is very
generally cultivated ; there is fcarcely even a boatman
who does not poffefs an inftrument of fome fort j they
who can procure no better have at lead what is called
a Jew's harp, with which they delight to beguile half
an hour of a cool evening, after a day fpent in fevere
labour under a burning fun. Some of the profeffional
mufieians difplay confiderable (kill and execution ; and
the fofter airs are pleaflng even to an ear unaccuflomed
to the melodies of the country. The principal inftru¬
ment s are a foum or harp, made of light wood hollow¬
ed and varniffied, in (liape fomewhat refembling a canoe
with a deck ; at the extremity, a piece of hard wood
is neatly faftened, which tapers to the end, and rifing
curves over the body of the harp j from this curvature
the firings, ufually made of wire, are extended to a !
bridge on the belly of the inftrument *, there are two
founding holes, one on each fide of the bridge. The
fize of the foum varies from two to five feet in length.
Ihe turr refembles our violin. It has only three
firings, and is played on with a bow. The pullaway
is a common flagelet. The kyezoup is a colkftion of
about t
A S I [ 758 ] A S I
about 18 cymbals, fufpended in a bamboo frame : thefe
cymbals, varying in fize, produce modulated grada¬
tions of founds. The patola, or guitar of the Birmans,
is faid to be a curious inftrument: it is the exaft form,
in miniature, of a crocodile •, the body of which is hol¬
low, w'ith founding holes in the back •, three firings of
wire extend from the (boulder to the tail, to which
they are fattened. It is played on by the fingers, and
is generally ufed to accompany the voice. The bondaw
is a collection of drums, oblong in form, and varying in
fize, which are fufpended perpendicularly in a wooden
frame by leather thongs. The whole machine is about
five feet in diameter, and four feet high. The perform¬
er (lands in the centre, and beats on the drums with a
fmall flick. This infirument is always introduced when
there is a full band, and is much ufed in proceflions, of
which the Birmans are very fond, being carried by two
men, while the performer firuffles along in the infide,
playing as he goes- The heem is the pipe of Pan,
formed of reeds neatly joined together, and founded by
a common mouth-piece. It produces a very plaintive
melody.
The Birmans divide their year into 12 months,
which, ftri&ly fpeaking, cannot be called fynodical,
although they comprehend the fame number of days.
A revolution of the moon, in palling from one con-
junftion with the fun to another, is performed in 29
days 12 hours and 44 minutes: but the Birman luna¬
tions confift of 29 and 30 days alternately, which
caufes a difference between the Newtonian and Birman
lunar account of 8 hours and 48 minutes. The Birman
months are as follows:
Days.
Tagoo contains 29
Kayoung 30
Nay Young 29
Wazoo 30
Wagoung 29
Toozelien 30
Tandaing Guite 29
Tazoung Moang 30
Gnadoh 29
Peeazoo 30
Taboodiray 29
Taboung 30
354
In order to complete a folar revolution, they interca¬
late in every third year a month of 30 days, which is
called Toodea Wazoo ; in this third year the months of
Tagoo and Nay Young have each 30 days inftead of
29 •, they likewife fupprefs or pafs over a day, which, if
reckoned, would either be the 31ft Taboung, or the ift
of Tagoo ; by thefe means the number of days in three
folar years is thus computed :
Days.
Three lunar years of 354 days each, 1062
Intercalary month in the third year, 30
Two intercalary days in Tagoo and Nay Young, 2
Suppreffed or paffed over at the end of the year, 1
I095
This computation correfponds in the number of days
with three years $ every fourth year, however, will oc-
cafion the difference of a day, on account of our biffex- Afa.
tile or leap year j of this the Birmans are fully fenfible, v—
as well as of many other defects in their manner of rec¬
koning ; to remedy the confufion likely to enfue from
fuch erroneous calculations, their ftyle or mode has fre¬
quently been altered by arbitrary authority.
The manner in which the Birman month is fubdi-
vided is fomewhat peculiar ; inftead of reckoning the
days progreflively from the commencement to the
clofe of the month, they divide it into two parts, and
number the days of the increafing and of the waning
moon feparately. Each moon or month is alfo divided
into weeks of feven days each, and Sunday, as with u^,
is the firfi day of the Birman week. The eighth day of
the increafing moon, the fifteenth or full moon, and the
eighth of the decreafing moon, are obferved as facred
fettivals. On thefe holidays no bufinefs is tranfafted
in the rhoom j mercantile dealings are fufpended ;
handicraft occupations are forbidden, and the ftridtly
pious take no fuftenance between the rifing and the
fetting fun. This laft inftance of felf-denial, however,
is uncommon, except in the metropolis, where it is
fubmitted to by ambitious perfons with a view to ob¬
tain favour with the king, who is underflood to be a
great favourer of the auflerities of the Birman reli¬
gion. Minute portions of time are divided as follows:
“ The fpace in which the finger can be railed and de-
preffed is called chara'zi; ten charazi make one piaan $
fix piaan one bezana, about a minute. The day, of
24 hours commencing at noon, is divided into eight
portions or yettee, of three hours each. Thefe divi-
fions of time are afcertained by a machine refembling
the hour-glafs, and fometimes by a perforated pan
placed in a tub of water j they are announced by a
ftroke on an oblong drum, which is always kept near
the dwelling of the chief magittrate of the city, town,
or village ; it is commonly railed on a high bam¬
boo ftage, with a roof of mats to protedl it from the
weather.
The edifice at the royal palace for the reception
of this inftrument is of mafonry, and very lofty, whence
the found is faid to be diftindtly conveyed to the re-
moteft quarters of the city.
The Birmans, like the Chinefe, have no coin. Sil- Money,
ver in bullion, and lead, are the current moneys of the
country 4 weight and purity are of courfe the ftandard
of value, and in the afcertainment of both the natives
are exceedingly fcrupulous and expert. What foreigners
call a tachal, properly kiat, is the moft general piece
of filver in circulation 5 it weighs lodwts ic^gr. j its
fubdivifions are, the tubbee, two of which make one
moo; two moo, one math ; four math, one tackal; and
one hundred tackal compofe one vifs. Money fcales
and weights are all fabricated at the capital, where
they are (lamped, and afterwards circulated through¬
out the empire ; the ufe of any other is prohibited.
The bankers, called by foreignersare likewife
workers in filver and affayers of metal. This is a clafs
of people very numerous, and indifpenfably neceffary,
as no ftranger can undertake either to pay or receive
money without having it firft examined. Every mer¬
chant has a banker of this defcription, with whom he
lodges all his cafh, and who, for receiving and paying,
gets an eftabliftied commiffion of one per cent. $ in
oonfideration of which he is refponfible for the quality
A S I
[ 759 1
A S I
Afia.
141
Meafures.
14a
Arts.
Agricul¬
ture.
. I43.
Ship-build¬
ing.
of wliat goes through his hands ; and in no inftance
has it been known that breach of truft was commit¬
ted by one of thefe bankers. The quantity of alloy
varies in the lilver current in different parts of the em¬
pire ; at Rangoon it is adulterated twenty-five per
cent; at Ummerapoora, fine, or what is called flowered
fllver, is moft common •, in this latter all royal dues
are paid. Any perfon may have his filver either pu¬
rified or depreciated to whatever ftandard he choofes •,
the nearelf filverfmith will be glad to perform the work,
free from charge for his labour, as the bringer, by the
operation, mud lofe a trifle, which the artift gains •, the
{mail quantity of metal that adheres to the crucible is
his profit.
The Birman meafures of length are a paul gaut or
inch, 18 of which compofe the jaim or cubit $ the
faundgaling or royal cubit, equal to 22 inches •, the
dad or bamboo, which confiiis of y royal cubits }
IOOO dha make one Birman league or dain, nearly
equal to two Britifh miles and two furlongs ; the
league is alfo fubdivided into tenths. I he Birmans
keep their accounts in decimals, after the manner of the
Chinefe.
The Birmans have hitherto carried few of the arts
to very great perfection, he art of agriculture, which
is the foundation of all others, feems in a very imper-
feCt ftate ; this, however, does not appear to arife fo
much from wrant of {kill in the people as from their
prefent fituation, which renders great exertions to pro¬
cure fubfiftence by no means neceffary. i he foil is
extremely fertile, while the population is very fcan-
ty ; the Birmans, therefore, are fomewhat in the date
of colonilts upon a new territory •, land is abundant
and cheap, while labour is obtained with difficulty ;
hence they cultivate only the moft fertile fpots, and
thefe in an indifferent manner, leaving the greater part
of the work to nature, which has been very bountiful
to them. They are not, however, altogether unac¬
quainted with fome ufeful pra&ices ; they everywhere
burn the rank grafs, once a year, to improve the
pafture. In fome quarters of the country neat farms
are to be feen, with lands well fenced and divided into
enclofures to receive the cattle, of which there are
great abundance ; the fields are divided by thorn
hedges •, the low grounds are prepared for rice, and the
higher lands are planted with leguminpus ftirubs, or left
for pafture.
The Birmans are at prefent endeavouring with great
fpirit to improve their maritime architecture. Formerly
they ufed only fmall veffels, no better than a kind of
boats j but having obtained farther information from
their communication with Europeans, they are now
launching veffels of confiderable magnitude. When
the Britiftr embaffy were at Rangoon, they faw feveral
{hips, upon the ftocks from 6cO to 1000 tons bur¬
den ; one belonging to the maywoon of Pegu, about
900 tons, was confidered, by profeflional men, as a fpe-
cimen of excellent workmanftdp •, it was entirely form¬
ed by Birman carpenters upon a French model, as are
moft of their large veffels, the Birmans having received
their firft rudiments of the art from that nation : three
or four veffels of burden were likewife in a ftate of
forwardnefs belonging to Engliftr adventurers. Bir¬
man ftiipwrights appear to finifh their wrork well •, they
are athletic men, and poffefs, in an eminent degree.
Aik.
that vigour which diftinguifhes Europeans, and gives
them pre-eminence over the enervated natives of Hin- v
dootlan. 144
Upon the fea coaft they manufaClure great quan-Salt.
tities of fait, from which the government derives a(,lotj1^5
confiderable revenue. Cloths of different kinds are
manufactured by the women in all parts of the empire j
and even in the royal palace they carry on domeftic
manufactures. On a vifit to the mother of the queen,
the ambaffador faw, in one of the galleries of her pa¬
lace, three or four looms at work. At Pegu the wo¬
men weave for their own and their hulhands ufe filk
and cotton cloth : the thread is well fpun ) the texture
of the web is clofe and ftrong, and is moftly chequer¬
ed like Scotch tartan. At a town in the interior,
called Pakang-yag, fituated on the river Irrawaddy,
large quantities of filken cloth, and of filk and cotton
mixed, are manufactured. The filk of which thefe
goods are made comes from Yunan, the fouth-weft
province of China, in a raw ftate} the colours are
bright and beautiful •, the texture is clofe, and the cloth
is faid to wear much longer than any Chinefe or In- I4(j
dian manufacture. At a town called Summei-kioum is Saltpetre
the greateft manufactory of faltpetre and gunpowderancl gun-
in the kingdom. From a prejudice not unulual in the Pow e ‘
infancy of commerce, neither faltpetre nor gunpowder
is fuffered to be exported upon any plea. At the fub-
urbs of a town called Paga/im, the members of the
embaffy found the inhabitants employed in preffing
oil from the fefamum feed; the grain is put into a oil nulls,
deep wooden trough, in which it is preffed by an up¬
right timber fixed in a frame ; the force is increafed
by a long lever, on the extremity of which a man fits
and guides a bullock that moves in a circle, thus turn¬
ing and preffing the feed at the fame time ; the ma¬
chine was fimple, and anfwered the purpofe effectually.
There were not lefs than 200 of thefe mills within a
narrow compafs. From the circumftances of the cattle
being in good order, we concluded, that they were, fecL
on the feed after the oil was extraCled. The land about
Pagahm fcarcely yields fufficient vegetation to nourifti
goats. 148
Our readers will readily believe, that we perufed Glafe.
with much pleafure the following paffage in Captain
Symes’s Account of his Embaffy : “ Among the arti¬
cles of foreign trade which had found their way into
the Birman country, nothing was held in higher efti-
mation than the European glafs-vvare, imported into
Rangoon from the Britiflr fettlements in India. The-
art of vitrification has long been known and praCtifed
in moft countries of the eaft ; but nowhere can they
make a pure tranfparent fubftance, like that which is
brought from Europe. The Birman monarch, who is
a great admirer of the manufaClure, was particularly'
defirous to introduce it into his own dominions; and
fuppofing that every Englilhman muft be verfed in the
knowledge of making whatever comes from his own
country, he fent a meffage to requeft that I would
furnifh his artificers with fuch inftruCtions as might en¬
able them to fabricate glafs of a quality equal to what
was made in England. Unluckily none of us happen¬
ed to be {killed in the myftery of a glafs-houfe ; all,
therefore, that we could do, was to explain the princi¬
ples of the art, which Dr Buchanan obligingly under¬
took; and, in order to facilitate them in the acquire-.
A S I t ?6o ] ' A S I
Alla. merit, and guide them in the pra£Hce, I lent them the
Encyclopedia Britannica, and pointed out the article
where the procefs is fully explained. Baba Sheen, the fe-
cond in authority at the port of Rangoon, and the Arme¬
nian interpreter, tranflated it into the Birman tongue.”
As the Birmans poffefs within their country the whole
materials from which the beft kinds of glafs are prepa¬
red, there is little reafon to doubt, that this a&ive peo¬
ple would fpeedily be enabled to reduce to pradfice the
leflon they obtained in the manner above mentioned j
and thus the proprietors and conductors of the Encyclo-
pasdia Britannica have the fatisfaCfion to know, that the
former edition of their work has contributed to diffufe,
in the moft diltant regions of the globe, a knowledge of
thofe arts which add convenience and elegance to civili¬
zed life. The utility of their undertaking has exceeded
the limits of their own forefight, as they have, in this
inftance at lead, laboured for the inftrufHon and im¬
provement of a prince and of a people, whofe very name
and exidence were unknown to them when their labours
commenced. Happy had it been for the nations of the
ead, had they derived from their intercourfe with Eu¬
ropeans no other fruits than the extenfionof fcience, and
the enlargement of their powers, by an acquaintance
with that command over the different objects of nature,
which human ingenuity has attained in this quarter of
the world.
One manufacture on which the Birmans bedow much
attention, mud not pafs unnoticed. It is carried on at
a village called Kyeock Zeit, and confids of the forma¬
tion of idols of marble. Our author faw 30 or 40
large yards crowded with datuaries at work, on ima¬
ges of various fizes, but all of the fame perfonage,
Gaudma, fitting crofs-legged on a pededal. The quar¬
ries whence the materials are obtained, are only a few
miles didant. The marble is brought to the village
in blocks and after being fafhioned, the blocks are
publicly fold to pious people. The larged little ex¬
ceeded the human fize, and the price was faid to be
100 tackals, that is, 12I. or 13I. : but fome diminutive
Gaud mas were to be difpofed of as low as two or three
tackals. The workmen were civil and communicative.
Their tools were a chifel and a mallet, and they
fmooth the image with freedone and water. Many
of the idols were beautifully polidied, which is faid to
be accomplidied by rubbing the marble with three
different forts of done •, the fird rough, the fecond finer,
and the third, fuch as hones are made of. The work¬
men afterwards ufe the palms of their hands. This lad
operation gives it a tranfparent clearnefs, far furpading
the brighted polifh that European marble ever exhibits.
Such images as are defigned for gilding, are not finifhed
fo highly ; but none of the idols are allowed to be fold
to any, except native Birmans.
Anextenfive trade is carried on between Ummerapoo-
•Comoaerc*. ra capital of the Birman dominions, and Yunan in
China. The principal export from the Birman territory
is cotton, of which it is faid there are two kinds, one of
a brown colour, of which nankeens are made, the other
white, like the cotton of India. This commodity is
tranfported up the Irrawaddy in large boats, as far as a
place called Bamoo; where it is bartered at the com¬
mon market with Chinefe merchants, who convey it
partly bv land and partly by water, into the Chinefe
dominions. Amber, ivory, precious dones, betel nut,
149
Marble.
IS°
Idols.
and the edible nefts brought from the eaflern Archipela- as*
go, are alfo articles of commerce. In return, the Bir- t ^
mans procure raw and wrought filks, gold leaf, pre-
ferves, paper, and fome utenfils of hardware. A great
inland commerce is alfo carried on between the capi¬
tal and the fouthern parts of the empire, which is
greatly aflifted by the noble river Irrawaddy, that wa¬
ters the country. The chief obje&s of this commerce
are the neceffaries of life. Several thoufand boats are
employed in tranfporting rice and fait from the fouth¬
ern or lower provinces, to fupply Ummerapoora and
the northern diltri&s. Up the fame ftrearn are con¬
veyed China ware and glafs •, alfo European broad
cloth, with fome hardware and coarfe muilins from
Bengal. Silver, lace, and precious ftones, are brought
down by the merchants.
J J
We have treated fomewhat minutely of the manners importance
and fituation of this people, becaufe they form a ftrik-ofthe Bir¬
ing exception to the general features of the Afiatic m!V\s 1:0 t^®
charafter, as it has always exifted among the other na-
tions that inhabit the more fertile diftrids of that great
continent. It is to be obferved, that the Birmans are
alfo of importance, in confequence of their geographi¬
cal pofition in relation to the great Britilh empire in
India. A durable veffel of burthen cannot be built in
the Ganges without the aid of teek plank, which can
only be procured from Pegu. Should the timber trade
of the Birman empire therefore be interrupted, the
marine of Calcutta, amounting to 40,000 tons of (hip¬
ping, would be reduced nearly to annihilation. This
marine has already been of importance to Britain. In
1794, 14,000 tons of (hipping, almofl entirely India
built, were freighted to carry rice to England, and re¬
duced the price of that article of food to three halfpence
per pound. The maritime ports of the Birman empire
are extremely commodious for Indian commerce. Bri¬
tain poffeffes the weftern fide of the bay of Bengal j the
Birmans the eaftern, which is far fuperior to the former
for the purpofes of navigation. From Cape Comorin to
the Ganges, is an unbroken line of expofed (hore, with¬
out afingle harbour capable of affording (belter to a vef.
fel of 500 tons burden : But the Birmans poffefs three
excellent ports, Negrais, the fecureft harbour in the
bay ; Rangoon, and Mergui, each of which is as con¬
venient, and not lefs acceffible than the Ganges, which
is the only Britifh port in the whole bay. In fuchcir-
cUmfianees, the importance to the government of the
wefiern peninfula of retaining a good underflanding
with thefe people, cannot be difputed. They are a
very different race from the timid and paffive Hindoos,
whom we have conquered. Though unequal to Eu¬
ropeans in manufa&ures or in arts, yet in a climate
adapted to their natural conftitution and unfriendly to
ours, they might prove dangerous enemies, in a con-
teft with whom much might be loft, and nothing can
be gained. _ . 153
After this account of the Birmans and their empire, The re-
it will be unneceffary to take much notice of the reft ofmainder of
the eaftern peninfula, as the inhabitants of that terri-the.e®fterB
tory appear upon the whole to poffefs the fame gene-Penl u
ral character, laws, and manners. To the fouth-eaft
of the Birman territory, the great eaftern peninfula
becomes forked, or divides itfelf into two feparate pe-
ninfulas, with the gulf of Siam between them. The
moft wefterly of thele two peninfulas, is a narrow tra&
A S I
r 761 i
A S I
Alia.
IS4
Malacca.
Kings, x.
23*
of country called Malacca, which ft retches fouthward
to a great diftance, till it approaches the equator. The
peninlula to the call ward of the gulf of Siam is much
broader than the other, but proceeds to a much lefs di¬
ftance fouthward. The city of Siam ftands at the bottom
of the bay of that name, where the divifion of Farther
India into two peninfulas commences. The peninfula,
beyond the Siamefe territory, contains the countries
called Ciampa, Cambodia, and Cochin-China, on the
eaft, and Tonquin on the north-eaft.
The ifthmus, or neck of land, by which the penin-
fula of Malacca joins the continent, is only about 50
miles in breadth. To the weftward of it, at the di¬
ftance of 260 miles, is tin? ifland of Junkfeilon, which
yields confiderable quantities of tin. In 1784, 500
tons of that metal were exported. Malacca itfelf yields
few commodities for exportation, excepting ivory and
tin. The city of Malacca, however, is a true empo¬
rium or magazine of the various rich articles of com¬
merce brought from the furrounding countries. T his
coaft was known to the ancients. It was celebrated
for its gold, on account of which it received the ap¬
pellation of Aurea Cherfonefus. Some imagine this to
have been the Ophir of Solomon, though others con¬
tend that Ophir was a port in Africa. One reafon
for fufpedling this or fome other port of India to have
been Ophir, is this, that Solomon’s fleet is faid to have
brought home peacocks. Thefe birds are natives of
India, and at that early period were unknown in the in¬
terior or fouthern coafts of Africa. It is farther to be
remarked, that on the eaftern fide of this peninfula,
much gold is found near Pahang. This town is fitu-
ated in N. Lat. 30 50', in a moft fruitful country, at
the mouth of a river which has an eftuary of about a
mile broad. The river contains much gold. Lumps
of five or fix ounces weight are faid to have been
found. It is brought up by divers. Sometimes eight
hundred weight has been exported, This place, there¬
fore, might well be the Ophir of Solomon 5 and the
Jewilh hiftorian, Jofephus, actually fixes it here.
Trangano or Tringoran, a fmall town a little to the
north of Pahang, is feated on a river near the fea. It
eonfifts of about 1000 houfes, half of which are inha¬
bited by Chinefe, who traffic in their junks to Siam,
Cambodia, and Tonquin. Trangano is moft deliciouf-
ly fituated amidft low hills, covered with the eternal
verdure of undeciduous trees. Lemons, oranges, man-
gofteens, and all the fruits of the Indies, grow here in
perfedlion ; and the valleys produce grain, pulfe, fugar,
and efpecially pepper, in great abundance *, but only
in confequence of the induftry of the Chinefe, for the
Malays themfelves are too indolent to make the earth
yield its full increafe. We know too little of the an¬
cient hiftory of this fingular people in particular, and
indeed of the whole peninfula beyond the Ganges in
general, to be able to account in a fatisfaffory manner
for their prefent ftate, or their connexion with a mul¬
titude of adjoining tribes and ftates. The ancients
formed of the whole of this great eaftern peninfula,
along both fides of the bay of'Siam, a mighty empire,
to which they gave the appellation of Thincc, or Since,
diftinguiffiing them from the Chinefe on the one hand,
and from the Hindoos on the. other. 1 he fimilarity of
charadter and cuftoms that is to be found among the
whole of thefe ftates of Birtnah, Malacca, Siam, Cambo-
Vol. II. Part II.
Atia,
dia, Cochin-China, and Tonquin, render the exiftence of
fuch an ancient empire extremely probable. It may have
been deftroyed by Tartar conquett or internal revolutions,
and the inhabitants may have loft a great part of the
civilization, and a multitude of the arts, which they
once poffeffed. That this laft fuppofition L not only
probable, but in fome degree true, is fufficiently de-
monftrated by a fadt mentioned by Captain Symes, in
the account already noticed, of his embafly to Umrr.e-
rapoora. He faw in many places beautiful vaults and
arches formed of ftone or brick, fupporting lofty build¬
ings ; but he learned, that the art of conllrudling
vaults or arches is at prefent entirely loft in the coun¬
try, and that no Birman workman will at the preftnt
period engage to eredl a building of that kind. 155
The charadter of the inhabitants of the peninfula be- Charadter
yond the Ganges, appears to be more ftrikingly mark-of the Ma-
ed in the Malays than any other people •, and at fome la>'5,
remote, period, they have undoubtedly made a confi¬
derable figure in thefe regions, and muft have poffeffed
a great fpirit of national enterprife. They differ from
the other ftates of the peninfula only in this, that the
Arabs have converted them to Mahometanifm. I he
feudal fyftem at prefent exifts among them in full per-
fedfion or barbarity. They have the fame pride of
honour and delight in war that diftinguifh the Bir¬
mans, and that marked the charadter of the ancient
inhabitants of the north of Europe. They are govern¬
ed by petty chiefs, who are engaged in endlefs and
fanguinary hoftilities againft each other. Like the
Birmans, the people in their perfons are robuft, but
not tall. They are adtive and reftlefs, and their fero¬
city in war is unbounded : No enterprife is fo danger¬
ous as to deter them from engaging in it. Not only
will a handful of them in a boat attempt to board an
European veffel of any fize, and to murder the crew
with their poniards •, but when employed by the
Dutch as foldiers in their v'ars againft the Engliftr or
Portuguefe, 14 or 20 of them have -been known to
fally from a fort, under cover of the fmoke of the can¬
non ; and having found their way in an inftant into
one of the batteries of the befiegers, they have ftabbed
almoft the whole gunners while working the artillery,
and retreated with little lofs, and before effedlual.mea-
fures could be taken againft them. The Dutch are fo
cautious with regard to them, that unlefs in cafe of ex¬
treme neceflity, they never employ above two or three
of them at once as mariners on board the fame fliip :
Yet this people, barbarous as they now are, have at
one period made fuch national exertions, that their
race and language is found to extend over a very large 156
portion of the globe. To the fouth and eaft of Ma-^fiatic Ar-
lacca the great Afiatic Archipelago is fituated, con- chlPelag°*
taining a multitude of ifles of immenfe extent. Over
a great part of thefe ifles the Malays have fpread
themfelves, and their language is fpoken. The firft
ifland to the fouth and fouth-weft of Malacca is Suma¬
tra, the paffage between which and the main land, is
called the Jlraits of Malacca. The ifland of Sumatra
is croffed in the middle by the equator : its length is
about 800 mile1-, and its'breadth about 13c. A range
of mountains runs along the whole ifland, fnmetimes
in a double or triple chain, w-ith beautiful valleys be¬
tween them-, but unlefs where cleared, both valleys
and mountains are clothed with fhady forefts. The
5 D ifland
Ada.
J57
Siam.
IsS
Cambodia.
A S I [ 762 ]
A
S I
illand has long been celebrated for its gold, and a moun¬
tain under the line is called Ophir, which affords an ad¬
ditional reafon for fuppofing that the (hips of King So¬
lomon came to this quarter of the world. It is 13,842
feet high, or two miles and 1094 yards. The Malays
upon the ifland are faid to be fkilful artifts in works of
fillagree, in both gold and filvtr. Sugar, ivory, teek
wood, and all the other tropical productions, are found
upon it ; but its climate is extremely deflruCtive to
Europeans. Though no fnow is ever feen on the ifland,
yet the inhabitants of the mountains, like thofe of other
Alpine regions, are fubjeCt to monftrous wens in the
neck, or goitres.
To the eaft of Sumatra, and divided from it by the
ftraits of Sunda, is the ifland of Java, in which alfo
the Malays abound, and in which the Dutch have
their fettlement of Batavia. Like Sumatra, a chain
of mountains runs along the middle of it, and it is ex¬
tremely unhealthy to Europeans. Eafhvard of Java is
the great ifland of Borneo, immediately under the line.
A great part of the coafts is in the hands of the Malays,
though Moors and Javanefe are alfo found here. It
produces all the vegetable and mineral productions that
are found in the other parts of the Indies. The inte¬
rior is mountainous, but unhealthy j and this, like all
the reft of thefe iflands, is fubjedt to frequent and very
dangerous earthquakes. The original inhabitants of
this and the other iflands in its neighbourhood are ex¬
tremely barbarous, and have been driven from the fea
coaft by the Malays and other ftrangers. To the north-
eaft of Borneo are the Philippine iflands; and to the
fouth-eaft are Celebes and the Molucca ifles, beyond
which is New Guinea, with a multitude of adjoining
iflands, all inhabited by barbarous tribes of little im¬
portance in a general view of Alia. To the fouth of
all thefe iflands is the vaft ifland, or rather continent, of
New Holland, which is fcarcely inhabited, though
equal in fize to Europe.
Returning to the continent of Farther India, the
kingdom of Siam is fituated, as already mentioned, at
the bottom of the bay of that name, to the fouth-eaft
of the Birman territory. The city Hands at the mouth
of a large river called Meinam, which fertilizes the
country, and affords an internal navigation to a confi-
derable diftance. , The river is deep, rapid, and broad¬
er than the Elbe. The upper part is rocky and in¬
terrupted by catarads. At its lower part, the ftream
divides into feveral channels, pafling through a level
country, which it fertilizes by periodical inundations.
The country is woody. The houfes, like thofe of the
Birmans, are raifed aloft on ftilts or poll- ; but upon
the river a kind of floating habitations are ufed, in
which many people conflantly refide, and occafionally
move from place to place when the waters are high.
The capital is in latitude 140 30', and is furroundtd
by a lofty brick wall, which has not always been able,
as already noticed, to defend it againft the arms of the
Birmans. Rice is produced in amazing crops, and all
the fruits of the Indies rife up with little or no cultiva¬
tion. Logwood, like that cut in Campeachy, is faid
to be one of the productions of the country. The
Siamefe territory is very narrow from eaft to weft, but
extends northward along its own river to a confiderable
diftance.
To the call ward of Siam is the kingdom of Cambo¬
dia, extending along the banks of its river, which Alia,
flows in a courfe nearly parallel to the river of Siam. —y—«J
The moft foutherly point of the country, being the
eaftern extremity of the gulf of Siam, is called Cape
Cambodia, beyond which the coaft turns to the ealt-
ward, and the river Cambodia difeharges itfelf into
the fea through feveral mouths, forming by its allu¬
vions a very fertile trad of territory, like the rivers of
Siam and of Birmah. The capital Hands 90 miles up
the river, and confifts only of one ftreet, built on am
eminence, to preferve it during the inundations : The
prefent city of Cambodia, is fuppofed to be near the j^
fite of Thina Metropolis Sinarum, of Ptolemy and Mar-Ancient,
cianus. Mr Caverhill quotes Argenfol for the proof, city*
and fays, on his authority, that marble ruins of an ex-
tenfive city have been difcovered to the north-weft of
Cambodia : yet Ptolemy relates, that it was not fur-
rounded with fuch walls, nor had any thing worth
mentioning. Arrian, in his Periplus Maris Erythrcei,
calls it the greateft of the inland cities, and that it lent
to Barygaza, the modern Barochia, on the weftern
fide of Hindooftan, wool, thread, and othonium fcri-
cum. Thefe were carried the whole of the journey by
men on foot : prodigious indeed muft the journey have
been, if it is true that they w'ent through Baftra, a
detour of amazing extent. The kingdom of Cambo¬
dia was known to the Arabs by the name of Rachmi.
It was vifit.ed in the ninth century by two Arabian tra¬
vellers, who report, that the fineft muflins in the world
were made there, and that the natives wore garments fo
fine, that they might be drawn through a middle-fized
ring. The fame writers tell wonderful things of the
karkandan or unicorn ; but from the whole defcription,
it is evident, that they mean no other animal than the
one-horned rhinoceros. ' , jgQ
The noted iftand of Pulo Condore lies about IJIflaml of
leagues to the fouth of the weftern channel of the Con-
Cambodia. It is fttuated in latitude 8° 40'. Its form^01'5*
is that of a crefcent ; the length not above eight miles,
the greateft breadth about two: the whole is lofty
and mountainous, and it is furrounded by lefler ifles.
The name is derived from pulo, an ifle, and condore,
a calabafti, from its production of that fruit. It was
viftted by Dampier in 1686. Here Dampier’s crew
found the.cuftom to prevail which we have noticed,
among the inferior clafs of Birmans, which exifts over
the whole peninfula beyond the Ganges, of the people
of ordinary rank allowing their women to live with
ftrangers. Our poet, Prior, humoroufly exaggerates
the practice, and by miftake alcribes it to the Chi-
nefe.
“ In China, Dampier’s travels tell ye,
(Look in his index fer Pagelli),
boon as the Britifh ftiips unmoor,
And jolly long-boats row to thore ;
Down come the nobles of the land,
Each brings his daughter in his hand j
Befeeching th’ imperious tar.
To make her but one hour his care.
The tender mother Hands affrighted,
Left her dear daughter fhould be flighted;
And poor Mifs Yaya dreads the fhame
Of going back the maid the came.”
itft
Eaftward of the eftuarics of the river of Cambodia, is Ciaropa.
the
A S I
[ 763 ]
A S I
Afia.
1C2
Cochin-
China.
the fmall territory of Ciampa, extending about 150
r miles along the iliore : the breadth not exceeding 90.
The people appear to be of the fame race ^vith thofe
that inhabit the reft of the peninfula, but their chief
is tributary to the Cochin-Chinefe, whom, however,
they excel in naval, though not in military affairs.
Their (hips, or junks, are extremely well built j they
are chiefly employed in the filheries, which are very
confiderable, and form their moft important fource of
commerce. The Chinefe fend (hips very frequently to
the northern parts of the country laden with tea, an
inferior fort of filk, porcelain, and fome other com¬
modities of that empire. They take in return gold
and columbo wood, to be burnt on the tombs of their
anceftors and relations, or before the altars of their di¬
vinities. It is to be obferved, that a ftrange mixture
of religions here exifts, in confequence of the influ¬
ence of the neighbouring nations upon this fmall ma¬
ritime ftate. Many of the people are Mahometans.
Others are followers of the Chinefe philofopher, Con¬
fucius 5 a third fort are worlhippers of Gaudma ; and
the greateft part of the people jumble all thefe fyftems
together. They all agree, however, to tolerate each
other.
To the eaftward of its tributary, Ciampa, the king¬
dom of Cochin-China begins, forming a long ftripe of
territory along the eaftern flioi^ of the farther peninfu¬
la of India. To the woffward it is limited by a chain
of lofty mountains, which run parallel to the coaft of
the Chinefe fea, or eaftern Pacific ocean. T he whole
of Cochin-China, beginning from the borders of Cam¬
bodia, is in form of a bow, bending into the ocean as
far as Cape Varelle, in Lat. 130, when it inclines to
its northern extremity, in Lat. I7°30'. The whole
length of this great curvature is about five hundred and
fixty miles, the breadth not exceeding that which we
have afcribed to Ciampa. The northern borders are
defended by a wall, which runs from the fea to the
great chain of mountains, and forbids all approach from
that quarter, as the inacceflible chain itfelf does every
attempt of invafion from their weftern neighbours. The
lower parts of this kingdom are overflowed during the
rainy feafon •, and here, as elfewhere in India, rice is
the greateft harveft : a kind as white as fnow is cultiva¬
ted on the mountains and dry foils : when dreffed, it is
of a flimy vifcous nature, and is made into paftes. Su¬
gar, cotton, pepper, and other Indian commodities, are
alfo cultivated here in great abundance by the labour
of free men, and are articles of commerce with China.
Among other commodities which are exported, men¬
tion is made of filk, and of certain kinds of wood much
efteemed in the eaft, fuch as, aloes wood, or agollo-
cha, erroneoufly called eaglewood, columbo, and others,
of value either in mechanics or for their fweet fcent.
The price of columbo wood on the very fpot is five du¬
cats a pound, at the ports fixteen, and in Japan, to
which much is exported, two hundred. A pillow of
this wood is the higheft luxury of the orientalifts, par¬
ticularly of the Japanefe, who will give three or four
hundred ducats per pound for a piece big enough for
that purpofe. The agollocha bears a good price, great
quantities being (hipped for Hindooftan for the ufe of
the Hindoos, to burn their dead, who feem to emulate
the ancient Romans in the aromatic profufion of their
funeral piles.
The war-boats of the Cochin-Chinefe are very nu- Afin.
merous, and referable thofe of the Birmans. Thofe'   
allotted to the defence of the coaft are finely painted ^
and highly varnilhed, rowed with fifty oars, and carry p0vver 0r
a cannon at the head, and two fmall ones on each fide. Cochin-
The navy of the country is quickly manned, every di- China,
ftrift being bound to furnilh a certain number of fai-
lors, who ferve with alacrity, as they are well treated,
and their wives and children fupported during their
abfence. They are dreffed in uniform, with a gilt hel¬
met, and a cloak which leaves their right arm quite
bare.
The Cochin-Chinefe have confiderable fifheries, and
both confume and export fifh in large quantities. I hey
make ufe of elephants as beafts of burden. On the backs
of thefe huge animals they place a machine like the
body of a coach, which conveys of outfide and infide
paffengers about thirteen or fourteen perfons. When
the elephants arrive at a river, they take the water very
readily, and even convey their fare in perfect fafety over
an arm of the fea a mile wide. The people of this coun¬
try referable the Chinefe in their perfons, but they are
lefs in body, and more brave and aflive. I he com¬
plexion of thofe on the coaft is olive : that of the inland
inhabitants near the mountains is fairer, and approaches
to that of Europeans. _ I(j4
The bay of Tonquin begins near the wall of Cochin- Tonqum.
China, at the northern extremity of that kingdom.
The entrance of the bay is bounded on the eaftern fide
by the ifland of Hainan. The tides of this bay have
long been remarked on account of the following pecu¬
liarity, that a fingle flux and reflux occupies a full pe-^
riod of 24 hours. The kingdom of Tonquin is very
narrow towards the fouth, at the Cochin-Chinefe wall.
To the weft it is there bounded by the Cochin-Chi¬
nefe chain of mountains, which foon retires, and gra¬
dually leaves a larger and larger expanfe to the great
plain of which this kingdom confifts. The country is
very populous, being thick fet with villages. It is
watered by a river, which, coming from the north or
north-weft, is called by the name of the country, Ton¬
quin. It enters the bay by two mouths, one of which,
having only 12 feet water, is frequented by the flat-
bottomed veffels of the Siamefe and Chinefe j but the
other being deeper, is frequented by European veffels.
The river is fubjedt, like all others in that territory,
to periodical floods, which fertilize the foil, and enable
it to give forth abundant crops of rice and other pro-
dudtions of warm climates. The natives are acquaint¬
ed, like the Birmans, with the pradtice of rearing oeca-
fional dwellings for any temporary purpofe. About
fix leagues from the mouth of the river is the village
of Domea, ufually confifting of a hundred houfes ; yet,
on the arrival of the European (hips, it foon increafes
to a large town. The natives refort, for the fake of
trade, from all parts. Houfes fuddenly fpring up ; for
being only conftrudled of frames of bamboo, and the
roof of palm or other leaves, a temporary town is quick¬
ly formed, in which a fair is kept as long as the ftiips
remain in the harbour. Here, as w'ell as in Cochin-
China, Chinefe opinions and notions prevail in a con¬
fiderable degree. The religion of the country appears
to be that of Budho, or Gaudma. Here alfo, as
among the Birmans and all the other nations of the
peninfula beyond the Ganges, the ftrange pradlice pre-
5 D 2 vail#
A S I [ 764 ]
Afia. vails of rendering the teeth black by means of art. All cific ocean on the eaft.
“"V——perfons, high or low, rich and poor, are under the ne-
ceflity of undergoing a dyeing procefs, for the purpofe
of avoiding that difgrace to human nature, of having
teeth white, like thole of dogs or elephants. Prior men¬
tions this cuftom, but transfers it to the Chinefe :
A ti n.
l6*
Review of
the eaftern
peninfula.
166
China.
“ In China, none hold women fweet,
“ Unlefs their fnags are black as jet :
“ King Chiku put nine queens to death,
“ Convidt on ftatute iv’ry teeth.”
From the brief defcription here given of thefe coun¬
tries, it will not be difficult to underftand the phyfical
afpedl of the great peninfula of Farther India, and the
political divifions which have refulted from it. Ara-
can on the weft, and Cochin-China on the eaft of the
peninfula, bear a confiderable refemblance to each
other. They both confift of a narrow tradl of fertile
territory, extending along the ftiore, and having be¬
hind them towards the continent a large chain of lofty
and rugged mountains, which form the natural as well
as political boundary. The reft of the peninfula is
chiefly formed in the following manner :—Several
chains of mountains run from north to fouth. Be¬
tween every two chains is a tradt of fertile country,
watered by a large river, proceeding alfo from north
toward the fouth. Each of thefe valleys forms a
kingdom, which is long and narrow, and bounded to
the eaft and the weft by a chain of mountains : Thus
are formed the countries of Birmah, Siam, Cambodia,
and Tonquin. The narrow peninfula of Malacca,
however, muft be regarded as a fort of territory by it-
felf, probably formed by a continuation to a great di-
ftance fouth ward of the chain of mountains that di¬
vides the Birman from the Siamefe territory. Were
it poffible to unite into one empire the various nations
which we have mentioned as inhabiting this vaft penin¬
fula of India to the eaft ward of the Ganges, the vigo¬
rous charadler ot the people would probably render
them extremely formidable to their neighbours the Chi¬
nefe on the north eaft, as well as the Hindoos of the
weftern peninfula. Any union of thefe countries, how¬
ever, into one ftate, though a poffible event, could on¬
ly be accomplifhed during a great length of time, and
after many ftruggles, in confequence of the bravery of
the people, and the readinefs with which they engage
in war. The Birmans have indeed conquered Pegu,
but only in confequence of a long continuance of the
moft fanguinary' confficls, which exhaufted the popula¬
tion of both ftates, and almoft deftroyed the inhabitants
of the conquered country. Aracan was, no doubt, more
eafily united to the Birman empire j but this in all pro¬
bability arofe from its being accidentally ill governed,
and perhaps alfo from its vicinity to Hindooftan, which
had led its inhabitants to acquire much of the feeble
charadler of the Hindoos. In the contefts between the
Birmans and the Siamefe, it appeared that neither of the
nations could be fubdued, and that before the one of
them could enlarge its territory, it muft nearly extermi¬
nate the population of. the other.
From the peninffila of Farther India, we proceed
north-eaftward to China, of which we ftiall not here
find it neceffhry to fay much. As already mentioned,
it is the tradl of country which forms the gradual de-
fcent from the high regions of Tartary towards the Pa-
157
AST
The dominion of the Chinefe
emperor extends over a civilized people, from the ftraits
of Hainan, in N. Lat. 20° 13', to the extremity of the
province of Pe-tche-li, in Lat. 410 15', comprehending
a fpace of nearly fifteen hundred miles in length, and
in breadth above a thoufand. Or, more accurately,
according to the information obtained by Lord Macart¬
ney’s embaffy, China Proper includes a fpace of
1,297,999 fquare miles, inhabited by a population of
333,0°0,000. The ifland of Hainan, already mention-lfle of Hai-
ed, is at the fouthern extremity of the empire j but it is nan.
only half fubdued, the natives in the interior of it main¬
taining their independence amidft lofty mountains. It
produces gold, and the /apis laxu/i, which is in great
requeft among the Chinefe, for giving a blue glazing to
their porcelain. It has confiderable fiftieries on its
coafts. From the continent oppofite to this ifland the
coaft proceeds towards the north-eaft to the bay of Can-
ton, which is the port frequented by Europeans. AtCantoa.
Canton begins the celebrated imperial canal, or palfage
by water, which reaches from hence within land to Pe--
kin, and the extremities of the empire ; an extent of
about 1800 Englifh miles. Part of this inland naviga¬
tion is formed by rivers and lakes, and the reft of it con-
fiftsof a canal 900 miles in length, and a fathom and a
half in depth. On the courfe of this internal naviga¬
tion, multitudes of populous cities are fituated, amidft a
country in which the cultivation of every part of the
foil is carried on with the moft minute attention and
economy. _ _
Of the coafts of China, and indeed of the country at Coafts of
large, not much is known, in confequence of the jea-f!hina,
loufy which they entertain of all foreigners, and of the
great rigour with which they put in force their prohibi¬
tion to trade in any of their ports except Canton.
The next province to the north-eaft, proceeding
along the coaft, is called Foo-tchien. The country is
hilly and irregular : but, by the induftry of the inhabi¬
tants, the fides of the hills are formed into terraces, af-
cending in a feries of twenty or thirty, one above an¬
other*, and thefe terraces are often continued for feveral
miles in length. Water is forced up to thefe terraces in
pipes of bamboo, and grain and other vegetables are
cultivated upon them. On an ifland called A-mwy, on
the coaft of this province, is a vaft rocking ftone, of 40
tons weight, moveable by the flighted: touch. Oppo¬
fite to the coaft, alfo, is the ifland of Formofa, 90
leagues in length and 30 in breadth.—The next pro¬
vince northward on the eaftern coaft: is called Tche-
Tchiang. Like the reft of China, it is amazingly com¬
mercial, It is remarkable for its rich embroidered filks,
its timber, its forefts of bamboo, its falt-works upon the
coafts, its mulhrooms, hams, and vegetable tallow. A
great part of the province has been won from the fea,
as Holland was by the Dutch. It is guarded by im-
menfe mounds from the fury of the waves \ and thefe
mounds remain as ftupendous marks of the induftry of
this moft populous nation. They far exceed the fimilar
dykes of Holland, as they have a much more powerful
ocean to refift than that which aflails the coaft of the
European low' countries.
1 • 170
The next province northward is called Kyang-Nan,^^
near the northern boundary of which is the great and worms,
rapid river Whang-ho-hoo. Among the curiofities of
this province is faid to be the worm that fabricates not
the
Afia.
171
Northern
boundary
of China.
I?*
Climate.
173
Polygamy
of the Chi
nefe.
A S I [76
the common filk, but that mentioned by Pliny, which
he and the ancient writers believed to be the only fpe-
cies of that beautiful production. Pliny reprefents filk
as a vegetable, combed from the leaves and branches of
trees. His error is not furprifing j for the wild worms
of this province, which refemble caterpillars, fpin their
webs on fhrubs and bulhes, and furniih as great quanti¬
ties as the domeftic worms. This filk cods in a manner
nothing, and is fo firong that the goods made from it
are uncommonly lading.
From hence northward, the Chinefe coad is expofed
not to the open ocean, but to a gulf, the eaftern fide
of which confifts of the peninfula of Korea. In Lat.
38° 11! begins the province of Pe-tche-li already men¬
tioned, which in N. Lat. 30° takes a north-eaftern di¬
rection, and on the fide of the gulf finilhes China Pro¬
per, in N. Lat. 40°. The capital, Pekin, is in this
northern part of the empire, about 100 miles from the
mouth of the river Pei-ho. The empire ends about
150 miles farther, in Lat 40° 45', where the celebra¬
ted wall begins, whofe length in a ftraight line is 700
or 800 miles, and including its windings and afeents over
craggy mountains, or defeents into deep valleys, may '
be eftimated at double that length. It was intended as
a bulwark againft the invafions of the Tartars on this
moft acceffible fide of the empire ; but this purpofe it
has never fuccefsfully fulfilled.
The climate of China is liable to fevere viciffitudes
of heat and cold. The heat is powerful during the
fummer, becaufe a great part of the country is in a
fouthern latitude, and becaufe its great extent does not
admit of its being cooled' by breezes from the fea. At
the fame time its vicinity to Siberia on the north, and
to the elevated country of Tartary on the weft, the
mountains of which are covered with perpetual fnow,
expofe it to a degree of cold in winter greater than
what is known in the fouthern parts of Europe. It is
alfo to be remarked, that the Chinefe rivers, efpecially
towards the northern parts of the empire, have a far
more rapid current than thofe of either peninfula of In¬
dia : the reafon is, the country of China is itfelf much
more elevated than India. It rifes far more fuddenly
from the Pacific ocean than India does from its own
feas. Hence is is enabled to oppofe a more powerful
front to the "waters which wafh its coafts, and which,
impelled by the trade winds, would otherwife very ra¬
pidly encroach upon the land in this quarter of the
globe.
In China, domeftic life is undoubtedly upon a worfe
footing than in the Indian peninfulas. The Hindoos
who have not become Mahometans are monogamifts •,
and we have feen that the fame law prevails among the
Birmans and the other nations of the eaftern peninfu¬
la. But in China polygamy has always been allowed.
This neceffarily produces an unfocial mode of living,
and the jealous feclufion of one half of the human
fpecies which uniformly attends the exiftence of fuch
a law. It is not improbable, however, that the per-
miflion of polygamy, accompanied as it is in China,
by a law of fucceflion, which admits of no right of pri¬
mogeniture, but divides the whole property of the pa¬
rents equally among the children, mav contribute in-
no fmall degree to the produ&ion of the crowded po¬
pulation that is found to exift in this empire. The lu¬
xury and fenfuality of rich men is thus directed into a
5 ] AS!
particular channel. Inftead of becoming oftentalious Afia.
and magnificent in their drefs, equipage, and houfes,1 ,
they are led to expend their wealth in fupporting and
rearing up very numerous families. 174
The ftrudlure of the Chinefe government perhaps Chinefe go-
deferves even more attention from philofophers than it%crnaiei
has hitherto obtained. They acknowledge in their
emperor abfolute power in the moft unlimited degree.
From the nature of human affairs, however, it is evi¬
dent that this power can be diredlly exerted over only
a few individuals of the immenfe fociety of which he is
the head. The people at large muft neceffarily be go¬
verned by delegated authority •, and the value of the
conftitution of the ftate, or of the mode of government,
muft depend upon the manner in which a fele£lion is
made of thofe magiftrates to whom the imperial power
is intruded. The Chinefe emperor, like other Afiatic
princes, will naturally be led to pafs much of his time
in the luxury of his palace among eunuchs and wo¬
men. Were the nomination of the magiftrates of the
empire altogether intrufted to fuch a man, it is evident
that the adminiftration of affairs would fpeedily go in¬
to confufion, and ufurpation and anarchy prevail.
This, however, rarely occurs *, and it is the peculiar
nature of the Chinefe government to reconcile defpo-
tifm with a regular and prudent adminiftration of af¬
fairs, and the luxury and weaknefs of the prince, with
fidelity and ability on the part of his minifters. Fo¬
reign conqueft does not alter this order of tilings, ihe
ftrangers fpeedily coalefce with the vanquiftred people,
and the conqueror fubmits his arbitrary will to the cu-
ftoms that he finds eftablifhed among a wealthy and a
numerous people. Hence the civilization of China has
exifted from the remoteft antiquity. It has had pe¬
riods of interruption and of anarchy, during which the
nation has fubmitted to ftrangers ; but thefe ftrangers
foon ceafed to be known as fuch. The ancient laws
of the empire, by the admiration which they excited,
fubdued the minds of the barbarians, whofe arms had
proved irrefiftible.
The oftenfible maxim of the Chinefe government or
conftitution is this: that paternal authority is in all fitu-
ations to be refpefted and implicitly obeyed ; that the
emperor is the father of the people, and to be regard¬
ed with boundlefs reverence as iuch that all inferior
magiftrates are to be regarded in the fame point of
view ; and the feverities they inflift are to be confider-
ed not as the puniftnnent of criminals, but as the chaf-
tifement of children intended for their benefit. From
the nature of the human charafter, however, it is evi¬
dent that this fiffion, applied to a Tartarian conqueror
recently feated upon the throne, would only go a fhort
way to preferve the tranquillity of the ftate, and that,
even under a long eftabliflied line of hereditary princes,
it would have little effeft in reftraining the ambition
of enterprifing individuals, or in preferving the fubmift
fion of a difeontented people. It may operate at times
perhaps as a falutary prejudice on the minds of the
weak and ignorant, or it may afford a plaufible juftifi-
cation of that implicit obedience in the people, and ab¬
folute power in the prince, which are eftablifhed and
maintained by more powerful means j but farther its
influence can fcarcely extend.
The radical principle of the political conftitution of
China muft confift of a more powerful and efficient
principle,
Afia.
A S I [ 766
principle, winch appears to be this:—The law, or an¬
cient cullom of China, fo arranges affairs, that the bell
informed men in the country, and thofe whofe charac¬
ters are moft unexceptionable, fhall at all times polfefs
the power of the date and the adminiftration of public
bufinefs. Literature there affords the means of ad¬
vancement j and China affords the Angular example of
a country governed by its men of letters. In this em¬
pire no order of nobility or of magiflracy is hereditary.
The whole country, however, is ruled by a privileged
clafs of individuals called Mandarins, and it is upon
the mode in which this ruling clafs is nominated, or
felefled from the mafs of the people, that the peculia¬
rity of the Chinefe conflitution and its whole value de¬
pend. There are two fets of mandarins, the civil and
the military, who are employed in thefe different de¬
partments of the public fervice. Of each department
there are fix or feven claffes or orders of mandarins,
afcending above each other in a regular gradation of
rank. The fon of the lowed perfon in the fiate is al¬
lowed at certain appointed periods to prefent himfelf
for trial before the mandarins of his diftrift, either ci¬
vil or military. If his charaffer is without reproach,
and if after various examinations, his learning: or fkill
in the appointed exercifes appear complete, he is ad¬
mitted to the rank of a mandarin of the lowed order,
which makes him a candidate for certain public offices,
as the emperor, unlefs in very lingular cafes, only con¬
fers public employments upon mandarins thus found
duly qualified. After a certain time he may prefent
himfelf for trial in his didridl before the next fuperior
order of mandarins, and,»if received into their num¬
ber, his rank in fociety is proportionably augmented,
and he becomes a candidate for dill higher employ¬
ments. He may thus afcend by force of talents, and
of an unblemiffied reputation, through all the orders of
mandarins, till he is enrolled in the highed clafs, out
of which the miniders of date, governors of provinces,
and commanders of armies are appointed. In the dif¬
ferent examinations and trials, favour or hereditary in-
tered can give little affidance to the candidate ; for no
mandarin ever holds an office in the province where he
was born fo that the judges cannot be the kindred of
the perfons who appear before them for examination
or trial.
One would almod fuppofe that fuch a conditution
mud be abfolutely perfeft. The edabliffiment of a
of the Chi- hereditary reigning family at its head repreffes inordi-
nefe conftt-nate ambition, and prevents military ufurpations by
foldiers of fortune. As the emperor pofiefles the power
of appointing any one of the imperial family as his fuc-
ceflbr, the hazard is avoided of having at any time an
idiot or an infant placed at the head of the date. The
expence of his court can be of little importance in this
mighty empire. The abfolute power afcribed to him
can do little harm, as he is at all times furrounded by
the abled and mod virtuous men of the nation. The
manners of the people cannot become corrupted, be-
caufe vice is not kept in countenance by the bad ex¬
ample of powerful men ; as didindlion and power can
only be attained by perfons whofe integrity of conduct
is proved to the fatisfadfion of men of advanced age,
who have themfelves rifen to eminence by the accom-
pliffiments of their minds and the purity of their lives.
It mud be difficult, or almod impoffible, to didurb the
]
A s 1
*75
Apparent
perfection
internal tranquillity of fuch a nation, becaufe the abled Afia.
men that it contains are at the head of all affairs ; and —y~“—'
the power which refults from uniting intellectual fupe-
riority to the authority of office mud' evidently prove
irrefidible. The adminidration, alfo, of public bufi-
nels will in general be well condudted, becaufe the in¬
ferior mandarins, unprotedled by family connexions,
will have no means of feeuring indemnity for ill con-
duX, and becaufe their ambition will naturally lead
them condantly to endeavour to recommend themfelves
to thofe of a fuperior clafs, whofe public approbation
affords the only means of obtaining farther preferment.
Accordingly, in no country in the world has any go¬
vernment found it praXicable to execute and keep in
repair fuch immenfe public works as are found in Chi¬
na. Their prodigious canals and regular roads, toge¬
ther with the immenfe public magazines of grain accu¬
mulated to guard againd any partial or general fcar-
city, demondrate this to the fatisfaXion of every tra¬
veller. . 17£
Yet this apparently unexceptionable government, Bad effects
which produces a numerous, an indudrious, a peace-0^t^e
ful, and wealthy people, does undoubtedly contain in
a moral or intelleXual point of view, feme great and
radical defeX. It is true, that under it men become
no worfe; but it is alfo true that they become no bet¬
ter. No improvements are ever made ; arts and
fciences have remained for ages in the fame date j in¬
vention is unknown : Imitation, regularity, and rou¬
tine, pervade every order of fociety, and lull the hu¬
man faculties into everlading dumber. Though the
Chinefe annals extend to many thoufands of years of ci¬
vilization, yet in a few centuries, the Europeans, emer¬
ging from barbarifm, have been able to furpafs them
in every fcience, and almod in all the arts of life. The
prefent Chinefe are precifely what their forefathers
were 4000 years ago, and ffiould their political ar¬
rangement continue for ages to come, there is no rea-
fon to believe that they will rife above their prefent
date. With all their literature and all the encourage¬
ment they give to it, they do not yet praXife alpha¬
betical writing; but having a mark for every feparate
word, it is neceffary for them to fpend many years in
learning to -write and read. Though they have been
acquainted -with gunpowder from a very remote an¬
tiquity, the military art among them is fo contempti¬
ble, or fuch is underdood to be the feeblenefs of their
charaXer, that it is believed an European army of
ioo,oco men would find little difficulty in dethron¬
ing their emperor, and feizing the government of the
country. 177
The imbecility of charaXer, or the dagnation ofTlie defeft
intelleX which takes place in China, cannot be aferib-
ed to religion as among the fuperditious Hindoos, for China,
they tolerate all religions : they even admit of no re¬
ligious edabliffiment, and the greater number of them
are fuppofed, as already mentioned, to be of the fame
religion with the more vigorous and aXive Birmans.
The weaknefs of the Chinefe, therefore, and want of
progrefs in improvement, is in all probability to be af¬
cribed to the manner in which power and preferment
are obtained under their political conditution. In all
countries the higher claffes of fociety are apt to be
afraid of novelties, becaufe their fituatinn cannot be
made better. The lower claffes, on the contrary, per¬
ceiving
A S I [ .7^7 ] AST
Afia. ceiving tliemfelves at the bottom of the wheel of fortune,
—v 1 readily fet changes at defiance, and are fond of whatever
promifes to improve their condition. H^nce they ap¬
plaud and patronize, though frequently to their coil, the
fearlefs, the ambitious, and the contrivers of whatever
is bold or uncommon. The higher daffes naturally
oppofe all this, and patronize among their inferiors the
qualities of caution, docility, fubmifiion, and what¬
ever is fartheft from innovation or an impatience of con-
troul. In every fociety, ambitious men regulate their
conduct in the way betl calculated to recommend them
to thofe from whom promotion comes. Hence in Eng¬
land, in confequence of the exillence in the political
conftitution of a portion of popular patronage, afpiring
individuals have often attempted to recommend them-
felves to notice by turbulence, and by loud declara¬
tion that "all was wrong and ought to be altered. But
in a fociety arranged like China, every candidate for
preferment muil neceffarily fiudy to regulate his con-
dud and manners in the way moft acceptable to hi- fu-
periors, who in that country are a fet of wealthy and
prudent old men. He will, therefore, like a fiudent
on trial for a degree at one of our univerfities, avoid
whatever looks like novelty, ralhnefs, or difrefped for
thofe above him : He will labour to fpeak as they
fpeak, and to think as they think : thus ambition it-
felf will make him tame and fubmiffive, and the paf-
fion for diftindion will render him careful to keep in
the beaten track, and to fubdue his mind to an unqua¬
lified acquiefcence in whatever has been long efta-
blifhed. A fociety, whofe moft vigorous members are
thus conftantly occupied in fubduing their own minds,
and reducing them to this paffive temper and to a
correfponding demeanour, will neceflarily poffefs the
charader of prudence, languor, timidity, and perpe¬
tual old age : It will hate novelty and invention, which
will render improvement impoflible, becaufe all im¬
provements are new, and the refult of a reftlefs fpirit.
Could the Chinefe conftitution be reverfed ; were the
firft or loweft clafs of mandarins eleded by the multi¬
tude, or by perfons of moderate wealth ; were the fe-
cond clafs eleded by the firft, the third clafs by the
fecund and fo upwards ; it is evident, that the intel-
ledual charader of the people would fpeedily alter,
and they would become as reftlefs and enterprifing, as
they are now paftive and ftationary. That the happi-
nefs of this multitude of people would not by fuch a
change be increafed, is undoubtedly very true \ that
they might even in confequence of it be expofed to
many fanguinary convulfions, is alfo very probable:
but their rank in the fcale of intelligent beings would
be altered, and their importance among nations would
be immeafurably increafed. Foreigners would ceafe
to be objeds of terror to a people ruled by men of an
enterprifing charader : To preferve tranquillity at
home, it would be found neceffary to have recourie to
objeds of diftant enterprife : the immenfe population
of this empire would enable and compel it to cover
all Afia with its colonies ; to fill the Indian ocean with
its fleets, and the ifles with its commercial and politi-
cal eftablifhments.
Korea. Adjacent to the north-eaftern quarter of China, and
oppofite to a part of the Chinefe coaft, is the peninfula
of Korea, extending from latitude 420 50' to latitude
340 3 bounded on one fide by the gulf of Pe-tche-li,
and on the eaftern fide by the Japanefe gulf. Japan Alia,
extends the whole length of the coaft of Korea, and v ^
even ftret-ches beyond its fouthern part. Korea is of
an oblong form 3 about 100 leagues in breadth, and 180
in length. Its inhabitants are a mixed people, and have
been conquered at different periods by the Japanele, the
Tartars, and the Chinefe. The yoke of China, however,
is very light, as the Chinefe fear, that fevere treatment
might at fome period induce them to unite with the
Ruffians, who have advanced through Siberia towards
the Chinefe frontiers. Korea is mountainous, and pro¬
duces moft of the European fruits and foreft trees 3 it
was protected by a wall to the north-weft, which,
however, did not prevent a Tartar conqueft, and is
now neglected. The government is regular, and the
cuftoms and laws referable thofe of the Chinefe. 1 he
natives carry on a great commerce openly with China,
and clandeftinely with Japan, the Philippine ifles, and
perhaps Java : They alfo trade with the Ruffians to a
confiderable extent, and procure from them large quan¬
tities of furs, which they convey to China, and repre-
fent there as the produce of their own country. To
facilitate their illicit trade with the Japanefe, the lat¬
ter have ceded to them a fmall ifland called Sujima
near their coaft. As they poffefs abundance of Euro¬
pean goods, no part of which they purchafe in China,
they are underftood to obtain them by their trade with
the Dutch at Batavia. ijy
To the eaftward of the Chinefe coaft, and fouth ofLiquejo
the peninfula of Korea, are feveral iflands called themes.
j/Ies of Liquejo. The moft confiderable is Kintfchin,
extending north and fouth between latitude 26° 28'
and 250 45'. It is about 50 leagues long, and 15
broad 3 the eaft and fouth parts of it are fkirted by
numberlefs little ifles and rocks. The inhabitants are
chiefly Chinefe, who fled from the. Tartars at the time
of the lafl revolution 3 they export confiderable quan¬
tities of cowries of the fame fpecies that is found in the
Maidive ifles: From thefe (hells is prepared a white
varnifh. They alfo export a fort of large flat (hells,
which, when polilhed, are almoft tranfparent, and are
ufed by the Japanefe in their windows inftead of glafs.
To the eaftward of Korea are the ifles of J,c!Pan j
they extend from latitude 30° to 40° north : their lon¬
gitude is from 1430 to i6i°eaft. The furrounding
feas are ftormy and filled with dangerous rocks 3 the
climate is changeable and fubjeft to frequent rains 3
thunder is frequent, and earthquakes fo common, as
not to be regarded, unlefs, winch is often the cafe,
they produce dangerous confequenees 3 the fummer
heat rifes in July and Auguft to 100 degrees of Fah¬
renheit’s thermometer, and the cold of winter is pro-
portionably fevere 3 the country is everywhere rnoun-'
lainous, and the people of a mixed race from the
neighbouring countries, but pofleffing a very a£!ive
character. See Japan. ^
To the north of the wall of Korea and of China, chinefe
Chinefe Tartary begins. It is in general inhabited by Tartary.
Tartars in a paftoral ftate, fubjeft to the prefent impe-
rial family of China, who are themfelves Tartars. This nver
country extends northward to the river Amoor or Sag- Amoor.
halien. This river takes its rife from the Keutaiham Sauer's £r-
mountains, about the latitude of 490, and longitude^’f^?f,c*
.110° eaft from Greenwich 3 and is here called
Its direflion is nearly north-caft 3 and at the difcbarge
of
A S I [ 7
Afia. of the Nirza, where the city of Nerlfhinfk is fituated,
about latitude 52°, it bears the name of the Sbilha.
This courfe it continues to latitude $2^°, its moft
northern extremity, where the Tungoofe call it Amoor,
and the Chinefe Seg/iaalien Ula (black mountain river,
from the oak forefts on the mountains hereabouts,
which the Chinefe call blackwood). From hence it is
navigable in veflels of moderate lize, having received
confiderable fupplies from the torrents ruftiing down
the eaftern and northern mountains, as alfo from a very
confiderable river flowing from the fouth weft, and
called the Argoon, which difcharges itfelf into the A-
xnoor, about 180 miles eaft of Nertfhinfk. In the vi¬
cinity of thefe part- the Ruffians have feveral forts.
From latitude 52^° to 47-5-0 it flows nearly fouth eaft,
receiving in its courfe a number of rivers both eaft and
weft. The Tfhukir has its fource from this fide of the
fame mountains as gave rife to the Olekma and Aldan,
(both emptying themfelves into the Lena), and flowing
nearly fouth, joins with the Silempid, which flows from
the vicinity of the Ud •, keeping nearly a weftern courfe
into the Amoor. All thefe rivers are navigable for
boats nearly to their fource. The country is very
mountainous, but the plains and valleys arefpacious and
fertile : the low country, however, labours under the
difadvantage of being fubjeft to inundations and earth¬
quakes, which are very frequent.
No rivers of any importance join the Amoor from
the eaft, except the two above mentioned. The Non-
ni Uia, however, a very large river which takes its
rife about the latitude of 510, and longitude 123°,
makes a confiderable inland circuit, and empties itfelf
into the Amoor at its fouthern extremity, about the
latitude of 474°* Another confiderable river, the U-
furi, lofes itfelf in the Amoor nearer its eftuary, about
latitude 484®. It rifes from the lake Hinka, and has
a communication after a fliort day’s journey by land
with the fea of Japan. It now flows in its own chan¬
nel north-weft into the fea of Ochotfk, about the la¬
titude of 524°, oppofite the ifland Saghalien. This
river is well flocked with fiib, and its borders are co¬
vered with forefts of oak, walnut, birch, and differ¬
ent forts of pines. The foil is very rich, the climate
mild and healthy. The whole courfe of this great ri¬
ver and its tributary ftreams is fubjeft to the Chinefe,
or inhabited by people under their proteftion. It was
difcovered by the Ruffians in 1639 by means of fome
Cofacks : the Ruffians were delighted with the difco-
very of a river which report made to caft up gold and
filver, and its neighbourhood to abound with the moft
precious furs, cattle, and fruit : the Ruffian colonifts
of Siberia emigrated thither in crowds, and depopulat¬
ed their former country. They founded a fort in la¬
titude 530, which they called Alhajin. The Chinefe
burnt it in 1680, and carried the garrifon prifoners to
Pekin ; but it was rebuilt and ftrongly garrifoned, till
it gave fuch ferious caufe of jealoufy, that the affair
was at laft terminated in 1689, by a treaty at Nert¬
fhinfk, upon the river Indoga, in the reign of John
and Peter afterwards furnamed the Great, and of
Kang-hi, emperor of China. Had the Ruffians ob¬
tained the poffeffion of Amoor, and of the forefts and
fertile territory in its vicinity, they might foon have
got the command of the fea of Japan and of the coafts
of China, by defcending the river with their fleets.
68 ]
A S I
Even by marching from this river as from a magazine Afia.
of arms and provifions, they could without difficulty
have affaulted the Chinefe empire, with an army train¬
ed in the difcipline and the military taftics of Europe.
By the treaty of Nertfhinfk, however, the Chinefe
empire was declared to extend as high as Lat. 56° 32'.
Its weftern limit is near the lake Baikal, at the north¬
ern front of the high region of Tartary, the greateft
part of which alfo it includes. Beyond this, to the
north and weft, the territory is claimed by the Ruf¬
fians, who have fettlements in various fituations, and
are in a great meafure mafters of the Tartar inhabitants
of different tribes. J hefe tribes are apt to become dif-
contented with the Ruffian government ; hence great
numbers of them have recently emigrated to the Chi¬
nefe territory upon the river Amoor. In the year
1787, there emigrated from the Ruffians no lefs than
6000 of the tribe called Yakuti, with all their cattle
and goods, who put themfelves under the protedlion, of
the Chinefe. Thus at prefent upon the river Amoor,
a mixed race of Chinefe, and of people from all the
Tartar and Siberian tribes, is uniting in a fertile coun¬
try under the government of China, and will probably
form out of their feveral dialedls a new language of
their own. The Chinefe juftly confider them as a va¬
luable advanced guard to their frontiers, and give them
every encouragement, by affifting them in the cultiva¬
tion of grain, and in carrying on trade with Korea and
other places in their neighbourhood.
Faffing to the north of the Amoor and of the ftreams
that flow into it, we come to Siberia, the proper coun¬
try of the rein-deer, and of men who pafs the winter
in holes dug in the earth, to proteft them againft the
feverity of the climate. The whole territory inclines,
as already mentioned, down toward the polar circle :
but the furface of the country is various, and the coafts
exhibit fome peculiarities. Oppofite to the mouth of *
the Amoor is the ifland of Saghalien, inhabited by a
peaceable people, little known either to the Ruffians
or Chinefe. The ifland is 160 miles long, and 80
broad. It is fituated at the mouth of the fea or gulf
of Ochotfk, which has the main land of Siberia on the
weft, and the peninfula of Kamtfchatka on the eaft.Kamtf-
The Ruffians are fettled on both fides of the bay. Thisfchatka.
peninfula having been vifited of late years by different
European navigators, has been defcribed at leaft as mi¬
nutely as its importance on the map of Afia requires.
It is in general very mountainous ; but a part of it
which is level contains a deep rich foil compofed of
black earth. Firs, common pine, and larch trees of
a tolerable fize, with birch, poplar, afti, and mountain
affi, cover the hills in the middle of the peninfula. The
underwoods are currants, dog-rofes, hawthorn, alder,
and buffies producing berries. The climate in the fouth¬
ern parts is chilled by the fea-breezes, and in the
northern by the cold winds from Siberia j but in the
centre of the peninfula a ffieltered valley produces very
fine cabbages, potatoes, turnips, carrots, &c. toge¬
ther with buck-wheat and rye. Hemp alfo grows re¬
markably well, but there is little neceflity for culti¬
vating it, as the nettle anfwers every purpofe equally
well. The Kamtfehadels and Ruffians make fewing
thread of this laft plant, the nettle, and fabricate from
it their fifhing nets, which, if ufed with caution and
properly dried, ferve them four or five years j the pro-
cefs
Afia.
A
cefs of
- hemp.
S I
preparing it is nearly the fame
[
as that
Afia-
On a good foil the nettle grows to the height
of fix or feven feet ; the fibres are much finer, and a
1S4
Aleutan
iiles.
thread of equal thicknefs is faid to be ftronger than
that made of the belt hemp. The country is very fub-
jeft to earthquakes, and has feveral volcanoes and hot
fprings.
In this quarter of the globe the coafts of the two
great continents of America and of Afia begin to ap¬
proach each other. From the American eoaft, oppo-
fite to Kamtfchatka, extends to a confiderable diftance
into the ocean the peninfula of Alyaika. From the
point of this peninfula a fucceffion of illands called the
Aleutan ijles, in the form of a crelcent, croffes over to
Kamtfchatka. Thefe iflands are molt clofely joined
where they approach the American continent, and the
intervals between them become more confiderable near
the Afiatic Ihore. The concavity of the crefcent is
towards the north. T. he iflands are, in general, inhabit¬
ed ; but the natives have been fubdued by the Ruffians,
or rather by the bodies of men who have been fent
thither by different trading companies for the purpofes
of hunting and fiffiing. One of the Aleutan iflands
called Oonalajhka is worthy of attention ■, it is in noith
and eait longitude 1939 47'. It is
Their bai- baidars or boats, which are the adrairaUon of travellers
latitude 53” 45, ,, 1
very mountainous, and the natives live chiefly by fiih-
ing ; they are of a middle fize, of a very dark biown
and healthy complexion, with round features, fmail
nofe, black eyes and hair, tlv latter very flrong and
wiry } they wear feal fkins, with the hair outward,
fattened like a carter’s frock ; they go bare-footed, un-
lefs when walking on the rocky beach, when they
wear a kind of awkAvard boots made of the throat of
the fea lion, foled with thick feal fkin, which they
line with dry grafs. The men fometimes wear a kind
of clothing made of the fkins of birds, with .the fea¬
thers occafionally outward or inwards } the fkin fide is
dyed red, and ornamented with flips of leather hanging
down to a confiderable length : the feams are covered
with thin flips of fkin, ornamented or embroidered with
white deers hair, goats hair, and the finews of fea ani¬
mals dyed of different colours j they alfo wear light
pantaloons of white leather ; the men have their hair
cut fhort; the women wear theirs ffiort before, combed
over the forehead, and tied in a club on the top of the
back part of the head. In wet weather, or when at
fea, they wear a drefs formed of the inteftines of fea
animals, the bladder of the halibut, or the fkin of the
tongue of a whale j it has a hood to cover the head,
and is tied clofe round the neck and wrifts, fo that no
water can penetrate ; it is nearly tranfparent, and looks
well. The men wear a wooden bonnet ornamented
with the whifkers of the fea lion and with beads. Their
dars or
boats.
from the eafe with which they are navigated, are built
in the following manner : A keel eighteen feet long,
four inches thick on the top, not three inches deep,
and two inches, or fomewhat lefs, at the bottom. 1 wo
upper frames, one on each fide, about an inch and a
half fquare, and fixteen feet long, join to a fharp flat
board at the head, and are about fixteen inches fhorter
than the ftern, joined by a thwart, which keeps them
about twelve inches afunder. Two fimilar frames near
the bottom of the boat, fix inches below the upper ones,
about one inch fquare. Round flicks, thin, and about
Vol. II. Part II.
186
769 ] A S 1
for fix inches diftant from each other, are tied to thefe.
frames, and form the fides. For the top thwarts, very
ftrong flicks, and nearly as thick as the upper frames,
curved fo as to raife the middle of the boat abom. two
inches higher than the fides. There are thirteen of thefe
thwarts or beams : feven feet from the flern is one of
them 5 twenty inches nearer the head is another j a hoop
about two inches high is fattened between them for
the rower to fit in ; this is made ftrong, and grooved
to fatten an open fkin to, which they tie round their
body, and it prevents any water getting into the boat,
although it were funk. This frame is covered with
the fkin of the fea lion, drawn and fewed over it like a
cafe. The whole is fo extremely light, even when
fudden with water, that it may be carried with eafe in
one hand. The head of the boat is double, the lower
part fharp, and the upper part fiat, refembling the open
mouth of a fifh, but contrived thus to keep the head
from finking too deep into the water ; and they tie a
flick from one end to the other, to prevent its entang¬
ling with the fea weeds. I hey row with eafe, in a
fea moderately fmooth, about ten miles in the hour, and
they keep the fea in a frefh gale of wind. Ihe paddles
that they ufe are double, feven or eight feet long, and
made equally neat with the other articles.
The women of thefe iflands plait neat flraw mats,
which ferve for curtains and beds ; they alfo make
bafkets, and kindle fires readily by llrewing the pow¬
der of native fulphur upon dry grafs or mofs, after
which they flrike two pieces of quartz one againfl the
other over it 5 the fine particles of fulphur immediate¬
ly blaze like a flafh of lightning, and fet the whole of
the dry grafs or mofs in a flame. The whole natives Oppreflioa
of the Aleutan iflands are held in a Hate of moft mi-of the ttuf-
ferable flavery by the Ruffian hunters, who refide infiiins-
this remote quarter of the globe, and compel them to
hunt and fifh in their fervice. Foxes and marmots are
aim oft the only animals that the Ruffian hunters them-
felves can kill; for they are not capable of chafing
the fea animals, which require particularly agility in go¬
verning the fmall leather canoes in which the natives
purfue the fea lion, the urfine feal, fea otter, porpoifes, ig?
and common feals. The fea lion, called by the Ruf-Sealion.
fiansJirootfha, is the ftrongeft and largeft of the feal
kind •, it is covered with dark-coloured coarfe hair,
which is very thick and long about the neck and
fhoulders; the hinder part is tapering, with fmooth
fhort hair. The largeft of thefe animals is about eight
feet long ; they have a fmall white fpot on the tem¬
ples, which is the only place about them vulnerable by
arrows, which hardly pierce the fkin in other parts ; but
if poifoned, they penetrate deep enough to deftroy
the animal. The fleffi of the fea lion is cut into thin
fhreds and dried, and is eaten by the Ruffian hunters. jgg
The urfine feal has a foft downy under fur, refembling Urfine feal.
brown filk ; the largeft of the fpecies are about fix
feet long; when very young the fur is of a beautiful
fhort glofly black, which changes to filvery when they
grow up, and, when they become old*, it is almofl
white. The moft valuable fur is that of the fea otter, Sea otter,
called in Ruffia morjhoi bobre; the largeft are about
five feet long, with a rich fur nearly black, interfperfed
with longer hairs of gloffy white. From their value
the purfuit after them has been fo eager, that their
numbers are declining fall. Indeed the deflrudion of
5 E all
A S I
Ail a.
T90
Approach
each other.
191
Tflmtiki.
all kinds of animals that produce valuable kinds of fur
has there, of late, been fo great,, that the trade will
probably foon be at an end j and this is the only pe¬
riod at which the. natives of thefe iflands, and of the
adjoining Afiatic and American coaft, can expedf a
(  deliverance from the date of flavery under which they
of Afia and have been reduced by the Ruffians. From the Aleu-
America to tan chain of iflands the two continents irregularly but
rapidly apprsach toward each other till they come
within a diftance of 40 miles at Bering ftraits. At
this quarter, the part oi Afia that approaches neareft to
America is a peninfula, having the Icy fea on the
north and the Pacific ocean on the fouth ) it is inha¬
bited by a tribe called the Tfhutjki, who appear to be
the fame clafs of people that inhabit the oppofite
coafi: of America. The Tfhutlki nation or tribe is
divided into two diftinft branches : the one confifts of
Itationary or fixed inhabitants of the coaft ; the other
are called Reindeer or Wanderers. Of the ftationary
part of the tribe the population amounts to about
3000 males; they are induftrious and neat workmen,
as appears from their boats, lances, arrows, bows, ap¬
parel, and utenfils, with which they fupply the wan¬
dering part of their tribe ; they dig cellars, in which
they keep their fupplies of food and oil. Their pro-
vifions confift of the dried flelh of fea animals and
deer, of roots and berries. They keep the oil of the
fea animals in feal fkins ; they obtain immenfe quanti¬
ties of it, which they ufe for food, fuel, and light : and
alfo, as an article of commerce with the wandering
tribes.
This wandering tribe confider themfelves as a very
fuperior and independent race of beings. They call all
the nations that furround them old women, only fit to
be their fervants. Rein-deer are their only riches.
Thefe, and the fluns of animals that they kill in hunt¬
ing, they barter with the Ruffians for kettles, knives,
and trinkets ; which articles they again exchange with
the ftationary tribe, for arms, dreffes, &c.
Of Siberia in general it may be obferved, that the
kutflc13’Ir" Ru®ans have ^sed their capital in the neighbourhood
of the Baikal lake, near the northern front of the high
region of Tartary. It is called Irkutfk, and is fituated
in 103° 46' 45// eaft of Greenwich, and in N. Lat.
5 2° 16' 30". It contains 1500 houfes, chiefly of wood,
twelve ftone churches, a cathedral, and two mona-
fteries : befides which, there are feveral public build¬
ings ; an hofpital, a public fchool, a library, and a
theatre. The number of inhabitants is about 20,000.
The merchants are numerous and affluent, and a con-
liderable trade is carried on with the Chinefe. Here the
affortments of furs are made which are brought from A
merica and the northern parts of Siberia. There is a
glafs-houfe near the Baikal lake, and a diftillery, in
which 60,000 ankers of fpirits are made in a year ; there
are alfo falt-works at three fprings, which fupply the
neighbouring country. The people are extremely hof-
pitable to ftrangers. All kinds of food are cheap, as
are fpirituous liquors, and home-brewed beer; filks,
cottons, linen, furs, and even Englilh cloths, are fold
at a moderate price. Many articles of luxury are
brought from China, and the country itfelf fupports
immenfe herds of cattle and horfes, and produces all
the kinds of European grain ; the chief difadvantage
under which it labours is the intenfe feverity of a win¬
1 77° 1
A S I
192
Capital of
Afia,
19.3
ter which lafts during fix months of the year. The
feverity of the winter, audits duration, increafe in pro- 1
portion to the diftance from this molt fouthern part of
Siberia.
The firft of the great rivers of Siberia towards the River Ko-
eaft that runs into the Icy fea is the Kovima, which v*ma.
takes its rile in what are called the Virchoyanjhi moun¬
tains, to the weft ward of the moft northerly part of
Kamtfchatka. It flows in a dire&ion nearly north-eaft
about 1800 Ruffian verfts, each verft being about three
quarters of an Englifti mile. Different Ruffian villages
are fituated upon it, or upon the different ftreams that
fall into it. Of thefe it may be obferved, that the village
called Virchni is in N. Lat. 65° 28' aj", and E. Long.
153° 24' 30,/. Seredni, another village upon the fame
river farther down to the north, is in N. Lat. 67° 10'
14". A third village, containing 70 houfes and a
church, called Neixjhni, is in N. Lat. 68° 17' 14", and
E. Long. 163° 17' 30".
To give a correft idea of the climate of thefe lati-Climate,
tudes we fhall ftate the temperature at Virchni, as ob¬
ferved during nine days of the month of November
1786, old ftile, by Martin Sauer, fecretary to a Ruffian
expedition, fent to attempt to navigate the Icy fea ; the
obfervations appear to have been made with a fpirit
thermometer of Reaumur.
Wind.
4 A.M.
S. W. light 8 -
12 M.
S. S. E.
Nov. 24.
4 A. M. 34 N.
35
6
8
12
6
12
M.
P. M.
36
3 Si
35
36
34i
Nov, 2 c.
4 A.M
wind
M.
P- M. 35
 36
Deg. Wind.
39i s- E*
40i
4°i
4*4
4of N. E.
— 40-I; Calm.
40
12 M. 38
4 p- M. 39
8 40
I 2   4Oi
Nov. 28.
4 A. M. 37^. E. N. E.
8 33 S. E.
12 M. 32$
4 P. M. 31
6 sof
8  31-j
9  32£-
12 36^
Nov. 29.
6 A. M. 38^ to 39
Nov. 30.
M. 35! S.S.W.lit-
6 A.
2
4
6
8
12
S.W. little
tie wind
34^ N. W. ditto. 8 — 33
12 M. 3if
4 P. M. 31^
37
33
8
12
- 32
- 32
On the 22d, at fix A. M. nine ounces of mercury
froze in two hours; the earth, the ice of the river, the cold,
timber of the houfes; &c, cracking with reports equal
to
A S I
[ 77
Aft a.
196
Vegetables
growing
near the
icy fea.
to tliofe of a mufket. On the fame evening ten ounces
of mercury in a flopped phial, froze in two hours and a
half. On the 23d, about ten o’clock A. M. the mer¬
cury in a flopped phial thawed, but in the evening of the
fame day was again quite frozen. On the 26th, in the
morning, there was a thick fog, and the earth and the
river cracked violently. On the 27th, at nine A. M.
a fealed bottle of Aftracan brandy (there called French
brandy') expofed to the froft, thickened very much, but
was not frozen. On the 28th, at noon, the mercury
thawed, but at half paft ten at night it was obferved
frozen. At 370 it was almoft impnffible to fell tim¬
ber (which was as hard as the hatchet) unlefs it was
perfe&ly dry 5 and in the greateft feverity of the cold,
the hatchets, on ftriking the wood, broke like glafs.
On coming out of a warm room it was abfolutely ne-
ceflary to breathe through a handkerchief ^ the body
was immediately furrounded by a mift arifing from the
breath, and this mift confifled of very fmall nodules of
hoar ice. Breathing caufed a noile like the tearing of
coarfe paper or the breaking of thin twigs, and the
expired breath was immediately condenfed into the fine
fubflance already mentioned. The northern lights
were conftant and very brilliant; they affirmed an
amazing diverfity of Ihapes, and might be heard to
{hoot along.
The vegetable productions of this climate were chief¬
ly the following.
Larch.—This is the chief tree in ufe for building,
firing, &c. and the moft plentiful. It is pretty fize-
able as far as Virchni, and the country is moderately
wooded about 200 verfts lower, but the trees very
ftunted ; beyond that they are in clufters on elevated
fpots of ground to about 30 verfts from the Icy fea,
where they ceafe growing, in about the latitude 68°
30'.
Birch extends to a little below Seredni, but very
ftunted and fmail trees.
Poplar and afp grow to a moderate fize on the iflands
tlieltered by mountains about the fource of the Kovi-
ma, but do not extend fo low down as Virchni.
Mountain aftr is plenty as far as Virchni, but very
Tcarce lower down.
Alder and willow have a trunk about 18 inches in
circumference, and grow to the height of two fathoms,
about Virchni. They gradually diminifli in fize, and
ceafe growing with the larch.
Creeping-cedar, brufhwood, black and red currant,
rofe, and juniper, are met with as low as Neizftmi.
Bruthwood and creeping-willows extend to the Icy fea,
but never exceed from fix to eight inches. The creep¬
ing cedar, or pinus cembra, produces a confiderable
quantity of feeds or nuts in cones, like the common
pine : but they ripen only the fecond year. Immenfe
numbers are collefled by the inhabitants *, fometimes
confiderable quantities are found in the fquirrels nefts
in hollow trees j in fa£t they are the chief food of fquir¬
rels and mice. A very pellucid and fweet oil is ex¬
tracted from thefe feeds.
Mountain alh berries are gathered, and ufed to give
•a pleafant flavour to their drink.
Black and red currants are collected in abundance,
and preferved in calks among ice j fome are boiled and
preferved. The black only extend to about Seredni,
but the red continue growing as far as Neklhni.
1 ] A S I
Cranberry.—Thefe are fcarce, and extend no further Atk.
north than Seredni •, they are always preferved raw. 1—-v—
Brufniki, vacciniiirn vitis zdcea, whortleberry.— Ihefe
are very plenty as far as Neizlhni, and are preierved
raw.
Colubniki are very numerous: they feem to delight
in fuch flony places as are overflowed in the fpring.
They are very pleafant tailed, of a dark-blue colour,
and grow on a low bulb exactly refembling a myrtle.
They are preferved by boiling.
Marolhka, mbits chamcemorus.— I hefe are the fa¬
vourite berry of the inhabitants, and grow in damp
molly places, particularly near lakes. 1 hey are reckon¬
ed a certain cure for the feurvy, and are always pre¬
ferved raw.
Siccha, growing on dry ftony places about the moun¬
tains, on a creeping fpecies of heath, with fhort needle
leaves; they are very fmall, black, and ftony, are col¬
lected in great abundance, and preierved by boiling.
Knezlhnitfi, rubus ardticus, are fcarce, growing about
the roots of the alder, and currant bullies.
The following animals are found in the neighbour-Animals,
hood of the river Kovima, and are hunted for food or
on account of the value of their fkins.
Names. Price of the Skins.
Elk, 2 rubles.
Deer, 1 do.
Bear, I do.
White bear, 1 do.
Glutton, 2 to 10 do.
Wolf, 2 to 8 do.
Fox, I to 5 do.
Stone Fox, 50 copeeks.
Ermine, 5 do.
Lynx, 3 to 10 rubles, according to the
length of the hair.
Otter, 8 to 10 rubles.
Sable, 10 do.
Sheep, argali, 1 do.
Flare, 3 to 5 copeeks.
Marmot, 5 to 10 do.
Squirrel, 3 to 5 d°* rpS
Moft of the kinds of birds known in the northern Birds,
parts of Great Britain are alfo found in Siberia at
fome period of the year. At Neizlhni the fwallows
were obferved fwarming together under the eaves of
the church, chirping very much, particularly on the
2d of Auguft old ftile, which is ftill ufed in Ruflia ;
and on the 3d there was not one to be found, nor had
any body feen them depart. They appear about the
2lft of May, and depart between the 2d and 6th of
Auguft, never flaying beyond the latter date. The
red breafted remains a day or two longer than the white.
The fnow bunting, the firft bird that appears, is feen
about the middle of March, feeding on the feeds of
grafs on the fandy fhores of the river, and about the
roots of bulhes where the fnow is earlieft melted by
the fun. Different flights follow after each other for
about a month; eagles follow clofe upon them. Swans,
geefe, and ducks arrive towards the end of April, and
continue about the neighbouring lakes and rivers till
the beginning of September. The river Kovima is
frozen over about the 20th of September, and opens
about the 24th of May, when it deluges the low coun¬
try. At Neizflmi, on the 25th of November, the fun
5 E 2 goes
A S I [77
Aha. goes down, and does not rife again till the ift of Janu-
"v ary, when it appears above the horizon, and this is the
199 time of the gieateil cold.
Coaft of the 'p]je of the Icy fea is moderately high, formed
fen bed ' e~ projeifling promontories and {hallow bays, expofed
to every wind except the fouth. The mountains are
covered in different places with fnow, which melting,
produces fmall torrents that rufh into the fea. The
mountains are compofed of granite, quartz, and a hard
black done *, they produce mofs, a kind of vetch, the
root of which is edible, creeping willow and birch, not
exceeding ten inches in height. Near the mouths of
the large rivers the (bores are covered with drift-wood,
and in every place remains of huts left by different
hunters are feen. Upon the fhore rein-deer are found
pretty numerous; bears, but not white ; wolves, foxes,
done fox, wild (beep, and the whidling marmot; the
gulls, ravens, hawks, black-headed buntings, fnow-larks,
a few partridges, geefe, ducks, and divers. The produc¬
tions of the fea itfelf are very few ; fome feals, herrings,
whales, and a fmall fpecies of falmon; but no traces of
ftiell-fiih of any kind are to be met with. The atmo-
fphere is always cold and chilly, though the thermome¬
ter in the middle of July rifes i4°and 16° above the
freezing point of Reaumur. The fogs upon this fea are
very remarkable, continually hovering above the ice
at no great height ; fometimes having the fame ap¬
pearance with idands when feen in a haze, and refem-
bling vad columns of fmoke. Neither ebb nor flow of
the tide is perceived, and the ice is always brackifli to
2CO the tafle.
Attempt to This ocean never has been, and, in all probability,
Ic^feT ^ 0 never can be fully explored ; various attempts, how¬
ever, have been made by individuals, as hunters, in
fearch of places in which abundance of game may be
aoi found, or in fearch of what are called the mammoths
Mammoths tufks: thefe are the tufks of a fpecies of animal that
iiifks. js now unknown and extindf ; but which mud once have
exifled in immenfe multitudes in Siberia. Thefe tulks
are found in great numbers buried under the high fandy
(bores of rivers at a confiderable depth ; the fpring
floods bring them to view by vvadiing away the fand
that covers them, and they appear to have been origi¬
nally buried by fimilar floods ; they are equal to ele¬
phants teeth in whitenefs, beauty, and value, but very
Sauer’s different in their fliape, being all bent fpirally : the
Edition. Iargeft
are found on the (bores of the Icy fea ; one is
mentioned, which in direfl length extended to four
feet one inch French meafure ; when meafured along
the bending, it was eight feet feven inches and four
lines in length ; its circumference near the root was
14 inches and 3 lines; the thicked part, which was at
22 inches from the root, was 17 inches and 8 lines;
the weight of the whole was Hjlb. avoirdupois. The
outfide was very brown from its having been expofed
to the weather, and it was cracked through the coat or
upper dratum about an inch ; the infide was firm and
very white.
In fearch of this valuable kind of ivory, which forms
an important branch of Siberian commerce, individuals
have attempted to penetrate into the Icy fea in the hope
of difeovering untouched dores upon new iflands, or
fome unexplored continent. With this vjew one Lach-
off made an expedition from the river Yana, with fome
attendants, in the year 1770, and the following years.
3
2 ] AST
Of this expedition Mr Sauer obtained the following Afi:!.
account from Zatai Protodiokanoff, a burgher of a Si- ——v—1-‘)
berian town called Yahutjhy in N. Lat. 62° i' 50",
E. Long. 1290 34'. The account is chiefly of im¬
portance on account of the favage nature of the un¬
known region to which it refers, and the extraordinary
circumdance of the bones of animals, particularly the
rhinoceros, being found in it, which in our times can
only inhabit the warmed latitudes. “ Protodiokanoff
accompanied Lachoffin 1770, from his winter buildings
at the eduary of the Yana, in the month of March, to
Swatoi Nofs, the northern promontory of a bay which
receives this river. 202
“ They faw an immenfe herd of deer going to the Expedition
fouth, and obferved that their traces were from the ky Ruffian
north acrofs the Icy fea. Lachoff refolved, if poflible,hunter3-
to find out whence they came ; and in the beginning of
April, fet out very early in the morning, with his
fledge drawn by dogs. Towards evening he arrived
at an ifland 70 verfls from the promontory, in a due
north direction, where he paffed the night, and the next
day proceeded farther, the traces of the deer ferving
as a guide. About noon he arrived at a fecond ifland
20 verfls didant, and in the fame diredtion. The
traces coming dill farther from the north he continued
his route. At a fmall didance from the fecond ifland
he found the ice fo rugged and mountainous as to pre¬
vent his proceeding with dogs. He obferved no land ;
and therefore, after pafling the night on the ice, he re¬
turned, and with great difficulty, for want of provi-
fions for his dogs, regained Swatoi Nofs. He repre-
fented his difeovery to the chancery of Yakutfk, and
the intelligence was forwarded to St Peterfburg. The
emprefs Catherine II. called the iflands by the name
of the difeoverer, and gave him the exclufive right of
collefting ivory, and hunting animals in this place, and
in any other that he might thereafter difeover.
“ in he went with five workmen in a boat to
the iflands, and continued acrofs flraits, where he found
the fea very fait, and a current fetting to the wed.
He foon faw land to the north, the weather being pret¬
ty clear, and arrived on what he called the third ijiand.
The flrore was covered with drift wood. The land was
very mountainous, and feemingly of great extent; but
no wood was feen growing, nor did he obferve the
traces of any human being. He found fome tu(ks of
the mammoth, faw the tracks of animals, and returned
(without making any other difeovery) to the firfl ifland,
where Lachoff built a hut of the drift wood, and paffed
the winter. One of his companions left a kettle and a
palma on the third ifland.
“ This was reckoned a difeovery of fome importance,
and the land-furveyor Chvoinoff received orders from
the chancery of Yakutlk, to accompany Lachoff to this
farthed ifland, and take an exa£t furvey of the fame. In
1775, on the 9th February, he left Yakutfk, and arrived
on the 26th March at Uff Yan(k Lemovia, or winter
huts at the efluary of the Yana. He immediately pro¬
ceeded acrofs the bay to Swatoi Nofs, which is 400
verfls from the difeharge of the river in a diredlion
north-nerth-eafl. On the 6th May he arrived at the
fir A ifland, which is 150 verfls long, and 80 verfls
broad in the wided parts, and 20 verds in the nar¬
rowed. In the middle is a lake of confiderable extent,
but very (hallow, but the borders of which are deep.
The
A S I [ 773 1 A S I
Aiia. The whole ifland, except three or four inconfiderable
rocky mountains, is compofed of ice and fand j and, as
the (bores fall, from the heat of the fun’s thawing
them, the tulks and bones of the mammoth are found
in gteat abundance. To ufe Chvoinoff’s own expref-
(ion, the ifland is formed of the bones of this extra¬
ordinary animal, mixed with the horns and heads of
the buffalo, or fomething like it, and fome horns of
the rhinoceros j now and then, but very rarely, they
find a thin bone, very ftraight, of confiderable length,
and formed like a fcrew.
“ The fecund, ifland is 20 verfts diflant from this,
low, and without drift-wood ; 50 verfts in length, and
from 20 to 30 verfts broad. Here alfo the tufks and
other bones are found; and great numbers of the arc¬
tic foxes are to be met with on both. The furface is
a bed of mofs of confiderable thicknefs, producing a
few low plants and flowers, fuch as grow about the
borders of the Icy fea. This mofs may be (tripped off
as you would take a carpet from a floor, and the earth
underneath appears like clear ice and never thaws j
thefe fpots are.called kaltufae.
“ The ftraits to the third ifland are 100 verfts
acrofs. He travelled along the fhore, and on the 21ft
May difcovered a confiderable river, near which he
found the kettle, palma, and fome cut wood, in the
fame place and fituation, as they had been left by
Lachoff’s companions three years before Chvoinoff’s
arrival. This river he called Ixarevuia Reka, in con-
fequence of having difcovered it on the 21ft of May.
The fhore was covered with drift-wood, all of it ex¬
tremely (battered. Afcending to the top of a very
lofty mountain, he faw a mountainous land as far as his
eye could trace in clear weather, extending eaft, weft,
and north. Continuing his route along the coaft 100
verfts, he obferved three rivers, each of which brought
down a great quantity of wood, and abounded in fifh j
and here the nerk, a fpecies of falmon frequenting
Ochotfk and Kamtfchatka, was in abundance, though
not found in the Kovima or Indigirka. On this land
he palled the fummer, and returned in the autumn to
Swatoi Nofs.
“ I afked, whether he obferved any regular ebb or
flow of the tide ? He faid, ‘ that he did not obferve any
remarkable alterationWhether he recolle&ed bow
the current fet ? ‘ He believed to the weft Whether
the water was fait ? ‘Yes, and very bitter.’ He further
ebftrved, that there were whales and belluga, white
bears, wolves, and rein-deer. No growing wood was
to be feen, and the mountains were , bare ftone. None
of thefe travellers took any notice of the depth of the
water, nor were they acquainted with the nature of
203 tides.”
Opinions of We account it worth while to take notice of thefe
philofophersfa(r^s. partly? becaufe no circumftance that can tend to
Icy fea1 he elucidate the general ftru&ure of this globe, or point
out its different produ&ions, ought to be regarded as
unimportant; and partly, becaufe fome philofophers have
attempted, from the remains of animals which appear
to have once inhabited the dreary regions within the
polar circle, to infer that thefe countries muft once
have poffeffed a better climate, more favourable to ani¬
mal life, which muft have been altered by fome extra¬
ordinary change in the aftronomical pofxtion, or in the
general temperature of the earth.
Befides the rivers we have already noticed, Siberia Afia.
contains many others ; the chief of which rife near the v——1
northern front of the high region of Tartary, and re-Rivc2°4of
ceive the reft as tributary ftreams in their paffage to sR,cria.
the Icy fea; the principal are the Lena, the Jenifea,
and the Oby. The defcription of them all is fimilar.
They flow through a country containing a very trifling
population, but which is as varied in its furface and in
its mineral produdlions as any other part of the world :
We (ball here take notice of the Lena only, as a de-
feription of it will afford a fufficient general idea of the
reft. 205
About a hundred miles weft-fouth-weft of a frnall River Lena
Ruffian village called Kajhuga Prijlan, the Lena takes defcnbed.
its rife from an inconfiderable lake among the moun¬
tains of Altai, near the Baikal lake. It flows in a
gentle and uninterrupted ftream, though here and there
impeded by (hallows at a late feafon, to about the di-
ftance of 300 miles from its fource; when it deepens
confiderably. The direction is very winding, but pret¬
ty uniformly eaft-north-eaft to Yakutfk, and nearly
north from thence to its difcharge into the Icy fea,
about the latitude 71° 30', and longitude I270 eaft of
Greenwich, after a .courfe of 3450 geographical miles.
The appearance that it affumes is continually varying.
In fome places, mountains bound the channel on both
fides, clothed to the fummits with (lately pines ; in
others they are barren, projeffing into the river, and
turning its courfe, taking fantaftic (bapes, refembling
ruins of large buildings, towers, and churches ; the
chafms overgrown with hawthorn, currant buflxes, dog
rofes, &c. In fome places the mountains- retreat in¬
land for miles, forming a back ground to extenfive
plains, and expofing a miferably built town, furround-
ed with corn field*, gardens, and pafture grounds, with
a few herds of cattle grazing : Thefe openings are fre¬
quent, at unequal diftances of five to forty verfts from
each other, and are always occupied by villages as far
as Olekma, 1800 verfts from Katfhuga. All beyond
is defolate, except a few huts inhabited by convi&s
who have the charge of horfes for the pofts, and the
towns of Petroft(ky, Yakutlk, and Giganfk. The bell
of them is only a colledlion of huts inhabited by priefts
and their attendants, officers, and Coflacks, who teach
obedience, and enforce the payment of tribute from
the wandering tribes of Tartars that infeft the neigh- 2oS
bourhood. The following are the rivers that flow in-Rivers
to the Lena.—The Hga, 170 verfts from Katlhuga. flowing-
The Koot, 469 verfts from the fame place. Very near ‘“t0
the eftuary of this river is a fait lake, which is very ena*
(hallow, and works, the property of the prefent ifpra-
vink of the diftri£l, at which one boiling produces
1080 pounds weight of fait. Marakofka, 601 verfts
from Katftiuga. Makarova, 690. Kiringa, 778. Vi-
tima, 1178. This laft river flows from a lake eaft of
the Baikal. It is nearly equal to the Lena in width,
depth, and extent; and is famous for fables, lynx, fox,
ermine, fquirrel, and deer. The fables of this river,
and of the Momo, which falls into it 300 verfts from
the difcharge, are very valuable, and of a fuperior qua¬
lity. Numbers of Tungoofe travel about here on
the chafe. Three verfts up this river are the moun¬
tains that produce talc. Specimens have been formerly
found, 28 inches fquare, and tranfparent as glafs :
What is now found is very fmall, but perfe&ly pellu-,
ckL.
Afia.
A S I [ 774 ]
All the windows of thefe parts are glazed with not his wives.
AST
toy
Siberian
tribes.
208
Tribe of
Tungoofe.
209
Cuftoms of
the Tun-
.goofe.
cid.
'it. The river Pellidui, 1202 verfts from Katlhuga;
alfo famous for the above mentioned animals, and the
lait place that produces corn. Sparrows and magpies
are not feen farther north : they only came here about
the year 1780, after the ground had begun to be cul¬
tivated. The Nuye, 1475 verfts from Katthuga.
The Yerba, 1505. The Patama, 1575. The Oo-
naghtali, 1595. The Olekma, 1822. The Aldan,
2600. Betides feveral rivers farther north of no ma¬
terial confequence.
The mod remarkable of the native tribes of Siberia
are the Tungoofe, the Yakut), and the Burati; all of
whom appear to have originally defcended thither from
the fouthern and more elevated regions of Tartary. To
thefe may be added the ColTacks, whom the Ruffians
have everywhere introduced. The Tungoofe wander
over an amazing extent of ground, from the mouth of
the Amour to the Baikal lake, the rivers Angara or
Tungoofka, Lena, Aldan, Yudoma, Mayo, Ud, the
fea coafl: of Ochotfk, the Amicon, Kovima, Indigirka,
Alafey, the coatt of the Icy fea, and all the mountains
of thefe parts, conftantly on the look-out for animals
of the chafe. They feldom refide more than fix days
in one place, but remove their tents, though it be to
the fmall difiance of 20 fathoms *, and this only in the
fifiiing feafon, and during the time of colledling ber¬
ries. They leave their fupplies of fifh and dried ber¬
ries in large boxes, built on trees or poles, for the be¬
nefit of themfelves and their tribes in travelling during
•the winter. Berries they dry by mixing them with the
undigefted food (lichen') out of the ftomach of the
rein-deer, making thin cakes, which they fpread on
the bark of trees, and dry upon their huts in the fun
or wind. They feem callous to the effe£ts of heat or
cold : their tents are covered with fliamoy or the in¬
ner bark of the birch, which they render as pliable as
leather, by rolling it up, and keeping it for fome time
in the fteam of boiling water and fmoke. Their win¬
ter drefs is the {kin of the deer, or of the wild (beep,
drefled with the hair on •, a breafi-piece of the fame,
which ties round the neck, and reaches down to the
waift, widening towards the bottom, and neatly orna¬
mented with embroidery and beads ; pantaloons of the
fame materials, which alfo furnifii them with (hort
fiockings, and boots of the legs of rein-deer, with the
hair outward •, a fur cap and gloves. Their fummer
drefs only differs in being fimple leather without the
hair. They commonly hunt with the bow and arrow ;
but fome have rifle-barreled guns. They do not like
to bury their dead, but place the body, dreffed in its
bell apparel, in a ftrong box, and fufpend it between
two trees. The implements of the chafe belonging to
the deceafed are buried under the box. Except a for-
cerer is very near, no ceremony is obferved } but in
his prefence they kill a deer, offer a part to the de¬
mons, and eat the reft. They allow polygamy ; but
the firft wife is the chief, and is attended by the reft.
The ceremony of marriage is a fimple purchafe of a
girl from her father 5 from 20 to 100 deer are given,
or the bridegroom works a ftated time for the benefit
of the bride’s father. The unmarried are not remark¬
able for chaftity. A man will give his daughter for a
time to any friend or traveller that he takes a liking
to 5 if he has no daughter he will give his fervant, but
They are rather below the middle fize, Af-a.
and extremely a6tive j have lively fmiling countenan- —y—^
ces, with lma!l eyes ; and both fexes are great lovers
of brandy. They declare that they know no greater
curfe than to live in one place, like a Ruffian or Ya¬
kut, where filth accumulates, and fills the habitation
with ftench and difeafe.
The Yakut), or Socha, are a Tartar tribe that ori-Yakuti.
ginaliy defcended into the country of Siberia from the
high regions on the fouth. A nation of Mongals in¬
habiting a part of the country near China alfo call
themfelves Socha, and fpeak the fame language as the
Yakut). The Ruffians difcovered them in 1620 : they
were divided into many tribes, and the diffenfions that
exitted among them contributed to their being fubdu-
ed. Their number is computed at 50,000 males ; but
the population is declining. They complain of the
oppreffion of the Ruffian government j and of late, as
already mentioned, many of them have emigrated to
the river Amoor, to enjoy the advantages arifing from
the protection of the milder and more popular govern¬
ment of the Chinefe. 2II
There is perhaps no nation in the world that can ex-Their per«
hibit a greater variety with regard to fize than the Ya-lbns.
kuti. The affluent, whofe dwellings are fituated about
the meadows on the fouth fide of the Virchoyanlki
chain, are from five feet ten inches to fix feet four
inches high, well proportioned, extremely ftrong, and
very aCtive ; while the indigent inhabitants of the
more northerly parts are in general below the middle
fize, indolent, and of an unhealthy complexion ; evi¬
dently Runted by the badnefs of their food, the feveri-
ty of the climate, and the want of proper clothing.
Their wealth confifts of horfes and horned cattle. The
private property of no individual at prefent exceeds
2000, all fpecies included ; formerly, numbers of them
poffeffed 20,000.
With regard to their capacity of fupporting them- ]VTeai)S 0f
felves, they are independent. Their only neceffaries fubfiftence.
are, a knife, hatchet (or palma), flint and fteel, and a
kettle ; and with thefe articles the all-providing band
of God fufficiently fupplies them, and capacitates them
to furnifh the other tribes. From the iron ore of the
Vilui, they make their own knives, hatchets, &c. and
of fuch temperature as baffles the more enlightened art
of the Ruffians. This ore may be called native iron,
from the little trouble they have in preparing it. Eve¬
ry utenfil and article of drefs they make themfelves. ^
Tanghra is with them the general name of god, or 0f
perhaps of the fupreme God j but they have other dei- the Yakuti.
ties, whofe names are in their language deferiptive of
their attributes. One of thefe is ftyled Aar-toyon,
(or the merciful chief). To him they aferibe the crea¬
tion, and fuppofe that he has a wife, whom they call
Kubey Chatoon, (ftiining in glory). They are both al¬
mighty. Another god, called Wechfyt, (the advocate),
carries up their prayers, and executes the will of the
godhead. He fometimes appears among them, affu-
ming the form of a white ftallion, or of any bird, from
the eagle to the cuckoo. It is be that intercedes for
them, and procures all defirable things. The wife of
Wechfyt, is called Ahfyt, (the giver). Thefe are their
benevolent gods, together with a being whom they
adore in the fun. They regard the fire, as containing
a peculiar being poffeffed both of good and evil quali-
ties»,
A S I f 775 3 A S I
Afia. ties, an<3 to whom they conftantly offer facrifices.
i* Their malevolent aerial fpirits are very numerous;
they have no lefs than 27 tribes or companies of them.
Their chief they call Ooloo Toyon : he has a wife and
many children. Sugai Toyon, the god of thunder,
is his minifter of immediate vengeance. (Sugai fignifies
a hatehet). The reft they diftinguifti by the names
of different colours. Cattle and horfes are facred to
the different fpirits whofe colours they bear. They
reckon eight tribes of fpirits inhabiting Mung Taar
(everlafting mifery). Their chief is called AJhary
Bioho (the mighty). They have wives, and the cattle
facred to them are quite black : Their departed ftia-
mans, or magicians, are fuppofed to unite to thefe.
They dread greatly an evil goddefs, whom they call
Enachfys, (cowherdefs). She damages the cows, inflifts
diforders on them, deftroys calves, &c. She is fre¬
quently honoured with propitiatory facrifices.
Their magicians, or ftiamans, are chiefly men,
though a few of them are women. Young magicians
are inftrufted by an old profeffor of the art, who con-
du£b them to the moft folitary places of the wroods ;
ftiews them the favourite fpots of the fpirits of the air
and of the pit, and teaches them to invoke their power
and prevail with them to appear. The magicians have
a peculiar drefs, confifting of a leather jacket, and an
apron reaching from the chin to the knees. The whale
is ornamented all over with iron plates, and pieces of
iron and brafs, hanging, which make a difmal noife
when they agitate their bodies, during the fantaftic but
childifti ceremonies which they perform while driving,
as they fay, the demons out of fick people. They ufe
a tambour in their ceremony, and are the priefts and
phyficians in the tribe.
Food. In their roving parties, on the chafe or travelling,
they only take with them a fcanty fupply of koumifs,
depending on chance for the reft •, and fhould their
purfuits prove unfortunate, they find their food in the
inner bark of the pines and birch-trees, or the different
edible roots. Squirrels are in their effimation very
good eating, but their favourite food is the whiffling
marmot. Of all their proviflans, however, koumifs is
the moft valued ; it is formed of mare’s milk, collected
in large leather buckets, wide at bottom, and narrow
at the top : each containing about an anker. Into
this a fmall piece of the ftomach of a calf or colt is
thrown, and fome water mixed with it: it is agitated
till it ferments, and acquires an agreeable acidity ;
and when taken in great quantities it has an intoxica¬
ting quality (See Koumiss). Of this drink every one
colle6ts as much as he can •, and fome of the chiefs ob-
Confecra- more than 500 ankers of it. A day is then fix-
tion ofkou»ed upon by each chief to confecrate his flock, which is
niifs. performed as follows :—A fummer hut is built of thin
poles, of a conical form, covered with the inner bark
of birch, on fome extenfive meadow. It is ornament¬
ed, infide and out, with branches of the birch tree,
and a hearth is made in the centre. Relations and ac¬
quaintances are invited to the banquet; but all guefts
are welcome, of every nation, indifcriminately. The
magicians, or ftiamans, take the head feats ; others are
feated according to the eftimation of their feniority.
When the hut is full, the elder ffiaman rifes, and com¬
mands one of the Socha that he knows to be qualified
(namely, that has not feen a corpfe within the month,
and that never has been accufed of theft, or bearing Afia.
falfe witnefs againft any body, which defiles them for l—v—-
ever, and renders them unqualified for this facred and
folemn talk), to take a large goblet, called a t/horon,
which is ufed to drink out of on folemn occafions, and
fill it with koumifs out of the firff fymir j then to place
himfelf before the hearth, with his face to the eaft,
holding the tfhoron to his breaft about two minutes.
He then pours koumifs three times on the hot embers,
as an offering to Aar Toyon. Turning a very little
to the right, he pours three times to Kubey Chatoon ;
then, to the fouth, he offers in the fame manner to each
of the benevolent gods. With his face to the w'eft, he
pours three times to the 27 tribes of aerial fpirits, and
three times to the north to the eight tribes of the pit,
and to the manes of their departed forcerers. After
a ftiort paufe, he concludes his libation by an offering
to Enachfys, the cowherdefs. The forcerer then turns
the man with his face to the eaft, and commences a
prayer aloud, thanking the godhead for all favours re¬
ceived, and foliciting a continuance of their bounty.
On concluding his prayer, he takes off his cap, with
which he fans himfelf three times, and cries out aloud,
“ Oorui” (grant), which is repeated by all prefent.
The elder fhaman, then, taking the tftioron, drinks a
little, and hands it to his brethren of the fame order,
from whom it palles to the company as they fit, except
fuch as are defiled. Women are not admitted into the
hut 5 nor are they or the difqualified allowed any of
the koumifs out of the firft fymir, which they call fanc-
tified, as poffeffing the power of purifying and ftrength-
ening in a divine fenfe. They all now go out of the
hut, and feat themfelves on the ftrewed branches of
birches, in half circles, fronting the eaft. All the fy-
mirs are carried, and placed between the branches of
trees ftuck in the earth, and they commence drinking ;
every crefcent having their fymirs, tfhoronvand prefi-
ding fhaman who fills the goblet, and puflies it about
with the cocrfe of the fun. The quantity that they
drink is incredible. Tournaments now begin ; wreft-
ling, running, leaping^&c. ; and if any one carry off
the prize in all the achievements, he is efteemed as
particularly favoured by the deities, and receives more
reflect and credit in his teftimony than falls to the lot
of a common man. When the ceremony is finifhed,
they mount their horfes, forming half circles, drinking
a parting draught, and wheeling round with the fun’s
courfe, ride home. Women attend, and form parties
among themfelves at fome diftance from the men, where
they drink, dance, &c. 216
The Yakut! or Socha, in their intercourfe with each Character,
other, have few atrocious vices. Robberies are fel-
dom committed ; they fometimes, indeed, lofe their cat¬
tle from their ftraying in thefe wide countries. If fto-
len, dete&ion is almoft certain, as they relate all their
Ioffes at every public meeting ; in confequence of which,
if the loft beaff has been feen, information is given, and
it is traced. A thief is not only compelled to make
refioration, but to make good all the Ioffes of other
Yakut during the year, whether he has ftolen the pro¬
perty or not. If one is accufed of having ftolen cattle,
and eaten or killed them, he muft either pay for them,
receive a flogging, which is very difgraceful, or take
an oath of his innocence, which is adminiftered with
fo many fjperftitious fclexnnities? that innocent perfons
will?
A S I [ 776 ] AST
Afia. will often rnther pay the damages than take the oath.
*' They are very revengeful of infults, and entail upon
their progeny the duty of revenge : their gratitude,
however, is equal to their refentment 5 they never for¬
get a benefit j and not only make a return, but recom¬
mend to their children to perfevere in friendfhip and
gratitude to the benefactors of their parents. They are
very obedient to their chiefs and old men. They de¬
liberate in council on all matters of public concern, as
the courfe which each is to take in the chafe, &c.
The old men are furrounded by the reft, and their ad¬
vice is implicitly obeyed. A young man gives his
opinion refpedtfully and cautioufly •, and, even when
afked, he fubmits his ideas to the judgment of the old.
They are extremely hofpitable and attentive to travel¬
lers, and are very inquifitive ; they afk quell ions fre¬
quently, but, at the fame time, they anfwer them with¬
out embarralfment, and with a confiderable appearance
of intelligence. They are a vigorous race, accuftomed
to travel in the fevereft frofts, and to endure hunger
with patience. They are, however, fubjeft to I’ome
difeafes, particularly rheumatifms, weaknefs of the
eyes, boils, and the itch. The fmallpox and mealies
have alfo at times proved very deftru&ive amongft
217 them.
Superfti- They have a multitude of petty fuperftitions, inde-
t-ions. pendent of their religion. Ravens, crows, and cuckoos,
are ominous birds : and, if thefe perch near their huts,
they dread fome misfortune, which can only be averted
by 4lhooting the birds. On the contrary, eagles and
large birds of prey are the foreboders of good $ and al-
moft every tribe has its obje£t of veneration, but not
of worlhip, as the eagle, the fwan, the flallion, &c.
They always take care to make the doors of their huts
towards the eaft $ the fire-place is in the middle, with
the back of the chimney towards the door ; the fides
of the hut are furnilhed with benches and fmall cabins,
which ferve for deeping places, and for fitting on.
The men keep upon the fouth fide and the women up¬
on the north. Except the holtefs, no woman may pre-
fent food to a male ft ranger in front of the fire-place,
but muft walk round the chimney to prefent it. They
never walh the veffels that contain their food ; but
when a dilh is emptied, they clean it as well as they can
with their fingers, accounting it ominous, or that it fore¬
bodes a fcarcity, to walh away any part of their food.
Their earthen veffels are preferved extremely clean by
repeated burnings, as the fire confumes what adhered to
the fides. Before eating any thing, they call a morfel
into the fire. Every Yakut has two names, and is on¬
ly called by the right name, in cafes of neceflity, to a-
void the fearch of evil fpirits. They never mention the
dead, unlefs allegorically, and forfake the hut in which
3l8 any one has expired.
Women and Polygamy is allowed among them, and fome have
marriage, fix wives, but the firft is refpedted by all the reft, and
they dwell in feparate huts : their marriage ceremonies
Sauer's Ex-*™ extremely formal. The young man, who wiftres to
^edition. marry, fends his friend to alk the confent of the bride’s
father, and what kalym (purchafe) he demands ; that
is, how many horfes and cattle, as alfo the quantity of
raw meat, horfe flefti, and beef, that he requires for
treats and feafts ; this they call hurim; half of the
quantity is always given in prefents to the bridegroom
by the bride’s father, and is called yrdy. The daugh¬
ter’s inclinations are always confulted ; and, if ftie does Afia.
not object, the kalym and kurim are ftipulated. The v-’"
bridegroom kills two fat mares, drtffes the heads whole,
and the flefti in pieces, and goes with three or four
friends to the father of the bride. On his arrival at
the hut, one of bis friends enters, and places one of the
dreffed horfe’s heads before the fire, and returns to his
companions without fpeaking a word. They then all
enter the hut j and a forcerer being placed oppofite the
fire, the bridegroom kneels on one knee with his face
towards it, into which butter is thrown ; he then lifts
up his cap a little, and nods his head three times with¬
out bowing his body. The forcerer pronounces him
the happy man, and prophefies a fucceflion of happy
years, &.c. Then the bridegroom rifes, bows to the
father and mother, and takes his feat oppofite the
bride’s place, but keeps filent. The meat is then
brought in, and the father of the bride diftributes it
among his own friends, but kills a fat mare to treat
his new guefts. Supper being over, the bridegroom
goes to bed j the bride, who has not been prefent, is
conduced into the hut, and to his bed, by tome old
w7omen, and they fleep together \ fometimes, however,
the brfde does not appear at the firfl: vifit. In the
morning the friends return home, but the bridegroom
remains three or four days. A time is nowr fixed for
payment of the kalym, either at the new or full moon.
The kalym and kurim are then carried without any ce¬
remony, and delivered in the prefence of many friends,
who are feafted, and the bridegroom remains again
three or four days, and fixes a time to receive the
bride at his own dwelling, which muft be new built on
purpofe ; and this alfo at the new or full moon. All
her relations, male and female, with friends and neigh¬
bours, fometimes more than a hundred, accompany the
bride with her father and mother, taking with them
eight or ten fymirs full of melted butter, and the dref¬
fed meat of three mares. They go to the new hut
prepared for them ; three men are fent to the bride¬
groom in his old hut, and the greateft drinkers are
chofen for this purpofe. On entering, the firft: fays,
“ we are come to fee your dwelling, and to fix polls
before your door.” They then kneel on one knee be¬
fore the fire : an ayack is filled with koumifs, and hand¬
ed by two men to the three kneeling 5 each of whom
empties an ayack at three draughts. They then rife
and go out, all the company faluting them with one
cheer. Three others enter j the firft with nine fables,
the fecond with nine foxes, and the third with twenty-
feven ermine Ikins 5 thefe they hang on a peg in the
chief corner of the hut, and retire. Then a number
of women condudl the bride, her face being covered
with ermine Ikins, to the hut j the entrance has a
wooden bar placed acrofs it, but of no ftrength, which
the bride breaks with her breaft, and enters the hut. She
is placed before the fire, holding her hands open before
her, into which feven pieces of flicks are put ; as alfo
feveral pieces of butter, which Ihe throws; into the fire.
The lhaman pronounces a blefling •, ftie then rifes and
is again conducted, with her face concealed all the
while, to the new hut, where the cover is taken from
her face. The bridegroom enters, and feafts his guefts
two days j then prefents all his relations with cattle,
over and above the kalym j which is, however, return¬
ed on paying their formal vifits, perhaps a year or more
afterwards.
Afsa.
2Tp
"Funerals.
a 20
Arts.
a2i
Tribe of
Burati.
222
Population
af Siberia.
AST [77
afterwards. When a child is about to be born, the huf-
band is called 5 and two fkilful women, in his prefence,
aflift the delivery. If a fon be born, a fat mare is killed
on the third day ; all the neighbours are invited to
fupper; the child is rubbed all over with fat, and a
name given to it, the more infignificant the better ; for
an elegant name would only entice the demons to be
continually about it. No ceremony is obferved if the
child be a daughter.
The Yakuti bury a dead perfon in his bed apparel,
with his knife, flint, fteel, tinder, and fome meat, that
he may not hunger on the road to the dwelling of
fouls. Two holes are dug under a tree ; a favourite
horfe of the deceafed is killed and buried in one, while
the corpfe is laid in the other: a fat mare, is killed,
dreffed, and eaten, by the guefts; her Ikin is fufpend-
ed on the tree, under which the body lies with the
head to the weft. A magician, playing upon his tam;
hour, invokes the demons to let the fpirit of the de¬
parted reft in peace j and the ceremony is finiftied
by filling up the grave. If an elder brother die,
his wives become the property of the younger ; but
the wives of a younger brother become free at his
death.
Their drefs is fimilar to that of the Tungoofe, but
more complete. Their principal arts confift of work¬
ing iron ore, as already mentioned, by means of char¬
coal, rendering it malleable without any previous pro-
cefs of fufion, and of drefling leather, which they are
faid to perform with wonderful fuccefs, fo as to render
it completely water-proof, in the following manner :
For fymirs or buckets, they take a fre(h fldnned cow’s
or horfe’s hide, and fteep it in water a few days, when
the hair eafily rubs off. It is then hung up till nearly
dry, when they lay it in blood until foaked through,
and then hang it in a fmoky place for a confiderable
time j of this they make their buckets and foies of
boots, See. The latter are completely^ -water-proof,
and the buckets or fymirs even retain oil. The legs
of boots they make of colts or calves fkins, fcraped
and rubbed till they be foft, then fewed, fteeped.in
blood, and dried in fmoke ; afterwards blackened with
wood coals and fat feveral times, and fmoked again :
they are then water-proof. The thread with which they
few their clothes is made of the finews from the legs
of the horfe-deer or elk. They are expert archers,
and have a plentiful fupply of arrows in their quivers.
They make confiderable quantities of hay, and collect
berries which they preferve by boiling. Fo fave their
hay, they kill at the beginning of winter the cattle
they intend to ufe for food, and let it freeze, which
preferves it frefti and good during the whole of that
feafon. -
Another tribe of Siberians inhabiting the fouthern
parts of the territory, is the Burati. They are divided
into a great number of feparate fmall tribes, and are
alfo a race of Tartars. They poffefs immenfe herds
of cattle and horfes. They are not unacquainted
with letters, and have lamas or priefts, like the inhabi¬
tants of the fouthern parts of High Tartary. . I here
are alfo various other tribes, fuch as the Yukagiri, the
Tfhuvantfi, Chatinfy, &c. who do not feem to differ
in their manners and charafter from thofe already de-
fcribed. On the whole, however, it appears.that the
population of Siberia is very trifling. It is great-
Vol. II. Part II.
Alia.
7 ] A S I
eft towards the fouthern boundary, in the latitudes
of the Baikal lake and the river Amoor, where the y-“-j
climate is mildeft. To give an idea of the population
of the lower or northern part, we (hall here ftate, from
the work already quoted, an account of the number of Sauer's
inhabitants from the latitude of 64°, to the extremity Expedition.
of the north coaft, and from the river Kovima weft-
ward to the Anabara. “ The diftritt of Laftuverlk
comprehends the rivers Kovima, Alafcy, Indigirka,
and Yana, and thofe that flow into them ; The tribu¬
tary nations are
Yakuti - - 2810
Lamut and Tungoofe - 742
Yukagiri r 1 " 32 2
Tfhuvantfi and Chatinfy - 37
3911
Tribute received in 1788, amounts to 4560 rubles.—
The circuit is about 6000 verfts in circumference.
“ The diftri£! of Giganfk, a town north of Yakutlk on
the Lena, contains one church, two government houfes,
feven private ones, and 15 huts. It has a mayor (gorod-
nitfhik) and his chancery, and court of the diftrift
(leinihoifud') and a magiftracy, although the merchants
are mere trading pedlars, and only two I think in num¬
ber. Its circuit alfo is about 6000 verfts from the Yana
to the Anabara, which divides the governments of To-
bolflc and Irkutlk. The tributary nations are
Yakuti
Tungoofe
1449
489
1938
Tribute received in 1798, 56 fables, 262 foxes, and
I iqb^rubles in money.
“ The Ruffians inhabiting both diftridts, including
exiles, &c. do not exceed 750 males.”
The Ruffian b habitants of the better parts of Sibe-pufl-ianS
ria, efpeeially towards the weft, employ themfelves in Siberia,
the cultivation of grain, or as graziers or carriers.
They have an excellent breed of horned cattle, with
which, as well as with butter, they fupply both the
northern and eaftern diftridts of the empire. They
are wealthy, hofpitable, healthy, and clean, and live
under no controul of individuals, only paying a trifling
fum to the captain of the diftridt for government. The »
Siberians throughout are more induftrious and indepen¬
dent than any Ruffian peafants, and live far more com¬
fortably. They are making confiderable progrefs in
civilization, and this is perhaps, fo far as the bulk of the
people are concerned, the happieft part of that great
empire. . 224
We now return to the territory from which we fet Grand far-
out, Grand Tartary, or the elevated level tradl which tary.
conftitutes the central region of Afia. This high
country poffeffes confiderable variety of foil and ap¬
pearance. Towards China is an immenfe defert form¬
ing the boundary of that empire. It confifts of fands,
that move with the winds like the current of a river.
Nature has formed three paffages acrofs them by means
of three chains of mountains, which, as in Arabia ofDefert^of
in Africa, are mixed with pleafant valleys amidft thefe Lop, and
oceans of fand. Travellers who take any other courfe ro.ds
are apt to be overwhelmed with the torrents of fand,trough &
which are equally dangerous as in the Arabian defert.
5 F The
A S 1 [ 778 ] A S I
Afta. The firft of thefe communications is in latitude 420
'■“•"“v*-— north, to the eaft-north-eaft of Pekin j the fecond to
the eall of the province of Shen-fi j and the third in
latitude 3 2°, to the call of Hami, on the frontiers of
Thibet. By thefe roads a fafe accefs was given
through the vaft 'Tartarian regions, from the countries
bordering on the Cafpian fea, and more remotely from
Europe itfelf, to caravans of merchants, who had no
other way of carrying on commerce with China in the
middle ages, before the invention of the mariner’s eom-
pafs, and the difcovery of the paffage round the Cape
of Good Hope, had laid open an eafier mode of com¬
munication. It is not wonderful, that when travel¬
ling in thefe dreary folitudes, the imaginations of men
fhould have been haunted and terrified by illufions.
Accordingly, Marco Polo, a traveller in the middle
ages who paffed through the great defert, which he
names the defert of Lop, fays, that during the night,
the caravans are terrified with the demons which haunt
thefe horrid lands and dreadful deferts ; the travellers
mull be careful how they ftray, for they will imagine
themfelves called by their names by voices familiar to
them, till they are brought to the edge of a precipice,
and fometimes they will be entertained with aerial mu-
fie. "Thefe romances reached Europe ; and our poet,
Milton, makes the lady in Comus, when benighted
and bewildered on her way, to fpeak in the ftyle of
them.
 £< A thoufand fantafies
Begin to throng into my memory
Of calling fhapes, and beck’ning (hadows dire,
And aery tongues, that fyllable men’s names
On fands and Ihores and defert wildernefles.”
Even thefe deferts, however, are not entirely defiitute
of inhabitants, as a few Tartars are found upon them,
with their horfes, afles, and mules.
Soil of Tar- The reft of this high region pofltA s a confiderable
tary, and variety of foil. In general, however, though it bears
inhabitants, abundance of trees and grafs, the climate is extremely
fevere. The fummits of all the chains of mountains
are covered with perpetual fnow, which augments the
cold of the adjoining plains. Even in the fouthern
parts of it, in latitude 3:0 39', rvithin eight degrees of
the burning Calcutta, the cold is frequently found to
reach 290 below the freezing point, and this even
within a dwelling houfe. The high country, as al¬
ready mentioned, looks down from its different ftdes
upon Perfia, India, China, and Siberia, towards all
which it is furrouaded by fteep precipices of difficult
defeent, which exclude its inhabitants from holding
an eafy intercourfe with thefe regions. Southward,
however, on the fide of India, the mountains appear to
be moft precipitous, and the approach moft difficult.
Towards Siberia, on the north, it feems lefs fo, and ac¬
cordingly it is chiefly in that diredlion, or by the north-
eaft or fouth-weft, that the Tartars have in different
ages approached China or Perfia, and through them
the fonthern regions of the Indies, "I he inhabitants of
this lofty territory have in every age poffeffed the fame
chara6ler, and engaged in the fame occupations. 1 hey
have fubfifted in a paftoral ftate, by means of their
flocks and herds, and upon the flelh of fuch wild ani-
mab as they could obtain by the chafe. They have,
at the fame time, been rude, and in general illiterate
barbarians, poffefling fimilar manners to the Siberian
kindred, whom we have already deferibed, the Tun- ——v——'
goofe, the Yakuti, and Burati. It is a Angular cir-
cumftance, however, that in the fouthern part of this
territory, called Thibet, a luperftition fhuuld have efta-
blifhed itfelf, which givts to an eftablifhed priefthood
the whole dominion of the ftate. What proves in a
Angular manner the influence of education upsn man¬
kind, is this, that the lubjtcts of the lama, or high pon¬
tiff of the Tartars of Thibet, are no lefs unwarlike and
unfit to defend themfelves againft invaders, than the
fubjedts of the high-prieft, who, in the regions of the
weft has fo long occupied the capital of the Csefars.
This corner, however, of Grand Tartary, muft be re¬
garded merely as an exception to the general charac¬
ter of the people, who have at all times difplayed the
greateft aptitude for military enterprifes. From this
high region the great conquerors of Alia have defeend-
ed, and under the names of Moguls, Turks, or Tartars,
have repeatedly overrun, and affumed complete domi¬
nion over the furrounding civilized nations. '
The general hiftory of the great continent of Afia Wea of the
may be ftated in a few words. When the civilized hiftory of
nations which occupy the coafts of it on the weft, the ,^ia ar‘^
fouth, and the call, are well governed-, when f°ciety tiors
is in a proper ftate, and its powers can be directed with
{kill and energy for the public protection, Grand Tar¬
tary becomes a place of little importance, or is merely
regarded as a grazing territory fit for the breeding of
cattle, which periodically are brought down to the
great markets of the richer countries in which they
are intended to be fattened and confumed. The Tar¬
tars themfelves, divided into an immenfe multitude of
tribes, are eafily kept by the intrigues of their more
artful neighbours in a ftate of conftant domeftic hofti-
lity, or they readily fubmit to the dominion, and en¬
gage in the ferviee of the rulers of a better foil and
climate, to which they are at all times willing to emi¬
grate.
On the contrary, when the arrangements of fociety
become defective in the furrounding nations; when
public inftitutions are allowed to fall into decay, and
whe n anarchy and weaknefs of government prevail, the
Tartars gradually refume their independence. Being
no longer either divided by the arts or overawed by
the power of their neighbours, they acquire a con¬
tempt for their weaknefs, and an avidity to poffefs
their riches. On fuch occafion, if an afpiring chief of
a Tartar tribe is able by perfuafion or by force to
unite under his ftandard a few neighbouring tribes, he
fpeedily becomes dangerous to the nations in his vici¬
nity, and almoft to the human race. By the booty
obtained in forae fuccefsful inroads, he acquires new
affociates ; the hope of plunder brings his whole coun¬
trymen to his ftandard, and the few who are not led
by hope, are compelled to follow and obey him through
fear. All Tartary is foon in motion, and China, Per¬
fia, and India, are defolated and fubdued.
That this is a correft account or true theory of the
hiftory of Afia, is evident from its prefent and pall
ftate. At prefent, China, which has repeatedly been
conquered by the Tartars, commands them with the
greateft eafe. The power of the Chinefe emperor is
uncontrouled in the country of Thibet, which he pro-
tetffs by his arms, and rules by mandarins, his depu¬
ties,.
A S I
[ 779 ]
A S I
22$
Story of
Mam go.
See Gib¬
bon's Hijlo
ry.
Afia. ties. Aim oft the whole of the high region ol larla-
—v —■■■■' ry weft ward to Imaus, which looks down upon the
Cafpian fea, and northward along the coalt of the A-
moor and the Baikal lake, acknowledges his authority.
The fame appears to have been the cafe during the
third century of the Chriftian era, when a Chinefe ge¬
neral, in the reign of Vou-ti-thi, firft emperor of the
feventh dynafiy, marched as far as the Cafpian. A
fingle anecdote will fufficiently point out the authority
which the Chinefe poffeffed over Tartary at that pe¬
riod. Mamgo, a Tartar chief, whofe horde frequent¬
ed the fleirts of China, having incurred the difpleafure
of the government of that country, retired with his
followers to the banks of the Oxus, and implored the
protection of Sapor, the reigning emperor of Perfia.
The emperor of China claimed the fugitive, and al¬
leged the rights of fovereignty. The Perfian monarch
pleaded the laws of hofpitality, and until fome diffi¬
culty avoided a war, by the promife, that he would
banifh Mamgo to the uttermoft parts of the weft ; a
punifhment, as he defcribed it, not lefs dieadful than
death itfelf. Armenia was chofen for the place of ex¬
ile, and a large diftriCt was afligned to the Scythian
horde, on which they might feed their flocks and herds,
and remove their encampment from one place to ano¬
ther, according to the different feafons of the year.——
Between that period and the prelent, however, China
has been repeatedly defolated by .Tartar invafions,
though it has always rifen from its ruins, and refumed
its ancient power and profperity.
Thus Afia has been the feene of continual revolu¬
tions. At one period the Tartars have been divided
and weak barbarians, deftitute of arts and of power,
and fubjeft to the controul of their civilized neigh¬
bours. Thefe neighbours have at the fame time been
profperous, commercial, and great. After tne lapfe
of fome time, however, the reverfe of all Inis has ta¬
ken place ; the civilized nations have funk into anar¬
chy ; Tartary has become ftrong ; its ferocious tribes
have united, and the enterprifes refulting from tneir
union have covered the earth with defolation and car¬
nage. Thus the hi ft or y of Afia has always proceeded
in a circle •, and it becomes the duty of the philofopbi-
cal geographer to inveftigate the caufes of this peculi¬
arity, which has attended the human race in fo great
a portion of the globe. We ffiall here, therefore, en¬
deavour firft to point out thofe qualities in the charac¬
ter and manners of the lartars, which have enabled
them to vanquifh the civilized nations of the earth
from China to Germany, for fo far their conquefts
have reached, as the Hungarians and the lurks origi¬
nally defeended from Grand 1 artary, as well as the
race of princes who now rule the great empire of Chi¬
na. We ftiall afterwards endeavour to explain the
Arrian. cirCumftances in the ftate of fociety among the eaftern
nations, which periodically reduce them to degenera¬
cy and political weaknefs, and prevent their perfever-
ing in that career of civilization and of improvement,
in which the nations of Europe are now fo rapidly ad¬
vancing, and to which the friends of humanity and of
feience, as yet, rather wifti than hope a perpetual dura¬
tion. If we are fuccefsful in our inveftigation of the
caufes of the revolutions now alluded to, the philofo-
phy of general hiftory will become extremely fimple,
and mankind will be enabled, from the experience of
225
Arrange¬
ment of the
following
remarks.
paft ages, to diftinguifh the inftitutions whicn contarn Afia
within themfelves the feeds of decay and diflolution, ** v
from thofe which have a tendency to intreale the ener¬
gies of the human charafter, and to preferve upon the
earth the dominion of civilization and of Icience over •
barbariftn and ignorance. 2,30
We formerly remarked, that the human chara&er Canles of
is formed by its fituation, or by the education which diverfity m
it receives. The education, however, of barbarians, __
or the fituation in which they are placed, is almoft en-t-lori5>
tirely the reiult of their phyfical wants, and ot the cli¬
mate. and foil which they inhabit : Hence their cha¬
racter is formed by thefe circumftances, and is the
fame in every age. On the contrary, the ir.oft re¬
markable circumftances in the fituation and education
of civilized men, and thole which have the moft power¬
ful effeCt upon their character, arii'e not lb much from
the cold or heat of the region in which they are born,
or from its comparative fertility or barrennefs, as from
the civil, religious, and political inftitutions which
have been eftabiilhed in it, and the degree in which
the human mind is habituated to the purfuits of an en¬
lightened feience, or accuftomed to make exertions tor
the improvement of the various arts of life. Hence wc
lhall find, that although the Tartars always refemble
each other, yet in countries of equal fertility and of
fimilar temperature, the Turks or Perfians, and the
Chinefe and Indians, differ widely in confequence of the
diverfity of their inftitutions. 2-T
Though Grand Tartary, fituated in the centre of Extent of
Afia, arid in contaft with its great monarchies, is the Tartary.
place from which the revolutions of that continent
have ufually commenced, this high region muft not be
confidered as the foie country of that barbarous race of
people, ufually called Tartars by the Europeans. We
have feen, that kindred tribes inhabit the countries to
the northward of China upon the river Amoor 5 they
alfo occupy the whole length of the habitable part of
Siberia, and proceed weftward to the Calpian fea, and
along the northern (hores of the Black lea, to the
mouth of the Danube. Thus they range over no de¬
grees of longitude. When a movement, however, is once
begun in Grand Tartary, it is apt to extend itfelf in n
leffer or greater degree over the whole of thefe favage
regions. Vanquiftied tribes are driven weftward be¬
fore their conquerors, and precipitated upon others,
who in their turn are preffed upon the northern na¬
tions of Europe. At other times, the whole barba¬
rous world fubmitting to the fame mailer, and gather¬
ing around his vidorious ftandard, has been known to
pour down upon the more wealthy and peaceful na¬
tions of the fouth. In this way were accomplilhed
the great conquefts of the Moguls and Tartars, the
Turks, and the Huns. A Tartar chief has been known
to number 1,500,000 followers in arms, and to make
an expedition at the head of 500,000 horfe. Zenghis
Khan’s army ufually amounted to 800,000 barbarian
cavalry, who trode down the nations in their progrefs.
Confidered as a nation of Ihepherds and of rvarriors, Caufes of
the following circumftances have in all ages contributed the Tartar
to prepare the Tartar, or as they were anciently called
the Scythian tribes, for a career of vidory. _ Hijio.
The corn or the rice which conftitutes the ordinary ry, vol. ii.
and wholefome ftod of a civilized people can be obtain- 233
ed only by the patient toil of the hufbandman. Some Iheir
<r F 2 of
A S I C ?8o ] A S I
A8a. of the favagc.s who dwell between the tropics are plen-
""V’—tifully fupplied with vegetable food by the liberality of
nature; but in the climates of the north, and in the
fterile plains of Grand Tartary, a nation of fhepherds
is reduced to depend for fubliftence upon their flocks
and herds. When animal food is dreffed in a certain
way, the common affociation of carnivorous and cruel
probably deferves to be confidered in no other light
than that of a humane prejudice ; but if it be true that
the fentiment of companion is imperceptibly weakened
by the fight and pra6tice of domeftic cruelty, we may
obferve, that the horrid objects which are difguifed by
the arts of European refinement, are exhibited in their
naked and moft difgufting fimplicity in the tent of a
Tartarian fliepherd. The ox or the fheep are flaugh-
tered by the fame hand from which they were ac-
cuflomed to receive their daily food; and the bleeding
• limbs are ferved, with very little preparation, on the
table of their unfeeling murderer. In the military
profeffion, and efpecially in the condufl of a numerous
army, the exclufive ufe of animal food appears to be
produdlive of the moft folid advantages. Corn is a
bulky and perifhable commodity ; and the large ma¬
gazines which are indifpenfably neceflary for the fubfift-
ence of our troops, muft be flowly tranfported by the
labour of men and horfes. But the flocks and herds
which accompany the march of the Tartars afford a
fare and increafing fupply of flefh, milk, &e. In the
far greater part of the uncultivated wafte the vegetation
of the grafs is quick and luxuriant ; and there are few
places fo extremely barren that the hardy cattle of the
north cannot find fome tolerable pafture. The fupply
is multiplied and prolonged by the undiftinguifhing
appetite and patient abftinence of the Tartars. They
indifferently feed on the flefti of thofe animals that
have been killed for the table or have died of difeafe.
Horfe llefh, which has in every age and country been
proferibed by the civilized nations of Europe and Alia,
they devour with peculiar greedinefs; and this lingu¬
lar tafte facilitates the fuccefs of their military opera¬
tions. The aflive cavalry of Scythia is always follow¬
ed in their moft diftant and rapid incurfions by an ade¬
quate number of fpare horfes, who may be occafionally
ufed, either to redouble the fpeed or to fatisfy the
hunger of the barbarians. Many are the refources of
courage and poverty. When the forage round a camp
of Tartars is almoft confumed, they {laughter the great-
eft part of their cattle, and preferve the flefti, either
fraoked, or dried in the fun. On the fudden emer¬
gency of a hafty march, they provide themfelves with
a fufficient quantity of little balls of cheefe, or rather
of hard curd, which they occafionally diffolve in water,
and this unfubftantial diet will fupport, for many days,
the life and even the fpirits of the patient warrior.
But . this extraordinary abftinence, which the ftoic
would approve, and the hermit might envy, is common¬
ly fucceeded by the moft voracious indulgence of ap¬
petite. The wines of a happier climate are the moft
grateful prefent, or the moft valuable commodity, that
can be offered to the Tartars ; and one of the moft re¬
markable examples of their induftry confifts of the art,
already mentioned, of extrafling from mares milk a
fermented liquor,which poffeffes fome power of intoxi¬
cation. Like the animals of prey, the favages, both
of the old and new world, experience the alternate vi-
4
ciflitudes of famine and plenty, and their ftomach is in- Alia,
ured to fuflain, without much inconvenience, the op- ——v—
pofite extremes of hunger and of intemperance.
The nature of their habitations alfo prepares the Habita-
Tartars for war. In a country in which agriculture is1*0'15*
carried on, the hufbandmen are fcattered over the face
of the foil, and fome time muft elapfe before they can
affemble in a body to defend their own confines, or to
invade the territories of others. The progrefs of ma¬
nufactures and commerce infenfibly collefts a large
multitude within the walls of a city : but thefe citizens
are no longer foldiers; the arts which adorn and im¬
prove the ftate of civil fociety, corrupt the habits of
the military life. The paftoral manners of the Scy¬
thians feem to unite the different advantages of fimpli-
city and refinement. The individuals of the fame tribe
are conftantly affembkd, but they are affembled in a
camp ; and the native fpirit of thefe dauntlefs fhepherds
is animated by mutual fupport and emulation. The
houfes of the Tartars are no more than fmall tents,,
of an oval form, which afford a cold and dirty ha— ■
bitation for the promifeuous youth of both fexes.
The palaces of the rich confift of wooden huts, of fucb
a fize that they may be conveniently fixed on large
waggons, and drawn by a team perhaps of 20 or 30
oxen. The flocks and herds, after grazing all day in
the adjacent paftures, retire on the approach of night
within the protection of the camp. The necefiity of
preventing the moft mifehievous confufion in fuch a
perpetual concourfe of men and animals, muft gradual¬
ly introduce, in their diftribution of the order and the
guard of the encampment, the rudiments of the military
art. As foon as the forage of a certain diftrid is con-
fumed, the tribe, or rather army of fhepherds, makes a
regular march to fome frefh paftures ; and thus ac¬
quires, in the ordinary occupations of the paftoral life*,
the praftical knowledge of one of the moft important
and difficult operations of war. The choice of ftations
is regulated by the difference of feafons. In the fum-
mer the Tartars advance towards the north, and pitch
their tents on the banks of a river, or at leaf! in the
neighbourhood of a running ftream ; but in the win¬
ter they return to the fouth, and fhelter their camp, be¬
hind fome convenient eminence,againft the winds, which
are chilled in their paffage over the bleak and icy re¬
gions of Siberia. Thefe manners are admirably adapt¬
ed to diffufe, among the wandering tribes, the fpirit of
emigration and conqueft. The connexion between the
people and their territory is of fo frail a texture, that it
may be broken by the flighteft accident. The camp,
and not the foil, is the native country of the genuine
Tartar. Within the precinCls of that camp, his fami¬
ly, his companions, his property, are always included ,
and in the moft diftant marches, he is ftill furrounded
by the objeCls which are dear or valuable, or familiar
in his eyes. The thirft of rapine, the fear or the re-
fentment of injury, the impatience of fervitude, have,
in every age, been fufticient caufes to urge the tribes of
Scythia boldly to advance into fome unknown countries,
where they might hope to find a more plentiful fub-
fiftence or a lefs formidable enemy. Even the feverity
of the climates which they inhabit facilitates their en-
terprifes. In the winter feafon,-the broad and rapid
rivers that difeharge their waters into the Euxine, the
Cafpian, or the Icy fea, are ftrongly frozen ; the fields
are
Afia.
435
£xercifes.
a s i r 78
are covered with a bed of fnow 5 and the fugitive or
' victorious tribes may fecurely traverfe with their fami¬
lies, their waggons, and their cattle, the fmooth and
hard furface of an immenfe plain.
The ordinary exercifes of thefe people prepare them
for war. The paltoral life, compared with the labours
of agriculture and manufactures, is undoubtedly a life
of idlenefs *, and as the molt honourable Ihepherds of
the Tartar race devolve on their captives the dotnehic
management of their cattle, their own leifure is feldom
difturbed by any fervile and affiduous cares. But this
leifure, inftead of being devoted to the foft enjoyments
of love and harmony, is ufually fpent in the violent
and fanguinary exercife of the chafe. I he plains of
Tartary are filled with a Itrong and ferviceable breed
of horfes, which are ufually trained for the purpofes of
war and hunting. The Scythians of every age have
been celebrated as bold and fkilful riders > and con-
ftant praftice has feated them fo firmly on horfeback,
that they were fuppofed by ftrangers to perform the or¬
dinary duties of civil life, to eat, drink, and even to
fleep without difmounting from their deeds. They ex¬
cel in the dexterous management of the lance ; the
long Tartar bo.vv is drawn with a nervous arm j and
the weighty arrow is direCted to its objeCt with uner¬
ring aim, and irrefiftible force : thefe arrows are often
pointed againlt the harmlefs animals of the defert,
which increafe and multiply in the abfence of their
mod formidable enemy ; the hare, the goat, the roe¬
buck, the fallow-deer, the dag, the elk, and the ante¬
lope. The vigour and patience both of the men and
horfes are continually exercifed by the fatigues of the
chafe * and the plentiful fupply of game contributes
to the fubfidence and even luxury of a Tartar camp.
But the exploits of the hunters of Scythia are not con¬
fined to the dedruClion of innoxious beads j they bold¬
ly encounter the angry wild-boar when he turns
againd his purfuers, excite the fluggidi courage of the
bear, and provoke the fury of the tiger as he dumbers
in the thicket. Where there is danger there may be
glory j and the mode of hunting which opens the fair¬
ed field to the exertions of valour, may judly be con-
fidered as the image and as the fchool of war. The
general hunting matches, the pride and delight of the
Tartar princes, compofe an indruClive exercife for their
numerous cavalry. A circle is drawn of many miles
in circumference, to encompafs the game of an exten-
five didrift ; and the troops that form the circle regular¬
ly advance towards a common centre, where the cap¬
tive animals, furrounded on every fide, are abandoned
to the darts of the hunters. In this march, which fre¬
quently continues many days, the cavalry are obliged
to climb the hills, to fwim the rivers, and to wind
through the valleys, without interrupting the prefcrib-
ed order of their gradual progrefs. They acquire the
habit of direfting their eye, and their deps, to a remote
objeft ; of preferving their intervals ; of fufpending or
accelerating their pace, according to the motions of
the troops on their right and left ; and of watching and
repeating the fignals of their leaders. Their leaders
fHidy in this praftical fchool the mod important leflbn
of the military art •, the prompt and accurate judgment
of ground, of didance, and of time. To employ againd
a human enemy the fame patience and valour, the fame
fldll and difcipline, is the only alteration which is re-
. ] . a s 1
quired in real wrar $ and the amufements of the chafe Afia.
ferve as a prelude to the conqued of an empire. ~'~~m
The nature of their domedic government has at all Gov^n_
times greatly lavoured every attempt of the laitarsment.
towards conqued. The political fociety of the ancient
'Germans has the appearance of a voluntary alliance of
independent warriors. The tribes of Scythia, diftin-
guidied by the modern appellation of hordes, aflame, on
the contrary, the form of a numerous and increafing
family 5 which in the courfe of fucceflive generations,
has been propagated from the fame original dock.
The meaned and mod ignorant of the Tartars preferve,
with confcious pride, the inedimable treafure of their
genealogy j and whatever didinftions of rank may
have been introduced by the unequal didribution of
padoral wealth, they mutually refpeft themfelves and
each other, as the defendants of the fird founder of
the tribe. The cudom, which dill prevails, of adopt¬
ing the braved and mod faithful of the captives, may
countenance the very probable fufpicion, that this ex-
tenfive confanguinity is in a great meafure legal and
fiftitious. But the ufeful prejudice, which has obtain¬
ed the fanftion of time and opinion, produces the
effefts of truth y^the haughty barbarians yield a cheer¬
ful and voluntary obedience to the head of their blood ;
and their chief, or murfa, as the reprefentative of their
great father, exercifes the authority of a judge hi peace,
and of a leader in war. In the original date of the
padoral world, each of the murfas (if we may continue
to ufe a modern appellation) afted as the independent
chief of a large and feparate family ; and the limits of
their peculiar territories were gradually fixed by fupe-
rior force, or mutual confent. When, by a coincidence
of fortune and of talents, a fuccefsful chieftain con¬
trived to unite under his command a great number of
feparate hordes, with a view to a common enterprife,
he found, from their ordinary habits of obedience and
fubordination, an army ready formed and arranged for
aftion': each tribe or horde followed its own chief, to
whofe authority it was accuftomed to fubmit. If the
chief was taught to obey, the obedience of his horde
might, from the habits of the people, be fafely relied
on. Thus thefe barbarians have at all times been able
to fend forth detachments upon diftant expeditions,
which have added with all the promptitude of a well 2 ^
difciplined military force, and enabled them at once to *
pufh their conquells towards the tropic and polar cir¬
cle, the Chinefe empire, and the banks of the Danube.
To thefe advantages the Tartar chiefs have fome-The Tar-
times added a portion of military Ikill, according to theUrs.ac-
ftate in which it exifted in the civilized nations, in their
neighbourhood. It has been an ufual praftice among chinefe mi-
the Chinefe to receive into their pay fome of the Tartar iitary arts,
chiefs, and to ufe as foldiers confiderable bodies of this
brave and hardy race of men. Thefe are employed as
the cavalry of. the Chinefe armies, and become a con¬
venient engine in the hands- of an artful government,
at once to keep Tartary itfelf in fubjeftion, and to re-
prefs every attempt at rebellion among the Chinefe >
themfelves, when they at any time happen to become
difcontented, either in confequence of a corrupted and
tyrannical adminiftration, or of accidental famine, to
which that over-peopled country is expofed. But thefe
Tartar auxiliaries, or tools of power, have fometimes ul¬
timately become very dangerous. When the Chinefe
princes? .
A S I [ 782 ]
paffivenefi of their people, and
A S I
A fra. princes, trading to th
•—v—to the irrefiflible force of their mercenary troops, have
fullered themfelves to fink into indolence, and to neglect
the adminillration of affairs, the Tartar chiefs in their
pay have fometimes learned to defpife their feeble
matters, and have turned againtt them the portion of
military knowledge which they had acquired in the
Chinefe fervice, adding to it the whole vigour and fe¬
rocity which they derived from the habits of their early
life. The mott celebrated of lire Tartar chiefs was
the renowned Temujin, or Zinghis, who, in the 13th
century of the Chriftian era, erebted a monarchy among
his paftoral countrymen, and, in his own perfon, or by
his defeendants, fubdued the whole civilized nations of
Afia. In his youth he was a vaffal of the Chinefe em¬
pire : he was led to invade it by a knowledge of its
weaknefs and of the means of fuccefs, at a time when
it was diltracled by domeftic faction, and left expofed
in confequence of the revolt of 100,000 Khitans, who
guarded the frontier. The conquefl: of the five northern
provinces of that empire rendered him more dangerous
to other nations. He marched weftward, and attacked
the flourifhing and civilized empire of Carizme, which
then exifted to the eaftward of the Cafpian fea. After
a battle, in which the fultan of Carizme loft 160,000
of his troops, that prince withdrew into his towns, in
the hope of wearying out the barbarians by the length
and difficulty of a number of regular fieges. But the
forefight of Zinghis had formed a body of Chinefe en¬
gineers, (killed in the mechanic arts, informed perhaps
of the fecret of gunpowder, and capable, under his dif-
eipline, of attacking a foreign country with more vi¬
gour and fuccefs than they had defended their own.
The Perfian hiftorians relate the fieges and redubtion of
Otrar, Cogende, Bochara, Samarcand, Carizme, Herat,
Merou, Nifabour, Balch, and Candahar •, and the con-
queft of the rich and populous countries of Tranfoxiana,
Carizme, and Chorafan. From the Cafpian to the In¬
dus, the Tartars ruined a trabl of many hundred miles,
which was adorned with the habitations and labours of
mankind ; and five centuries have not been fufficient to
repair the ravages of four years.
The right of hereditary fucceffion to the fovereignty
of a number of united hordes, together with the re¬
venue, which, by their cuftoms, the fovereign was en¬
titled to levy, had a tendency to render them long
formidable. Zinghis had originally been raifed to
power by the admiration of his equals, and the fuccefs
of his enterprifes, under the title of khan. The right
of hereditary fucceffion was long confined to the blood
of the founder of the monarchy ; and at this moment
all the khans who reign from the Crimea to the wall of
China, reprefent themfelves as the lineal defeendants of
the renowned Zinghis. But as it is the indifpenfible
duty of a Tartar fovereign to lead his warlike fubjebls
into the field, the claims of an infant are often difre-
garded •, and fome royal kinfman, diftinguiftied by his
age and valour, is entrufted with the fword and feeptre
of his predeceflbr. Two diftinbl and regular taxes are
levied on the tribes, to fupport the dignity of their na¬
tional monarch, and of their peculiar chief; and each
of thofe contributions amounts to the tythe, both of
their property and of their fporl. A Tartar fovereign
enjoys a tenth part of the wealth of his people ; and as
his own domeftic riches of flocks and herds increafe
Afia
238
in a much larger proportion, he is able plentifully to
maintain the ruftic fplendour of his court, to reward >
the moft deferving or the moft favoured of his fol¬
lowers, and to obtain, from the gentle influence of
corruption, the obedience which might be fometimes
refufed to the ftern mandates of authority. The man¬
ners of his fubjcbls, accuftomed, like himfelf, to blood
and rapine, might excule, in their eyes, fuch partial
arts of tyranny as would excite the horror of a civilized
people j but the power of a defpot has never been ac¬
knowledged in the deferts of Scythia. The immediate
jurifdibtion of the khan is confined within the limits of
his own tribe, and the exerciie of his royal prerogative
has been moderated by the ancient inftilution ot a na¬
tional council. The coroultai, or diet, of the Tar¬
tars was long regularly held in the fpring and au¬
tumn, in the midft of a plain, where the princes of
the reigning family and the murfas of the refpeblive
tribes may conveniently afiemble on horfeback, with
their martial and numerous trains 5 and the ambitious
monarch, who reviewed the ftrength, muft confult the
inclination of an armed people. Thus the rudiments
of a feudal government may be difeovered in the con-
flitution of the Scythian or Tartar nations ; and in all
their conquefts they have uniformly been difpofed in fome
degree to retain fome refemblance of this form of go¬
vernment, by diftributing their new territory among
their chiefs, to be ruled and divided among their fol¬
lowers in fubordination to the head of the ftate.
One circumftance, however, has always been necef- Weakiieft
{ary to the fuccefs of Scythian or Tartar conqueft, thatofother
the neighbouring nations ftiould be in a ftate of ,weak-na^onsne"
nefs. The Chinefe and the Ruffians are at prefent
tyrants or mailers of the Tartars, who heretofore tyran-0f the Xar-
nized over the world. The Chinefe rule them partly tars,
by art and partly by force j and the Ruffians find that
they are unable to refill the arts and the military fldll
of Europe. The population of China amounts to be¬
tween 300,000,000 and 400,000,000. That of Hin-
dooftan is equal to 100,000,000 ; and the ancient Per¬
fian empire was capable of pouring forth to the invafion
of Europe, an army amounting, as it isfaid, to three mil¬
lions of men. Such nations, poffeffed offuperior arts and
means of defence, could not upon their own territory
have been vanquiftied by any number of barbarians
that could unite againft them, did not fome defedl exift
in their charadler, or had they not been brought into a
ftate of political w'eaknefsby fome fault in their govern¬
ment. Such reafoning is natural to modern Europeans,
who fee the prefent ftate of the Tartars with juft indif¬
ference, as by no means formidable to the peace of the
world. It is confirmed by hiftory and experience.
We {hall therefore proceed to confider the circumftances
which have hitherto had a tendency to expofe all the
Afiatic dates to conqueft and to ruin. 239
One circumftance, which in moft of the Afiatic dates Circum-
has a powerful tendency to produce a permanent inferi-
ority of character in the people, and a conftant ten-ene(j tjje
dency to anarchy and revolution in the government, Afiatic
arifes from the imperfeft ftate of domeftic fociety. Inflates,
all the countries of Afia that have adopted tlu^ 24°
Mahometan religion, polygamy is authorifed by law, y*
that is to fay, befides Arabia, in Turkey, Perlia,
and Hindooftan, which laft contains 10,000,000 of
Mahometans. The fame pra&ice is alfo allowed in
China,
A S I
242
t China, and it has always prevailed among the rude
tribes of Tartars. It is probable, that this law upon
the whole facilitates population. It divides between
the rich and the poor more equally, that is, in a bet-
tionPOPUia" ter ProPort‘oa t0 thea' means, the expence of rearing
the future generation, as rich rnen, who can afford to
do fo, will naturally be led to have a greater number
onthe cha-of children. But at the fame time, there can be no
rafter of doubt that this law muft have a powerful tendency to
the people, reprefs the intelleflual improvement of the people.
The rich in every country diffate the falhions of life;
and by this inilitution a fafhion is neceffarily intro¬
duced of treating women with jealoufy, and thus of fe-
•cluding one half the fpecies from the ordinary fo-
ciety of the other. Women thus (hut up in retirement,
mull poffefs illiterate and unimproved charadlers ; they
mu ft alfo be prevented in a great degree from carrying
on any part of the common bufinefs of life. From
thefe circumftances more evils will arife than are at
firft obvious. One half of fociety, inftead of being ufe-
ful, becomes a burden upon the induftry of the other.
A fecluded and unfocial mode of life is introduced,
■and as the human powers are belt improved by the in-
tercourfe with fociety, a confiderable difficulty is thrown
in the way of the enlargement of our faculties. Be-
fides this, it muft happen, that the ignorance and im¬
becility of one half of the fpecies will affeft the other.
An Aftatic retires from the management of his bufinefs,
to the fociety of an unintelligent and weak being, who
neither fees nor knows any thing of the world or its af¬
fairs. In fuch fociety he muft relinquiih his reafon and
his rational faculties, before he can enjoy much fatisfac-
tion. In fuch fociety, however, he was educated
during his firft years, and a great part of his time muft
neceffarily be fpent. He cannot fly from it to the houfe
of a friend, for no friend can receive him ; and he can
receive nobody freely into his dwelling, left his female
prifoners ftiould be feen. This at leaft is the cafe
•with all thofe who live not in fpacious manfions with a
variety of apartments. In fuch a ftate of fociety, it is
impoflible that many men can acquire, or lung preferve,
much zeal for fcienlific purfuits, or that the improvement
of literature and of ingenious arts can be very earneftly
cultivated.
en the form Thefe effesffs of the law which regulates domeftic
of houfes fociety, appear even to the moft carelefs obferver of an
and cities, Afiatic city. It occupies a large extent of territo¬
ry, becaufe every family fecludes itfelf from the other.
Every houfe is furrounded by a wall, and ftands in an
enclofed area; Each family thus firtifies itfelf as with¬
in a rampart againft the intrufion of all neighbours.
Hence it has happened, that no attempt lias ever been
made in the cities of Afia toeftablifh a republican form
of government, even when the people were driven to
defpair by the fevereft opprefiion. There exifts not
that rapid communication of fenliment, and that confi¬
dence in each other, which takes place where fociety is
more intimately blended, and which leads men to re-
pofe fuch confidence in each other, as to believe that
they can aff under the mere authority of public pac¬
tions or laws, without the interpofition of a mafter.
The mode of ereifting their dwellings alfo explains the
wonderful rtories, told us by the ancient writers, of the
immenfe extent of Babylon and of Nineveh. It alfo
accounts for the great trails of territory, which in mo-
t 783 1. A S I 
dern times are occupied by the Afiatic cities. This Aha.
circumftance alio has contributed more than any thing v
tlfe to expofe them to the enterprifes of invaders. The
extent of their walls in proportion to the population
they contain, rendered the defence of them difficult or
impuffible. 244
The law of polygamy has alfo had a very fatal ef- on govern-
fe£t upon the Afiatic governments, and Las been one1116111,
of the moft ordinary means of introducing anarchy into
them. The princes have very numerous tamilies by
different women. Each of the female favourites of the
reigning monarch attempts to eftablilh her own chil¬
dren in the molt advantageous fituations. Hence, the
Afiatic courts are at all times occupied by an endlefs 245
tiffue of dangerous intrigues. Attempts are often fuc-P'^iices^
celsfully made to inipire an old man with jealoufy of^^”10
his eldett fon, the apparent heir. The knowledge ofreign;ng
the exiftence of fuch attempts, or even of the pofiibi-family,
lity of their exiffence, and of the latal effects which
they may produce in a defpotic government, difpofes
all the fons of the prince to watch the conduff both of
him and of each other with the utmoll j< atoufy ; this
jealoufy is apt to burlt out into open rebellion, and
frequently does fo. At all events, upon the death of
an Aliatic monarch, his numerous fons, whofe rival-
Ihip, hatred, and jealoufy of each other, have hither¬
to been confined within decent bounds, openly break
out into violence. A younger brother knows that he
is hated by the elder, who is now become his mafter.
In defence of his own exiftence, therefore, he is com¬
pelled to have recourfe to arms, and to obtain a crown
or fubmit to deftrubtion. In this way, the fucceffor of
an Afiatic prince has often to begin his reign by ftrug-
gling againft a confiderable number of defperate rebel¬
lions, and muft wade to the throne through the blood of
his neareft kindred. As fuccefs does not always attend
the arms of the elder brother, the law of primogeni¬
ture, being frequently violated, lofes its importance and
eftimation in the eyes of the multitude. The royal fa¬
mily itfelf, covered as its members muft be with par¬
ricides and crimes, cannot be greatly refpe£ied by the
people, in whofe eyes fuccels and vi61ory become,
therefore, the only undoubted titles to obedience. 246
Powerful fubjefts alfo, therefore, or enterprifing mill- Produces
tary leaders, are frequently tempted to difregard the u!urPat*ons'
claims of the reigning family, and to appeal to the for¬
tune of arms as a title to dominion. When fuccefsful,
they find a people diftrafted by civil wars, and by the
pretenfions of different candidates, ready to acquiefce in
any government that can beftow upon them a temporary
repole. 247
Even ftrould a reigning family efcape thefe obvious Polygamy
calamities which lay wafte the territories of a nation, Pr(^uc®s
and overthrow its profperity by fanguinary civil con-men^
tefts, there are evils by which the law of polygamy
more gradually, though not more certainly, under¬
mines the fafety of the ftate. The founder of a new
dynafty is ufually an ambitious and artful military
chief. His firft fucceffors, educated in an aftive
reign, and anxious to fecure their dubious authority,
ufually partake his talents and energy. Time, how¬
ever, foon fan&ifies their right, to the throne, though
originally founded in ufurpation. The monarch now
placed in feeurity, indulges in that luxury to which
he is tempted by his fituation; and luxury, where the
law
A S I [ 784 ] ' A S I
Afia. law of polygamy exifts, has more powerful and dan-
u—\r——' gerous attraftion.s, and is attended with more pernici¬
ous effe&s, than elfewhere. This kind of luxury, above
all others, leads to an indolent life, and to the produc¬
tion of an ignorant and unintelligent chara&er. The
prince is led to (hut himfelf up among a crowd of eu¬
nuchs and women, from whole fociety he can derive
no improvement, and to whofe councils and paffions
he is ultimately led to intruft the direftion of the molt
important affairs of his government. The armies of
the date are foon negle&ed, by a monarch, whofe fa¬
vourites employ every art to infpire him with a difguft
of the toils of war, that he may the more eafily be re¬
tained within the precinfls of his palace, and under
their management and influence. The provinces are
fubjedled to the moft ruinous exa&ions to gratify their
avarice, and every place of public trull comes to be
filled by men who undertake not to adminifter pub¬
lic affairs, but to extort large fums of money from
the people, to be conveyed to the favourites that rule
within the palace. Thus the Hate experiences a rapid
decay of its population and refources ; and if it is at¬
tacked from abroad, it has no head to call forth its
remaining powers, and direft them with vigour and
Ikill againlt an invader. The population that remains
may Hill be fufficiently ample for the defence of its
own territory, and abundance of perfonal courage may
exilt among the citizens ; but they cannot be arranged,
,.3 or their force rendered effeftual, from the want of an
Inftance of a£Hve government. This appears to be precifely the
Turkey., fituation of the Turks at the prefent moment; Their
firll princes, inhabiting the frontier of Europe and of
Afia, exhibited, during a much longer period than is
ufual in the families of Afiatic monarchs, a very con-
fiderable degree of fpirit and of exertion. But the law
which authorifes them to live with a multitude of wo¬
men, all of whofe children are legitimate, gradually
produced its natural effedl. The latter princes have
fhut themfelves up in their palace, and neglefled the
adminiftration of affairs. The provinces have been
wafted *, and inftead of the numerous people which they
once contained, immenfe forefts are rifing over the
whole territory, and becoming the habitation of wild
beafts. The governors of the remoter provinces are
afpiring to independence •, anarchy prevails in differ¬
ent quarters ; and a foreign conqueft is only prevent¬
ed by the jealoufy of the neighbouring nations, who
cannot agree to whofe lot thefe fine countries {hall
fall. Yet at this day the Turks are a race of as flout
and brave men as their Scythian forefathers. They
are equally willing to fly to arms, and fufficient num¬
bers ftill remain to fet every enemy at defiance’, but
they are not led by thofe vigorous chiefs who conduc¬
ed their anceftors from the foot of Imaus, refifted the
power of Perfia, feized the city of Conftantine, and
diffufed terror over Europe. A man of talents only is
wanting to render them ftill refpeCable, if not formi¬
dable •, but their unufual refpeft for the defcendants of
fo many illuftrious princes, has hitherto prevented their
government from being feized, and their nation prefer-
ved by a bold ufurper •, while, in the mean time, their
fultan, loft in the indolence and voluptuoufnefs of his fe-
raglio, and blinded by his favourites, refufes to come
forth and to undertake the dire&ion of the remaining
armies of the ftate, or to place hirtifelf at the head of a ASa.
warlike people. * — - v—»
This law of polygamy appears to be the fingle cir- 249
cumftance that has brought about the revolutions which ro
r ruinous t»
have occurred in China, from the nature 01 the fin-^hina,
gular form of government eftablifhed there, the human
mind is indeed preferved in a ftate of perpetual imbeci¬
lity, and is prevented from rifing in improvement be¬
yond a certain degree ; this degree, however, it never
fails to attain. It is fufficient to render the nation de¬
cidedly fuperior to their rude neighbours of Tartary j
and as Chinefe improvement can never advance far,
there appears no good reafon why it ffiould ever de¬
cline or pafs away. But the law of polygamy from
time to time deranges all their inftitutions, and the re¬
gular march of their government. As they afcribe ab-
folute power to their monarch, and their laws fecure
tranquillity to the ftate and complete obedience to
his will, he can have no occafion to quarrel with his
people, or to diflurb inftitutions which give him the
command of as much wealth as his wiffies can crave,
and as much power as he perfonally can have any in¬
clination to exert. Accordingly, for fome time after
a recent conqueft, all goes well in China : the monarch
is delighted with the fubmiffion and tranquillity of his
people, the induftry and profperity of the country, and
the immenfe revenue which is placed at his difpofal,
and which he can have no occafion to ufe otherwife
than in works of public magnificence, generofity, or
utility. Speedily, however, this peaceable ftate of
things produces its natural effe&s. The monarch hav¬
ing nothing to fear, and little to do, refigns himfelf to
pleafure ; and that pleafure moft probably confifts in
the kind of indulgence which the law allows and en¬
courages, of colle&ing around him, and paffing his
time in the fociety of, a multitude of beautiful women.
Such, however, is the Ikilful ftru&ure of the Chinefe
government, that it proceeds and profpers without the
interference of the prince, who is rather a ufeful name
to prevent military ufurpation than an a£live organ of
the conftitution. Affairs being in the hands of the
moft prudent men in the ftate, who have rifen by ap¬
proved fidelity and talents to the higheft rank and truft,
are conduced with abundance of care 5 and the re-
fponfibility of all inferior magiftrates is enforced.
Thus the emperer may be allowed to {lumber with fe¬
cure dignity in his palace: If he interefere not to do
harm, the conftitution of the ftate will provide for the
management of public bufinefsand the profperity of the
people. But matters cannot long reft_thus. A weak
and ignorant prince, who paffes his days fecluded from
the world, amidft eunuchs and women, will not com¬
prehend the value of that conftitution at the head of
which he is placed •, his favourites prevail with him to
encroach upon its fundamental maxims •, he is induced
to diftruft thofe officers who have rifen by a gradual
progrefs under the direflion of the law to diftindlion
and power, and to confer authority upon individuals to
whom the conftitution gives no title to receive it. As
implicit obedience to magiftrates, and above all to the
emperor, is a fundamental maxim of Chinefe jurifpru-
dence, and inculcated as fuperior to all other duties,
the will of the emperor meets with no refiftance : The
conftitution trufts that he will not attempt to violate it *,
*
A S I
[ 785 ]
S I
Afia.
but if be do fo, it provides no other remedy than the
prayers and entreaties of the higheft order of manda¬
rins, which they have been known to employ at the ha¬
zard of their lives, and even with the certainty of de-
ftrudion. As the imperial will, therefore, can in no
way be refilled or controuled, when an emperor relin-
quifhes himfelf to the dominion of the inmates of his
palace, the confequences fpeedily occur which we have
already mentioned as refulting from the law of poly¬
gamy in other countries. The defence of the ftate is
difregarded •, worthlefs men are raifed to the command
of armies and provinces j corruption becomes the means
of obtaining preferment: The Tartar fubjefts find out
the important fecret, that the reins of government are
loofely held, that the barriers which proteft the trea-
fures of a wealthy nation have fallen into decay, and
that thefe treafures have come to be at the mercy of
poverty and courage. Some chief endeavours to unite
the Ihepherds of the well and the north in a common
enterprife : His firft efforts procure him plunder, if not
dominion, and the profpeft of his riches procures him
new adherents, till at lad the hardy cavalry of Scythia
are enabled to difperfe the feeble and ill-conduded ar¬
mies of the Chinefe •, and their leader and his family,
feated on the throne of a mighty empire, is gradually
led, by fimilar circumliances, to proceed in the fame
career, from ftrength and aflivity, to weaknefs, degene¬
racy, and ruin. The conftitution of China, indeed,
triumphs over thefe calamities. The Tartars admire
the arts and manners of the vanquilhed people •, and
the conqueror is willing to revive and preferve a con-
ftitution which preferves the profperity of the people,
while it fubmits every thing to the will of their mailer.
Had the laws of that empire provided, as in Europe,
that the inheritance both of public and private indivi¬
duals Ihould only pafs to their legitimate children by
one woman, China might undoubtedly have avoided
many of its revolutions. Its princes might have been
men of talents or otherwife, according to the ordinary
viciffitudes that in the courfe of nature occur in fami¬
lies 5 but the poffeffion of talents by the prince is not
neceffary to the goad government of China : it is
enough that he interfere not to do pofitive mifchief,
and under fuch a law, every temptation to do mifchief
would be removed from him.
Another caufe of periodical weaknefs in Afiatic na-
form of go- tions arifes from the general form of government that
"" has been there adopted. Excepting in China, the
Tartars have in all their conquells been led to ellablilh
themfelves under a fort of feudal arrangement. In
their native country, they were divided and fubdivided
into tribes and families, under a chief who had led
them forth to war and conqueft. In their new terri¬
tories, it was natural for the chief to reward his fuccefs-
ful officers with grants of provinces, which they were
again to fubdivide among their followers, under condi¬
tion of remaining in fubjeftion to himfelf, and of be¬
ing ready on all occafions to attend him in war. Thefe
grants, however, were only bellowed upon individuals
perfonally who received them : They were given as
the price or pay of military fervice : They might be
recalled at will, like the commiffion of an officer •, and
they were never meant to go to the heirs of the fa¬
voured chief, though undoubtedly in equal circumflan-
ces his heirs would be preferred to others. A govern-
Vol. II. Part IT.
25°
General
vernment
in Afia,
feudal.
ment like this is expofed to two kinds of diforders 5 Afia.
the one, arifing from exorbitant power acquired by the v
great vaffals: and the other, arifing from the too great
defpotifm of the prince.
Under a monarch of great a&ivity and vigilance, the
chief vaffals of the Hate, who have received large
grants of territory, may be retained in fufficient fub-
jedlion. He may fummon them and their followers
frequently to attend his perfon *, and by engaging them
in wars under him, may preferve his perfonal afcen-
dency over them, by having frequent occafion to
change their fituations, and to prefer others to the 2,,3
places they occupy. Should his immediate fuccefiors, peuc]ai g0_
however, not be men of equal talents with himfelf, or vernment
ffiould a difputed fucceffion occur, the greater chiefs apt to
will immediately afpire to independence: the empire *n *
will fall to pieces, and degenerate into a hereditary
ariftocracy, in which every chief is engaged in hoftility
with his neighbours, and in which the people at large,
oppreffed by a multitude of petty tyrants, can enjoy no
repofe or profperity. Such has been the deftiny ol fc-
veral of the nations of Afia and it was alfo the deili-
ny of Europe after its conqueft by the northern barba¬
rians. It is true that the European princes gradually
recovered the power that had been wrefted from them,
and converted into local inheritances by their great
nobles. To fubdue thefe nobles, they affociated them¬
felves with the populace, with the few merchants, and
the induftrious part of the nation. They encouraged
thtfe people to unite themfelves into communities, and
to fortify themfelves with Avails. They eftablilhed
courts of juftice, Avhofe regular and equitable proce¬
dure gained the affe6lion of the weak, Avhom they pro-
te6ted, and brought odium upon the violence and def¬
potifm of the petty local tyrants of the country. The
commercial and induftrious part of the community
were induced to contribute to the fupport of the prince,
Avho feemed thus to labour only for their wellare, and
to protect them againft oppreflion. By this wealth he
Avas enabled to confirm his poAver, and to lubdue his
refradlory vaffals. By folloAving out thefe prudent
maxims for a feAV generations, the dominion of laAv and
order, along with the poAver of the fovereign, Avere efta-
bliffied in the nations of Europe. But nothing of all
this can occur in Afia. Power may there be acquir¬
ed by the violence of fudden conqueft, but it cannot
be gained by a train of artful policy fteadily purfued
from father to fon during a courfe of feveral genera¬
tions. In confequence, as already mentioned, of the
Ibav of polygamy, no fooner does a prince die than one
of tAvo things occurs j either a Avar for the fucceffien
enfues among his children by different vvives, which
confumes the Avealth of the people, and augments the
poAver of the nobles, upon Avhom the candidates for do¬
minion muft rely for aid ; or, to prevent this calami¬
ty, the eldeft fon of the deceafed monarch feizes his
younger brothers, and puts out their eyes, or deftroys
their lives. Thus an example of cruelty and injuftice
is exhibited, Avhich deftroys in the minds of the people
every growing fentiment favourable to the eftablilhment
of order, and of humane and equitable laAvs. 253
On the other hand, it has frequently happened inGovem-
Afia that the poAA'er of the monarch has riot been loft ment by
by its vaffals converting differ'ent diftrifts into heredi-vlceroi'"
tary poffeffions. A fucceffion during a feAV generations
5 G of
A S I [ 786 ] A S I
Afia. of aSive and warlike princes has given leifure for the
c«t~- chiefs of the Tartar tribes to acquire the manners of
the nations whom they vanquiihed, and to fink, like
them, into a ftate of permanent fubjedtion to a fove-
reign, become too powerful to be refilled. In this cafe,
however, an error exifts in the general llru£lure of
Afiatic governments, which gradually brings them to
decay. The monarch divides his territory into pro¬
vinces, and over each province he places a governor,
or viceroy, whom he appoints and recals at pleafure.
The governor of a province polfelfes within it the
whole power of the mailer whom he reprefents ; he
colledls the taxes, and remits them to the capital; he
adminillers jullice by himfelf, or by deputies whom he
appoints and removes at pleafure •, and laflly, he com¬
mands within his diltri^l the armies of the Hate. On
a little reflection it will readily be conceived, that a
nation governed in this way cannot permanently prof-
per. An abfolute monarch can fcarcely fail to be pa¬
triotic, becaufe the whole country is his own, and he
mull regard his people as his property, or as a kind of
appendage to his family. He will therefore intend to
govern them well, or as advantageoufly as poffible.
But the governors whom he places over the provinces
muft entertain very different fentiments : The Hate is
not their inheritance ; they are appointed only for a
feafon ; and like tenants at will, they will endeavour
to make the moft of their temporary poffefflon, though
they diminifh the permanent value of the eflate. Hence
thefe men are always apt to govern ill; and, with a view
to make the mofl of their time and opportunity, they
opprefs the people by their rapacity. The monarch has
no intention to fanClion their conducl, but there exifls no
other means of reftraining it than to maintain a perpe¬
tual and vigilant infpe&ion over them. If he is not con-
ftantly at fhort intervals travelling into every part of his
dominions, and viewing objefls with his own eyes, the
governors of provinces will take advantage of their fitua-
tion, to opprefs the people, and will endeavour to fecure
their own fafety by corrupting the miniflers who are near
the perfon of the prince.
In a government thus conftituted-, too much is made
to depend upon the adivity and vigilance of one man.
If the monarch relax in his attention, the ftate at once
begins to decay ; and even his perfonal infirmities, his
youth, or his old age, produce important effeCfs upon
•the provinces. When a weak prince happens to fuc-
ceed to the throne, the decline of the empire becomes
vifible in a few years j and the moft aftive reign fcarce¬
ly fuffices to repair the injuries which a fhort period of
weak government has occafioned. All thefe evils are
aggravated in Afia by the tendency which the law of
polygamy has to introduce into the palace of the mo¬
narch a fyftem of feclufion from bufinefs, of indolence,
and of favouritifm.
Viceregal t^ie ancten,: Roman empire this pra61ice yvas adopt-
govern- ed of ruling the provinces by temporary governors pof-
xnent a- feff d of unlimited power, and was attended with all
dopted in [Jje confequences which we have here deferibed.
*he ttoman pr( rn lt> £rq. eftablifhment, that empire, like an Afia-
eupire. tjc rnf)nnrc|,y} underwent a gradual progrefs of decay j
and inftead of the people becoming gradually more
powerful, wealthy, and enlightened, every fcience and
every art, together with the population of the ftate,
declined, till the whole xvas oppreffed and funk under
2
the inroads of the northern barbarians. It is a curi- Afia.
ous circumftance, and well worthy of all our attention, ’ v——■
that the progrefs of modern Europe is altogether the
reverfe of this. In Afia a monarchy is no foener efia- 2C5
blifhed than its decline commences, and it gradually Why Euro-
becomes weaker and weaker, till, in the courfe of a l).ean |ia*
few fucceflions, its overthrow is eafily accomplifhed :tlons 1IT1*
whereas in Europe, for fome centuries paft, every ftate of”
or monarchy of any tolerable extent, has gradually been decaying
waxing ftronger and ftronger, and is capable of greater bke Afiatic
exertions in proportion to the time that it has flood.ftateS'
Such, at leaft, is the cafe, with regard to the middle
and northern ftates of Europe. The mode in which
the government is adminiftered will explain this, when
contrafted with that which is adopted in moft of the
Afiatic ftates, and which exifted in the Roman empire.
In Europe the fovereign does not intruft the whole
government and adminiftration of affairs in a province
to an individual, who is at once to be tax-gatherer,
judge, and commander of the military force. On the
contrary, inftead of portioning out the whole territory
of the ftate in provinces, to be allotted to particular
viceroys, a more artificial arrangement is adopted. The
bufinefs to be done is divided into different branches,
and thefe branches, though fometimes extending over
the whole territory, are intrufted by the fovereign to
diftinft individuals or claffes of individuals. Thus an
office or officer is eftablifhed near the perfon of the
prince, into which the whole taxes of the nation are
ultimately paid. Under this office, or its managing
minifter, a variety of tax-gatherers are fent through¬
out the whole country, to colled! in the different towns
and diftridls the taxes eftablifhed by law, and to remit
them to the government. Thefe tax-gatherers have
no interference in military affairs or in the adminiftra¬
tion of juftice. In like manner, a particular clafs of
perfons, properly qualified for the duty to be performed,
are appointed to adminifter juftiee in the provinces,
and to interfere no farther in public affairs. No
part of the revenue comes into their hands, and they
have no command of the military force of the ftate.
Laftiy, the whole military or foldiers likewife form a
fep&rate and diffind! body. Their officers are all ap¬
pointed by the prince and his miniilers, upon whom
they immediately depend, and they have no concern
in the colledlion of the taxes, or in the adminiftration
of juftice. Under a government thus conftituted, if a
tax-gatherer make an unjuft exadlion from any of the
people, they complain to the judges, who, having no
fhare in the management of the public revenue, and
deriving no profit from the oppreffions that may be
committed in it, are difpofed to liften to all complaints,
and to do juftiee againft the collectors of the taxes.
The judges themfeives are kept under eontroul in a
fimilar way. Not being commanders of the military
force, or entx-ufted with the diredlion of its operations,
they can only pronounce deciees, but have no power
to execute them. This muft be performed by the mi¬
litary, who are a diftindl body. They, however, will
have no inclination to fee the power of judges and
lawyers exorbitantly increafed, and will revolt from
the idea of putting in force decrees which are notori-
oufly unjuft, and of which the public difapprove. Thus
the people will, in every refpe£l, be affured of proteo
tjon. The judges will proteft them againft the ta»
gatherer^
AST
t 7
VSa- gatherers and the military, who, m their turn, will re-
w—y—gard with jealcnify the pow'er of the judges. In this
way a juft and equitable government is maintained.
Accefs is eafily had to the prince, who can have no wifti
to fte affairs ill adminiftered. A great nation is go¬
verned like a Angle family, by allowing different duties
to its different members, who are prevented from abu-
fing their power. Induftry is encouraged by the fecu-
rity of property •, and the human mind, unfubdued by
oppreflion, and animated by hope, is led to exert its
whole energies in improving its own charaffer and
condition. Whereas in Afia, and in all thofe countries
in which governors of provinces are appointed with ab-
folute power to condudt the whole bufinefs of admi-
niftration, every province is converted into a feparate
empire, in which no redrefs can be obtained for any
grievance. If a tax-gatherer make an undue demand,
the citizen can only ftate his complaint to the em¬
ployer of that tax-gatherer, the provincial-governor,
who is to receive the money that is to be paid. If a
foldier do wrong, he can only be complained of to the
fame governor who is the mafter and patron of the fol¬
dier. If a judge is unjuft, it is ftill to the fame indi¬
vidual that the complaint muft be carried. Thus no
check or controul exifts •, and if the governor of the
province is rapacious and unjuft, and has need of un¬
principled dependents to fupport his power, the people
muft fubmit to an oppreflion for which there is no re¬
medy j and the whole ftate, thus divided into depart¬
ments and oppreffed, muft fpeedily fink into ruin.
Commerce cannot flourilh where the fruits of induftry
are not fecure $ and without commerce thofe arts can¬
not profper, the praftice and improvement of which
afford feme of the beft means of enlarging the human
faculties.”
p f In many parts of Afia, religion is alfo a great fource
Afia/hurt-> national weaknefs. This arifes from two caufes; ei¬
ther from its dividing a ftate into different parties, or
from its do£Irines being of fuch a nature as to reftrain
in too great a degree the a&ivity and improvement of
the human mind.
Before the Turks fubdued the Greek empire, they
fome places had been long enough fettled in the countries near the
divides the Cafpian fea, to acquire the religion of a more civilized
people. By the time they fubdued the country round
Conftantinople, and at laft the capital itfelf, they were
become zealous Mahometans; whilft the nation over
whom they eftablilhed their dominion, confifted of no
lefs zealous Chriftians. Hence a line of feparation was
drawn between the conquerors and the conquered,
which time has not been able to obliterate. One half
of the ftate confifts of mailers, and the other of an op¬
preffed people. In other nations the evils of conqueft
have been temporary, becaufe in a ftiort time the vic¬
tors and the vanquilhed, mingling in the ties of affini¬
ty and thence of confanguinity, have ceafed to be di-
ftinguiffied from each other, and have coalefeed into
one common people. But in 'lurkey, to this day, the
proud invader is known from the vanquiffied native.
Their refpeftive religions have fixed upon each of them
a mark, which has proved as indelible as that by
which, in our Weft India illands, nature diftinguifhes
the negro Have from his European mafter. Hence the
Turks continue to a<Sl the part of infolent oppreffors
Afia.
ful.
257
Religion in
ftate.
258
87 ] A S I
to their fubje&s, the Greeks5 while the latter,' accu-
ftomed to intuits and to a fenle of inferiority, have ac¬
quired the chara6teriftics of Haves, infincerity and cowar¬
dice. It is not wonderful, therefore, that the 1 urkiffi
empire ffiould decay. It not only labours under all the
evils attending upon the law of polygamy, and of a go¬
vernment by viceroys called pachas ; but to thefe have
been added an internal divifion among the people, which
degrades the character of one hall of the nation, with¬
out conferring any improvement upon the other. 1 he
fame evil has exifted during many centuries in Hindoo-
ftan. Before the conqueft of it by the Mogul or lar-
tar princes, they had alfo embraced the Mauometaa
faith. Their new fubjedts, however, the Hindoos, ad¬
hered to the religion ot their anceftors, with ftill more
obftinacy than the Greek Chriftians have done again!!
the Turks, and the refult has been fimilar. I he Maho¬
metan conquerors, with all the advantages on their fide,
of vidlory, of public employment, and royal favour, never
amounted to above one-tenih oi the population of the
country. The great body of the people, therefore, ne-
ceffarily funk into a contemptible and degraded condi¬
tion, which impaired the national ftrength, and retained
fociety in a violent and unnatural ftate in w’hich it could
not flouriffi.
We can fcarcely confider as religious fyftems the fu- Hurtful re-
perftitions of the Siberians and Tartars, or other rude ^S'ous ^oc■,
Afiatic tribes. Leaving them out of view, therefore,
the religions of Afia are chiefly three : that of Budho,
Gaudma, or Fo, which prevails in Ceylon, the far¬
ther peninfula of India, China, Japan, and Thibetj
the Mahometan religion, which, befides Arabia, is in
pofieffion of Turkey, Perfia, and partly of Hindoo-
ftan ; and, laftly, the Gentoo faith, which is adhered 2S9
to by ninety millions of people in India. Of thefe, Religion of
the religion of Budho, Gaudma, or Fo, feems the Budho.
leaf! pernicious. It is loaded with few ceremonies, fo
that it cannot greatly occupy the human mind. It is
perfectly tolerant, and thus does not pofitively prohi¬
bit intelledlual improvement ; and its priefts are men
who voluntarily choofe their profeffion, and, except¬
ing in the fterile country of Thibet, have no interfe¬
rence in the ordinary bufinefs of life, and no ffiare in
the adminiftration of public affairs. Ail error is, how¬
ever, injurious to the human intelledt, by diminiffiing
its power of difeenning truth. Even independent of
this general circumftance, the religion of Gaudma has
been dangerous in another point of view. It has a book
which is of facred authority, and believed to be the
work of infpiration. That book is faid to regulate mi¬
nutely the ordinary affairs of life ; the taxes to be paid
to the ftate, and what ought to be accounted juft and
unjuft in the common tranfa£Iions of men : But an in¬
fallible law for the regulation of ordinary affairs is
always a great evil, as it renders error and ill govern¬
ment perpetual. Such a book, at the time when it was
written, might perhaps be a ufeful work, and contain
many valuable maxims and rules foradjufting all kindsr.
of bufinefs, and for the decifion of all difputes j but
human affairs, to proceed well, muft be in a ftate of
improvement, that is, in a ftate of change to what L
better : But fuch a book has a tendency to oblige the
nation that adopts it to Hand ftill, and confequently to
fall behind other nations. Hence they have all the
5 G 2 chances
A S I [ 788 ] A S I
■Ai~ia‘ chances of falling back into barbaiifm that affeft other
1 v~ nations, while there exifts no poflibility of their advan¬
cing farther in impr. vernent.
The Mahometan law has this fpecnlative advantage
Mahome- over that of Gaudma or Btidho, that it fuffers not the
tan relu fupreme Intelligence to be likened to a flock or a ftone j
gion. jts praaical chara<fler .is much more injurious to
the world. It not only has an infallible book, which
in the countries where it is adopted is regarded as the
law of the land for regulating the decifion of contro¬
verted caufes in all courts of juftice, but enjoins to its
followers the obfervance of a number of daily ceremo¬
nies, confilling of prayers and walkings at flated inter¬
vals, w'hich tend to fix down fuperflition upon the hu¬
man mind. In addition to thefe, its extreme intole¬
rance has a tendency to render the intelledlual im¬
provement of the people^hat have once adopted it ex¬
tremely difhcult, while tfle fan£Hon that it gives to the
law of polygamy, at once places private fociety on a
defective footing, and enfures the bad government of
the flate. _ _ ,
Gentoo re- The moll pernicious of all the religions of Afia,
ligion. however, appears to be the Gentoo fuperflition, or the
religion of the natives of Hindooflan. It does not in¬
deed authorife polygamy, nor does it fan61 ion the per-
fecution of thofe who believe in other religions ; but
in every other refpeft, it is moil evidently ruinous to
the vigour of the human chara6ter. It fills the mind
with all the idle tales and fuperflitions of an abfurd po-
lytheifm. It enjoins an endlefs variety of rites and pu¬
rifications ; and under its influence a morfel of bread
cannot be eaten, or a cup of water tailed, without the
utmoll caution, that it have not come into conta61
with impure hands or impure vefiels. The divifion
of the people into hereditary calls, of different degi-ees
of dignity according to their refpeflive employments,
none of which calls can intermarry, or even eat or
drink together, completely infulates every clafs of in¬
habitants ; and by fixing them down to hereditary oc¬
cupations, prevents every exertion of talents beyond
the fphere in which individuals happen to be born.
Religion, or fuperllitious fear of offending again!! the
rules of his call, conllantly occupies and abforbs the
whole mind and faculties of a Hindoo, fo as utterly to
deprive him of intelledlual vigour or courage to in-
velligate the foundations of the notions which place
under controul every Hep of his life. A people thus
divided can poffefs little united llrength or energy as
a nation, and the feeblenefs even of their bodily exer¬
tion1 may well fuggell the queltion, Whether fuperlli-
tious fear and intelle61ual imbecility fixed down upon a
pe e during a courfe of ages, has not a tendency to
diminilh the corporeal powers, and to render the body
as ft. ble as the mind ? In jullice to the religion of the
Hindoos, however, it may be obferved, that if it pre¬
vent the nation from acquiring great power, it alfo
guards its civilization, or the arts that it poffeffes, from
being entirely loft in confequence of conquelts by
ba, barians. Every Hindoo being bound by his reli-
gion to follow the occupation of his father, if a whole
call is not utterly exterminated, the arts which were
underllood by its members cannot be loll. They are
immediately praflifed anew ; they Come to be in re¬
quell, and the call is employed by fociety, and multiplied
as before. 3
That wre may not appear, however, from a love of Ana.
fyftem, altogether to deny the effed of phyfical caufes  c—
upon the hillory of the civilized nations of Afia, we 262
lhall acknowledge, that the fertility of the foil in thefe
countries in all probability affifts the tendency to ne-c'.ufei on
gligence of management which appears in their go-civilized
vernments. In the more barren regions of Europe, it1^005-
is abfolutely neceffary that a government a6t with a
confiderable degree of caution, and adminiller juftice
well, to enable a nation to attain to any tolerable (hare
of power or profperity. With us, man has many im¬
perious wants, which mull be fupplied before an indi¬
vidual can contribute any thing to the public. He
mull at lealt have food, which can only be extorted
from an ungrateful foil by patient and Ikilful induf-
try. He mult alfo have clothes and fuel. The ferti¬
lity of the Afiatic foil enables man to obtain food with
lefs labour than in Europe, while the mildnefs of the
climate fubje6ts him to little expence on account of
fuel and clothing. Plence in thefe countries a much
lefs degree of indufiry is neceffary for the fupport of
individuals, and to enable them to contribute fome-
thing towards the public revenue. Governments,
therefore, are not fo foon brought under the neceffity
of repairing their own errors. Abufes are more readi¬
ly allowed to multiply, and at laft can be got quit of
with greater difficulty. Add to this, that in a coun¬
try whofe inhabitants could not originally fubfift with¬
out the exertion of much indullry, a more vigorous
charafler is apt to diffuie itfelf among the people, than
in thofe nations upon whom, in their rude llate, the
llightell effort of labour conferred abundance, and
who have only come to find good management and
indullry requilite, in confequence of the great multipli¬
cation of their numbers.
Befides the revolutions occafioned by Tartar inva-Arabian
fions, feveral of the nations of Afia experienced aconclueffi
great revolution from the arms of another barbarous
race of men, the inhabitants of the peninfula of A-
rabia. Similar caufes to thofe which have repeated¬
ly given victory to the Tartars, enabled the Arabians
to vanquilh the neighbouring nations. They alfo exilt
in a patloral Hate, and are divided into tribes or fami¬
lies. The Arabians, however, have not been accu-
llomed to conquell like the Tartars. Arabia is of
trifling extent, when compared to Tartary and its de¬
pendencies ; its ftrength being lefs, it is lefs likely to
be engaged in dillant ente:-prifes. Unlike to Tartary,
it has always poffeffed feme cities, and a part of the
people have connefted themfelves with the arts and
the commerce of the civilized nations around them.
Hence fomething more was neceffary to roufe the A-
rabian nation, and to unite its members in one common
enterprife, than the mere love of dominion. The A-
rabs became conquerors, only becaufe Mahomet was
fuccefsful in rendering them fanatics ; and they fub-
dued the earth, not fo much from a defire to poffefs its
riches and its luxuries, as from a zeal to extend the
glory of God, and to give the means of falvation to
mankind. When their religion had prevailed in all
dire6tions, and other nations adopted the fame fpirit
and caufe, the Arabians relapfed into their original
unimportance, and ceafed to be dangerous to the peace
of the world.
Of late fome of the nations of Afia have undergone
Subjugation,
IV. Arc/xibaid
Afia.
A S I [ 789 ]
fubjugation, and others have been threatened with it, Germany.
264
European
c’onquefts.
265
not from the ordinary quarter of Tartary, or from any
other race of barbarians, but from the enterprifes of
the civilized nations of Europe. To is new peril has
originated from feveral cattles. i he difcovery of the
mariners compafs, and the improvements which have
occurred in navigation, have brought the nations of
Afia, as it were, nearer to thole of this north-welt
corner of the globe, and expofed them in a greater de¬
gree to their attacks. The nations ot Europe, alio
from their better government, and from a religion which
prohibits polygamy, and which, at leafi in the proteftant
ftates, interferes little in the affairs of this world, and
confers no dominion upon its prielts, have of late been
enabled to make a more rapid progrefs in the improve¬
ment of every art, than was ever formerly done, and
among the reft they have improved the terrible art of
war. J In the mean time, the civilized nations of Afia
have been either ftanding ftill as ufual, fatisfied with
their allotted meafure of intelligence, or they have been
going backward. Thus the relative ftrength of thefe
two quarters of the world has been greatly altered, and
Ihould any remarkable additional improvement in the
art of navigation be foon made, it is probable that all
Profpedl of Alia will be enflaved by European nations. Should
thedeftiny an event take place, its firft confequences will
of Afia. probably prove unfortunate. Europe will be corrupted,
while Afia will not be reformed. Its imp'erfi cl go¬
vernments, however, and its falfe religions, will be bro¬
ken up. The fuperiority of the human chara&er in Eu¬
ropean, countries i> fo great, and the population of North
America is increafing fo rapidly, carrying the purluits
of fcience and the prattice of the arts in its train, that
there is little doubt the race of Europe muft in a few
centuries obtain the dominion of the earth. A new
era, therefore, is commencing for Afia, the events of
which cannot be forefeen. From the ftiort review,
however, which we have taken of that great continent,
we perceive, and we perceive with fatisfa&ion, that
the moft beautiful regions of this globe are by no
means unfit, as was fuppofed, for the production, of a
vigorous and aClive race of men. The Hindoo is ti¬
mid and feeble ; but it is not his climate which ren¬
ders him fo. In the fame climate with Hindooftan,
and fcarcely divided from it, a vigorous race of men
has been found to exifi, forming a rifing people, eager
to emulate the career of civilized and powerful nations.
It is the religion of the Hindoo, therefore, that is the
caufe of his weaknefs, as the government of China is
the caufe of the ftationary charafter of its people.
Were thefe caufes of feeblenefs removed, and above all
were the art of printing diffufed, the nations of the
earth would probably by degrees approach nearer to a
fimilarity of mind and talents, than they have hitherto
been accounted capable of doing. Even Siberia itfelf,
by the great trafls of fertile land which attention to
its inland navigation is capable of laying open, may
one day contribute to the general flock of human
power and riches. It ought never to be forgotten that
this globe is given as a valuable domain or poffeffion to
the human race, only in proportion to the .degree in
which tb y fubdue its native wildnefs or fterility ; and
it becomes a fit and falubrious habitation for them, ac¬
cording to the degree in which it is improved by culti¬
vation, The rein-deer once wandered in the forefts of
AST
 j. It cannot now live upon the (bores of the
Baltic, and is forced to feek a region fufficiently cold
for its conftitution, within the polar circle and in the _
neighbourhood ot the Ic\ fea. T. he progrefs of civili¬
zation and of agriculture have aceomplilht d-this change
in the climate of the north of Europe, and the defen¬
dants of Europeans may probably accomplilh ftill greater
alterations upon the north of Afia.
Asia Minor^ or Lejfer Sljia > the fame with Natoha.
See Natolia.
ASI ARCH/E, (termed by St Paul, Chief of Afia,
Afls xix. 31.) were the Pagan pontiffs of Afia, chofen
to fuperintend and have the care of the public games,
which they did at their own expence : for which rea-
fon they were always the richeft and moft confiderable
men of the community.
ASIDE, in the drama, fomething faid by an adlor,
which fome, or even all the other aflors prefent are fup¬
pofed not to hear ; a circuraftance juftly condemned as
being unnatural and improbable.
ASHTO, a town of Italy, in Perugia, and in the
pope’s territories. E. Long. 23. 40. N. Lat. 43. o.
ASILUS, or Hornet-fly. See Entomology
Index.
ASINARA, an ifland of Italy, on the. weftern coaft
of Sardinia. E. Long. 8. 30. N. Lat. 41. o.
AS INI US Pollio, a Roman conful and orator, di-
ftinguilhed himfelf under Auguftus by his exploits and
his literary works. He is frequently mentioned with
praifes by Horace and Virgil, and is faid to have col¬
lected the firft library at Rome. He died at Frefeati,
at 80 years of age.
ASIONGABER, Esiongeber, or Eziongeber,
a town of Arabia Petroea, on the bay of Elath, a part
of the Arabian gull : the dock or ftation for the (hips
of Solomon and Jehoftiapbatj an ancient town, men¬
tioned alfo by Mofes. It was afterwards called Berenice
(Jofeplms).
ASISIA, or Assisia, a town of Liburnia (Ptole¬
my, Antonine), now in ruins, but exhibiting many
monurm-nts of antiquity. It is the Affefia or Afferia
of Pliny. This author, after having fpecified the Li-
burnian cities that were obliged to attend the congrefs
or diet of Scardona, adds to the catalogue the free
. Afferians, immunefque AJfenates; and this people, who
created their own magiftrates, and were governed by
their own municipal laws, were no doubt more rich
and powerful than their neighbours.
The veftiges of the walls of Afferia that fiill remain,
are a fufficient proof of this ; for their circumference
is clearly diftingiiifiiable above ground, and meafures
3600 Roman feet. The fpace enclofed by them forms
an oblong polygon, and they are built with common
Dalmatian marble 5 but not taken from the hill on
which they (land, for that furnifties only foft (lone.
The walls are inverted, both infide and out, with this
marble : fome of the ftoneS are ten feet long, and they
are all of confiderable dimenfions. The thicknefs of
thefe fortifications is commonly about eight feet: but
at the narrowed extremity, which falls towards the foot
of the hill, they are eleven feet thick \ and, in fome
parts, their height ftill above ground reaches to near
30 feet. An antiquary, or even a fimple lover of the
fine arts, or of erudition, the abbe Fortis obferves,
cannot help wifiung at Podgraje (the modern name of
Afferia),
Afia
II
Afifia.
.Afilia
Aina.
A S N f 7
ASeria), that fome powerful hand qulcquld fub teira
eji in apertum proferit: and fuch a with becomes
^ flronger when he reflefts, that fince the dtftruflion of
that city no fearch has ever been made under ground,
with a view to difcover any thing curious; and yet
thefe walls without doubt enclofe a valuable depofite
of antiquities, thrown down in heaps, who knows by
what caufe ; perhaps naturally, by an earthquake, or
perhaps by a fudden inundation of barbarians, which
is ftill worfe. The gate now demolifhed, the confider-
able height of the walls to be feen in feveral places
from without, fome pieces of thick walls that ftill ap¬
pear levelled to the ground among the bulhes, are cir-
cumftances which give ground to hope that many coft-
ly monuments might be recovered out of thefe ruins.
The magnificence of the remaining w^all, and the ma¬
ny pieces of well-cut ftone and fine marbles fcattered
over the contiguous fields, afford fufficient proof that
both good tafte and grandeur once flouriflied in that
country. In the midft of the rubbifh which covers the
remains of Afleria, the parifn church of the little vil¬
lage (lands infulated ; it is built of broken pieces of
ancient ruins, taken as they happened to be neareft,
mixed with mutilated infcriptions and fragments of
noble cornices.
ASISIO, or Asito, a city of the pope’s territo¬
ries in Italy, fituated about 16 miles eaft of Perugia.
E. Long. 13. 35. N. Lat. 43.
ASKELON. See Ascalon.
ASKERON, a place five miles from Doncafter,
noted for a medicinal fpring. It is a ftrong fulphureous
water, and is (lightly impregnated with a purging fait.
It is recommended internally and externally in ftrumous
and other ulcers, fcabs, leprofy, and fimilar complaints.
It is good in chronic obftrudtions, and in cafes of worms
and foulnefs of the bowels.
ASKRIG, a town in the north riding of Yorkfhire.
W. Long. o. 5. N. Lat. 53. 50.
ASLANI, in Commerce, a filver coin, worth from
115 to 120 afpers. See Asper.
ASMONEUS, or Assamoneus, the father of Si¬
mon, and chief of the Afmoneans, a family that reigned
over the Jews 126 years.
ASNA, or Esna, a town in upper Egypt, feated
upon the Nile, believed by fome authors to be the an¬
cient Syene, though others fay the ruins of it are ftill
to be feen near Affouan. It is fo near the catarafts of
the Nile, that they may be heard from thence. It con¬
tains feveral monuments of antiquity ; and among the
reft an ancient Egyptian temple, pretty entire, all
painted throughout, except in fome places that are ef¬
faced by time. The columns are full of hieroglyphic
figures. This fuperb ftrufture is now made ufe of for
a (table, wherein they put oxen, camels, and goats. A
little way from thence are the ruins of an ancient nun¬
nery, (aid to be built by St Helena, furrounded with
tombs.—Afna is the principal town in thefe parts, and
the inhabitants are rich in corn and cattle. They drive
a confiderable trade into Lower Egypt and Nubia, by
means of the Nile, and alfo by the caravans that pafs
over the defert. The inhabitants are all Arabs, ex¬
cept about 200 Copts, the ancient inhabitants, and a
iort of Chriftians. They are under the government of
the Turks, who have a cadi, and the Arabs have two
2
1. 40. N. Lat.
96 ] A S 0
fcheriffs of their own nation. E. Lone.
O \J
33- I5-
ASOLA, a town of the Breffan in Italy, belonging
to the republic of Venice. E. Long. 14. 18. N. Lat.
45- 1 5*
ASOSO, a town of Italy, in the Trevifan, feated
on a mountain 17 miles north-weft of Trevifo, and
10 north-eaft of Baflano. E. Long. 12. 2. N. Lat. 45.
49.
ASOPH, a town of Cuban Tartary, in Afia, feated
on the river Don, near its mouth, a little to the eaft
of the Palus Maeotis, or fea of Afoph. It has been
feveral times taken and retaken of late years ; but in
I739’ t^e contending powers agreed that the fortifica¬
tions Ihould be demoliflied ; and the town remains under
the dominion of Ruffia. E. Long. 41. 30. N. Lat,
47. 18.
ASOPUS, a river of Phrygia Major, which, toge¬
ther with the Lycus, wafhes Laodicea, (Pliny).—Ano¬
ther of Boeotia, which running from Mount Cithaeron,
and watering the territory of Thebes, feparates it from
the territory of Plataea, and falls with an eaft courfe in¬
to the Euripus, at Tanagra. On this river Adraftus
king of Sicyon built a temple to Nemefis, thence
called Adrajleia. From this river Thebes came to be
furnamed Afopules, (Strabo). It is now called Afopo.
A third Afopus, a river of Peloponnefus, which runs
by Sicyon, (Strabo) ; and with a north-weft courfe
falls into the Sinus Corinthiacus, to the weft of Co-
rith.—A fourth, a fmall river of the Locri Epicne-
midii, on the borders of Theflaly, (Pliny) ; rifing in
Mount Oeta, and falling into the Sinus Maliacus.
Asopus, a town of Laconia, (Paufanias) ; on the
Sinus Laconicus, with a port in a peninfula, between
Boae to the eaft:, and the mouth of the Eurotas to the
weft. The citadel only remains (landing, now called
by the failors Cajlel Rampano.
ASOR, or Hasor, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the tribe of Judah, to the fouth-weft, on the borders of
Afcalon, (Jofhua) ; as alfo Hafor-Hadata, tranflated
by the feventy Kaunn (id).—Another Afor, Afo-
rus, or Razor, a town of Galilee ; called the capital
of all the kingdoms to the north of Paleftine. It was
taken by Jofhua ; the inhabitants were put to the
fword, and their houfes burnt. It was afterwards re¬
built (Judges, 1 Sam.) ; but remained ftill in the hands
of the Canaanites, though in the lot of the tribe of
Naphtali, (Joftiua). It lay to the north of the La-
cus Samachonites, called in Scripture the Waters of
Merom (Jofephus).
ASOW, a celebrated and important fortrefs of Ruf¬
fia, once a place of confiderable trade, but. now demo-
liftied. It was fituated in the diftridl of Bachmut, near
the place where the Greeks many centuries ago built
the city of Tanais, which was very famous for its trade,
and underwent many viciftitudes. The Genoefe, who
fettled a trade with Ruflia foon after the difeovery of
Archangel by Captain Chancellor, became mafters of
this place, and gave it the name of Tana or Catena :*
but the Tartars, who were very powerful in thefe parts,
feem to have been in poffeflion of. it long before; for,
as Bufching informs us, there are Afow coin* yet ex¬
tant, on which is the name of Tacktamyfs Kan. From
the Genoefe it fell into the hands of the Turks, loft
its
Afola
11
Aibw.
ASP [ 79« 1 ASP
Afp its trade, and became an inconfiderable town. In 1637,
[| it was taken by the Coffacks, who defended it againft
Afpafia. tlie Turks in 1641, and next year fet fire to it, and
blew it up. The Turks rebuilt it with ftrong fortifica¬
tions. The Ruffians laid claim to it in 1672, and took
it in 1696 j but, by the treaty of Truth in 1711, it
was reftored to the Turks. In 1736, the Ruffians be¬
came mailers of Afow ; but by the treaty of Belgrade
they were obliged to relinquiffi it, and entirely deftroy
the place.
ASP, in Natural Hijlory, a fmall poifonous kind of
ferpent, whofe bite gives a fpeedy but eafy death. It
is faid to be thus denominated from the Greek arsns,
Jhield, in regard to the manner of its lying convolved
in a circle, in the centre of which is the head, which it
exerts, or raifes, like the umbo or umbilicus of a buck¬
ler. This fpecies of ferpent is very-frequently men¬
tioned by authors 5 but fo carelefsly defcribed, that it is
not eafy to determine which, if any of the fpecies known
at prefent, may properly be called by this name. It is
faid to be common in Africa, and about the banks of
the Nile ; and Bellonius mentions a fmall fpecies of fer¬
pent which he had met with in Italy, and which had a
fort of callous excrefcence on the forehead, which he
takes to have been the afpis of the ancients. It was with
the afp that Cleopatra is faid to have defpatched herfelf,
and prevented the defigns of Augullus, who intended
to have carried her captive to adorn his triumphal entry
into Rome. But the fa£t is contefted : Brown places it
among his vulgar errors. The indications of that queen’s
having ufed the miniftry of the afp, were only two al-
mofi: infenfible pricks found in her arm y and Plutarch
fays it is unknown what fhe died of. At the fame time,
it muft be obferved, that the ffightnefs of the pricks
found in her arm furnifhes no prefumption againft the
fafl ; for no more than the prick of a needle point dipt
in the poifon was neceftary for the purpofe.
Lord Bacon makes the afp the leaft painful of all the
inftruments of death. He fuppofes it to have an affinity
to opium, but to be lefs difagreeable in its operation ;
and his opinion feems to correfpond with the accounts of
moft writers, as well as with the effe£ts defcribed to have
been produced upon Cleopatra.
The ancients had a plafter called Ao-triciuv, made of
this terrible animal, of great efficacy as a dilcutient of
Rrumce and other indurations, and ufed likewife againft
pains of the gout. The fleffi, and Ikin or exuviae,. of
the creature, had alfo their ftiare in the ancient materia
medica.
ASPA, a town of Parthia, (Ptolemy), now IJpahan,
(Holftenius). In Ptolemy the latitude feems to agree,
being 330; but whether the longitude does,, is a quef-
tion. E. Long. 51. O. N. Lat. 32. 3.0.
ASPALATHUS, African Broom. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ASPARAGUS, Sparagus, or Sparrow-grass.
See Botany Index.
ASP ASIA of Miletus, a courtefan who fettled
at Athens under the adminiftration of Pericles, and one
of the moft noted ladies of antiquity. She was of adT
rnirable beauty : yet her wit and eloquence, ftill more
than her beauty, gained her extraordinary reputation
among all ranks in the republic. In eloquence fhe
furpaffed all her contemporaries ; and her converfation
was fo entertaining and inftruftive, that notwithftanding
the diflionourable commerce fhe carried on in female Afpafwt
virtue, perfons of the firft diftinftion, male and female, ||
reforted to her houfe as to an academy : fhe even num- Afpenfoh-
bered Socrates among her hearers and admirers. She .
captivated Pericles in fuch a manner, that he difmifled
his own wife, in order to efpoufe her j and, by her
univerfal knowledge, irrefiftible elocution, and intrigu-r
ing genius, fhe in a great meafure influenced the admi¬
niftration of Athens. She was accufed of having ex¬
cited, from motives of perfonal refentment, the war of
Peloponnefus ; yet, calamitous as that long and obfti-
nate conffift proved to Greece, and particularly to At
thens, it may be fufpe&ed that Afpafia occafioned ftill
more incurable evils to both. Her example, and ftill
more her inftru£lions, formed a fchool at Athens by
which her dangerous profeffion was reduced into fyftem.
The companions of Afpafia ferved as models for paint¬
ing and ftatuary, and themes for poetry and panegyric.
Nor were they merely the objects, but the authors of
many literary works, in which they eftablifhed rules
for the behaviour of their lovers, particularly at table j
and explained the art of gaining the heart and capti¬
vating the affeeftions. The drefs, behaviour, and arti¬
fices of this clafs of women, became continually more
fedudfive and dangerous 5 and Athens thenceforth re¬
mained the chief fchool of vice and pleafure, as well as
of literature and philofophy.
ASPASTICUM, (from mr.Trx^o^cxt, “ I falute,”) in
ecclefiaftical writers, a place, or apartment, adjoining
to the ancient churches, wherein the biffiop and prefby-
ters fat, to receive the falutations of the perfons who
came to vifit them, defire their bleffing, or confuLt
them on bufinefs.—This is alfo called afpaJHcum dia-
coniamy receptor ium, met at or him ^ or mefatorium, and fa-
lutatonum : in Engliih, “ greeting-houfe.”
ASPECT, in /Ijlronomy, denotes the fituation of
the planets and ftars with refpefl to each other.
There are five different afpe61s. 1. Sextile afpefl is
when the planets or ftars are 6o° diftant, and marked
thus *. 2. The quartile, or quadrate, when they are
90° diftant, marked □. 3. Trine, when 120° diftant,
marked A- 4. Oppofition, when i8c° diftant, mark¬
ed q. And, 5. Conjunction, when both in the fame
degree, marked d •
Kepler, who added eight new ones, defines afpefi
to be the angle formed by the rays of two flars meet¬
ing on the earth, whereby their good or bad influence
is meafured : for it is to be obferved, that thefe afpefls
being firft introduced by aftrologers, were diflinguifh-
ed into benign, malignant, and indifferent ; the quar¬
tile and oppofition being accounted malign ; the trine
and fextile, benign or friendly ; and the conjunction,
indifferent.
ASPEN TREE. See Populus, Botany Index.
ASPER,.in Grammar, an accent peculiar to the
Greek language, marked thus (') ; and importing that
the.letters over which it is placed ought to be ftpong-
ly afpirated, or pronounced as if an h were joined with
them.
Asper, or Afpre, in Commerce, a Turkiih coin, three
of which make a Medine.
ASPERIA arteria, in Anatomy, the fame with the
windpipe or trachea. See Botany Index.
ASPERIFOLIATE, or Asperifolious, among
botaniftsj fuch plants as are rough-leaved, having their
Leaves,
ASP [ 792 ] ASP
leaves placed alternately on their flalks, and a tnono-
petalous flower divided into five parts.—They confti-
tute an order of plants in the Fragmcnta methodi r.a-
' turalis of Linnaeus, in which are thefe genera, viz.
tournefortia, cerinthe, fymphytum, pulmonaria, an-
chufa, lithofpermum, myofotis, heliotropium, cynoglof-
fum, afperugo, lycopfis, echium, borrago : magis mi-
nufve o/eracece, mucilagtnofce, et glutinofce flint. Lin.
In the prefent fyftem, thefe are among the pentandria
monogynia.
ASPERIFOLIiE PLANTiE, rough-leaved plants 5
the name of a clafs in Hermannus,- Boerhaave, and
Ray’s methods, confifting of plants which have four
naked feeds, and wliofe leaves are rough to the touch.
In Tournefort’s Syftem, thefe plants conflitute the
third feiRion or order of the fecond clafs 5 and in Lin¬
naeus’s Sexual Method, they make part of the pentan¬
dria monogynia.
ASPERITY, the inequality of the furface of any
body, which hinders the hand from paffing over it
freely.—From the teftimony of fome blind perfons, it
lias been fuppofed that every colour hath its particular
degree of afperity : though this has been denied by
others. See the article Blind. ,
ASPEROSA, a town of Turkey in Europe j it is
a bifhop’s fee, fituated on the coaft of the Archipelago.
E. Long. 25. 20. N. Lat. 40. 58.
ASPERUGO, Small Wild Bugloss. See Bo¬
tany Index.
ASPERULA, Woodroof. See Botany Index.
ASPHALTITES, fo called from the great quanti¬
ty of bitumen it produces $ called alfo the Dead fea ;
and from its fituation, the Fcifl fea, the Salt fea, the
fea of Sodom, the fea of the Defert, and the fea of the
Plain, in the facred writings: A lake of Judea.
Many things have been faid and written of this famed,
or, if they were indeed true, rather infamous lake : fuch
as that it arofe from the fubmerfion of the vale of Siddim,
where once flood, as is commonly reported, the three
cities which periflied in the miraculous conflagration,
with thofe of Sodom and Gomorrah, for their unna¬
tural and deteftable wickednefs : on which account this
lake has been looked upon as a lading monument of
the jufl judgment of God, to deter mankind from fuch
abominations. Hence it is added, that the waters of
the lake are fo impregnated with fait, fulphur, and
other bituminous fluff, that nothing will fink or live in
it 5 and that it carts fuch flench and fmoke, that the
very birds die in attempting to fly over it. The de-
feription likewife of the apples that grew about it, fair
without, and only allies and bitternefs within, were
looked upon as a farther monument of God’s anger.
So likewife the defeription which many travellers give
not only of the lake, but of all the country round
about, of the whole appearing dreadful to behold, all
fulphureous, bituminous, flanking, and fuffocating :
and laftly, what hath been farther affirmed of the ruins
of the five cities being ftill to be feen in clear weather,
and having been a&ually feen in thefe latter times ; all
thefe furprifing things, and ill-grounded notions, though
commonly, and fo long, received among Chriflians,
have been of late fo much exploded, not only by the
teftimony of very credible witneffes, but even by argu¬
ments drawn from Scripture, that we muft give them
tup as inventions, unlefs we will fuppofe the face and
nature of all thefe things to have been entirely chan-Afphaltites.
ged. Thofe, in particular, of bodies not finking in the —-v—1
water, and of birds being ftifled by the exhalations of
it, appear now falfe in fa61. It is true, the quantity
of fait, alum, and fulphur, with which it is impregnat¬
ed, renders it fo much fpecifically heavier (Dr Pococke
fays one-fifth) than freih water, that bodies will not fo
eafily fink: yet that author, and others, affure us,
they have fwam and dived in it; and, as to the birds,
we are told likewife, that they will fly over it without
any harm. To reconcile thefe things with the experi¬
ments which Pliny* tells us had been made by Vefpa-* Nat. Hi/},
fian, is impoffible, without fuppofing that thofe ingre- hh. v. cap.
dients have been fince much exhaufted, which is not at l5*
all improbable ; fuch quantities of them, that is, of
the bitumen and fait, having been all along, and be¬
ing ftill taken off, and fuch ftreams of freffi water con¬
tinually pouring into it, as may reafonably be fuppofed
to have confiderably diminifhed its gravity and denfe-
nefs. For, with refpeft to its fait, we are told, the
Arabs make quantities of it from that lake, in large
pits about the fliore, which they fill with that water,
and leave to be cryftallized by the fun. T his fait is in
fome cafes much commended by Galen, as very whole-
fome, and a ftrengthener of theflomach, &c. on account
of its unpleafant bitternefs.
What likewife relates to the conftant fmoke afeend-
ing from the lake, its changing the colour of its water
three times a-cay, fo confidently affirmed by Jofephus -f-f Bell. Jttch
and other ancients, and confirmed by Prince Radzivillehb.v.cap. 5.
and other moderns, who pretend to have been eye-
witneffes of it, is all now in the fame manner exploded
by authors of more modern date, and of at leaft equal
candour. The unhealthinefs of the air about the lake
was affirmed by Jofephus and Pliny, efpecially on the
weft *, the monks that live in the neighbourhood con¬
firm the fame, and would have diffuaded Dr Pococke
from going to it on that account; and, as he ventured
to go and bathe in it, and was two days after feized
Avith a dizzinefs, and violent pain in the ftomach,
which lafted near three weeks, they made no doubt
but it Avas occafioned by it ; and hft doth not feem to
contradict them. As to the Avater, it is, though clear,
fo impregnated Avith fait, that thofe who dive into it
come out covered with a kind of faline matter. There
is one remarkable thing relating to this lake, general¬
ly agreed on by all travellers and geographers, viz.
that it receives the Avaters of Jordan, a confiderable
river, the brooks of Jabbok,-Kiffion, Arnon, and other
fprings, Avhieh flow into it from the adjacent moun¬
tains, and yet never overfloAVS, though there is no vifible
way to be found by which it difeharge^ that great in¬
flux. Some naturalifts have been greatly embarraffed
to find a difebarge for thefe Avaters ; and have therefore
been inclined to fufpeCl the lake had a communication
Avith the Mediterranean. But, befides that we know
of no gulf to corroborate this fuppofition, it has been
demonftrated, by accurate calculation, that evapora¬
tion is more than fufficient to carry off the Avaters
brought by the river. It is, in fad, A'ery confiderable
and frequently becomes fenfible to the eye, by the fogs
Avith Avhich the lake is cov'ered at the rifing of the fun,
and which are afterwards difperfed by the heat. It is
enclofed on the eaft and Avert with exceeding high
mountains, many of them craggy and dreadful to be¬
hold.
ASP
[ 793 1
A
Afphaltites. hold. On the north it has the plain of Jericho ; or, if
l——v   we take in both fides of the Jordan, it has the Great
Plain, properly fo called, on the fouth j which is open,
and extends beyond the reach of the eye. Jofephus
gives this lake 580 furlongs in length, from the mouth
of the Jordan to the town of Segor, on the oppofiteend,
that is about 22 leagues j and about 150 furlongs or
5 leagues, in its greateft breadth •, but our modern ac¬
counts commonly give it 24 leagues in length, and 6
or 7 in breadth. On the weft fide of it is a kind of
promontory, where they pretend to (how the remains
of Lot’s metamorphofed wife. Jofephus fays, it was
ftill (landing in his time ; but when Prince Radziville
inquired after it, they told him there was no fuch fait
pillar or ftatue to be found in all that part. However,
they have found means, about a century after him, to
recover, as they pretended to affure Mr Maundrell, 'a
block or (lump of it, which may in time grow up, with
a little art, into its ancient bulk.
It is to be obferved here, that the name of Dead fea
is not to be found in the facred writings ; but hath been
given to this lake becaufe no creature will live in it, on
account of its excefiive faltnefs, or rather bituminous
quality j for the Hebrews rank fulphur, nitre, and bi¬
tumen, under the general name of fait. However,
fome late travellers have found caufe to fufpeft the com¬
mon report of its breeding no living creature ; one of
them having obferred, on the (hore, two or three (hells
of fi(h like thofe of an oyfter, and which he fuppofes
to have been thrown up by the waves, at two miles
diftance from the mouth of the Jordan, which he there
takes notice of, left they (hould be fufpetled to have
been brought into the lake by that way. And Dr Po-
cocke, though he neither faw fifh nor (hells, tells us, on
the authority of a monk, that fome fort of filh had been
caught in it •, and gives us his opinion, that as fo many
forts live in fait water, fome kind may be fo formed as
to live in a bituminous one. Mr Volney, however, af¬
firms that it contains neither animal nor vegetable life.
We fee no verdure on its banks, nor are fifh to be found
within its waters. But he adds, that it is not true
that its exhalations are peftiferous, fo as to deftroy
birds flying over it. “ It is very common (fays he) to
fee fwallows fkimming its furface, and dipping for the
water neceffary to build their nefts.' The real caufe
which deprives it of vegetables and animals is the ex¬
treme faltnefs of the water, which is infinitely ftronger
than that of the fea. The foil around it, equally im¬
pregnated with this-fait, produces no plants ; and the
air itfelf, which becomes loaded with it from evapora¬
tion, and which receives alfo the fulphureous and bitu¬
minous vapours, cannot be favourable to vegetation :
hence the deadly afpeft which reigns around this lake.
In other refpedls, the ground about it, however, is not
marfhy ; and its waters are limpid and incorruptible,
as muft be the cafe with a diflnlution of fait. The
origin of this mineral is eafy to be difcovered ; for on
the fouth-weft (hore are mines of foflil fait, of which I
have brought awav feveral fpecimens. They are fitu-
ated in the fide of the mountains which extend along
that border ; and, from time immemorial, have fupplied
the neighbouring Arabs, and even the city of Jerufa-
lem. We find alfo on this (hore fragments of fulphur
and bitumen, which the Arabs convert into a trifling
article of commerce j as alfo hot fountains, and deep
Yol. II. Part II.
crevices, which are difcovered at a diftance uy iittj*. pv- A^plc i tes,
ramids built on the brink of them. VVe likewise imu a
fort of done, which, on rubbing, emits a noxious fraell, ~ >
burns like bitumen, receives a polifh xitie white .aabafter,
and is ufed for the paving of court yards. At intervals,
we alfo meet with unlhapen blocks, which prejudiced
eyes miltake for mutilated ftatues, and which pafs with
ignorant and fuperftitious pilgrims for monuments of the
adventure of Lot’s wife ; though it is nowhere faid (he
was metamorphofed into (lone like Niobe, but into fait,
which muft have melted the enfuing winter.'1
It is on account of this bitumen that it hath had the
name of Afphaltite lake, it being reported to have
thro wn up great quantities of that drug, which was
much in life among the Egyptians, and oilier nations,
for embalming of dead bodies, Jofephus allures us, tnat
in his days it rofe in lumps as big as an ox without its
head, and fome even larger. But whatever it may have
formerly done, we are allured by Mr Maundrell and
others, that it is now to be found but in fmali quanti¬
ties along the fhore, though in much greater near the
mountains on both fides the lake. But the contrary is
fince affirmed by two or more late * travellers ; one Pococke s
of whom tells us, that it is obferved to float on the fur-
face of the water, and to come on the ffiore after windy p' 5 *
weather, where the Arabians gather it, and put it to
all the ufes that common pitch is ufed for, even in + ,
the compofition of fome medicines; and another f tells Trn“™ls*
us, he was there informed, that it was raifed at certain p- 3^,'’
times from the bottom, in large hemifpheres, which,
as loon as they touch the furface, and are a&ed upon
by the external air, burft at once, with great noife and
fmoke like the pulvis fulminans of the chemifts, difperf-
ing themfelves about in a thoufand pieces. • From both
thefe judicious authors we may conclude the reafon of
Mr Maundrell’s miftake, both as to the lake’s throw¬
ing it up only on certain ftafons (that reverend gentle¬
man might-chance to be there at the wrong time) ;
and likewife as to his not obferving it about the (hores,
feeing the Arabs are there ready to gather it as foon
as thrown up : all of them defcribe it as refembling
our black pitch, fo as not to be dillinguiffied from
it but by its fulphureous fmoke and ftench when fet
on fire ; and it hath been commonly thought to be
the fame with that which our druggifts fell under the
name of bitumen Judaicum, or Jewifh pitch, though we
have reafon to think that this laft is factitious, and that
there is now none of the right afphaltum brought from
Judea.
It hath, moreover, been confounded with a fort of
blackifh combuflible (tone thrown on the ffiore, and
called by fome Mofes's fone, which being held in the
flame of a candle, will foon burn, and caff a fmoke and
intolerable ftench ; but with this extraordinary proper¬
ty, that though it lofes much of its weight and colour,
it becoming in a manner white, yet it diminifhes no¬
thing in its bulk. But thefe, Dr Pococke tells us, are
found about two or three leagues from the {hore. He
concludes, however, from it, that a ftratum of that
ftone under the lake is probably one part of the matter
that feeds the fubterraneous fire, and .caufes the bitu¬
men to boil up out of it.
ASPHALTUM, Bitumen Judaicum, or Jews
Pitch, is a light folid bitumen, of a dufky colour on
the outfide, and a deep fhining black within 5 of very
5# little
ASP [ 794 ] ASS
Afpicueta.
Afphaltam little tafle j and having fcarcely any frnell, unlefs heat¬
ed, when it emits a ftrong pitchy one. It is found in
a foft or liquid date on the furface of the Dead fea, and
by age grows dry and hard. The fame kind of bitu¬
men is met with likewife in the earth, in other places of
the world, in China, America, and in fome places of
Europe, as the Carpathian hills, France, Neufchatel,
&.c. There are feveral kinds of Jews pitch in the
{hops : but none of them are the genuine fort, and have
little other title to their name than their being artifi¬
cially compounded by Jews 5 and as they are a medley
of we know not what ingredients, their medicinal ufe
begins to be defervedly laid afide, notwithftanding the
difcutient, refolvent, pedloral, and other virtues attri¬
buted to this bitumen by the ancients. The true af-
phaltum was formerly ufed in embalming the bodies of
the dead. The thick and folid afphalta are at prefent
employed in Egypt, Arabia, and Perfia, as pitch for
fhips ; as the fluid ones, for burning in lamps, and for
varnifhes. Some writers relate, that the Avail of Ba¬
bylon, and the temple of Jerufalem, were cemented
Avith bitumen inftead of mortar. This much is cer¬
tain, that a true natural bitumen, that for inftance
which is found in the diltridl of Neufchatel, proves an
excellent cement for walls, pavements, and other pur-
pofes, uncommonly firm, very durable in the air, and
not penetrable by water. The Avatch and clock makers
ufe a compofition of afphaltum, fine lamp black, and
oil of fpike or turpentine, for draAving the black figures
on dial plates : this compofition is prepared chiefly by
certain perfons at Augfburg and Nuremberg. See the
preceding article.
ASPHODELUS, Asphodel, or King's Spear.
See Botany Index.
ASPHURELATA, in Natural Hi/lory, are femi-
metallic foflils, fufible by fire, and not malleable in
their pureft ftate, being in their native ftate intimately
mixed Avith fulphur and other adventitious matter, and
reduced to what are called ores.
Of this feries of foflils there are only five bodies,
each of which makes a diflinft genus j viz. antimony,
bifmuth, ccbalt, zinc, and quickfilver.
ASPICUETA, Martin de, commonly called the
Dodlor of Navarre, or DoBor Navarrus, was de-
fcended of a noble family, and born the ijth of De¬
cember 1491, at Varafayn, a fmall city of Navarre,
not far from Pampeluna. He entered very young into
the monaftery of regular canons at Roncevaux, where
he took the habit, which he continued to wear after he
left the convent. He fludied claflical learning, natural
and moral philofophy, and divinity, at Alcala, in New
Caftile, adopting chiefly the fyftem of Petrus Lombar-
dus, commonly called the Majler of the Sentences. He
applied to the ftudy of the law at Ferrara, and taught
it with applaufe at Touloufe and Cahors.. After being
firfl: profeffor of canon laAV at Salamanca for 14 years,
he quitted that place to be profeflor of law at Coim¬
bra, with a larger fafary. The duties of this office he
difeharged for the fpace of 20 years, and then refigned’
it to retire into his own country, where he took care of
his nieces, the daughters of his deceafed brothers. Hav¬
ing made a journey to Rome to plead the caufe of
Barthulomeo de Caranza archbiftiop of Toledo, who
had been accufed of herefy before the tribunal of the
inquifition in Spain, and whofe caufe was, by the Pope’s
4
order, to be tried in that city, Afpicueta’s writings, Afpicueta
Avhich Avere well known, procured him a moft honour- B
able reception. Pope Pius V. made him afliftant to Aflafin.
Cardinal Francis Aciat, his vice penitentiary ; and Gre- V——*
gory XIII. never palled by his door Avithout calling for
him, and flopped fometimes a whole hour to talk Avith
him in the ftreet. His name became fo famous, that
even in his lifetime the higheft encomium on a learned
man Avas to call him a Navarrus. He was confultt d
as an oracle. By temperance he prolonged his life to
a great length. His economy enabled him to give
fubftantial proofs of his charity. Being very old, he
ufed to ride on a mule through the city, and relieved
all the poor he met j to Avhich his mule Avas fo Avell ac-
cuftomed, that it flopped of its oavu accord at the fight
of every poor man, till his mafter had relieved him. He
refufed feveral honourable polls in church and flate,
that he might have leifure to corrett and improve the
Avorks he had already Avritten, and compofe others. He
died at the age of 94, on the 21ft of June 1586. He
wrote a vaft number of treatifes, all Avhich are either on
morality or common law.
ASPIRATE, in Grammar 1 denotes wmrds marked
with the fpiritus afper. See AsPER.
ASPIRATION, among grammarians, is ufed to
denote the pronouncing a fyllable with fome vehe¬
mence.
ASPLENIUM, Ceterach. See Botany Index.
ASS, in Zoology, is ranged as a fpecies of equus, or
horfe. See Mammalia Index.
Coronation of the Ass, in antiquity, Avas a part of
the ceremony of the feaft of Vefta, wherein the bakers
put bread croAvns on the heads of thefe quadrupeds $
Kcce coronatis panis dependet afellis *. Hence, in an * Ovid. Faft,
ancient calendar, the ides of June are thus denoted jvi. 311.
Fefum ef Vefce. Afnus coronatur !—This honour, it
feems, was done the beaft, becaufe, by its braying, it
had faved Vifta from being raviftied by the Lampfacan
god. Hence the formula, Vefce delictum ef afnus.
ASSAI, in Mufc, fignifies quick j and, according
to others, that the motion of the piece be kept in a
middle degree of quieknefs or flownefs. As, afai al¬
legro, affaiprefo. See ALLEGRO and PRESTO.
ASSANCALA, a ftrong toAvn in Armenia, near
the river Arras, in the road betAveen Erzerum and E-
rivan, and noted for its hot baths. It ftands on a high
hill •, the walls are built in a fpiral line all round the
rock, and ftrengthened Avith fquare towers. The
ditches are about !avo fathoms over, cut out of hard
rock. E. Long. 41. 30. N. Lat. 39. 46.
ASSANCHIF, a town of Alia, in Diarbekir, feated
on the river T igris. E. Long. 42. 30. N. Lat. 37, 2Q.
ASSANS. See Assens.
ASSARIUM, in antiquity, denotes a ftnall copper
coin, being a part or diminutive of the as. The word
tartrx^ten is ufed by Suidas indifferently with and
tofearpx, to denote a fmall piece of money ; in which he
is followed by Cujacius, Avho defines ei<r<rx£uiy by Mini¬
mus ceris nummus. We find mention of the affarion
in the gofpel of St Matthew, chap, x. ver. 29.
ASSARON, or Omer, a meafure of capacity, ia
ufe among the Hebrews, containing five pints. It was
the meafure of manna which God appointed for every
Ifraelite.
ASSASIN, or Assassin, a perfon who kills ano¬
ther
ASS [79
Affaflins. tlier ’witK tlie advantage either of an inequality in the
L——\ ' weapons, or by means of the fituation of the place, or
by attacking him at unawares.
The word ajfajjin isfaid by fome to have been brought
from the Levant, where it took its rife from a certain
prince of the family of the Arfacidiv, popularly called
Ajjajjins, living in a cattle between Antioch and Da-
mafcus, and bringing up a number of young men,
ready to pay a blind obedience to his commands j
w'hom he employed in murdering the princes with
whom he was at enmity. But according to Mr Vol-
ney, the word Ha[faJJin (from the root hafs, “ to kill,
to affaffinate, to lilten, to furprife,‘'1) in the vulgar Ara¬
bic fignifies “ Robbers of the night,” perfons who lie
in nmbufh to hll; and is very univerfally underftood in
this fenfe at Cairo and in Syria. Hence it was ap¬
plied to the Batenians, who flew by furprife. See the
next article.
There was a certain law of nations, an opinion, re¬
ceived in all the republics of Greece and Italy, where¬
by he that affaflinaled an ufurper of the fupreme power
was declared a virtuous man. At Rome efpecially,
after the expulfion of the kings, the law was formal
and folemn, and inflances of it admitted. The com¬
monwealth armed the hand of any citizen, and created
him a magiftrate for that moment.
Assassins, a tribe or clan in Syria, called alfo If-
maelians and Batnntjls or Ba*enians. Thefe people pro¬
bably owed their origin to the Karmatiarts, a famous
heretical fedt among the Mahometans, who fettled in
Perfia about the year 1090 ; whence, in procefs of
time, they fent a colony into Syria, where they be¬
came poffefied of a confiderable tradt of land among
the mountains of Lebanon, extending itfelf from the
neighbourhood of Antioch to Damafcus.
The firft chief and legiflator of this remarkable tribe
appears to have been Haffan Sabah, a fubtile impoftor,
who by bis artifices made fanatical and implicit Haves
of his fubjedls. Their religion was compounded of
that of the Magi, the Jews, the Chriftians, and the Ma¬
hometans ; but the capital article of their creed was
to believe that the Holy Ghoft refided in their chief;
that his orders proceeded from God himfelf, and were
real declarations of his divine pleafure. To this mo¬
narch the orientals gave the name of Scheik ; but he is
better known in Europe by the name of the Old Man
of the Mountain. His dignity, inflead of being here¬
ditary, was conferred by eledtion, where merit, that
is, a fuperior multiplicity and enormity of crimes, was
the moft effedlual recommendation to a majority of fuf-
frages.
This chief, from his exalted refidence on the fummit
of Mount Lebanon, like a vindidlive deity, with the
thunderbolt in his hand, fent inevitable death to all
quarters of the world ; fo that from one end of the earth
to the other, caliphs, emperors, fultans, kings, prin¬
ces, Chriftians, Mahometans, and Jews, every nation
and people, execrated and dreaded his fanguinary power,
from the ftrokes of which there was no fecurity. At
the leaft fuggeftion or whifper that he had threatened
the death of any potentate, all immediately doubled
their guards, and took every other precaution in their
power. It is known that Philip Auguftus king of
France, on a premature advice that the fcheik intended
to have him affafiinated, inftituted a new body-guard
5 1 ASS
of men diftinguilhed for their a&ivity and courage, Aflaffins.
called fergens d^armes, with brafs clubs, bows and ar- —y*~“
rows : and he himfelf never appeared without a club,
fortified either with iron or gold. Molt fovereigns
paid fecretly a penfion to the fcheik, however fcan-
dalous and derogatory it might be to the luftre of ma-
jelty, for the fafety of their perfons. The Knights
Templars alone dared to defy his fecret machinations
and open force. Indeed they were a permanent dif-
perfed body, not to be cut off by maffacres or allaflina-
tions.
This barbarous prince was furniffied with refources
unknown to all other monarchs, even to the molt ab-
folute defpotic tyrant. His fubjedts would prollrate
themfelves at the foot of his throne, requefting to die
by his hand or order, as a favour by which they were
fure of palling into paradile. On them if danger
made any impreflion, it was an emulation to prefs for¬
ward ; and if taken in any enterprife, they went to
the place of execution with a magnanimity unknown
to others. Henry count of Champagne, who mar¬
ried Ifabella daughter of Amaury king of Jerufalem,
palling over part of the territory of the Affaffins in his
way to Syria, and talking highly of his power, their
chief came to meet him. “ Are your fubjedls (laid the
old man of the mountain) as ready in their fubmiflion
as mine ?” and without flaying for an anfwer, made a
fign with his hand, when ten young men in white,
who were Handing on an adjacent tower, inftantly
threw themfelves down. On another occafion, Sultan
Malek-Shah fummoning the fcheik to fubmit himfelf
to his government, and threatening him with the power
of his arms, Ihouid he hefitate to comply ; the latter
very compofedly turning himfelf towards his guards,
faid to one of them, Draw your dagger, and plunge
it into your breaH and to another, “ Throw yourfelf
headlong from yonder rock.” His orders were no
fooner uttered than they were joyfully obeyed : and all
the anfwer he deigned to give the fultan’s envoy was,
“ Away to thy mafter, and let him know I have ma¬
ny thoufand fubjedls of the fame difpolition.” Men
fo ready to deflroy themfelves were equally alert and
refolute in being the minifters of death to others. At
the command of their fovereign, they made no diffi¬
culty of dabbing any prince, even on his throne ; and
being well verfed in the different dialers, they con¬
formed to the drefs and even the external religion of
the country, that they might with lefs difficulty ftriku
the fatal blow required by their chief. With the Sara¬
cens they were Mahometans ; with the Franks, Chri¬
ftians : in one place they joined with the Mamelukes;
in another, with the ecclefiaftics or religious ; and un¬
der this difguife feized the firft opportunity of execu¬
ting their fanguinary commiflion. Of this we meet
with an inftance, in the hiftory of Saladin, while he
was befieging Manbedge, the celebrated Hieropolis of
antiquity. Being one day, with a few attendants, and
they at fome diftance, reconnoitring the place for the
better difpofition of the attack, a man rulhed on him
with a dagger in his hand, and wounded him on the
head ; but the fultan, as he was endeavouring to repeat
his ftroke, wrefted the dagger from him, and, after re¬
ceiving feveral wounds, laid him dead at his feet. Be¬
fore the fultan had well recovered himfelf, a fecond
encountered him to finilh the treachery of the former ;
5 H 2 but
Affaffins
ASS [ 796 j ASS
but he met with the fame fate: he was fuccceded with
equal fury by a third, who alfo fell by the hand of that
magnanimous prince whom he was lent to affaffinate.
And it was obferved that thefe wretches dealt about
their fruitlefs blows as they lay in the agonies of death.
With fuch rapidity was this tranfafted, that it wa> over
before Salsdin's guards could come to his affiilance.
He retired to his tent, and in great perturbation throw¬
ing himfelf on his fofa, ordered his fervants to take a
ftrift view of his houfehold, and to cafhier all fufpebled
perfons", at the fame time alking with great earneftnefs,
“ Of whom have. I deferved fuch treacherous ufage ?”
But it afterwards appeared, that thefe villains had been
fent by the old man of the mountain •, of whom the vi¬
zir Kamfcheglin had purchafed the murder of Saladin,
to free himfelf from fo great a warrior, whom .he could
not meet in the field. 1 o animate them in their frantic
obedience, thefcheik, before their departure on fuch at¬
tempts, ufed to give them a fmall toretatte of fome of
the delights which he affured them would be their re-
compenfe in paradife. Delicious foporific drinks were
given them; and while they lay alleep, they were car¬
ried into beautiful garden-, where every allurement in¬
vited their fenles to the molt exquifite gratifications.
From thefe feats of voluptuoufnefs, inflamed with li¬
quor and enthutiaftic views of perpetual enjoyments,
they fallied forth to perform affaflinations of the black-
eft dye.
This people once had, or at leaft they feigned to have,
an intention of embracing the Chriftian religion. 1 hey
reigned a long time in Perfia and on Mount Lebanon.
Hulaku, a khan of the Mogul Tartars, in the year 655
of the Hegira, or 1254 of the Chriftian era, entered
their country and difpoffeired them ot feveral places ;
but it was not till the year 1 272 that they were total¬
ly conquered. This achievement was owing to the
conduft and intrepidity of the Egyptian forces fent
againft them by the fultan Bibaris. It has, however,
been thought, that the Drufes, who ftill refide among
the eminences of Mount Lebanon, and whofe religion
and cuftoms are fo little known, are a remnant of thofe
barbarians.
ASSAULT, in Law, is an attempt to offer to beat
another, without touching him: as if one lifts up his
cane or his fift in a threatening manner at another j or
ftrikes at him, but miffes him : this is an aflault, m-
Jultus, which Finch deferibes to be “ an unlawful fel¬
ting upon one’s perfon.” This alfo is an inchoate vio¬
lence, amounting confiderably higher than bare threats, j
and therefore, though no aflual fuffering is proved, yet
the party injured may have redrefs by adlion of trefpafs
vi et armis, wherein he (hall recover damages as a com-
penfation for the injury.
Assault, in the military art, a furious effort made
to carry a fortified poft, camp, or fortrefs, wherein the
affailants do not fereen themfelves by any works: while
the affault continues, the batteries ceafe, for fear of kil¬
ling their own men. The enfans. perdus march firft to
the affault. See EnFJNS Perdus.
ASSAY, Essay, or Say, in Metallurgy, the proof
or trial of the goodnefs, purity, value, &c. of metals and
metalline fubftances. See Essay.
In ancient ftatutes this is called touch; and thofe
who had the care of it keepers of the /oac/L—Under
Henry VI. divers cities were appointed to have touch
X
for wrought filver-plate, 2 Hen. VI. c. 14.—By this, Affky
one might imagine they had no better method of af- ||
faying than the fimple one by the touchftone \ but A^^rria‘
the cafe is far otherwife. In the time of King Hen- , ' ,
ry II. the bithop of Salifbury, then treafurer, conft-
dering that though the money paid into the king’s ex¬
chequer for his crown-rents did not anfwer numero et
pondere, it might neverthelefs be mixed with copper or
brafs : wherefore a conftitution was made, called the
trial by combujlion ; which differs little or nothing from
the prefent method of affaying filver. See a deferip-
tion of it in the Black Book in the Exchequer, writ¬
ten by Gervafe of Tilbury, c. xxi. This trial is alf>
there called eJJ'aiutn, and the officer who made it is
named fufor. The method ftill in ufe of affaying gold
and filver was firft eftabliftied by an a£l of the Engliib
parliament 1354*
Assaying, /irs Docimajlica, in its extent, compre¬
hends particular manners of examining every ore, or
mixed metal, according to its nature, with the beft-
adapted fluxes j fo as to difeover, not only what metals,
and what proportions of metal, are contained in ores ^
but like wile how much fulphur, vitriol, alum, arfenic,
fmelt, &c. may be obtained from every one refpectively.
See Mineralogy Index.
Allaying is more particularly ufed by moneyers and
goldfmiths, for the making a proof or trial by the
cuppel, or tell, of the finenefs or purity of the gold
and filver to be ufed in the coining of money, and ma-
nufa£lur.e of plate, &c. or that have been already ufed
therein.
There are two kinds of affaying * the one before
metals are melted, in order to bring them to their pro¬
per finenefs j the other after they are ftruck, to fee that
the fpecies be ftandard. For the firft allay, the affayers
ufed to take 14 or 15 grains of gold, and half a drachm
of filver, if it be for money j and 18 grains of the one,
and a drachm of the other, if for other occafions. As
to the fecond affay, it is made of one of the pieces of
money already coined, which they cut in four parts.
The quantity of gold for an affay among us is fix grains j
in France nearly the fame j and in Germany, about
three times as much..
The proper fpelling of tnat word, however, is es¬
say ; under which article, therefore, the reader will
find the fubjeft more particularly treated.
ASSAY-Balance, or EJ/ay-Balance. I he flat pieces of
glafs often placed under the feales of an affay-balance,
feem, by their power of eleftricity, capable ol attract¬
ing, and thereby making the lighter fcale preponde¬
rate, where the whole matter weighed is fo very Imall.
See EJJ'ay Balance.
Xhe electricity of a flat furface of about three inches
fquare has been known to hold down one fcale, when
there were about 200 grains weight in the other. See
Balance.
ASSAT-Majler, or EJfay-MaJler, an officer under cer¬
tain corporations, intrufted with the care of making
true to'uch, or affay, of the gold and filver brought to
him ; and giving a juft report of the goodnefs or bad-
nefs thereof. Such is the aflay-mafter of the mint in
the Tower, called alfo ajfayer of the king.
The affay-mafter of the goldfmith’s company is a fort
of affiftant-warden, called alfo a touch-warden, appoint¬
ed to furvey, affay, and mark all the filver-work, .&e.
committed
ASS [
committed to him. There are alfo aiTay-maflers
pointed by. ftatute at York, Exeter, Brirtol, Chefter,
Norwich, Newcaflle, and Birmingham, for affaying
wrought plate. The affay-mafter is to retain eight
grains of every pound troy of filver brought to him j
four whereof are to be put in the pix, or box of deal,
to be re-affayed the next year, and the other four to
be allowed him for his wafte and fpillings.
Note, The number of pennyweights let down in the
aflay-mailer’s report, is to be accounted as per pound,
or fo much in every pound of 12 ounces troy. For
every 20 pennyweight, or ounce troy, the 1’nver is
found by the affay to be worfe than llandard or tier-
ling, lixpence is to be deducted } becauie every ounce
will coll fo much to reduce it to llandard goodnefs, oi
to change it for fterling.
In gold, for every carat it is fet down to be worfe
than ftandard, you muft account that in the ounce troy
it is worfe by fo many times 3s. bd. and for eveiy
grain it is fet down worfe, you muft account it worfe
by fo many times lid. in the ounce troy ; and for eve¬
ry half grain 5^d. : 'for fo much it will coft to make it
of ftandard goodnefs, &c.
ASSELYN, John, a famous Dutch painter, was
born in Holland, and became the difciple of Iiaiah
Vandervelde the battle-painter. He diftinguiftied him-
felf in hiftory-painting, battles, landfcapes, animals, and
particularly horfes. He travelled into France and Ita¬
ly 5 and was fo plcafed with the manner of Bambochio,
that he always followed it. He painted many pifluies
at Lyons, where he married the daughter of a merchant
of Antwerp, and returned with her to Holland. Here
he firft difcovered to his countrymen a frefh and clear
manner of painting landfcapes, like Claude Lorraine •,
upon which all the painters imitated his ftyle, and
reformed the dark brown they had hitherto follow¬
ed. Affelyn’s pictures were fo much admired at Am-
fte'rdam, that they fold there at a high price. He died
in that city in 1660. Twenty-four pieces of land¬
fcapes and ruins, which he painted in Italy, have been
engraved by Perelle.
ASSEMBLAGE, the uniting or joimng of things
together; or the things themfelves fo united or join¬
ed! It is alfo ufed, in a more general fenfe, for a col-
leflion of various things fo difpofed and diverfified, that
the whole produces fome agreeable effect.
ASSEMBLY, the meeting of feveral perfons, in
the fame place, upon the fame defign.
Assembly, in the beau-monde, an appointed meet¬
ing of fafhionable perfons of both fexes, for the fake of
play, dancing, gallantry, converiation, &c.
Assembly, in the military art, the fecond beating of
a drum before a march ; at which the foldiers ftrike their
tents, roll them up, and Hand to arms.
Assemblies of the clergy are called convocations,
fynods, councils. The annual meeting of the church
of Scotland is called a General AJfetnbly: In this af-
fembly his Majefty is reprefented by his Commiflioner,
who diffolves one meeting, and calls another, in the
name of the King, while the Moderator does the fame
in the name of the Lord Jefus Chrijl.
Assemblies of the Roman people were call ’d co-
tnitia.
Under the Gothic governments, the fupreme legifla-
ijve power was lodged in an affembly of the ftates cl
Aflets.
797 J ASS
an- the kingdom held annually for the like purpofes as AffembUw
our parliament. Some remains of this ufage fubfifted
in the annual affemblies of the ftates of fome provinces ^
of France previous,to the late revolution; but thefe
were no more than fhadows of the ancient aflemblies.
It is only in Great Britain, and perhaps in Sweden,
that fuch affemblies retain their ancient powers and
privileges.
ASSENS, a fea-port town of Denmark, fituated
upon the Little Belt, a ftrait of the Baltic, which fe-
parates the ifle of Funen from the continent. It is the
common paffage from the duchy of Slefwick to Copen¬
hagen. E. Long. 10. 30. N. Lat. 55. 15.
ASSENT, in a general fenfe, implies an agreement
to fomething propofed or affirmed by another.
Royal NSSENT, the approbation given by the king
to a bill in parliament, after which it becomes a law.
ASSER, John, or Asserius Menevensis, that
is, AJfer of St David's, biffiop of Shirburn in the reign
of Alfred the Great. He was born in Pembrokefhire
in South Wales; and educated in the monaftery of St
David’s by the archbiffiop Afferius, who, according to
Leland, was his kinfman. In this monaftery he be¬
came a monk, and by his affiduous application foon ac¬
quired univerfal fame as a perfon of profound learning^
and great abilities. Alfred, the munificent patron o£
genius, about the year 880, fent for him to court.
The king was then at Dean in Wiltffiire. He was fo
charmed with Affer, that he made him his preceptor
and companion. As a reward for his fervices, he ap¬
pointed him abbot of two or three different monafte-
ries : and at laft promoted him to the epifcopal fee of
Shirburn, where he died and was buried in the year
910. He was, fays Pits, a man of happy genms,
wonderful modefty, extenfive learning, and great in¬
tegrity of life. He is faid to have been principally in-
ftrumental in perfuading the king to reftore the uni-
verfity of Oxford to its priftine dignity and luftre. He
wrote, De vita et rebus gejlis Alfredi, &c. Lond. 1574,
publiftied by Archbiffiop Parker, in the old Saxon
character, at the end of Walftnghami hifl.— Francf.
1602, fol, Oxf. 1722, 8vo. Many other works are
aferibed to this author by Gale, Bale, and Pits; but all
doubtful.
ASSERIA. See Asisia.
ASSERTION, in the language of the fchools, a
propofition advanced by the affertor, who avows the
truth of it, and is ready to defend it.
ASSESSOR, an inferior officer of juftice appointed
chiefly to affift the ordinary judge with his opinion and
advice.
Assessor is alfo one who affeffes, or fettles taxes
and other public dues.
ASSETS, in Law, fignifies goods enough to dif-
charge that burden which is call upon the executor or
fieir, in fatisfying the debts and legacies of the teftator
or anceftor. Affets are real or perfonal. Where a
man hath lands in fee fimple, and dies feifed thereof,
the lands which come to his heirs are affets real; and
where he dies poffeffed of any perfonal eftate, the goods
which come to the executors are affets perfonal. Af¬
fets are alfo divided into affets by defeent, and affets
in hand. Affets by defeent is where a perfon is bound
in an obligation, and dies feifed of lands which de*
feend to the heir, the land (hall be affets, and the
A S • S
A fl ever a- heir fiiall be charged as far as the lands to him defcend-
tion e(J will extend. SlJJets in hand is when a man indebted
Afllento ma^es executors, and leaves them fufficient to pay his
V debts and legacies 5 or where fome commodity or profit
arifeth to them in right of the teftalor : this is called
ajjets in their hands.
ASSEVERATION, a pofitive and vehement affir¬
mation of fomething.
ASSHETON, William, doftor of divinity, and
reftor of Beckenham, in Kent, was born in the year
1641, and ivas educated at Brazen-nofe college, Ox¬
ford. After entering into orders, he became chaplain
to the dtike of Ormond, and was admitted doftor of
divinity in 1673. Soon after, he ivas nominated to a
prebend in the church of York, prefented to the living
of St Antholin, London, and to the redtory of Beck¬
enham in Kent. He was the firft projector of the
Icheme for providing for clergymen’s widows, and
others, by a jointure payable out of the mercers com¬
pany. He wrote feveral pieces again!! the Papifts and
Diffenters, and fome devotional trails. He died at
Beckenham in September 1711, in the 70th year of his
age.
ASSIDEANS,or Chasid^eans, (from the Hebrew
chajidim, “ merciful, pious”) ; thofe Jews who reforted
to Mattathias to fight for the law of God and the liber¬
ties of their country. They were men of great valour
and zeal, having voluntarily devoted themfelves to a
more ftrift obfervation of the law than other men. For
after the return of the Jews from the Babyloniffi capti¬
vity, there were two forts of men in their church j thofe
who contented themfelves with that obedience only
which was prefcribed by the law of Mofes, and who
were called Zadikim, i. e. the righteous ; and thofe who,
over and above the law, fuperaddtd the conftitutions
_ and traditions of the elders, and other rigorous obfer-
vances: thefe latter were called Chajidim, i. e. the
pious. From the former fprung the Samaritans, Saddu-
cees, and Caraites j from the latter, the Pharifees and
the Eflenes.
ASSIDENT SIGNS, in Medicine, are fymptoms
which ufually attend a difeafe, but not always; hence
differing from pathognomic figns, which are infeparable
from the difeafe: e. gr. in the pleurify, a pungent
pain in the fide, in an acute fever, difficulty of breath¬
ing, &c. collectively taken, are pathognomic figns •,
but that the pain extends to the hypochondrium or cla¬
vicle, or that the patient lies with more eafe on one fide
than on the other, are ajjident figns.
ASSIDUUS, or Ad&iduus, among the Romans,
denoted a rich or wealthy perfon. The word in this
fenfe is derived from as q(Jis, q. d. a moneyed man.
Hence we meet with qffiduous fureties, ajjiduifidejujfo-
res, anfwering to what the French now call city fureties
or fecurities, cautions bourgeois.
When Servius Tullius divided the Roman people in¬
to five claffes, according as they were affeffed or taxed
to the public, the richer fort who contributed affes were
denominated ajjidui; and as thefe were the chief people
of bufinefs who attended all the public concerns, thofe
who were diligent in attendances came to be denomina¬
ted ajjidui.
ASSIENTO, a Spaniffi word fignifying a farm, in
commerce, is ufed for a bargain between the king of
Spain and other powers, for importing negroes into the
[ 798 ]
ASS
Spaniffi dominions in America, and particularly to Bue¬
nos Ayres. The fir!! affiento was made with the French
Guinea company ; and, by the treaty of Utrecht, tranf-
ferred to the Engliffi, who were to furniffi 4800 ne¬
groes annually.
ASSIGN, in Common Law, a perfon to whom a
thing is affigned or made over.
ASSIGNATION, an appointment to meet. The
word is generally underffood of love-meetings.
ASSIGNEE, in Law, a perfon appointed by ano¬
ther to do an adt, tranfad! fome bufinefs, or enjoy a par¬
ticular commodity.
ASSIGNING, in a general fenfe, implies the mak¬
ing over the right of one perfon to another. In a par¬
ticular fenfe, it lignifies the pointing out of fomething;
as, an error, falfe judgment, &c.
ASSIGNMENT, the transferring the intereft one
has in a leafe, or -oilier thing, to another perfon.
ASSIMILATION, in Phyjics, is that motion by
which bodies convert other bodies related to them, or
at lea!! fuch as are prepared to be converted, into their
own fubftance and nature. Thus, flame multiplies it-
felf upon oily bodies, and generates new flame 5 air
upon water, and produces new air ; and all the parts,
as well fimilar as organical, in vegetables and animals,
fir!! attrad! with fome eledtion or choice, nearly the
fame common or not very different juices for aliment,
and afterwards affimilate or convert them to their own
nature.
ASSISE, in old Engliffi law-books, is defined to be
an affembly of knights, and other fubliantial men, to¬
gether with a juftice, in a certain place, and at a cer¬
tain time : but the word, in its pretent acceptation, im¬
plies a court, place, or time, when and where the writs
and proceffes, whether civil or criminal, are decided by
judge and jury.
All the counties of England are divided into fix cir¬
cuits ; and two judges are affigned by the king’s com-
miffion, who hold their affifes twice a year in every
county {except London and Middlefex), where courts
of nijiprius are holden in and after every term, be¬
fore the chief or other judge of the feveral fuperior
courts ; and except the four northern counties, where
the affifes are taken only once a-year) to try by a jury
of the refpeftive counties the truth of fuch matters of
fad! as are then u»der difpute in the courts of We!t-
minfter hall. Thefe judges of affife came into ufe in
the room of the ancient juftices in eyre, jujiciarii in
itinere; who W’ere regularly eftablifiied, if not fir!! ap¬
pointed, by the parliament of Northampton, A. L).
1176, 22 Hen. II. with a delegated power from the
king’s great court or aula regia, being looked upon as
members thereof: and they afterwards made their cir¬
cuit round the kingdom once in feven years for the pur-
pofe of trying caules. They were afterwards diredfed
by magna charta, c. 12. to be fent into every county
once a-ytar to take or try certain addions then called
recognitions or qjjifes ; the molt difficult of which they
are directed to adjourn into the court of common pleas
to be there determined. The itinerant juflices were
fome times mere juftices of affife, or of dower, or of
gaol-delivery, and the like ; and they had fometimes
a more general commiffion, to determine all manner of
caufes, juficiarii ad omnia p/acita : but the prefent
juftices of affife and niji prius are more immediately
derived
Affiga
II
Aflife
ASS - [ 799 ] ASS
AffiCe. derived from the ftatute Weftm. 2. 13 Edvv. I. c. 30.
—"v  1 explained by feveral other acts, particularly the llatute
14 Edw. III. c. 16. and mutt be two of the king’s
juftices of the one bench or the other, or the chief
baron of the exchequer, or the king’s ierjeants fworn.
They ufually make their circuits in the refpedlive va¬
cations after Hilary and Trinity terms •, aflifes being
allowed to be taken in the holy time of Lent by con-
fent of the bilhops at the king’s requeft, as expreffed
in ftatute Weftm. 1. 3 Edw. I. c. 51. And it was
alfo ufual, during the times of Popery, for the prelates
to grant annual licenfes to the juftices of aftife to ad-
minifter oaths in holy limes : for oaths being of a fa-
cred nature, the logic of thofe deluded ages concluded
that they mull be of ecclefiaftical cognizance. The
prudent jcaloufy of our aneeftors ordained, that no man
of law ftiould be judge of aftife in his own county :
and a fimilar prohibition is found in the civil law,
which has carried this principle fo far, that it is equi
valent to the crime of lacrilege for a man to be gover¬
nor of the province in which he was born, or has any
civil connexion.
The judges upon their circuits now fit by virtue of
five feveral authorities. 1. The commiflion of the peace
in every county of the circuit : and all juftices of the
peace of the county are bound to be prefent at the af-
fifes ; and (heriffs are alfo to give their attendance on
the judges, or they ftiall be fined. 2. A commiflion
of oyer and terminer, dire&ed to them and many other
gentlemen of the county, by which they are empower¬
ed to try treafons, felonies, &c. and this is the largeft
commiflion they have. 3. A commiflion of general
gaol-delivery, dire&ed to the judges and the clerk of
aflife afiociate, which gives them power to try every
prifoner in the gaol committed for any offence what-
foever, but none but prifoners in the gaol \ fo that one
way or other they rid the gaol of all the prifoners in it.
4. A commiflion of ajfife, directed to the judges and
clerk of aflife, to take aflifes ; that is, to take the ver-
dift of a peculiar fpecies of jury called an ajjife, and
fummoned for the trial of landed difputes. The other
authority is, 5. That of niji prius, which is a confe- Aflife
quence of the commiflion of ajjifc being annexed to |j
the office of thofe juftices by the ftatute of Weftm. 2. Aflkhment.
13 Edw. I. c. 30. And it empowers them to try all l”—v
queftions of fad: iffuing out of the courts of Weftmin-
fter, that are then ripe for trial by jury. The original
of the name is this ; all caufes commenced in the courts
of Weftminfter-hall are by the courfe of the courts ap¬
pointed to be there tried, on a day fixed in fome Eafter
or Michaelmas term, by a jury returned from the coun¬
ty wherein the caule of adion arifes 5 but with this pro-
vifo, nifi prius jujliciarii ad ajjifas capiendas verierint y
unlefs before the day prefixed the judges of aflife come
into the county in queftion. This they are fure to do
in the vacations preceding each Eafter and Michaelmas
term, and there dilpofe of the caufe •, which faves much
expence and trouble, both to the parties, the jury, and
the witneffes.
The word ajjife (from the French ujfu, feated, fettled,
or eftablifhed, and formed of the Latin verb afjideo, “ I
fit by”) is ufed in feveral different fenfes. It is fome-
times taken for the fitting of a court j fometimes for its
regulations or ordinances, efpecially thofe that fix the
ftandard of weights and meafures and fometimes it
fignifies a jury, either becaufe juries confifted of a fixed
determinate number, or becaufe they continued fitting
till they pronounced their verdid. In Scots law, an
affife or jury confifts of 15 fworn men (jurato'res),
picked out by the court from a great number, not ex¬
ceeding 45, who have been fummoned for that purpofe
by the flieriff, and given in a lift to the defender, at
ferving him with a copy of his libel.
ASSIS.IO, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the duchy
of Spoleto, built on the fide of a very high mountain.
The cathedral of St Francis is very magnificent, and
compofed of three churches, one above another. E.
Long. 13. 35. N. Lat. 43. 4.
ASSITHMENT, a wiregeld, or compofition, by a
pecuniary muld *, from the prepofition ad, and the Sax.
ft the, vice ; quod vice fupplicii ad expiandum delidlum
folvitur^
END OF THE SECOND VOLUME.
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of Vol. II
Part I.
page 138
i54
278
320
368
380
Part II.
XXXVII—LVI. - - 592
LVII. - ... 660
LVIII 788
Plate XVIII. and XIX. to face
XX.
XXL—XXXII.
XXXIII.
XXXIV.
XXXV. and XXXVI,
'
•>
Ip